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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 41, 1951 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


* CHARLES DRECHSLER WiiiiaM EF. FosuHaG J. P. E. Morrison 
PLANT INDUSTRY STATION U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U. S& NATIONAL MUSEUM 


BELTSVILLE, MD. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


J.C. Ewrrs J. I. Horrman 
ANTHROPOLOGY CHEMISTRY 
C. W. SABROSKY T. PR. THAYER 
ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY 
F. A. CHAce, JR. Miriam L. BomHArRD 
BIOLOGY BOTANY 


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PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 
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ACTUAL DATES OF PUBLICATION, VOLUME 41 


No. 


No. : 


No. 
No. 
No. 
No. 
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. 1-48, January 18, 1951 

. 49-84, February 23, 1951 
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. 213-244, July 31, 1951 

. 245-276, August 27, 1951 
9, pp. 
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277-308, September 24, 1951 


11, pp. 341-372, November 14, 1951 


. 12, pp. 373-404, December 26, 1951 


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: i) \ + 
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Vo. 41 re ee od No. 1 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


Frank C. KRAcEK FREDERICK J. HERMANN WILLIAM F. FosHaG 
GEOPHYSICAL LABORATORY BUREAU OF PLANT INDUSTRY, U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM 
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ENGINEERING 


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PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY ENTOMOLOGICAL SOCIETY 
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Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 41 January 1951 No. 1 
& 
AUS TIN HOBART CLARK ISSUE 
Bd 
DEDICATION 


THE PAPERS appearing in this issue of the JouRNAL are written by friends and 
colleagues of Austin Hobart Clark and form a slight token of their respective 
authors’ regard for him and tor his work.* As may be seen from their contents, the 
papers cover a wide range of material and interests. This is eminently as it should 
be, for few biologists of our time have embraced within the extent of their knowledge 
and the scope of their sympathies so many and such diverse portions of the fauna 
and flora of the world. Although his main published works deal with the echino- 
derms, and particularly with the crinoids, his bibliography includes many and 
important contributions to our knowledge of birds, of butterflies, of Peripatus, of 
flowering plants, and even of topics so difficult to classify and pigeonhole as ‘“‘general 
natural history.’ He was for long a leading figure in the popularization of natural 
history and a prolific contributor to its literature, as witnessed by his two little 
volumes of Nature narratives. He was a pioneer in the now widespread use of current 
scientific data and materials by the newspapers and was one of the first to sense the 
application of the radio to the dissemination of scientific news and thoughts. For 
many years he served as the press and publicity official for the American Association 
for the Advancement of Science, and he did much to build up the techniques of 
“science reporting” in this country. 

To his colleagues he was, and is, a man to whom anyone could converse about his 
own pet specialty or even tangential interest with the assurance not only that he 
would be understood but also that it would elicit some stimulating and thought- 
provoking comment from him. An unusually broad acquaintance with the forms of 
living things and a remarkably retentive memory for the literature about them 
have given Clark the background for such books as his Animals of land and sea and 
Animals alive, while his lively curiosity about them conditioned his thinking as 
expressed in his book on Zoogenesis. 

When a man attains the age at which his colleagues think of expressing publicly 
their esteem of him, it is often assumed that he is about to merge gracefully with 
the ghosts of the forerunners of his particular science. I am confident that none of 
his many friends have any such thought in mind. Those who know him best are 
aware that his mind is far too active to assume a passive status and feel that were 
he to become a ghost he would probably lose no time in organizing among his fellow 
spirits a new society for the cultivation of scientific interests. 

Herpert FRIEDMANN. 


* See note on page 48. 


san 24 108! 


AUSTIN HOBART CLARK 


ZOOLOGIST, BIOLOGIST, NATURALIST 
AUTHORITY ON ECHINODERMS, PARTICULARLY THE CRINOIDEA 
SCIENCE WRITER AND AUTHOR 


Born at Wellesley, Mass., December 17, 
1880; prepared for college in the high school 
and in Cutler’s School, Newton, Mass.; 
entered Harvard in 1899, graduated with 
A.B. degree in 1903. 

Member of the Washington Academy of 
Sciences since April 8, 1912; has been one of 
its most indefatigable workers and staunch- 
est supporters over the years; president in 
1941 and before and since that time vice- 
president representing two of the affliated 
societies, Archeological in 1922, 1923 and 
Entomological, 1936, 1939-1944; member of 
the Board of Managers 1926-28, Committee 
on Meetings 1920-21, 1938, 1939, Committee 
on Membership 1934, 1938, Committee on 
Awards for Scientific Achievement (first gen- 
eral chairman) 1940, Subcommittee on 
Awards in Biological Sciences 1940, 1943, 
Committee on Policy and Planning 1941-51, 
Committee on Encouragement of Science 
Talent 1950-52. 

Chief interest, animal life. This, he tells 
us, began about at the age of 10. Already in 
1898 he was abroad a year “getting ac- 
quainted with European creatures,” and in 
the following summer he learned to know 
more of the American ones in the mountains 
of Tennessee. Two years later, at the head 
of a personally organized expedition, he was 
investigating the flora and fauna of Marga- 
rita Island, Venezuela; the published results 
led to his election as a fellow of the Royal 
(London) Geographic Society in 1904. Fol- 
lowing graduation from college in 1903, after 
a brief sojourn at the then newly established 
Bermuda biological station, he spent two 
years exploring the Lesser Antilles. There- 
after, joining the U. 8. Bureau of Fisheries, 
he served as naturalist on the 1906 cruise of 
the Fisheries steamer Albatross to Japan. 

Professional career: Collaborator (honor- 
ary), United States National Museum 1908; 
assistant curator, Division of Marine In- 
vertebrates 1909-20; curator, Division of 
Echinoderms 1920-50; retired December 31, 
1950; in 1923 established a series of weekly 
radio talks given in the name of the Smith- 
sonian Institution. 


Affiliations: American Association for the 
Advancement of Science (news manager and 
director press service, 1924-89 in charge 
radio programs, centennial meeting, Wash- 
ington, D. C., 1948); International Com- 
mittee on Radio (Comité International de la 
T.S.F.); American Geophysical Union 
(chairman for Oceanographic Section); Ad- 
visory Committee on Source Bed Studies of 
the American Petroleum Institute and Amer- 
ican Association of Petroleum Geologists; 
American Association of Museums; Carnegie 
Corporation and Rockefeller Foundation 
Conference on Place of Science in Education; 
Virginia Academy of Science; (2d honorary 
member; committee on long-range planning 
and science education) ; Executive Committee 
of the Southern Association of Science and 
Industry; Eighth American Scientific Con- 
egress (press relations officer); National Parks 
Association (trustee); Navy Oceanographic 
Conference (1924); National Association of 
Science Writers (first honorary member); 
American Society of Naturalists; American 
Ornithologists’ Union; Lepidopterists So- 
ciety (vice-president); Biological Society of 
Washington; Entomological Society; Cam- 
bridge (Massachusetts) Entomological Club; 
aide-de-camp to the Prince of Monaco during 
the latter’s visit to this country in 1921. In 
1927 His Majesty, the King of Denmark and 
Iceland, conferred upon Austin Clark the 
Cross of a Knight of the Order of Dannebrog. 

Author of more than 650 papers, treatises, 
and books, technical and popular, chiefly in 
the field of zoology, marine biology, ocea- 
nography, and natural history, ermoids, echi- 
noderms, birds, and Lepidoptera. 

Publications especially worthy of mention 
are: A Monograph of the existing crinoids; 
The new evolution—Zoogenesis; Nature nar- 
ratives; Butterflies of the District of Columbia; 
Animals of land and sea; Animals alive. 

Married Mary Wendell Upham 1906, de- 
ceased 932% children, two sons, three daugh- 
ters; 6 grandchildren. Married, Leila Gay 
Forbes, 1933. 

W. LS. 


a JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 1 


PALEONTOLOGY .—New brachiopods from the Lower Cambrian of Virginia. 
G. ArTHUR Coorrr, U.S. National Museum. 


The brachiopods described and _ figured 
herein were collected by several geologists 
during investigations of the geology about 
Austinville, Va. The first lot of material 
was collected by W. Horatio Brown, chief 
geologist for the New Jersey Zine Co. at 
the Bertha Mineral Co. in 1929. Later col- 
lections were made by Charles Butts, E. O. 
Ulrich, George W. and Anna J. Stose, and 
Charles E. Resser. Most of the brachiopods 
were too poorly preserved to be recovered 
from the matrix in identifiable form, but 
from the large quantity of material collected 
it was possible to prepare a few first-rate 
specimens. 

The chief obstacle to successful prepara- 
tion of the specimens was tight cementation 
to the limestone matrix enclosing them. 
Several were destroyed in attempting to 
split them out of the matrix, because the 
pedicle valve posterior always failed to 
crack away from the surrounding rock. The 
same was true after the rock was roasted 
and plunged in cold water. The anterior and 
lateral parts of pedicle valves were released, 
but perfect beaks were never obtained. The 
reason for this difficulty proved to be a 
large foramen near the apex through which 
the filling of the inside was joined to the 
matrix outside the shell. After this discovery 
several specimens were cleaned that showed 
the large apical foramen, which is of con- 
siderable interest in brachiopod taxonomy. 

These new genera occur in a reef lime- 
stone in the Lower Cambrian (Shady) for- 
mation with the brachiopods Kutorgina, 
Nisusia, Swantonia, and Yorkia. Character- 
istic Lower Cambrian trilobites occurring 
in the same rock are: Kootenia, Rimouskia, 
Bonnia, and Labradoria. These clearly fix 
the age of the peculiar forms here discussed. 

The two species herein described are 
named in honor of Austin H. Clark in recog- 
nition of his great contributions to taxonomy 
and biology. 


Eoconcha, n. gen. 


Shell spiriferoid in appearance, strongly and 
subequally biconvex, with a wide hinge that may 


1 Received October 6, 1950. 


or may not form the greatest shell width; brachial 
valve sulcate; pedicle valve with a low median 
fold; surface marked by strong direct and inter- 
calated costae. 

Palintrope of pedicle valve well developed, 
generally apsacline; delthryium covered by a 
convex pseudodeltidium; foramen moderately 
large, located at or anterior to the apex as in 
Nisusia. Teeth small, inconspicuous, forming by 
their forward growth a marginal thickening along 
lateral edges of delthryium; dental plates absent. 

Brachial valve with flattened brachiophores 
located under the notothyrial edge and without 
supporting plates as in Nisusza. Seat of diductor 
muscle attachment a small callosity located at 
the apex of the notothryial cavity. Muscular 
(adductor) scar elongate, located in front of no- 
tothyrial callosity on each side of median line. 

Genotype: Hoconcha austint, n. sp. 

Discussion.—The internal characters of this 
genus are essentially the same as those of Nisusia 
with the exception that in the latter a trace of 
dental plates has been detected (Cooper,” p. 213). 
Thus the generic definition of this peculiar bra- 
chiopod is based mainly on the external features. 
Although the nature of the pseudodeltidium and 
palintropes is like that of Niswsia the ornamen- 
tation, profile and folding are different. The 
ornamentation of Hoconcha consists of simple, 
strong costae that extend from the beak to the 
anterior margins or may be intercalated at the 
front or middle of the shell. The characteristic 
spines of the Nisusia exterior are not present in 
this new genus. 

The brachial valve is provided with a fairly 
deep median sulcus while the pedicle valve has a 
more or less well-defined fold. The presence of a 
sulcus on the brachial valve is a feature common 
to geologically early or immature brachiopods 
particularly those of the Orthacea. The brachial 
sulcus is here regarded as a primitive character. 

The actual apical foramen in the specimen on 
which this genus and species is based was not 
seen except in one specimen. It is inferred in the 
others from the fact that the beaks of all pedicle 
valves are broken away. This is a common fea- 
ture also of specimens of Nisusia similarly pre- 
served. 

> Cooppr, G. A. New Cambrian brachiopods 


from Alaska. Journ. Paleont. 10 (3): 210-214, pl. 
26. 1936. 


JANUARY 1951 


Eoconcha austini, n. sp. 


Biconvex, wider than long, with the hinge 
forming the widest part or narrower than the 
midwidth; cardinal extremities acutely or ob- 
tusely angular. Surface costate with 9-13 costae. 

Pedicle valve moderately convex to subpyram- 
idal in lateral profile, strongly and somewhat 
narrowly rounded in anterior profile; median 
fold originating posterior to the middle, not 
greatly elevated above the surface of the valve 
and composed of one to three costae. Lateral 
slopes convex and moderately steep. Beak ob- 
tuse; interarea moderately long, apsacline. 

Brachial valve moderately convex in lateral 
profile and more broadly convex than the pedicle 
valve in anterior profile. Sulcus shallow, narrow, 
extending from beak to anterior margin and us- 
ually occupied by one costa which is depressed 
below the two strong costae bounding the sulcus. 
Flanks with moderately steep slopes to the car- 
dinal extremities. 

Measurements in mm.—Pedicle valve (U.S.N. 
M. no. 111691-a), length 9.2, midwidth 12.0, 
hinge-width 11.7; (111691-e) length 10.3, mid- 
width 12.9, hinge-width 12.7, thickness about 
5. Brachial valves (111691-i) length 9.8, mid- 
width 15.4, hinge-width 13.9, thickness 3.9?; 
(111691-k) length 9.4, midwidth 13.7, hinge- 
width 15.4?, thickness 4.1? 

Types—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-a; fig- 
ured paratypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 111691-d, f, g, h, 
k, m; unfigured paratypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 111691- 
ID) GG th tly Ie 

Horizon and locality.—Shady formation, 1 mile 
east of Austinville, Max Meadows quadrangle, 
Va. 

Discussion.—The strong costae of the exterior 
distinguish this from any known species of 
Nisusia. No other species of Hoconcha is now 
known. 


Matutella, n. gen. 


Shell fairly large, syntrophoid in profile and 
outline; brachial valve strongly uniplicate, pedicle 
valve deeply sulcate; hinge wide; ornamenta- 
tion consisting of irregular intercalated and bi- 
furcating costellae. 

Pedicle umbo pierced by a large longitudinally 
oval foramen; palintrope short, delthyrium mod- 
erately wide, covered by a convex pseudodeltid- 
ium. Dental plates absent. Diductor sears flabel- 
late. 


COOPER: NEW BRACHIOPODS FROM VIRGINIA iS) 


Brachial valve with long flat palintrope with 
exceptionally broad interarea; notothyrium wide, 
other details of the interior uncertain. 

Genotype: Matutella clark, n. sp. 

Discussion.—This genus is quite unlike any 
other known Paleozoic brachiopod in the extent 
to which the foramen is developed. This wide 
foramen existing with a delthyrium covered by 
a convex pseudodeltidium suggests relationship 
to the members of the Nisusiidae. Matutella 
differs from Nisusia and FHoconcha in the ex- 
ceptionally large foramen and the syntrophoid 
shape and form of the valves. It differs further 
from Hoconcha in having the high fold on the 
brachial valve and the deep sulcus on the pedicle 
valve. 

This unusual brachiopod combines primitive 
and advanced characters to form a paradoxical 
genus. The external form is that of one of the later 
brachiopods such as Syntrophina, Platystrophia, 
or a narrow-hinged spiriferoid. Casual inspection 
has led observers to regard specimens as of later 
age than the Cambrian, so unusual is its form. 
The strong convexity of both valves is an unusual 
feature for an early brachiopod. Along with the 
convexity, as an advanced character, is the deep 
folding of both valves and the localization of the 
foldtothe brachial valve. In contemporary Nisusia 
the folding is not standardized as it is in Matutella, 
the same species often showing a faint fold or 
suleus on the pedicle or brachial valve. This 
lack of stability in folding is a primitive character 
whereas the strong localization of the fold to the 
brachial valve is a feature that has become fixed 
in most of the advanced members of the Pro- 
tremata. 

Although the folding is that of an advanced 
brachiopod the ornamentation of  Matutella 
is primitive in its lack of standardization and the 
wavy character of the costellae. 

The most unusual feature of the genus is the 
large foramen that occupies nearly or all of the 
stronely convex umbo. The beak is located at 
the narrow end of the oval and is thickened and 
strengthened at this point. The foramen varies 
in size on four specimens from 8 by 2 mm to 
5 by 84mm. So far as can be observed the shell 
is not noticeably thickened around the margins 
of the foramen except in the vicinity of the beak. 

The interarea of the pedicle valve of Matutella 
is like that of most brachiopods having this form 
and convexity. It is short, curved generally 
orthocline or anacline. The teeth are small and 


6 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


located at the basal angles of the delthyrium as 
usual in most brachiopods. The pseudodeltidium 
is narrowly elevated and considerably thickened 
from the inside and very effectively covers the 
delthyrium. The latter obviously did not serve 
as a pedicle opening in this genus. Much of the 
shell of Matutella was so thin that mere traces of 
the musculature occur on any of the specimens 
where the valves have been exfoliated. Faint 
markings that are possible flabellate diductors 
occur on internal impressions on the antero- 
lateral extremities on each side of the foramen. 

The thin shell and poor preservation combine 
to make preparation of internal characters of the 
brachial valve almost impossible. The palintrope 
of this valve is quite unusual in its length and 
breadth. It is usually deeply striated parallel 
to the hinge-line by interruptions in growth. 
The notothyrium is wide but on its margins the 
characteristic thickenings of brachiophores were 
not seen on any of the specimens nor were any 
well-defined sockets seen. One specimen indicates 
the rudiments of a chilidium in an upward wave 
of the palintrope at the beak. The musculature is 
as indefinite as the rest of the structures of this 
valve. Several exfoliated specimens show vague 
markings suggesting the musculature of the bra- 
chial valve of Nisusia. 


Matutella clarki, n. sp. 


Shell large for a Cambrian genus, wider than 
long, with the hinge slightly less than the greatest 
shell width, which is located a short distance 


voL. 41, No. 1 


anterior to the middle. Cardinal extremities ob- 
tuse or nearly rectangular with small ears on 
pedicle valve. Sides moderately convex; anterior 
commissure strongly uniplicate. Surface marked 
by narrowly rounded radiating but irregular 
costellae which fade out on the cardinal extrem- 
ities. Costellae increasing by bifurcation and in- 
tercalation. Fine concentric growth lines over the 
entire shell. 

Pedicle valve moderately convex in lateral 
profile but with the umbonal region truncated by 
the foramen; anterior profile deeply suleate; sul- 
cus originating slightly anterior to the foramen, 
deepening and widening rapidly to equal about 
half the width of the valve; sulcus extended to- 
ward the brachial valve into a long and sharply 
pointed tongue bent nearly at right angles to the 
lateral commissure. Flanks bounding sulcus nar- 
rowly rounded in anterior profile with steep 
slopes to the cardinal extremities. Interarea short, 
about orthocline in position. Beak small incurved; 
foramen large and longitudinally elliptical. 

Brachial valve gently convex im lateral pro- 
file, most noticeably convex in the umbonal 
region; anterior profile almost semicircular but 
with flattened top; fold origmating less than one- 
third the length from the beak, narrowly rounded 
to subcarinate and most strongly elevated at 
anterior. Flanks bounding fold gently rounded 
and with steep slopes to the sides and cardinal 
extremities. Interarea long, orthocline (?). 

Measurements in mm.—Holotype, pedicle 
valve, length 13.4, width at middle 17.6, hinge- 


Fias. 1-38.—Nisusia borealis Cooper: 1, Apical view of young pedicle valve showing elevated pseudo- 
deltidium and large foramen, X38, U.S.N.M. no. 91903-a; 2, 3, respectively posterior and apical views 
of an incomplete adult pedicle valve, X4, showing elevated pseudodeltidium, hypotype, U.S.N.M. no. 
111692. Introduced for comparison with Hoconcha and Matutella. 

Frias. 4-7, 9-14.—Hoconcha austini Cooper, n. gen., n. sp.: 4, Posterior view of an impression of the 
interior of a pedicle valve showing convex pseudodeltidium and thickening along delthyrial edge rep- 
resenting growth track of teeth, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-d; 5, impression of apex of pedicle 
valve showing convex pseudodeltidium, 2, holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-a; 10, 11, posterior and apical 
views of a wax replica of the pedicle valve prepared from impression illustrated in Fig. 5 (shows pseudo- 
deltidium and foramen, the latter imperfectly, <2); 6, 7, respectively posterior and brachial views of 
the impression of a brachial valve, X2, X14, showing impression of brachiophores, paratype, U.S.N.M. 
no. 111691-g; 9, posterior view of an internal impression of a pedicle valve showing fractured apex in- 
dicating presence of open foramen, X1, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-m; 12, wax replica of interior 
of a brachial valve showing primitive brachiophores, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-h; 13, impres- 
sion of a brachial valve showing costae, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-k; 14, impression of brachial 
interior showing probable adductor muscle impressions, <2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111691-f. 

Fras. 8, 15-27.—Matutella clarki Cooper, n. gen., n. sp.: 8, Pedicle interarea showing rounded pseudo- 
deltidium, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-c; 19, 25, exterior of two pedicle valves, X1, respectively 
holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-a, and paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-d; 15, 29, 24, respectively anterior, 
exterior, and posterior views of the pedicle valve, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-d; 16, exterior 
of a large but imperfect brachial valve, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-k; 17. Imperfect brachial 
valve showing ornamentation, X2, paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-g; 18, 23, respectively posterior and 
exterior views of the holotype, X2. showing foramen and ornamentation; 22, fragment of exterior en- 
larged to show details of costella, X3. paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 111689-e; 21, 26, 27, respectively side, 
1, internal impression, and exterior views of a brachial valve, X2, paratype U.S.N.M. no. 111689-n. 
(Fig. 27 is a wax replica of the exterior taken from an impression of the exterior.) 


JANUARY 1951 


width 13.1, width of sulcus 9.6, thickness 3.7. 
Brachial valve (U.S.N.M. no. 111689-n) meas- 
ured on half specimen, then doubled to obtain 
approximate measurements, length 13.2, mid- 
width 17:2, thickness 9.2. 

Types.—Holotype, U.8.N.M. no. 111689-a; fig- 


> ee 1g eu Reset 


fae 


COOPER: NEW BRACHIOPODS FROM VIRGINIA 7 


ured paratypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 111689-c, d, e, g, 
k, n; unfigured paratypes, U.S.N.M. nos. 
111689-b, f, h, i,j, 1, m, o. 

Horizon and locality.—Shady formation (reefs), 
Buddle Branch, ? mile northeast of Austinville, 
Max Meadows quadrangle, Va. 


Fias. 1-27.—(See opposite page for legend). 


8 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADMEY OF SCIENCES 


DISCUSSION OF THE GENERA 

The brachiopods discussed herein are of 
considerable interest because they are ob- 
viously highly specialized along certain lines, 
yet they are among the earliest of known 
articulate brachiopods. They are thus primi- 
tive but highly specialized brachiopods. 
Paterina was regarded by Beecher and Schu- 
chert as the most primitive brachiopod and 
the one nearest the theoretical brachiopod 
progenitor. Inasmuch as these peculiar shells 
from Virginia occur with the primitive 
Paterina, they have an interesting and sig- 
nificant importance in brachiopod taxonomy 
and phylogeny. They help to emphasize the 
fact that in the articulates the pseudodelti- 
dium is a primitive feature, whereas the 
unmodified delthyrium is an advanced char- 
acter. They also indicate that the articulates 
must have a long ancestry in the pre-Cam- 
brian. Paterina itself must be considered as 
an early but highly specialized brachiopod. 
Its structure is so unusual that it must be 
ruled out as near the progenitor of the 
brachiopods. The most primitive shelled 
brachiopod is yet to be found. 

Although the presence of a pseudodelti- 
dium is an accepted primitive character in 
articulate brachiopods, it has not been suffi- 
ciently emphasized that an apical foramen 
is also a primitive character. The foramina 
of the genera herein described and of Nisusza 
differ from those of later genera having an 
apical foramen in the size and location of 
the opening. In these early Cambrian genera 
such as Nisusia the foramen is excavated 


VOL. 41, No. 1 


in the pedicle umbo rather than in the apex, 
a position that is seldom occupied by a 
foramen other than the type produced by 
anterior pedicle migration in the later bra- 
chiopods. This is especially true of Matutella 
with its strongly arched beak the umbo of 
which is truncated by a large oval foramen. 
This foramen is quite unlike any other 
known and is not produced by resorption 
of the beak due to pedicle pressure as often 
takes place in the Terebratulacea. A foramen 
like that of Nisuwsza occurs in later brachi- 
opods in the young of many Strophomenidae 
such as Leptaena, Strophomena and Christi- 
ania in which extremely youthful shells 
have the apex occupied by a large foramen. 
Although the young of the Strophomenidae 
are often Nisusza-like in their appearance it 
is not at present possible to derive this 
group out of Nizsusva for the simple reason 
that the first unquestioned strophomenid, 
Taffia, occurs in the Upper Canadian. No 
forms are known that bridge the long time 
gulf between the two. 

Cambrian Articulate brachiopods are too 
poorly known to state whether or not Nz- 
susta and allies disappeared without issue. 
The known later Cambrian brachiopods are- 
either without apical foramina, have an 
open delthyrium (Hoorthis) or have the 
foramen confined to the deltidium (Billing- 
sella. For the present it is best Just to em- 
phasize the fact that the earliest known _ 
Articulates had a more or less large foramen 
situated on the pedicle umbo anterior to 
the apex of the pseudodeltidium or trun- 
cating the apex because of pedicle pressure. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Two new guide fossils from the Tallahatta formation of the 
Southeastern States.! JULIA GARDNER, U.S. Geological Survey. 


Though the name of Austin Hobart Clark 
is most closely associated with echinoderms, 
butterflies, and birds, most of us who have 
frequented the United States National Mu- 
seum for the past few decades have, from 
time to time, sought Mr. Clark’s aid on 
problems in our own particular fields, and 
not in vain. All animals alive are his interest, 
even Homo sapiens. The two species about 
to be inscribed to him are long since dead, 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey, Received October 6, 1950. 


to be sure, but the inscription does not seem 
inappropriate, for as Mr. Clark has served 
as our guide, philosopher, and friend, helping 
us to orient ourselves and to check our posi- 
tions in the world about us, so wavering 
students coming upon these fossils may find 
them dependable guides to the Tallahatta 
formation of the middle Eocene, usually to 
the upper part of the Tallahatta. 


Genus Anodontia Link, 1807 


Anodontia Link, Beschreibung der Naturalien- 
Sammlung der Universitit zu Rostock, pt. 3: 
157. 1807. 


JANUARY 1951 GARDNER: GUIDE FOSSILS 

Type by monotypy: Ancdontia alba Link = 
Venus edentula Linnaeus. 

Link styled his genus the Glattmuschel and 
briefly characterized it as: Equivalve, the valves 
closed, without ears; the hinge without teeth; 
the anterior muscle scar much longer than the 
posterior; the ligament external. He cited two 
references—Chemnitz’s Conchylien-Cabinet 7: pl. 
39, figs. 410 and 411, which illustrate a venerid; 
and the Gmelin of Linnaeus, p. 3286. Figures 
408 and 409 of plate 39 of Chemnitz illustrate the 
“Venusof Jamaica’ and figures 427 to 429 on plate 
40, Venus edentula. The mechanics of the typo- 
graphical error that resulted in the reference as it 
appeared in Link are difficult to reconstruct. 
The explanation suggested by Stewart (pp. 179- 
180) forced him to the unhappy necessity of 

2? Stewart, Raupu B., Gabb’s California Creta- 
ceous and Tertiary type lamellibranchs, Acad. Nat. 


Sci. Philadelphia Spec. Publ. no. 3, 314 pp., 17 pls. 
1930. 


Fic. 1.—Anodontia? augustana Gardner, n. sp.: @ i 
view of double valves of holotype; c, hinge of incomplete paratype (U.S.N.M. no. 560588); d, fragment 
of hinge of paratype (U.S.N.M. no. 560590); e, exterior of broken anterior dorsal margin (U.S.N.M. 
no. 560590). All natural size. 


FROM TALLAHATTA FORMATION 9 


designating Lucina jamaicensis Lamarck as the 
genotype. A simpler interpretation was offered 
in a discussion with Dr. Harald A. Rehder, Cura- 
tor of mollusks in the United States National 
Museum. He suggested that Link may never have 
even seen the Conchylien-Cabinet, that he took 
the reference to Chemnitz directly from Gmelin, 
but that in so doing his eye slipped up the page 
and he copied the notation under the preceding 
snecies, V. scripta (pl. 39, figs. 410-411) in place 
of that under Venus edentula (pl. 40, figs. 427— 
429). That solution is here accepted. 


Anodontia? augustana Gardner, n. sp. 


Fig. 1, a-e 


Shells large, most commonly represented by 
globose molds of the interior, broader than they 
are high and subject to distortion by a shortening 
along the vertical axis; in the normal shells, the 
distance from the beaks to the ventral margin is 


, Side view of right valve of holotype; 6, umbonal 


10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


only a little more than the diameter. In place of 
a lunule, a flaring anterior margin, reflected over 
the umbones somewhat in the manner of the 
pholads. Shell flattening toward the posterior 
dorsal margin but no defined escutcheon. Hinge 
edentulous. Ligament groove deep, the ligament 
conspicuous, and in some of the larger specimens 
arching above the escutcheon; ligament and re- 
silium may have been partially separated. Muscle 
scars not traceable in any of the shells available. 
Obscure radiating lines, about six to the centi- 
meter, evident on molds of interior. No defined 
sculpture pattern on exterior of shell but an ir- 
regular concentric wrinkling over the entire outer 
surface. 

Dimensions of holotype, an interior mold of 
paired valves with fragments of shell adhering: 
Height, 60 mm; width, 78 mm; diameter, 57 mm. 
Paratypes too fragmentary to measure. 

Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 560587, from Lisbon 
Bluff, Alabama River, 3 feet or less below the 
contact of the Tallahatta and Lisbon formations, 
Monroe County, Ala. Paratype (Fig. 1, c), U.S. 
N.M. no. 560588, from U.S.G.S. station 15159, 
Fort Gaines-Abbeville road just south of the 
bridge over McRae Creek, Henry County, Ala. 
Paratype (Fig. 1, d-e), U.'S.N.M. no. 560590, from 
US.G.S. station 15475, south slope to Little 
Choctawatchee River, on State Highway 66, 
Houston County, Ala. 

The upward flare of the anterior dorsal margin 
is unlike that of any known Recent or fossil 
lucinoid and probably is a character of more than 
specific value. But the material is so limited and 
so fragmentary that, awaiting further evidence, 
the species is referred to Anodontia sensu lato. 

Anodontia? augustana must have been a fragile 
shell and in need of protection through the en- 
vironment. It probably lived on soft muddy 
bottoms near the mouths of rivers and in sheltered 
bays in water of shallow or only moderate depths 
sheltered from strong current action. Such bot- 
tom conditions are reflected in the fine silicified 
clays of the so-called Buhrstone of the Tallahatta 
formation. 

Anodontia augustana has been recorded from 
the following U.S.G.S. stations: 


No number. NW3 sec. 34, T. 11 N., R.2 W., east of 
Toxey, Choctaw County, Ala. 

17919. Little Stave Creek, directly below Talla- 
hatta-Lisbon contact; about 44 miles north of 
Jackson, Clarke County, Ala. 

14785-g. Little Stave Creek, between 5 and 10 feet 


voL. 41, No. 1 


below Tallahatta-Lisbon contact; about 44 
miles north of Jackson, Clarke County, Ala. 

15924. Contact of siliceous clay and overlying 
greensand, 3 miles northeast of Chilton on 
Thomasville road, Clarke County, Ala. 

15925. Long slope leading down to Silver Creek 
about 6 miles west-southwest of Chance on 
Dickenson road, Clarke County, Ala. 

15920. About 13 miles west of Chance on Dickenson 
road, Clarke County, Ala. 

17090. Lisbon Bluff, Alabama River, 3 feet or less 
below the Tallahatta-Lisbon contact, Monroe 
County, Ala. Type locality. 

13442. Lisbon Bluff, Alabama River, within 10 
feet of. Tallahatta-Lisbon contact, Monroe 
County, Ala. 

13441. Lisbon Bluff, Alabama River, within 10.5 
feet of Tallahatta-Lisbon contact, Monroe 
County, Ala. 

15132. Railroad cut in south center of sec. 14, T. 
8 N., R. 8 E., Monroe County, Ala. 

15480. East bank of Conecuh River about 200 
yards above highway bridge at River Falls, 
Covington County, Ala. 

11091. Hays Creek at Bedsole’s old mill road from 
Elba to Kinston, S} sec. 15, T. 4 N., R. 19 E., 
Coffee County, Ala. 

15159. Road cut on Fort Gaines-Abbeville road 
just south of the bridge over McRae Creek, 
center sec. 12, T. 17 N., R. 29 E., Henry 
County, Ala. 

15475. South slope to Little Choctawhatchee River 
in road cut on new State Highway 66, SE} 
sec. 34, T. 4 N., R. 24 E., Houston County, 
Ala. Shells silicified. 

7728. Warley Hill, 7 miles southeast of Fort Motte 
on Lonestar road, Calhoun County, 8. C. A 
mold 92 mm wide from Bed No. 8 of Cooke 
section. 

No number. Road cut on South side of Halfway 
Swamp Creek about 2; miles northwest of 
Creston,’ Calhoun County, S. C. A mold 140 
mm wide from the Congaree clay of Sloan. 


Genus Spiratella de Blainville, 1817 


Spiratella de Blainville, Dictionnaire des sciences 
naturelles 9: 407. 1817. = Limacina Lamarck, 
1819. 


Type by original designation and monotypy: 
Clio helicina Phipps (exceedingly abundant in 
Arctic waters). 


Spiratella augustana Gardner, n. sp. 
Fig. 2, a-c 


Shell very small. Whorls 4 to 43, sinistrally 
coiled in a nearly horizontal plane, the body em- 
bracing the whorls of the spire as in Planorbis. 
The aperture higher than it is wide, the body ex- 
panding at the aperture both vertically and hor- 


JANUARY 1951 


izontally ; the outer surface of the preceding whorl 
forming the inner wall of the aperture; posterior 
margin of the body folded into the suture. The 
visible surface of the apical whorls rounded, 
searcely elevated above the plane of the body. 
Umbilical area narrowly funicular. No sculpture 
other than obscure incrementals and the cording 
of the adult margin of the outer lip. 

Dimensions of holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 560589: 
Maximum diameter, 3 mm; diameter at right 
angles to the maximum diameter, 2.6 mm; min- 
imum diameter 2.3 mm; height, 1.5 mm. 

Type locality: U.S.G.S. station 17911, between 
15 and 20 feet below the contact of the Tallahatta 
and Lisbon formations and 4 feet above the 
stream bed of Little Stave, 43 miles north of 
Jackson, Clarke County, Ala. 

Eyen the ordinal relationships of these shells 
resembling small sinistral Planorbis and locally 
common in the marine faunas of the upper Talla- 
hatta baffled me. I sought the guidance of that 
dean of malacologists, Dr. Henry A. Pilsbry, and 
to good purpose. I am grateful to him for his 
never-failing aid. 

The species I described in 1927 as Planorbis 

andersoni? is doubtless closely related, though not 
identical. The Texas form is smaller, which may 
or may not be significant. It is also more com- 
pressed and is more regular in form. The outer 
lip is less expanded, and the body whorl, both on 
the apical and umbilical surfaces, is rather sharply 
keeled. The locality, U.S.G:S. station 9264, three- 
fourths of a mile south of Elkhart, Anderson 
County, Tex., is in the Weches greensand member 
of the Mount Selman formation, which correlates 
roughly with the Tallahatta formation. 
* The range of variation in these small forms is 
difficult to establish. They vary in size, in the 
height of the spire, and, owing largely to warping, 
in the outline of the outer lip. The type individ- 
ual is one of the largest collected, the apical 
whorls are less elevated than in many, and the 
margin of the outer lip is broken, destroying the 
minutely elliptical outline of the aperture, which 
is characteristic of the species. 

Probably the fossil pteropods have a much 
wider distribution than the literature indicates, 
for the shells are all small and easily overlooked. 

3 GARDNER, JuLIA A., New species of mollusks 


from the Eocene of Texas. Journ. Washington 
Acad. Sci., 17 (14): 362-383, 4 pls., 44 figs. 1927. 


GARDNER: GUIDE, FOSSILS FROM TALLAHATTA FORMATION 11 


Among the related forms are Limacina inflata 
(d’Orbigny), 1835, a warm-water Recent species, 


Seen Lim @) 


Fre. 2.—Sprratella augustana Gardner, n. sp.: 
a, Apical view of holotype; 0, profile of holotype; 
c, umbilical view of holotype. 


12 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


and Limacina elevata Collins,* described from 
the middle Miocene of Santa Rosa, Veracruz, 
Mexico. . 

Many of the Recent species, possibly the 
majority, are to be found in the plankton of the 
Arctic. 

The distribution of Spiratella augustana, like 
that of other planktonic forms, is independent 
of the character of the bottom except as bottom 
conditions affect the preservation of the dead 
shell. The species is contained in glauconitic 
sandy clays, glauconitic sands, and blocky si- 
liceous clays. Except for a few interruptions by 
oyster reefs, Spiratella augustana is disseminated 
through almost the entire upper 57 feet of Talla- 
hatta exposed along Little Stave Creek, at Lis- 
bon Bluff and in a few nearby localities. The 
species seems also to lightly overstep the Talla- 
hatta-Lisbon contact and may be recorded by a 
few closely related if not identical individuals in 
the lower 10 feet of the Lisbon formation. 

Disrripution: Tallahatta formation. Little 
Stave Creek, 43 miles north of Jackson, Clarke 
County, Alabama; U.S.G.S. station 14785 b-c, 
from 10 to 20 feet below the Ostrea johnsoni bed; 

4Conuins, Ropert LEE, A monograph of the 
American Tertiary pteropod mollusks. Johns Hop- 


kins Univ. Stud. Geol. no. 11: 137-234, pls. 7-14. 
1934. 


VOL. 41, No. I 


U.S.G.S. station 14431, 40 feet below the top of 
the Tallahatta formation; between the Ostrea 
johnson bed and the Tallahatta-Lisbon contact, 
U.S.G.S. stations 14785 f-h, 17910, 17911, 17918, 
17907, 17909, 17912, 17926, 17927, 17916 a-b, 
17919 a: Lisbon Bluff, Lisbon Landing, Ala- 
bama River, Monroe County, Ala.; U.S.G.S. 
station 13430, bluish-black clay at base of sec- 
tion; U.S.G.S. stations 13440 and 134438, in- 
durated layer about 8 feet below the Tallahatta- 
Lisbon contact; and U.S.G.S. station 13442, dense 
blue-gray clay with lucinoid molds directly be- 
low the fucoidal layer and not more than 5 feet 
below the Tallahatta-Lisbon contact; U.S.G.S. 
station 14799, 3.8 miles east of Silas on Bladen 
Springs road, Choctaw County, Ala. 

Within the area, Spiratella augustana is most 
common at the stations on Little Stave Creek 
between the Ostrea johnsoni bed and a level a 
little below the Tallahatta-Lisbon contact. It is 
present, however, up to the very contact, to the 
blocky siliceous clays of the contact specimen 
itself. 

Closely related though possibly not  specifi- 
cally identical individuals have been recovered 
from levels not more than 10 feet above the 
contact at U.S.G.S. stations 17917, 17923, and 
17924. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Nucula austinclarki, n. sp., a concentrically sculptured Nucula 
from the Lisbon formation of Alabama. F. Srrarns MacNett, U.S. Geological 


Survey. 


Strong concentric sculpture, although not 
unknown, is so unusual among the Nuculidae 
that the question arises as to whether the 
few species that possess it are closely re- 
lated and constitute a natural generic or 
subgeneric group. The ribs on different 
species are so dissimilar in cross section, 
however, that this close relationship seems 
doubtful. In some species the ribs are in- 
clined steps with the high, sharp edge on 
the dorsal side, as in Nucula austinclarki, 
here described. In other species the high 
sharp edge is on the ventral side. Still other 
species have more symmetrical ribs with 
either sharp cr rounded crests. 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey. 


According to Schenck,’ the primary di- 
vision of the Nuculidae should be on the 
presence or absence of denticulations of the 
ventral margin. All the species with con- 
centric sculpture except one have denticula- 
tions on the ventral margins, and all these 
are referred to Nucula s.s. on the basis of 
shape, teeth, and ligament. Only one form, 
the. genus Nuculoma of Cossmann, with 
concentric sculpture and no marginal dentic- 
ulations is known. Nuculoma, which is 
known only from the Jurassic, appears from 
the figures to have concentric ribs that are 
gently inclined on the dorsal side and sharp 
on the ventral side, just the reverse of the 
condition in the species here described. 


* Scuenck, Hupert G., Bull. Mus. Royal Hist. 
Nat. Belgique 10 (20): 18. 1934. 


JANUARY 1951 


Three species of Nucula with concentric 
sculpture were listed by Schenck. They are: 
N. haesendonckii Nyst and Westendorp, 
from the Anversian (upper Miocene) of 
Holland, a species with [noceramus-like con- 
centric ribs, NV. compressa Philippi, from the 
Chattian (upper Oligocene) of Belgium, de- 
scribed as having ‘‘distinct concentric undu- 
lations,” and N. duchastelii Nyst, from the 
Rupelian (middle Oligocene) of Belgium, a 
species with strong but very irregular con- 
centric ridges that converge and diverge 
across the shell. 

In addition to these Oligocene and Mio- 
cene species, two other Miocene and a Re- 
cent species have been described. Nucula 
(Nucula) njalindungensis Martin, from the 
lower Miocene of Java and Borneo, like NV. 
duchasteli1, has concentric lines that freely 
converge and diverge. Nucula prunicola, 
Dall, from the middle Miocene of Maryland 
has concentric ribs that are highest and 
sharp at the dorsal edge and gently sloping 
on the ventral side. They are thus of the 
same type as those of the new species but 
are developed at the anterior end of the 
shell only. The chondrophore of NV. prunicola 
is also much narrower than that of the 
species here described. Nucula exigua Sow- 
erby is living from California to southern 
Mexico. It has concentric lirations that are 
more or less symmetrical and are highest 
along a central crest. 

From the Eocene three species with con- 
centric sculpture have been described. The 
new species is also of Eocene age. Two of 
these are from the Calcaire grossier of 
France, N. capillacea Deshayes and JN. 
minor Deshayes. The third was described 
from the London clay of England as N. 


MACNEIL: NUCULA AUSTINCLARKI 13 


regnorum Wrigley. All these species are 
small, the largest specimen of NV. regnorum 
measuring 8.0 mm, and both of Deshayes’s 
species being less than 5.0 mm in length. 

A description of the new Eocene species 
follows: 


Genus Nucula Lamarck, 1799 


Type: Arca nucleus Linnaeus. 

The species here described is characterized by 
its very unusual concentric sculpture. The shell is 
large for the genus, but on the basis of its shape, 
teeth, ligament, and marginal denticulations it 
appears to be a typical Nucula. 


Nucula austinclarki MacNeil, n. sp. 


Figs. 1, 2 


Shell large and medium inflated, subovate; 
anterior dorsal margin gently curved; anterior 
extremity blunt but straighter along the dorsal 
margin; lunular area subrostrate; posterior 
margin gently curved; posterior extremity sub- 
angulate; escutcheonal area truncate, with the 
posterior ridge curving gently in a direction 
opposite to thecurveof the posterior margin; outer 
surface sculptured by strong concentric ribs that 
are inclinded and low on the ventral side, but 
with a sharp, usually undercut edge on the dorsal 
side; most of the ribs continuous around the shell 
but an occasional one is partly covered or over- 
lapped by the next younger one; ribs with faint 
radial lines at some points; ventral margin with 
well developed denticulations; teeth on the an- 
terior side regular and nesting within each other, 
about 22 in number, posterior teeth less regular, 
not forming a uniformly chevroned series, about 
10 in number; interior smooth, muscle scars 
impressed, pallial line strong and entire. 


9 x14 


Fics. 1, 2.—Nucula austin clarki MacNeil, n. sp., Middle Mocene, Lisbon formation, Clarke County, 
Ala.; holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 560585): 1, Exterior; 2, interior. 


14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Holotype (a left valve) (U.S.N.M. no. 560585) 
measures: Height 22 mm, length 27 mm, diam- 
eter of single valve 7.8 mm. 

Type locality and only known occurrence: A 
gully in the west center of sec. 10, T. 9 N., R. 
4 B)., Clarke County, Ala. The gully lies on the 
south side of the county road. 

This species is closely related to Nucula mag- 
nifica Conrad, a species described from the Gos- 
port sand in the upper part of the Claiborne 
group of Alabama, and also present in the Lisbon 
formation of Alabama and the equivalent por- 
tion of the McBean formation of eastern Georgia 
and South Carolina in the middle part of the 
Claiborne group. In shape, size, and dentition 
the two species are nearly identical. Nucula 
magnifica has a smooth surface, but occasional 
specimens show a slight. tendency for the de- 


vou. 41, No. 1 


velopment of concentric markings similar to those 
of N. austinclarki at a point or two along the 
posterior ridge. 

Nucula austinclarki is from the Lisbon forma- 
tion, the middle part of the Claiborne group in 
Alabama. Its association with Ostrea sellaefor- 
mis indicates that it is from the middle or upper 
part of the Lisbon and not from the lowest part, 
which carries Ostrea lisbonensis, the apparent 
forerunner of O. sellaeformis. From the general 
field relations it appears to occur in the lower 
part of the range of Ostrea sellaeformis. Nucula 
magnifica 18 apparently a younger species than 
N. austinclarki, bemg known from the upper 
part of the range of Ostrea sellaeformis and from 
the Gosport sand, which is stratigraphically 
higher than the upper limit of the range of Ostrea 
sellaeformis. 


MALACOLOGY.—New stenothyrid gastropods from the Philippines (Rissoidae). 
R. Tucker Assort, U.S. National Museum. (Communicated by H. A. Reh- 


der.) 


During a survey of fresh-water mollusks 
in 1945 on the Island of Leyte, Republic of 
the Philippines, ecological and morphologi- 
cal notes were made on living specimens of 
a species of Stenothyra Benson, 1856, which 
has subsequently proved to be undescribed. 
An undescribed subspecies from Mindoro 
Island of this polytypic species was found 
in the U. 8. National Museum. It was col- 
lected in the 1880’s by J. F. Quadras and 
bore the manuscript name of “‘philippinica 
Moellendorff.”” These two gastropods are 
named in honor of Austin H. Clark, retiring 
curator of echinoderms, United States Na- 
tional Museum, who has given me great 
encouragement and help. 


Stenothyra austini, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, 3-7 


Description.—Shell small, about 3.0 mm in 
length, ovoid, relatively thick-shelled, compressed 
ventrally, with a small circular aperture, and with 
unevenly developed whorls. Spire blunt and some- 
what rounded. Nuclear whorls 13 in number, 
transparent. Postnuclear whorls 3 to 4 in num- 
ber, increasing irregularly in size (so that the 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


ventral face is flattened) until the last whorl, 
when they then decrease in size and form the 
relatively small, circular aperture. Periphery of 
early whorls well-rounded; last whorl moderately 
rounded. Suture finely and sharply impressed. 
Base of shell set at 45° to the axis of the shell, 
slightly convex, and thickened slightly in the 
area near the very small umbilicus. Aperture 
almost circular, with a slightly thickened con- 
tinuous peristome. Behind the lip, on the exterior 
of the body whorl, there is a slightly thickened, 
smooth varix. Axial sculpture absent. Spiral seulp- 
ture consists of 10 to 15 rows of microscopic pits 
on the upper two-thirds of the whorl. The pits 
may be round, squarish or oblong. Umbilicus 
reduced to a minute chink. Color of shell from 
yellowish tan to light brown. In living specimens, 
the shell is translucent and the pits appear as 
tiny bubbles embedded in the shell. Periostracum 
thin, light tan. In living specimens, it covers the 
small pits. It is often covered with a blackish 
film of organic detritus. Operculum almost cir- 
cular, chitinous, paucispiral, with the nucleus 
near the center. There are two raised, oblong 
lamellae of chitin reinforcing the surface of at- 
tachment. The anterior, inner edge is reinforced 
by a low, curved ridge (see Fig. 4). In adults, the 
operculum is often slightly larger than the aper- 
ture and incapable of being withdrawn into the 
shell. 


JANUARY 1951 ABBOTT: NEW STENOTHYRID GASTROPODS 15 


la 


1c 


att 


Figs. 1, 3-7.—Stenothyra austini austini: 1, Holotype shell (X10) (a, apertural view; 0, apical view; 
c, side view); 8, immature shell; 4, operculum (a, outer view; b, side view; c, inner view); 5, living ani- 
mal (a, lateral view; b, ventral view; c, dorsal view of head region); 6, male genitalia (verge); 7, radula 
(a, rachidian; b, lateral; c, inner marginal; d, outer marginal). 

Fig. 2.—Stenothyra austini clarkt, holotype shell (X10). 


16 JOURNAL OF THE 


Measurements of shell (mm) 


Length Width Aperture Whorls 
4.0 2.2 1.2 by 1.2 5.3 (holotype) 
4.0 21 123) by; 1-3 5.5 (paratypes) 
S365 21 1.0 by 1.1 5.0 (U.S.N.M. No. 603670) 
ae) 1.8 0.9 by 1.0 5.0 U.S.N.M. 
2.8 1.7 0.8 by 0.9 4.9 U.S.N.M. 
3 1.6 1.1 by 1.0 4.0 U.S.N.M. (young) 


Measurements of 97 adult paratypes from 
San Joaquin Estuary, eastern Leyte Island (U.S. 
N.M. no. 603671) were made to a tenth of a milli- 
meter and grouped in the following classes: 


Number of 

Length (mm) specimens 
2.6-2.9 13 
3.0-3.3 47 
3.4-3.7 35 
3.8-4.2 2 


Animal.—Small and capable of being com- 
pletely retracted into the shell. Foot relatively 
long, flat, with the anterior corners produced 
laterally, and with a transverse division across 
the sole about halfway back and at a point coin- 
ciding with the anterior edge of the operculum. 
Anterior edge of foot with a deep, narrow, trans- 
verse mucus slit which bears minute cilia. A 
bulbous pedal gland may be seen at the anterior 
end from a ventral view. At the posterior end 
and dorsal side of the foot there is a long, slender, 
fleshy rod. Proboscis large, swollen in the middle, 
with two circular color bars of black-brown near 
the anterior end. The posterior bar fades poste- 
riorly into anarea of dark reddish brown. Between 
the bars the flesh is bright, straw-yellow. Ten- 
tacles long, slender, flecked with bars of black 
and an occasional internal granular clump of 
yellow. Area about eye dark gray, posteriorly 
with a heavy concentration of embedded light- 
straw granules. Mantle light gray with heavy 
mottlings of black. Verge located on the midline 
of the ‘“‘back”’ of the animal. It is in the form of 
a coiled, single prong. The distal end bears a 
minute calcareous spine. The radula is taenio- 
glossate (see Fig. 7). 

The typical subspecies austini austini is char- 
acterized by the weak pits in the shell and the 
irregular spacing of the spiral rows of pits. 

Type locality —Bridge at Kaboynan, near the 
mouth of the north fork of the Guinarona River, 
Leyte Island, Republic of the Philippines. R. T. 
Abbott, legit, June 18, 1945. 

Types.—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 603669. Para- 
types from the type locality, U.S.N.M. no. 
603670, and in the Museum of Comparative 
Zoology, Cambridge, Mass. (the latter collected 
by M. 8. Ferguson). Paratypes also from San 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 41, No. 1 


Joaquin Estuary, eastern Leyte Island, R. T. 
Abbott, legit, June 29, 1945 (U.S.N.M. no. 
603671); Abuyog, eastern Leyte Island, R. T. 
Abbott, legit, August 14, 1945 (U.S.N.M. no. 
603672). 

Ecology and habits.—These mollusks are very 
active but shy creatures and were collected in 
three estuarine localities on Leyte Island. At the 
type locality they were found in 6-inch-deep, 
stagnant, brackish-water pools under the shade 
of floating palm fronds. The bottom was black 
ooze. Syncera and Neritina ziczac Linnaeus were 
found in the same neighborhood. At San Joaquin 
they were found under similar conditions where 
the water temperature was 81° F. and the pH 
7.6. Several species of Syncera, a Cerithidea, and 
Clenchiella victoriae Abbott, 1948, were collected 
with them. These Stenothyra are rapid crawlers. 
At the slightest disturbance they snap back into 
their shells with remarkable speed. 

Remarks.—The only other described species 
of Stenothyra in the Philippimes that possesses 
spiral rows of pits is S. quadrast Moellendorff, 
1895, which, however, is a much larger shell 
(7 mm in length), much thicker, with a very thick, 
flattened, and spirally lirated base, and with 
distinctly angled early whorls. S. austini ap- 
parently has a wide range throughout the Philip- 
pines but appears to be broken up into geographi- 
cal, insular races or subspecies. We have a single 
specimen from Bacoor Bay, Luzon (U.S.N.M. no. 
603674), but we hesitate to describe it as a new 
race until additional material is at hand. 


Stenothyra austini clarki, n. subsp. 
Fig. 2 


Shell similar to S. austini austint but differing 
in having deeper and larger pits and in having the 
spiral rows evenly spaced. In austini there are 
often three or four rows missing. The shells of our 
specimens of S. austini clarki are reddish brown 
in color, but this may be due to ecological condi- 
tions. Holotype: Length, 3.4; width, 1.9 mm. 

Type locality—The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 
603673, is from Manglares, between Bacoy and 
Calapan, Mindoro Island, Republic of the Philip- 
pines. J. F. Quadras, legit, circa 1880. Two para- 
types from the same locality, U.S.N.M. no. 
303387, are probably from the same collector. 

The difference in shape between these sub- 
species, as seen in Figs. la and 2, is not specifi- 
cally significant. Some specimens of austini are 
similar to those of clarki in shape and size. 


JANUARY 1951 


MORRISON: NEW PULMONATE MOLLUSKS 12/ 


MALACOLOGY .—Two new Western Atlantic species of pulmonate mollusks of the 
genus Detracia and two old ones (family Ellobidae).1 J. P. E. Morrison, U.S. 


National Museum. 


The molluscan genus Detracia Gray, 1840, 
is represented in the Western Atlantic re- 
gion by four known species. They divide 
evenly: Two have been previously named; 
two are new. Two are continental; two are 
island species in their geographic distribu- 
tion. 

I wish to thank particularly Dr. H. A. 
Pilsbry and the authorities of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia for the 
opportunity to borrow freely and study all 
specimens of this genus in the Academy 
collections. Without such study of many 
specimens additional to those in the United 
States National Museum collections, the 
zoogeographic picture here presented could 
not have been so complete. 


Detracia floridana (Pfeiffer), 1856 
Figs. 4, 7 


This manuscript name of Shuttleworth was 
first validly published in Pfeiffer’s Monograph 
auriculaceorum, p. 35, no. 35, 1856. W. G. Binney, 
the first subsequent American author to study the 
group, unfortunately selected the wrong speci- 
men for figuring in 1859 in his Terrestrial mol- 
lusks of the United States 4: pl. 75, fig. 30, from 
the mixture of species brought back from the 
Florida Keys by Bartlett for his father, Amos 
Binney. This figure represents the smallest 
(dwarf) form of Melampus bidentatus Say we 
know from the Florida Keys, instead of floridana. 

Because every succeeding illustrator of the 
group has copied this earliest figure of Binney, 
this species, the only one of the family confined 
to United States shores, has, up to the present 
time, almost a century later, not yet been fig- 
ured! The presence in the literature of an incor- 
rect figure makes the generic confusion that has 
so long surrounded this species easy to under- 
stand. 

D. floridana may be easily distinguished by its 
small size and, even in the youngest individuals 
seen (1.5 mm long), by the more regularly biconic 
shape. The aperture is markedly constricted be- 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


low (anteriorly) by the columellar lamella. There 
is a single palatal lamella, which is horizontal 
and approximately equal in height to the columel- 
lar. Between these two the palatal wall is well 
rounded and usually heavily calloused. The parie- 
tal wall is usually furnished with about 10 sub- 
equal, low lamellae, as in most species of the genus 
Melampus. These minute lamellae are sometimes 
present posteriorly along almost the full length 
of the parietal wall. In many young specimens 
their inner extensions are visible through the 
translucent penultimate whorl. 

The specimens figured (U.S.N.M. no. 473892) 
are part of a lot collected on August 26, 1938, 
from the salt marsh at Chesapeake Beach, Cal- 
vert County, Md. 

The adult (Fig. 7) has 10? whorls and measures: 
Height 7.9 mm; diameter 4.8 mm; aperture height 
5.8 mm; aperture diameter 2.2 mm. The younger 
individual (Fig. 4) has 11 whorls and measures: 
Height 6.6 mm; diameter 3.6 mm; aperture height 
4.5 mm; aperture diameter 1.9 mm. 

D. floridana is entirely continental in geo- 
graphic distribution. It is recorded only from 
Delaware and Chesapeake Bays, east and west 
Florida, and the Gulf coast of Alabama, Mis- 
sissippi, and Louisiana. The present lack of local- 
ity records from the Carolinas and Georgia is 
probably due to the fact that no collecting has 
been done in the transitional estuarine (fresh- 
water—brackish-salt) marshes of those coastal 
areas. In the Chesapeake Bay area, where it is 
perhaps now best known, it seems to prefer 
or tolerate a lower degree of salinity in the salt- 
marsh habitats than does its neighbor and rela- 
tive Melampus bidentatus lineatus Say. Under 
estuarine conditions this species is sometimes 
astoundingly abundant. With an observed con- 
centration of more than one individual per square 
inch, it was estimated on June 28, 1950, that in 
just 1 square mile of the estuary marshes of the 
Pocomoke River (Accomack County, Va.) there 
were twice as many individuals of Detracta flort- 
dana as there are human beings in the entire 
world. In other words, more than 4 billion of these 
small snails inhabit this one particular square 
mile! 


2 Apex eroded. Number of whorls indistinct. 


18 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Detracia clarki, n. sp. 
Figs. 2, 6 


Shell large (for the genus), obovate, smoothish, 
of 10-12 whorls, with moderate spire somewhat 
variable in height but usually about one-third 
the height of the aperture. Body whorl tending 
to be subcylindrical, smoothly sculptured with 
minute growth lines only, except for a few in- 
cised spiral lines above the shoulder and near the 
base. Aperture sublinear, conspicuously ob- 
structed by two heavy, upturned (posteriorly 
dished) axial lamellae, which are continuous from 
the plane of the aperture to about three-fourths 
of a whorl within. The columellar, the most prom- 
inent of the two, usually extends more than half- 
way across the aperture to the parietal wall. The 
outer lip (parietal wall) bears a variable number 
(a few) of well-spaced lamellae essentially al- 
ternating with the axials basally (anteriorly). In 
addition, the aperture of adults shows a greater 
number of low parietal lamellae interpolated on 
an internal ridge or varix along the parietal wall, 
behind which ridge the parietal lamellae are 
much reduced in height and prominence. 

The holotype U.S.N.M. no. 594588 (Fig. 6), 
has 11 whorls and measures: Height 12.5 mm; 
diameter 6.7 mm; aperture height 9.8 mm; aper- 
ture diameter 3.2 mm. It and 14 paratypes, 
U.S.N.M. no. 36062, were collected at Key West, 
Fla., by Henry Hemphill previous to 1884. It is 
not absolutely certain that these specimens were 
taken on Key West, as the older custom was to 
give general localities only. They may have come 
from either Stock Island or Boca Chica Key 
nearby, where it seems evident the species is still 
living. The younger specimen (Fig. 2) (U.S.N.M. 
no. 594589) comes from Stock Island, Fla. It 
has 10 whorls and measures: Height 6.5 mm; 
diameter 4.0 mm; aperture height 4.7 mm; aper- 
ture diameter 2.3 mm. 

The geographic distribution as recorded for the 
532 specimens at hand includes the Bahamas (?), 
the Florida Keys, and Cuba, as follows: BAHAMAS: 
1 specimen (U.S.N.M. no. 594592) from Great 
Abaco Island, perhaps drifted to this locality. 
Fioripa: “Miami” (8. N. Rhoads, 1899); a key 
near Chokoloskee; Virginia Key (Biscayne Bay); 
Pumpkin Key (Card Sound) ; Middle Key (Barnes 
Sound); Tavenier Key and Key Largo; from 
Indian, Lower Matecumbe, Bahia Honda, New 
Found Harbor, Windley’s, Torch, Geiger’s, Sugar 
Loaf, Big Pine, and Boca Chica Keys; Stock 


vou. 41, No. lL 


Island; and. Key~ West. An old record of “St. 
Augustine” is doubtful, except as a possible 
drift specimen. Cusa: Recorded at present from 
only two widely separate localities: Punta Cajon, 
Pinar del Rio (U.S.N.M. no. 492571), and Cayo 
Perro, Cardenas Bay (U.S.N.M. no. 594590). 
In other words, Detracia clarki is at present known 
only from a restricted area in the Western At- 
lantic along the Straits of Florida. 

Of the size and general shape of Melampus 
bidentatus bidentatus Say, with which it occurs, 
and Pira monile Bruguiére, D. clarki is readily 
distinguished on apertural characteristics. The 
extra-heavy columellar lamella, higher than the 
palatal, and by far the most prominent of the 
aperture, reaching nearly to the parietal wall in 
some individuals, is turned upward within, to 
form a cup-shape structure whose rim approaches 
a parallel to the columellar axis. This extreme 
constriction of the basal part of the aperture by 
the columellar lamella will separate it from Mel- 
ampus bidentatus, while the absence of cuticular 
setae or the remaining scar-pits of the same on 
the spire will easily separate it from Pira monile. 
D. clarki is distinct from all others by the con- 
spicuously posteriorly dished or upeurved direc- 
tion of the columellar lamella. It is twice the size, 
when adult, of any other known member of the 
genus Detracia. | 

This species is named in honor of Austin H. 
Clark, retiring curator of echinoderms of the 
United States National Museum, in some small 
recognition of his outstanding faculty for spiring 
others in the solution of problems of the zooge- 
ography of invertebrate animals of all types from 
every corner of the world. 


Detracia bullaoides (Montagu), 1808 
Figs. 1, 5 


This the genotype species was first described 
from shells recovered from ballast discarded along 
the coast of England. For many years, however, 
it has been well known as a characteristic species 
of the West Indies. It is figured here to complete 
the picture of West Atlantic forms, so that future 
students will not have to search elsewhere for 
comparable illustrations. 

D. bullaoides is easily distinguished by the 
more elongate shape of most adults, as well as 
by the heavily buttressed palatal lamella. The 
few low parietal lamellae are present only on the 
basal (anterior) portion of the parietal or outer 


JANUARY 1951 


wall of the aperture. In most adult shells the 
aperture is posteriorly exceedingly narrow and 
linear. 

The adult specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 466289 
(Fig. 5), has 12 whorls and measures: Height 
9.5 mm; diameter 4.3 mm; aperture height 5.6 
mm; aperture diameter 2.2 mm. It is one of many 
specimens collected on the edge of the mangrove 
swamp on Shell Key, off St. Petersburg, Fla., 
April 24, 1936. The younger specimen (Fig. 1) 
has 10 whorls and measures: Height 6.2 mm; 
diameter 3.2 mm; aperture height 4.3 mm; aper- 
ture diameter 2.0 mm. It comes from the same 
lot. 

D. bullaoides is apparently primarily Greater 
Antillean in its geographic range. The United 
States National Museum collections include speci- 
mens from the Bermudas; from Fernandina to 
Key West and to Cedar Keys, Fla.; the Bahamas; 
Cuba; Jamaica; and Hispaniola. There are also 
records of this species in the collections of the 
Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia 
from St. Croix, Virgin Islands; and Tampico, 
Mexico. 


MORRISON: NEW PULMONATE MOLLUSKS 19 


Detracia parana, n. sp. 
Fig. 3 


Shell small, obovate-biconic, smooth, of about 
10 whorls. Spire moderate, equal to about one- 
fourth the total length of the shell. Body whorl 
well rounded, smoothly sculptured with minute 
growth lines only, with the very low, rounded 
shoulder about midway of the shell height. Aper- 
ture moderately narrow, constricted by a prom- 
inent horizontal or downwardly (anteriorly) di- 
rected columellar lamella, which extends forward 
to be continuous with the base of the outer lip. 
The palatal wall is furnished with a single low 
horizontal lamella a little below the middle of the 
aperture. This is inconspicuous and in specimens 
seen extends only about one-fourth of the way to 
the parietal wall. The parietal wall is not fur- 
nished with lamellae but appears smooth. 

The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 594591 (Fig. 3), 
and three paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 32090, were 
collected from the Amazon River at Pard, Brazil, 
by J. B. Steere, previous to 1885, when they 
were catalogued at the United States National 


7 


Fires. 1, 5.—Detracia bullaoides (Montagu), young and adult, U.S.N M. no. 466289, from margin of 
mangroves on Shell Key, off St. Petersburg, Fla., April 24, 1986, J. P. H. Morrison. 


Fie. 2.—Detracia clarki, n. sp., young paratype, U.S.N.M. No. 594589, from Stock Island, Fla., P. 


Bartsch. 


> 


Fig. 3.—Detracia parana, n. sp., holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 594591, from the Amazon River, Para, Brazil, 


J. B. Steere. 


Fias. 4, 7.—Detracia floridana (Pfeiffer), young and adult, U.S.N.M. no. 478892, around grass rocts 
in salt marsh at Chesapeake Beach, Md., August 26, 1938, J. P. I). Morrison. ’ 
Fic. 6.—Detracia clarki, n. sp., holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 594588, Key West, Fla., H. Hemphill. 


20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Museum. The holotype has 10% whorls and 
measures: Height 6.8 mm; diameter 3.9 mm; 
aperture height 5.2 mm; aperture diameter 
2.0 mm. 

This new species is almost exactly like the 
North American continental species floridana 
in general appearance but differs considerably in 
the detail of lamination of the aperture. It lacks 
any marked callosity of the aperture above the 
columellar lamella. The columellar wall below 


3 Apex eroded. Number of whorls indistinct. 


voL. 41, No. 1 


(anterior to) the palatal lamella is rather flat, 
not markedly arched and calloused in this region 
as it is in floridana. Though the number of speci- 
mens of parana at hand is very small, the ob- 
served differences, together with the observed 
similarities, of a molluscan species purporting 
to come from an absolutely comparable estuarine 
habitat on South American West Atlantic shores 
lead me to advance Detracia parana as a species 
that has developed completely parallel to its close 
relative D. floridana of North America. 


MALACOLOGY .—A new species of glycymerid from the Philippines.t Davip Nicou, 


U.S. National Museum. 


This is a report on a new species of gly- 
cymerid collected by the U. S. Fish Com- 
mission steamer Albatross on the Philippine 
expedition of the years 1907 to 1910. It is 
my intention to give a complete account of 
the Glyeymeridae of this collection at a 
later date. 


Genus Axinactis Mérch, 1861 


Genotype (subsequent designation by Hertlein 
and Strong, 19438, p. 153): Pectunculus inaequalis 
G. B. Sowerby, 1833; Recent; Pacific coast of 
Panama and Nicaragua. 

Axinactis is the earliest generic name avail- 
able for the raised-ribbed species of glycymerids, 
which are nearly always confined to warm waters. 
This large group of glycymerids has had an in- 
dependent history as far back as Oligocene time 
and is certainly not closely related to Glycymeris 
glycymeris (Linné). 


Subgenus Melaxinaea Iredale, 1930 


Genotype (original designation): Melaxinaea 
labyrintha Iredale, 1930; Recent; Albany Passage, 
Queensland, 9-12 fathoms. 


Axinactis (Melaxinaea) clarki Nicol, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-3 


Description—Valves compressed, ratio of con- 
vexity to height about 0.50; dorsal margin long 
and straight giving shell an eared appearance, 
anterior, ventral, and posterior margins rounded; 
light reddish-brown spots on ribs, interior usually 
colorless, occasionally reddish-brown spots on 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


margins; beaks contiguous, orthogyrate; umbos 
flat and inconspicuous, located approximately 
at center of dorsal margin; ligament narrow and 
elongate, made up of four or five chevron-shaped 
parts; hinge teeth 23 to 28 in number, averaging 
25, arranged in a broad arch on a large flat hinge 
plate, teeth tending to disappear at center of 
hinge plate in mature specimens; crenulations on 
interior ventral border well-marked, usually 
pointed at end, though sometimes rounded, de- 
pressed at center, 15 to 21 in number, averaging 
17, not divided as is common in some species of 
Melaxinaea; adductor muscle scars approximately 
equal in size; radial ribs raised but not prominent, 
24 to 28 in number, averaging 26, ribs on central 
part of shell flat-topped, often with a shallow 
central groove, occasionally with two or three 
small ridges; at either end of shell ribs split into 
fine, slightly nodulose, crooked, riblets, occasion- 
ally a small radial rib added in interspaces, the 
latter almost as wide as ribs at ventral margin; 
ribs and interspaces crossed by fine, closely 
spaced, concentric striae which are more prom- 
inent on interspaces. 


Measurements in mm 


Convexity 

of both 

Specimen Leng Height valves 
Holotype 236879 34.6 34.0 18.1 
Paratype 293039 20.6 20.0 10.0 
Paratype 293039a 17.0 16.8 8.0 
Paratype 293039b 17.0 16.6 8.4 
Paratype 293039¢ 16.4 16.4 8.6 
Paratype 293039d 15.9 15.8 7.8 
Paratype 293039e 15.0 14.4 7.8 
Paratype 293039f 15.4 15.4 7.6 
Paratype 293039¢ 11.6 12.3 6.4 


Type specimens.—The holotype and paratypes 
are in the collection of the U. 8. National Mu- 
seum, Division of Mollusks: Holotype no. 236879, 
paratypes nos. 293039 and 296058. Thirty-nine 


JANUARY 1951 


specimens of the species were studied, but only 
the holotype is a mature shell. Many of the 
remainder, however, show the adult rib character 
and outline of the valves. 

Locality data—Station 5192, Jilantangan Is- 
land between Bantaydn Island and the north- 
west end of Cebu (E., N. 13°W., 3 miles 11°09’ 
15”N., 123°50’E.), 32 fathoms, green sand. Sta- 
tion 5277, Malavatuan Island, Lubang Islands 
northwest of Mindoro (N., 8. 56°E., 8 miles 
13°56/55”7 N., 120°13'45” E.), 80 fathoms, fine sand. 

Comparisons.—Axinactis (Melaxinaea) clarki 
most nearly resembles Pectunculus maskatensis 
Melvill, 1897, from Maskat, on the Gulf of Oman. 
The latter species has larger and more prom- 
inent ribs and greater length in comparison to its 
height. Pectunculus vitreus Lamarck has a more 
angular arrangement of teeth and beaded or 
granulose ribs. Pectwnculus nova-guineensis Angas 
has nodulose ribs and a shorter dorsal margin 
than Azinactis (Melazinaea) clarki. Melaxinaea 
labyrintha Iredale, the genotype of Melazxinaea, 
is from Albany Passage, Queensland. It has 
nodulose ribs that are more numerous, narrower, 
and more closely spaced on the adult shells. 
Melaxinaea litoralis Iredale from Townsville, 
Queensland, has a more rounded outline and has 
finer and more numerous radial ribs. Glycymeris 
planiuscula Chapman and Singleton from the 
Pliocene of Australia has more closely spaced 
rounded ribs. Glycymeris uzimiensis Cox from the 
Pliocene of Zanzibar has tuberculated ribs and a 
rounded or subtrigonal outline. 

Glycymeris dautzenbergi Prashad (1932, pp. 
65, 66) is a homonym of Pectunculus dautzen- 
bergz Gregorio (1892, p. 109). Glycymeris dautzen- 
bergi Prashad is herewith renamed Glycymeris 
prashadi. This species from the Arafura Sea has 
nodulose ribs on all of the shell and a shorter 
dorsal margin than Axinactis (Melaxinaea) clarkv. 


NICOL: A NEW SPECIES OF GLYCYMERID 21 


REFERENCES 


Aneas, G. F. Descriptions of ten new species of 
Axinaea and Pectunculus in the collections of 
Mr. Sylvanus Hanley and the late T. L. Taylor. 
Proc. Zool. Soc. London for 1879 (3): 417-420, 
pl. 35. 1879. 

CuapMaN, F., and Srncieton, F. A. A revision of 
the Caenozoic species of Glycymeris in southern 
Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Victoria (n.s.) 37 
(pt. 1, art. 2): 18-60, 4 pls. 1925. 

Cox, L. R. Neogene and Quaternary Mollusca from 
the Zanzibar Protectorate. Extracted from the 
report on the Paleontology of the Zanzibar 
Protectorate, published by the Government 
of Zanzibar, pp. 13-180, pls. 3-19. 1927. 

GreGorio, ANTONIO DE Marcu. Sul genere Pec- 
tunculus precipuamente sulle specie viventi 
mediterranee e fossili nel Terziario superiore. 
Il Naturalista Siciliano 11 (5): 106-114. 
1892. 

Hertiein, Leo G., and Srrone, A. M. Mollusks 
from the west coast of Mexico and Central 
America, pt. 2. Zoologica 28 (3): 149-168, 1 pl. 
1943. 

TrEDALE, Tom. Queensland molluscan notes, no. 2. 
Mem. Queensland Mus. 10 (1): 73-88, pl. 9. 
1930. 

. Australian molluscan notes, no. 1. Rec. Aus- 

tralian Mus. 18 (4): 201-285, pls. 22-25. 1931. 

. Mollusca. In Sci. Rep. Great Barrier Reef 
Exped. 1928-29, 5 (no. 6, pt. 1): 209-425, 7 pls. 
British Museum, 1939. 

Lamarck, J. B. P. A. pre. Histoire naturelle des 
animaux sans vertébres... 6 (1): 343 pp. 1819. 

Metvitt, JAMES Cosmo. Descriptions of thirty- 
four species of marine Mollusca from the Ara- 
bian Sea, Persian Gulf, and Gulf of Oman.Mem. 
and Proc. Manchester Lit. and Philos. Soc. 
41 (7): 25 pp., pls. 6, 7. 1897. 

Morcu, O. A. L. Bevtrdge zur Molluskenfauna Cen- 
tral-Amertka’s. Malakozool. Blatter 7: 170-218. 
1861. 

Prasuab, B. The Lamellibranchia of the Siboga Ex- 
pedition, Systematic Part II, Pelecypoda (ex- 
clusive of the Pectinidae). Siboga Monogr. 58¢: 
353 pp., 9 pls., 1 map. 1932. 


Figs. 1-3.—Azinactis (Melaxinaea) clarki, n. sp.: 1, Exterior view of holotype, left valve, U.S.N.M. 
no. 236879; 2, exterior view of paratype (young specimen), left valve, U.S.N.M. no. 298039a; 3, interior 
view of holotype, left valve, U.S.N.M. no. 236879. All figures natural size. 


22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 1 


MALACOLOGY.—Two new Recent cone shells from the Western Atlantic (Conidae). 
Harautp A. Reaper and R. Tucker Assort, U.S. National Museum. 


Two species of the genus Conus were re- 
ceived by the United States National Mu- 
seum a few years ago from two dredging 
expeditions off southeastern United States. 
It appears that both species are undescribed, 
and we take pleasure in naming them for 
Austin H. Clark, retiring curator of echino- 
derms, United States National Museum. 
The first of these species, collected by the 
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service trawler 
Pelican in 1938, is strikingly different from 
any known Recent species in the Western 
Atlantic. The second, dredged off southern 
Florida by the Anton Dohrn, is somewhat 
like the well-known species Conus stimpsoni 
Dall. 


Conus clarki, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-6 


Description —Shell 36 mm (13 inches) inlength, 
relatively heavy, broadly fusiform, strongly spi- 
rally sculptured, and chalk-white in color. Whorls 
12, the last whorl with a beaded carina at the 
shoulder, rounded at the periphery, and concave 
toward the base. Spire extended, pointed, con- 
cave, and slightly more than one-third of the 
entire length of the shell. Angle of spire about 70°. 
Nuclear whorls 13, glassy-smooth. Aperture ob- 
lique, long and narrow, with a deep, rounded 
sinus at the top. Outer lip sharp, thin, and weakly 
crenulated. The lip is sinuate with the middle 
portion being advanced, and the lower portion 
retracted enough to make the end of the siphonal 
canal considerably open. Spiral scultpure con- 
sists of 27 to 30 very strong, raised, squarish, 
and beaded cords. The topmost spiral cord bears 
the largest beads, which in previous whorls may 
be seen just above the impressed wavy sutural 
Ime. The surface of these beads is obliquely 
scratched by fine irregular lines. Top of the whorls 
slightly concave and with three to five unequal 
fine spiral threads. Axial sculpture consists of 
numerous fine, sharply raised, arched threads 
which cross the spiral threads on the tops of the 
whorls (anal fasciole). Color of shell chalk-white. 
In one paratype specimen there are very weak 
reddish squares of color between the beads on the 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received Oetober 
6, 1950. 


spiral cords. Periostracum thin, deciduous, light 
brown, and axially striate. 

Animal (Figs. 1-5) typical of the genus Conus, 
with a rather long siphonal extension of the man- 
tle, which is flecked with fine black striations. 
Side of foot suffused with gray along the lower 
border. Verge large, 7 mm in length, shaped like 
a meat cleaver, with a slender, curved point at 
the end. Verge has fused lamellations on its sides 
and base. Poison gland and radular sheath typical 
of the genus. About 30 harpoonlike teeth were 
found in the sheath. Tooth short with one small 
barb at the end, two on the side and one at the 
base (see Fig. 3). 


MEASUREMENTS (MM) 


Number of 
Length Width Whorls 
36.0 16.0 11.0 (holotype) 
36.0 16.0 11.0 (paratype male) 
34.4 15.5 10.8 


Types.—The holotype is U.S.N.M. no. 485740; 
one paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 488465; and another 
paratype is in the Museum of Comparative 
Zoology. 

Type locality —50 miles south-southwest of 
Marsh Island, Iberia County, La. (lat. 28° 
27.0'N.; long. 92° 14.0’W.). Dredged by the U. S. 
Fish and Wildlife Service trawler Pelican, station 
94-1, November 13, 1938, in 29 fathoms. 

Range.—Known only from the type locality. 

Remarks.—There is no living species described 
from the Western Atlantic that approximates 
C. clarki in the characters of heavy, raised, square, 
spiral cords, rounded periphery, attenuated basal 
portion (giving it a turniplike shape) and the 
prominent sharp axial, striae between the spiral 
cords. It is nearest in characters to the middle © 
Miocene fossil Conus (Leptoconus) multiliratus 
Bése, 1906, from Tuxtepec, Oaxaca, Mexico, 
and its subspecies gaza Johnson and Pilsbry, 1911, 
from the Dominican Republic, Jamaica, Panama, 
and Colombia. However, the Recent C. clarki is 
much more turnip-shaped, and its cords at the 
shoulder of the whorl are strongly beaded. 


Conus austini, n. sp. 
Fig. 7 


Description Shell 56 mm in length, heavy, 
spirally sculptured, and dull-white in color. 
Whorls 14, almost straight-sided, but very slightly 


JANUARY 1951 


concave toward the base. Shoulders of whorl 
slightly rounded in adults but carinate in younger 
specimens. Spire extended, pointed, slightly con- 
cave, and about one-quarter the entire length of 
the shell. Angle of spire about 80°. Nuclear whorls 
13, glassy-smooth. Next five whorls sculptured 
by a single, beaded carina, which in the succeed- 
ing whorls becomes smooth and located just above 
the suture. Aperture oblique, long and narrow, 
with a deep, rounded sinus at the top. Outer lip 
thin, sharp, and weakly crenulate. Spiral sculp- 
ture consisting of about 40 fairly well-developed, 
irregularly sized, rounded cords, which become 
more prominent basally. Three to five low, weak, 
spiral threads present on the top of the whorls, 
which are obliquely crossed by the arched growth 


REHDER AND ABBOTT: TWO NEW RECENT CONE SHELLS 23 


lines of the anal sinus. There is a tendency in 
some specimens to produce alternately small and 
large cords. Between the cords the axial sculpture 
consists of fine, distinct, raised striae. Periostra- 
cum moderately thick, when dry becoming axially 
striate and light brownish yellow in color. Ani- 
mal and operculum unknown. 


MEASUREMENTS (mM) 


Number of 
Length Width Whorls 
55.5 25.3 14 (holotype Tortugas) 
43.1 22.0 13 (paratype, Tortugas) 
51.0 25.5 13 (paratype, Antigua) 


Types.—The holotype is U.S.N.M. no. 603017; 
a paratype from the same dredging haul, U.S. 
N.M. no. 421721; a third paratype, U.S.N.M. no. 


Fras. 1-5.—Conus clarki, n. sp.: 1, Side view of male animal showing siphon (s?) and position of verge 


(ve) (X83); 2, side view of verge and vas deferens (X10); 3, single tooth (X50); 4, radular sac showing 
arrangement of unused tecth (X25); 5, semidiagrammatic drawing of anterior alimentary system and 
poison apparatus, bu, buccal mass; rs, radular sac; pg, poison gland (<5): 


24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


603018, was dredged by the Holis, Jr. by J. B. 
Henderson at the entrance of English Harbour, 
Antigua, Lesser Antilles, June 21, 1918. 

Type locality.—Southeast of Loggerhead Key, 
Dry Tortugas, Florida. Dredged in 40 to 46 
fathoms by W. L. Schmitt from the Anton 
Dohrn, June 21, 1932. 


Fic. 


Fie. 6.—Conus clarki, n. sp., holotype. 
7.—Conus austini, n. sp., holotype. (Both natural 
size.) 


vou. 41, No. 1 


Range-——From Dry Tortugas, Fla., south to 
Antigua Island, Lesser Antilles. 

Remarks.—This species is similar to C. stimp- 
sont Dall but differs in being larger, having raised 
spiral cords instead of incised grooves, having 
numerous fine but distinct axial striae between 
the cords, and lacking any color markings. A 
young specimen of C. austin displays a number 
of axial wrinkles in the middle of the body whorl, 
a variable character common to some Miocene 
fossil species. 

A similar species exists in the Gurabo forma- 
tion, Dominican Republic (Miocene). Specimens 
of this fossil are in the U. 8. National Museum, 
mixed in with lots labeled C. planiliratus Sowerby. 
It is apparently undescribed and differs from the 
Recent C. austini in having a slightly shorter 
spire, being half as high and rarely showing the 
tiny, angled keel on the shoulder of the whorls 
in the spire. Otherwise the shape and sculpture 
are extremely similar. C. stenostoma Sowerby, 
a Miocene fossil from the Domican Republic, is 
also very close but has a very low spire and a 
sharper shoulder. 


MALACOLOGY.—A new scaphopod mollusk, Cadulus austinclarki, from the Gulf 
of California.1 Witt1AM K. Emmrson, Research Fellow, Allan Hancock Foun- 
dation. (Communicated by Harald A. Rehder.) 


A recent visit to the United States Na- 
tional Museum provided me an opportunity 
to examine the Scaphopoda contained in 
the vast collection of the division of mol- 
lusks. A previously unrecognized species of 
Cadulus from the Gulf of California is here 
described. 

I am indebted to Dr. Harald A. Rehder, 
curator of mollusks, for access to the facilities 
of the division, and to Frederick M. Bayer, 
assistant curator of marine invertebrates, 
for providing the camera-lucida drawing and 
the photograph. I take pleasure in dedi- 
cating this new species to Austin H. Clark, 
retiring curator of echinoderms in the United 
States National Museum. 

Family SIPHONODENTALIIDAE 

Genus Cadulus Philippi, 1844 
* Genotype (by monotypy): Dentaliwm ovulum 
Philippi, 1844, Recent; Mediterranean Sea. 


1 Received October 6, 1950. 


Subgenus Platyschides Henderson, 1920 

Subgenotype (by original designation): Cadu- 
lus grandis Verrill, 1884; Recent, West Atlantic, 
north of Cape Hatteras. 

Shell small to relatively large, moderately 
curved, greatest swelling between the middle 
and oral aperture, posterior portion and aperture 
slightly flattened dorsoventrally; surface without 
sculpture, smooth and polished; apex possessing 
four rather broad, but shallow notches; white. 

This group differs from the subgenus Poly- 
schides in having the apical notches greatly re- 
duced. The slits vary in size from small indenta- 
tions, which appear as chipped-out portions of 
the margin, to minute features requiring con- 
siderable magnification in order to ascertain the 
structure. There are many Recent and Tertiary 
species. 

Cadulus (Platyschides) austinclarki, n. sp. 

Figs. 1, 2 


Shell is minute, fairly solid, vitreous, semi- 
transparent, very slender, moderately curved, 


JANUARY 1951 


Fic. 1.—Cadulus (Platyschides) austinclarki, n. 
sp.: Holotype, approximately X20. 


with the greatest diameter approximately two- 
fifths the distance from the oral aperture. The 
swelling is gradual and approaches uniformity, 
the equator not being conspicuously bulbular and 
the convex face forming a nearly uninterrupted 
arc. The outline of the concave side is very regu- 
lar except for the area of slight equatorial swell- 
ing. The oral (anterior) aperture is constricted, 
slightly compressed dorsoventrally, but nearly 
circular in section; apertural margin is slightly 
oblique. Apex is not much attenuated, relatively 
large, circular in outline, with a rather oblique 
margin. The apical characters are minute but 
well defined. The apex has four shallow notches 
separated by as many lobes of nearly equal size. 
The slits are subtriangular in shape, very shallow, 
with concave pair slightly deeper; the lobes are 
subconical, with the greatest height of the lobe 
composed of the inner shell layer, the outer mar- 
gin being beveled so as to provide a thin edge to 
the lobes (Fig. 2). The prominence of the lobes 
varies with individuals. In some specimens the 
vitreous shell is clouded by semiopaque circular 
zones producing alternate rings of more or less 
translucency. 


EMERSON: NEW SCAPHOPOD MOLLUSK 25 


Measurements.—Holotype, 4.4 mm long; diam- 
eter of apical orifice 0.35 mm; apertural diam- 
eter 0.55 mm. None of the paratypes measures 
more than 5 mm in length. 

Remarks.—The extremely small size, narrow- 
ness, and distinctive apical characters serve to 
distinguish this species from all other Eastern 
Pacific forms. No living species thus far described 
from the Eastern Pacific approaches this species. 
The most similar living species appears to be 
Cadulus (Platyschides) nitidus Henderson (1920) 
from Mayagiiez Harbor, Puerto Rico, in 25 
fathoms. Though this West Atlantic species has 
similar apical features, it is longer and more at- 
tenuated and possesses even less equatorial swell- 
ing than Cadulus austinclarki. Cadulus (Platy- 
schides) parvus Henderson (1920) from the Florida 
keys and off Barbados possesses nearly the same 
general outline but has a longer shell with more 
prominent apical features. Cadulus (Platyschides) 
amiantus Dall (1889) from off Bahia Honda, 
Cuba, is a larger more curved species with a 
greater equator. Cadulus (Platyschides) miamien- 
sis Henderson (1920) from off Fowey Light, 
Fla., in 209 fathoms, is a much larger, more 
curved species with entirely different apical char- 
acters. 

The National Museum records indicate that 
this new species is limited to the warm waters of 
the Panamic province. This is the first representa- 
tive of the subgenus Platyschides reported from 
the Eastern Pacific region. Intensified collecting 
in this area will undoubtedly reveal the presence 
of other species belonging to this group. 


Fra. 2.—Cadulus (Platyschides) austinclarki, n. 
sp.: Holotype, apical features greatly magnified, 
a $-oblique view with the concave face on the 
left side: line represents 0.5 mm. 


26 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Type locality—Santa Inez Bay, Baja Califor- 
nia (Gulf of California), west around Santa 
Inez Point, dredged in 6-12 feet of water in fine 
black sand; J. Hawkins, Jr., collector, March 30, 
1940. 

Range.—Santa Maria Bay, lat. 24°45’W, west 
coast of Baja California, Mexico (in Gulf of 
California: Santa Inez Bay, 27°N), to Panama 
City, lat. 8°50’N., and the Galdpagos Islands, 
1°N. 

Types.—Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 564527. Para- 
types: 39 in number, U.S.N.M. no. 602347. 

Records (latitudinal data approximate) .— 


West Coast of Baja California, Mexico 


Santa Maria Bay, 24° 45’ N., boat dredge, 
Bartsch (8). 
Cape San Lucas, Bartsch (1). 


East Coast of Baja California, Mexico 


Fraile Bay, 23° 23’ N., 10-30 feet, coarse, gray 
sand, Hawkins (5). 

Pichilinque Bay, 24° 13’N., Bartsch (18); 24° 
13’N., 20-30 feet, Hawkins (2). 

La Paz Bay, 24° 15’/N., all Hawkins: Between 
La Paz and El Mogote, 4-6 feet, on gray sandbar 
(2); north of east end of El Mogote, 1 fm., black 
sand (2); east point of El. Mogote, low tide on 
sandy beach (dead) (4); 4 mile southeast of Prieta 
Point, 2 fms., gray sand (1); 2% miles north of La 
Paz, 1-2 fms., on bar off Caruanito Rock, gray 
sand (1). 


VOL. 41, No. 1 


San Carlos Bay, 25° 18’N., 2-3 fms., fine black 
sand bottom, Hawkins (1). 

Conception Bay, west end of Coyote Bay, 26° 
53’N., 10-12 feet in cove, Hawkins (1). 

Santa Inez Bay, 27° N., Hawkins: 2 miles west 
of Santa Inez Point, 44 fms., 4 mile offshore in 
coarse gray sand (6); west around Santa Inez 
Point, 6-12 feet in cove, fine black sand (40), 


types. 


Republic of Panama 


Panama City, 8° 50’N., Zetek (5). 
Panama, Zetek (9) [tips broken]. 


Galdépagos Islands 


Near Galdpagos Islands, 1° 21’N., 89° 40’W., 
U.S.F.C. 2813, 40 fms. (25+) [tips broken]. 


REFERENCES 


Dati, W. H. Reports on results of dredging... 
by the U. S. Coast Survey steamer Blake ..., 
XXIX: Mollusca; pt. 2: Gastropodaand Sca- 
phopoda. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 18: 492 
pp., 40 pls. 1889. 

HENDERSON, JoHN B. A monograph of the East 
American scaphopod mollusks. U.S. Nat. Mus. 
Bull. 111: 177 pp., 20 pls. 1920. 

Puteri, R. A. Enwmeratio molluscorum Siciliae 
2. 1844. 

VerRRILL, A. E. Catalogue of Mollusca recently 
added to the fauna of the New England coast and 
the adjacent parts of the Atlantic... Trans. 
Connecticut Acad. Arts and Sci. 6: 139-294, 
5 pls.; 395-452, 3 pls. 1884. 


ZOOLOGY .—The brittle-stars of the United States Navy Antarctic Expedition 1947— 
48.1 AusTIN H. Ciarx, U.S. National Museum. 


In a previous article (this JouRNAL, 40: 
330-337, 1950) the Crinoidea, Echinoidea, 
and Asteroidea of the Navy’s Antarctic Ex- 
pedition of 1947—48 were described. The col- 
lection includes 11 species of Ophiuroidea, 
none of them new although several are of 
much interest. 

The literature on the Antarctic echino- 
derms has recently been brought up to date 
by the magnificent series of Discovery reports 
based upon the work of the Discovery, Dis- 
covery II, and William Scoresby from 1925 to 
1935. In this series the report on the Hchin- 
oidea and Ophiuroidea by Th. Mortensen 
was published in 19386; on the Crinoidea 
(with bibliography) by D. Dilwyn John in 
1938; and on the Asteroidea (with bibliog- 
raphy) by Walter K. Fisher in 1940. 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received September 
5, 1950. 


A detailed account of the faunal relations 
of the Asteroidea, Ophiuroidea, and Echino- 
idea was published by René Koehler in 1912 
(Deuxiéme Expédition Antarctique Fran- 
gaise, 1908-1910, Echinodermes, pp. 186- 
253), and of the Crinoidea by the present 
author in 1915 (Die Crinoiden der Antark- 
tis). 

OPHIUROIDEA 
OPHIACANTHIDAE 
Ophicantha disjuncta (Koehler) 


Ophiodiplax disjuncta Koehler, British Antarctic 
Expedition 1907-9, 2, Biology, pt. 4: 48, pl. 6, 
figs. 9, 10, 11, pl. 7, fig. 13. 1911. 


Localities—Lat. 66° 35’ S., long. 90° 40’ E.; 
150 fathoms; water temperature (surface) 29° F.; 
December 30, 1947 (1 specimen, U.S.N.M. no. 
E.7689). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water temper- 


JANUARY 1951 


ature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (1 specimen, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7690). 

Notes——In the specimen from lat. 66° 35’ S., 
long. 90° 40’ E. the disk is 12 mm in diameter 
and the arms are 80 mm long. Jn the specimen 
from Marguerite Bay in 35 fathoms the disk is 
7 mm in diameter; the arms are 35 mm long. 


AMPHIURIDAE 
Amphiura algida Koehler 
Amphiura algida Koehler, British Antarctic Expe- 
dition 1907-9, 2, Biology, pt. 4: 46, pl. 7, figs. 14, 
15. 1911. 


Locality —Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 58 
fathoms; January 29, 1948 (20 specimens, 
US.N.M. nos. E.7687, E.7688). 

Notes—In the largest specimens the disk is 
5 mm in diameter and the arms are 25 mm long. 
The radial shields are in contact from only at 
their outer ends to about their whole length, 
and are slightly broader than is shown in Koeh- 
ler’s figure. The arm spines at the base of the 
arms are 5, sometimes 6. 


Amphiura belgicae Koehler 


Amphiura belgicae Koehler, Resultats du voyage 
de S. Y. Belgica en 1897 1898-1899, Rapports 
Scientifique, Zoologie, Echinides et Ophiures: 
27, pl. 7, figs. 46-48. 1901. 


Localities—Off -Cape Royds, Ross Island; 
58 fathoms; January 29, 1948 (3 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7683). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water temper- 
ature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (2 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7682). 

Notes——One of the specimens from off Cape 
Royds has the disk 8 mm in diameter and the 
arms 40 mm long. One basal side arm plate 
has 5 arm spines; the others have 4 spines. The 
two specimens from Marguerite Bay have the 
disk 10 mm in diameter and the arms about 
mm long; the first four side arm plates beyond 
the disk have 5 arm spines. 


OPHIOLEPIDIDAE 
Ophiomastus tudwigi Koehler 
Figs. 1, 2 


Ophiomastus ludwigi Koehler, Resultats du voyage 
de 8S. Y. Belgica en 1897-1898-1899, Rapports 
Scientifique, Zoologie, Echinides et Ophiures: 
23, pl. 3, fig. 22, pl. 4, figs. 27, 28. 1901. 


Locality.—Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water 
temperature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (2 speci- 
mens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7979). 


CLARK: BRITTLE-STARS OF NAVY ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 27 


Notes.—Although there is considerable dif- 
ference in some details, there can be no doubt 
that the larger specimen (Fig. 1) represents the 
same species as the single specimen described as 
Ophiomastus ludwigi, which was dredged near Peter 
Island (lat. 71° S., long. 88° 02’ W.) in 600 
meters. 

It is smaller than the type with the disk 3 
mm in diameter and the arms 7 mm long and, 
like the type, is immature without genital slits. 
The plates of the disk are somewhat irregular. 
On the first tentacle pore there are three scales 
on the interradial side, one on the radial; on the 
second pore there are two or three scales on the 
outer side, none on the inner; on the four or five 
following pores there is a single small scale at 
the base of the lower arm spine; there are no 
scales on the following pores. There are two arm 
spines, rather widely spaced. 

A smaller specimen (Fig. 2) with the disk 
1.7 mm. in diameter and the arms 5 mm long 
probably belongs to the same species. The 
primary radial plates are in contact, and portions 
of the radial shields are visible beyond them, 
as in Koehler’s specimen. As in the larger speci- 
men the disk is thick, but not domed. The first 
five upper arm plates, which are not in contact 
and decrease in size outwardly from the disk, are 
greatly swollen. The arms are more slender than 
those of the larger specimen with much elongated 
and narrow side arm plates and very small upper 
and under arm plates. There are two arm spines 
and no tentacle scales. 


Ophiura serrata Mortensen 
Figs. 3, 4 
Ophiura serrata Mortensen, Discovery Reports 12, 
Echinoidea and Ophiuroidea: 334, fig. 47, a-d, 
335. 1936. 


Locality.—Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water 
temperature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 
specimens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7980). 

Notes—These specimens undoubtedly repre- 
sent the species called Ophiura serrata by Morten- 
sen, though they differ from that species as 
described in having fewer and more regular 
plates on the dorsal side of the disk and in the 
ventral interradial areas, in having only two 
well-separated arm spines, and in lacking any 
evidence of arm combs, all features presumably 
due to immaturity. 

The upper arm plates are high and roundedly 
carinate, separated from each other by a con- 
spicuous notch. In the smaller specimen they are 


28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


especially high at the arm bases where they are 
separated by a rather broad V-shaped notch. 
Distally they become gradually lower and 
smaller, more and more widely separated, and 
minute in the distal half of the arm. In lateral 
view the basal part of the arm appears swollen. 

In the larger specimen the disk is 5 mm in 
diameter and the arms are 13 mm long; in the 
smaller the disk is 3 mm in diameter and the 
arms are 10 mm long. 


Ophiura rouchi (Koehler) 


Ophioglypha roucht Koehler, Deuxiéme Expédition 
Antarctique Frangaise (1908-1910), Echinoder- 
mes (Astéries, Ophiures et Echinides): 107, pl. 
9, figs. 11, 12. 1912. 


Localities —Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 58 
fathoms; January 29, 1948 (2 very small speci- 
mens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7707). 


vou. 41, No. 1 


Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water temper- 
ature 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (4 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7684). 

Notes.—The specimens from Marguerite Bay 
have the disk 5 mm. in diameter and the arms 
30 mm. long. 


Ophiurolepis gelida (Koehler) 


Ophioglypha gelida Koehler, Bull. Acad. Belgique, 
1900: 819; Resultats du voyage du 8. Y. Belgica 
en 1897—1898-1899, Rapports Scientifiques, Zo- 
ologie, Mchinides et Ophiures: 17, pl. 1, figs. 
6-8. 1901. 


Localities —Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 
58 fathoms; January 29, 1948 (27 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. nos. E.7679, E.7680, E.7685). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water tempera- 
ture 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (2 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7678). 


Fies. 1-4.—1, 2, Ophiomastus ludwigi: 1, Specimen with the disk 3 mm in diameter; 2, specimen with 


the disk 1.7 mm in diameter. 


3, 4, Ophiura serrata, aboral (3) and oral (4) surfaces. 


JANUARY 1951 


Notes.—The largest specimen from off Cape 
Royds has the disk 11 mm. in diameter and the 
arms 35 mm long. One specimen is 4-rayed. The 
largest specimen from Marguerite Bay has the 
disk 12 mm in diameter and the arms 35 mm long. 


Ophiurolepis martensi (Studer) 


Ophioglypha martensi Studer, Jahrb. wiss. Anst. 
Hamburg 2: p. 161, pl. 2, figs. 8, a, b. 1885. 


Localities—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 
58 fathoms; January 29, 1949 (11 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. nos. E.7705, E.7706). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water tempera- 
ture 30° F.; February 20, 1948 ( 5 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7704). 


Ophionotus victoriae Bell 


Ophionotus victoriae Bell, Report Coll. Nat. Hist. 
.. . Southern Cross: 216. 1902—Koehler, Deu- 
xiéme Expédition Antarctique Frangaise (1908- 
1910), Echinodermes (Astéries, Ophiures et Echi- 
nides): 114, pl. 10, figs. 2-4, 12, 13, pl. 11, fig. 8. 
1912. 


Localities —Lat. 65° 25’ S., long. 101° 13’ E.; 
100 fathoms; water temperature 30° F.; January 
14, 1948 (10 specimens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7676) 

Peter Island; 30 fathoms; water temperature 
29.6° F.; February 15, 1948 (124 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. nos. E. 7658, E.7659, E.7660, E.7663, 
E.7664, E.7665, E.7666, E.7669, E.7670, E.7671, 
E.7672, E.7673, E.7674, E.7675). 

Peter Island; 60 fathoms; February 15, 1948 
(1 specimen, U.S.N.M. no. E.7668). 

Marguerite Bay; 35 fathoms; water tempera- 
ture 30° F.; February 20, 1948 (22 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. nos. E.7661, E.7662). 

Marguerite Bay; 40 fathoms; water tempera- 
ture 30° F.; February 22, 1948 (8 specimens, 
U.S.N.M. no. E.7667). 

Notes.—The specimens from lat. 65° 25’ §., 
long. 101° 13’ E. with the disk up to 27 mm in 
diameter have the disk less rounded and more 
pentagonal than the others; the arm spines are 
more slender and delicate and the mouth papillae 
less stout and more sharply pointed. The arms 
are longer and more slender, a specimen with 
the disk 23 mm in diameter having the arms 
120 mm long, and one with the disk 16 mm in 
diameter having the arms 80 mm long. 

The specimens from Peter Island in 30 fathoms 
have the disk from 4 to 25 mm in diameter. 

The specimen from Peter Island in 60 fathoms 
has the disk 20 mm in diameter. 

In the specimens from Marguerite Bay in 35 
fathoms the disk is up to 27 mm in diameter. 


CLARK: BRITTLE-STARS OF NAVY ANTARCTIC EXPEDITION 29 


One of those from Marguerite Bay in 40 fathoms 
has the disk 28 mm in diameter. 


Ophiosteira senoqui Koehler 


Ophiosteira senoqui Koehler, Deuxiéme Expédition 
Antarctique Frangaise (1908-1910), Echino- 
dermes (Astéries, Ophiures et Echinides): 110, 
pl. 10, figs. 8-11. 1912. 


Locality.— Off the Knox Coast (lat. 66° 31’ S., 
long. 110° 26’ E.); 100 fathoms; January 19, 
1948 (1 specimen, U.S.N.M. no. E.7681). ‘B 

Note.—In this specimen the disk is 20 mm. in 
diameter and the arms are 120 mm long. 


Ophiocten megaloplax Koehler 


Ophiocten megaloplac Koehler, Bull. Acad. Bel- 
gique, 1900: 819; Resultats du voyage du 8. Y. 
Belgica en 1897-1898-1899, Zoologie, Echinides 
et Ophiures: 22, pl. 6, figs. 38, 39. 1901. 


Localities —Lat. 66° 35’ S., long. 90° 40’ E.; 
150 fathoms; water temperature (surface) 29° 
F.; December 30, 1947 (1 specimen, U.S.N.M. 
no. E.7692). 

Lat. 65° 25’ S., long. 101° 13’ E.; 100 fathoms; 
water temperature 30° F.; January 14, 1948 
(2 specimens, U.S.N.M. no. E.7693). 

Off the Knox Coast (lat. 66° 31’ S., long. 110° 
26’ E.); 100 fathoms; January 19, 1948 (1 
specimen, U.S.N.M. no. E.7691). 

Notes—The specimen from lat. 66° 35’ S., 
long. 90° 40’ E. in 150 fathoms has the disk 5.5 
mm in diameter and the arms 25 mm long. 
The specimen from off the Knox Coast has the 
disk 8 mm. in diameter, with the circular central 
plate 3 mm in diameter, and the arms 35 mm 
long. 


ASSOCIATION OF SPECIES (CRINOIDEA, 
EcHINOIDEA, ASTEROIDEA, 
AND OPHIUROIDEA) 


Ross Island; caught along the beach near 
Cape Royds; January 29, 1948. Odontaster 
validus. 

Off Cape Royds, Ross Island; 58 fathoms; 
January 29, 1948. Sterechinus  antarcticus, 
Odontaster validus, Amphiura algida, Amphiura 
belgicae, Ophiura rouchi, Ophiurolepis gelida, 
Ophiurolepis martenst, Amphiurid. 

Marguerite Bay; littoral; February 22, 1948. 
Labidiaster annulatus. Tide pools along shore on 
an island in Marguerite Bay; February 21, 
1948. Sterechinus antarcticus, Acondontaster elon- 
gatus, Lysasterias perrierit, Lysasterias joffret, 


30 ‘JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Adelasterias papillosa. Dredged at 35 fathoms; 
temperature 30° F.; February 20, 1948. Pro- 
machocrinus kerguelensis, Sterechinus antarcticus, 
Leptychaster magnificus, Psilaster charcot:, Odon- 
taster meridionalis, Odontaster validus, Acodon- 
taster elongatus, Perknaster aurantiacus, Remaster 
gourdoni, Adelasterias papillosa, Ophiacantha 
disjuncta, Amphiura belgicae, Ophiomastus lud- 
wigi, Ophiura serrata, Ophiura rouchi, Ophiuro- 
lepis gelida, Ophiurolepis martenst, Ophionotus 
victoriae. Dredged at 40 fathoms; temperature 
30° F.; February 22, 1948. Promachocrinus 
kerguelensis, Sterechinus antarcticus, Odontaster 
validus, Cuenotaster involutus, Lysasterias perriert, 
Ophionotus victoriae. Dredged at 35-105 fath- 
oms; temperature 30.2° F.; February 19, 1948. 
Sterechinus antarcticus. Dredged at 115 fathoms 
temperature 30.2° F.; February 18, 1949. 
Sterechinus antarcticus, Ondontaster validus. 

Off Peter I Island; 30 fathoms; temperature 
29.6° F.; February 15, 1948. Psilaster charcott, 
Ophionotus victoriae. Same, 60 fathoms; February 
15, 1948. Ophionotus victoriae. ua 

Lat. 66° 35’ S., long. 90° 40’ E.; 150 fathoms; 
December 30, 1947. Ophiacantha  disjuncta, 
Ophiocten megaloplax. 

Lat. 65° 25’ S., long. 101° 13’ E.; 110 fathoms; 
temperature 30° F.; January 14, 1948. Floro- 
metra mawsoni, Ophionotus victoriae, Ophiocten 
megaloplax. 


vou. 41, No. 1 


Lat. 66° 31’ S., long. 110° 26’ E.; 100 fathoms; 
January 9, 1948. Promachocrinus kerguelensis, 
Ophiosteira senoqui, Ophiocten megaloplaz. 

It is interesting to compare the representation 
of the different classes of echinoderms (exclusive 
of the holothurians) in the Antarctic and the 
Arctic. The number of species in each region is as 
follows: 


Antarctic Arctic 
@rinoidea sire ei se coer a ecteniclias 24 3 
Mchinoldeateeses-caeh eo eee 30 2 
Asteroids 35 )5 che ciss, oe ene OE 114 23 
OyomeriClr, sccosacosascwescdsouepsdnc 50 12 


This enumeration does not include the fauna of 
the subantarctic islands or the Magellanic 
region, which support many additional species 
mostly related to Antarctic types. 

The strictly Antarctic species are almost 
wholly confined to the immediate vicinity of the 
Antarctic continent, while the majority of the 
Arctic species range for a greater or lesser distance 
southward in the north Atlantic, a few also in 
the north Pacific, and there is an isolated Arctic 
colony in the very cold water of the eastern part 
of the Seas of Okhotsk and Japan. A few Antarc- 
tic types range northward along the west coast 
of South and North America. Thus among the 
erinoids Ptilocrinus reaches British Columbia, 
Ilycrinus occurs off southeastern Alaska and 
westward to the Commander Islands, and 
Florometra extends northward to the Aleutian 
Islands, and south in the west Pacific to southern 
Japan. 


ZOOLOGY.—A new genus and species of notodelphyoid copepod from Japan.: Pau 


L. Inte, U. S. National Museum. 


In the course of assembling a series of 
notodelphyoid copepods for revisionary stud- 
ies, a fruitful source of material has been 
found in the yet unclassified collections of 
tunicates in the National Museum. The 
distinctive form here described has been 
selected for immediate treatment as a testi- 
monial to the retiring curator of echino- 
derms, United States National Museum, 
Austin Hobart Clark. It is considered an 
appropriate token of Mr. Clark’s significant 
connections with the United States Fish 
Commission steamer Albatross, the collecting 
vessel, and of his pioneer interest in the 
zoogeographic features of Japanese waters. 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


The generic name here proposed is derived 
as an anagram of Mr. Clark’s given name. 


Family NoroDELPHYIDAE 


Subfamily NoropELPHYINAE Schellenberg, 1922 
Ustina, n. gen. 


The description below of the characters of the 
genotype and only species, Ustina clarkt, n. sp., 
provides the generic definition. 


Ustina clarki, n. sp. 


Specimens examined.—23 females, 18 males, 
all adult; from branchial cavities of numerous 
specimens of a small species of solitary ascidian. 
Albatross station 3698, off Manazuru Zaki, N.8°, 
W. 4.5 miles, inside Sagami Bay, Honshu Island, 
Japan, 153 fathoms, May 5, 1900. 


JANUARY 1951 


Types—Holotypic female, U.S.N.M. no. 
91090; allotypic male no. 91091; paratypes no. 
91092; all from the one known collection; scien- 
tific name of ascidian host not known. 

Description —FEMALE (Figs. 1, a-o): General 
aspect (Fig. 1, a) marked by the heavy chitiniza- 
tion of the body, with resultant characteristic 
rigidity of the major body units, and, in addition, 
an extremely notable compression of the meta- 
some. The heavy body cuticle is densely set with 
perforating conical pores which reach from wide 
bases to much diminished surface apertures. 
There seem to be no structures projecting beyond 
the apertures. The metasome is 5-segmented. 
The fused cephalothoracic portion includes the 
somites of all the mouthparts. The segment of 
the first swimming legs is free and much shorter 
than the other thoracic segments. The somite of 
the fourth legs almost equals in bulk the remain- 
der of the metasome by reason of its voluminous 
dorsal and posterior expansion to accomodate the 
characteristic incubatorium. The eggs are large 
and rather few in number. They form a compact 
mass which somewhat intrudes anteriorly into the 
third free somite. 

The urosome (Fig. 1, 6) is 5-segmented, some 
what elongate and cylindrical. The very short 
somite of the fifth legs is succeeded by three long, 
subequal segments and a very short, but highly 
characteristic, terminal segment. The anal somite 
bears a greatly enlarged ventral projection, pear- 
shaped in lateral view, wide and faintly bilobed 
from ventral aspect. This prominence is further 
marked by a very thick cuticle, densely set with 
the porelike structures described above. The 
caudal rami are widely spaced and project ventro- 
laterally from the sides of the segment. 

An axis through the body measures over-all 
2.2 mm. The separate lengths of the metasome 
and urosome, as measured along their major 
axes, are respectively 1.75 mm and 1.15 mm. 

The head (cephalothorax) is triangular in side 
view. The ventral margin of the notal shield is 
markedly indented subapically at the point of 
emergence of the antennular bases. The notum 
is produced ventrally and posteriorly over the 
bases of the antennules as a wide-based, roughly 
triangular rostrum, with rounded apex. 

The antennule (Fig. 1, c) is 8-segmented and 
densely setiferous. The base is more or less en- 
veloped by the ample rostrum. The typical pos- 
ture would appear to be that resulting from a 
sharp elbow bend of the third segment upon the 
second. The basal two segments are much the 


ILLG: NEW GENUS OF NOTODELPHYOID COPEPOD Ball 


widest, the six distal to the flexure taper grad- 
ually to the narrow tip which is about one-seventh. 
the basal width of the first sezment. The setation 
has not been depicted fully in the figure nor was 
an exact count attempted. All the segments are 
heavily chitinized and the setae are consistently 
long, slender and profusely plumose. 

The antenna (Fig. 1, d) is 3-segmented. The 
basal segment is much the longest, almost equal- 
ing the combined lengths of the distal segments. 
It bears distally a well-developed, elongate, 
plumose seta. The two terminal segments are 
subequal. Segment 2 bears a short slender seta 
subapically. Segment 3 has the usual stout, 
curved, tapered hook, articulated on the distal 
surface. Set in relation to this terminal jointing are 
5 setae. More proximally there is a trio of sub- 
equal setae which lie closely appressed to the 
surface. Still more proximal is a short slender 
seta. The basal segment bears a characteristic 
marginal row of very long, fine cilia. 

The masticatory plate of the mandible (Fig. 
1, e) is best presented by illustration. The mandib- 
ular palp (Fig. 1, f) shows some tendency to 
suppression of the endopodite. Some of the setae 
are stout, elongate and plumose, but several are 
reduced to relatively short and slender dimen- 
sions. The two segments are subequal. The basal 
segment bears 4 setae at the distal medial corner. 
The terminal segment bears 8 setae arranged 
across the truncate end and along the medial 
margin. The basipodite bears a relatively small 
subapical seta. The exopodite is a flattened, rigid 
plate with no remaining evidence of segmentation 
other than its 5 graduated, long, plumose setae. 

The maxillule (Fig. 1, g) is ornamented with 
relatively long, profusely plumose setae. The 
principal endite of the coxopodite bears a row of 
nine stout, short, tapered setae. The next distal 
medial process (a second endite?) is directly 
prolonged as a sharply tapering, flattened seta, 
profusely set with marginal ciliation. The 
basipodite bears medially three long, graduated 
setae, all plumose. The shortest is proximal and 
equals about two-thirds the length of the distally 
placed longest. The middle seta is intermediate 
in length. The endopodite bears four long, plu- 
mose setae, two borne terminally and two on the 
medial margin. The exopodite is slightly more ex- 
panded than the endopodite and has three setae 
widely spaced somewhat truneate 
margin. The epipodite is set with a long plumose 
seta, directed basally and with a more distally 
placed, very short, sharply tapered auxiliary seta. 


along its 


32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The maxilla (Fig. 1, h) is seemingly of primitive 
construction. It is 5-segmented; each segment 
bears one or more profusely ciliated, elongate 
setae. The basal segment bears a proximal trio 
of long setae, set more or less transversely to the 
main axis of the appendage on a well-developed 
protuberance. The next distal medial prominence 
bears a single long, plumose seta. The third 
prominence has a pair of equal, long, plumose 
setae. The terminal prominence of the segment 
bears two equal plumose setae; set at the base of 
these is a very short auxiliary seta. The second 
segment bears a pair of setae with an accompany- 
ing, basally placed, short auxiliary seta. The more 
proximal of the principal setae is equivalent in 
length to those of the basal segment. The distal 
seta is about two-thirds as long as the other, of 
about the same thickness; it is the homologue of 
the heavily developed claw that occurs in many 
closely related notodelphyoids. The third seg- 
ment bears one plumose seta; the fourth segment 
is distinctively set with one long, plumose seta 
and ‘a second, much shorter and slenderer seta. 
The terminal segment bears a distally arranged 
trio of plumose setae, one of which is equivalent 
in dimensions with the majority of the setae of the 
appendage, the remaining two shorter and 
slenderer by about one-third. All are plumose. 

The maxilliped (Fig. 1, 7) is a flat, unsegmented 
plate, preserving, however, indications of direct 
derivation from a 2-segmented condition. A distal 
pair of subequal, long, plumose setae is set on a 
well demarcated projection of the appendage. The 
medial margin bears two quartets of roughly 
equal, short, plumose setae. 

The swimming legs are distinctive as indicated 
in the figures and in the following tabulation of 
arrangement of setae and spines. Setae are desig- 
nated in Arabic numerals following designation of 
spines in Roman. The segments of each ramus are 
accounted for in order from the basal segment 
distally. First exopodite I-1; I-1; IV-3; first 
endopodite O-0; O-6. Second exopodite I-1; 1-1; 
V-4; second endopodite O-1; O-8. Third exopodite 
J-1; I-1; IV-4; third endopodite O-1; O-8. Fourth 
exopodite I-1; I-1; IV-3; fourth endopodite 
O-1; O-7. 

All the legs are heavily chitinized. None bears 
medial setae on the coxopodite. All bear a seta, 
variously developed, at the lateral edge of the 
basipodite. The endopodites are all 2-segmented. 
The lengths of the exopodites are graduated, the 
fourth being at least twice as long as the first. 
The elongation is mainly due to increased produc- 


VoL. 41, No. 1 


tion of the terminal segment of each exopodite. 

In the first legs (Fig. 1, 7) the rami are sub- 
equal. The lateral seta of the coxopodite is very 
long, stout and plumose. The basipodite bears 
medially a stout, curved, tapered spine which 
reaches to about the beginning of the distal third 
of the terminal segment of the endopodite. The 
setae of the terminal segment of the exopodite 
are short, exceeding the inner terminal spine by 
about half its length. The endopodite (Fig. 1, k) 
is highly distinctive; it is heavily chitinized. The 
elongate, terminal segment curves laterally and 
distally. The setae are all very long and profusely 
plumose. 

In the second legs (Fig. 1, 1) the endopodite 
reaches slightly beyond the second segment of the 
exopodite. The terminal exopodite segment is 
slightly shorter than the combined lengths of the 
two proximal segments. The third endopodite 
reaches just beyond the second segment of the 
third exopodite. The terminal segment of the 
latter exceeds the combined lengths of the proxi- 
mal two segments by about one-third. In the 
fourth legs (Fig. 1, m) the endopodite does not 
quite reach to the distal margin of the second 
segment of the exopodite. The length of the distal 
segment of the exopodite exceeds the proximal 
segments by half again their combined lengths. 
The setae of these swimming legs are in the main 
very long and plumose. Notably excepted are the 
setae of the third and fourth exopodites. These 
are short and slender; their consistency ap- 
proaches more or less that of the spines and they 
lack the usual plumose ciliation. 

The fifth legs (Fig. 1, n) are much reduced. In 
general aspect they are reminiscent of those in 
Botachus. The basal portion is more or less 
coalesced with the substance of the somite. A 
plumose lateral seta is borne on a slightly elevated 
basal prominence. The free segment is short and 
narrow. It bears a medial subapical spine and a 
relatively short terminal seta. The basal plate and 
free segment are heavily chitinized. The terminal 
seta is seemingly lacking in ornamentation. 

The caudal rami (Fig. 1, 0) are flat, heavily 
chitinized plates. The armature consists of a 
long, terminal, articulated claw, a more proximal, 
short, heavy, spinelike claw, and 3 short setae. 

Mate (Figs. 1, p, g): a more or less generalized 
notodelphyoid type, possibly tending somewhat 
to compression of the metasome. The integument 
is of normal aspect, lacking the marked sclerotiza- 
tion seen in the female. There are no cuticular 
pores detectable in the specimens seen. The meta- 


JANUARY 1951 ILLG: NEW GENUS OF NOTODELPHYOID COPEPOD 33 


Fre. 1.—Ustina clarki, n. sp. Female: a, Habit, lateral view; b, urosome, ventral view; ¢c, antennule; 
d, antenna; e, masticatory plate of mandible; f, mandibular palp; g, maxillule; kh, maxilla; ?, maxilliped; 
J, first leg; k, first endopodite; 1, second leg; m, fourth leg; n, fifth leg; 0, caudal ramus. Male: p, First 
leg; q, fourth leg. The scale, referring only to the figure of the habit of the female, represents 0.5 mm. 
To avoid complication of detail the plumose ciliation of most setae depicted has been omitted; this de- 
tail can be supplied from the description. 


34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


some is 5-segmented, comparable, except for the 
lack of the inflated incubatory structures, to the 
tagmosis in the female. The urosome is 6-seg- 
mented, modified in its thoracic component by the 
complicated male reproductive structures. The 
first urosomal somite is short and bears at its 
posterior margin fifth legs entirely comparable 
with those in the female. The second segment is 
twice as long and bears the usual sixth leg 
lappets, each terminating in a prolongation bear- 
ing two subequal setae. The succeeding three 
segments are subequal; the first of these is half 
again as long as the combined lengths of the first 
two segments. The terminal somite is comparable 
to that in the female, heavily chitinized, but 
lacking the elaborately developed cuticular struc- 
ture of the other sex. 

None of the cephalic or thoracic appendages, 
other than the sexually modified sixth legs ex- 
hibits specialization toward copulatory prehen- 
sion. The head appendages and maxillipeds are 
comparable to those in the female, although of 
smaller absolute dimensions and with somewhat 
less substantial structure. The swimming legs are 
not so modified as those in the female, retaining 
a more generalized aspect. The segmentation 
differs by the fact that the endopodites of the 
second, third and fourth legs preserve the basic 
3-segmented condition. The ornamentation differs 
from that in the female in the following particu- 
lars: second endopodite O-1; O-2; O-6. Third 
endopodite O-1; O-2; O-6. Fourth exopodite I-1; 
J-1; IV-4; fourth endopodite O-1; O-2; O-5. 

The first legs (Fig. 1, p) exhibit segmentation 
and ornamentation comparable to that in the 
female, but with over-all reduction in size and 
substance. The exopodites in the second through 
fourth legs exceed the endopodites by about the 
length of the terminal exopodite segments. These 
terminal segments in each case are shorter than 
the combined lengths of each two basal segments. 
The fourth leg (Fig. 1, g) is depicted to show the 
departure in configuration of segments and degree 
of ornamentation from the condition in the 
female. 

The length of the male is 1.1 mm. 

Remarks.—The copepod here described raises 
some difficulty when an attempt is made to place 
it in the scheme of classification of the notodel- 
phyoids. The existing generic definition most 
aptly accommodating its characteristics would be 
Notopterophoroides Schellenberg, 1922. However, 
when characters of the present species, those of 
Botachus, the species of Notopterophorus, Pachy- 


voL. 41, No. 1 


pygus and the two species of Notopterophoroides 
are compared, it would seem as though a set of 
variations around a basic ground plan is dis- 
cernible. Unifying characters would be: con- 
siderable similarity of antennule; general simi- 
larity of construction of mandibular palp; more 
or less graduated reduction in maxillular ormamen- 
tation, in structure of maxilla, and of maxilliped; 
individual but more or less consistent modifica- 
tions of swimming legs; reduction of fifth legs; 
and great similarity of construction of urosome 
with markedly consistent modification of the anal 
somite and caudal rami. It seems supportable 
that here among the notodelphyoids is still 
another series of related forms comparable to the 
groups varying around the Notodelphys mode and 
the Doropygus mode respectively. The present 
series exhibits characters (structure of antennule, 
for instance) which might be considered more 
primitive than those of Doropygus; others in- 
disputably are more highly derived. By compari- 
son with Notodelphys some of this group display 
a possibly more basie condition in having the 
somite of the first swimming legs a free segment. 
Since very probably there are yet undiscovered a 
considerable number of notodelphyoids which 
might furnish elucidation of the so far seemingly 
random distribution of the basic characters, it 
seems best at the present level of knowledge to 
indicate supraspecific identity as strongly as pos- 
sible. Accordingly separation is here recognized of 
all the aforementioned genera, and for the newly 
described form generic status is proposed. The 
species of Notopterophoroides seem to be rather 
arbitrarily united in the generic delimitation. 
Since Lang, 1949, by designation of N. armadillo 
Schellenberg as genotype has fixed the generic 
concept, the second species, NV. malacodermatus 
Schellenberg, seems only questionably appropri- 
ately referable to the genus. However, until the 
discovery of other species and clarification of the 
characters of the latter species, it seems prefer- 
able to refrain from attempting further generic 
separation. 


REFERENCES 


Lane, K. Copepoda ‘‘Notodelphyoida’’ from the 
Swedish west-coast with an outline on the sys- 
tematics of the copepods. Arkiv. for Zool. 40A 
(No. 14): 1-36, 1 pl., 17 figs. 1949. 

ScHELLENBERG, A. Neue Notodelphyiden des Ber- 
liner und Hamburger Museums mit einer Uber- 
sicht der ascidienbewohnenden Gattungen und 
Arten. I. Teil. Mitteil. Zool. Mus. Berlin 10 
(2): 217-274, 43 figs. 1922. 


JaNuARY 1951 CHACE: GRASS SHRIMPS 


OF GENUS HIPPOLYTE By) 


ZOOLOGY .—The grass shrimps of the genus Hippolyte from the west coast of North 
America.! FENNER A. CHace, Jr., U. 8. National Museum. 


Two species of Hippolyte have been de- 
scribed from the Pacific coast of North 
America. One, Hippolyte californiensis, has 
been recorded from several localities be- 
tween Sitka, Alaska, and Santa Inez Bay, 
Baja California. The other, H. mexicana, 
was described by me from a series of muti- 
lated specimens from the latter locality. I 
am now convinced that H. mexicana repre- 
sents the previously undescribed male of H. 
californiensis. Examination of material in 
the collections of the U.S. National Museum 
indicates, however, that specimens from the 
northern part of the recorded range of H. 
califormiensis are very distinct from those 
from the southern part and that they be- 
long to a hitherto undescribed species. 

It is a pleasure to name this species after 
Austin H. Clark, retiring curator of echino- 
derms, U. 8S. National Museum, in recog- 
nition not only of his outstanding contribu- 
tions to our knowledge of many groups of 
animals but, especially, of his even broader 
influence on natural history through the 
assistance and encouragement he always 
has ready for biologists whose major goals 
still lie ahead. 


Hippolyte californiensis Holmes 
Figs. 1, a-e 
Hippolyte californiensis Holmes, 1895, p. 576, pl. 
20, figs. 21-26 (type locality, Bodega Bay, 
Calif.; cotypes, U.S.N.M. no. 18697) ; 1900, p. 193. 
—Rathbun, 1904, p. 56 (part).—Schmitt, 1921, p. 
48 (part), figs. 26, a-b (not fig. 26, c); 1924a, p. 
165 (part); 1924b, p. 387.—Chace, 1937, p. 126. 
Hippolyte mexicana Chace, 1937, p. 127, fig. 6 (type 
locality, Santa Inez Bay, Baja California, Mex- 
ico; holotype, no. 361076, Department of Trop- 
ical Research, New York Zoological Society) . 


Female.—Carapace not inflated. Four pairs of 
subequally spaced tufts of plumose setae on dor- 
sal part of carapace. Supraorbital spine reaching 
forward about as far as, or slightly beyond, hind 
margin of orbit. Antennal spine small, separated 
by a U-shaped notch from suborbital angle; the 
latter is blunt, but produced nearly or quite as 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 


the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 
6, 1950. 


far as the antennal spine. Branchiostegal spine 
prominent and set far back from anterior margin 
of carapace, the tip falling short of the margin by 
at least half the length of the spine. 

Rostrum reaching not quite as far as, or a 
little beyond, end of antennal scale. Upper mar- 
gin straight, or a little concave, and armed with 
three or four teeth behind the tip. The tip is 
usually bifid, the upper tooth overreaching the 
lower. Lower margin set on a very narrow crest, 
slightly wider than the dorsal one, and armed 
with three to five teeth behind the tip. Supporting 
ridge on each lateral face of rostrum very sharp 
posteriorly, becoming blunt and finally indistinct 
on the anterior half. 

Third somite of abdomen produced in a very 
low, rounded cap over anterior portion of fourth 
somite. There is a tuft of plumose setae on each 
side of the cap near the margin, and another pair 
near the middle. Fifth somite unarmed. Sixth 
somite one and three-fourths times as long as 
fifth. Telson as long as sixth somite, flattened 
dorsoventrally, and armed with two pairs of 
lateral spines, the anterior pair inserted not 
quite half way from the base to the tip of the 
telson, and the posterior pair about midway be- 
tween the first pair and the tip; there are six or 
seven terminal spinules, the two submedian pairs 
about subequal in length and longer than the 
lateral pair. 

Cornea of eye wider than stalk and not reach- 
ing as far forward as tip of stylocerite. Stylocerite 
slender, sharp, and separated from main portion 
of segment by a narrow emargination. First 
antennular segment armed with an outer distal 
spine (and sometimes a smaller spine mediad 
to the first}. Second segment about twice as long 
as third. Inner flagellum made up of 18 to 22 
segments, the outer one of 9 to 11 segments 
the first 6 to 8 of which are somewhat inflated. 
Antenna with a lower spine on basis. Scale nar- 
row with subparallel sides, the inner angle of the 
blade strongly produced far beyond the outer 
spine. 

External maxillipeds rather stout and reaching 
somewhat beyond the tip of the spine on the 
basis of the antenna. The exopod is well de- 
veloped. First legs robust, unarmed; carpus dis- 
tinetly longer than palm. First joint of carpus 
of second legs a little over twice as long as second, 


36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


which is about three-fourths as long as third 
(one specimen examined has the second joint 
fully as long as the third); chela usually shorter 
than combined lengths of second and third joints 
of carpus. Third leg reaching forward nearly as 
far as end of antennular peduncle; merus with 
three to five lateral spies; carpus with one; 
propodus very slender, armed ventrally with 
about seven spines, increasing in size distally; 
dactyl long and slender, with three stout spines 
at tip and ten to thirteen on lower margin, in- 
creasing in size distally. Fourth leg extending 
forward about as far as end of antennal peduncle; 
merus armed with three lateral spines; carpus 


VOL. 41, No. 1 


with one; propodus and dactyl as in third leg. 
Fifth leg reaching forward to terminal third of 
basis of antenna; merus and carpus armed with 
one spine each; propodus and dactyl as in leg 3. 

Male.—Rostrum slender, reaching about to 
middle of second antennular segment, and 
straight or slightly downcurved throughout its 
length. Rostral margins subparallel, armed dor- 
sally with two to four, usually three, teeth, and 
ventrally with one to three, usually two, 
teeth near the tip. 

Sixth abdominal somite about one and three- 
fourths times as long as fifth, as in female, but 
telson is slightly longer than the sixth somite. 


\\ 
\ 
\' 
\ 
‘ 
t 
8 
s 


Fig. 1.—a, Hippolyte californiensis, frontal part of female from Dillon Beach, Calif., X8.3; b, dorsal 


view of right ‘antennule of female cotype, X8.3; c, second right leg of same specimen, x8. 3; d, third 
right leg of same specimen, X8.3; e, dactyl of same, X17.4; f, Hippolyte clarki, n. sp., frontal part of 
female holotype, X8.3; g. dorsal view of right antennule of "holotype, X8.3; h, ‘second | right leg of hol- 
otype, X8.3; 7, third right leg of holotype, 8.3; 7, dactyl of same, X17. 4: k, anterior view of second 
right pleopod of holotype, X17.4; 1, frontal part ‘of male paratype from Friday Harbor, Wash., X8.3; 
m, second right leg of same specimen, X8.3; n, third right leg of same specimen, X8.3; 0, dactyl of same, 
X17.4; p, anterior view of second right pleopod of same specimen, 17.4. 


JANUARY 1951 


Eyes reaching forward about to end of stylo- 
cerite. First antennular segment armed with row 
of three spines on distal margin. Outer antennular 
flagellum composed of about 16 segments, the 
proximal 10 of which are inflated. 

External maxillipeds reaching beyond tip of 
antennal scale. Legs proportionately longer than 
in female; third legs reach well beyond end of 
antennal scale. Propodi of last three pairs very 
broad and flat in distal half. Dactyls of these 
legs armed with about 16 spines on lower margin 
and two large apical spines, which are followed 
on the distal end of the upper margin by a row 
of five spines which become progressively smaller 
proximally. 

Color.—Green (Holmes); green with pink mar- 
gins (Hilton). 

Measurements.—Carapace lengths of smallest 
ovigerous female and largest female examined, 
4.9 and 6.8 mm, respectively. Carapace lengths 
of males, 2.7 to 3.8 mm. 

Range.—West coast of North America from 
Bodega Bay, Calif., to the Gulf of California. 

Material examined.—Bodega Bay, Calif.; from 
University of California; 2 females (1 ovigerous), 
cotypes (U.S.N.M. no. 18697). 

Dillon Beach, Marin County, Calif. (tide flats 
in eel-grass area); June 8, 1941; G. M. Scheibner; 
1 female (U.S.N.M. no. 89716). 

Mugu Bay, Ventura County, Calif.; May 31, 
1923; E. P. Chace; 5 females (3 ovigerous) 
(U.S.N.M. no. 89710). 

Balboa, Calif. (in eel grass); December 26, 
1917; W. A. Hilton; from Pomona College; 2 
females (1 ovigerous) (U.S.N.M. no. 50659). 

San Diego, Calif.; March 9, 1898; Albatross; 
5 females (2 ovigerous) (U.S.N.M. no. 23403). 

Ensenada, Baja California, Mexico; Novem- 
ber 28, 1936; S. A. Glassell; 1 female (U.S.N.M. 
no. 89678). 

Off Cape San Lazaro, Baja California, Mexico 
(in kelp); March 28, 1936; Zaca Expedition; 1 
specimen (D.T.R., N.Y.Z.S. no. 361072). 

Santa Inez Bay, Baja California, Mexico (in 
stomach of American eared grebe); April 9, 1936; 
Zaca Expedition; 27 specimens (D.T.R., N.Y.Z.S. 
nos. 361073, 361077). Same (in stomach of Amer- 
ican eared grebe); April 11, 1936; 105 specimens 
(D.T.R., N.Y.Z.S. nos. 361074, 361078, and 
M.C.Z. no. 9501). Same; 1 fathom; April 15, 
1936; 1 male (holotype of H. mexicana, D.T.R., 
N.Y.ZS. no. 361076). Same; 3 fathoms; April 15, 
1936; 1 female (D.T.R., N.Y.Z.S. no. 361075). 


CHACE: GRASS SHRIMPS OF GENUS HIPPOLYTE 37 


Hippolyte clarki, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, =D 


Hippolyte californiensis Rathbun, 1904, p. 56 
(part).—Schmitt, 1921, p. 48 (part), fig. 26, ¢; 
1924a, p. 165 (part). Not H. californiensis 
Holmes, 1895. 


Female.—Carapace not inflated. A pair of 
tufts of plumose setae on cardiac region and 
another on anterior gastric region. Supraorbital 
spine not large, reaching forward slightly be- 
yond hind margin of orbit. Antennal spine small, 
separated by a U-shaped notch from suborbital 
angle; the latter is blunt, but produced about as 
far as the antennal spine. Branchiostegal spine 
prominent and set well back from anterior mar- 
gin of carapace, the tip falling short of the margin 
by nearly half the length of the spine. 

Rostrum extending well beyond end of an- 
tennal scale. Upper margin concave in the prox- 
imal third and straight and ascending distally, 
or concave throughout, and usually armed with 
two teeth above the eye; occasional specimens 
are found with one or three teeth on the dorsal 
margin behind the tip. The tip is usually trifid, 
a small tooth being placed on each margin just 
back of the apex; occasionally either the dorsal 
or ventral subapical tooth may be absent (one 
specimen examined has two subapical teeth on 
the upper margin, causing the tip of the rostrum 
to appear quadridentate). Lower margin with a 
narrow crest, deepest at about the end of the 
proximal third, and armed with one to five teeth. 
Supporting ridge on each lateral face of rostrum 
blunt, not sharply carinate, although prominent 
proximally. 

Abdomen with a pair of tufts of plumose setae 
on posterior parts of first and second somites and 
two pairs of such tufts on third. Third somite 
produced in a low, blunt cap over anterior part 
of fourth somite. Fifth somite unarmed. Sixth 
somite nearly twice as long as fifth. Telson slightly 
shorter than sixth somite, flattened dorsoven- 
trally, and armed with two pairs of lateral spines, 
the anterior spine inserted at a point not quite 
halfway from the base to the tip of the telson, 
and the posterior one about midway between 
the first pair and the tip; there are from six to 
eight terminal spines, of which the submedian 
pair is the longest. 

Cornea of eye wider than stalk, forming a 
rather bulbous tip to the stalk, and reaching for- 
ward about to the end of the stylocerite. Stylo- 
cerite sharp, separated from first segment of 


38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


antennular peduncle by a narrow emargination. 
First antennular segment unarmed distally. Sec- 
ond and third segments slender, the second seg- 
ment fully twice as long as the third. Inner flagel- 
lum made up of 16 to 22 segments, the outer one 
of 8 to 11, of which the first is usually very long 
and all but the last three or four moderately in- 
flated. Antenna with a lower spine on basis. 
Scale narrow with subparallel sides, the imner 
angle of the blade angular and produced far be- 
yond the level of the outer spine. 

External maxillipeds rather slender, reaching 
nearly as far as end of antennal peduncle. There 
is a fairly well developed exopod. First legs ro- 
bust, unarmed; carpus distinctly longer than 
palm. First jomt of carpus of second legs nearly 
three times as long as second, which is slightly 
shorter than the third; chela a little shorter than 
the combined lengths of the second and third 
joints of the carpus. Third leg reaching forward 
about to end of antennal scale; merus with two 
to five lateral spines; carpus with one; propodus 
slender with subparallel sides and armed ventrally 
with five to seven pairs of spinules increasing in 
length distally, the inner spine of each pair being 
much shorter than the outer; dactyl broad and 
short, armed with six to eight ventral spines and 
a double row of eight longer ones crowded onto 
the distal half of the upper margin. Fourth leg 
extending forward nearly to end of second seg- 
ment of antennular peduncle; merus armed with 
up to five lateral spines; carpus with one; pro- 
podus and dacty] as in third leg. Fifth leg reach- 
ing forward about to end of first antennular seg- 
ment; merus armed with up to four lateral spines; 
carpus with one; propodus and dacty] as in third 
leg. 

Male.—Rostrum slender, reaching about to 
end of antennular peduncles, and somewhat up- 
curved distally. Rostral margins subparallel. Ros- 
tral armature roughly as in females (one male 
examined has no ventral tooth); the tip is often 
more obscurely trifid than in the female, because 
either the dorsal or ventral subapical tooth may 
be placed farther from the tip. 

Third segment of abdomen lower than in the 
female, the cap over the proximal portion of the 
fourth somite less pronounced. 

Eyes reaching forward well beyond end of 
stylocerite. Outer antennular flagellum composed 
of 8 to 16 segments, all but the terminal 3 to 5 


voL. 41, No. 1 


of which are somewhat more noticeably inflated 
than in the female. 

External maxillipeds reaching well beyond end 
of antennal peduncle. All of the legs are longer 
than in the female; third legs overreach antennal 
scale by length of dactyl and most of propodus. 
Propodi of last three pairs very broad and flat in 
distal half, the inflated portion being armed with 
seven pairs of large spines. Dactyls of these legs 
elongate, ending in a strong spine, with a row of 
about 14 spines on lower margin and five or six 
pairs of close-set spines on distal third of upper 
margin. 

There is but one appendix on the endopod of 
the second pleopods, but that is strongly setose, 
unlike the stylambys in the female. 

Age variation.—In small specimens the rostrum 
is Shorter, reaching just to the tip of the antennal 
scales in females, and the cornea is no wider than 
the eyestalk. As in other species of the genus, the 
younger the specimen, the fewer are the seg- 
ments in the antennular flagella. 

Measurements.—Carapace lengths of smallest 
ovigerous female and largest female examined 
3.0 and 6.0 mm, respectively. Carapace lengths 
of males 1.7 to 3.2 mm. 

Range.—West coast of North America from 
Sitka, Alaska, to Puget Sound. A lot of 47 speci- 
mens collected by the Anton Dohrn is labeled 
“Southern California,” but this locality seems 
doubtful. 

Material examined.—Sitka, Alaska; 10 fath- 
oms; June 15, 1899; station 1; Harriman Ex- 
pedition, W. E. Ritter; 1 female (U.S.N.M. no. 
25846). 

Barclay Sound, British Columbia; September 
27, 1888; Albatross; 1 ovigerous female (U.S.N.M. 
no. 28330). 

Nanaimo, British Columbia; C. H. O’Don- 
oghue; 2 males, 1 female (U.S.N.M. no. 54720). 

Friday Harbor, Wash.; in eel grass; August 5, 
1928; K. L. Hobbs; 1 ovigerous female holotype 
(U.S.N.M. no. 91089); 18 males, 13 females (7 
ovigerous) (U.S.N.M. no. 63089). 

Quarantine Rock, Port Townsend, Wash.; June 
27, 1903; Albatross; 2 males, 1 ovigerous female 
(U.S.N.M. no. 31866). 

Puget Sound; 1895; T. Kincaid; 7 ovigerous 
females (U.S.N.M. no. 25835). 

“Southern California’; Anton Dohrn; from 
Venice Marine Biological Station; 1 male, 46 
females (28 ovigerous) (U.S.N.M. no. 50428). 


January 1951 


LITERATURE CITED 


CuacE, FENNER ALBERT, JR. 
VII. Caridean decapod 


Crocker Expedition. 


The Templeton 


Crustacea from the Gulf of California and the 
west coast of Lower California. Zoologica 22 
(pt. 2): 109-138, 9 figs. 1937. 

Homes, Samurt Jackson. Notes on west Amert- 
can Crustacea. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 4: 
563-588, pls. 20-21. 1895. 

Ratusun, Mary JANE. Decapod crustaceans of the 
northwest coast of North America. Harriman 


CHACE: GRASS SHRIMPS OF GENUS HIPPOLYTE 


39 


Alaska Exped. 10: 1-190, 95 figs., pls. 1-10. 


1904. 


Scumitr, Watpo LaSaunur. The marine decapod 
Crustacea of California. Univ. California Publ. 
Zool. 23: 1-470, 165 figs., pls. 1-50. 1921. 

—. The Macrura and Anomura collected by the 
Williams Galapagos Expedition, 1923. Zoologica 
5 (15): 161-171, 3 figs. 1924. 

———. Expedition of the California Academy of 
Sciences to the Gulf of California in 1921. 
Crustacea (Macrura and Anomura). Proc. Cali- 
fornia Acad. Sei. 13 (24): 381-388. 1924. 


TaBLE 1— DISTINGUISHING CHARACTERS OF THE WESTERN Nortu AMERICAN SPECIES OF HIPPOLYTE 


Hippolyte californiensis 


Hippolyte clarki 


Female 


Male 


Female 


Male 


Rostrum: 

Reaching not quite as far as, 
or a little beyond, end of 
antennal scale. 

Nearly horizontal or faintly 
upcurved. 

Armed with 3-4 dorsal and 3-5 
ventral teeth in back of ter- 
minal set, tip usually bifid. 


Lateral supporting ridge 
sharp above eye, becoming 
blunt distally. 

ABDOMEN: 
Cap on third somite very low. 


Sixth somite about 1{ times 
as long as fifth. 
Eye: 
Not reaching forward as far 
as tip of stylocerite. 


ANTENNULAR PEDUNCLE: 

First segment armed with 1-2 

outer distal spines. 
SECOND LEG: 

First joint of carpus little 
more than twice as long as 
second. 

THIRD LEG: 

Reaching forward nearly as 
far as end of antennular pe- 
duncle. 

Dactyl slender, nearly half 
as long as propodus, and 
armed with 10-13 ventral 
and 3 distal spines. 


Falling short of end of second 
segment of antennular pe- 
duncle. 

Horizontal or slightly down- 
curved. 

Armed with 2-4 dorsal and 1-3 
ventral teeth in back of ter- 
minal set, tip usually bifid. 


Same. 


Same. 


Same. 


Reaching forward about to 
tip of stylocerite. 


First segment armed with 3 
outer distal spines. 


First joint of carpus barely 
twice as long as second. 


Reaching forward well be- 
yond end of antennal scale. 


Dactyl moderately slender, 
about half as long as pro- 
podus, and. armed with 
about 16 ventral and 7 dis- 
tal spines extending onto 
dorsal margin. 


Reaching well beyond end of 
antennal scale in adults. 


Distinctly upeurved or ascend- 
ing. 

Armed with 1-3 (usually 2) 
teeth above eye and 1-5 ven- 
tral teeth in back of terminal 
set; tip usually trifid. 

Lateral supporting ridge blunt 
throughout its length. 


Cap on third somite slightly 
higher and more prominent. 

Sixth somite nearly twice as 
long as fifth. 


Reaching forward about to tip 
of stylocerite. 


First segment unarmed dis- 
tally. 


First joint of carpus nearly 
three times as long as second. 


Reaching forward about to end 
of antennal scale. 


Dactyl very stout, less than a 
third as long as propodus, 
and armed with 6-8 ventral 
and 8 — 9 distal spines ex- 
tending nearly to midpoint 
of dorsal margin. 


Reaching about to end of an- 
tennular peduncle. 


Slightly upcurved distally. 


Same. 


Same. 


Same. 


Same. 


Reaching forward nearly to 
end of first antennular seg- 
ment. 


Same. 


Same. 


Overreaching antennal scale by 
length of dactyl and most of 
propodus. 

Dactyl slender, less than half 
as long as propodus, and 
armed with about 14 ventral 
and 5 — 6 distal spines ex- 
tending a short distance on 
dorsal margin. 


40 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 1 


ZOOLOGY —Two new primnoid corals of the subfamily Calyptrophorinae (Coelen- 


terata: Octocorallia).1 FREDERICK M. 


The vast collections of marine animals 
obtained by the United States Fish Com- 
mission steamer Albatross are still yielding 
new species, two of which are described 
below. Among the octocorals this is not 
surprising for a considerable part of the 
collection has not yet been studied. The 
first species herein described, taken by the 
Albatross during its Hawaiian cruise (1902), 
was erroneously included with a previously 
described species in the original report on 
the Hawaiian Alcyonaria (Nutting, 1908); 
the other is from the incomparable collec- 
tion assembled during the Philippine cruise 
of the Albatross (1906-1910). No complete 
report upon the collections of the latter 
expedition has yet been made. 

It is a great pleasure indeed to dedicate 
these two species to Austin H. Clark, retiring 
curator of echinoderms, U. 8S. National 
Museum, and his charming wife, Leila 
Forbes Clark, librarian of the Smithsonian 
Institution. 


Genus Calyptrophora Gray 
Calyptrophora J. E. Gray, 1866, p. 25. 


Diagnosis—Primnoids with branching dichoto- 
mous, in one plane or bushy; or lyrate, in one or 
two parallel planes; or partly in whorls, partly 
dichotomous. Zooids arranged in whorls, with 
their mouths directed upward or downward; body 
scales reduced to two pairs of large, curved plates 
which are either fused to form two solid rings, or 
are separate; adaxial buccal (marginal) scales 
present or absent;;no more than one pair of in- 
frabasal scales between the basal body pair and 
the rind scales. The operculum is well developed, 
consisting of eight large scales. The spicules of the 
stem rind are more or less elongate, flattened 
scales or plates, in one layer. 

Genotype.—Calyptrophora japonica Gray (by 
monotypy). 


Calyptrophora clarki, n. sp. Fig. 1 


Calyptrophora japonica Gray, Nutting, 1908, p. 578 
(part). 
Not Calyptrophora japonica Gray, 1866, p. 25, fig. 1. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. Received October 6, 
1950. 


Bayer, U.S. National Museum. 


Diagnosis—Branching dichotomous, in one 
plane. Zooids facing apically; both pairs of body 
scales fused to form solid rings; basal ring with a 
pair of long, slender, finely serrate spines; buccal 
ring with two broad, bladelike, finely serrate 
processes, which are occasionally bifid or trifid, 
sometimes completely divided to form four or six 
separate processes. A pair of well-defined infra- 
basal scales is present. 

Description —The colony is branched dichoto- 
mously, in one plane; the axis is longitudinally 
grooved and has a golden luster. The zooids 
(Fig. 1, D), which are 2.25-2.50 mm long including 
the buccal spines (measured parallel to the 
branch), occur in whorls of four or five (Fig. 1, A), 
and face upward; in 3 em of branch length there 
are from 12 to 14 whorls. The zooid body is 
surrounded by two pairs of large sclerites fused 
to form rings. The basal ring (Fig. 1, #) bears on 
its free edge a pair of long, slender, finely serrated 
spines; the buccal ring (Fig. 1, F) has two broad, 
bladelike processes which are sometimes divided 
more or less completely into two or three points 
or separate spines. A pair or narrow, curved infra- 
basals connects the basal ring with the stem 
scales. Adaxial buccal (marginal) scales are 
absent. The operculum is high and projects 
prominently from the buccal ring. The abaxial 
operculars are the largest, roughly triangular in 
shape and with a moderately strong inner keel; 
the adaxials are about half as large and more 
nearly perfect triangles; the outer lateral and 
inner lateral operculars are intermediate in size 
and more or less asymmetrical in outline due to the 
broadly rounded inner margin which overlaps the 
edge of the adaxially adjacent scale. The apical 
margins of the operculars are usually serrate, and 
in some zooids are divided into several lobes 
or low points (Figs. 1, B, C). The spicules of the 
stem rind are elongate scales without external 
ridges. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 25370. 

Locality —Hawaiian Islands: Ukula Point, 
Kauai Island, bearing north 65° 30’, west 7.4 
miles, 508-557 fathoms, gray sand and Foramini- 
fera, bottom temperature 40° F., June 17, 1902 
(Albatross station 4007). 

Paratype.—U.S8.N.M. 
Islands. 

Remarks.—In habit, Calyptrophora clarki is 


no. 43139; Hawaiian 


JANUARY 1951 


readily distinguishable from C. japonica Gray 
by its regularly dichotomous instead of lyrate 
branching. Most zooids of C. clarki are at once 
separable from those of C. japonica by the two 
broad processes of the buccal ring; there is, how- 
ever, much variation among individuals, even of 
the same colony, in the character of the buccal 
spines, and though there are ordinarily but two 
broad processes, there may occasionally be four, 
and sometimes even six. None of the specimens of 
C. japonica I have examined show six buccal 
spines. Both the buccal and the basal spines of C. 
clarki are proportionally much longer than those 
of C. japonica, except perhaps for Versluys’ spect- 
men no. 3 of his ‘form B” (1906, p. 118, figs. 
166-168), which is probably not C. japonica at 
all but something close to the present species. 


BAYER: TWO NEW PRIMNOID CORALS 4] 


Genus Narella Gray 
Narella J. E. Gray, 1870, p. 49. 
Stachyodes + Calypterinus Th. Studer [and E. P. 


Wright], 1887, p. 49; IX. P. Wright and Th. 
Studer, 1889, pp. xlviii, 53, 54. 


Diagnosis.—Primnoids mostly branched di- 
chotomously, in one plane or bushy. Zooids 
arranged in whorls, with their mouths directed 
downward; body scales three pairs of large, 
curved plates, of which the basal pair may meet 
adaxially to form a closed ring (in one species the 
buccal pair also); adaxial buccal (marginal) scales 
are frequently present in one or more pairs. The 
operculum consists of eight large scales. Spicules 
of the stem rind variable, elongate or scalelike, 
in one or two layers. 


Fic. 1.—Calyptrophora clarki n. sp.: A, Two distalmost whorls from the type specimen; &, three 
opercular scales, abaxial, inner lateral and adaxial, of the large, lacimiate type; C, the same, of the small 
type; D, typical zooid, side view; H, basal scale ring: art, articulating ridge; /’, buccal seale ring: art, 
articulating ridge which rides on that of the basal ring. 


Fic. 2.—Narella leilae n. sp.: A, Adaxial view of zooid showing adaxial buccal scales; B, a whorl of 
normal zooids; C, opercular view of zooid; D-M, opercular scales: ’, K, M, apical, inner face, and side 
view of major abaxial opercular scale; NV, O, adaxial buccal scales (scale at J applies to all opercular 
scales); P, small flattened rods from the tentacles (scale applies only to P); Q, zooid whorl from above, 
showing worm tunnel (scale applies only to Q); R, zooid whorl from side, showing ‘‘arcade polyps”’ 
with abnormally expanded basal scales (scale apples to A-C, R, 8S); S, normal zooid from the side, 
showing: dor, ‘‘dorsal”’ and lat, lateral regions of basal scale; and bla, the basolateral angle which sepa- 
rates the two. 


JANUARY 1951 


Genotype.—Primnoa regularis Duchassaing and 
Michelotti, 1860 (by monotypy). 

Remarks.—As Miss Deichmann (1936, p. 168) 
points out, Narella clearly has priority over 
Stachyodes. The genus Calypterinus was estab- 
lished for a specimen with abnormal polyps due to 
a polychaete commensal. Calyptrophorines, es- 
pecially Narella, are frequently infested with 
worms which cause adjacent polyps along one 
side of the stem to form greatly expanded basal 
scales which produce a sort of arcade in which the 
worm makes its home (Fig. 2, Q, R). 


Narella leilae, n. sp. Fig. 2 

Diagnosis-—Branching lateral-dichotomous, i2 
one plane. Zooids small, 2.0-2.5 mm long, facing 
basally; only basal scale pair meeting adaxially to 
form a ring; free margins of all three body-scale 
pairs broadly expanded but not forming long, 
projecting points; free lateral border of each basal 
scale with a downward and forward projecting 
angle; basal scale distinctly divided into dorsal 


and lateral regions by a basolateral angle. Oper- - 


culum low, the individual scales broad, with a 
high inner keel. 

Description—The type consists of three frag- 
ments, the largest of which is about 70 mm tall 
and twice branched dichotomously. In the proxi- 
mal part the axis is a little flattened in the plane 
of branching, oval in the lowest part of the type 
specimen, becoming almost round in the distal- 
most tips; it is longitudinally grooved, and of a 
brownish-yellow color with moderate luster. The 
downward facmg zooids (Fig. 2, S) are 2.0-2.5 
mm long (measured parallel to the branch), 
arranged in whorls of four to six (Fig. 2, B), of 
which 10-12 occur in 3 cm of axial length. The 
zooid body is surrounded by three pairs of large 
scales, of which only the basal pair meet adaxially 
to form a ring; the free edges of all three pairs are 
broadly expanded, those of the basal and medial 
pairs more or less reflexed while that of the buccals 
is curved a little inward; basals bent along a 
definite basolateral angle which divides the scale 
into dorsal and lateral regions; the free lateral 
edge of the basal scale has a forward and down- 
ward projecting angle (Fig. 2, S). The operculum 
is very low; the scales are broad, the largest 
abaxial almost pentagonal in face view (Fig. 2, 
K), and each is furnished with a very high keel 
on the inner face and corresponding groove on the 
outer (Fig. 2, D-M). One pair of adaxial buceals 
is present (Fig. 2, A, V, O). The tentacles contain 
very small (0.04-0.07 mm) flat rods (Fig. 2, P). 


BAYER: TWO NEW PRIMNOID CORALS 43 


The coenenchyma scales are irregular, rather 
elongate plates, those nearest to zooids often with 
a high, thin longitudinal crest. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 49724. 

Locality.—Off Kapoposang Light, Straits of 
Macassar, lat. 4° 43’ 22” §., long. 118° 53’ 18” E., 
400 fathoms, hard bottom, bottom temperature 
43.3° F., December 28, 1909 (Albatross station 
5664). 

Additional record.—Oft Gomomo Island, Pitt 
Passage, lat. 1° 53’ 30” S., long. 127° 39’ 00” E., 
400 fathoms, coral, rock, soapstone, (no te: pcr 
ature data), December 3, 1909 (Albatross staticn 
5635). 

Remarks.—Narella leilae, n. sp., shows a certain 
resemblance to NV. clavata (Versluys) in its closed 
basal scale pair and definite basolateral angles; 
the development of abnormal “arcade polyps” 
(Fig. 2, Y, R) induced by polychaete commensals 
is similar to that of Narella allmani (Wright and 
Studer). Narella leilae differs from N. clavata in 
its smaller zooids and exceptionally low oper- 
culum, its thinner and more delicate body scales, 
and in absence of a high dorsal crest on the basals; 
from N. allmani it differs in having adaxially’ 
closed basal scales, the buccals not being drawn 
out into projecting points, and in the much 
broader opercular scales. 


LITERATURE CITED 


DetcuMann, Evisaperu. The Alcyonaria of the 
western part of the Atlantic Ocean. Mem. Mus. 
Comp. Zool. 58: 1-317, pls. 1-37. 1936. 

DucHassaInG DE Fonsressin, P., and Micur- 
Lottr, J. Mémoire sur les coralliaires des 
Antilles. Mem. Accad. Sci. Torino (2) 19: 
279-365, pls. 1-10. 1860. 

Gray, Joun Epwarp. Description of two new forms 
of gorgonioid corals. Proc. Zool. Soe. London 
1866: 24-27, figs 1-2. 1866. 

. Catalogue of lithophytes or stony corals in the 
collection of the British Museum. 2 lvs. + 1-51, 
figs. 1-14. 1870. 

Nurtine, CHARLES CLEVELAND. Descriptions of 
the Alcyonaria collected by the U. S. Bureau of 
Fisheries steamer Albatross in the vicinity of 
the Hawarian Islands in 1902. Proc. U.S. Nat. 
Mus. 34: 548-601, pls. 41-51. 1908. 

Sruppr, THéorHt1ne [and Wriaur, Epwarp 
Prerceva].. Versuch eines Systemes der Aley- 
onaria. Arch. fiir Naturg. 538 Jahrg. (1): 1-74, 
pl. 1. 1887. 

Vmersiuys, J. Die Gorgoniden der Siboga Expedi- 
tion. II. Die Primnoitdae. Siboga Exped. 18a: 
1-187, 178 figs., pls. 1-10, chart. 1906. 

Wricut, Epwarp Prrcevar, and Sruprer, Tuko- 
PHILE. Report on the Alcyonaria collected by 
H.M.S. Challenger during the years 1873-1876. 
Challenger Reports, Zool., $1: i-lxxi + 1-814, 

pls. 1-48. 1889. 


44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. | 


ZOOLOGY .—A new species of polychaete worm of the family Polynoidae from Point 
Barrow, Alaska.1 Martan H. Prerripone, Arctic Research Laboratory, Johns 
Hopkins University. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) 


The new species of Polynoidae herein 
described is part of a collection of poly- 
chaetes from Point Barrow, Alaska, collected 
by George E. MacGinitie, of the Arctic Re- 
search Laboratory. The types are deposited 
in the United States National Museum. I 
take pleasure in naming it after Austin H. 
Clark, retiring curator of echinoderms, 
United States National Museum. 


Family PoLyNoIDArE 
Genus Eunoé Malmgren, 1865 
Eunoé clarki, n. sp. 

Fig. 1, a-e 


Measurements—The type (U.S.N.M. no. 
21984), of 41 segments, is 838 mm long, 8 mm wide 
excluding setae, and 12 mm wide including setae. 
The paratype (U.S.N.M. no. 21985), of 40 seg- 
ments, 1s 36 mm long and is of the same width as 
the type. 

Description.—The body is linear-oblong, widest 
in segments 9 to 27, narrowing slightly anteriorly 
and slightly more so posteriorly; it is oval in cross 
section. The middorsum is transversely banded 
with grayish green; the ventral surface is without 
color except for the grayish-green coloration an- 
terior and lateral to the mouth. Fifteen pairs of 
elytra nearly cover the dorsum; they are large, 
imbricated, arranged on segments 2, 4,5, 7,9... 
23, 26, 29, and 32. The elytra (Fig. 1, a) are oval 
to subreniform in shape, greenish gray in color, 
with a darker mottled pattern on most of the 
exposed parts of the elytra, and with a darker 
spot medial to a lighter area over the elytrophore 
—giving the appearance of paired “‘ocelli”’ (similar 
in this regard to Halosydna brevisetosa Kinberg). 
The elytral border is smooth except for scattered 
clavate micropapillae (Fig. 1, e). The elytral 
surface, although appearing smooth, is furnished 
with numerous chitinous bluntly conical micro- 
tubercles (up to 30u in height, Fig. 1, e). 

The prostomium (Fig. 1, a) is bilobed, wider 
than long, somewhat pigmented, with a deep 
anteromedian notch; cephalic peaks are lacking. 
The four eyes aresmall, the posterior pair situated 
dorsal and slightly posterior to the widest part of 

1 This study was aided by a contract between 
the Office of Naval Research, Department of the 


Navy, and Johns Hopkins University. Received 
October 6, 1950. 


the prostomium, the anterior pair are antero- 
lateral. The median antenna has a large pig- 
mented ceratophore; the style is about 1.5 times 
the length of the prostomium, with a pigmented 
proximal part, and with very short scattered 
clavate papillae. The lateral antennae are in- 
serted ventral to the median antenna on the 
prostomium; the ceratophores are short, darkly 
pigmented; the styles are short—about half the 
length of the median antenna—and furnished 
with short papillae. The palpi are about 2.5 times 
the length of the prostomium, with longitudinal 
rows of fine papillae. 

The tentacular segment (Fig. 1, a) has the 
basal lobes elongated, pigmented on the basal 
half, with one seta; the tentacular cirri are longer 
than the median antenna, about 2.5 times the 
length of the prostomium, with a wide pigmented 
zone basally and a narrow darker pigmented ring 
below the subterminal slightly bulbous enlarge- 
ment, with a filamentous tip, and with short 
scattered clavate papillae. The dorsal cirri (Fig. 
1, a) have elongated cirrophores, bulbous basally 
and narrower distally; the styles are similar to the 
tentacular cirri, with or without the basal pig- 
mented zone, and extend beyond the tips of the 
setae. The dorsal tubercles, corresponding to the 
elytrophores on the cirrus-bearing segments, are 
short and bulbous. The ventral cirri are subulate, 
enlarged basally, tapering distally to filamentous 
tips (Fig. 1, 6). The anal cirri are missing. The 
segmental or nephridial papillae begin on segment 
6 and continue posteriorly; they are rather long 
and cylindrical, especially in the segments of the 
middle third of the body. 

The parapodia (Fig. 1, 6) are biramous. The 
notopodium is a rounded lobe on the anterodorsal 
face of the neuropodium, extending out into a 
narrower acicular lobe from which the aciculum 
projects. The notosetae (Fig. 1, 6, c) are amber- 
colored, moderate in number (about 40), forming 
a spreading bundle; they are slightly arched, 
slender to stout (20-80 in greatest diameter), 
with long spinous regions extending over half of 
the exposed length, and short bare pomted to 
blunt tips. The neuropodium is obliquely truncate 
distally, with a longer dorsoanterior acicular lobe. 
The neurosetae (Fig. 1, 6, d) are amber-colored, 
moderate in size (80-50 in diameter in the stem 


4 


JANUARY 1951 PETTIBONE: NEW SPECIES 
region, 36-62y in greatest diameter in the en- 
larged distal region), with transverse spinous 
rows (9-24 or so rows), and rather long bare 
entire tips. 

Remarks.—Eunoé clarki resembles in superficial 
appearance Halosydna brevisetosa Kinberg—the 
common Pacific coast polynoid—particularly in 
its linear shape and mottled elytral pigmentation 
with paired “‘ocelli.” It differs from Hunoé nodosa 
(Sars) and Hunoé oerstedi Malmgren in lacking 
macrotubercles and fringes of papillae on the 


b 


Fig. 1.—Eunoé clarki, n. sp.: a, Dorsal view prostomium, first three segments, and second right 


elytron and parapodium of fourth segment (first ely 


OF POLYCHAETE WORM 45 
elytra, in the smaller eyes, and in the location of 
the anterior pai of eyes—anterolateral and not 
anterodorsal. It might well prove to be commensal 
in habit, as shown by the small eyes, absence of 
elytral macrotubercles, and elytral fringes of 
papillae. 

Locality—Two specimens were collected at 
Point Barrow base, Alaska, by George HE. Mac- 
Ginitie, October 17, 1949. They were washed 
ashore after a storm along with many other 
animals, including numerous polychaetes. 


tral pair and second left elytron removed); b, thir 


teenth right parapodium, posterior view; c, tip of notoseta; d, tip of middle subacicular neuroseta; e, 


few microtubercles and papilla from eighth elytron. 


46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 1 


ENTOMOLOGY .—4A new genus and species of North American Olethreutidae (Lep- 
idoptera: Laspeyresiinae).! J. F. Gates CiarKe, Bureau of Entomology and 


Plant Quarantine. 


The new species of olethreutid moth de- 
scribed herein, which becomes the type of a 
new genus, I take pleasure in naming for 
my friend Austin H. Clark, retiring curator 


of echinoderms of the United States Na-~ 


tional Museum, who, among his other ac- 
complishments, is a lepidopterist of long- 
standing and world-wide repute. 


Corticivora, n. gen. 
Figs. 1-le 


Typus generis.—Corticwora clark, n. sp. 

Head rough; labial palpus not exceeding front, 
third segment about one-fifth the length of 
second. Thorax without posterior tuft. 

Forewing smooth; termen nearly straight; 12 
veins, all separate; vein 2 remote from 3; 3, 4, and 
5 approximate at bases; 8 and 9 approximate 
basally; 11 from before middle; upper internal 
vein of cell from between 10 and 11, very weakly 
developed. Costal fold absent. 

Hindwing with normal pecten on lower median 
vein; 8 veins; 3 and 4 stalked; 6 and 7 stalked; 
termen slightly concave. 

Male genitalia with cucullus narrow and sac- 
culus broad without spine clusters; soci well- 
developed, fleshy, haired pads; uncus absent. 

Female genitalia with signa developed as 
scobinate-dentate cones. 

Structurally Corticivora is similar to Gypsonoma 
(Eucosminae) though remaining clearly laspey- 
resiine. As in Gypsonoma all veins of the forewing 
are separate in Corticwora and in the hindwing 3 
and 4 and 6 and 7 are stalked. The upper internal 
vein of Gypsonoma arises between 9 and 10 and 
that of Corticivora between 10 and 11. In the 
hindwing vein 5 of Gypsonoma is approximate to 
4, whereas that of Corticivora is remote from 4. 

In both genera the socii are present, a character 
seldom found in the Laspeyresiinae. 

Corticivora appears to be most nearly related to 


1 Received October 6, 1950. 


Laspeyresia but differs from it by the stalking of 
veins 6 and 7 of the hindwing, the presence of 
soci, and the form of the signa. 


Corticivora clarki, n. sp. 


Alar expanse, 10-11 mm. 

Labial palpus sordid whitish; second segment 
suffused and sparsely irrorate with gray; second 
segment almost wholly gray externally, except 
apex. Antenna dark grayish fuscous with narrow, 
paler annulations. Head creamy white. Thorax 
grayish fuscous. Ground color of forewing cinere- 
ous, the scales narrowly white-tipped; basal patch 
and other dark markings grayish fuscous as 
illustrated; narrow subbasal line of cilia black, 
cilia leaden. Hindwing light grayish fuscous; cilia, 
except subbasal band, paler. Legs creamy white 
suffused and banded with grayish fuscous. Ab- 


domen grayish fuscous above, creamy white 
beneath. 
Male genitalia.—As figured. Cucullus with 


strong, long setae along ventral edge; aedeagus 
broad and flattended dorsally and distal two- 
thirds abruptly narrowed, cylindrical, pointed. 

Female genitalia.—As figured. Signa conical, 
studded with sharp scobinate-dentate processes; 
posterior portion of ductus bursae lightly sclero- 
tized, slender. 

Type—U.S.N.M. no. 60582. 

Type locality.—North Guilford, Conn. 

Food plant—Red pine (Pinus resinosa Ait.). 

Remarks.—Described from the type male and 
four male and three female paratypes from the 
type locality, all reared by G. H. Plumb and J. V. 
Schaffner. Emergence dates range from June 24 
to July 2, 1944. Paratypes in the U. 8. National 
Museum and British Museum (Natural History). 

G. H. Plumb, who submitted the above ma- 
terial for identification, will publish the life history 


_ of this mteresting species. 


The photographs for the accompanying fig- 
ures were taken by Floyd B. Kestner, pnouoge aq 
pher of the Smithsonian Institution. 


JANUARY 1951 CLARKE: NEW SPECIES OF OLETHREUTID MOTH 47 


(se 
. 


~ 
& 
“sy, 


ld : le 


Figs. 1-le.—Corticivora clarki, n. sp.: 1, Left wings; la, venation of right wings; 1b, ventral view of 
male genitalia with aedeagus in situ; lc, enlarged view of signa; ld, detail of genital plate and ostium; 
le, ventral view of female genitalia. 


48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 1 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


441ST MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 441st meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on November 20, 1950, 
was called to order at 8:03 p. m. by the Presi- 
dent, F. B. Stusper. Also present were: N. R. 
Smita, W. N. Fenton, C. L. Gazin, A. T. 
McPuerson, W. A. Dayton, H. W. Hempte, 
Marcarer Prirrman, F. M. Serzuer, and, by 
invitation, L. W. Parr. 

The President announced the appointment of 
the following Subcommittee for the Teaching of 
Science of the Committee on Awards for Scientific 
Achievement for 1950: B. D. Van Evnra, chair- 
man, R. P. Barnus, F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyt, 
M. H. Martin, A. T. McPHERSON. 

Twenty-six persons were elected to member- 
ship in the Academy. 

The following report of the Nominating Com- 
mittee was presented: 


The Nominating Committee, consisting cf the 
Academy’s Vice-presidents, met in the library of 
the Cosmos Club on November 6, 1950. The meet- 
ing was called to order at 5 p.m. by F. C. Kracex, 
who presided. Others present were: C. F. W. 
MuversersBeck, J.S. Wriiiams, W. A. Dayton, F.M. 
Deranporr, E. W. Price, MARGARET PITTMAN, 
H.W. Hempue, and H. G. Dorsry. F. M. Srrzter 
acted as secretary but took no part in the bal- 
loting. 

The nominees selected for the offices to be filled 
by the balloting of the membership in December 
were as follows: For President-elect, WALTER RAM- 
BERG; for Secretary, FRANCIS M. DrraNnporp; for 
Treasurer, Howarp 8. Rappirye; for Board of 
Managers to serve 3 vears (two to be elected), Sara 
E. Branuam, Mivron Harris, C. F. W. Murse- 
BECK, JOHN A. STEVENSON. 


The Secretary reported the death on June 18, 
1950, of Frank W. Scuwas, of the National 
Bureau of Standards (elected October 15, 1945). 

The meeting adjourned at 8:40 p. m. 


442D MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 442d meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on December 18, 1950, 
was called to order by the President, F. B. 


SILSBEB, at 8:02 p. m. Also present were: N. R. 
SmitH, H. 8. Rappieys, J. A. Stevenson, F. M. 
Derranporr, W. R. Wepext, W. A. Dayton, C. 
A. Brerts, E. W. Price, Marcarer Pirrman, 
F. M. Srerzuer, and, by invitation, R. G. Bass. 

The President announced the plans for the 
Encouragement of Science Talent and the Sci- 
ence Fair, indicating that he had requested the 
customary contributions from the various Affili- 
ated Societies for the support of these activities. 

The Chairman of the Committee on Meetings, 
F. M. DeranporrF, announced that there would 
be no regular meeting of the Academy in Decem- 
ber. He reported, however, that he had arranged 
for Dr. Per K. Frouicu, former director of re- 
search and now vice-president of Merck & Co., 
to serve as guest speaker at the annual meeting 
and dinner of the Academy to be held at the 
Kennedy-Warren on January 18, 1951. 

The Chairman of the Committee on Member- 
ship, R. G. Bares, presented the names of 14 
resident and 3 nonresident candidates for mem- 
bership in the Academy. One nonresident candi- 
date previously presented was elected. Two 
members, Howarp P. Barss and Victor Bircx- 
NER, were placed on the retired list, effective De- 
cember 31, 1950. 

The Treasurer, H. 8. RappLeyn, reported on 
purchases of office furniture that had been made 
for the Treasurer’s office and requested that an 
increased allotment of $25 be made to the budget 
of the Treasurer. The request was unanimously 
approved. 

The Archivist, J. A. StevENSON, reported that 
he and former Archivist, N. A. Smirx, had made 
a final reorganization of all records of the Acad- 
emy in the office of the Archivist and that he 
had prepared a detailed inventory of this material 
to be presented as his report at the annual meet- 
ing of the Academy in January. 

Mr. STEVENSON also gave an interesting report 
on the Seventh International Botanical Congress, 
held in Stockholm, Sweden, July 12-20, 1950, at 
which he represented the Academy as delegate. 

The meeting adjourned at 8:55 p. m. 

Frank M. Serzumr, Secretary. 


Ge fe bay 
NOTE 
Those whose pleasant task it was to bring together the contents of this number 
of the JouRNAL of the Washington Academy of Sciences, honoring Austin H. Clark, 
have endeavored to reflect Mr. Clark’s wide interest in the natural sciences, although 
they did not attempt to include papers in all fields in which he has specialized. 
Mr. Clark’s own paper, on ‘The Brittle-stars of the United States Navy Antarctic 
Expedition 1947-48,” which he submitted to the editors of the JouRNAL last Sep- 
tember, was included in this issue without, of course, the author’s knowledge. It 
seems not unfitting, however, that this example of Mr. Clark’s work should appear 
here in an array of scientific papers by those who seek to do him honor. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


[PROSTGIGURS Rete TOO Bp BEE ORE Francis B. Siuspex, National Bureau of Standards 
PR ESSUCTI LHC LECL my Salesian ee eA Ae eee Naraan R. Smitu, Plant Industry Station 
SGERAAETO) s CaO a Be a cet OR Ore Roe ee Frank M. Srerzumr, "U.S. National Museum 
INRODSURER Sb geo eke ae PS one Howarp 8. Raprieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
PAR CIEULS ERR eM ithe cnet hnse enc eis Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haraup A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington.......................... Frank C. Kracek 
Anthropological Society of Washington......................... Waxpo R. WEDEL 
Biolocicallsocietyson Washington he. saauct acces sce e cee one 

@hemicall Society,of Washington. 2222 5...--..2c-- 4.6 suse ccee James I. Horrman 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ C. F. W. MursEBECK 
INatronalli'Geographic!Society,.....0.......60000..0s sense cee: ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geological Society of Washington........................ JAMES STEELE WILLIAMS 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.................... FREDERICK O. CoE 
ColumbiayeistoricaliSocletyar-re soc. es cece een a. GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Botanical sociebyzon Washington’. yo.-55.--2 20.0 oe. eseee one FrRreEeMAN A. WEIsSs 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters...... .... Witi1AM A. Dayton 
Washington Society Olalingineershet se ee ee ee Cuirrorp A. Brerts 


Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
Francis M. DeranporF 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. Dinu 


Helminthological Society of Washington........................ Emmett W. PRIcE 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists..... Marcarer PirrMaNn 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Henry W. HemMeLe 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers........... Hersert G. DorsEy 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 


wren B. FRENCH 
Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 


PRoramnuUany LOOM. Seite ce eee cece Francis M. Deranporr, WILLIAM N. FENTON 

Wha VEmineryy OGY 7e Noe eae aan ae Cee eee Witutam F. Fosuaa, C. Lewis Gazin 

PROM AIAUT AI yee L OGM erane leie: start asc chee si nisise eked syne Howarp P. Barss, A. T. McPHEeRson 
2@GRG) Off WOT AR a aoe oe ae Oe All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Batranojmuaicojsiand Aissocvate Haitons .. o.ssek cess eee eee ee (See front cover) 
Executive Commitiee.............. Francis B. SinsBEe (chairman), NatHAN R. SMITH, 
Witiiam N. Fenton, Howarp S. RappLerye, Frank M. Serzuer 

Committee on Membership........... Rocer G. BaTEs (chairman), M=RRILL BERNARD, 


Cuirrorp A. Berrs, WILBUR BuRBANK, Rosert C. Duncan, REGINA FLANNERY, 

A. B. Gurney, E. H. KENNARD, C. L. LEFEBVRE, C. W. REEs, Donatp C. Smita, 

L. A. SPINDLER 

Committee on Meetings....... Francis M. Drranporr (chairman), FREDERICK O. Con, 

Mitton Harris, Luoyp G. Hensest, Byron J. Otson, Frank B. ScHEETz 
Commuitiee on Monographs: 


MRowanwary 1951). o2 \..escc0 9: Emmett W. Price (chairman), Wittiam N. FENTON 
Mordamiary LISD! se etek sas ets cus eisai Pau H. Oruser, JASON R. SWALLEN 
Mow amitrariyiel DHS eperse sets: le crores le sragsseiswianevels Rauew W. Imuay, Paut W. Oman 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (T. DALE STEWART, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences........................ T. Date STEWART (chairman), 


Enotse B. Cram, AUREL O. Foster, Expert L. Littits, Jr., Haroip 
H. McKinney, JosErn S. WaDE 


For the Engineering Sciences...................... Water RAMBERG (chairman), 
Louis W. Currier, Rospert C. Duncan, Outtver S. Reapine, Harry W. WELLS 
Homthe Physical Scitences).-.................... Rosert D. Huntoon (chairman), 


Wituiam Buum, Micuart GoLtpBErG, Raymonp J. Seecer, Urnest H. VESTINE 
Commitiee on Grants-in-aid for Research: 

J. Lron SHERESHEFSEY (chairman), Cornetius J. Connouiy, L. Epwin Yocum 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


PRoJamuaryal OMe. see ccc ciiestel: LELAND W. Parr (chairman), Austin H. CLark 

wR ORNs ODD) «he. cc mes wecacueevervee shei ces sep tus James I. Horrman, Martin A. Mason 

IL@ diana ICE ine qee saneeeas cone mmee ge Wiuiram A. Dayton, Natuan R. Smita 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

PRoWanwanyalOol ae vcr yaaa eis ts: B. D. Van Evra, JossepH M. CALDWELL 

Morantanyal G52i en ee eee. Martin A. Mason (chairman), A. T. McPHERSON 

ORAM UaTyal Ooo me tienen clttcrerente ov nanccruaratls Austin H. Cruarx, Frep L. Monier 

ligepiasaaanag (ce (Coomera Oy F\o Fle Ale Sion bp oon cuecodanGuescenaucece Frank M. Serzuer 

CommittecnofpAUaulors. snciiae ene do sean nade. oe Water D. Surciirrs (chairman), 

C. Lewis Gazin, Raymonp L. SANFORD 

Committee of Tellers............ Fenner A. Cuace, JR. (chairman), Haroup F’. Stimson, 


Easert H. WALKER 


CONTENTS 


Page 
Dedication — HBRBERTHRIBDIANN| ieee ee eee eee “i es 
Jeanna Of Aoi lelOoaps CUM Bccose6 2 cesecns0cn06. ob 2 
Biographical Resumé — WALDO) In) SCHMITT 944-2) 22-20 44 ae 3 
* * * 
PaLEONTOLOGY.—New brachiopods from the Lower Cambrian of Virginia. 
GARTHUR: COOPER: 2.0.0) cA ain Boe to ee 4 
PaLEONTOLOGY.—Two new guide fossils from the Tallahatta formation of 
the Southeastern States. JuLIA GARDNER...................... 8 
PaLEontToLocy.—Nucula austinclarki, n. sp., a concentrically sculptured 
Nucula from the Lisbon formation of Alabama. F. Srmarns Mac- 
INGOT Neer Bos, Sacdot hia ald lege eB eto igen tack te: <a 12 
Mataco.toecy.—New stenothyrid gastropods from the Philippines (Risso- 
idae)... Re. TUCKER: ABBOTT: ..). 3 sib. dynes ooo ee 14 


Matacotocy.—Two new Western Atlantic species of pulmonate mollusks 
of the genus Detracia and two old ones (family Ellobiidae). J. P. E. 


MORRISON: 0. . 05 60 osc weer sdk clas SR hs cha oe ee ili 
Mauacotogy.—A new species of glycymerid from the Philippines. 
DaAvap! INICOm., |. 2) Sa ish aoa db apes uc re ve a vers Sere ca a 20 
Mauacotoey.—Two new Recent cone shells from the Western Atlantic 
(Conidae). Haratp A. Renprer and R. Tuckrr ABBOTT........ 22 
Matacotoey.—A new scaphopod mollusk, Cadulus austinclarki, from 
the Gulf of California. Wi~it1aAmM K. EMmRSON.................. 24 
Zootocy.—tThe brittle-stars of the United States Navy Antarctic Expe- 
dition 1947-48. Austin. H. ChARK::..:.:..:..52 Wi. eeeeeeee 26 
ZooLtoGy.—A new genus and species of notodelphyoid copepod from 
Japan’  Paun DL. IinGo. css fee oe aes a: es 30 
ZooLocy.—The grass shrimps of the genus Hippolyte from the west coast 
of North America. sEENNER, Ac (@HACE! JURY. 2050) eee 35 
ZooLtoGy.—Two new primnoid corals of the subfamily Calyptrophorinae 
(Coelenterata: Octocorallia). FREpERIcK M. BAymR............. 40 
ZooLoGcy.—A new species of polychaete worm of the family Polynoidae 
from Point Barrow, Alaska. Marian H. PETTIBONE............. 44 
EntTomoLtocy.—A new genus and species of North American Olethreut- 
idae (Lepidoptera: Laspeyresiinae). J. F. Gates CLARKE........ 46 
PROCEEDINGS: THm -ACADEMY .).)..02 740 on eelec: loon eels ae 48 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Vot. 41 Frpruary 1951 No. 2 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 41 


February 1951 


No. 2 


ARCHEOLOGY —A survey of new archeological sites in central Pataz, Peru.1 Parte 
D. Curtin. (Communicated by Gordon R. Willey.) 


TOPOGRAPHICAL SETTING 


The province of Pataz (see map, Fig. 1), 
located at the eastern edge of the Peruvian 
highlands, enjoys an isolation that is un- 
common even in rural Peru. Not only is it 
too far east to be in the orbit of the ancient 
north-south route through Huamachuco, Ca- 


jabamba, and Cajamarca, but its own ter-. 


rain has prevented its extensive use as a 
jumping-off place for one of the several trails 
from the highlands into the eastern jungle. 
Aside from pure distance from the centers of 
population in the highlands, like Huama- 
chuco, Pataz is also cut off from the main 
body of the mountains by the cafion of the 
Marafion River, which forms a barrier from 
south to north. Pataz is simply the western 
slope of the final eastern range of the Andes. 
From the Marafion, flowing at an altitude 
of 1,300 meters in the Pataz region, to the 
top of the eastern cordillera at more than 
4,000 meters the distance as the crow flies 
is only 14 km at some points and nowhere 
more than 25 km. The Marafion and the 
crest of the eastern cordillera form the west- 
ern and eastern boundaries of the province. 
This gives the whole province the effect 
of being turned up at an angle of about 

1 This report summarizes the architectural find- 
ings of an expedition to Pataz during a part of the 
months of July and August, 1949, sponsored by the 
Institute of Anthropology of the National Uni- 
versity of Trujillo, Peru. The personnel included 
the author, Luis Gutiérrez, John Ladd, Mrs. 
Helen P. Ladd, and Mrs. Phyllis Curtin, all of 
whom contributed to the preparation of this re- 
port. The author is indebted to Richard Schaedel, 
the director of the Institute of Anthropology, and 
to Drs. José Hulogio Garrido and Manuel Zava- 
leta C., of Trujillo, for their assistance in the field. 
He also wishes to express appreciation for consul- 
tations with Drs. A. Kidder, II, and Wendell C. 
Bennett. Sr. Gutiérrez is preparing a report on the 
ceramic and skeletal materials from Pataz, which 
will appear elsewhere. 


ee 


49 


20°, but this slope is not uniform. The valley 
of the Marafion was once a pleasant saucer- 
shaped valley with the river flowing on hard 
rock strata at about 2,500 meters. Once 
these strata were worn through, the river 
cut through the softer material leaving a 
cahion with extremely steep sides falling off 
more than 1,000 meters from the original 
valley floor. 

The difficulties in crossing the Marafion, 
even by mule, have retarded the economic 
development of Pataz, but in recent years 
two mining centers have grown up at Reta- 
mas and La Paccha. Until now the mines 
have been supplied by mule trains from 
across the Marafion and by air to a small 
landing strip at the southeast end of the 
Laguna de Pias. A highway from Huama- 
chuco to Chagual on the Marafion and from 
there to Tayadamba, passing through the 
mining centers has been under construction 
for some years and may be finished by 1951. 

In addition to the inaccessibility of the 
region from the central highlands, the eastern 
tributaries of the Marafion have cut the 
province transversely, at some points to the 
depth of the Maranon itself. In central Pataz 
there are two such barriers. One of these is 
the valley formed by the Parcoy River, the 
Laguna de Pias, and the Alpamarea River. 
The second is the river valley formed by the 
Rio de la Playa rising near Buldibuyo and 
the Rio de Cajas rising near Tayabamba. 
These join at Huaylillas to form the Rio de 
Nahuinbamba flowing into the Maranon at 
Puente Jocos. These two deep valleys ef- 
fectively separate the central massif and 
the high puna lying between Chilia, Pareoy, 
and Buldibuyo from the regions centering 
around Tayabamba to the south and the 
town of Pataz to the north. 


50 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, NO. 2 


The expedition in 1949 confined itself toa the Nahuinbamba on the south and the 
survey of the archeological remains in the Parcoy on the north. This forms a small 
central area, that is, to the area between natural geographical region centering around 


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Fic. 1.—Map showing archeological sites in central Pataz, Peru. 


Frsruary 1951 


the town of Chilia and its rich valley. Al- 
though this region is not large, there are 
enormous climatic variations. In the high 
puna within the triangle Chilia-Parcoy-Bul- 
dibuyo the cold high grasslands are used 
principally for sheep raising. Lower down 
transportation animals are grazed. Still lower 
in the valleys of Chilia, of the Parcoy, the 
de la Playa, the Parcoycito, and the Queros 
the normal Andean crops of maize, wheat, 
potatoes, and alfalfa are grown. In the canon 
of the Marafion there are no crops below 
the altitude of 2,500 meters because of ex- 
treme aridity. Only desert vegetation is 
found from that altitude to the bottom of 
the cafion. Along the banks of the river it- 
self small areas are irrigated and planted in 
coffee, oranges, mangoes, and bananas. Sur- 
plus agricultural products are mainly sold 
to the two mining centers at Retamas and 
La Paecha, but a small amount is also ex- 
ported across the Marafion. 


CHILIA 


The present village of Chilia, at 3,170 
meters in the center of the arable area, was 
not an ancient habitation site. It was formed, 
according to local legend, under the Viceroy 
Toledo in the late sixteenth century from 
the two older villages of Chilia and Charcoy 
located on opposite sides of the valley. The 
tradition of the two separate villages is still 
strong and has a part in many local rivalries. 
Nevertheless, the patasinos generally have 
forgotten Quechua and any precedent lan- 
guages and speak only Spanish. Casual ob- 
servation seems to indicate that the popu- 
lation is almost entirely mestizo. 

In spite of its relatively recent origin, 
Chilia has come to have more stone sculp- 
ture than any site found in Pataz. The 


motif, 


Fig. 2.—Stone relief slab with feline 


Chilia Village. 


CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU 51 


~ 


I) 


ec ae 


OVO 


Fic. 3.—Warrior figure 86 cm high from stone 
relief slab, Chilia village. 


ancient citadel of Nunamarea. is close to the 
village and has supplied almost all of the 
building stone used in its construction. The 
inhabitants have also gathered a number of 
stone slabs carved in relief. These are kept as 
decorative pieces for door sills or for decora- 
tion within the houses. Twenty-four pieces 
were examined, though there are surely many 
more in the vicinity.” These fell into moder- 
ately well-defined motif catagories. Of the 
24 examples, eight had designs depicting 
felines. These are carved in relief 5 to 10 
mm high on one side of stone slabs about 
20 em wide by 50 cm long and 10 em thick 
(Fig. 2). These figures showed no particular 
orientation of the head to the right or the 
left of the slab, but all faces were shown full- 
face and had a strong tendency toward an- 
thropomorphic features. All tails were curved 
upward. The number of toes shown on the 
feet varied from one to four, with several 
examples having two very birdlike toes. In 
addition to the eight slabs showing a single 
* The National Museum at Pueblo Libre has a 
collection of stone sculpture from Chilia and 
Nunamarea made by Dr. Julio Tello in the late 
thirties. Unfortunately, Dr. Tello did not pub- 
lish a report on this expedition before his death, 
and the National Museum does not indicate the 
exact provenance of these exhibits. In addition 
to the sculpture types found in 1949, this exhibit 
includes head-tenons from the Chilia area. 


Fie. 4.—Figure 35 em high from stone relief 
slab, Chilia Village. 


feline, two slabs showed two feline figures. 
One of these had two typical felines with 
their heads together at the center of the 
slab. The other was similar, except that the 
two felines shared a single head, having one 
body on either side. 

Next to the feline, the most common figure 
on relief slabs was a warrior figure, occurring 
on five slabs of the 24. Typically this is a 
full-length figure of a man holding a club 
in one hand and a trophy head in the other. 
The only clothing commonly shown is a 
3-element crown on the head, ear plugs, and 
an ornament resembling wings projecting 
on either side of the body from the hips. 
Genitals are often shown (Fig. 3). 

Third in frequency of occurrence is a full- 
face anthropomorphie figure with both arms 
and legs in the air, occurring in four of the 
24 examples. The arms are shown straight 
out from the shoulders and then upward 
at a right angle from the elbow (Fig. 4). 
The legs are bent outward from the hips 
and upward from the knees The only cloth- 
ing shown on this type of figure is a three- 
element crown worn by two of the four 
examples. 

The remaining stone sculpture is not 
clearly classifiable by groups. Three of the 
five remaining designs were geometric in 
character (Fig. 5) and showed no recog- 
nizable naturalistic motif. Of the remaining 
two, one showed a monkey in sitting posi- 
tion (Fig. 6). The other was a human head 


52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 2 


in the round, very roughly carved in the 
natural rock about 26 em high and 13 em in 
diameter. 
NUNAMARCA 

Closely associated with Chilia village there 
are two archaeological sites. The more im- 
portant of these is Nunamarca, the largest 
site discovered in Chilia Valley. It is located 
at the top of a rocky promontory jutting 
into the center of Chilia Valley at an alti- 
tude of about 3,500 meters, or 300 meters 
higher than Chilia itself (Fig. 7, b). These 
ruins can be reached from Chilia by following 
the mule trail toward Buldibuyo for about 
4 km and then turning off sharply to the 
right at the farm of Augusto Dominguez. 
This house roughly marks the northern limits 
of the site. To the south and west the site 
is bounded by the steep sides of the bluff. 

At present Nunamarca is in a very bad 
state of preservation. It has been cultivated 
for some generations as well as being used as 
a quarry for building stones over the last 
several hundred years. Few of the former 
walls can be traced, but large numbers of 
cut stones are now piled up or built into 
walls to clear them from the fields. The 
remains of walls and building stones, how- 
ever, still cover an area about 500 meters 
in length by 200 meters in width, an area 
considerably larger than the present village 
of Chilia. At the southern border of the site 
area, overlooking the bluff and cliffs, there 
is an extensive retaining wall about 150 
meters in length and 10 meters to 12 meters 
in height, the total height being broken by 
a terrace about 1 meter wide some 5 meters 
from the top of the wall. This wall is con- 


Fic. 5.—Latticelike design in low relief on 
slab 67 by 47 em, Chilia Village. 


Frpruary 1951 


structed of rows of faced stones 30 cm or 
more in height broken by alternate rows 
of stones no more than 5 cm in height. An 
adobe mortar was used and the rows are 
somewhat irregular. Toward the eastern end 
of this wall about 2.5 meters from the top 
there is the entrance to a gallery about 1 
meter square faced with stone and covered 
with a single stone lintel at the opening. 
According to local informants this was for- 
merly open for some distance under the site, 
but a second shaftlike entrance at the top 
of the ruin was filled a few years ago. The 
dirt from this fill now blocks the gallery a 
meter or so beyond the entrance. 

Although the sculptured stones in Chilia 
village origmally came from Nunamarca, 
only one piece of sculptured stone was found 
at the site itself. This was a slab about 60 em 
in diameter, having a design of six concentric 
semicircles cut into it to the depth of about 
1.5 em. The entire site area was rich in pot- 
sherds on the surface. 


CERRO DE LA CRUZ DEL ORCA 

The second site associated with Chilia 
village is Cerro de la Cruz del Orca, located 
about 1 kilometer to the west of Chilia 
on the ridge slightly below the village. It 
can be reached by trail on foot in a few 
minutes. At present the visible remains are 
undistinguished, being nothing but a single 
platform constructed on a small point. of 
land. This platform is 10 meters to 15 meters 
in diameter and is supported by a stone re- 
taming wall about 5 meters in height, now 
largely fallen down. A great deal of ceramic 
material was found on and around the plat- 
form and at places where the sides were 
badly eroded sherds were found in the earth 
and rubble fill of the platform at a depth of 
about 2 meters. The people who farm the 
site area informed the author that there is a 
cave nearby which is associated with the 
ancient inhabitants and is now inhabited 
by evil spirits. 

THE CANTA DISTRICT 

In the Canta district of Chilia three pre- 
historic habitation sites were examined. For 
lack of definite local names, these have been 
called Canta I, II, and III. All three are 
located within a few hundred meters of the 
easterly of two mule trails from Chilia to- 


CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU D3 


0.9/, 


ee, 


Fic. 6.—Monkey figure 18 em high from relief 
slab, Chilia village. 


ward Hacienda “‘Deliciana.” Canta I is about 
5 km from the village, while Canta II and 
Canta III are about 2 km farther along. 

From the distance Canta I appears to be 
a low hilltop covered with brush. Beneath 
the underbrush and extending down into 
the cultivated area below there are three 
large concentric terrace levels, varying in 
width from 15 to 40 meters and following 
the conformation of the hill. In the middle 
of the highest terrace level there are remains 
of a truncated pyramid rising in small steps 
and faced with stone. The site area, es- 
pecially the upper levels where walls have 
not been disturbed by cultivation, is covered 
with houses and the remains of walls in 
varying states of preservation. Two prin- 
cipal types of wall construction were ob- 
served. The most common, especially for 
retaining walls, was ordinary pirca using 
stones of medium and uniform size and faced 
on the outside. A more elaborate form makes 
use of alternating rows of thick and thin 
stones, similar to the type described in con- 
nection with Nunamarea. Because of the 
heavy cover of vegetation it is impossible 
to estimate accurately the number of house 
outlines, but the extent of the site area now 
covered with stone work indicates that it 
Was once occupied by a moderately large 
population. Clearmg and excavation would 
be necessary to show the ground plan ‘and 
the true extent of the site. 


54 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Canta II also consists of a series of con- 
centric circular terraces around a natural 
hilltop about 60 meters in height. It is much 
smaller than Canta I, the lowest terrace 
level being only about 300 meters in diameter. 
The retaining walls of the terraces are of 
ordinary uniform pirca faced on the outside 
only, but a large number of completely 
finished rectangular building stones were ob- 
served on the various levels, presumably the 
remains of structures that have since been 
torn down to provide stones for more recent 
building. The only remaining structures on 
the terrace levels were circular walls 3 to 4 
meters in diameter and about 1 meter in 
height. These are the outlines of the house 
type most commonly found in Central Pataz. 
Canta III is a slightly smaller version of 
Canta IT, occupying another hilltop on the 
same ridge. 


PUEBLO VIEJO SOBRE PARCOYCITO 

On the ridgetop dividing Chilia drainage 
from the Parcoycito and Queros valleys there 
is a suecession of habitation sites, fortresses, 
and pyramids. Seven of these sites were ex- 
amined in 1949. The highest and most east- 
erly is Pueblo Viejo, located at an altitude of 
about 3,800 meters on the ridge between 
the headwaters of the Rio Quishuar and the 
Rio Parcoycito. It can be reached from Chilia 
by taking either of the northern mule trails 
toward La Vina, since these trails rejoin in 
order to cross the pass into the valley of the 
Parcoycito. At this pass, about 15 km from 
Chilia by either trail, a rough path can be 
seen branching off to the eastward and fol- 
lowing the height of land up the ridge. This 
trail passes through the site of Pueblo Viejo 
after a climb of about 3 km from the pass. 

The site consists of a dwelling area on the 
high puna surrounded by defense works. 
As the ridge rises eastward from the pass the 
ascent is steep and unbroken until a small 
pot of land is reached. From this point 
eastward for about 1 km the ridge ceases to 
climb and swings in a wide semicircular bow 
to the south. Within the bow to the north 
of the ridge and about 20 meters below it at 
its lowest pomt there is a relatively flat 
sheltered area measuring perhaps 400 by 
200 meters and covered by the remains of 
the principal dwelling area. The point at the 


western limit of the site is terraced in the 
style of Canta II, and the ridge top is ter- 
raced and covered with house outlines of the 
round type met at Canta II as well as rect- 
angular houses about 2 meters in width by 
4 meters in length. 

In the dwelling area itself there are two 
principal types of structure. The most com- 
mon are circular enclosures about 20 to 30 
meters in diameter having outside walls 1 to 
2 meters in height (Fiz. 7, d). Within these 
enclosures there are stone walls outlining 
smaller circular buildings 3 to 4 meters in 
diameters. These are irregularly placed, oc- 
casionally having part of a wall im common 
or partly depending on the wall of the larger 
enclosure, but in general there is a small 
court or plaza in the center. In all there are 
10 to 14 enclosures of this type. The second 
type of structure in the dwelling area is a 
larger rectangular building with thick walls 
now 2 to 3 meters in height in some of the 
better preserved examples. The exact ground 
plan of these remains could not be discovered 
without removing the fallen rock and rubble 
that covers most of their location. It is also 
now impossible to tell whether this struc- 
ture represents a group of buildings or a 
single large one. 

To the north of the dwelling area and a 
little below it, there is a single wall running 
from east to west enclosing the area on the 
single side not enclosed by the ridge. This 
wall is about 800 meters in length and about 
2 meters high. Eastward along the ridge 
about 1 km from the dwelling area there are 
further defense walls. These cross the ridge 
transversely, protecting the site from attack 
directed down the ridge from the heights 
(Fig. 8, d). From west to east this system 
contains three elements—a wall 1.5 meters 
high, a wall 4 meters high followed by a 
ditch 3 meters deep, and a wall 2 meters 
high followed by a ditch 2 meters deep. 
Unlike the northern defense wall nearer the 
dwelling area, the southeast walls are em- 


bankments perhaps 2 meters wide made of 


the earth piled up in the construction of the 
defense ditches or moats associated with 
them. The embankments are faced with a 
vertical retaining wall on the west. side, 
away trom the village. These walls are rough 
pirca faced on the outside. Of the three walls, 


vou. 41, No. 2 


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waddn S9dU10D SUIMOUS ‘Sa]Olag SOT JO Jods, zeddn ‘Twa ysaaq ‘(M) 7fa7 vaddQ :z2e4Vq [wAyU. JO SMOIA PUB dINJooIYoIy—L “DIA 


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PATAZ, PERU 


Lo 


SITES 


ARCHEOLOGICAL 


NEW 


CURTIN 


Fespruary 1951 


56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


only the middle one extends for any distance 
down the sides of the ridge, in this case for 
about 1 km to the south. 

Within the site proper three types of con- 
struction were observed. Some of the houses 
on the ridgetop are made of uncut, unfaced 
pirca. The round groups within the dwelling 
area are similar except for facing and more 
careful workmanship. The rectangular build- 
ings within the dwelling area and the north- 
ern defense wall are constructed of large 
stones 30 cm or more in diameter inter- 
spersed with smaller flat stones. The large 
stones are not laid in regular courses, but 
placed evenly through the smaller construc- 
tion. In spite of the similarity of this stone 
work to the alternate courses of large and 
small stones found at other sites, only the 
uncoursed type was found at Pueblo Viejo. 


LOS PEROLES DE HUAMPO 

Passing from the site of Pueblo Viejo 
sobre Parcoycito to the westward along the 
ridgetop, the next site is Los Peroles de 
Huampo. Los Peroles occupies a position 
to the west of the pass between Chilia and 
the valley of the Parcoycito corresponding 
to that of Pueblo Viejo to the east. Leaving 
the mule trail between Chilia and La Vina 
and following the ridgetop to the west the 
site is found at about 3,400 meters after a 
brief continuous ascent. Beyond Los Peroles 
the ridge drops again and splits into two 
branches. One fork swings to the southward 
around Chilia Valley, while the other forms 
the south watershed of the Parcoycito rising 
to the heights of Huayan. Between the two 
forks the Queros River drains a small valley 
and empties into the Marafion. 

At Los Peroles the most important ele- 
ments are two structures on the open sum- 
mit of the ridge, a platform (structure I) 
and a pyramidal group of concentric terraces 
(structure II). In addition there are a num- 
ber of defense works, house frames, and ter- 
races. Approaching the site from the east 
along the ridge a defense ditch about 1 meter 
deep lies transversely across the ridge. From 
this point three sloping terraces partially 
covered with round house frames of the 
familiar type rise to structure I, the more 
easterly of the two. This is a square stone- 


vou. 41, No. 2 


faced platform about 7 meters high and 14 
meters square. The sides of the square are 
oriented so that they face directly toward 
the four points of the compass, but this 1s not 
necessarily intentional, since the north and 
south sides are parallel to the line of the 
ridgetop. On the top of the square platform 
there are six round house outlines of the 
usual type. In addition, toward the north- 
west corner of the structure there is a vertical 
shaft about 1 meter square, the sides of 
which are lined with faced stone work. At 
present this is about 2 meters deep, but the 
bottom is loose earth and rubble mdicating 
that it may have been deeper. 

Structure II lies about 130 meters to the 
west of structure I. The two are separated 
by a dip in the ridgetop about 30 meters 
lower than the top of either. At the bottom 
of this dip a second transverse ditch about 
2 meters deep crosses the ridge. Above the 
dip to the west structure II rises in a series 
of three wall-supported terraces. The three 
retaining walls are each about 7 meters high, 
giving the whole a uniformity with the 7- 
meter height of structure I. Since the low- 
est of the retaining walls rises from a ter- 
race cut into the natural slope of the hill, 
there are four terrace levels in all. The three 
lower levels are concentric and elliptical be- 
ing roughly accommodated to the shape of 
the ridge—the fourth and highest alone be- 
ing nearly round. The whole structure meas- 
ured at the lowest level is 95 meters in length 
by 25 meters in width. The terraces are not 
completely symmetrical. Since the eastern 
slope is less steep than the western, the ter- 
raced levels on that side average 16 meters 
in width, while the same levels to the west 
measure only 11 meters each. The three 
lower terraces are uniformly 3 meters in 
width toward the north and south, giving 
the structure its elliptical shape. The central 
round level is 13 meters in diameter. All the 
retaining walls are constructed of faced 
stone, roughly rectangular, coursed, and hav- 
ing alternate courses wider than the rest. 
About 50 cm below the top of the highest 
wall there is a cornice formed by one course 
of stones that projects about 10 em from 
the wall (Fig. 7, a). 

As with structure I, all the terrace levels 
show the remains of house circles varying 


FEBRUARY 1951 CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU a7 


Fic. 8.—Architecture and views of central Pataz: Upper left (a), North wall of principal strue- 
ture, Chareoy; wpper right (b), west side, upper story, Matibamba chulpa; lower left (ec), house rem- 
nants at Chareoy looking north, heights of Huayan in the distance; lower right (@), eastern faced 
earthworks and defense ditches at Pueblo Viejo. 


58 JOURNAL OF THE 


in number from four on the highest level to 
about 14 on the lower levels. No rectan- 
gular house outlines were observed. In the 
middle of one of the house circles on the 
third terrace level there is a vertical shaft 
similar to that observed on structure I. At 
first this was taken for a treasure-seekers’ 
hole, since it was not lined with stone. A 
closer examination, however, showed that it 
connects with the remains of a horizontal 
gallery entering the base of the retaining 
wall just above the second level. 

Associated with these two principal struc- 
tures there is a small village of round houses 
on the side of the ridge a few hundred meters 
to the southwest as well as a number of 
house circles on the ridge itself to the east 
and west of the site. In addition a large 
group of terraces and houses were observed 
farther to the west between Los Peroles 
and Charcoy, indicating that virtually the 
entire ridge top was once occupied. The 
center of this group is a terraced hilltop 
about 3 kilometers west of Los Peroles. There 
is no known local name for this site. 


CHARCOY 

Continuing along the crest of the ridge 
past this last site, the ridge drops steeply 
forming a pass. Through this pass there is a 
trail connecting Chilia village with the valley 
of Queros. Beyond the pass the ridge rises 
very steeply for about 3 km. There is no 
trail, but animals can travel fairly easily 
along the treeless summit, forcing riders to 
dismount only occasionally in especially 
steep or rocky slopes. Over this rise the 
ridge slowly bends to the south, until its 
direction is almost north and south. Charcoy 
occupies the highest point after the new 
ascent, being at about 3,700 meters, or al- 
most as high as Pueblo Viejo and a good 
deal higher than Los Peroles. The site is 
clearly visible from Chilia village, since the 
higher walls stand out against the skyline. 

The remains of Charcoy are very exten- 
sive, though many of the walls are now noth- 
ing but scattered pieces of cut stone (Fig. 
8, c). Along 500 meters of the ridgetop, which 
is 500 to 100 meters wide and relatively flat 
at this point, there are about 60 houses in 
good condition. Of these around 80 percent 
are of the round type. The remainder are 
rectangular of the type found on the ridge 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 2 


at Pueblo Viejo. Some of the house circles 
are arranged within enclosures on a plan 
similar to that at Pueblo Viejo. 

At the center of the ruined area the cor- 
ner of one structure shows the most careful 
stone work observed in Pataz. The only 
remains of a larger building, however, are 
a corner and two side walls extending about 
7 meters in one direction and 12 meters in 
the other. The longer of these two sides is 
oriented in a general north-south direction, 
but again this is the direction of the ridge. 
Inside this building there are the remains 
of two rooms, each about 1.3 meters square. 
These are side by side along the east wall 
with doorways opening toward the inside 
of the building toward the west. In this 
area the stone and rubble of fallen walls 
make it impossible to trace the ground plan 
without excavation. At one time the stand- 
ing portion must have been part of a much 
larger building. Even at present the wall is 
higher than 5 meters at its highest point. 
The construction of inside and outside walls 
is identical. The walls are between 68.5 and 
76 em thick constructed of a red clay and 
rubble fill faced on both sides with cut rock 
in alternate courses of large and small stones 
(Fig. 8, a). 

A cursory survey of the site revealed only 
three examples of decorated stone, but 
among many thousands of cut stones in the 
area there are probably a number of others. 
Two of these stones were slabs about 10 
em thick and 70 cm square bearing an in- 
cised rectilinear geometric design. They 
could have been either an individual decora- 
tion or a portion of a larger motif running 
along a number of facing slabs. The third 
decorated stone bore a single incised ser- 
pentine line having nine reverses of direc- 
tion. This might represent a snake or be a 
merely decorative line. 


CORRALES DE PIEDRAS 


Six kilometers farther south along the 
same ridge from Charcoy is the site of Cor- 
rales de Piedras. This can be reached either 
by the ridgetop route, or by going directly 
from Chilia to Hacienda ‘“‘Hallaca,” where 
a guide can be secured to point out a more 
direct route up the ridge. The latter route 
is more difficult, but shorter. 


Fespruary 1951 


Corrales de Piedras has a general appear- 
ance and location similar to Charcoy. It is 
also situated on the top of the ridge, and its 
principal features are a number of terraced 
hilltops and dwelling areas scattered along 
the ridge for about 1,500 meters. The area 
is larger than that of Charcoy, but settle- 
ment does not seem to have been as dense. 
Corrales de Piedras’ altitude of 3,300 meters 
is also sufficiently lower than Charcoy to be 
out of the completely treeless area. Parts of 
the site are covered by thick underbrush, 
although this sort of vegetation does not 
normally grow so high. The site is clearly 
visible from Chilia village and is especially 
marked by the brush, the only vegetation 
other than grasses that appears on the sky- 
line to the northeast. 

Approaching Corrales de Piedras from the 
north, the first evidence of former habita- 
tion is a very elaborate system of defense 
walls and ditches constructed in the same 
manner as those to the east of Pueblo Viejo. 
The principal difference at Corrales de 
Piedras is the remains of a portal through 
one of the walls. Here there is an opening 
about 1 meter wide with an upright stone 
jamb about 50 cm in diameter and | meter 
high on either side. Immediately beyond the 
wall system is the first of two points of land 
terraces in the usual manner. Between these 
the brush covers a slight saddle in the ridge, 
obscuring the layout of a large number of 
partially ruined structures of faced prrca. 
Beyond the saddle the ridge rises again 
through a series of four well-preserved ter- 
races to the second high point. The levelled 
top of this point, as well as the terraces and 
the hillsides to the east and west of the 
ridge show the remains of a number of round 
houses similar to those at Charcoy and Los 
Peroles. Beyond the second point the ridge 
slopes down rather steeply through a series 
of nine terraces to a very small platform 
about 5 meters in diameter. These terraces 
also have the remains of house circles. From 
the last platform the ridge slopes downward 
so abruptly that it is only passable by ani- 
mals with the greatest difficulty. After about 
2 km this slope breaks into an impassable 
series of cliffs, marking the end of the ridge 
to the south. 


CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU 59 


HALLACA 


A small point of land just above the cliffs 
to the south of Corrales de Piedras is the 
site of a number of concentric stone faced 
terraces at about 3,000 meters altitude. This 
small point is so isolated on the steep hill- 
side that the use of its terraces for purely 
agricultural purposes seems unlikely. It may 
have served as an outpost for Corrales de 
Piedras or as a small fortress to control 
traffic over one of the trails passing from 
the valley of Chilia to the Marafion. This 
trail now passes through a small natural 
gateway between the site and the main slope 
of the ridge. The site is clearly visible from 
the Hacienda “‘Hallaca’”’ buildings which lie 
about 2 km to the northwest directly below 
Corrales de Piedras. Hallaca is reached from 
Chilia in two hours by mule by turning 
off the westerly trail to La Vifia about 6 
km from Chilia. 


LOS REPRESOS 


Los Represos is much lower in altitude 
than the ridgetop sites discussed above, but 
its general characteristics are the same. It is 
located at about 2,000 meters on a short 
ridge extending into the Marafion Valley 
between the Rio de Ruyabamba on the 
south and the Maranon itself on the north 
and west. Los Represos is reached from 
Chilia in about four hours by mule over a 
good trail that follows the northern side of 
the Ruyabamba Cafion to the orchards of 
Matibamba at the bank of the Maranon. 
At the point where this trail crosses a ridge 
from the drainage of the Ruyabamba to that 
of the Maranon the site is seen on the trail 
itself and toward the west down the ridge. 

The local name, Los Represos, comes from 
the site’s distinctive feature. There are two 
depressions or plazas in the top of the ridge 
about 16 meters in diameter and lined with 
stone to the depth of about 1 meter. These 
are thought to be water reservoirs connected 
with an irrigation system for the Maranon 
Valley, especially for the site of Matibamba, 
which lies directly over the ridge to the 
north. They seem rather small to store any 
considerable quantity of water, and no other 
irrigation works were noticed in the area. 
At present there are no sources of water 
within 5 or 6 km of the site. 


60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


In addition to the two “represos”’, there 
are three other structures on the ridge. Two 
of these are single level square stone faced 
platforms about 3 meters in height. The 
third is a large rectangular platform a little 
more than 3 meters high with a square plat- 
form of the same height on the top, giving 
a pyramidal effect. All retaming and lining 
walls are of average uniform pzirca. The 
double platform contains a large treasure- 
seekers’ hole in the middle of the highest 
level. On the second level there was a small 
round low platform about 3 meters in diame- 
ter with a square shaft about 15 meters in 
width in the center. 


MATIBAMBA 


Following the trail over the ridge and 
down into the Maranon to the north of Los 
Represos there are a series of hairpin turns 
leading to the canon floor. Here, along the 
edge of the river at 1,320 meters, is the 
small settlement of Matibamba and an ir- 
rigated area in which tropical fruits are 
raised. Above the irrigated area for about 
500 meters and extending along the valley 
for the same distance are the ruins of Mati- 
bamba. Throughout the site area there are 
the remains of low walls and terraces cover- 
ing the arid hillside. Beeause of lack of water 
en route from Chilia, the presence of veruga, 
very high temperatures, and other special 
problems imposed by the location of. the 
site, we were unable to make the full survey 
that the area deserves. 

The most interesting structures at Mati- 
bamba are the remains of five chulpas in the 
western part of the site area about 250 meters 
from the Maranon. One of these is almost 
perfectly preserved, although any burials it 
may once have contained are now gone. The 
well-preserved chulpa is a small two-story 
building—a square room or tower set on top 
of a round base. The base is constructed in 
the form of a semi-circle on the very steep 
hillside, the top being flush with the hill 
while the lower northern side is about 3 
meters high. The diameter from east to west 
is approximately 6.2 meters, while the radius 
from north to south is 4.3 meters. The con- 
struction of the lower walls is a rubble and 
earth fill with stone facing. The facmg 
stones are of varying size and are not 


vou. 41, No. 2 


coursed. This wall varies in thickness from a 
little more than 1 meter to more than 2 
meters. Within the round lower structure 
there are two chambers entered from a small 
opening at the west corner. The northern 
and larger of these is in the shape of a half- 
moon about 3.4 meters in length and 1.7 
meters in width having a maximum height 
of 1.25 meters. An opening into the smaller 
southern chamber is found at the northeast 
side of the larger, opposite the opening to 
the outside. The inner chamber is rectangu- 
lar, about 3.2 meters in length by 96 em in 
width with a maximum height of about 75 
cm. At the eastern end of this chamber there 
is a window roughly 60 em square. Both of 
the lower chambers have corbelled roofing 
which provides the floor for the structure 
above, additional support for this roof being 
supplied by the wall separating them. 

The upper story of the chulpa is a boxlike 
building 2.84 meters square (Fig. 8, b), hav- 
ing a single window on the eastern side 58 
em square about 60 em above the ground. 
The walls of this building are roughly 37 cm 
thick, being constructed in a pattern of three 
courses which repeats itself three times in 
the 2-meter height of the walls. This begins 
at the bottom with a course of very large 
faced stones in the neighborhood of 30 em in 
height placed side by side but filled with 
smaller. stones where necessary because of 
their irregular shape. Above this course 1s an 
area of flat stones, also faced, typical of the 
small stone layers of the alternating large 
and small courses found at Charecoy. This 
layer fills in and around the large lower 
layer making a relatively level surface on 
which there is a course of large flat stones 
measuring about 12 em by 40 em. The pat- 
tern is then repeated with a new layer of the 
very large irregular stones. The placement 
of the window and the height of the pattern 
are so arranged that the bottom of the 
window and the lintel over it are supplied 
by consecutive courses of the long flat va- 
riety. On the whole the pattern is followed 
consistently on all four sides, but there are 
occasional irregularities. The roof of the 
upper level is also corbelled, bemg 70 cm 
thick and constructed of large flat stones 
very irregularly placed without mortar. 


FEBRUARY 1951 CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU 61 


Farther to the west there are three ad- 
ditional chulpas in a very bad state of dis- 
repair. These are placed in a row on the hill- 
side, one below the other. A fifth chulpa lies 
some distance up the hill to the south of the 
well-preserved example, and a closer exami- 
nation of the ruins will probably reveal 
more. 

Although the well-preserved chulpa is on 
the unterraced hillside, 8 meters up hill there 
is an artificially leveled area about 10 by 3 
meters protected by a stone retaining wall 
on the upper side. On this level there are the 
remains of a rectangular structure. The only 
remaining wall in good condition is in the 
shape of an “‘L”’ about 2.7 meters high at the 
corner and 2 meters long toward either arm. 
This wall has a projecting corbel about 40 
em from the top. 

At the eastern end of the Matibamba 
ruins there is another wall in excellent pres- 
ervation. This appears to be the remains of 
a rectangular building about 6 meters high 
standing on an artificial terrace. This 
““glesia,”’ or temple, as it is called locally, 
appears to have once had two stories and in 
many respects to be similar to the large 
central structures at Charcoy and Pueblo 
Viejo. 


SITES SOUTH OF CHILIA VALLEY 


Matibamba is the last of the seven sites 
examined along the north rim of Chilia 
Valley. According to local reports and exami- 
nation from the distance there are fewer 
sites along the corresponding ridge to the 
south. The most prominent of these is Ush- 
cun (see map, Fig. 1), lying on the southern 
ridge overlooking the Ruyabamba opposite 
Corrales de Piedras on the north. Some stone 
sculpture and burials are reported there. 

Still farther to the south, the extensive 
ruins of Colpan are found at the height of a 
pass between the valleys of the Aullobamba 
and the Nahuinbamba. These ruins consist 
of buildings and terraces similar to those 
examined in detail. Another similar group of 
ruins is Huancuy, found about 15 km south 
of La Paccha on a high point ringed with 
concentric terraces. This ruin is located just 
above Cachipicza on the valley floor and 
seems designed to protect the pass where the 


present trail crosses the shoulder of the 
mountain into the valley of the Nahuin- 
bamba. This site was visited by Raimondi in 
1860.° 


PIRURO 
To the north of the valley of Chilia, the 
site of Piruro presents a classic example of 
the hilltop structures found in Pataz (Fig. 
7, c). It les about 500 meters to the north- 


.west of the mule trail from La Vina to 


Alpamarea at the height of a small pass 
about 3,200 meters in elevation immediately 
before the final descent into the Parcoy 
valley. The situation is very striking for its 
location, giving a clear view up the valleys 
of the Ariabamba and Yurayaca as well as a 
large part of the valley of the Parcoy. Ap- 
proaching by way of La Vina, Piruro is 
visible from the trail for several hours before 
actually arriving at the site. 

The structure itself consists of a large oval 
platform about 90 meters long by 50 meters 
wide. The sides of the platform now slope 
down to the hilltop about 8 meters below, 
but they may once have been faced with 
stone. On top of the platform there is a 
truncated pyramid about 8 meters high, 
being roughly 12 meters in diameter at the 
top. There are some sections of former re- 
taining walls, but i most places these have 
been removed for modern buildings or walls. 
On the west side of the pyramid, where the 
walls are best preserved, there are indications 
that the sides once rose in four steps about 
3 meters wide. All the remaining walls are of 
normal pirca construction with no pattern 
of large and small stones. Although a large 
number of well-cut rectangular stones were 
found near the site, none of these were in 
place. On the eastern side a treasure-seekers’ 
excavation has completely removed a large 
part of each level. 


PARCOY VALLEY 


In addition to Piruro there are other sites 
in the vicinity of the Parcoy valley, though 
they were not examined in detail by the ex- 
pedition in 1949. Rumatambo, overlooking 
the Parcoy near the Hacienda “El Tra- 


3 Rarmonpr, ANronro. Hl Peru 5: 125. Lima, 


1874-1913. 


62 
piche,” is one of these. The portion visible 
from the valley below is a retaming wall 
system circling a hilltop at about 3,100 
meters in elevation. Santisteban is reported 
on the ridge between the rivers Yurayaca 
and Ariabamba but was not examined. 

Along the south bank of the Lagarpampa 
or Sauce River, which empties into the 
Marafion 1 km north of La Vina, there is a 
series of parallel agricultural terraces, for- 
merly watered by an irrigation canal bring- | 
ing water from the upper Lagarpampa. In- 
all, about 40 levels can be distinguished 
along the slopes above the Maranon. These 
are not only the most extensive system of 
terracing observed in the Pataz area but also 
the only system of parallel terraces, the 
others being only the concentric type. They 
are, perhaps, noteworthy as the only possible 
remains of Inca occupation, the other fea- 
tures of architecture, ceramics, and sculpture 
being clearly non-Inca in character. 


HUILCAYACO CAVES 


In addition to the ceremonial and habita- 
tion sites visited, investigations were made 
at two burial sites, both caves. The largest 
of these was visited by Raimondi (loc. cit.) at 
the same time he visited Huancuy. Continu- 
ing beyond Huancuy on the trail toward 
Nahuinbamba the cave is located between 
the mule trail and the Rio de Nahuinbamba 
about 2 km past the site of Huancuy. It lies 
on the side of a very steep bluff about 3 km 
in a direct line from Huaylillas at an eleva- 
tion of about 2,800 meters. Although the 
cave 1s difficult to find without local assist- 
ance, a guide can be secured in any nearby 
village by asking for the cueva de los gentiles. 
At the mouth the cave is only 1 meter wide 
by 50 cm high, the entrance slopmg down- 
ward at an angle of about 20 degrees. Once 
inside it is somewhat bigger and finally at 
the depth of about 15 meters there is a room 
large enough for standing upright. Various 
side passages open in several directions from 
the central tunnel. In all parts of the cave, 
but especially in the first large room, there 
are numerous human skeletons. The cave 
shows signs of having been frequently 
entered in the past, but some of the skeletons 
were still partly articulated. No artifacts 
were found. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 2 


SHAHUINDO 


The second burial caves examined are 
located on Hacienda “El Trapiche” not far 
from the site of Piruro. The caves are in the 
steep cliffs of Shahuindo about 1 km north- 
west of the hacienda buildings and 100 
meters higher in elevation. They can be 
reached from the hacienda without the aid 
of ropes. Three caves open from a narrow 
off-set in the cliffs, bearing 308° magnetic 
from Trapiche Viejo. From south to north 
they have been numbered I, IJ, and III. 
Cave I has an entrance | meter in width by 
20 cm in height. The floor is covered with un- 
articulated human bones mixed with earth. 
The whole has the appearance of having once 
been excavated and later replaced. At pres- 
ent the cave can be entered about 3 meters. 
No artifacts were found, but a thorough ex- 
cavation of the floor might uncover much 
more than our brief examination revealed. 
Caves IT and III are similar in size and con- 
dition. They are located 10 and 12 meters 
respectively to the north of cave I. 

Other burial caves were reported in the 
Pataz area but were not visited. The burial 
caves at Ushcun are mentioned above. Caves 
were also reported near the headwaters of 
the Quishuar about 10 km to the north- 
northeast of Chilia village. Other caves are 
supposed to exist in the southeast slope of 
Nunamarea bluff, but could not be found in 
1949. 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 


Within the area under consideration the 
following types of structure occur: 


(a) Series of concentric terraces ringing a hill- 
top. 

(b) Artificial platforms with sloping sides and 
with vertical stone faced sides. 

(c) Artificial platforms superimposed in the 
form of a stepped truneated pyramid three or 
four layers in height. 

(d) Earth embankments faced with stone ac- 
companied by moats. 

(e) Rectangular houses. 

(f) Round houses about 1 m. high and 3 to 4 
m. in diameter. 3 

(g) Large rectangular buildings up to 5 m. in 
height. 

(h) Depressed plazas or reservoirs. 

(7) Galleries. 

(7) Stone lined shafts. 


FEBRUARY 1951 CURTIN: NEW ARCHEOLOGICAL SITES IN PATAZ, PERU 63 
(k) Large circular enclosures surrounding jn Pataz, but this type, though uncommon, 


groups of circular houses. 
(l) Chulpas. 


Five general types of masonry were ob- 
served in the Pataz region: 


(@) Unfaced rough pirca. 

(6) Faced pirca built with average uniform 
stones. 

(c) Faced pirca built with large and small 
stones in alternate courses. 

(d) Faced pirca of large stones placed at ran- 
dom throughout a wall of smaller stones. 

(e) Faced pirca having a three-course repeti- 
tive pattern. 


These masonry types are used either in 
walls completely of stone or as facing for 
clay and rubble walls or in retaining walls. 
Two additional features of the local stone- 
work are the use of decorative corbels near 
the top of walls and of the corbeled roof. 

Although a reconnaissance survey of this 
sort can not be comprehensive, even for an 
area as small as central Pataz, it allows 
limited conclusions about the type of archi- 
tecture and the extent of archaeological re- 
mains to be found in the trans-Maranon 
region of Peru. But these conclusions must 
be very tentative, since the areas immedi- 
ately surrounding Pataz on all sides have not 
been explored by archaeologists, even at the 
survey level. Particularly the southern part 
of Pataz, the provinces of Maranon and 
Pomabamba, and the general area between 
central Pataz and Chavin de Huantar merit 
a careful examination. Large ruins are re- 
ported at Tarrija and Uchos in southern 
Pataz and at Llayno near the town of Poma- 
bamba. Even surveys in these areas would 
help to clear up many problems connected 
with the appearance in Pataz of traits associ- 
ated with the cultures of the Callejon de 
Huaylas. 

Among these traits, only to mention the 
most obvious, are stone-lined galleries, 
houses that were probably two-storied, and 
emphasis on the feline motif in stone sculp- 
ture.’ The preponderance of round house out- 
les about 1 meter high and 3 meters in 
diameter as the ancient dwelling-house type 
in Pataz calls for special mention. The author 
observed nothing of this sort in current use 


4 BENNETT, WENDELL C. The North Highlands 
of Peru. New York, 1944. 


is still used in parts of the Callejon de 
Huaylas. In these present-day buildings, the 
base is a rough stone wall approximately the 
same height and diameter as those in Pataz, 
while the roof is a conical thatching sup- 
ported by a vertical pole in the center, 4 to 5 
meters high. 

On the other hand, the Matibamba chul- 
pas present a problem that must be left till 
further exploratory work is done. This type 
of square boxlike structure on a round base 
is striking, yet no examples have been re- 
ported in the surrounding regions, that is to 
say, at Chavin, in the Callejon, at Marca 
Huamachuco, or in the region of Cajamarca. 

On a more general plane, the whole area 
of Pataz seems to have been formerly more 
heavily populated than it is today, even if it 
is assumed that all sites in the valley of 
Chila were not occupied at the same time. 
Of the sites visited only Matibamba and 
Lagarpampa are not equipped with defense 
works or located in easily defensible posi- 
tions. Several of the sites, notably Charcoy 
and Pueblo Viejo and Huayan, are located 
at almost 4,000 meters elevation, far above 
the arable area and far above any visible 
source of water. This raises the question of 
the prehistoric political situation. Against 
whom were these defenses built? A tentative 
answer is suggested by Garcilaso’s state- 
ment that the pre-Incaic boundary between 
Huacrachuco and Chachapoyas was found 
just to the south of Pias.° If this is true, the 
long valley of the Parecoy and Alpamarea 
Rivers forms a natural frontier. The heights 
to the south and west of the Parcoy, then, 
would be the natural defense line of 
Huacrachuco. It is possible that the chain of 
fortifications to the north of Chilia valley 
housed only garrisons. This would explain 
both the relative density of population on 
this ridge and the inaccessibility of the sites. 
Following this hypothesis only the sites on 
or near the valley floor like the Canta sites 
and Nunamarea would be economically sup- 
ported by the production of Chilia valley. 
The garrison sites could have been sup- 
ported by a much larger area. 

5 pp LA VEGA, Garcruaso (El Inca). Comen- 


tartos reales: pt. 1, bk. 8, chap. 1. Buenos Aires, 
LO45. 


64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 2 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Check list of salinity tolerance of post-Paleozoic fossil Ostra- 
coda.! I. G. Sonn, U.S. Geological Survey. (Communicated by J.S. Williams.) 


Among microfossils Ostracoda are con- 
sidered second only to Foraminifera as hori- 
zon markers. Their utilitarian value is en- 
hanced by the fact that they occur in both 
fresh and salt water, whereas the Forami- 
nifera are confined to salty waters. Although 
certain genera of ostracodes show remarkable 
tolerances to variation in salinity, none of the 
species belonging to those genera has to date 
been recorded as tolerant to both strictly 
fresh and strictly marine environments. 
Some species can live in water that grades 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey. 


from fresh to brackish; others tolerate brack- 
ish to marine water. Many genera and species 
are reported to be confined to each one of the 
several types of salinity environments. 

The following table records the inferred 
salinity tolerance of 80 forms included in 
36 genera. The species are those for which 
salinity habitat is specifically mentioned in 
the literature. The table is compiled as an 
aid to interpreting the depositional environ- 
ment of sediments containing post-Paleozoic 
Ostracoda. It is the result of an objective 
survey of the literature and consequently 
may include some erroneous inferences, 
which future investigations will rectify. 


LIST OF POST-PALEOZOIC FOSSIL OSTRACODES FOR WHICH A DEFINITE SALINITY HABITAT 
HAS BEEN INFERRED 


Type of Water 
Ostracode Remarks Reference 
| Fresh Brackish | Marine | 
A\TOMOCHLOCTOs ctdecosccdcecesgwe oo | x 21 
AVS HORUAONO Ahr Se RRS | x | 21 
JXOORCWG WUCVORMUUS: 65% 66 656+ 556555% x | Shallow warm water. 20 - 
IZHMOCHOUS a's dosdesboedaooesaobot x | 17, 24 
1B, SOMMUGHO > coreccddevcgocgoou0s 6 x Shallow water. 6 
Bythocythere stmplex.............. x 19 
COO CUNO). 5 o%000cbbcos8Sb6> x x 22 
Ci, WOROMCNSIScs  sheabenssabouses xX 22 
One ONDESTU Naame ee te REE oe x x 11 
CUT CUL OR Pn aR aE | x 4 
Capridea eS ireee e e xK x | Thin shells fresh, thick shells) 4, 10, 15 
| brackish (10). 
CECUN net ce eee x x | Shghtly saline (1). a2?) 
Cs. GROOWOSO 9. secc0coscobeadsadoc x 1 
C. ganulosa var. fasciculata.......| x More saline than next below.) 1 
C. granulosa var. paucigranulata. . x Less saline than above. 1 
OF (NOM ic s dees ool Aga oaten x 22 
Cpu ClOhd ei eee aa eee ree>< x | Slightly saline (1); fresh 1, 22 
; } | water (22)> 
Cu prudevseernine cee ee | >< 15 
Cypridopsis compressa............ lee | 8 
Cuprionenbiustoviia eee |< 1 
Cionsepunbeckenstse ener ex 22 
Co DUGG so oeaddasbocadasdsooh 5 hoes | 22 
(SL MIRG saccurs oeamitets ao Oein Ae wre ae eae | x x | Marine-brackish (3, 7); By Oy UA, 
| marine (12, 23). 23 
CM CON UGS AE eee x | Shallow sea. 18 
CRIicrUs pAtane Aerie ene 2 x < 7 
(OE GMPOY ONAL. Sra maaes Cas cae O ETS OE xX | Shallow water. 6 
Go OUC HUGS re eprhereals aac hole meee < 19 
(Ol, POMUPUG Ohno be Y aN bee SHS 5 bes SK | Sk 29 
OCRULANISUCNS ee er ee x | 22 
Ci, WUDOROCOUGHG ss bonsteb sogacessods | 19 
GR niscenalisten tere srry Ce ee Sey: | a 22 
CONOR GIS He Gene nye fae nena ott Sk x << | | 16 
C. convexa var. sarmatica......... x | | 138, 24 
CO, OPMGWISSOME 0000600 ec00ceb0er08 | | | > | Shallow sea. | 18 
C', GOPDAUWM MGs wcocsccob nace. oral | ex | 22 
Ciythereula esaa rue Caer re teenie | | XX | Typical marine. 17 
(O15 TRUCHWSUCTO 5) oS ecobe oa eda esate < | | x | Shallow sea. 18 
| | \ 


Fepruary 1951 SOHN: SALINITY TOLERANCE OF OSTRACODA 65 


LIST OF POST-PALEOZOIC FOSSIL OSTRACODES FOR WHICH A DEFINITE SALINITY HABITAT 
HAS BEEN INFERRED—Continued 


Type of Water 
Ostracode Remarks Reference 
Fresh Brackish Marine 
Cytherelloidea williamsoniana..... x< Shallow sea. 6 
COMCOPUCEDS SoC aOR EERE cee x x Shallow marine, estuarine. Be, Wy We, 
1 z 
C'-. QUID DTROUC AS oerais Hels Oe cio ae x 22 
CO. CUBGFEDss0 25 pa ee x< x< 29 
Co. HUE eee x< 14 
C' LUACORED Les SES | x 24 
GPR GUGOMGGLG «4-0 Pa a Se. | x | Shallow water. 6 
Ce URUINGPE 55 Ce ee x x phalley sea, temperate zone | 11, 20 
20) 
C's enlits (CO), OOH aaa ere ne eae x Fresh-water influence. 9 
C. (PONG. soe ee eee ee x 29 
C's. IOPOSG. 5 Re ee a ee ee < 5 
C. (ORISO Ware, (MUOMANPSS 75a s len ee x 13 
C'. WON CCSOMICHIOS 2S Hahn oe olen oe x x 14 
CCH LCPUCTARS ES = i ete ant nae en x | Typical marine. 17 
(Ci. WiMiCDTQUS coed a oS a Ces x x Fresh or slightly brackish. 11 
Cl, UACSUUCT. 1nd eee ee ote ate x Fresh or slightly brackish. 11 
COMMCTODICROR. o 5% besa ee ere | x x Marine-brackish (3); typical | 3, 17 
marine (17). 
C's SDocere’s A Gentes eae eee x < | Marine or estuarine. 22 
C. elongata-concentricum.......... x Shallow water. 6 
Cl. BURGCMCULD ¢. oS ene oad Hei ae x Shallow sea, temperate zone. | 20 
CWEUOCPUPG» cic 2.ava cle eR aes meee x x 16 
Darwinula leguminella............ x 1 
1D), USGSSCOD c % ace Shea Ee x x Hither fresh or brackish. 12 
Bii COVA Oas cp cme eee o ore ae be eee x iG 
Herpetocypris aequalis............ x 7 
INT OURG 0-2 act, 55 cubes ER ee x x Shallow marine or estuarine. | 7, 24 
Inmnicythere zindorfi............. x x 14 
ococonchapelluptca... 5.42. 4.5. x 5 
Macrocypris horatiana............ x 22 
MT =. SCG DIGE 3.6 siete Sed ee ee x Shallow water. 6 
Waciodentumapecce) seyae os atcra in x x 10 
INICSUG COMPARE POU hc ooe ne Gc eee, x Typical marine. 17 
Onthonoiacyinene. x 15 
IPO CCUFOUPIS ssa es SoA ee x Typical marine. 17 
WACO GUUREGRON Meer ieleas cs Ne Bia x Typical marine. 7 
Pseudocythere. . ee a Tae x Typical marine. 17 
Rhinocypris scabra var. hamata...| X 22 
Scabriculocypris acanthoides...... x 22 
ISMECCTASTE SHI Nal iay sure ma tt x ) 2 
So URGUTLOUUDS . cE dease>debeagses Js x 22 
SOMGOGIWWS s2 5 .000505e000000b 50 x Shallow lagoon, approaching | 24 
littoral. 
Thaumatocypris bettenstaedti...... x Up to 200 meters deep. lees 
WT 5 WEG x8. ae sie ia Rae eee x Shallow water. | 2 


LITERATURE CITED 
(1) Anprerson, F. W. Phasal deposition in the (4) Bosqurt, J. A. H. Description des entomos- 


middle Purbeck beds of Dorset. Ann. Rep. tracés fossiles des terrains tertiaires de la 

Brit. Assoc. Adv. Sei. 99 (for 1931): 3878-380. France et de la Belgique. Mém. Cour. et 

1932. Sav. Etrang. Acad. Roy. Belg. 24 (pt. 3) 
(2) Bartenstern, Heitmutru. Thaumatocypris 142 pp. 1852. 

bettenstaedti n. sp. aus dem nordwestdeut- (5) Brapy, G.S.; Crosskny, H. W.; and Roserr- 

schen Lias zeta. Senckenbergiana 30: 95-98. SON, Davin. A monograph of the post-Ter 

1949. tiary Entomostraca of Scotland (including 
(3) Bont, AtBerr. Beitrag zur Stratigraphie species from England and Treland). Paleon- 

und Paleontologie der Tertiaren ablagerungen togr. Soe. London: 232 pp., 15 pls. IS74. 

in Ostlichen Mainzer Becken. Abh.Seneckenb. (6) CaarpmMan, Frepertck. Foraminifera and 


naturf. Ges. 41: 65-113. 1928. Ostracoda from the Cretaceous of East Pon- 


66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


doland, S. Africa. Ann. South African Mus. 

4: 221-237. 1904. 

Report on samples of surface Ter- 
tiary rocks and a bore sample containing 
Ostracoda from Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. 
Queensland 46 (6): 66-71. 1935. 

(8) CorNvuEL, J. Description des nouveaux fos- 
siles microscopiques du terrain inférieur du 
département de la Haute-Marne. Mém. Soc. 
Géol. France, sér. 2, 3 (pt. 1): 241-246. 1848. 

“(9) Grint, R. von. Mikropaldontologie wnd 
Stratigraphie in dem Tertiaren Becken und 
der Flyschzone von Osterreich. Proc. 18th 
Int. Geol. Congr. Pal. Union for 1948, pt. 15: 
51-60. 1950. 

(10) HitrERMANN, HEINRICH. 
nattirlichen Brackwasser. Erdél und Kohle, 
Jahrg 2 (1): 4-8, 8 figs. 1949. 

(11) Jones, T. R. Notes on the Entomostraca. 
In E. Forbes’ ‘On the Tertiary Fluvio-ma- 
rine Formation of the Isle of Wight.’? Mem. 
Great Britain Geol. Suryv.: 157-158. 1856. 

On the Rhaetic and some Liassic 
Ostracoda of Britain. Quart. Journ. Geol. 
Soe. London 50: 156-169. 1894. 

(13) KapraRENKO-CHERNOUSOVA, O. K. Upper 
Tertiary microfauna of the Nicopol manganese 
ore district (Ukraine). Journ. Geol. (Acad. 
Sci. Ukr. SSR. Inst. Geol.) 6 (1-2) : 199-223. 
1939. [In Russian; English summary, pp. 
221-223.] 

(14) Lirenenkiaus, E. Die Ostracoden des Main- 
zer Tertiarbeckens. Ber. Senckenb. naturf. 
Ges. 2: 3-70. 1905. 


Klassifikation der 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


(15) Martin, G. P. Ostracoden des norddeutschen 
Purbeck und Wealden. Senckenbergiana 22 
(5-6) : 275-361. 1940. 

(16) Méues, Gyuua. Die eozdinen Ostracoden der 
Umgebung von Budapest. Geologica Hunga- 
rica, ser. pal., 12: 3-56. 1936. 

Die ostracoden der Oberoligozéns der 
Umgebung von Budapest. Geologica Hunga- 
rica, ser. pal., 16: 95 pp. 1941. 

(18) Moreman, W. L. Fossil zones of the Eagle 
Ford of north Texas. Journ. Pal. 1: 89-101. 
1927. 

(19) Munroe, H. Studier of ner Gotlands sen- 
quartare historia. Sver. Geol. Unders., ser. 
Ca, no. 4: 213 pp. 1910. [English summary, 
pp. 181-206.] 

(20) StapNicHENKO, M. M. The Foraminifera 
and Ostracoda of the Marine Yegua of the 
type sections. Journ. Pal. 1: 221-248. 1927. 

(21) StzpHEenson, M. B. Miocene and Pliocene 
Ostracoda of the genus Cytheridea from Flo- 
rida. Journ. Pal. 12: 127-148. 1938. 

(22) SytvesteR-BRapLey, P. C. The Purbeck 
beds of Swindon. Proc. Geologists’ Assoc. 
London 51 (pt. 4): 349-872. 1940. 

(23) Terqurm, Oury. Les foraminiferes et les 
ostracodes du Fuller’s earth des environs de 
Varsovie. Mém. Soc. Géol. France, sér. 3, 
4: 91-107. 1886. 

(24) Zauanyt, B. Biosociologische Zusammen- 
hdnge im Neogenbecken des grossen Ungaris- 
chen Tiefebene. Jahresb. Ungar. Geol. Anst., 
1933-35, 4: 1621-1699. 1940. 


(17) 


BOTANY.— Peter Wilhelm Lund’s pequi tree at Lagoa Santa and pilgrimages to his 
cemetery.| ANNA HK. JENKINS, U.S. Department of Agriculture, A. A. Brran- 
court, Instituto Biologico, Sado Paulo, K. S1nperscumip7, Instituto Biologico, 
and W. ANDREW ARcHER, U.S. Department of Agriculture.” 


“Trees by their very nature are land- 
marks and memorials. They are therefore 
identified with human happenings. Also, 
trees, having more than the alloted span of 


1 Among the desiderata we assembled mostly 
in 1941 for the preparation of this. article is a letter 
(Dec. 6, 1941) from James A. G. Rehn, correspond- 
ing secretary of the Academy of Natural Sciences 
of Philadelphia, in which he wrote as follows: 
“T have your letter of the 3rd about Peter Lund, 
whose name of course was reasonably familiar to 
me on account of his work on the fossil deposits at 
Lagoa Santa. He was elected a Correspondent of 
our Academy January. 29, 1850, and our records 
give his death as having occurred May 25, 1880. 
Correspondents of the Academy are elected from 
scientists non-residents of Philadelphia, who have 
achieved outstanding distinction in work in the 
natural sciences. A very considerable part of all 
the great workers in our field in the last century 
and a quarter were Correspondents of the Acad- 
emy, although the number in this class at any 
one time is naturally limited, and rarely has ex- 


man, carry their associations through genera- 
tions of men and women. Thus they often 
figure not only in biography but also in 


ceeded 150.’’ This article therefore commemorates 
the centenary of Dr. Lund’s election as a Corre- 
sponding Member of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia. 

We are indebted to Dr. Elisabeth Deichmann, 
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Uni- 
versity, for a critical reading of the manuscript. 

Miss Deichmann’s mother was P. W. Lund’s 
grand-niece. She was 11 years old when he died, 
but her whole childhood was flavored by stories 
about this distant uncle who kept up the contact 
with his family in Denmark until his death. 

2 In 1935-36 the first writer was on a mycolog- 
ical mision to Brazil, at the invitation of the gov- 
ernment of the State of Sdo Paulo, and was work- 
ing cooperatively with the second writer at the 
Instituto Biologico. The fourth writer was com- 
pleting a plant exploration mission to South Amer- 
ican 


Fespruary 1951 


history.”” So wrote Randall and Edgerton 
(76)° in their Famous trees. 

Of trees associated with ‘notable persons, 
events, and places” is the beautiful pequi 
(Caryocar brasiliense Camb.)* growing beside 
the tomb of Peter Wilhelm Lund (1801- 
1880)° at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. 
The actual existence of this tree and its 
role in the life of this noted Danish scientist 
may well have been disclosed to many read- 
ers only through brief mention of it in one 
or another of Prof. Anibal Mattos compila- 
tions of 1935 (9-12). These mark the cente- 
nary celebration of the savant’s arrival at 
Lagoa Santa. In 1930 the original tomb had 
been replaced by a monument ‘‘which would 
signify the gratitude of the people of Minas 
for the valuable works of the great scientist.” 
This was erected under Professor Mattos’ 
direction at the commission of the governor 
of the State. 

In his address at the unveiling of the new 


3 Reference is made by number (italic) to Liter- 
ture cited. p. 74. 

4 Described in Saint-Hilaire (78, p. 322, pl. 67 
bis). The illustration is reproduced in Jenkins’ 
“Introductory Hssay’? accompanying Saint- 
Hilaire’s ‘‘Esquisse de mes Voyages au Brésil et 
Paraguay”’ (20, fig. 4). 

5 For an extended biography of Lund cf. Rein- 
hardt (17). A brief obituary notice (1) is quoted 
below: 

“On May 25th died, at Lagoa Santa, in Brazil, 
the Danish philosopher and zoologist, Dr. P. V. 
Lund, aged nearly 79. Born in Copenhagen he grad- 
uated at the Copenhagen University, and was 
intended for the medical profession. He was soon 
diverted from this pursuit, however, by his inter- 
est for natural science, and when, in 1825, he 
gained a double golden medal for some zoological 
prize essays, he made a definite choice between 
the two. Ill health made him seek a milder climate 
in South America; and after a short stay in Rio 
Janeiro he returned to Europe, travelled to Italy 
with J. F. Schouw, the Danish botanist, and Mr. 
Harewood, and spent some years in France, where 
he became a friend of Cuvier. In 1832 he went out 
again to Brazil, and thenceforward lived in the 
small town of Lagoa Santa, in the province of 
Minas Gerais. The remarkable caves near this 
place, containing fossil remains of the Brazilian 
fauna from the Tertiary period, were discovered 
by Dr. Lund; and the paleontological collections 
he made in them were presented by him in 1854 to 
the Danish State, and now form a separate and 
much appreciated section of the Zoological Mu- 
seum of Copenhagen. 

‘Dr. Lund also transmitted to Copenhagen 
many specimens of birds from the vicinity of 
Lagoa Santa. Prof. Reinhardt’s well-known essay 
on the bird-fauna of the Campos of Brazil was 
based mainly upon Lund’s collections.’’ (Cf. also 
Pinto, 185.) 


JENKINS ET AL.: PETER WILHELM LUND’S PEQUI TREE O7 


monument to Lund, the representative of 
Denmark stated that the site of the monu- 
ment is the same as that acquired by the 
savant and that the parcel of cerrado® is 
entirely enclosed (1/1, p. 22). “‘At one side 
of the monument,” he continued, “is the 
‘frondoso pequy’ under the shade of which 
the scientist used to study.”’ Mattos (/7, 
p. 28) wrote that during the course of its 
construction a vase of flowers and a branch 
of the pequi were deposited in the tomb by 
Sra. Carlos Correa and Sra. Mattos. Because 
of its location and its low, broad head, the 
tree forms an important part of the com- 
position in two of Mattos’ photographs taken 
within the cemetery (9, opposite p. 57, also 
reproduced in /0, opposite p. 32; 9, opposite 
p. 80). 

Our introduction to the pequi by Lund’s 
monument was in 1936, when we were privi- 
leged to make a pilgrimage to his grave. 

As guests of Dr. José de Mello Soares de 
Gouvea, director of the Department of Agri- 
culture of Minas Gerais, the first three of 
the writers made the tour from Belo Hori- 
zonte on February 2. We had attended the 
“First Meeting of the Plant Pathologists 
of Brazil’’ held in Rio January 20-25, then 
visited the Escola Superior de Agricultura 
at Vicosa,” Minas, and were returning to 
Rio and Sdo Paulo, via Belo Horizonte. 
The fourth writer’s pilgrimage to the ceme- 
tery was made on August 3, as the guest of 
Dr. Henrique L. de Mello Barreto, botanist 
of the State Agricultural Department.® 

As an introduction to Lagoa Santa we are 
here quoting from the preface of Warming’s 
(22, p. 455) Lagoa Santa, as well as repro- 
ducing the map (Fig. 1) there cited. 

Lagoa Santa est un petit village de l'état 
brésilien de Minas geraés. Il est situé 4 19° 40° de 
latitude Sud, au Nord-Nord-Ouest de Rio de Ja- 
neiro (voir la vignette du titre et la carte p. 267). 
C’est 1A qu’habitait, depuis 1835 jusqu’en 1880, 
annee de sa mort, le zoologiste et paléontologue 


6 A recent description of “campo cerrado’? is 
that by Bezerra dos Santos (2, pp. 41-144). 

7Our host on this occasion was Prof. A. 8. 
Muller, then plant pathologist and acting director 
of the Escola, now on the staff of the Escuela 
Agricola Panamericana at Tegucigalpa, Honduras. 

8’ We are pleased to express our thanks and 
appreciation to Dr. Soares de Gouvea and to Dr. 
Mello Baretto for the hospitality they so gener- 
ously extended. 


CS JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


danois trés connu, P. W. Lund, et c’est de 1a 
qu’il dirigeait la publication de ses belles et fort 
importantes recherches sur les animaux fossiles 
des cavernes calcaires du Brésil (comp. |’index 
bibliographique). Lagoa Santa fut visité trois fois 
par le zoologiste danois, M. le Prof. Joh. Rein- 
hardt, qui y passait chaque fois un temps assez 
long. Moi-méme, étudiant, au début de mes 
études de botanique,—il y aura bienté6t trente 
ans,—j’y ai vécu, dans la maison de Lund, trois 
belles années de ma jeunesse (1863-1866). Je 
rappelle ma jeunesse afin qu’on veuille bien ne 
pas coter trop haut les imperfections des observa- 
tions que j’ai faites et que je communique dans ce 
mémoire. Lagoa Santa fut visité également par 
plusieurs autres explorateurs et savants, venus 
notamment pour voir Lund et lui rendre visite 
(v. p. 162), de sorte que ce misérable hameau est 
devenu en quelque sorte un endroit classique dans 
Vhistoire des sciences. 


On February 2, upon reaching the out- 
skirts of Lagoa Santa, our host halted a 
few moments in order that we might view 
the lake for which the hamlet is named 
(Fig. 2, A) and concerning which there are 
so many legends (cf. 10, pp. 19-25). 

The story of Lund’s taking up his abode 
in Lagoa Santa and of his owning a piece of 


cerrado in the neighborhood was recounted 
by Mrs. Agnes Chase (5) following her pil- 
erimage to the old tomb. ‘‘A few hours 
north of Bello Horizonte is Lagoa Santa,” 
she began, and continued: 


Lund was a consumptive who went to Brazil 
[1825] for his health. After a few years he re- 
turned to Denmark cured, but the disease again 
attacked him and he returned to Lagoa Santa to 
die. Being a Protestant he could not be buried 
in the cemetery, so he bought a piece of ground 
about 5 kilometers from the village for his grave. 
He lived 40 years after that, and buried Claus- 
sen,? and another friend and his two Danish 
servants in his little cemetery before he himself 
was buried there in 1880 at the age of 79. The few 
acres inclosed form a precious preserve of the 
original campo. Except for four immense clumps 


®Lund’s three secretaries were the Norwegian 
Brandt, his own countryman Warming, and the 
German Berens, and Brandt and Behrens were 
buried in Lund’s cemetery (9, p. 91). Claussen 
returned to Europe and died in London in 1855 
(ef. 21, p. 11). We are making this correction here 
at Mrs. Chase’s suggestion. The names were not 
clear on the old tomb, she explained to us, and she 
understood that Claussen was buried in Lund’s 
plot. 


<A 
Belmante 


= 20° 


we Campinas 


acarehy 
A ey Comm 


——— Lund og Riedel 
(1833 - 35) 


uneghs ee Warmin g 
( 1863 0g 1866) 


Fie. 1.—Location of Lagoa Santa as shown on Dr. Eugene Warming’s map accompanying his Lagoa 
a Zane 
Santa (22, p. 267; 23, p. 101). 


vou. 41, No. 2 


Frepruary 1951 


of bamboo, the ground is left wild—the best kind 
of memorial to Pedro Lund. He was dearly loved 
by the Brazilians, and women still come to the 
cross to pray for the soul of the Protestante. 


In further detail of her visit to the old 
tomb on March 25, 1926, Mrs. Chase has 
told us that fresh flowers, then wilted, had 
been placed at the foot of the cross. Her 
photograph (5, pl. 8, fig. 2) shows the cross 
in its position outside the ‘‘Campo Santo” 
as one author (9, p. 53) referred to the old 
cemetery. In the new enclosure the cross 
stands in line with the tombs of Lund and 


JENKINS ET AL.: PETER WILHELM LUND’S PEQUI TREE 69 


his assistants and to the rear (see Fig. 3, B). 
Painted black, it is of ‘‘aroeira”’ (mastic-tree) 
and has the date of Brandt’s death, ‘‘1862,”’ 
engraved on it, as Dr. Mello Barreto has 
informed us. 

At the cemetery one not only pays homage 
to Peter Lund and his beloved assistants, 
but he at once senses that the pequi growing 
so near the plot selected by the naturalist 
for his grave must have been an intimate 
tree-friend. Breaking the silence as if reading 
our thoughts our host said, ‘“‘Lund used to 
sit under that tree while engaged in study.” 


Fia. 2.—A, The lake at Lagoa Santa. B, The cemetery of Dr. Peter Wilhelm Lund; at right, monu- 
ment surmounted by a bronze bust of the savant; in left foreground, Warming memorial; at left, the 
pequi. Photographs by Bitancourt, February 2, 1986. 


76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The tree was in full leaf on February 2 
(Fig. 2, B). On August 3, however, it was 
completely defoliated, with the recently 
dropped leaves lying on the ground below. 
In describing the vegetation of Lagoa Santa 
in spring (August-October), Warming (23, p. 
228)'° mentioned Caryocar brasiliense as one 
of the trees that drop all their leaves, then 
immediately leaf out. 

Lund’s pequi was conforming to this pat- 
tern when the fourth writer saw it on August 
3. He painstakingly oriented his camera to 
include as much as possible of the pequi’s 
odd, tortuous frame (Fig. 3, A).!! He noted, 
too, the deeply furrowed bark, less well 
shown in the photograph. It so happens that 
the head of another bare pequi forms the 
background in his photograph of the monu- 
ment to Lund (Fig. 3, B). In its defoliation 
this tree exposes a few epiphytes. 

In Mrs. Chase’s photograph of the old 
tomb (5) taken on March 25, 1926, the 
tree is in its usual luxuriant foliage 
casting a heavy shadow on the ground be- 
neath. In Mattos’ corresponding illustration 
the pequi is leafless. In both cases it is 
shown only in part, at the left, and the 
legends refer only to the tomb. 

References to the tree in the legends ac- 
companying Mattos’ illustrations of the new 
cemetery are as follows: “Visto do velho 
pequy a cuja sombra estudava o sabio dr. 
Lund” (9, opposite p. 57); ““Herma do dr. 

” During his visit to Belo Horizonte, the fourth 
writer was presented with a copy of Lofgren’s 
translation into Portuguese of Warming’s Lagoa 
Santa (23). This volume, now catalogued in the 
Library, U. 8S. Department of Agriculture, has 
been a ready reference in the preparation of the 
present article. 

1 The monument to Warming shown in the left 
of this photograph was erected in 1934, through 
the inspiration of Dr. Paulo Campos Porto, by 
the Jardin Botanico, Rio de Janeiro. Its execution 
was aided by the Secretary of Agriculture of the 
State of Minas Gerais. The inscription on the 
monument is as follows: 

ALTERI EGREGIO DANO NATURAE ~ INDAGATORI 
JOANNI EUGENIO WARMING 
DVI DOCTORI LUND AD LACUM SANCTUM CONVICTOR 
FLORAM AD BRASILIANAM PENITUS SCRUTATUS 
OECOLOGIAE BOTANICAE EXSTITIT FUNDATOR 
IN PERENNEM MERITI MEMORIAM 
POSTRIDIE NONAS JULIAS 
A. D. MCMXXXII 
HORTI BOTANICI 
AD 


RIO DE JANEIRO 
RECTORES 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


Lund vendo-se ao fundo pequizeiro por elle 
plantado...’’ (10, opposite p. 32), and “O 
pequizeiro plantado pelo dr. Lund...” (17, 
opposite p. 80). 

Our hosts of 1936 have assured us that 
the first of these legends, as just quoted, is 
the correct one. The pequi is a common 
plant of the cerrado, they remind us, and is 
very slow-growing. Substantiating the latter 
statement our colleague Dr. A. O. Drum- 
mond” wrote us in 1946 that his 6-year-old 
pequi at Vigosa was then only 70 em high. 

Warming (23, p. 62) named the pequi 
among trees of the cerrado of Lagoa Santa 
having an orchard-tree-like habit and at- 
taining a height of 3-6 meters. It is perhaps 
the comparatively low stature coupled with 
the many-leaved, far-extending branches, 
that imparts to Lund’s pequi its unforget- 
table aspect. The pequi of the cerrado of 
Mogy-Mirim, Séo Paulo, illustrated by 
Hoehne (8, p. 86) is more erect and ap- 
parently taller. Dr. Mello Barreto tells us 
that he has seen pequizeiros 10 meters high 
and that Riedel cited examples reaching 13 
meters. 

Still another illustration of the pequi tree 
has the following informative legend: 


The ‘pequi’ tree—Caryocar Brasiliense Camb. 
One of the many fruit-bearing trees of the cerrado 
of Brazil, which in its habit shows us what na- 
ture proportions to plants subject to incessant, 
harmful fires. Their fruits are, however, most 
useful and are the base of various drinks and 
condiments [translation].' 


Dr. Drummond’s letter already cited con- 
tains the following observations relative to 
pequi fruit: ‘‘In localities where the tree 
1s native its fruit is much appreciated by the 
inhabitants; 1t does not appeal to those un- 
accustomed to its wild flavor. The seed is 
covered with small spines, which are easily 
freed and which pierce the tongue slightly. 
A dentist told me that when he lived at 
Cardisburgo, a small village in the cerrados 

Formerly on the staff of the Escola Superior 
de Agricultura de Minas Gerais, now of the Ser- 
vigo Publico do Estado de Minas Gerais, Belo 


Horizonte. 
rq. Bot. Estado Sao Paulo, n. s., 1 (5). 


pequi in Brazil cf. Corréa (7), Pereira (14), Netto 
(13), and others. 


71 


1D’S PEQUI TREE 


LM LU 


uj 


PETER WILHE 


AL 


ET 


JENKINS 


FeBRuary 1951 


apIsyno inbed ssoyvoey, aoyjoue YT 


‘rayory Aq sydeasojoyg ‘(g) oinsopous ay4 


1940504 ‘sseyve] ‘inbod s,puny (7) Surmoys ‘ogeT ‘“g ysnFny ‘sjuswmuour jBadAas oy} Jo s 


RY 


72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


near the famous Maquiné Caves, the main 
job he had was to remove the pequi spines 
from the tongues of the village children.” 

In his familiarity with the pequi that now 
grows beside his grave Dr. Lund must have 
known it in full leaf, almost momentarily 
leafless, in gorgeous flower, and then in fruit. 
The charm of the bloom is referred to by 
Chodat and Hassler (6, p. 809) in their 
account of the Caryocaraceae of Paraguay. 
To quote: 


L’unique Caryocaracée trouvée au Paraguay 
est le Caryocar brasiliense un arbuste habitant 
les campos secs au pied et sur le haut plateau de 
la Sierra de Maracaya ot il est assez répandu. 
Sa fleur aux nombreuses étamines d’une couleur 
jaune paille s’ouvrant a l’aube, donne un charme 
tout particulier aux Campos pendant les heures 
matinales. 


The numerous stamens are well shown in 
the line-drawing accompanying the original 
description of the species (cf. footnote 4). 
Their conspicuousness is again apparent 
from the herbarium specimen considerately 
sent to us by Dr. Mello Barreto! (Fig. 4). 
Collected at Belo Horizonte, November 7, 
1941, by J. Evangelista Oliviera 630, this 
has been deposited in the herbarium of the 
U.S. National Arboretum. The only other 
accessions of this species in that herbarium 
are two from Minas collected in 1914 by 
P. H. Dorsett (1862-1943), A.D. Shammel, 
and Wilson Popenoe, plant explorers of the 
U.S. Department of Agriculture. The first 
specimen from Lavras, January 14, consists 
of fruit, and a tomentose stem with leaves. 
The second specimen, from Januaria, Feb- 
ruary 14, is of fruit only and the collector’s 
note reads: “The fruit is just commencing 
to ripen. The pulp surrounding the seed is 
vellow and has a peculiar taste.” Their 
photograph (February 4) of ‘‘a large pequi 
erowing beside the road to Lagoa Santa”’ 
is shown in Fig. 4. The tree is ‘very com- 
mon throughout this region,” they noted. 

In 1938, upon discovering that Caryocar 
brasiliense was not represented in the U.S. 
National Herbarium, the present writers 
contributed their ‘‘souvenir” of a cluster of 
the young, silken, 3-parted leaves from the 
tip of a branch of Lund’s pequi, together 


1° Transmitted with his letter of November 11, 
1941. 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


with a representative set of photographs 
taken in the cemetery on February 2, 1936. 
To these they added a view of the nearby 
cerrado. The fourth writer’s specimen from 
a blooming tree at Mendenha, Minas, Sep- 
tember 24, 1936, was deposited in the same 
herbarium as its second accession of Caryocar 
brasiliense. This specimen is complete with 
fruit. We are gratified to note that more 
recently our small sample from Lund’s tree 
has been supplemented by an ample speci- 
men from a tree in flower at Lagoa Santa 
(U. S. Nat. Herb. no. 1933005). The de- 
scriptive label reads: ‘‘Caryocar brasiliense 
Camb. Tree 2-10 m. Flowers white. ‘Pe- 
qui,’ fruit edible, has a hard exocarp. The 
fruit is the yellow pulp around the spiny 
seed., Important tree in cerrado. In 
campo cerrado, near Lagoa Santa airfield. 
Municipio of Lagoa Santa, alt. 850-900 m. 
Louis O. Williams, Vicente Assis, No. 7441. 
Sept. 10, 1945.” 

In response to our inquiry of 1941 we 
learned from Dr. Lyman B. Smith” that 
there were then three sheets of the Caryocar 
in the Gray Herbarium. All three specimens 
are historical, the earliest especially so be- 
cause it was collected by Lund’s countryman 
Claussen, who as circumstances willed, was 
responsible for Lund’s having become the 
“founder of paleontology” in Minas Gerais 
(4) or as it is sometimes stated, “father of 
Brazilian paleontology” (9, p. 53; 10, p. 
307). As cited by Dr. Smith the three speci- 
mens are: 


Claussen, without number, Minas Gerais, 1840. 
Widgren, without number, Minas Gerais, 1845. 
Dusen, No. 15968, Jaguariahyva, Paranda, 1914. 


Claussen’s specimen could well have been 
collected from a pequi on his fazenda ‘‘Por- 
teirinhas” near Curvello (see map, Fig. 1). 
It was upon Lund and Riedel’s arrival at 
Curvello in 1834 that the “adventurer” (cf. 


‘6 For comparison with air travel to Lagoa 
Santa today, we cannot refrain from quoting here 
Warming’s (23, p. 10) passage depicting his jour- 
ney from Rio to Lagoa Santa (1863): “I left the 
28th of May with the party of a farmer from the 
neighborhood of Lagoa Santa and, after 42 days’ 
travel, glimpsed for the first time that unforget- 
table little place... [translation].’’ 

7 'Then on the staff of the Gray Herbarium, 
Harvard University, now on that of the Depart- 
ment of Botany, U. 8. National Museum. 


FEBRUARY 1951 


JENKINS ET AL.: PETER WILHELM LUND’S PEQUI TREE es 


_ Fic. 4.—Pequi growing beside the road to Lagoa Santa, Brazil, February 4, 1914, Dr. Popenoe posing 
in foreground. Photograph by Dorsett, contributed by the Division of Plant Exploration and Intro- 
duction, U. 8. Department of Agriculture. 


9, p. 9) Claussen encountered the two scienti- 
fic travellers, thereupon inviting them to his 
fazenda, where they spent a week. This 
unanticipated visit led to Lund’s becoming 
acquainted with the fossil-contaiming cal- 
careous caves of the region (cf. 23, p. 9). 
Our excursion to Lagoa Santa on February 
2 included a visit to a nearby cave explored 
by Lund, namely, Lapinha Cave. 

The specimen collected by Dusén (1856— 
1926) at Jaguariahyva is, of course, from 
the same locality where Saint-Hilaire dis- 
covered the pequi growing and in bloom 
(February 5) in 1820 (19, vol. 2, p. 50).® 
Neither record is cited in Hoehne’s (8, 1930, 
p. 48) discussion of the cerrados of Jaguaria- 
hyva. 


18 The specimens on which Cambessedes [see 
footnote 1] description of Caryocar brasiliense is 
based were collected by Saint-Hilaire (1779-1851) 
‘Sn eampis prope 8. Bento, in parte occidentali 
desertaque provinciae Minas Gerais, et Franca 
[see map, Fig. 1], urbem provinciae $8. Paulo.’ 


Our host of February 2 has told us that 
because of the botanical pursuits of Lund, 
Warming, and others at Lagoa Santa, this 
is the type locality of many different plants 
of the cerrado. “In consequence,” he con- 
tinued, “botanists come from far and near 
to re-discover, observe, and collect these 
same species.” 

Almost as he spoke, we noted the typical 
symptoms that follow infection by Sphace- 
loma on leaves of Byrsonima coccolobaefolia 
H. B. K. (Malpighiaceae) growing naturally 
in a small space before the cemetery. Jour- 
neying to Belo Horizonte soon afterward 
our colleague Dr. H. P. Wrug™ took ad- 
vantage of the opportunity also to visit 
Lund’s cemetery and again to collect mate- 
rial of the Sphaceloma. These specimens of 
February 2 and April 8, together with a 

19 Then plant pathologist at the Instituto Agro- 
nomico, Campinas, State of Sao Paulo, now on the 
staff of the Horto Florestal, Cantareira, State of 
Sao Paulo. 


74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


culture isolated from one of them, served 
as the basis of the description of a new 
pathogenic fungus, named for the locality, 
1.e., S. lagoa—santensis Bitancourt and Jen- 
Lovast (Gy) jo), AEs jolly a1), 

The ‘Introduction’ to Warming’s (23, p. 
17) classic Lagoa Santa closes with the fol- 
lowing sentence: “When Lund, after visit- 
ing Claussen, was accompanying his com- 
panion Riedel to the capital of Minas, Ouro 
Preto, situated a few leagues to the south- 
east of Lagoa Santa, the lovely lake with its 
enchanting neighborhood so impressed him 
that, having traversed the desert regions of 
the interior, he involuntarily exclaimed: 
‘Here indeed: here is a good place for one to 
live,’ perhaps forseeing that he was to live 
there for almost half a century and to find 
bis final resting place in the shade of the 
trees of the campo [translation].”’ 

The ancient pequi near the grave of Lund 
seems to assume the personality of a kindly 
sentinel, standing silent, protective, and se- 
rene. 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) ANonymous. Obituary [Peter Wilhelm 
Lund}. Ibis, ser. 4, 4: 488-484. 1880. 

(2) BrezprRa pos Santos, L. People and scenes 
of Brazil: Excerpts from the “Revista Bra- 
sileira de Geografia”: 160 pp. [Translated 
by Adrian Rondileau.] Jn Conselho Na- 
cional de Geografia. Rio de Janeiro, 1945. 

(3) Birancourt, A. A., and JENKINS, ANNA FE. 
New discoveries of Myriangiales in the 
Americas. Proc. 8th Amer. Sci. Congr., 


Washington, 1940, 3: 149-172. 1942. 

(4) Catocmras, J. D. O Dr. Peter Wilhelm 
Lund. Rey. Inst. Hist. Geogr. Bras. 
Volume especial: 83-93. Rio de Janeiro, 
1933. 

(5) Cuasgp, Agnes. LHastern Brazil through an 
agrostologist’s spectacles. Ann. Rep. 
Smithsonian Inst. for 1926: 383-403. 1927. 


(6) Cuopat, E., and Hassuer, FE. Plantae Has- 
slerianae. .. Bull. Herb. Boiss., sér. 2, 
3: 809. 1903. 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


(7) Corréa, M. P. Flora do Brasil: Algumas 
plantas uteis, suas applicagées e distri- 
buigao geografia: 154 pp. Rio de Janeiro, 
1909. 

(8) Hornne, F.C. Araucarilandia, 133 pp., 1930; 
Excursao. . . S40 Paulo... 112 pp., undated. 
Sao Paulo, Secretaria da Agr., Indus., e. 
Com., Dept. Bot. do Estado, Observa- 
goes... Brasil 2 and 3. 

(9) Marros, A. O sabio dr. Lund e a prehistoria 
Americana, ed. 3: 92 pp. Belo Horizonte, 


1935. 

(10) O sabio dr. Lund e estudos sobre a 
pre-historia brasileira: 346 pp. Belo Hori- 
zonte, 1935. 

quip) = Collectana Peter W. Lund: 268 pp. 
Belo Horizonte, 1935. 

(12) ———. Monumentos historicos, artisticos, e 


religiosos de Minas Gerais: 502 pp. Belo 
Horizonte, 1935. 

(13) Nerro, F. F. The problem of the Amazon. 
Sci Monthly 61: 33-44, 90-100. 1945. 
[Translated by W. A. Archer with trans- 
lator’s note, p. 38.] 

(14) Ppretra, H. Apontamentos sobre madetras 
do estado de S. Paulo: 160 pp. 
1919. 

(15) Prnto, O. Peter W. Lund e sua contribuigaéo 
a ornttologia brasileira. Papéis Avulsos 
Dept. Zool. Secretaria Agr. 8S. Paulo. 9: 
269-283. 1950. 

(16) Ranpauu, C. E., and Eparrton, D. P. 
Famous trees. U. S. Dept. Agr. Misc. 
Publ. 295: 115 pp. 1938. 

(17) Reinnarpt, J. Naturforskeren Peter Wilhelm 
Lund... Overs. Danske Vid. Selsk. Forh. 
1880: 147-210. 1880. 

(18) Satnr-Hinarre, A. DE. 
Meridionalis 1: 322. 1825. 


Flora Brasiliae 


(19) — Voyage dans les provinces de Saint- 
Paul et de Sainte-Catherine, 2 vols. 
Paris, 1851. 

(20) ———. Esquisse de mes voyages au Brésil 
et Paraguay... Reprinted in Chron. Bot. ~ 
5 (1): 61 pp. 1946. 

(21) Urspan, I. Claussen Peter (flor. 1834-1850). 


In Martivs, C. F. A., Flora Brasiliensis 1 
(1): 11-13. 1906. 

(22) Warmine, E. Lagoa Santa... 
Copenhagen, 1892. 

(23) ———. Lagoa Santa (traduegio do Dina- 
marquez por Alberto Lofgren): 282 pp. 
Belo Horizonte, 1908. 


: 488 pp. 


Sao Paulo, 


Fesruary 1951 


KRISHNASWAMY: TWO SPECIES OF COPEPODA 75 


ZOOLOGY :—Notes on the undescribed males of two species of Copepoda. S. KRrisHna- 
swaAmy, Madras University. (Communicated by Paul L. Illg.) 


In the course of a study of the Copepoda 
of the Madras coast, males belonging to two 
species, Centropages trispinosus Sewell (1914) 
and Diosaccus truncatus Gurney (1927), 
known so far only by the females, were dis- 
covered. A full description of these male 
types is given in this paper so as to complete 
the identification of the species. The types 
will be lodged in the Indian Museum at Cal- 
cutta. 

I wish to record my grateful thanks to 
Dr. C. P. Gnanamuthu, director, Zoology 
Laboratory, Madras University, for guid- 
ance and help and to Lt. Col. R. B. Seymour 
Sewell, of Cambridge, for going through the 
paper and offering helpful criticisms. 


Centropages trispinosus Sewell 
Fig. 1, a-d 
Centropages trispinosus Sewell, 1914, p. 228, pl. 23, 

figs. 5-8. 

This species was established by Sewell in 1914, 
on the basis of a solitary female taken at Kilakarai 
in the Gulf of Manaar, South India, and has not 
until now been recorded since. While examining 
the plankton collected in July 1937 from Krusadai 
Island in the Gulf of Manaar I found several 
females and males. Large numbers were also 
found in the inshore plankton collected at Madras 
in July, August, September, and January. 

Sewell (loc. cit.: pl. 18, fig. 7) has given the 
figure of the second swimming leg and is of opin- 
ion that the remaining legs resemble those of 
C. alcocki Sewell. The first swimming leg, how- 
ever, differs from the second one and has the 
following structure: The exopodite is nearly twice 
the length of the endopodite. The first exopod 
joint carries one outer spine and one inner seta, 
the second joint one outer spine and one inner 
seta, and the terminal joint two outer spines, one 
long, finely serrate apical spine, and four inner 
setae. The first endopod joint has an inner seta, 
the second joint two inner setae, and the terminal 
joint five setae. The outer margins of the exopod 
as well as the endopod of the swimming feet are 
hirsute. 

The description of the female holotype given 
by Sewell is fully corroborated by my observa- 
tions of a large number of females except for the 
difference stated above. 


Male (Fig. 1, a).—1.025 mm, smaller than the 
female. 

Body yellowish red with dark red patches on 
the cephalothorax. A bright-red spot is present 
on the anal segment. Outline of body with the 
three spines on posterior corner of cephalothorax 
as in the female. The abdomen is 4-jointed, where- 
as in the female it is only 3-jointed. 

The right antennule is geniculate and composed 
of 21 joints, having the following proportional 
lengths: 

1.2.3.4.5.6.7.8.9.10.11.12.13.14.15.16.17.18.19.20.21. 
11.9.3.4.6.5.4.5.6. 6. 4. 9.12.16.13.16.15.30.35.15.25. 


Seven of these joints (i.e., from the twelfth to 
the eighteenth) are very swollen. All the joints 
carry one or two setae each toward the outer 
side. These setae are short and thick, except 
those on joints 19, 20, and 21, which are long. 
The eighteenth joint is hinged to the nineteenth, 
and these joints each have a toothed plate to- 
ward the outer side. The inner distal end of the 
nineteenth joint has a protuberance, whereas the 
terminal joint is produced into a fingerlike proe- 
ess. The number of setae and their arrangement 
are as shown in Fig. 1, 6. The antenna, mandible, 
maxillae, and maxilliped are as in the female. 
The first four pairs of swimming feet as in the 
female. 

The fifth leg of the left side differs from those 
of the other species of the genus. The exopod is of 
two joints, the proximal joint has an outer spine, 
while the distal jot, which is nearly twice as 
long as the first joint, bears two outer and two 
apical spines, the outer ones being longer. The 
endopod is 3-articled and is shorter than the exo- 
pod. The first and second joints carry a plumose 
seta each, while the third has two inner, two 
outer, and two apical plumose setae (Fig. 1, ¢). 
The exopod of right fifth leg resembles those of 
the other members of the genus. The first joint 
bears a short outer spine, and the “‘chela”’ bears 
two spines one toward the outer side and one 
toward the inner side, and the outer margin is 
hirsute. The endopod is 3-jointed, and the first 
and second joints carry a plumose seta each, the 
third joint three inner, two apical, and one outer 
plumose seta (Fig. 1, @). 

Remarks.—The presence of the spines on the 
posterior end of the eephalothorax is a distinct 


76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


feature that facilitates the identification of this 
species. The occurrence of this species at Madras 
is of interest because it was previously known 
only from Kilakarai, 300 miles south of Madras. 


Diosaccus truncatus Gurney 
Fig. 2, a-d 


Diosaccus truncatus Gurney, 1927, p. 513, fig. 136; 
Sewell, 1940, p. 240. 


Gurney described this harpacticoid in 1927 
from the females collected by him at Port Said. 
In the Madras plankton collected on February 21 
and 22, 1949, four males and two females were 
found. A night haul made at Kundugal channel 
(Gulf of Manaar) on March 22, 1948, yielded 
four males. 

Male.—0.68 mm, distinctly shorter than the 
female, which measures 0.9 mm. 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 2 

The rostrum is triangular and mobile. The 
second, third, and fourth thoracic segments have 
their lateral margins produced externally into 
winglike expansion. The abdomen is 4-jointed. 
The caudal rami are longer than broad, and each 
ramus carries three spines and an apical jomted 
seta, which is half as long as the body. 

The antennules of the two sides are geniculate. 
Each antennule is 8-articled, the joints having the 
following proportional lengths: 


1, 2.3-4.5. 6. 7.8. 
11.15. 5. 15.10.10.8. 


The line of demarcation between the third and 
fourth joint is not clear. The fifth joint is very 
swollen and has a knoblike projection towards its 
proximal side. It carries an “aesthete” on its distal 
end. The sixth and seventh joints are hinged and 


Fie. 1.—Centropages trispinosus Sewell: a, Lateral view; b, right antennule (from the seventh joint); 
c, fifth leg (left side); d, fifth leg (right side). 


FEBRUARY 1951 KRISHNASWAMY: TWO 
are armed with fine teeth on their inner edges. The 
arrangement of the setae is as shown in Fig. 2, b. 
The antenna, mouth parts, and the first swimming 
feet as in the female. The second swimming leg 
differs from that of the female in the exopod and 
endopod being of three and two joints and not 
three and three joints as in the female. Further, 
the outer margins of the first joints of the exopod 
and endopod are hirsute. The first and second 
exopod joints carry a serrate spine each on the 
outer side, while the third joint has three serrate 
spines and three setae. The second exopod joint 
has two inner setae also. The first endopod joint 
has a seta toward the inner side, while the termi- 
nal joints carries two spines and two setea, two 
of which are modified (Fig. 2, c). The third and 
fourth swimming legs as in the female. Fifth leg 
has the basal expansion completely fused and 


SPECIES OF COPEPODA i, 
bears two unequal spines and three setae (Fig. 2, 
d: Ls). Sixth leg is rudimentary and is represented 
by a stout spine and two setae (Fig. 2, d: Le). 
Remarks.—The female of this species found at 
Madras is smaller in size compared with the form 
described by Gurney from Port Said. It is being 
recorded for the first time from the Bay of Bengal. 


REFERENCES 


GurRNEY, R. Report on Crustacea Copepoda. Trans. 
Zool. Soe. London 22: 451. 1927. 

Nicuouts, A. G. A revision of the families Dio- 
saccidae Sars and Laophontidae T. Scott. Rec. 
South Australian Mus. 7: 165. 1941. 

SEWELL, R. B.S. Notes on surface copepods of the 
Gulf of Mannar. Spolia Zeylanica 9: 191, 1914. 

Copepods of the Indian seas: Calanoida. 

Mem. Indian Mus. 10 (2). 1932. 

Copepoda Harpacticoida. John Murray 

Expedition Sci. Rep. 7 (2). 1940. 


Fie. 2.—Diosaccus truncatus Gurney: a, Dorsal view; b, antennule; c, second swimming feet; d@, fifth 
leg (lis), sixth leg (Le). 


78 


ZOOLOGY .—New 
Fayetteville, Ark. (Communicated 
Their dark color, retiring habits, and small 


size make collection of cleidogonid millipeds 
difficult, but with patience they can be found 


in almost any damp humus in the Mis-. 
sissippi Valley, the states east of it, and in . 


Central America. Inasmuch as species are 
rather endemic, doubtless numerous others 
are yet to be discovered. A key to the genera 
will be found in the survey of the Family 
Cleidogonidae by Hoffman (1950). 

I am indebted to Dr. M. W. Sanderson 
for the opportunity of studying specimens 
of Cleidogona fustis Cook and Collins and 
the type specimens of C. infiata and C. unita, 
all of which are in the collection of the IIl- 
inois Natural History Survey. The type 
specimens of C. minima, C. aspera, Ozarko- 
gona glebosa, and Tiganogona moesta will be 
deposited in the collection of the Academy 
of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia. Unless 
stated otherwise, collection was by the au- 
thor. 


Cleidogona fustis Cook and Collins 


The two male specimens from Turkey Run 
State Park, Montgomery County Ind., are in 
the Illinois collection. This is the only published 
locality of this species. 


Cleidogona aspera, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-4 


This species is near C. laminata Cook. and 
Collins in the structure of the gonopods and in 
the modification of the legs of the male. The 
two species are separated by differences in the 
longest processes of the gonopods, which are 
fimbriate in laminata and bifid in aspera. 

Male holotype-—Color brown above and later- 
ally, with the usual areolate buff maculae; cream 
below; legs cream except the tarsi, which are 
brown; antennae and vertex of head brown; 
ocelli dark, forming a triangular patch, arranged 
ia HOS OH 7/5 (By GB By A, Il ; 

The ninth legs are almost as in laminata; 
on the mesial surface of the first segment is a 
deep, rectangular depression, its laterad surface 
and the area immediately distad finely granular. 
The glandular openings on the first segments of 
the tenth and eleventh legs are as in /aminata. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 2 


cleidogonid millipeds (Chordeumoidea). Neti B. Causey, 


by H. F. Loomis.) 


The sternal process at the base of the twelfth 
legs is distinctive in the shape of the spine (Fig. 1). 

As in laminata, the ventral branch of each 
gonopod ends in three processes, the ventral 
one resembling the head of a bird, the longest 
one, unlike laminata, finely bifid distally, and 
the third and shortest one subquadrate and 
attached to the base of the longest process. 
The dorsal branch of each gonopod is somewhat 
flattened vertically; there is no notch on the 
medial face, as in laminata. Ventral, dorsal, 
and lateral views of the gonopods are shown in 
Figs. 2, 3, and 4, respectively. 

Length about 20 mm, width 2.1 mm. 

Female paratype-——Resembles the male in size 
and color; ocelli arranged in rows of 1, 7, 6, 5, 
A Seo: 

Type locality —Arkansas: Lawrence County, 
6 miles east of Imboden on highway 62; 7 males 
and 7 females were collected from a dry oak- 
cedar area, August 22, 1950. 

Other localities —One male, Pocahontas, Ran- 
dolph County, Ark., August 22, 1950. One male 
collected by Billy C. Rogers, Carthage, Dallas 
County, Ark., October 8, 1950, differs from the 
holotype in that the ventral processes of the 
gonopods are less like the outline of a bird’s 
head and the ocelli are arranged in rows of 1, 
Uy Oy By 4 B, I, al. 


Cleidogona unita, n.sp. 
Figs. 5-9 


The ninth legs of the males of this species 
resemble those of C. caesioannulata (Wood) as 
drawn by Cook and Collins (1896), but the 
details of the gonopods are nearest those of C. 
minima. 

Male holotype——Color brown above and later- 
ally, with the usual aerolate buff maculae, the 
prozonites lighter than the metazonites; cream 
below; legs cream except the tarsi, which are 
brown; antennae and vertex of head brown; 
ocelli dark, forming a triangular patch, arranged 
in rows of 7, 6, 5,4, 3, 1 @). 

The ninth legs are as shown by Cook and 
Collins for C. caesioannulata (Wood). The first 
segments of the tenth and eleventh legs (Figs. 
5, 6) have prominent cones on the mesial surface 
through which the coxal glands open. The sternal 


Fepruary 1951 CAUSEY: CLEIDOGONID MILLIPEDS 79 


Fias. 1-4.—Cleidogona aspera, male paratype: 1, Sternal process at base of twelfth legs, lateral view; 
2, ventral view of gonopods; 3, same, dorsal view; 4, lateral view of left gonopod. 

Fias. 5-9.—C. wnita, male holotype: 5, First segment of tenth leg; 6, same, eleventh leg; 7, sternal 
process at base of twelfth legs; 8, lateral view of left gonopod; 9, ventral view of gonopods. 

Figs. 10-13.—C.. minima, male holotype: 10, First two segments of ninth leg; 11, first two segments 
of eleventh leg; 12, ventral view of gonopods; 13, lateral view of right gonopod. 


80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


process at the base of the twelfth legs 1s shown 
in Fig. 7. 

The gonopods consist of a wide, dorso-ven- 
trally flattened ventral branch and a cylindrical, 
sigmoidal dorsal branch (Figs. 8, 9). The ends 
of the ventral branches are smoother and their 
medial longitudinal processes are shorter and 
narrower than in C. minima. 

Length about 14 mm. 

Type locality —tlinois: Union County, Giant 
City State Park. The male holotype and two fe- 
males were collected March 6, 1945, by Drs. 
H. H. Ross and M. W. Sanderson. The same 
collectors took a male and a female March 17, 
1942, at Dixon Springs, IIL. 


Cleidogona minima, n. sp- 
Figs. 10-13 


Although the gonopods of this species resemble 
those of C. wnita very closely, the two can be 
distinguished by the differences in size, in the 
details of the medial processes and ends of the 
ventral branches of the gonopods, and by the 
legs of the males. 

Male holotype-—Color brown above with buff 
maculae, cream below; segmental setae set in 
small buff maculae, those at medial setae largest; 
legs dark distally, cream proximally; antennae 
and vertex of head dark brown; ocelli dark, form- 
ing a triangular patch, arranged in rows of 7, 6, 
By By 2y dbo 

The first two segments of a ninth leg are 
shown in Figure 10, and the first segment of 
an eleventh leg, with two small conical projec- 
tions on the mesial surface above the opening 
of the coxal gland, in Fig. 11. The sternal process 
at the base of the twelfth legs is similar to the 
one in C. umita (Fig. 7). 

Each gonopod consists of a cylindrical, sig- 
moidal dorsal branch and a larger, dorso-ven- 
trally flattened ventral branch. The medial longi- 
tudinal process is rolled and larger than the 
similar process in C. unita. Distally the ventral 
branches are emarginate and sharper than in 
C. unita (Figs. 12, 15). 

Length 11 to 12 mm. 

Locality —Alabama: Tuscaloosa. One speci- 
men collected November 9, 1949, from under 
pine bark on the campus of the University of 
Alabama was sent to me by Dr. R. E. Crabill, 
dies 


VoL. 41, No. 2 


Cleidogona inflata, n. sp. 
Figs. 14-19 


This species is nearest C. leona Chamberlin, 
with the ventral branches of the gonopods large 
and inflated and the dorsal branches small and 
simple. 

Male holotype-—Color brown above and later- 
ally, with the usual areolate buff maculae; cream 
below; legs cream except the tarsi, which are 
brown; antennae and vertex of head brown; 
ocelli dark, forming a triangular patch, arranged 
in rows of 1, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2. 

On the mesial surface of the first segment of 
the ninth legs there is a shallow depression and 
beyond it a sharp lobe (Fig. 14). The first seg- 
ments of the tenth and eleventh legs, each with 
an apophysis near the opening of the coxal gland, 
are shown in Figs. 15 and 16. The sternal process 
at the base of the twelfth legs is distinctive in 
the slightly constricted base (Fig. 17). 

The large ventral branch of each gonopod 
terminates in three processes, the lateral one 
sigmoid and darkly pigmented distally and the 
other two shorter and lanceolate; the dorsal 
branches are small and hamate (Fig. 19). In 
situ (Fig. 18) only the ventral branches are 
visible, their terminal processes outlined against 
the enlarged body of the branches. 

Length about 17 mm. 

Type locality—tllinois: Putnam County, 
Starved Rock State Park. The holotype, a fe- 
male, and a larva were collected July 12, 1944, 
by Drs. T. H. Frison and M. W. Sanderson. 
One male, same collectors, August 14, 1944, 
White Pines State Park, Ogle County, Ill. 


Ozarkogona, n. gen. 


This genus resembles Cleidogona in body shape, 
absence of keels, smooth surface, shape of first 
segment, proportion of antennal segments, and 
in the structure of the gonopods, each of which 
consists of a hamate ventral branch and a shorter, 
clavate dorsal branch. The males are distin- 
guished from Cleidogona by the absence of a 
medial sternal process at the base of the twelfth 
legs and by the ninth legs, which are 4-jointed 
and with a claw, the first joint enlarged as in 
Bactropus, the second cylindrical and without 
lobes, the third much shortened, and the fourth 
narrow but slightly longer than the third. It 


Fespruary 1951 CAUSEY: CLEIDOGONID MILLIPEDS Sl 


differs from Bactropus in that the ninth legs are dogona. Eyes triangular, composed of about 27 
4-jointed rather than 5-jointed and in the dark ocelli. 
2-branched gonopods. Gnathochilarium as in Clei- Genotype.—Ozarkogona glebosa, n. sp. 


20 


Pres. 14-19.—Cleidogona inflata, male holotype: 14, Ninth leg; 15, first segment of tenth leg; 16, 
same, eleventh leg; 17, sternal process at base of twelfth legs; 18, gonopods zn situ, 19, lateral view of 
left gonopod. 

Pies. 20-21.—Ozarkogona glebosa, male paratype: 20, Cephalic view of ninth leg and sternum; 21, 
lateral view of right gonopod. 

Figs. 22-23.—Tiganogona moesta, male’ paratype: 22, Caudal view of ninth leg and end of dorsal 
branch of gonopod; 23, lateral view of right gonopod and ninth leg. 


82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Ozarkogona glebosa, n. sp. 
Figs. 20, 21 


Male holotype—Color brown above, cream 
- below; segmental setae set in small buff maculae; 
larger buff maculae arranged so that there appear 
to be a lateral buff band and a brown band below 
it; legs dark distally, cream proximally; antennae 
and vertex of head brown; ocelli dark, arranged 
in rows of 1, 7, 6, 5, 4, 3, 2. 

The ninth legs (Fig. 20) consist of four seg- 
ments; the fourth segment is short and ends in 
a short claw; the third is shorter but thicker; 
the second is thicker and about three times as 
long as the combined length of the third and 
fourth; the first is much enlarged, and on its 
cephalic surface are two large irregular lobes. 
The second and third segments appear almost 
coalesced, and midway of the first segment is an 
indistinct line that may indicate the coalescence 
of two segments. The third and fourth segments 
and the distal parts of the second are brown. A 
medial sternal process is anterior to the ninth 
legs, and posterior to them is a wide bifid plate. 
The gland openings on the first segments of the 
tenth and eleventh legs are but slightly raised; 
on the mesial surface, proximal end of the third 
segments of these legs is a low, cylindrical process. 

In situ only the medial portion of the appressed 
ventral branches of the gonopods is visible. In 
lateral view (Fig. 21) each gonopod is seen to 
consist of a hamate ventral branch, the end 
sharp and directed laterad, and a shorter, thick, 
dorsal branch terminating in a club. In situ the 
dorsal branches pass between the sternal spine 
and the proximal lobes of the first segment of the 
ninth legs, while the ventral branches pass under 
the distal lobes. 

Length about 16 mm. 

Type locality —Arkansas: Fayetteville; 5 males 
from north end of Mount Kessler, November 10, 
1949, Other Arkansas collections have been made 
at Monte Ne, Benton County; Cane Hill, 
Washington County; and Clarksville, Johnston 
County. 


Tiganogona Chamberlin, emend. 


Tiganogona Chamberlin, Ent. News 39: 154. 1928. 

A recent examination of specimens of T. 
brownae Chamberlin, the genotype, from St. 
Charles, Mo., shows that the very small ninth 
legs were overlooked by Dr. Chamberlin, that he 


VOL. 41, No. 2 


described the tenth legs as the ninth, the eleventh 
as the tenth, and that his reference to a protuber- 
ance on the second joint should be to the third 
joint. Accordingly, the following emendation must 
be made: Differing from Cleidogona in the ninth 
legs of the male, which are smaller, 5-jointed, and 
without a terminal claw; the first segment, the 
largest, is produced ventrally and may be em- 
braced medially by the dorsal branch of the 
gonopod; the second segment is much reduced; 
the third is smaller than the second, and the 
fourth and fifth segments are minute. Each 
gonopod consists of two pieces, a dorsally curved 
ventral branch and a shorter and simpler dorsal 
branch. Although the ninth legs are minute as 
in Ozarkogona, these two genera are readily 
separated by the difference in the number of 
segments and the proportions of the segments 
of the ninth legs. 

T. brownae is represented in the Illinois collec- 
tion by one male from Burton, III. 


Tiganogona moesta, n. sp. 
Figs. 22, 23 


Male holotype-——Color brown above, cream 
below; dorsal segmental setae set in small buff 
maculae; medial and lateral segmental setae set 
in larger, contiguous buff maculae which form a 
longitudinal band; a brown band is below the 
buff one; legs cream proximally, brown distally; 
antennae and vertex of head brown; coelli dark, 
forming a triangular patch, arranged in rows of 
Ils 5 Oy Dy 4h, B, 2 

The ninth legs are so small they could be 
overlooked, but they are made more conspicu- 
ous by the brown pigment on the distal three 
segments. The dorsal branches of the gonopods 
pass between the first segments and come to 
rest on the caudal surface; the lobe on the mesial 
surface of the second segment is almost as large 
as the globular third segment; segment four is 
minute; segment five is slightly larger and with- 
out a claw (Fig. 23). The first segments of the 
tenth and eleventh legs are slightly inflated and 
with the usual gland opening on the mesial sur- 
face; on the tenth legs there is a transverse ridge 
on the cephalic surface of the first segment and 
a rounded lobe on the proximal end of the mesial 
surface of the third segment. 

The ventral branches of the gonopods are 
flattened dorso-ventrally distally and curved 


Fesruary 1951 


gently upward and outward, so that im sitw part 
of the dorsal branches and the first segments of 
the ninth legs are visible between them (Figs 22, 
23). The shorter dorsal branches pass between 
the first segments of the ninth legs and their 
clavate ends rest on the caudal surface of these 
segments. Near their base, the ventral branches 


MILLER AND WINN: FISH FAUNA OF MEXICO 83 


pass closely around a medial knoblike protuber- 
ance that appears to be a sternal process. 

Length about 15 mm. 

Type locality —Arkansas: Carroll County, Blue 
Spring; two males, October 29, 1949. The species 
has been collected at Fayetteville, Washington 
County, also. 


ICHTHYOLOGY .— Additions to the known fish fauna of Mexico: Three species and 
one subspecies from Sonora. Ropert RusH# MiLuer and Howarp E.iiorr 
Winn, Museum of Zoology, University of Michigan. 


During an ichthyolegical survey of the 
Gila River Basin of Arizona, New Mexico, 
and northern Mexico, in the spring of 1950, 
the writers made the first fish collections to 
be recorded from the San Pedro River in 
Mexico. This stream, once a permanent trib- 
utary to Gila River, originates near Cananea 
in northern Sonora, where peaks of the Can- 
anea Range rise to over 8,000 feet. The sur- 
rounding country is open and extremely dry, 
however, and 15 miles distant, at San Pedro 
Ranch, the average annual rainfall for the 
period 1935-1949, inclusive, was only 12 
inches (data kindly supplied by Nicholas 
Sherbakov, San Pedro Ranch). Four col- 
lections were made along the main river and 
in two of its tributaries in the vicinity of 
San Pedro Ranch, which lies on Rio San 
Pedro about 8 miles south of the inter- 
national boundary line. The elevation of the 
ranch is approximately 4,500 feet. 

On September 10, 1948, James R. Simon 
investigated San Bernardino Creek, about 
18 miles east of Douglas, Ariz. This stream 
rises about 2 miles north of the international 
boundary line and then flows south into 
Sonora, Mexico, eventually to join Rio 
Yaqui. About 1 mile below the border he 
took a catfish and a sunfish that constitute 
new records for Mexico. Neither species is 
native to the Republic west of the Con- 
tinental Divide. 

The following species are recorded for the 
first time from Mexico; the specimens are 
deposited in the University of Michigan Mu- 
seum of Zoology: 


Catostomus insignis Baird and Girard 


The Gila coarse-scale sucker was fairly com- 
mon just above the ranch of Don Rafael Elias, 


about 6 miles southwest of San Pedro Ranch, 
where 13 half-grown and 3 large adults (68-112 
and 264-290 mm in standard length) were se- 
cured; only one half-grown (114 mm), seined at 
night, was taken above the large rock dam 2 
to 3 miles west of Elias Ranch. Both localities 
are on a tributary to Rio San Pedro, called 
locally Rio San Rafael, which joins the main 
river about 4 miles upstream from San Pedro 
Ranch. The specimens were collected by the 
authors and Frances H. Miller on April 21-22, 
1950. One large female extruded ripe eggs under 
slight pressure, indicating that spawning was 
imminent or in progress. The water was 73°F., 
the air 85°F. at 3 p. m. 


Tiaroga cobitis Girard 


The loach minnow was taken on April 22 
in Rio San Pedro, at its junction with Rio San 
Rafael, about 4 miles south of San Pedro Ranch. 
Only 4 adults (37 to 48 mm long), from two 
rocky riffles, were secured. One riffle was about 
25 feet long and formed three rivulets each 1 
to 2 feet wide and about 2.5 inches deep. The 
other riffle, which lay at the head of an undercut 
pool, was about 8 feet long, up to 4 inches deep, 
and 2 to 3 feet wide. A long, shallow sandy 
stretch of approximately 140 feet lay between. 
The rocks were covered with a short growth of 
dense green algae and the river was entirely 
exposed to the bright sun. By using derris root, 
we obtained this meager sample of a species 
which undoubtedly was common in the Mexican 
portion of this river before its flow had become so 
drastically reduced. 


Ameiurus melas (Rafinesque) 


Black bullheads abundant along Rio 
San Rafael, just above the ranch of Don Rafael 


Blias and in the large reservoir 2 to 3 miles to 


were 


84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


the west. From one pool 25 feet long, 3 to 12 
feet wide and with a maximum depth of about 
43 feet, well over 125 catfish, mostly young, 
were caught and discarded. This pool was cut 
off by a gravel bar from the main stream, about 
5 feet away, and was maintained by a spring 
seepage at its upper end. In the reservoir this 
species is much fished for by the natives. The 
largest specimen we took there weighed 16 ounces. 
Ameiurus melas evidently was introduced at an 
early date for local testimony indicated that 
these catfish were here in 1906. 

The above material appears to represent the 
form currently called A. m. melas (Rafinesque), 
the northern black bullhead, for it typically has 
shorter spines, a heavier body, and perhaps 
fewer (18 to 21, usually 19 or 20) anal rays than 
the southwestern subspecies. 

The southwestern black bullhead, Ameiwrus 
melas catulus (Girard), was semed by J. R. 
Simon from San Bernardino Creek, 1 mile below 
the United States border, on September 10, 
1943 (3 young to adult, 57-151 mm long). The 
same subspecies was caught on April 8, 1944, ina 
pond that lies } mile below the border and a short 
distance west of San Bernardino Creek (5 adults, 
119-209 mm long), by Marvin Frost and John 
Hendrickson. The anal ray counts of these 8 
fish are 20(8), 21(8), and 22(2); the specimens 
with 20 rays have the elongate dorsal and pec- 
toral spines that are believed to characterize this 
subspecies. 

Two other species, which. certainly once in- 
habited Rio San Pedro in Mexico, were not seen 
by us although we did not work the drainage 
exhaustively. They may still survive in Mexico 
or, if not, they may return to this section of the 
river when (and if) more favorable water condi- 
tions prevail again; both species still occur north 
of the United States-Mexico boundary line in 
the Arizona portion of Rio San Pedro. These 
two species are: Pantosteus clarki (Baird and 
Girard), the Gila mountain sucker, and Meda 
fulgida Girard, the scaleless spinedace. 


vou. 41, No. 2 


Lepomis macrochirus purpurescens Cope 


The southeastern bluegill is represented by 3 
adults (102 to 105 mm long) taken by minnow 
seine in San Bernardino Creek, 1 mile south of 
the United States border, in water up to 4 feet 
deep. The broad and comparatively few vertical 
bars and the 12 anal rays of each specimen con- 
firm the reference to this subspecies, which ranges 
from Florida north to North Carolina. A south- 
western form, Lepomis macrochirus speciosus 
(Baird and Girard) is native to western Texas 
and tributaries of Rfo Grande in northeastern 
Mexico. In this subspecies, the modal number of 
anal rays is 10 and the dark bars are narrower 
and more numerous, as in L. m. macrochirus. 
Evidence that purpurescens is being (or has been) 
distributed was obtained by Carl L. Hubbs on 
June 22, 1938, when he visited the Federal 
hatchery at San Marcos, Tex. There he saw 
and obtained (U. M. M. Z. no. 120240) specimens 
of this subspecies, introduced four years earlier 
from the Federal hatchery at Lake Park, Ga., 
which was being reared and hatched at San 
Marcos for transplantation. In life the soft parts 
of the posterior fins, particularly the anal, are 
reddish on the half-grown. This fish, called locally 
“Georgia bluegill,” was being stocked in prefer- 
ence to the native subspecies because it was said 
to grow faster and take artificial food better. 
Perhaps the San Marcos hatchery was the source 
for the sample taken in Sonora, Mexico. 

Although we worked San Bernardino Creek 
from the international line to approximately 2 
miles below the border, this species was neither 
seen nor collected by us on April 24, 1950. The 
creek was very low, however (almost completely 
dry in the United States), and the population of 
bluegills sampled by Simon either may have 
vanished or may now survive only in the lower 
portion of San Bernardino Creek where water 
was reported to be still abundant. 


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IN® dpi eareyy: KUSH ee cere cet Sie eeera erie eee Cerner eect ee W. F. FosHaa, C. L. Gazin 
“Ne dinintnearey IGS} ee res eee een eee H. P. Barss, A. T. McPHERSON 
pRoManiany O54 cece keene nce dees Sara EH. Branuam, J. A. STEVENSON 
BOCTOMOPMVICNOGETS! fas seas cee eae ases All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Board Gf 1{ctaions cpa! ASSOCTHG JHUHIORS. 2 o000000d088000055005000000008 [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....N. R. Smitru (chairman), WALTER RamBeErG, H. 8. RAPPLEYE, 
J. A. Stevenson, F. M. DEFANDORF 
Committee on Membership............... L. A. SPINDLER (chairman), M. 8. ANDERSON, 
MERRILL BERNARD, R. HE. BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, 
D. B. Jones, Dorotuy Nickerson, F. A. Situ, Heinz Specut, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings......... Marcaret PITTMAN (chairman), NoRMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. CuHapiine, D. J. Davis, F. B. Scoenrz, H. W. Weis 

Committee on Monographs: 


To January 1952.....................J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), Paut H. OEHSER 

IN Ueiwamenray TRS ane ecaam ie o cles SOC Obie Heke eee eiers oa R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 

It diarmmaray ION Se om aie dos eta ciclo Ome al aern mn aera 8. F. Buaxg, F. C. Kracexk 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GuoRGE P. WALTON, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. FABER, JR., 
Myrna F. Jonss, F. W. Poos, J. R. SwaLLen 

For the Engineering Sciences......... R. S. Divx (chairman), ARsHAM AMIRIKIAN, 

J. W. McBurney, Frank Neuman, A. H. Scorr 

For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. Watton (chairman), F. 8S. Bracksrr, 

G. E. Hom, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMititen 

For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BARNEs, 

F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyi, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPHErRson 

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.................2055. L. E. Yocum (chairman), 


M. X. Suuiivan, H. L. WairremMore 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


To darmmbiny IE. Soonosens soueewonnedes J. I. Horrman (chairman), M. A. Mason 

PRoweamn Wetay BLO Oshima pepe Scene ner rate tyencuslcteve auseriaicee & W. A. Dayton, N. R. Smite 

MRO ATINT AT al OSes anes eeucd wees ssdenebenrereyane <5 H. B. Coutins, Jr., W. W. Rupny 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

Rowwanweanyal9 520 eee eens ae. M. A. Mason (chairman), A. T. McPHErRson 

oan arya LO OSHA ae toy. te ovat ceens revs sisoeionee sustaiste Se eve orsanuscecs A. H. Cuarg, F. L. Monier 

BIN Oye) ey We Taya QA ars eeeteene Fe cucaoic seks os actereso viens sxerauetsuere J. M. Catpwstt, W. L. Scumirr 
lipronesayunane Wp, Counc OF Ale Ala Ale Shoococccscng000dcndanaganocaeoac F. M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. Braaten, W. J. YouDEN 


Committee of Tellers...W.G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Mprz, Louise M. Russeuu 


CONTENTS 


B , 4 Page 
ArcHEOLoGY.—A survey of new archeological sites in central Pataz, Peru. 


Prniw Ds CURTING. | seo: Avbdduower teers; 5 ee 49 


PaLEONTOLOGY.—Check list of salinity tolerance of post-Paleozoic fossil 
‘Ostracoda. T.G. SOHN)... 0.2 eee se 64 


Botany.—Peter Wilhelm Lund’s pequi tree at Lagoa Santa and pil- 
grimages to his cemetery. ANNA EH. Jenkins, A. A. Brrancourt, 
K. SILBERSCHMIDT, and W. ANDREW ARCHER.................... .. 66 


ZooLocy.—Notes on the undescribed males of two species of Copepoda. 
S. IKRISHNASWAMY 005s). 00 f eee ee ee te bat oe og 75 


ZooLocy.—New cleidogonid millipeds (Chordeumoidea). Nett B. CausEy 78 
IcutHyoLocy.—Additions to the known fish fauna of Mexico: Three species 


and one subspecies from Sonora. RoprErRT RusH MILLER and Howarp 
ELLIOTT WINN: s 5 2 ciecsic ghd os es Fe ee wet esses coe 83 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Vou. 41 Marca 1951 No. 3 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 41 


March 1951 


No. 3 


ARCHEOLOGY —Additional data on the Denbigh Flint Complex in northern 
Alaska. RaupH S. Soutecki, Bureau of American Ethnology, and Rosperr J. 


Hackman, U.S. Geological Survey. 


Two especially interesting discoveries of 
artifactual data in the region north of the 
Arctic Circle in Alaska were made during 
the summer of 1950. Both are the recovery 
of specimens typologically similar to the 
Denbigh Flint Complex (Giddings, 1949 and 
MS.), an early flint horizon on the north 
Bering Sea (Fig. 1). One discovery was made 
on a lake at the foot of the Brooks Range! 
by the junior author. His finds were sup- 
plemented by those of George Gryc, who, 
like the former, is with the U. 8. Geological 
Survey. 

This report is a preliminary one, since the 
significance of the data in its entirety can 
not be extracted from the evidence at this 
time. However, this is the second area in the 
north to produce the unique, finely worked 
flints and burins in association with a fluted 
point, all of which may be compared with 
the “mesolithic” flints J. L. Giddings, Jr. 
(op. cit.) has recovered at Cape Denbigh. 
The site discussed in this paper is situated on 
Lake Natvakruak, 73 miles north of the 
mouth of Anaktuvuk Pass, which is one of 
the best migration pass routes through the 
Brooks Range Province to the northern slope 
of Alaska (Solecki, 1950, p. 147). The loca- 
tion of this apparently early occupation close 
to Anaktuvuk Pass leads us to believe that 
this mountain breach was probably then in 
use, just as it is still used by the ‘“‘Nunamiut’” 
Eskimos today. The latter people are the 
survivors of the once large group of inland 
Alaskan Eskimos living north of the Brooks 

1 The other site was located by William Irving, 
a student at the University of Alaska, and is near 
Anaktuvuk River in the pass. 

2 The name that these people give themselves 


according to Robert Rausch, U.S. Public Health 
Service. 


Range. The Nunamiut Eskimos at Anaktu- 
vuk Pass know the lake very well, as their 
ancestors had reportedly known it before 
them. Once teeming with edible fish, the lake 
is now of lessened importance because the 
numbers of fish have decreased. It is sus- 
pected that an ecological change has caused 
this. 

The lake as well as the occupations was 
definitely postglacial, since they lay in a 
morainal area.’ The artifacts were recovered 
close to the surface, barely at the base of 
the tundra roots. The small accumulation 
of soil covering on the site is accounted for 
by a set of interrelated factors, namely, a 
very low annual precipitation (5-7 inches), 
the frigidity of the climate most of the year, 
a very little erosion, and little deposition 
of humus because of scant vegetal life. 

The field party that the junior author ac- 
companied made camp upon the lake shore 
between August 4 and 14, 1950. During 
about three days of this time he found op- 
portunity to check the area for archeological 
data. Actually two occupational areas were 
discovered, called here for convenience, sites 
1 and 2. These were almost at opposite ends 
of the nearly mile long oblong-shaped Lake 
Natvakruak. One site (no. 1) was situated 
at the northern end, and the other (no. 2) 
was near the southern end. A narrow tor- 
tuous stream outlet drains the lake at the 
northeast corner to the Sik-Sik-Puk River, 
thence to the Chandler and Colville Rivers 

3 Recent Carbon-14 dating of the glacial re- 
cession as of about 12,000 vears ago for the Mid- 
west of the United States (Anonymous, 1950, 
p. 243) presents us with a clue to the greatest 
possible age of these northern finds. In effect, 
the archeological guess dates appear to be tele- 
scoped or shortened by this atomic age method. 


APR 9 - ig5y 


86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


north to the Arctic Ocean. In search for 
clues to possible old strand lines, it was 
revealed that there are evidences of former 
beaches 4 to 6 feet higher than the normal 
lake level. These beach lines are no guar- 
antee of antiquity, however, since the out- 
let may be seasonally choked with ice and 
debris during the spring break-up of the 
ice which would cause the lake level to rise. 
Indeed, the lake seems to be contained within 
the same limits as at the time of the oldest 
occupation there. 

Site 1 lay strung along the top of a small 
morainal ridge which dammed the lake. Sev- 
enteen features were found there, including 
tent rings of stone and cut caribou antlers, 
fire hearths, and similar occupational evi- 
dence, mostly of recent date. Artifacts of 
chipped stone were rare, only 40 chert flakes 
and 3 classifiable stone artifacts having been 
recovered from this site. These specimens 


von. 41, No. 3 


were found in a longitudinal area of about 
180 yards long, or one-third of the extent 
of the site. One of the artifacts, a broad 
black chert flake, was serrated around the 
perimeter (Fig. 2, /). 

The remainder of the stone artifacts were 
found at site 2. This was a narrow morainal 
peninsula 400 yards long that jutted into 
the lake approximately three-fourths of a 
mile to the south and west of site 1. Stone 
artifacts were found in two concentrations 
upon the peninsula. Stone flakes occurred 
generally broadcast over the area. No stone 
tent circles were observed on the peninsula 
proper, although three stone circles were 
found on the mainland. There were also 
indications of recent Eskimo occupations 
on the peninsula and mainland, none of 
which should be confused with the evidence 
of earlier habitat. 

It was beneath the surface-covering of 


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Fic. 1.—Map of northern Alaska showing the locations of Cape Denbigh and Lake Natvakruak. 


Marcu 1951 SOLECKI AND HACKMAN: 


tundra, at a depth of about 5 to 10 inches, 
that the majority of the specimens resem- 
bling the Denbigh Flint Complex artifacts 
were found. Even though most of the data 
were recovered closer to the 10-inch depth, 
this shallowness of deposit contrasts with 
the approximately 7-foot depth at Cape Den- 
bigh where Giddings (op. cit.) recovered 


(00) 
~J 


DENBIGH FLINT 


COMPLEX 


ik, which are typologically similar to the Denbigh 


« 
c 


Flint Complex. 


Representative archeological specimens found at Lake Natvakru 


1D) 


ia. 


his flints. Assuming that there had been no 
time lag in occupation, we can only believe 
that the mechanics of soil formation may 
have been slower in progression north of the 
Brooks Range. 

Of the 97 artifacts submitted to the senior 
author for study, 80 are identifiable with 
Giddings’ early flint horizons. All these arti- 


88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


facts are of locally derived chert, with the 
exception of 11 lamellar flakes of obsidian. 
Among the finds are the following: one semi- 
polyhedral core from the forward end of 
which were struck lamellar flakes (Fig. 2, a), 
lamellar flakes represented by (Fig. 2, b) and 
(Fig. 2, c), the latter being of obsidian, 
thin curved spawl detached from a finished 
flint edge (Fig. 2, d), a large convex blade 
of ovate shape (Fig. 2, ec), convex end blades 
(Fig. 2, f), finely worked side and end blades 
(Fig. 2, g, h), a convex stemmed blade which 
shows attritional wear (Fig. 2, 7), a long- 
stemmed blade with a broken point showing 
attritional wear on the blade (Fig. 2, 7). 
Fig. 2, k, illustrates a group of 4 out of 13 
artifacts classifiable as burins—a diagnostic 
trait of the Denbigh Flint Complex. Only 
one of the burins recovered shows wear from 
purposeful use as a burin. These artifacts 
were originally side and end scrapers, show- 
ing attritional wear on one or more edged 
sides. Their preparation for use as burins 
was therefore a new functional adaptation. 
Flakes were expertly struck off parallel to 
the long axis at the distal end, forming a 
series of steplike niches in one corner. Among 
the remainder of the illustrated artifacts 
are a serrated flake (Fig. 2, /) which was 
found at site 1, two end scrapers (Fig. 2, m), 
and the poit end of a projectile point, 
fluted on both surfaces (Fig. 2, 7). It is to 
be recalled that Giddings (MS.) has also 
found a fluted projectile point in his recent 
excavations at Cape Denbigh associated with 


vou. 41, No. 3 


artifacts of this complex. At present the 
associations of Folsom with the Denbigh 
Flint Complex are not clear. Although Fol- 
som points do occur in Alaska, no actual 
sites of Folsom occupation like those on the 
western plains of the United States have 
yet been found in the north. 

Of considerable importance is the fact 
that we have another stepping stone in the 
chain of evidence of an ancient trail leading 
from the Bering Straits area into the heart 
of North America. This trail is now more 
literally than figuratively true, since Anaktu- 
vuk Pass is one of the few good through 
routes connecting the Colville River drain- 
age on the north with the drainages flowing 
on the south side of the Brooks Range. This 
evidence, consolidated with other as yet un- 
published archeological data on the north 
slope, bids fair to making this area one of 
the better archeologically known parts in 
Alaska. 


LITERATURE CITED > 


New age for American Man. Sci- 
(16): 243. Oct. 14, 


ANONYMOUS. 
ence News Letter 58 
1950. 

Gippines, J. L., Jr. Early flint horizons on the 
north Bering Sea coast. Journ. Washing- 
ton Acad. Sci. 39 (3): 85-90. 1949. 

Recent finds at Cape Denbigh. Paper 
presented at annual meeting of American 
Anthropological Association, New York, 1949. 
MS. 

SoLEckI, Rateu §S. New 
Eskimo of northern Alaska. 
ton Acad. Sei. 40 (5): 137-157. 


data on the Inland 
Journ. Washing- 
1950. 


ENTOMOLOGY.—Dinoponera gigantea (Perty), a vicious stinging ant. H. A. 


ALLARD, Washington, D. C. 


From late October 1949 until the second 
week in March 1950 I was in Tingo Maria 
and other points in eastern Peru collecting 
herbarium specimens, insects, and other 
natural-history material for the Smithsonian 
Institution at Washineton, D. C. 

Tingo Maria is a small jungle-town in the 
rain-forest region on the east slope of the 
Andes. It is situated in a most beautiful and 
picturesque little mountain-enclosed tropical 
valley through which the Huallaga River 
flows, forming one of the important tribu- 
taries of the great Amazon. 


During my botanical explorations of the 
area I spent much time in the dense tropical 
jungles and deep ravines along the high 
ridges just east and west of Tingo Maria. 
Hardly had I arrived there when I made the 
acquaintance of the huge, black stinging ant 
Dinoponera gigantea. | found it wandering 
about everywhere on the trails and through- 
out the jungle generally. It is a handsome, 
shining black insect an inch or more in 
length and fears no one. My first actual - 
contact with this vicious ant was a most 
painful one. Early one afternoon I attempted 


Marcu 1951 


to pick one up as a specimen to transfer it 
to my killing bottle by using several folds of 
my handkerchief. In spite of this I received 
a severe thrust of its powerful sting into the 
end of my index finger. The pain was soon 
excruciating and lasted until well into the 
night, So severe was the pain that at times 
my hand trembled. The next day there were 
redness and swelling, but no other local 
symptoms were present. The redness and 
swelling soon subsided, but a small black 
spot penetrating deep into the tissues re- 
mained at the site of the puncture for a week 
or more. 

Some weeks later I had a far more painful 
experience with this ant. I had been explor- 
ing the jungle away from the trail, trudging 
through the humus and herbage of the prim- 
itive forest, wearing a pair of low canvas 
tennis shoes of Peruvian manufacture. Some- 
how I had stepped into or disturbed a colony 
of these huge ants as I sank into a bed of 
humus and fallen leafage beside an old decay- 
ing log. Two of the ants stung me at the 
ankle, and in a short time I was in the throes 
of an agony of burning pain—a pain such as 
I have never experienced before, nor ever 
care to repeat as an experience. This was 
early in the afternoon and at suppertime, 
6 p.m., the pain was so intense that I could 
not keep my foot quiet for any length of 
time but was forced even to walk about. It 
had become a most excruciating, throbbing, 
burning pain and lasted far into the might 
until sleep intervened. Next morning the 
pain was nearly gone, but redness, swelling, 
and tenderness of the ankle persisted for 
some days. As in the former instance there 
was no evidence of any local effect on the 
punctured tissues. 

Weeks later while attempting to gather 
blossoms of a liana on a tree trunk about 6 
feet from the ground I placed my right hand 
on another of these ants and received a sting 
in the end of my middle finger. As usual the 
pain was intense and persisted for many 
hours with redness and swelling, but no local 
effects developed as in the two previous 
cases. 

Some months later my son’s little boy, 
not much over three years old, accompanied 
by his father, was paddling in the little brook 
near the house and playing in the sand on 


ALLARD: DINOPONERA GIGANTEA 89 


the bank. Suddenly there was a piercing 
shriek, for he had spied one of these big ants 
and with a child’s curiosity had picked it 
up, with a resulting severe sting. His suffer- 
ing was most intense, for he had been stung 
in the bali of the thumb. There was nothing 
one could do to quiet him, and he screamed 
until far into the evening when sleep finally 
dulled his sensibilities. Next morning there 
was some redness but no local effects were 
noticeable. He had, however, learned a most 
painful lesson, and these ants and other 
insects were regarded with great suspicion 
thereafter. 

The next victim was my son’s cocker 
spaniel, Rusty. This friendly little animal 
often accompanied me into the deep jungles. 
On the day in question we had followed 
nearly a mile up a steep trail, the little dog 
trotting along contentedly just ahead of me. 
Suddenly it gave a Jump and assumed a most 
crestfallen air, rolling around and biting at 
a hind foot. It had stepped upon one of 
these stinging ants and at once showed signs 
of great pain. It no longer had any interest 
in the trip and suddenly bolted down the 
trail for home on three legs. I felt responsible 
for its welfare, so turned back to the house. 
I found the dog lying on the grass in the 
backyard and in great pain. It held its hind 
foot in the air and kicked and bit at it from 
time to time. The animal was whining and 
trembling like a leaf and could not remain 
still. This behavior continued until well into 
the evening, hours after it had received the 
sting. Next day some swelling was evident, 
but no further effects were noticeable. 

Neal A. Weber has published accounts of 
his experiences with the sting of another 
large ant, Paraponera clavata (Fabricius), in 
Venezuela, first in 1937 in the paper ‘‘The 
Sting of an Ant” (Amer. Journ. Trop. Med. 
17 (5). 1937) and later in ‘‘The Sting of the 
Ant, Paraponera clavata” (Science, Feb. 10, 
1939, pp. 127-128). In the first mstance he 
was stung on the knee, and blisters formed 
at the site. These local effects persisted for 
at least a week and the area was red 19-20 
days after the sting was received. In my own 
ase there were no local disturbances such 
as blisters and no systemic effects, as in 
Weber’s experiences. It is probable that dif- 
ferent individuals may show marked ditfer- 


90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


ences in their physiological reactions to these 
stings. 

Throughout the tropical rain forests the 
natives are very familiar with both ants, 
and are very fearful of their vicious stings. 
In his book Ant Hill Odyssey (1948, p. 91), 
Dr. Wiliam M. Mann says that to the 
natives in Brazil Dinoponera grandis (a syn- 
onym of gigantea) is known as ‘‘tocandero,”’ 
and they claim that its sting causes a fever. 

I was told by natives at Tingo Maria that 
the sting of Dinoponera gigantea has put 
people in bed and that it can prove fatal. It 
is much dreaded in this area, as well as else- 
where in those regions where its range 
extends. According to Weber, in the papers 
cited, the sting of Paraponera clavata is con- 
sidered to be fatal, and it is designated by 
the natives as “vente cuatro hormiga,” or 
24-hour ant, because one is thought to die 
in 24 hours after being stung. As is usual in 
such instances, the native mind is prone to 
gross exaggerations, although it is possible 
that allergic individuals may sometimes suf- 
fer very severe reactions, both local and 
systemic, for this actually occurs in the case 
of simple wasp and bee stings in our own 
country. 

My son has two small, white-faced native 
monkeys in a large cage outdoors at Tingo 
Maria, and these are mortally afraid of the 
large stinging ants. Often I have seen these 
ants wandering about on the ground in the 
‘age. The little monkeys take to their perch 
at once and eye the ants below them with 
every evidence of profound fear, and well 
they may. 

The workers and larger queens are equip- 
ped with a sting. Both Dinoponera gigantea 
and Paraponera clavata are ground-inhabit- 
ing species, and I have never seen them very 
far from the ground on tree trunks in the 
jungle. They are usually seen wandering 
singly over the trails and jungle floor, and 
can be met with almost anywhere in such 
situations. These ants appear to be predaci- 
ous hunting species, for on several occasions 
I have seen individuals of Dinoponera gigan- 


vot. 41, No. 3 


fea roaming about with grasshoppers, spiders, 
and other arthropods in their mandibles 
which, presumably, they had captured. 

It would be a nice problem for a good 
organic chemist ‘to study the nature of the 
venom injected by such ants, as well as that 
of various bees and wasps. It is known that 
the venom of different poisonous snakes is 
far from being of identical composition, and 
such may be the case with the stinging ants 
and bees. It may well be something more 
than a mere quantitative difference con- 
cerned with simple formic acid. Perhaps 
there are qualitative differences as in the 
case of the complex venoms of different 
species of snakes. 

In my own experience the effects of the 
sting of Dinoponera gigantea have differed 
somewhat from the stings of bees and wasps 
in our own country and in the Tropics, and 
I have been stung by many species of our 
larger wasps, hornets, and bees and have 
been bitten by some spiders. Usually there is 
a more localized puffing up or swelling at 
the immediate site of the puncture or bite, 
and this may assume a paler or whiter 
appearance than the normal skin shows. 
These ants have never produced such effects 
in my own experience, but only a generalized 
redness and swelling, with an intense pain of 
quite different character. There is one differ- 
ence in the nature of the puncture of this 
ant. Its stinging organ is exceedingly long 
and consequently it appears to be thrust 
more deeply into the tissues. From the ex- 
ceptional intensity of the pain one must 
conclude that a relatively large dosage of 
venom is present, though the constituents 
are unknown. Whatever the character of the 
venom may be, Dinoponera gigantea! is an 
ant that brooks no familiarity and is one to 
avoid, owing to the excruciating pain of its 
powerful sting. 

1 Students of the species have recognized vari- 
etal forms, but I am using the name in a broad 
sense. I am indebted to M.R. Smith, U.S. Bureau 
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, for ant 


identifications and for suggesting references to Dr. 
Weber’s observations. 


Marcy 1951 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 91 


ZOOLOGY .—A revision of the nomenclature of the Gorgoniidae (Coelenterata: Octo- 
corallia), with an illustrated key to the genera. Frepertck M. Bayer, U. S. 


National Musuem. 


A superficial inquiry into the nomencla- 
ture of the Gorgoniidae was sufficient to 
reveal a state of confusion in the systematics 
of that family. Thorough search was there- 
fore begun in order to discover the origin 
of this confusion and means of its clarifica- 
tion. Apparently, the principal source of 
error has been the acceptance of incorrect 
genotypes, without considering the earliest 
valid designations. 

The latest revision of the Gorgoniidae was 
undertaken by Miss Eva Bielschowsky, a 
student of the noted zoophytologist Willy 
Kuikenthal. Her preliminary study, prepared 
as a doctoral dissertation, was published in 
1918; considerably expanded, it appeared 
again in 1929. In these works, Miss Biel- 
schowsky unfortunately overlooked the early 
type designations of Milne Edwards and 
Haime and A. E. Verrill. These oversights 
were in some cases of little consequence, but 
the correction of two of them will greatly 
affect modern concepts of gorgoniid nomen- 
clature. 

The classification proposed in Miss Biel- 
schowsky’s thesis has been accepted without 
question in late years, and the incorrect 
name combinations used therein have be- 
come familiar. However, I feel that asking 
for a suspension of the International Rules 
of Zoological Nomenclature to preserve these 
combinations resulting from superficial re- 
search is not warranted by the limited’ zoo- 
logical interest and importance of the gor- 
gonids. 

The two changes necessary are the sup- 
pression of Rhipidigorgia Valenciennes, 1855, 
as a synonym of Gorgonia Linné, 1758, the 
genotype of both being Gorgonia flabellum 
Linné; and of Xiphigorgia Milne Edwards 
and Haime, 1857, as a synonym of Ptero- 
gorgia Ehrenberg, 1834, the genotype of both 
being Gorgonia anceps Pallas. 

The disappearance of the name Rhipidi- 
gorgia could have been prevented had Miss 
Bielschowsky taken the proper precautions 
in her revision. Furthermore, the name 
Xiphigorgia could have been synonymized 
before it had an opportunity to become well 
established in the modern literature. 


To summarize the history of this con- 
fusion: Linné’s genus Gorgonia, 1758, was a 
heterogeneous collection of nine species: G. 
spiralis, ventalina, flabellum, antipathes, cera- 
tophyta, pinnata, aenea, placomus, and abies. 
Of these, three (spiralis, aenea, and abies) 
are antipatharians and do not concern us 
here; one (antipathes) is a plexaurid and one 
(placomus) a muriceid, and were removed 
from Gorgonia by Lamouroux and Ehren- 
berg respectively. In 1834, Ehrenberg 
created Pterogorgia for eight species includ- 
ing Gorgonia acerosa Pallas, G. fasciolaris 
Hsper (var. of cztrina) and G. anceps Pallas. 
In 1850, Milne Edwards and Haime desig- 
nated G. anceps as the type of Pterogorgia. 
In 1855, Valenciennes proposed the genus 
Rhipidigorgia tor those species with anasto- 
mosing branches, but failed to designate a 
type species. Then, in 1857, Milne Edwards 
and Haime established Xzphigorgia for one 
species with trialate and another with whip- 
like branches, Gorgonia anceps Pallas and 
G. setacea Pallas, the first of which they 
had already selected as the type of Ptero- 
gorgia. At the same time these authors 
erected Leptogorgia for several species of 
slender-branched gorgoniids, but, as in 
Xiphigorgia, tailed to indicate a type species. 
Prof. A. E. Verrill in 1868%established with- 
out a type species the genus Litigorgia for 
several species of gorgoniids including two 
with anastomosing branches and five with 
free branches. In a later paper in the same 
year, he designated G. flabellum Linné as 
the type of Gorgona, G. acerosa Pallas as 
the type of Pterogorgia (overlooking Milne 
Edwards and Haime’s selection of G. anceps 
as the type of that genus), L. florae Verrill 
as the type of Lategorgia, and Gorgonia vimi- 
nalis Pallas sensw Milne Edwards and 
Haime as the type of Leptogorgia. A status 
quo obtained until 1918, when Miss Biel- 
schowsky stated in her revision that G. fla- 
bellum was the type of Rhipidigorgia, thereby 
making it an absolute synonym of Gorgonia. 
Had she realized that Verrill already had 
used that species as the type of Gorgonia, 
she might have preserved Rhipidigorgia by 
a judicious choice of genotype species. 


vou. 41, No. 3 


SCIENCES 


ACADEMY OF 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


92 


two lateral rows along stems and branches; low 
verrucae present or absent. Anthocodial arma- 


ture usually a weak crown of small, more or less 


GORGONIIDAE 


Diagnosis.—Holaxonians with branching usu- 


ine, lateral or pinnate, alternate or 


ully in one pl 


flattened rods or spindles which are either warted 


« 
c 


‘ 
c 


opposite; anastomosis of the twigs present or 


or practically smooth. Spicules of the coenen- 
chyma are spindles with regular transverse belts 
of warts, reaching 0.3 mm in length; spindles 


illy infrequent or absent at 


« 
c 


Zooids usu 


ubsent. 
the b 


‘ 
c 


in 


o 
fo} 


« 
te 


ise of colony, and ordinarily occurring 


= 
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Marcu 1951 


with the warts fused to form disks, and peculiar 
bent spindles (scaphoids) occur in certain genera. 
Axis horny, with little or no loculation of the 
cortex. 

Remarks.—The genus Swiftia Duchassaing and 
Michelotti, 1860 (monotype Gorgonia exserta Ellis 
and Solander) [=Stenogorgia Verrill, 1888 (S. 
casta Verrill) =Callistephanus Wright and Studer 
(C. korent Wright and Studer)| should be trans- 
ferred to the family Muriceidae. 


Genus Gorgonia Linné 


Gorgonia (part) Linné, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 
1: 800. [Type G. flabellum L., subs. des. Verrill, 
1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1; 386.] 

not Gorgonia Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 
32; Kiikenthal, 1919, Wiss. Ergeb. deutschen 
Tiefsee-Exped. 13 (2): 852; Kiikenthal, 1924, 
Das Tierreich 47: 338; Deichmann, 1936, Mem. 
Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 174. 

Rhipidigorgia (part) Valenciennes, 1855, C. R. 
Acad. Sci. Paris 41: 13. [Type, G. flabellum L., 
subs. des. Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 
49] 

Rhipidogorgia [sic] Duchassaing and Michelotti, 
1860, Mém. corall. Antill.: 33; Kiikenthal, 1916, 
Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. 11: 485; Bielschowsky, 
1918, Revis. Gorg.: 49; Kiikenthal, 1919, Wiss. 
Ergeb. deutschen Tiefsee-Exped. 13 (2): 853; 
Kiikenthal, 1924, Das Tierreich 47: 350; Deich- 
mann, 1936, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 192. 


Diagnosis—Colonies with branching in one 
plane developed as one or more flat fans; twigs 
closely anastomosed to form a regular network. 
Zooids in two lateral rows on the twigs, either 
with very low verrucae or retracting flush with 
the coenenchyma surface; anthocodial armature 
of weakly sculptured rods. Coenenchyma spicules 
as girdled spindles and stout scaphoids. 

Genotype —Gorgonia flabellum Linné, 
(subsequent designation: A. E. Verrill, 
Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1: 386). 


1758 
1868, 


Gorgonia flabellum Linné 
Fiz. 1 


Frutex marinus elegantissimus Clusius, 1605, Exo- 
ticorvm: 120 fig. 

Planta marina retiformis Olearius, 1674, Gottorf. 
Kunst-Kamm.: 69, pl. 35, fig. 2. 

Planta retiformis maxima + Frutex marinus major 
Lochner, 1716, Rar. mus. Besl.: 78, 79, pl. 24 

Flabellum Veneris Ellis, 1755, Essay nat. hist. 
corallines: 61, pl. 26, fig. K. 


Gorgonia flabellum Linné, 1758, Syst. Nat., ed. 10, 


1: 801; Esper, 1791, Pflanzenthiere 2: 23, pls. 
2-3a; Verrill, 1869, Amer. Journ. Sei. 48: 424; 
Hargitt and Rogers, 1901, Bull. U. S. Fish. 


Comm. 20 (2): 287, pl. 3, fig. 3. 
Rhipidigorgia flabellum Valenciennes, 1855, C. R. 
Acad. Sci. Paris 41: 13 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 93 


Rhipidogorgia [sic] flabellum Duchassaing and 
Michelotti, 1860, Mém. corall. Antill.: 33; Ki- 
kenthal, 1916, Zool. Jahrb., Supp. 11: 485; 
Kiikenthal, 1924, Das Tierreich 47: 350, fig. 
180; Bielschowsky, 1929, Zool. Jahrb., Supp. 
16: 194. 


The name by which this species was known 
for many years is hereby restored. Gorgonia 
flabellum was among the first objects of curiosity 
brought back from the New World, and pub- 
lished records of it date back well over 300 years. 
The accompanying illustration of it, perfectly 
recognizable, was published in 1622. 

Valenciennes’ genus Rhipidigorgia was origi- 
nally proposed to include’ all gorgonians with 
anastomosing branches. The characters used for 
generic distinction in the time of Valenciennes 
were necessarily the gross morphological fea- 
tures which could be observed without complex 
optical devices. The importance of the calcareous 
spicules had not even been guessed, and as a 
result it can now be recognized that the original 
concept of Rhipidigorgia included at least three 
genera as distinguished by modern methods. 
The three groups of species include (1) Rhidipt- 
gorgia umbraculum [now in Gorgonella]; (2) R. 
stenobrochis, arenata and cribrum [usually placed 
in Gorgonia|; and (3) R. flabellum, coarctata and 
occatoria [considered to be Rhidipigorgia s.s.]. 
An eighth species, R. laqueus Valenciennes (a 
nomen nudum), is still unrecognizable even as 
to genus, although according to Milne Edwards 
and Haime (1857) it may be Gorgonia sasappo 
var. reticulata Esper (=Echinogorgia pseudo-sa- 
sappo Kolliker). Verrill in 1864 shifted R. wmbra- 
culum to the genus Gorgonella, and in 1868 made 
R. flabellum (.) the type of the original Lin- 
naean Gorgoma. This procedure left Rhipidigorgia 
with only three species, R. stenobrochis, arenata 
and cribrum. When Bielschowsky in 1918, ap- 
parently unaware of Verrill’s earlier action, con- 
sidered R. flabellum as the type species of Rhipi- 


digorgia, she restricted the generic concept to 
include only those forms with reticulating 


branches and secaphoid spicules and made _ it 
synonymous with the Linnaean Gorgonia as re- 
stricted by Verrill. Valenciennes’ remaining spe- 
cles, R. and ‘eribrum have 
therefore been excluded from all deseribed gor- 
gontid genera. Although R. stenobrochis at various 
times has been placed in Leptogorgia, Litigorgra 
and Hugorgia, as limited by the 
designation of their type species cannot include 


stenobrochis, arenata 
those genera 


these three orphan species and the related forms 
subsequently described by Verrill and Hiekson. 


94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


These reticulate gorgoniids lacking scaphoid spic- 
ules therefore require a new genus, for which 
the name Pacifigorgia is here proposed. 


Pacifigorgia, n. gen. 


Rhipidigorgia (part) Valenciennes, 1855, C. R. 
Aead. Sei. Paris 41: 13; Verrill, 1864, Bull. Mus. 
Comp. Zool. 1: 32 (part). 

Litigorgia (part) + Eugorgia (part) Verrill, 1868, 
Amer. Journ. Sei. 45: 414. 

Leptogorgia (part) Verrill, 
Sei. 48: 420. 

Gorgonia Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 32; 
Kiikenthal, 1919, Wiss. Ergeb. deutschen Tief- 
see-Exped. 13 (2): 852; Kiikenthal, 1924, Das 
Tierreich 47: 338; Bielschowsky, 1929, Zool. 
Jahrb. Supp. 16: 141; Deichmann, 1936, Mem. 
Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 174. 


1869, Amer. Journ. 


Diagnosis.—Colony flabellate, branched in one 
plane; the twigs regularly anastomosing to form 
a close network. Zocids retracting within low 
verrucae or flush with the surface of the coenen- 
chyma; anthocodial armature of more or less 
flattened rods usually present. Spicules of the 
coenenechyma are girdled spindles, including: long, 
more or less pointed forms with several belts 
of warts; and short, blunt forms with only 2-4 
belts of warts (‘“‘double heads”’). 

Genotype—Gorgonia stenobrochis Valencien- 
nes =Pacifigorgia stenobrochis (Val.), n. comb., 
here designated. 


Fic. 2.—Pacifigorgia irene, n. gen., n 


vou. 41, No. 3 


Remarks.—This genus includes all those retic- 
ulate forms from the west coast of Central and 
South America previously known as Gorgonia. 
Except for one species from Trinidad and Brazil 
(P. elegans (Duch. & Mich.) =Gorgonia hartti 
Verrill), Pacifigorgia is confined to the eastern 
Pacific, from the Gulf of California to Peru. 
The generic name is chosen to indicate this 
predominantly Pacific distribution of the genus. 


Pacifigorgia irene, n. sp. 
Figs. 2,3 
Leptogorgia adamsii (part) Verrill, 1868, Trans. 
Connecticut Acad. 1: 391. 

Gorgonia media? Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. 
Gorg.: 38; 1929, Zool. Jahrb., Supp. 16: 147. 
Gorgonia media Galtsoff, 1950, Special Sei. Rep. 

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Serv. 28: 27. 


Diagnosis —The colonies form large, broad, 
finely reticulate fans crossed by several very 
stout main branches which can be followed to 
within 2 or 3 cm of the free edge. Zooids occur 
chiefly along the outer edges of the anastomosed 
twigs, and are retractile with small, often 
bilabiate verrucae. Spicules of the coencenhyma 
are long, pointed spindles 0.1—0.13 mm long, 
and short, blunt “double heads” up to 0.075 
mm long; these sclerites are red, yellow or color- 
less. Anthocodial armature a weak crown of flat 
“rods” with broadly scalloped edges, reaching 


. sp. The holotype, about one-fourth natural size. 


Marcu 1951 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 95 


Fic. 3.—a-p, Pacifigorgia irene, n.gen., n.sp.: a, Detail of branching; b-f, long spindles; g-k, short 


spindles or ‘‘double heads’’; [-o0, flat, anthocodial sclerites; p, small capstan from anthocodia. 
Pacifigorgia adamsi (Verrill): Anthocodial sclerites. 


to p only; 0.1-mm scale to all others. 


0.05 mm in length, and small, spindly capstans 
about 0.04 mm long; these spicules are usually 
colorless, but a few may be tinted pink. Color 
of colony rusty purplish red. 

Description.—The type is a broad, flat fan 
about 35 em high and 63 em broad. (A part of 
the colony has been cut away, and its total width 
probably exceeded 70 em.) The twigs are very 
slender, closely and regularly anastomosed to 
form a network of small, squarish meshes 1.5-2.0 


q-u, 
3.0-mm scale applies to a only; 0.03-mm scale 


mm in diameter. Several stout main branches 
flattened in the plane of ramification arise from 
the base and radiate outward across the fan, 
branching occasionally and diminishing in diam 
eter slowly, losing themselves in the meshwork 
only 2 or 3 em from the edge of the colony. 
Zooids do not occur on the flat outer faces o! 
the midribs, but are found in a row along the 
line where the twigs are given off on either side 
The anastomosing twigs are flattened at right 


96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 


angles to the plane of the fan, and along their 
outer edges the zooids form small, hemispherical, 
often bilabiate verrucae; two zooids usually occur 
on the tips of the free, unanastomosed twig ends, 
which are up to 5 mm in length. The color of the 
colony is a rusty purplish red, fading to an ochre 
yellow in some places along the edge of the fan. 

The spicules of the coenenchyma are of two 
types: (1) long, pointed spindles with a promi- 
nent naked girdle and 4-6 belts of warts, reach- 
ing 0.13 mm in length; and (2) short, blunt 
spindles or “double heads” also with a median 
naked space, but with only two belts of warts 
and terminal tufts, reaching about 0.075 mm. 
The coenenchyma spicules are usually red, but a 
few are colorless. In the yellow areas of the 
colony they are mostly pale yellow. The spicules 
of the anthocodia are flat rods with widely 
scalloped margins, reaching about 0.05 mm in 
length. These spicules are almost always color- 
less, but a few may be tinted with pink. There 
are also a few weak, long-armed capstans, which 
are colorless. 

Holotype—U.8.N.M. no. 49365. Punta Paja- 
ron, Panama, lat. 7° 55’ N., long. 81° 38’ W.; 
March 11, 1948, Paul S. Galtsoff, collector. 

Records.—Golfo de Nicoya, Costa Rica; March 
1927, M. Valerio, collector (49379); Costa Rica 
no definite locality (383611). 

Remarks.—Pacifigorgia irene is perfectly dis- 
tinct from P. adamsii (Verrill), with which it 
was originally meluded. Verrill’s remarks about 
“adult specimens” (1868, Trans. Connecticut 
Acad.1:391) refer to thisspecies. Theseveral speci- 
mens of P. adamsu in the Museum of Compara- 
tive Zoology and those in the U. 8. National Mu- 
seum are uniformly small colonies, as are a 
number of the original specimens in Verrill’s 
collection in the Peabody Museum at Yale Uni- 
versity. Unfortunately, the latter have not been 
available for spicular examination, but all are 
of such uniform outer appearance that I have 
no hesitancy im considering them the same. 
The mesh of P. adamsti is about the same as 
that of the new species, but it lacks any trace 
of strong midribs, and the color is purple or 
yellow rather than the rusty purplish red charac- 
teristic of P. irene. In addition, the anthocodial 
spicules of the two species are distinct. Those of 
P. wrene are flat, broad, and almost always color- 
less; those of P. adamsti are round or but little 
flattened, slender, longer than those of P. irene, 
and almost always clear, pale yellow. Figures 
of the anthocodial spicules from both species 


SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 3 . 
are given in order to make the differences clear. 
The coenenchymal spicules differ less, but seem 
to be a little longer in P. adamsii. 

The specific name is chosen from the Greek 
word eipnvn, peace, in keeping with the deriva- 
tion of the generic term Pacifigorgia. 


Genus Pterogorgia Ehrenberg 
Gorgonia (part) Pallas, 1766, Elench. Zooph.: 160. 
Pterogorgia (part) Ehrenberg, 1834, Abh. Kénigl. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1832 (pt. 1): 368. [Type G. 
anceps Pallas, subs. des.: Milne Edwards and 
Haime, 1850, Brit. Foss. Corals: Ixxx.] 
Xiphigorgia (part) Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 171; Kiikenthal, 1916, 
Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. 11: 491 (part); Bielsechow- 
sky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 62; Kiikenthal, 1924, 
Das Tierreich 47: 357 (part); Deichmann, 1936, 
Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 200. [Type, G. 
anceps Pallas, subs. des.: Bielschowsky, 1918, 
Revis. Gorg.: 62.] 


Diagnosis—Colonies more or less richly 
branched, mostly laterally; branches strongly 
compressed, triangular, or square; zooids in longi- © 
tudinal furrows on the edges of rather high, thin 
coenenchymal ridges running along two, three 
or four sides of the stems and branches. Zooids 
small; anthocodial armature a weak crown con- 
sisting of 8 tracts of flattened rods. Coenen- 
chyma with stout, strongly warted spindles and 
blunt scaphoids. 

Genotype—Gorgoma anceps Pallas (by sub- 
sequent designation: Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1850, Brit. Foss. Corals: Ixxx). 

Remarks.—This genus includes three’ certain 
and one doubtful species, all Antillean. The 
valid species are: 


Pterogorgia anceps (Pallas) 


Corallina fruticosa, ramulis & cauliculis compres- 
Sis, quaquaversum expansis, purpurers elegantiss- 
imis Sloane, 1707, Voyage to Jamaica: 57, pl. 
22, fig. 4. 

Gorgonia anceps Pallas, 1766, Elench. Zooph.: 
183; Verrill, 1869, Amer. Journ. Sei. 48: 425. 

Pterogorgia anceps Ehrenberg, 1834, Abh. Koénigl. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1832 (pt. 1): 369. 

Gorgonia (Pterogorgia) anceps Dana, 1846, U. 8. 
Expl. Exped. 7: 648. 

NXiphigergia anceps Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 172; Kikenthal, 1924, 
Das Tierreich 47: 357 (part); Deichmann, 1936, 
Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 201. 


This is the common, large, purple or yellowish 
species with branches square or triangular in 
cross section. Its branches are never so broad ~ 
and flat as in P. guadalupensis Duchassaing and 
Michelin. 


Marcu 1951 


Pterogorgia citrina (Esper) 


Gorgonia citrina Esper, 1792, Pflanzenthiere 2: 
129, pl. 38; Verrill, 1869, Amer. Journ. Sci. 48: 
425. 

Pterogorgia fasciolaris + P. Sancti Thomae 
Ehrenberg, 1834, Abh. Konigl. Akad. Wiss. 
Berlin 1832 (pt. 1): 369. 

Gorgonia (Pterogorgia) citrina Dana, 1846, U. 8S. 
Expl. Exped. 7: 648. 

Pterogorgia citrina Duchassaing and Michelotti, 
1860, Mém. corall. Antill.: 30. 

Xiphigorgia citrina Verrill, 1864, Bull. Mus. 
Comp. Zool. 1: 33; Kikenthal, 1924, Das Tier- 
reich 47: 358, fig. 182; Deichmann, 1936, Mem. 
Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 201. 


This is the familar, small Pterogorgia with 
flat branches, usually yellow with purple edges, 
sometimes all purple. 


Pterogorgia guadalupensis Duchassaing 
and Michelin 


Pterogorgia guadalupensis Duchassaing and 
Michelin, 1846, Rev. Zool. Soc. Cuvierienne 9: 
218. 


Xiphigorgia guadalupensis Duchassaing and 
Michelotti, 1860, Mém. coral]. Antill.: 33. 
Gorgonia guadalupensis Verrill, 1869, Amer. 


Journ. Sei. 48: p. 425. 
Xiphigorgia anceps (part) Kiikenthal, 1924, Das 
Tierreich 47: 357. 


Specimens collected in the Gulf of Mexico 
during the first and second University of Miami 
Marine Laboratory Gulf of Mexico Sponge In- 
vestigations 1947 and 1948, by Dr. F. G. Walton 
Smith and J. Q. Tierney, have convinced me 
that Duchassaing and Michelin’s species is per- 
fectly distinct and worthy of recognition. I have 
been unable to find specimens of P. anceps 
which grade into it, either in the large series 
in the U. S. National Museum or among speci- 
mens in the field. A complete redescription will 
be published at a later date. 

The specimens of P. guadalupensis examined 
agree perfectly with Duchassaing and Miche- 
lotti’s figure. The species is readily distinguished 
from P. anceps by its very much broader, flat 
branehes which are never trialate. Part of a 
specimen is shown in the accompanying key- 
figure 9, compared with P. anceps. 

A situation similar to that involving Gorgonia 
and Rhipidigorgia exists between Pterogorgia 
Ehrenberg and NXiphigorgia Milne Edwards and 
Haime. In short, the genus Pterogorgia of Khren- 
berg, like many other early genera, was a poly- 
phyletic assemblage, and its species can now be 
divided into at least two modern genera, ap- 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 97 


portioned as follows: (1) P. setosa Esper, acerosa 
[Pallas?] Ehrenberg, stricta Ehrenberg, turgida 
Ehrenberg; and (2) P. fasciolaris Ehrenberg 
(=citrina Esper, var.?), sancti-thomae Ehrenberg 
(2? =citrina Esper), anceps Pallas, and violacea 
Ehrenberg non Pallas [? =anceps]. Ehrenberg 
also assigned questionably Gorgonia americana 
Gmelin, sanguinolenta Pallas [both fide Cuvier], 
and pinnata L. [fide Gmelin] to his Pterogorgia, 
without having seen specimens. Milne Edwards 
and Haime in 1850 designated P. anceps (Pallas) 
as the type species of Pterogorgia, thereby restric- 
ting the genus to the second group mentioned 
above. Completely disregarding the restriction 
which they themselves had imposed, these 
authors created in 1857 a new genus, 
Xvphigorgia, which included Gorgonia anceps, 
and this usage became generally accepted. This 
was undoubtedly due in no small part to the 
fact that the latter arrangement was proposed 
in their well-known Histoire naturelle des coralli- 
aires, whereas the earlier restriction of Ptero- 
gorgia was made in the introduction to their 
Monograph of the British fossil corals, a work 
holding little interest to the student of recent 
Gorgonacea. Consequently, Verrill overlooked the 
delimitation of Pterogorgia and proposed P. ace- 
rosa (Pallas) as the type species of Ehrenberg’s 
genus; this procedure, which applied the name 
Pterogorgia to the first of the two groups men- 
tioned above, subsequently came into general 
acceptance. The generic limits of Xitphigorgia 
were established by Miss Bielschowsky when she 
designated (1918) X. anceps as its type, but she 
failed to perceive that it was then absolutely 
synonymous with Pterogorgia s.s. and that half 
of the original Pterogorgia species were not re- 
ferable to any deseribed genus. This situation 
has remained unchanged, and the species elimi- 
nated from Pterogorgia still require a genus to 
include them, for which I propose the name 
Antillogorgia. 


Antillogorgia, n. gen. 


Pterogorgia (part) Ehrenberg, 1834, Abh. Konig. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1882 (pt. 1): 868; Milne Ed- 
wards and Haime, 1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 
167 (part); Bielschowsky, 1918, Revis. Gorg.: 
52; Kikenthal, 1924, Das Tierreich 47: 351; 
Bielschowsky, 1929, Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. 16: 
197; Deichmann, 1936, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool, 
53: 193. 
Diagnosis.—Colonies mostly bushy, with the 

secondary branching in one plane; numerous 


98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


twigs arranged along the main branches in close 
pinnate order, sometimes with secondary twigs; 
stem and branches round or flattened; twigs 
round, or more frequently somewhat compressed. 
Zooids small, not producing verrucae, usually 
arranged in two rows along the edges of the 
twigs; they sometimes occur in rows on the 
large branches and main stems. Anthocodia either 
unarmed or with small, more or less flattened 
rods arranged in 8 triangles to form a weak 
crown. Coenenchyma spicules are scaphoids and 
spindles in the outer layer, spindles alone in the 
inner. 

Genotype.—Gorgonia acerosa Pallas =Antillo- 
gorgia acerosa (Pallas), n. comb., here designated. 

Remarks.—This genus is apparently confined 
to the Antillean region. Its species form one 
of the most conspicuous elements of the littoral 
marine fauna along the reefs of Florida and in 
the West Indies. The most abundant species, 
at least on the Florida coast, is Antillogorgia 
acerosa (Pallas). For a description, see Deich- 
mann, 1936, Mem. Mus. Comp. Zool. 53: 198. 
It is usually dark purple when alive. A. ellisiana 
(Milne Edwards and Haime) and A. americana 
(Gmelin) are not uncommon in the same re- 
gions. The living colonies are usually brownish 
purple. 


Genus Phyllogorgia Milne Edwards 
and Haime 


Gorgonia (part) Esper, 1791, Pfanzenthiere 2: 1. 

Gorgonia (Pterogorgia) (part) Dana, 1846, U. 8. 
Expl. Exped. 7: 647. 

Phyllogorgia Milne Kdwards and Haime, 1850, 
Brit. Foss. Corals: Ixxx. [Type, Gorgonia dila- 
tata Esper.] 

Hymenogorgia Valenciennes, 1855, C. R. Acad. 
Sei. Paris 41: 13. (Type, Gorgonia quercus folium 
Ehrenberg = Gorgonia dilatata Esper.| 

Phyllogorgia Verrill, 1912, Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia (2)15: 393. 


Diagnosis—Colonies branched in one plane, 
the branches 
anastomosing. 


forming broad, flat leaves; axis 
Zooids small, without verrucae, 
on all surfaces of the leaves. The spicules are 
stout spindles and seaphoids. 

Genotype.—Gorgonia dilatata Esper (by origi- 
nal designation). 

Remarks.—The single species, P. dilatata, is 
found on the coast of Brazil. The single early 
record of its occurrence at Guadeloupe has not 
been confirmed. 


vou. 41, No. 3 


Genus Leptogorgia Milne Edwards 
and Haime 


Gorgonia (part) Pallas, 1766, Elench. Zooph.: 
160; Milne Edwards and Haime, 1857, Hist. 
nat. corall. 1: 157 (part). 

Leptogorgia (part) Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 163. [Type, G@. vimina- 
lis Milne Edwards and Haime = G. viminalis 
Esper = Leptogorgia longiramosa Kikenthal 
1924; subs. des.: Verrill, 1868, Trans. Con- 
necticut Acad. 1: 387.| 

Lophogorgia (part) Milne Edwards and Haime, 
1857, Hist. nat. corall. 1: 167. [Type, @. flam- 
mea Ellis and Solander.]} 

Litigorgia (part) Verrill, 1868, Amer. Journ. Sci. 
45: 414. (Type, ZL. florae Verrill; subs. des.: 
Verrill, 1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1: 387.| 

Eugorgia (part) Verrill, 1868, Amer. Journ. Sci. 
45: 414. 

?Pseudopterogorgia Kiikenthal, 1919, Wiss. Ergeb. 
deutschen Tiefsee-Exped. 13 (2): 854. [Type, 
Leptogorgia australiensis Ridley, 1884.] 

Asperogorgia Stiasny, 1943, Vid. Medd. Dansk 
naturh. Foren. 107: 92. [Type, L. radula 
(Mo6bius).] 


Diagnosis.—Colonies mostly branched in one 
plane, lateral or pinnate, occasionally dichoto- 
mous, rarely bushy; branches and twigs some- 
what flattened but never greatly expanded to 
form lamellar ridges. Zooids in two lateral tracts 
along the sides of twigs and branches, fully re- 
tractile or forming low verrucae; anthocodial 
armature of small rods or spindles usually pres- 
ent. Coenenchyma with girdled spindles but no 
modified forms. 

Genotype.—Gorgonia viminalis Milne Edwards 
and Haime (by subsequent designation: Verrill, 
1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1: 387). 

Remarks.—Bielschowsky’s designation of G. 
petechizans Pallas as the type of Leptogorgia could 
have no standing even if it had priority, since 
that species was not included within the genus 
as originally constituted. 

Leptogorgia contains many species in temperate 
and tropical waters, and although it is represented 
practically around the world, the center of dis- 
tribution seems to be in the neighborhood of 
the west coast of Central America. 

The characters ordinarily used for separating 
Lophogorgia from Leptogorgia, the flattened 
branches and arrangement of zooids all around 
the branches and tiwgs, are so variable as to 
be useless for generic distinctions. Round as well 
as. flattened branches may occur in the same 
colony, and the biserial zooid distribution can 


Marcu 1951 


be found with little difficulty, Furthermore, speci- 
mens of Leptogorgia which are typical in all 
other respects may have zooids distributed all 
around the twigs. The presence of distinct verru- 
eae, the feature used by Stiasny to distinguish 
his Asperogorgia species from the other Lopho- 
gorgias (which he considered as part of Lepto- 
gorgia), is no more reliable. I have therefore 
placed both these genera in the synonymy of 
Leptogorgia. 

Kiikenthal’s Pseudopterogorgia (1919) was cre- 
ated on the strength of some supposed ‘‘klam- 
mern” in four Indo-Pacific species. An examina- 
tion of the original description and figures of the 
type species, P. australiensis (Ridley), suggests 
that Ridley’s original generic assignment of the 
species (Leptogorgia) was correct. The spicules 
are all described as fusiform, and while one of 
the individuals figured is a little curved, it is 
not a very convincing scaphoid. I am therefore 
tentatively synonymizing the genus and refer- 
ring its species back to Leptogorgia. 


Genus Phycogorgia Milne Edwards 
and Haime 
Gorgonia Valenciennes, 1846, Voyage of the 
Venus, Atlas of Zool., Zoophytes: pl. 11, fig. 2. 
Phycogorgia Milne Edwards and Haime, 1850, 
Brit. Foss. Corals: Ixxx. [Type, Gorgonia fucata 
Valenciennes. | 
Phycogorgia Kikenthal, 1924, Das Tierreich 47: 
359. 


Diagnosis.—Colonies bushy, the stems and 
branches strongly flattened and frondose, aris- 
ing from a spreading base. Axis lamellar. Zooids 
small, completely retractile and without arma- 
ture, on the fronds and on the base. Spicules are 
small, blunt, girdled spindles. 

Genotype—Gorgonia fucata Valenciennes, 1846 
(by original designation). 

Remarks.—Only one species is known, occur- 
ving in shallow water from Mazatlan to Chile. 


Genus Eugorgia Verrill 


Lophogorgia (part) G. Horn, 1860, Proc. Acad. 
Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 12: 233. 

Gorgonia (part) Verrill, 1864, Bull. Mus. Comp. 
Zool. 1: 33. 

Eugorgia (part) Verrill, 1868, Amer. Journ. Set. 
45: 414. (Type, H. ampla Verrill; subs. des.: 
Verrill, 1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 1: 386.| 

Eugorgia Verrill, 1868, Trans. Connecticut Acad. 
1: 406; Bielschowsky, 1929, Zool. Jahrb., Supp. 
16: 170. 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE 


OF GORGONIIDAE 99 


Diagnosis.—Branching chiefly in one plane, 
lateral or dichotomous, sometimes bushy. Zooids 
in biserial longitudinal rows, usually without 
anthocodial armature, with or without low ver- 
rucae. The spicules are ordinary spindles, to- 
gether with disk spindles produced by the more 
or less complete fusion of the warts of the median 
2 or 4 belts to form disks. 

Genotype.—Leptogorgia ampla Verrill (by sub- 
sequent designation: Verrill, 1868, Trans. Con- 
necticut Acad. 1: 386). 

Remarks.—Although Eugorgia is now an ex- 
clusively west American genus, two Atlantic 
gorgoniids are apparently related to it. Lepto- 
gorgia virgulata Lamarck and L. setacea (Pallas) 
have spicules identical with the poorly developed 
disk spindles and intermediate forms to be found 
in a number of Hugorgia species. They may be 
relict species of a once widespread Hugorgia, or 
only Leptogorgias developing along Eugorgia 
lines. It remains for future study to determine 
which is actually the case. 


ILLUSTRATED KEY TO THE GENERA 
OF THE FAMILY GORGONIIDAE 


A!, Spicules as spindles of various forms, some of 
which may occasionally be slightly bent, 
but never as true scaphoids, or 
moon’’-shaped spicules: 


“half- 


B'. Branches and twigs not coalescent, but 
free and usually slender: 


Lepro 


CO!, Spicules only regular spindles: 
GORGIA, 


100 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, NO. 3 


A®. Scaphoid spicules present in addition to 
simple spindles: 


C2. Spicules include spindles with warts more 
or less completely fused to form disks: 
Evueoretia. 


B’, Branches and twigs not coalescent, but 
free and usually slender: 
C1. Branching closely pinnate, the twigs 
slender, round or only slightly com- 
pressed: ANTILLOGORGIA. 


B?. Branches and twigs coalescing to form a 
regular meshwork: PacirrgorGIA. 


C®. Branching not closely pinnate; branches 
and twigs with two, three, or four 
longitudinal, thin, coenenchymal lamel- 
lae, causing them to be flat and blade- 
like, triangular, or square in cross 
section: PreROGoRGIA. 


B%. Branches and twigs flat, foliate: Puyco- 
GORGIA. 


] 


_ B®, Branches and twigs coalescing to form a 
regular network: GoRGONIA. 


Marcu 1951 


B’. Branches and twigs flat, foliate: Payiuo- 
GORGIA. 


LITERATURE CITED 


BrevscHowsky, Eva. EHine Revision der Familie 
Gorgoniidae. Inaugural-Dissertation zur Er- 
langung der Doktorwiirde der Hohen Philo- 
sophischen Fakultiét der Schlesischen Fried- 
rich-Wilhelms-Universitat zu Breslau: 1-66. 
Breslau, 1918. 

Die Gorgonarien Westindiens. Kap. 6, 
Die Familie Gorgoniidae. Zool. Jahrb., Suppl. 
16, Heft 1: 63-234, 40 figs., pls. 2-5. 1929. 

Cuusius, Carouus. FExoticorvm libri decem: qui- 
bus animalium, plantarum, aromatum, alio- 
rumque peregrinorum fructuum historiae discri- 
buntur: [10] 1-378 [5], illus. Antverpiae, 1605. 

Dana, JaMes Dwiaut. Zoophytes. U. S. (Wilkes) 
Exploring Expedition during the years 1838, 


1839, 1840, 1841, 1842, 7: i-vi+ 1-740, 45 
figs., atlas of 61 col. pls. 1846. 
DeicuMann, Evtsapetu. The Alcyonaria of the 


western part of the Atlantic Ocean. Mem. 
Mus. Comp. Zo6]. 53: 1-317, pls. 1-37. 1936. 


DucHASSAING bE FonsBREsSIN, PuacipE, and 
MicHetin, Harpouin. Note sur deux poly- 
piers de la famille des coraux appartenant aux 
genres Solanderia ef Pterogorgia. Rev. Zool. 
Soc. Cuvierienne 9: 218-220. 1846. 

and Micuexortr, Jean. Mémoire sur les 

coralliaires des Antilles: 1-88, pls. 1-10. Mem. 

Reale Accad. Sci. Torino, ser. 2, 19: 279-365, 

pls. 1-10. 1860. 


BAYER: REVISION OF NOMENCLATURE OF GORGONIIDAE 


101 


EHRENBERG, CHRISTIAN GorTrRIeD. Bettrdge zur 
phystologischen Kenntniss der Corallenthiere 
im allgemeinen, und besonders des rothen 
Meeres, nebst einem Versuche zur physio- 
logischen Systematik de selben. Abh. Konigl. 
[preussischen] Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1832 (pt. 1): 
225-880. 1834. 

Euuis, Joun. An essay towards the natural his- 
tory of the corallines, and other marine produc- 
tions of the like kind, commonly found on the 
coasts of Great Britain and Ireland: i-xvii 
+ [5 lvs] 1-103, pls. 1-37 [38]. London, 1755. 

Esper, Eucentus JoHANN CuristorH. Die 
Pflanzenthiere in Abbildungen nach der Natur 
mit Farben erleuchtet nebst Beschreibungen 
1-3: i-xii + 1-320; 1-220; 1-285+; Fortset- 
zung 1-2: 1-230; 1-48, 428 pls. Niirnberg- 
1788-1850. [The parts dealing with gorgo- 
nians were published as follows: Vol. 2, pp; 
1-96, 1791; pp. 97-180, 1792; pp. 181-220, 1793. 
pp. 221-304, 1799; Fortsetzung, vol. 1, pp. 
117-168, 1796; pp. 169-230, 1797.] 

Gautsorr, Paut Simon. The pearl oyster re- 
sources of Panama. U.S. Fish and Wildlife 
Service Special Scientific Report: Fisheries 
no. 28: 1-53, 28 figs. 1950. 

Horn, Greorce. Descriptions of three new species 
of Gorgonidae, in the collection of the Academy, 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 12: 
233. 1860. 

KiKentuan, Witty. Die Gorgonarien Westindi- 
ens. Kap. 2, Uber den Venusficher; Kap. 3, 
Die Gattung Xiphigorgia H. M. Edw. Zool. 
Jahrb., Suppl. 11, Heft 4: 485-503, 13 figs., 
pl. 23. 1916. 

Gorgonaria. Wissenschaftliche Ergeb- 

nisse der deutschen Tiefsee-Expedition auf 

dem Dampfer Valdivia 1898-99, 13 (2): 1-946, 

318 figs., pls. 30-89. 1919. 

Gorgonarta. Das Tierreich 47: i-xxyviii 
+ 1-478, 209 figs. 1924. 

Linnf, Kart von. Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1: 
[2] 1-824. Holmiae, 1758. 

LocHNER VON HUMMELSTEIN, JOHANN HEINRICH. 
Rariora muset Besleriani quae olim Basilius 
et Michael Rupertus Besleri collegerunt: [12] 
1-112, pls. 1-40. Norimbergae, 1716. 

Mrine Epwarps, Henri, and Haims, Juues. A 
monograph of the British fossil corals. Part 1. 
Introduction; corals from the Tertiary and 
Cretaceous formations: i-Ixxxv + 1-71, pls. 
1-11. London, 1850. 

———. Histoire naturelle des coralliatres ou pol- 
ypes proprement dits: 1-8, pp. i-xxxjv + 1-826; 
1-633; 1-560; atlas of 36 pls. Paris, 1857. 

Oueartus, ApAM. Gottorfische Kunst-Kammer: {5 
Ivs.] 1-80, pls. 1-87. Schlesswig, 1674. 

Pauias, Peter Srmon. Llenchus zoophytorum sis- 
tens generum adumbrationes generaliores et 
speciterwm cognitarum succtnctas descriptiones 

selectts auctorum synonymis: i-xvi + 

Hagae-Comitum, 1766. 
A voyage to the islands Madera, 

Nieves, S. Christophers and Ja- 


clu 

1-451. 
SLOANE, Hans. 

Barbados, 


102 


maica, with the natural history of the herbs 

and trees, four footed beasts, fishes, birds, in- 

sects, reptiles & c. of the last of those islands 

. 1: [7 lvs] i-cliv + 1-264, pls [4] 1-156. 
London, 1707. 

Sriasny, Gustav. Gorgonaria von Panama. Vi- 

densk. Medd. Dansk naturh. Foren. 107: 59- 


103, figs. 1-16. 1943. 
VALENCIENNES, AcHitip. In A. Dupetit- 
Thouars, Voyage autour du monde sur la 


frégate la Venus, pendant les années 1836-1839. 
Atlas de Zoologie: Zoophytes: pls. 1-15. 
Paris, 1846. 

Extrait dune monographie de la famille 
des Gorgonidées de la classe des polypes. 
Comptes Rendus Séances Acad. Sei. Paris 
41: 7-15. 1855. 

VerRILL, Appison Mery. List of the polyps and 
corals sent by the Museum of Comparative 
Zoblogy to other institutions in exchange, with 


MALACOLOGY .—Recent species of the 
U.S. National Museum. 


The study represented by this paper is the 
third in a series on living relict peleeypods. 
In comparison with Fimbria and Cucullaea, 
the living species of Arctica is well known, 
and many good studies have been made on 
it in several northern Atlantic regions. The 
shellfish surveys of Rhode Island and Mas- 
sachusetts have recently obtained valuable 
information on the ecology of the genus, and 
it is possible that Arctica will soon assume 
commercial importance as an edible clam. 
There have, however, been few attempts to 
make a complete study of the living species. 
The latest review of Arctica is that of Lamy 
(1920, pp. 260-265). 

Arctica, first appearing in the early Creta- 
ceous, has apparently always been confined 
to temperate waters. Since the Cenozoic the 
genus has been confined to Europe and the 
north Atlantic regions. At present there is 
one living species, confined primarily to the 
north Atlantic. 

Arctica has been placed in many different 
superfamilies. On the basis of shell characters 
Arctica most closely resembles some of the 
brackish water genera, as for example 
Batissa. Among the living marine pelecypods 
Arctica resembles the veneraceans. The lack 
of a pallial smus and the development. of 


‘Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


annotations. 
60. 1864. 
Review of the corals and polyps of the 
west coast of America. Trans. Conn. Acad. 
Arts and Sciences 1: 377-567, pls. 5-10. 1868- 
71. [Actual dates of publications are: pp. 
377-390, April 1868; pp. 391-398, June 1868; 
pp. 399-414, July 1868; pp. 415-422, December 
1868; pp. 423-454, January 1869; pp. 455-478, 
February 1689; pp. 479-502, March 1869; pp. 
503-518, April 1870; pp. 519-534, Nov. 1870; 
p. 567, February 1871.] 

Critical remarks on halcyonoid polyps in 
the museum of Yale College, with descriptions 
of new genera. Amer. Journ. Sei. 45: 411— 


Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 1: 29- 


415. 1868. 
———. Critical remarks on halcyonoid polyps, 
no. 8. Amer. Journ. Sci. 48: 419-429. 1869. 


The gorgonians of the Brazilian coast. 
Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia (2) 15: 
373-404, 1 fig., pls. 29-35. 1912. 


veneroid pelecypod Arctica.! Davip NIcoL, 


posterior lateral teeth are morphologic char- 
acters present in Arctica but not in the ven- 
eraceans. 


Family Arcricipar Newton, 1891 
Genus Arctica Schumacher, 1817 


Venus Linné, 1767 (in part). 

Pectunculus da Costa, 1778 (in part)? ~ 
Cyclas Link, 1807, not Cyclas Bruguiére, 1798. 
Cyprina Lamarck, 1818. 

Armida Gistel, 1848, not Armida Risso, 1826. 
Cypriniadea Rovereto, 1900. 


Genotype: Arctica vulgaris Schumacher, 1817 
= Venus islandica Linné, 1767 (monotypy). 

In 1752 Moehring used the name Arctica for a 
genus of birds, but this work and the translation 
published in 1758 have been suppressed (see 
opinion 5, vol. 1, pt. 14, 1944, pp. 115-126). 
Schumacher’s genus name Arctica, published in 
1817, can thus be used. Lamarck applied the 
French vernacular term Cyprine in 1812 but did 
not use the name Cyprina until 1818. 


Arctica islandica (Linné), 1767 
Figs. 1-3 


1767. Venus islandica Linné, Syst. Nat., ed. 12, 1 
(pt. 2): 1181. 
1777. Venus mercenaria Linné, Pennant, British 
zoology 4, Mollusca: 94, pl. 53, fig. 47. 
78. Pectunculus crassus da Costa, British con- 
chology: 188, 184, pl. 14, fig. 5. 


Marcu 1951 


1778. 


1818. 


1830. 


1903. 


1910. 


Venus buccardium Born, Rerum naturalium 
Musei Caesarei Vindobonensis, pt. 1, Tes- 
tacea: 49, 50. 


. Venus bucardium Born, Rerum naturalium 


Musei Caesarei Vindobonensis, pt. 1, Tes- 
tacea: 63, pl. 4, fig. 11. 


. Venus islandica Linné, Roding, Museum 


Boltenianum: 180, no. 284. 


. Venus ferréensis Réding, Museum Bolteni- 


anum: 180, no. 285. 


.Cyclas islandica (Linné), Link, Beschrei- 


bung Rostock Sammlung: 150. 


. Arctica vulgaris Schumacher, Essai nouveau 


systéme habitations vers testacés: 145, 
146, pl. 13, figs. 3a, b. 

Cyprina islandica (Linné), Lamarck, Ani- 
maux sans vertébres 5: 557, 558. 

Cyprina vulgaris (Schumacher), James 
Sowerby, Genera of Recent and fossil 
shells, Cyprina: pl. 67. 

Cyclas islandica (Linné), Dall, 
fauna of Florida: 1500-1502. 

Cyprina islandica var. inflata Odhner, Ark. 
for Zool. 7 (4): 19, figs. 33, 34. 


Tertiary 


NICOL: RECENT SPECIES OF ARCTICA 


103 


1920. Cyprina islandica (Linné), Lamy, Journ. 
Conchyl. 64 (4) : 262-265. 


A more complete synonymy is given by Lamy 
(1920, pp. 262-264) and need not be repeated 
here. 

Description.—Shell porcellaneous, often chalky, 
periostracum black, light brown, or rarely red- 
dish-brown in color, light brown on small shells, 
smooth except for raised concentric lines; orna- 
mentation consists of concentric lines of growth; 
valve outline subcircular, equivalve, subequi- 
lateral, not gaping; beaks prosogyrate; ligament 


opisthodetic, parivincular, external, connected 


: : AI AIII 3a 1 3b PI 
to the periostracum, hinge formula “179, 95 46 PIT” 


eyrenoid; pallial line integripalliate, adductor 
muscle scars subequal; interior ventral border 
smooth. 


Measurements in mm.— 


Frias. 1-3.—Aretica islandica (Linné),U.S.N.M. no. 128966a: 1, Interior, lett valve; 2, 
valve; 3, exterior, right valve. All figures 


>? 


interior, right 


3° natural size. 


104 


Convexity 
U.S.N.M. no. Length Height (both values) 
201566a 106.4 100.5 61.9 
34431 99.1 95.5 51.3 
201566 97.3 92.2 59.1 
102047 96.1 92.0 56.3 
34431a 92.9 86.2 42.5 
461553 85.4 78.0 47.0 
27256a 82.6 76.7 41.4 
304728a 81.7 76.5 48.3 
201577 80.0 78.0 43.3 
128966a 77.5 70.2 37.0 
225762 76.9 68.7 39.5 
225764a 75.3 67.6 40.1 
128966b 74.6 69.5 34.8 
461553a 67.8 62.5 34.0 
128966¢ 67.8 62.4 33.7 
128966 62.3 56.5 30.6 
27258b 61.2 55.8 33.7 
225764¢ 58.8 54.3 30.3 
225764b 52.8 46.5 24.8 
272258a 45.9 40.0 23.7 
499954a 44.4 40.3 22.3 
45985 44.3 41.1 22.6 
45991 42.1 38.2 22.8 
181970a 41.4 36.7 19.8 
35666 39.6 36.2 21.4 
158995 23.9 21.3 13.3 
40146b 21.0 19.4 10.0 
40146a 17.8 16.1 9.0 
153164a 12.0 10.4 5.9 
153164 8.4 8.0 4.5 


The above measurements seem to indicate no 
tendency toward more convex shells in northern 
waters or cooler bottom temperatures. There may 
be, however, some relationship between the type 
of substrate and convexity, the more convex 
shells being found on the muddier bottoms. 
More data are necessary to ascertain whether any 
relationship exists between living conditions and 
shape of shell. 

Number of specimens—There are approxi- 
mately 1,000 specimens of Arctica islandica in the 
collection of the United States National Museum. 
Many of the specimens are small shells obtained 
by dredging. 

Locality data.—Specific localities are so nu- 
merous that it is not practical to list each one, 
and general information on geographical distribu- 
tion is sufficient for this problem. 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION and ECOLOGY 
of ARCTICA ISLANDICA (LINNE) 


This species has been mentioned in most 
faunal lists of mollusks taken from northern 
Atlantic localities. Despite these consider- 
ably extensive observations, the distribution 
of living Arctica islandica is not well known. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


There have been several great temperature 
fluctuations in the northern Atlantic durmg 
the Pleistocene and post-Pleistocene, and col- 
lectors have taken shells and recorded them 
in faunal lists, although Arctica islandica 
might not be living in some of those areas to- 
day. Accurate locality information on living 
specimens, furthermore, is the most impor- 
tant criterion for interpreting climatic condi- 
tions during Pliocene, Pleistocene, and post- 
Pleistocene times. 

Arctica occurs as far south as Cape Hat- 
teras, N. C., but is quite rare from there 
northward to Long Island Sound. Along the 
coasts of Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and 
Maine, Arctica is abundant. It is frequently 
found in the Bay of Fundy, Halifax Harbor, 
and Northumberland Strait. There are a few 
records of Arctica in Chaleurs Bay and off 
the southern coast of Newfoundland. A few 
valves of Arctica have been collected off the 
coasts of Labrador and Greenland, but these 
are believed to be subfossil (Jensen, 1912, 
p. 90). The genus is abundant on the coasts 
of Iceland, the Faroes, the Shetlands, the 
British Isles, and the coast of Norway. Arc- 
tica also occurs off the Kola Peninsula and 
in the White Sea. There are a few records of 
shells collected north and east of the White 
Sea as far as Novaya Zemlya, but these 
shells are probably also subfossil. There are 
reports of Arctica occurring as far as Born- 
holm Island in the Baltic Sea, but shells 
from the Baltic are generally rather thin, 
and the reduced salinity probably prevents 
the genus from living farther north and east 
i. the Baltic region. Arctica islandica 1s 
abundant along the coast of northern France. 
South of Brittany Arctica is rarely reported, 
but it has been found as far south as the 
Bay of Cadiz. Occurrences in the Mediter- 
ranean are probably all subfossil. 

Arctica is a boreal but not an arctic genus. 
It can not live for probably more than a few 
hours in waters which go below 0°C. Arcisz 
et al. (1945, p. 15) recorded Arctica living at 
0.7°C. Perhaps for this reason the genus is 
not circumpolar and is not found in the 
coldest waters of the Atlantic Ocean. On the 
other hand, the highest temperature which 
Arctica can withstand is about 19°C. 


105 


RECENT SPECIES OF ARCTICA 


. 


NICOL 


Marcu 1951 


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106 


Recent observations on living specimens 
by Turner (1949, pp. 15, 16) have shown 
that Arctica is always found on sandy mud 
or mud bottoms, although Madsen (1949, 
p. 50) claimed that in Iceland the genus is 
found on ooze, mud, clay, sand, gravel, and 
shell bottoms. It can be said with certainty, 
however, that Arctica is nearly always found 
on sandy mud or mud bottoms, and this 
statement is based on many observations by 
many workers. 

I have recorded 98 dredging stations, 
rangmg from Halifax to Cape Hatteras, 
where Arctica was taken by the U.S. Bureau 
of Fisheries. The greatest depth from which 
Arctica was dredged was 482 meters; the 
next greatest depth was 360 meters. The 
remaining 96 stations were at depths of 281 
meters or less, and one station was only 13 
meters in depth. Contrary to some observa- 
tions made in the past, the small shells were 
not found at the greater depths, and large 
and small shells seemed to be found at all 
recorded depths. In the Firth of Forth the 
genus has been collected alive at the lowest 
of low tides (Forbes and Hanley 1853, p. 
445). Generally, however, it is most com- 
monly found at depths from 10 to 280 me- 
ters, but it is occasionally found as deep as 
500 meters. Off the coast of Rhode Island, 
Arcisz et al. (1945, p. 9) found the greatest 
concentration of the genus at depths ranging 
from 25 to 45 meters and did not find living 
specimens in less than 18 meters of water. 
In colder water Arctica apparently is abun- 
dant at shallower depths. 

Reports of young shells of Arctica having 
been taken m more than 1,000 meters of 
water should be reinvestigated. A specimen 
from the Jeffrey’s collection (no. 201564) is 
labeled Cyprina islandica L. (fry), taken 
fron the northwest coast of Ireland at a 
depth of 1,215 fathoms. This tiny specimen 
is almost impossible to identify, but it does 
not appear to be Arctica. 

Acknowledgments —I am greatly indebted 
to William J. Clench, of the Museum of 
Comparative Zoédlogy at Harvard College, 
for information on geographical distribution, 
and to Harry J. Turner, Jr., of the Woods 
Hole Oceanographic Institution, for valuable 
data on the ecology of Arctica. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


REFERENCES 


Arcisz, W., Nevitite, W. C., DeEWo tr, R. A., and 
Loosanorr, V. L. The ocean quahog fishery of 
Rhode Island: 31 pp., 10 figs. Dept. Agriculture 
and Conservation, Rhode Island, 1945. 

Costa, E. M. pa. The British conchology: 254 pp., 
17 pls. London, 1778. 

Datu, W. H. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of 
Florida. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. 3 (pt. 
6): 1219-1654, pls. 48-60. 1903. 

. Note on Cyprina islandica. Proc. Malacol. 
Soc. London, 10 (pt. 4): 286 1913. 

Forses, K., and Hanuey, 8. A history of British 
Mollusca and their shells 1: 486 pp., 64 pls., 
London, 1853. 

GisteL, J. Naturgeschichte des Thierreichs fiir 
hohere Schulen: 216 pp., 32 pls. Stuttgart, 
1848. 

Hemmina, F. Opinions and declarations rendered 
by the International Commission on Zoological 
Nomenclature (Opinion 5, The status of certain 
pre-Linnean names reprinted subsequent to 
1757) 1 (pt. 14): 115-126. London, 1944. 

JENSEN, A. S. Studier over nordiske Mollusker. IT, 
Cyprina islandica. Naturh. Forening Kjoben- 
havn Vid. Medd. 1902: 33-42. 

. Lamellibranchiata (part 1), The Danish 
Ingolf-Expedition 2 (5): 119 pp., 5 figs., 4 pls. 
Copenhagen, 1912. 

Lamarck, J. B. Histoire naturelle des animaux 
sans vertébres 5: 612 pp. Paris, 1818. 

Lamy, I. Révision des Cypricardiacea et des Iso- 
cardiacea vivants du Muséum d’Histotre natu- 
relle de Paris. Journ. Conchy]. 64 (4) : 259-307. 
1920. 

Link, H. F. Beschreibung der Naturalien-Samm- 
lung der Universitat zu Rostock: 1-165, 1-30, 
1-38, 1-88. Rostock, 1806-1808. 

Linné, K. von. Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1 (pt. 
2): 5383-1327. Holmiae, 1767. 

Mapskn, F. J., The zoology of Iceland 4 (pt. 63, 
Marine Bivalvia) : 166 pp., 12 figs. Copenhagen 
and Reykjavik, 1949. 

Opuner, Nius. Marine Mollusca in the collections 
of the Swedish State Museum, Ark. for Zool. 7 
(4): 31 pp., 1 pl. 1910. 

Rovereto, G. Lllustrazione det molluschi fossili 
Tongriani, ete. Atti Reale Univ. Genova 15: 
31-210, 9 pls. 1900. 

ScHuMACHER, C. F. Essai d’un nouveau systéeme des 
habitations des vers testacés: 287 pp., 22 pl., 
Copenhague, 1817. 

Smitu, . A. On the generic name to be applied to 
the Venus islandica, Linn. Proc. Mal. Soe. 
London 10 (pt. 2): 105, 106. 1912. 

Turner, H. J., Jr. Report on investigations of 
methods of improving the shellfish resources of 
Massachusetts: 22 pp., 5 figs. Commonwealth 
of Massachusetts, 1949. 


Marcu 1951 WELANDER AND SCHULTZ: 


CHROMIS ATRIPECTORALIS 


107 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—Chromis atripectoralis, a new damselfish from the tropical Pa- 
cific, closely related to C. caeruleus, family Pomacentridae. ARrHUR D. We- 


LANDER and LEONARD P. ScHULTZ. 


During our studies of some Bikini fishes 
at the University of Washington, Seattle, we 
were surprised to observe that the blue-green 
damselfish, which occurs so abundantly in 
shallow waters of the reefs throughout the 
tropical Indo-Pacific faunal area, was a com- 
plex of two species. This paper describes one 
of these as new and presents data for the 
separation of the two species. 


Chromis atripectoralis, n. sp. 


Chromis caeruleus (in part), Jordan and Seale, 
Bull..U. S. Bur. Fish. 25 (1905): 290, pl. 46, ? 
fig. 1. 1906 (Samoan Islands; color descriptions 
for specimens numbered 2, 4, and 6, with péc- 
toral axil black appear to be this new species) ; 
Montalban, Pomacentridae of the Philippine 
Islands, Monog. Bur. Sci. Manila, no. 24: 35, 
pl. 8, fig. 2. 1927 (Philippine Islands). 

Heliastes lepidurus Giinther, Fische der Siidsee, 
Journ. Mus. Godeffroy 15 (pt. 7): 238 (in part), 
pl. 128, fig. C.1881. es) 


Holotype —U.S.N.M. no. 112397, Bikini Atoll, 
Eman. Island, channel reef, July 17, 1947, S-46- 
405, Schultz, Brock, Hiatt and Myers, standard 
length 67 mm. 

Paratypes.—The following paratypes are from 
Guam in the Marianas Islands: U.S.N.M. no. 
124104, Tumon Bay, July 10, 1945, R. H. Baker, 
48 specimens, 9 to 25 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152557, 
Tumon Bay, December 10, 1945, L. Gressitt, 2 
specimens, 48 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152558, Tumon 
Bay, January 8, 1946, Gressitt and Ingram, 35 
specimens, 37 to 60 mm. 

The following paratypes are from the Marshall 
Islands: U.S.N.M. no. 141041, Bikini Atoll, Eman 
Island, July 17, 1947, S-46-405, Schultz, Brock, 
Hiatt, and Myers, 5 specimens, 61 to 76 mm; 
U.S.N.M. no. 112395, Rongerik Atoll, Latoback 
Island, June 28, 1946, S-46-238, Schultz and 
Herald, 11 specimens, 23 to 44 mm; U.S.N.M. 
no. 112396, Rongelap Atoll, Naen Island, July 
30, 1946, 8-46-3802, Herald, 33 specimens, 30 to 
70 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 1410388, Eniwetok Atoll, 
Aaraanbiru Island, June 3, 1946, S-46-198, 
Schultz, 8 specimens, 28 to 67 mm; Chicago Nat. 
Hist. Mus. no. 44703, Bikini Island, August 14, 
1946, S-46-349, Herald, 20 specimens, 22 to 65 
mm; C.N.H.M. no. 44704, Rongelap Atoll, mi- 


aetok Island, July 20, 1946, S-46-267, Herald and 
Brock, 11 specimens, 31.5 to 61 mm; C.N.H.M. 
no. 44705, Rongerik Atoll, Latoback Island, Aug- 
ust 14, 1946, 8-1041, Schultz, Brock, and Donald- 
son, 2 specimens, 31 to 49 mm. 

The following paratypes are from the Philip- 
pine Islands, collected by the Albatross: U.S.N.M. 
no. 96435, Langao Point, Luzon, June 24, 1909, 
1 specimen, 70 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152552, Little 
Santa Cruz Island, May 28, 1908, 2 specimens, 69 
to 74mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152551, Dodepo Island, 
Celebes, November 19, 1909, 1 specimen, 49 mm; 
U.S.N.M. no. 96455, Tamahu Island, December 
12,1909, 1 specimen, 71 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96427, 
Tara Island, December 14, 1908, 2 specimens, 52 
and 64 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152549, Alimango 
Bay, Burias Island, March 5, 1909, 1 specimen, 
63 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152550, Makyan Island, 
November 29, 1909, 1 specimen, 69 mm; 
U.S.N.M. no. 96460, Port Palapag, June 3, 1909, 
2 specimens, 61 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152553 
Bubuan Island, Jolo, February 14, 1908, 2 speci- 
mens, 47 and 57 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152548, 
Langao Point, Luzon, June 24, 1909, 4 specimens, 
47 to 66 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96423, Port Palapag, 
June 3, 1909, 1 specimen, 49 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 
96410, Pararongpang Island, June 11, 1909, 5 
specimens, 47 to 65 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96473, 
Mactan Island, Cebu, March 25, 1909, 1 speci- 
men, 82 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96440, Limbones 
Cove, February 8, 1909, 1 specimen, 49 mm; 
U.S.N.M. no. 96484, Candaraman Island, Jan- 
uary 4, 1909, 1 specimen, 64 mm; U.S.N.M_ no. 
96477, Biri Channel, June 1, 1909, 1 specimen 59 
mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96437, Biri Channel, June 1, 
1909, 2 specimens, 59 and 61 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 
96432, Philippines, | specimen, 50 mm; U.S.N.M. 
no. 96447, Guntao Island, December 20, 1908, 1 
specimen, 52 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96453, Ligpo 
Point, Belagam Bay, June 18, 1908, 1 specimen, 
31 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96469, Maculabo Island, 
June 14, 1909, 1 specimen, 48 mm; U.S.N AM. no. 
96452, Sabalayan, Mindoro, December 12, 1908, 
1 specimen, 47 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 96468, Port 
Langean, Palawan Island, April 8, 1909, 1 speci 
men, 38 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 152547, Candaraman 
Island, Balabac, June 4, 1909, 1 specimen, 47 mm. 

The following paratypes were collected in var 


108 


ious localities: U.S.N.M. no. 152554, Fiji Islands, 
1 specimen, 37 mm.; U.S.N.M. no. 72715, Java, 
collected by Bryant-Palmer, 1 specimen; U.S.- 
N.M. no. 65463, Manga Reva, February 4, 1905, 
Albatross, 26 specimens, 38 to 70 mm; U.S.- 
N.M. no. 152555, Samoan Islands, Jordan and 
Kellogg, 5 specimens, 43 to 80 mm; U.S.N.M. no. 
152556, Samoan Island, Tutuila Island, Pago Pago 
Bay, June 2, 1939, 11 specimens, 39 to 59 mm. 

The following paratypes were collected by the 
University of Washington group in the Marshall 
Islands: Eniwetok Atoll, Rigili Island, July 24, 
1948, 1 specimen, 47 mm; Eniwetok Atoll, Rigili 
Island, August 10, 1949, Welander, 1 specimen, 
53 mm; Bikini Atoll, Ion Island, August 7, 1947, 
1 specimen, 62 mm; Bikini Atoll, Airy Is'and, 
August 14, 1947, 1 specimen, 57 mm; Bikini 
Atoll, Amen Island reef, July 31, 1947, 1 speci- 
men, 77 mm; Bikini Island, August 1, 1946, 5 
specimens 60 to 77 mm, Bikini Island, July 24 
1947, depth 33 feet, 13 specimens, 36 to 83 mm; 
Likiep Atoll, Likiep Island, August 22, 1949, 
11 specimens, 27 to 52 mm; Rongerik Atoll, 
Latoback Island, August 16, 1947, 1 specimen, 
28 mm. 


Fie. 1.—Chromis atripectoralis, n. sp., a black 
and white print of a kodachrome picture taken of 
the holotype at Bikini. 


Description —Dorsal fin rays XII, 9 or 10 
(usually 10); anal II, 9 or 10 (usually 10); pee- 
torals u, 16 to 19 (usually 17 or 18); pelvies I, 
5; branched caudal rays 7 + 6; transverse scale 
rows 24 to 27 from upper edge of gill opening to 
base of caudal rays; 2 between lateral line and 
origin of dorsal, 9 between lateral line and origin 
of anal; dorsal lateral line with 15 or 16 tubular 
scales; gill rakers on first gill arch, 6 to9 + 1 + 19 
to 22, total 28 to 31. 

Depth of body 2.0 to 2.2, length of head 3.1 
to 3.6, both in standard length (tip of snout to 
base of middle caudal rays); snout 3.5 to 4.0, eye 
2.8 to 3.3, least preorbital width 7.0 to 8.0, length 
of upper jaw 2.5 to 2.9, postorbital part of head 
(hind margin of eye to upper edge of gill opening) 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


2.2 to 2.5, interorbital width 2.9 to 3.1, least 
depth of caudal peduncle 2.0 to 2.3, length of 
pectoral fin 1.2 to 1.3, length of pelvic fin 1.2 to 
1.3, length of second dorsal spine 2.0 to 2.3, 
length of upper caudal rays 0.6 to 1.0, lower 0.7 
to 0.9, all in length of head (tip of snout to pos- 
terior margin of opercular membrane); depth of 
caudal peduncle into length of caudal peduncle 
1.1 to 1.4; angle of upper profile with lengthwise 
axis of body 33° to 48°, profile straight to convex. 

Teeth of jaws conical, widely spaced, an outer 
row enlarged teeth, in lower jaw these projecting 
anteriorly near symphysis, a few teeth at sides 
near tip of lower jaw curve out posteriorly; inner 
teeth minute in single row in upper jaws, forming 
small patches of very minute teeth on either side 
of symphysis in lower jaw; snout scaled to tip, 
line from eye, including nostril and along upper 
edge of preorbital naked; preorbitals and sub- 
orbitals scaled, lower margin of latter almost en- 
tirely obscured; preopercle produced at angle, its 
posterior margin entire with some irregular crenu- 
lations observable at angle in many specimens; no 
scales on bases of soft dorsal and anal; upper and 
lower caudal rays filamentous, 3 free spines on 
upper and lower caudal base; profile angle, meas- 
ured with one side of angle lying along closed 
lower jaw to tip of snout and the other side from 
snout to nape directly above gill opening, 80° 
to 96°. 

Color vn alcohol.—Head and upper half of body 
bluish gray to brown; lower sides and_ belly 
lighter, pale to silvery; a narrow dark to bluish 
line from eye, just under nostril toward middle of 
snout along naked area; iris faintly bluish; spiny 
dorsal membrane more or less dusky, this some- 
times accentuated basally and distally, spines 
dusky; lips, especially at tips of jaws dusky to 
black; soft dorsal and anal rays dusky, membranes 
lighter; upper and lower caudal rays brownish, 
middle rays dusky basally, pale distally; pelvics 
pale to dusky; pectorals pale except at base where 
upper rays are dusky to blackish, axil of pectoral 
with large black blotch, this broadest on dorsal 
portion and usually not extending to lower rays; 
in young less than 40 mm in standard length axil 
of pectoral dusky to black. 

Color when alwwe.—Top of head and back bright 
bluish green; a narrow blue-green line across upper 
part of eye to snout and a second line from an- 
terior margin of eye just below nostril to snout; 
lower half of head, sides of body and belly pure 
white or grayish white; spiny dorsal smoky pur- 


Marcu 1951 


plish; soft dorsal and anal rays dusky, membranes 
faintly yellowish; upper and lower caudal rays 
greenish, outer margins blackish, middle rays 
greenish on scaled portion, yellowish on naked 
portion, pelvics greyish; pectorals clear hyaline 
except upper ray dusky. 

Remarks —This new species may be differ- 
entiated from C. caeruleus on the basis of two 
striking characters: The black axil of the pectoral 
fin and by more branched pectoral rays (see table 
of counts) usually 17 or 18 in atripectoralis, 
whereas caeruleus usually has 15 or 16. The pec- 
toral axil of caeruleus is pigmented with black 
dots forming a dusky area only along the dorsal 
part, thence fading ventrally where no pigment 
cells occur or only a few, whereas atripectoralis 


WELANDER AND SCHULTZ: CHROMIS 


ATRIPECTORALIS 109 
has a black axil and the individual black pigment 
cells are not isolated when viewed under mag- 
nification, the outer edge of this black axil sharply 
contrasts with the pale distal part of the axil. 
On specimens shorter than about 30 mm. in stand- 
ard length the axil is not quite as black as in 
longer specimens. We note that the distal margin 
of the spiny dorsal fin of atripectoralis may have 
a dusky to blackish line whereas that of caeruleus 
is pale. 

Although most of the descriptions in the litera- 
ture for these blue-green damsel fishes fail to 
mention the colorations of the pectoral axil, a few 
do so and show the spiny dorsal fin with a dark 
margin. We have listed a few such references in 
the synonymy. 


TaBLe 1.—Counts MabE On Two Species or CHROMIS 


| Number 
Number of fin rays of Number of gill rakers on first arch 
vertical 
Species and locality Soa 
| Dorsal | Anal | Pectoral Thaoail pee eae Below angle 
line | 
XII) 9 |10 IT 9 |10/ ii 15 16 17/18 19 24 25 26 27| 6 7/8|9| 1 |19'20 21 22 23/24 
Ileal | ie 
C. caeruleus: 
Marshallpliclands erate crr sci eee ra aac cer - | 18°) 3)15)18;—)18'42} 832) 2—— —/ 3 19; 8—|/ 4) 7] 1) 12) |——| 5} 6) 1j— 
MamiamastIslands. 2s. 022.2 ees sbsne sade: | aS 1 a Lo = 
ehilippinedslan dss ans stevia a eerie: = ———— —16 Fh} il jst le 
Phoenix and Samoan Islands........ eae ae -....{ 6 | 1) 5} 6] 1) 5) 38} 1) 2———|— —— — — — | § 6 |—|—| 2] 2} 1 
DG alo ao gaa eiiece acepiy claire Se 24 | 4 20 24] 1 23 83:14 62) 7— ——| 3.19 8—| 412! 2) 18 |—|—| 7| 8) 2) 1 
C. atripectoralis: | 
Mars hallBislandsteerrvatace sais site cuter ee 16 | 1:15 16) 1 15 31 —| 2.11/21] 1] 4,10 10] 7] 1| 3,10, 1| 15 1| 4) 7) 3—|— 
Marianas Islands................-..-0-0020000005- Se i ol Se = PS 
Pivibpoype® WOhyNClS: soanueseecoconscqcadacescuseen — -—-———— 16——| 8} s—— — ——————|) — -—— eel 
Phoenix and Samoan Islands..............-...-. 4 || 4] 4) 2] 2} 5 4) 1 1 1 | = a 
ANOLIANL 2: 2 So Ot eel re ee noe Pl 20 119 20 317,73 — 3 2349) 2| 4 1110 1) 3,10} 1} 15 1| 4 a Si 


TABLE 2.—MEASUREMENTS RECORDED 


FOR Two SPECIES OF CHROMIS (EXPRESSED IN THOUSANDTHS OF 


THE STANDARD LENGTH) 


C. atripectoralis 
C. caeruleus 
Measurements BanWAeall Bikini Atoll eee 
ji eee Paratype 
Paratype | Paratype | Paratype Holotype | 
Standard length in millimeters...........2... 30.2 45.0 58.7 31.1 46.1; 52.3 | 67 | 40.5 
Greatestiaepthroimbod yards nieaanee 464 449 477 | 462 | 475 | 470 455 458 
rene thvoigheadipn newer asic: he oricg ie vers 301 298 303iiae aS 09m mee293) 311 SN 1 | SHG 
La iygiin @ Seb iaadacatnaumoemeouonece secHee bon 79 84 83 73 76 79 87) 80 
MYaAMeEteniol Cyercusevacomurs sy a eseMm omenieae 96 96 85 112 93 101 100 113 
Least preorbital width.......................- 20 24 29 29 24 fo 8 31 31 
Weng tiMomup perry awena-ce ce ascrieneu neces 99 113 114 116 117 122 112 120 
Postorbitalapantiotmhead ssn. seen ceeeiee 129 120 126 | 119 abet 127 136 137 
EO OM AW Ve pe eongeensob abe paneee hada 86 84 99 | 108 | 91 105 90 101 
Least depth of caudal peduncle............... 129 122 131 138 | 143 | aR 130 142 
Deng thiofipectoral fins. . 2. sse seen: 242 249 266 270 | 269 | 249 251 265 
Length of pelvie fin..................... 268 240 267 251 | 256 | 281 230 251 
Length of third to sixth dorsal spine......... 162 140 150 | 182 154 135 149 147 
Length of upper caudal rays.................. 331 — 341 | - 360 -- 298 362 
Length of lower caudal rays.................. 331 — 310 338 321 324 103 386 
Length of caudal peduncle.....+.............. 145 160 170 170 182 183 221 222 


110 


To the recognized Chromis caeruleus (Cuvier 
and Valenciennes) we refer the following named 
species: Heliases caeruleus Cuvier and Valen- 
ciennes, Histoire naturelle des poissons 5: 497. 
1830 (New Guinea; Ulea); H. frenatus, ibid.: 
498 (Guam); H. lepisurus, ibid.: 498 (New 
Guinea). Heliases frenatus, Sauvage, Histoire 
naturelle des poissons 16: 486, pt. 28, fig. 1. 1887 
(Madagasear); Chromis lepisurus Bleeker, Atlas 
Ichthy. 9: pl. 408, fig. 7. 1877, and Nat. Verh. 
Holland. Maatsch. Wet. 2 (6): 164. 1877 (Hast 
Indies; Zanzibar; Andamans; Guam; Ulea). Heli- 
astes lepidurus Giinther, Catalogue of the fishes 
in the British Museum 4: p. 63, 1862 (Amboina; 
emended spelling for H. lepisurus Cuvier and 
Valenciennes); Day, Fishes of India 2: 389, pl. 
82, fig. 1. 1877 (Andamans); Giinther, Fische der 
Siidsee, Journ. Mus. Godeffroy 15 (pt. 7): 238 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 3 
(in part), pl. 128, fig. D (only). 1881. Glyphiodon 
anabatoides Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London 1870: 
696. Glyphisodon bandanensis Bleeker, Nat. 
Tijdschr. Ned. Indie 2: 248. 1851 (Neira, Banda). 
Chromis caeruleus (in part), Jordan and Seale, 
Bull. U.S. Bur. Fish. 25 (1905): 290. 1906 (Sa- 
moan Islands; in a letter to Dr. Jordan, see p. 
291, from Dr. Vaillant who examined the types 
of caeruleus, frenatus and lepisurus, all three are 
referred to a single species by him); Aoyagi, H., 
Biogeographica, Trans. Biogeog. Soc. Japan 4 (1): 
186, fig. 14. 1941 (Japan). 

Remarks.—Fowler and Bean, U.S. Nat. Mus. 
Bull. 100, 7: 31, 61. 1928, have proposed the sub- 
genus Hoplochromis for C. caeruleus, characterized 
by having the ‘front edge of lower jaw with 6 
short conic teeth flaring outward.” 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—A new genus and species of anacanthobatid skate from the Gulf 
of Mexico. Henry B. BranLow and WILLIAM C. SCHROEDER.* (Communicated 


by L. P. Schultz.) 


In 1924 von Bonde and Swart! proposed 
a new genus Anacanthobatis for Leiobatis 
marmoratus von Bonde and Swart, a curi- 
ous batoid from the Natal coast; skatelike 
in that its pelvic fins are so deeply concave 
outwardly that they are entirely subdivided 
with the anterior subdivision limblike, but 
differing from all typical skates in their 
perfectly naked skins and in lacking dorsal 
fins. A second new species, dubia, agreeing 
with marmoratus in naked skin and in fila- 
mentous prolongation of the snout, but dif- 
fering from it in that the outer margins of 
the posterior subdivision of its pelvic fins 
are fused along their anterior one-half with 
the inner margins of the pectorals, was also 
referred to Anacanthobatis by von Bonde 
and Swart.? But the unique specimen seems 
to have lost most of its tail, so that the 
presence or absence of dorsal fins remains 
to be learned. 

Anacanthobatis is included among the 
Dasyatidae by Barnard,’ by Fowler,! and 

* Contribution no. 554 from the Woods Hole 
Oceanographic Institution. 

‘Mar. Biol. Surv. South Africa Rep. 3, spec. 
Rep. 5 [1922]: 18, pl. 23, and accompanying errata 
slip. 1924. 

FILO, Chiiss j9s 19). 


’ Ann. South African Mus. 21: 79. 1925. 
4U. 8S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 100, 13: 448. 1941. 


by Smith.’ But the nature of its pelvic fins 
seems to us to place it among the rajoids, 
as a separate family, Anacanthobatidae, be- 
cause of its naked skin and lack of dorsal 
fins. 

No batoid resembling Anacanthobatis was 
seen again until the autumn of 1950, when 
trawlings by the U. S. Fish and Wild Life 
Service vessel Oregon in the northern side 
of the Gulf of Mexico, off the Mississippi, 
yielded two specimens that agree with the 
South African A. marmoratus von Bonde 
and Swart in structure of pelvics, wholly 
naked skin, and long slender tail without 
dorsal fins, but with A. dubia von Bonde 
and Swart in the fact that the outer margins 
of the posterior subdivision of the pelvic 
fin is fused along the anterior two-thirds 
with the inner margin of the pectorals, which 
is not the case in marmoratus. But the Gulf 
of Mexico form differs from both marmora- 
tus‘and dubius in that the end of the snout 
is expanded in leaflike form (Fig. 1). 

The marginal fusion of pelvic fins with 
pectorals now established for two species is 
so unusual a character as to justify a new 
genus, for which we propose the name 
Springeria, in recognition of Stewart Spring- 


° Sea fishes of southern Africa: 71. 1949. 


Marcu 1951 BIGELOW AND SCHROEDER: 
er’s productive studies of the elasmobranchs 
oi Florida and the Gulf. And the curious 
shape of the snout equally necessitates a 
new species, which we name /folirostris for 
obvious reasons. 


Springeria, n. gen. 


Genotype.—Springeria folirostris, n. sp. 
prolonged as 


Generic characters.—Snout either 


ANACANTHOBATID SKATE 111 
a simple filament, or expanded terminally in 
shape shown in Fig. 1, terminating in a soft 
filament; firm rostral cartilage extending to base 
of filament; outer margins of posterior lobes of 
pelviecs united along first two-thirds of their 
length with inner margins of pectorals; inner 
margins of posterior pelvic lobes attached nearly 
to tips to sides of tail. Tail without lateral folds, 
its lower side as well as its upper side with 
caudal membrane. Pelvic transverse, its anterior 


Fic. 1.—Springeria folirostris, n.sp., male, 400 mm long, holotwpe(U. S. N. M. no. 152546); 


\, End 


of tail, about X1.8; B, mouth and nasal curtain, about X1.8; C, three rows of teeth, upper, about X10. 


112 


profile slightly concave rearward, a long slender 
process at either end, directed forward, no radial 
cartilages along anterior half of basipterygial 
cartilages of pelvic fins. 

Species—Two species known, 8S. folvrostris, 
n. sp., from the Gulf of Mexico, and probably 
also dubia von Bonde and Swart, 1924, South 
Africa. 

Springeria folirostris, n. sp. 

Study material—Immature male, 400 mm 
long to base of terminal filament; northern Gulf 
of Mexico off the Mississippi River, lat. 29° 02’ N., 
long. 88° 34’ W.; 232-258 fathoms; holotype,U. 8. 
N. M. no. 152546; and very young male, 125 
mm long, same general locality, lat. 29° O01’ N., 
long. 88° 30’ W., paratype, Museum of Compara- 
tive Zoology. 

Distinctive characters —Springeria  folirostris 
differs from all other known batoids in the 
peculiar leaflike expansion of the end of its 
snout. Specimens with this and the tail damaged 
would still be easily separable from all other 
rajoids of the Atlantic by their perfectly naked 
skins; from all dasyatid and myliobatid rays by 
the nature of their pelvic fins. 

Description of type (proportional dimensions 
in percent of total length).—Disc: Extreme 
breadth 51.6; length 55.3. Length of snout in 
front of orbits 21.8; in front of mouth 24.3. 
Orbits: Horizontal diameter 2.9; distance be- 
tween 2.6. Spiracles: Length 1.0; distance be- 
tween 5.1. Mouth: Breadth 4.5. Nostrils: Dis- 
tance between mner ends 5.8. Gill openings: 
Lengths, first 0.75, third 0.75, fifth 0.50; distance 
between inner ends, first 9.2, fifth 4.8. Caudal 
fin: Length, base, upper 6.0, lower 5.0. Pelvies: 
Anterior margin 12.7. Distance from tip of snout® 
to center of cloaca 47.6; from center of cloaca 
to tip of tail 52.4. 

Dise from base of terminal filament about 1.1 
times as long as broad; maximum anterior angle 
from level of base of terminal expansion of snout 
to level of spiracles about 85°; end of snout ex- 
panded in leaflike form as shown in Fig. 1, 
terminating in a slender filament about as long 
as distance between spiracles. Margins of dise 
rearward from terminal expansion weakly con- 
cave about to level of spiracles, then altering 
to continuously and strongly convex around to 
very short inner margins without definite outer 


6 Exelusive of rostral filament, which is 23 
mm long. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


or posterior corners. Tail very slender, laterally 
compressed, increasingly so rearward; its width 
at axils of pelvic fins (where thickest) about as 
great as length of eye; its length from center of 
cloaca to tip about 1.1 times as great as distance 
from cloaca to base of terminal filament of 
snout. Skin perfectly naked everywhere, without 
dermal denticles of any sort. Snout in front of 
eyes about 8.4 times as long to base of terminal 
filament as distance between orbits, its length 
in front of mouth about 6.5 times as great as 
distance between exposed nostrils. Orbit about 
1.1 times as long as distance between orbits, 
and nearly 3 (2.9) times as long as spiracle 
which is noticeably small. Nasal curtain con- 
spicuously fringed, each side with 10-11 lobelets; 
outer margin of nostril only slightly expanded 
with irregular edge. Exposed nostril noticeably 
minute. Mouth on immature males a little arched 
forward, probably also on females, its shape not 
known for mature males. Teeth 33 on young male, 
low, with obscure cutting edge but no cusp, 
and arranged in quincunx. Teeth of mature 
males not seen. Gill openings minute; first about 
one-sixth as long as breadth of mouth; fifth 
about two-thirds as long as first; distance be- 
tween inner ends of first gills about 1.6 times as 
long as between exposed nostrils, and between 
fifth gills about 1.9 times. No dorsal fins. Base of 
upper caudal fin-membrane about 1.0 times as 
long as distance between exposed nostrils, of 
shape illustrated (Fig. 1), its maximum width 
about one-tenth (about 9 percent) as great as 
length of its base; lower caudal membrane about 
half (55 percent) as wide as upper, its origin a 
little posterior to origin of upper; the two lobes 
discontinuous at tip of tail. Anterior leglike 
subdivision of pelvics nearly as long (95 percent) 
as from pelvic origin to rear corners, broader 
than thick, fleshy, with one articulation about 
midway its length, inner edge of the terminal 
segment scalloped, corresponding to tips of the 
three radial cartilages. Posterior lobe of pelvics 
with narrowly rounded rear corner reaching rear- 
ward only about as far as rear limits of disc; 
outer margin joined for about two-thirds its 
length to margin of pectoral, inner edge joined 
nearly to tip to side of tail. 

Anterior rays of pectorals extending forward 
to a little posterior to base of terminal expansion 
of snout; firm rostral cartilage reaching about 
to base of terminal filament. 


Marcu 1951 


Color: Ash gray above, except unpigmented 
and translucent in spaces between rostral ridge 
and anterior rays of pectorals; orbits dusky, 
terminal expansion of snout narrowly and ir- 
regularly margined with black, also the posterior 
part of the back with a sooty blotch on one side 
near midline, perhaps the result of injury. Lower 
surface pale grayish white, the outer posterior 
belt of pectorals sooty gray, terminal expansion 
of snout narrowly and irregularly edged with 
black; tail sooty at base. 

Development stages—Presumably Springeria is 
oviparous like other rajids, but its eggs have not 
been seen yet. 

Size.-—How large this skate may grow is not 


PITELKA: RACE NAMES IN CENTRAL AMERICAN JAY 


113 


known, for the larger of the two specimens seen 
so far, 400 mm long to base of terminal filament, 
is an immature male, its claspers not yet reach- 
ing as far as the tips of its pelvies. 

Habits—The two specimens seen so far were 
trawled at 232-258 fathoms, this with the im- 
probability that this skate would have been 
overlooked if it occurred in shallow water, sug- 
gests that it is confined to depths greater than 
about 200 fathoms. Nothing else is known of its 
habits. 

Range.—So far known only in the northern 
side of the Gulf of Mexico off the Mississippi 
River, at the localities listed on page 112 under 
Study material. 


ORNITHOLOGY .—Race names in the Central American jay, Cyanolyea argenti- 
eula. FRANK A. PrrELKa, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, University of Cali- 
fornia. (Communicated by H. G. Deignan.) 


The silver-throated jay, Cyanolyca argen- 
tigula, is a species of restricted distribution 
in montane forests of Central America, and 
at present two rather well marked races are 
recognized, C. u. argentigula (Lawrence) in 
central Costa Rica and C. a. blandita Bangs 
in northern Panama. When Bangs (Proc. 
Biol. Soe. Washington 19: 109. 1906) de- 
scribed the latter from the Volc4n de 
Chiriqui, he evidently did not see Lavrence’s 
type of argentigula and assumed from Law- 
rence’s description (Ann. Lye. Nat. Hist. 
New York 11: 88. 1875) that the latter re- 
ferred to specimens with white throats rather 
than to those with violet-gray throats. Speci- 
mens of the white-throated form, represent- 
ing argentigula as now known, were then and 
are now more numerous in collections than 
specimens of the gray-throated form, blan- 
dita. Reading of Lawrence’s description in 
the light of current knowledge of the two 
races will reveal that the original descrip- 
tion, rather vague as regards critical details, 
suggests argentigula more than it does blan- 
dita. Ridgway’s description (Birds of North 
and Middle America, pt. 3: 319. 1904), based 
on specimens from both northern Panama 
and central Costa Rica, applies to and in- 
cludes both races as now recognized. From 
these considerations Bangs, in 1906, evi- 
dently deseribed blandita on the assumption 
that Lawrence’s name applied to the best- 


known population, that of central Costa 
Rica. The type of argentigula, however, 
which I examined in Washington, D. C., in 
December 1949, so closely resembles the 
type of blandita, examined in Cambridge 
two months earlier, that both evidently rep- 
resent one and the same race. 

Interestingly enough, the basic facts con- 
cerning the type of argentigula were pub- 
lished in 1889 by Ridgway (Proc. U.S. Nat. 
Mus. 11: 541), when he compared it with 
specimens from the Volcan Irazti and stated: 
“Compared with the type [four adults] all 
have the throat-patch decidedly paler, its 
color being silvery white with a very faint 
purplish tinge, instead of light silvery grey, 
with a very strong tinge of purplish blue.” 
Differences in the crown-band are also fully 
and correctly described by Ridgway. These 
are the differences used by Bangs to dis- 
tinguish blandita. 

There is ample evidence to support that 
provided by the types themselves. In the 
specimen register of the United States Na- 
tional Museum, the information on the type 
of argentigula, no. 67963, is as follows: Orig- 
inal number 320, female {inverted Venus’s 
mirror sign on original label indicates female, 
as collector used usual sign for male|, Ta- 
lamanca, Costa Riea, received from William 
M. Gabb. In a subsequent entry, C. W. 
Richmond added the details that the speci- 


114 


men was collected by Juan Cooper, in May 
or June 1874. In Cooper’s original catalogue, 
field numbers 315-320 are listed under the 
locality heading “En Camo,” a phrase of 
unclear meaning (see beyond). Immediately 
following 320, however, is the locality head- 
ing “Cipurio” [=Sipurio]. Cooper’s cata- 
logue carries no dates, but the listing is 
chronological. 

It seems clear that the type was obtained 
near Sipurio in southeastern Costa Rica, 
near the Panama border, and on the Carib- 
bean slope of the Cordillera de Talamanca. 
From present-day knowledge of the altitu- 
dinal distribution of C. argentigula, we can 
say that the type was collected well above 
that lowland town. From a brief account 
published by Gabb in 1874 (Amer. Journ. 
Sei. 108: 388-390), it is known that in the 
course of a four months’ journey into Ta- 
lamanea, he reached the summit of Pico 
Blanco, a major peak above and south of 
Sipurio, on June 13 of that year. In another 
account, also written in 1874 (see pp. 267— 
286, Geografia de Costa Rica, by F. Mon- 
tero Barrantes, Barcelona, 1892), Gabb out- 
lines the route of his ascent between the 
rios Urén and Lari, thence across the latter 
and upward to the summit. The descent was 
apparently made between the rios Lari and 
Depari, or at least to the northwest of the 
ascent. 

Gabb was accompanied in Talamanca by 
Juan Cooper, and from Cooper’s catalogue 
and probably other clues, Richmond de- 
duced that the specimens listed under the 
heading “‘En Camo” were obtained in May 
or June 1874. “En Camo” probably means 
“en camino.” The former is the only local- 
ity heading used by Cooper other than ‘‘Ci- 
purio,’ which precedes and follows “En 
Camo.” 

Tt thus seems very likely that Lawrence’s 
type was collected near and more or less 
north of Pico Blanco, above Sipurio and 
probably in the drainage of the Rio Lari. 
This may be considered the restricted type 
locality of Cyanocitta argentigula Lawrence. 
The geographic details are given on a map 

1 Gabb was a paleontologist, and I do not know 
of any evidence clearly indicating that some of the 
specimens credited to him (for example, by Good- 


win, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 87: 455. 1945) 
were collected by him personally. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


accompanying Carriker’s report on Costa 
Rican birds (Ann. Carnegie Mus. 6: 314— 
915. 1910), on which trails leading above 
Sipurio are indicated. 

According to Goodwin (Bull. Amer. Mus. 
Nat. Hist. 87: 279. 1945), the major faunal 
break in the highland faunas of Costa Rica 
appears to follow the valley of the Rio 
Reventazon, which, with the Rio Grande 
de Tarcoles, separates the Cordillera Cen- 
tral Gncluding Volean Irazi and Volean Tur- 
rialba) from the Cordillera de Talamanca. 
Faunal affinities of the latter range are to 
the south with Panama, at least among 
mammals (Goodwin, loc. cit.). 

We now have these facts: The type of 
argentigula shares with blandita the pale vio- 
let-gray throat and crown-band coloration 
which Bangs used to distinguish the latter 
race from the former. Cooper obtained the 
type of argentigula in montane highlands 
continuous with those inhabited by blandita 
but separated from mountains inhabited by 
the white-throated race to the north. Cy- 
anolyca blandita Bangs is thus a synonym 
of Cyanocitta argentigula Lawrence, and the 
name formerly applied to the northern race 
unfortunately must now be anplied to the 
southern race, including, as it has not here- 
tofore, the population of southern Costa 
Rica. The northern race, left without a name, 
may be known as— 


Cyanolyca argentigula albior, n. name 


Type.—Adult male, U. 8S. N. M. no. 209407, 
Voledn Turrialba, 9,680 feet, Costa Rica, March 
28, 1908, collected by R. Ridgway and J. C. 
Zeledén, original number 582. \easurements of 
the type: Wing (chord), 118 mm; tail, 126; bill 
length (from nostril), 17.6; bill depth (at nostril), 
10.1; tarsus, 35.3. 

Racial characters—Compared with C. a. argen- 
tigula of northern Panama and southern Costa 
Rica, throat lighter and less purplish (silvery 
white); transverse band on crown also lighter 
(silvery white), tinged marginally with pale lay- 
ender, but less brightly; supraauricular stripe 
lighter; wings and tail less purplish (Nigrosin 
Blue); size probably smaller (see table 1). 

Geographic distribution —Cordillera Central of 
Costa Rica [Voledn Irazu, Voledin Turrialba, 
La Hondura, Puente de Tierra, Retes, San Isidro 
de San José, and San Pedro (de Péas?)]. 


Marcu 1951 PROCEEDINGS: THE 

So far as I can determine now, other than 
Lawrence’s type, none of the specimens of a total 
of 87 examined by me comes from the mountains 
of southern Costa Rica, south of the rios Pirrfs 
and Reventazén. Six specimens bearing the lo- 
eality “Limon,” a Caribbean seaport, were not 
obtained there but elsewhere and possibly in 
the province of Limén, which includes the Tala- 
manea district and the Caribbean slopes of the 
Talamanca Range. But the specimens from “Li- 
mon” resemble those from the Cordillera Central 
and are assigned to C. a. albior. Nevertheless, 
the possibility remains that intergradation of 
characters occurs at the north end of the Cor- 
dillera de Talamanca. 

Acknowledgement is gratefully made to H. G. 
Deignan, United States National Museum, for 


ACADEMY 115 
critical assistance in the preparation of this paper. 
Helpful suggestions were also received from J. L. 
Peters, Museum of Comparative Zoology. Speci- 
mens from the following collections were ex- 
amined: American Museum of Natural History, 
British Museum, Carnegie Museum, Chicago 
Natural History Museum, H. O. Havemeyer, 
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Royal On- 
tario Museum of Zoology, United States National 
Museum, University of California (Dickey col- 
lection), and University of Michigan (Museum of 
Zoology). I am indebted to the curators and 
owners of these collections for their kind co- 
operation. This paper results from researches 
supported by a John Simon Guggenehim Fellow- 
ship held im 1949-50. 


TaBLE 1—MEASUREMENTS OF ADULTS OF CYANOLYCA ARGENTIGULA 


i} Y o ~ 
Race | Sex pees | Range See Ne eee 
| 
C. a. albior | 
; Maleseeee eee 31 112-123 118.2 + 0.5 3.0 
NUBD se. osseaze apnea onal 15 111-120 115.4 + 0.8 3 
emales 5 =: 0: 3.0 
: Males........... 30 118-134 124.5 + 0.8 £1 
UGH occ vos oo ssancon ede Females........ 14 116-126 121.4 + 1.0 3.7 
ere Malesea)s- ee: 31 16.2-18.6 17.42 + 0.10 0.57 
Pea peH aaa e eae Females........ 15 15.8-18.7 16.80 + 0.25 0.95 
i VMalesseeee eee 31 §.8-10.1 9.31 + 0.07 0.38 
Bill depth... Females........ 14 8.3- 8.9 9.14 40.11 0.42 
Tes Males........... 32 32.7-35.7 34.15 + 0.13 0.76 
e Temales........ 15 32.0-34.5 33.24 + 0.18 0.70 
C_ a. argentigula 

ee Males........... 6 119-127 121.8 + 1.2 2.9 
WEIN. coy oom se sion ozeenas Females....... 4 116-125 119.7 3.6 
rae Males... 6 122-141 129.5 + 2.7 6.5 
TS ee Females...... 4 125-132 128.5 3.5 
Bill, length Males ........ 6 17.1-18.6 17.80 + 0.26 0.63 
: Females........ 4 16.4-18.1 17.95 0.83 
E Males 5 9.6-10.6 9.85 + 0.17 0.39 
JED, COUN oes lnlternalesy 20. A 9.0-10.2 9.70 0.55 
ai Males......-... 6 33.8-37.3 35.35 + 0.62 1.52 

apy Iemales ... 4 32.1-35.2 33.95 nee 


1 In samples of less than 30 specimens, N-1 was used in calculation of standard deviation. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


443d MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 443d meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on January 16, 1951, 
was called to order at 8:07 p.m. by the President, 
F. B. Sirspen. Also present were: N. R. Surrx, 
H. S. Rappieye, J. A. Srevenson, H. A. 
Reyprer, A. T. McPurrson, W. R. WEDEL, 
J. S. Wititams, F. O. Con, F. A. Weiss, W. A. 
Dayton, C. A. Berrs, R. S. Dinu, E. W. Price, 
Marearer Pirrwan, H. W. Henrie, F. M. 
SETZLER, and, by invitation, R. G. Bares, T. D. 


Stewart, M. A. Mason, Waurer RaAMBeEerG, 
and B. D. Van Evera. 

The Committee on Membership submitted the 
names of four individuals proposed for resident 
membership. Seventeen persons previously pro- 
posed were elected, 14 to resident and 3 to non- 
resident membership. 

The President announced that all 
ments had been completed for the Annual Meet- 
ing to be held at the Kennedy-Warren on Janu- 
ary 18, 1951, at which time Dr. Per IK. Frouicu 
would address the Academy. 


arrange- 


116 


The General Chairman of the Committee on 
Awards for Scientific Achievement, T. Dat 
Srewarr, called upon WALTER RaMBERG, Chair- 
man of the Engineering Sciences, to read the re- 
port of his Committee recommending SAMUEL 
Levy, National Bureau of Standards, for the 
annual award in recognition of his distinguished 
service in the structural analysis of aircraft. Dr. 
Stewart then read the report by the Comittee on 
Physical Sciences, which recommended Puxitip 
H. Asetson, Department of Terrestrial Mag- 
netism, in recognition of his distinguished service 
in the fields of chemistry, nuclear physics, and the 
physies of living organisms. Dr. Stewart read the 
report of the Committee on Biological Sciences, 
which recommended Davin H. Dunxup, U. 8. 
National Museum, for recognition of his dis- 
tinguished service in paleontology, especially by 
researches on early arthrodiran and teleost fishes. 

The Board of Managers unanimously accepted 
and approved the recommendations of the Com- 
mittee on Awards for Scientific Achievement. 

B. D. Van Evera, Chairman of the Com- 
mittee for the Teaching of Science, indicated 
that his Committee had decided that no award 
be made this year. Considerable discussion fol- 
lowed with regard to the difficulties in connection 
with the age limit as set by the rules of the Board 
and the advisability of increasing the number of 
recipients for these awards. 

The Chairman of the Committee on the En- 
couragement of Science Talent, M. A. Mason, 
read a report summarizing the work of the Com- 
mittee during the past year. Report will be pub- 
lished in the Proceedings of the Annual Meeting. 

The Special Committee on Joint Secretariat, 
consisting of Harvey L. Curtis, chairman, H. 8. 
RappLEYE, and NoRMAN BEKKEDAHL, submitted 
the following report: 


The following is a report to the Board of Man- 
agers of the Washington Academy of Sciences of a 
special committee appointed in March 1950 to ex- 
amine the desirability of establishing a central 
secretarial office to be used jointly by the various 
scientific societies affiliated with the Academy. 
This committee [has] sent a circular letter to all 
the afhliated societies on May 25, 1950, and a fol- 
low-up letter on November 20. Replies have been 
received from all but three of the societies. Six 
societies stated categorically that they were not 
interested. Eight societies have sent rather evasive 
replies. Not one of them indicated anything more 
than lukewarm interest in the matter. One society 
suggests that the Academy handle the meeting 
notices of all societies by means of a monthly pub- 
lication. Another society indicates that the Engi- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 3 


neers’ Club has a project similar to that suggested 
by the Academy and that they are awaiting more 
complete information from that group before giv- 
ing a definite reply. 

As a result of the information summarized 
above, this committee does not feel that the Acad- 
emy would be justified at the present time in es- 
tablishing a central secretarial office for the 
scientific societies of Washington. 

In discussions concerning the central secre- 
tariat the question arose concerning the desir- 
ability of having an executive secretary to handle 
many of the affairs of the Academy now entrusted 
to the elected secretary and treasurer of the Acad- 
emy. It may be possible to have office space in the 
new building of the Cosmos Club and to have a 
retired member of the Academy serve as executive 
secretary on a part time basis. This question, how- 
ever, is considered outside the field of this special 
committee and no recommendations concerning 
it are intended. A summary of the activities of the 
committee is attached hereto. 


The Board expressed their gratitude for the 
work of the committee in completing its assign- 
ment. 

The following members, having retired from 
the gainful practice of their professions, were 
placed on the retired list: Atice C. Evans, 
Luoyp D. Friron, Maurice J. Smirx, JosepH 
S. WaprE. 

The Secretary reported the following deaths: 

Epwarp A. Briree, University of Wisconsin, 
Madison, Wis., on June 9, 1950 (elected May 15, 
1906); CHEsTER Srock, California Institute of 
Technology, Pasadena, Calif., on December 6, 
1950. (elected February 6, 1942); JoHn F. En- 
BREE, Yale University, New Haven, Conn., on 
December 22, 1950 (elected June 28, 1943); H. 
EK. Ewinc, formerly of the U. S. Bureau of 
Entomology and Plant Quarantine, on January 
5, 1951 (elected May 15, 1934). 

The Secretary read a report by W. N. Fenton, 
Chairman of the Committee on the 40-Year 
Index of the JouRNAL, indicating that the index 
had now been completed and the cards are 
marked for the printer. 

The Treasurer, Howarp 8. RappLeyE, out- 
lined the financial transactions for the year and 
submitted the report of the Auditing Committee. 
Details of this report will be printed as part of 
the Proceedings of the Annual Meeting. 

The President expressed his thanks to the 
Board and to the various committees for their 
active cooperation during the year. 

The meeting was then adjourned at 9:30 p.m. 
to partake of some refreshments offered by the 
outgoing President. 

F. M. Serziumr, Secretary. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


IP ROSCCICTI Be tae eee ose Cee cnet ae te ate eee Natuan R. Smitru, Plant Industry Station 
PARESTOENE CLE CEs See ts cron ea? Water RamBerc, N ational Bureau of Standards 
SCORAGD Us Saee ole ad eee SO ee F. M. DEFANDORF, National Bureau of Standards 
LSAT SOURGRS Goan aaCe eI Howarp 8S. Rappi5ys, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
LEE COTOSE ho 6 okt Senta oes renee ee eee eae Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haraup A. Rexper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Epwarp U. Connon 
Anthropological Society of Washington......................... Watpo R. WEDEL 
Brologicallsocietyzof Washineton..5...0..5.+.4.004-5.--4s450eeees ee 

ChemicalisocietyofWashinetonyys sss ane es ee vee ne Josep J. FAHEY 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ Frepmrick W. Poos 
NatronsliGeographie Society: 4.002520. c-eceeses ones. ALEXANDER WETMORE 
GeoloricallSocietyzoh Washineton...ee) 0. 05s) see enone Lreason H. ApAms 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.......................... 

ColumbraviistoricaliSocietya-- 2) 4chs5 sco ses ooo eos eee GILBERT GROSVENOR 
oumicalysocietyaon Washington. 475940) 4see0h le onesee sete e- EK. H. WALKER 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Wiuuiam A. Dayton 
Washington Society of Engineers............................- Currrorp A. Betts 


Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
Francis M. DreraNnDORF 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp S. Dinu 


Helminthological Society OH! WAINIORIOIN, son voncdecesancoooebancs L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Aneus M. Grirrin 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers....H=nry W. HempiE 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.......... Hersert G. Dorsny 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers.... 
Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 


ANG) IBTAUTTEN NGPA ie ee een er ea ne W. F. Fosuaa, C. L. Gazin 
MRopdamWarye G03, 08 cee cess ced aes so oe C. F. W. Mursesecn*, A. T. McPHERSON 
To Jammer eYe Seige sae eo aeee een ae eee Sara E. Branuam, Mitron Harris* 
IB OURORO/MUIONOGENS sole tess ca kes san All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
BoojisojmuditorsvandsAlssocvate, Havtonsn. 9-2-4 4eeese ea - aah eee [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....N. R. SmitrH (chairman), WatrprR RampBere, H. 8. RappLeye, 
J. A. Stevenson, F. M. Drranporr 
Committee on Membership............... L. A. SprnpLER (chairman), M. S. ANDERSON, 
MERRILL BERNARD, R. E. BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, 
D. B. Jones, Dorotuy Nickerson, F. A. Smiru, Heinz Specut, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings......... MarGaret Pittman (chairman), NorMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. Cuaruine, D. J. Davis, F. B. Scuenrz, H. W. Weis 

Committee on Monographs: 


To January 1952.....................J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), Pau H. OEHSER 
Momsen yp G 3h ey, ycmed vate eek cts asap homos at thelse Sold se naweness R. W. Iunay, P. W. OMAN 
AN@ diaiameniyy JOEL ca cee ae ae eee eae ern esa eee EIR eee 8. F. Buaxs, F. C. Kracek 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GEoRee P. Watton, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. FaBeEr, JR., 
Myrna F. Joness, F. W. Poos, J. R. SwALLEN 
For the Engineering Sciences......... IR, (So IDE, (chairman), ARSHAM AMIRIKIAN, 
J. W. McBurney, Frank Neumann, A. H. Scorr 
For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. Wauron (chairman), F. a BRACKETT, 
G. E. Hoi, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMriien 
For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. Barnes, 
F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyr, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPuerson 
Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research...................... L. E. Yocum (chairman), 


M. X. Suniivan, H. L. WairremorEe 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


PRomamm arya O52 eestor sare ces sie aloes ede J. I. Horrman (chairman), M. A. Mason 

ING Lieemineieye MOVERS, Beis saree eee a eke eine ORR ER etce eae ae W. A. Dayton, N. R. Sarre 

Bop yemmmamyalO OA, cic elise ccna sls clare bose ee salads H. B. Couns, Jr., W. W. Ruspny 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

Ie denamenyy IQGH. -sccceccoobneoooode M. A. Mason ane A. T. McPHERSON 

PRO amr arayael 9 Dotan ees eeey Aaeratsiasbouc) sraianae oretans echoes ANG CLARK, F. L. Mower 

omanuanyel 954% n rane tian saree esi tins saeciees Jo Wile Gasca W. L. Scamirr 
Ikxgrorasgaaioe Op Counc OF As Als Alc Soanncocconunaccsdsdgccuecusonren F. M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. Braaren, W. J. YouDEN 


Committee of Tellers...W.G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Merz, Lovisr M. Russeuu 


* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 
ArcHEOLOGY.—Additional data on the Denbigh Flint Complex in north- 
ern Alaska. RatpHS.Sotecki and RopertJ. HACKMAN.......... 


ENTOMOLOGY.—Duinoponera gigantea (Perty), a vicious stinging ant. H. 
Ay ADUARD 94 co. Oh5 84 tea diere 6 ala kee oe ee 


Zootocy.—A revision of the nomenclature of the Gorgoniidae (Coe- 
lenterata: Octocorallia), with an illustrated key to the genera. 
FREDERICK Mi. sBAYER. 00... 5.2. 0c 0) one) 


MatacoLtocy.—Recent species of the veneroid pelecypod Arctica. Davin 


IcutHyoLtoey.—Chromis atripectoralis, a new damselfish from the tropical 
Pacific, closely related to C. caeruleus, family Pomacentridae. Ar- 
THUR D. WELANDER and LeoNnARD P. SCHULTZ.................- 


IcHTHYOLOGy.—A new genus and species of anacanthobatid skate from 
the Gulf of Mexico. Henry B. BigeLow and WiuuiaM C. ScHROE- 


OrNITHOLOGY.—Race names in the Central American jay, Cyanolyca ar- 
gentigula.. BRANK AL PITeLKA.. 0.0.2 ...-.4... 905 oe 


PROCEEDINGS: Tam ACADEMY... 60 odes cae. esc) eee 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


85 


88 


91 


102 


107 


110 


a 
Kf) 
mePAF UP, |} 
P2w2eD 
(~~ ¥ af 
Vot. 41 Aprit 1951 No. 4 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


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ANTHROPOLOGY CHEMISTRY 
C. W. SABROSKY | T. P. THAYER 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 41 


April 1951 


No. 4 


MATHEMATICS.—The theory of group representations.! Francis E. JOHNSTON, 


George Washington University. 


The modern theory of groups began with 
what are called permutation groups in the 
attempts of Lagrange, Ruffini, Vander- 
monde, and Galois to solve the general alge- 
braic equation of degree greater than 4. To- 
day we usually define a group abstractly by 
a set of postulates. Suppose we have a finite 
or infinite set of distinct elements s, t, u, --- 
and a rule of combination of these elements 
such that two of them may combine to pro- 
duce a unique element of the set, or such 
that an element may combine with itself to 
produce a unique element of the set. We 
shall call this process of combining ‘‘multi- 
plication” and shall write the two combining 
elements in juxtaposition as is done in ordi- 
nary algebraic multiplication; the result of 
their combination we shall call their “‘prod- 
uct”’. We assume the following four postu- 
lates satisfied (the first of which has already 
been included in the above description) : 


1. The product ts is a unique element wu of the 
set u = ts. 

2. The associative law holds: w(ts) = (ut)s. 

3. There exists in the set an element e such 
se = s for all s of the set. (e is the right identity.) 

4. To every element s of the set there corre- 
sponds an elements denoted by s! such that 
ss! = e. (s_1 is the right inverse of s with regard 
to e.) 


Such a set of elements is said to constitute 
a group. It can be shown that the assumed 
right identity is unique and that it is also a 
unique left identity. It can be shown also 
that the right inverse of an element is unique 
and is also a unique left inverse for that ele- 
ment, so that we have se = es = s and 
sts=sslt=e. 


If it happens that st = ts the group is 


1 Address of the retiring president of the Philo- 
sophical Society of Washington, January 14, 1950. 


said to be abelian. We may define the inte- 
gral powers of an element: s? = s-s, and by 
induction s” = s-s”1. Also s-” = (s—!)” and 
s°? = e. All the elementary algebraic laws of 
exponents immediately follow. 

If the number of elements in the group is 
finite the group is a finite group, otherwise 
infinite. For a finite group the number of 
elements is the order of the group. Evidently 
the powers of a single element constitute a 
group, called a cyclic group. If this group is 
finite, that is, if s* = e and s” ¥ e, where m 
is less than n, then n is said to be the order 
of the element s. A cyclic group of infinite 
order is said to be a free group. 

Elementary examples of groups are nu- 
merous. If the rule of combination is ordi- 
nary arithmetic multiplication, then the set 
of all positive rational numbers is a group, 
in which one is the identity and the inverse 


of eZ is 1 Tf the rule of combination is ordi- 


nary algebraic multiplication then the four 
numbers 1, —1, 7, —7 (22 = —1) constitute 
a cyclic group of order 4, since the elements 
are the powers of 7. 

Sets of nonsingular square matrices con- 
stitute groups, the elements of the matrices 
being numbers of the complex number field 
and the rule of combination being ordinary 
matrix multiplication. That is, if 


11 A213 * + * Ain bi biz bis > ++ bin 

A ee 
Ani An2An3z*** Ann bri One bns* ++ Onn 
C11 Ci2 Cig ** * Cin 

c see and AB = C 
Cni Cn2 Cn3*** Cnn 


n c= 1] 2s 
then c;; = > Aix De; where 
k=1 J=1, 


117 


MAY 1 - 1951 


118 


The identity matrix for a group of matrices 
each with n rows is the matrix 


I 22 @ 
GQ) kaa @ 
(0) @ oo il 


and methods of computing the inverse of a 
nonsingular matrix are well known. The 
three groups below are simple examples of 
groups of matrices. The first set of six ma- 
trices constitutes a group of order six. Be- 
neath each matrix I have written a letter 
which may serve to designate the element, 
since the same group is used as an illustra- 
tion later. H is the identity element; A, B 
and C are of order two, while D and F are 
of order three. The second set of six matrices 
likewise constitute a group of order six, w 
representing a complex cube root of unity. 
The same letters as before may be associated 
with these elements for later identification, 
E again being the identity, A, B, and C of 
order 2, and D and F of order 3. The third 
set of matrices constitute a group of order 8. 


owe! 


E A 
(3 Or 3 1 
HVS 33 Jy NERS a As 
B ¢ 
( 4 Ny ( a) 
Vs 3/43 =4 J, 
D F 


( 
) j ae 


where w + w =0 
0 0 0 -1 
Gceete) 
i @ Oa 
we js =n). 


tO 0 
Q =i, Vil 
course arose from 


Matrices of “linear 
transformations” and the groups of matrices 
are really the groups of the linear trans- 
formations which give rise to these matrices. 
In a mathematical system involving certain 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


variables, 11, %2,-°-:, %,, 1t may be con- 
venient to replace these variables by new 
variables, x1, 2, --- x, through the me- 
dium of a linear transformation: 


y 
ah = (eet =p 00° SP Cigdin 
Dp = Oni) ea A 
/ 
Un = AniLy ap te a Ohodte 


A second linear transformation may replace 


A 
the a1, ,° > ta by once 
Nu / 
v1 = buar + 555 Se hint 
WY / / 
2 = Dota 4° - = ate Uondn B 


» &R 
o WS 


tn = Dati + --> + Danba 
By the ‘‘product”’ of two such linear trans- 
formations we mean simply their sequential 
performance and the result of first operating 
on the system by the transformation A and 
then by the transformation B will be the 
same as if we operated by the single trans- 
formation C, where C = BA, which replaces 
the vee variables Thewily Dy? aA 5 a 5 

. In practice, however, we generally 
use Ati the unaccented sarmatblles on the 
right in a given transformation and simple 
accented ones on the left, imagining the 
process to start anew each time. 

I said that group theory began with per- 
mutation groups in the attempt of mathe- 
maticians to solve algebraic equations of 
higher degree. If we have a set of letters or 
symbols which appear in a mathematical 
system, and each of them is replaced by a 
distinct one of the set then we effect a ‘‘per- 
mutation” on the letters. This process may 
be denoted by writing them in any con- 
venient order on one line (the “natural”’ 
order if they seem to possess one) and then 
writing below each letter the one by which 
it is replaced. Usually large parentheses are 
used to enclose the array. Thus if the sym- 
bols are the letters a, b, c, d, four such per- 
mutations are the following: 


aca) Gee) eee) eee) 
abecd/, beda/, cdab/, dabec}. 
The first of these represents the identity per- 
mutation wherein each letter remains un- 
changed; in the second permutation a is re- 
placed by b, b by c, c by d, and d by a; in 
the third a is replaced by c, b by d, c by a, 


EW 


al Society of Washington, 1949. 


1c 


Francis E. Jounston, President of the Philosoph 


“ 
ni 1 
+ 
j 
4 
7 - 
¥ 
r = 
. 
: Ae 
\ 1 


Aprint 1951 


and d by b; in the last a is replaced by d, 
b by a, c by b, and d by c. The product of 
two permutations is their sequential per- 
formance; thus the product of the second of 
the above permutations followed by the 
third is the last. It is not difficult to verify 
the fact that the above four permutations 
satisiy the requirements for a group and 
hence constitute a permutation group. 

Sometimes it is convenient to represent a 
permutation by a sequence of letters in which 
each letter is replaced by the letter to its 
right, the rightmost letter in the ‘‘cycle’’ be- 
ing replaced by the letter at the beginning 
of the cycle. If when the cycle is thus 
“closed”’ all letters have not been accounted 
for, a new cycle is begun, and so on until all 
letters have been taken care of. In this 
scheme, letters which are replaced by them- 
selves constitute cycles of a single letter and 
when there is no danger of confusion such 
cycles are frequently omitted. When a per- 
mutation is written in its simplest form as a 
product of cycles no two cycles will have a 
common letter, and hence they will be com- 
mutative and may be written in any order. 
Thus 

hee ) = abe-cd = bea-cd = bea-de = de-bea 
edca 
Indeed there are 12 ways to represent the 
above permutation in the manner under dis- 
cussion. 

Denote by a; the number of unary cycles, 
by a: the number of cycles with two letters 
each, by a3 the number of cycles with three 
letters each, etc. Then 


ai + 2a. + 8a3 + --- + na, =n 


Such a permutation is said to belong to the 
“class” (a1, @2,°°* , Qn). 

When a permutation on n letters is written 
in the 2-row form the letters of the top row 
may be written in an arbitrary order and 
those of the lower row may then be written 
in any one of n! orders; hence there are n/ 
permutations on n letters and the aggregate 
will constitute a group, the ‘‘symmetric”’ 
group on n letters. It is not difficult to see 
(as brought out in the next paragraph) that 
the number of classes of elements in the 
symmetric group equals the number of parti- 
tions of n with regard to addition into non- 
negative summands. This is a very old prob- 


JOHNSTON: THEORY OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 


119 


lem in number theory and we tabulate the 
number of partitions for some values of n: 


Value of n Number of partitions of n 
1 1 
2 2 
3 3 
4 5 
5 7 
6 11 
7 15 
8 22 
9 30 
10 42 
16 231 
20 627 
200 3,972,999 ,029 388. 


For example, the partitions of 5 are 5, 4 + 1, 

Oa ae qe dl oe Il SS oy ele iho) ae a te 

1+1,1+1+1+ 1+ 1,a total of seven. 
If we write 


a2 +--+: + an =o 
An = An 
then 
Ait A2+ee? An = MM She SAS --- > dA [OO 
and 
CN, ey = Debden 
Qn—1 = An-1 — Any an = dp 


A partition of » will thus be in the form 
(Ar, A2, As, °°: , An). For example if n is 
10 we have the partition (3, 2, 2, 1, 1, 1, 
OO; 0, O) SG, 4, 4 Uy lo) S&B. WO). 
We have omitted unnecessary zeros at the 
end and also have used exponents to avoid 
duplication. Here 


at =) 3h 2 — lh ant =62) 210 


aj =2—-—1=1, ay=1—-1=0 


az = as = ag = an = 0. 


Hence the above partition corresponds to a 
class of elements having the structure: one 
unary cycle, one ternary cycle, one cycle of 
six letters. For n = 3 and n = 4 we list the 
partitions, the number of elements in the 
corresponding class, and the actual permu- 
tations: 


120 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 4 
x Number of List of 
Partition Class permutations permutations 
p= 3} (Ab, Ish) a, = 0 a= 0 a;= 1! 2 abc, acb 
(2, 1) a, = 1, a = 1 3 ab, ac, be 
(3) a, = 3 1 identity 
be a EX abcd, adcb, abdc, acdb 
n=4 (,1,1,1) ao =a.=a;=0, ay =] 6 Gebel: ae 
(@, 10) a, = 2, a = 1 6 oy ole, Corel, (oe, lol, al 
(22) a, = 0, ap = 2 3 ab-cd, ac-bd, ad-be 
. be acb abd adb 
2 = nS = 8 ave, ? 7 
eS Bilieg Te see) ieee acd, ade, = tocdMammbrie® 
(4) a, = 4 1 identity 


Without stopping to advance an argument 
we note that the number of permutations 
on n letters in the class (a, a2, a3, °°" 
is given by 


n! 
(1**- cx!) (27? -arq!)(3°* -axg!) - + - 


where as usual 0! = 1. This formula is veri- 
fiable in the simple cases above. 

A permutation group may be interpreted 
as a group of matrices. Thus, if we write the 
permutation in the 2-row form and accent 
the symbols in the lower row we have a 
transformation, which is given by its matrix. 
For example, on three letters the per- 


a X1 Xo X3 
OMOANIKOI || 7 7 
Lo X3 X1 

is essentially the transformation 


/ 
U1 


= x3 
r= % 
t= ee 
001 
with the matrix | 1 0 0 J. It will be observed 
010 


that matrices corresponding to permutations 
have in each row every element zero except 
one element, which has the value 1, and like- 
wise in each column they have every element 
zero except one element which has the 
value 1. 

If A, E (the identity element), A, , 
A3,:::, A, constitute a finite group of 
matrices and M is a matrix, then the set of 
matrices MA,M™, MA,M—4, MA3M—, - -- , 


MAgM“* likewise constitute a group; a group 
which is s¢mply isomorphic with the original 
group. This means that if A;A; = A; then 
(MA;M—™)(MA,M—) = MA,M~—. The sec- 
ond group is said to be conjugate with the 
first and is said to be obtained from it by 
transforming the first group by M. It may 
happen that the second group will be identi- 
cal with the first group, perhaps because the 
individual matrices of the group are un- 
changed when transformed by M, or because 
the set of matrices as a whole is identical 
except for order after it is transformed by /. 
When this is the case the group is said to be 
invariant under M. 

A matrix WM is obtained from the matrix M 
by replacing each of the elements by its 
conjugate number is the conjugate of M. In 
symbols 


M = (G,;) 


A matrix obtained from M by interchanging 
the roles of the rows and columns of M is 
called the transposed of M and is denoted 
by M’. That is, 
M’' = (ai;) ‘where aj; = aj; 
A matrix is said to be Hermitian if it equals 
the transposed of the conjugate of itself, 
that is H is a Hermitian matrix if 
Sie or the = Ox 

A matrix is said to be unitary if it equals the 
inverse of the transposed of the conjugate 
of itself, that is U is unitary if U = (U’)-. 
It follows at once that the necessary and 
sufficient condition that a matrix be unitary 
is that the relations hold: 


Aprit 1951 JOHNSTON: 
k=n 
Ss Ani Any = 85; 
k=1 
3 2 eee (4 if w=7 
ON eae wei Tey jen 
nl - 5, 1 "10 if oj 


This condition may also be expressed in the 
equivalent form 


k=n 
Do Ged = 81; 
kK 


A matrix is said to be orthogonal if it equals 
the inverse of the transposed of itself, that 
is 0 is orthogonal if 


0 = 0/7 


Evidently for a real matrix the terms orthog- 
onal and unitary mean the same thing. 

Suppose we have a group G consisting of 
the elements A,, A2,--- and to each ele- 
ment A; of G we make correspond a non- 
singular matrix D(A;) such that if D(A;) 
corresponds to A; and D(A;) corresponds to 
A; then D(A;A;) corresponds to A;A;. Then 
the set of matrices 1s said to be a representa- 
tion of G. We have not said that distinct 
matrices must correspond to distinct group 
elements; if that is the case the representa- 
tion is said to be a faithful representation 
and the matrices will themselves form a 
group, a group simply isomorphic with the 
given group. It is evident that we shall al- 
ways have a representation in which every 
group element corresponds to the identity 
matrix with one row, that is, every element 
corresponds to the matrix (1). Equally well 
we might make every element correspond to 
the identity matrix with two or three or 
more rows. 

Now it may happen that we can find a 
matrix M such that if we transform simul- 
taneously all the matrices of a representation 
by it they will all take the form 


DAD 0 cca (0) 
0 DPR) cos 


ONelwilvieretelicleleliellesi es) 


Tf this is true, the original representation is 
said to be reducible and it has the constit- 


THEORY OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 


121 


uents D™(A,;), D®(A,;), --- . Each of these 
constituents (not necessarily assumed to be 
all distinct) is also a representation of the 
given group. If a constituent is such that it 
cannot be further reduced then it is said to 
be an irreducible representation; and we 
assume the transforming matrix so chosen 
that each D(A;) is irreducible. Then if the 
original representation of the group G under 
discussion is denoted by I, T is said to be 
expressed in terms of its irreducible con- 
stituents and we write 


T(A;) = D®(A,;) + D®(A,) + --- + D®(A,). 


A matrix of IT is thus the direct sum of 
matrices, one from each of the irreducible 
representations. Note that this is a different 
concept from the sum of two matrices. The 
direct sum means that they are strung out 
down the main diagonal with zeros else- 
where. 

If we have a group s, t, u, --- and if we 
transform an element by one of the group 
elements we obtain the transform or con- 
jugate, thus ¢st is the transform of s by f. 
If s and ¢t are commutative, that is if st = ts, 
then tst-! = s and s is said to be invariant 
under ¢. In any group an element and all the 
elements into which it may be transformed 
by all the elements of the group constitute 
a class of elements. In an abelian group each 
element is invariant and constitutes a class 
by itself; hence if the group is finite the 
number of classes is the order of the group. 
In the symmetric permutation group all 
elements with the same cyclic structure are 
in the same class as noted above. In a 
non-symmetric group elements with the same 
cyclic structure may not be all in the same 
class. 

It is a fact that the number of non-equiva- 
lent irreducible representations of any finite 
group equals the number of its classes. Thus 
the symmetric group on three letters has 
three classes and three irreducible repre- 
sentations. We show this in the table below: 


° 


122 

o 0 

axe (il) - @ ( F 
0 w 
@: al 

ab (1) (—1) ( A 
1 O 
0 w 

be (1) (1) ie ) B 
wo O 
a 

ac (1) (-1) ( C 
w O 


The first of these representations is of 
dimension one and is the representation in 
which every element corresponds to the 
identity matrix. The second is of dimension 
one also and three of the elements correspond 
to the identity matrix, three to the matrix 
(—1). The third is of dimension 2 and is a 
faithful representation 

It is a fact that every finite group may be 
made simply isomorphic to a permutation 
group, indeed in many ways. In particular 
it may have a faithful representation as a 
regular permutation group, that is a group 
in which every letter is replaced by every 
other letter of the group by one and only one 
permutation, which means that no permuta- 
tion (except the identity) leaves any letter 
invariant. In this procedure the number of 
letters is the order of the group. Thus the 
symmetric group on three letters is of order 
6, and hence may have a faithful represen- 
tation as a regular permutation group on six 
letters. It is also a fact that there always 
exists a matrix which will transform this 
representation into the sum of its irreducible 
constituents and that in this reduced form 
every irreducible representation will appear 
and that the number of times it appears is 
equal to its dimension. We saw above that 
the symmetric group on three letters (whose 
order is six) had exactly three irreducible 
representations, two of dimension one and 
one of dimension two. In the reduced form 
the representation of dimension two should 
therefore appear twice, as is indeed the case. 
From this we conclude that the sum of the 
squares of the dimensions of the irreducible 
representations should equal the order of 
the group. That is, in the case under con- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


sideration: 1? + 1? + 2? = 6. To give the 
notion a little concrete reality we exhibit 
the above mentioned symmetric group and 
the transforming matrix and the reduced 
form. 

As a regular permutation group the group 
is as follows: FE = identity, A = x :%4-Xore- 
tats, Bo = W405 - Lola 3e, Ca — weet n 
U3t4, D = x0 3to-Xstets , F = Wor 3-VslsLe . 
Interpreted as a group of linear transforma- 
tions (whose matrices give the regular repre- 
sentation) we have: 


Pgs Nor: eae 
BORIS Se. ee 
A eens andes fae 
Pe oes sctoc 
i saat vegeta 
eR ic oc 
RGR ste A PRPC Peete cc fs 
ee are Lae Zeno pile 
payne 7 ee ree 
pb ak illtiie a = ee ere 
eh omanecs pile eee 
zeae Somes PE epson: 
Bia ce eh see ee 
Bee he een a 
pads a 
et cata ree 
Nusa oses a 
Katie ee ines eae 
The matrix 
(i a i tse 
11 1 -1 -1 -1 
T = tae OU, @, @ 
~~ 100 0 i oP @ 
lo 0 0 lo@ @& 
iiveas® © 0) 
with the inverse 
(ito. OO. 2 
| 1 12070 O 2 
piaill 120.0 0 2? 
Sab Sahoo 9 2: oO 
1-10 2 2? 0 
{1-10 26726 0 | 


will transform the regular representation in 
this fashion 


TET? = EB, TAT = Ag - piesa 


where the matrices for the primed represen- 
tation are as follows: 


oorceced & 
Sn Ss OROROrS) 


0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
1 


oorod & 
ooorco 
= — J — a) 


ik 
@ = 
® @ 
ALSO 
0 0 
) 0 


& 

f] 
Soooor 
cooorno 
eocooroo 


Aprit 1951 JOHNSTON: THEORY 


items Oke OF OK 0) 20 yl OO OF UO 
O5— 1510-0), (0) 10 H=t 0 O © 0 
O 0.0 @ WO Oo OO ce oO 0 
eee Ome O82 210) 910) 0 Cr=\""0 06 © 0 © 
Cc O00 O UV @ Oo OO 0-0. @ 
0 -O- OO: GE 0 O 0 O60 
LO 0 0 OO lL OO. 0 O 
GQ ie OD Or Oe O ao O 0-0 
Yo 0 oe OW OD Oo O PO OO 
Da—sj70 0) 0) 20) 0 bY =\"\0 0 O wo O O 
eo 0 0 CO eo 0 OO O FO 
o 0 @ @ eG Yo O00 OO 


It is a simple matter to verify this result by 
a little computation. Indeed it is only neces- 
sary to verify it for two of the “generators,” 
say A and B. 

We note a few simple and interesting facts 
about the representations of a finite group. 
In the first place there always exists a matrix 
which will transform all the matrices of a 
representation of a finite group into unitary 
matrices. This is also true of many infinite 
groups. All the representations we have 
noted so far have been unitary representa- 
tions and we shall always assume that our 
representations are unitary. When two 
equivalent representations are unitary, the 
transforming matrix which carries one repre- 
sentation into the other may be chosen to be 
unitary. For convenience the transforming 
matrix 7 above was not so chosen, but it 
could have been. 

If we have an zrreducible representation of 
dimension 1; of a group of order g and we 
construct the /j vectors in the g-dimensional 
space of the group elements, then we have a 
set of orthogonal unitary vectors (except 
that the “Hermitian length” of the vectors 
is \/q/l,). Thus for the two dimensional rep- 
resentation of the symmetric group on three 
letters we have the four vectors (1, w, w’, 
‘Us, 0, 0), (0, 0, 0, lt w, w”), (0, 0, 0, 1, w, w), 
(1, w?, w, 0, 0, 0). If we add to this system 
Is , 13 etc. vectors corresponding to other non- 
equivalent irreducible representations in the 
g-dimensional space of the group elements 
we then have asystem of /j + + 13+ --- 
unitary orthogonal vectors, with the same 
assumptions as to the Hermitian length of 
the vectors. Thus in the case of the three rep- 
resentations of the symmetric group above 
we should have to add to the four vectors 
above the two vectors (1, 1, 1, 1, 1, 1), and 
(1,1,1, —1, —1, —1). These last two vectors 


OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 


123 


each correspond to representations of dimen- 
sion one so that the Hermitian length in 
each case would be 1/6. We write the six 
vectors together so that the relation is more 
clearly discernable. 


ik it a arb 1 
blot =1—1 =1 
lwo 0 O 0 
00 0 lo & w? 
00 0 I Pw 
1 wo w 0 O 0 


If D(R) is the matrix corresponding to the 
element F in any particular representation 
I of the group G then the sum of the ele- 
ments in the main diagonal of D(R)—that 
is, the trace of D(R)—is the characteristic of 
Rk for that particular representation; it is 
usually denoted by the symbol x(R). When 
R runs through all the group elements there 
results a set of g numbers, which may be 
interpreted as a vector in the g dimensional 
space of the group elements. As is well known 
the trace of a matrix is invariant under 
transformations. Hence it is a fact that every 
element in the same class will have the same 
characteristic in any particular representa- 
tion, and it is customary therefore in general 
to write x(C;) in lieu of x(R) where C; rep- 
resents the class of elements to which R 
belongs. If therefore G contains k classes, 
Ci, C2,---, C., containing g;, go, -:- , gx 
elements respectively, where of course 
g. + go + --- + gs = g, we shall have for 
a particular representation the k numbers 
x(Ci), x(C2), --- , x(Cx), and these may be 
interpreted as a vector in the k dimensional 
space of the classes. This vector is sometimes 
called a character of G. G would thus have a 
character for each representation, but we 
shall reserve the term for what are sometimes 
called simple characters, that is the char- 
acters of the k irreducible representations 
D®(A), D®(A), --- , D® (A). Characters 
of other representations can be called com- 
pound characters or generalized characters 
if it is necessary to refer to them. It is evi- 
dent that two equivalent irreducible repre- 
sentations have the same character. We shall 
use a superscript to denote the particular 
representation which gives rise to a character 
and a subscript to denote the particular 
class to which a characteristic belongs, thus 
x'(C;) represents the characteristic of each 


124 


element in the class C; for the representa- 
tion D(A). 

Evidently if we are in possession of all the 
irreducible representations of G the process 
of writing down a table of characters, es- 
sentially a matrix of k columns, will be a 
trivial one. To obtain the irreducible repre- 
sentations may except for elementary cases 
be a tedious process. However, there are ways 
by which the characters may be obtained 
directly. These too may become laborious 
if we proceed to too complicated groups. 
Methods of simplifying and improving such 
processes will delight and inspire or vex and 
impede the pure mathematician, as the case 
may be. However, the physicist frequently 
makes use of only those characters which are 
most readily obtainable and so his case is 
not a hopeless one. For the symmetric group 
in particular the necessary characters are 
easily obtainable. 

We make a few general observations con- 
cerning the characters of the symmetric 
group. We observe first that the permutations 
of the symmetric group may be divided into 
two equal sub-sets, the even permutations 
and the odd permutations. The even permu- 
tations are those which leave invariant the 
alternating function 
IP = Gh = Ga = aa) > a) 290 Gh > aa) 

(Gy = ae) (Ga = 47) 20° 


The odd permutations are those which re- 
verse the sign of P. Evidently the even per- 
mutations form a group, the alternating group 
on n letters. We have noted that there is a 
representation of the symmetric group cor- 
responding toeach partition of n. Let usmake 
a diagram corresponding to a partition, say 
the partition (A;, A», A3, °°: ). Let us put 
di dots equally spaced in a horizontal row. 
Immediately below let us place \» dots the 
leftmost one immediately below the leftmost 
one in the top row and put each dot below 
one in the line above. We place \; dots in a 
similar manner in the third row and so on. 
We have thus constructed a sort of triangu- 
lar matrix of dots, and to every partition 
there will correspond such a diagram. If we 
transpose one of these matrices about its 
main diagonal, we will change it into another 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 4 


one of the diagrams. Two partitions whose 
diagrams are so related are called associated 
partitions. Thus the partition (5, 2) of 7 with 
the diagram is associated with the 


partition (2, 2, 1, 1, 1) of 7 which has -- as 


its diagram. In case the dot matrix is sym- 
metric about the main diagonal, the partition 
is said to be self-associated. Thus (4, 1, 1, 1) 
with the diagram ---- is a self-associated 


partition of 7. The representations corre- 
sponding to associated partitions are associ- 
ated representations; a characteristic of an 
even class in a representation is the same as 
the characteristic of that same class in the 
associated representation, while a character- 
istic of an odd class is the negative of the 
characteristic in the associated representa- 
tion. We thus see that when we know the 
character of a representation, we at once 
know the character of the associated repre- 
sentation. We observe also that it follows 
that the characteristics of the odd classes in 
a self-associated representation are all zero. 

We observe that we always let Ci repre- 
sent the class consisting of the identity alone 
and that hence x‘(C;) is always the dimen- 
sion of the representation D™(A), being the 
trace of the identity matrix. We tabulate 
below the tables of characters for the sym- 
metric group on four symbols and on five 
symbols: 


“Partition Na 

\ er 0 was 

é (4 |(, 1)| 2, 2)] @.1| rt) ele || Partition 

\ + tt * ) ments| &iving ris 

S itil ea aa to class 
Class NS class 
S 

(4, 0,0, 034 | 1 3 2 3 1 1 (4) 
(251 080)= 1 1 0} —1 | -—1 6 (G3, 1) 
(1.0,1.0), 1 0} —1 0 1 8 (@, il, 1) 
(0.2.0. 0)4 1 —1 —1 1 3 (2, 2) 
(0, 0. 0, 1)_ 1 —1 0 |) 1 6 (Qis il, we 3) 


j associated partitions. 
tt associated partitions. 
* self associated partition. 


Aprin 1951 JOHNSTON: THEORY OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 125 
Partition 

(5) (4, 1) (3, 2) (3, 1, 1) | (2, 2,1) (2, ib, 5, (Gl, wat No. of Partiti yee 2 

t IM | ARE oa Sa meal ah tae PS) ce erases re ee 
(5, 0, 0, 0, 0), 1 4 5 6 5 4 il 1 (5) 
(Sante 0.0) 0)- 1 2 1 0 =i =9) =i 10 (4, 1) 
(290s 10.0) 1 1 =a Oval sat 1 i 20 @, i, 1) 
(ls 2, 05 ONO) 1 0 I —2 il 0 i 15 (3,2) 

Bi@iev0.50; 1,0). i 0 = 0 1 0 1 30 @, il, wt, il) 

(Oma 10: 0) 1 = i 0 =i 1 =i 20 (Os D iby 
(OF080. 0:1), 1 = 0 1 0 = 1 24 (yi, Hs in) 


7 associated partitions. 
Tj associated partitions. 
Tit associated partitions. 
* self-associate partition. 


We observe that if g is the order of the 
group and g; is the number of elements in the 


Class C; and that if we multiply the char- 
acteristic in each box by 4 / 7‘ then the result- 


g 
ing matrix will be a unitary matrix—that is 
we shall have 


k=n 
~ Ors Uj 
k=1 


I 


8:3 


theory of the solution of the fourth degree 
equation), the alternating group on four 
letters, the simple group of order 168, and 
the non-cyclic group of order 21, Asa permu- 
tation group the octic group may be repre- 
sented as follows. 


identity, ac-bd, abcd, adcb, ab-cd, ad-be, ac, bd. 
C1 Ce 03 C3 C4 (OF C; Cs 


There are thus five classes and the classes 
may be enumerated as shown above where the 


and : d 
il class to which the element belongs is indi- 
PT EM a cated immediately below the class. The table 
yk Aj = 03; ° 
a= of characters follows: 

So far we have discussed the symmetric \ ee | F 
group, and that is what primarily interests us \_ tation Lee 
here. It so happens that the characteristics Tr \| Te | ts | Ts | Te | elements 
here are all real so that the unitary property a 
of the matrix of the characters does not be- =~" = 
come evident. By way of contrast and com- C, 1 2 1 1 ie ae 
pleteness we give the table of characters for C2 ihe ECA Uo heed 

: . : Y as 23 | 2 
some simple nonsymmetric groups, in par- ee : ‘ oe ; | a ie 
ticular the “‘octic” group (a group of order a ‘ i tala ae coats 
eight which plays an important role in the # Sallis 

Representation Num- 
ber of 

T1 T2 T3 Ty Ts Ts ele- 
ments 

Class in class 
identity 1 6 7 8 3 3 
elements of order 2 1 2 —1 0 —1 --1 21 
elements of order 4 1 (0) —1 0 1 1 2 
elements of order 3 1 0 1 —1 0 0 F 2 
24 elements of order 7 1 —1 0 1 a(—1 Av 7) ea = tv 7) = 
inverses of elements 1 —1 0 1 $(—1 — 7vV7) 4(—1 + 2V 7) { 

in above class 


126 


The alternating group on 4 letters (also 
known as the tetrahadral group) is as follows: 


iden; ab-cd, ac-bd, ad-be; abc, acd, adb, bdc; ach, adc, abd, bed 
C1 C2 C2 Che Ch Oy OB Gh On Gs GG 


The table of characters: 


Nes 
senta- No. of 
ME © (3, 1) (2, 2) (2, 2)’ | elements 
\ in class 

Class Ne 

Ch if 3 1 1 1 

C2 1 =i 1 1 3 

G3 1 0 w w? 4 

Gs 1 0 w? w 4 


The simple group of order 168 is tabulated 
at the foot of page 125. 


The noncyclic group of order 21: 


eae | Num- 

tation ber of 

\ T1| T2| Ps TX Ts lee 
in 
Class 

Class \ 

identity iL aby al 3 3 1 

seven ele- | 1 | w| w? 0 0 7 

ments of 

order 3 

inverses of | 1 | w?/ w 0 0 7 

above ele- 

ments E 

three ele- | 1 | 1 | 1 |4(—1+iv/7)|4(-1—iv/7)| 3 

ments of 

order 7 : 

inverses of |1]1|1 |4(-1—iV/7)|4(-1+iv/7)| 3 

above ele- 

ments 


So far we have dealt with finite groups. 
We consider infinite groups, in particular con- 
tinuous groups. The set of all nonsingular 
n-rowed matrices with elements in the com- 
plex number field constitutes a group, the 
full linear group of dimension n. We shall 
be concerned with certain subgroups thereof. 
In particular we shall consider those groups 
in which the elements are continuous func- 
tions of one or more parameters, whose do- 
main of variability may be disconnected or 
simply or multiply connected. If the domain 
is connected, the group is a simply continu- 
ous group, otherwise a mixed continuous 
group. We assume that the elements of the 
matrices possess derivatives of all necessary 
orders with regard to the parameters. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 4 


Moreover, we shall consider groups whose 
matrices are unitary—the unitary groups; 
and also we shall consider groups whose de- 
terminants are all 1—the unimodular groups. 
If we consider groups whose matrices are 
both, we have the unimodular unitary 
groups. 

Ever since we studied elementary analytic 
geometry we have been familiar with therota- 
tions of the Cartesian plane about the origin. 
This group is the two dimensional pure rota- 
tion group. The matrices are all real orthog- 
onal (hence unitary) and have determinant 
one. Hence the pure rotation group is real, 
unimodular and unitary. It is a fact that the 
real unimodular orthogonal group of dimen- 
sion n will always have exactly in(n — 1) 
independent parameters; hence in the pres- 
ent case a single parameter. (If we add the 
real orthogonal transformations of deter- 
minant —1, we have the rotation reflection 
group and we now have two parameters.) 
The familiar transformation 


/ 


x’ =xcosd?—ysng 


/ 


y =xsingdg+yecos¢d 


- 
cos 
gives us the rotation group the parameter 
being ¢ where —7 < ¢ < wasimply con- 
nected domain. There is only one parameter 
and it appears additively in the group, that 
is, if{¢} represents the element whose param- 
eter is ¢ then {¢ + ¢’} = {¢}{¢’}. The 
parameter appears additively and the group 
is abelian, every element thus being in a 
class by itself. We seek the non-equivalent 
irreducible representations of the two-dimen- 
sional pure rotation group. They are (e*”®) 
where ¢ is the parameter and m is a rational 
mbteger, 7 —) 2 — 2) ele 
This time we are concerned with the actual 
representations rather than merely with the 
characteristics, though of course the char- 
acteristic can immediately be read off. 

If we extend the pure rotation group te 
include also the matrices of determinant —1 


we have the entire “rotation-reflection”’ 
group, the aggregate of all real orthogonal 


cos 
with the matrix 
sing 


Aprit 1951 


matrices. We may get them by adding to 
the above matrices the matrices 


—cosd me 
sing cosd 
We now have two parameters, the continu- 
ous parameter ¢ as before and the discrete 
parameter d which may take either of the 


values 1 or —1; and the set of matrices may 
be included in the formula 

ie 

cos 


dcosé — 
(o, d} = ( 
sing 
The group is no longer abelian—the set of 
matrices which constitute the pure rotations 
no longer consists of matrices each of which 
is a class by itself, for {¢, 1} and {—@, 1} 
now constitute a class. Also all elements 


—cosd “a 
sin@ cosd 

are in a class. The group is now a mixed 
continuous group since the domain of vari- 
ability of the parameters is no longer 
connected. 

We have of course the trivial representa- 
tion of the rotation reflection group in which 
every element corresponds to the matrix (1) 


and also the one-dimensional representation 
in which the matrices 


cos@ —singd 
( )sormspond to (1) while the 
sing coso z 
—cosd sind\ — 
matrices ( correspond to(—1). 
sing cosd 


The other irreducible representations are two 
dimensional and in them we have the cor- 


respondence 
cos@ —singd gH.) 
=> 
sing cosd 0 eine 
—cosd sind 0 ee 
oe 
sin@ cosd Ge () 
for all properly positive integral values of m. 
We now consider the irreducible represen- 


JOHNSTON: THEORY OF GROUP REPRESENTATIONS 


127 


tations of the three dimensional pure rotation 
group and of the three dimensional rotation- 
reflection group. 

As we have observed the three dimensional 
pure rotation group (real orthogonal ma- 
trices with determinant +1) has $3(8 — 1) 
= 3 parameters. There is a very close rela- 
tion between the representation of this group 
and the representations of the unimodular 
unitary group in two dimensions. From the 
latter we may get the former; it is also true 
that from the latter we may get what are 
called the “ambiguous” representations of 
the pure rotation group-—they are not truly 
representations but they play an important 
role in the theory of the spin of the electron. 
We have an irreducible representation of the 
pure rotation group for each zero or positive 
integral value of 7 as given by the expression 
below. The rotation is here given by its 
Kulerean angle {a, 8, y} the three parameters 
of the group. The dimension is 27 + 1, and 
uw’ and uw take on the 27 + 1 values —y, 
—j+1,---,—2, —1,0,1,2,---,7-—1,7. 
u’ gives the row of the matrix, u the column, 
so that the element in the upper left-hand 
corner is in the position —j, —J; the element 
in the upper right corner is in the position 
—j, j7. The representation is denoted by 
D® ‘a, B, y\. The element in the yp’, » posi- 
tion is given by the expression 


= eS 1) 


atv GE eIG= WIG we )G=2)! 
Gf = OlGa-e—a@)wli@-are =~)! 


-e"'“(cos3p)* “ “(sindB)* *e™ 


DE {apy Yur an 


where 


‘ao / 

larger of J 0 <x < smaller of JJ mde \ 
wax \i+v! 

For j = 0 this reduces to the trivial repre- 
sentation in which every rotation corresponds 
to the one-dimensional matrix (1). For 7 = 1 
this representation is three dimensional and 
the matrix corresponding to the rotation 


‘a, B, y} is given below, the half angles 
having been changed to integral angles 


through elementary trigonometric identities: 


128 
Nal COs _. Sin\By Le COsiBne. 
|e Ser —eia Vi me 9 et 
ye J ges as 
AB sin Bey cos 8 AG sin Be’ 
- l= Coss. sin B _l+ecose . 
irra en era 5s Carers et 


For half integral values of 7 we have the 
ambiguous representation the form of the 
general element of which is just like that for 
integral values of 7 except that before each 
element there appears the + sign. This does 
not mean that the sign has just not yet been 
chosen and will be chosen to suit our pur- 
poses. It is impossible to do this. The sign 
must be left ambiguous and we pick which- 
ever one will fit into the particular object 
we have in mind. This time yw’ and yu take 
the half-integral values —j, —j+l,-:- , 
—t,4,---,j. Thus if 7 is } the representa- 
tion is of dimension 27 + 1 = 2 and the four 
positions of the representing matrices are as 
shown: —3, —4 The actual repre- 

1 1 
2) 2 


sentation when j = 


a 

Bis ce og 

enna ease geist Sauce ae Siero 
y, % 

e*'* sin B aad e*'* cos B gt 
2 2 


The three dimensional rotation reflection 
group may be thought of as the direct 
product of the three dimensional pure rota- 
tion group and the three dimensional reflec- 
tion group consisting of the two matrices 


1 @ © — Os (0) 
S01 Olen = = 0 —1 0 
0. @ dl 0 0 -1 


(A group G is the direct product of H and 
K if H and K are subgroups of G, have no 
common element except the identity, if every 
element of H is commutative with every ele- 
ment of K and if every element of G equals 
the product of an element of H and an ele- 
ment of K). If G is the direct product of H 
and K, that is, in symbols, if G = H x K, 
and if D{” (s) is an irreducible representation 
of H and D{? (#) is an irreducigle representa- 
tion of K then an irreducible representation 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


of G is obtained by making the element st of 
G correspond to the matrix D{” (s) K D{? @),. 
that is to the Kronecker product of the ma- 
trices, one from the representation of H and 
the other from the representation of K. It 
is thus seen that the number of irreducible 
representations of G equals the product of 
the number of irreducible representations of 
H multiplied by the number of irreducible 
representations of K (provided of course that 
in each case the number of representations: 
is finite). Since H and K are commutative it 
might seem that we could obtain another 
representation by taking the Kronecker 
products in the reverse order, but it is a fact 
that the representation D{®(s) * D{?(@) is 
equivalent to (may be transformed into) the 
representation D{?(t) X D{(s). 

Evidently the three dimensional reflection 
group has two non-equivalent irreducuble 
representations, the trivial one in which both 
I and —/ correspond to the matrix (1), and 
the one in which J corresponds to the matrix 
(1) and —/ corresponds to the matrix (—1). 
Thus the rotation reflection group has a 
representation in which each element of the 
rotation group corresponds to the matrix to 
which it corresponds in a given representa- 
tion of the rotation group, while the negative 
of each element of the rotation group also 
corresponds to the matrix to which the origi- 
nal element corresponds in the representation 
of the rotation group. Also the rotation re- 
flection group has a representation in which 
each element of the rotation group corre- 
sponds to the matrix to which it corresponds 
in a given representation of the rotation 
group, while the negative of each element of 
the rotation group corresponds to the nega- 
tive of the matrix to which the element of 
the rotation group corresponds. Thus are ob- 
tained from the irreducible representations 
of the rotation group the irreducible repre- 
sentations of the rotation reflection group. 

It is a fact that the Schrédinger equation 
HW = E-W associated with an atomic system 
consisting of a nucleus and n electrons in 
their orbits about the nucleus is “invariant 
under a group”’ consisting of the direct prod- 
uct of the symmetric group on n elements and 
the rotation group and the reflection group. 
It is a fact that the energy levels for which 
this equation has a solution are the “‘eigen- 


AprIL 1951 


values” of the system and that associated 
with each eigenvalue is a set of lmearly inde- 
pendent “eigenfunctions” which gives the 
probabilities for a certain state of the atom. 
The group-theoretic properties discussed 
above, in particular the representations of 
the rotation group and of the reflection group 
and the characters of the symmetric group, 
have been employed to shed light on this im- 
portant question of the state of the atom; but 
the complete story of that application is too 
long to be told here. 


MITRINOVITCH: AN EQUATION OF NEMENYI AND TRUESDELL 


129 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Buicuretpt, H. F. Finite collineation groups. 

BurnsippE, W. Theory of groups of finite order. 

Lirrtewoon, D. E. The theory of growp characters. 

Murnacuan, F. D. The theory of group repre- 
sentations. 

VAN DER WAERDEN, B. L. Die gruppentheoretische 
Methode in der Quantenmechanik. 

Wey, H. The classical groups. 

Wryt, H., anp Ropinson, H. P. The theory of 
groups and quantum mechanics. 

Wiener, E. Gruppentheorie und ihre Anwendung 
auf die Quantenmechanik der Atomspektren. 


MATHEMATICS.—0On an equation of Neményi and Truesdell. D.S. Mirrinovircu, 
Institute of Mathematics, Skopje, Jugoslavia. (Communicated by C. Trues- 


dell.) 


1. Consider the differential equation 


RY if 
eG? — 1) = 0 
gw 5 , 


@= i) (1) 
where 7 is a positive integer, F = F(z), 
f = f(z), and primes denote differentiation 
with respect to z. P. Neményi and C. 
Truesdell! have reduced the general equi- 
librium problem in the membrane theory of 
shells of revolution to the integration of this 
single equation. I have recently given a 
procedure? which systematically yields cases 
in which (1) can be integrated by quad- 
ratures. In this note I present another 
method of integration for the equation (1). 
2. By introducing the changes of variable 


P= ex (fai), f= exn(f ots), 


we may put (1) into the form 


1Cf. Nemenyt, P., Bygningsstatiske Meddelel- 
ser, 1936; Nemmnyt, P., and TRUESDELL, C., Proc. 
Nat. Acad. Sci. 29: 159-162. 1943; TRuESDELL, C., 
Trans. Amer. Math. Soc. 58: 96-166. 1945; 61, 128- 
133. 1947. 

2 Mirrinovitcu, D.S., Comptes Rendus Acad. 
Sei. Paris 231 : 327-328. 1950. 


(G — rg)! + G? — rg? 


0, (A = 1 — n*), 


or, equivalently, 


6! = G2 — yg? = 0, (2) 
where we have put 
G—-Ag= 8. (3) 


From equations (2) and (3) we have 


=f) 2S 
G= AG 
Nea 


MHA 
NOS aD) 


(A = + Vr? + (A — 2296’), 


where the sign + is to be taken alike in the 
two expressions. 

Consequently a solution of (1) is given by 
the formulae 


z z 
F = A exp (/ cas) , ff = Bexp (J ats), 
20 z 


=0 


where A and B are two constants of integra- 
tion, 2) is a suitably chosen numerical con- 
stant. G and g are two functions of z defined 
by (4), in which there occurs a function of 2, 
namely 6(z), which is completely arbitrary. 

3. In a study now in press I apply the 
method of §2 to differential equations of a 
much more general type. 


130 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 4 


ARCHEOLOGY .—Notes on aboriginal pottery from Montana.! Waupo R. WEDEL, 


U.S. National Museum. 


Aboriginal pottery from Montana is no 
longer news to students of Plains prehistory 
and ethnography. Since 1940 its occurrence 
in various localities throughout the State 
has been noted several times in the archeo- 
logical literature. Moreover, most historic 
Indian tribes of the region, including specifi- 
cally the Blackfoot, Gros Ventres, Sarsi, Sho- 
shoni, and Assiniboin, seem to have retained 
traditions recalling a time when they made 
pottery. Even the Crow, for whom ethnog- 
raphers have apparently recorded no such 
traditions, are coming under progressively 
deeper suspicion of having been potters since 
their still undated arrival in the drainage of 
the Yellowstone. 

The ethnographic data bearing on this 
subject have been well summarized, and 
some of their implications discussed, by 
Ewers (1945). The archeological evidences, 
which promise to give unsuspected historic 
depth to the native use of pottery on the 
headwaters of the Missouri River system, 
represent mainly materials and data gath- 
ered during the 1930’s in course of work 
relief programs. Much of this latter informa- 
tion, which is of primary importance for the 
understanding of Montana prehistory, as 
well as some scattering data more recently 
gathered by River Basin Surveys parties, 
unfortunately still remains unpublished. 
From what is in print (Mulloy, 1942, 1945; 
Nelson, 1942, 1943), however, it is clear that 
pottery-using peoples have at one time or 
another scattered their traces, if thinly, 
throughout a number of Montana’s stream 
valleys westward almost to the continental 
divide. Still to be determined, preferably on 
the basis of larger and better controlled 
samplings than are at present available, are 
the exact nature and chronological positions 
of the several pottery complexes apparently 
indicated, as well as the associated artifact 
types and subsistence economies. The loca- 
tion of the region in the heart of the erstwhile 
‘notteryless” Plains culture area lends more 
than usual interest to the problems raised. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary, 
Smithsonian Institution. 


In the present discussion I do not intend 
to answer any of the questions implied 
above. My purpose is rather to put on record 
a few descriptive notes regarding several 
hitherto unreported or undescribed finds of 
pottery in northwestern Montana, all in the 
Missouri River watershed. These I have 
compared provisionally with materials al- 
ready described from other localities lying 
mainly to the south and east, and also with 
what has been suggested or reconstructed 
from tribal traditions or historic documents 
regarding pottery of the historic Indians in 
the region. Though I have not personally 
examined the sites from which the material 
at hand is reported to have come, such 
information as has been furnished me seems 
to warrant the present notice. 

The material immediately under consider- 
ation consists of small samples only and 
obviously does not give a complete picture 
of the material culture complex presumably 
represented in each case.” It includes a series 
of less than 100 sherds from a site near 
Ethridge, in Toole County; two smaller lots 
from two locations in Teton and Cascade ~ 
Counties; and reports on two other sites in 
Chouteau and Cascade Counties. There is 
also a series of nearly 200 sherds from a cairn 
on the Crow Indian Reservation south of 
Billings. Only this latter series can be said 
to have been collected under anything lke 
controlled conditions, or by a professional 
archeologist. The descriptive notes that fol- 
low are based on visual examination or, at 
most, on use of a hand lens. 

*The Ethridge specimens were collected by 
Giles Ortscheid, formerly of Cut Bank, who turned 
them over to Claude Schaeffer, Museum of the 
Plains Indian, Browning, by whom they were 
forwarded to me. The specimens and records from 
Teton, Cascade, and Chouteau Counties were 
furnished by J. Robert Wells, formerly of Great 
Falls, to John C. Ewers, associate curator of eth- 
nology, U.S. National Museum, who turned them 
over to me. The specimens from the Crow Indian 
Reservation were excavated by N. C. Nelson in 
1941 for the American Museum of Natural History, 
and were sent me on loan by J. A. Ford, assistant 
curator of North American archeology at that in- 
stitution. I am indebted to all these men, and par- 
ticularly to Schaeffer, Ewers, and Ford, for their 


willingness to place these materials at my dis- 
posal and to supply relevant information. 


Aprit 1951 


Ethridge Site, Toole County.—In the sample 
forwarded to me from this site by Schaeffer there 
are approximately 100 sherds, plus arrowpoints, 
scrapers, other chipped flints, shell fragments, 
and, interestingly enough, three fragments of 
brass. They are from a camp site near a bison 
fall, situated 8 miles (airline) northwest of Eth- 
ridge, in the Marias River drainage. The bison 
bones and cultural materials are found at the 
lower end of a deep cleft in an east-facing escarp- 
ment some 200 feet high. According to Ortscheid 
(letter to Schaeffer, May 18, 1950), the sherds 
“seemed to be mostly 5 or 6 inches below the 
surface and some on the surface where the wind 
had blown clean spots. The copper or brass frag- 
ments were close to the surface. The stone chips 
and points ... were mixed indiscriminately from 
surface to undisturbed soil, which varied from 
six inches to a couple of feet in places . . . most 
of the material was from the center of the camp- 
site [which] covers several acres.” 

With regard to paste, color range, texture, and 
other technological details, examination with a 
hand lens seems to reveal no significant variation 
among the sherds at hand. Like much Northern 
Plains pottery, these usually have a gray to dark 
gray paste, occasionally fired to a light gray, 
brown, or buff on the exterior surface. Inclusions 
vary in amount and coarseness, even within in- 
dividual sherds. Characteristically, they consist 
of crushed granite in medium to coarse angular 
particles, less commonly of rounded and water- 
worn gravel. They are usually only moderately 
abundant, and do not show on sherd surfaces. 
Exterior hardness varies from 3 to 4, occasionally 
reaching 4.5. Interior surfaces are rather rough 
and uneven. Carbonized material (presumed to be 
food remains) adhere to the inner surfaces of 
many fragments. The sherds vary in thickness 
from 6 to 12 mm; most are in the neighborhood 
of 8 mm. There are no recognizable base frag- 
ments, handles, or other constructional features, 
nor is there anything to indicate the range in 
vessel shapes and sizes. 

With respect to surface finish and treatment, 
three main groups may be recognized. Fourteen 
sherds, including three rims from at least two 
vessels, are evidently fabric-marked (Fig. 1, A-F). 
These sherds range from 9 to 12 mm in thick- 
ness, which is considerably heavier than any 
other series present. The exterior surfaces have 
been strongly impressed by some fabric that left 
a dimpled texture, which occasionally somewhat 


WEDEL: ABORIGINAL POTTERY FROM MONTANA 


131 


suggests knotting or a net impression. Sherds in 
the national collections with strikingly similar 
surface treatment come from a Middle Wood- 
land site near Gala, Va. (Holmes, 1903, pl. 133, 
upper right). This is an eastern Woodlands pot- 
tery trait; so far as my observations go, it is not 
common, and has apparently not been hereto- 
fore reported, in the Plains or on upper Missouri 
Valley potterywares. 

Thirty-eight sherds, of which 16 are rim pieces, 
I have somewhat hesitantly classed as cord- 
roughened (Fig. 1, G-J). On some pieces there 
is no doubt that the impressions were made with 
a twisted cord or other fibrous element; in others, 
superficially very similar in appearance, the im- 
pressions do not conclusively show twisting of the 
element used. The group is rather variable; some 
sherds show deep fine impressions, whereas others 
have the impressions widely spaced or nearly ob- 
literated.. Despite this variability, most of the 
sherds would be assigned with little hesitation to 
the cord-roughened category, if they had been 
taken from a prehistoric Central Plains village 
site. 

Eighteen sherds, all body fragments, are plain 
surfaced. Surfaces are moderately well smoothed, 
but often uneven and never polished. Occasion- 


ally there is some unevenness — suggesting 
smoothed-over cord-roughening or possibly simple 
stamping. 


Not included in the above counts, are about a 
dozen body sherds which can perhaps be described 
as weakly carinate. On each there is a perceptible 
shoulder bearing vertical or occasionally diagonal 
notches (Fig. 2, A-C), made with some thin- 
ended or triangulate-tipped instrument, and 
spaced usually at intervals of about $ inch. Most 
of these sherds are plain ware. Three are what I 
have tentatively called cord-roughened, and one 
of these latter bears diagonal notches made by 
impressing a cord-wrapped instrument (Fig. 
2, G). 

Significantly enough, there are in the whole 
series only two or three sherds, at most, which 
can be called simple stamped or fluted on the ex- 
terior surface. A number of small fragments can- 
not be satisfactorily identified as to surface 
treatment, and so are omitted from my counts 
and determinations. 

Rims are characteristically thickened or some- 
what bulbous in profile, with horizontal or out- 
sloping flattened upper lip surface. Most of them 
seem to conform rather closely to Mulloy’s rims 


132 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 4 


Fic. 1.—Potsherds from camp site near Nthridge, Mont.: A-F, fabric-impressed; G-J, cord-roughened. 


of class A form at the Hagen site (Mulloy, 1942, 
p. 18). So far as I can see in the very limited 
sample at hand, there is no correlation between 
rim form, lip, or other related features and the 
type of surface treatment on the sherds. On cord- 
roughened rimsherds the flattened lip may be 
plain, weakly cord-roughened, or carelessly in- 
cised. On plain sherds the outer lip edge is some- 
times notched; in two instances, the lip panel 
bears diagonal impressions made with a cord- 
wrapped rod (Fig. 2, D, F); and in a third the 
same treatment was applied with a_ loosely 
wrapped tool to the outer surface of the neck 
below the flat panel (Fig. 2, E). 

The material culture complex of which the 
above described sherds were a part is inade- 
quately represented by the specimens at hand. It 
seems to include, however, numerous small, tri- 
angular projectile points, averaging under 25 mm 
in length, with straight to slightly concave base 
and a single pair of side notches just above the 


base. Three or four are unnotched, and perhaps 
an equal number can be classed as stemmed or 
corner-notched; none shows base notching. Ma- 
terials used include chalcedony, cherts of various 
colors, jasper, obsidian, and quartzite. All the 
points I have seen appear to be of types said to 
be common at many bison-kills of the Montana 
region, but with three exceptions they are per- 
haps somewhat less carefully made. They pre- 
sumably represent the products of late prehis- 
toric or protohistoric natives of the region. 

There appears to be nothing distinctive about 
the scrapers and other chipped flints sent me from 
the Ethridge site. 

The three pieces of brass, of course, must be 
attributed to Caucasian contact or influence, but 
it is not certain at the moment that they actually 
belong to the same complex as the sherds. The 
collector’s letter (Ortscheid to Schaeffer, May 18, 
1950) says they were ‘‘close to the surface”’ of the 
site. They are possibly intrusive; or they may 


Aprit 1951 


have been left by some later group than that re- 
sponsible for the pottery. There is nothing to in- 
dicate the nature of the objects from which the 
fragments came. 

Sites in Cascade, Teton, and Chouteau Coun- 
ties—Sherds from two sites in Cascade and Teton 
Counties, and notes on other occurrences in the 
same general region, were sent to Ewers in Sep- 
tember 1947, by J. Robert Wells, then of Great 
Falls. Ten of the sherds are said to have been 
found in the summer of 1933 “near a bison trap 
on the south-facing sandstone escarpment of 
what is locally called the ‘second bench’ between 
Ulm and Vaughn, Cascade County.” There is no 
further description of the locale of discovery. 

The sherds are mostly small, the largest not 
exceeding two inches in maximum diameter. In 
thickness they range from 5 to 8 mm; in hard- 
ness, from 3 to 4. Paste again is gray to dark 
gray in color, with a fine granular appearance. 
The aplastic consists of gravel, mostly or en- 
tirely in rounded particles. The three largest 
sherds show impressions identical with what I 
have classed in the Ethridge material as cord- 
roughening on the exterior surface; and all but 
one of the remaining fragments, in color, texture, 
surface finish, and other particulars, seem to be 
from vessels of similar construction and appear- 


WEDEL: ABORIGINAL POTTERY FROM MONTANA 


133 


ance. The single exception, though small and in- 
conclusive, shows several flutings somewhat rem- 
iniscent of nearly obliterated simple stamp im- 
pressions. Sherd interiors are usually uneven and 
only moderately well finished. There are no rim 
fragments. 

From the second site, described only as being 
“near to Chouteau in Pondera [Teton] County 
... not over two miles approximately south from 
the town,” there is a single large plain body sherd. 
This is remarkable chiefly for its thickness of 15 
mm, which far exceeds any of the other Montana 
sherds which have come under my scrutiny. It 
has a gray core, which becomes light buff to 
brown on the surfaces. Temper consists of quartz, 
mostly in angular particles. The piece is well- 
fired and hard. 

Wells’s letter of June 11, 1945, to Ewers, first 
reporting these pottery finds, notes two other oc- 
currences; from neither are there any specimens 
at hand. One of these finds was “in the ‘cut bank’ 
of the Missouri River at the Fair Grounds of 
Fort Benton, Chouteau County.” Here, according 
to Mr. Wells, “I found remains suggestive of the 
interrupted preparation of a meal. Some 18 inches 
below the present land surface I noticed a short 
stratum of charcoal upon which rested what ap- 
peared to be the flattened fragments of a cooking 


2 GM. 
LUN. 


Fig. 2.—Potsherds from camp site near Ethridge, Montana. A-C, carinate with punetations; D-G, 
cord-wrapped rod-impressed. 


134 


pot mixed with several split bison bones. Preserva- 
tion of the sherds was so poor that I am not sure 
they were kept. The presence of stone implements 
together with brass buttons upon about the same 
level might indicate a date near to the early 
historic period for these remains.”’ 

Also in Cascade County is another sherd- 
bearing site which “‘occupies the triangular piece 
of land west of the Missouri River and south of 
its tributary, the Sun River, near the mouth of 
the latter. This tract, now the grounds of the 
Meadowlark Country Club of Great Falls, was 
then (about 1920) under cultivation and a very 
fruitful source of artifacts especially in the fall 
and spring when the fields were bare. I had seen 
numerous sherds there on the surface before. 
...I recognized them for what they were. After 
this lapse of years I can only describe them as 
small, some + to 2 inch in thickness, gray, fairly 
hard, and without sufficient shape to serve as 
criteria for judging as to the form of the vessels 
from which they came. If memory serves, the ex- 
ternal surfaces, without exception, showed mark- 
ings which I considered indicative of shaping 
with a paddle wound with cord approximately 4 
inch in diameter. ... This site is now mostly oc- 
cupied by the Country Club golf course, so it 
would seem unlikely that sherds can now be 
found there on the surface, but there is still a 
possibility of finding them embedded in the south 
bank of the Sun River which was then a ‘cut 
bank’ some five or six feet in height. That bank 
showed evidence of the occupancy of the site for 
what seemed to me an extended period (inter- 
mittent occupancy, I should have said). Char- 
coal, split bison bones, and lithic artifacts could 
be observed several feet below the then ground 
level. I do not, however, recall finding sherds 
there.’”’ (Wells to Ewers, June 11, 1945). 

Two items in this last notice are of particular 
interest. One is the observer’s identification of the 
pottery markings as cord-wrapped paddle im- 
pressions; the other is the implication that sherds 
occurred exclusively or preponderantly on the 
surface but were not noted in the buried cultural 
strata partially exposed in the nearby cut bank. 


Further investigations here would seem to be in 


order. 

Pottery from the Yellowstone Valley.—My search 
of the published literature on Montana archeology 
has revealed pottery descriptions from four lo- 
calities in the Yellowstone drainage basin. These 
include the Hagen site, 5 miles southeast of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 4 


Glendive, in Dawson County, excavated by the 
Montana Archeological Survey and Works Proj- 
ects Administration and since described in com- 
mendable detail and clarity by Mulloy (1942); a 
rock cairn at Arrow Rock on the Crow Indian 
Reservation some 35 miles south of Billings, ex- 
cavated by Nelson (1942, 1943) for the American 
Museum of Natural History; Thirty Mile Mesa 
and Pompey’s Pillar Cuesta, some 30 or 40 
miles north and northeast of Billings; and Picto- 
graph Cave, near Billings. I have seen none of 
the material from the Hagen site, but Mulloy’s 
well-illustrated report is adequate for present pur- 
poses. As elsewhere noted, Nelson’s Arrow Rock 
collection has been placed at my disposal. For 
the last three localities above enumerated, and 
findings there by the Montana Archeological 
Survey, brief notes by Mulloy (1945, p. 520) are 
available. 

The Arrow Rock sherds were taken from a rock 
cairn situated on the floor of Pryor Canyon and 
partially trenched by Nelson. Here, in a “mixed 
earth and boulder deposit,” it was found that 
“at least the upper half of the accumulation was 
moderately rich in the usual stone objects, glass 
beads and animal bones. More abundant were 
bone and shell ornamental items, chiefly beads 
and pendants. The surprise was the collection of 
some 200 potsherds.” In the absence of word to 
the contrary, I assume that the glass beads and 
sherds came from the same levels or horizons 
within the cairn, and are to be regarded as chrono- 
logically associated finds. 

Nelson describes the sherds as ranging in sur- 
face color from buff to gray, in body thickness 
from three to nine millimeters, and in rim thick- 
ness from nine to fourteen millimeters. The pot- 
tery is “sometimes tempered with coarse quartz 
particles,” and “‘firg is well done.” He suggests 
that ‘both bowl and jar forms, some with charred 
food particles adhering to the inside,” are ap- 
parently represented. On the basis of surface 
treatment, he recognized three groups of sherds: 
plain surfaced, 128; corduroy surfaced, 67; and 
textile impressed (?), 2. 

Compared to the Ethridge and Cascade County 
samples, Nelson’s Arrow Rock sherds average 
generally smaller and thinner, few exceeding 6 mm 
in thickness. Many have little visible tempering 
material; others, by contrast, have quartz im- 
clusions that may exceed in size the particles in 
the more northerly sherds. In surface color, the 
Arrow Rock sherds seem to run to somewhat 


Aprit 1951 


darker tones, seldom showing the light buff or 
tan exteriors found on the Ethridge sherds. Most 
of the fragments are appreciably more gritty to 
the touch than the Ethridge-Cascade County 
sherds. What Nelson calls “‘corduroy surfaced” 
sherds are, without question, Mulloy’s fluted or 
what I have called simple stamped. The impress- 
ions, however, are much less regular and con- 
spicuous than those produced by the same or a 
similar technique among the historic Mandan, 
Arikara, Pawnee, and other Plains potters. At 
least one, and quite possibly both, of Nelson’s 
textile-surfaced sherds appear, from plasticene 
impressions, to be the same as the more plentiful 
fabric-impressed sherds from Ethridge. 

The pottery from the Hagen site, according to 
Mulloy (1942, pp. 11-388), represents ‘“‘a single 
rather well integrated cultural complex.” It is 
described as having a granular, somewhat varia- 
ble, paste; crushed rock or occasionally sand 
tempering; a hardness of 3 to 3.5; and a pre- 
dominantly gray color. Medium-sized jars or 
ollas seem to be characteristic forms; rims are 
variable and include both “collared” and “un- 
collared” forms; lips are wavy or smooth, in the 
latter case sometimes bearing incised or im- 
pressed linear decoration. About half the sherds 
recovered were plain; another fifth bear fluted or 
simple stamped surfaces. Incised lines, wrapped- 
rod impressions, brush roughening, single-cord 
impressions, check stamping, and dentate stamp- 
ing occur in decreasing order of frequency. In gen- 
eral technology, in vessel form, in design tech- 
niques (especially single-cord impressing, incising, 
and fluting), and in designs, the ware shows close 
similarities to the Mandan-Hidatsa pottery tradi- 
tion. Wrapped rod impressions and dentate 
stamping, on the other hand, are not Mandan- 
Hidatsa, and suggest some other eastern influence, 
possibly on an earlier time level. 

Elsewhere in the Yellowstone Valley, the pot- 
tery occurrences reported by Mulloy apparently 
involve, at least in part, wares whose relation- 
ships are with the Hagen site complex. Thus, he 
observes (Mulloy, 1945, p. 520) that ‘“‘a few frag- 
ments of pottery were discovered near the house 
sites at both Thirty Mile Mesa and Pompey’s 
Pillar Cuesta. They are gray to buff, with coarse 
paste and sand temper. In some the exterior is 
fluted, as though it might have been beaten with 
a thong-wrapped paddle. Pottery of this type oc- 
curs in small quantities on the surface in many 
places throughout this part of the Yellowstone 


WEDEL: ABORIGINAL POTTERY FROM MONTANA 


135 


Valley. It is similar to that of Pictograph Cave 
IV, an early historic occupation of Pictograph 
Cave, near Billings.” Historic materials, including 
gun flints and trade beads, were also found at 
Thirty Mile Mesa; but since all these finds were 
apparently surface materials, exact associations 
remain obscure. 

Comparisons.—The sherds from Ethridge, and 
those I have described from Cascade County, are 
closely similar to one another in all respects. Such 
variations as are apparent in paste, tempering, 
etc., do not appear to me to be of any great signifi- 
cance; possibly, if the Cascade County sample in- 
cluded as many fragments as are available from 
Ethridge, the similarity would be even closer. As 
it is, if the two samples were mixed, it would be 
impossible, I think, to separate them without re- 
course to identifying marks. Moreover, the tech- 
niques of surface treatment in these two lots are 
what I would consider predominantly prehistoric 
in character; a Plains archeologist, inspecting 
them without previous knowledge as to their 
provenience would, with little or no hesitation, at 
once suspect a late prehistoric horizon. 

The Ethridge-Cascade County sherds, how- 
ever, differ appreciably from Nelson’s Arrow Rock 
material. The former are generally thicker, seem 
to be better fired and more carefully made, show 
a greater frequency of cord-roughening and fabric- 
impressing, and a much lower frequency or even 
near-absence of simple stamping. These differ- 
ences, though not always easily verbalized, seem 
marked enough to set the two groups apart, even 
to a nonspecialist in Plains pottery types. To me, 
the Arrow Rock sherds, by contrast with the 
Ethridge-Cascade County materials, have a some- 
what “decadent” look that is reminiscent of his- 
torically late Plains wares elsewhere—perhaps 
something like the differences between Dismal 
River and Upper Republican wares in the central 
Great Plains. 

Having seen and handled none of the Hagen 
site pottery, I am at some disadvantage in at- 
tempting to compare it with the samples at hand. 
From Mulloy’s published description, however, 
it would appear that with respect to paste, tem- 
per, and perhaps other technological details, no 
striking differences exist between Hagen site 
pottery and that from the Arrow Rock cairns or 
from the Ethridge-Cascade County sites. As con- 
cerns decorative treatment and surface finish, 
however, there are far fewer resemblances among 
the various series. In its heavy emphasis on simple 


136 


stamping, the Arrow Rock material is much closer 
to Hagen site than to the Ethridge-Cascade 
County sherds. The Hagen site sherds seemingly 
are thinner than those from Ethridge. Incised 
decoration, single-cord impressions, dentate- 
stamping, fluting, and check-stamping are very 
rare or absent from the Ethridge-Cascade County 
series; and with the exception of fluting (simple 
stamping), they are also absent from Nelson’s 
Arrow Rock material. Wrapped-rod impressions 
occur, as Mulloy (1942, p. 37) has already noted, 
both at Hagen site and at Ethridge®; and so also, 
apparently, do punctates. More surprising, in 
light of present knowledge of Montana pottery, 
is the relative abundance of cord-roughening and 
fabric-impressing at Ethridge, both of which 
techniques are apparently absent from the much 
larger pottery series from the Hagen site. It will 
be interesting to see whether larger and more 
carefully controlled pottery samples from the 
Ethridge locality confirm the presence of these 
apparently distinguishing characteristics, and the 
possibly significant differences between pottery 
from the Yellowstone Valley and that from the 
Marias-Teton-Sun Rivers locality. 


DISCUSSION 


It is obvious, as I have already indicated, 
that the sherd samples under discussion here 
are an inadequate basis for any far-reaching 
conclusions or broad generalizations, al- 
though some speculation seems warranted. 
They do not suggest that the Montana 
region was ever one of intensive pottery- 
making; and it is perhaps significant that in 
the one stratified site reported to date as 
pottery-bearing, Pictograph Cave, sherds 
were found only in the uppermost deposits 
in association with white contact materials. 
If this suggested lateness and thinness of 
occupancy by pottery-making peoples is 
borne out by findings in other sections of 
the state, it will perhaps be possible in the 
not far distant future to allocate most of the 
ceramic remains to the immediate ancestors 
of one or another of the historic tribes of the 
area. 

3 Under date of May 7 , 1950, Mulloy informs me 
as follows concerning ‘hie previous examination of 
a sherd series from Ethridge: ‘‘The sample was 
small and, as I recall, the design elements were 
typical of the Hagen site and done in cord-w rapped 
stick. Any of the sherds I saw could have been 


easily lost i in a Hagen site sample. None had cord 
roughening or fabric impressions.” ’ 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


With regard to the materials reported from 
the Yellowstone Valley by Mulloy and Nel- 
son, the former has argued cautiously but 
cogently for a possible Crow authorship. 
Recency is certainly strongly suggested by 
the heavy emphasis on such a relatively late 
ceramic trait as fluting (simple stamping), 
and by the occasional association of the 
sherds with trade beads. It is possible that 
some of the sherd occurrences, such as those 
noted by Mulloy at pole and log structures 
in the middle Yellowstone Valley, pertain to 
hunting parties from tribes normally residing 
farther to the east or northeast, as for exam- 
ple, the Hidatsa. 

The Hagen site, of course, can not be so 
explained. It was obviously a village of some 
permanence and length of occupaney. The 
pottery complex has a great deal in common 
with that of the late pre-white contact Man- 
dan and Hidatsa, including a number of 
nearly identical traits; and interesting paral- 
lels may be found in other aspects of the 
material culture complex of the two local- 
ities. Linguistic evidence and tribal tradi- 
tions indicate that the Crow separated at a 
relatively late date from the Hidatsa; and 
it seems a not unreasonable view that the 
Hagen site perhaps represents one of their 
settlements on the move westward before 
they had sloughed off entirely their old semi- 
sedentary mode of village life and pottery- 
making and when they had not yet acquired 
the horse. If it can be shown ultimately that 
the Pryor Valley cairns, where pottery and 
glass beads occur together, are of Crow 
origin, the case for the Crow as pottery-using 
Indians will be considerably strengthened ; 
but such evidence is apparently not yet at 
hand. At the moment, about all that can be 
said is that pottery decoratively treated in a 
style highly characteristic of historic Plains 
Indian wares is widely distributed through- 
out portions of Montana which have been, 
since at least the middle of the 18th century, 
the range of the Crow Indians; and since the 
Crow traditionally reached this area from 
one in which their closest linguistic relatives 
shared a well-developed pottery tradition, 
the Crow would seem to be an excellent 
prospect in the search for the native potters 
who left the late prehistoric and/or proto- 
historic ceramic remains in eastern and 
southern Montana. 


Aprit 1951 WEDEL: 

But what of the sherd-bearing sites in the 
Marias-Teton-Sun Rivers area? Here there 
is no evidence of Crow penetration; and the 
sherds in the samples at hand seem to indi- 
cate something different from the late ware 
or wares to the south and southeast. What 
is suggested, moreover, is something quite 
unlike the crudely fashioned, flat-bottomed, 
subeylindrical pottery vessels reconstructed 
by Ewers (1945, p. 295) from historical ac- 
counts and tribal traditions of the Blackfoot, 
historic occupants of the region in question.’ 
These latter products are somehow reminis- 
cent of the early forms of metal vessels 
introduced by white traders, from which, 
indeed, they may even have been copied by 
Indians who probably knew nothing of the 
relatively better-made and technologically 
superior wares whose vestiges were to be 
found in some of the old campsites nearby. 
If the brass fragments at the Ethridge Site 
are actually associated with the sherds above 
described, it may be worth while to look 
further into the possibility of a Gros Ventre 
or Arapaho origin; but the feeling persists 
that we are perhaps dealing here with a tra- 
dition older than anything that might be 
associated with one or another of the historic 
tribes of northern Montana. 

I have at the moment no suggestions to 
offer concerning the affiliations of the Eth- 
ridge-Cascade County sherds, except to say 
that to me they look eastern rather than 
western, prehistoric rather than historic. 
They are not strongly reminiscent of a rather 
mixed lot of sherds which I obtained for the 
Missouri River Basin Survey in 1947 at site 
24RV1, on Big Muddy Creek southwest of 
Froid, in Roosevelt County, Montana, 
among which were noted thick, dentate- 
stamped sherds rather similar to certain 
Illinois Valley materials. Such traits as 
dentate-stamping, textile-impressing, cord- 
roughening, and the wrapped-rod technique 


* In his letter to me, dated May 7, 1950, Mulloy 
notes the occurrence of another, possibly somehow 
related, flat-bottomed potteryware found in camp- 
sites in western Montana, in the Wyoming Basin, 
and in the Great Basin, sometimes in sites which 
also contain pottery in the Mandan-Hidatsa tra- 
dition. He suggests that this may have been 
brought into the Montana-Wyoming region by the 
Shoshoni. There is, so far as I know, no published 
report concerning this curious complex and its 
significance. 


ABORIGINAL POTTERY FROM MONTANA 


137 


seem to me to argue for a possible eastern 
Woodland cultural or ethnic thrust into the 
northwestern Plains, perhaps from the Min- 
nesota region or elsewhere out of the western 
Great Lakes or upper Mississippi Valley 
area. 

In summary, I am inclined to think that 
native pottery in the Montana region may 
be older than would be implied in the 
assumption that it was brought in by early 
peoples directly related to one or another of 
the known historic inhabitants of the region; 
or alternatively, that some of these arrivals 
from the east, such as the Arapaho, perhaps 
came at an earlier time than is commonly 
supposed. As Mulloy, in his discussion of the 
Hagen site and its implications, has re- 
marked with reference to westward move- 
ments of peoples with a Mandan-Hidatsa 
culture tradition, although ‘‘the only west- 
ward movement of which we know is that 
of the Crow, it is entirely possible that a 
westward push such as the Crow movement 
may have taken place on several occasions 
in the prehistoric period. Small groups may 
have moved westward to live for a time and 
later to return or perhaps be absorbed by 
other groups.” It is well established that 
farther south, in western Kansas, Nebraska, 
and eastern Colorado, prehistoric horticul- 
turists and/or potters at one time or another 
pushed westward many hundreds of miles 
beyond the immediate valley of the Missouri 
and even into the High Plains proper. It 
seems possible that comparable thrusts west- 
ward by pottery-using Indians, perhaps dur- 
ing a Late Woodland culture period, may 
have taken place in Montana as well, though 
their stay in the region was evidently not as 
well marked as farther to the south. That 
full-scale horticultural economies accompa- 
nied pottery westward to the continental 
divide in Montana does not seem likely. The 
Hagen Site lies at or near the northwestern 
margin of lands climatically suitable for de- 
pendable maize gardening; the Marias- 
Teton-Sun Rivers locality is far beyond the 
area of known aboriginal maize-bean-squash 
horticulture. 

Determination of the exact character of 
the subsistence pattern and general material 
culture complex of pottery-bearing sites in 
northern Montana would doubtless assist in 


a 


138 


the orderly arranging of the later prehistoric 
records of human occupancy of the region. 
It is Just possible, too, that here, as elsewhere 
in the Great Plains where systematic arche- 
ology has been done, current concepts of 
local prehistory would be shown to be in 
need of some overhauling. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Ewers, Joun C. The case for Blackfoot pottery. 
Amer. Anthrop., n.s., 47 (2): 289-298. 1945. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 4 - 


Hormes, W. H. Aboriginal pottery of the eastern 
United States. 20th Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. 
Ethnol. 1903. 

Mutuoy, Wiuiram. The Hagen site, a prehistoric 
village on the lower Yellowstone. Univ. Montana 
Publ. Soe. Sei. no. 1. 1942. 

An Indian village in the Little Cayuse 
Mountains of Montana. Pap. Michigan Acad. 
Sci., Arts, and Letters 30: 511-521. 1945. 

Newson, N. C. Camping on ancient trails. Nat. 
Hist. 49 (5): 262-267. 1942. 

Contribution to Montana 

Amer. Antiq. 9 (2): 162-169. 1943. 


archeology. 


BOTANY.—A new species of Portulaca from Okinawa.! Eepert H. WALKER, U.S. 
National Museum, and Surnjun Tawapa, Ryukyu Forestry Agency, Okinawa. 


The junior author sent the annotated 
specimen, upon which this new species is 
based, along with miscellaneous collections 
from Okinawa Island, to the U. S. National 
Museum. He reports having first observed 
it 20 years ago at Zanpea-misaki (cape), 
Nakagami-gun, Okinawa Island, although 
the type is from near the village of Onna in 
Kunigami-gun, Okinawa Island. Search of 
the literature and comparison with avail- 
able material indicates it prebably represents 
an undescribed species. In view of the some- 
what confused status of the recent literature 
on Japanese botany, the presentation of a 
new species from this area is somewhat 
hazardous. 

According to the characterization of 
Portulaca in von Poellnitz’s monograph,” this 
species seems to belong in the subgenus 
Euportulaca Speg., section Rotundatae von 
Poelln., subsection Foveolatae von Poelln. 
In habit, it resembles the widespread species 
P. quadrifid.. L., differing most significantly 
jn the absence of axillary hairs. In this same 
respect, it differs from the two eastern 
Asiatic species, P. insularis Hosokawa? and 
P. boninensis Tuyama.’ which have been 
published since von Poellnitz’s monograph 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 

* PoELLNITZ, K. von. Versuch einer Monographie 
der Gattung Portulaca L. Repert. Sp. Nov. Fedde 
37: 240-320. 1934. 

3Trans. Nat. Hist. 

1934. 
4 Bot. Mag. Tokyo 53: 6. 1939. 


Soc. Formosa 22: 229. 


was issued. Its perennial caespitose habit. 
small leaves, absence of axial hairs, so 
characteristic of many species, and its 
foveclate sculptured seeds are the outstand- 
ing characteristics of this species. 


Portulaca okinawensis Walker & Tawada, sp. nov- 


Planta perennis caespitosa 5-10 cm alta, cauli- 
bus herbaceis numerosis viridibus implicatis ra- 
mosis e caule brevi lignoso griseo orientibus; 
radicibus non visis; foliis ramulorum apices versus 
plerumque enatis, subsessilibus vel petiolatis, 
alternatis vel sub flore vel fructu solitario termi- 
nali verticillatis; laminis foliorum in vivo crassis 
carnosis in sicco dense granulosis elliptico-ovatis 
vel oblongis, 2-4 mm longis, basi obtusis, apice 
obtusis vel rotundatis, margine integris; foliis 
involucralibus non carinatis; pilis axillaribus nul- 
lis; floribus solitariis terminalibus circiter 1.6 
mm diametro, petalis 6, aurantio-flavis vel rubes- 
centibus, staminibus circiter 25, liberis, pistillo 
solitario vix inferiore, stylo gracili superne paullo 
dilatato, stigmate 4-partito; fructu globoso 2-3 
mm diametro nitido horizontaliter dehiscente, 
cupulae basalis seminiferae margine plus minusve 
incrassato, semine minuto atro nitido foveolis 
numerosis non profundis facie ornato. 

Nom Jap. Okinawa-matsube-botan (ex Ta- 
wada). 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 
1992668, collected October 2, 1949, by Shinjun 
Tawada (no. 2221) on an exposed rock at the 
seaside, 20 feet elevation, at Onna, Kunigami- 
gun, Okinawa Island, in the Ryukyu Islands. 


Aprit 1951 WALKER AND TAWADA: NEW SPECIES OF PORTULACA 139 


Fig. 1.—Portulaca okinawensis Walker & Tawada, sp. nov.: a, Flower; b, pistil; c, stamen; d, fruiting 
stem tip; e, e’, flowering stem tip showing reddish bases of bracts; f, flowering stem; g, vegetative stem, 
lower side; h, vegetative stem, upper side; 7, enlarged leaf, showing greenish intermittent net forming 
margins to translucent center. Drawing by Tawada. 


140 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 4 


ENTOMOLOGY .—New species of Gelechiidae from Argentina (Lepidoptera). J. F. 
GaTES CLARKE, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. 


The following species of Gelechiidae are 
described from material submitted by Fer- 
nando Bourquin and J. A. Pastrana, of 
Buenos Aires. Two species were reared by Mr. 
Bourquin and one by Mr. Pastrana from lar- 
vae they collected. Figures of the moths and 
life history notes will be published by Mr. 
Bourquin. 


Parastega hemisigna, n. sp. 
Fig. 1 


Alar expanse, 16 mm. 

Labial palpus, antenna, head, thorax, tegula, 
and ground color of forewing dark, shining pur- 
plish-fuscous. Brush of second segment gray and 
extreme apex of third segment creamy white. 
From costa of forewing, at one-fifth, a white bar 
extends to fold, then is continued along the fold 
to tornus as a narrow tawny line; extreme base 
of wing and an elongate patch beyond the white 
bar, black; costal edge, beyond white bar, and 
cilia, sooty. Hind wing gray; cilia fuscous. Fore- 
legs and midlegs dark purplish fuscous with nar- 
row white annulations on tarsi; hind leg sooty 
with narrow white annulations on tibia and 
tarsus. Abdomen shining blackish fuscous; anal 
tuft sordid ocherous-white with dull fuscous scales 
mixed ventrally. 

Male genitalia.—As figured. 

Female genitalia—Unknown. 

Type-—U.S.N.M. no. 60941. 

Remarks.—Described from the type male 
dated, ‘VI. 50” and reared by Fernando Bour- 
quin. 

Similar in size to the Central American P. 
chionostigma (Walsingham) and P. niveisignella 
(Zeller) but distinguished from the former by the 
dark head and palpus and from the latter by the 
absence of the brownish scaling of forewing. 

T have figured (Figs. 2, 2a) the uncus, gnathos, 
and right harpe of the type of the genus (niveisig- 
nella) for comparison. 

Mr. Bourquin has two additional specimens of 
hemisigna and writes that ‘the male has two 
white stripes and the female one white stripe.” 


Aristotelia perplexa, n. sp. 
Figs. 3-3a, 4 


Alar expanse, 10-12 mm. 
Labial palpus whitish, pink tinged; second seg- 


ment with brownish-ocherous median and sub- 
apical bands; third segment with broad fuscous 
submedian and subapical bands. Antenna fus- 
cous narrowly banded with white except dorsally 
the bands not forming complete rings. Head, 
thorax, tegula, and base of forewing brownish 
ocherous. Ground color of forewing sordid whit- 
ish, the scales tipped with fuscous; basal patch 
broadly edged with dark brown outwardly; from 
basal third of costa a dark brown oblique band 
extends to slightly beyond fold and beyond this, 
in cell, is a small fuscous spot followed by another 
at the end of cell; outer half of wing overlaid 
with brownish ocherous; apical half of costa and 
termen edged with fuscous, the line broken by a 
series of pale carmine spots; cilia light brownish 
ocherous with subterminal and subbasal fuscous 
bands and base pale carmine; underside fuscous. 
Hindwing fuscous; cilia slightly paler; from costa 
of male extends a thick brownish-ocherous hair- 
pencil. Legs shining ocherous-white variously 
overlaid and banded with fuscous; foretibia and 
midtibia and tarsi and posterior tibia alternately 
banded with pale carmine. Abdomen fuscous 
above and ocherous-white beneath. 

Male genitalia.—As figured. 

Female genitalia—Genital plate and ostium 
as figured; signum absent. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 60942. 

Type locality —Tigre, Argentina. 

Remarks.—Described from the type male and 
five male and two female paratypes, all from the 
same locality. The dates on the type series are 
from March to April 1939. Paratypes in U. S. 
National Museum and Mr. Bourquin’s collection, 
Buenos Aires. 

This species is similar to A. cynthia Meyrick 
and possesses the hair-pencil from costa of hind 
wing of male; but cynthia lacks the carmine 
coloring of perplexa. The cucullus of cynthia is 
greatly elongated and sharply curved ventrad, 
while that of perplexa is short and dilated. 


_Aristotelia parephoria, n. sp. 
Figs. 5-5a, 6-6a 


Alar expanse, 11-14 mm. 

Labial palpus sordid white; second segment: 
with three bands and apex light brown; third 
segment with basal and median bands light brown 
and subapical annulation blackish fuscous. Head 


Aprit 1951 CLARKE: NEW SPECIES OF GELECHIIDAE 


fs a 

Fies. 1-6a.—1, Parastega hemisigna, n. sp.: Lateral aspect of male genitalia with aedeagus removed. 
2-2a, Parastega niveisignella( Zeller) : 2, Lateral aspect of uncusand gnathos; 2a, right harpe. 8-8a, Aris- 
totelia perplexa, n. sp.: 3, Lateral aspect of male genitalia with aedeagus removed; 3a, aedeagus. 


4, 
Arsitotelia perplexa, n. sp.: Detail of genital plate and ostium. 5-5a, Aristotelia parephoria, n. sp.: 5, 
Lateral aspect of male genitalia with aedeagus removed; 5a, aedeagus. 6-6a, Aristolelia parephoria, n. 
sp.:6, Detail of genital plate and ostium; 6a, bursa copulatrix and signum. 


141 


142 


pale brownish ocherous with a dorsal fuscous 
stripe. Thorax, tegula, and ground color of fore- 
wing ocherous-white; thorax and tegula strongly 
suffused with fuscous anteriorly; dorsal half and 
apex of forewing overlaid with buff; from base of 
costa, and from costa at one-third, blackish- 
fuscous bands extend to fold, the latter band, 
outwardly curved, joins narrowly a fuscous shade 
at outer third of costa; apex and tornus each 
with a small fuscous shade extended into the 
otherwise buff cilia; underside of forewing black- 
ish fuscous. Hind wing and cilia fuscous; costal 
third of underside of hind wing blackish fuscous, 
remainder ocherous-white. Legs shining ocherous- 
white; tibiae and tarsi banded with blackish 
fuscous, abdomen grayish above, ocherous-white 
beneath. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 4 


Male genitalia.—As figured. 

Female genitalia.—Genital plate, ostium, and 
signum as figured. 

Type—U.S.N.M. no. 60943. 

Type locality —Tucuman, Argentina. 

Remarks.—Described from the type male and 
two male and four female paratypes, all from the 
type locality. The dates are “VIII, 1939,” and 
the specimens were collected by J. A. Pastrana. 
S. National Museum and Mr. 
Pastrana’s collection, Buenos Aires. 


Paratypes in U. 


A. parephoria appears to be nearest to A. ephoria 
Meyrick but differs from that species by the 
long terminal segment of palpus and the three 
dark bands on second segment. 


MALACOLOGY .—Recent species of the cyrenoid pelecypod Glossus.! Davip Nicou, 


U.S. National Museum. 


The study on Glossus is the fourth of a 
series on relict pelecypod genera. Lamy 
(1920, pp. 290-296) has done the most recent 
thorough work on the genus. 

Glossus is represented by one species living 
in western European seas and the Mediter- 
ranean. The Indo-Pacific species allocated 
to Mevocardia have entirely different geo- 
graphical distributions and certainly should 
be considered as a distinct genus on the 
basis of shell morphology. The exact relation- 
ship between Glossus and Mevtocardia has 
never been shown, although Dall (1900, pp. 
1065, 1066) claimed that the fossil and living 
species of the two groups are difficult to 
separate. Dall, Bartsch, and Rehder (1938, 
p. 121) consider Glossus and Meiocardia as 
distinct genera. 

The torsion of the beaks has so greatly 
modified the hinge of the glossids that it is 
difficult to allocate the family to any higher 
taxonomic category, and it is not certain 
that any of the Mesozoic species of glossoid- 
form pelecypods can be placed in the genus 
Glossus. (See Stoliczka, 1871, p. 188.) Des- 
pite the great amount of torsion in Glossus, 
however, the genus bears much superficial 
resemblance to Arctica. This resemblance 
would be even more striking if the hinge of 
Arctica were twisted to the same degree that 
it is in Glossus. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


From the Paleocene through the Miocene, 
the genus Glossus has apparently been con- 
fined to temperate seas in the northern hemi- 
sphere except for the northern Pacific region. 
From the Pliocene to the Recent, the genus 
has been confined to western Europe and the 
Mediterranean Sea. 


Family Guossipak Stoliczka, 1871 
Genus Glossus Poli, 1795 


Cardium Linné, 1758 (in part). 

Chama Linné, 1764 (in part). 

Chama Linné, 1767 (in part). 

Cardita Bruguiére, 1792 (in part). 
Glossoderma Poli, 1795. 

Tsocardia Lamarck, 1799. 

Buccardium Megerle von Mihlfeld, 1811. 
Bucardia Schumacher, 1817. 
Tychocardia Romer, 1869. 


Genotype: (Monotypy) Glossus rubtcundus 
Poli, 1795 = Chama cor Linné, 1767 = Cardiwm 
humanum Linné, 1758. 

There appears to be no nomenclatorial reason 
why Poli’s names can not be used despite the fact 
that he employed two generic names, one for the 
soft parts of the mollusk and the other for the 
shell. The shell name always ends in “derma,” 
and Cerastoderma has been used consistently for 
a genus of cardiids. Glossus and Glossoderma are 
absolute synonyms, but Glossus is to be preferred 
on the basis of page priority. Glossus Poli, 1795, 
is clearly prior to Isocardia Lamarck, 1799, and 
on that basis must be employed for Cardiwm 
humanum Linné. 


Aprit 1951 NICOL: RECENT SPECIES OF GLOSSUS 143 


Glossus humanus (Linné), 1758 1792. Cardita cor (Linné), Bruguiére, Encye. 
Meth., Nat. Hist. Vers, 1: 403, 404; 1797, 
Figs. 2-5 Cardita, pt. 19, no. 18: pl. 232, figs. la-d. 
1795. Glossus rubicundus Poli, Test. utr. Siciliae 2: 
1758. Cardium humanum Linné, Syst. Nat., ed. 10: 114, 253, pl. 15, figs. 30, 34, 35, 36; pl. 23, 
682. figs. 1, 2. 

1764. Chama cordiformis Linné, Mus. Lud.UIl. Reg.: 1795. Gee bderna rubicundus Poli, Test. utr. 
516. Siciliae 2: 253. 

1767. Chama cor Linné, Syst. Nat., ed. 12,1 (pt. 1795. Glossoderma cor (Linné), Poli, Test. utr. 
2) ralloie Siciliae 2: 259. 


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Fic. 1.—Distribution of living specimens of Glossus humanus (Linné): W, Locality data based on 
U.S. National Museum specimens; V, locality data based on specimens in other museums and on 
a p ’ ) . 
published records. 


144 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 4 
1798. ae ou ae ritum Roding, Mus. Bolt.: rior adductor muscle scar deeper and_ better 
, no. J. a , yar 
ITOOMT OLEH CoR (LE nG) 2 Da ON Coe marked but smaller than posterior adductor mus- 
Hist. Nat. Paris 1: 86. cle sear 
1801. Isocardia globosa Lamarck, Syst. animaux Measurements in mm.—Only specimens with 
sans vert., etc., 1: 118. both valves were measured: 
1811. Buccardium commune Megerle von Mihlfeld, 
Mag. Ges. Nat. Freunde Berlin 5 (1), art. \ Convexity 
2: 52. U.S.N.M. no. Length Height (both values) 
1815. Glossus cor (Linné), Oken, Lehr. Nat., Teil 2S WOE 98.3 83.2 
3. Zool.: 235. 201292 100.8 95.4 88.4 
z 5 , ie 6 131658 93.0 89.2 Utetl 
1817. Bucardia communis (Megerle von Mihlfeld), 304792 93.7 74.7 65.5 
Schumacher, Hssai nouv. syst., ete.: 144, 201294 81.7 79.6 59.0 
pl. 13, figs. 2a, b. 201299 81.2 80.0 60.0 
1845. Isocardia hibernica Reeve, Conch. Icon. 2, 186122 79.3 74.7 69.5 
: Tsocardia: pl. 1, sp. 4. 201295 75.1 75.6 59.1 
1853. Cardita humana (Linné), Mérch, Cat. Conch. 201302 70.3 64.1 59.7 
Yoldi 2: 38. 304782 69.6 65.1 59.0 
1855. Isocardia cor var. hibernica Reeve, Hanley, vee GiBS Wao DoS 
5 6 9 ri 201298a 60.4 59.6 53.2 
Ipsa Linnaei Conchylia: 84. 201296 52.6 55.8 iOS 
1858. Bucardiw cor (Linné), H. and A. Adams, Gen. 201300 45.9 48.8 36.2 
Rec. Moll. 2: 461, pl. 112, figs. 5a, b. 201294a 45.6 48.2 35.7 
1869. Isocardia (T'ychocardia) cor (Linné), Romer, 131658a 45.6 45.6 38.6 
in Martini und Chemnitz, Conch.-Cab., 201296a 44.1 48.0 34.4 
ed. 2,10 (2), Cardiacea: 5-7, pl. 1, figs. 1-3. 201297 38.9 43.0 29.0 
1900. Isocardia humana (Linné), Dall, Tert. fauna 201297a 32.8 35.0 24.3 
Florida 3 (pt. 5): 1064. 201337 26.8 27.0 20.5 
1903. Isocardia cor var. valentiana Pallary, Ann. 


Mus. Hist. Nat. Marseille, Zool., 8, mém. 
ile Wes; jolly sakes, IG}. 

Glossus humanus (Linné), van Regteren Al- 
tena, Bijdrage tot de kennis der fossiele, 
subfossiele en Recente Mollusken, etc.: 
WO swe 


1937. 


Description.—Shell porcellaneous, thin, exterior 
ornamented only by growth lines; small speci- 
mens often have two small folds separated by in- 
cised lines extending from the ligament obliquely 
downward toward the posteroventral margin; a 
poorly defined, broad depressed area in front of 
beaks, better defined in small specimens and often 
delimited by two incised lines; periostracum dark 
reddish brown to black on large specimens, lighter 
on small specimens, attaining a light greenish 
yellow on smallest specimens; periostracum 
nearly smooth in appearance on large speci- 
mens; on small ones fine, closely spaced, radiat- 
ing lines composed of darker-colored ridges of 
periostracum; valves without gape, equivalve; 
interior ventral margin smooth; beaks spirally 
enrolled and strongly prosogyrate, umbones 
swollen; hgament external, weak, parivincular, 
split into two parts anteriorly and dragged under 


spirally enrolled beaks, opisthodetic; hinge teeth 
sehen 3a, 1, 3b, PI 
ceyrenoid, hinge formula 5,55, ap, prp all teeth lam- 


inar and nearly horizontal, 2a and 2b in left valve 
almost completely fused, 1 and 3b in right valve 


somewhat fused; pallial line integripalliate, ante- 


One trend is quite apparent from the measure- 
ments: small shells are longer than they are high, 
whereas large shells are higher than they are long. 
The ratio of convexity to height was computed. 
All seven shells from the Mediterranean Sea had 
ratios ranging from 0.90 to 0.84. The ratios of 12 
shells from the British Isles ranged from 0.80 to 
0.72 except for one large shell from Dublin Bay 
which had a ratio of convexity to height of 0.88. 
Reeve (1845, vol. 2, p. 2, Isocardia) claimed that 
the specimens from Ireland were less globose 
than those from the Mediterranean Sea. On the 
basis of this difference and some other minor 
features, he proposed the new species name 
hibernica for the Irish specimens. To my knowl- 
edge no other conchologist has considered hiber- 
nica a distinct species, but Reeve’s contention 
that the Mediterranean specimens are more glo- 
bose is borne out by the few specimens I have 
measured. 

Number of specomens.—There are 32 specimens 
of Glossus humanus in the collection of the 
United States National Museum. 

Locality data —The following localities are rep- 
resented by specimens in the National Museum: 
Zara, Yugoslavia; Tunis; Cette, France; Algiers; 
Cape de Gata, Spain; Cape Sagres, Portugal; 
Falmouth, England; Plymouth, England; Dublin 
Bay; Isle of Man; Oban, Scotland; Hebrides; 
Shetland Islands. 


Aprit 1951 


GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION AND ECOLOGY 
OF GLOSSUS HUMANUS (LINNE) 


This study is encumbered by two diffi- 
culties. Glossus humanus is not a common 
species, except for a few scattered localities, 
and observations on its habitat are meager. 
The more serious difficulty results from an 
error by J. Gwyn Jeffrys, who mistook 
species of Kelliella for the young of Glossus. 
Some of the Jeffreys’ material collected on 
the Porcupine and Valorous expeditions is in 
the National Museum collection. Specimens 
identified as “‘Isocardia cor” by Jeffreys are 
not that species, a point upheld by Sars and 
much later by other conchologists. 

The exact northern limit of distribution of 
Glossus is worthy of much additional investi- 
gation. Only one living specimen of Glossus 
humanus has been found off the southern 
coast of Iceland thus far (Madsen, 1949, p. 


NICOL: RECENT SPECIES OF GLOSSUS 


145 


49), although the molluscan fauna of the 
island has been extensively collected and 
studied. The genus has not been reported 
from the Faroes. The report of Glossus from 
the Lofoten Islands off the coast of Norway 
was based on a misidentification by Jeffreys. 
The genus is rare from Trondhjem Fjord 
southward and eastward into the Kattegat. 
Glossus is fairly common in certain places 
along the coasts of the British Isles and is 
also found in the Shetlands. It has been re- 
ported all along the coasts of France, Portu- 
gal, and Spain. In the Mediterranean, Glossus 
is frequently found as far east as the Adriatic 
Sea. The fact that it has not been found east of 
there may be due to lack of careful collecting. 
It apparently is not present on the west coast 
of Africa, even near the entrance to the 
Mediterranean Sea. Jeffreys has reported 
Glossus from the Azores, but this report is 


Fras. 2-5.—Glossus humanus (Linné): 2, Interior of left valve, X 1; 3, interior of right valve, X 1; 
4, exterior of right valve, X 1; 5, enlarged portion of exterior surface of shell showing fine radial ridges of 
periostracum, X 6. (All figures are of a young specimen from Falmouth, England; U.S.N.M. no. 201800.) 


146 JOURNAL OF THE 
thought to be based on a misidentification. 
Further collecting will no doubt more accur- 
ately delimit the distribution of the genus. 
Additional ecological data are greatly 
needed on Glossus humanus. The species 
apparently is found on sand, sandy-mud, or 
mud bottoms. It has been thought by some 
to have a wide bathymetric range, but this 
idea is now believed to be incorrect. Jeffreys 
has reported Glossus from more than 2,000 
meters of water, but the specimens found at 
that depth are probably all Kelliella. Glossus 
apparently is found in depths ranging from 
about 5 to 150 meters. The probable temper- 
ature of the bottom where the genus thrives 
ranges from 8° to 15°C. 
Acknowledgments.—The following persons 
gave me data on geographical distribution 
of specimens of Glossus: William J. Clench, 
Museum of Comparative Zoology at Har- 
vard College; Leo G. Hertlein, California 


WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 4 


Academy of Sciences; A. Myra Keen, Stan- 
ford University. I am greatly indebted to 
them for their assistance. 


REFERENCES 


Datu, W. H. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of 
Florida, etc. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. 3 
(pt. 5): 949-1218, pls. 36-47. 1900. 

Datt, W. H., Bartscu, P., and RenprErR, H. A. A 
manual of the Recent and fossil marine pelecy- 
pod mollusks of the Hawaiian Islands. Bernice 
P. Bishop Mus. Bull. 153: 233 pp., 28 figs., 58 
pls., 1938. 

Lamy, E., Révision des Cypricardiacea et des Iso- 
cardiacea vivants du Muséum d’ Histoire Natu- 
relle de Paris. Journ. Conchyl. 64 (4) : 259-307. 
1920. 

Mapsen, F. J. The zoology of Iceland 4 (pt. 63, 
Marine Bivalvia): 116 pp., 12 figs. 1949. 

REEVE, L. A. Conchologia iconica 2, Isocardia: 2 
pp., l pl., 1845. 

SroxiczKA, F. Cretaceous fauna of southern India 3, 
The Pelecypoda, etc. Palaeontologica Indica 
(Geological Survey of India memoirs) : 537 pp., 
50 pls. 1871. 


MALACOLOGY.—More new urocoptid mollusks from Mexico. Patt Bartscu, 


U.S. National Museum. 


To the indefatigable efforts and the stimu- 
lating influence that Miss Marie Bourgeois, 
of Mixcoac, exerted upon her friends to help 
make known the molluscan fauna of Mexico, 
the U. S. National Museum is indebted for 
the following new species of urocoptid land 
snails transmitted to us for report. 


Coelostemma anconai, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, 3 


Shell cylindroconic, pale horn-colored when 
living, dead shells white. The nucleus consists of 
about two turns, which are somewhat inflated and 
strongly rounded and form a slightly bulbous 
apex. The nuclear turns are finely granulose. The 
first seven postnuclear whorls increase gradually 
in width, rendering this part of the shell elongate- 
conic. Beginning with the eighth turn the shell 
becomes cylindric in form, contracting slightly 
on the last three whorls. The postnuclear whorls 
are slightly rounded and separated by a moder- 
ately impressed suture. They are marked by 
decidedly retractively curved axial riblets, which 
are slightly less strongly developed on the eylin- 
dric portion of the shell than on the two ends. 
Of these riblets about 40 are present on the second 
postnuclear turn, 80 on the tenth, and 62 on the 


penultimate whorl. On the last turn behind the 
peristome the riblets become; fine, hairlike, and 
crowded. The spaces separating the riblets aver- 
age about double the width of the ribs. The last 
turn is solute for about one-fifth of a turn, the 
solute portion bearing the rib sculpture of the 
rest of this portion of the shell. The aperture is 
subcircular and is somewhat sinuous on the parie- 
tal wall where the peristome is a little less ex- 
panded than on the rest of the aperture where it 
widens in a gentle curve. The columella is hollow, 
broad, about one-third the width of the shell, 
and shows fine axial markings; it gradually nar- 
rows in the last two turns. 

The holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 595018, has 19 
whorls and measures: Length 26 mm; diameter 
of the cylindric portion 6 mm. U.S.N.M. no. 
595019 comprises the paratype, of which we have 
figured the columella and some fragments. 

We are naming the species for Prof. I. Ancona, 
who collected the specimens at Ixcatiopan, 
Guerrero, Mexico. 

Of the known species of Coelostemma this 
species resembles most nearly C. igualaensis 
Bartsch, fro.i Iguala, Guerrera, Mexico, from 
which it is easily distinguished by its smaller 
size, more cylindric outline, narrower shell, and 
stronger ribbing. 


Aprit 1951 


Holospira wilmoti, n. sp. 
Fig. 2 


Shell cylindroconic, white with the interior of 
the aperture pale chestnut-brown. The nucleus 
consists of about 23 strongly rounded whorls 
that form a mucronate apex. The first four post- 
nuclear whorls increase rapidly in width, while 
the succeeding turns are cylindric, contracting 
again toward the base. The postnuclear whorls 
are flattened and separated by a slightly im- 
pressed suture. On the conic portion feeble de- 
cidedly retractively curved axial riblets are in- 
dicated, while on the cylindric portion the axial 
markings are reduced to mere lines of growth. 
The last whorl and a little of the penultimate 
turn bear distantly spaced somewhat sinuous 
axial ribs, which extend undiminished over the 
slightly angulated periphery and the base into the 
umbilical chink. These ribs are about one-third 
as wide as the spaces that separate them. The 
last whorl is solute for about one-eighth of a 
turn. Aperture obliquely pear-shaped; peristome 
broadly flatly expanded and thickened. Colu- 
mella hollow, about one-fourth the diameter of 
the whorls, bearing a feeble obsolete fold in the 
cylindric portion of the shell which expands into 
a thin slightly curved blade in the penultimate 
whorl, where it extends over three-fifths of the 
width of the chamber bending slightly upward 
toward the parietal fold. In the last turn the colu- 
mellar fold becomes much. reduced and _ thick- 
ened, being scarcely noticeable in the aperture. 
The parietal fold is well developed and is con- 
fined to the penultimate turn. The basal fold in 
the same turn is poorly developed, while the 
labial fold is about one-half as strong as the 
parietal fold. 

The type, U.S.N.M. no. 595020, was collected 
by George Wilmot on Cerro del Fraile, near 
Villa Garcia, Nuevo Ledén, Mexico. It has 14 
whorls and measures: Length 20 mm; diameter 
of cylindric portion 7 mm. 

This species most nearly resembles H. orcutti 
Bartsch, which Orcutt collected on a limestone 


BARTSCH: NEW UROCOPTID MOLLUSKS 


147 


paredon in Coahuila, Mexico. Its much smaller 
size and more cylindric form readily distinguish it. 
We take pleasure in naming it for its dis- 


coverer. 


Fras. 1-3.—1, 3, Coelostemma anconat, n. sp.; 
2, Holospira wilmoti. n. sp. 


148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 4 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


4447H MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS Representative on Council of A.A.A.S.: F. M. 


The 444th meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on February 12, 1951, 
was called to order at 8:05 p.m. by the President, 
NarHan R. Smiru. Also present were: W. Ram- 
BERG, H. S. Rappieyn, J. A. STEVENSON, C. 
Drecuster, A. T. McPHrerson, W. R. WEDEL, 
J. J. Fanny, E. H. Watker, W. A. Dayton, 
R. 8. Diu, L. A. Spinpuer, A. M. Grirrin, 
F. M. Deranporr, and, by invitation, MARGARET 
Pirtman, G. P. Watton, and L. E. Yocum. 

The President announced the following ap- 
pointments: 


Appointed Members of Executive Committee: 
W. Ramberg, H. S. Rappleye, J. A. Stevenson, 
and F. M. Defandorf. 

Board of Editors of the Journal: Charles Drech- 
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Kracek. T. P. Thayer (Geology) was appointed 
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Committee on Membership: L. A. Spindler 
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Setzler. 

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The Secretary reported a meeting of the Exe- 
cutive Committee at 6:30 p.m., February 12, 
1951, at the Cosmos Club with the following 
members in attendance: N. R. Smrra, W. Ram- 
BERG, H. 8. Rappieyn, J. A. STEVENSON, and 
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presented by the Treasurer for 1951 was dis- 
cussed in some detail and approved for sub- 
mission to the Board of Managers. 

The following budget was presented to the 
Board, discussed by the Treasurer, and adopted 
by the Board without change: 


RECEIPTS 
Estimated 1951 

1950 1951 Budget 

Dues..... ; oo $3985.00 $4200.00 

Journal Subscriptions... . 1339.50 1600.00 

Interest & Dividends 1521.50 1950.00 

Sales)... .. 93.43 100.00 

$6939.43 $7850.00 

DISBURSEMENTS 

Journal & Journal Office ........ $6435.74 $6500.00 $6500.00 
Secretary's office 481.26 550.00 550.00 
Treasurer’s office. . oe 304.59 300.00 300.00 
S.M. &C. of Publications....... 30.67 50.00 50.00 
Meetings Committee 244.30 500.00 500.00 
Membership Committee.......... 1.50 20.00 20.00 
Science Fair.......... 100.00 100.00 100.00 
Sciences Calendar. . . 10.00 50.00 50.00 
Archivistie ta: cero aoe ee — 75.00 75.00 
$7608.06 $8145.00 $8145.00 


Hstimated) Deficiten- ake tree eee eee $ 295.00 


A letter from J. A. Stevenson was read in 
which he submitted his resignation as an Elected 
Member of the Board of Managers because he 
is at present Archivist of the Academy. The 
Board accepted the resignation and in Mr. Ste- 
venson’s place appointed Milton Harris. 

The Board appointed C. F. W. Muesebeck to 
fill the vacancy created by the resignation of H. 
P. Barss as an Elected Member of the Board of 
Managers. 

The meeting adjourned at 8:55 P.M. 

F. M. Drranporr, Secretary 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


[2 ROS EUG D so ele Gig Oo ER OS CTEO BOD aE ee NatHan R. Smitu, Plant Industry Station 
PEARESTALENUL-CLECES ater Fae She Oe WattTEeR RAaMBERG, National Bureau of Standards 
SCGIRATPO) SED CT Here F. M. Dreranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
RECUSUN ODM A ce kena ke Howarp 8. Rappers, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
ARTO Sea oe cle oR AS AND eer eRe Oe JouHN A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haraup A. Resper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Epwarp U. Connon 
Anthropological Society of Washington......................... Watpo R. WEDEL 
Brolozicalusociety, of Washinetone sce asso dans jess ee oe 
Chemical Society of Washington........... eee tose a yv rate Scns JosprH J. FAHEY 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ FREDERICK W. Poos 
National Geographic Society...... 20.0... 0.060. c eee eee ee ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geological Society of Washington......................0...005- Leason H. Apams 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.......................... 
ColumbrayElistoricaliSocletyaee. 20 esses eee ees GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Botanicals socictyjomWwashingtonuenne le 44s eee niece ean E. H. WALKER 
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Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
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Helminthological Society ofpWashington, eee eee one eae L. A. SPINDLER 
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Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.......... Herpert G. DorsEy 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. . 
Elected Members of the Board of M anagers: 


PIR ATINT UTS OD Bee ene vei ses ose eee: Nee ale Whtevejesss aeniaeies W. F. Fosuaa, C. L. Gazin 
pRoManT ary) MOS8E jae Ss crepes ee a Seer ae es C. F. W. Munszesecs*, A. T. McPHERson 
I® dipiatneney7? 3G Ue es Senne een eee Sara E. Branuam, Mitton Harris* 
GOR OMOMUUGNAGETS ye crcc yes corinne esos: All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Roaianopuautorsiand Assocrate HQUOTs, 22.52.42. +0250 .0 45522. 0ge. seas [See front cover] 


Executive Commitiee....N. R. SmrrH (chairman), WALTER RamBERG, H. S. RAPPLEYE, 
. A. Stevenson, F. M. Deranporr 
Committee on Membership............... L. A. SprInpLER (chairman), M. 8. ANDERSON, 
MERRILL BERNARD, R. E. BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, 
D. B. Jonzs, DoroTuy NICKERSON, F. A. SMITH, Hetnz SPECHT, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Commiitee on M. eetings dekh in cba Marcarer Prirrman (chairman), NorMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. CuHapuine, D. J. Davis, F. B. ScHEETz, H. W. Weus 

Committee on u onographs: 


Ronanwary G52. esa. jee sean. J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), Paut H. OnHSER 
Ovary al OD Smee sae ee ice remit beiacic, oeeyois J aicieee ss a/Sees R. W. Imuay, P. W. OMAN 

IPG) dicot rareie WDaY Ges ayecta 6 6 orl etn cara rcnpe nen ne one en S. F. Buaxs, F. C. Kracex 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GRORGE P. WALTON, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. FABER, JR., 
Myrna F. Jonss, F. W. Poos, J. R. SWALLEN 

For the Engineering Sciences......... 185 (So Davy, (chairman), ARSHAM AMIRIKIAN, 

J. W. McBurney, Frank Neumann, A. H. Scorr 

For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. Watton (chairman), F. 8S. BRacKErt, 

G. E. Hom, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMILien 

For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BARNEs, 

F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyir, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPHERSON 

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Researched em ea L. E. Yocum (chairman), 


M. X. Suuiivan, H. L. WaitTeMoRE 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


Ate) demain ICG oo wa po aubeskaesduoonote J. I. Horrman (chairman), M. A. Mason 

ROR anwaryl9 OS ners. cess ccs a tion teersdan be mae. Ws Atouete W. A. Dayton, N. R. Suita 

PROMI Ua ae lO OA ey) eh ce, ae ca vugce, acoso afuaucare H. B. Couns, Jr., W. W. Rupny 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

Le Uaminens? IOEY, Jo ooeachcacenseocnun M. A. Mason cree A. T. McPHERSON 

MOT ANUAL Ye OOSt cena aceon s seee cl tuectcs a eosvetais A. H . CLARK, F. L. Mounier 

POR ANU aT yO D4 wets Rance ey ey yens sake souste a aieitersiarsiavens J.M. CALDWELL, W. ee Scumitr 
JOST Op Coonocd) OF Bo Fla Als Sonooc6000 ssg04sbnb0090Ks00Gd00RE F. M. Serzur 
Committee of Auditors......J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. Braaten, W. i YOUDEN 


Committee of Tellers. . _W. G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Merz, Lovrsn M. RussELu 
* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 


Page 
Maruematics.—The theory of group representations. Francis E. 
JOHNSTON - 6 y:d56 dale Wloscis eeidlecs 6s oe yanie wt alt we ae ly 
MatTHEMATICS.—On an equation of Neményi and Truesdell. D. S. 
MaITRINOVITOH. (sg. ccc ests gh age ene ones se ee 129 


ARcCHEOLOGY.—Notes on aboriginal pottery from Montana. Waupo R. 
Botany.—A new species of Portulaca from Okinawa. Eeprert H. 
WALKER and SHINJUN LAWADA] (e550. 522 4 0-0 138 


EntTomMoLocy.—New species of Gelechiidae from Argentina (Lepidoptera). 
J. FF. Gawns @raRKB.... $0.0066 00. clon oe ole, ie os | 140 


Matacotoay.—Recent species of the cyrenoid pelecypod Glossus. 
Davaip NICOL:.;...Aglat aiccei 2 Bodies Bee ac hs too Oe 142 


Matacotocy.—More new urocoptid mollusks from Mexico. Pau 
BARTSCH (iy Romie oie ei ghs ence: a oenyelthe mie oan 146 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Vot. 41 May 1951 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 41 


May 1951 


No. 


i) 


PHYSICS.—The limitations of the principle of superposition: II. Pauu R. Heyu, 


Washington, D. C. 


The first paper on this subject was pub- 
lished in this JouRNAL 40: 345, 1950, wherein 
the discussion was confined to the case of 
the resultant of components with equal fre- 
quencies. The present paper discusses the 
case where the frequencies are different. Here 
we find some rather unexpected results, all 
of which originate in one fundamental propo- 
sition—that with components of different 
frequencies the resultant does not obey 
Hooke’s law. 

Consider first the case of equal frequencies: 


A sin nt + B sin n(t — 6) 
—n*[A sin nt + B sin n(t — 6)] 


y 
d*y/dt? 


Assuming a vibrating element of unit mass, 
we see that the force acting on the element 
is proportional to the displacement, obeying 
Hooke’s law. 

With components of different frequencies, 


A sin nt + B sin m(t — 6) 
—An? sin nt — Bm? sin m(t — @), 


Ye= 
*y/d? = 
where the force acting is not proportional to 
the displacement but is a variable function 
of the displacement. To see what results this 
brings we shall consider a very simple case: 


sin ¢ Yo = sin 2¢ 
= sin¢ + sin 2t 


Yi 
Resultant 


y (1) 

Table 1 gives numerical values of dis- 
placement, force acting and ratio of force 
to displacement for a number of points in 
the first half cycle. 

The ratios at t = 0° and ¢ = 180° are of 
an indeterminate form which, when evalu- 
ated, give the limits to which the ratios ap- 
proach at the neighboring points. 

It will be seen that the curve has a point 
of inflexion when ¢ = 97° 10/ 50”. Here the 
force acting is zero, while the displacement 


149 


is not zero. A case of opposite kind is found 
when ¢ = 120°. Here the curve crosses the 
axis and the displacement is zero, but the 
force is not zero. 

A more readily understandable case of this 
latter kind is found if we consider a flexible 
string of length z, fixed at both ends and 
vibrating in its first and third harmonies 
(see Fig. 1). Here we have, at maximum dis- 
placement, y = sin x + sin 3x, with the 
middle point of the string on the axis of x. 
At this moment let the points B and C be 
held stationary. The middle point A will 
then snap upward and finally come to rest 
on the straight line between B and C, show- 
ing that it had a force acting on it when its 
displacement was zero. 


Another unexpected result appears also in 
this table. The displacement has a maximum 
when ¢ = 53° 37’ 29”, but the greatest force 
occurs at t = 47° 25’ 33”. A similar result is 
found for the minimum value of y at ¢ 
147° 27’ 37”, with the maximum force at 
t ISA Sey WM 

Let us now consider the question of energy. 
The components y; = sin ¢ and ys = sin 2 
have respectively total energies of 5 and 2, 
whose sum is 2.5. What will be the energy of 
their resultant? 


Kinetic energy = 3(dy/dt)? 


4(cos t + 2 cos 2¢)? 


1 cos? ¢ + 2 cos? 2¢ + 2 cos ¢ cos 2é...(2) 


MAY 2 9 1951 


150 


The first two terms of (2) represent the 
kinetic energies of the original components 
yi and yo. The third term is an excess (or 
deficiency) of kinetic energy which is intro- 
duced by adding amplitudes, since the square 
of a binomial may be greater or less than 
the sum of the squares of its two terms. If 
t = 7/4 or 7/2 there will be no excess or 
deficiency, and only in such cases will super- 
position be valid. 

To determine potential energy we must 
know the force necessary to balance the 
force of restitution. d*y/d?? = —sint — 4 
sin 2¢ = —F, the force of restitution, nega- 
tive when displacement is positive. Therefore 
F will be the force we need to determine po- 
tential energy. Both F and y are functions 
of t. 


Yy t 
Potential energy = [ F dy = [ F dy/dt dt 
0 0 


t 
= [ (sin t + 4 sin 2¢)(cos ¢t + 2 cos 2¢) dt 
0 


This splits up into four integrals. 


t 
[sin te0s ae = § sine een a an nd ne ee (3) 
0 
t 
2f sin ¢ cos 2t dt = cos t — 4. cos 3t — 3 ... (4) 
0 
t 
| sin 2tcos tdt = — % cos 3t —2cost+3.. (5) 
0 


t 
8 i Sind 7; COS A Cs = YF Sie WE Os soacnccaccce s (6) 
0 


Here we see that with more than two com- 
ponents the mathematical labor rapidly 
mounts up. With two components we have 
four integrals to handle; and with ten com- 
ponents we would have a hundred integrals. 
But, as was mentioned in the first paper on 
this subject, there are a number of cases of 
practical importance where the traditional 
addition of amplitudes gives correct results. 

The sum of these four integrals will be the 
potential energy of the vibrating element at 
displacement y. Of these four, (3) and (6) will 
be the potential energies of the components 
yi, and yo. The sum of (4) and (5) will be the 
excess (or deficiency) of potential energy in 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


the resultant. Adding the kinetic energy (2) 
to the sum of these four integrals we have 


Total energy = 4 + 2 + 2 cost cos 2t — cost 


— cos 3¢ + 2, 


in which the trigonometric terms cancel out 
after a little reduction,! and we have 


Total energy = } + 2 + 2 = component energies 
+ 2 units excess (7) 


which is constant for all values of f. 

This violation of the conservation of en- 
ergy can be avoided by applying modifying 
factors to the original components y, and 
y2 before adding their amplitudes. Let these 
factors be M, and M,. The modified com- 
ponents will be 


Y, = Misint and ys = M, sin 2, and their resultant 
y = M, sin t + Mz sin 2t (8) 


Working with (8) as we did with the re- 
sultant of the original, unmodified compo- 
nents, we obtain 


Total energy of (8) = $M, + 2M?,+ 2M, Me (9) 


TABLE 1 
t y d?y/dt? Ratio 
0° 0 0 0/0 = —3.00 
20° 0.98481 —2.91318 —2.95 
40° 1.62670 —4.58203 —2.81 
47° 25’ 33” 1.73280 —4.72200 —2.73 
50° 1.75085 —4.70528 —2.69 
58°'3774 297 1.76014 —4.62520 —2.53 
60° 1.73206 —4.33)15 —2.48 
90° 1 —1 —1.00 
97° 10’ 50” 0.74412 0 0 
100° 0.64279 0.38327 0.60 
110° 0.29690 1.63147 5.49 
IGS? 0.14027 2.15785 15.39 
120° 0 2.59809 co 
125° —0.07946 2.93961 —37.00 
130° —0.21877 3.21732 —14.69 
IBY ah —0.32206 3.30922 —10.28 
140° —0.34202 3.29645 —9.64 
147° 27/ 37” —0.36901 3.08944 —8.37 
150° —0.36603 2.96412 —8.10 
170° —0. 16837 1.19443 —7.11 
180° 0 0 0/0 = —7.00 
1 The terms in question are: 
2 cos t cos 2t — cos t — cos 3t (1’) 


cos 3t = cos(t + 2¢) = cost cos 2¢ — sin é sin 2t 
Substituting this, the terms in question become 
cos ¢t cos 2t — cost + sin ¢ sin 2¢ (2B) 
Now cos t cos 2¢ + sin t sin 2¢ = cos(t — 24) = cos 
(—t) = cost 
Substituting in (2’), the terms all cancel out. 


May 1951 


Equating this to the sum of the energies of 
the original components we have one equa- 
tion for M, and Ms. 


iM?, + 2M?,+ 2M, M, =1+4 2 (10) 


A second equation for M, and M, is 
needed. 

It is physically reasonable to suppose that 
the original components yj; and y» should con- 
tribute to their resultant in proportion to 
their respective energies. Therefore the co- 
efficients of y; and y» should be proportional 
to the square roots of the energies of the 
original components. 


which gives M, = 24/,. Eliminating WM, be- 
tween this and equation (10) we get 


M,=54 My, = 2(5)-3 


and the resultant becomes 


HEYL: PRINCIPLE OF SUPERPOSITION 151 


whose total energy for all values of ¢ is equal 
to 2.5, the sum of the energies of the original 
components. 

For more than two components the fore- 
going 1s easy to generalize. For n components 
there will be n modifying factors. In addition 
to the generalized form of (10) there will be 
(n — 1) ratios between the n modifying fac- 
tors, giving n equations for their deter- 
mination. 

Table 2 gives for the resultant (11) values 
of displacement, force acting and ratio of 
force to displacement for points in the first 
half cycle, as in Table 1. In addition this 
table gives energy values. 

It will be seen in this table that while the 
total energy remains constant the kinetic 
and potential energies fluctuate, the poten- 
tial energy having maxima corresponding to 
the maximum and minimum values of y; 
and at these points the kinetic energy is zero. 
The same peculiarities found in Table 1 
occur here; potential energy and d?y/dé? do 
not have the same maxima, and the values 
of the ratios at 0° and 180° are indeterminate 


y = 5-4sin t + 2(5)-4 sin 2¢ (11) and the evaluated values are given. 
TABLE 2 
t y d?y/dt? Ratio aces Kinetic energy Total energy 

0° 0 0 —3.40 0 2.5 2.5 
20° 0.727883 —2.45319 —3.37 0.896899 1.60309 2.49999 
40° 1.168301 —3.81081 —3.26 2.28665 0.21335 2.50000 
46° 14’ 20” 1.216580 —3.89735 —3.20 2.47308 0.026908 2.49999 
49° 39’ 25” 1.223492 —3.87154 Slit 2.50000 0 2.50000 
50° 1.223424 —3. 86594 —3.16 2.49973 0.00027 2.50000 
70° 0.995171 —2.73027 —2.74 1.75899 0.74101 2.50000 
90° 0.447214 —0.447214 —1.00 0.9 1.6 2.5 

93° 35/ 0.334754 0 0 0.87490 1.62510 2.50000 
100° 0.134506 0.78323 5.82 0.95361 1.54639 2.50000 
104° 28’ 39” 0.000001 1.29904 re) 1.09875 1.40625 2.50000 
110° —0. 154683 1.88978 —12.22 1.33978 1.16023 2.50001 
130° —0.538252 3.18076 —5.91 2.32114 0.17886 2.50000 
136° 17’ 42” —0.584481 3.26856 —5.60 2.47062 0.02939 2.50001 
140° —0.593375 3.23589 —5.45 2.49948 0.00051 2.49999 
140° 34’ —0.593533 3.22632 —5.42 2.5 0 2.5 
150° —0.550992 2.87464 —5.22 2.37141 0.12859 2.50000 
170° —0. 228255 1.14599 —5.02 1.73051 0.76948 2.49999 
180° 0 0 —5.00 1.6 0.9 2.5 


152 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 


SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 5 


ETHNOLOGY.—Some medical beliefs and practices of the contemporary Iroquois 
Longhouses of the Six Nations Reserve. MarcrenL Rioux, National Museum of 
Canada, Ottawa, Canada. (Communicated by William N. Fenton.) 


A member of an Iroquois Longhouse is 
considered to be an individual who dces not 
belong to any of the Christian sects and is 
regarded by his fellow members as a believer 
in the doctrine of Handsome Lake, a native 
prophet who, at the beginning of the nine- 
teenth century, established a new religion 
among his people. Although this doctrine 
is strongly influenced by Christian beliefs 
and practices, it has served to preserve and 
consolidate many traditional Iroquois ideas 
and customs. The name ‘‘Longhouse”’ also 
designates the building where the adherents 
of the Handsome Lake cult hold most of 
their religious rituals and ceremonies. The 
percentage of the Longhouse worshipers is 
about one-fifth of the Iroquois population— 
approximately 5,500—of the whole Six 
Nations Reserve. The majority are located 
on the “‘lower’” end of the reserve and form 
a homogeneous group; the Christians in this 
area are very few. Three of the four Long- 
houses on the reserve are located there, and 
the fourth, the Upper Cayuga Longhouse, 
stands just beyond the boundary of what 
could be considered the Longhouse district. 
The affairs of both the Pagans and the 
Christians are taken care of without dis- 
crimination by the Indian Affairs Branch 
of the Canadian Government. Between the 
two groups no other frontier exists but the 
cultural, and both have practically the same 
historical background. 

Every Iroquois tribe is represented on the 
reserve, but unevenly. Almost all the Mo- 
hawks, Oneidas, and Tuscaroras, who repre- 
sent more than three-fifths of the entire 
population, are Christians; the next fifth of 
Christians consists of Senecas Kanedagas, 
Onondagas Bearfoot along with some Upper 
Cayugas, and a few Lower Cayugas. The 
Cayugas form the bulk of the Longhouse 

1T spent part of the summers of 1949 and 1950 
among the Long-house Iroquois of the Six Nations 
Reserve near Brantford, Ontario, with the view of 
determining the degree and rhythm of accultura- 
tion of this social group. The survey was sponsored 
by the National Museum of Canada, Ottawa. 

2 This designation appears to be not merely 


geographical; it connotes a value- judgment, when 
uttered by Christian Troquois of the ‘“‘upper’’ end. 


believers; among them, the Lower Cayugas, 
who are more numerous than the Upper, are 
the most coherent Longhouse group. The 
Upper Cayugas alone are located outside of 
the Longhouse area. This group has shown 
signs of disintegration in recent years, and 
members are not so staunch in their outlook 
and practices as they used to be. Whereas 
the Mohawks, Cayugas, Oneidas, and Tus- 
caroras constitute homogeneous religious 
groups, the Senecas and Onondagas are 
divided among themselves. Should we follow 
in our analysis the paternal line of descent, 
as is done officially by the Indian Affairs 
office, and increasingly by the Longhouse 
themselves who abandon the traditional 
maternal line, we will find that no Long- 
house worshiper is found among the Bear- 
foot Onondagas, while there are not more 
than two or three among the Senecas 
Kanedagas. On the other hand, most of the 
Onondagas Clearsky and the Senecas 
Wharondas or Aughanagas are Longhouse 
supporters. Are the roots of this divergent 
religious evolution historical or could this 
split be explained in terms of the present 
location of the various tribes and subtribes 
of the Reserve? We note that most of the 
Senecas and Onondagas who live among the 
Cayugas belong to the Handsome Lake 
religion, and those living with the Mohawks 
are Christian. 

Although a full explanation of the actual 
state of the beliefs and practices of the 
Longhouse people concerning medicine could 
not be reached before other aspects of their 
culture are taken into account and discussed 
in relation to one another, a brief outline of 
some of the points under study is given here. 

A cultural trait, it seems, may be re- 
placed only when the borrower finds in a 
new trait an advantage over the one being 
discarded, and when the new trait can be 
readily assimilated by the old culture. To - 
explain the diffusion of technical traits from 
one society to another, one has to find out 
whether the dominated society is at a favour- 
able enough technical level to make use of 
the traits which are offered to it. Leroi 


May 1951 


Gourhan’ states that diffusion does not take 
place when (1) the ethnical group, being in 
a state of technical infericrity cannot un- 
derstand the principles of the new technical 
traits, (2) when an ethnical group, being in 
a state of technical inertia, does not see 
the need of making any effort to assimilate 
the new traits, and (8) when the ethnical 
group, being in a state of intensive technical 
development, neglects what other groups 
have to offer. Could we not add that there 
are cases of partial diffusion when a group, 
for pragmatic reasons, accepts certain new 
traits and still keeps the older complex be- 
cause its ideological culture, which dees not 
follow the same rhythm of acculturation as 
the technical and social cultures, is still 
linked with the older technical traits? 

These principles cculd explain the adop- 
tion by the Iroquois of a vast amount of 
European technical traits and the abandon- 
ment of practically all their technical culture. 
The few native traits still retained mostly 
appertain to medicine. In the old Iroquois 
culture, medicine formed a focus of impor- 
tance, secondary only to political organiza- 
tion and to the agricultural complex, and for 
this reason, it should subsist longer than 
other complexes of lesser importance. Medic- 
inal beliefs and practices, intimately linked 
with their traditional rituals and mythology, 
remain in accord with the structure of their 
personality, which has not changed as fast 
as the external aspects of their culture. 
Their great mechanical ability has enabled 
them to grasp the intricacies of much of the 
European technology and to assimilate it; 
yet, on the whole, some of their cultural 
postulates or themes have prevented them 
from discarding magical beliefs and prac- 
tices. As we shall see later, native medicine 
and European medicine can coexist, while 
some practices cannot continue to exist in 
the presence of others and have, as a matter 
of fact, disappeared or are regressing con- 
stantly. For instance, the folk are still very 
fond of corn bread, yet they do not as a rule 
take the trouble to use it because their 
modern habits do not leave them enough 
time to prepare it. 


3 Leror-GourHan, ANDRE, Miliewx et tech- 


niques: 398-399. 1945. 


RIOUX: MEDICAL BELIEFS OF IROQUOIS LONGHOUSES 


153 


Their medicine may be divided into two 
parts: the first rests on their traditional 
knowledge of the curative properties of 
herbs and other plants; it is empirical. 
The other may be called magical; it consists 
of beliefs and practices in which, from the 
point of view of the observer, no logical 
link is apparent between the means taken 
for a cure and the results expected. As 
Murdock! points out, magical beliefs and 
practices are characterized, among other 
things, by effort to produce effects ‘‘in fellow- 
ing out some mystical principle or associa- 
tion of ideas.’”’ For instance, a fortune-teller 
says to a dyspeptic person: ‘““You must hold 
an Eagle dance because your mother when 
alive, used to put on an Eagle dance from 
time to time. But since she died nobody 
has ever given one.”” We may now ask 
whether the Iroquois make a distinction 
between these two types of medicine, em- 
pirical and magical. Observations to be 
given here presently, tend to show that they 
make a distinction between the two kinds 
of medicine but that it is not made at the 
intellectual but at the affective level; they 
seem to yield to different kinds of sentiments 
when, on the one hand, they go to the 
hospital and when, on the other hand, they 
resort to the fortune-teller or to the witch. 
On the whole, they are inclined to resort 
to the white doctor or to their medicinal 
plants whenever their ailment appears to 
them as being well localized and easy to 
diagnose; but they turn to a fortune-teller 
and sometimes to a witch when their trouble 
seems mysterious. As an informant stated, 
some diseases are for the white doctor to 
cure and others for the fortune-teller. Their 
basic criterion for establishing a distinction 
between the various ailments they suffer 
appears to be the element of mystery lacking 
in the first and present in the others; their 
emotions rise in intensity in proportion 
with the mystery involved; they soon pass 
from fear to anguish. 

If we call empirical that part of Iroquois 
medicine which is based on the knowledge 
of the curative properties of plants and 
herbs, we can state that this practice does 


4Murpock, G. P., in Dictionary of sociology, 
Fairchild, H. P. (ed.): 180. 


154 


not belong exclusively to the Longhouse 
worshipers; for some of the Christians 
still use Iroquois medicine. But, as every- 
thing traditionally Iroquois, it has a tend- 
ency to be identified with Longhouse people 
and culture. In a few cases of passage from 
Christianity to the Handsome Lake religion, 
the reason given to me for the conversion 
was the good effect Iroquois medicine had 
on some people who were very ill. Because 
the whites often express their confidence in 
and admiration for Iroquois medicine, the 
‘Christian Iroquois still keep a verbal, if not 
a practical, attachment to their own tra- 
dition. As this does not conflict with their 
Christian faith, it has been kept as a com- 
pensatory element; there is a strong inclina- 
tion to retain it in both Christian and Long- 
house groups, because it belongs to them 
and for that reason, has become a source of 
pride. To overcome the complex of inferiority 
they have towards the white, they are apt 
to boast that they had and still have a power- 
ful medicine. 

If empirical Iroquois medicine is idealized 
more than practiced among the Christians 
it is still in use among the Longhouse people 
who link it with the Handsome Lake religion 
and native beliefs and customs. Today medi- 
cine has gathered around itself other traits 
which formerly were not so intimately linked 
with it. If the Iroquois institution of giving 
personal names is still maintained by a good 
many Longhouse adherents, it is done, so 
some chiefs say, to keep the medicine prac- 
tices functioning. In some rituals, especially 
where a tobacco offering is made, the name 
of the person for whom the ritual is per- 
formed must be mentioned; as the rituals 
are conducted in the Indian dialect, the name 
itself should also be mentioned in that 
tongue because if the name were uttered 
in English (Christian name) the Great 
Spirit would not know the person concerned. 
Medicine appears to be one of the last 
Indian ecmplexes the Longhouse will aban- 
don; it is of great importance in keeping 
their culture functioning as distinct from 
that of the whites. As early as in 1912, 
Goldenweiser wrote: ‘“‘The Societies of the 
Iroquois, whatever their history may have 
been, are at the present time medicinal in 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


their functions.’”®> Most of the societies he 
mentions have kept functioning today de- 
spite the increasing pressure of the white 
culture; it is mostly arcund this medical 
complex that the cultural resistance to as- 
similation has centered and _ erystallized. 
At the Green Bean Festival of last summer, 
I met a young man who had moved out of the 
Longhouse district scme years ago and is 
now working among the Christian Mohawks. 
As he belcngs to a family of Longhouse 
believers, he comes back to the Longhouse 
for seasonal festivals, and came this year 
as usual. But he stayed in his car instead 
of joining the dance inside. He was on the 
verge, so he confessed to me, cf abandon- 
ing that religion and of becoming a Chris- 
tian; the only reason which kept him from 
making this meve, said he, was the Iroquois 
medicine. ‘If I quit, I will lose all the bene- 
fits of our good medicines, and these I don’t 
want to give up.” : 

The economic aspect of medicine, which 
in peasant societies plays an important role 
in the retention of folk practices, works 
here in the opposite way. In French Canada, 
fer example, the physician lives ordinarily 
far from the farms and charges his customers 
for his services; these factors influence the 
peasant to cling to his old ways. At the 
Six Nations Reserve the doctors and hospital 
are located near Indian homes and _ their 
medical services to the natives are given 
free. On this same question of empirical 
medicine, there exists ancther difference 
between the practices of the peasant and 
the Iroquois. As the plants and herbs of the 
Iroquois belong to the past when the tribes 
lived in the woods in the midst of an un- 
disturbed native flora they are now scarce 
and difficult to find. The peasants, on the 
contrary, use plants and herbs usually 
domesticated and close at hand. 

When it comes to magical medicine, the 
split between Christians and Longhouse 
people becomes more accentuated. Although 
there are instances in which Christians have, 
in desperate cases, resorted to the fortune- 
teller, they are becoming rarer every year. 

5 GOLDENWEISER, A. A. ‘“‘On Iroquois Work,” 


in Summary Report of the Geological Survey: 
464-475. Department of Mines, Ottawa, 1912. 


May 1951 


The Christians, as a whole, have forsaken 
the rituals and observances connected with 
medicine and even if a fortune-teller told 
one of them to put on a Buffalo dance, he 
would not be able to perform it or to have 
it performed by his neighbour. The Chris- 
tians have been under the influence of the 
church for so many years—about 300—that 
they have lost even the idea of the fortune- 
teller or the witch. 

The beliefs and practices of the Longhouse 
are not altogether uniform. Various degrees 
of acculturation prevail here. Some people 
are more conservative than others; some are 
becoming open to outside influences. But, 
on the whole, they have a corpus of beliefs 
and of conscious and unconscious attitudes 
which lnk them together very strongly. 
Among them, we find three categories of 
medical practioners. The Indian doctor 
proper is the best known among the whites, 
as he often dresses in ceremcnial garments, 
takes part in exhibitions, county fairs, and 
sells medicine outside the Reserve; he acts 
like an emissary of Iroquois culture. There 
are now two or three Indian doctors of this 
type cn the Six Nations reserve. Though their 
journeys and association with the whites 
have won them some prestige among their 
Longhcuse compatriots, they do not enjoy 
the same esteem among their people as does 
the fortune-teller or even the witch. The folk 
are inclined to talk about them with a little 
disdain and to remark that this kind of a 
doctor is primarily a moneymaker; they do 
not consult him as often as the others; 
they may be proud of his successes at large 
but as he does not often associate with them, 
their preference goes to the fortune-tellers 
and the witches who join them in all cere- 
monies and rituals. 

The fortune-teller, 2 man or woman, is 
not outwardly different from the other 
Longhcuse people. But he or she is a person 
“Who knows a lot of things” and this knowl- 
edge carries great prestige among the con- 
servative elements of the population. He does 
not usually ask for money in payment for 
his services, but tells his patients to give him 
what they consider fair compensaticn. His 
ways of finding cut what is good for a patient 
are many: dreams, leaves of tea, cards, the 
absorption by himself of certain medicines, 


RIOUX: MEDICAL BELIEFS OF IROQUOIS LONGHOUSES 


155 


simple questioning, and the summary ex- 
amination of the patient. His prescriptions 
are varied: herb and bark medicines, mixed 
plant and magical recipes, or just magical 
devices. He stands midway between the 
European doctor who resorts only to em- 
pirical medicine and the witch who resorts 
to magic. At times, the fortune-teller intro- 
duces preventive medicine by ordering, at 
the beginning of summer or winter, a remedy 
which keeps away the diseases common in 
that season of the year; this practice is dying 
out. Most of his efforts, however, are directed 
to mysterious and difficult cases, where he will 
ordinarily prescribe a ritual dance, a feast or 
a game with or without the use of herbs and 
plants. 

The third group of practitioners ccncerned 
with health is more«exclusive and very 
secretive. It takes a long time for an outsider 
to learn their names and to get any informa- 
tion about their black art. People ordinarily 
resort to the witches® when all other means 
have been exhausted. As it is admitted, 
witches are becoming rare and their activities 
are hidden even to the Longhouse believers 
themselves. According to some informants, 
those who aspire to become witches must 
try their power on a member of their own 
family by bewitching this person to death. 
For this very reason even their names re- 
main secret. No witch can denounce another 
witeh without denouncing himself. The feel- 
ings of the people in regard to witches and 
to witcheraft are ambivalent. On the one 
hand, the witch is feared and reprobated for 
his malefie power; and the code of Handsome 
Lake is very severe for witches. But, on the 
other hand, the people cannot help being 
fascinated by his great powers and they try 
to know their names and to get in touch 
with them. The best and the worst are often 
intimately linked, and excessive admiration 
and reprobation are sometimes merged in 
the minds and reactions of the people. 
Maleficious witchcraft and benevolent medi- 
cine are closely connected and the same 
plant may at times be used for both medicine 
and witcheraft, depending on the intentions 
of the person who collects the reots from 
which the powerful medicine or magic is 

6 “Witch’’ is used on the reserve for both male 
and female practitioners of witeheraft. 


156 


extracted. The more beneficial a medicine is, 
the worse it can be if used to bewitch. Their 
most powerful medicine today, according to 
my informants, is Niganéga’a‘, a powder 
extracted from a plant which is said to grow 
only at Salamanca, in New York State. 
Those who go there to collect the plant from 
which the “good medicine” is extracted 
observe strict rules; they must follow the 
plant with their hands from the top to the 
tips of the rccts, deep in the soil. If the 
plant breaks during the operation, the search 
for another must start all over again as only 
plants pulled up in their entirety without 
being broken in any of their parts are suit- 
able. Even when the ends of the roots have 
been reached without accident the only roots 
that are brought are those which grow from 
the east to the west—in the direction that 
the sun follows. Those growing from the 
North to the South must be avoided. How- 
ever, somebody whose ambition it is to 
become a witch can pick these roots; they 
are used for the most powerful witch- 
eraft. It 1s admitted, however, that the 
younger generation knows very little now 
about witchcraft; beliefs and practices are 
being lost; the idea of witcheraft is still 
entertained by a good many people but the 
witches themselves seem to be less active 
and less numerous. 

Of the medicine men enumerated above, 
the fortune-teller is today the most active 
among the Longhouse people of the Six 
Nations Reserve. Of them Parker says: 
“Diviners of mysteries have always been 
prominent among the Indians. Their office 
was to tell their clients the proper medicine 
society that would be more efficacious in 
curing the sick, to discover the whereabouts 
of lost children and articles, to discover 
what witch was working her spells, and to 
tell fortunes, as well as to interpret dreams.’” 
The function of the fortune-teller is similar 
nowadays, except that the first function 
described by Parker is much more to the 
fcre than the others. The only other com- 
ment to be made on Parker’s quotation is 
that witches may be male or female, not 
only female as he seems tc imply. Indeed, 
the best-known witches now are mostly men. 


7 PaRKER, ArnTHUR. The code of Handsome Lake: 
49-50. 1012. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


A question comes up as to a possible parallel 
between the switching of this function from 
women to men and the constant regression of 
what was known as the Iroquois matri- 
archate. The people usually resort to the 
fortune-teller for illnesses which appear 
mysterious to them, mostly internal diseases 
with many symptoms. Although I know of a 
man having gone to a fortune-teller for 
appendicitis, diagnosed as such by a white 
doctor, and another one for an abscess in the 
leg, it seems that in such cases most Long- 
houses would have gone to the hespital. 
Acculturation processes* have been in oper- 
ation for so long that it is safe to state that in 
most instances where the diseases are ex- 
ternal and well diagnosed, the patients 
consult the doctor first before going to the 
fortune-teller or to the witch. 

The wife of one of my informants came 
back from the fruit country where she had 
been “picking” for about two months and 
complained about her health. She had a 
poisoned tooth and felt other symptoms that 
made her “very sick.’”? She had lost her 
appetite, was dizzy at times, and in the 
morning had a funny taste in her mouth; 
she also had pains in the abdomen. As she 
was going to the hospital to have her tooth 
extracted, I advised her to consult the doctor 
about her other troubles. She answered that 
it was not a case for the doctor but for the 
fortune-teller. She went to the hospital, 
came back three or four days later, and called 
the fortune-teller who told her that her dead 
husband was hungry and she must “put up” 
a feast for him. Obviously, there was in her 
mind a clear distinction between various 
illnesses: the ones which can be cured by the 
doctor, the others by the fortune-teller. 

In another family I often visited, the 
mother told me she was not feeling well; 
she had about the same symptoms as the 
other woman just mentioned: loss of ap- 
petite, dizziness, pains in the head. She 
went to the fortune-teller who recommended 
a Bear dance; she was very grateful to him 
because she got better a few days after. 
Some time later, her oldest son was hit 
when stepping off a truck, and was bleeding 

8 Fenton, W. N. Contacts between Iroquois 


herbalism and colonial medicine. Ann. Rep. Smith- 
sonian Institution, 1941: 501-526. 


May 1951 


heavily; her first thought was to call for a 
doctor and to take her son to the hospital. 
As in the previous instance, the woman 
believed that one disease was to be cured 
by the fortune-teller, another by the white 
doctor. 

Many people, however, do not take 
chances and go to both the doctor and the 
fortune-teller for the same illness. It some- 
times happens that having gone first to the 
physician they stop seeing him and consult 
a fortune-teller, particularly when a long 
treatment is required; very soon they get 
discouraged and revert for help to their 
magical practices and medical societies. In 
many cases when they call the doctor, it is 
reaily too late. Seeing that their medicine 
has failed, they call for the doctor and some- 
times go the the hospital just to die. This 
practice does not improve people’s confidence 
in the hospital. 

I have studied the life of a Lower Cayuga 
of the Handsome Lake faith who, in many 
respects, is typical of his culture; he has 
spent all his life on the reserve, in the Long- 
house area, and has undergone the same 
influences as the majority of his fellow- 
believers. But even among the Longhouse 
believers, the effects of acculturation, as I 
have been able to observe them, are not 
uniform. Some people are very conservative 
on certain points while partial to new beliefs 
and practices. It seems that idiosyncrasies 
have much to do with the picking up of 
traits within a certain range. The informant 
just referred to, in matters of rituals and 
religious beliefs, is very strict while he could 
not help laughing at some of the Iroquois 
folk tales and myths; his wife, on the con- 
trary believed in all myths and tales while 
she did not care very much for the rituals. In 
all matters of health and medicine, he was a 
very good informant because, being sick 
himself, he was personally interested. At 
various periods of his life, he had consulted 
the doctor for himself and for his family. As 
the doctor usually was successful, he had 
developed a high opinion of him and of his 
medicine. But I found that on serious 
matters, he had not taken chances, and he 
has used both the doctor and the fortune- 
teller. He is a member of the Bear, Otter, 
Eagle, and False Faces societies, all of them 


RIOUX: MEDICAL BELIEFS OF IROQUOIS LONGHOUSES 


157 


concerned with health. From time to time he 
“puts up” a dance to prevent any illness 
caused by negligence in not keeping the 
rules of the societies. In going over the 
various illnesses he and his family suffered, 
I am unable to detect the reasons he had 
gone to the doctor in certain cases and to 
the fortune-teller in others; except for face 
distortion and nose bleeding which are 
ailments for the False Faces to cure, I 
could not ascertain on what grounds the 
distinction between illnesses was made. 
Some of the illnesses began while the family 
was out in the fruit country where a fortune- 
teller was not available; had they happened 
on the reserve it might have been different; 
in other cases, the doctor or the fortune- 
teller was called, when one or the other failed 
to give satisfaction. 

About five years ago, Pat fell from a barn, 
and although no bone apparently was 
broken he called for the fortune-teller to 
administer him some ‘“‘Niganéga ’a‘”’, the 
good medicine.”’ As it did not work—nothing 
was broken—he called a doctor, because he 
still felt very sick. After a thorough exami- 
nation the doctor said that nothing was 
wrong with him and gave him some pills. 
Since that day, however, he has not been 
able to work; he always complained about 
headaches and stomach and _ intestinal 
troubles. Once in a while he ealls on a 
doctor—every time a new one comes on the 
reserve—and now and then he sees a fortune- 
teller. When he finds that the prescription of 
the fortune-teller does not cure him, he is 
apt to think that he has not enough con- 
fidence in the traditional dances and feasts 
and blames it on himself for not being cured. 

One day, after discussing his problems, he 
told me that the only answer was that he had 
been bewitched; the more he thought of it, 
the more he believed that he had all the 
symptoms of a bewitched person. ‘‘When 
nobody knows the cause of headaches, pains, 
loss of appetite, it is sure that the one who 
suffers these ailments has been bewitched.” 
It was the first time he mentioned this 
suspicion to me, yet it had oecurred to him 
long ago, as soon as the doctor he had con- 
sulted first had told him he did not know 
what was wrong with him. For a year now 
his conviction had grown firmer; his wife had 


158 


then consulted a fortune-teller who was 
picking berries with her and told her that 
she knew that Pat, my informant, had 
been bewitched by a relative of his who had 
reasons to compalin about his behaviour. 
From that time on he was busy with his 
wife trying to find out the person who had 
caused harm to him. Every possibility was 
examined patiently and finally the conclusion 
was reached that 1t was a woman with whom 
he had had some trouble about a horse and a 
succession. This particular woman seemed to 
fit the words of the fortune-teller: she was a 
relative, she might have had some reasons to 
be angry at him and she was thought by 
many to have practiced magic in the past 
and still to practice it. But his trouble did not 
end there. Pat had then to find another 
witch who could counterbalance the influ- 
ence of the first. As the activities of the 
witches are secret and are known only by 
hearsay, finding a stronger one was by no 
means easy. The only one in sight, powerful 
enough, was not on good terms with him. At 
the time he took sick, five years ago, this 
witch, who is also a fortune-teller refused to 
give him ‘‘good medicine,”’ under the pretext 
that he did not have enough of it; my in- 
formant had to beg the Onondaga keeper of 
the medicine for it, which he did not like to 
do. This medicine is all the same whether it 
comes from an Onondaga or from a Cayuga, 
but the portion that the Cayuga keeper has 
should be used for Cayugas. Since that time, 
he has hardly talked to him, and now feels 
hesitant to ask any other favours. As a 
result of this, my informant was getting 
more and more perplexed, and the idea that 
he was bewitched never ceased to grow with 
him. 

An example of the use of both empirical 
and magical medicine is that of a young man 
lying in bed with fever. One morning he told 
his parents that he had seen many little men 
going up and down on his bed. The parents 
decided that, on account of this vision, he 
should be made a member of the Pigmy 
Society; the same day, the doctor, who had 
been called previously, decided to bring the 
lad to the hospital; and the parents, who had 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


decided to put up a “Dark dance,” had to 
have this done the night after his departure. 
As he was away, his shirt was placed on a 
chair to signify that the ceremony was con- 
ducted for him, in his absence. , 

The activities of Iroquois practitioners do 
not keep their people from going more and 
more to their own hospital on the reserve. As 
they are generally less aggressive than the 
Christians, they are prone to take advantage 
of the facilities which the whites have placed 
at their disposal. Yet, in many cases, their 
stubborn conservatism prevents the Long- 
house people, and for that matter the 
Christian Iroquois as well, from going away 
from their relatives and friends; they fear 
any new contacts they may have to make at 
the hospital. As in peasant societies the in- 
group-belonging remains strong, despite the 
constant pressure urban culture exercises on 
both societies. 

Fheir use of both empirical and magical 
medicine appears to be a double-security 
system for the individual. Just because the 
white medicine succeeds in many cases they 
do not lose confidence in their own medicine. 
The differences between these two systems 
do not bother them very much. They see the 
white medicine with their own eyes. Not 
knowing the principles of this medicine, they 
are apt to think of the white doctor as 
another kind of fortune-teller. The latter at 
times mixes empirical and magical medicine 
and they are not astonished at the practices 
of the white doctor. It is probably because 
they make no clear distinction between the 
two that they also expect from the white 
doctor a quick cure. Examples of rapid cures 
are quoted with great admiration and a long 
cure is no cure. ‘“‘Next day he was better and 
went to work” is the happiest solution and 
the only one worth mentioning. 

In further studies on this subject, I will try 
to show that if some of the old beliefs and 
practices concerning medicine are still enter- 
tained among the Iroquois Longhouse it is 
because their personality has not been ac- 
culturated at the same rhythm as the rest of 
their culture and that there is still room for 
faith in magic. 


May 1951 


GRYC ET AL.: CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN 


ALASKA 159 


GEOLOGY.—Present Cretaceous stratigraphic nomenclature of northern Alaska 
Grorce Gryc, W. W. Patron, JR., and T. G. Payng,? U. S. Geological Sur- 
vey. (Communicated by W. F. Foshag.) 


Until 1944, geologic investigations in 
northern Alaska were of a reconnaissance 
nature and few stratigraphic units were 
recognized and named. Since 1944 the U.S 
Geological Survey in cooperation with the 
U.S. Navy has been investigating the pe- 
troleum possibilities of Naval Petroleum Re- 
serve No. 4. These investigations have 
covered nearly all northern Alaska from the 
Jago River west to the Kukpowruk River 
and from the Arctic Ocean south to and in 
eee places into the Brooks Range 
(Fig. This work has resulted in much 
more iousted information on the geology of 
the region. Rocks ranging in age from ques- 
tionable pre-Cambrian to Pleistocene have 
been mapped and drilled. Cambrian, Ordo- 
vician, and Silurian rocks are not known to 
crop out north of the crest of the Brooks 
Range, but all other systems are represented 
(Fig. 2). To date the Cretaceous rocks have 
been studied more intensively than the rocks 
of any other age, and as a result a more de- 
tailed classification has been achieved 
(Fig. 3). 

The Cretaceous rocks in the Anaktuvuk 
(Anaktoovuk) River area of northern Alaska 
were first described by Schrader.’ Smith and 
Mertie* redefined the age of some of these 
rocks and added descriptions of their dis- 
tribution and lithology. The present study 
has resulted in many changes in the 
stratigraphic classification. It is not always 
possible to tell from the literature what rocks 
have been included in previously described 
stratigraphic units and therefore these units 
may not be strictly comparable to the 
stratigraphic units introduced here. The ap- 
parent relationship of past and _ present 
stratigraphic nomenclature is shown in 


Table 1. 


1 Published by permission of 
U.S. Geological Survey. 

2 Authors listed in alphabetical order. 

3 ScHRADER, F. C., Geological section of the 
Rocky Mountains in northern Alaska. Bull. Geol. 
Soc. Amer. 13: 247. 1902. 

4Suitru, P.S., and Merrin, J. B., 
and mineral resources of northern Alaska. 
U.S. Geol. Surv. 815: 196-232. 1930. 


the Director, 


JR., Geology 
Bull. 


The new classification is here presented 
and discussed. This classification is based on 
geologic field studies of the outcrop areas 
and on laboratory studies by the U.S. Geo- 
logical Survey during the period 1944 to 
1951. 


CRETACEOUS ROCKS 
Lower Cretaceous 
OKPIKRUAK FORMATION (NEW) 


The Ckpikruak formation (new) is typically 
exposed along the Okpikruak River, from which 
it is named. The type section les in the middle 
of a major syncline and is exposed on a small 
tributary of the Okpikruak River at about lat. 
68°34/30’N. and long. 153°38’W. The formation 
crops out in the southern part of the Arctic 
Foothills province from the Itkillik River west 
to the Kukpowruk River. In the Arctic Foothills 
province, as far as known, it rests on Jurassic or 
Triassic rocks with little or no angular discord- 
ance. At its type locality it is about 2,400 feet 
thick. To date this is the greatest thickness meas- 
ured, but an erosion surface between it and the 
overlying Torok formation indicates that it may 
be thicker elsewhere. It is predominantly fine- 
grained greenish-gray sandstone of the gray- 
wacke type, dark clay, and silt shale with minor 
amounts of conglomerate near the base. On the 
Siksikpuk River, where part of the formation is 
well exposed, it is 1,850 feet thick. Here it is 
characterized by a rhythmic alternation of fine- 
grained sandstone, silt shale, and clay shale. 
This alternation is not well developed in the 
formation along the Okpikruak River, although 
there is a suggestion of it. 

The pelecypod Aucella crassicollis Keyserling,° 
which is characteristic of early lower Cretaceous 
(Neocomian) is found throughout this formation 
in the area of the type locality. The ammonite 
Lytoceras sp. also been collected in the 
Siksikpuk River area. In the Nimiuktuk-Kugu- 
rurok Rivers area on the south side of the De 
Longe Mountains Auwcella Pavlow and 
Aucella crassa Pavlow have been collected. These 


has 


okensis 


5 Tdentifieation of macrofossils from the Okpik- 
ruak and Torok formations have been made by 


Dr. Ralph W. Imlay. 


160 


forms are characteristic of the very earliest 
Lower Cretaceous and would presumably mark 
a zone lower than that of Aucella crassicollis 
Keyserling. 


TOROK FORMATION (NEW) 


The type locality of the Torok formation 
(new) is Torok Creek, a tributary to the Chan- 
dler River in the vicinity of Castle Mountain. 
At Castle Mountain the Torok formation in the 
lower part comprises 2,000 feet of dark silt and 
clay shale with limestone concretions, and in the 
upper part about 8,500 feet of dark shale and 
marine conglomerate and sandstone of gray- 
wacke type. In exposures on the Chandler and 
Kiruktagiak Rivers, in the vicinity of Tuktu 
Bluff about 11 miles north of Castle Mountain, 
the Torok formation in the upper part consists 
of 4,500 feet of dark clay and silt shale, which 
includes 500 feet of sandstone and some con- 
glomerate, and in the lower part, of 1,500 feet 
of dark silt and clay shale. Thus at Tuktu Bluff 
the Torok formation is 6,000 feet thick as com- 
pared with 10,500 feet at Castle Mountain. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 5 

The Torok formation is widely exposed in an 
east-west belt in the Southern Foothills section 
of the Arctic Foothills province. This belt is 
characterized topographically by irregular, iso- 
lated hills and ridges of sandstone and con- 
glomerate, which rise above low-lying areas of 
little relief developed on the shale. Structurally, 
many of these isolated hills, such as Castle 
Mountain and Fortress Mountain, are synclines. 
At most places the Torok formation overlies the 
Okpikruak formation, but at one place has been 
found overlying Triassic rocks, indicating warp- 
ing and erosion of the Okpikruak formation and 
Jurassic rocks in post-Okpikruak time. The de- 
gree of angular unconformity is unknown, as 
the contact is poorly exposed. 

The fauna of the Torok formation is very 
scarce but includes some characteristic Aptian 
and early Albian forms. There are a few species 
of Inoceramus, Beudanticeras sp., Cleoniceras sp., 
Lemuroceras sp., Lemuroceras cf. L. belli Me- 
Learn, Lemuroceras cf. L. aburense Spath, and 
Aucellina cf. A. dowlingi. The ammonite Cleo- 
niceras sp. also ranges into the overlymg Tuktu 


TABLE 1.—COMPARISON OF PAST AND PRESENT STRATIGRAPHIC NOMENCLATURE OF THE CRETACEOUS 
AND TERTIARY OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


Schrader, 1902 Smith and Mertie, 1930 


Gryc, Patton, and Payne, 1951 


Goobie (Gubik) sands Quaternary > Gubik formation 
& 
3 
Tertiary Colville Tertiary S 
series 
| 2 
| a ; ‘ 
| +S Sagavanirktok formation* 
o 
bis 
5 Prince Creek Schrader Bluff 
Upper Cretaceous w | oo : : 
: Oo) 5 formation formation 
ae a | oe (nonmarine) (marine) 
Dp |S 
n 
Upper Cret S 
er Cretaceous ° : 
we paeny: S jaw | Chandler for- | Umiat forma- 
Nanushuk series S ; ey ; : 
a || “a 2 mation tion 
5) 3 z = (nonmarine) (marine) 
ee 
Lower Cretaceous Lower Cretaceous m Torok formation 
Anaktoovuk series | z 
(Anaktuvuk) series A Okpikruak formation 


* Sagavanirktok formation is not equivalent to rocks previously called Tertiary and is not be- 


lieved to be present in areas studied before 1944. 


161 


May 1951 Gryc ET AL.: CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


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162 


member of the Umiat formation. Arenaceous 
Foraminifera dominate the microfaunal assem- 
blage. 


Lower Cretaceous and Lower (?) Cretaceous 
NANUSHUK GROUP (REDEFINED) 


The Nanushuk “series”’ was named by Schra- 
der® from the Nanushuk River which joins the 
Anaktuvuk River at about the midpoint of the 
type section. The type section was described by 
Schrader as the belt of rocks beginning 5 miles 
north of the junction of the Colville and Anak- 
tuvuk Rivers and extending south for 30 miles. 
These rocks were described as sandstone, lime- 
stone, shale, quartzite, chert, black slate, and 
coal. Schrader’ states that the series is best ex- 
posed “in the north (northeast) bank of the 
Anaktuvuk about 5 miles above the mouth of 
Tuluga River.”’ This exposure is redescribed here 
as the type locality of the Schrader Bluff forma- 
tion (new) of the Colville group (redefined). It 
is now apparent that rocks described by Schra- 
der as the Nanushuk “series” of Upper Creta- 
ceous age included beds of both Upper and Lower 
Cretaceous age and possibly older. 

The name Nanushuk is here applied to a group 
of rocks of Lower Cretaceous and Lower (?) 
Cretaceous age. These are exposed along the 
Nanushuk River where the river cuts across the 
Arctie Foothills province of northern Alaska. 
Rocks of this group are known to crop out 
throughout the foothills north of the Brooks 
Range from the Sagavanirktok River west as far 
as the Kukpowruk River. The contact between 
the Nanushuk group and the Torok formation 
is believed to be gradational, but the contact 
zone generally is not well exposed because of the 
nonresistant nature of the Torok formation. In 
the Nanushuk River area the Torok formation 
appears to dip regionally more steeply than the 
Nanushuk group, but this is apparently due to 
a difference in competence. In the Kukpowruk 
River area the contact appears to be lithologi- 
cally gradational. 

The Nanushuk group includes shale, sand- 
stone, conglomerate, and coal beds with little or 
no bentonite or tuff. It is estimated to be 5,750 
feet thick in the outcrop area, but it thins 
slightly northward. Nonmarine and marine sedi- 
mentary rocks intertongue, as a result of re- 

6 ScuHRADER, F. C., A reconnaissance in northern 


Alaska. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 20: 79. 1904. 
7 ScHRADER, F. C., Idem. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


peated marine transgressions and regressions in 
Nanushuk time. Thus the Nanushuk group in- 
cludes two intertonguing formations—the Chan- 
dler (nonmarine), which tongues into the Umiat 
(marine) to the north. Fig. 3 shows the relation- 
ship of the formations, members, and tongues. 

Umiat formation (new).—The Umiat forma- 
tion of the Nanushuk group is named from the 
marine part of the section below 750 feet in 
Umiat Test Well No. 1. (See Fig. 3.) In the 
vicinity of Umiat the inshore facies of the forma- 
tion consists of relatively clean sandstone that 
grades northeast through argillaceous sandstone 
into shale of the offshore facies. The formation 
is estimated to be about 5,000 feet thick; the 
lower part is marine shale similar to shale of the 
Torok formation, which it overlies. Its fauna is 
almost exclusively mollusks and arenaceous Fo- 
raminifera. The lower part of the Umiat forma- 
tion is Lower Cretaceous (mid-Albian), as deter- 
mined from the scarce but distinctive mollusks. 
The upper part of the Umiat formation is prob- 
ably also Lower Cretaceous (upper Albian), but 
the fossil data are inconclusive. The Foraminif- 
era show a marked resemblance to those of the 
Ashville formation of Canada. The Umiat forma- 
tion has been divided into two members—the 
Tuktu and the Topagoruk. 

The Tuktu member is the basal member of 
the Umiat formation. Its type locality is on the 
Chandler River where this river cuts through 
Tuktu Bluff, a continuous south-facing escarp- 
ment that can be traced for many miles. At the 
type locality the member is about 1,000 feet 
thick and underlies the Hatbox tongue of the 
Chandler formation (see below). Here it consists 
almost entirely of marine sandstone. Northward 
from Tuktu Bluff to Umiat the member thickens 
progressively to about 2,500 feet and includes 
part of the marine equivalent of the Hatbox 
tongue of the Chandler formation, as this tongue 
changes to a marine facies. The characteristic 
fossil is an undescribed Lower Cretaceous Ino- 
ceramus. The ammonite Cleoniceras ranges from 
the Torok formation into the Tuktu member of 
the Umiat formation. The base of the Tuktu 
member coincides with the base of the Umiat 
formation and the base of the Nanushuk group. 

The Topagoruk member of the Umiat forma- 
tion is named from the section in Topagoruk 
Test Wel! No. 1, from 50 to about 3,100 feet. The 
top 1,000 feet includes nonmarine units of the 
Niakogon tongue of the Chandler formation and 


May 1951 


consists of coal, shale, sandstone, and minor 
amounts of ironstone. The bottom 2,100 feet is 
entirely marine clay shale, silt shale, silt, and 
sandstone. Fossils found in this member are Fo- 
raminifera, the scaphopod Laevidentaliwm, and 
Inoceramus prisms. It is suggested that these 
fossils are of Lower Cretaceous age but this is 


QUATERNARY 


UPPER 


LOWER (?) 


~< SOUTH 


GROUP 
Prince Creek formation 
(nonmarine) 


COLVILLE 


CRETACEOUS 


formation 


Qa 
=) 
) 
a 
O 
x 
=) 
ae 
ee) 
=) 
Zz 
<x 
Zz 


Torok 


GRYC ET AL.: CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


Gu bik 


Saqaqgavadwpmitrkiwok 


163 


not definitely established. The Topagoruk mem- 
ber thickens southward and intertongues with the 
Hatbox and Niakogon tongues of the Chandler 
formation. In much of the outcrop belt the To- 
pagoruk member is represented by a marine 
sandstone which contains a diagnostic unde- 
scribed Inoceramus and other pelecypods. 


vOrim Gi 1 Om 
unconformity 


TOP Mart © M 
disconformity 
NORTH > 


Sentinel Hil! 
member 


Schrader Bluff formation 
( marine) 


Topagoruk 
member 


Umiat formation 
(marine) 


fOr mat | © fm 


(local intraformational unconformities) 


EARLY 
LOWER 


UPPER 
MIDDLE 
LOWER 


JURASSIC 


MISSIS- 
S1P- 
PIAN 


CARBONIFEROUS 


DEVONIAN 


PRE- 
CAMBRIAN (?) 


Sin ul ii k 


S@dadlear oc it \ 


disconformity 


Lisburne 
Noatak 


Unnamed 


Neruokpuk 


(local unconformity) 
Okpikruak 


VOrmoatt © i 


TOr may i © in 


disconformity(?) 


Suidhnedrsehlomnce 


limestone 
frOhtamMeGh oun 


formation 
unconformity 


PO te tad Chit To) i 


Fig. 2.—Diagrammatic columnar section of the Arctic slope of northern Alaska. 


164 


Chandler formation (new).—The Chandler for- 
mation (nonmarine) is exposed in the Northern 
Foothills section of the Arctic Foothills province 
of northern Alaska. It is the age equivalent of 
the Umiat formation, with which it intertongues 
northward in two major tongues (named) and 
several minor tongues (unnamed). Its type lo- 
cality is on the Chandler River where the river 
crosses the Northern Foothills section. Litho- 
logically most of the formation in the southern 
exposures 1s nonmarine sandstone and conglom- 
erate. To the north it grades into shale with inter- 
bedded sandstone and coal; it contains a few 
fresh- to brackish-water mollusks in its northerly 
exposures. Along the Chandler River the forma- 
tion is about 4,700 feet thick but includes minor 
units of marine strata of the Umiat formation. 
The Chandler formation overlies the Tuktu mem- 
ber of the Umiat formation in the southern part 
of the outcrop area. 

The Hatbox tongue (new) at its type locality, 
Hatbox Mesa in the Chandler River drainage, is 
approximately 3,000 feet thick and wedges out 
northward. It is the lower part of the Chandler 
formation and lies between the marine Tuktu 
and Topagoruk members of the Umiat formation. 

The Niakogon tongue (new) represents the 
upper part of the Chandler formation. Its type 
locality is Niakogon Buttes, between the Chan- 
dler and Anaktuvuk Rivers. In the southern part 
of its outcrop area it is about 1,700 feet thick; 
it wedges out northward. A persistent conglom- 
erate bed, characterized by a greater percentage 
of white quartz pebbles than is found in other 
conglomerates in the region, forms the top bed 
of the Niakogon tongue. 


Upper Cretaceous 
COLVILLE GROUP (REDEFINED) 


The Colville ‘“‘series’”’ was named by Schrader 
from exposures along the Colville River north 
of the junction with the Anaktuvuk River. On 
the basis of lithology and scanty floral evidence 
Schrader® concluded that these rocks were of 
Tertiary age. Smith and Mertie® concluded that 
“from the fossil evidence obtained in the appar- 
ent continuation of these rocks farther west” 
the lower part of the Colville “series” was of 
Upper Cretaceous age. It is now evident from 

8 SCHRADER, F. C., Op. cit.: 81-83. 


*Smitx, P.S., and Merrie, J. B., JR., op. cit.: 
232-233. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 5 
microfaunal and macrofaunal evidence that these 
rocks are all of Upper Cretaceous age. The ex- 
posure on the west side of the Colville River 1 
mile north of the 70th parallel was considered to 
be Tertiary by Smith and Mertie!®. It is now 
believed that this exposure is of the same age 
as the Gubik formation, which is Pleistocene. 
This is apparently substantiated by the lack of 
any Tertiary beds in the many core tests and 
test wells in the Barrow-Simpson and Fish Creek 
areas to the west of the Colville River. 

The Colville series is here redefined as the 
Colville group, applied to type exposures along 
the Colville River from approximately the junc- 
tion with Prince Creek east and north to the 
70th parallel. Rocks of this group are well ex- 
posed in river cuts; on the Colville River these 
cuts form bluffs that are nearly continuous from 
Umiat north to Ocean Point. These rocks extend 
west to about the longitude of the Ikpikpuk 
River and east to the Canning River, and per- 
haps beyond. 

The Colville group is separated from the un- 
derlying Nanushuk group by a major uncon- 
formity. Rocks of lower Upper Cretaceous age 
(Cenomanian) appear to be missing. Beds of 
middle Upper Cretaceous age (Turonian) in the 
Colville group overlie beds of probable upper- 
most Lower Cretaceous age (Albian) in the Na- 
nushuk group. The basal member of the Colville 
group is a distinctive unit consisting of black 
shale with limestone interbeds that can be read- 
ily identified in the field. The Colville group is 
divided into the nonmarine Prince Creek forma- 
tion and the marine Schrader Bluff formation, 
which are approximately of equivalent age. In 
most of the outcrop belt the two formations 
intertongue and are not always readily distin- 
guishable. 

Lithologically the group includes clastic rocks 
ranging from shale to conglomerate, limestone, 
low grade oil shale, and coal. The total thickness 
of the group is about 5,200 feet. 

Schrader Bluff formation (new).—The name 
Schrader Bluff formation (marine) is given to 
exposures at Schrader Bluff on the Anaktuvuk 
River just south of the junction with the Tuluga 
River. This bluff exposes the three members of 
the formation in over 3,000 feet of continuous 
outcrop. The formation has been identified in 


10 SmitH, P.S., and Merri, J. B., JR., op. cit.: 
PRS. 


ae 


165 


CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


. 


May 1951 Gryc ET AL. 


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166 


well cores from the Umiat, Fish Creek, Sentinel 
Hill, and Cape Simpson areas. North of Umiat 
the Schrader Bluff formation is bounded below 
by the Umiat formation, and in the Umiat area 
and to the south by the Niakogon tongue of the 
Chandler formation. 

Lithologically it is similar to the Umiat forma- 
tien, consisting largely of marine sandstone to 
the south and shale to the north, but it has a 
much larger percentage of bentonite and tuff, 
which increases upward through the formation. 
At Fish Creek Test Well No. 1 it is 2,600 feet 
thick. 

The Schrader Bluff formation contains more 
megafossils, mostly mollusks, than the Umiat 
formation. The characteristic megafossils are spe- 
cies of Inoceramus and Scaphites. Foraminifera 
are somewhat rarer than in the Umiat formation, 
but local zones of planktonic forms are present. 

The Seabee member is the lowest unit of the 
Schrader Bluff formation. In the outcrop area it 
is bounded below by the Niakogon tongue of the 
Chandler formation. The top part of the Seabee 
member contains a very distinctive 150-foot unit 
of fossiliferous paper shale, which is a low-grade 
oil shale and contains a characteristic fauna. 
Index fossils are Scaphites delicatulus Warren, 
Watinoceras n. sp., Borissjakoceras n. sp., and 
Inoceramus labiatus Schlotheim, which indicate 
that this unit is the equivalent of the Greenhorn 
limestone of Upper Cretaceous age of the western 
interior United States. The member is well ex- 
posed along a tributary of the Colville River, 
Seabee Creek, for which it is named. It is also 
well exposed along Maybe Creek, a tributary of 
the Ikpikpuk River. The Seabee member is 450 
feet thick in the type locality. 

The Tuluga member is named from the Tuluga 
River, which enters the Anaktuvuk River at the 
north end of Schrader Bluff. Schrader Bluff is the 
best exposure of this member and is its type lo- 
cality. The member is also well exposed on the 
Chandler River near the confluence with the 
Ayiyak River and on the Colville River in the 
Umiat area. The maximum thickness is esti- 
mated to be 2,200 feet in the outcrop belt, but 
this thickness includes minor units of the Tulu- 
vak tongue of the Prince Creek formation. In 
Fish Creek Test Well No. 1, from 1,195 to 2,350 
feet, this member is almost entirely marine ex- 
cept for one thin coal bed and associated sand- 
stone. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


Lithologically the Tuluga member is distin- 
guished by abundant bentonite and tuff inter- 
bedded with a light-colored sandstone, and shale. 
The Tuluga member contains the largest number 
of individuals and species of macrofossils of any 
unit in the Cretaceous cf northern Alaska. Fos- 
sils are commonly distributed throughout sand- 
stone zones a few hundred feet thick. The diag- 
nostic macrofossils are Inoceramus lundbreckensis 
McLearn and an undescribed Scaphites. 

The Sentinel Hill member is named from the 
section in Sentinel Hill Core Test No. 1 in which 
a little over 1,100 feet of marine beds of this 
member and nonmarine beds of the Kogosukruk 
member of the Prince Creek formation were 
penetrated. In the outcrop belt along the Col- 
ville River equivalent intertonguing marine and 
nonmarine beds total 2,340 feet. 

Lithologically the Sentinel Hill member is 
characterized by volcanic glass shards, abundant 
bentonite, and tuff. In outcrop the beds are less 
consolidated than the underlying members. Fau- 
nally this member is distinguished by abundant 
radiolaria, fish bones, and diagnostic Foraminif- 
era. Macrofossils are rare and consist of long- 
ranging generalized types of pelecypods. 

Prince Creek formation (new).—The Prince 
Creek formation of the Colville group includes 
all the nonmarine beds above the top of the 
Niakogon tongue of the Chandler formation and 
intertongues with the Schrader Bluff formation. 
The type locality is Prince Creek, a tributary to 
the Colville River. The Prince Creek formation, 
like the Chandler formation, is made up of sand- 
stone, conglomerate, shale, and coal, but con- 
tains considerably more bentonite and tuff than 
does the Chandler formation. Its fauna consists 
of a few fresh- to brackish-water mollusks. The 
Prince Creek formation has been separated into 
two major tongues. 

The Tuluvak tongue, the lower part of the 
Prince Creek formation, is best exposed in the 
Tuluvak Bluffs on the Chandler River where it 
is 1,200 feet thick. It overlies the Seabee member 
(marine) of the Schrader Bluff formation. 

The Kogosukruk tongue is the age equivalent 
of the Sentinel Hill member of the Schrader 
Bluff formation. It is named from the Kogosuk- 
ruk River, along which it is well exposed. Equally 
good if not better exposures which are more 
readily accessible are along the Colville River 
from near its confluence with the Anaktuvuk 


May 1951 


River to Ocean Point just north of the 70th 
parallel. The total thickness along the Colville 
is 2,340 feet but this includes marine units of the 
Sentinel Hill member of the Schrader Bluff for- 
mation. 

The Kogosukruk tongue is distinguished from 
the older units by its poor consolidation, finer 
texture and somewhat brighter colors. It consists 
largely of clay, silt, and shale. Bony coal and 
bentonitic beds are common. Sandstone is rare, 
and only one conglomerate, 15 feet thick, has 
been mapped. Macrofossils are very rare and 
consist of fresh-water and brackish-water pelecy- 
pods and gastropods. 

In the outcrop belt this tongue overlies the 
Tuluga member of the Schrader Bluff formation 
and is covered by a thin mantle of the Gubik 
(Quaternary) formation. 


TERTIARY ROCKS 
Sagavanirktok formation (new) 


The Sagavanirktok formation crops out in the 
Franklin Bluffs, its type locality, along the lower 
part of the Sagavanirktok River and is also well 
exposed in the White Hills area. It consists 
mainly of red-bed-type, poorly consolidated silt- 
stone, sandstone, conglomerate, and lignite. No 
fauna has been found, but the formation does 
contain an early Tertiary flora: The Sagavanirk- 
tok formation is structurally conformable with 
the underlying Colville group and no large ero- 
sional break is indicated by the field data. The 
rocks here named the Sagavanirktok formation 
have not been previously mapped or described. 
They apparently do not crop out west of the 
Ttkillik River and are not definitely known in 
the Canning River area. Thus the formation lies 
in an area that was unmapped and unexplored by 
geologists before 1944 


GRYC ET AL.: CRETACEOUS NOMENCLATURE OF NORTHERN ALASKA 


QUATERNARY ROCKS 
Pleistocene 
GUBIK FORMATION 


The Gubik formation of Pleistocene age man- 
tles the older rocks in much of the Arctic Coastal 
Plain of northern Alaska. The name Gubik sand 
was first applied by Schrader! to a “surficial 
deposit of brownish sand or loam about 10 to 
15 feet in thickness” which is exposed along the 
Colville River in the Coastal Plain province. 
The name is from the Eskimo name of the Col- 
ville River. Leffingwell’? points out that the 
Eskimo name for the lower river is Kupik or 
“big river.” Gubik, now the accepted spelling, 
is apparently a misspelling of Kupik. 

The Gubik formation, as here redefined, ranges 
in thickness from a few feet to 150 feet, but in 
most exposures is 10 to 30 feet thick. It is largely 
marine and consists predominantly of loosely 
consolidated, cross-bedded, brown or buff gravel, 
sand, silt, and clay. The microfauna is somewhat 
similar to recent faunas and is more diversified 
than any of the older microfaunas of northern 
Alaska. The Gubik fauna differs from living Arc- 
tic faunas in that no pelagic forms have been 
found. 

The bluffs along the west bank of the Colville 
River from the mouth of the Anaktuvuk River 
to Ocean Point expose the Gubik formation lying 
unconformably on the upper 1,500 feet of the 
Colville group. This is the original type locality 
as defined by Schrader. A maximum thickness 
of 30 feet is exposed along the Colville River, 
but a thickness of 150 feet has been mapped on 
the Kikiakrorak River, 15 airline miles upstream 
from its confluence with the Colville River. 


11 ScHRADER, F. C., op. ecit.: 98. 

12 LeEFFINGWELL, E. DE K., The Canning River 
region, northern Alaska. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Prof. 
Pap. 109: 95, 109. 1919. 

13 ScHRADER, F. C., op. cit.: 98. 


168 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


ZOOLOGY .—A new subgenus of Diaptomus (Copepoda: Calanoida), including an 
Asiatic species and a new species from Alaska. MitpDRED STRATTON WILSON, 
Arctic Health Research Center, Public Health Service, Federal Security 
Agency, Anchorage, Alaska. (Communicated by F. A. Chace, Jr.) 


This paper is part of a projected survey 
of the fresh-water Copepoda of Alaska. It 
includes the description of a new species of 
Diaptomus that has zoogeographical im- 
portance because of its close relationship to 
one from the Asiatic portion of the U.S.S. R. 
This latter species (D. rylovt Smirnov, 1930) 
has been assigned by Kiefer (1938a) to his 
genus Neutrodiaptomus. Since it and the new 
Alaskan species exhibit distinct differences 
from all the other members of this group, a 
new division is proposed to include them. 
This is given the status of subgenus, as I 
agree with Light that the structural range of 
variation among the species of Diaptomus 
(sensu lato) is not great enough to allow the 
full rank of genus to most of the subdivisions 
of the so-called Diaptominae proposed by 
Kiefer (1932, 1936a-d, 1937, 1938a-b) and 
himself (1938, 1939). 


Family DrapToMIDAE 
Genus Diaptomus Westwood 


The broad definition of Diaptomus used here 
excludes only the species delegated by Kiefer to 
genera of the Paradiaptominae and to Acantho- 
diaptomus, which is characterized by features 
common to his two subfamilies. Such a definition 
must include Hemidiaptomus Sars, 1903, because 
it is naturally a part of the large series of sub- 
genera into which it is possible to divide Diapto- 
mus. Kiefer’s studies have drawn attention to 
the highly significant, but hitherto largely ne- 
glected characters of the left exopod of the male 
fifth leg. The structure in Hemidiaptomus of this 
and of other appendages of systematic import- 
ance, do not depart from the basic patterns 
found in Diaptomus. 

One of the remainder of Kiefer’s groups, 
Psychrodiaptomus (1938b), is a synonym of Lepto- 
diaptomus Light. These names were both pro- 
posed in 1938, but the publication date of 
Leptodiaptomus, March 9, precedes that of 
Psychrodiaptomus, April 20. 

It is felt that detailed reexamination of many 
species, particularly of those of North America, 
is needed before an evaluation of Kiefer’s system 


of classification is possible. Therefore, a rediagno- 
sis of Diaptomus is deferred for the present. 


Nordodiaptomus, n. subg. 


Subgenotype—Diaptomus siberiensis, new name 
for Diaptomus rylovi Smirnov, 1980. 

Diagnosis. —Of moderate size, length of females 
between 1.6 and 2.4 mm; of males between 1.4 
and 1.7 mm. Metasome without bizarre protru- 
sions, the wings of last segment in female only 
moderately developed; last segment distinct in 
male. Urosome of female with 3 well-defined 
segments, the genital a little asymmetrical, the 
sensilla not grossly developed; urosome of male 
asymmetrical or not. 

Antennules short in both sexes, only reaching 
to near the end of the metasome; that of the 
female with a stout, very elongate seta on the 
first segment, and with segments 11 and 138 to 
19 usually with 2 setae. The left antennule of 
the male differmg from that of the female in 
having the seta of segment 1 not so well developed 
and only a few of segments 13 to 19 with more 
than 1 seta. Right antennule of male with the 
spines of segments 8 and 12 not enlarged, those 
of 10, 11 and 13 much enlarged, with dissected 
ends, that of 13 not reaching beyond segment 14; 
segments 14-16 very tumid, 14 without a process 
or spine; segments 15-16 with short cuticular 
processes; the antepenultimate segment without 
armature of any kind. 

Maxilliped not enlarged; the endopod about 
half the length of the basipod, its setae slender 
and nonprehensile. 

Outer spines of the exopods of legs 1-4 normal, 
those of leg 1 not at all enlarged. Leg 2 of female 
lacking the dorsal cuticular lappet (Schmeil’s 
organ) of the second endopod segment; absent 
or not in the male. 

Fifth leg of female with exopod symmetrical, 
the third segment distinct, its setae and that of 
the second segment not elongate but very stout 
and subequal to one another. The endopod 
usually. shorter than the first exopod segment, 
normally with a single, subapical, more or less 
well developed spiniform seta. The endopod and 
its armature symmetrical or not, the whole ramus 
sometimes subject to considerable variation 
within a single population. 


May 1951 


Fifth leg of male without bizarre armature. 
The right leg having the apical claw very elon- 
gate, its length about equal to that of the rest 
of the ramus; the lateral spine of exopod 2 stout 
and near the terminus of the segment; posterior 
face of exopod 1 with very small but heavy lamel- 
lae. Exopod 2 with or without imner cuticular 
spine. Both pads of the distal segment of the 
left exopod well defined, about equal in length, 
the distal narrower than the other, postero- 
medial in position; the proximal bulging a little 
medially, and with a narrowed portion extended 
across the top of the segment on the anterior 
side; both pads armed conspicuously with slender 
to stout hairs. The processes closely set, both 
distally directed; the distal short, its length not 
more than one-half that of the outer margin of 
the segment, digitiform, continuous with but 
more or less demarcated from the segment, with 
or without spinules on its inner margin; the 
proximal process a subterminal, stout, curving 
spine, reaching to the end of the other process 
or beyond, armed laterally with spinules. Endo- 
pods not grossly developed. 

Included species: Diaptomus siberiensis, n. 
name; Diaptomus alaskaensis, n. sp. 


Diaptomus siberiensis, n. name 


Diaptomus rylovt Smirnov, 1930, pp. 79-82, fig. 1; 
1931, pp. 627-634, figs. 12-21; Kiefer, 1932, p. 478. 
Neutrodiaptomus rylovi Kiefer, 1938a, p. 46. 


The description given in German by Smirnov 
(1931) has been largely used in this study. The 
diagnostic characters of D. siberiensis are given 
herein in the section in which it is compared to 
the new Alaskan species. 

Occurrence.—The type locality is a small lake 
at Bonmak, on the bank of the River Zeya, in 
the Amur region of southeastern Asiatic U. 8. 
S. R. This is apparently in the area of the head 
waters of the River Zeya, which according to 
Berg (1988) les in the Stanovoy mountain range. 
Smirnov does not give the altitude, but it ap- 
pears to be in the secondary southern chain 
having peaks of relatively low elevation (1,400 
meters). The species was also found in a collection 
from Kjusjur, toward Bulun, which is a little 
south of the delta of the Lena River on the Arctic 
coast. This is in tundra area where the subsoil is 
permanently frozen and superficially at least, 
represents a contrast to the mountain lake habitat 
wf the Amur locality. 

Variation —Smirnoy mentioned no variation 


WILSON: NEW SUBGENUS 


OF DIAPTOMUS 169 


in the specimens from the type locality, except 
for the division of the claw of the fifth leg in 
some males. In the Lena River specimens, the 
male was wholly typical, but the female was 
much smaller in size, 1.7 mm as opposed to the 
2.4 mm of the Amur specimens, and had only 
one seta instead of two on the thirteenth segment 
of the antennule. The endopod of the fifth leg 
differed in being shorter, and in having its first 
segment longer than the second. No statement 
was made as to whether these variations charac- 
terized a single individual or several. 

Nomenclature—The specific name rylovt was 
used by Charin (1928) for a species of Hemi- 
diaptomus. As pointed out above, this group 
exhibits no differences from other groups of 
Diaptomus sufficiently distinct enough to warrant 
other than subgeneric status; Charin’s species 
should therefore be known as Diaptomus (Hemi- 
diaptomus) rylovi. This necessitates the renaming 
of Smirnov’s species; the name siberiensis is 
proposed as a geographic contrast to that of the 
related Alaskan species. 


Diaptomus alaskaensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-29 


Specimens examined.—30 2 , collected in a 
mountain top pool, Eagle Summit, on the Steese 
Highway between Fairbanks and Circle, Alaska; 
elevation 3,880 feet; July 4, 1947. Collector, 
Charles 8. Wilson. 

Types.—In the United States National Mu- 
seum. Holotype male, no. 90711; allotype female, 
no. 90712. 

Description.—Length of preserved specimens, 
middorsal line, female, about 1.65 mm; male, 
about 1.44 mm. 


FEMALE 


Metasome (Fig. 7).—Approximately twice the 
length of the urosome in middorsal line. In 
dorsal view, the greatest width occurring just 
behind the cephalic suture, tapering from there 
to the beginning of the second segment, beyond 
that of rather uniform width to the wings of 
the last segment which are a little expanded. 
The cephalic segment a little longer than seg- 
ments 2-4 combined (proportions approximately 
37:32); its suture distinct; the anterior portion 
roughly triangular in dorsal view. The last seg- 
ment imperfectly separated by a short lateral 
suture, the wings well rounded at the sides, 
reaching posteriorly to about the middle of the 


170 


genital segment; the tips only shghtly drawn 
out, the asymmetry not distinctly pronounced. 
Each side armed with two types of sensilla, that 
of the wing tip a small peglike seta; the other a 
shorter seta set on a small rounded tubercle 
and arising on the inner rounded portion of the 
wing (Fig. 10). The marginal hyaline area of 
the wing (demarcated in Fig. 11 by dotted lines) 
very narrow. 

Urosome (Fig. 11).—All three segments dis- 
tinct. Genital segment not markedly inflated, 
but noticeably asymmetrical; the left side with a 
gently rounding lobe above the middle; the 
anterior half of the right side produced into a 
large backwardly directed lobe, behind which 
laterally is another narrowly rounded area. Each 
side armed on the anterior lobe with a sensillum 
very like that of the inner lobe of the thoracic 
wing. The rest of the urosome symmetrical; the 
third segment longer than the second (proportions 
about 3:2); the caudal rami only a little longer 
than the third segment, their length about twice 
their greatest width; with hairs on the mner 
margins from near the proximal portion to the 
tip; caudal setae normal. 

Most females of the sample were ovigerous; 
the eggs comparatively large and few in number 
(6 to 10). 

Rostral filaments (Fig. 8) attenuated and very 
slender. 

Antennule (Fig. 5)—Comparatively short, 
reaching to near the tips of the thoracic wings. 
The elongate seta of segment 1 (measured from 
its base) reaching to between the end of segment 
11 and the middle of segment 12; very stout 
basally and throughout much of its length, arising 
from a well defined and large cuticular base. 
(In Fig. 5 for convenience in arrangement of 
drawings, this seta has been ‘“‘pulled in” towards 
the body of the antennule; in all the preserved 
specimens, both before and after dissection, it is 
held out more or less perpendicular to the seg- 
ment; the stoutness of the proximal portion sug- 
gests that this is the natural position in life.) 

The number of setae on segments 1-10, 12 
and 20-25 as usual: 3 on segment 2, 2 on 9 and 
22-23, 5 on 25, 1 on the others. Segments 11 
and 13-19 with 2 setae each. Aesthetes normal in 
distribution. 

Macxillined (Fig. 6).—First basal segment with 
all 4 lobes well developed, their setation normal; 
the distal seta of lobes 2-8 much longer than the 
others accompanying it, subequal to each other 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


and to that of lobe 1; the four setae of the ex- 
tended distal lobe all shorter than the longest 
seta of lobes 1-3, the proximal the shortest, the 
others subequal. Second basal segment a little 
shorter than segment 1, its distal seta the longer, 
about equal to the longest setae of lobes 1-3 of 
the second segment. The partially suppressed 
segment bearing two setae. The endopod about 
as long as basal segment 2, of five distinct seg- 
ments, all of its setae slender and setiform, those 
of the inner side all shorter than the 3 terminal 
outer setae of the apical segment. 

Leg 1 (Fig. 4) —The ventral surface of basipod 
2 with a patch of long fine hairs on its outer 
portion just above the exopod, the remainder 
unarmed. Outer spines of exopod segments 1 
and 3 only moderately stout; subequal to one 
another, that of segment 3 being only a little 
longer than that of 1 (approximate proportions 
11:10); both tipped apically with a very slender 
sensory hair; their marginal spinules minute (see 
detail, Fig. 4), hardly distinguishable except at 
very high magnification. The spine of segment 1 
reaching only to about the middle of the second 
segment, bent, with a resultant inner marginal 
notch proximally. 

The elongate terminal spinelike seta of segment 
3 stout, broader basally than the outer spine, 
its Inner margin indented, bearing fine marginal 
hairs below the point of indentation; the outer 
margin, beginning at a corresponding point, 
armed with a very narrow, finely serrate flange 
(see detail, Fig. 4). The other setae of the seg- 
ment all reaching considerably beyond the apex 
of this outer seta (proportional lengths, about 
70:54). The outer margins of the exopod seg- 
ments without hairs. 

Leg 2.—The second segment of the endopod 
lacking a cuticular lobe on the dorsal face. 

Leg 5 (Figs. 1 and 2).—The posterior side of 
the first basal segment tumid; the sensillum short 
and spinelike, mounted on a small tubercle. 
Second basal segment not tumid, considerably 
prolonged on the anteromedial side to the pot 
of attachment of the endopod (Fig. 2); no sensory 
hair apparent, a cuticular depression observed in 
the place of its normal location on one specimen. 

The exopod (to tip of claw) only a little longer 
along its inner margin than the basipod.. The 
inner margin of the first segment roughly about 
two-thirds of the length of the outer (proportions 
25:35); its width about three-fourths of the 
length of the mner and about one-half of that 


S) 


Frias. 1-16.—Diaptomus alaskaensis, n. sp., female 


lo. 


1-3, Leg 5:1, Left side, posterior view, specimen no. 7; 2, left, anterior view, specimen no. 2; 3, exo- 
pod setae, specimen no. 5. 4, Leg 1, exopod. 5, Antennule, segments 1-20. 6, Manilliped. 7, Dorsal out- 
line of body. 8, Rostral filament. 9, Lateral outline of body. 10, Detail metasome wing and sensilla. 
11, Last metasome segment and urosome. 12-16, Leg 5, endopods: 12, Specimen no. 2, anterior view; 
13, specimen no. 6, posterior; 14, specimen no. 8, posterior; 15, specimen no. 7, posterior; 16, specimen 
no, 3, posterior. 


171 


172 


of the outer margin. The inner margin of the 
second segment (to tip of claw) a little shorter 
than the outer margin of the first segment 
(32:35), about one-third longer than the inner 
margin; its greatest width a little less than one- 
half its length. Claw moderately stout, curving 
inwards on both margins a little above the 
middle, with a distinct notch on the outer margin; 
armed on both sides with 6-10 spinules; some 
specimens showing a faint crosswise line of divi- 
sion at the position of the notch. Lateral seta 
stout and spiniform, unarmed, a little more than 
half the length of the outer margin of the seg- 
ment. 

Third segment (Fig. 3) distinct, short and 
broad, its width almost twice the length of its 
outer margin which is a little longer than the 
inner. The outer seta similar in length and stout- 
ness to that of the second segment, the inner 
more slender and a little longer; both unorna- 
mented. 

The endopods of a pair asymmetrical in length 
and in armature; showing extreme variability 
within the available sample. Usually 2-segmented 
and shorter than the first exopod segment; un- 
armed terminally or with a short spiniform seta. 

Variation in leg 5—Measurements of eight 
specimens showed slight differences in the pro- 
portional lengths and widths of the exopod. The 
greater number attained that shown in Fig. 1, 
in which the inner margin of exopod 2 (to tip 
of claw) is subequal to the outer margin of the 
first segment and about one-third longer than 
the inner. Two specimens had the inner margin 
of segment 2 proportionally a little shorter (Fig. 
2), and in one specimen they were a little longer, 
approaching D. siberiensis. 

The widths of exopod 1 and 2 in diaptomids 
are never precisely measurable, but even with 
allowances made for the differences in position 
and flattening of the mounted appendages by 
the. cover slip, it is apparent that the specimens 
with the shorter claws (the inner margin of 
exopod 2) are also proportionally broader in 
both segments 1 and 2. 

So far as could be judged, no significant differ- 
ence was apparent in the relative length and 
width of the third exopod segment. There is 
some slight difference in the proportional strength 
of the setae from specimen to specimen, but the 
relation of the two to each other is rather con- 
stant. 

The endopod is extremely variable, differing 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


in each of the specimens studied. The differences 
are shown in Figs. 12 to 16, and in Table 1, 
where the total length is also compared to the 
length of the inner margin of the exopod. Of 
the eight examined, four have a terminal spini- 
form seta; one of these differs from the others in 
having in addition a small abortive seta (Fig. 
12). The endopods also show an unusual asym- 
metry. This is evident in the relative lengths of 
the right and left ramus of a pair, the left being 
always the longer; this difference considerable 
in some specimens (Table 1, nos. 4 and 7); 
negligible in others (nos. 1 and 8). The asym- 
metry is further expressed in the relative lengths 
of the terminal setae, that of one side always 
longer than that of the other (Figs. 13 and 15). 
The spinule pattern of the terminal portions also 
differs (Figs. 12 and 16). 

Variability in the endopod of the female in 
Diaptomus is not at all rare, but it is more com- 
monly expressed in differences in segmentation, 
and small differences in proportional length of 
the endopod to the exopod. In subgenera in 
which 2 setae are normally present, one may 
sometimes be lacking. In general, the endopod 
is much more variable in the males of the genus, 
but in this species the opposite is true. As noted 
above, Smirnov found a geographical variation 
in the female of D. siberiensis. We do not, of 
course, know how variable that species is, as he 
gives no indication of whether he found the 
condition illustrated in Fig. 15 (Smirnoy, 1931) 
to be true of one or several specimens. Actual 
comparisons between the two species as regards 
this variability is therefore not now possible. 

The asymmetry of the endopod, as of the rest 
of the appendage, is an invariable rule in the 
male diaptomid, but it is usually not expressed 
in the other sex. Only in recent years has such a 
condition been noted in the fifth legs of females 
of certain south Asiatic groups (Allodiaptomus 
Kiefer, 1936a—b, Mongolodiaptomus Kiefer, 1937, 
1938a) and some South American species (D. 
azevedoi. Wright 1935, D. paulistanus Wright, 
1937). Though this asymmetry appears to be a 
well established character, it may also be that 
in some cases so few specimens of a given species 
have been examined that what is actually anoma- 
lous has been described as normal. For my part, 
I should like to reserve judgment on the condition 
in D. alaskaensis until more individuals from 
both the type and other localities in which it 
may occur are available for study. 


May 1951 


MALE 


Metasome-—About one and a half times the 
length of the urosome. More slender than the 
female, the greatest width in dorsal view occur- 
ring at the middle of the cephalic segment, from 
there the whole body tapering gradually to the 
terminal part. The anterior portion of the cephalic 
segment somewhat narrowed, the rather broad 
triangular appearance of the female only in- 
distinctly suggested. The last segment separated, 
its lateral tips not drawn out, but asymmetrical 
(Fig. 21), the left side straight, the right angular, 
its distal half directed inwards; each side armed 
at the lateral tip with a single sensillum, very 
small and spiniform, mounted on a tubercle 
having rather straight sides (Fig. 20), the tubercle 
of the right a little larger than that of the left 
side of the segment. The hyaline area as demar- 
cated in Fig. 20. 

Urosome (Fig. 21).—Not conspicuously asym- 
metrical. The genital segment with the right side 
a little inflated and irregular in outline; the left 
side with the lateral st conspicuous, the back- 
wardly produced proximal lobe not covering it; 
neither side with apparent sensillum. Segment 4 
a little longer on the right than the left side, the 
other segments symmetrical. Caudal rami nor- 
mal, with the inner margins hairy. 

Rostral filaments ——Relatively as long as those 
of the female, but a little stouter throughout 
most of their length. 

Antennule—The right reaching to the end of 
the second urosomal segment, the left a little 
shorter; both relatively longer than those of the 
female. The left (Fig. 17) differing also from 
that of the female in having the seta of segment 
1 not so enlarged or lengthened; stretched out it 
reaches from its base only to about the middle of 
the fourth segment. Setae of the second segment 
also unlike those of the female. The setal pattern 
differmg in that only segments 11, 16 and 19 
of the midportion of the antennule have 2 setae; 
the others with oné each. In addition to that of 
segment 1, rather long setae found on segments 
7, 9, and 14. Those of 7 and 9 subequal and a 
little longer than those of 1 and 14 which are also 
subequal to each other. The approximate pro- 
portions of these setae to one another are: 
segment 7—55 


segment 9—54 


segment 1—41l 
segment 14—40 


Aesthetes of normal distribution as in female. 


WILSON: NEW SUBGENUS OF DIAPTOMUS 


173 


The right antennule with segments 14-16 con- 
spicuously swollen (Fig. 18). Spines of 8 and 12 
not enlarged; those of segments 10-11 and 13 
very stout; that of 10 not as long as the width of 
its segment; that of 11 longer, reaching to the 
middle of segment 13; that of 13 strongly bent 
distad, incompletely demarcated from the seg- 
ment, a little stouter but scarcely longer than 
that of 11, reaching to the middle of segment 
14; the tips of all 3 spines dissected as indicated 
in figure 19. Segments 15-16 each with short 
cuticular processes of similar size; modified setae, 
with subterminal lateral tongue-like processes 
(Fig. 18), accompanying them and the depressed 
process of segment 17, all subequal to one another. 
Antepenultimate segment without process or 
lamella. Setae of terminal segment all weakly 
developed. 

Maxilliped and leg 7 as in female. Leg 2 also 
lacking a cuticular lobe on the dorsal face of the 
second segment of the endopod. 

Leg 5 (Figs. 22-23) —The left leg a little more 
slender than that of the right side; reaching 
almost to the end of its second exopod segment. 

Right leg: The outer portion of the first basal 
segment very tumid, overhanging the second 
segment considerably on the postero-lateral side; 
the inner side also expanded with a large distally 
directed hyaline lamella on the anterior face 
(Fig. 22); the sensillum a seta without apparent 
tubercular base, in a distal medial position on 
the dorsal side. The outer margin of the second 


TABLE 1.—CoMPARISON OF THE ENpDopops or Lee 5 In E1aut 


PARATYPE FEMALES OF DIAPTOMUS ALASKAENSIS 


Right endopod Left endopod 
Exo- 
Speci- |pod 1 “a 
gen Inner men Naas Asta | 25 
o: mai lenath pas Armature jenethl 26 Armature 
ments a2” 
Z | 
| 
1 78 39u 2 Spinules 42u | 2 | Spinules 
Ol e75)0 45 2 | 2setae+ | 57 2 | 2 setae + 
spi- | spi- 
nules | nules 
3 81 45 1 None 57 2 | Spinules 
4 81 42 2 Spinules 60 2 | Spinules 
5 75 36 2 None 45 2 Spinules 
6 75 | 54 2 |1seta+] 66 2 | 1 seta + 
spi- | spl- 
nules nules 
7 69 42 2 | 1 seta + 57 2 1 seta + 
| spi- spi- 
nules nules 
8 60 42 1 Terminal | 45 1 Terminal 
hairs hairs 


174 


basal segment rounded, the hair at the distal 
fourth; the inner margin a little longer than the 
outer, prolonged a little to the point of attach- 
ment of the endopod; the medial portion some- 
what expanded and having attached to its pos- 
terior face a hyaline membranous lamella that 
bulges upward. 

Exopod (exclusive of claw) subequal in length 
to the basipod. The first segment having the 
length of its outer margin greater than that of 
the inner (proportions about 27:17) and about 
equal to its greatest width; ending in a distally 
directed, rounded lobe; on the posterior face, 
near the extreme distal margin, two small, rather 
heavily chitinized lamellae (Fig. 24), that near 
the outer edge V-shaped, the other having a 
thick, pointed edge that is produced a little be- 
yond the inner distal corner of the segment and 
extended more or less toward the other as a bar. 
The second segment with both margins nearly 
straight; the inner a little less than twice the 
greatest width (relative proportions 40:25); the 
outer curving inwardly at the point of attach- 
ment of the lateral spine; the inner distal edge 
membranous and somewhat crenulated. This seg- 
ment bearing the characteristically rounded, 
small, heavy lamella on the proximal inner edge 
of the posterior side; somewhat distad to this 
and very near the margin, a minute and thin 
cuticular spine. Lateral spine near the terminus 
of the segment, stout and long, a little longer 
than the outer margin of the segment above its 
base, coarsely dentate on its inner edge. Claw 
very long, its length about equal to that of the 
ramus, strongly curved beyond its middle, en- 
larged at its base, with a small tubercle on the 
anterior side (Fig. 22), dentate below this bulbous 
enlargement to near the tip; in some specimens a 
fine division into two parts noticeable near the 
middle of the claw. 

Endopod a little shorter than the inner margin 
of the first segment of the exopod; 2-seemented, 
the first broadened basally and only about half 
the length of the distal segment. 

Left leg: The first basal segment not expanded 
on the outer margin, but extended inwardly to a 
well rounded lamelliform edge; sensillum a mi- 
nute, curved spinule, mounted on a small tubercle. 
The second segment having its outer margin 
shorter than the mner, concave at its center; 
the sensory hair at the distal fifth; the imner 
distal margin considerably prolonged medially 
to the point of attachment of the endopod; a 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


distinct jog in its margin just in front of the 
middle. 

Exopod narrowed to about half the width of 
the basipod, its length along the outer margin 
somewhat less (about one-sixth). The first seg- 
ment about two-thirds of the total length, pro- 
vided on its anterior inner side (Fig. 25) with 
a narrow flattened pad armed with very short 
fine hairs. Both pads of the distal segment in a 
medial position, the proximal the more tumid, 
bulging a little on the anterior side with a nar- 
rowed portion carried across the proximal part 
of the segment so that it appears to fit tightly 
into the segmental suture (Fig. 26); on the pos- 
terior side only a small lengthwise portion of 
the pad visible (Figs. 27-28); armed with fine 
hairs that are longer than those of the pad of 
the first segment. The distal pad reduced in 
breadth, largely postero-medial in position, dis- 
tally not reaching to the base of the terminal 
process; its apical portion sagging somewhat and 
forming a notch with the main body of the seg- 
ment, as visible in posterior profile (Fig. 27); 
pad set with very short, stout hairs. On the mar- 
gin of the segment between the apex of the pad 
and the inner base of the terminal process there 
may be 1-3 minute spinules, but these not always 
present. 

The processes of the distal segment closely 
set (Fig. 29). The digitiform distal process de- 
marcated from the segment, its length a little 
less than one-third that of the outer margin of 
the segment; very broad throughout most of its 
length, but its tip slightly drawn out; its mner 
margin without teeth. The proximal process spini- 
form, curving toward the terminal process and 
reaching to its apex or a very little beyond it; 
attached on the anterior side of the segment, 
distally directed; a little enlarged basally, the 
width at its middle about one-third that of the 
distal process; with coarse teeth on its imner 
margin, and a similar row on the posterior side 
near its outer edge. 

Endopod reaching a little beyond the first 
exopod segment, 2-segmented, the distal seg- 
ment about one-third the length of the other, 
with a few fine hairs on the apex. 


COMPARISON OF D. SIBERIENSIS 
AND D. ALASKAENSIS 


Smirnoy’s description of D. siberiensis is 
precise and detailed so that a fairly exact 
comparison of the two species can be made. 


vou. 41, No. 5 


Zo 


Fiaes. 17-29.—Diaptomus alaskaensis, n. sp., male 
17, Left antennule, segments 1-20. 18, Right antennule, segments 8-17, with detail of modified seta. 
19, Right antennule, segment 13. 20, Detail, left metasome wing. 21, Last metasome segment and uro- 
some. 22-29, Leg 5: 22, Anterior view; 28, posterior view; 24, detail lamellae, right exopod; 25, left exo- 
pod and endopod, anterior; 26, detail exopod 2, anteromedial view; 27, exopod 2, posterior; 28, exopod 
2, posteromedial view; 29, exopod 2, detail of processes, posterior view. 


175 


176 


He did not describe the maxilliped or leg 1, 
and the characters of these appendages 
given in the subgeneric diagnosis are from D. 
alaskaensis. No basic differences can be ex- 
pected to occur in two such closely related 
species, so that only knowledge of minor 
specific differences is lacking for these 
appendages. 

The resemblance between the two species 
is great. They appear to have the same 
general body form; the antennules of the 
females are alike; there is no apparent 
difference in the right antennules of the 
males, though those of the left side differ in 
the setation of some segments. Comparison 
of the fifth legs of the females is difficult 
because of the great variability found in 
certain characters of D. alaskaensis, and 
because it cannot be told whether or not 
those of D. siberiensis are also extremely 
variable. The form of the appendage is 
similar in the two species, and the setae of 
the second and third segments of the exopod 
are alike; certain differences which may be 
well defined and stable are discussed below. 
The male fifth legs are strikingly similar in 
general appearance, in the relative lengths 
of the two rami, and of the claw and lateral 
spine of the right exopod, in the form of the 
lamellae of the right leg, and in the arrange- 
ment and form of the pads of the left exopod. 
Careful observation shows some well-defined 
differences which coupled with the setation 
of the left antennule, were constant in the 
available sample of D. alaskaensis. Smirnov 
found that the characters of the male of D. 
sibervensis did not vary geographically, and 
this makes it appear that the males are not 
subject to the same variation that affects the 
females of the subgenus. 

The two species have been herein separated 
on the basis of the following important 
differences which appear to be characters of 
stability, and are apparently carefully de- 
scribed by Smirnov for D. szberiensis, so that 
comparison is possible: 


Rostral filaments short and stout in siberiensis; 
slender and attenuated in alaskaensis. 

Left antennule of male with 2 setae on segments 
11 and 18 in svberiensis; with 2 setae on segments 
11, 16 and 19 in alaskaensis. 

Leg 2 with a cuticular lappet on segment 2 of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 5 


the endopod of the male in siberiensis; lacking 
in both sexes in alaskaensis. 

Urosome of female having the genital segment 
in stberiensis apparently less produced on the 
right side than that of alaskaensis and with seg- 
ments 2 and 3 equal in length; in alaskaensis 
segment 2 is much shorter than segment 3. 

Urosome of male in siberiensis is wholly sym- 
metrical; in alaskaensis segments 1 and 4 are a 
little asymmetrical. 

Leg 5 of female has two measurable characters 
that appear to vary but little in alaskaensis and 
are sufficiently different from siberiensis, as shown 
by Smirnov’s drawing (1931, fig. 15) to permit 
relative comparison and separation of the two 
species. In svberiensis the inner margin of the 
second exopod segment (including the “claw’’) 
is apparently longer than the outer margin of 
the first segment; in alaskaensis it was usually 
found to be shorter. A more important difference 
lies in the third exopod segment, which, if cor- 
rectly delineated by Smirnov, is as wide as it is 
long in stberiensis; its width in alaskaensis is 
about twice its length. Other differences which 
may or may not be real, lie in the greater slender- 
ness of the appendage in szberiensis, the larger 
number of spinules on the “claw”, the lack of 
much variability in the endopod, absence of 
asymmetry in the length and armature of a 
pair, and the stouter development of its single, 
apical seta. 

Leg 5 of male. Right side: In siberiensis the 
first exopod segment has its outer margin only a 
little longer than its inner and greater than its 
width; in alaskaensis it is considerably longer 
than that of the inner and equal to its width; 
the armature of this segment appears to be very 
similar in form, but the lamellae of siberiensis 
are both placed above the distal margin of the 
segment, while those of alaskaensis are very close 
to it, so that of the inner edge is produced beyond 
the corner of the segment. The second exopod 
segment of siberiensis lacks a cuticular spine 
which is present in alaskaensis. Left side: In 
siberiensis the proximal process of the terminal 
segment reaches considerably beyond the end of 
the distal process; in alaskaensis this process 
reaches to the end of the distal process, or at 
most a very little beyond it; the distal process of 
siberiensis is armed on the inner margin with a 
few spinules; that of alaskaensis is unarmed. The 
distal pad of siberiensis appears to be a little 
more developed than that of alaskaensis, and is 
armed with slender instead of thick, short hairs. 


May 1951 


DISTINCTIONS BETWEEN NORDODIAPTOMUS 
AND NEUTRODIAPTOMUS 


Ttiefer (1932) placed D. szberzensis in a list 
of species that he could not assign to any of 
his newly erected genera; in 1938 he referred 
it to Neutrodiaptomus. It is therefore neces- 
sary to compare the characters of this sub- 
genus with Nordodiaptomus. 


In establishing Neutrodiaptemus in 1937, Kie- 
fer included the species twmidus Kiefer, pachy- 
poditus Rylov, amurensis Rylov, and mariadvigae 
Brehm. To these he added (1938a) incongruens 
Poppe, siberiensis (as D. rylovi Smirnov), and 
lobatus Lilljeborg, the synonymy of the latter 
with incongruens appearing to him to be an un- 
certain matter. Hu (1943) described a new species 
alatus. 

Of these species, D. svberiensis and D. mari- 
advigae appear to differ sharply from the con- 
sistently developed characters that hold the 
others together. D. siberiensis has been referred 
above to the new subgenus Nordodiaptomus. D. 
mariadvigae is apparently closely related to, if 
not conspecific with, the species hsichowensis 
recently described by Hsaio (1950). This species 
occurs in Yunnan, the same Chinese province 
in which Brehm’s collection was made (Brehm, 
1921, 1930). Hsaio considers that the lack of 
terminal setae on the endopod of the fifth leg 
of the female and the ‘‘pincerlike”’ structure of 
the processes of the left male fifth leg, though 
reduced in length, indicate relationship to Arcto- 
diaptomus. He therefore made his new species 
the type of a subgenus Pararctodiaptomus. In 
the definition of Diaptomus used here, Arcto- 
diaptomus is considered as a subgenus; the status 
of the various subgroups that have been proposed 
for it can be evaluated only when the whole of 
this subgenus is reinvestigated. It is possible that 
Pararctodiaptomus may be found to be of separate 
subgeneric status within the genus Diaptomus. 
This is particularly so if the distal pad of the 
male left fifth exopod is as well developed as is 
suggested by Hsaio’s illustration; its loss or 
extreme reduction is highly characteristic of Arc- 
todiaptomus. 

So far as it is possible to ascertain from pub- 
lished descriptions, the remaining species of 
Neutrodiaptomus agree with one another very 
closely in several significant characters. From 
these, the species of Nordodiaptomus depart rather 
noticeably. Though agreeing in certain patterns, 


WILSON: NEW SUBGENUS 


OF DIAPTOMUS 177 
these two subgenera are naturally set apart by 
these differences. A brief comparison makes this 
clear. 

The female fifth leg of Neutrodiaptomus has 
two short, equally developed setae on the termi- 
nus of the endopod; the pattern of the setae of 
exopod segments 2 and 3, identical in all the 
species, consists of a minute seta on 2, while on 
3 there are a similar small outer and a much 
longer inner seta. Nordodiaptomus with the single 
spinelike seta of the endopod, and the stout, 
subequal setae of the exopod, is in sharp contrast. 
Indeed, these differences are among the most 
significant in separating the two groups, par- 
ticularly the structure of the exopod setae which 
in Nordodiaptomus are of uncommon form for 
the whole genus. 

The male right antennule has the pattern of 
segments 13-15 similar in both groups, but 
the spines of 10 and 11 are very short in 
Neutrodiaptomus, while they are of considerable 
stoutness in Nordodiaptomus; all species of Neutro- 
diaptomus have a hyaline lamella on the ante- 
penultimate segment, in Nordodiaptomus this seg- 
ment is unarmed. While these are characters that 
may vary within a group of related species, ap- 
parently their nonvariability may also distinguish 
a subgenus. This last seems especially true in 
Neutrodiaptomus; in our present knowledge there 
are no intermediate forms between it and Nordo- 
diaptomus. 

In the male right fifth leg of Neutrodiaptomus, 
the apical claw is never longer than the exopod, 
and the lateral spine, located at the proximal to 
the distal third, is usually less than the width 
of its segment. Both are of exceptional stoutness 
and length in Nordodiaptomus. 

Any comparison between the patterns of the 
terminal segment of the left exopods is not wholly 
satisfactory because of the incompleteness of 
the descriptions of Neutrodiaptomus. The only 
enlarged drawings in literature are those of fwm- 
dus (Kiefer, 1938a) and amurensis (Rylov, 1930), 
and of these only twmidus is well enough des- 
eribed verbally to permit real comparison. The 
similarities of the two groups are: both pads are 
well defined and subequal to one another; the 
terminal process is short and digitiform; the 
proximal process is subterminal in position and 
about equal to or reaching a little beyond the 
distal. The differences between the two groups 
are more difficult to define; where it is possible 
to compare, the following are suggested. 


178 


The proximal pad in Nordodiaptomus is not 
merely a medially bulging structure, but is car- 
ried well across the anterior side of the segment 
and its shape is thus distinctly asymmetrical; it 
appears as a simple, medially placed pad in 
Neutrodiaptomus. The distal pad is conspicuously 
armed with slender to short, stout hairs in Nordo- 
diaptomus; in Neutrodiaptomus there may be 
little or no armature of this pad. Kiefer (1938a) 
has described that of twmidus as a “lobus’’ and 
shows no ornamentation, as is also true of Rylov’s 
(1930) figure of amurensis. 

The proximal process of Nordodiaptomus is 
stout and spiniform; Smirnov describes that of 
siberiensis as a “‘spine’’ and my observations in 
alaskaensis confirm this. Kiefer speaks of those 
of tumidus and pachypoditus as “setae” and his 
illustrations picture this process as exceedingly 
slender. The difference between seta and spine 
is undoubtedly one of degree and is not always 
easy to determine. In this case it may merely be 
one of interpretation. The degree of stoutness 
and the form of this process, however, distin- 
guishes other subgenera of Diaptomus, and it is 
necessary in the absence of any other evidence, 
- to consider that these two groups are separable 
by the spiniform character of this process in 
Nordodiaptomus as opposed to its setiform de- 
velopment in Neutrodiaptomus. 

It is unfortunate that for the species of Neutro- 
diaptomus no information is available concerning 
the highly important details of the maxilliped, 
the first leg, the cuticular process of the endopod 
of the second leg, the setation of the female 
antennule and its comparison to the male left 
antennule. Until taxonomists also include in- 
formation about these points in their descriptions 
of diaptomid copepods, we will not be able to 
arrive at any satisfactory comparison of species 
or of subgenera. My study of North American 
species suggests that the development of the 
maxilliped, particularly of the setae of the endo- 
pod, the characters of the first leg, the presence 
or absence of Schmeil’s organ on the endopod of 
the second leg, and the setation of the female 
antennule, are often as characteristic of sub- 
genera as the modifications of the left exopod of 
the male fifth leg or the termimal setae of the 
endopod of the female fifth leg. They are in any 
case a part of the whole picture, and must be 
considered before any comprehensive evaluation 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 5 


of subgeneric or generic characters can be made. 

In addition to its distinctions from Neutro- 
diaptomus, Nordodiaptomus departs in some char- 
acters from the usual condition found in Diapto- 
mus. One such instance is that Schmeil’s organ 
may be either present or absent, and interestingly 
is exhibited as a case of sexual dimorphism in one 
species. The numerical difference in setation of 
the antennules of the female and that of the 
left side of the male is the only one known to me 
in literature or in fact; investigation may show 
it to be more common than suspected. The 
contrast in the size of the setae of the first and 
second segments is not confined to Nordodiapto- 
mus; Smirnov (1928) has noted the same sexual 
dimorphism in D. (Arctodiaptomus) dentifer which 
has a similarly elongate seta on segment 1 of 
the female. The structure of the exopod setae of 
the female fifth leg in Neutrodiaptomus is common 
throughout the genus; that of Nordodiaptomus, 
as suggested, is rather unusual. The asymmetry 
of the endopod of Nordodiaptomus alaskaensis 
is likewise a rare condition, impossible now to 
evaluate. 

It thus appears that there occur in the two 
species of Nordodiaptomus, characters that differ 
naturally from consistently developed structures 
in Neutrodiaptomus, and in addition, that they 
have certain distinctive features which set them 
apart from other subgenera of Diaptomus. The 
inclusion of the two species in Neutrodiaptomus 
could be only provisional and would make the 
definition of that subgenus ambiguous in many 
parts. It seems best in my judgment to delimit 
the two groups as has been done herein. 

It is probable that these two subgenera may 
be safely assumed to be closely related. This 
cannot now be proved, however, due to our lack 
of complete knowledge of some structures of 
Neutrodiaptomus, and our present inability to 
evaluate characters as subgeneric or otherwise. 

The species of Neutrodiaptomus extend from 
subarctic into southeastern Asia. Nordodiaptomus 
is in our present knowledge limited to Arctic and 
subarctic regions of Asia and North America. 
The discovery of an Alaskan species closely re- 
lated to one from the Asiatic U. 8. S. R. adds 
to the growing list of examples that disprove the 
old concept that North American diaptomids are 
distinct from those of Eurasia. It is to be expected 
that further study of Alaskan collections will 
increase the number. 


May 1951 DURBIN 


LITERATURE CITED 


Bere, L.S8. Natural regions of the U.S.S.R., ed. 2. 
1938. (Translation by Olga Adler Titelbaum, 
1950.) 

BreuM, VINCENZ. Diagnosen neue Entomostraken. 
I. Teil. Anz. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 58: 194-196. 
1921. 

. Uber stidasiatische Diaptomiden. Arch. fiir 
Hydrobiol. 22: 140-161, 14 figs., 1 map. 1930. 

Carin, N. N. Uber eine neue Hemidiaptomus-Art 
aus dem Gouvernment Woronesch. Zool. Anz. 
76: 323-328, 6 figs. 1928. 

Hsrao, SipNey C. Copepods from Lake Erh Hai, 
China. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 100: 161-200, 
figs. 20-30. 1950. 

Hu, Y. T. Notes on fresh-water copepods from 
Pehpet, Szechwan. Sinensia 14: 115-128, figs. 
A-C. 1948. 

KGErer, Frrepricu. Versuch eines systems der 
Diaptomiden (Copepoda Calanoida).- Zool. 
Jahrb. (Abt. Syst.) 63: 451-520, 88 figs. 1932. 

. Indische Ruderfusskrebse (Crustacea Cope- 

poda). Zool. Anz. 113: 136-142, 11 figs. 1936a. 

. Indische Ruderfusskrebse (Crustacea Cope- 
poda). III. Zool. Anz. 118: 321-325, 17 figs. 
1936b. 

———. Indische Ruderfusskrebse (Crustacea Cope- 
poda). IV. Zool. Anz. 114: 77-82, 14 figs. 1936c. 

. Uber die systematick der stidamerikanischen 

Diaptomiden (Crustacea Copepoda). Zool. Anz. 

116: 194-200. 1936d. 

. Stisswassercopepoden aus Ostasien. IT. Newe 

Diaptomiden und Cyclopiden von der Insel 

Formosa. Zool. Anz. 119: 58-64, 17 figs. 1937. 

Freilebende Ruderfusskrebse (Crustacea 

Copepoda) von Formosa. Bull. Biogeogr. Soc. 

Japan. 8: 35-73, 38 figs. 1938a. 


AND HONESS: 


NEW ROUNDWORM 179 

———.. Freilebende Sirisswassercopepoden von den 
Nordkurilen. Bull. Biogeogr. Soc. Japan. 8: 
75-94, 30 figs. 1938b. 

Lieut, 8S. F. New subgenera and species of diapto- 
mid copepods from the inland waters of Cali- 
fornia and Nevada. Univ. California Publ. 
Zool. 43: 67-78, 23 figs. 1938. 

———. New American subgenera of Diaptomas 
Westwood (Copepoda, Calanoida). Trans. 
Amer. Mier. Soc. 58: 473-484, 24 figs. 1939. 

Ryuov, W. M. The fresh-water calanoids of the 
U. S. S. R. In: “Keys to Determination of 
Fresh-water Organisms of the U. S. S. R.: 
A, Fresh-Water Fauna.: Pt. I’: 1-288, 88 
figs. 1930. 

Sars, GEorG Ossian. On the Crustacean fauna of 
Central Asia. Pt. IIT. Copepoda and Ostracoda. 
Ann. Mus. Zool. Acad. Imper. Sci. St.-Peters- 
bourg 8: 195-232, pls. 9-16. 1903. 

Smirnov, S. 8S. Uber eine neue Diaptomus-Art 
(Copepoda) aus Zentralrussland. Zool. Anz. 
78: 27-34, 11 figs. 1928. 

——.. Sur une espéce nouvelle du genre Diaptomus 
Westw. (Crustacea, Copepoda), provenant de la 
region de ’v Amour. Comptes Rendus Acad. Sci. 
U.S. 5S. R. for 1930: 79-82, 1 fig. 1930. 

Ein Beitrag zur Copepoden-Fauna des 
Amur-Gebietes. Arch. fiir Hydrobiol. 23: 618- 
638, 21 figs. 1931. 

WriGcut, STittman. Three new species of Diapto- 
mus from northeast Brazil. Ann. Acad. Brasil 
Sei. 7: 213-233, pls. 1-4. 1935. 

. A review of some species of Diaptomus from 

Sdo Paulo. Ann. Acad. Brasil Sci. 9: 65-82, 

pl. 1-3. 1987. 


HELMINTHOLOGY.—A new roundworm, Nematodirus rufaevastitatis (Nema- 
toda: Trichostrongylidae) from domestic sheep, Ovis aries, in Wyoming. CHARLES 
G. Durpin, U. 8. Bureau of Animal Industry, and Rauew F. Honuss, Uni- 
versity of Wyoming. (Communicated by E. W. Price.) 


The nematodes described in this paper 
were collected by one of the writers (R. F. H.) 
from domestic sheep in the area of the Red 
Desert, Wyo., and western Wyoming during 
1948 and 1949. The specimens were for- 
warded for identification to the Zoological 
Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. A 
study of them by the senior writer shows 
that they belong to the genus Nematodirus. 
They differ, however, from the known species 
of the genus in certain characters and they 
are, therefore, described as new. 


Nematodirus rufaevastitatis, n. sp. 


Description. —Maun: 11.5 to 15.8 mm long and 
about 0.1 mm wide just anterior to the bursa. 
Esophagus 0.430 to 0.500 mm long and about 


0.030 to 0.040 mm wide at its base. Head 0.025 
to 0.030 mm wide, as measured with the cuticle 
slightly inflated (Fig. 1, 4). Spicules 1.0 to 1.15 
mm long and united for about the posterior two- 
thirds of their total length; the tips have a slight 
membranous inflation (Fig. 1, B). The bursa 
consists of two large lateral lobes and a dorsal 
lobe which is indicated only by a slight indenta- 
tion of the margin of the bursa lateral to the dor- 
sal ray. The length of the bursa from its base to 
tip is 0.25 to 0.84 mm. Each lateral lobe of bursa 
is supported by six rays, two ventral, three lat- 
eral, and one externodorsal (Fig. 1, C, D). The 
two ventral rays arise from a common trunk and 
are long and slender. The three lateral rays like- 
wise arise from a common trunk and are also 
long and slender. The mediolateral and postero- 


180 


lateral rays are close together. The externo- 
lateral branch curves ventrally away from the 
other two branches. The two dorsal rays arise 
separately. The externodorsal ray is long and 
very slender when compared with the other rays 
of the bursa. The dorsal ray is shorter and 
thicker than the externodorsal ray; the tip of 
the dorsal ray is not bifid as in the other de- 
scribed species of the genus. 

Female: Unknown. 

Host: Ovis aries. 

Location: Small intestine. 

Distribution: Wyoming, U.S.A. 

Specimens: U.S.N.M. Helm. Coll. no. 46922 
(type) and 46921 (paratypes). 

This species closely resembles NV. spathiger in 
the termination of the spicules (Fig. 1, B). It 
differs, so far as the writers are aware, from that 


ll) 


Fie. 1.—Nematodirus rufaevastitatis, n. sp.: 
A, Head; B, spicules; C, D, lateral lobes of bursa. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 5 


species and from all others of the genus Nemato- 
dirus occurring in ruminants by the size of the 
bursa and the nonbifid tip of the dorsal ray. 
These species may be differentiated by the fol- 
owing key. 


KEY TO MALES OF THE SPECIES OF NEMATODIRUS 
IN RUMINANTS 


1. Terminal portions of dorsal rays undivided 
N. rufaevastitatis, n. sp. 
Terminal portions of dorsal rays divided.....2 
2. Terminal portion of spicules bent 
N. tarandi Hadwen 
Terminal portion of spicules straight........3 
3. Small gubernaculum present 
N. uricht Cameron 


Gubermaculum absentia e- sane eee 4 

4. Mediolateral and posterolateral rays well sepa- 
PAteC rene ae ee ae N. roscidus Railliet 
Mediolateral and posterolateral rays close to- 
gether no... hs os ee ee 5 

5. Spicules differing in length, terminal portion 
‘twistedie Mi pes tees N. abnormalis May 
Spicules equal in length, terminal portion 
Straight. e...0%...isienss Dane eee: 6 


6. Cuticular expansion of terminal portion of 
spicules spatulate..... N. spathiger (Railliet) 
Cuticular expansion of terminal portion of 
spicules sharply pointed................... a 

. Cuticular expansion of terminal portion of 
spicules 0.1 mm long..... N. helvetianus May 
Cuticular expansion of terminal portion of 
spicules 0.06 to 0.08 mm in length......... 8 

8. Terminal portion of each spicule divided into 
two rodlike structures united at the tips 

N. otratianus Rajewskaja 

Terminal portion of each spicule not divided 
N. filicollis (Rudolphi) 


“I 


REFERENCES 


Rasewskasa, 8. A. Zur Charakteristik der Nema- 
toden der Gattung Nematodirus Ransom 1907 
(Versuch einer Monographischen Bearbeitung). 
Zeitschr. Infektionskr ...Haustiere Berlin 
40 (2-3): 112-136. 1931. 

Ransom, B. H. The nematodes parasitic in the ali- 
mentary tract of cattle, sheep, and other rumi- 
nants. U.S. Dept. Agr. B.A.I. Bull. 127. 1911. 

Price, E. W. A new nematode, Nematodirus anti- 
locaprae, from the prong-horn antelope, with 
a key to the species of Nematodirus. Proc. 
U.S. Nat. Mus. 71 (art. 22): 1-4, pl. 1, figs. 
1-4. 1927. 

Travassos, L. Contribuicées para o conbecimento 
da fauna helmintolojica brasileira. XIII: En- 
saio Monografico do familia Trichostrongylidae 
Leiper, 1909. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz 13 
Q): 1-135. 1921. 

. Revisdo do familia Trichostrongylidae Lei- 

per, 1912. Monogr. Inst. Oswaldo Cruz, 512 

pp., pls. 1937. 


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* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 
Puysics.—The limitations of the principle of superposition: I]. Pau 
ErHNOLOGY.—Some medical beliefs and practices of the contemporary 
Iroquois Longhouses of the Six Nations Reserve. Marcrn Riovux.. 


GroLtocy.—Present Cretaceous stratigraphic nomenclature of northern 
Alaska. GEORGE Gryc, W. W. Patton, JR., AND T. G. PAYNE.... 


Zootocy.—A new subgenus of Diaptomus (Copepoda: Calanoida), in- 
cluding an Asiatic species and a new species from Alaska. MuiLpREpD 
STRATTON WILSON |e 005 b.2 00 .ale ee cee cane ot clere «eee ad er 


HELMINTHOLOGy.—A new roundworm, Nematodirus rufaevastitatis (Ne- 


matoda: Trichostrongylidae), from domestic sheep, Ovis aries, in Wy- 
oming. CHARLES G. DuRBIN AND Rap F. Honmss........... 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


149 


152 


159 


168 


JUNE 1951 No. 6 


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VoLtuME 41 


June 1951 


No. 6 


ETHNOLOGY .—Was the California condor known to the Blackfoot Indians? CuaupE 
E. ScHAEFFER, Museum of the Plains Indian, Browning, Mont. (Communi- 


cated by John C. Ewers.) 


Elderly Blackfoot Indians, in recounting 
the faunal lore of a now vanished past, some- 
times refer to an immense bird, which visited 
the eastern foothills and adjacent plains of 
the Montana-Alberta region. Nearly half a 
century has elapsed, at least, since it was 
last sighted in this region. As a result, few 
living Indians claim to have seen the great 
winged creature; most know it only through 
traditions handed down from previous gen- 
erations. Agreement is general among mod- 
ern Blackfoot, however, that it was an 
uncommon, if not rare, migrant to their 
territory. The species, despite the infrequency 
of its appearance, seems to have found a 
niche in native nomenclature, as well as 
mention in their ceremonial rites, folklore, 
and procurement practices. If we have 
evaluated correctly Blackfoot descriptions 
of its appearance and habits, the bird in 
question can scarcely be other than the 
California condor, Gymnogyps californianus 
(Shaw). Although apparently thus known 
to the Blackfoot of an earlier day, the con- 
dor, strangely enough, has eluded the sight 
(and gun) of all but one white observer in 
this area. Accordingly, the wanderings of 
this “greatest of all flying birds of the earth”’ 
so far north of its recognized range have 
largely gone unnoticed by modern orni- 
thologists. It seems advisable, then, to re- 
cord here existing information on the condor 
from Blackfoot oral chronicles, in the hope 
that a new paragraph may thereby be added 
to the wildlife annals of the northwestern 
Plains. 

The possibility of the condor’s movement 
northward into the northwestern margin of 
the Plains was first brought to the writer’s at- 


181 


tention in connection with a study of Black- 
foot ornithology. As part of this inquiry, iden- 
tification of various local bird species was 
established with Indian informants and their 
respective native names recorded (Schaeffer, 
1950). After the terms for the golden eagle 
(pitaw), bald eagle (ksixkikini), and turkey 
vulture (pikokz) were collected, coverage of 
the largest Raptores was deemed complete. 
However, informants volunteered the term 
omaxsapitau, “big pitau,” and proceeded 
to describe the bird’s appearance and habits. 
A new term was thus unexpectedly added 
to the check list of Blackfoot avifauna. In- 
quiries were accordingly instituted among a 
number of the oldest Indians of the Brown- 
ing region, and their knowledge of the topic 
was explored. My sources of information are 
largely Piegan, and the data obtained refer 
primarily to Montana. A few traditions of 
Blood provenience are localized in the 
Calgary-Edmonton section of Alberta. Na- 
tive testimony is presented here essentially 
as it was secured from the Indians. Distor- 
tions of fact arising from what appear to be 
errors of observation or lapses of traditional 
continuity are indicated as such in the text. 

As a background against which to assay 
Blackfoot testimony on the condor, orni- 
thological data on that species’ range and 
incidence to the north are summarized be- 
low. The condor, reduced in numbers! and 

1 According to information based upon research 
by Dr. Carl B. Koford and communicated (11/ 
28/50) to me by Dr. Alden H. Miller, Museum of 
Vertebrate Zoology, University of California, the 
number of surviving wild specimens of the condor 
is estimated at about 60. I am also indebted to 
Dr. Miller for his reading of the first draft of the 
present paper and for pointing out certain dis- 
erepancies in the data insofar as reference to the 
condor is concerned. 


28 1989 


182 


distribution in recent times, is now confined 
to “California west of the Great Basin and 
desert regions, and northwestern Lower 
California.’’ Casually or formerly, the same 
authority (A.O.U. Check-list, p. 62) adds, 
it was reported from southeastern California, 
Oregon, and Washington. It may now be 
nearly if not actually gone from its former 
range in Baja California. In Oregon the 
presence of the condor on the lower Colum- 
bia River is attested by observers from the 
time of Lewis and Clark (1805-06) down 
to that of David Douglas (1825-27). There, 
it came in summer and fall to feed upon the 
spawned-out salmon, which lined the banks 
of the stream. For the State of Washington, 
the range is given as “north irregularly 
(west of Cascades) to northern boundary” 
(Dawson and Bowles, vol. 2, p. 548). A 
specimen was recorded at Fort Vancouver 
in 1827 (Bent, p. 12, citing Fleming). In 
1826 Douglas stated that it was a common 
species as far north as the 49th parallel 
(Macoun and Macoun, p. 239). In southwest 
British Columbia, the Macouns (p. 239) 
characterize the condor as “a rare visitant 
at the mouth of the Fraser River... ap- 
parently attracted by the dead salmon.” 
In 1880 J. Fannin reported seeing two birds 
at Burrard Inlet, while Rhoads, in 1893, 
stated that condors were reported on Lulu 
Island as late as “three or four years ago”’ 
(Bent, p. 12). 

The consensus of ornithologists in re- 
spect to the condor’s status on the Pacific 
coast north of California would seem to 
represent it as an extralimital wanderer in 
the region, particularly after the first quar- 
ter of the last century. Even on the lower 
Columbia, Harris (p. 21) remarks, “there 
is no valid evidence that it was ever an 
abundant species,’ and by the time of 
Townsend’s visit (1834-35) “it was already 
beginning to frequent this northern ex- 
tremity of its range in fewer numbers.”’ 
Similarly, Gabrielson and Jewett (pp. 180- 
181) conclude that the condor, “if ever 
common in this state [Oregon], seems to 
have become rare or almost extinct between 
Douglas’ first visit [1825-27] and the time 
of the Pacific Railway Surveys” (1855-59). 
Farther north, Dawson and Bowles (2, p. 
548) agree that ‘“‘on the whole it appears 
improbable that the California condor was 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


ever resident in Washington, certainly not 
within the memory of the white man, and 
that its northern appearances are to be 
regarded solely as the fishing excursions of 
a Southerner.”’ Taverner (p. 115) regards 
the reported occurrences in southwestern 
British Columbia as having an uncertain 
basis. 

Turning now to the eastern limits of the 
condor’s range, Dawson and Bowles (vol. 
2, p. 548) remark that it formerly extended 
to Arizona and Utah. Bent (p. 12), on the 
basis of cave remains, notes that the species 
occurred in Nevada and New Mexico. It is 
recorded also in cave deposits from the 
Chisos Mountains. Certain “dubious’’ rec- 
ords report the condor in 1877 from Fort 
Sanders, southeastern Wyoming, and from 
some point in the mountains of Colorado 
(Harris, p. 46). There are perhaps other 
references from this southeastern area which 
have escaped my attention. 

Farther to the north and more pertinent 
to our study, J. Fannin (p. 89), on Septem- 
ber 10, 1896, observed two fine specimens 
between Calgary, Alberta, and the Rocky 
Mountains. This represents the sole orni- 
thological record of the condor’s presence 
within the purview of the Blackfoot.? Fannin 
admits in his report that he was not aware 
“that this bird was found east of the Rocky 
Mountains, or so far north as the point 
above mentioned.” Later writers, such as 
the Macouns (vol. 2, p. 239), are inclined 
to doubt this occurrence so far east, es- 
pecially since no specimen was collected. 
Although accepting the same student’s sight 
record in southwestern British Columbia, 
Bent (p. 12) omits reference to the Alberta 


2 In this connection an entry from the diary of 
David Douglas (Harris, pp. 19-20), written at 
Fort Vancouver in 1827, may be quoted: ‘‘Ob- 
tained the following information concerning this 
curious bird from Etienne Lucien, one of the 
hunters who has had ample opportunity of observ- 
ng them. ... During the summer they are seen 
in great numbers in the woody parts of the Co- 
lumbia, from the ocean to the mountains of Lewis 
and Clark’s River, from four hundred miles in the 
interior”’ (italics mine). The region referred to here 
presumably is the drainage basin of the upper 
Snake River in present day Idaho. Since the source 
of this information is “the waggish Canadian 
voyageur who imparted to Douglas fantastic and 
highly imaginative misinformation regarding the 
nidification of the condor,” the reference is 
scarcely taken seriously by ornithologists. 


JUNE 1951 


observation. Harris (p. 54) comments that 
the latter “would have been less startling 
had it been reported from this region 
seventy-five years earlier.” And thus the 
case stands from the ornithological view- 
point. 

A brief ornithological description cf the 
condor may be included here, as comparative 
data against which to check Blackfoot ac- 
counts of the omaysapitau. “Length, 4 to 
4+ feet; spread of wings, 9 to 11 feet. Wings, 
long folding beyond end of square tail; 
head and neck, bare; skin, smooth, yellow 
or yellowish-orange and red; plumage, 
sooty-blackish commencing over shoulders 
with a semi-ruff of linear feathers, those 
underneath of similar character but less 
closely defined; the feathers of upper parts 
with browner tips; wings and tail black; 
outer webs of greater wing-coverts and sec- 
ondaries grayish; wing-coverts and outer 
secondaries edged with whitish; wnder wing- 
coverts, pure white; bill, dark brown changing 
gradually to dull reddish on cere; iris, deep 
red; feet, horn with a patch on knees” (Pear- 
son, p. 54). Parenthetically, while literature 
assigns a maximum wing spread of 11 feet 
the largest definite records range from 9 
feet 9 inches to 10 feet. 

We may next turn to the data representa- 
tive of Blackfoot oral sources. The 
omaxsapitau is believed by some Indian 
informants to have visited the Browning 
area as recently as the early 1900’s. Two or 
three very large birds are said to have ap- 
peared on the plains in various parts of the 
reservation about the year 1908. George 
Bull Child, one of those who saw them at the 
time, described the birds as dark in color 
and about 4 feet high. Since they took 
flight when approached closer than several 
hundred yards, he was unable to distinguish 
other salient features. At the time, however, 
older Piegan identified the species by its 
native name and recalled that it had visited 
the region at an earlier period. 

A different version of possibly this same 
occurrence was obtained from Louis Bear 
Child. He stated that about the period 
1907-08 some Gros Ventre Indians of the 
Fort Belknap Reservation, wrote Piegan 
friends that a great bird had been sighted 
in their part of north-central Montana. 
The Gros Ventre, although aware that it 


SCHAEFFER: CALIFORNIA CONDOR AND BLACKFOOT INDIANS 


183 


was a migrant from the south, were con- 
cerned over the significance of the bird’s 
appearance in their country. The Black- 
foot watched for it that year, but so far as 
Bear Child was aware, no one saw it. The 
following year an earthquake is said to have 
shaken the Fort Belknap region, an event 
which Bear Child, and perhaps the Gros 
Ventre, were inclined to associate with the 
visit of the “‘big eagle.” 

The incident best known to contemporary 
Piegan involving the omaxsapitau is that 
related of the deceased Raven (Hairy Face). 
Raven, or as he is more commonly known 
among bilingual Blackfoot, Big Crow, was 
born on the Blood Reserve in Canada but 
reared on the Montana reservation. Ac- 
counts of his experience vary somewhat in 
detail, but the following version is one told 
by Richard Sanderville (age 82). Big Crow 
and his wife were returning from Old Agency 
to their home on Little Badger Creek. In 
a coulee near the latter place, Big Crow 
noticed a large object some distance off, 
which he at first believed was a cow. Upon 
approaching closer, however, he saw that 
it was an immense, dark-colored bird, with 
a feathered ruff and a bald head. The strange 
creature took wing and flew off to the 
mountains. Sanderville remarked that Big 
Crow was not familiar with the species or 
with its native name. Further, upon hearing 
of his experience later, several of his friends 
are said to have evinced incredulity. The 
year in which this occurrence took place, 
so far as Sanderville could date it, was 1897. 
Thereafter, in accordance with the Black- 
foot year count, the year became known as 
“that in which Big Crow saw the oma- 
xsapitau.” 

Another episode of this character was re- 
called by Sanderville. Mary Jane, daughter 
of the Piegan Red Paint, married a white 
man named Pfemster or Phemister. One 
summer she and her husband moved into 
the Chief Mountain district of what is now 
Glacier National Park to hunt and _ fish. 
While in camp one day they saw four very 
large birds. Two of them appeared to be 
immature, just learning to fly, while the 
others, believed to be the parent birds, 
soared overhead. The observers considered 
that the adult pair had nested (sic) on 
Chief Mountain that summer. From mem- 


184 


ory Sanderville placed the date of this oc- 
currence in 1879. Mary Jane died in 1942 at 
the presumed age of 89. 

Rides at the Door (age 87), one of the few 
surviving Piegan with a record in inter- 
tribal warfare, is said to have seen a “big 
eagle’ while raiding for horses somewhere to 
the south. Handicapped by deafness, this 
aged warrior was unable to supply further 
details of his experience. 

An incident related by Chewing Black 
Bones (age 83) also involved an encounter 
by a group of Piegan raiders with a “big 
eagle.” The narrator’s father, Brocky (Tail 
Feathers Coming Over a Hill), a prominent 
Piegan warrior, was a member of the party. 
Led by Heavy Runner, the warriors set out 
to steal horses from the Crow Indians. They 
had traveled as far as “Bear Creek,” an 
unidentified stream located west of the 
present Crow Reservation in southeastern 
Montana. Heavy Runner, who was in the 
lead, looked up to see a very large bird 
flying directly before them. Its wingspread 
and length of tail, the raiders noted, ex- 
ceeded those of the eagle. The sight was so 
unusual that Heavy Runner immediately 
accepted it as a portent bearing upon the 
success of their venture. Accordingly he 
warned his companions, saying, “I have 
never seen a bird of this kind. Now that it 
has appeared before us, I am afraid. It 
seems to be trying to head us off. The out- 
come of our raid is now in doubt. We had 
better turn back.”’ Most of the party agreed, 
and they and Heavy Runner returned home. 
Of the six who continued on, five were killed 
by the enemy. Since Heavy Runner was 
killed in the Baker Massacre of 1870, the 
date of this raid may be set in the 1860's. 
Chewing Black Bones believed that the 
bird’s appearance upon this occasion and 
others was prophetic of misfortune. In sup- 
port of his contention, he cited the death 
of the five raiders and the extinction of the 
previously mentioned Big Crow’s family 
line. 

Dog Takes a Gun (age 85) was born on 
the Blood Reserve in Alberta but spent 
most of his hfe among the Montana Piegan. 
He recalls his parents’ account of an oma- 
xsapitau sighted near Calgary shortly be- 
fore the time of his birth. The date is to be 
placed in the early 1860’s. Again the great 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


size of the bird was emphasized. While 
feeding, it was said to lean forward so far 
that its breast nearly touched the ground. 
A tailfeather, described as about 2 feet in 
length, was dropped by this particular 
bird in flight and picked up by native ob- 
servers. My informant added that the wing 
of another “big eagle” killed in this region 
equaled, when fully extended, the distance 
from a man’s shoulder across his chest to 
the fingertips of his opposite outstretched 
arm.* 

The next incident involves an encounter 
with the omaysapitaw by an Indian eagle 
trapper, now deceased. It was the practice 
of the Blackfoot, as with other tribes of the 
Northern Plains, to secure the feathers used 
in their costumes and ceremonial equipment 
from the golden eagle taken in concealed 
traps. Briefly, the procedure involved dig- 
ging a shallow pit upon some eminence, 
covering it with brush and grass, and plac- 
ing a stuffed coyote skin on top as bait. As 
the eagle alighted to feed, the hunter con- — 
cealed within the pit, seized both legs of the 
bird, drew it down towards him, and dis- 
patched it. Some degree of hazard was in- 
volved in this activity, in that failure to hold 
the captive securely often resulted in inflic- 
tion of painful wounds from its talons. The 
supernatural powers attributed to the eagle 
evoked a series of conciliatory rites on the 
part of the trapper preceding and following 
its seizure. 

White Bear, a conjuror and eagle trapper,* 
was a Cree by birth but intermarried among 
and lived with the Blood tribe of Black- 
foot most of his life. He was said to have 
been about 83 years old at the time of his 
death in 1995. About 1850 White Bear was 
taking eagles in the region south of Edmon- 
ton, when an omaxsapitaw visited his trap. 


> Dog Takes a Gun claims to have seen this 
wing in the possession of a curio dealer in Calgary 
some 10 years ago. 

4 White Bear is noteworthy because of another 
practice attributed to him by his grandson. To tie 
himself up in the Houdini trick preliminary to a 
conjuring performance, he employed the leather 
thong, which also served as his ceremonial pack 
line (See Speck, 1935, p. 203, for the nimaban or 
ceremonial game carrying string of the Naskapi). 
The multiple functions thus assigned to the pack 
line opens up an interesting topic of investigation. 
So far as 1am aware, the ceremonial game carrying 
string has never been reported among the Plains 

ree. 


June 1951 


Looking through the brush screen, he saw 
an immense bird soaring high in the air. 
After circling several times, the bird de- 
scended to the ground near the pit. It was 
quite wary, and only after considerable 
hesitation did it approach the bait. By this 
time White Bear had observed its size and 
concluded that it would be too difficult to 
capture, except at the risk of injury to him- 
self. Seizing the stick used to frighten off 
the bald eagle, he thrust it through the pit 
cover and frightened the intruder away. 
Later he described it as the largest bird he 
had ever seen. It was dark in color with 
brown-striped tailfeathers (sic). Its head 
and hooked beak were large and its legs 
coarsely scaled. This incident was narrated 
by the grandson of the trapper, Harry 
Under Mouse. 

Traditional information from a more 
distant past was secured from Yellow Kid- 
ney (age 80), whose knowledge of the earlier 
life and customs of the Piegan is extensive. 
In this connection he described the ap- 
pearance and habits of the omaxsapitaw in 
some detail. He referred to the character- 
istics of immense size and dark color, the 
great wingspread, and the elongated tail. 
He drew attention to the white underparts 
of the wings (sic) and, in contrast to the 
bald and immature golden eagle, the dark 
spots in the tailfeathers (sic). He described 
the large, hooked beak as dark blue, shading 
to yellow at the base. The head plumage 
(sic) was characterized as brownish in color. 

Yellow Kidney was aware that the “big 
eagle’s”” home range lay far to the south 
and that it appeared infrequently in sum- 
mer as far north as Montana and Alberta. 
Long ago he had been told by elderly Piegans 
that the great birds were attracted to this 
northern country by the remains of bison 
slain by the Indians on the plains. Richard 
Sanderville, it should be noted, also recalled 
traditions of their being seen feeding upon 
bison careasses. At other times the omax- 
sapitaw were sighted high in the air above 
the Blackfoot camps in the foothills. They 
would soar in wide circles and suddenly 
dart off at great speed towards the moun- 
tains to the west. There, early in the evening, 
the great birds sought rest atop some pre- 
cipitous cliff, “where they slept with their 
heads tucked beneath their wings.”’ 


SCHAEFFER: CALIFORNIA CONDOR AND BLACKFOOT INDIANS 


185 


Yellow Kidney believed that long ago 
the Blackfoot succeeded, upon rare occa- 
sions, in capturing the “big eagle.” At that 
time the conciliatory practices and disposal 
rites ordinarily associated with the young 
golden eagle were transferred to the omax- 
sapitau. The former bird, with its predom- 
inantly white tailfeathers, was considered a 
prize catch by all native trappers and special 
ceremonial treatment was accorded its 
remains. The informant went on to say that 
occasionally the nest (sic) of the omaysapttau 
was so situated that hunters were able to 
make their way to it. Then the fledglings 
were removed, reared in captivity, and 
killed at maturity for their feathers. Seven 
primaries were detached from one wing and 
put aside for ritual disposal. The remaining 
wing primaries, the outer tailfeathers, the 


claws, and the wing-bones—humeri or 
ulnae—were then utilized for decorative and 
other purposes. The best feathers were 


employed for headdresses, the claws drilled 
for necklaces, and the wing-bones worked 
into whistles. 

The flight powers of the “big eagle” 
enabled it to mount far into the sky and thus 
approach more closely to the Sun, the great 
celestial being of Blackfoot worship. As a 
result, the bird was believed to acquire a 
degree of the Sun’s sacred character. The 
golden eagle, the white bison, the mountain 
lion, and a number of other birds and ani- 
mals, by virtue of this or other attributes, 
were considered endowed with the same 
solar power. Hence to justify taking the life 
of one of these sacred creatures, as well as 
to avert subsequent misfortune, the Black- 
foot sacrificed, whole or in part, its flesh and 
skin to the Sun. Accordingly, the seven 
wing primaries of the omaxsapitaw were at- 
fixed to the tanned hide of a bison ealf. 
They were arranged so that the quills came 
together at a point, with the distal ends 
spaced equidistant about a semicirele.® The 


° Offerings thus made to a supernatural being 
appear to represent an old practice in Northern 
Plains cultures. Some years ago Wissler (p. 106, 
fn. 1) observed on the Blackfoot reservation a 
group of such offerings near a stone shelter used in 
the vision quest. They consisted of ‘tan old coat, a 
shirt tied to a stick, and a peculiar fan-shaped 
object of twigs distended by being bound to a hoop 
of the same material. On the projecting ends of the 
twigs were eagle feathers. ... We were told that 
such fanlike objects were often used when making 


186 


robe thus adorned was placed on top of a 
sweatlodge built for the occasion. Four 
medicine bundle owners of advanced age 
were then invited to enter the lodge, and 
while sweating, they prayed to the Sun for 
good fortune in various activities of life. 
At the conclusion of the observance, a youth 
carried away the decorated robe and placed 
it on a hilltop as a gift to the Sun.® 
Previously an episode was given that 
involved an unexpected and possibly un- 
welcome visit of the omaysapitau to the 
eagle trap. According to Yellow Kidney, 
however, it was the practice of an earlier 
generation of Blackfoot to take the great 
bird occasionally by this method, despite 
its wariness and size. In this case the im- 
mediate purpose was procurement of spirit- 
ual rather than material benefits. The 
trapper, it was explained, vowed to the Sun 
that if permitted to capture a “big eagle,”’ 
he would, in the native idiom, “place fine 
pemmican’ in its mouth.” It was now ex- 
pected that the normally shy bird, perhaps 
directed by the Sun, would circle the trap 
in flight and descend to the bait. The sup- 
pliant would then grasp its legs, immediately 
thrust forward a wooden billet for its talons 
to embed themselves (sic), pull it into the 
pit, place his knee upon its back and dis- 
locate its neck. No part of the dead bird 
would be taken for the trapper’s use. In- 
stead, he removed the skin and mounted it 
in a lifelike manner, placed a morsel of 
pemmican in its beak, and abandoned it 
upon a hill as an offering to the Sun. In 
return for his sacrifice, the trapper antici- 
pated that the spirit of the dead bird would 
appear to him in a dream and offer its super- 
natural power. The visitant would then 
say, “My name is omaysapitau. I am known 
over all the earth. I am glad that you have 
treated me so well and offered me to the 
Sun. I will help you in any way that you may 
desire.’”’ Again it should be pointed out that 


sun offerings.’’? The Kutenai similarly attached a 
small gift to a wooden hoop made of a twig as an 
offering to one of their supernatural spirits. 

6 For an account of Blackfoot sweat lodge rites 
and the disposition of offerings, see Wissler, pp. 
259-62. 

7 A choice item of Blackfoot diet made from the 
tenderloin and marrow fat of the bison, mixed with 
berries and, for ceremonial purposes such as the 
above, divided into small pieces. 


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vou. 41, No. 6: 


these rites were ordinarily associated with 
the young golden eagle. 

In a dream revelation of this kind it was: 
not unusual for the spiritual benefactor to. 
bestow its name upon the human suppliant. 
The term omaxsapitau thus appears to have 
entered the Blackfoot system of individual 
names some generations ago. According to 
Yellow Kidney, a Piegan named Bird Flying 
High (pikstpodnsin) was blessed in this way 
by the ‘‘big eagle.” He belonged to a group 
of the Fat-roasters band, which intermarried 
among the Blood Indians and went to live 
with them in Canada. The great bird, it is 
stated, appeared to him in a dream and said, 
“T will give you my name. You will be 
called omaxsapttau. You will become chief 
of your band and live to a very old age.” 
Bird Flying High thereupon adopted the 
name of Big Eagle, and the dream vision was 
consummated by his later rise to the position 
of band chief. Yellow Kidney claims that 
when he was a small child he saw Big Eagle, 
who was already advanced in age at that 
time. Hence the latter’s dream experience 
may be placed some time in the period be- 
fore 1850. 

Big Eagle, following his dream experience, 
wore suspended from his hair two tail- 
feathers of the omaxsapitau, to which a 
medal was attached as a support. The former 
were a symbolical representation of his 
spiritual power from the “big eagle’; the 
latter, his power from the Sun. Yellow 
Kidney, in his early childhood, saw the 
supernatural token and recalled that the 
feathers surpassed those of the eagle in 
length. At times, our informant stated, Big 
Eagle would demonstrate his spiritual gifts. 
through the use of his feather token. He 
would direct his friends, “Look up at the 
Sun. Do you see anything around it?” They 
would look and fail to see anything unusual. 
Then Big Eagle would begin the power song 
given him by the Sun, “When I come up to 
the top of the hill, I shall see all about me.” 
As he sang, he motioned with one of the 
feathers as if marking out a spot above the 
Sun. A sun dog (parhelion) would there- 
upon appear beside it. In this way, accord- 
ing to Yellow Kidney, who witnessed the 
feat in his youth, Big Eagle could produce 
as many as four sun dogs about the Sun at 
one time. 


JUNE 1951 


Information regarding another Black- 
foot, who more recently bore the name of 
Big Eagle, was given by Harry Under 
Mouse. The source of the latter’s data was 
Small Eyes, a prominent native ritualist on 
the Gleichen Reserve, Alberta. This Big 
Eagle, it appears, was a member of the All- 
Short-People band of the Blackfoot proper. 
He married a Blood woman and lived for 
some years among the members of that 
tribe. Big Eagle fasted for power in the 
region northwest of Calgary. On the top 
of Deyil’s Head Mountain, he sacrificed a 
piece of his flesh to the Sun. On nearby 
Bald Butte he then offered up to the “big 
eagle,’ a Cree foeman, whom he had killed 
at the spirit bird’s request. In return he 
received supernatural power for use in war- 
fare from both spiritual beings. As a symbol 
of his aerial protector, Big Eagle carried a 
tailfeather of an omaxsapitau. Before start- 
ing out upon a raid, he would stick the 
feather upright in the ground by the cere- 
monial altar. The direction in which it fell 
during the night indicated the way he must 
travel to obtain horses from the enemy.*® 

The skill of the second Big Eagle as a 
raider was said to have depended, in part, 
upon his use of a root with soporific power. 
After rubbing some of it upon the feather 
token, he would chew a small piece and spit 
upon both his hands. Then, taking the 
feather, he would motion with it in a peculiar 
way and thereby cause an enemy sentry to 
fall into a deep sleep. By this means he is 
said to have stolen 200 horses from the 
Assiniboine and driven them safely home. 
Through his power to put the occupants of 
an enemy lodge asleep, Big Eagle is also 
credited with acquiring from adjacent tribes 
one or more pipe bundles, which were later 
passed down among the Blackfoot. On one 
oceasion, it was narrated, he was surrounded 
by hostile Cree on the top of Devil’s Head 
Mountain. Through use of his supernatural 
power Big Eagle rendered himself and his 
party invisible and safely passed through 
the enemy lines. When the Cree advanced 
to the summit, the only living thing seen 

8 On the basis of preliminary results of a study 
now in progress, the Blackfoot iniskim or buffalo 
stone was employed in an analogous manner to 
determine, at certain times, the direction in which 


to hunt buffalo and, at others, to predict the out- 
come of the hunt. 


SCHAEFFER: CALIFORNIA CONDOR AND BLACKFOOT INDIANS 


187 


there was a great, dark-colored bird, which 
flew away. Big Eagle is said to have died 
in 1925, advanced in years. His son, Steven 
Fox (Short Crow or Thunder Chief), who 
now resides on the Blood Reserve, is said to 
have borne the name of Big Eagle during 
his younger years. The feather token of the 
elder Big Hagle came into possession of 
Small Eyes, but its present whereabouts 
are now unknown. 

Harry Under Mouse informs me that other 
tangible remains of the omaysapitaw sur- 
vived as late as a decade ago among the 
Cree Indians of Hobbema, south of Ed- 
monton. He had been told by a Cree from 
that place that the ceremonial regalia of a 
performer in the Grass Dance consisted of 
the stuffed body, wings, and tail of one of 
these birds. The regalia was designed to be 
tied to the dancer’s back, so that the con- 
dor’s head rose above that of the wearer, 
the body and spread tail hung downward 
nearly to the ground, and an extended wing 
was attached to each arm. During the dance 
the wearer imitated the flight and other 
actions of the “big eagle.’’ The bird that 
supplied this skin was presumably killed 
in this area by the Cree at some period in 
the past. 

Native testimony in respect to the “big 
eagle” may be concluded by reference to 
its place in Blackfoot folklore. It will scarcely 
come as a surprise to learn that the omax- 
sapitau has become identified with the myth- 
ical roc in a Blood version of that tale.’ The 
protagonist of the legend, according to 
Harry Under Mouse, is the aforementioned 
White Bear, “who first learned what and 
where the omaxsapitaw was.” As a result 
of his encounter with the bird, White Bear 
is said to have borne for a time the name of 


°The Roe legend is perhaps widespread in 
North America. I have made no effort to trace its 
distribution in the Plains or adjacent areas in 
connection with this study. It may be noted in 
passing that a generalized version of the Blackfoot 
tale was obtained in 1947 from the Upper Kutenai, 
of Elmo, Montana, who assign its origin to the 
Sarsi. Fisher (p. 253) refers to the myth of an eagle 
or mythieal bird abductor among such Algonkian- 
speaking groups, as the Miemac, Passamaquoddy, 
Malecite, Montagnais-Naskapi, Cree, Ojibwa, 
Menomini, Gros Ventre, and Cheyenne. Future 
folklorists, who trace the distribution of the 
myth, may well consider the condor as a possible 
influence in its western diffusion. 


188 


Big Eagle. The tale, it may be pointed out, 
conforms, in general, to the Blackfoot pat- 
tern of an individual’s experience in the 
power quest. 


The Blood tribe was encamped in the vicinity 
of moder Edmonton. Food was scarce and 
parties of hunters scattered out in different 
directions to search for game. Upon their return 
at night, one member of a party would be missing. 
Men continued to disappear in this way for 
some time. 

Finally a party of four went out a long way to 
hunt. Near the place called Devil’s Head, they 
put up a brush shelter for several days’ stay. 
That night they sang their supernatural power 
songs for good luck in the next day’s hunt. The 
following morning the four men started out, 
each in a different direction. All agreed to meet 
at camp that night. 

A light snow fell that day. One of the hunters 
killed a deer. He butchered it and tied the meat 
in a pack upon his back. Then he started back 
for camp, using his bow as a cane to support the 
load. Walking along with his head bowed, he 
suddenly saw the shadow of a great bird upon 
the snow. He felt the bird grasp at the meat on 
his back, and the next instant realized that he 
was rising in the air. Too frightened now to look 
down, he closed his eyes. After a brief period he 
felt solid ground beneath his feet and lay back 
with the pack still in place. He opened his eyes 
to see that he was in a large nest surrounded by 
the bones of deer, bison calves and even human 
beings. It came to him then that the last repre- 
sented the remains of those hunters recently lost. 

He sat up and looked around. The nest was 
located upon a high cliff, from which escape 
seemed impossible. Nearby was an immense bird, 
which cried in a strange way. The hunter realized 
this was the creature that had carried people 
away. He called upon the Sun for aid. Beside 
him were two young birds, scarcely able to fly. 
He began to pray to them for help. Untying his 
pack, the hunter threw bits of meat to them, 
which they ate. He continued doing this in order 
to bring them closer. 

Finally, he pushed the whole chunk of meat 
over. The feeding birds were now within reach. 
He quickly grasped their legs in each of his 
hands. They began to flap their wings, nearly 
jerking him into the air. Still retaining his hold, 
he inched over to the edge of the cliff. Then he 
pushed the birds off into space, throwing himself 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


off at the same instant. Again he closed his eyes. 
He found that the flight power of the birds, 
although insufficient to support his weight, served 
to check his descent to the ground. It seemed a 
long way down. Finally he landed in safety. 
Before releasing his rescuers, he detached the 
longest feather from the tail of each bird. Then 
he started to make his way home. 

It was late in the evening when he arrived at 
camp. He recognized the cries of his wife and 
parents, who were mourning atop a nearby hill. 
As he listened, someone went over and led them 
back to their lodge. He looked inside the lodge 
and saw that his people had cut off thei hair 
and gashed their arms and legs. Only then did 
he realize that they were mourning his death. 
Going inside, he greatly surprised the occupants. 
They could scarcely believe that he was alive, 
but he convinced them that he was not a ghost. 

The hunter then asked his wife to invite the 
old men of the camp to his lodge. His mother be- 
gan to prepare food for them. After all had eaten, 
he related his experience and as proof displayed 
the tail feathers of the young birds. As the old 
men examined the trophies, they noted that 
they were nearly the length of a grown person’s 
arm. The hunter’s companions, who had also 
returned by this time, told how they had followed 
his tracks to where they ended in the snow and 
picked up his bow nearby. In this way it became 
known what creatures had caused the people to 
disappear. As a result of this incident, the hunter 
later received supernatural power from the “big 
eagle.” 


Accounts from Blackfoot oral sources 
previously set forth in respect to the omax- 
sapitau and its place in the ethno-ornithology 
of that group may now be summarized. 
The identification of the omaxsapitau as 
the condor and the latter’s occurrence in 
Blackfoot territory rests upon three types 
of traditional evidence: (1) a series of native 
sight records made over a period of half a 
century or more, (2) reflections of identity 
and presence in various aspects of Black- 
foot culture, and (3) notions of modern 
Indians regarding the bird’s size, habits, 
and appearance derived from (1) and (2). 
The second of these types of data has been 
adequately treated in the body of this 
study. Hence, it will suffice to summarize 
in some detail the remaining two. 

As a rough measure of the validity of our 


JUNE 1951 


data, we may comment briefly here upon 
the degree of interest manifested by the 
Blackfoot in the avian world. In general, 
it may be said, wildfowl represented a seg- 
ment of the local fauna and flora, which, 
together with the Blackfoot and their cul- 
tural structure, constituted a closely knit 
biotic community of the northwestern 
Plains. The place of the Blackfoot in such an 
ecological system may be epitomized by 
Speck’s characterization (1921, p. 349) of 
the Algonkians of the northeastern forests, 
a comment that applies equally well to their 
linguistic congeners of the plains: “The 
native Indians live much closer to Nature 
than most white people could hope to do. 
Their knowledge of wildlife is therefore in- 
exhaustable in quantity, though it is often 
far from being scientifically correct.” The 
Blackfoot, dependent predominantly upon 
the bison for subsistence, were better mam- 
malogists, perhaps, than ornithologists. 
Nevertheless, the group built up over gen- 
erations an extensive body of knowledge 
based upon observation of the local avifauna, 
the influence of which pervaded such varied 
fields as hunting and trapping, material 
crafts and decorative arts, curing practices, 
folklore, and ceremonial rites, songs, and 
dances. As a result, most Blackfoot became 
acquainted from childhood with the appear- 
ance, habits and culturally defined attri- 
butes of the avian species within their ken. 
It is against this background of familiarity 
that native testimony on the omaxsapitau 
should be evaluated. 

In respect to the physical features and 
habits of the omaxsapitau, nearly all Black- 
foot traditions stressed the factors of great 
size and dark color. Other elements cited 
by one or more informants, include the 
naked head, the feather ruff, the dark, 
hooked beak, the length and power of the 
wings, the white area underwing, the ex- 
tended tailfeathers, and the coarsely scaled 
legs. Reference was also made to the bird’s 
wariness, its habit of soaring in great cir- 
cles and suddenly darting off at great speed, 
and the inclined posture in feeding. Certain 
of these traits, such as the feathered ruff, 
bald head, great size, ete., are sufficiently 
distinctive of the condor to suggest identity. 

In contrast to the preceding list of char- 
acteristic traits must be set others atypical 


SCHAEFFER: CALIFORNIA CONDOR AND BLACKFOOT INDIANS 


189 


of the condor. Such discrepancies in our 
data have been noted wherever recognized. 
Some, no doubt, represent errors introduced 
unconsciously into the flow of Blackfoot 
traditions. Others appear to be traits trans- 
ferred by native observers from the golden 
eagle to the omaxsapitau. Nidification in the 
eastern foothills of the Rockies, undoubt- 
edly, represents one such case. The pred- 
atorial habit assigned in the Blood legend 
to a scavenger species is another. It may be 
recalled that the Indians classified the 
omaxsapttau, both taxonomically and _ ter- 
minologically, with the golden eagle. Only 
one informant, Jim White Calf, seemed 
aware of the former’s genetic relationship 
to the turkey vulture. The confusion evi- 
dent in the minds of native ornithologists 
may have been the result of the condor’s 
infrequent appearances in this area, in 
modern if not in earlier times. Few Black- 
foot during the last century have ever seen 
the species at close hand or over a period 
of time. In view of this unfamiliarity, it is 
surprising that greater errors have not been 
introduced in native descriptions. Such, 
then, represents the traditional evidence 
upon which identifications of the condor 
must, at the moment, rest. 

Turning next to the reported occurrences 
of the omaxsapitau in Blackfoot territory, 
we find that they are placed by native ob- 
servers, both living and dead, at irregular 
intervals from the early 1900’s back to the 
middle of the previous century. Of such ap- 
pearances, the least credible, perhaps, is 
that of 1907-08, a date posterior to the 
final sight record (Rhoads) of the condor 
on the north Pacific coast!? by more than a 
decade. Raven’s reported observation of 
the omaxsapitaw in 1897 comes within a 
year of Fannin’s sight record near Calgary. 
Preceding these appearances is the Phemister 
occurrence of the 1870’s; those of Takes a 
Gun’s parents and Brocky’s of the 1860’s; 
and White Bear’s of the 1850’s. The testi- 
mony of Yellow Kidney in respect to the 
Indian named Big Eagle and to other topies, 
seems referable to a still earlier period. 
From these data, scanty and unsatisfactory 


1 Gabrielson and Jewett (p. IS1) report, on the 
basis of what appears to them good authority, the 
presence of two or more condors in southern 
Oregon in 1903 and again in 1904. 


190 


as they are, it would seem that the condor 
appeared in the Montana-Alberta region 
prior to the 1850’s sufficiently often to leave 
a definite impress upon Blackfoot institu- 
tions and thus give rise to the traditions 
related by Yellow Kidney. Such seasonal 
movement of the condor northward along 
the Continental Divide may, perhaps, paral- 
lel its observed wanderings (1805-34) up 
the west coast to the lower Columbia and 
the Fraser. In subsequent decades the species 
was seen less frequently in Montana and 
Alberta, as well as along the coast, until 
its terminal appearance in both regions Just 
before the close of the century. 

A final point already mentioned in our 
study calls for elaboration here. The histor- 
ical sources indicate that the condor was 
attracted to the lower Columbia and lower 
Fraser Rivers by the multitude of dead, 
migrant salmon, which in autumn lined the 
banks of those streams. What comparable 
food resource, it may be asked, served to 
draw the species to the northwestern margin 
of the Plains? The black-tailed deer!! im- 
mediately comes to mind, the range of which 
has been shown to closely overlap that of 
the condor (Elliott, p. 122). However, it 
seems more probable, as native traditions 
suggest, that the bird’s major item of sub- 
sistence in this region lay in the readily ac- 
cessible remains of bison killed by the Black- 
foot and their neighbors. As Ewers (p. 358) 
has recently pointed out, the impounding 
of bison at drive sites was largely carried 
on by the Blackfoot late m fall and early 
in winter, a period which found the condor 
absent from the north. However, a plentiful 
supply of meat in this area was assured dur- 
ing the warmer months of the year. Then 
the hunt was also organized on a coopera- 
tive, group basis in the form of the sur- 
round on horseback, or at an earlier period, 
on foot. The abandonment by hunters of 
bison bones and offals at this season, which 
in fall supplied tallow and meat for the man- 

1 One authority believes that the condor pre- 
ferred deer meat to any other. He observes that 
“they can make hash of a dead deer, sheep or other 
small animals; yet it seems that they have not the 
power to cut through the skin of a horse, cow or 
other large animal until the meat is somewhat de- 


composed”’ (Elliott, pp. 123-24, quoting Pem- 
berton). 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


ufacture of pemmican, afforded a source of 
diet for the condor and other carnivorous 
creatures. 

In conclusion, information gathered from 
Blackfoot traditionalists suggests, in the 
writer’s opinion, the condor’s former move- 
ment northward, as a casual and infrequent 
visitant, along the eastern slopes of the 
Rockies as far as Montana and Alberta. 
The evidence for this statement 1s scarcely 
of a nature as to win acceptance from mod- 
ern ornithologists, whose standards of proof 
require something more tangible than sight 
records or native traditions. The present 
study, however, is designed to stimulate 
further investigation of the topic. Inquiries 
should be carried out among Canadian 
Blackfoot and adjacent Cree, from whom 
significant information, and, even more 
concrete evidence of the species’ identity 
and presence may still be obtained. If such 
data are forthcoming, it will be possible to 
add, in the words of one student, ‘“‘another 
section to the jigsaw puzzle of Gymnogyps’ 
extra-limital wanderings.”” Until that time, 
memories of the ‘‘big eagle’ will continue 
to be preserved among the descendants of 
those bison-hunting tribesmen, who long 
ago observed its great, sweeping flights from 
out of the fastnesses of the Rockies. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ Union. Check-list of 
North American birds, ed. 4. 1931. 

Bent, Artuur C. Life histories of North American 
birds of prey, part 1.U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 167. 
1937. 

Dawson, Won. L., and Bowtks, Joun H. The birds 
of Washington, 2 vols. Seattle, 1909. 

Exiiorr, Cuarues (ed.). Fading trails: The story 
of endangered American wildlife. New York, 
1943. 

Ewers, Joun C. The last bison drives of the Black- 
foot Indians. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 
39: 355-360. 1949. 

Fannin, J. The California vulture in Alberta. Auk 
14: 89. 1897. 

Fisoer, Marcaret W. The mythology of the north- 
ern and northeastern Algonkians in reference 
to Algonkian mythology as a whole. In ‘Man 
in Northeastern North America,’’ Frederick 
Johnson (ed.). Pap. Robert S. Peabody Foun- 
dation for Arch. 3: 226-262. 1946. 

GaABRIELSON, IRA N., and Jewrrr, STANLEY G. 
Birds of Oregon. Corvallis, 1940. 

Harris, Harry. The annals of Gymnogyps to 
1900. Condor 48: 3-55. 1941. 


JUNE 1951 


Macotn, JoHn and James H. Catalogue of Cana- 
dian birds. Geological Survey of Canada, 
Ottawa, 1909. 

PEARSON, Grupert T. (ed.). Birds of America. 
Garden City, 1936. 

ScHAEFFER, CiLaupE E. Bird nomenclature and 
principles of avian taxonomy of the Blackfeet 
Indians. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 40: 
37-46. 1950. 

Speck, FRANK G. Bird-lore of the Northern Indians. 


STRIMPLE: NEW DESMOINESIAN CRINOIDS 


191 


Public Lectures by Univ. of Pennsylvania 

Faculty, 1919-20, 7: 349-380. 1921. 

. Naskapi: The savage hunters of the Labrador 
Peninsula. Norman, Okla., 1935. 

TAVERNER, P. A. Birds of Canada. Dept. of Mines, 
Nat. Mus. Canada, Bull. 72, biol. ser. 19. 
Ottawa, 1934. 

Wisster, Cuark. Ceremonial bundles of the Black- 
foot Indians. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. Anthrop. 
Pap. 7 (2). 1912. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—New Desmoinesian crinoids. HARRELL L. Srrmpxe, Bartles- 
ville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


Glaukosocrinus, n. gen., 1s here proposed 
with G. parvisculus (Moore and Plummer), 
n. comb. as the genotype species. Descrip- 
tion of Aeszocrinus erectus, n. sp., Acrocrinus 
expansus, n. sp., Lecythiocrinus optimus, n. 
sp., and Schistocrinus ovalis, n. sp., 1s given. 
All figured specimens are from exposures of 
the Oologah limestone formation, sometimes 
referred to the Altamont limestone of Kan- 
sas, Des Moines series, Pennsylvanian, lo- 
cated east of Tulsa, Okla. 


Glaukosocrinus, n. gen. 


Dorsal cup moderately low truncate, semi- 
globular with deep basal invagination. Columnar 
sear small, round, occupying the median portion 
of a relatively large IBB circlet. Five small IBB 
are restricted to basal concavity. Five moder- 
ately large BB form a part of the lateral calyx 
walls and flex strongly inward to form sides of 
the basal concavity. Five large RR have short 
articulating processes which are directed mildly 
outward. Outer surfaces of RR curve in to form 
adsutural slopes between articulating facets. 
Anal X is large, pentagonal and does not extend 
into the interbrachial region. RA is pentagonal 
and rests on r. post. and post. BB. It supports 
a small pentagonal RX, which extends only 
slightly into the interbrachial area. 

Genotype.—Malaiocrinus parvisculus 
and Plummer (1940). 

Known range.—Des Moines series; Pennsyl- 
vanian; North America. 

Discussion.—This form was referred to Mala- 
tocrinus Wanner (1924) by Moore and Plummer 
(1940). It has certain characteristics superficially 
similar to that genus and may represent a trend 
of specialization leading to the genus but certain 
factors seem sufficient to warrant separation. 
Malaiocrinus has anal plates of normal structure 


Moore 


in normal (primitive) arrangement. Anal X is 
hexagonal. In Glaukosocrinus the anal plate is 
pentagonal and does not extend above the normal 
cup height. The radial articulating facets of 
Malaiocrinus are long, directed strongly outward 
and the columnar scar is very large, almost en- 
tirely covering the IBB plates. Glaukosocrinus 
has short radial articulating facets directed only 
slightly outward and the columnar scar is small. 


Glaukosocrinus parvisculus (Moore and 
Plummer), n. comb. 


Figs. 13-16 


This species has been adequately described. 
The specimen figured herein was collected by the 
author in the stone quarry some 7 miles east of 
Tulsa, Okla. 


Genus Aesiocrinus Miller and Gurley, 1890 
Aesiocrinus erectus, n. sp. 


Figs. 9-12 


Dorsal cup is broad, truncate bowl-shaped. 
Five IBB form a large pentagonal-shaped disk 
with slightly depressed median section. Five 
large BB curve into the subhorizontal basal area 
but also comprise a good portion of the lateral 
cup walls. Five large RR have arm articulating 
facets directed slightly outward and not entirely 
filling the distal faces of the plates. Outer liga- 
ment furrow is shallow but well defined. Liga- 
ment pit furrow is shallow and ligament pit is 
sharply impressed. Transverse ridges are sharply 
defined, narrow lateral furrows are backed by 
unusually long oblique ridges. Muscle sears are 
limited in area and are deeply impressed. Inter- 
muscular notches and furrows are broad and 
short. The right shoulder of 1. post. B is extended 
and has an extra facet for reception of an anal 
tube plate. R. post. R and the anal plate are 


192 


missing in the holotype but measurements leave 
no doubt as to the existence of only one anal 
plate in the posterior interradius, which plate 
was in broad contact with the post. B. 

The entire surface of the dorsal cup is mildly 
granular in appearance. Depressions occur at the 
apices of RR and BB. Columnar scar is decidedly 
pentagonal in outline. Maximum width of dorsal 
cup is 18.5 mm, height 8.2 mm. 

Remarks.—The general contour of the dorsal 
cup of A. erectus is very similar to that of several 
species of Plummericrinus Moore and Laudon 
(1943) and is quite unlike that of any other spe- 
cies of Aestocrinus. Characteristics, other than 
general appearance, in common with Plummeri- 
crinus are the depressions at the angles of BB and 
RR and the extension of the outer surfaces of RR 
into the adsutural area between the arm articu- 
lating processes. However, Plummericrinus has 
three anal plates in the posterior interradius and 
a round stem. 

Occurrence.—Stone quarry some 7 miles east 
of Tulsa, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by the author. To be 
deposited in the U. S. National Museum. 


Genus Acrocrinus Yandell, 1846 
Acrocrinus expansus, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, 17-20 


Dorsal cup is of moderate height, wide at the 
base and mildly constricted at the distal ex- 
tremity. Two BB of equal size are confined to a 
shallow basal concavity. The walls of the basal 
depression are composed of two circlets of small 


e.g 
010 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


plates. Five RR are hexagonal and are adjoining 
except where interrupted by the large anal X in 
the posterior interradius. Articular facets are 
small, horse shoe shaped. 

The BB and RR are separated by about six 
circlets of plates which are designated as inter- 
calaries (11). In the first circlet below the RR and 
anal X series, there are 12 hexagonal ii', 14 ii?, 
16 ii’, and 14 ii*. Exact placement of succeeding 
series is difficult owing to slight irregularities and 
the incipient nature of those nearest the BB. 
Plates of the posterior interray continue un- 
broken to the BB disk and also in the anterior 
ray. In other rays the series are broken. Con- 
sidering the large number of plates the arrange- 
ment is remarkably symmetrical. 

The columnar scar is very small and round. 
Arms and tegmen have not been observed. Cup 
plates are devoid of ornamentation. Greatest 
width of dorsal cup (basal) is 11.0 mm, width at 
distal extremity is 6.5 mm, height 9.0 mm. 

Remarks.—Acrocrinus worthent Wachsmuth 
(1882), Acrocrinus pumpkensis Strimple (1949), 
A. brentwoodensis Moore and Plummer (1937), 
and A. pirum Moore and Plummer (1937) have 
calices similar to the present species in general 
outline. They have broad basal areas and tend 
toward constriction in the distal extremities of 
the cup. A. pirum is elongated and has.a greater 
number of plates than other species. A. wortheni 
has fewer plates and a different arrangement of 
intercalaries than found in A. expansus. A. pump- 
kensis has a limited number of intercalaries and 
the cup does not constrict so noticeably at the 


Fic. 1.—Diagrammatic sketch showing arrangement of plates in the holotype of Acrocrinus expansus, 
n. sp. 


2-5.—Holotype of Schistocrinus ovalis, n. sp., from below, anterior, summit, and posterior, 
—Holotype of Lecythiocrinus optimus, n. sp., from posterior, summit, and base, 
€ gS, Fras. 9-12.—Holotype of Aestocrinus erectus, n. sp., from base, summit, anterior, and pos 


Fics. 
< IS, Figs. 6 


Fias. 13-16.—Typical representative of Glaukosocrinus parvisculus (Moore and 


terior, X 1.6. 
Fras. 20. Holotype 


Plummer), n. comb., from anterior, posterior, summit, and base, X 1.8. 
of Acrocrinus expansus, n. sp., from summit, base, anterior, and posterior, X 3 


194 


distal extremity. In A. brentwoodensis all RR are 
in contact with four plates in addition to lateral 
contact with adjoining RR, whereas in A. ex- 
pansus only the two posterior RR have contact 
with four plates and the three anterior RR are 
each in contact with three plates. 

The only other described Pennsylvanian spe- 
cies is A. elegans Strimple (1949) which has a 
slender, elongated cup. 

Occurrence.—Stone quarry about 7 miles east 
of Tulsa, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by Melba Strimple. To 
be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. 


Genus Lecythiocrinus White, 1880 
Lecythiocrinus optimus, n. sp. 


Figs. 6-8 


Dorsal cup is elongated, more or less spherical 
in outline. Three unequal IBB form a mildly up- 
flared, broad base. The smaller IB is right pos- 
terior. Five BB are long, hexagonal plates with 
proximal portions curved to join IBB plates. 
Five RR are small pentagonal plates with promi- 
nent, wide arm articulating facets. There is a 
pronounced reduction in width of RR as the 
upper edge of the cup is approached. An oval 
shaped opening is in the upper extremity of post. 
B and lower lateral portions of |. post. and r. 
post. RR. When the cup is viewed from above or 
below there is a mildly pentagonal outline due to 
slightly raised median areas in the proximal por- 
tions of BB. 

Columnar scar is small, round. Arms and teg- 
men are unknown. The greatest width of dorsal 
cup is 10.4 mm, height 10.6 mm. 

Remarks.—L. optimus differs from other de- 
scribed species in having broad, rather distended 
articulating processes. The outline of the cup is 
somewhat comparable to those of L. adamsi 
Worthen (1883) and L. olliculaeformis White 
(1880). 

Occurrence.—Road cut on eastward extension 
of thirty-first Street, southeast of Tulsa, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by Frank Crane. To be 
deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. 


Genus Schistocrinus Moore and Plummer, 1940 
Schistocrinus ovalis, n. sp. 


Figs. 2-5 
Dorsal cup is shallow, bowl-shaped. In the 
median portion of a broad, shallow basal con- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


cavity there is a sharply impressed, small, round 
columnar sear. Five IBB form a cog shaped disk 
surrounding the impressed area. Five small BB 
are more or less triangular shaped plates with 
the exception of post. B which is rather elongate 
and is truncated for reception of anal X. Five 
large RR are in solid contact with the IBB plates 
and prevent lateral contact between BB. Three 
anal plates are in normal (primitive) arrange- 
ment. RA is a narrow, elongate plate supporting 
the narrow proximal face of RX above and is in 
contact with anal X to the left. RX expands 
noticeably as it enters the interbrachial region. 
Anal X is a large, long plate. 

All cup plates are unornamented. Arms and 
tegmen are unknown. The dorsal cup has a width 
of 16.6 mm, height of 3.5 mm. 

Remarks.—S. ovalis is more comparable with 
S. torquatus Moore and Plummer (1940), the 
genotype species, than with other described 
forms. S. torquatus has more prominent IBB 
plates, the impressed basal area is entirely oc- 
cupied by the columnar scar, BB have more 
angular proximal facets and the plates of the 
posterior interradius are more advanced in ar- 
rangement. 

Occurrence.—Stone quarry about 7 miles east 
of Tulsa, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by the author. To be 
deposited in the U. S. National Museum. 


REFERENCES 


Miurter, S. A., and;Gururny, W. F. E. Journ 
Cincinnati Soe Nat. Hist. 13: 14. 1890. 

Moors, R. C., and Laupon, L. R. Geol. Soe. 
Amer. Spec. Pap. 46: 56, 58. 1943. 

——— and Priummenr, F. B. Bull. Denison Univ., 
Journ. Sci. Labs., 32: 218-244, pl. 12, figs. 1-3. 
1937. 

———.. Univ. Texas Publ. 3945: 98-101, pl. 14, 
fig. 6; pp. 217-222, pl. 2, fig. 6. 1940. 

Srrimeie, H. L. Amer. Journ. Sci. 247: 900-904, 
pl. 1, figs. 1-6, 1949. 

WacusmutH, C. Illinois State Mus. Nat. Hist. 
Bull. 1: 41. 1882. 

WANNER, J. Perm. Krin. Timor, 2° Nederl. Ex- 
ped.: 177-188. 1924. 

Wurst, C. A. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 2: 256, pl. 1, 
figs. 4-5. 1880. 

WorrtueEn, A. H. Illinois State Mus. Bull. 1: 37. 
1883. 

YANDELL, L. P. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 2, 20: 
135-1387. 1846. 


JUNE 1951 


COOPER AND MUIR-WOOD: BRACHIOPOD HOMONYMS 


195 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Brachiopod homonyms. G. ArrHuR Cooprrr, U.S. National 
Museum, and Heten M. Murr-Woop, British Museum (Natural History). 


While preparing a list of the brachiopod 
genera for the forthcoming ‘Treatise on 
Paleontology,” the authors found a number 
of homonyms, which are adjusted below. In 
addition to these, three names previously 
thought to be homonyms proved to have 
been incorrectly replaced. Substitutions for 
these erroneously displaced names are also 
included herein. 


Argentiproductus nom. nov. for Thomasella 
Paul, 1942, Zentralbl. Min. Geol. Paliaont., Abt. 
B, 6: 191 (non Fredericks, 1928, Bull. Com. Géol. 
Leningrad 46 (7): 778, 789, Brachiopoda). 

Type species: Producta margaritacea Phillips, 
1836. 


Callispirina nom. nov. for Mansuyella Reed, 
1944, Palaeont. Indica (n. s.) 23, mem. 2: 505 
(non Endo, 1937, Bull. Manchurian Sci. Mus. 1: 
353, Trilobita). 

Type species: Spiriferina ornata Waagen, 1887. 


Capillirostra nom. nov. for Rhynchonellopsis 
Bose, 1894, Palaeontogr. 41: 57, 77, 78, footnote 
(non Vincent, 1893, Ann. Soc. Malac. Belge 28, 
mém.: 51, Brachiopoda). 

Type species: Rhynchonellina? 
Bose, 1894. 


Elinoria nom. nov. for Elina Fredericks, 1924, 
Bull. Com. Géol. Petrograd 38 (3): 320, 321 
(non Blanchard, 1852, in Gray, Hist. Chile 7: 
28, Lepidoptera; or Ferrari, 1878, Ann. Mus. 
Stor. Nat. Genova 12: 84, Hemiptera; or Houl- 
bert, 1918, in Oberthuer, Etude Lép. 15: 325, 
Lepidoptera). 

Type species: Spirifer rectangulus Kutorga, 
1844. 


Equirostra nom. nov. for Isorhynchus King, 
1850, Mon. Permian Foss., Palaeont. Soc.: 81, 
112 (non Schoenherr, 1833, Gen. et Sp. Cure. 1 
(1): 22; 1836, 3 (2): 631, Coleoptera). 

Type species: Terebratulites aequirostris Schlo- 
theim, as represented by DeVerneuil in Geologie 
de la Russie d’Europe 2, pl. 3, fig. 1. 1845. 

Hirsutella nom. nov. for Hirsutina Kirchner, 
1934, Neues Jahrb. Geol. Paliont. 71, Abt. B 
(1): 106 (non Tutt, 1909, Brit. Butterfl. 3: 154, 
Lepidoptera). 

Type species: Spirifer hirsutus Alberti, 1864. 


Jinkelsteina 


Labriproductus nom. nov. for Worthenella 
Girty, 1938, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 28 
(10): 442 (non Walcott, 1911, Smithsonian Misc. 
Coll. 57 (5): 125, Vermes). 

Type species: Productus wortheni Hall, 1858. 

Marionites nom. nov. for Marionella Bancroft, 
1928, Mem. Manchester Lit. Phil. Soc. 72: 181 
(non Cobb, 1922, Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 
11: 504, Vermes). 

Type species: Marionella typa Bancroft, 1928. 

Nudirostra nom. nov. for Letiorhynchus Hall, 
1860, Ann. Rep. New York State Cab. Nat. Hist. 
13: 75 (non Liorhynchus Rudolphi, 1801, Archiv 
Zool. [Wiedemann] 2 (1): 49, Vermes). 

Type species: Orthis quadricostata Vanuxem, 
1842. 

Phymatothyris nom. nov. for Pallasiella Renz, 
1932, Abh. Schweiz. Paliont. Ges. 52: 40, 41 
(non Sars, 1895, Crustacea Norway 1: 505, Crus- 
tacea; or Kirby, 1910, Synon. Cat. Orthopt. 3: 
168, Orthoptera). 

Type species: Pallasiella kerkyraea Renz, 1932 

Pirgulia nom. nov. for Pirgula DeGregorio, 
1930, Ann. Géol. Paléont. Palermo 52: 30 (non 
Tessmann, 1921, Mitt. Zool. Mus. Berlin 10: 
215, Lepidoptera). 

Type species (by monotypy): Lyttonia ? (Pir- 
gula) pedicula DeGregorio, 1930. 

Plectorhynchella nom. nov. for Monticola Naliv- 
kin, 19380. Mem. Com. Géol. Leningrad 180: 86, 
188 (non Boie, 1822, Isis [Oken] 1822: 552, Aves). 

Type species: Athyris collinensis Frech, 1902. 

Sphaerirhynchia nom. nov. for Wilsonella Niki- 
forova, 1937, Palaeont. U.S. 8. R. Mon., Lenin- 
grad, 35: 33 (non Carter, 1885, Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist. (5) 15: 320, Spongiae). 

Type species: Terebratula wilsont J. Sowerby, 
1816. 

Struspirifer nom. nov. for Schuchertia Fred- 
ericks, 1926, Bull. Acad. Sei. U. R.S. 8. 20 (5-6): 
406 (non Gregory, 1899, Geol. Mag. (n. s.) dee. 
4, 6: 351, Echinodermata). 

Type species: Delthyris niagarensis Conrad, 
1842. 

Sulcirostra nom. noy. for Rhynchonellopsis De- 
Gregorio, 1980, Ann. Géol. Paléont. Palermo 55: 
6 (non Vincent, 1898, Ann. Soe. Malac. Belge 
28, mém.: 51, Brachiopoda). 


196 


Type species: Rhynchonellina seguenzae Gem- 
mellaro, 1871. 


Tunarites nom. nov. for Tunaria Hoek, 1912, 
Neues Jahrb. Min. Geol. Stuttgart, Beil. Bd. 34: 
247 (non Link, 1807, Beschr. Nat. Samml. Univ. 
Rostock 3: 165, Coelenterata). 

Type species. Tunaria cochambina Hoek, 1912. 


SUBSTITUTIONS FOR EXISTING NAMES 


Aetheia Thomson, 1915, Geol. Mag. 2: 389 
(non Aethia Merrem, 1788, Vers. Grundr. Gesch. 
Vogel I, Tent. Nat. Syst. Av.: 7, 13, 20, Aves; 
and Huebner, 1825, Verz. bekannt. Schmett.: 
340, Lepidoptera.). Substitute Thomsonica Coss- 
mann, 1920, Rev. Crit. Paléozool. 24: 137. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 
Type species: Terebratula gualteri Morris, 
1850. 


Megerlia King, 1850, Mon. Permian Foss., 
Palaeont. Soc.: 81, 145, not preoccupied by 
Megerlea Robineau-Desvoidy, 1830, Mem. Prés 
Acad. Roy. Sci. Inst. France 2: 266, Diptera. 
Miihlfeldtia Bayle, 1880, Journ. Conch. 28: 240, 
proposed for Megerlia King, 1850, is a synonym. 

Type species: Anomia truncata Gmelin, 1767. 


Yakovlevia Fredericks, 1925, Rec. Geol. Com. 
Russian Far East 40: 7 (non Jakowleffia Puton, 
1875, Petites Nouvelles Ent. 1 (128): 512, He- 
miptera). Substitute Mwirwoodia Licharew, 1947, 
C. R. Acad. Sci. Moscow (n. s.) 57 (2): 187. 

Type species: Productus mammatus Keyser- 
ling, 1846. 


PALEONTOLOGY—Substitution for the preoccupied brachiopod name Hystricina. 
Merrity A. SraInBrook, Brandon, Iowa. (Communicated by G. A. Cooper.) 


Dr. G. Arthur Cooper has recently in- 
formed me that Dr. Helen Muir-Wood and 
he have discovered that the name Hystricina, 
proposed by me in 1945 for a genus of atry- 
poid brachiopods, is preoccupied by Hystrz- 


cina Malloch, 1932 (Rec. Canterbury [N. Z.] 
Mus. 3: 433). To replace it Iam suggesting 
Spinatrypa (Hystricina Stainbrook, not Hys- 
tricina Malloch, 1932). The type species is 
Atrypa hystrix var. occidentalis Hall. 


BOTANY .—A contribution to the lichen flora of Alaska. Grorar A. LLANo, Arctic, 
Desert, Tropic Information Center, Maxwell Air Force Base, Alabama. (Com- 


municated by John A. Stevenson.) 


The following new species, varieties, 
forms, new names, and distributions have 
been taken from a manuscript prepared as 
a report! of field work carried out in Alaska 
by the author in the summer of 1949 and by 
P. F. Scholander in 1948. The final report 
will contain a record of all macrolichens col- 
lected in Alaska including the Aleutians. 
All Stereocaula and Cladoniaceae were deter- 
mined, respectively, by Dr. I. M. Lamb and 
Dr. A. W. Evans. 


1. Stereocaulon glareosum (Sav.) H. Magen. 


in G6teborgs Kgl. Vet. och Vitterh.- 
Saml. Handl. 30: 60. 1926. 

var. brachyphylloides M. Lamb, var. 
nov. 


A specie typica differt phyllocladiis subper- 
sistenter graniformibus aut  subdigitato-con- 
crescentibus, passim tantum  papillae-formiter 


excrescentibus; cephalodia magna, conspicua, 
ut in forma typica. 

Forming caespitose-pulvinate, low clumps with 
uneven surfaces. Podetia firmly attached to the 
soil, short and stout, up to 1.5 em long and 1-2 
mm thick, congested, irregularly branched, + 
upright or various intricated, not dorsiventral; 
+ terete, clothed down to the base with a thin, 
smooth, adpressed, pale rosy-subochraceous to- 
mentum; rigid but not markedly ligneous. 
Phyllocladia lateral on podetia, scanty in lower 
parts, congested and numerous in upper parts, 
cinereous-whitish, matt, unicolorous, mostly 
concrescent grainlike or concrescent-subdigitate, 

1 Studies on the lichen flora of Alaska. The 
North Slope of the Brooks Range, with Appendix. 
The work on which this report is based was sup- 
ported by the Arctic Institute of North America 
with funds provided by the Office of Naval Re- 


search and was conducted under the auspices of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


JUNE 1951 


small (0.1-0.2 mm jdiam.), only rarely and in 
a few places becoming + distinctly elongate- 
papillate. Cephalodia abundant, conspicuous, 
laterally sessile on podetia, smoothly subglo- 
bose, well constricted at base, 0.4-1.5(—3.0) 
mm diam., pale roseate-brownish (+ flesh 
colored), matt, the surface smoothly continuous 
or often rhagadiose-fissured; the larger ones 
(8 em diam.) becoming irregularly pulvinate 
and dividing into several irregular convex por- 
tions. Reactions: phyllocladia KHO + green- 
ish-yellow, Pd + (slowly) sulphur-yellow. 

Anaska: 151-152°W., 68°20’N., Anaktuvuk 
Pass, 1,000 m.s.m. on naked soil, coll. G. A. 
Llano & Neil Weber 527 (no. 1161, Lamb, 
Tyee), sterile. 


2. St. paschale (L.) Hoffm. Deutsch. Fl. 130. 
1796. 
var. erectum (Frey) M. Lamb, comb. nov. 
Podetia developing in a compact or loose 
manner, erect to suberect, about 4 cm high, 
somewhat branched. 
Anaktuvuk Pass, Llano 4026, in a dry aggraded 
stream floor, among mosses and _ Peltigera. 


3. Peltigera venosa (L.) Baumg. Fl. Lipsiens. 
581. 1790. 
f. tartarea Llano, forma nov. 

Superficies superior sordida, pruina pulver- 
ulenta vel squamosa tecta, inferior tomentosa, 
alba usque pallide bruneola, venis carentibus 
vel inconspicuis; sporae aciculares, 2-3 septatae, 
hyalinae, 36-40 X 4-6.6u. A typo differt dis- 
crepatione superficierum durarum. 

Upper surface dull, covered with a powdery 
to scaly white pruina; lower surface tomentose, 
white to pale brownish without veins, or veins 
indistinct. 

Lake Schraeder, 145°W., 69°20'N., on soil, 
P. F. Scholander, 1948. 


4. Parmelia birulae Hlenk. in Ann. 
Berlin 4(1): 36. 1906. 

var. grumosa Llano, var. nov. 
Thallus imbricatissimus, acervis valde arcuatis 
compositus, lobis latis e lobulis minoribus 
fimbriatus; cortex superior ceraceo-furfuraceus. 
Thallus strongly imbricated in strongly arched 
heaps, lobes broad with sharp to rounded sinuses 
and fringed with smaller lobelets, upper cortex 


waxy-furfuraceous. 


Mycol. 


2 Wdith K. Cash, Plant Industry Stat ion, Belts- 
ville, Md., kindly provided all Latin descriptions 
except for Sterocaulon. 


LLANO: LICHEN FLORA OF ALASKA 


197 


Anaktuvuk Pass, at the summits of lower 
mountains in protected depressions over mosses 
or other lichens Llano 236, 485d. 


5. Cetraria scholanderii Llano, sp. nov. 

Thallus foliaceus, 10-15 cm in diam., lobato- 
crenatus, 4-6 mm latus, rugulosus, lobis valde 
imbricatis, ascendentibus, inflexis vel canalic- 
ulatis praeditus; cortex superior isidiis dense 
congregatis, simplicibus vel bifurcatis, albis 
obscurisve, verruciformibus vel vermiformibus 
ad apices obscuras tectus, pallide griseolus vel 
pallide griseo-vinaceus, interdum atro-strigosus 
vel marginibus olivaceis vel viridi-nigris, nitens; 
cortex inferior atro-piceus, deinde atro-brunneus 
vel interdum pallide brunneus in apicibus lo- 
borum, subnitidus, Jeniter venato-bullatus rugo- 
susque, areis rhizinarum tenuium fibrosarum vel 
velrucis conspersis praeditus; cortex superior 
K 4, intense viride-flavus, medulla K—, K(C) —, 
J—-. 

Apothecia raria, lateralia vel subterminalia, 
subpedicellata, 5-6 mm. lata; discus planus usque 
subconvexus, carneo-pallidus, glaber usque sub- 
rugulosus, margine albe, isidiis numerosis brevi- 
bus atro-apiculatis ornatus vel albo-crenulatus; 
ascl saccato-clavati, 42.9 > 22y, ad apices 
incrassati, octospori; paraphyses plus minusve 
distineti, septati, simplices, 1.43 XX 38y; sporae 
eloboso-ellipsoideae, incolores, 9.9-11 (—13) x 
3.3—5.7 (—6.6) «; spermogonia non visa. 

Thallus foliaceous, 10-15 em in diam., lobate- 
crenate, 4-6 mm wide, rugulose, with strongly 
imbricated, ascending, inflexed or canaliculate 
lobes, upper cortex obscured by densely growing 
simple or bifureate, white to dark, verruciform 
to vermiform isidia with darka pices, color light 
grayish, or light grayish-vinaceous with oc- 
casional streaks of black, with olive-green 
margins, or dull greenish black, shiny; lower 
cortex pitch-black becoming dark brown to pale 
shiny brown on occasional lobe tips, subshiny, 
weakly veined-bullate and wrinkled, with scat- 
tered patches of thin, stringy rhizinae, or warts; 
upper cortex K+ bright green-yellow, medulla 
Kk—, K(C)—, J (subsection Glauscentes). 

Apothecia rare, terminal or marginal, sub- 
pedicellate, 5-6 mm wide, disk plane to sub- 
convex, flesh-colored, smooth to slightly ridged, 
thalline margin white, with numerous 
black-tipped isidia or white crenulate; 
42.9 xX 22u, with thick hyaline apices, para- 
physes more or less distinct, septate, simple, 
1.43 X 38x, spores 8 in ascus, globose to ellipsoid, 


short 


asel 


198 


with distinct wall, 9.9-11 (-138) x 3.3-5.7 (6.6) pn. 

This species differs from C. chrysantha by its 
erayish coloring and densely isidiate upper 
surface; it differs from C. norvegica in cclor as 
well as in the type of isidia. C. norvegica is 
described with isidia cylindrical to coralloidea- 
ramose developing from furrows or lobe margins; 
these are relatively fine, brown-tipped isidia. 
The isidia of C. scholanderia are coarse, robust, 
tipped with black, simple to bluntly bifurcate, 
densely growing over the thallus, not from 
furrows and less so on the margins of lobes. 
Named after Dr. Peter F. Scholander, who first 
brought it to my attention, in appreciation of his 
many collections from the Brooks Range. A 
ubiquitous species along the Brooks Range, 
around Anaktuvuk Pass growing on rocks, over 
mosses and other lichens, along talus slopes up 
to 3,000 feet (154, 323, 330, 341, 390, 406). 

Type, Lake Schrader, July 20, 1948, P. F. 
Scholander and W. Flagg. 


6. Alectoria irvingii Llano, sp. nov. 

Thallus subcaespitosus, depressus, subrigidus; 
rami 8 (—10) em longi, dichotome divisi, axilibus 
late-angularibus, ad apices attenuati, subfibrillosi, 
fibrillis ad axes rectos vel recurvos rectangulariter 
dispositis, ad bases robusti, 1-2 mm lati, torti, 
cortice interdum rimoso et aperto, in hemi- 
cychis volventes, intertexti, sulcati, interdum 
foveolati, demum cylindricales vel angulares, 
subcompressi vel ad locum ramorum plani, 
deinde cylindricales, nitidi, olivaceo-brunnei vel 
in partibus umbratis pallidiores, vel atro-brunnei, 
ramis vetustioribus et basibus subnigrescentibus; 


apothecia, spermogonia, soredia, et pseudo- 
cyphellae carentes. 
Thallus subcaespitose, depressed, subrigid, 


branches 8(10) cm long, dichotomously branched, 
with wide-angling axils, apically attenuate, sub- 
fibrillose, with fibrils at right angles to main 
straight or recurved axis, at base robust, 1-2 
mm wide, twisted with cortex occasionally split 
and gaping, winding in half-circle loops, inter- 
tangled, furrowed, with occasional depressions, 
becoming cylindrical or angular, subcompressed 
or plane at point of branching, and then cylindri- 
eal, shining, olive-brown (or pale brown in 
shaded portions), dark brown, older branches 
and base somewhat blackened; apothecia and 
spermogonia absent, subsection Sulcatae. 
Anaktuvuk Pass, over exposed gravel and thin 
soil with P. birulae, C. scholanderti, S. globosus, 
P. omphalodes, growing in mats 15-20 em wide, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 6 


on upper slopes (4,000 feet) of quartzite moun- 
tain. This species looks somewhat like A. niti- 
dula but more robust. Named after Dr. Lawrence 
Irving, first director of Arctic Research Labor- 
atories, Point Barrow, Alaska, through whose 
encouragement Alaskan lichen studies were made 
possible. 


7. Usnea scholanderii Llano, sp. nov. 

Thallus rectus aut subpendulus, ca. 4-6 em 
altus aut flocci-formis (1-38 em) et flaccidus, 
stramineo- vel pallide viridis, ad basim leniter 
pallide fuscescens, subconstrictus, dense et ir- 
regulariter, dein subsympodialiter ramosus; rami 
primarii usque ad 0.5-1 (—2) mm crassi, teretes,. 
creberrimi, sat attenuatim subfibrillosi, cortice 
non rimoso, plerumque ad _ basim_papillati, 
papillis minutissimis, ad ramos tenuiores rariori- 
bus, ad apices subpapillati vel glabri, valde 
sorediati; soredia primum parva, fariosa, mani- 
ciformiter unita, dein soraia magna (1-2 mm. 
lata) numerosa, globosa alba vel albo-flava. 
fibrillulis multis radiantibus praedita efforman- 
tia; apothecia et spermogonia non visa; medulla. 
K—, cortex K-—, soralia K +  ferrugineo- 
brunnea. 

Thallus erect to somewhat pendulous, 4-6 em 
long, somewhat flaccid, tuft-like (1-8 em high), 
straw- to yellowish-green, base somewhat stained 
rusty-brown, somewhat constricted, densely 
irregularly branched, cylindrical, becoming sub- 
sympodial, apically attenuate, subfibrillose, 
cortex usually papillate at base, subpapillate to 
smooth apically, not cracked, strongly sorediate, 
at first small, farmose, uniting to maniciform 
type, then forming numerous, large (1-2 mm 
wide), globose soralia, white- to white-yellow, 
with many radiating fibrils; apothecia and sper- 
mogonia not seen; medulla K—, cortex K—, 
soralia K + rusty-brown. 

On rocks, with P. sulcata, common, Lake 
Peters (ca. Lake Schrader) leg. P. F. Scholander, 
July 1948. Not to be confused with U. soredifera, 
U. glabatra, U. vainioi, or others listed by Motyka 
under stirps U. sorediiferae. Usneaceae are ap- 
parently scarce on the North Slope. 


In accordance with the Rules of Inter- 
national Nomenclature, the following new 
names are proposed: 


1. Cetraria magnussonii Llano, nom. nov. 

Cetraria arctica H. Magn., in Svensk Tidskr. 
30: 251. 1936, is a later homonym of Cetraria 
arctica (Hook.) Tuck. Magnusson’s species is 


JUNE 1951 


described from material collected in the Yenisei 
region of Siberia and is quite distinct from the 
Tuckerman species which is now referred to the 
genus Dactylina Nyl. 


2. Evernia perfragilis Llano, nom. nov. 

Alectoria arctica Elenk. & Sav. Acta Horti 

Petrop. 32: 73. pl. 1, fig. 1-3. 1912. 

Evernia arctica (Klenk. & Sav.) Lynge in Lich. 

Nov. Zemlya 209. 1928. 

The type material and subsequent collections 
from Novaya Zemlya, as well as Alaska, are all 
sterile. The author concurs with Lynge and Du 
Rietz®? in believing that this species is, mor- 
phologically, more closely allied to the genus 
Evernia. However, the specific epithet is a later 
homonym of Hvernia arctica (Hook.) Tuck., 
i.e., Dactylina arctica (Hook.) Tuck. 

The distribution of lichen species in Fenno 
Seandia, in the Arctic islands north of Europe, 
and on the east and west coasts of southern 
Greenland are better known than those of Siberia, 
Alaska, and the Canadian Arctic Archipelago. 
Even so, the work of Scandinavians on occasional 
collections from the Canadian Archipelago and 
similarly of the Russians from rare Siberian 
collections has given some hints of the probable 
distribution of lichen species throughout the 
cireumpolar area. Northern Alaska has long 
represented a vacuum in our understanding of 
even the commoner species, and has contributed 
little to add to continuous distributional studies 
of lichens. For this reason, collections from Arctic 
Alaska invariably contain new distributions, 
mainly northern extensions of species. The 
following anomalous distributions are of unusual 
interest since they would indicate a geographical 
pattern of Siberian species extending into North 
America. 


Parmelia birulae Elenk., described from 
material collected in Novaya Zemlya, is a 
common element of the north slope of the 
Brooks Range. Material described to the 
author by N. Hale from his Baffinland col- 
lections of 1950 would indicate that this 
species extends throughout this range, and 
possibly to northern Greenland. An equally 
ubiquitous species is Cetraria chrysantha 
Tuck. with a similar extension. Cetraria si- 
birica H. Magn., first described from the 
Yenisei Region,’ Siberia, was collected at 


3 Du Rierz, G. E., Ark. Bot. 20(11). 1926. 


LLANO: LICHEN FLORA OF ALASKA 


199 


Umiat, although it was not seen in the 
Brooks Range proper. A close relative, C. 
magnussoni, also from the Yenisei, should 
be looked for in Arctic Alaska. EHvernia per- 
fragilis, reported only from Novaya Zemlya, 
is represented in Alaska from two collec- 
tions at Anaktuvuk Pass. Ramalina alm- 
quist Vain., first described from St. Law- 
rence Island, later reported by Degelius from 
Hulten’s Aleutian collections, is a common 
species on the North Slope. This suggests 
that it may be noted inland or on the Si- 
berian coast. 

A further example of this type of distribu- 
tion and also of disrupted range is Umbili- 
caria carolimiana Tuck. Originally described 
from Grandfather Mountain, N. C., it is 
now known to exist on Mount Mitchell and 
Roan Mountain, N. C. Later, it was reported 
from Japan, and then from the Amur Dis- 
trict, Siberia. In a recent publication by the 
author,‘ it is reported a common element of 
the lichen flora on conglomerate, sandstone, 
and quartzite throughout the north slope of 
the Brooks Range. Its eastern North Ameri- 
can terminus is recognized as a classical re- 
lict plant area; its eastern Asiatic terminus 
represents a weakly, if at all, glaciated area, 
The Alaskan finds are from a similarly poor 
ornonglaciated region from Kiana (collections 
of L. J. Palmer) and the Seward Peninsula 
east along the north slope of the mountain 
ranges to Lake Schrader. The intervening 
absence of the species from northern 
Alaska to North Carolina would appear to 
have been the direct result of the last exten- 
sive glaciation. The absence of records from 
localities in North Carolina north along the 
Appalachians to about the southernmost ex- 
tension of the ice sheet, about Jatitude 40°N., 
does not remove the possibility that it may 
yet be found to have a more general dis- 
tribution in eastern United States. It may 
possibly be reported from areas between 
Alaska and North Carolina but the exami- 
nation of hundreds of specimens of Umbili- 
cariaceae from these areas would appear to 
exclude this assumption. 


4A monograph of the family Umbilicartaceae tn 
the Western Hemisphere, 281 pp., 30 maps, IS pl., 
and additional figures. Office of Naval Research, 
Department of the Navy, October 1950. Copies 
may be requested from the Department of Botany, 
Smithsonian Institution, Washington 25, D.C. 


200 


Dr. Evans will report more fully upon the 
Cladoniaceae. However, three new records 
include Cl. metacorallijera Asahina, Cl. go- 
necha (Ach.) Asahina, and Cl. pseudomaci- 
lenta Asahina. 

Among the Physciaceae collected, the fol- 
lowing species were aJl noted from the North 
Slope: P. aipolia (Ehrh.) Hampe, P. tenella 
(Seop.) Bitt., P. czliata (Hoffm.) DR., and 
P. teretiuscula (Ach.) Lynge. 

Scholander in 1948 collected two species 
of Lobaria at Bethel on the Kuskokwim 
River, L. scrobiculata (Scop.) Gartner and 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 6 


L. hallii (Tuck.) Zahlbr. These are new but 
expected distributions on the northwest 
coast of Alaska. However, he also collected 
the first species at Lake Peters and the sec- 
ond species at Lake Chandler about 30 miles 
from Anaktuvuk Pass. The distribution of 
L. halla is most interesting, for since it was 
first described by Tuckerman from material 
sent him by the Rev. Hall from Oregon, it 
has also been recorded in rare instances 
from southernmost Greenland and northern 
Scandinavia. 


BOTANY.—New or critical Euphorbiaceae from eastern Asia. HStan Kena, De- 
partment of Botany, National Taiwan University, Taiwan, China. (Com- 


municated by Egbert H. Walker.) 


This paper consists of descriptions of some 
new species and varieties and a new genus 
from eastern Asia, as well as critical notes 
and new records, reductions, and combina- 
tions. The types of the forms herein de- 
scribed are all preserved in the herbarium of 
the National Taiwan University, Taiwan, 
China. Specimens designated “FRI” belong 
to the Taiwan Forestry Research Institute. 


Phyllanthus Linn. 


1. Phyllanthus indicus (Delz.) Muell. Arg. in 
Linnaea 32: 52. 1863; Merr., Enum. Phili- 
pine FI. Pl. 2: 392. 1923; Kanehira, Formos. 
Trees, rev. ed., 355. f. 311. 1936. 

Glochidion longipedicellatum Yamamoto in 

Journ. Soc. Trop. Agr. 5: 178. 1933; S. 
Suzuki in Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 
121. 1936. (New synonym.) 

Taiwan: Lutung, Taipei, Yoshimude 27128 
(FRI); Shinrin-chun, Kaoshiung, S. Sasaki 
27137 (type of G. longipedicellatum), November 
1927. 


Glochidion Forster 


1. Glochidion fortunei Hance var. longistylum, 
var. Nov. 

A typo speciei stylo longiore, 4-5 mm longo, 
differt. 

Leaves elliptic-ovate, the apex caudate-acute, 
apiculate, the base cuneate or acute, 3-5 cm 
long, 2-38 em wide. Capsules 8-10 
diameter, 5-6-celled; persistent calyx about 5 
mm in diameter; calyx-lobes oblong, acute; 
style-column 3-4.5 mm long, thickened and 


mm in 


5-6-lobed at the apex; pedicels 5-6 mm long. 
TatwaNn: Chisan, Kaoshiung, Yamamoto & 
Mori 760, August 14, 1936. 
A variety characterized by the much longer 
styles. 


2. Glochidion fortunei Hance var. megacarpum, 
var. nov. 

A typo speciei capsula majore, 12-14 mm 
diametro, differt. 

Leaves rounded-ovate, 2-5.5 cm long, 1.5— 
2.5 cm wide, the apex rounded or obtuse, mucro- 
nate, the base cuneate, acute. Capsules 12-14 
mm in diameter, 5-6 mm long; persistent calyx 
4—5 mm in diameter; pedicels 3-5 mm long, 
rather stout. 

Taiwan: Kaoshiung-wan, Kaoshiung, Kudo 
& Suzuki 96. April 8, 1929. 

A variety characterized by the much larger 
capsules, about 5-6 mm in length and 12-14 
mm in diameter. 


Agyneia Linn. 


1. Agyneia taiwaniana, sp. nov. 

Agyneia bacciformis A. Juss. misapplied by 
Hayata, Icon. Pl. Formosa 9: 95. 1920; 
Suzuki in Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 
118. 1936. 

Herba prostrata, glabra; rami et ramuli 
compresso-angulati. Folia parva, alternata, el- 
liptica vel oblongo-elliptica vel lanceolata, 1-2 
em longa, 0.4-1 em lata, apice obtusa vel acuta 
et mucronata, basi obtusa vel acuta; costae 
secundariae subdistinctae; petioli vix 1 mm 


longi. Flores # 1.5 mm _ diametro, sepalis 


JUNE 1951 


oblongo-ovatis 0.8-1 mm longis apice albo-mem- 
branaceis cincti, glanduloso-striolati; stamina 
3, filamentis omnino in columnam connatis; 
pedicelli 1.5 mm longi. Flores 9 4.5-4.5 mm lati, 
sepalis oblongo-lanceolatis, 2 mm longis, acu- 
minatis; ovarium cylindrico-obconicum, 1-1.2 
mm longum, 1 mm latum, apice latum, obscure 
depressum; styli 3, liberi, divergentes, bifidi. 
Capsula subglobosa vel ovoidea, 4-4.5 mm longa, 
3-4 mm lata. 

Taiwan, abundant on the west coast of the 
south-central part of the island, near Chiayi, 
Tainan, and Hengchun. 

TarwaNn: Peimen-chiian, Tidi-liu, Tainan, 
K. Mori 110 (type), December 26, 1940; Anpin, 
Tainan, Soma 14420 (FRI); Peimen, Chi-gou, 
Tainan, K. Mori 530; Chiayi, Tainan, H. Keng 
1875; Hengchun, H. Keng 322. 

A species formerly identified by Hayata as 
A. bacciformis, which is a species widely dis- 
tributed over southern China (?), Java, Ceylon, 
India, and Maritius. No authentic Indian 
specimens have been examined, but when com- 
pared with the descriptions of A. bacciformis 
by Hooker (FI. Brit. Ind. 5: 285. 1890) and Pax 
and Hoffman (in Engler, Pflanzenr. 81: 213. 
1922) and with the illustrations by Wight 
(Ieon. Orien. pl. 1992. 1852) and Pax and 
Hoffman (l.c. 213. f.18), this new species appears 
to differ chiefly in the cylindrico-obconical 
ovary and the smaller fruits. The ovary of A. 
bacciformis is broadly ovoid and the fruit is 
about 6 mm long and 5 mm wide. The sizes of 
the floral parts of both sexes also do not agree 
in these two species. 


2. Agyneia goniocladus (Merr. & Chun), comb. 
nov. 

Phyllanthus goniocladus Merr. & Chun in 

Sunyatsenia 2: 260. f. 51, 1935; Tanaka 
& Odashima in Journ. Soc. Trop. Agr. 
372.1938; Masamune, Fl. Kainan. 169. 1943. 

Hainan: Tung-koo-shan, H. Fung 20418 
(paratype of P. goniocladus); Masamune & 
Fukuyama 4, November, 1940. 

In this species the male sepals are thick, with 
white margins, and the styles are small on the 
excavate top of the ovary. These are critical 
characters of Agyneta, rather than of Phyl- 
lanthus. 

This species can also be separated from the 
Formosan A. taiwaniana in the subcylindrical 
ovary and the much shorter filament columns. 
The Agyneia of southern China, as cited by Pax 


KENG: NEW OR CRITICAL EUPHORBIACEAE 201 


and Hoffman from Kwangtung and Hongkong 
(I. c. 214), is very probably referable to this 
species. 

Liodendron, gen. nov. 

Arbores vel frutices. Folia alterna, crenulato- 
serrulata vel integerrima, membranacea vel 
coriacea, tenuiter pennivenia et  reticulato- 
venosa. Flores axillares, dioici, apetali, disco 
nullo, o racemosi vel spicati, brevissime pedi- 
cellati; @ longius pedicellati, solitarii. Fl. @: 
calyx tenuis, 4-6-partita, segmentis inequalibus, 
imbricatis; stamina 2, filamentis compressis; 
antherae globoso-ellipsoideae, erectae, extrosae, 
loculis distinctis, parallelis, longitudinaliter de- 
hiscentibus; ovarii rudimentum O. Fl. ¢@: 
calyx tenuis, 5-partita, segmentis augustis; 
ovarium oblongo-ovoideum, 3-lcculare; ovula in 
loculis  gemina; styli longiusculi, in ramos 
ubique carnosos papillosos expansi. Drupa 
oblongo-ovoidea, endocarpio duro, fere osseo, 
abortu 1-locularia, 1-sperma. Semina oblongo- 
ovoidea; testa crustacea, albumen carnosum; 
embryo rectus, cotyledonibus latis, planis. 

Type species: Liodendron matsumurae (Koid- 
zumi), comb. nov., infra. 

This new genus is very near Putranjiva, from 
which it differs in the male flowers being in 
axillary racemes and in the definitely 2 stamens, 
while in Putranjiva, the male flowers are solitary 
or in axillary clusters, never in racemes or in 
spikes, and the number of stamens is 2-4. 

The arrangement of flowers in spikes or 
racemes, especially in the staminate plants, is an 
important character in the classification of the 
Euphorbiaceae. Bentham, for instance, in his 
treatment of the Australian Euphoribiaceae, 
divides this family into 5 tribes, tribe 3 (Anti- 
desmeae) differing from tribe 4 (Phyllantheae) 
merely in the “flowers small, in catkin-like 
spikes or in racemes”’ in one, and the “flowers 
in axillary clusters or solitary” in the other 
(cf. Bentham, Fl. Austral. 6: 42. 1875). 

Again, Pax and Hoffmann, in their monograph 
of the Euphoribiaceae, divide the tribe Phyl- 
lantheae into 22 subtribes, the first subtribe 
(Antidesminae) being distinguished from the 
other 21 subtribes (Putranjiva is contained in 
the second subtribe Glochidiinae) only in the 
character of the inflorescence being spicate, 
racemose or paniculate (cf. Pax & Hotfman in 
Engler & Prantl, Pflanzenfam. Ed. 2, 19c: 31. 
19381). 


The systematic position of this new genus is an 


202 


interesting one, as it agrees with the Antidesminae 
of Pax in the male flowers being in spikelike 
racemes, yet it differs from it in the total absence 
of disks or glands in flowers of both sexes. 
Formerly the genus Putranjwa contained four 
species and was considered as occupying a dis- 
continuous area (cf. Pax & Hoffmann in 1. ec. 
19c: 59. 1931). Putranjiva roxburghit Wallich 
is found in India, P. zeylanica Muell. Arg. in 
Ceylon, P. matsumurae Koidz. in the Liukiu 
Islands, and P. integerrima Koidz. in the Bonin 
Islands. In the present treatment the latter two 
species are transferred to Liodendron, as L. 
matsumurae (Koidz.) and L. wntegerriomum 
(Koidz.), respectively. In addition there is the 
Formosan species L. formosanwm. These species 
show that Putranjiva and Liodendron occupy two 
separate natural phytogeographic — regions, 
namely, Putranjiva in India and Ceylon and 
Liodendron in the Bonin and Liukiu Islands and 
in Formosa. The establishment of this new genus 
confirms the phytogeographical relationship be- 
tween Formosa-Liukiu and the Bonin Islands. 
The genus is named in honor of Dr. Hui-Lin 
Li, of the National Taiwan University, in ap- 
preciation of his extensive contributions to our 
knowledge of the flora of eastern Asia. 


1. Liodendron matsumurae (Koidzumi), comb. 
nov, 

Putranjiva roxburghii Wallich, misapplied by 
Matsumura in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 12: 61. 
1898; Hayata in Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. 
Tokyo 20(8): 25. pl. 2H. 1901. 

Putranjiva matsumurae Koidzumi in Bot. Mag. 
Mag. Tokyo 33: 116. 1919, not Suzuki in 
Sylvia 4(3): 129. 1930, in Masamune, Short 
Fl. Formosa 122. 1936. 

A species known only from the Liukiu Islands. 
8. Suzuki reports the presence of it in Formosa. 
Two of his cited specimens were examined, one, 
Taroko, Ariko-banti, Matsuda 1184, is a fruiting 
specimen of Hleocarpus decipiens Hemsley; 
the other, Kwasyoto, Kudo & Mori 1784, is 
nothing more than a sterile specimen of Lioden- 
dron formosanum. 

Liuxiu Isuanps: Herb. No. 22377 (fruiting 
fragment presented by the herbarium of Tokyo 
Imp. Univ., collector and date unknown); 
Amami-Osima, Tashiro 27737. 


2. Liodendron integerrimum (Koidzumi), comb. 
nov. 
Putranjiva integerrima Koidzumi in Bot. Mag. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 6 


Tokyo 33: 117. 1919; Nakai in Bull. Bio- 
geogr. Soc. Japan 1: 259. 1930. 
A species known only from the Bonin Islands. 


3. Liodendron formosanum (Kanehira & Sasaki), 


comb. nov. 
Putranjiva formosana Kaneh. & Sasaki in 
Sasaki, Cat. Gov. Herb. Formosa 312. 


1930, nomen; Simada in Trans. Nat. Hist. 
Soc. Formosa 24: 83. 1934; Suzuki in 
Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 122. 1936. 

Drypetes formosana (Kaneh. & Sasaki) Kane- 
hira, Formos. Trees, rev. ed., 336. f. 929. 
1936. 

Putranjwa roxburghit Wallich, misapphed by 
Hayata, 1. ce. 25. 1904, as to Formosan 
plants. 

Putranjiva matsumurae Koidzumi misapplied 
by Suzuki in Sylvia 4(2): 129. 1933 in 
Masamune, Short Fl. Formos. 122. 1936, 
as to Formosan plants. 

Small tree, the branches slender, terete, 
glabrous, the branchlets suleate, obscurely pubes- 
cent. Leaves elliptic to oblong-ovate, 5-8 cm 
long, 3-5 cm wide, the apex acuminate, the base 
obliquely acute, membranaceous at first, later 
coriaceous, the margins entire to crenulate-serru- 
late; petioles 7 mm long. Male flowers spic- 
ate-racemose, axillary, 6-8 cm long, velutinous; 
bracts 2-3-flowered. Female flowers in bud el- 
liptical, shortly pedicellate, 1 mm long; sepals 
4-6, unequal, hispid, imbricate; stamens 2; ma- 
ture female flowers not seen. Drupe ovoid-ellipsoid, 
10-13 mm long, 7-8 mm across, appressed 
white-pubescent, 1-locular, 1-seeded. 

A species known only from Formosa. 

TatwaNn: Sinchashek, Sinchu, Kanehira & 
Sasaki 27130 (syntype of Putranjwa formosana 
Kaneh. & Sasaki); Sasaki 7292, September 21, 
1927; Chukong, Sinchu, Sasaki 7291, January 
1927; Komo, Sinchu, Kudo & Sasaki 140 (type 
of @ inflorescence), April 9, 1929. 

The following specimens are sterile, the size 
of the leaves being larger than the normal forms, 
and they are probably taken from the lower 
branches or basal sprouts: Sizangan, Taipei, 
Nonaka & Kudo 2391; Kizan, Taipei, Masa- 
mune & Suzuki 2393; Hoshautau, Kudo & Mort 
1784; Botel Tobago, Hosokawa 3186. 

Kanehira and Sasaki first proposed this species 
as Putranjiva formosana. Six years later Kanehira 
transferred it into Drypetes formosana, but such 
characters as the two stamens in the male 
flower, the 1-celled, 1-seeded fruit, and the male 


JUNE 1951 


flowers being in spikelike racemes readily 
separate it from Drypetes. In the latter, the 
stamens are 2-4, the fruits are 2-4-celled, 2- 
seeded, and the male flowers are clustered and 
axillary. 

This species is clearly related to Liodendron 
matsumurae, yet it may be readily separated by 
the larger leaves and smaller fruits. The latter 
species has elliptic-oblong leaves, 4-6 cm long, 
2-3.5 em wide, and ovoid fruits, 1.5-2 cm long, 
0.8-1.3 em wide, and is confined to the Liukiu 
Islands. 


Drypetes Vahl. 


1. Drypetes falcata (Merr.) Pax in Engler, 
Pflanzenr. 81 (VI.147.XV): 250. 1922. 

Cyclostemon falcatus Merr. in  Phillippine 
Journ. Sci. 3: 415. 1908; Enum. Philippine 
FI. Pl. 2: 406. 1923. 

Drypetes yamadai Kanehira & Sasaki in 
Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Formosa 21: 145. 
1931, nomen seminud.; Kanehira, Formos. 
Trees, rev. ed., 339. f. 293. 1936; Suzuki in 
Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 119. 1936. 
(New synomym.) 

Taiwan; Hengchun Peninsula, in thickets and 

forests along the seashore. 

Tatwan: Kuraru, Yamada 14573 (syntype of 
D. yamadai, FRI); Konishi 14574 (FRI); 
Matuda 112; Olungbi, Hibino & Suzuki 12586, 
12702; Kimiya 14575 (FRI); Kudo & Suzuki 
15815; H. Keng 1394. 

There is not sufficient difference between D. 
yamadai and D. falcata to treat them as distinct 
species. Kanehira states (in Trans. Nat. Hist. 
Soc. Formosa 21: 145. 1931) that the former is 
“very near Cyclostemon falcata Merr., but differs 
in having glabrous fruits.’”’ However, after ex- 
amining the syntype and a fruiting specimen 
from the type locality, Matuda 112, I find that 
the fruit is appressed-pubescent, rather than 
glabrous. In Merrill’s original description, it is 
stated: “Fructus axillares, solitarii, pedicellis 
5-7 mm longis.” In Formosan plants the fruits 
are solitary or rarely 3-4-clustered and the 
fruit-stalks are usually 1 em long, sometimes up 
to 1.5 cm long. 

D. falcata in the Philippines is known only 
from Camiguin, a small island of the Babuyan 
group, situated between Taiwan and Luzon. 


Daphniphyllum Blume 


1. Daphniphyllum crispifolium, sp. nov. 
Folia elliptica vel oblongo-elliptica, 8-10.5 


KENG: NEW OR CRITICAL EUPHORBIACEAE 


203 


em longa, 2.5-4 em lata, apice obtusa, apiculata, 
basi obtusa vel acuta, spura nitida, subtus 
papillosa, subglauca, margine valde crispa. 
Racemi fructiferi 7-8 em longi. Fructus oblongo- 
ellipsoideus, 7-8 mm longus, 5-6 mm _ latus, 
rugosus, stigmatibus valde circinatis, pedicellis 
gracilibus 1-1.5 cm longis. 

Tatwan: Nichigetzutan, Taichung, Kudo & 
Sasaki 15336a, 15336b (type), September 19, 
1929. 

This species is near D. oldhamii Rosenth., 
differing in the strongly cripsed leaf-margins, the 
longer and more slender fruiting inflorescences 
and the smaller fruits. 


2. Daphniphyllum reticulatum, sp. nov. 

Folia tenuiter coriacea, obovato-elliptica vel 
elliptica, 8-9 cm longa, 3-3.5 cm lata, apice 
cuspidato-obtusa, basi acuta, supra nitida, sub- 
tus papillosa, nervis lateralibus untrinsecus 
10-20, angulo circiter 60° ortis, rete venularum 
subtus insigniter prominulo, nervis venisque 
supra impressis vel prominulis, subtus  pro- 
minentibus. Racemi fructiferi 6 cm_ longi. 
Fructus ellipsoideo-ovideus, circiter 8 mm longus 
et 5 mm latus, basi et apice rotundatus, apice 
stigmatiferus, revolutus, pubescens; pedicellis 
4—5 mm longis. 

Tarwan: Taroko, Hualien, S. Suzuki 9880 
(type), December 30, 1931; Hengchun, Mount 
Hiirasan, HE. Matuda 919; Kuskus, Kudo & 
Suzuki 15947. 

A species characterized by the finely reticulate 
veinlets very prominent on the lower surface of 
the leaves and by the very short fruiting stalks. 


3. Daphniphyllum formosanum, sp. nov. 
Frutex, ramulis subgracilibus. Folia coriacea, 
oblonga vel oblongo-elliptica, 4-7 em longa, 
2-2.5 em lata, apice acuta, apiculata, basi late 
cuneata, supra nitida, subtus papillosa, costa 
plana, subtus prominente elevata, nervis later- 
alibus untrinsecus 12-15, margine subintegra, 
revoluta vel crispa, petiolis 1.2-2 em _ longis, 
supra leviter canaliculatis. Racemi fructiferi 
4-5 em. longi, graciles. Fructus ovideus, 7-9 


mm longus, apice rotundatus, basi acutus, 
stigmatibus circinatis, persistentibus, calyce 


basi adnata, 5-dentata, lobis lneari-lanceolatis, 
crenatis, saepius persistentibus. 

Tatwan: Hikizangan, Taipei, 7. Suzukt 
4814, July 26, 1932; Gukutu, Hualien, BP. 
Matuda 1155 (Type), August 5, 1918; Nai- 
buntoge, Kaoshiung, Kudo & Suzuki 1615, 
April 10, 1980. 


204 


This is the only known species in Formosa 
with persistent calyx in the fruiting stage. All its 
characters agree well with that of D. marchadii 
Croizat and Metcalf Gm Lingnan Sci. Journ. 
20: 117. 1942) or D. salicifolium Chien (in 
Contr. Biol. Lab. Sci. Soc. China 8: 242. 1933) 
of southwestern China, except the much smaller 
fruits and the longer, circinate stigmas. No 
authentic specimens of the latter species have 
been seen. This new species may also be readily 
separated from D. oldhamii by its smaller leaves 
with prominent apicules at the apex and by the 
persistent calyx at the base of the fruit. 


Mercurialis Linn. 


1. Mercurialis leiocarpa Sieb. & Suce. var. 
transmorrisonensis (Hayata), comb. nov. 
Mercurialis levocarpa Sieb. & Zuec., mis- 
applied by Hayata in Journ. Coll. Sci. 
Univ. Tokyo 25: 194. 1908. 5. Suzuki in 
Sylvia 4: 148. 1933, in Masamune, Short 
Fl. Formosa 122. 1936. 
Mercurialis transmorrisonensis Hayata, Icon. 
Pl. Formosa 5: 199. f. 75. 1915. 

Taiwan; throughout the island, more common 
in the central mountain regions. 

Tatwan: Mount Kanin, Fukuyama 34; Mount 
Taiping, S. Suzuki 383, 3839; Mount Tentana, 
Simada 14992 (FRI); Mount Arisan, Sizmada 
796; Mount Dabusan, Sasaki 2144, Matuda 
1500; Ariko-banti, Matuda 1199; Pintung, 
Hosokawa 5408; Taroko, S. Suzuki 9684; Mount 
Nokosan, Fukuyama 4682. 

The typical form of the species is distributed 
in Indo-China, Siam, southern China (Yunnan 
to Hupeh), and Japan. Hayata describes this 
variety as an independent species and states that 
it is “‘very near M. leiocarpa Sieb. & Zucc., but 
differs from it in having less verrucose ovary with 
the much spreading stigma and the less vetru- 
cose or nearly smooth capsules; the distinction 
of this plant from M. leiocarpa is even more 
clear in the living specimen.” The actual dis- 
tinctive characters of this Formosan plant are 
probably in the stamens. The stamens in the 
typical form are 16-20 (cf. Muell. Arg.) or 
14-20 (cf. Pax), whereas in this variety there 
are only about 10. Furthermore, in this variety 
the filaments are usually 2-3-connate at the 
base, showing the tendency to monadelphy. 


Alchornea Swartz 


1. Alchornea trewioides (Benth.) Muell. Arg. 
var. formosae (Muell. Arg.) Pax in Engler, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 6 


Pflanzenr. 63: (IV. 147. VIII) 248. 1914. 
Alchornea kelungensis Hayata, Icon. Pl. For- 
mosa 9: 103. 1920; Kanehira, Formosa 
Trees, rev. ed., 329. 1936; S. Suzuki in 
Masamune, Short Fl. Formosa 118. 1936. 
(New synonym.) 
Tatwan: Taipei, Sasaki 
Matuda 1144, Simada 1145. 
This variety differs from the typical form of the 
species from southern China chiefly in the shorter 
(6-8 mm long) and usually 2-3-lobulate styles. 
In the typical form, the styles are longer (8-12 
mm) and entire at the apex. 


14423; Keelung, 


2. Alchornea trewioides (Benth.) Muell. Arg. 
var. loochoensis (Hayata), comb. nov. 
Alchornea loochoensis Hayata, Icon. Pl. For- 
mosa 9: 103. 1920. 
Alchornea trewioides Muell. Arg., misapplied 
by Hayata in Journ. Coll. Sci. Univ. Tokyo 
23: 47. pl. 4A. 1904. 

Livuxiu Isuanps: Guo-teu, Kanestro 195; 
Yu-na-guo-tau, Simada 14424 (FRI). 

This variety can be distinguished from var. 
formosae by the following characters in the 
female flowers: the lanceolate-acuminate sepals, 
the globose ovary and the much shorter styles 
(8 mm long); whereas in the Formosan plants, 
the sepals are triangular-acuminate, the ovary is 
depressed globose, and the styles are somewhat 
longer (6-8 mm long). 


Acalypha Linn. 


1. Acalypha (Sect. Capillipes 
hontauyuensis, sp. nov. 

Frutex; ramuli sericeo-tomentosi, censperse 
sulcati. Folia tenuiter chartacea, longe petiolata, 
cordato-orbiculata, 12-18 em longa, 12-16 
cm lata, apice cordato-acuminata, basi oblique 
truncato-cordata, margine crenato-serrata, 5- 
nervia, utrinque subglabra et ad costam nervos- 
que dense hirsuta, petiolis 8-20 em _ longis, 
gracilibus, sericeo-tomentosis. Spicae fl. o@& 
ignotae. Spicae fl. @ gracillimae, axillares, 
solitariae, 6-10 cm longae, pedunculis 0.5-2 
cm longis, hirsutis, floribus remotis  spicatis, 
sessilibus, lanceolatis, 3-4 mm longis, hirsutis. 
Fl. 2: bractea unica minuta, triangularis, 1 mm 
longa, extus densissime hirsuta; sepala 3, ovata, 
1 mm longa, intus concava, subglabra, extus 
hirsuta; styli 2.5-3 mm longi, graciles, glabri. 

Tatwan: Hontauyu (Botel Tobago), Hoso- 
kawa SO47 (type), July 4, 1935; Hosokawa 
8165, July 16, 1935. 


Muell. Arg.) 


JUNE 1951 


This species and A. swrenbiensis Yamamoto 
are characterized by the sessile female flowers 
with very minute and nonaccrescent bracts, while 
in the other species of the genus the female 
flowers when sessile are generally provided with 
large and showy bracts, usually enclosing the 
mature capsules. 


Euphorbia Linn. 


1. Euphorbia (Sect. Tithymalus Boiss.) shou- 
anensis, Sp. nov. 

Caules villosi, crassi, erecti. Folia sessilia, 
membranacea, uninervia, lineari-oblonga vel 
lineari-lanceolata, 2-5 em longa, 8-14 mm lata, 
apice acuta, basi attenuata, subtus pubescentia. 
Umbellaria primaria ovato-lanceolata, 2.5-5 
em longa. Triplo cymae terminales. Involucrum 
centrale campanulatum, stipitatum, 3.5 mm 
longum, 2.5-3 mm diametro, extus glabrum, 
intus hirtellum, lobis 4 (5 2), ovato-oblongis, 
ciliatis, giandulis 4, transversis, reinformibus, 
stipitatis. Flores #@ 12, bracteolis spathuli- 
formibus, insertis, margine apicem versus densis- 
sime pilosis. Flores @ pedicellis elongatis, ex- 
serti; ovarium ovoideo-globosum, 2 mm longum, 
trisulcatum, glandulis verrucosis compressis bre- 
vibus conicis obtusissimis obsitum, stylis 3, 
2 mm longis, basi brevissime connatis, apice 
breviter bifidis, stigmatibus subincrassatis. In- 
volucrum sterile 2 mm longum, 1.5 mm dia- 
metro; ovarilum minutum. 

TatwaNn: Shashan, Shouan, Chiayi, Tainan, 
altitude 1,500 m, 7. Suzuki 20910 type), Novem- 
ber 10, 1940. 

This species is distinctly characterized by the 
triplo-cymose inflorescence and the involucral 
structures. In primary cymes, the umbellate 
_ leaves are 5, ovate-lanceolate, 2-5 cm long, 1.5 
em wide and with acute apex; the umbellate 
branches are 5, the central one being much 
shorter. In secondary cymes, the umbellate 
leaves are 3, ovate-rounded, 1.5 em long, 1 em 
wide and with very abtuse apex; the umbellate 
branches are 3. In tertiary cymes, the umbellate 
leaves are 3, subrounded, 8 mm long and 7 mm 
wide. The central fertile involucre is single, 
naked, campanulate, stalked, 3.5-4 mm long 


KENG: NEW OR CRITICAL EUPHORBIACEAE 205 


and 2.5-3 mm in diameter. Lateral sterile in- 
volucres are 3, turbinate, 2 mm Jong, 1.5 mm 
in diameter and short-stalked, each concealed 
in 2 clasping floral leaves (or bracts) opposite 
to the tertiary umbellate leaves. 

In the central fertile involucre, the lobes are 
4 (5 2?) ovate-oblong, the glands are 4, trans- 
versely reniform, and substalked. Male flowers 
are about 12. The ovary is ovoid-globose, ex- 
serted, and the styles are nearly free except at 
the very base. In lateral sterile involucres, the 
lobes and glands are not very distinct, the 
rudimentary flowers are numerous and_ the 
rudimentary ovary is included. 


2. Euphorbia prostrata Ait., Hort. Kew. 2: 
136. 1789; Bernard, Icon. Bogor. 4: 51. 
pl. 816. 1916; Merr., Enum. Philippine 
Fl. Pl. 2: 463. 1928. 

Huphorbia liukiuensis Hayata, misapplied by 
Sasaki, Cat. Gov. Herb. Formosa 305. 1930; 
Suzuki in Sylvia 4: 155. 1933, in Masamune, 
Short, Fl. Formosa 119. 1935. 

Chamaesyce liukiuensis (Hayata) Hara in 
Journ. Jap. Bot. 14: 356. 1938. 

Taiwan, distributed nearly throughout the 

whole island, pantropical. 

Tatwan: Northern part, S. Suzuki 12414, 
12257, Masamune & Suzuki 1742, Mori 8379, 
Simada 1738, 1736, 3211, Sasaki 1741; southern 
part, Simada 14678 (FRI), Mori 101, Hosokawa 
1939, 1941; eastern part, S. Suzuki 1277, 1667, 
10607; Pescadores, Kudo & Mori 3070, Cheng 
5071. 

This is a new record for the flora of Formosa. 
This species is similar in general appearance to 
EL. thymifolia, but it may be distinguished from 
the latter by the longer stalks of the involucre, 
the more prominent persistent columnella of 
the cocci, the shorter stalks of the glands, and the 
less hirsute cocci. 

I have not seen the type of Hayata’s #. 
liukiuensis, a species of Liukiu. However, the 
four specimens deposited in the herbarium of the 
Taiwan Forestry Research Institute, i.e., Hira- 
tuka 14676, Soma 14677, Simada 14678, and 
Yasukawa 14679, all from Taiwan and de- 
termined by 8. Sasaki as doubtfully of this 
species, agree exactly with EF. prostrata. 


206 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


ZOOLOGY .—New distributional records for two athecate hydroids, Ccrdylophora 
lacustris and Candelabrum sp., from the west coast of North America, with revi- 
sions of their nomenclature. Cappt Hann, Mills College, Oakland, and Univer- 
sity of California, Berkeley, and G. F. Gwiuuiam, University of California, 
Berkeley. (Communicated by F. M. Bayer.) 


I. CorDYLOPHORA 


In August 1950 an unidentified hydroid 
was found in a collection at the University 
of California at Berkeley. The label bore no 
collection date or collector’s name, but it 
did report the locality from which the ani- 
mal was taken as Antioch, Calif., which is 
located on the San Joaquin River 5 miles 
upstream from its Junction with the Sacra- 
mento River.The hydroid was subsequently 
identified as the widely distributed fresh- 
and brackish-water form, Cordylophora 
lacustris Allman. 

On August 26, 1950, the writers found 
this hydroid growing on pieces of old manila 
rope suspended from a floating dock in the 
San Joaquin River at Antioch. The ropes 
were literally covered with colonies of vary- 
ing sizes. A sample of the river water taken 
at this time showed a chlorinity of 1.02 parts 
per thousand (5.4 per cent of sea water). 

What appears to be the first recognizable 
description of this hydroid was that of All- 
man (1844), who found it in the docks of 
the Grand Canal, Dublin, Ireland. Roch 
(1924) ina paper dealing with many aspects 
of the biology of this hydroid reviewed its 
distribution, listing the followimg general 
localities in which Cordylophora occurred: 
Germany, Holland, Denmark, Sweden, Fin- 
land, Esthonia, Courland (now part of 
Lithuania), Russia, France, Belgium, Eng- 
land, Ireland, United States, Brazil, Egypt, 
Australia, Tasmania, New Zealand, China. 

In North America, Leidy (1870) first de- 
tected this hydroid at Newport, R. I., and 
later in the vicinity of Philadelphia, Pa. 
Since that time C. lacustris has been found 
in several localities in North America, some 
of them a considerable distance inland. 

Fraser (1944, p. 35) reports the American 
distribution as: ‘“Newport, R. I. (Leidy); 
St. Andrews, Gaspé, Seven Islands (Staf- 
ford); New England (Kingsley); Woods 
Hole (Nutting); several ponds near Woods 
Hole, Marthas Vineyard (Hargitt); Mira- 
michi estuary, Frenier Beach, La. (Fraser); 


Gatun locks, Panama canal.” In addition, 
Ward and Whipple (1945) list the follow- 
ing: Illinois River at Havana, Ill.; Miss- 
issipp1 River at Granite City and at Hast 
St. Louis, Ill.; Arkansas River at Little 
Rock, Ark.; and the Red River at Shreve- 
port, La. 

The present report is the first record of 
the existence of this organism on the west 
coast of North America. This was not en- 
tirely unexpected, as Fraser (1946, p. 101) 
stated: ‘It has not yet been reported from 
the eastern Pacific, but it has extended along 
the whole length of the North American 
Atlantic, and as it has entered the Panama 
canal as far as the Gatun locks, it may show 
up in the Pacific before long.” 

Several varieties of C. lacustris have been 
described. Schulze (1921) mentions the 
forms albicola, transiens, and whiteleggev. 
Fyfe (1929) described a new subspecies 
(otagoensis) from New Zealand. Earlier 
Leidy (1870) gave to what he recognized as 
a small variety of C. lacustris the name 
C. americana. Briggs (1931) points out that 
C’. lacustris is extremely variable in growth 
form and that growth form may depend 
upon salinity. It appears that all the named 
subspecies and forms of C. lacustris are 
nothing more than variations inhabit. 
The present writers have found such ex- 
tensive variation in the specimens studied 
that the recognition of named varieties seems 
to have no taxonomic significance. 

There is some doubt as to whether the 
proper specific name of Cordylophora is 
lacustris or caspia. Pallas (1771) described 
a hydroid from the Caspian Sea as Tubularia 
caspia. This is said by some to be identical 
with C. lacustris Allman (Roch, 1924; 
Cordero, 1941). Other writers feel that 
Pallas’ description is too vague to permit an 
exact diagnosis (Briggs, 1931; Bedot as 
quoted by Briggs) and prefer to retain C. 
lacustris. 

The present writers have studied the 
Pallas description and find it so generalized 
that it might as well refer to many other 


JUNE 1951 


hydroids as to C. lacustris. Further, there 
seem to be no valid records of this hydroid 
from the Caspian Sea since the time of 
Pallas. Because of this, coupled with the 
fact that C. lacustris Allman has had such 
wide usage, the present writers choose to 
retain Allman’s name until it can be clearly 
shown that Tubularia caspia Pallas is iden- 
tical with Cordylophora lacustris Allman. 

Another nomenclatural problem is brought 
up by Finlay (1928). Finlay declares that 
the family Clavidae to which Cordylophora 
belongs is an invalid name due to preoc- 
cupation by the gastropod genus Clava 
Martyn (1784) over the hydroid genus 
Clava Gmelin (1791). Finlay suggests that 
the name Clavidae be replaced by the name 
Cordylophoridae, Cordylophora being the 
next available generic name. This solution 
changes the type genus of the family, an 
action for which there is no valid taxonomic 
reason, and, further, Finlay fails to reassign 
the species of Clava (the hydroids) to any 
other genus. In considering this matter it 
has been pointed out to us by Dr. H. A. 
Rehder, curator of mollusks, U.S. National 
Museum, that the system used by Martyn 
in his “Universal Conchologist” is non- 
Linnaean, and that Martyn’s names are 
therefore not available and do not preoc- 
cupy. The change suggested by Finlay 
(op. cit.) was therefore unnecessary, and the 
hydroid genus Clava Gmelin (1791) stands 
as the valid type of the family Clavidae. 

Material from the University of California 
collection (U.S.N.M. no. 49727), the San 
Pablo Reservoir, and fresh material from 
Antioch (U.S.N.M. no. 49726) has been 
carefully examined and compared and no 
characters separating these from C. lacustris 
have been found. 


Family CLavipaE 
Genus Cordylophora Allman, 1844 
Cordylophora lacustris Allman 


Colony: Growth form variable. Sometimes a 
main axis with hydranths given off alternately, 
sometimes more diffuse and irregular, or colony 
branched, lacking a main axis. Hydrocaulus aris- 
ing from creeping hydrorhizae. Perisare well de- 
veloped. Longest hydrocaulus observed approxi- 
mately 6 cm. 

Trophosome: Hydranth clavate, pedicellate, 


HAND AND GWILLIAM: TWO ATHECATE HYDROIDS 


207 


with up to 30 scattered, filiform tentacles. Peri- 
sare at bases of pedicels often annulated, but 
occasionally smooth or “corrugated” on one side 
only. Perisare extending only to base of hydranth. 
Tentacles quite extensile, mouth terminal. Nemat- 
ocysts; desmonemes (4.0-6.0 by 3.0-4.0u) and 
microbasic euryteles (7.5-11.0 by 4.0-4.5y). 

Gonosome: Dioecious. Sporosacs sessile or 
borne on short pedicels which may or may not 
be annulated at their bases as in trophosome. 
Gonophores enclosed in a thin perisarc, and 
arise from hydrocauli or pedicels. In the female 
the eggs are extruded from the generative tissue 
into a jelly-like mass. The generative tissue re- 
gresses as the eggs are extruded, finally leaving a 
variable number (approximately 1-8) of recog- 
nizable ova. At this site the ova develop into 
planulae and are then released. In general, the 
female gonophores tend to be more spherical 
than the male. In life female gonophores pinkish, 
male whitish. 

Habitat and distribution: On sticks, ropes, float- 
ing docks, ete. in fresh or brackish water. In 
California, C. lacustris occurs at Antioch, and 
has been reported from Lake Merced, San Fran- 
cisco (Dr. R. C. Miller, California Acad. Sci., 
personal communication) and from the San Pablo 
reservoir system, E] Cerrito, California (Dr. H. 
Kirby, Jr., Univ. California, Berkeley, personal 
communication). Also, according to Dr. T. Kin- 
caid, Univ. Washington, Seattle (in litt.) this 
species occurs in the Puget Sound area. It has 
evidently been in California for a number of 
years. The old University of California specimen 
mentioned above is thought to be 20 to 40 years 
old. 


II. CANDELABRUM 


On May 6, 1950, three specimens of 
Candelabrum sp. (= Myriothela sp.) were 
collected from a pholad hole on the under- 
surface of a rock at approximately the zero 
foot tide level (mean lower low water) at 
Pigeon Point, San Mateo County, Calif. 
The authors do not feel that this is sufficient 
material to warrant specific identification, 
especially since none of the polyps bear 
mature gonophores. Several attempts were 
made to obtain more material, but thorough 
searching has failed to reveal the presence of 
further specimens. It may be that it is a 
stray in the intertidal zone and exists in 
numbers subtidally. Some indication of this 
may be gained from the fact that several 


208 


of the known species of Candelabrum are 
subtidal forms. Of the generic identification, 
we feel that there is no doubt. 

As nearly as the authors have been able 
to determine there are now nine valid species 
of this genus. The first was described as 
Lucernaria phrygia by Fabricius (1780). 
This was later redescribed by Sars (1850), 
apparently unaware of Fabricius’ descrip- 
tion, as Myriothela arctica. De Blainville 
(1830; reprinted, 1834) realized that Fabri- 
clus’ animal was not a Lucernaria and pro- 
posed the name Candelabrum for it. He in- 
dicated at the same time that it was related 
to the Sipunculids. Allman (1872, p. 381) 
states: ‘‘De Blainville, seeing that Fabri- 
cius’s animal had no relation with Lucer- 
naria, constituted for it, in 1834, his genus 
Candelabrum, and as this name has priority 
over Myriothela, it 1s accepted by Agassiz 
as the legitimate name of the genus.” All- 
man goes on to explain that De Blainville 
did not recognize its true affinities, while 
Sars did. He chooses to retain Mvyriothela 
Sars in spite of the law of priority, an action 
that the present authors do not deem justi- 
fied. The replacement of the name M/yriothela 
by Candelabrum necessitates the renaming 
of this monogeneric family, which we now 
designate as the Candelabridae (= Myrio- 
thelidae Allman). 

In addition tc Candelabrum phrygium, 
the other known species and the localities 
from which they were taken are: C. mitrum 
(off coast of Norway near Bergen, deep 
water, Bonnevie, 1898); C. minutum (near 
Troms6, Nerway, intertidal?, Bonnevie, 
1898); C. verrucosum (locality not given, 
Bonnevie, 1898); C. gigantewm (Greenland 
Sea, deep water, Bonnevie, 1898); C. austro- 
georgiae (cff Cumberland Bay, South Geor- 
gia Island, deep water, Jéaderholm, 1904); 
C. cocksii (Falmouth, England, intertidal, 
Cocks, 1849, as a nomen nudum; Cocks, 
1853, name validated); C. harrisoni (New 
South Wales, Australia, intertidal, Briggs, 
1928); C. australe (New South Wales, 
Australia, intertidal, Briggs, 1928). 

Fraser (1946, p. 168) reports that only one 
species is known from North America 
(C. pyrygium) and states concerning it: 
“The only American location so far reported 
is off Grand Manan Island, at. the mouth 
of the bay of Fundy, but its range extends 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 6 


eastward by way of Greenland and Iceland 
to Great Britain, Norway, Nova Zembla, 
and the Siberian Polar Sea.” 


Family CANDELABRIDAE, nom. nov. 
Genus Candelabrum de Blainville, 1830 
Candelabrum, sp. ind. 


U.S. N. M. no. 49725. 

Hydranth: Not branched, solitary, naked and 
arising from a creeping hydrorhiza or possibly a 
disc. Hydrorhizae invested with perisare. Ex- 
clusive of hydrorhizae, polyp divisible into two 
zones; a distal tentacle-bearing zone and a proxi- 
mal tentacle-free blastostylar zone. The tentacle- 
bearing zone composes five-sixths or more of the 
polyp length and bears approximately 500 tenta- 
cles in the adult; cylindrical, approximately the 
same diameter throughout. Tentacles densely 
packed, short, capitate and not arranged in any 
discernible pattern. Mouth terminal. Blastostylar 
zone swollen, of a slightly greater diameter than 
the tentacle bearing zone. Sometimes separated 
from tentacle-bearing zone by a constriction; at 
the proximal end tapering sharply to hydrorhiza. 
Structures referred to by Allman (1875) as “clas- 
pers” not present on specimens examined. Blasto- 
styles giving rise to more than one gonophore. 
Largest specimen (preserved) 2.5 em long by 
0.15 em. in diameter (including the tentacle .) 


Of the known species of Candelabrum, 
the species described above most closely 
resembles Candelabrum harrisoni Briggs. 
In fact there are no obvious differences, 
but in view of the unusual distribution which 
Briggs’ species would then have, plus the 
paucity of material available, it does not 
seem wise to make the two conspecific at this 
time. 


LITERATURE CITED 


AuumMAN, G. J. Synopsis of the genera and species 
of zoophytes inhabiting the fresh waters of Ire- 
land. Ann. Nat. Hist. (1) 13: 328-333. 1844. 

. A monograph of gymnoblastic or tubularvan 

hydroids 2: 381-383. 1872. 

. On the structure and development of Myrio- 
thela. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London 165 (2): 
549-572. 1875. 

Buainviuie£, H. M.D. ve. Dictionnaire des sciences 
naturelles 60: 284. 1830. 

. Manuel d’actinologie. Paris, 1834. 

BonnEvIE, K. Zur Systematik der Hydroiden. Zeit- 
schr. fiir Wiss. Zool. 63: 465-493. 1898. 

Briaes, EH. A. Studies in Australian athecate hy- 
droids. Rec. Austral. Mus. Sydney 16: 305- 
315. 1928. 


JUNE 1951 


. Notes on Australian athecate hydroids. Rec. 
Austral. Mus. Sydney. 18: 279-282. 1931. 
Cocks, W. P. Contributions to the fauna of Fal- 
mouth. Ann. Rep. Roy. Cornwall Polytech. Soc. 

17: 38-102. 1849. 

. Contributions to the fauna of Falmouth, 
1853. Ann. Rep. Roy. Cornwall Polytech Soc. 
21: 28-36. 1853. 

CorpErRo, E. H. Observaciones sobre algunas es- 
pectes sudamericanas de género Hydra. II. 
Hydra y Cordylophora en el Uruguay. Ann. 
Acad. Brasil. Sci. 13: 173-184 figs. 1-26. 1941. 

Fasricius, O. Fauna Groenlandica. 1780. 

Fintay, H. J. Notes on New Zealand and Aus- 
tralian gymnoblastic hydroids. Austral. Zool. 
5: 257-261. 1928. 

Fraser, C. M. Hydroids of the Atlantic coast of 
North America. Toronto, 1944. 

. Distribution and relationship in American 
hydroids. Toronto, 1946. 

Fyre, M. A new fresh water hydroid from Otago 
(New Zealand). Trans. Proc. New Zealand 
Inst. 59 (4): 813-823. 1929. 

Gein, J. F. In Linnaeus, Systema naturae, ed. 
13, 4(@)¢ silsil, Wahl. 


HOFFMAN: DIPLOPOD FAMILY CAMPODESMIDAE 


209 


JApernHoim, I. Mitteilungen tiber einige von der 
Schwedischen Antarctic-Expedition 1901-1903 
eingesammelte Hydroiden. Arch. Zool. Exp. et 
Gen. Notes et Revue, ser. 4, 3 (1): i-xiv. 1904. 

Letpy, J. [The Proceedings, Oct. 18, 1870.] Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 22: 113. 1870. 

Martyn, T. Universal conchologisi 1: fig. 12. 1784. 

Pauuas, P. 8. Reise durch verschiedene Provinzen 
des Russischen Reichs 1(5): 1-504, 24 pls. St. 
Petersburg, 1771. 

Rocu, F. Experimentelle Untersuchungen an 
Cordylophora caspia (Pallas) etc. Zeitschr. 
Morph. und Okol. Tiere. 2: 350-426; 667-670. 
1924. 

Sars, M. Beretning om en i Sommeren 1849 fore- 
tagen Zoologisk reise 1 Lofoten og Finmarken. 
Nyt. Mag. Naturvid. Christiana 6: 121-211. 
1850. 

Scuuuze, P. Die Hydroiden der Umgebung Berlins 
mit besonderer Bervicksichtigung der Binnen- 
landformen von Cordylophora. Biol. Zentralbl. 
41: 211-237. 1921. 

Warp, H. B., and Wutreein, G. C. Fresh water 
biology. New York, 1945. 


ZOOLOGY .—The diplopod family Campodesmidae (Polydesmida). RicHarp L. 
HorrMan, Clifton Forge, Va. (Communicated by E. A. Chapin.) 


The name Campodesmidae was proposed 
in 1895 by O. F. Cook. Appearing in a key to 
the tropical African families of polydesmoid 
millipeds, the original description was rather 
inadequate. Subsequently, in several publica- 
tions cited below, additional information (of 
a fragmentary nature) was given about the 
family and its two genera, but later workers 
have never been able to derive a very satis- 
factory idea of the nature of the group. It is 
a matter of some interest that campodesmids 
have never been encountered by other 
workers, who have managed to come across 
most of the other West African genera 
described by Cook. 

Since the great majority of Cook’s 
Liberian species have never been adequately 
described and have been mostly ignored by 
later workers, it appears necessary to re- 
describe them. Through the unfailing co- 
operation of Dr. EK. A. Chapin, I have been 
able to study the Cook collection now in the 
U.S. National Museum. The present paper, 
the first of a planned series, is concerned 
with the campodesmids and with the system- 
atic position of the family. 


Family CampopEsMIDAE Cook 


Campodesmidae Cook, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 18: 
82. 1895; Amer. Nat. 30: 414. 1896. 


Diagnosis.—Male gonopods large, prominent, 
protruding from a large oval sternal aperture. 
Coxae subcylindrical, attached loosely to each 
other, largely concealed within the aperture. Pre- 
femur small, with a large unbranched laminate 
prefemoral process. No distinction between femur 
and tibiotarsus, the latter distally elongate, slen- 
der, forming nearly a complete circle. 

Gnathochilarium and mandibles typical of the 
usual polydesmoid form. 

Antennae of moderate heaviness, with a few 
scattered hairs. Four sensory cones, concealed 
within the seventh article. 

Head finely granular, with a well-defined verti- 
gical groove. A prominent ovoid longitudinal 
swelling immediately under each antennal socket. 
Clypeal area much swollen, raised above level of 
frons, glabrous. 

Collum rather small, not concealing the head 
and much exceeded in width by the keels of the 
second segment. 

Keels of midbody segments well developed, 
wide as body cavity but narrow and widely 


210 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 6 


Fias. 1-5.—1, Campodesmus carbonarius, dorsal view of head and first three segments; 2, same, 
antenna, much enlarged; 3, ventral view of last two segments; 4, left male gonopod, mesial aspect; 5, 
Tropidesmus jugosus, dorsal view of head and first three segments. Figures drawn to different scales. 


JUNE 1951 


separated from each other. Keels strongly de- 
pressed causing tergites to be highly arched. 

Repugnatorial pores small, not on special 
stalks, occurring only on segments 5 and 7. 

Anal segment large, not concealed by nine- 
teenth, with three large tubercules on each side, 
distally bent slightly downward. 

Preanal scale small, trapezoid, with two elon- 
gate setiferous tubercules. Anal valves nearly 
plane, each with a median tubercule. 

Sternites rather broad and smooth, without 
special modifications. 

Legs of moderate length and size, without 
spines, lobes, or tarsal pads. 

Pleurites without carinae or large tubercules. 

Range-—Known only from Liberia. 

Genera included—Two, which may be sepa- 
rated as follows: 


1. Tergites each with a cluster of three elongate 
upright tubercules on each side of middle. 
Campodesmus 
Tergites each bearing two transverse rows, each 

of six short longitudinal carinae. 
Tropidesmus 


Genus Campodesmus Cook 


Campodesmus Cook, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 18: 82. 
1895. 


Generotype—C. carbonartus Cook, by mono- 
typy. 

Diagnosis.—With the characters of the family, 
particularly distinguished by the ornamentation 
of the tergites. Collum with a row of 10 small 
tubercules on the anterior margin; a second row 
of eight larger tubercules across the middle. On 
the caudal half are two still larger tubercules with 
a small one laterad to each. Tergites of midbody 
segments with a cluster of three tubercules on 
each side of middle, these largest at midbody and 
diminishing towards the ends. Each keel bears 
three rounded tubercules near the outer end and 
two small ones at the base. 


Campodesmus carbonarius Cook 


Type specimen.—U. 8. Nat. Mus., adult male, 
collected at Mount Coffee, western Liberia, by 
O. F. Cook. 

Diagnosis.—With the characters of the genus. 
Dorsal color dark brown, underparts whitish. 
Length, from 28 to 38 mm. 

Male gonopods of the form represented in 
Fig. 4. 


HOFFMAN: DIPLOPOD FAMILY CAMPODESMIDAE 


211 


Genus Tropidesmus Cook 
Tropidesmus Cook, Amer. Nat. 30: 414. 1896. 


Generotype.—T. jugosus Cook, by monotypy. 

Diagnosis.—Differing from Campodesmus 
chiefly in the nature of the ornamentation and in 
size and shape of the collum, as illustrated. 
Also, the second segment is not as wide and is 
somewhat more bent anteriorly. Collum with 
six tubercules along the front margin; eight in 
the second row (of which those at the ends are 
rounded, the others elongate); and six tubercules 
in the third row, of which the middle two are 
much enlarged. Second segment with keels pro- 
duced forward, partially embracing and sub- 
tending the collum; dorsally with four short 
middorsal carinae and smaller indistinct tuber- 
cules laterad. On following segments the dorsal 
carinae increase to 12, in two transverse rows 
of six each. A single large swelling at the end of 
each keel. 


Tropidesmus jugosus Cook 


Type specimen.—U. 8. Nat. Mus. (adult 
male?)! collected at Mount Coffee, Liberia, by 
O. F. Cook. 

Diagnosis.—W ith the characters of the genus. 
Size and color about the same as in Campodesmus. 
The male gonopods may be expected to present 
additional specific and generic characters. 


SYSTEMATIC POSITION OF 
THE CAMPODESMIDAE 


The campodesmids seem not to be closely 
related to any other of the African poly- 
desmoid millipeds. The family clearly falls 
into the group for which Brolemann in 1916 
proposed the name “Leptodesmina.” This 
ensemble is characterized by the fact that 
the coxae of the male gonopods are only 
shghtly attached together, are not attached 
to the sternal aperture, and are generally con- 
cealed within the body when at rest. 

In Attems’ most recent key to the poly- 
desmoid families (1937), Campodesmus runs 
down to the family Leptodesmidae (properly 
Chelodesmidae, jide Hoffman, 1950). The 


1The original description mentions an adult 
male. The vial of material sent to me was labeled 
“Type”’ but contained only immature specimens. 
Presumably the mature specimen was taken out 
and is for the present misplaced in the body of the 
Museum collection. 


212 


configuration of the gonopod certainly 
vindicates this allocation, as the large pre- 
femoral process occurs in nearly all of the 
South American chelodesmid genera. In 
other characters, however, no particular 
relationship can be observed. Rather some 
similarity is seen with the Platyrrhacidae, a 
family occurring in the East Indies and in 
Middle America but unrepresented in the 
Ethiopian region. The chief platyrrhacid 
features obtain in the broadened anal seg- 
ment, subantennal swellings, and general 
appearance of the sternites. 

The shape of the preanal scale and the 
dorsal sculpture are very reminiscent of 
certain genera (notably Orodesmus) of the 
Oxydesmidae, a small family occurring in 
Central and West Africa. 

Considering the various developments of 
campodesmids which are duplicated in other 
families in different parts of the world, and 
the absence of any specialization such as 
pronounced sexual dimorphism, modifica- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 6 


tion of the legs of males, etc., I am for the 
present inclined to regard the Campodes- 
midae as representative of a generalized 
ancestral chelodesmoid stock, a supposition 
not unsupported by the present areal 
distribution of the families concerned. 


LITERATURE CITED 


ArrreMs, Cart Grar. Fam. Strongylosomidae. In 
Das Tierreich, Lief. 68: 1-300. 1937. 

BroLeMANN, Henri W. Essai d’une classification 
des Polydesmiens. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 84: 
523-608. 1916. 

Coox, Orator F. Hast African Diplopoda of the 
suborder Polydesmoidea, collected by Mr. 
William Astor Chanler. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 
18: 1-111. 1895. 

. A new diplopod fauna in Liberia. Amer. 

Nat. 30: 413-420. 1896. 

. Summary of new Liberian Polydesmoidea. 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia for 1896: 
257-267. 

Horrman, Ricwarp L. The status of the milliped 
Chelodesmus marxi Cook, and of the family 
name Chelodesmidae. Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash- 
ington 63: 185-188. 1950. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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CONTENTS 


ErHnNoLocy.—Was the California condor known to the Blackfoot Indians? 
CLAUDEVE. SCHABFFER: 0 .0o.c058 oo ae oe ee. eee 


PaLEONTOLOGY.—New Desmoinesian crinoids. HarreiLu L. STRIMPLE. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Brachiopod homonyms. G. ARTHUR CooPER and 
HepEn Mi. Mutr-Woob. «$52.6 f.. ea 8% clus an. does er 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Substitution for the preoccupied name Hystricina. 
Merritu A. STAINBROOK 


Botany.—A contribution to the lichen flora of Alaska. GrorcGE A. 


Botany.—New or critical Euphorbiaceae from eastern Asia. Hstian 
KENG 


ZooLocy.—New distributional records for two athecate hydroids, Cordylo- 
phora lacustris and Candelabrum sp., from the west coast of North 
America, with revisions of their nomenclature. CaprT HANp and 
G. F. GwItLiam 


Zootoey.—The diplopod family Campodesmidae (Polydesmida). Ricu- 
ARD L. HorrmMan 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


191 


i. t~ 
r| <i AUG 8 ls 33 «/} 
SY NATIONAL Sz 
No. 7 


Juuy 1951 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 41 


July 1951 


NO. 7 


PHYSICS.—Measure for measure: Some problems and paradoxes of precision.’ FRAN- 
cis B. StusBexz, National Bureau of Standards. 


Measurements constitute such an essential 
part of science that I feel no apology is 
needed for devoting this address to a rather 
rambling consideration of certain aspects of 
the measurement process that are sometimes 
overlooked. Even Standen in his amusing 
satire Sczence is a sacred cow recognizes the 
importance of measurement in science by 
writing, “If the idols of scientists were piled 
on top of one another in the manner of a 
totem pole, the topmost one would be a 
grinning fetish called Measurement.” 
Though my examples will be drawn for the 
most part from the physical sciences, with 
which I have had first hand experience, I 
want to stress that my theme lies not so 
much in physics as it does in behavioristic 
psychology. The whole system of concepts, 
units, dimensions, and standards by which 
measurements are made is inherently an 
artificial creation; a tool like the artifacts 
about which my predecessor, Dr. Roberts, 
told us a year ago, created by man in his 
own image (or as it often seems to the stu- 
dent, perhaps in the image of the devil) 
and hence showing many of man’s peculi- 
arities both his weaknesses and his virtues. 
The phrase “‘in his own image”’ applies in a 
literal sense to units like the foot, the cubit, 
and the pace. More figuratively we see 
his sense of humor reflected in the name 
“barn” recently given to a unit of 10-4 sq 
em and used to express the effective cross- 
section of an atomic nucleus which the ex- 
perimenter tries to hit with atomic “‘bullets” 
from his cyclotron. Man’s hero-worship is 
shown by the use of the names of great 
scientists as names of units such as the ohm, 

1 Address delivered February 15, 1951, as re- 


tiring president of the Washington Academy of 
ae 
H 1 ( b 


213 


ampere, henry, poise, stoke. His nationalistic 
prejudices have not been absent from the 
discussions which precede the adoption of 
such nomenclature. 

The value of measurement is not limited 
to the obvious fields of scientific research, 
engineering development, control of manu- 
facturing process and the commerce of the 
market place. Each individual needs a 
certain amount of quantitative knowledge 
as a basis for the conduct of his daily life, 
for the appreciation of the world about 
him, and for the appraisal of his fellow men 
and their achievements. Many of our present 
difficulties, I believe, arise from a lack of 
quantitative realization by many persons, 
of the labor equivalent of a billion dollars, 
the energy equivalent of an atomic bomb, 
the dimensions of the Siberian steppe or of 
the Atlantic Ocean. 


CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES 


One definition of ‘‘measurement”’ is ‘‘the 
establishment of a one-to-one relationship 
between the quantity or phenomenon being 
measured and a number.” The value of 
measurement arises because of the very 
useful properties possessed by numbers such 
as identity (e.g., 3 is different from 2), 
order (e.g., 3 follows 2), size (e.g., 3 is larger 
than 2), obedience to the rules of arithmetic, 
algebra, and so on. Here I am using ‘“‘num- 
ber” in a rather general sense, for while 
measurements are commonly expressed by 
the sequence of real numbers, certain kinds 
of quantity common in electrical engineering 
require the use of complex numbers, many 
quantities in physics require vectors and 
some quantities require tensors. It should 
never be forgotten that a numerical measure- 
ment is of value only to the extent that the 


AUS 5 
a ¢ 


1954 


214 


quantity measured also possesses that par- 
ticular property of numbers which is to be 
used. Thus if identity is the only property 
of the quantity concerned, one must not 
use addition. You have all heard of the sea 
captain confronted with a sick seaman whose 
symptoms, according to the instruction 
book, called for medicine no. 11. Bottle no. 
11 unfortunately happened to be empty, 
so the captain made up a potion by adding 
a dose from bottle no. 5 to one from bottle 
no. 6. As an example in the other direction, 
consider the electrical engineering student 
when he first discovers that three terminals 
A, B, C, may be so energized that his volt- 
meter shows 110 volts between A and B, 
110 volts between B and C, and also 110 
volts between C and A. He should not be 
discouraged at this paradox but instead 
should recognize that his alternating voltages 
cannot be characterized merely by their 
magnitude. Account must also be taken of 
their time-phase relations as well. Hence 
they require not merely real numbers but 
the combination of real and imaginary 
components and therefore he should apply 
the rules developed by the mathematicians 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 7 


for such complex quantities, nowadays 
called “phasors.” 

Stevens (/) has systematized the classi- 
fication of scales of measurement as shown 
in Table 1. The third and fourth column 
list the mathematical and statistical proc- 
esses applicable to each type of scale, and 
it is only at his ‘ratio seale” that we get 
what is ordinarily thought of as a true 
measurement. 

The ordinal scales, however, are not to 
be despised. Some, such as the Moh scale 
of hardness which runs from 1 for tale to 10 
for diamond, and the triboelectric series, 
which tries to express the relative polarities 
of the electric charges produced by friction 
between different substances, are relatively 
vague and indefinite. Others, such as the 
number scales of the wire and sheet-metal 
gages, are quite definite, though usually 
purely arbitrary. A partial exception is the 
Brown and Sharpe (or Amer. wire gage) in 
which the diameter, d,, in mils is related 
to the gage number n by the rather com- 
plicated formula 


dn Ls 5(4/92)°™ 


TABLE 1.—A CLASSIFICATION OF SCALES OF MEASUREMENT 


Measurement is the assignment of numerals to objects or events according to rule. The rules and the resulting kinds of scales are 
tabulated below. The basic operations needed to create a given scale are all those listed in the second column, down to and includ- 
ing the operation listed opposite the scale. The third column gives the mathematical transformations that leave the scale form 
invariant. Any numeral, z, on a scale can be replaced by another numeral «’ where 2’ is the function of 2 listed in column 3. The 
fourth column lists, cumulatively downward, some of the statistics that show invariance under the transformations of column 3, 


Scale SN | eae | eee ae Typical examples 
NOMINAL Determination of | Permutation group Number of cases “Numbering”’ of football 
equality a = f@) Mode players 
where f(«) means any | Contingency correlation Assignment of type or model 
one-to-one substi- | numbers to classes 
tution 
ORDINAL | Determination of Isotonie group Median Hardness of minerals 
greater or less ae! = f(a) Percentiles Quality of leather, lumber, 
where f(r) meansanyin-| Order correlation (type O) wool, ete. 
creasing monotonic Pleasantness of odors 
function 
INTERVAL Determination of General linear group Mean Temperature (Fahrenheit 
equality of intervals | z’=axr+b Standard deviation and Centigrade) 
or differences Order correlation (type I) | Energy 
Product moment correla-| Calendar dates 
tion “Standard scores”’ on 
achievement tests (?) 
RATIO Determination of Similiarity group Geometric mean Length, Weight, Density, Re- 
equality of ratios a’ = ax Coefficient of variation sistance, Ete. 
Decibel transformations Pitch scale (mels) 
v Loudness seale (sones) 


Juty 1951 


Just why our ancestors chose these particu- 
lar numbers remains a mystery, but the 
functional relationship is quite definite and 
often useful. Its persistence in competition 
with still more handy alternatives such as 
d, = (10)°°°-”!*° is a good example of hu- 
man conservatism. 

Another example of what is still primarily 
an ordinal scale is the geologic time scale. 
It is true that by tree rings some 2,000 
years can be counted absolutely, and by 
analyses for C™“ in organic materials good 
approximations can be pushed to some 
20,000 years. Yet this interval is so short 
as to be an almost negligible part of the 
probable 10° years since archeozoic times. 
However, the relative order of superposition 
of the various geological formations con- 
stitutes the primary key for unlocking the 
riddle of the rocks and is fundamental to 
the whole science of geology. 


TEMPERATURE SCALES 


The history of the various temperature 
scales illustrates the transition frem an 
ordinal to a ratio scale. To determine 
whether one body is hotter or cooler than 
another by a more certain method than 
merely touching them, the basic criterion 
is that heat will always tend to flow from 
the hotter to the colder. This criterion auto- 
matically sets up an ordinal scale. To be 
more quantitative, the early workers chose 
some particular property (length, volume, 
or vapor pressure) of some particular ther- 
mometric substance (brass, mercury, or 
alcohol) as a basis for assigning numbers 
to a succession of thermal states and thus 
establishing a complete ordinal scale. How- 
ever, even if two such scales based on dif- 
ferent properties or substances are adjusted 
to coincide at two points; say the freezing 
and boiling points of water, it does not 
follow that they will coincide at intermedi- 
ate points. It is easy to compare the first 
and the twelfth inches on a foot rule by 
sliding an auxiliary fixed interval from one 
end to the other, but there is no correspond- 
ing way to compare the temperature in- 
terval from 32°F to 33°F with the one from 
211°F to 212°F. Warming a piece of copper 
wire from 30.5°F to 31.5°F causes an in- 
crease in its resistance which is almost 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


215 


exactly equal to the increase caused by 
warming it from 31.5°F to 32.5F. In con- 
trast, the effects of warming a mass of 
H,O through these two temperature inter- 
vals are startlingly different. In general, 
the use of a different thermometric sub- 
stance, or of a different property of the same 
substance will lead to a scale which will 
differ somewhat in the numerical value 
assigned to any particular thermal state. 
However, many properties of many sub- 
stances show fairly gradual changes of 
property with temperature, and abrupt 
changes like the melting of ice occur only 
at a few temperatures with any one sub- 
stance. Hence, a scale limited in its definition 
to ranges in which changes of state of the 
thermometric substance do not occur can 
be used in practice as an interval scale. 
The older Fahrenheit and Centigrade scales, 
while strictly speaking merely ordinal, are 
in practice used as interval scales. Until 
one has a true ratio scale, however, there is 
no significance in the old question, ‘“How 
cold is twice as hot as 10° below zero?” 
Kelvin recognized a hundred years ago 
that the dependence of a temperature scale 
on particular substances could be avoided 
by basing the scale on Carnot’s principle. 
This principle states that the efficiency of a 
heat engine operating on a reversible thermo- 
dynamic cycle between two heat-reservoirs, 
depends solely on the temperatures of the 
reservoirs and does not depend on the size 
of the engine or the nature of its working 
fluid. For his first type of thermodynamic 
scale Kelvin (2) postulated that ‘“‘a unit of 
heat in descending from a body A at tem- 
perature T° of this seale, to a body B at 
the temperature (T-1)° would give out the 
same mechanical effect, whatever be the 
number T.”’ By a suitable choice of the 
amount of ‘mechanical effect’? derived per 
“unit of heat’ (i.e., the eficiency) which is 
to correspond to 1° on the new scale and 
by making an arbitrary choice of the 
thermal state to which the number 0 is 
assigned, he set up a thermodynamic scale 
on which the ice point and boiling point 
were 0° and 100°, respectively. This first 
Kelvin seale, however, has little similarity 
to the ordinary Centigrade scale and did 
not come into general use. Later WKelvin 


216 


introduced an alternative postulate, that 
the efficiency of an ideal reversible Carnot 
engine is equal to the quotient of the differ- 
ence in the temperatures of the two reser- 
voirs divided by the temperature of the 
hotter. Kelvin chose arbitrarily to make 
the temperature difference between the ice 
and steam points exactly 100°. Experiments 
have shown that on this scale the ice point 
is close to 273.16°. It has been suggested by 
Giauque (3) that it might be better to 
make the arbitrary choice that of a value, 
say 273.16°, for the ice pomt and in conse- 
quence to let the interval between the steam 
and ice points become subject to experi- 
mental determination and no longer be 
exactly 100°. This change is under serious 
consideration, but has not yet been adopted. 
This second Kelvin scale, because of the 
form of its definition, is truly a ratio scale, 
and there is real significance in applying 
the rules of arithmetic and algebra to the 
numerical values on this scale in thermo- 
dynamic analyses. The first Kelvin scale, 
defined by L = 738 logio T-1798, is an 
interval scale. 

These two thermodynamic scales offer 
some interesting contrasts as shown by 
Table 2 in which an assortment of tempera- 
tures are listed on four different scales. 
At high temperatures the first Kelvin scale 
is more crowded than the usual scales and 
might be useful in expressing the extreme 
temperatures developed within an atomic 
bomb. At the low-temperature end the first 
Kelvin scale is much more expanded and 
extends indefinitely toward « at the cold 
extreme. When displayed along this ex- 
panded scale of temperature, it seems per- 
haps less unnatural to find in this range the 
many strange and novel properties of mat- 
ter like superconductivity and superfluidity 
that recent researches have brought to light. 

The principal moral to be drawn from the 
existence of Kelvin’s first temperature scale 
is the debunking of the concept of an ‘“‘ab- 
solute zero of temperature” as a ‘‘point”’ 
at a finite distance from the ice point and 
perhaps attainable by a finite human effort. 
Instead, there appears the prospect of an 
unlimited field for research containing space 
for any number of new phenomena and 
offering a perennial challenge to science. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 7 


While Kelvin’s second scale is ideal from 
a theoretical standpoint, the experimental 
difficulties in gas thermometry have set 
limits to the accuracy with which the scale 
can be realized in laboratory practice. Be- 
cause of the need for specifying tempera- 
tures within much narrower limits, still 
another scale has been set up on a purely 
empirical foundation. This ‘International 
Temperature Seale’’, officially promulgated 
in 1927 and revised in 1948 (4), is intended 
to represent as closely as possible the Kelvin 
thermodynamic scale, but is defined in 
terms of six fixed points (melting and boil- 
ing points of specified substances) and by 
the use of specified formulas and measuring 
instruments for the interpolation of inter- 
mediate temperatures. From the boiling 
point of oxygen (— 182.970°C) to the freezing 
point of antimony (630.5°C) the inter- 
polating instrument is the platinum resist- 
ance thermometer; from the antimony 
point to the melting point of gold (1063.0°C) 
a platinum to platinum-rhodium thermo- 
couple is used; and above the gold point 
the Planck radiation law. 

The 1927 wording of this scale led to the 


TABLE 2—TEMPERATURE SCALES 


: 7 Kelvin Kel- 
Hahrenheit Centigrade (second) as) 
Ae, 
+ -) + |+ © + 
+ 5X 108), 3 X 106 3 X 108 |+3,000| atomic 
bomb 
+10, 337 +5, 727 6,000 + 992) sun’s sur- 
| face 
+ 6,098 +3,370 3,643 + 830) M.P. of 
tung- 
sten 
2,774 +1, 535 1,808 + 606) M.P. of 
iron 
212 + 100 373.16 + 100) steam 
point 
+ 32 0 273.16 0) ice point 
= ale | ikp.wy 90.19  |— 355] oxygen 
point 
— 462.11 — 268.94 4.22 —1,336) helium 
B.P. 
— 455.62 — 270.89 2.2 —1,545) helium 
lambda 
point 
— 459.58 — 273.09 0.007 —3,370| adiabat. 
demag. 
459.69 273216 0 - 


JuLny 1951 


amusing paradox that for 21 years it was 
officially impossible to measure the freezing 
point of aluminum on the International 
Temperature Scale (5). When measured 
with a standard resistance thermometer 
the freezing point of aluminum is found to 
be 660.01°C. Since this is above the limit 
(660.°C) for which the resistance thermom= 
eter was then standard, it is evident that 
a standard thermocouple should have been 
used. However, if a thermocouple is used, 
the freezing point turns out to be 659.87°C 
which is below the range over which the 
thermocouple is standard, and therefore 
neither value can be considered official. 


LOGARITHMIC SCALES 


- When a particular quantity is of impor- 
tance, and therefore has to be measured over 
a very wide range of values, it is frequently 
convenient to subject the value «x of the 
original quantity to the mathematical trans- 
formation y = log (#/x,), where 2p is a fixed 
reference level and to use the derived 
quantity y, both in graphical representations 
to save space and in common parlance to 
save words. This transformation is useful 
in cases such as the transmission of light 
through a succession of filters of uniform 
density but differing thickness or the trans- 
mission of electrical signals along a com- 
munication circuit. Here the intensity x of 
the transmitted effect varies with the thick- 
ness of the filter or the distance along the 
line in an exponential way so that its 
logarithm y varies linearly with thickness or 
distance. The effect of an interposed filter 
or of inserted electrical apparatus is to 
reduce x by a factor and to subtract a cor- 
responding amount from y. The convenience 
of combining these effects additively has led 
by a gradual evolutionary process which is 
still incomplete to the invention of the deci- 
bel, the neper and similar units for logarith- 
mic scales. Until x is fixed such logarithmic 
or “‘decibel’’ scales are themselves interval 
seales of y derived from ratio scales of x. 
Careless handling of decibels can lead to 
a minor paradox. By definition a bel in y 
corresponds to a change in x by a factor of 
10. A decibel is one-tenth of a bel. Hence, 
one might conclude that a decibel was a 
change by one-tenth of 10 or 1, which is no 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


217 


change at all! More seriously, real confusion 
does arise because at present the word 
“decibel” is used with a plurality of mean- 
ings. Primarily as a pure number, one 
decibel is the change in the logioa which 
corresponds to a change by a factor of 
10 in x (W/10 = 1.259...). Hence 10 
successive steps in y each of 1 decibel will 
correspond to a total change in y of 10 
decibels or 1 bel and thus to a factor of 10 
in x. Secondly, it is common practice to 
state the power level in a communication or 
sound-measuring circuit as being so many 
decibels. In this phraseology, the number of 
decibels really expresses logarithmically the 
ratio of the actual electrical power to some 
conventionally chosen reference power level, 
xo, often 1 milliwatt, but sometimes by 
various writers as 6, 10, 12.5 or 1000 milli- 
watts, and all too frequently not stated at 
all. Thirdly, the level of sound or noise is 
usually expressed as a particular number of 
decibels, when really this number expresses 
its ratio to some unstated basic reference 
sound level. The reference level is now 
pretty definitely standardized at that pro- 
duced by a sound pressure of 0.0002 dyne 
per square centimeter at 1,000 cycles per 
second. It is this somewhat perverted use 
of “decibel” as a unit of sound level which 
is most commonly found in the lay press. 
Another reason why logarithmic scales 
have been found convenient lies in the prop- 
erties of the human senses (at least those of 
sight and hearing). Weber found experi- 
mentally that the least discernible increment 
Az in stimulus is approximately proportional 
to the value x of the stimulus already pres- 


ent. Thus = = k. Fechner then introduced 


the postulate that all ‘‘least discernible 
increments” Ax in stimulus 2 corresponded 
to equal steps Ay in a scale of sensation, y. 
The combination of these relations gives 


, Ax 
AV — see ze 
v 


which by integration leads to y = KA log 
x + C. Thus the decibel scale based on 
the purely physical stimulus turns out to 
offer possibilities as a scale for measuring 
the purely psychological quantity “‘sensa- 
tion”. 


218 


However, Fechner’s postulate of forming 
a sensation scale by adding least perceptible 
increments is not the only possibility and 
workers in psychophysics are actively try- 
ing out experimental procedures by which 
sensation scales can be built up on the 
basis of judging equal ratios of sensations or 
by judging equality of fairly large incre- 
ments in sensation. Unfortunately these 
scales do not always coincide with that 
based on Fechner’s hypothesis and the 
science of psychophysics has a long way to 
go before it can become truly quantitative. 


COLOR 


Even more complicated to measure than 
quantities representable by vectors or ten- 
sors are complex quantities having a plural- 
ity of attributes that are different in nature. 
A good example is the color of an illuminated 
surface. Here long experimentation has 
shown that in any case three independent 
attributes are involved. In different schemes 
for the measurement of color, these may 
be chosen in different ways. In the psycho- 
logical color solid all possible colors are 
considered as occupying points in a 3-di- 
mensional continuum. Along one axis the 
attribute of lightness varies continuously 
from black at the bottom, through pro- 
gressively lighter grays to white at the top. 
Around this “gray axis” the hues of the 
spectrum can be arranged in order with a 
sequence of purples bridging across from 
the violet to the red. For any lightness and 
hue there is a third radial graduation in 
saturation from maximally saturated colors 
at the extremity through less and less sat- 
urated colors to gray at the axis. The three 
cylindrical coordinates of a point in this 
solid thus can serve to measure a color. 

An alternative system is shown in Fig. 1, 
which shows the ICI chromaticity diagram 
for color notation and measurement. Here 
the three independent variables may, very 
roughly, be described as measures of ‘‘red- 
ness”’ plotted as the abscissa, x; “‘greenness”’ 
plotted as ordinate, y; and “‘brightness”’, 
which is to be thought of as plotted per- 
pendicular to the z-y plane and as not affect- 
ing the chromaticity. In Fig. 1 the curved 
outer boundary represents the locus of 
spectrum colors and the straight chord 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 7 


represents the purples obtainable by super- 
position in various proportions of violet 
and red. The diagram shown has the useful 
property that the color obtained by super- 
posing any two other colors lies on the 
straight line which joins the two component 
colors. Other diagrams can be derived by 
linear transformations from the one shown 
and have other useful properties. 

The paradoxical feature of this diagram 
lies in the fact that the standard of redness 
or of greenness, 1.e., the points x = 1, y = 0 
and x = 0, y = 1 he outside the spectrum 
locus so that each of these convenient and 
regularly used standards for color measure- 
ments is quite literally a “light that never 
was on sea or land.”’ 


QUADERGY 


Man is a very imaginative animal and 
often conjures up whimsical notions that 
have only the most tenuous contact with 
reality. Yet, if such a notion fits into the 
pattern of his thought habits, he may wish 
to measure quantitatively such an entirely 
imaginary concept. An example of this is 
found in the transmission of electrical energy 
in an alternating-current circuit. The trans- 
mission of energy proper results from the 
cooperation of simultaneous alternations of 
the current and of the voltage in step with 
one another. The resultant transfer of 
energy is very real, for it is the thing which 
nowadays in a very literal sense ‘“‘makes the 
world go ’round.”’ The annual bill for it in 
the U. S. A. is some $4-billion. However, 
superposed on this phenomenon, there is, 
except in very special cases, an additional 
effect often described as the presence of a 
spurious component of current which is 
pulsating 90° out of step with the pulsations 
of the voltage. A physicist describes this 
situation in realistic terms by stating that 
under these circumstances an additional 
definite fixed amount of energy is oscillating 
back and forth along the transmission line 
so as to provide the necessary energy to 
magnetize the motors during those times in 
the cycle when they need to be magnetized 
and going back to be restored to the genera- 
tor for the intervals when the motors do not 
need it. The actual amount of energy in- 
volved is small, being usually of the order 


Junty 1951 


of that delivered by the main energy flow 
in 1/240 second. 

The electrical engineer, or, more specifi- 
cally, the load dispatcher of a power com- 
pany, looks at the matter from a very 
different point of view. He knows that the 
presence of even a small oscillating com- 
ponent of energy produces additional heating 


0.900 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


219 


in his equipment, leads to far greater drops 
in voltage between his generators and the 
customers’ lamps than does an equal amount 
of in-phase current, and requires either the 
installation of expensive capacitor banks or 
costly modifications in the design of his 
generators. He feels, quite justly, that the 
customer whose load is such as to require 


-800 


-7100 


505 


YELLOWISH 


GREEN 


YELLOWISH ORANGE 


400 


(0) 
-300 


ICI ILLUMINANT "C" 


-200 


at caar. 
PIN 


100 


0.000 100 


800 


x 


Fria. 1.—Color-mixture diagram according to the 1931 I.C.L. standard observer and coordinate system. 


220 
much of this magnetizing service should pay 
in proportion both to the activity of the 
oscillating energy required and to the time 
during which the service is maintained. 
Accordingly, he just invents a name for the 
product of the out-of-phase component of 
the current multiplied by the voltage. Many 
years ago in the days of the ‘‘horseless 
carriage” and of “‘wireless telegraphy”’ this 
mathematical product was called ‘‘wattless 
watts.” But this barbarism proved too 
crude even for the engineers, and the more 
dignified term ‘“‘reactive power’ has come 
into use to distinguish it from the “active 
power” which measures the true average 
rate of flow of energy. The unit of reactive 
power has been christened the ‘‘var.”’ 
Varmeters, which indicate the average 
value of reactive power, and varhourmeters, 
which integrate the reactive power with 
respect to time over the billing period and 
which are accurate to a few tenths of 1 
percent, are on the market. Yet the quantity 
measured by a varhourmeter is a purely 
mental creation which is imagined to flow 
steadily from the supply circuit into an 
induction motor to keep it on the average 
properly magnetized and which the operator 
likes to think of as being ‘“‘generated” by 
a static capacitor or an over-excited syn- 
chronous generator. In fact, it was only a 
year or two ago that they got around to 
christening this imaginary quantity 
“quadergy” and thus gave a name, if not a 
local habitation, to this ‘airy nothing”’ 
which they had been measuring with high 
accuracy for many years. 


SYSTEMS OF UNITS 


Ideal systems.—So far we have considered 
units and scales for the measurement of 
only single (simple or complex) quantities. 
A collection of separate unrelated units, like 
those of the English ‘‘system,”’ can, of 
course, be used to measure a variety of 
different quantities. Such primitive groups 
of units tend to “grow up like Topsy” in 
each new art or industry, as witness: the 
denier (a size of thread such that 450 
meters weigh 0.05 gram) in textiles; the 
printers’ em; the hogshead, the turnip 
bushel which ranges from 42 pounds in 
Missouri to 50 in Tennessee and to 60 in 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 7 


Kentucky; a prize example of an inco- 
herent unit actually used in certain govern- 
ment reports for the effectiveness of an 
aircraft radiator is ‘‘the Btu dissipated per 
minute, per inch of radiator thickness, per 
square foot of frontal area, per mile per 
hour air speed, per degree centigrade tem- 
perature difference.”’. The use of a set of 
such unrelated units requires the memorizing 
of a large number of numerical conversion 
factors. How many cubic inches in a quart? 
How many square yards in an acre? 

In contrast to such accidental growths, 
the ideal would be a single system of units 
applicable to all branches of science, in 
which the magnitude of each unit was 
deducible by an obvious and simple relation 
from the units of simpler and more funda- 
mental quantities. The metric system which 
sprang full-fledged from the braims of a 
group of French savants constitutes the 
outstanding example of such a coherent 
system of units. Here not only are the 
various denominations of units on any one 
scale related by simple decimal factors, but 
the units for more complex quantities are 
related to the more fundamental quantities 
by simple defining equations. 

The difficulty in achieving an ideal and 
universal system of units in science arises 
not because such coherent systems are hard 
to construct, but because they are too easy. 
As a result the world is now suffermg from 
a surfeit of alternative systems of units. 
The few fundamental units chosen at the 
start by one author may differ in size from 
those chosen by another (as between the 
centimeter-gram-second systems and the 
meter-kilogram-second systems). Moreover, 
an equation which to one person seems to 
be simple, convenient and the obvious one 
to use, may seem to another much less 
simple and convenient than does some 
different alternative equation. 

Choices as to number of fundamentals— 
Even the number of ‘“‘fundamental’’ quanti- 
ties chosen initially on which to build the 
rest of the structure is the result of a more 
or less arbitrary choice. In the field of 
electromagnetism, systems based on using 
3, 4, and 5 fundamental quantities have been 
proposed, and many gallons of printers’ ink 
have been wasted in arguments on which is 
“correct.” 


Juny 1951 


As a simpler example of the possibility of 
such alternative systems consider the unit 
of mass in the metric system. The gram is 
now defined independently and precisely as 
one-thousandth the mass of a particular 
lump of Pt-Ir alloy. The unit of force, the 
dyne, is then derived as a force of such 
magnitude that it gives to one gram an 
acceleration of one centimeter per second 
per second. Using this system of units, it is 
then found by the famous Cavendish ex- 
periment that two spherical masses M and 
M’ placed a distance r center to center, will 
exert a gravitational force F on each other 
given by 


ho GMM! /r (1) 


Here G is an experimental constant which 
has been found to have the value 6.6-107% 
em?/gm sec’. 

This procedure seems simple and con- 
venient to a physicist, but consider it from 
the point of view of an imaginary as- 
tronomer. Why drag in a particular hunk of 
a particular alloy? Why not set up a really 
simple system with only two fundamentals— 
length and time? Why not simplify equation 
(1) by setting G = 1 and define unit mass as 
such a quantity of matter that when placed 
one centimeter from an equal mass and then 
released the gravitational attraction will 
cause a relative acceleration of one centi- 
meter per second per second? The unit of 
mass in this system is equal to 1.5-107 
grams. From a purely logical standpoint, a 
system based on two fundamental units 
defined in this way is certainly simpler than 
the one in current use. 

This kind of process can be extended 
further, and by using additional constants 
of nature such for instance as the velocity of 
light and the electronic charge in the same 
sort of way as G was used, a system can be 
set up in which none of the fundamental 
units is arbitrary or conventional. As we 
shall see later, the systems of units used in 
electromagnetism are based on processes of 
just this type using equations analogous to 
equation (1), in which numerical values, 
sometimes unity and sometimes other values, 
such for instance as 107/47, are arbitrarily 
assigned to the coefficient in the force 
equation. 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


221 


Choices of defining equations.—An example 
of how diversity can result from differences 
in the choice of defining equations when 
setting up a consistent, coherent system of 
units from a few chosen as fundamental, can 
be seen by considering the simple step from 
length to area. At first sight it seems very 
obvious that if the unit of length is the inch, 
the unit of area must be the square inch. 
This, however, does not necessarily follow. 
Euclidean geometry tells us merely that for 
geometrically similar figures the areas are 
proportional to the squares of the linear 
dimensions; that is, 


A = kP  @) 


We are, however, entirely free to fix the 
size of the unit of area, and thus the value 
of A for a given l by arbitrarily choosing 
some value for k. If we regard a square as 
the obvious “‘simplest”’ shape for a unit 
area and set k = 1 for this shape, we can 
deduce that the area A, of a rectangle of 
sides a and b is A, = ab square inches and 
that the area A. of a circle of diameter 1 is 


U0 = * O 5 
Ala = A ? square inches. This, however, is 


not the only ‘‘simple’ procedure. The 
ancients certainly considered the circle as 
the simplest and most magically significant 
shape. Why should we not choose to write 
for the area of a circle of diameter / 


A,=[ (3) 
In these units, the area of a rectangle be- 


dab. : Sgt 
comes A, = —— circular inches. This is 
Tv 


: : 4. 
equivalent to choosing k = — for a square. 
T 


Another possibility is to choose the equi- 
lateral triangle as the shape of the unit area 
for which k = 1. In these units if / is the 


5 


Cc 
leneth of one side, k = for a square and 
2 4/3 I 


the area of a rectangle is 8 ab//3 triangular 
inches. Still another possibility might be to 
choose the hexagon as the unit shape. This 
would perhaps seem simplest to a honey bee. 


This makes k = > >= for a square and the 
OV 2) 


: tab 
area of a rectangle becomes -—>= hexagonal 
OV 3 


222 


inches. The triangle with three sides is 
surely “simpler” than the square with four. 
Both the triangle and the hexagon, like the 
square can be fitted together to measure an 
area by the straightforward process of filling 
it with small tiles, each of unit area and 
counting the number thereof. 

One of these alternatives is not a mere 
whimsey. In the electric cable industry, the 
cross-sectional areas of wires are always 
expressed in terms of the circular inch or the 
circular mil, these units being defined as the 
areas of circles having diameters of 1 inch 
and 0.001 inch, respectively. To a workman 
in a wire factory the use of square inches 
seems obviously clumsy and unnatural, nor 
is he at all concerned by the fact that unit 
circular tiles can not be fitted together to 
fill and thus measure an area even if it is 
circular. 

I have stressed the arbitrariness of the 
choice of the square inch as opposed to the 
equally possible circular inch, not so much 
because of the industrial utility of the latter 
as because of the close analogy of this choice 
to the question of ‘rationalization’? which 
has wracked the electrical art with prolonged 
and sometimes violent discussion for 60 
years. 

Evght electrical systems—The field of 
electromagnetism has suffered perhaps more 
than any other branch of science from a 
plethora of “‘simple, coherent, logical” 
systems of measurement, and I shall try to 
outline some of the reasons for this unhappy 
situation. 

In the early days the simplest way to 
define a unit electric charge seemed to be to 
specify that when placed unit distance away 
from an equal charge the force of mutual 
repulsion should be unity. 

In other words, it seemed simplest to let 
k. = 1 in the Coulomb force equation 


f= k.QQ'/?? (4) 


You will see that this process is exactly 
analogous to that of our imaginary as- 
tronomer who set up a derived unit of mass 
coherent with length and time. Starting 
from the unit charge thus defined, the whole 
system of centimeter-gram-second electro- 
static units has been built up by a process 
which welds the electrical units firmly to 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 41, No. 7 


those of the older mechanical system, and 
which requires no introduction of any 
additional new fourth unit. 

It is unfortunately equally easy to write 


ee minnie ne (5) 


for two unit magnetic poles m and m’ and 
to choose k,, = 1. This gives (Gf 7 is in 
centimeters and F’ in dynes) the egs electro- 
magnetic system which is a perfectly good 
alternative system. Maxwell used both 
systems in his famous treatise. It can be 
deduced that if one sticks to either system 
alone, the relation kk, = c? holds. Here ¢ is 
the velocity of propagation of an electro- 
magnetic disturbance in empty space. This 
is experimentally found to be ¢ = 3.10!° 
em/sec 1.e., the velocity of lght. Other 
authors of theoretical treatises combine 
these two systems using electrostatic units 
for electrical quantities and electromagnetic 
units for magnetic quantities. This hybrid 
third system is called the ‘‘Gaussian Sys- 
tem” and its use requires that the parameter 


-c be inserted explicitly in Maxwell’s field 


equations at the proper places. 

Practical electricians, however, found it 
inconvenient to use units so small that it 
took 100,000,000 of them to equal the 
voltage of a voltaic cell and 1,000,000,000 
of them to equal the resistance of a wire of 
reasonable dimensions. Under the wise 
guidance of Maxwell and his colleagues on a 
committee of the British Association for the 
Advancement of Science there was set up a 
fourth group of units called “practical”? in 
which the units were exact decimal multiples 
of the corresponding units of the egs electro- 
magnetic system. The electrical units of 
this group were given individual names— 
coulomb, volt, ampere, ohm, henry, farad— 
thus immortalizing the honored pioneers of 
electrical science. 

The experimental process by which the 
electrical resistance of a wire standard is 
determined in terms of length, mass and time 
is exceedingly difficult and laborious. Hence, 
it was only natural that our forefathers 
should set up ‘‘as a system of units repre- 
senting the above and sufficiently near to 
them” still a fifth system in which the unit 
of resistance was defined as the resistance of 
a column of mercury of specified dimensions 


JuLy, 1951 


at a specified temperature and the unit of 
current was that which would deposit silver 
from a solution of silver nitrate at a specified 
rate. This fifth system was christened the 
“International System of Electrical Units” 
and had legal status from 1894 to 1947. As 
far back as 1908 it was recognized that the 
“International” units differed by small but 
significant amounts from the practical 
multiples of the cgs electromagnetic units. 
Experimental techniques for evaluating with 
adequate accuracy the “‘true”’ or “‘absolute”’ 
values to assign to standards of resistance or 
of electromotive force were gradually de- 
veloped; and effective January 1, 1948, the 
world shifted its basis back to the units of 
the absolute practical group. The ‘“‘Inter- 
national System”’ has therefore now been a 
dead issue for three years. ‘“May it rest in 
peace.” (6.) 

The six electrical units of the absolute 
practical group are simply and coherently 
related to each other and to the mechanical 
joule and watt, but the powers of 10 by 
which they are related to the cgs electro- 
magnetic system are arbitrary, so that the 
system as a whole is not coherent. As a 
result, an experimenter normally makes his 
measurements in practical units. Then he 
applies the proper factors to convert his 
results to units of the self-consistent cgs 
electromagnetic system. The insertion of 
these values in the theoretical equations 
enables him to predict future phenomena 
quantitatively. A reconversion back to the 
practical units then shows him what values 
to expect in his later verification measure- 
ments. 

By a happy coincidence there is a possi- 
bility of avoiding the necessity for these 
repeated conversions and for memorizing 
a plurality of numerical conversion factors. 
This was pointed out at the turn of the 
century by Giorgi (7). If one takes for the 
basic mechanical units the meter, the kilo- 
eram and the second, and if one assigns 
arbitrarily to the coefficient /,, in equation 
(5) the value 10’ instead of unity, it turns out 
that the practical absolute electrical units 
automatically show up as members of the 
resulting self-consistent system. This sixth 
system in our list is labelled the ‘‘Meter- 
kilogram-second-ampere”’ or ‘“‘Giorgi’’ sys- 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


223 


tem. Most writers who use this system prefer 
to consider it as based on four independent 
fundamental quantities rather than .on the 
classical three. This is equivalent to con- 
sidering that the coefficient /,, 1s not a pure 
number but that it has dimensions. In 
terms of length, mass, time and electric 
current as fundamental quantities, the di- 
mensions of k,, turn out to be [J (? M! [| 
Thus in equation (5) the arbitrary assign- 
ment of a numerical value to k,, fixes the 
magnitude of the unit of m and hence of the 
ampere and other electrical units. On the 
other hand, the arbitrary choice of an 
electrical quantity, for instance current, as 
fundamental, fixes the dimensions of mag- 
netic pole strength and by way of equation 
(5) fixes the dimensions of k,,. 

The assignment to k,, of dimensions and a 
value other than unity has brought forcibly 
into the limelight a very disgraceful situa- 
tion which has existed for a long time in the 
field of magnetic units. The trouble shows up 
clearly in an equation, which can be found 
in almost any textbook more than fifteen 
years old, and which relates the magnetic 
induction, B, to the resultant magnetizing 
force, H, and the intensity of magnetization, 
J, at any point in a bar of iron, 


B=H + 4rJ (6) 


This equation may profitably be considered 
the definition of J. If k,, is dimensionless, 
B, H, and J all have the same dimensions, 
whether or not they are quantities of the 
same physical nature, and, if the magnitude 
of k» is unity, then numerical values are 
correctly indicated by equation (6) as 
written. However, if /,, has dimensions and 
is equal to 107 we must write either 


B 


LOSE Ard (7) 


or B= 107 @ + 47) (8) 
According to the former “intensity of magne- 
tization” is defined as a quantity having the 
same dimensions as magnetic induction. 
According to the latter “intensity of magne- 
tization” has the same dimensions as 
magnetizing force. There is nothing in the 
equations of the earlier literature which 
used k,, = 1 to indicate which concept the 


224 


writer preferred. In recent textbooks some 
authors use one and some the other meaning 
for the words “intensity of magnetization,” 
while still others dodge the issue. The same 
ambiguity exists in the related concepts of 
magnetic moment and magnetic pole 
strength. Because of the differences in 
current usage, national and international 
standardizing bodies hesitate to decide the 
issue and in the meantime the volume of 
ambiguous and conflicting literature grows 
apace! 

Still another question regarding electrical 
units which had been left unanswered for 
some 60 years is ‘‘to rationalize or not to 
rationalize’. The word “rationalize” is here 
used with a highly specialized meaning which 
perhaps can be best understood by an 
analogy with the case of the circular inch as 
a unit of area. In passing from length to 
area by choosing k = 1 in equation (2) for 
the case of a circular shaped unit area the 
simple equation (3) resulted for circular 
areas in general, and as a consequence of 
this, the factor 7 appeared in the formulas 
which involved rectangular shapes. 

Similarly the electric or magnetic field 
around a point charge or pole has a spherical 
symmetry. Hence, the setting of k. = 1 in 
equation (4) or of k, = 1 in equation (5) 
which relates to point charges and poles 
insures that a will not appear in the re- 
sulting equations for arrangements having 
spherical or circular symmetry such as those 
for the capacitance of a sphere of radius 7, 


C= & (9) 


or for the magnetizing force at a radius r 
from a long straight cylindrical conductor 
carrying a current J 


Jel = PAY AP (10) 
On the other hand, the factor 7 appears 
instead in many other formulas where it 
would not be expected, as in that for the 
capacitance between rectangular plates of 
area A and separation ¢ 


(11) 


or for the magnetizing force inside a long 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 7 


solenoid of square cross section wound with 
n turns per unit length 


H = 4nnl (12) 


Heaviside pointed out that ‘‘the unnatural 
suppression of the 42 in the formulas of 
central force, where it has a right to be, 
drives it into the blood, there to multiply 
itself, and afterward break out all over the 
body of electromagnetic theory.” As a 
“yadical cure for this eruption of 47’s” he 
urged a shift to what he labelled a more 
“rational” set of units, and himself consis- 
tently used a ‘‘rationalized” system in which 
k Was set equal to 1/472. This system of units, 
the seventh in our list, has been used in a 
number of theoretical treatises and is usually 
designated the ‘‘Heaviside-Lorentz” sys- 
tem. Its units differ by various powers of 
the incommensurable factor ~/4z from those 
of the absolute practical system and for 
this reason have never come into general 
use. 

A related procedure applicable to the 
MKSA system and sometimes referred to as 
“sub-rationalization” or “total rationaliza- 
tion” involves writing equation (5) in the 


form 

i = alle é ) mn 

An \4r r 

where the quantity in the parentheses is the 
reciprocal of what is usually called the 
“permeability of space.’’ The resulting sys- 
tem of units, the eighth on our list, is 
designated the “‘rationalized MKSA” or the 
“rationalized Giorgi’ system. The Inter- 
national Electrotechnical © Commission, 
which in 1935 had voted its approval of the 
Giorgi system, took the further step in 
July 1950 of adopting this form of rationali- 
zation. 

Recent developments in the radio field 
have brought the practical engineer and 
laboratory worker into much closer contact 
with the theorist and pedagogue than ever 
before, to the great benefit of both. The 
rationalized MKSA system offers advantages 
to both, which I believe will suffice to bring 
it into very general use in the electrical 
field in the not very distant future. It can 


(13) 


Juny 1951 


easily be extended to cover all branches of 
physical science. A name, ‘‘newton,’’ has 
been assigned to its unit of mechanical force, 
but I have seen no indication that it is 
displacing the entrenched cgs units in 
theoretical mechanics or those of the 
mechanical engineers’ units based on the 
kilogram force. 


CLASSIFICATION OF STANDARDS 


The various ways that have been or are 
currently in use for defining units of measure- 
ment fall naturally into a number of clas- 
ses. In early work, individual or personal 
standards were used such as Galileo’s pulse, 
with which he timed the pendulous swings 
of the chandelier in the cathedral of Pisa; 
Fahrenheit’s body temperature, which fixed 
the 100° point on his original temperature 
seale; the pieces of iron and brass wire used 
by Ohm; the foot; the pace; and, all too 
often even in current publications, a milli- 
meter deflection of an undefined galva- 
nometer of unspecified sensitivity. Following 
these, came particular artifacts such as 
bronze cubits, intended to embody the 
length of the king’s arm, and perhaps some 
dimensions incorporated in the Egyptian 
pyramids. The supreme examples of such 
artifacts are the standard prototype meter 
and kilogram, which now repose in the 
vaults at the International Bureau of 
Weights and Measures. 

To secure reproducibility, however, defi- 
nitions based on natural objects have 
frequently been used. Examples of such are 
the barley-corn, and at the other extreme, 
the earth-quadrant, which was originally 
used in the definition of the meter, and our 
present time standard, the rotation of the 
earth. In a slightly different category are 
definitions based on the physical or chemical 
properties of specific substances. In this 
class were the definition of the International 
Ohm as the resistance of a specified column 
of mercury and that of the International 
Ampere as the electric current which would 
produce electrochemical action at a specified 
rate. The fixing of the kilogram by the 
density of water and the setting up of a 
thermometric scale by the relative thermal 
expansion of mercury and glass and by the 
use of standard melting and boiling points 


SILSBEE: MEASURE FOR MEASURE 


225 


are other examples. The old definition of the 
curie as the unit of radioactivity also comes 
in this category, because it was the activity 
of a specified amount (1 gram) of a specified 
aggregation of substances. 

A still different category is the use of the 
properties of individual atoms as distinct 
from the properties of matter in bulk. Thus, 
the new curie and the rutherford, defined as 
the activity corresponding to 3.700 * 101° 
and 10° atomic disintegrations per second 
respectively are philosophically distinct from 
the old curie. In this atomic class are the 
use of the wave lengths of cadmium radiation 
or more recently of that from the mercury 
198 isotope as standards of length, and the 
frequency of oscillation of the ammonia 
molecule in the “atomic clock”’ (8). 


EVOLUTION OF UNITS 


In all fields there have been in progress 
evolutionary shifts in the choice of units. 
The parallel developments of the electrical 
units and that of the temperature scale 
illustrate this. In both fields, the early 
workers used measuring schemes based on 
properties of matter such as thermal ex- 
pansion of mercury in glass on the one hand, 
and the electromotive force of particular 
voltaic cells on the other. Theoretical 
relations were then worked out and resulted 
in the Kelvin thermodynamic temperature 
scale and the egs electromagnetic and elec- 
trostatic unit systems of Maxwell. In each 
field, however, the need for higher precision 
than could be obtained in the experimental 
realization of the theoretical units forced the 
introduction of an auxiliary system based 
again on the properties of matter in bulk. 
These auxiliary systems, the ‘“‘International”’ 
electrical units and the ‘International 
Temperature Seale” formed the basis for all 
precise scientific measurements as well as for 
commercial operations, although the theo- 
retical unit systems continued to be recog- 
nized in parallel with them as being of an 
even higher echelon. The electrical art has 
finally reached a level where the theoretical 
system can be realized experimentally with 
an accuracy at least comparable with that 
attainable with the auxiliary system and has 
therefore sloughed off the latter. The tem- 
perature scale has not yet reached this 


226 


enviable position, but perhaps will do so in 
the not too distant future. 

The evolution of the units of length and 
mass have followed a somewhat different 
pattern. At the introduction of the metric 
system, the earlier arbitrary units embodied 
in artifacts were displaced by the units 
based theoretically on the earth-quadrant 
and the density of water. As in the other 
fields, the demand for ever increased ac- 
curacy forced the abandonment of the 
theoretical values for an auxiliary system 
which in this case consisted of two simple 
artifacts, the prototype standard meter bar 
and the prototype kilogram mass. There is 
now pending a shift of the unit of length to 
an atomic basis, the wave length of radiation 
from Heg!**, but it will probably be a long 
time before techniques for counting indi- 
vidual atoms can be developed to their 
logical climax of enabling the mass of the 
proton to be used as a practical standard. 

The measurement of time has shown a still 
different history. The habits of mankind are 
so closely geared to the astronomical perio- 
dicities that from earliest antiquity the unit 
of time has been based on the rotation of 
the earth. The recent development of 
“atomic’”’ clocks, the unit of which is based 
on some natural molecular frequency, such 
as that of ammonia, offers the first sig- 
nificant departure from this basis. However, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 


SCIENCES VOL. 41, NO. 7 
it seems safe to predict that no matter 
how rapid and successful the evolution of a 
laboratory time system based on atomic 
units may be, and no matter what vagaries 
it may show to exist in the motion of the 
earth, there will always be, in common use, 
an astronomical time system based on the 
mean solar day. 

I hope that I have shown that the process 
of measurement is, after all, a very human 
activity; that in it may be found illustrations 
of the foibles as well as the wisdom of 
Homo sapiens; that units are unfortunately 
not fixed, immutable creations of nature, but 
merely human constructs; that there is a 
real progression in the evolution of systems’ 
of measurement; and that their present im- 
perfections should be a challenge to the 
scientists of the future. 


REFERENCES 


(1) Stpvens, 8. 8S. Science 103: 677. 

(2) THomson, W. Phil. Mag. 33: 313. 1848. 

(8) GrauquE, W. F. Nature 143: 623. 1939. 

(4) Stimson, H. F. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand- 
ards 42: 209. 1949. 

(5) WensEL, H. T. Journ. Res. Nat. Bur. Stand- 
ards 22: 376. 1939. 

(6) Stusper, F. B. Nat. Bur. Standards Cire. 


1946. 


475. 1949. 

(7) Gtora1, G. Trans. Int. Elec. Congr. St. Louis 
1: 136. 1904. 

(8) Huntoon, R. D., and Fano, U. Nature 166: 
167. 1950. 


MATHEMATICS.—A problem in geometric probability. JEROME CORNFIELD and 
Haroup W. CHauktry, National Cancer Institute. (Communicated by Richard 


K. Cook.) 


1. INTRODUCTION 


We have recently published a description 
of a method for estimating volume-surface 
ratios for closed 3-dimensional figures of 
arbitrary shapes (/). The method involves 
throwing a line of fixed length, 7, at random 
im a space containing the figure. We count 
the number of times either of the two end 
points fall in the interior of the figure, and 
denote it by h for hits, and the number of 
times the line intersects the surface of the 
figure and denote it by c for cuts. The 
method depends upon the fact that 


ido) ee 


Gat) r Wey oS 


where V is volume and S is surface and 
FE stands for expected value. 

We note that (1.1) holds for reentrant as 
well as nonreentrant figures and is conse- 
quently more general than the nonpara- 
metric relationships of this type, such as 
Crofton’s (2), that have been previously 
established. This note is devoted to a proof 
of (1.1). 


2. A DEFINITION OF A RANDOMLY 
THROWN LINE 


In what follows we assume that in throw- 
ing a line of length r at random (a) there is a 
uniform probability that one end point, P, 
will take on any position in the space and 


Juny 1951 


(b) there is a uniform probability that the 
other end point, P!, will take any position 
on the surface of a sphere with center at P 
and radius r. This is an obvious generaliza- 
tion of the assumptions usually made in 
problems of geometric probability in two 
dimensions, e.g., in Buffon’s needle problem. 
We have presented evidence elsewhere (/) 
which indicates that this appears to provide 
a satisfactory description of the physical 
process of throwing a line at random. 


3. THE EXPECTED VALUE OF THE 
NUMBER OF HITS 


We shall show 


2Vn 


(3.1) ale 


J) = 


where X is the volume of the space in which 
the line segment falls and n is the number 
of throws. Because there are difficulties in 
visualizing the necessary three dimensional 
figure, we shall begin with the two dimen- 
sional problem. 

We start with a closed figure, Ff’, of area 
A in a square of side X1/?-2r (Fig. 1). The 
end point of the line segment, P, will occupy 
with uniform probability all positions in the 
square of side X'/?. Since the angle that the 
line segment makes with the X axis, 9, 
varies from 0 to z, the point, P!, will occupy 
all but some corner positions in the square 
of side X!/2 + 2r. 

If we consider fixed values of y and 6, 
the probability that the point P will fall 
inside the figure is f(y)/X"?, where f(y) 
is the width of the figure at ordinate y. 
(For values of y falling outside the figure 
f(y) = 0.) Similarly, the probability that 
for fixed values of y and @ the point P! 
will fall inside the figure is f(y, 6)/X1?. 
If we now let y vary from 0 to X12, but 
hold 6 fixed, we have 


xe 
Prob: (26h) = = || f(y) dy 
< 0 


(3.2) eas 
Rolo. G2 ell) = =f f(y, @) dy. 


Each integral, obviously, is an expression 
for the area of the figure, A, and is conse- 
quently independent of @. In n throws, 
therefore, the expected number of hits by 


CORNFIELD AND CHALKLEY: PROBLEM IN 


GEOMETRIC PROBABILITY WAT 


Fie. 1 


either the point P or the point P! is An/X. 
Since the expected value of a sum is the 
sum of the expected values, the expected 
number of hits counting both end points is 
2An/X. 

The proof for three dimensions is iden- 
tical except that for the point P we must 
consider the probability that it is included 
in F for fixed values of z, the additional 
dimension, as well as y. Similarly for the 
point P! we must consider the probability 
that it is included in F for fixed values of 
¢@, the angle with the ¢ axis, as well as 6. 
We then have 


il Exes Xe 
Prob. (Pef) = ml i f(z, y) dy dz 
XI Shp 
(3.3) oak 
1 Xg XG 
Prob. (Per) == i | f (2, y, ¢, 0) dy dz 
XS, Sy 


where each integral is an expression for the 
volume of the figure, V, and is consequently 
independent of ¢@ and @. In that case the 
expected number of hits in n throws by 
either the point P or P! is Vn/X, while the 
expected number of hits by both is 2 Vn X. 


4. THE EXPECTED VALUE OF THE 
NUMBER OF CUTS 


We may without loss of essential general- 
ity consider the surface of / as composed 
of m quadrilaterals of area Sy, Sy +--+ S, with 


(4.1) SSP ISS 


228 


If we denote the number of cuts on the 
7» quadrilateral by c;, we have 


c= 2; 


E(c) = DEC) 


Furthermore, since a straight line and a 
quadrilateral can intersect at only one 
point, H(c;) is equal to the probability of 
intersection times the number of throws. 


(4.2) 


Fig. 2 


If we consider the 2** quadrilateral, with 
surface area, S;, the probability that a 
random line of length r will intersect it 
is the probability that the end point P 
will fall inside the parallelepiped with vol- 
ume S,r cos 6 (Fig. 2). From the preceding 
section this probability is 


= Sir cos 6 


for a fixed value of 6 and 


(4.3) 


=o r ie f (8) cos 6 dé 


for 6 varying from 0 to i according to the 


density function f(6) dé. We show in the 
next section that the assumptions of section 
2 imply 


(4.4) (0) dd = — sin 6 dé. 


This is the probability that a random line 
will form the angle 6 with any other fixed 
line in the space. In that case 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 7 


Prob. (P « parall.) 


gor fo cos 6 sin 6 dé 


1 
= ax "i 


(4.5) 


and 


E(e) — oh DSi 


Xan 
(4.6) 
rns 


Den 
Combining (4.6) and (8.1) we obtain (1.1). 


5. THE PROBABILITY DISTRIBUTION 
OF 0 

We wish the probability that a random 
line, defined as in 2, will form angle 6 with a 
fixed line. We may take this fixed line as a 
radius of the sphere with center at P and 
radius r (Fig. 3). The probability that the 
line with end points P and P! will form an 
angle 6 with a radius of the sphere is the 
probability that the end point P! will fall 
in the circumferential belt of area 


2rvV/r — y? ds 
where y/r = cos 6. Hence 
(5.1) Prob. (P’ € circum. belt) 
2Qr JP = y? ds 
Qrr® : 


= f(0) do = 


Fie. 3 


JuLy 1951 


It is easy to show, however, that 


(6.2) a 2 Ese) 
o.4 SS = Py? . 
so that 

(5.3) f(0) do = — sin 6 dé. 


When y varies from 0 to r, 6 varies from 


CARR: EASTERN INDIAN PRACTICES 


229 


Tv 


5 to 0. If we permit @ to vary in the reverse 


direction, i.e., 0 to us we may delete the 


minus sign. 


REFERENCES 


(1) CHaLKiey, H. W., CornrieLp, J., AND PARK, 
H. A method for estimating volume-surface 
ratios. Science 110: 295-297. 1949. 

(2) Crortron, W. Probability. Encycl. Brit., ed. 9. 


ETHNOLOGY .—Interesting animal foods, medicines, and omens of the eastern 
Indians, with comparisons to ancient European practices.1 Luoyp G. K. Carr, 
Hendrix College, Conway, Ark. (Communicated by W. N. Fenton.) 


At this time when attention is turned to- 
ward emergency foods and medicines, those 
little-known foods and medicines of the In- 
dian such as insects, turtles, frogs, sala- 
manders, fishing worms, and grubs may be 
considered. In time of great need one can 
make a fairly wholesome supplementary 
meal on these creatures, securing in turn a 
supply of minerals and possibly vitamins. 

Turning to the reptile lore of the North? 
we note that the Montagnais really have so 
little to do with snakes that the only use to 
which they are put is as a cure for rheu- 
matism, for which the skin of a snake is 
necessary. Dr. Speck tells us, ‘‘These people 
of the north do not fear snakes. They some- 
times put them inside their shirts and carry 
them about.” 

From Speck we get further impressions of 
reptile lore among these northern Indians. 
It is found that northern Algonkian herpe- 
tology teaches that sympathetic influences 
are active through things and ideas and 
names. He says: 


Hence in the practice of therapeutics, a snake- 
skin, according to Penobscot belief, becomes a cure 


= 


1The author expresses great appreciation for 
the association he was able to enjoy with the late 
Dr. Frank G. Speck, professor of anthropology 
at the University of Pennsylvania, under whose 
guidance this study was begun, and for a grant 
received through Hendrix College from the 
Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of 
Teaching, which enabled the author to bring to a 
conclusion a preliminary report on the ethnozo- 
ological phase of his studies. 

2 Speck, FraNK G. Reptile lore of the northern 
Indians. Journ. Amer. Folklore 36: 273-280. 1923. 


for rheumatism when bound around the infected 
part. Such a skin must have been taken from a 
living snake. The idea is no doubt derived from the 
feeling in the native mind, that a creature with so 
pliable a frame is not only free from stiffness him- 
self, but that contact with him can cure stiffness in 
others. Similarly, a snake-skin, the Malechite 
say, worn around the head or hatband, will ward 
off enemies. A snake’s tongue taken from a living 
snake, dried and carried about, will both cure and 
prevent a toothache. Further south the Mohegan 
and the Iroquois believe that a toothache can be 
cured by gently biting the body of a living Green 
snake. 


Josselyn,’ writing from voyages made in 
America, 1638 and 1663, speaks of the em- 
ployment of reptiles and batrachians by the 
Massachusetts Indians. In speaking of the 
‘tortous” (land turtle) he states, ‘“They are 
good for the Ptisick, Consumption and some 
say the Morbus Gallicus (venereal disease).”’ 
Josselyn records that the ‘“‘Green-turtle is 
the best for food, and that it is affirmed that 
the feeding upon this turtle for a twelve- 
month forbearing all other kinds of food will 
cure absolutely Consumptions, and the 
Great Pox (syphilis); They are very delicate 
food, and their eggs are very wholesome and 
restorative.” 

Also “‘the ashes of a Sea-turtle mixed with 
oyl or Bearsgrease causeth hair to grow; 
the shell of a land-Turtle burnt and the 
ashes dissolved in wine and oyl healeth sore 
legs: the flesh burnt and the ashes with wine 
and oyl healeth sore legs: the ashes of the 
burnt shell and the whites of eggs com- 


3 JosspLYN, JouHn. New Englands rarities dis- 
covered. London, 1672 


230 


pounded together healeth chaps in women’s 
nipples and the head pulverized with it pre- 
vents the falling of hair, and will heal the 
Hemorrhoids, first washing of them with 
white wine, and then strewing on the pow- 
der.” 

With respect to the rattlesnake he orders 
this usage. ‘“They have Leafs of Fat in their 
Bellies, which is excellent to anoint frozen 
Limbs, and for Aches and Bruises wondrous 
soveraign. Their Hearts, swallowed fresh, is 
a good Antidote against their Venome, and 
their Liver (the Gall taken out) bruised 
and applied to thier Bitings is a present 
remedy.” Also their skins were said to be of 
value, “Their skins likewise worn as a garter 
is an excellent remedie against the cramp.” 

Gladys Tantaquidgeon,* in her study of 
the Delaware formerly of the Pennsylvania 
area, makes interesting comments with re- 
spect to the use of snake oil by the Delaware. 
“Rattlesnake oil is valuable in treating stiff 
joints. It is very powerful and should be used 
sparingly. Only a few drops on the finger tips, 
and applied to the affected parts. The skin 
may be bound on the wrists and ankles to 
strengthen them.’”’ Among the Wampanoag 
of Cape Cod, however it is believed that if 
the oil is used alone, ‘it will unjoint you.” 
Likewise, the eastern Cherokee Indians have 
a snake oil remedy. 

In the tradition of the Powhatan Tribes 
of Virginia some odd animal medicines and 
foods stand out. Mott Byrd, a Rappahan- 
nock Indian in his seventies, told that a 
snake shell ground up was highly prized as it 
causes boils to come to a head. Snakes play 
another important part in the medicines of 
the Rappahannock Indians. Speck® relates 
that the blacksnake skin wrong side out is 
worn as a belt around the waist to relieve 
backache or rheumatism. This is somewhat 
similar to the Massachusetts Indians use of 
the rattlesnake skin for cramps. 

Turtles have been used by the Indian 
tribes of Virginia from early times. Gabriel 
Archer, writing in 1607, speaks of an Indian 
of the town of Arahatec on the James River 
below the falls, ““He made ready a land turtle 


4 TANTAQUIDGEON, Guapys. A study of Dela- 
ware Indian medicine practice and folk beliefs: 
67. Pennsylvania Historical Commission, 1942. 

5 Loe. cit. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 7 


which he ate.’”’ Today the Pamunkey use the 
terrapin and turtle as incidental foods. The 
terrapins (Chrysemys spp.) are dredged in 
wintertime in mud bottoms of rivers and 
creeks with net and iron drag in 5-8 feet of 
water. The shells are cut apart and the flesh 
is made into soup. If eaten out of season it is 
said that they will cause eye swelling and a 
tickling in the throat as they go down. 
From the time of Josselyn the Virginia 
Indians have used their Indian word ““Terra- 
pin” for the designation of the turtle that 
occupies rivers, ‘“The Turtle that lives in 
Lakes and is called in Virginia a Terrapin.”’ 

The snapping turtle (Chelydra serpentina 
serpentina) is taken by metal hooks baited 
with salt eel or catfish, tied to arrowwood 
(Viburnum sp.) stick, the bait being allowed 
to rest on the bottom. The use of cane stalks 
is employed by the Chickahominy. They are 
caught during January and may be cooked, 
boiled or roasted in their own shells as a 
“turtle shell dish.” 

The terrapin (Terrapene carolina carolina) 
called highland skillpot by the Virginia 
Indians is found in fields, woods or highlands, 
occasionally also by rivers from April 
through the fall months. It is rarely eaten, 
but sometimes it may be roasted; the legs 
only may be eaten or made into soup. The 
flesh is said to smell strongly. 

Terrapin eggs (various species of Chrys- 
emys) are considered a wholesome delicacy 
among the Pamunkey and are eaten as a 
part of a meal. Clutches of 10 to 20 eggs are 
found in sand banks along swamp and river 
edge, where signs betray recent laying. 
Hawks, eagles, crows, owls, skunks, and 
opossums know the time and place to hunt 
them, and one can often locate the eggs by 
observing the hunting habits of these 
creatures. They are gathered from the end of 
May through the summer months. They are 
boiled, the tough skin being peeled off. 

Salamander eating is not absent in the in- 
cidental diet of the Cherokee. It is especially 
interesting to find that the “spring lizard” 
(probably Gyrinophilus danielsi danielsz), 
which inhabits the mountain streams, has 
been eaten by the Indians, as Jesse Lambert 
informs us. Also the water dog, or ‘“hell- 
bender” (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis), is 
utilized by the Cherokee for soups and stew. 


JuLy 1951 CARR: EASTERN 

Turning to the Nanticoke reptile lore we 
find the belief that if hogs eat ‘‘ground 
puppies,” the large Ambystoma salamanders, 
they will die. This is no doubt true, for toxic 
principles are present in the skin of the 
salamanders, as in the toads. Lincoln 
Harmon told that if one swallows a scorpion, 
which is the designation of the blue-tailed 
skink (Humeces fasciatus) and also the fence 
lizard (Sceloporus undulatus) “in going down 
it will eat your heart, thereby killing you. 
Also death will ensue if they make a complete 
circle around your body.” 

Winona Wright advises that placing a 
blacksnake on the fence was sure to bring 
rain. She had observed this to have been 
true a number of times. Another interesting 
omen of the Indians, this time of the Massa- 
chusetts Indians, concerns the use of the 
Rattlesnake skin for cramps. 

Insects are also an important part of the 
diet of the Indian. Speaking with Dr. Speck 
discloses that the Malechite Indians have a 
knowledge of eating ants. Sapiel Paul, over 
60, born at French Village on the St. John 
River, New Brunswick, relates that his 
father took him to the woods continually on 
trapping, hunting, and woodcutting trips. 
Occasionally, when a dead tree was found 
swarming with black ants, he would crush 
some of the ants and give them to him to eat 
as a medicinally beneficial tidbit in the 
spring. Gabriel Polchis, another Malechite 
Indian, also indulged in this delicacy. 

In connection with the medicinal proper- 
ties of ants we learn some striking points. 
The London Pharmacopaeia of 1696 reveals. 
“Ants are hot and dry; excite lust, and by 
their sharp scent wonderfully refresh the 
spirit: the greater, or winged, with a little 
salt, cure the psora, or scab, and leprosie.”’ 
Savarof, once addressing the Russian Sol- 
diers, told them to “have a dread of the hos- 
pital! German Physic stinks from afar; is 
good for nothing and rather hurtful; but 
take care of your health; a soldier is in- 
estimable! Your messmates will know where 
to find roots, herbs, and pismires (red ants) 
for your cure.” Indeed, the ant is known to 
contain formic acid, which is used for medici- 
nal purposes. 

With respect to the Massachusetts In- 


INDIAN PRACTICES 


231 


dians,® there is an interesting reference to 
lice-eating. During the time of John Eliot 
around 1646 a law was passed: “If any shall 
kill their lice between their teeth, they shall 
pay five shillings.” It is obviously intimated 
that they were eaten, as they are very sweet 
and form, therefore, a tasty tidbit. 

Among the Montauk Indians of Long 
Island the oak gall, produced by a wasp 
cynipid, is known as a food delicacy, the 
spongy inside fiber usually being eaten under 
the name ‘‘sour jugs.” The sour nature of 
the fiber probably indicates vitamin-C con- 
tent. Investigations along this line would be 
worth while. 

Known to the Nanticoke Indians is the 
use of wasp nests, as well as cobwebs. Oscar 
Wright knows of their making use of the 
nests of the southern paper wasp (Polistes 
annularis). The papery pulp is allowed to 
soak in vinegar, in turn being applied to 
boils. Asbury Thompson relates that spider 
web will stop bleeding, while Oscar Wright 
mentions this story: ‘“A man was very lazy 
and one day was chopping wood. He stuck 
his ax in the wood and went to sleep. In the 
meanwile the ax fell down, cutting his foot 
badly. It was thought that he was going to 
bleed to death, but spider web stopped the 
blood.”” Among the Delawares of Oklahoma 
also the spider web is applied to fresh wounds 
as a styptic. 

Both Asbury Thompson and Oscar Wright 
speak of the employment of the bee sting 
for rheumatism. Indeed, the use of bee 
venom for this ailment has attracted much 
attention by the medical profession, some 
of whom hold it efficacious.’ Dr. A. G. 
Richards writes me in this connection: “Bee 
venom was held in high repute during the 
Middle Ages and stressed by homeopathists 
in the 19th century. You will find it listed 
with directions for preparation in the ‘Ameri- 
can Homeopathic Pharmacopoeia’ (under 
the name of ‘Apium Virus’). There are per- 
sistent claims of use in the treatment of rheu- 
matism both in the popular and medical 
literature. Also it has been used in skin 

6 Drake, SAMUEL G. The book of Indians: 118. 
1841. 

7 Beck, B. F. Bee venom, its nature and effects 


on arthritic and rheumatoid conditions. New York, 
1935. 


232 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


diseases, inflammation of the bladder and 
uretha, etc.” 

From Mott Byrd comes information on 
the value of the bee sting. He described how 
as children they used to be friendly with 
bees. They would ‘“‘lobolly with them” in 
the grass. In his early life they would stick 
five or six bees or wasps under a cloth, 
making them sting as a cure for stiff Jomts 
and rheumatism. He states that the bees 
“know enemy and clamp down.” It would 
seem as though the bee sang, ‘“‘Let me go.” 
Mott’s reply was, ‘‘Put it to us.” He re- 
marked that the stiff iomts were already 
hurting so badly that one didn’t really feel 
any pain from the sting. His ideas were that 
the bee carried away with it some of the 
poison in the stiff jomts, ““‘When the bee 
went down, the pain went down.” 

To the Rappahannock the thousandlegs 
(milliped) has been a worth-while item. It 
was found to be expert in cleaning out ears. 

The 17-year locust (Tibicen septendecim) 
is a choice delicacy among the Cherokee. 
They dig them when they are just ready to 
emerge from the ground. For preparation, 
the legs are removed. Then the locusts are 
fried in hot fat, according to Jessie Lambert. 
Mrs. Moses Owl gives a method by which 
they are preserved. They are so highly prized 
that during years of abundance they are 
salted down and pickled for canning. Mrs. 
McClain knows of another method of prepa- 
ration by the Cherokee; she states that they 
often concoct a locust pie from them. 

From the extensive periodical on the 
Cicada by Marlatt* comes an early reference 
on the use of locust by the Indians: 


That the Cicada was eaten by the red men of 
America, both before and after the coming of the 
Colonists, is indicated in a memorandum, dated 
1715, left by the Rev. Andreas Sandel, of Phila- 
delphia, who, referring to the use of locusts as food 
in eastern Asia, states also that the Cicada is so 
used by the Indians. Dr. Asa Fitch corroborates 
this statement, giving as his authority Mr. W. S. 
Robertson, who informs him ‘that the Indians 
make the different species of Cicada an article of 
diet, every year gathering quantities of them and 
preparing them for the table by roasting in a hot 
oven, stirring them until they are well browned’. 


8’ Maruarr, C. L. The periodical cicada. U. 8. 
Bur. Ent. Bull. 71: 103-104. 1907. 


~ 


VoL. 41, No.7 


Marlatt’s remarks on its value are fitting 
here: 


Theoretically, the Cicada, collected at the 
proper time and suitably dressed and served, 
should be a rather attractive food. The larvae have 
lived solely on vegetable matter of the cleanest 
and most wholesome sort, and supposedly, there- 
fore, would be much more palatable and suitable 
for food than the oyster with its scavenger habit 
of living in the muddy ooze of river bottoms, or 
many other animals which are highly prized and 
which have not half so clean a record as the peri- 
odical Cicada. 


Among the insect clan, young wasps and 
yellow-jackets are eaten. These are found 
to be very sweet and luscious and should 
satisfy anyone’s hunger for sweet, as they 
are readily available. When rambling around 
old barns in the country, one is certain to 
find wasp and yellow-jacket nests filled with 
the sweet white grubs, comprising a feast 
that is not forgotten. Hear what Vincent 
Holt® has to say about them in his admirable 
little book: ‘‘From bees, we derive a delicious 
sweet in the form of golden honey; from 
wasps we may, if we choose, derive an 
equally delicious savoury. What disciple of 
Old Izaak Walton, when he has been all 
the morning enticing the wily trout with 
luscious grubs baked to a turn has not sus- 
pected a new and appetising taste imparted 
to his mid-day of bread and cheese or a sand- 
wich?” Again the Indian is far ahead of 
modern civilization in his knowledge and 
exploration of the value not only of insects, 
but also the other living things that comprise 
the organic environment. Close contact with 
it and keen observation has made the Indian 
the greatest interpreter of nature’s secrets 
and patterns. 

Also, by the Cherokee, Lottie Jenkins tells 
us, grubworms were formerly employed as 
food. She states that they can be made into 
a delicious thick soup. She told that her 
husband once sat down to a meal of grub- 
worm soup, but he had no knowledge of what 
he was eating. He thought the soup very 
good until his Indian host advised him to 
“dig deep and get grubs.”’ When he pulled 
up a fat grub, the thought of it was too 


° Hour, Vincent. Why not eat insects? London, 
1885. 


JuLy 1951 


much; he was unable to finish the meal. 
Another insect delicacy of the Cherokee is 
roasted cornworms. 

It is only appropriate to relate here what 
Vincent Holt!? has to say in general on 
insect-eating: 


Whilst confident that the caterpillars, the 
grubs, the chafers, and the butterflies will never 
eondescend to eat us, I am equally sure that on 
finding out how good they are (and what excellent 
virtues they possess), we shall right away gladly 
determine to cook and eat them! Moreover, what a 
welcome change it will be to the labourer’s meal 
of bread and bacon day after day for him to get a 
savoury mess of fried cockchafers, or of dainty 
grasshoppers done on toast! In these respects the 
birds are much more sensible than ourselves; they 
well know the value of the fat chafer as food. 
With that joy the jaunty rooks pounce upon its 
luscious grubs when they follow the plough with 
long strides over the upturned lea! What a feast 
the wise creatures obtain when aloft on the wing, 
by devouring the fledged beetles swarming in the 
tall tree tops! 


Sally Gordon told that the daddy-longlegs 
if swallowed would break up chills and that 
lice had been swallowed for yellow jaundice. 
This is apparently a parallel to an English 
usage recorded in the London Dispensatory 
(1695), ““They are eaten by rustics for the 
jaundice and consumption; put alive into 
the meatus they provoke urine; Vivis in 
penis organum intimissis ad  ciendam 
urinam.” 

Josselyn has several comments on frogs." 
One alludes to the pond frog. ‘“They are of a 
glistening brass colour, and very fat, which is 
excellent for Burns and Scaldings, to take 
out the Fire, and heal them, leaving no scar; 
and is also very good to take away any 
Inflammation.” The other to the tree frog. 
“There is also many times found upon the 
leaves of the Oake a creature like a frog, 
being thin as a leaf, and transparent, as 
yellow as gold, the English call them Tree- 
Frogs or Tree-Toads ... they are said to be 
venomous, but they may be safely used, 
being admirable to stop women’s over-flow- 
ing courses hung about their necks in a 
Taffetie bag.’’ Are we to suppose that this is 
pure fancy or “superstition”? Let us now 
stop at this point and explore deeper into the 


10 Thid. 
1 Op. eit. 


CARR: EASTERN INDIAN PRACTICES 


233 


significance of what might be listed as 
heathen practice. Indeed the skin glands of 
the batrachians are known to contain toxic 
compounds of medicinal value and oddly 
enough some of the substances from these 
glands are known to possess astringent and 
hemostatic properties. A word from a lead- 
ing authority on the chemistry and proper- 
ties of these substances is pertinent :”” 


That there is present in the toad an active, 


‘poisonous principle has been recognized since 


antiquity, and although the nature of the poison 
was endowed with various legendary beliefs 
throughout the middle ages, it has long been 
recognized that the venom of the toad has definite 
medicinal qualities. For centuries the Chinese have 
employed as a drug a dried preparation from a 
common toad. The remedy is known as Ch’an Su 
in China and as Senso in Japan. Ch’an Su is sold 
in the form of hard, dark brown cakes which were 
applied externally in the treatment of toothache, 
sinusitis, and hemorrhages of the gums. Dried 
and powdered toad skins were commonly used as a 
remedy for dropsy until Withering introduced the 
use of the foxglove drug. It has been known for 
nearly a century that the poison of the toad 
has a specific, digitalis-like action on the heart, 
the intravenous injection of very small doses in 
frogs promptly inducing a systolic standstill. 


With respect to the drawing or astringent 
effect. which would be of value on burns, and 
also to the bleeding-stopping effect, we have 
this note: “It is interesting that the Chinese 
drug Ch’an Su has been found to contain, in 
addition to the cardiotonic agents, this 
pressor substance of recognized astringent 
and hemostatic properties.” 

To this day the value of the frog as a 
medicinal agent is apparent to the Cherokee 
of western North Carolina. Consider the in- 
formation contributed by Moses Owl. He 
reveals that the ‘toad frog is good for goiter. 
The live toad is held against the chest until 
you sweat.” A jellow juice is thereby pro- 
duced which is supposed to relieve the goiter. 

The Cherokee also eat the pond frogs, 
using them for soup after they are suitably 
dressed. Jesse Lambert relates that frog soup 
has been administered for whooping cough— 
“one half glass every day before breakfast 
until cough ceases.”” Moses Partridge, an 

2 Pinsnpr, L. F. Chemistry of natural products 


related to phenanthrene. Monogr. Ser. No. 70: 302 
303. 1936. 


234 


older member of the Cherokee group, has 
used this remedy effectively. 

In connection with whooping cough, pole- 
cat (skunk) grease has been found effective. 
Nicker Jack George advises that one take a 
few drops internally. It is thought to cure a 
rattle cough. 

Dropping into the southeastern area 
brings to view a number of food and medici- 
nal oddities of an animal nature. In working 
here among the Indians, numerous notable 
items have emerged. Lincoln Harmon, a 
Nanticoke Indian of Indian River, Del., tells 
of the use of salt herring applied to arms, 
hands, or feet for fever. He states that he 
has known people to “get rid” of colds or 
grippe. The procedure is to go to a neighbor, 
in the language of Lincoln Harmon, to ‘‘get 
bait on. Put on hands or any part of body. 
One sits near a fire. Fish is considerably 
dried or parched when you take it off. Better 
not let one application be all, better put new 
ones on as fish dry up.” 

One is intrigued to find that similar usage 
was employed in Queen Elizabeth’s time in 
England. The Rich storehouse (1596) con- 
tains this information, ‘For the swelling of 
the legs that comes on by cold or otherwise, 
take white herrings out of their pickle, and 
open them, and then lay the insides of the 
same herrings to the soles of your feet when 
you go to bed, and so let them remain all 
night; in the morning apply new ones again. 
Use this five or six times and the same will 
help you, probatum est.” For ague also it 
includes, ‘“Take a herring that is well pickled, 
and split it on the belly side, and warm the 
same very hot, and lay it to both soles of 
the feet of the party grieved, and this will 
help immediately.” This makes one wonder 
whether this is an Indian or an English prac- 
tice. It may have been discovered independ- 
ently by both groups or the Nanticoke may 
have learned it from early contact with the 
English. 

Among the Nanticoke again, but this time 
from Asbury Thompson, an old herbalist 
of the group, the use of fish eyes is men- 
tioned. He tells that fish eyes are good for 
bowel movements. “Take as pills, the cheap- 
est kind,” is his advice. 

Asbury Thompson also told of a well- 
known remedy for rheumatism which is em- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 7 
ployed by the Nanticoke Indians. He ad- 
vises, ‘Put fishingworms in bottle, let die, 
apply oil for stiff joints and rheumatism. 
Smells bad, but sure helps stiff joints.” The 
Cherokee Indians of western North Carolina 
appreciate also the virtue of the earthworm. 
They take the flesh of ‘“‘redworms” and apply 
to the body to draw out thorns. It is worth 
noting that biochemists' have given atten- 
tion to the lipids (fats) of the earthworm, 
discovering fatty acids that enter into thera- 
peutics. Furthermore, a bronchial (lung) di- 
lating principle has been isolated.* So here 
again the Indians have made discoveries 
anciently known to them in their medical 
lore, but known only recently to the medical 
world at large. 

Living in the shadows of the Great Smoky 
Mountains of North Carolina, the Cherokees 
have a high regard for the singular animal 
foods and animal medicines such as fishing 
worms, locusts, grubs, and salamanders. 
Mrs. Moses Owl has seen the red worm 
(eath worm) poultice employed in drawing 
out a thorn. “Just make your poultice of 
chopped up worms. Draws so powerfully, 
have to take off soon.” According to Lottie 
Jenkins, the red worms have been used in 
making soups. She states that they are really 
not bad and form a gelatinous soup that is 
quite palatable and healthful. So in the econ- 
omy of the Cherokee the earthworm is valu- 
able both as a medicine and as food. 

Another food item which is valuable to the 
Pamunkey is the mussel. Mussels are 
gathered from March to February in shoal 
water along shores of rivers, where, ina rising 
tide in about ten inches of water, they he 
open. They are stewed or boiled or eaten 
raw; not gathered to last over or be 
preserved. Another mollusk utilized by the 
Pamunkey is the Kahonk (Conch), found 
only in the York River, 12 miles east of the 
present reservation, from West Point to the 
bay. They are found in low water, by feeling 
with the bare feet on sand below the low-tide 
line. They are roasted by being put on sticks 
of fire. They are never dried or smoked for 
preservation. 


13 Lovern, JoHN A. Biochem. Journ. 34: 709- 
711. 1940. 

14 Cuou, T. G., CHanp, C. C., and Cuu, H. P. 
Chinese Journ. Physiol. 12: 147-153. 1937. 


JuLty 1951 


A curious weather attribute is given to the 
“fever-ague’’ worm (woolly-bear) by the 
Nanticoke. By reading the color pattern one 
can predict the severity of the weather. 
The months represented in succession from 
head to tail of the worm are December, 
January, and February. Elwood Wright tells 
if there is much black on the head, cold 
weather is meant, if short black more moder- 
ate; of much tan, open month is signified. If 
it appears black on the head end, brown on 
other, December will be rough, January and 
February open. If reversed, December will 
be open, while January and February will be 
rough. If totally colored, he explained, “It 
hasn’t fully got its stripes yet.” 


SCHULTZ AND SIMOES DE MENEZES: A NEW ANCHOVY 


235 


One wonders whether this is native to the 
Indian, for I have obtained from the English 
settlers in the Blue Ridge of Augusta 
County, Va., a knowledge of the ‘‘feeble 
worm” as they call it, foretelling the weather. 
Mrs. Jack Kelly, of Stuarts Draft Com- 
munity, has observed that if the feeble worm 
is black on either end a cold winter will 
follow, but if black in the middle, a mild or 
in-between season will invariably occur. The 
Nanticoke, who, as their name implies, were 
great fishermen, called the spring peepers 
(Hyla crucifer) herring frogs because they 
would always announce the “running”’ of the 
herring in the spring. 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—A new anchovy of the genus Anchoviella from the Poti and 
Parnaiba Rivers of Brazil. Lnonarp P. ScHutrz and Rui SimOES DE MENEZES. 


Since Hildebrand (Bull. Bingham Ocean- 
ogr. Coll. 3 (art. 2): 1-165, figs. 1-72, 1948) 
published ‘‘A Review of the American An- 
chovies (Family Engraulidae)” four other 
papers have appeared or were not included 
in Hildebrand’s revision that deal with 
South American Anchovies. These are: Fow- 
ler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 93: 
124, fic. 2, 1941; ibid. 95: 311, fig. 1, 1943; 
Hildebrand and Carvalho, Copeia, 1948, no. 
4: 285-296, figs. 1-4; and Schultz, Proc. 
U.S. Nat. Mus. 99: 37-54, figs. 4-8, 1949. 
After comparing the specimens of anchovies 
which form the basis of this contribution 
with the species described in the above 
papers and with related material in the U.S. 
National Museum collections, we have con- 
cluded that our specimens represent an un- 
named species. 


Anchoviella potiana, n. sp. 
Fig. 1 


Holotype—U.S.N.M. no. 112081, from Poti 
and Parnaiba Rivers, Teresina, State of Piaui, 
Brazil, collected in September 1949 by Rui 
Simoes de Menezes, standard length 113.7 mm, 
total length 136.5 mm. 

Paratypes.—U.S.N.M. no. 112082, collected 
along with the holotype and bearing same data, 
7 specimens, 107 to 118 mm in standard length. 
Also 8 specimens in collection of Servico de 
Piscicultura, Fortaleza, Ceard, Brazil. 


Description Detailed measurements were 
made on the holotype and 15 of the paratypes 
and these data are expressed in thousandths of 
the standard length in Table 1. Counts for the 
new species are recorded in Table 2. 

Body compressed, deep, greatest depth at 
about dorsal origin, 3.1 to 3.4, and head 3.6 to 
3.7, both in standard length; head shorter than 
greatest depth of body; snout bluntly pointed, 
projecting about # its length beyond tip of man- 
dible, about 3 eye, only a little longer than pupil; 
eye about 4.0 to 4.2 m head; maxillary ending 
posteriorly in a truncate to a broadly rounded 
tip that reaches to but not past joint of mandi- 
ble, contained about 1.3 to 1.4 in head; mandible 
pointed, slightly curved dorsally at tip, reaching 
a vertical line a little behind rear edge of posterior 
nasal margin; teeth minute, very numerous, along 
edges of both jaws, cheek 7.0 to 8.2 and postor- 
bital length of head 5.5 to 5.8 m standard length; 
angle of cheek varies from 35° to 44°; gill rakers 
long, slender, the longest about 3 times in post- 
orbital length of head, each gill raker on the 
first four arches with two rows of numerous 
minute spinules on the inner or posterior side; no 
gill rakers on the posterior side of the first three 
arches, but short rakers occur on posterior side 
of fourth gill arch; depressed length of dorsal 
fin 1.4 to 1.5 in head; the first branched rays of 
dorsal fin reaching to opposite or not quite to 
tip of last dorsal ray when fin is depressed; 
distal margin of dorsal slightly coneave when 


236 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 41, No. 7 


TaBLE 1.—MErAsSUREMENTS Mapr oN SPECIMENS OF ANCHOVIELLA POTIANA, N. Sp., RECORDED 
IN THOUSANDTHS OF STANDARD LENGTH 


Measurements 


Standard length in millimeters............. 


Greatestidépthsfuceercin- aie Seer ae 
Length of head.............. pts Ae ieee 
Postorbital length of head.................. 


Mongestizillirakenepeee eee eee eee 
Interorbital (bony) space................... 


Tip of snout to: Rear edge of maxillary.... 
Dorsaltoriginwerr eer eee eee 
AnalKorigin' tere cep eee ence 


isength' of anal fin base ass). s2s-s eee 
Length of dorsal fin base................... 
Wenzthtofspectoraletines seer eene sere eeeeer 


hengthuofapelyicstiny eee eer ere 
Length of pectoral axillary seale............ 
Least depth of caudal peduncle............. 


Measurements by Schultz! Measurements by Menezes! 
lone Paratypes Paratypes 
113.7 113 | 107 | 111 | 109 |111.4) 118 | 103 | 112 | 115 | 104 | 109 | 104 | 109 | 109 
321 315 | 302 | 313 | 323 | 303 | 316 | 320 | 303 | 296 | 308 | 312 | 308 | 321 | 321 
282 286 | 278 | 270 | 278 | 278 | 263 | 252 | 259 | 252 | 250 | 248 | 260 | 239 | 239 
175 186 | 171 | 173 | 179 | 170 | 178 | 145 | 161 | 156 | 154 | 147 | 168 | 147 | 147 
46 44| 51] 43 | 44] 45 | 47] 58] 45] 43) 48) 55] 58) 46] 46 
73 65 | 70| 75 | 72) 73) 69] 68] 62] 61) 67) 64} 67) 73] 64 
187 192 | 192 | 186 | 189 | 186 | 191 | 155 | 152 | 156 | 144 | 156 | 173 | 156 | 165 
64 63 | 69 | 59] 62) 60| 64 
67 59) || 65!) 62) 62") 65.) 58) | 78 | 80) |) 78) Waite aioe ein encon| = 73) 
219 217 | 221 | 203 | 211 | 209 | 210 |"214 | 205 | 213 | 221 | 206 | 221 | 211 | 211 
519 514 | 500 | 504 | 517 | 516 | 508 | 534 | 518 | 513 | 519 | 514 | 519 | 541 | 514 
627 638 | 650 | 624 | 657 | 605 | 624 | 640 | 625 | 617 | 673 | 624 | 654 | 642 | 642 
282 269 | 280 | 266 | 279 | 269 | 267 | 281 | 285 | 278 | 288 | 275 | 288 | 284 | 284 
121 127 | 118 | 122 | 127 | 135 | 131 | 136 | 125 | 139 | 135 | 138 | 144 | 128 | 138 
180 165 | 171 | 173 | 185 | 168 | 176 | 175 | 179 | 178 | 178 | 183 | 173 | 183 | 183 
102 99 | 106 | 106 | 114 97 | 105 97 | 107 | 104 | 111 | 101 | 111 | 106 | 106 
104 89 | 106 | 110 84 | 114 93 97 98 96 | 106 | 101 96 83 | 101 
123 124 | 125 | 117 | 125 | 124 | 119 | 116 125 | 113 | 115 | 119 | 125 | 119 } 119 


1 Differences between the two sets of figures such as head length, postorbital length of head, length of mandible, interorbital space, 
and length of dorsal fin base are probably caused by different methods of measuring. , 


TaBLEe 2.—Counts RECORDED FOR ANCHOVIELLA POTIANA, N. Sp. 


Number of fin rays 


Branched caudal 


Dorsal Anal Pectoral Pelvic 
Dorsal lobe | Ventral lobe 
iii 10 11 ili 22 23 24 25 we bl 1) i 5 6 9 8 
16 7 9 16 2 5 1 iS eb 3B} 23 2 21 15 15 
Number of scales 
Vertical rows from gill opening Dorsal origin to mid- 
to caudal base ventral line 
41 42 43 8 9 
10 5 1 10 5 
Number of gill rakers on first arch 
Above angle Below angle 
47 48 49 50 51 52 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 
2 3 2 2 4 3 1 = 1 1 3 2 3 4 = = 1 


Juty 1951 


distended; caudal fin deeply forked; distal mar- 
gin of anal fin concave anteriorly, first anal rays 
longest; first dorsal ray of pectoral fin longest; 
tips of_pectoral fins reaching to or not quite to 
insertion of pelvics; pelvic fins reaching about 4 
to 2 the way to the anal origin; dorsal fin origin 
about equidistant between tip of snout and base 
of caudal fin; origin of anal fin about under base 
of last or next to last dorsal ray; axillary scale of 
pectoral fin extending one-half to two-thirds the 
way along length of pectoral fin; intestine with 
one main loop. 

Color in alcohol_—Straw-colored in alcohol dor- 
sally, sides and belly silvery; dorsal side and tip 
of snout with black pigment, predorsal area of 
back with dark pigment intensified just behind 
occiput to form a blotch and then another just 
in front of dorsal origin; rear margin of caudal 
fin dusky; upper sides and back with some dusky 
pigmentation. 

Remarks—This new species is chiefly char- 
acterized by its numerous gill rakers on both 
limbs of the arches in conjunction with other 
characters which make it referable to the genus 
Anchoviella, such as lack of gill membranes across 
isthmus, presence of very numerous minute teeth 
on edges of both jaws; origm of anal behind 
that of dorsal fin; long, slender, numerous gill 
rakers on both limbs of gill arches; vertebrae 
about 41; one main loop of intestine; anal origin 
under rear of base of dorsal fin; maxillary broadly 
rounded or truncate posteriorly and not reaching 
past joint of mandible; dorsal origin about equi- 


SCHULTZ AND SIMOES DE MENEZES: A NEW ANCHOVY 


237 


distant between tip of snout and base of caudal 
fin. 

The occurrence of 47 to 52 + 51 to 61 gill 
rakers on the first gill arch of any species refera- 
ble to the genus Anchoviella might cause one to 
cast doubt on our generic allocation, but com- 
paring this new species with various members 
referred to the other genera of American an- 
chovies leaves no doubt in our mind that potiana 
is an Anchoviella. The details of the gill rakers, 
long, slender, with the two rows of fine spines on 
inner edge, and shape of maxillary among other 
characters remove it from the genus Anchovia, 
which also has species with very numerous gill 
rakers, but a posteriorly pointed maxillary. 

A. potiana would run down through Hilde- 
brand’s key to the species of Anchoviella on pp. 
109-111 closest to A. pallida but does not agree 
with that species because pallida has 28 to 34 + 
36 to 45 gill rakers and potiana has 47 to 52 + 
51 to 61 on first gill arch. Fowler (1941, l.c.) 
described Anchoviella theringt from the Rio 
Jaguaribe, Brazil, and this was not included in 
Hildebrand’s revision but it has only 14 + 19 
gill rakers, far too few to be close to potiana. 
Hildebrand and Carvalho (1948, lc.) described 
two new species of Anchoviella from Brazil, A. 
victorae and A. nitida, with 21 to 23 + 29 to 33 
and 18 to 20 + 238 or 24, respectively, on first 
gill arch of both species. Thus victorae and nitida 
are not close to potiana. We have not noticed 
any other species of Anchoviella in the literature. 

Named potiana after the Poti River of Brazil. 


Fra. 1.—Drawing of one of the paratypes of Anchoviella potiana, new species, by Mario Dias-Maia, 
Servico de Piscicultura, Fortaleza, Ceara, Brazil. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 7 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


53D ANNUAL MEETING 


The 53d Annual Meeting, concurrently with 
the 376th monthly meeting of the Academy, was 
held as a dinner meeting in the Ballroom of the 
Kennedy-Warren on the evening of January 18, 
1951. President F. B. SruspEe presided. 

After the dinner, Dr. Silsbee called the meeting 
to order. The minutes of the 52d Annual Meeting 
were approved as published in the Journal 40: 
198-205. 1950. 

The following reports by the various officers, 
committe? chairmen, auditors, and tellers were 
read and approved: 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 


During the Academy year—January 29, 1950, 
to January 18, 1951—125 persons were elected 
to regular membership, including 114 to resident 
and 11 to nonresident (56 were elected last year). 
Of these, 84 resident and 7 nonresident qualified 
for membership. Ten resident members elected 
to membership in the preceding Academy year 
qualified during the present Academy year just 
ended. The new members were distributed among 
the various sciences as follows: 24 in physics, 
21 in chemistry, 12 in entomology, 7 in zoology, 
5 in mathematics, 4 in engineering, 2 each in 
bacteriology, geophysics, biochemistry, and mam- 
malogy, and 1 each in paleontology, electrical 
engineering, geology, anthropology, mineralogy, 
botany, medicine, geodesy, mechanical engineer- 
ing, and astronomy. 

Nine resident members and one nonresident 
member, having retired from the gainful practice 
of their professions, were placed on the retired 
list of members to enjoy the privileges of active 
membership without further payment of dues. 
Eight resident members and one nonresident 
member resigned in good standing. 

The deaths of the following members were re- 
ported to the Secretary: 


GerorGE S. Ricr, Alexandria, Va., on January 3, 
1950. 

CLARENCE A. REED, Takoma Park, Md., on Janu- 
ary 14, 1950. 

Henri F. Pirripr, Caracas, Venezuela, on Janu- 
ary 27, 1950. 

CarRLos DE LA Torre, Habana, Cuba, on February 
19, 1950. 

Oakes Ames, Cambridge, Mass., on April 28, 1950. 

L. O. Howarp, Washington, D. C., on May 1, 1950. 


Howarp S. Reep, Berkeley, Calif., on May 12, 
1950. 

HeRBeERT 8. Barper, Washington, D. C., on June 
1, 1950. 

Epwarp A. Brree, Madison, Wis., on June 9, 1950. 

FraNK W. Scuwas, Washington, D. C., on June 
18, 1950. 

M. A. Rarnes, Washington, D. C., on July 1, 1950. 

C. W. Warsurton, Washington, D. C., on Sep- 
tember 22, 1950. 

CHESTER Srock, Pasadena, Calif., on December 
6, 1950. 

Joun F. Emprer, New Haven, Conn., on Decem- 
ber 22, 1950. 

H. E. Ewrnc, Takoma Park, Md., on January 5, 
1951. 


Henrt F. Prrrrer, CarLos DE LA Torre, and 
L. O. Howarp were honorary members. 

On January 18, 1951, the status of member- 
ship was as follows: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patron Total 

Resident...... Het ee OS 57 0 0 630 
Nonresident........... 173 34 10 0 217 
SRotalcamsoscetcee 746 91 10 0 847 


The net changes in membership during the 
past year are as follows: 


Patron Total 


Regular Retired Honorary 
Residentien-ee 2-1 ee-) si08 +7 —1 0 +64 
Nonresident........-... +14 +1 —2 0 +13 
Mo tallitesretetiasten cers Siar +8 —3 0 +77 


During the Academy year 1950 the Board of 
Managers held 9 meetings, with an average at- 
tendance of 18 persons. The followmg important 
matters were considered: 

At the 485th meeting, held on February 20, 
1950, the Board approved the sale of 818 shares 
of Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. stock. 
{On June 20, 1950, the stock was sold at a price 
considerably higher than what the Academy paid 
for it many years ago.] 

The Academy was represented at the Seventh 
International Botanical Congress, held at Stock- 
holm, Sweden, July 12-20, 1950. 

At the 439th meeting, September 25, 1950, the 
Board instructed the Secretary to prepare and 
mail to the membership a request for changing 
Article II, Section I, of the bylaws, increasing 
the number of active members from 750 to 1,000, 
and resident membership from 600 to 800. In 


Juny 1951 


all, 389 ballots were returned, of which 374 voted 
in favor of the amendment, 11 opposed, 3 were 
unsigned, and 1 did not vote. The need for this 
increase in membership was due to a large extent 
to the very active Committee on Membership, 
as indicated by the election of 125 scientists to 
regular membership. 

During the Academy year, eight meetings of 
the Academy were held, as follows: 

On February 16, 1950, Frank H. H. Roserts, 
Jr., Bureau of American Ethnology, delivered 
his retiring presidential address on Archeology and 
the modern world. 

On March 16, 1950, the 1949 Academy Awards 
were presented to Epwarp G. Hampp, National 
Institutes of Health, for work in the biological 
sciences; RicHarD K. Coox, National Bureau of 
Standards, for work in the engineering sciences; 
and to Joun A. Hippie, National Bureau of 
Standards, for work in the physical sciences. The 
Academy awarded Certificates of Merit to six 
outstanding local high-school science students: 
Mites Davis, Central High School; Wiui1am 
Epwarbp DrisseL, Gonzago High School; Pun 
SrratrorD Work, Western High School; Patri- 
c14 Morse Frprerico, Woodrow Wilson High 
School; Donatp Jason Byrrs, Woodrow Wilson 
High School; and Paut DovuGuas Saeats, Wood- 
row Wilson High School. 

On April 20, 1950, THomas WaLLeR GrorGs, 
Naval Research Laboratory, addressed the Aca- 
demy on Dynamical aspects of plastic flowing in 
solids. 

On May 18, 1950, Frank M. Srerzunr, U.S. 
National Museum, addressed a joint meeting of 
the Academy and the Anthropological Society of 
Washington on Aboriginal Australia. 

On October 19, 1950, CHARLES ARMSTRONG, 
National Institutes of Health, addressed the Aca- 
demy on Poliomyelitis: Its occurrence and behavior 
in our population. 

On November 30, 1950 James A. Van ALLEN, 
Johns Hopkins University Applied Physics Labo- 
ratory, addressed the Academy on New Experi- 
ments in the upper atmosphere. 

On January 18, 1951, Per K. Frouicy, Merck 
& Co., gave an after-dinner talk to the Academy 
on Medicinal chemicals. 

Six of the meetings were held in the Cosmos 
Club. The joint meeting with the Anthropological 
Society of Washington was held in the auditorium 
of the U. S. National Museum. The meeting on 


PROCEEDINGS: 


THE ACADEMY 239 


January 18, 1951, was held at the Kennedy- 
Warren. 

The Academy sponsored the annual Science 
Fair for high school students and the weekly 
issue of the Science Calendar in the local news- 
papers. 

Frank M. Sprzier. 


REPORT OF THE TREASURER 


The Treasurer submits the following report 
concerning the finances of the Washington Aca- 
demy of Sciences for the year ended December 31, 
1950: 


RECEIPTS ~ 
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L950 sak eee 3,788.00 

LQ Filenccunete 124.00 $3 , 985.00 
Journal, 

Subscriptions, 
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O52 eae eae 5.06 1,339.50 
Reprints, 

QAO Bitte ar. 201.57 

O50 GN 568.53 770.10 
Sales, 

LO SOR B ee een esthetics 93.43 
Interest and dividends............. 1,521.50 
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Monographenon la aes sees eee aoe 189.67 
Transferred from invested funds... 1,000.00 
Transferred from Savings Account. 25,000.00 
Annual dinner (1950).............. 294.00 
Refund, service charge, A. 8S. & T 

(Sho ae erg NE NM RL SAN AE ee ee ane 7.43 
Sale Washington Sanitary Improve- 
WHIM COs WOCMS 2c dono ccosaccoe 26,114.65 


$60,321.28 
1,635.53 


$61,956.81 


Total receipts, 1950............ 
Cash balance, January 1, 1950. . 


DISBURSEMENTS 


1949 1950 Total 

Secretary’s Office. $110.87 $370.39 $481.26 
Treasurer’s Office. 304.59 304.59 
Subscription Man- 

ager & Custodi- 

an of Publica- 

HOME sano cncse ce 8.95 PA SO 30.67 
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TOGA roonmsek esne 35.50 208 . 80 244.30 


240 
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Tickets and programs..... 25.00 
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Postage, wrapping, etc.... 3.08 
A) Sve arming exaenare eee 1,000.00 
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and material for base..... 1.66 
George Banta Publishing Co. 

Cartage on overcopies .... 69.93 
Deposited in Savings Ac- 

COUNGE eae are ae 26,114.65 
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Massachusetts Investors 


Trust, 400 shares @ $33.62. 
Investment Co. of America, 


13 , 448 .00 


400 shares @ $11.61....... 4,644.00 
State Street Investment 
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


1.50 


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Total disbursements. .....$59,422.68 60,534.28 
Cash book balance as of December 31, 

NO SOME Siesta a ice Ne Se ees 1,422.53 
FTRG elles acter Gem pe Neeep ay UBER Oy JME tn ergs $61,956.81 


RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE 


Balance as per cash book, Dee. 31, 
NO HO eet een ee reN er ements one yea mebeneg te BE 
Balance as per Amer. 
Sec. & Trust Co. 
Statement of Dec. 
$1,373.36 
Receipts undeposited.. 1,227.18 
$2,600.54 
Checks outstanding, as 
of Dec. 31, 1950 
No. 1018 $5.41 
1263 5.00 
1429 1,144.02 


1430 23.58 1,178.01 


$1,422.53 


$1,422.53 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, NO. 7 


INVESTMENTS 


Potomac Electric Power Co. 
Certificate No. TAO 1977—40 shares 


BAI) 1s BONN 6 ouacscc0ces se $2,000.00 
City of New York—8% 
(Transit Unification ) 
Due—June 1, 1980 
Certificate No. 
D 20186........ $500.00 
CMO sSiaeereee 100.00 
C8). oe soca < 100.00 
C 710405 100.00 $800.00 
First Federal Savings & Loan Assn. 
Investment account book.......... $1,000.00 
Northwestern Fed. Savings 
& Loan Assn. 
Certificate No. 1380... $4,500.00 
1441... 500.00 $5,000.00 
United States Government 
Series G Bonds— 
No. M 332990 G.... 1,000.00 
M 332991 G.... 1,000.00 
M 332992 G.... 1,000.00 
M 332993 G.... 1,000.00 
M 1808741 G... 1,000.00 
M 2226088 G... 1,000.00 
M 2982748 G... 1,000.00 
M 4126041 G... 1,000.00 
M 5141346 G... 1,000.00 
M 5141347 G... 1,000.00 $10,000.00 
Massachusetts Investors Trust 
400 shares at $33.62. ....-. 5.02... $13, 448.00 
Investment Co. of America 
A00ishanesraitnpllll Gliese $4,644.00 
State Street Investment Corp. 
100kShanesrat $6125. see eee $6, 125.00 
American Security & Trust Co. 

SavanespAccountinaes 1 steer $1, 161.52 
Total ioe. ane er $44,178.52 
Cash balance 12/31/50....... 1,422.53 

Mo bali. swe ie a eewn ee $45 , 601.05 
Total as of Dec. 31, 
1949 Nero cien ape titan $29 , 662.40 
Total as of Dec. 31, 
IMG Y ORE cieeadle tueeeate tS Slee 45,601.05 
Increasehen= see $15,938.65 


At the close of business on December 31, 1950, 
there were 52 members of the Academy in arrears, 
34 for 1 year, 8 for 2 years, 2 for 3 years, 7 for 
4 years, and 1 for 5 years. 

Howarp 8S. RappLeye®. 


REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE 


The accounts of the Treasurer of the Washing- 
ton Academy of Sciences for the year 1950 were 


JuLy 1951 


examined by your auditing committee on Jan- 
uary 10, 1951. 

A copy of the Treasurer’s report was checked 
and found to be in agreement with the records. 
All disbursements had been previously author- 
ized and are supported by vouchers or cancelled 
checks. 

The securities of the society were imspected 
on January 11, 1951, and found to be in agree- 
ment with the list given in the report and to 
have all coupons attached that are not yet due. 

The work of the committee was greatly sim- 
plified and lessened by the excellent manner in 
which the records have been kept and by the 
systematic and orderly arrangement of the books 
and of the report. Your Treasurer deserves the 
commendation of the Society for another year 
of service to the Academy. : 

(One member of the auditing committee, Dr. 
C.-L. Gazin, was unable to assist in the audit 
because of his absence from the ciy.) 

Raymonp lL. SANFORD. 
Water D. Surcuirre, Chairman 


REPORT OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS 


Volume 40 of the JourNaL, for the year 1950, 
contained 424 printed pages, 4 less than volume 
39 for 1949, despite which the cost of issuing the 
JOURNAL has again increased. The higher costs 
in 1950 are caused by the inflationary spiral of 
prices which began in July with the start of the 
war in Korea. The increases reflect the higher 
prices of paper and materials for which the con- 
tract specifies a cost plus basis. Reluctantly, the 
printer, Waverly Press, Inc., has requested per- 
mission to increase by ten per cent the rates on 
items specified by price in the contract, the in- 
crease to go into effect in January 1951; it is 
made necessary by higher wages and other cost 
increases. Waverly Press is to be commended for 
the equitable treatment it has given the JouRNAL 
in this matter. 

During 1950 the JourNnau published 81 sub- 
mitted papers and 12 obituaries, together with 
proceedings of the Acaprmy and of two affiliated 
societies. The submitted papers comprized 66 in 
biological sciences, 6 in mathematics and the 
physical sciences, and 9 in other sciences. In ad- 
dition to these, there were 16 abstracts of papers 
in the Proceedings of the Philosophical Society 
of which 10 were in physics, 2 in astrophysics, 
1 in biophysics, 1 in medicine, 1 in mathematics, 
and 1 in fuel research. 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 


O41 


The disbursements for the JourNaL during 
1950 were: 

Printing, mailing, engraving, etc................... 6,011.95 
leva) OU LISBie Samael cad aoe Ree SO eR Ere tha rcie: A 822.00 
Office—Editorial assistant...............-.-.+..+-+- 300.00 
Office—Miscellaneous........ AS AAP CeO He ET BIE 30.79 

otaleemrenes BL Se eemetn tae nhs Bennie a . 7,164.74 
C@hargeshtorauthorsteneeeerae ere enc re le aR OD Alalo. 
Ne cost of the JourNAL to Academy.............. 6,210.01 


In 1949 the net cost to the Academy was 
$6,013.84, $196.17 less than for the current year. 
The Board of Editors wishes to acknowledge 
the cooperation of the Board of Managers and 
the officers of the Academy. Special thanks are 
due to Mr. Paut H. Oruser who efficiently 
handles all matters pertaining to the technical 
side of printing and make-up of the JouRNAL. 
The Editors also wish to thank Mr. Francis C. 
Harwoop, of Waverly Press, for his helpful sug- 
gestions. 
Frank C. KRaAceK. 
FREDERICK J. HERMANN. 
WiuiramM F. Fosuaa. 


REPORT OF CUSTODIAN AND SUBSCRIPTION 
MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS 
Subscriptions 


Nonmember subscriptions in the United 


States and possessions............... 145 
Nonmember subscriptions in foreign coun- 

LELGTUSIS Nees Lae, AURA SO en Meee POE Ti tect 82 

ARO tallies centes once sete Sl eeu eM ans we AR 227 


This represents a gain of 4 subscriptions over 
last year’s total. 
Inventory of stock as of December 31, 1950 
Reserve sets of the Journal 


Complete sets, vols. 1-40.............. 4 sets 
Volumes: 40 eras scien ceo ewe tre 6 sets 
NG HAO Pini tae) pate (ee earn ue Sea 9 sets 
SN ests 10) SER a MN rH in ra eA RAC 5 sets 
Total sets more or less complete....... 25 sets 
Back numbers of the Journal 
Numbers held in complete sets (4)..... 2,652 
Numbers held in reserve for complete 
SOUS HI tik ie eemen NNR ES (RAN ANRC LEA plu yehnn eK 8,263 


Numbers held for sale separately... - 


Total numbers on hand.............. 


* A count of these separate numbers has not 
been made recently, pending a rearrangement of 
the back stock and a subsequent recount and audit. 


242 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Proceedings 
Complete sets, volumes 1-13 (1899-1911) 48 sets 
(The copies of the separate articles that ap- 
peared in the Proceedings have not been 
counted. ) 
Monograph no. 1 


@niginaltisswer hae, Cates ee ney 1,010 
Copies sold or otherwise distributed. ... 141 
Number of copies on hand.......... 869 


Sales 


During the year 1950, sales of the JourRNAL 
and Procreepines fell well below the sales re- 
corded in 1949. No complete sets of the Pro- 
CEEDINGS were sold, and only 115 numbers of the 
JouRNAL were sold either separately, or as vol- 
umes. 

Seven numbers of the PrRocrrpines and three 
copies of the 1947-48 Directories were sold. 

The sales of the Monograph fell off from those 
the previous year. This year 47 copies were sold. 
It was not possible to circularize prospective 
buyers during 1950 but it is expected to do this 
early in 1951. This it is hoped will increase the 
sales of the Monograph. 

A gift of an almost complete set of the JouURNAL 
from the estate of the late Joseph A. Cushman 
and numerous other very welcome gifts of early 
numbers of the JourNaL, have given us a good 
start toward making up another complete set. 
It is hoped that the older members who are con- 
sidering the distribution of their library will re- 
member the needs of the Academy in this respect. 

The income from sales of copies of the Jour- 
NAL, Proceedings, and Directory was $93.43, 
while sales of the Monograph yielded $189.67. 
This is a total income of $283.10. 


Expenditures 
Supp pl GSketeirca cera. wera eerie arate nN ae $6.50 
Stamped Emvelopes..............-+..-+.. 91 
Postage expended in connection with the 
TOWRNIAT: MOL C neti ate soc cei onaeaieeep eee 6.60 
Postage expended in connection with the 
Monorrapbasaarr eres ease 5.53 
PRO Pall een pecker ea eet reeeiter ane wemec ae ars $19.54 


Storage 


Tn last year’s annual report it was mentioned 
that a rearrangement of the storage facilities that 
we have in the Smithsonian Institution Building 
was in progress. It was impossible to finish this 
in the limited free time at the disposal of the 
custodian, but it is expected that this work will 


vou. 41, No. 7 


be finished during 1951. At that time it will be 
possible to have a count made of the stock on 
hand. 

Haratp A. REHDER. 


REPORT OF THE ARCHIVIST 


During the year the present incumbent with 
the active cooperation of his predecessor worked 
over all Academy materials heretofore turned in 
for deposit in the Academy’s Archives. Much 
material of an ephemeral nature has been dis- 
carded and the remainder reorganized and re- 
arranged so that it is hoped that the files will 
be readily usable hereafter. An itemized inventory 
of the materials in hand follows: 


Scrapbook containing miscellaneous printed mat- 
ter of the Academy, including notices of meet- 
ings, 1898-1922, inclusive. 

Folder containing similar material since 1922. 
Very far from complete. Presumably a complete 
collection from 1923 to date is in Secretary’s 
possession. 

Red Books: Vol. 1 (1892, 1895, 1897, 1898, 1900). 
Unbound 1899, 1901, 1903, 1905, 1907, 1909. 
Vol. 2 (1911-1919) Red Books only, Nos. 18-22. 
Vol. 3 (1921-1935) Red Books Nos. 23-29 with 
Academy lists 1914, 1916, 1918, 1920, 1922, 1926. 
Unbound 1937, 1939, 1941, 1947-8 with Academy 
lists 1916, 1918, 1920, 1922, 1924, 1926. 

Membership records, 1898-1948. Includes all perti- 
nent records available on all members, including 
applications, acceptances, resignations, declin- 
ations, ete. 

The Benjamin Franklin Medal presented to the 
Academy by the American Philosophical 
Society, commemorating 200th anniversary of 
his birth. 

Original ballots with tally sheets, covering selec- 
tion of charter members of the Academy, 1898. 
In wrapped package. 

Personal data (names, addresses, degrees, etc.) of 
Academy members, 1901. In wrapped package. 

Recording Secretary’s minute book from January 
1908 (48th meeting) to January 1936, inclusive 
(268th meeting) (10th-38th Annual meetings). 
Bound. 

Minutes of the meetings of the Board of Managers, 
January 31, 1911-December 19, 1929, inclusive 
(165th-301st meetings). Bound. 

Same. January 29, 1930-December 16, 
(302nd-349th meetings). Bownd. 

Same. February 10, 19389-October 18, 1943 (350th— 
385th meetings). Bownd. 

Same. Ist, 198, 287-399, in folder (unbound). 

Treasurer’s books: 

Membership dues, 1898-1907, alphabetically by 
names. 

Treasurer’s cash books (receipts and disburse- 
ments ). 


1938 


Juny 1951 PROCEEDINGS: 

(1) Feb. 1898—Dec. 1909. 

(2) Jan. 1910-—Dec. 1915. 

(3) Jan. 1916—Dec. 1935. 

(4) Jan. 1916—-Dec. 1918 (receipts only) 

(5) Jan. 1919-Dec. 1921 ub ef 

(6) Jan. 1922—June 1925 i Be 

(7) June 1925-Sept. 1933 “a i 


(8) Oet. 1933—Dec. 1936 oe iy 
(9) Ledger 1917-1928 

(10) ‘‘Cash book’’ 1915-1927. A mess: 
(11) . ug 1928-1934 

Letterpress books (nos. 2-7) Nov. 1, 1900-Jan. 17, 
1922. 

Volume 1 is missing. 

Journal Washington Academy of Sciences 
Volumes 1-30. Bound 1912-1940. 31-38. Unbound 

1941-1948, 1949, 1950. 

Proceedings Washington Academy of Sciences 
Volumes 1-13 (1899-1911). Bound. 

Proceedings The McGee Memorial Meeting. 
Washington Academy of Sciences, Dec. 5, 1913. 
1916. (2 copies) Unbound. 

Lectures on heredity. Reprints from Journal 
Washington Academy of Sciences, Bound in 
boards. 1917. 

Lectures on scientific and engineering aspects of 
the war. Reprints from Journal Washington 
Academy of Sciences. Bound in boards. 1918. 

Photographs, Past-Presidents, Washington 
Academy of Sciences. 

Halftone cuts used for portrait illustrations in 
Red Book, 1947-48 (4 boxes). 

Original photographs as above, mounted on large 
cards (one large package). 

Facsimile copy of the charterbook and signatures 
in the first journal book of the Royal Society of 
England. 1912. Folio. Presented to the Academy 
by the Royal Society. 

Reports of officers: Archivist, Auditors, Custodian 
of Publications, Editors, Recording Secretary, 
Secretary and Corresponding Secretary, Tellers, 
Treasurer. 

Reports of Annual Meetings. 

Academy awards, Miscellaneous records of. 

Records of academy delegates to scientific con- 
gresses, etc. 

Correspondence in re publication of Proceedings 
of the Academy, 1901-1912. 

Correspondence in re publication of Red Book. 

Correspondence in re publication of JoURNAL. 

Applications for affiliation of scientific societies 
and action taken thereon. 

Membership lists. 

Lists of past officers. 

Formation and early history of the Academy. 

Amendments proposed to bylaws. 

Scientific societies of the Washington area (1936 
questionnaire ). 

Committee reports, attendance at scientific meet- 
ings, Botanic Garden, honorary foreign mem- 
berships, executive, finance, JOURNAL, meetings, 
meeting places, membership, nominating, publi- 
cation, miscellaneous. 

Miscellaneous folders on District of Columbia, 


THE ACADEMY 243 


Kober lectureship, presentation of medals, direc- 
tions for operating Hare system, American 
Association for the Advancement of Science, 
American Metric Association, popular books in 
science, engraving Academy notification forms. 
Miscellaneous unsorted correspondence. 
Joun A. STEVENSON. 


The President then announced the recipients 
of the Academy Awards for 1950 as recommended 
by the Committee on Awards for Scientific 
Achievement and approved by the Board of 
Managers: 

Biological Sciences: Davin H. Dunks, U.S. 
National Museum, in recognition of his distin- 
guished service in paleontology, especially by re- 
searches on early arthrodiran and teleost fishes. 

Engineering Sciences: SAMUEL Livy, National 
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his dis- 
tinguished service in the structural analysis of 
aircraft. 

Physical Sciences: Puitip H. ABELSON, in re- 
cognition of his distinguished service in the fields 
of chemistry, nuclear physics, and in the physics 
of living organisms. 


REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP 


During the Academy year, the Committee on 
Membership held six meetings and processed 124 
nominations for membership. Seventy of these 
represented the physical sciences, 44 the biologi- 
cal sciences, and 10 the engineering sciences. One 
hundred and twelve of these nominations were 
for resident membership and 12 for nonresident. 
The scientific background and achievements of 
each nominee were abstracted and presented to 
the Board of Managers at its regular meetings. 

The Chairman wishes to express his thanks to 
all the members of the committee for their kind 
cooperation in the work, and to the President, 
Secretary, and members of the Board for their 
many helpful suggestions. 

Roger G. Bates, Chairman. 


REPORT OF COMMITTEE 


SCIENCE 


ON ENCOURAGEMENT OF 
TALENT 


The Committee arranged for the participation 
of the Academy in the Ninth Science Talent 
Search of the Westinghouse Educational Founda- 
tion, as sponsor of the Second Annual Talent 
Search in the District of Columbia. In continu- 
ance of this custom the committee has also started 
preliminary work for the Tenth Science Talent 
Search. 


244 


Last year’s search resulted in the recommen- 
dation by the committee of six local participants 
in the national search to the Academy’s Board 
of Managers for the award of a Certificate of 
Merit from the Academy. The awards were pre- 
sented by the Academy at its Annual Honors 
Meeting in March 1950. Letters of reeommenda- 
tion from the Academy for scholarship awards 
were sent to the universities of choice of the award 
recipients. 

The Academy, through the medium of the 
committee, again sponsored the Annual Science 
Fair for local high and junior high school stu- 
dents, in cooperation with the Science Depart- 
ments of the Public Schools of the District of 
Columbia. The fair was held May 15-19, 1950, 
in the lobby of the Department of Commerce 
Building, with 564 exhibitors selected from about 
1500. Thirty-six winners were presented Certifi- 
cates of Award by the President of the Academy, 
after selection by a group of judges from the 
Academy. 

The expenses of the committee consisted of 
$115 representing the Academy’s contribution to 
support the Fourth Annual Science Fair. 

The membership of the Committee during the 
year was: Dr. B. D. Van Evnra; Dr. A. T. 
McPuHerson; Dr. Frep Monier; Austin H. 
CuarK; JosepH M. Catpwetn, and Dr. M. A. 
Mason, Chairman. 

Martin A. Mason, Chairman. 


After acceptance by the members of the report 
read by the Chairman of the Committee of Tell- 
ers, the President declared the following individ- 
uals elected to the given offices: 


Water RAamBerG, President-Elect 

Francis M. Deranporr, Secretary 

Howarp 8. RAppueye, Treasurer 

Sara E. Branuam and JoHn A. STEVENSON, 
Board of Managers to January 1954 


The following members of the Academy, nom- 
inated by the Affiliated Societies, were duly 
elected Vice-Presidents of the Academy: 


Philosophical Society of Washington—Epwarp 
U. Condon 

Anthropological Society of Washington—Watpo 
R. WepEL 

Biological Society of Washington—[Vacancy] 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 41, No. 7 


Chemical Society of Washington—JospprH J. 
FAHEY 

Entomological Society of Washington—FREpD- 
ERICK W. Poos : 


National Geographic Society—ALEXANDER 
WETMORE 
Geological Society of Washington—LxEason H. 


ADAMS 
Medical Society of the Distriet of Columbia— 
[Vacancy] 
Columbia Historical Society 


GILBERT GROs- 


VENOR 
Botanical Society of Washington—E. H. 
WALKER 
Washington Section, Society of American 


Foresters—WiLi1amM A. Dayton 
Washington Society of Engineers—Currrorp A. 


Betts 
Washington Section, American Institute of 
Electrical Engineers—Francts M. D5ran- 
DORF 


Washington Section, American Society of Me- 
chanical Engineers—Ricuarp 8. Dinu 

Helminthological Society of Washington—L. A. 
SPINDLER 

Washington Branch, Society of American Bac- 
teriologists—ANeus M. GRIFFIN 

Washington Post, Society of American Military 
Engineers—Hrnry W. HEemMpPLE 

Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engi- 
neers—HERBERT G. DorsEY 

District of Columbia Section, American Society 
of Civil Engineers—[Vacancy] 


The President introduced the speaker, Per K. 
FrouicH, Vice-President of Merck & Co. Dr. 
FRouicH gave an illustrated talk on Medicinal 
chemicals. He outlined the various procedures 
followed in producing, under rigid requirements 
of purity, the various antibiotics, vitamins, and 
other life-saving chemicals. He reviewed the vari- 
ous steps required to produce these medicinal 
compounds, from the minute quantities obtained 
in the original fundamental research laboratories 
to the very large scale production of many tons 
per day. These operations require great team 
work on the part of many related disciplines. 

The retiring President, F. B. Stmspen, ex- 
pressed his appreciation to the officers, to the 
Board of Managers, and to the various committee 
chairmen for their work and cooperation through- 
out the year. He then introduced the new Presi- 
dent, NarHan R. Smiru, who had served as Presi- 
dent-Elect during 1950. After a few interesting 
remarks the new President adjourned the meeting 
at 10:15 P. mM. 

Frank M. Snrzimr, Secretary. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


I PRON ATT TIS 2s aiid Boe I eRe Ree a Natuan R. SuiruH, Plant Industry Station 
PARESTILETL-CLECEN AP retevayac seine eae WaLTER RAMBERG, National Bureau of Standards 
IS EGRELOMUM SR in Me te Seeman t Arse F. M. Deranvorr, National Bureau of Standards 
TEDSTER A ee Howarp S. Rappieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
PAR CHINES CAPT Nt ee eae evens yt ees Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Harrap A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington......................... Epwarp U. Connon 
Anthropological Society of Washington......................... Wapo R. WEDEL 
BiolozicaliSociety of Washingtony fas... .5.20c¢ss5-ossns es ecenet oe 

C@hemicalesociety, offs Washingtonver sse cee dee aes ee JosEpH J. FAHEY 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ FREDERICK W. Poos 
NationalyGeographiciSocietyz--aane sae saath ses eee ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geolorical Societyzof Washingtoniass.socese secs eee sess sss ean Leason H. Apams 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.......................... 

Columbiastistoricalisocietyae seen eee eee enero: GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Bovmicallsociebyson washington... elec. sleet ees EK. H. WaLKER 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters...... .... Witi1am A. Dayton 
Washington Society of Engineers............................- Cuirrorp A. Betts 


Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
Francis M. DEFrFANDORF 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. DILL 


Helminthological Society of Washington.......................... . A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Aneus M. GriFriIn 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Hngineers....Hmnry W. HempLe 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.......... HeErRBert G. Dorsey 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers. . 
Elected Members of the Board of M anagers: 


par amniiatsyell 952 eres Boks oie ea tekshssosrcs toa: enone yet W. F. Fosuag, C. L. Gazin 
MoOwaniaryel QO8e ea an nasa s 2: C. F. W. Mugseseck*, A. T. McPHErRson 
Moma atay 9 DA creda « cues he torvenss cvs: secon ee Sara E. Branuam, Mitron Harris* 
GORONO eVUGGGETS) 9h oe ees a All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Boon ojpebiaitors and Aissocvate Hatters, 0.4.06. .2..55s5)5.565 0s) nese [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....N. R. Situ (chairman), WALTER RamBere, H. 8. RapPpLeye, 
. A. Stevenson, F. M. DEFANDORF 
Committee on Membership............... L. A. SPINDLER (chairman), M. 8. ANDERSON, 
MERRILL BERNARD, R. HE. BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. Hansen, 
D. B. Jones, Dorotuy Nickerson, F. A. Smita, Heinz Specut, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings......... MarcGaret Pittman (chairman), NoRMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. Cuaptiine, D. J. Davis, F. B. Scurretz, H. W. WELLS 

Committee on Monographs: 


omanwanyalOs2eG vers sss es as J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), PauL H. OBHSER 

Ie Jarman IOGR his Satneeee tanh tan cee ook EE ce ries R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 
MOMMA reyasl GOAN aes Sires. tee ahi sen tke eens at 8. F. Buaxe, F. C. Kracex 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GrorcE P. Watton, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. FaBmr, JR., 
Myrna F. Jonus, F. W. Poos, J. R. SWALLEN 

For the Engineering Sciences......... R. 8. Diu (chairman), ARSHAM AMIRIKIAN, 

J. W. McBurney, FrRanK Neumann, A. H. Scorr 

For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. WALTON (chairman), F. S. Brackett, 

G. E. Horm, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMILien 

For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BaRNEs, 

. EK. Fox, T. Koppanyr, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPHERSON 

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research...................... L. E. Yocum (chairman), 


M. X. Suutivan, H. L. WuirremMore 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


R@ daimany? IEP, . oan sccsoson dopsousdsae J. I. Horrman (chairman), M. A. Mason 

PRoRMamiarsygil QO Sir hae a: Seip cus betwen ose oxtavere 8 W. A. Dayton, N. R. Smita 

ROR Nam atyeil O54, 5.65.0. smarts cova nee sieistinie wane H. B. Couns, Jr., W. W. Rusey 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

Lo Verein WEY, -ocoocnscoccccocv0ca M. A. Mason (chairman), A. T. McPHERson 

‘They Uevatieneae OB eel, oleate o Gee ona ee oe A. H. CLARK, F. L. Mouuer 

Ropamusrys LO a4 co hevecocror fcsck ars ate e piclacciegaeersia one J. M. CaLpwe .u, W. L. Scamirr 
Ieeproscrinose Cn Cove OF As Als Bho Soncooccnccosnsconposcnconcunaucs F. M. Serz_er 
Committee of Auditors...... J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. Braatren, W. J. YOUDEN 


Committee of Tellers...W.G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Merz, Loutss M. RussELL 
* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 


Puysics.—Measure for measure: Some problems and paradoxes of pre- 
cision. FRANCIS B.. SIESBER.... 2.04. je. 02 lc 0 ee 


Martuematics.—A problem in geometric probability. JmERomME Corn- 
FIELD and HAROLD W. CHALKLEY....%............. 4). eee 


ErxunoLocy.—Interesting animal foods, medicines, and omens of the 
eastern Indians, with comparisons to ancient European practices. 
Lauown'G: Ky CARR ni) es Bak oboe ed etn) 


IcutTHyoLocy.—A new anchovy of the genus Anchoviella from the Poti 
and Parnaiba Rivers of Brazil. Lronarp P. ScuHunttz and Rui 
SIMGES DE: MENEZESW:,. 2.05. 02 dee Ode a en so 


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Vou. 41 Aueust 1951 No. 8 


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VoLuME 41 


MATHEMATICS.—Information theory. 


Standards. 


Information theory deals with the com- 
munication of information without regard 
to any psychological or semantic ‘‘value”’ 
assigned to messages. The value measure of a 
message is ignored from necessity, not from 
choice. We are forced to assign a numerical 
measure to a message with reference to a 
class of messages. For example, a sentence 
can be considered as a member of a class of 
messages consisting of all possible sequences 
of letters and spaces of the given length. 
Most of these permutations would be mean- 
ingless as English text but could be assigned 
arbitrary code meanings in general. We 
shall assign a mathematical measure of the 
information in each that completely dis- 
regards any assigned meaning. 

We could define the information content 
of a message in terms of its length, Le., 
the number of letters or telegraph symbols 
it requires for transmission. This turns out 
to be inappropriate, for most messages con- 
tain redundancy and can be uniquely 
communicated by fewer characters. This 
suggests using the minimum sufficient char- 
acter count as a measure of the information. 
To standardize this idea, let all messages 
be thought of as coded into binary form, so 
as to be transmitted by a sequence of dots 
and dashes, heads and tails, or zeros and 
ones. The information measure of a message 
in “bits” (binary digits) will be taken as 
the number of binary digits absolutely 
needed to distinguish this particular mes- 
sage from all others of the class considered. 
One such class might be all 50 character 
sequences of the 27 symbols of English (26 
letters and space). Let us deal with an ex- 
ample. 


1A lecture delivered before the Philosophical 
Society of Washington, December 15, 1950. 


245 


August 1951 


No. 8 


CuesTER H. Pacr, National Bureau of 


For simplicity, reduce the alphabet to 16 
characters (including space) and consider 
all possible messages of 35-character length. 
One member of this class is: THIS IS CER- 
TAINLY A TRIVIAL EXAMPLE. Hach of the 
characters of our short alphabet can con- 
veniently be represented by a unique com- 
bination of four binary digits, since there are 
exactly 24 = 16 such combinations. This 
requires 4 X 35 = 140 binary digits to repre- 
sent the whole message. 

The message can, however, be coded for 
more efficient transmission. Instead of using 
four binary digits for each character, con- 
sider using only three for each of the more 
frequent characters, at the expense of using 
five for those less frequent. There is a net 
gain, aS we Shall see. Let us tabulate the 
characters in the order of their frequency. 
An efficient coding is given in Table 1. 

When the message is coded by four digits 
per letter, the sequence of digits (no spaces!) 
can be uniquely decoded by dividing it into 
groups of four, and decoding each group. 


TABLE 1 
Character Count Representation| Total digits 
Space 5 000 15 
I 5 001 15 
A 4 010 12 
E 3 O11 9 
L 3 1000 12 
aT 3 1001 12 
R 2 1010 8 
Ss 2 1011 8 
Cc 1 11000 5 
A 1 11001 5 
M 1 11010 5 
N 1 11011 5 
iP 1 11100 5 
V 1 11101 5 
x i 11110 5 
We ul Liiit i) 


Average = 3.74 binary digits/letter 


| ms 


AUG 9 0 1QBF 


246 


With our more efficient coding, the message 
starts as follows: 1001110010011011 

How are the digits to be grouped for de- 
coding? An examination of the representa- 
tions in Table 1 will show that the decoding 
is unique, for no shorter group forms the 
first part of any longer group. 

If it is desirable actually to transmit the 
message in terms of the literal characters 
rather than binary characters, the sequence 
of 131 binary digits can be arbitrarily 
divided into ‘fours’? and each of these 
groups coded as one of the 16 letters by an 
arbitrary assignment of the combinations. 
The 131-digit message can then be trans- 
mitted by 383 characters of the original 
alphabet, instead of the 35 characters needed 
for straight transmission. At the receiving 
end these characters are replaced by the 4- 
digit groups, and the resulting sequence 
decoded by Table 1. 

The digit code that we set up as efficient 
for our particular message will, of course, be 
very inefficient for certain other messages. 
We really wish the coding scheme that is 
most efficient on the average for the whole 
class of messages considered. This can be 
found by using the relative frequencies, or 
probabilities, of the letters in the whole 
class of messages, rather than in a particular 
message. For example, consider the class of 
messages made up of our 16-letter alphabet, 
with the individual letters having the prob- 
abilities given in Table 2. The total prob- 
ability is 1. In fact, these percentages are 
the same as in Table 1, intentionally. Thus 
if Table 1 represented the relative occurrence 
of the letters in the whole class of messages 
considered, the corresponding code would be 
efficient and would allow the use of 3.74 
digits/letter averaged over all messages of 
the class, weighted by the probabilities of 
the various possible messages. 

With reference to a particular class of 
messages, we can define the information 
measure of any particular message as the 
number of binary digits needed to code the 
particular message, using the code that is 
most efficient for the class as a whole. The 
average information per message of this 
class will be the average number of digits 
per message, using this code. There is a for- 
mula for this average information. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 8 


To arrive at the general formula, consider 
a ‘“‘perfect”’ case, one in which each succes- 
sive binary digit of the code distinguishes 
between equally likely alternatives. Such 
is illustrated by a 5-letter alphabet, with 
the probabilities and representations shown 
in Table 3. 
The average number of digits per char- 
acter is 
2 le @ «2 ale situa cmeeee 
assets = Il 


Note that this expression is 
1 1 
jo NOs = a2 70> Ops; —— sie 32s 
: Pi P2 
1 
= Dip: log as — Lip: log pi 


where the logarithms are taken to the base 
2. It can be shown that this is a best pos- 
sible case, and that for any scheme, the 
average number of digits per character 
satisfies the relation 


n> —)> plog p = H. 


In our example of Table 2, we have n = 
3.74 binary digits/character compared to 
H = 3.71. The average information per 
message in this case is 3.71 bits/character. 
For any given transmission rate of elements, 
the information rate can be expressed in- 
bits per second. 

Consider the ensemble of all messages 
composed of these 16 letters with the given 


TABLE 2 
Character Probability 
Space 0.143 
I 0.148 
A 0.114 
1D, Ae 0.086 each 
R,S | 0.057 each 
(Op, JEES ME INI, IP Wy OS, NO 0.0285 each 
TABLE 3 
Character Probability Code 
A p=4 0 
B pe=+} 10 
C p= 110 
D pi = is 1110 
E Ds = ds 1111 


Aveust 1951 


relative frequencies; 1.e., successive letters 
independently chosen with the respective 
probabilities. In a long message of N charac- 
ters, the first letter will occur p,N times (on 
the average), the second p.N times, etc. 
The probability of any particular sequence 
of this length is 


Bee p82 ==) igh 8 


which can be simplified by taking loga- 
rithms: 


log P = p.N log p: + p.N log pp 
+ --- + pieN log pic 
= Np; log p; = —NH. 


Since H was earlier found to be the average 
information per character, the total informa- 
tion for N characters is J = NH = —log 
P = log 1/P. Thus the information in a 
message is measured by (minus) the loga- 
rithm of the probability of sending this par- 
ticular message of the ensemble. 

This result has a certain intuitive justi- 
fication. If the Archbishop of Canterbury 
tells you that he believes in God, he con- 
veys little information. You expect him to 
say this. That is, this “message” is much 
more probable than its opposite. If, how- 
ever, he should tell you that he doesn’t be- 
lieve in God, you would attach considerable 
weight to his statement. It is a very im- 
probable statement, so he must have thought 
about it carefully before making it! 

Let us return to the information formula 
I = —log P and apply it to a very short 
message of one character. If this is the 2 
character, it carries the information 


I; = —log p; 


The average information per character is 
then the average value of J; weighted by the 
probability of the 7 character, or 


WE pil: = —DE pi log pi = H 


as before. It is easily shown that the average 
information per character (#7) is maximized 
by making all p; equal, with the result 
Elena 
= log (number of characters in alphabet). 
It has been said that “one picture is 
worth a thousand words.” This can be 
roughly analyzed mathematically. Consider 


PAGE: INFORMATION THEORY 


247 


for simplicity all possible 5-letter words 
made up of 26 characters chosen with equal 
probability. This is a very crude approxi- 
mation to English but will serve for the 
illustration. The average information per 
letter will be H = log 26 = 4.7 bits/letter. 
A thousand words will carry on the average 
23,500 bits of information. Now consider 
the picture as consisting of 10,000 square 
elements (100 xX 100) independently dark- 
ened to different shades of gray. How many 
shadings must be available for the picture 
to carry our 23,500 bits of information? 
Each element must carry 2.35 bits, or the 
logarithm (to the base 2) of the number of 
available shades must be 2.35. This yields 
5.1 shades, a physically absurd answer. 
We conclude that five shades will carry 
almost enough information, six will give 
more than needed. 

The general theory of communication is 
based on the probability concepts we have 
been discussing. To an engineer a communi- 
cations ‘“‘source”’ might mean a broadcasting 
station, a phonograph record, or some other 
physical entity. In the mathematical pic- 
ture, the source is the ensemble of messages 
to be handled, that is, a class of messages 
with assigned probabilities. A communica- 
tion system is not designed to handle par- 
ticular messages, but to handle a whole 
class of messages with the best average re- 
liability. The class of messages may be of 
infinite number, with the probabilities de- 
scribed in terms of a random process for 
generating successive elements of a message. 

With the element probabilities given, and 
the elements independently chosen, the 
average information per element, H = 
—p; log p;, can be thought of as the aver- 
age uncertainty of the generating process. 
If the elements are generated at the rate of 
N per second, we can speak of the average 
uncertainty rate, —NZp; log p;, as the aver- 
age rate at which information is generated 
and transmitted. By analogy with statis- 
tical mechanics, the average uncertainty 
is called the “entropy” of the source. Hence 
we describe a source in terms of its entropy 
rate. We shall denote this by H(x), the x 
referring to the source. If the 
generated by the source are received as sent, 
the rate at which information is received or 
communicated is obviously the same as the 


messages 


248 


rate at which it is sent. This can be ex- 
pressed by the fact that reception has com- 
pletely removed the uncertainty as to what 
message was sent. If, on the other hand, 
messages are corrupted in transit, some in- 
formation is lost. We can say that there is a 
residual uncertainty not removed by recep- 
tion, or that the reduction of uncertainty 
is less than the original uncertainty. A 
natural definition of the amount of informa- 
tion received is “the reduction, due to re- 
ception, of the original uncertainty of what 
was sent.’’ Dividing by the time for com- 
munication, we obtain the rate of communi- 
cation of information. Letting H(x) denote 
the original uncertainty of the source, and 
H,(x) the residual uncertainty, ie., the 
uncertainty when the recetved message (y) 
is known, we have for the rate of commu- 
nication: 


Jin = 1E(@e) = Jeb (@)- 


This can also be interpreted as: 

(Average rate of sending information) minus 
(Average rate of losing information). 
Similarly let H(y) denote the uncertainty 

of the corrupted message to be received, 

and H,(y) the irrelevant uncertainty intro- 
duced by the source of corruption, the noise 
on the communication channel. The symbol 

H,(y) indicates the uncertainty of the re- 

ceived message (y) when the sent message (x) 

is known. We can consider H,(y) as the 

“false information” in the received message, 

so that the net rate of receiving (intended) 

information is: 


k = Hy) — H,(y). 


The two expressions for R can be com- 
bined to yield the following expression for 
the loss of information, or residual uncer- 
tainty of the message: 


lelo{Ge) == Jeh@) a= JeL@) — 18@). 


The three terms on the right are, respec- 
tively: (1) The uncertainty of the source; 
(2) the uncertainty of the perturbations; 
and (3) the uncertainty of the result. It 
can be shown that H(x) + H,(y) > H(y), 
the inequality arismg when some of the 
uncertainty of the changes duplicates some 
of, the original uncertainty. Hence the loss 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 8 


of information equals the loss of uncer- 
tainty or lack of additivity in the mixing 
process. This effect is similar to the increase 
of entropy occurring in the mixing of iso- 
topes. 

For a given communication channel, that 
is, given corruption effects H,(y), the statis- 
tics of the source can be adjusted to maxi- 
mize the rate of communication. This is the 
statistical analog of impedance matching. 
The maximum rate so obtained is called the 
capacity of the channel. It was shown by 
Claude Shannon, of the Bell Telephone 
Laboratories, that any source generating 
information at a rate R < C ean be so 
encoded as to be communicated over any 
channel of capacity C with an arbitrarily 
small error. A special example will serve to 
illustrate this remarkable theorem. 

Consider a channel handling binary digits 
and making not more than one error per 
block of seven digits. We shall see how to 
encode a message so as to transmit it over 
this channel with absolutely no errors. 

Associated with each block of seven digits 
are eight error possibilities: no error, and 
seven possible error locations. These eight 
cases can be identified by three binary digits. 
Let the case of no error be arbitrarily called 
an error in position zero. Then the possible 
error positions can be identified by the fol- 
lowing code: 


Identification 
000 


Error Position 


o 


Noone wnd rh 
= 
So 
o 


The last four error positions are distin- 
guished by an initial 1 in the code. A scheme 
for automatically generating a 1 in case the 
error is in one of these positions would 
eliminate half the possibilities. Similarly, 
automatic schemes for determining the 
other two binary digits would result in 
complete location of the error. Since the 
information is being transmitted by binary 
characters, location of the error allows 
correction of the error, since there are only 
two different characters. Such a scheme 
has been devised. Let the seven digits of the 


Aveust 1951 


message block be denoted by 2%, ®, --- 27. 
If these digits are such that 


te oe @ 4= G6 oe & = O (ance! 2), 


that is, if there is an even number of 1’s 
among these four, then changing any one of 
these will make the sum = 1 (mod 2). Thus 
if the error occurs in position 4, 5, 6, or 7, 
the distinguishing 1 will be generated. 
Similarly, the second digit of the error iden- 
tification can be found if the transmitted 
digits x2, 3, %—, v7 are so related that 

XM + x3 + xe + x; = 0 (mod 2). 
The last digit is determined by initially 
specifying 


X + x3 + x25 + 2; =O (mod 2). 


In these three conditions, the digits x, 2, 
XY, appear singly and separately, so these 
three digits can be chosen to satisfy the 
conditions, no matter what 23, @5, v., and 
x; may be. The latter four can be chosen 
arbitrarily, 1.e., used to carry information, 
and the other three adjusted to meet the 
conditions. 

For example, suppose we wish to send the 
message 1011. Then xz; = 1, +; = 0, % = 
1, 7 = 1, and we must make x = 0, x2 = 1, 
vs = O to satisfy the three conditions. 
The sequence transmitted is 0110011. Now 
suppose the fifth digit is changed in trans- 
mission; we receive 0110111. What was sent? 
Testing by the first condition, we find 
X4 + X5 + x5 + 27 = 1 (mod 2), 1.e., an odd 
number of ones among the last four digits. 
The first digit of the error identification 
is therefore 1. The second condition gives 


ip 3F Gp ap 2g 4p éfy = Ih ap ISP ib Sp ihe] 0 
(mod 2), 


and the third one gives 
a t+atata=O+t14+14+1=1 


(mod 2). 


The error is therefore identified by 101, 
which refers to position five. We change the 


PAGE: INFORMATION THEORY 


249 


fifth digit and have the original message. 

In practical communication, we are more 
concerned with information represented by 
continuous functions than by discrete se- 
quences. Telephony utilizes a voltage wave, 
for example, and direct speech an acoustic 
pressure wave. Unfortunately the statis- 
tical mathematics dealing with ensembles 
of random functions is very complex. I 
can do no more here than to present. briefly 
some of the results in this field. 

The characteristics of an ensemble of 
continuous functions are described partly 
by a statistical term, and partly by the 
power spectrum, or distribution of the 
power versus frequency by Fourier analysis. 
It has been found that the worst kind of 
noise has a so-called Gaussian statistical 
distribution, and that the best source for 
combatting such noise has also a Gaussian 
distribution. My remarks will therefore be 
confined to this case. Analysis shows that 
the best power spectrum for the source, 1.e., 
the best distribution versus frequency of the 
total source power, is such that the received 
signals have a “flat”? spectrum. That is, the 
received power should be uniformly dis- 
tributed over the frequency range used. 
This means that the source spectrum should 
be complementary to the noise spectrum, 
we try to send more message where there 
is less noise, and vice versa. This result 
agrees with the familiar pre-emphasis tech- 
niques of frequency modulation and some 
recording processes. With this complemen- 
tarity satisfied, we achieve a _ channel 
capacity that can be expressed as 


: IP 
Css Welog: (1 +7) 


where W is the width of the frequency band 
used, P is the total signal power in this 
band, and N the noise power. This funda- 
mental relation shows how bandwidth may 
be traded for power, or vice versa, and has 
had engineering applications. 


250 


ETHNOLOGY — 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 8 


Utilization of animals and plants by the Micmac Indians of New 


Brunswick.! FRANK G. SprecK,? University of Pennsylvania, and Ratpu W. 
Dexter, Kent State University. (Communicated by John C. Ewers.) 


In the summer of 1949 the writers went in 
search of further information on the utiliza- 
tion of animals and plants by American In- 
dians, continuing the studies already pub- 
lished (Speck and Dexter, 1946, 1948). We 
were fortunate in finding near Limington, 
Maine, Mr. and Mrs. Louis Francis, who 
had come from the Micmac band at Richi- 
buecto, New Brunswick. They are familiar 
with the hunting and fishing activities in 
their native region from their own experience 
and through contacts with older people 
there, and to them we are greatly indebted 
for their unstinted cooperation in this ethno- 
ecological study. We were able to learn from 
them the principal animals and plants that 
have been utilized, especially those used for 
food. Most of such practices have been 
handed down from ancient days. This in- 
vestigation centered around food and its 
procurement, but other uses were brought 
out incidentally, particularly the multiple 
uses of certain food organisms, and such in- 
formation is included in this report. Informa- 
tion from our informants has been correlated 
with the archeological, ethnological, and bio- 
logical publications on the region. Medical 
use was not investigated, since that is a 
special study in itself and some material 
has already been published on that subject 
(Hagar, 1896; Speck, 1917; Wallis, 1922; 
Stone, 1932). 

The culture of these Northeastern Indians 
has always tied them close to nature, since 
originally they depended almost entirely 
upon the harvest of natural resources. Even 

1 Acknowledgment is made to the Faculty Re- 
search Fund (Grant no. 594), University of Penn- 
sylvania, for Scat assistance in this project. 

2 In the course of preparing this study for pub- 
lication, Dr. Speck passed away on February 6, 
1950. Through the kindness and efforts of Mrs. 
Frank G. Speck and John Witthoft, Pennsylvania 
Historical Commission, Harrisburg, it was pos- 
sible for the junior author to complete the manu- 
script very nearly as it was originally planned. 
Mr. Witthoft is responsible for the transcription 
of the phonetic forms from Dr. Speck’s field notes, 
and any errors present are due to misinterpreta- 
tions of his handwriting, which suffered with his 
failing health. Valuable suggestions were made by 
Mr. Witthoft and by Ernest 8. Dodge and Wendell 


S. Hadlock, of the Peabody Museum, Salem, 
Mass., all of whom read the manuscript critically. 


today this relationship persists. Modern eco- 
nomic life still consists largely of fishing, 
trapping, hunting and serving as hunting 
guides, lumbering, and _— splint-basket 
weaving. Agriculture has developed exten- 
sively only within historic time. Undoubt- 
edly two important reasons why agriculture 
did not develop to a high degree were the 
poor soil and the short growing season which 
imposed limitations (Hadlock, 1947a). This 
is a good example of the way in which en- 
vironment determines economic develop- 
ment. Wissler (1926) has pointed out that 
“students of culture are well agreed that the 
objective forms taken by aboriginal tribal 
cultures are determined by the features of 
the environment to which native life has 
been adjusted.” Sears (1932), writing about 
the environment of the Northeast in general, 
has explained that ‘‘the vigorous growth of 
forest, abundance of fish and game, rigorous 
winters, and tendency of much of the land 
when cleared to become acid were in no 
sense, at any time, a stimulus to agricul- 
ture.”’ Native animal life, on the other hand, 
permeated the entire life of the Micmac 
culture. Their rich folklore, of which much 
has been recorded, is largely concerned with 
hunting and fishing activities, or involves 
animals of the chase, and their magico-reli- 
gious beliefs centered around animal spirits. 
Art was expressed chiefly on the skins, bones, 
and teeth of animals. A significant portion 
of their social organization was concerned 
with the family hunting territory system. 
Their housing and clothing at one time were 
made largely from animal skins. Some of 
their native medicines were derived from 
animal products. Their food consisted chiefly 
of the spoils of fishing, hunting, and trapping 
pursuits of the men. Such activities took 
place along the seashore, in the tidal imlets 
and saltwater ponds, rivers, marshes, bot- 
tomland swamps, and in the forests of mixed 
conifers and hardwoods and their glades. 
This animal diet was supplemented by the 
gathering of fruits, berries, nuts, seeds, roots, 
and similar plant products by the women. 
Little, if any, cultivation was practiced, al- 


Aveust 1951 SPECK 
though in protohistoric times planting of 
maize, squash, and beans was carried out. 
Let us enumerate, then, the principal wild 
animals and plants which have been utilized 
by the Miemac for food with special refer- 
ence to the coastal band at Richibucto. Ad- 
mittedly, a complete study can not be made 
with the information from two informants, 
but certainly the most important natural 
food products would come to the attention 
of those who have lived in the community 
under investigation. Our own notes have 
been supplemented with gleanings from pub- 
lished accounts. Originally it was planned 
to prepare a table of organisms known to be 
used by the Micmac with a column for the 
native names used by this group of Indians. 
This was not completed before the death of 
Dr. Speck. John Witthoft has since tran- 
seribed the phonetics recorded by Dr. Speck 
in the field for use by the writer. We dis- 
covered that a complete list of names was 
not made, as Dr. Speck undoubtedly de- 
pended upon memory for those Indian words 
well known to him. For this reason, Table 1 
was not completed as planned, but in each 
case where the Indian name was recorded, 
it is given in the text. This investigation was 
approached through a synthesis of the special 
interests of the collaborators. The ethno- 
logical phases were handled by the senior 
author, who often conversed with the in- 
formants in their native dialect, while the 
biological and ecological phases were handled 
by the junior author. A similar report on the 
Malecite Indians of the St. John River Val- 
ley of New Brunswick, investigated at the 
same time, will be published at a later date. 


THE COASTAL MICMAC INDIANS OF 
RICHIBUCTO 


The Micmac Indians of coastal Nova 
Scotia and eastern New Brunswick have 
long attracted the attention of anthropolo- 
gists. The prehistoric culture of these north- 
eastern shore dwellers, so far as it is known, 
has been described through the archeological 
papers of Jones (1864), Patterson (1889), 
Piers (1895, 1912), and Smith and Wintem- 
berg (1929). Ethnological descriptions have 
been given by the early travelers, visitors, 
and clergymen who lived among the Micmac, 
particularly in the writings of Maillard 


AND DEXTER: UTILIZATION OF ANIMALS 


BY THE MICMAC 251 
(1758), Rand (1850), Elder (1871), Hagar 
(1895), Chamberlain (1904), Denys (trans- 
lated by Ganong, 1908), Le Clereq (1910), 
and Lescarbot (translated and reprinted, 
1928). Modern scientific studies have con- 
tinued to chronicle the culture of the sur- 
vivors of these neolithic hunting and fishing 
people in such publications as those of Speck 
(1922), Flannery (1939, 1946) and Cooper 
(1946). Miemae folklore has been recorded 
by Leland (1884), Rand (1894), Alger (1897), 
Prince (1906), Speck (1915a), Parsons 
(1925), and Michelson (1925). 


The Micmac Indians long depended upon 
marine resources for food, especially during the 
summer months. Probably the great majority of 
this tribe lived on or near the coast; Le Clercq 
(1910) pointed out that the summer months were 
spent at the seashore where fish and meat were 
dried and smoked for winter use. Those living 
at Richibucto at the mouth of the Richibucto 
River obtained much of their subsistance from 
the marine resources of Big Cove. Marine life 
played a very important part in the economy of 
these seashore dwellers. The mollusks, particu- 
larly, were utilized. Ganong (1889) many years 
ago wrote that “the most valuable to man by 
far, in all the groups of mvertebrates, is that of 
the Mollusca. In all parts of the world, savages 
and civilized men have utilized its members.”’ 
In his monograph Ganong gives a complete list 
of mollusks that have been used by the inhabi- 
tants of Acadia. Further information is available 
in the reports on shell heaps which have been 
excavated in the region. These give mute evi- 
dence that the shelled animals especially were 
harvested by the Micmac over a long period of 
time, and that they formed the great bulk of the 
diet of these Indians during the warm months of 
the year. In the mud flats during periods of low 
water the soft-shell clam (¢s) is easily available. 
Its tenderness and flavor have made it a favorite 
as a food mollusk by all groups of mankind living 
within its range. Shells of this species make up a 
large percentage of the shell mounds. 

The razor clam was also dug from the mud and 
sand flats although not in such abundance as the 
soft-shell clam. In mussel beds over the tidal 
sediments and on rocky shores the blue mussel 
erows in abundance. Lescarbot, writing in 1609, 
is quoted by Ganong saying, “The Miemae have 
a superstition, not to wish to eat mussels (1, 


252 


edulis), yet they cannot give a reason for it— 
nevertheless, in our company, seeing us eat them, 
they did likewise.”’ The number of blue mussels 
in kitchen middens, however, would indicate 
that at one time it was a popular item of food. 
Attached to these mussel beds, and on the rocks 
of the lower shore line, live the boat shells or slip- 
per shells, which have long been considered a 
delicacy by the North American aborigines of 
the Atlantic coast. Along the exposed shore at 
times of perigee tides, the sea clams or hen clams 
were gathered. These were boiled and made into 
a stew. The shells have been used in recent times 
for decoration about homes and gardens. In the 
shallow waters of the inlets and salt-water ponds 
the quahog has been collected in abundance. 
Besides being an important item of food, the 
shells were used as a source of purple wampum. 
Piers (1912) quoted Lescarbot making the claim 
that wampum was obtained by barter with the 
New England Indians. How much actual manu- 
facture of wampum beads (Kwayo’psu) was car- 
ried out by the Micmac is not known although 
the quahog shells were available to them. Today, 
however, the quahog is only rarely found be- 
tween Cape Cod and the Gulf of St. Lawrence. 
Wampum among the Micmac was used for orna- 
ments and ceremonies rather than money. Denys 
(1908) mentions that the wampum beads were 
originally strung on tendon removed from the 
spine of a moose. A Micmac wampum belt is 
described and illustrated in Bulletin 4 of the 
Free Museum of Science and Art of the Uni- 
versity of Pennsylvania (author not given). This 
belt is an example of the use of wampum for 
symbolic purposes and is believed to commemo- 
rate the friendly alliance of two Christian commu- 
nities among the Indians. This type is sometimes 
called a “missionary belt.’’ 

Another valuable shellfish is the oyster (ma’nd- 
amu(-x pl.)). Again, oysters are no longer found 
in any significant abundance between Cape Cod 
and the shores of eastern New Brunswick on 
the Gulf of St. Lawrence, although they are 
abundant in many prehistoric shell heaps in the 
intermediary area. With the coastal Micmac, how- 
ever, this bivalve mollusk was nearly as impor- 
tant as it was to the Wampanoag of southern 
Massachusetts. Quantities of oyster shells have 
been found in refuse heaps in both places. Ganong 
(1889) places this mollusk first m importance 
although shell heap studies in Micmac territory 
do not always indicate this to be true. Often, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 8 
shells of the soft-shell clam are far more numer- 
ous. Ganong probably based his appraisal on the 
use of the oyster over a long period of time, with 
special reference to use in recent times. Besides 
being an important item of food, oyster shells 
were used to polish wood for their bows, accord- 
ing to Denys (1908). Scallops are listed by Gan- 
ong as the third most important group of mol- 
lusks utilized in the New Brunswick area. The 
horse mussel and two snails, the sand-collar 
snail and the English whelk, were also used 
according to the findings in refuse heaps, al- 
though Mr. Francis did not know of their being 
used in recent times. Shellfish at one time were a 
very important part in the economy of the coastal 
Micmac. They were used for food, bait, orna- 
ments, and for temper in the manufacture of 
pottery. Pottery was often made by these people, 
but their efforts were very crude. Sea shells were 
powdered for use as temper in some of the pottery 
they did make. Piers (1895) has described the 
use of seashells as ornaments fastened to the 
ears, neck, bodies, arms, and legs of the Indians. 

Shells of all species mentioned above have 
been found in refuse heaps excavated in Micmac 
territory except the razor clam. Mr. Francis did 
not know of its use, but Cooney (1832) and Denys 
(1908) listed it among others eaten by these 
people. Shells of several small species of snails 
(e.g., Thais lapillus and Urosalpinx cinereus) 
have also been identified, but probably these 
were gathered incidentally, especially the latter 
species which is the oyster drill, a predatory snail, 
commonly found feeding on the oyster. 

Fowler (1871) has called attention to the fact 
that many shell heaps have been washed out by 
the sea. Undoubtedly many such deposits have 
been destroyed in the past. Smith and Wintem- 
berg (1929) found many shells that had been 
used for food but did not discover any imple- 
ments made from the shells nor did they find any 
wampum. They found three shells of Cepaea 
hortensis, a land snail (mi‘ktcick). This species 
has been thought by some zoologists to be a 
European introduction. Its discovery in Indian 
shell heaps is, therefore, of notable interest. 
Its use by the Indians, if any, is questionable. 
Also, the snails may have burrowed or been 
carried underground by animals in recent times. 

Squids were at one time commonly eaten. 
Denys (1908) described the method of capturing 
them as follows. Duringa rising tide (we’tckaba‘x) 
a bonfire was built on the shore. Squid, attracted 


Auveust 1951 


by the light, swam into shore and were stranded 
on the beach as the tide went down. Other inver- 
tebrate foods from the sea (ek*ta’?an) include 
the lobster, the rock crab (indjindja‘ges), and 
shrimp (tea‘gadji-tc). The lobster was captured 
with a spear. According to Denys (1908) lobster 
claws were used as pipes. The crabs and shrimps 
were used as bait as well as food. Lescarbot, 
writing in 1606, and Cooney (1832) both list 
sea urchins and Cooney also mentions starfish 
among food items, but no other evidence is avail- 
able on the use of these echinoderms by the Mic- 
mac. No evidence was uncovered from any source 
that the horseshoe crab had any part in the econ- 
omy of these maritime people although it is 
known to have been used along the New England 
coast for many purposes. 

Marine vertebrate animals were also of great 
importance. Seals (wa’spux) were hunted for food, 
hides, and oil. The oil was used in cooking, for 
fuel, and to grease the hair. Seal oil was a delicacy 
at their feasts. Seal skins spread over needles 
of the fir tree were used for bedding. While the 
walrus is now extirpated in this region, it was 
hunted in former times as indicated by tusks 
found in the refuse heaps. The ivory was used in 
the manufacture of such objects as harpoon 
points and the dice used in the game known as 
“Indian Dice,” according to Piers (1912). It is 
believed that the Micmac traded ivory to the 
Penobscot tribe in Maine. Whales (po’dep) and 
porpoises (mospe’tc) were obtaimed whenever 
found stranded on the shore or were harpooned 
from drift boats. In addition to the use of the 
oil and meat, the ribs were used for bark peelers 
and wedges (Smith and Wintemberg 1929). Sea 
turtles (miktci*te) were similarly captured and 
utilized. The marine fish were of special impor- 
tance and have continued so to the present day. 
Smelt (ga’xpesaw) is the first to appear in the 
spring followed by the herring (Denys 1908). 
Smelt were captured by the placing of hurdles 
across a brook to trap the fish in the head waters 
(Lescarbot 1928). According to Mr. Francis they 
were also taken on a fishing line. The herring 
and their young, known as sardines, were eaten 
in large quantities. They were also used for fer- 
tilizer. Mackerel (hdmana’n), capelin, and a spe- 
cies known to Mr. Francis as the salt-water sun- 
fish (nago’sit name’te) (which the writers do not 
recognize), were similarly obtained for use. Fish 
of the sea bottom which have been utilized are 
the flounders (ana’gwetc), halibut (psa’nak™), cod 


SPECK AND DEXTER: UTILIZATION OF ANIMALS BY THE MICMAC 


253 


(pe’dju), haddock, Norway haddock (now known 
as rose fish or redfish), cunner, sculpins (me’n- 
dowe néme’tc), skates (tekana’lowi‘tc), and dog- 
fish (a’‘lamute name’tc). These demersal fish were 
obtamed by spearing in shallow water as well as 
by nets and hook and lines. Oil from the liver of 
codfish and the flesh of redfish were of economic 
importance to the Indians long before these 
became of commercial importance to white man. 
Jones (1864) suggested that the opercular spines 
of redfish found in shell heaps were used as an 
awl for punching holes. Mr. Francis does not 
know of the dogfish or sculpin being used for 
food in recent times. 

The Micmac employed many devices for ob- 
taining aquatic resources. These included spears 
(ni-gok), harpoons with points made from bone 
or walrus ivory, hook and line (m?ki-gana’tk°) 
made from hemp with fishhooks (m°ki’gan) of 
bone, fish nets (abi-) with stone sinkers, dip nets 
(n?ha’ni-ganabi), and fish weirs with a bag net. 
Fish pounds (haluda’?an) were made to trap 
the ocean fish in an enclosed basin where they 
could more easily be captured. 

Entering the rivers are a number of anadro- 
mous fishes that were sought by the Indians. 
Included were the sturgeon, Atlantic salmon 
(nigo’k), shad (apsa’mu), striped bass (elta’Xte), 
white perch (wa’pet dja’xtedji-te), tomcod, and 
the sea lamprey. Most of these were speared at 
night with the aid of a birch-bark torch. This was 
particularly true of the sturgeon and salmon. 
There is only one species of salmon on the Atlantic 
coast. Our informant spoke of three different 
types, the “black,” “bright,” and ‘hooked-bill 
salmon.’’ It is clear that what he believed to be 
different species were merely variations in color 
and a difference in sex. The male Atlantic salmon 
has a protruding lower jaw which has given the 
name hooked-bill salmon to this sex. Salmon were 
pursued particularly in June. The method of 
torch fishing is vividly described in the words of 
Dr. Speck as follows: 

“Of equal importance in the taking of fish is a 
method known as ‘torch fishing’ in use among 
peoples throughout the forest area of the entire 
Northeast. Torch fishing (Seksi-gwe’) is resorted 
to at night by two men who man a hunting canoe 
(kwi’:den) which is driven to the base of waterfalls 
where in the North salmon congregate in the 
spring-run ready to ascend to their spawning 
beds. The canoe is managed by the steersman 
whose job is to direct the boat where the man in 


254 


the bow tells him. The bowman is the actor in 
this night drama of food getting and sport—for 
sport it also distinctly is in the minds of the 
Northern Indians. The bowman is armed with a 
double bracketed fish spear or leister. With this 
type of spear he is able to impale large fish which 
swim within range of his ight. Now let us exam- 
ine this light which gives the distinct character 
to this method of taking fish. It consists of a 
bundle of folded birch bark several feet in length 
and some inches in thickness tied firmly with 
splints of basswood and fastened into the cleft 
of a pole fastened in the bow of the canoe. The 
torch pole is tilted over the water. When ignited 
this torch, or flambeau, illuminates a wide space 
at the side of and at the head of the canoe in 
which swimming fish can be seen as they rise to 
the surface apparently attracted by the flare. 
Then comes the thrust, and the impaled fish is 
lifted out of the water passed toward the stern 
and released from the harpoon by the steersman 
where its flopping carcass is deposited in the 
bottom of the craft. When the salmon run is on a 
little flotilla of fishing canoes may be afloat in the 
pool engaged in this combined sport and food 
procurement.” 

Besides the true anadromous fishes, the salt- 
water trout (me’gwe adogwa’su) enters the mouth 
of rivers for the winter and spring seasons after 
the breeding season is over, and there they are 
captured by the Indians. Salmon, shad, herring, 
and gaspereau (the fresh-water herring) were 
formerly smoked for preservation, using the hard- 
woods for fuel. Very little of this is done today 
although fish are frequently salted. According to 
Denys (1908) the fishing canoes were made of 
slats of cedar covered with birch bark. The bark 
was sewed with roots of black spruce, and seams 
were sealed with spruce gum. Paddles were made 
of beech wood and a sail made from the skin of a 
moose calf. The fish were brought to shore and 
dried on gravel beaches and flakes. In winter 
time hook-and-line fishing was accomplished 
through holes cut in the ice. 

In the fresh waters a number of aquatic ver- 
tebrates were also obtained. Eels (ga’dan) were 
pursued at night with spear and hook and line. 
Wallis (1922) mentions the use of the skin of this 
catadromous fish as a bandage. Whitefish and 
suckers (kem‘kwet tu’pkwani) were also caught. 
Our informant never heard of the use of the bow 
(ha'bi:) and arrow (mate ?‘teli‘gan) in catching 
fish such as are commonly employed by the Ca- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 8 


tawba Indians of South Carolina. In the ponds, 
frogs (Xato’walan tcko'ltck = bullfrog; itcko’ltck 
= green frog) and toads of the larger species 
were gathered for eating the legs. Turtles (mikt- 
cist), especially the snapping turtles, and their 
eges were collected for food. The shell of the 
snapping turtle served as a container. Wallis 
(ibid.) lists turtle fat as a lubricant in the treat- 
ment of rheumatism. Reptile lore of the North- 
eastern aborigines has been treated in an earlier 
paper (Speck 1923) 

The fresh-water clams were not eaten to the 
best knowledge of our informants. Neither is 
there any evidence from excavations that such 
ever played a part in the diet of coastal Indians. 
As the writers found to be the case with the Wam- 
panoags of Massachusetts, the less desirable fresh- 
water clams did not attract the Indians because 
of the abundance and ease of obtaining salt- 
water shellfish. 

Waterfowl, especially the ducks and geese 
(si’nam = Canada goose; md?elewi:te = brant), 
and their eggs were taken for food. Other birds, 
listed by our informants from which the eggs 
were gathered, are the gulls, loons, shorebirds, 
and the great blue heron. Denys (1908) claimed 
that the Micmac ate all large birds and their 
eges except the cormorant, and he added further 
that the feathers from the Canada goose were 
used in the making of robes. Water birds were 
hunted at night im a canoe with a birch-bark 
torch much as described for salmon fishing. 
Needles and awls were manufactured from the 
bones of birds, and bird feathers were used for 
ornamentation, such as the headdresses made of 
a few eagle feathers. 

The aquatic mammals were of especial impor- 
tance. Muskrat (ki’-wesu), otter (gi:unik), and 
beaver were trapped for food and hides. Robes 
were made from the fur of these three especially. 
Some were painted with a red dye extracted from 
the roots of small bedstraw (Galiwm tinctorium) 
(Denys 1908). Speck and Eiseley (1939) and 
Cooper (1939) described the conservation of 
beaver by the Northeastern Indians. By proper 
management they maintained a rather stable 
population of beaver at selected sites. 

In the late fall and winter seasons hunting 
and trapping pursuits claimed the attention of 
the Micmac. At these times the game was in the 
best condition, and the pestiferous insects so 
severe in the summer season are not present. The 
Indians went inland for hunting at this time 


Aveust 1951 


(Piers, 1912). The physical and b ological en- 
vironment of the mixed hardwood and coniferous 
forests of the Northeast is succinctly summarized 
by Byers (1946), who pointed out that nearly all 
animal life available was taken in the hunting 
and trapping activities of the Northeastern area 
in early times. Denys (1908) has related that 
hunting was the chief occupation of men and the 
main source of food in the winter time, and at 
the funeral of a hunter mourners recited the 
animals which the hunter had killed in the chase. 
The upland hunting economy was based upon the 
family hunting ground system and an under- 
standing of ecological principles of game popu- 
lations, their relationship to the environment, 
and the balance of nature (Speck, 1915b; Speck 
and Eiseley, 1939; Cooper, 1939; and Hallowell, 
1949). Authorities agree that this system is pre- 
Columbian in origin. At one time the woodland 
caribou was of special importance in the life of 
the Northeast Indian. It was an important source 
of both food and hides. According to Byers (1946), 
the stomach contents of the caribou as well as 
the flesh were eaten by the Indians. Dice used 
in their games were made from the bone of cari- 
bou (Hagar, 1895); scrapers and knives were pre- 
pared from the ribs (Elder, 1871). The caribou 
was hunted on snowshoes made with frames of 
ash or beech, corded with moose skin or animal 
intestines, and bow and arrows made from rock 
maple. Trumpets for calling the animals were 
made of birch bark. Dogs were used in hunting 
in which the object was to drive the caribou into 
deep snow so that the Indians could easily cap- 
ture and kill them. Ward (1878) has described in 
detail this method of caribou hunting. The cari- 
bou is now extirpated from the New Brunswick 
region, but is still remembered by the older In- 
dians. Next to the caribou, moose was the most 
important big game animal. The tongue and 
nose of the moose were considered a_ special 
delicacy for food. Grease was boiled out of the 
bones. The hides were used in the manufacturing 
of moccasins. According to Denys (1908) cloth- 
ing, stockings, shoes, and bed coverings were 
made from moose hide, and the bones were made 
into pipes. Le Clereq (1910) mentions that the 
dew claws were used for rattles. Smith and Win- 
temberg (1929) deseribed chisels made from the 
antlers, pendants from the incisor teeth, and per- 
forated toe bones that were probably used in 
games. The skins of these large animals were used 
for tent coverings as well as for clothing. Some of 


SPECK AND DEXTER: UTILIZATION OF ANIMALS BY THE MICMAC 


259 


the meat was dried and stored and the intestines 
were stuffed. The meat was cooked in the trough 
of a log filled with water into which hot stones 
were dropped for heating. Apparently all parts 
of these large game animals were used for some- 
thing. 

Some believe that the white-tailed deer or 
Virginia deer (li’‘ntuk) was not present in New 
Brunswick when white men arrived, but after 
the woodland caribou was decimated, the deer 
came into this area (Byers, 1946). However, 
Smith and Wintemberg reported deer bones (pos- 
sibly caribou mistaken for deer?) in shell heaps 
of Nova Scotia which had been adapted by the 
Indians for use as awls. In any case, this large 
game animal has taken the place of the caribou 
in modern times. The black bear (mu’win) was 
another one of the large forest animals pursued 
by the prehistoric Micmac for both food and 
hides. Pendants were made from bear’s teeth. 
The bear was one of the most popular animals 
mentioned in the folklore of these people. Hagar 
(1896) stated that this animal was believed to 
possess the greatest magical powers of all the 
animals known to the Indians. 

Of the smaller forest game, the porcupine (ma’- 
dawes) was one of the most useful from the point 
of view of the variety of its contributions to the 
economy of these Indians. The flesh was eaten 
and the quills were used for decoration on birch- 
bark vessels and on clothing prepared from ani- 
mal skins. The quills were dyed red with a dye 
obtained from the roots of small bedstraw. Pot- 
tery has been found (Smith and Wintemberg, 
1929) which is believed to be impressed with 
woven porcupine quills. Wallis (1922) claims that 
urine from the porcupine bladder was used in the 
treatment of hearing defects, and the fatty oil 
of this animal was used as a physic for newborn 
children. The importance of this animal easily 
explains why the Malecite referred to the Mic- 
mac as the “Porcupine Indians” (Matu-es-wi 
skitchi-nu-uk), according to the statement of 
Piers (1912). Other important upland game ani- 
mals were the raccoon (amatei’-ewite), snowshoe 
rabbit (wabus), woodchuck (mo’namkwete), and 
the red and grey squirrels (a’dudwete), all of 
which were used for food and fur. The skunk 
(abiktcilu), red fox, pine marten, fisher (ap%e- 
mp’k), mink (dica‘ge’ute), weasel (sk°us), wolf 
(ba’Xtezem), wolverine (ki’gwadju), and lynx 
were hunted for their pelts. Grease from many of 
these was also used in medicine (pirsun); awls were 


256 


made from the ulna of the red fox and pendants 
from the teeth of the wolf (Smith and Wintem- 
berg, 1929). Our informant spoke of five kinds of 
foxes, but they are all color phases of the red 
fox. According to Chamberlain (1884), the wolf 
was common between 1840-60, but it has since 
disappeared, and the wolverine was not found 
after the middle of the nineteenth century. In 
recent times these large carnivores, when they 
were extant, were killed largely as vermin. Per- 
haps the most important of the upland game 
birds was the Canada ruffed grouse (pala’wetc). 
Our informants were not familiar with the spruce 
grouse. In modern times the ring-necked pheas- 
ant has been introduced as it has been elsewhere 
in North America as a game bird. Denys (1908) 
included the crow and the robin in his listing of 
edible birds. The greak auk and the passenger 
pigeon were also hunted before they became 
extinct. 

Hunting and trapping devices used by the 
Micmace are as follows: Bow and arrow, with the 
arrowhead of stone or bone; snare traps (nabo- 
t’a?an); the spring pole (haboawegan); dead falls 
(ni‘sitaXlo’Xtegan); wooden clubs; stone axes; 
and knives made from the teeth of beaver. 
Snowshoes were used in winter hunting. The 
snowshoe cording frequently was made of the 
intestines of animals as were the strings on the 
bows. Dogs were regularly used in hunting. All 
observers seem to agree that all these primitive 
neolithic people of Northeastern North America 
probably utilized, especially for food, almost 
any animal that could be captured and that all 
edible portions were consumed, even the marrow 
of bones obtained by cracking open the large 
bones. Flannery (1946) claims that even can- 
nibalism was practiced at one time by the eating 
of captives taken in war. In spite of their variety 
of diet and their practice of what we regard as 
conservation measures (MacLeod, 1936; Speck, 
1938), there were times of famine among these 
hunting and fishing people. 

Animal remains found in Micmac refuse heaps 
at various times and at various horizons include 
the following: 


Moose Raccoon Rabbit Dog Fisher 
Caribou Porcupine Seal Wolf Deer? 
Bear Squirrel Whale Red fox 

Muskrat | Woodchuck Walrus Lynx 


Also, the bones of many unidentified fish and 
birds have been found. Animal bones, however, 
are not nearly as common as the shells. Smith 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


and Wintemberg (1929) believed that the rela- 
tively small number of fish bones was explained 
by the late development of fishing. Loomis and 
Young (1912), on the other hand, found fish 
bones in heaps on the Maine coast at the bottom. 
This was interpreted as a case of the Indians 
coming to the shore originally for fish, and later 
acquired the habit of eating shellfish. However, 
Witthoft (personal communication) has pointed 
out that fish do not leave such bulky waste as 
shellfish do, and actually fish bones occur through- 
out the Maine heaps. 

Plant resources for the most part were second- 
ary in importance, although plant products were 
of particular value in the diet during certain 
seasons. Halliday (1937) and Morison (1938) 
have outlined the forest types and enumerated 
the tree species of New Brunswick. The latter 
also gives a very good general description of the 
topography, geology, and climate of the region 
as well as the forests. From the standpoint of 
food, the sugar maple or rock maple tree is of 
greatest interest. Maplesugar (sna’wi-si-smo’gan) 
and maple syrup (sna’wi-mlas-is) were prepared 
from this tree dating back to prehistoric times. 
Denys (1908) explains that the sap was drawn 
off through porcupine quills. Henshaw (1890) 
has traced the early history of maple sugar manu- 
facture by the American Indians. It has already 
been pointed out that wood from this tree was 
used in the manufacture of bows, polished with 
oyster and others shells. 

From the standpoint of general utility, the 
canoe birch was undoubtedly of greatest sig- 
nificance. The wood was used in the manufacture 
of snowshoes and toboggans (Cooper, 1946) and 
the bark (ma‘skwes) for the manufacture of 
canoes, house coverings, boxes, baskets, con- 
tainers of various kinds, dishes, cooking utensils, 
and even coffins. It has been mentioned above 
that the bark was sewed with the roots of black 
spruce and often ornamented with porcupine 
quills. It will also be remembered that birch 
bark was used as a torch in night fishing and a 
birch-bark trumpet used for calling caribou and 
moose. Arrow shafts and canoe slats often came 
from white cedar. Black ash, more commonly 
called brown ash by the Indians, has been the 
most common source for basket splints in the 
manufacture of basketware. Red maple has simi- 
larly been used. In modern times sweetgrass has 
been introduced for the weaving of baskets and 
mats to take the place of rushes which were for- 


vot. 41, No. 8 


Aveust 1951 


merly used. White ash was used in the manufac- 
ture of axe and knife handles. The bark of alder, 
eim, and hemlock was used in the preparation 
of dyes. Stone (1932) described the chewing of 
alder bark for the treatment of wounds, frac- 
tures, and dislocations. Wood from the conifers 
was used for kindling and the hardwoods for 
fuel. Cooper (1946) stated that the wood of birch 
and conifers was preferred for cooking. Beds 
were made from the boughs of spruce and fir 
covered over with animal skins. The leaves of 
willow trees served as tobacco (tama’wi), and 
pipe stems were manufactured from willow twigs 
(Denys, 1908). The bark of certain trees was 
utilized in the making of drums, and inner bark 
of some trees (probably the pectin-rich bark of 
hemlock and pines) served as a famine food 
(Lescarbot 1928) and as a cure for scurvy. Had- 
lock (1947b) reported on woven mats which were 
probably made from bark of either red cedar 
(juniper) or arbor vitae (white cedar). 

Wild fruits and berries known to have been 
gathered during the late summer and early fall 


SPECK AND DEXTER: UTILIZATION OF ANIMALS BY THE MICMAC 


257 


seasons were as follows: 


Blueberry Elderberry Crab apple 
Huckleberry Cranberry Wild cherry 
Strawberry Partridgeberry Choke cherry 
Raspberry Bearberry 

Blackberry Black and red currants (gooseberries) 


Acorns (siste’gawet) and nuts were gathered 
from hazelnut, butternut, beech (beech nuts = 
swo’mussip*han), and oak trees. Lescarbot (1928) 
mentions the gathering of peas along the sea- 
shore. Beverages were prepared from partridge- 
berries, labrador tea, muskrat root, sarsaparilla, 
and the bark from hemlock, white pine, black 
spruce, white spruce, balsam fir, rock maple, 
moosewood, and wild-cherry trees. Most of these 
beverages or teas were employed as medicines. 
Tubers of the wild potato (tab’adank), called 
artichokes by the Indians, were dug up for food. 
The dandelion (si-smo’ni mia’tckewe), since its 
introduction from Europe, has been gathered 
for greens just as it has been used by white man 
for the same purpose. The roots of gold thread 
and muskrat root or sweet flag (ki-we’swapsk°) 
were chewed for their medicinal value. 


TABLE 1.—ANIMALS AND PLANTS UTILIZED BY THE Micmac INDIANS, CHIEFLY FOR 
Foop or Foop PRocUREMENT 


Scientific Class fication 


English Name 


Scientific Classification 


English Name 


PELECYPODA: 
Ostrea virginica 
Pecten grandis 
Pecten islandicus 
Modiolus modiolus 
Mytilus edulis 
Spisula solidissima 
Mercenaria mercenaria 
Ensis directus 
Mya arenaria 
GASTROPODA: 
Cepaea hortensis 
Polinices heros 
Crepidula fornicata 
Buccinum undatum 
CEPHALOPODA 
EcHINODERMATA: 
Asteroidea 
Echinoidea 
CRUSTACEA: 
Cragonidae 
Homarus americanus 
Cancer trroratus 
PiscEs: 
Petromyzon marinus 
Squalus acanthias 
Raja spp. 
Acipenser oxyrhynchus 
Anguilla bostoniensis 
Clupea harengus 
Alosa sapidissima 
Coregonus clupeaformis 
Salmo salar 
Salvelinus fontinalis 


Oyster 

Deep-sea scallop; giant scallop 
Scallop 

Horse mussel 

Blue mussel; edible mussel 
Sea clam; hen clam 

Quahog; hard-shell clam 
Razor clam 

Soft-shell clam; long-neck clam 


Sand-collar snail 

Boat shell; slipper shell 
English whelk 

Squid 


Starfish 
Sea-urchins 


Shrimps 
Lobster 
Rock crab 


Sea lamprey 

Spiny dogfish 

Skates 

Sturgeon 

Eel 

Herring 

Shad 

Whitefish 

Atlantic salmon 

Salt-water trout; brook trout 


Pisces (Continued): 
Mallotus villosus 
Osmerus mordax 
Scomber scombrus 
Roccus saxatilis 
—? 
Morone americana 
Sebastes marinus 
Tautogolabrus adspersus 
Cottidae 
Microgadus tomcod 
Gadus morhua 
Melanogrammus aeglifinus 
Hippoglossus hippoglossus 
Lophopsetta aquosa 
Pseudopleuronectes ameri- 
canus 
Catastomidae 
Perca flavescens 
AMPHIBIA: 
Rana catesbiana 
Rana clamitans 
Reprivia: 
Chelydra ser pentina 
Chrysemys picta 
Cheloniidae; Dermocheli- 
dae 
Aves: 
Gavia immer 
Ardea herodias 
Branta canadensis 
Branta bernicla 
Anatinae; Nyrocinae 


Capelin 

Smelt 

Mackerel 

Striped bass 
Salt-water sunfish 
White perch; sea perch 
Redfish; Norway haddock 
Cunner 

Seulpins 

Tomeod 

Cod 

Haddock 

Halibut 

Sand flounder 

Winter flounder 


Suckers 
Yellow perch 


Bull frog 
Green frog 


Snapping turtle 


Painted turtle 
Sea turtles 


Loon 


| Great blue heron 


Canada goose 

Brant 

Surface 
ducks 


feeding and diving 


258 


JOURNAL OF THE 


WASHINGTON 


TABLE 1.—(Continued) 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vot. 41, No. 8 


Scientific Classification 


English Name 


Scientific Classification 


English Name 


Aves (Continued): 


Bonasa umbellus 
Charadrioidea 
Larinae 

Plautus impennis 
Ectopistes migratorius 
Corvus brachyrhynchos 
Turdus migratorius 


MAMMALIA: 


Euarctos ameri anus 
Procyon lotor 
Martes americana 
Martes pennanti 
Mustela cicognani 
Mustela vision 

Gulo luscus 

Lutra canadensis 
Mephitis mephitis 
Vulpes fulva 

Canis lycaon 

Lyn canadensis 
Phoca vitulina 
Phoca groenlandica 
Odobenus rosmarus 
Marmota monax 
Sciurus carolinensis 
Castor canadensis 
Ondatra zibethica 
Erethizon dorsatum 
Lepus americanus 
Odocoileus virginianus 
Alces americana 
Rangifer caribou 
Cetacea 


GyYMNOSPERMAB: 


Pinus strobus 
Larix laricina 
Picea glauca 
Picea mariana 
Abies balsamea 
Tsuga canadensis 


| Ruffed grouse 


Shorebirds 

Gulls 

Great auk 
Passenger pigeon 


| Crow 


Robin 


Black bear 

Raccoon 

Marten 

Fisher 

Weasel 

Mink 

Wolverine 

Otter 

Skunk 

Red fox 

Wolf 

Lynx 

Harbor seal 
Greenland seal 
Walrus 

Woodchuck 

Gray squirrel 

Beaver 

Muskrat 

Poreupine 

Snowshoe rabbit; varying hare 
White-tailed deer; Virginia deer 
Moose 

Woodland caribou 
Whales and porpoises 


White pine 
Tamarack 
White spruce 
Black spruce 
Balsam fir 
Hemlock 


GyYMNOsPERMAE (Continued): 
Thuja occidentalis 
Juniperus spp. 

ANGIOSPERMAE: 
Zostera marina 
Hierochloé odorata 
Acorus calamus 
Salix spp. 

Juglans cinerea 
Corylus sp 

Betula spp. 

Betula papyrifera 
Alnus spp. 

Fagus grandifolia 
Quercus spp. 
Coptis groenlandica 
Ribes spp. 

Pyrus coronaria 
Crataegus spp. 
Fragaria virginiana 
Rubus, spp. 


Prunus spp. 


Apios americana 

Acer pennsyluanicum 
Acer saccharum 

Acer rubrum 

Aralia nudicaulis 
Ledum groenlandicum 
Arctostaphylos alpina 
Gaylussacia spp. 
Vaccinium spp. 
Fraxinus americana 


Frazinus nigra 

Mitchella repens 

Sambucus canadensis, S. 
pubens 

Helianthus tuberosus 

Taraxacum officinale 


White cedar; arborvitae 
Red cedar; juniper 


Eelgrass 

Swee‘grass 

Muskrat root; sweet flag 

Willows 

Butternut 

Hazelnut 

Birches 

Canoe birch; paper birch 

Alder 

Beech 

Oaks 

Goldthread 

Currants; gooseberries 

Crab apple 

Hawthorn 

Strawberry 

Raspberries; 
dewberries 

Wild cherries; black cherries; 
beach plum; sand plum 

Wild bean; groundnut 

Moosewood; striped maple 

Sugar maple; rock maple 

Red maple 

Sarsaparilla 

Labrador-tea 

Bearberry 

Huckleberries 

Blueberries; cranberries 

White ash 

Black ash; brown ash 

Partridgeberry 

Elderberries 


blackberries; 


Artichoke; wild potato 
Dandelion 


ANON. 


CHAMBERLAIN, 


Cooney, 
Brunswick and Gaspé. 
Coorrer, J. M. Is the Algonquian family hunting 
ground system pre-Columbian? 
1939. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Aucer, A. L. In Indian tents; stories told by 


Penobscot, Passamaquoddy, and Micmac In- 
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Micmac wampum belt. 


Free Mus. Science 


and Art, Univ. Pennsylvania Bull. 4: 184-187. 


1898. 


Byers, Douaras 8. 


east. 


The environment of the north- 
In: ‘Man in Northeastern North Amer- 


ica.’’ Papers Robert 8. Peabody Foundation 


for Archeology 3: 3-32. 


son. 1946. 


Brunswick. 


wick 1(3) art. 4: 37-40. 

The Indians in New Brunswick in Cham- 
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History of northern New 


plain’s time. 
ROBERT. 


throp. 41: 66-90. 


MonvraGueE. 
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Edited by F. John- 
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1884. 

1904. 
Halifax, 1832. 


Amer. 


An- 


The culture of the northeastern Indian 
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“Man 


in Northeastern North America.” 


Papers Robert S. Peabody Foundation for 


Archeology 3: 272-306. 


1946. 
Denys, Nicouas. 


Edited by F. Johnson. 


The description and natural 


history of the coasts of N. A. (Acadia) trans. 


& ed. by W. F. Ganong. 
1908. 
The aborigines of Nova Scotia. 


Soc. 2: 625 pp. 
Evper, WILLIAM. 


North Amer. Rey. 112: 1-30. 
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Catholic Univ. Amer. An- 


FLANNERY, REGINA. 
gonquin culture. 


throp. Ser. no. 7: 1-219. 


Publ. Champlain 


1871. 


1939. 


The culture of the northeastern Indian 


hunters: A descriptive survey. 


In: ‘‘Man in 


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271. Edited by F. 


Johnson. 1946. 


Aueust 1951 


Fower, JAMES. On shell heaps. Ann. Rep. 
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Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. New Brunswick no. 8 

(art. 1): 3-116. 1889. 

Hapiock, WENDELLS. War among the Northeast- 
ern Woodland Indians. Amer. Anthrop. 49(2): 
204-221. 1947a. 

The significance of certain textiles found 
at Redbank, New Brunswick, in relation to the 
history of the culture area. Acadian Nat. 2(8): 
49-62. 1947b. 

HaGar, STANSBURY. 


Micmac customs and tradi- 


tions. Amer. Anthrop., o.s., 8: 31-42. 1895. 
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Amer. Folk-lore 9: 170-177. 1896. 


Hauiipay, W. KE. D. A forest classification for 
Canada. Canada Dept. of Mines and Re- 
sources. Lands, Parks and Forests Branch. 
Forest Service Bull. 89: 50 pp. Ottawa, 1937. 

Hapowe it, A. 1. The size of Algonkian hunting 
territories: A function of ecological adjustment. 
Amer. Anthrop. 51(1): 35-45. 1949. 

Hensuaw, H. W. Indian origin of maple sugar. 
Amer. Anthrop. 3: 341-351. 1890. 

Jones, J. M. Communication concerning Kitchen- 
middens at St. Margaret’s Bay, Nova Scotia. 
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371. 1864. 

LECLERCQ, CHRISTIEN. New relation of Gaspesia. 
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F. Ganong. Publ. Champlain Soe. 5: 452 pp. 
1910. 

Lrenanp, CHarites G. The Algonquin legends of 
New England, or myths and folk-lore of the 
Micmac, Pasamaquoddy, and Penobscot tribes. 
Boston, 1884. 

Lescarsot, Marc. Nova Francia, a description of 
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with intro. by H. P. Biggar. 346 pp. New 
York, 1928. 

Loomis, F. B., anp Youne, D. B. On the shell 
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34: 17-42. 1912. 

Macigop, W. C. Conservation among primitive 
hunting peoples. Sci. Monthly 43(6) : 562-566. 
1936. 

Mariuarp, A. 8S. Account of the customs and 
manners of the Micmakis and Maricheets: 138 
pp. London, 1758. 

Micurerson, Truman. Micmac tales. 
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Morison, M. B. The forests of New Brunswick. 
Canada Dept. of Mines and Resources. Lands, 
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Bull. 91: 112 pp. 1988. 

Parsons, Euste C. Micmac folk-lore. 

Amer. Folk-lore 38: 55-133. 1925. 


Journ. 


Journ. 


SPECK AND! DEXTER: UTILIZATION OF ANIMALS BY THE MICMAC 


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Partrerson, G. The stone age in Nova Scotia, as 
illustrated by a collection of relics presented to 
Dalhousie College. Proc. Trans. Nova Scotian 
Inst. Sci. 7: 231-252. 1889. 

Piers, Harry. Relics of the stone age in Nova 
Scotia. Proc. Trans. Nova Scotian Inst. Sci. 
9: 26-58. 1895. 

Brief account of the Micmac Indians of 
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Nova Scotian Inst. Sci. 13: 99-125. 1912. 

Prince, Joun D. A Micmac manuscript. Proc. 
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260 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


PALEONTOLOGY .—New crinoids from the Pitkin of Oklahoma. HaRrrewu L. 
STRIMPLE, Bartlesville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


A prolific crmoid fauna has been dis- 
covered by Claude Bronaugh, of Afton, 
Okla., in the upper few feet of the Pitkin 
limestone formation in outcrops of the 
Cookson Hills southeast of Fort Gibson, 
Okla. Specimens have subsequently been 
collected by Mr. Bronaugh, Mrs. Hazel 
Bronaugh, Mrs. Melba Strimple, and the 
author on several field excursions. Several of 
the new forms are described below. 


Telikosocrinus, n. gen. 


Description —Crown is of moderate length, ex- 
pands rapidly. Dorsal cup composed of five small, 
upflared IBB, five large BB, five large RR, and 
three anal plates in normal (primitive) arrange- 
ment. Forty or more biserial arms are indicated. 
First bifurcation with the first primibrachial in 
each ray and a second branching with, or about, 
the fifth secundibrachial in all rays. Thereafter, 
the outer rays usually, but not always, continue 
to their termination without further bifurcation 
and the inner rays branch again. The next bi- 
furcation normally takes place in only the outer 
arms and the fourth dichotomy, when present, 
occurs only in the ensuing inner rays. 

Column is moderately pentagonal, pierced by 
a small pentalobate lumen. Anal tube terminates 
with a few irregular, upwardly or outwardly di- 
rected spinose plates. 

Genotype.—Telikosocrinus caespes, ni. sp. 

Known range.—Chester, North America. 

Remarks.—This genus has certain character- 
istics in common with Pelecocrinus Kirk (1941) 
and Hydreionocrinus de Koninck (1858). All three 
genera have more or less erect, cone-shaped dor- 
sal cups with three anal plates in normal (primi- 
tive) arrangement. Pelecocrinus is readily sepa- 
rable in having a round stem, articulating facets 
which fail to fill distal faces of RR, uniserial 
arms, and 10 or more primibrachials above an- 
terior radial. Hydreionocrinus is more difficult to 
distinguish and is probably closely related. The 
dorsal cup is shallow, interbasal sutures exceed- 
ingly short, or absent, and the biserial arms 
branch only in the inner rays after the second 
dichotomy. 

The form described by Laudon (1941) as Pele- 
cocrinus stereosoma from the middle Pitkin is 
reported to have uniserial arms with sporadic 
biserial development. Since the articulating facets 


of this species fill the distal faces of RR, and as 
there is no evidence of numerous PBrBr in the 
anterior ray, the species does not appear to be- 
long with Pelecocrinus. It seems better assigned 
as Teltkosocrinus stereosma (Laudon), n. comb. 


Telikosocrinus caespes, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-4 

Description—Crown moderately expanded, 
curving slightly inwardly at distal extremity and 
devoid of ornamentation. Dorsal cup high cone- 
shaped with a tendency toward a spherical out- 
line. Sutures are mildly impressed giving cup 
plates a tumid appearance. Five IBB extend be- 
yond the columnar scar and are visible in side 
view of the dorsal cup. Five BB are fairly large 
and five RR are wide, substantial plates. Three 
anal plates occupy the broad posterior interradius 
and are in primitive arrangement. 

There are approximately 50 biserial arms. First 
PBrBr are wide, low, axillary and fill distal faces 
of RR. A biserial arrangement is rapidly attained 
by the SBrBr and second bifurcation takes place 
with the fifth to tenth SBrBr. In the holotype and 
most paratypes the outer rays remain unbranched 
and the next division of the inner rays takes 
place normally with about the ninth TBrBr. 
When another dichotomy occurs it is in an outer 
ray. A young paratype branches in either the 
outer or inner rays after the second dichotomy. 
Pinnules are delicate and not often preserved in 
place. 

Anal sac is elongate, extending almost to the 
distal extremities of the rami. Several spinose, 
irregular plates mark the termination of the sac. 
Proximal columnals are mildly pentagonal and 
are alternately expanded. The lumen is pentalo- 
bate and small. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Holo- Figured Para- 
type paratype type 


Heightvof/crown senesced eee = 21.5 29.6 
Heightiofdorsslicup. seer Eee eeee 3.9 Ger 2.8 
Maximum width of cup............... 10.2 Tha? Darl 
Width of 1BBicirclet...-.:......25-.--- Sz) Pat 2.8 
Diameter of proximal columnal........ Pat 1.9 2.0 
Meng thiotel- poste e eee eee eer ee one 1.5 Ail 
WidthiofalspostsBusae ee ereeent acres 3.7 2.3 2.4 
Length of interbasal suture!........... 1.2 0.5 0.9 
engthiofelianteh oe een 2.8 2.0 2.5 
Widthiofelwantwkre enkeeeereerereae 5.8 Bot! 4.6 
Length of interradial suture!.......... 1.4 13 1.4 
Heightiotee Br ee eee eee Eee ee eerre 2.9 2.2 2.8 
WidthiofiP Brasco enehke wee: 5.9 3.8 4.5 


1 Excluding consideration of surface curvature. 


vou. 41, No. 8 


meh 
\\ 


E 
i 


Frias. 1-4.—Telikosocrinus caespes, n. gen. and sp.: 1, 2, Holotype from posterior and anterior, X 1.8; 
3,4, small paratype from anterior and posterior, X 1.7. Fias. 5-9.—Phanocrinus trreqularts, n. sp.: 
5-7, Small paratype from posterior, anterior, and base, X 1.7; 8, 9, holotype from posterior and base, 
x 1.4. Fras. 10-12.—Phanocrinus modulus, n. sp., holotype from posterior, base, and anterior, X L.8. 
Fie. 13.—Telikosocrinus residuus, n. sp., holotype from posterior, X 1.7. 


262 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 8 
Remarks.—This species has a dorsal cup some- : i Holeipe 
eka 2 Diameter of proximal columnal................-.-.-.-. 3.8 
what similar to that of 7. stereosoma (Laudon); Length of 1. post. B..........-..-2+e0ceeeeeeeeeeceees Bell 
however, the IBB of the latter species are more Width of 1. post. B..... 1... nae 4-8 
F Length of interbasal suture........-...-----3-5----- = ile? 
pronounced and the cup is more elongate. 7. Lensthof loan, Rea 5.0 
stereosoma has primarily uniserial arms and a Width of 1. ant. R pie 5.5 
stronger tendency toward bifurcation in the outer as eS eee SOLUTE oo ee Re 
i i eight o De bine slineteie sem Oo eS ee eee 5 

rays alter the second mains dichotomy. Onlyone) wiaihionPBm yee 55 


of six observed specimens of 7. caespes showed 
any decided tendency toward bifurcation in the 
outer main rays after the second branching and 
all arms were biserial. 

T. residuus has a more evenly expanded dorsal 
cup and the arms have a flattened exterior not 
found in 7’. caespes. 

Occurrence and horizon.—Approximately 4 
miles southeast of Greenleaf Lake, Cookson Hills, 
Okla.; upper Pitkin limestone formation, Chester, 
Mississippian. 

Types.—Holotype and one paratype collected 
by Melba Strimple. Figured paratype collected 
by Claude Bronaugh. To be deposited in the 
U.S. National Museum. 


Telikosocrinus residuus, n. sp. 
Fig. 13 

Description.—Crown is devoid of ornamenta- 
tion, expands rapidly and evenly from columnar 
attachment. Dorsal cup cone-shaped, composed 
of five IBB, which are visible in side view of 
cup, five large BB, five large RR, and three anal 
plates. Posterior interradius is broad and plates 
are in normal (primitive) arrangement with RA 
resting obliquely against r. post. B and post. B, 
supporting RX above. Proximal edge of anal X 
is in broad contact with post. B and RA to the 
right. 

There are approximately 50 arms indicated, 
exteriors flattened, biserial. First PBrBr low, 
axillary, fill distal faces of RR. Second bifurea- 
tion takes place with fourth or fifth SBrBr, there- 
after, outer rays remain unbranched and inner 
rays branch with about the nmth TBrBr. After 
the third bifurcation the inner rays remain un- 
branched but the outer rays branch again on 
about the tenth or eleventh QBrBr. Pinnules are 
rather delicate and of moderate length. 

Proximal columnal is large, pentagonal. Anal 
sac has not been observed except for the spinose 
terminating plates. 

Measurements 1n mm.—As follows: 


Holotype 
Heizhtrofiidorsalicup ree etree EEeeE nee eee re erenrrne 5.4 
Maximumbiwidthvotecupareeer nicer nerricininrrr nat 13.9 
Widthrof DB Bicincletseenseeee erence cee ree 5.8 


Remarks.—Comparison with T. caespes and T. 
stereosoma have already been given. T. residuus 
is closely comparable to Hydretonocrinus woodi- 
anus de Koninck (1858) in some respects. The 
dorsal cup of the latter species is shallower and 
the arms have a slightly different pattern in that 
after the third dichotomy the arms continue to 
bifurcate only in the innermost rays. 

Occurrence and horizon—Approximately 4 
miles southeast of Greenleaf Lake, Cookson Hills, 
Okla.; upper Pitkin limestone formation, Chester, 
Mississippian. 

Holotype.—Collected by Claude Bronaugh. To 
be deposited in the U. 8S. National Museum. 


Genus Phanocrinus Kirk, 1941 
Phanocrinus irregularis, n. sp. 
Figs. 5-9 

Description —Crown elongate, tubular-shaped. 
Dorsal cup shallow, broad, base shallowly con- 
cave. Five IBB are small, confined to the basal 
concavity; five BB are large, distal extremities 
curved into basal concavity where they have 
broad median grooves; five RR are large, wide; 
and two small anal plates in posterior interradius. 
RA is in oblique but broad contact with post. B 
and supports the slightly larger anal X above. 

Arms are 10, stout, uniserial, slow tapering. 
PBrBr are axillary, low, wide. First SBrBr are 
rather large tall plates but subsequent brachials 
are low broad plates. Pinnules are of moderate 
size. 

Proximal columnals are round and pierced by 
a small pentalobate lumen. Tegmen is unknown. 
Entire crown is devoid of ornamentation. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Holo- Figured 

type paratype 
Heishtroficrowneereeeeeernteteeeen 2 eee 48.6 28.4 
iHeightrofidorsallicups-ereee EEE reenter eer 5.9 3.0 
Maximumiiwidthioficuppssee screen se ceeeee 16.8 11.2 
Diameter of proximal columnal................ 2.1 1.7 
ene thiotels post > eee rere ere Ere errr 6.0 ? 
Widthtofelsinos tag ase neat ert see eee sae 5.1 3.7 
Length of interbasal suture!................... 3.4 ? 
IbeyeyANN Ot ie, at, To os on osocmeoscocoensuenso> ~ Goll 3.8 
\Wisiok doy ores Ghote Ivo Ceoceacovsounvondscboonneo 8.8 6.0 


Aveust 1951 


Holo- Figured 

type paratype 
ISG @i LEB} ea oaooanangapecoonsocoocoeduadacdc 4.1 4.4 
IWintkejLimen aly Eee tes cisiciciescre siereaitates eneveiotsrs fetes 8.9 6.0 


1 Measurements along curvature of plates. 


Remarks.—Only five specimens of Phanocrinus 
have been found in the horizon under study. Of 
these four are readily identified as P. irregularis 
and have the advanced arrangement of anal 
plates wherein RA has migrated to the dominant 
posterior position with anal X resting on the 
upper surface of RA, and RX has been entirely 
eliminated from the cup. It is considered sig- 
nificant that RA has also become small, thus 
indicating probable resorption. Such modification 
of the plates of the posterior interradius has been 
termed “Developmental Trend A” by the au- 
thor (1948). 

Phanocrinus cooksoni Laudon (1941) is closely 
comparable but has a higher cup with BB par- 
ticipating strongly in the outer walls of the dorsal 
cup. 

Occurrence and horizon——Approximately 4 
miles southeast of Greenleaf Lake, Cookson Hills, 
Okla.; upper Pitkin, limestone formation, Mis- 
sissippian. 

Types——Holotype and figured paratype col- 
lected by Melba Strimple. To be deposited in 
the U.S. National Museum. 


Phanocrinus modulus, n. sp. 
Figs. 10-12 


Description —Crown of moderate length, tubu- 
lar-shaped, with distal extremity tapered to a 
point. Dorsal cup truncate bowl-shaped, with 
erect lateral sides. Five IBB are minute, confined 
to basal concavity and almost entirely covered by 
proximal columnals. Five BB large, curve 
strongly out of basal concavity to form a good 
portion of the lateral walls of the cup. Five RR 
large, only slightly wider than high. Three anal 
plates occupy the posterior interradius. RA is 
large, elongate, rests obliquely on post. B and 


STRIMPLE: NEW CRINOIDS 


263 


r. post. B. Anal X is in contact with post. B but 
is strongly encroached upon by RA to the right. 
RX is in narrow contact with distal face of RA. 

There are ten uniserial arms. PBrBr are large, 
axillary. SBrBr have strongly curved exteriors 
and are rather stout plates. 

Proximal columnals are round, small, heavily 
crenulated. Tegmen is unknown. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Holo- 

type 
Height soft crowimasen qicractaccrcke eee eee eee ee 20.1 
Heightiofidorsalicup erreeteneiirii enteric cence 3.6 
Maximum) wid thioticupsenenieierieeenniee oemiericer. 8.3 
Diameter of proximal columnal........................ 1.5 
Tengsthrofil: post irB asses eeecaqci sen Geeta ey eee 4.8 
Width ofslipostsvBi ce eceeen eee ones eee 3.8 
Length of interbasal suture........ SB OU Ciao Ata GR OURS 2.7 
engthyofiryanty-Ries ences eee ee aT ea Path 
Widthrofimvantaih jsateaicriects see inetiet senna 4.0 
Length of interradial suture................6.....0000 1.8 
HeightrofeR Briss sacs oie eee a Sar iain 2.7 
WidthyofsP Bre sasieeseecn nigh coc sien ret ae neta lene nea 4.0 


Remarks.—P. modulus is a small species readily 
distinguished from other described species by the 
large RA, short stout arms and the outline of 
the dorsal cup in side view. The nature of the 
plates in the posterior interradius indicates modi- 
fication toward ‘Developmental Trend B” as 
outlined by the author (1948), and is almost 
identical to figure 4 of that study. 

Occurrence and horizon—Approximately 4 
miles southeast of Greenleaf Lake, Cookson Hills, 
Okla.; upper Pitkin limestone formation, Chester, 
Mississippian. 

Holotype —Collected by the author. To be de- 
posited in the U. S. National Museum. 


REFERENCES 


pE Konincx, L. G. Bull. Acad. Roy. Bruxelles 
(2) 4: 93-97, pl. 2, figs. 5, 5a. 1858. 

Kirxk, Epwin. Journ. Pal. 15: 82. 1941. 

Laupon, L. R. Journ. Pal. 15: 385-386, pl. 56, 
figs. 1,2. 1941. 

SrrimeLe, H.L. Journ. Pal. 22: 491-492, figs. 1-8. 
1948. 


264 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 8 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Jordanopsylla allredi, a new genus and species of flea from Utah 
(Siphonaptera).! Ropert Traus, Major, MSC, and Vernon J. Tipton, Ist 


Lt., MSC. 


Under a research grant of the U. 8. Public 
Health Service, Dr. D. E. Beck and Dorald 
M. Allred, of the Department of Entomo- 
logy, Brigham Young University, have been 
conducting a survey of arthropods of poten- 
tial medical importance in Utah. In the ex- 
cellent collection of ectoparasites obtained 
by these workers is a remarkable flea here 
described as a new genus of the family 
Hystrichopsyllidae, subfamily Anomiopsyl- 
linae. 

Jordanopsylla, n. gen. 


Diagnosis.—Unique in that the maxillary lobe 
is reduced, almost inapparent. Separated from all 
other genera in the family by the following com- 
bination of characters: Pronotal and genal combs 
both absent; unmodified terga with two rows of 
bristles. The only genus in the subfamily in 
which any of the following characters is present: 
A well-developed lateral metanotal area; a 
striarium on the second abdominal sternum; 
metatibiae with mesal bristles extending from 
base to apex; pleural arch distinct. 

Description.—Clypeal tubercle absent. Pre- 
antennal region of head with one row of bristles. 
Postantennal region with but one row of bristles, 
and that marginal. Eye reduced. Apex of gena 
subangulate or somewhat rounded, not acumi- 
nate. Maxillary lobe (Fig. 1, MX.) weakly scle- 
rotized, reduced, not acuminate. Apical segment 
of maxillary palpus about 34 times as long as 
broad. Labial palpus (Z.P.) very long, with 
apical segment arising distad of trochanter of 
forecoxa (TR.). Distal segment of labial palpus 
apically symmetrical, rounded. Pedicel of antenna 
normal, not ensheathing clavus. Bristles of pedicel 
longer than clavus (at least in female). Pronotum 
with one row of bristles; spines completely ab- 
sent. Lateral metanotal area (Fig. 4, L.M.) 
broader than long. Pleural ridge of metasterno- 
some fitting into a well-sclerotized socket (pleural 
arch) (PL.A.). Metanotum (MTN.) dorsally as 
long or longer than mesonotum (MSJN.). Mesepi- 
sternum (MPS.) with anteroventral angle some- 
what acuminate; without bristles. Metepisternum 


1 Published under the auspices of the Surgeon 
General, Department of the Army, who does not 
necessarily assume responsibility for the profes- 
sional opinions expressed by the authors. 


(MT'S.) broad; dorsally convex; anterior margin 
evenly arcuate; with a long bristle; squamulum 
absent or vestigial. Metepimere (M7'M.) free, 
not fused with metanotum; slightly broader than 
long. Procoxa with only approximately twelve 
lateral bristles (including marginals). Mesocoxae 
and metacoxae with thin mesal submarginal 
bristles scattered from base to apex. Tibial comb 
absent. Profemur with a few thin mesal bristles. 
Metatibia with approximately five dorsomarginal 
notches bearing paired bristles (including apical 
clump of three). First segment of metatarsus 
about two-thirds length of metatibia. All tarsi 
with but four pairs of plantar bristles on apical 
segment. Unmodified abdominal terga with first 
row of bristles distinct but reduced, not reach- 
ing spiracles. Striartum on second abdominal 
sternum well developed. Spiracles of metepimere 
subeylindrical, lacking a distinct ring; those of 
unmodified abdominal segments similar, but only 
about one-half the diameter. Some terga with 
apical spinelets. Female with one antepygidial 
bristle. Anal stylet with an apical long bristle; 
others greatly reduced. Female eighth sternum 
reduced, but with a few very small bristles. 
Ventral anal lobe (Fig. 3, V.A.L., and Fig. 7) 
not angulate. Eighth sternum with submarginal 
mesal bristles. Bursa copulatrix (Fig. 3, B.C.) 
apically subspherical. Spermatheca (SP.) with 
tail longer than the subovate head. 

Genotype: Jordanopsylla allredi, n. sp. 

The genus is named for Dr. H. E. Karl Jordan, 
F. R.S., who, in his ninetieth year, is as coopera- 
tive and helpful as ever, and whose present con- 
tributions to the systematics of fleas are as out- 
standing as those which firmly established his 
reputation as dean of students of Siphonaptera. 


Jordanopsylla allredi, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-7 


Types.—Holotype female ex Peromyscus eremi- 
cus. Utah: Washington County, Grafton, coll. 
D. E. Beck and D. M. Allred, Dec. 17, 1950. 
Deposited in collections of U. S. National Mu- 
seum. Paratype female zbid., but from Springdale, 
Nov. 4, 1950. In collection of senior author. Both 
specimens somewhat distorted. Male unknown. 

Description—Herap (Fig. 1): Frontoclypeal 
region evenly rounded. Anteroventral angle some- 


Aveust 1951 TRAUB 
what acuminate, resembling a diminutive snout. 
Micropunctations or pores scattered from margin 
to preantennal row of bristles; extending over 
most of postantennal region. Preantennal row 
with lowest bristle on genal margin just behind 
insertion of maxillary palpi (W.P.); middle bristle 
apparently of variable length but shorter than 
other two, inserted near uppermost, which is at 
level of reduced eye. Maxillary lobe (MX.) weak, 
apparently not extending beyond base of pre- 
mentum; apically subrounded or subtruncate. 
Labial palpus (Z.P.) with the last two segments 
completely extending beyond apex of procoxa. 
Pedicel of antenna with some short submarginal 
or marginal bristles, but with most marginals 
extending beyond apex of subovate club. Clavus 
almost twice as long as broad. Antennal fossa 


Se uci eeaiee Bite [Pe —- 
: a f a) . Va 
Go C U S f° 
: . 8 ae. . 0 ’ . 
a os fe) 
: E i, 


SSS ‘ ‘ oF as / 


Frias. 1-3.—Jordanopsylla allredi, n. gen., n. sp. 
3, modified abdominal segments. 


AND TIPTON: JORDANOPSYLLA ALLREDI 


— 


ae 


265 


with five or six tiny dorsal hairs near caudal 
margin of head. Postantennal region with a 
fairly long ventromarginal bristle above middle 
of club; lowest bristle of marginal row at ventro- 
caudal angle, above vermiform vinculum; rest of 
row consisting of three fairly long bristles. 
THorRAXx: Pronotal row with about five bristles 
on a side; with very small intercalary bristles 
between bases of larger ones. Mesonotum (Fig. 
4, MSN.) with one complete row of bristles, 
with intercalaries and two subdorsal, more an- 
terior, bristles; with about eight mesal pseudo- 
setae on a side. Mesepisternum (MPS.) with 
ventral margin much broader than dorsal margin. 
Mesepimere (MPM.) caudally rounded, with a 
bristle in anteroventral region and two subcaudal 
ones. Metanotum (MTN.) with three bristles 


—S—__— 


i— 


O K 
Hy 
/ 
LE ——— 
Y 


: 1, Head and prothorax of female; 2, spermatheca; 


266 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 8 


Fias. 4-7.—Jordanopsylla allredi, n. gen., n. sp.: 4, Mesothorax, metathorax, and first tergum; 5, 
metatibia; 6, anal stylet; 7, ventral anal lobe. 


267 


TRAUB AND TIPTON: JORDANOPSYLLA ALLREDI 


Auveust 1951 


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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


JOURNAL OF THE 


268 


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_SI6SHLON = Sigur {Oeil luvmais [_ siehuer |  poeiuanva | ‘AON'N3D _ eee ee es ee on | 
VUBWOISINSLS | SNTTASdOLSITIV)| VITASONIHYONOD |SNSSOTSONHLYVOSN| SNTIASKOINONY | VTTASdONVaNOr 


ponuryu0)—(SaIVWa |) AVNITTASCOINONY 40 VUANTD :A1AV], FAILVUVANOQ—Z ATAVY, 


Aveust 1951 


preceding a row of four long bristles; the row 
with intercalaries. Lateral metanotal area (l.M.) 
with margins well sclerotized; subcordate (in- 
cluding region overlapping pleural arch); pitched 
or inclined slightly forward and upward; with 
two large bristles. Metepisternum (MT'S.) 
slightly broader than long; with a long bristle 
near posterodorsal angle. Pleural arch (PL.A.) 
well developed, approximately twice as broad as 
long. Metepimere (M7TM.) with about three 
bristles. 

Lees: Procoxa with about 12 lateral bristles, 
including marginals. Mesocoxae and metacoxae 
with fewer such bristles, but with one and two 
rows, respectively, of thin mesal bristles near 
anterior margin. Metatibia (Fig. 5) without mesal 
bristles. Femur with one or two lateral median 
bristles and a mesal row of thin bristles. None of 
bristles of hindtibia longer than length of seg- 
ment. Measurements of tibiae and segments of 
tarsi (petiolate base deleted) of holotype shown 
in microns: 


Tarsal Segments 


Leg Tibia I II III IV Vv 
Pro- 150 55 55 50 45 105 
Meso- 275 90 110 70 50 120 
Meta- 375 255 150 90 50 130 


Second segment of metatarsus with two apical 
bristles extending distad of apex of fourth 
segment. 

ABDOMEN: First tergum (Fig. 4, 77.) with two 
or three bristles preceding a full row; with one 
or two apical spinelets per side. Basal sternum 
with four bristles, the uppermost above the 
striarium. Unmodified terga with lowest bristle 
of first row not inserted below third bristle of 
second row; the second row with intercalaries. 
Unmodified sterna with about two ventral bris- 
tles. Seventh sternum (Fig. 3, 7S.) with caudal 
margin broadly and shallowly concave; with 
about five longish bristles in an oblique row and 
three ventromarginal ones in a line with lowest of 
oblique row; with a few smaller submarginal 
bristles above first of the ventral row. Eighth 
tergum (87'.) with only about three short bris- 
tles above the vermiform spiracle; with three 
irregular but vertical rows of bristles below the 
ventral anal lobe, some of those of the first two 
rows actually mesal; the marginal bristles the 
longest; with four long median bristles and about 
five subventral. Highth sternum reduced, but ap- 
parent, with two short apical hairs. Anal stylet 


TRAUB AND TIPTON: JORDANOPSYLLA ALLREDI 


269 


(A.S. and Fig. 6) somewhat more than twice as 
long as broad; with a long apical bristle and per- 
haps a vestigial dorsal and ventral one. Ventral 
anal lobe (V.A.L. and Fig. 7) not heavily scle- 
rotized; caudally shghtly concave; with long thin 
marginal bristles and submarginals which are 
usually shorter. Spermatheca (SP. and Fig. 2) 
with head ovate, broader than long; tail up- 
turned but not extending beyond head. Bursa 
copulatrix (B.C.) angled subapically, the apex 
subglobose, the proximal portion quite straight 
and fairly well sclerotized. 

Comment.—The species is named for one of the 
collectors, Dorald M. Allred, who is contributing 
a great deal toward our knowledge of the Utah 
ectoparasite fauna. 


AFFINITIES OF JORDANOPSYLLA 


Many of the features that this genus possesses 
in common with certain other genera in the 
family, e. g., the marked reduction in chaetotaxy 
and the elongate stylets, are probably due to 
convergent evolution. It has been pointed out 
elsewhere (Traub, 1950; Traub, in press) that 
some of these features are considered charac- 
teristic of fleas which ordinarily are restricted to 
the nests of the hosts. Holland (1949) is also of 
the opinion that certain of these genera are nest- 
inhabiting forms. The reduction of the maxillary 
lobe in Jordanopsylla is probably an evolutionary 
step for a parasite which feeds when the host is 
sleeping, just as “‘sticktight” fleas with stout 
teeth on the hyperdeveloped stylets (e.g., Hecto- 
psylla and Rhynchopsyllus) tend to have poorly 
developed labial palpi. 

This new genus differs in a number of respects 
from other members of the subfamily Anomio- 
psyllinae. Further, these differences are of a 
greater degree than those between the other 
genera. Tables 1 and 2 list and compare salient 
generic characters found in females of Anomio- 
psyllinae (Jordanopsylla, Anomiopsyllus, Me- 
garthroglossus, Conorhinopsylla, Callistopsyllus, 
and Stenistomera). It will be seen that, in addi- 
tion to the characters presented in the generic 
diagnosis above, Jordanopsylla is the only mem- 
ber of the subfamily in which: the metepimere is 
free; the pleural arch is present; the upper margin 
of the metepisternum is convex; and the internal 
marginal tubercle of the metepisternum is ves- 
tigial. It is felt that this genus represents a new 
tribe, which may be characterized as follows: 


i) 
os | 
S 


Jordanopsyllini, n. tribe 


Clypeal tubercle absent. Integrecipitate. Max- 
illary lobe reduced. Labial palpus elongate, ex- 
tending beyond trochanter. Bristles on procoxa 
reduced in number; mesocoxa and metacoxa with 
a full vertical row of mesal bristles. Mesonotum 
subequal to metanotum in breadth. Lateral 
metanotal area prominent, well demarcated. 
Metepisternum with anterior and dorsal margins 
convex, not reduced. Typical spiracles subeylin- 
drical. Metepimere not fused with metanotum. 
With a striarlum on basal sternum. One ante- 
pygidial bristle in female. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


Dr. Karl Jordan, of the British Museum, 
Tring, kindly verified the tribal and generic 
status of this flea. We are indebted also to Miss 
Phyllis Johnson, Army Medical Service Gradu- 
ate School, Washington, D. C., for critical review 
of the manuscript. 


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 
A.B. Antepygidial bristle 
A.S. Anal stylet 
B.C. Bursa copulatrix 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 41, No. 8 


L.P. Wabial palpus 

L.M. Uateral metanotal area 
MX. Maxillary lobe 

M.P. Maxillary palpus 
MPM. Mesepimere 


MPS. Mesepisternum 

MSN. Mesonotum 

MTN. Metanotum 

MTM. Metepimere 

MTS. Metepisternum 

PL.A. Pleural arch of metathorax 
SP. Spermatheca 


SPC. Spiracle 

TR. Trochanter 

V.A.L. Ventral anal lobe of proctiger 
7S. Seventh sternum 

17. First tergum 

87. Eighth tergum 


LITERATURE CITED 


Houuanp, G. P. The Siphonaptera of Canada. 
Canada Dept. Agr. Techn. Bull. 70 (Publ. 
817). Ottawa, 1949. 

Traus, Ropertr. Siphonaptera from Central 
America and Mexico: A morphological study 
of the aedeagus, with descriptions of new genera 
and species. Zool. Mem. Chicago Nat. Hist. 
Mus. 1 (1): 1-127, 54 pls. 1950. 

Records and descriptions of fleas from Peru 

(Siphonaptera). Proc. Ent. Soe. Washington 

[in press]. 


ZOOLOGY .—A luminescent new xystodesmid milliped from California. H. F. Loomis, 
Coconut Grove, Fla., and Dremorest DAVENPORT, University of California, 
Santa Barbara College, Santa Barbara, Calif. 


A luminescent milliped has been dis- 
covered in central California. While lumines- 
cent chilopods have been reported, the ques- 
tion of self-luminous diplopods is still 
uncertain. There are several references in 
entomological literature to luminescent crea- 
tures that may or may not have belonged to 
this group or that may have been infected 
with luminous bacteria. 

In 1949 a field party of plant ecologists 
in the mountains of Tulare County, Calif., 
first observed this handsome species at 
night near their camp and gathered living 
specimens, which were turned over to the 
junior author, who made various observa- 
tions on them and sent preserved specimens 
to the senior author.! Unfortunately, all 
specimens were females and impossible to 
identify beyond placement in the family 


1 Our thanks are due Dr. E. N. Harvey, Prince- 
ton University, Princeton, N. J., for being instru- 
mental in bringing about the collaboration on the 
present paper. 


Xystodesmidae, but a collection made a year 
later for the purpose of gathering males was 
successful. Taxonomic study of these speci- 
mens shows they unquestionably represent 
an undescribed species and genus with 
several outstanding structural peculiarities 
in addition to the phenominal one of being 
the first authenticated luminescent milliped. 


Luminodesmus, n. gen. 


Gentotype.—Luminodesmus sequotae, 0. sp. 

Diagnosis—Obviously related to the genus 
Motyxia Chamberlin but with more compli- 
cated gonopods, there being a fourth ramus, 
whereas Motyxia has but three; the dorsal tu- 
berculation shows the greatest development of 
any known xystodesmid. A tendency to tubercu- 
lation has been observed in a few of the other 
species but the majority of them lack this form 
of sculpture. 

Description—Body of average size for the 
family or larger; both sexes strongly convex 
above. Segments 2, 3, and 4 with lateral carinae 


Aveustr 1951 


directed forward, those of segments 5 to 15 pro- 
jecting outward, while on segments 16 to 19 they 
are caudally produced; posterior corners of all 
segments rounded except those of segment 19, 
which has them reduced in size but bluntly 
acute. On segment 1 a few scattered raised pus- 
tules usually are evident, but they are more 
evident and numerous on the succeeding seg- 
ments, and from segment 9 or 10 backward dis- 
tinct scattered pustules are present on the sides 
of the dorsum and in a continuous series close 
to the posterior margin, on segments 17 to 19 
there being 14 to 20 tubercules in this series. 
First joint of legs produced distally below into 
a short, blunt, conic lobe; second joint with a 
distal, slender, very acute, spinelike lobe half as 
long as the joint. Males with a pair of high conic 
sternal processes between the fourth legs, these 
lacking in the female, but on the sterna of both 
sexes thereafter a process is present adjacent to 
each coxa, the posterior pair of each sternum 
being most prominent especially on the posterior 
segments. Gonopods with long basal joint, the 
outer half of the terminal jot composed of four 
very dissimilar divisions or branches. Claws on 
anterior legs of the males not differing from those 
of the female, being neither enlarged nor abruptly 
curved beyond middle. 


Luminodesmus sequoiae, n. sp. 


Two males, one the type, and several females 
collected May 12-14, 1950, at campground di- 
rectly above Camp Nelson at the juncture of 
Belknap Creek and the south fork of the middle 
fork of Tule River, Sequoia National Forest, 
Tulare County, Calif., at an altitude of approx- 
imately 5,000 feet. Paratype females from same 
locality collected in mid-May 1949. The species 
was found at the lower limits of the Sequoia 
zone, where these giant trees were associated 
with Pinus, Libocedrus, Quercus, and Acer. The 
hardwood lower story of this association pro- 
vided a relatively moist leafy litter in which 
many of the animals were collected. 

Male type and paratype females deposited in 
the U. 8. National Museum. Male and female 
paratypes deposited in the University of Cali- 
fornia, Berkeley, and female paratypes in the 
California Academy of Sciences, San Francisco. 

Description—Width of the largest specimen, 
a female, 7.5 mm; the living color light pinkish 
tan, more pronounced on lateral carinae, a dark 
internal structure showing through the body-wall 


LOOMIS AND DAVENPORT: XYSTODESMID MILLIPED Dia 


down the center of the dorsum. Opening through 
which the gonopods project transversely lentic- 
ular-triangular in shape, the posterior margin 
broadly and evenly rounded from side to side and 
thinly elevated high above the adjacent surface; 
anterior margin on each side oblique, meeting at 
a distinct angle at the midline of the body, the 
margin flat, not elevated above the adjacent sur- 
face. Gonopod as shown in the accompanying 
figure except that none of the basal hairs have 
been drawn. 

Remarks.—This interesting species may occur 
in great numbers; it was possible to collect dozens 
of animals in the immediate vicinity of the camp- 
ground at the type locality where, at night, they 
provided a striking display of luminescence. The 
appendages of the head, the legs, the margins of 
the terga, and the thin intersegmental junctures 
gave a pale greenish fire, the undulations of 
which were particularly striking when the ani- 
mal was in motion. The source of the luminescence 
has not as yet been determined. The light is 
under no voluntary control on the part of the 
animal; it persists in daylight (subjection to dark- 
ness is not necessary for its appearance), and its 
source is fluorescent, as subjection of animals 
during daylight to ultraviolet light has demon- 
strated. 

The function of luminescence in most creatures 
is to attract either the opposite sex or food. Since 
it appears that neither of these objectives can 
apply to this milliped, the members of its order 
being blind and all diplopods subsisting only on 
vegetable matter, the part luminescence plays 
in the life history of this species is problematical. 


Fia. 1.—Luminodesmus sequotae, n. gen. and 


sp.: Distal joint of left gonopod. 


272 


In the winter of 1932, W. B. Murbarger, of 
Kaweah, Calif., (in Tulare County about 30 
miles north of Camp Nelson), sent specimens of 
a xystodesmid milliped to the Smithsonian In- 
stitution for identification, with the note that 
the animals were luminescent. Dr. O. F. Cook ex- 
amined them and found all to be immature, im- 
possible to identify, and requested additional 
specimens of Mr. Murbarger. These were sent, 
with a letter, on March 31, 1932, but apparently 
they also were young, for Dr. Cook, who was 
greatly interested in identifying the first known 
luminescent milliped and discussed it with the 
senior author, made no notes or comments on 
them, and no further attempts seem to have been 
made to secure adults. 

Following identification of the foregomg Camp 
Nelson species, it now seems quite likely that 
Murbarger’s specimens were L. sequotae, and ex- 
tracts from his two letters are of special interest. 
In his letter of February 24, 1932, he states that 
“these worms were taken beneath an oak tree 
and apparently were under no other trees in this 
locality (Kaweah, Tulare County, Calif.) Elev. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 8 
about 3,000 feet. Their one peculiarity is that at 
night they are luminous and visible for some 
distance.’’ When Dr. Cook requested additional 
specimens he mentioned that the emission of 
light by the animals might be limited to a par- 
ticular season, but in replying on March 31, Mur- 
barger wrote: “As to their emission of light being 
confined to certain seasons, I cannot say. I first 
noticed them the past December. At no time 
since then have they failed to be luminous in 
the dark. During the daytime they can only be 
found under moist boards, logs and the like but 
at night they seem to roam about in the leaves, 
under trees and like retreats. Regarding the color 
of living specimens, I have sketched the accom- 
panying crude diagram. Younger ones are of a 
whiter, more transparent color, no yellow being 
present, but in all sizes and ages the dark line 
down the back is noticeable.” In his very credit- 
able sketch the first segment is indicated as being 
buff colored and the ‘“‘back gray-yellow, shading 
to bright yellow on the serrated edge.” If Mur- 
barger’s specimens actually were L. sequovae, it 
appears that this species remains luminescent 
from December to mid-May at least. 


ZOOLOGY .—A new crayfish of the genus Procambarus from Louisiana, with a key 
to the species of the Spiculifer growp. Horron H. Hosss, Jr., Miller School of 
Biology, University of Virginia. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) 


Three species of the Spiculifer Group 
(Hobbs, 1942:119) of the genus Procambarus 
have been described from the southern 
United States, and their combined ranges 
extend from eastern Louisiana to the Al- 
tamaha River drainage in Georgia; of the 
three, P. spiculifer (LeConte, 1856:401) has 
the largest range, having been reported from 
Mississippi, Alabama, Georgia, and northern 
Florida; P. versutus (Hagen, 1870:51) from 
Mississippi, Alabama, and Florida; P. vioscar 
Penn (1946:27) from Louisiana and Missis- 
sippl. 

The species belonging to the Spiculifer 
group may be readily distinguished from the 
other members of the genus by possessing 
the combination of an areola less than 28 
per cent of the entire length of the carapace, 
and two lateral spines on each side of cara- 
pace immediately caudad of the cervical 
groove. 

Members of this group are all inhabitants 
of streams and are more abundant in those 


having a moderate current. Although there 
are few data available to indicate what fac- 
tors in the environment limit their distribu- 
tion to lotic situations, there is evidence that 
it is their inability to live in waters in which 
oxygen content is low. All these species 
have a broad areola (thus presumably a 
proportionally smaller gill chamber than do 
those species having a narrow one), and in 
American crayfishes, exclusive of the mem- 
bers of the genus Cambarellus, this feature is 
correlated with a lotic habitat. There is no 
evidence to suggest that the limiting fac- 
tors in their ecological distribution are con- 
cerned with type of bottom, size of stream, 
pH, or hardness of the water, for both spzculz- 


fer and versutus have been taken from widely 


different types of streams. 

The first specimens I saw of the species 
described below were collected by Percy 
Viosca from Talisheek, St. Tammany Parish, 
La., and have been deposited in the United 
States National Museum. Additional speci- 


Auveust 1951 


mens were sent to me by Dr. Edward C. 
Raney, of Cornell University, and I wish to 
thank him not only for these specimens but 
also for the many fine additions he has made 
to my collection. 

I take great pleasure in naming this 
species in honor of Dr. George H. Penn, Jr., 
a mutual friend of Mr. Viosea’s and mine, 
who has contributed much to our knowledge 
of the crayfishes of Louisiana. 


Procambarus penni, n. sp. 


Holotypic male, form I—Body subovate, com- 
pressed laterally; abdomen longer than carapace 
(35.6-32.1 mm). Height of carapace slightly 
greater than width in region of caudodorsal mar- 
gin of cervical groove (13.9-13.2 mm); greatest 
width of carapace a little cephalad of caudodorsal 
margin of cervical groove. 

Areola relatively broad (4.2 times longer than 
wide) with four or five punctations in narrowest 
part. Cephalic section of carapace about 3.2 times 
as long as areola (length of areola about 23.6 per 
cent of entire length of carapace). 

Rostrum long, excavate; sides subparallel to 
base of acumen which is set off by acute lateral 
spines. Acumen almost half as long as remainder 
of rostrum (5.0-11.4 mm). Margins of rostrum 
not swollen or conspicuously elevated. Upper sur- 
face bearing numerous small setae. Subrostral 
ridges poorly developed and not evident in dorsal 
aspect. 

Postorbital ridges prominent, grooved laterad 
and terminating cephalad in acute spines. Sub- 
orbital angle almost obsolete, branchiostegal 
spine strong. Two strong acute lateral spines 
present on each side of carapace; upper surface 
of carapace punctate; lateral portion caudad of 
cervical groove granulate. 

Cephalic section of telson with three spines 
in left and four im right caudolateral corners. 
Epistome with a small cephalomedian spine (see 
Fig. 8). 

Antennules of the usual form with a strong 
acute spine present on ventral side of basal 
segment. 

Antennae reaching caudad to middle of telson. 
Antennal scale long, of moderate width; widest 
cephalad of middle; outer distal margin with a 
strong spine. 

Chela subovate, somewhat depressed, long 
and slender. Hand entirely tuberculate; tubercles 
beset with conspicuous plumose setae. Inner 


HOBBS: A NEW CRAYFISH 


273 


margin of palm with a row of six tubercles, a 
prominent tubercle present on lower surface of 
palm at base of dactyl. Opposable surface of 
dactyl with four rounded tubercles on basal 
third, otherwise with crowded minute denticles; 
upper surface of dactyl with a few small setiferous 
tubercles at base, otherwise with setiferous punc- 
tations; lower and mesial surfaces similar to up- 
per. Opposable margin of immovable finger with 
four tubercles on basal third and one large tu- 
bercle on lower opposable margin at midlength, 
otherwise entire opposable margin with minute 
denticles; other surfaces of finger with setiferous 
punctations. Both fingers with weak submedian 
ridges on upper and lower surfaces. 

Carpus of first right pereiopod longer than 
wide (7.8 -4.3 mm), shorter than inner margin of 
palm of chela (10.3 mm), with a shallow oblique 
groove above. Surface mesiad of groove with two 
longitudinal rows of five subsquamous tubercles; 
surface laterad of groove with setiferous punc- 
tations; mesial surface with two spike-like tuber- 
cles and a few additional small and scattered 
ones; lateral and lower surfaces with setiferous 
punctations; distal margin of lower surface with 
two prominent spines. 

Merus of first right pereiopod punctate laterad 
and proximomesiad; mesiodistal surface with 
small tubercles; laterodistal surface with an acute 
spine; upper surface with small tubercles, and 
near distal end with two spikelike tubercles. 
Lower surface with an outer row of nine tuber- 
cles, only three of which are conspicuous, and a 
mesial row of 15; a few additional small tubercles 
flank these two rows. 

Hooks present on ischiopodites of third and 
fourth pereiopods; hooks on third long and slen- 
der and only slightly recurved; hooks on fourth 
somewhat more stocky and strongly recurved. 
Basipodite of fourth pereiopod with a swelling 
opposite hook on ischipodite. Coxopodites of 
fourth and fifth pereiopods with caudomesial 
projections: that on fourth heavy and inflated, 
that on fifth considerably smaller and somewhat 
compressed cephalocaudad. 

First pleopod reaching cephalic side of coxo- 
podite of third pereiopod when abdomen is flexed. 
Tip terminating in four distinct parts. Mesial 
process spiculiform and directed caudodistad. 
Cephalic process lying cephalomesiad of central 
projection, and extending — slightly 
cephalomesiad. Caudal element consisting of 
three parts: caudal knob in lateral aspect acute 


subacute, 


274 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 8 


Fias. 1-11.—Procambarus penni, n. sp.: 1, Mesial view of first pleopod of holotype; 2, mesial view 
of first pleopod of morphotype; 3, dorsal view of carapace of holotype; 4, lateral view of ‘first pleopod 
of morphotype; 5, lateral view of first pleopod of holotype; 6, basipodites and ischiopodites of third 
and fourth pereiopods of holotype; 7, lateral view of carapace of holotype; 8, epistome of holotype; 
9, antennal scale of holotype; 10, annulus ventralis of allotype; 11, upper view of carpus and chela of 
holotype. (Pubescence removed from all structures illustrated except in Fig. 11.) 


Aveust 1951 


and noncorneous; caudal process slender, sub- 
lanceolate, and excavate caudad; accessory 
process extends across the proximocaudal face of 
the caudal process and central projection as a 
thin corneous ridge. Central projection corneous 
truncate distad, with fusion line of its two com- 
ponents clearly marked. 

Paratypic male, form II.—Similar in most 
respects to the holotype, except in the reduced 
secondary sexual characters and in the distri- 
bution of a few spines. First pleopod with all 
processes reduced and noncorneous; caudal and 
adventitious processes not distinguishable in the 
caudal element; caudal knob very prominent 
(see Fig. 4). 

Allotypic female—This specimen, although 
badly mutilated, is the only specimen in this 
collection in which the annulus ventralis con- 
tained a sperm plug. The annuli of the more 
perfect specimens appear somewhat under- 
developed; therefore I have chosen this specimen 
with the ‘mature’ annulus as the allotype. 
Annulus ventralis with a submedian depression; 
sinus originates slightly dextrad of midventral 
line about one-third of the length of the annulus 
from cephalic margin, extends dextrad and makes 
a hair-pin turn to the midventral line where it 
turns caudad and terminates directly caudad of 
its origin Just cephalad of caudal margin of an- 
nulus. Sternum cephalad of annulus deeply cleft 
along median line; on each side of median cleft 
is a swollen tuberculate prominence which ex- 
tends caudoventrad and obscures extreme ce- 
phalolateral margins of annulus. 

Measurement.—As follows (in millimeters) : 


Holotype  Allotype Morphotype 

Carapace 

helghtaeereecs scl ae wes 13.9 11.6 12.8 

TAG: .oéooonNeorad oeede 13.2 11.6 12.1 

Iein¥iq80\ ORs eotadoe nanos 32.1 27.6 30.0 
Areola 

eng thee eh iivscnrhcjeres 7.6 6.3 UB 

SWIG tA ere eciiclslasieieisie rie 1.94 1.6 2.2 
Rostrum 

IGE cobmdates Se camOnee 11.4 10.3 10.7 

SOUL GEM rere terete: aie asia mievayerave 5.1 4.7 5.1 
Abdomen 

lem gt linytesrersctersiaie! isle ele vaxs 35.6 30.8 32.2 
Right chela 

length of inner margin 

Oi Ub ncoodacasoeaco ls} 5.1 7.0 
width of palm.......... 6.0 3.7 4.8 
length of outer margin 
ofshandeseeereeririccr 25.0 13.5 18.3 
length of dactyl......... 12.8 7.1 10.0 


Type locality.—Talisheek Creek, at Talisheek, 
St. Tammany Parish, La., a tributary of the 


HOBBS: A NEW CRAYFISH 


275 


Pearl River. The creek is small (not more than 
20 feet wide), spring-fed and sand-bottomed and 
rises in the longleaf-pine hills a short distance 
north of Talisheek. Here, for the most part, it is 
shallow with a few deep holes (4 or 5 feet deep). 
Vegetation is sparse, but debris collects in the holes 
and on the lee side of sandbars and behind logs. 

The above information was kindly communi- 
cated to me by Dr. Penn, who consulted Mr. 
Viosea, the collector of the type specimens. 

Disposition of types.—The holotypic male, the 
allotypic female, and the morphotypic male (nos. 
91662, 91663, 91664) together with paratypes 
consisting of 67o" II, 3299, 2c immature, 
and 8° 2 immature from the type locality are 
deposited in the United States National Museum. 
A series of paratypes (17 I, 3° @ II, 19, and 
12 immature) collected from a tributary of Black 
Creek, 7.9 miles west of Hattiesburg, Lamar 
County, Miss., by Dr. E. C. Raney are in the 
collection of Dr. George H. Penn, Jr., Tulane 
University. The following paratypes are in my 
personal collection at the University of Virginia: 
HHH no. 3-3048-5a (17 I, 2¢@ Il, 722, 
107% immature, and 7? ? immature) from a 
tributary of the Pearl River, 8 miles north of 
Angie, Marion County, Miss., on Route 7 [E. 
C. Raney, coll.]; HHH no. 6-1549-1 (274 1), 
9.6 miles east of Franklinton, Washington Parish, 
La. [R. D. Suttkus, coll.]. 

Range.—Insofar as is known at present. this 
species is confined to tributaries of the Pearl 
and Pascagoula Rivers in eastern Louisiana and 
south-central Mississippi. 

Relationships.—Procambarus penni has _ its 
closest affinities with P. vioscat but may readily 
be distinguished from it by the more acute caudal 
process of the first pleopod of the first form male. 


KEY TO THE SPECIES OF THE SPICULIFER GROUP 
(Based on the first-form male) 


1. Cephalic process of first pleopod rudimentary 


OL aching. qian eee insist spiculifer 
Cephalic process of first pleopod well devel- 
(OF Oso laaieea cer whose NSA, saline ee yee eae nie 2 


2. Mesial process of first pleopod terminating 
proximad of tip of caudal element; rostrum 
with median carina. .  .versutus 

Mesial process of first pleopod extending be- 
yond tip of caudal element; surface of ros- 
WEDbI COMVEENTEY o alos vied anomano duets woeneee 3 

3. Mesial process extending caudolaterad; caudal 

knob rounded distally in lateral aspect. 
vioscar 
Mesial process extending caudodistad; caudal 
knob subacute in lateral aspect ..pennt 


276 


LITERATURE CITED 


Hagen, H. 
Astacidae. Illustr. Cat. Mus. Comp. Zool. 
no. 3: 1-109, pls. 1-11. 1870. 

Hosss, H. H., Jr. The crayfishes of Florida. 
Univ. Florida Publ., biol. sci. ser., 3 (2): 
1-179, 3 figs., 11 maps, 24 pls. 1942. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Monograph of the North American 


vou. 41, No. 8 


LreConte, Joun. Descriptions of new species of 
Astacus from Georgia. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci., 
Philadelphia 7: 400-402. 1856. 

Penn, G. H., Jr. A new crawfish of the genus 
Procambarus from Louisiana (Decapoda, Asta- 
cidae). Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 36 
(1): 27-29, 1 fig. 1946. 


BOTANY.—\A new fern of the genus Danaea from Colombia.1 C. V. Morton, 


U.S. National Museum. 


The small genus Danaea, of the family 
Marattiaceae, is one of the few genera of 
ferns confined to the Western Hemisphere. 
It prefers to grow in moist, dark, tropical 
forests, where it is often one of the most 
conspicuous terrestrial plants. Because of the 
lack of clear morphological characters, the 
species are not well understood. One of the 
plants collected in Colombia by Kjell von 
Sneidern represents a new species, described 
below. 


Danaea tenera Morton, sp. nov. 


Rhizoma crassum, breviter repens, ca. 3.5 
cm longum, | cm diam.; stipulae magnae, 
crassae, latae, integrae. Folia sterilia pari- 
pinnata, 22-30 cm longa, stipitibus crassis, 
8-11 cm longis, 2-4 mm diam., inconspicue 
2-nodosis, ubique dense paleaceis, paleis 
brunneis, minutissimis, suborbicularibus, 
denticulatis; rhachis compressa, supra nuda, 
subtus dense et minute brunneo-paleacea, 
utrinque perspicue viridi-alata, gemma ter- 
minata; pinnae tenuiter membranaceae, 12— 
14-jugae, breviter petiolulatae (1-2 mm), 
anguste oblongae, 4-6 cm longae, 10-15 mm. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


latae, apice gradatim acuminatae, basi obli- 
quae, basi superiore cuneatae, inferiore ro- 
tundatae, apicem versus perspicue et argute 
uncinato-serratae, deorsum paulum undula- 
tae; venae simplices vel plerumque geminae 
(raro furcatae), 12-14 per em; lamina supra 
glabra et epaleacea, subtus mesophyllo et 
praecipue in costis paleacea, paleis valde 
diversis, alteris mediocribus, orbicularibus 
vel deltoideis, alteris minutissimis, dissectis 
vel piliformibus. Folia fertilia ignota. 

Type in the U.S. National Herbarium, no. 
1742723, collected at La Costa, Department 
of El Cauca, Colombia, April 1937, in virgin 
forest, at 1,000 meters elevation, by Kjell 
von Sneidern (no. 1578). 

In its very thin texture D. tenera suggests 
the genus T'richomanes, and in this character 
recalls only D. crispa Endres and D. tricho- 
manoides Moore. It may be related to the 
latter, but that species differs (from descrip- 
tion) in having smaller, obtuse, merely un- 
dulate pinnae; in D. tenera the pinnae are 
long-acuminate and remarkably sharply ser- 
rate toward apex. It is not certain whether 
the leaves of D. trichomanoides are abruptly 
pinnate (as in the present species) or impari- 
pinnate. 


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MRO AMAT Eye ODA erly Sith re: pects, dear sls why etatba tase al 8. F. Buaxg, F. C. Kracek 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GEoRGE P. WAuTON, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. Fapsr, JR., 
Myrna F. Jonss, F. W. Poos, J. R. SWALLEN 

For the Engineering Sciences......... R. 8. Dizi (chairman), ARSHAM AMIRIKIAN, 

J. W. McBurney, Frank Neumann, A. H. Scorr 

For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. Wauron (chairman), F. 8. Brackerrt, 

G. E. Hom, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMiLien 

For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BAaRNEs, 

F. E. Fox, T. Koppanys, M. H. MARTIN, A. T. McPHERsoN 

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Rosca che Ce aN L. E. Yocum (chairman), 


M. X. SULLIVAN, H. L. WuHitTEMORE 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


Io) Uaioe ISP. Gsgaoococdnuenhneoeens J. I. Horrman (chairman), M. A. Mason 

IG anaes MOR as 8 Aleecigtees Gn eats eee elena eee W. A. DAYTON, N. R. Smite 

PROM ATT ye G D4 ak ah sere Tacs aitclar starrer h nant cick H. B. Couns, JR., W. W. Rusey 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

At) dimismennye IG © cos cnscsoanasanue M. A. Mason (chairman), A. T. McPHprRson 

PROP amUaTyel OSS ee Ce re Neen teen ener oh A. H. Cruarx, F. L. Monier 

PRO gan Wsiiysl OOF Mane Amey gre acess: Gls dcectewiars J. M. Caupwe tu, W. ue ScHMITT 
Laairescqnianee on. Cone! OF A Als Als Sosaconcoonesnnoossoeneashocseuse F. M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors......J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. BRaatEen, W. i YOUDEN 


Committee of Tellers. . _W. G. BromBacuEr (chairman), A. R. Merz, Loutsr M. RusseLL 
* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Martuematics.—Information theory. CHrstpr H. PaGn............ 245 
Erunotocy.—Utilization of animals and plants by the Micmac Indians 

of New Brunswick. Frank G. Speck and Rautpa W. DEextTeR.... 250 


PALEONTOLOGY.—New crinoids from the Pitkin of Oklahoma. HARRELL 
Ti AS TPRIMPTBS os.) s\n aie cosh ck scission Stas Sa eee 260 


EntomoLocy.—Jordanopsylla allredi, a new genus and species of flea 
from Utah (Siphonaptera). Roprerr TRAuB and VERNON J. Tipton 264 


Zootogy.—A luminescent new xystodesmid milliped from California. 
HE. Loomis and DrEmorrsT DAVENPORT... 22...) eee 270 


Zooutoay.—A new crayfish of the genus Procambarus from Louisiana, with 
a key to the species of the Spiculifer group. Horton H. Hopss, Jr. 272 


Borany.—A new fern of the genus Danaca from Colombia. C. V. Morton 276 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


<)> \W) “ly 
Vot. 41 SEPTEMBER 1951 No. 9 


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JOURNAL 


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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 41 


September 1951 


No. 9 


MEDICINE.—Disaster and disease.! Victor H. Haas, National Microbiological 
Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. (Communicated by 


Margaret Pittman.) 


Accounts of epidemics associated with 
wars and disasters constitute a major part 
of recorded history. They form a somber and 
often mysterious background that frequently 
overshadows the intermittent brilliance of 
military and political glory. 

In times past, these pestilences seemed 
pitiless and inescapable. Ignorant and often 
terrified, men did the very things that pro- 
moted the spread and severity of communi- 
cable diseases. Modern scientific knowledge 
has changed this situation: epidemics can be 
faced in an orderly manner; their dangers 
can be assessed from the sound basis of 
proved facts; specific measures to limit their 
threat can be taken with confidence. 

Properly interpreted, the lessons of the 
past can give us confidence to meet the 
challenge of another world war capable of 
imposing catastrophe beyond anything here- 
tofore known in history. So far as disease is 
concerned, we can expect to survive even 
the shambles of an atomic war if we use our 
knowledge and our resources properly. But 
we shall have to exert ourselves to do it; we 
cannot take it for granted. 


EPIDEMICS OF ANCIENT TIMES 


Medical historians have long been fas- 
cinated and somewhat puzzled by a Biblical 
account of an epidemic following a military 
campaign. In I Samuel, it is told how the 
Philistines overcame the Jews and carried 


off their sacred Ark. This act so angered’ 


Jehovah that ‘‘He smote the men of the 
city, both small and great, and they had 
emerods in their secret parts... the hand of 


1 Address presented before the Washington 
Academy of Sciences, April 19, 1951. 


277 


God was very heavy there. And the men 
that died not were smitten with the 
emerods.”’ 

The difficulty in understanding just what 
happened to the Philistines is that—as one 
historian puts it—‘‘the Lord only knows 
what an emerodis”’ (7). Etymologically it is a 
hemorrhoid, but—as this same writer puts 
it—‘‘it is hardly likely that even the Philis- 
tines could have had a fatal epidemic of 
hemorrhoids.’ Omitting the learned disser- 
tations that have developed around this 
puzzling term, we may say that all medical 
historians come out with the conclusion that 
what Jehovah had dealt out to the Philistines 
was probably an epidemic of bubonic plague. 

This uncertainty as to the exact identity 
of ancient pestilences is a prominent feature 
of medical history. The ‘‘plague of Athens”’ 
recorded by Thucydides is an example of 
this confusion. In 430 B.C. the Peloponne- 
sians were attacking the cities of Attica, and 
the refugees from the hinterlands swarmed 
into Athens, which became greatly over- 
crowded. Suddenly a disease struck the city: 
“Athenian life was completely demoralized 
... there was no fear of the laws of God or 
man” (7). The Peloponnesians were so afraid 
of the disease that they withdrew from 
Attica. At the same time, Athenian naval 
action against the Peloponnesos was frus- 
trated by the epidemic in the fleet. No one 
knows what this epidemic, which undoubt- 
edly had an important role in Greek history, 
really was, or whether it represented one 
disease or several. In the second year of the 
epidemic more than 55,000 Athenians were 
said to have died of it, including Pericles 
himself. 


SEP 2 8 195) 


278 


In the time of Marcus Aurelius there was 
an epidemic that appears to have resembled 
in many respects the plague of Athens. This 
is known as the “plague of Antoninus”’; it 
began in A.D. 165 in the Roman army of 
Verus, in the East. The army scattered the 
disease; it eventually spread over the entire 
Roman world, lasting 14 years. In Italy 
cities and villages were abandoned and fell 
into ruin; in A.D. 169, Roman armies cam- 
paigning against the Germanic tribes found 
many of the barbarians dead on the field 
from the epidemic. Marcus Aurelius died of 
it, too. 

The great “plague of Cyprian”’ fell upon 
the whole known world in A.D. 250—Roman 
and barbarian alike. This epidemic (again 
its identity is uncertain) was spread by the 
active warfare of the time. According to one 
historian “‘men crowded into the larger cities; 
only the nearest fields were cultivated; the 
more distant ones became overgrown... 
farm land had no value” (7). A contemporary 
writer said the human race had been “‘all 
but destroyed” (1); the earth was returning 
to desert and forest. It is claimed that Chris- 
tianity got a good start as a result of this 
pandemic, because of the great popularity 
of St. Cyprian as an exorciser of evil spirits. 

Disaster and disease swept the Roman 
world for centuries: earthquakes, floods, 
wars, famine, and epidemics. The greatest 
of all pandemics of those times was the 
“plague of Justinian.” It followed a succes- 
sion of disasters, such as the earthquake that 
destroyed Antioch, killing more than 200,000 
persons. 

This ‘“‘plague of Justinian”? began in A.D. 
540. According to a contemporary writer, 
“it spread over the entire earth and afflicted 
all without mercy ...it spared no habita- 
tions of men, however remote” (/). The 
paramount historian of Rome, Gibbon, says 
that ‘no facts have been preserved to sustain 
an account or even a conjecture of the num- 
bers that perished in this extraordinary mor- 
tality. I only find that, during three months, 
five and at length ten thousand persons died 
each day at Constantinople; and many cities 
of the East were left vacant, and that in 
several districts of Italy the harvest and the 
vintage withered on the ground. The triple 
scourges of war, pestilence, and famine 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


afflicted the subjects of Justinian; and his 
reign is disgraced by a visible decrease of 
the human species which has never been 
regained in some of the fairest countries of 
the globe” (1). 

The plague of Justinian lasted from 540 
until 590. During this time, Italy was con- 
quered by the Lombards; a contemporary 
writer said they “‘resemble in figure and in 
smell the mares of the Sarmatian plains”’ 
(UD) 

This pandemic is believed by many to have 
been bubonic plague, though some descrip- 
tions of the time are considered suggestive of 
smallpox. 


PLAGUE 


The most devastating epidemic recorded 
in history was certainly one of bubonic 
plague: the “Black Death,” which occurred 
exactly 600 years ago. This terrible affliction 
owed its inception to war. In 1346 the Tar- 
tars besieging the Don Cossacks in the Cri- 
mea were attacked by plague that is 
supposed to have been indigenous in the 
native rodents of the region. From them it 
spread to the besieged populations, and 
thence to China and India on one hand, and 
to Europe and Africa on the other. This 
was a true pandemic: an outbreak of disease 
that spread over most of the old world. It 
overran Europe from 1348 to 1352. It has 
been conjectured that 13,000,000 Chinese 
died of the Black Death. The population of 
England is estimated to have fallen from 
about 5 million to 23 million. Somewhere 
from one-fourth to three-fourths of the 
population of Europe is said to have died 
in the three years beginning in 1348 (2). 

For three centuries following the Black 
Death, plague smoldered in London, to break 
out into a furious epidemic in 1665. The 
population of London had suffered an un- 
usually severe winter; plague began in the 
slums as winter ended. In this one year, it 
is believed to have killed nearly 110,000 out 
of London’s 460,000 population. Defoe said, 
“London might well be said to be all in 
tears ... The shrieks of women and children 
at the windows and doors of their houses, 
where their dearest relatives were perhaps 
dying, or just dead, were so frequent to be 
heard as we passed the streets, that it was 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


enough to pierce the stoutest heart in the 
world to hear them... Whole families, and 
indeed whole streets of families, were swept 
away together” (2). 

Following this epidemic, plague dis- 
appeared from England and was not seen 
there again for nearly two and a half cen- 
turies. In Continental Europe, however, 
there were two major epidemics—one in 1770 
and one in 1826. Both were generated by 
wars between Russia and Turkey. The first 
of these outbreaks is said to have caused 
300,000 deaths in Hungary, the Ukraine, 
and Poland, and 50,000 deaths in Moscow— 
more than one-fourth of the population. The 
second epidemic killed 4,000 persons in three 
months in the city of Varna. 

The last pandemic of plague began in 
southwest China about 1894. Reaching Bom- 
bay in 1896, it spread over India and by 
1904 was responsible for 1,000,000 deaths 
annually in that country. Within six years 
every continent had become infected from 
this outbreak; in 1900 the disease was rec- 
ognized in North America for the first time 
in history. Some writers refer to the situa- 
tion now existing as the ‘“‘present pandemic 
of plague,” for the disease still lingers in 
many parts of the world to which it came 
with the great recrudescence around the be- 
ginning of the present century. 

But there was only one Black Death. 


TYPHUS 


The disease most frequently associated 
with war is typhus. Hirsch says, ‘‘The history 
of typhus is written in those dark pages of 
the world’s story which tell of the grievous 
visitations of mankind by war, famine, and 
misery of every kind” (3). 

The role of this specific disease in earlier 
times is obscure. It has been suggested that 
the epidemic that destroyed the army of 
Frederick Barbarossa in 1157 might have 
been typhus. Four days after the disease 
struck, the army, which had occupied Rome, 
abandoned the city and departed northward; 
the greater part of them died on the march. 

Perhaps the first clear instance of a de- 
cisive role played by typhus in war occurred 
in 1566. An epidemic, quite evidently of this 
disease, broke out in the German army of 
Maximilian II, who was forced to abandon 


HAAS: DISASTER AND DISEASE 


279 


his entire campaign against the Turks in 
Hungary. This epidemic, called at the time 
“morbus hungaricus,” spread over Austria, 
Germany, the Netherlands, and Italy, car- 
ried by returning troops. 

The 30-years’ war (1618-1648) was domi- 
nated by pestilence, of which typhus was a 
major cause. One historian says, ‘““The suf- 
ferings of the German people during these 
thirty years are beyond telling” (7). When 
both plague and typhus struck, ‘in some 
villages the populations perished en masse 
... half the inhabitants of Munich died in 
1634 ...the population (of Germany) de- 
creased by more than one-half” (7). 

In 1632, at Nuremberg, typhus and scurvy 
together killed 18,000 soldiers, and the op- 
posing armies of Gustavus Adolphus and 
Wallenstein left the field without battle. 

Throughout the eighteenth century wars 
were followed by typhus. Hirsch says of this 
time, ‘“‘As the oppression of war spared no 
country in Europe...so did the pestilence 
of war, particularly typhus, following at the 
heels of the conquerors and the conquered, 
spread all over Europe and rise to a terrible 
height in those places where the visitation 
of war had been most severe ...in the uni- 
versal distress caused by the war (it had) a 
very favorable soil in which to flourish” (3). 

Of the many misfortunes that befell 
Napoleon’s army in the Russian campaign, 
none had more effect than disease, particu- 
larly typhus. On the march to Moscow in 
1812 the French were infected at Vilna; by 
the time the retreat had begun there was so 
much sickness in the Army that thousands 
had to be abandoned. ‘‘French soldiers .. . 
spread the contagion (typhus) over a large 
part of Central Europe. Almost naked... 
they marched through Poland and Germany. 
Typhus and other diseases associated with 
it marked their course. The inhabitants of 
the country were forced to house the sick; 
but teamsters also conveyed the infection to 
villages which the soldiers did not visit” 
WW). 

“The number of persons who succumbed 
to typhus in Germany during the years 
1813-1814 must be estimated at least as high 
as 200,000 or 300,000 ...the number that 
contracted it would amount to 2,000,000,” 
according to Prinzing (/). This would be 


280 


about 10 percent of the total German popu- 
lation. 

Typhus was widespread among troops in 
the Crimean War (1854-1856), but there was 
no great amount of troop movement in this 
campaign, and civilian outbreaks did not 
develop. The troops in Crimea were severely 
stricken with an almost unprecedented vari- 
ety of diseases, including—in addition to 
typhus—cholera and dysentery. In 1855, 
there were 48,000 casualties from sickness 
in 4 months. For the whole war—all armies 
—there were about 63,000 deaths from bat- 
tle, compared with 104,000 from disease. 

The greatest typhus epidemic of record 
accompanied World War I on the southern 
and eastern fronts. In 1915, about 120,000 
Serbs died between January and March, out 
of a population of 4,000,000. In 1920, there 
were more than 3 million cases of typhus 
reported in Russia, and as many cases of 
relapsing fever. Between 1917 and 1923, 
there are believed to have been 30,000,000 
cases of typhus in Russia, and 3 million 
deaths. 

All of this was brought about by war, 
revolution, famine, and the wanderings of 
homeless, unsupervised refugees, followed by 
movements of troops during the civil wars 
of 1919-1920. 

SMALLPOX 


Another epidemic disease that has ap- 
peared in military history is smallpox. Some 
believe that it may have been responsible 
for the plagues of Athens and of Justinian. 
Many medical historians seem agreed that 
smallpox was absent from Greece and Rome 
during most of the classical period. It is 
supposed to have reached the middle east 
from Ethiopia in the fourth century A.D., 
during what was called the ‘Elephant 
War,” and to have been carried into Spain 
by the Saracens, spreading thus over 
Europe. It had permeated Europe by A.D. 
1009 and was repeatedly reintroduced by 
the Crusaders, and later by the Mongolians. 

Smallpox is supposed to have facilitated 
conquest of the New World by the Span- 
iards: a Negro from a ship of Narvaz 
carried it ashore and over 3,000,000 Indians 
eventually succumbed. 

“The most furious epidemic of the 19th 
century” (4) was one of smallpox generated 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


by the Franco-Prussian war of 1870-1871. 
At that time Germany was almost free from 
smallpox, but it was epidemic in Paris and 
elsewhere in France. Thousands of French 
prisoners, scattered throughout Germany, 
disseminated the disease which was then 
“conveyed from place to place ... by the 
moving population itself,... by marching 
troops, and... by the removal of prisoners 
from one place of detention to another.” 
From 1870-1874 there were 140,000 small- 
pox deaths in Prussia; in France 200,000 
deaths in 2 years; in England 43,000 in the 
same period. In Austria 167,000 died in 6 
years. The epidemic reached Scandinavia, 
Italy, and North America. ‘“‘But the further 
the disease was removed from the seat of 
war the easier it was to control” (4). 


DYSENTERY AND TYPHOID 


Dysentery and typhoid have been as- 
sociated with wars of recent times. Napo- 
leon’s troops spread dysentery over Europe. 
In the American Civil War the diarrheal 
diseases—called ‘“‘alvine fluxes” (5) by the 
medical writers of the time—accounted for 
1,700,000 casualties and 45,000 deaths in 
the Union Armies, compared with 44,000 
killed in battle and 49,000 dying of wounds. 
“No district in which troops were massed 
for war purposes was exempt from the 
scourge”’ (5). 

In the Spanish-American war (1898) ty- 
phoid caused more casualties (20,904 cases, 
2,188 deaths) than military action, and in 
the Boer War (1899-1902) it was a major 
problem. But though ‘‘troops in war time 
have suffered heavily from enteric fever 
(typhoid) the evidence of its introduction 
by them into civilian populations is small” 
(4). 


CHOLERA 


Another of the great pandemic diseases, 
cholera, ‘‘is much more involved with pil- 
grimages than the movements of armies” 
(4). In India, which is the endemic home of 
cholera, it is spread by festivals and fairs; 
its importation to the West in times past 
has often been initiated by Muslim pilgrim- 
ages to Mecca. There are said to have been 
six pandemics of cholera in the past century 
or so. In four of these cholera reached the 
United States, the last time in 1911. 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


In 1833 it struck New York. A physician 
of the time said, “Our citizens had heard 
and read so much of this Asiatic scourge, 
and all we knew of it had impressed us with 
a sense of its mysterious character, its rapid 
and erratic course, its unmanageable and 
incurable nature, and its certain and dread- 
ful fatality. Its fearful devastation in India 
and elsewhere had filled the mind with hor- 
ror at the bare recital of its ravages, and 
the rumor of its appearance on the shores 
of the St. Lawrence threw our population 
into consternation ... which, in some in- 
stances, became so intense as to dethrone 
reason itself and impel to suicide” (2). In 
1849 cholera crossed the continent with the 
emigrant wagons, and in 1850 half the popu- 
lation of Sacramento fled from it; one-fourth 
of those who remained died. 


YELLOW FEVER 


Yellow fever is not usually associated 
with war and disaster. It has tended to 
spread with peaceful commerce. But in one 
instance it played a critical part in military 
action. In 1801 Napoleon sent Leclere with 
25,000 French troops to Haiti to suppress 
the revolt. After defeating the Haitian 
Army, the French were struck by yellow 
fever. Of the Army of 25,000 Frenchmen, 
22,000 died. In 1803 there were only 3,000 
left to evacuate the Island. 


SYPHILIS 


The spread of syphilis over Europe ap- 
pears to have been the result of a specific 
military campaign. In 1494 Charles VIII of 
France invaded Italy and occupied Naples. 
The city was defended by Spanish soldiers, 
and it is believed that the latter had brought 
syphilis to the Neapolitan women. Charles’s 
soldiery ran wild through the city, and con- 
tracted the disease. Then the invaders with- 
drew and scattered over Europe. Wherever 
they went, syphilis appeared: France, Ger- 
many, England, Scotland, Russia—even to 
far-off China, and Africa. Why did it spread 
in such sudden and dramatic fashion? Per- 
haps we shall never know entirely, but two 
important factors were: 

1. It was a time of great floods, drouth, 
and excessive heat. Plague, ergot poisoning, 


HAAS: DISASTER AND DISEASE 


281 


and other illnesses had decimated the popu- 
lation and weakened resistance. 

2. It was a period of unprecedented li- 
centiousness. Says Hirsch: ‘‘The corruption 
of morals had at the time reached a height 
which even contemporary writers tell us 
was without parallel in ancient times” (3). 


INFLUENZA 


The greatest pandemic of modern times 
was that of influenza in 1918-19. ‘While all 
Christendom bent its energies to the killing 
of young men, nature outstripped the states- 
men: influenza killed more victims in a few 
months than all the armies in 4 years” (2). 
In the United States there were 20 million 
cases and around a quarter of a million 
deaths. ‘In India 6 months of influenza ac- 
counted for nearly as many deaths as 20 
years of cholera” (2). It is estimated that 
there were 200 million cases in the world, 
and more than 10 million deaths. ‘‘The 
pandemic of 1918 and 1919 ranks with the 
plague of Justinian and the Black Death as 
one of the 3 most destructive outbreaks of 
disease that the human race has known’’ 
(2). 

“Yet we are struck by the absence, in 
1918, of the degree of panic and desolation 
which is reported for comparable waves of 
death in earlier years... it seems that hu- 
man composure was not so shaken by this 
disaster as it had often been before by those 
of smaller compass . . . disease was no longer 
so mysterious, so portentous an experience 
as it had once been. After a generation of 
research, infection was comprehensible, even 
though this particular infection still proved 
baffling” (2). 

In the United States “‘one person in every 
4 fell sick.... The Black Death killed 9 
out of 10 whom it attacked, cholera some- 
times 4 out of 5; influenza in 1918, only 2 
or 8 out of a hundred”’ (2). 


WORLD WAR II 

These brief glimpses of medical history 
illustrate the importance of disease—partic- 
ularly communicable disease—in the de- 
velopment of civilization. They show how 
epidemics are generated by wars and by the 
disastrous conditions which accompany and 
follow wars. 


The greatest war of all time is still fresh 
in our memory. And one of the most 
amazing features of this war is the fact 
that, catastrophic as it was, beyond any- 
thing known to history, it produced no 
major epidemics. 

World War II was distinguished by all 
the conditions which appear to have facili- 
tated the dissemination of epidemics in all 
previous major wars, such as: 


1. Movements of great bodies of troops over 
long distances. In World War II there was con- 
stant interchange of troops among all the major 
regions of the earth. They passed through or 
sojourned in areas where such diseases as plague, 
cholera, yellow fever, and smallpox were preva- 
lent. 

2. Displacement of civil populations, with 
great masses of wandering, homeless refugees. 
This occurred in the Orient and in Eastern 
Europe—both regions where epidemic diseases 
are indigenous—as well as in the relatively health- 
ier countries of the West. 

3. Breakdown of civil authority, with conse- 
quent failure to maintain the sanitary practices 
of normal times. 

4. Tremendous destruction of cities, with dis- 
ruption of water supplies, sewage systems, food 
sanitation, and the like—all because of irreplace- 
able losses in plant and equipment. 


The “‘epidemic potential”? must have been 
high. There were indeed numerous epidem- 
ies of circumscribed extent. Plague broke 
out several times in North Africa; there 
was a serious epidemic of typhus in Italy, 
centering around Naples; cholera caused our 
military authorities some concern in the 
Orient. Smallpox repeatedly presented a 
challenge: it got out of hand for a time in 
Japan, and spread to the United States and 
to England among returning troops. Hun- 
dreds of thousands of soldiers acquired 
malaria, bacillary dysentery, and amebiasis. 
There were a number of outbreaks of in- 
fectious jaundice. Diseases like ‘‘mite ty- 
phus” and filariasis were important military 
medical problems. 

But there were no pandemics, nor threats 
of any. 

The explanation for this failure of epi- 
demics to get out of control in World War 
II relates to our modern knowledge of the 


74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


factors which favor the dissemination of 
specific communicable diseases, and our 
ability—because of such knowledge—to 
alter these factors to our advantage. 

At the time of World War I we under- 
stood a great deal about the method of 
spread of epidemics, and could control most 
of them, but our methods were either cum- 
bersome or not efficient. Between World 
Wars I and II, and during World War II, 
there were many improvements in knowl- 
edge and resources: 


1. The sulfonamide drugs and the antibiotics 
for treatment of many communicable diseases 
(e.g., plague, dysentery). 

2. D.D.T. for the control of vermin (e.g., lice, 
fleas). 

3. Better and more accurate methods of diag- 
nosis (e.g., extension of the complement fixation 
test, advances in virology). 

4. Better vaccines, to provide more reliable 
immunity (e.g.; yellow fever, typhus). 


PRESENT PROSPECTS FOR EPIDEMIC CONTROL 


Since World War II, even more advances 
have been made. There are several new 
antibiotics (such as chloramphenicol and 
aureomycin) that give us the upper hand 
over many more diseases than we ever had 
before. There are new rat poisons, impor- 
tant in reducing the hazard of plague. The 
virus that causes influenza, unknown during 
the pandemic in 1918, has been studied with 
increasing thoroughness, and better vaccines 
are being developed. Better methods of 
water purification appear possible, not that 
we need any safer water than we have now 
in our cities; but these methods might be 
more adaptable to emergencies. 

If there should be a World War III, we 
all know that it would be terrible. We expect 
that our cities would suffer enormous de- 
struction. Water supplies, sewage systems, 
and other sanitary mechanisms would be 
destroyed or disrupted for long periods. Hos- 
pitals would be jammed with casualties, as 
indeed would many other buildings which 
would have to be converted to shelter the 
injured. Medical and allied professional 
people would be tremendously burdened. 
Civil authority would have to exert its ut- 
most effort to meet such catastrophes. Un- 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


der such conditions, what must we expect 
in regard to epidemics? 

My answer is that we would have epi- 
demics. We always have them. They are 
going on right now. There was an epidemic 
of influenza last winter—several of them 
if you care to look at it with great exacti- 
tude. There will be epidemics of poliomye- 
litis this summer. In India there will prob- 
ably be epidemics of cholera in a month or 
so—there always are. There will be out- 
breaks of yellow fever in South America 
this year, as there have been at intervals 
for generations. There was a case of bubonic 
plague in New Mexico in January; last 
year there were five cases in the United 
States as a whole. (In 1925 there was an 
epidemic of pneumonic form of plague in 
Los Angeles, and 33 people died of it.) 

During the past four years there have 
been apprehended at various quarantine sta- 
tions 8 ships infected with cholera, 88 with 
smallpox, and 1 with plague. 

Epidemics of such diseases as influenza, 
cholera, plague, and typhus and outbreaks 
of yellow fever and smallpox scarcely come 
to the notice of the general population nowa- 
days, although there is no attempt to con- 
ceal them. Indeed, there is rapid exchange 
of such information all over the world (6, 
7). But since the outbreaks either do not 
get out of hand or, if they do, are brought 
under control with confidence and dispatch, 
the general public is not too concerned about 
them. 

If war should come, outbreaks of this 
sort would have to be regarded with more 
concern than they merit in times of peace. 
We should have to take them quite seri- 
ously and apply our knowledge and our 
resources as quickly and thoroughly as pos- 
sible to bring them under control or to 
keep them from getting out of hand. 

The important point is that we do have 
the knowledge to make it possible to do 
this. To the extent that our physical plant 
is damaged, and our supplies of medicines, 
vaccines, insecticides, and the like may be 
destroyed, it will be more difficult to apply 
that knowledge. But no matter how many 
difficulties of this sort may develop, we 
still have the knowledge—which is where 
we differ basically and completely from our 


HAAS: DISASTER AND DISEASE 


283 


predecessors of earlier times, who had re- 
course only to guesswork, superstition, and 
flight. 

We do not expect to escape any war 
without suffermg and death. That is the 
price of war. Part of that price will be paid 
in increased communicable diseases, in epi- 
demics, and in deaths from epidemics. We 
must face this, just as we must face the 
appalling destruction that would come from 
atom bombs. 

Why not hedge against this danger of 
disease by immunizing everyone in advance? 
We can vaccinate against influenza, cholera, 
plague, typhus, and so on. The Armed 
Forces are immunized against quite a vari- 
ety of diseases, as everyone remembers who 
has stood in line for ‘‘shots.”’ 

But what we need to meet the threat of 
atomic war is careful judgment, based on 
assessment of all the factors—not rule-of- 
thumb, or an “‘easy way out.” 

To immunize 150,000,000 people against 
all the diseases for which we have vaccines 
would consume tremendous resources in 
terms of manufacturing capacity, trained 
personnel to administer the injections, main- 
tenance of records, and general administra- 
tive arrangements. Even were we willing 
to make such a commitment, many of our 
immunizations could not be relied upon to 
protect every person inoculated. And since 
nearly all give only temporary protection, 
they would have to be repeated—for who 
knows how many times? 

This does not mean that all immuniza- 
tions are impractical—far from it. Speaking 
only for myself, I believe that we should 
immunize as many people as possible against 
smallpox and try to keep them immunized. 
I also feel that we should immunize all 
children against diphtheria, whooping 
cough, and tetanus. But this is nothing 
new at all; it is part of our regular peacetime 
public-health program. In addition, I think 
that if war is anticipated we ought to im- 
munize everyone who is likely to be in a 
target area against tetanus. 

That is as far as I should go in im- 
munizing the population generally. Beyond 
that, I should rely on our scientific knowl- 
edge, our medicines and chemicals, and our 
judgment, to pull us through. We can boil 


284 


our water if we have to, or put tablets of 
disinfectant in it. We can bury our excreta 
and food wastes. We can treat patients 
with drugs and antibiotics to reduce res- 
ervoirs of infection. We can attack insects 
and rodents with established methods. 

Above all, I believe we should diligently 
encourage research. We must base our plans 
for defense upon the most thorough con- 
sideration of the knowledge we have; mean- 
while we must continue with utmost vigor 
to increase and improve our knowledge and 
understanding. 


BIOLOGICAL WARFARE 


We have been told that another war 
might bring into use a new weapon—one 
never before tried—biological warfare. This 
means the intentional use of disease-pro- 
ducing microorganisms or their products to 
cause casualties in a target population. We 
must consider this possibility in our plans 
for defense. Biological warfare may never 
be used, but if it is we want to be ready to 
defend ourselves. 

The same principles that apply to control 
or prevention of diseases of natural origin 
apply to defense against biological warfare. 
Our knowledge of the biology of disease, 
our medicines and techniques, and our ex- 
perience in public-health operations will be 
brought to bear on any problem that might 
arise in this manner, and we can expect 
them to be effective. 

If biological warfare is used against us, 
it may be anticipated that the agents em- 
ployed will be those we meet in regular 
public-health practice. It is not expected 
that strange new organisms would be em- 
ployed, or that mysterious or unpredictable 
outbreaks of disease would be produced. 
In fact, most of the organisms that would 
appear to possess the qualifications that one 
would regard as essential for use in biological 
warfare would not spread from person to 
person. Self-perpetuating epidemics would 
be most unlikely. It is well to remember that 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, no. 9 


it has never been shown that an epidemic 
could be started intentionally. In fact, it is 
not known just how or why an epidemic 
starts or fails to start in nature. Greenwood 
says, “In plague, as in other sicknesses. 
something more is needed to generate an 
epidemic than even widespread and quite 
uncontrolled means of infection’ (4). 

What has been said about disease arising 
from atomic disaster applies to the pos- 
sibility of biological warfare. We would ex- 
pect casualties—and deaths—but we would 
also expect to be able to bring the situation 
under control. In regard to immunization, 
the same principles would apply as for 
atomic warfare and general disaster. For 
biological warfare, we might consider broad- 
ening a bit the scope of immunization, but 
only on the basis of careful assessment of 
all the factors—not an over-all procedure 
to provide what might superficially appear 
to be an easy answer. 


REFERENCES 


Statistics have been compiled from the sources 
given below, but only direct quotations are spe- 
cifically documented. Extensive bibliographies 
and basic references are contained in the sources 
listed here. 


(1) Zinsser, Hans. Rats, lice, and history. Boston, 
1935. 

(2) SmrrH, GeppEs. Plague on us. The Common- 
wealth Fund, New York, 1941. : 

(8) Hirscu, Aueust. Handbook of geographical 
and historical pathology. (Translated from 
the German by Charles Creighton.) The 
New Sydenham Society, London, 1883. 

(4) SrautyBrass, C. O. The principles of epidemi- 
ology. New York, 19381. 

(5) Barnes, JosppH K. (Surgeon General, U. S. 
Army). The medical and surgical history of 
the War of the Rebellion (1861-1865). Wash- 
ington, 1870. 

(6) U.S. Pusric Hpauru Service: National Office 
of Vital Statistics. Weekly Communicable 
Disease Summary. Washington, D. C. 

(7) Wortp HratrH ORGANIZATION: Regional Of- 
fice. Weekly Epidemiological Report. Wash- 
ington, D. C. 

(8) Rospnau, Mitton J. Preventive medicine nad 
hygiene, ed. 6. New York, 1935. 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


CAMPBELL: MEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY INDIANS 


285 


ETHNOLOGY .—WMedicinal plants used by Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek Indians 
in the early nineteenth century. T. N. CAMPBELL, University of Texas. (Com- 
municated by Frank H. H. Roberts, Jr.) 


What is known today about medicinal 
plants used by the Indians of the South- 
eastern United States is based largely on 
information accumulated by ethnologists 
within the present century. Most of this has 
been summarized by Taylor (1940), who has 
compiled data on 185 plants used by eight 
Southeastern groups—Cherokee, Catawba, 
Creek, Alabama, Koasati, Chickasaw, Choc- 
taw, and Natchez. The literature on these 
Indians prior to the period of enforced re- 
moval (cirea 1830-1850) contains very little 
specific information on medical ethnobotany. 
For this reason the material presented below 
is of special interest. It was obtained by 
Gideon Lincecum, a self-taught physician 
and naturalist, from Choctaw, Chickasaw, 
and Creek Indians in the States of Missis- 
sippi and Georgia during the years 1800-— 
1835. It is a partial but acceptable record of 
medicinal plants used by these three Indian 
groups in the early nineteenth century. The 
comparatively early date of this record 
makes it possible to note changes that have 
taken place in the herbal medicine of these 
Indian groups over a period of approximately 
one hundred years. 

The names and medicinal uses of the 
plants presented on the following pages have 
been taken from Lincecum’s medical herbar- 
ium of plants native to the Southeastern 
United States. This herbarium, which con- 
sists of 305 pressed plants, is now in the 
possession of the University of Texas Library 
in Austin. The plants were collected by 
Lincecum in eastern Mississippi and south- 
eastern Texas over a long period of time, but 
principally between the years 1830 and 1868. 
On the outside of each folder, in Lincecum’s 
handwriting, is the scientific name of the 
plant, the English name or names, occas- 
ionally an Indian name, along with data on 
the part or parts of the plant used for 
medicinal purposes, the method of prepara- 
tion, the medicinal properties (based on 
Lincecum’s own clinical observations), and 
the disease for which the prepared drug was 
used in Lincecum’s practice. Twenty-two of 
the folders include miscellaneous remarks on 


the medical use of the enclosed plants by 
Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek Indians. 
The plants from these 22 folders have been 
examined and identified by Dr. Benjamin C. 
Tharp, Department of Botany, University 
of Texas, whose assistance is gratefully ac- 
knowledged. 

Published biographic materials afford 
some basis for evaluating the reliability of 
Lincecum’s ethnobotanical notes. (Geiser, 
1948, pp. 199-214; Lincecum, 1904a) Lin- 
cecum was not medically trained in the 
orthodox manner of his day, 1.e., by study 
at a medical college or with a licensed prac- 
titioner. He learned medicine by reading 
medical literature. He learned systematic 
botany in the same way, and it is of interest 
to note that the specimens in his herbarium 
are, with few exceptions, accurately classified 
for his time. This lack of formal training 
probably explains some of Lincecum’s readi- 
ness to adopt Indian herbalism. 

Of more importance is the biographic evi- 
dence of close association with the three 
Indian peoples in question. The first 25 years 
of Lincecum’s life (1793-1818) were spent 
on the outer fringe of the Georgia frontier, 
where he had ample opportunity to observe 
the Creek Indians. For a period of 30 years 
(1818-1848) he lived in eastern Mississippi 
near the present town of Columbus. Until 
the period of removal, this was near the 
boundary that separated the Choctaw and 
the Chickasaw. For several years Lincecum 
operated two trading posts, one patronized 
principally by the Choctaw, the other by 
the Chickasaw. He spoke the languages of 
both groups. During the early 1820’s he 
recorded—in the Choctaw language, using 
the Roman alphabet and various diacritical 
marks—a long traditional history of the 
Choctaw as related by an old and learned 
Choctaw man. A translation of this survives 
and a portion of it has been published (Lin- 
cecum, 1904b). 

It is very clear from his autobiography 
that Gideon Lincecum had a detailed knowl- 
edge of Choctaw medicinal plants. In the 
early 1830’s, having lost a number of pa- 


286 


tients, he became dissatisfied with the 
medicines he was using and decided to in- 
vestigate Choctaw herbal medicine. He got 
in touch with the leading doctor (alikchi 
chito, “big doctor’) of the Southern or Six- 
towns group of Choctaw. This Indian doctor 
was evidently much disturbed by the ad- 
vanced stage of Choctaw acculturation at 
that time, for he sent word to Lincecum 
that he would be “willing to teach what he 
knew about medicine before he died to some- 
body, and to a white man in preference to 
his own people, because the white man would 
place it on paper and preserve it” (ibid., 
1904a, p. 494). The pay for his services as 
an informant was to be 50 cents a day and 
his food. 

The Choctaw doctor met Lincecum at a 
certain bluff on the Noxubee River, and the 
two men lived in the woods for six weeks. 
The Choctaw collected plants alone during 
the day, and in the evening before a fire ‘‘he 
unrolled his specimens of medicinal plants 
and laid them in order on his right hand 
where he was sitting. He then took them up, 
one by one, described the kind of soil they 
were found in, their use, the season to collect 
them and what other plants they were some- 
times combined with” (ibid., pp. 495-496). 
Using his system for recording Choctaw, 
Lincecum wrote down everything that the 
doctor told him, and he also preserved small 
specimens of each plant. At the close of the 
6-week period the doctor had Lincecum read 
back to him everything that he had dictated. 
At this time errors were corrected and addi- 
tions made. 

Unfortunately this remarkable record of 
Choctaw medicinal plants does not seem to 
have survived. It is not among the Lincecum 
manuscripts in the University of Texas Li- 
brary, and the living descendants of Lince- 
cum do not know of it. Nothing remains but 
the scattered remarks in Lincecum’s medical 
herbarium. Undoubtedly many other plants 
in the herbarium were used by the Choctaw, 
but the present record does not permit them 
to be specified. 

In the sections that follow only such pas- 
sages have been taken from Lincecum’s 
herbarial notes as seem to be pertinent to 
Indian medicinal usage. Lincecum’s state- 
ments are enclosed in quotation marks. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


When Lincecum gives Chickasaw or Choe- 
taw names, the nearest equivalents in By- 
ington’s Choctaw dictionary (Byington, 
1915) have been inserted in brackets. Aside 
from simplifying the spelling of a few words, 
such as “‘Chocktaw” and ‘‘Chickesaw,” no 
further editorial changes have been made. 


CHOCTAW 


Cushman (1899, pp. 228-229) has given 
the English names of seven medicinal plants 
used by the Mississippi Choctaw, presum- 
ably in the middle of the nineteenth century. 
Fifty-three medicinal plants have been re- 
ported in the literature of the current 
century. From the Choctaw of Bayou 
Lacomb in southeastern Louisiana Bushnell 
(1909, pp. 23-24) collected 25 plants in 1909. 
All these are identified by scientific name as 
well as by Choctaw name, and only one 
appears on Cushman’s earlier list (its use is 
not given by Cushman). About 1918 Swan- 
ton (1931, pp. 237-238) obtained a list of 12 
medicinal plants from a Choctaw informant 
in eastern Mississippi. These plants are iden- 
tified only by Choctaw and English names, 
but they do not appear to duplicate any 
plants on the Cushman and Bushnell lists. 
Taylor (1940, passim) does not make use of 
the Cushman and Swanton lists, but she 
incorporates the Bushnell list of 25, to which 
are added plants collected in her own field 
work among the Choctaw in the 1930’s. She 
does not state whether her field work was 
done among the Mississippi or the Louisiana 
Choctaw. Her contribution to Choctaw 
medical ethnobotany consists of new uses 
for six plants on the Bushnell list and 16 
plants previously unreported from any Choc- 
taw group. To this may be added the Lince- 
cum record, which provides data on 16 plants 
used by the Choctaw early in the nineteenth 
century: 


Polygonum aviculare L., deerweed, knotgrass, 
pinkweed. ‘‘Whole plant. A strong tea of this 
plant drunk freely, is the Choctaw remedy to 
prevent abortion. They have the utmost confi- 
dence in its powers; they all know it, and conse- 
quently abortion is a circumstance of very 
uncommon occurrence.” 

Heuchera americana L., alum root, rock gera- 
neum. “The root. Astringent, tonic. This is a 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


valuable remedial agent, useful in all cases re- 
quiring powerful astringents; it has been noticed 
and used by all the different aboriginal tribes 
with whom I have become acquainted in the 
South [Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek].” 

Tephrosia elegans Nutt. Lincecum does not 
link this plant with any specific Indian group, 
but in view of certain remarks in his autobiog- 
raphy it is most likely of Choctaw origin. “The 
root of this plant is an excellent article in bad 
coughs. The method of using it, is, to carry it 
about you, and chew it frequently through the 
day, swallowing juice. If the bowels become loose, 
you have swallowed a little too much; diminish 
the quantity so as to properly regulate the bowels, 
and continue its use for a long time.-This is an 
Indian remedy...” 

Geraneum maculatum L., spotted crane’s-bill. 
“Root. Powerful astringent. The Choctaws con- 
sider it as the most effectual of their remedies 
for the cure of the venereal.” 

Vitis aestivalis Michx., summer grape. “Re- 
frigerant, tonic, acid. I was witness to a case 
while I resided with the Choctaw Indians, which 
to me was very singular. There was a woman 
between 14 and 15 years of age, who died in 
childbed, leaving her infant child to the care of 
its grandmother. This old woman was 55 years of 
age when she took the child, and had not nursed 
a child since the mother of the infant in question 
was weaned. She took the infant and as is the 
custom with Indian women, she cried and grieved 
over it, sympathizing with and strongly desiring 
that she might give nourishment to it, and be 
able to raise up the infant to fill the place of its 
deceased mother; and all the time, as often as 
five or six times a day she washed her breast with 
and drank freely of the water of the grape vine. 
The result was that in the course of a week she 
began to secrete milk, and very soon her breasts 
were full and plump, and she nourished the child 
sufficiently to keep it healthy and fat. She told me 
that it was the custom of her country women.” 

Sida hederacea Torr., round-leaved sida. ‘“‘Choc- 
taw name: Shaka oakheesh [probably sheki, buz- 
zard; okhi"sh, medicine]. The root. Mucilaginous. 
It is used by the Choctaws in dysentery, diarrhea, 
inflammation of the bowels, burns, etc. The root 
when dried is easily pulverized. . . ’”’ The Choctaw, 
like the Creek and Chickasaw, believed that many 
diseases were caused by animals. (Sawnton, 1931, 
pp. 235, 237). Sheki okhi"sh, “buzzard medicine”, 
may indicate that certain intestinal disorders 
were ascribed to this bird. For reference to an- 


CAMPBELL: MEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY INDIANS 


287 


other animal, the fox, see Eryngium aquaticum 
below. 

Aralia racemosa L., American  spikenard, 
Indianroot. “Choctaw name: tally thla,po,la [pos- 
sibly tala, name of a certain root; lopoli to pass 
through slowly]. The berries, the root. Stimulant, 
expectorant. The Choctaws use it for many 
complaints among their children. In all cases 
where we use paregoric, Bateman’s drops, God- 
frey’s cordial, ete., they use the spikenard. . . 
For this purpose they boil a little of the root in 
clear water, sweeten the decoction, and give it 
pretty freely to children of any age, who are 
troubled with gripes, colic, etc...In bad cases 
of putrid sore eyes, the Choctaws boil up a 
quantity of the root, and while it is boiling, hot- 
steam their eyes over it. Two or three applica- 
tions generally cure them.’ 

Eryngium aquaticum U., bitter snakeroot, 
rattlesnake master. ‘Choctaw name: Pis, hok, 
chu, la [pishuk, name of a weed used in dying 
red; chula, fox]. The root. Powerful diuretic, ex- 
pectorant, stimulant, and anti-poison—good for 
snakebite. The Choctaw cure gonorrhea with 
this plant.” 

Asclepias verticillata L., milkweed. ‘The root. 
Sudorific, stimulating. The Choctaws esteemed it 
among their most valuable remedies for snake- 
bite. They administered it in strong decoction, 
and chewed the root, swallowing the saliva while 
chewing.” 

Cephalanthus occidentalis L., buttonbush. 
“Bark of the root and of the tree. Tonic, febri- 
fuge. A strong decoction of the bark of the tree . 
is a favorite medicine with the Choctaw Indians 
for dysentery.” 

Galium asprellum Michx., bedstraw. ‘Whole 
plant. Diaphoretic, diuretic. The Choctaw cure 
measles with it—and go in the rain, water, and 
cold all the time.” 

Galium boreale L., bedstraw. “Choctaw name: 
Ahoyo oakheesh [ohoyo, woman; okhi"sh, medi- 
cine]. The whole plant. Diuretic, diaphoretic, and 
deobstruant. This is the article [decoction made 
from the whole plant] used by the Choctaw- 
women for the purpose of preventing impregna- 
tion. They told me that it proved uniformly 
successful, without injuring the health! I have 
abundant testimony of this statement.” 

Galiwm uniflorum, Michx., bedstraw. ‘*Whole 
plant. Astringent, good dye weed. The Choctaws 
made frequent use of this family of plants, in all 
cases requiring diuretic, and diaphoretie action.” 


288 


Nabalus asper (Michx.) T & G, rough white 
lettuce. “‘Secernant, stimulant, anodyne. Elect- 
chee Chitto [Alikchi Chito], the Six Town doctor, 
used a decoction of the roots and tops of this 
plant as a stimulating diuretic and anodyne, 
taken occasionally, according to its effects on the 
patient.’’ Reference is made here to the Choctaw 
doctor who met Lincecum in the woods and 
taught him Choctaw herbal medicine. 

Eupatorium ageratoides L. f., white snakeroot. 
“Choctaw name: noota ikheesh [noti, tooth; 
ikhe"sh, medicine]. Warming stimulant and tonic. 
The Choctaw and Chicka8aw Indians use it, by 
chewing and holding the roots in the mouth, for 
toothache.”’ 

Echinacea purpurea (L.) Moench, purple cone- 
flower. “‘The tincture of the roots of this plant 
has been used with success in bad cough, and 
dyspepsia attended with a bad cough...The 
Choctaws use it for the above purposes, by 
chewing and swallowing the saliva. They keep 
a small piece of the root in the mouth nearly all 
the time, continuing its use for a long time.” 


One notable fact emerges when Lincecum’s 
early nineteenth century list of Choctaw 
medicinal plants is compared with lists of 
the twentieth century. Only one plant, 
Cephalanthus occidentalis, is found in the 
later lists (Bushnell, 1909, p. 24), and it is 
reported as used for sore eyes and toothache, 
not for dysentery, as indicated by Lincecum. 
The recent lists of plants and their uses do 
not show a very large number of corres- 
pondences, which is probably best explained 
by incompleteness of data and by individual 
and local group variation. But the corres- 
pondences between nineteenth-century lists 
and recent lists are practically nonexistent. 
It thus appears that Choctaw herbal medi- 
cine changed considerably during the hun- 
dred-year period and that the plants in use 
in more recent times are not especially rep- 
resentative of those used in aboriginal times. 
This conclusion is also supported by the 
plaintive remark of the Sixtowns Choctaw 
doctor in the early 1830’s about the lack 
of interest in medicinal plants among his 
own people. 

Lincecum mentions no plants that were 
used as emetics, an absence that agrees with 
all later lists. The Choctaw are said to have 
induced vomiting by inserting a finger or a 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


feather in the throat (Swanton, 1931, p. 233; 
Taylor, 1940, p. 70). Taylor (1940, p. 70) 
has called attention to the absence among 
the Choctaw of any plants effectively used 
as antiperiodics and counterirritants. Lin- 
cecum’s data do not conflict with this 
observation. 

Some uses of these plants by the Choctaw 
are either unique or of rare occurrence in the 
Southeastern area. According to Lincecum, 
the Choctaw used the sap of Vitis aestivalis 
to induce lactation, which is the first report 
from the Southeast of a plant used as a 
lactagogue. The same is true regarding Poly- 
gonum aviculare, a decoction of which Choc- 
taw women used to prevent miscarriage. 
The Choctaw used Galiwm boreale as a con- 
traceptive, a usage that thus far has been 
reported only among the Cherokee, who used 
Cicuta maculata for this purpose (Mooney 
and Olbrechts, 1932, pp. 117-118; Olbrechts, 
1931, p. 19). Olbrechts (ibid.) has stated his 
belief that the use of Cicuta maculata as a 
contraceptive among the Cherokee was prob- 
ably derived from European settlers. He 
cites the resemblance of Cicuta maculata to 
parsley, especially in the early growth phase, 
and points out that parsley is still popular 
as an abortive in several European countries. 
The use of Galiwm boreale by the Choctaw 
suggests that herbal contraceptives may 
have been aboriginal in the Southeast. 


CHICKASAW 

At present very little is known about 
Chickasaw medicinal plants. Adair (1775, 
pp. 122, 164-167), writing in the latter part 
of the eighteenth century, refers to only two 
medicinal plants that can be attributed 
safely to the Chickasaw Indians. Swanton 
(1928a, pp. 266-268) has published a list 
of 25 medicinal plants he obtained from a 
Chickasaw doctor in Oklahoma sometime 
between the years 1915 and 1924. Most of 


these plants are identified by Chickasaw — 


names, and sixteen are also identified by 
common English names. Taylor (1940, pas- 
sim) has assigned scientific names to eight 
of the latter. To Swanton’s list may be 
added the following six plants reported by 
Lincecum: 


Botrychium virginianum (L.) Sw., Virginia 
grape-fern. “Chickasaw name: hoeta hocksish, 


vou. 41, No. 9 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


puke weed [Choctaw: hoeta, vomit; hakshish, 
root]. Emetic, diaphoretic, expectorant. I saw a 
Chickasaw Indian using the decoction of the root 
of this plant for an emetic; it operated finely. 
After the operation was over, he took some 


Tomfulla water [liquid from a pot of hominy] ’ 


and said, ‘I was sick but I am now well.’ ” 

Heuchera americana L. See Choctaw list. 

Chaerophyllum procumbens (L.) Crantz, spread- 
ing chervil. “Chickasaw name: shuah hokshoop, 
stinking root [Choctaw: shua, stinking; hakshup, 
bark, husk, ete.]. The root. Emetic, poisonous. 
The Chickasaw use this article as an emetic, and 
it seems to operate very kindly, carrying off the 
morbid very well, always giving relief to the 
patient very similar to the lobelia.” 

Dasystoma pedicularia (L.) Benth., fern-leaved 
false foxglove. ‘“‘Anti-scorbutic, emetic. The 
Chickasaw Indians use this plant for an emetic. 
Tt resembles in its action the lobelia. The Chick- 
asaw use it with impunity.” 

Eupatorium ageratoides L. f. See Choctaw list. 

Verbesina virginica L., Virginia crownbeard. 
“Deobstruant, stimulant, diuretic, antivenereal. 
A tea of the root of this plant, is, with the Chick- 
asaw Indians, a very certain cure for Fluor Albus, 
and in almost all cases of uterine weakness... 
I found the Chickasaw Indians using this article 
20 years ago. This article was written in 1846, 
after experimenting with it.” 


Lincecum’s list of six Chickasaw medicinal 
plants does not appear to duplicate in any 
way the 25 plants on the Swanton list. 
Adair’s two eighteenth century Chickasaw 
medicinal plants do not appear on Swanton’s 
list either. As in the case of the Choctaw, it 
seems that there has also.been much change 
in Chickasaw materia medica since the early 
nineteenth century. In a chart Taylor (ibid., 
p. 74) has indicated the absence of herbal 
emetics among the Chickasaw. Adair (1775, 
pp. 122, 164-167), Speck (1907b, pp. 55, 
56), and Swanton (1928a, p. 268) all refer 
to specific ceremonial emetics, and Lincecum 
gives three additional plants used for this 
purpose. 

CREEK 

Creek herbal medicine is much better 
known. In 1904-05 Speck (1907a, pp. 118- 
119, 124-133, 144) obtained a list of 17 
medicinal plants from the Oklahoma Creek. 
Eleven of these are identified by scientific 


CAMPBELL: MEDICINAL PLANTS USED BY INDIANS 


289 


name, the remainder by English or Creek 
names. Swanton (1928b, pp. 639-663) has 
published data on 79 medicinal plants ob- 
tained from Creek informants in Oklahoma 
during the years 1911-12. Thirty-four of 
these plants are identified by scientific 
names; the others are identified by English 
and Creek names. Swanton calls attention 
to the fact that four of these plants are men- 
tioned in late eighteenth century sources 
and that one is mentioned in an early nine- 
teenth century source, but there are no cor- 
respondences in usage. Seven plants on the 
Speck list also occur on Swanton’s list, but 
in only one instance are the uses similar. 
Taylor (1940, passim) has listed 29 Creek 
medicinal plants, most of which are derived 
from Swanton. To this we can add _ Lince- 
cum’s meager list of three plants: 


Persea pubescens (Pursh) Sarg., swamp bay. 
“The root. Diaphoretic, hydragogue, alterant. 
The Muscogee, and nearly all the tribes of 
Southern Indians, use this article [a decoction] 
as a diaphoretic in fevers of all descriptions. It is 
also extensively used by them in dropsy...”’ 

Heuchera americana L. See Choctaw list. 

Manfreda virginica (1.) Salisb., false aloe. “The 
root. Mucilaginous. The root of this plant boiled 
in sweet milk and taken freely, or chewed and 
swallowed is a certain cure for the bite of the 
rattlesnake. I have known it done several times. 
It is a Muscogee remedy.” 


Of these three plants only Manfreda vir- 
ginica appears on later lists (Swanton, 1928b, 
p. 645). The uses of this plant are approxi- 
mately the same for both early nineteenth 
and early twentieth centuries, although Lin- 
cecum reports its use internally for snakebite, 
whereas Swanton indicates an external use. 
Among Lincecum’s Choctaw, Chickasaw, 
and Creek plants, this is the nearest identity 
of both plant and use that occurs in early 
and late times. 


SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS 


Twenty-two medicinal plants used by 
Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek Indians in 
the early nineteenth century have been iden- 
tified on the basis of the actual plants in 
Lincecum’s surviving medical herbarium and 
his recollections of their uses by these 
Indians. Of these, 16 were used by the Choe- 


290 


taw, 6 by the Chickasaw, and 3 by the Creek. 
Although divorced from myth and ritual, 
this list of plants and the accompanying data 
on usage add to our knowledge of folk medi- 
cine among these Muskhogean-speaking 
peoples. 

Lincecum’s list of 22 plants contains only 6 
that have hitherto been reported for any 
specific Southeastern Indian group. Two of 
these have previously been reported for the 
same group—Cephalanthus occidentalis for 
the Choctaw, Manfreda virginica for the 
Creek. Only for the latter are the reported 
uses similar. The following five plants on 
Lincecum’s list are now recorded for these 
Southeastern Indian groups: Botrychtum vir- 
gimianum, Chickasaw and Cherokee 
(Mooney and Olbrechts, 1932, p. 177); Vatzs 
aestivalis, Choctaw, Creek (Swanton, 1928b, 
pp. 645, 660), and Cherokee (Mooney and 
Olbrechts, 1932, p. 660); Eryngium aquati- 
cum, Choctaw, Alabama (Taylor, 1940, p. 
45), Koasati (ibid.), and Cherokee (Mooney 
and Olbrechts, 1932, p. 245); Cephalanthus 
occidentalis, Choctaw (Bushnell, 1909, p. 24), 
Chickasaw (Taylor, 1940, p. 58), and Koasati 
(ibid.); Verbesina virginica, Chickasaw and 
Choctaw (Bushnell, 1909, p. 23). Identity of 
usage occurs only in the case of Botrychiwm 
virgimanum, which both Chickasaw and 
Cherokee used for an emetic. 

Two plants on Lincecum’s Choctaw list 
were used for purposes not previously re- 
ported among Southeastern Indians—V itis 
aestiwalis to induce lactation and Polygonum 
aviculare to prevent miscarriage. The abo- 
riginal use of herbal contraceptives in the 
Southeast, reported in recent times for the 
Eastern Cherokee and doubted by Olbrechts, 
may now be reexamined in the light of Lin- 
cecum’s report of a similar use among the 
nineteenth century Choctaw. 

Such evidence as we have—and the Lince- 
cum record is about all that we do have— 
indicates that herbal medicine among the 
Choctaw of Mississippi and Louisiana 
changed markedly after the early nineteenth 
century. The principal changes were in plant 
species and their uses rather than in methods 
of drug preparation. It should be noted that 
these Choctaw did not remove to Indian 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 9 
Territory but remained in their aboriginal 
area. Although less evidence is available, 
similar and probably even more extensive 
changes occurred in Chickasaw and Creek 
medicine, for these two groups emigrated to a 
different natural environment. Few will doubt 
that much change did occur in the herbal 
medicine of all these people. The point is 
that heretofore very little concrete evidence 
of change has been available. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Apair, JAMES. The history of the American In- 
dians. London, 1775. 

BusHNELL, Davin I., Jr. The Choctaw of Bayou 
Lacomb, St. Tammany Parish, Louisiana. 
Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 48. 1909. 

ByIneTon, Cyrus. A dictionary of the Choctaw 
language (edited by John R. Swanton and 
Henry 8. Halbert). Bur. Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 
46. 1915. 

CusuMAN, H. B. History of the Choctaw, Chicka- 
saw, and Natchez Indians. Greenville, Tex., 
1899. 


GrIsER, SAMUEL Woop. Naturalists of the fron- 


tier. Dallas, 1948. 

Lincecum, GrmpEoN. Autobiography of Gideon 
Lincecum. Publ. Mississippi Hist. Soc. 8: 
443-519. 1904a. 


Choctaw traditions about their settlement 
in Mississippi and the origin of their mounds. 
Publ. Mississippi Hist. Soc. 8: 521-542. 
1904b. 

Mooney, JAMES, AND OLBRECHTS, FRANS M. The 
Swimmer manuscript: Cherokee sacred for- 
mulasand medicinal prescriptions. Bur. Amer. 
Ethnol. Bull. 99. 1932. 

Oxprecuts, Frans M. Cherokee belief and prac- 
tice with regard to childbirth. Anthropos 26: 


17-33. 1931. 

Speck, Frank G. The Creek Indians of Taskigi 
town. Amer. Anthrop. Assoc. Mem. 2. 
1907a. 

———. Notes on Chickasaw ethnology and folk- 
lore. Journ. Amer. Folk-lore 20: 50-58. 
1907b. 


Swanton, Joun R. Social and religious beliefs 


and usages of the Chickasaw Indians. 44th 
Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. Ethnol.: 169-273 
1928a. 


Religious beliefs and medical practices of 
the Creek Indians. 42d Ann. Rep. Bur. Amer. 
Ethnol.: 473-672. 1928b. 

Source material for the social and cere- 
monial life of the Choctaw Indians. Bur. 
Amer. Ethnol. Bull. 103. 1981. 

Tayuor, Lypa AvreRILL. Plants used as curatives 
by certain Southeastern tribes. Cambridge, 
Mass., 1940. 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


STRIMPLE: PHANOCRINUS CYLINDRICUS 


291 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Notes on Phanocrinus cylindricus and description of new 
species of Chester crinoids. HARRELL L. SrrimpieE, Bartlesville, Okla. (Com- 


municated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


In this paper I present notes on the 
Fayetteville’ formation manifestation of 
Phanocrinus cylindricus and describe the 
following new species of Chester crinoids: 
Eupachycrinus  modernus,  Aphelecrinus 
planus, Aphelecrinus exoticus, and Scytalo- 
crinus aftonensis. 


Genus Phanocrinus Kirk, 1937 
Phanocrinus cylindricus Miller and Gurley 
Fig. 11 

The species was well defined by Miller and 
Gurley (1894) and is readily distinguished from 
other described species by the full deep calyx and 
the 10 long, slow-tapering, uniserial arms. The 
surface of the dorsal cup was said to be granular. 
Horizon was given as “Kaskaskia group,” of 
Pulaski County, Ky. 

Kirk (1937) referred the species to Phanocrinus 
and has been followed by Sutton and Hagan 
(1939) and Sutton and Winkler (1940). The later 
authors described and figured a specimen of the 
Walker Museum collection as a syntype from 
the ‘Chester series of Pulaski County, Ken- 
tucky.”’ They specified that no granulations were 
present. 

Bassler and Moodey (1943) gave a more spe- 
cifie horizon for the species as ‘“Chester-Glen 
Dean” but did not give a more specific locality. 

The author considers it a matter worth re- 
cording that specimens readily identified as P. 
cylindricus have been collected from the Fayette- 
ville formation, Chester, of Craig County, Okla., 
which decidedly show not only granulations on 
the surface of the cup plates, but also along the 
lateral sides of the axillary first primibrachials 
and the first secundibrachials. On the dorsal cup, 
granules are more prevalent on the RR and plates 
of the posterior interradius than elsewhere. On 
occasions the granules tend to become confluent 
and form irregular shaped narrow ridges. Ap- 
parently weathering, or possibly rolling about on 
the bottom of the ancient ocean, or both, had a 
tendency to obliterate the granulations except 
where protected along the impressed sutures and 
the lateral sides of the brachials. In many in- 
stances the granulations are difficult to discern 
except with the aid of low-powered magnification. 

Two well-preserved crowns of P. cylindricus 


from the Fayetteville formation of northeastern 
Oklahoma are being deposited in the U. 8. Na- 
tional Museum. The figured specimen was col- 
lected by Claude Bronaugh, of Afton, Okla. 


Genus Eupachycrinus Meek and Worthen, 1865 
Eupachycrinus modernus, n. sp. 
Figs. 6-8 

Dorsal cup is bowl-shaped, with broad basal 
concavity. Five small IBB are almost entirely 
covered by the large proximal columnal, but the 
triangular shaped extremities are visible. Five 
large BB form a good portion of the cup walls 
and curve sharply under to form also the sides 
of the basal invagination. Five large RR are 
slightly wider than long. Three large anal plates 
are present in the broad, mildly protruded pos- 
terior interradius. Anal X is hexagonal, with 
lower edge in broad contact with the truncated 
upper extremity of post. B. RA is pentagonal 
and lies obliquely on the right shoulder of post. 
B and a left facet of r. post. B. The hexagonal 
RX is directly above RA and to the right of anal 
X. All cup plates are tumid and are devoid of 
ornamentation. 

First primibrachials are wide, axillaryinallrays 
and fill the upper faces of RR. A second bifurea- 
tion takes place with the first secundibrachials 
in the anterior rays of the 1. post. and r. ant. rami 
and in the posterior ray of the r. post. ramus. 
Both the left anterior and anterior rays have 
only two arms. In proximal portions of the arms 
the arrangement is uniserial but quickly becomes 
biserial. Delicate pinnules are present. 

The proximal columnal has a mildly pentagonal 
outline and is pierced by a small pentalobate 
lumen. The anal sac is partially exposed and is 
small, round, composed of thin hexagonal plates, 
probably five to a circlet. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Holotype 
TAA, OF ClO OiOacoososesosancoamancosoaescsonx . 6.0 
Maximum width of cup..... MRI M RS © 13.5 
Heng thiotdle poston vantateatact ter dseisteircetas cctarsrare 7.7 
Widthtotalemosts2Bingnccecemmenairion en sitiecttiauntater 6.21 
Length of interbasal suture.................... ore 
ILE RY AHO OR MW, Byes Us bosoosoocanoococacr Seo ARE 4.61 
WG har Oelly Bholtty Jats 6 congcooos SunAtaNwoonoeRouCOCuSS Say 
Thength of anterradial Suture. cc. cls ccc e nee clenes ces 2:7 
Diameter of proximal colummal................... ace 


1 Measurements taken along normal curvature of plates. 


Remarks.—This species is different from nor- 
mal representatives of the genus as interpreted 
by Kirk (1937) in several respects. Typical species 
have a second bifurcation of the arms in the 
right and left anterior rays, and in the anterior 
radius only two arms are developed. In EH. mod- 
ernus the second bifuraction is in the posterior 
ray and the left anterior radius is restricted to 
two arms. Another characteristic of normal Hu- 
pachycrinus is the unusual height of the basal 
concavity and a weakness of IBB plates dis- 
closed by their normal absence. In the present 
species IBB are in place, albeit almost entirely 
covered by the proximal columnal, and the inner 
height of BB is 1.5 mm. lower than their outer 
height. 

Occurrence and horizon.—Unnamed limestone 
formation below the Fayetteville formation, 
Chester, Mississippian; railroad cut about 3 miles 
southwest of Locust Grove, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by the author. To be de- 
posited in the U.S. National Museum. 


Genus Aphelecrinus Kirk, 1944 
Aphelecrinus planus, n. sp. 
Figs. 9-11 

Dorsal cup is low cone-shaped. The holotype 
is slightly distorted by lateral compression. Five 
IBB extend only slightly beyond the large, round 
columnar scar, and are upflared. Five BB are 
large and form a good portion of the calyx walls. 
They have a pentagonal outline but actually 
possess six sides with the exception of the pos- 
terior and right posterior which each have an 
extra facet for contact with plates of the anal 
interradius. Five RR are distinctive pieces. Out- 
wardly directed articulating facets do not fill the 
width of RR and the outer faces of RR are ex- 
tended along the interradial sutures to the inner- 
most extremities of the plates. Posterior inter- 
radius is composed of three plates in normal 
(primitive) arrangement. All cup plates are un- 
ornamented. 

There is an isotomous division of the long, 
slender arms in all rays on the somewhat elongate 
first primibrachials. Another bifurcation is known 
to occur in some rays at a considerable distance 
from the cup. Nonaxillary brachials are alter- 
natingly extended as short spines so’ that one 
lateral side of each brachial is long and carries a 
stout pinnule, and the opposite side of the suc- 
ceeding brachial is elongate and pinnular bearing. 

Tegmen has not been observed. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


Holotype 
Theng thiofi crown sace.ceescr aero eee eee eas 55.5 
iHeightiofadorsalicupye er aes ees eee eee 4.3 
Maximumiswid throfecupre essen ats ene eee 10.7! 
Diameter ofscolummnar' scare. - ee eee 2.4 
Height: of lsposty Bilis. socriecslnccen le eee eC ee Ball 
Widthsof lspost-JB3. --5 iceate one eee Cee 3.2 
Icength’ of interbasal’suturey..- a )-- ere ilar 
Height oflant.iRiy.ccjo0. sc acento bee ee eRe 2.7 
Widthiofilsant. Re 28 5) Sel eee eee ee Ane @ 
Height/ofl. ants, PBr: 2. h2scet actos se ee 4.9 
Widthof l-vant: PBr: ).052552 24s. eee eee eee 4.0 
1 Distorted. 


Remarks.—A. planus appears to be more closely 
related to A. limatus Kirk (1944) than other 
described species. The latter is a smaller species, 
with more exposed IBB plates, less ornate arm 


structure and less pronounced indentation of the 


interradial areas in the upper extremity of the cup. 
Occurrence and horizon.—Approximately 5 
miles southwest of Afton, Okla.; Fayetteville 
formation, Chester, Mississippian. 
Holotype.—Collected by the author. To be de- 
posited in the U.S. National Museum. 


Aphelecrinus exoticus, n. sp. 
Fig. 5 

Dorsal cup is shallow, cone-shaped. Five IBB 
extend slightly beyond the large, round columnar 
sear and are upflared in attitude. Five BB are of 
modest size. Five RR are rather large. Articular 
facets are directed outwardly and fail to fill the 
distal faces of RR. Lateral sides of RR are curved 
sharply inward and recurve to form a flat narrow 
surface along the interradial sutures, which sur- 
face continues into the interarticular areas. Outer 
ligamental areas are strongly impressed, trans- 
verse ridges are prominent and intermuscular 
notch is pronounced. The muscle scars are shal- 
low, lacking in definition. Three anal plates oc- 
cupy the broad, protruded posterior interradius. 
Arrangement of these plates is normal (primitive) 
and RA is the most prominent. A small but well 
defined depression occurs at the proximal tip of 
each RR and extends into the interbasal areas. 
All cup plates are covered with narrow, irregular, 
elongated ridges or pustules. 

Arms and tegmen have not been observed. 


Measurements in mm.—As follows: 
Holotype 
Heightofseupy. isch. nese eo ee eee 2.5 (distorted) 


Width of dorsal cup (right post. anterior to left 


anteriomragius) sess eee eee eee 11.7 
iHeightiotel posts ee eeee eee eee rere ee erer ee 2.5 
Widthiofelsiposts2B assesses ears 3.0 
eich tiofsltsposter keer ree ee sere rere seer 2.71 
Widthioflipost-pR separ eet ee renner ere 4.6 
Width of articulating facet..................... 3.6 
Diameter of colummar scar....................- 202 


1 To outer lip of ligamental furrow. 


SEPTEMBER 1951 STRIMPLE: PHANOCRINUS CYLINDRICUS 293 


Fies. 1-4.—Scytalocrinus aftonensis, n. sp.: 1, 2, Paratype from basal and posterior; 3, 4, holotype 
from right posterior and anterior, X 2. Fie. 5.—Aphelecrinus exoticus, n. sp.: Holotype from 
base, X 1.8. Fias. 6-8.—Ewpachycrinus modernus, n.sp.: Holotype from base, anterior and posterior, 
x 2. Fias. 9-11.—Aphelecrinus planus, n. sp.: Holotype from base and anterior (Figs. 9 and 10 are 
enlarged X 1.8 and have been separated from the distal portions of the arms; Fig. ll is X 1.4, show- 
ing the entire specimen). Fra. 12.—Phanocrinus cylindricus (Miller and Gurley): Left posterior view 
of specimen from the Fayetteville formation, X 1.8. 


294 


Remarks.—A. exoticus differs from other de- 
scribed species in the unusual depression of inter- 
radial sutures, dimplelike depressions at the 
proximal extremities of RR and in having spec- 
tacular ornamentation of cup plates. 

Occurrence and horizon.—Approximately 5 
miles southwest of Afton, Okla.; Fayetteville 
formation, Chester, Mississippian. 

Holotype.—Collected by the author. To be de- 
posited in the U.S. National Museum. 


Genus Scytalocrinus Wachsmuth and 
Springer, 1880 
Scytalocrinus aftonensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-4 

The crown is slender, long, and compact. Dor- 
sal cup is truncate cone-shaped. Five IBB form 
a subhorizontal plane about the columnar scar 
with distal extremities curved upward to slightly 
participate in lateral walls of the cup. Five BB 
are wide, hexagonal except for posterior and right 
posterior BB, which each have an extra facet for 
contact with anal plates. Five RR are wide, 
pentagonal plates with subhorizontal articulating 
facets filling their distal faces. Outer ligamental 
notches are deep and wide. Transverse ridges are 
well defined and the muscle scars are moderately 
deep. Adsutural slopes are steep. The posterior 
interradius is rather narrow and the three rela- 
tively small anal plates are in normal (primitive) 
arrangement. 

There are 10 cuneiform arms branching isot- 
omously with the first primibrachial in all rays. 
The surfaces of the arms are well rounded, and 
there is no sharp angulation between the outer 
areas and the lateral sides. Each secundibrachial 
bears a pinnule. 

The columnar scar is circular in outline, slopes 
strongly to the lumen and is heavily crenulated. 
The lumen appears to be pentalobate. The entire 
crown 1s devoid of ornamentation. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Para- Holo 

type type 
Heishtroridorsaltcupiecs-ere terete ene eee 6.5 4.5 
WERSIEN HIN Ve). OC? ObVDadosoccangsancccassounss 11.6 8.7 
Jataany OF, joGNs Wy -scescscasscapdedsoae Siena x's 2.8 2.5 
Widthio fale posta) Dasa ses rrr errr rr eee 3.5 2.8 
Length of interbasal suture..................... 1.6 1.5 
Hleiehtio flan teak eee er ere reer 3.1 2.8 
Vilsiokiey OF 1G Ghetin We no oe coccoas Wy Sa 6.0 4.2 
Length of interradial suture.................... 2.2 2.0 
Diametenotcolummariscany jc eee eee 2.8 2.8 


Remarks.—S. aftonensis is most readily sepa- 
rable from other described species in the nature 
of the IBB plates, which form a subhorizontal 
platform about the concave columnar scar, then 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


flex sharply upward in distal portions to partici- 
pate in the lateral calyx walls. 

S. validus, the genotype species, has IBB that 
do not participate in the lateral cup walls and 
often the anterior ramus fails to bifurcate. 

Hypselocrinus Kirk (1940) has upflared IBB, 

but they rise directly from the columnar scar. 
In the shape of the cup, therefore, the Fayette- 
ville species appears to occupy an intermediate 
position between the two genera. 
_ The irregular length of the axillary PBrBr is 
comparable to that found in Apographiocrinus 
typicalis Moore and Plummer as presented by 
the author (1938) under the name Graphiocrinus 
carbonarius. The height of these plates in mm is: 
l. ant. 3.8, 1. post. 4.3, ant. 4.7, r. ant. 3.5, and 
r. post. 4.6. 

Occurrence and horizon—Approximately 5 
miles southwest of Afton, Okla.; Fayetteville 
formation, Chester, Mississippian. 

Types.—Collected by Mrs. Hazel Bronaugh, 
of Afton, Okla. To be deposited in the U. S. 
National Museum. 


REFERENCES 


Basser, R.S., and Moopry, MARGARET W. Bzib- 
liographic and faunal index of Paleozoic Pelma- 
tozoan Echinoderms. Geol. Soc. Amer. Spec. 
Pap. 45. 1943. 

Kirk, Epwin. Eupachycrinus and related Car- 
boniferous crinoid genera. Journ. Pal. 11. 
1937. 


Seven new genera of Carboniferous Crnot- 
dea Inadunata. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 
30: 321-334. 1937. 

Aphelecrinus, a new inadunate crinoid 
genus from the upper Mississippian. Amer. 
Journ. Sci. 242: 190-203, pl. 1. 1944. 

Merk, F. B., and WortHEN, A.H. Descriptions 
of new crinoids from the Carboniferous rocks of 
Illinois and some of the adjoining States. 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1865: 159. 

Mriuer, 8. A., and Guruny, Wn. F. E. New 
genera and species of Echinodermata. Llinois 
State Mus. Bull. 5: 38-39, pl. 3, figs. 19-21. 
1894. 

StrRimPLE, Harrett L. A group of crinoids from 
the Pennsylvanian of northeastern Oklahoma. 
4-6, pl.1, figs.1-11. Priv. Publ., Bartlesville, 
Okla. 1988. 

Surron, A. H., and Hacan, WaAtiace W. In- 
adunate crinoids of the Mississiuppian—Zea- 
erinus. Journ. Pal. 13: 83. 1939. 

, and WINKLER, VirGIL D. Mississippian 
Inadunata—Eupachyecrinus and related forms. 
Journ. Pal. 14: 553-554, pl. 66, figs. 11-12. 
1940. 

WacusmucH, C., and Sprineer, F. Revision of 
the Palaeocrinidae, pt. 1. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 1879: 226-378, pl. 15-17. 1880. 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


REEDER: NEW 


SPECIES OF POA 295 


BOTANY.—A new species of Poa from Peru. JoHN R. ReepER, Yale University. 
(Communicated by Jason R. Swallen.) 


In the spring of 1947 a small bundle of 
grasses was received from Dr. O. P. Pearson, 
now at the University of California. They 
were part of a collection of plants made by 
Dr. Pearson and his wife, in the region of 
Lake Titicaca in southern Peru. Among them 
were two collections of a species apparently 
undescribed. A description of this species is 
given below. Specimens are deposited in the 
Herbarium of Yale University, with dupli- 
cates in the United States National Herbar- 
jum and the Academy of Natural Sciences of 
Philadelphia. The type is at Yale. 

Poa pearsonii sp. nov. 

Perennis, dense caespitosa; innovationibus et 
basibus culmorum vaginis vetustioribus subcor 
aceis fuscis vel fulvis dense vestitis; culmis- 
erectis ad 50 cm altis gracilibus teretibus vel 
subcompressis scabris circiter 0.8 mm diametro, 
binodis, nodis in 4 inferiore culmi sitis; vaginis 
artis quam internodiis plerumque longioribus sub- 
compressis scabris; ligula lanceolata acuminata, 
10-15 mm longa; laminis anguste linearibus in- 


volutis setaceis vel subjunceis, 0.8-1 mm diametro, 
eis innovationum culmis subaequalibus, eis 
summum culmi versus circiter 5-8 cm longis 
scabris sectione transversa ovalibus 7-nerviis, 
nervo mediano solo prominente; paniculis pyra- 
midalibus subpatentibus, 10-12 cm longis, axi 
scaberula, ramis capillaribus nutantibus, inferi- 
ore 7-8 cm longo, ad 2 longitudinis nudis, apicem 
versus spiculis instructis, ramis secundariis simi- 
libus sed solo 4-3 longitudinis nudis, omnibus 
4—6-spiculatis, pedicellis brevissimis clavatis scab- 
ris; spiculis ellipticis confertifloris 5-6 mm. 
longis praecipue 3-floris (raro 2-floris), flore basali 
hermaphrodito, floribus superiorbus femineis cum 
staminodiis minutis (raro floribus omnibus femi- 
neis), rachillae internodiis brevissimis, flore se- 
cundo a basali vix separato; glumis acutissimis 
membranaceis laevibus, margine hyalinis; gluma 
prima 4—4.5 mm longa, uninervia, gluma secunda 
circiter 5 mm longa, quam flore contiguo paullo 
breviore; lemmatibus omnino similibus ovato- 
lanceolatis acutis, infimo 4.5 mm longo, superi- 
oribus decrescentibus, dorso et latere scaberulis, 


Fra. 1.—Ligules and spikelets, X 5: A, Poa asperiflora; B, Poa pearsonti. Note that in A the ligule is 
short, the lemmas are prominently nerved, and the florets are separated by rather long rachilla joints. 
In B, the ligule is very long, the lemmas are obscurely nerved, and the rachilla joint between the first 
and second florets is so short that these florets appear to be borne at about the same level. 


2 


296 


5-nerviis, nervis lateralibus obscuris quam lem- 
mate brevioribus, callo glabro, carina basim 
versus puberula; palea quam lemmate paullo 
breviore, minute bidentata, carinis scabris; an- 
theris in flore basali circiter 3 mm longis. 

DEPARTMENT OF PuNo: Cerro Ichuasi, Cocca- 
chara, southwest of Llave, alt. about 4850 
m, O. P. & A. Pearson 91 (TYPE), November 22, 
1946 (growing in gravelly soil at bottom of cliffs 
and alongside boulders; plants erect, in clumps, 
25-50 em tall). 

The new species is apparently closely related 
to Poa asperiflora Hack., the type of which was 
collected in Bolivia on Titicaca Island at some- 
what lower elevations. It differs from that species 
in having a much longer ligule, 2-noded culms 
and 3-flowered (rarely 2-flowered) spikelets in 
which the rachilla joints are very short, the sec- 
ond floret being scarcely raised above the basal 
one, the joint between the second and third 
floret somewhat longer. In P. asperiflora the 
ligule is about 4 mm long, the spikelets are pre- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 9 
dominantly 4-flowered (rarely 3-flowered), and 
the florets are separated by distinct rachilla 
joints, these 1-34 the length of the florets. A 
further difference is seen in the florets, those of 
P. pearson tending to be somewhat larger and 
with obscurely nerved lemmas. The lemmas of 
P. asperiflora are very prominently nerved. 

A second collection, 0. P. & A. Pearson 93, 
from about the same location as the type but on 
a dry slope, appears to represent the new species. 
The spikelets are identical except that the florets 
are pistillate rather than perfect. The leaves are 
all distinctly shorter than the culm, and the 
culm seems to be 1-noded rather than 2-noded 
as in the type. 

I wish to thank Jason R. Swallen, head curator, 
Department of Botany, United States National 
Museum, who kindly lent a type duplicate of Poa 
asperiflora Hack., and who also examined the 
Pearson specimens and confirmed my opinion 
that they represent an undescribed species. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—New species of Olethreutidae from Argentina (Lepidoptera). 
J. F. Gates Cuarke, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. 


The following species of olethreutid moths 
are described from specimens submitted by 
Dr. Kenneth J. Hayward, Institute Miguel 
Lillo, Tucuman, and Mr. Fernando Bour- 
quin of Buenos Aires, Argentina. This is 
the fourth! in a series of papers dealing with 
Microlepidoptera from Argentina. 

The photographs for this paper were taken 
by Robert Bonde, U.S. Department of Agri- 
culture. Drawings by the author. 


Anchylopera plumbata, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, 7, 8. 


Alar expanse, 11-13 mm. 

Labial palpus with second segment greenish 
gray, with a sordid whitish transverse band 
exteriorly and a spot of the same color interiorly; 
apex of second and third segment rust color. 
Antenna rust color. Head, thorax, and ground 


color of forewing greenish gray; dorsal half of 

1 Notes on South American Tortricidae. Acta 
Zool. Lilloana 7: 579-588, 3 pls. 1949. 

Two new genera and three new species of Micro- 
lepidoptera from Argentina (Gelechiidae). Journ. 
Washington Acad. Sci. 40: 285-289, illus. 1950. 

New species of Gelechiidae from Argentina (Lepi- 
doptera). Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 41: 140- 
142, illus. 1951. 


wing from base to tornus rich dark brown, the 
area narrower at base and tornus than at middle, 
entire costa marked with short, oblique, dark- 
brown streaks alternating with similar metallic 
ones; from center of costa an accentuated dark- 
brown streak continuing to and confluent with a 
narrow triangular dark-brown area, the latter 
bounded by a narrow metallic lime; on costa, 
before apex, a white lunate streak; inner contour 
of apex and termen fuscous edged interiorly with 
a narrow, broken, white line; cilia from pale 
grayish in tornal area to fuscous at apex with 
the central portion metallic. Hindwmg lght 
brown; cilia slightly lighter. Legs whitish, the 
fore- and midlegs strongly suffused with fuscous. 

Male genttalia.—As figured. 

Female gentalia.—As figured. 

Type.—U.S. N. M. no. 61080. 

Type locality —Tigre, Argentina. 

Remarks.—Described from the type male and 
four male and female paratypes from the type 
locality, all reared by Fernando Bourquin, who 
will publish the life history. Paratypes in the 
U. S. National Museum and Mr. Bourquin’s 
collection, Buenos Aires. 

The pattern of plumbata is similar to many 
other species in this genus, but there are no 
known close relatives. 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


Episimus unguiculus, n. sp. 
Figs. 2, 11, 12. 


Alar expanse, 15-17 mm. 

Labial palpus with second segment purplish 
fuscous basally, brownish distally; third segment 
purplish fuscous. Antenna fuscous, scape brown. 
Head mixed brown and purplish fuscous, gray 
posteriorly. Thorax brown anteriorly followed by 


CLARKE: NEW SPECIES OF OLETHREUTIDAE 


297 


a gray transverse band, the latter followed by 
brown and purplish fuscous mixed. Forewing 
with purplish-fuscous ground color crossed basally 
with obscure brown, transverse lines; costa, from 
base to slightly before middle, marked with 
small fuscous spots; from slightly before middle 
of costa to apex a series of leaden-metallic, tawny- 
edged, oblique streaks, the second, third, and 


e . . . . . . . 
Frias. 1-6.—1, Anchylopera plumbata, n. sp., right wings; 2, Hpisimus unguicutus, n. sp., right wings; 
3, Cryptophlebia carpophagoides, n. sp., right wings of male; 4, same, right wings of female; 5, C. carpo- 
phaga Walsingham, right wings of male; 6, same, right wings of female. 


298 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 9 


fourth confluent and continuing as a single streak 
to termen just below apex; alternating with the 
metallic streaks narrow triangular fuscous spots 
along costa; from dorsum, before middle, a fus- 
cous line extending toward fold where it broadens 


q 


5 
up 


i by 


SS 


into a rectangular, tawny-edged, fuscous patch; 
at outer third a fuscous shade, mixed with tawny 
scales, extending from tornus to middle of wing 
where it broadens and then becomes attenuated 
toward costa and apex; this shade followed by a 


Fries. 7-13.—7, Anchylopera plumbata, n. sp., ventral aspect of male genitalia with right harpe re- 
moved; 8, same, ventral view of female genitalia with ovipositor removed; 9, Cryptophlebia carpopha- 
goides, n. sp., ventral view of male genitalia with right harpe removed; 10, same, ventral view of female 
genitalia with ovipositor removed; 11, Hpistmus plumbata, n. sp., ventral view of male genitalia with 
right harpe removed; 12, same, ventral view of female genitalia with ovipositor removed; 13, Crypto- 
phlebia carpophaga Walsingham, ventral view of female genitalia with ovipositor removed. 


SEPTEMBER 1951 CLARKE: NEW 
transverse band of leaden-metallic scales, the 
latter followed by tawny; at upper angle of cell 
a leaden-metallic spot bounded by white; ocel- 
loid area consisting of two short, black longitudi- 
nal dashes followed by a small transverse patch 
of silvery-metallic scales; the silvery-metallic 
patch bounded exteriorly by white scales; cilia 
tawny except those opposite veins 3-5, which are 
leaden. Hindwing fuscous; cilia light fuscous ex- 
cept those between vein two and apex, which are 
tawny with a light fuscous subbasal band. Legs 
ocherous-white strongly suffused and banded with 
fuscous. : 

Male genitalia. —As figured. 

Female gentalia.—As figured. 

Type.—U. 8. N. M. no. 61082. 

Type locality —Tigre, Argentina. 

Remarks.—Described from the type female 
and three male and female paratypes (the para- 
types are in poor condition), from the type 
locality and all reared by Fernando Bourquin, 
who will publish the hfe history. Paratypes in 
the U. 8. National Museum and Mr. Bourquin’s 
collection, Buenos Aires. 

This and the North American species E. argu- 
tanus (Clemens) are very closely related. The 
harpe of wngwiculus is broader and more robust, 
and the spine cluster is nearly twice as large as 
that of argutanus. The female genitalia demon- 
strate extremely close affinity, the chief differ- 
ence being that the ostium of argutanus is rec- 
tangular. The color and markings of the two are 
strikingly similar, but wnguiculus differs from 
argutanus by the strong dorsal mark, the tawny 
terminal area, and the reduction of the white 
scaling before termen. 


Cryptophlebia carpophagoides, n. sp. 
Figs. 3, 4, 9, 10 


Alar expanse 20-24 mm. 

Labial palpus brownish buff to fuscous usually 
edged with blackish fuscous above. Antenna 
fuscous with slightly paler, narrow annulations. 
Head and thorax brownish buff to blackish fus- 
cous; tegula warm buff to grayish buff, apex 
blackish fuscous. Forewing light grayish buff; in 
male costa suffused with fuscous with faint sug- 
gestion of alternating small fuscous and semi- 
metallic spots; from costa at four-fifths a slightly 
curved fuscous line, mingled with black and 
semimetallic scales, extending to slightly beyond 
middle of termen, this line less pronounced in 
the female; between this line and apex two ob- 


SPECIES OF OLETHREUTIDAE 


299 


scure, short brownish lines; dorsum _ blackish 
fuscous from base to middle; on tornus a short, 
oblique black dash, more pronounced and larger 
in female than in male and edged with brown 
below and above in female; apical half of ground 
color sparsely irrorate with black. In the female 
the whole pale ground color obscured by brown 
and dark fuscous with a patch of gray-tipped 
scales before the tornal dash, and dull leaden 
patches scattered in apical half; cilia leaden. 
Hindwing fuscous, paler basally; cilia pale fus- 
cous with darker subbasal line. Legs buff more 
or less suffused and banded with fuscous. Abdo- 
men brownish above, buff beneath suffused with 
fuscous. 

Male genitalia.—As figured. 

Female genitalia.—As figured. 

Type.—U. 8. N. M. no. 61081. 

Type locality —Tucuman, Argentina. 

Food plant.—Seeds of ‘“pacard.”’ 

Remarks.—Described from the type male and 
six male and female paratypes from the type 
locality, all reared by Dr. Kenneth J. Hayward 
of Tucumdn. Emergence dates are not indicated 
on the pin labels. Paratypes in the U. 8. National 
Museum and the Instituto Miguel Lillo, Tucu- 
man, Argentina. 

This is the first record of the occurrence of 
the genus Cryptophlebia in the New World, and, 
although this species differs in several respects 
from the type of the genus, C. carpophaga Wal- 
singham, there is no doubt about the relationship. 

The male genitalia of both species are strik- 
ingly similar, and both bear the three large, 
strong setae on the harpe, as figured, but carpo- 
phaga lacks the smaller setae between the three 
large ones. In the female of carpophagoides there 
is a strongly sclerotized area on the anterior edge 
of the seventh sternite, but in carpophaga (Fig. 
13) it is longitudinal and divided as illustrated. 
Female genitalia figured from a Guam specimen. 

The male of carpophagoides lacks the special- 
ized sex-scaling of the hindwing found in car- 
pophaga and also lacks the ridge of long dorsal 
hairlike scales of the abdomen; also the tufting 
of the hindleg is less pronounced in carpophag- 
oides than in carpophaga. Both species feed in 
the seeds of their hosts. 

NOTE 

In my article New species of Gelechiidae from 
Argentina (Lepidoptera), Journ. Washington 
Acad. Sci. 41: 140, 1951, I omitted the type 
locality for Parastega hemisigna Clarke, which 
should have been given as “Tigre, Argentina.” 


300 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Ficalbia minima (Theobald) in South Indochina, with descrip- 
tions of the larva and pupa (Diptera: Culicidae).! Harry D. Prarr. (Communi- 


cated by C. W. Sabrosky.) 


About 25 years ago Dr. Emile Borel began 
a mosquito survey of South Indochina, which 
culminated in the publication of his mono- 
graph ‘‘Les Moustiques de la Cochinchine et 
du Sud-Annam.”’ Although Borel reported 
some 89 species and 16 genera of mosquitoes 
from South Indochina, neither he nor later 
French entomologists appear to have col- 
lected mosquitoes in the genus Ficalbia in 
South Indochina. Similarly neither Barraud 
(1934) nor any of the World War II mos- 
quito control workers appear to have figured 
all stages of Ficalbia minima (Theobald), 
the type species of the genus Ficalbia, al- 
though Iyengar (1935) and his coworkers did 
collect and rear all stages of this mosquito 
in India. F. minima is reported from India, 
Assam, Borneo, and Hong Kong by Barraud 
(1934) and from Tonkin (or North Indo- 
china) by Galliard and Ngu (1949). The 
finding of minima at Saigon now extends its 
southeastern distribution considerably. The 
present paper gives a description of the pupa, 
which hitherto was undescribed, together 
with a redescription of the larva and notes 
on the breeding habitat. 


Pupa.—The pupa of F. minima is quite dis- 
tinct from the other species in the genus. The 
pupal trumpet (Fig. 1, F) is normal, with a cleft 
on one side slightly more than halfway to the 
base. It is not modified at all for piercing the 
roots of aquatic plants to obtain air as in Ficalbia 
chamberlaint. Unlike most species in the genus, 
the first segment of the abdomen (Fig. 1, G) 
has a well-developed pair of dendritic tufts or 
“float hairs.’ The paddles at the tip of the ab- 
domen have the usual spines along the latero- 
posterior margin. The paddles are of rather 
normal shape, not long and narrow as the Ficalbia 
fusca or Ficalbia luzonensis (cf. figures 24b, c¢, e, 
and g in Barraud, 19384). 

Larva.—The larva of F. minima is very dis- 
tinct on a number of characters. The preclypeal 
spines of the head (fig. 1, A, B) have a number of 
fine denticles at the base, a character found in 


_ | From the Communicable Disease Center, Pub- 
lic Health Service, Federal Security Agency, 
Atlanta, Ga. 


only a few other mosquito larvae, such as Aedes 
(Howardina) walkeri Theobald, and certain other 
species of mosquitoes breeding in bromeliads. 
The antenna (Fig. 1, A) is rather unusual in 
having the two long subapical hairs placed a 
considerable distance from the tip of the antennal 
shaft. In this respect the antenna is rather inter- 
mediate between the antenna of a typical Culex 
and a typical Mansonia. The air tube (Fig. 
1, D) has the hair tuft inserted near the base 
rather than near the middle as in the other 
species of Ficalbia. This causes the species to 
run to Theobaldia or Hodgesia in the key of 
Barraud (1934, p. 33) even though the larva 
agrees in all other significant details with Bar- 
raud’s figure of minima. There are only two 
pecten spines on the air tube itself (Fig. 1, D, 
FE) and six comb scales. The comb scales (Fig. 
1, C) of the Saigon specimens do not show the 
fine lateral denticulation of Barraud’s figure 
(1934, fig. 27C). The Saigon specimens therefore 
agree better with the specimens from Tonkin 
reported by Galliard and Ngu (1949) in having 
smooth comb scales than they do with those from 
Hong Kong described by Barraud (1934) which 
have the comb scales with fine lateral denticles. 

Biology —On November 23 and 24, 1950, lar- 
vae and pupae of F. minima were found in the 
Botanical Garden in Saigon, Indochina, by the 
author and Dr. Le Du. The larvae were found 
in a densely shaded pool of cool, clear water con- 
taining large amounts of submerged aquatic vege- 
tation, which appeared to be Ceratophyllum and 
floating duckweeds similar to Lemna. No water- 
lettuce (Pistia) was in the pool, although Lyengar 
(1935) and Galliard and Ngu (1949) have re- 
ported that in India and in Tonkin this species 
is found only in pools with that plant. They 
attributed this restricted habitat to the fact 
that F. minima lays its eggs on parts of the 
leaves of Pistia that overhang the water surface. 
The larvae were not abundant, averaging about 
one in every ten dips. Associated mosquito larvae 
were Anopheles barbirostris, Culex (Mochthogenes) 
malayt, and a species of Culex near vishnut. 
None of the larvae could be reared to the adult 
stage, but two of the pupae produced females 
that agree with the description of F. minima 
in Barraud (1934). 


SEPTEMBER 1951 PRATT: FICALBIA MINIMA 301 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS Cooperation Administration. He wishes to 
. : . acknowledge the kind assistance of Dr. H. 

The collections in Saigon were made while 4 “ 5 
. B Marneffe and M. P. Martin, of the Pasteur 


the writer was assigned as a malaria con- — Institute of Saigon, for the privilege of work- 
= Q C Nava oe F 5p! . : : : 

sultant with the Special Technical and Eco- ing in their excellent library and laboratory. 

nomic Mission to Vietnam of the Economic Dr. Alan Stone, of the U. 8. Bureau of 


TE 


Fia. 1.—Structures of Ficalbia minima (Theobald): A, Head of larva, dorsal view; B, preelypeal 
spines of larva, dorsal view; C, comb seale of eighth abdominal segment, larva; D, terminal abdominal 
segments of larva; E, pecten tooth of arva; F, pupal trumpet; G, abdomen of pupa. 


302 


Entomology and Plant Quarantine, has 
checked the determination of the adult fe- 
male and larva of Ff. minima. One adult, one 
pupa, and one larva have been deposited in 
the collections of the U.S. National Museum 
and the Communicable Disease Center, At- 
lanta, Ga. The drawings were made by C. J. 
Stojanovich. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Barraup, P. J. The fauna of British India: Diptera 
5 (family Culicidae, tribes Megarhinini and 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


Culicini): xxviii + 463 pp., illus. London 
1934. 

Borex, Emrue. 1930. Les moustiques de la Cochin- 
chine et du Sud-Annam. Coll. Soc. Pathologie 
Exotique Monogr. III: 423 pp., illus. Paris, 
1930. 

GauuiarD, H., and Neu, D. V. Culicines du Ton- 
kin, les genre Ficalbia et Mochtogenes. Ann. 
Parasit. Humaine et Compar. 24 (5/6): 495- 
502. 1949. 

Iyencar, M. O. T. Biology of Indian mosquito lar- 
vae that attach themselves to the roots of water 
plants. Proc. Roy. Ent. Soc. London 10 (pt. 1): 
9-11. 1935. 


ZOOLOGY .—Bostrichobranchus digonas, a@ new molgulid ascidian from Florida. 
Donatp P. Assorr, Hopkins Marine Station, Stanford University. (Com- 


municated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) 


The common American east-coast as- 
cidian Bostrichobranchus pilularis (Verrill), 
1871, has a single gonad, situated on the 
left side of the body. Van Name (1921) re- 
ported examining a single specimen of this 
species, taken in St. George Sound, Fla., 
which was “unique in having a gonad on 
each side of the body.” This unique speci- 
men has been commented on (but not re- 
examined) by Hartmeyer (1923), Arnback 
(1928), and Van Name (1945), all of whom 
have regarded it either as a reversion to an 
ancestral 2-gonad condition or as an indi- 
vidual aberration. Were it not for new 
evidence, presented below, the present writer 
would concur with the above treatment of 
this specimen. 

Recently an opportunity arose to examine 
a series of specimens found stranded on the 
sandy beach along the Peace River estu- 
ary, Charlotte Harbor, Fla., about 20 miles 
from the Gulf of Mexico. According to the 
collector, J. C. Galloway, of Punta Gorda, 
Fla., the stranded ascidians formed a belt 
on the shore 4 to 6 inches wide and about 
100 yards long, and included many thou- 
sands of individuals. Twenty-one  speci- 
mens of the collection, as well as supple- 
mentary and comparative materials, were 
placed at my disposal for study through the 
kindness of Dr. Fenner A. Chace, Jr., of the 
Division of Marine Invertebrates, United 
States National Museum. Investigation of 
the 21 individuals from Charlotte Harbor, 
all of which bore two gonads, and re-examin- 
ation of Van Name’s unique specimen from 
St. George Sound show that these ascidians 


represent a previously undescribed species of 
Bostrichobranchus, closely related to B. pilu- 
laris but unequivocally distinct from it. 


Class ASCIDIACEA 
Order STOLIDOBRANCHIA 


Family MOLGULIDAE Forbes and Hanley, 1848 
Bostrichobranchus digonas, n. sp. 


Bostrichobranchus pilularis Van Name, 1921, p. 
478 (only the specimen from St. George Sound, 
Fla., with a gonad on each side of body); 1945 
p. 441(only the specimen from St. George Sound, 
Fla., with a gonad on each side of body). 


Dimensions.—For 12 well-expanded, turgid 
specimens the external dimensions of the tunic 
(here, as elsewhere, the mean is followed by the 
range in parentheses) were: Height 17 (12-20) 
mm; length 18 (15-20) mm; width 7 (4-10) mm. 

External appearance—Body oval and some- 
what laterally compressed, the siphons rather 
short and contracted in most specimens; tunic 
almost completely free of sand, mud, and other 
debris, its surface relatively smooth and bearing 
scattered small tendrils, or minute papillae prob- 
ably representing broken tendrils (specimens were 
washed ashore and probably somewhat worn 
externally); tunic membranous and free of 
wrinkles in most areas, somewhat thicker and 
bearing circular wrinkles on and about the bases 
of the siphons. 

Apertures.—Oral aperture with six lobes, atrial 
aperture with four. 

Mantle——Thin, delicate, and transparent in 
most areas; muscle fibers arranged into con- 
spicuous bundles only on the siphons, where they 
constitute the radial and circular muscles (Fig. 1); 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


radial or siphon retractor muscles consist of stout 
bundles running along the siphons to termimate 
at or slightly below their bases; a single individual 
out of 22 examined bore radial muscles grouped 
into thick bands corresponding with the lobes of 
the apertures; circular or siphon constrictor mus- 
cles present, these, when contracted, creating one 
or more distinct circular grooves around each 
siphon; a short series of transverse bundles over- 
lies the dorsal intersiphonal area; occasional 
bundles occur elsewhere, laterally and ventrally, 
but these are generally so small, few in number, 


ABBOTT: BOSTRICHOBRANCHUS DIGONAS 


303 


widely separated, and inconspicuous as to be 
easily overlooked. 

Tentacles —Compound to branches of the third 
order on the largest tentacles; two-thirds of 18 
individuals examined showed only three orders of 
tentacles, one-third possessed small fourth order 
tentacles as well; total numer of tentacles, count- 
ing all four orders = 23 (17-34), counting only 
three orders = 20 (13-29); basic number of 
tentacles of each order apparently either 5-5-10 
or 6-6-12, the alternatives appearing in about 
equal numbers; distribution pattern basically 


5.0 mm. 


5 
BS 
6 


Fras. 1-4.—B. digonas, n. sp.: 1, With the tunic removed, viewed from the right side; 2, dorsal tuber- 
cle; 3, medial view of digestive tract, left gonad, and atrial aperture; 4, medial view of right gonad. 


’ 


304 


-|-3-2-3-1- where three orders are present, and 
-|-4-3-4-2-4-3-4-1- where four orders occur; regu- 
larity of this pattern varies from perfect to rather 
poor, but pattern is regular in at least parts of 
the tentacular rigs of all specimens. 

Dorsal tubercle-—In 21 specimens examined the 
aperture was a U-shaped slit, with the horns 
sufficiently inrolled to form approximately a full 
circle at either end of the slit (Fig. 2); open 
interval directed anteriorly and usually inclined 
slightly toward the left. 

Dorsal lamina.—Rather narrow anteriorly, 
gradually broadening posteriorly and _ passing 
some distance to the left of the esophageal open- 
ing to terminate near the “hepatic” region of the 
stomach; free margin smooth or slightly undulat- 
ing; internal longitudinal vessels of the left side 
curve medially and join the base of the lamina. 

Pharynx.—Without folds, but always with 
seven ribbonlike internal longitudinal vessels and 
five transverse vessels on each side; pharyngeal 
wall bearing many spirals varying from small, 
flat coils to very elongate, conical infundibula; 
each infundibulum’ composed of two uninter- 
rupted, spirally intertwined stigmata separated 
at the apex; each stigma on the more elongate 
infudibula coiled six to eight turns; spirals gener- 
ally about 15 (7-29) per mesh for the central 
fields between fifth and seventh internal longi- 
tudinal vessels (based on 85 fields counted in 17 
specimens) ; infundibula numerous and irregularly 
distributed in all individuals examined, making it 
very difficult to distinguish primary and acces- 
sory spirals with any certainty. 

Digestive tract—Hsophageal aperture situated 
about halfway posteriorly on the pharynx; 
esophagus short; stomach in two divisions, an 
upper globular portion communicating with 
esophagus and intestine and bearing seven or 
eight doubled and somewhat irregular folds as 
seen from its medial surface, and a lower portion, 
twisted posteriorly to form a small, blind “he- 
patie” sac ventral to the main gastric chamber; 
intestine forms a rather small, open primary 
loop, the descendmg hmb returning to contact 
the proximal intestine and the rectum rising in 
contact with the stomach; rectum terminates 
near the branchio-esophageal junction im an anus 
whose margin bears numerous small and often 
irregularly distributed teeth. 

Renal organ.—Bean-shaped, lying posteroven- 
tral to the gonad on the right side, its posterior 
end contacting the stomach wall. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


Gonads——Each of the 22 specimens examined 
bore a complete set of reproductive organs on 
each side of the body, the left gonad lying largely 
in the primary intestinal loop (Fig. 3); ovary on 
either side tubular in outline, narrowing at its 
posterior end into a short oviduct directed to- 
ward the atrial aperture; inner surface of mantle 
in the vicinity of the oviducal aperture bears a 
conspicuous circular path of delicate tendrils 
(Figs. 3, 4) probably aiding in the retention of 
eggs and embryos which are brooded in the atrial 
cavity; male glands arranged about the margin of 
each ovary, in a series of two to twelve clusters of 
lobulate testes; clusters may be clearly separated 
or sufficiently closely placed to form a more or 
less continuous border about the more anterior 
portions of each ovary; efferent ducts.from each 
cluster of testes join those of adjacent clusters 
and run centripetally to the base of the single, 
large common spermatic duct which rises from 
near the center of the medial wall of each ovary 
to project freely as an erect, elongate, finger-like 
process into the atrium (Figs. 3, 4); in a single 
specimen the common spermatic duct of the left 
side was bifurcate; eggs present in the atria of 
all specimens from Charlotte Harbor (collected 
January 29, 1938), lying free or enmeshed in the 
mantle tendrils about the oviduct; eggs encased 
within 12- or 14-sided polyhedral membranes 
(whether this shape is natural or the result of 
preservation is uncertain); diameter of egg within 
polyhedral casing 0.19 (0.17-0.21) mm; atria in a 
few individuals contain embryos and other stages 
up to young prefunctional oozooids; tadpole stage 
absent in development. 

Specimens examined and compared (all depos- 
ited in the U. S. National Museum), as follows: 

B. digonas: 1 type and 20 paratypes, found 
stranded on the beach along the Peace River 
estuary, Charlotte Harbor, Fla., about 20 miles 
from the Gulf of Mexico, roughly at lat. 26°58’ 
N., long. 82°02’ W., U.S.N.M. nos. 10976 (holo- 
type) and 10977-10978 (paratypes). One speci- 
men, from St. George Sound, Fla., U.S.N.M. 
no. 7242 (this is the specimen with two gonads 
referred to by Van Name, 1921 and 1945). 

B. pilularis: 11 specimens, from off Marthas 
Vineyard, 63 fathoms, U.S.N.M. no. 4940. Seven 
specimens, from Long Island Sound, 8 fathoms, 
U.S.N.M. no. 5014. One specimen, from off north- 
west end of St. Martins Reef, Florida banks, near 
lat. 28°50’ N., long. 83° W., U.S.N.M. no. 7229. 
One specimen, from off Georgia, 10 fathoms, lat. 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


Mantle musculature 


Dorsal tubercle 


Gonads 


Feature 


B. digonas 


Muscle bundles absent laterally 
and along endostyle, or if present 
very sparse, weak, and incon- 
spicuous. 


With the horns of the slit inrolled 
approximately one full turn at 
each end. 


Always present on both sides of 
body. 

Anterior closed end of left ovary 
reaching only half to two-thirds 
of the way up to inner peak of pri- 
mary intestinal loop. 

Testes usually arranged in separate 
clusters; these are sometimes 
closely apposed to form a more or 
less continuous series about the 
more anterior portions of ovi- 
duct. 

Inner surface of mantle surround- 
ing oviducal aperture bearing a 
conspicuous circular patch of fine 
tendrils. 

Efferent ducts from clusters of 
testes run centripetally and unite 
to form a single, erect, fingerlike 
common spermatic duct project- 
ing freely into atrial cavity on 
each side. 


ABBOTT: BOSTRICHOBRANCHUS DIGONAS 305 


B. pilularis 


A row of short, stout, numerous, 
and conspicuous muscle bundles 
present on each side of body 
along endostyle and running at 
right angles to latter; a series of 
short muscle bundles running 
parallel with the circular muscles 
of the siphons extends downward 
on each side of body from atrial 
siphon. 

With horns of the slit not incurved 
save in large individuals, and 
here not inrolled a full turn at 
each end. 

Present only on left side of body. 


Anterior closed end of left ovary 
reaching to, or almost to, inner 
peak of primary intestinal loop. 


Testes arranged in a continuous 
row about whole margin of ovary, 
never grouped into distinct clus- 
ters. 


Mantle in area adjacent to ovidu- 
cal aperture smooth and unmod- 
ified. 


Efferent ducts from testes extend 
across tubular ovary to join a 
long common spermatic duct, 
which runs prostrate along whole 
length of ovary and lies em- 
bedded in its medial wall; along 
its length this common duct 
bears about 10 (7-15) minute pa- 
pillae, each of which terminates 
in an aperture for the discharge 
of sperm. 


32° N., long. 80°25’ W., U.S.N.M. no. 10501. 

Specific diagnosis.—The specific features dis- 
tinguishing B. digonas from B. pilularis, the only 
other member of the genus, are tabulated above. 
In nearly all other respects, and particularly in 
regard to the detailed structure of the pharynx, 
the two species are so similar as to be nearly 
indistinguishable. The majority of differences 
concern the gonads, and the simplest method of 
distinguishing the species is by the presence or 
absence of a gonad on the right side. Both spe- 
cies have direct development without a tadpole 
larva. 

Discussion.—Bostrichobranchus belongs to a 
small group of molgulid species sometimes called 
“eugyrids,” which have the following characters 
in common: a branchial sac lacking folds, and 


bearing five transverse vessels and five to seven 
ribbonlike internal longitudinal vessels on each 
side; a branchial wall bearing large spirals, often 
infundibulate, each of which is formed by two 
intertwined stigmata which are uninterrupted 
throughout their entire lengths but are generally 
separated apically; the left gonad, when present, 
is always placed largely or wholly in the primary 
intestinal loop. Attempts to subdivide this group 
into genera have centered around two features: 
the number and position of the gonads, and the 
presence and degree of development of secondary 
spirals on the pharynx. 

On the basis of the number and location of the 
gonads alone, three eugyrid genera are sometimes 
recognized: Gamaster, with a single gonad on the 
right side of the body; Hugyra, with a single 


. 


306 


gonad on the left side; and Hugyroides, with two 
gonads, one on each side of the body. Hartmeyer 
(1911), Huntsman (1922), and Arnbick (1928) 
recognized all three genera. Huus (1937) recog- 
nized the three groups as subgenera under the 
genus Hugyra. Michaelsen (1915), Hartmeyer 
(1923), and Van Name (1945) united the three 
genera under Hugyra. (Van Name, 1945, actually 
made no mention of Gamaster, but by implica- 
tion this group would not receive generic status 
in his classification.) Michaelsen (1915) and Hart- 
meyer (1923) were unable to find other characters 
to justify segregating Hugyra (sensu lato) imto 
three genera, and concluded that differences in 
mere number and position of the gonads were of 
specific rather than generic caliber. This conclu- 
sion appears to be reinforced by the finding of 
the new Bostrichobranchus which differs from B. 
pilularis most conspicuously in its possession of 
a gonad on the right side. 

The second character that has been used in 
subdividing the eugyrids into genera is the pres- 
ence and degree of development of secondary 
spirals on the pharynx. In molgulids, stigmata 
arranged in spirals which lie on the pharyngeal 
folds or are crossed by and closely associated 
with the internal longitudinal vessels are called 
primary spirals. Any spirals which may develop 
on the flat areas between folds, or, where folds 
are absent, between the internal longitudinal ves- 
sels and their rows of associated primary spirals, 
are termed secondary or accessory spirals. Acces- 
sory spirals are known to occur in some species 
of the molgulid genera Molgula, Rhizomolgula, 
Paraeugyroides, Bostrichobranchus, Hugrya (= Eu- 
gyra + HEugyroides + Gamaster), and probably 
Paramolgula. In all these genera except Bostri- 
chobranchus the accessory spirals, when present 
at all, are small, even in older individuals, though 
in Rhizomolgula they may form small conical in- 
fundibula. The single feature which clearly dis- 
tinguishes Bostrichobranchus from other eugyrids 
is the relatively tremendous development and 
multiplication of the accessory spirals, such that 
in all but very young individuals it is nearly 
impossible to distinguish primary from secondary 
spirals with any certainty. This condition is not 
even remotely approached in any other species 
possessing secondary spirals. In its development, 
however, the pharynx of B. pilularis passes 
through a stage which closely resembles the adult 
condition of most Hugyra species (Van Name, 
1912), suggesting the derivation of Bostrichobran- 
chus from an ancestral Hugyra-like form. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 9 


Hartmeyer (1911) recognized two species of 
Bostrichobranchus, B. manhattensis Traustedt, 
1833, and B. molguloides Metcalf, 1900. Van 
Name (1912) showed these to be conspecific with 
Molgula pilularis Verrill, 1871, but retaimed Trau- 
stedt’s genus Bostrichobranchus for this species. 
Since this work, Bostrichobranchus has received 
recognition as a full genus by Hartmeyer (1923), 
Huus (1937), and (with some reluctance) Van 
Name (1945). Huntsman (1912) poimted out the 
similarities of this genus with Hugyra and in- 
cluded it in the latter with the reservation that 
‘it might be well to retain Bostrichobranchus as 
a subgenus, if there prove to be species more 
closely related to H. pilularis than to the typi- 
cal members of the genus...” Arnbiick (1928) 
pointed out that secondary infundibula were not 
unique in B. pilularis, and included this species 
in Eugyra. Van Name, who has studied B. pilu- 
laris more thoroughly than any other worker, 
concluded (1945) that Bostrichobranchus “is so 
close to the latter [Hugyra] that Huntsman’s 
course has much to recommend it, but neverthe- 
less the remarkable development of the accessory 
infundibula in the present group represents a dis- 
tinct advance step in the evolution and speciali- 
zation of the branchial sae which seems worthy 
of recognition in classification.” He lists Bostri- 
chobranchus as “‘Genus or Subgenus,” giving pref- 
erence to the former. 

If segregation of Bostrichobranchus as a sepa- 
rate genus Is suggested on the basis of one species, 
B. pilularis, such action appears to be much more 
strongly indicated with the discovery of the sec- 
ond and closely allied species B. digonas. Were 
the system of subdividing the eugyrids into genera. 
on the basis of number and position of gonads 
followed here, it would be necessary to place B. 
pilularis in the genus Hugyra and B. digonas in 
Eugyroides. In view of the close structural 
similarity of the two species, such a generic sepa- 
ration would be untenable. 


LITERATURE CITED 


ARNBACK-CHRISTI#-LINDE, A. Northern and Arc- 
tic invertebrates in the collection of the Swedish 
State Museum: IX, Tunicata. 3, Molgulidae 
and Pyuridae. Wungl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. 
Handl. 4 (9): 1-101, figs. 1-14, pls. 1-8. 1928. 

HarrmMeyer, R. Ascidien. In Bronn, H. G., 
Klassen und Ordnungen des Tierreichs 3 (Sup- 
pl.): 1281-1773. Leipzig, 1909-1911. 

Ascidiacea. In Danish Ingolf Expedi- 

tion 2 (pt. 6): 1-368, figs. 1-35, pl. 1. Copen- 

hagen, 1923. 


SEPTEMBER 1951 


Huntsman, A. G. 
Canada. Trans. Can. Inst. 9 (1911): 111-148. 
1912. 

——. The ascidian family Caesiridae. Trans. 
Roy. Soc. Canada, ser. 3, 16: 211-234. 1922. 

Hews, J. Ascidiaceae. In Kiikenthal und Krum- 
bach, Handbuch der Zoologie 5 (pt. 2): 545- 
692, figs. 454-581. Berlin and Leipzig, 1937. 

Mercatr, M. M. Notes on the morphology of the 
Tunicata. Zool. Jahrb., Anat., 13: 495-602, 
figs. A-K, pls. 34-40. 1900. 

MicHartsen, W. Tunicata. In Beitraige zur 
Kenntnis der Meeresfauna Westafrikas 1: 312- 
518, figs. 1-4, pls. 16-19. 1915. 


PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


307 


Ascidians from the coasts of Trausrept, M. P. A. Vestindiske Ascidiae Sim- 


plices. Anden Afdeling. Molgulidae og Cyn- 
thiadae. Vid. Medd. Nat. For. Kjgbenhavn, 
ann. 1882: 108-136, pls. 5, 6. 1883. 

Van Name, W.G. Simple ascidians of the coasts 
of New England and neighboring British prov- 
inces. Proc. Boston Soc. Nat. Hist. 34 (13): 
439-619, figs. 1-48, pls. 48-73. 1912. 

Ascidians of the West Indian region and 

southeastern United States. Bull. Amer. Mus. 

Nat. Hist. 44: 284-494, figs. 1-159. 1921. 

The North and South American ascidians. 

Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., Vol. 84, 1-476, 

figs. 1-327, pls. 1-31. 1945. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


The Anthropological Society of Washington at 
its annual meeting on January 16, 1951, elected 
the following officers: President, Watpo R. WE- 
DEL; Vice President, GrorGE M. Foster, Jr.; 
Secretary, WiLt1am H. Giupert Jr. (reelected); 
Treasurer, Marcarer C. Buaker (reelected); 
Councilors to the Board of Managers, CORNELIUS 
J. Connouty (reelected), Mark Hanna War- 
Kins (reelected), Marton L. VANDERBILT, Sip- 
neEY ADAMS, GEORGE TRAGER, JOHN C. EWERs; 
Representative to the Washington Academy of 
Sciences, WaLtpo R. WEDEL. 

A report of the membership and activities of 
the Society since the last annual meeting follows: 
Life members, 1; Active members, 75; Associate 
members, 14; Total, 90. This represents a de- 
crease of 7 since last year. 

_ The members elected during the year were: 
Active members; Dr. Gorpon Macerecor. As- 
sociate members; Dr. Davip F. Aspprir, Roy 
G. Buanck, JospPH B. CasaGRranpn, Miss ANNE 
FORBES. 

The report of the Treasurer for the year ended 
December 31, 1950, follows: 


Credit: 


(Caigln ito lool eye tes aealecy nace ane oaes eialcraiars 
Income: 
Dues collected.......... 
Interest, Perpetual 
Building Association. . 
Dividend, Washington 
Sanitary Improvement 


$282.31 


$60.60 


$10.50 
Dividends, Washington 
Sanitary Housing Co.. 
Interest, U.S. Savings 


$16.00 


Sales of old series Anthro- 
DOLOGUStS an eae ee 


$213.31 
HIRO Gallant cite antes ROAR en oie a $495.62 


Debit; Expenditures: 


AAA dues paid for Secre- 
tary, Treasurer, and one 
life member....:....... 

Dues forwarded to AAA... 

Dues check returned for 
lackcof funds sss nee 4: $6.00 

Speakers’ expenses........ $119.00 

Printing and mailing 
MOLICES Maen weanocleee ee 

Secretary’s expenses (post- 
EY iqs}) | Wag) & teraisinamteteeara suahecaaiaer 


$15.00 
$10.00 


EN Vr ehkcRteL pare oi geen se 


$202.36 
Balance) Gnbanke) eee eerie sae $293 . 26 


Assets: 


Funds invested in Per- 
petual Building Asso- 
CIMUMOM aa eee ee $2,000.00 
2 shares Washington 
Sanitary Housing Co. 
(par value $100 per 
SHAE) a aaeo eer 
Sale of 42 shares @ $32 
per share, Washington 
Sanitary Improvement 
Co. (less $3.15, ex- 
penses) authorized by 
Board of Managers 
February 14, 1950..... 
U.S. Savings Bond, 
SeriesuG:) ance eos $500.00 
@ashvimib anikeyqemeenere $1,634.11 
Total as of Dec. 31, 1950......... $5,674.96 
Total as of Dec. 31, 1949......... $2,272.65 


$200.00 


$1,340.85 


308 


All regular meetings were held at the US. 
National Museum. Programs throughout the 
year were arranged by-Dr. EugeNr C. WorMAN, 
Jr. Speakers and the titles of papers presented 
before the regular meetings of the Society in 1950 
were: 

January 17, Grorce P. Murpock, A field study 
of the people of Truk. 

February 21, RaupH 8. Soxeckt, On the trail 
of Ancient Man in northern Alaska (slides). 

March 21, DuNcAN Emricu, Folklore, an attempt 
at definition. 

April 18, Ropert M. Wuirsr, Some practical 
applications of physical anthropology. 

May 18, Frank M. Serzuer, Aboriginal Aus- 
tralia (in conjunction with the Washington 
Academy of Sciences, motion pictures). 

October 19, CorNELIUS Oscoop, The Koreans 
and their culture. 

November 21, ScoHuyLER CAMMANN, Tvbet, the 
land and its people (slides). 

December 19, Grorcre M. Foster, Jr., Ethno- 
graphic impressions of Spain (slides). 


A new set of bylaws for the Society was pre- 
sented by the Committee consisting of Dr. W1L- 
uiaM N. Fenton, Dr. Regina FLANNERY, and 
Dr. T. Date Stewarr at a meeting of Board 
of Managers on October 31, 1950. The suggested 
revisions were adopted at the annual meeting of 
the Society on January 16, 1951, and are as 
follows: 


1. Membership is reduced to one class, active, 
in place of the former life, associate, correspond- 
ing, honorary, and active. 

2. Annual dues of all members are fixed at $1.50 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, no. 9 


a year, and provisions for subscription to the 
American Anthropologist are eliminated. 

3. The officers plus six councilors and the chair- 
man of the program committee take the place of 
of officers plus five councilors and ex-presidents of 
the Society as Board of Managers. 

4. The President is limited to a 2-year term and 
the Vice President shall serve concurrently, with 
the same limitation. 

5. Custodial duties of the Secretary are elimi- 
nated. : 

6. The Treasurer is exempted from payment of 
dues and from submitting quarterly lists to the 
editor of the American Anthropologist of members 
entitled to receive this periodical. 

7. Councilors to the Board of Managers shall 
serve three years, each year two being replaced. 

8. Prescription of exact time for meetings of 
Board of Managers is dropped. 

9. The President is to appoint a Program Com- 
mittee. 

10. The President is to appoint a Nominating 
Committee of three in advance of the annual 
business meeting. 

11. At the annual meeting two councilors to be 
elected or reelected, other officers to be elected 
or reelected. 

12. Bylaws may be amended by all members 
without distinction of class of membership. 


A report on possibilities for reinvestment of 
funds resulting from the sale of 42 shares of 
Washington Sanitary Improvement Co. stock 
was submitted to the Board of Managers at the 
regular November meeting of the Society. At the 
January 16 meeting in 1951 the Treasurer was 
authorized to invest said funds as suggested. 

Wituiam H. Ginpert, Secretary. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


[PORCH TUS? ES ae eG CER NatHan R. Smitu, Plant Industry Station 
PALES LENE CVC CU san sharers aes Sian ees WALTER RAMBERG, National Bureau of Standards 
INCOCREROLIT eee ee ee x ua ear acue e F. M. DEFANDORF, National Bureau of Standards 
PRE USUNET NT ae ete eres en ty Howarp 8. Rappueys, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
PANG IULUUS EARS NAc eT Coe cole cyst cosas Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Harrap A. Renper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice- pene sidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical’Society, o1 Washington....2...--+-+........---. Epwarp U. Connon 
Anthropological Society of Washington........................- Watpo R. WEDEL 
Brolozicalusocietys ofaWashingtonu nase cde cers soae cece eens cleaner 
Chemical! Society, of Washington... .5..0.5.......000-- sess nee JospPH J. FAHEY 
Entomological Society of Washington......................-. FREDERICK W. Poos 
National’ Geographicnsoclety...-ces.c+ sass sess cater soe. ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Ceolocicalisocietyaon Washington. sree ue cues ae eee ae Leason H. Apams 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.......................... 
WolumpbraseistoricaliSocietysanss.. 0-4-2202 eee eee eee: GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Bovanicalusociety,of Washington. ..-5-...4----0eq0ss0ese-e eae se E. H. WALKER 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... WiuuiamM A. Dayton 
Washington Society or Hngineers..-...-......-..-.---.--0--+- Cuirrorp A. BETTS 


Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
Francis M. DreranDorF 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicnHarp 8. D1ruu 


Helminthological Society of Washington.......................... L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Aneus M. GRIFFIN 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers....Hmnry W. HemPLE 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.......... Hersert G. Dorsry 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
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PROM ATNU ATA BOD os oes ste eige, soaNenteeelire ec iehede lus wile Aoxtasn W. F. Foswaa, C. L. Gazin 
Io Janmarny WOE socecedpoopscecsdeceeds C. F. W. MureseBeck*, A. T. McPHERSON 
BRO Taya O DAS eens oe oe in co oleos alae eptesabseaue Sara E. Branaam, Minton Harris* 
WZOUROSOPMVIGMOQENS. 20.055 cake cess ns All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Boardropbditors and Alssociate Hdivtors... 0.0.2... see ee ts [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....N. R. SmrtH (chairman), WALTER RamBERG, H. 8S. Rappers, 
J. A. Stevenson, F. M. Deranporr 
Committee on Membership............... L. A. SPINDLER (chairman), M. 8S. ANDERSON, 
R. E. BhacKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. Hansen, D. B. Jonges, DorotHy 
Nickerson, F. A. Smita, Hernz Specut, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings......... MarGaret PitrMan (chairman), NoRMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. Cuaprine, D. J. Davis, F. B. Scpperz, H. W. WELLS 

Committee on Monographs: 


Rowantary 952: . 5.055051 .55ceosns J. R. SwWALLeNn (chairman), Paut H. OEHSER 
MoM anUany IO Stes ee nae cry onions Sia tieisott a teh attt R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 
POR Uaeyal O54 ae ee eran es eusha she: Ome eevee eee S. F. Buaxs, F. C. Kracek 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GEORGE P. WALTON, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. Fasur, Jr., 


Myrna F. Jonss, F. W. Poos, J. R. SwALLEN 
For the Engineering Sciences.........R.S. Diu (chairman), ARSHAM AMIRIKIAN, 
J. W. McBurney, Frank Neumann, A. H. Scorr 


For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. WatTon (chairman), F. 8. BRacKETT, 
G. E. Hom, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMILurn 
For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BaRNgEs, 
. E. Fox, T. Koppanyr, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPHERSoN 
Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research..................0.-. L. E. Yocum (chairman), 
M. X. Suuiivan, H. L. WarrremMore 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 

Moy Samay QOD yoo Gite eee shenelosgpereseceuen exces J. I. Horrman (chairman), M. A. Mason 
PRO Wa Ua wl OOS terri m snowy ie Maree yet. tele. nyse is W. A. Dayton, N. R. Surre 
OVI ATMA NO DA. ON Rune yin sla dees eel tua cse H. B. Couns, JRr., W. W. Rusey 

Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 
Pow ianuanyelGo2s0 sae as ees M. A. Mason (chairman), A. T. McPHERsoNn 
PROPIA AT pl GOS ree ees stn ares cite eicheiortiorere ones ahere = ci A. H. CLARK, F. L. MouLer 
MRO VINA Tay asl OAs meted. eee Peery deectess cycieielecetescrclsrstccets J. M. CanpweE .t, W. L. Scumirr 
MEDRESENLALIVCLOTNGOUNCUNOIPARPARA MES areas sate eileen asieiias cca F. M. SErzLer 
Committee of Auditors..... J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. Braaten, W. J. YoUDEN 


Committee of Tellers...W.G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Merz, Loutsr M. RussELL 
* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 


Page 

Mepicinr.— Disaster and disease. Victor H. Haas................. 277 
Erunotoey.—Medicinal plants used by Choctaw, Chickasaw, and Creek 

Indians in the early nineteenth century. T.N.CAMPBELL........ 285 
PaLEONTOLOGY.—Notes on Phanocrinus cylindricus and description of 

new species of Chester crinoids. HarreLu L. STRIMPLE.......... 291 

Botany —A new species of Poa from Peru. JoHn R. REEDER........ 295 
EntTomo.Locy.—New species of Olethreutidae from Argentina. (Lepidop- 
tera). Ji. Bi Gates CLARKE... 6.05) 6.6/0. ne oe oe ee 
Entomo.tocy.—Fcalbia minima (Theobald) in South Indochina, with 
descriptions of the larva and pupa (Diptera: Culicidae). Harry 

Dy BRAPTE of Sot F002 i eo dem soa ots oa nke oa 300 
ZooLocy.—Bostrichobranchus digonas, a new molgulid ascidian from 

Florida.. Donatp °P;, ABBOTT... 2.0.0.0... 40.... 5 302 

PROCEEDINGS: Anthropological Society.:........-....-. 2.0 eee 307 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Vou. 41 OctoBErR 1951 No. 10 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VouuME 41 


October 1951 


No. 10 


ASTRONOMY .—The birth of stars from interstellar clouds.! LYMAN Sprvzer, JR., 
Princeton University Observatory. (Communicated by Richard K. Cook.) 


The diversity of the stars is seemingly 
infinite. Even a superficial study shows enor- 
mous differences in stellar sizes, brightnesses, 
and surface temperatures. More detailed ex- 
amination reveals also differences in speeds 
of motion and of rotation, in constancy of 
brightness and shape, in the intensity of 
magnetization, and in chemical composition. 
If all this complex yet partially ordered het- 
erogeneity resulted from differences in the 
process of star formation, the task of the 
cosmogonist would be indeed staggering. 

Fortunately the problem is much simpli- 
fied by an important discovery made by W. 
Baade. Broadly speaking, all stars can be 
divided into two types, named by Baade 
population types I and II, respectively. Ac- 
cording to the hypothesis we shall consider 
here these two types of stars have had rad- 
ically different origins, with those of type I 
formed relatively recently from interstellar 
clouds, and type II formed at the beginning 
of the universe, some 3 billion years ago. 
Stars of population type I we shall call 
“cloud stars’; these stars may be forming 
continuously, and we can hope to investi- 
gate in some detail the manner of their 
birth. Stars of population type II we shall 
call “primeval stars’’; conditions may well 
have changed so much since these stars were 
created that a reliable and detailed theory 
of their formation may not yet be possible. 


OBSERVED DIFFERENCES BETWEEN TWO 
TYPES OF STARS 
Velocities.—The evidence for these two 
distinct types of stars may be reviewed 


1The twentieth Joseph Henry Lecture of the 
Philosophical Society of Washington, delivered at 
the 1344t meeting of the Society on March 23, 
1951, and presented under the title ‘“The Forma- 
tion of Stars.” 


briefly. As poimted out in the pioneer work 
by Oort, stellar velocities provided the first 
indication for this separation of stars into 
two categories. As soon as radial velocities 
could be determined with the spectrograph 
it became evident that the velocities of stars 
in the line of sight were distributed over a 
wide range. Quite unexpectedly, the phys- 
ical properties of stars turned out to be 
correlated with their radial velocities. For 
example, the random radial velocities of 
Cepheid variable stars, whose light varies 
regularly with a period of some 2 to 50 days, 
have a root mean square radial velocity of 
some 10 km/sec in the galactic plane. These 
stars are of population type I. On the other 
hand, the RR Lyrae variable stars, whose 
period of light variation is only a day or 
less, but which are otherwise rather similar 
to Cepheid variables, show radial velocities 
with a root mean square value of 120 km/sec 
in the galactic plane. These are type II stars. 
This large difference in radial velocity was 
readily detected, especially since no elab- 
orate techniques were required to identify 
a variable star in either of these two cate- 
gories; simple photometric observations can 
determine if a star is variable and, if so, fix 
the nature and period of the variability. 
More recent work has shown similar dif- 
ferences between various types of stars, and 
the primeval type IT stars are now thought 
to be high-velocity stars generally, while the 
cloud stars of type I are moving more slowly. 
For example, there are many stars which 
are considerably less luminous than the aver- 
age for their surface temperature, and which 
must be considerably smaller than the aver- 
dwarf star. These are called 
Their radial velocity relative to 


age “sub- 


dwarts.”’ 


309 


OCT 2 5 1951 


310 JOURNAL OF THE 
the other stars has a root mean square value 
of about 150 km/sec in the galactic plane, 
and these may also be regarded as primeval 
stars. On the other hand, most stars in the 
neighborhood of the sun, like the sun itself, 
have random motions of some 10 to 20 
km/sec, and these are stars of population 
type I, or cloud stars. 
Luminosity.—A second major difference 
between the high-velocity primeval stars and 
the low-velocity cloud stars is the distribu- 
tion of luminosity among stars of these two 
types. The lack of low-velocity subdwarfs 
has already been noted. More striking yet 
the brightest stars have low velocities, with 
no high-velocity stars more luminous than 
about 2,000 suns. By contrast, the super- 


o 
BS) 
= 
aS 
e 
D 
is) 
= 
2 
_ 
= 
o 
= 
2 
iS) 
(1) 


Absolute 


Bes 
30,000°K 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 10 


giant low-velocity star Betelgeuse sends out 
as much light and heat as about 25,000 
suns, while the luminosity of certain O-type 
supergiants must exceed 100,000 suns. The 
absence of primeval supergiant stars is a 
striking fact. 

This particular difference between cloud 
stars and primeval stars is presented in more 
detail in Fig. 1, which shows somewhat sim- 
plified Russell-Hertzsprung diagrams for 
these two stellar types. The bolometric lu- 
minosity, in units of the solar luminosity, 
is plotted on a logarithmic scale against the 
spectral type, which measures the surface 
temperature. The bolometric luminosity of 
a star is simply the total amount of energy 
which it radiates per second. The diagona 


in units of Solar Luminosity) 


Luminosity ( 


0.01 


Mo 
3,000 K 


Fre. 1.—Russell-Hertzsprung diagram for both types of stars. 


OcrToBER 1951 


SPITZER: STARS FROM INTERSTELLAR CLOUDS 


dll 


TaBLe 1.—LIfETIME OF STARS OF DIFFERENT Mass 


Mass M (in solar masses) 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0 | 1.5 
Mean Luminosity L | 

(in solar luminosities)............ | 044 | 034 1.4 4.4 34 

Pifetrmeumy years)... ccs anew sees 7x10 1.4x10!! 4.4x 1010 1.8x 1010 3.5x109 
| 

Mass M 2 6 | 8 10 
Weanw Mum iNOsity oly... 022.6 05 sce. sok 140 4,400 34,000 150, 000 440,000 
LAN GURIING U6 See ee eee ee 1.1x 109 7x 107 14x 107 4.4x 106 1.8x 108 


hatching indicates areas of the diagram 
where the cloud stars appear, while primeval 
stars are found primarily in the dotted re- 
gions. 

Many of the differences between the Rus- 
sell-Hertzsprung diagrams for these two stel- 
lar types are not yet explained. However, 
the lack of supergiant primeval stars has a 
very simple physical explanation. Accord- 
ing to our present theory of internal con- 
stitution, a star liberates energy by the 
combination of four hydrogen nuclei to form 
helium. When all the hydrogen is gone, the 
star cannot go on; it may collapse to form a 
white dwarf or possibly explode to form a 
supernova. A very luminous star burns its 
nuclear fuel so rapidly that it cannot shine 
very long, and the very brightest stars can- 
not have been shining at their present rate 
for anything like three billion years. 

To compute the age of these very lumi- 
nous stars we may start with the mass- 
luminosity relation derived from the theory 
of stellar interiors, 


L = AMyiT 2? (1) 


where L, M, and T, are the luminosity, 
mass, and central temperature of the star 
and yw is the mean molecular weight. The 
quanity A depends on a number of physical 
constants and on the distribution of density 
within the star. This equation is valid only 
for stars built according to the same model 
as the sun; 1.e., with the same relative vari- 
ation of density with depth. However, it 
may give at least the order of magnitude for 
other stars. In applying this formula we shall 
assume that the central temperature, 7’., is 
the same in all stars. 

To discuss the age of a star we must take 
into account the change of uw with time, re- 
sulting from the conversion of hydrogen into 
helium. The rate of this conversion, which 


liberates the energy radiated by the star, is 
readily determined from the observed lumi- 
nosity, yielding the equation 


du _ Bu L 


dt > 42M’ (2) 


where ¢ is the fraction of mass liberated 
When four hydrogen atoms combine to 
produce 2 helium atom, and c is the veloc- 
ity of light. The star, when formed, will be 
composed mostly of hydrogen, with some 
helium, and with » equal to about 0.6. 
When all the hydrogen is gone, » increases 
to 4/3. 

From equations (1) and (2) the change of 
uw and L with time may be computed. Table 1 
gives the age required for exhaustion of 
the hydrogen for stars of different mass, 
together with the average luminosity LZ dur- 
ing this period. In the computation of this 
table the constant A in equation (1) has 
been chosen to give the observed luminosity 
for the sun, with » equal to its assumed 
initial value, 0.6. Toward the end of a star’s 
life, the luminosity rises far above the aver- 
age, and Table 2 gives the fraction of time 
that a star’s luminosity exceeds the average 
luminosity by various factors. It should be 
noted that the values given for large p in 
Table 2 are probably too great, especially 
for the more massive stars. Stars that have 
exhausted most of their hydrogen may be 
composite, with a helium core, a surround- 
ing envelope of hydrogen, and a different 
luminosity from that obtained from equa- 
tion (1). In addition, radiation pressure, 
which was neglected in the derivation of 
equation (1), will become important when 
Mw? exceeds about 10; seatterine of radi- 
ation by free electrons will also be important 
in this range, and both these effects will 
tend to decrease the luminosity. For these 
reasons, the masses given in Table 1 for 


312 


stars of short life and high L are somewhat 
too small, although the values of the lifetime 
for different values of the ratio L/M do not 
depend on equation (1) and should be ac- 
curate. 

From these results let us compute the 
greatest possible age for a star 2,000 times 
as luminous as the sun, about the maximum 
observed for the primeval stars. If the star 
is Just exhausting its last hydrogen, its lu- 
minosity will exceed its mean value for that 
star by a factor of 60.9. If the mass of the 
star 1s 1.5 times the solar mass, its mean 
luminosity will be about 34 suns, giving the 
required terminal luminosity of 2,000 suns 
and an age of 3 X 10° years. Actually these 
particular stars are giants, with probably 
an inner region mostly of helium surrounded 
by an atmosphere of hydrogen, and more 
detailed computations for such configura- 
tions would doubtless change the age some- 
what. However the general agreement be- 
tween the age of the high-velocity type I 
stars and the probable age of the universe 
certainly suggests strongly that these stars 
are, in fact, primeval. By contrast, the age 
of a supergiant star with a spectral type O 
whose luminosity exceeds 100,000 suns, is 
less than about 2 X 10° years even if these 
stars are mostly composed of helium. Such 
stars are unquestionably young. 

Location.—A third major difference be- 
tween cloud stars and primeval stars is in 
location. Primeval stars are found in almost 
all types of stellar systems—in globular 
clusters, in spherical, elliptical and _ spiral 
galaxies. Cloud stars are found only where 
interstellar clouds of gas and dust are pres- 
ent, which means primarily in the arms of 
spiral galaxies. In particular, the supergiant 
cloud stars are a characteristic feature of 
spiral arms, but are completely absent from 
other stellar systems, where gas and dust 
are lacking and where only primeval stars 
are found. 

Composition.—A final difference between 
primeval stars and cloud stars is in chemical 
composition. These differences are not strik- 
ing but seem definitely real. The atmospheres 
of high-velocity giants, of types G and Kk, 
show considerably weaker bands of the 
molecule CN than do the corresponding low- 
velocity giants. The CH bands, on the other 
hand, are strengthened; a recent analysis 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 10 


TABLE 2.—INCREASE OF STELLAR LUMINOSITY 
with TIME 


p |) 251| 23) |) 4 oa ens yan ae 


nn 


Fraction of star’s life in 
which L exceeds pL 


8 10 20 40 


|= 
| 
| 
| 


p Wee 6 


‘87 |.70 |.52 1.33 24) V8) | 
| 
| 
| 
| 
| 


Fraction of star’s life in 
which Z exceeds pL 


| 
O81 .036 .021 |.015 |.012 |.0043 .0011 


The total range of p is from 0.228, when uw equals 0.6, to 60.9, 
when « equals 1.33. 
indicates that CH molecules are more abun- 
dant by a factor of about 2 in the “reversing 
layer” of a primeval star than in the cloud 
stars, while the iron atoms are less abundant 
by about the same ratio. These effects seem 
rather complicated at first sight, but 1t now 
appears that these differences may all follow 
from a greater preponderance of the some- 
what heavier elements in the cloud stars as 
compared to the primeval stars. 

It has been known for some years that 
most stars are almost entirely composed of 
hydrogen and helium. In fact, a chemist 
would regard stellar material as a mixture 
of ‘‘chemically pure’ hydrogen and helium, 
since all the other elements together are 
present to less than one part in a thousand, 
by volume. The difference in composition 
between cloud stars and primeval stars seems 
to be that the former have perhaps twice as 
many of these impurities present as do the 
latter. Moreover, in the cloud stars, the 
ratio of iron to the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen 
group may. be somewhat greater—perhaps 
by a factor of two again—than the corre- 
sponding ratio in the primeval stars. 

The greater abundance of those heavier 
atoms in the cloud stars has two effects. 
Firstly, it increases the opacity in the stellar 
atmosphere, since it is the electrons from the 
easily ionized metals that do the absorbing 
and emitting in the atmosphere of a star 
whose spectral type is G, KX, or M. Secondly, 
it increases the number of absorbing mole- 
cules per gram of matter, the merease in 
CN being twice as great (on a logarithmic 
scale) as the increase in CH. These two 
effects tend to offset each other, with the 
increase in the number of molecules winning 
out in the case of CN, but the increase in 
the continuous opacity, with a consequent 
decrease in the amount of matter above the 


OcToBER 1951 


visible stellar surface, winning out in the 
ease of CH. 

It should be emphasized that these results 
refer to stellar atmospheres, rather than to 
stellar interiors. In a primeval giant star the 
hydrogen is mostly gone from the interior 
but the star is not well mixed and the 
atmospheric layers still retain their original 
composition. In fact it may be just this 
difference in composition between the inner 
and outer layers of a giant star that accounts 
for the large radius of such a star. 

The differences outlined above between 
these two types of stars are summarized in 
Table 3. While some of the most important 
differences between primeval stars and cloud 
stars can apparently be explained, at least 
in a preliminary way, there are others which 
are less well understood. Why do planetary 
nebulae occur only around primeval stars? 
Why are the periods of variable stars so 
different in these two types of stars? Why do 
the rotational velocities of the cloud stars 
depend so sharply on spectral type, with 
low rotational speeds for stars cooler than 
type F5? When we know how a planetary 
nebula is formed, why stars pulsate, or how 
their rotation changes with time, perhaps 
we can then hope to understand these and 
other characteristics of cloud and primeval 
stars. 


BIRTH OF PRIMEVAL STARS 


Now that these two broad types of stars 
have been uncovered, what can we say about 
the origin of stars in each type? Concerning 
the formation of primeval stars we have 
relatively lttleanformation. 

The problem is complicated by the fact 
that the density of matter in the universe 
may have been much greater several billion 
years ago than it is now. If we believe the 
observed velocity of recession of distant 
galaxies, all the galaxies were close together 
a few billion years ago, and what the phys- 
ical conditions of matter were at that time 
is rather conjectural. 

The chief clue is that the random velocities 
of these stars have now high average values. 
Since no mechanism has ever been suggested 
by which stellar velocities could increase up 
to a hundred kilometers per second during 
a few billion years, we must assume that 


SPITZER: STARS FROM INTERSTELLAR CLOUDS 


313 


these stars were formed with essentially their 
present velocities. One may envisage a turbu- 
lent gas, more distended than our present 
galaxy, and perhaps at a considerably higher 
temperature than the 60° K characteristic 
of the typical interstellar gas cloud at 
present. Condensations in this gas might 
then produce high-velocity stars of various 
types. 

As time progressed, the brightest of these 
stars would exhaust their hydrogen and dis- 
appear. After a life of several billion years 
only the less luminous stars would be still 
shining. If we look ahead through time, we 
may foresee that in the next ten billion years 
more and more of these primeval stars will 
run out of atomic fuel and disappear. Gal- 
axies without gas and dust will grow dimmer 
and dimmer, and gradually go out entirely. 
Except for any cloud stars still being formed 
in spiral galaxies, the Universe will gradually 
grow dark. 


BIRTH OF PROTOSTARS FROM CLOUDS 


We have seen that young stars are present 
in and only in those regions of space where 
interstellar matter is also found. The cir- 
cumstantial evidence for the generation of 
these stars from clouds seems very strong, 
and the formation of all low-velocity type 
I stars from interstellar clouds is a natural 
working hypothesis, which explains imme- 
diately the difference in location between 
high-velocity and low-velocity stars. 


TABLE 3.—DIFFERENCES BETWEEN CLOUD STARS 
AND PRIMEVAL STARS 


) 
Type I 


Type II 
| Cloud stars 


Primeval stars 


| Low, 10-30 km /see 
(velocities of 
clouds) 

Range up to 10° suns 
(young stars) 


Velocities High, 60-180 km/sec 
(turbulence in pri- 
meval nebula?) 

Luminosities Brightest are 108 suns 
(old stars, formed 
3 X 10° years ago) 

In spiral arms of gal- | In almost all systems, 


Location 

axies with gas and | 
Z ; | 

dust (forming con- 


tinually) | 


including globular 


clusters and ellipti- 


cal galaxies with no 


gas or dust. (Stars 


have no relation to 


present interstellar 
matter.) 
Composition of | 10,000 H 1000 He 10,000 H 1000 He 
atmosphere 20 C—N—O 10 C—N—O 


4 metals (concentra- 1 metals (original 


tion of grains rela- composition of 
tive to gas) primeval matter) 


314 JOURNAL OF THE 

Can we strengthen the net of evidence by 
showing in detail how a star can be formed 
out of “‘star dust’’? Can we show that this 
theory explains the velocities and compo- 
sition of these cloud stars? A detailed and 
rigorous demonstration of these points would 
be very difficult, and our present knowledge 
is insufhicient for the task. However, the 
theory described here seems consistent with 
present evidence, and offers qualitative ex- 
planations of the various observational fea- 
tures already described. 

Let us consider how a prestellar globule, 
or ‘“‘protostar’’ might form from a gaseous 
medium between the existing stars. The cri- 
teria for condensation of a gas under gravita- 
tional forces were discussed by Jeans sev- 
eral decades ago. Jeans showed that a shght 
condensation would continue to contract un- 
der its own gravitational self-attraction if 
the initial size of the condensation exceeded 
a critical value /, given by the equation 


p= (3) 
Gomou 
where 7 is the gas temperature in degrees 
Kelvin, & the Boltzmann gas constant, G 
the gravitational constant, p the material 
density, mp the mass of unit atomic weight, 
and uw the mean molecular weight. This equa- 
tion is derived on the assumption that the 
contraction is isothermal. If the diameter of 
a cloud is less than /, the cloud cannot hold 
itself together by gravitational forces. 
With equation (3) in mind, we may survey 
briefly existing information on interstellar 
matter, to see whether regions exist in which 
gravitational contraction is possible. From 
measurements of the Balmer lines of hydro- 
gen near hot stars, we know that a hydrogen 
gas pervades interstellar space, with a mean 
density of about one atom per cubic centi- 
meter. Helium is probably also present but 
cannot be observed. As in the stars, the 
other elements are present only as_ slight 
impurities. If this deduced mean density is 
substituted into equation (3), the tempera- 
ture is set equal to 10,000° Ix, and yp is set 
equal to 0.5, corresponding to the nearly 
complete ionization of hydrogen in those 
regions where the Balmer lines are observed, 
lis found to be 2,300 parseecs (a parsec, the 


WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 10 
standard measuring rod in astronomy, is 
3.26 times the distance travelled by light in 
one year). This distance is some ten times 
greater than the thickness of the galaxy, 
and no initial condensation of this sort can 
possibly occur. 

This calculation should not be taken too 
seriously, since it is known that the distribu- 
tion of interstellar matter is far from uni- 
form. We can not observe interstellar hydro- 
gen in detail in most regions, but we can 
observe certain of the impurities in the gas. 
Neutral sodium and ionized calcium atoms 
have strong absorption lines in the accessible 
part of the spectrum, and absorb light from 
distant stars: if these stars are of early 
spectral type (high surface temperature), the 
star’s own atmosphere does not produce these 
particular lines. Observations of these inter- 
stellar absorption lines show that the inter- 
stellar matter is distributed in separate 
clouds, and that these clouds have appreci- 
able random velocities, with a root mean 
square value of about 10km/sec in one co- 
ordinate. In addition, many of the atoms 
other than hydrogen and helium stick to- 
gether to form molecules of greater and 
greater size, which finally become tiny solid 
particles, or grains, about 3 & 10~° cm in 
radius. These grains, composed mostly of 
the hydrogen compounds ice (HO), am- 
monia (NH;) and methane (CH,), absorb 
and scatter starlight, the effect being much 
more pronounced for light of shorter wave 
lengths. Although their temperature is only 
10° to 20° above absolute zero, the grains can- 
not retrain much hydrogen, since this element 
will rapidly evaporate or sublime at such 
temperatures. Study of the absorption and 
scattering by these clouds confirms the ir- 
regular distribution of interstellar matter, 
and gives important information on the sizes 
of the clouds. These range from small dense 
nebulae less than a parsec in size to enor- 
mous clouds, or rather cloud complexes, 
stretching over about a hundred parsecs. 

The density in these clouds is rather un- 
certain, as is also the “‘kinetic temperature” 
which characterizes the random motions of 
the atoms in the gas. Theoretical computa- 
tions indicate that the random motions of 
the neutral hydrogen atoms in a relatively 
dense cloud correspond to a gas at a tempera- 


OcToBER 1951 SPITZER: STARS FROM 
ture of about 60° K, somewhat above the 
temperature of the grains, but considerably 
less than the 10,000° obtained for the pre- 
dominantly ionized hydrogen near a hot star. 
The chief reason for this drop in temperature 
is that the hydrogen is completely neutral 
in these clouds and there is no supply of 
kinetic energy resulting from the absorption 
of ultraviolet light by hydrogen atoms and 
the ensuing expulsion of photoelectrons. The 
density in one of these clouds is probably in 
the neighborhood of 20 times the mean den- 
sity in interstellar space, or about twenty 
hydrogen atoms per cm*. Outside the clouds 
the densities are probably less by a factor 
of about 100, and the temperatures may be 
greater by the same factor. Thus it appears 
that the gas pressure may be the same in 
and out of clouds, and, indeed, the drop 
of temperature in certain regions may be the 
primary reason for the formation of clouds, 
the gas contracting as its temperature falls. 
If we take these values for a typical cloud, 
(3 X 10-*? grams cem~™ for p and 60° K for 7), 
and insert them into equation (1), we find 
that / is 28 parsecs. This value is greater 
than the diameter of the typical small cloud. 
The vast cloud complexes are larger than 28 
parsecs across, but in these the density is 
less, and the rotation of the galaxy will 
hinder the formation of a condensation. In 
fact, it is readily shown that in a system 
rotating with the angular velocity w a con- 
densation cannot contract gravitationally, 
regardless of its temperature, if the density 
is less than the hmiting value w?/2a G. In 
the galaxy, w is about 107, and the limiting 
density is about 2.5 X 10-4 gm/cm*, or about 
one and a half hydrogen atoms per cm’. 
There is another condition that a cloud 
must fulfill if it wishes to condense. It now ap- 
pears that a magnetic field is present in inter- 
stellar space. The plane polarization of leht 
from distant stars can be explained only if 
a field B of about 10~° gauss is present to 
orient the grains so that their long axes are 
oriented in one direction or in one particular 
plane. With this field the magnetic energy 
density B?/87 is about equal to the material 
energy density. Since the conductivity of the 
interstellar gas is relatively high, the mag- 
netic lines of force are ‘‘frozen in” to the 
material. Any contraction of a cloud will 


INTERSTELLAR CLOUDS 35 
bring the lines of force together and increase 
the magnetic field strength and this requires 
additional energy. Thus the gravitational 
force must be strong enough to overcome 
not only the gas pressure but also the mag- 
netic field, both of which resist contraction. 
It may be shown that this effect will not 
modify equation (3) provided that the mag- 
netic “pressure” B?/87 is small compared to 
the gas pressure n#k7T, where nx is the num- 
ber of hydrogen atoms per cubic centimeter 
in the gas. This eriterion will be satisfied in 
a typical cloud if B is less than 2 * 10-6 
gauss, considerably less than its average 
value. 

Evidently a typical cloud cannot condense 
into stars. This is fortunate for the theory, 
since we know that clouds are still present, 
uncondensed, some three billion years since 
the universe was formed. Somewhat unusual 
conditions of low temperature, high density, 
and low magnetic field, such as only an oc- 
casional cloud might experience, are neces- 
sary to permit condensation to proceed. This 
review of the evidence gives us no reason to 
doubt the conclusion suggested by the ob- 
servations; 1.e., that new stars form con- 
tinuously from interstellar clouds. 


CONCENTRATION OF GRAINS 


We have seen that the development. of 
clouds suitable for star formation is theoreti- 
cally reasonable and in accord with obser- 
vations. Next we may inquire whether the 
composition of the cloud stars may reason- 
ably be expected to differ from that in the 
primeval stars. We start with the plausible 
assumption that interstellar matter has the 
same composition as the primeval stars, an 
assumption which cannot as yet be checked 
with any precision. Then we have available 
an important mechanism for altering the 
distribution of heavy elements relative to H. 
This mechanism is the alteration of the ratio 
grains-to-hydrogen through the action of 
radiation pressure, a process which we shall 
now consider. 

The existence of a pressure on any object 
absorbing or scattering light waves has been 
known for some time. This force is usually 
quite negligible in the laboratory, but in the 
space between the stars the effect becomes 
important, especially on tiny particles that 


316 


absorb vastly more light per gram than large 
objects do. The interstellar grains have a 
diameter about equal to the wave length of 
light, and for this size radiation pressure has 
the greatest effect. On the average the light 
in a galaxy is traveling in all directions. 
While a single grain will be knocked this 
way and that by the many photons it ab- 
sorbs, it will not be pushed in any one direc- 
tion. 

This picture changes when many grains 
are considered. Now each little grain pro- 
duces a shadow, and in this shadow there is 
no radiation to produce a force. If only two 
grains are considered, they will be pushed 
together by the radiation field, since in the 
shadow between them there is no light to 
push them apart. As the grains approach 
closer and closer, the shadow between them 
becomes blacker and blacker, and the force 
pushing them together goes up. As a result, 
radiation pressure produces a net attractive 
force between two interstellar grains which 
varies as the inverse square of the distance 
between them, exactly as the gravitational 
force, but which is several hundred times the 
erevitational force acting between the two 
grains. Calculations by Whipple show that if 
a cloud already contains a large number of 
grains, the radiation pressure attracting 
other grains outside the cloud will drive 
these grains through the gas and into the 
cloud, doubling the number of grains in the 
cloud within an interval of some 107 years. 

An important result is apparent immedi- 
ately. The grains are composed of compounds 
of the heavier elements with hydrogen; 
within a grain the ratio of hydrogen to other 
elements is only about 3 to 1, as compared 
with 1,000 to 1 in the gas. An increase in the 
ratio of grains to gas therefore results in a 
decreased ratio of hydrogen and helium to 
heavier elements within a cloud. 

Moreover, the effect is likely to be even 
ereater for metal atoms such as iron than 
for the carbon-nitrogen-oxygen group. Ac- 
cording to the theory of Oort and van de 
Hulst, the grains occasionally collide with 
each other at high speeds, are raised to a 
very high temperature and evaporate. The 
evaporation of iron and other refractory sub- 
stances will be much less rapid than that of 
water (H.O), methane (CH,), and ammonia 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 10 
(NH;). Thus there will be a tendency for 
atoms of iron and the other metals to con- 
centrate in the grains, with relatively less 
metal than carbon, nitrogen, or oxygen re- 
maining in the gas. 

Only a moderate increase in the ratio of 
grains to gas is needed to explain the differ- 
ence in composition between primeval and 
cloud stars. If half of the iron atoms and a 
fourth of the carbon, nitrogen, and oxygen 
atoms are locked up in the grains, then an 
increase by five in the ratio of grains to gas 
will double the ratio of carbon, nitrogen, and 
oxygen to hydrogen and triple the ratio of 
iron to hydrogen, in rough agreement with 
the preliminary observational evidence on 
the differences between cloud stars and pri- 
meval stars. Since most of the interstellar 
matter is in the form of hydrogen, this con- 
centration would not change the total den- 
sity appreciably. It is probably not sufficient 
for the grains to be entirely concentrated in 
the clouds of gas observed by Adams and 
analyzed by Strémegren; since these clouds 
already contain at least half the mass of the 
interstellar medium, a concentration of all 
the grains there would increase the ratio of 
grains to gas by at most a factor of two. We 
shall assume that within the various clouds 
the grains are pushed into the denser, cooler 
regions which subsequently condense into 
stars. 

At one time I believed that the relative 
number of grains might become so high in 
this process of concentration that the value 
of / for gravitational condensation might be 
decreased. In view of recent evidence on the 
relatively shght difference in composition 
between primeval and cloud stars, this view 
is no longer tenable, and we must assume 
that the relative concentration of grains 
never becomes very large. Probably turbu- 
lent motions within a cloud prevent the 
grains from concentrating entirely in the 
densest region of the cloud under the in- 
fluence of radiation pressure. 


FROM PROTOSTAR TO STAR 


It might be supposed that once the theo- 
rist has produced a prestellar globule, with 
a sufficient gravitational field to hold itself 
together, his task is over, and that the sub- 
sequent contraction of this protostar will 


OcTOBER 1951 SPITZER: STARS FROM 
follow as a matter of course. While this 
supposition can perhaps be defended, in view 
of the strong circumstantial evidence for 
star formation, a detailed study shows that 
the possibility of this last stage is in fact 
very difficult to establish. In particular there 
is one major obstacle that the protostar 
must somehow circumvent if it is to con- 
tract into a star. This obstacle arises from 
the rotational momentum of the protostar. 

The conservation of angular momentum 
will make the rotational velocity inversely 
proportional to the radius of the condensa- 
tion. If the radius decreases from about a 
parsec down to a few solar radii, this decrease 
amounts to a factor of about 10’. Unless the 
original rotational velocity were no greater 
than a centimeter per second, a remarkably 
low value for a cloud moving through space 
at several kilometers a second, the con- 
tracting protostar would spin so fast that it 
could never contract all the way into a star. 

Von Weiczacker has suggested that turbu- 
lent motions may carry most of the angular 
momentum out to infinity, leaving much of 
the mass behind. The present author has 
suggested that rotation of a protostar in a 
weak magnetic field (about 10-” gauss) 
would generate eddy currents that would 
slow down the rotation, transferring the an- 
gular momentum to other regions of the Gal- 
axy. It is possible that either of these 
processes, or some combination of both of 
them, may provide the solution to the angu- 
lar momentum problem. 

Magnetic fields, if unimportant initially 
will not impede the condensation at any 
subsequent stage. Since the magnetic lines 
of force are frozen into the material, the 
magnetic flux m’B through the protostar 
will remain constant throughout the contrac- 
tion, where r is the radius of the condensa- 
tion, and B is the average field in the con- 
densation. Hence 6 will vary as 1/r?, the 
magnetic energy density, as 1/r*, and the 
total magnetic energy, as 1/r. The negative 
gravitational energy also varies as |/r. Thus 
if the gravitational energy much exceeds the 
magnetic energy at the beginning, a neces- 
sary condition for the gravitational contrac- 
tion of the protostar to begin, the magnetic 
energy will be unimportant at all stages in 
the contraction. 


INTERSTELLAR CLOUDS 317 

If the conductivity of the protostar re- 
mained high throughout the contraction, B 
would increase by a factor of about 10! 
giving a field strength in the neighborhood 
of 10° gauss for the resultant star. However, 
it seems likely that at some intermediate 
stage in the contraction the conductivity 
will decrease sharply. Ionization produced 
by ultraviolet radiation will fall off markedly 
as the protostar becomes opaque, and until 
the kinetic temperature rises above 1,000° 
K there will be negligible thermal ionization. 
Cosmic rays will produce some fre electrons, 
but it is still uncertain whether cosmic rays 
have an appreciable abundance in interstel- 
lar space, and they might fail to penetrate 
the strong magnetic field of the protostars. 
In view of these uncertainties no definite 
calculations seem appropriate, but the oc- 
currence of smaller magnetic fields in stars 
need occasion no surprise. 

There is one last evolutionary stage to be 
considered. After the protostar has con- 
densed to the stellar state, with its internal 
temperature increasing under continual com- 
pression until atomic energy begins to be 
released, the process of evolution slows down. 
The gradual conversion of hydrogen into 
helium we have already discussed. This is a 
relatively slow process, except for the very 
brightest stars. Another gradual change, 
whose importance has recently been pointed 
out by Schwarzschild, is‘the increase of the 
star’s velocity produced by encounters with 
interstellar clouds. It appears that this effect 
may explain the systematic observed increase 
of velocity with age among the cloud stars. 

As pointed out by Jeans and Chan- 
drasekhar, encounters between separate stars 
have a neghgible effect on stellar velocities 
within 10° years. It does not seem to have 
been generally realized that the imdividual 
clouds, with a typical mass much greater 
than a stellar mass, have a much greater 
effect, even though the total amount of mat- 
ter in the clouds is about the same as in the 
stars. Essentially, the effect of a few encoun- 
ters with clouds of large mass is much greater 
than the effect of many encounters with less 
massive stars. 

While the detailed analysis of this effect 
is complicated, the essential results may be 
summarized briefly. Let a group of stars 


318 


formed at a certain time have a root mean 
square radial velocity v, in the galactic plane. 
This velocity may be identified with the root 
mean square radial velocity of the denser 
interstellar clouds, about 10 km/see. The 
few clouds of very high velocity are gen- 
erally less dense than the slower clouds and 
are presumably much less likely to condense 
into stars. If equipartition existed, the stars 
and clouds would have the same kinetic 
energy, and the stars, with much smaller 
masses, would be moving more rapidly. Col- 
lisions will attempt to approach this equi- 
partition, and while they cannot go very far 
in this direction in the time available, they 
will increase v, the root-mean-square cloud 
velocity at any time. If we make the simpli- 
fying assumption that the velocities of clouds 
and stars are both Maxwellian, then the 
change of v with time is given by 


9 


Ve 


v(v? + v2)8/? 


where n, 1s the number of clouds per cm°, 
m, the mass per cloud, v, the root-mean- 
square cloud velocity (in three dimensions), 
G the gravitational constant, and log 6 is a 
somewhat uncertain parameter which we 
may set equal to 3. 

On the basis of this equation the small 
interstellar clouds, whose mass is perhaps 
a hundred suns, do not have an important 
effect. However, large cloud complexes are 
observed in the Milky Way, each with an 
individual mass possibly as great as 10° suns. 
If the mean distance between these cloud 
complexes in the galactic plane is assumed to 
be about 350 parsecs, then v will increase 
from 10 to 20 km/sec in about 10° years 
according to equation (4). For comparison 
with this result, observed root mean square 
radial velocities for stars of different spectral 
types are listed in Table 4, taken from recent 


(4) 


— = (6r)” (log B)n. mG 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON. ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 10 


results by Vyssotsky and Nordstrém. The 
table lists the root mean square velocities 
in one coordinate in the galactic plane (aver- 
aged over both directions in this plane). It 
is evident from these data that stellar ve- 
locities do in fact increase from type B 
(young stars) to type F (stars of all ages) in 
about the manner predicted by theory. The 
further increase of velocity for later spectral 
types cannot be explained on this basis, 
since stars of type F and later can shine for 
3 X 10° years, and stars of all ages should be 
present equally in these late spectral types. 
It appears that the greater velocity of the 
cooler, less luminous stars on the main se- 
quence results from the admixture of prime- 
val high velocity stars, which cannot readily 
be ehminated from the data, and which 
begin to outweigh the cloud stars at these 
low luminosities. 

Evidently the present picture is uncertain 
in many respects, and many details will un- 
questionably be changed within the next 
few years. However, the broad difference in 
origin between cloud stars and primeval stars 
which has been sketched here seems a useful 
working hypothesis. One may hope that addi- 
tional research will soon indicate how far 
this present view of star formation may be ac- 
cepted as an adequate description of reality. 


TaBLeE +—Roor Mean SQuaRE RaApIAL 
VELOCITIES IN THE GALACTIC PLANE 


Spectral type Velocity in km/sec 
Main sequence 
0-B5 9.7 
B8-B9 12.0 
A0-A9 14.9 
F0-F9 19.9 
F5-GO 22.6 
G0-K6 25.3 
K8-M5 31.6 
Giant stars 
K0-K9 20.5 
MO0-M9 23.3 


OcTroBER 1951 


DRAKE: NEW AMERICAN 


319 


CHINCH BUGS 


ENTOMOLOGY.—New American chinch bugs (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae). Caru J. 


Drake, Iowa State College. 


The members of the genera Blissus Klug, 
Neoblissus Bergroth, and Parablissus Barber 
are commonly called chinch bugs. So far as 
known they are entirely grass-feeding insects. 
Several of the species are serious pests of 
grasses, small grain, and corn. Blissus leu- 
copterus (Say) of North America ranks very 
high among the most injurious insect pests 
of corn and small grain, particularly in the 
States of the Midwest where corn and small 
grain are extensively cultivated. Grasses in 
United States, West Indies, and Central 
America are attacked by four or five different 
kinds of chinch bugs. Serious outbreaks of 
Blissus occur at irregular intervals, depend- 
ing largely upon weather conditions. 

The present paper contains the descrip- 
tions of two new species of Blissus, one new 
Neoblissus, and notes on several other 
species. The genera Neoblissus and Para- 
blissus are peculiar to the Americas, whereas 
Blissus is represented in most of the major 
land divisions of the world. So far as known 
the species of Neoblissus are myrmecophilous, 
feeding and breeding on grasses growing in- 
side of chambers of the nests of the vicious 
ant Solenopsis saevissima Sm. N. wetseri, a 
new species described herein, also inhabits 
the nests of the same species of ant in 
Argentina. Both species live as guests in the 
nest and receive no apparent care from their 
host. The bugs are free to wander about in 
the chambers, or even to leave the nests. 
The nymphs are not known to occur outside 
of the nests. 

The species of Neoblissus are widely dis- 
tributed and fairly common in ant nests; 
more than 1,000 nymphs and imagoes have 
been collected in a single nest. Nymphs of 
all stages and adults are found in large num- 
bers in the nests during the growing period, 
whereas adults are most abundant late in 
summer and in winter. The adults overwin- 
ter in large numbers in the lower chambers 
cf the nests. The late Dr. Carlos Brueb (loc. 
cit.) of La Plata has published an interest- 
ing account of Neoblissus in the nests of 
Solenopsis saevissima. 

Unless otherwise stated, the types of the 
new species are in my personal collection. 


Apterous and macropterous forms of two 
chinch bugs, Blissus mixus Barber (Fig. 2) 
and B. cowensis Andre (Fig. 1) are illustrated. 
The latter is found on the crown of bluestem 
grasses, often slightly below the surface of 
the ground. 


Blissus hirtus Montandon 


Blissus hirtus Montandon, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 
37: 405. 1893. 


In Montandon’s collection there are no exam- 
ples of this chinch bug from the type locality, 
Hazleton, Pa., M. Dietz. However, his collection 
contains two specimens of this insect from ‘‘Can- 
ada, L. Provancher,”’ which are as hairy as typical 
hirtus. Specialists in Hemiptera are not fully 
in accord regarding the status of B. hirtus Mon- 
tandon. Some workers consider it as a longly 
hairy variety of B. leucopterus (Say), whereas 
others treat it on the species level. It is at least 
a good geographic race or subspecies and not 
nearly so widely disseminated as typical B. 
leucopterus. At irregular intervals B. hirtus is a 
serious pest of grasses in lawns and golf courses 
in the northern States from Minnesota east 
clear across Pennsylvania and New York, and 
then north deep into Canada. 


Blissus pulchellus Montandon 


Blissus pulchellus Montandon, Ann. Soc. Ent. Belg. 
37: 406. 1893. 


The type series of B. pu'chellus in Montandon’s 
collection contains only two specimens, each 
varded on a separate rectangular card and 
mounted on separate pins. The first pin bears 
(1) carded brachypterous female, (2) locality 
label “Costa Rica, Buenos Aires, A. Pittier,”’ 
and (3) species label “Blissus pulchellus Montd.”’ 
in Montandon’s own handwriting. The other 
pin bears (1) a carded long-winged female and 
(2) the same locality label and coilector. It 
seems that Buenos Aires is the name of a small 
village in Costa Rica. The apterous female is 
designated here as the type and the other female 
as a paratype. Both specimens are in fairly good 
condition and deposited in the Muzeul National 
de Istoria Naturala “egrigori antipa,’”’ Bucuresti. 
The following notes are based on the brachyp- 
terous type. 


320 


Short-winged female: Length, 2.75 mm; width, 
0.88 mm. Head black, slightly pruinose, with 
some short, pale, decumbent hairs; width across 
eyes, 0.60 mm;. wider across eyes than median 
length (48:42). Antennae moderately long, shortly 
pilose, yellowish brown with apical segment dark 
fuscous; formula—I, 12; II, 25; III, 21; IV, 35. 
Pronotum black with pruinose in front, nearly 
flat above, almost rectangular in outline with 
sides becoming a little narrower anteriorly and 
more rounded on front corners, wider at base 
than median length (68:43). Abbreviated hemely- 
tra almost attaining middle of abdomen, whitish 
with dark fuscous patch beyond middle, rather 
broadly rounded at apex, the veins with some 
erect pale hairs; membrane short, pale. Scutelum 
black. Abdomen above brownish, beneath bluish 
black. Legs yellowish brown, clothed with short 
pale hairs. 

In the alate paratype the hemelytra do not 
quite reach to the apex of the abdomen, leaving 
most of the connexiva exposed. Length 2.90 mm. 

Specimens of B. pulchellus from La Ceiba, Hon- 
duras, taken on Panicum, by F. 8. Dyer, U.S. 
National Museum, agree very closely with the 
type and have been labeled by Dr. R. I. Sailer 
and the writer as “comp. with type.” Others in 


a 
LN 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 41, No. 10 
the National Museum were taken on the roots 
of Panicum purpurea, Los Sabanas, Panama, 
James Zetek. 


Blissus brasiliensis, n. sp. Fig. 3 


Elongate, rather densely longly pilose, moder- 
ately shaggy, blackish, with abdomen reddish 
brown, the head, anterior part of pronotum 
and abdomen beneath bluish. Head a little wider 
across eyes than median length (56:45), with 
pale hairs more or less erect; tylus fuligmous; 
eyes small, reddish, with a few short hairs. 
Antennae moderately long, rather densely shortly 
pilose, yellowish brown with the terminal seg- 
ment (also sometimes third and apex of second) 
dark fuscous; formula—I, 10; II, 22; III, 30; 
IV, 37. Rostrum testaceous, extending between 
middle coxae. Venter reddish brown, bluish. 

Macropterous form: Pronotum subquadrate, 
slightly narrowed anteriorly, widest across hu- 
meralangles, anterior prumose part finely punctate: 
hind part black, punctate, width at base much 
wider than median length (95:65). Abdomen 
almost parallel-sided. Hemelytra not quite reach- 
ing apex of abdomen, whitish, the apical angle 
of corium black-fuscous. Length, 3.60 mm; width, 
1.00 mm. 


Fic. 1.—Blissus iowensis Andre: a, Macropterous form; b, brachypterous form. 


OcToBER 1951 


DRAKE: NEW AMERICAN CHINCH BUGS 321 


Fie. 2.—Blissus mixus Barber: a, Macropterous form; b, brachypterous form. 


Brachypterous form: Abbreviated hemelytra 
about three-fifths as long as abdomen, whitish 
with dark patch a little smaller than in long- 
winged form. Entire insect also smaller than 
macropterous form. Length, 3.00 mm. 

Type, macropterous maleand paratype brachyp- 
terous male, Corumba, Brazil. Allotype, macrop- 
terous female, Santarém, Brazil. 

The much shorter antennae separate this 
species at once from M. penningtoni Drake, and 
it is distinctly smaller with much longer pubes- 
cence or short hairs than B. richardsont Drake. 


Blissus yumana, n. sp. 


Elongate, black, moderately shaggy, the ab- 
domen reddish brown; hairs whitish, erect or 
partly decumbent; head, anterior half of pro- 
notum and abdomen beneath bluish. Head wider 
through eyes than median length (60:60), the 
tylus brownish. Antennae long, longly pilose, 
testaceous, the fourth and sometimes the fifth 
segment dark fuscous; formula—I, 20; II, 40; 
III, 32; IV, 52. Rostrum testaceous, extending 
between hind coxae. Legs testaceous, clothed with 
short pale hairs. Pronotum much wider than 


long (100:62), finely punctate, the sides with 
front corners more rounded; hind lobe consider- 
ably flattened. 

Macropterous form: Hemelytra not quite at- 
taining apex of abdomen, the dark fuscous spot 
in apical angle of corium extending a little into 
membrane; membrane with veins distinct. 
Length, 4.40 mm; width, 1.24 mm. 

Brachypterous form: Hemelytra about three- 
fifths as long as the abdomen, with dark spot 
in apical angle of corium about the same size as 
in long-winged form; membrane short, subtrans- 
parent, narrowly rounded apically. Length, 4.20 
mm. 

Type (macropterous male), allotype (brachyp- 
terous female), and 6 paratypes, Yuma, Ariz., 
BE. D. Ball. 

The longer antennae and longer body separate 
this species at once from B. 
other North American members of the genus. 


leucopterus and 


Blissus richardsoni Drake 


Blissus richardsoni Drake, Notas Mus. La Plata 
5: 224, fie. 1. 1940. 


e 
Described from a single specimen, collected 


322 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES gi vo. 41, no.&10 


af 


( " 


Fie. 3.—Blissus brasiliensis, n.sp.: a, Macropterous form; b, brachypterous form. 


near Buenos Aires, Argentina. The larger and 
more robust size and clothing of very short hairs 
separate this insect at once from other Brazilian 
and Argentine species. The fourth antennal seg- 
ment is also much longer and stouter. In addition 
to the type, there are two females (long- and 
short-winged) from Chapada, Brazil. The brachyp- 
terous form is shorter than the macropterous, 
and the abbreviated wings do not quite reach 
the middle of the abdomen. The short hemelytra 
are moderately long, obliquely rounded at apices, 
reaching almost to the apex of third visible 
tergite, whitish testaceous on basal half, thence 
dark fuscous; membrane is short, fumose; veins 
are moderately prominent. The pronotum is con- 
siderably flattened. Antennal formula: I, 12; II, 
32; III, 26; IV, 60. The eyes bear a few short 
hairs. 
Neoblissus hygrobius (Jensen-Haarup) 


Mendocina hygrobia Jensen-Haarup, Ent. Medd. 
13: 210, fig. 1. 1920. 


This chinch bug was described from a brachyp- 
terous male, taken in the Province of Mendoza, 
Argentina, by A. C. Jensen-Haarup, who wrongly 
treated it as a member of the ‘‘shore bug” 
family Aeophilidae and thus found it necessary 
to erect a new genus for its reception. A study 
of the description and figures shows that hygrobia 
belongs to either the genus Blissus or Neoblissus 
of the family Lygaeidae. At the moment it seems 
advisable to synonymize the genus Mendocina 
Jensen-Haarup with Neoblissus Bergroth. 

N. hygrobius (Jensen-Haarup) is very similar 
and closely related to N. parasigaster Bergroth. 
An examination of the type of the former may 
prove that the two names apply to the same 
species. Size, shape, length of brachypterous 
wing pads, and color seem to be identical. There 
may be a little difference in the antennal formula. 
However, it will be necessary to examine the 
type of N. hygrobvus to establish its true specific 
status. 


OcroBER 1951 DRAKE: NEW 

The genus Neoblissus Bergroth was erected 
for the reception of a myrmecophilous chinch 
bug found feeding and breeding in the nests of 
ants (Solenopsis saevissima) in Brazil. The genus 
is very closely allied to the genus Blissus and is 
distinguished largely by the very short wing pads 
with wide and stbtruncate apex in the brachyp- 
terous form. So far as known the species of 
Neoblissus feed and breed on grasses grown in 
the chambers in the nests of ants. Until more is 
known about myrmecrophilous chinch bugs, it 
seems best to leave Neoblissus stand as a valid 
genus. Another species of chinch bug found 
inhabiting ant nests in Argentina is described 
below as new to science. 


Neoblissus parasigaster Bergroth 


Neoblissus parasigaster Bergroth, Entom. Zeit. 
Wien 23: 253. 1903. 

Neoblissus parasigaster Bruch, Physis 3: 146. 1917. 

Neoblissus parasigaster Bruch, Physis 4: 53. 1918. 

Neoblissus parasigaster Drake, Notas Mus. La 
Plata 5: 226, fig. 3. 1940. 


In the macropterous form the hemelytra are 
whitish, with apical angle of corium blackish 
fuscous, and do not reach the apex of the ab- 
domen. The dark fuscous patch varies in size, 
sometimes including as much as one-half of the 
corium. It is widely distributed in Argentina 
and Brazil, where it lives as a guest in large 
numbers (both nymphs and adults) in the under- 
ground chambers of vicious ant nests (Solenopsis 
saevissima). 

It feeds and breeds on the grasses growing on 
the inside of the chambers and hibernates during 
winter in the lower chambers. It is apparently 
undisturbed by the ants and is free to move in 
the cavities and to leave the nest. Bruch reports 
finding more than 1,000 chinch bugs in a single 
nest. The nymphs (all stages) are extremely 
abundant during summer, the adults during the 
winter months. Dr. Bruch’s preliminary (loc. 
cit) account of the relationship is very interesting, 
and it is unfortunate that he was never able to 
complete his studies. 


AMERICAN 


CHINCH BUGS 323 


Neoblissus weiseri, n. sp. 


Brachypterous form: Moderately large, moder- 
ately shaggy, head and pronotum brownish black 
to black; abdomen reddish brown; hairy clothing 
moderately long fine, dense, whitish testaceous. 
Legs yellowish brown, clothed with short pale 
hans. Antennae moderately long, shortly pilose, 
the terminal segment often dark; formula—lI, 
12; I, 25; III, 20; IV, 40. Head across eyes and 
median length almost subequal; tylus brownish. 
Rostrum testaceous, its tip reaching to base of 
abdomen. Orifice brownish, with large canal. 
Seutellum brownish to black, twice as wide as 
long, punctate. Hemelytral pads short, reaching 
on the outside to hind margin of third visible 
tergite; posterior margin subtruncate, very 
strongly oblique (or feebly rounded), within being 
whitish, dark in apical corner or corium, with 
veins brownish; veins testaceous or brownish 
and hairy. 

Pronotum finely punctate, much wider than 
long (92:52), with sides becoming slightly nar- 
rower anteriorly and more rounded at antero- 
corners. Abdomen moderately shaggy, clothed 
with pale hairs, beneath being reddish brown to 
black, moderately hairy. Length, 3.20 mm.; 
width, 1.25 mm, 

Macropterous form: Hemelytra variable in 
length, generally a little shorter than abdomen, 
sometimes considerably shorter leaving the last 
two tergites exposed; apex of corium with blackish 
spot. Length, 3.00-3.15 mm.; width, 1.25 mm. 

Type (male) and allotype (female), both bra- 
chypterous, Province of Entre Rios, Fives Lille, 
Santa Fé, Argentina, taken by Weiser, in La 
Plata Museum, Argentina. Paratypes, apterous 
and macropterous forms, taken with types, in 
the nests of the vicious and almost vicious 
omnivorous ants, Solenopsis saevissima. 

Easily distinguished from B. parasigaster Ber- 
eroth by its smaller size and shorter antennae; 
and the hemelytral pads are slightly and obliquely 
truncate apically. The wing-pads of B. parasigas- 
ter are shorter and feebly obliquely truncate and 
very wide at apex. 


324 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OS SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 10 


ENTOMOLOGY .—WNew species of chrysomelid beetles of the genera Trirhabda and 
Disonycha. Doris H. Buakr, Arlington, Va. 


The following new species of Trirhabda 
and Disonycha form an addition to my re- 
visions of those genera in 1931! and 1933,° 
respectively. The specimens from which they 
were described, with one exception, had been 
set aside from the regular collection by H. 8. 
Barber as new and came to light only after 
his death. 


Trirhabda geminata Horn 
Figs. 2, 4, 6,9 


Trirhabda geminata Horn, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 


29: 68. 18938. 
Trirhabda nigrohumeralis Schaeffer, Bull. Brook- 
lyn Inst. Arts and Sce1., 1: 170. 1905. 


In my revision of the genus Trirhabda I stated 
that the “pale forms of geminata are sometimes 
difficult to distinguish from nigrohwmeralis” but 
“in general nigrohumeralis is smaller... and the 
aedeagus quite unlike that of geminata, being 
small, tapering and rounded at the tip.” At that 
time I did not have specimens of Schaeffer’s 
types of nigrohumeralis and did not realize that 
the aedeagus that I was describing was from a 
specimen outwardly like nigrohwmeralis but quite 
unlike that species in its genitalia. From labels 
in the collection I have found that H. 8. Barber, 
on acquiring Schaeffer’s collection and dissecting 
a male of that species, at once saw that what I 
described was really a new species. However, he 
does not appear to have suspected that nigro- 
humeralis itself is simply a color form of geminata. 
I am forced to this conclusion after examining 
specimens from many localities in California, 
Arizona, New Mexico, and even Texas. Horn 
gave as type localities “San Diego, California 
and Arizona.” Specimens from near the coast 
are darker in their markings than many inland 
specimens, although some from Nogales and 
Tucson, Ariz., are fully as dark. Others from 
those localities are of the coloring that Schaeffer 
described for mgrohumeralis with “unicolorous 
pale elytra” having “an elongate narrow black 
humeral spot.” Dissection of these specimens 
reveals an aedeagus like that of geminata. A still 
paler and smaller series of specimens from near 
Presidio, Tex., taken on Brickellia shows a similar 


1 Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 79 (art. 2): 1-36. 1931. 
2 Proc, U.S. Nat. Mus. 82 (art. 28): 1-66. 1933. 


aedeagus. It appears that this species as it oc- 
curs eastward across the country grows smaller 
and paler in coloring. Specimens were taken by 
Hubbard and Schwarz at St. Rita and Nogales 
on Brickellia, and also in 1945 by an unknown 
collector on this food plant at Nogales. Other 
specimens at Nogales were taken on lettuce 
(collector unknown). At Cataline Springs, north- 
east of Tucson, they were taken by Hubbard 
and Schwarz on EHncelia, and on guayule, near 
Tucson, by an unknown collector. The localities 
for T. geminata (including the paler forms) in 
the U.S. National Museum are: California: Clare- 
mont, Baker Coll.; Arizona: Bright Angel, Camp 
Verde, H. Brisley; Cataline Springs, Hubbard 
and Schwarz; Huachuca Mountains, Schaeffer 
Coll.; Nogales, Oracle, Hubbard and Schwarz; 
Palmerly, Cochise County, Schaeffer Coll.; Sta. 
Rita Mountains, Hubbard and Schwarz; New 
Mexico: Jemez Mountains, John Woodgate; Las 
Vegas, Barber and Schwarz; Texas: Near Pre- 
sidio, collector unknown. 


Trirhabda schwarzi, n. sp. 
Fig. 7 
Trirhabda nigrohumeralis Blake (not Schaeffer, 

1906), Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 79 (art. 2): 30, 31. 

1931. 

Between 4.5 and 7.5 mm in length, elongate 
oblong, pale yellow-brown, finely pubescent, the 
head with an oblong dark spot, mouthparts pale; 
three dark pronotal spots; scutellum bicolored, 
the elytra with a dark humeral streak, body 
beneath entirely pale, antennae usually pale, 
claw joimt sometimes a little darker. 

Head with a dark oblong spot down the occi- 
put, mouthparts pale, densely and obsoletely 
punctate down to tubercles with a depressed 
median line, from tubercles down shiny and im- 
punctate. Antennae usually pale brownish, not 
at all piceous. Prothorax about twice as wide as 
long, depressed on each side, alutaceous, with 
coarse punctures, pale brown with three small 
spots. Scutellum partly dark. Elytra pale brown 
with a darker humeral streak fading out down 
the side. Body beneath entirely pale, legs pale, 
except sometimes the claw joint a little darker. 
Length 4.6-7.4 mm; width 2-3 mm. 

Type male and 41 paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 
61126. 2 paratypes in M.C.Z., collected at Ash- 


ww 
i) 
Ct 


OcroBER 1951 BLAKE: CHRYSOMELID BEETLES 


2. Tegem inata Horn 
Presidio,Texas 


> »@ e 
; 


\ 4.T. geminata Horn 
Nogales, Nrizona 


7 Trirhabda schwarzt 


6. T. geminataHorn 


Type nidrohumeralis Schaeff. 


9. T:deminataHorn < 
8. Disonycha arizonae Casey dark form Nogales, trizona \O. Disonycha barberi 


Fias. 1-10.—Species of Trirhabda and Disonycha 


326 


fork, Ariz., by H. 8. Barber and E. A. Schwarz 
on June 17, 1901. 

Other locality—Prescott, Ariz., collected by 
Barber and Schwarz on June 19, 1901. 

Remarks.—This species is outwardly well-nigh 
indistinguishable from the pale forms of 7’. gemi- 
nata Horn (nigrohumeralis Schaeffer) and was 
the species figured and erroneously believed to 
be nigrohumeralis in my revision of the genus in 
1931. The aedeagus is not at all like that of 
geminata, and there are a few minor color differ- 
ences that appear to be constant—the antennae 
and mouthparts are pale, not piceous, and the 
claw joint alone is dark, whereas in geminata, 
except in palest forms, the last two tarsal joints 
are usually dark. 

Trirhabda pubicollis, n. sp. 
Rigel: 

About 7 mm in length, elongate oblong, densely 
and somewhat rugosely punctate, head, pro- 
notum, and elytra with fine short pubescence; 
pale yellow-brown, the head with a deep metallic- 
green band extending from occiput to tubercles 
except for a narrow pale area about eyes; pro- 
notum with three large irregularly shaped piceous 
spots, elytra metallic dark green except for a 
narrow yellow border, body beneath, legs and 
antennae pale, claw joint deeper brown. 

Head densely and rather shallowly punctate 
over occiput and upper front with a median 
impressed line, finely pubescent, area above tu- 
bercles except for a narrow area about eyes 
entirely dark metallic green, labrum _ piceous 
edged. Antennae pale reddish brown except for a 
deeper brown basal joint, unusually long and 
slender, fourth joint about twice as long as third. 
Prothorax about twice as wide as long with 
nearly straight sides (viewed from above); de- 
pressed across the middle, especially on the sides, 
and coarsely punctate, surface shining, not at all 
alutaceous and with moderately dense pale pu- 
bescence, pale with three large, irregularly shaped 
piceous spots. Scutellum dark. Elytra deep metal- 
lic green with a pale yellow brown border, densely 
and moderately coarsely punctate and covered 
with fine pale pubescence. Body beneath and 
legs pale, the claw jomts alone deeper brown. 
Length 7 mm; width 2.4 mm. 

Type male U.S.N.M. no. 61127, collected at 
El Paso, Tex., May 2, collector unknown. 

Remarks.—Only a single specimen is at hand, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 10 
but this one is distinctly unlike any other de- 
seribed from north of Mexico. It may well be a 
Mexican species but apparently is not described. 
The prothorax is unusual in bemg conspicuously 
pubescent and short. The aedeagus too is dis- 
tinctive with its long tapering tip. 


Trirhabda gurneyi, n. sp. 
Fig. 3 


Between 6 and 7.5 mm in length, elongate 
oblong, faintly shining, especially on the pro- 
thorax, with finely pubescent elytra, pale yellow- 
brown, the head with a wide, dark, occipital 
band curving down front, prothorax with the 
usual three dark spots, scutellum dark, elytra 
with piceous sutural and lateral vittae, not united 
at the apex, body beneath, antennae and legs 
pale. 

Head coarsely punctate over occiput and down 
to frontal tubercles, with a median impressed 
line, pale with a dark band across occiput, curv- 
ing down the front, mouthparts usually dark. 
Antennae as a rule pale, never deep piceous. 
Prothorax not quite twice as broad as long, with 
slightly angulate sides, depressed on either side, 
shining, not at all alutaceous, and more or less 
coarsely punctate, pale with three medium sized 
black spots, the middle one often shield shaped. 
Seutellum usually entirely dark, in 2 of the 14 
specimens somewhat paler toward apex. Elytra 
densely and moderately coarsely punctate, the 
punctures not confluent, and with short fine 
pubescence; pale yellow brown with a narrow 
sutural and not very wide lateral vitta, these 
not uniting at apex, the sutural one becoming 
narrow at apex so as to darken only the sutural 
edges, in one specimen the lateral vitta fading 
out from the middle to apex. Body beneath and 
legs pale, the claws somewhat deeper in coloring. 
Length 6-7.5 mm; width 2.6-3 mm. 

Type male and 11 paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 
61128. Two paratypes in M.C.Z., collected by 
A. B. Gurney at Indian Springs, Nev., June 5, 
1949, on Franseria. 

Remarks.—In coloring this species resembles 
somewhat 7’. adela Blake, except that it is always 
pale beneath and smaller with less densely pu- 
bescent elytra. It has also a shiny, not alutaceous 
prothorax. It differs from T. mtidicollis im not 
having the vittae joined at the apex and in the 
differently shaped prothorax. 


OcToBER 1951 


Trirhabda nigriventris, n. sp. 
Fig. 5 


Between 6 and 9.5 mm in length, elongate 
oblong, finely punctate, with short, fine pubes- 
cence, head with a broad black plaga curving 
down over front, thorax shiny, 3-spotted, elytra 
with narrow sutural and lateral vittae almost 
always uniting at apex, frequently the lateral 
vitta having a paler trace of vitta as an offshoot 
near the apex, breast and abdomen dark. 

Head with a median impressed line, densely 
and not very coarsely punctate over front, a 
broad dark occipital band curving down front, 
mouthparts with dark edgmg. Antennae long 
and siender, the basal joints with pale edging, 
distal jomts entirely dark. Prothorax not quite 
twice as broad as long with slightly arcuate sides, 
depressed across, especially on the sides, shiny, 
more or less coarsely punctate, with three black 
spots, the middle one tending to be shield shaped. 
Seutellum usually entirely dark. Elytra densely 
but not very coarsely punctate, with short fine 
pubescence, sutural dark vitta nearly always 
uniting at apex with lateral vitta, the lateral 
vitta frequently having at apex a decurrent paler 
brown vitta running up, sometimes to the middle 
of the elytra. Body beneath with breast and 
abdomen, except at the tip, dark, legs pale, 
except the darker claw joint. Length 6-9.5 mm; 
width 2.6-3.5 mm. 

Type male and 90 paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 
61129. Four paratypes in M.C.Z.; 5 paratypes in 
British Museum, taken on sagebrush, Artemisia 
tridentata, August 1, 1938, by O. V. Smith at 
Aztek, N. Mex. 

Remarks.—The dark ventral surface and shiny 
prothorax distinguish this species from 7’. lewisii 
Crotch. It is one of the few larger western species 
with a dark undersurface. 


Disonycha barberi, n. sp. 
Fig. 10 


From 5.4 to 6.6 mm in length, oblong oval, 
shining, pale yellow, the head with a broad dark 
occipital band extending in a point down the 
front and about the eyes and sides, the elytra 
with a sutural and marginal dark vitta uniting 
at apex and a median vitta, legs dark at apex of 
femora and the tibiae and tarsi entirely dark, 
beneath with the breast dark. Eyes unusually 
large, antennae dark with the tip paler. 


BLAKE: CHRYSOMELID BEETLES 


327 


Head shining, the polished dark occipital band 
finely punctate on the occiput and front and 
extending in a peak down to tubercles, also about 
the eyes and down the side of the head, the 
mouthparts dark; eyes unusually large, the inter- 
ocular space being less than half the width of the 
head, a fovea on each side near eye composed of 
punctures; tubercles pale and well marked, carina 
between antennal sockets not very wide or pro- 
duced but rounded. Antennae dark with the 
three basal and 2 apical joints more or less 
pale. Prothorax about twice as wide as long at 
base with rounded sides, somewhat depressed 
over the scutellum, entirely pale with very faintly 
punctate surface, shining. Scutellum dark, tri- 
angular. Elytra shining, more distinctly punctate, 
pale with a moderately wide sutural and marginal 
vitta jomed at apex, median vitta moderately 
wide, epipleura wide and dark but diminishing 
and vanishing before the apex. Body beneath 
with the breast more or less darkened, the apices 
of the anterior pairs of femora narrowly and those 
of the posterior femora more widely dark, the 
tibiae and tarsi dark. Length 5.4-6.6 mm; width 
3-3.3 mm. 

Type male and 20 paratypes, U.S.N.M. no. 
61130. Two paratypes in M.C.Z., 1 paratype in 
British Museum, collected at Brownsville, Tex., 
four specimens on September 16, 1939, on Con- 
dalia obovata and the rest in June 1945 and Sep- 
tember 1944 by J. D. Smith, who reared them 
from Phaulothamnus spinescens. 

Other localities—San Bonito, Tex., on corn 
foliage, March 27, 1945; Sebastian, Tex., April 
24, 1945; 1 specimen trapped at airport, Browns- 
ville, June 6; 1 specimen taken from the cabin 
of a plane ‘in Mexico,” June 26, 1947. 

Remarks.—This species had been labeled by 
Mr. Barber with two different new specific names, 
the first one from its resemblance to D. glabrata 
(Fabricius), the second from its food plant. Both 
names are somewhat awkward-sounding, and so 
I propose to name it after Mr. Barber whose 
glee on discovering it I well remember. In general 
markings it resembles closely D. glabrata, but 
the unusually large eyes and different pattern of 
the head markings at once distinguish it. None 
of the specimens has any pronotal dark spots 
such as are usual in D. glabrata. Both larvae and 
eges were sent in by J. D. Smith, who reared it 
from Phaulothamnus spinescens. 


328 


Disonycha arizonae Casey 
Fig. 8 


Some years ago Dr. E. C. Van Dyke sent me 
four specimens (three females and one male) of a 
Disonycha from the collection of the California 
Academy of Sciences, with the label Elmwood, 
Tenn., Fenyes Coll. At first sight it seemed to 
be something new, but the label reminded me of 
a series in the U. 8S. National Museum with the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 10 


same locality label that were typical specimens 
of D. arizonae Casey, and on comparison I found 
these four to be simply a dark color form of that 
species. This was corroborated by examination 
of the male genitalia. In all four specimens the 
elytra were deep reddish brown or piceous with a 
narrow pale margin, and in all four there was a 
faint trace of vittation at the apex, in the darkest 
specimen, only a tiny pale spot but in the others, 
showing very faintly, two pale vittae. 


ZOOLOGY .— Geographical distribution of the nemerteans of the northern coast of the 
Gulf of Mexico as compared with those of the southern coast of Florida, with de- 
scriptions of three new species. WESLEY R. Cor, Scripps Institution of Oceanog- 
raphy.! (Communicated by W.: L. Schmitt.) 


Up to the present time no published in- 
formation has been available relative to the 
nemerteans of the areas covered by this 
report. Consequently it has been uncertain 
whether the nemertean fauna might be found 
to consist principally or wholly of species 
identical with those of the Atlantic coast or 
whether the more typically tropical or sub- 
tropical species would be included. Nor was 
it known whether any or many apparently 
endemic forms might be present. 

Twenty-two species have now been identi- 
fied. Sixteen of these are found on the north- 
ern coasts of the Gulf and six others in 
southern Florida. Only two specimens from 
the deeper, off-shore waters of the Gulf have 
been obtained by the writer. Both of these 
belong to either Lineus or Micrura, but the 
specimens were not sufficiently well pre- 
served to allow specific analysis. No infor- 
mation is yet available for all that portion of 
the western Gulf coast south of the Mexi- 
can border, or for any locality on the west 
coast of the Florida peninsula between 
Franklin County and Key West. 

The presumable explanation for the small 
number of species at present known is that 
only sporadic efforts have been made toward 
a complete survey of the littoral fauna of the 
Gulf. On the Atlantic coast of North Amer- 
ica there are 53 known species of nemerteans 
and on the Pacific coast 95 species. Hence it 
seems probable that there are many more 


1 Contribution from the Seripps Institution of 
Oceanography, new series, no. 539. 


species now actually living in the Gulf than 
can be included in this report. 

Even on the Atlantic coast the nemerteans 
have been studied extensively only as far 
south as New Jersey, and our knowledge of 
the species living between that State and 
Florida is based on collections madeat widely 
separated localities. It may therefore be 
assumed that some, perhaps many, addi- 
tional species remain to be discovered there. 

All except two of the species known from 
the northern part of the Gulf are also found 
on the Atlantic coast. Therefore, it seems 
probable that the nemertean fauna of the 
northern Gulf coast has in’the past been a 
continuation of that of the Atlantic coast 
and that it is now a separate fauna that was 
isolated in Pleistocene times by the Florida 
Peninsula. To determine whether any of the 
populations of the two areas are at present 
continuous, it 1s essential to obtain addi- 
tional collections on both sides of the south- 
ern half of that peninsula. It is already 
known that the species found at Pensacola, 
on the Gulf side, are similar to those found 
by the writer personally at St. Augustine, 
on the Atlantic side. The following lists, 
however, Indicate that these two nemertean 
faunas are separated by an area in which 
other species predominate. 

Because the nemerteans of the northern 
Gulf coast are generally of different species 
than those at present known from southern 
Florida, the species of the two areas will be 
listed separately. 


OcToBER 1951 


I. GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF SPECIES 
AT PRESENT KNOWN FROM THE NORTHERN | 
COAST OF THE GULF OF MEXICO 


{Abbreviations indicate: A, Atlantic coast of 
North America; E, coasts of Europe; G, North- 
ern coast of the Gulf of Mexico; P, Pacific 
coast of North America; 8, southern Florida; 
W, West Indies; X, at other localities.| 


Order 1, PALEONEMERTEA 
Family Tubulanidae 
Tubulanus pellucidus (Coe), 1895. A, G, P. 
Family Carinomidae 
Carinoma tremaphoros Thompson, 1900. A, G. 
Order 2, HrTERONEMERTEA 
Family Lineidae 
Zygeupolia rubens (Coe), 1895. A, G, P. 
Lineus socialis (Leidy), 1855. A, G. 
Micrura leidyi (Verrill), 1892. A. G.S. 
Cerebratulus lactews (Leidy), 1851. A, G. 
Order 3, HOPLONEMERTEA 
Family Emplectonemertidae 
Paranemertes biocellata Coe, 1944. G. 
Family Carcinonemertidae 


Carcinonemertes carcinophila (Kélliker), 1845. A, 
EK. G. 

Carcinonemertes carcinophila imminuta Humes, 
1942. G, S, W. 


Family Prosorhochmidae 
Oerstedia dorsalis (Abild.), 1806. A, E, G, P, X. 
Family Amphiporidae 
Zygonemertes virescens (Verrill), 1879. A, G, P. 


Amphiporus cruentatus Verrill, 1879. A, G, P. 
Amphiporus ochraceus (Verrill), 1873. A, G. 


Amphiporus texanus, n. sp. 


This new species represents one of the larger 
and broader forms of this extensive genus. The 
type specimen was about 60 mm in leneth and 
6 mm in width after preservation. The length 
of this specimen is therefore only 10 times the 
greatest width. The head is narrow, about 2 
mm in width, with subterminal mouth and trans- 
verse or oblique lateral grooves. There are many 
small ocelli on each side of the head, although 
the exact number and arrangement could not 
be determined in this specimen. 

The proboscis is large and extends nearly the 
entire length of the body. The central stylet is 
moderately slender and about two-thirds of the 
length of the relatively massive basis. The latter 
is nearly rectangular in outline, about four times 
as long as its diameter, tapering but. slightly 
toward the anterior end and is truncated pos- 


COE: GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION 


OF NEMERTEANS 329 
teriorly (Fig. 1). In this type specimen the basis 
measured 0.185 mm in length and from 0.027 
to 0.035 in diameter. One of the two accessory 
pouches contained two well-formed stylets and 
the other had three, two of which were not yet 
completed. In this specimen there were 10 rather 
large proboscidial nerves. 

No record is available regarding the color in 
life, but the specimen preserved in formalin in- 
dicated a pale, reddish-brown epidermal pig- 
mentation. The cerebral sense organs are com- 
paratively larger than in most species of the 
genus. They are situated lateroventrally and a 
short distance anterior to the brain. 

This specimen (U.S.N.M. no. 22965) was col- 
lected by B. Earp at Port Aransas, Tex. All 
the other species of nemerteans at present known 
from that locality are found also on the North 
Atlantic coast. Consequently it is uncertain 
whether this new species is limited to the Gulf 
of Mexico or whether it may occur also. on 
the Atlantic coast, although it has not yet 
been found there. 


Family Tetrastemmatidae 


Tetrastemma candidum (Miller), 1774. A, E, G, 
IP ose 
Tetrastemma vermiculus (Quatr.), 1846. A, E, G. 


Order 4, BDELLONEMERTEA 
Family Malacobdellidae 


Malacobdella grossa (O. F. Miller), 1776. A, 
G, P. 


7 


Fic. 


1.—Amphiporus texanus n. sp.: Outline 
of stylet apparatus of proboscis. 


330 


II. SPECIES AT PRESENT KNOWN FROM 
SOUTHERN FLORIDA 


Order 1, PALEONEMERTEA 
Tubulanus floridanus, n. sp. 


In the collections from Biscayne Bay, Fla., 
was one specimen of T'ubulanus that evidently 
represents a previously undescribed species. This 
specimen is very slender, about 40 mm in length 
and only 1 to 2 mm wide. The color in life is 
brown, with a series of about 30 very narrow 
rings of lighter color. Nearly all the rings com- 
pletely encircle the body. Anteriorly the rings 
are separated by a distance about equal to the 
diameter of the body but more posteriorly they 
are generally more widely separated and irregu- 
larly spaced. The lateral sense organs can be 
distinguished externally but are not conspicuous. 

Transverse sections show a rather thick outer 
epithelium, with a thin, but dense, basement 
layer and an unusually large median dorsal 
nerve. The cerebral sense organs are large and 
highly specialized, with a sensory canal leading 
laterally to the surface of the epithelium. 

Individuals of this species have a superficial 
resemblance to those of JT. annulatus (Mon- 
tague), 7’. capistratus Coe, and T. nothus (Birger) 
but are without longitudinal lines of contrasting 
color. 

One individual of this species was collected 
by F. M. Bayer among algae on dock piling on 
the County Causeway at Miami, Biscayne Bay, 
Florida. U. S. Nat. Mus. Cat. No. 22251. 


Order 2, HetTERONEMERTEA 
Family Lineidae 
Lineus ater (Girard), 1851. 8, W. 


Lineus stigmatus n. sp. 


The collections contained fragments of an 
undescribed species of this genus, but unfor- 
tunately the head was not among them. Never- 
theless the markings on the body are so distinctive 
as to indicate that these fragments could not have 
belonged to any of the numerous described 
species. It seems necessary therefore to give as 
complete a diagnosis of a new species as is pos- 
sible in the absence of the head. 

The fragments have a maximum width of 5 
mm, tapering to about 2 mm at the posterior 
end, indicating that the entire individual would 
have had a length of 150 mm or more. 

The color in life was slaty brown on both dorsal 
and ventral surfaces, with paired transverse white 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES  voOL. 41, No. 10 
markings at intervals of 1 to 2 mm on the dorsal 
surface. Each narrow marking is about one-fifth 
the diameter of the body in length and the two 
members of each pair are separated from the 
margin and from each other by about the same 
distance (Fig. 2). The markings are limited to 
the dorsal surface and become irregular and 
indistinct toward the posterior end of the body. 
The colors are retained after preservation in 
alcohol. 

Since the anterior end of the body was not 
obtained, nothing can now be said as to the 
presence of ocelli, the character of the cephalic 
grooves or other sense organs or the peculiarities 
of the nephridia. Transverse sections of the body 
show an unusually thick cutis with many spiral 
muscular fibers and a heavily pigmented layer 
externally. 


Fic. 2.—Lineus stigmatus n. sp.: Outline of 
posterior portion of body, showing position of 
white markings. The markings appear to be ir- 
regularly spaced, onan to differences in state of 
contraction. 


The paired markings in this species have a 
superficial resemblance to those of some individ- 
uals of L. geniculatus (D. Chiaje) in which the 
white rings are interrupted in the mid dorsal 
line but in the latter species the rings continue 
laterally and ventrally. There is also some re- 
semblance to L. albocinctus Verrill, recorded from 
Bermuda and Puerto Rico, although in that 
species the transverse lines are continuous on 
the dorsal surface and the ventral surface of the 
body is whitish. 

The species is at present known only from the 
fragments of one individual collected by G. S. 
Posner on the shore of Biscayne Bay, Fla. 
U.S.N.M. no. 22252. 


Micrura leidyi (Verrill), 1892. A, G, S. 
Cerebratulus fuscus MeIntosh, 1873. E, 8, X 
Cerebratulus leucopsis (Coe), 1902. 8S, W. 


OcToBER 1951 TIMM: NEW SPECIES 
Order 3, HopLONEMERTEA 
Family Amphiporidae 
Carcinonemertes carcinophila var. tmminuta 
Humes, 1942. G, S, W. 
Family Drepanophoridae 
1846. 


Drepanophorus crassus (Quatr.), 19, 12, (Ss 


Wrex: 
SUMMARY 


The preceding lists show that many of the 
species have a remarkably wide geographical 
distribution already recorded and it may be 
expected that they will later be found else- 
where. Of the 16 species at present known 
from the northern Gulf coast, all except 
Paranemertes biocellata and Amphiporus tex- 
anus are widely distributed on the Ameri- 
ean Atlantic coast, and four of them, namely, 
Tubulanus pellucidus, Zygeupolia rubens, Zy- 
gonemertes virescens, and Amphiporus cruen- 
tatus, occur also on the Pacific coast but not 
in Europe; two others, Carcinonemertes car- 
cinophila and Tetrastemma vermiculus, are 
found on American Atlantic and European 
coasts but not in the Pacific; Oerstedia dor- 
salis and Tetrastemma candidum are circum- 
polar, being distributed along both the east 
and west Atlantic and Pacific coasts; Mala- 
cobdella grossa occurs on both American 
coasts and in Europe; while the remaining 
five species, Carinoma tremaphoros, Lineus 
socialis, Micrura leidyi, Cerebratulus lac- 
teus, and Amphiporus ochraceus are known 
only from the Atlantic and Gulf coasts. 


OF MARINE NEMATODE 


331 


Paranemertes biocellata and Cerebratulus tex- 
anus have been found only on the northern 
Gulf coast and may possibly represent en- 
demic species. 

Of the seven species herein recorded from 
southern Florida, only two are known to 
oecur both on the northern Gulf coast and 
in southern Florida, while Lineus ater and 
Cerebratulus leucopsis have been previously 
reported from Puerto Rico and Curacao. 
Cerebratulus fuscus occurs also in northern 
Europe and South Africa, while Drepano- 
phorus crassus has an almost world-wide 
distribution. Tubulanus  floridanus and 
Lineus stigmatus are at present known only 
from Biscayne Bay, Fla. 

For comparison, it may be noted that 11 
of the 53 species found on the North Amer- 
ican Atlantic coast are identical with species 
in European waters, while 12 of the Atlan- 
tic coast species occur also on the Pacific 
coas' and 2of these extend also to Japan. 
No less than 18 of the species found on the 
Pacific coast are thought to be identical with 
well-known European species and others are 
closely similar. 


REFERENCES 


Con, W. R. Biology of the nemerteans of the Atlantic 
coast of North America. Trans. Connecticut 
Acad. Arts and Sei. 35: 129-328. 1943. 

———. Geographical distribution of the nemerteans 
of the Pacific coast of North America, with de- 
scriptions of two new species. Journ. Washing- 
ton Acad. Sei. 24: 27-32. 1944. 


ZOOLOGY .—A new species of marine nematode, Thoracostoma magnificum, with 
a note on possible ‘‘pigment cell” nuclei of the ocel. R. W. Timm, The Catholic 
University of America. (Communicated by E. G. Reinhard.) 


The species of nematode described in this 
paper was collected from rocks at Point 
Barrow, Alaska, and sent to Dr. B. G. Chit- 
wood at The Catholic University of Amer- 
ica, Department of Biology, for identifica- 
tion. It is here described and figured as ¢ 
new species of the family Enoplidae, sub- 


family Leptosomatinae: 
Thoracostoma magnificum, n. sp. Fig. 1 


Description.—Large worms with an elongate 
filiform body. Well-developed cephalic helmet 
(38 long); slits in the posterior grooves of the 


helmet not jomed. Amphids pocketlike, open— 
within a ring formed by the helmet; 7.54 wide 
in both male and female, one-ninth as wide as 
the cephalic diameter. Ten cephalic setae in the 
external cirele, four of which are double; six setae 
in the internal circle. Dorsal tooth very incon- 
spicuous. Dentiform projections in front of the 
helmet. No excretory pore or subventral excre- 
tory gland cell. Ocelli 19” im diameter) with 
red-pigmented “‘retina’’ and crystalline lens. 
Cuticle 12u at the head and tail, Su at the mid- 
body. Nerve ring 30 percent of the esophageal 
length from the anterior in both sexes. 


332 


Male.—24 mm long; a, 98.4; 8, 9.3; y, 189. 
Length of spicules 264,; length of gubernaculum: 
corpus 125y, crus 82.54. Total length of testes 
33 percent of the body length. One preanal 
tuboid supplement situated ventrally and nine 
pairs of accessory papilloid supplements situated 
subventrally; nine pairs of submedian preanal 
and two pairs of submedian postanal papillae. 


—Ten 


| 
itl 
| 


| 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 10 


Female.—24 mm long; a, 98.4; 8, 9.3; y, 190. 
Vulva 64.4 percent from the anterior; both ova- 
ries 31.5 percent of the body length; ovaries 
reflexed. Two eggs in the uterus, 224u by 780x. 

Habitat—Marine. 

Locality —Point Barrow, Alaska. 

Specimens.—U.S8.N.M. no. 1318838 (cotypes). 

Remarks.—Filipjev (1916) separated the new 


Fie. 1.—Thoracostoma magnificum, n. sp.: A, anterior end; B, male tail; C, cross section through 
first two marginal nuclei of esophagus. 


OcToBER 1951 


genus Deontostoma from Thoracostoma on the 
absence of “large dentiform projections in front.” 
He characterized the genus Thoracostoma as hav- 
ing “a hollow ventral tooth.” Although Thora- 
costoma magnificum does not have conspicuous 
teeth as seen in totomount preparations, yet in 
eross section a definite dorsal tooth, through 
which the dorsal esophageal gland duct opens, 
is found to be present. There are also dentiform 
projections in front. The genus Deontostoma has 
not been generally accepted. 


A NOTE ON POSSIBLE ‘‘PIGMENT CELL” 
NUCLEI OF THE OCELLI 


Nothing has ever been observed on the inner- 
vation of the ocelli of nematodes. Schulz (1931) 
described a formative cell (‘“Bildungszelle”) di- 
rectly behind the ocellus of Parasymplocostoma 
formosum |? syn. of Enchelidium marinum (Mul- 
ler, 1783) Ehrenberg, 1836]. He also described a 
canal (‘“Augenkanal’’) opening from the lens to 
the exterior. These observations have never been 
confirmed. 

In Thoracostoma magnificum there are two 
large nuclei (11u by 18x) of the esophagus located 
a short distance behind the ocelli, which are 
half-embedded in the lateral walls of the esoph- 
agus (Fig. 1, A). These nuclei lie in accessory 
subventral gland ducts, which are filled with 
ocellus pigment granules, and lead to the eyes. 
They are the first two nuclei of the esophagus and 


BERKELEY AND BERKELEY: 


POTAMETHUS ELONGATUS 333 
represent marginal nuclei (My, and Mz); they are 
surrounded by concentrations of ocellus pigment 
(Fig. 1, C). In Leptosomatum elongatum var. 
acephalatum Chitwood, 1936, and in Thoracostoma 
figuratum (Bastian, 1865) de Man, 1893, we have 
found these nuclei either in direct contact with 
the ocelli or a short distance behind them. Since 
the esophagus is a syncytium, the cytoplasmic 
boundaries of the cells producing the pigment 
have not been determined. However, since the 
regions in which the ocellus pigment extends 
throughout the esophagus are the same regions 
in which the marginal nuclei lie, it is suggested 
that the latter may function as the nuclei con- 
trolling pigment production. Possibly the two 
anteriormost marginal nuclei are specialized for 
activating the surrounding cytoplasm to produce 
the ocelli, while the others control the production 
of the diffuse pigment of the esophagus. However, 
nothing final can be stated at the present time 
about definite “pigment cell’? nuclei which direct 
formation of the ocelli. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Finiesev, I. Les nématodes libres contenus dans les 
collections du Musée Zoologique de l’ Academie 
Impériale des Sciences de Petrograd. Ann. 
Mus. Zool. Acad. Sei. Petrograd 21: 59-116, 
pls. 1-2. 1916. (Russian text; French title.) 

Scuuuz, E. Betrachtungen tiber Augen freclebender 
Nematoden. Zool. Anz. 95 (9/10): 241-244. 
figs. 1-8. 1931. 


ZOOLOGY .—A _ second record of the polychaetous annelid Potamethus elongatus 
(Treadwell). E. and C. BrRKELBY, Pacific Biological Station, Nanaimo, British 
Columbia. (Communicated by F. A. Chace, Jr.) 


The only specimen hitherto recorded of the 
polychaetous annelid Potamethus clongatus 
(Treadwell) is in the collection of the U.S. 
National Museum (no. 5221). It was taken 
by the steamer Albatross in the Hawaiian 
region in 1902 and briefly described by 
Treadwell (1906) under the name Potamilla 
elongata. The specimen was later re-exam- 
ined by Hartman (1942) and attributed to 
the genus Potamethus. It was said to be 
fragmentary, but the essential details were 
described. 

We have recently been fortunate enough 
to acquire three specimens of the species, 
sent to us by Dr. Clifford Carl, of the British 
Columbia Provincial Museum, Victoria, to 
whom they had been given by H. E. Wyeth, 


of the cableship Restorer. They were found 
on sections of the San Francisco to Ma- 
nila cable brought up for repair. The length 
of cable involved hes in depths varying from 
840 to 1,600 fathoms, about 1,000 miles east 
of Guam. The specimens are all in good con- 
dition and complete, though much _ con- 
tracted, particularly in’ the  peristomial 
region. One was preserved completely en- 
closed in its tube, the others partially 
enclosed. The lengths are, respectively, 50 
mm, 51 mm, and 45 mm, the width about 
2 mm in each case. The branchial plume, 
the filaments of which are twisted together 
in all the specimens, makes up half, or a 
little more, of the over-all length. 

The general appearance agrees with that 


334 


of the type species of the genus, P. spathi- 
ferus Ehlers, the outstanding characters be- 
ing the high, oblique collar, unbroken dor- 
sally or ventrally, but rising to a high, 
thickened and grooved, lobe on the dorsal 
side, the slender body, and the very long 
branchial filaments (Ehlers, 1887, pl. 54). 
The dorsal collar lobe varies considerably in 
appearance in each of the three specimens 
and is evidently mobile. The long peristomial 
region, which Ehlers shows for P. spathiferus 
and Hartman says is present in P. elongatus, 
is not apparent in our specimens, but this 
region is much wrinkled because of contrac- 
tion and would, no doubt, appear as shown 
by Ehlers in extension. The branchial bases 
are slightly, but definitely, involute on the 
ventral side. 

As Hartman points out, P. elongatus is 
definitely differentiated from P. spathiferus 
by the form of the spatulate setae, those of 
the former species having long mucrons, 
whereas in the latter they are very little 
developed. The asymmetry of the blades of 
these setae in P. elongatus, which she stresses, 
is not invariably present in our specimens; 
some correspond closely with her figure 15d, 
others are as symmetrical as shown in our 
Fig. 1 and by Treadwell (fig. 74), and every 
intergrade is represented. The form of the 
thoracic uncinus in our specimens is also not 
completely in accord with that shown by 
Hartman (fig. le) or by Treadwell (fig. 75). 
As we find them the stems curve very little 
or not at all and taper very slightly and 
gradually, the crests are somewhat higher, 
and the angle between the beak and neck is 
rather smaller (fig. 2). These differences may 
well be within the limits of variation. 

The abdominal setae are of two kinds, 
long capillaries with very narrow blades and 
others much shorter with wide, flat terminal 
blades set at a slight angle to the shafts 
(fig. 3). The abdominal uncini are as shown 
in Fig. 4. The tubes are quite smooth, the 
walls very thin and fragile and coated with 
very fine mud. 

Four species have been ascribed to the 
genus Potamethus, all from considerable 
depths. Of these P. mucronatus (Moore), 
P. spathiferus (Ehlers), and P. elongatus 
(Treadwell) seem to be sufficiently clearly 
differentiated (see Hartman, 1942). There 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vouL. 41, No. 10 


Fias. 1-4.—Potamethus elongatus (Treadwell) : 
1, Spatulate thoracic seta; 2, thoracic uncinus; 
3, short abdominal seta; 4, abdominal uncinus. 


remains P. scotiae Pixell. The only notable 
difference between this species and P. elonga- 
tus (Treadwell) appears to be in the form of 
the thoracic uncinus, particularly its very 
long stem and curious crest (Pixell, 1913, 
figs. 7a, 7b). Having regard to the variabil- 
ity of the setae in P. elongatus we have 
indicated, we consider it not improbable 
that the two species are synonymous. 

One of the three specimens dealt with in 
this note is deposited in the U. S. National 
Museum (no. 22752); the others remain in 
the authors’ collection. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Exnuers, Ernst. Florida-Anneliden. Mem. Mus. 
Comp. Zool. 15: 335 pp., 60 pls. 1887. 

Hartman, Ouaa. The identity of some marine 
annelid worms in the United States National 
Museum. Proce. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 92: 101-140, 
8 figs. 1942. 

Prxett, Henren L. Polychaeta of the families 
Serpulidae and Sabellidae collected by the Scot- 
tish National Antarctic Expedition. Trans. 
Roy. Soe. Edinburgh 49 (pt. 2): 347-358, 1 
pl. 1913. 

TREADWELL, AARON L.: Polychaetous annelids of 
the Hawaiian Islands collected by the steamer 
Albatross in 1902. Bull. U. S. Fish Comm. 28 
(for 1903; pt. 3): 1145-1181, 81 figs. 1906. 


OcroBEeR 1951 


ABBOTT AND LADD: BRACKISH-WATER GASTROPOD 


339 


MALACOLOGY.—A new brackish-water gastropod from Texas (Amnicolidae: Lit- 
toridina).. R. T. Asgsort, U. S. National Museum, and H. 8S. Lapp, U. 8S. 
Geological Survey. (Communicated by Julia Gardner.) 


During the summer of 1940 the junior 
author made a study of the brackish-water 
and marine assemblages of the coasta! waters 
in the vicinity of Rockport and Aransas Pass, 
Tex. Dredging was done from the bay-head 
areas near the mouths of streams, where the 
waters are nearly fresh, through the bays 
and passes to the Gulf of Mexico, where the 
waters are of normal marine salinity. The 
assemblages of mollusks and other benthonic 
organisms changed radically with the salinity 
gradient, and it was possible to recognize 
several distinct facies.2 The fauna of the 
bay-head areas was found to be poor in 
numbers of species but, locally at least, rich 
in numbers of individuals. One of the most 
abundant forms is the species of Littoridina 
described in the present paper as the type of 
a new subgenus, Texadina. This new species 
was found alive only in water of low salinity, 
but a few worn or broken shells were dredged 
at intervals from more saline waters all the 
way to Aransas Pass at a point less than a 
mile from the open gulf. 


Family AMNICOLIDAE 
Genus Littoridina Eydoux and Souleyet, 1852 


Texadina, n. subg. 


Shell very small, minutely umbilicate, ovate- 
conic, with about five whorls, thin but strong. 
Whorls moderately convex, increasing regularly 
in size until the last third of the last whorl, 
which descends more rapidly, becomes constricted 
and in many specimens detached. Peristome 
oval to round. Surface smooth, except for fine 
growth lines. Suture fine, moderately impressed. 
Periostracum very thin, translucent gray. Oper- 
culum chitimous, paucispiral, thin, translucent. 
Radula and animal amnicolid-like. Type: 7. 
sphinctostoma Abbott and Ladd. Recent, Texas. 

The subgenus Texadina differs from Littoridina 
s.s. in having the peristome constricted and 


‘Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution and the Director, 
U.S. Geological Survey. 

2 A report on this work has been prepared and 
will be published by the Institute of Marine 
Science, University of Texas. 


more rounded, and in having the last third of 
the last whorl more rapidly descending. 


Littoridina (Texadina) sphinctostoma, n.sp. 
Figs. 1-12 


Description—Shell small (adults 2.0 to 3.3 
mm in length), solid, ovate-conic to fusiform, 
very narrowly umbilicate, 53 to 64 whorls, trans- 
lucent gray in fresh material to opaque white 
in dead specimens. Despite its rather fragile 
appearance, the shell is thick and strong. Apex 
moderately pointed, with smooth, glossy nuclear 
whorls not distinguishable from the postnuclear 
whorls. Sides of whorls moderately well rounded. 
Last third of the last whorl in most shells de- 
scends more rapidly and becomes constricted to 
form a relatively small, more rounded aperture 
than is seen in immature specimens. Peristome 
adnate or in some shells free from the parietal 
wall, usually thin and strong, but may be thick- 
ened either internally or externally. Umbilicus 
variable in size and shape, frequently deeply 
rimate or narrowly rounded. Suture sharp, well 
impressed. Spiral scultpure absent, except for a 
weak keel on the periphery of the last whorl in 
young specimens. Axial sculpture of very weak, 
widely spaced growth lines. Interior of shell 
highly polished. Periostracum very thin, smooth, 
translucent grayish to yellowish, lost in dead 
specimens. 

Operculum very thin, chitinous, transparent 
yellowish, of size and shape of the aperture, and 
paucispiral. Radula taenioglossate with denticle 

3-1-3 
formula: aa ; 2-1-3 or 3-1-3; 15 to 16 for the 
inner marginal; 9 to 10 for the outer marginal. 
Animal with moderately short proboscis, moder- 
ately long tentacles, with the eyes located at the 
bases on slight swellings. Color unknown, but 
black pigment clusters seen above the eye, a 
vertical band of black-gray on the side of the 
foot, and a weak dusting of black along a wide 
band of the mantle edge. Verge unknown. 


MEASUREMENTS (mm) 


Length Width Aperture Whorls U.S.N.M. no. 
3.0 1.4 0.9x 0.7 6.0 (holotype, 596722) 
3.0 1.4 1.0x 0.8 5.8 (paratype, 596723) 
3.0 1.6 0.9 x 0.8 Hall (paratype, “  ) 
2.7 kes} 0.7x 0.6 5.5 (paratype, 

2.4 1.2 0.7 x 0.6 5.0 (paratype, “ ) 


336 


The accompanying graphs represent the shell 
lengths of adults from random samplings of three 
dredging stations. Shells in which the last part 
of the body whorl is constricted and descending 
are considered adult. Means: Station 2, 2.35 
mm; station 3, 2.78 mm; station 6, 2.72 mm. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 10 


The number of individuals measured at the 
three stations is respectively 75, 104, and 101. 

Types.—The holotype is U.S.N.M. no. 596722 
from station 6. Paratypes from station 2 are in 
the U. S. National Museum (no. 596724), the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology (Harvard Col- 


Fries. 1-3.—Littoridina (Texadina) sphinctostoma, n.sp.: 1, Operculum; 2, radula, a, central, b, lateral, 
c, inner marginal, d, outer marginal (all greatly magnified); 3, dorsal view of animal (X 20). 


NO. 


ADULTS 
20 


STATION 


SHELL LENGTH (MM,) 


Fic. 4.—Graph of the shell lengths of adults from three population samples. 


OctToBEeR 1951 


9 10 


ABBOTT AND LADD: BRACKISH-WATER GASTROPOD 


337 


7 12 


Fies. 5-12.—Littoridina (Texadina) sphinctostoma, n.sp.: 5, Holotype; 6-12, paratypes. Fig. 12 is 
an immature specimen. (All x 15). 


lege), the Academy of Natural Sciences of Phila- 
delphia (no. 187519), the Museum of Zoology 
at the University of Michigan, and the Institute 
of Marine Science, University of Texas. Para- 
types from the other stations are in the U. 8. 
National Museum. 

Type locality—14 miles north of Webb Point, 
northwest side of San Antonio Bay, 27 miles 
northeast of Rockport, Tex. H. 8. Ladd, col- 
lected July 15, 1940, station 6. 

Locality records.—See Table 1 for Texas ma- 
terial. At Grand Isle, La., four specimens were 
collected by A. G. Humes (U.S.N.M. no. 535757). 

Remarks.—The size, texture, and general shape 
of the shells of Littoridina sphinctostoma are 
not unlike those of L. tenurpes Couper from the 
brackish waters of the Atlantic coast of south- 
eastern United States. Our Gulf of Mexico species, 
however, is unique in the apertural constriction 
and the degree to which part of the last whorl 
descends and becomes detached. The small, oval 
peristome is rather like that found in Stenothyra 
and Amphithalamus (Floridiscrobs) dysbatus Pils- 
bry. However, Littoridina sphictostoma does not 


have the dorsal-ventral flattening of the body 
whorl of those two groups. Young specimens 
are of a normal littoridinid shape, although a 
few have a weak ridge at the periphery of the 
whorls. As shown in Figs. 5 to 12, there is con- 
siderable variation in the convexity of the whorls 
and the degree to which the last whorl descends 
or becomes detached from the body whorl. In 
many specimens the unusual change in the last 
part of the whorl is preceded by injury in some 
manner to the shell. In some adults, the spire 
may be slightly concave, giving the shell a 
fusiform shape. The shells from station 6 are 
much more variable in shape and are smaller in 
average size than those from other stations (see 
graph). 

Ecology.—Living examples of L. sphinctostoma 
were recovered only at station 6, a locality at 
the head of San Antonio Bay about 40 miles 
from the open gulf at Aransas Pass. The salinity 
of the water at this locality, according to Galt- 
soff’s map, is between 7 and 8 parts per thousand 
(Galtsoff, Paul S., Survey of oyster bottoms in 
Texas, Investigational Report No. 6, Bureau of 


338 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 10 


TaBLp 1.—Locatity Recorps (PARATYPES) 


| 
ee Locality (all exes) pee Bottom Bee | Noterl 

2 2 miles northeast of Austwell, head of 2-2.5 Soft mud 596724 150+ 
Hynes Bay 

3 34 miles east of Austwell, Hynes Bay 3.5-4 Mud, sand, and shell | 596725 200+ 

4 2 miles west of Seadrift, San Antonio 2 Sand 596729 2 
Bay 

6 14 miles north of Webb Point, San An- 1.5 Muddy sand 596723 200+ 
tonio Bay (type) 

20 South side of mouth of Copano Bay 3.6 Shell and muddy sand 596730 1 

28 Southwest corner of San Antonio Bay 4 Muddy sand and shell 596731 2 

39 East-central part of Copano Bay 15 Muddy sand and shell 596726 15 

48 14 miles east of Mud Island, Aransas 7 Muddy sand and shell 596727 1 
Bay 

61 North side of main Aransas Pass 1-2 Rock jetty 596728 1 


Fisheries, fig. 9, p. 15, 1931). Fresh shells were 
also dredged at three other localities. Two of 
these are in Hynes Bay, an arm of San Antonio 
Bay, at points (stations 2 and 3) where the 
salinity does not exceed 4 parts per thousand. 
The third locality where abundant shells were 
collected is in the exposed part of an oyster reef 
in Copano Bay (station 39), about 20 miles by 
airline southwest of the type locality. The salinity 
at this station may be as high as 19 parts per 
thousand; though abundant, the shells are not as 
fresh as those dredged in San Antonio and Hynes 
Bays. 

At the type locality in San Antonio Bay the 
living snails were dredged from a bottom of 
muddy sand under 14 feet of water. Associated 
with the snails are numerous living specimens of 
Rangia cuneata Gray (with attached barnacles), 
a few of razor clams (Hnsis minor Dall), and 
Mulinia lateralis Say; also present are numerous 
Foraminifera: Rotalia beccarv (Linnaeus) was the 


most abundant, with a few tests of R. beccarti 
var. tepida Cushman, Nonion pauciloculum Cush- 
man, Elphidium gunteri var. galvestonensis Korn- 
feld, and Miliammina fusca (Brady).* The living 
faunas at stations 2 and 3, where abundant fresh 
shells of Littoridina sphinctostoma were found, 
are very similar to the living fauna of the type 
locality with the addition of cstracodes and 
numerous specimens of the thin-shelled Tellina 
texana Dall. The bay bottom at stations 2 and 
3 is of soft mud under 2 to 34 feet of water. 

One or two shells were dredged from a third 
locality in Hynes Bay, and from localities in 
Copano Bay, Aransas Bay, and Aransas Pass. 
None of these was very fresh and most of them 
were worn or broken; they appear to have been 
transported appreciable distances from the place 
where they lived. 


’ Tdentifications of Foraminifera by Rita Post, 
of the U.S. Geological Survey. 


ORNITHOLOGY.— Observations on the genera of the swans. ALEXANDER WETMORE, 


Smithsonian Institution. 


The white species of swans superficially 
are so alike that there has been difficulty in 
the identification and application of the 
older generic names. It is now accepted that 
the type of the genus Cygnus Bechstein, 
1803, is Anas olor Gmelin, the mute swan, 
not Anas cygnus Linnaeus, the whooper 
swan, as stated in the fourth edition of the 
A.O.U. Check-list.! In view of this change 
it is desirable to review the whole question 
of generic allocation in these interesting 


1 See Permrs, Check-listtof birds of the world 1: 
143. 1931; and Wrrnersy et al., Handbook of Brit- 
ish birds 3: 168. 1939. 


birds. The latest comprehensive treatment 
of the living swans, that of James L. Peters, 
to which reference has been made, divides 
the seven living species between two genera, 
viz., Chenopsis for the black swan of Austra- 
lia and Cygnus for the six remaining forms, 
of which five are found in the Northern 
Hemisphere, and one, the black-necked 
swan, ranges in the southern part of South 
America. 

To outline the discussion, the fourth edi- 
tion of the A. O. U. Check-list? recognized 


> Check-list of North American birds, ed. 4: 35. 
1931. 


OcToBER 1951 


Sthenelides as the genus for the introduced 
mute swan, native in the Old World, found 
now in a feral state in the lower Hudson 
Valley and on Long Island, ranging in winter 
south to the coast of New Jersey and east to 
Massachusetts. The Twentieth Supplement 
to the Check-list® reduced Sthenelides to sub- 
generic status, thus placing all North Ameri- 
can swans in one genus. Hildegarde Howard? 
has reopened this allocation by using Sthe- 
nelides as a genus for the fossil species named 
Cygnus paloregonus by Cope from the Pleis- 
tocene deposits of Fossil Lake, Oreg. (It may 
be observed that Chenopis atratus of Aus- 
tralia seems marked generically from other 
swans mainly by the shorter tail, which is 
shorter than the middle toe with claw, and 
the naked lores in the downy young.) 
Externally the species of white swans are 
so similar that the student of study skins has 
difficulty in separating them. The compara- 
tive anatomist, however, working with skele- 
tons, has no trouble whatever in dividing 
them into two principal groups on charac- 
ters so evident that they cannot be disre- 
garded. The differences are most apparent 
in the form of the trachea, sternum, and 
furculum. Following is a summary of these 
anatomical characters, with indication of the 
allocation of the species of the Northern 
Hemisphere and South America: 


a. Trachea passing directly into thorax, not 
entering sternum; furculum simple; tail 
GUINEA CC BPMN eee en et genus Cygnus 


Cygnus Bechstein, Orn. Taschenb., 
pt. 2, 1803: 404. Type, bymonotypy, 
Anas olor Gmelin. 

Sthenelus Stejneger, Proc. U. S. Nat. 
Mus. 5: 184, 185. Aug. 5, 1882. Type, 
by monotypy, Anas melancoripha 
Molina. (Not Sthenelus Marschall, 
1873, emendation for Sthelenus Bu- 
quet, 1860, for a genus of Cole- 
optera. ) 

Sthenelides Stejneger, Auk 1 (3): 235. 
July 1884. Type, by monotypy, 
Anas melancorphia Molina. New 
name for Sthenelus Stejneger (pre- 
occupied). 

Euolor Mathews and Iredale, Austr. 
Avian Rec. 3 (5): 117. Dec. 28, 1917. 
Type, by original designation, Anas 
olor Gmelin. 

3 Auk, 1945: 488. 


4 Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 551: 160-165. 
Jan. 25, 1946. 


WETMORE: GENERA OF THE SWANS 


339 


Species included: 
Cygnus olor 
amined). 
Cygnus melancoriphus (Molina) (skele- 
ton examined).° 


(Gmelin) (skeleton ex- 


aa. Trachea making a loop that enters the ster- 
num; furculum especially modified at sym- 
physis to accommodate this loop; tail 
MOUNT CLC ey OM ae seen oueya ...genus Olor 


Olor Wagler, Isis, 1832: 1234. Type, by 
subsequent designation, Cygnus 
musicus Bechstein = Anas cygnus 
Linnaeus (Gray, 1840). 

Clangocycnus Oberholser, Emu 8 (pt. 
1); 3. July 1, 1908. Type, by mono- 
typy, Cygnus buccinator Richard- 
son. 


b. Trachea entering anterior end of sternum 
smoothly, without a dorsal loop. 
subgenus Olor. 


Species included: 
Olor columbianus (Ord) 
amined). 
Olor cygnus (Linnaeus) 
amined). 
Olor bewickii Yarrell.® 


(skeleton ex- 


(skeleton ex- 


bb. Trachea making a dorsal loop as it enters 
sternum, protected by a bony case that 
projects into the anterior end of the 
body cavity..... subgenus Clangocycnus 


Species included: 
Olor buccinator (Richardson) (skeleton 
examined). 


The shape of the furculum and the loop- 
ing of the trachea in the sternal keel are de- 
veloped in the growing young, the loop 
lengthening and expanding to the end of the 
sternum as the individual becomes fully 
adult. This change with age has led to mis- 
understanding of the characters by some not 
familiar with it. 

The arrangement of the genera above, it 
may be noted, is identical with that of Stej- 
neger in his Outlines of a monograph of the 
Cygninae, published in 1882.7 

In checking over the nomenclature con- 
cerned for the species in our list a curious 


5 Also the fossil species Cygnus paloregonus 
Cope. See Howarp, Carnegie Inst. Washington 
Publ. 551: 160-165, Jan. 25, 1946, where Cygnus 
matthewi (Shufeldt) is placed as a synonym of 
paloregonus. 

6 See YARRELL, History of British birds 4: 320- 
322. 1884-85. 

7 Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 5: 174-221. 1882. 


340 


circumstance that does not seem to have 
been noted in ornithological literature has 
come to light relative to the generic name 
proposed by Stejneger for the black-necked 
swan. Stejneger in 1882 set up the generic 
name Sthenelus with a proper diagnosis of 
its characters. Apparently then his atten- 
tion was drawn to Secudder’s Nomenclator 
zoologicus, published in the same year where 
the following citation is found (p. 303): 
“Sthenelus Buq., col. 1859, M.” Following 
this, two years later Stejneger,* in a discus- 
sion of Scudder’s Nomenclator, in which he 
pointed out some of its shortcomings, wrote: 
“T find that the name Sthenelus, which I ap- 
plied in 1882 to the black-necked swan from 
South America was preoccupied. It conse- 
quently requires a new one, and I propose in 
future to call the species Sthenelides melan- 
corypha.”’ 

Mainly through curiosity I checked the 
earlier use of Sthenelus to find that the refer- 
ence is to Lucien Buquet in his ‘“‘Mémoire 
sur deux genres nouveaus de Coléoptéres de 
la famille des Longicornes (Oxilus et Sthe- 
lenus) suivi de la description appartenant 
aux genres Platyarthron, Oeme (Sclerocerus 
Dej.), Clytus, Apriona, Cerosterna et Acan- 
thoderus.”’* The generic name in which we are 
interested is found on p. 621, where it has 
the same form as in the title, viz., Sthelenus, 
with the footnote “Nom mythologique.”’ 
The subsequent history of Buquet’s name so 
far as I have followed it is interesting. 

8 Auk, 1884: 235. 

’ Ann. Soc. Ent. France 7: 619-636. 1859 (1860). 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 41, No. 10 


Scudder, quoted above, took the name 
Sthenelus from Marschall’s Nomenclator zoo- 
logicus of 1873 as indicated by the initial 
“MM? in his citation. Marschall, on page 245, 
writes ‘“Sthenelus, Buquet,”’ with a reference 
to the original publication, but with no ex- 
planation for the emendation. On a little 
further research it is found that there is no 
mythological character from whom Buquet 
might have taken the term Sthelenus, while 
Sthenelus was a well-known name for several 
ancients of importance, among them a son 
of Perseus who became King of Mycenae, 
also a Kang of the Ligurians whose son 
Cyenus was reputed to have been changed 
to a swan, and further one of the warriors 
who entered the wooden horse at the siege of 
Troy. It is not apparent whether Marschall 
recognized what we may consider Buquet’s 
error consciously or unconsciously, but in 
either case he made the emendation. The 
matter 1s correctly set forth by Neave, in his 
Nomenclator zoologicus,!° where he includes 
Sthenelus of Marschall, 1873, as a new name 
for Sthelenus Buquet, 1860. While it seems 
curious that neither Stejneger nor Richmond 
valled attention to these matters in their 
notes on nomenclature, it 1s fairly certain 
that the circumstance must have been 
known to them because of their extensive 
knowledge and of their careful work in verifi- 
cation of references. In any event, Sthenelus 
of Marschall, 1873, antedated Sthenelus of 
Stejneger, 1882, so that the new name Sthe- 
nelides Stejneger of 1884 was in order. 


10 Nomenclator zoologicus 4: 309. 1940. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 


Page 
AstronomMy.—The birth of stars from interstellar clouds. Lyman 
DPIDZMR, UR ests Cac eeicae tora iegs Semele n, 0 Gktaheoheh, spe 309 
EntomoLtogy.—New American chinch bugs (Hemiptera: Lygaeidae). 
CARES) DRAKE i505 es Se she Olav nd Sytner 319 
ENToMoLoGy.—New species of chrysomelid beetles of the genera T7r1- 
rhabda and Disonycha.. Doris A BrAkn: 92.7.) .-- 2) eee 324 


Zootogy.—Geographical distribution of the nemerteans of the northern 
coast of the Gulf of Mexico as compared with those of the southern 
coast of Florida, with descriptions of three new species. WESLEY 


ZooLtocy.—A new species of marine nematode, Thoracostoma magnificum, 
with a note on possible ‘‘pigment cell’’ nuclei of the ocelli. R. W. 


ALSTINUNE sfoseon Ste kee shor cu de date Sea rap reRoiceeseukl ie feet ye coker hooves eee 331 
Zootocy.—A second record of the polychaetous annelid Potamethus 
elongatus (Treadwell). E. and C. BERKELEY...................5 333 
Matacotogy.—A new brackish-water gastropod from Texas (Amni- 
colidae: Littoridina). RR. f.Assorm and HS: LADD... ase 335 
ORNITHOLOGY.—Observations on the genera of the swans. ALEXANDER 
WT MORE yrs hc ceshecesoientue cuseseuecae es ae Sea tee to en 340 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


we. (3 I ant Ae 
ewes 


Vou. 41 NovEMBER 1951 No. 11 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


Wiuiiam F. FosHac J. P. E. Morrison 
U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


CHARLES DRECHSLER 


PLANT INDUSTRY STATION 


U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM 
BELTSVILLE, MD. 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


J.C. EwEers J. I. HorrMan 
ANTHROPOLOGY CHEMISTRY 
C. W. SABROSKY T. P. THAYER 
ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY 
F. A. Cuace, JR. Miriam L. BomHARD 
BIOLOGY 


BOTANY 


R. K. Cook 


PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 


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JOURNAL 


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VoLuME 41 


November 1951 


No. 11 


ETHNOLOGY —Linguistic history and ethnologic history in the Southwest.’ GEORGE 
L. Tracer, Foreign Service Institute, Department of State. (Communicated 


by W. N. Fenton.) 


I 


In the Southwest of the United States we 
find among the pueblos not only a consider- 
able ethnological variety but also a very 
great linguistic diversity; and there are 
peripheral nonpueblo peoples. It is useful to 
try to correlate the various factors, in the 
light of archeological evidence, for the pur- 
pose of setting forth a testable set of 
hypotheses. 

The pueblos show the following linguistic 
affinities: 


Uto-Aztecan: Hopi (most closely related linguis- 
tically to Paviotso). 

Zunian: Zuni (an isolated language that shows 
structural resemblance to Tanoan, and may be 
tentatively considered as distantly related to 
that family). 

Tanoan: 

Tiwa (Taos, Picuris, Sandia, Isleta). 

Tewa (Santa Clara, San Juan, San Ilde- 
fonso, Nambe, Tesuque). 

Towa (Jemez). 

Keresan: 

Western: Acoma, Laguna. 

Eastern: Santo Domingo, San Felipe, Santa 
Ana, Sia, Cochiti. 


The extinct Pecos pueblo may have spoken 
Towa. Isleta del Sur was a colony of Isleta 
before it became hispanized, Pojoaque was 
Tewa-speaking, and the Piro and Tano of 
historic record were apparently Tiwa speak- 
ers. Tanoan and Uto-Aztecan are related, 
being subdivisions of Azteco-Tanoan (see 

‘Portion of an address delivered before the 


Anthropological Society of Washington on May 
15, 1951. 


Whori, B. L., and Trager, G. L., The rela- 
tionship of Uto-Aztecan and Tanoan, Amer. 
Anthrop. 36: 609-624. 1934). Zuni probably 
belongs here in some way. Keresan is almost 
certainly not related to these languages. 

The nonpueblo peoples are: the Navahos 
and Apaches, who speak southern Athabas- 
can languages; the Utes, Paiutes, Papago, 
Pima, Comanche, and Shoshoni, all of whom 
are Uto-Aztecan speakers; and to the east 
the Kiowa, the Caddo, and the extinct Texan 
tribes. 

II 


Ethnologically the pueblos are divided 
thus: 


Western: Hopi and Zuni. These are the “typical”’ 
pueblos in social organization and orientation; 
there are matrilineal clans, a theocracy, the 
practice of restraint in all interpersonal rela- 
tions and in personal attitudes, an avoidance 
of violence, dislike of leaders and leadership, 
no desire for “‘progress”’ as such. 

Central: Acoma and Laguna. Here there are 
clans, but also an important moiety division. 
The theocracy is strong, and violence and 
excess are decried; but there are leaders within 
this frame, and often extremely violent reac- 
tions and behavior in resisting change or in- 
trusion. 

Hastern and Rio Grande: The eastern Keresans, 
and all the Tanoan pueblos. There are no clans, 
moieties exist but break down in function in 
Taos and Picuris; the theocracy is still strong 
but funetions in terms of secular leaders; 
leadership is decried, but personal leaders 
arise constantly; violence is not infrequent. 
Taos shows plains influences. 


341 


NOV 2 3 1951 


342 


Archeologically the usual set-up for the 
region is about as follows (in very crude 
summary): 


Anasazi (pueblo and pre-pueblo): 


A.D. 100- 500 Basket Maker—earliest types 
of houses; no pottery. 
500-— 700 Modified Basket Maker—vil- 
lages; pottery. 
700- 900 Pueblo I—better houses; good 
pottery. 
900-1050 Pueblo II—spread in area. 
1050-1300 Pueblo II1I—period of greatest 
development. 
1300-1700 Pueblo © 1V—“‘renaissance””— 
new techniques. 


1700- Pueblo V—acculturation and 
change. 
It is believed that the Athabascans 


(Navahos, Apaches) arrived after 1300, ac- 
quiring many pueblo traits thereafter. 

When we compare the archeological re- 
mains known as Hohokam, there is seen to be 
a parallel and not too dissimilar development 
up to 1400, after which the culture disinte- 
erates. The modern Pima may be de- 
scendents of the peoples of this group. In a 
similar way the Mogollon cultures rose and 
then fell after 1400. 


Til 


The linguistic history of all these peoples 
can now be reconstructed in the manner 
below. 

If Zuni is indeed part of the Azteco- 
Tanoan complex, the dates and _ relation- 
ships involved should pattern as in the fol- 
lowing scheme: 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


This Lincuistic scheme may be further 
elaborated by suggesting that the speakers 
of Proto-Azteco-Tanoan were living in the 
area north of what is now the Southwest. 
By the beginning of the Christian Era a part 
of them were moving south in large numbers. 
These developed the Proto-Uto-Aztecan lan- 
guage type, spreading quickly over the wide 
area, and reaching to central Mexico, with 
considerable linguistic proliferation and dif- 
ferentiation in the first few centuries of their 
movement. Some 500 years later, the stay- 
at-home Proto-Tano-Zunian speakers (the 
term is here used for the first time, to my 
knowledge) were afflicted by some urge to 
wander, and part of them went off. These 
reached the Southwest and made contact 
with the Modified Basket-Maker culture 
soon after leaving. The Proto-Kiowa-Tanoan 
speakers (another new term) remained be- 
hind, but after a few more centuries numbers 
of them separated from the main body and 
came into the Rio Grande area by 1000. 

The Anasazi culture I conjecture to have 
developed among Keresan speakers. The im- 
petus to its early development was possibly 
the coming of the Proto-Uto-Aztecan groups 
from the north, serving as a kind of a 
catalyst. The Uto-Aztecans themselves took 
over, perhaps, the more advanced cultures— 
pre-Hohokam and pre-Mogollon—that they 
found, and developed them, probably re- 
placing the original languages by Uto- 
Aztecan languages of several kinds; the 
superseded languages may have been Yuman 
or Keresan (these two groups being possibly 
related). When the Proto-Zunians arrived, 
after 500, they found the Anasazi culture 
flourishing, and were incorporated into it, 
as one of the “‘typical” groups (Pueblo I). 


Proto-Azteco-Tanoan 


AED! | iL ALD 
| | 
Proto-Uto-Aztecan Proto-Tano-Zunian 
{| | 500 A.D. 
| | 

Proto-Zunian Proto-Kiowa-Tanoan 
1000 A.D. Hopis {| | 1000 A.D. 

| c 7 


| | 


Proto-Tanoan Proto-Kiowan 


i J 


NOVEMBER 1951 TRAGER: ETHNOLOGIC 

By the time the Tanoan speakers came in, 
they simply took over or were absorbed by 
numerous Keresan-speaking Pueblo III 
groups. 

The chart showed the Hopi appearing at 
about 1000. The closest linguistic relatives of 
the Hopi are the Paviotso, with a simple 
hunting and gathering culture. Possibly the 
Hopis represent the result of a late arrival 
by Uto-Aztecan speakers who took over in 
its totality a going Pueblo II or III culture. 
There are no other Uto-Aztecan speakers 
among the pueblos, and these pre-Hopis may 
have belonged to one of the cultures from a 
little further south that later disintegrated. 

In summary, I conjecture pueblo culture 
as originating and developing among 
Keresan speakers. The specific Western 
Pueblo traits of Hopi and Zuni represent a 
flowering and development due to a kind of 
hybrid vigor; Zuni was probably there first, 
and the Hopis borrowed from it or took over 
a Zunilike culture. Finally the Tanoans came 
late, and some of them (the Northern Tiwa) 
never did develop some of the more usual 
pueblo traits. 


IV 


The linguistic time scale above is not very 
great but is probably long enough to allow 
for the variations that are found. The de- 
velopment as given does not contradict the 
known facts of archeology and ethnology. 
The important dates fit in rather well with 
other important developments. 

The reconstruction of linguistic history 
shows that the Kiowa and Tanoan relation- 
ship is distant enough to suggest that it 
goes back to a point before the Tanoans had 
acquired pueblo culture, and when they were 
probably much as the Kiowa were before 
they developed specific plains traits in the 
nineteenth century. 

Again, Zuni and the Tanoans are both 
pueblo in culture, but their linguistic rela- 
tionship is such—if real—that it goes much 
farther back than that of Kiowa and 
Tanoan. 


HISTORY IN SOUTHWEST 


343 


Finally, the Hopi are so placed linguisti- 
cally that they must have got the rest of 
their present culture from some non-Uto- 
Aztecan, or at least non-Hopian, prede- 
cessors. 

V 


The problems presented by such a scheme 
as the foregoing are numerous and difficult. 
At least the following kinds of studies must 
be made to test the hypotheses. There must 
be extensive linguistic description of all the 
pueblo and peripheral languages, 1.e., of the 
whole Azteco-Tanoan group. So far there 
exist only the following studies: Whorf on 
Hopi, Kennard’s unpublished material on 
Hopi, Bunzel’s grammar of Zuni (but there 
is no dictionary), my work on Taos (partly 
published), and my unpublished work on 
Picuris, Isleta, and Sandia; E. C. Trager’s 
work on Kiowa (not yet completed), a few 
minor papers on Keresan, Boas’s Laguna 
texts (unanalyzed, and with no dictionary), 
and the publications of Harrington on vari- 
ous phases of Tewa and Kiowa ethnology 
and language. These needed studies of the 
languages as structures must be followed by 
studies of the vocabularies and comparison 
all around, to see if it can be determined who 
borrowed from whom. 

A further possibility is the examination 
of the vocabularies for all kinds of terms for 
material and nonmaterial aspects of the cul- 
ture, to see which are more original or struc- 
turally basic, and thus establish the linguistic 
appurtenance of the people who devised the 
trait or complex. 

Finally there is the possibility that 
metalinguistic (see Trager, G. L., The field 
of linguistics, Studies in Linguistics: Occa- 
sional Paper no. 1. 1949) studies may reveal 
whether one or another of the linguistic 
structures is In any way especially appropri- 
ate to the other cultural habits of the several 
peoples involved (see Whorf, B. L., Four 
articles on metalinguistics, Washington, 
D. C., Foreign Service Institute, Depart- 
ment of State, 1950, for the pioneer work in 
this field of linguistic ‘Weltanschauung’). 


344 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


PALEONTOLOGY —New Western Hemisphere occurrences of fossil selachians. 
Davin H. Dunxte, U.S. National Museum. 


The specimens here described are among 
those fossil toothlike structures generally in- 
terpreted as rostral spines of pristid sharks. 
In particular, they are referable to the genera 
Onchosaurus Gervais and Propristis Dames. 
Obtained, respectively, from Ecuador and 
Georgia, they are of interest because neither 
genus seems to have been reported pre- 
viously outside of Europe and North Africa; 
and the meager record of fossil pristids in 
the Western Hemisphere is raised, thus, to a 
total of six genera.” 

The present specimens of Onchosaurus 
were transferred to the National Museum 
by the U. 8. Geological Survey and those of 
Propristis, through the kind offices of S. C. 
Lyons, by the Georgia Kaolin Co. of Dry 
Branch, Ga. It is a pleasure to acknowledge 
with gratitude the cooperation of both of 
these organizations. The illustrations accom- 
panying this note were prepared by William 
D. Crockett, scientific illustrator of the divi- 
sion of vertebrate paleontology, U. S. 
National Museum. 


Onchosaurus cf. radicalis Gervais 


This genus is represented by three fragmentary 
spines (U.S.N.M. nos. 18111, 18112, and 18113). 
The structures are strongly compressed, dorso- 
ventrally. They presumably projected directly 
out from attachment along the lateral edge of a 
rostrum with little or no upward or downward 
flexure. They were, however, deflected posteriorly 
in a frontal plane as indicated by their convex 
anterior and concave posterior margins. 

The teeth are composed, characteristically, of 
an exposed crown covered with smooth, unorna- 
mented enamel, and an unenamelled inserted 
root. Although no one crown among the present 
examples is entire, projection of the preserved 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 

2 The four genera of fossil pristids previously 
reported occurring in the Western Hem‘sphere are 
Ischyrhiza Leidy, Onchopristis Stromer, Pristis 
Linck, and Schizorhiza Weiler (cf. DUNKLE, Journ. 
Washington Acad. Sci. 38: 173-176. 1948; Hay, 
Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 390: 603-€04, 
719. 1929; LorGreN and O.ivipra, Bol. Div. 
Geol. Misc., Rio de Janeiro, 106. 1943; Romer, 
Vertebrate paleontology, ed. 2: 577. 1945; and Wrr- 
zEL, Palaeontographica 73: 94-97. 1930). 


edges. shows this part to have had a triangular 
outline seen from either above or below, and to 
have occupied no more than one-third the longest 
axial dimension of the teeth. Proximally, at the 
anterior and posterior borders, the crown is 
slightly expanded to give an incipiently barbed 
appearance. Joiming these barbs, the limit of 
enamel extends obliquely across the superior and 
inferior surfaces of the spine, arched in slight 
concavity toward the root. The free lateral edges 
of the crown are sharp. 

In comparison with the reduced crown, the 
root portion of each spine comprises a notably 
long peduncle. This inserted part enlarges pro- 
gressively from a thin, narrow distal neck ad- 
jacent to the crown to a maximum expansion at 
the proximal base. The peduncle is regularly 
ovate in section except near the base where the 
anterior and posterior margins are truncated. 
Here, the section is roughly quadrangular as is 
also the outline of the basal face. The sides of 
the root are marked by numerous coarse, alter- 
nating grooves and ridges which parallel the long 
axis of the spines. Those single anterior and 
posterior grooves are the most deeply incised 
but all are more pronounced proximally and 
tend to disappear distally. The furrows notch 
the circumference of the basal rim and are con- 
tinuous with the ones radially arranged around 
the periphery of the shallow, elongate concavity 
occupying the proximal face of the root. 

Measured in relation to its longest axis the 
best preserved spine (U.S.N.M. no. 18111, Fig. 1) 
possesses the following dimensions: total pre- 
served length, 43.5 mm‘; anterior height of root, 
31.0; posterior height of root, 38.5; proximal 
width of root, 21.5; distal width of root, 11.5; 
proximal maximum thickness of root, 13.5; and 
distal minimum thickness of root, 6.0. P 

Geological horizon and locality.—Collected from 
the Upper Cretaceous (Turonian) on the left 
bank of the Rio Napo, one-fourth mile upstream 
from the village of Napo, Province of Oriente, 
Ecuador, by Joseph H. Sinclair and Theron 
Wasson, 1923. 

Remarks.—The systematic and stratigraphic 
history of all the so-called ganopristine sharks 
was recently reviewed by Arambourg (1940). As 
treated therein, two subgeneric groups assigned a 
total of six previously described species from 


NoveMBER 1951 


various Upper Cretaceous horizons were defined 
and referred to the genus Onchosaurus. Specifi- 
cally, there are: (1) a subgenus Onchosaurus s. 
str. containing the species radicalis Gervais (1852) 
and pharao Dames (1887); and (2) a subgenus 
Ischyrhiza with the species mirus Leidy (1856a), 
antiquus Leidy (1856b), stromer: Checchia-Ris- 
poli (1933), and marocconus Arambourg (1935). 

Tt will be noted that the above references in- 
clude various departures from the usages origi- 
nally given some of these generic and specific 
names. The six species assigned to Onchosaurus, 


DUNKLE: FOSSIL SELACHIANS 


345 


like the majority of other ganopristine forms, 
are based upon unassociated rostral spines. 
Stromer (1917, 1925, and 1927) has demonstrated 
wide variation in size and structure between 
individual teeth of the related and more ade- 
quately known sawfish, Onchopristis. It appears 
possible, therefore, that future discoveries of 
more complete remains of Onchosaurus may prove 
the changes in taxonomic concept proposed by 
Arambourg (1940) to have been premature. The 
attempted revision, however, serves an extremely 
useful basis for comparison, and in this connec- 


Fie. 1.—Onchosaurus cf. radicalis Gervais (U.S.N.M. no. 18111): Rostral spine from the Upper 


Cretaceous (Turonian) of Ecuador in (a) dorsal or 


prox. X 1. 


ventral, (6) anterior, and (c) basal aspects. Ap- 


RNAi SRE 


Fig. 2.—Propristis cf. schweinfurthi Dames: Rostral teeth from the upper Eocene (Jackson) of 
Georgia: (a) (U.S.N.M. no. 18216) in dorsal or ventral view; and (6, c, d) (U.S.N.M. no. 18215), respee- 
tively, in dorsal or ventral, basal, and anterior aspects. Approx. X 2. 


346 


tion, the presently recorded spines from Ecuador 
clearly pertain to the subgenus Onchosaurus s. 
str. Further, they agree in most essential details 
with specimens identified as radicalis and lacking 


the flattened and axially grooved posterior root: 


border characteristic of pharao, are tentatively 
referred to the former, genotypic species. 

Individually the six referred members of the 
genus Onchosaurus are relatively restricted, strati- 
graphically, but collectively, they comprise a 
typical Upper Cretaceous assemblage, ranging 
from the Cenomanian to the Danian. The species 
radicalis has been reported from just two 
Senonian localities in France. The Ecuadorian 
specimens were collected with fragmentary mate- 
rials of Squatina sp., Acrotemna faba, and inde- 
terminate shark vertebrae and a pycnodontid 
tooth plate. The Turonian age of these vertebrate 
remains was established upon associated inverte- 
brate fossils identified by Reeside (in Wasson and 
Sinclair, 1927). 


Propristis cf. schweinfurthi Dames 


Two unassociated but well-preserved speci- 
mens (U.S.N.M. nos. 18216 and 18215, illustrated 
in Fig. 2), exhibit the basic characteristics of all 
the rostral spines previously assigned to this 
particular fossil sawfish. 

Both teeth are strongly compressed, dorso- 
ventrally, and viewed from either above or below, 
present irregularly quadrangular outlines. The 
forward border of each is the shortest of the four 
margins. Straight or even slightly concave in 
profile, this forward edge is flattened into a tri- 
angular area with broad, rugose proximal base 
tapering to a sharp distal apex. The entirely 
carinate posterior margin is weakly convex in 
profile and is the longest dimension exhibited by 
the teeth. From dorsal or ventral view, the basal 
margin is similarly convex, and the elliptical face 
of this inserted part is occupied by a shallow 
elongate concavity whose surface is roughened 
with the numerous openings of pores. The distal, 
exposed margin is in rounded confluence with 
both the anterior and posterior edges, and is 
rounded and polished smooth, apparently from 
functional wear. 

Enamel as a tooth cap is absent. In conse- 
quence, the external textural appearance of the 
spines is reminiscent of that of the rostral teeth 
of Pristis. The upper and lower surfaces are 
marked by alternating low ribs and shallow 
grooves paralleling the longitudinal axes of the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


structures. These are crossed by less distinct 
transverse ridges which tend to converge from 
the posterior border toward the anterior edge. 
Like the comparable markings on the bases of 
Onchosaurus spines, these features are more 
deeply pronounced on the proximal surfaces and 
disappear distally. 

Measured in relation to the longest axes, the 
specimens have the following dimensions: greatest 
over-all length, 18.5 and 14.0 mm.; maximum 
over-all width, 20.25 and 13.25; width of base, 
16.5 and 9.5; maximum thickness of base 5.5 
and 4.5. 

Geological horizon and locality—Collected from 
strata of upper Eocene (Barnwell or lower Jack- 
son) age exposed in quarries of the Georgia 
Kaolin Co. near Dry Branch, Twiggs County, 
Ga., by 8. C. Lyons, 1948. 

Remarks.—The two unassociated rostral spines 
of Propristis from Georgia can not be distin- 
guished with certainty from those of the North 
African P. schweinfurthy apd hence are referred 
to that species (Fraas, 1907). 

These North American examples were found 
associated with other vertebrate remains, namely: 
teeth of Carcharias, Isurus, Myliobatis, and 
Sphraena; and fragments of the carapace and 
plastron of the turtle Amyda. The source horizon 
of this faunule is a stratum of sand and fullers 
earth immediately overlying the extensively quar- 
ried Tuscaloosa kaolins. According to a recently 
published stratigraphic section (La Moreaux, 
1946), measured in the quarries of the Georgia 
Kaolin Co. in Twiggs County, this sediment may 
be assumed to be of lower Jackson age. In conse- 
quence a slight extension of the known range of 
Propristis is indicated since the genus has been 
reported only from the middle Eocene of Birket 
el Qurun, Egypt. 


REFERENCES 


ARAMBOURG, C. Note preliminaire sur les vertébres 
fossiles des phosphates du Maroc. Bull. Soe. 
Geol. France, ser. 5, 5: 413-440, pls. 19-20, figs. 
1-2. 1935. 

Le groupe des Ganopristines. Bull. Soc. 
Geol. France, ser. 5, 10: 127-147, pls. 3-4, figs. 
1-12. 1940. 

CueccHtIA-Rispour, G. Di wn nuovo genere di 
Pristidae del Cretaceo superiore della Tripoli- 
tania. Mem. R. Ace. d’Italia. Cl. Se. Fis., 
Mat. e Nat., 4 (1): 6 pp., 1 pl. 1933. 

Dames, W. Ueber Titanichthys pharao, nov. gen., 
nov. sp., aus der Kriede formation Aegyptens. 
Sitz. Gesell. Naturf. Freunde, Nr. 5: 69-72, 
4 figs. 1887. 


NOVEMBER 1951 ROSS: 


Praas, E. Sdge von Propristis schweinfurthi Dames 
aus dem oberen Eocdn von Agyptens. Neue 
Jahrb. fur Min., No. 1: 1-6, pl. 1, figs. 1-3. 
1907. 

Gervais P., Zoologie et paleontologie frangaises 2: 
271, pl. 80. 1852. Paris. 

La Morgaux, P. E. Geology and ground-water 
resources of the Coastal Plain of east-central 
Georgia. Georgia State Div. Conservation, 
Geol. Surv. 52: 1-173, pls. 1-2, figs. 1-21. 
1946. 


AGAPETUS AND ELECTRAGAPETUS 


47 


Leipy, J. Notice of remains of extinct vertebrated 
animals of New Jersey collected by Prof. Cook. 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 8: 220-221. 
1856. 

———. Notices of remains of extinct vertebrated 
animals discovered by Professor Emmons. Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 8: 255-256. 1856. 

Wasson, T., and Srncuatr, J. H. Geological ex- 
plorations east of the Andes in Ecuador. Bull. 
Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol. 11 (12): 1253-1281, 
pls. 9-13, figs. 1-4. 1927. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Phylogeny and biogeography of the caddisflies of the genera 
Agapetus and Electragapetus (Trichoptera: Rhyacophilidae).! Herperr H. 
Ross, Illinois Natural History Survey, Urbana, III. 


An analysis of the phylogeny and distribu- 
tion pattern of the small caddisflies belong- 
ing to the genus Agapetus and its allies has 
presented some interesting data on the move- 
ment of faunal elements between North 
America and Eurasia. For insects the time 
relations of this entire phase of distribution 
is poorly understood, although there is evi- 
dence in most groups of crossings between 
the parts of Holarctica. In the Agapetus 
group there is some evidence for placing 
such crossings in relation to geologic time. 

The results of this study of the Agapetus 
line attest the fact that many small insect 
genera occupy a unique place in unraveling 
the phylogeny and morphogenetic steps in 
a large number of groups. This has been 
stressed by Emerson (1950) in his remarks 
on the objectivity of monotypic genera. In 
many instances these small genera are sur- 
viving members of early points in phyletic 
lines that have developed abundant faunas 
specialized far beyond these relicts. We are 
justified in regarding such archaic survivors 
as living fossils. In insect studies they are 
what we must use as a basis for phylogenetic 
deduction in theoretical areas of evolutionary 
speculation. In groups such as vertebrates 
and Mollusea, fossil evidence is used in this 
capacity. 

It is my conviction that, by and large, 
insect groups possess more living fossils than 
vertebrate groups do true fossils and that, 
as a consequence, the entomologist has an 
unusual opportunity to contribute material 


!This paper is a joint contribution from the 
Section of Faunistie Surveys and Insect Identifica- 
tion, Illinois Natural History Survey, and the De- 
partment of Entomology, University of Illinois. 


basic to the study of biogeography and evo- 
lution. 

Electragapetus is one of those archaic gen- 
era of which, fortunately, we have available 
both a well-preserved fossil and two existing 
species. Its study establishes the order of 
origin of the distinctive characters of A gape- 
tus and allows the dating of at least part of 
the associated phylogenetic development. 
With this as a basis a preliminary analysis 
has been attempted of the origin, diver- 
gence, and dispersal of the entire Agapetus 
complex. 


THE AGAPETUS LINE 


The genus Agapetus represents a phyletic line 
(Fig. 15) that arose from the genus Anagapetus 
and that is characterized in the adult primarily 
by a reduction and reorganization of the veins 
of the hind wing. The apex of development in 
these characters occurs in the fuscipes complex 
of the genus Agapetus. 

In Anagapetus the front wing (Fig. 1) is much 
like Rhyacophila. The hind wing is also little 
changed from the primitive rhyacophilid type; 
its radial field (Fig. 6) has all branches present 
and the forks of Rs occur before cross-vein s; and 
the anal veins are all present, with 1A and 2A 
forming an elongate fork. The genus Catagapetus 
represents the first steps toward Agapetus. In 
Catagapetus the front wing has lost vein Ria, and 
cross-vein r has become aligned with cross-vein 
s (as in Fig. 2); and in the hind wing (Fig. 7) 
cross-vein s has moved basad. Existing species 
show reductions of hind wing venation that have 
occurred in the Catagapetus line since it separated 
from the main Agapetus stem. 

In Hlectragapetus (Fig. 8) the first major steps 
in specialization are seen: fork Ry,s has migrated 


348 


close to the margin of the wing, fork Ry.; has 
migrated a short distance in the same direction, 
and cross-vein s has migrated closer to the basal 
fork of Rs. The more primitive existing species 
of Agapetus, such as the species dubitans, exhibit 
a marked change in this hind wing pattern (Fig. 
9). Beyond cross-vein 7, Ry is reduced to a short, 
oblique section fusing with Sc; the basal part of 
Ri, 7, and Ro.3 beyond 7, have realigned to form 
a serial vein with a slight dip on the part of the 
vein composed of 7; cross-vein s has completely 
disappeared; and Ry,5; branches much closer to 
the wing margin. This early pomt in Agapetus 
development is called the Synagapetus stage, and 
its origin is labeled S.S. in Fig. 15. 

Between the Electragapetus stage and the Aga- 
petus stage of evolution of the radial veins, a 
second development of the hind wing venation 
took place. In Anagapetus and Electragapetus 
(Fig. 6) vein 3A is short and free, running into 
the margin of the wing. In Agapetus (Fig. 9) it 
appears to have turned up at the end and run 
into vein 2A just beyond cross-vein a. The short 
stub projecting from the curved connection, how- 
ever, may actually be the tip of 3A and the 
connecting portion may be an adventitious spur 
or branch that has developed as a cross brace. 
Following this interpretation, when the stub is 
present it is labeled 3A and the connecting piece 
3A’; when the stub is absent the vein is labeled 
simply 3A. 

After the change began in the ana] veins, 
reduction still contmued in the anterior veins, 
involving first a complete loss of the oblique 
section of Ry running from r to Sc, and then both 
a coalescence of Se with the anterior margin, and 
continued movement of the forks of R; toward 
the wing margin. The end of this direct line is 
represented by the European fuscipes (Fig. 13) 
in which all but the base of Se has coalesced 
with the anterior margin, fork Ro,3; has become 


completely obliterated, and fork Ra,5 is very. 


close to the wing margin. Throughout this series 
little change occurs in the front wing or in the 
anal region of the hind wing. This sequence of 
reduction of venation has proceeded independ- 
ently in several distinct phyletic lines within 
Agapetus, and reached various stages in different 
lines. 

A somewhat similar situation exists regarding 
the male genitalia in the Agapetus complex. From 
at least the origin of Hlectragapetus, the ancestral 
form of genitalia has had single segmented clasp- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


ers, the tenth tergite divided into a pair of 
vertical, platelike, and only partially sclerotized 
lobes, and at the base of each lobe a fingerlike, 
projecting cercus bearing an irregular row of long 
setae (Fig. 23A). Differences in genitalia between 
most of the species involve chiefly differences of 
proportion or addition of ornamentation to this 
general basic type. That is, in one species the 
tenth tergite may be long, in another species 
short; or in one species the clasper may have a 
mesal spur, in another none. In certain lines, how- 
ever, there is a marked reduction of the cercus, 
and in a few lines this structure has completely 
disappeared. Judged from evidence from other 
structures, the same modifications have arisen 
independently in different lines. 


PHYLETIC BRANCHES OF AGAPETUS 


Evidence indicating the first major division of 
Agapetus is found m a curious pair of organs 
occurring one on each lateral portion of the fifth 
sternite of the males. In some species this organ 
is internal and forms an oval or round cavity 
opening by a narrow shlt to the outside. Its 
function is probably olfactory or auditory. Be- 
ginnings of this organ are found in some of the 
primitive species placed in the subgenus Synaga- 
petus, such as dubitans and especially aridipennis, 
in which an invagination is present beneath a 
ridge on the side of the fifth sternite. The organ 
is present as a well-developed structure in many 
of the European species and all the American 
species, but absent in all the Japanese and East 
Pacific Island species I have seen. 

This latter group of Oriental species thus 
appears to be an independent evolutionary line, 
starting from a primitive species of Synagapetus 
representing a stage before the lateral male organ 
had begun to develop. The genitalia have re- 
mained primitive in essential respects through- 
out the line, but the hind wing venation has 
become progressively reduced to the condition 
found in curvidens (Fig. 14) in which not only 
radius but also the branches of media are greatly 
reduced. This complex of species I am calling 
the curvidens line. 

The other species in Agapetus form a line also 
stemming from a primitive Synagapetus type, 
but a line which branched into several subsidiary 
developments. One of them culminated in the 
membrosus complex, another in the relatively 
primitive comatus complex, a third in the fuscipes 


NoveMBer 1951 


ELECTRAGAPETUS TSUDAI 


3 


AGAPETUS ILLINI 


AG. CURVIDENS- 
Fies. 1-5.—Front wings of the Agapetus line. 


complex, these three apparently confined entirely 
to Eurasia, and a fourth which gave rise to the 
American species of Agapetus. 

There are other lines that I am unable to 
place phylogenetically in satisfactory fashion but 
that probably originated as close relatives of the 
comatus group. These include the following, tenta- 
tively considered as subgenera of Agapetus until 
detailed study allows more exact treatment: 
Myspoleo Barnard, from South Africa; Afraga- 
petus Mosely, from the mountains of east-central 
Africa; Allagapetus Martynov, from Turkestan 
and India; and Lanagapetus Mosely, from Ma- 
deira. 

The American -species exhibit two circum- 
stances suggesting their position in relation to 
the Eurasian fauna. In the first place, although 


ROSS: AGAPETUS AND ELECTRAGAPETUS 349 


AG. CURVIDENS 


Fias. 6-14.—Hind wings of the Agapetus line: 
Ag., Agapetus; An, Anagapetus; Cat., Catagapetus; 
Kl., Hlectragapetus. (Fig. 7 after McLachlan; Fig. 
9 after Mosely.) 


350 


the American fauna contains many diverse types 
of genitalia, they appear to be related to each 
other rather than to various known complexes 
of the Eurasian fauna. In the second place, the 
base of the various lines begins with forms having 
a relatively primitive hind wing venation (Fig. 
10) little changed from the primitive Synagapetus 
wing (Fig. 9). This indicates that the American 
fauna probably arose from a single ancestor 
which crossed from Eurasia to North America, 
and that this ancestor was a primitive form of 
the Agapetus branch which developed the lateral 
male organ. None of the American species have 
undergone a great deal of evolution as regards 
venation. The primitive species such as boulde- 
rensis and illint have in the hind wing a faint 
trace of the base of R, (Fig. 10) and definite 
angulations where r joins R; and Ro,3 and in the 
males a fairly long cell Ro. The most specialized 
wings differ only in that the serial radial vein 
has become smoother in the region of 7, all trace 
of Ry beyond this point is lost, and cell Re is 
short in both sexes (Fig. 11). 

The relationships of the genera and the known 
lines of Agapetus are shown in Fig. 15. This chart 
shows the few specialized lmes of Agapetus actu- 
ally studied, and in addition an approximation 
of the origin of the African lines. While the nature 
of the lateral male organ is not known for the 
African species, the venation and male genitalia 
are relatively generalized and indicate that these 
arose from a form essentially like that persisting 
in the comatus Jine. 


BIOGEOGRAPHY 


With the exception of the Baltic amber Elec- 
tragapetus scitulus, the data for biogeographical 
analysis of the group under discussion consist 
entirely of the known distribution patterns of 
existing species. These patterns are fragmentary 
for many species, but nonetheless they bring 
out certain poimts that should furnish at 
least a starting point for needed further study 
in this field. 

Judged from the habitat or climatic preference 
of all existing species, the group is and always 
has been restricted to clear, cold, small streams 
or brooks. The only exception is the subgenus 
Tagapetus, which probably inhabits warmer 
streams than is typical for other species. This 
cold-adapted characteristic of the group means 
that all spreading of range occurred only through 
territory where such streams were relatively 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


numerous. For range extensions from Eurasia 
into Africa, a mountain highway would have 
been imperative in order to afford these stream 
conditions through the equatorial belt. 

The ancestral genus Anagapetus is quite suc- 
cessful in many montane localities in North 
America in competition with both Glossosoma 
and Agapetus. From this it would seem probable 
that if it had ever occurred in Eurasia, some 
remnant of it would still survive and have been 
found. On the same grounds of competitive 
behavior, the genera Catagapetus and Electraga- 
petus may be ascribed to an existence confined 
to Eurasia. Since this constitutes our only evi- 
dence, I am following it as a general precept. 


DISPERSAL AND EVOLUTIONARY LINES 


The Catagapetus-Agapetus line (Fig. 15) prob- 
ably started in late Cretaceous or early Cenozoic 
time as a population of Anagapetus which spread 


Agapetus 
ae 0 
© a q oe ee ® @ = 
° cod) 
Sup Se yg teem Fees 
Si OF 2 Bt 4gnds =! fy Ss 
Jes oe @ -ssabe nn : 
Beige Gon Eas Baa dg 
oes 2 2S ecm ars 
A, (a) oO 2| As Si ro) 2 1) A 
a oO eal 3) —<at of & 
WY) 
5 3 
2 3 
Al| | 2 
Sie 
© fa 
5 is) 
Oo — 
= Ea 
a 7 
= 10), 10) 
= JE te 
ON eas ay tip of Ry; lost 
R O) 8.5: start of lateral 
5 male organ 
5 © fusion of 3A with 2A 
A Sa, 
USS r7 2A lost 
forks of R, long-stalked 
Rjg lost 


Fig. 15.—Diagram of phylogeny of the Agapetus 
line: H.A., Electragapetus ancestor; S.S., Synaga- 
petus stage; A.A., Agapetus ancestor. 1, early 
Eocene dispersal; 2, early Oligocene dispersal; 
3, approximate horizon of fossil Electragapetus. 


NOVEMBER 1951 ROSS: 
from North America into Eurasia. This gave rise 
first to a Catagapetus-like form differing in only 
a few morphological respects from its progenitor. 
From this form arose a more modified form, in 
which the hind wing underwent reduction of 
venation and produced a form much like Elec- 
tragapetus, but retaining all of vein 2A in the 
hind wing. This, the Electragapetus Ancestor, 
must have become widespread, divided, and had 
its parts isolated geographically, for it gave rise 
to two distinct phyletic lines, leading to Electraga- 
petus and Agapetus, respectively. 

The Electragapetus line remained very like its 
ancestor, changing only slightly m venation. It 
had developed into a definitive Hlectragapetus 
morphotype by late Eocene or early Oligocene, 
and it is a matter of record in the Baltic amber 
that it occurred at this time in the vicinity of 
Germany. Eventually its range embraced all 
Eurasia, as witnessed by living species in eastern 
Siberia and Japan. 

The Agapetus line underwent continued re- 
duction in hind wing venation, and reached the 
Synagapetus stage before a successful, long range, 
competitive form was evolved. This type also 
became widespread over Eurasia, with existing 
species having primitive types of genitalia sur- 
viving in China, India, and many areas in Europe, 
and more specialized species in Japan and Ma- 
deira. There is one record, based on a female 
specimen, from northern Ontario, Canada, which 
may indicate a spread of the group through 
northern North America, but pending knowledge 
of the male no interpretation of this record will 
be attempted. 

This primitive Synagapetus group gave rise to 
a line that may have become isolated in the 
islands to the east of the Asiatic coast. Its only 
known members are now recorded only from 
Japan, the Philippine Islands, Java, and New 
Guinea. The line has undergone much change, 
culminating in the curvidens complex. 

Other Synagapetus stock developed a curious 
lateral organ on the fifth sternite of the male. 
After this development there occurred a spread 
of the line throughout continental Eurasia and 
into North America and possibly also Africa. 
Hach of these extensions of range is represented 
today by an isolated and frequently highly dis- 
tinetive group. From this it seems certain that 
after the range extension occurred, most of the 
avenues of dispersal became ecologically unsuit- 
able for Agapetus and have remained so since. 


AGAPETUS AND 


dol 


ELECTRAGAPETUS 


AGAPETUS 


B25) s, 
f 35 
soon 7 om 
BIO PA Se : 
oni wl atsaaperus © ~ Te tor 
- a ANAGAPETUS. 
Xe Ny A a a s ws 
' Nite EG 
ee 
5 oe 


Fic. 16.—The dispersal cycle of the Anagapetus 
to Agapetus evolutionary line. In the upper map 
the present distribution pattern of the generalized 
species of Agapetus (chiefly Synagapetus) is dia- 
grammed as the sinuate oval across Eurasia. 


Otherwise we would expect a mingling of diverse 
faunal units in the periphery of the range of the 
group. It is likely that this radiation was made 
possible by the extensive orogenies culminating 
in the Miocene, which provided avenues of dis- 
persal across the old sea Tethys and gave rise to 
the African mountains and many of the extensive 
ranges in southern Europe and Asia. 

The retention of the stub of R, in the hind 
wing of primitive American species indicates 
that this line resulted from a population which 
spread into North America before the European 
and African progenitors had evolved. The mono- 
phyletic nature of the existing American fauna 
indicates that no later dispersals occurred from 
Asia, and the Asiatic fauna indicates that no 
American forms spread back to Asia. 


TIME RELATIONSHIPS 


The problem of fixing the evolutionary se- 
quence in Fig. 15 calls for a matching of known 
or inferred time of events based on information 
from the Agapetus data with possible dispersal 
opportunities deduced from studies of other 


302 


groups. In this latter connection I have drawn 
chiefly on the summary of Holarctic mammal 
dispersal given by Simpson (1947). 

The Oligocene Baltic amber fossil Hlectraga- 
petus provides us with one approach to the dating 
problem. Referring to Fig. 15, we see that— 

1. There must have existed an ancestor com- 
mon to both Electragapetus and Agapetus, which 
possessed a hind wing like Fig. 8 but which 
retained vein 2A, still preserved in Agapetus. 
This ancestor is indicated as E. A. in Fig. 15. 

2. The Electragapetus line lost 2A. The time 
which elapsed during this loss represents the 
time interval between E. A. and the formation 
of the generic characteristics of Hlectragapetus as 
it appears in Oligocene amber and today. There 
is no evidence to indicate how far this occurred 
up the Hlectragapetus line, so in Fig. 15 this must 
first be placed arbitrarily as an indeterminate 
period. It is highly likely that the Hlectragapetus 
line continued as a viable, primitive line for 
some time after the separation of Hoagapetus. 
The assumed point of extinction of the Electraga- 
petus line is terminated by an “x.” This point is 
purely arbitrary. » 

3. In the fossil Hlectragapetus hind wing, vein 
9A is atrophied to cross-vem a. In subgenus 
Eoagapetus there is still a vestige of this vein. 
On this evidence, the division between the two 
occurred before early Oligocene from which the 
fossil is known. This places the time of E. A. as 
definitely pre-Oligocene and further places the 
time of the spread of Anagapetus into Eurasia as 
considerably before Oligocene. 

Another suggested dating occurs at point O. D. 
(Old World dispersal of Agapetus). Shortly after 
the spread of Agapetus to North America (mor- 
phologically speaking) there occurred a dispersal 
of Agapetus to the various mountainous regions 
of southern Eurasia and Africa. Since Africa is 
involved, this spread could hardly have occurred 
prior to the shrinkage of Tethys in the Miocene; 
it is also likely that suitable mountain habitats 
were not available in Africa and parts of southern 
Eurasia until the orogenies producing the shrink- 
age of Tethys had progressed to an advanced 
stage. It is also apparent that following the 
spread of a primitive Agapetus there was an 
isolation of populations mm various areas, an 
isolation that has persisted to the present. Dur- 
ing this period each isolate has developed into a 
distinctive taxonomic entity. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


Turning to evidence that Simpson (1947) has 
assembled from distribution of mammalian fossils, 
there is found a remarkably close correlation with 
certain conclusions. Simpson postulates that (1) 
there was a relatively complete interchange of 
American and Eurasian forms in early Eocene, 
(2) a lesser but extensive interchange in early 
Oligocene, and (3) small interchanges of only 
limited ecological types until late Pliocene. Al- 
though Plhocene and Pleistocene interchanges 
were not made by Agapetus, the first two points 
fit very weil with the analysis made of the 
genus. 

Evidence from the phylogeny of the Rhyaco- 
philidae (Ross, 1951) gives every reason to be- 
lieve that Anagapetus had evolved by middle or 
late Cretaceous. It could have spread into Eur- 
asia on an early Eocene bridge, and the Eurasian 
isolate start on the evolutionary road to Agapetus. 
If this time of crossing is correct, the Eurasian 
line evolved fairly rapidly through ancestral 
Catagapetus and Electragapetus stages and past 
the early Agapetus stage (that is, Synagapetus) 
before Oligocene. Presumably the specialized 
Agapetus line had just begun to evolve when a 
species of its early complex spread into North 
America and then was cut off on this continent. 
The slightly more specialized European continu- 
ation of the line spread in Miocene to its present 
outposts. : 

This explanation satisfies the conditions that 
I. A. be pre-Oligocene, and that O. D. be late 
Oligocene or Miocene. Beyond these limits, of 
course, the branchings in Fig. 15 are simply 
“Yeasonable estimates.”’ 

One question arising from this explanation is 
of more than usual interest. When Agapetus 
spread into North America, why did not Ca- 
tagapetus and/or Electragapetus spread with it? 
They were both extant somewhere in Eurasia at 
that time. It is quite possible that they may yet 
be found in North America, for many mountain 
regions of the Northwest are virtually uncol- 
lected; or they may have made an entry and the 
colony become extinct. It is also possible that 
these two genera were confined to Europe or 
Western Asia during early Oligocene. A third 
and highly plausible alternative is that Agapetus 
had developed an ecological tolerance for warmer 
streams than the other two, and that in the 
Oligocene conditions on the Bering bridge were 
opportune for Agapetus but not for the others. 


NOVEMBER 1951 


TAXONOMIC NOTES 


Certain of the deductions made in the pre- 
ceding pages are based on new species, which 
are described below. Unless otherwise stated, 
types are in the collection of the Illinois Natural 
History Survey. 


Genus Electragapetus Ulmer 


This genus was described to include a single 
fossil species, scitulus Ulmer, from Baltic amber. 
Later Martynov described the genus Hoagapetus 
to receive a living species, praeteritus Martynov, 
from eastern Siberia. The venation of the two 
is virtually identical, the differences between the 
two groups being mainly in male genitalia. This 
relationship seems best expressed by considering 
the two groups as subgenera, as follows: 


Cereus digitate, projecting free from narrow base. 
similar to condition shown in Fig. 21A 

Electragapetus 

Cercus low, with basal attached portion very long, 

apical edge with a row of fine setae, Fig. 17A 

Eoagapetus 


Subgenus Eoagapetus Martynov 
KEY TO SPECIES 


Lobes of tenth tergite symmetrical, each with a 
short lateral point at tip; cercus evenly crescent 
shaped; clasper with apical margin notched to 
produce a wide dorsal and very narrow ventral 
lobemetir sets ied WE cee praeteritus Martynov 

Lobes of tenth tergite asymmetrical, right lobe 
inconspicuous and membranous, left lobe 
sclerotized and with its ventral angle produced 
into a long slender finger; cercus with ventral 
portion larger than dorsal; clasper simple, Fig. 
U7, cig ccloig SOP E SEL a AU CN eee esc tsudai, n. sp. 


Electragapetus tsudai, n. sp. 


Many characters of the genitalia differentiate 
this species from praeteritus, summarized in the 
preceding couplet. 

Male.—Leneth 8 mm. Color dark brown, legs 
and venter slightly lighter than dorsal portion. 
General structure, including wing venation, Figs. 
2 and 8, typical for genus. Fifth abdominal 
sternite with only slightly embossed lateral areas. 
Genitalia as in Fig. 17. Tenth tergite with right 
lobe membranous and inconspicuous, left lobe 
with ventral corner digitate and long, angled 
both ventrad and laterad. Cercus forming a short 
but very deep flap, extending ventrad over the 
base of the clasper. Clasper with lateral aspect 
regular, rounded at apex, and nearly twice as 


ROSS: AGAPETUS AND ELECTRAGAPETUS 


species in which hind wing R; joins Se, Fig. 9 


353 


long as deep; both upper and lower margins have 
a sclerotized tooth a third distance from apex. 
Aedeagus very long, with a pair of long scle- 
rotized rods, one flattened and convoluted before 
the spinelike apex, the other slender, more 
rounded, and nearly straight. 

Holotype—Male; Higashiyama, Fukushima 
Pref., Japan, May 24, 1949, Mrs. M. Kohno. 

Paratype.—Yu River, Higashiyama, Kita-aizu- 
gun, Fukushima Pref., May 24, 1949, Mrs. M. 
Kohno. 


Genus Agapetus Leach 


Arriving at a workable classification for this 
genus has been difficult. While the species resolve 
into separate phyletic lines, the primitive mem- 
bers of a line sometimes differ little from members 
of unspecialized lines, but the end species of the 
line may be radically different from any other 
species in the genus. It is desirable to make 
special subgeneric categories for the very unusual 
forms, yet it seems impractical to make a sepa- 
rate subgenus for every phyletic line. 


Subgenus Synagapetus McLachlan 


To this subgenus authors have usually referred 
5 
and the female middle tibiae are dilated. It is 
now apparent that this simple definition is in 
need of revision, but a more thorough under- 
standing of the genus is required to reach a 
satisfactory result. For purposes of the present 
I am considering Synagapetus as a broad unit, 
including species previously placed in Synaga- 
petus and Pseudagapetus, and a third group 
having hind wing R, lost at its tip but with no 
male lateral organ. This latter group includes 
japonicus Tsuda, and three New Guinea species 
described here. At the evolutionary apex of the 
line stand the Philippine species curvidens Ulmer 
(Fig. 14) and the Java species abbreviatus Ulmer. 
These two are so distinct from other members of 
their line that they have evidently come under 
the influence of new, strong selection pressures 
and started a divergent branch of their own. A 
new subgenus is therefore erected for their re- 
ception. 


Agapetus ulmeri, n. sp. 

The very simple male genitalia and venation 
indicate this as one of the primitive members 
of the genus. The angulate anterior margin of the 
ninth segment, however, in this and the two 


354 


following species indicates that they are offshoots 
from the: base of the curvidens line. The short, 
truncate tenth tergite lobes combined with the 
slender clasper differentiate this species from its 
relatives. 

Male.—Leneth 3.5 mm. Color dark brown, the 
legs and venter slightly lighter. General structure 
typical for genus, venation similar to that of 
illint female, but the hind wing with no vestige 
of the tip of R; and with no pronounced dip in 
the Ri-serial vein at r. Front tibia with imner 
apical spur much shorter than outer, both fairly 
small. Fifth abdominal sternite with simple em- 
bossed area. Genitalia as in Fig. 19. Ninth seg- 
ment with anterior margin broadly but fairly 
sharply angulate. Lobes of tenth tergite deep 
and short, truncate at apex, and each with a 
dorso-lateral flange above cercus. Cercus finger- 
like, with four long setae. Clasper simple, the 
apical portion narrowed, straight, and without 
sclerotized points. Aedeagus with simple rods 
sharply upeurved at apex. 

Holotype.—Male; Hollandia, New Guinea, rain 
forest, March 22, 1945, H. Hoogstraal. 


Agapetus jafiwi, n. sp. 


This species is most closely related to the 
preceding, from which it differs in the shape of 
the tenth tergite lobes and the produced anterior 
margin of the ninth segment. 

Male.—Length 4 mm. Color and general struc- 
ture, including wing venation and fifth abdom- 
inal segment, as in the preceding species. Geni- 
talia as in Fig. 20. Ninth segment fairly long 
both dorsad and ventrad, its anterior margin 
produced into a long internal projection with a 
pointed apex. Tenth tergite with each lobe fairly 
long and deep, with a recurved, small, dorsal 
hook and the extreme apex also forming a hook- 
like projection. Cercus short and stout, with 
four long setae. Clasper long, with base only 
moderately wide, apex pointed, and with .a 
pointed ventromesal flap just before the apex. 

Holotype—Male; Hollandia, New Guinea, 
March 15, 1945, at light, near Jafiwi, H. Hoog- 
straal. 


Agapetus latosus, n. sp. 


The tenth tergite lobes in this species have a 
most curious shelflike lateral overhang which is 
unlike anything else illustrated in the genus. 
Other characters, especially the produced ninth 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 41, No. 11 


segment and simple clasper, indicate that this is 
another member of the cwrvidens line. 

Male.—Length 3.5 mm. Color, general struc- 
ture, venation, and characters of the fifth ab- 
dominal sternites as for the preceding species. 
Genitalia as in Fig. 22. Ninth segment narrow 
dorsad, longer than usual ventrad, the anterior 
margin produced into a_ large, trianguloid, 
rounded projection. Tenth tergite lobes deep at 
base, with a lateral, irregularly serrate overhang; 
the apex of each lobe forms a triangular, slightly 
downcurved piece the base of which fits under 
the lateral overhang. Cercus elongate and slender, 
with four setae on apical third, its dorsal aspect 
appearing a little bulbous at base. Clasper with 
lateral aspect short, parallel sided and rounded 
at apex; ventral aspect with a mesal point at 
apex, and with basal half wide. Aedeagus with 
simple rods. 

Holotype—Male; Doromena, Netherlands 
New Guinea, February 25, 1945, Hoogstraal 
and Jewett. 

Paratypes.—Same data, 2%. 


Tagapetus, n. subg. 


Characteristics—General structure of head and 
body typical for genus. Diagnostic differences in 
venation are as follows: front wing (Fig. 5) with 
fork R4,5 very narrow, and cross-vein s long, so 
that vein Ry is much closer to Rs than to Rs, 
and with both forks of M close to margin of 
wing; hind wing (Fig. 14) with Se distinct from 
margin, the two principal radial veins very close 
together at center of wing, and vein M3,4 and 
cross-vein m-cu entirely atrophied; in addition 
the hind wing has R»y.3 unbranched, R4,s with a 
very short branch, and apex of 2A reduced to an 
indistinct stub. 

Genotype.—Agapetus curvidens Ulmer. 

In addition to the genotype, Tagapetus in- 
cludes abbreviatus Ulmer from Java. 

The male genitalia of the genotype (Fig. 21) 
exhibit many characteristics of the generalized 
type, with the addition of the slender, elongate 
and sinuate clasper and the anterior sharp pro- 
jection of the ninth segment. These characters of 
genitalia leave no doubt but that curvidens is 
one of the end products of its phyletic line. The 
unusually great differences in wing venation also 
indicate clearly that the two species in the sub- 
genus have undergone very rapid evolution com- 
pared to all other members of their line. 


NoOvEMBER 1951 


Subgenus Agapetus Leach 


The subgenus Agapetus is defined here as the 
general group in which the tip of Ri is atrophied 
in the hind wing, and the lateral abdominal organ 
of the male is well developed as a round or ovoid 
mternal structure. 


1I9C 


oe 
CURVIDENS 


ROSS: AGAPETUS AND ELECTRAGAPETUS 


Agapetus membrosus, n. sp. 


This species is one of the end branches of the 
membrosus line, differing from the bidens group 
in having the apexes of both the clasper and 
membranous dorsal lobe blunt rather than sharp 
and pointed. In addition the ventral spur of the 


A. 
MEMBROSUS 


226 


-cl 


A. DENNINGI 


Fiaes. 17-23.—Male genitalia of Hlectragapetus (H.) and Agapetus (A.): A, Lateral aspect; B, dorsal 
aspect; C, ventral aspect of clasper. (aed, aedeagus; c, cercus; cl, clasper; l, left lobe; r, right lobe.) 


396 


clasper is short in membrosus, long and pointed 
in the bidens group. 

Male.—Length 3 mm. Color dark brown, nearly 
black, the venter and legs slightly lighter. Gen- 
eral structure typical for genus. Hind wing, Fig. 
12, with Se close to but slightly separated from 
margin; R»e,3 with minute branch at extreme 
apex; anal veins with base of 2A and apex of 
1A forming a straight serial vein, beneath which 
is a single loop of doubtful composition (see dis- 
cussion above for membrosus group). Fifth ster- 
nite with lateral areas embossed. Genitalia as in 
Fig. 18. Tenth tergite divided into a pair of 
stout, curved arms. Cercus represented by a thin 
strap embedded in membrane, the end of the 
strap with a single long seta. Clasper with a 
short, triangular main piece with a dorsal mem- 
branous lobe and a ventral truncate projection. 
Aedeagus with simple rods. 

Female —Length 3.5 mm. Color and general 
structure as in male. Middle legs with tibia and 
basitarsus expanded, foliaceous, and concave 
mesad. Abdomen slender and pointed. 

Holotype-—Male; Unlong-kong (above), Sze- 
chwan, China, 12,000-15,000 feet elevation, July 
3, 1929, H. Stevens. 

Allotype—Female; Tu-pa-keo, Szechwan, 
China, 7,400 feet elevation, September 3, 1929, 
H. Stevens. 

Paratypes.—All from Szechwan, China, H. 
Stevens: same data as for holotype, 207; same 
data as for allotype, 12 ; same as for allotype, 
but September 5, 27; between Shuang-yo and 
Tu-pa-keo, August 30, 1929, 1 #. Holotype, allo- 
type, and three paratypes in the Chicago Natural 
History Museum; three paratypes in the collec- 
tion of the Illmois Natural History Survey. 


Agapetus denningi, n. sp. 


The genitalia indicate that this species belongs 
to the small complex including ophionis Ross 
and taho Ross and is an especially close relative 
of taho. From this species, denningi differs in 
having a more triangular lateral aspect of the 
clasper and an almost even dorsal outline of the 
tenth tergite, which ends in a simple, downcurved 
point. It is likely that denningi represents a 
condition close to that of the ancestor of the 
complex. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


Male.—Length 5 mm. Color dark brown, 
slightly lighter on legs and venter. General 
structure typical for genus, and for subgenus as 
described above. Genitalia as in Fig. 23. Ninth 
segment nearly annular, with anterior margin 
evenly bowed. Tenth tergite with lobes bladelike 
and thin, each with lateral aspect fairly shallow, 
triangular, elonate, and ending in a sclerotized 
portion which is curved ventrad and beaklike. 
Cercus moderately long and slender, with an 
irregular row of long setae. Clasper with base 
massive, apex tapering to a point curved sharply 
mesad; at the dorsal apex of the basal portion is 
a short, sharp projection pointed mesad. Ae- 
deagus with simple rods. 

Female.—Size, color, and general structure as 
for male. Female characters typical for ophionis 
complex, for which means of specific separation 
in this sex are not yet known. 

Types.—Holotype, male, Rouge River Na- 
tional Forest, Oreg. Allotype, female, and para- 
type, male, same data. Holotype and allotype 
in the collection of D. G. Denning, paratype in 
the collection of the Illinois Natural History 
Survey. 

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. 
E. W. ling for a great deal of assistance with 
this study, especially for making the illus- 
trations of the wings. To Mrs. M. Kohno, 
Dr. Tsuda, Dr. C. O. Mohr, Harry Hoog- 
straal, Dr. C. H. Remington, and Dr. E. 8. 
Ross I am indebted for the opportunity to 
study much Oriental material. Two other 
items have been an invaluable aid in this 
study—Dr. Ulmer’s fine work on the Oriental 
fauna and Mr. Kimmins’s excellent illus- 
trations made for papers of the late Martin 
E. Mosely. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Emerson, ALFRED HL. Five new genera of termites 
from South America and Madagascar. Amer. 
Mus. Nov. no. 1444: 1-15, 6 figs. 1950. 

Ross, Hersertr H. The origin and dispersal of a 
group of primitive caddisflies. Evolution 5: 
102-115. 1951. 

Stmpson, GEorRGE G. Holarctic mammalian faunas 
and continental relationships during the 
Cenozoic. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 58: 613-88, 
6 figs. 1947. 


NOVEMBER 1951 


SAVAGE: STUDIES ON THE XANTUSIIDAE 


357 


HERPETOLOGY Studies on the lizard family Xantusiidae, II: Geographical 
variation in Xantusia riversiana from the Channel Islands of California. Jay M. 
SavaceE, Natural History Museum, Stanford University. (Communicated by 


F. J. Hermann.) 


While studying the Baja California night 
lizards of the species Xantusia vigilis (Sav- 
age, 1951), I examined the two supposed 
subspecies of the island night lizard, 
Xantusia riversiana, in an attempt to deter- 
mine what characters might be of value in 
delimiting subspecies within the genus. Pre- 
liminary inspection revealed that the char- 
acters used to differentiate the two nominal 
subspecies of riversiana were apparently so 
subject to individual variation and personal 
interpretation that doubt was cast upon the 
value of sub-dividing the species. 

Xantusia riversiana was described by Cope 
(1883, p. 29) as the second known species of 
the genus. Since that time the species has 
been found to be endemic to San Nicolas, 
Santa Barbara, and San Clemente Islands in 
the southern group of Channel Islands off 
the coast of southern California. The re- 
stricted range and structural homogeneity of 
the island night lizards has caused most 
authors to regard all three insular colonies as 
forming a single population. Dr. Hobart M. 
Smith (1946, p. 292) was the first seriously 
to question this concept. He proposed that 
the San Clemente Island colony should be 
recognized as a distinct subspecies, X. river- 
siana reticulata. His conclusions were derived 
from an examination of one specimen from 
San Clemente Island and three examples 
from San Nicolas Island, the type locality of 
X. 7. rwersiana. 

Smith would differentiate the two nominal 
subspecies on the basis of the following char- 
acteristics: riversiana—(1) preanal scales 
large, regular; (2) central gular scales some- 
what enlarged; (3) pregular fold well defined; 
(4) sutures between head scales clearly ap- 
parent, although some pits present; (5) a 
distinct dorsolateral light streak on each 
side; (6) dorsal pattern less distinctly marked 
with dark; reticulata—(1) preanal scales 
small, irregular; (2) central gular scales 
nearly uniform, scarcely enlarged medially; 
(3) pregular fold poorly defined; (4) head 
plates exceedingly pitted, corrugated and 


broken up; (5) no dorsolateral light line; 
(6) dorsal pattern reticulated and spotted 
with black. 


ANALYSIS OF CHARACTERISTICS 


The taxonomic value of several of these charac- 
teristics (size of gulars, nature of pregular fold, 
and coloration) might immediately be questioned 
by anyone familiar with variation in xantusiid 
lizards. Others of the supposed diagnostic charac- 
ters would at first glance seem to be useful in the 
definition of subspecies in this family (size and 
number of preanals and nature of head scalation). 
In order to discover the normal range of variation 
and determine those differences of systematic 
significance, an analysis of each of Smith’s criteria 
was undertaken in a relatively large sample of 
island night lizards. Comparison and study of 24 
specimens from San Nicolas Island, 11 from 
Santa Barbara Island, and 61 from San Clemente 
Island have supplied the information presented 
below and represent, I believe, an adequate 
summary of the variation of these characteristics. 

Preanals.—The preanal scales are basically 
six in number, large and arranged in three 
transverse rows. Considerable breaking up of 
these scales occurs in some individuals, and the 
condition may vary from the regular 6-scaled 
type through innumerable intermediates until 
as many as 18 small, irregular scales are present. 
The majority of specimens in this sample had 
seven to nine preanal scales. Fisher (1936, p. 
175) illustrates a similar variability in a large 
sample of the mainland species, XY. vigilis vigils. 

Obviously, when applymg Smith’s terms 
“large, regular” and “small, irregular’ to this 
character, it was necessary to set rather arbitrary 
limits as to what constituted these two categories. 
When the preanals were maintained in a condition 
approaching a regular series of large, unbroken 
scales they have been recorded as “‘large.’’ Those 
lizards with the preanal scales fragmented into 
a large number of small, irregularly shaped scales 
have been included under “‘small.’’ Utilizing these 
definitions the nature of the preanal scales and 
the percentage composition of each type in the 
three insular populations is given in Table 1. 


TABLE 1.—VARIATION IN PREANAL SCALES 


San | Santa San : 
Nicolas Barbara |Clemente Totals 
| | 
eI 2 oe |i |; 2 Bo 
2 i=] 2 i=] Qa o a = 
BLE aie | eile || 3 
a Wag pea oem |e I em ie) 
Large, regular. ...... Byi|ie 33) (ude | 91 |2081/9633)1|-29 | 30 
Small, irregular.......| 16 | 67 | 10] 91 | 41 67 | 67 70 
| | 
MDotalswece eee 2a LOOM els OOK GIN OOM 8968 i L00, 
| | | | 


An examination of Table 1 shows that the 
presence of “large” preanal scales is consistently 
low in all three island populations. San Clemente 
and San Nicolas Island specimens are almost 
identical in the percentage composition of large 
and small preanals and cannot be separated on 
the basis of this character. No significant differ- 
ence exists between these two samples and the 
series from Santa Barbara Island. The apparent 
discrepancy in the percentage composition be- 
tween this latter group of lizards and those from 
the other two islands is probably attributable 
to the small size of the Santa Barbara sample. 

Actually the splitting up of the preanal scales 
is probably not the result of any genetic factor 
but of a developmental change produced by some 
environmental influence during early ontogeny. 
Similar environmental effects have been shown to 
influence scutullation in snakes (Fox, 1948, p. 
252) and in turtles (Lynn and Ullrich, 1950, p. 
253). If environmental factors are responsible, 
the slight differences observed between Santa 
Barbara Island lizards and the series from other 
islands could not be considered of systematic 
value as a significant difference would only be a 
reflection of ecological effects upon the develop- 
ment of the sample. Obviously the nature of the 
preanal seales in island night hzards is of no 
taxonomic value and cannot be accepted as a 
criterion for distinguishing subspecies. 

Gular scales.—The difference in the relative 
size of the median gular scales, as used by Smith, 
is of such a fine qualitative distinction as to be 
almost impossible to apply. As pointed out by 
Fisher (1936, p. 174) in the related night lizard, 
X. v. vigilis, the number of enlarged scales on 
the gular fold is subject to wide variation. In 
X. riversiana the size of the gulars as well as the 
number is quite variable. It is true that some 
individuals appear to have the two median gular 
scales somewhat larger than their fellows but 
just where to draw the line between gulars 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


“scarcely enlarged medially” and gulars that 
are “somewhat enlarged” presents a problem. It 
was necessary for tabulation that some sort of 
decision as to what constitutes these two cate- 
gories be made. I have therefore included under 
the “enlarged” group only those examples having 
the central gular scales very definitely larger 
than those adjacent to them. Frankly, I do not 
feel that even this method is valid in determining 
the size of the gulars, and independent examina- 
tion of several series at different times confirms 
this suspicion. A sample of specimens from each 
island was examined by me on four different 
occasions. Upon each one of these occasions a 
different number of ‘‘enlarged’”’ examples was 
recognized. To make matters worse, examples 
classified as ‘large’? on one occasion would be 
grouped with ‘‘scarcely enlarged” the next time 
the samples were examined. Apparently the char- 
acter is so variable that a clear-cut decision cannot 
be made as to which group, “enlarged” or 
“scarcely enlarged,” any given individual! belongs. 

The results of the analysis of this characteristic, 
utilizmg the methods of determination explained 
above, are presented in Table 2. San Clemente 
lizards are almost constant in having the median 
scales enlarged. The small Santa Barbara series 
has more enlarged than uniform examples and 
the San Nicolas specimens are almost evenly 
divided between the two types. It might be 
argued that the San Clemente Island population 
could be separated from the other two colonies 
on the basis of this character. However, at least 
50 percent of the San Nicolas and Santa Barbara 
specimens would fall into the same category as 
San Clemente examples. The high percentage of 
“enlarged”’ gulars listed for the San Clemente 
sample may actually be the result of bias on 
my part. These specimens were the first lizards 
examined in the study when I was not too adept 
at distinguishing between the two supposed types 
of gulars. Consequently it is probable that a re- 


TABLE 2.—VARIATION IN SIZE OF GULAR SCALES 


San Santa San 
Nicholas | Barbara |Clemente Totals 
B| 2 | 2) 2)| 2 eaeaiee 
Ale leis |e) 2 | zB] s 
S/o |2)/ 0/3] 6/28) G 
r4 IS V4 | ee 4 |) ee |e 
Einlangedeercnernrie 14 58 9 82 | 60 98 | 83 86 
Whaytiorn, @- oscacacadsall MO) 42 2 18 1 PY || 1133 14 
i 
Motals/<orse eee 2-44 et} al | 100 | 61 | 100 | 96 | 100 


NOvEMBER 1951 


examination of the San Clemente series would 
result in slightly different groupings. These facts 
coupled with the difficulties already emphasized 
in determining the nature of the gular scale 
character forces the rejection of this charac- 
teristic as a systematic aid. 

Pregular fold —All Xantusia possess two more 
or less well-developed pregular folds. The pos- 
terior fold is usually well marked and lies only a 
few scales anterior to the gular fold. The anterior 
pregular fold extends from the base of the auricu- 
lar aperture on one side across the throat to the 
opposite ear opening and is usually poorly de- 
veloped or absent in the live animal. It is this 
latter fold which is used by Smith to characterize 
his two subspecies of X. rwversiana. Unfortu- 
nately, Smith did not have enough material to 
ascertain that the anterior pregular fold is often 
absent in living material and usually appears 
only as the result of preservation. In my ex- 
perience, the anterior pregular fold is often dis- 
torted and frequently not visible even subsequent 
to preservation. Consequently, the separation 
of two populations on the basis of the presence or 
absence of this fold seems impossible. 

Table 3 represents the presence or absence of 
the anterior pregular fold in a series of unevenly 
preserved specimens. The table is nothing but an 
account of the manner in which these lizards were 
preserved and is included to make it obvious 
that even if this character were not due to the 
mode of preservation no really significant differ- 
ences occur between the various colonies. The 
San Nicolas sample is somewhat isolated in the 
relative proportions of the two types of fold 
but this is probably the result of the fact that 
the majority of the San Nicolas examples are 
from a single collection and were all preserved 
in a similar manner. The pregular difference 1s 
thus of absolutely no significance in X. rwerstana. 

Pitting of the head shields—Table 4 shows that 
the number of individuals from each sample with 
the head shields so pitted as to completely obscure 
the sutures between the shields is relatively small. 
The character appears to be correlated with the 
age of the specimen, for the head shields are 
broken up in all large examples regardless of 
locality and the smaller specimens lack excessive 
pittings. The pits are present on all lizards ex- 
amined although difficult to find on a number 
of small examples. They appear to be the openings 
of integumentary “glands” similar in some re- 
spects to the femoral pores. Apparently these 


SAVAGE: STUDIES ON THE XANTUSIIDAE 


359 


TABLE 3.—VARIATION IN PREGULAR FOLD 


San Santa | San Totals 

Nicolas | Barbara |Clemente UES 

Pe Re) 5. ee | as NP ey ey 

Ss leo | 9s ica le ies ia 

AB ee PS Se) Bo 

|) joe |) ee | | ea | ee 

Well defined.......... 9] 37] 7] 64] 47] 77/63 | 66 
Poorly defined........) 15] 63] 4] 36| 14] 23 | 33) 34 
Totalseer eye 24 | 100 | 11 | 100 | 61 | 100 | 96 | 100 


TABLE 4.—VARIATION IN STRUCTURE OF 
HEAD SHIELDS 


San Santa San 
Nicolas | Barbara |Clemente Totals 
ole a Se core Su lec es 2 
e|/Si|elsie| 2/2] 8 
Ss o 3 D Ss By 5 D 
Z| a 7A || (ey Zia Oe | 2s 
| | | 
Broken up....... sal Ol O} By 1B 6. TO Bl 8 
Smoovhweeeeeen: : 24 | 100} 9 82 | 55 90 | 88 92 
otal sree ere 24 | 100 | 11 | 100 | 61 | 100 | 96 | 100 


pits grow at a constant rate throughout life and, 
after the general growth rate of the lizard begins 
to slow down at maturity, the pits continue to 
expand and eventually succeed in completely 
deforming the usual configuration of the head 
shields. No geographic correlation of a sufficient 
magnitude to warrant a separation of one insular 
colony from another is indicated by the distribu- 
tion of this character. San Nicolas Island ex- 
amples lack broken up head shields but this is 
probably the fault of the sample which consists 
almost entirely of moderate-sized lizards. This 
character must also be rejected as a means of 
delimiting subpopulations of X. riversiana. 
Dorsal coloration.—The dorsal pattern of these 
lizards is usually a gray, brownish or cream 
ground-color upon which is superimposed a series 
of reticulated longitudinal bands. These bands 
vary in color from light brown to black and are 
sometimes coalesced to form two rigidly delimited 
dorsolateral dark stripes and a single well-defined 
dorsal band. The ground color between these 
stripes or bands appears as two light spaces. 
In extreme specimens possessing these dorso- 
lateral light stripes the upper margins of the 
dark dorsolateral stripes and lower margins of 
the middorsal stripe are heavily pigmented so 
that the light interspace is sharply defined. This 
is the condition assumed by Smith to be typical 
of San Nicolas Island night lizards. All sorts of 


360 


intermediates between the reticulate pattern and 
the lined phase occur within any single popula- 
tion. All young examples tend to be more or 
less striped in appearance but the most promi- 
nently striped specimens are mature individuals. 

Taking the lizards with light lines well defined 
and bordered by a dark stripe as being “‘lined”’ 
and all other lizards as being “‘unlined,”’ I pre- 
pared Table 5. The complete absence of striped 
individuals in the Santa Barbara series is most 
likely due to the small sample size. San Nicolas 
Island and San Clemente Island colonies are 
close in relative percentage composition of the 
two color phases. The character is obviously 
worthless as a means of separating the various 
island populations. It may be that the extreme 
lined phase is the product of a single recessive 
allele although the observed frequencies of lined 
forms are somewhat lower than might be 
expected on the basis of such a hypothesis. 

It is notable that Dr. George 8. Myers, of 
Stanford University, reports that he took both 
lined and unlined phases side by side under the 
same debris on San Clemente Island. Kenneth 
S. Norris, of the Scripps Institution of Oceanog- 
raphy, informs me of the same condition oecur- 
ring on San Nicolas Island. 

Other characters—An analysis of scale counts 
and measurements reveals no significant differ- 
ences between the three imsular populations. 
Data on these counts and a complete redescrip- 
tion of the island night lizard are reserved for a 
projected monograph of the Xantusiidae. 


TABLE 5.—VARIATION IN OCCURRENCE OF Dor- 
SOLATERAL Licgnt LINES 


| ] 


San | Santa San | 


| 
| Nicolas | Barbara Clemente Totals 
| 
ee ee I Bl ee Se | ee ea 
| 2 5 ai] s&s 4 | I = 
ele MENS) Vere ielice 
a Wh sy ie | oe Iie || ef ee | es 
| | 
Tired ened ae an are | 5 | Ol @ 6 | @ |} aah) ats 
INowlinesh eee -| 19 | 79 | 11 | 100 | 55 | 90 | 85} 989 
| | | | | | 
Totals eee tents | 24 | 100 | 11 | 100 | 61 | 100 | 96 | 100 


CONCLUSIONS 


None of the characteristics employed by 
Smith to define his subspecies of X. river- 
stana are of value in separating the various 
island colonies. One character (preanals) is 
perhaps the result of environmental effects, 
another (gular scales) is a matter of indi- 
vidual interpretation, a third (pregular fold) 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


reflects the mode of preservation, a fourth 
(pitting of the head shields) is probably 
ontogenetic in nature, and the last (dorsal 
coloration) appears to be due to normal 
genetic variation. Since none of these char- 
acteristics can be utilized in defining sub- 
populations of the island night lizard, it 
follows that the name X. riversiana reticulata 
must be relegated to the synonymy of X. 
riversiana. This action is taken in the hope 
that it will avert further use of the name in 
the literature (“Schwenkmeyer, 1949; Shaw, 
1949; Knowlton, 1949) and prevent the rec- 
ognition of a systematically nonexistent en- 
tity. 
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


For the loan of material that aided in this 
study I wish to thank Dr. Raymond B. 
Cowles, University of California, Los Ange-_ 
les; Kenneth $8. Norris, Scripps Institution 
of Oceanography; and Dr. Robert C. Steb- 
bins, Museum of Vertebrate Zoology. 

Sincere appreciation is expressed to Dr. 
George 8. Myers, of Stanford University, 
who read the manuscript and added many 
helpful suggestions. 

LITERATURE CITED 


Corr, Epwarp Drinker. Notes on the geographical 
distribution of Batrachia and Reptilia in west- 
ern North America. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 1883: 10-35. 

FrsHer, Epona Marin. Some observations on Xan- 
tusia vigilis Baird. Copeia, 1936 (3): 173-176, 
figs. 1-2. 1936. 

Fox, Wavr. Effect of temperature on development 
of scutellation in the garter snake, Thamnophis 
elegans atratus. Copeia, 1948 (4): 252-262. 
1948. 

KNOWLTON, GEORGE FRANKLIN. Food of the island 
night lizard. Herpetologica 5 (2): 45-46. 1949. 

Lynn, Wivr1aAm GarpNer, and Uniricu, Mary 
Coraig. Experimental production of shell 
abnormalities in turtles. Copeia, 1950 (4): 253- 
262, figs. 1-2, pl. 1. 1950. 

Savacs, Jay Maruers. Studies on the lizard family 
Xantusvidae, I: The systematic status of the 
Baja California night lizards allied to Xantu- 
sia vigilis, with the description of a new sub- 
species. Amer. Mid]. Nat. (in press). 

ScHWENKMEYER, RicHARD Cart. Food habits of the 
island night lizard, Xantusia riversiana re- 
ticulata, from San Clemente Island. Nat. Hist. 
Mise. Chicago Acad. Sci. 38: 1-3. 1949. 

SHAw, CHARLES Epwarp. Notes on broods of two 
xantustids. Herpetologica 5 (2): 23-26. 1949. 

Smitu, Hoparr Murr. A subspecies of the lizard 
Xantusia riversiana. Journ. Washington Acad. 
Sci. 36 (11) : 292-293. 1946. 


NOvEMBER 1951 


DALQUEST: SIX NEW MAMMALS 


B61 


MAMMALOGY.—Six new mammals from the state of San Luis Potosi, Mexico. 
Water W. Daxauest, Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology, Ba- 
ton Rouge, La. (Communicated by Herbert Friedmann.) 


Among the many specimens acquired in 
the course of recent distributional studies of 
mammals conducted by Louisiana State Uni- 
versity in the Mexican state of San Luis 
Potosi, there is material that represents a 
new species and five undescribed subspecies. 
These new forms are described here in ad- 
vance of a more extensive account dealing 
with the mammals of San Luis Potosi as a 
whole. I am indebted to Hartley H. T. 
Jackson and Stanley P. Young, of the United 
States Fish and Wildlife Service, and to 
David H. Johnson and Henry W. Setzer, of 
the United States National Museum, for the 
loan of comparative material. Localities men- 
tioned in the following accounts, unless 
otherwise specified, are in the state of San 
Luis Potosi; measurements are in millime- 
ters; and capitalized color terms are from 
Ridgway (Color Standards and Color No- 
menclature, Washington, D. C., 1912). 


Thomomys umbrinus newmani, n. subsp. 


Type.—Adult female, skin and skull no. 4193, 
Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology; 
obtained 7 km northwest of Palma (village 12 
km northwest of Salinas), San Luis Potosi, Méx- 
ico, by Walter W. Dalquest on August 8, 1950; 
original number, 14537. 

Range-—Known only from the desert plains 
near the city of Salinas in western San Luis 
Potosi. 

Description.—A very small pocket gopher, total 
length 200 mm or less; condylobasal length less 
than 35 mm; males larger than females; skull 
small, smooth, relatively narrow; color pale, soft, 
near Sayal Brown above with the middorsal 
area scarcely darker, near Cinnamon-Brown; un- 
derparts pale gray to Light Pinkish Cinnamon. 

Comparisons.—Thomomys umbrinus newmanr 
is one of the smallest races of the species. It is 
distinctly smaller than 7. wu. atrodorsalis Nelson 
and Goldman from the mountains southeast of 
the city of San Luis Potosi, 7. wu. zacatecae 
Nelson and Goldman from southeastern Zacate- 
cas, T. u. supernus Nelson and Goldman from 
central Guanajuato, or 7. wu. enixus Nelson and 
Goldman from the Sierra Moroni of southern 


Zacatecas. T. u. potosinus Nelson and Goldmar 
is similar to newmant in size but is much darker 
in color. All the above-mentioned races are darker 
than newmani except the large 7. w. zacatecae, 
which, though richer in color, resembles newmani 
in lacking the distinct black or blackish wash in 
the middorsal area. 

Measurements—The arithmetic means for two 
adult male and three adult female topotypes are, 
respectively: Total length, 192, 185; length of 
tail, 61, 60; length of hind foot, 26, 26; height of 
ear from notch, 5, 5; condylobasal length (from 
occipital condyles to anteriormost edge of in- 
cisors), 33.6, 33.3; length of diastema, 12.4, 11.7; 
length of maxillary tooth row, 7.1, 6.9; zygomatic 
breadth, 21.6, 21.8; mterorbital breadth, 6.4, 
6.4; mastoid breadth, 18.3, 17.6; greatest crown 
breadth across upper molar rows, 6.9, 6.8. 

Remarks.—This subspecies is named for Rob- 
ert J. Newman, who obtained numerous speci- 
mens of mammals in the state of San Luis 
Potosi and who helped to obtain the specimens 
here listed. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 6, from: 
km northwest of Palma, 5; Cerro Pefion Blanco, 


et J 


Thomomys umbrinus arriagensis, n. subsp. 


Type.—Adult male, skin and skull no. 5075, 
Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology; 
obtained 1 km south of Arriaga, San Luis Potosi, 
México, by Walter W. Dalquest on September 
22, 1950; original number, 14780. 

Range.—Known only from the type locality on 
the Plan de Arriaga, a small, high, arid plain 
near the Guanajuato boundary southwest of the 
city of San Luis Potost. 

Description.—A medium-sized pocket gopher 
but one of the largest of the central-Mexican 
races of Thomomys umbrinus; condylobasal length 
of adults more than 41 mm; skull large with 
flaring zygomatic arches; colors dull and ashy; 
middorsal area usually heavily washed with 
blackish; sides Sayal Brown to Cinnamon; under- 
parts Drab. 

Comparisons.—None of the 
Thomomys umbrinus whose geographic ranges 
approach that of 7. wu. arriagensis is as large as 


subspecies of 


arriagensis, has such flaring zygomatic arches, or 


362 


is as dull and ashy in color. The nearest races, 
geographically, are newmani and potosinus, two 
of the smallest races of the species. The larger 
forms, atrodorsalis, zacatecae, enixus, and super- 
nus, are all much smaller than arriagensis. Speci- 
mens of 7. wu. crassidens Nelson and Goldman 
from western Zacatecas have not been examined, 
but judged from the original description this 
race is much brighter in color than arriagensis 
though it may approach it in size. 

Measurements.—The arithmetic means for four 
male and six female topotypes are, respectively: 
Total length, 219, 202; length of tail, 65, 62; 
length of hind foot, 28, 27; height of ear from 
notch, 6, 6; condylobasal length, 41.3, 37.9; 
length of diastema, 15.8, 14.1; length of maxillary 
tooth row, 8.0, 7.7; zygomatic breadth, 26.2, 
24.5: interorbital breadth, 6.7, 6.6; mastoid 
breadth, 20.2, 19.6; greatest crown breadth across 
upper molar rows, 7.7, 7.6. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 10, all 
from the type locality. 


Perognathus penicillatus atrodorsalis, 
n. subsp. 


Type.—Adult male, skin and skull no. 5226, 
Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology; 
obtained 7 km west of Presa de Guadalupe, San 
Luis Potosi, México, by Walter W. Dalquest on 
October 12, 1950; original number, 15109. 

Range.— Desert plains of the central part of the 
state of San Luis Potosi from the western base of 
the Sierra Madre Oriental westward at least to 
the type locality. A related subspecies, P. p. 
eremicus, is found in northern San Luis Potos‘, 
north and west of the city of Matehuala. 

Description.—A medium-sized,  slim-bodied 
pocket mouse with crested tail longer than head 
and body; lacking long, stiff spines in pelage of 
rump area; color of upperparts near Avellaneous 
mixed with black, with middorsal area, and 
sometimes the entire dorsal area, heavily washed 
with black or blackish. 

Comparison.—The only subspecies of Perogna- 
thus penicillatus whose geographic range ap- 
proaches that of atrodorsalis is P. p. eremicus 
Mearns. The heavy black wash on the back of 
atrodorsalis, present in all but a very few in- 
dividuals, is sufficient to distinguish atrodorsalis 
from eremicus. 

Measurements.—The arithmetic means for nine 
adult males and twelve adult females, all from 
the vicinity of the type locality, are, respectively: 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


Total length, 168, 163; length of tail, 92, 89; 
length of hind foot, 22, 22; height of ear from 
notch, 8, 8; greatest length of skull], 24.8, 24.6; 
condylobasal length, 21.1, 21.0; length of maxil- 
lary tooth row, 3.4, 3.4; zygomatic breadth, 
13.1, 12.8; interorbital breadth, 6.1, 6.3; mastoid 
breadth, 12.3, 12.1; greatest crown breadth across 
upper molar rows, 4.4, 4.3. 

Remarks.—Seemingly no collector of mam- 
mals has previously visited the desert plains 
of central San Luis Potosi where this race of 
Perognathus penicillatus is found and where the 
species seems to reach it southernmost limit of 
distribution. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 36, from: 
7 km west of Presa de Guadalupe, 9; Presa de 
Guadalupe, 23 (10 skulls only); 7 km southeast 
of Presa de Guadalupe, 2; 16 km northwest of 
Ciudad del Matiz, 2. 


Perognathus lineatus, n. sp. 
Linep Pocxer Mousr 


Type.—Adult male, skin and skull no. 5253, 
Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology; 
obtained 1 km south of Arriaga, San Luis Potosi, 
México, by Walter W. Dalquest on September 
21, 1950; original number, 14734. 

Range.—The desert plains of western and cen- 
tral San Luis Potosi and, doubtlessly, adjacent 
parts of Guanajuato, Zacetecas, and Jalisco. 

Description.—A medium-sized,  slim-bodied 
pocket mouse, with a crested tail longer than 
head and body, and lacking long, stiff spines in 
the pelage of the rump area; color of upperparts 
dull gray, finely but distinctly lined with buffy, 
especially on head; general appearance of upper- 
parts near Light Drab or Drab Gray; sides more 
grayish; underparts white separated from gray of 
sides by faint, indistinct line of pale buffy; tail 
dusky above and white beneath. 

Comparisons.—Perognathus lineatus differs 
from P. n. nelsont Merriam in its distinctive 
coloration and the absence of long, stiff spines 
in the pelage of the rump area, but it resembles 
nelsoni in size, proportions, and cranial charac- 
ters. Among the species of pocket mice that lack 
spines in the rump area, lineatus most closely 
resembles penicillatus but differs from at least 
the geographically adjacent races of that species 
in its distinctive coloration, larger size, and 
larger, broader skull. Perognathus lineatus has 
been taken in the same trap lines with both P. 
penicillatus and P. nelsoni. 


NOVEMBER 1951 


Measurements—The arithmetic means for 
eight males and seven females are, respectively: 
Total length, 174, 174; length of tail, 95, 98; 
length of hind foot, 23, 23; height of ear from 
notch, 8, 8; greatest length of skull, 25.4, 25.4; 
condylobasal length, 21.8, 21.5; length of mawxil- 
lary tooth row, 3.6, 3.8; zygomatic breadth, 
13.1, 13.1; interorbital breadth, 6.3, 6.3; mastoid 
breadth, 12.7, 12.5; greatest crown breadth across 
upper molar rows, 4.6, 4.6. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 29, from: 
Cerro Pefton Blanco, 6;6 km south of Matehuala, 
1; 1 km south of Arriaga, 13; Bledos, 8 (1 skull 
only); 10 km northwest of Villar, 1. 


Oryzomys alfaroi huastecae, n. subsp. 


Type—Adult male, skin and skull no. 5486, 
Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology; 
obtained 10 km east of Platanito, San Luis 
Potosi, México, by Walter W. Dalquest on No- 
vember 13, 1950; original number, 15643. 

Range—tThe tropical, eastern slopes of the 
Sierra Madre Oriental in eastern San Luis Potosi. 

Description.—A small, slim-bodied, long-tailed, 
dark-colored rice rat; total length about 200 
mm; tail slim and nearly naked; claws of hind 
feet nearly concealed by long, white bristles; 
color of upperparts Bister to Snuff Brown; sides 
slightly paler than back; ears black; underparts 
whitish or pale gray; tail dusky above and only 
slightly paler beneath. 

Comparisons.—This subspecies is similar in 
size to Oryzomys alfarot chapmant Thomas but 
is paler and browner in color. Young animals 
especially are less blackish than the young of 
other races of Oryzomys alfarot. Compared with 
its nearest geographic neighbor, O. a. dilutior 
Merriam, hwastecae is smaller and has a smaller, 
relatively narrower skull. 

Measurements—The arithmetic means for four 
adult males and two adult females are, respec- 
tively: Total length, 196, 202; length of tail, 
101, 110; length of hind foot, 26, 25; height of 
ear from notch, 17, 17; greatest length of skull, 
26.9, 27.0; condylobasal length, 23.6, 23.8; length 
of maxillary tooth row, 4.1, 3.7; length of palatal 
bridge, 4.9, 5.2; zygomatic breadth, 13.7, 13.6; 
interorbital breadth, 4.6, 4.6; mastoid breadth, 
11.1, 10.7; greatest crown breadth across upper 
molar rows, 5.0, 5.1. 

Remarks.—The discovery of this race of Oryz- 
omys alfarov extends the known range of the 
species northward from Huachinango, in central 


DALQUEST: SIX NEW MAMMALS 


363 


Puebla, to eastern San Luis Potosi. It doubtlessly 
extends northward also into Tamaulipas, for 
specimens were taken a few miles from the 
boundary of that state. 

Specimens ecamined.—Total number, 14, from: 
10 km east of Platanito, 9 (2 skulls only) ; Xilitla, 
2: Cerro Miramar (near Xilitla), 1; Cerro San 
Antonio (near Xilitla), 2. 


Neotoma ferruginea griseoventer, n. subsp. 


Type.—Adult female, skin and skull no. 3194,. 
Louisiana State University Museum of Zoology; 
obtained at Xilitla, San Luis Potosi, México, by 
Marcella Newman on June 27, 1947; original 
number, M 29. 

Range.—Known only from El Salto and Xilitla 
on the tropical, eastern slopes of the Sierra Madre 
Oriental im San Luis Potosi. 

Description.—A_ large, coarsely-furred wood 
rat; first upper molar with anterointernal re- 
entrant angle deep, reaching more than half way 
across anterior lobe; fur of underparts plumbeous 
with only faint wash of white and entirely lacking 
white at the bases of the hairs; color of upperparts 
in fresh pelage dark brown, Prout’s Brown on 
sides and near Sepia on back; underparts Drab 
Gray with nearly complete pectoral band of dull 
Pinkish Cinnamon; feet silvery white; tail sharply 
bicolored, blackish above and white beneath. 

Comparisons.—Neotoma f. griseoventer resem- 
bles NV. f. torquata Ward but is larger, with larger 
skull and darker color, especially beneath. It 
most closely resembles N. f. distincta Bangs, from 
the tropical slopes of the Sierra Madre Oriental 
in Veracruz, but has smaller molar teeth, a more 
slender rostrum, and is less reddish in color. The 
gray underparts of N. f. griseoventer seem to be 
unique in this genus. 

Measurements —External measurements of the 
type, an adult female, are: Total length, 392; 
Jength of tail, 175; length of hind foot, 42; height 
of ear from notch (dry), 26. Cranial measurements 
of a male from El Salto, a male from Nilitla, and 
the type, are, respectively: greatest length of 
skull, 48.3, 47.6, 46.6; condylobasal length, 44.9, 
45.9, 43.7; basilar length, 37.7, 40.8, 37.5; length 
of maxillary tooth row, 9.1, 9.5, 9.8; length of 
nasals, 17.4, 18.2, 17.5; length of incisive for- 
amina, 10.5, 10.5, 8.9; zygomatic breadth, 24.1, 
25.0, 22.6; interorbital breadth, 5.7, 5.5, 5.9; 
mastoid breadth, 18.6, 19.2, 17.4; rostral breadth, 
7.7, 7.6, 8.0. 

Remarks.—N eotoma ferruginea has an extensive 


364 


geographic range over the southern part of the 
Mexican Plateau, and in some areas it has ex- 
tended its range over the lip of the plateau and 
into the upper edge of the tropical zone on the 
slopes of the Sierra Madre. Populations in the 
Tropics have become isolated and have evolved 
into strongly differentiated races. Neotoma f. 
griseoventer would seem to represent another such 
race were it not for the fact that no wood rats 
of the ferruginea type have been reported from 
the Mexican Plateau of San Luis Potosi or from 
the lowlands to the east. Presumably ferruginea 
once occurred in the desert ranges of western 
San Luis Potosi. The known distribution of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


griseoventer suggests that it was derived from a 
population of those wood rats that extended 
their range over the Sierra Madre and into the 
tropics. It is highly unlikely that the tropical 
rats of San Luis Potosi are directly connected 
with the tropical rats of Veracruz (N. f. distincta) 
along the entire length of the Sierra Madre Ori- 
ental. The wood rats of the Sierra Madre of San 
Luis Potosi seem to be a relic population isolated 
far to the north of the remainder of the range of 
the species. 

Specimens examined.—Total number, 3, from: 
El Salto, 1; Xilitla, 2. 


ORNITHOLOGY .—The systematic relationships of the fox sparrows (Passerella 
ihhaca) of the Wasatch Mountains, Utah, and the Great Basin. Wiuttam H. 
Bex Le and Ropert K. Sseuanppr, Museum of Zoology, University of Utah. 
(Communicated by Herbert Friedmann.) 


While discussing the subspecies Passerella 
tliaca schistacea in his revision of the genus, 
Swarth (Univ. California Publ. Zool. 21: 
155.1920) commented that the race, even as 
he restricted it, probably covered a com- 
posite of two or more recognizable sub- 
species. This remark was probably prompted 
by differences that he detected between ex- 
amples from Canada and northern Nevada. 
He did not have representatives from Utah. 
In 1941, the late Max M. Peet acquired a 
single specimen of fox sparrow taken 2 miles 
north of Mount Pleasant, Sanpete County, 
Utah, on March 17, which, upon comparison 
with the material in the Dickey Collection, 
caused the late A. J. van Rossem to express 
the opinion that it probably represented an 
undescribed race. Dr. Peet thereupon at- 
tempted to assemble specimens from the 
Utah area so as to work out the problem in 
collaboration with George M. Sutton, but 
material in museums was still too scarce to 
allow them to do so. During the last two 
years we have succeeded in obtaining con- 
siderable material from northern Utah. Fol- 
lowing Dr. Peet’s death, inquiry was made 
as to the status of the research. The orni- 
thologists at the University of Michigan 
Museum graciously told us to go ahead with 
the problem and sent their comparative ma- 
terial for our use. We are indebted to Drs. J. 
Van Tyne, Robert W. Storer, and George M. 
Sutton for this courtesy, and to a number of 


others as follows for the loan of comparative 
material: Alden H. Miller, Museum of Verte- 
brate Zoology; Herbert Friedmann, U.S. Na- 
tional Museum; Robert T. Orr, California 
Academy of Sciences; Thomas R. Howell, 
Dickey Collections, University of California 
at Los Angeles; Kenneth C. Parkes, Cornell 
University Laboratory of Ornithology; C. 
Lynn Hayward, Brigham Young University; 
and Howard Knight, Weber College. 

Swarth (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 13: 
163.1918), in describing P. 7. canescens, 
stressed the gray dorsal color of the birds 
from the White Mountain region of eastern 
California in contrast to the brown color of 
schistacea. Now it is disclosed that the birds 
from Utah are still grayer, so much so that 
canescens looks brown in comparison. Since 
this is the situation with birds from several 
locations in the northern part of the state, we 
feel this extreme gray population is of racial 
stature and so propose the name 


Passerella iliaca swarthi, n. subsp. 


Type.—Adult @, no. 11451, University of 
Utah Museum of Zoology, North Fork Ogden 
River, 5,200 feet, 2 miles west of Eden, Weber 
County, Utah; April 20, 1951; collected by Robert 
K. Selander and William H. Behle, original num- 
ber 1018 (R.K.S8.); testes 10 mm. 

Subspecific characters.—Distinguished from P. 
1. schistacea by having a decided gray color to the 
head and back instead of brown; streaking on 


NovEMBER 1951 


breast heavier and less rufescent. Closer to P. 7. 
canescens but grayer. 

Measurements.—Adult male (82 breeding speci- 
mens): Wing, 87.0-76.0 (81.7); tail, 88.2-76.0 
(82.4); exposed culmen, 13.3-10.4 (11.8); bill 
from nostril, 9.6—-7.9 (8.6); depth of bill, 10.8—9.0 
(9.5); width of bill, 9.2-7.4 (8.2); tarsus, 25.4— 
21.5 (23.6); middle toe with claw, 23.4-19.4 
(20.9); hind toe with claw, 20.0-16.0 (18.6) mm. 
Adult females (9 breeding specimens): wing, 
80.0-74.0 (76.8); tail, 79.3-74.4 (76.8); exposed 
culmen, 12.4-10.7 (11.6); bill from nostril, 9.2—7.7 
(8.4); depth of bill, 10.0-9.0 (9.5); width of bill, 
9.0-7.8 (8.2); tarsus, 23.8-22.5 (23.4); middle toe 
with claw, 24.0-18.6 (20.6); hind toe with claw, 
20.8-16.3 (18.7) mm. Measurements were taken 
according to the methods described by Swarth 
(Univ. California Publ. Zool. 21: 83-84. 1920). 

Geographic range——Breeds in northern Utah 
and southern Idaho. Winter range unknown. 

Specimens examined.—Idaho: Owyhee County: 
Indian Creek, 2 miles southwest of Riddle, 5,500 
feet, 1 (June). Bannock County: Pocatello Creek, 
3 miles east of Pocatello, 1 (April, toward 
schistacea). Bear Lake County: Paris, 2 (April). 
Utah: Rich County: 12 miles southwest of Wood- 
ruff, 1 imm. (July). Cache County: 12 miles west 
of Garden City, 1 imm. (July). Box Elder County: 
George Creek near Yost, 6,200 feet, Raft River 
Mountains, 4 (May); Clear Creek, 3 miles south- 
west of Nafton, 5 (June). Weber County: North 
fork of Ogden River, 2 miles west of Eden, 5,200 
feet, 12 (April-May). Summit County: Chalk 
Creek, 5,600 feet, 5 miles east of Coalville, 1 
(June); Oakley, 6,500 feet, 2 (May); Kimballs 
Junction, 6,900 feet, 1 (April). Wasatch County: 
3 miles west of Wallsburg, 5,000 feet, 1 (April). 
Salt Lake County: Salt Lake City, 1 (May); 2- 
miles east of mouth of Emigration Canyon, 
(April-May); Silver Lake Post Office (Brighton), 
8,750 feet, 1 (June). Utah County: Provo, 2 
(March—June). Sanpete County: 2 miles north of 
Mount Pleasant, 1 (March). Tooele County: 
Lookout Mountain, 1 imm. (July). Juab County: 
10 miles northeast of Nephi, 2 (April); head of 
Basin Creek, 9,500 feet, east slope of Deep Creek 
Mountains, 6 miles east of Indian Village, 1 
(June). 

Remarks.—Until the time of Swarth’s revision 
there was confusion concerning the type locality 
of the race P. 7. schistacea and some doubt as to 
which population the name applied. Swarth ex- 
amined the type specimen and stated (op. cit. 154) 
that it is an adult female in badly molting 


5 
2 


BEHLE AND SELANDER: FOX SPARROWS 


365 


plumage, of little value for color comparisons, 
and probably was not breeding at the place 
where it was collected. This was along the 
South Platte River in Nebraska, probably be- 
tween Laramie Crossing and Goodales Crossing 
approximately 200 miles west of Fort Kearny. 
There seems little doubt from Swarth’s remarks 
that this represents a distinctly brown bird. He 
noted a similarity between this type specimen, 
birds from the Pine Forest Mountains, Nev., 
and summer birds from the vicinity of Fort 
Bridger, Wyo. Thus, he conceived of schistacea 
occurring throughout the Great Basin as well as 
in the interior region to the north. 

As new material accumulated it was found that 
this conclusion was incorrect. Linsdale (Pacific 
Coast Avif. 23: 131, 1936) disclosed that the 
race canescens 1s not confined to the White Moun- 
tain region, but extends eastward through 
Esmeralda County to White Pine County, Nev. 
Aldrich (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 56: 163- 
166. 1943) describes the race olivacea from Wash- 
ington. Now it develops that this new race, 
swarthi, occupies the eastern portion of the Great 
Basin. The range of swarthi is not extensive, how- 
ever, and evidence exists of clines connecting it 
with schistacea to the east, north, and northwest, 
and probably with canescens to the southwest. 
The southern limits of the range of the species 
are reached in central Utah so there is no problem 
of intergradation to the south. 

The center of differentiation of this gray popu- 
lation, swarthi, appears to be in the Wasatch 
Mountains of northern Utah. Progressing east- 
ward and northeastward there is evidence of a 
gradient toward a population with a brown 
dorsum. A breeding specimen from Chalk Creek, 
5,600 feet, 5 miles east of Coalville, Summit 
County, Utah, is fairly gray, but one from a few 
miles farther northeast at 3 miles north of the 
Utah State line on Bear River, 7,450 feet, Uintah 
County, Wyo., is brown and seemingly transi- 
tional toward schistacea. A single specimen from 
Long Lake, head of Ashley Creek, Uintah 
County, Utah, taken in July, is an immature ex- 
ample, but is in nearly complete first fall plumage. 
It is too brown for typical swarthi, suggesting 
that the transition to schistacea occurs immedi- 
ately east of the Wasatch Mountains in the 
Uintah Mountain region of eastern Utah. We 
have had no material from Colorado available 
so as to trace this cline farther east. 

The birds from Fort Bridger that Swarth had 
and that we have examined are a puzzling lot. 


366 


They are brown and thus similar to schistacea, as 
Swarth noted. This may, however, be attributed 
to foxing, for the specimens were taken in 1858, 
and two were evidently once mounted specimens. 
It may be that fresh material would reveal that 
the fox sparrows from here are swarthi, but 1t now 
appears that a rather abrupt transition from 
swarthi to schistacea occurs between the head- 
waters of the Weber and Bear River drainages. 

Further evidence of the transition to schistacea 
is seen in the two August specimens from Bear 
Lake County in southeastern Idaho which are 
slightly browner than topotypical examples of 
swarthi and so intergradational. A mid-August 
example from Afton, Wyoming, a specimen from 
Teton Mountain taken on August 28, and one 
from Teton Pass, September 11, are all referable 
to schistacea. 

To the northwest, a series of breeding ex- 
amples from the Raft River Mountains are closer 
to swartht but are slightly browner than topo- 
typical specimens. This again indicates the be- 
ginnings of a character gradient toward schistacea. 
A specimen from Pocatello Creek, Bannock 
County, Idaho, is almost exactly intermediate 
between the two races. Although taken April 2, 
it had testes 8 mm long and was probably on its 
breeding ground. It is arbitrarily placed with 
swarthi. North of this location, the fox sparrows 
are closer to schistacea which probably exists in 
typical form in northern Idaho. Examples from 
Idaho that we have examined which are ref- 
erable to schistacea are as follows: Cottonwood 
Creek, 2 miles west of Craters of the Moon, 
Blaine County (July); Glidden Lakes, 5,700 feet, 
Shoshone County (July); Beaver Ridge, 6 miles 
south southwest Lolo Pass, 6,000 feet, Idaho 
County (July); Coeur d’Alene, Kootenai County 
(April-May); Hunt Peak, Selkirk Mountain, 
Boundary County (August). Also referable to 
schistacea are specimens from the Wallowa Moun- 
tain area in southeastern Oregon, the specific 
localities beg 16 miles south and 3 miles east of 
Lostine, 5,500 feet, Wallowa County (July) and 
North Fork of the Malheur River, 15 miles east 
and 12 miles south of Prairie City, 5,100 feet, 
Baker County, Oregon (July). 

Apparently swarthi gives way to schistacea as 
one proceeds westward across northern Nevada. 
A single worn specimen taken July 15 at Cedar 
Creek, 6,000 feet, 10 miles northeast of San 
Jacinto, Elko County, is like specimens of the 
series from the Raft River Mountains and is 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 11 


probably closer to swarthi. Three breeding birds 
and several taken in September from the Santa 
Rosa Mountains, Humboldt County, farther to 
the west, are brown and thus referable to 
schistacea. They are very similar to those from 
the Pine Forest Mountains still farther west. 

While our principal concern has been to show 
that these specimens from central northern and 
northwestern Nevada are not swarthi, it may not 
be amiss to call attention to the problem in con- 
nection with the birds of northern Nevada. Al- 
though Swarth referred the Pine Forest Mountain 
series to schistacea, he noted differences between 
them and examples from the Banff (Canada) 
region. The chief difference is that birds from the 
latter locality have shorter tails (see Swarth, 
Univ. California Publ. Zool. 21: 155, 182. 1920). 
He suggested that either the Banff birds are from 
an area of intergradation between schistacea and 
altivagans, with the birds from northern Nevada 
being truly representative of schistacea, or the 
short tailed, small billed, rufescent northern birds 
represent true schistacea, and the birds from 
northern Nevada belong to another race. This 
problem still remains undecided, and until much 
more material is available to bridge the inter- 
vening areas, the Pine Forest series is best re- 
ferred to schistacea, as both Swarth and Linsdale 
have done. 

In Swarth’s table of measurements (op. cit. 
182-183), a series of six male specimens, pre- 
sumably adults, of the race canescens has a 
shorter length of bill than do series of schistacea. 
Thirty breeding male specimens of canescens from 
Esmeralda, Nye, and Lander Counties, Nev., 
were measured by us with results as follows: 
Wing, 83.3-77.1 (81.4); tail, 86.2-75.6 (80.9); 
exposed culmen, 12.3-10.0 (11.2); bill from nos- 
tril, 9.4-7.6 (8.5); depth of bill, 10.0-8.4 (9.3); 
width of bill, 8.8-7.6 (8.2); tarsus, 25.8-20.2 
(23.3); middle toe with claw, 23.0-17.5 (20.4); 
hind toe with claw, 19.8-16.0 (18.0) mm. 

This lot of canescens and our series of swarthi 
are therefore comparable in size, and furthermore, 
they are essentially the same size as the Pine 
Forest Mountain series representing schistacea. 
It was noted that the immature specimens in the 
topotypical series of canescens have smaller bills 
than do the adults. Nine adult male topotypes or 
near topotypes of canescens have the following 
measurements: exposed culmen, 11.7—10.3 (11.3); 
bill from nostril, 9.0-7.8 (8.3); depth of bill, 
10.6-9.0 (9.6); width of bill, 8.8-8.3 (8.5) mm. 


NovEMBER 1951 


This further corroborates the lack of significant 
differences in size of bill between the three races, 
canescens, swartht and schistacea. 

The material available is inadequate for work- 
ing out the details of the transition between 
swarthi and canescens, which probably takes place 
in the mountains of central eastern Nevada be- 
tween the Snake and Toyabe Mountains. A single 
breeding specimen from the Deep Creek Moun- 
tains in extreme western Utah is referable to 
swarthi. In addition to a gray dorsum it has an 
unusually heavily marked breast with dark, slate 
colored blotches. A single specimen from the 
Snake Range in Nevada, a short distance to the 
south of the Deep Creek Mountains, taken Sep- 
tember 22, is brown and referable to schistacea. 
It was, however, probably a transient. Breeding 
birds from Kingston Creek in the Toyabe Moun- 
tains are brown and thus represent canescens. 


SOULE: CTENOSTOMATOUS BRYOZOA 


367 


The distribution of the races of fox sparrows in 
Nevada remains, then, as Linsdale (op. cit.) has 
indicated, except that the breeding birds of the 
Snake Range probably represent swarthv. 

Some other examples of fall transients of 
schistacea from the breeding range of swarthi 
are two from 4 miles northeast of Ogden, 8,000 
feet, taken September 22 and 29. Several early 
April atypical examples of swartht are probably 
transients from areas of intergradation between 
that race and schistacea. 

The places of occurrence and ecological rela- 
tionships of fox sparrows of the race swarthi are 
essentially as Linsdale (Amer. Mid]. Nat. 19: 167— 
170. 1938) deseribed for the race canescens in the 
Toyabe Mountains of Nevada, thus being further 
indicative of the close relationship between 
canescens and swartht. 


ZOOLOGY .—Two new species of incrusting ctenostomatous Bryozoa from the Pacific. 
Joun D. Souxe, Allan Haneock Foundation, Los Angeles, Calif. (Communi- 


cated by Waldo L. Schmitt.) 


Examination of specimens dredged re- 
cently from the Arctic Ocean off Pomt Bar- 
row, Alaska, by the Arctic Research Lab- 
oratory and off the coast of southern 
California by the Allan Hancock Founda- 
tion has revealed two species of ctenostoma- 
tous bryozoans of the group Carnosa which 
are believed to be new. 


Family Atcyonrp11pAE Hincks, 1880 


Alcyonidium enteromorpha, n. sp. 


Diagnosis.—Zoarium robust, coriaceous, linear, 
flexuous, measuring 61 cm in length and 4 to 6 
mm in width, anchored directly to the substratum 
without evidence of a peduncle. Cuticle moder- 
ately thick. Zooecia irregular, ranging in shape 
from rectangular to hexagonal. No raised oral 
papillae. Polypide with 17 tentacles. 

Description —Maceroscopically the chitinous, 
leathery zoaria superficially resemble the in- 
testinal tract of a small mammal, being unusually 
elongate, without lateral branching. Coiled in 
several loose folds, gutlike, and attached to the 
substratum without the benefit of a peduncle. 
The cuticle is firm, mottled light brown to tan, 
and only moderately thick. The zoaria have a 
central cavity filled with a loose reticular packing 


Contribution no. 63 from the Allan Hancock 
Foundation, University of Southern California. 


tissue in which may be found numerous brown- 
bodies. The zooecia are well defined, easily found 
in the portions of a zoarium where the cuticle is 
thin. However, on the greater part of a zoarium 
the lateral zooecial walls can be only faintly dis- 
cerned, and while not totally obscured they are 
somewhat difficult to trace. The ventral zooecial 
wall is smooth with no oral papillae present. The’ 
dorsal wall is thm to the point of transparency. 
In shape the zooecia are quite variable, ranging, 
from rectangular to irregularly hexagonal, those, 
containing mature polypides measuring between , 
230u to 4034 in length, and 11l5u to 253u in 
width. The polypide itself in no way deviates 
morphologically from the normal anatomical pat- 
tern typical of the genus Alcyondium s.s. The 
tentacle number determined by serial sections is 
17. Whole mounts of several individual polypides, 
as well as sections, were prepared, stained and 
examined for evidence of a gizzard. Polypides of 
A. polyoum (Hassall) and A. pedunculatum Rob- 
ertson were mounted for purposes of comparison. 

The species described above differs from Al- 
cyonidium (Paralcyonidium) vermiculare Okada, 
1925, in the following ways: (1) The zoarium is 
larger, with a uniform width of 4 to 6 mm as 
against 2 to 38 mm for A. vermiculare; (2) the 
polypide does not have a gizzard, as is described 
for A. vermiculare; (3) the tentacle number is 


368 


17 as against 20 found in A. vermiculare. It 
differs from Alcyonidium pedunculatum Robert- 
son, 1902, by virtue of its extreme zoarial length 
and its lack of a peduncle. 

Types.—Holotype: U. 8S. N. M. no. 10981. 
Paratypes in the Allan Hancock Foundation, 
University of Southern California, Los Angeles, 
Calif. 

Type locality —Off Pomt Barrow, Alaska; Au- 
gust 17, 1949, 12.1 miles out, depth 741 feet. 
Collector, G. E. MacGinitie, Arctic Research 
Laboratory. 

Additional distribution —Off Point Barrow, 
Alaska, September 6, 1949, depth 477 feet. Same 
collector. 


Family FLusTRELLIDAE Hincks, 1880 


Genus Pherusella, n. name 


In 1816 Lamouroux erected the genus Pherusa 
into which he placed the Flustra tubulosa of 
Solander, 1786. However, it has since been found 
that Pherusa Lamouroux, 1816, is a homonym 
of Pherusa Oken, 1807. The name Pherusa has 
also been used by Leach, 1814, Crustacea, and 
by Rafinesque, 1815, Mollusca. In 1887, Pergens 
also used the name Pherusa for Bryozoa but 
without descriptions or figures. 

Since the Pherusa of Lamouroux is unquestion- 
ably preoccupied, it is therefore necessary to 
introduce a new name, and also to redefine and 
amend the description published by Lamouroux. 
The original description by Lamouroux, 1816, is 
as follows: “Pheruse. Pherusa. Polypier frondes- 
cent, multifide; cellules oblongues et saillantes 
sur une seule face; ouverture irreguliére; bord 
contourné.” 

Zoaria coriaceous, incrusting, or from incrusta- 
tions arising in branching flabellate projections. 

Zooecia elongate, rectangular to hexagonal 
with zooecial walls well defined. The distal ends 
of the zooecia rise into prominent tubular pro- 
jections, bearing upon the upper ends the aper- 
tures which, when the polypide is retracted, 
appear square to transversely quadrangular in 
shape. The length of this tubular projection is 
relatively constant within a species. 

The ventral wall is generally smooth. The 
lateral walls of the zooecia are characterized by 
interzooecial communication pores. These pores 
are very distinct, owing to the presence of heavy 
chitinous rims, which are a dark brown in con- 
trast with the tan color of the walls. When 
examined from the dorsal aspect, these pores 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. I1 


form a regular pattern following the zooecial 
borders. 

In the generic description by Lamouroux it is 
stated that the apertures were found on one 
surface only. Bilaminar, back to back, specimens, 
as well as unilaminar specimens, have been found 
in erect zoaria when the growth of the zoaria 
exceeds the limits of the algae upon which they 
are incrusted. Thornely (1905, p. 127) observed 
this type of growth on P. tubulosa collected in 
Asiatic waters. 

Pherusella tubulosa (Solander), 1786, not repre- 
sented at this time in the eastern Pacific collec- 
tions, the sole species for over a hundred years, 
is the genotype. The genus now includes Pheru- 
sella tubulosa (Solander), 1786, Pherusella flabel- 
laris (Kirkpatrick), 1890, and the new species 
described below. Alcyonidiwm flustrelloides Bar- 
roso, 1920, is a junior synonym of P. tubulosa. 


Pherusella brevituba, n. sp. 


Diagnosis.—Zoaria chitinous, incrusting or 
arising from an incrustation in wide, flat, flabel- 
late expansions, which measure up to 6.0 cm in 
height and from 1.5 to 2.5 em in width. Zooecia 
are distinct, elongate, variable in shape from an 
irregular rectangle to a hexagon. The lateral 
zooecial walls are perforated by interzooecial 
communication pores which have a distinct chi- 
tinous ring. The aperture is borne on a distally 
located, raised tubular prominence whose upper 
extremity is square or transversely quadrangular 
when the polypide is retracted. This tubular 
projection is short, rismg only 2504 to 300, in 
height. Tentacles number 23. 

Description.—The zoaria are a light brown in 
color, chitinous, leathery in appearance, and 
form heavy incrustations upon the holdfasts 
and blades of algae. When the zoaria are strictly 
incrusting they are unilaminar, or they may form 
erect fanlike fronds that are bilaminar, back to 
back, where the zoarial growth exceeds the limits 
of the algal thall. 

The zooecia are elongate with considerable 
variation in shape from imperfectly rectangular 
to hexagonal, averaging about 800u in length 
and 400u in width. Normally the individual 
zooecia are distinct, clearly defined by the lateral 
walls. The lateral walls are perforated by well- 
marked interzooecial communication pores whose 
diameter averages 274. By examining the zooecia 
from the dorsal side in a unilaminar zoarium, or 
by careful focusing on a bilamimar zoarium, these 


NOVEMBER 1951 SOULE: CTENOSTOMATOUS BRYOZOA 369 


communication pores will be seen to form a_ this ring are four minute perforations piercing a 
regular pattern on the lateral walls of the zooe- thin chitinous diaphragm. 

cia. The rims of the communication pores are The distal portion of each zooecium is raised 
strengthened by heavy chitinous rings. Within to form a short but prominent tubular process 


100M 


Fics. 1-4.—1, Pherusella brevituba, n. sp., ventral aspect of a zooecium, showing the raised tubular 
projection bearing the aperture; 2, same, dorsal view, drawn from an unilaminar zoarium, showing the 
anatomy of the polypide within a zooecium; 3, Alcyonidium enteromorpha, n. sp., ventral aspect of a 
portion of a zoarium; 4, same, dorsal view, showing the anatomy of a polypide within a zooecium. (A, 
aperture; BB, brown-body; CP, communication pore; M, mouth; PM, parietal muscle; PVM, parieto- 
vaginalis muscle; R, rectum; RM, retractor muscle; 8, stomach; T, tentacle; TS, tentacle sheath; V, 
vestibule; VW, ventral wall.) Drawings by Dorothy F. Soule. 


ee 


370 


which bears the aperture. When the polypide is 
withdrawn into the zooecium this tubular pro- 
jection appears square to transversely quadrangu- 
lar. When the polypide is extruded the tentacle 
sheath further extends the reach of the tentacles. 
The tentacles were found to consistently number 
23 in sectioned material. 

The new species is distinguished from P. tubu- 
losa (Solander), 1786, by its short tubular proe- 
esses and its tentacle number. In P. tubulosa 
the tentacle number is 28 (Prouho, 1892). It is 
distinguished from P. flabellaris (Kirkpatrick), 
1890, which like Solander’s species has lengthy 
tubular processes 0.6 mm in height, but has only 
20 tentacles. 

Holotype.—AHF no. 55. Colony mcrusted upon 
the holdfast and blades of Halidrys sp.? (marine 
alga). 

Type locality—Hancock Foundation station 
1909-49, east of Portuguese Bend, Calif., lat. 
de 43) 007 Ne, long. 1182 197 57” W.- 8)ito 7.5 
fathoms; bottom rocky, November 6, 1949; col- 
lector, J. D. Soule. 

Additional distribution.—(1) Santa Barbara— 
San Luis Obispo County line; washed ashore on 
holdfast of Halidrys; August 2, 1939; collector, 
A. Sorensen. (2) Punta Baja, near Rosario, Baja 
California, tide pool; substratum unknown; April 
9, 1946; collector, E. Y. Dawson. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES Vou. 41, No. 11 


LITERATURE CITED 


Barroso, M. G. Notas sobre briozoos espanoles. 
Bol. Real Soe. Esp. Hist. Nat. 20: 353-362, 
4 figs. 1920. 

KorKparrick, R. Report upon the Hydrozoa and 
Polyzoa collected by P. W. Bassett-Smith, Esq., 
Surgeon R. N., during the survey of the Tizard 
and Macclesfield Banks in the China Sea, by 
H.M.S. Rambler, Commander W. U. Moore. 
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (6) 5: 11-24, 3 pls. 1896. 

Lamouroux, J. V. F. Histoire des polypiers 
coralligenes flexibles, vulgairement nommés 
zoophytes: |xxxiv + 559 pp., 19 pls. Caen, 1816. 

Oxapa, Y. Aleyonidium (Paraleyonidium) ver- 
miculare, a new sub-genus and species of cteno- 
stomatous Bryozoa. Ann. Zool. Japon. 10 (pt. 7, 
art. 28) : 281-284, fig. 5, abc. 1925. 

PERVENS, E. Contributions @ Vhistotre des bryo- 
zoaires et des hydrozaires récents. Ann. Soc. 
Roy. Malacol. Belgique (Bull. Seances 1887) 
22: Ixxxvil. 1887. 

Provuno, H. Contribution a Vhistotre bryozoatres. 
Arch. Zool. Exp. (2) 10: 557-656, 8 pls. 1892. 

Some observations on Ascorhiza occi- 
dentalis Fewkes and related Alcyonidia. Proc. 
California Acad. Sci. (zool. ser. 3) 3 (8): 99- 
108, pl. 14, figs. 1-9. 1902. 

SouanpveR, D. Natural history of many curious 
and uncommon zoophytes, collected from various 
parts of the globe by the late John Ellis, sys- 
tematically arranged and described by the late 
D. Solander. London, 1785. 

TuHorNeELy, L. R. Report on the Polyzoa collected 
by Prof. Herdman at Ceylon in 1902. Rep. Pearl 
Oyster Fisheries Gulf of Manaar, suppl. rep, 
26, Polyzoa, pt. 4. Royal Society, London, 
1905. 


ZOOLOGY —The number of species of decapod and stomatopod Crustacea! FENNER 
A. Cuace, JR., U.S. National Museum. 


As part of a collaborative effort to list the 
number of species belonging to each of the 
major groups of the Animal Kingdom for a 
proposed biological handbook, a fairly in- 
tensive survey was made of the Recent species 
of shrimps, lobsters, anomurans, crabs, and 
mantis shrimps. No such count of the 
decapod crustaceans seems to have been at- 
tempted in the past. It may be useful, there- 
fore, to present the results of this survey in 
more complete form than they will appear in 
the handbook and to indieate the measures 
taken to insure a reasonably accurate cover- 
age of the higher crustaceans. 

The files on decapod and stomatopod 
crustaceans in the U. 8. National Museum 
are unusually valuable for a survey of this 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary 
of the Smithsonian Institution. 


kind because of continued interest in the 
groups by one or more members of the staffs 
of the division of marine invertebrates for 
well over half a century. A systematic card 
catalogue expanded and amended from 
entries in the Zoological Record was used as 
the basis for the compilation. This was sup- 
plemented by reference to published generic 
revisions; to extensive unpublished notes and 
species lists which were initially accumu- 
lated by Dr. Mary J. Rathbun during her 
many years of active carcinological work 
and which have been continued and ex- 
panded by Dr. Waldo L. Schmitt; to an 
invaluable manuscript synonymy of the 
caridean shrimps compiled by Dr. L. 
B. Holthuis, of the Rijksmuseum van. 
Natuurlijke Historie, Leiden, Holland; and 
to a manuscript summary of the crayfishes 


NOVEMBER 1951 CHACE: DECAPOD AND 
of the world prepared by Dr. Horton H. 
Hobbs, Jr., of the Miller School of Biology, 
University of Virginia. Because of the lack 
of published revisions of a large proportion 
of the decapod genera, the results of this 
review would be very much less significant 
without the contributions of these four 
earcinologists. 

As there is still a lag of several years be- 
tween the appearance of scientific papers and 
their abstraction by the Zoological Record 
and as the disruption in the exchange of pub- 
lications caused by the last world war has 
not yet been completely remedied, only those 
species described through the year 1945 have 
been counted. In general, only full species 
are included, although it must be admitted 
that a large number of crustacean subspecies 
and varieties will be elevated to specific rank 
when relationships become better known. It 
is of course impossible to arrive at definitive 
counts for most invertebrate groups. Differ- 
ences of opinion as to the validity of many 
genera and species will persist until more 
complete collections are available for study 
and more workers have had an opportunity 
to review the evidence. 

The classification in the following table 
follows the system accepted by most car- 
cinologists today. There has been some 
criticism from workers in other groups of 
the use of the ‘tribe’ as a superfamilial 
category. Justifiable though this criticism 
may be, it is felt that any change in the 
generally accepted classification of the 
Crustacea should await an over-all revision 
of that entire complex class. The subtribes 
and superfamilies have been intentionally 
omitted because of the lack of agreement 
about the limits of several of them and not 
because of any belief that they are not de- 
sirable for an understanding of decapod 
relationships. 


NUMERICAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE RECENT 
GENERA AND SPECIES OF DECAPOD 
AND STOMATOPOD CRUSTACEA 


Genera Species 

OrpER DECAPODA 1,001 8,321 
Suborder Natantia (shrimps) 211 1,980 
Tride Penaeidea 33 318 
Family Penaeidae 27 231 
Family Sergestidae 


STOMATOPOD CRUSTACEA 


BYal 


Genera Species 


OrpER DECAPODA—Continued. 
Suborder Natantia (shrimps)—Continued. 
Tribe Caridea 171 1,590 


Family Pasiphaeidae 7 60 
Family Stylodactylidae 1 7 
Family Atyidea 21 137 
Family Oplophoridae 6 54 
Family Nematocarcinidae 1 17 
Family Bresilidae y) 2 
Family Disciadidae 1 3 
Family Processidae 2 15 
Family Pandalidae 14 112 
Family Thalassocaridae 1 2 
Family Psalidopodidae 1 3 
Family Crangonidae 20 399 
Family Hippolytidae 28 200 
Family Rhynchocinetidae 1 a 
Family Campylonotidae 2 6 
Family Palaemonidae 46 380 
Family Gnathophyllidae 4 13 
Family Glyphocrangonidae 1 35 
Family Cragonidae 10 136 
Family Eugonatonotidae 1 1 
Family Physetocaridae 1 1 

Tribe Stenopodidea a 22 

Family Stenopodidae 7 22 
Suborder Reptantia 790 6,391 

Tribe Palinura 16 123 
Family Eryonidae 2 39 
Family Palinuridae (spiny 8 35 

lobsters) 
Family Seyllaridae (Spanish 6 49 
lobsters) 

Tribe Astacura 25 313 
Family Homaridae (lobsters) 7 32 
Family Austroastacidae 1 2 

(crayfishes) 
Family Parastacidae (cray- 10 76 


fishes) 

Family Astacidae (crayfishes) 

Tribe Anomura 

Family Aeglidae 

Family Chirostylidae 

Family Galatheidae 

Family Porcellanidae 

Family Axiidae 

Family Axianassidae 

Family Laomediidae 

Family Callianassidae (mud 
shrimps) 

Family Thalassinidae 

Family Pylochelidae 

Family Paguridae 
crabs) 

Family Coenobitidae (hermit 
crabs) 

Family 
crabs) 

Family Albuneidae 4 

3 
5 


i 
i 

i) 

(=) 


bo bo 
Mb or 


SCOnroms 


ps 
ONOWre RAT 
> 
To) 


OoOr 
a 
or) 


ow 
Dore 


(hermit 


bo 
— 
~I 


Lithodidae (king 15 53 


Family Hippidae 
Tribe Brachyura (true crabs) 638 
Family Raninidae 10 30 


Genera Species 


OrpER DECAPODA—Continued. 
Suborder Reptantia—Continued. 
Family Homolodromiidae 
Family Dromiidae 
Family Dynomenidae 
Family Thelxiopeidae 
Family Latreillidae 


po 


WWOW Oe 
— 
[or 


Family Hapalocarcinidae 12 
(coral gall crabs) 

Family Dorippidae 10 77 

Family Calappidae (box 10 65 
crabs) 

Family Leucosiidae (purse 40 338 
crabs) 

Family Euryalidae 6 

Family Portunidae (swim- 38 297 
ming crabs) 

Family Potamonidae (fresh- 13 520 
water crabs) 

Family Atelecyclidae 13 30 

Family Caneridae (rock 2 22 
crabs) 

Family XNanthidae 133 928 

Family Goneplacidae 54 170 

Family Pinnotheridae (pea 26 222 
crabs) 

Family Retroplumidae I 4 

Family Cymopolidae 3 39 

Family Grapsidae 40 333 

Family Gecarcinidae (land 6 20 
crabs) 

Family Ocypodidae (ghost 19 231 


crabs, fiddler crabs) 
Family Hymenosomidae 9 53 


Family Majidae (spider 145 673 
crabs) 

Family Parthenopidae 21 150 

Order Stomatopoda 8 178 

Family Squillidae (mantis 8 178 


shrimps) 


The total of approximately 8,321 recog- 
nized species of decapods agrees almost ex- 
actly with the estimate of ‘‘over 8,000 living 
species” cited by Pratt in 1935.2 However, 

2 Pratr, H.8., A manual of the common inver- 


ate atebrnimals exclusive of insects, rev. ed.: 447— 
467. 1935. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. I] 


the numbers of genera and species assigned 
by Pratt to several of the subordinal groups 
do not correspond as closely with the figures 
in the preceding table. 

The Decapoda make up by far the largest 
order of the Crustacea; very nearly one-third 
of the accepted recent crustaceans belong 
to this group. It is likely that the number of 
species of decapods will increase by 30 or 40 
percent when all living forms are recognized. 
Some of the other crustacean groups which 
have received attention for shorter periods 
of time possibly contain more undescribed 
species, but the position of the decapods as 
the largest and most diversified order of the 
class will probably never be seriously 
challenged. 

It may be of interest that the number of 
decapods now known approximates Mayr’s 
eount of the number of full species of birds 
(8,616). The numbers of bird families (160) 
and genera (1,800—2,600), however, are fully 
twice as large as those of the decapods. The 
average genus of birds therefore contains 
only 3.3 to 4.75 species, whereas the average 
decapod genus is made up of 8.3 species 
This discrepancy probably does not reflect 
any great dissimilarity between the specific 
relationships of birds and decapods. Because 
of the extreme diversification of the decapods, 
it would seem safe to assume that intense 
systematic attention to that group, similar 
to that which has been focused on birds for 
so long, would result in an even larger 
proportionate number of families and 
genera among the decapods than among 
the birds. 


3 Mayr, Ernst, The number o° species of birds. 
Auk 63: 64-59. 1946. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


IPROSICI dsc Se SOAR ROO ne eee NatrHan R. SmirH, Plant Industry Station 
HAPESUCLETUL=CLECL Staak cast Saniora Water RamsBeErG, National Bureau of Standards 
SGRIGTU oe oe oe en ee F. M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
TOTS URAR eakaine Cae ae aro Howarp 8. Rappieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
PAR CI UUS LP eee aye cya aia latte ea scars suet cose Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Harrap A. Renper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington.......................-. Epwarp U. Connon 
Anthropological Society of Washington....................-.... Watpo R. WEDEL 
Brolopicalgoocietyzormwashingtoneeneeacacaneeeooeeccem cece ne 

ChemicallSociety, of Washington. )y-506 00.02 s- cose eee eee ee ee JosrErH J. FAHEY 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ FREDERICK W. Poos 
National’ Geographic Society... ...045-eesees+ eset saci sence ALEXANDER WETMORE 
CeolocicaliSocietysot Washingtone esse aasessosssssee eee ose Lreason H. Apams 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.......................... 

CoalumibiayEistoricaliSociety: -.5-0 09506 os sae6 oe eee GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Bovanicalesocietyz ob Washing tonencss. saeco ade aoe ee eee nae E. H. WALKER 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... WiuuraM A. Dayton 
Washington Society) of Mngineers)2-54.55.-...-422-5-05-00e=- CurrrorD A. BETTS 


Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
Francis M. DEFANDORF 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp S. D1Lu 


Helminthological Society. of Washington.......................... L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Aneus M. GriFrrin 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers....H=Nry W. HemPieE 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.......... Hersert G. Dorsey 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 


Iho Unione? OS PA SS ae eigen aia ot ier ure ee a ee ee W. F. Fosuaag, C. L. Gazin 
pRomdomuranyal O53. )7.6 6: arden cme aie oe cess C. F. W. Murseseck*, A. T. McPHERSoN 
PROMI ATMA 1954S cose shacae toons vale s ew ees Sara E. Branuam, Mitron Harris* 
IROGROMOWMVIGNOQENS. ose. soc ss sen ee aa All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
BOC AIO MU OILOTSICIUd “A'\SSOCUALE EIQULOT Sheen wuce ts See cee ono sone [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....N. R. SmitH (chairman), WALTER RamMBERG, H. S. RAPPLEYE, 
J. A. Stevenson, F. M. Dreranporr 
Committee on Membership.......... E. H. Waker (chairman), M.S. Anprerson, R. E 
BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. Hansen, D. B. Jones, Dorotuy 
Nickerson, F. A. Smita, Hernz Specut, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings......... MARGARET PITTMAN (chairman), NoRMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. CuHapuine, D. J. Davis, F. B. Scunerz, H. W. WELLS 

Committee on Monographs: 


Rowantany 19525 sess s cent eee. J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), Paun H. OBHSER 

PRom aU aTay PLO DSi. x2) G Hee esd cacnevsbe ad Ns IR taee eos ea rane aM eae R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 

ING) UEDA Te ae Nee ae nS Ta a 8. F. Buaxs, F. C. Kracrex 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GroRGE P. WALTON, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. Fassr, JR., 
Myrna F. Jonus, F. W. Poos, J. R. SwALLEN 

For the Engineering Sciences......... R. 8. Dit (chairman), ARsHAM AMIRIKIAN, 

J. W. McBurney, Frank Neumann, A. H. Scorr 

For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. WattTon (chairman), F. 8. Brackett, 

G. E. Hom, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMILLen 

For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BARNEs, 

F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyr, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPHEeRson 

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Rescancieee eas BY ro L. KE. Yocum (chairman), 


F M. X. Suunivan, H. L. WarrremMorEe 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


Lo damuininy WOE) concnsnocnbsoosooossos J. I. HorrmMan (chairman), M. A. Mason 

Roam anyelOOSn yee ccs Scene eds ede esis W. A. Dayton, N. R. Smite 

Ron JamU arya lO OAs ele eaammenlc Sean ae as H. B. Couuins, Jr., W. W. Rusry 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 

ING diame NOG, sckaccccaaansoanne M. A. Mason (chairman), A. T. McPHERSON 

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Representative on Council of A. PARPARS Seectrchte ee int iant sloonie Greene ate F. M. Serziuer 
Committee of Auditors......J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. Braaten, W. J. YOoUDEN 


Committee of Tellers. . _W. G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Marz, Loutss M. RussBLu 


* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 
Page 
Erunotocy.—Linguistic history and ethnologic history in the South- 
west. GORGE L. TRAGER). 3 6205.6. 00sec es oe eee 341 
PALEONTOLOGY.—New Western Hemisphere occurrences of fossil sela- 
chians:, (DAyip: Hi. IDUNKLE 44. 4...)..)..265.0-+.-- eee 344 
EntTomMoLtocy.—Phylogeny and biogeography of the caddisflies of the 
genera Agapetus and Electragapetus (Trichoptera: Rhyacophilidae). 
JIWRBERT Ha JROSSA.< 62: sigeiese sca. 22196 + cee er 347 
HERPETOLOGY.—Studies on the lizard family Xantusiidae, II: Geograph- 
ical variation in Xantusia riversiana from the Channel Islands of 


California. JAY M. (SAVAGH)....:2..5..2....-+<).- ee eee 357 
MaAMMALOGY.—Six new mammals from the state of San Luis Potosi, 
Mexico.. Water W. DALQUEST.................... 7.08 361 


OrniTHOLOGY.—The systematic relationships of the fox sparrows (Passe- 
rella iliaca) of the Wasatch Mountains, Utah, and the Great Basin. 
Witttm H. Beate and Roperr K. SELANDER..........).3eeeee 364 


ZooLtogy.—Two new species of incrusting ctenostomatous Bryozoa from 
the Pacific... JonNn D.;SoULE™: . 2255. 3...5045..44 .4ne oe 367 


ZooLocy.—The number of species of decapod and stomatopod Crustacea. 
WENNER WAY (CHACE (URas. cca bts cnet oe See Peas > 3 370 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Vou. 41 DEcEMBER 1951 No. 12 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 
CHARLES DRECHSLER 


WILLIAM F. FosHaG 
PLANT INDUSTRY STATION U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM 
BELTSVILLE, MD. 


J. P. E. Morrison 


U. 8. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


J. C. EwERS J. I. HOFFMAN 
ANTHROPOLOGY CHEMISTRY 
C. W. SABROSKY Ob, 12, Abies 
ENTOMOLOGY GEOLOGY 
F. A. Cuace, Jr. Mrirtam L. Bomyarp 
BIOLOGY BOTANY 


R. K. Coox 


PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 
“ 


\ \ 1 2 Q) N lA, . 


~*~ 

. 
> 
PD NS 


Se 
ah 
foaNy 


\ 


JAN 11 1952. }) 


j 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 
BY THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Mount Roya & GuiILForD AVEs. 
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vorore sae 


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Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925 
Authorized February 17, 1949 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLumE 41 


December 1951 


No. 12 


PETROLOGY —Thermochemistry of mineral substances, I: A thermodynamic study 
of the stability of jadeite. F. C. KRacrxK, K. J. Nsuvonern,! and GorpDoN BuRLEy, 


Geophysical Laboratory. 


The sodium alumino-silicate compound 
NaAl(Si03)2, which in its natural crystalline 
form is known as the mineral jadeite, has 
not yet been crystallized in the laboratory. 
All attempts to devitrify a melt of this com- 
position to jadeite, as well as attempts to 
produce the compound by more elaborate 
methods, have failed. The various experi- 
mental trials, both dry and hydrothermal, 
are discussed in detail, together with refer- 
ences in a paper by Yoder (1950). Earlier 
it was shown in a paper by Greig and Barth 
(1938) that a dry melt of jadeite composition 
crystallizes to nepheline and albite, with a 
solidus at 1068° C. and a nepheline liquidus 
at 1138°. It was further shown that a natural 
jadeite from Burma (U.S.N.M. no. 94803) 
began to melt metastably as low as 800° and 
yielded nepheline and melt at.1015°, with 
the conclusion that jadeite was unstable un- 
der the conditions of the experiment. 
Schairer and Merwin (unpublished, 1948) 
showed that the melt crystallizes into albite 
and nepheline with a liquidus at 1128° C. 
(Yoder, 1950, p. 319). 

Jadeite could conceivably be formed by 
the following solid-state reactions: 


NaAlSi,05 
albite 
= NaAl(Si0O3). + SiO» 
jadeite quartz 
NaAISiO, 
nepheline 
+ NaAlSiz0; = 2 NaAl(SiOs;). 
albite jadeite 


Reaction A 


Reaction B 


1 Visiting investigator of the Carnegie Institu- 
tion of Washington associated with the staff of the 
Geophysical Laboratory. Member of staff of the 
Geological Survey of Finland. Present address, 
Department of Geology, University of Helsinki, 
Helsinki, Finland. 


Reaction D NaAIlSiO; 
nepheline 
+ SiO» = NaAl(SiO3;)o 
quartz jadeite 


In all three of these reactions, advance from 
left to right, as written, would proceed with 
a decrease in volume, and hence would be 
favored by increase of pressure. However, 
experiments at pressures up to 3,000 bars 
were not successful in producing jadeite. It 
will be shown below that reaction A tends to 
proceed in the reverse direction, from right 
to left, at ordinary temperature and pres- 
sure, but becomes favored in the forward 
direction (left to right) by the application of 
high pressure, while reactions B and D tend 
to advance from left to right at all pressures 
at 25° C. in the direction of producing jadeite. 
Deductions based on reaction B have led to 
establishing in the minds of petrologists the 
hypothesis that jadeite is a mineral formed 
under high pressures without the adequate 
realization that (a) even in a highly favorable 
ease the application of high pressure pro- 
duces only a relatively small contribution to 
the affinity of the process, as measured by 
the decrease in the free energy for the re- 
action; and (b) although the progress of a 
reaction may be favored by a decrease in the 
free energy, the advance may be hampered 
by the existence of passive resistances to 
change, more specifically, of high energy 
barriers (insufficient energies of activation) 
to such an extent that no advance may be 
possible. Such factors especially play a large 
role in reactions of silicates, as is well known. 
The influence of the kinetic factors men- 
tioned has been clearly discussed in a recent. 
text on petrology (Turner and Verhoogen, 


373 


JAN 3 195% 


O74 


1951) to which reference may be made for 
the literature on the subject. 

The above observations make clear the 
existence of a need for a thermodynamic 
study of reactions by which jadeite could be 
formed. It is the purpose of this paper to 
present the results of a study leading to the 
evaluation of the free energy changes for 
the reactions mentioned, A, B, and D, as 
well as for a fourth reaction C 


NaAlSiO, + 2 SiO. = NaAISi;0s, 
nepheline quartz albite 


Reaction C 


with the aim of establishing the possibility 
of the formation of jadeite in the absence of 
passive resistances to change, under the 
standard thermochemical conditions of 25°C. 
and atmospheric pressure. Included are con- 
siderations dealing with the influence of high 
pressure on the free energy changes, founda- 
tions for which were laid by the measure- 
ments of Yoder and Weir (1951), who, how- 
ever, considered the effect of pressure on the 
formation of jadeite solely by reaction B. 

The four reactions are interrelated as 
follows: 


Reaction C = Reaction B — 2 Reactions A 
Reaction D = Reaction B — Reaction A 


These interrelations will be considered in 
some detail in a later section. It is appropri- 
ate to mention that the discussions of the 
four reactions are confined throughout to 
the solid phase reactions, wherein the passive 
resistances to change play a preponderant 
role. It is well known that no difficulties 
arise in the preparation of homogeneous 
melts of the composition of any of constit- 
uents of these reactions nor in the mixing 
of such melts to produce melts of intermedi- 
ate composition. Difficulties are, however, 
encountered in the crystallization of such 
melts to produce the crystalline compounds, 
not only in the case of jadeite, as indicated, 
but with albite and quartz as well. The high 
energy barriers which are effective in delay- 
ing the crystallization of the melts are com- 
pounded in solid-phase reactions, and hence 
it is plausible to expect that the rate of 
reaction in such systems as are here con- 
sidered would be exceptionally low. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


OUTLINE OF THE THERMODYNAMIC 
TREATMENT 


For reactions at constant temperature and 
pressure, combination of the first and second 
laws of thermodynamies yields as the funda- 
mental criterion for equilibrium in a chemi- 
cal reaction the condition that a function of 
state of the system called the free energy, F, 
in the nomenclature of Lewis and Randall 
(1923), be at a minimum. According to the 
adopted conventions a reaction not at equi- 
librium may tend to advance toward 
equilibrium with a decrease in the free 
energy. 

The quantity F is defined as 


PISO = WS S77 = IS (1) 


where # is the internal energy, V the vol- 
ume, S the entropy, and P and 7’ the ab- 
solute pressure and temperature, respec- 
tively. The quantity H, called the heat 
content or enthalpy, is also a function of 
state of the system, like F, #, and S. Other 
definitions of F are employed for chemical 
systems to relate changes in F’ to the equi- 
librium constant of a reaction, or to the 
electromotive force of a galvanic cell in which 
the reaction may occur. For the present 
discussion other such definitions are not 
found to be suitable. 

At constant temperature and pressure, the 
change in the standard free energy of a reac- 
tion, 1.e., AF’°, for a reaction in which all the 
constituents are in their standard states 
(Rossini, 1951), is given by 


AF°® = AH® — TAS” (2) 


where A signifies a finite Increment in the 
value of the quantity to which it is applied. 
According to (2), AF° may be evaluated 
from the separate measurements of AH® 
and AS°. 

AH* represents the quantity of heat which . 
would be absorbed per mole of reaction if 
the reaction occurred at constant tempera- 
ture and pressure in a calorimeter. Since 
none of the reactions considered will advance 
at an appreciable rate, a resort 1s made to 
dissolving each of the reaction constituents 
in a suitable common solvent, which in this 
case 1s hydrofluoric acid of 20.0 percent 


DECEMBER 1951 


strength, and measuring the heat of reaction 
for each of the solution reactions. AH® is 
then determined by a conventional com- 
bination of the separate thermochemical 
processes in accordance with the law of Hess. 

The entropy change AS®° is evaluated 
through application of the third law of ther- 
modynamics to the low temperature heat 
capacities measured for each of the reaction 
constituents. The methods of evaluation are 
outlined by Kelley (1950). 


THE CALORIMETER AND METHODS 
OF MEASUREMENT 


A solution calorimeter designed for use at 
temperatures near 75° C. with hydrofluoric 
and other strong acids has been described 
by Torgeson and Sahama (1948). The calo- 
rimeter used in this investigation is of sim- 
ilar construction except for certain details. 
It is shown in Fig. 1, and a preliminary 
description of it with photographs of the 
parts has been given by Adams (1947, 1948, 
1949). The calorimetric assembly is im- 
mersed in oil in a thermostatic bath to the 
level indicated at UU. The thermostatic 
bath is held at a temperature near 75° C. 
with a sensitivity of ca. + 0.02°. It is con- 
trolled by a “metastatic” mercury thermo- 
regulator; the exact value of the mean bath 
temperature depends on the setting of the 
particular thermoregulator in use at any 
given time. During the course of this study 
the mean temperature of the bath was 74.7°. 

The gold calorimeter vessel K of about 
900 ml capacity is filled with 760 ml of 20.0 
percent (by weight) reagent grade hydro- 
fluoric acid, which is obtained by dilution 
of 48 per cent acid as received from the 
supplier in plastic bottles. All the acid used 
in the measurements reported here came 
from the same lot and was analyzed from 
time to time by titration with standard 
NaOH. The calorimeter vessel has four chim- 
neys in its cover, one of which serves for 
dropping in samples through a bakelite tube, 
not shown in the diagram, and the other 
three for holding the stirrer CL and the 
resistance thermometer and _ calibrating 
‘heater, M and N, contained in the protect- 
ing gold wells F and G. 

The resistance thermometer and the cali- 
brating heater M and N are wound on thin- 


KRACEK ET AL.: THERMOCHEMISTRY OF MINERAL SUBSTANCES 


379 


walled, hollow copper spools, which fit their 
protecting wells F and G very closely. Good 
thermal contact is secured by filling the 
intervening annular space with vacuum 
pump oil. One advantage of separate loca- 
tions for the two coils is that the tempera- 
ture of the calorimeter may be observed 
while the calibrating current is turned on. 
The resistance thermometer is a coil of 
enameled and single silk-covered B. «& S. 
gauge no. 40 copper wire. The calibrating 
heateris wound of double silk-covered B. & 8. 
gauge no. 35 manganin wire. Both coils are 
adjusted to have resistances of ca. 100 ohms 
at the operating temperature. The calorim- 
eter stirrer housing is made of Teflon; the 


A Y B 

¢ Han 

D Ba N E 
Sie | 

F Se G 

‘onl eid I 

H Be |= 

J =} | f | —— |] 

K EH =|= 

L ee | 

M = | aa || N 

Pao 
4 | 


YS a | | 4 cred 


Fie. 1.—A solution calorimeter for use with 
hydrofluoric acid. A, B, leads from the resistance 
thermometer and calibrating heater; C, stirrer 
assembly; D, EK, chimneys in the cover of the 
calorimeter jacket; F, G, protecting gold wells 
for the measuring instruments; H, calorimeter 
jacket; I, centering supports (three) for the ealor- 
imeter and radiation shield; J, radiation shield; K, 
gold calorimeter vessel; L, stirrer propeller shaft; 
M, N, resistance thermometer and calibrating 
heater; U, U, level of immersion in thermostat 
bath filled with oil; O, insulating support for 
calorimeter and shield. 


376 


shaft C rotates on two ball bearings as 
indicated and supports at its lower end the 
platinum propeller L by means of a Teflon 
coupling, which serves to block heat con- 
duction. 

Measurements with the resistance ther- 
mometer are made by means of a constant 
current ‘‘fixed arm’ Wheatstone bridge cir- 
cuit connected to a potentiometer for meas- 
uring the e.m.f. unbalance of the bridge. 
The bridge has two very nearly equal ratio 
arms of 2000 ohms each and a third arm 
adjustable in steps of 0.1 ohm; the ther- 
mometer is connected as the fourth arm 
with current and compensating leads. An 
accurate plug-type resistance box, made by 
Otto Wolff, Berlin, was used for the bridge 
arms. Provision is made in the connections 
for observations in either the N or R posi- 
tion, according to the code of the Mueller 
resistance thermometer bridges. The current 
through the bridge is maintained at 0.004 
amp. with a sensitivity approaching 0.001 
per cent. In practice the adjustable arm is 
pre-set at a resistance of ca. 0.3 ohms lower 
than the resistance of the thermometer at 
the temperature at which the cooling rate of 
the calorimeter is zero. This is done in order 
that the e.m.f. unbalance of the bridge be 
always positive in a selected direction, and 
that it be reasonably small (usually less than 
1000 uv [uv = microvolts]). Unbalanced 
e.m.f.’s of this order of magnitude are cal- 
culated to be a linear function of the tem- 
perature difference to within 2 parts in 
100,000, which is quite adequate since the 
calorimetric rises in the solution experiments 
have been usually less than 500 uv. With a 
particular thermometer coil 1° temperature 
difference corresponded to 634 uv in the 
bridge-unbalance e.m_f. 

The electrical energy for calibration is 
supplied to the calorimeter at a rate which 
is comparable with the rate of generation of 
heat by the dissolving samples. The calibrat- 
ing current is determined by measuring the 
potential drop across the terminals of a 0.1 
ohm standard resistor in a circuit arrange- 
ment recommended by White (1910). In our 
set-up this involves shunting the heater coil 
by a series combination of a 10-ohm stand- 
ard resistor and an accurate resistance box 
of 10,000-ohm range adjustable in steps of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


0.1 ohm. By means of this circuit a known 
fraction of the potential drop through the 
heater may be measured, and thereby the 
resistance of the heater determined at the 
calorimeter temperature while the heater is 
carrying current. Energy input times in eal- 
ibration were measured by reference to the 
time-signal clock of this Laboratory, with 
the energizing switch operated manually. A 
calibration is performed before or after each 
heat of solution experiment. 

A White double potentiometer of 100,000 
uv range is used for the potential measure- 
ments. This is carefully shielded against 
electrical leakage, which would produce sig- 
nificant errors in the measurements. The 
potentiometer is calibrated in international 
units, and is frequently standardized against 
a calibrated standard cell in terms of int. 
volts. We have for this reason retained the 
use of the international units in all the meas- 
urements and express the results in terms of 
the defined thermochemical calorie, 1 cal. = 
4.1833 int. joules. 

The samples to be dissolved in the calo- 
rimeter are contained in gelatine capsules 
(size 000), weighted down for rapid immer- 
sion in the acid by a platinum weight at- 
tached to the outside by means of a platinum 
wire hook. The capsules after weighing are 
kept at room temperature in a metal-lined 
box provided with a sensitive thermometer. 
Weights of the samples are corrected to 
weight in vacuum. The heats of reaction 
are adjusted to correspond to the process 


Reactants (state specified, 25°) 
— Products (state, 74.7°), 


by applying corrections to the observed heat 
of reaction per capsule and contents (a) for 
the heating up of the platinum sinkers from 
room temperature to 74.7°, (b) for the de- 
parture of the capsule and contents from 
25°, and (ec) for the heat of the process 


Gelatine (amorph., 25°) 
— Gelatine (HF soln., 74.7°). 


The heat capacity of platinum is taken as 
Cp = 0.032 cal/g and that of gelatine as 0.5 
cal/g. The heat of reaction of gelatine in the 
above process was measured and found to 
be AH = 22.2 + 0.4 cal/g. The purpose 
of these corrections is to obtain heats of 


DECEMBER 1951 


reaction which by the addition of thermo- 
chemical equations will yield values for com- 
bination reactions at the conventional ther- 
mochemical reference temperature of 25° C. 

The measurements of the calorimeter tem- 
perature were corrected for heat exchange 
with the surroundings by a procedure based 
on Newton’s law. 

Corrections for the impurities in the sam- 
ples were applied as demanded by the indi- 
eations of the analyses. In preparation for 
making corrections for plus water (water not 
driven off at 110°) measurements were made 
of the process 


Water (1., 25°) — Water (HF soln., 74.7°); 
AH = 788 +5 cal/mole 


and 1438 cal/mole added for the heat of 
melting, to result in 


Water (ice, 25°) — Water (HF soln., 74.7°); 
AH = 2226 cal/mole. 


The ice correction was employed on the 
assumption that plus water is retained in 
the minerals as a solid. 


THE MATERIALS 


The materials used in this study are de- 
scribed below: 


KRACEK ET AL.: THERMOCHEMISTRY OF MINERAL SUBSTANCES 377 


Albite, Amelia, Va. Supplied by the U. S. 
National Museum, no. 5390. This could be ob- 
tained of good purity by hand picking. 

Albite, Varutrask, Sweden. Supplied by Th. G. 
Sahama. This contained numerous inclusions 
which were separated after crushing by magnetic 
separation, flotation, and centrifugation in heavy 
liquids. 

Jadeite, Burma. Supplied by the U.S. National 
Museum, no. 94829. A cylinder from the sample 
was used in compressibility measurements, 
Adams and Gibson (1929), Yoder and Weir 
(1951). H. KE. Merwin found the material to be 
practically pure jadeite. Crushed rock was puri- 
fied by flotation in heavy liquids by L. H. Adams 
for use in measurements of low temperature heat 
capacities and heats of solution. 

Jadeite, Japan. Specimen from Kotaki, Japan. 
USNM no. 105860. This specimen contained 
liquid inclusions, analcite, tremolite, and albite. 
Crushed rock was purified by centrifugation in 
Clerici solution, followed by further separations 
in Clerici solution with high frequency low ampli- 
tude agitation. 

Quartz, Lisbon, Md. Collected by C. N. Fenner 
and J. W. Greig. Crushed and treated with 
hydrochloric acid by General Chemical Co. 
Residue of 0.03 percent after evaporation with 
HF + HSOsz. 


TaBLe 1.—RESULTS OF CHEMICAL ANALYSES OF THE MATERIALS 


+ Results of spectroscopic analysis in terms of the elements. 


Material | Albite Albite 5 | Jadeite Jadeite Nepheline 
Varutrisk Amelia Burma Japan Synthetic 
Analyst* Zies Chad. Zies K. B. M. 
BPOnsoiaconced see e eee oe 68.76 67.84 59.51 58.96 42.42 
WO: & ca sean CoE Se Ee eae 0.00 0.00 0.0) 0.00 0.01F 
INIKO3. so dead on DOOR DOTBE Cea e Reena 19.50 19.65 24.31 24.10 35.92 
NefOne: odadee Sete b] TOU aes te eee 0.13 0.03 0.25 0.21 0.05f 
NEO); ooo GAN DOS DISS OIC S DENG EIEN Rts n.d 0.02 0.03 0.00 
RICO) 6 abo co cSt ease Bea nea een 0.00 0.04 0.58 0.82 0.057 
CHO) nosso Slebes Ree EO: Cone eect 0.13 0.00 0.77 1.12 0.05 
WHO). Jade ce CUB e EE cee aE eraren 115) 11.07 14.37 14.41 21.40 
IKAO): 6, Cou nO SUOCe UR ene reine 0.13 0.29 0.02 0.11 0.1F 
ISO", ces cncb et oo mcue aca n Boren ae neem 0.08 0.56 0.06 0.28 
TiIAO odd o poduo ned ae Ode ae aR Er EononS — 0.30 — 0.02 | 
Other 0.02 P20s 0.01 MnO | 
0.01 CrOxs 
‘Wepre: adousuoSuecancesmonccoonans th 100. 26 99.80 100.03 100.03 100.00 
* Names of ana!ysts indicated by abbreviations: 

Zies = KE. G. Zies, Geophysica! Laboratory 

Chad. = E. Chadbourn, University of Minnesota 

KS = Oleg von Knorring, University of Leeds 

B.M. = Bureau of Mines, analysis furnished by K. K. Kelley 


378 


Quartz, S.I. Probable source, Sycamore Island 
in Potomac River. A bottle of this was furnished 
by E. S. Shepherd. Residue 0.06 percent after 
evaporation with HF + H»S0O,. 

Nepheline, synthetic. Prepared by J. F. Schairer. 

Analyses of the purified materials are collected 
in Table 1. 


The purified materials were prepared for 
dissolving in the solution calorimeter by 
erinding for about three hours in a power 
erinder, using either agate or mullite mortar 
and pestle. The resulting impalpable powder 
was then elutriated in distilled water, usually 
three times, with 10 minutes allowed for 
settling of the coarser particles. The finest 
fraction for use was then filtered off under 
suction on a heavy paper in a Buechner 
funnel and air dried before a final drying in 
an oven at 120° C. The elutriated powder 
tends to agglomerate into tiny fragile lumps. 
It was found that particularly jadeite and 
nepheline when elutriated tend not to dis- 
solve smoothly in the calorimeter. In later 
experiments with unelutriated preparations 
it was found that these materials dissolved 
sufficiently rapidly for calorimetric deter- 
minations and, hence, elutriation was 
avoided. This helped to eliminate not only 
the uneven solution rates, but other troubles 
as well. Thus, in some of the early experi- 
ments, residual lumps of a material which 
may have been undissolved sample, but 
which were identified as chiolite, 5NaF- 
3AlF3, were found in the calorimeter. No 
such precipitates were found when unelu- 
triated samples were used. 

The molecular compositions of the mate- 
rials were computed from the results of the 
analyses in the usual manner for the calcu- 
lation of the norm, and the observed heats 
of solution corrected for the heats of solution 
of the small amounts of impurities found in 
the manner indicated by Torgeson and Sa- 
hama (1948). 


MEASUREMENTS AND RESULTS 


The heats of reaction AH 193.16. The stand- 
ard heats of reaction AH 593.14. for the four 
chemical reactions A to D are obtained as 
resultants of summations of the heats of 
reaction of the individual solution reactions 
presented in skeleton form in Table 2. Con- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


ventionally, they represent heats of the for- 
mation reaction of the products on the right 
from the reactants on the left of the reaction 
as written. Thus, for reaction B, AH°s9s 16 
represents the heat of formation of two moles 
of jadeite from one mole of nepheline plus 
one mole of albite, the heats of formation 
of which are taken as zero. Heats of forma- 
tion from the elements are derivable from 
these heat values by addition of the heats 
of formation of the reactants from the ele- 
ments. Measurements are in progress which 
will permit such computations to be made. 

The reader may be reminded that solution 
reactions are destruction reactions for the 
constituents dissolved and hence that, in 
order to evaluate heats of formation of reac- 
tions A to D as indicated in the second part 
of Table 2, the summations must be per- 
formed as there outlined; that is, by sub- 
tracting the sum of the heats of solution of 
the products on the right from the sum of 
those of the reactants on the left of the 
chemical equation as written. For other ex- 
amples, see Torgeson and Sahama (1948) 
and King (1951). 

The uncertainties are stated in terms of 
the standard deviation according to the rec- 
ommendations of Rossin. and Deming 
(1939). Attention may be directed to the 
two values given for the heat of solution of 
Japanese jadeite. These represent values for 
the material ground in agate in the one 
ease, and ground in mullite in the other. A 
value for the average of the two is given 
with its consequent very great uncertainty. 
It is possible that the two individual values 
represent jadeite made impure by the grind- 
ing; however, the loss of weight of the mor- 
tars and pestles was not determinable, and 
no reasonable computation could be made 
to allow for the silica and mullite presuma- 
bly introduced as impurities. Hence only the 
average value is used in the computations. 

The heat of solution value obtained for 
S. I. quartz, —33,300 + 40 cal/mole in 20.0 
percent HF acid at 74.7°, may be compared 
with values for quartz obtained recently by 
others. Torgeson and Sahama (1948) ob- 
tained —33,000 + 20 cal/mole in 20.1 per- 
cent HF acid at 73.7°; King (1951) got 
— 33,290 + 80 at 73.7° and —32,810 + 90: 
at 50° in 20.1 percent HF acid; and Sahama. 


DECEMBER 1951 


and Neuvonen (1951), —33,240 + 50 in 20.1 
percent acid at 75.1°. Our value for quartz, 
Lisbon, Md., is —33,130 + 30 cal/mole in 
20.0 percent acid at 74.7°. The difference in 
the values for the Lisbon and the 8S. I. 
quartz is apparently a characteristic of the 
substances, just as differences are found for 
the two albites and the two Jadeites, all after 
correction for impurities. 

The individual heat of reaction values, 
AH 59s 16, for the four reactions A to D, ob- 
tained by combinations of the thermochem- 
ical equations (1) to (4) of Table 2, are 
given in the first column of Table 4. 

The entropies—The values of the entro- 
pies S°93.16 of the four materials for this 
problem were determined from measure- 
ments of the low temperature heat capacities 
at the Pacific Station of the Bureau of Mines 
by Kelley and Todd, who will publish the 
detailed measurements. We are permitted to 


KRACEK ET AL.: THERMOCHEMISTRY OF MINERAL SUBSTANCES 


BY Ay) 


use the results through the courtesy of Dr. 
Kelley. The data and their resultants for 
the reactions A to D are given in Table 3. 
The free energy changes.—Combinations of 
the heat of reaction values AH°593 16 with 
the corresponding — 7AS°s95 16 values from 
Tables 3 and 4 according to the thermody- 
namic relation (2) yield the values of the 
free energy changes AF'°s93 15 for the reac- 
tions A to D as given in the last column of 
Table 4. Because of the smallness of the 
resultant heats of reaction for all of the 
reactions in question and the rapid accumu- 
lation of thermochemical errors, the uncer- 
tainty is In some cases greater than the net 
value of the heat of reaction AH°293 16. 
Nevertheless, it appears clear that within 
the relatively large error the combinations 
of the heat and entropy terms result in free 
energy decreases for reactions B, C, and D, 
and in an increase for reaction A. The re- 


TaBLE 2.—HeEaTs OF REACTION OF THE MATERIALS STUDIED 


NEAGIOD neuer 
(1) NaAISi;Os (c, 25°) + 22HF (soln., 74.7°) > NaF (soln., 74.7°) 
Albite 
-+ AIF; (soln., 74.7°) + 3H2SiF’s (soln., 74.7°) + 8H2O (soln., 74.7°) 
Amelia —149.79 0.11 
Varu. —148.12 0.21 
(2) NaAlSiOs (c, 25°) + 10HF (soln., 74.7°) = NaF (soln., 74.7°) + AIFs (soln., 74.7°) 
Nepheline 
-+- H2Sil’s (soln., 74.7°) + 4H2O (soln., 74.7°) 
synthetic = 87.33 0.21 
(3) NaAl(SiOs)2 (¢, 25°) + 16HF (soln., 74.7°) = NaF (soln., 74.7°) 
Jadeite 
-+ AIF; (soln., 74.7°) + 2He2SiFs (soln., 74.7°) + 6H2O (soln., 74.7°) 
Burma —114.96 0.35 
Japan, ground in agate —114.35 0.09 
Japan, ground in mullite —115.93 0.17 
Japan, av. —115.14 0.79 
(4) SiOz (e, 25°) + 6HF (soln., 74.7°) = HeSiFs (soln., 74.7° i 
Quartz Lisbon, Md. —33.130 0.030 
-+ 2H20 (soln., 74.7°) S.I. — 33.300 0.040 
Reaction A 
NaAlSi;Os (c, 25°) = SiOz (c, 25°) + NaAl(SiOs)2 (¢, 25°) 
Albite quartz jadeite 
AH, = AH, — AH; — AH, 
Reaction B 
NaAlSisOs(e, 25°) + NaAlSiOu(c, 25°) = 2NaAl(SiOs)o(e, 25°) 
Albite nepheline jadeite 
AH, = AM; + AH2 — 2AH: 
Reaction C 
NaAlSiO,(c, 25°) + 2SiO2(c, 25°) = NaAlSisOs(e, 25°) 
Nepheline quartz albite 
AHoc = AH2 + 2AHy— AH, 
Reaction D 


NaAlSiO,(e, 25°) + SiOx(e, 25°) = NaAl(SiOs)e(c, 25°) 


quartz jadeite 
AH p = AH2 + AHs — AH; 


Nepheline 


380 
TaBLE 38.—ENTROPIES 
Data supplied by K. K. Kelley 
Material S°o9s.16 eu/mole 
NaAISizOs (albite, Varutriisk) 49.2 +0.3 
NaAISiOxs (nepheline, synthetic) 29.1 =+0.2 
NaAl(SiOs)» Gadeite, Burma) 31.8 +0.2 
SiOz (quartz) 10.0) 0.1 
Reaction AS°038.16 
A. NaAlSisOs = NaAl(SiOs)z + SiOz —7.4 +0.4 
B. NaAISiOs + NaAlSisOs = 2NaAl(SiOs)e —147 +0.5 
C. NaAISiOs + 2SiOs = NaAlSisOs 0.1 +0.4 
D. NaAlSiO.s + Side = NaAl(SiOs)2 —7.3 +0.3 


sults signify that in the absence of passive 
resistances to change, reactions B, C, and D 
would advance as written, from left to right, 
whereas reaction A would advance in the 
opposite direction, from right to left, and 
would result in combining jadeite and quartz 
to form albite. 

The decrease in free energy for reaction C 
is in good accord with petrological deduction 
from systems studied at higher tempera- 
tures, and also with field evidence in nature, 
where nepheline and quartz appear not to 
be found in intimate association. 


INFLUENCE OF PRESSURE ON AF 


For an isothermal reaction the influence 
of a change in pressure on the change in the 
free energy of reaction is given by 


dAF 7 = AVdPr (3) 


where the subscript 7 denotes constancy of 
temperature. The equation (3) can be inte- 
grated if the volumes of the reaction constit- 
uents are known as functions of pressure. 
For reaction B the data on jadeite, nephe- 
line, and albite have been secured and evalu- 
ated by Yoder and Weir (1951) who in- 
cluded in their discussion the effect of 
thermal expansion in addition to that of 
compressibility. For the other three reac- 
tions, A, C, and D, discussed in this paper, 
there are needed, in addition, data for 
quartz, which are already available in the 
literature. The density of quartz at 25° may 
be taken as 2.647 g/cm* from the work of 
Johnston and Adams (1912). From the data 
on the compressibility of quartz the vol- 
ume compression at 20°, AV/Vo = 
—2.70 X 10-§P + 20.4 X 10-”P? as evalu- 
ated by Birch (1942) for pressure P in bars 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


from the measurements of Adams and Wil- 
liamson (1923). Accordingly, Vo5° = 22.69 
em’/mole and the molar volume at 25° 
and the pressure P bars is Vp = 22.69 
—0.613 < 10“P + 0.463 < 10m9R2%em?/ 
mole. From this datum and the data of 
Yoder and Weir for jadeite, nepheline, and 
albite, converted to express P in bars in- 
stead of atm, we obtain the following volume 
changes for reactions A, B, C, and D: 


AVa = — 17.28 + 1.083 XK 10-42 
— 180 X< We-wr” (4) 


AVz = —33.66 + 2.369 X 10-4P 
— 278 X 102R2 (5) 
AVc = + 0.90 + 0.200 x 10-4P 


ae Ol XK IGP (6) 
AVp = —16.38 + 1.283 & 10-4P 
== Wists) << Ores (7) 


| 


and the corresponding free energy changes 
in thermochemical calories at 25° and at the 
pressure P in bars: 


AF, = AFo4 — 0.4130P 


+ 1.294 X 107*P? — 15.1 K 1054P3 (8) 
AFz = AFog — 0.8045P 
Sp Asse >< MOO — 2 < O-Pe (9) 


AF¢ = AFoc + 0.0215P 


+ 0.239  10°§P2 + 8.1 X 10°2P3 (10) 
AFp = AFop — 0.3915P 
+ 1.53 X 10°§P2 — 7.0 x 10 °2P3 (11) 


where the AFf’o> terms, the constants of inte- 
gration, are the free energy changes AF'°s93 16 
at the pressure of 1 atm (effectively zero 
pressure in considering effects of high pres- 
sures) given in the last column of Table 4 
for the different reactions. 

It will be noted that the AF for reactions 
B and D, already negative at 1 atm, will 
become more negative with the application 
of high pressures. Reaction C, which is not 
directly concerned with the stability rela- 
tions of jadeite, is of interest in that its 
AF is almost uninfluenced by pressure. For 
reaction A, AF'4, which is positive at | atm, 
becomes negative at pressures ranging from 
ca. 1600 to ca. 6000 bars, depending upon 
the value chosen at 1 atm. This suggests 
the possibility that Japanese jadeite, often 
found in association with quartz, may have 
been formed at depth, but does not agree 
with field evidence, according to which Jap- 
anese jadeite may be a hydrothermal prod- 
uct, in which case depth is not critical 
(Yoder, 1951, personal communication). 


DECEMBER 19951 


INFLUENCE OF TEMPERATURE ON AF 


For an isobaric process the influence of a 
change in temperature on the change in the 
free energy for a reaction is given by 


d(AFp/T) = — (AH/T?)dTp (12) 


where the subscript P denotes constant pres- 
sure. The equation (12) can be integrated if 
the heat contents of the reaction constit- 
uents are known at different temperatures. 
For the reactions studied here only data on 
albite and quartz are available (Kelley, 1949) 
and hence the evaluation of the AF’s as 


KRACEK ET AL.: THERMOCHEMISTRY OF MINERAL SUBSTANCES 381 


functions of temperature can not yet be 
made. It is planned to make the needed 
measurements on jadeite and nepheline in 
the near future. 


DISCUSSION 


The data presented in this paper lead to 
the conclusion that under favorable kinetic 
conditions—that is, in the absence of passive 
resistances to change—jadeite could be 
formed at 25° C. and atmospheric pressure 
by either reaction B or D. In nature, an 
exact ratio of the reactants such as is de- 


Taste 4.—Mouau Heats or Reaction, Enrropy, AND Free ENrrRGyY CHances* 
AF 598.16 = AFT °098.16 — 298.16 AS °098.16 


A 
Ab = Jd + Qu kcal/reaction 
Ab Jd | Qu AH ° 598.16 —TAS° 298.16 AF “193.16 
Var Bu S.I. 0.14 + 0.41 2.21 + 0.11 2.35 + 0.42 
Var Jp av Sele 0.32 + 0.83 2.214 0.11 2.53 + 0.83 
Am Bu S.I. —1.53 + 0.37 2.21 + 0.11 0.68 + 0.39 
Am Jp av S.I. —1.35 + 0.81 2.21 + 0.11 0.86 + 0.81 
B 
Ab + Ne = 2Jd 
Ab Ne Jd 
Var synth Bu —5.53 + 0.43 4.38 + 0.15 —1.15 + 0.45 
Var synth Jp av —5.17 + 1.61 4.38 + 0.15 —0.79 + 1.62 
Am synth Bu —7.20 + 0.41 4.38 + 0.15 —2.82 + 0.43 
Am synth Jp av —6.84 + 1.60 4.38 + 0.15 —2.46 + 1.62 
Cc 
Ne + 2Qu = Ab 
Ne Qu Ab 
synth S.I. Var —5.81 + 0.30 —0.03 + 0.15 —5.84 + 0.34 
synth S.L. Am —4.14 + 0.24 —0.03 + 0.15 —4.17 + 0.29 
D 
Ne + Qu = Jd 
Ne Qu Jd 
synth S.I. Bu —5.67 + 0.41 2.18 + 0.09 —3.49 + 0.41 
synth Se Jp av —5.49 + 0.82 2.18 + 0.09 


—3.31 + 0.82 


* Abbreviations used: 


Ab Am = Albite, Amelia, Va. 
Var = Albite, Varutriisk, Sweden 
Jd Bu = Jadeite, Burma 


Jp .v = Jadeite, Japan, average value 
Ne synth = Nepheline, synthetic 
QuS.I. = Quartz, S.I. 


382 


manded by D would not likely obtain, and 
it may be instructive to consider a more de- 
tailed analysis of the possibilities. The free 
energy decreases for the three reactions B, 
C, and D range in the order —AFc > 
—AFp > —AFz according to Table 4. There- 
fore, in the absence of passive resistances to 
change, reaction C would occur first in a 
reaction mixture of nepheline and quartz. 
This reaction would continue until one of 
the reactants was used up. If nepheline were 
exhausted first, the reaction would stop with 
albite and unused quartz remaining behind. 
The only possibility for further reaction now 
would be reaction A, but since AF’°, is posi- 
tive at 25° and 1 atm, no further reaction 
would occur at atmospheric pressure. If, on 
the other hand, quartz were exhausted first, 
reaction C would come to a stop with albite 
and the unused nepheline remaining behind, 
and this mixture would react by reaction B 
to produce jadeite until finally the nepheline 
or albite was exhausted. At the end the 
residue would contain jadeite and albite or 
quartz, or jadeite and nepheline, depending 
upon whether the original molar ratio of 
quartz to nepheline was greater than | or 
less than 1, respectively. These reactions as 
outlined would go in the sequence: C fol- 
lowed by B. If for some reason reaction C 
were hindered, but not reaction D, the prod- 
uct of reaction D would be jadeite and un- 
used quartz for any molar ratio of quartz to 
nepheline in excess of 1, and jadeite with 
unused nepheline for a ratio of less than 1. 

In the case of both reaction B and D, the 
tendency to form jadeite would be increased 
by the application of high pressure, the cor- 
responding changes in the free energy being 
represented by equations (9) and (11). High 
pressure, likewise, would favor the advance 
of reaction A from left to rght, according 
to equation (8). For this reaction AF’, is 
positive at 25° and | atm, and changes sign 
to become negative at pressures of ca. 1,600 
bars to ca. 6,000 bars, depending upon the 
particular materials which are reacting. At 
pressures higher than these a tendency would 
accordingly exist to dissociate albite and to 
form jadeite and quartz. Because of the 
interrelations among the four reactions in 
question, reaction A could not occur at any 
pressure in the presence of nepheline in the 
reaction mixture. It will be noted from equa- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VoL. 41, No. 12 


tions (8), (9), and (11) that even in the 
most favorable case, that of reaction B, 
pressure produces only a small change in the 
free energy of the reaction, in this case the 
change being roughly —0.8 kcal/mole per 
1000 bars. As was mentioned previously, 
reaction C is almost uninfluenced by pres- 
sure, the small effect, as represented by 
equation (10) being to favor the reverse 
reaction. 

The reactions investigated in this study 
present an unusually severe test of thermo- 
chemical data in that the net heats of reac- 
tion and the corresponding free energy 
changes are small numbers, values of which 
in many instances are comparable with the 
accumulated errors of the summations of 
the heats of solution from which they are 
derived. 

The net result of this study may be sum- 
marized in the statement that the formation 
of jadeite is thermodynamically feasible at. 
25° C. without the application of pressure. 
While it is true that pressure favors the 
process, its effect in any case is relatively 
small. The failure to produce jadeite in the 
laboratory cannot accordingly be ascribed 
to unfavorable energy relations, but must 
be due rather to non-thermodynamic fac- 
tors, such as we have loosely termed passive 
resistances to change, and the problem of 
synthesis of jadeite becomes again essentially 
a problem in reaction kinetics of the solid 
state. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS 


The writers wish to acknowledge the sup- 
port and encouragement which Dr. L. H. 
Adams, director of the Geophysical Labora- 
tory, has given to this work, and the kind 
cooperation of Dr. K. K. Kelley and Dr. 8. 
S. Todd, both of the Pacific Station of the 
Bureau of Mines, especially their permission 
to quote the entropy values given in this 
paper. They also wish to thank Dr. J. F. 
Schairer for preparing the sample of syn- 
thetic nepheline in sufficiently large quantity 
to be used in low temperature heat capacity 
work as well as for the heats of solution 
reported here; Dr. H. 8. Yoder, especially 
for critically reading the paper, and for his 
pertinent and helpful comments; I. Michael, 
formerly of this Laboratory, for making some 
of the measurements; Dr. Th. G. Sahama, of 


DECEMBER 1951 


the University of Helsinki, for help in assem- 
bling and purifying some of the materials; 
and M. R. Vollmer, instrument maker, for 
his careful construction of the various parts 
of the calorimetric apparatus. 


REFERENCES 

Avams, L. H. Annual report of the director of the 
Geophysical Laboratory. Carnegie Inst. Wash- 
ington Yearbook 47: 27; 48: 29; 49: 27. 1947, 
1948, 1949. 

——— and Grsson, R. E. The elastic properties of 
certain basic rocks and of their constituent 
minerals. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sei. 15: 713-724. 
1929. 

——— and Wiuiramson, B. D. The compressibility 
of minerals and rocks at high pressures. Journ. 
Franklin Inst. 195: 475-529. 1923. 

Bireu, F. Handbook of physical constants. Spec. 
Pap. Geol. Soc. Amer. 36: 55. 1942. 

Greic, J. W., and Barty, T. F. W. The system 

i NasO-Alb03;-2Si0. (nephelite, carnegieite)— 

© NavO-Al,0;-6SiO2 (albite) Amer. Jour. Sci. 

*  35-A: 93-112. 1938. 

JOHNSTON, J., and Apams, L. H. On the densiiy of 
solid substances with special reference to perma- 
nent changes produced by high pressures. Journ. 
Amer. Chem. Soc. 34: 563-584. 1912. 

Kewiey, K. K.: Contributions to the data on the- 
orelical metallurgy. X. High temperature heat 
content, heat capacity and entropy data for 
inorganic compounds. Bur. Mines Bull. 476. 
1949. 


BIGELOW AND SCHROEDER: THREE NEW SKATES 


383 


Contributions to the data on theoretical 
metallurgy. XI. Entropies of inorganic sub- 
stances. Bur. Mines Bull. 477. 1950. 

Kine, E. G.: Heats of formation of crystalline cal- 
cium orthosilicate, tricalcium silicate and zinc 
orthosilicate. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 73: 
656-658. 1951. 

Lewis, G. N., and Ranpaun, M. Thermodynamics 
and the free energy of chemical substances. 
New York, 1928. 

Rossini, F. D. Chemical thermodynamics. New 
York, 1950. (Pp. 3, 249.) 

—— and Demine, W. E. The assignment of 
uncertainties to the data of chemistry and 
physics, with specific recommendations for 
thermochemistry. Journ. Washington Acad. 
Sci. 29: 416-440. 1939. 

Sanama, Tu. G., Neuvonen, K. J. Personal com- 
munication. 1951. 

Toraerson, D. R., and Sanama, Tu. G. A hydro- 
fluoric acid solution calorimeter and the deter- 
mination of the heats of formation of Mg2Si0z, 
MgSiO; and CaSiO;. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 
70: 2156-2160. 1948. 

Turner, F. J., and VerHoocen, J. Igneous and 
metamorphic petrology. New York, 1951. 

Wuite, W. P. A test of calorimetric accuracy. Phys. 
Rev. 31: 686-701. 

Yoprer, H. 8. The jadeite problem. Amer. Journ. 
Sci. 248: 225-248; 312-334. 1950. 

——— and WerrR, C. E. Change of free energy with 
pressure of the reaction nepheline + albile = 2 
jadeite. Amer. Journ. Sci. 249: 683-694. 1951. 


ICHTHYOLOGY —Three new skates and a new chimaerid fish from the Gulf of 
Mexico. Henry B. BiagkLow and Wruiiam C. SCHROEDER. (Communicated 


by Leonard P. Schultz.) 


The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service vessel 
Oregon, while engaged in a shrimp investi- 
gation in the Gulf of Mexico during the 
winter of 1950-51, caught a number of fishes 
that prove to be new to science. Stewart 
Springer, knowing of our interest in elasmo- 
branchs and holocephalids, kindly sent us 
the specimens which we here describe. The 
holotypes and some of the paratypes are in 
the collection of the U. S. National Mu- 
seum, while a representative of each species 
is in the collection of the Harvard Museum 
of Comparative Zoology. 

: Raja lentiginosa, n. sp. 

Study materval—Male, 402 mm in total length, 
holotype, U.S. N. M. no. 153552, from the Cam- 
peche Bank, lat. 22° 32’ N., long. 88° 47’ W., in 
29 fathoms, Oregon station 222; also four males 


1 Contribution no. 555 from the Woods Hole 
Oceanographic Institution. 


and three females from the latter region and from 
the northern part of the Gulf of Mexico, lat. 28° 
10’ to lat. 29° 11’ N. and long. 85° 00’ to 86° 52’ 
W. in recorded depths of 85, 112, 165, and 305 
fathoms, including Oregon stations 256, 257, 278, 
and 279. 

Distinctive characters.—Raja lentiginosa closely 
resembles R. garmant but may be distinguished 
by the color pattern of its upper surface, which is 
densely freckled with very small dark, lght- 
brown, and whitish spots (sparse in garmani and 
mostly grouped in a distinct rosette pattern). 

Description of holotype.—Proportional dimen- 
sions in percent of total length: 

Dise.—Extreme breadth 60.0; length 46.5. 

Snout length.—In front of orbits 9.2; in front 
of mouth 11.2. 

Orbits.—Horizontal diameter 4.2; distance be- 
tween 2.9. 

Spiracles.—Leneth 2.1; distance between 6.2. 

Mouth.—Breadth 6.5. 


384 


Exposed nostrils.—Distance between inner ends 
6.0. 

Gill openings.—Lengths, first 2.0; third 1.9; 
fifth 1.2; distance between inner ends, first 13.9; 
fifth 7.0. 

First dorsal fin—Vertical height 3.0; length 

of base 5.6. 

Second dorsal fin.—Vertical height 3.0; length 
of base 5.5. 

Pelvics.—Anterior margin 12.2. 

Distance from tip of snout to center of cloaca 
39.2; from center of cloaca to first dorsal 45.3; 
to tip of tail 60.8; from rear end of second dorsal 
base to tip of caudal 2.9. 

Interspace between first and second dorsals 1.2. 


Dise about 1.3 times as broad as long, maxi- 
mum angle in front of spiracles about 120°; an- 
terior margins weakly convex from just posterior 
to tip of snout to opposite orbits, thence gently 
concave between spiracles and outer corners 
which are broadly rounded; posterior margins 
and corners and inner margins all rounded. Axis 
of greatest breadth about 68 percent of distance 
back from tip of snout to axils of pectorals. Tail 
with a lateral fold, low down on each side, begin- 
ning abruptly posterior to axils of pelvics a dis- 
tance about equal to space between spiracles and 
continuing almost to extreme tip, width of fold 
about the same throughout its length; length of 
tail from center of cloaca to origin of first dorsal 
fin 1.15 times as great and to its tip 1.54 times as 
great as distance from center of cloaca to tip of 
snout. 

Five prominent thorns along anterior edge of 
orbit, one opposite inner central margin and three 
along posterior margin, the last opposite spiracle, 
with an additional thorn inward from this one; 
a row of thorns over margins of rostral process; 
prickles and very small thorns are present over 
anterior third of disc in advance of nuchal region 
and extend along outer margin rearward to about 
axils of pectorals; a triangular patch of about 17 
thorns on shoulder region, five of which extend 
along median line from nuchal to scapular region; 
a naked area behind these for a distance about 
equal to distance between spiracles. A band of 
three to five rather regular rows of thorns along 
median zone of back and on tail beginning in ad- 
vance of axils of pectorals a distance about equal 
to that. from eye to snout and ending at origin of 
first dorsal, the lowermost row reaching nearly to 
tip of tail; the median row, counting from nuchal 
region, consisting of 33 thorns, in most cases 
alternating large and small; most all the thorns on 
tail with sharp points, directed backward; one 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


prominent thorn in space between dorsals; prick- 
les on dorsal fins and caudal; skin over eye naked ; 
a band of alar spines on outer part of each pec- 
toral, in one to three rows, with 19 spines in 
longest row. Lower surface naked except for a. 
small median patch of spines at extreme snout tip. 

Snout in front of orbits 2.2 times as long as or- 
bit, its length in front of mouth about 1.8 times: 
as great as distance between exposed nostrils. 
Distance between orbits about 0.7 as great as. 
length of orbit. Orbit twice as long as spiracle. 
Nasal curtain fringed; expanded posterior (outer) 
margins of nostrils frmged. Upper and lower jaws: 
rather strongly arched centrally. Teeth 23 close 
set, mostly in straight rows rather than in quin- 
cunx, with small base, circular or oval, those in 
median sector of mouth with slender sharp cusp 
pointing toward symphysis or inward toward 
throat, those in outer sector with triangular cusp 
pointing toward corner of mouth, one row of 
teeth at symphysis in upper jaw, pointing straight. 
downward. Distance between first gill openings. 
2.3 times as great as distance between exposed 
nostrils; between fifth openings 1.2 times; first 
gill openings 1.6 times as long as fifth and 0.3 as: 
long as breadth of mouth. First and second dor- 
sals similar in size and shape. Interspace between 
dorsals 0.22 as long as base of first dorsal. Caudal 
membrane from rear end of base of second dorsal 
about half as long as base of first dorsal. Pelvics. 
deeply concave, strongly scalloped along anterior 
side of excavation but only weakly so rearward; 
anterior margin only 0.55 as long as distance from 
its own origin to rear tip of pelvic; anterior lobe 
slender, including four radial cartilages besides 
the first stout one; posterior lobe moderately 
convex along its forward half, thence nearly 
straight to its narrowly rounded tip, extending a 
little more than one-fifth the distance from axil 
of pelvics toward first dorsal; imner margin 
straight. Claspers reaching beyond tips of pelvics 
by a distance about equal to diameter of orbit. 

Rostral cartilage firm, extending nearly to tip 
of snout. Anterior pectoral rays reaching about 
seven-tenths the distance from front of orbits 
toward tip of snout. 

Color —Upper surface everywhere sprinkled 
with very small light to dark brownish and whit- 
ish spots, including the tail, pelvics and claspers; 
many groups of about 30-50 dark spots scattered 
everywhere, the most prominent marking being 
the group of spots at axil of pectoral, some of the 
spots on tail grouped in form of bars, there being 


DECEMBER 1951 BIGELOW AND SCHROEDER: THREE NEW SKATES 385 


about five prominent bars; light and dark spots blotches, mostly fused, on each pectoral, and an 
present on anterior part of each dorsal finand on elongate blotch along the ner part of the clasp- 
caudal. Below whitish with a group of grayish _ ers anteriorly. 


COOLEY 
Ord ff 4 


~ 
= 
‘“s 


* RecA) ware 
Rey Pitt peo tae 
Ra RE 


Fie. 1.—Raja lentiginosa, n.sp., male, 402 mm long, holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 153552): 1A, Upper 
teeth, about X 10; B, thorns on midrow of tail, about X 2; C, mouth and nostrils, about X 1.5; D, pos- 
terior part of tail, about <X 1; HE, section of upper surface to show color pattern. 


386 


A female 302 mm long differs slightly from the 
type by having no naked area on the midzone of 
back immediately behind shoulder region, but the 
thorns begin on the nape and extend without a 
break to the first dorsal, the rows being somewhat 
more irregular and the median row having about 
45 thorns mostly of uniform size instead of alter- 
nating large and small. There is a patch of small 
thorns on the posterior part of the pectorals and 
a few on the pelvics and three thorns in the 
space between the dorsals. There are 73 teeth, in 
quincunx, with low triangular cusp, none of which 
point toward symphysis or corners of mouth. 

On a male of 232 mm the claspers extend a little 
beyond the tips of the pelvics, while on a R. gar- 
mani of 285 mm they fail to reach the tips of the 
pelvies by a distance as great as diameter of orbit. 
This male has 46 teeth in upper jaw and lacks the 
small patch of thorns on the extreme tip of snout 
below. 

The few specimens of this species thus far cap- 
tured have been taken over a wide depth range, 
from 29 to 305 fathoms. It is known from the 
northern part of the Gulf of Mexico in the offings 
of Pensacola and Cape San Blas and in the south- 
ern part on Campeche Bank. 


Raja olseni,” n. sp. 


Study material—Inmature male, 280 mm in 
total length, holotype, U. 8. N. M. no. 153556, 
from lat. 27° 25’ N., long. 96° 13’ W., 76 fathoms, 
Oregon station 157 and an immature male, 282 
mm, paratype, M. C. Z. no. 37176, from lat. 27° 
27’ N., long. 96° 17’ W., 65 fathoms, Oregon sta- 
tion 158. 

Distinctive characters.—Raja olsen closely re- 
sembles R. laevis in general appearance and in 
lacking thorns along the midbelt of the disc from 
the level of the axils of the pectorals to the vicin- 
ity of the spiracles. But it differs from laevis in 
having an interspace between the dorsal fins 
nearly or quite as long as the base of the first 
dorsal (only 0.1 to 0.8 that long in laevis); by 
having a fringe on the expanded outer margin 
of the nostril (smooth in laevis); also the 
lateral folds along its tail reach to only oppo- 
site the anterior third of the caudal fin, but in 
laevis extend almost or quite to the extreme tip 
of the tail; the lower sides of the dise are prickly 
along the anterior edges and over the rostral 

2 Named for Yngve H. Olsen in recognition of 


his excellent editorial work on Fishes of the West- 
ern North Atlantic. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


cartilage in olsent but smooth on laevis of equal 
size and its mucous pores are not marked with 
black as they are in laevis. It differs from R. spini- 
cauda in its fringed nostril lobe, in i#s shorter tail 
folds, in the interspace between its dorsals, and 
in having three rows of thorns on the tail (only 
one row on spinicauda). 

Description of holotype-—Proportional dimen- 
sions in percent of total length: 


Dise.—Extreme breadth 69.0; length 54.0. 

Snout length.—In front of orbits 15.6; in front 
of mouth 17.7. 

Orbits.—Horizontal diameter 4.4; distance be- 
tween 3.6. 

Spiracles—Length 2.0; distance between 6.3. 

Mouth.—Breadth 7.9. 

Exposed nostrils.—Distance betwe2n inner ends 
79): 

Gill openings.—Length, first 2.0; third 2.1; 
fifth 1.6; distance between inner ends, first 13.6; 
fifth 7.3. 

First dorsal fin.—Vertical height 2.5; length of 
base 4.3. 

Second dorsal fin.—Vertical height 2.4; length 
of base 4.6. 

Pelvies.—Anterior margin 13.2. 

Distance from tip of snout to center of cloaca 
47.5; from center of cloaca to first dorsal 30.4; 
to tip of tail 52.5; from rear end of second dorsal 
base to tip of tail 3.2. 

Interspace between first dorsal and second 
dorsal 4.3. 


Dise about 1.3 times as broad as long, the 
maximum anterior angle in front of spiracles 
about 90°; anterior margins concave just posterior 
to tip of snout, weakly convex opposite eyes and 
spiracles, thence about straight rearward; outer 
corners narrowly rounded; posterior corners more 
broadly so; posterior margins gently convex. 
Axis of greatest breadth about 67 percent of dis- 
tance back from tip of snout to axils of pectorals. 


, Tail with a lateral fold, low down on each side, 
beginning posterior to axils of pelvics by a dis- 


tance about four-fifths as long as eye and ending 
opposite anterior third of caudal fin, its length 
from center of cloaca to origin of first dorsal fin 
about 0.67 as great and to its tip about 1.1 times 
as great as distance from center of cloaca to tip 
of snout. 

Two small thorns immediately in front of orbit, 
of which one is on the inner and one on the outer 
margin, also one on the inner rear margin; these 
are the only thorns or prickles on the disc. Six- 
teen thorns along midline of tail from a little in 
advance of axils of pelvics to first dorsal fin, and 
three in interspace between first and second dor- 


DeEcEMBER 1951 


sals. An additional row of thorns, widely and un- 
evenly spaced, on each side of median row, 
beginning about opposite tips of pelvics and 
extending to opposite beginning of caudal fin; 
dorsals and caudal fin smooth. Lower surface with 
a narrow band of small prickles along anterior 
margin of dise from level of nostrils to tip of snout 
and also along rostral cartilage. 

Snout in front of orbits 3.5 times as long as 
orbit, its length in front of mouth 2.2 times as 
great as distance between exposed nostrils. Dis- 
tance between orbits 1.2 as great as length of 


BIGELOW AND SCHROEDER: THREE NEW SKATES 


387 


orbit. Orbit 2.2 times as long as spiracle. Nasal 
curtain fringed; expanded posterior (outer) mar- 
gins of nostrils frmged. Upper and lower jaws 
moderately arched centrally. Teeth #4, close set 
in quincunx, ovate, with a triangular cusp. Dis- 
tance between first gill openings 1.7 times as 
great as distance between exposed nostrils; be- 
tween fifth gill openings 1.1 times; first gill open- 
ings 1.25 times as long as fifth and 0.25 as long 
as breadth of mouth. First and second dorsals 
similar in size and shape. Interspace between 
dorsals as long as base of first dorsal. Caudal 


Fig. 2.—Raja olseni, n.sp., male, 280 mm long, holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 153556): A, Posterior part 
of tail, about X 1.5; B, mouth and nostrils, about X 2; C, upper teeth, about X 12. 


388 


membrane from rear end of base of second dorsal 
about twice as long as base of first dorsal. Pelvics 
deeply concave, strongly scalloped along anterior 
side of excavation but only weakly so rearward; 
anterior margin about as long as distance from 
its own origin to rear tip of pelvic; anterior lobe 
moderately slender, including five radial carti- 
lages besides the first stout one; posterior lobe 
moderately convex outwardly; rear tips abruptly 
rounded, extending about two-sevenths the dis- 
tance from axil of pelvics toward first dorsal; 
inner margin straight. Claspers falling well short 
of tips of pelvics. 

Rostral cartilage firm, extending to tip of 
snout. Anterior pectoral rays reaching about half 
way from level of front of orbits toward snout tip. 

Color—Upper surface, in life, olive-brown with 
many small roundish obscure spots of darker 
brown on disc; a small dark spot, smaller than 
pupil, on each side of disc near its inward center; 
series of small whitish pores extend in three or 
four rows along midzone of back from region of 
pectoral girdle to axils of pelvics and extend on 
to tail in one or two rows; two rows extend rear- 
ward and outward on each side of dise posterior 
to the scapular region; whitish pores also are 
present opposite and in front of orbits, some ex- 
tending toward outer margin of dise in sinuous 
rows. Below jet black everywhere, but this pig- 
ment tends to diminish in intensity in preserva- 
tive. 

The other known specimen of this species, 282 
mm long, has a somewhat longer snout, the dis- 
tance in front of orbits being four times the diame- 
ter of orbit; the interorbital space is as long as the 
orbit; the interspace between dorsals is nine- 
tenths as long as base of first dorsal and there are 
more teeth 45. 

As both specimens have very small claspers 
it is probable that the species attains at least a 
moderately large size, possibly 2 feet or more in 
total length. 

Nothing is known of the habits of this skate 
except that it is apparently a moderately deep 
water species. It is known only from the north- 
western part of the Gulf of Mexico as listed above. 


Raja teevani’, n. sp. 


Study material. Immature male, 558 mm in 
total length, holotype, U. 8S. N. M. no. 153557, 
3’ Named for John Tee Van in appreciation of 


his helpful assistance to us as editor-in-chief of 
Fishes of the Western North Atlantic. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, vou. 41, No. 12 


and an immature male 302 mm in total length, 
paratype, M. C. Z. no. 37189, both from lat. 29° 
11’ N.; long. 86° 52’ W., in 305 fathoms, Oregon 
station 279. 

Distinctive characters.—Raja teevani differs from 
all other rajids in the western North Atlantic in 
its broad tail, which widens rearward approach- 
ing the dorsal fins (in all other rajids it narrows 
rearward). It resembles R. olsent and R. laevis in 
general appearance and in lacking thorns along 
the midbelt of the disc from the level of the axils 
of the pectorals to the vicinity of the spiracles. 
But it differs from olsent by having no interspace 
between the bases of the dorsal fins; from laevis 
of comparable size it may be separated by its 
longer snout (the distance from tip of snout to eye 
being about one-fourth to one-third the width of 
the dise in teevant but only about one-fifth in 
laevis) and by the fact that the anterior margin of 
the pelvic fins is longer than the distance from 
its own origin to the rear tip of pelvic (shorter in 
laevis). 

Description of holotype-—Proportional dimen- 
sions in percent of total length: 

Disc.—Extreme breadth 72.7; length 58.2. 

Snout length.—In front of orbits 22.2; in front 
of mouth 24.2. 

Orbits.—Horizontal diameter 3.2; distance be- 
tween 4.1. 

Spiracles.—Length 2.0; distance between 6.1. 

Mouth.—Breadth 7.7. 

Exposed nostrils.—Distance between inner ends 
8.7. 

Gill openings.—Length, first 1.7; third 1.8; 
fifth 1.2; distance between inner ends, first 13.8; 
fifth 8.4. 

First dorsal fin—Vertical height 2.7; length of 
base 4.3. 

Second dorsal fin.—Vertical height 2.7; length 
of base 4.0. 

Pelvics.—Anterior margin 14.7. 

Distance from tip of snout to center of cloaca 
51.7; from center of cloaca to first dorsal 34.3; 
to tip of tail 48.3; from rear end of second dorsal 
base to tip of tail 5.4. 

Interspace between first and second dorsals 
0.0. 

Disc about 1.25 times as broad as long, the 
maximum anterior angle in front of spiracles 
about 70°; anterior margins sinuous from snout 
to outer corners, being slightly convex a little 
in front of orbits; outer corners very sharply 
rounded; posterior margins gently convex; pos- 
terior corners broadly rounded. Axis of greatest 
breadth about 77 percent of distance back from 
tip of snout to axils of pectorals. Tail with a 
lateral fold low down on each side beginning al- 


DECEMBER 1951 


most imperceptibly about opposite tips of pelvics, 
widening rearward and ending opposite middle of 
caudal fin, its length from center of cloaca to 
origin of first dorsal fin 0.66 as great and to its tip 
0.93 times as great as distance from center of 
cloaca to tip of snout. 

Three small thorns along inner margin of left 
orbit, two of them anterior and one posterior; one 
anterior and one posterior thorn along inner 
margin of right orbit; minute prickles scattered 


BIGELOW AND SCHROEDER: THREE NEW SKATES 


389 


over interorbital area and over entire disc ante- 
rior to the orbits. Tail with a median row of 15 
backward pointing thorns, beginning about an 
eye’s diameter posterior to the axils of pelvics and 
ending a little in front of first dorsal, the thorns 
somewhat more closely spaced and larger rear- 
ward than near their origin; minute prickles on 
tail from about tips of pelvics nearly to tip; dor- 
sals and caudal with a few minute prickles. Lower 
surface with a band of prickles along anterior 


Fig. 3.—Raja teevani, n.sp., male, 558 mm long, holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 153557): A, Upper teeth, 
about X 6; B, margin of left nasal curtain about X 2.5; C, posterior part of tail, about X 1; D, mouth 
and nostrils, about X 1. 


390 


margin of disc from a little posterior to level of 
mouth to tip of snout and also along anterior half 
of rostral cartilage. 

Snout in front of orbits 6.9 times as long as 
orbit; its length in front of mouth 3.6 times as 
great as distance between exposed nostrils. Dis- 
tance between orbits 1.3 times as great as orbit. 
Orbit 1.6 times as long as spiracle. Nasal curtain 
fringed; expanded posterior (outer) margins of 
nostrils smooth except for a few fringes on ex- 
treme outer angle. Upper and lower jaws mod- 
erately arched centrally. Teeth $(, rather widely 
spaced, in quincunx, triangular or ovate, with 
smooth rounded apex on outward margin and a 
low triangular cusp, pointing inward, on inner 
margin. Distance between first gill openings 1.6 
times as great as distance between exposed nos- 
trils; between fifth gill openings about 1.0 times; 
first gill openings 1.4 times as long as fifth and 
0.22 aslong as breadth of mouth. First and second 
dorsals similar in size and shape. No interspace 
between dorsals. Caudal membrane from rear end 
of base of second dorsal 1.25 times as long as base 
of first dorsal. Pelvics deeply concave, strongly 
scalloped along anterior side of excavation but 
only weakly so rearward; anterior margin 1.1 
times as long as distance from its own origin to 
rear tip of pelvics; anterior lobe moderately 
slender, including five radial cartilages besides 
the first stout one; posterior lobe convex out- 
wardly; rear tips abruptly rounded, extending 
about one-fifth the distance from axil of pelvics 
toward first dorsal; inner margin straight. Clasp- 
ers falling well short of tips of pelvies. 

Rostal cartilage firm, narrow, extending to tip 
of snout. Anterior pectoral rays reaching only 
about two-fifths the distance from level of front 
of orbits toward tip of snout. Translucent area in 
front of orbits and on either side of rostral carti- 
lage very thin and membranous. 

Color.—Upper surface pale brown, somewhat 
darker along posterior margins of disc, on pelvics 
and on tail. Dorsal fins and caudal black. Below 
creamy on disc except somewhat dusky along 
outer margins from outer angle rearward and on 
pelvics. Probably blackish everywhere in life. 
Tail blackish. 

The other known specimen of this species, 302 
mm long, has a somewhat shorter snout, the dis- 
tance in front of orbits being 5.5 times as long as 
orbit and a relatively longer tail the distance from 
center of cloaca to tip of tail bemg 1.1 times as 
great as distance from center of cloaca to tip of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


snout. There is one sharp backward pointing 
spine on the anterior inner margin of each orbit 
and another on the posterior inner margin. The 
color of the upper surface is similar to that of the 
type except that there is a narrow black margin 
along the posterior edge of the disc and the lower 
surface is distinctly margimed with black rear- 
ward from the level of the mouth; the rear parts 
of the pelvics also are blackish. 

The very small claspers on the larger specimen 
indicate that this species attains at least a mod- 
erately large size. 

Nothing is known of its habits beyond the fact 
that our two specimens were taken at a depth of 
305 fathoms. It is known only from the offing of 
Pensacola, Fla. 


Hydrolagus alberti‘, n. sp. 


Study material—Immature male, 275 mm 
long to origm of upper caudal fin, holotype 
(U.S. N. M. no. 153558); male, 280 mm and fe- 
male 275 mm, paratypes, all from lat. 29° 11’ N., 
long. 86° 52’ W., 305 fathoms, Oregon station 279. 

Distinctive characters—This newly discovered 
chimaerid is marked off from its genus mate 
affinis by its very long caudal filament, its rela- 
tively much longer pectorals, and its very much 
larger eyes. It resembles the Japanese H. himit- 
sukurw very closely but differs from it by having 
a shorter dorsal spine, longer pectorals and more 
conspicuously waved lateral line anteriorly. 

Description of holotype-—Proportional dimen- 
sions in percent of distance between snout and 
origin of upper caudal fin: 

Trunk.—Breadth 10.9; height 15.6. 

Snout length.—In front of eye 9.5; in front of 
mouth 10.5. 

Eye.—Horizontal diameter 7.6; vertical diame- 
ter 5.8. 

Mouth.—Breadth 5.5. 

Nostrils.—Distance between 0.4. 

Dorsal spine.—Length 15.3. 

First dorsal fin.—Length of base to lowest 
point between dorsals 13.8. 

Second dorsal fin.—Length of base 64.7. 

Upper caudal fin®.—Length of base to last horny 
ray 19.3. 

Pectoral fin.—Length 31.6; breadth 16.3. 

Distance from snout to origin of dorsal spine 
24.4; second dorsal 38.2; pectorals 23.2; pelvics 
45.5. 

Distance from origin to origin of pectorals and 
pelvies 26.6. 


* Named for Albert E. Parr in recognition of 
his many contributions to ichthyology. 
_ >The point of origin of the lower caudal fin 
is not evident. 


DECEMBER 1951 


Trunk opposite dorsal spine about as high as 
distance from snout to posterior margin of eye; 
about one-half as high close behind pelvies, taper- 
ing evenly thence rearward and terminating in a 
long filament which, when complete, is about 
two-thirds the length of body from snout to 
termination of caudal fin; strongly compressed 
laterally posterior to head, creasingly so rear- 
ward, its thickness about three-quarters as great 
as its height opposite bases of pectoral fins and 
one-half as great opposite bases of pelvic fins. 

Skin perfectly smooth on immature specimen. 

Head about 21 percent of length of trunk to 
upper origin of caudal fin. Snout conical with 
blunt tip. Eye oval, sloping a little rearward, its 
horizontal diameter about 1.3 times its vertical 
diameter; distance from tip of snout to front of 
eye about two-fifths length of head to origin of 
pectorals; pupil one-half vertical diameter of eye; 


BIGELOW AND SCHROEDER: THREE NEW 


SKATES 391 
height of eye about two-fifths of height of head, its 
length about one-third length of head to origin of 
pectorals. Exposed subdivision of nostrils crescen- 
tic on inner edge, about 13 times as long as broad, 
its length about 15 percent as great as length of 
eye; distance from its own rear edge to free edge 
of upper lip about as long as its own length. 
Width of mouth, when closed, a little less than 
length of eye. 

Lateral mucous canal with a short and abrupt 
wave opposite the anterior part of first dorsal fin, 
after which there is a long low dip opposite origin 
of second dorsal fin, thence continuing nearly 
straight along the upper part of the caudal axis, 
descending at origin of caudal fin to follow out 
along lower edge of caudal axis. Junction of cra- 
nial canal with aural canal somewhat more acute 
than a right angle; anterior course of cranial canal 
nearly straight, loopmg down in front of eye; 


D 


Fig. 4.—H ydrolagus alberti, n.sp., male, 275 mm long to origin of upper caudal fin, holotype (U.S.N.M. 
no. 153558): A, Posterior part of second dorsal fin and upper and lower caudal fins, about X 1; B, ventral 
view of head and body; C, mouth, with left lip folded aside to show nostrils and dental plates, about 
X 2; D, tip of dorsal spine, about X 2.5. 


392 


jugular and oral canals running downward from 
suborbital as a joimt canal for a short distance 
before separating. About 10-12 medium size 
pores close in front of occipital canal; about 12 
pores in area bounded by suborbital and joint 
oral-jugular canals; about 10 large openings along 
angular canal to front of snout; a single row of 
about 15 small pores parallel to descending oval 
branch and continuing in front of it; about 8 or 9 
large openings along anterior part of suborbital 
canal from its descending wave to front of snout; 
jugular canal continued downward onto throat 
as a series of short slits. Skin closely pock-marked 
on top and on upper sides of head abreast of 
mouth and nostrils and toward tip of snout, with 
many rounded depressions of different sizes. 

Anterior upper (vomerine) dental plates quad- 
rate, their outer anterior outlines convex, with 
six radial ridges. Posterior upper (palatine) plates 
about 2.75 times as long as anterior plates, tri- 
angular, the posterior margin about two-thirds 
as long as outer margin, surface lumpy, with four 
prominent ridges running longitudinally. Lower 
(mandibular) plates nearly as long as posterior 
upper plates, each plate with a double concavity 
and central ridge on inner surface, the cutting 
edge uneven, highest at center of mouth. 

Gill openings nearly one-half as long as distance 
from tip to snout to front of eye, distance across 
throat between their lower ends about one-half 
as long as eye, fold across throat strongly marked. 

Dorsal spine about as long as distance from 
tip of snout to rear edge of pupil, reaching slightly 
beyond apex of first dorsal fin; outer part free 
from first dorsal fin, the rear face with two rows 
of low sharp thorns pointing toward base. First 
dorsal fin with sharp angle at apex and straight 
posterior margin; its base (from origin of spine 
to bottom of inter-dorsal notch) nearly as long 
as height along anterior margin of fin. Distance 
between first dorsal (when slightly depressed) 
and first noticeable elevation of second dorsal 
about two-fifths as long as anterior margin of first 
dorsal. 


Second dorsal with horny rays easily distin- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


guishable, upper margin nearly straight; height 
at midlength about one-fifth as great as length of 
anterior margin of first dorsal; about equally 
great at rear end and slightly greater toward 
anterior end; posterior outline of second dorsal 
curving abruptly downward. No definite inter- 
space between second dorsal and upper origin of 
caudal. Caudal lanceolate, prolonged into a long 
filament about four-fifths as long as distance from 
snout to rear end of second dorsal; maximum 
height of caudal above axis about two-thirds 
height of second dorsal at posterior end; its ex- 
treme length to most posterior ray about 9 times 
as great as its height; caudal below axis about 
four-fifths as wide as above; the most posterior 
rays of both upper and lower sides of caudal 
terminate almost imperceptibly and about oppo- 
site each other; origin of lower side of caudal 
indefinite in position, preceded by a low fleshy 
ridge distinguishable forward to a pomt above 
and opposite beginning of last third of second 
dorsal fin. Pelvic fins with weakly convex ante- 
rior and distal margins, subangular outer corners 
and gradually rounded posterior (inner) corners; 
length of pelvics along anterior margin about as 
great as distance from tip of snout to middle of 
eye; origin posterior to axils of pectorals by a dis- 
tance about equal to that from tip of snout to 
origin of pectorals. Pectoral fins about three- 
tenths as long as distance from tip of snout to 
opposite rear part of second dorsal fin; tips, when 
laid back, extending just beyond the base of 
pelvic; anterior margin weakly convex; distal 
margin straight or slightly concave; apex sharp 
pointed; ner corner broadly rounded. 

Prepelvic openings present. Frontal tenaculum 
embedded in skin in this immature male. Claspers 
bifid but may develop as trifid with age. 

Color—Dark brownish everywhere on head 
and body above and below; fins somewhat darker. 

The female closely resembles the male but 
lacks the prepelvic openings and, of course, the 
frontal tenaculum. 

This species is known only from the offing 
of Pensacola, Fla., in a depth of 305 fathoms. 


DECEMBER 1951 


OTEIFA: EFFECTS OF POTASSIUM 


NUTRITION 393 


NEMATOLOGY Effects of potassium nutrition and amount of inoculum on rate 
of reproduction of Meloidogyne incognita. BAkir A. OrrIra, University of 
Maryland and U. 8. Bureau of Plant Industry, on leave from Fouad 1, Uni- 
versity, Giza, Egypt. (Communicated by G. Steiner.) 


It is well established that nutritional con- 
ditions of host plants have a marked in- 
fluence on development of various bacteria 
and fungi that parasitize them. As far as 
can be determined no information is avail- 
able regarding such influence on develop- 
ment of parasitic nematodes. Godfrey and 
Oliveira (1932) have shown that the length 
of time required for reproduction of root- 
knot nematodes depends on the type of host 
plant used. Other authors (Chitwood, 1951; 
Christie, 1949) have indicated that various 
plant species react differently to the same 
nematode. In this connection question was 
raised whether the mineral composition of 
the host plant affects the reproduction of the 
nematode infecting it. The present study at- 
tempts to ascertain the effect of low, medium 
and high concentrations of potassium in a 
host plant upon the production of females 
and egg masses of the root-knot nematode, 
Meloidogyne incognita (Kofoid and White, 
1919) Chitwood, 1949, infecting it.t 

Inoculum used in this experiment was ob- 
tained from tomato, Lycopersicon esculentum 
Mill. var. Marglobe. The number of MM. 
incognita egg masses contained in a finely 
chopped sample of roots was counted under 
a binocular microscope; the corresponding 
weights of roots containing approximately 
50 and 200 egg masses, which were the two 
levels of inoculum used throughout this ex- 
periment, were computed. Glazed, 3-gallon 
crocks were filled to one-quarter of their 
capacity with a coarse sand of approximately 
8-mesh, on top of which a finer sand of ap- 
proximately 40-mesh was added so that the 
pot was about half full. Chopped roots con- 
taining the required amount of inoculum in 
each case were distributed evenly over the 
surface, after which an additional layer of 
the finer sand was added to raise the surface 
to about 2 inches from the top of the crock. 
Seedlings of lima bean, Phaseolus lunatus L. 


1 This experiment was carried out in coopera- 
tion with the Division of Nematology, Bureau of 
Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineer- 
ing, Beltsville, Md. 


var. Henderson that had been germinated in 
pure quartz sand were transplanted to the 
crocks when in the 3- or 4-leaf stage. 

Composition of nutrient solutions used in 
the experiment is shown in Table 1. All 
standard compounds used were of C.P. 
gerade. Immediately after transplanting, each 
crock received 250 ml of the nutrient solu- 
tion desired after which additional applica- 
tions of 400 to 500 ml per crock were added 
when needed to maintain the proper mois- 
ture level. Crocks were flushed weekly with 
tap water in order to prevent any accumula- 
tion of salts. 

The experimental design was a randomized 
complete block with four replications. Dur- 
ing the course of the experiment greenhouse 
temperature varied from 65° to 85°F., with 
an average temperature of 75°F. 

After 70 days the plants had reached ma- 
turity and roots of each plant were washed 
free of sand and rinsed in tap water. After 
drainage for a few seconds, root weights were 
recorded and the root-gall index was deter- 
mined. This index was based on the relative 
amount of root galling, the root system being 
classified as follows: 0—no evidence of gall- 
ing; 1—trace of galling; 2—moderate 
galling; 3—extensive galling; 4—severe gall- 
ing. The roots were then finely chopped and 
the number of females and egg masses in one 
gram of roots from each plant was counted. 
Results are given in Table 2. Examination 


TaBLeE 1.—CompositTion or NuTRIENT 
SoLtutTions UsEp 


MI stock/liter of nutrient 
Stock solutions SOHO 
Low | Medium | High 
| “| 7 lew 5 — 

WIVAl CEXONON)R: og aueocosoaaebnonace 5.0 | 5.0 | 5.0 
IMI IKON O gichee ani nfusircnescntaste | @O |) SO |) aw 
IMU /TONIGIIN © ane eines cc asticase cise clears 5.0 0.0 | 0.0 
IMIS Ce iene mretcinietsigertseeios 0.5 0.0 | 4.0 
INU/ALEN AC) es pada sGn enn erat nGacae | Ao 4.5 || 0.5 
IMi/TeMig S @anens ceramic siemcnrepeisicmets 2.0 | 2.0 2.0 
WALA SIA OV Gn dnaios aobrentoanoonod GO ye TM hae 
INU/Al INAIEISEO, anvecoaugncnsocnase nw | Oe 0.9 
UNV AE Qeeees QR HOTG ATIC OUAACOT NEO |p NW 1.0 


* Micronutrient solution ss described by Hoagland and 
Snyder (1933). 


394 


of the data reveals that the average increase 
in number of females and egg masses was 
significant with each increase in concentra- 
tion of potassium. The mean effect of in- 
crease of inoculum increment was likewise 
highly significant in increasing the number 
of females and egg masses produced. 

Chitwood (1951) has shown that with cer- 
tain root-attacking nematodes the mean 
number of females and the mean number of 
ege masses produced per unit of inoculum 
were inversely proportional to the amount 
of inoculum. The present results confirm this 
(Table 2). For each of the medium and high 
potassium levels it was found that an in- 
crease of egg masses in the inoculum resulted 
in a corresponding significant decrease in 
number of mature females as well as a de- 
crease In number of egg masses produced on 
the test plants. However, in the cases of low 
potassium level this relationship was only 
shehtly evident. This indicates that the num- 
ber of egg masses produced per unit of 
inoculum may be influenced by the amount 
of potassium available. 

Reproductive activities of the nematodes 
may be limited more by availability of po- 
tassium than by amount of root space avail- 
able to the nematode. When potassium was 
low the average number of egg masses 
produced per unit of inoculum was five and 
the mean root weight per plant was 12 gm. 
When the level of potassium was medium 
the mean number of egg masses produced 
per unit of inoculum was 30, or six times as 
ereat as that of the low potassium level, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


while the average root weight was 27 gm or 
only slightly more than double the root 
weight for the low potassium level. When 
potassium level was high the mean number 
of egg masses produced per unit of inoculum 
was 32 and the root weight was 25 gm, indi- 
cating that an increase in potassium level 
from medium to high had little effect on the 
corresponding root weight and number of 
egg masses produced per unit inoculum. 
Thus while root weight increases by a factor 
of 2 from the low to the medium and high 
potassium levels the number of egg masses 
produced per unit inoculum increases by the 
factor 6. 

These data indicate that the maximum 
number of females which the roots can sup- 
port under the medium and high potassium 
levels was in the vicinity of 350 females per 
gram of root. When roots were infected to 
that extent the rate of reproduction, which 
was obtained by dividing the number of egg 
masses by the number of mature females, 
was about 0.5. Plants inoculated with 200 
egg masses and given the high level of po- 
tassium did not support a greater number of 
females and egg masses than such plants 
receiving the medium level of potassium. 
Similar results were evident in the compari- 
son of root gall indices of these plants. Such 
failure was attributed to the effects of over- 
crowding. When roots were not heavily in- 
fected, as in the case of plants receiving 50 
units of inoculum, the number of egg masses 
per gram of root increased with the increase 
in potassium level. Rate of reproduction was 


TaBLE 2.—RELATIONSHIP OF Potassium NutfRITION AND AMOUNT OF INOCULUM TO RATE 
OF REPRODUCTION OF MELOIDOGYNE INCOGNITA 
| Mean number of females | Mean number of egg masses 
| Units of | Mean c 
Potassium levels | ‘Wotan ropeeall Mean 00k | F per gm per : OHS 
'(egg masses)| index wets per gm per |per unit* per unit?) duction 
| | root plant jinoculum inoculum 
| root plant 
| | gm | 
50 | 3.2 | 9.2 | slal7/ 1084 22 20 200 4 0.168 
LH St essceante Seca I 88 15.0 | 246 3675 18 83 1229 6 0.334 
eal 50 | 2.7 32.5 126 4079 82 54 1665 32 0.428 
western stair ||| 200 0 23.1 346 8034 40 196 4564 28 0.568 
High (| 50 3.0 21.2 | 158 3330 67 | 108 2281 45 0.688 
alk 200 4.0 21.1 361 7668 39 186 3964 20 0.514 
LSD* .05 A 5.8 16.9 589.0 10.6 IBec 305.8 bad, 0.173 
01 U8 23.2 | 807.8 14.6 } L828 419.3 | 7.9 | 0.236 
4 Females per plant divided by egg masses in inoculum. 
b Begg masses per plant divided by egg masses in inoculum. 


© Number of egg masses divided by number of mature females. 


4 Teast significant differences. 


DECEMBER 1951 


also increased significantly with an increase 
in the 3 potassium levels: 0.168, 0.428, and 
0.688, respectively. 

Among plants receiving a relatively low 
amount of inoculum, rates of reproduction 
were apparently limited by the amount of 
potassium available, as indicated by the 
highly significant differences between treat- 
ments. On the other hand, with higher 
amounts of nematode inoculum an increase 
in potassium correspondingly increased the 
rate of reproduction up to a certain point 
between that produced by the medium and 
high levels of potassium. Thus it seems that 
rates of reproduction of nematodes among 
plants receiving medium and high levels of 
potassium are correlated with the amount of 
root available and with competition between 
nematodes for living space in the roots rather 
than the amount of potassium available. 


SUMMARY 


Lima-bean plants grown in sand cultures 
were inoculated with the root-knot nematode 
Meloidogyne incognita. Three nutrient treat- 
ments were employed supplying low, inter- 
mediate and high potassium concentrations. 
Two levels of nematode inoculum were used 
at rates of 50 and 200 egg masses. 

Results of this experiment are: 

1. Differences in the number of female 
nematodes produced on the roots and differ- 


HUMES AND WILSON: DIAPTOMUS SANGUINEUS 


395 


ences in the rate of their oviposition can be 

induced by variations in potassium concen- 

trations. 

2. Among plants receiving a relatively low 
amount of inoculum, rates of nematode re- 
production were apparently limited by the 
amount of potassium available. 

3. In plants receiving relatively higher 
inoculum and treated with higher potassium 
concentrations, rates of reproduction are 
correlated with the amount of root available 
and with competition between nematodes 
for root space rather than with the amount 
of potassium available. 

REFERENCES 

Currwoop, B. G. Root knot nematodes—Part I: A 
revision of the genus Meloidogyne Goeldi, 1887. 
Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington 16(2): 90-104. 
1949. 

———. Rool-knot nematodes. IT. Quantitative rela- 
tions of the root-knot nematode—Meloidogyne 
hapla Chitwood, 1949 with tomatoes, onions and 
lima beans. Plant and Soil 111(B): 47-50. 1951. 

Cueisti£, J. R. Host-parasile relationships of the 
root-knot nematode, Meloidogyne spp. IIT. The 
nature of resistance in plants to root knot. 
Proc. Helm. Soc. Washington. 16(2): 104-108. 
1949. 

Goprrey, G. H., and Oriverra, J. The develop- 
ment of root-knot nematode in relation to root 
tissues of pineapple and cowpea. Phytopath. 
22(4) : 325-348. 1932. 

Hoacuanp, D. R., and SynprEr, W. R. Nutrition 
of the strawberry plant under controlled condi- 
tions. Proc. Amer. Soc. Hort. Sci. 30: 288-294. 
1933. 


ZOOLOGY .—The last copepodid instar of Diaptomus sanguineus Forbes (Copepoda). 
ArtTuur G. Humus, Boston University, Boston, Mass., and MruprEp STRATTON 
Witson, Arctic Health Research Center, Anchorage, Alaska. 


The larval stages of Diaptomus vulgaris 
Schmeil have been described by Grandori 
(1912) and those of D. castor (Jurine) by 
Dietrich (1915) and Gurney (1931). Naupli 
and copepodids of North American diapto- 
mids, however, are almost entirely unknown. 
Ewers (1930) described the nauplius stages 
of D. siciloides Lilljeborg. C. B. Wilson 
(1932) described briefly the fifth leg of 
“voung’’ male and female D. leptopus Forbes 
and the fifth leg of ‘“‘undeveloped”’ male and 
female D. oregonensis Lilljeborg, both of 
these immature forms being apparently the 
last copepodid stage. 

It is the purpose of this paper to describe 
the last copepodid instar of D. sangwineus 


Forbes and in so doing to supply certain 
details of the structure of the adult that 
were not mentioned in Forbes’ descriptions 
(1876, 1882) or by later authors. Since large 
numbers of the last copepodid stage of both 
sexes may occur in plankton, along with 
adults of this and often other species, it is 
desirable to be able to correlate this imma- 
ture stage with its adult form. 

The specimens of D. sanguineus upon 
which the following description is based were 
collected from a small ice-covered pond in 
Weston, Mass., in February and March of 
1950 and 1951. The copepods were studied 
entire and dissected, as stained mounts in 
balsam, as unstained mounts in glycerin, or 


396 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VOL. 41, No. 12 


Ny 
My 


\, 
[| 


ha 
7] 


\\ WN S\ \ 
eee, 


cake 


\ 


re 
SCALE 8. 0.05 MM. 


SSS 


kUFies. 1-13.—Diaptomus sanguineus Forbes: 1, Last copepodid of male, last metasomal somite, one 
side only; 2, adult male, last metasomal somite and genital segment; 3, last copepodid of male, right 
antennule; 4, adult male, right antennule; 5, last copepodid of male, left antennule; 6, adult male, proe- 
ess on segment 23 of right antennule; 7, last copepodid of male, antenna; 8, same, mandible; 9, same, 
first maxilla; 10, same, second maxilla; 11, same, maxilliped; 12, same, first swimming leg; 138, same, 
second swimming leg. (All figures drawn with the aid of a camera lucida. Scale A applies to Fig. 1 only, 
scale B to Figs. 6, 18, and 19, and scale C to the remaining figures.) 


DECEMBER 1951 


as unstained mounts in water. The last 
method was most satisfactory for distin- 
guishing the aesthetes and other minute de- 
tails. Only salient points of difference be- 
tween the larval and adult stages are 
described, since many features are better 
shown by figures. Specimens of both sexes 
of copepodids and adults have been de- 
posited in the United States National Mu- 
seum. 

Last copepodid, male——The body propor- 
tions are similar to those of the adult. The 
average total length and average sizes of the 
body regions, based upon 10 copepodid and 
adult males, measured without pressure, are 
indicated in Table 1. The metasome reaches 

its greatest width at the level of the second 

somite. The posterior lateral areas of the 
last somite bear a pair of sensory spines, 
smaller in the copepodid (Fig. 1) than in 
the adult male (Fig. 2). The urosome con- 
sists of four somites, as compared to five in 
the adult male. 

The right antennule (Fig. 3) is slenderer 
than that of the adult male (Fig. 4), 25- 
segmented, and nonprehensile. It differs from 
that of the left side (Fig. 5) in the presence 
of incipient spines and depressed processes 
on segments 13 and 17-19. The major spines 
of 8 and 10-11 are represented in the cope- 
podid by stout setae. The right antennule 
of the adult is distinguished by the enlarge- 
ment of the usual minor spine of segment 8, 
and the presence of a very stout spinous 
cuticular process on 15. The process of seg- 
ment 23 is as shown in Fig. 6. 

The antenna of the copepodid (Fig. 7) 
resembles that of the adult, except that in 


HUMES AND WILSON: DIAPTOMUS SANGUINEUS 


397 


the latter the joints are somewhat more 
distinct and there are nine instead of eight 
setae on the inner side of the last endopodite 
podomere. The mandible of the copepodid 
(Fig. 8) is similar to that of the adult, except 
that in the palp of the latter there are nine 
instead of eight setae on the last endopodite 
podomere, and the very reduced fifth podo- 
mere of the exopodite is hardly separated. 
No important structural differences between 
the copepodid and adult were observed in 
the first maxilla (Fig. 9), second maxilla 
(Fig. 10), or maxilliped (Fig. 11). The first 
(Fig. 12), second (Fig. 13), third, and fourth 
swimming legs are similar in both instars, 
although the joints in the copepodid legs 
are less distinct. The cuticular lobe on the 
second podomere of the endopodite of the 
second leg occurs in both instars. 

The right fifth leg has a single terminal 
spine (Fig. 14), and the left three apical 
spinous processes. In specimens about to 
molt the form of the adult leg may be seen 
within the copepodid form (Fig. 15). The 
adult leg (Fig. 16) is distinguished by the 
broadened second basipodite segments, that 
of the right side having a small, inner, prox- 
imal lamella and a distinctive elongation of 
the distal outer corner (Fig. 17). The apical 
podomere of the left exopodite has prominent 
chitinized areas on the anterior side (Fig. 18), 
that at the base of the proximal process 
emphasizes the extended, pointed portion of 
the segmental body which is of systematic 
importance. The pads are well developed, 
the proximal being medially placed and bulg- 
ing, the distal confined largely to the poste- 
rior face (Fig. 19). 


TaBLE 1.—MEASUREMENTS (IN Microns) or Last Coprpopip AND ApULT INSTARS OF DIAPTOMUS 
SANGUINEUS, EacH FiGuRE REPRESENTING THE AVERAGE OF 10 SPECIMENS 


Body region Copepodid male 
potallbleme tlieer eet stise cree eect tex. sorssereienclststarestens 1367 (1287-1430) 
BIGAGl.0 os de Jone be CobU RE OSG OS cE OR Cente 336 X 323 
DSSS TAOREKG Coon now ene oan ou ReGen enae an 130 X 323 
ME CONCBUDOLACIC fe epit. aes asGiee scenciiveides: 136 X 336 
MINIT GCUEROLACIGN fan cisaie Haieidinesinean seeernee sie 105 X 326 
HounbihebhoraciCasesreeer aerate aenicnie uie 98 X 296 
Neda, WoO RO Conesesne eeloea aa rotheod cae eer 87 X 257 
SKeIa WPGC cnauonduponecdacncodsusoncoboad 64 X 196 
IDLH eM oysbraytets) ego oeme mG obn UU aces bebo os 67 X 125 
Secondsabdominali-cmeci dase 84 X 105 
sehr cdeabdominalenrecene sence criss eases er 73 X 98 
Movint bea bd omni aleewenise susetneriniiee caters: 100 X 100 
Ibije: lores om oureyomcdeaea robo ceeds ac 
MO GE PAINS Fe cctertresscs Se ncieree sees seo e wl enesrnaser ets 105 X 48 


Adult male Copepodid female Adult female 
1591 (1515-1701) 1522 (1500-1558) 1730 (1689-1773) 
361 X 342 353 X 356 391 X 387 
143 X 347 145 X 351 157 X 406 
163 X 359 158 X 372 181 X 422 
123 X 352 121 X 364 140 X 409 
115 X 325 120 X 333 | 132 X 380 
102 X 285 107 X 289 128 X 347 
71 X 226 79 X 240 | 121 X 302 
of e +8 162 & 145 | 201 X 169 
96 X 98 81 X 110 | 65 X 98 
89 X 90 108 X 113 | UU Xwy 

64 X 98 | 
110 X 46 103 X 54 107 X 55 


398 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, VoL. 41, No. 12 


0,2 MM. 


SCALE C 
‘\ 
es 


Fies.' 14-24.—Diaptomus sanguineus Forbes: 14, Last copepodid of male, fifth pair of legs; 15, same, 
fifth pair of legs about to molt; 16, adult male, fifth pair of legs; 17, same, basal segments of leg 5, turned 
somewhat mediad to show lamella of second basal segment in profile; 18, same, left fifth leg, anterior 
view; 19, same, left fifth leg, distal portion of exopodite, posterior view; 20, last copepodid of female, 
last metasomal somite and genital segment; 21, adult female, last metasomal somite and genital seg- 


ment; 22, last copepodid of female, fifth pair of legs; 23, adult female, fifth leg; 24, last copepodid of 
female, fifth pair of legs about to molt. 


DECEMBER 1951 


Last copepodid, female—The outline of 
the body is similar to that of the male. The 
average measurements for both copepodid 
and adult females, corresponding to those 
given for the male, are indicated in Table 1. 
The pair of sensilla on each side of the last 
metasomal somite (Fig. 20) are smaller than 
the prominent ones of the adult (Fig. 21) 
which are highly characteristic of D. san- 
guineus. The urosome in both instars con- 
sists of three somites. The genital segment 
of the copepodid (Fig. 20) is simple, but that 
of the adult is elongate and asymmetrical 
(Fig. 21). 

The right and left antennules are similar 
in both instars, resembling the nonprehensile 
appendages of the males. The species is of 
the ‘‘little setaceous” type, having only one 
seta on segments 11 and 13-19. The antennae 
and mandibles differ in the two instars in 
the same way as in the male. The first and 
second maxillae, maxillipeds, and __ first 
through fourth legs are similar to those of 
the male. 

The fifth leg in the copepodid (Fig. 22) 
differs from the adult in the presence of the 
lateral seta of the second exopodite podo- 
mere. The prominent claw of the adult (Fig. 
23) is weakly developed. In specimens about 
to molt the form of the adult female may be 
seen within (Fig. 24). 


HACSKAYLO: MYCORRHIZAE OF PINUS VIRGINIANA 


399 


The principal points of difference between 
the last copepodid and the adult stages, 
aside from changes in body size and propor- 
tions, are found in both sexes in the develop- 
ment of the sensilla of the last metasomal 
somite, in the number of terminal setae on 
the endopodites of the antennae and the 
mandibles, and in the form of the fifth legs. 
The male is further distinguished by the 
number of somites in the urosome, and by 
the structure of the right antennule. The 
female differs conspicuously in the develop- 
ment of the genital segment. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Dierricu, WattruEer. Die Metamorphose der freile- 
benden Stisswasser-Copepoden. Zeitschr. Wiss. 
Zool. 118: 252-324. 1915. 

Ewers, Leva A. The larval development of fresh- 
water Copepoda. Ohio State Univ., Franz 
Theodore Stone Lab., Contr. no. 3: 1-43. 1930. 

Forses, 8. A. List of Illinois Crustacea, with 
descriptions of new species. Bull. Illinois Mus. 
Nat. Hist. 1: 3-25. 1876. 

——. On some Entomostraca of Lake Michigan 
and adjacent waters. Amer. Nat. 16: 640-649. 
1882. 

GRANDORI, Remo. Studi sullo sviluppo larvale det 
copepodi pelagici. Redia 8: 360-457. 1912. 
GuRNEY, Roper. British fresh-water Copepoda. 

Ray Society, London, 1931. 

Wiuson, CHartes Brancu. The copepods of the 
Woods Hole region Massachusetts. U. 5. Nat. 
Mus. Bull. 158: 1-635. 1932. 


BOTANY —A study of the roots of Pinus virginiana in relation to certain Hymen- 
omycetes suspected of being mycorrhizal. EDwaRpd HAcsKAYLO, George Wash- 


ington University. (Communicated b 


The occurrence of ectotrophic mycorrhizae 
on Pinus virginiana Mill., a common conifer 
of the eastern United States, has been re- 
ferred to by Henry (1), Kelley (2), McComb 
(4), and McDougall (5), but no mention was 
made concerning the identity of the fungi in- 
volved in the relationship with this tree spe- 
cies. Inasmuch as fungal cultures could be 
obtained from sporophores collected from a 
stand of pine, it would be possible to deter- 
mine experimentally the identity of some of 
those species associated in the mycorrhizae 
of P. virginiana. This could be accomplished 
by subjecting seedlings germinated under 
aseptic conditions to simple inoculation tests 
using pure cultures of each fungus suspected 


y William W. Diehl.) 


because of its constant association with the 
pine stands. 

Sporophores of several Hymenomycetes 
were collected during the summer and fall of 
1949 from two nearly pure stands of Pinus 
virginiana occurring in Virginia near Wash- 
ington, D. C. The following fungi were iden- 
tified: Amanita verna (Bull.) Quel., Boletus 
americanus Pk., Boletus sp., Clavaria pulchra 
Pk., Lactarius chrysorrheus Fr., L. piperatus 
(Scop.) Fr., -Tricholoma equestre (.) Quel., 
and 7. portentosum Fr. From young sporo- 
phores of the above, tissue fragment cultures 
were obtained on a 50-50 mixture of com- 
mercial potato dextrose and malt dextrose 


agars. 


400 


Seeds of Pinus virginiana, purchased from 
the Herbst Brothers Seed Co., of New York, 
were surface-sterilized by soaking them for 
five minutes in a 1:1000 aqueous solution of 
bichloride of mercury. Following this treat- 
ment, the seeds were washed four times with 
sterile deionized water and then placed on a 
2% (Ben Venue! green plant) agar medium 
containing the following amounts of salts 
per liter: MgSO,, 1.2 gm; (NH4,)2SO,, 0.2 
gm; Ca(NO3)o, 0.8 gm; KH»PO,, 0.7 gm and 
a trace of CuSQ,. They were germinated 
aseptically in Petri dishes and urine speci- 
men bottles in a room at approximately 24°C. 
not exposed to direct sunlight. 

In January and February, 1950, 100 pot 
cultures of pine seedlings were inoculated 
with the various fungi in culture, and 16 un- 
inoculated controls were prepared. The meth- 
ods used were similar to those described by 
MeArdle (3) modified as follows. Each 3- 
inch pot was equipped with a glass subirriga- 
tion tube in order to avoid washing surface 
contaminants into the substrate during wa- 
tering and applying nutrient solution to the 
cultures. The end of tube exposed to the 
alr was covered with a glass vial when not in 
use. The system tended to reduce the amount 
of moisture on the substrate surface and con- 
sequently was not favorable for air-borne 
contaminants. The nutrient solution used 
was the same as prescribed by McArdle (3). 

The pot cultures were maintained in the 
greenhouse where growth was generally fa- 
vorable. There was, however, some variation 
in the amount of shoot growth among the 
different cultures. 

In April 1950, examination of some of the 
roots showed profuse dichotomy of the short 
roots, this having developed in less than four 
months in cultures containing mycelium of 
Amanita verna. Dichotomy was also present 
to a lesser extent in the cultures containing 
mycelium of Lactarius piperatus and Tri- 
choloma portentosum, but not in the pots con- 


1 Ben Venue Laboratories, Bedford, Ohio. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, vou. 41, No. 12 


taining the other fungi noted above. In free- 
hand sections of these dichotomous roots, it 
was found that initials of ectotrophic my- 
corrhizae had developed since mantles were 
present. Hyphal penetration was not evident 
as a well-developed Hartig net. Roots of eight 
of the control plants were examined and 
neither dichotomy nor fungus association 
was found. 

The roots of seedlings that were main- 
tained and examined after a period of six to 
eight months did not appear to be growing 
actively during late spring and summer. 
There were neither mycorrhizal nor nonmy- 
corrhizal young roots and very few older 
structures that resembled mycorrhizae. High 
temperatures up to 46°C. noted in the green- 
house after April 1 may have inhibited my- 
corrhizal formation and root development. 

These results indicate that Amanita verna, 
Lactarius piperatus, and Tricholoma porten- 
losum are possibly involved in the mycorrhi- 
zae of Pinus virginiana. No such indications, 
however, were found with Boletus ameri- 
canus, Boletus sp., Clavaria pulchra, Lactarius 
chrysorrheus, and Tricholoma equestre under 
the conditions of the experiment. None of 
the roots of the control plants were found to 
be associated with a fungus. This work has 
revealed some of the problems that must be 
solved in future experimentation and is a 
forerunner of research now under way. 


REFERENCES 
(1) Henry, LeR. K. Mycorhizas of trees and 
shrubs. Bot. Gaz. 94: 791-800. 1933. 


(2) Keuitey, A. P. The variations in form of my- 
corrhizal short-roots of Pinus virginiana Mzill. 
associated with certain soil series. 10 pp. 
1941. 

(83) McArpie, R. E. The relation of mycorrhizae 
to conifer seedlings. Journ. Agr. Res. 44: 
287-316. 1932. 

(4) McComps, A. L. Mycorrhizae and phosphorous 
nutrition of pine seedlings in a prairie soil 
nursery. Iowa Agr. Exp. Stat. Res. Bull. 
314: 582-612. 1943. 

(5) McDoueatL, W. B. Mycorhizas from North 
Carolina and eastern Tennessee. Amer. 
Journ. Bot. 15: 141-148. 1928. 


INDEX TO VOLUME 41 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


Anthropological Society of Washington. 307. 


AUTHOR 


AxssottT, Donaup P. Bostrichobranchus digonas, 
a new molgulid ascidian from Florida. 302. 

Axssort, R. Tucker. New stenothyrid gastropods 
from the Philippines (Rissoidae). 14. 

—and Lapp, H.S. A new brackish-water gas- 

tropod from Texas (Amnicolidae: Littori- 

dina). 335. 

. See also REHDER, HARALD. 22. 

AutarD, H. A. Dinoponera gigantea (Perty), a 
vicious stinging ant. 88. 

ArcHER, W. ANDREW. See JENKINS, ANNA E. 66. 

Barrscu, Paun. More urocoptid mollusks from 
Mexico. 146. 

Bayer, FREDERICK M. A revision of the nomencla- 
ture of the Gorgoniidae (Coelenterata: Octo- 
corallia), with an illustrated key to the genera. 
91. 

. Two new primnoid corals of the subfamily 
Calyptrophorinae (Coelenterata: Octocoral- 
lia). 40. 

Brxue, WiiiramM H., and SevanpEerR, Roperr J. 
The systematic relationships of the fox spar- 
rows (Passerella iliaca) of the Wasatch Moun- 
tains, Utah, and the Great Basin. 364. 

BERKELEY, E. and C. A second record of the 
polychaetous annelid Potamethus elongatus 
(Treadwell). 333. 

BicEetow, Henry B., and ScHRoEDER, WILLIAM C. 
Three new skates and a new chimaerid fish 
from the Gulf of Mexico. 383. 

. A new genus and species of anacantho- 
batid skate from the Gulf of Mexico. 110. 

Brrancourt, A. A. See JENKINS, ANNA HL. 66. 

Buake, Doris H. New species of chrysomelid 
beetles of the genera Trirhabda and Disonycha. 
324. 

Burury, Gorpon. See Kracek, F. C. 373. 

CampsBELL, T. N. Medicinal plants used by Choc- 
taw, Chickasaw, and Creek Indians in the 
early nineteenth century. 285. 

Carr, Luoyp G. K. Interesting animal foods, 
medicines, and omens of the eastern Indians, 
with comparisons to ancient European prac- 
tices. 229. 

CxHacr, FENNER A., Jr. The grass shrimps of the 
genus Hippolyte from the west coast of North 
America. 35. 

. The number of species of decapod and 
stomatopod Crustacea. 370. 

Causgy, Neti B. New cleidogonid millipeds (Chor- 
deumoidea). 78. 

CHALKLEY, H. W. See CoRNFIELD, JEROME. 226. 

Crark, Austin H. The brittle-stars of the United 
States Navy Antarctic Expedition 1947-48. 26. 

Cuarke, J. F. Garss. A new genus and species of 
North American Olethreutidae (Lepidoptera: 
Laspeyresiinae). 46. 

. New species of Gelechiidae from Argentina 

(Lepidoptera). 140. 

. New species of Olethreutidae from Ar- 

gentina. 296. 


Washington Academy of Sciences. 48, 115, 148, 238. 


INDEX 


Corn, Westry R. Geographical distribution of the 
nemerteans of the northern coast of the Gulf 
of Mexico as compared with those of the 
southern coast of Florida, with descriptions 
of three new species. 328. 

Coorrr, G. ArrHur. New brachiopods from the 
Lower Cambrian of Virginia. 4. 

and Mutr-Woop, Hreten M. Brachiopod 
homonyms. 195. 

CoRNFIELD, JEROME, and CHaLKLEy, Haroxtp W. 
A problem in geometric probability. 226. 
Curtin, Puture D. A survey of new archeological 

sites in central Pataz, Peru. 49. 

Dataquest, WALTER W. Six new mammals from the 
state of San Luis Potosi, Mexico. 361. 

DaveENpPoRT, Dresmorest. See Loomis, H. F. 270. 

Dexter, Raupu W. See Speck, FRANK G. 250. 

Drake, Cart J. New American chinch bugs 
(Hemiptera: Lygaeidae). 319. 

Dunxkir, Davin H. New Western Hemisphere 
occurrences of fossil selachians. 344. 

DuRBIN, CHARLES G., and Hongss, Raupu F. A 
new roundworm, Nematodirus rufaevastitatis 
(Nematoda: Trichostrongylidae), from do- 
mestic sheep, Ovis aries, in Wyoming. 179. 

Emerson, WiiiiAm K. A new scaphopod mollusk, 
Cadulus austinclarki, from the Gulf of Cali- 
fornia. 24. 

FRIEDMANN, HERBERT. Dedication [to Austin Ho- 
bart Clark issue). 1. 

GARDNER, JULIA. Two new guide fossils from the 
Tallahatta formation of the Southeastern 
States. 8. 

Gryc, Grorae, Parron, W. W., Jr., and Payne, 
T. G. Present Cretaceous stratigraphic no- 
menclature of northern Alaska. 159. 

Gwituiam, G. F. See Hann, Caper. 206. 

Haas, Vicror H. Disaster and disease, 277. 

Hackman, Ropert J. See SouecKI, Raupu S. 85. 

Hacskayo, Epwarp. A study of the rootsof Pinus 
virginiana in relation to certain Hymeno- 
mycetes suspected of being mycorrhizal. 399. 

Hanp, Capet, and Gwiuuiam, G. F. New distri- 
butional records for two athecate hydroids, 
Cordylophora lacustris and Candelabrum sp., 
from the west coast of North America, with 
revisions of their nomenclature. 206. 

Heyt, Pau R. The limitations of the principle of 
superposition, II. 149. 

Hosss, Horron H., Jr. A new crayfish of the 
genus Procambarus from Louisiana, with a 
key to the species of the Spiculzfer group. 272. 

Horrman, Ricuarp L. The diplopod family Cam- 
podesmidae (Polydesmida). 209. 

Honess, Raupu F. See DurBIN, CHARLES G. 179. 

Humes, Arruur G., and WrLson, Mitprep Srrar- 
TON. The last copepodid instar of Diatomus 
sanguineus Forbes (Copepoda). 395. 

Inte, Paun L. A new genus and species of noto- 
delphyoid copepod from Japan. 30. 


402 


JenxKINS, ANNA E., Brrancourt, A. A., SILBER- 
scumipT, Ix., and ArcHpR, W. ANDREW. Peter 
Wilhelm Lund’s pequi tree at Lagoa Santa and 
pilgrimages to his cemetery. 66. 

JOHNSTON, Francis E. The theory of group repre- 
sentations. 117. 

Kene, Hstian. New or critical Euphorbiaceae 
from eastern Asia. 200. 

Kracek, F. C., Neuvonen, K. J., and Burury, 
Gorpvon. Thermochemistry of mineral sub- 
stances, I: A thermodynamic study of the 
stability of jadeite. 373. 

KrisHNaswamy, K. Notes on the undescribed 
males of two species of Copepoda. 75. 

Lapp, H. 8. See Apsor?r, R. Tucker. 335. 

Luano, Grorce A. A contribution to the lichen 
flora of Alaska. 196. 

Loomis, H. F., and Davenrort, Demorestr. A 
luminescent new xystodesmid milliped from 
California. 270. 

MacNetrn, F. Stearns. Nucula austinclarki, n. sp., 
a concentrically sculptured Nucula from the 
Lisbon formation of Alabama. 12. 

Miuipr, Ropert Rusu, and Winn, Howarp Ex- 
Ltiorr. Additions to the known fish fauna of 
of Mexico: Three species and one subspecies 
from Sonora. 83. 

Mrrrinovircu, D. S. On an equation of Neményi 
and Truesdell. 129. 

Morrison, J. P. EH. Two new Western Atlantic spe- 
cies of pulmonate mollusks of the genus Det- 
racia and two old ones (family Ellobiidae). 17. 

Morton, C. V. A new fern of the genus Danaea 
from Colombia. 276. 

Murr-Woop, Hrven M. See Cooper, G. A. 195. 

NeEvuvongEn, K. J. See Kracek, F. C. 373. 

Nico, Davrp. A new species of glyevmerid from 
the Philippines. 20. 

. Recent species of the cyrenoid pelecypod 
Glossus. 142. 

———. Recent species of the veneroid pelecypod 
Arctica. 102. 

Orrrra, Baxir A. Effects of potassium nutrition 
and amount of inoculum on rate of reproduc- 
tion of Meloidogyne incognita. 393. 

Pare, Cuester H. Information theory. 245. 

Parron, W. W., Jr. See Gryc, Groran. 159. 

Payne, T. G. See Gryc, Grorce. 159. 

Prrrisponr, Martan H. A new species of poly- 
chaete worm of the family Polynoidae from 
Point Barrow, Alaska. 44. 

PireuKa, Frank A. Race names in the Central 
American jay, Cyanolyca argentigula. 113. 
Pratt, Harry D. Ficalbia minima (Theobald) in 
South Indochina, with descriptions of the 

larva and pupa (Diptera: Culicidae). 300. 

ReEEDER, JOHN R. A new species of Poa from Peru. 
295. 

Reuper, Haratp A., and Apporr, R. Tucker. 
Two new Recent cone shells from the Western 
Atlantie (Conidae). 22. 

Rioux, Marceu. Some medical beliefs and prac- 
tices of the contemporary Iroquois Long- 
houses of the Six Nations Reserve. 152. 

Ross, Hersert H. Phylogeny and biogeography 
of the caddisflies of the genera Agapetus and 
Electragapetus (Trichoptere : Rhyacophilidae). 
347. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 12 


Savace, Jay M. Studies on the lizard family 
Xantusiidae, II: Geographical variation in 
Xantusia riversiana from the Channel Islands 
of California. 357. 

ScHAEFFER, CLAUDE HE. Was the California condor 
known to the Blackfoot Indians? 181. 

ScumittT, W. L. [Biographical Résumé, of Austin 
Hobart Clark.] 3. 

ScHROEDER, W. C. See Bicetow, H. B. 110, 383. 

Scuuitz, LEONARD P., and SimOEs DE MENEZEs, 
Rur. A new anchovy of the genus Anchoviella 
from the Poti and Parnaiba Rivers of Brazil. 
235. 

. See also WeELANDER; ARTHUR D. 107. 

SevaNDgER, R. K. See Benin, WiuiiAm H. 364. 

SILBERSCHMIDT, K. See JENKINS, ANNA HD. 66. 

SIusBen, Francis B. Measure for measure: Some 
problems and paradoxes of precision. 213. 

StmOrs pp Menezes, Rut. See ScHuttz, LEONARD 
P. 235. 

Sonn, I. G. Check list of salinity tolerance of 
post-Paleozoic fossil Ostracoda. 64. 

Souecki, Rate S.and Hackman, Rosert J. Addi- 
tional data on the Denbigh Flint Complex in 
northern Alaska. 85. 

Sour, Joun D. Two new species of incrusting 
ctenostomatous Bryozoa from the Pacific. 367. 

Speck, FRANK G., and Dextmr, Raupu W. Utiliza- 
tion of animals and plants by the Micmac 
Indians of New Brunswick. 250. 

Spirzpr, Lyman, Jr. The birth of stars from 
interstellar clouds. 309. 

STAINBROOK, Merrie A. Substitution for the pre- 
occupied name Hystricina. 196. 

STRIMPLE, Harrety L. New crinoids from the 
Pitkin of Oklahoma, 260. 

. New Desmoinesian crinoids. 191. 

. Notes on Phanocrinus cylindricus and de- 
scription of new species of Chester crinoids. 
291. 

Tawapba, SHInsuN. See WaLkER, Eapertr H. 138. 

Timm, R. W. A new species of marine nematode, 
Thoracostoma magnificum, with a note on 
possible “pigment cell”’ nuclei of the ocelli. 331. 

Treron, VERNON J. See Traus, RoBert. 264. 

Tracer, Grorce L. Linguistic history and eth- 
nologic history in the Southwest. 341. 

Travus, Ropert, and Tipron, VERNON J. Jordan- 
opsylla allredi, a new genus and species of flea 
from Utah (Siphonaptera). 264. 

Waker, Hapert, and Tawapa, SHinsuN. A new 
species of Portulaca from Okinawa. 138. 
WepeEL, Watpo R. Notes on aboriginal pottery 

from Montana. 130. 

WetaNnper, ArrHur D., and ScuuitTz, LEONARD 
P. Chromis atripectoralis, a new damselfish 
from the tropical Pacific, closely related to 
C. caeruleus, family Pomacentridae. 107. 

Wetmore, ALEXANDER. Observations on the gen- 
era of the swans. 338. 

Wiuson, Mitprep Srrarron. A new subgenus 
of Diaptomus (Copepoda: Calanoida), includ- 
ing an Asiatic species and a new species from 
Alaska. 168. 

. See also Humes, ARTHUR G. 395. 

Winn, Howarp Exuiorr. See Mriuyr, RoBERT 
Rusu. 83. 


DECEMBER 1951 


INDEX 


403 


SUBJECT INDEX 


Archeology. Additional data on the Denbigh Flint 
Complex in northern Alaska. RaLpn Ss. 
Soiecki and Ropert J. Hackman. 85. 

A survey of new archeological sites in central 
Pataz, Peru. Parure D. Curtin. 49. 

Notes on aboriginal pottery from Montana. 
Watpo R. WEDEL. 130. 

Astronomy. The birth of stars from interstellar 

clouds. Lyman Sprrzer, JR. 309. 

Biography. Biographical sketch and portrait of 
Austin Hobart Clark. 2-3. 

Botany. A contribution to the lichen flora of 
Alaska. Grorce A. Luano. 196. 

A new fern of the genus Danaea from Colom- 
bia. C. V. Morton. 276. 

A new species of Poa from Peru. Joun R. 
REEDER. 295. 

A new species of Portulaca from Okinawa. 
Ecpert H. Waker and SHinsun Ta- 
WwabA. 138. Pew ) 

A study of the roots of Pinus virgyniana 1n 
relation to certain Hymenomycetes sus- 
pected of being mycorrhizal. Epwarp Hac- 
SKAYLO. 399. 

New or critical Euphorbiaceae from eastern 
Asia. Hst'an Kune. 200. 

Peter Wilhelm Lund’s pequi tree at Lagoa 
Santa and pilgrimages to his cemetery. 
Anna BE. Jenkins, A. A. Bitancourt, K. 
SinperscHmipt, and W. A. ArcHER. 66. 

Entomology. A new genus and species of North 
American Olethreutidae (Lepidopter : Las- 
peyresiinae). J. F. GaTEs CLARKE. 45. 

Dinoponera gigantea (Perty), a vicious sting- 
ing ant. H. A. ALLARD. 88. 

Ficalbia minima (Theobald) in South Indo- 
china, with descriptions of the larva and 
pupa (Diptera: Culicidae). Harry D. 
Pratt. 300. 

Jordanopsylla allredi, a new genus and species 
of flea from Utah (Siphonaptera). RobERT 
Traus and VERNON J. TipTon. 264. 

New American chinch bugs (Hemiptera: Ly- 
gaeidae). Cary J. Drake. 319. 

New species of chrysomelid beetles of the 
genera Jrirhabda and Disonycha. Doris 
H. Buake. 324. 

New species of Gelechiidae from Argentina 
(Lepidoptera). J. F. Gares Cuarxe. 140. 

New species of Olethreutidae from Argentina 
(Lepidoptera). J. F. Gares CLARKE. 296. 

Phylogeny and biogeography of the caddis- 
flies of the genera Agapetus and Electra- 
gapetus (Trichoptera: Rhyacophilidae). 
Hersert H. Ross. 347. 

Ethnology. Interesting animal foods, medicines, 
and omens of the eastern Indians, with com- 
parisons to ancient European practices. 
Lioyp G. K. Carr. 229. 

Linguistic history and ethnologic history in 
the Southwest. Groran L. Tracmr. 341. 

Medicinal plants used by the Choctaw, Chick- 
asaw, and Creek Indians in the early nine- 
teenth century. T. N. CampsBewu. 285. 

Some medical beliefs and practices of the 


i 


contemporary Iroquois Longhouses of the 
Six Nations Reserve. Marcent Rioux. 152. 

Utilization of animals and plants by the 
Micmac Indians of New Brunswick. FRANK 
G. Speck and Raupew W. Dexter. 250. 

Was the California condor known to the 
Blackfoot Indians? CuaupE E. ScHAEFFER. 
181. 

Geology. Present Cretaceous stratigraphic nomen- 
clature of northern Alaska. Grorar Gryc, 
W.W. Parton, Jr., and T. G. Payne. 159. 

Helminthology. A new roundworm, Nematodirus 
rufaevastitatis (Nematoda: Trichostron- 
gylidae), from domestic sheep, Ovis aries, 
in Wyoming. CHartes G. DurRBIN and 
Rawvpu F. Honsss. 179. 

Herpetology. Studies of the lizard family Xantu- 
siidae, II: Geographical variation in Xan- 
tusia riverstana from the Channel Islands 
of California. Jay M. Savaan. 357. 

Ichthyology. Additions to the known fish fauna of 
Mexico: Three species and one subspecies 
from Sonora. Roperrt RusH MiILier and 
Howarp Enuiorr WInN. 83. 

A new anchovy of the genus Anchoviella from 
the Poti and Parnaiba Rivers of Brazil. 
Lronarp P. Scnuuttrz and Rut Stm6Es DE 
MENEZzEs. 235. 

A new genus and species of anacanthobatid 
skate from the Gulf of Mexico. Henry B. 
BrarLow and WiuiramM C. ScHROEDER. 110. 

Chromis atripectoralis, a new damselfish from 
the tropical Pacific, closely related to C. 
caeruleus, family Pomacentridae. ARTHUR 
D. Weranpver and L. P. Scuutrz. 107. 

Three new skates and a new chimaerid fish 
from the Gulf of Mexico. Henry B. Brian- 
Low and WiuiiaAM C. SCHROEDER. 383. 

Malacology. A new brackish-water gastropod from 
Texas (Amnicolidae: Littoridina). R. T. 
Appottr and H. 8S. Lapp. 335. 

A new scaphopod mollusk, Cadulus austin- 
clarki, from the Gulf of California. WILLIAM 
K. Emprson. 24. 

A new species of glycymerid from the Philip- 
pines. Davip Nicou. 20. 

More new urocoptid mollusks from Mexico. 
Paut Bartscu. 146. 

New stenothyrid gastropods from the Philip- 
pines (Rissoidae). R. Tucker Apport. 14. 

Recent species of the cyrenoid pelecypod Glos- 
sus. Davip Nicou. 142. 

Recent species of the veneroid pelecypod 
Arctica. Davip Nrcou. 102. 

Two new Recent cone shells from the Western 
Atlantic (Conidae). Haratp A. REHDER 
and R. Tucker Apporr. 22. 

Two new Western Atlantic species of pulmo- 
nate mollusks of the genus Detracia and two 
old ones (family Ellobiidae). J. P. E. Mor- 
RISON. 17. 

Mammalogy. Six new mammals from the state of 
San Luis Potasi, Mexico. WauTmrR W. DaAt- 
Quest. 361. 

Mathematics. A problem in geometric probability. 
JEROME CorRNFIELD and Haroip W. CHAarK- 
LBY. 226. 


404 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 41, No. 12 


Mathematics. Information theory. Curster H. 
Pace. 25. 

On an equation of Neményi and Truesdell. 
D.S. Mrrrinovircu. 129. 

The theory of group representations. FRANCIS 
E. Jounston. 117. 

Medicine. Disaster and disease. V. H. Haas. 277. 

Nematology. Effects of potassium nutrition and 
amount of inoculum on rate of reproduction 
of Meloidogyne incognita. B. A. OTEIFA. 393. 

Ornithology. Observations on the genera of the 
swans. ALEXANDER WETMORE. 338. 

Race names in the Central American jay, Cy- 
anolyca argentigula. FRANK A. Prre Ka. 113. 

The systematic relationships of the fox spar- 
rows (Passerella iliaca) of the Wasatch 
Mountains, Utah, and the Great Basin. 
W. H. Bente and R. K. SELanper. 364. 

Paleontology. Brachiopod homonyms. G. ARTHUR 
Cooper and Hrten M. Mutr-Woop. 195. 

Check list of salinity tolerance of post-Paleo- 
zoic fossil Ostracoda. I. G. Soun. 64. 

New brachiopods from the Lower Cambrian 
of Virginia. G. ARTHUR CoopERr. 4. 

New crinoids from the Pitkin of Oklahoma. 
Harrevyt L. Srrimpie. 260. 

New Desmoinesian crinoids. HarreLu lL. 
STRIMPLE. 191. 

New Western Hemisphere occurrences of fossil 
selachians. Davip H. DuNKLE. 344. 

Notes on Phanocrinus cylindricus and descrip- 
tion of new species of Chester crinoids. 
HARRELL L. STRIMPLE. 291. 

Nucula austinclarki, n. sp., a concentrically 
sculptured Nucula from the Lisbon forma- 
tion of Alabama. F. Srrarns MacNett. 12. 

Substitution for the preoccupied name Hys- 
tricina. Merritt A. STAINBROOK. 196. 

Two new guide fossils from the Tallahatta 
formation of the Southeastern States. JULIA 
GARDNER. 8. 

Petrology. Thermochemistry of mineral sub- 
stances, I: A thermodynamic study of the 
stability of jadeite. F. C. Kracrx, K. J. 
NBEUVONEN, and GorpoNn BurteEy. 373. 

Physics. Measure for measure: Some problems and 
paradoxes of precision. F. B. SirsBEn, 213. 

The limitations of the principle of super- 
position: II. Paut R. Heyu. 149. 

Zoology. A luminescent new xystodesmid milliped 
from California. H. F. Loomts and DEmo- 
REST DAVENPORT. 270. 

A new crayfish of the genus Procambarus from 
Louisiana, with a key to the species of the 
Spiculifer group. H. H. Hosss, Jr. 272. 


Zoology. A new genus and species of notodel- 


phyoid copepod from Japan. Paut L. Ite. 
30. 

A new species of marine nematode, Thora- 
costoma magnificum, with a note on possible 
“Higment cell’’? nuclei of the ocelli. R. W. 
Timm. 331. 

A new species of polychaete worm of the 
family Polynoidae from Point Barrow, 
Alaska. Martan H. Prrtrspone. 44. 

A new subgenus of Diaptomus (Copepoda: 
Calanoida), including an Asiatic species and 
a new species from Alaska. MILDRED StTRaArT- 
TON Witson. 168. 

A revision of the nomenclature of the Gor- 
gonlidae (Coelenterata: Octocorallia), vith 
an illustrated key to the genera. FREDERICK 
M. Bayer. 91. 

A second record of the polychaetous annelid 
Potamethus elongatus (Treadwell). E. and 
C. BERKELEY. 333. 

Bostrichobranchus digonas, a new mo) sulid 
ascidian from Florida. D. P. ABsorrt. 302. 
Geographical distribution of the nemerteans 
of the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico 
as compared with those of the southern 
coast of Florida, with descriptions of three 

new species. WrsLney R. Cor. 328. 

New cleidogonid millipeds (Chordeumoidea). 
Newu B. Causey. 78. 

New distributional records for two athecate 
hydroids, Cordylophora lacustris and Cun- 
delabrum sp., from the west coast of North 
America, with revisions of their nomencla- 
ture. Caper Hanp and G. F. Gwriiiam 206. 

Notes on the undescribed males of two species 
of Copepoda. 8S. Kr1IsHNASWAMY. 75. 

The brittle-stars of the United States Navy 
Antarctic Expedition 1947-48. Austin H. 
CraRK. 26. 

The diplopod family Campodesmidae (Poly- 
desmida). RicHarp L. Horrman. 209. 

The grass shrimps of the genus Hippolyte from 
the west coast of North America. FENNER A. 
CHACE, JR. 35. 

The last copepodid instar of Diaptomus san- 
guineus Forbes (Copepoda). ArtHuR G. 
Humes and Mitprep 8S. Witson. 395. 

The number of species of decapod and stoma- 
topod Crustacea. F. A. CuHacr, JR. 370. 

Two new primnoid corals of the subfamily 
Calyptrophorinae (Coelenterata: Octocor- 
allia). FrepERIcK M. Bayer. 40. 

Two new species of incrusting ctenostomatous 
Bryozoa from the Pacific. J. D. SouLE. 367. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


LETRAS SUITORS ees See ee ae NatHan R. Smiru, Plant Industry Station 
President-elect....... An Soy Sets aeons WALTER RAMBERG, National Bureau of Standards 
‘S PERIOD olkod 6 OS At ee EERE ee F. M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
1 POLST AG oe eee fe Howarp 8S. Rappierye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
URE CCIE 5 nhs p SOG See ees ee IIE: Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Harap A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington. ................--:.:.-- Epwarp U. Conpon 
Anthropological Society of Washington.......................-- Watpo R. WEDEL 
Biolovicall Society of Washington... s-eccoccscecceeceee es: senna: 

W@hemicaliSociety ofiWashington: ). snscaessuecc ede. dak gen eeion as JospPH J. FAHEY 
Bmpemolocicall society, of Washington: ys... ses. ss -se nee. FrepERIcK W. Poos 
National’ Geographic Society... .4-2.\s.5c2a-ine-c eens oe eels: ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Cealosical’Society, of Washington). 225 5---¢2-6-5s4nne soe. Lrason H. ADAMS 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia.......................... 

WolumbiankistonicaliSociety,2..4. 45.0 ccos ones deke oA GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Bovanicalli Society, of Washingtones.) afccc 44:25 sesoceueceeeesece ek E. H. WALKER 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Wituram A. Dayton 
Washington Society of Engineers...........................5- Currrorp A. Brtrs 


Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers 
Francis M. DEFANDORF 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp S. D1Lu 


Helminthological Society of Washington.......................... L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Aneus M. GRIFFIN 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers....HENryY W. HEMPLE 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers.......... HERBERT G. DorsEY 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 


Ie dammniny IEP Ears de Gekoeene momaetets Sarna aie eee W. F. Fosuwaa, C. L. Gazin 
Dh® damien; OEE cores eerreeioe one ee ere C. F. W. Mursnseck*, A. T. McPHERSON 
MRombamuarya 1954 ee Les tk ae Ne ase ee hs Sara E. Branoam, Mitron Harris* 
BOOTONOPVNGMAGETS) 2. oie ne fhe ea lee ee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
SOMLAdO MAO ULOTS ONO ASSOCUALE BIQULONS) ©) 2 sae acne dons dees so gaeat {See front cover] 


Executive Commitiee....N. R. SmitH (chairman), WALTER RamsBeErG, H. S. RAPPLEYE, 
J. A. Stevenson, F. M. Deranporr 
Committee on Membership.......... EE. H. Waker (chairman), M. 8. ANpErson, R. E. 
BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. Hanssen, D. B. Jonzs, DorotHy 
Nickerson, F. A. Smitu, Hetnz Specut, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings......... MARGARET PITTMAN (chairman), NoRMAN BEKKEDAHL, 
W. R. Cuapuine, D. J. Davis, F. B. Scuterz, H. W. Weis 

Committee on Monographs: 


pRorianwary, 1952. 5. so beck eee ee J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), Paut H. OBHSER 
OMAN ISS eee ea ee crete ae sacies tee EAR aguas eee tte R. W. IMnay, P. W. OMAN 

IRD IDOE OGY Cea eae oe can nN ene A Ene Ne S. F. Buaks, F. C. Kracex 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GEORGE P. WALTON, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. Faser, JR., 
Myrna F. Jonss, F. W. Poos, J. R. SwaLuen 

For the Engineering Sciences......... R. 8S. Druu (chairman), ARSHAM AMIRIKIAN, 

J. W. McBurney, Frank Neumann, A. H. Scorr 

For the Physical Sciences............. G. P. Watron (chairman), F. ey BRACKETT, 

G. E. Hom, C. J. Humpureys, J. H. McMi.ien 

For Teaching of Science............ B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BaRNgEs, 

F. EH. Fox, T. Koppanyr, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPuerson 

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research..................00-.. L. E. Yocum (chairman), 


M. X. Suutivan, H. L. WHITrEMoRE 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


‘ING Uevaien iia leas aes eines ato orale ae J. I. HorrmMan (chairman), M. A. Mason 
pRoman wary gl OO smeareaciemrAC ACT ee ee ine W. A. Dayton, N. R. SmitH 
ORAM aT Va QO4 Wo) Jeni as tue cl ieleonn.s con ota wate s H. B. Couns, Jr., W. W. RuBey 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 
@ Ueno EW, F wnconnonsccousuode M. A. Mason (chairman), A. T. McPHERSON 
‘ALG dain era PIERO Fo odo puree ance cians nen ae od eet IXG Mele CLARK, F. L. MouLer 
PORN Amana 9G4 se ys MGM RL ts tretta de uacteatretvall J. M. CaLpWELL, We L. Scumirt 
BED ESENLALIUCROTC OUNCLUO PAGE AGE AI Saree entices niet een: M. SrerzLer 
Committee of Auditors...... J. H. Martin (chairman), N. F. BraatEn, W. J. YOUDEN 


Committee of Tellers...W.G. BRoMBACHER (chairman), A. R. Merz, Lovrsr M. RussEuu 


* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 


Page 
Prrrotogy.—Thermochemistry of mineral substances, I: A thermo- 
dynamic study of the stability of jadeite. F. C. Kracnx, K. J. 
NEUVONENS andGorDon| BURUE Ye oe eee ee en eee 3/3 


IcutHyYoLoGcy.—Three new skates and a new chimaerid fish from the 
Gulf of Mexico. Henry B. BicrLow and WiLiiAM C. ScHROEDER. 383 


NemMAToLocy.—Hffects of potassium nutrition and amount of moculum 
on rate of reproduction of Meloidogyne incognita. BAkirR A. OTEIFA. 393 


Zootogy.—The last copepodid instar of Diaptomus sanguineus Forbes 
(Copepoda). Artur G. Humes and Minprep Strarron WIiLson 395 


Botany.—A study of the roots of Pinus virginiana in relation to certain 
Hymenomycetes suspected of being mycorrhizal. Epwarp Hac- 
SIRAVEE Olle. HOHE eheua. eles ewes beet ne le lok fue Rieter eke 399 


INDEX: LO VOLUME! 40) f5 qe ohnnk son bee ae ote ae 401 


This Journal is Indexed in the Internationa! Index to Periodicals 


JOURNAL 


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WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 42, 1952 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


Witiiam F. FosHacG J. P. E. Morrison JoHn C. Ewers 


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No. 12, pp. 369-396, December 17, 1952 


Vou. 42 JANUARY 1952 No. 1 


ATTA ci 
FEB 1- 1952 ) 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
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ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 42 


January 1952 


No. 1 


ETHNOLOGY — Utilization of animals and plants by the Malecite Indians of New 
Brunswick. FRANK G. Speck, University of Pennsylvania, and Rap W. 
Dexter, Kent State University. (Communicated by John C. Ewers.) 


An earlier paper (Speck and Dexter, 
1951) described the utilization of animals 
and plants by the Micmac Indians of New 
Brunswick. The present report is a con- 
tinuation of the same project in ethno- 
ecology carried out in the summer of 1949 
shortly before the death of Dr. Speck. Refer- 
ence should be made to the previous publica- 
tion for an explanation of this field study and 
the conditions under which these reports 
were prepared. Acknowledgment is again 
made to all those mentioned earlier in 
making it possible for the junior writer to 
complete these studies. 

While traveling in Maine in September 
in 1949, we visited the Indian colony on 
Indian Island at Old Town. Several families, 
well known to Dr. Speck over many years 
time, were revisited. Information on our food 
investigation of the Eastern Woodland 
Indians was gathered largely from three 
members of the Malecite tribe who had 
formerly lived on the Malecite reservations 
of the St. John River Valley. They were 
Gabe Polchis, aged 65, who was born and 
raised in a wigwam on the banks of the St. 
John River in New Brunswick, and two 


younger men, Paul Sappier and Charles R. - 


Paul. These informants, to whom we are 
greatly indebted, are familiar with the 
hunting and fishing activities and the 
utilization of natural resources in the St. 
John Valley. Again in this investigation, 
special attention was directed toward the 
use of native animals and plants for food or 
food procurement, with incidental attention 
to other multiple uses of these food resources. 
As before, an attempt has been made to 
synthesize original and published knowledge 
of an archeological, ethnological, and biologi- 


JAN o 1952 


cal nature so as to present an overview of 
the relations of these surviving aborigines 
to their natural environment. Like the 
Micmac and other groups of the North- 
eastern Indians, the Malecite lived largely 
on the harvest of wild resources. Many of 
their native practices have come down to the 
present day, in modified form, and others 
are still in the memory of the older Indians. 
Animals and their capture, especially, 
oriented the lives of these neolithic people 
who sought them for food, medicine, cloth- 
ing, housing, and utensils. Animal life also 
forms the basis for much of their art, religion, 
folklore, and social organization. 

Because Dr. Speck had previously learned 
or recorded many of the Malecite names for 
animals and plants on earler field trips, 
only a few were taken down during this 
last one. Those are given in the text. It is 
unfortunate that our original intention of 
preparing a complete table of Malecite 
terms cannot be fulfilled. Transcriptions of 
Dr. Speck’s linguistic notes were made by 
John Witthoft—R.W.D. 


THE MALECITE INDIANS OF THE ST. JOHN 


RIVER VALLEY 


In the valley of the St. John River there 
has long lived a group of American aborigines 
known as the Malecite. Early accounts 
designated these people as Etchemin or 
Maliseet. Those dwelling near the coast, 
with a somewhat different culture, have 
been given the special name of Passama- 
quoddy. They lived much hke their neigh- 
bors, the Miemace of eastern New Brunswick 
and coastal Nova Seotia, which have been 
treated in the earher report. The main 


2 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


eroup of Malecite, however, have been river- 
bank dwellers, occupying the boundary 
between the Province of New Brunswick 
and the State of Maine. Chamberlain 
(1904) has offered a suggestion, not ac- 
cepted by all, that the Malecite were an 
offshoot from the Penobscot tribe of Maine, 
which migrated northward and settled on 
the inland waters of northern Maine and 
western New Brunswick, especially along the 
St. John River. Here they called themselves 
“Wulastuk-wink,” meaning ‘dwellers on 
the beautiful river.” Today there still 
remain six reservations for these people 
along the St. John River at Oromocto, 
Devin (St. Mary), Kingsclear, Woodstock, 
Tobique Point, and Edmunston, named in 
order going upstream, where fishing and 
basket weaving are still the chief occupa- 
tions. Our informants have visited or lived 
on all these reservations except the last 
two. In recent times there has been frequent 
intermarriage between the Malecite and 
Penobscot with a resulting fusion of their 
cultures. The Penobscot tribe has been 
monographed by Speck (1940). 
Prehistoric culture of the Malecite, es- 
pecially the coastal Passamaquoddy, has 
been the subject of archeological papers by 
Treat (1836), Baird (1882), Matthew (1884), 
Bailey (1887), and McIntosh (1909). Ethno- 
logical studies in this region by Maillard 
(1758), Barratt (1851), Flannery (1939, 
1946), and Cooper (1946) have included in- 
formation on protohistoric Malecite culture. 
Perhaps the best-known aspect of this 
culture is the folklore, much of which has 
been published by Jack (1895), Chamberlain 
(1898), Watson (1907), Mechling (1913, 
1914), Stamp (1915), and Speck (1917). 
Just as in the case of the Micmac, animal 
lite was the dominant theme of Malecite 
economic and social life. However, only the 
Passamaquoddy branch shared the de- 
pendency on marine resources which were so 
vital to the Micmac and other coastal tribes. 
Wissler (1924) has observed that “when a 
mode of culture evolves anywhere, it grows 
up around some natural resource and tends 
to spread to the distribution limits of that 
resource.”” The inland Malecite of the St. 
John Valley depended more upon fresh-water 
fishes, the birds and mammals of the river 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 1 
bottomland, and upland game. They also 
developed agriculture to a greater degree. | 
After contact with the white man, hunting 
gradually diminished and maize cultivation 
became of increasing importance. This led 
to even more of a sedentary existence. 
There is some evidence, however, that mem- 
bers of the inland bands at one time 
journeyed to the coast on the Bay of Fundy 
during the summer season to obtain shell- 
fish and marine fishes, a portion of which was 
preserved and carried back for winter use. 

Published records of shell heaps list the follow- 
ing marine animals which were gathered by the 
inhabitants and seasonal visitors along the coast 
line of southern New Brunswick: 


Pecten grandis—Giant scallop 
Modiolus modiolus—Horse mussel 
Mytilus edulis—Blue mussel 

Mya arenaria—Soft-shell clam 
Polinices heros—Sand-collar snail 
Crepidula fornicata—Boat shell 
Thais lapillus—Rock snail 
Buccinum undatum—W helk 
Echinoidea—Sea-urchins 

Clupea harengus—Herring 
Cottidae—Sculpins 

Gadus morhua—Cod 
Elasmobranechii—Sharks 

Sea birds of various species 


Undoubtedly this listing is very incomplete. 
Several small species of shells have also been re- 
ported, but they probably reached the refuse 
heaps accidentally. Land snails reported may 
have been hidden there by shrews as part of their 
storing activities, as similar finds in shell heaps of 
Massachusetts were explained by Speck and 
Dexter (1948). The occurrence of large quantities 
of the tests and spines of sea-urchins as found by 
Baird (1882) is unusual. Very little evidence is 
known for the utilization of these echinoderms on 
the North American coast except in the Aleutian 
Islands and adjacent areas where they were often 
the predominant food resource. Loomis and 
Young (1912) likewise reported sea-urchins from 
shell heaps they studied on the coast of Maine. 
Matthew (1884) raised the question that a sea- 
urchin found by him in an excavation may have 
been accidentally dropped there by a crow (or 
possibly by a gull?—author). Loomis and Young 
(ibid.) thought some of the snails they found 
might also have reached the shell heaps in the 
same way. Since the sea-urchins found by Baird 
were in one large mass in a single mound, they 


JANUARY 1952 


may have served as an emergency food over a 
short period of time or advantage may have been 
taken of this animal form, commonly eaten in 
southern Europe, at a time when it was particu- 
larly abundant or easy to gather. Baird stated 
that they were cooked by being wrapped up in 
dried eelgrass (Zostera marina) and then burned. 

The soft-shell clam was consumed in great 
quantities by the seashore dwellers of this region, 
some mounds consisting largely if not entirely of 
this species, but the quahog was not found by 
Baird in the mounds of eastern Maine and ad- 
joming New Brunswick. Loomis and Young 
(1912), however, found the quahog in shell heaps 
on the coast of Maine. The oyster likewise was not 
encountered on Passamaquoddy shores by arche- 
ologists, although again Baird and Loomis and 
Young described a single large mound at Damaris- 
cotta, Maine, consisting almost entirely of this 
species. Today this bivalve is rarely found on the 
coast of Maine. Alternating layers of shells and of 
animal bones in the refuse heaps is interpreted by 
Baird (1882) as the result of summer gathering at 
the seashore alternating with winter hunting of 
game. 

From the St. John River the following fishes 
were taken: Salmon, gaspereau (fresh-water her- 
ring or alewife), shad, striped bass, sturgeon, eel, 
smelt, and white perch. Barratt (1851) gave a 
brief account of salmon fishing with spears of rock 
maple. Striped bass and sturgeon were speared 
and, beside being used for food, the end of the 
nose was cut off and used as a rubber ball for 
play. Some fish were smoked, especially the 
salmon, gaspereau, shad, sturgeon, and eel. De- 
cayed wood was used for the smoking. Eels were 
speared and were also taken in eel pots or traps 
(kadewi-galhi-gan) made of splints. In fresh- 
water ponds and lakes, togue, pickerel, chubs, 
suckers, and shiners were fished. Another one 
called the gizzardfish was mentioned by our in- 
formants. The identity of this is not clear, but it 
might possibly refer to the gizzard shad. In recent 
times trout have been introduced into the waters 
of New Brunswick. Food, oil, and fertilizer were 
the products obtained through fishing. 

Snapping turtles and their eggs were gathered 
for food. The reptile lore of these Northeastern 
Indians has been treated in an earlier paper 
(Speck, 1923). An interesting superstition from 
the Malecite is pointed out in that paper to the 
effect that a snakeskin worn about the head will 
ward off enemies. 


SPECK AND DEXTER: USE OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS BY 


MALECITE 3 


As far as can be determined, river mussels and 
crayfish were not eaten although the fresh-water 
clams were used for bait. Bailey (1887) found 
wampum (or shell beads) manufactured from 
fresh-water clams. 

The muskrat was one of the most important 
animals in Malecite culture. Both flesh and brains 
were used for food, the intestines were used in 
medicine, especially for diarrhea, and the hide 
was used for many purposes. Our informants de- 
scribed the cooking of muskrat by placing the 
whole carcass on coals. Jack (1895) relates that 
“the Malecite were known by other tribes of the 
Abenaki as ‘the Mouskouasoaks’ or water rats 
either because, like these animals, they lived on 
the banks of the river or because they highly 
esteem the muskrat as food which they do at the 
present time, preferring its flesh beyond that of 
any other.” The beaver and otter were other 
aquatic mammals of considerable value to these 
people. Beaver tail was considered a special 
delicacy, and the incisor teeth were made into 
knives. Ducks and geese and their eggs were 
taken in season for food. Ducks were cooked in a 
mud ball placed on coals. After the mud had dried 
and cracked, it was peeled off removing feathers 
and skin from the carcass. Our informants de- 
scribed the testing of duck eggs before using— 
fresh eggs sink in salt water, whereas those which 
are in process of development will float to the 
surface. Sandpipers, plovers, snipe, and wood- 
cock were also eaten. The upland game pursued 
by the Malecite was essentially the same as that 
sought by the Miemac. The woodland caribou, 
moose, and white-tailed deer were the important 
ungulates that served as food and provided skins 
for clothing and shelter. Moose hide was used in 
making canoes and mocassins as well as clothing; 
the intestines, in cording snowshoes. The in- 
testines were also cleaned, dried, and stored for 
winter food. Moose hair was used for embroidery 
on pouches and containers made from animal 
skins. The hides of all these large animals were 
used in making bags and containers. Sometimes 
the whole skin of one animal was adapted for that 
purpose. The black bear likewise was utilized for 
many purposes—flesh for food, hides and fur for 
clothing and shelter, intestines for bow strings, 
teeth and claws for beads and decoration, and 
bones for scrapers. Children ate the fat as a tidbit. 
Bears were captured chiefly by the deadfall trap 
(achazihi-e@en). Flesh of muskrat, beaver, cari- 
bou, moose, and deer was dried and smoked. 


4 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


The snowshoe hare was trapped in the following 
manner. A pile of birch boughs was built to 
attract the animal. A fence was then constructed 
around this pile containing several openings 
through which the hares could pass to reach the 
source of food. Snare traps (abe’k%towa’gan) 
were set in these openings to capture them as 
they passed through. Red and gray squirrels and 
woodehucks were also hunted. Tobacco pouches 
were made from the skins of woodchucks. Porcu- 
pine meat and quills were utilized as much by the 
Malecite as by the Micmac. Mr. Polchis said it 
was the easiest of the animals to kill. MeIntosh 
(1909) found that designs on aboriginal pottery 
frequently resembled the porcupine quill orna- 
mentation found on birch-bark vessels as well as 
that of spruce-root stitching. He believed these 
designs were suggested by the quill work on the 
bark vessels which long antedated the manu- 
facture of pottery ware in this region. The rac- 
coon, skunk, weasel, mink, pine marten, fisher, 
wolverine, and lynx were the common animals 
hunted for fur. The raccoon was also used for 
food, and the os baculum (penis bone) of this 
animal and the mink served as an ear pick for the 
Indians. Chamberlain (1884) listed both the 
Canada lynx and the bay lynx for New Bruns- 
wick and noted that pme marten was common at 
the time of his writing, but the fisher was rare. 
The woodland caribou was still common at that 
date, whereas the Virginia deer was uncommon 
but increasing in number. He also noted that the 
red squirrel was very abundant but the gray 
squirrel (mi’-ko) was rare. The Canada ruffed 
grouse and spruce grouse, called fool hen by the 
Malecite, were among the most important forest 
birds. Fans were made from the tail feathers of 
these birds. The ring-necked pheasant has been 
introduced in recent times and the passenger 
pigeon, once so abundant, has become extinct. 
There is no indication that the American wild 
turkey ever extended this far in its range. Mr. 
Polchis called to our attention that hunters con- 
sidered it bad luck to shoot an owl. Birdlore of the 
Northern Indians was the subject of an earlier 
paper by the senior author (Speck, 1921). 

The hunting, fishing, and trapping devices of 
the Malecite were essentially the same as those 
employed by the Micmac. These included the 
harpoon (si:gaewan), dip net (azahi’-gan), hook 
(pki’-*k-an), spear (saptihi’-gen), leister (n1’- 
gak), torch (pu’’segwo’n), bow and arrow (ta’b 
nazaba°k™), traps (kelhi’-genal), and others men- 


vou. 42, No. 1 


tioned above. Here again the family hunting 
ground system regulated the taking of game and 
served to keep the Indian population in balance 
with the game populations (Cooper, 1939; Speck 
and Hiseley, 1939; Speck and Hadlock, 1946; 
Hallowell 1949). 

Mr. Polchis mentioned eating blaek ants in the 
springtime for medicinal purposes. Only rarely 
did our informants mention the medical uses of 
animals and plants, and they were very reluctant 
to discuss the purposes for which certain native 
medicines were used. Mr. Polchis explained that 
it was tabu to discuss with members of the same 
sex medicinal properties of animals and plants for 
fear of losing the power of these medicants. Pre- 
sumably one could discuss such matters with the 
opposite sex without fear of losing their value. 

The coniferous trees, as abundant in Malecite 
territory as in that occupied by the Micmac, were 
commonly utilized. Reots for thread were ob- 
tained from the black and white spruce and 
balsam fir. Needles and branches of these same 
evergreens were used for pillows and bedding, 
while the pitch was used for waterproofing seams 
in the canoes, and in medicine. Bark of the white 
spruce was used for canoes and roofing the huts. 
Arrow shafts were made from tamarack. The 
bark of hemlock (k°sius*k), tamarack, and yew 
served for medicine, and from the bark of hem- 
lock a dye and tanning material was obtained. 
From white cedar (arbor vitae), wood for canoe 
slats and arrows was sought, and the bark was 
used in tanning hides. Of the deciduous trees, 
white or canoe birch was of greatest importance 
because of the uses of its bark for canoes, boxes, 
and containers of all kinds. Yellow bireh was em- 
ployed in the manufacture of sled and toboggan 
runners. The wood, stripped of the bark, was 
heated and used like the hot-water bottle of the 
white man. Brooms were also made from birch. 
Basket splints were made from brown ash, red 
maple, and white cedar, and the fiber from bass- 
wood was made into belts and ropes as well as for 
sewing birch bark. White ash was used for making 
boat frames and snowshoes. Elm (dje’s:agank™) 
bark was sometimes substituted for birch bark in 
the construction of bark canoes. Ironwoods (the 
hornbeams) were used for making bows and 
handles for utensils. Torch handles, paddles, and - 
oars were made from the wood of sugar maple. 
Medicines were prepared from slippery elm, wild 
cherry, black cherry, sumac, alder, and the oaks. 
Willow bark was mixed with tobacco, and some- 


JANUARY 1952 


times acorns mixed with dried willow bark was 
substituted for tobacco. Pipes were made from 
the wood of wild cherry, among other things. 
Even food was derived from the hardwoods. 
Maple syrup and sugar were tapped from the 
sugar-maple tree. Fruits were eaten from the 
wild plum, black cherry, choke cherry, and the 
sand cherry. Gorham (1943) reports the finding 
of charred plum pits found among the ashes of 
prehistoric campfires on old village sites, and 
clumps of plum trees (Prunus nigra) have been 
found still living on or near these village sites, 
relics of the new stone age. Since this plum is 
found in New Brunswick only in the vicinity of 
present or past habitations of man, Gorham has 
suggested that it might be a relict of aboriginal 
agriculture. Nuts were gathered from the hazel- 
nut shrub and from butternut, beech, and oak 
trees. The acorns of the red, black, and white oak 
(wa’*tci:lamas) were baked. All the woods, es- 
pecially the hardwoods, were used as fuel. Two 
species of trees have been introduced from the Old 
World that are of special interest. The balm of 
Gilead (ewebi-bak) is a source of medicine, es- 
pecially salves, and of trap scents. The Lombardy 
poplar, however, was described as a cursed tree 
which brings bad luck. Land having the Lom- 
bardy poplar was said to be cursed, and the 
nearly verticle position of the branches is inter- 
preted as a symbol asking for its forgiveness. 

All the fruits and berries listed in the paper on 
the Micmac group were gathered by the Malecite, 
and, in addition, dewberry, bilberry (a‘nkwuda- 
Waba’wimus), and mooseberry, the latter not 
recognized by the authors, were named by our 


SPECK AND DEXTER: USE OF ANIMALS AND PLANTS BY 


MALECITE 5) 


informants. Adney (1944) has made a special 
study of the native fruits and berries known to 
the Malecite. In spite of the wide variety of wild 
fruits eaten, the Indians were cautious about eat- 
ing strange fruits and berries without consulting 
older people to determine whether they were suit- 
able for food. Some fruits and berries were dried 
for winter use. The wild onion, the wild potato 
(tacki-damuk), and the roots of the bracken fern 
were harvested for food, and shoots of pokeberry 
and fiddlehead ferns were gathered for food. A 


number of introduced weeds have been added to 


the diet since the advent of colonization. Among 
these are the dandelion, wild mustard, pig weed, 
and lambs quarters. Wildrice, widely used among 
the eastern Indians, was harvested. Teas were 
prepared from wintergreen, Labrador tea, and the 
barks of many trees, but especially that of the 
yellow birch. In preparing teas a green stick was 
placed across the boiling vessel to prevent it from 
boiling over. Sweet flag, skunk-cabbage, and 
goldthread were used for medicines and sweet 
grass has been introduced for basket-making. 
Sphagnum mosses and cattail down served for 
absorbents and filling for mattresses. 

American Indians lived close to nature. They 
had an intimate knowledge of animals and plants 
—where they lived, how they behaved, what use 
could be made of them, when and how they could 
be obtained. They had great respect for natural 
resources. Their stories and legends revolved 
about native animals particularly. Their whole 
lives were intricately woven into a pattern of 
plant-animal-man relationships. 


TABLE 1.—ANIMALS AND PLaNts UtinizEp BY THE INLAND MALECcITE INDIANS, CHIEFLY FOR Foop or Foop 
PROCUREMENT 


Scientific Classification 


English Name 


Scientific Classification 


English Name 


INSEcTA: 
Formicidae 

Piscrs: 
Acipenser oxyrhynchus 
Anguilla bostoniensis 
Dorosoma cepedianum ? 
Pomolobus pseudoharengus | 


Alosa sapidissima 
Salmo salar 
Cristivomer namaycush 
Osmerus mordax 
Roccus saxatilis 
Morone americana 
Catostomidae 
Leucosomus corporalis 


Black ants 


Sturgeon 
Eel 
Gizzard shad; gizzardfish 


Alewife; fresh-water herring; 
gaspereau 
Shad 


Atlantic salmon 

Togue; ee lake trout 
Smelt 

Striped bass 

White perch; sea perch 
Suckers 

Chub 


Pisces (Continued): 
Cyprinidae 
Esox lucius 
Perca flavescens 
ReEPTILIA: 
Chelydra serpentina 
AVES: 
Branta canadensis 
Chen hy perborea 
Anatinae; Nyrocinae 


Canachites canadensis 
Bonasa wmbellus 
Phasianus colchicus 
Charadrioidea 
Philohela minor 


Shiners; minnows 
Pike; pickerel 
Yellow perch ibe 


Snapping turtle 


| Canada goose 


Snow goose 
Surface-feeding and 
ducks 


la 
| Spruce grouse 


Rutted grouse 


| Ringed-neck pheasant 
| Shorebirds 
Woodeock 


diving 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


TaBLeE 1.—(Continued) 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 1 


Scientific Classification 


English Name 


Scientific Classification 


English Name 


Aves (Continued): 
Capella delicata 
Actitis macularia 
Larinae 
Ectopistes migratorius 

MAMMALIA: 

Euarctos americanus 
Procyon lotor 

Martes americana 
Martes pennanti 
Mustela cicognani 
Mustela vison 

Gulo luscus 

Lutra canadensis 
Mephitis mephitis 
Lynx canadensis 
Marmota monax 
Sciurus hudsonicus 
Sciurus carolinensis 
Castor canadensis 
Ondatra zibethica 
Erethizon dorsatum 
Lepus americanus 
Odocoileus virginianus 
Alces americana 
Rangifer caribou 

Bryopnyta: 
Sphagnum spp. 

PTERIDOPHYTA: 
Filicinae 

GYMNOSPERMAE: 
Taxus canadensis 
Pinus strobus 
‘Lari laricina 
Picca glauca 
Picea mariana 
Abies balsamea 
Tsuga canadensis 
Thuja occidentalis 
Juniperus spp. 

ANGIOSPERMAE: 
Zostera marina 
Zizania aquatica 
Hierochloé odorata 
Symplocarpus foetidus 
Acorus calamus 


Wilson’s snipe 
Spotted sandpiper 
Gulls 

Passenger pigeon 


Black bear 

Raccoon 

Marten 

Fisher 

Weasel 

Mink 

Wolverine 

Otter 

Skunk 

Lynx 

Woodchuck 

Red squirrel 

Gray squirrel 

Beaver 

Muskrat 

Poreupine 

Showshoe rabbit; varying hare 
White-tailed deer; Virginia deer 
Moose 

Woodland caribou 


Sphagnum moss 
Ferns 


Yew; ground hemlock 
White pine 

Tamarack 

White spruce 

Black spruce 

Balsam fir 

Hemlock 

White cedar; srbor vitae 
Red cedar; juniper 


Eelgrass 

Wildrice 

Sweetgrass 
Skunk-cabbage 
Muskrat-root; sweet flag 


ANGIOSPERMAE (Continued): 
Allium spp. 
Saliz spp. 
Populus gileadensis 
Juglans cinerea 
Corylus sp. 
Ostrya virginiana 
Carpinus caroliniana 
Betula spp. 
Betula papyrifera 
Alnus spp. 
Fagus grandifolia 
Quercus spp. 
Ulmus americana 
Chenopodium sp. 
Phytolacca americana 
Coptis groenlandica 
Brassica spp. 
Ribes spp. 
Crataegus spp. 
Fragaria virginiana 
Rubus spp. 


Prunus spp. 


Apios americana 
Acer pennsylvanicum 
Acer saccharum 
Acer rubrum 
Vitis vulpina 
Tilia americana 
Cornus canadensis 
Pyrola sp. 
Ledum groenlandicum 
Gaultheria procumbens 
Vaccinium spp. 
Fraxinus americana 
Fraxinus nigra 
Viburnum opulus 

p 
Viburnum lentago 
Mitchella repens 

Pi 
Sambucus canadensis, S. 

pubens 

Helianthus tuberosus 
Taraxacum officinale 


Wild onion 

Willows 

Balm of Gilead 

Butternut 

Hazelnut 

Hop-hornbeam; ironwood 

Hornbeam; ironwood 

Birches 

Canoe birch; paper birch 

Alder 

Beech 

Oaks 

American elm 

Pigweed 

Poke; pigeonberry 

Goldthread 

Mustard i: 

Currants; gooseberries 

Hawthorn 

Strawberry 

Raspberries; 
dewberries 

Wild cherries; black cherries; 
beach plum; sand plum 

Wild bean; groundnut 

Moosewood; striped maple 

Sugar maple; rock maple 

Red maple 

Wild grape; river-bank grape 

Basswood 

Bunchberry 

Wintergreen 

Labrador tea 

Teaberry; checkerberry 

Blueberries; cranberries 

White ash 

Black ash; brown ash 

Highbush cranberry 

Sheepberry 

Partridgeberry 


blackberries; 


Elderberries 


Artichoke; wild potato 
Dandelion 


LITERATURE CITED 


Apney, E. Tappan. The Malecite Indians’ names 
for native berries and fruits, and their meanings. 
Acadian Nat. 1 (3): 103-110. 1944. 

Baitny, L. W. On the relics of the stone age in 
New Brunswick. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. New 
Brunswick, no. 6 (art. 1): 38-16. 1887. 

Barirp, 8S. F. Notes on certain aboriginal shell 
mounds on the coast of New Brunswick and of 
New England. Proce. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 4: 292- 
297. 1882. 

Barratr, JosepH. The Indians of New England 
and the northeastern provinces: 24 pp. 1851. 
CHAMBERLAIN, Montacur. Mammals of New 
Brunswick. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soc. New Bruns- 

wick 1 (3), art. 4: 37-40. 1884. 


The origin of the Maliseets. New Bruns- 
wick Mag. 1. 1898. 

. The Indians in New Brunswick in 
Champlain’s time. Acadiensis 4: 280-295. 1904. 

Coopgr, J. M. Is the Algonquian family hunting 
ground system pre-Columbian? Amer. Anthrop. 
41: 66-90. 1939. 

The culture of the northeastern Indian 
hunters: A reconstructive interpretation. In: 
“Man in Northeastern North America,” 
Papers Robert S. Peabody Foundation for 
Archeology 3: 272-306. Ed. by F. Johnson. 1946. 

FLANNERY, ReGina. An analysis of coastal Al- 
gonquin culture. Catholic Univ. Amer. 
Anthrop. Series no. 7: 1-219. 1939. 


JANUARY 1952 


The culture of the northeastern Indian 
hunters: A descriptive survey. In: ‘‘Man in 
Northeastern North America,’’ Papers Robert 
S. Peabody Foundation for Archeology 3: 
263-271. Edited by F. Johnson. 1946. 

Goruam, R. P. The history of plum culture in 
New Brunswick. Acadian Nat. 1 (2): 59-69. 
1943. 

Hatitowe.L, A. 1. The size of Algonkian hunting 
territories: A function of ecological adjustment. 
Amer. Anthrop. 51 (1): 35-45. 1949. 

Jack, Epwarp. Maliseet legends. Journ. Amer. 
Folk-lore 8: 193-208. 1895. 

Loomis, F. B., anp Youne, D. B. On the shell 
heaps of Maine. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 4, 
34: 17-42. 1912. 

Marniarp, A. 8. Account of the customs and 
manners of the Micmakis and Maricheets: 138 
pp. London, 1758. 

Marruew, G. F. Discoveries at a village of the 
stone age at Bocabec, N. B. Bull. Nat. Hist. 
Soc. New Brunswick 1 (3): 5-29. 1884. 

McInrosn, WiuuraAmM. Aboriginal pottery of New 
Brunswick. Bull. Nat. Hist. Soe. New Bruns- 
wick 6 (2) art. 2: 110-120. 1909. 

Mecuiine, W. H. Maliseet tales. Journ. Amer. 
Folk-lore 26 : 219-258. 1913. 

Malecite tales. Can. Geol. Surv. Mem. 49 
(Anthrop. Series no. 4): 133 pp. Ottawa, 1914. 

Speck, FRANK G. Malecite tales. Journ. Amer. 
Folk-lore 30: 479-485. 1917. 


SOHN AND BERDAN: RANGE OF PHANASSYMETRIA 7 


Bird-lore of the northern Indians. Bull. 
Univ. Pennsylvania 21 (18): 349-380. 1921. 
Reptile-lore of the northern Indians. 
Journ. Amer. Folk-lore 36: 273-280. 1923. 
Penobscot man: 325 pp. 1940. 

Speck, FRANK G., AND DeEexterR, Ratepu W. 
Utilization of marine life by the Wampanoag 
Indians of Massachusetts. Journ. Washington 
Acad. Sci. 38 (8): 257-265. 1948. 

—. Utilization of animals and plants by 
the Micmac Indians of New Brunswick. 
Journ. Washington Acad. Sei. 41 (8): 250-259. 
1951. 

Speck, FranNK G., AND Eiseuny, L. C. Signifi- 
cance of hunting territory systems of the Al- 
gonkian in social theory. Amer. Anthrop. 41: 
269-280. 1939. 

Speck, FRANK G., AND Haptock, W.8. A report 
on tribal boundaries and hunting areas of the 
Malecite Indian of New Brunswick. Amer. 
Anthrop. 48: 355-374. 1946. 

Stamp, Hartey. A Malecite tale: Adventures of 
Bukschinskwesk. Journ. Amer. Folk-lore 28: 
243-248. 1915. 

Treat, J. Htchemins. Archaeologica Americana 
2: 305-367. 1836. 

Watson, L. W. The origin of the Malecites. Journ. 
Amer. Folklore 20: 160. 1907. 

WIssLER, CuARK. The relation of nature to man as 
illustrated by the N. A. Indian. Ecology 5 (4): 
311-318. 1924. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Stratigraphic range of the ostracode genus Phanassymetria 
Roth2 I. G. SoHN and JEan M. Brerpan, U.S. Geological Survey. (Communi- 


cated by John B. Reeside.) 


The genus Phanassymetria was established 
by Roth (1929, p. 358) for two species of 
ostracodes from the Haragan marl (Lower 
Devonian) of Oklahoma. In 1936 van Veen 
(1936, p. 177) discussed this genus and as- 
signed to it two species from the Upper 
Cretaceous of Holland. As has been noted by 
Kellett (1943, pp. 626-627), this created a 
surprisingly long range for the genus, and 
because other species from intermediate 
periods have not been recorded, it appeared 
desirable to review the generic characters of 
both the Lower Devonian and the Cretace- 
ous species. We have been fortunate in 
having van Veen’s paratype material for 
study, as well as Roth’s types from the 
Haragan marl, and have observed morpho- 
logical differences between the Lower 
Devonian and the Cretaceous species. In 
this paper the genus Phanassymetria is 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey. 


limited to those forms occurring in rocks of 
Silurian and Devonian age, and a new genus 
is established for the Cretaceous species. 
We are grateful to Drs. G. A. Cooper and 
David Nicol, of the U.S. National Museum, 
for arranging the exchange of van Veen’s 
paratype material through Dr. J. H. van 
Voorthuysen, Geologische Dienst, Haarlem, 
Holland, and for making available Roth’s 
types. Dr. R. A. M. Schmidt, of the U. 8. 
Geological Survey, prepared the radiographs 
used in illustrating this paper, and her co- 
operation is gratefully acknowledged. Mrs. 
Elinor Stromberg prepared the illustrations. 
Wealsowish tothank Dr. Kurt Rosenwaldand 
Mrs. Severine Britt for assistance in trans- 
lating the quoted portions of van Veen’s dis- 
cussion of Phanassymetria from the German. 


MORPHOLOGY OF OSTRACODE SHELLS 


The most recent discussion of the shell 
structure of ostracodes is that by Sylvester- 


8 JOURNAL 


Bradley (1941, pp. 1-33). The valves of 
living ostracodes are pierced at right angles 
to the surface by pores known as ‘normal 
pore canals,”’ from which hairs protrude. In 
general, these pores are not recognizable on 
Paleozoic ostracodes, although they can be 
observed on many post-Paleozoic forms. 

Swartz (1936, p. 581) described the early 
Paleozoic genus Tubulibairdia as charac- 
terized by ‘‘coarse tubular pores which open 
on the internal surface of the valves, but do 
not reach the exterior.”” The same type of 
pore occurs in the Paleozoic species of 
Phanassymetria (Fig. 1) and in other 
Paleozoic genera. If the tubules are normal 
pore canals they should be present in all the 
genera of a given faunule that contains speci- 
mens in which the tubules can be seen. We 
have examined material from several locali- 
ties of Silurian and Devonian age and have 
observed that the tubules are restricted to a 
group of genera related to Phanassymetria. 
The tubules can be seen on the inside surface 
of well-preserved valves. In some cases they 
appear as perforations through the shell wall 
of abraded specimens. They may also be 
seen by transmitted light on wetted specimens 
of both complete carapaces and dissociated 
valves. Under some conditions of preserva- 
tion it is necessary to make thin sections to 
determine the presence of the tubules. They 
show very plainly on radiographs of the 
valves: Examination of van Veen’s paratype 
material from the Cretaceous of Holland 
fails to show any indication of these tubules, 
either with transmitted lhght or on the 
radiographs. The following translation of the 
discussion of the genus Phanassymetria by 
van Veen shows that she was not aware of 
the presence of the tubules in the early Pale- 
ozoic species: 


This genus was established by Roth for two 
Lower Devonian ostracodes from America whose 
valves, as the name indicates, are distinctly asym- 
metrical. Their asymmetry consists in one valve 
being much larger than the other and overlapping 
it on all the margins. 

Roth arbitrarily established the wider end as 
anterior, thus making the right valve larger. This 
orientation should very likely be reversed, mak- 
ing the left valve the larger, as is the usual case 
with ostracodes. This orientation is indicated also 


OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 1 
by the fact that in P. quadrupla the posterior 
and not the anterior end varies considerably in 
width. Roth states that in both of his species 
the hinge of the valve which we consider as the 
left has a furrow and the right valve is flanged 
[“‘scharf”’]. On the other hand, we believe that in 
our two species the opposite is the case, as is 
usual with other ostracodes. 

Roth does not give generic characteristics, but 
describes in detail his two species. Bassler and 
Kellett (1934, p. 37) describe the genus in their 
Bibliographic Index of Paleozoic Ostracodes. 
They, however, base their description mainly 
on the genotype. They place this genus in the 
family Thlipsuridae. The following may be men- 
tioned as the chief characteristics: The carapace 
is thick and strongly asymmetrical, since the left 
valve is much larger than the right one, and 
overlaps it on all the margins. The surface of the 
valves is smooth or punctate. Hinge margin 
straight, and hinge teeth absent. 

Roth as well as we [van Veen] found two types 
of forms of this genus. We, therefore, originally 
concluded that his as well as our specimens rep- 
resented a species exhibiting strong sexual di- 
morphism. The illustrations given by Roth do 
not contradict this assumption; P. triserrata 
would be the female and P. quadrupla the male. 
In order to investigate this problem a sample of 
Haragan marl from White Mound, Oklahoma, 
was obtained from Prof. R. W. Harris through 
the courtesy of Dr. Merle Israelsky to both of 
whom we express our sincere thanks. The sample 
contained a great number of complete carapaces 
and dissociated valves of the two species of 
Phanassymetria differentiated by Roth. We con- 
cluded that our assumption is most likely not 
correct because we believe that we are able to 
differentiate longer and shorter carapaces in both 
species [““Gattungen’’] with a greater number of 
shorter ones. 

Fossils of this genus were found only in the 
Lower Devonian of North America and in the 
Cretaceous of South Limburg, the former being 
much larger. 

It may be mentioned that Bonnema (1932, p. 
288; 1933, p. 25) was referring to this genus when 
he wrote “‘pot-with-lid.” 


As may be seen from the above discussion 
in addition to lacking tubules that are char- 
acteristic of Phanassymetria, the Cretaceous 
species differ in being smaller. It might be 


JANUARY 1952 


considered as a possibility that the small 
size coupled with the absence of pores in the 
Cretaceous forms represents an atavistic re- 
version or a Juvenile stage of the Phanassy- 
metria stock. That this is not the case is 
shown by the presence of pores in a juvenile 
growth stage of Phanassymetria, which is 
about half the size of the adults, from the 
type locality at White Mound, Oklahoma. 
This juvenile specimen has a length of 0.5 
mm as compared with a length of 0.4 mm for 
the Cretaceous specimens. It therefore ap- 
pears that the resemblance between the 
lower Paleozoic and the Cretaceous species 
is due to homeomorphy rather than any 
genetic relationship. Even this resemblance 
iS more apparent than real, however, as the 
“groove” on P. foveata van Veen, which is 


SOHN AND BERDAN: RANGE OF PHANASSYMETRIA 9 


supposed to resemble that on P. triserrata 
Roth, is actually a shallow subtriangular 
depression oblique to the hinge line (Fig. 5) 
rather than a groove open posteriorly and 
parallel to the hinge line as in the Paleozoic 
species. The thickness of the shell wall of the 
Paleozoic specimens appears to be propor- 
tionately greater than that of the Cretaceous 
specimens. In P. afoveata van Veen, no pit or 
groove 1s present, and the resemblance to 
the lower Paleozoic forms is in the general 
outline and in the alleged thickness of the 
shell walls. Considering these factors, and 
considering that no species assignable to 
Phanassymetria have been found in either 
the upper Paleozoic or the lower Mesozoic, 
it seems desirable to remove the Cretaceous 
species from the genus Phanassymetria. 


2 


3 


Fries. 1-3.—1, Phanassymetria sp.: Left valve from the inside, camera-lucida drawing, approx. X 66, 
showing the tubules. Marl beds of Haragan shale west of Clarita, Coal County, Okla., donated by 
Robert H. Stewart, U. S. Geological Survey, who obtained the sample from Prof. William Shideler, 
Miami University, Oxford, Ohio, U.S.N.M. no. 116454. 2, Pseudophanasymmetria foveata (van Veen) : 
Complete carapace, lateral view of right side, camera-lucida drawing from radiograph, approx. X 113; 
tubules not present. Van Veen’s paratype material, Maestrichtian from South Limburg, Holland, 
U.S.N.M. no. 108231. 3, Pseudophanasymmetria? afoveata (van Veen): Complete carapace, lateral 
view of right side, camera-lucida drawing from radiograph, approx. X 113; tubules not present. The 
specimen was tilted when the radiograph was made so that the muscle sear patterns, presumed to be 
located opposite each other, are projected on the plane of the film as two units. The upper pattern is 
interpreted to belong to the right valve, and the lower, to the left valve. Van Veen’s paratype material, 
Maestrichtian from South Limburg, Holland, U.S.N.M. no. 108232. 


10 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Family BAIRDIIDAE? Sars, 1887 
Pseudophanasymmetria Sohn and Berdan, n. gen. 


Phanassymetria (part) van Veen, Natuurhist. 
Maandblad, Jaarg. 25, no. 11-12: 177. 1936. 

Genotype P. foveata (van Veen), ibid.: 177-178, 
pl. 10, figs. 16-22. 


Diagnosis —Markedly asymmetrical ostra- 
codes with shells not penetrated by conspicuous 
large pores. Larger valve overlaps smaller on all 
margins. Hinge straight, simple, reported by van 
Veen to consist of a bar and groove. Both dorsal 
and lateral outlines subovate. Shell surface either 
smooth or punctate, and with a shallow depres- 
sion on the posterodorsal part of the shell. Inner 
lamella not observed, probably absent. 

Discussion.—The reasons for separating this 
genus from Phanassymetria have been cited 
above. Van Veen placed two Cretaceous species, 
P. foveata and P. afoveata, in Phanassymetria. Of 
these two, P. foveata has been selected as the 
type of the new genus. Van Veen (1936, p. 178) 
has stated that P. foveata and P. afoveata resem- 
ble each other in having the left valve much 
larger than the right and overlapping it on all 
margins, and also in having a small spine on the 
posterior margin of each valve. These spines are 
very small, and, according to van Veen, many of 
them are abraded. As such spines in many ostra- 
code genera are not even of specific importance, 
the principal indication of relationship between 
the two species is the similarity in overlap. The 
species differ in the presence of surface sculpture 
in P. foveata as opposed to P. afoveata, and in a 
well-defined muscle scar in P. afoveata, which has 
not been observed in P. foveata. It is, therefore, 
possible that examination of additional material 
will show that the two species do not belong to 
the same genus. However, the material available 
to us, which consists of a complete carapace and 
one larger valve of each species, does not justify 


vou. 42, no. 1 


the proposal of an additional genus. The species 
afoveata is provisionally referred to Pseudophana- 
symmetria. The following species appear similar 
to Pseudophanasymmetria? afoveata: 


Bairdia subglobosa Bosquet, 1852, Memoires Cou- 
ronnes et Memoires des Savants HEtrangers 
publiés par l’Académie Royale des Sciences, 
des Lettres et des Beaux-arts de Belgique 24: 
25, pl. 1, figs. 7a-d. Cretaceous to Miocene.— 
Bosquet, 1854, Mon. Crust. foss. Crétacé de 
Limburg: 65-66 (55-56), pl. 8, figs. 3a-d. 

Bairdia subglobosa Méhes, 1911, Resultate der 
Wissenschaftlichen Erforschung des Balatonsees 
3: pt. 6: 21, pl. 2, figs. 11-13, Triassic. 

Bairdia (?) problematica Méhes, 1911 (= Hunga- 
rella problematica (Mehes)), Resultate der Wis- 
senschaftlichen Erforschung des Balatonsees 3: 
pt. 6: 21, pl. 2, figs. 14-18, Triassic. 

Bardia (2?) problematica var. reniformis Méhes, 
1911 (= Hungarella problematica var. reniformis 
(Méhes)), Resultate der Wissenschaftlichen Er- 
forschung des Balatonsees 3: pt. 6: 22-23, pl. 2, 
figs. 19-23, Triassic. 


Further study may disclose that the listed 
species and Pseudophanasymmetria? afoveata be- 
long to the same group, and in one or more 
genera. Bosquet’s statement (1854, footnote, ex- 
planation to pl. 8) that the specimens described 
as B. subglobosa are young individuals of B. 
subdeltoides is probably not correct, because we 
have observed growth stages of species of Pale- 
ozoic Bairdia and of post-Paleozoic Bairdoppilata 
in which the younger stages have the same lateral 
and dorsal outlines as the adults. The Triassic 
species referred by Méhes to Bairdia subglobosa 
probably does not belong to it, and may require 
a new name. 


Pseudophanasymmetria foveata (van Veen), 1936 
Figs. 2, 4, 5 


Phanassymetria foveata van Veen, Natuurhist. 
Maandblad, Jaarg. 25, no. 11-12: 177-178, pl. 
10, figs. 16-22. 1936. 


Fires. 4-6.—4, 5, Pseudophanasymetria foveata (van Veen): 4, Left valve from the inside, approx. 


< 70; anterior ventral portion broke in handling. Van Veen’s paratype material, Maestrichtian from 
South Limburg, Holland, U.S.N.M. no. 108234; 5, complete carapace, dorsal view, approx. X 70; same 
specimen as shown in Fig. 2. 6, Pseudophanasymetria ? afoveata (van Veen). Left valve from the 
inside approx. X 70. Van Veen’s paratype material, Maestrichtian from South Limburg, Holland, 
U.S.N.M. no. 108233. 


January 1952] 


A translation of the original description follows: 


This species is represented by 4 carapaces and 
21 left valves. Right valves are absent, presuma- 
bly because of their smaller size. 

Carapace thick. Egg-shaped in lateral view, 
greatest height anterior to midlength. Anterior 
margin broadly rounded. Posterior margin some- 
what truncated. Dorsal margin straight, ventral 
margin slightly convex. These two margins con- 
verge strongly backward, dorsal and ventral out- 
line also egg-shaped, greatest width is behind 
midlength. Lengthwise very irregularly triangu- 
lar, with greatest width below midhieght so that 
the carapace is flattened out below. 

It is very characteristic that the left valve has 
a suleus [Grube] located on the outside in the 
back below the dorsal margin. The margins of the 
suleus are elevated, except along dorsal margin. 
Strange to say, a similar sulcus is found in P. 
triserrata Roth, but there the elevation is lacking. 
The surface of the valves is finely punctate, with 
small dots that are arranged in rows. It is further 
characteristic that each valve has on its posterior 
a little spine, which, however, is often abraded. 
In P. triserrata such a spine is present on the dorsal 
surface of each valve. 

This ostracode is present in Staring’s third 
Bryozoa bed in the Jeker Valley, and in the first 
Bryozoa layer of Maestrichtian ‘‘d’’ at Bemelen. 


Measurements (in millimeters): 


Greatest length Greatest height Convextty 


Complete c2rapace 0.44 0.32 0.31 
Left valve 0.41 0.2) — 


The extremely small size of the specimens 
suggests that they possibly represent young 
erowth stages. The original of van Veen’s figs. 
16-20, pl. 10, is here designated as the lectotype. 


Pseudophanasymmetria? afoveata (van Veen), 
1936 


Figs. 3, 6 


Phanassymetria afoveata van Veen, Natuurhist. 
Maandblad, Jaarg. 25, no. 11-12: 178, pl. 10, 
figs. 23-30. 1936. 


A translation of the original description 
follows: 


This ostracode, too, belongs to the less common 
species, being represented by four complete cara- 
paces, six left valves, and one right valve. The 
relationship of this ostracode with the previous 
one results from the fact that the left valve is 
much larger than the right and overlaps it all 
around, and that each valve bears a little spine 
on the posterior margin. It differs from the former 
by being smaller, less thick, more slender, and 
more cylindrical in shape. Moreover, the surface 
is not punctate. Furthermore, the groove on the 
posterior part is absent. 


SOHN AND BERDAN: RANGE OF PHANASSYMETRIA 11 


This species is found in Staring’s third Bryozoa 
bed in the Jeker Valley and in the first Bryozoa 
bed at Bemelen. 


Measurements (in millimeters): 


Greatest length Greatest height Convextly 


Complete carapace 0.40 0.26 0.26 
Left valve 0.41 0.26 — 


The extremely small size of the specimens 
suggests that they possibly represent young 
erowth stages. A complete carapace and two 
larger valves were available to us for study, but 
unfortunately one of the larger valves was de- 
stroyed during the process of obtaining radio- 
graphs, and a portion of the larger valve of the 
carapace was broken after a satisfactory radio- 
graph was obtained. The radiograph of the cara- 
pace shows muscle scar patterns on both valves 
(Fig. 3). The pattern is circular and consists of 
eight discernible scars that differ in arrangement 
in the opposing valves. It is not known whether 
this asymmetry in arrangement of the individual 
muscle fibers is typical in ostracodes. The ar- 
rangement of the muscle scar pattern is similar 
to that of Hungarella Méhes (1911, p. 22) as 
figured by him for Bairdia(?) problematica Méhes, 
1911, on pl. 2, fig. 16. The small sears that sur- 
round the central group in Hungarella are not 
discernible in P. afoveata. The original of van 
Veen’s figs. 23-27, pl. 10, is hereby designated 
as the lectotype. 


REFERENCES 


Bassuer, R. 8., and Kenierr, Berry. Biblio- 
graphic index of Paleozoic Ostracoda. Geol. 
Soc. Amer. Spec. Pap. 1: 500 pp. 1934. 

Bonnema, J. H. Orientation of the carapaces of 
Paleozoic Ostracoda. Journ. Pal. 6: 288-295. 
1932. 

. Die Orientierung der Schalen der paleozoi- 
schen Ostracoden. Zeitschr. Geschiebeforsch. 
9, pt. 1: 23-42. 1933. 

Bosaqurt, J. Monographie des Crustaces fossiles du 
terrain Crétacé dw Duché de Limburg. Me- 
moires de la Commission pour la description 
et la carte Géologique de la Neerland. 2: 137 
pp., LO pls. 1854. 

Keniuert, Berry. Permian ostracodes. Journ. Pal. 
17: 615-628, 1943. 

Méurs, Gruna. Uber Trias-Ostrakoden aus dem 
Bakony. Resultate der wissenschaftl. Erfors- 
chung des Balatonsees, Anhang, Paleont. der 
Umgebung des Balatonsees 3, pt. 6: 38 pp., 4 
pls. 1911. 

Rovru, Roperr. Some ostracodes from the Haragan 
marl, Devonian, of Oklahoma. Journ. Pal. 3: 
327-3872, pls. 35-38. 1929. 

Swartz, F. M. Revision of the Primitiidae and 
Beyrichiidae, with new Ostracoda from the 


IW JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


lower Devonian of Pennsylvania. Journ. Pal. 
10: 541-586, pls. 78-89. 1936. 


SYLVESTER-BRADLEY, P. C. The shell structure of 
their 


the Ostracoda and its application to 
paleontological investigation. Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist., ser. 11, 8: 1-33. 1941, 


VoL. 42, No. | 


vAN VEEN, J. E. Nachtrag zw der bis jetzt erschie- 
nenen Revision der Ostracoden der Maastrichter 
Tuffkrerde und der Kunrader Korallenkalkes 
von Stid-Limburg. Natuurhist. Maandbland, 
Jaarg. 25, no. 11-12: 170-188, pls. 9-10. 1936. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—The arms of Polusocrinus. HARRELL L. Srrimpxe, Bartles- 
ville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


Several months ago, Gregory Elias, of 
Gulf Oil Corporation, found a specimen of 
Polusocrinus Strimple (1951) with well- 
preserved arms attached. The specimen was 
obtained by the author through exchange 
and provides vital information for the study 
of ampelocrinids. The specimen was collected 
in the small excavation about half a mile due 
west of the school at Ochelata, Okla., in the 
Wann formation. This zone is also found at 
the hill, locally termed ‘‘The Mound,” just 
west of the city limits of Bartlesville, Okla., 
where several specimens of the species have 
been collected by the author. Description is 
given below as P. ochelataensis, n. sp. 


Genus Polusocrinus Strimple, 1951 


There have been some questions raised as to the 
practicability of the genus Pelusocrinus. One char- 
acteristic, which was not brought out by the 
author, is the lack of depth of the arm articulating 
facets found in the genus. In Aestocrinus mag- 
nificus Miller and Gurely (1890), the genotype 
species, and in other typical representatives of 
that genus, the arm articulating facets attain a 
depth somewhat greater than the normal thick- 
ness of the RR. Typical species also have a shal- 
low basal coneavity. Oklahomacrinus Moore 
(1939) has comparable arm articulating facets, 
but the genus is characterized by extreme basal 
invagination, quite foreign to the convex base of 
Polusocrinus. The form described as Moundo- 
crinus osagensis Strimple (1939) has the same type 
of arm articulating facets as Polusocrinus but the 
anal plate of that species is only faceted for the 
reception of a single tube plate, and the IBB 
circlet is smaller and downflared in attitude. In 
both Polusocrinus and Aesiecrinus the anal plate 
is followed by two tube plates. 

With the knowledge afforded by the crown of 
P. ochelataensis, we are able to anticipate from 


fourteen to sixteen arms in Polusocrinus. Most 
Pennsylvanian genera assigned to the Ampelo- 
crinidae have only ten arms, and one, Allosocrinus 
Strimple (1949), has only five. Hxocrinus Strimple 
(1949) has numerous arms, but the author con- 
templates removal of this genus from the am- 
pelocrinids in the near future. 


Polusocrinus ochelataensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-8 


Dorsal cup is full, semiglobular shaped. Five 
IBB form a large, pentagonal disk, which is 
shallowly concave about the columnar attach- 
ment but is mildly convex in its entirety. Five 
large BB are hexagonal except for the post. B, 
and are equally wide as long. Five RR are slightly 
wider than long and are pentagonal. Articulating 
facets slope inward and attain a length only 0.7 
mm greater than the normal thickness of the RR. 
One large anal plate is present, resting evenly on 
the upper truncated extremity of the post. B. It 
extends only slightly above the upper extremity 
of the cup and attains its maximum width at the 
upper level of the cup. There is provision for the 
reception of two tube plates of equal size. 

The entire crown is devoid of ornamentation 
and the sutures of the cup are not impressed. The 
column is pentagonal and the lumen is pentalo- 
bate. The tegmen has not been observed. 

First bifurcation of the arms occurs on the low 
axillary second primibrachials in all rays. Subse- 
quent branching is known in the left ray of all 
rami except the r. post. where preservation is not 
clear enough to be certain. The second secundibra- 
chials are axillary in all left rays with the ex- 
ception of the anterior where the first SBr is an 
unusually large axillary plate. The arms are uni- 
serial and are well rounded, appearing not to have 
reposed in close contact. No branching has been 
observed in the right rays. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


JANUARY 1952 STRIMPLE: ARMS OF POLUSOCRINUS 13 


Figs. 1-8.—Polusucrinus ochelataensis, n. sp.: 1,5, Paratype from summit, X 2, andfrom base, X 1.5; 
2-4, large paratype from posterior, summit, andbase, X 1.4; 6-8, holotype from right anterior, posterior, 
and left anterior, X 1.5. 


14 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
Large 
Holotype paratype 
Width of dorsal cup (max.)................ 26.5* 29,2* 
Height of dorsal cup (max.)............... 14.2* 14.3* 
Tengthvofiantse Awe eee eee een eras 8.7 10.0 
Widthvotant:ahie eer eee rere Ge erent 13.2 15.7 
Length of suture between RR............. 3.9 4.0 
Length of arm articulating facet atsuture.. 3.7 — 
Normal thickness of RR.................. 3.0 — 
iLengthyotarantseS sere eee ree Cree 11.9 14.6 
Widthvoterants Bieter er ree ere rere 11.9 14.7 
Length of suture between BB............. 6.3 5.6 
Diameter of IBB circlet................... 12.2 14.2 
Diameter of columnar scar............... 4.1F 3.5 
Length of anal plate (max.)............... dott 7.5 
Width of anal plate (max.)................ 7.9 9.0 


* Distorted. 
+ Proximal columnals. 


Remarks.—P. ochelataensis has characteristics 
closely comparable to other described species 
referred to the genus. However, it has a more 
convex base and is the largest known species. The 
RR plates are wider and lower than those of P. 
avanti Strimple (1951), and the anal plate does not 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Phylogenetic studies 
thripidae).! Lewis J. STANNARD, JR 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 1 
extend so far above the summit of the cup. The 
BB plates of P. rosa Strimple (1951) are propor- 
tionately wider than those of the present species. 

Occurrence and horizon.—The holotype is from 
a small excavation approximately one-half mile 
due west of Ochelata, and the paratypes are from 
the hill just west of the city limits of Bartlesville, 
Oklahoma; Wann formation, Ochelata group, 
Missouri series, Pennsylvanian. 

Types.—To be deposited in the U.S. National 
Museum. 


REFERENCES 


Miuuer, 8S. A., ann Gurury, W. F. E. Journ. 
Cincinnati Soc. Nat. Hist. 13: 14. 1890. 

Moorg, R. C. Denison Univ. Bull., Journ. Sci. 
Lab., 34: 255-257. 1939. 

SrrimpLte, H. L. Bull. Amer. Pal. 24: 9-10, pl. 1, 
figs. 5, 6, 10. 1939. 

Bull. Amer. Pal. 32: 9-10, 17-18. 1949. 

Bull. Amer. Pal. 33: 24-26, pl. 5, figs. 

4-6, 11. 1951. 


of Franklinothrips (Thysanoptera: Aeolo- 
Ihnois Natural History Survey, Urbana, 


Ill. (Communicated by Herbert Friedmann.) 


The unusual aeolothripid genus Frank- 
linothrips has been of particular interest to 
most thysanopterists. Whenever examples 
came to hand they were deemed worthy of 
special comment even when taxonomic con- 
siderations were not involved. Since at first it 
was not realized that dimorphic variation 
occurred in the antennal segments and heads 
of the sexes and since all but two of the 
seemingly new species were described from 
unique specimens, it is not too surprising 
that 11 species, 3 genera, and | family have 
been described or proposed for this small 
genus of six species. 

Perhaps the most impressive feature of the 
Franklinothrips is the extremely elongated 
and slender third and fourth antennal seg- 
ments, which bear elaborate sensoria (Figs. 
1-3). For aeolothripids, their wings are 
narrow and the veins are exceptionally faint, 
so faint that some students formerly believed 
no cross veins were present. At least when 
dead, the head is often partially withdrawn 
into the prothorax giving this part of the 

1 This paper is a Joint contribution of the Sec- 
tion of Faunistic Surveys and Insect Identifica- 


tion, Illinois Natural History Survey, and the 
Department of Entomology, University of Illinois. 


body a compact appearance. In nature they 
resemble ants somewhat. 

In spite of the paucity of collections of 
these thrips, enough samples have been 
taken to.indicate that they inhabit the 
warmer regions of the world and are con- 
fined to areas between the northern and 
southern latitudes of 35°. They are largely, 
if not entirely, predaceous, feeding on mites 
and insects including other thrips. The 
larvae spin flimsy pupal cocoons on the 
underside of leaves; there is but a single 
pupal stage in contrast to two or three pupal 
forms in all other thrips. Reijne (1920) pub- 
lished limited observations on their activi- 
ties before and during the pupal stage, but 
details of the rest of their life history remain 
unknown. Occasionally males are attracted 
to lights but females have never been taken 
from this source. 

Franklinothrips should not be confused 
with Frankliniella, another kind of thrips 
belonging to the family Thripidae. 

Although only one type was available to 
me for study, borrowed identified specimens 
and freshly collected specimens of most of 
the other species were considered  satis- 
factory reference material. Over 100 indi- 
viduals of this genus were studied. 


JANUARY 1952 STANNARD: PHYLOGENETIC 

I am sincerely grateful to Prof. Dr. 
Hermann Priesner, of Cairo, for the loan of 
male and female specimens of F. megalops; 
to C. F. W. Muesebeck and the late J. C. 
Crawford for permitting me to examine 
collections of F. tenuicornis and F. vespi- 
formis at the United States National 
Museum (USNM); to George Mack, of the 
Queensland Museum, for the loan of the 
holotype of F. variegatus; and to Dr. W. E. 
China, of the British Museum, for the in- 
formation he has given me on the type speci- 
men of F. aureus. Drs. 8. F. Bailey, H. K. 
Gloyd, B. W. Benson, and E. Wilhams and 
E. C. Becker have aided me by their sugges- 
tions or by the presentation of specimens 
which have been placed in the collections of 
the Illinois Natural History Survey (INHS). 


Genus Franklinothrips Back 

Franklinothrips Back, Ent. News 23: 75-77. Mailed 
Jan. 31, 1912. [Monotypic; genotype by original 
designation, Aeolothrips vespiformis D. L. Craw- 
ford.] 

Mitothrips Trybom, Ent. Tidskr. Arg. H. 3-4: 
146-147. 1912. [Monotypic; genotype, Mitothrips 
megalops Trybom. New synonym, Bagnall 
(1913a); reestablished as full genus, Bagnall 
(1913b); resynonymized, Bagnall (1926).] 

Spathiothrips Richter, Deutsch. Ent. Zeitschr. 
H. 1: 32. 1922. [Genotype by subsequent desig- 
nation of Priesner (1949), Spathiothrips bischoffi 
Richter New synonymy, Bagnall (1931).| 


Aeolothripoids with extremely elongate third 
antennal segments having long linear sensoria 
subdivided or nearly subdivided by short sub- 
dermal rods; with head when closely fitted against 
the prothorax, forming with the prothorax a com- 
pact, elliptical mass; with forepart of head not 
greatly extended beyond eyes; with but three 
segments in the maxillary palpus, although seg- 
ment 2 bears faint markings indicating divisions; 
and with wings relatively narrow for the family. 
These antlike thrips have been found in tropical 
or subtropical regions of North and South Amer- 
ica, In some of the adjacent islands including the 
West Indies, and in Africa and Australia. 

Head round to oval in shape; ventral surface 
of eyes more prolonged posteriorly than dorsal 
surface; ocelli always present, although the fore 
ocellus is often smaller than the posterior ones; 
third antennal segment elongated, at least 10 
times as long as broad; sensoria of the third and 
fourth antennal segments linear, more or less 
subdivided by fine strengthening subdermal 


STUDIES 


OF FRANKLINOTHRIPS 15 


ridges, in the male these sensoria occupy the entire 
ventral and portions of the lateral areas of the 
third and fourth antennal segments; sensoria of 
the fifth, sixth, and seventh antennal segments 
peglike, extending free from their segments, the 
base of these sense cones oval; maxillary palpi 
3-segmented, second segment of these palpi often 
with faint indications of about five subdivisions; 
labial palpi 4-segmented. 

Prothorax with many small setae, no longer 
setae on the angles; mesosternellum (area pos- 
terior to the mesofurcal suture) fused with meta- 
sternum; all tarsi 2-segmented (see Crawford 
1909, fig. 49D; not as in Back 1912, fig. 3); 
longitudinal and cross veins of forewings faint; 
wings similar to those of Stomatothrips. 

Abdomen narrowly attached to thorax. 

The remarkable ventral sensoria of the third 
and fourth antennal segments are found in no 
other kind of thrips. On both sides of the clear 
sensory area there appears to be a differentiated 
shelf extending longitudinally in a sinuate man- 
ner. This marginal area of a different texture than 
the granular dorsal surface possibly is covered by 
the sensorial membrane that extends over from 
the clear area. Since most of the ventral surface 
of the antennae is composed of the sensorial 
membrane, it is reasonable to suppose that the 
short rods extending from the shelf are for the 
purpose of strengthening the antennae to help 
keep it in a rigid shape. Proliferations of the dorsal 
integument toward the venter undoubtedly also 
serve to make the segment rigid. In Figs. 1 and 2, 
both dorsal views, the sensorial membranes are 
those areas on the lateral portions of the antennal 
segment; the shelf is depicted as small areas be- 
tween the sublateral spines; and the dashes or 
short transverse lines represent the strengthening 
rods. These antennal segments were drawn from 
specimens which had been magnified by an oil 
immersion objective of a phase microscope. When 
the antennal segment of megalops was drawn 
(Fig. 3) I did not have access to a phase mi- 
croscope, and I was unaware of the marginal 
shelf if it exists. 


KEY TO ADULTS 
(based in part on descriptions) 

1. Females, sternum of abdominal segments 8 to 
10 longitudinally divided, forming a cleft 
into which a sawhke ovipositor can be re- 
WAMCUOC! Gc aco ole oe 2 


9 entire, not longitudinally divided i 


16 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 
2. Forewings with dark and light cross bands; 


some basal abdominal segments pale.. 3 
Forewings with dark border around margins; 


abdomen uniformly dark...... lineatus Hood 

3. Antennal segment 4 largely;.or entirely pale 
VO liosov reece sy cate sate es les ce sheet al aba ete ok ens 4 
Antennal segment 4 brown................. 6 


4. Abdominal segment 4 completely dark brown, 
similar in color to segments 5 to 9; abdominal 
segments 1 to 3 pale in apical two-thirds 

tenwicornis Hood 

Abdominal segment 4 mostly pale yellow, 
similar in color pattern to the preceding 
segments; abdominal segments 5 to 9 abruptly 
Cank*browmier.ne ee eee et eee 5 

5. Antennal segment 4 with brown shading at 

apex; antennal segment | pale yellow 
megalops Trybom 
Antennal segment 4 pale yellow without brown 
at apex; antennal segment 1 yellowish brown 
variegatus Girault 

6. Abdominal segment 10 black. fulgidus Hood 

Abdominal segment 10 yellowish 
vespiformis Crawford 
. Forewings not continuously bordered around 
EATS lony Glawale Jmol. 5 o sosassdos000s58- 8 
Forewings continuously bordered around mar- 
gins by a dark band........ lineatus Hood 

. Antennal segments 3 and 4 dark brown, segment 

3 as in Fig. 1; lateral ocelli farther apart from 
each other than the length of the diameter of 
a single ocellus, Fig. 7..vespiformis Crawford 
Antennal segments 3 and 4 light yellow brown, 
segment 3 as in Figs. 2 and 3; lateral ocelli 
closer to each other than the length of the 
diameter of a single ocellus, Fig. 8...... 9 

9. Ocellar setae minute, much shorter than the 
length of the Ist antennal segment, not 
reaching the anterior margin of the fore 
ocellus; antennal segments 1 and 2 pale, 
similar to segment 3; antennal segment 4 
longer than segment 3...megalops Trybom 

Ocellar setae long, longer than the length of 
the Ist antennal segment, greatly extended 
beyond anterior margin of fore ocellus; an- 
tennal segments 1 and half of 2 abruptly 
brown; antennal segment 4 slightly shorter 
than’ segment 3.........-: tenwicornis Hood 


“N 


oa) 


Franklinothrips vespiformis (Crawford) 


Aeolothrips vespiformis D. L. Crawford, Pomona 
Coll. Journ. Ent. 1: 109-110, 9. 1909 [Type 
locality: Managua, Nicaragua. |] 

Franklinothrips vespiformis (Crawford). Back, 
Ent. News 23: 75. 1912. [New combination. ] 

Franklinothrips vespiformis (Crawford), Williams, 
Trinidad and Tobago Bull. 17: 143-144. 1918. 
[Description of larva.] 

Franklinothrips vespiformis (Crawford), Moulton, 
Rev. de Ent. 2: 464-465. 1932. [Description of 
oa.) 


Illustrations: Back, 1912; Crawford, D. L., 
1909; Ebeling, 1950; Hood, 1915; Williams, 1918. 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 42, No. 1 
Franklinothrips vespiformis, the genotype and 
the oldest known species in the genus, is well illus- 
trated in the literature and much described. It is 
the only Franklinothrips whose range extends 
northward into the boundaries of the United 
States. In the Nearctic region it occurs from 
southern Florida to southern California. 
Some variation has been noted in the width of 
the forewing and in the color of the third antennal 
segment and wings, but these varying conditions 
have not been considered as yet in detail for 
interpretation of clinal or subspecific significance. 

As a predator vespiformis is of benefit to 
growers of tropical fruits. Larvae have been ob- 
served by Ebeling (1950) feeding upon Heliothrips 
haemorhoidalis. Reijne (1921) reports them as 
natural enemies of Selenothrips rubrocinctus. An 
excellent photograph of the feeding attitude was 
published in Ebeling’s Subtropical entomology. 
Other hosts are red spider mites, Tetranychus 
yothersi. McG.; leafhoppers, [dona minuenda 
(Ball); and white flies, Trialeurodes floridensis Q. 
(Moznette, 1920). Young and adults of F. vespr- 
formis are often observed cn leaves of herbs, 
shrubs, and trees. I have found them also on 
grass growing in roadside ditches in Chiapas, 
Mexico. 

Pupal cocoons are spun on the under side of 
leaves (Moznette, 1920). These oval cocoons are 
composed of weak, loose mesh of silk several 
layers thick, surrounding the insect. Cocoon slides 
in the collection of the United States National 
Museum have within them either pupae or newly 
moulted females. 

The distribution of vespiformis is from Brazil 
to southern United States, including islands of 
the West Indies, but apparently it is more numer- 
ous in Central America than in South America. It 
has been collected from the following places: 
Trinidad (Williams, 1918); Nicaragua (Crawford, 
1909); USA: Florida (Back 1912), Texas (Hood, 
1913), California (Moulton, 1929), Arizona 
(INHS); Panama (Hood, 1913); Cuba (Watson, 
1923); Honduras (Watson and Hubbell, 1924); 
Mexico (INHS); St. Vincent Island, West Indies 
(Bagnall, 1917); Brazil (Moulton, 1932, 1938); 
Surinam (Reijne, 1920). 

Franklinothrips fulgidus Hood 
Franklinothrips fulgidus Hood, Rev. de Ent. 20: 
8-9, 2. 1949. [Type locality: Petropolis, R. J., 
Brazil.] 


Illustrations: Hood, 1949. 


JANUARY 1952 STANNARD: PHYLOGENETIC STUDIES OF FRANKLINOTHRIPS / 


MEGALOPS 


ERYTHROTHRIPS STOMATOTHRIPS FRANKLINOTHRIPS 
ARIZONAE FLAVUS VESPIFORMIS 
Fras. 1-6.—1-3, Franklinothrips, males, third antennal segments, dorsal aspect; 4-6, Aeolothripidae, 


females, fourth antennal segments, dorsal aspect. 


18 JOURNAL OF THE 


Possibly fulgidus is most closely related to 
vespiformis. In coloration fulgidus has no basal 
dark cross bands on abdominal segments two and 
three and the tenth abdominal segment is dark. In 
contrast vespiformis has dark cross bands on the 
basal parts of abdominal segments two and three 
and the tenth abdominal segment is pale yellow. 

This species is known from Brazil by two 
females. 


Franklinothrips lineatus Hood 


Franklinothrips lineatus Hood, Rey. de Ent. 20: 
4-6, #7, 2, 1949. [Type locality: Nova Teutonia, 
Brazil.] 


Illustrations: Hood, 1949. 

This species is the only member of the genus 
with blackish-bordered wings without cross 
bands, although the male has faint indications of 
cross banding in addition to the black border. It 
is also the only species that 1s not bicolored on the 
abdomen. Instead, at least in the female, the 
abdomen is uniformly dark brown in pigment. 

Nothing at all is known of its habits. It has 
been discovered just recently from Brazil. 


Franklinothrips megalops (Trybom) 


Mitothrips megalops Trybom, Ent. Tidskr. Arg. 
33 H. 3-4: 147-151, o. 1912. [Type locality: 
Kibwezi, British East Africa.] 


Franklinothrips megalops (Trybom), Bagnall, 
Trans. 2d Ent. Congress (1912): 397. 1913. 
[New combination.] 

Mitothrips megalops Trybom, Bagnall, Journ. 
Econ. Biol. 8: 157-158. 1913 [Reconsidered, 


transferred from Franklinothrips back to 
original Mitothrips.| 

Franklinothrips  myrmicaeformis Ganon, Atti 
Pontifica Acead. Sei. Nouvi Lincei 77 (separate) : 
4-9, 2. 1924. [Type locality: Bengasi, Libya. 
New synonym, Bagnall, 1927.] 

Franklinothrips megalops (Trybom), Bagnall, Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist. 17: 170. 1926. [Reconsidered, 
combined again with Franklinothrips.| 

Spathiothrips bischoffi Richter, Deutsch Ent. 
Zeitschr. H. 1: 33, @. 1928. [Type locality: 
Kwarangiva, German East Africa. New syn- 
onymy, Bagnall, 1931.] 

Franklinothrips aureus Moulton, Ann. Mag. Nat. 
Hist. 17: 496-497, & (erroneously given as 9 in 
original description). 1936. [New synonymy.] 


Illustrations: Richter, 1928; Trybom, 1912; 
Zanon, 1924. 

This African species has been illustrated, de- 
scribed, and discussed frequently under several 
names. Bagnall (1915, 1926) and Richter (1928) 
were the only two thysanopterists who possibly 
recognized its close relationship to F’. tenuicornis, 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 1 


a South American species. While neither of these 
authors always used the name tenuicornis, or even 
necessarily the name megalops, they did place the 
two entities together to form a group distinct 
from vesptformis. The recent discovery of the 
male of tenwicornis now permits, with reason- 
able certainty, the conclusions that both of these 
species, megalops and tenwicornis, are very simi- 
lar im all respects and both are more different 
from vespiformis than either is from the other, 

Possibly the Australian variegatus, another 
member of the megalops-tenwicornis group, is the 
closest relative of megalops. However, since there 
are no known males of variegatus for comparative 
studies and since the single type specimen of 
vartegatus is probably deformed, the exact rela- 
tionship of megalops and variegatus cannot be 
determined. 

My suspicion that awreus was based on a male 
specimen rather than a female as stated by 
Moulton (1936) was substantiated by Dr. China, 
who examined the unique type for me. Dr. China 
stated that the type slide had been labelled 
“= of of F. megalops” by Mr. F. Laing. 

The preceding key and the discussion under the 
section of phylogeny present points for the recog- 
nition of this species as well as evidence used in 
placing it near tenwicornis in the genus. 

Measurements of the antennae given in several 
of the descriptions and measurements I have 
made indicate some regional variation. If all the 
measurements and statements are correct, the 
fourth antennal segment of the male varies from 
about two times as long as the last five segments 
combined to nearly three times the length of the 
last five segments. Average antennal segment 
lengths of females of megalops and tenuicornis are 
similar to each other, but both differ considerably 
from their respective males. 

Like other Franklinothrips whose habits have 
been observed, megalops is also predatory. Dr. 
Ebeling has called my attention to an article 
written by Avidov and Ben-Haim in which they 
report megalops (under the name myrmicaeformzs) 
as being natural enemies of Heliothrips haemo- 
rhoidalis and Retithrips syriacus in Israel. 

Collections of megalops have been made from 
Kibwezi, British East Africa (Trybom, 1912); 
Bengasi, Libya (Zanon, 1924); German East 
Africa (Richter, 1928); Mossel Bay, Cape Prov- 
ince, South Africa (Bagnall, 1927, and Moulton, 
1930); and Paoli, Italian Somaliland (material 
borrowed from H. Priesner). 


JANUARY 1952 


Franklinothrips tenuicornis Hood 


Franklinothrips tenuicornis Hood, Ent. News 26: 
164-165, 2. Mailed Mar. 31, 1915. [Type lo- 
eality: Moro Island, Panama.] 

Mitothrips petulans Bagnall, Linn. Soc. Journ. 
32: 496-498, 2. Sept. 1915. [Type locality: 
Sangre Grande, Trinidad. New synonymy, Bag- 
nall, 1926.] ie 

Franklinothrips tenuicornis Hood, Williams, Trini- 
dad and Tabago Bull. 17: 1440. 1918. [De- 
seription of larvae.| 

Spathiothrips petulans (Bagnall), Richter, Deutsch 
Ent. Zeitschr. H. 1: 33-37. 1928. [New com- 
bination of synonym. ] 

Franklinothrips petulans (Bagnall), Moulton, Rev. 
de Ent. 2: 465. 1932. [New combination of 
synonym.] 
Illustrations: Bagnall, 1915; Hood, 

Reijne, 1920. 

Contrary to the contention made by Hood 
(1915) tenuicornis is most closely allied morpho- 
logically, character by character, to megalops 
rather than to vespiformis. Comparisons of these 
species are made in the section on phylogeny. 
Shared in common with vespiformis are areas of 
the range of tenwicornis since both species occur 
in Trinidad, Surinam, and Panama, and possibly 


1915; 


in other parts of South America. Unlike vespi- - 


formis, tenuicornis does not extend into Central 
America. 

Description of male: Length distended about 
1.7 mm. Body generally brown with much red to 
purplish-red subintegumental pigments; abdomi- 
nal segments 2 and 3 and tibiae, pale yellow; 
apices of femora light brownish yellow; tip of 
abdomen orange-yellow; antennal segments 1, 
base of 2, and all of 5 to 7 brown concolorous 
with head; tip of antennal segment 2, and all of 
segments 3 and 4 light brownish yellow; ocellar 
pigments crimson; forewings with three brown 
bands, one near base, one just beyond the middle 
and one at the tip of the wing; forewing scale 
possibly brownish. 

Head oval with large eyes and ocelli, with long 
interocellar setae, as in Fig. 8; antennal segments 
3 and 4 with elaborate sensoria, finely divided by 
numerous ridges as in Fig. 2; segment’ 3 slightly 
longer than segment 4. Maxillary palps 3-seg- 
mented with almost no indications of subdivision 
marks in the second segment. 

Prothorax slightly narrower than head width. 

Abdomen unadorned by clasperlike processes 
as found in some males of Aeolothrips. 

Described from a male collected in a light trap 
at Madden Dam, Panama Canal Zone, on Febru- 
ary 1, 1946, by Dr. Eliot Williams. 


STANNARD: PHYLOGENETIC STUDIES OF FRANKLINOTHRIPS 19 


Both C. B. Williams (1918) and Reijne (1920), 
have noted that the habits of tenwicornis are 
similar to those of vespiformis. Larvae of tenwi- 
cornis actually have been observed feeding on 
Selenothrips rubrocinctus, the Cacao thrips. An in- 
teresting account of the cocoon making activ- 
ities of tenwicornis was given by Reijne in 1920. 
According to this author, the prepupal stage does 
not occur; instead the larva passes directly into 
the pupal form. 

F. tenuicornis has been found in the following 
regions: Trinidad (Bagnall, 1915; Williams, 1918); 
Panama (Hood, 1915); Peru (USNM); Surinam 
(Reijne, 1920); Venezuela (Moulton, 1932); Brazil 
(Moulton, 1932, 1938). 


Franklinothrips variegatus Girault 


Franklinothrips variegatus Girault, Brisbane, Pri- 
vate publication, 2. 1927. [Type locality: 
Brigalow, Jandowae, Queensland, Australia.| 


In coloration and in structure variegatus, (Fig. 
9) is most similar to the African megalops. Unlike 
megalops the legs of variegatus are darker; the 
first antennal segment is darker, lightly shaded 
with brown; the fourth antennal segment is en- 
tirely light yellow, nearly white, without brown 
at the apex; and the fourth antennal segment is 
slightly longer in proportion to the third segment 
in the female. 

Both antennal segments are detached beyond 
the third segment in the type slide. The detached 
portion of one antenna lies to the side under the 
cover slip; the remainder of the other antenna is 
missing. Most probably the present portion is of a 
deformed antenna because segments 7 and 8 are 
completely fused (Fig. 10). Such deformities are 
not uncommon in the Thysanoptera. It seems un- 
wise, therefore, to characterise this species as 
“having each antenna with but eight segments” 
on the basis of this one fragment. 

Girault, in his original description, stated: 
“Antennal 3 elongate, 5-74 + 4 which is shorter 
than 3.” By this remark Girault most likely 
meant that the length of segments 5, 6, and 7 
together is 14 times longer than the segment 4 
and that segment 4 is shorter than segment 3. To 
arrive at such a conclusion Girault must have con- 
sidered the fused seventh and eighth segment and 
the small ninth segment as one, the seventh seg- 
ment. Acutally the suture setting off the ninth 
segment is difficult to see in Girault’s slide prepa- 
ration. By this interpretation, even though in- 
correct, the combined length of segments 5, 6, 
and 7 is 14 times longer than the fourth. Some 


20 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 1 


time later Kelly and Mayne (1934) reworded in the interpretation of Girault’s meaning but 
Girault’s remarks to state that the combined also in fact. The combined length oi segments 5, 
length of segments 5, 6, and 7 is equal to half the 6, and 7, whether the seventh is the “deformed” 
length of 4. Their rewording is in error, not only fused seventh and eighth, or the morphological 


VESPIFORMIS TENUICORNIS 
7 j 8 


VARIEGATUS 


9 


VARIEGATUS 
Fics. 7-10.—7, 8, Franklinothrips, males, heads, dorsal aspect; 9, 10, Franklinothrips variegatus: 
9, Head, dorsal aspect, holotype; 10, outline of ‘‘deformed”’ antennal portion, holotype. 


JANUARY 1952 


seventh segment, measured to the fusion line, is 
either slightly longer than the fourth, or very 
much longer than the fourth segment. 

Although described nearly a quarter century 
ago, presumably the type specimen, captured 
February 17, 1924, remains the only known repre- 
sentative of this species. It is the sole species of 
Franklinothrips in Australia. 


PHYLOGENY 


Guide points for the initial plotting of the 
phylogeny are more apparent in certain male 
structures in this genus. Variations in the 
shape of the third and fourth antennal seg- 
ments and their sensorial areas and the head 
outline are more markedly different between 
the males than between the females. Since 
these differences range from one type to 
another, a progression can be set up using 
any extreme as the starting place. After 
these characters have been correlated to 
establish the progressive trend, relationships 
of both ends of the trend (most like the 
prototype or most divergent) can be deter- 
mined by associating these ends with the 
rest of the family. Such a procedure was 
followed in determining what could be sur- 
mised of the phylogeny of Franklinothrips. 
Because two of the species are unknown in 
the male sex, only megalops, tenwidornis, 
vespiformis, and lineatus were considered 
for exact relationships. 

Figs. 1 and 2 of the third antennal segment 
illustrate the greatest divergence in antennal 
types. The fourth segment resembles the 
third except that it differs in size. In vespr- 
formis the third segment is shorter and 
wider than in its congeners, and the sensorial 
membrane is less subdivided by ridges. On 
the other hand, tenwicornis and megalops, 
both similar to each other, have a more 
slender and longer third and fourth segment, 
and the sensoria have many numerous 
ridges subdividing them. Possibly near the 
latter extreme is the antennal type found in 
lineatus. Although Hood in 1949, called the 
sensoria of lineatus colorless and reticulated 
ventral and lateral areas, his drawing of the 
fourth antennal segment shows that this 
colorless region is that part of the antennae 
that is referred to here as a sensorium. In 
some respects the sensoria of lineatus are 
more like lenwcornis and megalops in the 


STANNARD: PHYLOGENETIC STUDIES OF FRANKLINOTHRIPS 21 


fourth segment and presumably also in the 
third segment. 

Two types of head outlines exist in the 
males. The oval-shaped head with relatively 
smaller compound eyes, as in vespiformis 
(Fig. 7), differs from the round head and 
relatively larger compound eyes of megalops 
and tenuicornis (Fig. 8). Again, compared 
with Hood’s illustrations, the head of 
lineatus appears to be intermediate between 
the round and oval types. The lineatus head 
is oval but the eyes are proportionately 
larger than those of vespiformis, approaching 
more closely the eye shapes found in 
megalops and tenwcornis. 

By so sorting these several characteristics 
and correlating them, the empirical phylo- 
genetic tree shown in Fig. 11, is suggested. 

The species fulgidus and variegatus are 
placed on this tree solely on the basis of 
color similarities. 

Whether the genus originated as a form 
similar to vespiformis or instead similar to 
megalops, or even by a form intermediate to 
these two, possibly like lineatus, is the next 
aspect to be considered. To attempt deter- 
mination of this starting point it is neces- 
sary to examine the family Aeolothripidae 
of which Franklinothrips is a part. 

When the extremes of some characteristics 
of many species of the family Aeolothripidae 
were established and intermediate types 
plotted between the extremes, a sort of 
rectilinear progression was noted. A very 


variegatus megalops  tenuicornis lineatus vespiformis fulgidus 
(Australia) (Africa) (So.Am.) (So.Am.) (Cent.Am.) (So.Am.) 
World dispersal 
1 t 
é head round éhead oval 


6 intermediate 


(So.Am.) 
' 1 
' a 
SSOoee Sse Sorc 

Ve 

H 

' 


(So.Am.) 


Prototype of Franklinothrips 


Fic. 11.—Family tree of the genus Franklin- 
othrips showing possible historical distribution. 


22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


gradual progression occurs from short to 
long third and fourth antennal segments, 
from small circular to elongate linear third 
and fourth antennal sensoria, from pupation 
in the soil to pupation on leaves, and from 
flower inhabitors to roving predators. 

Franklinothrips finds its place in this 
scheme at one extreme end of its family. 
This genus represents that end of the pro- 
gression having the longest third and fourth 
antennal segments, having the most 
elaborate elongate sensoria on these two seg- 
ments, besides being predators and using 
leaves for pupation sites. 

The species tenwicornis and megalops, be- 
‘ause they possess the longest third and 
fourth antennal segments with the most 
subdivisions in the sensoria of these seg- 
ments, would be the most extreme forms of 
the genus and of the family. Therefore, it is 
reasonable to presume that either lineatus 
or vespiformis both having less elaborately 
formed antennae are closer to the prototype 
than is the megalops group. Because I have 
not had the opportunity to examine a male 
of lineatus I am unable to continue the 
analysis to decide whether Franklinothrips 
arose from a_ lineatus-like species or a 
vespiformis-like species. However, it seems 
probable that both lineatus and vespiformis 
are specialized themselves and that the 
ancestor of the genus, while near the latter 
two species, was even more primitive. This 
ancestor could have been a Stomatothrips 
derivative. 

Development of the peculiar sensoria of 
the Franklinothrips can be traced from 
clues derived from living forms. Figs. 4, 5, 
and 6 show the sensoria of females in three 
genera. A progression goes from the smaller 
linear type in Erythrothrips to the more 
elongated sensoria of Stomatothrips to the 
extremely elongated form in Franklinothrips. 
Faint indications of sensorial subdivisions 
first appear in Stomatothrips. A broadening 
of the sensoria to cover the entire surface 
of the third and fourth antennal segments 
has evolved in the male sex only of the 
Franklinothrips whereas the Franklinothrips 
female has preserved the Sfomatothrips 
type more closely. Huceratothrips Hood, 
another aeolothripid, likewise has elaborate 
sensoria, but, while similar in some respects 


vou. 42, No. l 


to the sensoria of Franklinothrips males, the 
sensoria of Huceratothrips is formed in a 
different manner (see Hood, Rev. de Ent. 
6: 425-429, 1936). 

In North America, the closest relative of 
Franklinothrips is Stomatothrips. In addi- 
tion to the similarities in the sensoria, both 
have narrow wings, slightly broader at the 
apex; their maxillary palpi are somewhat 
the same, although in Stomatothrips the 
third segment is usually completely sub- 
divided several times whereas only indica- 
tions of subdivision are usual in Franklino- 
thrips; and even the habits of the two may 
be similar for I have collected species of 
each of these genera from ecological niches 
that are grossly the same. 

Corynothripoides Bagnall, in most classi- 
fications, 1s placed with Franklinothrips in 
the tribe Franklhnothripini. Whether Coryno- 
thripoides is closer to Franklinothrips than 
to Stomatothrips on all characteristics is not 
clear to me. I have never seen Coryno- 
thripoides nor do the descriptions of this 
genus include information on the condition 
of all of the characters that I have studied in 
Stomatothrips and Franklinothrips. 


NOMENCLATORIAL REMARKS 


Three species, now in other genera, have 
been assigned to Franklinothrips for a brief 
time. Should names be designated subse- 
quently to true Franklinothrips which are 
identical to the names of these three species, 
the thorny problem of secondary homonyms 
might be raised. Most certainly, circumven- 
tion of such difficulties by the avoidance of 
these names would be an advantage. 

The three species involved are listed below 
with references. These names would best not 
be used again in Franklinothrips. 


Franklinothrips insularis (Franklin): 
Franklinothr. insularis (Fr.). Girault, New pests 
from Australia, VIII. Private publication, 
Brisbane, Aug. 16, 1930. [Misstatement for 
Frankliniella insularis Franklin. Corrected 
by Girault Dec. 29, 1930, in ‘‘New pests from 
Australa, IX,”’ Brisbane.] 
Franklinothrips longiceps (Crawford) : 
Franklinothrips longiceps (Crawford), Bagnall, 
Trans. 2nd Ent. Congress (1912): 397, 1913. 
[New combination from Aeolothrips. Reas- 
signed to Aeolothrips, Hood, 1915.] 


JANUARY 1952 MATTOX: NEW GENUS AND 


Pranklinothrips nasturtw (Jones): 
Pranklinothrips nasturtti (Jones), Bagnall, 
Trans. 2d Ent. Congress (1912): 397, 1913. 
[New combination from Aeolothrips. Reas- 
signed to Aeolothrips, Hood, 1915.] 


LITERATURE 


Back, E. A. Notes on Florida Thysanoptera, with 
description of a new genus. Ent. News 28: 
73-77. 1912. 

BaAGNALL, R.S. A synopsis of the thysanopterous 
family Aeolothripidae. Trans. 2d Ent. Con- 
gress, 1912: 394-397. 1913a. 

Notes on Aeolothripidae, with description 

of a new species. Journ. Econ. Biol. 8: 154- 

158. 1913b. 

On a collection of Thysanoptera from the 

West Indies, with descriptions of new genera 

and species. Journ. Linn. Soc., Zool., 32: 

495-507. 1915. 

On a collection of Thysanoptera from St. 

Vincent, with descriptions of four new species. 

Journ. Zool. Res. 2: 21-27. 1917. 

The family Franklinothripidae, nov., with 

description of a new type of Thysanopteron. 

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 17: 168-173. 1926. 

Contributions towards a knowledge of the 

European Thysanoptera—IT. Ann. Mag. Nat. 

Hist. 19: 564-575. 1927. 

On the aeolothripid complex and the classt- 
fication of the sub-order Terebrantia (Thysanop- 
tera). Ges. Luxemberger Naturf. 25: 115-118. 
1931. 

CrawrorD, D. L. Some Thysanoptera of Mexico 
and the South, I. Pomona Coll. Journ. Ent. 
1(4): 109-119. 1909. 

Esevine, W. Subtropical entomology: 747 pp. 
San Francisco, 1950. 


SPECIES OF LIMNADIIDAE 23 


Grrautr, A. A. New Australian animals so far 
overlooked by outsiders. Private publication: 
2 pp. Brisbane, 1927. 

Hoop, J. D. Ona collection of Thysanoptera from 
Panama. Psyche 20: 119-124. 1913. 

On some American Aeolothripidae (Thy- 

sanoptera). Ent. News 26: 162-166. 1915. 

Brasilian Thysanoptera, I. Rev. de Ent. 
20 (1-3): 3-88. 1949. 

Ikeviy, R., anp Mayne, R. J.B. Vhe Australian 
thrips, a monograph of the order Thysanoptera 
in Australia: 81 pp. Sydney, 1934. 

Mouton, D. TVhysanoptera from Africa. Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist. 5: 194-207. 1930. 

The Thysanoptera of South America (1). 

Rev. de Ent. 2: 451-484. 1982. 

Thysanoptera from Africa. Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist. 17: 493-509. 1936. 

Moznertte, G. F. Annotated list of the injurious 
and beneficial insects of the Avocado in Florida. 
Florida Buggist 3 (Dec. 1919): 45-48. 1920. 

PrresneR, H. Genera Thysanopterorum. Bull. 
Soc. Fouad Ent. 33: 31-157. 1949. 

REWwNE, A. A cocoonspinning thrips. Tijdschr. 
Ent. 63: 40-45. 1920. 

Ricuter, W. J. Beitrag zur Kenntnis der Aeolo- 
thripiden (Thysanoptera). Deutsch. Ent. 
Zeitschr. H. 1: 29-87. 1928. 

Trysom, F. Mitothrips, eine newe Physapoden- 
Gattung aus Britischen Ostafrika. Ent. Tidskr. 
Aig. 33 (3-4): 145-159. 1912. 

Watson, J.R. Synopsis and catalog of the Thysan- 
optera of North America. Univ. Florida Agr. 
Exp. Stat. Tech. Bull. 168: 1-100. 1923. 

Wiiiiams, C. B. Notes on some Trinidad thrips 
of economic importance. Trinidad and Tobago 
Bull. 17: 143-146. 1918. 

ZANON,D.V. Nowva specie di ((Franklinothrips) ) 
(Thysanoptera) rinvenuta a Bengasi. Atti Pon- 
tificia Accad. Sei. Nuovi Lincei 77: 1-9 
(separate). 1924. 


ZOOLOGY —A new genus and species of Limnadiidae from Venezuela (Crustacea: 
Conchostraca). N. T. Marrox, College of Agriculture and Mechanic Arts, 
Mayagiiez, Puerto Rico.! (Communicated by F. A. Chace, Jr.) 


While making collections for the Venezuelan 
Scientific Expedition conducted by the Uni- 
versity of Puerto Rico, one of the collectors, 
Jenaro Maldonado Capriles, observed many 
temporary rain pools which contained con- 
chostracan phyllopods. One collection of 10 
males and 11 females was made in a rock 
pool near Samariapo, Venezuela, on June 11, 
1950. According to Mr. Maldonado, these 
animals were very abundant and many pools 
were inhabited by them, but only one collec- 
tion was made. Study of these animals indi- 
cated that they are members of the family 

1 Contribution from the Department of Bi- 


ology, College of Agricultural and Mechanic Arts 
University of Puerto Rico, Mayagiiez, P. R. 


Limnadiidae but are intergeneric in char- 
acter and referable to a distinct and 
previously undescribed genus. 


Metalimnadia, n. gen. 


Generic designation.—Conchostracan phyllo- 
pods with 7 to 13 lines of growth in the adult, 
and a prominent anteriorly located umbo on the 
shell. Head without fornice: the prehensile frontal 
organ rudimentary and not pyriform. First an- 
tennae with two segments. Occipital notch prom- 
inent. Sixteen pairs of swimming appendages; 
first two pairs of male with prehensile claws; 
female ninth and tenth pairs with very long 
epipodite of exopodite for bearing eggs. Inferior, 
distal angle of telson with a small spime. The 


24 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


posterior 15 of the body segments bear one or 
more dorsal spines. 
Genotype: Metalimnadia serratura, n. sp. 


Metalimnadia serratura, n. sp. 


Description —Male: The male shell is elongate 
oval with a prominent umbo at one-fifteenth of 
the distance from the anterior margin (Fig. la). 
The number of lines of growth varies from 11 to 
13, with much crowding at the anterior end of 
the shell. The dorsal margin is straight except at 
the posterior slope of the shell; the ventral margin 
is regularly rounded. The size of the adult shell 
averages 5.88 by 3.66 mm, varying from 5.5 mm 
long by 3.7 mm wide to 6.0 by 3.8 mm; the great- 
est height is just posterior to the middle. The 
height-length ratio averages 1 :1.54. 

The head presents definite generic and specific 
characters (Fig. 1b). The dorsal “frontal organ” 
is very rudimentary, being raised only slightly as 
a rounded knob with a central concavity. The 
front of the head is deeply concave with the 
rostrum extending in a very pronounced hooklike 
beak. The first antennae are distinctive in that 
they have two segments, the distal one clavate. 
The second antennae are biramous, each branch 
with nine segments and each segment with a vary- 
ing number of long, dorsal spines. The occipital 
notch is prominent. The ocellus is very 
pronounced. 

The body bears 16 pairs of swimming ap- 
pendages. The first and second pairs are modified 
into typical claspers. The claspers of the first pair 
are very broad; the fourth endite has a short 
knoblike lateral extension, and the two segments 
of the sixth endite are approximately of equal 
length (Fig. 1c). The claspers of the second pair 
are more slender; the terminal segment of the 
sixth endite is approximately 1.5 times longer 
» than the first segment (Fig. 1d). The exopodites 
on both pais of claspers are very short. The 
branchiae, as on the other appendages, are broad. 

The dorsal surface of the first body segment is 
bare; the other segments bear 1 to 5 dorsal spines, 
those on the posterior segments being longer and 
more slender (Fig. le). An example of a typical 
spine formula is: 0-1—2-2-2-3-3-4-4-4-5-4-4 
3-1-1. The telson is very truncate. The dorsal 
ridges of the telson are regularly serrated with an 
average number of 12 evenly spaced and _ pro- 


nounced sawtoothlike spines; a biramous fila- 
mentous spine arises between the third and 


vou. 42, no. I 


fourth dorsal spines. The pair of ventral, pos- 
terior, movable spines have bristlelike spines on 
the proximal portion with microspines on the 
sharply attenuated terminal portion. On the in- 
ferior distal margin of the telson is a small spine. 

Female: The female shell is similar to, but 
smaller than, that of the male. It is more ven- 
tricose and more rounded on the dorsal margin 
than in the male (Fig. 1f). The umbo is less pro- 
nounced and there is a median, shallow indenta- 
tion on the ventral margin. The usual number of 
growth lines is 10, with a variation from 7 to 10. 
In size the female shell averages 4.94 mm long by 
3.39 mm in height. The variation in the 11 females 
is from 4.5 mm by 3.0 mm to 5.4 by 3.5 mm. The 
height-length ratio is 1:1.45. 

The head of the female is smaller and less 
elongate, but similar to that of the male. The 
front is deeply concave, the rostrum beaklike. 
The ocellus is very pronounced, the frontal organ 
very rudimentary, and the first antennae 2-seg- 
mented (Fig. Lh). 

The 16 pairs of trunk appendages are swim- 
ming legs typical of the group. The first pair 
have well marked endites; the sixth endite ex- 
tends about to the end of the fifth endite (Fig. 11). 
The branchiae, as in the male, are very broad. 
The ninth and tenth pairs of legs possess a greatly 
extended basal exopodite flabellum for the at- 
tachment and carrying of eggs; this flabellum is 
twice as long as the length of the rest of the ap- 
pendage (Fig. 1}). The eggs are spherical, with 
rough surface, and average 0.3 mm in diameter 
(Fig. 1g). The dorsal ridges of the trunk segments 
are variously spined as in the male, and the telson 
is similar to that of the male. 

Type locality —Samariapo, Territorio Ama- 
zonas, Venezuela. 

Types.—Holotype, male, U.S.N.M. no. 92292, 
and paratypes, both sexes, U.S.N.M. no. 92293, 
in the U.S. National Museum and in the writer’s 
collection. 

Remarks.—Metalimnadia serratura differs from 
other members of the family Limnadiidae in so 
many characters as to nearly warrant a subfamily 
or separate family designation. However, the 
general form of the body, number of trunk ap- 


pendages, form of the telson, and the first two 
pairs of male claspers, find closer resemblance in 
the Limnadiidae than in any of the other con- 
chostracan families. Many of the other morpho- 
logical characters, however, are very different 
from those of other Limnadiidae. 


JANUARY 1952  MATTOX: NEW GENUS AND SPECIES OF LIMNADIIDAE 25 
The shell of MM. serratura is more estheriudlike growth lines or an umbo as well developed. In 


than it is like the shells of the other Limnadidae. Limnadia, only the male of L. stanleyana King 
No member of the genus Hulimnadia hasasmany from Australia has a shell with a well-pronounced 


Fre. 1.—Metalimnadia serratura, n. gen., n. sp. a-e, male: a, Lateral view of shell: 6, lateral view 
of head; c, first pair of claspers; d, second pair of claspers; e, lateral view of trunk and telson. f-}, female: 
f, Lateral view of shell; g, an egg; h, lateral view of head; 7, a first trunk appendage; 7, tenth trunk 
appendage. Scales a, b, e, f, h equal 1 mm; c, d, i, j equal 0.5mm; gequals0.l mm. 


26 


umbo and as many lines of growth. The female 
of this latter species has a very different shell. 
All species of Limnadiopsis, the other genus of the 
family, are unique in having a very noticeably 
serrated dorsal shell margin. 

The head characters of M. serratura are very 
different from those of the other members of the 
family, although the general form of the head is 
similar to that of the other genera. As indicated 
by Daday (1915, 1925) the Limnadiidae are char- 
acterized by a prominent, pyriform frontal ap- 
pendage. This frontal organ in M. serratura is 
very rudimentary, not pyriform, and it is raised 
only slightly above the dorsal surface of the head. 
What may be the evolutionary status of this very 
characteristic limnadiid feature among the dif- 
ferent genera cannot be indicated at this time. 
The first antennae of all the other members of the 
family are elongate, unsegmented appendages 
with a series of dorsally located sensory papillae. 
The 2-segmented first antennae of M. serratura 
are more like those of the Lynceidae than any 
other of the Conchostraca. These appendages are 
strongly diagnostic for the present genus and 
species. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 1 

As pointed out by Linder (1945) many species 
of Limnadia have only 16 pairs of trunk ap- 
pendages, as does M. serratura. Other members of 
the family may have up to 32 pairs. The first two 
pairs of male claspers are characteristic, but, as 
on the other trunk appendages, the branchiae 
are much larger and proportionately wider than 
in the other genera. The egg-bearing exopodite 
of the ninth and tenth female appendages is pro- 
portionately much longer than typically found 
in the Limnadiidae. The telson, with the inferior 
distal spine, is more like that of Hulimnadia, than 
that of the other genera. 

It seems as if this species, Metalimnadia serra- 
tura, represents a newly found intergeneric line 
of evolution in the family Limnadiidae. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Dapbay DE Ders, E. Monographie systématique des 
phyllopodes conchostracés. Ann. Sci. Nat., 
Zool., ser. 9, 20: 39-192. 1915. Ibid., ser. 10, 
8: 143-184. 1925. 

LinpeEr, Fouke. Affinities within the Branchiopoda, 
with notes on some dubious fossils. Ark. fiir 
Zool. 37(4): 1-28. 1945. 


HELMINTHOLOGY .—Some cestodes from Oregon shrews, with descriptions of four 
new species of Hymenolepis Weinland, 1858. Berry Lockmr, Reed College, 
Portland, Oreg., and Ropert Rauscu, Arctic Health Research Center, Anchor- 


age, Alaska. 


A large number of shrews of the genus 
Sorex has been examined in connection with 
the investigation of the helminth parasites 
of Oregon mammals. It is the purpose of 
this paper to give a preliminary list of the 
cestodes obtained from these shrews, to- 
gether with the description of new species. 
More complete information on these and 
other helminths will be published by one of 
us (B. L.) at a later date. 

The helminths reported here have been 
collected from Sorex v. vagrans Baird, the 
most common shrew of western Oregon dur- 
ing the time these collections were made. 
Host determinations were made by compar- 
ing our material with specimens in the 
mammal collections of the U. 8. National 
Museum. 

In addition to the species herein described, 
we have also recorded three previously de- 
scribed cestodes from Oregon shrews. These 
observations appear to be the first to be. 


made on cestodes in shrews from the Pacific 
coast region. Each species is considered sep- 
arately below. 
Protogynella blarinae Jones, 1943 

This minute cestode of uncertain status was 
found to occur commonly in Oregon shrews. The 
Oregon specimens were not considered in detail, 
since another worker has already undertaken the 
restudy of the species; however, as far as was 
determined these cestodes were morphologically 
identical with those found in shrews (Sorex c. 
cinereus Kerr; Blarina brevicauda Say) in the 
eastern States. It was noted, however, that the 
Oregon specimens had a much larger number of 
hooks than was reported from Wisconsin shrews 
(Rausch and Kuns, 1950). Because of the minute 
size and proximity of these rostellar hooks, an 
accurate count was impossible; however, the 
number is near one hundred. Whether or not this 
represents only variation can be determined on 
the basis of the study of specimens from different 
geographical locations. 


Ni 


JANUARY 1952 LOCKER AND RAUSCH: CESTODES FROM OREGON SHREWS y 


9 1Ou 
Se 


Fics. 1-10.—1, Seolex of H. macyi; 2, mature segment of H. macyi; 8, mature segment of H. kenki; 
4, scolex of H. kenki; 5, mature segment of H. sphenomorphus; 6, scolex of H. sphenomorphus; 7, rostellar 
hook of H. sphenomorphus; 8, scolex of H. intricatus; 9, rostellar hook of H. tntricatus; 10, mature seg- 
ment of, H. intricatus. 


28 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Hymenolepis falculata Rausch and Kuns, 1950 


Although not a common species when com- 
pared with some of the other cestodes occurring 
in Oregon shrews, H. falculata was collected fre- 
quently. This is perhaps the most common species 
occurring in Sorex cinereus in southern Wisconsin, 
but it has not yet been recorded from other 
localities. The specimens examined from 5S. 
vagrans were morphologically identical with mate- 
rial from the type locality. 


Hymenolepis schilleri Rausch and Kuns, 1950 


The study of abundant material from Oregon 
shrews has allowed some further observations on 
the morphology of H. schilleri, which so far is 
known only from the two specimens upon which 
the original description was based. It has been 
found that the number of rostellar hooks is vari- 
able, and a maximum number of 32 has been 
recorded. In regard to other morphological char- 
acters, the original description is adequate. 


Hymenolepis macyi, n. sp. 
Migs. 1525 11 


Diagnosis —Hymenolepididae. Strobila length 
up to 2 mm; greatest width, attained in gravid 
segments, 500u. Strobila characterized by rela- 
tively large size of gravid segments, up to 500 by 
250u. Transition from immature to mature seg- 
ments, and from mature to gravid segments, very 
abrupt; this results in tripartite appearance of 
strobila. There are usually 4 to 6 segments in 
each (immature, mature, and gravid) section of 
strobila, with maximum possible segment number 
about 18. Immature and early mature segments 
wider than long; late mature segments nearly 
square; gravid segments oval. Scolex 180 to 230. 
in diameter, strongly set off from neck; rostellum 
absent. Suckers oval, about 100u long. Genital 
pores unilateral and dextral, situated near an- 
terior end of margin of segment. Cirrus sac, as 
much as 400u long by 70m wide, extends nearly 
across mature segment to anterior aporal corner. 
Cirrus unarmed. External seminal vesicle strongly 
developed. Testes in mature segments measure 
about 354 in diameter, and are situated in 
diagonal row with aporal testis most anterior. 
Vagina, about Sy in diameter in mature segments, 
situated ventral to cirrus sac; it narrows abruptly 
just poral to ovary. Seminal receptacle not noted. 
Ovary trilobed, situated near center of segment; 
two lobes posterior and one anterior. Ovarian 
lobes subspherical, each about 30y in diameter in 
mature segments. Vitelline gland on midline of 


vou. 42, No. 1 


segment at posterior edge of ovary, and ventral to 
it. Development of uterus abrupt; gravid segment 
capsulelike, with thick parenchyma around egg- 
filled uterus. Genital ducts persist in terminal 
segments. Eggs spherical, from 30 to 32 in 
diameter. 

Host.—Sorex v. vagrans Baird. 

Type locality—Portland, Oreg. 

Habitat—Small intestine. 

Type.—A slide containing an entire specimen 
has been deposited in the Helminthological Col- 
lection of the U.S. National Museum, no. 47531. 

Hymenolepis macyt appears to be well char- 
acterized by the unusual gross appearance of the 
strobila, and can be differentiated on this basis 
from the other unarmed soricid species of Hy- 
menolepis (H. alpestris Baer, 1931; H. antho- 
cephalus Van Gundy, 1935; H. diaphana 
Kholodkowski, 1906; H. globosa Baer, 1931; H. 
minuta Baer, 1926; H. soricis Baer, 1925). It can 
be further differentiated on the basis of cirrus sac 
position and size, arrangement of testes and 
ovary, and egg size. 

This cestode is named in honor of Dr. Ralph 
W. Macy, chairman, department of biology, 
Reed College, Portland, Oreg. This opportunity 
is taken to express appreciation of his providing 
facilities and working space in connection with 
part of this work. 


Hymenolepis kenki, n. sp. 
Figs. 3, 4, 12 


Diagnosis.—Hymenolepididae. Strobila 1 to 2 
mm long; greatest width, attamed in gravid seg- 
ments, slightly over 200u. Strobila consists of 
about 50 segments, all wider than long with a 
slight relative increase in length in gravid seg- 
ments. Scolex 280 to 340u in diameter; rostellum 
absent. Suckers strongly developed, elliptical, 
about 180u long. Genital pores unilateral and 
dextral, situated near middle of segmental 
margin. Cirrus sac, usually about 100g long by 
about 204 wide in mature segments, extends 
aporally to just beyond midline of segment. 
Cirrus thickly set with fine spines. External 
seminal vesicle present. Testes spherical, about 
30 in diameter in mature segments; situated in 
straight lime with two aporal and one poral. 
Vagina ventral to cirrus sac; diameter uniform 
and course direct as far aporal as poral margin of 
ovary. Seminal receptacle not evident. Ovary 
subspherical, about 304 in length, situated near 
midline of segment. Vitelline gland ventral to 
ovary. Uterus appears early in strobila as spheri- 


January 1952 


eal body which gradually enlarges to fill entire 
eravid segment. Eggs apparently spherical, 19 to 
224 in diameter; fully-developed eggs in terminal 
segments highly distorted by fixation in all avail- 
able material. 

Host.—Sorex v. vagrans Baird. 

Type locality —Portland, Oreg. 

Habitat—Small intestine. 

Type—A slide containing paratype material 
has been deposited in the Helminthological Col- 
lection of the U. S. National Museum, no. 47532. 

On the basis of testes arrangement (straight 
line) as well as by other morphological char- 
acters, H. kenki can be differentiated from the 
soricid species of Hymenolepis which have the 
testes arranged in a triangle (H. anthocephalus 
Van Gundy, 1935; H. alpestris Baer,-1931; H. 


25 yu 


LOCKER AND RAUSCH: CESTODES FROM OREGON SHREWS 29 


diaphana Kholodkowski, 1906; H. globosa Baer, 
1931). It may be differentiated from H. minuta 
Baer, 1926, and from H. soricis Baer, 1925, which 
also have the testes arranged in a straight line, 
by size and relative length of cirrus sac, by egg 
size (?), and other morphological characters. 
However, HH. soricis is poorly known, and H. 
minuta was described on the basis of an immature 
specimen. 

This cestode is named in honor of Dr. Roman 
Kenk, of Washington, D. C. 


Hymenolepis sphenomorphus, n. sp. 
Figs. 5-7, 13 


Diagnosis.—_Hymenolepididae. Strobila length 
up to 800z; greatest width, attained in terminal 
segments, about 200u. Wedge-shaped strobila of 


13 


Fies. 11-15.—11, Entire strobila of H. macy; 12, entire strobila of H. kenk?; 13, entire strobila of H. 
sphenomorphus; 14, semidiagrammatic drawing of cirrus (A) and vagina (B) of H. intricatus, showing 
attachment; 15, entire strobila of H. intricatus. (Figs. 11, 12, 18, and 15 all drawn to same scale with the 
aid of a projector.) 


30 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


characteristic gross appearance. Segments, about 
15 in number, wider than long; they become 
relatively longer when gravid. Strobila margins 
serrate. Scolex 90u in diameter, distinctly set off 
from neck. Rostellum well developed, armed with 
10 hooks 16 to 20u long. Suckers elliptical, about 
45u long. Genital pores unilateral and dextral, 
situated near middle of margin of segment. Cirrus 
sac attains length of 110 and width of 25y in 
mature segments, and extends aporally beyond 
midline of segment. Cirrus strongly developed, 
and furnished with spined terminal knob 30 to 
32u in diameter. External seminal vesicle present. 
Subspherical to ovoid testes about 35y in diameter 
in mature segments; testes arranged in straight 
line, with two poral to ovary, and one aporal. 
Thin-walled vagina ventral to cirrus sac; about 
204 in diameter near genital pore. Vagina nar- 
rows abruptly to slender duct at distance of 
about 604 from poral margin of segment; small 
seminal receptacle formed just poral to ovary. 
Ovary subspherical, about 35, in diameter, situ- 
ated aporal of midline ventral to testes. Vitelline 
gland ovoid, situated ventral to ovary. Uterus 
gradually enlarges in central part of segment; 
gravid segments completely filled with eggs. Eggs 
measure 16 to 19x. 

Host.—Sorex v. vagrans Baird. 

Type locality—Multnomah Falls, Oreg. 

Habitat —Smaill intestine. 

Type.—A slide containing an entire specimen 
has been deposited in the Helminthological Col- 
lection of the U. 8. National Museum, no. 47533. 

Hymenolepis sphenomorphus is characterized 
grossly by the very small, wedge-shaped strobila 
in combination with the extreme relative size of 
the cirrus. It is differentiated from the other 
soricid species which have 10 hooks (H. blarinae 
Rausch and Kuns, 1950; H. jacobsont von 
Linstow, 1907; H. parva Rausch and Kuns, 
1950; H. scutigera (Dujardin, 1845); H. singularis 
Kholodkowski, 1913) by differences in hook size 
and shape, size and location of cirrus sac, and 
character of the cirrus. 

Six specimens of this cestode were obtained 


from a shrew captured under a log along the 
Columbia River near Multnomah Falls. This 
parasite was collected but once, and was the least 
common form considered here. 


Hymenolepis intricatus, n. sp. 
Figs. 8-10, 14, 15 


Diagonsis—Hymenolepdidiae. Strobila length 
1.2 to 2mm; greatest width, attained near middle 


vou. 42, no. 1 


of strobila, about 1004. Strobila margins not 
serrate; all segments wider than long. Total 
number of segments 60 to 75. Scolex strongly 
developed, 160 to 180u in diameter; distinctly 
set off from unsegmented neck. Rostellum well 
developed, armed with 10 hooks 17 to 21 long. 
Suckers 90 to 100, long. Genital pores unilateral 
and dextral, situated near middle of margin of 
segment on projection of segmental margin. Cir- 
rus sac large, attaining length of 75 by 16y in 
mature segments, and extending aporally nearly 
to margin of segment. External seminal vesicle 
well developed. Cirrus spinose and slender. Testes 
situated in diagonal line, all aporal of midline. 
Spherical testes measure about 10u in mature 
segments. Vagina thin-walled, of about same 
diameter as cirrus sac. Terminal part of vagina 
highly specialized, having a bulblike, heavily 
spined section which adjoins a terminal, funnel- 
like structure whose wall is supported by several 
rigid spicules. This organ is capable of being ex- 
truded, and appears to function in connection 
with clasping during copulation. No seminal 
receptacle noted. Ovary subspherical, up to 20u 
long in mature segments. Vitelline gland not ob- 
served. Uterus develops gradually as single body; 
gravid segments completely filled with eggs. Eggs 
ovoid, apparently about 25, in length; accurate 
measurement prevented by distortion resulting 
from fixation. 

Host.—Sorex v. vagrans Baird. 

Type locality Portland, Oreg. 

Habitat—Small intestine. 

Type.—A slide bearing paratype material has 
been deposited in the Helminthological Collection 
of the U.S. National Museum, no. 47534. 

This species may be differentiated from related 
forms having 10 hooks (see above) on the basis 
of hook size and shape, size and position of cirrus 
sac and other genital organs, and particularly by 
the apparently unique development of the termi- 
nal part of the vagina. 

The finer details of the vagina of this cestode 
could not be completely worked out, because of 
the extremely small size; however, it is evident 
that the vagina demonstrates a much higher 
degree of specialization than is ordinarily seen in 
the species of Hymenolepis. The vagina is capable 
of being extruded to a distance of more than 20 
behond the margins of the genital atrium, which 
itself possesses a thick, chitinlike wall. The heavy 
spicules seen in the terminal part of the vagina 
seem to act as a support for this structure, but 
their function is not clearly understood. From ob- 


JANUARY 1952 


servations on a large series of these cestodes, it is 
concluded that once contact is established be- 
tween the cirrus and vagina, separation may not 
often occur. Both intersegmental and _ inter- 
strobilar copulation were recognized, and in the 
case of the latter, apparently as a result of 
manipulation when the worms were removed from 
the host, it was commonly seen that either the 
vagina or cirrus was torn completely free from the 
segment. This resulted in the two organs remain- 
ing tightly attached (Fig. 15). 

This cestode was frequently observed in Oregon 
shrews and was one of the common species, along 
with H. macyi and H. kenkv. 


DISCUSSION 


The description of the four species of ces- 
todes here brings the total number of species 
recorded from North American shrews to 11. 
All the North American species are well 
characterized and can be readily differenti- 
ated. It would appear that the species of 
Hymenolepis parasitic in North American 
shrews have evolved quite separately from 
those found in the Eurasian mammals, since 
no Eurasian species has so far been recorded 
from North America. When more nearly 
complete information has been obtained 
there may be derived from it some under- 


FRIEDMANN: LONG-TAILED SUGARBIRD 31 


standing of the zoogeographically important 
implications which are involved. 


SUMMARY 


Seven species of cestodes have been re- 
corded from Oregon shrews (Sorex v. vagrans 
Baird). Of these, Protogynella blarinae Jones, 
1943, Hymenolepis falculata Rausch and 
Kuns, 1950, and H. schillerr Rausch and 
Kuns, 1950, are recorded here for the first 
time from the western part of North Amer- 
ica. Four species of Hymenolepis, H. macyz, 
H. kenki, H. sphenomorphus, and H. intrica- 
tus, are described as new. 


REFERENCES 


Bakr, J. G. Cestodes de mammiferes. 2. Une nou- 
velle espece d’Hymenolepsis parasite d’un in- 
sectivore. Bull. Soc. Neuchatel. Sci. Nat. 50: 
80-81. 1925. 

——. Contribution a la faune helminthologique de 
Suisse. Rev. Suisse Zool. 39: 1-57. 1932. 

Jonus, A. W. Protogynella blarinae n.g., n.sp., a 
new cestode from the shrew, Blarina brevicauda 
Say. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 62: 169-173. 1943. 

JoyrEux, Cu., and Bamr, J. G. Cestodes. Faune de 
France 30, 610 pp. Paris, 1936. 

Rauscu, R., and Kuns, M. L. Studies on some 
North American shrew cestodes. Journ. Para- 
sitol. 36: 433-438. 1950. 

Van Gunpy, C. O. Hymenolepis anthocephalus, a 
new tapeworm from the mole shrew, Blarina 
brevicauda Say. Trans. Amer. Micr. Soc. 54: 
240-244. 1935. 


ORNITHOLOGY .— The long-tailed sugarbird of eastern Rhodesia! HERBERT FRIED- 


MANN, U. 8. National Museum. 


In his second paper on the birds of Gaza- 
land, Swynnerton (Ibis, 1908: 31-32) re- 
corded the Natal long-tailed sugarbird from 
the scrub-grown kloofs of the Melsetter 
District, extreme eastern Southern Rhodesia, 
and remarked that the bird was previously 
unknown north of the Limpopo, being re- 
corded only from Natal, Swaziland, and the 
Transvaal. However, some eight years earlier 
Stark (Fauna of South Africa, Birds, 1, 273. 
1900) included Gazaland in the range of the 
species, although on what basis he did so is 
a mystery as there appear to be no published 
records prior to Swynnerton’s. Indeed, 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. For the loan of speci- 
mens for study in the present connection I am in- 
debted to the authorities of the American Museum 
of Natural History, the Chicago Natural History 
Museum, and the National Museum of Southern 
Rhodesia. 


several authors, such as Shelley and 
Reichenow, who refer to Stark’s book, give 
the distribution of the species merely as 
Natal, Zululand, and the Transvaal, and 
either overlooked or doubted the stated oc- 
currence in Gazaland. Since Swynnerton’s 
day no notable extension of range has been 
reported for the bird in spite of very con- 
siderable work in eastern parts of the Union 
of South Africa, Southern Rhodesia, and 
Portuguese East Africa. It appears, then, 
that the bird has a very discontinuous range, 
which, in light of present knowledge, may be 
stated as from Pondoland in the eastern 
Cape Province, through Natal, Zululand, 
Swaziland, and the Drakensberg Mountains 
north to the Zoutpansberg area of the eastern 
Transvaal, and then again, after a long geo- 
graphic gap of at least 200 miles of unsuitable 


32 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


country, in the Melsetter District of South- 
ern Rhodesia, near the Portuguese border. 

Populations that are strikingly isolated 
geographically frequently reveal morphologi- 
cal characters worthy of nomenclatural 
recognition, and I was interested to examine 
and to compare Melsetter Promerops with 
others from eastern South Africa. When in 
Southern Rhodesia in 1950 I was able to 
acquire from Capt. Cecil D. Priest a number 
of birds he had obtained some years earlier 
in Gazaland, and among them was a fine 
adult male Promerops. Through the kindness 
of Reay H. N. Smithers, two additional ex- 
amples (adult females) from Rocklands, in 
the Melsetter area, in the collections of the 
National Museum of Southern Rhodesia, 
have been made available to me for study. 
These three birds have been compared care- 
fully with six examples of typical gurney 
from Natal and the northeastern Transvaal, 
and prove to represent a readily distinguish- 
able race, which may be known as 


Promerops cafer ardens, n. subsp. 


Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 433386, ad. @, collected 
at Melsetter, Southern Rhodesia, May 13, 1939, 
by Cecil Damer Priest; orig. no. 290. 

Subspecific character—Similar to Promerops 
cafer gurneyi, but with the pectoral band con- 
spicuously brighter and darker—between Hazel? 
and Mikado Brown, as opposed to Sayal Brown 
in gurneyt, with the rump and upper tail coverts 
less yellowish, more greenish—dusky Warbler 
Green as compared with Pyrite Yellow in gurneyz, 
with the upperparts generally darker, the centers 
of the feathers blacker—Chaetura Black (Fuscous 
in gurneyt), the cheeks darker—dusky Olive 
Brown (Drab in gurneyt), the tail feathers darker, 
the median ones more blackish below than in 
gurneyt, and the streaks on the sides and flanks 
are more blackish, less brownish than in the 
birds of the highlands of Natal and the north- 
eastern Transvaal. An adult male from Wood- 
bush, northeastern Transvaal, agrees with topo- 
typical gurneyt from Natal in all the color 
characters. There seem to be no significant differ- 
ences in dimensions between the two races, al- 
though not enough specimens have been available 
for measurement to be certain. The measurements 
of the type of P. c. ardens are wing 92, tail 170; 
culmen from the base 31.8, exposed culmen 26.2; 


2 Capitalized color terms ex Ridgway, Color 
standards and color nomenclature. 


vou. 42, No. 1 


tarsus 19.6 mm. The two females measure—wing 
80, 88.2; tail 115+, 148+, culmen from the base 
29, 29.7; exposed culmen 26, 27; tarsus 21, 22 
mm. 


Darrel C. H. Plowes, who knows the habi- 
tats of both the Natal-Transvaal race and the 
Melsetter form, has kindly supplied me with 
some pertinent facts about them. He tells 
me that in parts of Melsetter Brachystegia is 
the dominant tree with the Proteas being 
secondary, whereas in the Transvaal Brachy- 
stegia is absent. The ecological differences 
between the Transvaal section of the 
Drakensberg, and the Chimanimani Moun- 
tains in the Melsetter area have resulted in a 
number of endemic forms being found in 
the latter area, to which number the new 
Promerops is the latest addition. 

Plowes noted Promerops was not uncom- 
mon around Melsetter village, though only 
rarely seen on the Martin Forest Reserve, an 
area of some 25,000 acres to the north and 
northeast. The birds were very common in 
the Protea-Brachystegia-Philipia serub on 
“(Gwendingwe,” some 15 miles to the east, 
and do not seem to stray far from this botan- 
ical complex. 

There has been some discussion in the 
literature as to whether all the forms of 
Promerops are conspecific or if cafer is one 
species and gurneyt (with ardens) another 
species. It is true that cafer differs in having 
a very much longer tail and in lacking the 
rufous to a large extent on the crown, and, 
on the breast as well, but in habits the two 
groups are said to be alike, and geographi- 
cally they do replace each other, i.e., they 
are representative forms. Final solution of 
this problem must wait until someone with 
adequate material from all parts of the range 
of the whole group and with sufficient data 
on their habits makes a comprehensive 
study. It is relatively seldom that one finds 
two closely related birds that show such 
marked morphological differentiation ap- 
parently unaccompanied by any differences 
in habit. The opposite condition—slight 
morphological differences coupled with con- 
siderable divergences in habit is much more 
frequent, as for example, in congeneric 
species of African pipits (Anthus) and grass 
warblers (Cisticola) or American tyrant fly- 
catchers (Empidonax). 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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EGULOIO;MUALLOTS Land PA\ISSOCLate EL AULOT Sse eens ee eee oe {See front cover] 


Executive Committee....N. R. Smita (chairman), WALTER RamBereG, H. S. RapPpLeye, 
J. A. Stevenson, F. M. DeranporFr 
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BLACKWELDER, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. Hansen, D. B. Jonzs, DorotHy 
Nickerson, F. A. SmitH, Heinz Specat, ALFRED WEISSLER 
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MGM AM Way MLODS vues cesarean Tecra AS eee ater R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 

“AEG, LIEU TUT AICO E S io eFO 8. F. Buaxs, F. C. Kracex 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (GEORGE P. WALTON, general chairman): 
For the Biological Sciences............ G. H. Coons (chairman), J. E. FABER, JR., 
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J. W. McBurney, Frank Neumann, A. H. Scorr 

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G. E. Hou, C. J. Hompxreys, J. H. McMILuen 

For Teaching of Science Re ee it B. D. Van Evera (chairman), R. P. BaRNEs, 

F. E. Fox, T. Koppanyr, M. H. Martin, A. T. McPurrson 

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PROMMAMU ATVI OSS ect sme aa heart hie petaluers wae: W. A. Dayton, N. R. Surra 

PROWIATIUA TI: LO DA tama scree eda od acsteraty cele H. B. Couuins, JR., W. W. Rusey 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Latent 

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POR Gary G5Sh ee Cadena CI Fue Aue A.H _ CLARK, F. L. MonLpr 

ora muaryy 954s Me ee CMO A NA, siopianee Meus 3 J. M. CALDWELL, W. L. Scamittr 
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* Appointed by Board to fill vacancy. 


CONTENTS 


Eruno.toey.—Utilization of animals and plants by the Malecite Indians 
of New Brunswick. FRANK G. Speck and RatpH W. DEXTER.... 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Stratigraphic range of the ostracode genus Phanas- 
symetria Roth. I. G. Sonn and JEAN M. BerDANn............... 


PALEONTOLOGY.—The arms of Polusocrinus. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE... 


EntomoLtocy.—Phylogenetic studies of Franklinothrips (Thysanoptera: 
Aeolothripidae): inwisi J-STANNARD; JIR-. 4. 4..-.- 2-0] 
Zootoacy.—A new genus and species of Limnadiidae from Venezuela 
(Crustacea: Conchostraca)s Ne a MaArrox... 2+... eee 
HELMINTHOLOGY.—Some cestodes from Oregon shrews, with descriptions 
of four new species of Hymenolepis Weinland, 1858. Brtry LockER 
anid JROBERTVMRAUSCH . .). 02). Gal as oad ee 
OrniTHOLOGY.—The long-tailed sugarbird of eastern Rhodesia. Hzr- 
BERT RTBDMANIN © :./.0., s-.00¢ des islite) </cre to, Wee ed ee 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


23 


26 


Vou. 42 FEBRUARY 1952 No. 2 


JOURNAL 


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GEOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY 


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ENTOMOLOGY 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 42 


February 1952 


INO 2: 


PHYSICS.—Preliminary report: Nonlinear absorption and dispersion of plane ultra- 
sonic waves in pure fluids. C. TRUESDELL,' Graduate Institute for Applied 


Mathematics, Indiana University. 


Wang Chang and Uhlenbeck (1, 2) have 
insisted, arguing from an expansion in powers 
of the ratio mean free path/wavelength, 
that the Navier-Stokes equations can not 
yield ‘‘a consistent theory” of nonlinear ab- 
sorption and dispersion. They have claimed 
that for a monatomic gas the higher order 
stress and heat flux terms of Burnett and 
Chapman-Cowling must be employed to ob- 
tain correctly any dispersion at all and that 
to obtain correctly an absorption coefficient 
per wave’ength which is a nonlinear func- 
tion of frequency one must consider even 
higher order stresses and heat flux. Follow- 
ing in the footsteps of numerous predeces- 
sors, they have given the first two terms in 
power series expansions for the absorption 
and dispersion coefficients. Their mean free 
path argument is hardly plausible: the Na- 
vier-Stokes equations are valid also in liq- 
uids; measured absorption and dispersion in 
liquids is very similar qualitatively to that 
in gases, yet for liquids mean free path 
arguments are quite inapplicable. That the 
Navier-Stokes equations are derived by Ens- 
kog’s method of integration in the kinetic 
theory of monatomic gases only as a low 
order approximation does not prove they 
may not be derived under weaker assump- 
tions by a better method from a more gen- 
eral kinetic theory including liquids as well 
as gases: indeed, in she past an equation has 
often been shown to be much better than 
some methods of deriving it might suggest. 

Greenspan (3, 4) has recently published 
results of experiments on rarefied helium 
which give some support to this view. He 
has compared the measured values of the 

This work was done under Navy Contract 


N60nr-180, Task Order No. V, with Indiana Uni- 
versity. 


Fee 26 1952 


absorption coefficient with those predicted 
from four theoretical curves. In the region 
where these four curves diverge widely from 
one another, he finds that Wang Chang 
and Uhlenbeck’s 2-term approximation based 
on as yet unpublished higher kinetic 
theory approximations is the worst of all; 
next comes the 2-term approximation from 
the Navier-Stokes equations; next the clas- 
sical linearization of Kirchhoff; while the 
exact solution of the linearized Navier-Stokes 
equations fits perfectly. Discarding the 2- 
term expressions altogether, he then em- 
ploys the exact results from the Navier- 
Stokes equations and the exact results from 
the kinetic theory expressions of Burnett 
and Chapman-Cowling; again he finds that 
the results from the Navier-Stokes equa- 
tions agree markedly better with experi- 
mental values of the absorption coefficient, 
but the dispersion when yp/au < 2 is less 
than that predicted by either theory. 

The foregoing results suggest that the ex- 
act consequences of the Navier-Stokes equa- 
tions deserve a hearing. Greenspan’s the- 
oretical curves are limited to the case y = 
5/3, @ = 2/3, UV = 4/3, where © = uc,/x 
is the Prandtl number and 0 = 2 4+ A/z 
is a number representing the relative mag- 
nitudes of the two viscosity coefficients \ 
and uw. I have thought it worth while to 
investigate the exact results for the entire 
range of values of y, ®, and 0 which are 
experimentally measured in fluids, espe- 
cially with a view to correct experimental 
determination of ©. For a pure fluid in 
which radiation is negligible the whole the- 
ory 1s contained in the characteristic equa- 
tion derived for perfect gases by Kirchhoff (5) 
and extended to arbitrary pure fluids by 
Langevin (6): 


34 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


CYP ome (-ral]ors 


bo) 2 Op 
= = Vo=(—], 
pl 0 , (G) 


n being the specific entropy. Since S$ was 
introduced by Stokes, I call it the Stokes 
number. If « be a solution of (1) then the 
corresponding absorption coefficient per ref- 
erence wavelength lh = 21Vo/w is Ay = 
| Ro |; the true absorption coefficient per 
wavelength |= 2rV/w is A = 2z| Ra/So |; 
the speed of propagation V is given by 
V/Vo = 2n/| So |. Convenient for theoret- 
ical work is the ratio % = A/(V/Vo) = 
| Roo |/Qr7. 

From (1) it follows that the entire phe- 
nomenon is governed by three scaling param- 
eters, which we may choose as follows: X = 
SU, 3 = (vy — 1)/@0, vy. In special cases 
this number is reduced to XX and 4 or even 
to 9% alone. Since for a perfect gas X = 
pw/|[yp(2 + d/u)], it is plain that for ab- 
sorption and dispersion in such a gas in- 
crease in frequency has the same scale effect 
as decrease in pressure. 

The simplest case is that of a piezotropic 
fluid: p = p(p). Here y = 1 and equation 
(1) factors; the resulting exact coefficients 
for that one of the two pairs of solutions of 
(1) that represents a sound wave was given 
in a different form by Lamb (7), but his 
results are marred by an error in calcula- 
tion. They should be amended to read 


XG aL Se?) 


Vane 
(F) TEAST oe 


thus V — « monotonically as X > o, 
while 2{ experiences a single maximum Yf = 
m/2 when © = 1, falling off thereafter to 
zero. One may show that the curve of A» 
is similar to that for %, except that the 
maximum value Ay = 7/+/2 occurs when 
x = 1/3. However, A — ~ monotonically 
as X —> ©. 

It is interesting to compare these results 
formally with those of Kneser (8, 9, 10) 
for absorption and dispersion arising from 


TG 


Yo 
te Go" 


(2) 


VOL. 42, No. 2 


the internal degrees of freedom in gases. 
Taking account of van Itterbeck and Ma- 
riens’s experimental evidence (//) that Kne- 
ser’s relaxation time is inversely proportional 
to pressure, we may put Kneser’s results 
into the present notation. We then find that 
Kneser’s formula for 9{ becomes identical 
with (2). except for numerical factors, but 
for (V/V.) Kneser obtains a finite limit 
(Vx/Vo) as X% — «©. The difference in the 
two dispersion formulae accounts also for 
the difference in the formulae for A» and 
A. From experimental data it is difficult to 
see even qualitatively which type of dis- 
persion curve actually occurs. In any case 
the foregoing results show that to obtain 
an absorption peak it is not at all necessary 
to introduce molecular notions or to mod- 
ify the Navier-Stokes equations. The ‘‘re- 
laxation time” for Ao according to (2) is 
tT = 2n(’ + 2n)/(/3eV 0). 

The effect of the value of 0 on absorption 
and dispersion is plain from (2). If % or 
Ay be regarded as functions of § for various 
fixed values of U, then increase in VU in- 
creases the initial slope (classical absorption 
coefficient) but decreases the value of § at 
which the absorption peak occurs. Thus liq- 
uids in which \/u is large show “‘relaxation”’ 
effects at much lower frequencies than if 
\/u = — 2/3, and their absorption peaks 
are sharper. Increase in the value of 0 al- 
Ways increases the dispersion. 

Now in the ultrasonic literature absorp- 
tion measurements in liquids are always 
compared with the ‘classical’? value A = 
Ay = A = (4/3)a8 obtained by linearizing 
(2)2 and putting U0 = 4/3. The correct 
linearized expression, allowing for bulk vis- 
cosity, is A = 7S. If, as has been sug- 
gested (12, 13), U is to be determined from 
this formula then care must be taken that 
all results are extrapolated to § = 0. For 
otherwise the nonlinearity of (2). needs to 
be taken into account, especially if UO is 
large. It is possible to get apparent agree- 
ment with the ‘classical’ result by making 
two compensating errors: taking foo large 
a value for A by linearizing (2)2, but too 
small a value by assigning to U its mini- 
mum, 4/3. 

While the piezotropic fluid serves as a 
first approximation to a nonmetallic liquid, 


FEBRUARY 1952 


a better approximation is obtained by sup- 
posing y + 1 but y/@ << 1. For the pair 
of solutions of (1) which as y > 1 approach 
those appropriate to sound waves in the 
piezotropic case, one may show that with 
great accuracy the following approximate 
formulae hold for all values of X: 


( oy _ Adee 
i mee ery/ 1 = oC? 
5 — §84+2/1 +2 — & | 
See ea) Gp 2) 


% 

yg = 5|1+ eae |. 4) 

ae oe (sr BF : 

Comparison with (2) shows that a relatively 
slight amount of heat conduction slightly 
increases both absorption and dispersion for 
small xX, but slightly decreases both for large 
9. In particular, the absorption peak is both 
lowered and brought in to a smaller value of 
9, for we have the maximum value % = 
Gr/2) @ — Z/2) when X& = 1 — Z/2. If the 
experimentally measured peak in %f can be 
accurately located, we have an excellent 
means of determining \ from the formula 
Ose — lh —) 2/2, or, approximately, 


(3) 


where §,, is the value of $ at which reso- 
nance occurs. We have $8, S 3/4 always, 
since §, = 3/4, y = 1 implies the Stokes 
relation 3\ + 2u = O, which gives 2 its 
minimum value. 

For gases it is possible to exhibit the ex- 
act coefficients but very difficult to trace 
their behavior as functions of 8. 

The second pair of solutions of (1), which 
when y — 1 approach those appropriate 
to a thermal wave in a piezotropic fluid, 
yield a second type of waves, which if y ~ 1 
are unavoidably produced along with the 
first by any source of disturbance. These 
have been discarded by Kirchhoff and all 
subsequent investigators because as § — 0 
they are much more strongly absorbed than 
the first. It 1s interesting to compare the 
two absorption coefficients for general values 
of 8. My results are not yet complete, but 
from (1) it is easy to see that as $ > « 
the two pairs of solutions approach those 
which would belong to a fluid in which 


TRUESDELL: PLANE ULTRASONIC WAVES 


IN PURE FLUIDS 35 


p = p(p) but formally y # 1. Perhaps the 
ratio of their values in general is not too 
far different from that for such a fictitious 
fluid. Denoting the absorption coefficient for 
the second by Ay, we have then Aj; = 


Qn °/Y8, 

(*) a OO ae SAH) 
Ao VSlx/1 + 80? — 1) 
This function is a monotone decreasing func- 
tion of $. Hence as § grows larger, the pos- 
sibility of observing the second type of wave 
increases. As § — o we have 42?/A, — 
P0/y (and this result is valid without ap- 
proximation for the fully general eq. (1)). 
Hence in nonmetallic liquids, where @ is 
large, the second type of wave will never be 
observed at any frequency; in monatomic gases, 
however, since PU/y = 8/15, at high fre- 
quencies and very low pressures the second 
type of wave is absorbed only about half as 
much as the former; while in metallic liquids, 
where @ is small, the second type of wave 
will altogether predominate for large values 
of 8, unless perchance 0 be large. 

In a memoir now in preparation I shall 
give accurate graphs of all coefficients for 
0 < X S 4 and for all values of the param- 
eters y and 3 which are found in actual 
fluids. I shall also attempt to compare these 
results with experimental data and thence, 
in particular, to determine reliable values 
for © in common pure fluids 


REFERENCES 


(1) Wane Cuanea, C.S8., and UHLENBECK, G. E. 
On the transport phenomena in rarefied gases. 
APL/JHU CM-443, UMH-3-F. Feb. 20, 
1948 

(2) Wane Cuanea, C.S. The dispersion of sound 
in helium. APL/JHU CM-467, UMH-3-F. 
May 1, 1948. 

(3) GREENSPAN, M. 
1949. 


Phys. Rev. (2) 75: 197-198. 


. Journ. Acoust. Soc. Amer. 22: 568— 

571. 1950. 

(5) Krrenorr, G. Ann. Physik 184: 177-193. 
1868 (= Gesammelte Abhandlungen 1: 540- 
556) . 

(6) Braquarp, P. 
1932. 

(7) Lamp, H. A treatise on the mathematical 
theory of the motion of fluids. Cambridge, 
1879. (See $1838. This material was omitted 
in later editions. ) 

(8) Kneser, H. Ann. Physik (5) 11: 761-776. 
1931. 

(9) ———. 


Ci 


Rév. d’Acoustique 1: 93-109. 


Ann. Physik (5) 16: 337-399. 1933. 


36 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


(10) ———.. Ergebn. Exakten Naturwiss. 22: 
121-185. 1949. 
(11) van IvrerRBecK and MARIENs. 


153-160. 1938. 


Physica 5: 


vou. 42, No. 2 


(12) Manpetstam, L., and Lrontovic, M. C. R. 
Doklady Acad. Sei. SSR (2) 3, 111-114. 
1936. 

(13) Tisza, L. Phys. Rev. (2) 61: 531-536. 1942. 


MINERALOGY .—The nature of rock phosphates, teeth, and bones. DUNCAN McCon- 
NELL, Ohio State University, Columbus, Ohio. (Communicated by W. F. 


Foshag. ) 


In order to understand the chemistry of 
rock phosphates it is essential to realize 
what minerals are likely to be present in 
these rocks (7). One must consider also that 
very few minerals have rigorously fixed 
compositions because they are subject to 
isomorphic variations. For example, one of 
the commonest mineral substances, plagio- 
clase feldspar, may be a sodium aluminum 


silicate (albite) or a calcium aluminum 
silicate (anorthite), but the commonest 


varieties are intermediate in composition. 
When considering the chemical analysis of 
an intermediate variety of plagioclase, it is 
usually not possible to set down a simple 
formula, but one can indicate, nevertheless, 
the relative percentages of NaAISi;0s and 
CaAlSioOs, which are the theoretical end 
members of the isomorphic series. If one 
attempts to calculate from the chemical 
analysis of a rock the amount and variety 
of feldspar present, he faces an impossible 
task if other mineral constituents containing 
Na,O, CaO, and SiO, also are present and 
their amounts and compositions likewise 
are unknown. 

The situation is similar when considering 
rock phosphates; the composition of the 
principal mineral constituent cannot be 
determined from the analysis of the rock 
unless the kinds and quantities of other 
minerals present can be determined accu- 
rately. Therefore, it becomes impossible to 
ascertain the types of isomorphic variation 
of the minerals, francolite, dahllite, ete., 
from even the most precise data obtained 
on heterogeneous substances such as phos- 
porites. 

The “mineral phase” of tooth and bone 
has been shown to be an apatitelike sub- 
stance and, to this extent, it is similar to 
phosphorite. It differs from most phosphor- 
ites, however, in its low fluorine content. 
The substance of tooth and bone is not 


composed entirely of this apatitelike sub- 
stance; it contains organic compounds in 
addition. Were it possible to remove the 
organic substances without in any way 
altering the inorganic material, it would be 
possible to study the crystal chemistry of 
the ‘‘mineral phase.” Insofar as present 
knowledge is concerned, one of the impor- 
tant constituents of the ‘mineral phase”’ 
may be water (2), which occurs in combined 
form in the crystallites. No method that 
will remove the organic matter from teeth 
and bones without danger of altering the 
water content of the apatiteliike substance 
has ever been described. Here again is the 
same situation: neither the kinds nor quan- 
tities of the other constituents are known. 
Therefore, quantitative study of the iso- 
morphic variation of the apatite phase can- 
not be accomplished by experimentation on 
the whole substance of teeth and bones. 

The exceedingly important difference be- 
tween the chemical compositions of ordinary 
fluorapatite and the substances of teeth, 
bones, and phosphorites is the universal 
presence of significant amounts of carbon 
dioxide in the latter substances. Therefore, 
considerable interest has arisen in pure 
mineral substances which contain carbon 
dioxide and produce diffraction patterns 
similar to fluorapatite. Francolite is the 
best known of these substances; it occurs at 
several widely separated localities, but re- 
markable similarities between samples from 
Germany (3) and South Africa (4) exist. 
The mineral dahllite is similar to francolite 
except that it contains less than one percent 
fluorine (5). Lewistonite and dehrnite are 
similar in that they may contain carbon 
dioxide but are different to the extent that 
they contain potassium and sodium, re- 
spectively. 

Details concerning the isomorphic sub- 
stitutions which can occur in the apatite 


Fespruary 1952 


lattice need not be considered here. Substi- 
tutions for calcium include K, Na, Mn, Mg, 
Sr, and Ba. Substitutions for phosphorus in- 
clude Si, S, V, Cr, and probably aluminum. 
Such compounds as Cayo(OH )2(S104)3(SO4)3 
and (Na,sCa,)F2(SO.), clearly indicate the 
extensive possibilities for isomorphic sub- 
stitution (6, 7). Recognizing this extensive 
tolerance of the apatite structure for iso- 
morphic substitution, one can return to the 
question of the sorts of isomorphic substitu- 
tion in francolite. 

In viewing the chemical nature of fran- 
colite, five recent analyses by well-qualified 
analysts are available. One quickly discovers 
that the Ca:P:C ratios are not uniform. 
This fact is no more surprising, however, 
than the fact that the ratios Na:Ca:Al of 
plagioclase feldspar are not constant. Never- 
theless, the compounds CapCO;(PO:)5 has 
been assumed as a theoretical end member 
for the purpose of calculating the composi- 
tion of dental enamel, and these calculations 
have been made within the past few years, 
completely disregarding the fact that Gruner 
and MeConnell (3) disproved the existence 
of this compound in 1937. 

The variation in Ca:P:C has been taken 
to indicate that francolite is composed of 
two phases. Although this conclusion by no 
means follows as a logical sequence to the 
principles of isomorphism, one might ask 
whether or not any other evidences for the 
presence of two phases exist. In view of the 
water-clear condition of the francolite crys- 
tals, the proponents of the 2-phase hypothe- 
sis are forced to call upon ‘‘submicroscopic”’ 
or “colloidal” particles of CaCO; distributed 
throughout the francolite. This explanation 
is unique in its application to francolite, 
and several incompatabilities arise from 
consideration of the data. If francolite were 
composed of fluorapatite and CaCQO;, one 
could obtain the correct stoichiometry for 
fluorapatite merely by deducting equiva- 
lents of CaO and CO, from the analyses of 
francolite. This is by no means the case, 
however, and the discrepancies which occur 
probably exceed the experimental error in 
each instance (2). 

Far more important, however, is the fact 
that the unit-cell dimensions of francolite 
and fluorapatite differ by amounts which 


McCONNELL: ROCK PHOSPHATES, TEETH, AND BONES a7 


far exceed the experimental error for these 
measurements (2). X-ray diffraction data 
obtained by use of the Philips high-angle 
spectrometer indicate, furthermore, that 
significant intensity differences also exist. 
In the absence of any explanation of how 
the so-called colloidal particles of CaCO, 
could possibly alter the diffraction pattern 
of apatite in this way, it becomes necessary 
to conclude that the crystal lattice of franco- 
lite is somewhat different from that of the 
fluorapatite and these differences are the 
cause of the X-ray diffraction phenomena. 

Recently, Hendricks and Hill (8) have 
obtained an explanation based upon absorp- 
tion of nitrogen by francolite. They con- 
clude that certain surfaces exist within 
francolite crystals and that these ‘‘discon- 
tinuities”” are capable of adsorbing car- 
bonate. The physical analogy is not quite 
clear but apparently the ‘“‘carbonate’’ is 
believed to be present in the form of ions 
which are brought to electrical neutrality 
by cations in the structural arrangement. 
Further scrutiny will indicate that they 
postulate a new type of disordering in crys- 
tals in which part of the atoms are in the 
lattice and part are present at discontinui- 
ties. One can not predict how such a process 
could be detected by crystallographic 
methods, and Hendricks and Hill do not 
clarify the matter, but here again is a hy- 
pothesis that seems to have francolite as an 
unique example. 

It is noticeable that they calculate 61 
m.”/g. as the ‘“‘surface”’ of francolite whereas 
the highest experimental value is 7.3 m.?/g. 
and no comment appears in explanation of 
this significant discrepancy. One can extend 
their method of calculation in order to 
obtain the periodicity of interruption of a 
solid system with regular 3-dimensional 
coordinates. Under these circumstances, the 
average spacing of the discontinuities would 
be 315 A. What the effect of discontinuities 
of this spacing would be on the X-ray diffrac- 
tion pattern is difficult to predict without a 
more reliable knowledge of the true nature 
of these discontinuities. Nevertheless, it can 
be assumed that such a condition would not 
merely alter the spacings and intensities 
without in any way altering the excellency 
of resolution of the diffraction lines. In this 


38 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


connection it is: noteworthy that although 
bone produces broad and diffuse diffraction 
lines, the lines of francolite are essentially 
as sharp and distinct as those of fluor- 
apatite (2). 

Quite in contrast with some of the explana- 
tions discussed above, stand attempts to 
seek an explanation of the crystal lattice 
of francolite in terms of the principles of 
isomorphic substitution. That knowledge of 
all of these principles is not presently avail- 
able can safely be admitted. Nevertheless, 
it is possible through shght extension of well 
recognized principles to obtain a structural 
model which has two important properties 
(2). It is capable of qualitative altération of 
the intensities of prismatic diffraction 
maxima as well as the birefringence. Both 
values are observed to increase for francolite 
when compared with fluorapatite. Quantita- 
tive comparisons cannot be obtained readily 
because of limitations imposed by an inexact 
knowledge of the precise atomic coordinates 
for pure apatite. No relable integrated 
intensity measurements for an analyzed 
sample of apatite have been published and 
therefore the published coordinates cannot 
claim great precision. 

Although Bale (9) claims to have refined 
the coordinates for one type of calcium 
position by small percentages of the cell 
edge, his crystal of apatite apparently was 
not analyzed, so his results are quite mean- 
ingless. Beevers and McIntyre (10) stated 
that they were able to obtain highly refined 
coordinates for the atoms in apatite but 
neither did they give their newly determined 
coordinates nor did they indicate that 
analyzed material was used. Their principal 
contribution, consequently, was a series of 
colored diagrams which explain the well 
known structures proposed by Naray-Szab6 
(11) and by Mehmel (72). 

Properties of francolite other than those 
which can be measured by X-ray diffraction 
should also be mentioned briefly. The bire- 
fringence of francolite exceeds that of fluorap- 
atite (13), francolite is usually biaxial and 
may have an optic angle as large as 40° 
(14, 15), and the mean refractive index of 


vou. 42, No. 2 


francolite is less than that of fluorapatite 
(13). In summary on the properties of franco- 
lite, one concludes that all the crystallo- 
graphic properties are different from those 
of fluorapatite and that adsorption or the 
presence of colloidal impurities apparently 
are incapable of explaining these differences. 

Returning to teeth, bones, and _ phos- 
phorite one concludes: (1) The physical and 
chemical properties of these substances 
are largely dependent upon the properties of 
francolite or dahllite, and (2) the properties 
of these heterogeneous substances cannot 
be expected to reveal the isomorphic nature 
of francolite or dahllite. Concerning franco- 
lite these additional conclusions obtain: 
(3) Direct study of the chemical and physical 
properties has resulted in an explanation 
of the crystal structure of francolite which 
appears to be consistent qualitatively with 
all of the observed data, (4) quantitative 
confirmation of the proposed structure for 
francolite will require additional data, which 
will be difficultly obtainable for several 
reasons, and (5) the assumption of adsorp- 
tive processes or mechanical admixtures 
will not account for the experimental data 
on francolite. 


REFERENCES 


(1) McConnetu, D. Journ. Geol. 58: 16. 1950. 

(2) —. Bull. Soc. Frang. Min. Crist. (In 
press.) 

(3) Gruner, J. W., and McConnetn, “D. 
Zeitschr. Krist. 97: 208. 1938. 

(4) DeVituprs, J. E. Amer. Journ. Sei. 240: 
443. 1942. 

(5) McConneti, D. Amer. Min. 23: 1. 1938. 

Amer. Min. 22: 977. 1937. 

(7) KiemMent, R. Naturwiss. 33: 568. 1939. 

(8) Henpricks, 8. B., and Hitn, W. L. Proc. 
Nat. Acad. Sci. 36: 732. 1950. 

(9) Bate, W. F. Amer. Journ. Roentgen. Ra- 
dium Therapy 48: 735. 1940. 

(10) Brrevers, C. A., and McIntyre, D. B. Min. 
Mag. 27: 254. 1945. 

(11) NAray-Szapo, 8. Zeitschr. 
1930. 

(12) Mreumet, M. Zeitschr. Krist. 75: 323. 1930. 

(13) McConnetu, D., and Gruner, J. W. Amer. 
Min. 25: 135. 1988. 

(14) Hurron, C. O., and Steetye, F. T. Trans. 
Roy. Soc. New Zealand 72: 191. 1942. 

(15) Deans, T., and Vincent, H. C. G. Min. 
Mag. 25: 135. 1988. 


Krist. 75: 387. 


Frespruary 1952 Li: 


FORMOSAN 


PHANEROGAMS 39 


BOTANY —Notes on some families of Formosan phanerogams. Hut-Lin Li, Na- 
tional Taiwan University, Taipeh, Taiwan, China. (Communicated by A. C. 


Smith.) 


These notes are the result of critical 
studies on selected families of Formosan 
flowering plants, namely, Juglandaceae, 
Ulmaceae, Lardizabalaceae, Beberidaceae, 
and Saxifragaceae. Most of the species of 
plants described from this island by bota- 
nists have been proposed without adequate 
consideration of the neighboring and closely 
related floras, except for that of Japan. We 
now realize that the flora of Formosa is 
more closely related to the flora of main- 
land China than to that of any other region; 
numerous mainland species are represented 
in Formosa by their typical form or by a 
variation. Both the lowland and the mon- 
tane floras of the island show intimate kin- 
ship with those of the mainland, the rela- 
tionship in the former case being especially 
with southern China and in the latter case 
particularly with the highlands of western 
China. The flora of Formosa also shows 
close relationships with that of the Philippine 
Islands, especially as regards the southern 
species and to a certain extent also the 
montane species. In order properly to 
interpret the identity, nature, and range of 
Formosan spécies, it is therefore essential to 
consult closely all the neighboring floras. 

Large series of specimens from mainland 
China, Hainan, the Philippines, the Liukius, 
and Japan now being available to the present 
writer, careful studies of selected families of 
Formosan plants show that considerable 
alterations in our concept of some species 
are necessary. In the present paper, three 
new species, one new variety, and one new 
form are proposed, three new combinations 
are effected, and one new record is indicated. 
Twelve names are found to represent syn- 
onyms of previously described species and 
reductions are accordingly made. Several 
binomials, relegated to synonymy by former 
authors, are reinstated as distinct entities. 
These findings will serve to indicate what 
we may expect as we review the Formosan 
flora in particular and the eastern Asiatic 
flora in general. 

The materials used are those of the 
herbarium of the National Taiwan Univer- 


sity (indicated as NTU) and the U. S. 
National Herbarium (US). Only selected 
specimens are cited from the former her- 
barium. 

This paper was prepared in the Depart- 
ment of Botany of the U. S. National 
Museum, with the aid of a grant from the 
U. S. Department of State. The writer is 
indebted to the American Philosophical 
Society for an earlier grant which gave him 
an opportunity to study Formosan plants 
in the field and in some Chinese herbaria. 
To Dr. A. C. Smith, grateful acknowledg- 
ment is due for his kindness in reading the 
manuscript. 


JUGLANDACEAE 
Engelhardtia chrysolepis Hance in Ann. Sci. Nat. 
IV. 15: 227. 1861. 

Engelhardtia formosana Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 
6: 61. 1916; Kanehira, Formos. Trees rev. 
ed. 80. f. 36. 1936. Syn. nov. 

Engelhardtia spicata Blume var. formosana 
Hay. in Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo 25 (19): 
199. 1908 (Fl. Mont. Formos.). Syn. nov. 

Formosa: Mount Noko, H. H. Bartlett 6158 
(US); Baibara Nokogun, S. Sasaki Aug. 27, 
1924 (NTU). 

Southern China. In Formosa, common in 
broad-leaved forests throughout the island. 

The Formosan plant is identical with the 
mainland species, which is widely distributed 
from northern India through western to southern 
China. The species shows some variation. When 
herbarium specimens from various regions are 
compared, the Formosan ones are similar par- 
ticularly to those from Hainan Island. 


Juglans cathayensis Dode in Bull. Soc. Dendr. 
France 1909: 47. f. 1909. 

Juglans formosana Hay. in Journ. Coll. Sci. 
Tokyo 30 (1): 283. 1911 (Mat. Fl. Formos.) ; 
Kanehira, Formos. Trees rev. ed. 82. f. 36. 
1936. Syn. nov. 

Formosa: Kaunko, Kwarenko, EF. H. Wilson 

11152 (US). 

Widely distributed in China. In Formosa, scat- 

tered in forests at 1,200-2,000 meters. 

Hayata originally described the Formosan 

plant as a distinct species and compared it with 


40 JOURNAL. OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


J. cordiformis Maxim. and J. sieboldiana Maxim. 
of Japan. Actually the plant is identical with 
J. cathayensis Dode, a species of wide distribu- 
tion on the Chinese mainland, and the two are 
evidently conspecific. 


Platycarya strobilacea Sieb. & Zucc. in Abh 
Math.-Phys. Kl. Akad. Wiss. Miinch. 3: 741. 
1843. 

Platycarya strobilacea var. kawakamii Hay. m 
Journ. Coll. Sei. Tokyo 30 (1): 284. 1911 
(Mat. Fl. Formos.). Syn. nov. 

Petrophiloides strobilacea var. kawakamit (Hay.) 
Kanehira, Formos. Trees rev. ed. 82. f. 37. 
1936. 

China to Japan. In Formosa, in forests at 
medium altitudes in the northern part of the 
island. 

Formosa: Seisui, Kwarenko, 
Sasaki 7264 (US, photo). 

Hayata proposed the Formosan entity as a 
variety, stating that it “Differs from the type 
in having much smaller leaflets, and narrower 
cones with a little broader bracts.” These differ- 
ences, shown by a single specimen, do not actually 
differentiate the Formosan plant as a distinct 
variety. It does not differ significantly from 
plants of the Chinese mainland and Japan, which 
exhibit considerable variation in all parts of the 
plant. 


Kanehira & 


ULMACEAE 


Trema virgata (Roxb.) Blume, Mus. Bot. Lugd.- 
Bat. 2: 58. 1856; Hand.-Mazz. Symb. Sin. 
7: 106. 1929. 
Celtis virgata Roxb. in Wall. List n. 3694. 
1828-49. 
Southern China. New record for Formosa. 
Formosa: Sintin, Taihoku-syu, AK. Odashima 
13605 (US). 


Ulmus uyematsui Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 3: 
174. pl. 32. 1931; Kanehira, Formos. Trees 
rev. ed. 143. f. 90. 1936. 

Endemic. In forests of the central mountains 
at altitudes of 1,500—2,000 meters. 

Formosa: Arisan, #. H. Wilson 9684 (US). 

Ulmus uyematsui Hay. is apparently endemic 

to Formosa. Handel-Mazzetti (Symb. Sin. 7: 

100. 1931) doubtfully refers several collections 

from mainland China to this species. One of 

these, Ching 2194a, from southern Chekiang (US), 
is available. This specimen bears leaves that are 
distinctly cordate at base, densely appressed- 


vou. 42, No. 2 


pubescent beneath, simple serrate at margins, 
and with more than 20 lateral veins per side; it 
is very clearly distinct from U. wyematsut. 


Zelkova serrata (Thunb.) Makino in Bot. Mag. 
Tokyo 17: 13. 1903. 

Zelkova formosana Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 9: 
104. f. 33, 1 & 2. 1920; Kanehira, Formos. 
Trees rev. ed. 144. f. 91. 1936. Syn. nov. 

Eastern China to Japan. Formosa, in forests 
at about 1,000—2,000 meters. 

Formosa: Musha, 2. H. Wilson 10102 (US); 
no locality, Taiwan Univ. Herb. (NTU). 

Zelkova formosana was noted by both Hayata 
and Kanehira as very close to Z. serrata, differing 
only in the smaller leaves. However, the leaves 
of Formosan plants are about the size of the 
normal leaves of Japanese and Chinese plants, 
which sometimes may bear much larger ones on 
sprouting shoots. As there is no other single 
character to support its differentiation, Z. for- 
mosana is here reduced to the synonymy of Z. 
serrata. 


Zelkova serrata (Thunb.) Makino var. tarokoen- 
sis (Hay.) comb. noy. 

Zelkova tarokoensis Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 9: 

104. f. 33, 3 & 4. 1920. 

Endemic to the eastern coast of Formosa. 

Formosa: Taitotyo, Sinkogun, 7. Suzuki 19728 
(NTU). 

Kanehira (loc. cit.) treated this entity as a 
straight synonym of A. formosana (= Z. serrata) 
but noted its small leaves with fewer veins. The 
leaves are also much less sharply serrate and are 
totally glabrous. It appears as a distinct but 
very localized variety. 


LARDIZABALACEAE 


Stauntonia hexaphylla (Thunb.) Decaisne f. 
rotundata Wu in Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 
13: 369. 1936. 

Stauntonia obovatifoliolata Hay. Icon. Pl. For- 
mos. 8:4. f. 3, 1-6. 1919; Kanehira, Formos. 
Trees rev. ed. 180. 1936. Syn. nov. 

Japan, Liukiu. Formosa, in central mountains. 

Formosa: Musya, Nanto, 7. Kawakami 9882 
(US, photo). 

Wu, without seeing the type, reduced S. 
obovatifoliolata together with S. obovatifoliolata 
var. penninervis Hay. to the synonymy of S. 
hexaphylla f. obovata Wu. Photographs of Hayata’s 
types show that the two are different and the 
former should be referred instead to f. rotundata. 


Fespruary 1952 LI: FORMOSAN 


Stauntonia hexaphylla (Thunb.) Decaisne f. cor- 
data f. nov. 

A typo speciei foliolis distinete cordatis differt; 
foliolis ovato-oblongis vel oblongo-lanceolatis, 
5-7.5 em longis, 2-2.7 em latis, apice caudato- 
acutis, basi distincte cordatis. 

Formosa, in forests between Yappitu and Do- 
zan, Taihoku-syu, T. Suzuki 8751, April 17, 1933 
(NTU, type). 


Stauntonia obovata Hemsley in Hook. Icon. PI. 
29: pl. 2847. 1907. 

Stauntonia hebandra Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 
8: 3. f. 2. 1919; Kanehira, Formos. Trees 
rey. ed. 180. 1936; Wu in Notizbl. Bot. 
Gart. Berlin 13: 375. 1936. Syn. nov. 

Southern China to Formosa. 

Formosa: Karapin and Funkiko, B. Hayata 
9875 (US, photo of isotype). 

Hayata differentiated his species from S. 
obovata Hemsley by the obtuse or emarginate 
anthers. In S. obovata the anthers are very 
shortly apiculate, the spur attaiming a length 
of hardly 1 mm. Hayata’s illustration shows that 
the anthers of his plant vary from nonapiculate 
to shortly but distinctly apiculate. Undoubtedly 
the Formosan plant is conspecifie with the Chi- 
nese mainland species. 


Stauntonia obovata Hemsley var. angustata (Wu) 
comb. nov. 
Stauntonia hebandra Hay. var. angustata Wu 
in Notizbl. Bot. Gart. Berlin 13: 375. 1936. 
Endemic, common in thickets of central moun- 
tains. 
Formosa: Horisha, Nanto, FH. H. Wilson 9949 
(US, isotype). 


BERBERIDACEAE 


Mahonia morrisonensis Takeda in Notes Bot. 
Gard. Edinb. 6: 239. pl. 36, f. 200-206. 
1917. 

Endemic to Formosa, in forests on central 
ranges, rare, at about 2,500 meters. 

Formosa: Matsuyama, prov. Kagi, #. H. Wil- 
son 9816 (US). 

Kanehira (Formos. Trees rev. ed. 184. 1936) 
reduced M. morrisonensis Takeda to the syn- 
onymy of M. oiwakensis Hay., as a result of his 
examination of the types. However, a photograph 
of Takeda’s isotype (Kawakami & Mori 9941, 
US), although showing only a few leaves, defi- 
nitely indicates that the plant is distinct. from 


PHANEROGAMS 4] 
Hayata’s species. It is readily distinguished by 
the fewer leaflets, which are larger, much broader, 
more faleate in shape, and with more teeth on 
the margins. The terminal leaflet, instead of 
being the largest one as in M. japonica and M. 
oiwakensis, is among the smallest. 

Takeda mentioned at the same time a specimen 
collected by U. Mori on Mount Morrison, which 
he left undetermined, as having about twelve 
pairs of leaflets which are thicker, hardly faleate, 
and with less numerous teeth; he believed it 
might represent a new species. These characters, 
however, clearly demonstrate that the specimen 
in question belongs to M. ovwakensis Hay. 


Berberis formosana sp. nov. 

Frutex parvus; ramulis novellis gracilibus, 
leviter cinereis, angularibus, conspicue sulcatis; 
foliis spinescentibus 2- vel 3-aristatis, spinis 1-1.5 
cm longis; foliis normalis 2- vel 3-verticillatis, 
chartaceis, brevi-petiolatis, oblongo-lanceolatis, 
1.5-8 em longis, 0.6-1.2 em latis, apice acutis vel 
mucronulato-apiculatis, basi acutis vel obtusis, 
margine subintegris vel spinoso-serratis, spinis 
utrinsecus ad 6, gracilibus, ad 1 mm _ longis, 
adpresso-adscendentibus, utrinque glabris, supra 
viridibus vel leviter glaucis, subtus leviter atris 
plus minusve nitidis, costa supra impressa subtus 
valde elevata, venis secundariis utrinsecus 5-7, 
supra inconspicuis, subtus leviter elevatis, ad 
marginem distincte anastomosantibus; petiolis 
haud 1.5 mm longis; floribus ignotis; fructibus 
immaturis 2-6-fasciculatis, ovoideis, ad 4 mm 
longis et 2 mm ecrassis, atro-cyanis, distincte 
glaucis, apice stigmatibus coronatis. 

Formosa: Mountains near Muroroahu, Tai- 
hoku-syu, 7. Suzuki 7258, July 17, 1932 (NTU, 
type). 

This distinct species has chartaceous leaves like 
those of B. morrisonensis Hay., but it is readily 
distinguished by the shape of the leaves and the 
inconspicuous venation. It also has more fruits 
and these are elongated. It is a moss-clad plant 
of the high mountains, with slender branches. 
In its leaves, which have a pale subglaucous upper 
surface and a dark more or less shining lower 
surface, it is very different from all other For- 
mosan species of the genus. 


Berberis alpicola C. Schneider in Rep. Sp. Novy. 
46: 253. L9B8L. 

Indemie in 

Arisan at stream-sides at 3,600 meters. 


Formosa, common on Mount 


42 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Formosa: Arisan, #. H. Wilson 10952 (US, 
isotype). 

This species is characterized by its small shin- 
ing leaves with strong spreading spines at the 
margins. It is apparently very close to B. 
kawakamvi Hay., as the type collection was first 
identified by Byhouwer (in Journ. Arnold Arb. 
9: 133. 1928) as representing that species. Yojira 
Kimura, in Journ. Jap. Bot. 16: 58. 1940, con- 
sidered B. alpicola (as “‘alpicora’’) Schneider as a 
synonym of B. morrisonensis Hay., basing his 
conclusion on the original description. This place- 
ment is erroneous, as the type collection shows 
B. alpicola to be very different from the rather 
distinct B. morrisonensis Hay., although very 
close to B. kawakamu Hay. 


Berberis brevisepala Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 3: 
14. 1913; Kanehira, Formos. Trees rev. ed. 
182. 1936. 

Berberis densifolia Byhouwer in Journ. Arnold 
Arb. 9: 133. 1928; Kanehira, Formos. Trees 
rey. ed. 182. 1936; non Rusby. Syn. nov. 

Berberis nantoensis C. Schneider in Rep. Sp. 
Noy. 46: 252, 1939. Syn. nov. 

Endemic to Formosa, high central mountains, 

over 3,500 meters. 

Formosa: Mount Kiraishui, prov. Nanto, E. 
H. Wilson 10074 (US, isotype of B. densifolia 
Byhouwer). 

A photograph of the isotype of B. brevisepala, 
U. Mori, April 1910 (US, photo), is available. 
Hayata’s original description does not discuss 
the flower or fruit. The flowers are 7- or 8-fasci- 
culate, with pedicels about 1 cm. in length. 
The fruit is ovoid, to 9 mm long and 5 mm across, 
dark bluish black, and more or less glaucous. 
The densely leafy habit and the thickly coriaceous 
leaves with strongly recurved margins are very 
characteristic. Berberis densifolia Byhouwer, 
based on a smaller-leaved specimen, is apparently 
referable to this same species. Kanehira did not 
have access to the type, nor did he notice the 
name B. nantoensis C. Schneider given to this 
same plant. 

SAXIFRAGACEAE 

Hydrangea lobbii Maxim. in Mém. Acad. Sci. 
St. Pétersb. VIT. 10: 15. 1867. 

Hydrangea macrosepala Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 
3: 108. 1913; Kanehira, Formos. Trees rev. 
ed. 244. f. 187. 1936. Syn. nov. 

Philippine Islands. In Formosa, widely dis- 

tributed in lower forests. 


vou. 42, No. 2 

Formosa: Kotosho, 7. Hosokawa 9887 (NTU); 
Kashoto, Y. Kudo & K. Mori 241 (NTU). 

This species, widely distributed in Formosa 
and known as H. macrosepala Hay., is the same 
as H. lobbii Maxim., of wide distribution in the 
mountains of the Philippines. The obscurely 
denticulate leaves and the prominent sepals on 
the fruit are very characteristic. 


Deutzia pulchra Vidal, Revis. Pl. Vasc. Filip. 
124. 1886; Rehder in Sarg. Pl. Wils. 1: 
18. 1911; Turrill in Bot. Mag. 148: pl. 8962. 
1923; Kanehira, Formos. Trees rev. ed. 238. 
f. 179. 1936. 

Deutzia taiwanensis Hay. in Journ. Coll. Sei. 
Tokyo 80 (1): 132. 1911. (Mat. Fl. Formos.) ; 
Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 1: pl. 33. 1911, 2: 
S. 1912; non Schneider. 

Deutzia pulchra Vidal. var. formosana Nakai in 
Bot. Mag. Tokyo 35: 84. 1921. 

Deutzia hayatai Nakai in Bot. Mag. Tokyo 
35: 83. 1921. 

Deutzia bartlettii Yamamoto, Suppl. Icon. Pl 
Formos. 4: 16. f. 10. 1928. 

Mountains of northern Luzon and Formosa. 

Formosa: Mount Arisan, EH. H. Wilson 9742 
(US); Parsha, prov. Giran, EZ. H. Wilson 10126 
(US); Mt. Noko, H. H. Bartlett 6133 (US), 
6244 (US), Kanehira & Sasaki 21712 (US); 
Kando & Rikiki, Takao-syu, T. Suzuki 7881 
(NTU); Mt. Morrison, H. H. Bartlett 6312 (US, 
isotype of D. bartlettit Yamamoto). 

The Formosan plant is manifestly the same 
as the plant found in the mountains of northern 
Luzon. Rehder noted a slight difference in the 
number of rays of the stellate hairs when he 
compared a single specimen from Formosa with 
another from Luzon. Nakai considered the Luzon 
plant as having more acuminate leaves and the 
calyx-lobes “‘late ovati’’ instead of “‘late depresso- 
ovati.”” However, when the Formosan specimens 
are compared with a large series of Luzon plants, 
such differential characters seem inconsequential. 
Kanehira is thus correct in not recognizing the 
Formosan plant as a distinct variety. He also 
reduced D. hayatai Nakai, based on Kawakami 
& Nakahara 988, from Kotosho (Botel Tabago), 
which conclusion is similarly justified. 


Deutzia cordatula sp. nov. 

Frutex, ramulis tenuibus, angularibus, dense 
fulvo-tomentosis, tomento stellato; foliis charta- 
ceis, ovatis, 4.5-S cm longis 2-3.8 cm latis, 


Fespruary 1952 LI: FORMOSAN PHANEROGAMS 43 


apice acutis, basi cordatulis, margine leviter 
scabridis, subtus pallidis, stellato-villosis, costa 
venisque dense fulvo-stellato-tomentosis, supra 
leviter impressis, subtus distincte elevatis, venis 
secundariis utrinsecus 5 vel 6, arcuato-adscen- 
dentibus, ad marginem anastomosantibus; petio- 
lis brevibus haud 2 mm longis, stellato-tomento- 
sis; inflorescentiis parvis paniculatis, ramulis 
terminalibus, ad 5.5 em longis, dense fulvo- 
stellato-tomentosis; pedicellis 2-4 mm _ longis; 
calyce campanulato, tubo circiter 3 mm diametro, 
extus dense fulvo-stellato-tomentoso, lobis minu- 
tis, triangularibus, acutis; petalis oblongis, cir- 
citer 8 mm longis et 3-4 mm latis, subobtusis; 
staminibus 10, inequilateralibus, filamentis 5-7 
mm longis; stylis 4, distinctis, 6-7 mm longis, 
apice dilatatis, indistincte 2-lobatis; ovario 4-locu- 
Jari; ovulis numerosis. 

Formosa: Mount Kwanonzan, Taihoku-syu, 
N. Fukuyama & S. Miura 14, April 29, 1940 
(NTU, type). 

This very distinct species is strongly character- 
ized by the densely tomentose habit, the cordatu- 
late, short-petiolate leaves, and the narrow, 
racemelike inflorescence. It suggests no close 
relationships with other species but perhaps can 
be remotely associated with D. sieboldw Koern., 
of Japan. 


Itea parviflora Hemsley in Ann. Bot. 9: 153. 
1895; Kanehira, Formos. Trees rev. ed. 246. 
f. 189. 1936. 

Considerable confusion exists concerning the 
classification of the genus Jtea in Formosa. [tea 
parviflora Hemsley was described in 1895, from 
materials procured at the southern tip of the 
island. The species I. chinensis Hook. & Arnott 
was recorded by Henry in 1896, and later by 
Matsumura & Hayata and others from the 
northern part of the island. Hayata described J. 
arisanensis in 1916, basing it on materials from 
the central part of the island. In 1932 Masamune 
treated this as a variety of J. chinensis. In 
Kanehira’s treatment of Formosan trees in 1936, 
he listed I. chinensis, I. parviflora, and I. arisa- 
nensis as present in Formosa. In 1937, Yamamoto 
made a special review of the genus in Formosa, 
listing J. chinensis, I. parviflora, and I. arisanen- 
sisand at the same time describing two varieties, 
var. longifolia and var. parvifolia under the last 
species. Migo, in 1944, considered J. arisanensis 
Hay. as a synonym of I. chinensis. 

Apparently none of the Japanese authors has 


had a chance of examining isotypes of Henry’s 
I. parviflora, and consequently this species was 
much misunderstood. Yamamoto emphasized the 
size of flowers and differentiated the three species 
by slight differences in floral diameter. This char- 
acter actually is not constant, as flowers on the 
same plant may vary in their diameter according 
to age. Furthermore, the plant with coriaceous 


leaves found in northern Formosa is in reality 


different from I. chinensis of mainland China and 
is here proposed as a new species. Yamamoto’s 
I. arisanensis var. longifolia is the same as the 
typical form of I. parviflora Hemsl. The type 
specimen of J. parviflora Hemsley shows slight 
tufts of hairs in the nerve-axils on the lower sur- 
face of the leaves, like the plant depicted by 
Yamamoto. His J. arisanensis var. parvifolia, 
showing a similar kind of hairs but with broader 
leaves, belongs to J. parviflora var. latifolia as 
here proposed. ‘‘Itea parviflora’ of Yamamoto 
presumably also belongs here, although his draw- 
ing does not show the tufts of hairs in the nerve- 
axils, but these hairs are very few and thin and 
sometimes are not present in older leaves. The 
leaves of I. artsanensis are oblong and large and 
they have 7 or 8 nerves per side instead of 5 or 6 
as described and depicted by Yamamoto. This 
entity was made into a variety of I. chinensis by 
Masamune, but it is a different plant from J. 
chinensis and the actual presence of the latter in 
Formosa is questionable Jtea arisanensis 1s 
closely related to I. parviflora and is best treated 
as a variety. 

The followmg key serves to differentiate the 
Formosan species and varieties of the genus 
Ttea: 


A. Leaves membranaceous, the margins entire to 
crenate-serrulate. 

B. Leaves lanceolate, 8-12 em long, 2.5-3.5 em 
broad; nerves 5 or 6. 

I. parviflora var. parviflora 

BB. Leaves ovate, 9-10 em long, 4-5 em broad; 

nerves 5 or 6....... I. parviflora var. latifolia 

BBB. Leaves elliptic, 10-14 em long, 3-5 cm 
broad; nerves 7 or 8. 

IT. parviflora var. arisanensis 

AA. Leaves coriaceous, ovate, the margins with 

fewto several large teeth........... I. formosana 


Itea parviflora Hemsley var. parviflora. 

Endemic in Formosa, widely distributed in 
forests. 

Formosa: South Cape, A. Henry 1822 (Us, 
cotype coll.), 7980 (US); Bankensing, A. Henry 


44 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


1486 (US); Gu-kutsu, Kwarenko, #. H. Wilson 
11069 (US); Sozan, Taihoku, F. H. Wilson 10722 
(US), T. Tanaka & Y. Shimada 11040 (US). 


Itea parviflora Hemsley var. latifolia var. nov. 
Itea parviflora sensu Yamamoto in Acta Phyto- 
tax. Geob. 6: 248. f. 2. 1937, non Hemsley. 


Itea arisanensis var. parvifolia Yamamoto loc. 


cit. 248. f. 3d. 1987. Syn. nov. 

A typo speciei differt foliis latioribus; foliis 
membranaceis, ovatis, 9-10 cm longis, 4-5 cm 
latis, apice acutis vel acuminatis, basi late acutis, 
margine creanato-serrulatis, nervis secondaris 
utrinsecus 5 vel 6. 

Formosa: Bankensing, 
455805, type), 548 (US). 


A. Henry 560 (US 


Itea parviflora Hemsley var. arisanensis (Havy.) 
comb. noy. 

Itea arisanensis Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 6: 
19. 1916; Kanehira, Formos. Trees rev. ed. 
246. 1936. 

Ttea chinensis var. arisanensis Masamune ex 
Kudo & Masamune, in Ann. Rep. Taihoku 
Bot. Gard. 2: 117. 1932. 

Formosa, central mountains at an altitude of 

about 1,300 meters. 

Formosa: Mount Suibarai, Tikuto-gun, Sin- 

tiku-syu, 7. Suzuki 20232 (NTU). 


Itea formosana sp. nov. 

Ttea chinensis sensu Henry in Trans. Asiat. 
Soc. Jap. 24. Suppl.: 41. 1896; Matsum. «& 
Hay. in Journ. Coll. Sci. Tokyo 22: 133. 
1906; Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 2: 10. 1912; 
Kudo & Masamune in Ann. Rep. Taihoku 
Bot. Gard. 2: 117. 1932; Sasaki, List PI. 
Formos. 208. 1928, Cat. Govern. Herb. (For- 
mos.) 241. 1930; Makino & Nemoto, FI. 
Jap. ed. 2. 292. 1932; Kanehira, Formos. 
Trees rev. ed. 245. f. 188. 1936; non Hook. & 
Arn. 

Frutex 2-3 m altus; ramulis plus minusve 
crassis, novellis laxe pilosis; foliis coriaceis, glab- 
ris, ovatis vel ovato-oblongis, 6-9 em longis, 4-5 
em latis, apice breviter acutis, acuminatis, vel 
obtusis, basi subobtusis vel acutis, margine re- 
mote pauci-dentatis, raro subintegris, dentibus 
utrinsecus ad 10, interdum ad apicem 2-3, trian- 
gularibus, acutis, ad 4-5 mm longis et 7-8 mm 
latis, costa supra impressa subtus valde elevata, 
venis secundariis utrinsecus 5-7, arcuato-adscen- 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 2 
dentibus; petiolis circiter 1 cm longis; inflores- 
centiis axillaribus vel terminalibus, racemosis, 
3-5 em longis, semper pubescentibus; pedicellis 
2-4 mm longis patentibus; bracteis linearibus; 
calyecis tubo infundibulari, 2 mm _ diametro, 
limbo 5-lobato, lobis triangularibus, 1.5 mm lon- 
gis, extus pilosis; petalis 5, albidis, lanceolatis, 
circiter 2.5 mm longis et 1 mm latis, ad apicem 
costatis, intus glabris, extus pilosis; staminibus 5, 
quam petalis plus minusve longioribus, inferne 
pubescentibus; ovario urceolato, pubescente; 
fructibus urceolatis, 5-6 mm longis, basim 2 mm 
crassis, leviter pubescentibus, sepalis persistenti- 
bus coronatis, vel 2-carpellis dehiscentibus. 

Formosa, in thickets, northern part of the 
island. 

Formosa: Nanwo, prov. Kwarenko, EH. H. 
Wilson 11123 (US); Taihoku, H#. H. Wilson 
9908 (US); Sozan, Taihoku-syu, T. Kawakami, 
Oct. 1912 (NTU); Sizangan, Taihoku-syu, K. 
Mori, Oct. 11, 1931 (NTU, type); Hermbi, Tai- 
hoku-syu, H. H. Wilson 10259 (US); Tamsui, 
R. Oldham 108 (US); Keelung, 7. Tanaka 
346 (US). 

Itea formosana differs from I. chinensis, of the 
mainland, in the much more coriaceous leaves, 
often with a few large broad teeth. In the serra- 
tion it somewhat resembles J. tlicifolia Oliver, 
of western China, but the teeth are not so sharp 
and fine as in the latter species. The inflorescences 
are generally shorter and the flowers and fruits 
are smaller than those of J. chinensis. 


Pilostegia viburnoides Hook. & Thoms. in Journ. 
Linn. Soc. 2: 76. pl. 2. 1875. 
Pilostegia viburnoides Hook. & Thoms. var. 
parviflora Oliver ex Maxim. in Mém. Acad. 
Sci. St. Pétersb. VIT. 10 (16): 18. 1867. 
Schizophragma viburnoides Stapf. in Bot. Mag. 
155: pl. 9262. 1931. 
Pilostegia urceolata Hay. Icon. Pl. Formos. 3: 
105. 1913. Syn. nov. 
Southern Japan, Liukiu Islands. In Formosa 
in central mountains at 1,200—2,500 meters. 
Formosa: Arisan, #. H. Wilson 9660 (US); 
Funkiko, prov. Kagi, 2. H. Wilson 10827 (US); 
Mt. Taiheisan, H. H. Bartlett 6054 (US), S. 
Suzuki 714 (NTU). 
Only one species of Ptlostegia is present in 
Formosa and this proves to be the same as that 
of southern Japan and the Liukiu Islands. 


Fepruary 1952 


ENTOMOLOGY .—New species of 


Sarcophagini 


ROBACK: NEW SPECIES OF SARCOPHAGINI 45 


(Diptera: Sarcophagidae).1 


Setwyn 8S. Ropack, University of Illinois. (Communicated by C. W. 


Sabrosky.) 


The following descriptions of new species 
are based on material from several collec- 
tions examined in the course of phylogenetic 
studies on the Sarcophaginae. The disposi- 
tion of the types is indicated after each 
species description. 


Sarcophaga hollandia, n. sp. 
Fig. 1 


Close to Sarcophaga antilope Bottcher and S. 
pwa Roback but differs from these in the lack of 
the golden pollen on the body. Also related to 
Sarcophaga beta Johnston and Teigs, but differs in 
details of genital structure. The anterior lateral 
clasper is bifurcate in all three. 

Male.—Parafrontals and parafacials gray with 
some golden pollen, both setulose; frontal rows 
divergent below in last three bristles; facilia setu- 
lose three-quarters distance from oral vibrissae to 
apex of second antennal segment; buccae with 
only golden hair; antennae and palpi black; outer 
verticals not distinct; three postocular rows. 

Thorax gray-pollinose, longitudinally striped; 
anterior acrosticals indistinct; prescutellars well 
developed; four posterior dorsocentrals; three 
lateroscutellar pairs; one discoscutellar pair; one 
apioscutellar pair; propleuron setulose. 

Abdomen gray; first two segments reddish 
laterally; with only lateral marginals; third red- 
dish, with median marginals in addition to 
laterals; fourth reddish, with marginal row of 
twelve bristles; sternite of third segment with 
apical brush of setae. 

Wings with small costal spine; first vein bare, 
third setulose; hind tibiae villous; genital seg- 
ments dark; genitalia shown in Fig. 1, A—D; part 
of fifth sternite missing as shown in Fig. 1, C. 

Holotype —Male, Hollandia, Netherlands New 
Guinea, rain forest 250 feet, May 1945 (H. Hoog- 
straal). In collection of Chicago Natural History 
Museum. 


Sarcophaga piva, n. sp. 
Fig. 2 


Most closely related to Sarcophaga antilope 


1This paper is a joint contribution from the 
Department of Entomology, University of Illinois, 
and the Section of Faunistic Surveys and Insect 
Identification, Illinois Natural History Survey. 


Bottcher, S. alpha Johnston and Teigs, and S. 
hollandia Roback. Differs from the first two in 
details of the genitalia and from the latter in 
possessing golden pollen on the body. The an- 
terior lateral clasper is bifurcate in all three. 

Male.—Parafrontals and parafacials golden- 
pollinose; both haired; frontal rows divergent 
below in last four bristles; facilia setulose a little 
over three-fifths distance from oral vibrissae to 
apex of second antennal segment; buccae with 
mostly black hair; some golden hair anterior to 
metacephalic suture; antennae and palpi black; 
outer verticals not distinguishable; three post- 
ocular rows. 

Thorax golden-pollinose; three longitudinal 
brown stripes, two faint ones between these; six 
pair anterior acrosticals; prescutellars well de- 
veloped; four or five posterior dorsocentrals; the 
fifth if present, weak; lateroscutellars, three pair; 
discoscutellars, one pair; apioscutellars, one pair; 
propleuron setulose. 

Abdomen golden-pollinose; first two segments 
with lateral marginals only; third with median 
marginals in addition to the laterals; fourth with 
a complete marginal row. 

Wings with weak costal spine; first vein bare 
third vein setulose; hind tibiae villous; genital 
segments black; genitalia shown in Fig. 2, A-E. 

Female —Outer verticals and proclinate fronto- 
orbitals distinct; more golden hair on buceae than 
in male; posterior dorsocentrals six; four small an- 
terior bristles and two large bristles before scutel- 
lum; scutellum without apicals; propleuron bare; 
genitalia brownish black. 

Holotype.—Male, Piva River, Bougainville, 
Solomon Islands, June 25, 1944 (B. D. Valentine). 
In collection of Illinois Natural History Survey. 

Allotype—Female, same data as for holotype. 


Sarcophaga lorena, n. sp. 
Fig. 3 


Closely related to Sarcophaga setigera Aldrich 
from which it differs in the shape of the distal seg- 
ment of the aedeagus and the lack of median 
marginals on the second abdominal segment. 

Male.—Parafrontals and parafacials 
moderately setulose; frontal rows divergent below 
in last three facialia 
fourths distance from oral vibrissae to apex of 


eray; 


bristles: setulose three- 


46 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 2 


I-S. HOLLANDIA 


8 3-S. LORENA 


Fig. 1.—Sarcophaga hollandia, n. sp.: A, Anal forceps, caudal view; B, genitalia, lateral view; C, fifth 
sternite; D, left lateral clasper, ventral view. Fra. 2.—Sarcophaga piva, n. sp.: A, Left lateral clasper, 
ventral view; B, anal forceps, caudal view; C, genitalia, lateral view; D, fifth sternite; E, phallus, 
lateral view. Fig. 3.—Sarcophaga lorena, n. sp.: A, Fifth sternite; B, phallus, anterior view; C 


. . . ? 
genitalia, lateral view. 


Fepruary 1952 ROBACK: NEW SPECIES OF SARCOPHAGINI 47 


|, 


/ 
MH, 
My 


= — 


5-R. TANCITURO 6-Z. CANTENEA 

_ Fie. 4.—Boettcheria carata, n. sp.: A, Phallus, lateral view; B, fifth sternite; C, genitalia, lateral 
view; D, juxta, caudal view. Fia. 5.—Ravinia tancituro, n. sp.: A, Phallus, lateral view; B, acces- 
sory genital structures, lateral view; C, fifth sternite. Fia. 6.—Zygastropyga cantenea, n. sp.: A, 


Aedeagus, lateral view; B, anal forceps and anal plates, caudal view; C, genitalia, lateral view. 


48 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


second antennal segment; buecae with black hair 
only; antennae and palpi brownish; outer verti- 
‘als not distinct. 

Thorax with usual three to five longitudinal 
stripes; gray-pollinose; three pair anterior acrosti- 
cals; prescutellars well developed; three posterior 
dorsocentrals; lateroscutellars, two or three pair; 
discoscutellars, one pair; apioscutellars, one pair. 

Abdomen gray-pollinose; first two segments 
with only lateral marginals; third with marginal 
row of 12 bristles; fourth with marginal row of 16 
bristles, reddish apically. 

Costa! spine present; first wing vein bare; third 
setulose; hind tibiae bare; genital segments light; 
genitalia shown in Fig. 3, A-C; fifth sternite cut 
as shown in Fig. 3, A. 

Holotype—Male, Riverhead, Long Island, 
N. Y., June 30, 1921. In the collection of Cornell 
University. 

Boettcheria carata, n. sp. 
Fig. 4 


Closely allied to Boettcheria litorosa (Reinhard) 
and B. praevolans (Wulp). Differs from both in 
possessing outer verticals and lateral processes on 
the juxta. 

Male—Parafrontals and parafacials setulose; 
frontal rows sharply divergent below in last five 
bristles; facialia setulcse one-half distance from 
oral vibrissae to apex of second antennal segment; 
buecae with cnly black hair; antennae and palpi 
brownish; cuter verticals present; three post- 
ocular rows. 

Thorax gray-pollinose, striped longitudinally; 
two or three pair anterior acrosticals: prescutel- 
lars very weak; three posterior dorsocentrals; 
lateroscutellars, three pair; discoscutellars, one 
pair; apioscutellars, one weak pair. 

First two abdominal segments with only lateral 
marginals; third with a pair of median marginals 
in addition to laterals; fourth with a marginal 
row of 30 bristles; slightly red apically. 

Costal spine weak; first vein bare; third vein 
setulose; hind tibiae villous; genital segments 
reddish; genitalia shown in Fig. 4, A-D. 

Holotype-—Male, Monterey County, Calif., 
July 31, 1896. In collection of Chicago Natural 
History Museum. 

Paratype—Male, Custer, 8. Dak. In collection 
ef Lllmois Natural History Survey. 

Ravinia tancituro, n. sp. 
Fig. 5 


Most closely related to Ravinia planifrons 


vou. 42, No. 2 


(Aldrich) from which it differs in having three 
instead of four posterior dorsocentrals and in 
details of the phallus. 

Male.—Parafrontals and parafacials slghtly 
golden; lightly haired; frontal rows barely diver- 
gent below in last bristle; buccae with mostly 
black hair; antennae and palpi black; outer verti- 
cals absent; three postocular rows. 

Thorax gray-pollinose with usual three to five 
longitudinal stripes; one pair anterior acrosticals; 
prescutellars very weak; three posterior dorso- 
centrals; lateroscutellars, two pair; discoscutel- 
lars, one patr; no apioscutellars. 

Abdomen gray-pollincse; first and second seg- 
ments with only lateral marginals; third with a 
pair of median marginals in addition to the 
laterals; fourth with a marginal row of about 
twelve bristles. 

Costal spine lacking; first vein bare; third vein 
setulcse; epaulet yellow; hind tibiae bare; first 
hypopygial segment dark, second yellowish; geni- 
talia shown in Fig. 5, A-C. 

Holotype-—Male, Mount Tancituro, sweeping 
in meadow, 780 feet, Michoaecin, Mexico. Fourth 
Hoogstraal Mexican Biological Expedition, 1941 
(H. Hoogstraal). In collection of Chicago Natural 
History Museum. 


Zygastropyga cantenea, n. sp. 
Fig. 6 


Close to Zygastropyga aurea Townsend and 
Sarcophaga villipes (Wulp). Differs from former in 
the greater divergence of the frontal row and from 
the latter in having the first vein bare. Details of 
phallus differ from both above species.-Also near 
Sabinata arizonica Parker but differs in possessing 
strong outer verticals and a slight beard on the 
anterior tibiae. 

Male.—Parafrontals and parafacials gray with 
slight brownish cast; both setulose; frontal rows 
divergent below in last four bristles; facialia 
setulose to the base of arista; buecae with only 
black hair; antennae and palpi brown; outer 
verticals well developed. 

Thorax gray-pollinose; longitudinally striped; 
three pair anterior acrosticals; prescutellars large; 
four posterior dorsocentrals; lateroscutellars, 
three pair; discoscutellars, one pair; apioscutel- 
lars, one fine pair; propleuron bare. 

Abdomen gray-pollinose; first two segments 
with lateral marginals only; third and fourth ab- 
dominal segments missing on holotype. 

Cestal spine lacking; first vein bare, third vein 


Frespruary 1952 


setulose; hind tibiae villous; genital segments red; 
genitalia shown in Fig. 6, A-C. 

Holotype—Male, Huachuca Mountains, Co- 
chise County, Ariz., July 21, 1930 (Leonora K. 
Gloyd). In collection of the University of 
Michigan. 

LITERATURE 


Atpricu, J. M. Sarcophaga and allies in North 
America: 301 pp., illus. 1916. 

JouNston, T. H., and Harpy, G. H. A revision 
of the Australian Diptera belonging to the genus 
Sarcophaga. Proc. Linn. Soc. New South 
Wales 48: 94-129, illus. 1923. 


BRIDWELL: A NEW GENUS OF BRUCHIDAE 49 


Lopes, H.S. Sdébre os géneros Boettcheria Parker 
1914 e Boettcherimima, n. gen. Mem. Inst. 
Oswaldo Cruz 48: 687-710, illus. 1950. 

Parker, R. R. North American Sarcophagidae: 
A new genus and several new species from the 
southwest United States. Bull. Brooklyn Ent. 
Soc. 16: 112-115, illus. 1921. 

REINHARD, H. J. New North American muscoid 
Diptera. Journ. Kansas Ent. Soe. 20 (3): 
95-116, illus. 1947. 

Senror-Wuirte, R., AuUBERTIN, D., and Smart, J. 
The fauna of British India, including the 
remainder of the Oriental Region. Diptera 6: 
Family Calliphoridae: 288 pp., illus. London, 
1940. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—A new genus of Bruchidae affecting Hibiscus in Argentina (Bru- 
chinae: Acanthoscelidini). J. C. BRipwexiu, Lignum, Va. (Communicated by 


Waldo L. Schmitt.) 


On March 16, 1940, P. B. Denton, an 
oiler on a tanker then in the harbor of 
Buenos Aires, collected 10 adult bruchids 
on flowers along the River Plate which he 
subsequently brought to the late Herbert 
Spencer Barber in the United States Na- 
tional Museum, where they are now pre- 
served. These 10 examples, no two of them 
alike in coloration, were so peculiar that 
soon after they reached me in January 1942 
I wrote a description of the new genus 
Bonaéreus, here presented practically un- 
changed except for the identification of the 
species which has received seven specific or 
varietal names, all proposed by Maurice 
rc 

The clue enabling me to name the bruchid 
and its host plant was found in Juan M. 
Bosq’s highly esteemed “Segunda Lista de 
Coleépteros de la Reptiblica Argentina 
Dafinos a la Agricultura,” reprinted in 
19438 from the ‘Ingenieria Agrondémica 
Buenos Aires 1942” 4: Nos. 18-22. In this 
reprint (p. 45) under no. 419 is the note: 


“Bruchus inornatipennis Pic 

Buenos Aires, Santa Fe, Corrientes. E[ntre] Rios. 
Ataca semillas de ‘rosa del Rio” (Hibiscus 

cisplatinus St. Hill.) en la misma planta. Ws una 

especie variable.” 


Mr. Denton’s flowers along the River 
Plate were thus identified as a plant much 
like our Hibiscus militaris, moscheutos, 
coccineus, and lasiocarpus in swamps and on 
river banks which support Althaeus hibisci 


(Olivier) (see Bridwell, 1946, The genera of 
beetles of the family Bruchidae in America 
north of Mexico, Journ. Washington Acad. 
Sci. 36: 52-57). 

The bibliography of Pic’s plurinominate 
species had already been worked out thus: 


Bruchus inlineatus Pic, 1930, Melanges 55: 12: 
de l’Argentine. Also var. testaceicollis and var. 

Deyrollei on the same page. 

Bruchus tnornatipennis Pic, 1938, Rev. Soc. Ent. 
Argentina 10: 20: Chaco argentin (Viana), with 
var. obscurtmembris: Buenos Aires. On page 78 
inornatipennis is referred to inlineatus as a 
variety, and on the same page postreductus 
and latetestaceus were described as varieties of 
inlineatus.t 


Would that we could forget six of these 
names, for they represent the descriptions 
of individual specimens. After examining 
the Denton series in 1942, I wrote in my 
notes, ‘‘One of the 10 examples is practically 
entirely reddish testaceous, with apical joints 
of maxillary palpi, antennal club and claw 
joints of tarsi somewhat infusecate; another 
is almost entirely black with the basal five 
joints of antennae more or less reddish 
testaceous. The remaining specimens repre- 
sent intermediates between these extremes, 


1 In 1946 Blackwelder (Checklist of the coleop- 
terous insects of Mexico, Central America, the West 
Indies, and South America, U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 
185, pt. 4: 759) listed tnlineatus and two varieties 
in Acanthoscelides, also separately listed 7rornate- 
pennis and one variety in the same genus, over- 
looking Pie’s merger of the species and the deserip- 
tions of two additional varieties on page TS. 


50 


some black with pale legs, others with the 
legs particolored and with the elytra partly 
red and partly black. In most of them the 
basal five joints of antennae and joint 11 
are pale, while the club is dark above and 
pale beneath. They are all clothed through- 
out with thin fine pubescence but little 
obscuring the surface sculpture.” 

The combined generic and specific de- 
scription of the genus Bonaérius and its 
genotype, Bruchus inlineatus Pic, follows: 


Bonaérius inlineatus (Pic), 1930 


Antennal joints 1-5 narrow, 6 small, twice as 
wide as 5; joints 7-10 transverse, cyathiform, 
forming with the expanded-ovate joint 11 a broad 
paddle-shaped club. Head short, frontal carina 
short, front about twice as broad as inner lobe of 
eye. Eye emarginate for one-half its length, con- 
vex, strongly projecting, temples narrow, 
abruptly declivous. 

Pronotum flat and even above, resembling that 
of Bruchus loti Paykull in shape. Flanks sep- 
arated from dorsum by a nearly straight mar- 
ginal carina ending above the coxa remote from 
the front margin, the flanks not closed 
front. 

Intercoxal process of prosternum short, meta- 
sternum with a deep median longitudinal sulcus. 
Scutellum quadrate, emarginately bidentate. 

Elytra broader than pronotum, flattened 


in 


HERPETOLOGY —Two Brazilian frogs: 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 2 


above, subquadrate, without basal tubercles or 
elevations. Striae 2-6 and 10 reaching base; 
striae 5 and 6 abbreviate at apex. Striae strongly 
impressed and punctured, intervals flat. 

Front and middle femora a little more than 
usually incrassate. Hind femur slender, about 
as wide as its coxa and narrower than the first 
sternite behind the coxa, a little flattened 
beneath, armed near apex within with a single 
blunt tooth, not reaching apex of abdomen. 

Hind tibia slender, not longitudinally carinate 
beneath or on outer face; armed at apex beneath 
with two similar symmetrically disposed blunt 
teeth and above with three subdorsal apical 
teeth. Basitarsus gently arched, not apically 
produced beneath, without longitudinal carinae. 

Pygidium convex, about as broad as long, 
oblique; apex of pygidium rounded and bent 
down, impressed on either side, a prominent 
little mound in the middle between the two 
poorly defined impressions. 

While the general form resembles Althaeus 
hibisci (Olivier), 1795, Abutiloneus idoneus Brid- 
well, 1946, Acanthoscelides aequalis (Sharp), 1885, 
and other species of Acanthoscelidini known to 
affect seeds of Malvaceae, this resemblance is be- 
lieved to result from their developing within 
rounded seeds rather than from any particular 
affinity among them. The peculiar pygidium dis- 
tinguishes this genus from any other bruchid 
known to me. 


Hyla werneri, n. nom., and Hyla similis, 


n. sp. Doris M. Cocuran, United States National Museum. 


In 1874, Meyer proposed the name 
Hyperolius pygmaeus for a frog from Jobi 
Island in Dutch New Guinea (Monatsb. 
Akad. Wiss. Berlin, 1874: 139). Loveridge 
(Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 101 (2): 397. 
1948) lists this species as Hyla pygmaea 
(Meyer). It appears, therefore, that the 
name Hyla pygmaea proposed by Werner 
in 1894 for a frog from Santa Catharina, 
Brazil, should be renamed. I propose the 
following name for the Brazilian frog: 


Hyla werneri, n. nom. 


Hyla pygmaea (not of Meyer) Werner, Zool. Anz. 
7: 411. 1894 (type locality, Blumenau, Santa 
Catharina); Nieden, Das Tierreich, Anura 1: 
289. 1923. 

Hyla pigmaea Miranda-Ribeiro, Arch. Mus. Nac. 
Rio de Janeiro 27: 83. 1923; Mello-Leitao, 
Zoo-geografia do Brasil: 341. 1937. 


A gregarious little frog that quacks like a duck 
occurs in considerable numbers in the Federal 
District and within the city limits of Rio de 
Janeiro. So far no name already proposed seems to 
apply to this species. It is one of the rubra group, 
quite easily recognized as one of that group be- 
cause of its very thick tibia and the yellow and 
brown reticulations on the posterior femur. But 
like all the group, this form also varies indi- 
vidually to a very considerable degree. It may 
intergrade with hayii in the lower mountain 
regions, and with fuscovaria in the uplands of 
southern Minas Gerais. Only further collecting 
and study can limit its precise range. 


Hyla similis, n. sp. 


Diagnosis —Resembles H. fuscovaria A. Lutz in 
shape and structure of head and body and in a 


Fepruary 1952 


tendency toward a grouping of dark elongate 
spots dorsolaterally. Differs im its significantly 
lower average length of head, femur, tibia, and 
foot, in the absence of clear-cut dorsolateral 
stripes, in the usually more finely spotted femur 
and tibia, and in its smaller size (maximum 
length 37 mm). 

Description of the type—An adult male, US. 
N.M. no. 97317, from Manguinhos near the city 
of Rio de Janeiro collected on February 25, 1935, 
by Joaquim Venancio. Vomerine teeth in two 
heavy, short, transverse groups almost continuous 
medially, between the posterior halves of the 
choanae; tongue about three-fifths as wide as 
mouth opening, roundly elliptical except for a 
deep notch on its free posterior margin; snout 
rather short, rounded when viewed from above 
and in profile, the upper jaw extending consider- 
ably beyond the lower; nostrils superolateral, 
greatly projecting, almost at the extreme tip of 
snout, separated from each other by an interval 
equal to two-thirds their distance from eye. 
Canthus rostralis rounded; loreal region slightly 
concave and very oblique. Eye large, very promi- 
nent, its diameter equal to its distance from nos- 
tril and to five-sixths the length of snout; inter- 
orbital diameter about 11 times the width of 
upper eyelid, greater than distance between nos- 
trils. Tympanum very distinct, about two-thirds 
the width of eye, separated from eye by a very 
narrow interval equal to about one-eighth its own 
diameter. Fingers with a slight trace of a basal 
web, fourth very slightly longer than second but 
not reaching the base of third, which covers one- 
fourth the tympanic area; no rudiment of a pollex 
visible; toes one-half webbed, fifth slightly longer 
than third, disk of fourth toe covering about one- 
fourth the tympanic area; a distinct oval inner 
and a small, wartlike outer metatarsal tubercle; a 
faint glandular ridge along inside of tarsus and a 
still weaker outer tarsal ridge; no dermal ap- 
pendage on heel. Body moderately heavy in build, 
in postaxillary region narrower than greatest 
width of head. When hind leg is adpressed, heel 
reaches to anterior border of eye; when limbs are 
laid along the body, knee and elbow are separated 
by a considerable interval; when hind legs are 
bent at right angles to the body, heels consider- 
ably overlap. Skin of upper parts with numerous 
elongate glandules and small tubercles, especially 
prominent on the center of the back; a narrow 
glandular ridge encircling upper part of tym- 
panum, and ending just behind it above the 


COCHRAN: TWO BRAZILIAN FROGS 51 


shoulder; skin of throat and chest with minute 
scattered pustules, that of belly coarsely granular 
on the breast, finely granular posteriorly and on 
the lower surface of femur; a slight skin fold across 
the chest and another much more prominent pre- 
ceding it across the throat. A series of lateral 
folds on each side of the throat marking the 
presence of lateral gular sacs in the male. 

Dimensions—Head and body, 35 mm; head 
length, 11.5 mm; diameter of eye, 4 mm; width of 
head, 11 mm; femur, 15 mm; tibia, 16.5 mm; 
hind limb, 48 mm; forelimb, 19 mm; foot, 14 mm; 
hand, 9 mm. 

Color in alcohol—Dorsal ground color ecru- 
drab, with an indistinct light sepia triangle be- 
tween the eyes; a dorsolateral longitudinal series 
of very irregular sepia spots sometimes anas- 
tomosing across the back, their outer margin dark 
and fairly straight, delineating a dorsolateral 
stripe of the pale ground color, this light stripe 
edged below with an indefinite dark stripe, which 
begins behind the tympanum and breaks up on 
the sides into a fine reticulation of dark on a light 
ground, continued and becoming coarser toward 
the groin; a faint dark line along canthus rostralis; 
loreal region and upper lip marbled slightly with 
drab; upper surface of femur with fine sepia 
reticulations fading out on the anterior surface, 
becoming darker and coarser on the posterior 
surface and enclosing irregular pale cinnamon 
areas; upper surface of tibia with three large 
diagonal spots; outer tarsus and upper arm in- 
distinctly marbled with drab; ventral surface im- 
maculate buff. 

Color in life-—Some color notes on living speci- 
mens from Manguinhos were made on January 
18, 19385. U.'S.N.M. no. 97374: Malachite to 
sage green above, immaculate. Posterior femur 
chrome-yellow with brown reticulations. Throat 
citron-yellow; belly sulphur-yellow in the center, 
chrome-yellow toward the sides, immaculate. 
U.S.N.M. no. 97376: Dorsum clay color in center, 
with a drab dorsolateral stripe. Groin and ventral 
surface olive-buff, the sides with sepia spots. Fore 
and hind legs ochraceous, barred with raw umber. 
US.N.M. no. 97375: Dorsum light olive-gray, 
with coarse mouse-gray blotches edged with 
black. Upper and posterior parts of femur orange- 
ochraceous, mottled with dark sepia. Chin, chest, 
and lower parts of limbs ecru-drab; belly pale 
blue. 

Variations —Within the usual limits there is 
the same amount of confusing variation in this 


52 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


species that is met with in the cther members of 
the rubra group. The snout is usually rounded, but 
in about one-third of the examples it is slightly 
pointed. The tympanum, always distinct, may 
range from one-half to two-thirds the diameter of 
the eye in width. The interorbital diameter is 
often 14 times the width of the upper eyelid, but 
in a few instances scarcely exceeds the eyelid in 
width. The distance from the posterior border of 
the tympanum to the tip of the snout varies be- 
tween 31 and 36 percent of the total length of 
head and body, while the tibia is from 43 to 54 
percent of this length. The adpressed heel may 
reach occasionally only to the posterior corner of 
the eye, most often to the center or anterior 
border of the eye, and rarely as far as the nostril. 
The disks of the fingers may be large, moderate or 
rather small, and as the tympanum itself varies 
considerably in size, the fourth finger disk may 
cover as little as one-fourth of its area to as much 
as two-thirds. The skin of the back is smooth in 
perhaps one-fourth of the specimens (this may 
depend on preservation to some extent), faintly 
granular all over in some, granular only on the 
posterior part in others. 

The pattern seems as varied as do the physical 
dimensions. Usually there is a more or less distinct 
dark area between the eyes, but no other markings 
are at all constant. Some individuals are pale 
drab, with remnants of longitudinal dark stripes 
as in rubra appearing in this species as two rather 
irregular dark stripes enclosing a light area on 
each side of the back. In other specimens the 
upper one of the two dark stripes shortens and 
becomes crescentic; in many cases its inner edge 
approaches its fellow until they nearly fuse across 
the back, and in some cases they actually do 
become fused, with a few scattered light spots on 
them which may indicate their usual limits. Some- 
times there is an irregular network of coarse dark 
spots down the back; sometimes an inverted V or 
its separated elements may appear cn the sacral 
region. The upper part of the femur is usually 
irregularly spotted or reticulated; in only a few 
instances do these spots suggest the regular dark 
cross bars characterizing some other members of 
this group. Quite often the posterior surface of the 
femur reveals a. rather large, very irregular, 
elongate light spot surrounded and set off by nar- 
row dark reticulations. In other cases the pos- 
terior femur is finely marbled with small light and 
dark spots in about equal proportions. The upper 
surface of the tibia often has three irregular oval 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 2 
spots placed diagonally across it. Any of these 
dark spots may lhghten, leaving only a narrow 
dark outline which suggests a parallelogram or an 
irregular circle. Numerous small dark dots scat- 
tered over the upper surfaces still further obscure 
the pattern. The sides sometimes show linear 
rows of dark dots more or less fused into a net- 
work, or often a scattering of fine dots with no 
particular arrangement. The groin quite often has 
a very pale (yellowish in life) area, confined some- 
times to an elongate irregular spot encircled by 
darker, heavier reticulations. The ventral surface 
appears to be immaculate in the specimens at 
hand. A good many individuals show a dark 
brown stripe along the canthus, with considerable 
spotting on the upper lip; other specimens have a 
much hghter canthal stripe and the labial spots 
are reduced to a light marbling. Sometimes the 
‘anthal stripe is continued over the tympanum as 
a narrow dark line, widening behind the ear and 
often ending in front of the forearm, but also 
sometimes carried part way down the side as an 
irregular dark stripe. 

Remarks.—It is perhaps rash to give a new 
name to another of the rubra group, the most 
variable of any in Brazil, but no formerly pro- 
posed name seems to be applicable to the form 
coming from within the Federal District. H. x-sig- 
nata of Spix from Bahia is apparently nearest to 
similis, after fuscovaria, but fresh Bahian material 
is needed before an exact comparison can be 
made. 

This species has the peculiar habit of ‘‘swarm- 
ing,” as hundreds appeared at one time on a tree 
outside the laboratory at the Instituto Oswaldo 
Cruz. The voice of the adult is a high-pitched 
crack, crack, crack, crack, sounding somewhat like 
that of a duck. Breeding takes place in March 
and April. The tadpoles metamorphose very rap- 
idly, taking only 20 to 30 days to change into 
frogs, but they are rather delicate, as they die 
from the effects of too much sun if the water in 
which they live is not deep enough. 

While this species is exceedingly plentiful at 
Manguinhos, it is not known from the southern 
part of the state of Rio de Janeiro. In fact, only 
two other examples at all resembling this form 
are known outside of the Manguinhcs material. 
One of these is from Bom Successo, a few minutes’ 
ride by automobile from Manguinhos, while the 
other, no. 96213, not in good condition but seem- 
ing to belong to the present species, is from 
Amorim near the city of Rio de Janeiro. 


Frepruary 1952 SCHILLER: A 


MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS 


Head length Head width Femur Tibia Foot Hand 
N 49 49 49 49 49 49 
M a8 7 31.9 42.0 48.0 39.0 26.2 
o 1.2 1.2 1583 2.0 2.0 1.4 
15 3.56 3.76 3.10 4.17 1183 5.36 
Gm 0.01 0.54 0.44 0.59 0.73 0.77 
Range 31.1— 29.4— 37.9— 43.5— 34.8— 23.9— 
36.0 35.1 47.1 54.2 47.5 30.0 


List of specimens—Rio de Janeiro (state): 
US.N.M. no. 97317, the type of Hyla similis, 
and paratypes U.S.N.M. nos. 97312-6, 97318-52, 


NEW 


CESTODE 53 


97374-6, from Manguinhos, all collected between 
January 18 and May 20, 1935, mostly by J. 
Venancio; U.S.N.M. nos. 96144-6 from Man- 
guinhos collected in January 1922; U.S.N.M. no. 
96203, an adult male from Bom Successo near the 
city of Rio de Janeiro, collected on October 25, 
1928, and received from Dr. A. Lutz; U.S.N.M. 
no. 96213 from Amorim near the city of Rio de 
Janeiro collected in January 1926; U.S.N.M. nos. 
81119-21 from Rio de Janeiro, collected in 1930 
and received from Dr. A. Lutz. 


HELMINTHOLOGY.—Hymenolepis johnsoni, . sp., a cestode from the vole Mi- 
erotus pennsylvanicus drummondi. Evererr L. ScHi~uer, Arctic Health Re- 
search Center, Anchorage, Alaska. (Communicated by Harald A. Rehder.) 


In connection with a separate work con- 
cerning morphological variation, the writer 
had occasion to study a number of hyme- 
nolepidid cestodes obtained from the autopsy 
of some preserved microtine rodents in the 
collection of the U. 8. National Museum. 
Two of these cestodes, taken from a vole, 
Microtus pennsylvanicus drummondiw (Au- 
dubon and Bachman), collected at Fort Rae, 
District of Mackenzie, Canada, represent a 
species of the genus Hymenolepis Weinland, 
1858, which appears to be unknown in the 
parasitological literature and therefore is 
herein described as new. 

The voles from which this material was 
taken were included among a large series of 
preserved rodents made available to Dr. 
Robert Rausch, of this laboratory, in con- 
junction with a survey of the helminth para- 
sites of Nearctic microtine rodents. All 
hymenolepidid cestodes were turned over to 
the writer for study. This opportunity is 
taken to express to Dr. David H. Johnson, 
associate curator, division of mammals, 
U.S. National Museum, appreciation of his 
generous cooperation, which has made these 
studies possible. 


Hymenolepis johnsoni, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-3 
Diagnosis.—Length of strobila 30-40 mm; 
maximum width 1.4 mm, attained at poste- 
rior end. Scolex diameter 150-180u. Suckers, 
unarmed, 64 by 80u. Evaginated rostellum 
160u long by 48u wide at apex, which sup- 
ports single row of 10 hooks 15 in length. 
Strobila 1084 wide immediately posterior to 


base of scolex. Genital pores unilateral and 
dextral. Genital ducts pass dorsal to excre- 
tory canals. Cirrus sac muscular, averages 
112u in length by 43u in diameter in mature 
proglottids. External seminal vesicle well 
developed, 115 by 72u. Cirrus armed with 
minute spines. Testes, three in number, 
ovoid, 24 by 32u, arranged in form of tri- 
angle with one testis poral and two aporal 
to ovary and vitelline gland. Deeply lobed 
ovary located in middle of  proglottid. 
Vitelline gland hes ventral and posterior to 
ovary. Vagina ventral and posterior to cirrus 
sac. Saccate seminal receptacle prominent 
in mature proglottids, attains maximum 
size of 168 by 104u. Uterus extends as slender 
irregular tube transversely across anterior 
part of proglottid, passing dorsal to excre- 
tory canals and reaching beyond them. 
Completely developed eggs not observed. 
Ventral longitudinal excretory canals meas- 
ure 93u in diameter; dorsal canals, Ilp 
in diameter. 

Host.—Microtus pennsylvanicus 
mondii (Audubon and Bachman). 

Locality—Fort Rae, District of 
kenzie, Canada. 

Habitat—Small intestine. 

Type.—One slide, no. 37340, containing 
an entire specimen, has been deposited in 
the Helminthological Collection of the U.S. 
National Museum. 


drum- 


Mae- 


DISCUSSION 
Baer (1931) listed 14 armed species of 
Hymenolepis parasitic in rodents and added 
H. muris-sylvaticc (Rudolphi, 1819).to this 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 2 


LSS Sy 59 It SEIS GSS 
SCS SiS See SSeS, 
TESS SS SP AG Sp Si SIS 
SS SSSSIS 


Ss SIND 
SSSSSSS 
LESS Sy L555 GIS 
SS SS SIISIS 


dl 
500 y 5 


Fries. 1-3.—Morphological details of Hymenolepis johnsoni, n. sp.: 1, Scolex; 2, rostellar hook; 3, 
late mature proglottid (ventral view). 


Fesruary 1952 


list. In a further review of the taxonomic 
status of this group (1932) he reduced the 
total number to 13. More recently Rider 
and Macey (1947) described H. ondatrae 
bringing the total again to 14. Of these, only 
four species have 10 rostellar hooks. These 
were found to differ from H. johnsoni as 
follows: 

H. evaginata Barker and Andrews, 1915 
(from Ondatra zibethica L.), has a strobila 
of much greater length (200-400 mm), a 
bilobed ovary, and smaller rostellar hooks 
(7u) of a characteristically different shape. 

H. pearset Joyeux and Baer, 1930 (from 
Hybomys univittatus Peters), has a larger 
cirrus sac (520 by 60u), testes arranged in 
a straight line, the ovary and vitelline gland 
poral to midline, and much longer rostellar 
hooks (60u) of a different shape. 

H. muris-sylvatict (Rudolphi, 1819) (from 
Apodemus sylvaticus (L.)) has an aspinose 
cirrus and larger rostellar hooks | (23y), 
which differ markedly in shape. 


COE: NEMERTBANS OF ARCTIC OCEAN 55 


H. ondatrae Rider and Macy, 1947 (from 
Ondatra zibethica occipitalis (Elhot)), has a 
larger cirrus sac (30-385 by 150-220y), an 
ovary that is smooth or may tend to be 
trilobate, and rostellar hooks that vary in 
number from 8 to 10, are of a much greater 
length (67-73u), and have a_ distinctly 
different shape. 

This cestode is named in honor of Dr. 
David H. Johnson, whose interest in these 
studies made possible the examination of 
valuable host material. 


REFERENCES 


Barer, J. G. Sur la position systématique du 
Taenia muris-sylvatici Rudolphi, 1819. Bull. 
Soc. Neuchatel. Sci. Nat. 55: 35-39. 1931. 

Contribution a la faune helminthologique 
de Suisse. Rev. Suisse Zool. 39: 1-57. 1932. 

Riper, C. L., and Macy, R. W. Preliminary 
survey of the helminth parasites of muskrats in 
northwestern Oregon, with description of Hy- 
menolepis ondatrae n. sp. Trans. Amer. Mier. 
Soc. 66: 176-181. 1947. 


ZOOLOGY —Geographical distribution of the species of nemerteans of the Arctic 
Ocean near Point Barrow, Alaska... WrstEyY R. Cor, Scripps Institution of 
Oceanography. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) 


Nemerteans occur along the borders of all 
the oceans, from beneath the Polar Seas 
northwest of Greenland (Coe, 1944) to the 
ice barrier surrounding the South Pole 
(Coe, 1950). Moreover most of the same 
genera, but not the same species, are found 
in both these extremes of latitude. 

The floor of the Arctic Ocean near Point 
Barrow is evidently well adapted for popu- 
lations of nemerteans, for Prof. and Mrs. 
George MacGinitie during their two years 
at the Arctic Research Laboratory? collected 
more than 300 specimens of these worms. 
Nemerteans were found at nearly all the 
dredging stations, from shallow water to 
depths of about 250 meters 12 to 16 miles 
from shore. The collections contained 24 
recognizable species, among which are 7 
species of Amphiporus, 4 of Tubulanus, 3 of 


‘Contribution of the Scripps Institution of 
Oceanography, new series, no. 557. 

2Supported by the Office of Naval Research 
through contracts with the California Institute 
of Technology and the Johns Hopkins University. 


Micrura, 4 of Tetrastemma, 2 of Cerebratulus, 
1 each of Lineus, Emplectonema, Nemertopsis, 
and Paranemertes. Asin other collections from 
Arctic seas, the genus Amphiporus has not 
only the greatest number of species but some 
of the species have also the largest popula- 
tions. A. angulatus and A. lactifloreus are the 
most abundant species in the Point Barrow 
area. Ten of the species have not been re- 
ported previously from strictly Arctic seas, 
although three of these have been found in 
the nearby Bering Sea. 

These collections are of particular interest 
because only three species of nemerteans 
were formerly known from that portion of 
the Arctic seas and the others contribute to 
an understanding of the cireumpolar dis- 
tribution of some of the species. Even at the 
present time no nemerteans are known from 
the Polar seas between the Point Barrow 
area and northwest Greenland on the east 
and Nova Zemblya and Franz Josef Land 
on the west. 

From the Polar seas the populations of 


56 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


several of the species extend southward 
along the European, American, and Asiatic 
coasts. Cerebratulus marginatus may be men- 
tioned as a species with an unusually exten- 
sive geographical distribution, for the range 
of this species extends from near King Karl 
Land, Spitsbergen, and elsewhere in the 
Arctic to Norway, Great Britain, the Medi- 
terranean and Madeira in the eastern 
Atlantic and from Greenland to Labrador, 
Nova Scotia, New England, Cape Cod, and 
farther southward beneath the offshore cur- 
rent in the western Atlantic. It also extends 
from the Point Barrow area, Bering Sea, 
Pacific coast of Alaska and southward to 
southern California along the American 
coast, and to Kamchatka and Japan on the 
Asiatic coast. This does not imply that the 
populations in the present geological era are 
continuous through all this vast extent of 
territory, nor can it be assumed that the 
species originated in that portion of the 
globe which is now occupied by the Polar 
seas. The species presumably exists as 
isolated, localized, more or less widely sepa- 
rated populations. Moreover it is probable 
that it is even more widely distributed than 
is at present known. 

Four other species, Lineus ruber, Cere- 
bratulus fuscus, Amphiporus lactifloreus, and 


Tetrastemma candidum, similarly extend 
southward along the European and 


American Atlantic coasts, while Amphiporus 
angulatus extends from Greenland as far 
south as southern New England in the 
western Atlantic and from Point Barrow to 
California on the American coast, as well 
as to Japan on the Asiatic coast, but it has 
not been found in the eastern Atlantic. 

Amphiporus lactifloreus occurs on both the 
European and American Atlantic coasts, as 
well as in the Arctic, but has not been re- 
ported from the Pacific, while Tubulanus 
capistratus 1s found on both sides of the 
Pacific, from Point Barrow to California and 
to Japan, but not in the Atlantic. The 
Point Barrow area therefore forms an inter- 
mediate link for those species formerly 
known to occur in the Polar seas north of 
Europe or near the coasts of Greenland, or 
both, and those on either the American or 
Asiatic Pacific coasts or both. 

Relatively few species of nemerteans are 


VoL. 42, No. 2 


known to occur in both the Northern and 
Southern Hemispheres. Of those here re- 
ported for the Point Barrow area, Tubulanus 
annulatus, Lineus ruber, Cerebratulus fuscus, 
and Tetrastemma candidum have been found 
also on the coast of South Africa and Hm- 
plectonema gracile on the coast of Chile. 

The following list, arranged in systematic 
order, gives the geographical distribution of 
each of the species found in the Point Barrow 
area in so far as at present known. A similar 
list of the distribution of other species re- 
ported for Arctic seas: has been published 
by Coe (1944). 


Order PALEONEMERTEA 


Tubulanus albocinctus (Coe), 1904. This is the 
first record of this species in Arctic seas. It has 
been dredged previously among red algae at 
depths of 100 to 200 meters off the coast of south- 
ern California. One specimen, about 107 mm in 
length, was collected at a depth of 65 meters 
between 4 and 5 miles from shore off Point 
Barrow. 

Tubulanus annulatus (Montagu), 1804. This 
species is widely distributed on the eastern shores 
of the North Atlantic, from Norway and Great 
Britain to the Mediterranean; it has also been re- 
ported from the South Atlantic, near the Cape of 
Good Hope. In the Arctic it has been dredged near 
King Karl Land, off Cape Platen, and in the 
Karajek Fiord, Greenland, as well as off the 
northwest coast of Greenland (Coe, 1944). In the 
Point Barrow area it was found at depths up to 
126 meters and up to 7 miles from shore. 

Tubulanus capistratus (Coe), 1901. This species 
is closely similar to the preceding but is without 
the white band on the dorsal surface of the head. 
It has been found in the intertidal zone and below 
along the Pacific coast of Alaska and southward 
to Monterey Bay, Calif., and it is also reported 
from Japan. In the Point Barrow area it was col- 
lected at depths of 3 and 131 meters, from near 
shore and 12 miles out. 

Tubulanus frenatus (Coe), 1904. One specimen 
was found near Point Barrow. Previously re- 
corded only from southern California. 


Order HETERONEMERTEA 
Lineus ruber (O. F. Miiller), 1771. Cireumpolar; 
coasts of Siberia; Greenland; Norway and Great 
Britain to the Mediterranean, Madeira and South 
Africa; Labrador to southern New England; 


FEBRUARY 1952 


Alaska to California. In the collections from the 
Point Barrow area only two specimens were as- 
signed to this species. One of these was found near 
shore and the other ot a depth of 136 meters 8 
miles out. 

Micrura alaskensis Coe, 1901. A 
species in the intertidal zone and below along the 
Pacifie coast of Alaska and southward to northern 
Mexico. Found also in Japan. In the Point Bar- 
row area only four individuals were obtained. One 
of these was found near shore and the others 4 to 
7 miles out, at depths of 50 to 65 meters. 

Micrura impressa (Stimpson), 1857. Originally 
described from an individual dredged in. Bering 
Strait. Later reported from Japan (Yamaoka, 
1940). One specimen measuring 97 mm in length 
and 9 mm in width when contracted was found 
washed ashore at Point Barrow. 

Micrura purpurea (Dalyell), 1853. Reported in 
Arctie seas northwest of Greenland, Karajak 
Fiord and Hinlopen Strait at depths of 45 to 115 
meters (Coe, 1944). Common on European coasts 
from the intertidal zone to depths of 200 meters 
or more. One specimen was obtained in the Point 
Barrow area at a depth of 143 meters, 16 miles 
from shore. 

(Cerebratulus barentst Birger, 1895. The minor 
morphological features which have been thought 
to separate this species from C. marginatus have 
evidently resulted from different states of con- 
traction of the head. Hence C. barentsi is no 
longer considered to be a valid species.) 

Cerebratulus fuscus (McIntosh), 1873-4. This 
is a species with a very wide geographical distri- 
bution, for it has been reported not only from the 
coasts of Greenland and elsewhere in Arctic seas, 
but also from Norway and Great Britain to the 
Mediterranean, as well as South Africa and 
Florida (Coe, 1951). The single specimen col- 
lected in the Point Barrow area was dredged at a 
depth of 41 meters, 3.5 miles from shore. 

Cerebratulus marginatus Renier, 1804. This 
species has the wide circumpolar distribution 
previously mentioned, being found on European 
coasts as far south as Madeira; on the eastern 
North American coasts it extends southward to 
Cape Cod and farther south beneath the offshore 
current; on the western North American coast 
southward to southern California and in the 
western Pacific as far south as Japan. In the 
Arctic it has been reported from King Karl Land, 
Bremer Sound, Hinlopen Strait, Hast Spisbergen, 
and northwest Greenland. In the Point Barrow 


common 


COE: NEMERTEANS OF ARCTIC OCEAN 57 


area it was found at depths of 61 to 222 meters, 
5 to 12 miles from shore. 


Order HopLONEMERTEA 


Emplectonema gracile (Johnston), 1837. One 
small specimen about 30 mm long and | to 2mm 
in diameter after preservation was obtained in the 
Point Barrow area at a depth of 38 meters. This 
is one of the most widely distributed of all species 
of nemerteans, being abundant in the intertidal 
zone and below, on the northern coasts of Europe 
and southward to Madeira; on the coasts of 
Alaska to California and northern Mexico, and it 
has been reported also from Chile, as well as from 
Kamchatka and Japan. It has not been recorded 
previously from Arctic areas. 

Paranemertes peregrina Coe, 1901. In many 
localities this is the most abundant nemertean in 
the intertidal zone along the Pacific coast of 
Alaska and southward to California. It has also 
been reported from the Aleutian Islands, Kam- 
chatka and Japan. Only a single representative of 
this species was found in the Point Barrow area. 

Nemertopsis gracilis Coe, 1904. Previously re- 
ported from Pugent Sound to northern Mexico. 
Only one specimen was dredged in the Point 
Barrow area. 

Amphiporus angulatus (Fabricius), 1774. The 
collections indicate that this is the most abundant 
nemertean in the Point Barrow region. Because of 
the relatively large size of many individuals and 
their conspicuous coloration, it is unlikely that 
they would be overlooked by the collector. This 
species was found at 9 stations, where the depths 
were between 12 and 226 meters. The distance 
from shore varied from 2.75 to 16 miles. This 
species is widely distributed in Arctic seas, having 
been reported from near Greenland, Baffin Bay, 
Davis Strait, Labrador, Nova Scotia, southward 
to Cape Cod and further south beneath the off- 
shore Arctic current. On the Pacific coast of North 
America it extends through Bering Sea, along the 
coast of Alaska and south as far as Point Con- 
ception, California. On the Asiatic coast it has 
been found on the shores of Kamchatka and 
Japan. It was collected by Stimpson (1857) in 
Bering Strait. 

Amphiporus fornadabilis Griffin, 1898. Previ- 
ously recorded from Bering Island, Aleutian 
Islands, coast of Alaska and southward to Mon- 
terey Bay, California. Two specimens in the Point 
Barrow collections were dredged at depths of 
about 62 and 226 meters, 5 to 12 miles from shore. 


58 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Amphiporus groenlandicus (Oersted), 1844. 
This is another species that is widely distributed 
in Arctic seas, having been reported from both the 
eastern and western coasts of Greenland, from 
Hinlopen Strait, Barents Sea, and from the waters 
off King Karl Land, Jena Island, Franz Josef 
Land, and Spitzbergen at depths of 4 to 450 
meters. The same or a closely similar species, A. 
caecus Verrill, also without ocelli, has been 
dredged at a depth of about 35 meters off the 
New England coast (Coe, 1943). A. groenlandicus 
was found in the Point Barrow area at depths of 
40 to 247 meters and up to 12 miles from shore. 

Amphiporus imparispinosus Griffin, 1898. 
This has been reported previously from the 
Bering Sea and it is abundant in many localities 
in the intertidal zone and below, along the coast 
of Alaska and southward to Ensenada, Mexico. 
The typical form, which has three pouches of ac- 
cessory stylets is often associated with the variety 
similis, which has only two. The species was found 
in the Point Barrow area at depths of 87 to 104 
meters and up to 7 miles from shore. 

Amphiporus lactifloreus (Johnston) 1828. With 
the exception of Amphiporus angulatus, this 
species appears to be the most abundant nemer- 
tean in the Point Barrow area. The species was 
found at 13 stations, where the depths varied from 
12 to 226 meters and at distances up to 12 miles 
from shore. It is widely distributed along the 
shores of the Arctic and North Atlantic oceans, 
extending southward to the Mediterranean Sea 
and on the American coast as far as Cape Cod. 
Except in the far north it occurs in the intertidal 
zone and in some areas to depths of 200 meters. 

Amphiporus macracanthus Coe, 1905. This spe- 
cies is known only from the Arctic coast of 
Alaska, where it was collected as early as 1882 
near Cape Smyth and at a later date at Wain- 
wright Inlet (Coe, 1905). In the Point Barrow 
area it was found at depths of 38 to 53 meters and 
up to 4 miles from shore. 

Amphiporus pacificus Coe, 1905. Previously 
dredged at depths of 70 to 180 meters in the 
Bering Sea and off the coasts of Washington and 
California. Collected in the Point Barrow area at 
depths of 9 to 226 meters and up to 12 miles from 
shore. 

Tetrastemma aberrans Coe, 1901. Several speci- 
mens were dredged at depths of less than 40 
meters. Previously known only from the coast of 
Alaska. 


VoL. 42, No. 2 


Tetrastemma bicolor Coe, 1901. Previously 
known only from Kodiak Island, Alaska. One 
individual was dredged at a depth of 50 meters 
about 3 miles from Point Barrow. 

Tetrastemma candidum (Miller), 1774. Cireum- 
polar; Greenland; Norway to Madeira; South 
Africa; Labrador to southern New England and 
southward to northern Florida; northern coast of 
the Gulf of Mexico; Alaska to California and north- 
ern Mexico. In the Point Barrow area the species 
was found at depths of 34 to 145 meters and up 
to 16 miles from shore. 

Tetrastemma coronatum (Quatrefages), 1846. 
The collection from the Poimt Barrow area was 
accompanied by a colored photograph of an indi- 
vidual of this species that had been dredged at a 
depth of 50 meters, about 3 miles from shore. 
Common on European coasts and the Mediter- 
ranean. Reported also in Japan (Yamaoka, 1940). 

All the specimens in this collection are in the 
U.S. National Museum. 


REFERENCES 


Bircer, Orro. Beitrdge zur Anatomie, Systematik 
und geographische Verbreitung der Nemertinen. 
Zeitschr. wiss. Zool. 61: 16-37. 1895. 

———. Die Nemertinen. Fauna Arctica 3: 57-64. 
1903. 

Cor, W. R. Nemerteans of the west and northwest 
coasts of America. Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool. 47: 
1-319. 1905. 

Revision of the nemertean fauna of the 

Pacific coasts of North, Central and northern 

South America. Allan Hancock Pacific Exped. 

2: 247-323. 1940. 

Biology of the nemerteans of the Atlantic 

coast of North America. Trans. Connecticut 

Acad. Arts and Sei. 35: 129-328. 1943. 

Nemerteans from the northwest coast of 

Greenland and other Arctic seas. Journ. Wash- 

ington Acad. Sci. 34: 59-61. 1944. 

Nemerteans from Antarctica and the Ant- 

arctic Ocean. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 

40: 56-59. 1950. 

Geographical distribution of the nemerteans 
of the northern coast of the Gulf of Mexico 
as compared with those of the southern coast of 
Florida, with descriptions of three new species. 
Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 41: 328-331 
1951. 

Punnett, R. C. Arctic nemerteans. Proc. Zool. 
Soc. London 1901: 90-107. 1901. 

Uscoakow, P. Beschreibung einiger neuen 
Nemertinenarten von Barents-Meere, Weissen 
Meere und Nowaja-Semlja. Zool. Jahrb. 54: 
407-424. 1928. 

YamAoKA, Tr1icat. The faunaof Akkeshi Bay, 1X 
Nemertini. Journ. Fac. Sci. Hokkaido Imp. 
Univ. (ser. v1, Zool.) 7: 205-263. 1940. 


NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY 


There follows a list of persons elected to 
membership in the Academy, by vote of its 
Board of Managers, since March 1, 1950, who 
have since qualified as members in accordance 
with the bylaws. The bases for election are stated 
with the names of the new members. 


RESIDENT 
Elected March 20, 1950 
GeorGE 8. Switzer, associate curator of min- 


eralogy and petrology, U. 8. National Museum, 
in recognition of his studies of systematic min- 


eralogy. 
Elected April 17, 1950 


Herpert LeaperMan, physicist, rubber sec- 
tion, National Bureau of Standards, in recogni- 
tion of his work on the physics of high polymers 
and in particular his contributions to rheology as 
exemplified by research on the creep and flow of 
rubbers and fibers. 


Elected May 15, 1950 


J. M. Amprrson, commander, Medical Corps 
Reserve, USNR, chief of tropical medicine, Naval 
Medical School, in recognition of his studies of 
tropical diseases, especially cholera and schisto- 
somiasis, and for his leadership in field surveys to 
probe into the epidemiology of these diseases and 
improved methods for their control. 

Rosert G. BRECKENRIDGE, physicist, National 
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con- 
tributions to chemical physics and in particular 
his work on the electrical properties of solids. 

Lioyp A. Burkey, bacteriologist, Bureau of 
Dairy Industry, in recognition of his studies on 
the pectin-fermenting bacteria, his contributions 
on the bacteriology of Swiss cheese and on cul- 
tured milks, and his contributions in bacteri- 
ological studies on the detection, diagnosis, and 
causes of bovine mastitis. 

Wixtiiam D. Fieup, associate curator of in- 
sects, U. S. National Museum, in recognition of 
his taxonomic and distributional studies of the 
Lepidoptera, the butterflies and larger moths in 
particular. 

Ropert Travus, major, U. 8. Army, chief, 
department of parasitology, Army Medical 
Center, in recognition of outstanding contribu- 
tions to the systematics of fleas and to the 
epidemiology of scrub typhus. 


Elected October 30, 1950 
B. M. Axitrop, physicist, National Bureau of 


9 


Standards, in recognition of his contributions to 
knowledge of the mechanical properties of plastics 
and of cohesive forces in crystals of the rare gases. 
hh. W. Cannon, assistant chief, applied mathe- 
matics division, National Bureau of Standards, in 
recognition of his contributions to the develop- 
ment of high-speed automatic computing ma- 
chinery, and to the establishment of a strong 
federal program in applied mathematics. 

Harotp E. Cunaves, chief, chemical metal- 
lurgy section, National Bureau of Standards, in 
recognition of his contributions in the field of 
physical metallurgy, particularly in the prepara- 
tion and determination of the properties of the 
purest iron ever prepared. 

Irvine A. Denison, chief, underground cor- 
rosion section, National Bureau of Standards, in 
recognition of his contributions to theory of 
corrosion and corrosion prevention in soils and 
measurement of the corrosion of metals in soils. 

Tuomas G. Diaars, chief, thermal metallurgy 
section, National Bureau of Standards, in recog- 
nition of his contributions to metallurgy, in 
particular his studies of machinability, harden- 
ability, and creep. 

GrorGe A. ELLINGER, chief, optical metallurgy 
section, National Bureau of Standards, in recog- 
nition of his work in the field of metallurgy, 
particularly in metallography and corrosion. 

Haru K. Fiscuer, chief, organic coatings sec- 
tion, National Bureau of Standards, in recogni- 
tion of his contributions to rheology and colloid 
chemistry. 

AupHonsEe F. Forzratt, research associate of 
the American Dental Association at the National 
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his contri- 
butions to physical chemistry, in particular his 
studies of the purification and properties of 
petroleum hydrocarbons. 

THoMAs WALLER GerorRGE, head, armor 
materials section, Naval Research Laboratory, in 
recognition of his studies of the mechanical 
strength of solids, in particular the relation be- 
tween strain rate and strength. 

Wayne C. Hatt, superintendent, electricity 
division, Naval Research Laboratory, in recogni- 
tion of his work on electrostatic charging of ai- 
craft and on thermal conductivity. 

Homer D. Hoturr, general physical scientist, 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of 
his contributions to the theory of corrosion and his 
applications of electrical theory to corrosion and 
corrosion prevention. 


60 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Donatp Hupparp, chemist, glass section, 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of 
his contributions to physical chemistry and in 
particular his studies of photographic emulsions 
and the relation between chemical durability and 
pH response of glass electrodes. 

Perer Kine, branch head, chemistry division, 
Naval Research Laboratory, in recognition of his 
contributions to chemistry and opties, in particu- 
lar his studies of low-reflecting coatings. 

Lutuer B. Lockuarr, Jr., research chemist, 
Naval Research Laboratory, in recognition of his 
work on separation of the constituents of 
petroleum and pilot plant work on extraction of 
alumina from clay. 

Howarp F. McMvurpir, chief, constitution 
and microstructure section, National Bureau of 
Standards, in recognition of his work in applied 
crystallography and phase studies in inorganic 
chemistry, especially as regards portland cement, 
ceramics, and dry cells. 

W. T. Reap, chemical adviser, general staff, 
G-4, U. 8. Army, in recognition of his contri- 
butions to organic chemistry, particularly the 
chemistry of hydrazines and hydantoins, to edu- 
cation in chemical engineering, and to the history 
of chemistry. 

JoHN A. SANDERSON, superintendent, optics 
division, Naval Research Laboratory, in recog- 
nition of his contributions to optics, particularly 
his researches in the infrared. 

A. L. SHanowrrz, chief, research, review, and 
technical information section, U. 5. Coast and 
Geodetic Survey, and special assistant to the 
director, in recognition of his research work in the 
field of nautical cartography and in the stand- 
ardization of practices relating to hydrographic 
surveying, particularly in the matter of inter- 
pretation of charts and surveys for scientific and 
legal purposes. 

James L. THomas, chief, resistance measure- 
ments section, National Bureau of Standards, in 
recognition of his contributions to physics and 
in particular to precise electrical measurements. 

Leroy W. Titton, physicist, optical instru- 
ments section, National Bureau of Standards, in 
recognition of his contributions to physics, par- 
ticularly in the field of refractometry. 

Herpert C. Vacuer, X-ray metallographist, 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of 
his researches on gases in metals, physical chem- 
istry of steel making, and plastic deformation of 
metals. 

SAMUEL G. WeIssBERG, physicist, organic plas- 


VoL. 42, No. 2 


tics section, National Bureau of Standards, in 
recognition of his work on the properties of high 
polymers in solution and his contributions to our 
knowledge of the properties of building materials 
and aircraft finishes. 


Elected November 20, 1950 


B. D. Burks, entomologist, Bureau of En- 
tomology and Plant Quarantine, in recognition of 
his contributions to the classification and biology 
of insects, especially his studies in the taxonomy 
of parasitic wasps and of mayflies. 

Frank R. CALpWELL, physicist, combustion 
section, National Bureau of Standards, in recog- 
nition of his contributions in the field of com- 
bustion, particularly as applied in gas turbines 
and jet engines. 

Anprew I. Dau, physicist in charge of gas 
temperature measurements, National Bureau of 
Standards, in recognition of the development of 
thermocouple pyrometers for use in gas turbines 
and jet engines. 

Mitprep A. Doss, zoologist, zoological di- 
vision, Bureau of Animal Industry, in recognition 
of her servies to the science of parasitology 
through the maintenance of the Index Catalogue 
of Medical and Veterinary Zoology, which pro- 
vides a working tool of inestimable value to para- 
sitologists the world over. 

U. Fano, physicist, National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, in recognition of his contributions to theoret- 
ical nuclear physics, in particular his studies 
on the penetration of radiation through barriers. 

Marion M. Farr, parasitologist, zoological 
division, Bureau of Animal Industry, in recog- 
nition of her work on the Protozoa and protozoan 
diseases on poultry. 

MarsuHati C. Garpner, biologist, U. 8. Fish 
and Wildlife Service, in recognition of his re- 
search in mammalogy, and in particular his re- 
searches on the taxonomy of the mammalian 
genera Sigmodon and Lynx. 

Derror C. GInnrINGs, chemist in charge of high- 
temperature calorimetry, National Bureau of 
Standards, in recognition of his contributions to 
-alorimetry, and in particular of the development 
of the ice calorimeter and its application to 
accurate measurements of heat capacities at high 
temperatures. 

Frank L. Howarp, acting chief, engine fuels 
section, National Bureau of Standards, in recog- 
nition of his contributions to the synthesis of 
hydrocarbons of high purity, particularly those of 
interest in internal combustion engines. 


FEeBRuARY 1952 


Kk. C. Kares, parasitologist, zoological di- 
vision, Bureau of Animal Industry, in recognition 
of his contributions to the knowledge of par- 
asites and parasitic diseases of swine and sheep. 

H. Wituram Kocu, chief, betatron section, 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of 
his contributions to nuclear physics, in particular 
to betatron applications, and his studies of the 
interactions of high energy gamma rays with 
matter. 

S. A. McKus, chief, engines and lubrication 
section, National Bureau of Standards, in recog- 
nition of his contributions in the field of lubrica- 
tion and wear. 

Russetut B. Scorr, chief, cryogenic section, 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of 
his contributions to cryogenic research, particu- 
larly his calorimetric investigations at low tem- 
peratures. 

Doys A. SHors, parasitologist, Bureau of 
Animal Industry, in recognition of his extensive 
investigations of parasites and parasitic diseases 
of livestock. 

Mary S. SHors, research professor, depart- 
ment of poultry husbandry, University of Mary- 
land, in recognition of her contributions to the 
science of nutrition, especially the development 
of methods of assay for vitamin B-12 and related 
investigations. 

Bancrorr W. Sirreryy, professor of mathe- 
matics and associate dean, American University, 
in recognition of his contributions to astronomy, 
and in particular investigations on eclipsing bi- 
nary stars, stellar magnitudes, and stellar paral- 
laxes; also studies in the theory of hyperbolic 
systems of radio navigation, in particular the 
Loran system. 

CHarLoTte M. Sirrerty, physicist, spectros- 
copy section, National Bureau of Standards, in 
recognition of her contributions to astrophysics, 
in particular researches on the solar and sun spot 
spectra, and contributions to the study of atomic 
spectra and tables of atomic energy levels. 

Joun Topp, chief, computation laboratory, 
National Bureau of Standards, in recognition of 
his contribution to numerical analysis in particu- 
lar, and to mathematics in general. 

GrorGe B. Voart, entomologist, Bureau of 
Entomology and Plant Quarantine, in recognition 
of his original and unusually searching work in 
insect biology and taxonomy, especially that deal- 
ing with Texan woodboring beetles. 

KATHARINE Way, physicist, National Bureau 
of Standards, in recognition of her contributions 


PROCEEDINGS: 


THE ACADEMY 61 
to nuclear physics, in particular her work on 
binding energies and fission products. 

Harowp O. Wyckorr, chief, X-ray section, Na- 
tional Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his 
contributions to radiation physics and in particu- 
lar his researches on the protection requirements 
for electromagnetic radiations. 


Elected January 16, 1951 


Francis A. ARNOLD, JR., associate director, 
National Institute of Dental Research, National 
Institutes of Health, in recognition of his contri- 
butions to dental research, and in particular his 
contributions to the epidemiology of dental caries 
with particular reference to the role of naturally 
occurring fluorine in water supplies. 

ALFRED EK. Brown, assistant director, Harris 
Research Laboratories, in recognition of his work 
on the chemical modification of proteins, and in 
particular his researches on modification of wool 
and other fibrous proteins. 

Lyman Fourt, research associate, Harris Re- 
search Laboratories, in recognition of his work 
in the testing of textiles and in their evaluation 
for clothing. 

A. R. Guaseow, Jr., chemist, National Bureau 
of Standards, in recognition of his studies in the 
separation, purification, and analysis of petroleum 
hydrocarbons. 

Epwarp G. Hampep, research associate, Na- 
tional Institutes of Health, in recognition of his 
fundamental contributions to knowledge of dis- 
eases of the oral cavity, and in particular his 
studies on oral spirochetes and the isolation of 
Borrelia vincent in pure culture. 

Harry JosepH Krecan, physicist, Newromel 
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con- 
tributions to optics, in particular his work 
spectrophotometry and its application to the 
specification of color. 

L. Rouanp Kuan, lieutenant colonel, chief, 
department of bacteriology, Army Medical De- 
partment Research and Graduate School, in ree- 
ognition of his contributions to microbiology 
in particular his outstanding studies on Crypto- 
coccus hominis. 

Louise H. Marswatu, physiologist, National 
Institute of Arthritis and Metabolic 
National Institutes of Health, in recognition of 
her contributions to high-altitude physiology, 
particularly in respiration and renal hemody- 
namics. 

Wapb H. MarsHatn, research fellow, National 
Institutes of Health, in recognition of his con- 


Diseases, 


62 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


tributions to physiology, in particular his studies 
of the central nervous system, sensory areas, 
and pathways of the brain. 

F. J. McCuure, biochemist, National Insti- 
tutes of Health, in recognition of his studies of 
the physiological effects of fluorine, particularly 
of the relation of fluoride to dental caries. 

AntHony M. ScHwartTz, manager, industrial 
chemicals division, Harris Research Laboratories, 
in recognition of his work on the preparation and 
utilization of surface-active agents, and the 
theory of their action. 

Witur W. Smiru, physiologist, National In- 
stitutes of Health, in recognition of her contribu- 
tions in physiology, particularly concerning renal 
function and radiation biology. 

JoEL WARREN, chief, division of virus research 
and biophysics, Army Medical Service Graduate 
School, in recognition of his contributions to virus 
diseases, and in particular his researches on 
epidemic encephalitis and encephalomyocarditis. 


Elected February 12, 1951 


H. Herserr Hower, mathematician, U. S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, in recognition of his 
outstanding contributions to the theory of geo- 
magnetism and numerous publications of mag- 
netic data. 

Davin G. Knapp, mathematician, U. 3. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, in recognition of his 
charting of geomagnetic data and the library 
classification of research data, especially in geo- 
magnetism, magnetism, geoelectricity, and seis- 
mology. 

M. LinpeMAN Puiuies, physicist, National 
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of her in- 
vestigations in terrestrial magnetism and _ at- 
mospheric electricity, and her studies of in- 
candescent solids. 

RavpuH Srair, physicist, National Bureau of 
Standards, in recognition of his work in radiom- 
etry, in particular the measurment of atmos- 
pheric ozone and the intensity and ultraviolet 
spectral distribution of the radiant energy from 
the sun. 


Elected April 16, 1951 


Tuomas J. Hicxury, electrical engineer, U. S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, in recognition of 
his contribution to cartography through research 
and development of electronic hydrographic sur- 
veying equipment, particularly the electronic 
position indicator. 

Rosertr W. LevukeEt, plant pathologist, Bureau 


vot. 42, No. 2 


of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engi- 
neering, in recognition of his outstanding con- 
tributions to plant pathology, especially with 
respect to seed treatments of cereals and the 
identification of the organism causing the Milo 
disease. 


Elected May 14, 1951 


Haic Derman, cytologist, Bureau of Plant 
Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, 
in recognition of his outstanding researches on 
the cytology of plant hybrids and chimeras. 

Monroe E. FREEMAN, chief, department of 
biochemistry, Army Medical Center, in recogni- 
tion of his services as a teacher of chemistry and 
his research contributions in biochemistry. 

RicHarD Tousey, head, micron waves branch, 
optics division, Naval Research Laboratory, in 
recognition of his work on solar spectroscopy from 
rockets, and spectroscopy in the vacuum ultra- 
violet region. 


Elected June 18, 1951 


Lours E. Barsrow, electrical engineer, Na- 
tional Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his 
contributions to photometry and lighting, and 
in particular to the development of federal and 
ASA standards and specifications for lamp and 
electrical supplies, for his establishment of new 
luminous flux values for mercury lamps, and for 
his effective furtherance, as secretary of the U.S. 
National Committee of the International Com- 
mission on Illumination, of international stand- 
ards and practice in the field of lighting. 

Howarp 8. Bran, chief, capacity, density, 
and fluid meters section, National Bureau of 
Standards, in recognition of his work in 
metrology, especially his researches in the meas- 
urement of fluids, especially gases, with orifice 
meters. 

Rocer W. Curtis, prysicist, ordnance de- 
velopment division, National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, in recognition of his contributions and work 
in absolute measurement of electrical current, 
ultrasonic absorption in gases, electronics. 

Fiorence Hooppr Forziati, chemist, Na- 
tional Bureau of Standards, in recognition of her 
contributions to carbohydrate chemistry, and in 
particular her researches on the chemistry of 
cellulose. 

Wess E. Haymaxker, chief, neuropathology, 
Armed Forces Institute of Pathology, in recog- 
nition of his contributions to experimental neuro- 
pathology. 


Frepruary 1952 


JosEPH VINCENT KarasiINos, chemist, Na- 
tional Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his 
contributions to organic chemistry, particularly 
on heparin, on reductive desulfurization, aromatic 
hydrocarbons, and the isolation of substances 
from natural sources. 

BengaMin L. Pace, physicist, National Bu- 
reau of Standards, in recognition of his work 
in metrology, especially in length and angle 
measurements. 

JoHn Tuomas Prestry, plant pathologist, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural 
Engineering, in recognition of his work on the 
diseases of cotton, in particular his researches 
on the root rot of cotton and the breeding of 
disease-resistant varieties. 

Rospert FRANcIs REITEMEIER, soil-scientist, 
Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural 
Engineering, in recognition of his contributions 
to soil science, in particular his researches on 
metaphosphates, soil colloids, semimicroanalysis, 
and soil fertility. 

Maurice M. SuHaprro, head, heavy particle 
physies branch, nucleonics division, Naval Re- 
search Laboratory, in recognition of his work in 
cosmic rays and in nuclear and pile physics. 

Kart Souuner, chief biochemist, National 
Institutes of Health, in recognition of his ex- 
tensive research into theory and experimental 
practice in the fields of physical chemistry of 
colloids as related to membranes, permeability, 
ultrasonics and osmosis; thixotropy; sols and 
gels; emulsions; and physical biochemistry. 

Ray PaumMer THELE, Jr., physicist, National 
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con- 
tributions to photometry and lighting, and in 
particular the development of the physical pho- 
tometer, the photometry of phosphorescent ma- 
terials, and his contributions to international 
agreement on photometric standards. 

Horace Maynarp Trent, head, applied 
mathematics branch, Naval Research Labora- 
tory, in recognition of his work in electrome- 
chanical analogies and in mathematical theories 
of mechanics. 


NONRESIDENT 
Elected May 15, 1950 
Harry D. Pratt, scientist, U.S. Public Health 
Service, Atlanta, Ga., in recognition of his taxo- 
nomic studies of insects of economic importance, 


especially the parasitic Hymenoptera and the 
disease-carrying Diptera. 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 63 


Elected November 20, 1950 

Witiarp H. Bennett, physics department, 
University of Arkansas, in recognition of his 
studies of negative ions in electrical discharges 
and gases. 

CoLIn CAMPBELL SANBORN, curator of mam- 
mals, Chicago Natural History Museum, in rec- 
ognition of his contributions to systematic mam- 
malogy, particularly the classification of the 
Chiroptera and faunal studies in South America. 

Ciaupr E. ScHAEFFER, curator, Museum of 
the Plains Indian, Browning, Mont., in recogni- 
tion of his contributions to the ethnography of 
the American Northwest and to the organization 
of scientific archeology in Pennsylvania. 


Elected December 18, 1950 


Harotp J. Hoge, physical division, research 
department, Leeds Northrup Co., Philadelphia, 
Pa., in recognition of his contributions to 
thermometry, particularly in the range below the 
boiling point of oxygen. 


Elected January 16, 1951 


E. Raymonp Hatt, director, Museum of Nat- 
ural History, University of Kansas, Lawrence, 
Kans., in recognition of his contributions to 
the systematic study of recent and fossil mam- 
mals, especially with regard to the fauna of 
western North America and to the mustelid 
carnivores. 

Rogsert Rauvscu, parasitologist in charge, ani- 
mal-borne disease section, Arctic Health Re- 
search Center, U. $8. Public Health Service, 
Anchorage, Alaska, in recognition of his studies 
of host-parasite ecology, in particular the hel- 
minth parasites in wildlife and the relation of 
these diseases to public health. 

S. F. SnieszKo, director, microbiological lab- 
oratory, U. 8. Fish and Wildlife Service, Kear- 
neysville, W. Va., in recognition of his contribu- 
tions to plant and fish diseases and in particular 
his studies of bacteria which cause fish diseases. 


Elected April 16, 1951 


Haru 8. BeLore, mathematician, U. 8. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey, New York City, in recog- 
nition of his contribution to geodesy through 
research and development in the methods of 
adjusting the observational data from triangula- 
tion and traverse measurements. 


Elected May 14, 1951 


Brrpsauu N. Carue, pathologist, U.S. Marine 
Hospital, New Orleans, La., in recognition of his 


64 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


research in infectious diseases, particularly in 
the field of brucellosis. 

GeorGE A. Luano, research specialist, Head- 
quarters Air University, U. 8. Air Force, in 


voL. 42, No. 2 


recognition of his contributions to the taxonomy 
and ecology of lichens and in particular his re- 
cent studies of the relation of these plants to 
arctic conditions. 


@bituartes 


Owen Berr FRENCH, geodesist, died at his 
home, Lakewood, Ohio, on February 1, 1951, 
ending a long, useful, and colorful career. He 
was born near Cleveland, Ohio, on December 17, 
1865, the son of Marshall and Melissa A. French. 
He received a B.S. degree in 1888 and a C.E. 
degree in 1905, both at the Case School of Applied 
Science. On May 27, 1907, he married Marie 
Wilhelmine Schott, of Washington, D. C. 

In 1889 Mr. French joined the U. S. Coast 
and Geodetic Survey, which he served until 1915. 
His work carried him throughout the United 
States as well as Alaska and Hawaii. His duties 
were many and varied and included topographic, 
hydrographic, magnetic, and astronomic surveys; 
on the last he became an authority. In 1894 he 
was in charge of scientific work on Walter Well- 
man’s first polar trip. Early in the century he was 
engaged on astronomic work along the boundary 
between Alaska and British Columbia, in 1906 
on triangulation and base measurements, as well 
as astronomic surveys along the United States- 
Canadian Boundary. He made the first investiga- 
tion of invar (nickel steel) tapes for use in the 
measurement of base lines, proving them to be 
far superior to steel tapes for this purpose. 

Mr. French retired from the Coast and Geo- 
detic Survey in 1915 and practiced as a consulting 
geodesist in 1916-17. In 1918-19 he was a pro- 
fessor of geodesy and astronomy at the Institute 
of Military Surveying, Peking, China, where he 
was awarded the Wheat decoration. From 1920 to 
1933 he was professor of surveying and astronomy 
at George Washington University, after which he 
continued his practice as a consulting geodesist. 

Thorough and painstaking in all his work, Mr. 
French became well known at home and abroad 
as one of the leading practical geodesists of his 
time. He was author of many reports and papers, 
among which are Jnvar tapes on the measurement 
of six primary base lines and Report on the Scheimp- 
flug method of aerial photography, and co-author 
of Determination of the difference in longitude 
between each two of the stations Washington, Cam- 
bridge, and Far Rockaway. He also wrote a large 
portion of Gillespie’s Higher surveying. 

Mr. French had been a member of the Ameri- 
can Society for the Advancement of Science, 
American Society of Civil Engineers, Washington 


Society of Engineers, Washington Academy of 
Sciences, Washington Board of Trade, American 
Association of College Professors, Philosophical 
Society of Washington, American Geophysical 
Union, and the Cosmos Club. 


Baru K. FiscHer, who died on August 3, 1951, 
had served as chiet of the organic coatings section 
of the National Bureau of Standards for slightly 
less than a year prior to his death. His previous 
assignment had been as consultant to several 
divisions of the Bureau on problems in the field 
of rheology. Before coming to the Bureau in 1949, 
Dr. Fischer was head of the physical chemistry 
division of the Institute of Textile Technology 
at Charlottesville, Va. From 1933 to 1945 he was 
a physical chemist with the Interchemical Cor- 
poration. During the early part of this period he 
was with the United Color and Pigment Co., a 
subsidiary of the Interchemical Corporation; he 
later transferred to the central research labora- 
tories and was head of Interchemical’s physical- 
chemistry laboratory from 1939 to 1945.- 

He was bornin Milwaukee, Wis., on November 
21, 1995. He received a B.A. degree in 1927 and 
an M.A.in 1928 from the University of South- 
ern California and the Ph.D. in 1931 from the 
University of Wisconsin. He held a Stieglitz 
fellowship in physical chemistry at the Univer- 
sity of Chicago for three years. 

Dr. Fischer was the author of a recently pub- 
lished book, Colloidal dispersions, and many tech- 
nical papers that reflect his extensive investiga- 
tions in the fields of surface chemistry, rheology, 
pigment technology, and the special instruments 
and techniques he developed in the course of these 
studies. He was a member of the American 
Chemical Society, a Fellow of the American 
Association for the Advancement of Science, and 
from 1947 to 1949 he was the Secretary of the 
Society of Rheology. He was also a member of 
the American Institute of Physics, Textile Re- 
search Institute, Fiber Society, New York Acad- 
emy of Sciences, Washington Academy of 
Sciences, Virginia Academy of Science, Society 
of Motion Picture Engineers, American Associa- 
tion of Textile Chemists and Colorists, Sigma Xi, 
Phi Beta Kappa, Phi Lambda Upsilon, and the 
New York Chemists’ Club. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


PROSITE TE ies Ba sid Geet pee Err ecn ae Wa.tteR RamBere, National Bureau of Standards 
PARENT LEN CLECL SP TE Eo Sette ea nae F. M. Serzizr, U. S. National Museum 
SOGGET TAU Bia tecitne Scien eee an eae te F. M. Deranvorr, National Bureau of Standards 
PR CULSULT. CT Nara te nce Ne ages: Howarp 8. Rappers, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
AURGINTIOOES cle See re are STERIC Oe eRe Eee Joun A. SteEvEenSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Harrap A. Renper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophicalisociety of Washingtontess a. cs osssscdeds cae sees A. G. McNisa 
Anthropological Society of Washington........................ Wawpo R. WEDEL 
Broloricals Society of Washimetons sce ssneceecce esse ee ds cose Hues T. O’ NEILL 
Chemical Society of Washington oe RM oANi ae Leta cel Uliana ce peed Joun K. TaYLor 
Hatomological Society of Washington.:..:................... FREDERICK W. Poos 
National Geographic SOCIE bye ee er ere rants k Wee ene aie ae ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geolozical Society of Washington. 3.025.220... 0552-5. .02. 40-4 ss A. NELSON SAYRE 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia........................ FRED O. Cor 
Columbia; HistoricallSocietyees.).. 2 ose ss aseoce esc cones. GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Hotanicalasociety, of Washinetontesraes+ sates se) es i). e ss aes: Lest M. Houtcuins 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Witiram A. Dayton 
Washington Society’ OME mn IMNCErsi serie een a eits ue cmesmeesca, Cuirrorp A. Brrts 
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp S. D1iLu 
Helminthological Society of Washington.......................... L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Anaus M. GRIFFIN 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers........... Herpert G. Dorsty 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 


plovdaniaryelG5S ye cs Seeks dace s fag C. F. W. Munsesecx, A. T. McPHerson 
Tha darren dt ye2 ie sree Seeker tne hee ee anon Sara EH. BranHoam, Mitton Harris 
MIR OMA UTA O SD etic sace eed a eeithees slsiatereceveistnie exteiss Rocer G. Batss, W. W. Dieu 
SG OMORO I VUGIGGETS v6.20 eens eee Sinn see oe All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Bodom aitorsiand -A'ssociate Hdvtors: ...5. 0425. o ene cees cece ae [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....WALTER RAMBERG (chairman), F. M. Serzuer, H.S.RapPLere, 
Wiuuram A. Dayton, F. M. Derannvorr 
Committee on Membership. ...E. H. WaLkmR (chairman), M. 8. Anpmerson, R. C. Dun- 
can, G. T. Faust, I. B. Hansen, D. B. Jones, Dorotuy Nickerson, F. A. Smita, 
Heinz Specut, H. M, Trent, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings....H. W. Wes (chairman), Wm. R. Camppeti, W. R. Cuap- 
LINE, D. J. Davis, H. G. Dorsry, O. W. Torreson 

Committee on Monographs (W. N. FENTON, chairman): 


ROMAN rg O Dre meer Melo Acvere ean homme roan « R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 
pltomedetrate crave 9 Faves eye Re te eis I ee eae Bil S. F. Buaxs, F. C. Kracex 

‘Sh@. Uenrnnrrcyye SOT ee aie uate ee Ree meee re NE ecea re ae a W.N. Fenton, ALAN STONE 

Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (J. R. SWALLEN, general chairman): 

For Biological Sciences.......... J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), MarGarEt PITTMAN, 

F. Poos, L. P. ScHutrz 

For Engineering Sctences............. R. C. Duncan (chairman), A. C. FIELDNER, 
Wayne C. Hat, J. W. McBurney, O. 8S. Reapine, H. L. WHITTEMORE 

OTMEDVUSUCHUS CLETECES earn cso ely ceehe eo ee aroha IL. A. Woop (chairman), 


F.S. Dart, Grorce W. Irvine, Jr., J. H. McMILuENn 
For Teaching of Science...... M.A. Mason (chairman), F. E. Fox, M. H. Martin 


Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research....... L. E. Yocum (chairman), H. N. Eaton, 
K. F. Herzreup 


Committee on Policy and Planning: 


orvanmanyalOosne eer wosn ccneies sors W. A. Dayton (chairman), N. R. Smiru 

PROP ATU AT AO Da es aia tte ee eat misuse dialons ite. H. B. Couurns, Jr., W. W. RuBey 

ORM ATTa Ty OD OME ee cnee tam TO eae cea b in lume Mnioelc L. W. Parr, F. B. SitsBEE 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPuerson, chairman): 

PEon at UaT yal Ob se ete wea ees a Teles ca eicuarere omnes A. H. Cuarx, F. L. Monuer 

MovJamuamyalO a4. sete se. cesrare a ivscta solsianelevess slaustiee ahs J. M. Caupwe tu, W. L. Scumirr 

Mou amie OOO 5. cocks a seetenne eA tates «teres ai ua deninress A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap 
RODS MAOIE O18 COOKE, OF ALs Ale Als Soo son nncencdcoassbecsncGuacdunas F, M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... C. L. Gazin (chairman), Louise M. Russetu, D. R. Tats 


Committee of Tellers. ..GnORGE P. Watton (chairman), Guorcs H. Coons, C.L. GARNER 


CONTENTS 


Puysics.—Preliminary report: Nonlinear absorption and dispersion of 
plane ultrasonic waves in pure fluids. C. TRUESDELL............ 


MIneRALOGY.—The nature of rock phosphates, teeth, and bones. Dun- 
CAN: (MGCONNBEE oot ots ow haces o See 


Botany.—Notes on some families of Formosan phanerogams. Hv1-Lin 
Taras ie ee, ee ae Re os ont, A 


EntTomoLtocy.—New species of Sarcophagini (Diptera: Sarcophagidae). 
SELWYN St HROBACK. 2.05.05 .4 2.0 coset noiey et... 


EntomoLocy.—A new genus of Bruchidae affecting Hibiscus in Argentina, 
(Bruchinae: Acanthoscelidini). J.C. BRIDWELL................. 


HerrrretoLtocy.—Two Brazilian frogs: Hyla werneri, n. nom., and Hyla 
sumlissnasp: Doris .M. CocHRan...:..........5.. -- eee 


HrLMiIntHoLocy.—H ymenolepis johnsoni, n. sp., a cestode from the vole 
Microtus pennsylvanicus drummondii. Evrrett L. SCHILLER...... 


Zootocy.—Geographical distribution of the species of nemerteans of the 
Arctic Ocean near Point Barrow, Alaska. Wustry R. Coz....... 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


Marcu 1952 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


No. 3 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 
Wiuuiam F. FosHaG 


U.8. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


J. P. E. Morrison 


U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
F, A. Cuace, JR. Miriam L. Bomuarp 
BIOLOGY BOTANY 
J. I. HorrMan R. K. Coox 
CHEMISTRY PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 
T. P. THAYER 


Puitip DRUCKER 
GEOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY 
C. W. SABROSKY 
ENTOMOLOGY 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 
BY THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
| Mount Roya & GUILFORD AVEs. 


BALTIMORE, MARYLAND 


Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912,at Baltimore, Md. 
Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925 
Authorized February 17, 1949 


Joun C. EwErs 


U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


This JouRNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: 
(1) Short original papers, written or communicated by members of the Academy; (2) 
proceedings and programs of meetings of the Academy and affiliated societies; (3) 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 42 


March 1952 


No. 3 


ANTHROPOLOGY.—Some applications of physical anthropology. Ropmrr M. 


WHITE, Quartermaster Climatic Research Laboratory, 


(Communicated by T. D. Stewart.) 


Just as some cultural and social anthro- 
pologists have adapted their particular fields 
to contemporary problems, so have some 
physical anthropologists drawn from their 
techniques and developed methods by which 
many problems of every-day living which 
involve dimensions of the human being may 
be subjected to scientific analysis and solved 
in an objective manner. Although the prob- 
lems generally treated by fields of anthro- 
pology other than physical are more subtle 
and abstract in nature, their very subtlety 
and abstractness have presented challenges 
that have enabled professional anthro- 
pologists to engage in direct approaches to 
them, since they present fields of investiga- 
tion in which no other people are prepared to 
engage. On the other hand, the physical 
anthropologist encounters large numbers of 
“experts”? when he approaches any of the 
numerous problems he may solve or help to 
solve. 

In general, we, as people, have become so 
well acquainted with all the various imple- 
ments used by us physically that we suffer 
from the types of prejudices so well described 
by Gittler (1949). Clothing, furniture, auto- 
mobiles, all are familiar to us from our early 
childhood. We develop specific ideas about 
them, aided considerably by advertising 
claims. Consequently, when we develop tired 
backs, or we feel cramped, we believe we are 
in the best furniture or clothing that can be 


' Presented before the Anthropological Society 
of Washington, April 18, 1950. The opinions or as- 
sertions contained herein are the private ones of 
the writer as a physical anthropologist and are not 
to be construed as official or as necessarily reflect- 
ing the views of the Quartermaster Corps or the 
Department of the Army. 


65 


Lawrence, Mass. 


made and so we, as people are at fault. The 
dissenting opinion of the objective investi- 
gator, merely expressed as a viewpoint, 1m- 
mediately arouses our antagonism. ‘I paid 
$150 for this suit, so it is perfect.”’ ‘“This 
automobile cost $2,500, so it cannot be im- 
proved upon.” Such reactions should be 
familiar to all of us. Since these reactions are 
encountered among laymen, it is easy to 
imagine the attitudes or opinions expressed 
by designers of clothing and other items with 
which we come into physical association. 
Men who have made fortunes in the design- 
ing of clothing are hard to convince when we 
argue that they might improve upon their 
procedures. One of the greatest handicaps in 
reaching a mutual understanding with the 
designer or the engineer is the necessary use 
of statistical knowledge in explaining the 
problem. No one professional group attempts 
to use applied statistics more than does that 
engaged in clothing design and construction. 
Grading between sizes and sizes themselves 
are really applied statistics, but the use made 
of modern statistical concepts among that 
group is practically archaic. Although me- 
chanical design engineers have benefited 
from training in mathematics, little, if any, 
statistical method has been included. 

Since we, as people, are so well acquainted 
with all the various articles we wear or use 
every day, 1t comes somewhat as a shock to 
us to find that so little consideration has 
been given to us, as people, in the design of 
those articles. The common reaction ex- 
pressed by most persons who are at first 
confronted by the idea that all is not right 
with the world is one of perplexed question- 
ing. ““How have we gotten along so well, so 


66 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


far, if this situation actually exists?’? The 
answer is simple. The first chair was prob- 
ably a stone or a log. Trial and error soon 
indicated its deficiencies. A pad of animal 
skin or grass considerably alleviated the 
concentration of pressures on the ischial 
tuberosities. By further trial and error a 
back was added, and so we have now a 
product, called a chair, which has shown 
little evolution from its primitive ancestor. 
Sporadically, claims are made that some 
chairs are functional. Seldom is the function 
specified. Rarely is it directed at comfort, 
objectively specified in terms of the human 
occupant. Claims are often made, but the 
proof is seldom present. Coincident with this 
situation in furniture is that existing in 
clothing. Design and size are considered to 
be integral. They are, but seldom does size 
have a known and provable relation to 
human bodily dimensions. It is of little 
interest to the designers of clothing that I 
wear a “‘size 38 Regular” in this year’s style, 
and next year, even though my dimensions 
do not change, I wear a “‘size 40 Regular’’. 
The explanation is simple. I am a ‘38 
Regular” in this year’s style, and a ‘40 
Regular” in next year’s. Opposed to this 
type of free thinking is the plight of the 
retailer who stocks next year’s inventory on 
the basis of this year’s sales. The equalization 
occurs with a ‘‘stock reduction and clearance 
sale’. Fortunately for the poor retailer, the 
designer and his style usually stay within 
three sizes in their variation, so that the 
retailer can operate at 80-85 percent 
efficiency. 

All this should serve to orient us with the 
more direct aspects of the field into which 
physical anthropology has recently entered. 
Essentially, the scope lies almost within the 
range of engineering, whether it be termed 
as such, or whether it is such by method. In 
clothing, little has been accomplished which 
would warrant the term “engineering.” In 
what is more commonly accepted as an 
engineering field, furniture, automobiles, 
ete., equally negligible accomplishments 
have been attained with specific reference to 
human beings. Two factors explain this 
condition. The first, and fundamentally the 
most important, is the lack of statie and 
dynamic anthropometric data. Allied with 
this, although necessarily following it in 


VOL. 42, NO. 3 


demand, is the lack of statistical knowledge 
required to obtain proper application. The 
second, and of equal practical importance, 
is the universal attitude that the accommoda- 
tion of the human being is a factor in the 
general field of competition. Whole industries 
are willing to standardize sizes of fittings, 
such as rims of wheels on automobiles, in 
order to accommodate tires made by another 
industry, but the perfectly simple concept of 
standardization of accommodation for hu- 
man beings has not yet been accepted. The 
various commercial airlines are encountering 
a serious problem as a result of this type of 
situation. Pilot accommodations vary con- 
siderably among various aircraft (King, 
1948). Consequently, when the suggestion is 
made that savings in time and ‘money 
could be achieved by through-routing of 
aircraft over different lines, the pilots 
refuse, and wisely so, to accept responsibility 
of piloting aircraft that have cockpit 
arrangements differing markedly from those 
with which they are familiar. The armed 
services have been striving for the past five 
or six years to accomplish some form of 
cockpit standardization, and have made 
some progress, but the fulfillment of their 
efforts has yet to be realized in operational 
aircraft (Randall, 1946b). 

Therefore, when the physical anthro- 
pologist carefully measures large series of 
people, develops objective analyses, and 
proposes results to be introduced into the 
design of all types of personal equipment or 
of equipment which requires accommodation 
of the human being, only part of his work is 
done. Two parts remain. He must educate 
the designers in his way of thinking, and then 
he must collaborate with the designers in 
setting up experiments which will convert 
the anthropometric requirements into terms 
which will be familiar to them. 

The various needs for the objective con- 
sideration of bodily dimensions should be 
obvious, in part, to the casual observer. 
Beginning with clothing (Randall, 1946a), 
these needs extend to furniture, both for 
comfort and for function, automobiles, 
trains, aircraft, and even housing. From the 
viewpoint of the applied physical anthro- 
pologist a person ‘“‘wears” a house, in that 
he gains his greatest comfort and efficiency 
if the house “‘fits”” him. Tired backs at the 


Marcu 1952 WHITE: 
kitchen sink and the laundry tub can be 
just as painful as if they resulted from sitting 
in an inefficient chair. Bodily motions can be 
just as inefficient in a small room as they 
ean be in tight gloves or shoes (Callaghan 
and Palmer, 1944). The main objective, then, 
in applied physical anthropology is to attain 
the optimum “‘fit’”’ and thus the proper 
“size” for the human beings involved. 
Obviously, in most of the problems en- 
countered, 100 percent efficiency is not 
expected. The degree to which efficiency 
ean be obtained in any one item will be 
dependent upon its functional characteristics 
of ‘fit’? and also upon the degree of varia- 
bility of dimensions which it will be required 
to accommodate. A secondary factor which 
enters the picture is the economics involved. 
All these factors operate to produce a 
compromise which is considered optimum. 
For example, the kitchen sink is relatively 
tolerant of a considerable variation in 
stature, but not so much as to accommodate 
a range of 16 inches in stature commonly 
encountered among housewives. On the 
other hand, most housewives do not operate 
on a strict time and motion basis, even 
though it would be to their advantage to do 
so, if they could. Finally, building houses in 
various ‘“‘sizes’”’ in terms of wear by the 
housewife is not very economical. Therefore, 
a compromise between accommodation, 
efficiency, and cost is necessary. The com- 
mon compromise is a standard sink height, 
with the cost at a minimum and the ef- 
ficiency unknown. It would not seem 
unreasonable to consider another possible 
answer; a sink provided with a_height 
adjustment. Cost would rise somewhat, but 
range of accommodation and increase in 
efficiency would result. 

It is the goal of the investigator to provide 
information for the designer as to the 
requirements of accommodation. It is the 
goal of the designer to meet these require- 
ments. Finally, it is the objective of both 
to obtain the optimum compromise at the 
minimum cost. 

Thus, in the field of applied physical 
anthropology, the physical anthropologist 
occupies three successive positions. Initially, 
he is an anthropometrist in collecting the 
metric data. Secondly, he is a statistician in 


(SGc< 


preparing the ‘‘specifications” which describe 


APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 67 


the requirements. Finally, he is an applied 
physical anthropologist, analyzing the prob- 
lem of the designer insofar as it relates to 
human bodily dimensions, and in providing 
for the designer, in concrete practical terms 
understandable to the designer, the measure 
of fulfillment of the requirements by the 
designer. Many times this last role permits 
the anthropologist, through his analysis, to 
suggest revisions in the original design which 
will improve its efficiency materially and 
often reduce its cost. 

The part played by statistics in applied 
physical anthropology should not be under- 
rated. It is the essential tool for converting 
anthropometry to engineering terms. The 
use made of statistical method by designers 
is limited at best. More often than not the 
concept of variability is ignored. Further 
the concept of accommodation of an opti- 
mum percentage (e.g., 90 percent) of a 
population is usually only estimated. A 
common design criterion is the aceommoda- 
tion of the ‘‘average.’’ Two examples may 
serve to indicate how this is done. In the 
design of clothing, a new pattern is usually 
tested to prove its adequacy. This test is 
accomplished by construction of an 
“average” size, 36 or 38 Regular in men’s 
garments. Revision may be necessary, but 
the final opinion is based upon the adequacy 
demonstrated by this size of garment tried 
on “average” men. Following this test, 
there are certain rules which are followed 
to develop the other sizes. However, ex- 
perience has shown that these rules are 
only, at best, vaguely related to regressions 
which can be demonstrated by anthro- 
pometry and statistics. 

In automotive design, considerable use is 
made of profile manikins (Randall, 1949c). 
These are constructed as ‘‘average men,” 
complete with hat. If space is sufficient to 
accommodate this ‘“‘average’’ man, the 
design is considered satisfactory. But, con- 
sider for a moment. The ‘average’? man 
is about 69 inches tall and weighs about 
150 pounds. Stature ranges between 61 and 
77 inches, and weight between 110 and 250 
pounds. Further, and apparently totally 
ignored, at least 33 percent of our auto- 
mobiles are driven by women as well as by 
men. Women “average”? about 64.5 inches 
tall and 185 pounds in weight, ranging 


68 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


between 56.5 and 72.5 inches, and 90 to 200 
pounds. If the automobile is to accom- 
modate its drivers, the ‘‘average”’ man is too 
large to be “‘average”’ of drivers. Further, if 
the design is satisfactory for 90 per cent of 
its drivers, being adjustable for statures 
between about 61 and 70 inches, and weight 
between 110 and 210 pounds, it will certainly 
accommodate “‘average”’ drivers, and, conse- 
quently, the ‘‘average’”? manikin has only 
academic interest at best. 

Situations such as those described above 
have been encountered so universally that 
there is good reason to suspect that the field 
of applied physical anthropology has con- 
siderable room to grow. 

As of this writing at least three large and 
applicable series of anthropometric data 
have been accumulated in the United 
States. The first, on some 147,000 children 
(O’Brien and = Girshik, 1939; O’Brien, 
Girshik, and Hunt, 1941), and the second, 
on about 14,700 women (O’Brien and 
Shelton, 1941) were collected by the Bureau 
of Home Economics, United States Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. The third, on about 
135,000 Army men and 10,000 Army 
women represents a selected military popula- 
tion (Damon and Randall, 1944; Randall, 
1948b). Some applications of the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture series have been made 
(Lonie, 1948; Staples and DeLury, 1949). 
Much wider applications of the military 
series have been accomplished over the past 
seven years. Since the Department of the 
Army and the Department of the Air Force 
are in a position to include anthropometric 
findings in their specifications, wide and 
effective applications are possible. The 
results can be quickly demonstrated and 
assessed. It is hoped that demonstrated 
results of the use of applied physical anthro- 
pology in the armed services will serve as 
stimuli to other agencies to incorporate 
similar approaches in their activities. 

Frequently, such questions as ‘‘Why is the 
Army interested in physical anthropology?” 
or ‘“‘How is the Army using physical anthro- 
pology?” are asked by laymen and even 
physical anthropologists as well. It is 
intended here to summarize present Army 
research in physical anthropology and to in- 
dicate some of the methods currently in use. 


VOL. 42, NO. 3 


In some respects, it would seem that the 
use of physical anthropology by the military 
is a relatively new thing, at least in this 
country. The increasing use of applied. 
physical anthropology, which is perhaps a 
more accurate term, is a comparatively new 
development. However, it is interesting to 
note that a book by B. A. Gould was 
published by the U.S. Sanitary Commission 
in 1869, entitled /nvestigations in the military 
and anthropological statistics of American 
soldiers, while in 1875 two volumes by 
J. H. Baxter were issued by the Government 
Printing Office under the imposing title of 
Statistics, medical and anthropological, of the 
Provost-Marshall-General’s Bureau, derived 


from records of the examination for military 


service in the Armies of the United States 
during the late War of the Rebellion, of over a 
million recruits, drafted men, substitutes, and 
volunteers. 

The extensive work of Davenport and 
Love (1921) during and following the first 
World War is familiar to most physical 
anthropologists. Measurements were ob- 
tained on 1,000,000 recruits, and also on 
100,000 troops during demobilization. 
Although the emphasis was primarily sta- 
tistical and clinical, some applications of the 
anthropometric data to clothing problems 
were carried out. Medical and _ clinical 
studies were continued through the last war 
under the Surgeon-General’s Office, while the 
Selective Service System has issued several 
reports on medical statistics, dealing with 
such topics as physical examinations and 
causes for rejections of draftees. 

As early as 1942, research in applied 
physical anthropology was started by the 
Army Air Forces. This work was carried on 
throughout the war, with the center of 
activity at the Aero-Medical Laboratory, 
Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, and is being 
continued there. Several anthropometric 
surveys were carried out on flight personnel 
and the data obtained were used in con- 
nection with spatial requirements in aircraft 
and in the development of flight clothing 
and other types of personal equipment 
(Damon et al., 1944; Randall et al., 1946; 
Hertzberg, 1948). 

After several years, the Army Quarter- 
master Corps carried out an anthropometric 


Marca 1952 


survey in 1946. Approximately 96,000 Army 
separatees were processed at separation 
centers, while a small series of 8,500 
inductees was also obtained. A series of 
about 9,000 women, consisting of WAC 
personnel and Army nurses, was measured. 
In conjunction with the anthropometric 
survey, somatotype photographs of ap- 
proximately 50,000 men and 550 women 
were taken. This photographic material has 
been utilized by Hooton at Harvard Uni- 
versity in extensive studies of body builds 
occurring in the Army population. 

More recently, additional data have been 
secured in the form of smaller Army series. 
One year ago, a sample of 6,500 men, 
including draftees, enlistees and reenlistees, 
Was measured at induction centers, while 
data on 2,000 marines were also obtained in 
1949. Numerous smaller series of men have 
been measured from time to time in con- 
nection with various clothing fitting tests. 

Since one of the primary responsibilities 
of the Office of The Quartermaster General 
is to clothe and equip Army men and 
women, applications of anthropometric data 
to clothing problems have received first 
consideration. However, there are still basic 
problems in the general field of human 
biology for which the accumulated Army 
anthropometric data should and can be 
used. Consequently, the Army program of 
research in physical anthropology may be 
considered to include both basic research 
and practical applications. 

Obviously the human sample comprising 
the available Army data cannot be con- 
sidered representative of the total popula- 
tion, since it is a selected group. There are 
various limiting factors, such -as_ age, 
physical and medical qualifications, as well 
as social and economic factors. However, 
several types of investigation are possible 
with these data. One for example, is the 
problem of age change and terminal growth. 
Sufficient data are available to provide 
adequate series for each age from 17 through 
32 years. Another problem involves the 
differences between military and non- 
military populations. How do draftees or 
enlistees entering the Army for the first 
time compare with separatees who have been 
exposed to the military environment for 


WHITE: APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 69 


various lengths of time? It is well-known 
that draftees, and especially 17-, 18-, or 
19-year old enlistees tend to gain weight and 
that their body measurements change upon 
entering the Army. Do these changes take 
place rapidly within the first few weeks, do 
they extend over the whole period of basic 
training, or is it a more gradual process 
covering several years? These are questions 
of practical importance to those responsible 
for supplying and issuing Army clothing and 
equipment. Present studies utilizing the 
anthropometric data are focussed on these 
problems (Randall, 1949a). 

Only preliminary reports on the Army 
work have been issued, since analyses of the 
extensive data have taken considerable 
time. A volume of the female data has been 
published, containing some 98 _ bivariate 
charts of 23 body measurements, together 
with 109 regression tables (Randall and 
Munro, 1949b). 

Sorting of the male data and statistical 
analyses of some 37 body measurements 
have been completed, giving 72 bivariate 
charts and 83 regression tables. In addition, 
the male data have been sorted by age 
groups from 17 through 32 years, with 
bivariates and regression tables for each 
year of age. All this material is now ready 
for publication and will represent useful 
reference data. 

A certain amount of sociological informa- 
tion is included along with the anthro- 
pometric data, such as location of birthplace, 


national extraction, birthplace and_ ex- 
traction of parents, education, civilian and 
military occupation, etc. Preliminary 


sortings on the basis of geographical area of 
birthplace and national extraction are now 
in progress: 

The more recent data of a year ago are 
being sorted on the basis of classification— 
draftees, enlistees, reenlistees—as well as by 
age groups, for purposes of comparison with 
the earlier separatee and inductee material. 
The IBM system of punched cards and 
electrical sorting machines is used in all this 
work. 

As has been mentioned previously, Army 
clothing has received first consideration in 
the applications of anthropometric data. It 
has been a gradual process, but marked 


70 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


improvements have been and are being made 
in the fit of Army clothing. The old Armv 
joke to the effect that there were only twe 
sizes of clothing issued—too large and too 
small—has been disposed of. 

Reduced to simplest terms, the aim of the 
Quartermaster Corps with respect to cloth- 
ing is to fit the Army population with the 
best possible clothing in a minimum number 
of sizes, requiring the least amount of altera- 
tion. In addition, there is a further con- 
sideration which is the percentage of the 
population to be fitted with standard sizes. 
It is desirable to have this percentage as 
high as possible, since men outside of the 
range of standard sizes must be fitted with 
supplementary or special order sizes. These 
men are usually those whose body measure- 
ments fall at the upper or lower ends of the 
distribution curve, and who comprise the 
lowest percentage frequencies in the popula- 
tion. 

Obviously, the clothing of several hundred 
thousand men is no small item, especially in 
terms of the taxpayers’ dollars and cents. 
In this respect, it will be seen that in the 
proper applications of Army anthropometry 
with respect to clothing sizes, size systems 
and tariffs, significant contributions can be 
made, particularly in the elimination of 
waste resulting from incorrect sizes. The 
Army cannot afford the trial and error 
methods of the clothing industry with re- 
spect to size, nor can it afford the cost of 
frequent or numerous alterations. 

The applications of anthropometry to 
clothing consist, essentially, of relating 
body dimensions to clothing sizes (Randall, 
1948a). This procedure has necessitated a 
definition of the Army population in metric 
terms in order to obtain a measure of the 
ranges and variations which occur. The 
metric definition of the population, to- 
gether with the establishment of normal 
distribution curves, is the most useful ad- 
vance made thus far (Randall, 1949b; 
Randall and Munro, 1949a). 

Initially, the anthropometric data were 
used in investigating deficiencies in the size 
systems of standard clothing items already 
in use. In several cases, this resulted in 
recommendations that some smaller sizes be 
procured, since many smaller men at the 


VOL. 42, No. 3 


lower end of the distribution curve were not 
being fitted properly. 

Another use of the data has been in the 
preparation of clothing tariffs. A tariff is a 
listing of the numbers of each clothing size 
required for the population, in terms of a 
given ratio, such as number per 1000, or per 
100,000, as the case may be. For example, 
such tariffs for clothing items were prepared 
when the Universal Military Training pro- 
gram was first under consideration. Tariffs 
were also prepared when the recent post- 
war draft went into effect. 

Even more profitable applications of 
anthropometry have been made in the 
development of new and improved items 
of clothing. In some cases it has been neces- 
sary to investigate various body measure- 
ments in order to determine just which 
dimensions are critical and important in the 
fit of clothing. It has been found that al- 
though upper body clothing, such as coats 
and jackets, traditionally has been sized on 
the basis of chest circumference, actually 
shoulder circumference and even waist 
circumference are more important than 
chest with respect to tolerances and fit. 
For example, a new system of sizing trousers 
on the basis of the seat dimension rather 
than the waist may result in a reduction of 
standard trouser sizes from 95 to only 30 
sizes, which would be quite a saving. The 
sizes and tariffs for the new Air Force blue 
uniform were developed through the use of 
anthropometric data. 

The applications of anthropometric data 
are not limited to body clothing by any 
means. Measurements of the head and face 
were used during the war in the develop- 
ment of-gas masks, oxygen masks, goggles, 
and helmets (Randall and Damon, 1943). 
The anthropometry of the foot and the 
proper fit of all types of boots and shoes is 
a large problem in itself. A study of the 
hand and the functional fit of handwear has 
recently been initiated. It is hoped that the 
use of anthropometric data eventually may 
be extended to other types of military equip- 
ment: sleeping bags, tents, tanks, etc. The 
necessity for anthropometric specifications 
in aircraft and submarines where spatial 
requirements are critical is obvious. 

The criticism has been made that Army 


Marca 1952 


anthropometry on such a scale is unsatis- 
factory from the standpoint of technique. 
Some anthropologists even feel that as far 
as clothing is concerned, tailors could do 
just as well, and that we are wasting time 
and effort in attempting to apply the meth- 
ods of physical anthropology to such a 
problem as Army clothing. The point is 
that clothing people are basically artists, 
and not human biologists, and they do not 
have sufficient knowledge of such topics as 
normal distributions of body measurements 
or applied statistics. Here is one field in 
which the trained professional anthropolo- 
gist can make a practical contribution. 

In closing, mention should be made of the 
late Francis E. Randall, who, perhaps more 
than any other, was responsible for the 
development of applied physical anthro- 
pology in the Army. He began his work with 
the Air Force during the war, and then came 
to the Quartermaster Corps in 1946 to direct 
the anthropometric survey. He really be- 
lieved in applied physical anthropology, to 
the extent that had he lived, he probably 
would have found ways to incorporate an- 
thropometric data in the working height of 
the kitchen sink or the handle of an egg- 
beater, not to mention automobiles or office 
furniture. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Baxter, J. H. Statistics, medical and anthro- 
pological, of the Provost-Marshal-General’s 
Bureau, derived from records of the examination 
for military service in the Armies of the. United 
States during the late War of the Rebellion, of 
over a million recruits, drafted men, substi- 
tutes and volunteers, 2 vols. Washington, 1875. 

CALLAGHAN, J., and PaumpEr, C. Measuring 
space and motion. Family living as the basis 
for dwelling design, vol. 5: Research study 
no.6. John B. Pierce Foundation, New York, 
1944. 

Damon, A., and Ranpa.t. F. E. Physical anthro- 
pology in the Army Air Forces. Amer. Journ. 
Phys. Anthrop., n.s., 2: 219-316. 1944. 

Damon, A., RANDALL, F. E., Benton, R. 8. and 
Brues, A. M. The importance of human sizing 
standards in aviation. Journ. Aviation Med. 
15: 238-243. 1944. 

Davenport, C. B., and Lovn, A. G. Army anthro- 
pology: based on observations made on draft 
recruits, 1917-1918, and veterans at demobiliza- 
tion, 1919. Medical Department of the United 
States Army in the World War, vol. 15: Sta- 
tistics, pt. 1. 1921. 

GirtLeR, J. B. Man and his prejudices. Sci. 
Monthly 69: 43-47. 1949. 


WHITE: APPLICATIONS OF PHYSICAL ANTHROPOLOGY 71 


Gouup, B. A. Investigation in the military and 
anthropological statistics of American soldiers. 
U.S. Sanitary Commission. New York, 1869. 

Herrzperc, H. T. E. Postwar anthropometry in 
the Air Force. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., 
n.s., 6: 363-371. 1948. 

Kine, B. G. Measurements of man for making 
machinery. Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., 
6: 341-352. 1948. 

Lonig, M. Anthropometry and apparel. Amer. 
Journ. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., 6: 353-361. 1948. 

O’Brign, R., and Grrsuik, M. A. Children’s body 
measurements for sizing garments and patterns. 
A proposed standard system based on height and 
girth of hips. U. 8. Dept. Agr., Mise. Publ. 
365. 1939. 

O’Brien, R., Grrsuix, M. A. and Hunt, E. P. 
Body measurements of American boys and girls 
for garment and pattern construction. A com- 
prehensive report of measuring procedures and 
statistical analysis of data on 147,000 American 
children. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Mise. Publ. 366. 
1941. 

O’Brien, R., and SHEtTon, W. C. Women’s meas- 
urements for garment and pattern construction. 
U.S. Dept. Agr. Mise. Publ. 454. 1941. 

Ranpauu, F. E. Garment size and the retailer. 
Department Store Economist, July and Au- 
gust, 1946a. 

. Seat comfort. Mechanical Engineering 68: 
1056-1058. 1946b. 

———. Applications of anthropology to the deter- 
mination of size in clothing. Environmental 
Protection Series, Report no. 133. Quarter- 
master Climatic Research Laboratory, Law- 
rence, Mass., 1948a. 

———. Anthropometry in the Quartermaster Corps. 
Amer. Journ. Phys. Anthrop., n.s., 6: 373-380. 
1948b. 

. Age changes in young adult army males. 

Human Biology 21: 187-198. 1949a. 

. Anthropometric nomograph of Army men. 
Human Biology 21: 218-232. 1949b. 

———. Theory and practice in the use of scale man- 
ikins. lowa Transit, December 1949c. 

Ranpatu, F. E., and Damon, A. An interesting 
application of a basic science to aviation med- 
icine. Journ. Aviation Med. 14: 200-205. 19438. 

RanpDaut, F. E., Damon, A., Benton, R.S., and 
Patt, D. 1. Human body size in military avr- 
craft and personal equipment. U. 8. Army Air 
Forees Technical Rep. 5501. Air Materiel 
Command, Wright Field, Dayton, Ohio, 1946. 

RaAnpDALL, F. E., and Munro, E. H. Anthropo- 
metric nomograph of Army women. Environ- 
mental Protection Section Rep. 148. Quarter- 
master Climatic Research Laboratory, 
Lawrence, Mass., 1949a. 

Reference anthropometry of Army 
women. Environmental Protection Section 
Rep. 149. Quartermaster Climatic Research 
Laboratory, Lawrence, Mass., 1949b. 

Srapies, M. L., and DeLury, D. B. A system for 
the sizing of women’s garments. Textile Re- 
search Journal 19: 346-354. 1949. 


72 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 2 


GEOLOGY .—Paleozoic of western Nevada. H. G. Frercuson,! U. 8S. Geological 


Survey. 


The stratigraphic and structural history 
of western Nevada during the Paleozoic 
differs fundamentally from that of the rest 
of the Great Basin. In eastern and central 
Nevada and southern California, the Paleo- 
zoic section, at least above the Lower 
Cambrian, is largely limestone and dolo- 
mite. The formations, particularly those 
older than the Carboniferous, are fairly 
continuous; disconformities and uncon- 
formities are rare except at the margins of 
the area; and volcanic rocks are absent. 

Within the western area, roughly north 
of lat. 37°30’ and west of an irregular line 
between long. 116° and 117°, there is an 
entirely different Paleozoic section, whose 
nearest lithologic similarities are with north- 
ern California and central Oregon. Quart- 
zite, slate, and chert are the prevailing rock 
types, voleanic rocks are abundant, and 
carbonate rocks are subordinate. Crustal 
instability during the Paleozoic is recorded 
not only by unconformities and major gaps 
in the sections, but also by several episodes 
of folding and thrusting, one of which can be 
dated approximately as Mississippian or 
Pennsylvanian and another as early Per- 
mian. These were followed by major diastro- 
phism within the Jurassic. 

Further study is needed to determine 
whether, during early as well as late Paleo- 
zoic (Nolan, 1928), a barrier of some sort 
separated the two areas, as suggested by the 
differences in lithology, by the gaps in the 
sections, and by numerous disconformities 
and unconformities both east and west of the 
inferred barrier. On the other hand, lack of 
observed gradation between the eastern and 
western facies may be due to the fact that 
along at least a part of the border zone be- 
tween the areas thrusting has carried the 
rocks of the western facies eastward, possibly 
as much as 30 or 40 miles; to the south, the 
western facies is separated from the eastern 
facies of the Panamint and Inyo Ranges by 
a broad belt, largely unexplored, in which 
the only Paleozoic rocks known are Lower 
Cambrian. 


1 Published by permission of the Director, U.S. 
Geological Survey. 


The following notes on the lithology of 
the western Nevada Paleozoic formations 
are based chiefly on the results of U. 8. 
Geological Survey reconnaissance by the 
writer and his associates, S. W. Muller, 
R. J. Roberts, and 8. H. Cathcart. The area 
covered consists of three one-degree quad- 
rangles: the Sonoma Range quadrangle, lat. 
40°-41°, long. 117-118°, comprising four 
30 - minute quadrangles — Winnemucca 
(Ferguson, Muller, and Roberts, 1951); 
Mount Tobin (Muller, Ferguson, and 
Roberts, 1951); Golconda (Ferguson, 
Roberts, and Muller, in press); and Mount 
Moses (Ferguson, Muller, and Roberts, 
1951); and the Hawthorne and Tonopah 
quadrangles, lat. 38-39°, long. 117-119° 
(Ferguson and Muller, 1949). In addition 
to the reconnaisance studies, more detailed 
mapping was done by Roberts in the Antler 
Peak 15-minute quadrangle (Roberts, 1951) 
in the northeastern part of the Sonoma 
Range quadrangle. Mapping by James 
Gilluly is in progress in three 15-minute 
quadrangles (Mount Lewis, Crescent Valley, 
and Cortez), east of the southern part of 
the Sonoma Range quadrangle, and by 
Preston E. Hotz in the Osgood Mountain 
quadrangle to the north. A vast area re- 
mains unexplored, and much additional 
field work is needed. 


Cambrian.—In the Hawthorne and Tonopah 
quadrangles, the fossiliferous Lower Cambrian 
rocks are largely quartzite and slate, with sub- 
ordinate dolomite and limestone. No Middle or 
Upper Cambrian has been identified, though 
Upper Cambrian has been reported by Turner 
(1902) in the Silver Peak quadrangle to the 
south. These rocks are overlain apparently 
conformably by Ordovician rocks of the western 
facies (Ferguson and Muller, 1949, pp. 45-52). 
In the Sonoma Range quadrangle thick un- 
fossiliferous quartzite, presumably of Lower 
Cambrian age, is overlain by several thousand 
feet of slate with minor amounts of dolomite and 
limestone of Upper or Middle Cambrian age 
(Ferguson, Roberts, and Muller, in press). 
These show no lithologic similarity to the better- 
known dominantly carbonate formations in the 
ranges to the east. 


Marcu 1952 


Ordovician.—Ordovician rocks are present in 
great thickness and variety throughout the 
entire western area. In the Tonopah and Haw- 
thorne quadrangles (Ferguson and Muller, 
1949) they consist largely of dark cherts, grapto- 
lite-bearing slates, and quartzites. In the Sonoma 
Range quadrangle and neighboring quadrangles 
to the east, there are also andesitic lavas and 
breccias (Roberts, 1951; Ferguson, Muller, and 
Roberts, in press). The proportions of the 
various rocks vary greatly in different areas. 
Carbonate rocks, which form most of the section 
in central and eastern Nevada, are scarce. 

Along the eastern border of the area, a thrust 
has superposed the slaty rocks of the western 
facies Ordovician above the carbonate eastern 
facies. The western facies of the upper plate is 
known to extend as far to the east as the Sulphur 
Spring Mountains, about lat. 39°45’, long. 
116°05’ (Merriam and Anderson, 1942). The 
same thrust relations of the two facies are also 
present in the Cortez quadrangle, lat. 40°10’, 
long. 116°40’ (Gilluly, personal communication). 
It is possible that a thrust contact is also present 
to the southward, for at Belmont, about lat. 
38°35’, long. 116°55’, the Ordovician consists of 
characteristic western facies with graptolite- 
bearing slate (Ferguson, 1924, p. 23), while the 
eastern facies, including the Pogonip limestone 
and Eureka quartzite, is present at Tybo, 30 
miles southeast (Ferguson, 1933, pp. 16-20). 
The western facies is known to extend southward 
as far as the southern border of the Silver Peak 
quadrangle, lat. 37°30’ (Turner, 1902). Fifty 
miles to the south, at the northern end of the 
Panamint Range, are the characteristic car- 
bonate rocks and Eureka quartzite of the eastern 
facies (McAllister, 1947). In the largely un- 
explored region between these two areas the only 
known Paleozoic rocks are of Cambrian age. 

Silurian.—No rocks of Silurian age have yet 
been found in the western area, although thick 
Silurian formations of carbonate rocks are known 
along its eastern border, as far west as long. 
116°50’. The westernmost sections include shaly 
limestones carrying graptolites (Kirk, 1938, p. 
34; Gilluly, personal communication). 

Devonian.—Devonian is known at two locali- 
ties in the western area; in the San Antonio 
Mountains about 8 miles north of Tonopah 
(about lat. 37°10’, long. 117°10’) and in the 
northeastern part of the Mount Lewis quadrangle 
(near lat. 40°30’, long. 116°45’). 

The Devonian of the San Antonio Mountains 


FERGUSON—PALEOZOIC OF NEVADA 73 


consists of about 1,000 feet of limestone con- 
taining a fauna referred to Middle Devonian. 
This rests with a small angular unconformity on 
the characteristic Ordovician chert and slate of 
the western facies, although the lithology and 
fauna suggest correlation with Devonian car- 
bonate formations to the east. 

In the Mount Lewis quadrangle (Gilluly, 
personal communication) the Devonian is en- 
tirely different in lithology and consists of about 
4,000 feet of dark chert and sandstone with 
subordinate slate, and a few thin beds of lime- 
stone which have yielded identifiable fossils. 
No voleanic rocks are present. The formation is 
in thrust contact with the Ordovician of the 
western facies and its relation to other formations 
is unknown. Except for the absence of volcanic 
rocks, the lithology is similar to that of parts of 
rocks mapped as Pennsylvanian (?) in the 
Sonoma Range quadrangle (Pumpernickel forma- 
tion) and it is possible that more detailed study 
will show that Devonian is also present in the 
Sonoma Range quadrangle. 

Carboniferous —No formations of Carbonif- 
erous age are present in the Hawthorne and 
Tonopah quadrangles, where Permian rocks rest 
unconformably on highly folded Ordovician 
slate and chert. In the Sonoma Range quad- 
rangle, however, there is a puzzling complex of 
formations of probable Mississippian and known 
Pennsylvanian age (Roberts, 1951). A great 
thrust, the Golconda thrust (Ferguson, Roberts, 
and Muller, in press), probably of Jurassic age, 
brings together completely different Carbonif- 
erous and Permian formations. Further com- 
plexity is caused by thrusting within both plates 
during at least two periods; in late Mississippian 
or early Pennsylvanian in the lower plate, and 
within the Permian in the upper plate. 

Below the thrust, there are two formations of 
probable Mississippian age. These are them- 
selves in thrust contact, and both are overlain by 
lower Pennsylvanian conglomerate. The Scott 
Canyon formation (Roberts 1951), present only 
in the eastern part of the Antler Peak quad- 
rangle, consists of andesitic meta-voleanic rocks 
and chert, with some argillite. A thin bed of lime- 
stone yielded fossil sponges, considered to be not 
older than Carboniferous (Helen Dunean, per- 
sonal communication). 

The Harmony formation is unfossiliferous and 
consists essentially of micaceous arkosie grit and 
micaceous quartzite that locally attain a con- 
siderable thickness. Derivation from a granitic 


74 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


or gneissic land mass to the west, perhaps in the 
area now occupied by the Sierra Nevada batho- 
lith, seems to be implied. Probable persistence 
of such a land mass throughout most of late 
Paleozoic time is suggested by recurrence of 
beds of similar arkosic material in the Pennsyl- 
vanian and Permian clastic formations of the area. 

The Battle formation, consisting of conglomer- 
ate and pebbly limestone of lower Pennsylvanian 
age (Roberts, 1951), was deposited across the 
thrust contact of the Scott Canyon and Harmony 
formations. No correlation with formations in the 
east has yet been established. 

Disconformably above the Battle formation 
is the Antler Peak limestone of upper Pennsyl- 
vanian and possibly lower Permian (?) age 
(Roberts, 1951). The fauna of the limestone, 
according to J. 8. Williams (personal communica- 
tion), resembles Alaskan and Russian species. 
At present this limestone is known only in the 
northeastern part of the Sonoma Range quad- 
rangle and the Osgood Mountain quadrangle to 
the north (Hobbs, 1948). 

In the upper plate of the Golconda thrust, the 
thick Pumpernickel formation, largely andesitic 
voleanics, chert, and argillite, is tentatively 
assigned to the Pennsylvanian, as it is overlain 
conformably by sedimentary formations of lower 
Permian (?) age (Roberts, 1951; Muller, Fer- 
guson, and Roberts, 1951). This formation has 
not yet been traced outside the Sonoma Range 
quadrangle, but it is probably present in the 
Osgood Mountain quadrangle to the north 
(Hobbs, 1948). 

Permian.—Permian rocks of the Sonoma 
Range quadrangle (Roberts, 1949, 1950; Fer- 
guson, Roberts, and Muller, 1951) also differ 
on the two plates of the Golconda thrust. Below 
the thrust the Edna Mountain formation, con- 
sisting primarily of quartzite, in part micaceous, 
conglomerate, limestone, and slate, rests dis- 
conformably on the Pennsylvanian and Permian 
(?) limestone. This formation contains the same 
fauna as the well-known Phosphoria formation 
of the eastern part of the Great Basin and may 
represent a clastic marginal facies. 

The upper plate of the thrust carries two 
formations not found in contact, but both overlie 
conformably a thick sequence of dominantly 
metavolcanic rocks assigned to the Pennsyl- 
vanian. In the central part of the Sonoma Range 
quadrangle the Havallah formation is 10,000 
feet or more thick and consists of quartzite 
carrying feldspar in part, with mterbedded chert, 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 3 
subordinate slate, and thin limestone beds. 


Near the base of the formation the limestone 
contains fusulinids of Wolfcamp and probably 
Leonard age (Roberts, 1951). Along the western 
edge of the quadrangle and tentatively correlated 
with the MHavallah formation, is the Leach 
formation containing a larger proportion of 
coarser clastics including conglomerate, gray- 
wacke, impure quartzite in part arkosic, together 
with slate and a little limestone in the upper part 
(Muller, Ferguson, and Roberts, 1951). No 
determinable fossils were obtained from these, 
and a thrust separates them from the more 
quartzitic Havallah formation of the central part 
of the quadrangle. It seems a reasonable inference 
that it may be merely a more coarsely clastic 
facies. If so, a western source for both formations 
is implied. 

Folding, accompanied by some thrusting and 
followed by deep erosion, preceded the youngest 
Permian unit of the Sonoma Range quadrangle, 
the dominantly volcanic Koipato formation. 
This differs from the older voleanic formations in 
that the lavas are in part silicic, and are less 
metamorphosed. The Koipato formation overlies 
the Permian (?) of the upper plate facies with 
marked angular unconformity and is overlain 
unconformably by ‘Triassic rocks, but with 
angular discordance of only a few degrees at most. 
Its greatest known thickness, 14,000 feet (Knopf, 
1924; Wheeler, 1939), is a few miles west of the 
Sonoma Range quadrangle, but within the 
quadrangle it thins out completely to the east 
(Ferguson, Roberts, and Muller, in press). It 
is known, however, to extend some distance to 
the south and southwest. It has not been found 
below the Golconda thrust, so its relation to the 
Permian sedimentary rocks with Phosphoria 
fossils is not determinable in the Sonoma Range 
quadrangle. 

In the Tonopah and Hawthorne quadrangles, 
the Permian sedimentary rocks containing the 
Phosphoria fauna lie unconformably on folded 
Ordovician rocks (Ferguson and Muller, 1949, 
pp. 45-52). In the southern part of the area 
these sedimentary rocks consist of 400 feet or 
less of grit and quartzite that locally grade 
laterally into dolomite. The formation is dis- 
conformably overlain by Lower Triassic and 
locally the Permian was completely eroded before 
Triassic deposition. 

In contrast to the thin Permian of the south, 
the Toyabe Range in the northeast part of the 
Tonopah quadrangle contains a thickness of 


Marcu 1952 


about 6,000 feet of sedimentary and volcanic 
rocks assigned to the Permian, though fossilif- 
erous only in the lower part. The upper part of 
the sequence is principally chert and meta- 
andesite with interbedded sedimentary rocks 
similar to those of the lower part. Fine-grained 
silicic intrusive rocks similar in composition to 
the lavas of the Koipato formation cut these 
rocks, but were not found in areas underlain by 
Triassic rocks. It is therefore possible that the 
Koipato formation may be somewhat younger 
than the sedimentary rocks containing Phos- 
phoria fossils. 


REFERENCES 


Fereuson, H. G. Geology and ore deposits of the 
Manhattan district, Nevada. U.S. Geol. Surv. 
Bull. 723. 1924. 

. Geology of the Tybo district, Nevada. Univ. 
Nevada Bull. 27 (3). 1933. 

Frereuson, H. G., and Muuuer, S. W. Structural 
geology of the Hawthorne and Tonopah quad- 
rangles, Nevada. U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Pap. 
216. 1949. 

Fereuson, H. G., Ropers, R. J., and Muuuer, 
S. W. Golconda quadrangle, Nevada. U.S. Geol. 
Surv. Geologic Quadrangle Map Series. (In 
press.) 

Fereuson, H. G., Muuier, 8S. W., and Rosperts, 
R. J. Winnemucca quadrangle, Nevada. U.S. 
Geol. Surv. Geologic Quadrangle Map Series. 
1951. 

Hopss, S. W. Geology of the northern part of the 


STRIMPLE: SOME NEW CRINOIDS 79d 


id 


Osgood Mountains, Humboldt County, Nevada. 
U.S. Geol. Surv., Open file report. 1948. 
Kkork, Epwin. The Eureka quartzite of the Great 
Basin Region. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 5, 26: 27— 

44. 1933. 

Knorr, ApoupH. Geology and ore deposits of the 
Rochester district, Nevada. U. S. Geol. Surv. 
Bull. 762. 1924. 

McAuuisterR, J. F. Memorandum report on the 
geology of the northeastern part of Ubehebe 
Peak quadrangle, California. Manuscript, U.S. 
Geol. Survey files. 1947. 

Merriam, C. W., and AnpERsON, C. A.. Recon- 
naissance survey of the Roberts Mowntains, 
Nevada. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 53: 1675-1728. 
1942. 

Mutter, 8S. W., Fercuson, H. G., and Roserts, 
R. J. Mount Tobin quadrangle, Nevada. U.S. 
Geol. Surv. Geologic Quadrangle Map Series. 
1951. 

Nouan, T. B. A late Paleozoic positive area in 
Nevada. Amer. Journ. Sci., ser. 5, 16; 153-161. 
1928. 

RoseErts, R. J. Geology of the Antler Peak quad- 
rangle, Nevada. U. S. Geol. Surv., Open file 
report. 1949. 

. Antler Peak quadrangle, Nevada. U. S. 
Geol. Surv. Geologic Quadrangle Map Series. 
1951. 

Turner, H. W. A sketch of the historical geology of 
Esmeralda County, Nevada. Amer. Geol. 29: 
261-272. 1902. 

WHEELER, H. KE. Helicoprion in the Anthracolithic 
(late Paleozoic) of Nevada and California, and 
its stratigraphic significance. Journ. Pal. 13: 
1038-114. 1939. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Some new species of crinoids from the Henryhouse formation 
of Oklahoma.! Harreit L. Stripe, Bartlesville, Okla. (Communicated by 


Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


This paper is the first of a series to be 
devoted to echinoderms of Silurian age. The 
genera dealt with are Allocrinus, Zophocrinus, 
Gnorimocrinus, Bactrocrinites, Hexacrinites, 
and Synbathocrinus. All except the last three 
are known from rocks of Brownsport age; 
however, the species from the Henryhouse 
exhibit some decided, and probably signifi- 
cant, variances from the norm of the genera 
involved. The last three genera are not re- 
ported elsewhere from strata of Silurian 
age but are found in rocks of Devonian age. 


1Numerous individuals have contributed directly 
or indirectly to this study. Dr. G. A. Cooper, 
Dr. A. R. Loeblich, Jr., and Arthur Bowsher, of 
the U. S. National Museum, and Dr. W. E. Ham, 
of the Oklahoma Geological Survey, have directed 
the author in field studies and/or have lent speci- 


Genus Hexacrinites Austin and Austin, 1843 
Hexacrinites adaensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 4, 5 


Dorsal cup is somewhat elongate bell-shaped. 
The lateral sides rise evenly above the columnar 


mens for description and comparison. Dr. Edwin 
Kirk, of the U. S. Geological Survey, Dr. R. S 
Bassler, of the U. S. National Museum (retired), 
Dr. Hertha Sieverts-Doreck, of Stuttgart, Ger- 
many, and Dr. G. Ubaghs, of Liége, Belgium, have 
assisted in taxonomic and technical problems. 
Richard and Russell Alexander, at present 
students at the University of Oklahoma, William 
T. Watkins, of San Antonio, Tex., and Mr. and 
Mrs. Allen Graffham, of Purcell, Okla., have 
assisted considerably in field work and through 
contribution of many fine specimens. The author’s 
wife, Mrs. Melba Strimple, has found many splen- 
did specimens in both the Henryhouse of Okla- 
homa and the Brownsport of Tennessee. 


76 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


attachment, then expand rapidly for a short dis- 
tance, after which further expansion is gradual. 
There are three unequal BB, the smallest right 
posterior in position. Slightly over half the cup 
height is composed of the elongated RR and 
anal X. The five RR have small arm articulating 
facets, which are directed outwardly. The single 
anal plate is comparable in size to the r. post. R, 
and both are smaller than other RR. 

Columnar cicatrix is round. Arms and tegmen 
are unknown. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Heightiofidorsalicupp eee eee eee soon IO) 
Maximum) widthioficup)= = -5..-4--25 see = 

Height of BB circlet (maximum) 
Diameter of columnar scar............. BCRP ate 3.0 


* Mildly distorted by lateral compression. 


Remarks.—H. adaensis is the only representa- 
tive of the genus reported at present from rocks 
of Silurian age. The distinctive contour of the 
cup is sufficient to distinguish the species from 
other described forms. 

Holotype Collected by the author. To be de- 
posited in the U. 8. National Museum. 

Occurrence and horizon.—SW1/4NW1/4NW 
1/4 sec. 33, T. 3 N., R. 6 E., south of Ada, 
Pontotoe County, Okla.; Henryhouse formation 
(upper), Silurian. 


Genus Synbathocrinus Phillips, 1836 
Synbathocrinus antiquus, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-3 

Dorsal cup is elongated and narrow until the 
distal extremity is approached, at which point 
there is a strong, outwardly directed flexing. 
There are three erect BB, the smaller in left 
anterior position. Five RR are of equal size and 
are very elongated. A well-developed notch is 
present between r. post. and I. post. BB for 
reception of an anal plate. This groove continues 
into the interarticulating areas. Arm articulating 
facets are distinctive; the outer ligamental furrow 
is very thin and is bordered to the exterior by a 
well-crenulated lip and to the interior by a slight 
ridge; muscle areas are shallowly depressed and 
thereafter the facets curve strongly upward so 
that a domelike structure is formed, almost 
covering the body cavity. In the uplifted area, a 
narrow slit divides each facet into two equal 
parts. Unless carefully examined, the domelike 
structure has the appearance of an oral circlet. 

PBrBr are quadrangular, slightly wider than 
high. The proximal columnal is round, thick and 
expanded in midsection. A minute, pentalobate 
lumen pierces the column. 


VOL. 42, No. 3 


Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Holotype 
Heightiof(dorsal’cupe ses scen ae eee eee 9.4 
Maximum)widthioficup)o gene eee eee 7.6 
Heightiof BBicirclet-s.2---5) ce eee ene eee ee eeee 3.7 
Widthiof*BBicirclete .)-5.-0 ene eeee eee eee S17 
Diameter of proximal columnal.................... Pye) 


Remarks.—The unique appearance of S. anti- 
quus is not closely approached by any other 
described species, and no other representative of 
the genus is recorded from Silurian strata. 

Types.—Holotype collected by William T. 
Watkins, one paratype collected by Richard 
Alexander and one by the author. To be de- 
posited in the U. 8. National Museum. 

Occurrence and horizon.—Near center of sec. 4, 
T.2N., R.6 E., south of Ada, Pontotoc County, 
Okla., the type locality. Paratypes from SW1/4 
NW1/4NW1/4 sec. 33, T. 2 N., R 6 E., Pontotoc 
County; Henryhouse formation (upper), Silurian. 


Genus Zophocrinus S. A. Miller, 1892 


Zophocrinus angulatus, n. sp. 
Figs. 6, 7 

Dorsal cup is elongated and angular. There 
are four lateral sides marked by sharp longi- 
tudinal ridges. A horizontal ridge about 0.4 mm 
below the summit marks the termination of, the 
cup angulation and the uppermost portion is 
circular in outline. In the proximal region 
is a slight twisting which causes inequality in the 
width of facets and there is a wafer-thin ridge 
marking the lowermost edge of the cup. Viewing 
the cup from below, there is an almost triangular 
outline. Three BB form almost half the length of 
the cup and four RR the balance. Arm articulat- 
ing facets have not been observed in any of the 
specimens at hand. Sutures of the cup are not 
impressed. Proximal columnal is round, thin and 
small. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Holotype Paratype 
Height of dorsal cup......:.......-:.-- 9.3 10.3 
Maximum width of cup................ 5.5 5.6 
Heightiof BiBicircletyee eee 4.5 4.7 
Maximum width of BB circlet......... 4.7 5.1 
Diameter of stem attachment.......... 1.1 1.4 


Remarks.—The strong angulation characteris- 
tic of Z. angulatus is sufficient to distinguish it 
from other described species. 

Types.—Holotype collected by the author. 
Paratype collected by Richard Alexander. To be 
deposited in the U. S. National Museum. 

Occurrence and horizon—Center SW1/4NW 
1/4 sec. 33, T. 3. N., R. 6 E., south of Ada, 
Pontotoc County, Okla.; Henryhouse formation 
(upper), Silurian. 


Marcu 1952 STRIMPLE: SOME NEW CRINOIDS 


1-3.—Holotype of Synbathocrinus antiquus, n. sp., from posterior, anterior, and summit, 


Fias. 4 
xX 3.6. Fias. 4-5.—Holotype of Hexacrinites adaensis, n. sp., from left anterior and posterior, 
XK Ideke Fias. 6-7.—Holotype of Zophocrinus angulatus, n. sp., side view of dorsal cup and 
Fres. 8-9.—Holotype of Allocrinus divergens, n. sp., side view of crown and 


opposite side, X 3. 

opposite side, X 1.7. Fres. 10-11.—Holotype of Gnorimocrinus pontotocensis, n. sp., from base and 
summit, X 5.8. Fires. 12-13.—Holotype of Bactrocrinites oklahomaensis, n. sp., from right poste- 
rior and posterior, X 1.5. 


78 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Genus Bactrocrinites Schnur, 1849 


Bactrocrinites oklahomaensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 12, 13 


Dorsal cup is very long, slender, expanding 
evenly from the columnar attachment. Five slen- 
der IBB form almost half the cup height. Five 
BB are normal hexagonal plates except for the 
posterior and right posterior RR which are trun- 
cated for the reception of the two anal plates. 
Five RR are relatively wide plates with small, 
outwardly directed arm articulating facets. R. 
post. R. is smaller than others and is extended 
above the normal cup height. Ant. R is the largest 
plate of the circlet. RA is small, quadrangular 
and rests obliquely on the left shoulder of r. 
post. B and the right shoulder of post. B. Anal X 
is large, hexagonal and rests obliquely on_post. 
B and RA to the right below. Arm articulating 
facets show no evidence of muscular fossae but 
have rather deep intermuscular notches which 
extend well into the body cavity. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Height of dorsal cup (anterior)................ 50 683 
Maximumawidthyoficupreee-nareee eer ereereeeee enn: 12.0 
Heightiofelb Bicircletperrrs eee ree eeer reece 11.2 
Maximum width of IBB circlet................... 7.8 
Diameterof/colummariscare. eee eee 2 ai 


Remarks.—B. oklahomaensis has a more elon- 
gated calyx, especially as reflected by the IBB 
portion, than any other described species. It is 
the only representative of the genus reported 
from rocks of Silurian age. 

Holotype.—Collected by the author. To be de- 
posited in the U. 8. National Museum. 

Occurrence and horizon —NW1/4NW1/4SW 
1/4 sec. 4, T. 3 N., R. 6 E., south of Ada. Ponto- 
toc County, Okla.; Henryhouse formation, Si- 
lurian. 


Genus Gnorimocrinus Wachsmuth and Springer, 
1880 
Gnorimocrinus pontotocensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 10, 11 


Dorsal cup shallowly expanded. IBB are three, 
almost entirely covered by the shallowly de- 
pressed, round columnar cicatrix. BB are five 
6-sided plates with pentagonal outlines, except 
for post. B, which is strongly encroached upon 
by the hexagonal RA, and is extended inwardly 
toward the body cavity. RR are five rather 
elongated, pentagonal plates. Interradial areas 
are deeply impressed. Anal X is a large plate 
and is followed by a tubelike series of plates 
which curve inwardly. The entire body cavity 


VOL. 42, No. 3 


appears to be covered by tegmenal and minute 
ambulacral plates. Five rather large plates alter- 
nate with the RR, and that of the posterior 
carries a small node, which may mark a hydro- 
pore. First PBrBr are only preserved in the right 
and left posterior rays. The |. post. PBr is axillary 
and the r. post. PBr is nonaxillary. Both are 
rather short plates. 
Measurements 1n mm.—As follows: 


Heightiofdorsalicup). 2.22 4+ ee eee ere ee eee ere Soil 
Maximum width! oficupi.--e- eee eee e eee 7.0 
Diameter‘of stem’ scar).--.. -.-4-- eee eee is7/ 


Remarks.—Other described species normally 
disclose arm branching with the second primi- 
brachials in all rays and the RA is quadrangular, 
not in contact with the IBB circlet. In G. ponto- 
tocensis the first PBr of the 1. post. ramus is 
axillary and RA is hexagonal owing to contact 
with the IBB circlet. 

Holotype—Collected by A. R. Loeblich, Jr. 
Deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. 

Occurrence and horizon——SW1/4NW1/4NW 
1/4 sec. 33, T. 3 N., R. 6 E., Pontotoc County, 
Okla.; Henryhouse formation, Silurian. 


Genus Allocrinus Wachsmuth and Springer, 1889 


Allocrinus divergens, n. sp. 
Figs. 8, 9 

Crown is elongate, expansive. Dorsal cup is 
proportionately quite small. The BB plates are 
displaced and are not sufficiently well preserved 
for accurate observation. Considering the attitude 
and structure of the RR, there is little likelihood 
that the base of the cup was particularly broad 
or invaginated, as is considered typical of’ the 
genus. Five RR are moderately large. The prox- 
imal portions are not curved under but the lateral 
sides are curved mildly inwardly and the depres- 
sions continue into the interbrachial region. Arm 
articulating facets do not fill the distal faces of 
RR and the junctures with PBrBr are not well 
defined. PBrBr are low, triangular shaped axil- 
lary plates, one to each ray. Succeeding SBrBr 
are low wide plates and are multiple pinnular. 

One IBr is known to be present in one interray. 
The column is small and round. Tegmen is un- 
known. 

Measurements in mm.—As follows: 


Length of crown’. 5% 5.0... sence eee Oe eee 37.2 
Height of dorsal cup «dreyels 2s epee 2.8 
Diameter of proximal columnal................... 1.8 
bength of RV (tole BrBr) eee eee 2.8 
Maximum) wid thiof Riven eee ere neeeee nee 3.9 


Remarks.—In general appearance this species 
is obviously a member of Allocrinus, but certain 


Marcu 1952 


characteristics are not typical of the genus. In 
other known species there is a small quadrangu- 
lar PBr in each ray followed by a larger pentag- 
onal PBr which is axillary. The first PBr in 
each ray of A. divergens is low, triangular and 
axillary. The proximal extremities of RR are 
curved under to form part of a broad basal area 
in other species. A. longidactylus Springer (1926) 
displays arms, which are very similar to those of 
the present species except for the number of 
primibrachials. 


LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN—CRIBROTEXTULARIA 79 


Holotype.—Collected by Richard Alexander. 
To be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. 

Occurrence and horizon.—N W1/4SW1/4 sec. 4, 
T.2N., R. 6 E., south of Ada, Pontotoc County, 
Okla.; Henryhouse formation (upper), Silurian. 


REFERENCES 


All cited references are to be found in Bassler 
and Moody, Bibliographic and faunal index of 
Paleozoic Pelmatozoan Echinoderms. Geol. Soc. 
Amer. Spec. Pap. 45. 1943. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Cribrotextularia, a new foraminiferal genus from the Eocene 
of Florida. ALFRED R. Lorsiicn, Jr., and HeLten Tappan, U.S. National 


Museum. 


In a search for topotype specimens of 
genotype species, for study in a generic re- 
vision of the Foraminifera, the writers found 
specimens of a textularian form with a 
cribrate aperture in middle Eocene material 
from Florida. Comparison with the types 
showed it to be the species Textularia 
coryensis Cole. The species was described by 
Cole (1941, p. 21) as having an ‘aperture 
broad, low, indistinct.” 

A thorough rewashing of topotype 
material including prolonged boiling, made 
possible the determination of the true 
apertural characters which were obscured in 
the holotype by adhering limy material. 
The cribrate aperture thus revealed is 
reminiscent of the upper Paleozoic for- 
aminiferal genus Cribrostomum Moller, and 
affords an interesting example of conver- 
gence in development between these two 
stratigraphically distant genera. 

Although Cushman (1948) defines Cribro- 
stomum as “‘test free, biserial; wall finely 
arenaceous, thick, with an outer thin layer; 
apertures of the early stages textularian, 
later cribrate, on the terminal face of the 
chamber,” he also noted that it ‘‘may be 
only a stage in the development of Clima- 
cammina.”’ This latter genus he describes 
as ‘‘test free, early portion biserial, later 
uniserial; wall arenaceous, mostly of fine 
fragments but including coarser ones, cement 
caleareous; aperture in the biserial portion 
textularian, in the uniserial portion irregu- 
larly cribrate, terminal.’’ Thus he distin- 
guished these genera as Cribrostomwm being 
wholly biserial and Climacammina biserial 


to uniserial. Moller (1879) did not exclude 
bigenerine forms and in fact described 
Cribrostomum bradyi, C. commune, C. ele- 
gans, C. gracile, C. pyriforme, and C. tex- 
tulariforme, of which only the first and last 
“species” were illustrated as completely 
biserial. Moller did not designate a geno- 
type, but included four bigenerine forms to 
only two of the textularian forms. The 
genotype was selected by Cushman (1928, 
p. 120) as Cribrostomum  textulariforme. 
However, all of Moller’s species are sur- 
prisingly alike in size, ornamentation and 
other characters and it seems unlikely that 
six true “‘species’’ would occur in such a 
limited horizon, all very close in appearance 
and with similar geographic ranges. In fact, 
as was stated by Plummer (1945, p. 244) 
“The designated genotype [C. textulariforme| 
is without doubt the immature form of one 
of the five biformed species in the group of 
eight ‘“‘species” recorded in the same paper 
with the description of Cribrostomum. C. 
commune Moller is recorded from the same 
localities as C. textulariforme and can well 
be the mature form of the species.” 

Other writers have also included biformed 
species under Cribrostomum including Lee 
and Chen (1930, pp. 96-102), Harlton 
(1927, p. 22) and Plummer (1945, p. 245). 


This genus might thus be considered 
synonomous with Clmacammina H. B. 


Brady, 1873. However, they may be dis- 
tinguished by apertural characters as was 
brought out by Plummer (1945, pp. 244, 
245), who stated that symmetry in 
arrangement and in shape of the large and 


80 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


comparatively few openings throughout the 
uniserial stage is a consistent feature that 
distinguishes the group represented by 
Brady’s genotype of Climacammina from 
Moller’s genotype of Crizbrostomwm.’ 

Cribrostomum in the adult thus has a 
multiple aperture of irregularly shaped 
pores scattered over the terminal area with 
no definite pattern, whereas Climacammina 
has symmetrical pores both in shape and 
arrangement. A similar form, Deckerella 
Cushman and Waters, was described as like 
Climacammina, but with only two terminal 
pores. This “genus” is only a growth stage 
of Climacammina and the genotype species 
itself may have a multiple aperture of at 
least four openings. 

Cushman regarded both Cribrostomum 
and Climacammina as having an arenaceous 
wall with calcareous cement. Galloway 
(1933, pp. 223, 224) stated that both are 
calcareous, consisting of an “inner, hyaline, 
fibrous or porous layer and outer darker, 


p) 


VoL. 42, No. 3 


very fine granular or structureless layer 
which is neither arenaceous nor composed of 
agglutinated particles but is partially a 
network of cryptocrystalline silica, the 
major portion being calcite; surface of test 
rough, giving an arenaceous appearance.” 
Galloway used this type of wall structure as 
the basis for a new subfamily, the Palaeo- 
textulariinae. Lee and Chen (1930, p. 100) 
in describing Cribrostomum longissimoides 
state ‘“‘Wall composite, with a relatively 
thin and smooth inner layer and much 
thicker and coarser outer layer of arena- 
ceous nature.’’ Plummer (1945) corroborated 
these observations stating “The calcareous 
shell wall is almost wholly fibrous with an 
external coating of irregular calcareous 
particles or granules, so that the surface is 
pebbled, though composed of no adventitious 
matter.”’ Plummer also noted that “the 
cribrate surface of chambers in the late 
biserial stage and throughout the uniserial 
stage is supported and strengthened by 


Figs. 1-5.—Cribrotextularia coryensis (Cole): 1, Top view of hypotype (USNM P. 67a), with final 
chamber broken to show slit aperture of previous chamber and supplementary apertures; 2, 4, top views 
of additional hypotypes (USNM P. 67 b, c) showing multiple apertures; 3a, side view of hypotype 
(USNM P. 67d) showing biserial chamber arrangement; 3b, top view, showing ring of apertures; 5, top 
view of hypotype (USNM P. 67e) with broken final chamber with part of ring of apertures visible and 
ee multiple apertures of preceding chamber where final chamber is broken away. (All figures 


Marcu 1952 


irregularly developed walls and pillars that 
tie the terminal wall to the last septum, thus 
making the chamber labyrinthic.”’ 

The following brief description sum- 
marizes the characters of the new genus: 


Family TEXTULARIIDAE 
Cribrotextularia Loeblich and Tappan, n. gen. 


Genctype: Textularia coryensis Cole. Middle 
Eocene of Florida. 

Diagnosis—Test free, quadrate in section; 
chambers biserially arranged throughout; wall 
arenaceous, simple in construction, not laby- 
rinthic; aperture in early stages consisting of an 
arch at the base of the last chamber and in addi- 
tion a symmetrical series of pores, usually in a 
ring, on the face of the chamber, arched aper- 
ture partially closed in later chambers and repre- 
sented by a series of openings at the base of the 
final chamber in addition to the terminal cribrate 
apertures. 

Remarks——The present genus differs from 
both Climacammina and Cribrostomum in being 
wholly biserial, and in lacking any uniserial de- 
velopment, in being quadrate rather than oval 
in section, in lacking surface ornamentation, in 
having a simple and distinctly arenaceous wall, 
and not a double-layered fibrous calcareous one, 
and in lacking any development of pillars sup- 
porting the terminal chamber as was found in 
Cribrostomum by Plummer. It further differs 
from Cribrostomum in having a ring of sym- 
metrically arranged rounded pores as the cri- 
brate aperture, rather than irregularly shaped 
and spaced openings, and in this respect is more 
like Climacammina. However, the cribrate aper- 
ture is visible only on the final chamber, while 
all the pores on earlier chambers are covered by 
the wall of the succeeding chamber. On biserial 
specimens of Cribrostomum marblense Plummer, 
the cribrate aperture is visible on both chambers 
of the last pair. 


Cribrotextularia coryensis (Cole) 
Figs. 1-5 
Textularia coryensis Cole, Florida Geol. Surv. 
Bull. 19: 21, pl. 1, fig. 13. 1941. 
Test free, large, robust, triangular in side view, 
quadrate in section; chambers numerous, bi- 
serially arranged, increasing gradually in height 


and breadth as added, slightly inflated; sutures. 


distinct, depressed, nearly straight, slightly 
oblique; wall agglutinated, with distinct cal- 


LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN—CRIBROTEXTULARIA 81 


careous fragments in a granular ground mass, 
surface irregular; aperture in the early stages 
consisting of an elongate slit at the base of the 
final chamber, which becomes progressively 
closed in later chambers with the simultaneous 
development of a terminal cribrate aperture of 
about four or five regularly spaced openings, the 
complete slitlke aperture has not been observed 
on the final chamber of any specimen, although 
it can be seen in the penultimate chamber of one 
of the hypotypes (Fig. 1), the final chamber has 
only a few residual pores representing the slit 
aperture, and a better development of the ter- 
minal cribrate aperture. 

Length of figured hypotype (Fig. 3) 1.77 mm, 
greatest breadth 0.94 mm, thickness 0.73 mm. 
Other specimens are from 1.51 to 2.29 mm in 
length. 

Types and occurrence.—Holotype and un- 
figured paratypes (Florida Geological Survey 
collections, S-1533 and $-1533A) and unfigured 
hypotypes also in Florida Geological Survey 
Collections (S-3330), figured hypotypes (USNM 
P. 67, a-e) all from the middle Eocene at 1,360- 
1,370 feet in the Peninsular Oil and Refining Co. 
Cory No. 1, in sec. 6, T.558., R. 34E., Monroe 
County, Fla. 

Acknowledgements.—The writers are indebted 
to Dr. Herman Gunter, director of the Florida 
Geological Survey, for use of topotype material 
and also for the loan of Cole’s type specimens. 
The illustrations are camera-lucida drawings 
made by Mrs. Sally D. Lee, scientific illustrator, 
Smithsonian Institution. 


REFERENCES 


Cote, W.S. Stratigraphic and paleontologic studies 
of wells in Florida. Florida Geol. Surv. Geol. 
Bull. 19: 1-91, pls. 1-18. 1941. 

CusHMAN, J. A. Foraminifera, their classification 
and economic use. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 
Spec. Publ. 1: 1-401. 1928. 

. Foraminifera, their classification and eco- 
nomic use, ed. 4: 1-605, pls. 1-55. 1948. 

Haruton, B. H. Some Pennsylvanian Foraminifera 
of the Glenn formation of southern Oklahoma. 
Journ. Pal. 1: 15-27, pls. 1-5. 1927. 

Lep, J. S., CHEN, S., AND Cuu, S. The Huanglung 
limestone and its fauna. Acad. Sinica, Nat. 
Res. Inst. Geol., Mem. 9. 19380. 

Mo6uiER, V. Die Foraminiferen des russischen 
Kohlenkalks. Mém. Acad. Imp. Sei. St.-Péters- 
bourg, sér. 7, 27: (5). 1879. 

Puummer, H. J. Smaller Foraminifera in the Marble 
Falls, Smithwick, and lower Strawn strata 
around the Llano wplift in Texas. Univ. Texas 
Publ. 4401: 209-271, pls. 15-17. 1945. 


82 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 3 


ZOOLOGY .—Ammopemphix, new name for the Recent foraminiferal genus Urnula 
Wiesner. ALFRED R. Logesuicu, Jr., U.S. National Museum. 


The name Urnula proposed by Wiesner 
(Deutsche Stidpolar-Exped. 20: Zool.: 82. 
1931) for a Recent Antarctic foraminiferal 
genus is preoccupied by the protozoan 
Urnula Claparéde and Lachmann (Ann. 


Sci. Nat., Paris, Zool. ser. 4: 8: 235. 1857). 
The name Ammopemphiz is here proposed to 
replace the name Urnula Wiesner. The 
genotype (type species) is Urnula quadrupla 


_ Wiesner, 1931. 


ZOOLOGY.—A new Calyptrophora (Coelenterata: Octocorallia) from the Philip- 
pine Islands. FrepERICK M. Baynr, U. 8. National Museum. 


Among the unidentified primnoid octo- 
corals of the U.S. National Museum which 
have been examined in connection with 
studies on the Gorgonacea of the Indo- 
Pacific region, there is a single branch of a 
remarkable species of Calyptrophora. Its 
zooids are so distinctly different in armature 
from those of any previously described 
species that I feel justified in describing it 
as new even without knowledge of the 
appearance of the entire colony. 

It is with a deep sense of appreciation 
that I name this species in honor of Dr. 
Julia A. Gardner, of the U. 8. Geological 
Survey. 


Genus Calyptrophora Gray 


Calyptrophora J. E. Gray, 1866, p. 25; Kiikenthal, 
1924, p. 317. 


Calyptrophora juliae, n. sp. 


Diagnosis.—Zooids about 1.75 mm high, facing 
upward, in whorls of 4-6; 15 whorls in 3 em of 
axis length; both scale pairs inseparably fused in 
ring form; basal ring with two stout diverging 
spines 1.5 mm long; buccal ring margin with 2-4 
short, triangular processes; operculars not lacini- 
ated apically; rind scales without external crests; 
tentacles with minute flat scales. 

Description.—The type specimen is a single ter- 
minal branch about 12 cm long, which bears 
closely set whorls of distally directed zooids 
throughout its length except for the proximal 
5 mm, where the axis is bare. The axis is dis- 
tinctly flattened, at least in this branch, longi- 
tudinally grooved and of a metallic gold sheen 
with bright green inidescence. Fifteen zooid whorls 
(Fig. 1, f) occur in 3 cm of axial length; the apical 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


whorl contains four zooids, while those lower 
down on the branch ordinarily are made up of 
five or six. The zooids (Fig. 1, e, k) are surrounded 
by two pairs of body scales, basal and buccal, 
as is characteristic of the genus. The members of 
both sclerite pairs are completely united and 
inseparably fused to form a pair or rings which 
encircle the zooid body. The basal ring (Fig. 
1, A) is unusually thick and heavy, and bears a 
single pair of strong, tapered, diverging spines. 
These are very stout and nearly round, and are 
longitudinally sculptured with fine, wavy striae 
which are minutely prickly, especially toward the 
tips of the spines. The spines are about 1.5 mm 
long (1.25-1.75 mm) and about 0.35 mm thick 
at the base. The body of the ring is externally 
finely granular, the granules so arranged as to 
form a closely reticulate pattern. The total length 
of the basal ring including the spines is about 
2.75-3.00 mm. The buccal ring (Fig. 1, g) is 
stout but not so heavy as the basal. It expands 
somewhat distally, but is not flared, and there is 
only a very slighty projecting margin which 
bears one or two pairs of short, triangular proe- 
esses. The length of the buccal ring along the 
abaxial suture is about 1.25 mm; its diameter at 
the oral aperture about 1 mm. There is a well- 
developed operculum of eight roughly triangular 
scales 0.4 to 0.6 mm high (Fig. 1, a-d). Each 
bears a prominent longitudinal ridge on its inner 
face, and even the largest show no tendency to- 
ward laciniation of the apex. The tentacles con- 
tain small, elongate, irregular-margined scales 
(Fig. 1, 7) about 0.1 mm long. Ordinarily there is 
but a single pair of curved infrabasal plates 
lying between the basal scale ring and the plates 
of the coenenchyma, but one or both may be 
transversely divided into two short plates, so that 
there sometimes appears to be an extra in- 
frabasal scale or pair of scales. The infrabasals 


Marcu 1952 BAYER: A NEW CALYPTROPHORA 83 


———) 0.5mm 


Fic. 1.—Calyptrophora juliae, n. sp.: a-d, Opercular scales; e, oblique view of single zooid; f, portion 
of branch with three whorls of zooids; g, buccal scale ring seen from adaxial side; h, basal seale ring 
from above; 7, scales from the tentacles; 7, plates from the coenenchyma; k, abaxial view of zeoid. 
(Magnifications: 0.5 mm scale at d applies to a-d, g, h, 7, k; 0.5 mm scales at e and k apply to those fig- 
ures only; 1.0 mm scale at f, and 0.1 mm scale at 7, apply to those figures only.) 


84 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


form a semicircular collar which partially sur- 
rounds the base of the zooids. The rind sclerites 
(Fig. 1,7) are flat, irregular, granular plates with- 
out strong external keels or ridges. All of the large 
sclerites are translucent, milky white. 

Type.-—U.S.N.M. no. 49814. Albatross station 
5119, Philippine Islands: Verde Island Passage, 
between Lubang Island and Cape Santiago, 
Luzon, (13° 45’ 05” N., 120° 30/30” BH.) 394 
fathoms, sand and green mud; January 21, 1908. 

Remarks.—While the over-all character of 
branching is unknown, there is a possibility that 
the entire colony has the lyrate form which occurs 
in various species of Calyptrophora (cf. Kino- 
shita, 1908, pl. 4, figs. 33, 35; and Versluys, 1906, 
p- 148, fig. 178). 

The armature of the zooids, while basically 
like that of Calyptrophora japonica Gray (1866, 
p. 25; Versluys 1906, p. 113), is quite unlike any 
other described form. The spines of the basal 
ring are relatively longer and much stouter than 
those of the type of C. japonica as described by 
Versluys. The zooids of C. juliae are stouter and 
larger than those of C. clarki Bayer 1951, and the 
marginal processes of the buccal ring are never so 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 3 


strongly developed; the buccal ring of C. juliae 
bends adaxially more sharply than does that of 
C. clarki; and so far as I can determine, its 
opercular scales are never divided apically into 
lobes. 

The close-set whorls of zooids, with their 
strongly projecting spines, give even this single 
branch a distinctive appearance, and the entire 
colony must have been one of striking elegance. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Bayer, Freperick M. Two new primnoid corals of 
the subfamily Calyptrophorinae (Coelenterata: 
Octocorallia). Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 
41(1): 40-48, 2 figs. 1951. 

Gray, JOHN Epwarp. Description of two new forms 
of gorgonioid corals. Proc. Zool. Soc. London 
1866: 24-27, 2 figs. 1866. 

Kinosuita, Kumao. Primnoidae von Japan. Journ. 
Coll. Sci. Imp. Univ. Tokyo 23(12): 1-74, 9 
figs., 6 pls. 1908. 

KUKENTHAL, Witty. Gorgonaria. Das Tierreich 
47: xxvili + 478, 209 figs. Berlin and Leipzig, 
1924. 

Verstuys, J. Die Gorgoniden der Siboga Expedi- 
tion. II, Die Primnoidae. Siboga Exped. 
Monogr. 18a: 1-187, 178 figs., 10 pls., chart. 
1906. 


ICHTHYOLOGY.—ELight new fishes from the Gulf coast of the United States, with 
two new genera and notes on geographic distribution. IsAac GinsBuRG, U. S. 
Fish and Wildlife Service. (Communicated by Ernest A. Lachner.) 


In the course of my studies of the fishes 
of the Gulf of Mexico, eight species were 
found not to have been named previously. 
This conclusion was reached after a virtual 
revision of the species of their respective 
families that occur in the Gulf and adjacent 
waters. Only one of the species is based on a 
single specimen. The others are based on 
sufficient numbers to indicate that they are 
not uncommon. Three of them are common 
enough to enter the commercial fish catch 
at the present time. One offshore species 
apparently occurs in sufficient numbers to 
have market possibilities. 

During an investigation of the southern 
species of commercial shrimps, the U. S. 
Fish and Wildlife Service, by means of the 
research boat Pelican, preserved and brought 
together a collection of fishes on the coast 
of our Southern States, which is of great 
value in the study of the ichthyological 
fauna of the Gulf and adjacent waters. It 


is my privilege to be engaged in a study of 
this collection, and four of the species herein 
described were obtained by the Pelican. 

Three of the species indicate a peculiarity 
of geographic distribution of the fish fauna 
of the Gulf, to which attention is called and 
which is discussed at a later point. 

The photographs for Figs. 1-8 were made 
in the Smithsonian Photographic Labora- 
tory. 

Family SERRANIDAE 
Centropristes melanus, n. sp. 
GULF Buack SEABASS 


D X11. A III 7. P 17-18. Se 47-49. 

Dorsal and anal spines and rays constant (in 
12 specimens). Gill rakers on lower limb 10-14 
with 1-4 tubercles, or 14-17 altogether; on upper 
limb gill rakers grade gradually into tubercles or 
the difference between the two kinds only mod- 
erately indicated, 7 or 8 altogether; total number 
of gill rakers and tubercles on both limbs 21-25. 


Marca 1952 


Body elongate, moderately deep. Mouth termi- 
nal, lower jaw subequal to upper in front or 
slightly projecting. Maxillary ending under mid- 
dle of eye or posterior margin of pupil, without 
supplemental bone; a broad, rather shallow elon- 
gate groove below upper maxillary edge, setting 
off an elongate, moderately depressed piece hav- 
ing somewhat the shape of a supplemental maxil- 
lary (asin Epinephelus), but without an evident 
suture. Teeth in jaws in bands of medium width, 
widest in upper jaw; side of lower jaw with only 
two rows of teeth; outer and inner teeth mod- 
erately enlarged; no canines; none of the teeth 
depressible to a marked extent. Opercle drawn 
out posteriorly to form a rather long, flexible 
flap; middle opercular spine well developed; lower 
spine moderate; upper spine not developed, in 
form of blunt, rounded protuberance. Preopercle 
not expanded; its transverse margin well serrate; 
lower margin rather sparsely serrate, the serrae 
covered by skin; serrae at angle slightly enlarged; 
interopercle and subopercle moderately serrate or 
smooth. Branchiostegal rays 7. Scalation on mid- 
back ceasing at moderate distance behind eye, 
its anterior boundary a nearly straight, trans- 
verse line; cheek and opercle scaled; interopercle 
sparsely scaled; patch of scales over cheek and 
opercle moderately or rather well separated from 
posterior scales; interorbital, snout, suborbital, 
maxillary and lower jaw naked; proximal part of 
caudal rather well scaled for a considerable dis- 
tance, scaleless posteriorly; other fins scantily 
scaled near their base; all scales ctenoid (besides 
small scales on fins), except those on chest some- 
times cycloid. Lateral line moderately rising an- 
teriorly, running nearly parallel to contour of 
back and at some distance below it, making a 
slight curve at caudal peduncle; 4 or 5 longitu- 
dinal rows of complete scales between highest 
part of lateral line and midback, besides a row of 
incomplete scales; modified, channeled scales in 
lateral line moderately smaller than adjacent 
normal scales, not separated by latter or only 
slightly so. First three dorsal spines abruptly and 
nearly evenly or somewhat unevenly graduated; 


first and second usually about half as long as — 


second and third, respectively; third spine only 
a little shorter than fourth and longest; thence 
very gradually decreasing in length to eighth; 
last two spines subequal to or slightly longer than 
the one immediately preceding; last spine mod- 
erately shorter than first ray, emargination be- 
tween spinous and soft parts of dorsal moderate. 


GINSBURG: EIGHT NEW FISHES 85 


Second anal spine a little shorter and slightly 
stouter than third. Ventral about reaching anus 
or falling a little short, its outer angle a little in 
front of lower pectoral angle. Pectoral having its 
posterior margin nearly truncate, rounded at 
angles, more so below than above, ending nearly 
on same vertical as ventral or a little behind. 
Caudal asymmetrical, rounded for its greater and 
lower part, a moderate emargination above, the 
second branched ray from top moderately or 
slightly produced. 

Measurements of four specimens 95-136 mm 
in standard length, and two, including the holo- 
type, 177-206 mm, expressed as a percentage of 
the standard length, the ranges of the smaller 
specimens in parenthesis, as follows: Depth (33.0- 
38.5) 35-36, depth of peduncle (13.5-14.5) 13- 
13.5, head to end of flap (40-41.5) 41-44, maxil- 
lary (17-18.5) 20.5-21, snout (11.5-12.5) 12.5- 
13, eye (8.5-9.5) 8-9, interorbital (7-8.5) 7.5. 

General ground color dark to nearly black; 
often with very faint traces of irregular, wide 
darker cross areas, separated by narrower, 
slightly lighter interspaces; scales with a lighter 
colored area on exposed part anteriorly, sur- 
rounded peripherally with dark pigment, pre- 
senting in gross appearance effect of beadlike 
longitudinal lines of light spots along rows of 
scales; no definite dark spot at posterior end of 
spinous dorsal base; a diffusely dusky area on 
inner side of opercle, at its upper, anterior part, 
but no well-defined spot on inner or outer surface 
of opercle; anal and ventral dark, sometimes 
edged with lighter color; pectoral uniformly very 
moderately dusky or nearly pigmentless; dorsal 
with obliquely lengthwise rows of diffuse light 
spots; caudal with very faint spots, almost uni- 
formly dusky or dark. 

Holotype -—C.N.H.M. no. 33719. Newport, 
near Wakulla, Fla.; November 10, 1937; Fred 
Ladd; 270 mm. 

Paratypes—C.N.H.M. nos. 33717-8, 33721-3; 
same data as holotype. Pensacola, Fla.;S. Stearns 


TABLE 1.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUM- 
BER OF GILL RAKERS AND PECTORAL RAYS OF 


CENTROPRISTES MELANUS AND C. STRIATUS 
“Leh ere | Gill rakers and | 

ota eu rarer tubercles on | Pectoral 

Species both limbs lower limb eS 

only 
| ~ 
24|22/23)24|25|26|27/28 14] 15]16|17)18 19]17|18|19!20 
Pear teh a\altelial 1 | | | 1) 5) 5/4) | | sis 

striatus | 3! 615! 1 1/1314] 2] | gos} 4 


86 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


(U.S.N.M. no. 21483). St. Marks, Fla.; B.C. 
Marshal; August 1931 (92282). Aucilla, Fla.; 
Fish Hawk station 7147; 3 fathoms; November 6, 
1901 (73009). Cedar Keys, Fla.; C. R. Asch- 
meier; March 3, 1938 (106990). Total 11 para- 
types 48-270 mm. 

Remarks.—This species differs from the other 
two species of Centropristes occurring in the Gulf, 
ocyurus and philadelphicus, in having fewer scales 
and more gill rakers (scales 538-57 and total 
number of gill rakers and tubercles on both 
limbs 18-21 in the latter two species) and in not 
having the caudal biconcave, besides other minor 
differences. It is very close to the Atlantic C. 
striatus. As shown in Table 1, melanus diverges 
from striatus in the combined gill raker and 
tubercle count, that on the lower limb of the 
first gill arch and also in the total of both limbs, 
to a degree that is of species magnitude or very 
nearly so. A high divergence of the pectoral 
count is also indicated, but of lesser magnitude. 
Also, in striatus the emargination on the upper 
part of the caudal is generally more pronounced, 
and the second branched ray from the top is 
usually much more prolonged. The data for 
striatus given in Table 1 are based on specimens 
ranging from Woods Hole, Mass., to New 
Smyrna, Fla. 

Three species of Centropristes occur in the Gulf, 
melanus, philadelphicus, and ocyurus. The species 
here described is the counterpart of striatus 
from the Atlantic. By their long isolation, the 
Gulf and Atlantic populations have diverged 
morphologically to a degree of species magnitude, 
or at least to a degree that is at the borderline 
of species and subspecies. I have also compared 
the Gulf populations of philadelphicus and ocyu- 
rus with their corresponding populations in the 
Atlantic and find some differences; but those 
differences are of low degrees, below the sub- 
species level. It is reasonable to assume that all 
the populations have been isolated by the penin- 
sula of Florida equally in point of time. It is in- 
teresting then to note that in the same genus 
there is an evident wide difference in the tempo 
of population divergence. 

Weed (1937) treats of the species of Centro- 
pristes and describes a new species, springert, 
from the Gulf. His treatment in some respects is 
unsatisfactory. He does not adequately describe 
the well-marked difference in the shape of the 
caudal between striatus and philadelphicus, which 
evidently constituted the main character on 
which Gill established a distinct genus, T'rilo- 


VOL. 42, NO. 3 


burus, based on philadelphicus; but the caudals 
of his specimens might have been damaged. He 
further states that the scale count is the same 
in all the species; whereas I found it to be a good 
character for separating striatus and melanus 
from ocyurus and philadelphicus. The latter dis- 
crepancy might be due to differences of method; 
Weed counted the scales in the lateral line, while 
my counts are of the number of oblique rows 
above the lateral line. I have reexamined the 
three specimens on which Weed based his sprin- 
geri and find that they belong to the same species 
as the holotype of ocywrus, and consequently 
these two names are synonymous, ocyurus having 
priority. 


Serraniculus, n. g. 


Genotype.—Serraniculus pumuilio, n. sp. 

Body elongate, rather spindle-shaped. Mouth 
subsuperior, the lower jaw moderately projecting. 
No supplemental maxillary. Upper jaw without 
notch. Teeth in jaws in rather wide bands; in two 
rows on side of lower jaw; outer teeth in both jaws 
and inner teeth in lower jaw enlarged, a few 
moderately enlarged inner teeth at symphysis 
of upper jaw also; inner teeth on side of lower 
jaw largest, 3 or 4 of those teeth moderately 
larger than adjacent ones but hardly large enough 
to be designated canine; vomer and palatines with 
teeth; tongue toothless. Lower two opercular 
spines well developed; upper spine short and 
pointed or a rounded, slight protuberance. Trans- 
verse margin of preopercle serrate, lower margin 
smooth. Branchiostegal rays 6. Gill rakers short, 
few. End of posttemporal not covered by skin, 
exposed in form of rather heavy scale (often 
referred to as ‘‘axillary scale”). Body entirely 
covered with ctenoid scales, including chest and 
pectoral base; opercle and cheek scaled; inter- 
opercle scaled for a variable distance at its 
posterior end only; dorsal aspect of occiput 
interorbital, snout, suborbital, maxillary and 
lower jaw scaleless. Lateral line rising moder- 
ately in front and making a slight curve at caudal 
peduncle; three longitudinal rows of complete 
scales between highest part of lateral line and 
midback, besides a row of incomplete scales; 
modified, channeled scales in lateral line notably 
smaller than adjacent normal scales and separated 
by them. All dorsal spines pungent and of normal 
length. Caudal having its distal margin very 
slightly rounded. 

This genus is near Centropristes, structurally 
and in general appearance. Serraniculus differs 


Marcu 1952 


in constantly having six branchiostegal rays, 
instead of seven. The caudal shape is as in the 
young of Centropristes and markedly unlike that 
of the adults. That is, Serraniculus retains the 
juvenile caudal of Centropristes also in the adult 
stage. Serraniculus differs as well from all other 
known serranid genera on the Atlantic coast of 


GINSBURG: EIGHT NEW FISHES 87 


North America in having six branchiostegal rays. 
As errors in the treatment of this character have 
entered the literature, which have been copied 
and repeated by successive authors, the pertinent 
literature of the species concerned is here briefly 
reviewed in connection with the establishment 


of Serraniculus. 


Fies. 1-4.—1, Centropristes melanus, n. sp., a paratype, 122 mm; 2, Serraniculus pumilio, n. gen. and 
sp., holotype; 3, Paracentropristes pomospilus, n. sp., holotype; 4, Anthiasicus leptus, n. gen. and sp., 
holotype. 


88 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Jordan and Evermann (1896, pp. 1218-1219) 
erroneously place Centropristes subligartus Cope 
and C. dispilurus Giinther in Dules Cuvier on 
the assumption that they have six branchiostegal 
rays. However, in 21 and 5 specimens of those 
two species, respectively, which I examined in 
the National Museum, the branchiostegal rays 
are constantly seven. Also, in those two species 
the dorsal spines are normal in length and pun- 
gency, none being notably produced. Dules, on 
the other hand, is a monotypic genus charac- 
terized by a combination of two salient char- 
acters, the presence of only six branchiostegal 
rays and the striking whiplike prolongation and 
flexibility of the third dorsal spine. These two 
characters hold in all 14 specimens of what is 
presumably Dules auriga Cuvier, which I ex- 
amined in the National Museum from the general 
region of Rio de la Plata, South America. Ser- 
raniculus has six branchiostegal rays like Dules; 
but otherwise the two genera seem only remotely 
related. Dules differs from Serraniculus, apart 
from the structure of the third dorsal spine, in 
having a notably deeper body, a long, somewhat 
pointed snout, a deeper and shorter caudal pe- 
duncle and more numerous dorsal rays, the latter 
often being a generic character in the family 
Serranidae. 

Boulenger (1895, p. 287) erroneously placed 
subligarius and dispilurus as synonyms of Dules 
auriga, claiming that the former two names 
represent females and the latter name males of the 
same species. Judged by his listed specimens, 
Boulenger evidently examined only three speci- 
mens, one auriga, two dispilurus and none of 
subligarvus, and based his sex determination and 
conclusion on these three specimens. In reality, 
these three names represent three separate species 
which are very readily distinguishable, much 
more so than some other closely related serranid 
species. 

Fowler (1907, p. 265) establishes a new sub- 
genus, Callidulus, under Dules (which he re- 
names Hudulus), based on subligarius as the 
genotype, again on the erroneous assumption 
that subligarius has six branchiostegal rays. The 
new name Callidulus (as well as HKudulus) is an 
unnecessary addition to the nomenclature, as 
subligarius is near enough to Serranus scriba 
Linnaeus to be placed in the same genus; while 
scriba is the genotype of Serranellus Jordan (in 
Jordan and Eigenmann, 1890, p. 399). There- 
fore, subligarius, and the closely related dis- 
ptlurus, should be placed in the genus Serranel- 


VOL. 42, NO. 3 


lus. On a revision of the family, it might be 
found advantageous to treat Serranellus as a 
subgenus of Serranus, as it was treated by Jordan 
and Eigenmann. 

The untenable placement of subligarius and 
dispilurus by Jordan and Evermann and their 
erroneous treatment by Boulenger are perhaps 
due, in part, to the three species having two 
general features in common: (1) the shape is 
rather unusual and similar in all three species, 
and (2) they also have a light yellowish color 
more or less developed in the abdominal region. 
Hither these features represent parallel develop- 
ments in Dules auriga or else the latter is derived 
from Serranellus but has become modified to 
such an extent as to represent a divergence of 
genus magnitude. 

The five specimens of dispilurus which I ex- 
amined, as noted above, so labeled in the Na- 
tional Museum collection, evidently correctly, 
are from Jamaica and Puerto Rico. Jordan and 
Eigenmann (1890, p. 405) venture the opinion 
that dispilurus is a synonym of Dules flaviventris, 
which Cuvier and Valenciennes (1829, p. 113) 
originally described from Brazil. Judged by the 
brief description of the latter species, the sug- 
gested synonymy seems well advised; but I have 
no specimens from Brazil to verify it. Should 
that synonymy prove to be correct, then Cuvier 
and Valenciennes were also in error in placing 


flaviventris in Dules, as they based that genus, 


first established in the publication cited above, 
on the presence of six branchiostegal rays. 

The first branchiostegal ray in serranids is 
often short, thin, and closely approximated to 
the second ray, and it might be overlooked unless 
particular care is exercised. This perhaps ex- 
plains some of these errors that entered the 
literature. 


Serraniculus pumilio, n. sp. 


D X (10) 11. A III 7. P 14-15. Se 44-46. GR 
ie 

Dorsal rays normally 11 (in 20), infrequently 
10 (in 1); dorsal and anal spines and anal rays 
constant (in 21). Pectoral rays 14 (in 12) or 15 
Gn 9). Gill rakers on lower limb 5-7 with 1-4 
tubercles, or 8-11 altogether; upper limb with 
0-3 gill rakers and 0-4 tubercles, or 3-5 alto- 
gether; total number of gill rakers and tubercles 
on both limbs of the first gill arch 11-14. Body 
and caudal peduncle of medium depth; upper 
profile rising moderately from snout to dorsal 
origin; peduncle deeper than eye diameter; dis- 


Marcu 1952 GINSBURG: 
tance from a median point under end of dorsal 
to caudal base, greater than eye diameter; maxil- 
lary ending under anterior margin of pupil or 
slightly behind. First three dorsal spines rapidly 
and almost evenly graduated; the first a little 
less than one-half as long as second; second a 
little more than one-half as long as third; third 
to fifth subequal or slightly increasing in length, 
thence gradually decreasing to ninth; tenth spine 
a little longer than ninth and moderately shorter 
than first ray, emargination between spinous 
and soft parts of dorsal moderate. Ventral rather 
short, falling short of anus, its end at a more 
anterior point than that of pectoral, its outer 
angle slightly in front of lower pectoral angle, 
its spme about one-half as long as rays. Distal 
margin of upper two-thirds of pectoral a well- 
inclined line, its lower angle rounded. 
Diffusely and irregularly cross-banded; with 
four diffuse, dark or dusky bands, the first under 
dorsal origin, the last at caudal base; anterior 
three bands broader than interspaces, last band 
comparatively narrow, preceded by broad lighter 
interspace over greater part of caudal peduncle; 
the bands without definite boundaries, the dark 
shade more or less encroaching and becoming 
diffuse on interspaces; sometimes bands and in- 
terspaces hardly distinguishable, except light in- 
terspace on peduncle; interspaces often with a 
silvery tinge, the interspace between first and 
second bands often especially prominent as a 
transverse silvery band on lower two-thirds of 
body, under middle of spinous dorsal; a series of 
small dark spots on upper profile often dis- 
tinguishable, 4 or 5 at dorsal base, the first at 
base of last spine, the fourth or fifth at end of 
dorsal somewhat more prominent, one at end 
of peduncle and one or two on upper margin of 
caudal near its base; a characteristic, yellowish, 
rounded spot directly behind last dark band, at 
its lower half; sometimes a similar spot, smaller 
and not as well marked, also at its upper half; 
a light streak along course of lateral line with 
dark very small spots placed at somewhat irregu- 
lar intervals; spinous dorsal usually with a large 
dark blotch a little below its distal margin, 
between seventh and ninth spines, often hardly 
perceptible; anterior margin of dorsal often with 
three dark dots, one above the other; ventral 
and anal almost uniformly dark to black; other 
fins usually rather sparsely pigmented, without 
rows of well marked spots, except some irregular 
shadings, and caudal and lower pectoral edge 
broadly margined with dusky or blackish. 


EIGHT NEW FISHES 89 


Measurements (expressed as a percentage of 
the standard length) of three specimens 56-59 
mm, including the holotype, and 3, 70-80 mm, 
those of the smaller specimens in parenthesis: 
caudal (25-26) 24-25, ventral (24-25) 22-23, 
pectoral (26-28.5) 26.5-28.5, depth (27—29.5) 
29.5-31, depth of peduncle (12.5-13.5) 13-13.5, 
head (34.5-35) 35.5-36, maxillary (13-14.5) 14- 
15, snout (8.5-9.5) 9-10.5, eye (9.5-10) 8.59.5, 
interorbital (5-6) 5.5-6.5. 

Holotype.—U.S8. N. M. no. 133791. Fish Hawk 
station 7177; lat. 29° 05’ N., long. 83° 22’ 30” 
W.; off Cedar Keys, Fla.; 53 fathoms; November 
27, 1901; 56 mm. 

Paratypes.—Off Mobile Bay, Ala. (U.S.N.M: 
nos. 101521, 144164-5). Georgia (149971). Off 
Cape Lookout, N. C. (131015). Texas; Texas 
Game, Fish and Oyster Commission (C.N.H.M.). 
Also, the following Pelican stations: Off Cape 
Canaveral (station 208—2) and St. Augustine 
(208—8), Fla.; off St. Andrews Sound (177—12), 
St. Simon Island (178—7) and Ossabaw_ Is- 
land (180—7), Ga.; off Head Island (182—8), 
St. Helena Sound (195—2) and Edisto Island 
(194—13), 8. C. Total paratypes 20, taken in 
6-32 fathoms, 33-80 mm. 

Remarks.—The abdominal cavity of one 63-mm 
specimen was exposed to examine the gonads. 
They were found to contain ripe eggs. The struc- 
ture of the gonads does not appear to be uniform 
in gross appearance. Interspersed with the masses 
of ripe roe are areas of tissue which have the 
gross appearance of milt. It seems probable, 
therefore, that this species is hermaphroditic 
like some other serranids. 

This is the smallest American serranid dis- 
covered so far. It is readily distinguished by its 
generic and specific characters. Its relationship 
is discussed above under the account of the 
genus. 


Paracentropristes pomospilus, n. sp. 


Prionodes atrobranchus Longley (not Cuvier and 
Valenciennes), Carnegie Inst. Washington Publ. 
535 :106. 1941 (Tortugas). 


D X 12. A III 7. P 14-17. Se 46-48. GR 
9-11. 

Dorsal and anal spines and rays constant (in 
26 specimens). Pectoral rays normally 16 (only 
4 variants in 57 specimens, 14 and 15 in one each, 
and 17 in 2). Gill rakers on lower limb 9-11, with 
1-8 tubercles, or 10-13 in combined number; 
upper limb with 6 or 7 gill rakers and tubercles 
combined; total combined number of gill rakers 


90 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


and tubercles on both limbs 17-20. Rather 
spindle-shaped, depth medium; depth of caudal 
peduncle somewhat greater than eye diameter. 
Snout subequal to or shghtly shorter than eye. 
Mouth terminal, lower jaw subequal to upper or 
slightly projecting. Maxillary without supple- 
mental bone, ending approximately under middle 
of eye. Teeth small, in narrow bands, widest in 
upper jaw, in two rows on side of lower jaw; 
upper jaw having outer teeth and a few inner 
teeth at symphysis larger than others; lower jaw 
having a few anterior outer teeth and all teeth 
in inner row enlarged; some inner teeth on middle 
of side of lower jaw larger than all others, but 
not large enough to be designated canine. Opercu- 
lar spines poorly developed, short, stubby or 
slightly poimted. Preopercle serrate; serrae on 
lower margin stronger than those on transverse 
edge, except without serrae anteriorly for a third 
the distance or less. Sealation on antedorsal 
area extending to eye and continued on inter- 
orbital space approximately to opposite posterior 
margin of pupil; cheek, opercle, and interopercle 
completely scaled; anterior part of interorbital, 
snout, suborbital, maxillary, and lower jaw scale- 
less; 3 or 4 rows of complete scales between high- 
est part of lateral line and midback; modified, 
channeled scales in lateral line notably small, 
widely separated by adjacent normal scales. First 
three dorsal spines nearly evenly graduated, 
the second about two-thirds as long as third; fifth 
or sixth spine longest or the two subequal, the 
length very gradually decreasing to third and 
last spines; first ray moderately longer than last 
spine, emargination between spinous and _ soft 
parts of dorsal slight. Second anal spine shorter 
and slightly stouter than third. Ventral pointed, 
reaching anus or a little short. Pectoral having 
distal margin of its upper two-thirds in a moder- 
ately inclined line. Caudal moderately and asym- 
metrically lunate, the upper lobe longer. 

Measurements of four specimens 114-120 mm, 
including the type: Caudal (upper lobe) 25.7— 
31.0, ventral 27.0-29.5, pectoral 29.0-32.5, depth 
31-35, depth of peduncle 12.5-14.0, head 34.5— 
37.5, maxillary 16.0-17.5, snout 9.0-10.5, eye 
11.0-11.5, interorbital 5.5-7.0. 

General color a nearly uniform light brownish 
or yellowish; sometimes very faint indication of 
dusky rather narrow cross bands, in an occasional 
specimen a somewhat obliquely placed cross band 
on body under base of eighth to ninth spine 
fairly marked; a lengthwise row of small, light 
yellowish spots, subtriangular or irregular, on 


VOL. 42, NO. 3 


body behind head, a little above pectoral base, 
ending near end of pectoral, discernible only in 
the smaller specimens having the scalation nearly 
intact, imperceptible in the majority of speci- 
mens; some specimens with trace of a narrow 
black margin on anal and caudal; belly with a 
silvery tinge, better marked on chest; upper part 
of opercle with a large black or dusky area on 
inner surface, visible externally as a dark spot, 


-often divided into two spots; no dorsal spot or 


other color marks. 

Holotype-—U. S. N. M. no. 151883. Pelican 
station 108—1; lat. 28° 03’ 30” N., long. 95° 
41’ 30” W.; off St. Joseph Island, Tex.; 26 fath- 
oms; January 23, 1938; 120 mm. 

Paratypes.—Three specimens obtained with the 
holotype; 29 other specimens collected by the 
Pelican at 19 other stations off the following 
localities: Padre Island and Corpus Christi, Tex.; 
Atchafalaya Bay, Grand Isle, and Mississippi 
Delta, La. Also, specimens in the National Mu- 
seum taken off Dauphin Island, Ala., and Tortu- 
gas, Fla. Total number of paratypes 56, 75-133 
mm. Depth records for these lots range 20-90 
fathoms. 

Remarks.—This species has been compared 
with the Mediterranean (Labrus) Paracentro- 
pristes hepatus (Linnaeus), the genotype of Para- 
centropristes Klunzinger. The Mediterranean 
species differs in having the scales 52-57, the 
interorbital nearly all scaled and the caudal very 
moderately emarginate. However, the two species 
are similar to a sufficient extent to be placed in 
the same genus. Among American species pomo- 
spilus is related to (Serranus) Paracentropristes 
notospilus (Longley). The two American species 
differ in a number of characters, the most striking 
of which are: the very poorly developed opercular 
spines of pomosptlus, its deeper caudal peduncle, 
the lack of a dorsal spot and the presence of an 
inner opercular spot. 

Longley refers specimens of this species to 
Centropristes atrobranchus Cuvier and Valencien- 
nes. However, these authors (1829, p. 45), state 
that their species has a large black spot on the 
dorsal. Jordan (1887, p. 532) and Boulenger 
(1895, p. 289), both of whom examined and 
described the type specimen and placed the 
species under Serranus, state that it has a “jet 
black” and “inky black” blotch on the dorsal. 
In contrast, the 33 specimens recently preserved 
by the Pelican do not show a trace of such a spot, 
and this also holds for the other 24 specimens 
examined; while the presence or absence of a 


Marcu 1952 


dorsal spot is often a good specific character in 
serranid species. Moreover, judged by Boulenger’s 
description there is another, structura’ difference. 
He states of the type of atrobranchus: ‘“‘preopercle 
finely serrated, the serrae coarser at the angle, 
obsolete on the lower border... ;’”’ while in our 
specimens the serrae on the posterior two-thirds 
of the lower border, are well developed and as 
coarse as at the angle. It is evident that the 
species here described is not the same as Cuvier 
and Valenciennes’s C. atrobranchus. 


Anthiasicus, n. g. 


Genotype.—A nthiasicus leptus, n. sp. 

Body comparatively slender. Mouth superior. 
Supplemental maxillary absent. Upper jaw with 
a moderate notch at symphysis. Teeth in jaws 
in narrow bands, except in a single row on side 
of lower jaw; outer teeth very moderately en- 
larged; both jaws with two small canines in 
front and two inner canines; a caninoid on side 
of lower jaw; vomer and palatines with teeth; 
tongue toothless. Opercular spines poorly de- 
veloped; the two lower ones short, obtuse; the 
upper not developed, a mere rounded protuber- 
ance. Transverse margin of preopercle rather 
well serrate; serrae on lower margin sparse; one 
serra at angle of preopercle rather large, sub- 
triangular; interopercle and subopercle with a 
smooth edge. Gill rakers long, numerous. Bran- 
chiostegal rays seven. End of posttemporal not 
covered by skin, exposed in form of rather heavy 
scale. Scales comparatively numerous; anterior 
boundary of scalation a nearly straight trans- 
verse line at posterior margin of eye; interopercle 
scaled; interorbital, snout, suborbital, maxillary 
and lower jaw scaleless. Lateral line placed at a 
considerable distance below dorsal contour, five 
longitudinal rows of complete scales between 
highest part of lateral line and midback, besides 
two rows of smaller scales at dorsal base; modi- 
fied, channeled scales in lateral line moderately 
smaller than adjacent normal scales and moder- 
ately separated by them. All dorsal spines pun- 
gent and of normal length. Pectoral pointed. 
Caudal deeply lunate, the lobes filamentous, 
nearly half as long as standard length. 

Anthiasicus is evidently allied to the group of 
serranid genera which is partly characterized by 
having numerous rather long gill rakers, in addi- 
tion to other characters. As compared with its 
near relatives in that group it differs from Prono- 
- togrammus in the low position of lateral line and 
the relatively small scales. From Hemanthias, 


GINSBURG: EIGHT NEW FISHES 91 


it differs in having the third dorsal spine of normal 
length and pungency, not greatly prolonged and 
flexible, and in the deeply lunate caudal. From 
Ocyanthias it differs in the low position of the 
lateral line, the absence of teeth on the tongue, 
and the small scales. From Anthias it differs in 
not having the anterior part of the head scaled, 
in the notably shorter third dorsal spine, in the 
small scales, and in not having the ventrals 
greatly prolonged. The body is notably slenderer 
than in any of those genera. 


Anthiasicus leptus, n. sp. 


D X 14. A III 8. P 19. Se 78. GR 10-26. 

Eye rather large, subequal to snout, a little 
less than peduncular depth, about three times 
in head. Maxillary ending under anterior margin 
of pupil. First three dorsal spines nearly evenly 
and rapidly graduated, the first two-thirds as 
long as second, third moderately shorter than 
fourth and longest, thence gradually and slowly 
decreasing in length to last; last spine about three- 
fifths as long as first ray, emargination between 
spinous and soft parts of dorsal rather well de- 
veloped; dorsal spines with very short filaments 
or tabs. Second anal spine moderately shorter 
and stouter than third. Ventral somewhat fila- 
mentous reaching a little past anal origin, its 
outer angle under lower pectoral angle. Pectoral 
reaching a vertical through vent. Color nearly 
uniform, golden above shading to silvery below; 
fins straw yellow; no distinctive color marks. 

Measurements (expressed as a percentage of 
standard length). Standard length 108 mm; 
caudal upper lobe 48.5, lower lobe 46.5; ventral 
28.5; pectoral 23.5; depth 31; depth of peduncle 
13.5; head 36; maxillary 16.5; snout 11; eye 12; 
interorbital 8.5. 

Holotype-—U. 8. N. M. no. 134189; Albatross 
station 2378; lat. 29° 14’30” N., long. 88° 09’ 
30” W.; off Dauphin Island, Ala.; 68 fathoms; 
February 11, 1885; 160 mm; the only specimen 
examined. 

The relationship of this species is discussed 
above under the genus. It is easily distinguished 
from all known Gulf serranids by the combination 
of its generic and specific characters, especially 
its fin ray, seale and gill raker counts. 


Family LUTIANIDAE 


Pristipomoides andersoni, n. sp. 


Pristipomoides macrothalmus Hildebrand (not Miul- 
ler and Troschel), Carnegie Inst. Washington 
Publ. 535:120. 1941. 


92 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


D X (10) 11. A III 8. P 14-16. Sc 49-53. GR 
16-17. 

Dorsal rays normally 11 (in 36), infrequently 
10 (Gn 1). Dorsal and anal spines and anal rays 
constant (in 38). Pectoral rays modally 16 (Gn 
20), nearly as often 15 (in 16), sometimes 14 (Gn 
2). Gill rakers on lower limb 16 or 17 with 0-2 
tubercles in 24 specimens 100-240 mm, 16-18 
with 0 or 1 tubercle in 14 specimens 44-95 mm, 
the total number of gill rakers and tubercles in 
both size groups 16-18; upper limb with 7-10 
gill rakers, the 2-4 near angle of arch longer and 
nearly evenly graduated, the upper ones more or 
less abruptly short, the uppermost one sometimes 
tubercle-like; combined number of gill rakers 
and tubercles on both limbs, at all sizes, 24-28. 
Body rather deep, well compressed, somewhat 
spindle-shaped, ventral curvature only moder- 
ately less than dorsal. Snout rather short, blunt, 
subequal to or a little longer than large eye. 
Interorbital flat and broad, only a little narrower 
than eye diameter. Mouth well inclined, terminal, 
lower jaw only slightly projecting. Suborbital 
moderately wide. Maxillary ending under an- 
terior margin of pupil or a little behind. Teeth 
on jaws, vomer and palatines small, in narrow 
bands, except outer and inner teeth in jaws and 
inner teeth on vomer more or less enlarged; upper 
jaw having one or two outer teeth near to and 
on both sides of symphysis large, caninoid, the 
other outer teeth smaller and gradually decreas- 
ing in size posteriorly; vomerine band of teeth 
somewhat in form of an arch with a shallow con- 
cavity posteriorly and crowned by a blunt apex 
anteriorly, without a backward extension on the 
shaft; no teeth on tongue. Opercle having a 
moderate spinous projection in a line with lower 
margin of eye, another projection at some dis- 
tance above it blunt, broadly rounded. Pre- 
opercle without or with a very slight emargina- 
tion on vertical edge, its horizontal edge serrate 
nearly all the way forward. Interorbital scaleless, 
boundary of scalation on midback opposite pos- 
terior margin of eye or slightly behind; an oblique 
band of scales on nape over cheek and opercle, 
well separated from rest of scales; greater part of 
interopercle scaled with 2-3 rows of scales; length- 
wise rows of scales above lateral line parallel to 
it; dorsal and anal scaleless. Dorsal spines rather 
slender, first three very unevenly graduated, the 
first about half as long as second, the second 
only a little shorter than third, the last subequal 
to second; first dorsal ray very moderately longer 
than last spine, soft and spmous parts of dorsal 


VOL. 42, NO. 3 


nearly continuous. Anal spines very moderately 
stout, the first about half as long as second, the 
second a little shorter than third. Last dorsal 
and anal ray longer than preceding rays. Ventral 
about reaching anus. Pectoral about reaching a 
vertical through base of first anal spine. Caudal 
deeply lunate, the upper lobe somewhat longer. 

Measurements of two specimens 178-216 mm, 
including the type and two specimens 81-94 mm, 
those of the smaller specimens in parenthesis: 
caudal (upper lobe) 33.5-35.0 (80.0-32.5), ventral 
26.0-26.5 (24.5), pectoral 31-32 (30.0-31.5), 
depth 37.0-40.5 (36-89), depth of peduncle 11.5 
(12), head 35-38 (37.5-38.5), maxillary 16.0- 
16.5 (16-17), snout 11.5-12.5 (10.5-11.5), eye 
10.5-11.0 (12-13), interorbital 9.5-11.5 (10.5— 
11.0). 

General color of preserved specimens straw 
yellow, often with a slight reddish tinge; lower 
half often partly or almost wholly with a silvery 
tinge; often with a few very small, rounded or 
elongate, dark spots on lateral line spaced at 
irregular intervals or bunched close together, 
sometimes similar spots in oblique row on nape; 
no other distinctive color marks; fins plain yellow- 
ish. In life the species is of a prevailing pink color. 

Holotype-—U. 8. N. M. no. 151882. Pelican 
station 40; lat. 27° 24’ 30” N., long. 96° 13’ W.; 
off Padre Island, Tex.; 90 fathoms; 216 mm. 

Paratypes.—Two specimens obtained with the 
holotype; 27 other specimens collected by the 
Pelican at 17 stations off the following localities: 
Padre Island, Corpus Christi, and St. Joseph 
Island, Tex.; Marsh Island and Atchafalaya Bay, 
La.; Horn and Petit Bois Islands, Miss.; Perdido 
Bay and Cape San Blas, Fla. Also, specimens in 
the National Museum taken at Tortugas, Fla., 
and off Dauphin Island, Ala. Altogether 37 para- 
types 44-263 mm. Depth records, available for 
all except two lots, range 13-95 fathoms. 

This species differs from the West Indian 
(Centropristes) Pristupomoides macrophthalmus 
(Miller and Troschel) in having more gill rakers 
and fewer scales. In three specimens of macro- 
phthalmus from Cuba, 200-350 mm, the gill 
rakers on the lower limb are 11-12 and 2-4 tu- 
bercles or 13-16 altogether; on upper limb 6 or 
7 gill rakers and tubercles combined; total num- 
ber of gill rakers and tubercles on both limbs 20— 
22. This compares with a total count of 24-28 in 
38 specimens of andersoni given above. The 
scale count in the Cuban specimens is 55-57 
as compared with 49-53 for the 38 specimens of 
anderson. 


Marcu 1952 


It is a pleasure to name this apparently com- 
mon, offshore snapper after William W. Ander- 
son, who, while carrying out an investigation of 
the species of commercial shrimp on the U. 8. 
Fish and Wildlife research boat Pelican, ines- 
timably served the science of ichthyology by 
industriously saving, preserving, and assembling 
as a unit a very valuable collection of fishes from 
off the Gulf and Atlantic coasts of our Southern 
States. 


Family SPARIDAE 
Pagrus sedecim, n. sp. 


D XII 9-11. A III 8. P (15) 16. Se 56-59. 
GR 9-11. 

Dorsal and anal spines and anal rays constant 
(in 16). Dorsal rays usually 10 (an 14), sometimes 
9 (in a specimen from North Carolina) or 11 (in 
a specimen from Brazil). Pectoral rays normally 
16, sometimes 15 (16 on both sides in 14, 15 on 
both sides in one, 15 on one side and 16 on the 
other in one, both variants from the Carolinas). 
Upper limb of outer gill arch with 6 or 7 gill 
rakers; lower limb with 9-11 including one 
tubercle; total number on both limbs 15-17. 
Moderately deep (for a sparid); anterior profile 
rising steeply and making a smooth curve to 
dorsal origin; ventral profile nearly horizontal 
from head to anal origin. Snout long; preorbital 
broad; eye rather large. Mouth of medium extent, 
nearly horizontal, sub-terminal, lower jaw slightly 
included. Maxillary reaching a vertical through 
anterior margin of eye in the smaller specimens, 
a little short of that in the larger. Anterior part 
of jaws with a short outer row of strong, stout, 
nearly conical teeth, large enough to be desig- 
nated canine, usually 4 teeth in upper jaw and 
6 in lower, the middle two teeth in lower jaw much 
smaller than others; side of jaws with two rows 
of very stout, short teeth, anterior teeth in outer 
row subconical, rather pointed, changing to mo- 
lars posteriorly, inner row shorter, the teeth all 
molar; an elongate patch of smaller teeth on both 
sides of midline behind outer anterior teeth, 
anterior teethin patch rather conical and pointed 
becoming stouter and changing to small molars 
posteriorly; the patch of smaller teeth over- 
lapping the two outer side rows of large teeth. 
Greater part of interorbital scaled, anterior bound- 
ary of scales curving to a point opposite anterior 
margin of eye; band of scales on cheek moderate, 
tapering upward. First four dorsal spines un- 
evenly graduated, first nearly two-thirds as long 
as second; second and third about four-fifths as 


GINSBURG: EIGHT NEW FISHES 93 


long as third and fourth, respectively; fourth 
longest, fifth subequal to it; procumbent spine 
absent. Second anal spine a little stouter than 
third, the two subequal in length. Ventral about 
reaching anus, its base a little behind that of 
pectoral. Pectoral long, falcate, reaching to over 
base of first to third anal spines. Caudal well 
lunate, upper lobe longer than lower. 

Measurements of 3 specimens 366-425 mm, 
and two specimens 228-263 mm including the 
holotype, those of the smaller specimens in paren- 
theses: Caudal (upper lobe) 29 (32.0-32.5), ven- 
tral 19.5-23.0 (23.5-24.0), pectoral 36.5-38 (35.5), 
depth 36.0-39.5 (38.5—40.5), head 30.5-32.5 (33.5- 
34.5), maxillary 13.0-13.5 (13.5), snout 13.5-16.0 
(15.0), eye 7.0-7.5 (9.0-9.5), preorbital (across 
its greatest width, on a line oblique to axis of 
fish) 8.5-9.5 (9.5). 

Ground color almost uniformly yellowish some- 
times with a slight pinkish blush; upper half of 
body with many very small brownish spots, ir- 
regularly scattered above lateral line, roughly 
tending to an arrangement along longitudinal 
lines below it. The small spots are present in 4 
specimens, 212-428 mm, which were preserved 
during the last 12 years, and absent in all others 
preserved for 25 years or longer. Apparently they 
disappear after long immersion in preservative. 
In life the ground color is of a reddish tinge and 
the spots are bluish. 

Holotype.—U. 8. N. M. no. 151881. 25 miles 
south of Pensacola, Fla., on snapper bank; 45 
fathoms; July 31, 1988; collected by the Pelican; 
208 mm in standard length; the caudal damaged 
at tip, about 263 mm in total length. 

Paratypes.—Pensacola, Fla. (21339, 30838); 
off Cape Fear, N. C. (collected by the Albatross 
III); Charleston, 8. C. (20981); Rio de Janeiro 
(83181), Brazil; a specimen obtained by the 
trawler Santa Maria on the coast of Brazil, 
locality not stated (87741); New York market 
(22868-9). Total paratypes 15, 138-507 mm. 

Remarks.—This porgy, which is not uncom- 
mon on the American coast and sometimes enters 
the commercial catch, has been identified hitherto 
with the European Pagrus pagrus. However, the 
corresponding populations from the two sides of 
the Atlantic represent distinct species, as de- 
termined by comparing the 16 American speci- 
mens which form the basis of the preceding 
account with three specimens 155-391 mm from 
the Azores. 

The American species normally has 16 pectoral 
rays, the three Azores specimens 15. As the total 


94 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


number of available specimens are relatively few, 
the rays in both pectorals were counted for each 
fish. As stated above, of 32 counts of American 
fish 29 were 16 and 3 were 15. The six counts of 
Azores fish were all 15. Hence, out of 32 American 
counts three intergrade with the European species. 
This gives an index of divergence of 95 (Gins- 
burg, 1938), which is of species magnitude, judged 
by the small samples examined. 

The American species has a slenderer caudal 
peduncle, as shown in Table 2, with no inter- 
gradation between the specimens measured. 

Another possible difference refers to color. As 
described above, the American species has very 
small spots which disappear after long immersion 
in preservative, while no such spots are men- 
tioned in descriptions of Pagrus pagrus by Euro- 
pean authors which were consulted. 


TABLE 2.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE 
DeprH OF THE CAUDAL PEDUNCLE IN PaGRuUSs 
PAGRUS AND P. SEDECIM, EXPRESSED AS A PER- 
CENTAGE OF THE STANDARD LENGTH 


10.5 | 11.0 LES 


Species 9.0 9.5 10.0 
SEdeCumuneseniee cee 1 6 6 2 
AGTUS Heentevetatereks 2 1 


Archosargus oviceps, n. sp. 


GULF SHEEPSHEAD 


D XE-XII (XIII) 11-12. A III 9-10. P 15- 
17. Se 45-49. 

Dorsal spines modally 12 (in 20), very often 
11 Gn 11), infrequently 13 (in 1); dorsal rays 
modally 11 (in 20), very often 12 (in 12); number 
of spines and rays highly correlated, variants 
having 12 spines usually also having 11 rays and 
vice versa (D XII 11 in 17; D XI 12 in 10; D XII 
12 in 2; D XI 11 in 1; D XIII 11 in 1). Anal 
spines constant; anal rays modally 10 (in 8), 
very often 9 (in 4). Pectoral rays modally 16 (in 
16), often 17 (in 6), sometimes 15 (in 2). Glli 
rakers short, stubby, 6 or 7 on upper limb of 
first gill arch and 8 or 9 on lower, or 14-16 alto- 
gether. Notably deep, depth about one-half the 
standard length; anterior profile curving steeply 
to dorsal origin. Mouth rather small, terminal, 
only slightly inclined, nearly horizontal; the two 
jaws subequal in front. Maxillary ending under 
anterior margin of eye. Preorbital notably wide. 
Outer teeth broad incisors, confined to anterior 
part of Jaws, six in upper jaw, eight in lower, 
with three notches or four cusps in young, be- 
coming worn with growth; inner molars well 


VOL. 42, No. 3 


developed, those behind incisors smaller and in 
three irregular rows, those on side notably broader 
and in two rows in lower jaw, three rows in upper 
jaw; no teeth on vomer, palatines or tongue. 
Opercle of nearly uniform thickness, forming a 
rather broad, rounded projection posteriorly, 
without spines (the projection nearly spinelike 
in small fish). Margin of preopercle slightly 
serrate to smooth. Anterior boundary of sealation 
a nearly horizontal, curved line with its apex on a 
vertical about through anterior margin of eye 
or a little behind; interorbital only partly scaled; 
cheek with a moderately broad, bandlike scaled 
area, tapering upward, anterior boundary of 
scales on cheek a line a little behind eye to end 
of maxillary; opercle and interopercle scaled; 
preopercle, preorbital, snout and lower jaw scale- 
less. Lateral line rising moderately upward, run- 
ning at a considerable distance from, and nearly 
parallel to dorsal contour, slightly nearer it 
posteriorly than anteriorly, making a moderate 
curve at caudal peduncle. Anterior four dorsal 
spines rapidly and somewhat unevenly gradu- 
ated, the first a little more than half as long as 
second, the fourth only slightly shorter than 
fifth and longest, thence gradually decreasing in 
length to last or penultimate; first ray moder- 
ately longer than last spine, emargination be- 
tween spinous and soft parts of dorsal very 
moderate. Second anal spine longer and stouter 
than third. Ventral placed behind pectoral, about 
reaching anus, the outer ray usually a little pro- 
longed. Pectoral about reaching third body band, 
that is, a vertical through approximately third 
anal spine. Caudal moderately emarginate. 

Measurements of two specimens 103-115 mm 
and 2 large ones 235-247 mm, expressed as a 
percentage of standard length, measurements of 
smaller specimens in parenthesis. Caudal, slightly 
frayed (31-31.5) 30-30.5; ventral (29-29.5) 27— 
28; pectoral (35.5-36) 41—41.5, a little damaged 
in larger specimens; depth (48-53) 50.5-52.5; 
head (33.5 in both) 33-34; maxillary (12-13) 
13 in both; snout (13.5-14.5) 15.5-17; eye (9-9.5) 
7-7.5; interorbital (11-12) 11.5-12.5. 

Sharply cross banded; a band on nape some- 
what oblique, tapering downward, not extending 
on head, usually not as intensely pigmented as 
posterior bands; body with 5 broad black sharply 
marked bands extending nearly all the way down; 
first and fourth bands under beginning and end 
of dorsal, respectively, only two other bands 
under dorsal base; last band at caudal base; a 
transverse blotch on caudal, at its base, often 


Marcu 1952 GINSBURG: EIGHT NEW FISHES 95 


present, somewhat coalescent with last band; an silvery or golden tinge; dorsal, anal and ventral 
axillary spot on lateral line, placed on and more almost uniformly dark to nearly black; caudal 
intensely pigmented than first body band, some- dusky; pectoral yellowish. 

times imperceptible; ground color grayish with a Only two small specimens, 14-35 mm, have an 


Fias. 5-8.—5, Pristipomoides andersoni, n. sp., holotype; 6, Pagrus sedecim, n. sp., holotype; 7, 
Archosargus oviceps, n. sp., holotype; 8, Menticirrhus focaliger, n. sp., holotype. 


96 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


asymmetrical color pattern, five body bands on 
one side, six on the other. All other 76 specimens 
have 5 body bands on both sides, except that in 
four of the smallest specimens the last one, or 
two bands are more or less faint or irregular. As 
in probatocephalus (see below), specimens with an 
asymmetric color pattern possibly die before at- 
taining any considerable size. 

Holotype —U. 8S. N. M. no. 144151. Barataria 
Bay, La.; Isaac Ginsburg; November 24, 1931; 
in shrimp trawl; 103 mm. 

Paratypes.—Mobile, Ala. (19525). New Orleans, 
La.; Couch (727). Galveston, Tex.; D. 8. Jordan 
(31041). Port Lavaca, Tex.; Graham (726). Bra- 
zos Santiago, Tex.; Emory (728) and J. Wurde- 
mann (730). Tampico, Mexico; Snyder (62282). 
The following were collected on the coast of 
Texas by J. C. Pearson, in 1926: Gulf.of Mexico 
(144158). Harbor Island (144152-5 inel., C. N. 
H. M.). Shamrock Cove (144156). Ingleside 
(144157). Corpus Christi (144160). Corpus Christi 
Pass (144159). Total paratypes 77 specimens, 
11-855 mm. 

Remarks.—This species differs from A. pro- 
batocephalus in normally having five bands on 
the body, not counting the band on the nape, 
instead of six. The band on the nape, the one at 
the caudal base, and one each under the beginning 
and end of the dorsal, occupy the same positions 
in oviceps and probatocephalus; but between the 
latter two bands oviceps has only two others, 
while probatocephalus has three. Other structural 
differences between the two species are not pro- 
nounced; probatocephalus apparently averaging 
a slightly higher dorsal spine count and slightly 
lower pectoral and gill raker counts. 

Of the South American A. aries only one 
specimen was examined, from Venezuela. It is 
apparently nearer to probatocephalus than to ovi- 
ceps. A. aries has six body bands like probato- 
cephalus, but the bands are appreciably narrower. 
In meristic counts the single Venezuelan speci- 
men agrees with probatocephalus, and the differ- 
ences between aries and that species remains to 
be determined by a study of adequate samples. 


Archosargus probatocephalus (Walbaum) 


As the only substantial character determined 
that distinguishes oviceps from probatocephalus 
refers to the number of bands, a study of the vari- 
ability and development of this character in 
probatocephalus was made for comparative pur- 
poses. Variation in the number of bands is shown 


vou. 42, No. 3 


TABLE 3.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER 
oF Bopy Banps IN ARCHOSARGUS 
PROBATOCEPHALUS 


Length of | Distribution 
Locality specimens 
mee IG. G/SI),.S 
iBeesleysphoint-Neuheeareoeee oer eree 25-74 24 | — 1 


Beaufort, NEG. fosscse a eee 
Miscellaneous, Chesapeake Bay to Key 


10-68 182 | 24 | 13 


71-361 1 | = |= 


Homosassa and Tampa Bay, Fla. 92-252 6 | = 


TaBLeE 4.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF NUMBER 
or Bopy BANDS IN ARCHOSARGUS PROBATOCEPH- 
ALUS AS RELATED TO SIZE OF SPECIMENS 


Length of spe- | 
cimens in 
ae 10-25 | 26-41 | 42-58 | 59-74 | 92-361 
umbels 
of body 
bands Ne 
6 68 80 53 6. 24 
6/5 5 16 3 = _ 
5 5 5 3 1 = 


in Table 3. All specimens are divided into three 
groups: (1) With six body bands; not including 
the incomplete band on the nape, (2) with five 
body bands, and (3) asymmetrical, five bands 
on one side, six on the other, the column heading 
being “6/5”. Of the 269 specimens examined 
(six from western Florida, the rest from the 
Atlantic), 24 or slightly less than 9 percent are 
asymmetrical, and 14 or a little over 5 percent 
have five bands. The total of both variant cate- 
gories is slightly over 14 percent. 

Table 3 also shows that all variants except one 
are from Beaufort. The latter composite sample 
comprises young fish, 10-68 mm, which formed 
the basis of the account of development of the 
species by Hildebrand and Cable (1938), and a 
study was made of the development of the bands 
in this species. 

At 10 mm the bands are not sharply outlined, 
but the chromatophores are already crowded 
in definite transverse areas which are separated 
by narrower intervals that are almost devoid of 
chromatophores. By this arrangement the number 
of bands in fish as small as 10 mm is determinable. 
On growing another 2-5 mm, the bands become 
sharply outlined. 

Table 4 shows the grouping of the variants 
with respect to size. They are present in the 
smaller size groups and evidently disappear with 
growth. The largest 5-banded fish is 74 mm, the 
largest asymmetrical specimen 53 mm. Speci- 


Marcy 1952 


mens 92 mm or longer, 24 in all, have a symmetri- 
cal 6-banded pattern. An obvious and plausible 
explanation is that in probatocephalus an asym- 
metric and a 5-banded color pattern is linked 
with a lethal factor which results in the failure 
of such variants to reach some size, much less 
to reach adulthood. It can hardly be explained 
that the asymmetric or 5-banded pattern changes 
with growth to a 6-banded pattern, as the posi- 
tion of the bands is constant and there would 
have to be a radical rearrangement of the chro- 
matophores to produce this change, which is 
hardly probable. The isolating mechanism that 
keeps probatocephalus and oviceps as separate 
species, therefore, seemingly includes two factors, 
one geographic, and another which may be termed 
physiologic, using the term in a broad sense. While 
the evidence is not based on a sufficient number 
of specimens to be altogether conclusive, it is 
fairly presumptive of this conclusion. 


Family SCIAENIDAE 
Menticirrhus focaliger, n. sp. 


GuuFr MINKFISH 


D X; I 24-25. AI (7) 8. P 19-21. Se 75-86. 

Dorsal rays 24 (in 6) or 25 (in 5). Anal rays 
normally 8 (in 26), infrequently 7 (in 1). Dorsal 
and anal spines constant (in 11). Well elongate; 
rather fusiform, but tapering posteriorly more 
than anteriorly and upper profile more curved 
than lower. Snout long, bluntly rounded at tip, 
somewhat conical, projecting beyond upper lip. 
Mouth small, nearly horizontal, notably inferior, 
placed well behind tip of snout. Maxillary ending 
under middle of eye or posterior margin of pupil. 
Interorbital subequal to eye diameter. A single, 
short, rather stout, truncate barbel at chin. 
Lower jaw with five pores, one on midline of chin, 
at base of barbel, two on both sides. Anterior 
margin of snout with four lobes well developed. 
Teeth in jaws in rather broad bands; small, 
except outer teeth in upper jaw rather well 
enlarged, the others subequal; vomer and pala- 
tines toothless. Gill rakers short, rather stout, 
stumpy, comparatively few, the anterior 2 or 3 
gill rakers on lower limb better marked in the 
smaller specimens, reduced to low tubercles or 
to a few spinules at the surface or hardly per- 
ceptible in the larger specimens (hence the tu- 
bercles were not counted, and the gill raker count 
differs with size), 5 + 7-10 in the smaller speci- 
mens (four specimens 53-81 mm), 5 + 6-8 in 
the larger (six specimens 90-132 mm). Hard part 


GINSBURG: EIGHT NEW FISHES 97 


of opercle ending in two widely separated, moder- 
ately pungent or flexible points, without well 
marked spines. Preopercle moderately serrulose 
or crenate, the points moderately pungent or 
flexible. Scaled all over; except a moderate area 
at anterior end of snout naked; scales on chest 
subequal, the middle scales not notably smaller 
than those at periphery; scales on lateral aspect 
of snout and anterior part of cheek cycloid, others 
ctenoid; proximal part of caudal scaled, distal 
part scaleless, except the modified lateral line 
scales extending to its distal margin; ventral and 
pectoral scaled for a short distance at base; a 
single row of scales on second dorsal base; spi- 
nous dorsal and anal scaleless. Spinous and soft 
dorsal well separated, forming two fins; the spines 
flexible; second to fourth spines prolonged, the 
third longest; extent of prolongation varying 
greatly with the individual and increasing with 
growth, tip of longest spine reaching base of 
third to eighth dorsal ray inspecimens 53-103 mm 
(25 fish), to base of ninthray inspecimens 115-132 
mm (2 fish). The single anal spine flexible in the 
larger specimens, moderately pungent in small 
ones. Ventral placed at some distance behind 
pectoral base, falling considerably short of anus. 
End of pectoral falling a little short of a vertical 
through end of ventral in the smaller specimens, 
extending to or a little behind that vertical in 
the larger fish. Caudal asymmetrical, lower part 
rounded, longer than upper part, the latter emar- 
ginate. 

Measurements of six specimens 90-132 mm, 
including the holotype expressed as a percentage 
of standard length: Caudal (lower part) 25- 
27.5, ventral 18-20, pectoral 20-22, depth 24-25, 
head 30-31.5, maxillary 10.5-11, snout 10-11, 
eye 6-7.5, interorbital 6.5-7.5. 

Ground color light yellowish or grayish; with 
dusky or black rather wide bands; four oblique 
bands under dorsal fin running downward and 
forward, the first band under end of spinous 
dorsal continued upward on posterior part of 
fin, the fourth at some distance before end of 
soft dorsal, the bands decreasing in length and 
increasing in obliquity from first to fourth; two 
oblique bands on nape running in opposite diree- 
tion to preceding series, downward and backward; 
the first band of the posterior series and the 
second band of the anterior series forming a 
broad V on side; caudal with a dusky longitudinal 
band along middle of its lower half, often rather 
faintly continued forward on posterior part of 


98 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 3 
TABLE 5.—FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION OF THE NUMBER OF SCALES AND PECTORAL RAYS OF 
MENTICIRRHUS FOCALIGER AS COMPARED WITH M. SAXATILIS. 

Scales Pectoral rays 
Species 
|75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 18! 19 20, 21 
Pell | ln | | leet peal | | | | 
focaliger ........ceceececeees UHI MAO oa | ie hale | 2} 3/47} 4 
saxatilis: | | | | | | | | 
North Carolina........... | [| | | |? 3 Ht) 23] ea a 1) 2] 8 
Wioods¥HoleseeeeCereetcee ale | Pe ey bee 2) 1 gaa |a 2 1 10| 6 


body. The oblique bands described above are 
sometimes sharply black and sometimes hardly 
perceptible. Usually they are of a diffusely dusky 
pigment. In general the bands are better marked 
in the smaller specimens. In life they are more 
sharply outlined than in preserved specimens. 

Holotype-—U. 5. N. M. no. 144161. St. Joseph 
Bay, Fla., near its entrance; Isaac Ginsburg; 
June 21, 1932; 132 mm. 

Paratypes.—F ive specimens 90-114 mm, ob- 
tained with holotype (U. 8. N. M. no. 144163). 
Cape San Blas, Fla.; Isaac Ginsburg; June 20, 
1932; 21 specimens 53-103 mm (U.S.N.M. no. 
144162; C.N.H.M.). 

Remarks.—I obtained the above 27 specimens 
on two successive days at two localities not far 
apart by means of a 30-foot seine on sandy 
beaches. Several drags of the net were made at 
each place and every drag brought in one or more 
specimens of focaliger. Very likely I could have 
obtained more specimens by further seining; but 
at the time I thought that they represented the 


common saxatilis. At Cape San Blas, 38 speci- 
mens of M. americanus and 5 of M. littoralis were 
obtained in the same drags as the 21 focaliger. 
Evidently the three congeneric species live and 
mingle side by side. 

This species is close to M. saxatilis from the 
Atlantic, nearly agreeing with it in normally 
having 8 anal rays, in the extent of prolongation 
of the dorsal spines, in the color pattern and the 
size of the scales on the chest. It differs chiefly in 
having a lower scale count as shown in Table 5. 
While counts of more specimens might show some 
overlap in the distributions of the two species, 
the extent of divergence is evidently of species 
magnitude or very close to it. The populations of 
saxatilis from Woods Hole and North Carolina 
also differ in the scale count, possibly to an 
extent to be treated as distinct subspecies; but 
such is not unusual for north and south popula- 
tions of the same species. The pectoral count of 
focaliger is nearer to the Woods Hole population 
of saxatilis than to the North Carolina population. 


vat 


bce 


fh 


Fig. 9.—Serraniculus pumilio, n. gen. and sp., drawn from a paratype by Ann 8. Green. 


Marcu 1952 


GINSBURG: EIGHT NEW FISHES 99 


NOTES ON THE GEOGRAPHIC DISTRIBUTION OF THF FISH FAUNA OF THE EAST 
COAST OF THE UNITED STATES WITH PARTICULAR REFERENCE TO THREE 


OF THE SPECIES ESTABLISHED ABOVE 


The relationship of thetemperate-water, marine 
fish fauna of the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the 
United States constitutes an interesting problem 
in zoogeography. The peninsula of Florida forms 
an effective natural barrier to the spread, and 
results in the isolation, of fish populations. The 
Gulf fish fauna from the Rio Grande (very little 
is now known of the fishes on the Mexican coast), 
say, roughly to Cape Romano, Fla., is on the 
whole very similar to the temperate-water fish 
fauna of the Atlantic coast of the United States. 
Most species of both coasts are nearly identical 
(with some qualifications as discussed below). 
The southern limit of the temperate Atlantic 
fauna is somewhere between Cape Canaveral and 
Biscayne Bay, Fla. The fauna of the extreme 
end of southern Florida, on the other hand, from 
Biscayne Bay to Tortugas, is in its larger aspects 
tropical and very similar to or nearly identical 
with the West Indian fish fauna and that of 
central and the tropical part of South America. 
The very similar temperate fish faunas of the 
Atlantic and Gulf coasts are thus isolated by the 
physical barrier of the peninsula of Florida and 
by the ecological barrier of the tropical waters 
at the Florida keys. 

The division between the temperate water and 
tropical fish faunas is not sharp. Many species 
do have a discontinuous geographic range. They 
oecur on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of the 
United States; but their geographic distribution 
is interrupted by their absence at the Florida 
keys. On the other hand, from the viewpoint of 
zoogeography, a second category contains many 
species, in the families Carangidae and Lutiani- 
dae for instance, which have a continuous range, 
from the Atlantic coast, around the Florida 
keys, to the Gulf coast and also to the West 
Indies and Central America. The ichthyofauna 
at the Florida keys is not well enough known to 
make a numerical comparison of the species in 
these two categories. Whatever the relative num- 
ber of species in the two categories, those species 
which by their preponderance in numbers give 
character to the fauna, have a discontinuous dis- 
tribution. For instance, the temperate-water 
channel bass, croaker, spot, sea trouts, and men- 
haden, species that dominate the faunal scene 
by their abundance, have a discontinuous dis- 
tribution. Also, most species having a continuous 
geographic range, typically belong rather to the 


tropical fauna. Their center of abundance is at 
the West Indies, the Florida keys and the coast 
of Central America, and occur only sparingly 
farther north on the Atlantic and Gulf coasts of 
the United States. Fewer species with a continu- 
ous geographic range, such as the sheepshead 
and the pigfish, typically belong to the temperate 
water fauna and occur in much reduced numbers 
at the Florida keys. 

As a general rule species are not uniform 
morphologically throughout their geographic 
ranges; they differ more or less with the local 
population. Two species having a continuous 
distribution, which I have studied in detail, 
namely, Bathygobius soporator (Cuvier and Valen- 
clennes), sensu lato (Ginsburg, 1947), and Ba- 
thystoma aurolineatum (C. and V.), sensu lato 
(1948) show that the populations of the Florida 
keys are somewhat intermediate, between the 
comparable West Indies populations and those 
farther north on the coast of the United States. 

Comparisons made of the corresponding pairs 
of populations—one from the Atlantic, the other 
from the Gulf—of species having a discontinuous 
geographic range show that they too diverge more 
or less morphologically. The extent of divergence 
of comparable pairs is of different degrees and 
their magnitudes form a graded series, from 
very slight to very pronounced, with all grada- 
tions in between. (A difference in degrees of 
divergence among species of the same genus 
even, is mentioned above under the account 
of Centropristes melanus.) An example near 
the low end of the series is furnished by the 
Atlantic and Gulf populations of Cynoscion nebu- 
losus as discussed by me in another paper (1938), 
which also gives a number of other, graded 
divergences at or below the subspecies level. 
The divergences of two corresponding pairs, 
namely, Brevoortia tyrannus from the Atlantic 
as compared with B. patronus from the Gulf, 
and B. smithi as compared with B. guntert, re- 
cently published by Hildebrand (1948), are evi- 
dently of higher degrees, near the borderline 
between species and subspecies. The divergence 
of two pairs compared above, namely, Centro- 
pristes striatus with C. melanus and Menticirrhus 
savatilis with M. focaliger, is approximately the 
same as the above named two pairs compared 
by Hildebrand. Finally, as an example near the 
other extreme, that of very pronounced diver- 


100 


gence, the two species of Stenotomus may be 
cited. S. chrysops (Linnaeus) is common on the 
Atlantic coast of the United States and is re- 
placed on the Gulf coast by S. caprinus Bean 
which is not known to occur in the Atlantic. 
This is an example of two closely related allo- 
patric species which replace each other geograph- 
ically but which are so highly divergent that they 
are often placed by authors in separate genera.1 

In sum, subject to the qualifications and ex- 
ceptions discussed, by and large, the fish fauna 
of the Florida keys is tropical and West Indian, 
while that of the Gulf is very similar to the 
temperate water Atlantic fauna. The two very 
similar temperate water faunas are isolated by 
the peninsular barrier. This barrier is such a 
striking feature in the geographic distribution of 
the icthyofauna that it could not have escaped 
the notice of students of fishes. But it is only 
lately that a beginning was made towards a 
detailed study and evaluation of the results of its 
influence on the ramification of fish populations. 
In any further studies, it would be interesting to 
note whether the change in the general character 
of the fauna at the lower end of the peninsula of 
Florida is fairly abrupt or gradual, and if abrupt 
at what area the change occurs. 

The geographic distribution of three species 
described here is not in line with the general 
relationship of the temperate faunas on both 
sides of the now existing peninsular barrier as 
discussed above. The sheepshead, Archosargus 
probatocephalus, is one of those fewer among the 
typically temperate-water species that have a 
continuous geographic distribution, occurring as 


1 As the above statements regarding Stenotomus 
are at variance with published accounts, it should 
be here said that they are based on original and as 
yet unpublished data and observations. I did this 
work in preparing an account of the Gulf coast 
fishes. The specimens of Stenotomus examined from 
the Atlantic range from the Bay of Fundy in the 
north to Cape Canaveral, Fla; those of the cor- 
responding population in the Gulf range from 
Pensacola, Fla., to Aransas Pass, Tex. Of the At- 
lantic material a few specimens from near the ex- 
tremes of their geographic range were studied in 
detail and compared with those in the Gulf. All 
available specimens, more than 100 in number, 
were then examined for the most critical distin- 
guishing characters. As a result of these studies I 
have come to the conclusion that only two species 
of the common scups are known, namely, Steno- 
tomus (Stenotomus) chrysops, which is confined to 
the Atlantic, and Stenotomus (Otrynter) caprinus, 
which is confined to the Gulf. Judged by analogy, 
by the distribution of Archosargus probatocephalus, 
as determined during this investigation and re- 
corded above, S. chrysops might occur in western 
Florida, but this remains to be determined. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 3 
it does, in reduced numbers, in the Florida keys. 
A comparison of the specimens examined from 
Tampa Bay and Homosassa with those from the 
Atlantic coast makes it evident that any diver- 
gence that might exist between the Atlantic and 
west Florida populations will prove to be of very 
minor degree, decidedly below the subspecies 
level. This relationship is similar to that of the 
populations of many other species on the opposite 
sides of the peninsular barrier. However, in the 
case of the sheepshead, something different is 
also indicated. The population on the west coast 
of Florida differs materially from the comparable 
population on the coast of Alabama, Louisiana, 
Texas, and Mexico, the difference being such 
that they may be treated as distinct species; that 
is, on the Gulf coast westward of Florida proba- 
tocephalus is replaced by a distinct species, ovt- 
ceps. A similar, though not parallel, difference in 
distribution is indicated further by two other 
species here described, M. focaliger and C. mela- 
NUS. 

The two species of Menticirrhus compared 
above, focaliger and saxatilis, are examples of two 
corresponding populations that replace each other 
on the two sides of the peninsular barrier and 
that have attained a divergence of species magni- 
tude. This also is not unusual. Similar instances 
have been cited above. However, focaliger ap- 
parently does not occur on the Gulf coast west- 
ward of Florida. Of the thousands of specimens I 
closely examined or observed on the coast of 
Louisiana and Texas, not a single focaliger was 
found; they all comprised two species, americanus 
and littoralis, which also occur on the west Florida 
and Atlantic coasts. M. focaliger is also lacking 
among the many specimens of Menticirrhus, 
which John C. Pearson preserved during his 
study of the sciaenids of the Texas coast, and it 
was not found in the National Museum. It seems 
safe to conclude, therefore, that it does not 
occur in the Gulf west of Florida. Apparently this 
also holds for Centropristes melanus. The latter 
species has been masquerading heretofore under 
the name C. striatus. There are no indisputable 
records of its having been taken westward of 
Florida. I have not encountered it in my col- 
lecting trips from Alabama to Texas; and no 
specimens from the coast of those States are 
present in the large collection of Centropristes 
in the National Museum. Weed (1937) gives an 
extensive annotated bibliography of Centro- 
pristes. None of the references cited contain an 
undoubted record of the black seabass west of 


Marcu 1952 


Florida. One reference, that by Collins and 
Smith, recording C. striatus as being a commercial 
species in Mississippi, is most probably based not 
on actual specimens but on reports of fishermen 
and fish dealers, and it very likely refers to some 
other species designated ‘‘seabass” in the fish 
trade of Mississippi, rather than to Centropristes. 
The specimens that Weed designated as striatus 
and that are designated above melanus all came 
from Florida. 

Still another example, again not altogether 
parallel, is furnished by the species of Hzippo- 
campus (Ginsburg, 1937). H. zosterae occurs on 
the coast of Florida and is replaced on the coasts 
of Mississippi and Texas by the closely related 
and morphologically somewhat overlapping H. 
regulus. This case is not altogether parallel in as 
much as H. zosterae is not known to occur in the 
Atlantic north of Biscayne Bay; but it indicates a 
marked difference in the fish fauna between the 
Gulf coast of Florida and the coast westward of 
Florida. 

The peculiar geographic distribution of the 
four species discussed, as compared with their 
close relatives, challenges a rational explanation. 
On the surface the existing ecological conditions 
on the greater part of the Florida west coast 
are not so strikingly different from those of most 
other parts of the Gulf coast as to account for 
this difference in geographical distribution. Yet, 
in some important elements, the fish fauna of 
the Gulf coast of Florida differs markedly from 
that of the coast of Alabama and westward and 
is nearer to that of the Atlantic coast. 

In our present state of knowledge only specu- 
lative suggestions may be made. One such sug- 
gestion would be the existence of some past or 
present barrier, now unrecognized. On this as- 
sumption the thought that comes to mind first 
is an ecological barrier, namely, the soft or muddy 
nature of the bottom in the delta region resulting 
from the tremendous mass of silt carried down 
by the Mississippi River. But, while this may 
be a partial factor in isolating fish populations, 
it evidently does not offer a full explanation of 
the peculiar distribution here discussed. Most 
species are able to surmount this barrier. More- 
over, the fauna on the coasts of Alabama and 
Mississippi, on the east side of the Mississippi 
Delta, is the same as far as we know now as that 
of Louisiana and Texas, west of the delta. Another 
assumption would be the probable existence of 
a faunal barrier, similar to the now existing 
peninsular barrier, physical or ecological, in some 
past geologic epoch, perhaps the Pliocene, some- 


GINSBURG: EIGHT NEW FISHES 


101 


where between what is now Cape San Blas, 
Fla., and Mobile Bay, Ala. This hypothetical] 
barrier must have antedated the peninsular bar- 
rier as it now exists. It produced its effect in 
isolating fish populations when the west coast of 
Florida was still continuous with the Atlantic 
coast, at least when it was climatologically and 
ecologically uninterrupted and supporting the 
same fauna. The proof of such a hypothesis, of 
course, lies within the province of historical 
geology as well as zoogeography. My main ob- 
ject here is to place the zoogeographic evidence 
on record as it relates to fishes, for the purpose of 
correlation with similar evidence that might exist 
for other groups or that might be discovered in 
the future study of fishes. 


LITERATURE CITED 


BouLENGER, GrorGE ALBERT. Catalogue of the 
perciform fishes in the British Museum, ed. 2,1. 
1895. 

Cuvier, GEORGES, and VALENCIENNES, ACHILLE. 
Histoire naturelle des poissons 3. 1829. 

Fowuer, Henry W. Notes on Serranidae. Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sei. Philadelphia 59 : 249-269. 1907. 

GinsBurRG, Isaac. Review of the seahorses (Hippo- 
campus) found on the coasts of American con- 
tinents and of Europe. Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 
83 : 497-594. 1937. 

———. Arithmetical definition of the species, sub- 
species and race concept, with a proposal for a 
modified nomenclature. Zoologica 23 (3): 253- 
286. 1938. 

———. American species and subspecies of Bathy- 
gobius, with a demonstration of a suggested 
modified system of nomenclature. Journ. Wash- 
ington Acad. Sci. 37 (8): 275-288. 1947. 

. The species of Bathystoma (Pisces, Haemu- 
lonidae). Zoologica 33 (3): 151-156. 1948. 

HILDEBRAND, SAMUEL F. A review of the American 
menhaden, genus Brevoortia, with a description 
of a new species. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 107 
(18): 1-39. 1948. 

——— and Casue, Lovenua E. Further notes on 
the development and life history of some teleosts 
at Beaufort, N. C. Bull. U. 8. Bur. Fish. 48 
(24): 505-642. 1938. 

JorpaNn, Davip Srarr. Notes on typical specimens 
of fishes described by Cuvier and Valenciennes 
and preserved in the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle 
in Paris. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 9: 525-546. 
1887. 

——— gnd EIGENMANN, Carl H. A review of the 
the genera and species of Serranidae found in 
the waters of America and Europe. Bull. U.S. 
Fish Comm. 8: 329-441. 1890. 

——— and Evermann, Barron W. The fishes of 
North and Middle America. Bull. U. S. Nat. 
Mus. 47 (1): 1-1240, figs. in separate volume. 
1896. 

Wrep, AuFrRED C. Notes on seabasses of the genus 
Centropristes. Publ. Field Mus. Nat. Hist. 
Zool. 20 (23): 291-320. 1937. 


102 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 3 


MAMMALOGY.—A new Clyomys from Paraguay (Rodentia: Echimyidae). Joao 
Moosen, Museu Nacional, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. (Communicated by Her- 


bert Friedmann.) 


Among the mammal specimens collected 
by Charles Wharton in Paraguay is an 
apparently undescribed form of the genus 
Clyomys. Hitherto this genus has been 
known only from specimens obtained by 
Lund at Lagoa Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil. 
This new form appears to be subspecifically 
distinguishable, as follows: 


Clyomys laticeps whartoni, n. subsp. 


Type.—Museu Nacional no. 11400, adult male; 
collected on May 5, 1950, by Charles Wharton. 

Type locality —I|1 km north of Aca-poi, long. 
56°7’ W., lat. 23°5’ S., Department of San Pedro, 
Partido de Taquati, Paraguay; approximately 60 
km east-northeast of Puerto Ybapobo and 10 km 
south of the Rio Ypané. Specimen trapped alive 
at mouth of burrow in cafadon (natural open- 
ing). 

Diagnosis—Head grizzled ferruginous and 
black, more uniformly ferruginous on the nose 
and cheeks. Back rufous strongly mixed with 
black, the amount of black decreasing to the 
sides of body and caudad. Sides of the body and 
primna more uniform cinnamon. Tail like back 
in the proximal fifth, covered with stiff blackish 
hairs in the remaining portion. Hands and feet 
finely grizzled whitish and rufous with some 
black intermixed. Ventral surface grayish white 
with gray patches in the gular region and middle 
of chest and belly. 

Pelage.—Aristiforms on shoulder: Grayish 
basally, gradually blackening toward tip but 
interrupted by an Apricot Orange subapical zone: 
about half of them with no subapical zone and 
therefore completely black in the distal part; 
groove of aristiforms dorsal, as in Huryzygoma- 
tomys; total length 18 to 20 mm; maximum width 
0.5 to 0.6 mm. 

Setiforms on shoulder: Whitish basally, grad- 
ually darkening toward tip but interrupted by 
an Apricot Buff subapical zone; total length 
about 18 mm; maximum width 0.1 to 0.2 mm. 

Aristiforms on middorsal region: Grayish 
basally, gradually blackening toward tip but 
most of them interrupted by an Apricot Buff 
subapical zone; total length 20 to 23 mm; maxi- 
mum width 0.8 to 0.9 mm. 

Setiforms on middorsal region: Grayish basally, 


gradually darkening toward tip but interrupted 
by a broad Salmon-Buff subapical zone; total 
leneth 15 to 20 mm; maximum width 0.02 mm. 

Setiforms on thighs: Almost uniformly with a 
broad Apricot Buff subapical zone. 

Measurements.—Dry skin: Head and body, 
190 mm; tail, 69 mm; hind foot (¢.u.) 36 mm; 
ear, 16 mm. 

Skull: Greatest length, 46.9 mm; basal length, 
44.5 mm; zygomatic breadth, 26.5 mm; length of 
nasals, 14 mm; interorbital breadth, 11.7 mm; 
palatilar length, 17.6 mm; bullae, 14.6 by 10.4 
mm; crown length of cheek teeth, 9.3 mm. 

Comparisons——This new subspecies differs 
from C. l. laticeps in having grayish patches on 
the gular region and median ventral surface. The 
palate is shorter and the bullae are larger than 
in C. l. laticeps. 

Remarks.—The discovery of Clyomys laticeps 
in Paraguay considerably extends its range, show- 
ing that the species probably lives in the whole 
savannah region of the South American central 
plateau. Since it is now known from Lagéa 
Santa, Minas Gerais, Brazil, and Taquati, Para- 
guay, it should follow the pattern of distribution 
of other genera in the same family, as for in- 
instance Cercomys, Euryzygomatomys, and Car- 
terodon, which live in similar habitat. 

The fact also that Mr. Wharton was not able 
to find the species in Summerfeld Colony, De- 
partment of Yhu, lat. 25°20’ S., and long. 55°45’ 
W., supports the assumption that most of the 
Echimyidae do not go below lat. 24° S. in spite 
of topographical and floristical conditions. 

Mr. Wharton intends to publish on the habits 
of the subspecies. 

An old adult female was also examined, col- 
lected by Mr. Wharton in the same locality, and 
will be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum 
collection. The color of this specimen is consid- 
erably lighter than that of the type, the subapical 
zone of the aristiformes being Salmon-Buff. Its 
measurements are: Skin (in the flesh): Head and 
body, 107 mm; tail, 75 mm; hind hoot, 21 mm. 
Skull: Greatest length, 47.1 mm; basal length, 
44.1 mm; zygomatic breadth, 26.5 mm; length 
of nasal, 13.0 mm; interorbital breadth, 10.9 mm; 
palatilar length, 17.1 mm; bullae, 14.4 by 10.1 
mm; crown length of cheek teeth 9.1 mm. 


Marca 1952 


ZIMMER: A NEW FINCH FROM PERU 103 


ORNITHOLOGY.—A new finch from northern Peri. Joun T. ZimMER, American 
Museum of Natural History. (Communicated by Herbert Friedmann. ) 


A small consignment of Peruvian birds, 
recently submitted by Javier Ortiz de la 
Puente, of the Museo de Historia Natural 
‘Javier Prado’ of Lima, Pert, contained, 
among other interesting specimens, a fine 
new finch belonging to the genus [ncaspiza. 
Sefor Ortiz de la Puente has kindly given 
me permission to describe this new bird and, 
in addition, has generously given the type 
to the American Museum of Natural 
History, for which I am grateful. 

I am also indebted to Rodolphe M. de 
Schauensee, of the Academy of Natural 
Sciences of Philadelphia, for the loan of a 
specimen of one of the allied species of 
Incaspiza, not contained in the American 
Museum series, and one additional young 
individual of uncertain affinity. Both ex- 
amples were examined some years ago 
but were studied again in comparison with 
the new form. 

The new bird may be known as follows. 
Names of colors are capitalized when 
direct comparison has been made with 
Ridgway’s Color standards and color nomen- 
clature. 


Incaspiza ortizi, n. sp. 


Type—FKrom-near La Esperanza, Dept. Caja- 
marca, Pert; altitude 1,800 meters. Amer. Mus. 
Nat. Hist. no. 748395. Adult female collected 
April 24, 1951, by Javier Ortiz de la Puente. 

Diagnosis—Somewhat similar to I. pulchra of 
central-western Peri (Departments Ancash to 
Lima at approximately the same elevations) but 
differing in various respects. Upper parts darker 
and duller, more streaked and without any bright 
rufescence; gray of breast lighter and clearer, 
being broadly extended down the flanks; belly 
white, without buff; facial pattern different, hav- 
ing broader black on the front and a more re- 
stricted black gular patch, which, however, is 
broadly connected with the lores; no gray super- 
ciliary stripe over the lores and only a weak sug- 
gestion of one between the black orbital ring and 
the crown; feet paler yellowish. The facial pat- 
tern rather noticeably resembles that of J. per- 
sonata (of even higher elevations in the Caja- 
marca region), giving the only obvious feature of 
resemblance to that species. 

Range.—At present known definitely only from 


the type locality, on the western side of the An- 
des of northern Pert. Possibly crossing the An- 
des to the eastern slope of the Western Cordillera. 

Description of type-—Crown Deep Mouse Gray 
with poorly defined darker shaft streaks; back of 
head a little lighter; mantle Hair Brown x 
Mouse Gray with rather broad, sooty shaft 
streaks, not sharply defined; forehead broadly 
black with the shading extending over the lores, 
narrowly around the orbit, broadly over the ma- 
lar apex, and moderately broadly over the chin; 
rest of sides of the head Neutral Gray x Light 
Neutral Gray, merging with the Pale Neutral 
Gray of the throat; breast a little lighter, with 
traces of whitish shaft lines; flanks broadly Pale 
Neutral Gray; belly white; under tail coverts 
whitish, faintly tinged with light buff. Remiges 
near Hair Brown; primaries. with exterior mar- 
gins finely Drab-Gray ; secondaries with this outer 
margin broader and less well defined; tertials 
with a brown submarginal area passing into a 
grayer margin; upper primary coverts dusky with 
dull grayish margins; greater coverts like the 
secondaries; median and lesser series gray with 
lighter margins; under primary coverts dull gray- 
ish; remainder of under coverts whitish; inner 
margins of remiges soiled whitish. Median three 
pairs of rectrices blackish with prominent gray 
margins tending to broaden at the tips (worn 
plumes faded to brown); fourth pair blackish, 
with a large white patch on the terminal part of 
the inner web, adjoining the shaft but withdrawn 
from the inner margin except for a short distance 
terminally; subexternal pair similarly marked but 
the white patch reaching well over half the dis- 
tance basad along the shaft and a third of the 
distance on the inner margin; outermost pair 
with the white even more extensive, involving 
most of both webs except for a dusky diagonal 
patch at the base and a narrow streak on the 
outer web near the tip. Bill Gn dried skin) Capu- 
cine Yellow x Deep Chrome; feet Maize Yellow. 
Wing, 73 mm; tail, 67; exposed culmen, 14.5; 
culmen from base, 18; tarsus, 26.5. 

Remarks. 
mon, Perti, kindly lent by Mr. de Schauensee, of 
the Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia, 
may be an immature example of the present spe- 


A young male from Hacienda Li- 


cies, but it is impossible to be certain without 
adults from the same locality. I have no ecom- 
parable plumages of pulchra or personata, but the 


104 


characters of this young bird approximate those 
of adult ortizi more than those of either of the 
other forms. The bill is of much the same con- 
formation; the upper parts are strongly streaked, 
and the pattern of the tail is very similar. The 
under parts are dull with prominent pectoral 
streaks, and there is no facial black although the 
lores and malar apex (but not the forehead or 
chin) are somewhat dusky. There is, however, a 
rather broad superciliary stripe over the orbit 
and the lores to the base of the bill which may 
indicate relationship to pulchra more than to 
ortizi. For the present I prefer to leave this bird 
with a query. 

The possibility exists that ortiz: and pulchra 
are conspecific or even, as maintained by Hell- 
mayr, that pulchra and personata bear that close 
relationship, but I believe the situation is not 
sufficiently clear to establish such arrangement 
without question. The various members of the 
genus incaspiza, including several species that 
are rather obviously no more than generically 
related to these three forms, all exhibit notable 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 3 


similarities in pattern of coloration, and the pos- 
session of one or more resemblances of this sort. 
in common is not an adequate criterion of con- 
specific affinity. 

I have been handicapped to a certain extent by 
lacking a female of pulchra or a male of ortizv. 
Throughout the genus Incaspiza, however, the 
sexes show no striking distinctions. Furthermore, 
both sexes of pulchra were studied by Hellmayr, 
who reported no differences except of size; a fe- 
male was slightly smaller than two males. Conse- 
quently I am confident that the characters of 
ortiz’ can not be attributed to any sexual dif- 
ferentiation. 

I take great pleasure in naming this fine bird 
for its discoverer. 

Specimens examined.—As follows: 

T. ortizi.—Prrt: La Esperanza, 1 9 (type). 

I. pulchra.—Perrt: Yuramarca, Dept. Ancash, 
I, oft 

I. personata.—PERG: Cajabamba, 2 o; near 
Cajamarca, 2 o&',4 9; Succha, 1 @. 

I. species?.—Prrt: Hacienda Limén, 1 o juv.! 


1 Specimens in Acad. Nat. Sci., Philadelphia. 


Obituary 


Merritt Bernarp was born at Burlington, 
Towa, on July 25, 1892. He died in his home in 
Washington, D. C., on April 18, 1951. He is sur- 
vived by his wife Claudia Bernard. 

Bernard completed his education at the North 
Carolina Military Academy (Preparatory), Mil- 
tary College of South Carolina, and A. and M. 
College 0. Oklahoma, after which he practiced 
municipal, irrigation, and railroad engineering in 
Louisiana and Texas. After military service as 
first lleutenant during the First World War 
(1917-18) he engaged in consulting engineering 
practice in Louisiana, Texas, and Central Amer- 
ica, including hydrologic consultant for the Mis- 
sissippi Valley Committee in 1934-1936, and brief 
associations with the U.S. Geological Survey and 
the Soil Conservation Service. He became chief, 
River and Flood Division, U.S. Weather Bureau 
in 1937, advancing to hydrologic director, 1939, 
and finally chief, Climatological and Hydrologic 
Services, in 1946, the position he held at the time 
of his death. Among the special assignments he 
accomplished were those of member, American 
Meteorological Mission to USSR (1945), and me- 
teorological attaché to embassy, Moscow (1946). 

His many contributions in the fields of hy- 
drology and meteorology are notably important 
for their success in clarifying the relationship 
between these two sciences. His paper Primary 
role of meteorology in flood flow estimating won 
for him the Norman Medal of the American So- 
ciety of Civil Engineers in 1945. 

In addition to his association with this Acad- 


1} 

emy, Merrill Bernard was affiliated with the In- 
ternation Association of Hydrology, IUGG, of 
which he was president; International Meteoro- 
logical Organization, in which he served as presi- 
dent of their jomt subcommittee on machine 
methods, and vice president of their technical 
comm ssion on hydrology; American Meteorolog- 
ical Society; American Geophysical Union; and 
American Society of Civil Engineers. 

His widely recognized abilities and professional 
prestige, combined in action with his personal 
likability and unvarying loyalty to the Service, 
gained for the Weather Bureau a great many ad- 
vantages in its work with such other agencies as 
the Corps of Engineers, the Bureau of Reclama- 
tion, and the U.S. Geological Survey, with whose 
cooperation, under his active guidance, many 
major projects of public benefit and value have 
been developed and are now in continuing opera- 
tion. Outstanding examples of these are the objec- 
tives and output of the hydrometeorological and 
the cooperative studies sections of the Clima- 
tological and Hydrologic Services Division in 
Washington for which his vision and ingenuity 
are very largely to be thanked, and which have 
become indispensable as aids in relating the facts. 
and potentials of storm behavior to the design and 
location of flood-control and water-conservation 
construction throughout the country. Less well- 
defined but of comparable character and value 
was the success of his effort to extend the flood- 
forecasting function of the Weather Bureau to 
upstream and headwater areas.—W. F. F. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


[PROSCUG Dim ie oo Rea tice Ceo peeaee Water Rampere, National Bureau of Standards 
aS CSULCTLCLECE ME Aeneas FT Toe EM Eee Cac ins F. M. Serzuer, U.S. National Museum 
SRRRAUTID] s ob chars eae u kiana Beate Cae eee F. M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
I REP SOT Too RACERS roe Howarp S. Rapprieye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
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F.S. Dart, Grorcs W. Irvine, Jr., J. H. McMILLEN 
For Teaching of Science...... M. A. Mason (chairman), F. E. Fox, M. H. Martin 


Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research....... L. E. Yocum (chairman), H. N. Eaton, 
K. F. HprzFreip 


Committee on Policy and Planning: 


PROMAMU AT MO DSK eases yaxe crereh Aehees he a) eae; cases W. A. Dayton (chairman), N. R. Smrre 

Mogdamu ary WO 54 ee... ede cc nine qe-ceom aera oe cee H. B. Couurns, Jr.. W. W. Rusey 

PROM Ua ty al OO arte wee cleanse pata imete ci pees acshelere lays anes L. W. Parr, F. B. StusBeE 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPuHerson, chairman): 

AG) Unrate AOR ene Geis 5 bie ate Rea trn Reig iit ane een ereae ANG Jal. CLARK, F. L. Mounier 

POM ATI Ty MO GANS seme Renn eet Palgsy «ee ces ahecn sletay sraveiet J. M. CALDWELL, "W. L. Scamirr 

ARG UDMRET AY IE ST Bis odo bode pOSd GIO UGS SG eeeerEs AY. McPHERSON, W. T. Reap 
EDRESETILALUVEROT COUNCILOfp AmpAcPAls Seen se ecdscceessead essen s ese: F. M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... C. L. Gazrn (chairman), Loutsp M. Russet, D. R. Tate 


Committee of Tellers...GEORGE P. WAuTON (chairman), Grorce H. Coons, C. L. GARNER 


CONTENTS 


Page 
ANTHROPOLOGY.—Some applications of physical anthropology. Robert 
IMI SWRI oot Sn castehe acho cee atic andes s Beaches nS clare SEO UC 65 
GroLocy.—Paleozoic of western Nevada. H. G. FERGUSON.......... 72 
PALEONTOLOGY.—Some new species of crinoids from the Henry nee 
formation of Oklahoma. Harreni L. SrRIMPLE................ 75 


PALEONTOLOGY.—CYribrotextularia, a new foraminiferal genus from the 
Eocene of Florida. ALFrep R. Lorsiicu, Jr., and HELEN Tappan 79 


ZooLocy.—Ammopemphiz, new name for the Recent foraminiferal genus 
Urnula Wiesner: ~Atrrep R. LOEBLICH, JR............ 29: 82 


Zootogy.—A new Calyptrophora (Coelenterata: Octocorallia) from the 
Philippine Islands) ERepERIcCK M. BAYER, ............5seeee 82 


IcuTHYoLoGy.—Hight new fishes from the Gulf coast of the United 
States, with two new genera and notes on geographic distribution. 
TSANG “GINSBURG. 06 oo ek ee eta de cs oe a ls er 84 


Mammatocy.—A new Clyomys from Paraguay (Rodentia: Echimyidae). 
JOLOSMOOIEN As... aec hes actors ees ee ahegee ah. ee 102 


OrNITHOLOGY.—A new finch from northern Peri. Joun T. Zimmer... 103 
OpimuARyee ernie Bernarcd ee eee eee ee 104 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


VoL. 42 


Aprit 1952 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


Wiuiiam F. FosHaG 


U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


F, A. Cuace, JR. 


BIOLOGY 


J. I. HorrmMan 
CHEMISTRY 


T. P. THAYER 


GEOLOGY 


BOARD OF EDITORS 
J. P. E. Morrison 


U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


JOHN C. EwEers 


U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


Miriam L. Bomuarp 
BOTANY 


R. K. Coox 


PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 


PHILIP DRUCKER 
ANTHROPOLOGY 


C. W. SABROSKY 
ENTOMOLOGY 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 


BY THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Mount Roya & GuILFoRD AVES. 


Battimore, MARYLAND 


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Authorized February 17, 1949 


No. 4 


Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 42 April 


1952 No. 4 


METEOROLOGY .—On the variation of the average daily temperature at Washington, 


D.C. Ricumonp T. Zocu. 


The long-period averages of temperature, 
the “normals,” have been computed for 
Washington by numerous persons since 
continuous records were made here. The 
object of having a normal daily temperature 
is to make an estimate of the temperature 
for each day. The temperature on the same 
day for different years varies considerably ; 
and as no paper has been published showing 
how variable this daily temperature can be, 
this paper has been prepared. 

The standard deviations and the extremes 
for each day of the year, derived from a 60- 
year period of record, have been computed 
and are shown in a table. 

Finally, it is pointed out that while there 
is no diurnal variation in the normal daily 
temperature, there is a definite diurnal 
variation in the standard deviation of the 
average daily temperature, and this has a 
bearing on the long standing question of the 
reality of singularities. 


COMPUTING THE STANDARD DEVIATION 


One of the most obvious facts of meteor- 
ology is that there is a diurnal variation in 
the temperature of the air. Another obvious 
fact is that there is an annual variation in 
the air temperature; this latter variation is 
usually referred to as the annual march of 
temperature. In making studies of the 
nature of the annual variation it is sometimes 
useful and convenient first to eliminate 
the diurnal variation. In the past, this has 
been done most often by taking the daily 
maximum and daily minimum temperatures, 
adding them together and dividing their 
sum by two. This is the method used by 
C. F. Marvin when he compiled Monthly 
Weather Review Supplement No. 25, which 
contains daily normal temperatures for each 


of the principal cities in the United States 
including Washington. Other methods of 
computing the average daily temperature 
have also been used and the reader who is 
interested in them should refer to Bulletin 
S of the U.S. Weather Bureau. The method 
used in this study was to take the twenty- 
four hourly readings of the temperature for 
each day, add them and divide the sum by 
24. 

The temperature observations used in this 
study were all made by the U. 8. Weather 
Bureau at its central office located on the 
southwest corner of twenty fourth and 
M Streets, N.W. A continuous record of 
temperature has been maintained there 
since March 1889 by means of a thermo- 
graph, and this thermograph has been 
regularly checked with standard as well as 
maximum and minimum thermometers. 
From the thermograph traces hourly read- 
ings of temperature have been extracted. 
The Weather Bureau computed daily aver- 
ages from the 24 hourly readings from the 
beginning of this record through 1942. 
The averages for the years 1943 through 
(March) 1949 were specially computed for 
this study. 

It is worth pointing out that the record 
of temperature at twenty fourth and M 
Streets, N.W., maintained by the Weather 
Bureau is the longest record of temperature 
for any location in the District of Columbia. 
The record used for this study was exactly 
60 years (to the nearest whole day) and 
commenced with the day after the vernal 
equinox in 1889 and ended on the day of the 
vernal equinox in 1949, and this period 
comprises 21,914 days. The date of the 
vernal equinox in both 1889 and 1949 was 
March 20 although prior to 1900 it was most 


105 


106 


often March 20, and after 1900 it was 
usually on March 21. 

The average temperature for these 21,914 
days was arranged into 366 arrays, one 
array for each day, the arrays so placed that 
both the vernal equinox and the autumnal 
equinox of each year were always in the 
same array. These two days are near the 
times of the year when the annual march of 
temperature is rising or falling most rapidly, 
respectively. As the time from the vernal 
equinox to the autumnal equinox during 
these years was approximately 186 days 
10 hours and from the autumnal equinox to 
the vernal equinox approximately 178 days 
20 hours, there were 186 arrays with 60 
days each beginning with the vernal equinox 
prior to the autumanl equinox and 178 
arrays with 60 days each beginning with the 
autumnal equinox prior to the vernal 
equinox. These 364 arrays thus accounted 
for 21,840 days. The remaining 74 days were 
placed in two arrays, one about January 20 
with 49 days and the other about July 22 
with 25 days. 

After the average daily temperatures 
were placed in these 366 arrays several 
statistical parameters were obtained for each 
array. First the arithmetic mean was com- 
puted for each array, and secondly the 
standard deviation. Next, a frequency 
distribution for each array was made and 
the extremes (lowest average daily temper- 
ature and highest average daily temperature, 
not the absolute maximum and absolute 
minimum), the upper and lower quartiles 
and the median of each array were obtained. 
Table 1 shows these standard deviations and 
extremes. The arithmetic means, quartiles, 
and medians are not given in this paper. 

Table 2 summarizes, or smoothes, the 
data shown in Table 1. Here the day to day 
fluctuations are ironed out and one can see 
at a glance how the standard deviations 
and extremes of the average daily temper- 
atures change during the year. Table 2 also 
shows the smoothed averages of the daily 
arithmetic means which were omitted from 
Table 1. The standard deviation is greatest 
in winter and least in summer. Table 2 is 
intended only to show roughly the annual 
variation. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


THE DIURNAL VARIATION OF THE 
STANDARD DEVIATION 


The question naturally arises, in making 
these analyses of temperature, when is the 
best, or most logical, time to begin the 
“day,” the 24-hour period. No answer is 
given to this question in this article but a 
few comparisons were made and the results 
of these will be shown. 

The U.S. Weather Bureau, in computing 
the average daily temperature from the 24 
hourly readings, quite naturally used the 
civil day, when the end of one ‘‘day” and 
the beginning of the next occurs at midnight. 
There is no a priori reason for assuming this 
to be the most logical time. The most care- 
ful or thorough way to investigate this 
would be to begin the “‘day”’ with each one 
of the 24 hours. Then, instead of having 
21,914 average daily temperatures for this 
60 year period of record there would be 24 
times 21,914 or 525,936 average daily 
temperatures to be placed in 24 sets of 366 
arrays and then 24 sets of 366 arithmetic 
means, standard deviations, extremes, quar- 
tiles and medians to be computed or derived. 
Clearly, to do this task in such a thorough 
manner is a machine job, and it was not 
possible for the present writer to undertake 
it. To make some investigation it was 
decided to use a ‘‘day”’ for which the end of 
one 24-hour period and the beginning of the 
next occurs at noon. This additional investi- 
gation would mean one additional set of 
366 arrays, and to proceed it would first 
be necessary to compute 21,914 new average 
daily temperatures. Even this was too large 
an undertaking by hand methods so this 
investigation was confined to a 31-day 
period, the 31 days following the vernal 
equinox. 

First, 1860 average daily temperatures 
were computed where the end of one 24- 
hour period and the beginning of the next 
was at noon. Then these 1860 average daily 
temperatures were arranged into 31 arrays 
with 60 temperatures in each array; finally 
the arithmetic means and the standard 
deviations were computed and the ex- 
tremes obtained for each of these 31 arrays. 
These results are shown in Tables 3 and 4. 


Aprit 1952 ZOCH—AVERAGE D. C. TEMPERATURE 107 


TABLE 1.—STANDARD DEVIATIONS AND ExrREMES FoR Hacu Day oF THE Year 


ay Ww Year Highest Y i 
5 go ee ee ees ae 
vernal ature occur- oF ature — occur- dar vernal ature occur- “deviation ature occur- dar 
equinox °F rence F tence date equinox °F rence F °F rence date 
Mar. May 
1 30.4 1914 10.61 74.8 1948 21 52 49.0 1907 6.44 81.2 1896 11 
2 21.5 1934 10.63 75.6 1948 22 53 49.5 1939 7.02 79.2 1896 12 
3 23.8 1906 Waid 67.0 1929 23 54 50.2 1895 6.59 75.3 1908 13 
4 26.0 1940 9.06 Testes 1939) 24 55 49.7 1895 6.44 Mot A) 
5 26.7 1940 9.52 68.7 1939 25 56 49.7 1895 7.05 78-1 | 1900) 15 
6 29.9 1894 9.76 Tle eR) OB 57 49.1 1895 6.40 HO i ig 
7 27.0 1994 10.00 Tn Rl | 58 52.1 1891 6.13 8 - iil sy 
8 29.8 1923 9.72 72 1907) 728 59 52.9 1895 6.15 He i oe 
9 34.0 1893 8.94 72.5 1945 29 60 54.8 1915 6.03 80.4 191 © 19 
10 26.2 1923 8.24 70.8 1945 30 61 50.3 1929 6.82 78.4 1898 20 
62 49.8 1895 6.53 80.8 1911 21 
11 25.9 1923 8.17 65.6 1945 31 
Apr. 63 52.1 1895 7.54 82.1 1941 22 
12 31.8 1924 9.18 71.2 1917 1 64 53.4 1889 6.05 80.4 1925 23 
B 34.9 1911 8.26 69.5 1903 2 65 53.2 1907 6.11 77.9 1946 24 
14 35.4 1908 8.59 70.7 1913 3 66 47.7 1925 6.06 78.6 1918 25 
15 35.0 1896 8.98 69.3 1910 4 67 52.7 1925 6.53 78.8 1914 26 
16 34.1 1944 7.61 74.5 1942 5 68 53.3 1902 6.99 83.9 1941 27 
17 35.5 1898 8.53 75.0 1942 6 69 55.8 1891 6.68 83.8 1941 28 
18 38.4 1935 8.40 77.5 1929 7 70 54.6 1915 6.60 79.6 1939 29 
19 35.1 1916 7.55 76.7 1929 8 71 55.2 1910 6.50 82.6 1895 30 
20 34.0 1917 8.83 77.6 1922 9 72 52.8 1907 6.40 84.3 1895 31 
21 34.3 1918 8.79 73.9 1922 10 Wane 
22 34.9 1894 7.62 Pe? 1947 11 73 50.8 1907 6.40 85.7 1895 1 
23 39.5 1894 7.21 69.6 1948 12 74 54.9 1915 6.99 86.7 18 
a a F 95 2 
24 34.7 1940 8.05 72.4 1945 13 75 54.4 1929 6.63 85.2 1895 
25 36.8 1923 8.80 74.8 1941 14 ‘ ; : 3 
76 52.7 1926 6.57 84.8 1943 4 
26 B58) 1935 8.24 75.1 1941 16 i Sra ae ae eee oe 
27 38.8 1905 7.71 72.6 1941 16 
28 SOMO MEE G200 | Ss14 0) 73150 1806" 17 ds Mee EE EI TERS 1G 
29 Eommeeeiooop 6:87) 78:41) 1896) 18 CT ciples PS aR SN gj RE GE IO ERD TN Sa 
30 41.6 1890 8.72 79.8 1896 19 Bo Ses een area Ozone So Cee S00 an 8 
31 qe «1807 «8.95 «80.91 1941 «(20 St SO PR SET RE 
82 51.8 1907 6.56 85.4 1911 10 
32 42.2 1922 8.10 74.9 1896 21 ae ee Ln 
33 42.2 1930 8.12 76.7 1902 22 83 55.5 1907 6.23 84.9 1947 11 
34 40.9 1930 7.97 71.6 1915 23 84 55.8 1907 5.90 81.5 1933 12 
35 39.5 1919 7.58 77.2 1925 24 85 57.7 1907 5.43 80.7 1944 13 
36 44.4 1919 7.41 75.8 1915 25 86 56.3 1933 5.43 82.9 1945 14 
87 58.1 1901 6.08 84.2 1945 15 
37 45.8 1892 7.49 76.4 1915 26 
38 43.2 1928 7.39 74.7 1938 27 88 58.9 1917 5.99 84.5 1945 16 
39 37.8 1898 6.69 69.6 1938 28 89 59.8 1900 5.56 83.8 1945 17 
40 48.3 1925 6.60 74.6 1942 29 90 62.5 1946 4.80 84.6 1944 18 
41 45.1 1912 7.10 77.5 1942 30 91 62.9 1912 5.17 85.4 1931 19 
92 64.0 1920 5.23 85.2 1924 20 
May 93 61.2 1940 5.26 83.5 1941 21 
42 47.8 1908 6.86 75.5 1930 1 
43 49.5 1911 6.74 76.6 1942 2 94 59.7 1918 5.65 84.3 1948 22 
44 46.1 1946 7.32 75.2 1919 3 95 61.7 1936 5.81 84.0 1914 23 
45 46.5 1917 7.32 74.9 1944 4 96 57.0 1936 5.69 85.8 1943 24 
46 44.2 1917 7.69 75.2 1918 5 97 63.0 1918 4.83 85.1 1943 25 
98 64.3 1896 4.73 84.7 1943 26 
47 45.1 1891 8.37 79.2 1930 6 
48 46.5 1947 7.12 Udell 1930 7 99 62.6 1893 dels) 83.8 1913 27 
49 44.5 1947 7.42 77.4 1930 8 100 62.8 1919 5.07 87.5 1934 28 
50 46.6 1906 32 78.9 1936 9 101 61.5 1893 5.36 86.0 1945 29 
51 47.1 1913 7.28 78.6 1911 10 102 67.2 1943 5.16 89.3 1901 30 


108 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


TaBLe 1.—Continued 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


D | i Usual Da Lowest Year Highest Year Usual 
After ee ae A Standard Pees ve : calen- ater temper- of standard tebe of calen- 
vernal ature — occur- oF ature  occur- dar vernal ature — occur- oF ature occur- dar 
equinox °F rence Ss rence date equinox F rence F rence date 
July July 
103 66.6 1940 5.50 88.0 1933 1 114 64.7 1898 4.57 85.2 1944 12 
104 65.8 1891 4.66 87.9 1898 2 115 66.4 1926 4.35 85.2 1942 13 
105 60.9 1933 5.32 88.5 1898 3 116 62.5 1926 4.73 85.5 1934 14 
106 63.5 1940 5.30 86.2 1911 4 117 67.2 1903 4.36 84.8 1936 15 
107 66.0 1909 4.74 86.5 1911 5 118 68.0 1929 3.98 84.3 1942 16 
108 66.2 1892 4.52 86.5 1934 6 
119 65.8 1910 5.04 86.8 1900 ily 
109 65.4 1918 4.28 85.7 1925 7 120 65.8 1892 4.74 88.0 1942 18 
110 60.5 1891 4.81 86.2 1890 8 121 68.7 1939 4.62 89.9 1930 19 
111 64.2 1891 5.00 87.4 1936 9 122 65.3 1890 5.20 90.0 1930 20 
112 65.9 1890 4.79 89.9 1936 10 123 66.3 1890 4.63 87.6 1926 21 
113 63.3 1895 4.79 86.0 1935 11 124 68.1 1904 3.65 83.2 1899 22 
i High Year Usu Da Lowest Year Highest Year Usual 
Ries eeeee Bee : Standard tenes of ee betes temper- of Standard temper of  calen- 
autumnal ature — occur- oF ature occur- dar autumnal ature —occur- oF ure  occur- dar 
equinox °F rence °F rence date equinox F rence F rence date 
July Aug. 
62 67.4 1947 4.20 84.6 1914 23 31 60.5 1931 4.75 84.2 1936 23 
61 66.4 1912 4.46 84.3 1935 24 30 60.7 1890 5.07 84.4 1903 24 
60 66.5 1904 4.22 85.0 1930 25 29 59.8 1890 5.38 84.0 1947 25 
59 64.0 1920 4.95 88.0 1930 26 28 59.2 1908 5.52 84.0 1900 26 
58 65.5 1920 5.14 88.9 1930 27 27 59.3 1927 5.41 85.1 1948 27 
57 68.3 1895 4.74 88.0 1940 28 26 60.3 1915 5.42 86.0 1948 28 
56 67.8 1914 3.98 86.2 1901 29 25 58.7 1891 5.59 86.0 1948 29 
55 63.0 1914 4.49 85.0 1931 30 24 60.8 1911 5.24 83.2 1948 30 
54 64.1 1903 5.22 87.5 1917 31 23 61.2 1911 5.50 85.8 1932 31 
Aug. Sept. 
53 66.4 1895 4.70 87.4 1933 1 22 61.4 1890 5.63 86.5 1932 1 
52 67.2 1920 4.42 84.3 1926 2 21 60.0 1893 5.91 83.2 1898 2 
51 62.9 1921 4.90 86.3 1931 3 20 61.2 1892 5.76 82.4 1898 3 
50 64.2 1912 4.68 87.4 1930 4 19 62.7 1893 4.81 83.7 1898 4 
49 64.1 1912 5.31 88.5 1930 5 18 60.0 1928 4.89 82.1 1944 5 
48 65.5 1912 4.65 91.3 1918 6 17 57.2 1928 5.88 83.0 1900 6 
47 66.9 1948 4.75 87.3 1918 uf 16 59.2 1924 6.32 82.7 1898 u 
46 68.6 1942 4.43 87.0 1930 8 15 57.9 1918 5.93 86.2 1939 8 
45 65.0 1897 4.99 88.0 1930 9 14 57.8 1914 6.20 82.2 1933 9 
44 67.6 1927 4.05 87.7 1896 10 13 54.7 1924 6.98 83.7 1941 10 
43 67.1 1931 4.32 86.3 1900 11 12 51.1 1917 6.90 83.7 1900 il 
42 60.7 1928 5.43 86.7 1926 12 11 56.7 1917 6.08 83.0 1895 12 
41 65.7 1941 5.70 85.1 1896 13 10 58.2 1911 5.73 1.4 1931 13 
40 66.4 1902 5.01 86.0 1943 14 9 55.6 1913 6.63 82.6 1915 14 
39 65.1 1899 4.59 84.7 1938 15 8 56.0 1895 5.57 82.6 1930 15 
38 66.9 1921 4.14 85.0 1938 16 7 55.8 1923 6.10 79.9 1942 16 
37 64.2 1923 4.46 83.1 1944 17 6 57.8 1903 6.00 79.2 1915 17 
36 63.8 1915 4.60 83.0 1944 18 5 56.9 1937 5.89 79.8 1921 18 
35 65.0 1905 4.12 84.4 1937 19 4 52.6 1916 6.23 80.3 1942 19 
34 63.0 1926 4.56 85.0 1937 20 3 54.5 1929 6.34 80.7 1895 20 
33 62.7 1926 4.92 84.0 1937 21 2 51.9 1918 5.19 81.9 1931 21 
32 62.2 1931 4.98 84.6 1916 22 1 47.4 1904 7.58 84.1 1931 22 


Aprit 1952 ZOCH—AVERAGE D. C. TEMPERATURE 109 


TABLE 1.—Continued 


Year Highest Year Usual D Ww i < 
ae ais of Riandard temper- of calen- Aitor pees nee - ptendard oes Nee : ieee 
autumnal ature occur- oF ature occur- dar autumnal ature occur- oF Hon ature occur- dar 
equinox °F rence °F rence date equinox °F rence oH rence date 
Sept. Nov. 
0 50.0 1904 7.08 82.2 1895 23 50 33.6 1926 7.76 67.1 1935 12 
1 50.8 1896 6.91 79.0 1926 24 51 26.4 1911 8.09 62.8 1931 13 
2 51.5 1928 7.00 80.9 1930 25 52 30.3 1905 7.14 63.6 1929 14 
3 49.7 1928 7.09 82.5 1930 26 53 27.1 1933 8.22 62.8 1926 15 
4 49.4 1940 7.22 78.7 1900 27 54 23.8 1933 8.26 64.5 1927 16 
5 50.9 1942 6.92 7.2 1945 28 55 29.5 1924 8.88 66.0 1930 17 
6 50.1 1942 6.46 76.1 1945 29 56 026.8 1891 9.71 70.6 1928 18 
7 48.8 1899 6.69 75.8 1927 30 57 28.4 1936 9.03 66.7 1921 19 
Oct. 58 31.4 1901 8.36 65.8 1931 20 
8 44.5 1899 6.72 78.4 1927 1 59 30.6 1937 8.60 68.7 1900 21 
9 46.4 1899 6.13 76.2 1927 2 
60 31.0 1929 8.35 63.2 1931 22 
10 45.9 1899 6.21 74.2 1941 3 61 30.1 1929 7.36 63.7 1940 23 
11 49.2 1901 7.51 80.9 1941 4 62 29.1 1938 6.85 61.8 1927 24 
12 49.8 1901 7.23 82.8 1941 5 63 25.8 1903 7.18 57.5 1905 25 
13 42.4 1935 Ulatpl 82.5 1941 6 64 24.9 1903 8.40 64.4 1946 26 
14 43.9 1904 Uo 83.3 1941 7 
65 24.8 1932 9.01 60.8 1927 27 
15 46.1 1889 7.19 76.1 1941 8 66 20.1 1930 8.61 66.5 1896 28 
16 43.2 1917 7.40 75.5 1939 9 67 25.9 1891 8.23 62.0 1896 29 
17 41.8 1925 7.82 76.6 1939 10 68 18.0 1929 9.27 64.4 1927 30 
18 41.5 1906 6.94 74.6 1919 11 Dec 
19 42.0 1906 6.31 73.6 1912 12 69 23.8 1936 7.76 62.9 1908 1 
20 43.2 1934 5.82 72.0 1928 13 
21 44.5 1934 6.52 69.6 1941 14 a0 Pid ED Co 54.9 1921 2 
22 42.6 1937 6.99 70.2 1915 15 a 23-5 18960 7.51 55.2 1914 3 
23 43.9 1937 6.92 72.2 1919 16 a2 aoe Bo) e323 53.3 1933 4 
24 46.3 1900 6.98 74.4. 19298 17 3 PPro LOO Rcces 59.7. 1916 5 
74 22.1 1901 7.29 59.5 1912 6 
25 44.7 1901 6.89 72.8 1928 18 
26 44.7, 1948 6.77 70.9 1947 19 75 26.5 1893 6.64 56.0 1932 7 
97 38.5 1940 7.28 70.5 1916 20 76 25.3 1910 6.89 57.1 1924 8 
28 37.2 1940 7.34 68.6 1941 21 77 21.1 1927 9.12 56.0 1923 9 
29 41.9 1925 7.48 71.4 1935 22 78 16.0 1917 8.55 55.6 1889 10 
79 17.0 1917 8.53 55.0 1899 11 
30 41.2 1907 6.85 70.2 1900 23 
31 38.8 1889 6.13 69.5 1900 24 80 20.5 1904 8.55 59.8 1899 12 
32 41.0 1889 6.53 66.0 1908 25 81 20.7 1895 8.99 58.6 1919 13 
33 39.9 1933 6.83 67.3 1920 26 82 17.0 1904 9.54 62.7 1901 14 
34 36.8 1936 7.44 70.5 1920 27 83 15.1 1914 9.04 54.9 1906 15 
84 17.8 1916 9.30 51.6 1933 16 
35 40.2 1936 Ulli 71.4 1919 28 
36 38.1 1925 7.69 72.4 1918 29 85 18.9 1932 7.81 54.5 1928 17 
37 36.6 1925 7.45 69.8 1946 30 86 12.6 1919 8.80 55.8 19387 18 
38 34.5 1917 7.91 72.4 1946 31 87 15e2 1919 8.67 57.8 1929 19 
Nov. 88 13.5 1942 7.62 58.2 1895 20 
39 37.9 1893 7.67 67.0 1919 1 89 14.8 1942 8.74 56.8 1923 21 
40 37.2 1905 8.46 71.8 1929 9 90 18.4 1924 8.38 53.8 1923 22 
41 36.3 1911 7.68 69.6 1936 3 91 21.0 1935 8.84 58.7 1891 23 
42 38.1 1910 7.48 67.0 1936 4 92 18.3 1906 8.96 59.5 1891 24 
43 35.9 1908 6.75 71.2 1935 5 93 19.2 1892 8.24 59.3 1932 25 
44 35.8 1903 7.02 68.2 1938 6 94 12.5 1914 9.12 56.2 1895 26 
45 34.0 1930 6.82 71.0 1948 7 95 14.0 1914 9.07 58.4 1889 27 
46 38.5 1927 6.55 66.3 1943 8 96 18.9 1892 9.66 55.5 1936 28 
47 37.9 1923 6.98 69.6 1895 9 97 7.3 1917 9.63 52.0 1910 29 
48 35.2 1933 6.28 58.6 1935 10 98 2.7 1917 10.12 56.7 1940 30 
49 32.2 1926 ea) 62.8 1935 ll 99 7.2 1917 8.86 56.8 1898 31 
en 


110 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 42, No. 4 
TaBLeE 1.—Continued 
Day Lowest Year Highest Year Usual Day Lowest Year Highest Year Usual 
after temper- of Standard temper- of calen- after temper- of Standard temper- of calen- 
autumnal ature occur- © oF jon “ature occur- dar autumnal ature occur- oF ature occur- dar 
equinox oF rence 7 rence date equinox °F rence ° rence date 
Jan. Jan. 
100 10.9 1918 8.77 57.6 1919 1 110 13.6 1893 8.68 53.6 1913 11 
101 11.5 1904 9.87 56.6 1930 2 111 12.6 1893 8.26 50.6 1911 12 
102 10.3 1918 9.31 51.5 1890 3 112 2.2 1912 10.04 65.6 1932 13 
103 10.8 1904 9.58 51.3 1907 4 113 5.3 1912 11.04 60.2 1932 14 
104 12.1 1896 10.34 57.2 1897 5 114 13.7 1893 11.05 65.0 1932 15 
105 11.0 1912 9.89 60.9 1946 6 115 13.5 1912 8.70 56.9 1943 16 
106 17.8 1912 9.74 62.4 1946 7 116 9.2 1893 9.29 59.5 1913 17 
107 12.4 1942 8.06 57.5 1930 8 117 21.1 1904 9.94 56.8 1915 18 
108 19.1 1942 9.74 63.2 1937 9 118 10.7 1893 9.98 56.5 1929 19 
109 18.9 1942 7.71 54.7 1939 10 119 15.4 1940 8.65 52.6 1949 20 
Day Lowest Year Highest Year Usual Day Lowest Year Highest Year Usual 
before temper- of standard temper- of calen- before _ temper- of Standard temper- of calen- 
vernal ature occur- oF ature occur- dar vernal ature occur- oF ature occur- dar 
equinox °F rence 2 rence date equinox °F rence °F tence date 
Jan Feb 
59 13.0 1924 9.50 55.6 1890 21 29 20.1 1934 9.42 65.9 1939 20 
58 16.7 1893 9.11 60.2 1906 22 28 12-1 1896 9.27 56.6 1943 21 
57 8.5 1936 10.35 59.7 1906 23 27 17.1 1896 8.78 57.9 1913 22 
56 11.5 1935 10.57 57.5 1933 24 26 19.5 1914 8.95 62.0 1922 23 
55 14.0 1935 9.58 55.5 1909 25 25 11.9 1914 9.11 57.5 1943 24 
54 11.7 1897 10.02 55.4 1916 26 24 14.5 1914 9.62 68.3 1930 25 
53 14.1 1936 11.25 61.3 1916 27 23 14.6 1900 9.75 58.7 1930 26 
52 12.1 1935 10.97 61.2 1916 28 22 12.8 1934 9.70 63.4 1890 27 
51 10.2 1925 9.42 53.6 1947 29 21 15.8 1934 9.99 62.2 1903 28 
50 11.2 1934 10.63 64.5 1947 30 20 25.0 1941 7.46 59.8 1910 29 
49 15.4 1936 10.07 QO iG Ve Mar 
Feb. 19 20.8 1914 7.24 59.0 1895 1 
48 17.9 1936 7.23 48.4 1916 1 18 23.0 1891 7.88 64.5 1923 2 
47 11.2 1900 8.89 51.5 1891 2 17 21.2 1925 9.05 63.9 1923 3 
46 11.1 1905 9.58 5i.0 1932 3 16 23.6 1926 8.40 62.0 1946 4 
45 13.3 1905 9.53 54.0 1903 4 15 16.1 1901 9.84 63.5 1935 5 
44 6.3 1918 9.44 55.4 1890 5 14 21.8 1920 9.13 64.9 1946 6 
43 8.4 1917 9.92 58.9 1890 6 13 21.8 1932 8.80 66.0 1921 7 
42 6.8 1895 9.01 55.3 1904 7 12 24.5 1932 7.98 68.2 1921 8 
41 6.9 1895 8.10 49.2 1932 8 11 20.9 1932 7.28 63.7 1921 9 
40 3.7 1934 9.72 52.6 1900 9 10 23.2 1932 8.02 58.8 1935 10 
39 3.0 1899 9.78 53.0 1949 10 9 25.6 1914 8.56 63.1 1925 11 
38 —3.2 1899 9.47 58.8 1925 11 8 22.0 1900 9.82 63.8 1890 12 
37 4 1899 10.04 60.0 1932 12 7 25.2 1896 9.01 63.8 1946 13 
36 7.5 1899 10.28 54.0 1898 13 6 23.6 1896 9.41 65.5 1929 14 
35 7.0 1899 10.21 56.0 1949 14 5 21.6 1911 9.44 65.1 1935 15 
34 12.2 1943 9.98 62.0 1909 15 4 P35 1916 11.46 72.2 1945 16 
33 11.8 1904 10.25 65.0 1949 16 3 20.8 1900 10.78 69.1 1945 17 
32 14.0 1904 9.63 60.2 1927 17 2 22.5 1941 9.63 64.5 1945 18 
31 13.5 1896 8.36 66.8 1891 18 1 26.3 1914 9.66 69.9 1945 19 
30 10.2 1903 10.44 59.4 1891 19 0 24.4 1914 10.61 73.6 1945 20 


Table 3 shows the standard deviations for 
each array computed first from midnight-to- 
midnight average daily temperatures and 
then, in another column, from noon-to-noon 
temperatures. For the 31-day period con- 
sidered the mean difference is 0.421° F. 
It is not believed advisable to apply the 


usual statistical tests to find out whether this 
difference is significant because of the strong 
serial correlation due to the interrelation- 
ship between the values. Table 4 shows the 
extremes for each array derived first from 
midnight-to-midnight values and then from 
noon-to-noon values. For this 31-day period 


Aprit 1952 


the mean range between lowest and highest 
for midnight-to-midnight values is 40.1° F., 
while this range for noon-to-noon values is 
40.8° F. 

It is concluded that the variability of 
average daily temperature is greater when 
these daily averages are based on noon-to- 
noon values than when determined from 
midnight-to-midnight values. There is no 
reason for thinking that the midnight-to- 
midnight averages of temperature neces- 
sarily gives the minimum value for the 
standard deviation, nor is there any reason 
for concluding that the standard deviation 
computed from averages based on beginning 
and ending the day with noon is the maxi- 
mum. Further research will be required to 
determine these maximum and minimum 
values of the standard deviation. However, 
the fact that there is a difference between 
the standard deviations computed from 
average daily temperatures based on mid- 
night-to-midnight from those based on 
noon-to-noon demonstrates that maximum 
and minimum values of this standard de- 
viation of temperature do exist. 

Figures 1 and 2 depict the results of 
Table 3 graphically. Figure 1 shows the 
arithmetic means for 62 arrays all for the 
31-day period following the vernal equinox. 
Likewise, Figure 2 shows the standard de- 
viations. Figure 1 also shows the fairly well 
known fact that the annual march of 


TABLE 2.—SumMMARY OF TABLE 1. MEAN VALUES 
OF EXTREMES AND STANDARD DEVIATIONS OF 
AVERAGE Daity TEMPERATURE BY PERIODS 


(Temperatures are in °F.) 


. Stand- | Dura- 
. Arith- - 

. High- A ard tion of 

Period Lowest AS metic devia- | period, 

tion days 
Mar. 21-Apr. 20..... 33.1 73.2 50.9 8.74 31 
Apr. 21-May 21.....| 46.8 77.0 61.6 7.08 31 
May 22-June 21..... 55.5 83.4 70.0 6.19 31 

June 22-July 22..... | 64.3 86.6 75.9 4.87 30.42 
July 23-Aug. 22..... 65.3 86.1 75.8 4.68 31 
Aug. 23-Sept. 22....| 57.7 83.1 70.9 5.82 31 
Sept. 23-Oct. 22..... 45.5 76.0 60.3 6.98 30 
Oct. 23-Nov. 21.....| 34.5 67.7 49.7 7.56 30 
Nov. 22-Dec. 21....| 21.4 58.6 39.2 8.21 30 

Dec. 22-Jan. 20..... 12.8 57.2 35.1 9.31 29.82 
Jan. 21-Feb. 19..... 10.0 57.2 34.2 9.71 30 
Feb. 20-Mar. 20..... 20.5 63.9 40.8 9.14 30 


ZOCH—AVERAGE D. C. TEMPERATURE 


111 


TaBLeE 3.—COMPARISON OF STANDARD DEVIATIONS 
CompuTED FrRoM MipnicHr-Tro-MIpNIGHT 
AVERAGE Datty TEMPERATURE WITH 
THOSE FROM Noon to Noon 


Midnight to midnight Noon to noon 
Day alter 
verna 9 : 
equinox Anh Standard Artis Standard 
macan deviation Tea deviation 

1 45.70 10.61 45.71 11.23 

2 46.72 10.63 47.43 10.10 

3 47.78 9.17 48.35 9.14 

4 49.04 9.06 49.12 9.25 

5 49.28 9.52 49.89 10.46 

6 50.32 9.76 50.00 10.07 

7 48.64 10.00 47.94 10.15 

8 47.51 9.72 47.31 9.65 

9 47.51 8.94 47.54 8.10 

10 47.60 8.24 48.24 8.80 

11 48.92 8.17 49.88 9.05 

12 50.14 9.18 50.00 8.90 

13 49.78 8.26 49.55 8.32 
14 49.33 8.59 49.52 9.07 

15 50.30 8.98 51.06 9.40 

16 51.30 7.61 51.90 10.58 
17 52.27 8.53 52.29 9.65 
18 51.80 8.40 50.60 8.23 
19 50.58 7.55 51.00 9.49 
20 51.60 8.83 51.94 9.52 
21 50.98 8.79 50.17 8.22 
22 50.13 7.62 51.02 7.59 
23 52.18 Uord! 52.38 7.74 
24 53.13 8.05 53.87 9.36 
25 54.54 8.80 54.34 9.14 
26 53.74 8.24 53.36 8.03 
27 53.85 Cotta 54.13 8.27 
28 54.86 8.14 55.43 8.79 
29 56.30 8.87 56.93 9.08 
30 56.94 8.72 56.60 9.09 
31 56.54 8.95 56.66 9.41 
Means......... 8.737 9.158 


temperature is not perfectly smooth. The 
high points such as the midnight-to-mid- 
night value of the arithmetic mean (50.32) 
for the array dated March 26 and the low 
points such as the noon-to-noon value 
(47.31) for the array dated March 28 are 
technically referred to as ‘‘singularities” 
and have long been discussed by meteor- 
ologists and climatologists. C. F. Marvin 
held that these singularities were unreal, 
ie., that there was no natural cause for 
them and that they were entirely the result 
of random sampling of the data. Other 
meteorologists have held these singularities 
to be real. The discussion of the reality of 
these singularities resolves itself into an 


58 - — 


-@ Based on daily average computed from midnight fo midnight. 


A Bosed on daily average computed from noon to noon. ae 


56 4 


54 i 68 


TEMPERATURE- DEGREES FAHRENHEIT 


2i 26 3| 5 10 15 20 
MARCH APRIL 


Fig. 1.—Observed average daily temperature: 60 years of record, 1889-1948, Washington, D. C. 
Twenty-fourth and M Streets, NW. 


LA ame ape aT 


@ Bosed on daily average computed from midnight to midnight 


A 8oased on gaily average computed from noon to noon 


TEMPERATURE VARIATION— DEGREES FAHRENHEIT 


2 IDI eae) 
21 26 31 5 10 15 20 
MARCH APRIL 
Fic. 2.—Observed daily standard deviation of temperature: 60 years of record, 1889-1948, Washing- 
ton, D. C., Twenty-fourth and M Streets, NW. 


112 


Aprit 1952 


TaBLE 4.—COMPARISON OF EXTREMES DERIVED 
FROM MipNnicutT-To-MIpDNIGHT AVERAGE DAILy 
TEMPERATURES WITH THOSE FROM 
Noon to Noon 


ZOCH——AVERAGE D. 


Lowest daily mean Highest daily mean 
temperature temperature 
Day after 
vernal | Midnight to} Noon to | Midnight to| Noon to 
equinox midnight noon midnight noon 

°F | Year| °F | Year| °F | Year| °F | Year 

1 30.4 | 1914 | 30.1 | 1896 | 74.8 | 1948 | 78.5 | 1948 

2 21.5 | 1934 | 21.3 | 1934 | 75.6 | 1948 | 69.6 | 1948 

3 23.8 | 1906 | 24.9 | 1906 | 67.0 | 1929 | 70.3 | 1939 

4 26.0 | 1940 | 26.1 | 1896 | 71.8 | 1939 | 69.3 | 1913 

5 26.7 | 1940 | 29.0 | 1896 | 68.7 | 1939 | 72.4 | 1939 

6 29.9 | 1894 | 25.9 | 1894 | 71.8 | 1921 | 73.7 | 1921 

7 27.0 | 1894 | 28.3 | 1923 | 74.1 | 1921 | 75.3 | 1921 

8 29.8 | 1923 | 33.8 | 1904 | 72.1 | 1907 | 74.5 | 1907 

9 34.0 | 1893 | 33.1 | 1941 | 72.5 | 1945 | 73.3 | 1945 
10 26.2 | 1923 | 22.9 | 1923 | 70.8 | 1945 | 69.1 | 1945 
11 25.9 | 1923 | 31.0 | 1919 | 65.6 | 1945 | 70.2 | 1917 
12 31.8 | 1924 | 30.8 | 1924 | 71.2 | 1917 | 71.5 | 1917 
13 34.9 | 1911 | 34.6 | 1911 | 69.5 | 1903 | 72.5 | 1913 
14 35.4 | 1908 | 33.0 | 1903 | 70.7 | 1913 | 68.1 | 1945 
15 35.0 | 1896 | 34.3 | 1944 | 69.3 | 1910 | 72.3 | 1910 
16 34.1 | 1944 | 31.0 | 1898 | 74.5 | 1942 | 76.9 | 1942 
17 35.5 | 1898 | 37.4 | 1898 | 75.0 | 1942 | 77.2 | 1929 
18 38.4 | 1935 | 38.0 | 1935 | 77.5 | 1929 | 76.7 | 1929 
19 35.1 | 1916 | 34.2 | 1916 | 76.7 | 1929 | 77.2 | 1929 
20 34.0 | 1917 | 34.5 | 1909 | 77.6 | 1922 | 78.2 | 1922 
21 34.3 | 1918 | 33.2 | 1918 | 73.9 | 1922 | 71.5 | 1947 
22 34.9 | 1894 | 36.4 | 1894 | 72.2 | 1947 | 64.8 | 1889 
23 39.5 | 1894 | 32.8 | 1940 | 69.6 | 1948 | 69.9 | 1922 
24 34.7 | 1940 | 33.7 | 1923 | 72.4 | 1945 | 74.0 | 1945 
25 36.8 | 1923 | 39.0 | 1943 | 74.8 | 1941 | 75.9 | 1941 
26 35.8 | 1935 | 37.4 | 1928 | 75.1 | 1941 | 75.1 | 1941 
27 38.8 | 1905 | 39.7 | 1904 | 72.6 | 1941 | 72.0 | 1941 
28 38.6 | 1926 | 37.2 | 1926 | 73.5 | 1896 | 76.8 | 1896 
29 37.6 | 1926 | 36.5 | 1926 | 78.4 | 1896 | 78.8 | 1896 
30 41.6 | 1890 | 37.7 | 1904 | 79.8 | 1896 | 81.0 | 1896 
31 38.0 | 1897 | 42.0 | 1947 | 80.9 | 1941 | 77.3 | 1896 

Means 33.1 32.9 73.2 73.7 


investigation of the statistical reliability 
of the Arithmetic Mean, and this latter in 
turn is based on the value—or the estimate 
of the value—of the standard deviation. 
Besides showing the daily values of the 
standard deviation of average daily temper- 
ature (which have not been previously 
published for Washington) the object of this 
paper is to point out the uncertainty in the 
standard deviation due to this diurnal vari- 
ation, a fact not previously emphasized by 
meteorologists and climatologists. 

The question may be asked as to what is 
the cause of the diurnal variation in the 


C. TEMPERATURE 113 
standard deviation of temperature. An 
explanation is offered here though it is not 
claimed that it is necessarily the correct one. 

It is well known that the air is more stable 
at night time than during the day; or that 
vertical mixing and convection are more 
common during the day. In the latitude 
of Washington cold and warm air masses 
are continually passing. Now if the central 
part, the core so to speak, of a cold air mass 
passes during the middle of the afternoon, 
the time when vertical convection is 
greatest, the effect of the cold air mass is to 
an extent neutralized. If the central part of 
the cold air mass passes about sunrise, when 
the air is most likely to be stratified, its 
effect will be most pronounced. Hence it 
would seem that the coldest (lowest) 24 
hour averages of temperature could be ob- 
tained by choosing the middle of the 24- 
hour period at sunrise. Also the overturning 
of a warm surface air mass is more likely to 
occur when vertical convection is great. 
And apparently if a warm surface air mass 
is not overturned (displaced by cold air) 
during the daylight hours of one day, the 
probability of its occurring during the night 
immediately following is sufficiently low to 
produce the observed diurnal variation in the 
standard deviation of temperature. 

It would also appear reasonable to believe 
that the hours of the maximum and mini- 
mum in the diurnal variation of the standard 
deviation of temperature vary slightly during 
different times of the year. 

Acknowledgment.—I appreciate very much 
the help and encouragement Dr. Helmut 
EK. Landsberg has given me with this paper. 


REFERENCES 


For the normal average daily temperature at 
Washington, D. C., the reader is referred to the 
Climatic handbook for Washington, D. C., a publica- 
tion of the U. 8. Weather Bureau, Tables 29 and 
30, both on page 44. Table 29 was computed by C. 
F. Marvin, while Table 30 was computed by John 
L. Baldwin. For an earlier determination of the 
Normal daily temperature see: The daily normal 
temperature and the daily precipitation in the 
United States, by Frank H. Bigelow, U.S. Weather 
Bureau, Bulletin R. 1908. 

For discussions about the merits of ditferent 
methods of computing the average daily tempera- 
ture see: Methods tn climatology, by V. Conrad and 
L. W. Pollak, 2d ed.: 155-164. 1950. Also Report on 


114 


the temperatures and vapor tensions in the United 
States, by Frank H. Bigelow, U. 8S. Weather 
Bureau, Bulletin S. 1909. 

For singularities at Washington see: Annual 
march of temperature at Washington, D. C., by 
G. Slocum, Bull. Amer. Meteorol. Soc. 22: 220. 1941. 

For the subject of singularities in general see: 
Normal temperatures, daily, are irregularities in 
the annual march of temperature persistent, by 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


Charles F. Marvin, Monthly Weather Rev. 47 
(8): 544-555. 1919; Literature concerning supposed 
recurrent irregularities in the annual march of 
temperature, by C. Fitzhugh Talman, Monthly 
Weather Rev. 47(8) : 555-565. 1919; Physical clima- 
tology, by H. Landsberg, 1941, pp. 108-112; Annual 
recurrences of weather: Singularities, by C. BE. P. 
Brooks, Weather (London) 1(4/5): 106-113, and 
130-134. 1946. 


GEOLOGY .—Brightseat formation, a new name for sediments of Paleocene age in 
Maryland.! Ropert R. BENNETT, U.S. Geological Survey, and GLENN GENE 
Couuins, Maryland Department. of Geology, Mines, and Water Resources. 
(Communicated by C. Wythe Cooke.) 


Sediments of Paleocene age were con- 
sidered to be absent in the coastal plain of 
Maryland until Cushman? concluded from 
his study of Foraminifera obtained from 
cores and cuttings from a deep oil-test well 
near Salisbury, Md., in the Eastern Shore 
area of Maryland, that beds of Paleocene 
age are present in the subsurface at that 
locality. Later, in connection with a study 
by Shiflett? of the Foraminifera in the 
sediments chiefly in the Western Shore area 
of Maryland, Cushman determined from 
the Foraminifera obtained from drill cuttings 
from a water well near Upper Marlboro 
(Prince Georges County), Md., that Paleo- 
cene sediments were present there in 
the subsurface.* Shifflett’s study showed 
that, according to the foraminiferal content, 
Paleocene sediments are present in the 
subsurface in other parts of the Western 
and Eastern Shore areas of the Maryland 
Coastal Plain. 

Additional studies made by the writers 
and others, in connection with the cooper- 
ative ground-water investigations in the 
Coastal Plain of Maryland by the U. S. 
Geological Survey and the Maryland De- 


eualicaton by permission of the Director, 
U. 8. Geological Survey, and the Director of the 
Misraylewal Department of Geology, Mines, and 
Water Resources. 

2 CusHMAN, JosEepH A., Foraminifera from the 
Hammond well. In “Cretaceous and Tertiary Sub- 
surface Geology.”? Maryland Dept. Geology, 
Mines, and Water Resources Bull. 2: 226. 1948. 

8 SHIFFLETT, ELAINE, Eocene stratigraphy and 
Foraminifera of the Aquia formation. Maryland 
Dept UE Mines, and Water Resources Bull. 
3. 194 

eee idem, p. 1. 


partment of Geology, Mines, and Water 
Resources, showed that this same section of 
sediments occurred at a shallow depth in 
some places in the western part of the 
Coastal Plain. This information indicated 
that this section of sediments might pre- 
viously have been overlooked on the outcrop. 
and had been mapped with either the over- 
lying Aquia greensand (Eocene) or the 
underlying Monmouth formation (Upper 
Cretaceous). 

Sections of sediments exposed in the 
general vicinity of Brightseat (Prince 
Georges County), Md. (see locations A, B, 
C, and D in Fig. 1), have a foraminiferal 
content and lithology similar to the sub- 
surface section considered by Cushman and 
Shifflet to be of Paleocene age. A collection 
of megafossils from the exposed section at. 
location A were studied by Dr. Juha 
Gardner, of the U. S. Geological Survey, 
who concluded that they probably represent. 
a northern phase of the Paleocene.® Lith- 
ologic descriptions of the sections in the 
Brightseat area are as follows: 


Location A: 1 Mite West-SouTHWEST OF BRIGHT- 
SEAT AND 0.2 MILE SouruH oF SHERIFF RoapD 


Aquia greensand (Eocene): 

Glauconitie sand and clay; contains black 
pebbles and black phosphatic nodules at the 
base; contact with underlying bed is abrupt 
andeirneculanwn eee 2 ft. exposed 

Brightseat formation (Paleocene): 

Dark-gray micaceous sandy clay; contains 
megafossils; upper 1/6” contains, in part, 
material from overlying bed 

8 ft. exposed 


5 Letter, May 8, 1951. 


Aprit 1952 


Location C: East Sipe or Appison Roap 0.7 
Mie Souts or CentRAL AVENUE 


Aquia greensand (Eocene) : 

Glauconitic clayey sand; weathers buff; large 
black pebbles (up to 1 inch in diameter) and 
black phosphatic nodules immediately 
above basal contact which is abrupt and 
PERE C UA TM. raheem ae, eta 14 ft. exposed 

Brightseat formation (Paleocene): 

Light-gray micaceous sandy clay; fossilifer- 

ous; contains irregularly shaped masses of 


material from overlying bed..... 1 ft. 3 in. 
Indurated dark-gray silty clay; fossiliferous 
10 in. 


Dark-gray silty clay; fossiliferous 
4 ft. exposed 


Location D: Asout 0.05 MiLE Wrst 
OF LocaTION C 


Aquia greensand (Kocene): 

Greenish-buff glauconitic sand; fossiliferous; 
basal contact is abrupt and irregular; black 
pebbles and phosphatic nodules occur im- 
mediately above contact..... 4 ft. exposed 

Brightseat formation (Paleocene): 

Fine-textured dark-gray micaceous sandy 

clay; fossiliferous........... 4 ft. exposed 


Seat 


\ Pleasant 


BENNETT AND COLLINS—BRIGHTSEAT FORMATION 


115 


The base of the Paleocene was seen only 
at location B about 1 mile southwest of 
Brightseat and 0.2 mile southeast of location 
A. There the contact with the underlying 
Monmouth formation of Upper Cretaceous 
age is abrupt but is even. The presence of 
a few large pebbles and reworked fossils 
immediately above the contact, and the 
abrupt contact itself, indicate an uncon- 
formable relation between these beds. The 
pebble zone, irregular contact, and lith- 
ologic contrast between the Eocene and 
Paleocene sediments at locations A, C, and 
D also indicate an unconformable relation. 

The lithologic character of the Paleocene 
sediments and the underlying Monmouth 
formation is similar; however, if they are 
examined closely some differences can be 
detected. For example, the Monmouth 
formation contains a large amount of 
fragmental carbonaceous material, whereas 
in the Paleocene sediments it is scarce; 
moreover, the Paleocene sediments are 


Fic. 1—Map of Brightseat Area, Md., showing the locations of exposures of the Brightseat formation. 


116 


softer and do not have the tendency to 
break into large pieces or blocks as do the 
sediments in the Monmouth formation. 
The thickness of the Paleocene sediments 
appears to be extremely variable in the out- 
crop area. Their thickness at locations A, 
C, and D probably is about 8 to 10 feet, but 
at other places along the line of outcrop 
Paleocene sediments are absent and the 
Aquia greensand directly overlies the Mon- 
mouth formation. For example, Paleocene 
sediments are absent in the first creek 
directly west of location A in Fig. 1. 
Although the Paleocene sediments do not 
crop out as a continuous band, examination 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 4 


of drill cuttings and Foraminifera from 
water wells shows that this unit occurs over 
a wide area in the subsurface in southern 
Maryland, where it commonly attains a 
thickness of 50 to 75 feet. 

Inasmuch as this section of Paleocene 
sediments occurs over a large area, is 
unconformable with the Eocene and Cre- 
taceous sediments, and constitutes a mapp- 
able unit, it seems desirable to give it 
formational rank. The name _ Brightseat. 
formation is here proposed for this unit, 
and the exposure designated by location A 
in Fig. 1, 1 mile west-southwest of Bright- 
seat, Md., is considered the type locality. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Nomenclatural notes on carditids and lucinids. A. CHAVAN, 
Thoiry (Ain), France. (Communicated by Julia Gardner.) 


The revision! of several superfamilies, 
among which Carditacea and Lucinacea are, 
perhaps, the most puzzling and complex, led 
the writer to a re-examination of important 
nome clatural points. Types of common 
genera, like Cardita, Jagonia, Lucina, or 
Diplodonta (Taras of most authors), are 
still under discussion, and conclusions ac- 
cording with the Rules are not universally 
accepted. The present paper deals with such 
problems and reviews, when necessary, 
points settled in the previous papers. 

The conclusions here adopted not only 
follow the International Rules of Nomen- 
clature in accepting the first unquestionable 
type-designation for a genus, and in re- 
jecting those wrongly introduced, but they 
also succeed in saving well-known names, 
such as Dzplodonta. It is, therefore, hoped 
that the International Commission of Zoo- 
logical Nomenclature will soon place on the 
Official List the common names here dis- 
cussed with the type species adopted in 
accordance with a strict interpretation of 
the Rules. 


CARDITA, CARDITES, 
ARCINELLA, MYTILICARDIA 


Two species are under discussion for the type 
of Cardita Bruguiére, 1792 (Encycl. Method. 1: 
401-413): Cardita sulcata Bruguiére = Chama 


1As a contribution to the ‘‘Treatise of In- 
vertebrate Paleontology.” 


antiquata Linné and Cardita calyculata Bruguiére 
= Chama calyculata Linné. 

In 1799 Lamarck listed C. calyculata Linné 
under Cardita; however, according to the Rules, 
Lamarck’s citations of 1799 are not designations, 
but only examples, as noted by Lamarck himself. 
In 1801, the same author cited the related species 
variegata, and this, again, is not a type-designa- 
tion. In 1817, Schumacher distinguished two 
groups: the ‘“‘cordiformes” (a) and the “trapezi- 
formes” (8), and cited sulcata and calyculata as 
representatives. The first real designation to be 
discussed is that of Schmidt (Versuch Conch. 
Samml.: 63. 1818) of Chama calyculata as the 
type of Cardita Lamarck, and of antiquata as the 
type of Cardita Megerle von Miihlfeld (who used 
Cardita in 1811 without selecting its type). But 
Cardita is of Bruguiére, not of Lamarck or of 
Megerle von Miihlfeld; and as both these species 
are available for the type, Schmidt’s designation 
of the two of them invalidates both (Stewart, R. 
B., Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, Spec. 
Publ. 3: 149. 1930). Winckworth (Proc. Malac. 
Soc. 26 (pt. 1): 23. 1944) has also pointed out that 
Schmidt’s designations are referable only to the 
authors quoted by him. 

Children’s designation (Lamarck’s Genera of 
shells: 43, pl. 6, fig. 60. 1822) of Cardita antiquata 
= sulcata is commonly accepted, and Stewart 
has recognized it, but Children’s designations 
apply only to Larmarck’s genera, so that Chama 
antiquata may be the designated type of Cardita 
Lamarck, but not ipso facto of Cardita Bruguiére. 
Children makes no reference to Bruguiére but 


Aprit 1952 


refers only to “Hist. Nat. des Animaux sans 
Vertébres, 1802-1806,” so that his selection is 
not applicable even to Lucina Lamarck of 1799 
or of 1801. 

The next designation was that by Anton 
(Verz. Conch.: 10. 1839) of Cardita calyculata 
Gmelin not of Bruguiére as the type of Cardita 
“Tamarck, Desh.’”’ Gray (Proc. Zool. Soc. Lon- 
don 15: 193-194. 1847) was the first author to 
refer to Cardita Bruguiére; he designated Chama 
calyculata as the type of Cardita Bruguiére, 1789 
(error for 1792), and also of Cardita Lamarck, 
1801; Cardita Schumacher, 1817; and Chama sp. 
Linné. 

Cardita Bruguiére, 1792 (type by subsequent 
designation, Gray, 1847): Chama —calyculata 
Linné is totally distinct from Venericardia 
Lamarck, while Cardita “Lamarck”’ corresponds 
partly to Cardita Bruguiére and partly to Cardita 
Megerle von Miihlfeld, 1811 (type by subsequent 
designation, Schmidt, 1818): C. antiquata Linné, 
Schmidt’s designation for Cardita Megerle von 
Miuhlfeld, antedates that of Children for Cardita 
Lamarck, and applies to the same group. Both 
names are homonyms of Cardita and, therefore, 
synonyms of Cardites Link, 1807 (Besch. Rostock 
Samml.: 153) (type by monotypy): Chama 
antiquata Linné, the first valid name for this 
group, which is related subgenerically to Veneri- 
cardia Lamarck, 1801. 

Arcinella Oken, 1815 (Lehrb. Zool.: 238), 
type by subsequent designation, Stewart, 1930: 
Chama calyculata Linné is a synonym of Cardita 
Bruguieére. 

Authors like Schmidt and Gray not only desig- 
nated a type or example, but also recognized, 
after Schumacher, that two groups were confused 
under the name Cardita and agreed in regarding 
the ‘‘trapeziformes” as typical and the ‘‘cordi- 
formes” as atypical, so that the interpretation 
here offered is in total accord with the original 
meaning of Cardita. 

Chama sulcata Solander, 1766, is a small 
Venericardia “‘s. 1.” (after Stewart) and does not 
invalidate Cardita sulcata Bruguiére. Therefore 
Cardita sulcata Bruguiére is a specific homonym, 
and this type species of Cardites must be named 
Venericardia (Cardites) antiquata (Lin.) pars = 
sulcata (Brug., non Sol.). Antiquata is a some- 
what doubtful name, which has been reserved by 
Poli for the Mediterranean form. 

“Mytilicardia” is the Latinization of a ver- 
nacular name, “les Mytilicardes’’, published in 


CHAVAN—CARDITIDS AND LUCINIDS 


LEZ 


Blainville (1824) with two examples: Cardita 
crassicosta and C’. calyculata. Agassiz has cited it 
without species in the Latin form “Mytilicardia’” 
(Nomenclator: 704. 1847). Herrmannsen’s desig- 
nation (Index 2: 85. 1847) of Cardita jeson 
Adanson (= senegalensis Reeve) accords with 
Blainville’s view that “Perna” jeson was iden- 
tical with C. crassicosta Lamarck. These species 
are, in fact, distinct, and “le Jeson” = Cardita 
senegalensis represents a subgenus of Cardita 
Bruguiére with the anterior part of tooth 3b 
obliquely directed backwards: it has been desig- 
nated the type of Jesonia Gray, 1840, by Gray 
1847. 

The earliest valid Latinization of “les Mytili- 
cardes”, and prior to that of Agassiz and Herr- 
mannsen, is that of Anton, 1839 (op. cit.)? under 
the spelling “Mytilicardita.” The type is C. 
calyculata, as quoted by Gray, 1847, so that 
Mytilicardita falls in the synonymy of Cardita 
Bruguicre. 

The usual spelling ‘“Mytilicardia” Blainville 
is used in Tryon, 1872. 

All the above cited uses intending to give a 
Latinization of the same vernacular term, and 
the first of them, Mytilicardita, being a synonym 
of Cardita, Mytilocardia, without species, has no 
status, and Mytilicardia falls also in the synonymy 
of Cardita, Herrmannsen’s designation referring 
to a species which proves to be different from the 
two included in the original list. So that Jesonia 
Gray, n. n., according to Sherborn, is available 
for the senegalensis group, while Actinobolus 
“Klein” Moérch, 1853, of which the type is C. 
sulcata = antiquata, is to be listed in the synon- 
ymy of Cardites. 


PSEUDOCARDIA, VETOCARDIA, VETERICARDIA 


Pseudocardia Conrad, 1866 (Amer. Journ. 
Conch. 2: 103) was a heterogeneous unit, in- 
cluding true carditids, among them Venericardia 
dupiniana d’Orbigny and species of cardiid 
affinities, such as Cardiwm hauert Hoernes which 
is a Limnocardiid, and for that reason Fischer, 
1887 (Manuel de Conchyhologie, p. 1039), 
placed Pseudocardia pars, in the synonymy of 
Limnocardium. Thirteen unlike species are listed 
by Conrad under Pseudocardia; the first one is 
cited as “C. Smidti Horn.’’, apparently an error 
for Cardium schmidti Hoernes. 

Three years after, Conrad (ibid. 4: 246) re- 

2The C. calyculata of both Anton and Gray 
seems to include more than one species. 


118 


placed Pseudocardia by Vetocardia, because of 
the prior use of Pseudocardium Gabb, 1866 (not 
1869, as indicated in Neave). According to the 
present Rules, Pseudocardium does not invali- 
date Pseudocardia. This substitution of name in 
Conrad’s paper (1868, publ. Feb. 4, 1869) is not 
accompanied by a citation of species, so that, in 
February 1869, Vetocardia-Pseudocardia was still 
a doubtful unit, ill-characterized and without 
type-designation. 

But in July, 1869 (cbid. 5: 43) Conrad rede- 
fined his genus and cited under it a single species 
(p. 48), Vetocardia crenalirata, which was not 
included under Pseudocardia in 1866. In 1872 
Conrad replaced Vetocardia because ‘“‘this genus 
was improperly printed” by Vetericardia (Proc. 
Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1872: 52) and cited 
two species, V. crenalirata and V. dupiniana. 

Stoliezka, in his discussion of Palaeocardita on 
page 280, writes: “I believe that to this genus 
should be referred a great number of Cretaceous 
Carditacea of the type of C. dupiniana d’Or- 
bigny.” Before the introduction of Vetericardia, 
in 1872, but after the publication of the mono- 
typic Vetocardia in 1869, Stoliczka (Cret. Fauna 
South Ind., Pal. Ind. 1871, Lamell, p. 283) dis- 
cussed the affinities of Pseuwdocardia-Vetocardia 
and wrote “Conrad called some of the Cretaceous 
species at first Pseudocardia for which name he 
subsequently substituted Vetocardia as the type 
of which Venericardia dupimana d’Orb. can fairly 
be taken.” 

Eames’, after Cox (Proc. Malac. Soc. London 
27(1): 37. 1946), has recently accepted Sto- 
liczka’s statement as a valid designation, but I 
think it is a very questionable one. 

First, such a “designation” is unusual in 
Stoliczka’s work, for he clearly writes: “Type: 

..’ when intending to designate a species. 
“Can fairly be taken,” translated into French, 
appears to be more a suggestion than a selection. 
Stoliezka’s English seems a little ambiguous and 
when translated into French is even more diffi- 
cult to understand clearly, for on the same page 
Stoliczka writes that the genus has no significa- 
tion, and is probably a synonym of Palaeocardita. 
It is evident that Stoliczka intended only to 
suggest, rather than to designate, a characteristic 
species while awaiting a restudy and careful 
comparisons of a difficult group. 

Another very important argument is that 

3 Eames, F. E., A contribution to the study of the 


Eocene of western Pakistan. Philos. Trans. Roy. 
Soc. London, ser. B, No. 627: 372. 1951. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


Stoliczka overlooked the redefinition of Veto- 
cardia and did not realize that its use with a 
single species not previously cited under Pseudo- 
cardia necessitated either the recognition of two 
distinct units, with a type to be selected for 
Pseudocardia and crenalirata for Vetocardia of 
July 1869; or, according to Conrad’s indication 
that Vetocardia was a substitute, the selection of 
the species for which this term was used, its re- 
definition preventing the use of any of the very 
different forms cited in 1866. But Stoliczka’s 
“designation,” being common to two names, of 
which the former is heterogeneous and the latter, 
proposed “‘in replacment,” but used for a single 
species not previously cited, cannot be accepted. 
No designation has yet been given for Pseudo- 
cardia or for Vetocardia (Eames only accepts 
Stoliezka’s writing), but in 1941 Stephenson 
(Univ. Texas Publ., Bull. 4101: 175) designated 
“‘Astarte crenalirata Conrad” as the type of 
Vetericardia Conrad, 1872, and, according to the 
Rules, this applies ipso facto to Vetecardia of 
July 1869, used for the same species and men- 
tioned by Stephenson. So that Vetericardia 
Conrad, 1872 (= Vetocardia Conrad, July, non 
February 1869), can validly be used with Astarte 
crenalirata as its type. It is impossible to design 
another species and to reject both Vetericardia 
and Vetocardia of July 1869 into the synonymy 
of Pseudocardia, since, despite Conrad’s indica- 
tion, they apply to a redefined unit, which was 
used for a single species, which was not listed 
either under Pseudocardia or Vetocardia of 
February 1869. But as Pseudocardia is totally 
heterogeneous and remains without selected 
type, for Stoliczka’s “designation” applying to 
both names is valueless. I hereby designate 
“Cardium Smidtr” Horn as the type of Pseudo- 
cardia, the first species listed by Conrad, 1866 
(op. cit.). 

In a recent paper’, I have proposed the genus 
Ludbrookia Chavan, 1951, type (0.d.): Venert- 
cardia dupiniana d’Orbigny, because this species 
is, in fact, quite distinct from the Vetericardia 
stock as well as from Venericardia, with which 
Eames unites it (as a ‘‘Pseudocardia”). This 
was, probably, more advisable than to replace 
Stoliczka’s wrong “designation” by a correct one 
of the same species for Pseudocardia only; 
dupiniana having been listed not only under this 

4CHavan, A., Dénominations supraspécifiques 


de mollusques modifiées ou nouvelles. C. R. somm. 
8. G. F., 1951: 210-212. 


Aprin 1952 


heterogeneous term, but in 1872 under Veteri- 
cardia also, together with crenalirata, and re- 
cently under Venericardia by Eames (as “type” 
by Stoliezka of Pseudocardia). 

I wish to point out that Vetocardia having 
been used twice by Conrad before its replace- 
ment, it seems difficult to follow this author 
when he says he intended to correct only a mis- 
print. 

The type is known as crenalirata Conrad, 
1860. However, in July 1861, Isaac Lea included 
it in a checklist under the name Astarte crenult- 
rata Conrad. 


LUCINA 


In a previous paper® I have discussed in full 
the status of Lucina Bruguiére, 1798, and have 
accepted Venus jamaicensis Spengler as its type, 
following a number of authors, but disagreeing 
with Stewart’s interpretation (op. cit.: 175-178). 
In a recent paper, Eames (op. cit.: 382) does not 
refer to Stewart but accepts, like him, Venus 
pennsyluanica Chemnitz, a species belonging to 
the well-known Linga de Gregorio, 1885, which, 
therefore, would fall in the synonymy of Lucina. 
Curiously enough, although adopting the same 
conclusion, Eames refers to Schmidt’s designa- 
tion (1818) rejected by Stewart, who refers to 
Anton’s paper of 1839, as the first unquestion- 
able designation for Lucina Bruguiére. 

A short historical restudy will find easily what 
species has been clearly and correctly designated 
as the type of Bruguiére’s genus, prior to any 
other unambiguous designation, and in total 
accordance with the Rules. 

Lucina appears in Bruguiére’s Encyclopedy 
(Encycl. Math., Tab. Vers, pl. 284-286) at the 
top of three plates of shells (and not of only 
plate 284, as quoted by Eames). According to 
the Rules, the identification of the species 
figures by Bruguiére being possible—and having 
been done by Dillwyn, 1817—Lucina is ‘“‘a genus 
with an indication” and not a nomen nudum (as 
I had myself admitted) so that a valid type- 
designation must refer to Bruguiére, and not to 
a subsequent worker. 

The first generic diagnosis of Lucina is by 
Lamarck (1799), who cites a species (Venus 
edentula) disagreeing with it. But it has been 
ruled that Lamarck’s citations of 1799 are only 


5 Cuavan, A., Essai critique de classification 
Lucines. I. Journ. Conchyl]. 81: 133-153. 1937. 


CHAVAN—CARDITIDS AND LUCINIDS 


AS) 


examples, as stated by himself—this one being 
inadequate—and not type-designations, so that 
edentula is fortunately not the monotype of a 
genus defined as having well-developed teeth. 
These conclusions are now generally accepted, 
and Eames has recently shown that Anodontia 
Link, 1807, was, as I had admitted, but in disa- 
greement with Stewart’s statement, the first 
valid generic name for “Lucina’’ edentula (see 
Gardner, 1951). 

In 1801, Lamarck (Syst. Animaux sans Vert.: 
124) gave a better example of Lucina, with L. 
jamaicensis as sole citation under this genus. 
After Lamarck, the meaning of such a citation is 
as follows: “Pour connaitre d’une maniere cer- 
taine les genres dont je donne ici les caractéres, 
j’ai cité sous chacun d’eux une espéce connue ou 
trés rarement, plusieurs.”’ So that, although not 
a valid designation, this is a virtual one, giving, 
at least, Lamarck’s choice in the selection of a 
typical form. Subsequent designations of L. 
jamaicensis by several authors, are therefore in 
total accordance with the original concept of the 
genus, while designations of L. pennsylvanica are 
not, this species having been excluded from the 
“Tucines” by Roissy (1805) and, apparently, by 
most revisers before the publication of Stewart’s 
paper. 

The first real type-designation is by Schu- 
macher (1817), who selected L. pennsylvanica, 
but for Lucina Lamarck, without reference to 
Bruguiére’s work so that this designation has 
been rejected as not valid by Stewart and others. 

The second one, accepted by Eames, is by 
Schmidt (1818), also L. pennsylvanica. Eames 
(op. cit.) accepted it on reference to Winckworth’s 
opinion that Schmidt has really designated types 
for several genera, among them Lucina. But 
Winckworth has not discussed this particular 
designation, which is a questionable one, as 
pointed out by Stewart (op. cit.), who did not 
accept it. Although referring to Bruguiére’s 
genus, Schmidt has quoted plate 284 only (on 
which are several species figured) and, above all, 
he designated also pennsylvanica as the type of 
Lucina Lamarck, with an inexact reference to 
Chemnitz’s figures of jamaicensis. Such a double 
and confused designation must be rejected, as 
already done by Stewart, but the pertinent ob- 
jections were not discussed in Hames’ paper; 
Hames says that Schmidt's designation seems to 
be “the earliest valid’ one, referring only to 


120 


Winckworth’s general opinion on such selections 
by Schmidt. 

The third is by Children (1823), and I had 
accepted it in my first paper (op. cit.). But Chil- 
dren referred only to Lamarck’s Lucina, and his 
designation of L. jamaicensis, like that of penn- 
sylvanica by Schumacher, deals only with Lucina 
Lamarck. Recent additions to the Rules do not 
permit the consideration of Lucina Bruguiére as 
a nomen nudum, apart from its interpretation by 
Lamarck (which was possible when I wrote my 
first paper). 

Anton’s designation of L. pennsylvanica 
(1839) has been accepted by Stewart as the 
first valid one. It is the only one Lucina printed 
by Anton in small capitals. But, although indi- 
cating in his introduction that such a printing 
was reserved to generic typifications, Anton 
commonly used it also for subgenera. In the case 
of Lucina, four “groups” are recognized, instead 
of subgenera, the first species of each being 
printed in italics. This printing typifies them, as 
pointed out by Eames (op. cit.). L. pennsylvanica 
being also printed in italics ahead of the third 
group (c), is thus on the same rank that three 
other species, despite the fact it was also printed 
in small capitals when listed among the hetero- 
geneous species of group ¢c. One can hardly know 
what printing must prevail, since the ‘type 
designation” is here subordinated to a “group”’ 
subdivision and typification. 

Herrmannsen’s designation (1847) of L. penn- 
sylvanica is for Lucina Bruguiére and Lucina 
Schumacher. But the same year, Gray has given 
the first valid designation I have been able to 
find, of L. jamaicensis as the type of Lucina 
Bruguiére, while Lucina Schumacher is clearly 
separated as a synonym, having another type 
(pennsylvanica). This selection is not only the 
first unquestionable one, but it is in accordance 
with Lamarck’s first implicit selection (1801), 
quoted above and confirmed by Children’s desig- 
nation for Lucina Lamarck, 1801, which therefore 
is a synonym of Bruguiére’s genus. 

Gray’s selection has been followed by subse- 
quent best authors, like Stoliczka (1871) and 
Meek (1876) and has been disregarded only when 
opinions favoring the retention of “Venus eden- 
tula” by “monotypy” have been expressed. This 
“monotypy” referring to Lamarck’s work of 
1799, now rejected for type-designations, and 
both Schmidt’s and Anton’s choices proving to 
be questionable, Lucina jamaicensis must be 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


accepted as the type of Lucina Bruguiére, as 
designated by Gray, 1847. 

It is interesting to point out that the former 
Rules—now rejected but followed during many 
years by well-known specialists—would have led 
to the same conclusion, if the type had to be 
chosen ‘‘by elimination”’; L. edentula being then 
rejected for inappropriateness, and L. pennsyl- 
vanica as excluded from the ‘‘Lucines” by Roissy, 
L. jamaicensis, first and single species cited in 
1801, would have been yet the only one to be 
validly available. 

As in any manner, and in total accordance with 
the present Rules, L. jamaicensis is the type of 
Lucina Bruguiére—unless we accept arbitrarily 
another designation among the prior ones, which 
prove all to be strongly questionable, it is here 
proposed that Lucina, with jamaicensis as its 
type, shall be soon placed in the “Official List of 
Generic Names”, this having the advantage of 
definitely saving the well-known Linga, which is 
available for the pennsylvanica group, and of re- 
jecting in synonymy the vernacular Phacoides, 
generally used for designation of any lucinid that 
can not receive an exact generic assignment. 


PHACOIDES 


As often pointed out, Phacoides ‘“Blainville, 
1825” (Dict. Sci. Nat. 32: 334) is only a vernacu- 
lar name®: ‘‘Les Lucines Phacoides” having no 
status. L. jamaicensis is cited under it as an 
example. 

The word Phacoides is found first in Agassiz 
(Nom. Zool. Moll. 2: 67) in 1845 as a name 
without species, being merely a quotation from 
Blainville. Its second use is by Gray, 1847 
(Proc. Zool. Soc. London: 195) in the synonymy 
of Lucina, of which L. jamaicensis is designated 
as the type. Its third use is by H. and A. Adams, 
1858 (Gen. Rec. Moll. 1: 467), also as a synonym 
of Lucina Bruguiére, of which L. jamaicensis 
is given as an example. 

Kames (op. cit.), having selected L. pennsyl- 
vanica as the type of Lucina, thinks that Phacoides 
(Blainville) H. and A. Adams can be accepted 
as “the first valid use of this name” with L. 
jamaicensis as monotype. But it is not the 
first valid use at all: despite the fact that Agassiz 
first used Phacoides as a genus without species, 
Gray, prior to H. and A. Adams, used it also as 
a synonym of Lucina, and with a type-designa- 


5 See Iredale (1915), Stewart (1930), Eames 
(1951). 


Aprit 1952 


tion for the latter not only an example. I cannot 
understand how the citation of jamaicensis as 
example only for Lucina can be applied as a 
monotype for Phacoides: such a selection after 
Adams cannot be accepted. 

But as Gray himself has only quoted Phacoides 
in synonymy of a nonmonotypical genus, his 
type-designation for Lucina is not, ipso facto, 
available for Phacoides as monotype. Phacoides 
itself cannot be monotypical, Blainville having 
written “Les Lucines Phacoides.”’ 

Agassiz, Gray, and Adams have all only quoted 
the word “Phacoides” after Blainville in their 
papers, without species referred to this name; 
it is not even certain that they have used it as = 
Latinized. One cannot affirm that they intended 
to quote a Latin genus Phacovdes, instead of only 
a French word, transferred from an adjective to 
a substantive: (Les) Phacoides. So _ that 
“Phacoides” must be rejected as vernacular in 
any manner, no Latin use of it prior to Denti- 
lucina Fischer, 1887, being demonstrated by its 
connection to a specific Latin name. Neither 
Gray nor Adams have referred to ‘Phacoides 
jamaicensis” but only listed a vernacular name 
in a synonymy; and on page 194 of his paper, 
Gray similarly quoted as a synonym of a Latin 
generic name (Agaria) the ‘“Cardito-Cardite” 
of Blainville under its vernacular form, not 
Cardiocardita. 

If a valid and unquestionable designation of 
L. pennsylvanica, or of any species other than 
L. jamaicensis is found as the type of Lucina 
Bruguiére prior to Gray’s selection, Dentilucina 
would then replace Lucina for the jamaicensis 
group, and not Phacoides, as several authors have 
already noted. 

Before studying other names, it is interesting 
to point out that a case almost similar to that of 
Cardita and Lucina has been ruled recently by 
the International Commission in the same sense. 
Arca Noae Linné has been officially established 
as the type of Arca Linné, 1758, following Gray’s 
selection, instead of Schmidt’s or Schumacher’s 
prior, but questionable, designations. But in the 
case of Arca, a suspension of the Rules was 
necessary, because Schumacher’s designation was 
only somewhat questionable, according to Rein- 
hart (1935) but not to most authors. In the case 
of Cardita and of Lucina such a suspension would 
not be needed, all designations prior to Gray’s 
being evidently erroneous in their references, and 
vot concerning Bruguiére’s work. 


CHAVAN—CARDITIDS AND LUCINIDS 


121 


DIPLODONTA AND TARAS 


Diplodonta Bronn, 1831 (Ergebn. Nat. Reisen 
2: 484), is a well-known ungulinid, with Venus 
lupinus Brocchi (non Linné) = Tellina rotundata 
Montagu var. aequilateralis Cerulli (Diplodonta) 
as its type, designated by Herrmannsen and by 
Gray, both in 1847. There is a prior Mysia 
Leach in Brown, 1827, with the same species as 
monotype, but invalidated by Mysia Lamarck, 
1818. 

There is also Taras Risso, 1826, type (mono- 
type) T. antiquatus Risso (Hist. Nat. Eur. 
Mérid. 4: 344) from the Pliocene beds of La 
Trinité, near Nice. Stewart (op. cit.) thinks that 
this species is identical with the Recent Dzplo- 
donta rotundata (Mtg.) and therefore that 
Taras must have priority over Diplodonta. 

Taras antiquatus, only figured by Risso, 
looks, in fact, like Diplodonta rotundata. Dall 
had interpreted the diagnosis of its hinge as that 
of a specimen of this species on which the left 
posterior cardinal was broken off, and the right 
posterior confused with a lateral tooth. But 
Cerulli (1909) and Lamy (1920) treated Taras 
as a doubtful name, and Eames (1951) also has 
recently listed it as a nomen dubium. 

Stewart was of the opinion that ‘it should not 
be difficult to identify 7. antiquatus at Trinité.” 
However, in this locality as well as on the 
Mediterranean coast, another quite different 
species can be found which is externally and in- 
ternally very similar to Dzplodonta rotundata. 
Modern authors seem not to have realized that 
Taras antiquatus was, perhaps, a specimen of 
Mysia undata (Pennant), also known as Lucinop- 
sis undata. 

It is a venerid, with a deep pallial sinus, and 
a third narrow, cardinal tooth, just in front of 
the nymph (perhaps the “right posterior’’ dis- 
cussed by Dall): however, both the shape and 
hinge of Mysia undata recall strongly Diplo- 
donta rotundata, especially when the specimens 
are worn. Both species are not uncommon in the 
recent fauna. 

As I have failed to find specimens labelled 
Taras antiquatus in the Risso material preserved 
in the Paris Museum, I am of the opinion that 
the name must be rejected as a nomen dubtum, 
since it may be that Risso has described a 
Mysia, as well as a Diplodonta, and since no type 
material can be studied. 

I have noticed, when examining Risso’s shells, 
that their original labels have, sometimes, been 


122 


misplaced and several specimens apparently 
misidentified. If some day shells labelled ‘“‘Taras 
antiquatus” should be discovered (and probably 
not, then, in the Paris Museum where I have 
failed to find them and where they have not been 
listed), it would be yet necessary to verify with 
much care if they are really the true Taras 
Risso has studied. So that there is only a very 
slight possibility that Taras can have status 
of any kind, and Diplodonta, therefore, can be 
confidently used. 


I have failed to find, among numerous 


BOTANY .—New species of grasses from 
Botany, U. 8S. National Museum. 


The genus Thrasya H.B.K., Nov. Gen. et 
Sp. 1: 120. pl. 39. 1816, was based on a 
single species, 7. paspaloides H.B.K., col- 
lected by Humboldt and Bonpland on the 
island of Panamuna, in the Orinoco between 
Atures and San Borja, Venezuela. There are 
now 12 known species of Thrasya, ranging 
from Costa Rica to Brazil and Bolivia, four 
of them from Venezuela, to which a fifth is 
now proposed. In this genus the sterile 
lemma is mostly firm, thinner and sulcate 
down the middle and usually splitting to 
the base, the margins of the split rolling 
inward. In the species here described the 
sterile lemma partly splits tardily or not at 
all, as in T. campylostachya (Hack.) Chase 
and 7’. hitchcockii Chase, and the plant some- 
what resembles Paspalum pilosum Lam. 


Thrasya venezuelana Chase 
Fig. 1 


Planta perennis; culmi 50 cm alti, erecti, 
dense hispidi, nodis inferioribus ramosi; vaginae 
et laminae appresso-hispidae; ligula minuta; lami- 
nae 15-20 cm longae, 6-8 mm latae; racemi 1-3, 
arcuati, 8-13 cm longi, rhachi 2 mm lata, mar- 
ginibus longe hispidis; spiculae crebrae, 4 mm 
longae, 2 mm latae, dense hispidae; gluma prima 
obsoleta; gluma secunda et lemma sterile sub- 
aequalia, 3-nervia, lemmate sterili suleato non 
vel tarde fisso; fructus 3.5 mm longus, 1.5 mm 
latus, marginibus lemmatos et paleae appresso- 
pubescentibus. 

Perennial, in small tufts; culms 50 cm tall, 
erect, appressed-hispid, branching from the lower 
nodes, the lower internodes 4-5 em long, the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


carditid and lucinid units, other unsettled 
generic terms of the importance of those 
here discussed; so that I think it was of 
interest to study them in full, as I have tried 
to do it in the present paper. It is very 
satisfactory to see that a strict application 
of the International Rules has succeeded in 
saving well-known names. Wise decisions 
of the Commission having already placed 
several usual genera in the Official List, I 
hope that Cardita, Lucina, and Dzplodonta, 
at least, may obtain the same favor. 


Venezuela. AGNES CHASE, Department of 


nodes densely hispid; branches erect, the pro- 
phylla prominent, thin, to 5-6 em long; foliage 
conspicuously appressed-hispid; sheaths exceed- 
ing the internodes; ligule a brown membrane 
0.5 mm long; blades rather thick, 15-20 cm long, 
6-8 mm wide, about as wide at the base as the 
summit of the sheath, folded and flexuous in 
age; racemes on slender erect peduncles, 1-3 from 
the upper sheaths, the racemes strongly arcuate, 
8-13 cm long, the rachis narrowly winged, 2 mm 
wide, appressed-pubescent, the margins long- 
hispid; spikelets crowded, 4 mm long, 2 mm wide, 
rather turgid; first glume obsolete; second glume 
and sterile lemma 3-nerved, densely hispid with 
pale hairs, the glume slightly shorter than the 
lemma, the lemma sulcate, not or tardily partly 
splitting, its palea of equal length, with firm 
minutely pubescent margins, enclosing 3 rudi- 
mentary stamens; fruit 3.5 mm long, 1.5 mm 
wide, subacute; lemma and palea minutely papil- 
lose-striate, the margins of both sparsely 
appressed-pubescent. 

Type in the U. 8. National Herbarium, no. 
1762139, collected on dry stony open slope, 
among low brush, Sabanas de Cotiza, Distrito 
Federal, Venezuela, March 11, 1940, by Agnes 
Chase, no. 12407. Part of the type is in the her- 
barium of the Instituto de Botdnica, Caracas, 
Venezuela. 


Ichnanthus tamayonis Chase 
Fig. 2 


Planta annua; culmi ramosi decumbentes, 65— 
90 cm longi, gracillimi, angulati, pilosi, internodiis 
inferioribus brevibus, nodis tumidis, saepe radi- 
cosis, superioribus ad 15 ecm longis; vaginae 


Aprit 1952 


pilosae, marginibus ciliatis; ligula 0.3 mm longa; 
laminae anguste lanceolatae, 5-10 cm longae, 
47 mm latae, acuminatae, basi rotundatae, 
tenues, laxae, subtus molliter pubescentes, supra 
scaberulae; paniculae terminales et axillares, 6-8 
cm longae, 3-4 cm latae, laxae, ramis ascendenti- 
bus, 1-5 cm longis, ramulis 1-3 spiculas feren- 
tibus; spiculae 4.2-4.4 mm longae, glumis et 
lemmate sterili acuminatis; fructus 2.6 mm 
longus, basi appendicibus nullis. 

Annual; culms decumbent, 65-90 cm long, very 
slender, angled, pilose, the lower internodes short, 
the nodes swollen, few to several of them with 
slender prop-roots 4-10 em long; sheaths, except 
the uppermost, 1-2 cm long, the uppermost 3-4 
em long, pilose (the uppermost sparsely), the 
margins densely ciliate; ligule membranaceous, 
0.3 mm long; blades narrowly lanceolate, 5-10 
em long, 4-7 mm wide, long-acuminate, rounded 
at base, thin, lax, softly pubescent on the lower 


SS 


——s 


CHASE: NEW SPECIES OF GRASSES 


123 


surface, the upper surface subglabrous, the fine 
nerves scaberulous; panicles terminal and axillary 
on long very slender angled peduncles, pilose 
below the panicles; terminal panicles lax, 6-8 cm 
long, 3-4 cm wide (the axillary mostly smaller), 
the very slender angled axis sparsely pilose, the 
branches ascending, 1-5 cm long, with short 
ascending branchlets bearing 1-3 short-pedicellate 
spikelets, at least the lower axils pilose; spikelets 
4.2-4.4 mm long; first glume long-acuminate, a 
little shorter than the sterile lemma, 3-nerved, 
the midnerve scabrous; second glume acuminate, 
4.2-4.4 mm long, 5-nerved, the nerves scabrous, 
sometimes with a few hairs on the midnerve; 
sterile lemma 4—4.1 mm long, 5-nerved, the nerves 
scabrous; fruit 2.7 mm long, the basal wings 
reduced to scars. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 
1858484, collected in ‘‘sitios abrigados, Dist. Fed.: 


Figs. 1-3.—Thrasya venezuelana, n. sp.: 1, Raceme, X1, two views of spikelet, and fruit, X 10, type; 
2, Ichnanthus tamayonis, n. sp.: Spikelet and fruit, X 10, type; 3, Zchnanthus nubilus, n. sp.: spikelet and 


fruit, X 10, type. 


124 


Carretera Catia - El Junquito,”’ Venezuela, Octo- 
ber 8, 1943, by Francisco Tamayo, no. 2564. 

A duplicate of the type is in the herbarium of 
the Instituto de Botanica, Caracas, Venezuela. 


Ichnanthus nubilis Chase 
Fig. 3 


Planta annua; culmi ramosi decumbentes, 60- 
100 cm longi, graciles, angulati, infra nodos papil- 
losis-pilosi; nodi pilosi; vaginae papillosae-pilo- 
sae; internodii 1.2-2.5 cm longi, papillosi-pilosi, 
ciliati; ligula brevissima; laminae anguste lanceo- 
latae, 5-10 cm. longae, 4-8 mm latae, acuminatae, 
basi constrictae, tenues, infra obscure reticulatae; 
paniculae terminales et axillares, pedunculis gra- 
cillimis longissimis; paniculis 2.5-3.5 cm longis, 
5-10 mm latis, 2-6 spiculas ferentibus; spiculae 
3.5 mm longae, glumis et lemmate sterili firmis; 
gluma prima acuminata 2/3-3 /4 spiculae aequans, 
5-nervis; gluma secunda 3.5 mm longa, subacuta, 
5-nervis; lemma sterile 5-nerve, quam gluma 
secunda brevius; fructus 2.6 mm longus, basi 
appendicibus nullis. 

Plants annual; culms decumbent, 60 to 100 
cm long, slender, strongly nerved to angled, papil- 
lose-pilose below the nodes and sometimes along 
one of the nerves; nodes pilose; sheaths much 
shorter than the internodes (mostly less than 
2.5 cm long), finely papillose-pilose, at least 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


toward the summit and on the collar, finely 
ciliate; ligule minute; blades narrowly lanceolate, 
5-10 cm long, 4-8 mm wide, acuminate, narrowed 
at base, thin, faintly reticulate on the lower 
surface, and sparsely pilose to glabrous on both 
surfaces; panicles terminal and axillary on long 
very slender angled peduncles, the panicles 2.5- 
3.5 cm long, 5-10 mm wide, the short ascending 
scabrous branches bearing 2-6 short-pedicelled 
spikelets; spikelets 3.5 mm long, the glumes and 
sterile lemma firm; first glume abruptly acumi- 
nate, 2/3-3/4 as long as the spikelet, 5-nerved, 
the midnerve scaberulous toward the apex; sec- 
ond glume 3.5 mm long, subacute, 5-nerved; 
sterile lemma similar to the second glume, slightly 
shorter, 5-nerved; fruit 2.5 mm long, the basal 
wings reduced to scars. 

Type in the U. S. National Herbarium, no. 
1762167, collected near the upper margin of cloud 
forest, El Junquito, Cordillera Costanera, Dis- 
trito Federal, Venezuela, March 12, 1940, by 
Agnes Chase, no. 12439. 

A duplicate of the type is in the herbarium of 
the Instituto de Botanica, Caracas, Venezuela. 

Ichnanthus tamayonis and I. nubilis, creeping, 
shade-loving species, resemble J. angustifolius 
Swallen of the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia, 
but are freely branching and bear axillary as 
well as terminal panicles with spikelets glabrous 
or with scabrous nerves only. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes on Bruchidae affecting the Anacardiaceae, including the 
description of a new genus. JOHN CoLBURN BRIDWELL, Lignum, Va. (Com- 


municated by Waldo L. Schmitt.) 


Anyone interested in the Bruchidae is 
intrigued by the relatively few species that 
diverge from the usual family habit of 
feeding their young in seeds of legumes by 
attaching themselves to plants of other 
families. We have three records of Bruchidae 
affecting the Anacardiaceae, a family of 
plants represented in temperate North 
America almost entirely by the poly- 
morphic genus Rhus, including the sumacs, 
poison ivy, and smokebush. The genera 
affected by Bruchidae are Chilean and 
Brazilian, and both are close allies of Rhus. 
These genera are Duvaua Kunth, now 
usually included in Schinus Linnaeus, which 
includes the “California” peppertree, and 
Iithraea Miers, which includes the Chilean 
‘litre, L. caustica (Molina) Hooker & Arnott 
(venenosa Miers). 


1. GALL-MAKING BRUCHID OF Schinus 
huigan (CHILE) 


Kieffer and Herbst (Zeitschr. Wiss. Insekt.- 
Biol. 1: 66. 1905) reported a bud gall in the 
axils of the flowering twigs of Duvaua dependens 
DC (= Schinus huigan Molina), which is 
described as follows: These are easily dislodged, 
being attached at only a single point. The gall 
is ellipsoidal, 6-8 mm high by 5-6 mm broad, 
naked, red flecked with white, the middle of the 
flecks sometimes tuberculately prominent. The 
texture of the gall is somewhat woody. Within 
the gall lies a thick curved footless beetle larva 
with the body gradually thickened behind, 
8-9 mm long by 2-3 mm broad, naked except 
for some scattered hairs on the anterior seg- 
ments, mandibles dark. 

This material was obtained by Pablo Herbst 
between Santiago and Valparaiso on November 


Aprin 1952 


3, and later a new species of Bruchus was reared 
from these larvae. 

Since this still undescribed species is one of 
the few Bruchidae affecting plants in parts 
other than seeds, it would be a useful work for 
some of our Chilean friends to recover this 
species and have it described. 


2. Inthraeus electus FROM THE SEEDS 
OF LITRE (CHILE) 


Prof. Carlos Porter (Revista Chilena Hist. 
Nat. 29: 286. 1925) reported determining the 
attractive Bruchus elegans Blanchard in material 
submitted to him for identification by Prof. 
Flaminio Ruiz, obtained by the latter from the 
seeds of litre, Lithraea caustica, from Sauzal 
(Province of O’Higgins) im January 1924. 
Since Camacho (Algunos insectos perjudiciales 
G las arvejas, frijoles, lentejas y otras legumbres y 
brucos del trebol, Serv. Policia Sanit. Vej., Santiago 
de Chile, 1919: 22-23) had previously erroneously 
reported this species affecting seeds of clover, 
I sought confirmation for Professor Porter’s 
record. With this in mind I examined several lots 
of seeds of litre in the collection of the Office 
of Foreign Plant Introduction, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture. In one of these lots (S.P-I. 
No. 27434) were found four seeds showing insect 
injury. Three exhibited exit holes, evidently of 
some hymenopterous insect smaller than Bruchus 
elegans. This should be a parasite of a bruchid, 
but it might also be some seed inhabiting chalcid. 
Fortunately, the fourth seed still contained an 
insect. When this was extracted from within its 
slight silken cocoon, there was found a nearly 
mature braconid identified by C. F. W. Muese- 
beck as a species of Urosigalphus. Since some 
of the species of Urosigalphus parasitize bruchids, 
and others attack curculionids, the remains of the 
beetle larva at the expense of which the Urosigal- 
phus larva had nourished itself were extracted 
and submitted to Dr. Adam Béving. The frag- 
ments were sufficient to enable him to determine 
them positively as those of a bruchid larva. 
We may hope that ultimately the larvae of 
Bruchidae will be identifiable, since Dr. Béving 
has admirably worked out the mouth parts 
(Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 29: 133-148. 
1927). However, the larva of Bruchus elegans 
is still undescribed, and so no matter how perfect 
the larva might be it would still be impossible to 
determine it to species. We were not, therefore, 
quite able to..confirm fully Professor Porter’s 
record as to the species concerned. But a bruchid 


BRIDWELL—BRUCHIDAE AFFECTING ANACARDIACEAE 


125 


certainly does affect the seeds of Lithraea caustica 
in Chile, and I have no doubt that he is right 
in his determination, for Bruchus elegans is a 
common, well-known, and strongly characterized 
species not likely to be mistaken.! 

Unfortunately, the appropriate specific name 
elegans Blanchard, 1851, is preoccupied by 
Bruchus elegans Sturm, 1845, a valid binomial, 
and must be replaced. Furthermore, the varietal 
name obscurior Pic, 1902, is also preoccupied? 
and cannot take its place. The species is, I believe, 
distinct enough to represent a separate genus, 
and Lithraeus is proposed with Bruchus elegans 
Blanchard, 1851, as genotype. For the untenable 
specific name elegans the substitute electus 
is proposed, so that this beautiful seed weevil of 
the litre may be known hereafter as Lithraeus 
electus. 


Lithraeus, n. gen. (Bruchinae, Acanthoscelidini) 
Genotype: Lithraeus electus, n. name 


Bruchus elegans Blanchard, 1851, not Sturm 1843. 
Bruchus elegans obscurior Pic, 1902, not Bruchus 
(Pseudoptinus) martini obscurior Pic, 1896. 


Freshly emerged individuals of this elegant 
Chilean bruchid may best be recognized by the 
pubescent markings, which later are often badly 
rubbed. With fine sericeous pubescence on head, 
body and legs above and below, invisible except 
when seen obliquely; sharply defined decorations 
of dense snowy white pubescence concealing the 
surface thus: a small quadrangle on median lobe 
of pronotum; on the small quadrate scutellum 
(emarginately bidentate at apex), narrow arcuate 
elytral fasciae extending obliquely forward from 
near the middle of fourth stria to near basal 
third of ninth, an elliptical fleck at the apex of 
the fourth and fifth striae, on mesepimeron, 
on narrow outer margin of metapleura, on outer 
end of hind coxa and small maculae on extreme 
margin of sternites 2-4, narrow basal margin of 
pygidium; less condensed and less definite pubes- 
cent markings on posterolateral lobes or angles 
of pronotum and on its flank near front coxa. 

Small, 2.3-3.1 mm long by 1.8-1.6 mm broad, 
ovate, shining black or reddish testaceus, with 
almost all parts rufescent in some individuals; 


1Since this part of this paper was prepared, 
repeated positive proof of this host relationship 
has been obtained. I do not have any confirmation 
of Dr. Porter’s subsequent record (Revista Chilena 
Hist. Nat. 43: 189-140. 1940) of its affecting Schinus 
molle L., the so-called ‘‘California’’ peppertree. 

2 Bruchus (Pseudoptinus) martini obscwrior Pie, 
1896, now referred to Ptinus. 


126 


head, prothorax, and body beneath generally 
black; antennae sometimes entirely black, some- 
times with some basal joints reddish. Integument 
everywhere micropunctulate, with coarser punc- 
tures on head, pronotum, and hind coxa. Head 
short, malar space short, temples abruptly 
declivous; eyes normally convex and projecting, 
broadly emarginate for two-thirds their length, 
separated on front by nearly the width of an eye. 

Front punctured throughout, without a carina, 
glabrous impunctate line, or area; antennae alike 
in the sexes, extending beyond base of pronotum 
but not to hind coxa, with four narrow joints at 
base, joint 5 triangularly expanded at apex, 
6-10 nearly alike, subquadrate, closely applied to 
each other, not at all serrate, 11 broadly ovate. 
Pronotum narrower than elytra and less than 
half as long; sides nearly straight, converging 
and suddenly rounded in front; dorsum nearly 
even, convex, separated from flanks by a vestigial 
lateral carina bent down to the coxa. Elytra 
with even surface, flat intervals, epipleural lobes 
well developed, humeri small, no basal tubercles, 
striae except 8 and 9 reaching base, 4 and 5 
abbreviate and joined at apex, striae perceptibly 
punctured, well impressed; elytra broadest near 
basal third, narrowed to apex, covering base of 
pygidium, not microserrulate at suture. Hind 
coxa broader than hind femur and broader than 
first sternite behind it, finely punctured except 
for the polished area along more than half the 
anterior margin; hind femur more than three 
times as long as broad, not extending to apex of 
abdomen, arcuate above, nearly straight be- 
neath, sinuate before the small apical lamella; 
slightly flattened apically, inner margin with 
vestigial carina usually bearing a slightly an- 
gulate denticle; hind tibia straight, slightly 
broader toward apex, entirely without longi- 
tudinal carinae, apex abruptly truncate, mucro 
short and but little different from the lateral 
tooth which is near it, separated by a shallow 
sinus; subdorsal denticles smaller, two or three 
in number. 

Numerous American Bruchidae such as 
Bruchus (Pachymerus) albotectus Sharp, Bruchus 
(Pachymerus) incrustatus Gyllenhal, and Pseu- 
dopachymerus multimaculatus and binotatus Pic, 
which have been referred to Pseudopachymerus 
or Caryedes, from which they are generically 
distinct, have the elytra with dense white pubes- 
cence over most of the surface but in Lithraeus 
electus most of the elytron is covered with prac- 
tically invisible pubescence and the white covers 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


only a minor part of the surface. These species 
with longitudinally carinate hind tibiae and 
femur armed with tooth and denticles near apex 
beneath are widely separated from Lithraeus by 
the structure of the hind legs. Most genera of 
Acanthoscelidini have longitudinal carinae on 
the hind tibiae: (1) One on outer face ending in a 
tooth at apex. (2) One on ventral margin ending 
in the mucro at apex; (3) One on the surface 
between outer and ventral carinae, often con- 
verging apically toward the ventral carina; (4) 
One on the inner face, not related to any apical 
structure. The complete absence of such carinae 
in Lithraeus distinguishes it from any other 
American bruchid genus known to me. 


3. A BRUCHID FROM THE SEEDS OF 
AROEIRA (BRAZIL) 


Gregorio Bondar, 1937, records a _ third 
bruchid affecting a plant of the family Ana- 
cardiaceae in Brazil (Rio) in his Notas biologicas 
sobre bruchideos observados no Brasil (Arch. 
Inst. Biol. Vegetal 3: 7-44, figs. 1-61 [December, 
1936]), a work largely reprinted from previously 
published papers in Correio Agricola (Bahia), 
O Campo (Rio de Janeiro), Revista de Entomo- 
logia (Rio de Janeiro), and perhaps elsewhere, 
1930-1932, the details of which I cannot here 
quote. This paper by Bondar is the most sig- 
nificant single contribution to the biology of 
Bruchidae known to me. Bondar’s too brief 
note (p. 43) reads thus: ‘‘Bruchus atronotatus 
Pic. Cria-se en sementes de aroeira. Rio.” 

The bruchid species was described by Pic 
1929, Mélanges 54: 35, Brésil (type in coll. 
Pic). It was listed by Blackwelder, Checklist of 
the coleopterous insects of Mexico, Central America, 
the West Indies, and South America, U. 8. Nat. 
Mus. Bull. 185 (pt. 4): 758. 1946, as Acantho- 
scelides atronotatus Pic. Ido not have the descrip- 
tion before me, but I doubt if it would be of 
service in determining the species if it is in any 
way like Lithraeus electus or particularly related 
to it. 

From Dr. Da Costa Lima’s very useful 
“Indice das Plantas” in his Terceiro catalogo dos 
insectos que vivem nas plantas do Brasil, Rio de 
Janeiro, 1936, p. 426, we find the vernacular name 
aroeira with or without an adjective, brava, 
mansa, or preta, applies to Lithraea brasiliensis. 
Aroeira vermelha or. manza is Schinus terebin- 
thifolius. My impression is that Bondar meant 
Iithraea brasiliensis as the host of Bruchus 
atronotatus. 


Aprit 1952 


HOTTES—TWO SPECIES OF APHIDIDAE 


127 


ENTOMOLOGY .— Descriptions and notes on two rare species of Aphididae. F. C. 
Horttss. (Communicated by Herbert Friedmann.) 


Opportunity is taken to describe some 
forms heretofore unknown of two rare 
species of Aphididae, and to record some 
notes on their life habits. 


Rhopalosiphum grabhami Cockerell 


This species was described by T. D. A. Cock- 
erell in 1903. Since that time I am aware of its 
mention in aphid literature only once, by Gil- 
lette and Palmer in 1932. In the fall of 1951 it 
was present in numbers in pseudogalls made by 
rolling both halves of the leaf blade toward the 
midrib. On Lonicera involucrata the galls thus 
formed were red, mottled with yellow. The edges 
of the leaves were tightly rolled into tubes just 
large enough for the bodies of the aphids. In 
such tubes numerous aphids apparently adult, 
but with undeveloped wings were taken dead, 
killed by a fungus. Toward the midrib the leaves 
were more loosely rolled, and it was in these 
regions that living alate viviparous females and 
males were taken. Oviparous females were not 
taken. The male has not been described before. 


ALATE MALE 


Size and general color—In life very much 
shriveled and shrunken; general color black. 
Mounted specimens, relaxed and cleared, are 
about 1.45 mm long from vertex to tip of anal 
plate; width across eyes, 57 mm. Mounted speci- 
mens show the head and thorax blackish brown, 
abdomen with dusky spots at the sides, and 
smaller spots, irregular in shape and size, ar- 
ranged in transverse rows across the dorsum. 
The median spots are larger and more or less 
confluent, near the posterior; cauda and anal 
plate dusky; cornicles dark dusky; antennae 
uniform black; tibiae dark brown with apical 
portions darker. 

Head and appendages.—Comparative lengths 
of antennal segments as follows: III, .57 mm; 
IV, .37 mm; V, .31 mm; VI, .11 + .52 mm. 
Antennal hair slightly knobbed, that on III not 
so long as width of segment. Secondary sensoria 
round, tuberculate, arranged as follows: III, 
56-60 evenly distributed over surface; IV, 33 
evenly distributed; V, 5-11 more or less in a 
row. All antennal segments imbricated. Primary 
sensoria on V and VI with a hair rim. Anterior 
margin of head with a strongly developed me- 


dian tubercle. Antennal tubercles extremely well 
developed. Rostrum very short, extending only 
about midway to mesothoracie coxae, segment 
before apex very bulbous. 

Thorax.—Veins of forewings dark dusky 
brown; second branch of media about midway 
between first and margin of wing; radial sector 
much bowed; hind tibiae 1.07 mm long; hair on 
inner surface of hind tibiae more abundant than 
that on outer surface; hair on both surfaces 
equal in texture and about equal in length. The 
hair on the proximal surface of the tibiae is 
shortest, length of hair in midregion less than 
width of tibiae; apex of tibiae somewhat en- 
larged. Tarsi .08 mm long. First segment of 
tarsus deeply recessed within tibiae, this is also 
true of alate viviparous females. First segment 
of tarsus apparently with only two hairs. 

Abdomen.—Cornicles .20 mm long, with sur- 
face imbricated, sides almost uniformally swollen, 
slightly constricted just before well-developed 
rim. Cauda, .057 mm long, with three hairs on a 
side. Anal plate with few long hairs. Gonapophy- 
ses short with numerous hair. 

Allotype alate male—Collected September 7, 
1951, Skyway, Colo. (Cottonwood Lake Trail) 
deposited in United States National Museum. 

I am not sure that this species is correctly 
placed in the genus Rhopalosiphum. It has much 
in common with the Myzini. 


Lachnus montanus (Wilson) 


This species was described by Wilson in 1919 
from three ‘‘apterous viviparous” females col- 
lected by Gillette at Cimmaron, Colo. in 1906. 
I am not aware of other specimens having been 
recorded in aphid literature since that time. Dr. 
Knowlton, however, has sent me an unidentified 
slide of this species to determine, collected by 
B. A. Hows at Vallecitos New Mexico in 1943. 
The host is not recorded; the specimens are 
apterous. 

This species is of especial interest because two 
kinds of apterous viviparous females occur; 
females with no sensoria on the hind tibiae and 
females with sensoria on the hind tibiae. It was 
from females of the latter type that Wilson de- 
scribed the species. At the time he stated that it 
was possible for the females to be oviparous, a 
possibility he promptly rejected because the 


128 


specimens were collected in August which he 
thought too early to produce oviparous females. 
Despite the presence of sensoria on the hind 
tibiae, a characteristic as a rule of oviparous 
females, but not confined to them, such females 
are viviparous. I can not state that they are 
always thus, but my material so indicates. They 
seem to occur in the fall as a generation just 
preceding the oviparous generation. Because 
they differ in other respects in addition to the 
presence of sensoria on the hind tibiae they must 
be regarded as distinct forms. I have been in- 
formed by Professor Palmer, that Professor 
Essig has a paper in press in which he calls similar 
forms produced in another genus “‘intermediates”’ 
and I make use of his term. It was my intention 
to call them pseudo-oviparous. 

I took all my specimens in a small region 
south of Glade Park, Colo. (Pifon Mesa), on 
scrub oak (Quercus gunnisonii). On the larger 
trees of this species they apparently live singly, 
of in the case of immature specimens in groups of 
two or three. I have taken them on the twigs, 
branches, and trunk. On twigs they seem to 
show a preference for regions near twig galls, 
and in one case I collected a female with the 
head and a portion of the thorax in the cavity of 
a gall, too small to admit the entire body. On 
branches and on the trunk, rough regions seem 
preferable. Even when directed to them by ants, 
collecting of this species is slow and tedious. By 
actual count only five mature specimens were 
taken in three afternoons collecting, on mature 
trees. Quite by accident I chanced to stop to 
examine some small seedlings not more than 3 
feet high and found that they had fairly large 
colonies of oviparous females and males on the 
trunks, not more than a foot from the ground. 
If this represents the normal preference for this 
species, perhaps it explains why this species is 
so rare in aphid collections. 


APTEROUS MALE 


Size and general color—TIn life black, very 
insignificant looking, being much shrunken and 
very shriveled. Mounted specimens, after clear- 
ing and relaxing, vary in length from 2.07 to 
2.50 mm. Mounted specimens have the head 
and thorax dusky brown, abdomen greenish with 
large lateral dusky areas; dorsum of abdomen 
with many dusky spots, which vary greatly in 
size and shape. Posterior region of abdomen 
dusky; cornicles dusky; antennae with the ex- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


ception of the base of third dark dusky brown; 
femora brown at base shading to almost black; 
tibiae and tarsi uniform dark brownish black. 

Head and appendages.—Width of head across 
eyes .715—.78 mm. Anterior margin of head rather 
flat with numerous long hair; median suture 
present; first and second antennal segments with 
numerous short, rather thick hair. All antennal 
segments imbricated; hair on antennal segment 
III, IV, and V spinelike and for the most part 
about as long as width of segment. Secondary 
sensoria distributed as follows: III, 10-39; IV, 
0-2; V, 1-6. The specimen that had the fewest 
sensoria on III had the most on V. Marginal 
sensoria on VI far removed from primary, rather 
large, sometimes difficult to determine, most 
commonly three. Proportional lengths of anten- 
nal segments as follows: III, .715-.815 mm; IV, 
.314—.371 mm; V, .30—.343 mm; VI, .143 + .085- 
185 + .128 mm. The unguis is outstandingly 
long and thick. Ocular tubercles present, well 
developed. The rostrum reaches almost to the 
cornicles. 

Thorax and abdomen.—The hind tibiae meas- 
ure 2.28-2.41 mm in length. The hind tarsi are 
.3847 mm long. The hair on the hind tibiae is 
about equally well developed on all surfaces, in 
length it is subequal to the width of segment. 
The ventral surface of the first segment of the 
hind tarsus has about 15 hairs, the dorsal surface 
3. The cornicles measure .171-.214 mm at the 
base, which is rather irregular in outline. The 
cauda and anal plate are rounded. The hair on 
these structures and on the cornicles is longer 
than that found on other parts of the body. The 
gonapophyses have what appear to be tufts of 
hair at their ends. 


APTEROUS VIVIPAROUS FEMALE 


Size and general color—Length varying from 
3.50 to 3.78 mm. Immature specimens of this 
species are so large that they may be taken for 
adults in the field. Body highly arched and 
much inflated except in regions of spots which 
appear deeply pitted. Color of head and thorax 
light brown with a very scant amount of pul- 
verulent matter. Abdomen the color of cocoa 
with a rather thick hoar-frost pulverulence 
covering all but the cornicles, which are dark 
brown, very small lateral tubercles and areas 
which surround them, which are also brown, and 
small rather deeply pitted areas arranged in four 
rows on the dorsolateral surface of the abdomen. 


Aprit 1952 


These areas, which appear to be glandular, are 
most likely not wax glands, being free from 
pulverulent matter. First and second antennal 
segments slightly darker than the head, third 
segment yellowish brown at base shading to dark 
dusky brown, remaining antennal segments 
dusky; femora brownish at base shading to very 
dark dusky brown if not black; tibiae almost 
uniform brownish black, tarsi the same. Mounted 
specimens may show dusky areas on dorsum of 
abdomen. When present, these are irregular in 
outline and variable in size. 

Head and appendages.—Width of head across 
eyes .57 mm; antennal segments with the follow- 
ing proportional lengths: III, .71-.78 mm; IV, 
.30-.314 mm; V, .314-.347 mm; VI, .157—.171 + 
114 mm. The unguis is very long and thick. 
The secondary sensoria are distributed as fol- 
lows: III, none; IV, 0-2; V, 0; marginal sensoria 
on VI far removed from primary; first and sec- 
ond antennal segments with more hair than 
usual; antennal hair spinelike, not so long as 
width of segment; antennal segments imbricated; 
primary sensoria free from hair ring; rostrum 
nearly reaching to base of cornicles; ocular 
tubercles poorly developed; head with a median 
suture, which continues more or less on the seg- 
ments of the thorax, never being complete on 
any one segment. 

Thorax.—The metathoracie femora are much 
longer than those of the prothorax and meso- 
thorax, measuring 1.64 mm in length; the hind 
tibiae are 2.86 mm long; the hind tarsi measure 
.34 mm in length. The hair on the tibiae are 
spinelike and arise from clear areas which stand 
out from the otherwise very dark color of the 
tibiae; hair on tibiae not as long as width of 
tibiae, not all of uniform length, longest hair dull 
at the tip; first segment of hind tarsi with nine 
hairs on ventral surface and three on dorsal. 

Abdomen.—Cornicles with base varying from 
.257 to .286 mm; base very irregular in outline 
with about four rows of hair; abdomen with much 
hair; cauda narrow but deep, with two kinds of 
hair: long spinelike hair on the margin and short 
fine hair on the dorsum. Anal plate rounded. 


INTERMEDIATE VIVIPAROUS FEMALE 


It was this form that Wilson described. 
Specimens of this form resemble the viviparous 
females just described in color. They differ from 
such females in size, varying from 3.78 to 4.00 


HOTTEN—TWO SPECIES OF APHIDIDAE 


129 


mm, in length of sixth antennal segment, which 
is shorter, .128 + .08 mm; the unguis is different 
in shape, not being so thick or so blunt. 

The hind femora are much shorter, 1.35-1.43 
mm, as are also the hind tibiae, 2.28-2.59 mm. 
The tarsi are also shorter, those of the meta- 
thorax measuring only .228 mm.; antennal seg- 
ments III, IV, and V vary within the limits of 
those of the true apterous viviparous female. 
The sensoria on the antennae are also similar; 
sensoria on the hind tibiae are similar to those of 
the oviparous female; the cornicles have a wider 
base. 


OVIPAROUS FEMALE 


Size and general color.—Length from vertex to 
tip of anal plate 3.2-3.64 mm. Color much the 
same as that of apterous viviparous female. 
However, some specimens are more black than 
brown, and such lack pulverulence and have a 
dull appearance due to abundant hair. The head 
and prothroax of black specimens are often light 
brown; the body is not highly arched. 

Head and appendages.—Ocular tubercles poorly 
developed; width across eyes .78-.85 mm; an- 
tennal segments with the following proportional 
lengths: III, .74—.85 mm; IV, .257-.286 mm; V, 
.57-.386 mm; VI, .157 + .085 mm or .158 + 
.128 mm; unguis not so thick as that of apterous 
viviparous female; rostrum not reaching cor- 
nicles, median suture on head and thorax similar 
to females described; secondary sensoria dis- 
tributed as follows: III, 0; IV, 0-1; V, 0-2; when 
present small. 

Thorax.—Hind femora long, 1.57-1.78 mm; 
metathoracic tibiae, 2.71-2.84 mm; hind tibiae 
not disfigured by sensoria; sensoria not limited 
to upper half but few are present below the 
middle. The sensoria are irregular in shape and 
size, rather abundant, and hardly tuberculate. 
They are sometimes very difficult to determine 
because of the dark color of the tibiae. The hind 
tarsi are .828-.347 mm long. 

Abdomen.—Base of cornicles measuring from 
.286 to .371 mm; posterior portion of abdomen 
not drawn out. 

Types.—Allotype apterous male, taken Octo- 
ber 12, 1951. Morphotype apterous viviparous 
female, taken September 16, 1951 (no sensoria 
on tibiae). Morphotype apterous oviparous fe- 
male, taken October 12, 1951. All types depos- 
ited in the United States National Museum. 


130 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—Notes on the systematic status of four eel families.1 Witu1AM A, 
Gos.InE, University of Hawaii. (Communicated by L. P. Schultz.) 


Certain aspects of the classification of the 
eel families Derichthyidae, Simenchelidae, 
Ophichthidae, and Chilorhinidae are taken 
up here. The last is proposed as new. 


DERICHTHYIDAE 


The species Derichthys serpentinus was de- 
scribed by Gill (in Goode and Bean, 1895: 161, 
fig. 169), who erected a new genus, family, and 
the new order Carenchelyi for it. However, sub- 
sequent authors have been unanimous in placing 
the species with other eels in the order Anguillida 
(or Apodes). Regan (1912: 386) has tentatively 
placed Derichthys in the Congridae, but Tre- 
wavas (1932: 641) and Beebe (1935) have re- 
tained a separate family for it. In the above 
works on Derichthys two points of disagreement 
have arisen: (1) whether the premaxillaries are 
separate from the vomer or whether they are 
fused with it, and (2) whether the frontals are 
ankylosed to form a single bone or whether they 
are separated by suture. 

The type of Derichthys serpentinus consists of 
a skull 14 mm long, branchial arches, suspensoria, 
and pectoral girdles. In the skull the premaxil- 
laries are ankylosed to one another but at present 
are free from the vomer. Gill stated that the 
premaxillaries were separated from the vomer by 
a suture, and I see no reason to doubt this de- 
spite the descriptions and figures of both Tre- 
wavas and Beebe. In fact, still another rather 
indefinite suture can also be made out in the 
type between the vomer and ethmoid. 

A more unique feature among eels than the 
relationship between the premaxillary, ethmoid, 
and vomer in Derichthys is the maxillary articu- 
lation. This, instead of being at least in part 
medially with the ethmoid, is entirely forward, 
the front end of the maxillaries riding on sockets 
at either end of the transverse, premaxillary 
plate (Trewavas, 1932: 641, fig. 2). 

As to the frontals, in the type specimen of D. 
serpentinus they are definitely ankylosed as 
stated by Beebe (1935: 9), and not paired as 
stated for D. kempi by Trewavas (1932: 641). 
This discrepancy, remarked upon elsewhere 
(Gosline, 1951a: 201), has been resolved by a re- 
cent letter from Trewavas. She writes: “I have 


1 Contribution No. 19, Hawaii Marine Labora- 
tory. 


examined the type of Derichthys kempi (Norman) 
and find that I had not slit the skin far enough 
to expose the frontals properly. I have now made 
a bigger slit and lifted the muscles and their 
raphe from the bones and I find that the frontals 
are united.” 

Benthenchelys, placed by Fowler (1934: 267) 
and. Beebe (1935: 3) in the Derichthyidae, ap- 
pears to be a congrid. Gorgasia, also placed in 
the Derichthyidae by Meek and Hildebrand 
(1923: 133) and Beebe (1935: 3), seems to be 
more nearly related to Heteroconger, which again 
may provisionally be considered a congrid. 


SIMENCHELIDAE 


The anatomical characters of this family, 
based on Simenchelys parasiticus, have been 
treated by Gill (1890), Regan (1912: 381), and 
Jaquet (1920). 

As in the Derichthyidae the two premaxil- 
laries are ankylosed, but this premaxillary plate, 
the ethmoid, and the vomer are again united by 
suture (Fig. 1). However, unlike Derichthys the 
maxillaries articulate with both the premaxillary 
plate and the ethmoid. In fact the relationships 
of all these bones of the snout area are exactly 
the same as those illustrated for the larval An- 
guilla by Trewavas (1932: 640, fig. 1). I think it 
may be assumed from these bone arrangements 
in the above two families and in the larval 
Anguilla that the ankylosis of the two premax- 
illaries to one another takes place earlier in life 
and occurred earlier in eel evolution than the 
fusion that gave rise to the premaxillary-ethmo- 
vomerine plate. 

Again the question of fused vs. paired frontals 
has arisen in the literature on Simenchelys. Regan 
has indicated that the frontals of the Simen- 
chelidae are paired. However, Jaquet (1920: 14) 
states that the frontals are ankylosed, as indeed 
they are in National Museum specimens. Once 
again this dilemma has been resolved by Tre- 
wavas. She writes (in litt.): “In our collection 
there is one specimen (N. Atlantic) partially dis- 
sected and this was probably the source of 
Regan’s information. There is a median ridge in 
the frontal region which Regan may have in- 
terpreted as a suture but I can find no separation 
of the two bones.” 


Aprit 1952 GOSLINE 

The presence of scales in one of the two genera 
of Simenchelidae and the maintenance of the pre- 
maxillaries, ethmoid, and vomer as separate en- 
tities are certainly prinitive for eels. However, 
the small transverse mouth with its short, deep 
maxillaries and dentaries seems to be unique in 
the order; whether these structures are primitive 
or specialized seems impossible to determine. 


OPHICHTHIDAE 


The osteology of several Hawaiian genera of 
ophichthids has been recently discussed (Gos- 
line, 1951b). The present section deals with 
Echelus myrus from the Mediterranean. In view 
of the peculiarities of this eel and of the fact that 
recognition or non-recognition of the family 
name Echelidae depends upon the systematic 
position of H. myrus (since this is the type 
species of Echelus), it will be described and fig- 
ured in some detail. 

External features—Head and body elliptical 
in cross section, somewhat higher than broad; 
head and trunk shorter than tail. Dorsal and 
anal low, continuous around tip of tail, the dor- 
sal beginning somewhat behind middle of the 
pectoral. Pectoral well developed, with 16 rays. 
Lateral line of body extending from in front of 
gill openings nearly to tip of tail, with about 137 
pores. Gill opening wide, below pectoral base. 
Snout more or less acutely pointed, its length 
equal to about 2 eye diameters. Eye well devel- 
oped, its posterior border slightly ahead of rictus. 
Lower jaw inferior. Lips without folds, the upper 
somewhat fringed just behind anterior nostril; 
both lips with innumerable microscopic papillae. 
Anterior nostril in a tube; posterior nostril open- 
ing partly on the lateral, partly on the lower sur- 
face of the upper lip, the lower opening caused by 
a flap which covers the anterior two-thirds of 
the lateral opening (Fig. 2a). The pore system 
differs from that of other ophichthids examined 
(Gosline, 1952b) in lacking postorbital pores, a 
posterior supraorbital pore, an interorbital pore 
on the middorsal line, and a transverse series 
across the nape (Fig. 2a). Teeth multiserial on 
dentaries, maxillaries, premaxillary plate (fused 
premaxillaries), and vomer. Teeth on mavxil- 
laries and dentaries all small, conical, blunt, and 
non-depressible; those on the premaxillary simi- 
lar but slightly larger and with a single some- 
what enlarged, fixed tooth behind; those on 
vomer still larger, granular, rising from a sub- 
ovate plate which is broadest behind center. 


FOUR EEL FAMILIES 


131 


Color brown above, lighter below, with short, 
light bands on the head and several white spots 
on nape (these markings not indicated in Fig. 
2a); dorsal and anal light anteriorly, with dark 
borders posteriorly. 

Lateral-line canals—The lateral-lne canals 
of this species have been excellently described by 
Allis (1903: 131). Nothing need be added to this 
account except to point out that the course of 
these canals is about as in other ophichthids, 
even though several of the external pores found 
in other members of the family are not present 
in Kchelus. 

Jaw structure—Lower jaw with the articular 
and angular fused as usually in eels. Premaxil- 
laries ankylosed to one another and to the eth- 
movomer, the toothed surface of the premaxil- 
lary area forming an angle with the rest of the 
upper jaw (Fig. 2b). Anterior end of maxillaries 
articulating with the cranium at about the point 
of junction between the premaxillaries and vomer. 
Maxillary long, extending nearly to the articular- 


\Y 
Ve 
A 
1 ' 
1 1 i I ' 
| 1 1 I oJ 
ps vo ts topm 
1 
B 
| 
os al pt fr 
| 1 | | | 
1 | J ! —— | > 
p 


interorbital 
opening 


——-—-—-—---3---- 


Fic. 1.—Simenchelys parasiticus: A, Ventral 
view of anterior end of skull; B, dorsal and some- 
what anterior view of bones at tip of snout; C, 
lateral view of anterior end of skull; all X7é. 
(al, Alisphenoid; et, ethmoid; fr, frontal; os, 
orbitosphenoid; ps, parasphenoid; pm, premaxil- 
lary plate; pt, pterotic; to, tooth; ts, tooth socket 
(its tooth missing); and vo, vomer.) 


132 


angular, to which it is closely attached by liga- 
ment, bearing multiserial teeth for nearly its 
entire length. There is a strong preorbital strut, 
apparently cartilaginous, between the maxillary 
and the cranium (Fig. 2b). In many, if not all 
eels in which the maxillaries are long and used 
for biting or crushing, a strut is developed be- 
tween the maxillary and the cranium for support 
of the former. In the ophichthid Brachysemophis 
such a strut develops behind the eye from the 
postorbital lateral-line canal ossicles (Gosline, 
1952b). The development of this strut in Brachy- 
somophis has apparently pushed the eye far for- 
ward of its normal position in eels. In the mu- 
raenid Gymnothorax funebris, according to Fig. 
82 of Gregory (1933: 202), both an antorbital 
and a postorbital strut are developed. Thus, 
maxillary supports of this type appear to be 
functional adaptations appearing here and 
there where needed among eels. However, the 
origin of the antorbital strut, where present, is 
dubious. That it is not an expanded lacrymal is 
indicated by its failure to bear any lateral line 
canal; that it is not a prefrontal is suggested by 
its apparently cartilaginous nature in Hchelus. 

Suspensorium.—This structure is somewhat 
forwardly inclined, less so than in Conger but 
more than in other ophichthids. Palatoptery- 
goid laminar, well developed for eels, adjoining 
the quadrate posteriorly. 

Opercular series —Opercle well developed be- 
low but more or less truncated above. Preopercle 
moderately developed for eels and closely ap- 
pressed to the posterior edge of the hyomandi- 
bular. Subopercle made up largely of a branchio- 
stegal-like bone which encircles the lower edge of 
the opercle. Interopercle well developed, largely 
underlying the preopercle. 


pe go i] 


. 


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1 1 
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We nee oe seu 
' 
1 


oe 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


Gull arches.—Tongue not free. Branchiostegal 
rays 15 on each side, those of the two sides over- 
lapping below. Openings between the gill arches 
wide, except the last. Upper pharyngeal ovate, 
with numerous conical teeth. 

Cranium.—The skull of Hchulus is long and 
moderately low, with an interorbital opening 
that is longer than deep. Unlike other ophichthids 
examined, the skull of Echelus is abruptly trun- 
cate posteriorly with a prominent edge above, as 
in Conger. There is a slight, longitudinal, median 
crest running along the ankylosed frontals. The 
ethmoid sends a triangular wedge over the ante- 
rior end of the frontals. A well-developed otic 
bulla present. 

Axial skeleton—On one of the first vertebrae 
(the only one examined) there is no neural crest. 
In this character Hchelus like other ophichthids 
differs from the Congridae. 

Pectoral girdle —This structure, together with 
the pectoral fins, is fully developed for eels, with 
4 well-formed actinosts. 

Discussion of Echelus.—In that Echelus myrus 
bears a number of structures showing a closer 
resemblance than any other ophichthid to the 
relatively unspecialized Congridae (from which 
the Ophichthidae was undoubtedly derived), it 
may be said to be a primitive member of its fam- 
ily. Characters on which this statement is based 
are: suspensorium somewhat forwardly inclined; 
branchiostegal rays relatively few; skull abruptly 
truncate posteriorly; and pectoral girdle with 
four actinosts. 

Characters in which Echelus appears to differ 
both from the Congridae and from other ophich- 
thids are: external pores of the lateral line sys- 
tem of the head reduced in number; a middorsal 
crest on the skull; and an antorbital stay be- 
tween the maxillary and the cranium. 


oe ee 
y= 


Fig. 2.—Echelus myrus: A, Lateral view of head region, X 4/5; B, lateral view of head skeleton (the 
teeth and branchial apparatus omitted), 4/5. (al, Alisphenoid; an, anterior nostril; ar, articular-angu- 
lar; da, dentary; ep, epiotic; fl, flap covering the anterior section of the posterior nostril; fr, frontal; 
go, gill opening; hm, hyomandibular; io, interopercle; mx, maxillary; op, opercle; os, orbitosphenoid 
pa, parietal; pe, pectoral fin; pn, posterior section of posterior nostril; po, preopercle; pp, palatoptery- 
goid; ps, parasphenoid; pt, pterotic; pv, premaxillary-ethmovomerine plate; hu, quadrate; so, supra- 
occipital; sp, spenotic; sr, subopercle; and st, preorbital strut.) 


GOSLINE 


Aprit 1952 


Characters in which Hchelus myrus is similar 
to other ophichthids but differs from Conger are 
as follows: posterior nostril opening out on the 
ventrolateral surface of the upper lip; tongue not 
free; branchiostegal rays of the two sides over- 
lapping along the midventral line; otic bulla de- 
veloped; and neural crests apparently absent. 

In summary, Hchelus myrus appears, despite 
specializations, to be by far the most primitive 
(or generalized) ophichthid known. In fact, to a 
considerable degree it fills in the gap between the 
Ophichthidae and the Congridae. 

Within the Ophichthidae, on zoological grounds 
as well as for convenience in identification, two 
subfamilies should in my opinion be recognized: 
(1) the Echelinae (called Myrophinae by Gos- 
line in previous papers) with the dorsal and ana- 
continuous around the tip of tail, and (2) the 
Ophichthinae with the tail protruding as a 
fleshy point. Both of these subfamilies contain 
very diverse eels and both include highly spe- 
cialized members, but thereis no known evidence 
that either is polyphyletic. Because of this di- 
versity, the separation of Echelus, despite its 
peculiarities, from other fintailed ophichthids— 
Muraenichthys, Myrophis, etc.—as a third sub- 
family seems inadvisable at the present time. 


CHILORHINIDAE, n. fam. 


The family name Chilorhinidae is here pro- 
posed for a group of three eel genera: Chilorhinus 
Liitken (1851), Garmanichthys Seale (1917, of 
which Arenichthys Beebe and Tee-Van, 1938, 
appears to be a synonym), and Kaupichthys 
Schultz (1943). These three genera have gen- 
erally been placed with Echelus, Muraenichthys, 
etc., in the family Echelidae. However, osteo- 
logical investigation has shown that Kaupichthys 
(Gosline, 1950) and Chilorhinus (Gosline, 1951a) 
belong in a very different family from. Murae- 
nichthys (which is an ophichthid, Gosline, 1951b). 
At the time the above genera were investigated 
specimens of Hchelus were unavailable to me, 
and the name Hchelidae was provisionally re- 
tained for the family represented by Kawpichthys 
and Chilorhinus. That this use of the name 
Echelidae is untenable has been shown by the 
previous section of the present paper. The name 
Chilorhinidae is therefor substituted. 

Examination of a specimen of Garmanichthys 
apterus indicates that this genus also belongs in 
the Chilorhinidae. 

Though phylogenetically distant as has been 
previously pointed out, the chilorhinids bear a 


FOUR EEL FAMILIES 


133 


close superficial resemblance to the subfamily 
Echelinae of the Ophichthidae. The two groups 
can, however, be separated by a few minor super- 
ficial characters which may be tabulated as fol- 
lows: 


CHILORHINIDAE ECHELINAE 


Branchiostegal rays of | Branchiostegal rays of 


the two sides (usually 
visible through the 
flesh of the ‘‘neck’’) 


the two sides over- 
lapping on the mid- 
ventral line. 


never overlapping on 

the midventral line. 
Vomerine teeth biserial, 

the two rows widely 


Vomerine teeth, if 
present, uniserial, in 


separated. two or more irregular 
rows, or in a broad 

band. 
Finraysatthetipofthe Fin rays at the tip of 


tail longer than the 
dorsal and anal rays 
preceding them. 


tail usually shorter 
than the dorsal and 
anal rays preceding 
them. 


The three known genera of Chilorhinidae may 
be separated as follows: 


la. Pectorals present, well developed (Indo-West- 
PaCihic) cs piss c eaten scMaeeere or Kaupichthys 

1b. Pectorals rudimentary or absent. 
2a. Lower lip with a well-developed flap on 
either side; snout broader than long (West 
Indies and Hawail)............ Chilorhinus 
2b. Lower lip without a downwardly-folded flap 
on either side; snout longer than broad 
(includes Arenichthys; both sides of tropical 
Am eriCal) inc ease eee Garmanichthys 


EEL CLASSIFICATION 


Recent examination of the osteology of 
certain eels (Gosline, 1950, 195la, 1951b, 
and the present paper) has necessitated a 
shift in the systematic position of several 
eel families. Yet much remains to be done 
before any basic understanding of eel 
classification can be attained. Not only 
are we ignorant of the phylogenetic relation- 
ships of many eel groups and of the order 
Anguillida itself, but the present delimitation 
of many eel families is awry. On the one 
hand families have been erected for certain 
species on insufficient osteological evidence; 
on the other the Congridae continues to 
form a dumping ground for all sorts of 
creatures (including, as my contribution, 
Benthenchelys, Gorgasia, and the Macro- 
cephenchelidae). At present then, it — is 
impossible to do more than add to the 
classification of eels set up by Regan (1912). 


134 


So far as I ean tell, this foundation remains 
sound; at the very least, a better one has 
never been proposed. The changes in 
classification necessitated by the recent 
work cited above can be integrated into the 
synopsis of eel families given by Regan 
(1912: 379) and amended by Trewavas 
(1932: 656) as follows: 


la. Caudal fin well developed and free from dorsal 
and anal. (A fossil group.)..... URENCHELIDAE 
1b. Caudal fin, if present, small, and generally 
continuous with the dorsal and anal. 
2a. Frontals divided by suture, at least pos- 
teriorly. 
3a. Frontals divided by a suture for their 
entire length. 
4a. Jaws not produced. 
5a. No expanded auditory bulla present 
ANGUILLIDAE, XENOCONGRIDAE, My- 
ROCONGRIDAE, and MURAENIDAE 
5b. Prootic and basioccipital forming an 
enlarged auditory bulla around a large 
otolith. 
6a. Posterior nostril labial 
CHILORHINIDAE 
6b. Posterior nostril on cheek 
HETERENCHELIDAE and Morin- 
GUIDAE 
4b. Jaws produced.......SERRIVOMERIDAE 
3b. Frontals ankylosed anteriorly 
NEMICHTHYIDAE and CYEMIDAE 
2b. Frontals ankylosed for their entire length. 
7a. Maxillaries articulating only with lateral 
tips of premaxillaries. ... DERICHTHYIDAE 
7b. Maxillaries articulating in part or entirely 
with ethmoid. 
8a. Jaws strong; suspensorium vertical or 
directed obliquely forward. 
9a. Caudal vertebrae without transverse 
processes above haemal arches. 
10a. Maxillary articulating with eth- 
moid at some distance from end of 
SHOWtP aa MURAENESOCIDAE and 
NEENCHELIDAE 
106. Maxillary articulating with eth- 
moid near tip of snout. 
lla. Mouth a small, transverse slit 
across front of head 


SIMENCHELIDAE 

116. Gape large; jaws long 
NETTASTOMIDAE and 
NESSORHAMPHIDAE 


9b. Caudal vertebrae with transverse proc- 
esses above the haemal arches. 
12a. Posterior nostril superior or lateral. 
(The Heterocongridae and Macro- 
cephenchelidae are provisionally 
included here.).......CONGRIDAE 
12b. Posterior nostril labial. (Includes 
Echelinae.)........ OPHICHTHIDAE 
8b. Jaws slender; suspensorium directed 
obliquely backward....... ILYOPHIDAE, 
DyssoMIDAE, and SyYNAPHOBRANCHIDAE 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


I wish to thank Dr. L. P. Schultz for permission 
to examine skeletal material in the U.S. National 
Museum of Simenchelys and Derichthys reported 
on by Gill (1890 and, in Goode and Bean, 1895, 
respectively), together with a preserved specimen 
of Garmanichthys apterus. Through the kindness 
of Dr. G. 8. Myers and J. Bohlke, a Stanford 
University specimen of Echelus myrus has been 
lent me; as this appears to be the only specimen of 
Echelus in America, I am particularly indebted 
to Dr. Myers for permission to dissect it partially. 
I also wish to thank Dr. E. Trewavas of the 
British Museum for examining specimens of 
Derichthys and Simenchelys for me. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Auutis, Epwarp PHELpPs, JR. The lateral sensory 
system of the Muraenidae. Int. Monatschr. 
Anat. und Physiol. 20: 125-170, pls. 6-8. 1903. 

BEEBE, WILLIAM. Deep-sea fishes of the Bermuda 
Oceanographic Expeditions, No. 1: Family 
Derichthyidae. Zoologica 20(1): 1-23, 9 figs. 
1935. 

BEEBE, WILLIAM, and TEE-VAN, JoHN. Eastern 
Pacific Expeditions of the New York Zoological 
Society, XV: Seven new marine fishes from 
Lower California. Zoologica 23: 299-312, 3 pls., 
5 figs. 1938. 

Fow.uer, Henry WEED. Descriptions of new fishes 
obtained 1907 to 1910, chiefly in the Philippine 
Islands and adjacent seas. Proc. Acad. Nat. 
Sci. Philadelphia 85: 233-367, 117 figs. 1934. 

Git, THEODORE N. The osteological characters of 
the family Simenchelidae. Proc. U. 8. Nat. 
Mus. 13: 239-243. 1890. 

GoopE, GEORGE Brown, and BEAN, TARLETON H. 
Oceanic ichthyology. U. S. Nat. Mus. Spec. 
Bull. 2: i-xxv + 1-553 and atlas of i-xxili + 
1-26, 123 pls. 1895. 

GosLINE, Wi1LL1AM A. The osteology and relation- 
ships of the echelid eel, Kaupichthys diodontus. 
Pacific Sei. 4: 309-314, 7 figs. 1950. 

. Chilorhinus brocki, a new echelid eel from 

Hawaii, with notes on the classification of the 

order Anguillida. Copeia, 1951: 195-202, 1 

fig. 195la. 

. The osteology and classification of the 
ophichthid eels of the Hawaiian Islands. Pacific 
Sci. 5: 298-320, 18 figs. 1951b. 

Grecory, WiLtu1AM K. Fish skulls: a study of the 
evolution of natural mechanisms. Trans. Amer. 
Philos. Soc. (new ser.) 23(2): i-vii + 75-481, 
302 figs. 1933. 

JAQuET, Maurice. Contribution a lV’anatomie du 
Simenchelys parasiticus Gill. Resultats des 
Campagnes Scientifiques, Monaco, 55: 1-77, 
5 pls. 1920 

LUTKEN, Cur. Ueber die Stellung der Nasenlécher 
bet den Ophisurus-Arten und den mit thnen 
verwandten Gattungen aus der Familie der Aale. 
Arch. Naturg. 18(1): 255-276. 1851. 

Meek, Setx E., and Hrnpepranp, SAMUEL F. 
The marine fishes of Panama. Publ. Field Mus. 
Nat. Hist., zool. ser., 15(1): i-xi + 1-330, pls. 
1-24. 1923. 


Aprit 1952 


Reean, C. Tate. The osteology and classification 
of the teleostean fishes of the order Apodes. 
Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8)10: 377-387, 2 figs. 
1912. 

Scuuttz, LEONARD P. Fishes of the Phoenix and 
Samoan Islands...U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull 180: 
1-x + 1-316, 9 pls., 27 figs. 1943. 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 135 


SEALE, Atvin. New species of apodal fishes. Bull. 
Mus. Comp. Zool. 61(4) : 79-94. 1917. 

TREWAVAS, ETHELWYNN. A contribution to the 
classification of the fishes of the order Apodes, 
based on the osteology of some rare eels. Proc. 
Zool. Soe. London, 1932: 639-659, 4 pls., 9 
figs. 1932. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


452D MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 452d meeting of the Board of Managers 
held in the Cosmos Club on January 14, 1952, 
was called to order at 8:03 p.m. by President- 
Elect WaLTeR RamBerG. Others in attendance 
were: H. 8. Rappinye, J. A. Stevenson, H. A. 
REHDER, CHARLES DrREcHSLER, W. F. FosHaa, 
A. T. McPumrson, C. F. W. MursEBECK, SARA 
E. Branuam, J. J. Fanny, E. H. Watker, WM. 
A. Dayton, C. A. Butts, R. 8. Dirty, A. M. 
GRIFFIN, FLoyp Hoven, M. A. Mason, F. M. 
DEFANDORF, and, by invitation, MarGareErT Pirr- 
MAN, J. R. Swatien, G. P. Watton, B. D. Van 
Evera, and G. H. Coons. 

Chairman WALTON presented the report of the 
Committee on Awards for Scientific achievement. 
Minton SpymMour ScHEcHTER, of the Bureau of 
Entomology and Plant Quarantine, was nomi- 
nated for the Award in the Physical Sciences; 
Epwarp WiLuiaM Baker, Bureau of Entomology 
and Plant Quarantine, for the Award in the 
Biological Sciences; and Max A. Koutmr, of the 
Weather Bureau, for the Award in the Engi- 
neering Sciences. For the Teaching of Science, 
the first award of its kind to be requested of the 
Board since this award was approved in principle 
in 1950, the Committee recommended that in 
lieu of the regular award, which bears the age 
limitation of 40, a special award be presented to 
Howarp B. Owens, biology teacher in the 
Hyattsville High School, for his outstanding 
teaching and for his work in arousing the enthu- 
siasm of the students who come in contact with 
him. The Managers approved the granting of the 
awards as recommended. 

Chairman Mason of the Committee on En- 
couragement of Science Talent spoke of activities 
in connection with the forthcoming 4th District 
Talent Search, the National Science Talent Fair, 
and the 5th Annual Science Fair to be held in 
Washington. Funds accruing from the Academy- 
sponsored benefit showing of the film Kon-Tiki 
should ease the financial problems that arise on 


these occasions where there is no obvious source 
of financial support. 

The Secretary read a letter dated January 4, 
1952, from N. R. Ellis, secretary-treasurer of the 
Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine, 
expressing the interest of this Society in becoming 
affliated with the Academy. It was moved and 
approved that the President of the Academy 
appoint a special committee to consider the 
application and bylaws of the Society and make 
suitable recommendations to the Board. 

The Secretary read a letter from the business 
manager of the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science, listing the following 
amounts available for Grants-in-Aid: 


Balance for 1950.............. $4.50 
Hor slOD eat: <r eee 249.00 
HOR MIOD2 oe aie on eto eons 246.00 


making a total presently available of $499.50. 
The small amount remaining for 1950 will not be 
available unless expended before December 31, 
1952. 

Deaths were reported of Oscar B. Hunter, 
Sr., on December 19, 1951. and Rurus H. Sar- 
GENT on December 28, 1951. 

On request and recommendation of the Treas- 
urer, BerTRAND L. JoHNsoN, who will retire in 
1952 from the U. 8. Bureau of Mines, was trans- 
ferred to the retired list as of December 31, 1952. 

Letters of resignation were received from MAx- 
WELL M. Knecuten, WituiAmM Voer, and L. Bh. 
Wuittemore. Their resignations were approved 
as of December 31, 1951. 

The Treasurer reported that his books had 
been audited for 1951 and the securities had been 
examined by the auditing committee. 

Senior Editor Drechsler gave a statistical re- 
port on the content of the 1951 volume of the 
JOURNAL and indicated that the net cost would 
be $6,500.76. 

The meeting was adjourned at 9:15 p.m. 

F. M. Dreranporr, Secretary 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 4 


@Obituary 


Maurice IsaporE SmirH was born November 
17, 1887, in Russia and became a naturalized 
citizen of the United States at the age of 10. He 
attended school in New York, receiving his B.S. 
degree from the College of the City of New York 
in 1909. From there he went on to study medicine 
at Cornell University Medical School and ob- 
tained his medical degree in 1913. His early pro- 
fessional experience was in teaching, first as in- 
structor of pharmacology at the University of 
Michigan and later as professor of pharmacology 
at the University of Nebraska. 

In 1920, Dr. Smith joined the staff of the phar- 
macology division of the Hygienic Laboratory 
(the present National Institutes of Health) of the 
Public Health Service. Thereafter, except for a 
brief period as director of the Glandular and 
Pharmaceutical Department of Lederle Antitoxin 
Laboratories, Dr. Smith devoted his entire pro- 
fessional career to Government service. Judged 
by the number and quality of his publications 
over a period of 30 years, he found it a satisfying 
and productive field of labor. During the greater 
part of this time, Dr. Smith served as physiologist 
representative on the Basic Science Board of the 
Commission for Medical Licensure of the District 
of Columbia, giving to this activity the same 
conscientious devotion he gave to his research 
projects. 

Aside from the high quality of Dr. Smith’s 
work in the field of pharmacology, one is im- 
pressed by his versatility. In addition to pharma- 
cological and closely related studies we find him 
contributing to advancement in the field of sur- 
gical shock, the sulfones, drug standardization, 
selenium toxicology, chemotherapy, vitamins, an- 
tibiotics, and tuberculosis. Perhaps the best ex- 
ample of Dr. Smith’s interest in different fields of 
research is to be found in his work on Jamaica- 
ginger paralysis, the “jake paralysis” that 
afflicted many thousands of people in midwestern 
and southwestern States early in 1931. After his 
studies had shown that this condition was due 
to one of the several esters of tricresyl phosphate 
contained in an adulterated extract of ginger sold 


for beverage purposes, the investigation led him 
directly into the field of epidemiology. He made a 
trip into the geographic area where there was a 
particularly well defined outbreak of the disease 
and made an investigation of an epidemiological 
character that would have done credit to the 
scientist specializing in epidemiologic studies. 

During the last decade of his professional 
career, Dr. Smith’s chief interest was the chemo- 
therapy of tuberculosis. His research in this field 
dates back to 1922 with the publication of several 
papers on the chemotherapy of acridine dyes; in 
1940 he initiated an extensive program in the 
development of new sulfone derivatives for treat- 
ment in experimental tuberculosis. With the 
development of streptomycin he undertook a 
series of studies in which it was demonstrated 
that combined therapy with a sulfone gave po- 
tentiation to tuberculostatic action. In addition 
he carried on a series of studies on the metabolism 
of the tubercle bacillus and the problem of 
acquired resistance during treatment. The litera- 
ture on the chemotherapy of tuberculosis is sub- 
stantially enriched by the many contributions 
prepared and directed by Dr. Smith. 

His range of interests is reflected in the number 
of scientific societies of which he was a member— 
among others the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science, Society for Experi- 
mental Biology and Medicine, Trudeau Society, 
Society of Pharmacology and Experimental Ther- 
apeutics, Physiological Society, and the Wash- 
ington Academy of Sciences. 

Those who knew Dr. Smith best would agree 
that he was a careful, gifted scientific worker, an 
inspiring teacher, a faithful, devoted public ser- 
vant, a helpful friend, and a stimulating associate. 

Dr. Smith died on January 26, 1951. He is 
survived by his widow, Mrs. Rebecca M. Smith, 
of Bethesda, Md., and two sons, Dr. Charles E. 
Smith, of the U. 8S. Public Health Service, and 
Matthew S. Smith, a graduate in engineering 
specializing in the field of aeronautical design. 

Grorce W. McCoy 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


PEIRESTUCTUL EPID rn seer aaron tes anes Wa.ter RamBerG, National Bureau of Standards 
[PRESUCIBTIM ACTS shen nA a ene a aoe dene F. M. Serzuer, U.S. National Museum 
ISEGHE LUT Ue SMa Eee c ial kena aes F. M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
I TOT SUIRAP RSE Ae AR RS eer Howarp S. Rappieye, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
NPAC aie SBS OOOOH ORE ERT eee Joun A. STEVENSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haratp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


HilosophicaluSociety of Washington).....-04-.2 1.208 se- ase sdee- A. G. McNisH 
Anthropological Society of Washington........................ Watpo R. WEDEL 
BrolosicaliSociety of Washington. 9.0.2 255-...0..50000. seen. Hueu T. O’ Nenu 
Chemicals Societysot Washing tone eases eee eee eens Joun K. TayLor 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ FrEepERIcK W. Poos 
National Geographic Society.............. SSRs ahaa ora ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geoloricallisocietysoh Washington 4. .2. 45. oss ou. sane cients A. NELSON SAYRE 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia........................ FRED O. Cor 
CoalumbiaybustoricallSoctetyis «<4. 0..0. cc acto aes sce saeeceeses GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Boranicale Society on Washing tomers. nesses stances nee ee Ler M. Hutcuins 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Wiuuiam A. Dayton 
MWashireton Societysol Mngimeers. 9.25.0... 26--- sas. dese Currrorp A. Brrrs 
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. DILu 
Helminthological Society of Washington................ ......... L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Ancus M. GRIFFIN 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. HoucH 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Hngineers........... Hersert G. Dorsey 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 


SOM eMUaye GOS cake eee accis clas ene acs C. F. W. Mursesecr, A. T. McPHERson 
IG Peranneweyy: IES ees eae ees eee ele een ae eee Sara E. Branuam, Miuron Harris 
UG Jammer Usa selee cdi o Solano ceria ear oe Roar G. Barus, W. W. Dinxu 
PS OGROROIMVIGMGGENS: «. 6c sj.4 ccs ias sass os All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
BoonasojelartonsiandvAissocvate Hdvtors.. 2... o.- se acce cusses esses ce-- [See front cover] 


Executive Commitiee.... WALTER RAMBERG (chairman), F. M. Serzupr, H.S.RAPPLere, 
Wiuuram A. Dayton, F. M. DEFANDORF 
Committee on Membership. .E.H. WALKER (chairman), M.S. ANDERSON, CLARENCE, Cor- 
TAM, R. C. Duncan, G. T. Faust, I. B. Hansen, FRANK Kracnx, D. B. Jones, Doro- 
Tuy NIcKERSON, REECE I. Satter, Leo A. SHrinn, F. A. Smito, Hernz Specut, H.M. 
TRENT, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings....H. W. Weuus (chairman), Wm. R. CAMPBELL, W. R. CHAP- 
LINE, D. J. Davis, H. G. Dorsny, O. W. TorRRESON 

Committee on Monographs (W. N. Fenton, chairman): 


GROMMET Tay OD Omer Met crete taae ciecn eens eesaeciccd Abieonaccth R. W. Imtay, P. W. Oman 

plop dietrnur cursed 5 Ae oie i eedeve ase. tdelnastes gov eerevarns yee eieobease S. F. Buaxeg, F. C. Kracexk 

A@ Uenrannenrerye OT Sa cen ele oer areca Ieee ae eee eee rag meee W.N. Fenton, ALAN STONE 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (J. R. SwALLEN, general chairman): 

For Biological Sciences............. J. R. SwALueN (chairman), L. M. Hurcuins, 

MaraGarer Pirrman, F. W. Poos, L. P. Scnuttz 

For Engineering Sciences............. R. C. Duncan (chairman), A. C. FIELDNER, 

Wayne C. Hatt, J. W. McBurney, O.S. Reapine, H. L. Wurrremore 

HOB SUCHLISCLENCES aia: Sauce ae a L. A. Woop (chairman), P. H. ABELSoN, 

F. 8S. Dart, Grorce W. Irvine, JR., J. H. McMILLeN 

For Teaching of Science......M. A. Mason (chairman), F. E. Fox, M. H. Martin 

Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.......L. E. Yocum (chairman), H. N. Eaton, 


K. F. Herzretp 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 


BOM eVMIP AT WL ODS! oa a.0 8c eos es eecileve ei wentesa W. A. Dayton (chairman), N. R. Surra 
MRowvamit arya SAME eres. eects sc cies cahie: Since stechs H. B. Couttins, Jr., W. W. RuBEy 
MRO ANU ATA LOD Oper scat: enc sei epee sis Tacs Maeeaye eedcees mess rendiaee egeh L. W. Parr, F. B. SrtnsBEE 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPurrson, chairman): 
OMA UM ATayanl OOS Pecen is neta ea ies ct ard choysarcpnackdiae wees A. H. Cuarx, F. ue Mou.Ler 
SHOMMEMUATV GS d ee yee wee eee. J. M. CaLtpwett, W. L. Scamirtr 
OMANI AT gllO So Minis wee rcs, ccuseMeMerats widest aici s cui se ees Arye McPHERSON, W. T. Reap 
UEDGESERLALUUEROTCOUNCILAOf Am AmeArmSenie cities selec cis okyeciecisiens F. M.Serzter 
Committee of Auditors...... C. L. Gazin (chairman), Loutsp M. Russert, D. R. Tare 


Committee of Tellers...GEORGE P. WALTON (chairman), Grorae H. Coons, C. L. GARNER 


CONTENTS 


MeErTEoRoLOoGy.—On the variation of the average daily temperature 
at Washington, Di ©2 RicuMonpw> ZocH...5- +)... see 


GroLocy.—Brightseat formation, a new name for sediments of Paleo- 
cene age in Maryland. Rosprert R. BENNETT and GLENN GENE 
COLLINS) 0 38) Pie oke oe Ga Sone Me anes So acu RO 


PaLEonTOLOGY.—Nomenclatural notes on carditids and lucinids. A. 


Borany.—New species of grasses from Venezuela. AGNES CHASE.... 


Entomotocy.—Notes on Bruchidae affecting the Anacardiaceae, in- 
cluding the description of a new genus. JOHN COLBURN BRIDWELL. 


EntTomMoLoey.—Descriptions and notes on two rare species of Aphididae. 
BY ©) HOTTIES hie oo Sto ae cape hole Mey G apo ae duane ce ey Tee 


IcutHyoLocy.—Notes on the systematic status of four eel families. 
Wititam A. GOSLINE 20. Jase ble. bo os oo). er 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals 


Page 


105 


114 


VoL. 42 May 1952 No. 5 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


WILLIAM F. Fosuae J. P. E. Morrison JOHN C. EwERs 


U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


F. A. Cuace, JR. Miriam L. BomHarp 
BIOLOGY BOTANY 
J. I. HorrMan R. K. Coox 
CHEMISTRY PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 
T. P. THAYER PHILIP DRUCKER 
GEOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY 


C. W. SaABROSKY 
ENTOMOLOGY 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 42 


May 1952 


NOM 


SYSTEMATIC ZOOLOGY .—Nomenclature and grammar. Cesarb EMiviant, Uni- 
versity of Chicago.! (Communicated by James Steele Williams.) 


Today, more than ever before, a student 
of biological sciences finds it difficult to fol- 
low both nomenclatural and grammatical 
rules. Increasing disregard for the classical 
languages, particularly in the United States, 
Russia, and the Orient, is largely respon- 
sible. 

Taxonomic rules state in essence that: 

1. Nomenclature must use the Latin 
language. 

2. An organism is known by a generic 
and a specific? name (possibly also by a sub- 
generic and a subspecific name). 

3. These names may be natural or artificial 
words. 

4. Generic names must be used as sub- 
stantives. 

5. Specific adjectives (and presumably 
participles and pronouns) must conform in 
gender to the generic names with which they 
are associated. 

Three main problems originate from these 
rules: 

1. Substantives, adjectives, participles, 
and pronouns; other parts of speech; and 
artificial words must be distinguished. 

2. Gender of generic substantives must be 
determined. 

3. Specific adjectives, participles, and 
pronouns must be given the proper gender 
endings. 

Several authors in recent years have pro- 
posed different solutions of these problems. 
McAtee (1928) suggested that ‘‘generic and 
subordinate names... shall be regarded 


1 The writer is indebted to Dr. J. Marvin Wel-- 


ler, of the University of Chicago, for revising the 
manuscript. 

2 The term specific is used here and in the fol- 
lowing as equivalent to trivial. The term specific 
is preferred because of its relations to the well- 
aecepted terms generic and subspecific. To desig- 
nate the whole nameof a species(generic + specific 
names) the term species name should be used. 


JUNS 8d2 


.as arbitrary combinations of letters’ 
and, therefore, except for proved typo- 
graphical errors, remain as the first author 
used them. Guba and Linder (1932) proposed 
to keep unchanged the original spelling even 
if erroneous. Blackwelder (1941) repeated 
suggestions previously made by Casey (1890) 
for determining the gender of generic names 
by their endings and published lists of end- 
ings for these determinations. Richter recom- 
mended that all specific adjectives and all 
specific substantives with -us (or -er), -a, 
and -wm endings, should be used in the 
feminine form (Richter, 1942; Weller, 1950; 
Bartenstein, 1950). Other authors have made 
occasional reference to these problems, often 
publishing partly incorrect statements. Thus 
Baker (1929) reported that Zonitordes should 
be masculine; Macfadyen and Kenny (1934) 
and Thalmann (1950) classified as masculine 
all names ending in -7des, -ztes, and -ozdes; 
and Bartenstein (1950) concluded that end- 
ings in -ztes, -on, and -opsis indicate the 
masculine. 

Some of the suggestions that have been 
made (McAtee, 1928; Guba and Linder, 
1932), if accepted, would increase the diffi- 
culties of nomenclature because both specific 
names and their particular endings would 
have to be remembered. Blackwelder’s lists 
may be misleading, because there are excep- 
tions to all such generalities. Richter has 
not solved these problems either because 
substantives, adjectives, participles, and 
pronouns must still be identified and proper 
handling of the feminine forms is required. 
Also his suggestion that all substantives 
which may end in -us (or -er), -a, and -wm 
be used in the feminine form, if applied to 
words that are exclusively substantives, 
would be likely to create new names and 
thus add to the confusion. 


138 


All the foregoing suggestions aim at avoid- 
ing the difficulties of Latin grammar. It is 
the opinion of the writer that, if the Latin 
language is used, it is impossible to ignore 
its rules; and that strict observance of these 
rules is really not so difficult and offers the 
most convenient solution to the whole prob- 
lem. : 

Students are inclined to spend much time 
checking earlier authors to resolve ortho- 
graphic doubts. A quicker and safer course 
is to consult good Latin and Greek diction- 
aries. As shown below, this can be done 
easily by persons totally ignorant of the 
classics. A rational use of dictionaries and 
the few suggestions that follow, will help to 
solve most controversial issues definitely. 
The exceptions that may occur do not im- 
pair the procedure. 


GENERIC NAME 


I. IF GENERIC NAME IS A SUBSTANTIVE 


1. Simple substantives. Ex.: Arca, Asperitas, 
Battus, Chiton, Lagena, Murex, Oenone, Venus. 
Consult dictionaries for gender determinations. 

2. Compound substantives. Ex.: Awlocaulis, 
Cyphosoma, Dictyonema, Homotrema, Orthoceras, 
Tetrataxis. Determine the genders of the last 
parts (-caulis, -soma, -nema, etc.) by looking them 
up in the dictionaries. 

3. Simple or compound substantives with di- 
minutive suffixes -lus, -ulus, -culus, -unculus, 
-inus, -ellus, -tllus, -iolus, and their feminine (-a) 
and neuter (-wm) forms. Ex.: Atrypina, Atrypella, 
Avicula, Modiolus, Pectunculus, Scutella, Vulvu- 
lina, Asonoina, Cushmanella, Haeckelina, Paal- 
zowella, Schubertella, Wiesnerella. Gender is de- 
termined by endings (-ws, m; -a, f.; -wm, n.). 
Many words having these endings, however, are 
not diminutive forms, and dictionaries should be 
consulted in all cases of doubt. Barbaric names 
(Asanoina, Cushmanella, Haeckelina, etc.) should 
be easily recognizable. 


II. IF GENERIC NAME IS A SUBSTANTIVIZED 
ADJECTIVE OR PARTICIPLE 


1. Simple or compound adjectives and parti- 
ciples with three endings (in Latin mostly: -us or 
-er, m.; -a, f.; -wm, n.; in Greek mostly: -os, m.; 
-n, {.; -ov, n.). Ex.: adjectives: Arctica, Blain- 
villea, Bronteus, Carpenteria, Entosolenia, Flintia, 
Indiana, Metagraulos, Michelinia, Viviparus; par- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 5 


ticiples: Corrugata, Composita, Optatus. Gender 
is determined by ending. 

2. Simple or compound adjectives with two 
endings (in Latin: -ts, m. and f.; -e, n.; in Greek: 
-OS, -WV, -Ws, -ns, -ls, -us, m. and f.; -ov, -wy, 
-es, -t, -v, n.). Ex.: Datphron, Epelys, Monoceros, 
Vitalis. These names have one ending for mascu- 
line and feminine, and another for neuter. 
Note that since the Greek endings -ov, -wy, and 
-ns, -€s, are transliterated into Latin simply as 
-on and -es, transliterated names of this type do 
not indicate any particular gender. 

3. Simple or compound adjectives and parti- 
ciples with one ending (various types). Many of 
these names are indifferently masculine, feminine, 
or neuter (Vagans, Anomalinoides, and _prac- 
tically all names in -oides). Others may be mas- 
culine or feminine (Apus, Harpax, Monyz, 
Calliops, Ogygopsis, most classical and all post- 
classical names ending in -ops and -opsis derived 
from the Greek words 6y, ay, and dis, meaning 
“look, appearance’’). A few are exclusively mas- 
culine (Gennadas) or feminine (Hyalopis, Mon- 
opis). It should be noted that some names ending 
in -oides and several derived from 6y, yp, and 
dys are substantives and, therefore, have deter- 
minate genders (Ooides, Cyclops, Diopsis). On the 
other hand, many names with the endings -ops 
and -opsis (Penelops, Scalops, Lycopsis) are sub- 
stantives having different etymologies and gen- 
ders (usually masculine, but also feminine). Use 
of dictionaries is necessary to distinguish these. 

Adjectives of type 2 and 3, and participles of 
type 3, have caused the greatest confusion in 
nomenclature, because their genders are very 
often indeterminate. It would be most helpful if 
these were established by convention. This can 
be done easily if these names are thought of as 
referring to the word forma (or concha for shelled 
animals). Thus their genders would be established 
as feminine. The same procedure could be applied 
to substantives that may be either masculine or 
feminine (Pais, Vindex), thus considering them 
as feminine. Names that may be either substan- 
tives or adjectives (T’ribon) should be interpreted 
as substantives, to agree with the substantival 
character of the generic name. 


II]. 1rF GENERIC NAME IS ANOTHER 
PART OF SPEECH 


1. Pronouns. Ex.: Mea, Quisque, Utra. Most 
pronouns have different forms for different gen- 
ders. 


wage 


May 1952 


2. Verbs, participles excepted, and other parts 
of speech. Ex.: Vireo, Extra, Ita, Parce. All these 
names should be considered neuter. 


IV. IF GENERIC NAME IS AN ARTIFICIAL, 
BARBARIC, OR MISSPELLED WORD 


1. Artificial combinations of letters Ex.: Aa, 
Neda, Nonion, Salifa, Torix. 

2. Barbaric unlatinized names. Ex.: Macao, 
Scalez, Vanikoro. 

3. Names with misspelled endings. Ex.: Bato- 
crinus (for Batocrinon), Graphiadactyllis (for 
Graphiodactylus). 

The genders of these names can be established 
as masculine or neuter if they have obvious mas- 
culine or neuter endings. All others, including 
barbaric names, may be considered as feminine 
(in analogy to the suggestion in II, 3 above). 


SPECIFIC NAMES 
I. IF SPECIFIC NAME IS A SUBSTANTIVE 


Specific substantives may be either in the 
nominative singular in apposition to the generic 
name (Retepora archimedes), or in the genitive as 
a possessive term (Rotalia beccari). 


Il. IF SPECIFIC NAME IS AN ADJECTIVE 
OR A PARTICIPLE 


The gender of a specific adjective or participle 
must conform with the gender of the generic 
name. Simple instructions on how to select proper 
gender endings are given below. It should be 
noted that accordance must be observed also 
with compound names like acutangulus, which, 
if used with a feminine generic name, becomes 
acutangula, or with a neuter name acutangulum 
(cfr. semicanis, -e; semicirculus, -a, -um,; sexangu- 
lus, -a, -um; wnicalamus, -a, -wm; unimanus, -a, 
-um; etc.). 

Names that may be either substantives or ad- 
jectives should be considered adjectives in agree- 
ment with the adjectival character of the specific 
name. 


II]. IF SPECIFIC NAME IS ANOTHER 
PART OF SPEECH 


1. Pronouns. Pronouns that have different 
forms for different genders should follow accord- 
ance rules (Spondylospira alia). 

2. Verbs, participles excluded, and other parts 
of speech. All these names should be considered 
invariably as appositions. 


EMILIANI: NOMENCLATURE AND GRAMMAR 


139 


IV. IF SPECIFIC NAME IS AN ARTIFICIAL, 
BARBARIC, OR MISSPELLED WORD 


Names of this type similar to those used for 
generic names have been employed for species. 
They should be treated invariably as appositions. 


USE OF LATIN AND GREEK 
DICTIONARIES 
I. LATIN AND GREEK ALPHABETS 


To consult Latin and Greek dictionaries it is 
necessary to know the Greek equivalents of Latin 
letters. These are given below: 


a 22, t i p r 
Bb (352 Op Ie g,s 8 
y g r ] T t 
Cae | Bb m v y 
ee v n ’ ph 
eZ g x x ch 
mn e to) co) y ps 
d th 7 p a) o 


II. LATIN AND GREEK DICTIONARIES 


Recommended dictionaries are: Harper’s Latin 
dictionary and Liddell and Scott’s A Greek-Eng- 
lish lexicon. For Greek proper names, not in- 
cluded in Liddell and Scott, Harper’s Dictionary 
of classical literature and antiquities may be used. 
These are standard dictionaries available at all 
good libraries. 

Special problems can be solved by consulting 
the following larger dictionaries: Forcellini: Totius 
Latinitatis lexicon; Estennes: Thesaurus Graecae 
linguae; De-Vit: Totius Latinitatis onomasticon. 


III. USE OF LATIN DICTIONARIES 


In the Latin dictionaries above mentioned, a 
substantive is represented by a word followed by 
the genitive ending and a gender notation: m. for 
masculine; f., for feminine; and n., for neuter. 
Ex.: lupus, t, m. 

An adjective or a participle is represented by 
a word followed by: 

1. Two gender endings and the notation adj. 
or Part. Ex.: albus, a, wm, adj.; expansus, a, um, 
Part. These names have different forms for the 
three genders: albus and expansus for the mas- 
culine; alba and expansa for the feminine; albwm 
and expanswm for the neuter. 

2. A gender ending and the notation adj. Ex.: 
habilis, e, adj. These adjectives have the same 
form, habilis, for the masculine and feminine and 
another, habile, for the neuter. 


140 


3. The genitive ending and the notation adj. 
or Part. Ex.: audax, acts, adj.; virens, entis, Part. 
Such names have the same endings for all genders. 

Words other than substantives, adjectives, or 
participles, are easily recognized by such nota- 
tions as pron., adv., prep., conj., ete., or by their 
English meaning. 

TV. USE 

Greek, in contrast to Latin, has articles which 
are used in the dictionaries to indicate gender. 
These are: 6 masculine; 7 feminine; and 70 
neuter. 

In the Greek dictionaries above mentioned, 
substantives are represented by a word followed 
by the article. Ex.: éo7paxov, 76, which is conse- 
quently neuter. 

An adjective is represented by a word fol- 
lowed by: 

1. Two gender endings. Ex.: dixavos, 4, ov. 
These adjectives have different forms for the 
three genders:, dixavos m.; duxaln, f.; dixacoy, n. 


OF THE GREEK DICTIONARIES 


2. One gender ending. Ex.: avadoyos, ov; 
evyevns, és. In such cases, the first forms, 


avadoyos, evyerns, are either masculine or fem- 
inine, and the second ones, avadoyor, evyevés, 
are neuter. 

3. The genitive ending and two articles. Ex.: 
apmaé, ayos, 0, 7; gawov, ozos, 6, 7. Such names 
have the same ending for both masculine and 
feminine and no neuter form. 

Words that are neither substantives nor adjec- 
tives, may be recognized by their English mean- 
ing. 

LATINIZATION OF GREEK WORDS 


Greek words are latinized by transliterating 
according to the equivalents noted above and in 
addition the following: 


final 7 a final os us yx neh é,7 he 
a e final ov um yk ne i hi 
€, 7 i ov u py ida 6, @ ho 
ol,w e 1Y ng a ha v hy 


Also it should be noted that Greek adjectives 
with the two endings -os, m. and f.; -ov, n., have 
three forms in Latin: avadoyos, analogus, m.; 
avadoyos, analoga, f.; avadoyov, analogum, n.; 
BapBapos, barbarus, m.; BapBapos, barbara, f.; 
BapBapov, barbarum, n. 


DETERMINATION OF GENDER 
Two examples will suffice to illustrate the proc- 


ess of determining the genders of names. Consider 
the generic names Lepas and Cyphosoma. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 42, No. 5 

In the Latin dictionary Lepas is found as 
Lepas, adis, f., and therefore this is a feminine 
substantive. 

Compound words usually will not be found as 
such in the dictionaries. However, they will be 
easily recognized because their initial parts will 
be found as independent words. Once the com- 
pound character of the word has been recognized, 
only its latter part needs to be considered for the 
gender determination. Thus Cyphosoma is a com- 
pound word formed by Cypho and soma. The 
latter does not occur in the Latin dictionary. By 
transliteration into Greek this becomes goa or 
cwua (Latin o corresponds to the two Greek 
letters o and w). The latter appears in the Greek 
dictionary as o@ma ,7o. Cyphosoma is therefore a 
neuter substantive. 


LIMITATIONS 


Some possibilities of error or doubt remain: 

1. Misspelled names and failure to recognize 
barbaric and artificial words as such may lead to 
wrong identifications in the dictionaries. 

2. Declinable words in cases other than the 
nominative singular (Amantis) may not be found 
in the dictionaries. 

3. The same word may be found to have dif- 
ferent values and meanings. As suggested, names 
that may be either substantives or adjectives 
should be considered substantives, if used as 
generic names, or adjectives, if used as specific 
names. Other names may be either substantives 
or adverbs (Parwm), pronouns or adverb (Alia), 
verbs or adverbs (Parce), etc. No rule can be set 
for these names. and each must be considered 
individually. They occur very rarely. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Baker, H. B. Gender in generic names. Nautilus 
43: 139-40. 1929. 

BaRTENSTEIN, H. Do specific names of the For- 
aminifera accord with the rules of nomencla- 
ture? Contr. Cushman Found. Foram. Res. 
1: 79-80. 1950. 

BLACKWELDER, R. E. The gender of scientific names 
in zoology. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 31: 
135-140. 1941. 

Casry, T. L. Coleopterological notes: Pt. 2. Ann. 
New York Acad. Sei. 5: 307-504. 1890. 

Guspa, EB. F., ann Linprer, D. H. Mycological 
nomenclature. Mycologia 24: 415-419. 1982. 

Kkrrrakorr, 8S. G. Quelques remarques nomencla- 
toriales. Bull. et Ann. Soc. Ent. Belgique 
85: 173-79. 1949. 

Macrapyen, W. A., and Kenny, HE. J. A. On 
the correct writing in form and gender of the 
names of the Foraminifera. Journ. Roy. Micr. 
Soc. (3) 54: 177-81. 1934. 


May 1952 


MecArezr, W. L. Automatic nomenclature. Proc. 
Ent. Soc. Washington 30: 72-76. 1928. 

RicuTER, R. Ist eine unverdnderliche Form des 
Art-Namens méglich? Senckenb. 25: 340-356. 
1942. 

——. Die ‘‘Berichtung’’ von Namen nach Arti- 
kel IRZN, an den Fallen senckenbergit und 
smithae c/a smithi. Senckenb. 31: 269-72. 1950. 

RopertTson, C. About nomenclature. Amer. Nat. 
67: 53-61. 1933. 

ScHENK, EK. T., anp McMasrers. J. M. Proced- 
ure in taxonomy, rev. ed., 93 pp. Stanford, 
Calif., and London, 1948. 


LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN: ADERCOTRYMA 


141 


Srarnrortu, R.M.Nomenclatural notes on Pullenia 
and Cibicides. Journ. Pal. 23: 436-438. 1949. 

Comments to “‘A Pitfall of Paleontological 
‘Latin’.’ Journ. Pal, 24: 504-595. 1950. 

THALMANN, H. W. ‘Foraminifera from the Tertiary 
of the Dominican Republic,’ by Pedro Joaquin 
Bermudez (review). Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petr. 
Geol. 34: 2227-2229. 1950. 

Van Beuien, R. C. A_ pitfall of paleontological 
“Latin.’ Journ. Pal. 24: 504. 1959. 

Weer, J. M. Ist eine wnverdnderliche rorm des 
Art-Namens méglich? (review). Journ. Pal. 
24: 507-12. 1950. 


ZOOLOGY .—Adercotryma, a new Recent foraminiferal genus from the Arctic. 
ALFRED R. Lorsuica, JR., and HELEN Tappan, U.S. National Museum. 


In a current restudy of the foraminiferal 
genotype species, the writers have encoun- 
tered numerous species that do not agree 
with the generic descriptions or the genotype 
species of the genera to which they had 
been assigned. This is especially true of the 
Lituolidae. In his excellent work on the 
Foraminifera of the Gullmar Fjord and the 
Skagerak, Héglund (1947, p. 132) did much 
to clarify some of these problems and sub- 
divided the genus Haplophragmoides Cush- 
man. From Haplophragmoides sensu stricto 
he differentiated two genera, Labrospira 
Héglund and Ammoscalaria Héglund. How- 
ever, the writers feel that one species which 
Hoéglund treated in this paper, Haplophrag- 
moides glomeratum (Brady) is also sufficiently 
distinct to warrant separate generic status, 
based on differences in shell morphology and 
form and position of aperture. These features 
are considered to be of fundamental im- 
portance in the classification of the Fora- 
minifera. 


Family LirvoLipar 


Adercotryma Loeblich and Tappan, n. gen. 


Genotype (type species): Lituola glomerata 
Brady, 1878. 

Test free, planispiral. subglobular or ovate, 
elongate in the direction of the axis of coiling, 
slightly asymmetrical; wall agglutinated; aper- 
ture may be lacking in the final chamber, or when 
present is interio-marginal, forming a low slit or 
arch near the umbilicus of one side, and closer to 
the umbilicus than to the periphery. 

Remarks —Adercotryma differs from Haplo- 
phragmoides Cushman, as based on the genotype 


species, in being somewhat asymmetrical, in being 
completely involute, rather than slightly evolute, 
in having the greatest dimension in the axis of 
coiling, rather than in being somewhat com- 
pressed, and inthe character of the aperture, which 
is found near the umbilicus of one side rather than 
in the plane of coiling at the periphery, or may 
even be completely lacking in the final chamber. 


Adercotryma glomeratum (Brady) 
Figs. 1-4 

Lituola glomerata Brady, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., 
ser. 5, 1: 433, pl. 20, figs. la-c. 1878. 

Haplophragmium glomeratum (Brady) Goés, Kong]. 
Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 25 (9): 23, pl. 5, 
figs. 134-139. 1894. 

Haplophragmoides glomeratum (Brady) Cushman, 
U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 71 (1): 104, figs. 158- 
161. 1910; U. S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 104, pt. 2: 
47, pl. 9, fig. 6. 1920; Héglund, Zool. Bidrag 
Uppsala: 135, pl. 10, figs. 3-4, text fig. 112, 
1947; Cushman, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 
Spec. Publ. 23: 28, pl. 2, fig. 16. 1948. 


Test free, subglobular to slightly ovate, plani- 
spiral but somewhat asymmetrical, with about 
two whorls present, greatest dimension in the 
axis of coiling, periphery broadly rounded; cham- 
bers few in number, only the four of the final 
whorl visible, very broad and low, slightly in- 
flated, somewhat wedge-shaped with the narrower 
portion on the side with the aperture; sutures 
distinct, rather straight, slightly constricted; wall 
rather coarsely arenaceous, with considerable 
cement between the grains; aperture may be 
indistinct or lacking, or form a short slit or low 
arch at the inner margin of the final chamber, 
about one-half to two-thirds the distance from 
the periphery to the umbilicus, on the narrower 
side of the test. 


142 


Remarks.—Brady (1878, p. 483) in describing 
this species states, ‘“Aperture at the inner margin 
of the terminal chamber, near the exterior of the 
corresponding segment of the previous convolu- 
tion, simple, often obscure.’ Cushman (1948, 
p. 28) states that the aperture is “a short slit at 
the base of the chamber, often obscured by sand 
grains.” It remained for Héglund (1947, p. 135, 
pl. 10, fig. 4) to clearly demonstrate the position 
of this aperture. He found the aperture to be 
‘Gnterio-marginal, forming a short slit at the 
margin of the last chamber, near the narrow end 
of the oviform test, most frequently indistinct or 
even lacking.” In any large series of specimens, 
apertures are occasionally seen. These are of two 
types, either a low arch about halfway between 
the periphery and the umbilicus (Figs. 2, 3, 4b) or 
forming a slit that extends along the inner mar- 
gin of the final chamber to the umbilicus (Fig. 
1b). Héglund suggested that specimens lacking 
an aperture might be in a growth stage in which 
it had not yet been developed. It is possible that 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 5 


different stages of growth may account for the 
two variations of apertures here mentioned. 


Types and occurrence.—Figured hypotypes 
(USNM P. 829a-c) and unfigured hypotypes 


(USNM P. 830) from mud and sand bottom off 
the south end of Humboldt Glacier, northwest 
Greenland at a depth of 110 fathoms; collected 
by Capt. Robert A. Bartlett. Figured hypotype 
(USMN P. 831) and unfigured hypotypes (USNM 
P. 832) at a depth of 50 to 57 fathoms, off Clav- 
ering Island, northeast Greenland; collected by 
Capt. Robert A. Bartlett. This species has been 
widely reecrded in both the Atlantic and Pacific 
Oceans. 
REFERENCES 

Brapy, H. B. On the reticularian and radiolarian 

Rhizopoda (Foraminifera and Polycystina) of 

the North-Polar Expedition of 1875-76. Ann. 

Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 5, 1: 425-440. 1878. 
CusHMAN, J. A. Arctic Foraminifera. Cushman 


Lab. Foram. Res. Spec. Publ. 23: 1-79. 1948. 

H6atunp, H. Foraminifera in the Gullmar Fjord 
and the Skagerak. Zool. Bidrag Uppsala 26: 
1-328. 1947. 


Fires. 1-t.—Adercotryma glomeratum (Brady): 1a, Side view of hypotype (USNM P. 831) showing 


four chambers of final whorl, and aperture extending into the umbilical area; 1b, edge view of same 
showing test slightly elongated along axis of coiling, somewhat wedge-shaped chambers and slitlike 
aperture; 2, edge view of hypotvpe (USNM P. 829a) showing low archlike aperture; 3, edge view of 
hypotype (USNM p. 829b) showing short slitlike aperture; 4a, side view of hypotype (USNM P. 829c); 
4b, edge view of same showing low arched aperture. Illustrations are shaded camera-lucida drawings 
by Sally D. Lee, scientific illustrator, Smithsonian Institution. All X150. 


May 1952 


ANDERSON: BUCCELLA, NEW GENUS OF FORAMINIFERA 


143 


ZOOLOGY —Buceella, a new genus of the rotalid Foraminifera. HARoLD V. ANDER- 
smN, Louisiana State University. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


In 1948-1950, while working with foram- 
iniferal faunules from the mudlumps_ off 
the Passes of the Mississippi River, the need 
for a new genus of Foraminifera became 
apparent. The species selected as the geno- 
type, and also designated the genotype in 
this paper, has recently been described by 
Phleger and Parker (1951) as Hponides 
hanna. The morphologic feature of HL. 
hannai that makes the species untenable as 
an Eponides—the presence of multiple aper- 
tures on the ventral side of the test—con- 
stitutes the diagnostic morphologic feature 
of the new genus Buccella introduced in this 
paper. 

Also characteristic of #. hannaz is a coat- 
ing of pustules on the ventral side of the 
test. This morphologic feature was the 
medium by which the following species and 
varieties of Hponides in the U. 8. National 
Museum and Cushman Collections were 
brought into the present study: 


Eponides alabamensis Cushman and McGlamery, 
1938 

Eponides choctawensis Cushman and McGlamery, 
1938 

Eponides frigida (Cushman), 1921 (1922) 

Eponides frigida (Cushman), var. calida Cushman 
and Cole, 1930 

Eponides hanna Phieger and Parker, 1951 

Eponides mansfieldi Cushman, 1930 

Eponides mansfieldi Cushman, var. oregonensis 
Cushman, Stewart and Stewart, 1947 (1948) 

Eponides peruviana (d’Orbigny), Cushman and 
Kellett, 1929; Cushman, Stewart and Stewart 
1930; and Cushman and Parker, 1931 

Eponides vicksburgensis Cushman and _ Ellisor, 
1931 


When the types of the above species were 
studied, discrepancies were noted between 
the descriptions and illustrations and the 
actual specimens, and within suites of speci- 
mens bearing the same specific designation. 
As a result of these discrepancies, three new 
species of the genus Buccella (depressa, 
musitata, and parkerae) are described, and 
five species of Eponides (hannaz, frigida, 
mansfieldi, mansfieldi var. oregonensis, and 
vicksburgensis) are placed in the genus 
Buccella. Emended descriptions and new 
figures of the above species of ‘‘Hponides,”’ 
with the exception of “H.”’ mansfieldi var. 


oregonensis, are presented to record the 
morphologic features omitted in the original 
descriptions that justify the assignment of 
these species to the genus Buccella. 

Also as a result of this study, ‘“Hponides”’ 


frigida (Cushman) is eliminated as a typical 


species of H’ponides as suggested by Hofker 
(1950). 

Acknowledgments.—The preparation of 
this paper was facilitated by the following 
people whose assistance and contributions 
are gratefully acknowledged: Dr. G. Arthur 
Cooper and Dr. Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr., 
U. 8. National Museum, who placed the 
National Museum samples and equipment 
at the writer’s disposal and aided in the 
preparation of this report; Miss Ruth Todd, 
U.S. Geological Survey, who reviewed the 
manuscript and supplied the samples from 
which the new species were described; Mrs. 
Sally Lee, who did such a commendable job 
in the preparation of the illustrations; and 
my wife, Dorothy S. Andersen, who assisted 
in the final preparation of the manuscript. 


Family RoraiipAE 


Buccella Andersen, new genus 


Genotype: Hponides hannav Phleger and 
Parker. 

Test free, calcareous perforate, multilocular 
with chambers arranged in a trochoid coil; bi- 
convex. Dorsal side with all chambers and sutures 
visible; ventral side with sutures, umbilicus, and 
basal margin of adult chamber concealed wholly 
or in part with a coating of pustulose material. 
The primary aperture, interiomarginally situated 
about midway between the umbilicus and periph- 
ery on the ventral and anterior side of the last- 
formed chamber, is visible only from the interior 
of the chamber on well-preserved specimens. 
Single or multiple supplementary apertures, 
visible in some species, are developed at the 
postero-sutural margin of each chamber on the 
ventral side of the test and are typically situated 
in the distal portion of the chamber near the 
periphery. 

Remarks.—The most obvious feature of the 
genus Buccella is the development of pustules on 
the ventral side of the test, which conceals the 
sutures, umbilicus, and basal, anterior margin 


144 


of the adult chamber. The diagnostic feature of 
Buccella is its supplementary apertures that are 
visible in a few species, but concealed in most. 
Weathering usually reveals the position and 
shape of the supplementary apertures in those 
species in which well-preserved specimens bear 
a thick coating of pustules along the ventral 
sutures. 

Buccella can be differentiated from Eponides 
on the basis of the pustulose coating and supple- 
mentary apertures on the ventral side of the test, 
and from Pseudoeponides by the absence of 
elongate slits on the dorsal side of the chambers. 
Eponides has a single, simple and visible aperture 
at the base of the last formed chamber between 
the closed umbilicus and the periphery on the 
ventral side of the test. Pseudoeponides has a 
small, crescentic opening at the ventral border 
of the last chamber; loop-shaped openings along 
the ventral sutures radiating from the umbilicus; 
and elongate slits on the dorsal side at the middle 
part of the inner margin of each chamber. 

Range.—Oligocene to Recent. 


Buccella hannai (Phleger and Parker) 
Figs. 3a-c 


Eponides hannai Phleger and Parker, Geol. Soc. 
Amer. Mem. 46: 21, pl. 10, figs. 11-14. 1951. 


Emended diagnosis.—Test small; trochoid; 
biconvex, ranging from specimens with equal 
convexity on dorsal and ventral sides to speci- 
mens that are extremely convex on the dorsal 
side and nearly flat on the ventral side. Dorsal 
side with surface smooth, finely perforate and 
hyaline (in well-preserved specimens); and with 
curved and limbate sutures that form the periph- 
eral margin of each chamber. Ventral side with 
surface more coarsely perforate than the dorsal 
surface; sutures depressed and radial; chambers 
slightly inflated; and with umbilicus, sutures, 
and anterior basal margin of last-formed chamber 
bearing a coating of pustulose material. Periph- 
ery distinctly lobulate; typically acute and lim- 
bate although an occasional specimen (not 
necessarily all young specimens) has a very 
rounded periphery. The number of chambers in 
the last-formed whorl range from 7 to 9, the most 
common being 8. Adult tests have 3 to 34 coils. 

The only visible apertures are the supple- 
mentary apertures on the ventral side of the 
test. Each aperture is a low arched opening 
located at the posterosutural margin of each 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES von. 42, No. 5 
chamber. In those specimens with an acute 
periphery, the supplementary apertures are in a 
slight depression at the outer margin of the suture 
near the periphery. In those specimens with a 
rounded periphery, the apertures are located 
about midway between the periphery and the 
umbilicus. 

When viewed from the interior, the adult 
chamber has an irregular-shaped primary aper- 
ture at the base and inner margin of the anterior 
wall; a septal foramen irregularly elliptical in 
outline and typically areal in the posterior wall 
that connects chambers in the same coil; and, 
in those forms examined, a round, septal foramen 
dorsally situated that connects adjacent cham- 
bers in previous coils. 

Dimensions of figured specimen: Maximum 
diameter 0.38 mm.; maximum thickness 0.19 mm. 

Remarks.—The typical form of Buccella hannai 
is easily distinguished from all other Recent 
species. It can be differentiated from B. inusitata 
by its smaller test and single posterosutural 
aperture in each chamber; from B. frigida by its 
less inflated test and visible supplementary aper- 
tures; and from B. depressa by its acute periph- 
ery, convex umbilicus, and visible supplementary 
apertures. The Oligocene form B. vicksburgensis, 
which might conceivably be the ancestor of 
B. hannai, has a less distinctly lobulate periphery 
and lacks the visible supplementary apertures 
of B. hannav. 

Types and occurrence-—Reported from depths 
less than 100 meters in the northwest Gulf of 
Mexico (Phleger and Parker, 1951). Holotype 
(U.S.N.M. no. P. 835) and paratypes (U.S.N.M. 
nos. P. 8386 and P. 838) from station 374 (lat. 
28°24’ N., long. 94°42.5’ W.) at 35 meters water 
depth. Paratype (U.S.N.M. no. P. 837) from 
station 288 (lat. 26°30.5’ N., long 96°33’ W.) at 
59 meters water depth. 

Also recovered from a mudlump island (L.8.U. 
Geology Museum Sample no. M-144) off South 
Pass of the Mississippi River, Louisiana (H. V. 
Howe Collection no. 4435). 


Buccella frigida (Cushman) 
Figs. 4a-c, 5, 6a-e 
Pulvinulina frigida Cushman, Contr. Can. Biol. 
1921: 12. 1922. 
Eponides frigida (Cushman), Cushman, U.S. Nat. 
Mus. Bull. 104, pt. 8: 45 (in part). 1931. 
Eponides frigidus (Cushman), Cushman, Contr. 
Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 17: 37, pl. 9, figs. 
16, 17. 1941. f 


May 1952 


Eponides frigida (Cushman), var. calida Cushman 
and Cole, Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 
6 (4): 98, pl. 13, figs. 13a-e. 1930; Cushman, U. 
S. Nat. Mus., Bull. 104, pt. 8: 47. 1981; Cush- 
man, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. Special Publ. 
12: 34, pl. 4, figs. 19, 20. 1944. 


Emended diagnosis —Test small; trochoid; bi- 
convex. Dorsal side with smooth surface; and 
with narrow, slightly curved and limbate sutures 
oriented oblique to the peripheral margin. Ven- 
tral side with surface smooth and finely per- 
forate; sutures slightly depressed, curved to 
radial, and filled with opaque pustulose material; 
chambers slightly inflated; and with umbilicus 
and basal margin of last-formed chamber bearing 
a thick coatmg of pustules. Periphery slightly 
lobulate, and broadly rounded. The number of 
chambers in the last-formed whorl range from 
5 to 7, the most common being 6. Adult tests 
have 2% to 3 coils. 

In well-preserved specimens, all apertures are 
concealed by pustulose material. Weathered 
specimens exhibit, as shown in Fig. 5, an arched 
primary aperture at the basal margin of the final 
chamber about midway between the umbilicus 
and periphery, and low arched supplementary 
apertures located in slight depressions at the 
outer margin of the sutures near the periphery. 

When viewed from the interior, narrow septal 
foramen, typically areal, connect chambers in 
the same coil. 

Dimensions of figured specimens: lectotype 
(Figs. 6a-c), maximum diameter 0.46 mm., 
maximum thickness 0.20 mm.; hypotype (Figs. 
4a—c), maximum diameter 0.46 mm., maximum 
thickness 0.22 mm.; and hypotype (Fig. 5), 
maximum diameter 0.40 mm., maximum thick- 
ness 0.20 mm. 

Remarks.—The redefinition of Buccella frigida 
(Cushman) resulting from this study can be at- 
tributed to two factors: (1) That none of the 
original specimens identified as Pulvinulina fri- 
gida Cushman (1921) has been figured; and (2) 
that the literature has never clearly demonstrated 
the difference between Hponides frigidus (Cush- 
man) and £#. frigida (Cushman), Var. calida 
Cushman and Cole. 

Subsequent to 1931, Cushman designated three 
cotypes of “H.” frigidus (Cushman Collection 
nos. 3031 (two specimens) and 3032 (one speci- 
men)). On the basis of these cotypes, ‘“H.”’ 
frigida (Cushman), var. calida Cushman and 
Cole has to be placed in synonvmy with “7.” 


ANDERSON: BUCCELLA, NEW GENUS OF FORAMINIFERA 


145 


frigidus. This observation is insured in this paper 
by refiguring the holotype of “E.” frigida, var. 
calida (Fig. 4), and by figuring for the first time 
im any publication one of the cotypes (herein 
designated the lectotype) of “EH.” frigidus 
(Fie. 6). 

Buccella frigida (Cushman) is an extremely 
variable species. The typical form is relatively 
small and robust, with a broadly rounded periph- 
ery, six to seven chambers in each whorl, and 
ventral sutures that are slightly curved. This 
form commonly occurs in samples from Hudson 
Bay and along the Atlantic coast as far south as 
Maryland. The Pacific coast forms are generally 
larger and have straighter sutures, but have the 
same number of chambers and the thick pustu- 
lose coating in the umbilicus. Despite these 
differences, it appears to be inadvisable to sepa- 
rate the two forms at this time since both forms 
may occur in the same sample along with transi- 
tional forms. 

B. frigida more closely resembles B. depressa 
than any other Recent or late Tertiary species. 
It differs from B. depressa by its thicker coating 
of pustulose material which completely fills the 
umbilicus and sutures, by the fewer number of 
chambers in each whorl, by the smaller size of 
the test, and by the limbate chambers on the 
dorsal side of the test. 

Types and occurrence —Lectotype (Cushman 
Collection no. 3032) from station 5, bay between 
Black Whale and Olasks Harbors, east coast of 
Hudson Bay (about lat. 55° N.) at 10 fathoms 
water depth. Hypotype (of “FE.” frigida (Cush- 
man), var. calida Cushman and Cole (Cushman 
Collection no. 14213)), from the Pleistocene, 
Talbot formation, Wailes Bluff, near Cornfield 
Harbor, St. Marys County, Md. Hypotype 
(Cushman Collection no. 64505), off Pocasset, 
upper end of Buzzard Bay, Mass. 


Buccella depressa Andersen, n. sp. 
Figs. 7a-c, 8 
Eponides perwoianus Cushman and Parker (not 
dOrbigny), Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 80 (art. 3): 
19 (not figured). 1981. 


Test of medium size; trochoid; dorsal and 
ventral sides equally biconvex. Dorsal side with 
surface smooth, finely perforate and hyaline (in 
well-preserved specimens); and with slightly 
curved sutures oriented oblique to the peripheral 
margin. Ventral side with surface more coarsely 


perforate than the dorsal surface; sutures greatly 


146 


depressed, nearly radial, and partly filled with 
opaque pustulose material; chambers inflated; 
and with depressed umbilicus and basal margin 
of last-formed chambers bearing a moderate 
coating of pustulose material. Periphery broadly 
acute to rounded and lobulate. The number of 
chambers in the last formed whorl ranges from 
7 to 9, the most common being 8. Adult tests 
have 24 to 3 coils. 

In well-preserved specimens all apertures are 
concealed by pustulose material. Weathered 
specimens exhibit, as shown in Fig. 8, a low 
arched primary aperture at the basal margin of 
the last-formed chamber and slitlike supple- 
mentary apertures that extend along the outer 
postero-sutural margins of each chamber. 

When viewed from the interior of the test, a 
narrow septal foramen interomarginally situated 
connects chambers in the same whorl. A single 
round septal foramen more or less centrally lo- 
cated in the dorsal side of the chamber connects 
adjacent chambers of previous coils. 

Dimensions of figured specimens: Holotype, 
maximum diameter 0.46 mm, maximum thick- 
ness 0.20 mm; paratype, maximum diameter 
0.49 mm, maximum thickness 0.22 mm. 

Remarks.—Pacific coast specimens with pustu- 
lose material on the ventral side of the test, 
which were not identified as ““Hponides”’ frigida 
or its variety calida, have been indiscriminately 
grouped under Hponides peruviana (d’Orbigny) 
{Cushman and Kellett (1929), Cushman, Stewart, 
and Stewart (1930), Cushman and Valentine 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 5 
(1930), and Cushman and Parker (1931a)]. The 
Cushman and Kellett specimen has been placed 
in synonymy with V. inusitata; the Cushman, 
Stewart, and Stewart specimen is too badly 
weathered to be properly identified; the Cush- 
man and Valentine specimen is neither Eponides 
nor Buccella; and the Cushman and Parker 
assemblage is the basis of this species B. depressa. 
The designation of the Cushman and Parker 
specmens as a new species is deemed advisable 
rather than to perpetuate an assumption that 
Rotalia peruviana d’Orbigny has a pustulose coat- 
ing on the ventral side of the test. 

In general appearance, B. depressa resembles 
the larger specimens of B. frigida. Differentiation 
between the two is based on the number of 
chambers, appearance of sutures, and intersity 
of the pustulose coating. B. depressa has more 
chambers in each whorl, much more depressed 
sutures and umbilicus, less pustulose material 
deposited in the sutures and umbilicus, and less 
limbate sutures on dorsal side than B. frigida. 
Other Recent species, B. hannai, and B. inusitata, 
can be distinguished from B. depressa by their 
acute peripheries. 

Types and occurrence—Holotype (U.S.N.M. 
no. P. 833) and paratype (U.S.N.M. no. P. 834) 
from station 97, Port Williams, Falklands, at 
8 to 10 fathoms. Unfigured paratypes (Cushman 
Collection no. 21256) from same locality as above 
and unfigured paratypes (Cushman Collection 
no. 21257) from station 87, off lower jetty, Port 
Howard, Falklands, at 4 fathoms. 


Fig. 1, 2.—Buccella vicksburgensis (Cushman and Ellisor): la, Dorsal view of holotype (Cushman 
Coll. no. 15521); 1b, ventral view; and Ic, edge view (note: opening is fracture not aperture); 2a, dorsal 
view of hy potype (holoty pe of Eponides alabamensis Cushman and McGlamery, Cushman Coll. no. 
23678); 2b, ventral view; 2c, edge view. Oligocene and L. Miocene?. 

Fic. 3.—Buccella hannai (Phleger and Parker): 3a, Dorsal view of holotype (U.S.N.M. no. P 835); 
3b, ventral view showing supplementary apertures at outer margin of suture; 3c, edge view. Recent, 


Gulf of Mexico. 


Fies. 4-6.—Buccella frigida (Cushman): 4a, Dorsal view of hypotype (holotype of Eponides frigida 


(Cushman), var. calida Cushman and Cole, Cushman Coll. no. 14213); 4b, ventral view; and 4c, edge 
view; 5, ventral view of weathered hypotype (Cushman Coll. no. 64505) showing position of supple- 
mentary apertures normally concealed by pustules; 6a, dorsal view of lectotype (Cushman Coll. no. 
3032); 6b, ventral view; 6c, edge view. Late Tertiary to Recent. 

Fics. ie 8. —Buccella depressa Andersen, n. sp.: 7a, Dorsal view of holotype (U.S.N.M. no. P 833); 
7b, ventral view; 7c, edge view; 8, ventral view of weathered paratype (U.S.N.M. no. P 834) showing 
position of supplementary apertures normally concealed by pustules. Recent. 

Fie. 9.—Buccella parkerae Andersen, n. sp.: 9a, Dorsal view of holotype (Cushman Coll. no. 14582) ; 
9b, ventral view; 9c, edge view. Miocene. 

Fras. 10, 11 —Buccella inusitata Andersen, n. sp.: 10a, Dorsal view of holotype (Cushman Coll. no. 
64503); 10b, ventral view; 10c, edge view; lla, dorsal view of paratype (Cushman Coll. no. 64504); 11b, 
ventral view; llc, edge view. "Recent. 

Fras. 12, 13. —Buccella mansfieldi (Cushman): 12a, Dorsal view of hypotype (Cushman Coll. no. 
46507); 12b, ventral view; 12c, edge view; 13a, dorsal view of hypotype (Cushman Coll. no. 46506); 13b, 
ventral view; 13c, edge view. Miocene. 

All magnifications x50. 


May 1952 ANDERSON: BUCCELLA, NEW GENUS OF FORAMINIFERA 147 


Frias. 1-13.—(See opposite page for legend) 


148 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 
Buccella inusitata Andersen, n. sp. 
Figs. 10a-c and 1la-c 
Eponides frigidus (Cushman), Cushman and 


Todd, Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. Special Publ. 
21: 21 (Cushman Collection no. 48597 not 
figured). 1947. 

Eponides peruvianus Cushman and Kellett (not 
d’Orbigny), Proc. U. 8S. Nat. Mus. 75 (art. 25): 
10, pl. 4, figs. 5a-c. 1929. 

Eponides frigidus (Cushman), Cushman, Cush- 
man Lab. Foram. Res. Special Publ. 23: 71, 
pl. 8, fig. 7. 1938. 


Test of medium size; trochoid; dorsal and 
ventral sides equally biconvex in the micro- 
spheric form; megalospheric generation with the 
ventral side nearly flat and dorsal side extremely 
convex. Dorsal side with surface smooth, finely 
perforate and hyaline; and with shghtly limbate 
sutures oriented strongly oblique to the periph- 
eral margin and confluent with the periphery. 
Ventral side with surface rough and more coarsely 
perforate than the dorsal side; sutures depressed 
and radial; chambers slightly inflated, and with 
umbilicus, sutures, and basal margin of the last- 
formed chamber bearing a thick coating of pustu- 
lose material. Periphery acute and limbate, and 
with the last 2 or 3 chambers usually lobate. The 
number of chambers in the last-formed whorl 
ranges from 7 to 9, the most common being 9. 
Adult tests have 3 to 3% coils. 

The only visible apertures are located on the 
ventral side of the test at the outer margin of 
each suture. In a slight depression near the 
periphery is a concentration of pustulose material 
through which are numerous, irregularly shaped 
openings. These openings eminate from the 
posterosutural margin of the younger (most 
recently added) chamber and from the antero- 
sutural margin of the older (preceding) chamber. 

The last-formed chamber when viewed from 
the interior has no well defined anterior aperture. 
Preceding chambers, however, have a well de- 
veloped, narrow septal foramen interomarginally 
situated and numerous areal cribrate openings 
near the periphery which connect chambers in 
the same coil. One or two lateral foramen connect 
adjacent chambers of previous coils. 

Dimensions of figured specimens: Holotype, 
maximum diameter 0.57 mm, maximum thickness 
0.27 mm; paratype, maximum diameter 0.55 mm, 
maximum thickness 0.24 mm. 

Remarks —Buccella inusitata is characterized 
by its large test, by its acute and limbate periph- 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 5 
ery, by its limbate dorsal sutures, and by its 
supplementary apertures consisting of numerous 
irregularly shaped openings. It can be distin- 
guished from B. frigida and B. depressa by its 
greater size and acute periphery; from B. hannai 
by its greater size and multiple openings in the 
outer portion of the ventral sutures; and from 
B. mansfieldi by its smaller size, lack of raised 
and limbate dorsal sutures, and greater develop- 
ment of pustulose material along the sutures. 
B. inusitata most closely resembles B. oregonensis 
from which it differs in having more inflated 
chambers on the ventral side of the test; less 
convexity in the umbilicus; and multiple supple- 
mentary apertures. 

Types and occurrence—Holotype (Cushman 
Collection no. 64503) and paratype (Cushman 
Collection no. 64504) from Dallas Bank, Straits 
of Juan de Fuca, station “A,” coast of Washing- 
ton. Unfigured paratypes (Cushman Collection 
no. 48597) from same locality as holotype. 


Station “A” refers to the list of stations in 
Special Publication 21 (Cushman and Todd, 
1947). 


Buccella mansfieldi (Cushman) 
Figs. 12a, b and 13a-c 


Eponides mansfieldi Cushman, Florida Geol. Surv. 
Bull. 4: 54, pl. 11, figs. la-e. 1930. 


Emended diagnosis —Test large for the genus; 
trochoid; biconvex, ranging from specimens with 
equal convexity on dorsal and ventral sides to 
specimens less convex on the ventral side. Dorsal 
side with surface finely perforate and hyaline 
(in well-preserved specimens); and with broadly 
limbate and raised sutures oriented oblique to 
the peripheral margin and confluent with the 
periphery. Ventral side with surface rough and 
more coarsely perforate than the dorsal side; 
sutures depressed and radial; chambers slightly 
inflated; and with the depressed umbilicus, su- 
tures, and anterior, basal margin of the last- 
formed chamber bearing a coating of pustulose 
material (a few specimens have pustules covering 
the entire ventral side of the test). Periphery 
acute, broadly limbate, and lobulate. The num- 
ber of chambers in the last whorl range from 9 to 
12, the most common being 11. Adult test with 
24 to 3 coils. 

All apertures are concealed by pustulose mate- 
rial. When viewed from the interior, the adult 
chamber has an irregularly shaped opening at the 


May 1952 ANDERSON: BUCCELLA, NEW 
base and inner margin of the anterior wall, and a 
long, narrow slitlike opening at the base and 
outer margin of the posterior wall. This slitlike 
opening which, externally, would lie at the poste- 
riosutural margin of the chamber, is so minute 
that it can not be discerned even in weathered 
specimens. 

Comma-shaped, internal septal foramen con- 
nect adjacent chambers in the same coil; none 
appear to connect chamber in previous coils. 

Dimensions of figured specimens: Hypotype 
(Fig. 12), maximum diameter 0.62 mm, maxi- 
mum thickness 0.28 mm; hypotype (Fig. 13), 
maximum diameter 0.62 mm, maximum thick- 
ness 0.25 mm. 

Remarks —Buccella mansjfieldi is larger, has a 
greater number of chambers, and has a more 
ornamented dorsal surface than other 
species. It lacks the open supplementary aper- 
tures of B. hannai and B. inusitata. Even weath- 
ered specimens fail to exhibit supplementary 
apertures in the striking manner of some speci- 
mens of B. frigida, B. depressa, and B. vicksbur- 
gensis. The most evident characteristic of the 
genus Buccella exhibited by B. mansfieldi is the 
pustulose material coating the ventral side of 
the test. 

Types and occurrence-—Hypotype, Fig. 
(Cushman Collection no. 46507), is from the 
Choctawhatchee marl of John Anderson’s farm, 
3 mile east of Red Bay, Walton County, Fla. 
It is from the same locality as the holotype 
(US.N.M. no. 371079), although it was not 
designated a paratype by Cushman. Hypotype, 
Fig. 13 (Cushman Collection no. 64506), is from 
the Miocene Choctawhatchee formation, Yoldia 
zone, Old Frazier farm, } mile south of center of 
section 18, T.2 N., R19 W., Walton County, Fla. 


any 


12 


Buccella oregonensis (Cushman, R. I. 
Stewart, and K. C. Stewart) 


Eponides mansfieldi Cushman, var. oregonensis 
Cushman, Stewart, and Stewart, Oregon Dept. 
Geol. and Min., Ind. Bull. 36, (2): 48, pl. 6, 
fig. 4. 1947(1948). 


Remarks.—The holotype of B. oregonensis 
(Cushman, Stewart, and Stewart) is the only 
representative of the species in the Cushman 
Collection. This constitutes an inadequate num- 
ber of specimens upon which to base a study, and 
in this species it is particularly madvisable since 
the final chamber of the holotype is broken. 
There is sufficient evidence, however, that the 


GENUS OF FORAMINIFERA 149 
species belongs with the genus Buccella, and that 
there is no justification in continuing to consider 
it a variety of B. mansfieldi. B. oregonensis has 
neither the size nor dorsal ornamentation of 
B. mansfieldi. The species most similar to B. ore- 
gonensis is B. inusitata. Differentiation between 
the two is based on the more inflated chambers 
on the ventral side of the test, the less convex 
umbilicus and the multiple supplementary aper- 
tures of B. inusitata. 

Types and occurrence—Holotype (Cushman 
Collection no. 44208) from the Miocene shale of 
the Astoria formation, 700 feet southeast of 
Yaquina Head, Yaquina quadrangle, Oreg. 


Buccella parkerae Andersen, n. sp. 
Figs. 9a-c 
Eponides mansfield’ Cushman, Cushman and 


Parker (not Cushman, 1930), Contr. Cushman 
Lab. Foram. Res. 7 (1): pl. 2, fig. 10a-e. 1931. 


Test small; trochoid; biconvex, dorsal side 
nearly conoidal, ventral side with an umbilical 
flattening. Dorsal side with surface coarsely 
perforate; and with sutures of variable intensity ; 
in the early coils concealed by a thin exogenous 
covering of shell material, in the last coil distinct, 
limbate, and in some specimens slightly raised 
above the surface of the test. Ventral side with 
surface coarsely perforate; depressed sutures 
radial near the umbilicus and abruptly curved 


backward at the peripheral margin; umbilicus 
depressed; and with umbilicus, sutures, and basal 


margin of the last-formed chamber bearing a 
coating of pustulose material, thickly deposited 
in the umbilicus, less densely deposited in the 
outer portion of the sutures. Periphery acute, 
limbate and slightly lobulate. The number of 
chambers in the last-formed whorl range from 
9 to 11, 11 being the most common. Adult tests 
with 24 to 3 coils. 

The primary aperture is concealed by pustules. 
Supplementary apertures on the ventral side of 
the test are located in the slight depression at 
the outer margin of the suture near the periphery. 
Each aperture is a long, slitlike opening barely 
visible under high magnification. 

When viewed from the interior, comma-shaped 
septal foramen connect chambers in the same 
coil. 

Dimensions of figured holotype: maximum 
diameter 0.42 mm; maximum thickness 0.17 mm, 

Remarks —Buccella parkerae, originally identi- 
fied as Eponides mansfieldi by Cushman and 


150 


Parker (1931b), has a superficial resemblance to 
the Florida species. It differs from B. mansfieldi, 
however, in its smaller size and less intensely 
ornamented dorsal surface. In B. mansfieldi the 
raised sutures on the dorsal side of the test are 
clearly defined from the proloculus to the periph- 
ery. In B. parkerae the proloculus and early coils 
of the dorsal spire are concealed by a thin coating 
of exogenous material that produces a low, co- 
noidal capping in the center of the test. Only the 
last-formed coil or coil and half has distinct 
sutures with the barest indication being raised 
above the surface of the test. 

Buccella parkerae can be distinguished from 
all other Pacific coast forms by the exogenous 
material on the dorsal side of the test. In addi- 
tion, B. parkerae differs from B. inusitata by its 
raised dorsal sutures, smaller size, and more 
curved ventral sutures; from B. depressa by its 
acute periphery, limbate and raised dorsal su- 
tures, and less depressed umbilicus; and from 
B. oregonensis by its smaller size, and depressed 
umbilicus. 

Types and occurrence——Holotype (Cushman 
Collection no. 14582), and unfigured paratypes 
(Cushman Collection no. 14583), from the Mio- 
cene, upper Tremblor formation, 1,500 feet west 
and 1,000 feet south of northeast corner of sec- 
tion 3, T. 28 8., R. 28 E., M.D.B.M., east side 
of San Joaquin Valley, Calif. 


Buccella vicksburgensis (Cushman and 
Ellisor) 
Figs. la-c, 2a-c 


Eponides vicksburgensis Cushman and _ Ellisor, 
Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 7 (3): 56, 
pl. 7, figs. 8a-c. 1931. 

Eponides alabamensis Cushman and McGlamery, 
U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 189-D: 110, pl. 
27, fig. 2. 1938. 

Eponides choctawensis Cushman and McGlamery, 
U.S. Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 189-D: 110, pl. 27, 
fig. 1. 1988. 


Emended diagnosis——Test small, trochoid; bi- 
convex, megalospheric forms with dorsal side 
strongly convex, microspheric forms with ventral 
side slightly flattened. Dorsal side with surface 
smooth, finely perforate and hyaline (in well- 
preserved specimens); and with limbate sutures 
oriented oblique to the peripheral margin and 
confluent with the limbate periphery. Ventral 
side with surface rough and more coarsely per- 
forate than the dorsal side; sutures slightly de- 
pressed and slightly curved; and with chambers 
slightly inflated. Typical specimens have pustu- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 5 
lose only on the sutures, umbilicus, and anterior 
basal margin of the last-formed chamber. Megalo- 
spheric forms have a slightly rounded periphery; 
microspheric forms have an acute, limbate and 
slightly lobulate periphery. The number of 
chambers in the last whorl range from 6 to 8, the 
most common being 7. Adult tests with 24 coils. 

All apertures are concealed by pustulose mate- 
rial. An occasional weathered specimen reveals 
the posterosutural apertures in slight depressions 
near the peripheral margin on the ventral side 
of the test. When viewed from the interior, the 
final chamber has an irregularly shaped opening 
at the base and inner margin of the anterior wall 
and a small arched opening at the base and outer 
margin of the posterior wall. 

Also from the interior, comma-shaped septal 
foramen connect adjacent chambers in the same 
coil; and rounded septal foramen, laterally situ- 
ated in each chamber connect adjacent chambers 
in previous coils. 

Dimensions of figured specimens: Holotype, 
maximum diameter 0.338 mm, maximum thick- 
ness 0.20 mm. Hypotype (holotype for “EZ. ala- 
bamensis”) maximum diameter 0.32 mm, maxi- 
mum thickness 0.17 mm. 

Remarks.—The factors which have a bearing 
on the placement of ““Hponides alabamensis”’ and 
“EH. choctawensis” in synonymy with B. vicks- 
burgensis are: (1) Morphologic homogeneity 
noted in the actual specimens not discernible 
from the original descriptions and illustrations; 
and (2) the number of specimens of a species 
reported in the literature. 

“EB.” vicksburgensis and “EH. alabamensis’’ were 
found to be incorrectly described and illustrated. 
In “HE.” vicksburgensis, the opening at the base 
is a void produced by breakage not an aperture 
prepared by the animal; and the sutures on the 
ventral side of the test are more concealed by 
pustules than illustrated. In “EH. alabamensis”’ 
the aperture is concealed by pustules, not open 
as illustrated and described; there are no costae 
across the sutures on the ventral side of the test 
as illustrated and described in the text; and the 
sutures on the ventral side of the test are more 
nearly concealed with pustules than illustrated. 
When purged of inaccuracies, the descriptions 
reflect the morphologic similarity apparent in 
the actual specimens. Additive proof of this 
morphologic similarity lies in an assemblage of 
specimens identified as Eponides alabamensis 
(Cushman Collection no. 25950) from the Chicka- 
sawhay marl near Millry, Ala. This assemblage 


May 1952 


contains specimens with the thick coating of 
pustules on the ventral side of the test similar to 
the holotype of “EH.” vicksburgensis, and also 
specimens with the reduced pustulose coating on 
the ventral side of the test that characterizes the 
holotype of ‘“E. alabamensis.” 

“Hponides choctawensis’”’ has been reported 
three different times: Cushman and McGlamery, 
1938; Cushman and McGlamery, 1942; and 
Cushman and Todd, 1946. In the last two re- 
ports the presence of the species in the sample is 
based on a single specimen. It is even possible 
that the holotype is based on a single specimen 
since there are no paratypes in the Cushman 
Collection. In addition to the limited number of 
specimens available of “EH. choctawensis,” it is 
also significant to note that ‘EH. choctawensis”’ 
has been reported only from samples in which 
“EH. alabamensis” (B. vicksburgensis) is also pres- 
ent and well represented by a number of speci- 
mens. The conclusion drawn is that “E. chocta- 
wensis” probably represents a varient or phase 
in the life cycle of B. vicksburgensis and therefore 
does not warrant a separate specific name. An 
analogy can be drawn with B. hannai in which 
a small, rare form with more inflated chambers 
and a more lobulate and rounded periphery 
than the typical form is accepted in the species 
(Phleger and Parker, 1951). 

The typical specimen of B. vicksburgensis is 
easily distinguished from any other species of 
Buccella by its thick pustulose coating on the 
ventral side of the test. In comparison with other 
Atlantic and Gulf Coast forms and in addition 
to the above characteristic, it can be differen- 
tiated from B. mansfieldi by its smaller size, and 
lack of ornamentation of the dorsal sutures; from 
B. frigida by its acute periphery; and from 
B. hannai by its lack of open supplementary 
apertures, and less lobate periphery. 


REFERENCES 


ASANO, Ktiyosut. Illustrated catalogue of Japanese 
Tertiary smaller Foraminifera, Part 14: Rotali- 
idae. Institute of Geology and Paleontology, 
Tohoku University, Japan, 1951. 

Brotzen, Fritz. Foraminiferengattung Gravel- 
inella Nov. Gen. und die Systematik Rotali- 
iformes, Sver. Geol. Unders., Sec. C, no. 451. 
1942. 

CusHMAN, J. A. Results of the Hudson Bay Ex- 
pedition 1920. I, The Foraminifera. Contr. 
Can. Biol. 1920. 1922. 

. The Foraminifera of the Choctawhatchee 

Formation of Florida. Florida State Geol. 

Surv. Bull. 4. 1930. 


ANDERSON: BUCCELLA, NEW GENUS OF FORAMINIFERA 


151 


. The Foraminifera of the Atlantic Ocean. 

Part 8. Rotaliidae, Amphisteginidae, Cal- 

carinidae, Cymbaloporettidae, Globorotaliidae, 

Anomalinidae, Planorbulinidae, Rupertiidae, 

and Homotremidae. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 104, 

pt. 8. 1981. 

. Some fossil Foraminifera from Alaska. 

Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 17, pt. 2. 

1941. : 

. Foraminifera from the shallow water of 

the New England coast. Cushman Lab. Foram. 

Res. Special Publ. 12. 1944. 

. Arctic Foraminifera. Cushman Lab. Foram. 
Res. Special Publ. 23. 1948. 

CusHMAN, J. A., and Corr, W. S. Pleistocene 
Foraminifera from Maryland. Contr. Cush- 
man Lab. Foram. Res. 6, pt. 4. 1930. 

CusHMAN, J. A., and Exxtisor, A. C. Some new 
Tertiary Foraminifera from Texas. Contr. 
Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 7, pt. 3. 1931. 

CusHMAN, J. A., and Keuuerr, B. Recent Foram- 
imifera from the west coast of South America. 
Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. 75, art. 25. 1929. 

CusuMan, J. A., and McGuamery, W. Oligocene 
Foraminifera near Millry, Alabama. U. S. 
Geol. Surv. Prof. Paper 197-B. 1942. 

CusHMAN, J. A., and Parker, F. L. Recent Fo- 
raminifera from the Atlantic coast of South 
America. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 80, art. 3. 
1931a. 


. Miocene Foraminifera from the Tem- 
blor of the east side of the San Joaquin Valley, 
California. Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 
7, pt. 1. 1931b. 

CusuMan, J. A., Stewart, R. E., and Srewarr, 
K. C. Tertiary Foraminifera from Hum- 
boldt County, California. A preliminary 
survey of the fauna. Trans. San Diego Soc. 
Nat. Hist. 6, pt. 2. 1930. 

. Astoria Miocene Foraminifera from 
Agate Beach, Lincoln County, Oregon. Oregon 
Dept. Geol. and Min. Ind. Bull. 36, pt. 2. 
1947. 

CusHMAN, J. A., and Topp, R. A foraminiferal 
fauna from the Byram Marl at its type locality. 
Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. 22, pt. 3. 
1946. 

. Foraminifera from the coast of Wash- 
ington. Cushman Lab. Foram. Res. Special 
Publ. 21. 1947. 

CusHMaN, J. A., and VALENTINE, W. W. Shallow- 
water Foraminifera from the Channel Islands 
of southern California. Contr. Dept. Geol. 
Stanford Univ. 1, no. 1. 1980. 

Horker, J. What is the genus Eponides? Micro- 
paleontologist 4 (1). 1950. 

. The Foraminifera of the Siboga Expedi- 
tion, Part IIT. Monographie IVa de: Uitkom- 
sten op Zooligisch, Botanisch, Oceanogra- 
phish en Geologisch Gegied. Leiden, 1951. 

pd’Orsieny, A. D. Voyage dans lV’ Amérique Meri- 
dionale 5, pt. 2. 1839. 

Puurcer, F. B., and Parker, F. L. Ecology of 
Foraminifera, northwest Gulf of Mexico, Geol. 
Soc. Amer. Mem. 46. 1951. 


152 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCHS VOL. 42, No. 5 


MAMMALOGY.—-A new pine mouse (Pitymys pinetorum carbonarius) from the 
southern Appalachian Mountains.! CHARLES O. HANDLEY, JR., U. 8. National 


Museum. (Communicated by H. W. 


As long ago as 1900 Vernon Bailey noticed 
that the pine mouse (Pitymys pinetorum) of 
the Cumberland Plateau region of the south- 
eastern United States differed in important 
respects from other populations farther to 
the south and southwest. In his Revision of 
American voles of the genus Microtus, North 
American Fauna no. 17: 65. 1900, he re- 
marked that: “A series of 31 specimens in 
the Merriam collection from Eubank, Ky., 
average darker and richer in coloration than 
the type series [referring to P. p. auricu- 
laris|, and have equally large ears.”’ Lacking 
material from other Cumberland localities, 
he called the Eubank mice auricularis. 
Later, Hooper and Cady (Journ. Mamm. 
22: 325. 1941) discovered the same charac- 
ters in specimens from Cleveland, Virginia, 
on the eastern fringe of the plateau region, 
but referred their specimens to P. p. scalop- 
soides. Sufficient material is now available 
to show that the pine mouse of the Cum- 
berland Plateau is quite distinct from sur- 
rounding populations. With regard for its 
habitation of a region particularly noted for 
coal, I have named it: 


Pitymys pinetorum carbonarius, n. subsp. 

Type—Old adult female in slightly worn 
winter pelage; skm and skull; U.S. N. M. no. 
191204; collected February 14, 1888, at Eubank, 
Pulaski County, Ky., by John B. Lewis; original 
number 76. 

Distribution —The Austral and Transition 
Life Zones of southwestern Virginia, northeastern 
Tennessee, eastern Kentucky, extreme south- 
eastern Ohio, and probably southern West Vir- 
gimia (east to Russell County, Va., and Carter 
County, Tenn.; south to Jefferson and Campbell 
Counties, Tenn.; west to Pulaski County, Ky.; 
and north to Lawrence County, Ohio). 

Description —Type (capitalized color terms 
from Ridgway, 1912, Color standards and color 
nomenclature): Dorsum between Sanford’s Brown 
and Argus Brown, overlaid with black; flanks, 
shoulders, cheeks, and sides of snout between 
Amber Brown and Tawny; belly and legs silvery 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


Setzer. ) 


gray, washed with buff; upper surfaces of feet 
Hay’s Brown with a silvery cast; tail brownish 
above, darker than feet, whitish below, with no 
clear line of demarcation between the colors. 
Size large; ears not completely concealed by fur. 
Skull of light construction, somewhat angular, 
not noticeably convex in dorsal profile; post- 
orbital protuberance of squamosal - slightly 
developed; zygomatic arches light and parallel 
to one another; rostrum long and narrow; brain- 
case long and wide; incisive foramina long and 
frequently narrowed posteriorly; and anterior 
margin of mesopterygoid fossa variable in out- 
line, either U-shaped or V-shaped. 

Measurements (in millimeters; average followed 
by extremes).—Ten adults (both sexes; including 
type) from Eubank, Ky.: Skin—total length, 
125 (118-139); tail, 23 (19-26); hind foot, (no 
measurements available). Skull—greatest length, 
25.6 (25.1-26.6); zygomatic breadth, 15.5 (14.9- 
16.6); least- interorbital width, 4.4 (4.1-4.6); 
nasal length (along mid-lne), 7.8 (7.7-8.0); 
maxillary molar series (alveolar length), 6.4 
(6.2-6.7); mastoidal breadth, 13.0 (12.3-13.6); 
braincase length (dorsal midpoint of foramen 
magnum to postorbital process of squamosal), 
13.3 (13.0-13.6). 

Comparisons —This race is characterized in 
all pelages by dark and bright coloration of the 
dorsum, a consequence of the combination of 
black overlay and dark hue of the subapical band. 
It is the darkest known American population of 
Pitymys. Cranially it does not appear to be well 
differentiated; observed variations from other 
races are only average and are of small magnitude. 
With respect to the cranium, its closest relatives 
seem to be P. p. auricularis and P. p. scalop- 
soides. In many ways it is intermediate between 
these two forms. Resemblances to P. p. pine- 
torum are fewer. Geographically remote P. p. 
nemoralis and P. parvulus need not be considered 
in this discussion. 

From scalopsoides the race carbonarius may be 
distinguished by much darker, brighter colora- 
tion of the dorsum, a greater amount of black 
on the tips of the dorsal guard hairs, less angular 
skull, less well developed postorbital protuberance 
of the squamosal, lighter zygomata, longer ros- 
trum, wider brainease, longer incisive foramina 


May 1952 


with a greater tendency toward posterior con- 
striction. 

The subspecies auricularis is nearly as dark as 
carbonarius, but the latter is brighter and has 
more angular skull with a less convex dorsal 
profile, lighter and more parallel zygomata, longer 
and narrower rostrum, wider braincase, incisive 
foramina more frequently constricted posteriorly, 
and the anterior margin of the mesopterygoid 
fossa less constantly U-shaped. 

In brightness, but not in darkness, carbonarius 
is approached by pinetorum. However, carbo- 
narius has more black on the dorsal guard hairs, 
and has the subapical band of a darker, more 
intense color. Further, it is larger in all dimen- 
sions, and has the skull more angular and less 
convex in dorsal profile, the rostrum longer and 
narrower, the braincase longer and wider, the 
incisive foramina longer and more frequently 
constricted posteriorly, the anterior margin of 
the mesopterygoid fossa not so consistently 
V-shaped, and the auditory bullae more inflated 
and more pointed anteriorly. 

Remarks——Probably the characters of car- 
bonarius are best developed in the Cumberland 
Mountains and adjacent plateau. In outlining 
the geographic range of this race, two areas 
have given particular difficulty: The Ohio Valley 
in the longitude of Ohio and the northeastern 
portion of the Tennessee River watershed. These 
are areas where the characters of several races 
of Pitymys pinetorum merge. 

Bascom, Ind., is the easternmost locality along 
the Ohio River from which typical auricularis 
has been seen. Specimens from Brookville, Ind., 
are intermediate and nearer scalopsoides, while 
ones from Ripley, Ohio, are intermediate and 
nearer auricularis. Farther upstream, at Rome 
and Smokey Creek, Adams County, Ohio, 
material is again intermediate, but nearer 
scalopsoides. Still farther eastward, where the 
Ohio River swings nearest to the range of car- 
bonarius, at Lawrence County, Ohio, the darkest 
Ohio Pitymys are to be found. These are like 
auricularis, but in view of the character of the 
specimens from localities down stream, nearer 
the center of the range of auricularis, I tentatively 
consider the scanty Lawrence County material 
to be intergrades between scalopsoides and car- 
bonarius, but nearer the latter. The character 
of dark coloration may be traced farther north- 
eastward in the Ohio Valley to Belmont County, 
Ohio. Bole and Moulthrop (Sci. Publ. Cleveland 


HANDLEY: A NEW 


PINE MOUSE 153 
Mus. Nat. Hist. 5: 161. 1942) identified speci- 
mens from Cat Run in this county as pinetorum. 
I have examined material from Cat Run and find 
it only slightly darker than typical scalopsoides 
from southeastern New York. It can be referred 
without hesitation to scalopsoides. 

In the Tennessee Valley, specimens from Cleve- 
land, Va., are intermediate between scalopsoides 
and carbonarius, but nearer the latter. A single 
individual from Watauga Valley, Tenn., is re- 
ferred to carbonarius, although it is paler than 
that race and shows intergradation toward 
pinetorum or scalopsoides. A series from Marshall, 
N. C., is somewhat darker than typical pine- 
torwm, showing the influence of either carbonarius 
or auricularis, both of which are darker than 
pinetorum. 

Specimens examined.—Specimens are in the 
U.S. National Museum or the U. 8. National 
Museum, Biological Surveys collection, except 
as Indicated by the following abbreviations: 
CMNH—Cleveland Museum of Natural His- 
tory; CM—Charleston [S. C.] Museum; CU— 
Cornell University; MGFC—Mississippi Game 
and Fish Commission; UMMZ—University of 
Michigan Museum of Zoology. I am grateful to 
the authorities at these institutions for the loan 
of specimens. 


P. p. auricularis.—INviaNa: Bascom, 5; Worth- 
ington, 1. Kenrucky: Canmer, 2; Monticello, 1. 
Mississippr: Copiah County, 2 (MGFC); Jones 
County, 1 (MGFC); Lincoln County, 2 (MGFC); 
Rankin County, 1 (MGFC); Washington, 4. 
Nora Carouina: Cherokee County, 1 (UMMZ). 
Onto: Ripley, 4 (CMNH). Tennessee: La Fol- 
lette, 1. 

P. p. carbonarius.—Kenrucky: Eubank, 31; 
Quicksand, 1 (CU). Onto: Hanging Rock, 1 
(UMMZ); Symes Creek, Lawrence County, 1 
(CMNH). Tennessee: High Cliff, 2; Jefferson 
County, 2 (CMNH); Watauga Valley, 1. Vir- 
GINntA: Cleveland, 2 (UMMZ); Hurricane, Wise 
County, 6. 

P. p. pinetorum.—Norru Carouina: Bent 
Creek. Experiment Station, Pisgah National For- 
est, 1; Madison County, 1 (CM); Marshall, 9 
(CMNH). Sourn Carorina: Abbeville, 1 (CM); 
Charleston, 5 (CM); Clemson College, 3 (CM); 
Frogmore, 1; Georgetown, | (CM); Summerville, 
1 (CM). 

P. p. scalopsoides.—Inviana: Brookville, 3. 
New York: Suffolk County, 3; Ulster County, 7. 
Onto: Cat Run, Belmont County, 15 (CMNH); 
Rome, Adams County, 7 (CMNH); Smokey Creek, 
Adams County, 1 (CMNH). Virerntra: Blacks 
burg, 2. West Vrrainra: Gilboa, 2; Raymond 
City, 1; White Sulphur Springs, Il. 


154 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 5 


MALACOLOGY.—Nomenclatural review of genera and subgenera of Chamidae. 
Davin Nicot,! U. 8. National Museum. 


Except for the excellent paper by Odhner 
(1919), which has not been carefully studied 
by most other workers, little research in 
systematics has been done on the Chamidae. 
Genera and species of this interesting pelecy- 
pod family have, in general, not been under- 
stood. Before giving a description of the 
family, it is necessary to point out the prin- 
cipal weakness of a nomenclatural review. 
There is always the possibility that one or 
more genera will be incorrectly allocated 
because the descriptions and figures are un- 
recognizable. The problem of inadequate de- 
scriptions and figures can be solved only by 
examining specimens of the type species. 

The Chamidae have a porcellaneous shell 
which may have either concentric or radial 
ribs, and the shell may be spinose, nodulose, 
or smooth. The inner ventral border may be 
smooth or may have small crenulations. A 
sulcus is commonly present at the posterior 
fifth of the shell. It runs from the umbos to 
the posterior ventral border. The shell may 
be attached by either valve (more commonly 
the left one) to the substrate during a small 
part of or practically all of its life. The 
valves may be markedly unequal or only 
slightly so, but the attached valve is always 
the larger. There is no gape for the byssus, 
foot, or siphons. With the exception of 
Echinochama, which has a lunule, neither a 
lunule nor an escutcheon is present. The 
beaks are prosogyrate and are placed in 
front of the parivincular ligament. This 
structure is external but commonly sunken. 
The pallial line is integripalliate, with a 
small indentation where it joins the posterior 
adductor muscle scar. In some species the 
pallial line joins the anterior adductor muscle 
scar not at the ventral margin but along the 
anterior margin. The anterior adductor 
muscle scar commonly abuts the anterior 
margin of the hinge plate. The adductor 
muscle scars are large and either elongate or 
ovate. The pallial line and adductor muscles 
commonly resemble those of the lucinids. 
The hinge teeth in adult shells have been 
greatly modified by the torsion of the beaks 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


and secondary splitting, and there is little 
agreement as to the number of cardinal and 
lateral teeth in each valve. However, the 
basic pattern appears to be like that of a 
highly modified lucinoid hinge. One large 
cardinal tooth is present in each valve. In 
the attached valve, particularly in Hchino- 
chama, a much smaller cardinal tooth is 
located above and posterior to the large 
cardinal tooth. A small conical posterior lat- 
eral tooth is sometimes seen on the attached 
valve. 

The following genera and subgenera are 
chamids, with type species whose morph ologi 
characters correspond to those of the family, 
and whose names are nomenclaturally valid. 
This does not mean that all will be accep- 
table when careful work on the classification 
of the Chamidae is completed, but these 
names form a basis for future taxonomic 
work on the family. 


Chama Linné, 1758, pp. 691,692. Type species 
(subsequent designation, Schumacher, 1817, 
pp. 20,123. See also Stewart, 1930, p. 33) 
Chama gryphoides Linné, 1758, Recent; Medi- 
terranean Sea. Figd., Buequoy, Dautzenberg, 
& Dollfus, 1892, pl. 50, figs. 1-4. 

Crplyella Vincent, 1930, pp. 111,112. Type spe- 
cies (original designation)—Chama_ pulchra 
Ravn, 1902, Danian, Paleocene; Denmark, 
Belgium. Figd., Vincent, 1930, pl. 6, fig. 12. 
Ciplyella is probably a chamid, although a 
careful study of the type species is necessary to 
ascertain this. 

Echinochama Fischer, 1887, p. 1049. Type species 
(monotypy)—Chama arcinella Linné, 1767, Re- 
cent; West Indies. Figd., Reeve, 1847, vol. 4, 
Chama species 26, pl. 5, fig. 26a. 

Eopseuma Odhner, 1919, pp. 25,75. Type species 
(monotypy)—Pseudochama (Eopseuma) pusilla 
Odhner, 1919, Recent; Strait of Macassar. 
Figd., Odhner, 1919, figs. 20-27. 

Maceris Modeer, 1793, pp. 174,182. Type species 
(subsequent designation, Winckworth, 1935, 
p. 322)—Chama lazarus Linné, 1758, Recent; 
East Indies. Two species were referred to in 
the discussion of the genus Maceris (p. 182)— 
Chama gryphus Linné and Chama lazarus Linné. 
It is not certain whether Modeer meant Chama 
gryphoides Linné or Anomia gryphus Linné 
for the first species. Figd., Reeve, 1847, vol. 4, 
Chama species 4, pl. 2, figs. 4a, b. 


May 1952 


Pseudochama Odhner, 1917, pp. 28-34. Type 
species (subsequent designation, Prashad, 1932, 
p. 295)—Chama cristella Lamarck, 1819, p. 96, 
Recent; East Indies. Chama cristella has been 
considered the type species of Pseudochama by 
original designation and by monotypy. Neither 
of these ideas is correct. Odhner mentioned 
other species as belonging to Pseudochama in 
his original discussion of the genus. Figd., 
Reeve, 1847, vol. 4, Chama species 42, pl. 8, 
fig. 42. 


The following generic and _ subgeneric 
names have been associated with the Chami- 
dae in the past, but all of them appear to be 
unavailable from the evidence thus far ob- 
tained. 


Arcinella Schumacher, 1817, pp. 47,142. Type 
species (monotypy)—Arcinella spinosa Schu- 
macher, 1817 = Chama arcinella Linné, 1767. 
A homonym of Arcinella Oken, 1815, which is 
a carditid genus. 

Camelaea Herrmannsen, 1852, vol. 2 (supple- 
ment), p. 23. A genus without species. Herr- 
mannsen refers to a work by P. F. Gmelin 
which has been rejected by the International 
Commission of Zoological Nomenclature, Opin- 
ion 123. 

Cameola Rafinesque, 1815, p. 148. An emenda- 
tion of the name Chama Linné, 1758. 

Camostraea Deshayes, 1830, p. 178. A genus 
without species. Also a misinterpretation of 
Blainville’s definition of the genus. 

Chamigenus Renier, 1807, p. vil. Original refer- 
ence not seen. Renier’s names ending in genus 
have not been accepted by malacologists. For 
a good review of the problem, see Keen, 1951, 
pp. 8-15. 

Chamites Gmelin, 1793, p. 402. The name Cham- 
ites is listed as a species under the genus 
Helmintholithus. Neave (1939, p. 668) and 
Schulze (1927, p. 630) are in error in considering 
Chamites of Gmelin as a generic name. 

Cipleyella Neave, 1939, vol. 1, p. 740. Error for 
Ciplyella Vincent, 1930. 

Diceratia Oken, 1815, p. 829. Type species (mono- 
typy)—Chama cor Linné, 1767. Diceratia ap- 
pears to be a synonym of Jsocardia Lamarck, 
1799, and Glossus Poli, 1795. 

Diceratis Paetel, 1875, p. 69. Error for Diceratia 
Oken, 1815. 

Globus Deshayes, 1832, p. 170. A genus without 
species and a homonym of Globus Scopoli, 
1772. 

Goossensia Cossmann, 1885, p. 113. Type species 
(monotypy)—Goossensia plicatuloides Coss- 
mann, 1885, pp. 113-115. Probably not a 


NICOL: NOMENCLATURAL REVIEW OF THE CHAMIDAE 


155 


chamid; however, Dall’s opinion (1903, p. 1397) 
that the genus is based on a nepionie shell of 
a chamid is certainly worthy of investigation. 

Gryphus Gray, 1847, p. 193. A genus without 
species. This name is listed under Chama and 
Arcinella and credited to Humphrey, as a 
manuscript name. A homonym of Gryphus 
Megerle, 1811, Gryphus Oken, 1816, among 
others. 

Hellia Schafhautl, 1863, pp. 160,161. Type species 
(monotypy)—Hellia gryphus Schafhautl, 1863. 
This species has been described from poorly 
preserved internal casts, but it probably does 
not belong to the family Chamidae. The right 
valve is supposedly larger than the left. 

Jataronus Bruguiére, 1792, p. 546. A genus with- 
out species. It is impossible, from the brief 
description, to define the genus. 

Lacinea Sowerby, 1842, p. 168. A genus without 
species. Listed as a synonym of Chama La- 
marck. 

Lazarus Cuvier, 1800, table 5. A nomen nudum. 

Licinia Gray, 1847, p. 193. A genus without 
species. This name is listed under Chama and 
Arcinella by Gray and credited to Humphrey, 
1797, as Licinia sp. A homonym of Licinia 
Swainson, 1820. 

Macerophylla Morch, 1853, p. 36. A genus with- 
out species. Listed as a manuscript name of 
Martens. 

Macerophyllum Herrmannsen, 1847, vol. 2, p. 1. 
A genus without species. 

Macrophyllum Gray, 1847, p. 193. A genus with- 
out species. Also a homonym of Macrophyllum 
Gray, 1888. 

Psiloderma Fischer, 1887, p. 1048. Error for 
Psilopoderma Poh, 1795. 

Psilopoderma Poli, 1795, pp. 253,258. Type species 
(monotypy)—Chama gryphoides Linné, 1758. 
A synonym of Psilopus Poli, 1795, and of 
Chama Linné, 1758. 

Psilopododerma Agassiz, 1846, p. 313. Emenda- 
tion of Psilopoderma Poli, 1795. 

Psilopus Poli, 1795, p. 112. Type species (mono- 
typy)—Chama gryphoides Linné, 1758. A syn- 
onym of Chama Linné, 1758. 

Psilotus Rafinesque, p. 146. An error for Psilopus 
Poli, 1795. 

Stola Herrmannsen, 1849, vol. 2, p. 503. A genus 
without species. 


REFERENCES 


Aaassiz, L. Nomenclatoris zoologict index uni- 
versalis, etc.: 393 pp. Soloduri, 1846. 

Bruauipre, J. G., LAmMARCcK, J. B., and DEsHAYES, 
G. P. Encyclopédie méthodique (Mollusca). 
Paris, 1789-1832. 

Bucauoy, E., DauTzENBERG, PH., and DoLirus, 
G. Les mollusques marins du Roussillon 2 (7): 
273-320. Paris, 1892. 


156 JOURNAL OF THE 


CossMANN, M. Description despéeces du terrain 
tertiaire des environs de Paris (suite). Journ. 
Conchyl., 3d sér., 25 (2): 106-130, pls. 4-6. 
1885. 

Cuvisr, G. Lecons d’anatonue comparée 1: 521 
pp., 9 tab. Paris, 1800. 

Datu, W. H. Contributions to the Tertiary fauna of 
Florida, etc. Trans. Wagner Free Inst. Sci. 
Philadelphia 3 (6): 1219-1654, pls. 48-60. 1903. 

FiscHper, Pauu. Manuel de conchyliologie, etc.: 
1369 pp., 23 pls., 1188 text figs. Paris, 1887. 

GMELIN, J. F. Systema naturae, ed. 13, 3: 476 pp. 
Lipsiae, 1793. 

Gray, J. E. A list of the genera of Recent Mollusca, 
their synonyma and types. Proce. Zool. Soc. 
London 1847: 129-219. 1847. 

HERRMANNSEN, A. N. Indicis generwm 
zoorum primordia. Kassel, 1846-1852. 

Kkepn, A. M. Vhe molluscan names in Renier’s 
“Tavole.’? Nautilus 65 (1): 8-15. 1951. 

Linnb, Kart von. Systema naturae, ed. 10, 1: 
824 pp. Holmiae, 1758. 

Systema naturae, ed. 12, 1: 1,327 
Holmiae, 1767. 

Mopegr, AupoupH. [nledning til kunskapen om 
Maskkraken 7 allmdnhet; 5 Classen. Musslor, 
Cochleata. Kongl. Svenska Vet. Acad. Nya 
Handl. 14: 163-183. 1793. 

Morcg, A. O. L. Catalogus conchyliorum . 
etc., fase. 2: 74 pp. Hafniae, 1853. 
Neave, 8. A. Nomenclator zoologicus, 5 vols. Zool. 

Soe. London, 1939-1950. 

OpHNER, Nits H. Results of Dr. E. Mjébergs 
Swedish Scientific Expeditions to Australia 
1910-1913, XVI Mollusca. Kungl. Svenska 
Vet.-Akad. Handl. 52 (16): 115 pp., 3 pls. 
1917. 

———. Studies on the morphology, the taxonomy and 
the relations of Recent Chamidae. Kungl. Sven- 
ska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 59 (3): 102 pp., § pls. 
1919. 

OKEN, LORENZ. Okens Lehrbuchder Naturgeschichte. 
3: Zool., 1 Abt.: 842 pp. Leipzig, Jena, 1815. 


malaco- 


pp: 


5 KOE 


WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 42, NO. 5 


ParreL, F. Die bisher veréffentlichten Familien 
und Gattungsnamen der Mollusken, ete.: 229 
pp. Berlin, 1875. 

Pout, G. 8. Testacea Utriusque Siciliae, etc. Par- 
mae, 1791-1827. 

PrasHaD, B. The Lamellibranchia of the Siboga 
Expedition, Systematic Part II. Pelecypoda 
(exclusive of the Pectinidae). Monograph 58c: 
353 pp., 9 pls., | map. Leiden, 1932. 

RAFINESQUE, C. 8. Analyse de la nature ou Tableau 
de Vunivers et des corps organises. Palerme, 
1815. 

Renve, L. A. Monograph of the genus Chama. 
Conchologia iconica 4: London, 1847. 
Reiner, 8. A. TFavole per servire alla classifica- 
zione e connoscenza degli animali. Pavova, 

1807. 

ScuarHautTL, Kart I. Der Kressenberg und dic 
Siidlich von thm gelegenen Hochalpen geog- 
nostisch betrachtet in thren Petrefacten. Siid- 
Bayerns Lethaea Geognostica: 487 pp., 86 
pls., 2 maps. Leipzig, 1863. 

Scuuuze, F. E., KUKeENTHAL, W., HempeEr, K., 
and Hesss, R. Nomenclator animalium 
generum et subgenerum. Berlin, 1926-1940. 

ScuumacHER, C. F. Essai d’un nouveau systéme 
des habitations des vers testacés: 287 pp., 22 
pls. Copenhague, 1817. 

SownprsBy, G. B. A conchological manual, ed. 2; 
313 pp., 26 pls. London, 1842. 

Stewart, R. B. Gabb’s California Cretaceous and 
Tertiary type lamellibranchs. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia Spec. Publ. 3: 314 pp., 17 pls. 
1930. 

Stites, C. W. P. F. Gmelin’s Onomatologia Historia 
Naturalis Completa suppressed. Smithsonian 
Mise. Coll. 73 (7): 34-36 (opinion 123). 1931. 

VINCENT, Emiue. Htudes sur les mollusques Mon- 
tiens du Poudingue et du Tuffeau de Ciply. 
Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique Mém. 46: 
115 pp., 6 pls. 1930. 

Winxckwortn, R. 8. Modeer’s Genera of Mollusca. 
Proc. Malae. Soc. London 21: pt. 5, 321-328. 
1935. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—A_ new carpenterworm from Florida (Lepidoptera: Cossidae). 
J. F. Gates Ciarke, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quarantine. 


It is seldom that so large and conspicuous 
a moth as that described below remains 
undiscovered for so long a time, especially 
since it inhabits a well-populated area and 
a region frequented by entomologists. Never- 
theless such is the case, and it is a further 
example of what yet remains to be done in 
many parts of the country. The larvae of 
this species were first reported by William 
Reimer, a medical student, and the type 
series was reared and submitted by Prof. 
H. F. Strohecker, Department of Zoology, 
University of Miami. 


Prionoxystus baccharidis, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-4b 


Alar expanse: Male, 34-4) mm. Female, 
43-45 mm. 
Antenna black with strong, metallic-blue 


iridescence above. Labial palpus, head, thorax, 
and ground color of forewing sordid white to 
cinereous, the lighter color prevailing in the 
female; palpus, head, and thorax with dark- 
gray and black scales mixed; forewing covered 
with a fine, black reticulum somewhat heavier in 
male than in female; costal black markings 


May 1952 


exhibiting much metallic-blue iridescence; hind- 
wing of male blackish fuscous except black- 
marked cinereous costa; hindwing of female pale 
cinereous with fine, somewhat obscured reticulum. 
Legs cimereous, banded with black, the latter 
color with strong, metallic-blue irridescence. 
Abdomen cinereous, strongly irrorate with black 


3 


CLARKE—NEW CARPENTERWORM FROM FLORIDA 


157 


and dark gray, and grayish fuscous above in 
male. 

Male genitalia.—Symmetrical. Uncus broad, 
triangular. Lateral elements of gnathos broadly 
fused distally, flattened. Harpe, anellus, and 
aedeagus as figured; clasper arising at base of 
harpe with distal end free. 


Fras. 1-4b.—Prionoxystus baccharidis, n. sp.: 1, Male; 2, female; 3, ventral view of female genitalia; 
4. right harpe; 4a, anellus; tb, aedeagus. 


158 


Female genitalia.—As figured. 

Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 61307. 

Type locality —Coral Gables, Dade County, 
Fla. 

Food plant.—Baccharts sp. 

Remarks—Described from the type male 
and three male and two female paratypes from 
the type locality, all reared by Prof. H. F. 
Strohecker. All bear emergence dates of March 
1951. Paratypes in the U. 8. National Museum; 
Department of Zoology, University of Miami, 
Coral Gables, Fla.; and the British Museum 
(Natural History). 

Previously the genus Prionoxystus was repre- 
sented in North America by only two described 
species, P. robiniae (Peck) (carpenterworm) and 
P. macmurtrei (little carpenterworm). P. bac- 
charidis, for which I suggest the common name 
“saltbush carpenterworm,”’ is nearest robiniae, 
but is smaller, and the yellow hindwing of 
robiniae is replaced by the dark hindwing in 
baccharidis. 

Of this species Professor Strohecker writes: 
“The specimens were bred from the trunks of 
the Baccharis. Roy Woodbury, of our botany 
department, tells me that the stand of Baccharis 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 42, No. 5 


from which I cut the pieces includes (my memory) 
four species .. . The larvae occur most frequently 
in the bole near ground level but some of them 
were found in branches not much more than an 
inch in diameter. All the wood cut by me was 
from living bushes. 

“The exact locality was an area near what is 
known locally as ‘Tahiti Beach.’ The mangrove 
erowth near the bay is followed inland by a 
growth of saltbush. I don’t know the history of 
this place, i. e., whether the saltbush is a ‘natural’ 
stand or sprang up after removal of such plants 
as white mangrove and buttonwood. Some of the 
Baccharis have trunks three or more inches in 
diameter but all are of low height. 

“Last March I went to the site where he 
[Mr. Reimer] had found the larvae and cut 
several bushes. Those with large larvae can be 
detected by the exudations of sawdust from the 
borings. The little insects are of such powerful 
flight when adult that they quickly damage 
themselves in a cage.”’ 

The photographs for this paper were taken by 
Robert Bonde, of the U. 8. Department of 
Agriculture. Drawings by the author. The fig- 
ures are of the type male and a paratype female. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Two new species of Sinclairocystis. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE, 
Bartlesville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


Subsequent to the finding of Sinclariocystis 
Bassler (1950), by Dr. G. A. Cooper and 
William Allen, of the U. 8S. National Mu- 
seum, in Ordovician rocks of southeastern 
Oklahoma, the author and his wife, Mrs. 
Melba Strimple, have collected at the type 
locality on several occasions and have found 
several interesting forms of the ‘““Cystoidea.”’ 
Among these are two new species of Sin- 
clairocystis described below. They lend con- 
siderable additional information concerning 
this unique genus. 


Sinclairocystis angulatus, n. sp. 
Fig. 5-9 


Two recumbent arms are present, that to the 
left terminating near the columnar attachment, 
the right passing closely behind the anus and 
forming a loop to the posterior about the large 
posterior thecal plates and terminating high on 
the theca. On the antanal side of the left arm, 
food grooves are seen passing from the facets 


for the brachioles to a more or less continuous 
groove along. the length of the arm. The same 
process is present on the anal side of the right 
arm. One brachiole facet is present on each arm 
segment and no covering plates over the grooves 
have been observed. 

There are three basal plates and four plates 
surrounding the anus. In the anal (posterior) 
side of the theca, an angulation occurs to the 
left, forming a more or less flattened surface in 
what might be termed the left posterior, and is 
bordered to the left by the left arm. In this 
restricted area there are only two large plates 
between the basal circlet and the plates adjacent 
to the anus. In the lateral wall of the posterior 
thecal plates are small, with four or five present 
between the basals and the summit platform 
which is bordered by the right arm. The right 
lateral side of the theca has two series of six 
small plates between the basals and the right 
arm. The antanal (anterior) is composed of 
slightly larger plates than those of the right side 
and considerably larger plates as the left arm 


May 1952 STRIMPLE: TWO NEW SPECIES OF SINCLAIROCYSTIS 159 


bearing ray is approached. In the first mentioned ray is composed of three large and two small 
area, four or five plates are present between plates, including the basal and summit plates. 

basals and those plates adjoining the anus and in The anal opening is covered by a low pyramid- 
the latter area only three. The left arm-bearing _ like circlet of five triangular shaped plates. What 


Figs. 1-4.—Sinclairocystis sulphurensis, n. sp., posterior side, right side, anterior side and left side, 
X 4; Fics. 5-9.—Sinclairocystis angulatus, n. sp., right side, left side, top view, anterior side and 
posterior side, X 2.5. 


160 


appears to bea small opening (hydropore?) occurs 
in the median portion of the first plate below 
the mouth on the antanal side of the theca and 
is marked by a tubercle like projection. 

Most thecal plates are hexagonal, byt several 
have five sides and a few have as many as seven 
sides. All except those of the anal pyramid have 
strongly depressed median sections and are 
marked by fine grooves, which are perpendicular 
to the sides of the plates. There is indication that 
near the sutures some grooves penetrate the 
theca. Granular ornamentation is present on all 
thecal plates except those of the anal pyramid. 

Measurements of the holotype are as follows: 
Maximum height of theca (including arms), 20.2 
mm; maximum width, 19.1 mm; diameter of 
anus, 2.5 mm; length of left arm, 24.6 mm; 
length of right arm, 28.2 mm. 

Remarks.—S. angulatus is readily separable 
from S. praedecta Bassler (1950) in possession of 
more numerous thecal plates, a different shape 
to the theca, and the distinctive attitude of the 
right arm in the former species. In S. praedecta, 
the right arm curves down the right side of the 
theca with only slhght curvature toward the 
posterior. In the present species the right arm 
forms an uncompleted circular loop, terminating 
high on the theca in posterior position. S. sulphur- 
ensis has the same arm placement as S. praedecta 
but differs in several respects from either species. 

Occurrence —Blackriverian (Bromide forma- 
tion, near top of green shale), 1.8 miles south of 
Sulphur, Okla. 

Holotype—Collected by the author. To be 
deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 42, No. 5 


Sinclairocystis sulphurensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-4 


Theca is small, rotund in outline. A portion of 
the left arm is preserved which shows the pro- 
portionately large nature of these appendages. 
Most thecal plates are hexagonal but several have 
frona five to seven sides. The larger plates are in 
the anterior where only two or three plates are 
interposed between the basals and the four plates 
adjoining the anus. Median portions of the thecal 
plates are shallowly depressed and round holes 
mark the sutures, particularly im the posterior 
and right sides of the theca. No ornamentation 
is present. 

Measurements of the holotype are as follows: 
Maximum height of theca (including arm), 10.2 
mm; maximum width of theca (excluding arms), 
6.7 mm; diameter of anal opening, 1.2 mm. 

Remarks.—S. sulphurensis differs from S. angu- 
latus and S. praedecta in outline of theca, small 
size, and lack of ornamentation. The small num- 
ber of thecal plates and the attitude of the arms 
indicates closer affinity to S. praedecta than to S. 
angulatus. The openings into the body cavity 
found along the sutures are not so numerous 
and have a circular outline as compared to the 
innumerable openings along the sutures of S. 
praedecta, which have rectangular outlines. 

Occurrence —Blackriverian (Bromide forma- 
tion, near top of green shale), 1.8 miles south of 
Sulphur, Okla. 

Holotype.—Collected by Mrs. Melba Strimple. 
To be deposited in the U. S. National Museum. 


BOTANY.—A new Nymphoides from Colombia.1 LyMan B. Situ, U.S. National 


Museum. 


The present species is one of many recent, 
novelties which indicate that the flora of the 
eastern Llanos of Colombia is still poorly 
known in spite of a great increase in collec- 
tions by local and foreign botanists. 


Nymphoides flaccida L. B. Smith, sp. nov. 
Fig. 1 
Foliorum Jaminis oblongis, basi cuneatis bis 
cordatis, flaccidis; corolla alba, lobis fimbriatis. 
Plant submersed; stems elongate, 2.5 mm in 
diameter, bearing one to several leaves and a 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


cluster of flowers at the apex; petioles from very 
short on the largest leaves to 6 cm long on some 
of the smaller ones; blades oblong, slightly 
broader toward the cuneate to cordate base, 
broadly obtuse, flaccid with repand margins, 
8 em long, 2.56 em wide, glandular; pedicels 
slender, 7 cm long, naked, glabrous; sepals | 
linear, 6 mm long; corolla white, over 2 cm in 
diameter, its lobes long-fimbriate; fruit un- 
known. 

Type in the Herbario Nacional Colombiano, 
collected in the Cafo Quenane, eastern Llanos, 
Territory of Meta, Colombia, January 25, 1942, 
by A. Dugand and R. Jaramilio M. (no. 3121). 


May 1952 


Additional specimen examined: CoLomBta: 
Meta: In the Cano de Peralonso, vicinity of 
Villavicensio, eastern Llanos, alt. 450 m, July 
24-28, 1946, Jaramillo, Mesa, Idrobo, & Fer- 
nandez 362 (US). 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 16] 


The flowers of Nymphoides flaccida are much 
like those of NV. humboldtiana (H.B.K.) Kuntze, 
but the great contrast in their leaves without 
any intermediate variation makes it seem fairly 
certain that they are distinct. 


Fie. 1.—Nymphoides flaccida: a. Part of the type showing the only complete flower, X1; b, part of 
Jaramillo et al. 362 showing variation of leaves and a well-developed umbel, <3. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


445TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 445th meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on March 12, 1951, was 
called to order at 8:04 p.m. by the President, 
NatHan R. Situ. Also present were: W. Ram- 
BERG, H.S. Rappieyn, J. A. Stevenson, W. F. 
Fosuac, A. T. McPuerson, C. «’. W. Mursr- 
BECK, SARA H. Branuam, E. U. Connon, W. R. 
Wepet, L. H. Apams, E. H. Waker, W. A. 
Dayton, C. A. Brerts, L. A. Sprnpuer, A. M. 
Grirrin, H. W. Hempie, F. M. Derannorr, 
and, by invitation, Marcarrr Prrrman, J. R. 
SWALLeN, and G. P. Watton. 

A letter of resignation from the Chairman of 
the Committee on Membership, L. A. SPINDLER, 
was read. The following report of the Committee 
on the Encouragement of Science Talent was 
read and approved: 


This Committee judged the papers submitted 
from the District of Columbia schools in the 
Tenth Science Talent Search conducted by the 
Science Clubs of America. The following were 
selected for recommendation as winners: 

Pauu E. Conpon—Paper 920—Iron-Type Chemi- 
cal Heaters 
CreciLtA GREEN—Paper 1600—Potential 
ence in a Conducting Solution 
Donaup L. MitueErR—Paper 1698—Observation of 
Meteors 
Jospra M. Caupwetn, Acting Chairman 


Differ- 


The President read a letter from W. N. Fen- 
TON, Chairman of the Committee on the Index 
of the Journal, recommending appointment of a 
committee to consider and implement publica- 
tion of the index as prepared in ecard index form 
by Mary A Bradley. The Board voted that the 
President appoint a Committee on Ways and 
Means of Publishing the Index 


162 


The Board elected Martin A. Mason to be 
Vice-President of the Academy representing the 
District of Columbia Section of the American 
Society of Civil Engineers following the reading 
of a letter dated March 6 from C. J. STEvENs, 
President of the District of Columbia Section, 
that nominated Mr. Mason as its candidate. 

The following deaths of members of the 
Academy were reported: Maurice I. Smrru, on 
January 26, 1951 (elected May 5, 1939); OwEN 
B. Frencu, on February 12, 1951 (elected March 
8, 1915); CuartpeL R. Barnett, on March 6, 
1951 (elected June 13, 1933). 

A discussion of increasing the age limit beyond 
40 years for nominees for Awards for Scientific 
Achievement and of granting more than one 
annual award in each of the three different cate- 
gories did not result in any recommendation 
requiring action by the Board. 

After discussion the Board voted to discontinue 
sending engraved certificates of membership to 
newly elected members. The President was in- 
structed to appoint a committee to consider 
costs and make recommendations to the Board 
on the type of certificate and preferred method 
of reproduction of Certificates of Merit. 


446TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 446th meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on April 16, 1951, was 
called to order at 8:03 p.m. by the President, 
Naruan R. Smiru. Also present were: W. Ram- 
BERG, H. S. Rappieyr, J. A. STEVENSON, 
Cartes Drecuster, C. L. Gazin, A. T. Mc- 
PHERSON, SARA E. BranHam, W. R. WEDEL, E. 
H. Waker, W. A. Dayton, L. A. SPINDLER, 
H. W. Hemete, F. M. Deranporr, AND, by in- 
vitation, Marcarer Pirrman, J. R. SWALLen, 
G. P. Watton, L. E. Yocum, and M. A. Mason. 

The President announced the following ap- 
pointments: 

(1) E. H. Watker, of the Smithsonian In- 
stitution, as Chairman of the Committee on 
Membership, in leu of L. A. SprnpLER, whose 
resignation was accepted at the last meeting. 

(2) Committee on Indexing of the Journal: 
Joun E. Grar, Chairman, Wiriu1aM N. Fenton, 
C. F. W. Munrsepeck, Paunt H. Onuser, J. A. 
STEVENSON. 

Chairman Pittman of the Committee on Meet- 
ings reported that the May meeting would be 
addressed by D. J. Parsons of the Federal Bureau 
of Investigation, on Science in crime detection. 

Chairman Mason of the Committee for En- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 5 


couragement of Science Talent reported on the 
part taken by members of the Academy in judg- 
ing exhibits at the Annual Science Fair, and that 
President SmrrH would present awards to the 
winners at the Science Fair Awards Meeting on 
April 18 to be held in the evening at the Depart- 
ment of Commerce Auditorium. The Washington 
Daily News will pay expenses of the winners for 
a trip to the National Science Fair to be held in 
St. Louis on May 10, 11, and 12. 

The Secretary reported the death of Battny 
EK. Brown on March 9, 1951, and of Mrrritn 
BERNARD on April 13, 1951. 

The Treasurer reported contributions of $25 
for support of publication of the Science Calendar 
in local newspapers. 


447TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 447th meeting of the Board of Managers 
held in the Cosmos Club on May 14, 1951, was 
called to order at 8:02 p.m. by the President, 
NatHan R. Smirx. Also present were: H. S. 
Rappteyre, J. A. Stevenson, C. L. Gazin, 
Sara E. Brana, E. H. Waker, W. A. Day- 
ton, C. A. Brtrs, L. A. Spinpuer, A. M. 
GriFFin, F. M. Drranporr, and, by invitation, 
J. R. Swauten, G. P. Warton, L. E. Yocum, 
W. N. Fenton, and J. EH. Grar. 

By invitation, J. E. Grar, Chairman, and 
W. N. Fenton, Secretary of the special Com- 
mittee on Indexing the Journal, presented a 
preliminary report for their committee. This 
report was discussed in considerable detail and 
on motion was accepted with appreciation and 
referred to the Executive Committee. 

The Secretary reported the death of W. F. 
ALLEN. 

The Treasurer read a letter of resignation from 
L. R. Harsrap which was approved as of January 
1, 1951. The Treasurer reported that a total of 
about $40 had been received from affiliated 
societies in support of the Science Calendar. 


448TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 448th meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club June 18, 1951, was 
called to order at 8:00 p.m. by the President 
NatHan R. Smrru. Also present were: HS. 
Rappieye, J. A. Stevenson, H. A. REHDER, 
Cuas. Drecuster, A. T. McPuerson, C. F. W. 
Moversepeck, Sara E. Branuam, J. J. FAnEy, 
F. W. Poos, W. A. Dayron, L. A. SPINDLER, 
F. M. Deranporr, and, by invitation, Mar- 
GARET Pirrman, Paut H. Orusmr, G. P. WAL- 


May 1952 


ToN, J. E. Grar, Miss Parrerson (Science 
Service), Mr. Wacner (Dupont Theatre), 
Keira JoHnson (Woodrow Wilson Jr. High 
School). 

Miss Patterson and Messrs. Johnson and Wag- 
ner outlined the plan of a benefit premier showing 
of the film Kon-Tikt. It is supposed that the 
Polynesian Islands may have been originally 
settled by Peruvians who floated on a raft con- 
structed of balsa wood and bamboo and event- 
ually drifted to those islands. Thus a Norwegian 
group led by Mr. Thor Heyerdahl constructed a 
raft and after driftmg at the mercy of the pre- 
vailing winds and ocean currents for 101 days 
eventually landed in Tahiti. This feat is con- 
sidered to afford some credulity in the original 
thesis of settlement of the Polynesians by Peru- 
vians. The film Kon-Tiki is based on this voyage 
by raft. 

After some discussion the Board accepted the 
proposal that the Washington Academy of 
Sciences sponsor the premier showing of the film 
at the Dupont Theatre in Washington for the 
benefit of the Science Fair Fund. 

The Secretary presented a report of the meet- 
ing of the Executive Committee that immediately 
preceded this Board Meeting. Minutes of this 
meeting are as follows: 


Meeting of the Executive Committee in the 
Cosmos Club Library was called to order at 7:30 
p-m. by the President. In attendance: N. R. 
Smiru, H. S. Rappieys, J. A. Stevenson, F. M. 
DEFANDORF. 

President Smith reviewed details relative to 
the proposed publication of the Index of the 
Journal. He stated that an approximate cost of 
$6,000 for publication in addition to the $1,500 
already expended for the preparation of the card 
file index by Miss Bradley could be expected on 
the basis of detailed estimate received by the 
Special Committee on Indexing the Journal. 

Ways and means of reducing the net cost of 
publication and other details were discussed, and 
as a result of the deliberation it was decided to 
recommend to the Board, on the basis that solici- 
tations for outside help would be made in order 
to reduce the net cost to the Academy, that the 
index should be published if it could be done at a 
total cost not to exceed $6,000. 


Mr. GrarF reported for the Special Committee 
on Indexing the Journal, and after reading a 
letter from Mrs. Lemma F. CuarK, Librarian of 
the Smithsonian Institution, telling of the value 
that such a printed index would be to librarians, 
called upon Mr. Orxnser to present firm esti- 
mates of the cost of printing the index. Detailed 


PROCEEDINGS: 


THE ACADEMY 163 
estimates had been prepared that indicated a cost 
of $5,705 for 1,000 copies if printed by letter 
press and $6,053 if printed by offset press 
methods. 

Dr. Rrexper as Custodian presented a résumé 
of the inventory of complete and incomplete 
sets of the JouRNAL and mentioned a gift of an 
almost complete set from the Library of the 
American Optical Co. 

Dr. Sara EK. BraNnHAm presented a summary 
of thoughts in regard to the activities and re- 
sponsibilities of the Academy for consideration 
in the fall. 


449TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 449th meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on October 15, 1951, 
was called to order at 7:59 p.m. by the President, 
NarHan R. Smiru. Others in attendance were: 
WattTeR Ramperc, H. 8. Rappieyr, J. A. 
STEVENSON, CHARLES DrecustLer, C. L. Gazin, 
A. T. McPuerson, Miuron Harris, Sara E. 
BranHaAM, JosppH J. Fanny, E. H. Waker, 
W. A. Dayton, C. A. Brerrs, R. S. Ditn, L. A. 
SprinpDLER, A. M. Grirrin, H. G. Dorsry, M. A. 
Mason, F. M. Dreranporr, and, by invitation, 
Marecarer Pirrman, G. P. Watton, and 
L. E. Yocum. 

Dr. Yocum, Chairman of the Committee on 
Grants-in-Aid for Research, presented his com- 
mittee’s recommendations in a letter to the 
President dated October 12, 1951, as follows: 


Your committee on grants in aid for research 
submits the following report and recommends 
favorable action: 

For purchase of a curved barium titanite ultra- 
sonic transducer by Dr. Karl H. Langenstress 
and Dr. Francis E. Fox. Amount $170. 

For purchase of nonmetallic plastic cages for 
metabolism studies by Dr. Martin Rubin and Dr. 
M. X. Sullivan. 

For purchase of Bakelite and other resins for 
making models to study stress by a photoelastic 
polariscope by C. H. Walther. Amount. $75. 


The Board voted to approve the allotments 
in the amounts and for the projects recommended. 

Mr. Mason, Chairman of the Committee on 
Encouragement of Science Talent, reported that 
the benefit premiere performance of the film 
Kon-Tiki resulted in a net balance of $776.22. 
The Board authorized the Treasurer to turn over 
the proceeds to Science Service for use in connec- 
tion with the Science Fair activities. 

Dr. McPuerson reported that the 6th Annual 
Science Fair, to be held in Washington this year, 


164 JOURNAL OF THE 
would make use of facilities at the Catholic Uni- 
versity for showing the exhibits. It is felt that 
this location will be satisfactory because of the 
ample space available for exhibits and for auto- 
mobile parking. 

President SmrrH read a memorandum from 
Past President Grar, Chairman of the Special 
Committee on Indexing the Journal, relative to 
incorporation of an index of the earlier Proceed- 
ings with the index of the Journal. The estimated 
additional cost is $200. President Smrrxu stated 
that since this matter had been brought up 
subsequent to the June meeting, he had polled 
the Executive Committee, and on the basis that 
they were 4 to 1 in favor of including the indexing 
of the Proceedings, he had ordered inclusion of 
this additional material. The Board voted to 
affirm this action of the Executive Committee. 

President SMiTH read a letter from Dr. Coons, 
a member of the Committee on Awards for 
Scientific Achievement, outlining reasons why 
the age limit should be raised to 45 for such 
awards. Dr. Van Evers had made similar 
recommendations relative to the Science Teach- 
ing Award. It was pointed out in the latter in- 
stance that one teacher, now over 40, who has 
done remarkable work, would have received 
recognition earlier had the Award for Teaching 
of Science been established as early as the awards 
for other science groups. The President will ask 
Dr. Van Evera to attend the next meeting of 
the Board. 


450TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 450th meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on November 19, 1951, 
was called to order at 8:03 p.m. by the President, 
NaruHan R. Smirx. Also in attendance were: 
Watrer RampBerG, J. A. STEVANSON, CHARLES 
Drecuster, W. F. Fosuaa, C. L. Gazin, A. T. 
McPuerson, J. J. Fanny, F. W. Poos, E. H. 
Waker, W. R. Weve, F. M. Deranporr, and, 
by invitation, MarGarnr Prrrman, L. FE. Yocum, 
J. I. Horrman, and J. P. E. Morrison. 

Dr. Pittman announced that arrangements 
had been completed for Dr. Witu1am EB. Hrarr, 
of the Weather Bureau, to speak at the De- 
cember 20 meeting, on Precipitation and the water 
supply. 

President Smith read a letter and report from 
Mr. Grar, Chairman of the Committee on In- 
dexing the Journal. The following are excerpts 
from the report, dated November 16, 1951: 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 5 


To tHE Boarp OF MANAGERS: 


The Committee on the Index is glad to be able 
to report progress on the job assigned to it by the 
Board of Managers—seeing through to completion 
the publication of the Index to the first 40 vol- 
umes of the Journal of the Academy. As author- 
ized by the Executive Committee, Volumes 1-13 
of the Proceedings (the Academy’s publication 
antedating the Journal) have been included; the 
additional cards have been inserted; and the 
whole index, comprising 16,570 entries, is now 
ready to be turned over to the printer. 

Bids for the printing of the Index have been 
obtained from 4 printing firms, 3 in Baltimore 
and 1 in Lancaster, Pa. (1 Washington printer 
declined to bid.) The lowest bid, in the amount 
of $5,928.40, came from the Lord Baltimore Press. 
As this figure is only a few dollars under the 
amount that the Board has authorized to be 
spent on the Index, the Committee has decided 
to alter the specifications to allow use of a non- 
rag paper instead of a 50-percent rag stock orig- 
inally stipulated. This will effect a saving of 
$300-$400 and thus allow a little more leeway for 
contingencies. Contract for the printing of the 
book will be awarded to the Lord Baltimore Press, 
and it is expected that the copy will be in the 
printer’s hands within the next week. 

In authorizing the publication of the Index, 
at its meeting on June 18, 1951, the Board moved 
that ‘steps be taken to secure outside funds to 
minimize the net cost to the Academy.’ The Index 
Committee is agreed that the task of raising such 
funds is definitely outside its province, but feels 
that the Board might weleome some suggestions 
pertinent to the problem. In the first place, the 
Committee thinks that the Academy’s constituent 
societies should all be approached for contribu- 
tions, in proportion to their interest and re- 
sources. All these societies have a stake in the 
Academy, and they should be given an oppor- 
tunity to express in a tangible way their broader 
interests in Washington science, or perhaps to 
reaffirm such interests. In the second place, cer- 
tain sources outside of Washington might be 
explored. The Committee is placing in your hands 
drafts of two letters that follow up these sug- 
gestions. 


The Secretary read the report of the Nominat- 
ing Committee, as follows: 


The Nominating Committee, consisting of the 
Vice-Presidents of the Academy, met in the 
Library of the Cosmos Club on October 15, 1951. 
The meeting was called to order at 9:15 p.m. by 
Josgeru J. FaAnry, who, as Vice-President for the 
Washington Section, American Chemical Society, 
presided as chairman. Others present were: E. H. 
Waker, Wn. A. Dayron, C. A. Berts, R. S. 
Diui, L. A. Sprnpuer, A. M. Grirrin, HerBerT 
G. Dorssy, Martin A. Mason, F. M. Deran- 
DORF. 

The nominees selected for the offices to be filled 
by balloting of the membership in December were 
as follows: 


For President-Elect—F. M. Srrzurer 
For Secretary—F Rancis M. DEFANDORF 
For Treasurer—Howarb 8S. RarpLEYE 
For the Board of Managers: 
To serve from January 1952 to January 1953 
to fill vacancy of H. P. Barss, resigned:—C. 
F. W. MvuESEBECK 
To serve from January 1952 to January 1954 
to fill vacancy of J. A. Stevenson, resigned :— 
Mitton Harris 
To serve from January 1952 to January 1955 
(two to be elected):—Rogrr G. Bares, 
ILorsE B. Cram, W. W. Dien, James I. 
HOFFMAN 
JosppH J. Fanny, Chairman. 
F. M. Deranpore, Secretary. 


President SMirH announced that he was re- 
tiring from his work in the U. 8S. Department of 


Agriculture on November 30, 1951, and was » 


leaving Washington and moving to Florida, so 
that he would not be present at the next meet- 
ing. He expressed his appreciation to members 
of the Board and his Committees for their co- 
operation and good effort on behalf of the 
Academy. He then declared the formal meeting 
adjourned at 9:15 p.m. after inviting those 
present to remain for refreshments he had pro- 
vided in the adjoiming room. 


451ST MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 451st meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on December 17, 1951, 
was called to order at 8:02 p.m. by President- 
Elect Watrer RamsBera. Others in attendance 
were: H.S. Rappipre, J. A. STEVENSON, CHARLES 
DRECHSLER, Sara EH. Branuam, W. R. WEDEL, 
F. W. Poos, E. H. Waker, W. A. Dayvon, L. A. 
SPINDLER, A. M. Grirrin, F. M. Dreranporr, 
and, by invitation, F. W. Houeu, Marearer 
Pirrman, J. R. SWALLEN, and J. P. E. Morrison. 

Chairman Prrrman, of the Committee on Meet- 
ings, discussed the Academy’s Annual Dinner 
Meeting to be held on January 17 and announced 
that Tuomas R. Henry had been chosen as 
speaker and would show the film The Secret Land. 

Dr. WALKER presented nominations for mem- 
bership and expressed appreciation of the work of 
the Committee on Membership, of which he is 
Chairman. He discussed what might be done to 
increase the active membership. 

The Secretary explained that the additional 
nomination for President-Elect of ALAN T. Wa- 
TERMAN appearing on the election ballot was the 
result of a nominating petition signed by 38 mem- 
bers of the Academy. 

The Board accepted the resignation of Capt. 


PROCEEDINGS: 


THE ACADEMY 165 
H. W. Hemp te as Vice-President representing the 
Society of Military Engineers and elected in his 
place Col. F. W. Houeu. 

The Secretary mentioned several requests for 
exchange of journals with other organizations, 
which had to be refused inasmuch as the Academy 
does not maintain a library of its own. 

The Treasurer told of the receipt of options in 
the case of two securities owned by the Academy 
and explained that no Board action was necessary. 


[For minutes of 452d meeting of Board 
of Managers, see April 1952 issue of 
JOURNAL, p. 135.] 


453D MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 

The 453d meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on February 18, 1952, 
was called to order at 8:03 p.m. by President 
RampBera. Other present were: F. M. Serzuer, 
H.S. Rapeteys, J. A.Srmvenson, W. F. Fosuaa, 
. T. McPuHerson, C. F. W. Mursepeck, SARA 
4. BranuaM, Miuron Harris, W. W. Dreut, 
A. G. McNtsu, W. R. Weprt, J. K. Taytor, 
F. W. Poos, L. M. Hurcuins, W. A. Dayton, 
C. A. Berrs, A. H. Scorr, F. W. Hoveu, H. G. 
Dorsry, F. M. Dreranporr, and, by invitation, 
EK. H. Watkrr, H. W. Wettus, W. N. Fenton, 
J. R. Swauten, L. E. Yocum, J. P. E. Morrt- 
son, W. T. Reap, N. 8S. Drakn, and W. L. 
ScHMIrr. 

The President announced appointment of the 
following committeemen for 1952: 


| pe 


Appointed Members of Hxecutive Committee: F. 
M. Serzuer, Wituram A. Dayton. 

Board of Editors of the Journal: Wiui1aM F. 
FosuaaG, Senior Editor; J. C. Ewrrs, replacing 
CHARLES DRECHSLER; PHILIP DRUCKER, Asso- 
ciate Editor for a term of 3 years, representing 
the Anthropological Society of Washington; J. I. 
HorrMan, Associate Iditor for a term of 3 years, 
representing the Chemical Society of Washington. 

Committee on Membership: E. H. Waker 
(Chairman), M. 8. ANpmrson, R. C. Duncan, G. 
T. Faust, I. B. Hansen, D. B. Jones, Dororuy 
Nickerson, F. A. Smrrn, Hernz Specur, H. M. 
TrENT, ALFRED WEISSLER. 

Committee on Meetings: H. W. Weuus (Chair- 
man), Wm. R. Campspeur, W. R. Cuariine, D. J. 
Davis, H. G. Dorsry, O. W. Torreson. 


Committee on Monographs: W. N. Frenvron 
(Chairman). To January 1955—W. N. FEnvron, 
ALAN STONE. 

Committee on Awards for Scientific Achieve- 


ment: J. R. SWALLEN, General Chairman. 

For the Biological Sciences: J. R. Swauven 
(Chairman), L. M. Hurcntns, MarGarer Prrr 
wan, FE. W. Poos, L. P. Scaunrz. 


166 


For the Engineering Sciences: R. C. Duncan 
(Chairman), A. C. FrrLpNER, WAYNE C. Hatt, 
J. W. McBurney, O. 8. Reapine, H. L. Wuirre- 
MORE. 

For the Physical Sciences: L. A. Woop (Chair- 
man), P. H. Apeuson, F. 8. Darr, Grorcre W. 
IrRvING, JR., J. H. McMILien. 

For the Teaching of Science: M. A. Mason 
(Chairman), F. E. Fox, M. H. Martin. 

Committee on Grants-In-Aid for Research: L. E. 
Yocum (Chairman), H. N. Eaton, K. F. Herz- 
FELD. 

Committee on Policy and Planning: W. A. Day- 
TON, Chairman. To January 1955—L. W. Parr, 
F. B. SILsBEE. 

Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent: 
A. T. McPuerson, Chairman. To January 1955— 
A. T. McPueErson, W. T. Reap. 

Committee of Auditors: C. L. Gazin (Chair- 
man), Loursr M. RussgEtu, D. R. Tate. 

Committee of Tellers: Grorce P. WaALton 
(Chairman), GEorGE H. Coons, C. L. GARNER. 


The President then called on Dr. A. T. Mc- 
PuHeEeRSON, Chairman of the Committee on En- 
couragement of Science Talent, who presented a 
report for his committee dated February 18, 
1952, as follows: 


The Committee on the Encouragement of 
Science Talent presents the following nomina- 
tions for junior awards for scientific achievement : 

Wiiitiam Weston Hooker, of Anacostia High 

School, for studies of Pascal’s triangle. 

ROWLAND SANDER JOHNSON, of Coolidge High 

School, for studies in electronics. 
JoHN Erretr LANKrorp, of McKinley High 
School, for observations on variable stars. 
JoEL SuHappirio, of Woodrow Wilson High 
School, for studies on crystal modification. 
Stuart JosepH Yuri, of McKinley High 
School, for studies on radar equipment. 

RoBERT STEPHEN ZIERNICKI, Of Priory School, 

for studies on chemical spectroscopy. 

The foregoing candidates were selected from 
among the entries from District of Columbia 
Schools in the Eleventh Annual Science Talent 
Search of the Science Clubs of America sponsored 
by Westinghouse Educational Foundation and 
administered by Science Service. 


The Board approved the award of Certificates 
of Merit for those nominated. In the discussion 
it was pointed out that Chairman McPherson 
will take up the matter of including students of 
high schools in the suburban area of metropolitan 
Washington for consideration next year in mak- 
ing such awards. Arrangements will have to be 
worked out with the Academies in Maryland 
and Virginia, since under present arrangements 
for Science Talent Search, areas outside of the 
District of Columbia, in nearby Maryland and 
Virginia, are not grouped with the District. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 5 


Chairman McPherson then expressed the con- 
cern of his committee with (1) the need for in- 
creasing the interest of students in science, (2) 
the need for allocation of adequate time for 
laboratory work in science courses, (3) the need 
of help that might be easily provided by members 
of the Academy in the form of lectures, etc., for 
science teachers, and (4) the need for action in 
encouraging teachers of science in high schools. 
He expressed the opinion that another committee, 
arranged for top-level participation, is highly 
desirable to take care of such a project. In order 
that the Board might become properly informed 
about the shortage of eng’neering and scientific 
manpower in relation to the national need for 
increased interest in scientific education in the 
high schools, Chairman McPherson introduced 
Dr. W. T. Reap, Chairman of the Education 
Committee of the D. C. Council of Engineering 
and Architectural Societies, and Prof. N. S. 
Drake, of the Council of the Chemical Society. 

Dr. Read spoke of the meeting of the Engineers 
Joint Council, Commission on Engineering Man- 
power, on September 28, 1951, attended by 
representatives from 28 States. A serious man- 
power shortage exists not only in engineering but 
also in the fields of science and mathematics upon 
which engineering depends. This shortage will 
become even more acute because student regis- 
tration for courses in these fields has dropped 
to alarmingly low numbers. This deplorable trend 
away from mathematics and science courses in 
schools in the District and in suburban Mary- 
land and Virginia follows the national trend. 
The need for cooperation of the Academy and 
its affiliated societies with the D. C. Council in 
an endeavor to improve the situation was 
stressed. It was suggested that continuing and 
concerted effort must be made to interest more 
capable and highgrade students to take science 
and mathematics courses with the view that 
more should enter scientific and engineering pro- 
fessions. The immediate need is to provide each 
high school in the metropolitan area with help 
from those in the professions who can stimulate 
the necessary interest. We must insure by effec- 
tive methods that suitable courses of instruction 
are made available to capable high school stu- 
dents. Individual engineers and scientists with 
ability must therefore assume additional obliga- 
tions in their communities to make known the 
needs of an adequate program. They must in- 
dividually enlist aid through Parent-Teachers 


May 1952 


Associations and other civic agencies and see 
that they are concerned about adequate support 
for teachers and provision of proper facilities for 
instruction. In short, the seriousness of this 
trend of students away from the pursuit of engi- 
neering and scientific careers must be counter- 
acted. 

Dr. Read spoke of the effort the national 
engineering groups are devoting to this problem; 
notably as an example $10,000 has been provided 
by the American Society of Metals. He feels that 
to meet the immediate emergency the help of 
one engineer and one scientist in every high school 
this spring should be the goal. His committee is 
attempting to list people who are willing to work 
(1) by meeting and advising students; (2) by 
serving on committees on curricula and the 
standing of teachers; (3) by speaking on scientific 
subjects before science clubs; (4) through PTA 
groups where they have children in schools and 
can work effectively within such groups. 

Professor Drake concluded the discussion by 
emphasizing the need for excellent instruction 
in basic mathematics courses. He emphasized 
that primarily students at this age need to be 
taught to think and to recognize how scientific 
problems are approached. Students who show 
latent ability in science need encouragement lest 
they be diverted to other less exacting fields of 
endeavor. Thus well trained teachers are essential. 

The ensuing discussion by Board members 
helped to emphasize the lack of requirements for 
adequate training in mathematics and science 
in local high schools. 

On motion, the President was directed to 
appoint a Committee on Scientific Education, 
to cooperate on behalf of the Academy with the 
D. C. Council of Engineering and Architectural 
Societies in their effort to achieve in high schools 
in the metropolitan area adequate courses and 
interest among qualified students in mathematics 
and science. 

The Secretary read the Budget submitted for 
1952 by the Treasurer, and recommended by the 
Executive Committee for submission to and 
adoption by the Board of Managers: 


OBITUARY 


167 
Receipts 
Estimated 
1951 1952 
INGTON Oi CUES GAG eon cove oaeoDcanooeDeoD $4244.84 $4300.00 
Subscriptions to JOURNAL................. 1519.88 1600.00 
Interest & dividends sales................. 2372.67 2000.00 
179.89 500.00 
Affiliated societies for Science Calendar . 61.09 50.00 
Rotalsaee rca actasciee ence aati ce acres $8378.37 $8450.00 
Disbursements 
JOURNAL and JOURNAL Office.............. $6500.49 $6850.00 
Secretary/sioffice. 2)... ese series eciee es cues 394.67 550.00 
pbreasurerjs/oficeeesreasneee ia eee Oo ale, 300.00 
SEWIAC3 OL Oieorbosncsopcdos epucopodoocons 44.35 50.00 
Archivisticncaccn asain 30.00 20.00 
Meetings Committee....................... 256.65 500.00 
Membership Committee................... — 20.00 
SciencevHairmry rs cece eee ee 100.00 100.00 
Science!@alendary..2'0.. 00." eae e-men see 55.00 60.00 
Motels eieey esas leah: pee ysis ee $7643.28 $8450.00 


This budget is the same as for 1951 except that 
the JourNAL allotment has been increased 
$350; the Archivist’s allotment has been de- 
creased $55; and the Science Calendar allotment 
increased $10. 

In the ensuing discussion, Senior Editor FosHaG 
mentioned the desirability of increasing the 
number of pages published in the JouRNAL, 
suggesting that it be increased by say four addi- 
tional pages in three issues per year. He also 
recommended that the Managing Editor, who 
takes care of much editorial detail, should receive 
increased compensation. A motion was passed 
to increase the compensation for work of the 
Managing Editor from $25 to $40 per month. 
The Board of Managers then voted to accept 
and adopt the Budget for 1952 as presented by 
the Treasurer. 

Mr. Wetts, Chairman of the Committee on 
Meetings, announced that the Awards meeting 
would be held in March. Probably one meeting 
will be devoted to a discussion of the problem 
of developing adequate scientific manpower. 

Afhliation of the District of Columbia Section 
of the Society for Experimental Biology and 
Medicine was unanimously approved. 

F. M. Deranporpr, Secretary. 


Obituary 


CLaRIBEL Rura Barnerr was born in Kent, 
Ohio, on March 26, 1872, the daughter of George 
and Lucina (Deuel) Barnett. Her father was of 
English birth but had come to this country as a 
young man. She had a happy childhood in Kent 


and always retained a great affection for it, often 
recalling the games and adventures in which she 
seems to have been a leader. Her education was 
begun in the Kent public schools, and she pre- 
pared for college at Western Reserve Academy 


168 


in Hudson, Ohio. She was graduated from the 
University of Michigan in 1893, with the Ph.B. 
degree, and later received a membership in Phi 
Beta Kappa from that university. In October 
1893 she entered the New York State Library 
School at Albany, and in the spring of 1895 she 
took and passed the Civil Service examination for 
cataloger in the U.S. Department of Agriculture 
Library. 

In the year 1907 Secretary of Agriculture James 
Wilson appointed Miss Barnett to the position of 
librarian, which she held until her retirement in 
November 1940. Her interests were by no means 
limited to her own library. Cooperative under- 
takings made a special appeal to her, and realizing 
the need for greater cooperation among agricul- 
tural libraries she was responsible for organizing 
the Agricultural Libraries Section of the Ameri- 
ean Library Association. Another form of mutual 
help is found in the emphasis placed on inter- 
library loans. The main source of such loans to 
her own library was the Library of Congress, to- 
gether with the other special government. li- 
braries. The largest class of borrowers from her 
own library were the State agricultural colleges 
and experiment stations, but loans were made 
also to other scientific and public libraries needing 
them for serious work. 

In connection with this work Miss Barnett 
inaugurated a new and pioneering service, called 
the bibliofilm service. Its purpose was to make 
microfilm copies of articles to send to out-of-town 
borrowers instead of lending bound volumes. For 
some time photostat copies had been used for 
this purpose, but the microfilms were even more 
useful, especially for long articles. 

Miss Barnett was a prominent member of the 
American Library Association, and in addition 
to serving as second vice-president in 1921-22 
she was chairman of its Oberly Memorial Fund 
Committee and a member of its Board of Re- 
sources of American Libraries. She was an elected 
member of the American Library Institute. She 
was active in library circles in Washington and 
was president of the District of Columbia Li- 
brary Association in 1929-80. 

The history of agriculture in this country was 
a subject in which she was much interested. She 
was a charter member of the Agricultural History 
Society and served as a member of the committee 
which organized the Washington section in the 
early 1920’s. For its journal, Agricultural His- 
tory, she wrote an article entitled “The Agri- 
cultural Museum, an Early Agricultural Periodi- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 5 


‘al,’ which appeared in April, 1928. As a matter 
of interest to herself she did much research on 
the lives and personalities of the early United 
States officials in charge of agricultural work be- 
fore the Department was established and corre- 
sponded with their descendants to get information 
about them. Among these were Henry L. Ells- 
worth (1791-1858) and Horace Capron (1804— 
1885). She contributed 25 biographies of agri- 
culturists, including Secretary James Wilson, 
“Tama Jim,” to the ‘Dictionary of American 
Biography.” 

She was a member of the Library Advisory 
Wage Committee of the U.S. Joint Congressional 
Committee on Reclassification of Salaries in 1919- 
20. She was a member of the Washington Acad- 
emy of Sciences, a fellow of the American Asso- 
ciation for the Advancement of Science and the 
Bibliographical Society of America, and a mem- 
ber of the American Association of University 
Women, Phi Beta Kappa, and Pi Gamma Mu 
honorary society. 

As a librarian, Miss Barnett’s principal aim 
was to give all possible service to the users of the 
library, especially to the scientific workers of the 
Department of Agriculture, and also to those of 
other institutions, foremcst among them the State 
agricultural colleges and experiment stations. 
Since the library has an international reputation 
it is visited by many workers from outside Wash- 
ington and even the United States. These were 
always welcomed mest cordially, and no trouble 
was spared in giving help in identifying and 
assembling the publications needed. 

One of the fellow members of the Agricultural 
History Society wrote of Miss Barnett at the 
time of her retirement in 1940: ‘Her great service 
was performed so modestly, so entirely beyond 
public notice, and was at the very root of the 
achievements of other workers, that it is impos- 
sible to estimate it.” 

Personally she was modest as to her own abili- 
ties and attainments, although firmly maintain- 
ing her decisions after she had thought a thing 
through. She was interested in other people and 
was well loved by her staff. She had a great 
capacity for friendship and possessed an unusual 
number of devoted friends to whom she herself 
was equally devoted. 

The last six years of her life were spent as an 
invalid following a stroke in 1945, and she died 
on March 6, 1951. She was buried in her old 
home town of Kent, Ohio. 

Eva B. Hawks 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


MAR OSUCLOTUD er cee usr a noe hei Water RamsBere, National Bureau of Standards 
HEC OSEOCTULEELE CLI pera aparece PE ciabatta teva F. M. Serzupr, U. 8. National Museum 
STARRETT] Sd cr pate once ..F. M. Deranvorr, National Bureau of Standards 
PP CSU Cerne. ros ctaarts rd Stee Howarp S. Rappieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
LURE OATES Gin eagle Io ata Be OO Ore Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haratp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


pulosophical Societyron Washingtont ay... she.’ dee .cee ces nee eel. A. G. McNisa 
Anthropological Society of Washington........................ Watpo R. WEeDEL 
Bialopsicalysociety, of Washime tonics se sceneries see aeh eee Hueu T. O’ Neu 
@hemicalisocretyzon Washington... (ka5.08). 2. dees conc nese Joun K. Taytor 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ FrepERIcK W. Poos 
NationaliGeographicisoclietyass.084..6-4-.65. 4c sin essen: ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geoloricall Society, of Washingtonie..........50-4-s. 42 see e dae: A. NELSON SAYRE 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia........................ FRED O. Cor 
Wolumbiarbhistonricall Societys, «nse os ee. sole ee cee ot ee: GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Bovamicalusocietyaotwiashingcones sng ie: sees fee oe Les M. Hurcuins 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Wiuuiam A. Dayton 
WiashinetoniSoctety of Pimgineers) yy) ats eiae a laden sien Cuirrorp A. Brerts 
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp S. DiLu 
Helminthological Society of Washington.......................... L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Anaus M. GrRirFin 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers........... Herpert G. Dorsey 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 


N. R. Evuis 

Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 
phomamuanryil O53. feo 5c ce. ie hoe lane eds C. F. W. Munsepecr, A. T. McPHERSON 
PROM ema MO 5A nd Seria e pode ae os Sara EK. Branuam, Mitton Harris 
PROM Agel DOOM A ie Malas iyo cue ig dael sae seme Rocer G. Batss, W. W. Dirau 
EROTIC Off WIGS ae eee ee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
lsaapa! 637 IDGIORS Gpeh ZNSNGKOND THURS. seen adeoeasaebooeeon sod ve oUdar [See front cover] 


Executive Committee.... WALTER RAMBERG (chairman), F.M. Serzuer, H.S.Rappieye, 
Wiuiram A. Dayton, F. M. DeranporF 

Committee on Membership. .E.H. WALKER (CRED) M.S. ANpERsoN, CLARENCE Cort- 
tam, R. C. Duncan, JoHN Faper, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, FRANK Kracex, D. B. 
JONES, BE. G. REINHARD, Reece I. ‘SAILER, Leo A. SHINN, F. A. Smith, HErnz SPECHT, 
H.M. Trent, ALFRED WEISSLER 

Committee on Meetings....H. W. Weuus (chairman), Wo. R. CAMPBELL, W. R. Cuap- 
LINE, D. J. Davis, H. ot Dorsey, O.'W. Torreson 


Committee on Monographs (W.N. FENTON, chairman) : 


TO aimee OSB INE Ae he ae RAE lie arte ree eine R. W. imuay, P. W. Oman 
BROMINE ODA ra sare eis mits Wie cya ete 2 HT ce at S. F. Buaks, F. C. Kracex 
“ACG eI eit MNCS GSS ia ong to, o cl eee Die ee Ee Scie eee W.N. Fenton, ALAN STONE 
Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (J. R. SwWALLEN, general chairman): 

For Biological Sciences............. J. R. Swauuen (chairman), L. M. Hurcuins, 
Maraarer Pittman, F. W. Poos, L. P. Scuuttz 

For Engineering Sciences............. R. C. Duncan (chairman), A. C. FirmupNER, 
Wayne C. Hatt, J. W. McBurney, O. S. Reavpina, H. L. Warrremore 

HOTA SUCOUSCUCNCES a2 see en oe ane L. A. Woop (ahefnien), P. H. ABELSON, 


F.S. Dart, Grorcr W. Irvine, JR., J. H. McMitten 

For Teaching of Science......M. A. Mason (chairman), F. If. Fox, M. H. Martin 
Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.......L. E. Yocum (chairman), H. N. Haron, 
K. F. HerzreLp 


Committee on Policy and Planning: 


ROR AMPA OOS. as Avast ovals ele ast W. A. Dayron (chairman), N. R. Smita 
PRomuamirany M954 a. H Ree Seek esis: psaeuee siden id t's scannizes H. B. Couutns, Jr., W. W. Ruspry 
Ty damier aya ais SB oblate ceed Geiser alan core tania aren L. W. Parr, F. B. SrnsBEE 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. Da anR ON chairman): 
ROMA AT yal Dom er Gee Gree ce. ale ctare us ee: Sabena redone beets H. CLARK, F, 2 MouLER 
POP ATUUT STV LO SAN, roa eweh rc vebnay a detcaeuet Gy etinay fy ol Ament iM CALDWELL, W. L. Scumirr 
PROPIA Tyg GOO ie eens ccc Ml uapl eet eee alee) sumneue. s/c a T. McPHERSON, we T. Reap 
WUCDTESETILCAEIUEN OT) © OWNCUL OfiArc Als Ate Seen sale) ee eieieieis) gs susisiy ae alee Ff, M. Serzter 
Committee of Auditors...... C. L. Gazin (chairman), Loviss M. Russeut, D. R. Tare 


Committee of Tellers. ..Grorar P. Watton (chairman), Goran H. Coons, C. lL. GARNER 


CONTENTS 


Page 
SysrpmMatic ZooLocy.—Nomenclature and grammar. CESARE EMILI- 
AUNTS ole Vahey ene ae et ah cals, so Mateh ack, Ole uot tse 137 
ZooLtocy.—Adercotryma, a new Recent foraminiferal genus from the 
Arctic. ALFRED R. Lorsuicu, JR., and HELEN TAPPAN......... 141 


Zootocy.—Buccella, a new genus of the rotalid Foraminifera. Haroup 
Vic ANDERSEN 4 .iia et care. eens Pele te > PU Be. eee 143 


Mammartocy.—A new pine mouse (Pitymys pinetorum carbonarius) from 
the southern Appalachian Mountains. CHARLES O. HANDLEY, JR. 152 


Maracotocy.—Nomenclatural review of genera and subgenera of Cham- 


idaes, Davin INICOBs sats ooo aee deen hoe. ee ee 154 
Entomo.Locy.—A new carpenterworm from Florida (Lepidoptera: Cossi- 

dae). J.B. Garns -@LarKE. 2.5.05. ede i ee 156 
PALEONTOLOGY.—Iwo new species of Sinclairocystis. HARRELL L. 

STREMPI) 2 ao Ages oS Stua ad aclorn agenesis. Seine Ge 158 
Borany.—A new Nymphoides from Colombia. Lyman B. Smiru..... 160 
PROCEEDINGS: ‘PHE ACADEMY... 2 ssc. S.aidcs. s ohn a os 161 
OxniruaRry: Claribel Ruth Barnett.) 5). .4..)......0. . a eee 167 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


VoL. 42 JUNE 1952 No. 6 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 
Wiuuiam F. Fosuac J. P. E. Morrison JOHN C. EwERS 
U8. NATIONAL MUSEUM U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U.Ss. NATIONAL MUSEUM 
ASSOCIATE EDITORS 
Mrriam L. Bomuarp 


F. A. CuHace, JR. 
BIOLOGY BOTANY 
J. I. HorrMan R. K. Coox 
CHEMISTRY PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 
T. P. THAYER PHILIP DRUCKER 
GEOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY 


C. W. SaBROSKY 
ENTOMOLOGY 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 
BY THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
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Authorized February 17, 1949 


Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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- +B, 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 42 


June 1952 


NO, 


BIOCHEMISTRY .—Reaction of normal and mutant plastids of Nicotiana to neote- 
trazohum. M. W. Woops, JANE L. SHowacre, and H. G. Du Buy,! National 
Microbiological Institute, National Institutes of Health. 


Phenyltetrazolium salts are coming into 
widespread use for the demonstration of sites 
of subcellular reducing activity, measure- 
ment of dehydrogenase activity 7 vitro, ete. 
(1, 3,4, 5,6). Du Buy etal. (2) have reported 
oxidative enzyme abnormalities associated 
with isolated mutant mitochondria and plas- 
tids of Nicotiana tabacum L. The present 
report describes the intracellular localiza- 
tion of differences in reducing capacity of 
normal and mutant plastids of Nzcotiana as 
demonstrated by reactions to neotetrazol- 
ium. The results show that in one and the 
same cell marked differences occur between 
normal and mutant plastids. 

Free-hand sections of leaf tissues were pre- 
pared as previously described (7). Neotetra- 
olium solution (ca. 0.1 percent) in the nu- 
trient salt-sucrose solution was run under 
the cover slip. Intact living leaf cells showed 
little or no reduction of the dye; however, 
plastids in cells injured in sectioning stained 
within 2 to 20 minutes. In young leaves (4 
to 4 grown) the mutant plastids were pale 
green without well-defined grana. At this 
stage the phenolase (tyrosinase) activity 
(measured colorimetrically in leaf extracts 
with o-catechol as substrate) of cells with 
mutant plastids and mitochondria ranged 
from normal to slightly above normal. In 
mature leaves this activity was much less 
than in normal tissues of comparable age. 
In contrast to this pattern of oxidase (phe- 
nolase) activity application of neotetra- 
zolium to leaf sections demonstrated that 
the mutant plastids had a much lower re- 
ducing capacity than normal plastids. This 

1 Acknowledgment is made to the Department 
of Botany of the University of Maryland for pro- 
viding facilities for growing the plants used in 
these studies. 


was true even in leaves too young to show 
marked dimunition in oxidase activity. 

Fig. 1, A, shows a living unstained pali- 
sade parenchyma cell containing both non- 
mutant (n) and mutant (m) plastids. Fig. 1, 
B and C, shows two similar cells killed in 
sectioning and immediately treated with 
neotetrazolium. The normal plastids (n), 
which appear black, have reduced the neo- 
tetrazolium to the insoluble purple forma- 
zan whereas the mutant plastids (m) are un- 
stained or very slightly stained. The forma- 
zan seems to be most concentrated about 
the grana as can be seen in the cell shown in 
Fig. 1, C. Note that the nucleus (nucl.) ap- 
pears unstained. 

The present results show that the prin- 
cipal reducing activity of the cell, as meas- 
ured by neotetrazolium, is localized in the 
plastids. They support previous data (du- 
Buy et al. (2)) which showed that in a neo- 
plasm resulting from the appearance of a 
mitochondrial mutant, the total extent of 
specific biochemical abnormality is a func- 
tion of the number of mutant mitochondria 
present. This is true both with respect to 
the total number of affected cells as well as 
within the cytoplasm of a single cell. 


REFERENCES 


(1) Buacx, Maurice M., anp KiLerner, IsrRAeLS. 
The use of triphenyltetrazelium chloride for 
the study of respiration. Science 110: 660-661. 
1949. 

(2) Du Buy, H. G., Woops, M. W., anv Lackey, 
Mary D. Enzymatic activities of isolated nor- 
mal and mutant mitochondria and plastids of 
higher plants. Science 111: 572-574. 1950. 

(3) Marrson, A. M., Jensen, C. Q., ‘AND 
Durcuer, R. H. Triphenyltetrazolium chloride 
as a dye for vital tissues. Science 106: 294-295. 
1947. 


169 


170 


(4) NorpMan, Jo., NorpMAN, Roger, AND NELLE 
Operte GaucHERy. Determination de lacti- 
vité deshydrogenasigne des mitochondries a 
Vaide du chlorure de 2,3,5, triphenyl-tetra- 
zolium. Bull. Soc. Chim. Biol. (In press.) 

(5) Stein, Ropert A., AND GrERARDE, Horace W. 
Triphenyltetrazolium chloride in tissue cul- 
ture. Science 111: 691-692. 1950. 

(6) Srraus, Francis H., Cupronts, NicHouas D., 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


AND Straus, Exvizaseru. Demonstration of 
reducing enzyme systems in neoplasms and 


living mammalian tissues by triphenyltetra- 
zolium chloride. Science 108: 113-115. 1948. 

(7) Woops, M. W., anv Du Buy, H. G. The action 
of mutant chondriogenes and viruses on plant 
cells with special reference to the plastids. 
Amer. Journ. Bot. 38: 419-434. 1951. 


Fic. 1.—Nicotiana tabacum 1L., heterochondric palisade cells, Xca.2,000: A, Living unstained cell 
with mutant (m) and normal (n) plastids; B, heterochondrie cell after staining with neotetrazolium, 
normal plastids (n) colored dark purple, mutant plastids (m) very slightly stained; C, cell similar to 
B but normal plastids (n) less heavily stained and showing darkening of the grana; nucleus (nucl.) 


and mutant plastids (m) not stained. 


GEOLOGY .—The base of the Cambrian in the southern Appalachians.! Puitie B. 


Kina, U.S. Geological Survey. 


I must apologize for my presentation this 
evening in what is primarily a paleontological 
discussion. What I shall have to say will not 
be very paleontological but will be concerned 
largely with physical stratigraphy. I have 
been dealing with the Lower Cambrian rocks 
of the southern Appalachians off and on for 
the past 10 years, but I confess that I have 

1 Presented orally as part of a symposium on 
“Base of the Cambrian System,’’ held by the 
Geological Society of Washington, April 11, 1951. 
Published by permission of the Director, U. 8. 
Geological Survey. 


yet to see a good fossil collection from these 
rocks. Truly, the Lower Cambrian rocks of 
the southern Appalachians are tough and 
unrewarding paleontologically. 

Let us bear this in mind when we come to 
the crucial question of the lowest fossilifer- 
ous rocks. There is no such thing as a level 
below which there are no fossils and above 
which fossils are abundant. Instead, there 
are rocks below in which no fossils are known, 
and rocks above in which known fossils are 
few and far between. 


JUNE 1952 KING: BASE OF CAMBRIAN 
Proponents regarding the base of the Cam- 
brian split three ways—the ultrapaleonto- 
logical, who would restrict the Cambrian 
narrowly to actual fossiliferous beds; the 
ultraphysical, who would extend the Cam- 
brian far downward until a definite, large- 
scale physical break is encountered; and the 
middle-grounders, who would look for a lower 
boundary somewhere in between—more or 
less where Federal and State surveys con- 
ventionally place the boundary today. 

I must confess at the outset that I am by 
predilection a middle-grounder. I have so 
expressed myself in a paper published several 
years ago.” However, as I discuss the subject 
with others, I can see that with a little 
change in viewpoint it is possible to work 
out favorable arguments for the other two 
propositions. Consequently, I shall here 
make my presentation as factual as possible, 
leaving the reader to draw his own conclu- 
sions, if any. 


SHADY DOLOMITE 


In describing the situation in the southern 
Appalachians, let us begin in the upper part 
of the sequence, where conclusions are rela- 
tively firm, and proceed downward to the 
area of greater disagreement. 

The lowest unit on which there is unanim- 
ity is the Shady dolomite, also known in the 
northeast as the Tomstown dolomite. This 
is a unit about 1,000 feet thick that comes 
to the surface at intervals along the south- 
east side of the Appalachian Valley from 
Alabama to Pennsylvania and beyond. It 
forms the base of the great Appalachian 
Valley carbonate sequence. As in all other 
Lower Cambrian rocks, fossils are scarce in 
the Shady formation, but they have been 
found in enough places—at Austinville, Va., 
for example—to fix the age of the Shady 
securely as Lower Cambrian. 


CHILHOWEE GROUP 


From here we pass down into a region of 
wider disagreement. Below the Shady is a 
sequence of sandy and shaly rocks known by 
various local formation names, but for which 
the general term Chilhowee group is appro- 

2 Kina, P. B., The base of the Cambrian in the 


southern Appalachians. Amer. Journ. Sci. 247: 
513-530, 622-645. 1949. 


IN SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS 


Wat 


priate. To fix the Chilhowee group in your 
minds, remember the fine exposures along 
the Potomac River where it transects the 
Blue Ridge at Harpers Ferry. These are 
made up of quartzites of the Chilhowee 
group, which separate igneous and meta- 
morphic rocks on the southeast from Paleo- 
zoic carbonate rocks on the northwest. Some 
of you may have noted the composition of 
the terrace gravels and Potomac River gray- 
els near Washington. Many of the cobbles 
are quartzite that contains worm tubes, or 
Scolithus. These cobbles are from the Chil- 
howee group. 

The position of the Chilhowee group at 
Harpers Ferry is maintained for long dis- 
tances along the strike of the Appalachians. 
This group lies along the northwest flank of 
the Blue Ridge from Pennsylvania to Ala- 
bama, although it is missing here and there, 
from faulting or other structural causes. 

The Chilhowee has a thickness ranging 
from 2,500 feet near the Potomac River to 
7,000 feet or more in parts of Tennessee. Its 
top beds are nearly everywhere light-colored 
indurated quartzose sandstones, or quartz- 
ites, but lower down the quartzites are inter- 
bedded with much slaty shale or finely lami- 
nated siltstone. Downward, also, the sandy 
beds become less cleanly washed, and the 
lower sandy beds are rather arkosic and 
conglomeratic. 

In the lower part of the Chilhowee group 
another lithologic element, lavas and pyro- 
clastic rocks appears rarely. At the base over 
wide areas in Maryland and northern Vir- 
ginia is a thin layer of indurated volcanic 
tuff, accompanied here and there by green- 
stone flows. In southwestern Virginia, where 
the group is thicker, there are basalt flows 
1,000 feet or more above the base—the 
amygdaloid of the Unicoi formation. Helium 
determinations made on the Unicoi amygda- 
loid indicate that it has an age of about 450 
million years. On the assumption that Cam- 
brian time began 500 million years ago, this 
would place the Chilhowee group safely 
within the Cambrian. However, we all know 
that doubt exists in regard to the true age 
of the base of the Cambrian, as well as in 
regard to the accuracy of helium determina- 
tions. 

Pending further radioactive or other physi- 


cal determinations of age, what do the fossils 
show? The record of identifiable fossils in 
the Chilhowee group is scanty. It is true 
that anyone who maps a Chilhowee outcrop 
will have no trouble finding worm borings, 
or Scolithus tubes, for these occur by the 
billions and trillions in the sandstone beds. 
They are common in the upper quartzite, 
and they go down to about the middle of the 
group. These indicate the existence of some 
form of life during the latter half of Chil- 
howee time, but they have no value as index 
fossils. Other fossils, including Olenellus, have 
been found here and there, mainly in the 
highest beds. I would like to call attention, 
however, to an apparently authentic occur- 
rence of fossils in the Murray shale near 
Montvale Springs, on Chilhowee Mountain, 
Tennessee (King, op. cit., p. 520). These 
fossils are reported to be at least several 
hundred feet lower than the others just 
noted. 

Here I should like to make a strong plea 
for search for more fossils in the Chilhowee 
group. I have the impression that paleon- 
tologists are indifferent to this search. It is 
true that the fossils are scarce and hard to 
find, and do not excite much interest bio- 
logically when found. But surely the prospect 
of discovering the oldest remains of life in 
the Appalachian area should have great ap- 
peal. Nevertheless, to my knowledge, only 
Stose and possibly Butts among recent col- 
lectors have reported findings. Practically 
all the known fossils from the Chilhowee 
group were obtained more than half a cen- 
tury ago by Walcott and his assistants, 
within a space of a few years. Revists to 
Walcott’s old localities by such inexperienced 
collectors as myself have failed to reveal 
more. One wonders if the results might not 
be better if these localities were revisited by 
more experienced’ collectors, and if assidu- 
ous search in other areas might not lead to 
the discovery of more localities, more hori- 
zons, and more species than those now 
known. 

The contact between the Shady and the 
Chilhowee is one of the most abrupt in the 
Appalachians. Below are quartzites, then 
some shaly transition beds, then dolomite; 
and this sequence is duplicated in section 
after section. There is an intriguing possi- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


bility that dolomite and quartzite may inter- 
gerade along the strike, so that the contact 
may not everywhere be of the same age. 
Such relations have been proved by McKee 
in the Cambrian rocks of the Grand Canyon 
region. But for the Chilhowee and Shady 
contact this has never been proved, and 
where detailed mapping has been done all 
evidence is against it. For the present, we 
must reject the suggestion and assume that 
the Chilhowee-Shady contact is a time line. 

What, then, is the history of the Chilhowee 
group? Beginning with the deposition of 
coarse waste of ancient lands, with rare vol- 
canic outbursts, we pass upward into shales 
and more cleanly washed sands. At about 
mid-point we begin to find evidence of life 
in the form of worm tubes, and still higher, 
fossils of more diagnostic character. At the 
top, clastic deposition gives place abruptly 
to carbonate deposition. Surely there is little 
that is very extraordinary about this. It can 
be duplicated time and time again in trans- 
gressive fossiliferous rocks higher in the geo- 
logic column. Physical history would seem 
to link the Chilhowee group firmly with the 
Lower Cambrian, as its basal transgressive 
phase, even though a considerable part of its 
deposits are not fossiliferous. 


CATOCTIN GREENSTONE 


But let us see what is beneath the Chil- 
howee group, for perhaps this impression is 
not as secure as it seems at first. 

In places the Chilhowee group lies on the 
eroded surface of ancient plutonic rocks. I 
have seen such relations near Hampton in 
northeastern Tennessee and near Shenan- 
doah in northern Virginia. Similar uncon- 
formable basal relations are reported else- 
where. Here, the Chilhowee is clearly an 
initial transgressive deposit. But elsewhere, 
beds intervene between the Chilhowee group 
and the ancient plutonic rocks. 

Throughout wide areas of the Blue Ridge 
of northern Virginia the Chilhowee group 
lies on the Catoctin greenstone, a series of 
basaltic and andesitic lavas many thousands 
of feet thick. Continuing downward, we find 
at the bottom of the Catoctin a thin layer 
of coarse clastics which, like the basal Chil- 
howee in other places, lies on the eroded 
surface of ancient plutonic rocks. 


JUNE 1952 


What does this mean? Is this the same 
unconformity as that at the base of the Chil- 
howee in other places, and, if the latter is 
the base of the Cambrian, is this likewise 
the base of the Cambrian? Or are there two 
unconformities—one at the base of the Chil- 
howee on plutonic rocks and Catoctin alike, 
and another and much older one at the base 
of the Catoctin? I have expressed a prefer- 
ence for the latter view (King, op. cit., pp. 
527-528). In an area in northern Virginia 
where I studied the relation, the Catoctin 
wedged out below the Chilhowee, so that in 
one place the latter rested on the Catoctin, 
and a few miles away on plutonic rocks. 
This looked as though the Catoctin was 
tilted and truncated by erosion before the 
Chilhowee was laid down over it. Moreover, 
the thinning of the Chilhowee group from 
Tennessee into Virginia suggests that there 
might be a time hiatus between the Catoctin 
and the Chilhowee. 

But geologists who object to this inter- 
pretation have pointed out that the thinning 
of the Catoctin might be due to original 
wedging out of the mass of flows. Also, the 
basal bed of the Chilhowee that crosses the 
truneated edge of the Catoctin is not sand- 
stone or conglomerate but the tuffaceous 
layer already referred to. So the break, if 
any, does not lie between Cambrian-like and 
non-Cambrian-like rocks but within non- 
Cambrian-like rocks. Moreover, Robert 
Bloomer has made elaborate chemical and 
spectrographic determinations on the igneous 
rocks below and above the supposed break, 
and he finds no difference between them. 
Thus, instead of finding a clear-cut physical 
answer to our problem of the base of the 
Cambrian, we find only doubt and confusion. 


OCOEE SERIES 


I can not here do justice to a quite dif- 
ferent and much more complex set of features 
and relations farther southwest in the Appa- 
lachians—those from the Great Smoky 
Mountains southwestward into Georgia. In 
that area there are no volcanic rocks in the 
section, either in the Chilhowee group or in 
the beds beneath. The Chilhowee group is 
flanked on the southeast by high mountains 
made up of a vast pile of poorly washed 
clastic sedimentary rocks, the Ocoee series. 


KING: BASE OF CAMBRIAN IN SOUTHERN APPALACHIANS 


173 


I cannot discuss here all the structural com- 
plications—of which there are many—or the 
various conflicting theories that have been 
proposed. I will say briefly that my own 
observations indicate that the Chilhowee 
group lies on the Ocoee series, and that in 
places the Ocoee series, like the volcanic 
rocks of the Catoctin lies unconformably on 
the surface of deeply eroded plutonic rocks. 

Is the Ocoee series, then, simply a greatly 
expanded downward extension of the Cam- 
brian, or is it something distinct? Both Chil- 
howee and Ocoee are clastic sediments, it is 
true, but the two are very different in habit. 
The clastic rocks of the Chilhowee are of the 
family of quartzite and arkose, whereas those 
of the Ocoee are of the family of graywacke. 
Where the contact between them is seen it 
is abrupt, but we have yet to find evidence 
for a genuine unconformity. Unconformity 
or not, there seems to be an abrupt change 
in sedimentation at the contact, but is this 
change sufficient to fix the base of the Cam- 
brian above the Ocoee series? 


BROADER CONSIDERATIONS 


I will close with some broader philosophical 
speculations. Whatever we choose to call 
Cambrian, it is a fact that in both the 
Appalachian and Cordilleran geosynclines 
there are in places below the lowest occur- 
rence of Lower Cambrian fossils vast thick- 
nesses of rocks with no fossils, or with fossils 
of enigmatic character. These rocks are 
mainly sedimentary but partly volcanic. 
They were not materially deformed before 
Paleozoic time and consequently are the ini- 
tial geosynclinal deposits. The Canadian 
geologists tell us that these rocks in the 
Cordilleran geosyneline of British Columbia 
—the Belt and Windermere series—are 75,- 
000 feet thick. In the Great Smoky Moun- 
tains of Tennessee observations indicate that 
they are at least 25,000 feet thick, and they 
may well be thicker. 

When were these deposits laid down? I do 
not believe that it was as long ago as Huron- 
ian time. The Huronian rocks are the oldest 
geosynclinal deposits in the Canadian Shield. 
After they accumulated and were deformed 
the shield was permanently consolidated to 
form the nucleus of the continent. The date 
of the end of Huronian time is not entirely 


174 


clear from the radioactive determinations 
that have been made. Inconclusive evidence 
suggests, however, that the interval between 
the end of the Huronian and the time of the 
first fossiliferous Cambrian deposits may well 
have been as long as the whole of Paleozoic 
time. This would provide ample time for 
great thicknesses of sediments older than 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 6 
those containing recognizable Cambrian fos- 
sils to accumulate beyond the edges of the 
Canadian Shield in the primitive Appala- 
chian and Cordilleran geosynclines. Whether 
we should call these deposits Cambrian and/ 
or Paleozoic, or whether we should begin the 
Cambrian and/or the Paleozoic higher up, I 
will leave to the reader. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—A Cretaceous horseshoe crab from Colorado.' J. B. REESIDE, 
Jr., U.S. Geological Survey, and D. V. Harris, Colorado Agricultural and 


Mechanical College. 


The living horseshoe crabs are known 
along the eastern coast of North America 
from Maine to Honduras and in the coastal 
waters of southeastern Asia. Many organ- 
isms, both terrestrial and aquatic, follow a 
similar pattern of discontinuous distribu- 
tion; such a pattern is commonly associated 
with a long geologic history and a former 
wide and continuous distribution over the 
Northern Hemisphere. Though horseshoe 
crabs are not now living on the coast of 
Europe, fossil species have been described, 
mostly under the generic name Limulus, 
from the Triassic, Jurassic, Cretaceous, and 
middle Tertiary deposits of that continent. 
The American species, usually called Limu- 
lus polyphemus (Linnaeus), is one of the 
most common of the littoral marine inverte- 
brates, so abundant at places that it has 
been gathered for use as fertilizer. It 1s sur- 
prising, therefore, considering the history of 
the order and the present abundance of the 
American horseshoe crab, to find not a single 
indisputable record of the order from Amer- 
ican Mesozoic and Cenozoic deposits. The 
only suggestion of such an occurrence known 
to the writers is that of Wheatley (1861), 
who wrote of a specimen from the Triassic 
Newark group at Phoenixville, Pa., ““Limu- 
lus? Fragment of shield probably Limulus, 
black bituminous shales,” but the record 
seems very dubious. Paleozoic members of 
the order, such as Huproops and Paleolimu- 
lus (Clarke, 1913; Shimer and Shrock, 1944), 
are well known from American formations, 
but, so far as the writers know, the single 
specimen here described is the first unques- 
tionable Mesozoic horseshoe crab from this 
continent. 


Occurrence.—The specimen, a nearly complete 
internal impression of an abdominal carapace 
preserved in a very hard caleareous concretion, 
was found by Mr. Harris on Fossil Ridge, in the 
Loveland quadrangle, in the SW sec. 11, T. 
6 N., R. 69 W., about 5 miles south of Fort 
Collins, Larimer County, Colo. The horizon of 
the specimen is 60 feet above the base of the 
sandstone member of the Pierre shale that makes 
Fossil Ridge. There is some difference of opinion 
as to the name to be applied to the sandstone 
unit. Five named sandstone members are recog- 
nized in the Pierre shale of northeastern Colo- 
rado (Ball, 1924; Griffitts, 1949), in upward 
order, the Hygiene, Terry, Rocky Ridge, Lari- 
mer, and Richards members. Some of the earlier 
workers thought that the Fossil Ridge locality 
belonged to the Larimer member (Mather et al., 
1928), but later opinion assigns it chiefly to the 
Rocky Ridge member (Griffitts, 1949). Its 
position is about~ 5,000 feet stratigraphically 
below the top of the Pierre shale and about 
2,000 feet stratigraphically above the base; these 


. figures are somewhat uncertain because of the 


difficult conditions of measurement. 

Associated fossils.—Fossil collecting at Fossil 
Ridge dates back to the earliest days of geologic 
investigation in the region, and the fauna re- 
corded there is abundant and varied. Henderson 
(1908, 1920) listed about 50 species, mostly 
mollusks, and Griffitts (1949) has essentially 
repeated his list. Fossil wood in carbonized form: 
is common, but repeated search has disclosed 
only the single specimen of horseshoe crab. It is 
notable that the locality yields species that are 
not known elsewhere in the Western Interior 


1 Publication authorized by the Director, U. 8. 
Geological Survey. 


JUNE 1952 


but are found in the Cretaceous of the Gulf 
Coastal Plain or are represented there by closely 
related species, for example, Ostrea fa'cata Mor- 
ton, Hxogyra costata Say, Capulus spangleri 
Henderson, and Anchura haydeni White. It is 
also notable that it is the type locality of a num- 
ber of species, including Serpula markmani 
Henderson, Heteropora dimissa (White), Pinna 
lakesi White, Inoceramus oblongus Meek, An- 
omia raetiformis Meek, Laternula doddsi (Hen- 
derson), Panope berthoudi White, Capulus 
spangleri Henderson, Anchura haydeni White, 
and Volutoderma? clatworthy: Henderson. The 
species of Inoceramus, Baculites, and Acan- 
thoscaphites serve best to tie the occurrence to 
other localities in the Western Interior. The 
horizons in Fossil Ridge are equivalent faunally 
to the Verendrye and the Virgin Creek members 
of the typical Pierre shale and most probably 
to the upper Campanian of the European class- 
ification. 

Taxonomy.—Van der Hoeven (1838) and 
Pocock (1902), among others, have discussed 
the living horseshoe crabs, and the following 
statement has been taken chiefly from their 
work. Linnaeus in 1758 placed under Monoculus 
polyphemus horseshoe crabs from America and 
from eastern Asia, but in 1764 he definitely used 
the name with a description of the American 
form. Gronovius in 1764 proposed to use X71- 
phosura for Linnaeus’s species, citing it by 
reference and number, though not by name, 
and Briinnich in 1771, Scopoli in 1777, and 
Meuschen in 1778 adopted Xiphosura for the 
genus. Miiller in 1785 ignored Gronovius’ name 
and proposed Limulus for the species gigas, 
including under that name both American and 
Asiatic forms. Fabricius in 1793 restricted Limu- 
lus to the genus typified by the species gigas, 
for which he used, however, the name poly- 
phemus, and proposed the name cyclops for 
another form, probably including the American 
species. Lamarck in 1801 proposed Polyphemus 
as a generic name for Linnaeus’ species, separat- 
ing the Asiatic species as gigas and naming the 
American species occidentalis. Latreille in 1802 
proposed to use Xiphosura as the name for the 
order containing the horseshoe crabs, retained 
Limulus for the generic name, and distinguished 
under it four species, restricting the name 
polyphemus to the American form. Leach in 
1814 proposed the name Limulus sowerbw for 
the American species, assuming the name poly- 


REESIDE AND HARRIS: CRETACEOUS HORSESHOE CRAB 


175 


phemus to be invalid for it. In 1819 he intro- 
duced the generic name Tachypleus for one of 
the Asiatic species, reserving Limulus for six 
other species, including sowerbii and an ameri- 
canus. Van der Hoeven in 1838 admitted four 
species, one American and three Asiatic, under 
the single generic name Limulus. There seem 
to have been few departures from this practice 
for six decades. Pocock, however, in 1902 
adopted Xiphosura Gronovius as the generic 
name for the American species polyphemus 
Linnaeus; Tachypleus Leach for three Asiatic 
species, gigas Miller, tridentatus Leach, and a 
new species hoeveni; and proposed the genus 
Carcinoscorpius for the species rotundicauda 
Lamarck. Under these names he placed all the 
previously named living species. Pocock used 
the name Xiphosurae for the order and pro- 
posed the family Xiphosuridae, with the sub- 
family Xiphosurinae for Xiphosura and the 
subfamily Tachypleinae for Tachypleus and 
Carcinoscorpius. Pocock placed ‘Limulinae’’ 
in parentheses after ‘“‘Xiphosurinae” and was 
the author of both terms. In 1925 the Inter- 
national Commission on Zoological Nomen- 
clature in Opinion 89 (Stiles, pp. 27-33) rejected 
Gronovius (1764) as a source of systematic 
names, and in 1928 in Opinion 104 (Stiles, 
pp. 25-28) it placed the name Limulus on the 
Official List of genera, with ‘‘polephemus Linn.., 
1758a”’ (sic), as the type species. In decisions 
announced in June 1950 the Commission for- 
mally declared the work of Meuschen (1778) 
unavailable (Hemming, p. 502) and the generic 
names of Briinnich (1771) available for nomen- 
clature (Hemming, pp. 3807-315). This would 
have the effect of reinstating Xiphosura as of 
Briinnich as the authorized generic name for 
the American horseshoe crab, but the Com- 
mission directed the Secretary to prepare a re- 
port, with recommendations, as to ‘whether 
the name Limulus Miller, 1785, erroneously 
placed on the ‘Official List of Generic Names 
in Zoology’ by Opinion 104 should be validated 
...or removed from the ‘Official List.’ ’’ No 
evaluation has been made of Seopoli’s use in 
1777 of Xiphosura, and at this date (January 
1952) the matter is still under discussion. Most 
zoologists before and since Pocock’s contribu 
tion have used Limulidae for the family and 
Limulus for the American species (e.g., Parker 
and Haswell, 1949), and paleontologists have 
used Limulus almost exclusively for the Meso- 


176 


zoic and Tertiary species (e.g., Zittel, 1885; 
Clarke, 1913; Shimer and Shrock, 1944). The 
writers have somewhat reluctantly used Limulus 
rather than Xiphosura. 

Most of the features necessary for generic 
assignment—the character of the appendages 
of the cephalothorax (prosoma) and of the 
abdomen (opisthosoma), the form of the mov- 
able spines along the side of the abdomen, the 
form of the cross section of the telson—are 
missing in the fossil specimen here described. 
The proportions of the abdomen may be ob- 
served, however, and are believed to permit 
distinction between the subfamilies recognized 
by Pocock. 

Pocock (1902, p. 260) cites for his subfamily 
Xiphosurinae (= Limulinae) the following 
characters of the abdomen (opisthosoma): 


Opisthosoma more vaulted, not so markedly 
hexagonal, owing to lesser prominence of the lat- 
eral angle, which lies well in advance of the middle 
of the lateral border, making the spiniferous edge 
much longer than the part of the border that has 
no movable spines; the latter abruptly bent down- 
wards in the posterior two thirds of its length, the 
spike that it bears lying in front of its middle and 
much nearer to the ‘waist’ than to the spike pre- 
ceding the first movable spine; posterior prolonga- 
tion of opisthosoma more prominent, the inner 
edge straight and cutting the outer at an acute 
angle.... 

Lateral movable spines of opisthosoma alike in 
both sexes, becoming progressively shorter from 
before backwards, and gradually tapering from 
base to apex. 


Pocock distinguishes for his subfamily Tachy- 
pleinae the following characters of the abdomen 
(opisthosoma): 


Opisthesoma less vaulted, more markedly hexag- 
onal owing to the greater prominence of the lat- 
eral angle which lies near the middle of the lateral 
border, making its spiniferous and non-spiniferous 
parts subequal; the latter not so abruptly bent 
downwards posteriorly, the area behind its spike, 
which lies, if anything, farther from the waist 
than from the lateral angle, subparallel to the area 
in front of it; posterior prolongations of opistho- 
soma less prominent, their inner edge convex and 
cutting the outer at a right angle in the adult... . 

Lateral movable spines on opisthosoma in female 
short, abruptly narrowed and pointed at apex, 
not evenly tapering to a point. 


It appears to the writers that the present 
specimen agrees much more with the characters 
of the Limulinae than with those of the Tachy- 
pleinae, and that no characters present would 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


separate it from Limulus, the sole member of 
the subfamily Limulinae. It is therefore referred 
to that genus and for convenience of reference 
is given a specific name. 


Order XIPHOSURA Latreille 
Family Limuipa®e Zittel 
Subfamily LimuLinakz Pocock 
Genus Limulus Miller 


Limulus coffini Reeside and Harris, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-8 


This species is represented by the internal 
impression of the abdominal carapace. No trace 
of the movable lateral spines or of the telson 
remains. It is 83 mm long over-all, 88 mm wide, 
and 30 mm high. The outline is an inverted 
triangle with the apex truncated and in no way 
suggests the hexagonal outline of the abdomen 
of the Tachypleinae. It is relatively high 
(vaulted), with a sharp median longitudinal 
ridge. The ridge is 60 mm long, and a blunt spine 
is indicated at the front end and another 32 mm 
behind it; there may have been a third at the 
posterior end, but, if so, it is not clearly shown. 
Anteriorly in a sharp depression on each side 
of the median ridge and trending toward the 
ridge from front to back, is a line of six pits, 
representing inward projections of the cara- 
pace, that mark off the six sezments included 
in the mesosomal part of the abdomen. The 
anterior part of the flanks of the abdominal 
carapace are evenly rounded; the posterior part 
is nearly flat and bears a strong muscle scar, 
presumably for attachment of the muscles of 
the telson. Each of the posterior lateral margins 
bears six subequal indentations that mark the 
sites of the movable spines. The anterior lateral 
margins are much shorter than the posterior 
lateral margins, and on the left side the impres- 
sion suggests that they were bent down. The 
posterior prolongations are prominent, with 
the inner edge straight and meeting the outer 
edge in an acute angle. 

The general character of the abdominal cara- 
pace indicated by the specimen is much like 
that of L. polyphemus (Linnaeus). It would 
seem to differ in the more slender spikes sepa- 
rating the indentations of the posterior lateral 
margins and in the somewhat shorter posterior 
prolongations. 

The specific name is for Prof. R. G. Coffin, 
Colorado Agricultural and Mechanical College, 


JUNE 1952 


Fort Collins, Colo., an assiduous student of the 
geology of northeastern Colorado. The type 
specimen is deposited in the U. 8S. National 
Museum. 


REFERENCES 


Batt, M.W. Gas near Fort Collins, Colorado. Bull. 
Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 8(1): 84. 1924. 
CuaARKE, J. M. Arachnida. In Zittel-Eastman’s 

“Text-book of Paleontology.’’? London, 1913. 


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177 


BEEBE, C.W. King crab. The New International 
Encyclopaedia, ed. 2, 13: 244-245. 1918. 

Brtwnicu, Z. T. Zoologiae fundamenta praelec- 
tionibus academicis accommodata. Copenhagen 
and Leipzig, 1771. 

Fasricius, J. C. EHntomologia systematica emen- 
data et aucta 2: 487-488. Copenhagen, 1793. 
Grirritts, M. O. Zones of Pierre formation of 

Colorado. Bull. Amer. Assoc. Petrol. Geol. 


33 (12) : 2011-2028. 1949. 


eS, bh eal 


Fras. 1-3. —Limulus coffin 


iy CL Je A gt 
tees Ce oe. Teg. ate 
? Reeside and Harris, n. sp., side, dorsal, and rear views. XL. 


DER Sa . 0 SE 
A Ee af ‘ 


178 


Gronovius, L. F. Zoophylacium Gronovianum, 
etc., fase. 2, Insecta: 220. Leyden, 1764. 
Hemmtinc, Francis. The official record of proceed- 
ings of the International Commission on Zoo- 
logical Nomenclature at its session held in Paris 
in July 1948. Bull. Zool. Nomencl. 4. June 9, 

1950. , 


Conclusions of twelfth meeting, pp. 307-315. 
Conclusions of fourteenth meeting, p. 502. 


Henperson, Junrus. The sandstone of Fossil 
Ridge in northern Colorado and its fauna. 
Colorado Univ. Stud. 5: 179-192. 1908. 

The Cretaceous formations of northeastern 
Colorado. Colorado Geol. Survey Bull. 19: 
31-32. 1920. 

Lamarck, J. B. Systeme des animaux sans verte- 
bres, etc. 1: 168. Paris, 1801. 

LarreILuE, P. A. Histoire naturelle générale et 
particuliére des crustacés et des insectes, etc. 
Paris, 1802. 

Leacn, W. E. The zoological miscellany, etc.: 84. 
London, 1814. 

. Dictionnaire des sciences naturelles 14: 
537-538. Paris, 1819. 

LinNAEus, Carouus. Systema naturae, ed. 10: 634. 
Stockholm, 1758. 

Museum S. R. M. Ludovicae Ulricae Re- 
ginae, etc.: 460. Stockholm, 1764. 

LocuHEAb, J. H., in F. A. Brown, JR., ed. Se- 
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Maruer, K. F., Grnuuty, Jams, AND Lusk, R.G. 


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Geology and oil and gas prospects of northeastern 
Colorado. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Bull. 796-B: 89. 
1928. 

Mevuscuen, F. C. Museum Gronovianum, ete.: 
83. Leyden, 1778. 

Mituier, O. F. Entomostraca seu insecta testacea, 
etc.: 124-126. Leipzig and Copenhagen, 1785. 

ParKER, T. J., AND Haswexu, W. A. A text-book 
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Pocock, R. I. The taxonomy of Recent species of 
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256-266. 1902. 

Scorou, J. A. Introductio ad historiam naturalem: 
405. Prague, 1777. 

Suimer, H. W., AND SHrock, R. R. Index fossils 
of North America: 705-707. New York, 1944. 

Stites, C. W. Opinions rendered by the Interna- 
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Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 73. 
Opinions 82 to 90, no. 3 (Publ. 2830). Dec. 16, 1925. 
Opinions 98 to 104, no. 5 (Publ. 2973). Sept. 19, 1928. 


VAN DER HoEVEN, JAN. Recherches sur l’histoire 
naturelle et l’anatomie des limules. Leyden, 
1838. 

WukatTLey, C. M. Remarks on the Mesozoic red 
sandstone of the Atlantic slope and notice of 
the discovery of a bone bed therein at Phoenix- 
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BOTAN Y.—New mosses from southern Brazil. Epwtn B. Bartram, Bushkill, Pa. 


At intervals during the past 15 years I 


have been receiving carefully selected and 
beautifully prepared specimens of mosses 
from Sefior Aloysio Sehnem, Colegio S. 
Inacio, Sao Salvador, collected in various 
parts of the Brazilian states of Santa Cata- 
rina and Rio Grande do Sul. These have 
been nicely supplemented by less extensive 
collection made by Senor P. Raulino Reitz, 
Herbario Barbosa Rodrigues, Itajai, from 
the same general area. The total number of 
species represented is well over 250 distrib- 
uted in about 120 genera. Preparatory to 
publishing a complete list of the collections 
from this interesting temperate region, it 
seems advisable to describe the following 18 
new species that appear in the series. The 
types of the new species are in the author’s 
herbarium. 


FISSIDENTACEAE 


Fissidens (Heterocaulon) sehnemii Bartr., 
sp. nov. 


Dioicus; pusillus, dense caespitosus, viridibus. 


Caulis erectus, simplex, fertilis brevissimus, 
sterilis usque ad 3 mm altus; folia plantae sterilis 
ad 14 juga, late patentia, infima minuta, supe- 
riora sensim majora, late ovata, acuta, usque ad 
0.4 mm longa/et 0.15 mm lata, integra, lamina- 
vera tantum limbata, prope apicem folii pro- 
ducta, lamina dorsalis longe ultra basin folit 
enata, basi attenuata; costa infra apicem folit 
evanida; cellulae ovali-hexagonae, laevissimae, 
diam. circa 10u. Folia plantae fertilis circa 3 
juga, comalia multo majora, e basi ovata longe 
acuminata; seta 3-3.5 mm longa, rubra; theca. 
erecta, oblongo-cylindrica; operculum oblique 
conico-rostratum; dentes peristomii ad 200 » 
longi, filiformiter acuminati, superne irregulari- 
ter fissi. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Estacaio Sao Salvador, in 
terram, alt. 600 m, A. Sehnem no. 2041. 

Near F. antennidens C. M. as far as one can 
judge from the description but distinct in the 
leaf structure, which shows the vaginant lamina 
produced nearly to the apex of the leaf 
and indistinctly bordered only in the comal 
leaves. 


JUNE 1952 


DiIcRANACEAE 


Campylopus (Eucampylopus) sehnemii 
Bartr., sp. nov. 

Dioicus; robustiusculus, lutescenti-viridis, 
Caulis erectus, ad 5 ecm altus, ubique fus- 
co-tomentosus, dense foliosus. Folia  sicea 
flexuosulo-adpressa, humida  erecto-patentia, 
subequalia, 6-6.5 mm longa, e basi oblonga subu- 


lato-acuminata, supra medium serrulata; costa - 


inferne 0.6 mm lata, cellulis ventralibus laxis, 
dorsalibus stereideis; cellulis laminalibus minu- 
tis, rhombeis, basilaribus internis laxe oblongis, 
parietibus tenuissimis, alaribus haud in ventrem 
dispositis, imternis fuscis, externis hyalinis. 
Seta cirea 8 mm alta, flexuoso-arcuata; theca 
oblongo-cylindracea, symmetrica; calyptra ig- 
nota. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Campestre Montenegro, 
super rupes ad rivum in sole, alt. 400 m, A. 
Sehnem no. 2310. 

A species resembling C. concolor (Hook.) 
Brid. to some extent but with shorter leaves, 
which are appressed when dry and with differ- 
ent alar cells. In C. sehnemw the alar group is 
poorly defined, brownish within and bordered 
on the margins with several rows of narrow 
colorless cells so as to appear intramarginal. 


POTTriacEAE 
Rhamphidium ovale Bartr., sp. nov. 


Dioicum; flos masculus terminalis, gemmi- 
formis. Caulis ad 2 cm altus, gracilis, simplex 
vel parce ramosus. Folia remota, e basi vagi- 
nante subulato-lanceolata, abrupte squarroso- 
patentia, 2-2.6 mm longa, apice rotundato- 
obtusa; margines superiores anguste recurvati, 
indistincte denticulati; costa fusca, percurrens; 
cellulae superiores subquadratae, inferiores 
sensim anguste rectangulares, pellucidae. Seta 
circa 12 mm longa, rubella; theca suberecta, 
elliptica, deoperculata 1.5 mm longa; operculum 
oblique tenuiter rostratum, aequilongum; dentes 
peristomil rubri, ad 350 yu longi, supra filiformes, 
dense papillosi, linea media hic illic anguste fissi. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Linha Campestre, Monte- 
negro, in declivio argiloso rivi, alt. 450 m, A. 
Sehnem no. 4999. 

Sharply distinct from R. dicranoides (C. M.) 
Bartr. of tropical North America in the ovoid 
capsules, longer stems and the leaves more 
abruptly contracted at the shoulders from a 
longer, tightly clasping base. 


BARTRAM: NEW MOSSES FROM BRAZIL 


Tortella grossiretis Bartr., sp. nov. 


Tenella, caespitosa, caespitibus sat densis, 
viridibus. Caulis usque ad 1 cm altus, dense 
foliosus, simplex. Folia sicca circinato-ineurva, 
humida erecto-patentia, 4-5 mm longa, cari- 
nato-concava, e basi oblonga sensim longe et 
anguste linearia, subulato-acuminata; margini- 
bus erectis, papiloso-crenulatis; costa breviter 
excurrente; cellulis subrotundis, grosse papillo- 
sis, diam. circa 15 yw, basilaribus hyalinis, rec- 
tangularibus, in parte infima laminae limbum 
angustissimum efformantibus. Caetera ignota. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Linha 8. Pedro, ad rupem 
humidam, alt. 450 m, A. Sehnem no. 405. 

The relatively large, very coarsely papillose, 
lamina cells will separate this species from any 
other member of the genus with which I am 
familiar. The border of narrow hyaline cells in 
the upper part of the leaf base is not conspicuous 
but the structure is typical of the genus. 


Leptodontium fuscescens Bartr., sp. nov. 


Dioicum; sat robustum, caespitosum, caespiti- 
bus densis, fuscescenti-viridibus. Caulis ad- 
scendens, usque ad 4 cm longus, simplex vel 
fureatus. Folia sicea flexuoso-adpressa, humida 
e basi erecta patentia, carinato-concava, 4-5 mm 
longa, e basi oblonga lanceolata, sensim tenuiter 
acuminata; marginibus longe ultra medium 
folii revolutis, superne grosse et irregulariter 
serratis; costa infra apicem folii evanida; cellu- 
lis laminalibus densis, subquadratis, obscuris, 
haud incrassatis, diam. circa 10 yu, dense pa- 
pillosis, basilaribus anguste rectangularibus, 
parietibus firmis, pellucidis. Caetera ignota. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Linha 8. Pedro, Monte- 
negro, in humo ad viam, alt. 500 m, A. Sehnem 
no. 415, type. Pinhal. Montenegro, super rupes 
in sole, alt. 450 m, A. Sehnem no. 2903. 

The more slenderly acuminate leaves with 
narrower, firmer basal cells will distinguish this 
species from ZL. brasiliense Mitt. It seems to be 
more closely allied to LZ. subgracile Ren. & Card. 
but differs in the more slenderly acuminate 
leaves with the lamina cells dense and obscure 
and not at all incrassate. 


Barbula (Helicopogon) riograndensis 
Bartr., sp. nov. 
Dioica; caespitosa, caespitibus densis, fusce- 
scenti-viridibus, opacis. Caulis erectus, ad 2 em 
foliosus. 


dichotome dense 


spiraliter imbricata, humida late 


longus, ramosus, 


Folia siee 


180 


patentia, cirea 2.5 mm longa, oblongo-lingulata, 
obtusiuscula, mucronata; marginibus fere ad 
apicem late revolutis, integris; cellulis laminali- 
bus minutis, diam. circa 10, obscuris, dense 
papillosis, basilaribus internis breviter rectangu- 
laribus, pellucidis, externis subquadratis; costa 
in mucronem luteum valde denticulatam ex- 
currente, dorso superne scabro. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Quilombo, super rupes, 
alt. 30 m, A. Sehnem no. 195, type. Pinheiral, 
Santa Cruz d. Sul, super rupes, alt. 100 m, A. 
Sehnem no. 2409. 

Suggestive of a small Tortula in many ways 
but the costa in cross section showing both 
dorsal and ventral stereid bands is decisive. 
The short, yellowish, strongly toothed mucro 
will distinguish this species from any of the 
relatively few Barbula species known from 
Brazil. 

BRYACEAE 
Epipterygium brasiliense Bartr., sp. nov. 


E. immarginato Mitt. habitu  staturaque 
simile, sed folis angustioribus, oblongis. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Pinheiral, Santa Cruz, 
ad terram rivulik alt. 100 m., A. Sehnem no. 
2350. 

The distinctions between this species and 
E. immarginatum Mitt. of Central America 
are not impressive, but the gap in distribution 
is so wide that I hesitate to combine them. In 
E. brasiliense the leaves are oblong, about 3 mm 
long, and 1.1 mm wide, while in EZ. tmmargi- 
natum the leaves are ovate, about 2.5 mm long, 
and 1.5 mm wide. The only other species re- 
corded from Brazil is FE. Puiggar (Geh. & 
Hpe.) Broth., a smaller plant with the lateral 
rows of leaves little differentiated from the 
dorsal rows. 


Bryum (Cladodium) riograndense Bartr., sp. nov. 


Dioicum; tenellum, caespitosum, caespitibus 
sat densis, fuscescenti-viridibus. Caulis 8-10 mm 
altus, inferne fusco-radiculosus, Innovationibus 
pluribus. Folia sicca arcte contorta, humida 
late patentia, 1-1.5 mm longa, late ovata, ob- 
tusa; marginibus inferne leniter revolutis, 
superne denticulatis, limbata, limbo e seriebus 
cellularum 3-4 formato; costa infra apicem folii 
evanida; cellulis teneris, late rhomboideis, circa 
30u longis. Seta 8-9 mm longa; theca hori- 
zontalis, pyriformis, cum collo 2 mm. longa; 
dentes peristomii c. 375. longi, lutei, endosto- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 6 


mum liberum, pallidum, processus carinati, 
perforati, cilia bina, nodosa, haud appendicu- 
lata; operculum conicum, obtusum. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Santa Cruz, ad rupes in 
rivo, alt. 80 m, A. Sehnem no. 2347. Estacao 
Sado Salvador Montenegro, ad rupes rivuli, alt. 
400 m, A. Sehnem no. 2788, type. 

A neat, attractive little species evidently near 
B. maynense Spr. but distinct in the more 
broadly ovate obtuse leaves. 


Bryum (Eubryum) riparioides Bartr., sp. nov. 


Dioicum; caespitosum, caespitibus densis, 
sorde viridibus. Caulis 6-8 mm altus, inferne 
denudatus, innovationibus 5-6 mm _longis. 
Folia conferta, sicca laxe imbricata, humida 
patentia, 2-2.3 mm longa, oblongo-lanceolata, 
concava, elimbata; marginibus supra medium 
folii anguste revolutis, superne minute denticu- 
latis; costa crassa, in apicem folil evanida; 
cellulis ovali-hexagonis, parietibus firmis, in- 
fimis subquadratis. Seta 2—2.5 em longa, rubra; 
theca pendula, anguste pyriformis, cum collo 
3 mm longa; dentes peristomu lutei, endosto- 
mium hyalinum, corona basilaris longe ultra. 
medium dentium producta, cilia appendiculata. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Vila Oliva, 8. Frane. d. 
Paula, alt. 600 m, A. Sehnem no. 2739, super 
rupem ad rivum. 

A species suggestive of B. pseudotriquetrum 
(Hedw.) Schwaegr. in some ways but quite 
distinct in the unbordered leaves. 


Rhodobryum majus Bartr., sp. nov. 


Habitu R. glazioviano sed robustius, olivaceo- 
viride vel fuscescens. Folia majora, ad 15 mm 
longa, 6 mm lata, obovata, breviter acuminata, 
limbata, limbo valido, superne e 38-4 seriebus 
cellularum composito, spimoso-serrato; cellulis. 
superioribus ad 125, longis. Fructus ignotus. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Serra de Rocinha, Bom- 
jesus, in humo in silva, alt. 1,000 m, A. Sehnem 
no. 4787. 

A more robust plant than R. glaziovianum 
Hpe. with larger leaves spinose-serrate on the 
upper margins and with much larger upper leaf 
cells. The lack of reddish color is also note- 
worthy. 


ORTHOTRICHACEAE 
Orthotrichum (Speciosa) sehnemii Bartr., sp. nov. 


Antoicum; pusillum, caespitosum, caespitibus 
densis, pallide viridibus, intus fuscescentibus- 


JUNE 1952 


Caulis 5-6 mm. altus, dense foliosus, ramosus. 
Folia sicea laxe adpressa, leniter contorta, hu- 
mida late patentia, 2 mm longa, oblongo-ovata, 
carinato-concava, acuta; marginibus anguste 
recurvis, integris; costa infra summum apicem 
evanida; cellulis superioribus rotundatis, in- 
crassatis, papillosis, inferioribus internis brevi- 
ter rectangularibus. Theca breviter emersa, 
oblonga, 2 mm longa, stomatibus superficialis, 
sicca profunde 8-plicata; exostomil dentes sicca 
reflexi, per paria connati, pallidi, dense minu- 
tissime papillosi, processus 8, breviores, laevis- 
simi; spori 12-15y, laeves; calyptra pilosa. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Arroio Kruse, in arbore, 
alt. 10 m, A. Sehnem no. 184. 

Possibly near O. parvum Herz. of Bolivia, 
from which it differs in the strongly ribbed 
capsule, narrower and shorter segments of the 
endostome, and shorter-pointed leaves. 


Macromitrium nematosum Bartr., sp. nov. 


Caespitosum, caespitibus viridibus, intus 
atro-fuscescentibus. Caulis repens, ramis erectis, 
ad 1.5 em longis, dense foliosis. Folia ramea 
sicca arcte crispata, humida late patentia, c. 
3 mm longa, filis articulatis fuscis, numerosis 
ornata, oblongo-lanceolata, breviter acuminata 
vel acuta; marginibus valde undulatis, superne 
irregulariter dentatis; costa infra summum 
apicem folii evanida; cellulis laminalibus ro- 
tundato-hexagonis, haud incrassatis, diam. c. 
10x, basilaribus anguste rectangularibus, parieti- 
pus firmis, laevissimis. Caetera ignota. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Estacaéo Sao Salvador, ad 
arborem in silva, alt. 600 m, A. Sehnem no. 
QITA. 

Unfortunately this collection lacks fruit, so 
that the species cannot be accurately located, 
but the numerous brownish septate filaments 
up to 0.35 mm long, confined principally to the 
ventral faces of the leaves, is a curious feature 
without parallel in the genus as far as my 
experience goes. 


Macromitrium (Leiostoma) perfragile 
Bartr., sp. nov. 

Caespitosum, caespitibus viridibus, intus 
fuscescentibus. Caulis elongatus, repens, ramis 
erectis, ad 1.5 cm. longis. Folia ramea sicca 
crispatula, humida patula, anguste lanceolata, 
3-3.5 mm. longa, longe subulato-acuminata, 
apice in cuspidem viridem, fragilimam sensim 
constricta; marginibus superne minute eroso- 


BARTRAM: NEW MOSSES FROM BRAZIL 181 


denticulatis; costa in acumen evanida; cellulis 
minutis, diam. 6-8 y, rotundatis, mamillosis, 
basilaribus linearibus, incrassatis, laevissimis. 
Caetera ignota. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Fazenda S. Borja, S. 
Leopoldo, in arbore, alt. 50 m, A. Sehnem no. 
427. Rio dos Sinos, 8. Leopoldo, alt. 10 m, A. 
Sehnem no. 432. Aparados, Bom Jestis, in ar- 
bore, alt. 100 m, A. Sehnem no. 576. Campestre 
Montenegro, in arbore, at. 450 m, A. Sehnem 
no. 2175. Vila Oliva, 8. France. d. Paul, in arbore, 
alt. 750 m, A. Sehnem no. 2630, type 9. 

Possibly near M. fragilicuspis Card. of Mexico 
and Guatemala but distinet in the mamillose 
lamina cells not in vertical rows and the smooth 
basal cells. 


NECKERACEAE 
Pinnatella brasiliensis Bartr., sp. nov. 


Gracilescens, lutescenti-viridis, opaca. Caulis 
primarius elongatis, lignosus. Caules secundarii 
numerosi, lignosi, ad 4 cm longi, stipitati, su- 
perne bipinnatim ramosi, stipite ad 2 cm 
longo, foliis pallidis, obovatis, breviter acumi- 
natis, plerumque destructis instructo; ramis 
densis late patentibus, sicca apice valde de- 
curvis. Folia caulina late ovata, breviter acu- 
minata, 2 mm longa, 1.2 mm lata; marginibus 
fere ad basin irregulariter serrulatis; costa 
crassa, longe ultra medium folii evanida; cellulis 
superioribus rotundato-hexagonis, diam. 10-— 
15y, laevissimis, infimis linearibus, parietibus 
pellucidis. Folia ramea et ramulina multo mi- 
nora, 0.5-0.6 mm longa, orbiculari-ovata, cellu- 
lis superioribus incrassatis, vix unipapillosis. 
Catera ignota. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Estacio Sao Salvador, ad 
arborem in silva, alt. 600 m, A. Sehnem no. 
Did 

When dry the slender branches of the fronds 
are contracted and strongly decurved at the tips. 
When moist and relaxed the branches form a 
dense ovate frond with the pinnae decreasing 
in length upward. Filiform microphyllous 
branchlets are produced sparimgly in some of 
the fronds. 


HOooKBERIACEAE 
Hookeriopsis armata Bartr., sp. nov. 
Synoica; caespites decumbentes, purpur- 
ascentes. Caulis repens, parce ramosus, obtusis, 
complanatus, ec. 4 mm latus. Folia conferta, late 


182 


patentia, 2 mm longa, oblongo-ovata, breviter 
acuminata, humida leniter undulata; marginibus 
planis, superne argute serratis; costis binis, 
supra medium folii evanidis; cellulae superiores 
anguste rhomboideae, margines versus angus- 
tiores, basilares anguste lineares. Folia peri- 
chaetialia minora; seta 10-12 mm longa, rubella, 
apice arcuato; theca nutans, oblongo-cylindrica, 
deoperculata 1 mm longa; calyptra pallida, 
parce pilosa. 

Santa Catarina: Armacdo do Sul, Ilha de 
Santa Catarina, ad lignum putridum in silva, 
alt. 150 m, A. Sehnem no. 3190. Morro do 
Antao, Ilha de Santa Catarina, ad lignum pu- 
tridum in silva, alt. 250 m, A. Sehnem no. 
3198, type. 

The short-poimted leaves coarsely serrate 
above seem to clearly distinguish this species 
from either H. rubens (C. M.) Broth. or H. 
lonchopelma (C. M.) Broth., which, to judge 
from the descriptions, are its natural allies. 


SEMATOPHYLLACEAB 
Sematophyllum reitzii Bartr., sp. nov. 


Autoicum; caespites decumbentes, densi, 
fuscescenti-virides, nitidi. Caulis repens, irregu- 
lariter ramosus, ramis ad 2 cm longis, parce 
ramulosis, saepe cuspidatis. Folia ramea erecto- 
patentia, conferta, laxe imbricata, oblongo- 
ovata, breviter acuminata, concava, integra, 
ecostata, 2 mm longa, 0.8 mm lata; margines 
erecti; cellulae superiores anguste rhomboideae, 
inferiores lineares, alares numerosae, auricu- 
latae, fuscescentes, infimae oblongae vesicu- 
losae, supra subquadratae. Seta rubra, c. 15 
mm. longa; theca oblonga, horizontalis, de- 
operculata 1.5 mm. longa. 

Santa Catarina: Campo dos Padres, alt., 
1,900 m, P. Raulino Reitz no. 2.644. 

A well-marked species in the sharply defined 
auriculate group of alar cells, which are trans- 
versely divided so that the lower cells in the 
group are oblong and the cells above sub- 
quadrate. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 6 


Sematophyllum riparioides Bartr., sp. nov. 


Autoicum; caespites laxi, laete virides.Caulis 
repens, parce ramosus. Folia ramea sicca et 
humida late patentia, oblonga, concava, eco- 
stata, breviter et late acuta, integra, 2.6 mm 
longa, 0.7-0.8 mm lata; margines erecti; cellulae 
superiores lineari-rhomboideae, dense chloro- 
phyllosae, inferiores lineares, alares vix vesicu- 
losae, rectangulares, male definitae. Seta rubra, 
10-12 mm longa; theca oblonga, horizontalis, 
deoperculata 1.5 mm longa. 

Rio Grande do Sul: 8. Francisco de Paula, 
in terra juxta rivulum, alt. 900 m, A. Sehnem 
no. 4635. 

The numerous transversely divided alar cells 
suggest some affinity with S. reitzii but the 
distinctions are sharply marked. Here the 
shorter pointed leaves are laxly spreading when 
dry and the alar group neither inflated nor con- 
spicuous and not at all auriculate. 


Acroporium sehnemii Bartr., sp. nov. 


Autoicum; caespitosum, caespitibus densis, 
lutescenti-viridibus. Caulis dense ramosus. Folia 
patentia, 2-2.5 mm longa, e basi oblonga sen- 
sim lanceolato-subulata, ecostata; marginibus 
integris vel superne minutissime denticulatis; 
cellulis angustissime linearibus, laevissimis, 
alaribus magnis, oblongis, vesiculosis, fuscis. 
Folia perichaetialia suberecta, in acumen in- 
tegrum sensim angustata; seta 5-8 mm longa, 
rubra, ubique laevissima; theca e collo brevi, 
elliptica, erecta, vix 1.5 mm longa. 

Rio Grande do Sul: Campestre Montenegro, 
in ramulis arboris viridis ad rivum, A. Sehnem 
no. 2266, type. Feitoria, alt. 30 m, A. Sehnem 
no. 106. Santa Catarina: Mata Hoffmann, 
epifita da mata, alt. 50 m, P. Raulino Reitz 
no. 3.149. 

Sharply distinct from the widely distributed 
A. pungens (Hedw.) Broth. in the autoicous 
influorescence, the narrower leaves, and shorter, 
entirely smooth setae. 


JUNE 1952 


BAYER: NEW RECORDS OF OCTOCORALS 


183 


ZOOLOGY —New western Atlantic records of octocorals (Coelenterata: Anthozoa), 
with descriptions of three new species.! FREDERICK M. Bayer, U.S. National 


Museum. 


During the course of preparing a résumé 
of the octocoral fauna of the Gulf of Mexico 
for the symposium being assembled by Dr. 
Paul 8. Galtsoff, a number of new western 
Atlantic records of these animals came to 
light. They materially increase our knowl- 
edge of the Gulf octocoral fauna, and also 
provide more material for determining the 
origin and relationships of the Gulf fauna. 
These records, which include stations out- 
side of the Gulf proper as well as within it, 
are presented in the following list. The bulk 
of the collection was made by the U.S. Fish 
Commission steamer 4 /batross, but substan- 
tial parts were also contributed by the 
steamers Pelican and Fish Hawk, and by the 
Gulf Expedition of the University of Miami. 

Data for the Albatross stations cited be- 
low are given in a station-list on page 188. 
All data for other vessels and collectors are 
in the text. 


Order TELESTACEA 
Family TELESTIDAE 


Telesto favula Deichmann, 1936 


South of Mobile, Ala., from Albatross stations 
2387, 2388, 2389, 2390. 


Telesto sanguinea Deichmann, 1936 


Off Palm Beach, Fla., 20-30 fathoms, April 
1950: m/v Triton, Thompson and McGinty. 
(Previous northernmost record: Carysfort Reef, 
off Key Largo.) 

Off Fort Walton, Fla., 13-14 fathoms, June 
3-4, 1947: Frank Lyman. 

ESE. of Destin, Fla., 13-14 fathoms, July 
29-30, 1948: L. A. Burry and Frank Lyman. 

South of Cape St. George, Fla., Albatross 
station 2405. 

South of Cape San Blas, Fla., Albatross 
station 2370. 

South of Mobile, Ala., Albatross station 2387. 
(Previous northernmost record within the Gulf: 
west of the Dry Tortugas.) 


Order ALCYONACEA 
Family ALCYONIIDAE 


Nidalia occidentalis Gray, 1835 


63 miles ESE. of Charleston, 8. C., Pelican 


station 195-7: 31° 50.5’ N., 79° 26.5’ W., 45 
fathoms, March 13, 1940. 

Off Palm Beach, Fla., 20-40 fathoms, Febru- 
ary and April 1950: m/v Triton, Thompson and 
McGinty. 

Family NEPHTHYIDAE 
Eunephthya nigra (Pourtalés, 1868) 

Off Brunswick, Ga., to off Fernandina, Fla,. 
from Albatross stations 2415, 2416, 2667, 2668, 
2669. (Not previously recorded north of the 
Florida Keys.) 

Off Daytona, Fla., Albatross station 2661. 

Neospongodes portoricensis (Hargitt, 1901) 


Off Havana, Cuba, from Albatross stations 
2156, 2160, 2168, 2323, 2333. (Previously re- 


‘corded only in the West Indies, from Puerto 


Rico southward and eastward.) 


Order GORGONACEA 
Suborder ScLERAXONIA 
Family BRIAREIDAE 
Diodogorgia nodulifera (Hargitt, 1901) 

Off Palm Beach, Fla., 20-60 fathoms, Janu- 
ary—April 1950: m/v Triton, Thompson and 
McGinty. 

Iciligorgia schrammi Duchassaing, 1870 

Off Palm Beach, Fla., 20-40 fathoms, March, 
April, and July 1950: m/v Triton, Thompson 
and McGinty. 

Triumph Reef, off Elliott Key, Fla., 20-25 
fathoms, November 28, 1949: University of 
Miami Marine Laboratory m/v Megalopa, 
F. M. Bayer. 

Off Havana, Cuba, from Albatross stations 
2157, 2166, 2324, 2334. 

Suborder Houaxonta 
Family ACANTHOGORGIIDAE 
Acanthogorgia aspera Pourtalés, 1867 

Off Fernandina, Fla., Albatross station 2415. 

(Not previously recorded north of Havana.) 
Family Muricerbar 
Bebryce cinerea Deichmann, 1936 


Off Cat Cay, Bahamas, 100-150 fathoms, 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. Contribution no. 69 
from the Marine Laboratory, University of Miami. 


184 


June 1947: Mr. and Mrs. John Wentworth. (Not 
previously recorded north of the Virgin Islands.) 
Off Havana, Cuba, Albatross station 2327. 


Bebryce grandis Deichmann, 1936 


35 miles east of Pass 4 Loutre, La., Pelican sta- 
tion 12: 29° 11’ N., 88° 17.5’ W., 94.5 fath- 
oms, February 5, 1938. 

Arrowsmith Bank, south of Cozumel Island, 
east coast of Yucatan, Albatross station 2354. 
(Previously recorded from Montserrat and the 
Barbados.) 


Muricea laxa Verrill, 1864 


Off Havana, Cuba, Albatross station 2326. 

Off Anclote Keys, Fla., Fish Hawk station 
7806: Anclote Light E. 1/8 8., 14 miles, 8.5 
fathoms, January 11, 1913. 

SW. of Cedar Keys, Fla., 28° 42’ N., 83° 30’ W., 
10 fathoms, 1887: Lt. J: F. Moser. 

SE. of Jamaica, Albatross station 2138: 17° 
44’ 05” N., 75° 39 00” W., 23 fathoms, February 
29, 1884. (Heretofore recorded from ‘‘Florida,” 
the Barbados, and as M. pendula Riess not 
Verrill, from Arrowsmith Bank, Yucatan.) 


Muricea pendula Verrill, 1868 


8 miles W. by N. of Laguna Beach, Fla., 30° 
16’ N., 86° 04’ W., 10 fathoms, October 24, 1948: 
University of Miami Marine Laboratory Gulf 
Explorations, J. Q. Tierney. 

South of Marsh Island, La., Oregon station 
295: 28° 41’ N., 91° 49’ W., 17.5 fathoms, April 4, 
1951. 

(Previously recorded only from the type lo- 
cality: Charleston, 8. C. The record given by 
Riess does not deal with this species but with 
M. laxa Verrill, vide supra.) 


Placogorgia mirabilis Deichmann, 1936 


Arrowsmith Bank, south of Cozumel Island, 
east coast of Yucatdn, Albatross station 2354. 
(Previously known only from the type locality: 
Dry Tortugas, Florida.) 

Scleracis guadalupensis (Duchassaing and 

Michelotti, 1860) 

Off Palm Beach, Fla., 10?-40 fathoms, May, 
August 1950: m/v JT: iton, Thompson and Mce- 
Ginty (2 lots). (Not previously recorded north 
of the Florida keys.) 

SSE. of Mobile, Ala., Pelican station 136-5, 
between 29° 38’ N., 87° 39’ W. and 29° 30’ N., 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


87° 32.5’ W., 21-45 fathoms, March 1, 1939. 
(Previous northernmost record in the Gulf: 
NW. of Dry Tortugas.) 


Swiftia casta (Verrill, 1883) 


SSW. of Marsh Island, La., Pelican station 
94-1: 28° 27’ N., 92° 14’ W., 29 fathoms, No- 
vember 13, 1938. (Not previously recorded from 
the northern Gulf.) 


Swiftia exserta (Ellis and Solander, 1786) 


Off Fernandina, Fla., Albatross station 2666. 

Off Palm Beach, Fla., 30-40 fathoms, August 
1950: m/v Triton, Thompson and McGinty. 

Off Triumph Reef, Elliott Key, Fla., 20-25 
fathoms, November 28, 1949: University of 
Miami Marine Laboratory m/v Megalopa, 
F. M. Bayer. 

Tongue of the Ocean, off Green Cay, Bahamas, 
Albatross station 2651. 

SSE. of Mobile, Ala., Pelican station 136-4: 
29° 38’ N., 87° 39’ W., 21 fathoms, March 1, 
1939. (Not previously recorded from the north- 
ern Gulf.) 


Swiftia koreni (Wright and Studer, 1889) 


Off Fernandina, Fla., Albatross station 2415. 
(Apparently not before recorded so far north 
in the western Atlantic.) 


Thesea plana Deichmann, 1936 


8 miles W. by N. of Laguna Beach, Fla., 30° 
16’ N., 86° 04’ W., 10 fathoms, October 24, 
1948: University of Miami Marine Laboratory 
Gulf Explorations, J. Q. Tierney. 

South of Galveston Tex., Oregon station 537: 
28° 06.2’ N., 99° 44.6’ W. 30 fathoms, April 15, 
1952. 


Family PLExXAURIDAE 
Eunicea succinea (Pallas, 1766) 


Off NW. end of St. Martins Reef, Florida. 
Banks (south of Cedar Keys), 28° 50’ N., 83° W, 
1887: Lt. J. F. Moser. 


Plexaura dubia Kolliker, 1864 


14 miles west of Cape Romano (Florida) 
whistle buoy 16, 25° 40’ N., 81° 55’ W., 7% fath- 
oms, September 28, 1948: University of Miami 
Marine Laboratory Gulf Explorations, J. Q- 
Tierney. 


JUNE 1952 


Plexaura porosa (P. L. 8S. Miller, 1775) 

10 miles NW. by N. of New Pass (Florida) 
buoy, 27° 25’ N., 82° 45’ W., 5.5 fathoms, Sep- 
tember 24, 1948: University of Miami Marine 
Laboratory Gulf Explorations, J. Q. Tierney. 


Plexaurella kunzei Kiikenthal, 1924 


14 miles west of Cape Romano (Florida) 
whistle buoy 16, 25° 40’ N., 81° 55’ W., 73 
fathoms, September 28, 1948: University of 
Miami Marine Laboratory Gulf Explorations, 
J. Q. Tierney. 

Family GoRGONUDAE 
Antillogorgia acerosa (Pallas, 1766) 

NW. of Charlotte Harbor, Fla., Fish Hawk 
station 7796: Boca Grande Light NNE. ? E., 
24.5 miles, to NE. + W., 20 miles, 7 fathoms, 
January 2, 1913. 

Southeast of Arcas Keys, Gulf of Campeche, 
Oregon station 436: 20° 07’ N., 91° 41.2’ W., 
20 fathoms, August 24, 1951. : 

Antillogorgia americana (Gmelin, 1791) 


9 miles west of Big Marco Pass (Florida), 
25° 58’ N., 81° 55” W., 6.5 fathoms, September 
26, 1948: University of Miami Marine Labora- 
tory Gulf Explorations, J. Q. Tierney. 


Pterogorgia anceps (Pallas, 1766) 


Clearwater Bay, Fla., February 1879: C. A. 
and J. S. Watson. 

Pterogorgia guadalupensis Duchassaing and 

Michelin, 1846 

4 miles SW. by 8S. of Smith Shoal (Florida) 
Light: 24° 41’ N., 81° 58’ W., 73 fathoms, Sep- 
tember 29, 1948, University of Miami Marine 
Laboratory Gulf Explorations, J. Q. Tierney. 


Genus Leptogorgia H. Milne Edwards, 1857 


This genus is characterized among the gor- 
goniids by the absence (1) of specialized types of 
spicules and (2) of specialized modes of branch- 
ing, e.g., reticulate, alate, or lamellate, and 
therefore is least divergent from what is consid- 
ered the primitive condition. At least four species 
in the western Atlantic belong to this genus, two 
of which (L. hebes, L. miniata) have been found 
in the Gulf of Mexico. One species usually re- 
ferred to Leptogorgia, namely Gorgonia virgulata 
Lamarck, regularly has spicules modified into 
disk spindles like those of the genus Hugorgia 
Verrill, heretofore not recorded from the Atlantic 
Ocean; and another, G. setacea Pallas, has less 


BAYER: NEW RECORDS OF OCTOCORALS 


185 


modified but still highly atypical sclerites. Al- 
though one obvious conclusion might be that 
Eugorgia should not be maintained separate 
from Leptogorgia, it seems preferable at this 
time to retain both genera, referring G. virgulata 
Lamarck to Hugorgia, and G. setacea Pallas 
tentatively to Leptogorgia. It is quite possible 
that in the future a new subgenus of Hugorgia 
will be required for the Atlantic forms, or even 
that all will be united as subgenera of Lepto- 
gorgua. 
Leptogorgia hebes Verrill, 1869 

3.5 miles SW. of Longboat Pass, Sarasota, Fla., 
5-6 fathoms, March 24, 1951: J. Brookes Knight. 

Matagorda, Tex.: John Q. Kain. 


Leptogorgia miniata (Valenciennes, 1855) 


Off Palm Beach, Fla., 20-40 fathoms, July 22 
and 28, 1950: m/v Triton, Thompson and 
McGinty. 

Genus Eugorgia Verrill, 1868 


The species long known as Leptogorgia virgu- 
lata (Lamarck) is transferred to Verrill’s genus 
on the basis of its spindles with fused, disklike 
belts of warts. Three new western Atlantic species 
are added to the genus. 

Spicules of H. ampla Verrill, the type species, 
are shown in Fig. 1, a-c, for comparison. 


Eugorgia virgulata (Lamarck, 1815), n. comb. 
Fig. 1, d-7 

10 miles NW. by N. of New Pass (Florida) 
buoy, 27° 25’ N., 82° 45’ W., 5.5 fathoms, Sep- 
tember 24, 1948: University of Miami Marine 
Laboratory Gulf Explorations, J. Q. Tierney. 

9 miles NE. by N. of Ochlockonee Shoal 
(Florida) bell buoy, 29° 59’ N, 84° 05’ W., 3.5 
fathoms, October 27, 1948: University of Miami 
Marine Laboratory Gulf Explorations, J. Q. 
Tierney. 

8 miles W. by N. of Laguna Beach, Fla., 30° 
16’ N., 86° 04’ W., 10 fathoms, October 24, 1948: 
University of Miami Laboratory Gulf Explora- 
tions, J. Q. Tierney. 

South of Marsh Island, La., Oregon station 
295: 28° 41’ N., 91° 49’ W., 17.5 fathoms, 
April 4, 1951. 

Remarks.—Most of the blunt spindles have 
their warts fused to form thick disks, as illus- 
trated in Fig. 1, d-g; long, simple spindles, often 
with the warts of one side higher and conical 
(Fig. 1, h, 7) are also present, in larger numbers 


186 


near the twig tips than lower down on the colony. 
There is no polyp armature regularly present, 
but some flat, typically ‘“gorgoniid”’ rods are 
sometimes found. 

Through the kindness of Dr. Gilbert Ranson, 
of the Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, 
Paris, I have examined spicules from a fragment 
of Lamarck’s type, which agree well with those 
of the specimens recorded above. 

Range—Jamaica? Gulf of Mexico to New 
York; not at present known from the east coast 
of Florida. 


Eugorgia stheno, n. sp. 
Fig. 1, 9-1 

Off Palm Beach, Fla., 30-40 fathoms, July 28, 
1950: m/v Triton, Thompson and McGinty. 

Off Government Cut, Miami, Fla., 40 fathoms, 
January 24, 1951: University of Miami Marine 
Laboratory: U.S.A. m/v T-19, F. M. Bayer. 

South of Mobile, Ala., Albatross station 2387: 
29° 24’ 00” N., 88° 04’ 00” W., 32 fathoms, 
March 4, 1885. (Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 49774; 
paratypes, nos. 49775, 49776, 49777.) 

Also from the following Albatross stations in 
the vicinity: 2388, 2389, 2390. 

Description —Colonies normally unattached, 
unbranched or with only one or two simple 
branches, with a growing tip at all free ends; 
rarely attached to small rocks or shells. Length 
variable, commonly 20 cm; diameter 0.4—0.75 
mm, in most cases 0.5-0.6 mm, exclusive of the 
anthosteles. Stem round or but slightly flattened. 
Anthosteles bluntly conical, somewhat com- 
pressed in the long axis of the colony, 0.5—-0.75 mm 
tall; arranged biserially, a single row on each side 
of the stem, the individuals alternating more or 
less regularly; distance between zooids (mouth 
to mouth) 2.5 to 6 mm. On the sides between the 
zooid rows there is a weak longitudinal ridge, 
usually detectable only near the tips of the stem, 
which marks the path of the longitudinal stem 
canal beneath it. The anthocodiae are fully re- 
tractile but im preserved specimens they may 
remain exsert; beneath eeach tentacle is an en 
chevron field of flat rods with scalloped edges 
(Fig. 1, 7); in the pinnules there are delicate, 
slightly curved, smooth rods (Fig. 1, k). The 
cortical spiculation consists of short, blunt 
spindles with the warts more or less fused into 
disks, many of them perfect disk-spindles (Fig. 
1, 1); and long spindles with the warts of one 
side taller and partly fused, proportionally more 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


numerous near the growing tips than in the mid- 
dle of the colony (Fig. 1, m). The axial sheath 
contains symmetrically sculptured spindles (Fig. 
1, ). Several color phases occur: (1) uniform 
cream white or pale yellow; (2) white or yellow 
with red anthosteles; (3) uniform reddish or 
pinkish orange. Anthocodial spicules in phases 
2 and 3 are usually yellow. 

Remarks.—Eugorgia stheno always has a dis- 
tinct anthocodial armature, unlike H. virgulata 
and the Pacific species of this genus. 

This species was taken in abundance at several 
stations in the northern Gulf of Mexico; the 
collections from the lower east coast of Florida 
consist of only a single specimen each. 


Eugorgia euryale, n. sp. 
Fig. 1, o-s 


South of Carrabelle, Fla., Albatross station 
2407 : 28° 47’ 30” N., 84° 37’ 00” W., 24 fathoms, 
March 15, 1885. (Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 49764; 
paratype, no. 49765.) 

Description.—Colonies attached (?) or free; 
similar in general appearance to H. stheno but 
much stouter. The type is an unbranched colony 
83.5 em long which shows no evidence that it 
was ever attached. Near the tips the stem is 
about 0.9 mm in diameter, increasing to slightly 
more than 1.0 mm near the middle. Along the 
two bare sides of the stem runs a longitudinal 
ridge or furrow depending upon whether the 
longitudinal canals are distended or collapsed. 
Anthosteles conical, about 0.5 mm tall, 2.5 to 
3.0 mm apart, near the ends of the colony ar- 
ranged in a single row on each side of the stem, 
mostly opposite; toward the middle there is an 
alternating double row along each side. The 
anthocodiae are fully retractile but may remain 
exsert in preservation; they have an armature of 
flat rods (Fig. 1, 0) arranged obscurely en chevron 
beneath the tentacles and parallel for a short 
distance on the tentacle bases; in the distal por- 
tion of the tentacles only smooth, curved rods 
are present (Fig. 1, p). 

The cortical sclerites include disk spindles 
larger than those of E. stheno, sometimes with 
four median disks instead of the usual two (Fig. 
1, q); these grade into the long spindles which 
are largest and most numerous near the ends of 
the colony. These spicules are somewhat flat- 
tened, with the warts of the outside rather 
smooth, conical, and more or less fused together, 
while those on the edges and on the inner surface 


JUNE 1952 BAYER: NEW RECORDS OF OCTOCORALS 187 


(Mace ee ESE OLY hs 7c oe vs 


Fig. 1.—a-c, Eugorgia ampla Verrill, spicules from a specimen identified by Prof. Verrill: a, Extreme 
form of disk spindle; 6, less strongly developed disk spindles; c, spindle. d-t, Eugorgia virgulata 
(Lamarck): d-f, Disk spindles; g, isolated disks from disk spindles; h, asymmetrical spindle; %, sym- 
metrical spindle. j-n, Eugorgia stheno, n. sp.: 7, Gorgoniid rods of anthocodiae; *, small rods of 
anthocodiae; 1, disk spindles; m, asymmetrical spindle; n, spindle of axial sheath. o-s, Hugorgia 
euryale, n. sp.: 0, Gorgoniid rods of anthocodiae; p, small rods of anthocodiae; g, disk spindles; r, two 
views of the same asymmetrical spindle; s, spindle of axial sheath. t-y, Eugorgia medusa, n. sp.: 
t, Gorgoniid rods of anthocodiae; vw, small rods of anthocodiae; v, disk spindles; w, long disk spindle; 
x, asymmetrical spindle; y, axial sheath spindle. 


188 


are typically complicated (Fig. 1, 7). Only by 
viewing these spicules from the edge can this 
difference between the inner and outer sculpture 
be seen, and since they are both flattened and 
bent they do not often present themselves in 
profile in a preparation. The axial sheath contains 
spindles with symmetrical belts of low warts 
(Fig. 1, s). The color of the colony is pinkish 
cream, the calyces red with a yellowish area at 
the summit. 


LIST OF ALBATROSS STATIONS REFERRED TO IN 
THE ACCOMPANYING TEXT 


Sta- fe 
tion Lat. N Leng. W. | & | Kind of bottom Date 
No. fas 
oieeiaer Cae IF 790'S 1884 
2138} 17 44 05,|75 39 00 23) co. brk. sh. Feb. 29 
2156} 23 10 35,|82 21 55. } 278) co. Apr. 30 
2157/23 10 04,|82 21 O07.| 29) — Apr. 30 
2160] 23 10 31,|82 20 37.| 167] co Apr. 30 
2166| 23 10 36,|82 20 30.1} 196) co. May 1 
2168] 23 10 36,| 82 20 20. | 122] co May 1 
| 1885 
2323| 23 10 51,|82 19 03. | 163) wh. br. co. Jan. 17 
2324) 23 10 25,/82 20 24.| 33) co. Jan. 17 
2326; 23 11 45,/82 18 54. | 194) br. co. Jan. 17 
2327/23 11 45,|82 17 54. | 182] fne. br. s. Jan. 17 
2333) 23 10 36,|82 19 12.| 169] fne. wh. co. Jan. 19 
2334 | 23 10 42,/82 18 24 67| wh. co. Jan. 19 
2354) 20 59 30,|86 28 45. | 130) co. Jan, 22 
2370, 29 18 15,|/85 32 00.| 25] ers. gy. s. brk. | Feb. 7 
sh. 
2371; 29 17 00,/85 30 45 26| gy. s. brk. sh. Feb. 7 
2379| 28 00 15,|87 42 00. |1467) yl. oz. Mar. 2 
2384/28 45 00,/88 15 30. | 940) br. gy. m. Mar. 3 
2387/29 24 00.) 88 04 00.| 32| s. g. brk. sh. Mar. 4 
2388) 29 24 30,|/88 01 00.] 35] yl.s. bk. sp. Mar. 4 
2389) 29 28 00,/87 56 00.| 27| gy. s. brk. sh. Mar. 4 
2390; 29 27 30,/87 48 30 30) ers. s. bk. sp. sh.} Mar. 4 
2392) 28 47 30,|87 27 00.| 724) br. gy. m. Mar. 13 
2394' 28 38 30, | 87 02 00. | 420) gn. m. Mar. 13 
2397) 28 42 00,) 86 36 00.) 280) gy. m. Mar. 14 
2400, 28 41 00,|86 07 00. | 169] gy. m. Mar. 14 
2405| 28 45 00,/85 02 00.| 30) gy.s. brk. co. | Mar. 15 
2407; 28 47 30,|84 37 00.| 24] co. brk. sh. Mar. 15 
2412 26 18 30,/83 O08 45.| 27) fne. gy. s. bk. | Mar. 19 
| sp. brk. sh. 
2415) 30 44 00,)79 26 00. | 440| co. ers. s. sh. for.) Apr. 1 
2416/31 26 00,/79 07 00. | 276) co. brk. sh. Apr. 1 
| 1886 
2651, 24 02 00,/77 12 45 97| wh. oz. Apr. 13 
2661; 29 16 30,|79 36 30. | 488) gy. s. bk. sp. May 4 
2666, 30 47 30,|79 49 00.| 270] gy. s. May 5 
2667) 30 53 00,|79 42 30. | 273] gy. s. bk. sp. May 5 
2668 30 58 30,,79 38 30. | 294] gy. s. dd. co. May 5 
2669, 31 09 00, 79 33 30. | 352) gy. s. dd. co. May 5 
Abbreviations used in denoting bottom character: 
bk. = black fne. = fine oz. = ooze 
br. = brown for. = Foraminifera s. = sand 
brk. = broken g. = gravel sh. = shells 
co. = coral gn. = green sp. = specks 
crs. = coarse gy. = gray wh. = white 
dd. = dead m. = mud yl. = yellow 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 6 
A paratype is present which was apparently 
attached at one time although no base is pre- 
served. The angle and curvature of the single 
branch, and the regeneration of the rind at the 
proximal end of the main stem suggest that the 
colony was growing in a recumbent position. 
Remarks.—Although E. euryale is similar in 
many respects to H. stheno, it seems desirable to 
consider both as species since no connecting in- 
termediates are known by which to unite them. 


Eugorgia medusa, n. sp. 
Fig. 1, Hy 


ESE. of Boca Grande (Florida) Light, Alba- 
tross station 2412: 26° 18’ 30” N., 83° 08’ 45” W.. 
27 fathoms, March 19, 1885. 

South of Carrabelle, Fla. Albatross station 
2407: 28° 47’ 30” N., 84° 37’ 00” W., 24 fathoms, 
March 15, 1885. (Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 
49776; paratype, no. 10464.) 

South of Cape San Blas, Fla., Albatross station 
2371: 29° 17’ 00” N., 85° 30’ 45” W., 26 fathoms, 
February 7, 1885. 

Description.—The type is an unattached stem 
44 cm long, bent at almost right angles near the 
middle where a single branch 18.5 cm long is 
given off. All three apices show regions of active 
growth—no base is present. Near the tips the 
somewhat flattened stem is 1.0-1.5 mm in diam- 
eter (exclusive of calyces); the low, rounded, 
almost contiguous calyces are arranged on either 
side of the stem in single rows near the apices 
and in alternating double rows toward the middle 
of the colony. They are 0.25-0.5 mm tall, 1.0- 
1.5 mm broad, and 1.5-2.0 mm apart (mouth to 
mouth); arrangement may be alternate or op- 
posite. The anthocodiae are fully retractile within 
the anthosteles, and are armed with flat rods 
(Fig. 1, t) below and upon the tentacle bases. 

The superficial cortical layer contains numer- 
ous well formed disk spindles with two median 
disks (Fig. 1, v), spindles of greater length with 
4-6 disks (Fig. 1, w), and long, pointed spindles 
with somewhat asymmetrical sculpture (Fig. 
1, x). In the inner cortical layer (“axial sheath’’) 
there are perfectly symmetrical spindles 
(Fig. 1, y). 

In color the colonies are uniform pinkish buff. 

Remarks.—Eugorgia medusa differs from E. 
stheno and E. euryale in its more closely set, low 
calyces, in the form of the disk spindles and the 
presence of long spindles with 4-6 disks. 


JUNE 1952 


Family GoRGONELLIDAB 
Scirpearia funiculina (Duchassaing and 
Michelotti, 1864) 


South of Mobile, Ala. from Albatross stations 


Family CHRYSOGORGIIDAE 
Chrysogorgia elisabethae F. M. Bayer, 1951 


Near Havana, Cuba: Univ. of Iowa Expedition. 


Chrysogorgia elegans (Verrill, 1883) 

Off Cape San Blas, Fla., Albatross station 2397. 

SE. of Aransas Pass, Tex., Oregon station 548: 
27° 01.4’ N., 96° 16.8’W., 200-280 fathoms, 
April 18, 1952; and station 549: 26° 58.5’ N., 
96° 06.7’ W., 300-400 fathoms, April 18, 1952. 

Family IstpipaE 
Acanella eburnea (Pourtalés, 1868) 

South of Apalachicola, west of Tampa, Fla., 
Oregon station 489: 27° 44’ N., 85° 09’ W., 254 
fathoms, September 27, 1951. 

From south of Choctawhatchee Bay, Fla., to 
south of Mobile, Ala., from Albatross stations 
2384, 2392, 2294, 2397, 2400. 


Order PENNATULACEA 
Family RENILLIDAE 
Renilla miilleri K6lliker, 1872 
6 miles off Pass 4 Loutre, La., March 13, 1931: 


LOEBLICH NEW FORAMINIFERAL GENERA 


189 


J.C. Pearson. 
Corpus Christi, Tex.: C. T. Reed. 


Family FUNICULINIDAE 
Funiculina quadrangularis (Pallas, 1766) 


South of Pensacola, Fla., Albatross station 
2394. 


Family PRoropriLiDAE 

Protoptilum sp. cf. thomsoni K6lliker, 1872 

South of Mobile, Ala., Oregon station 314: 
29° 15.5’ N., 87° 53’ W., 175 fathoms, April 27, 
1951. 

SE. of Pass 4 Loutre, La., Oregon station 126: 
29° 02’ N., 88° 34.5’ W., 195 fathoms, September 
23, 1950. 


Family UMBELLULIDAE 
Umbellula gtintheri Kolliker, 1880 
South of Mobile, Ala., Albatross station 2379. 


Family VIRGULARIIDAE 
Virgularia mirabilis (Linnaeus, 1758) 
South of Mobile, Ala., Albatross station 2387. 
Off Galveston, Tex., Grampus station 10470: 
29° 03’ N., 94° 26’ W., 9 fathoms, February 28, 
1917. 


ZooLocy.—New Recent foraminiferal genera from the tropical Pacific. ALFRED R. 
Lorsuicy, Jr., U. 8S. National Museum. 


The taxonomic portion of this paper is the 
third of a series resulting from a projected 
revision of the classification of the smaller 
Foraminifera. Many species have question- 
ably been placed in well-defined genera and 
others have been placed in genera that have 
been so broadly defined as almost to con- 
stitute families. This latter procedure has 
certainly been detrimental to the study of 
Foraminifera, as students often wonder 
what system, if any, is followed in such 
classifications. This was admirably shown 
by Redmond (1949, p. 19) in a discussion as 
to what constitutes the genus Hponides. 
Redmond refigured the original illustrations 
of Nautilus repandus Fichtel and Moll, the 
genotype species of Hponides, and also 
several illustrations by later authors, of 
specimens that they referred to Hponides 
repandus (Fichtel and Moll). It is clearly 
evident from these figures that they bear 
little relation to the genus Hponides as 
defined by Montfort and based on Fichtel 


and Moll’s Nautilus repandus. Furthermore, 
a search of the literature shows that Hpon- 
ides, as the term is currently used, is a 
“waste-basket”’ genus, and so many un- 
related forms are included as to make it 
almost useless as a generic unit. In replying 
to Redmond’s paper, Hofker (1950, p. 15) 
states, ‘“The difficulty indicated by C. D. 
Redmond once again indicates the im- 
possibility of observing the rules of nomen- 
clature in dealing with the foraminifera.” 
In a description offered by Hofker (1950, 
p. 16) he states that the genotype of Hpon- 
ides may be Eponides repandus from the 
coast of Chile or Eponides frigidus from 
North America. To take up the first point 
by Hofker no easier path to chaos could be 
followed in a study of the Foraminifera, or 
for that matter in the study of any group, 
than to disregard the rules of nomen- 
clature. If any stability is to be maintained in 
classification, these rules must be adhered to. 
Otherwise the classification would be subject 


190 


to unlimited changes from day to day based 
on the whims of individual workers. To 
consider the second point made by Hofker, 
according to the rules of nomenclature the 
genotype of Hponides can only be Nautilus 
repandus as known to Fichtel and Moll and 
can not be based on specimens later studied 
from the coast of Chile. As to Eponides 
frigidus Cushman, cited as a possible geno- 
type by Hofker, the types of this species 
have never been figured. All figures of this 
species published by Cushman and others 
have been in error as none of them agree 
in character with the cotypes that are in the 
National Museum collections. Furthermore, 
this species could not be the genotype species 
of Eponides as it fits neither Montfort’s 
original description of Eponides nor the 
present concept of Eponides of the majority 
of authors. Actually it is more closely re- 
lated to Discopulvinulina Hofker. Hofker 
has done much to clarify the problems in 
the Rotaliidae by his clear description of 
various genera, but it is felt that his solution 
for the genotype of Hponides is in error. 
What is needed is a restudy of Fichtel and 
Moll’s types or redefinition based on topo- 
type specimens. Should this be impossible, 
Eponides must remain as a genus based on 
Nautilus repandus and the multitude of 
dissimilar forms referred to E’ponides should 
be redescribed and placed in appropriate 
genera. One such form is here described as 
a new genus, as it is completely distinct from 
the type figures and description of Eponides 
repandus and from all other forms referred to 
Eponides by later workers. A second new 
genus in the family Textulariidae is de- 
scribed as a result from a study of one of the 
peculiar forms assigned to Textularia. This 
has been another genus to which almost all 
biserial forms (regardless of apertural char- 


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VOL. 42, No. 6 


acters, wall structure, or other features) 
have been referred in the past. 


Family TeExTULARIIDAE 
Tawitawia Loeblich, n. gen. 


Genotype (type species): Textularia immensa 
Cushman, 1921. 

Test large, flattened, biserial; chambers nu- 
merous, low, strongly overlapping at the center 
of the sides; wall coarsely arenaceous, thick, with 
pillars projecting downward into the interior 
from the roof of the chambers, giving a laby- 
rinthine interior; aperture terminal, consisting of 
an elongate series of irregular slits separated 
completely by pillars across the opening or only 
partially by projections from one side, aperture 
does not extend as far as the inner margin of the 
chamber. 

Remarks.—This genus differs from Textularia 
Defrance in the labyrinthine interior and the 
multiple aperture which is terminal in position. 
It differs from Cribrostomum Moller in being 
flattened and in having a single row of aper- 
tures rather than many scattered over the ter- 
minal portion of the chamber. It resembles 
Polychasmina Loeblich and Tappan in the aper- 
tural character, but is biserial rather than uni- 
serial. Septigenerina Keijzer has vertical internal 
pillars but these are much fewer in number, the 
test has a coiled base and the aperture is typically 
textularian. It differs from Cribretextularia 
Loeblich and Tappan in having a single row of 
apertural slits, rather than scattered pores over 
the apertural surface, and in having a labyrinthic 
interior. 

The present genus is monotypic. However, 
Lalicker and McCulloch (1940, pl. 15, figs. 18d, 
e, not figs. 18a—c) figured a specimen as Textu- 
laria panamensis Cushman that very probably 
belongs to this genus as it shows a similar cham- 
with strongly overlapping 


ber arrangement 


Fics. la-c.—Paumotua terebra (Cushman): 1a, Dorsal view of holotype (USNM 26160) showing back- 
ward curving, raised, and thickened sutures; 1b, ventral view showing more direct sutures, umbilicus, 
apertural reentrant, and supplementary apertures in line with the aperture, increasing in size as added; 


lc, edge view showing low spire and aperture. X 72. 


Fics. 2a-5.—Tawitawia immensa (Cushman): 2a, Side view of megalospheric hypotype (USNM P. 
825c) showing biserial test with final chamber tending to be centrally placed; 2b, top view showing mul- 
tiple aperture that does not extend to the inner margin of the final chamber, X 15; 3, sectioned hypotype 
(USNM P. 826) showing biserial character of test and vertical pillars projecting downward from the 
chamber roof into the cavity, X 33; 4a, side view of microspheric hypotype (USNM P. 825a) showing 
jow and broad biserially arranged and strongly overlapping chambers; 4b, top view showing linear 
arrangement of the multiple aperture that does not extend to the inner margin of the chamber, X 15; 
5, side view of megalospherie hypotype (USNM P. 825b) showing biserial character of test, X 15. (All 
figures camera-lucida drawings by Sally D. Lee, scientific illustrator, Smithsonian Institution.) 


JUNE 1952 LOEBLICH—NEW FORAMINIFERAL GENERA 191 


Fras. 1-5.—(See opposite page for legend.) 


192 


chambers and a linear series of apertural slits. 
However, as there is no evidence as to its internal 
structure it cannot be referred with certainty to 
Tawitawia. The holotype of Textularia panamensis 
does not show these characters, but is typically 
textularian. 


Tawitawia immensa (Cushman) 
Figs. 2a-5 


Textularia immensa Cushman, U. 8. Nat. Mus. 
Bull. 100, vol. 4: 118, pl. 24, figs. 4a, b. 1921. 
Test free, large, broad and flattened, rhomboid 

in outline, quadrate in section, periphery trun- 
eate; chambers numerous, low and broad, bi- 
serially arranged, and each overlapping the pre- 
ceding for a considerable distance, final chamber 
in a few specimens tending to be central in posi- 
tion, chambers flat to slightly depressed centrally ; 
sutures distinct in the later portion of the test, 
slightly depressed or occasionally left raised on 
the flat sides of the test by a shght collapse of 
the chambers, marked by constrictions at the 
margins of the test, curved and strongly arched 
upwards; wall coarsely arenaceous, with large 
grains in a ground mass of finer material, laby- 
rinthic in structure with vertical pillars project- 
ing downward from the chamber roof into the 
cavity; aperture an elongate closely spaced series 
of irregular slits, separated by small pillars or 
projections from the sides, terminal in position 
on the final chamber. 

Length of holotype 6.27 mm, breadth 3.69 
mm, thickness 0.57 mm, length of paratype 
(USNM P. 824) 5.49 mm, breadth 3.07 mm, 
thickness 0.62 mm. Length of paratype (USNM 
12145) 2.44 mm, breadth 1.82 mm, thickness 
0.29 mm. Length of hypotype of Fig. 4 (USNM 
P. 825a) 5.43 mm, breadth 3.80 mm, thickness 
0.81 mm, length of hypotype of Fig. 5 (USNM 
P. 825b) 2.76 mm, breadth 1.90 mm, thickness 
0.29 mm. Length of hypotype of Fig. 2 (USNM 
P. 825c) 2.60 mm, breadth 1.72 mm, thickness 
0.31 mm. Length of unfigured hypotypes varies 
from 2.08 to 5.98 mm. 

Remarks.—According to the original descrip- 
tion (Cushman, 1921, p. 119) this species was 
based upon two specimens from two localities, 
and the species was described as rare. A third 
specimen was labeled as a paratype in his col- 
lection but not mentioned in the original de- 
scription. Examination of material from Albatross 
station D. 5576 (from which the original para- 
type was recorded) by the present writer has 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


produced 22 additional specimens which have 
made possible a more complete description of this 
species. Cushman stated (1921, p. 118): “... 
wall thick, of rather coarse angular sand grains 
imbedded in an unusually large amount of light 
gray cement,” but he apparently did not note 
its labyrinthine character, which can only be 
observed in thin sections, and which can be seen 
in the section shown here as Fig. 3.. 

In the original description Cushman (1921, 
p. 118) stated: “. . . aperture consisting of a series 
of small openings running from the inner margin 
of the apertural face to the highest point at the 
distal end of the test, about 20 in number.” 
However, examination of the holotype, 2 para- 
types, and 22 hypotype specimens shows the 
aperture to be restricted to the terminal portion 
of the final chamber and does not extend to the 
inner margin of the chamber. 

The labyrinthine walls and the distinctive 
aperture separate this form from the genus Tez- 
tularia. 

Types and occurrence.—Holotype (USNM 
8502) and paratype (USNM P. 824) from Alba- 
tross station D. 5567, Dammi Island (N.) N.81°W. 
9 miles, lat. 5°48’/00” N., long. 120°33’45 E.; 
from fine sand at 268 fathoms, bottom tempera- 
ture 52°F. Paratype (USNM 12145), figured 
hypotypes (USNM P. 825a-c and P. 826), and 
unfigured hypotypes (USNM P. 827 a) all 
from Albatross station D. 5576 north of Tawi 
Tawi, Mount Dromedario (Tawi Tawi) 8.22°W., 
17.2 miles; lat. 5°25/56” N., long. 120°03’39” E.; 
from sand at 277 fathoms, bottom temperature 
Dovouls 

Family RovaLimDArE 


Paumotua Loeblich, n. gen. 


Genotype (type species): Hponides terebra 
Cushman, 1933. 

Test free, trochoid, planoconvex, ventral side 
flattened and umbilicate, dorsal side in a low 
spire, chambers numerous; wall calcareous, hy- 
aline; aperture a low arch at the front margin 
of the final chamber, between the periphery and 
umbilicus on the ventral side, supplementary 
apertures in a row paralleling the periphery and 
in line with the main aperture, on the ventral 
side, consisting of one or more open pores or 
slits which increase in size and number as cham- 
bers increase in size. 

Remarks.—This genus differs from Hponides 
Montfort in possessing ventral supplementary 
apertures. Discopulvinulina Hofker has ventral 


JUNE 1952 


supplementary apertures in the form of an arch 
along the sutural margin of each chamber. 
Pseudoeponides Uchio has supplementary aper- 
tures similar to those of Discopulvinulina along 
the sutural margins, and in addition has slits 
on the central portion of each chamber, but on 
the dorsal side. The present genus does not have 
dorsal supplementary apertures, and the ventral 
ones are not at the sutural margins, but across 
the central portion of the chambers. 


Paumotua terebra (Cushman) 
Figs. la-e 


Eponides terebra Cushman, Contr. Cushman Lab. 
Foram. Res. 9, pt. 4: 89, pl. 10, figs. la-ce. 
1933. 

Test free, trochoid, planoconvex to concavo- 
convex, dorsal side with a low spire, periphery 
with a rounded keel; all of the 23 whorls visible 
dorsally, only the 8-10 chambers of the final 
whorl visible ventrally, but these do not reach 
the center but leave a wide open umbilicus, 
chambers increasing very gradually in size as 
added; sutures distinct, curved backward on the 
dorsal side, raised and thickened, more gradu- 
ally curved ventrally, and slightly depressed; 
wall calcareous, hyaline, surface smooth; aper- 
ture ventral, forming a reentrant about one- 
third the distance from the periphery to the 
umbilicus and one or more rounded to somewhat 
elongate supplementary apertures on the ventral 
side in line with the main aperture but away 
from the apertural margins of the chambers, in- 
creasing in size and number as the chambers en- 
large, and remaining open throughout. 

Greatest diameter of holotype 0.86 mm, least 
diameter 0.78 mm, height of spire 0.39 mm, 


KENK: FRESH-WATER TRICLADS 


193. 


greatest diameter of paratype 0.52 mm, height 
of spire 0.21 mm. Greatest diameter of hypotype 
0.53 mm, height of spire 0.18 mm. 

Remarks.—Cushman noted the peculiar sup- 
plementary apertures in his original description 
of the species, which was apparently based on 
the holotype and a single paratype. One ad- 
ditional unlabelled specimen was found in the 
collection, and all three specimens from two 
stations show identical development of these sup- 
plementary apertures, which could not there- 
fore be accidental. As this feature is not found 
in Hponides Montfort, the present species is re- 
garded as belonging to a distinct genus. 

Types and occurrence—Holotype (USNM 
26160) from Albatross station H. 3931, Anu 
Anuraro Atoll, southeast 4 mile, Paumotu 
Islands, depth 405 fathoms, bottom temperature 
42.5°F.; bottom coral sand, pteropod ooze, and 
manganese particles. Paratype (USNM 26161) 
and unfigured hypotype (USNM P. 828) from 
Albatress station H. 3910, southwest point Aki 
Aki, east 1 mile, Paumotu Islands, depth 377 
fathoms; bottom temperature 43.0°; bottom 
coral sand. 


REFERENCES 


CusuMAN, J. A. Foraminifera of the Philippine and 
adjacent seas. U. 8. Nat. Mus. Bull. 100, vol. 
4: 1-608, pls. 1-100. 1921. 

———. Some new Recent Foraminifera from the 
tropical Pacific. Contr. Cushman Lab. Foram. 
Res. 9: 77-95, pls. 8-11. 1933. 

Horxer, J. What is the genus Eponides? Micro- 
paleontologist 4: 15-16. 1950. 

LauickErR, C. G., AND McCuutuocn, I. Some Textu- 
lariidae of the Pacific Ocean. Allan Hancock 
Pacific Exped. 6: 115-148, pls. 13-16. 1940. 

Repmonp, C. D. What is the genus Eponides? 
Micropaleontologist 3: 19-21. 1949. 


ZOOLOGY .—Fresh-water triclads (Turbellaria) of the Rocky Mountain National Park 
region, Colorado. RoMAN Kenxk. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) 


The present paper is a report on the re- 
sults of a brief investigation of aquatic habi- 
tats in the Rocky Mountain National Park 
region, Colorado. The short time at my 
disposal, one week, did not permit an inten- 
sive coverage of the area studied, and only 
places accessible by road could be visited. I 
am indebted to Hillory A. Tolson, John E. 
Doerr, David H. Canfield, and Ed Alberts, 
of the National Park Service, for facilitating 
my field work in Colorado; and to Prof. 
Edward G. Reinhard, Catholic University, 


and Dr. Doris M. Cochran, Smithsonian 
Institution, for kindly extending to me the 
use of their laboratory and office facilities in 
Washington, D. C. 

The triclad fauna of Colorado is very little 
known. Ward (1904: 143) reports that nu- 
merous immature, unidentified planarians 
were present in a bottom haul from Dead 
Lake, a small water basin south-southeast 
of Pikes Peak. Cockerell (1927: 242) states 
that a dark-colored planarian is not rare in 
mountain springs of Colorado and that, in 


194 


1922, Planaria maculata [Dugesia tigrina 
(Girard) | and P. dorotocephala |[Dugesia doro- 
tocephala (Woodworth) |] were liberated in 
the pond on the University of Colorado 
campus in Boulder. A species from Boulder 
was identified by Hyman (1931b: 327) as 
Phagocata velata (Stringer). These meager 
data appear to be the only records of Colo- 
rado triclads found in literature. 

My collections in the Rocky Mountain 
National Park region yielded only one tri- 
clad species, apparently identical with that 
observed by Cockerell, Polycelis coronata. 


Polycelis coronata (Girard, 1891) 


A summary of previous literature data on 
Polycelis coronata has been presented by Hyman 
(1931a). The species was first collected by Joseph 
Leidy in 1877 and was later described, apparently 
from Leidy’s notes and material, by Girard 
(1891, 1893) under the name Phagocata coronata. 
Hallez (1894: 179) considered the species to be 
possibly identical with the European Polycelis 
nigra (O. F. Miller). The correct taxonomic 
position of the species was established by Hyman 
(1931a), who furnished a good description of its 
anatomy and natural history. 

The present report aims to supplement Hy- 
man’s data and to carry out a comparison of 
Polycelis coronata with another, very similar, 
species of the same genus occurring on the North 
American Continent, P. borealis (cf. Kenk, in 
press). 

External characters—Mature, quietly gliding 
specimens measure up to 13 mm in length and up 
to 1.5 mm in width. Hyman saw many individ- 
uals 15 to 20 mm long and considers this to be the 
maximum length. The anterior end is truncated, 
with convex frontal margin, and the sides of the 
head project as a pair of broad, usually pointed 
auricles (Fig. 1). Hyman, in her figure 1, indicates 
that the tip of the auricles is rounded; it appears, 
indeed, that the shape of the auricles varies to 
some extent according to the physiological state 
of the animal. Active individuals in lively loco- 
motion show the tips of the auricles more dis- 
tinctly pointed than do less active animals mov- 
ing sluggishly. In quiet gliding, the auricles are 
held lifted obliquely above the substratum. Be- 
hind the auricles there is a slight narrowing of the 
body; posteriorly the width increases gradually 
until the maximum width is reached in the region 
of the pharynx; behind the pharynx, the lateral 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


margins of the body converge again to meet in 
a bluntly pointed posterior end. 

The eyes are numerous and are arranged in a 
curved zone, more than one row wide, along the 
frontal margin and the anterior parts of the lat- 
eral margins. The zone or band of eyes may be 
narrowed as it crosses the base of the auricles, 
as Hyman observed; in some individuals, however, 
there is no distinct narrowing of the band in that 
place. Behind the head, the band of eyes tapers 
to a single row extending backward for about 
one-fourth to one-third of the prepharyngeal 
region. 

The general color of the dorsal side is usually 
uniform, grayish brown to almost black. Occa- 
sionally one may see an indistinct lighter midline 
in the prepharyngeal part of the body and a 
lighter field above the pharynx. The color of the 
ventral side is lighter. 

The pharynx is inserted at, or a short distance 
behind, the middle of the body. It is of consider- 
able length, measuring from one-sixth to one- 
fourth the length of the body. The length of the 


Fre. 1.—Polycelis coronata, sketch of the living 
animal, x 8. 


JUNE 1952 


postpharyngeal region varies considerably, par- 
ticularly in asexual animals. When the animals 
are in the state of asexual reproductive activity, 
the postpharyngeal parts of the body may be 
very short and all stages of regeneration of the 
posterior region may be seen. 

Polycelis coronata moves by gliding only. No 
“crawling” locomotion has been observed. 

Reproductive system—The testes occupy two 
short zones in the prepharyngeal region, one on 
each side of the anterior intestinal trunk, and are 
situated on the ventral side as is typical of the 
genus Polycelis. 

The copulatory organs (Fig. 2) furnish the 
best characters distinguishing Polycelis coronata 
from other species of the genus. The genital 
aperture leads into a small, spherical cavity, the 
common genital atrium (ac), which receives, from 
the left side, the duct of the copulatory bursa 
(bd) and connects anterodorsally with a wider 
cavity, the male atrium (am). The walls of both 
atria are lined with a cubical epithelium under 
which there are two muscular layers, one com- 
posed of circular and the other of longitudinal 
fibers. 

The penis consists of a large ellipsoidal bulb 
and a short broad papilla (pp). The penis bulb 
has a thick wall composed of a meshwork of 
muscle fibers arranged in concentrical layers and 
running in various directions. This muscular wall 
is pierced by radial canals containing the outlets 
of glands emptying into the cavity of the bulb. 
The secretion of these glands is stained very 


KENK: FRESH-WATER TRICLADS 


| 
vdd 
Fic. 2.—Polycelis coronata, diagram of the copulatory organs in sagittal section, X80. (ac, common 


atrium; am, male atrium; b, copulatory bursa; bd, bursa stalk; m, mouth; ode, common oviduct; pp, 
penis papilla; vdd, right vas deferens; vds, left vas deferens; vs, seminal vesicle.) 


195 


slightly with eosin. The voluminous, elongated 
cavity of the penis bulb, or seminal vesicle (vs), 
is lined with a tall epithelium of glandular nature. 
In fully mature specimens, the epithelium forms 
villuslike processes projecting into the vesicle. 

The two vasa deferentia, after penetrating the 
wall of the penis bulb, open into the seminal 
vesicle near its middle. Frequently, but not in all 
specimens, the opening of the left vas deferens 
(vds) is at a level posterior to the opening of the 
right vas deferens (vdd). 

The lumen of the seminal vesicle continues pos- 
teriorly into the wide canal of the short penis 
papilla. The epithelium of this canal is cubical 
and nonglandular. The canal could be interpreted 
as an ejaculatory duct, but is apparently devoid 
of a proper muscle coat. The outer epithelium 
of the papilla is cubical, contains only few nuclei 
(part of the nuclei may be depressed?) and has 
two underlying muscular layers, a circular one 
and a longitudinal one. 

The two oviducts bend dorsally and medially 
at the level of the penis bulb and unite at a point 
posterodorsal to the male atrium. The common 
oviduct (odc), formed by their fusion, proceeds 
ventrally, curving along the wall of the atrium, 
and opens into the atrial cavity at the junction 
of the male and common atria. The terminal por- 
tions of the paired oviducts and the common ovi- 
duct receive outlets of numerous eosinophilic 
shell glands. 

The copulatory bursa (b) is a large, lobed sac 
situated between the wall of the pharyngeal 


vds 


odc 


PP 


196 


pouch and the penis bulb. Its dorsal part con- 
tinues, somewhat to the left of the midline, into 
a wide duct with irregular outline, which runs 
pesteriorly on the left of the penis. At the level 
of the male atrium, the structure of the wall 
changes abruptly. The duct becomes a_ highly 
muscular tube (6d) running ventrally and opening, 
from the left side, into the common atrium. The 
sae of the bursa and the anterior part of its outlet 
have the same histological structure. The cells of 
their epithelial lining are large glandular cells; 
fine muscle fibers, such as are found in other 
species coating the bursa sac, coat both sections 
extérnally, as mentioned by Hyman. It appears, 
therefore, that the sac and the greater part of the 
duct correspond to a true bursa and that the 
bursa stalk is represented by the short muscular 
terminal part (bd) of the duct (called vagina by 
Hyman). The epithelium lining the terminal sec- 
ticn is cubical and ciliated and is marked off 
sharply from the secretory lining of the anterior 
section. The thick muscle coat consists of circu- 
lar and longitudinal fibers. 

Hcology.—Polycelis coronata is a common in- 
habitant of mountain streams and mountain 
lakes in the Rocky Mountain National Park re- 
gion. It was collected in about 50 percent of the 
suitable localities examined in the area, and its 
presence may have been overlooked in places 
where no thorough collections could be made. It 
is generally found attached to the undersides of 
stones. The temperatures of the habitats of the 
species ranged, in the latter part of September, 
from 4.4° to 10.9°C. 

The great majority of the animals collected 
were asexual. Many of the asexual specimens ex- 
hibited regenerating posterior ends or regenerat- 
ing heads, indicating that asexual reproduction 
by fission was taking place. The relative propor- 
tion between the numbers of individuals in the 
various reproductive phases was reflected in a 
collection made in Glacier Creek: of 39 speci- 
mens collected, 2 were sexually mature, 20 lacked 
sex organs but showed signs of recent fission, and 
17 were asexual without evidence of reproduction. 
Hyman (193la: 124, 131), on the other hand, 
states that, when she collected the species in 
South Dakota in the early fall, many of the 
specimens secured were in full sexual maturity 
and that there were no indications of the occur- 
rence of fission. It is well known, however, that 
the same species of freshwater triclads may show 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


different habits of reproduction in different areas 
of their occurrence. 

Distribution —Girard’s (1891, 1893) specimens 
of Polycelis coronata had been collected in a 
spring near Fort Bridger in southwest Wyoming. 
Hyman (193la: 124) found the species in a 
stream near Deadwood and in a brook near the 
State Game Lodge, both in the Black Hills, 8. 
Dak. It appears that Hyman later obtained ma- 
terial from additional localities, since, in a recent 
paper (1951: 162), she indicates the range of the 
species as “Black Hills of South Dakota to the 
northwest Pacific coast.” 

In Colorado, Polycelis coronata was collected 
in clear, fast mountain streams in or near the 
Rocky Mountain National Park, on both sides of 
the Continental Divide. It was also taken in a 
clear mountain lake, Poudre Lake. The ‘habitat 
altitudes were between 7,000 and 10,700 feet. 


Thompson River: (a) East of the town of Estes 
Park, near junction of highways U. S. 34 and 
Colorado 66; (b) in Moraine Park, above bridge 
on Bear Lake Road. 

North Fork of Thompson River, 1 mile below 
Glen Haven (Fig. 3). One specimen, on 4 slides, 
U.S. N. M. no. 23679. 

Glacier Creek (tributary of Thompson River), 
near Glacier Basin camping ground. 

Fall River (tributary of Thompson River), where 
it enters the town of Estes Park. 

Tributaries of Fall River, crossing Fall River 
Road: Roaring River and Chiquita Creek. 

Streams of the St. Vrain Creek basin, crossing 
highway Colorado 7: North St. Vrain Creek, 
Willow Creek, Rock Creek, and Middle St. Vrain 
Creek. 

Onahu Creek (tributary of Colorado River), below 
bridge on highway U.S. 34. 

Tonohutu Creek, above its opening into Grand 
Lake. 

Poudre Lake, on Trail Ridge Road (U. S. 34), 
altitude 10,700 feet, water temperature near 
shore, 7.3°C. (Fig. 4). 


Miss Betty Locker, of the Rocky Mountain 
Laboratory, Hamilton, Mont., sent me samples 
of Polycelis collected in a cool spring (11°C., 
May) on Eastmoreland golf course in Portland, 
Oreg.; and on Skalkaho Pass (east of Hamilton), 
Ravalli County, Mont. These have been deposited 
in the U. 8. National Museum (nos. 23787, 
23788). Though no anatomical study of the spec- 
imens could be made, the external characters of 
the preserved specimens agree with P. coronata. 
The species undoubtedly has a wide distribution 
in the western states. 


JUNE 1952 


Taxonomic position—The absence of adeno- 
dactyls and of an excessively developed muscle 
coat of the male genital atrium identifies Polycelis 
coronata as a member of the subgenus Polycelis 
(ef. Kenk, in press). The species has a very close 
external resemblance to P. borealis from Alaska. 
The two species cannot be distinguished on the 
basis of external characters alone; moreover, their 
ecological characteristics are identical, as both 
inhabit mountain streams and mountain lakes. 

The two species are, however, clearly separated 
by the anatomy of their reproductive systems. 
P. coronata has a large, elongated penis bulb 


Fic. 3 (below).—North 
Fork of Thompson River, 1 
mile below Glen Haven, 
Colo. Polycelis coronata on 
the undersides of stones. 


with a spacious seminal vesicle into which the 
vasa deferentia open from the sides, and a short 
papilla; in P. borealis, the bulb is spherical and 
less voluminous, the seminal vesicle smaller, the 
openings of the vasa deferentia anterolateral, and 
the penis papilla comparatively larger. The copu- 
latory bursa of P. coronata has a characteristic 
feature not seen in other species of the genus: 
the bursa extends posteriorly, without changing 
its histological structure, as a duct which connects 
with a true muscular bursa stalk at the level of 
the male atrium. In P. borealis, as in other species, 
the entire duct of the bursa is equipped with a 
thick coat of muscle fibers. 


KENK: FRESH-WATER TRICLADS 


197 


Zoogeographical note-—The genus Polycelis is 
primarily distributed over Europe and Asia where 
it is represented by a considerable number of 
species. The two North American species, P. 
coronata and P. borealis, are both confined to the 
western part of the continent, the western United 
States and Alaska. It appears probable that both 
species have, in the geological past, entered the 
continent from Asia, over the Alaskan land 
bridge (Kenk, in press). The range of distribution 
of either species is not fully known. Their areas 
may adjoin, or even overlap, in the Canadian 


Rockies. 


Fie. 4 (above).—Poudre 
Lake, on Trail Ridge Road, 
Rocky Mountain National 
Park, Colo. Polycelis coron- 
ata under stones along shore. 


LITERATURE CITED 


CocKERELL, THEODORE D. A. Zoology of Colorado, 
vii + 262 pp., illus. Univ. Colorado, Boulder, 
1927. 

Grrarp, CHARLES. Dewx especes nouvelles de plan- 
aires américaines. Naturaliste 13: 80. 1891. 

——. Recherches sur les planariés et les némer- 
tiens de VAmérique dw nord. Ann. Sei. Nat- 
(Paris), Zool. (7) 15: 145-310, pls. 3-6. 1893. 

Hauuez, Pau. Catalogue des rhabdocoelides, tri- 
clades et polyclades du nord de la France, ed. 2, 
239 pp., 2 pls. Lille, 1894. 

Hyman, Lrppre H. Studies on the morphology, 
taxonomy, and distribution of North American 
triclad Turbellaria. TTT. On Polycelis coronata 
(Girard). Trans. Amer. Mier. Soe. 60: 124- 
135. 19381. 


198 


—— IV. Recent European revisions of the triclads, 
and their application to American forms, with 
a key to the latter and new notes on distribution. 
50: 316-335. 1931. 


Trans. Amer. Micr. Soe. 
. North American triclad Turbellaria. X TIT. 


Synopsis of the known species of fresh-water 


planarians of North America. Trans. Amer. 
Micr. Soc. 70: 154-167. 1951. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 


SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 6 

Kenx, Roman. The fresh-water triclads (Tur- 

bellaria) of Alaska. Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 
(In press.) 


Warp, Henry B. A biological reconnaissance of 
some elevated lakes in the Sierras and Rockies. 
Stud. Zool. Lab. Univ. Nebraska 60: 127-154, 
pls. 19-31. 1904. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


54TH ANNUAL MEETING 


The 54th Annual Meeting, concurrently with 
the 384th monthly meeting of the Academy, was 
held as a dinner meeting in the ballroom of Hotel 
2400 on the evening of January 17, 1952. Vice- 
President J. J. Fanny presided. 

After the dinner Dr. Fahey called the meeting 
to order. The minutes of the 53d Annual Meeting 
were approved as published in the JourRNAL 41: 
No. 7, 238-244. July 1951. 

The Secretary read a letter. to the Board of 
Managers dated January 12 from President 
Smith, who has retired and is now living in 
Florida. He expressed his appreciation for the 
cooperation received from the members of the 
Academy during his term of office, and proffered 
his best wishes for a successful year. 

The following reports by officers, auditors, and 
tellers were presented and approved: 


REPORT OF THE SECRETARY 


During the Academy year—January 19, 1951, 
to January 17, 1952—62 persons were elected to 
regular membership, including 56 to resident and 
6 to nonresident (125 were elected last year). 
Of these, 27 resident and 5 nonresident qualified 
for membership. Twenty-two resident and 5 non- 
resident members elected in the preceding 
Academy year qualified during the year just 
ended. Six elected to resident membership on 
January 14, 1952, have not yet been notified of 
their election. The new members were distributed 
among the various sciences as follows: 13 in 
physics, 12 in chemistry, 6 in bacteriology, 5 in 
pathology, 4 each in mathematics and physiol- 
ogy, 3 in parasitology, 2 each in botany and 
zoology, and 1 each in animal husbandry, en- 
tomology, hydrography, mammalogy, metrology, 
nucleonics, pomology, and soil science. Two resi- 
dent members, having retired from the gainful 
practice of their professions, were placed on the 
retired list entitled to privileges of active mem- 
bership without further payment of dues. Eleven 


resident and four nonresident members resigned 
in good standing. Two resident. members were 
dropped for nonpayment of dues. 

The deaths of the following 11 members have 
been reported to the Secretary: 


Maurice I. Smrru, Bethesda, Md., on January 
26, 1951. 

OwerEN B. FreNcuH, Lakewood, Ohio, on February 
12, 1951. 

CuariBEL R. Barnerr, Washington, D. C., on 
March 6, 1951. 

Henry Soion Graves, Brattleboro, Vt., on Mareh 
7, 1951. 

BartLtey E. Brown, Washington, D. C., on March 
9, 1951. 

WixturaM F. ALLEN, Portland, Oreg., on March 11, 
1951. 

Merritt Bernarp, Washington, D. C., on April 
13, 1951. 

Haru K. Fiscupr, Washington, D. C., on August 
3, 1951. 

Danret L. Hazarp, Narragansett, R. I., on Sep- 
tember 21, 1951. 

Oscar B. Hunter, Washington, D.C., on Decem- 
ber 19, 1951. 

Rurus H. Sarcent, Washington, D C., on De- 
cember 28, 1951. 


On January 17, 1952, the status of membership 
was as follows: : 
Regular Retired Honorary Patron Tota 


Resident............ 589 56 0 0 645 
Nonresident......... 190 33 10 0 233 
Ao tales seers 779 89 10 0 878 


The net changes in membership during the 
past year are as follows: 


Regular Retired Honorary Patron Total 


Resident......... +16 —1 0 0 +15 
Nonresident. ........ +17 —1 0 0 +16 
Motels cipssacsieecee +33 —2 0 0 +31 


During the Academy year 1951 the Board of 
Managers held 9 meetings with an average at- 
tendance of 18. The following summarizes items 
of interest in connection with Board Meetings: 


JUNE 1952 


The Managers felt that the membership would 
approve, as a matter of economizing, the dis- 
continuance of sending engraved certificates of 
membership to newly elected members. The 
supply of certificates was exhausted in April, 
and the issuance of certificates of membership 
has been discontinued. 

The Academy has continued to sponsor support 
of the Annual Science Fair and of the weekly 
issue of the Science Calendar in local newspapers. 

The Committee on Grants-in-Aid for Re- 
search, Dr. L. E. Yocum, Chairman, recom- 
mended grants from the funds allocated only 
for use for this purpose by the American Associa- 
tion for the Advancement of Science. Such funds 
accrue on the basis of the number of Academy 
members who also have membership in the AAAS. 
The Managers approved the recommendation 
of grants totaling $430 to (1) Dr. Francis E. 
Fox and Dr. Karl H. Lancensrrass for the 
purchase of materials to be used in supersonic 
studies; (2) Dr. Martin Rusin and Dr. M. X. 
Suuuivan for the purchase of materials in con- 
nection with metabolism studies; and (3) C. H. 
WaLrTHER for the purchase of materials in con- 
nection with photoelastic studies. 

The suggestion that the age limit be raised 
above 40 years for nominees for the Academy’s 
Awards for Scientific Achievement was again 
considered. The Managers agreed that the basis 
of the Award should remain one of recognition 
and encouragement of younger scientists, and 
that the age limit should not be raised. 

A special Committee on Indexing the JouRNAL, 
former president J. E. Grar, Chairman, ap- 
pointed to make recommendations as to the dis- 
position to be made of the recently completed 
index to the JourNAL of the Washington 
Academy, presented its preliminary report at 
the 447th meeting of the Board. After consider- 
able discussion at this and several other meetings 
of the Board, the Managers decided to publish a 
combined single index of the JourNAL and the 
earlier PROCEEDINGS. 

During the Academy year, 9 meetings of the 
Academy were held, as follows: 

On February 15, 1951, Francis B. SrusBeEr, 
chief, Electricity Division, National Bureau of 
Standards, delivered his retiring presidential 
address on Measure for measure: Some problems 
and paradoxes of precision (published in this 
JOURNAL 41: 213-226, 1951). 

On March 15, 1951, the 1950 Academy Awards 
were presented to Samurn Luvy, National 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 


199 


Bureau of Standards, for his work in the engi- 
neering sciences; Puitre H. ApeLson, Depart- 
ment of Terrestrial Magnetism, Carnegie Insti- 
tution of Washington, for work in the physical 
sciences, and to Davin H. Dunxktusg, U. 8S. Na- 
tional Museum, for work in the biological sci- 
ences. In their responses the recipients gave in- 
teresting summaries of the work on which the 
awards were based. The Academy also awarded 
Certificates of Merit to three outstanding high 
school students: Paut E. Connon, Crciia 
GREEN, and Donatp L. Mier. 

On April 19, 1951, Vicror H. Haas, director 
of the National Microbiological Institute, Na- 
tional Institutes of Health, gave an illustrated 
lecture on Disaster and disease (published in this 
JOURNAL 41: 277-284, 1951). 

On May 17, 1951, D. J. Parsons, chief of the 
Scientific Laboratories of the Federal Bureau of 
Investigation, gave an illustrated lecture on 
Science in crime detection. 

On October 18, 1951, Frank H. H. Roserrs, 
Jr., associate director, Bureau of American 
Ethnology, and director of the River Basin 
Surveys, gave an illustrated lecture on Archeology 
and the Federal River Basin program. 

On November 15, 1951, Drrtev W. Bronk, 
president of Johns Hopkins University and presi- 
dent of the National Academy of Sciences, gave 
a lecture on The impact of the emergency on funda- 
mental scrences. 

On December 20, 1951, Wiutram E. Hrarr, 
chief, Hydrologic Services Division, U. 8. 
Weather Bureau, gave a lecture on Precipitation 
and our water supply. 

The Annual Dinner meeting was held at 2400 
Sixteenth Street on January 17, 1952. THomaAs 
R. Henry, a member of the Fourth Byrd Ant- 
arctic Expedition in 1946-1947, delivered a 
lecture on The White Continent and presented 
the movie entitled The Secret Land. 

F, M. Drranporer. 


REPORT OF THE TREASURER 


The Treasurer submits the following report 
concerning the finances of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences for the year ending De- 
cember 31, 1951: 


RECEIPTS 


Dressel G4 8s sae ee ree $ 6.00 
NOS Oe eS Ser aces 24.00 
1950 Sessa 136.00 
QB axcitseeis eto 1,016.84 
1952 62.00 S4, 244.84 


200 

Journal 
Subscriptions, 1950..... 42.75 
O51 656 . 23 
1052 Rae 805.51 
1953 eae 15.39 
Reprints, 1950..... 432.52 
1951 701.47 
ales s LOS Mi ae ve ee ieee a 
Interest lO a1 sore erro arene 
Dividends, 1950.......... 160.00 
NOs soa ees: 2,104.67 


Winectony os Ocede tees ees 
IMO ARVN MOG Ni soeockacwosscobuwsc 
Transferred from savings account . 

Transferred from invested funds. ... 
Annual dinner-(95i1)) 2.95 = see: 
Contributions for Science Calendar. . 
Receipts from Kon-Tiki showing... . 
Grants from Amer. Assoc. Adv. Sci.. 
OMAN GNM so ono gkoeeeeoao am oak 
Refund of air-mail postage.......... 


Motalerecerpbsse)9 olseane eee 
Cash book balance as of Jan. 1, 1951... 


Total to be accounted for....... 
DISBURSEMENTS 
1950 1951 
Secretary’s 
Ofticenaee ee $152.87 $321.15 
Treasurer’s 
Oficeree eee 87.74 
Subscription 
Manager & 
Custodian of 
Publications . 0.59 44.35 
Archivist...... 30.00 
Meetings 
Committee... 207.45 
Journal 
Printing & 
mailing.... 592.90 5,369.61 
Illustrations. 9.76 600.30 
Reprints..... 148.84 696 .23 
Office 
‘Editorial 
NSS taser 25.00 275.00 
Miscellan- 
eous..... 3.36 27.87 
Monograph 
MOG Lure ee 0.89 30.14 
Forty-year 
indexer ee 700.00 
Annual dinner, 
LO ieee 393.72 
Kon-Tiki 
showing 
Expenses. ... 408.78 
Balance to 
Science 
Wairiise sane 776.22 


1,519 


1,133 


179 
268 


$13 , 730 


1,422 


$15, 153 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


88 


99 


.89 
00 


65 
53 


18 


Total 


$474 


87 


44. 
30. 


207 . 42 


5,962. 
610. 
845. 


300.0 


776. 


02 


AA 


VOL. 42, No. 6 


Contribution 
to Science 
IMPS ys es wae 100.00 100.00 
Contribution 
to Science 
Calendar. ... 55.00 55.00 
Refunds 
Subscrip- 
TONS eae 15.19 15.19 
Overpay- 
ments..... 2.00 2.00 
Collection 
Changes aan ear 0.15 0.15 
MRotal stars $934.21 $10,140.90 $11,075.11 
Cash book 
balance as of 
Deccotsl95U oeissten ees 4,078.07 
Total ac- 
counted 
POM ian k oe ee ee $15,153.18 
RECONCILIATION OF BANK BALANCE 
Cash book balance, Dec. 31, 1951..... $4,078.07 
Balance as per Am. Sec. & 
' Trust Co. statement 
OF DEC. M7, IO. coco occ $2,481.50 
Receipts undeposited..... 1,715.32 
$4,196.82 
Checks outstanding as of 
Dec. 31, 1951 
No. 1018 $ 5.41 
1263 5.00 
1509 27.79 
1511 11.57 
1512 64.98 
1513 4.00 118.75 
Total accounted for... $4,078.07 
INVESTMENTS 
Potomac Electric Power Co. 
Certificate No. TAO 1977—40 
shares 3.6% pref. at $41......... $1, 640.00 
City of New York 
3% (Transit Unifica- 
tion) Due June 1, 
1980 
Certificate No. 
IDE20NSGrer oe ee $ 500.00 
Ca MO3Seae eee 100.00 
(Cai03 9 cece 100.00 
Ci WAOLOR eer kee 100.00 
At $108.50 per $100. . $ 800.00 868.00 
Northwestern Federal Sav- 
ings & Loan Association 
Certificate No. 
TOSOR se aa $4,500.00 
AA 2 an er 500.00 $ 5,000.00 


JUNE 1952 


United States Government 
Series G Bonds—No. 


M 332990G...... 1,000.00 
M 332991G....... 1,000.00 
M 332992G....... 1,000.00 
M 332993G....... 1,000.00 
M 1808741G...... 1,000.00 
M 2226088G...... 1,000.00 
M 2982748G...... 1,000.00 
M 4126041G...... 1,000.00 
M 5141346G...... 1,000.00 
M 5141347G...... 1,000.00 $10,000.00 


Massachusetts Investors Trust 


ASD) SITES CMRA Un ao nine dae 15,573.60 
Investment Company of America 

A00tshares at pli 95). 22250. 4,780.00 
State Street Investment Corporation 

100%shares at $62:00..........5..°. 6, 200.00 
American Security and Trust Co. 

SMM SPAGCOUMG = --- 4-9 e 49. eos 161.52 


ROME es ees eee ers $44 223.12 
Cash book balance, Dec. 31, 
NO lees ire er at ee 4,078.07 
PRO Vallee eee eda cecan wie $48 301.19 
Total as of Dec. 31, 1951. $48,301.19 
Total as of Dec. 31, 1950. 45,601.05 
INOREASS , cdeses someeene $ 2,700.14 


At the close of business January 5, 1952, there 
were 58 members of the Academy in arrears, 28 
for 1 vear, 14 for 2 years, 4 for 3 vears, 3 for 4 
years, 7 for 5 years, and 2 for 6 years. 

Howarp 8. RapPLleye. 


REPORT OF AUDITING COMMITTEE 


Your auditing committee examined the Treas- 
urer’s report and checked it with the account 
books, vouchers, canceled checks, bank state- 
ments, and the contents of the safe deposit box. 
We found the accounts correct as reported by 
the Treasurer, and all records very complete and 
in remarkably good order. 

N. F. BRAATEN 
W. J. YoupEN 
J. H. Martin, Chairman. 


REPORT OF THE ARCHIVIST 


The records of the Academy in possession of 
the Archivist have been available for consulta- 
tion during the year. Ten volumes of the JouRNAL 
were bound to bring the Archivist’s set up-to- 
date. No additional records were deposited during 
the year. 

Joun A. STEVENSON. 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 


201 


REPORT OF THE BOARD OF EDITORS 


Volume 41 of the JourNAL, brought out during 
1951, includes 404 numbered pages, together 
with a portrait, an unnumbered page stating the 
dates of publication, and the title page. In addi- 
tion to a 4-page index, and to Proceedings of the 
Academy and of the Anthropological Society 
aggregating 12 pages, it contains 86 papers dis- 
tributed among several fields of science as fol- 
lows: Mathematics, 4; physics, 2; astronomy, 1; 
geology, petrology, and paleontology, 12; botany, 
7; zoology and its branches, 50; archeology and 
ethnology, 9; medicine, 1. Because of limited 
funds it was necessary to delay publication of 
many meritorious papers until 1942. 

The disbursements for the JourNAaL during 
1951 were: 


Printing, engraving, wrapping, mailing, etc...... $6, 563.38 
Reprintseeerer eee Poot AAR BOE aN oO ETBIAoE 860.68 
Office—editorial assistant...................... ee 300.00 
Office=postageporcen eee eee 29.40 

Mo talesasey ers eee eee RE $7,753.46 
Chargesitojauthorsmeceescc eee ener 1,251.97 

Net cost of Volume 41 to the Academy........ $6,501.49 


Help given by the officers of the Academy and 
by the Board of Managers is gratefully acknowl- 
edged. Thanks are due especially to Mr. Paun 
H. Oruser for his competent handling of techni- 
cal matters concerned in printing the Journal. 

CHARLES DRECHSLER 
WitiraAM F. FosHaG 
J. P. E. Morrison 


REPORT OF CUSTODIAN AND SUBSCRIPTION 
MANAGER OF PUBLICATIONS 


Subscriptions 
Nonmember subscriptions in the continental 
WinibedeS taesi tea nyc eye catenets Gee 141 
Nonmember subscriptions in U. 8. posses- 
sions and foreign lands. .............. OS 
LDXoy il] Lae Asa ian ee aaa ayer ne SU an 209 


This is a decrease of 18 subscriptions from 
last year’s total. Most of this loss is in the foreign 
list, where, because of exchange ditheulties and 
other disturbed conditions, several subscriptions 
have had to be canceled. The above total still 
contains some names that will have to be erossed 


off. 


202 


Inventory of stock as of December 31, 1951 


Reserve sets of the Journal 


Complete sets, vols, 1-41.............. 2 sets 
Wo lume stale Capa eegee ree a eee ... 6 sets 
1G = Ailey. ihe ee eine el oe tee aa 9 sets 
DATS Wen ny aes ona car 7 sets 
Total sets more or less complete........ 24 sets 
Back numbers of the Journal 
Numbers held in complete sets (2).... 1,350 
Numbers held in reserve for complete 
BO tS eerie cee it eri ana eager an oa 8,539 
Numbers held for sale separately*. . not counted 
Proceedings 
Complete sets, volumes 1-13 (1899- 
DIAS HY Ts enters Aen nee Aare ec) near ne cn Fea ay 48 sets 
(The copies of the separate articles that 
appeared in the Proceedings have 
never been counted.) 
Monograph No. 1 
Oniginalbissues ana. eee 1,010 
Copies sold or otherwise distributed... 173 
Copieston handta.-. tes 837 


* Tt has still not been possible to make a com- 
plete recount of these numbers. An improvement 
in the storage facilities to be made this coming 
year will permit counting and a rearrangement of 
the numbers on hand. 


Sales 


During the year 1941 the sales of the JouRNAL 
were considerably larger than those for 1950. 
Two complete sets were sold, one to the Uni- 
versity at Glasgow, Scotland, and the other to 
the Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de 
Belgique in Brussels. Of the numbers of the 
JOURNAL 258 were sold, either separately or as 
volumes. 

Fourteen numbers of the PRocrEDINGS were 
sold during the past year, and one copy of the 
1947-48 Directory. 

The sales of the Monograph again fell off to 
some extent. Thirty-two copies were sold—5 to 
the author (at a 20 per cent discount), 22 to 
dealers (at a 10 per cent discount), and 5 directly. 
An advertising campaign to publicize the book 
was instituted last September. Five hundred 
double postal cards, advertising the book, were 
sent to libraries all over the United States and 
its possessions. It is rather astonishing that not 
one of the 500 reply postal cards was returned, 
even though it meant only tearing off the reply 
half, checking and signing it, and mailing it at 
no extra expense. This campaign did, however, 
bring about some sales, for in due time numerous 
orders were received destined for some of the 
institutions circularized. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


Some thought should be given, however, to 
ways and means of increasing the sales of the 
Monograph, even if it means reducing the price. 
In its first year 67 copies were sold; 47 were sold 
in the following year, and last year 32 were sold. 
At this rate it will be 15 years or more before 
half of the edition is sold. 

Once again the Academy is indebted to the 
members who donated back numbers of the 
JouRNAL to this office. We are especially grateful 
to Dr. Epear D. Tittyer and to Miss Mary D. 
Quint, librarian of the American Optical Co. 
of Southbridge, Mass., for sending us a set of the 
JOURNAL complete except for the earliest volumes 
and for some numbers missing here and there. 

The income from sales of copies of the Journal, 
Proceedings, and Directories was $179.89, and 
sales of the Monograph yielded $76.50, a total 
income from sales of $256.39. 


Expenditures 
Suppliesia ins aac eee $13.78 
Purchase of back numbers.............. .50 
Postage expended in connection with 
JOURNAL UG. ne viccan. oe eee 11.47 
Postage expended in connection with 
Monographie se ae eee 4.01 
Sales campaign for Monograph.......... 26.13 
Nelephones sia et ee 1.22 
Freight charges for shipping complete sets 
toiNews Yorks. wink Ones eee 9.63 
Totals nec sie svn esol ee $66.74 


Storage 


Some progress was made in the rearrangement 
of the storage facilities that. we have in the 
Smithsonian Institution Building. It is hoped 
that the addition of necessary lighting and an 
improvement in the shelving arrangement can 
be made this year, in which case it is expected 
that this project can be finished and a complete 
count be made of the stock. 

Harautp A. REHDER. 


REPORT OF THE COMMITTEE ON MEMBERSHIP 


It is the function of this Committee (1) to 
receive, examine, and evaluate nominations sub- 
mitted from various sources, (2) to recommend 
to the Board the names and qualifications of 
nominees it considers acceptable for membership, 
(3) to find eligible scientists who are not members 
of the Academy and to prepare nominations for 
them, and (4) to encourage and aid members of 
the Academy to submit nominations. 


JUNE 1952 


Members of the Committee have been very 
active in searching for potential members, espe- 
cially in their own organizations. The committee 
has examined about 80 nominations during the 
year, and has recommended to the Board 75 for 
resident and 2 for nonresident membership. 

The recent raising of the maximum number of 
Academy members from 800 to 1,000 places on 
this committee the responsibility of reducing 
this gap. To aid its work there have been mimeo- 
graphed two supplemental lists of nominees and 
new members since the appearance of the last 
Red Book in 1948. We are surprised, on looking 
into the matter, to find many eminent scientists 
who have never been invited to become members 
of the Academy. Plans are being made to extend 
the Committee and to reach into hitherto un- 
touched fields. Especially, the Committee urges 
all Academy members to exercise their privilege 
of preparing and submitting nominations. A high 
standard will be maintained in evaluating all 
nominations before submitting them. to the 
Board. Ea@pert H. Watker, Chairman. 


REPORT OF COMMITTEE ON AWARDS FOR 
SCIENTIFIC ACHIEVEMENT 


At the meeting of the Board of Managers on 
January 14, 1952, the recommendations of the 
Committee and its Subcommittees on Awards 
for Scientific Achievement for the year 1951 
were approved. The awards to be presented this 
year, therefore, are 

(1) In the Physical Sciences, to Mrnron 
SEYMOUR SCHECHTER, of the Bureau of Ento- 
mology and Plant Quarantine, in recognition of 
his distinguished research in insecticide chem- 
istry. 

(2) In the Engineering Sciences, to Max A. 
KKouuer, of the U.S. Weather Bureau in recog- 
nition of his distinguished investigations of rain- 
fall, run-off, and flood predictions. 

(3) In the Biological Sciences, to Epwarp 
Witiiam Baker, of the Bureau of Entomology 
and Plant Quarantine, in recognition of his dis- 
tinguished research on the Acarina, or mites. 

In lieu of a regular award with the 40-year age 
limitation, a special award, the first to be pre- 
sented for the Teaching of Science, will be granted 
this year. Howarp B. Owens, of Prince Georges 
County, Md., has been selected for this special 
award in recognition of his outstanding teaching 
and for his work in arousing the enthusiasm of 
students in science. 


PROCEEDINGS: 


THE ACADEMY 203 
The chairman wishes to express appreciation 
for the good work of the subcommittees and 
their respective chairmen, G. H. Coons, R. S. 
Dit, and B. D. Van Evera. 
Grorce P. Wauron, General Chairman. 


REPORT OF TH COMMITTEE ON ENCOURAGEMENT 
OF SCIENCE TALENT 


The Committee arranged the participation of 
the Academy in the Tenth National Science 
Talent Search of the Westinghouse Educational 
Foundation, as sponsor of the Third Annual 
Science Talent Search in the District of Colum- 
bia. Continuation of this work was assured by 
agreements for conducting the Fourth Search 
this year. 

Last year’s search resulted in the recom- 
mendation by the Committee of three local par- 
ticipants in the national search to the Academy’s 
Board of Managers for the award of a Certificate 
of Merit from the Academy. The awards were 
presented by the Academy at its Annual Honors 
Meeting on March 15, 1951. 

The Academy, through the medium of this 
Committee, again sponsored the Annual Science 
Fair for local high and junior high school stu- 
dents, tn cooperation with the science depart- 
ments of the Public Schools of the District of 
Columbia. The Fifth Science Fair was held 
April 14-19, 1951, in the lobby of the Depart- 
ment of Commerce Building, with 423 exhibits 
selected for display from about 1500 prepared in 
the schools. Two boy and two girl exhibitors were 
selected to compete in the National Science Fair 
held at St. Louis among 44 winners of the local 
fair. 

An unusual opportunity was seized by the 
Committee to arrange for the Academy to spon- 
sor a gala premier showing of the motion picture 
Kon-Tiki at the Dupont Theater for the benefit 
of the Science Fair. A sum of $776.22 was real- 
ized, which will be employed to support the Na- 
tional Science Fair to be held in Washington this 
spring. 

The Committee arranged for the Academy to 
solicit funds from its affiliated societies in sup- 
port of the Science Fair. A total of $4388 was 
received, including $100 from the Academy. 

The membership of the Committee during the 
year was: W. L. Scumirr, J. M. Caupwett, F. 
L. Monurr, A. H. Crarn, A. T. \icPHerson, 
and M. A. Mason, Chairman. The Chairman 
takes this opportunity to commend the excellent 


204 


support of these members, and particularly to 
express his appreciation to A. T. McPuHrERson, 
who has been outstanding in his leadership and 
enthusiasm in the work of the committee. 
Martin A. Mason, Chairman. 


Vice-President Fanny on behalf of the Acad- 
emy expressed appreciation (1) for the work of 
the Meetings Committee, Dr. Marcarprr Pirr- 
MAN, Chairman; (2) for the work of the Com- 
mittee on Grants-In-Aid for Research, Dr. L. 
E. Yocum, Chairman; (38) for the work of the 
Committee on Indexing the Journal, former presi- 
dent J. E. Grar, Chairman; and (4) to the Com- 
mittee on Monographs, J. R. Swauuen, Chair- 
man. 

After acceptance by members of the report of 
the Chairman of the Committee of Tellers, Vice- 
President Fahey declared the following elected: 


FRANK M. Serzumr, President-Elect 

Francis M. Deranporr, Secretary 

Howarp 8S. Rappieye, Treasurer 

C. F. W. Mursesecx, Board of Managers to 
January 1953 

Miutron Harris, Board of Managers to January 
1954 

Rocer G. Bares and W. W. Dieu, Board of 
Managers to January 19565. 


The followmg members of the Academy, nom- 
inated by the Affiliated Societies, were duly 
elected Vice-Presidents of the Academy: 


Philosophical Society of Washington—ALvin G. 
McNisuH 
Anthropological Society of Washington—W apo 


WEDEL 

Biological Society of Washington—Hucu T. 
O’ NEILL 

Chemical Society of Washington—Joun K. 


TAYLOR 
Entomological Society of Washington—Frep- 
ERICK W. Poos 


National Geographic  Society—ALEXANDER 
WETMORE 

Geological Society of Washington—A. NELSon 
SAYRE 


Medical Society of the District of Columbia— 
FRED O. Cor : 

Columbia Historical Society—GriLBert Gros- 
VENOR 

Botanical Society 
HutcHINs 

Washington Section of the Society of American 
Foresters—Wmn. A. Dayton 

Washington Society of Engineers—Cuirrorp A. 
Betts 

Washington Section of the American Institute 
of Electrical Engineers—A. H. Scorr 


of Washington—LeE M. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


Washington Section of the American Society of 
Mechanical Engineers—R. 8S. Dinu 

Helminthological Society of Washington—lL. A. 
SPINDLER 

Washington Branch of the Society of American 
Bacteriologists—A. M. GriFrFin 

Washington Post of the Society of American 
Military Engineers—Fioyp W. Houcu 

Washington Section of the Institute of Radio 
Engineers—HerBert G. DorsEy 

District of Columbia Section of the American 
Society of Civil Engineers—Martin A. Mason 


Vice-President Fahey introduced the speaker, 
Tuomas R. Henry, a member of the Wash- 
ington Academy of Sciences and well known for 
his popular writings on scientific topics. Mr. 
Henry gave a graphic account of his impressions 
in visiting the White Continent, and then 
showed a movie entitled The Secret Land. This 
spectacular film was prepared by Metro-Gold- 
wyn-Mayer Pictures from the moving pictures 
made by the U.S. Navy. Mr. Henry described 
the carefully planned Naval exploratory ex- 
pedition of over 2,000 persons and spoke of the 
interesting discoveries in Antarctica made pos- 
sible by the full use of modern equipment. Aerial 
photographs of more than one million square 
miles of Antarctica were made using aircraft. 
Numerous additional photographic records and 
scientific studies were obtained by exploration 
parties that made use of dog teams and a variety 
of automotive propelled surface vehicles. 

Vice-President Fahey introduced the new 
President, Waurer R. Rampere, who had 
served as President-Elect during 1951. After 
appropriate remarks the new President ad- 
journed the meeting at 10:35 p.m. 

F. M. Dreranporr, Secretary. 


454TH MEETING OF BOARD OF 
MANAGERS 


The 454th meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on March 17, 1952, was 
called to order at 8:02 p.m. by President Ram- 
BERG. Others attending were: H. 8. RAPPLEeys, 
J. A. Stevenson, W. F. Fosuaac, R. G. Barss, 
A. G. McNisu, H. T. O’Neiti, W. A. Dayton, 
A. H. Scorr, H. G. Dorsny, M. A. Mason, F. 
M. Deranporr, and, by invitation, E. H. WaAt- 
KER, J. R. Swauuen, L. E. Yocum, and W. T. 
Reap. 

President RaMBERG announced the appoint- 
ment of CLARENCE CoTraM, REECE I. SarLer, 
Leo A. SHINN, and Frank Kracex to the Com- 
mittee on Membership. 


JUNE 1952 


The resignation of STEPHEN BRUNAUER was 
approved as of December 31, 1951. The Treas- 
urer mentioned that the grant of research funds 
($170) from the American Association for the 
Advancement of Science made to Karu H. 
LANGENSTRASS and Francis E. Fox had not 
been used. This amount will be available for a 
new grant. 

The recommendation in the report of the 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent 
that the Academy should proceed with the or- 
ganization of a Junior Academy of Science was 
discussed. The Board approved a motion that 
the President appoint a special committee for 
the Consideration of the Establishing of a Junior 
Academy of Sciences in Washington. It was un- 
derstood that this committee will develop and 
present its detailed recommendations to the 
Board. 

The meeting adjourned at 9:20 P.M. 


455TH MEETING OF BOARD OF 
MANAGERS 


The 455th meeting of the Board of Managers 
held in the Cosmos Club on April-7, 1952, was 
called to order at 8:03 p.m. by President Ram- 
BERG. Others attending were: F. M. Serzurr, H. 
S. Rappieyn, J. A. STEVENSON, SARA E. BRran- 
HAM, R. G. Bares, W. W. Drext, A. G. McNtsu, 
J. K. Taytor, F. W. Poos, A. N. Sayre, L. M. 
Hurcuins, W. A. Dayton, C. A. Brerts, A. H. 
Scorr, A. M. Grirrin, F. W. Houan, M. A. 
Mason, F. M. Drranporr, and, by invitation, 
H. W. Wetts and A. T. McPHmrson. 

President Ramberg announced that he had 
made the following appointments to the Special 
Committee suggested at the last meeting of the 
Board to be known as the Junior Academy of 
Sciences Committee: Martin A. Mason, Chair- 
man, A. T. McPuerson, E. H. Wauxker. He 
also announced the appointment of Joan FaBer 
and Epwarp G. Rrrnuarp to the Membership 
Committee. 

The Secretary read the following minutes: 


An Executive Committee Meeting was held at 
8:30 p.m., April 7, 1952, with Messrs. RAMBERG, 
Sprzipr, Dayron, and DrEranporF in attendance. 

There was a discussion about the part that the 
Washington Academy might play in sponsoring 
the formation of a Junior Academy of Sciences, 
and President RAMBERG spoke of the interest of 
Messrs. Mason, McPuHrerson and WALKER, whom 
he had appointed to serve on a special committee 
for this purpose in this project. 


PROCEEDINGS: THE ACADEMY 


205 


In connection with the coming National Science 
Fair, Science Service has requested the selection 
of a list of about 160 interested scientists belong- 
ing to the Affiliated Societies who will be invited 
to a special early showing of the exhibits at the 
Fair. This group of Washington scientists and 
engineers will be invited to a dinner to be given 
in honor of the winners in their respective local 
Science Fairs, and it is anticipated that about 80 
will be willing to support the dinner as hosts to 
these students. As sponsor, the Washington Acad- 
emy of Sciences will be asked to contribute the 
dinners for the student exhibitors. The cost is ex- 
pected to be of the order of $250. The Executive 
Committee agreed that this worthwhile project 
should receive the support of the Academy. Plans 
for making a suitable list of members of Affiliated 
Societies available to Miss Parrmrson, of Science 
Service, were discussed. 

The matter of support for publishing the Index 
of the JourNnat for which the page proof has been 
received by the Secretary was considered. 


H. W. Wetts, Chairman of the Meetings Com- 
mittee, announced that this Committee, at its 
last meeting, discussed objectives and wondered 
(1) whether the meetings should tend more 
toward joint meetings with the Affiliated So- 
cieties in order to knit them more closely to the 
Academy; (2) whether there should be an at- 
tempt to increase interest in technical meetings; 
(3) whether there should be regular monthly 
meetings to stimulate student interest; and (4) 
whether a fall meeting of two or three days of 
papers to be arranged for Affliated Society par- 
ticipation, similar to the National Academy 
meetings, with each group responsible for three 
to six papers, should be considered. 

In the ensuing discussion Dr. BraNnHam 
pointed out that the latter program might be 
effective in bringing the Affiliated Societies to- 
gether in a closer knit organization. Mr. SerzLer 
pointed out difficulties entailed in completing 
arrangements unless meetings are held on a reg- 
ular meeting date basis, and both he and Dr. 
Mason emphasized the work entailed in arrang- 
ing symposia. Dr. Mason also spoke of the nu- 
merous technical meetings now provided for by 
the various Affiliated Societies which, if partici- 
pated in, are adequate to exhaust the mental, 
physical, and financial abilities of local scientists 
and engineers. He suggested that one or two 
meetings covering the broader fields of science 
might help fulfill the functions of the Academy 
as a coordinating society and would serve to 
orient those members who have no idea of what 
the Academy is supposed to do. Mr. Srerzier 


206 


pointed out that according to the bylaws two 
meetings are stipulated: The Annual Meeting 
and the Presidential Address meeting. President 
Ramppre mentioned that a third meeting, the 
Awards Meeting, should certainly be assured as 
an annual affair. It is up to the Meetings Com- 
mittee to make arrangements for any additional 
meetings. To insure a regular meeting place and 
time, the Cosmos Club Auditorium is reserved 
for the third Thursday evening in each month. 
Irregular or special meetings require that special 
arrangements be made well in advance of the 
proposed meetings. In conclusion President 
RaMBERG requested that the Vice Presidents 
bring the matter before the Affiliated Societies 
and report any suggestions of ways in which the 
Academy might be helpful. 

For the Committee on Encouragement of 
Science Talent, Dr. A. T. McPuHerson, Chair- 
man, reported his group had been cooperating 
with the teachers on the Local Science Fair. 
The Washington Daily News will share in the 
responsibility for this Fair, for which most of 
the expenses have been assured by the Academy- 
sponsored showing of the film Kon-Tiki. He 
emphasized that teachers in the local schools 
want scientists who will come to answer the 
questions of their students about science as a 
career, and others who will help inspirationally 
by preparing and giving classroom talks. He re- 
ported that only one completed blank, out of 
those made available at the last Board meeting, 
had been received, namely, one filled in by Dr. 
A. G. McNisu. On the other hand, the Engi- 
neers have 60 engineers listed on similar blanks 
distributed through member organizations of the 
D. C. Council of Engineering and Architectural 
Societies. He deplored the unbalanced represen- 
tation that will exist unless able physicists, chem- 
ists, biologists and other scientists come forward 
and offer to provide the needed help. Dr. Mc- 
Puerson stated that personal contact of scien- 
tists with students is highly desirable, and men- 
tioned that he had blanks with him for those 
who might be willing to fill them in. 

Dr. McPuHerson explained that the aim of the 
Management of the National Science Fair in 
requesting a list of 160 scientists to participate 
in the Special Scientists Night was to locate 
those interested in, and who would be at ease 
with these young people—boy and girl winners 
of local science fairs from all over the country. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 6 


This event entails the privilege of playing host 
to future scientists, and should in no way be 
considered a chore. 

In order to complete the desired list by Friday, 
April 11, President RamMBrERG suggested an ap- 
portionment of numbers among the Affiliated 
Societies. Vice Presidents of the Academy and 
Directors of local scientifie agencies will be in- 
cluded in this listing. 

On motion duly seconded the Board approved 
a special appropriation of a fund not to exceed 
$250 for providing dinners for student fair par- 
ticipants at the National Science Fair Dinner. 

The Secretary reported 337 ballots were re- 
ceived for election of the District of Columbia 
Section of the Society of Experimental Biology 
and Medicine to become an Affiliated Society of 
the Washington Academy of Sciences, confirming 
the earlier approval by the Board and completing 
the requirements for Affiliation of the District of 
Columbia Section of the Society of Experimental 
Biology and Medicine with the Washington 
Academy of Sciences. 

The following letter from President RAMBERG 
to the Secretary, dated April 2, was read: 


I am pleased to transmit to you herewith three 
books of records as follows: 

1. Minutes of Proceedings of the Joint Com- 
mission of Scientific Societies of Washington 
from its organization February 25, 1888, to 
1897, preceded by the Minutes of the organ- 
izing committee. 1892. 

2. Minutes of Proceedings of the Joint Com- 
mission of Scientific Societies of Washington 
from 1897 to Vol. 2, 1897. 

3. Directory of Scientific Societies of Washing- 
ton. 1889 to 1898. 

These records were found in cleaning out a 
storeroom in the Metallurgy Division of this 
Bureau. The Chief of the Metallurgy Division 
Mr. J. G. Tuompson, immediately recognized 
their value and turned them over to me for dis- 
position by the Academy. 

The records give a complete history of the 
Joint Commission which preceded the establish- 
ment of the Washington Academy of Sciences. 
They should therefore occupy a place of honor in 
the archives of the Academy. I suggest that you 
announce their recovery at the next meeting of 
the Board of Managers and that proper recognition 
be given Mr. THompson and his associates for 
finding them and returning them to the Academy. 


These interesting bound records of the incep- 
tion of the Washington Academy were turned 
over to the Archivist, J. A. Srevenson, for 
preservation in the Archives of the Academy. 


JUNE 1952 PROCEEDINGS: 

Treasurer RAPPLEYE read a letter of apprecia- 
tion from F. E. Fox returning the unused AAAS 
grant of $170 for purchasing equipment that he 


THE ACADEMY 207 
fortunately was able to borrow for the comple- 
tion of his project. 
The meeting was adjourned at 9:35 P.M. 
F. M. Drranporr, Secretary. 


@bituaries 


THoMAS WaYLAND VAUGHAN, geologist, pale- 
ontologist, and oceanographer, died January 16, 
1952, at the age of 81. He was born in Jonesville, 
Tex., on September 20, 1870. His undergraduate 
training was obtained at Tulane University, 
where he chose to major in physical science. At 
Tulane he took his first course in geology along 
with generous portions of physics, mathematics, 
and chemistry, and received a B.S. degree in 
1889 at the age of 18 years. From 1889 to 1892 
he was instructor in chemistry and physics at 
Mount Lebanon College in Louisiana, then went 
to Harvard, where he received an A.B. degree in 
one year, a master’s degree in another, and his 
doctorate in 1903. Meanwhile, in 1894, he had 
joined the U. 8. Geological Survey as assistant 
geologist. He continued in the Survey’s employ 
for many years, becoming geologist-in-charge of 
Coastal Plains investigations in 1907, at the age 
of 37 years. In 1903 he was appointed custodian 
of the madreporarian corals in the U. 8. Na- 
tional Museum. In 1924 he gave up governmental 
work in Washington and went to La Jolla, Calif., 
as professor of oceanography at the University 
of California and director of its Seripps Institu- 
tion of Oceanography. In this position he was 
very active for a dozen years and largely through 
his efforts Scripps evolved from a seaside bio- 
logical laboratory to the leading oceanographic 
institution of the world. During all these years 
he was generous in giving assistance to others, 
and he had the foresight to train successors in 
the many fields that claimed his attention. 

- Wayland Vaughan had every reason to be 
proud of his accomplishments and of the recog- 
nition that followed. No attempt will be made 
to enumerate the societies to which he was 
elected, both in this country and abroad, the 
high offices that he held in many of them, or to 
list the medals conferred upon him. Among 
others, one foreign government awarded a deco- 
ration, and three universities, two in this country 
and one in Canada, conferred honorary doctor’s 
degrees. One of his last honors came less than a 
year ago when, with impressive ceremonies, the 


Seripps Institution named its newest and finest 
building for him. Additional honors awaited him 
had he lived, as several volumes on geology and 
ecology now nearing publication have been dedi- 
cated to him. 

Dr. Vaughan commanded the respect. and ad- 
miration due a talented and prodigious worker 
who was able to pursue his career actively for a 
period of 60 years and to write several hundred 
scientific papers. This, however, is only a part of 
the story. He was truly unique in his ability to 
shift his interest and enter related or entirely new 
fields of investigation. Starting with investiga- 
tions of the geology of the Atlantic and Gulf 
Coastal Plains, he expanded his studies into east- 
ern Mexico, the West Indies, and Panama. He 
became the leading authority on the Mesozoic, 
Cenozoic, and Recent corals of these areas in- 
cluding their ecology, paleoecology, and _ reef- 
building characteristics. At a comparatively late 
date—about 1923, when he was 54 years old— 
he undertook the study of an even more difficult 
group, the larger Foraminifera, and wrote mono- 
graphic papers on these organisms. At about this 
same time he moved to the west coast and turned 
to oceanography. To this field he brought a 
knowledge of marine organisms and marine 
sediments; but it also called for a broad knowl- 
edge of physical oceanography, and he had to 
review and supplement his early studies, par- 
ticularly in the field of mathematics. Durimg a 
trip around the world in 1932-33, to survey 
oceanographic facilities for the National Academy 
of Sciences, he became interested in oriental art, 
a study that took up much of his spare time in 
the years that followed. He pursued it so assidu- 
ously that in California he was in even greater 
demand as a lecturer on oriental art than in his 


main fields of geology and oceanography. In 1934, 
at the age of 64 years, while recovering from a 
severe illness, he undertook the study of the 
Japanese language and actually attained consi- 
derable proficiency in this field. When he reached 
65 he was automatically retired as Director of 
Seripps, but he could have remained at the 


208 


Institution as Professor of Oceanography. He 
chose, instead, to return to Washington to re- 
sume his paleontological studies at the U. 58. 
National Museum. In 1947, he became partly 
blind after a severe attack of pneumonia. This 
ended his scientific work, but until his last illness 
he maintained his interest in the scientific work 
of others and in the workers themselves. He was 
indeed an outstanding scientist, and this brief 
summary does not do justice to his tremendous 
productivity. 
H. S. Lapp. 


The passing of Dr. Waurer T. SWINGLE on 
January 19 last was a very heavy loss to the bo- 
tanical and agricultural sciences. There are, of 
course, hundreds of distinguished workers in 
these fields in the United States, but the writer 
can think of no one with precisely the rare com- 
bination of a brilliant and highly original mind 
with extensive and profound knowledge, that 
made Swingle preeminent tn these fields. To these 
eifts were added an unfailing kindliness and 
willingness to share with others his great store 
of learning and experience. 

Born in Canaan, Pa., in 1871, his boyhood 
was spent in Kansas where he entered the State 
Agricultural College at Manhattan, receiving the 
degrees of B.Sc. and M.Sc., in 1890 and 1896, 
respectively. His alma mater honored him with 
the degree of D.Se. in 1922. 

He was called to the U. 8. Department of 
Agriculture at the early age of 20 and remained 
an active member of the Department until his 
retirement in 1941. In 1895-96 and again in 
1898 he was in Germany, studying at the Uni- 
versities of Bonn and Leipzig. The opportunity 
of working in the laboratory of so eminent a 
botanist as Professor Strasburger, contributed 
greatly to his knowledge of cytology, one of the 
many fields in which he gained distinction. He 
was the first to prove the existence of centro- 
somes in plant cells. 

During his sojourn in Germany, as previously 
at Manhattan and afterward in the Department 
of Agriculture, Swingle was closely associated 
with David Fairchild, an association continued, 
with mutual benefit, to the end of Swingle’s life. 

Upon his return to Washington he became en- 
grossed in the development of the Bureau of 
Plant Industry, which owes much of its useful- 
ness to his efforts. Many projects that are still 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 6 
pursued actively in the Bureau originated in the 
fertile brain of Swingle. 

Agricultural exploration soon engaged his 
attention and this work took him to French 
North Africa and other parts of the Mediter- 
ranean region, and later to China, Japan, the 
Philippines and Brazil. Two of the outstanding 
results of these explorations were the first suc- 
cessful introduction of the caprifig wasp, upon 
which the prosperity of the Smyrna-type fig 
industry in California largely depends, and the 
establishment of a very flourishing date industry 
in that state and Arizona. His papers on date- 
erowing in Algeria and on the caprifig are two of 
his most important publications. 

With the late Dr. H. H. Webber, he spent 
several years in Florida investigating the citrus 
industry and making hundreds of hybrids. Per- 
haps the finest of these is the tangelo, which re- 
sulted from a cross between the tangerine and 
the grapefruit. This work led him into exhaustive 
investigations of the taxonomy of the orange 
subfamily. Some two dozen papers were pub- 
lished on this subject, and several new genera 
were described. 

The establishment of the American-Egyptian 
cotton industry in Arizona, in which Dr. Swingle 
collaborated with other members of the Bureau 
of Plant Industry, was another of the projects 
to which his fertility of ideas contributed most 
effectively. 

In collaboration with Dr. Lyman Briggs, he 
perfected the ultraviolet microscope, making it a 
most useful tool in botanical research. 

Dr. Swingle was a fellow and life member of 
the American Association for the Advancement 
of Science, one of the founders of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences, and a member of the Wash- 
ington Academy of Medicine, Botanical Society 
of America, and the Philadelphia Academy of 
Sciences; also an honorary life member of the 
National Geographic Society and a correspond- 
ing member of the Académie d’Agriculture de 
France. In 1926 he represented the U. S. Govern- 
ment and the National Research Council at the 
third Pan Pacific Science Congress, in Tokyo. 

He married, in 1915, Maude Kellerman, her- 
self the daughter of a distinguished botanist and 
the sister of a former associate chief of the 
Bureau of Plant Industry. She, and their two 
sons and two daughters, survive him. 

T. H. Kearney. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


[ERARIUS Cis oka a AOE On ite Ue eee WALTER RaMBERG, National Bureau of Standards 
[PROSCUEIFAIA A ane 6 Onn Ode Dee a eee F. M. Serzurr, U.S. National Museum 
INE CEELOI MO Gry Re Sh eter Cy F. M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
IE RATSUTGRs Aen ORS Soe eee Howarp S. Rappieyre, U. 8. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
PAMELLOLSLRE FOr eR See cine Seine brthcned Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haratp A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


bilosophicalysociety,on Washingtonee-mc seems eae ese soe ea A. G. McNisH 
Anthropological Society of Washington........................ Wawpo R. WEDEL 
Biolozicalusocietysof washingtone seen a. eeee see eee eee. Hues T. O’ NEILL 
Chemicalisociebyzoh Washingtone acess estore oe een JouHn K. Taytor 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ FREDERICK W. Poos 
NatronalaGeographicisocietyn...-0ssesssese 4-4 enesecu. sae ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geological Society, of Washington). |......:..................... A. NELSON SAYRE 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia........................ Frep O. Coz 
ColumbiashustoricalliSociety:s scaccoeea es coe nee dee eos GILBERT GROSVENOR 
BoraunicalusocietysotwWashimgetonte: qe. asec eee eee Les M. Hutcuins 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Wiuuram A. Dayton 
Washington Society’ OfsHMPINEELSH ace Gee ee io eat eens CLIFFORD a Berts 
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. RICE aRD S. Dit 
Helminthological Society Of Washing tone. Wetcn ewe lay, Miia L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Anous M. GriFFin 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers........... HERBERT G. Dorsry 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
: Martin A. Mason 
District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 


N. R. Exits 

Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 
Io dainieny Ibe oon eeeaneseeoeeuuoue ss C. F. W. Musrsesecr, A. T. McPHERSON 
Ia UnrMnne7 OG. ooo cade ac omen eo ae ee eee Sara EH. BranuaM, Mitton Harris 
MOM ATT AT APL O Serene ci rosy st i rac, alice s crendvacense nies ele ienece Rocsr G. Batss, W. W. DirHu 
BOGKGEOPVIGHAGETSHi enti ae eee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
BOA CIOMmUCULOnSKATLOPAISSOCLatEe LL AULOTS! Asan eie ee eee [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....W ALTER RAMBERG (chairman), F. M. Srerzupr, H.S.Rappueye, 
Wiuuiam A. Dayton, F. M. DeranporF 
Committee on Membership..E.H. WALKER (chairman), M. 8S. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cor- 
Tam, R. C. Duncan, JoHN Faser, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, FRANK Kracex, D. B. 
Jonss, EH. G. REINHARD, REEcE I. SatuerR, Leo A. SHINN, F. A. Smitu, Hernz Specut, 
H.M. Trent, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings....H. W. Weuus (chairman), Wm. R. CAMPBELL, W. R. Cuap- 
LINE, D. J. Davis, H. G. Dorsey, O. W. TorrEsoNn 

Committee on Monographs (W. N. Fenton, chairman): 


te dieirneneye CGB ea 5 Gels no aan eee eee eee pe aes Coa IRs Vile DeLay P. W. Oman 

ROM ATIUM ATR PLO DA, ek eee ite ae Ph recat elke vaya ie 8. F. Buaks, F. C. Kracex 
Tha UME TOS ee chee nee ee ma AS ar en Ee arr W.N. FENTON, ALAN STONE 

Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (J. R. SwALLEN, general chairman): 

For Biological Sciences............. J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), L. M. Hurtcuins, 
Marearet Pirrman, F. W. Poos, L. P. Scuuttrz 

For Engineering Sciences............. R. C. Duncan (chairman), IX C. FIELDNER, 
Wayne C. Hatt, J. W. McBurney, O. 8. Ravina, H. L. Warrremore 

HOT BEY SUCCLISCUCTUCES Sn tee eee L. A, Woop (chairman), P. H. ABELSON, 


F. 8S. Darr, Grorce W. Irvine, Jr., J. H. McMILLeN 
For Teaching of Science......M. A. Mason (chairman), F. E. Fox, M. H. Martin 


Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research.......L. E. Yocum (chairman), H. N. Eaton, 
Kk. F. HerzFreLp 


Committee on Policy and Planning: 


MO AMU ATVI OSe heen cic cee creo eran wee W. A. Dayron (chairman), N. R. Smrra 

OMAN UAT VO G4 int, vis sencacietiye tescoe ieee ciseauas eye Jal, 133. Com Jr., W. W. RuBEY 

OPA UTM OD pts a eee ee Ree A aye raf aiehe aca eee . W. Parr, F. B. SrusBpEE 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. aes chairman) : 

ROR AIM ATL OOS Nis icici Mears OG veces sm siaiels as IXe dale CLARK, F. L. Mower 

OM ATU AIS QO, oketayoree tis. e5 alede Ne asp ngstenalie enone J. M. Catpwe tt, W. L. Scumitr 

PROV ATIU AT yell ODD Ree cee tenec pis. crkctens memtsece s eheset each viele donetons AG. NEE W. T. Reap 
IROOM, Om Cover! Oj Alo Ale Ale Socoocusccccbscsgcsc5e8sssonuuGee . M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... C. L. Gazin (chairman), Lovuiss M. ea D. R. Tarts 


Committee of Tellers...GrorGE P. WALTON (chairman), Grorar H. Coons, C. L. GARNER 


CONTENTS 


Page 
BrIocHEMISTRY.—Reaction of normal and mutant plastids of Nzcotiana 
to neotetrazolium. M. W. Woops, JANE L. SHowacre, and H. G. 
POU B Ui ee 0s iis apres ao ais ERs a eo 169 
GroLocy.—The base of the Cambrian in the southern Appalachians. 
IPA EP ABS TAIN Girt nee ee aera eee yet a De 170 
PaLEonToLoGy.—A Cretaceous horseshoe crab from Colorado. J. B. 
REESIDE; JR., and: D> V. HIARRIS). 0. 93s. 6-2). he 174 
Botany.—New mosses from southern Brazil. Epwin B. BartraM... 178 
Zootocy.—New western Atlantic records of octocorals (Coelenterata: 
Anthozoa), with descriptions of three new species. FREDBRICK M. 
BIS BR ook falas aelee titel Ga ee, rr 183 
ZooLtocy.—New Recent foraminiferal genera from the tropical Pacific. 
ALFRED) R... LOEBLICH, JR. 5 2 6 fciosoacce oak bees es oe ee 189 
Zootocy.—Fresh-water triclads (Turbellaria) of the Rocky Mountain 
National Park region, Colorado. Roman KENK................ 193 
ProcmrepiInes: THe ACADEMY .. 2.4 Voce oo. bon i 198 
OsituaRies: Thomas Wayland Vaughan; Walter T. Swingle.......... 207 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


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Dawa: 
VoL. 42 


Juty 1952 No. 7 


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JOURNAL 


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VoLuME 42 


July 1952 


No. 7 


GEOLOGY .— Lower limit of the Cambrian in the Cordilleran region.! CHESTER R. 
LONGWELL, Yale University. (Communicated by James 8. Williams.) 


Cambrian and older rocks are widely dis- 
tributed in the Cordilleran region, through 
thousands of miles in length and hundreds 
in width. The stratigraphic horizons of criti- 
cal interest to our problem are particularly 
well displayed, (1) in British Columbia and 
(2) in the Basin and Range province of the 
United States, the area to which my first- 
hand acquaintance is limited, and to which 
most of my comments are restricted. 

Current paleogeographic maps represent 
a Lower Cambrian seaway advancing north- 
eastward across much of the present Great 
Basin area, another southward across west- 
ern Canada (Deiss, 1941). Deposits that re- 
cord this early history are characterized by 
the Olenellus fauna; some earlier strata also 
commonly have been included. These were 
laid down on thick formations that com- 
monly are classed as Precambrian, such as 
the Belt series of Montana and British Co- 
lumbia which had been little deformed, and 
generally similar deposits in the Death Val- 
ley region that had been faulted, highly 
tilted, and otherwise disturbed. The concept 
of land areas of the time rests in part on 
facies relations, but in part merely on pres- 
ently known distribution of outcrops; for 
example, the western limit of the southern 
seaway at the Nevada-California state line 
is shown almost exactly on the location of 
the thickest known section of the fossilifer- 
ous Silver Peak formation. This limit is kept 
in Deiss’s synthetic map for all Cambrian 
seaways (1941, fig. 1). There is clear evi- 
dence of progressive overlap northward 
across What Deiss has called Montania, and 
eastward in the Colorado Plateau and Rocky 
Mountain areas. On the west, however, the 

1 Part of a symposium on ‘“‘Base of the Cam- 


brian System,” held by the Geological Society of 
Washington, April 11, 1951. 


evidence on Cambrian geography is very 
vague indeed, since the older formations 
either end abruptly against plutonic masses, 
as at the border of the Sierra Nevada, or 
disappear under younger Paleozoic, Meso- 
zoic, and Cenozoic cover, including the wide- 
spread Columbia River basalt. Nolan’s sec- 
tions (1928) show the clear relations in 
western Utah and eastern Nevada, and the 
lack of information in northern California, 
where Devonian beds rest on metamorphic 
and voleanic rocks. We know there was early 
Paleozoic voleanism in the coastal belt, and 
probably there was orogeny also. Eardley 
(1947) has offered a modification of Nolan’s 
sections, suggesting that the Salmon and 
Abrams schists, of the Klamath region, may 
represent a westward continuation of known 
Cambrian and late Precambrian formations. 
It is not assured that continuous land bor- 
dered the Cordilleran geosyncline on the 
west. 

However, more tangible evidence for our 
purpose lies inland. Stratigraphic relations 
are comparatively simple in the wide area 
traversed by the Grand Canyon, where 
little-deformed Cambrian beds lie across 
steeply tilted strata of the Grand Canyon 
series, which in turn rest on Archean schist, 
gneiss, and granite. The unmetamorphosed 
but strongly deformed Grand Canyon series 
is by general agreement Precambrian. In the 
overlying, nearly horizontal beds Cambrian 
faunas are found throughout the length of 
the Grand Canyon, although the lowest for- 
mation, the Tapeats sandstone, is appar- 
ently devoid of fossils. In the eastern part 
of the district the lowest significant fauna, 
found in the Bright Angel shale 135 feet 
above the Tapeats sandstone, indicates Mid- 
dle Cambrian age. Near the mouth of the 
canyon the same faunal zone is more than 


209 


210 


400 feet above the Tapeats and above thin- 
bedded sandstone that contains a Lower 
Cambrian Olenellus fauna (Mckee, 1945). 
Fifty mules farther west, at Frenchman 
Mountain in southern Nevada, the Olenellus 
faunal zone lies within the shale 80 feet 
above the Tapeats sandstone (Wheeler, 
1947), which there rests on the Archean 
complex. 

From Las Vegas westward the older part 
of the section thickens tremendously, with 
addition of formations whose age is uncer- 
tain. In sections east of Death Valley the 
Olenellus fauna has been reported from only 
the upper 900 feet of the Wood Canyon 
formation (Nolan, 1929; Hazzard, 1938), be- 
low which le the Stirling quartzite, 4000 
feet thick, the Johnnie formation, 2,500 to 
4,000 feet, and the Noonday dolomite, 1500 
feet. Thus in these sections 8,000 to 9,000 
feet of strata, largely clastic, underlie with- 
out obvious angular unconformity the low- 
est beds now known to contain Olenellus. 
This thick section lies with strong angular 
discordance on another series, thousands of 
feet thick, which Noble (1934) has suggested 
may be related to the Upper Precambrian 
formations in the tilted fault blocks of the 
eastern part of the Grand Canyon. These 
formations of the Death Valley region con- 
sist of sandstone, shale, and carbonate beds, 
as free from metamorphism as the younger 
series that leads up to Olenellus. The struc- 
tural discordance, however, is emphatic, and 
largely on this basis a number of geologists 
have chosen the base of the Noonday dolo- 
mite as the base of the Cambrian system. 
The reasoning, presumably, has been about 
as follows: Development of an erosion sur- 
face across the strongly tilted and faulted 
sedimentary series in the Death Valley re- 
gion and in the Colorado Plateau, with com- 
plete removal of these formations in a wide 
intervening area, indicates long-continued 
emergence of western North America. Re- 
submergence and renewed sedimentation, 
with progressive onlap eastward, marks a 
major physical change which logically may 
be taken as the start of a new geologic pe- 
riod and era. Those who have held this view 
probably explain the lack of fossil record 
through a large thickness of the younger 
section by a combination of circumstances. 
Conditions in this region may have been un- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 7 


favorable for kinds of living forms that 
would leave a record, or at least for preser- 
vation of any record. The last point applies 
logically to the Noonday dolomite and the 
Stirling quartzite, both of which have li- 
thology notably unfriendly to the fossil 
hunter. The Johnnie formation, on the other 
hand, consists in large part of thin shale, 
sandstone, and scattered carbonate beds, 
which theoretically should be favorable for 
preservation of fossils. It may be urged, 
however, that in most early Cambrian sec- 
tions fossils are not plentiful at best, and 
that not enough intensive work has been 
done in the region to warrant our writing off 
the Johnnie as a barren formation. This 
argument of course is largely negative. 

Let us look at the sections farther west. 
In the Panamint Range, according to Hop- 
per (1947), there is no Noonday dolomite, 
and a much thinned Johnnie formation rests 
on tilted strata that presumably are Pre- 
cambrian. In this part of the region, there- 
fore, the floor on which deposition of the 
higher series began was very irregular. How- 
ever, no evidence has been found to suggest 
abrupt relief—the Johnnie beds contain no 
coarse-grained deposits. 

The Inyo and Silver Peak ranges display 
the sections made classic by the early work 
of Turner (1909) and Walcott (1908). The 
Silver Peak series is of particular interest 
because fossils in relative abundance range 
through so large a part of its thickness. H. 
E. Wheeler, after a recent visit to Walcott’s 
Waucoba Springs locality (1948), pro- 
nounced the section too complex structur- 
ally to be used as a satisfactory standard 
without more comprehensive field studies. 
However, Knopf and Kirk (1918) found at 
Andrews Mountain a more complete section, 
apparently free from repetition by faulting. 
lurk states that the total thickness is 7000 
feet or more, of which about a fifth consists 
of carbonate beds. According to Walcott the 
genus Olenellus ranges through nearly 5000 
feet, and other forms, including the trilobite 
Holmia and the brachiopod Obolella, reach 
at least 1200 feet lower. Abundant forms 
reported by Walcott and Kirk as “corals” 
(Knopf and Kirk, 1918, p. 31)—probably 
archaeocyathids—suggest reef structure. In 
short, the thick deposit appears to be almost 
entirely of marine origin. 


Juny 1952 


The Silver Peak beds overlie the Campito 
sandstone, a fine-grained crossbedded sand- 
stone, some of it quartzitic, typically in 
thick beds. Even in this sandstone Kirk 
reports numerous markings which he diag- 
nosed as tracks possibly made by trilobites. 
Walcott (1908, p. 12) reported from some 
Nevada localities, in the Prospect Mountain 
quartzite, trails that he interpreted as marks 
made by trilobites. 

On both physical and organic evidence, 
the Wood Canyon formation is logically cor- 
related with the Silver Peak beds. Wheeler 
draws the base of the Cambrian at the low- 
est horizon from which Olenellus has thus 
far been reported, about 350 feet above the 
base of the Wood Canyon formation. How- 
ever, in the evidence presented by [irk and 
Walcott there is a suggestion that arthro- 
pods—genus unknown—lived during depo- 
sition of the Campito sands, in a section 
much more marine in character than corre- 
sponding sections near Death Valley. Al- 
though we might assume that marine fos- 
sils never will be found below the base of the 
Wood Canyon beds, their absence could 
mean simply that the environment of depo- 
sition was inhospitable for life that existed 
at that time. It would indeed be remarkable 
to find well preserved fossils in the Stirling 
quartzite in which the thick beds, abundant 
cross beds, and commonly conglomeratic 
texture suggest turbulent, perhaps deltaic 
conditions under which remains of living 
forms, even if they were present, would have 
had little chance to be preserved. Wheeler 
himself (1947) notes that at Frenchman 
Mountain he was able to find Olenellus only 
in a zone 32 feet thick, 80 feet above the 
base of the green shale and 390 feet above 
the basal unconformity. Yet there he pro- 
nounces (with good reason) all of these 
barren beds Lower Cambrian, whereas he 
relegates to the Precambrian a smaller thick- 
ness of the Wood Canyon formation in the 
Nopah Range, solely on the ground that 
search in this part of the section has not as 
yet revealed Olenellus. 

Wheeler and Beesley (1948) represent dia- 
erammatically the concept, which has long 
been widely accepted, of progressive onlap 
from a basin of deposition across an adja- 
cent land. The land mass shed sediments 
into the basin, and was at last covered 


LONGWELL: LOWER LIMIT OF CAMBRIAN 211 


through lowering by erosion combined with 
rise of the sedimentary column. Beds that 
carry typical Lower Cambrian fossils at 
Frenchman Mountain and near the mouth 
of the Grand Canyon look almost identical 
in lithology and in their relation to the basal 
unconformity, to beds in the eastern part 
of the Grand Canyon that carry a Middle 
Cambrian fauna. Moreover, we can endorse 
the suggestion of Wheeler and Beesley that 
near Death Valley beds lower than the Wood 
Canyon formation—say in the lower part of 
the thick Stirlng quartzite—were deposited 
somewhat earlier than the Lower Cambrian 
beds at Frenchman Mountain. But classi- 
fication of the Stirling quartzite as Pre- 
cambrian requires (1) acceptance of Ole- 
nellus as the sine qua non in determining 
Lower Cambrian age, and (2) assumption 
that all diagnostic fossils in this part of the 
section have been found. It may be sug- 
gested, in opposition to the ‘‘Olenellus 
school,” that trilobites other than Olenellus 
may play a part in the diagnosis of beds as 
Lower Cambrian. Walcott (1915) reported 
that at Barrel Spring, near Silver Peak, he 
found the genera Nevadia and Holmia at 
considerably lower horizons than Olenellus. 
Still other fossil forms conceivably may be 
championed as of some importance in this 
matter, in addition to certain physical cri- 
teria to be mentioned presently. 

It is by no means assured that the Johnnie 
and Noonday formations have the simple 
physical relationship to higher formations 
that ordinarily are suggested in regional dia- 
grams. Knopf and Kirk (1918) report that 
in the Inyo region deep erosion preceded 
deposition of the Campito sandstone, with 
complete removal locally of a thick forma- 
tion that may correlate with the Johnnie 
deposits. Moreover Hazzard (1938) cites 
some evidence for unconformity at the base 
of the Stirling quartzite in the Nopah 
Range; beds with contrasting lithologies ap- 
pear below the contact at outcrops not far 
separated, and there is a suggestion of slight 
angular divergence between the upper John- 
nie and the lower Stirling beds. We are re- 
minded that the contact between the Cam- 
brian and the Belt series of Montana was 
thought to be an inconspicuous discontorm- 
ity until regional studies demonstrated a 
major, even though gradual, angular dis- 


212 


cordance. In the structurally broken Death 
Valley region there is less opportunity for 
such a regional check. 

It is quite possible, then, that the Noon- 
day and Johnnie formations belong to an 
earlier episode of sedimentation, which was 
followed by crustal warping, erosion, and 
renewed basining. On the other hand the 
Stirlng quartzite appears to have initiated 
a consistent chapter of sedimentation which 
was remarkably uniform over a wide region. 
As Wheeler notes, the name Prospect Moun- 
tain quartzite (or sandstone) may well be 
applied to the initial deposit of this episode, 
from eastern California, through southern 
and central Nevada, western Arizona, west- 
ern and northern Utah, to southeastern 
Idaho. The several names Campito, Stirling, 
Tapeats, Prospect Mountain, Brigham have 
been applied to this highly siliceous accu- 
mulation, which presumably represents long- 
continued subaerial decay on a large land- 
mass. Encroachment of the sea brought 
about assortment of these weathering prod- 
ucts, and deposition, with progressive onlap, 
of the quartz sands and gravels, followed by 
thin beds of fine-grained clastics with spo- 
radic carbonate layers, muds that formed 
greenish shales, and finally a thick carbonate 
section. It would be difficult to find, in the 
entire geologic column, a more ideal succes- 
sion of strata to be termed a system. And 
surely the organic evidence is equally satis- 
factory. Fossils that have long been accepted 
as Lower Cambrian have been found in shaly 
beds near the top of the Prospect Mountain 
quartzite (Walcott, 1892) and equivalent 
units. To exclude from the Cambrian the 
bulk of this formation, which because of its 
lithology is logically barren of fossils, is to 
ignore completely the cogent physical rela- 
tionships between this clastic deposit and 
the beds above it. 

Therefore I would include in the Cambrian 
system all of the Prospect Mountain quartz- 
ite and its lithologic correlatives. This major 
unit in many ways constitutes an ideal basal 
element of the system. However, there is not 
yet a firm basis for drawing a definite lower 
boundary of the Cambrian in the Death 
Valley region. I believe that at present the 
Johnnie formation and the Noonday dolo- 
mite, together with the Deep Springs forma- 
tion and the Reed dolomite of the Inyo 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 42, No. 7 


region, should be carried under the heading 
“age unknown.” Designation of these units 
as definitely Precambrian does not seem war- 
ranted by the evidence now available. 

Literature describing relationships of the 
Windermere series to lower and higher strati- 
graphic units in the northern Rocky Moun- 
tains suggests conditions very similar to 
those in the Basin and Range province dis- 
cussed above. However, analysis of the prob- 
lem for the northern Cordillera will be left 
to students who have firsthand acquaintance 
with that region. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Deiss, CHARLES. Cambrian geography and sedi- 
mentation in the central Cordilleran region. 
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 52: 1085-1116. 1941. 

Earpiey, A. J. Paleozoic Cordilleran geosyncline 
and related orogeny. Journ. Geol. 55: 309-342. 
1947. 

Hazzarp, J. C. Paleozoic section in the Nopah and 
resting Springs Mountains, Inyo County, Cali- 
fornia. Journ. Mines and Geol. 33: 273-339. 
1938. 

Hopper, R. H. Geologic section from the Sierra 
Nevada to Death Valley, California. Bull. Geol. 
Soc. Amer. 58: 393-432. 1947. 

Knorr, A., and Krrx, E. A geologic reconnais- 
sance of the Inyo Range and the eastern slope of 
the southern Sierra Nevada, California. U.S. 
Geol. Sur. Prof. Paper 110: 23-31. 1918. 

McKer, E. D. Stratigraphy and ecology of the 
Grand Canyon Cambrian. Carnegie Inst. Wash- 
ington Publ. 563, pt. 1. 1945. 

Nosie, L. F. Rock formations of Death Valley, 
California. Science 80: 173-178. 1934. 

Noran, T. B. A late Paleozoic positive area in 
Nevada. Amer. Journ. Sci. (5) 16: 153-161. 
1928. 

. Notes on the stratigraphy and structure of 
the northwest portion of Spring Mountain, 
Nevada. Amer. Journ. Sci. (5) 17: 461-472. 1929. 

TurneER, H. W. Contribution to the geology of the 
Silver Peak quadrangle, Nevada. Bull. Geol. 
Soc. Amer. 20: 223-264. 1909. 

Watcorr, C. D. Systematic list of fossils of each 
geological formation in the Eureka District, 
Nevada. U. 8. Geol. Surv. Mon. 20: 319-321. 
1892. 

. Cambrian geology and paleontology. Smith- 

sonian Mise. Coll. 58: 12, 185-189, 199. 1908. 

. The Cambrian and its problems: Problems 
of American geology: 205-207. 1915. 

WueEELER, H. E. Base of the Cambrian system. 
Journ. Geol. 55: 153-159. 1947. 

. Late pre-Cambrian-Cambrian stratigraphic 

cross section through southern Nevada. Univ. 

Nevada Bull. 42: no. 3. 1948. 

and Brrstey, E. M. Critique of the time- 

stratigraphic concept. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 

59: 75-86. 1948. 


Juny 1952 


DUNKLE AND WILSON: DEVONIAN 


FISHES Altes 


PALEONTOLOGY .—Remains of Devonian fishes from Texas. Davin H. DuNKLE, 
U. 8. National Museum,! and Joun A. Witson, University of Texas. 


Two papers on Paleozoic rocks of central 
Texas (Cloud, Barnes, and Warren, 1945, 
and Cloud and Barnes, 1948) include 
description of rocks of uncertain age con- 
taining bones which are herein identified 
by Dunkle as Upper Devonian. First men- 
tion of the bones is found in Cloud, Barnes, 
and Warren (1945, p. 174): ‘“‘A slab of cono- 
dont- and bone-bearing calcareous and 
phosphatic rock (16-T-33D)? was found and 
collected by Barnes and Warren while they 
were mapping the Ordovician-Carboniferous 
contact near Elm Pool, Blanco County, on 
May 14, 1942.” Somewhat later ‘three 
other localities were found at which similar 
conodont- and bone-bearing rock occurs: 
167T-2-25B, 16T-1-32C, and 16T-2-27,A.’” 
Conodonts from the original bone-bearing 
slab were determined by W.-H. Hass 
(memorandum to H. D. Miser dated March 
2, 1945) to be of both ‘Mississippian’ and 
“Devonian” types. Macrofossils from the 
third locality were recognized positively 
by Dr. G. A. Cooper (letter to Cloud, 
February 27, 1945) as of earliest Mississip- 
pian age. The conclusion drawn by Cloud, 
Barnes, and Warren (1945) was that the 
conodonts and macrofossils (invertebrates) 
dated the rocks in question as_ earliest 
Mississippian. 

The extensive report of Cloud and Barnes 
(1948, dated 1946), ‘The Ellenburger 
Group of Central Texas,” contains additional 
information concerning the bone-bearing 
beds. Cloud and Barnes (1946) elevate the 
Ives breccia of Plummer (Bullard and Plum- 
mer, 1939) to formational rank. The rela- 
tionship of the “bone bed” to the Ives 
breccia is described (Cloud and Barnes, 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary, 
Smithsonian Institution. 

2 The Bureau of Economic Geology, University 
of Texas, uses a system of locality numbers in 
which each of the 254 counties of the State is as- 
signed a number, Blanco County being number 16. 
The ‘“‘T”’ stands for Texas, and the remainder of 
the number designates the position within a 
county as recorded on aerial photographs for 
central Texas. 

3 Locality descriptions are given in detail in 
Cloud, Barnes, and Warren (1945) and in Cloud 
and Barnes (1948). 


1946, pp. 46-47) as follows: “Locally, the 
breccia seems to grade laterally into or to 
overlie or underlie a reddish-brown, olive- 
gray, brownish, or yellowish impure lime- 
stone or phosphatic rock containing cono- 
donts, fragments of bones, phosphatic 
pellets, and sand grains. Apparently more 
than one “bone bed” is involved, but rela- 
tionships are obscure.” 

The purpose of this paper is to present 
what small amount of information is ob- 
tainable from the bones and the implications 
that can be drawn from them. 


Dinichthys cf. terrelli Newberry 


The recognizable remains include six frag- 
ments of the dermal armor of a large placoderma- 
tous fish. Four of these six broken and eroded 
pieces of bones, all from locality 16T-2-383D, 
can be readily identified as characteristic por- 
tions of arthrodiran plates, a fragmentary left 
paranuchal (Fig. 1), a left suborbital (Fig. 2), a 
left inferognathal (Fig. 3), and a right intero- 
lateral (Fig. 4). Comparative examinations 
prompt provisional reference of the four to a 
form closely allied to the well-known brachy- 
thoracine Dinichthys terrelli Newberry. The 
present materials are illustrated imposed on out- 
lines and appropriate sections of complete ele- 
ments of the latter species. For the purpose of 
this note further description is unnecessary. 


Fra. 1.—Dinichthys cf. terrelli Newberry (U.T.- 
B.E.G. no. 40100): Left paranuchal plate fragment 
in internal aspect. Reproduction approx. X 2/5. 


214 


Ve SS 


gare wi 
Za 
— 


— = 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 7 


Fie. 2.—Dinichthys cf. terrelli Newberry (U.T.B.E.G. no. 40100-3) : Left suborbital plate fragment in 
transverse section and lateral aspect. Reproduction approx. X 2/5. 


It is not possible here to make more than a 
tentative identification. This fact is not due alone 
to the fragmentary nature of the material but 
must be coupled with various questions concern- 
ing the basic status of Dinichthys terrelli and its 
relatives. D. terrelli, as now recognized, is re- 
stricted to the Upper Devonian Ohio Shales 
formation. It, with the species intermedius and 
curtus, from the same strata, comprise a series 
of advanced Coccosteus-like forms, which by 
virtue of the numerous modifications discussed 
by Dunkle and Bungart (1946) is quite distinct 
from all the other so-called dinichthyids of the 
Ohio Shales (that is, Dinichthys herzeri, Gor- 
gonichthys, Heintzichthys, and Holdenius). Though 
meagerly elaborated by Orvig (1951) it is possible 
that some of the same features noted by Dunkle 
and Bungart (1946) motivated Stensio’s (1945) 
separation of the brachythoracines into the or- 
ders Coccosteiformes and Pachyosteiformes. 


Thus, regardless of the taxonomic value placed 
on the recognized differences, it is necessary that 
all Dinichthys species from North America be 
examined to ascertain with which group each is 
related. Until the task is completed, these ma- 
terials from Texas can have little use in defini- 
tive stratigraphic correlations. 


Arthrodira, gen. and sp. undet. 


Two fragments (Fig. 5) (from locality 16T-1- 
32C), presumably of the same identity, are 
unique in the possession of extremely large denti- 
cles arranged in a single row along one of their 
margins. Both specimens are too fragmentary 
for a complete description. They are, however, 
relatively low asymmetrical structures with 
robust elliptical cross sections. The teeth are re- 
curved, slightly compressed, indicated to be 
variously spaced and to vary in height from one- 
half to one-third the depth of the supporting 


Fie. 3.—Dinichthys cf. terrelli Newberry (U.T.B.E.G. no. 40100-2): Left inferognathal plate frag- 
ment in lateral aspect and transverse section. Reproduction approx. X 2/5. 


JuLY 1952 DUNKLE 
bone. They appear as projections from the bone, 
becoming dense and containing a pulp cavity dis- 
tally. 

The gross histology and over-all construction 
of the specimens suggest an arthrodiran mandible 
with teeth, rather than an ichthyodorulite. 
Among arthrodires with large teeth and long, 
low mandibles are the upper Devonian genera 
Diplognathus and Tracheosteus. These latter, un- 
fortunately, are also incompletely known and it 
seems best to postpone identification of the 
Texas material. 


Fie. 4—Dinichthys ef. terrelli Newberry (U.T.- 
B.E.G. no. 40100-1): Right interolateral plate 
fragment in anterolateral aspect. Reproduction 
approx. X 2/5. 


DISCUSSION 

If later work shows that Dzinichthys 
terrella and its relatives are restricted to 
the Upper Devonian Ohio Shales formation, 
then the D. cf. terrelli fragments from Texas 
do have significance stratigraphically. That 
they occur with Mississippian invertebrates 
and conodonts seems to be proved. Where 
they came from, however, has not been 
mentioned in the literature. If a short- 
lived sea of Upper Devonian age occupied 
the area just prior to Ives breccia time and 


AND WILSON: 


DEVONIAN FISHES 215 
deposited a thin mantle of soft easily erodible 
material (that is, shale) in which the bones 
of the placoderms and the Devonian cono- 
donts would be the most resistant structures, 
then a source for the reworked bones and 
conodonts would be available. This hypoth- 
esis would not seem to conflict with the 
reasoning of Cloud and Barnes (1948, pp. 
48-49) if the long period of weathering 
necessary to free the chert of the Ives 
breccia is assumed to have taken place 
prior to the invasion of the supposed sea. 


REFERENCES 


Buwwuarp, F. M., and Puummer, F. B. Paleozoi 
section of the Llano uplift. Guide to the 
Geologic Excursions Sponsored by West Texas 
Geol. Soc., Forth Worth Geol. Soc., Texas 
Acad. Sci., and Univ. Texas: 1-20, 6 illus. 
1939. (Mimeographed.) 

Barnes, V. E., Cuoun, P. E., Jr., and WARREN, 
L. E. The Devonian of central Texas. Univ. 
Texas Publ. 4801: 161-177, pls. 9-10, figs. 
42-46. 1943. 

. Devonian rocks of central Texas. 
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 58: 125-140, 1 pl., 
figs. 1-7. 1947. 


Croup, P. E., Jr., and Barnes, V. E. The 
Ellenburger group of central Texas. Univ. 


Texas Publ. 4621: 1-473, 44 pls., 8 figs., 3 
tables. 1948 (dated 1946). 

Dunkte, D. H., and Bun@art, P. A. 
supragnathal of Gorgonichthys. 
Nov. 1316: 1-10, 4 figs. 1946. 

Orvic, T. Histologic studies of placoderms and 
fossil elasmobranchs. Ark. Zool., ser. 2, 2(2): 
321-454, pls. 1-8, figs. 1-22. 1951. 

Srensio, E. On the heads of certain arthrodires, 
II. Kungl. Svenska Vet.—Akad. Handl., ser. 


The antero- 
Amer. Mus. 


3, 22(1): 1-70, figs. 1-14. 1945. 


Fie. 5.—Arthrodira, gen. and sp. undet. (U.T.B.E.G. no. 40101): Fragments of dentate mandibular 
elements in transverse sections and lateral aspects. Reproduction approx. < 9/10. 


216 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES VoL. 42, No. 7 


PALEONTOLOGY .—WNotes on Texacrinus. Harretit L. Stripe, Bartlesville, 
Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


The author was first aware of the pres- 
ence of crinoids in the Francis shale of south- 
eastern Oklahoma with the description of 
Oklahomacrinus loeblichti Moore (1939). The 
specimen involved was somewhat fragmen- 
tary and did not indicate particularly 
lucrative collecting possibilities. Richard 
Alexander, at present a student at the Uni- 
versity of Oklahoma, called my attention to 
the potentialities of the horizon as exposed 
in the brick pit just south of Ada, Okla., 
which is the type locality of O. loeblichi. 
Before an expediton was arranged, he and 
Allen Graffham, of Carter Oil Co., explored 
the exposed zones more thoroughly. Mr. 
Graffham was cognizant of special techniques 
needed to remove shale blocks and subse- 
quently to expose the specimens. One fairly 
large pocket proved to be especially prolific 
in erinoid calices and crowns. It was some- 
what comparable to famous crinoid ‘‘nests”’ 
of Crawfordsville, Ind., Le Grand or Gilmore 
City, Iowa, or Huntsville, Ala.; however, 
there was no associated limestones, and pres- 
ervation was therefore not so perfect. Most 
of the material available for study was col- 
lected individually and collectively by Allen 
Graffham, Richard Alexander, Claude Bro- 
naugh, and the author. Considerable time 
and effort have been spent in excavating the 
shale blocks, especially from the large col- 
ony. A thin layer of carbonaceous vegatal 
material marks the top of the 3- to 4-inch 
crinoid zone and a jumbled mass of isolated 
columnals and shells mark the bottom. Other 
smaller “nests”? have been discovered at 
‘somewhat lower horizons, but the specimens 
are more difficult to prepare. 

In the present paper an effort is made to 
record several new species from the Francis 
shale which are assigned to Texacrinus 
Moore and Plummer (1940), as well as two 
species from lower and higher horizons. Here- 
tofore only one species had been described, 
T. gracilis Moore and Plummer (1940), 
which is the genotype species. The holotype 
and only specimen known at that time was 
a magnificent crown from the Des Moines 
formation of Texas, but the cup is somewhat 
distorted owing to lateral compression and 


the. exact nature of the base is not known. 
It was interpreted, and probably correctly, 
by these authors that the cup had a slightly 
depressed base. The author has also collected 
a crown from the same horizon in Texas but 
unfortunately the lower portion of the cup 
is missing and if present would have been 
compressed in the same manner as the holo- 
type. 

A new form from the Des Moines of Okla- 
homa is presented as 7. assoczatus, n. sp. It 
has a broader cup with a wider basal area 
than normal for the genus. 

Three new species are presented from the 
Missouri: 7. interruptus, T. trradiatus, and 
T. compactus. The first two are robust, with 
unusually large columns, relatively high dor- 
sal cups, and IBB entirely covered by the 
proximal columnals. T. interruptus is dis- 
tinctive in having circular depressions at the 
angles of the plates and strong tumidity of 
cup plates. The presence of these depres- 
sions, and subsequently raised areas along 
the sutures, is considered by the author and 
others as a significant specialization which 
is In some instances of generic importance. 
T. compactus has an unusually small stem 
and a more compact cup than the other 
species from the Francis shale. 

One species is described as 7’. progressus 
from the Virgil series of northeastern Okla- 
homa. It discloses a progressive step toward 
elimination of the anal plates from the dorsal 
cup and is the only known representative of 
the genus to show any appreciable change 
in this respect. 

The author believes there is a close affinity 
to Haerteocrinus Moore and Plummer (1940), 
but this matter will be discussed at length 
in a later paper. 


Genus Texacrinus Moore and Plummer 


Texacrinus interruptus, n. sp. 
Fig. 8 


Dorsal cup has the form of a medium, basally 
impressed globe. All sutures are impressed, and 
deep round depressions are found at the angles of 
the plates. Infrabasals (IBB) are entirely within 
the basal concavity and are covered by the proxi- 


Fries. 1-4.—Texacrinus associatus, n. sp.: Holotype from posterior, summit, base, and anterior 
xX 2. Fies. 5-7.—Texacrinus progressus, n. sp.: Holotype from left posterior, base, and right anterior 
x 2. Fia. 8.—Texacrinus interruptus, n. sp.: Holotype from the right posterior, X 2. Fras. 9, 12-15. 
pT “nus inradiatus 5.0 G). Layne vaya Tea Oe etl eNO 3s 19S > paratype fr 

exracrinus vrradvatus, n. sp.: 9, Large paratype from right posterior, X 1.8; 12-14, young paratype fro 
base, X 2.7, posterior and anterior, X 2; 15, holotype from right posterior (a specimen of Aesioe 
sp. isalsoshown), X 1.2. Fras. 10, 11, 16.—Texacrinus compactus, n. sp.: 10, 11, Holotype from posterior 
and base, X 2; 16, paratype from anterior, X 2.3 


m 


is 


4.0. 


217 


218 


mal columnals. Basals (BB) are five large tumid 
plates which curve strongly out of the depressed 
base and form anappreciable portion of the lateral 
calyx walls. Radials (RR) are five medium plates 
which are tumid and have articulating facets 
which do not fill their distal faces. Three tumid 
anal plates occupy the posterior interradius (post. 
IR). The radianal (RA) is unusually large, rests 
obliquely on the upper surface of post. B, and 
supports anal X and RX to the right and left 
above. Anal X is considerably larger than RX 
but the upper surfaces of the two plates form a 
common plane, above the distal extremities of 
the dorsal cup. 

Complete arm structure is not known for this 
species. Axillary first primibrachials (PBrBr) are 
present in several rays. They are low, tumid 
elements. The following SBrBr are rather large 
and cuneiform, with well-rounded exteriors. 

Sixteen or more columnals are preserved and 
show the unusually robust nature of the stem. A 
thin small columnal is succeeded by, and sharply 
defined from, a large thick columnal. 

Measurements (in mm).— 


Holotype 
Widthtofedorsalicupmess ee rere eee eee eee ee he) 
iHeightrofedorsalvcipenc cee eer eee eee eee £1025 
Diameter of expanded proximal columnals....... 3.8 
eng thiotdl S posta Baar cea eae orn 7.3 
Widthiofel-spost= baer rer =. Oey en rte eens 6.0 
JoSraygi ey Cyr Me FaVeG IRS Codos ceaneaccuasonsascnoeeubac 5.0 
Wid thvofaliepos tea Riser neg eee iret ery eer 7.9 
Length of suture between BB..................... Bist 
Length of suture between RR.................... 2.8 


* Along surface curvature. 


Remarks.—This species is more comparable to 
T. wrradiatus than other described species and is 
readily distinguished by the strong tumidity of 
the cup plates, sharp definition between the alter- 
natingly expanded columnals, and depressions at 
the angles of the cup plates. 

Occurrence and horizon.—Upper part of the 
Francis shale, Missouri series, Pennsylvanian; 
section 4, T.3 N., R.6 E., brick pit south of Ada, 
Okla. 

T ypes.—Holotype collected by the author. To 
be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. 


Texacrinus irradiatus, n. sp. 
Figs. 9, 12-15 


Dorsal cup is in the form of a medium, basally 
impressed bowl. IBB are five small plates con- 
fined to the basal concavity and are almost en- 
tirely covered by the proximal columnals. BB are 
five large plates which participate strongly in the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 42, NO. 7 
lateral walls of the calyx. RR are five large 
pentagonal plates. The outer surface of the RR 
continue for a short distance into the interarticu- 
lating areas so that the articulating facets do not 
occupy the full width of the plates. Three large 
anal plates are present in the post. IR. RA covers 
the entire upper surface of post. B and is followed 
above by anal X to the left and RX to the right. 
Anal X is the larger of the two; however, it 
forms a common plane with RX. The latter plate 
occupies a considerably higher position in relation 
to the basal plane of the cup. All sutures between 
cup plates are mildly to sharply impressed. 

Thirty cuneiform arms are indicated. First 
PBrBr are axillary in all rays and are low wide 
elements. Second bifurcation takes place on or 
about the fifth SBrBr in all rays. Thereafter the 
outer rays remain unbranched, but a second 
dichotomy takes place in the inner rays. 

The column is round and is composed of al- 
ternatingly expanded columnals. No evidence of 
cirri has been found. Tegmen is unknown. Crown 
and column are devoid of ornamentation. 

Measurements (in mm).— 


Large Small 
figured figured 
Holotype paratype paratype 
Width of dorsal cup........... 214% 23080* Holl 
Height of dorsal cup. ......... 9.8 15.0 5.0 
Diameter of expanded colum- 

MALS ery essen eo ee pee Eee, 6.5 2.3 
Widthiofirsant = Bitesssetee seem Orb: 10.0 4.4 
Lengthrof'rvants Bhiece sc) -20'- 8 10.2 3.0 
WaidthiofansanteeRheerrn aes 10.0 12.0 4.5 
Length of r. ant. Rf........... 6.5 7.4 2.6 
Length of arms (as preserved) .33.2 — 18.3 
Length of suture between BB. 6.0 6.9 PP) 
Length of suture between RR. 4.5 4.7 1.8 


* Mildly distorted due to lateral compression. 
7 Along curvature of plates. 


Remarks.—This species is the commonest rep- 
resentative of the genus found in the Francis 
shale. It is more robust than 7’. interruptus, and 
comparison is given under description of that 
species. The small figured paratype is obviously 
a young representative of the species in that the 
column remains proportionately large. The arms 
of the young specimen are more comparable to 
those of 7. gracilis in their delicate appearance. 

Occurrence and horizon—Upper part of the 
Francis shale, Missouri series, Pennsylvanian; 
section 4, T. 3 N., R. 6 E., brick pit south of 
Ada, Okla. 

Types.—Holotype and figured paratypes col- 
lected by Allen Graffham. To be deposited in the 
U.S. National Museum. 


JuLY 1952 


Texacrinus compactus, n. sp. 
Figs. 10, 11, 16 


This species is fairly abundant in the Francis 
shale and is characterized by the small compact 
nature of the cup and the comparatively small 
column. A complete crown has not been found 
but the dorsal cup is well represented and portions 
of the arms are known. 

Dorsal cup is in the form of a medium, basally 
impressed truncated cone. IBB are almost en- 
tirely covered by the proximal columnals but their 
outer apices are visible in the shallowly impressed 
basal area. BB are five rather elongated plates. 
RR are five pentagonal plates with width slightly 
greater than length. There are three plates in the 
post. IR; RA is the largest and separates anal X 
from post. B, anal X is somewhat larger than 
RX which is to the right and forms a common 
plane with anal X in upper extremities. 

Column is small and tapers slowly. Although 
the columnals are alternatingly expanded there 
is not the sharp differentiation between small and 
large segments as found in other species of the 
genus from the Francis shale. 

Measurements (in mm).— 


Figured 
Holotype paraly pe 
Widthvotidorsalacuiprecses icc.) 12.3 1183565 
Herhuomdorsalicupmane (aes. ae. ee | On 5.8 
Diameter of expanded proximal colum- 

11 ee PEE nisi poe, Susie. Siew sl 1.9 
Widtheotemepan te Beers fs saci oie 5.0 5.8 
Wenethvotangante rere neces ae ri« cc. 5.0 5.8 
Widthwotessantbeehinwses hos tee iit « 6.0 6.4 
LRH ON OF Fo Hiallin 145 oa oabauessccoodon 4.0 4.2 
Length of suture between BB......... Pye) 2.9 
Length of suture between RR......... 1.8 2.0 


* Along surface curvature. 


Remarks.—The compact nature of the dorsal 
cup and proportionately small stem distinguish 
this from other described species. 

Occurrence and horizon.—Upper part of the 
Francis shale, Missouri series, Pennsylvanian; 
section 4, T. 3 N., R. 6 E., brick pit south of 
Ada, Okla. 

Types.—Holotype collected by Richard Alex- 
ander. Figured paratype collected by the author. 
To be deposited in the U.S. National Museum. 


Texacrinus progressus, n. sp. 
Figs. 5-7 


The dorsal cup has the form of a moderately 
high truncated globe. There are five IBB in the 
narrow basal invagination which extend slehtly 
beyond the proximal columnal. Five BB are 


STRIMPLE: NOTES ON TEXACRINUS 


219 


elongated elements forming a large portion of the 
outer cup walls. Five RR are wider than long. 
The outer surfaces carry into the interarticulating 
areas for a short distance along the sutures. 
Plates of the post. IR have an unusual arrange- 
ment. RA is large and reaches across the entire 
upper surface of post. B to make a broad contact 
with |. pest. R. Anal X. is moderately large and 
extends well above the normal height of the cup. 
RX is small and is entirely separated from RA 
by post. R. Distal faces of anal X and RX form 
a common plane and are each followed by single 
tube plates of equal size and appearance. 

All first PBrBr are axillary. They are mildly 
constricted in midsection in somewhat the same 
manner as those of Apographiocrinus typicalis 
Moore and Plummer (1940). They are of unequal 
length. Only a few SBrBr are preserved and were 
apparently cuneiform. 

Teegmen is unknown. Proximal columnals are 
round, alternatingly expanded and weil crenu- 
lated. 

Measurements (in mm).— 


Holotype 
Wish, OR Clos OID andncococococabodeooponteso duce 12.3 « 
Herhtiotadorsalicuppepree ce cen eee 7.0 
Diameter of expanded proximal columnal......... 2.0 
Widthtoferantais* ihe caaenererr cae eee Coe 5.7 
KengthrofiarvanteB seen serine ac eerie 6.0 
Widthyofercvant hues san on reser eenetere fe etetstel fate 6.4 
enc throfinanterkGenen ecient ret etter tr 4.2 
Length of suture between BB..................... 3.0 
Length of suture between RR..................... PH) 


* Along surface curvature. 


Remarks.—The general appearance of this spe- 
cies is more comparable to 7’. compactus than to 
other described species. 7’. progressus is readily 
distinguished by the more advanced arrangement 
of the anal plates and the slightly elongated 
axillary PBrBr. 

Occurrence and horizon.—Nelagony formation, 
about 35 feet below the Wildhorse limestone 
member, Virgil series, Pennsylvanian; NW + sec- 
tion 21, T. 22 N., R. 10 E., Osage County, Okla., 
about 15 miles west of Skiatook. 

Types—Holotype collected by Richard Alex- 
ander. To be deposited in the U. 8. National 
Museum. 


Texacrinus associatus, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-4 


Dorsal cup has the form of a low basally im- 
pressed globe. All cup plates are mildly tumid 
principally due to the impressed sutures. Five 
IBB form a pentagonal disk at the bottom of the 


220 
shallow basal concavity, and are visible beyond 
the columnar sear. Five BB form a broad basal 
plane and curve upward to participate in the 
lateral cup walls. Five RR are wide pentagonal 
plates. The outer surfaces of RR extend into the 
interarticulating areas but not im a pronounced 
manner. Distinctive characters of the articulating 
facets are the unusually large outer areas where 
strong outer marginal ridges are found. Liga- 
mental pit furrows are pronounced and transverse 
ridges are sharp though not prominent. Muscle 
areas are rather small and slope slightly out- 
wardly. 

Three anal plates are present in the post. IR. 
RA is the larger and has firm contact with 1. 
post. R, anal X, RX, r. post. R, r. post. B and 
post. B. Anal X is rather small and extends above 
the distal extremities of the cup. RX is small and 
forms a common upper plane with anal X. 

Proximal columnals are not present but the 
cicatrix is well defined. Strong crenulations mark 
the perimeter of the scar and the lumen appears 
to be rather large and pentalobate. 

: Measurements (in mm).— 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 7 


Holotype 
Widthvofédorsalicupser ssa eee Wile 7 
Heightiofidorsalicupine-aceie here eee eee 5.1 
Diameter of colummnar’scar.)......--- sees oe 2.0 
Widthiofersant-)B tanner eee eee ee 6.0 
IGengthiofirant: Beets: aos dann eee eee 6.0 
Width ofsrivant: (Reise. on ee ee ee 7.0 
Tengthiofirsiant Re ee ee eee eee ee eee 4.2 
Length of suture between BB..................... 2.2 
Length of suture between RR..................... Tad 


* Along surface curvature. 


Remarks.—The broad basal plane and low 
dorsal cup serves to distinguish 7’. associatus from 
other known species of the genus. 

Occurrence and horizon.—Oologah limestone 
(perhaps equivalent to the Altamont limestone 
of Kansas), Des Moines series, Pennsylvanian; 
Chandler Materials Company quarry, east of 
Tulsa, Okla. 

Types.—Holotype collected by the author. To 
be deposited in the U. 8. National Museum. 


REFERENCES 


Moore, R. C. Journ. Sci. Lab., Denison Univ. 
Bull. 39: 261-265. 1939. 

— and Puiummer, F. B. Univ. Texas Publ. 
3045: 143-146, pl. 15, fig. 4, pl. 21, fig. 5. 1940. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—The Ethiopian genera of Sarginae, with descriptions of new 
species. Mauricr T. JAMES, State College of Washington. 


The subfamily Sarginae forms a more 
uniform and homogenous group of flies, over 
a wide part of the earth’s surface, than do 
the other subfamilies of Stratiomyidae. Col- 
lections from the different continents and 
from major island areas appear surprisingly 
similar to one another. The wide distribu- 
tion of such genera as Microchrysa, Ptecticus, 
and Sargus s.s. is noteworthy. Yet speciation 
is occurring actively in some areas, and 
major geographic areas may have their en- 
demic genera. The Ethiopian Region is no 
exception in this respect. 

Eight valid genera have previously been 
recorded from the Ethiopian Region. These 
consist of the widely distributed Sargus, 
Ptecticus, Microchrysa, Cephalochrysa, and 
Chloromyia and the three endemic genera 
Sagaricera, Paraptecticus, and Otochrysa. The 
last mentioned genus is unknown to me ex- 
cept from its description (Lindner, 1938b, p. 
15). Consequently I am unable to place it 
in the key or to remark further concerning 
its status. Parasargus, proposed by Lindner 


(1935, p. 300) for a new species, P. africanus, 
was later reduced by that author (Lindner, 
1938b, pp. 13, 14) to the status of a subgenus 
of Microchrysa, and the generotype synony- 
mized with MJ. stigmatica Enderlein. The 
genus Chrysochroma (generotype Musca bi- 
punctata Scopoli) is at most a subgenus of 
Sargus, in which the ocelli are equidistant 
from one another. Many species previously 
referred to Chrysochroma belong in Cephalo- 
chrysa or other genera of Sarginae. Chyrso- 
chromoides Brunetti (1926, p. 135), proposed 
for C. micropunctata Brunetti 1926, is un- 
known to me; Brunetti says it differs from 
Chrysochroma only in the simple third vein. 
It may be a valid genus or, on the other 
hand, a synonym of Cephalochrysa or Sargus. 


KEY TO THE GENERA OF ETHIOPIAN SARGINAE 


1. Eyes densely and distinctly pilose; lower 
squama well-developed, similar in form to the 
UDC TAS Cal a gene eee Chloromyia 

Eyes bare; lower squama reduced, either trans- 
verse or with a relatively slender, straplike 
PLOJECHONA Re ee a eee 2 


Juny 1952 


2. Second antennal segment, from the inner as- 
pect, with a fingerlike process that protrudes 


TEMA TUF) HS Wouteels g Pocacouvscesoonosee: 3 
Second antennal segment at most moderately 
COMES Callllivger ce wrye weenie ena 4 


3. Lower squama with a straplike process; first 
antennal segment longer than the second; 
frons of male reduced at its narrowest to less 
than the diameter of an ocellus; vein Rai; 
arising beyond r-m by at least length of 
TPIT, 5 on dic SUSE Oo ge cee ee ore Re Sagaricera 

Lower squama transverse apically, without a 
straplike process; first antennal segment no 
longer than the second; frons of male, in 
Ethiopian species, at its narrowest broader 
than the ocellar triangle; vein R»,; arising at 
OMMDCTONC REIMAN uae Ptecticus 

4.1 Vein R2,3 arising between r-m and the apex of 
diseal cell; lower squama transverse apically, 
without a straplike process, face distinctly 
protruding below, the oral margin prominent; 
nonmetallic species............. Paraptecticus 

Vein Roi; arising at or beyond the apex of the 
diseal cell; lower squama with a straplike 
process; face not protruding below, the oral 
margin poorly developed; Ethiopian species 
at least jomiedlyy ew. cos cocauccosebecoce 5 

5. Abdomen short and broad, usually wider than 
the thorax and, measured to the apex of seg- 
ment four, no longer than wide; eyes con- 
tiguous in the male and divided into definite 
zones of different sized facets; ocellar tri- 
AMelevequuillave nal issn \se teat eho ae leh oe 6 

Abdomen barely if any wider than the thorax, 
much longer than wide; eyes usually broadly 
separated (contiguous in male Pedicellina) 
and not divided into definite zones of differ- 
ent sized facets; ocellar triangle equilateral 
(Chrysochroma, some Pedicellina) or much 
longer than wide (typical Sargus)....Sargus 

6. Diseal cell small; posterior veins weak, evanes- 
cent toward wing margin; maximum width 
of anal cell equal to combined widths of two 
Dasalecellserus erie ty svete Microchrysa 

Diseal cell normal; posterior veins evident to 
wing margin; maximum width of anal cell 
but little greater than that of second basal 
cell, distinctly less than combined widths 
of two basal cells..............Cephalochrysa 


Genus Chloromyia Duncan, 1837 
Chloromyia tuberculata, n.sp. 


To my knowledge, this is the only black 
species of Chloromyia that has been described. 
It differs from the European species, C. formosa 
(Secopoli) (the generotype) and C. melampogon 
(Zeller), in that the frons of the female is tuber- 

1 Otochrysa Lindner (1938b, p. 15) should trace 
to this couplet, according to the description, but 
vein Ry,3 arises beyond the apex of the discal cell, 
the only known species has a yellow body, and 
the postocular orbit of the female is strongly de- 
veloped, keeled, and hairy. 


JAMES: ETHIOPIAN GENERA OF SARGINAE 


221 


culate, and from the described European, as 
well as the African species (C. bella (Loew), 
C. caeligera Lindner), in the color pattern of 
the legs. 

Female.—Head black; frontal callus and face 
somewhat castaneous; upper corners of frontal 
callus prolonged into minute ivory triangles; a 
castaneous glabrous triangular area above fron- 
tal callus at midfrontal line. Frons moderately 
convex, with a prominent, though not clearly 
defined, tubercle a little less than halfway from 
anterior ocellus to frontal callus; this tubercle 
bisected, though not deeply, by the midfrontal 
suture. Frons coarsely punctate, the frontal 
callus, face, and postocular orbits similarly 
though less coarsely punctate, the punctures 
giving rise to silvery hairs. Postocular orbits 
well developed above, almost evanescent below. 
Hyes with moderately dense, moderately long 
black pile. Antenna structurally much as in 
formosa; the first segment shorter, however 
(subequal to the second), and the arista more 
slender basally and with one or two hairs at its 
extreme base; first and second segments shiny, 
black; flagellum reddish; arista blackish. Pro- 
boscis yellow. 

Thorax black; humerus and a line from hu- 
merus to wing base ivory; mesonotum coarsely 
punctured, pleura less conspicuously so; pile 
silvery, short and strongly appressed on the 
dorsum, somewhat longer on the pleura. Coxae, 
trochanters, femora, and fore and mid tibia, 
except broadly at the knees, black; fore and mid 
tarsi brownish, paler at the bases of the basi- 
tarsi; hind tibia and tarsus yellowish, the basi- 
tarsus almost white, the apical half of the tibia 
and the apical two tarsomeres more brownish. 
Venation essentially as in formosa; membrane 
subhyaline, distinctly infuscated across the 
istegma and discal cell, paler at the base; veins 
brown, yellowish toward base. Squamae struc- 
tually as in formosa, pale yellow with whitish 
fringe. Halteres yellow, brownish on the stalk. 

Abdomen black; densely though more finely 
punctured than on the mesonotum. Dises of 
second, third, and fourth terga, except basally, 
apically, and broadly laterally, with black 
(reddish in certain lights) appressed pile; terga 
otherwise and sterna with appressed. silvery 
pile. 

Leneth, 7.5 mm. 

Male.—Kyes subcontiguous; postocular orbits 
wanting. Head with mostly black pile which, 


SS 


together with that of the eyes, is much longer 
than in the female. Pile of mesonotum and 
seutellum long and largely erect. Abdomen 
shining violaceous dorsally, black ventrally, 
clothed entirely with silvery appressed pile. 
Otherwise, except sexually, as in the female. 

Types.—Holotype, female, Mubende, Uganda, 
April 14, 1931 (H. Hargreaves); allotype, male, 
Kasenyi, Uganda, April 14, 1931 (Hargreaves) ; 
to be deposited in the British Museum (Nat- 
ural History). Paratype, female, Kilimanjaro 
(W. L. Abbott), U. S. N. M. no. 23656. 

Variation—The female paratype has the 
antennae wholly yellow and has some blackish 
pile on the front; otherwise it agrees with the 
holotype. 


Genus Sagaricera Griinberg, 1915 


This genus was erected on the basis of the 
striking development of the antennal flagellum 
and was placed close to Ptecticus and Chryso- 
chroma. The only species that has been referred 
to it is the generotype, S. aenescens Grinberg, 
described from a male (Griinberg, 1915, p. 63) 
and redescribed later from a female by Lindner 
(1938a, p. 68). Striking as this character is, I 
do not feel that it is a valid basis for differentia- 
tion, since another species, Sargus analis Mac- 
quart, referred to Ptecticus by Brunetti, is in 
other respects morphologically much closer to 
Sagaricera than to Ptecticus. I am therefore re- 
defining Sagaricera on the basis of characters 
included in my generic key and am proposing 
the following new combination and synonymy. 


Sagaricera analis (Macquart), n. comb. 


Sargus analis Macquart, Dipt. Exot. 1: 204. 1838. 

Plecticus (sic!) analis (Macquart), Brunetti, Rev. 
Zool. Afr. 14: 124. 1926. 

Ptecticus cinctifrons Grinberg, 
Berlin 8: 61. 1915; Lindner, Mitt. Deut. Ent. 
Ges. 8: 68. 1938; Lindner, Bull. Mus. Roy. 
d’Hist. Nat. Belg. 14:6. 1938. (New synonymy.) 

Ptecticus opalescens Lindner, Deut. Ent. Zeit. 
1934: 302. 1935. (New synonymy.) 


Mitt. Zool. Mus. 


In appearance this species resembles S. aenes- 
cens much more closely than it does any known 
species of Ptecticus. The male genitalia are of a 
type much different from that of any Ptecticus 
known to me. 

Macquart’s type came from an unknown lo- 
cality, but M. E. Séguy kindly furnished me 
with a specimen compared with the type, and 
it is on this that the present synonymy is based. 


22 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 7 


Genus Ptecticus Loew, 1855 


As restricted here, the Ethiopian species of 
Ptecticus seem to form a fairly homogenous 
eroup, although at least two very distinct types 
of male genitalia occur. The body is elongated 
and basically yellowish; the eyes of the male are 
distinctly separated; the frons in both sexes is 
black with metallic blue reflections, but the 
vertex behind the ocellar triangle becomes 
abruptly yellow. In the species which I have 
examined (P. elongatus (Fabricius) and the four 
new species described in this paper) vein Rox; 
arises at or slightly before r-m and runs close 
to R, to its apex, the two longitudinal veins 
either paralleling or gradually approaching 
each other. Except in P. aculeatus, n.sp., the 
male genitalia are of a quite uniform type, 
though differing significantly in detail: the ninth 
tergite is of moderate size and distinctly emargi- 
nate apically; the surstylus, which possesses 
characters which seem to be specifically diag- 
nostic in this group, is separated from the ter- 
gite by a suture, ends in a blunt or sharp apex 
that extends far beyond the apex of the tergite, 
and is subtended dorsally by a translucent 
flange; the ninth sternite is arcuate apically; 
the dististyli tend to turn upward and inward 
toward the apex of the aedeagus; the aedeagus 
is thick, its skeletal apparatus black, heavily 
sclerotized, and either entire or bilobed apically. 

The following key will separate the known 
Ethiopian species of Ptecticus. Of these, P. ru- 


/ipes, P. mesoxanthus, and P. polyxanthus have 


had to be placed from the descriptions. The 
characters based on tarsal coloration may seem 
trivial, but in the species I have studied they 
are correlated with very definite genitalic 
differences. 


1. Hind tarsus yellow, at most the basitarsus 

browDish'. 2... 4.5. .accee eee 2 

Hind tarsus wholly black or black and white.3 

2. Hind legs wholly yellow... . polyxanthus Speiser 
Hind legs with tibiae blackened basally. 

mesoxanthus Grinberg 

rufipes Lindner 

3. Einditarsus) wholly, blacks. 55 .e= =e 4 

Hind tarsus white at least on a large part of 
the second and third tarsomeres. . te 

4. Hind legs practically wholly black: abdominal 

terga two to six inclusively conspicuously 

marked with black; surstylus acute apically, 

its flange of ee width throughout much 

of its length... _somerent, n.Sp. 

Hind legs with coxae, trochanters, femora, and 

parts of tibiae y ellow: abdomen without black 


Junty 1952 JAMES: ETHIOPIAN 
markings; surstylus blunt apically, its flange 
not of uniform width......... rhodesiae, n.sp. 

5. Surstylus not separated from ninth tergite by 
a suture; aedeagus very slender, terminating 
in a long process which suggests a hymenop- 
HEOROUSES LIM Oo Pee at aculeatus, n.sp. 

Surstylus separated from ninth tergite by a 
suture; aedeagus thick, blunt, either entire 
Orig OWed neha Aris esi ro ess hee ee 6 

6. Hind tarsus white beyond basitarsus; male with 
tergum distinctly incised apically; aedeagus 
bilobed; surstylus acute apically. 

elongatus (Fabricius) 

Hind tarsus with second tarsomere except its 

base and third tarsomere white; male ninth 

tergum transverse, not incised; aedeagus en- 
tire, not bilobed; surstylus blunt apically. 

bequaerti, n.sp. 


Ptecticus somereni, n. sp. 


Readily distinguished from previously de- 
scribed Ethiopian Ptecticus by the practically 
wholly black hind legs and the extensive black 
markings, over a yellow background, on the 
mesonotum and the abdominal terga. Related 
to P. elongatus, but the genitalia are signifi- 
cantly different. 

Male.—Occiput black except median plate 
which, together with vertex posterior to ocellar 
triangle, is pale yellow; ocellar triangle and 
frons to callus black with bluish reflections; 


GENERA OF SARGINAE 


223 


frontal callus and face pale yellow, almost 
white. Occipital orbits with conspicuous yellow 
tomentum and pile, occiput otherwise with 
inconspicuous, short, black hair; frons and 
vertex black-haired; face with a little pile, black 
and yellow intermixed, below antennal bases. 
First and second antennal segments yellow, 
with black hair; flagellum orange-yellow; arista 
black. Proboscis pale yellow. 

Thorax mainly yellow. Mesonotum with a 
median black stripe from the anterior margin 
to suture and a lateral one on each side, broadly 
separated from the humerus anteriorly and from 
the scutellum posteriorly, and narrowly inter- 
rupted at the suture; sternum largely blackish. 
Metanotum black. Pile of mesonotum largely 
and of scutellum wholly short, black, incon- 
spicuous, somewhat longer and yellow laterally 
and anteriorly on the mesonotum; pleural pile 
yellow. Front leg yellow except that the coxae 
and the last four tarsomeres are extensively 
blackish; yellow pilose except dorsally on apical 
four tarsomeres. Middle leg with coxa, tro- 
chanter, femur except apex, and last four tarso- 
meres blackish and black-haired, otherwise 
yellow and yellow-haired. Hind leg practically 
entirely black and black-haired; tarsus and 
extreme apex of tibia ventrally yellowish brown, 


Fras. 1-5.—1, Ptecticus somereni, n. sp.: Male hypopygium, dorsolateral view, from holotype. 
2, Ptecticus elongatus (Fabricius) : Surstylus of male genitalia. 3, Plecticus rhodesiae, n. sp.: Surstylus of 
male genitalia. 4, Plecticus bequaerti, n. sp.: Surstylus of male genitalia. 5, Plecticus aculeatus, n. sp.: 


Male genitalia, lateral view, from holotype. 


224 


with some brown hairs. Wing lightly infuscated, 
noticeably more strongly so beyond discal cell. 
Variation essentially as in elongatus. Halteres 
yellow, the knobs slightly infuscated. 

Abdomen mainly yellow; first tergum with 
two small median dark spots; second with a 
blackish cross band, subinterrupted medially, 
across the middle of the segment; third to sixth 
inclusively mainly black, with broad posterior 
yellow margins; third to fifth sterna broadly 
discolored medially. Yellow pile on sterna, 
laterally on terga, and on genital surstyli; that 
of terga and genitalia otherwise black. Geni- 
talia (Fig. 1) similar to those of elongatus; ninth 
tergum more, deeply incised medially; cerci 
more robust, oval; surstylus acute apically, as 
in elongatus but its translucent dorsal flange 
almost parallel-sided ; dististylus more elongated, 
almost parallel-sided to apex, which is rounded. 

Length, 15 mm. 

Type.—Holotype male, Bwamba, Uganda, 
June 1948 (Van Someren); to be deposited in 
the British Museum (Natural History). 


Ptecticus rhodesiae, n. sp. 


In addition to the wholly black hind tarsus 
and the extensively black hind tibia, the yellow 
pile of the vertex and of the abdominal terga 
will serve to differentiate this species from at 
least most material of P. elongatus and the male 
genitalia show significant differences. 

Male.—Head structurally as in elongatus; 
occiput black except median plate which, to- 
gether with vertex behind the ocellar triangle, 
is yellow; ocellar triangle and frons to frontal 
callus black; frontal callus white, the face 
scarcely lighter in coloration. Pile of frons and 
face concolorous with background; that of 
occiput pale yellow and appressed along the 
orbits, otherwise black. First antennal segment 
whitish; second and flagellum yellow; arista 
mostly black. Proboscis whitish. 

Thorax yellow to greenish yellow; mesonotum 
with evidences of a divided median and two 
lateral stripes. Pile of mesonotum and scutellum 
inconspicuous, appressed; black on the disc, 
yellowish on the broad sides and anterior mar- 
gins of the mesonotum. Pleura and metanotum 
with pale, semierect pile. Wings slightly and 
uniformly infuscated; veins brown; venation 
essentially as in elongatus. Halteres yellow. Legs 
mainly yellow and yellow haired; on anterior 
and middle tarsi, last three tarsomeres black 
and last four black-haired; hind legs with tibia 


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voL. 42, No. 7 


except apex and tarsus wholly black and black- 
haired. 

Abdomen yellow, more reddish toward apex, 
immaculate or with the terga spotted; pile 
bright yellow. Genitalia similar to those of 
elongatus; the aedeagus, however, is not bilobed, 
and the surstyli (Fig. 3), when viewed poste- 
riorly, are blunt apically, and when viewed 
laterally, are more slender and more strongly 
bowed dorsally than in elongataus; as in elong- 
atus the surstyli are subtended dorsally by a 
translucent flange, but this is straight or slightly 
concave dorsally in rhodesiae and strongly con- 
vex in elongatus. Ninth tergum distinctly incised 
apically, reddish yellow; aedeagus blackish; 
genitalia otherwise pale yellow. 

Length, 15-16 mm. 

Female.—KEssentially as in the male, except 
for the broader frons and the sexual characters. 
The frons is brownish and the hair apparently 
pale, but this is probably due to the slightly 
teneral condition of the allotype. Some dark 
coloration on the thorax is also probably due 
to the condition of the specimen. 

Types.—Holotype male, Vumba Mountains, 
Southern Rhodesia, Jan. 18, 19387 (Major Drys- 
dale). Allotype female, Chirinda Forest, Southern 
Rhodesia, October 1926 (G. Arnold). Paratypes, 
2 males, Vumba Mountains, Umtali Dist., 
Southern Rhodesia, March 1938 (A. Cuthbert- 
son); 1 male, 1 female, Salisbury, Southern Rho- 
desia, February 1929 and January 30, 1935 
(Cuthbertson). Holotype, allotype, and one para- 
type to be deposited in British Museum (Natural 
History). 


Ptecticus aculeatus, n. sp. 


A species with the general appearance of 
P. elongatus though somewhat more slender, 
the most outstanding color differences being the 
wholly black hind tibia and the much broader 
whitish apex of the hind basitarsus. The geni- 
talia, however, are strikingly different. 

Male.—Head structurally and in color essen- 
tially as in elongatus, the frons at its narrowest 
perhaps very slightly wider than in that species; 
pile of front and vertex black. Thorax yellow, 
mesonotum and scutellum with short black 
hairs, pleura yellow-pilose. Legs mainly yellow; 
fore tarsus somewhat darkened beyond basi- 
tarsus, middle tarsus also somewhat darkened 
on the last two tarsomeres; hind tibia black, 
hind basitarsus black and black-haired to apical 
fourth, thence whitish and _ whitish-haired. 


Juny 1952 


Abdomen yellow, a brownish discal spot on the 
fifth tergum; black-haired on terga except 
laterally, yellow-haired on sterna and sides of 
terga. Genitalia (Fig. 5) slender; ninth tergum, 
from dorsal view, longer than wide and trans- 
verse apically; surstyli apparently completely 
submerged into the ninth tergite, not evident 
even as a protruding lobe; basistyle deep, dish- 
like, the dististyli inserted at its apex, contigu- 
ous, short, broadening and blunt apically. 
Proctiger slender; cerci very elongated and 
slender, digitate; proctiger and cerei with black 
pile, remaining pile of terminalia yellowish. 
Aedeagus heavily sclerotized, black, shining, 
greatly elongated and drawn out to a sharp 
point, somewhat suggesting the sting of a hy- 
menopteron; the terminal part enclosed in a 
yellowish lightly sclerotized sheath. Length, 
10 mm. 

Type.—Holotype male, Olokemeji, Nigeria, 
May 7, 1936 (Van Zwaluwenburg and Mc- 
Gough); U. S. N. M. no. 61459. 


Ptecticus bequaerti, n. sp. 


Ptecticus elongatus Fabricius, subspec., Lindner, 
British Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Ruwenzori Exped. 
2(1-2): 2. 1939. Probably refers to the present 
species. 


Quite similar in appearance to P. elongatus 
(Fabricius) but differing in the color of the legs 
and in the male genitalia. The hind tibia is 
yellow or yellowish on most of its apical half; 
the hind tarsus is black and mostly black-haired 
on the first, fourth, fifth, and the base of the 
second tarsomeres (yellow-haired ventrally on 
the basitarsus); the second tarsomere except 
its base and the third tarsomere are white and 
white-haired. Coloration of legs and body other- 
wise as in elongatus; there is a roundish black 
spot medially on tergum 5. The ninth tergum 
of the male is concave but hardly incised api- 
cally; the surstylus (Fig. 4) is blunt apically, 
its flange being truncated apically; the aedeagus 
is not bilobed. 

Types.—Holotype male, Elizabethville, Bel- 
gian Congo (M. Bequaert). Allotype, female, 
same data. Paratypes: 1 male, Embu, British 
Kast Africa, “10-38-14, no. 123, II, G. SJ. OB”’; 
1 male, Vumba Mountains, Southern Rhodesia, 
March 1935 (A. Cuthbertson); 1 female, Mazoe, 
Southern Rhodesia, Jan. 28, 1929 (W. J. Hall. 
Holotype and allotype, James Collection; para- 
types in the United States National Museum 
and the American Museum of Natural History. 


JAMES: ETHIOPIAN GENERA OF SARGINAE 


225 


A female, Elizabethville, which probably 
belongs to this species but which is not given 
type designation, has the hind tarsus wholly 
black. 


Genus Paraptecticus Griinberg, 1915 


The generotype, P. viduatus Grimberg, is 
the only species I know that can be referred to 
this genus. It is in appearance quite Ptecticus- 
like, but is structurally quite different. Another 
species, P. luctwosus Lindner, was described in 
this genus, but it does not belong there. I be- 
lieve I have correctly identified as this species, 
from Lindner’s description and from notes on 
the type furnished me by Dr. A. Collart, a 
female from Bwamba (H:) Uganda, June 1948 
(Van Someren), Commonwealth Institute of 
Entomology. P. luctuosus will run to Sargus in 
my generic key, except that the abdomen api- 
cally becomes somewhat more noticeably 
broader than the thorax. This species probably 
should be referred to a new genus, but I refrain 
from proposing such until males are available. 


Pedicellina, n. subg. 


Pedicella Bigot, Brauer, Denkschr. Kais. Akad. 
Wiss. Wien 44: 88. 1882, nec Bigot, Ann. Soc. 
Ent. France (8) 4: 63, 83. 1856. 

Macrosargus Bigot of Authors; nec Bigot, Ann. 
Soc. Ent. France (5) 9: 187, 225. 1879. 


Eyes of male contiguous or nearly so to 
frontal callus, which in turn forms the frontal 
triangle; lower ocular orbits, adjacent to the 
poorly developed or evanescent oral margin, 
well developed and prominent. Abdomen of 
male strongly constricted on second and some- 
times also on third segment, broader both 
basad and apicad of that area; of female some- 
what narrowed, sometimes definitely so, on the 
second segment. 

Subgenerotype, Sargus notatus Wiedemann. 

Since there are intergrading forms between 
this and typical Sargus, it seems better to con- 
sider it a subgenus rather than a genus; though 
among American forms, where it is best repre- 
sented, it represents a well defined segregate. 

The unavailability of the name Pedicella for 
this group of species has been discussed pre- 
viously by Aldrich (1983, p. 165) and James 
(1935, p. 268). Brauer’s designation of MJacro- 
sargus tenwiventris Bigot as the generotype of 
Macrosargus, and consequently of Pedicella, 
which Macrosargus was proposed to replace, 
was invalid, since this species was not included 


originally in either of the above genera and 
consequently the first valid generotype designa- 
tion was that of Sargus tenebrifer Walker by 
Aldrich. This makes Pedicella either a synonym, 
a subgenus, or a genus closely related to Ptecti- 
cus, and leaves the present group without a 
previously available name. 


Sargus (Pedicellina) tenuis (Lindner), n. comb. 
tenue Lindner, Bull. Mus. Roy. 
: 18. 1938. 


Chrysochroma 
Hist. Nat. Belgique 14(54) 
The following seems to be the male of Lind- 
ner’s species, which was described from a female. 
Male.—EKyes subcontiguous, separated by a 
linear black impression which is one-fourth the 
diameter of an ocellus; ocellar triangle almost 
equilateral. Occiput and vertical triangle black, 
the postocular orbits pale-yellow-pilose and 
somewhat white-dusted, the vertical triangle 
and frontal line black-pilose; frontal triangle 
ivory, becoming more yellowish on the face 
and brown toward the oral margin, with black 
and yellow pile intermixed; ocular orbits along 
oral margin well developed, as broad as the 
width of the first antennal segment, polished 
black. Antenna black and black-pilose, the 
flagellum tending to brownish. Proboscis yellow. 

Mesonotum and scutellum metallic blue-green 
with mostly greenish reflections, mostly black- 
pilose, with some erect yellowish pile laterally. 

Pleura mostly black, subshinng with some 

bluish reflections; humeri white; notopleural 

line yellow; metapleura white; pile of pleura 
white to yellow. Wings lightly infumated, paler 
at base; veins black, brownish toward base. 

Halteres yellow; knobs somewhat darker. Legs 

yellow with the following areas black or black- 


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vou. 42, No. 7 


ish: all coxae except apices, apical third of front 
and half of middle femora; hind femur except 
extreme base; apical half of hind tibia; and 
hind tarsus from apex of basitarsus. E 

Abdomen with second segment very narrow, 
almost cylindrical, more constricted than the 
first; beyond the second segment gradually 
broadening to the fifth. Second segment mainly 
yellow, black on the sides of the terga and sub- 
apically; extreme apex of first tergum and base 
of third, most of first sternum and sometimes of 
third, yellow; abdomen otherwise black with 
bluish and bronze reflections, variable as to the 
light incidence. Genitalia small, black. 

Length, 9 mm. 

Ucanba: Two males, Bwamba Valley, July 
1946 (Van Someren); male, Bwamba, July to 
August 1946 (Van Someren). 


REFERENCES 


Aupricu, J. M. Notes on Diptera. No. 6. Proc. 
Ent. Soe. Washington 35: 165-170. 1932. 
Brunetti, E. New Belgian Congo Stratiomyidae, 
with a species from British East Africa. Rev. 

Zool. Afr. 14: 123-136. 1926. 

GRUNBERG, K. Zoologische Ergebnisse der Hx- 
pedition des Herrn F. Tessmann nach Svidka- 
merun und Spanisch-Guinea. Diptera. Mitt. 
Zool. Mus. Berlin 8: 43-70. 1915. 

James, Maurice T. A review of the Nearctic 
Geosarginae (Diptera, Stratiomyidae). Can. 
Ent. 67 : 267-275. 1935. 

LinpNER, Erwin. Athiopische 
(Dipt.). Deutsche Ent. Zeitschr. 
316. 1935. 

Aethiopische Stratiomytiden (Dipt.) ITI. 

Mitt. Deut. Ent. Ges. 8: 66-73. 1938a. 


Stratiomyiden 
1934: 291- 


Stratiomytiden. aus dem Kongo-Gebiet 
(Diptera). Bul. Mus. Roy. Hist. Nat. Belgique 
14(54): 1-85. 1938b. 


ENTOMOLOGY —New names in the Homoptera. Z. P. Mercaur, North Carolina 
State College. (Communicated by Herbert Friedmann.) 


The new names proposed herein seem to 
be necessary for the reasons stated. It was 
planned originally to publish these names in 
connection with the Catalogue of the Hemip- 
tera, but the publication of future volumes 
of this catalogue may be considerably de- 
layed. All genera are listed under the ap- 
propriate family, subfamily, and tribe, ac- 
cording to the classification which I now use 
in the card catalogue of the Homoptera of 
the World. This should enable any student. 
to locate these genera. Bibliographic refer- 


ences are given complete enough, I believe, 
to enable anyone to locate original sources. 
The references to names in the Homoptera 
have all been verified; for genera not in the 
Homoptera I have depended upon Neave’s 
Nomenclator zoologicus 1-5. 1939-1945. 


Family NOGODINIDAE 
Goniopsara, n. n. 
Pro Goniopsis Melichar, 
Wien 49: 292 (4). 1899. 
Nec Goniopsis de Haan, Fauna Japon. (Crust.): 33. 
1835. 
Orthotype: Goniopsis mystica Melichar. 


Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. 


Juny 1952 


Siopaphora, n.n. 

Pro Siopa Jacobi, in Voeltzkow, Reise in Ostafrika 
3: 535. 1917. 

Nee Stopa Hendel, Wien. Ent. Zeit. 28: 253. 1909. 

Orthotype: Siopa fumivenosa Jacobi. 


Family FLATIDAE 
Subfamily FLATINAE 
Tribe Flatini 


Flatidissa, n. n. 

Pro Flatida Haglund, Ofv. Svenska Vet.-Akad. 
Foérh. 56: 70. 1899. 

Nee Flatida White, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 18: 26. 
1846. 

Orthotype: Flatida furcigera Haglund. 


Tribe Ceryniini 


Adelidoria, n.n. 

Pro Hansenia Wirkaldy, Journ. Bombay Nat. 
Hist. Soc. 14: 53. 1902. 

Nee Hansenia Melichar, Ann. Nat. Hofmus. Wien 
16; 228. 1901. 

Orothotype: Poekilloptera glauca Kirby. 


Doriana, n. n. 

Pro Doria Melichar, Ann. Nat. Hofmus. Wien 16: 
231. 1901. 

Nec Doria Meigen, Syst. Beschr. Zweifl. Insekt. 
7: 263. 1838. 

Orthotype: Poekilloptera conspersa Walker. 


Tribe Flatissini 


Phylliana, n. n. 

Pro Mesophylla Melichar, Ann. Nat. Hofmus. 
Wien 17: 53. 1902. 

Nec Mesophylla Thomas, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 
(7) 8: 148. 1901. 

Orthotype: Mesophylla inclinata Melichar. 


Tribe Selizini 


Melichitona, n. n. 

Pro Chitona Melichar, Genera insectorum 182: 114. 
1923. 

Nee Chitona Schmidt, Linnaea Ent. 1: 134. 1846. 

Orthotype: Phalaenomorpha collaris Jacobi. 


Family ISSIDAE 
Subfamily CALISCELINAE 
Tribe Caliscelini 


Itatiayana, n. n. 

Pro Itatiaya Schmidt, Stettin. Ent. Zeit. 93: 48. 
1932. 

Nee Jtatiaya Mello-Leitao, Brotéria 13: 139. 1915. 

Orthotype: Itatiaya banzhafi Schmidt. 


Ugandana, n. n. 

Pro Ugandella Schmidt, Stett. Ent. Zeit. 93: 43. 
1932. 

Nee Ugandella Sjoestedt, Ark. Zool. 15 (6): 18. 
1923. 

Orthotype: Afronaso bayont Schmidt. 


METCALF: NEW NAMES IN HOMOPTERA 227 


Tribe Ommatidiotini 


Bergrothora, n. n. 

Pro Schmidtella Bergroth, Wien. Ent. Zeit. 29: 
241.1910. 

Nee Schmidtella Ulrich, Amer. Geol. 10; 269. 1892. 

Orthotype: Bruchomorpha globosa Melichar. 


Subfamily HemMIspHAERIINAE 


Hemiphile, n. n. 

Pro Herophile Stal, Hemiptera Africana 4: 203. 
1866. 

Nec Herophile Steenstrup, Overs. Danske Selsk. 
1860: 121. 1860. 

Orthotype: Hemisphaerius latipes Stal. 


Darumara, n. n. 

Pro Daruma Matsumura, Trans. Sapporo Nat. 
Hist. Soc. 6: 103. 1916. 

Nec Daruma Jordan and Starks, Proc. U. 8. Nat. 
Mus. 27: 232, 241. 1904. 

Orthotype: Daruma nitobet Matsumura. 


Subfamily Issinap 
Tribe Hysteropterini 


Perissana, n. n. 

Pro Perissus Melichar, Abh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien 
3 (4): 113. 1906. 

Nee Perissus Chevrolat, Mém. Soe. Sci. Liége 18: 
262. 1863. 

Orthotype: Issus jakowlefi Puton. 


Tribe Issini 

Distiana, n. n. 

Pro Moniana Distant, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8) 
4:76. 1909. 

Nec Moniana Girard, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila- 
delphia 8: 199. 1856. 

Orthotype: Moniana andrewsi Kirby. 

Issella, n. n. 

Pro Issina Melichar, Abh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien 
3 (4): 209. 1906. 

Nec Jssina Jousseaume, Le Naturaliste (2) 12: 
22. 1898. 

Orthotype: Issina suluralis Melichar. 


Family RICANIIDAE 
Subfamily Rrcantinae 
Tribe Rieaniini 


Meliprivesa, n. n. 

Pro Neoprivesa Melichar, Genera insectorum 182: 
145. 1923. 

Nee Neoprivesa Distant, Trans. Linn. Soe. Lon- 
don (2) 17: 297. 1917. 

Orthotype: Neoprivesa disturbata Melichar. 


Family LOPHOPIDAE 
Subfamily ACARNINAB 
Tribe Acarnini 


Meloenopia, n. n. : ; 
Pro Oenopia Melichar, Casopis Ceské Spol. Ent. 
10: 158 (8). 1913. 


228 


Nec Oenopia Mulsant, Ann. Soc. Agr. Lyon (2) 2: 
420. 1850. 
Orthotype: Oenopia princeps Melichar. 


Family EURYBRACHIDAE 
Subfamily EuRYBRACHINAE 


Tribe Loxocephalini 


Nesiana, n. n. 

Pro Nesis Stal, Ofv. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Forh. 18: 
210. 1861. 

Nee Nesis Mulsant, Ann. Soc. Agr. Lyon (2) 2: 
67. 1850. 

Orthotype: Hurybrachys tricolor Walker. 


Subfamily PLATYBRACHINAE 
Tribe Platybrachini 


Maeniana, n. n. 

Pro Maenia Jacobi, Ark. Zool. 19A (28): 6. 1928. 
Nec Maenia Dalton, Geol. Rec. 1877: 392. 1880. 
Orthotype: Maenia hirsuta Jaco). 


Family MACHAEROTIDAE 
Subfamily HinpoLiInaE 
Tribe Hindolini 


Soamachaerota, n.n. 

Pro Soa Jacobi, Ark. Zool. 19A (28): 46. 1928. 

Nec Soa Enderlein, Zool. Jahrb. (Abt. Syst.) 20: 
109. 1904. 

Orthotype: Polychaetopyhes appendiculata Hacker. 


Family TOMASPIDAE 
Subfamily ToMAsPINAE 
Tribe Cosmoscartini 
Horvathiana, n. n. 
Pro Horvathiella Lallemand, Ann. Mus. Nat. Hun- 
garici 32: 60. 1939. 
Nec Horvathiella Poppius, Acta Soc. Sci. Fennica 
41: 115. 1912. 
Orthotype: Horvathiella rubrovittata Lallemand. 


Family CERCOPIDAE 
Subfamily CERCOPINAB 
Tribe Ptyelini 
Pentacanthoides, n. n. 
Pro Pentacantha Lallemand, Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. 
Paris 28: 64. 1922. a 
Nec Pentacantha Stal, Ofv. Svenska Vet.-Akad. 


Forh. 28: 400. 1871. 
Orthotype: Pentacantha brunnea Lallemand. 


Tribe Lepyroniini 


Balsana, n. n. 

Pro Balsa Stal, Hemiptera Africana 4: 66. 1866. 

Nec Balsa Walker, Can. Nat. 5: 250. 1860. 

Orthotype: Lepyronia obscurata Amyot and Ser- 
ville. 


Paralepyroniella, n. n. 
Pro ELulepyroniella Lallemand, Bull. Inst. Franc. 
Afrique Noire 12: 630. 1950. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 7 


Nee Hulepyroniella Schmidt, Ent. Mitt. 14: 112. 
1925. 
Orthotype: Lepyronia aethiops Distant. 


Family TETTIGELLIDAE 
Subfamily TETTIGELLINAE 
Tribe Tettigellini 


Ceratogoniella, n. n. 

Pro Ceratogonia Melichar, Ann. Mus. Nat. Hun- 
garici 23 : 350. 1926. 

Nee Ceratogonia Kolbe, Ent. Nachr. 25: 45. 1899. 

Orthotype: Tettigonia recta Fowler. 


Poecilocarda, n. n. 

Pro Poeciloscarta Melichar, Ann. Mus. Nat. Hun- 
garici 23: 342. 1926. 

Nec Poeciloscarta Stal, Hand!. Svenska Vet.-Akad. 
8 (1): 73. 1869. 

Orthotype: Tettigonia binaria Signoret. 


Tribe Ciccini 
Cicciana, n. n. 
Pro Ciccus Stal, Handl. Svenska Vet.-Akad. 8 (1): 
60. 1869. 


. Nee Ciccus Latreille, Cuvier’s Régne animal (nou- 


velle ed.) 5: 221. 1829. 
Orthotype: Ciccus latreillet Distant. 


The genus Ciccus was described by Latreille 
without any included species; however, in 1831, 
in the Animal Kingdom by Cuvier, translated by 
MecMurtrie, 4: 46, two species, Cicada adspersa 
Fabricius and marmorata Fabricius, were in- 
cluded, and in 1903 Kirkaldy, Entomologist, 
36: 232, selected Ciccus adspersus Fabricius as 
the genotype. Later, Distant noted that the 
Tettigonia adspersa Burmeister [nec Fabricius], 
Handbuch der Entomologie 2 (1): 119, was not 
the same as Cicada adspersa Fabricius. He estab- 
lished a new name, Ciccus latreillei, for this 
species, which he named as the type of Ciccus. 
In this he was followed by later authors 
(Melichar, Ann. Mus. Nat. Hungarici 21: 206, 
1924; Schmidt, Stett. Ent. Zeit. 89: 37, 1928; 
and Evans, Trans. Ent. Soc. London 98: 168, 
1947). In the meantime, Stal, Handl. Svenska 
Vet.-Akad. 8 (1): 65, 1869, established the genus 
Coelopola and assigned Cicada adspersa Fabriec- 
ius to it. Ciccus Latreille with genotype Cicada 
adspersa Fabricius will stand, and the Ciccus 
Stal must be renamed with Ciccus latreillet Dis- 
tant as the genotype. Ciccus Latreille equals 
Coelopola Stal. 


Family LEDRIDAE 
Subfamily LepRINAE 


Tribe Xerophloeini 


Epiclinata, n. n. 

Pro Epiclines Amyot and Serville, Histoire na- 
turelle des insectes: Hémiptéres: 577. 1843. 

Nec Epiclines Chevrolat, Mag. Zool. 8: 40. 1838. 

Orthotype: Membracis planata Fabricius. 


Juny 1952 


Family EUSCELIDAE 
Subfamily EuscELINAE 
Tribe Euscelini 


Oxytettigella, n. n. 

Pro Oxytettix Ribaut, Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Tou- 
louse 77 : 263. 1942. 

Nee Oxytetiix Rehn, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- 
delphia 81: 482. 1929. © 

Orthotype: Jassus viridinervis Kirschbaum. 


Tribe Thamnotettixini 


Matsumuratettix, n. n. 

Pro Epitettiz Matsumura, Journ. Coll. Agr. Sap- 
poro 5: 194. 1914. 

Nee Epiteitix Hancock, Trans. Ent. Soc. London 
1907 : 216. 1907. 

Orthotype: Hpitettix hiroglyphica Matsumura. 


Subfamily DELTOCEPHALINAE 
Tribe Scaphytopini 
Osbornitettix, n. n. 
Pro Calotettix Osborn, Bull. Bernice P. Bishop 
Mus. 114: 247. 1934. 
Nec Calotettizx Bruner, Biologia Centrali-Ameri- 
eana, Zool. Orth., 2: 309. 1908. 
Orthotype: Calotettiz metrosidert Osborn. 
Rhombopsana, n. n. 
Pro Rhombopsis Haupt, Bull. Palestine Agr. Exp. 
Stat. 8: 22. 1927. 
Nec Rhombopsis Gardner, Maryland Geol. Surv. 
Upper Cret.: 456. 1916. 
Orthotype: Rhombopsis virens Haupt. 


According to Neave, Nomenclator Zoologicus 
4: 56, Gardner’s name is an unnecessary new 
name for Neptunella Meek, but this would not 
change the status of Haupt’s name. 


Tribe Balcluthini 


Lindbergana, n. n. 

Pro Nesotettix Lindberg, Comm. Biol. 6 (9): 6. 
1936. 

Nec Nesotettiz Holdhaus, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. 
Wien 84: 555. 1909. 

Orthotype: Nesotettix freyi Lindberg. 


Tribe Macrostelini 
Marquesitettix, n. n. 
Pro Marquesia Osborn, Bull. Bishop Mus. 114: 250. 
1935. 
Nec Marquesia Malloch, Bull. Bishop Mus. 98: 
222. 1932. 
Orthotype: Marquesia atra Osborn. 


Family COELIDIIDAE 
Subfamily CoELipIINaE 
Tribe Coelidiini 


Aletta, n. n. 
Pro Palicus Stil, Hemiptera Africana 4: 120. 1866. 


METCALF: NEW NAMES IN HOMOPTERA 


229 


Nec Palicus Philippi, Jahresb. Ver. Nat. Cassel 
2: 11. 1838. 
Orthotype: Coelidia lineoligera Stal. 


Nisitrana, n. n. 

Pro Nisitra Walker, Journ. Linn. Soc. London, 
Zool., 10: 327. 1870. 

Nec Nisitra Walker, Cat. Dermapt. Saltat. Brit- 
ish Mus. 1: 91. 1869. 

Orthotype: Nisttra telifera Walker. 


Family IASSIDAE 
Subfamily Iasstnan 
Tribe Selenocephalini 


Discocephalana, n. n. 

Pro Discocephalus Kirschbaum, 
Naturk. Nassau 13: 356. 1858. 
Nec Discocephalus Ehrenberg, Sym. Phys. Phyt. 

Sign. c. 1831. 
Orthotype: Discocephalus viridis Kirschbaum. 


Jahrb. Ver. 


Doradana, n. n. 

Pro Dorada Melichar, Berliner Ent. Zeit. 47: 276. 
1903. 

Nec Dorada Jarocki, Zoologia 4: 200. 1822. 

Orthotype: Dorada lativentris Kuhlgatz and Meli- 
char. 


Family IDIOCERIDAE 


Zaletta, n. n. 

Pro Macrocerus Evans, Trans. Roy. Soc. South 
Australia 65: 39. 1941. 

Nee Macrocerus Motschulsky, Bull. Soc. Imp. 
Nat. Moscow 18 (1): 38. 1845. 

Orthotype: Macrocerus minutus Evans. 


Family CICADIDAE 
Subfamily T1BIcENINAE 
Tribe Tibicenini 


Orialella, n. n. 

Pro Oria Distant, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7) 14: 
429. 1904. 

Nec Oria Huebner, Verz. Bekannt. Schmett. (15) 
1821: 240. 1821. 

Orthotype: Oria boliviana Distant. 

Tribe Fidicinini 

Dorisiana n. n. 

Pro Dorisia Delétang, Anal. Soe. Cient. Argentina 
88: 63, 65. 1919. 

Nec Dorisia Moeschler, Verh. 
Wien 82: 351. 1883. 

Orthotype: Cicada semilata Walker [= Cicada 
viridis Olivier (nee Cicada viridis Linné, id est 
Tettigella viridis Linné)}. 


zool.-bot. Ges. 


Family TIBICINIDAE 
Subfamily T1rBiciInInar 
Tribe Dazini 


Procollina, n. n. 
Pro Collina Distant, Biologia Centrali-Americana 
1: 142. 1905. 


230 


Nee Collina Bonarelli, Boll. Soc. Geol. Ital. 12 (2): 
205, 207. 1893. 
Orthotype: Collina biolleyi Distant. 


Tribe Carinetini 
Paranistria, n. n. 
Pro Tympanistria Stal, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (4) 
1: 619. 1862. 
Nee Tympanistria Reichenbach, Av. Syst. Nat. 
Text. 1852-53: xxv. 
Orthotype: T’ympanistria villosa Fabricius. 


Family MEMBRACIDAE 
Subfamily DARNINAE 
Tribe Hebesini 


Hypheodana, n. n. e 

Pro Hypheus Stal, Ofv. Vet.-Akad. Foérh. 24: 557. 
1867. 

Nec Hypheus Gistel, Syst. Ins. 1 (1): 131. 1838. 

Orthotype: Thelia ursus Fairmaire. 


Subfamily CENTROTINAE 
Tribe Hebesini 


Acanthicoides, n. n. 

Pro Acanthicus Laporte, Ann. Soc. Ent. France 1: 
227. 1832. 

Nec Acanthicus Spix, Pisce. Brazil. 1829: 2. 1829. 

Orthotype: Acanthicus stollii Laporte. 


Funkhouser, Genera insectorum 208: 171, 
states that this genus can not stand because it 
is based on an immature form. This, however, 
is contrary to the International Rules of Zoologi- 
cal Nomenclature, Article 27b. 


Tribe Uroxiphini 
Mesocentrina, n. n. 
Pro Mesocentrus Funkhouser, Philippine Journ. 
Sci. 18: 681. 1921. 
Nec Mesocentrus Szepligeti, Termés. Fuzetek 23: 
56. 1900. 
Orthotype: Mesocentrus pyramidatus Funkhouser. 


Subfamily SMILIINAE 
Tribe Ceresini 
Melusinella, n. n. 
Pro Melusina Stal, Ofv. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Férh. 
24: 552. 1867. 
Nee Melusina Meigen, N. Class. Mouches: 19. 


1800. 
Orthotype: Ceresa nervosa Fairmaire. 


Tribe Telamonini 


Maturnaria, n.n. 

Pro Maturna Stal, Ofv. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Férh. 
24: 555. 1867. 

Nec Maturna Koch, Uebers. Arachnidensyst. 5: 
65. 1850. 

Orthotype: Oxygonia ephippigera Fairmaire. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 7 


Superfamily *FULGOROIDEA 


* Mecynostomata, n. n. - 

Pro * Mecynostoma Brongniart, Rech. Hist. Ins. 
Foss. Temps Prim. 451. 1893. 

Nec Mecynostoma Graff, Monogr. Turbell. 1: 237. 
1882. 

Orthotype: * Mecynostoma dorhni Brongniart. 


Family *FULGORIDAE 


* Nyktalos, n. n. 

Pro * Nyctophylax Scudder, Foss. Ins. 2: 279. 1890. 

Nec Nyctophylax Fitzinger, Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. 
Wien, Math.-nat. Cl., 42: 390. 1860. 

Orthotype: * Nyctophylax uhlert Scudder. 


NAMES TO BE RESTORED 


Cyrtoisa Fitch, Ann. Rep. State Cab. Nat. Hist. 
4:49. 1851. 
Logotype: Cyrtoisa fenestrata Fitch. 


This name was spelled this way by Fitch 
originally. We have no way of knowing that 
this is a misspelling, even though Fitch gives 
the derivation as from the Greek xupros, curved 
or hump-backed. He may have been familiar 
with Perris’s Cyrtosia, Ann. Soc. Ent. France 
8: 54, 1839, and deliberately reversed the two 
letters in order to avoid a homonym. Cyrtolobus 
Goding, Trans. Amer. Ent. Soc. 19: 257, 1892, 
was proposed as a new name for Cyrtoisa [sic] 
Fitch (nec Cyrtosia Perris). Corrections in the 
original spelling should be avoided as indicated 
below under the genus Pseuwdeoscarta. Cyrtolobus 
Goding is therefore a synonym of Cyrtovsa 
Fitch. 


Errhomenus Fieber, Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien 
16: 501. 1866. 
Haplotype: Errhomenus brachypterus Fieber. 


Puton, Catalogue des hémipterés de la faune 
Paléarctique, ed. 3: 79, 1886, lists Hrrhomenellus 
Puton and places Hrrhomenus Fieber (1866) 
as a synonym, and this has been followed by 
most subsequent authors. However, as I can 
find no reason for this, I restore Hrrhomenus 
Fieber (1866). 


Euides Fieber, Verh. zool.-bot. Ges. Wien 16: 519. 
1866. 
Logotype: Delphax basilinea German. 


Puton, Catalogue des Hémiptéres de la faune 
Paléarctique, ed. 3: 72, 1886, lists Hucdella with 
Huides Fieber (1866) as a synonym. I can find 
no reason for this unless Hwides was confused 


* This denotes fossil forms. 


Juny 1952 


with Hueides Huebner, Verz. bekannt. Schmett. 
1816: 11. I therefore restore Huides Fieber. 
Eueides Kirkaldy, Entomologist.37: 175, 1904, 
will also be a synonym. 


Harmonides Kirkaldy, Entomologist 35: 316. 1902. 
Logotype: Darnis reticulata Fabricius (= Par- 
mula bistrigata Fairmaire). 


This name was proposed to replace Parmula 
Fairmaire, Ann. Soc. Ent. France (2) 4: 490, 
1847, nec Parmula Heyden, Isis von Oken 1825: 
589. Two years later Kirkaldy, Entomologist 
37: 279, 1904, proposed Boethoos a new name, 
for Parmula Fairmaire. Since Harmonides is the 
earlier name and, so far as I can discover, has 
never been used before, it should be restored. 


Ophiola Edwards, Ent. Monthly Mag. 58: 206, 
207. 1922. 1949. 
Logotype: Cicada striatula Fallen: 


Oman, Mem. Ent. Soc. Washington 3: 152, 
1949, makes this a synonym of Scleroracus Van 
Duzee based on Van Duzee’s statement Can. 
Ent. 26: 136, 1894, that there is a specimen in 
the U. S. National Museum labeled Scleroracus 
anthracinus Uhler. I refuse to accept museum 
labels, either published or unpublished, as hav- 
ing any standing in nomenclature whatsoever. 
This, apparently, was Van Duzee’s idea, as he 


HARTMAN: MARINE ANNELIDS 


described a new species, Athysanus anthracinus, 
based on specimens from Iowa from Prof. Her- 
bert Osborn and from Colorado from Prof. C. P. 
Gillette, Van Duzee, Can. Ent. 26: 137, 1894, 
says: “Prof. Osborn’s specimen came labelled 
Conogonus gagates, Ashm., and in the National 
Museum is an example labelled Scleroracus an- 
thracinus, Uhler. I have adopted Mr. Uhler’s 
specific name as very appropriate for this deep 
black little Jassid, but I can find no characters 
to separate it generically from Athysanus.”’ 

I could argue from this that the genus should 
be called Conogonus, as this name on a museum 
label has line priority over Scleroracus and that 
the species name gagates Ashmead would re- 
place anthracinus Van Duzee. 


Pseudeoscarta Lallemand, Journ. Federated Ma- 
lay States Mus. 17: 375. 1933. 
Haplotype: Pseudeoscarta pendleburyi Lallemand. 


As listed by Neave, Nomenclator Zoologicus 
3: 1003, Pseudoscarta is an unnecessary correc- 
tion for Pseudeoscarta Lallemand (1933). Lalle- 
mand was apparently establishing a false Hos- 
carta, not a false Scarta; hence the elimination 
of the o at the end of Pseudo to avoid three 
vowels following one another. Later Lallemand, 
Mem. Inst. Royal Sci. Nat. Belgique (2) 32: 
40, 54, 1949, wrote Pseudoeoscarta. 


ZOOLOGY .—The marine annelids of the United States Navy Antarctic Expedition, 
1947-481 OtGA Hartman, Allan Hancock Foundation, University of South- 
ern California. (Communicated by Fenner A. Chace, Jr.) 


A small though interesting collection of 
polychaetous annelids was collected by 
Comdr. David C. Nutt, USNR, during the 
United States Navy Antarctic Expedition, 
1947-48. Twenty-nine species, including 
one new, Octobranchus phyllocomus, in 15 
families are represented. Most of the speci- 
mens come from Marguerite Bay; others are 
from Ross Island, Knox coast, and vicinity 
of Peter I Island. Depths range from shore 
to 115 fathoms. The collections with type 
specimen are deposited in the United States 
National Museum; a partial duplicate set is 
at the Allan Hancock Foundation. The illus- 
trations were prepared by Anker Petersen. 
I am indebted to the Administration of the 

1 Contribution 87 from the Allan Hancock 


Foundation, University of Southern California, 
Los Angeles, Calif. 


Allan Hancock Foundation for permission 
to examine these materials. 


Family PoLyNompaE 
Barrukia cristata (Willey) 
Gattyana cristata Willey, 1902, p. 268, pl. 44, figs. 

1-4. 

Barrukia cristata Bergstrom, 1916, pp. 297-299, 

pl. 5, figs. 7-9, 14. 

Localities—Marguerite Bay, 40 fathoms, 
water temperature 30°F., Feb. 22, 1948 (1 
specimen); 85-105 fathoms, water temperature 
30.2°F., Feb. 19, 1948 (1 specimen). 


Harmothoé spinosa Kinberg 
386; Berg- 


6, pl. 3, 


Harmothoé spinosa Winberg, 1855, p. 
strém, 1916, pp. 284-286, pl. 2, 
figs. 1-4. 


figs. 5, 


Localities —Marguerite Bay, 35 fathoms, 


232 


Feb. 20, 1948 (2 specimens), 40 fathoms, Feb. 
22, 1948 (4 specimens). Peter I Island, 30 
fathoms, Feb. 15, 1948 (7 specimens). Off Point 
¥13 Island, Knox coast, 66°31’ S8., 110°26’ E. 
in 110 fathoms, Jan. 19, 1948 (1 specimen). Off 
Cape Royds, Ross Island, 58 fathoms, Jan. 29, 
1948 (about 10 specimens). 

Notes.—Some specimens are very dark on 
both sides of the body, with parapodia and 
setae pale; others are checkered instead of dark. 
These variations agree with some described and 
shown by Ehlers (1913, pl. 26, colored). 


Harmothoé magellanica (McIntosh) 
Lagisca magellanica McIntosh, 1885, pp. 82-83, pl. 
13, fig. 5, pl. 18, figs. 3, 4, pl. 7a, figs. 1, 2. 
Harmothoé magellanica Bergstrém, 1916, pp. 280— 
282, pl. 4, figs. 1-3. 


Localities.—Marguerite Bay, 35 fathoms, Feb. 
20, 1948 (8 specimens); 40 fathoms, Feb. 22, 
1948 (about 9 specimens). 


Polyeunoa laevis McIntosh 
Polyeunoa laevis McIntosh, 1885, pp. 76-77, pl. 12, 
fig. 2, pl. 20, fig. 8, pl. 7a, figs. 12, 13; Bergstrom, 
1916, pp. 288-291, pl. 3, fig. 7. 


Localities—Marguerite Bay, 35 fathoms, 
Feb. 20, 1948 (1 specimen); 40 fathoms, asso- 
ciated with arborescent aleyonarians, Feb. 22, 
1948 (2 specimens). 


Family PHYLLODOCIDAE 
Anaitides patagonica (Kinberg) 
Carobia patagonica Kinberg, 1865, p. 242. 


Anaitides patagonica Bergstrém, 1914, pp. 147-149, 
fig. 46. 


Locality— Marguerite Bay, 35 fathoms, Feb. 
20, 1948 (1 specimen). 


Genetyllis polyphylla (Ehlers) 
Phyllodoce polyphylla Ehlers, 1897, pp. 26-28, pl. 
1, figs. 14-19. 
Genetyllis polyphylla Berystrom, 1914, pp. 161-163, 
fig. 55. 


Locality.—Marguerite Bay, 35 fathoms, Feb. 
20, 1948 (1 specimen). 


Family SYLLIDAE 
Trypanosyllis gigantea (McIntosh) 
Syllis gigantea McIntosh, 1885, p. 193, pl. 30, figs. 
1-3, pl. 33, fig. 4, pl. 10A, fig. 14, pl. 24A, fig. 7. 


Trypanosyllis gigantea Ehlers, 1901, p. 85, pl. 6, 
figs. 11-16. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 7 


Locality Marguerite Bay, 35 fathoms, Feb. 
20, 1948 (1 specimen). 


Syllis brachycola Ehlers 


Syllis brachycola Ehlers, 1897, p. 38, pl. 2, figs. 46— 
47; Monro, 1930, p. 100, figs. 33 a-b. 


Locality —Marguerite Bay, 40 fathoms, Feb. 
22, 1948 (about 15 specimens). 

Notes.—Some have a pigmented pattern on 
the dorsum of anterior 15 to 20 segments; there 
are dark, transverse, segmental bands alternat- 
ing with similar though medially broken, inter- 
segmental bars. Dorsal cirri are short, with 15 
to 20 articles. Composite setae are distally bi- 
dentate. 

Family NEPHTYIDAE 
Aglaophamus macroura (Schmarda) 
Nephthys macroura Schmarda, 1861, p. 91, 3 figs. 
Aglaophamus macroura Hartman, 1950, pp. 118-120. 


Localities.—65°25’ S., 101°13’ E., 100 fath- 
oms, Jan. 14, 1948 (3 specimens). Peter I Island, 
30 fathoms, Feb. 15, 1948 (1 specimen). 

Family NEREIDAE 
Nereis kerguelensis McIntosh 


Nereis kerguelensis McIntosh, 1885, p. 225, pl. 35, 
figs. 10-12, pl. 16A, figs. 17-18; Ehlers, 1897, p. 
65, pl. 4, figs. 81-83. 


Locality Marguerite Bay, 35 fathoms, Feb. 
20, 1948 (1 specimen), 40 fathoms, Feb. 22, 
1948 (1 specimen). 

Family LuMBRINERIDAE 
Lumbrineris magalhaensis (Kinberg) 


Lumbriconereis magalhaensis Kinberg, 1865, p. 568; 
1910, p. 47, pl. 18, fig. 35. 

Lumbrineris magalhaensis Hartman, 1948, p. 93, 
pl. 14, figs. 1-3. 


Locality.—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 50 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (1 specimen). 
Family ORBINIIDAE 
Scoloplos (Leodamas) marginatus (Ehlers) 
Aricia marginata Ehlers, 1897, p. 95, pl. 6, figs. 
150-156. 


Locality— Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 50 and 
58 fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (about 12 specimens). 
Family OPHELIIDAE 
Travisia lithophila Kinberg 


Travisia lithophila Kinberg, 1866, p. 256; 1910, p. 
66, pl. 25, fig. 4. 


JuLY 1952 


Locality.— 65°25’ S., 101°13’ E., 100 fathoms, 
Jan 14, 1948 (1 specimen). 


Ammotrypane gymnopyge Ehlers 


Ammotrypane gymnopyge Ehlers, 1908, p. 118, pl. 17, 
figs. 1-4. ; 


Locality.—Peter I Island, 30 fathoms, Feb. 
15, 1948 (6 specimens). 


Family FLABELLIGERIDAE 
Flabelligera mundata Gravier 
Flabelligera mundata Gravier, 1907, pp. 37-89, pl. 

4, figs. 31-32. 

Localities. —Marguerite Bay, 115 fathoms, 
Feb. 18, 1948 (1 specimen), 35 fathoms, Feb. 
20, 1948 (7 specimens), 40 fathoms, Feb. 22, 
1948 (2 specimens). 

Family ScALIBREGMIDAE 
Oncoscolex dicranochaetus Schmarda 


Oncoscolex dicranochaetus Schmarda, 1861, p. 55, 
4 figs., pl. 26, fig. 206. 


Locality — Marguerite Bay, 40 fathoms, Feb 
22, 1948 (1 specimen). 


Family AMPHARETIDAE 
Amphicteis gunneri antarctica Hessle 


Amphicteis gunneri antarctica Hessle, 1917, pp. 
116-117, pl. 1, fig. 10. 


Localities.— 66°35’ S., 90°40’ E., 150 fathoms 
Dec. 30, 1947 (1 specimen). 65°25’ S., 101°13’ 
E., 100 fathoms, Jan. 14, 1948 (1 specimen). Off 
Cape Royds, Ross Island, 58 fathoms, Jan. 29, 
1948 (1 specimen). Peter I Island, 30 fathoms, 
Feb. 15, 1948 (14 specimens). 


Family TrIcHOBRANCHIDAE 
Trichobranchus glacialis antarcticus Hessle 


Trichobranchus glacialis antarcticus Hessle, 1917, 
p. 132. 


Locality —Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 50 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (1 specimen). 

Notes.—There are three pairs of filiform 
branchiae that resemble one another. The peri- 
stomial ring is plain; it lacks eyespots. The 
body cavity is crowded with ova. 


Octobranchus phyllocomus, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-12 


Type.—U.S.N.M. no. 23771. 


HARTMAN: MARINE ANNELIDS 


233 


Locality.—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 50 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (1 specimen). 

The single specimen is posteriorly incomplete; 
it measures 20 mm long and 3.3 mm wide in 
front at the postbranchial region of the body. 
It consists of the head region, 16 thoracic and 6 
abdominal setigerous segments. Preserved the 
body is pale or white, except for the dark eye 
spots that are strewn on the peristomial collar. 

The most striking feature concerns the 
foliaceous character of the branchiae, especially 
the second pair (Fig. 5); they resemble those in 
the ampharetid genus Phyllocomus Grube; hence 
the specific name. The thoracic uncini are long- 
handled, and in other respects this individual 
agrees with members of the family Tricho- 
branchidae. 

The oral tentacles are very numerous and 
filiform except for their tips, which are longi- 
tudinally grooved and somewhat spatulate. 
They form a dense tuft at the anterior end of 
the body. They are of varying length; the long- 
est are on the ventral, the shortest on the 
dorsal side. The membrane to which the ten- 
tacles are attached is U-shaped around the oral 
aperture; it is completely covered except for a 
pair of free lateral lobes at the sides of the 
mouth. 

The lateral lobes (Fig. 1) of the thorax con- 
sist of four well-developed pairs. All are con- 
tinued across the ventrum as smooth-margined, . 
collar membranes. The first pair is the smallest; 
it is ventrolateral in position and largely con- 
cealed by the much larger second pair. Its base 
can be followed dorsally to that of the first 
branchial pair. The second lateral lobes are the 
largest and most prolonged in their lateral parts; 
they extend across the ventrum as the longest 
collar membrane; their upper bases can be traced 
in line with the bases of the second branchial 
pairs. The third lateral lobes resemble the sec- 
ond pair but are somewhat smaller and slightly 
more ventral; their bases are in line with the 
bases of the third branchial pairs. The fourth 
lateral lobes are increasingly smaller and slightly 
ventrolateral in position; the expanded upper 
part is below the first notopodial fascicle and its 
base in line with that of the fourth branchial 
pair. 

The peristomial base is strewn with many 
dark eyespots, most numerous at the sides of 
the body; the eyes are not seen unless the large 


234 


lateral lobes of the second pair are pushed to 
one side. 

Branchiae are dorsal, number four pairs, and 
are inserted between the bases of the lateral 
lobes. All are similar in that each consists of a 
basal foliaceous part terminating distally in a 
slender filament. The first pair is inserted far in 
front of and within the others; its proportions 
are shown in Fig. 4. The second pair is lateral- 
most; it is broadest and subquadrate in its basal 
part (Fig. 5). The third (Fig. 6) and fourth 
(Fig. 7) pairs are similar to each other, but the 
third is the larger and terminates in a longer 
filament. Striking features of all branchial pais 
are the bilimbate character of the basal parts 
and the richly branched circulatory vessels 
which can be seen through the membranous 
epithelium. 

There are 16 thoracic setigerous segments. 
The first notopodia are smallest and slender- 
conical in shape; they are provided with a 
bundle of slender setae directed distally. The 
second notopodia are larger and heavier than 
the first; farther back they come to be com- 
pressed, triangular processes (Fig. 2) and have 
transverse series of setae between their presetal 
and postsetal lobes. Thoracic setae consist of 
about seven larger, broader and eight slenderer, 
shorter ones in a single transverse series. 

Thoracic uncini are first present from the 
fifth setigerous segment, at first arranged in a 
short, transverse series; farther back the row 
increases in length. The uncini (Fig. 8) are of a 
single kind and number 15 to 25 in a row. Each 
consists of a long handle that terminates distally 
in a fang surmounted by a rostrate series of 
transverse ridges (Figs. 9, 10). 

Only a few abdominal segments are present 
on the single specimen. Abdominal parapodia 
are lateral in position; each is in the form of a 
rectangular plaque (Fig. 3) with the uncini ar- 
ranged in a single series at the outer distal mar- 
gin. The uncini number about 30 in a row. They 
are all similar, avicular, lack a handle. Seen 
individually (Fig. 11) each consists of a thin 
subcircular plate with a major fang surmounted 
by two transverse rows of smaller teeth, the 
middle one with about five teeth, the distal one 
with about eight smaller ones (Fig. 12). 

The genus Octobranchus Marion and Bobret- 
zky is a group of few species (see Hessle, 1917, 
p. 134); they include O. antarcticus Monro 
(1936, pp. 185-187, fig. 33) from south Georgia, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 7 
O. japonicus Hessle (1917, pp. 1384-135, pl. 1, 
figs. 13-15) from Japan and O. lingulatus 
(Grube) (1863, pp. 56-57, pl. 6, fig. 1) from the 
Mediterranean Sea. In these the branchiae are 
said to be filiform (Monro, 19386, p. 185). O. 
phyllocomus departs from the other species in 
that the second pair of branchiae is conspicu- 
ously foliaceous. 

O. antarcticus Monro (1936, pp. 185-186) is 
known from a single, imperfect individual from 
Schollaert Channel, Palmer Archipelago, 278- 
500 meters, mud bottom. The tentacles and all 
except a fourth pair of branchiae were lost 
when the original description was made. The 
lateral lobes resemble those of the present species 
but are less developed in their lateral parts. The 
first notopodia are on the last branchial seg- 
ment and uncini begin on the fourth setigerous 
segment. 


Family TEREBELLIDAE 


Terebella ehlersi Gravier 


Terebella ehlersi Gravier, 1907, pp. 47-50, text 
figs. 30-81, plate figs. 45-46. 


Localities—Marguerite Bay, 385 fathoms, 
Feb. 20, 1948 (1 specimen); 40 fathoms, Feb. 
22, 1948 (several specimens). 

Notes.—The greatest length is about 70 mm. 
The peristomial ring shows no eye spots, but 
they are supposedly present (Hessle, 1917, p. 
190). Notosetal fascicles of pointed setae are 
present on many (to 47) or fewer segments; the 
fascicles decrease in size going back and gradu- 
ally disappear on 20 or more posterior segments. 
Ventral gland shields occur on 15 segments. 
There are no lateral lappets. A prominent 
nephridial papilla is present on each side, be- 
tween the bases of the first and second branchiae. 
Notosetae are conspicuously winged at their 
distal ends. The tubes are thick, more or less 
mud-walled to irregularly covered with detritus. 


Pista corrientis McIntosh 


Pista corrientis McIntosh, 1885, pp. 457-458, pl. 
48, fig. 11, pl. 27A, fig. 35; Hessle, 1917, pp. 158- 
159, pl. 2, figs. 2-3. 


Locality.—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 58 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (1 specimen). 


Lanicides vayssierei (Gravier) 


Terebella (Phyzelia) vayssieret Gravier, 1911, pp. 
130-133, pl. 10, figs. 121-123, pl. 11, figs. 134-135. 
Lanicides vayssiert Hessle, 1917, pp. 166-167. 


HARTMAN: MARINE ANNELIDS 


7 


(Reductions in magnifications are made for a base line measuring 54 inches.) 


Fias. 1-12. Octobranchus phyllocomus, n. sp. (holotype: U. S. N. M. no. 23771): 1, Anterior end seen 
from the right side, X7; 2, fourteenth thoracic notopodium, X49; 3, third abdominal parapodium, X49; 
4, first branchia, X17.4; 5, second branchia, 17.4; 6, third branchia, X17.4; 7, fourth branchia, X17.4; 
8, thoracic uncinus, X44.3; 9, distal end of thoracic uncinus, seen from front, X1856; 10, distal end of 
thoracie uncinus, seen from side, X1856; 11, abdominal uncinus, seen from side, 2935; 12, abdominal 
uncinus, seen from front, X 2985. 


236 


Localities.—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 50 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (several specimens); 58 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (many specimens). 
Marguerite Bay, 35 fathoms, Feb. 20, 1948 (2 
specimens); 40 fathoms, Feb. 22, 1948 (many 
specimens in tubes). 

Notes.—This is a large species and forms 
aggregated masses of tubes. Length of the body 
is 75 mm or more and width is 8 mm. The tubes 
are considerably larger, to 120 mm long and 
about 13 mm across; they are composed of a 
smooth cylindrical lining covered over with fine 
mud; some have needlelike sponge spicules and 
other extraneous materials interwoven in the 
outer layers so that the tube appears irregularly 
spinous. Conspicuous characters of the species 
are the two pairs of dendritically branched 
branchiae, the single pair of large lateral lappets 
that occur on the second branchial segment, 
and the two pairs of nephridial papillae present 
on the posterior side of notopodia 3 and 4. 
Thoracic segments number 17 setigerous ones. 
Some of the specimens have the redia stage of a 
digenetic trematode in the posterior coelomic 
spaces. 


Leaena ?wandelensis Gravier 


Leaena wandelensis Gravier, 1907, pp. 50-52, pl. 
5, figs. 47-48, text figs. 32-34; Benham, 1927, pp. 
107-111, pl. 2, figs. 61-69, pl. 6, figs. 189-190. 


Localities.—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 58 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (1 specimen with tube). 
65°25’ 8., 101°13’ E., 100 fathoms, Jan. 14, 1948 
(1 specimen in tube). 

Notes.—The larger tube measures about 80 
mm long and has many needlelike sponge 
spicules incorporated with fine detrital materials 
in its external walls. The smaller tube has pro- 
portionately more sponge spicules. Both tubes 
are long, cylindrical, very slender, and closely 
fitting the occupant. The thorax has numerous 
eye spots, limited largely to the sides. There are 
no branchiae. The oculate area is concealed by 
a pair of large lateral flaps that extend forward 
from the next segment. The specific identity is 
in some doubt since the uncini differ from those 
originally shown. They are avicular with a main 
fang that is very large, surmounted by a fang 
of smaller size and this by several smaller den- 
ticles in rostrate arrangement. In this respect 
they are more nearly like those of Leaena areni- 
lega Ehlers (1918, p. 564, pl. 44, fig. 13) from 
Kaiser Wilhelm-II-Land, a species which Ben- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 42, No. 7 


ham (1927) regards conspecific with L. wandelen- 
sis Gravier. 


Thelepus cincinnatus (Fabricius) 


Amphitrite cincinnata Fabricius, 1780, pp. 286-287. 
Thelepus cincinnatus Hessle, 1917, pp. 212-214 
(with synonymy). 


Localities.—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 58 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (1 specimen). Marguerite 
Bay, 35 fathoms, Jan. 20, 1948 (2 specimens); 
40 fathoms, Jan. 22, 1948 (many specimens). 

Notes.—The tubes resemble those of Lanicides 
vayssveret (above) but have a tougher lining and 
are proportionately slenderer. The surface of 
the body is coarsely granular owing to the pres- 
ence of epithelial glands. Notopodial setal tufts 
are present on many segments and continued 
back to near the posterior end. 


Polycirrus kerguelensis (McIntosh) 
Ereutho kerguelensis McIntosh, 1885, p. 474, pl. 
28A, figs. 20, 21. 
Polycirrus kerguelensis Hessle, 1917, pp. 221-224. 


Locality— Marguerite Bay, 40 fathoms, Feb. 
22, 1948 (1 specimen). z 

Notes.—The single individual is about 18 mm 
long; it has 11 thoracic setigerous segments, as 
Hessle found, not 13 as described by McIntosh. 
There are three long, digitate nephridial lobes 
on each side of setigerous segments 4, 5, and 6. 


Family SABELLIDAE 


Euchone pallida Ehlers 


Euchone pallida Ehlers, 1908, p. 159, pl. 21, figs. 
10-15, pl. 22, figs. 1-4. 


Localities.—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 50 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (1 specimen) ; 58 fathoms, 
Jan. 29, 1948 (3 specimens with tubes). 


Potamilla antarctica (Kinberg) 


Laonome antarctica Kinberg, 1867, p. 354. 
Potamilla antarctica Gravier, 1907, pp. 59-62, figs. 
38-43. 


Localities. —Off Burton Rock, 66°15’ S., 95°20’ 
E., 43 fathoms, Jan. 3, 1948 (1 specimen). Off 
Cape Royds, Ross Island, 58 fathoms, Jan. 29, 
1948 (several specimens in tubes). Off Point «13 
Island, Knox coast, 66°31’ S., 110°26’ E., 110 
fathoms, Jan. 19, 1948 (1 specimen). Marguerite 
Bay, 35 fathoms, Feb. 20, 1948 (1 specimen) ; 40 
fathoms, Feb. 22, 1948 (1 specimen). 

Notes.—Some of the larger individuals meas- 


Juny 1952 


ure about 160 mm long. The tubes are trans- 
lucent, horny, and cylindrical and measure 
about 200 mm long at most; they closely sur- 
round the occupant and taper posteriorly to a 
conical closed end. In the larger specimens the 
pygidial lobe is pale white, with few or no dark 
eye spots; in smaller, presumably younger in- 
dividuals of the same species the terminal lobe 
has many irregularly strewn reddish or dark 
eye spots. The thorax has eight setigerous and 
the abdomen 100 or more segments. The tentac- 
ular radioles are very long, numerous, 25 to 30 
on a side; each terminates distally in a long, 
smooth tip that surpasses the length of the in- 
dividual filaments. The thoracic collar lacks 
dorsal lobes; it has lateral lobes and long, oblique 
ventral ends. Thoracic notosetae are of 2 kinds; 
the superior ones are longer and slenderer than 
the abruptly different, mucronated inferior ones. 


Family SERPULIDAE 
Serpula vermicularis narconensis Baird 
Serpula narconensis Baird, 1865, p. 21, pl. 2, figs. 
Uo & 
Serpula vermicularis Gravier, 1911, pp. 147-148, 
pl. 12, figs. 170-175. 


Localities. —66°35’ S., 90°40’ E., 150 fathoms, 
Dec. 30, 1947 (several tubes). Off Cape Royds, 
Ross Island, 58 fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (many 
tubes). Off Point #13 Island, Knox coast, 110 
fathoms, Jan. 19, 1948 (2 tubes). Marguerite 
Bay, 115 fathoms, Feb. 18, 1948 (tube frag- 
ments) ; 85-105 fathoms, Feb. 19, 1948 (several 
tubes); 35 fathoms, Feb. 19-20, 1948 (many 
tubes) ; 40 fathoms, Feb. 22, 1948 (several speci- 
mens with tubes). 


Spirorbis spp. 


Locality.—Off Cape Royds, Ross Island, 58 
fathoms, Jan. 29, 1948 (several specimens). 

Notes.—There are several coiled tubes, ad- 
herent to those of Serpula vermicularis nar- 
conensis (above) and algal strands. The aperture 
is sinistral; the upper surface has three longi- 
tudinal ridges. The individual coils measure | or 
2 mm across. 


REFERENCES 


Barrp, W. Description of several new species and 
varieties of tubicolous Annelides, in the col- 
lection of the British Museum. Journ. Linn. 
Soe. Zool. London 8: 10-22, 2 pls. 1865. 

Benuam, W. B. Polychaeta. British Antarctic 
Terra Nova Expedition, 1910. Nat. Hist. Rep. 
Zool. 7: 47-182, 6 pls. 1927. 


HARTMAN: MARINE ANNELIDS 


237 


Berestrom, E. Zur Systematik des Polychaeten 
Familie der Phyllodociden. Zool. Bidr. Uppsala 
3: 37-224, 81 figs. 1914. 

Die Polynoiden des schwedischen Siidpolar. 
Expedition 1901-1903. Ibid. 4: 249-304, pls. 
2-5, 2 text figs. 1916. 

Euuers, H. Polychaeten. Hamburger Magalhaen- 
nischen Sammelreise, 148 pp., 9 pls. 1897. 
Die Polychaeten des magellanischen und 
chilenischen Strandes. Festschr. Ges. Wiss. 

Gottingen, 232 pp., 25 pls. Berlin, 1901. 

Wissenschaftliche Ergebnisse der deutschen 

Tiefsee-Expedition auf dem Dampfer Valdivia 

1898-1899 16(1): 168 pp., 23 pls. 1908. 

Die Polychaeten-Sammlungen der deut- 
schen Siidpolar-Expedition 1901-03. Deutsche 
Sudpolar-Exped. 13(4): 397-598, pls. 26-46. 
1913. 

Fasricius, O. Fauna Groenlandica, xvi + 452 pp. 
Hafniae et Lipsiae, 1780. 

GRAVIER, C. Sur les Annélides polychétes recueil- 
lies par VBxpedition Antarctique francaise, 
75 pp., 5 pls., 46 text figs. Paris, 1907. 

Annélides polychétes recueillies par la se- 
conde expedition antarctique francaise (1908- 
1910). Deuxieme Expedition Antarctique Fran- 
Gaise 1: 165 pp., 12 pls. 1911. 

GruBE, A. HE. Beschreibung neuer oder wenig 
bekannter Anneliden. Beitrag: Zahlreiche Gat- 
tungen. Arch. Naturg. Berlin 29(1): 37-69, 
3 pls. 1863. 

Harrman, Ouea. The marine annelids erected by 
Kinberg with notes on some other types in the 
Swedish State Museum. Ark. Zool. Stockholm 
42A : 1-137, 18 pls. 1948. 

Polychaetous Annelids: Goniadidae, Gly- 
ceridae, Nephtyidae. Allan Hancock Pacific 
Exped. 15: 1-181, 19 pls., 3 text figs. 1950. 

HessueE, C. Zur Kenntnis der terebellomorphen 
Polychaeten. Zool. Bidr. Uppsala 5: 39-258. 
5 pls., 66 text figs. 1917. 

Krnpere, J. G. H. Nya sldgten och arter af An- 
nelider. Ofv. Vet.-Akad. Stockholm 12: 381- 
388. 1855. 

. Annulata nova. Ibid. 21: 559-574. 1865; 

22: 167-179 and 239-258. 1866; 23 : 337-357. 1867. 

Kongliga Svenska Fregatten Kugenies Resa 
omkring jorden under befdél af C.A. Virgin 
dren 1851-53. Zoologi, 3 Annulater, 78 pp., 29 
pls. 1910. 

McInrosu, W. C. Report on the Annelida Poly- 
chaeta collected by H.M.S. Challenger during 
the years 1873-76. Challenger Reports 12: 1- 
554, pls. 1-55 and 1A-89A. 1885. 

Monro, C. C. A. Polychaete worms. Discovery 
Reports 2: 1-222, 91 figs. 1930. 

Polychaete worms. IT. Ibid. 12: 59-198, 34 
figs. 1986. 

Scumarpa, L. Neue wirbellose Thiere beobachtet 
und gesammelt auf einer Reise um die Erde 
1853 bis 1857 1(2): 1-164, 22 pls. Leipzig, 1861. 

Wiuury, A. Polychaeta. Report on the collections 
of natural history made in the Antarctic regions 
during the voyage of the Southern Cross 12: 
262-2838, pls. 41-46. London, 1902. 


238 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 7 


NEMATOLOGY .—A new roundworm, Capillaria pirangae (Nematoda: Trichinel- 
lidae), from the scarlet tanager, Piranga erythromelas. CHARLES G. DURBIN, 
U.S. Bureau of Animal Industry. (Communicated by E. W. Price.) 


Two males and one mature female nema- 
todes of the genus Capillaria were recovered 
from the small intestine of a scarlet tanager, 
Piranga erythromelas, caught at the Agri- 
cultural Research Center, Beltsville, Md. 

An examination of the specimens of Capil- 
laria in the U.S. National Museum Helmin- 
thological Collection showed no specimens 
that had been obtained from the scarlet 
tanager, and a review of the pertinent litera- 
ture (Cram, 1925; Teixera de Freitas and 
Luis de Almeida, 1934, 1935; Madsen, 1945, 
1951; Lopez-Neyra, 1947) shows that, ex- 
cept for Read’s (1949) report, there are no 
records of any capillarids having been col- 
lected from this host. Read (loc. cit.) re- 
ported finding two immature female capil- 
larids in the small intestine of a scarlet 
tanager at Madison and Shawano, Wis. He 
was unable to determine the species because 
the specimens were immature. However, a 
study of Read’s description and illustrations 
shows clearly that the capillarids collected 
from the scarlet tanager in Wisconsin differ 
from those that form the subject of the 
present note. 

Capillaria pirangae, n. sp. 

Description.—Cuticle transversely — striated 
Lateral bacillary lines present. Mouth simple. 

Male—13 mm long, maximum width 55 up. 
Spicule smooth with a blunt tip, 1.55 mm long 
by 15 « wide; spicule sheath covered with minute 
spines. Lateral caudal alae absent. The tail ends 
in a bilobed membranous bursa, each lobe sup- 
portedby a stout ray (Fig. 1, B). Cloaca sub- 
terminal. 

Female.—18 mm long by 50 » wide just anterior 
to the vulva; maximum width 65 uw. No prevulvar 
notch or cuticular bosses present. Well-developed 
funnel shaped vulvar appendage present (Fig. 
1, A). Anus subterminal. Vulva divides the body 
1:2.2. Eges, 60-65 u long; 25-80 » wide; outer shell 
with longitudinal folds (Fig. 1, A). 

Host.—Piranga erythromelas. 

Location.—Small intestine. 

Locality.—Beltsville, Md. 

Type specimens.—Female, holotype; male, 
allotype U. 8S. N. M. Helm. Coll. no. 46938. 


Remarks.—The female most closely resembles 
C. quiscali Read, 1949, but differs from it in the 
shape of the vulvar appendage. In C. quiscali the 
base of the vulvar appendage is long and elevated 
whereas in C. pirangae the base of the appendage 
is narrow. The surface of the eggs of C. quiscali 
are roughly mammiulated whereas those of C. 
ptrangae have longitudinal folds. The male bears 


Fre. 1.—Capillaria pirangae,n. sp.; A, Female, 
region of vulva, egg in uterus; B, male, tail. 


JuLY 1952 LEVITON: NEW 


some resemblance to C. collaris (v. Linstow, 
1873), but differs from it in the shape of the 
spicule and the absence of a spine on its tip. 


REFERENCES 

Cram, Evorss B. Species of Capillaria parasitic 
in the upper digestive tract of birds. U. 8. 
Dept. Agr. Techn. Bull. 516: 27 pp., pls. 1936. 

Loprz-Neyra, C. R. Generos y especies nuevas 0 
mal conocidas de Capillariinae. Rev. Iber. 
Parasitol. 7 (2): 191-238. 1947. 

Manpsen, H. The species of Capillaria (Nematodes, 
Trichinelloidea) parasitic in the digestive tract 
of Danish gallinaceous and anatine game birds, 
with a revised list of species of Capillaria in 
birds. Danish Rev. Game Biol. 1 (1): 1-112, 
21 fig. 1945. 


HERPETOLOGY.—A new Philippine 


PHILIPPINE SNAKE 


239 


. Notes on the species of Capillaria Zeder 
1800 known from gallinaceous birds. Journ. 
Parasitol. 37 (3): 257-265. 1951. 

Reap, Crark, P. Studies on North American hel- 
minths of the genus Capillaria Zeder, 1800 
(Nematoda): IIIl. Capillarids from the lower 
digestive tract of North American birds. Journ. 
Parasitol. 35: (38): 240-249. 1949. 

TerxeRA DE FRetrAs,J.F.,and LiInspr ALMeErpA, J. 
Sobre os Nematoda Capillariinae parasitas de 
esophago e papo de aves. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo 
Cruz 30 (2): 123-156. 1935. 

O genero ‘“Capillaria’? Zeder 1800 

(‘““Nematoda—Trichuroidea”’) e as Capillario- 

ses nas aves domesticas. Rev. Dept. Nac. 

Prod. Animal Brasil 2 (4, 5, 6): 310-363, pls. 

1935. 


snake of the genus Calamaria. ALAN E. 


Leviton, Natural History Museum, Stanford University. (Communicated by 


Doris M. Cochran.) 


Several years ago while identifying the 
snakes collected by Dr. Albert W. Herre 
during his Philippine Expedition of 1940, I 
noted a specimen belonging to the genus 
Calamaria that was not identifiable with 
any previously described species, and ap- 
peared to be a new form. I decided not to 
describe the new snake immediately but to 
wait until it would be possible to review the 
entire genus, rather than add to the existing 
confusion. Plans were outlined to study the 
genus as a whole, but inasmuch as comple- 
tion of a generic review must now be post- 
poned because of inadequacy of available 
material, it seems best to publish a descrip- 
tion of this snake without further delay. 


Calamaria zamboangensis, n. sp. 

Holotype.—SU reptile register no. 13476, male, 
collected by Dr. Albert W. Herre, at Zam- 
boanga, Mindanao Island, Philippine Islands, 
September 2, 1940, during the Herre Oriental 
Expedition of 1940. 

Paratype—SU 18477; same data as holotype 
except as otherwise mentioned. 

Diagnosis.—This species can be distinguished 
from all previously described forms of Calamaria 
by the combination of the following character- 
istics: Mental shield not in contact with anterior 
genials, diameter of eye less than its distance to 
mouth, frontal only twice as broad as supra- 


ocular, preocular and postocular shields present, 
anal entire. C. zamboangensis is distinguished 
from albopunctata by a considerably lower ventral 
count (201-203 V. in zamboangensis, 247 V. in 
albopunctata), and from quinquetaeniata by a 
higher ventral and lower subcaudal count (zgam- 
boangensis, 201-203 V., 12-13 C.; quinquetaenrata, 
178 V., 26 C.). It differs from egregia in the smaller 
proportions of the frontal shield width vs. supra- 
ocular shield width, the smaller number of sub- 
caudal shields, five supralabials, and by the sub- 
equal size of the third and fourth supralabials 
(egregia has the frontal shield three times the 
width of the supraocular, 16 subcaudal shields, 
6 supralabials, and the fourth upper labial 
smaller than the third); and from brachyura by 
the smaller eye and different coloration. 
Description —Diameter of the eye distinctly 
less than its distance from the mouth; rostral 
broader than deep; internasals absent. The frontal 
is slightly longer than wide, twice as broad as 
the supraocular, somewhat shorter than the 
parietals. There are five supralabials, the third 
and fourth entering the eye and subequal in 
size. The first and second upper labials in con- 
tact with the prefrontal, the fifth with the parietal. 
Nostril in a small nasal; loreal absent; 1 pre- 
ocular and 1 postocular; temporals absent. The 
mental shield is not in contact with the anterior 
chin shields, the first infralabial meeting its fel- 
low behind the mental. There are five intra- 


240 


labials, the first three in contact with the ante- 
rior chin-shield; the posterior chin-shields smaller 
than and in contact with the anterior shields. 

Ventrals 201-203 (holotype 201); subcaudals 
12-13 (holotype 12); anal single; scales in 13-13- 
13 rows. 


Fic. 1—Holotype of Calamaria zamboangensis, 
S.U. no. 13476. (Photograph by Antenor L. de 
Carvalho and the author.) 


Coloration (specimen preserved in formalin 
and then in alcohol).—The ground color is light 
brown; there are six dark brown stripes dorsally 
formed by a series of coalescing spots. These 
stripes are distributed as follows: One between 
the first and second scale rows, one on the third 
row, one between the fourth and fifth rows. 
Immediately behind the head and extending for 
about one fi_th of the body length there are two 
additional stripes (longitudinal series of spots), 
one on the sixth scale row and one on the eighth 
row, but these fade out rapidly on the body. The 
head is more or less uniform brown, this color 
extending onto the upper edges of the supra- 
labials; the remainder of the supralabials are 
yellowish brown. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, NO. 7 


Ventrally the throat and anterior portion of 
the body are uniform light yellow-brown. About 
one-fifth of the body length posterior to the head 
the inner edges of the ventrals become darker 
brown while the outer edges remain a light color. 
This pattern extends onto the tail. There is a 
median dark line running down the length of 
the tail. 

Measurements (holotype)—Total length 248 
mm, snout to vent 237 mm, tail length 11 mm. 

Remarks.—The paratype agrees with the holo- 
type in the color pattern, although its color has 
faded considerably. 

C. zamboangensis appears to be closely related 
to C. egregia Barbour but can readily be dis- 
tinguished from this species as shown in the 
diagnosis. With the accumulation of additional 
evidence this new species may prove to be con- 
specific with egregia, but unfortunately the lack 
of material prevents the determination of the 
exact relationship between these two species. 

There are three other species of Calamaria to 
which the new form bears a resemblance— 
everettt, virgulata, and  occrpitalis. However, 
these three species can be distinguished from 
zamboangensts as follows: everetti has the diameter 
of the eye greater than its distance from the 
mouth, virgulata has the diameter of the eye equal 
to its distance from the mouth and a somewhat 
different coloration, and occipitalis which has a 
divided anal plate. 

Acknowledgments —I express my sincere thanks 
to Dr. Walter C. Brown, of Northwestern Uni- 
versity, who has been kind enough to reexamine 
a considerable portion of the data presented here, 
to Prof. George 8. Myers, of Stanford University, 
for reading the manuscript and offering some 
valuable criticisms, and to Charles M. Bogert 
for the loan of the entire collection of Calamaria 
in the American Museum of Natural History 
for study and comparison. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


BargBour, Tuomas. Two new Bornean snakes. 
Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 40: 127-128. 1927. 

pE Roors, Neuiy. The reptiles of the Indo-Aus- 
tralian Archipelago 2: Ophidia: XIV + 334 
pp., 117 figs. Leiden, 1917. 

Taytor, Epwarp Harrison. The snakes of the 
Philippine Islands. Philippine Bur. Sci. Publ. 
16: 312 pp., 32 figs., 37 pls. 1922. 


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CONTENTS 


Page 
GroLocy.—Lower limit of the Cambrian in the Cordilleran region. 
CHESTER Re LONGWELLS. 9.6 6.055. on ee 209 
PALEONTOLOGY.—Remains of Devonian fishes from Texas. Davin H. 
DunkKiE: and JOHN Aw WILSON: <.. $5 ...6%04 4. 10). 95.12 eee 213 
PALEONTOLOGY.—Notes on Texacrinus. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE....... 216 
Entromo.tocy.—The Ethiopian genera of Sarginae, with descriptions of 
new species... Mauricn’ DT. JAMES.) .004. 2 so do 220 
EnToMoLocy.—New names in the Homoptera. Z. P. Mrrcatr...... 226 
Zootocy.—The marine annelids of the United States Navy Antarctic 
Expedition, 1947-48. Otea HARTMAN.................... oh Oe 231 
NemMAtToLocy.—A new roundworm, Capillaria pirangae (Nematoda: 
Trichinellidae), from the scarlet tanager (Piranga erythromelas). 
CHARLES (GAD URBIN 5 ..4.05...<for5.5 . Seetols be odes, Bea el ce a 0 er 238 
HerrretoLocy.—A new Philippine snake of the genus Calamaria. ALAN 


OS TG RETON Race ts canis Roe ss scqoe ss Gey bagi cae aig cree ceo noe nan 239 


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Vot. 42 Aueustr 1952 No. 8 


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JOURNAL 


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WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuME 42 


August 1952 


No. 8 


GEOLOGY .—The Murphree Valley anticline, Alabama.! GrorcEe W. Stross, U.S. 


Geological Survey. 


In studying the manganese deposits of 
Walnut Grove, Ala., surveyed for the U. S. 
Geological Survey in 1942, I had occasion 
to map the north end of the Murphree 
Valley anticline, from Oneonta northeast- 
ward. As the structure of this fold differs 
in direction of overturning and thrusting 
from typical broken folds of the Southern 
Appalachians, it was the subject of discussion 
at a meeting of geologists of the Southern 
States held at the University of Kentucky, 
Lexington, Ky., March 23-25, 1950. There- 
fore I wish to record my determination of 
the structure. 

This anticline in the Appalachian Plateau 
is an exception to structures common to the 
Southern Appalachian region in that it is 
overturned to the southeast and is bordered 
on its southeast side by a thrust fault that 
is steeply inclined to the northwest. This 
structure was so shown on the section in 
the Gadsden Folio of the Geologic Atlas of 
the United States (Hayes, 1896), on a sec- 
tion of the Geologic Map of Alabama (Butts, 
1926), and in other reports. The rocks at 
the surface that are involved in the structure 
range in age from Upper Cambrian to 
Pennsylvanian, and the succession of forma- 
tions is shown in the legend of the map, 
Fig. 1. The terminology used is that of 
Butts (1926) rather than that of Hayes 
(1896). The formations, in descending order, 
are briefly characterized in the following 
description. 

A sandstone unit at the base of the Potts- 
ville formation of Pennsylvanian age (the 
Lookout sandstone of Hayes) forms the 
ridges that border the anticline—Sand 
Mountain on the northwest border and 


1 Publication authorized by the Director, U. 8. 
Geological Survey. 


Raccoon Mountain, which passes north- 
eastward into Straight Mountain, on the 
southeast. The Pennington shale of Mis- 
sissippian age underlies the Pottsville, and 
is very thin in this part of Alabama. In the 
Murphree Valley this formation is partly 
sandstone. The Bangor limestone is a 
fossiliferous, cliff-making limestone about 
600 feet thick. Fossils collected from it 
include Pentremites, Archimedes, zaphrent- 
oid corals, gastropods, and brachiopods 
of Chester age. The Tuscumbia limestone, 
largely weathered to clay and chert, in this 
area contains many lentils and thick beds 
of sandstone (Fig. 1), including one north- 
west of Walnut Grove that makes a cliff 
60 feet high. Such lentils were evidently 
formed by detrital matter from deltas of 
streams that entered the sea in this vicinity. 
Many specimens of Fenestella and branching 
bryozoans, of St. Louis age, are present in 
the formation, and the base is marked by 
beds that contain Lithostrotionella (Litho- 
strotion canadense of old reports). The Fort 
Payne chert, the manganese-bearing forma- 
tion of the area, is characterized by many 
large crinoid segments and large spirifers 
of Keokuk age. Probably some fossiliferous 
chert of the overlying Tuscumbia has been 
included in the mapping of the Fort Payne 
chert, especially in the area northeast of 
Aurora, where beautifully preserved bryo- 
zoans, including fenestellas of Warsaw age, 
were collected. The Fort Payne chert, about 
200 feet thick, is composed of interbedded 
chert and limestone, commonly with a 
prominent sandstone at the The 
limestone has weathered to clay, which 
contains the manganese deposits. These 
deposits are limited in distribution to about 
5 miles along the strike of the formation. 


base. 


241 


AUG 25 1952 


vou. 42, No. 8 


OF SCIENCES 


ACADEMY 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


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Avueust 1952 STOSE: MURPHREE 
The ore is in thin beds, which swell to 6 
inches in places. Most of the commercial 
ore is pulverulent pyrolusite of high grade. 
A limestone 55 feet thick, locally present 
in the lower part of the formation northwest 
of Oneonta, resembles limestone described 
by Butts (1926, p. 164) from Lauderdale 
County, from which he identified fossils of 
Burlington age. Fossils collected in this 
limestone in the Murphree Valley north- 
west of Oneonta were briefly examined by 
J.S. Williams of the U.S. Geological Survey, 
who states that they appear to be of post- 
Burlington age, possibly Keokuk. 

The Chattanooga shale, 20 to 40 feet in 
thickness, is chiefly black carbonaceous 
shale containing linguloid shells and cono- 
donts, which Ulrich considered to be iden- 
tical with forms that occur in the Sunbury 
shale of Ohio and therefore of Carboniferous 
age (Ulrich, 1911, pl. 28 and p. 527). Un- 
fossiliferous gray sandy beds in the lower 
part of the formation may be Devonian in 
age. The Red Mountain formation, which 
forms Red Mountain, lies directly beneath 
the Chattanooga shale and crops out near 
the center of the anticline. As its name 
implies, the formation is red, owing to the 
presence of hematite and red shale of 
Clinton age. The underlying Chickamauga 
limestone is largely a pure limestone and 
includes beds ranging in age from Maysville 
to ‘Stones River” (Chazyan) (Ulrich, 1911, 
pl. 27 and pp. 566-567). At the base are dark 
limestones that contain bryozoans, brachio- 
pods, and gastropods, which Ulrich regarded 
as the Stones River fauna. The Copper 
Ridge dolomite lies in the lowland of the 
valley, where it is weathered to clay and 
chert. No fossils were collected from it. 
Butts (1926) refers the formation to the 


Upper Cambrian. At Chepultepec (now 
NW 

SAND 

MTN. RED 


~ 


= 
== 
- 


SECTION B-B' 
O 


L 


Ss 


VALLEY ANTICLINE 243 
Allgood) on the west side of the Murphree 
Valley, about 5 miles southwest of Oneonta, 
fossils of Lower Ordovician age were 
collected by Ulrich from chert of the 
Chepultepec dolomite which overlies the 
Copper Ridge dolomite. The Chepultepec 
dolomite was not observed in the area 
shown in the map, Fig. 1, but is probably 
present. Thin-bedded limestones that are 
exposed near the village of Murphree Valley 
weather to buff and light-colored earthy 
shale and tripoli and closely resemble the 
limestones of the Elbrook formation of 
Virginia and farther north. These rocks are 
tentatively mapped as Conasauga formation. 

From Oneonta northeastward the fault 
in the Murphree Valley is on the southeast 
side of the anticline, and lies between the 
Copper Ridge dolomite on the west and the 
Pottsville formation on the east. At Allgood 
Gap in Raccoon Mountain, southeast of 
Oneonta, the Pottsville at the fault is vertical 
and the Copper Ridge dolomite is exposed 
in the adjacent lowland to the west. The 
Pottsville formation of Straight Mountain, 
southeast of Walnut Grove, also stands 
vertical at the fault, but away from the 
fault it rapidly assumes a gentle southeast 
dip. A mile and a half southeast of Aurora 
the fault passes into lower beds of the anti- 
cline and dies out in the northeast plunging 
end. Southwest of Oneonta the fault similarly 
passes into lower beds of the anticline, 
which here plunges southwestward, as 
shown on the Alabama geological map 
(Butts, 1926). The exposures southeast of 
Aurora, where the thrust passes into lower 
beds in the anticline, furnish the best place 
to study the fault. A mile south of Aurora 
the fault leaves the contact with the Potts- 
ville formation and passes into lower beds 
in the anticline, through Pennington shale, 


STRAIGHT S& 
MTN, 


RED MTN. 


SE NW cano 
) MTN. 


SECTION A-A' 
| 2 MILES 
—N 


Fra. 2.—Cross-sections of Murphree Valley anticline on the lines A~A’ and B-B’ of Fig. 1. 


244 


Bangor limestone, Tuscumbia limestone, 
Fort Payne chert, Chattanooga shale, into 
the Red Mountain formation, where dis- 
placement dies out to the northeast. The 
mapping of this part of the fold on the 
geological map of Alabama (Butts, 1926) 
evidently was copied from Hayes’ mapping, 
and the changes shown are probably due 
to inaccuracies of copying and not to cor- 
rection by Butts. The same is probably true 
of the fault on the southeast side of the 
Murphree Valley on section B-B’ of that 
map, which is shown by Butts—much less 
steep than by Hayes. 

The strata exposed near the fault along 
and adjacent to the road northeast from 
Aurora (Figs. 1 and 2-AA’) are mostly 
vertical, and at one place the Red Mountain 
formation just east of the fault is over- 
turned and dips 45° NW. The Chickamauga 
limestone, which crops out northwest of 
the fault, is also overturned and dips 65° 
NW. The fault plane is nowhere exposed, 
but at the plunging end of the anticline the 
beds close to the fault are seen to be largely 
vertical or are overturned and dip steeply 
northwestward, and the fault probably has 
a similar steep dip. The fold and the thrust 
are believed by the writer to be superficial, 
produced by the abrupt upbowing of the 
Copper Ridge dolomite, which is the com- 
petent bed that directly underlies this part 
of the anticline. 

The Murphree Valley anticline is an up- 
lift in the Appalachian Plateau between the 
Sequatchie-Browns Valley anticline to the 
northwest and the Wills Valley anticline to 
the southeast (Fig. 3). The bordering syn- 


CS 
< 
=F Sequatchie 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 8 
clines are nearly flat, wide folds of gently 
rolling Carboniferous rocks, from which the 
three narrow, straight anticlines rise ab- 
ruptly and are exposed in narrow valleys 
carved in the plateau surface. They he just 
west of the Allegheny Front and west of 
the Appalachian folded belt. These anti- 
clines are believed by the writer to have been 
formed by the abrupt yielding to pressure 
and the local upbowing of the thick Copper 
Ridge dolomite, the competent bed that 
transmitted the thrust from its source to 
the southeast. Each of the three anticlines 
is broken by a thrust fault along its trend. 
The rocks of the Sequatchie-Browns Valley 
anticline and the Wills Valley anticline have 
steeper dips on their northwest sides where 
they are broken by thrust faults dipping 
steeply southeastward. The Murphree Valley 
anticline also is broken by a thrust fault on 
its steeper side, which, however, is the 
southeast side. The Copper Ridge dolomite 
beneath the Carboniferous rocks of the 
synclines is nearly horizontal and trans- 
mitted the thrust in a horizontal direction. 
I believe that the dolomite bowed up into 
sharp, steep anticlines, while the underlying, 
nonresistant shaly Conasauga formation 
yielded to the pressure by crumpling. The 
anticlines and the thrust faults, therefore, are 
superficial, probably no deeper than the 
Copper Ridge dolomite. The vertical attitude 
of the beds near the fault indicates that the 
thrust faults are more in the nature of up- 
thrusts than overthrusts. Because the thrust, 
transmitted through the Copper Ridge 
dolomite beneath the synclines, has a hori- 
zontal direction, it yielded upward toward 


Murphree 
Valley 


5 10 MILES 


Fic. 3.—Generalized section across Sequatchie Valley, Murphree Valley, and Wills Valley anti- 
clines, Alabama, showing the thrust-bearing bed (COc) beneath the broad synclines. — 


Aveust 1952 


the surface and the upbowing of the anti- 
clines was practically vertical; slight varia- 
tion in direction of pressure might determine 
which limb of the anticline would be steeper. 
The dip of the rocks on the southeast side 
of the Murphree Valley may have been 
steeper because the Copper Ridge dolomite 
beneath the syncline to the southeast may 
have been lower than that in the syncline 
to the northwest, and the thrust therefore 
may have been transmitted lower on that 
side, a condition which would have produced 
an underthrust effect in the anticline and 
have caused the rocks on the southeast 
side to be steeper (Fig. 2). Such a condition 
may have been augmented by the close 
proximity (4 miles) of the southwest 
plunging end of the Wills Valley anticline, 
which is unbroken by a thrust fault at this 
end, and the Copper Ridge dolomite may 
have descended deeper in the intervening 
syncline. 

There is no evidence for the suggestion 
by J. L. Rich (1934, p. 1595) that the 
Sequatchie anticline may be similar to the 
Pine Mountain thrust. Rodgers (1950, p. 
679) has shown that the Sequatchie anti- 
cline does not pass into tear faults at its 
northeast and southwest ends, as does the 
Pine Mountain thrust, but he supports 
Rich’s analogy of these thrusts by sug- 
gesting (his fig. 3, p. 678) their connection 
by deep-lying faults beneath the intervening 
flat-lying Carboniferous basins. These con- 
necting hypothetical faults are indeed 
‘bizarre’ (p. 680), and there is no evidence 
that such faults exist, particularly the con- 
nection with the Murphree Valley fault 
which has the overthrust from the north- 


STRIMPLE: ARMS OF HAERTEOCRINUS DAS 


west, whereas the fault emanates from a 
thrust in the opposite direction—from the 
southeast. The structure at Post Oak 
Springs and Rhea Springs, Kingston quad- 
rangle, may be either younger beds in a 
window, as is suggested by Rodgers, or 
they may be explained, as they were by 
Hayes (1894) with other similar occurrences 
in the area, as sharply folded and 
faulted beds of these younger strata. 
Therefore, they may possibly be windows 
in the Pine Mountain overthrust like those 
reported by Miller in Virginia (1947, 
1950). These and other suggestions must 
be considered in the explanation of these 
structures, and their solution will depend 
on the results of future more detailed 
work. 


REFERENCES 


Burts, CHarues. Geology of Alabama. 
Geol. Surv. Spec. Rep. 14. 1926. 

Hayes, C. W. Kingston quadrangle, Tenn. U. 
S. Geol. Surv. Geol. Atlas, Folio 4. 1894. 

. Pikeville quadrangle, Tenn. Ibid., Folio 

21. 1895. 

. Gadsden 
35. 1896. 
Miuuer, R. L., and Funuter, J. O. Rose Hill oil 
field, Lee County, Va. U. S. Geol. Surv. Oil 

and Gas Invest., Map 26. 1947. 

and Brosan, W. P. Jonesville district, Lee 
County, Va. Tbid., Map 104. 1950. 

Ricu, J. L. Mechanics of low-angle overthrust 
faulting as illustrated by Cumberland thrust 
block, Virginia, Kentucky, and Tennessee. Bull. 
Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol. 18(12): 1584-1596. 
1934. 

Roveers, JoHN. Mechanics of Appalachian fold- 
ing as illustrated by Sequatchie anticline, Tenn. 
and Ala. Ibid. 34(4) : 672-681. 1950. 

Unricu, E. O. Revision of the Paleozoic systems. 
Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer. 22: 281-680. 1911. 


Alabama 


Ala. 


quadrangle, Ibid., Folio 


PALEONTOLOGY .—The arms of Haerteocrinus. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE, Bartles- 
ville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


Over a period of several years the author 
has acquired three well-preserved specimens 
of the genus Haerteocrinus from the Wann 
formation exposure located just west of the 
city limits of Bartlesville, Okla. Description 
is given below. 

Haerteocrinus turbinatus, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-7 


The dorsal cup expands evenly from the proxi- 
mal columnal to its upper extremity. Infrabasals 


(IBB) are five upflared plates, readily visible in 
side view of the cup. Basals (BB) are five, with 
height and width approximately equal. Radials 
(RR) are five, pentagonal, with width normally 
almost twice the length. The uppermost portion 
of the cup has a scalloped appearance when 
viewed from above or below due to the impres- 
sions between RR along the adsutural areas. 
This development restricts the width of the 
articulating facets. 

There are three plates in the posterior inter- 


246 


radius, which area is not depressed. Radianal 
(RA) is obliquely placed, contacting r. post. R to 
the right below, the right shoulder of post. B to 
the left below, anal plate (X) to the left above, 
and right anal plate (RX) directly above. Anal 
X is in full contact with post. B. RX is the smaller 
of the three and its upper surface forms a com- 
mon plane with X. The upper surfaces of both 
RX and X have muscular fossae somewhat com- 
parable to those of the RR. There is an outer 
ligament pit bordered by a transverse ridge. The 
outer marginal ridge and transverse ridge possess 
denticles, and other crenulations are found behind 
the muscle sear. Intermuscular notches are narrow 
but well defined, that of anal X being to the left 
of center, and of RX to the right of center. 

Articulating facets of RR slope mildly out- 
ward and do not fill the upper faces of RR. There 
is a small outer rim in front of the sharp outer 
ligamental furrow. The transverse ridge is pro- 
nounced and is marked with denticles. Lateral 
furrows are well defined and intermuscular notch 
is rather large. Muscle scars are shallow. 

First primibrachials (PBrBr) in all rays are 
low, axillary plates, having triangular outlines. 
A second branching takes place with the fourth 
or fifth secundibrachials (SBrBr) in all rays. 
Thereafter, the outer rays remain unbranched 
and taper slowly to their termination. In the 
inner rays, the arms widen slowly as a third 
division is approached, with or about the sixth 
tertibrachials (TBrBr), and subsequently formed 
outer rays remain unbranched to their termina- 
tion. There is another gradual widening of the 
inner rays as another bifurcation is approached, 
with or about the sixth quatrobrachials (QBrBr). 
The arms are not preserved to their termination 
in all rays; however, 40 robust, pinnular, elon- 
gated, uniserial arms are indicated. The brachials 
are all rather short and have well-rounded, 
smooth exteriors. 

The column is composed of round, moderately 
thick segments, which are pierced by a small 
pentalobate lumen. In the large figured para- 
type, the proximal columnal is seen to have a 
mildly pentagonal outline. 

The plates of the dorsal cup are rather thick, 
and their external surfaces have a natural sheen, 
as if the specimens were polished. At their distal 
extremities, the IBB have a thickness of 2.0 mm 
in the large paratype. Sutures are not impressed 
and there is no granular surface ornamentation. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 8 


Both paratypes provided information as to the 
nature of the tegmen. The smaller paratype 
discloses the fact that the arms are considerably 
longer than the tegmen, which only has a length 
of about 35.5 mm. The tube terminates with a 
swollen area composed of enlarged, spinose plates. 
Some plates possess more than one spine, and 
none of the spines are extended to any great de- 
gree. Some pore slits are found in plates of the 
swollen area. Remnants of the anal tube were 
found intimately associated with the larger para- 
type. Normal tube plates have an external sheen 
comparable to the ‘‘polished” appearance of the 
exterior of the crown. Terminating tube plates 
are mildly spinose, show evidence of pore slits, 
and are considerably larger than normal tube 
plates. It is puzzling to note that normal tube 
plates show no evidence of pore slits. 

Measurements in mm.—As given below. All 
measurements are linear and are not taken along 
the curvature of the plates. 

Large Small 


figured figured 
paralype paratype Holotype 


Height of dorsal cup............... 19.8 IBIoite 14.0* 
Width of dorsaleup (maximum)..... 32.7 Pile 21.9* 
Diameter of proximal columnal.... 7.6 6.0 6.0 
Height of IBB circlet.............. 6.3 3.8* 4.0* 
Length of inter IBB suture........ 4.7 2.0 2.0 
Kengthiofirvants Bienes eee 10.0 6.8 7.0 
Wad thioferyant- p> err een ee ree 10.7 7.0 8.1 
Length of inter BB suture.......... 5.1 3.1 3.3 
engthtofiryant=! Bee eee nee 7.9 5.7 6.3 
\Widt hyo tenses tay eer eee 157 8.7 liek 
Heightiofll Sante Bras ee eee eee 6.2 4.0 5.0 
Widthrofsl vant 2B ree eee eee ee een oe 7.8 9.6 


* Distorted owing to lateral compression. 


Remarks.—There are at this time only three 
species assigned to Haerteocrinus. The genotype 
species is Haerteocrinus missouriensis Moore and 
Plummer, from the Missourian. In that species 
the plates of the posterior interradius are more 
advanced in their arrangement than those of 
H. turbinatus, in that RA has moved to a domi- 
nant position in the former, separating anal X 
from the post. B. From the illustrations given by 
Moore and Plummer it does not appear that distal 
faces of anal X and RX form a common plane, 
as found in H. turbinatus; however, they are of 
subequal height and may well have done so. 

H. magnus Moore and Plummer, of the Des 
Moines series, is based on a single partially pre- 
served dorsal cup, so that close comparison is not 
possible. From the illustrations given by Moore 
and Plummer there appear to be slight depres- 


Aveust 1952 STRIMPLE: ARMS OF HAERTEOCRINUS 247 


sions at the angles of the cup plates, and anal X elongated nature of the basal plates and the 
is in contact with an elongated post. B. wider, more robust RX. Although plates of the 
« H. washburni (Beede) is most similar to the posterior interradius display considerable vari- 
present species. The principal difference is in the ability in some forms, all three specimens of H. 


Fies. 1-7.—Haerteocrinus turbinatus, n. sp.: 1-2, Holotype from anterior and posterior, X 1.5; 3-6, 
large paratype from anterior, base and posterior, X 1.2, and portion from summit, X 2.3; 7, paratype 
from left side, X 1.7. 


248 


turbinatus display remarkable consistency in this 
regard. In H. turbinatus, the RX is relatively 
smaller than found in H. washburn. 

Close affinity between H. turbinatus and 
Texacrinus irradiatus Strimple is indicated in the 
nature of the arms and many features of the 
dorsal cups. In both species the anal X and RX 
form a common upper facet which is similar to 
the facets of the RR. The main difference lies in 
the nature of the IBB circlets, which repose at 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 8 


the bottom of a basal concavity in T. irradiatus 
but are upflared and readily visible in side view 
of the cup in H. turbinatus. 

Occurrence and horizon.—The hill, locally 
termed “The Mound,” just west of the city 
limits of Bartlesville, Okla.; crinoid facies of 
the Wann formation, Ochelata group, Missouri 
series, Pennsylvanian. 

Types.—To be deposited in the U. 8. National 
Museum. 


PALEONTOLOGY —Designation of the type species of Pseudochama (additional 
note). Davip Nico, U.S National Museum. 


In my recent paper on the genera and 
subgenera of Chamidae (Nicol, 1952), I 
stated that the type species of Pseudo- 
chama, Chama cristella Lamarck, was sub- 
sequently designated by Prashad (1932, p. 
295). Mr. Druid Wilson, of Johns Hopkins 
University, has kindly shown me _ that 
the same species was designated as the type 
of Pseudochama by Gardner (1926, p. 
92). 


REFERENCES 

GARDNER, JuLia. The molluscan fauna of the Alum 
Bluff group of Florida, Part II: Astartacea, 
Carditacea, Chamacea. U. S. Geol. Surv. Prof. 
Paper 142-B; 81-99, pls. 16, 17. 1926. 

Nicou, D. Nomenclatural review of genera and sub- 
genera of Chamidae. Journ. Washington Acad. 
Sci. 42 (5): 154-156. 1952. 

PrasHaD, B. The Lamellibranchia of the Siboga 
Expedition, Systematic Part IT: Pelecypoda 
(exclusive of the Pectinidae). Siboga Monograph 
58¢: 353 pp., 9 pls., 1 map. Leiden, 1932. 


ENTOMOLOGY —The ant larvae of the myrmicine tribe Crematogastrini.\ GEORGE 
C. WHEELER and JEANETTE WHEELER, University of North Dakota. (Com- 
municated by C. F. W. Muesebeck.) 


The late Dr. W. M. Wheeler could often 
predict by merely looking at a stone or log 
what kinds of ants would be found under 
(or in) it. In the summer of 1924 when he 
and I were collecting on Barro Colorado 
Island, he selected a certain log as promising. 
But this time he had made a mistake, for 
as soon as we opened it he exclaimed, 
“Just another one of those nasty little 
Crematogasters!”’ I was startled—almost 
shocked—that one of the world’s foremost 
myrmecologists should speak thus dis- 
respectfully of any ant. It was practically 
blasphemy—myrmecoblasphemy, that is. 

To be sure, it was merely an obiter dictum. 
Nevertheless it did seem to express Dr. 
Wheeler’s general attitude toward this 
genus. In his introduction to the Ants of 


1 The research on which this article is based 
was aided by a grant-in-aid from the Sigma Xi 
Research Fund. 


the Belgian Congo he said: 


At my request, Dr. F. Santschi kindly under- 
took to work up the species of Crematogaster, a 
genus to which he has given much attention. 
A glance at my catalog of the Ethiopian species 
will show why I despaired of adequately handling 
the Congo material of the group. I might have 
attempted it, if the Crematogaster portion of Mr. 
George Arnold’s monograph of the Rhodesian 
ants had appeared, but the World War had stopped 
the publication of this important work, so that 
even in making my catalog I had nothing to rely 
on except the confused mess in the existing liter- 
ature. Mr. Arnold nevertheless sent me some 
valuable comments on several of the species, to- 
gether with the following remarks on the genus 
as a whole: “The genus Crematogaster is perhaps 
the most troublesome of all, and for this there are 
several reasons. First of all, it is a very large 
genus, so large that authors get lost in the vast 
number of described forms and of their collec- 
tions. Secondly, the species of this genus in Africa 
are exceptionally liable to minute variations in all 


? Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 45: 7-8. 1922. 


Aveust 1952 


directions even over a very smali area... ., and 
even within the limits of the same nest... 
Thirdly, in the separation of species and varieties, 
too much emphasis has been placed on unreliable 
characters . . . Lastly, a good deal of confusion is 
due to sheer carelessness and contempt for exact 
methods.”’ 


This same distaste for Crematogaster 
seems to be rather general among myr- 
mecologists. I have certainly shared it when 
collecting in Oklahoma, Texas, and Central 
America, where it is one of the commonest 
genera.’ And now the study of the larvae 
has strengthened my distaste-—G. C. 
WHEELER. 


* * * 


Tribe CREMATOGASTRINI Forel 


The tribe Crematogastrini comprises a 
single genus. But what a genus! Emery in 
his Genera insectorum listed 274 species, 
which make it the fourth largest genus of 
ants. These species are grouped in 11 sub- 
genera; many of them have numerous sub- 
species and varieties. But all this is merely 
small-scale diversity. The genus as a whole 
—hboth adults and larvae—is remarkably 
homogeneous and easily recognized at a 
glance. 

But as soon as one steps inside the genus, 
all is confusion. It is not possible to char- 
acterize larval subgenera (at least with the 
material at hand), for the differences within 
a subgenus may exceed those between 
subgenera. In fact, the differences within a 
single nest may surpass those between 
subgenera. 

This brings us to the most remarkable 
discovery in this study: the apparent dimor- 
phism of the larvae of Crematogaster lineo- 
lata subopaca, which is fully described below 
and illustrated on the plates. It is certainly 
tempting to speculate on the cause of this 
phenomenon—dimorphic queens, social par- 
asitism, genetic segregation after hybridiza- 
tion, etc. But we resist temptation and 
simply state that we do not have enough 
facts even for a tentative hypothesis. 

Genus Crematogaster Lund 

Plump, chunky, and straight; practically 
immobile; subellipsoidal or subeylindrical; ends 

3 In North Dakota the picture is entirely dif- 
ferent: Crematogaster is rare in the southern half 


of the State and apparently absent in the northern 
half. 


WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 


249 


rounded; anterior end formed by the dorsum of 
the prothorax; head flattened against the ventral 
surface near the anterior end; no neck. Anus 
posteroventral. Leg vestiges present. Segmenta- 
tion indistinct. Spiracles unequal in diameter, 
the first (1.e., mesothoracic) much the largest, 
the remainder small and diminishing progres- 
sively toward the posterior end. Body hairs 
sparse; uncinate hairs short to moderately long; 
other hairs minute to short. Seven types of body 
hairs occur in the genus: (1) simple; (2) with the 
tips bifid; (3) with the tips multifid; (4) with the 
tips frayed; (5) with the apical portion dentic- 
ulate; (6) with the apical portion broad, flat and 
denticulate; (7) uncinate hairs, with a heavy, 
nearly straight shaft and a stout anchor-like 
tip, restricted to the dorsal surface of abdominal 
somites I-V or I-VI and arranged in transverse 
rows of 3-8 hairs, one row on each somite. A 
species may have two, three or four of these 
types; the majority have three types. Head with 
the dorsal and dorsolateral regions thin and 
depressed; mouth parts small; from each gena 
a sclerotized band (which is a continuation of the 
internal skeleton) passes out of the head and 
enters the prothorax. Antennae small or minute; 
each with 1-4 (usually 2 or 3) sensilla. Head 
hairs sparse; minute to short; usually shorter 
than body hairs; mostly simple. Labrum very 
small and short; breadth 3-4X length; subtrap- 
ezoidal or subrectangular; ventral border con- 
cave; anterior surface with 1—4 isolated and two 
agglomerated senilla on each half; posterior sur- 
face with 4-8 sensilla, but without spinules. 
Mandibles very small [ratio of head width to 
mandible length = 4.3 to 9.4 (average 6.7)]; 
short [ratio of mandible length to width at base 
= 1.3 to 2 (average 1.5)]; base inflated and 
feebly sclerotized; apex moderately sclerotized, 
narrowed to a sharp point and slightly curved 
medially; no medial teeth; no spinules. Maxillae 
small; apex paraboloidal and directed medially; 
without spinules; palp represented by a cluster 
of three or four agglomerated sensilla; galea 
represented by two agglomerated sensilla. La- 
bium small; without spinules; palp represented 
by a cluster of four agglomerated sensilla; a 
minute sensillum between each palp and the 
opening of the sericteries; the latter a short 
transverse slit. Palps and galea never paxilliform. 
No spinules seen on the hypopharynx. 

To most of the characters in the foregoing defi- 
nition there are exceptions. Nevertheless the 


250 


larvae of Crematogaster—like their adults—consti- 
tute a well defined and homogeneous group. They 
are readily distinguished from the larvae of other 
tribes by the shape of the body; the position of 
the head; the variation in the size of the spiracles 
of different somites; the paucity and small size 
of the hairs (except the few uncinate hairs); 
the depressed dorsal and dorsolateral regions of 
the head; the sclerotized band emerging from 
each gena; the reduction of the mouthparts; 
the reduction of the palps and galea to clusters of 
sensilla; the lack of spinules on the mouth parts. 
None of these characters would alone serve to 
differentiate the larvae from those of all other 
genera, but as a group they define the genus and 
tribe very well. 

The larvae of Crematogaster closely resemble 
the larvae of the subfamily Dolichoderinae in all 
the above characters, but they may be differen- 
tiated as follows: In the latter the first abdom- 
inal spiracle is the largest; uncinate hairs lacking 
(or, when present, with only one hook); dorsal 
and dorsolateral regions of the head not de- 
pressed (except in Dolichoderus); no sclerotized 
band emerging from each gena; spinules present 
on the mouth parts. The dolichoderine Azteca 
is the genus most easily confused with Cremato- 
gaster; in fact, it can be distinguished only by 
the presence of spinules on its mouth parts and 
by the shape of its uncinate hairs, which are 
spirally coiled and have only one hook. 

Also like the Dolichoderinae, the larvae of the 
Crematogastrini are a highly specialized group 
and both groups are specialized mostly through 
reductions and losses rather than by elaborations: 
body length is reduced; mobility is almost lost; 
hairs are few, short and simple (except the few 
uncinate hairs) ; mouth parts are reduced—almost 
vestigial; the trophorhinium is lacking; palps 
and galea are merely clusters of sensilla. 

In this article we describe the larvae of 11 
species representing four subgenera. References 
from the literature are cited for additional spe- 
cies, making the total considered 16 species in 
five subgenera. 

Athias-Henriot (1947, p. 253) characterized 
the larvae of this genus as ‘‘évolués, simples, 
... reliant [les Myrmicinés] aux [Dolichodé- 
rinés].”’ 

Bristowe, 1932: “The nests of a species of 
Crematogaster (called Mott dam) are collected 
on account of their grubs which are eaten in a 
curry in the Hua Hin district.” 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 42, No. 8 
Gantes, 1949: “Larves immobiles” (p. 84). 
“Ta croissance est forte au stade IV et elle est 
ralentie au stade V, mais ce ralentissement est 
trés faible’ (p. 85). “Chez Crematogaster les 
poils 4 double crochet sont plus longs au stade 
IV qu’au stade V. Done, l’accrochage mutuel, 
important pour le transport des larves par les 
8, est surtout possible aux stades jeunes, II 
3 IV” (p. 87). “Larves trés évoluées comme 
Crematogaster...Ces larves sont immobiles, 
ont des mandibules minuscules” (p. 88). 
Stiircke, 1948, p. 28: ‘Body still more swollen, 
of a short oval or nearly globose shape, with a 
small head projecting on the ventral side.” 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) lineolata Say 
Fig. 1 (1-4) 

Plump, chunky, and turgid; straight and sub- 
ellipsoidal; diameter greatest at abdominal 
somite II; ends round-pointed; anterior end 
formed from the dorsal portion of the prothorax. 
Head flattened against the ventral surface 
near the anterior end; no neck. Anus posteroven- 
tral. Leg, wing, and gonopod vestiges present. 
Approximately a third of the larvae have one, 
two, or three abdominal leg vestiges (?) on 
somites I-III, which are larger and more 
conspicuous than those on the thorax. Segmen- 
tation indistinct. Spiracles unequal in size; 
the first much the largest, the remainder di- 
minishing gradually. Integument of the posterior 
somites with a few spinules which are either iso- 
lated or in short transverse rows. In addition, 
approximately half the larvae have on each 
lateral surface of most somites a dorsoventrally 
elongate patch of minute, stout spinules. Body 
hairs sparse, somewhat more abundant on the 
prothorax. Of two types: (1) simple, slightly 
curved, 0.009-0.036 mm, the most numerous 
type; (2) a row of four to six nearly straight 
2-hooked uncinate hairs on the dorsal surface of 
each abdominal somite I-VI, about 0.14 mm 
long. Head moderately large; subtrapezoidal or 
subcordate in anterior view; narrowed ventrally; 
about as long as broad; extensive dorsolateral 
portions thin and depressed; mouth parts small. 
Inside the head just above the level of the mouth 
parts there is a slender transverse sclerotic bar; 
at each end of this bar a large sclerotized lobe 
is exposed on the surface and extends outward 
into the prothorax; a slender branch of the lobe 
extends upward inside the gena and at its end 
protrudes laterally for a short distance. Antennae 


Aueust 1952 WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT_ LARVAE 251 


Fie. 1.—Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) lineolata Say: 1, Head in anterior view, X 76; 2, two body hairs, 
x 185; 3, right mandible in anterior view, X 216; 4, larva in side view, X 32. 5-7, C. (A.) laeviuscula 
Mayr: 5, Head in anterior view, X 60; 6, left mandible in anterior view, X 216; 7, three body hairs, X 
185. +» 8-10, C. (A.) menileki proserpina Santschi: 8, Head in anterior view, X 86; 9, three body hairs, 
X 185; 10, left mandible in anterior view, X 216. 11-18, C. (A.) auberti sordida Forel: 11, Three body 
hairs, X 185; 12, head in anterior view, X 76; 13, left mandible in anterior view, X 216. 14-90, C. 
(A.) lineolata subopaca Emery: 14, Head of type Ain anterior view, X 76; 75, head of type A in posterior 
view to show chitinized bar, X 76; 16, three body hairs of type A, X 185; 17, left mandible of type A in 
anterior view, X 216; 18, head of type B in anterior view, X 76; 19, two body hairs of type B, X 185; 
20, very young larva in side view, X 32. 


252 


minute, each with three (rarely two or one) 
sensilla. Head hairs sparse, very short (0.009-— 
0.035 mm), simple and slightly curved. Labrum 
very small; short (length one-third the width); 
subtrapezoidal in anterior view; narrowed ven- 
trally; ventral border feebly to moderately 
concave; anterior surface of each half with two 
or three isolated sensilla and two agglomerated 
sensilla near the ventral border; posterior sur- 
face with four scattered sensilla. Mandibles very 
small; apical two-thirds rather stout, sharp- 
pointed, slightly curved medially, moderately 
sclerotized; basal one-third feebly sclerotized 
and inflated. Maxillae small; apex paraboloidal 
and directed medially; palp a cluster of four 
sensilla; galea two agglomerated sensilla. La- 
bium small; palp a cluster of four sensilla; a 
minute sensillum between each palp and opening 
of sericteries; the latter a short transverse slit. 

QUEEN: Similar to worker, except that the 
body is relatively more voluminous and_ the 
head and hairs relatively smaller. 

(Material studied: Numerous larvae from six 
nests collected in Michigan, New Hampshire, 
New Jersey, and New York.) 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) lineolata 
subopaca Emery 


Figs. 1 (14-20), 2 


WorkKemR TYPE A: Plump, chunky, and turgid; 
straight and subeylindrical, with the dorsal 
and ventral profiles nearly straight and moder- 
ately long, while in ventral view there is a slight 
constriction at abdominal somites I and II; 
ends round-pointed, the posterior end more 
narrowly so; anterior end formed from the dorsal 
portion of the prothorax. Head thin and flattened 
against the ventral surface near the anterior 
end; no neck. Anus posteroventral. Leg, wing 
and gonopod vestiges present; abdominal leg 
vestiges (?) very rarely present. Segmentation 
indistinct. Spiracles unequal in size, the first 
much the largest, the remainder diminishing 
gradually. Integument of abdominal somites 
VI-X spinulose, the spinules minute and _iso- 
lated or in short transverse rows. Body hairs 
sparse, somewhat more abundant on the pro- 
thorax. Of three types: (1) simple, very short 
(about 0.027 mm on the ventral surface to 
0.045 mm on the dorsal surface), the most abun- 
dant type; (2) with the tip bifid, about 0.045 
mm long, a few on the dorsal surface of each 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 8 


somite, (8) nearly straight 2-hooked uncinate 
hairs, moderately long (about 0.14 mm), six 
to eight in a row across the dorsal surface of 
each abdominal somite I-VI. Head subtrape- 
zoidal in anterior view; narrowed below; slightly 
broader than long; dorsolateral regions thin and 
depressed; mouth parts small. Inside the head, 
just above the level of the mouth parts, there 
is a slender transverse sclerotic bar; each end of 
the bar turns upward and continues inside the 
gena; it finally becomes external near the dorsal 
corner of the cranium and extends laterally a 
short distance onto the prothorax. Antennae 
minute, each with three (rarely two) minute 
sensilla. Head hairs sparse, short (0.009-0.035 
mm), simple and slightly curved. Labrum very 
small, short (length one-fourth the width), 
subtrapezoidal, narrowed ventrally; ventral bor- 
der feebly concave; anterior surface of each half 
with four isolated sensilla and with two agglom- 
erated sensilla near the ventral border; posterior 
surface with three sensilla on each half. Mandibles 
very small; apical two-thirds slender, sharp- 
pointed, slightly curved medially, moderately 
sclerotized; basal third feebly sclerotized and 
widely inflated. Maxillae small; apex parabo- 
loidal and directed medially; palp represented 
by a cluster of four sensilla; galea represented by a 
cluster of two agglomerated sensilla. Labium 
small; palp represented by a cluster of four sen- 
silla; a minute sensillum between each palp and 
opening of sericteries; the latter a short trans- 
verse slit between the tips of the maxillae. 
WorKER TYPE B: Plump and chunky; straight 
and subcylindrical; not constricted at the middle; 
ends round-pointed; anterior end formed from 
the dorsal portion of the prothorax. Head thin 
and flattened against the ventral surface near 
the anterior end; no neck. Anus posteroventral. 
Leg and wing vestiges present. Abdominal leg 
vestiges (?) on somites I-III are much larger 
and more conspicuous than those on the thorax; 
in alcoholic material they are brown and can be 
readily seen at a low magnification; typically 
three pairs are present but the number may vary 
from zero to six vestiges. Ten differentiated 
somites. Spiracles unequal in size, the first 
much the largest, the remainder diminishing 
gradually. The thoracic somites and the first 
seven or eight abdominal somites bear each a 
pair of conspicuous lateral welts; each welt is 
elongate dorsoventrally and narrow antero- 
posteriorly; it stains deeply with acid fuchsin and 


Aueust 1952 


its surface is rugose.* On either side, between 
these welts and near their ventral ends, there 
are integumentary structure of unknown nature 


4+ These welts should be compared with the 
lateral projections described by Eidmann and 
Menozzi. See our Figs. 3 and 4. 


WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 


253 


and function. Integument of posterior somites 
spinulose, the spinules minute and_ isolated. 
Body hairs sparse. Of two types; (1) simple, 
minute (0.003-0.018 mm) fairly uniformly dis- 
tributed; (2) nearly straight two-hooked unci- 
nate hairs, moderately long (about 0.1 mm), 


Fig. 2.—Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) lineolata subopaca Emery: 1, Larva of type A in ventral view, 
X 32; 2, larva of type A in side view, X 32; 3, larva of type B in ventral view, X 32; 4, larva of type 
B in side view, X 32; 4, profile of worker larva, X 8; 6, profile of queen larva, X 8; 7, profile of male 
larva, X 8; 8, outline of male larva in ventral view, X 8. 


254 


three to six in a row across the dorsal surface of 
each abdominal somite I-V. Head subrectan- 
gular in anterior view, slightly broader than 
long; small dorsolateral areas depressed and 
thin; integument sclerotized, mouth parts small. 
At the ventrolateral corner of the head on each 
side a sclerotized lobose structure emerges and 
enters the prothorax, where it extends for a short 
distance; from this a narrow sclerotized bar 
extends dorsally inside the gena. Antennae 
minute, with three sensilla each. Head hairs 
sparse, short (about 0.027 mm), simple and 
slightly curved; four minute (about 0.003 mm) 
hairs on the clypeus. Labrum very small, short 
(length 4x the width), subrectangular, ventral 
border feebly concave; anterior surface of each 
half with four isolated and two agglomerated sen- 
silla; posterior surface with four minute sensilla. 
Mandibles very small; apical two-thirds slender, 
sharp-pointed, slightly curved medially and 
moderately sclerotized; basal one-third feebly 
sclerotized and widely inflated. Maxillae small; 
the apex paraboloidal and directed medially; 
palp represented by four agglomerated sensilla; 
galea represented by two agglomerated sensilla. 
Labium small; palp an agglomerated cluster of 
four sensilla; a minute sensillum between each 
palp and opening of sericteries; the latter a short 
transverse slit. 

Youne: Length 0.75-0.95 mm. Plump and 
chunky; with broad lateral longitudinal welts; 
dorsal profile C-shaped; ventral profile sinuate; 
about five somites distinct; the prothorax shows 
two ventrolateral bosses and a transverse ventral 
welt. Head on the anterior end. Anus ventral. 
Body hairs similar to the mature type A larva, 
but a little shorter. On some young larvae (about 
0.95 mm long) there are one to six abdominal 
leg vestiges (?); presumably these would belong 
to Type B. 

QuerEN: Of two types, A and B; each type is 
similar to worker type A or B respectively, ex- 
cept that the body is much more voluminous 
and the head and hairs relatively smaller. 

Mate: More elongate; thorax swollen; ab- 
dominal somites I-II constricted; rest of abdo- 
men swollen; ends rounded, the posterior more 
narrowly so; anterior end formed from the dor- 
sal portion of the prothorax. Anus subterminal. 
Leg and wing vestiges present. The only distinct 
somites are abdominal I-III, otherwise similar 
to type A worker larva. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 8 
(Material studied: Numerous larvae from five 
nests collected in Arkansas and Texas.) 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) aegyptica 
senegalensis Roger 


Gantes, 1949: “8 3 mm. Ce sont des larves 
évoluées, le corps est massif, la téte forme un 
mamelon 4 la partie antérieure; les segments 
sont séparés par de simples lignes blanches: 11 
segments. Le corps est couvert de plusieurs 
sortes de poils, mais on remarque immédiatement 
sur le dos, des poils 4 double crochet de 0 mm. 
11 de long; ils sont dressés raides sur le dos, on a 
cing rangs de six poils, uniquement sur les seg- 
ments abdominaux. Sur tout le corps on a des 
poils défensifs de 0 mm. 18 de long. Prés de l’anus 
un poil assez long, fourchu, de 0 mm. 05 et un 
minuscule & trois branches de 0 mm. 009. La 
téte est large, couverte de poils simples. Les 
mandibules sont trés petites, 0 mm. 032, fines 
et algués, elles s’insérent dans la téte par deux 
branches courtes: elles ressemblent 4 une lame 
de couteau. Le palpe proximal et le palpe labial 
n’ont que quatre sensilles” (p. 83). Pl. V, Fig. 
[X—larva in side view; hairs enlarged. Growth 
data are given on page 86. 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) auberti 
laestrygon Emery 


Athias-Henriot, 1947: “Sa téte mal différen- 
ciée (un simple mamelon buccal), son corps pres- 
que cylindrique, ses six segments abdominaux. 
Le corps est recouvert d’une fine pubescence et 
les segments abdominaux portent dorsalement 
deux énormes macrochétes fourchus et crochus” 
(p. 252). Internal anatomy is discussed on pages 
260 and 263. 

Eidmann (1926, p. 726) referred to the ab- 
sence of lateral papillae and the presence of 
uncinate hairs in var. swbmaura. (Mentioned by 
Eidmann, 1927.) 

Gantes, 1949: “Ressemble beaucoup 4 [sene- 
galensis|, mais elle a des poils plus variés, les 
mandibules sont plus longues, 0 mm. 41 et plus 
fines. Les poils 4 double crochet en six rangs 
de quatre 4 partir du métathorax sont plus 
longs, 0 mm. 21 et se dressent rigides sans ressort. 
Vers le bout de l’abdomen ils sont un peu plus 
courts, 0 mm. 198. De plus sur le thorax nous 
trouvons des poils identiques, mais plus courts, 
0 mm. 115. Sur tout le reste du corps on trouve 
des poils fourchus de 0 mm. 05 et des poils 


Aveust 1952 


simples de 0 mm. 04” (p. 83). Pl. V, Fig. IX 
P9, five hairs. 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) auberti 
sordida Forel 


Fig. 1 (11-13) 


Subeylindrical and relatively slender. Body 
hairs numerous. Of three types: (1) minute (0.009 
mm), simple, with apical half fine and flexible, 
on the ventral surface; intergrading on the lat- 
eral surfaces to (2) longer (0.09 mm), simple and 
slightly curved, on the dorsal surface; (3) a row 
of 4-6 nearly straight, moderately long (0.18 
mm), 2-hooked uncinate hairs across the dorsal 
surface of each abdominal somite I-VI. Head 
hairs minute and exceedingly numerous (about 
300). Head subhexagonal in anterior view; 
dorsal region thin and depressed. Antennae 
moderately large. Other characters apparently 
similar to laeviuscula. (Material studied: About 
50 damaged integuments from Tunis.) 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) impressa Emery 


Eidmann, 1941: “Die Larven zeigen in ihrem 
Habitus mancherlei Besonderheiten und weichen 
in dieser Hinsicht von dem iiblichen Aussehen 
der Ameisenlarven nicht unwesentlich ab. Sie 
sind walzenférmig und gerade gestreckt, also 
nicht, wie zumeist, ventral eingekriimmt. Das 
Vorderende ist dadurch ausgezeichnet, dass der 
Kopf von dem stark entwickelten Prothorax 
kapuzenférmig tberragt wird. Der hintere Teil 
der Kopfkapsel ist weit in den Prothorax zuriick- 
gezogen, so dass die Mundteile senkrecht nach 
unten, d.h. nach der Ventralseite herausragen. 
Bei den jiingeren Larven ist die Vorwélbung 
des Prothorax weniger ausgesprochen als bei 
den Altlarven. Saémtliche Larven tragen auf 
der Dorsalseite der ersten sechs Abdominalseg- 
mente grosse ankerférmige Hafthaare, die in je 
einer Querreihe angeordnet sind. Jede dieser 
Querreihen besteht aus 4-7, im Durchschnitt 6 
Haaren, deren Zahl von vorn nach hinten ab- 
nimmt. Bei dem letzten Segment sind meist nur 
2-4 vorhanden, bei den jiingeren Larven weniger 
als bei den dlteren...Sie dienen dazu, das 
Aneinanderhaften der Larven zu Paketen zu 
erméglichen, wodurch besonders bei Junglarven 
der Transport durch die Arbeiter erleichtert 
wird, kénnen aber, wie vermutlich im vorliegen- 
den Fall, auch zum Anhdngen der Larven an 
den rauhen Wandungen der Nestkammern dienen 


WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 


255 


und dadurch zu einer festen Lagerung und gleich- 
missigen Verteilung im Nest beitragen” (p. 
214). Fig. 4 on p. 214 shows a young larva in 
side view, a mature larva in side view and an 
uncinate hair enlarged. 

Hidmann, 1944, p. 446: “Die Larven sind 
durch ihre walzenférmige, gestreckte Gestalt 
und den Besitz von reihenartig angeordneten, 
ankerformigen Oncochaeten auf der Dorsalseite 
der Abdominalsegmente ausgezeichnet.”’ 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) laeviuscula Mayr 
Fig. 1 (6-7) 


Plump, chunky, and turgid; straight and sub- 
ellipsoidal; ends narrowly rounded; diameter 
greatest at abdominal somite II. Head thin and 
flattened against the ventral surface near the 
anterior end; no neck. Anus  posteroventral. 
Leg, wing, and gonopod vestiges present. No 
abdominal leg vestiges found. Segmentation 
indistinct. Spiracles unequal in size; the first 
much the largest, the remainder diminishing 
gradually. Integument of the last few somites 
spinulose, the spinules minute and isolated or 
in short transverse rows of two or three. Body 
hairs sparse, somewhat more abundant on the 
prothorax. Of three types: (1) simple, slender, 
slightly curved, 0.01-0.07 mm long, the most 
numerous type; (2) bifid, about 0.054 mm long, 
two to six on each of the thoracic somites and 
on abdominal somites I-VI; (8) nearly straight 
2-hooked uncinate hairs, 0.12-0.18 mm _ long, 
five or six in a row on the dorsal surface of each 
abdominal somite I-VI. Head moderately large; 
subtrapezoidal in anterior view; dorsal outline 
frequently with a median notch; narrowed below; 
about as long as broad; extensive dorsolateral 
regions thin and depressed; mouth parts small. 
Inside the head just above the level of the mouth 
parts is a very slender sclerotized transverse 
bar; at either end it joins a sclerotized lobe, be- 
comes external and extends out for a short dis- 
tance into the prothorax; a slender branch from 
this lobe extends dorsally inside the gena and 
becomes external near the dorsal corner of the 
cranium. Antennae small, each mounted on a 
low convexity and bearing three (rarely two) 
sensilla. Head hairs sparse, short (0.01—0.35 
mm), simple and slightly curved. Labrum very 
small, short (length a little less than one-fourth 
the width); subtrapezoidal, narrowed ventrally; 
border feebly to deeply 


ventral impressed ; 


256 


anterior surface of each half with three isolated 
and two agglomerated sensilla; posterior surface 
with two or three sensilla on each half. Mandibles 
very small; apical third slender, sharp-pointed, 
slightly curved medially, moderately sclerotized ; 
basal two-thirds widely inflated and _feebly 
sclerotized. Maxillae small; apex paraboloidal 
and directed medially; palp a cluster of four 
sensilla; galea two agglomerated sensilla. Labium 
small; palp a cluster of four sensilla; a minute 
sensillum between each palp and opening of 
sericteries; the latter a short transverse slit. 
(Material studied: Numerous larvae from two 
nests collected in Texas). 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) menileki 
proserpina Santschi 


Fig. 1 (8-10) 


Body hairs sparse, of three types: (1) Simple, 
minute (about 0.012 mm), with recurved tip; 
(2) with frayed tip, about 0.036 mm long, on the 
dorsal surface only; (3) nearly straight two- 
hooked uncinate hairs, about 0.11 mm long, about 
four in a row on the dorsal surface of each ab- 
dominal somite I-V. Head hairs minute to very 
short (0.006-0.018 mm), with the tip recurved. 
Posterior surface of labrum with two isolated 
sensilla on each half. Mandibles with the apical 
two-thirds slender, sharp-pointed, slightly curved 
medially and moderately sclerotized; basal 
one-third inflated and feebly sclerotized. In 
other respects apparently similar to lineolata. 
(Material studied: A single damaged integument 
from the Belgian Congo.) 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) rivai 
luctuosa Menozzi 


Fig. 3 


Menozai, 1930: ‘‘La larva del primo stadio, o 
da pochi giorni uscita dall’uovo, ha corpo ovale, 
poco allungato, molto pit assottigliato all’innanzi 
che all’indietro, col lato dorsale, visto di fianco, 
convesso e quello ventrale in parte, anterior- 
mente concavo e poi convesso posteriormente. 
Ha distinti, oltre il capo, 10 segmenti, l’ultimo 
dei quali piuttosto ristretto all’indietro e termi- 
nato con una sorta di lobo pit o meno sviluppato. 
Tutti 1 segmenti hanno qualche peluzzo di forma 
semplice, inoltre 1 segmenti 4-10 sono provvisti 
al dorso, sulla linea mediana trasversale, di 3 0 4 
lunghe setole terminate a doppio uncino. II 
capo visto di lato ha la forma di un cono tronco, 
é fornito di mandibole piccole, strette ed appun- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 8 


tite. Lunghezza mm. 1,7; larghezza massima 
mm. 0,9. La larva del secondo stadio ha il corpo 
all’incirea rotondeggiante, fortemente depresso, 
quasi lenticolare, piano al dorso, mediocremente 
convesso al ventre, diviso in 12 segmenti oltre 
il capo. Questo é piu largo che lungo, coi lati 
lobiformi. I segmenti 1-8 dell’addome sono prov- 
visti lateralmente e in continuazione del piano 
dorsale di lunghe appendici pit 0 meno rettango- 
lari coll’apice ottusamente arrotondato; il 9° 
segmento (ultimo) é tribolato, cioé ha due ap- 
pendici laterali alquanto pit piccole di quelle 
dei segmenti precedenti e di forma subtriangolare 
e termina posteriormente, nella linea mediana, 
con un lobo codale a forma di cappuccio; inoltre 
i segmenti addominali 3-7 hanno in pit ognuno, 
al ventre, nella linea mediana longitudinale, un’- 
altra appendice di forma all’incirea eguale a 
quella dei lati, ma pit corta. La funzione di tali 
appendici, che trovano riscontro in altre con- 
formazioni omologhe ed analoghe di altre larve 
di formiche, si ritiene che sia quella di facilitare 
Vuscita per osmosi dei prodotti di escrezione 
emmessi da parecchie cellule del tessuto adiposo: 
infatti, ad un esame istologico, si trova che la 
parte distale delle dette appendici e riempita 
di un essudato sotto forma di liquido pit o meno 
nettamente granuloso, mentre nella parte pros- 
simale vi 6 un ammasso di numero variabile 
di cellule adipose o trofociti, di cui aleune, sparse 
pel corpo, ma quasi sempre raccolte in vicinanza 


Fig. 3.—Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) rivat luc- 
tuosa Menozzi: A, B, and C, Larvae of the first, 
second, and third stadia; D, longitudinal section 
of a lateral projection of a larva of the second sta- 
dium. (After Menozzi, 1930.) 


Auveust 1952 


dell’entrata dell’appendice, contengono numerosi 
eristalli di urato. La chetotassi delle larve in 
questo stadio 6 su per gitt eguale a quella della 
larva precedentemente descritta e cosi dicasi 
anche per le setole uncinate che si trovano sul 
dorso dei segmenti 4-10. Lunghezza mm. 1,02; 
larghezza mm. 1,48. Larva matura.—In questo 
stadio fatte le debite proporzioni, il corpo della 
larva riprende la forma somigliante alquanto a 
quella del primo stadio, cioé ovale ma pit 
allungata e ancora pit fortemente ristretta in 
avanti. Sono distinti, oltre il capo, 12 segmenti; 
il 2° segmento toracico é come i precedenti coi 
lati arrotondati, i segmenti successivi, eccetto 
Vultimo, hanno le appendici che si trovano 
nella larva del secondo stadio, solo che esse 
sono ridotte in lunghezza. Lunghezza mm. 2,5; 
larghezza massima, presa sul 10° segmento e 
comprese anche le appendici laterali, mm. 1,6.” 
(pp. 100-102). Fig. 3 on p. 101: A, B & C— 
larvae in the Ist, 2nd and 3rd stadia; D— 
longitudinal section of a lateral appendage of a 
second-stadium larva. 


Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) scutellaris Olivier 
Fig. 4 


Berlese, 1902, p. 239: “Il primo grande stigma, 
perfettamente circolare é sul secondo segmento e 
tutti gli altri, che sono egualmente circolari, 
vanno decrescendo in diametro e sono scolpiti 
clascuno su clascuno dei segmenti successivi, 
cosicché il primo e ultimo segmento del corpo 
non recano stigmi.” 


Fig. 4.—Crematogaster (Acrocoelia) scutellaris 
Olivier: A, Young larva in side view; B and C, 
older larvae in ventral view. (After Eidmann, 
1926.) 


Eidmann, 1926: ‘‘Wie kommt es, dass die 
Larven nicht durch ihre Schwere nach unten 
fallen und sich im unteren Teil der Kammern 
anhaufen? Sie besitzen, um dies zu verhindern, 
sehr zwekmissige Anpassungen. Auf der Dorsal- 
seite der mittleren Segmente findet man je eine 


WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 


257 


Querreihe von eigenartigen starken Haaren, 
wihrend der wtbrige Larvenkérper nackt ist. 
Bei starker Vergrésserung sieht man, dass diese 
Haare an ihrer Spitze héchst merkwiirdige Bil- 
dungen tragen. Die meisten enden in zwei 
Klauen, die entweder in einer Ebene liegen und 
dadurch wie ein Anker aussehen, oder auch 
nach einer Seite gerichtet sind. Die Haare der 
mittleren Segmente sind fast alle so gestaltet. 
Auf den hinteren Segmenten trifft man dagegen 
ganz seltsam geformte Endigungen der hier meist 
kirzeren Haare. Zackige, geweihartige und 
kronenformige Gebilde sieht man hier in allen 
méglichen Variationen vertreten, von denen die 
Abbildung eine Auswahl zeigt, und zwischen 
ihnen stehen hier und da kurze, starre, borsten- 
formige Haare. Wie ein Wald von Hellebarden 
und Enterhaken starren einem diese Gebilde 
unter dem Mikroskop von dem Riicken einer 
Larve entgegen. Diese Haare stellen eine aus- 
gezeichnete Haftvorrichtung dar, sowohl zum 
Anhangen der Larven an die Wande der steilen 
Kammern als auch zum Zusammenhangen mehre- 
rer Larven zu Biindeln. Selbst an totem Alkohol- 
material kann man die Wirkung noch beobach- 
ten, Wattefléckchen oder andere Fremdkérper 
haften ausserordentlich fest an ihnen und die 
zusammenhingenden Larven lassen sich nur 
schwer voneinander trennen. Samtliche Larven- 
stadien sind mit diesen Hafthaaren versehen, 
die dlteren Larven tragen jedoch neben diesen 
Haaren noch héchst merkwiirdige Bildungen 
an ihrem Ko6rper, die den jiingsten Stadien feh- 
len, und die ihnen ein ganz eigenartiges und 
ungewohntes Aussehen verleihen. Dies sind 
zwei Reihen von grossen, knopfartigen Papillen, 
die auf jeder Korperseite in emer Reihe hin- 
tereinander in der Zahl von sechs bis acht sitzen. 
Jedes Segment mit Ausnahme der ersten und 
letzten traigt links und rechts je ee solehe Auss- 
tiilpung. Es scheint als ob die Papillen dem 
Wachstum ihrer Triiger nicht folgen, denn bei 
alteren Larven sind sie relativ viel kleiner als 
bei den jiingeren Stadien. Der Zweck der Papil- 
len lisst nicht ohne 
doch nehme ich an, dass auch sie in irgendeiner 
Beziehung zu der Lebensweise in den hohen 
Nestkammern stehen. Bei Cr. submaura, die 
in der Erde lebt, fehlen namlich diese Bildungen 
und ihre Larven sehen wie jede andere Ameisen- 
larve aus. Sie haben zwar auch die langen, 
ankerformigen Hafthaare, doch ist dies keime 
Besonderheit, da eine Reihe anderer Ameisenar- 


sich weiteres erkennen, 


258 


ten (Pheidole, Solenopsis u. a.) gleichfalls damit 
versehen ist. Die Papillenreihen der Scutellaris- 
Larven dienen wahrscheinlich auch dazu, das 
Festhingen und Haften an der Wand der Kam- 
mern und untereinander zu  gewihrleisten, 
vielleicht enthalten sie auch Driisen, die ein 
klebriges Sekret absondern, wie die Rucken- 
papillen der Larven von Ponera  coarctata, 
wenngleich sich diese weder in ihrer Grdésse 
noch in ihrer Anordnung mit den Papillen der 
Scutellaris-Larven vergleichen lassen. Schhess- 
lich wire noch an eine dritte Méglichkeit zu 
denken, nimlich, dass es sich um Exsudatorgane 
handelt, wie sie Wheeler (1923) von verschiede- 
nen Arten beschrieben hat, doch kann dariiber 
wie uber die vorhergenannten Méglichkeiten 
nur die genaue Beobachtung am lebenden Objekt 
Autschluss geben” (pp. 724-726). (Mentioned by 
Hidmann, 1927; 1928, p. 237; 1936, p. 36.) Fig. 
10 on p. 725, hairs; fig. 11 on p. 726, a young 
larva in side view, and two older larvae in ven- 
tral view. 


Crematogaster (Crematogaster) acuta (Fabricius) 
Fig. 5 (1-4) 


Body straight, elongate-subellipsoidal, and 
rather slender; both ends rounded, but with the 
terminal somites directed posteroventrally and 
forming a low, blunt point; belly paunchy at 
abdominal somites III and IV. Head applied 
to the ventral surface near the anterior end; no 
neck. Anus ventral. Leg, wing and gonopod 
vestiges present. Segmentation indistinct. Spi- 
racles unequal in size; the first much the largest, 
the remainder diminishing gradually. Integu- 
ment of the dorsal surface of the posterior somites 
spinulose, the spinules isolated and minute. Body 
hairs moderately abundant, short to moderately 
long and rather uniformly distributed. Of three 
types: (1) Simple, short (0.02-0.08 mm), longest 
on the prothorax, slightly curved, limited to the 
ventral and ventrolateral surfaces; (2) curved, 
with multifid tip, 0.054-0.19 mm long, limited 
to the dorsal and dorsolateral surfaces, the tips 
directed dorsally or posteriorly, those on the 
prothorax the longest and most strongly curved; 
(3) nearly straight two-hooked uncinate hairs, 
about 0.19 mm long, usually four on each ab- 
dominal somite I-VI. Head very small, sub- 
hexagonal in anterior view; a fourth broader than 
long; somewhat narrowed dorsally, ventral 
outline convex; integument sclerotized; from 
each ventrolateral corner a heavily sclerotized 


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OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 8 
structure passes into the prothorax; mouth parts 
small. Antennae minute raised areas, each with 
three sensilla. Head hairs sparse, simple, slightly 
curved, moderately long (0.009-0.054 mm), 
with stout base and flexible tip. Labrum very 
small, short (length one-fourth the width), 
subtrapezoidal, narrowed ventrally: ventral bor- 
der feebly concave; anterior surface with three 
isolated and two agglomerated sensilla on each 
half; posterior surface with three isolated sen- 
silla on each half; ventral border with a few 
spinules. Mandibles very small; apical three- 
fifths moderately sclerotized, slender, slightly 
curved medially and tapering to a sharp point; 
basal two-fifths feebly sclerotized and only 
slightly inflated. Maxillae small; apex parabo- 
loidal and directed medially; palp represented 
by three agglomerated sensilla; galea represented 
by two agglomerated sensilla. Labium small; 
palp represented by three agglomerated sensilla; 
a minute sensillum between each palp and open- 
ing of sericteries; the latter a short transverse 
slit. (Material studied: Numerous larvae from 
Panama Canal Zone.) 

Youne: Length about 1.4 mm. Similar to the 
adult except as follows: Posterior end of abdo- 
men somewhat attenuated and turned ventrally 
at right angles; ventral profile otherwise straight. 
Anus subterminal. Body hairs relatively longer 
and seemingly more abundant. Head relatively 
larger. 

G. C. and E. H. Wheeler have recorded (1924, 
p. 54) 26 larvae of this species which were para- 
sitized by an undetermined eulophid. Fig. 2 on 
page 55 is a photograph of two eulophid pupae 
inside one of the ant larvae. 


Crematogaster (Orthocrema) limata 
dextella Santschi 


Fig. 5 (9-14) 


Straight, subeylindrical, and rather stout; 
ends rounded; head and prothorax slightly bent 
ventrally; head anteroventral; no neck. Anus 
posteroventral. Leg, wing, and gonopod vestiges 
present. Segmentation indistinct. Spiracles un- 
equal in size, the first the largest, the tenth the 
smallest. Body hairs sparse, somewhat more 
abundant on the prothorax. Of three types: (1) 
A very few simple, minute (0.018-0.054 mm), 
flexible hairs on the ventral surface of the 
thorax; (2) hairs with denticulate tip, short 
(0.036-0.081 mm), generally distributed; (3) 
nearly straight two-hooked uncinate hairs, mod- 


Aveust 1952 WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 259 


Fic. 5.—1-5, Crematogaster (Crematogaster) acuta (Fabricius): 1, Head in anterior view, X S86; 2, 
left mandible in anterior view, X 216; 3, three body hairs, X 185; 4, young larva in side view, X 20; 
5, mature larva in side view, X 20. 6-8, C. (Orthocrema) minutissima missourtensis Emery: 6, Head 
in anterior, X 95; 7, right mandible in anterior view, X 216; 8, young larva in side view (hairs omitted), 
x 3B. 9-14, C. (O.) limata dextella Santschi: 9, Head in anterior view, X 95; 10, left mandible in 
anterior view, X 216; 11, three body hairs, X 185; 12, very young larva in side view (hairs omitted), 


x 32; 13, young larva in side view (hairs omitted), X 382; 74, mature larva in side view, X 82. 16-17, 
C. (O.) brevispinosa Mayr: 15, Head in anterior view, X 167; 16, three types of body hairs, X 18d; 17, 
two views of the fourth type of body hair, X 185; 78, left mandible in anterior view, X 216. 19-21, 


C. (Physocrema) deformis F. Smith: 19, Head in anterior view, X 76; 20, left mandible in anterior view, 
X 216; 21, three body hairs, X 185. 


260, 


erately long (about 0.18 mm), about four in a 
row across the dorsal surface of each abdominal 
somite I-V. Head subhexagonal in anterior 
view, narrowed ventrally; dorsal and ventral 
outlines convex; breadth about equal to length; 
dorsal and dorsolateral areas thin and depressed; 
mouth parts very small. Inside the head, just 
above the level of the mouth parts, there is a 
slender transverse sclerotic bar; each end of the 
bar turns upward and comes to the surface in 
the gena. Antennae small, with two sensilla 
each. Head hairs sparse, short (about 0.018 
mm), simple and slightly curved. Labrum very 
small, short (breath 34 times length), bilobed 
due to a deep concave incision of the ventral 
border; anterior surface with four isolated and 
two agglomerated sensilla on each half; posterior 
surface with two isolated sensilla on each half; 
ventral border with a few spinules. Mandibles 
very small, moderately sclerotized, with a 
moderately wide base tapering to a sharp point, 
which is slightly curved medially. Maxillae 
small; apex paraboloidal and directed medially; 
palp represented by three agglomerated sensilla; 
galea represented by two agglomerated sensilla. 
Labium small; palp represented by three agglom- 
erated sensilla; a minute sensillum between 
each palp and opening of sericteries; the latter a 
short transverse slit. (Material studied: Numer- 
ous larvae from Panama Canal Zone.) 

JUST-HATCHED LARVA: Length 0.6 mm. Head 
on the anterior end; relatively large; apparently 
without hairs. Body almost hairless; the unci- 
nate hairs of the adult are represented by small 
tubercles, each surrounded by its alveolus and 
articular membrane. 

Youne LARVA: Length about 1.0 mm. Similar 
to the mature larva but the head relatively larger 
and on the anterior end; body hairs relatively 
longer and seemingly more abundant. Segmenta- 
tion distinct on the anterior half. 


Crematogaster (Orthocrema) brevispinosa Mayr 
Fig. 5 (15-18) 


SexuaL FrorM: Plump, chunky, and turgid; 
subovoidal, narrowed anteriorly; head ventral, 
near the anterior end. Anus _ posteroventral. 
Spiracles unequal in size; the first much the 
largest, the rest approximately equal. Integu- 
ment of the posterior abdominal somites spinu- 
lose. Body hairs sparse, of four types: (1) Simple 
and very slender, a few on the lateral and dorsal 
surfaces, 0.018-0.07 mm long; (2) with the apex 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 8 


broad, flat and denticulate, minute (about 0.018 
mm), a few on the ventral surface of the meso- 
thorax, metathorax and abdominal somites 
I-IX;; (3) minute (about 0.018 mm), stout, with 
frayed tip, on the dorsal surface of the prothorax, 
mesothorax and abdominal somites [IX and X, 
and on the ventral surface of the prothorax and 
abdominal somite X; (4) nearly straight two- 
hooked uncinate hairs, short (about 0.087 mm), 
three or four in a row across the dorsal surface 
of each abdominal somite I-V. Head subtrape- 
zoidal in anterior view (but with a median dorsal 
truncate production), narrowed below; about as 
long as broad; integument somewhat sclerotized. 
Antennae minute, with three or four sensilla. 
Head hairs very few minute (about 0.006 mm) 
and simple. Labrum very small, short (length 
one-third the width), bilobed due to the con- 
cavity of the ventral border; anterior surface 
with two sensilla on each half; posterior surface 
with eight scattered sensilla; ventral border 
with a few spinules. Mandibles small; moderately 
sclerotized; basal two-thirds slightly inflated; 
apical one-third slightly curved medially and 
tapering rapidly to a sharp point. Maxillae 
small; apex paraboloidal and directed medially; 
palp represented by four agglomerated sensilla; 
galea represented by two agglomerated sensilla. 
Labium small; palp represented by four agglom- 
erated sensilla; a minute sensillum between each 
palp and opening of sericteries; the latter a short 
transverse slit. (Material studied: Several larvae 
from Panama Canal Zone.) 


Crematogaster (Orthocrema) brevispinosa 
tumulifera Forel 
Similar to brevispinosa s. str. (Material studied: 
Several sexual larvae from Panama). 


Crematogaster (Orthocrema) dispar Forel 


Wheeler (1933, p. 89) stated that the queen 
larvae of a variety of this species “were nearly 
spherical and resembled pearls.” 


Crematogaster (Orthocrema) minutissima 
missouriensis Emery 


Fig. 5 (6-8) 


Leg and gonopod vestiges present. Spiracles 
unequal in size, the first much the largest, the 
rest diminishing gradually. Integument of the 
dorsal surface of the posterior somites sparsely 
spinulose, the spinules isolated and rather coarse. 
Head subcireular in anterior view, with the dor- 
sal region thin and depressed. A slender sclero- 


Aueust 1952 


tized bar extends, just inside the gena, from the 
mandible to the level of the antennae; at its 
middle a stouter branch passes out and enters 
the prothorax. Antennae moderately large and 
drumlin-shaped, with three sensilla each. Labrum 
small, width 2.7 times the length, bilobed owing 
to the concavity of the ventral border; anterior 
surface of each half with four or five isolated 
and two agglomerated sensilla; posterior surface 
with four isolated sensilla on each half. Mandibles 
small, moderately sclerotized, subtriangular, 
with the apex slightly curved medially; medial 
border bearing a low, blunt tooth. Maxillae 
small; apex paraboloidal; palp a low knob bear- 
ing four or five sensilla; galea represented by two 
agglomerated sensilla. Labium small; palp a 
low knob bearing four sensilla; a minute sensil- 
lum between each palp and opening of sericteries; 
the latter a short transverse slit. 

Youne Larva: Length 0.77 mm. Plump and 
chunky, dorsal profile C-shaped, ventral profile 
sinuous; head ventral, near the anterior end; 
posterior end round-pointed. Anus ventral. 
Segmentation distinct on the anterior half; 
indistinct posteriorly. Other characters appar- 
ently as in the mature larva. (Material studied: 
One mature larva, one semipupa and a dozen 
young—all damaged—from Oklahoma.) 


Crematogaster (Orthocrema) quadriformis 
roveretoi Forel 
Eidmann, 1936, p. 42: “Die Larven sind 
spirlich behaart und zeigen im iibrigen keine 
bemerkenswerten Besonderheiten.” 


Crematogaster (Physocrema) deformis F. Smith 
Fig. 5 (19-21) 


Plump, chunky, and turgid; straight and sub- 
ellipsoidal; head flattened against the ventral 
surface near the anterior end. Anus ventral. 
Leg and gonopod vestiges present. Segmentation 
indistinct. Spiracles unequal in size, the first 
much the largest, the rest diminishing gradually. 
At the posterior border of each thoracic somite 
in the ventrolateral portion of the intersomitic 
groove is an integumentary structure that looks 
like a series of transverse folds or ridges; also 
in the intersomitic grooves between the thoracic 
and between the anterior abdominal somites are 
dark staining (with acid fuchsin) transverse 
bands on the dorsal and ventral surfaces. Body 
hairs exceedingly sparse, most abundant on the 
ventral surface of the prothorax. Of three types: 


WHEELER AND WHEELER: ANT LARVAE 


261 


(1) Simple, minute (0.009-0.018 mm); (2) 
stout, denticulate or with frayed tip, minute 
(about 0.018 mm), on the ventral surface; (3) 
nearly straight two-hooked uncinate hairs, about 
0.09 mm long, about four in a row on the dorsal 
surface of each abdominal somite I-V. Head 
subhexagonal in anterior view; integument 
sclerotized; from each ventrolateral corner of the 
head a large sclerotized structure passes out and 
enters the prothorax; mouth parts small. An- 
tennae small, with three sensilla each. Head 
hairs sparse and short (0.018-0.036 mm), stout, 
with the tip frayed. Labrum very small, short 
(width 34 times the length), bilobed due to a 
concavity of the ventral border; each half of the 
anterior surface with three isolated and two 
agglomerated sensilla; posterior surface with one 
sensillum on each half. Mandibles small, sub- 
triangular; base broad; tapering to a long slender 
sharp point, which is curved medially. Maxillae 
small, apex paraboloidal and directed medially; 
palp a slightly raised cluster of four agglomerated 
sensilla; galea represented by two agglomerated 
sensilla. Labium small; palp a slightly raised 
cluster of four agglomerated sensilla; a minute 
sensillum between each palp and opening of 
sericteries; the latter a short transverse slit. 
(Material studied: Seven damaged integuments 
from Java.) 


Crematogaster (Sphaerocrema) striatula Hmery 


Kidmann, 1944, p. 448: “Eben geschliipfte 
Hilarven .. . fallen durch ihre gedrungene, kaum 
gekriimmte Gestalt auf, die Riickseite der Ab- 
dominalsegmente ist mit Reihen grosser anker- 
formiger Oncochiten besetzt.” 


LITERATURE CITED 


(A Bibliography of the Larvae of 
the Crematogastrin1) 


Arutas-Hpnriot, C. Recherches sur les larves 
de quelques fourmis d’ Algérie. Bull. Biol. 
France Belgique 81: 247-272, 5 figs. 1947. 

BerLESE, A. Osservaziont su fenoment che av- 
vengono durante la ninfosi degli insetti meta- 
bolici. Riv. Patologia Vegetale 9: 177-344, 
95 figs. 1902. 

BristowE, W. 8S. Insects and other invertebrates 
for human consumption in Siam. Trans. Ent. 
Soc. London 80: 387-404, 1 fig. 1932. 

EipMann, H. Die Ameisenfauna der Balearen. 
Zeitschr. Morphol. Okol. Tiere 6: 694-742, 
14 figs. 1926. 

Nest und Larve von Crematogaster scutel- 

laris Oliv. Ent. Mitteil. 16: 18-19. 1927. 

Zur Kenntnis der Biologie der Rossameise 


bo 
o> 
i) 


(Camponotus herculeanus L.). Zeitschr. An- 

gew. Ent. 14: 229-253, 9 figs. 1928. 

Okologisch-faunistische Studien an siid- 

brasilianischen Ameisen. Arb. Phys. Angew. 

Ent. Berlin-Dahlem 3: 26-48, 81-114, 1 pl., 

5 text figs. 1936. 

Zur Kenntnis der Crematogoster im- 

pressa Em. (Hym. F ormicidae) und threr Gaste. 

Zool. Anz. 186: 207-220, 5 figs. 1941. 

. Die Ameisenfauna von Fernando Poo. 
Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Syst., 76: 413-490, 1 pl., 
17 text figs. 1944. 

Gantes, H. Morphologie externe et croissance de 
quelques larves de Formicidés. Bull. Soc. Hist. 
Nat. Afrique du Nord 4: 71-97, 6 pls. 1949. 


ZOOLOGY.—Notes on the history and 
Criark, U. 8S. National Museum. 


Reptiles differ from mammals and birds 
in being cold blooded. They agree with 
birds in having a relatively dry skin and 
in being highly dependent on sunlight. 
More dependent on sunlight than birds, 
nearly all live in sunny regions, especially 
in more or Jess arid, though not excessively 
arid, regions. Nearly all reptiles lay eggs 
like birds, but the young emerge from the 
eggs in the adult form and are not tended 
or fed by the parents. Nearly all modern 
reptiles are carnivorous, largely insect- 
feeders, like most birds, at least when young. 
Except for being cold blooded, the reptiles 
in the broader aspects of their ecology are 
more similar to the birds than they are to 
any other vertebrates. Morphologically they 
have been united with the birds under the 
inclusive term Sauropsida. But some rep- 
tiles are viviparous and some are wholly 
aquatic, as the sea snakes. Some have horny 
beaks like birds, others uniform or diversi- 
fied teeth. In the past a number had the 
power of flight, their wings being essentially 
like those of the mammalian bats, not like 
those of birds. 

Whereas since the Eocene the mammals 
and birds have undergone continuous and 
ereat diversification with adaptations for 
the constantly changing conditions and are 
today the dominant terrestrial vertebrates, 
the history of the reptiles has been quite 
different. In the Mesozoic the reptiles had 
reached a high degree of development and 
specialization and were highly diversified. 
There were, among others, gigantic, chiefly 
herbivorous, dinosaurs, great marine rep- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 


SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 8 


Menozzi,C. Formiche della Somalia italiana mert- 
dionale. Mem. Soc. Ent. Ital. 9: 76-130, 3 
pls., 4 figs. 1930. 

Srarcker, A. Contribution to the biology of Myr- 
mica schencki Hm. Tijdschr. Ent. 91: 25-71, 
50 figs. 1948. 

WHEELER, G. C., and WHEELER, HK. H. A new 
species of Schizaspidia (Hucharidae), with 
notes on a eulophid ant parasite. Psyche 31: 
49-56, 2 figs. 1924. 

WHEELER, W. M. Colony-founding among ants, 
with an account of some primitive Australian 
species: x + 179 pp., 29 figs. Harvard Univ. 
Press, 1933. 


distribution of the reptiles. Austin H. 


tiles of various kinds, and several types of 
flying reptiles, together with the more famil- 
lar crocodiles, turtles, and snakes. The de- 
velopment of the reptiles reached a cul- 
mination in the Cretaceous, but toward the 
end of that period most of them disappeared. 
Up to the end of the Cretaceous there were 
19 orders of reptiles, but since the earliest 
Tertiary, when there were a very few re- 
minders of the exceedingly rich Mesozoic 
fauna, only 4 of these have persisted, the 
Rhynchocephalia, represented only by Sphe- 
nodon or Hatteria, the tuatara of New Zea- 
land; the crocodiles, confined to tropical 
and subtropical regions; the turtles; and the 
Squamata, including the lizards and snakes. 

The world-wide and practically simultane- 
ous disappearance of most of the reptiles, 
including all the giant terrestrial herbivores 
and carnivores, the flying pterodactyls, and 
the large ichthyosaurs, plesiosaurs, and moso- 
saurs, was followed by the evolution and 
development from mammalian stock of a 
great variety of types occupying the former 
habitats of all the terrestrial reptiles, with 
the cetaceans replacing the marine types. 
Presumably the place of the flying reptiles 
was taken by certain birds. 

Any satisfactory explanation of the sud- 
den disappearance of the dominant reptiles 
and their rapid replacement by mammals 
must be applicable equally to all the con- 
tinents and to all the oceans as well. In 
view of the dependence of practically all 
modern reptiles, especially those with heavy 
skeletons or dermal scutes such as the hard 
shelled turtles and the crocodilians, on 


Aveust 1952 


abundant sunlight, and the independence of 
sunlight characteristic of the largely noc- 
turnal mammals, it would seem that a 
radical change in the amount or character 
of the sun’s radiations reaching the earth 
may well have been the chief factor in the 
disappearance of the reptiles which prepared 
the way for the domination of the mammals. 
During the Cretaceous there was exten- 
sive inundation of the land areas by the 
sea, the continents were much isolated, and 
the climate presumably was warm and uni- 
form. At the end of the Cretaceous there 
seems to have been a great upheaval of the 
land in both the northern and southern 
hemispheres. This was accompanied by local 
and intermittent volcanic activity through- 
out the Eocene in the Rocky Mountain 
region, Central America, the West Indies, 
and southern Europe. Any marked increase 
in the land areas would mean a correspond- 
ing increase in dust in the atmosphere, 
inorganic dust from arid areas and pollen 
and other organic dust from heavily vege- 
tated regions. Volcanic activity would also 
produce a large amount of atmospheric dust. 
Of interest in regard to the latter is the 
information on the eruption of Krakatoa, 
between Sumatra and Java, on May 26-28, 
1883. In this eruption the height of the 
ejected column of stones, ashes, and dust 
was estimated to have reached 17 miles or 
more. The finer particles were diffused over 
a large part of the earth and were carried 
over North and South America, Europe, 
Asia, South Africa, and Australia. In the 
Old World they spread from Scandinavia to 
the Cape of Good Hope. And this is the 
record of only a single isolated eruption. 
With increase in land areas and intermit- 
tent volcanic eruptions the illumination of 
the surface of the earth would be consider- 
ably altered. Whereas the extensive inunda- 
tion of the land areas during the Cretaceous 
would presumably clear the atmosphere, 
giving rise to conditions especially favorable 
to reptiles, increase in land areas, especially 
in connection with volcanic activity, would 
make conditions unfavorable for reptiles 
while at the same time permitting the rapid 
increase and diversification of mammals. 
In their present distribution the land 
reptiles fall into two main groups. The 


CLARK: HISTORY AND DISTRIBUTION OF REPTILES 


263 


strictly terrestrial forms, such as the lizards 
and most snakes, follow largely the distribu- 
tional pattern of the mammals except that 
they do not range so far north or south and, 
possibly because of their greater age, there 
are among them more striking cases of 
discontinuous distribution resulting from 
extirpation over a large portion of the orig- 
inal range. In the mammals examples of 
discontinuous distribution are the camels, 
originally North American but now repre- 
sented only by two wild species in South 
America, two domesticated species in South 
America, and two domesticated species in 
Asia one of which has been introduced into 
Africa; the tapirs once widespread but now 
restricted to tropical America and the Malay 
Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo; and the 
fresh-water dolphins of South America, 
India, and China; but the last may have 
been originally marine. 

In the Pleistocene many mammals spread 
from Asia into North America, and from 
North America into Asia, but apparently 
the connection between these continents 
was too far north to serve as a highway for 
any reptiles. Some examples of discontinuous 
distribution in the reptiles are, the Gila 
monsters (Helodermatidae), Texas, Arizona, 
Mexico, and Borneo; the large herbivorous 
iguanas, tropical America, Madagascar, and 
Fiji; the pythons, tropics of the Old World 
and western Mexico; and the burrowing 
Amphisbaena, South America and Africa. 
The true land tortoises (Testudo) are found 
in all tropical and warm temperate regions 
except Australia. 

The amphibious reptiles, the crocodilians 
and the fresh-water turtles, present a more 
generalized distributional picture resembling 
that of the amphibians rather than that of 
the mammals presumably owing both to their 
greater age than mammals and the fact 
that aquatic habitats are much less variable 
than terrestrial, the chief differential here 
being extratropical changes in temperature. 
True crocodiles (Crocodylus), appearing first 
in the Cretaceous, still occur throughout 
the tropics. The gavials and alligators ap- 
pear in the Miocene; the gavials are now 
confined to southern Asia, the alligators 
(with the caymans) to America, with one 
alligator in southern China. Among the 


264 


fresh-water turtles the soft-shelled type, ap- 
pearing first in the Cretaceous, still occurs 
in Asia, Africa, and America, as far north 
as Canada; the Pelomedusidae are found in 
Africa and South America; and the snake- 
necked turtles in South America, Australia, 
and New Guinea. 

Briefly stated, the history and present 
distribution of the reptiles seem to be de- 
pendent upon their special ecological char- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 8 


acteristics, which differ from those of any 
of the other vertebrates in their dependence 
upon certain elements of sunlight and their 
relative independence of a constant supply 
of external water. Their former distribution 
is most closely parallel to that of the succeed- 
ing mammals, while their present distribu- 
tion is mainly parallel to that of mammals 
with some forms having a distribution paral- 
lel to that of the amphibians. 


ZOOLOGY .—Poritextularia, a new Recent foraminiferal genus.! ALFRED R. LoEB- 
LIcH, JR., and HeLen Tappan, U.S. National Museum. 


During generic studies of the smaller 
Foraminifera, the writers have encountered 
numerous species that do not agree with the 
generic diagnosis of the genera to which they 
have been referred. In order that the foram- 
iniferal genera should be more precisely 
defined, the writers are excluding many 
such species from genera that have already 
been well defined. In the present paper a 
new generic name 1s proposed for a species 
in the family Textulariidae which was 
previously referred to Textularia panamensis 
Cushman. In a recent article by Loeblich 
(1952, p. 190) it was inferred that this 
species might belong to Tawitawia Loeblich 
as it was very similar to the genotype species 
of Tawitawia. At that time, no specimens of 
the present form were available for study, 
but the writers have subsequently had the 
opportunity of examining a suite of speci- 
mens of this species. Although similar ex- 
ternally, the two species differ in both their 
apertural character and internal structure. 
The new genus Poritextularia here described, 
like Tawitawia, 1s a specialized off-shoot 
from Textularia, that has evidently de- 
veloped in Recent times. 

The writers are indebted to Dr. Irene 
McCulloch, Allan Hancock Foundation, 
University of Southern California, for mak- 
ing available a fine suite of specimens for 
study. 


Family TEXTULARIIDAE 
Genus Poritextularia Loeblich and Tappan, 
n. gen. 
Genotype (type species): Poritextularia mezxi- 
cana Loeblich and Tappan, n. sp. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


Test free, compressed, biserial throughout; 
wall agglutinated, interior simple; aperture con- 
sisting in the early stages of an elongate slit at 
the base of the last chamber, paralleling the sides 
of the test, and in the adult consists of a linear 
series of openings across the terminal portion of 
the final chamber, formed by the development 
of pillars across the original slit. 

Remarks.—This genus resembles Teztularia 
Defrance in the biserial agglutinated test, but 
differs in having a multiple aperture. It resembles 
Tawitawia Loeblich in the large flattened biserial 
test with a rather extreme overlap of chambers 
and multiple aperture, but differs in having a 
simple interior, lacking the internal pillars and 
labyrinthic structure of the latter genus, and in 
being completely biserial with no tendency to 
become uniserial. The aperture of Tawitawia is 
completely terminal and does not extend to the 
base of the final chamber as in Poriteztularia. 


Poritextularia mexicana Loeblich and Tappan, 
n. sp. 
Figs. 1-3 


Textularia panamensis Cushman, Lalicker and 
McCulloch (not Cushman, 1918), Allan Han- 
cock Pacific Exped. 6 (2): 136, pl. 15, figs., 18 
a-e. 1940. 


Test free, biserial throughout, rhomboid in out- 
line, much compressed, sides flat; chambers 
numerous, low and broad, increasing gradually 
in size from the rounded proloculus, very oblique, 
highest at the mid portion of the test and bending 
downward to the margins; sutures distinct, de- 
pressed, strongly oblique, slightly curved up- 
wards; wall finely arenaceous, with occasional 
large black mineral grains included (shown on 
final pair of chambers in Fig. 1 and to the right 
margin of Fig. 2), interior simple, not labyrinthic; 
aperture in the early stages consisting of an elon- 


| 


Avueust 1952 


gate slit at the base of the last chamber, paral- 
leling the flat sides of the test, which in the adult 
may be bridged by pillars so that the former slit 
is broken up into a linear series of small pore-like 
openings extending from the base across the 
terminal_portion of the final chamber. 

Length of holotype (Fig. 1) 1.85 mm, breadth 
1.22 mm, thickness 0.23 mm. Length of paratype 
of Fig. 2 1.87 mm, breadth 1.43 mm, thickness 
0.23 mm. Length of paratype of Fig. 3 1.82 mm, 
breadth 1.20 mm, thickness, 0.23 mm. 

Roe This species was described and il- 
lustrated by Lalicker and McCulloch (1940, p. 
136, pl. 15, fig. 18) but was referred to Textularia 
panamensis Cushman. Textularia espersoni Applin 
was placed in the synonymy of 7’. panamensis in 
this publication, but the present writers believe 
Applin’s species to be distinct from both Cush- 
man’s species and the present form. Textularia 
espersoni is a small, parallel-sided species with a 
diamond-shaped cross section, much thicker along 
the central zigzag suture than at the periphery. 
The chambers are comparatively high and pro- 


Frias. 1- 


LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN: 


3.—Poritextularia mexicana Loeblich and Tappan, 
P. 839) showing broad flat test, strongly overlapping chambers, 


PORITEXTULARIA 265 


duced into spines at the margins. The aperture is 
“a, well-arched opening at the base of the last- 
formed chamber.” 

Textularia panamensis is larger than T’. esper- 
sont, has a rhomboid outline, but is extremely 
flattened, and the chambers are very low and 
broad. The aperture was described as “indis- 
tinct,” but examination of additional specimens 
from the Miocene Gatun formation, near the 
Gatun Railroad Station, shows the aperture to 
consist of a well-defined triangular opening at 
the base of the last chamber, which does not ex- 
tend far up the apertural face. 

The species T’. panamensis Cushman, 1918, and 
T. espersont Applin, 1925, are both true Tezrtularia 
and quite distinct from the present species, which 
has much more strongly overlapping chambers, 
a larger test approximately three times as large, 
and the aperture varying from a very elongate 
slit beginning at the base of the last chamber to 
a multiple aperture consisting of a linear series of 
openings. 

Types and occurrence.—Holotype (USNM P. 


la, side view of holotype (USNM 
and dark mineral grains on final two 


n.sp.: 


chambers; lb, top yiew showing aperture beginning as an arch at the base of the chamber and extend- 
ing as a linear series of pores across the top of the final chamber (four black mineral grains are present 
at the mala side of the chamber nearly in line with the aperture and should not be confused with the 
aperture); 2a, side view of paratype (U SNM P. 840 a); 2b, top view showing long slitlike aperture inter- 


3b, top view showing shorter 
Sally D. Lee, scientific 


rupted by a single pillar; 38a, side view of paratype (USNM P. S40 b); 
slitlike aperture uninterrupted by pillars. (All figures camera-lucida drawings by $ 
illustrator, Smithsonian Institution.) 


266 


839) figured paratypes (USNM P. 840 a-b) and 
unfigured paratypes (USNM P. 841 a-e) all from 
Allan Hancock Expedition station 2060, Point 
Piaxtla, Sinaloa, Mexico, lat. 23°33’ N., long. 
106°46’ W., in 8 fathoms. 


REFERENCES 
Appuin, E. R., in Appin, E. R., Evitsor, A. E., 
and Knikxer, H. T. Subsurface stratigraphy of 
the coastal plain of Texas and Louisiana. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 8 
Bull Amer. Assoc. Petr. Geol. Bull. 9: 79-122. 
1925. 

CusHMaANn, J. A. The smaller fossil Foraminifera of 
the Panama Canal Zone. U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 
103: 45-87, pls. 19-33. 1918. 

Lauicker, C. G., and McCuttocu, I. Some Textu- 
lariidae of the Pacific Ocean. Allan Hancock 
Pacific Exped. 6: 115-148, pls. 13-16. 1940. 

Lorsuiicu, A. R., Jr. New Recent foraminiferal 
genera from the tropical Pacific. Journ. Wash- 
ington Acad. Sci. 42: 189-193. 1952. 


MALACOLOGY.—A new glycymerid from the Western Atlantic.! Davin Nicou, 


U.S. National Museum. 


While examining Glycymeris americana in 
the U. 8. National Museum collection, I 
found specimens of an undescribed species 
of Recent glyecymerid which had been la- 
beled G. undata (Linné), G. decussata (Linné), 
G. pennacea (Lamarck), G. lineata (Reeve), 
and G. americana (Defrance). These many 
names indicate that the Western Atlantic 
glycymerids are in need of a thorough study. 

I am greatly indebted to William’ J. 
Clench and T. E. Pulley, of the Museum of 
Comparative Zoélogy, for the loan of speci- 
mens for examination. 


Glycymeris spectralis Nicol, n. sp. 
Figs. 1, 2 


Description.—Shell, with one exception, longer 
than high; ratio of convexity to height about 0.68; 
valve outline ovate to subtriangular, with the 
posterior side produced and commonly truncated; 
beaks opisthogyrate and located at about the 
posterior fourth of the ligamental area; umbos 
small; ligament small and short with about six 
ligamental chevrons which are better developed 
on the anterior side; hinge plate narrow; hinge 
teeth small, about 25 in number; radial ribs rather 
narrow, raised slightly, separated by narrow inter- 
spaces, ribs and interspaces covered by radial 


Fies. 1, 2.—Glycymeris spectralis Nicol, n.sp., 
holotype (U.S.N.M. no. 598668), Recent, from 
Boynton on Lake Worth, Palm Beach County, 
Fla.: 1, Interior, right valve; 2, exterior, left 
valve. Natural size. 


1 Published by permission of the Secretary of 
the Smithsonian Institution. 


striae; periostracum well-developed, velvety; 
crenulations on inner ventral border large and 
widely spaced for the size of the shell, 6 or 7 per 
cm on specimens of from 20 to 25 mm in height; 
color pattern variable, some specimens show dis- 
tinct rays of reddish-brown exteriorly; interior of 
some specimens may be white or light to dark 
brown, color better developed on the posterior 
side of the shell. 

Measurements in mm.—The numbers that follow 
the words holotype and paratype are U. 8S. Na- 
tional Museum catalogue numbers. 


Height Length Convexity 
Holotype 598668 19.2 20.5 13.0 
Paratype 522645 22.0 21.8 14.4 
Paratype 522645a 14.0 14.8 8.8 
Paratype 223632 22.0 24.7 15.8 
Paratype 223632a 21.6 23.4 15.2 
Paratype 223632b 16.2 18.3 11.2 
Paratype 223632¢ 17.0 19.1 11.7 
Paratype 223632d 17.3 19.6 12.0 
Paratype 36421 21.6 24.5 14.2 
Paratype 36421a 20.6 21.2 14.4 
Paratype 599298 17.7 18.4 11.3 
Paratype 599298a 14.9 16.6 10.1 
Paratype 599298b 13.2 14.2 8.0 
Paratype 486218 15.2 16.7 9.9 
Paratype 486218a 14.4 16.1 9.3 
Paratype 36418 21.9 23.0 14.7 
Paratype 92393 21-3) 23.6 14.3 
Paratype 598667 24.2 25.8 17.6 
Paratype 486294 27.6 29.4 20.2 
Paratype 406841 16.6 17.8 11.2 
Paratype 406841la 15.2 15.9 9.2 
Paratype 83135 5.2 5.9 3.6 
Paratype 124780 20.5 22.8 Ler 
Paratype 515910 19.7 20.3 13.9 
Paratype 364579 22.9 25.2 17.0 
Paratype 364579a 16.9 18.1 12.3 
Paratype 364706 18.8 21.4 14.6 
Paratype 364706a 17.6 19.2 12.8 
Paratype 364706b 8.1 9.0 5.9 
Paratype 543835 22.7 25.4 15.8 
Paratype 543835a 20.6 22.4 13.5 
Paratype 543835b 19.2 21.9 13.2 
Paratype 543835¢ 18.8 PAV 11.8 
Paratype 543835d 18.8 22.2 11.9 
Paratype 543835e 15.0 16.8 9.9 
Paratype 543835f 14.7 16.7 9.2 
Paratype 543835g¢ 13.5 14.9 8.7 
Paratype 486540 16.6 18.0 Hilt 


Types.—Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 598668 (Divi- 
sion of Mollusks). There are 37 paratypes in the 


Aveust 1952 NICOL: NEW GLYCYMERID 
U.S. National Museum collection; for catalogue 
numbers see under Measurements. The Museum 
of Comparative Zodlogy at Harvard College has 
50 paratypes of Glycymeris spectralis. 

Comparisons.—Glycymeris spectralis can be 
distinguished from G. americana (Defrance) by 
the more prominent and narrow radial ribs, the 
produced and commonly truncated posterior 
side of the valves, and the more strongly opistho- 
gyrate beaks. It can be differentiated from G. 
undata (Linné) = G. lineata (Reeve) by the 
opisthogyrate beaks and the more prominent 
and narrow radial ribs. G. spectralis can be dis- 
tinguished from G. decussata (Linné) = G. pen- 
nacea (Lamarck) by the narrower and more 
prominent radial ribs and by the wider-spaced 
and less numerous crenulations along the interior 
margin. 

Geographic distribution—The holotype was 
collected at Boynton on Lake Worth, Palm 
Beach County, Fla. The northernmost locality 
for Glycymeris spectralis is Shackleford Island, 
which lies immediately west of Cape Lookout, 
N. C. Several lots were taken from around Cape 


MEXICO 


FROM WESTERN ATLANTIC 267 
Fear, N. C. The species is common along the 
east coast of Florida as far south as Miami, but 
only one specimen has been noted from the west 
coast of Florida (Lemon Bay). There are no 
records of G. spectralis north of Lemon Bay and 
around the Gulf coast to Tampico, Mexico. At 
Tampico this species is common, and it occurs 
as far south as the Bay of Campeche. There are 
three lots of specimens from the north coast of 
Honduras and one from San Juan del Norte 
(Greytown), Nicaragua, in the U. 8. National 
Museum collection. The distribution of G. spec- 
tralis is plotted on a map, Fig. 3. Further collect- 
ing will probably fill in some of the gap between 
Tampico, Mexico, and Lemon Bay, Fla. G. spec- 
tralis has not been found in the West Indies, 
including the Bahama Islands; this species ap- 
pears to be confined to shallow water off the 
mainland of North and Central America. 

Habitat—Glycymeris spectralis has been col- 
lected from a sandy bottom. The most common 
depths from which this species has been dredged 
are from 16 to 18 meters, but it has been found 
at depths ranging from 1 to 26 meters. 


GWinington 


Charleston 


EAS TS 


Fig. 3.—Geographie distribution of Glycymeris spectralis, v.sp. 


268 JOURNAL OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF 


SCIENCES voL. 42, No. 8 


ICHTHYOLOGY .—Revision of the genus Talismania, with description of a new 
species from the Gulf of Mexico. A. E. Parr, American Museum of Natural 
History. (Communicated by Leonard P. Schultz.) 


The segregation of Nemabathytroctes from 
Talismania has always rested almost ex- 
clusively upon the presence of produced fin 
rays at least in the pectorals of the former. 
In 1951 the writer (Parr, 1951, p. 11) re- 
stricted Talismania to the genotype, T’. 
homoptera (Vaillant, not 7. homoptera of 
other authors), with the other species usually 
identified as 7’. homoptera transferred to the 
family Searsidae, and those referred to the 
genus Talismania under other specific names 
placed in the genera Rouleina and Bing- 
hamichthys. Thus restricted, Talismania 
agreed with Nemabathytroctes in all basic 
features, such as the length of the snout, 
lateral dentition of premaxillaries, and 
structure of opercular bones. But a fairly 
sharp distinction still existed between the 
two species referred to Nemabathytroctes and 
the only recognized species of Talismania, in 
regard to the size of the head, the dimensions 
of the jaws, the apparent form (depth) of 
the body, and other features (see the key on 
p. 269). With the type of 7. homoptera no 
longer giving any evidence of produced pec- 
toral rays, the generic identity of this genus 
and species with Nemabathytroctes therefore 
still remained unsuspected. 

The discovery of another new species, 
unquestionably representative of Nemabathy- 
troctes, but with heads and jaws in the pro- 
portions characteristic of Talismania homop- 
tera, and with the produced rays of pectoral 
fin relatively weaker and less thickened than 
in the other species of Nemabathytroctes, has 
now given new significance to Vaillant’s 
previously neglected description of the pec- 
torals of T. homoptera as being elongated so 
as to reach to, or even beyond, the insertion 
of the ventrals. It is therefore now obvious 
that Talismania and Nemabathytroctes are 
identical genera, differing only by their type 
species but not by any characters of generic 
significance. 

The relatively slender body measurements 
of T'. homoptera are governed by the dimen- 
sions of the soft parts only and can be largely 
explained by the state of the specimen, in 


which the stomach is missing and the other 
soft parts seem shrunken or in a naturally 
poor state of nutrition. 

The great over-all length of the head in 
T. bifurcata is largely due to the long dermal 
flap of the gill cover, which extends well be- 
yond the insertion of the anterior (upper) 
ray in pectoral fin. When skeletal measure- 
ments are used, such as the distance from 
the snout to top of preopercle, the differences 
between the various species in regard to the 
general size of the head become less clear 
and significant, and one can only say that 
snout to preopercle is more than (28 — .02L) 
percent of L in 7. longifilis, less than (28 — 
.O2L) but more than (25 — .02L) percent of 
L in the other species. A similar situation 
obtains in regard to the distance from snout 
to pectorals, which is more than (42 — .02L) 
percent of L in 7. longifilis, less than (41 — 
.02L) but more than (38 — .02L) in the 
others. 

There is undoubtedly a valid difference 
between 7’. bifurcata and T.. oregoni in regard 
to the length of the dermal flap of the gill 
cover, and thus also in regard to the over- 
all length of the head. But the size of the 
dermal flap of 7. homoptera can unfortu- 
nately not be determined with any degree of 
certainty in the present state of the type 
specimen. 

It is, therefore, in the dimensions of the 
jaws relative to each other and to the length 
of the specimen, rather than in the general 
dimensions of the head, that we find the 
most significant and useful proportions for 
the differentiation of the species, in correla- 
tion with other features. 


Genus Talismania Goode and Bean, 1895 


Bathytroctes, subgenus Talismania Goode and 
Bean, 1895, p. 43 (partim, genotype, B. homop- 
terus, only); nec Norman, 1930, p. 269; nec 
Fowler, 1934, p. 249. 

Talismania Jordan and Evermann, 1896, p. 455 
(T. homoptera, only); Roule, 1919, p. 6 (7. 
homoptera, only); Parr, 1951, pp. 5, 11; nec 
Koefoed, 1927, p. 55. 

Bathytroctes, subgenus Nemabathytroctes Fowler, 
1934, p. 252. 


Aveust 1952 PARR: REVISION 


Nemabathytroctes Parr, 1937, p. 7; Parr, 1951, pp. 
5, 10. 


Pectorals with 11-12 rays, upper ray greatly 
produced. Dorsal and anal fins subequal and ap- 
proximately opposite. Caudal fin with produced 
lobes (in the species in which the caudal fin has 
been preserved). Ventral fins mserted near the 
middle of the length, with 6-7 rays. 

Heads large, not less than (88 — .02L) percent 
of L. Snouts long, 10-12, or more than ? (13 — 
.02L) ?, percent of L. Mouth large, lower jaws 
more than (20 — .02L) percent of L. Premaxil- 
laries of normal shape but with a short external 
series of horizontal teeth anteriorly, well above 
the regular dentition at the edge of the mouth. 
Teeth otherwise in single series in premaxillary, 
maxillary, lower jaw and palatine, and in one or 
two transverse rows on vomer. Maxillary series 
as long as, or longer than that of the premaxil- 
lary. Two supramaxillaries, with slight or no 
mobility relative to maxillary. 

Head pointed in lateral view, with a virtually 
straight dorsal profile ending at a slightly promi- 
nent snout, marked by the upper, horizontal 
dentition of the premaxillaries. 

Gill opening wide, extending upward to, or 
nearly to, the level of the upper margin of orbit. 
Operculum moderate to large, extending well 
above its attachment to hyomandibular. Sub- 
operculum large, varying in form with the species. 
Interoperculum normal. Preoperculum rather 
wide, its upper limb subvertical. Branchiostegals 
6-8. 

Stomach siphonal; 8-10 simple pyloric caeca. 
Anus near anal fin. 

Body scaly, head without scales. No shoulder 
organ. Apparently luminous organs present in 
orbital cavity of at least one species. 

Our knowledge of the genus is based upon 
only five specimens of the following sizes and 
sex: T. longifilis 116 mm L (i.e., length without 
caudal fin), immature. 7’. homoptera 161 mm L. 
Internal organs missing. 7’. bifurcata 202 mm L, 
mature female. 7’. oregonit 240 and 246 mm L, 
mature females. 

These dimensions should be borne in mind in 
evaluating the statements of relative propor- 
tions given in the following key by use of the 
expressions proposed by Parr, 1949. 

The condition of the type specimen of 7. 
homoptera leaves the exact form of the posterior 
margin of the subopercle in doubt. It can be 


OF GENUS 


TALISMANIA 269 


definitely established only that the lower posterior 
corner of the suboperculum ends rather bluntly 
with a group of 3 or 4 very short and fine points, 
side by side at its tip. It is indicated that this 
species may not have any of the very long, 
widely separated, simple points higher up along 
the posterior margin of the subopercle, that seem 
characteristic of the other members of the genus, 
but the writer is not satisfied that this can be 
taken to be definitely proven by the type speci- 
men as observed by him. 


KEY TO THE GENUS TALISMANIA 


A. Heads large, more than (41 — .02L) percent 
of L. Jaws very long, upper jaws about (23 — 
.02L), lower jaw (24.5 — .02L) percent of 
L. Produced pectoral rays very strong. Indo- 
Pacific. 

1. Scales small, 90-95 in a longitudinal 
series, about 35 in a transverse count. 
Suboperculum with three separate 
points. Head about (41.5 — .02L) 
percent of L. Gulf of Aden. 

longifilis (Brauer, 1902) 

2. Seales larger, about 65-70 in a longi- 
tudinal series, about 22-23 in a trans- 
verse count. Suboperculum with only 
two long points. Head about (42.1 — 
.02L) percent of L. Gulf of Panama. 

bifurcata (Parr, 1951) 

B. Heads smaller, less than (40 — .02L) percent 
of L. Jaws much shorter, upper jaws less 
than (21 — .02L), lower jaw less than (21.5 — 
.02L) percent of L. Scales large, about 60-65 
in a longitudinal series and about 20-24 in a 
transverse count. Produced pectoral rays 
not very strong. Atlantic. 

1. Upper jaws extend beyond centre of 
eye but fall conspicuously short of 
reaching the vertical from the pos- 
terior margin of orbit, being about 
2 percent of L shorter than lower 
jaw. Ventrals slightly behind the mid- 
dle of body, snout to ventrals about 
17 percent of L longer than snout to 
pectorals. Dorsal fin with only about 
19 rays, its base about 2 percent of L 
shorter than base of anal fin. Eastern 
North Atlantic. 

homoptera (Vaillant, 1888) 

2. Upper jaws extend nearly to vertical 
from posterior rim of orbit, being less 
than 1 percent of L shorter than lower 
jaw. Ventrals slightly in advance of 
the middle of body, snout to ventrals 
only about 12.6 — 14.5 per cent of 
L longer than snout to pectorals. 
Dorsal fin with 23 or 24 rays, its base 
not more than 1 percent of L shorter 
than the base of anal fin. Gulf of 
ING SU COR rater: ..oregont, n. Sp. 


270 


Talismania oregoni, n. sp. 


Jaws relatively short, but upper jaw less than 
one (.5-.8) percent of L shorter than lower jaw, 
equivalent to (20 — .02L) percent of L. Lower 
jaw equivalent to (20.5 — .02L) to (21.4 — .02L) 
percent of L. Upper jaw extends nearly to the 
vertical from the posterior rim of orbit. Head 
moderate, with rather short dermal flap of gill- 
cover, equivalent to (38 — .02L) to (39.8 — .02L) 
percent of L. 

Subopercle ends posteriorly in three long 
separate points. Lower margin of lower sub- 
opercular point with minute, oblique serrations. 
Interorbital space flat. 

Ventrals inserted slightly in advance of the 
middle of body, their distance from the snout 
only 12.5-14.5 percent of L longer than the 
distance from snout to pectorals. The longest 
remaining fragment of the produced pectoral 
finray equals about 35 percent of L. The full 
length of the produced ray would undoubtedly 
be substantially greater, although the proximal 
part is not particularly strengthened and 
thickened. The form of the caudal fin is un- 
known. The bases of dorsal and anal fins are 
about 19-21 percent of L. 

The specimens show the following measure- 
ments and proportions, with those of the cotype 
given in parenthesis: Length without caudal fin: 
Type 240 mm (cotype 246 mm). Proportions in 
percent of length without caudal: Head, including 
dermal margin of gill cover, 35.0 (33.3). Snout 
11.1 (10.2). Orbit 5.5 (5.7). Interorbital width 
6.3 (5.4). Over-all length of upper jaws 15.8 
(15.0). Lower Jaw to external corner of angular 
16.6 (15.5). Snout to top of preopercle 21.8 
(20.3). Snout to dorsal fin 62.9 (64.5). Snout to 
anal fin 63.6 (62.9). Snout to pectorals 35.8 
(33.2). Snout to ventrals 48.3 (47.7). Base of 
dorsal fin 20.4 (18.9). Base of anal 20.0 (20.7). 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 8 


Greatest depth of body 22.7 (22.3). Least depth 
of caudal peduncle 8.5 (8.1). 

D. 223-244. A. 23-234. P. 12. V. 7. Br. 6-7. 
First gill arch with 7-8/1/17-18 gill rakers, 
longest only about 3.3 percent of L. 

Stomach siphonal; 8 or 9 simple pyloric caeca, 
the longest 8.7-10.6 percent of L, substantially 
longer than those found in 7’. longifilis and 
T.. bifurcata, but the significance of this difference 
is uncertain. 

About 51 pores in lateral line, about 63-64 
scales in a longitudinal series immediately above, 
about 11 between lateral line and origin of dorsal 
fin, and about 12 between lateral line and anal 
fin. There is no clear evidence of ventral or dorsal 
keels, except immediately before dorsal fin. But 
two median ventral scales preserved in the tho- 
racic region suggest the presence of some kind of 
organ surrounded by black integument under the 
broad posterior point of each, while a single scale 
still present outside of the median shows only a 
narrow, black tip. No indications of whitish, 
luminous (?) bodies in orbits. 

Gulf of Mexico. Oregon station 349. 29°09’ 
Lat. N., 87°58’ long. W. Depth 470-500 fathoms. 
May 21, 1951. Holotype, U.S.N.M. no. 160482. 
Cotype no. ?. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Braver, A. Diagnosen von neuen Tiefseefischen. 
Zool. Anz. 25: 277-298. 1902. 

Fow ter, H. W. Descripitions of new fishes obtained 
1907 to 1910 chiefly in the Philippine Islands. 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 85: 233- 
367. 1934. 

Goopk, G. B., and Bran, T. H. Oceanic ichthy- 
ology. U. S. Nat. Mus. Spee. Bull. 2. 1895. 
JorpaNn, D.S., and Evermann, B. W. The fishes 
of North and Middle America. Pt. I. U.S. 

Nat. Mus. Bull. 47. 1896. 

Korrorp, E. Fishes from the sea-bottom. Rep. Sci. 
Res. Michael Sars N. Atlantic Exp. 1910, 4: 
pt. 1. 1927. 


Fic. 1.—Talismania oregoni, n.sp.: Supramaxillaries and opercular bones artificially exposed. Eye 
represented by orbit. Drawn by author. 


Aueustr 1952 


Norman, J. R. Oceanic fishes and flatfishes collected 
in 1925-1927. Discovery Rep. 2: 261-370. 1930. 

Parr, A. E. Concluding report on fishes. (Third 
Oceanogr. Exp. ‘‘Pawnee’’). Bull. Bingham 
Oceanogr. Coll. 3: (art. 7). 1937. 

. An approximate formula for stating taxo- 

nomically significant proportions of fishes with 

reference to growth changes. Copeia, 1949 (1): 

47-55. 1949. 


PROCEEDINGS: 


THE ACADEMY 271 


. Preliminary revision of the Alepocephalidae. 
Amer. Mus. Noy. 1531: 1-21. 1951. 

Route, L. Poissons provenant des campagnes du 
yacht Princesse Alice et du yacht Hirondelle 
II. Res. Camp. Sci. Monaco, fase. 52. 1919. 

VaILLANT, L. L. Poissons. Exp. Sei. Travailleur 
et Talisman. Paris, 1888. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY 


456TH MEETING OF BOARD OF MANAGERS 


The 456th meeting of the Board of Managers, 
held in the Cosmos Club on May 12, 1952, was 
called to order at 8:02 p.m. by President Ram- 
BERG. Others attending were: H. S. Rappers, 
J. A. STEVENSON, W. F. Fosuac, A. T. McPuHrEr- 
son, C. F. W. Murseseck, R. G. Bares, W. 
R. WepbEtL, W. A. Dayton, C. A. Berts, R. 8. 
Diu, F. W. Hoves, N. R. Exurs, M. A. Mason, 
F. M. Deranporr, and, by invitation, E. H. 
WaLker and J. P. E. Morrison. 

The President announced the appointment of 
Watiace R. BropE as Chairman of the new 
Science Education Committee, other members 
to be announced at a later date. 

A letter from the Chairman of the Committee 
on Meetings, Harry W. WELLS, who could not 
be present, was read, requesting a change in the 
next meeting date to the fourth Thursday in 
October. This change in lieu of the regular meet- 
ing date on the third Thursday was approved by 
the Board, as it will insure a joint meeting with 
the Anthropological Society to be addressed by 
Dr. C. E. Wititams. 

Martin A. Mason reported mentioning the 
desire on the part of the Academy to collaborate 
with its Affiliated Societies at a meeting of the 
Council of the Civil Engineering Society. After 
the meeting Colonel Hough reported that he also 
had taken the matter up with the Society of 
Military Engineers and that they would be glad 
to take part in a joint symposium should such 
be arranged. Presumably this matter will be 
revived for discussion when meetings of other 
Affiliated Societies are resumed in the fall. 

Mr. WALKER expressed his regrets that new 
members do not receive something other than a 
letter when they are first elected and actually 
know very little about the Academy and _ its 
aims. During the ensuing discussion by Messrs. 
Mason, Rappleye, Betts, Dayton, and others 


it was indicated that the proposed supplemental 
list of members since the last issue of the Red 
Book (no longer available for distribution), al- 
though of use to those owning the last Red Book, 
would not be especially useful or its receipt 
gratifying to newly elected members. In addi- 
tion to a complete Academy membership list, 
it would be desirable to have the Bylaws, some- 
thing of the history, objectives, and aims of the 
Academy, and information as to the relationship 
of the Affiliated Societies, in printed form. The 
matter of the cost and labor of preparation in- 
volved was mentioned. The discussion was con- 
cluded by approval of a motion by Mr. Mason 
that the matter be referred to the Policy and 
Planning Committee to report at the first meet- 
ing in the fall their recommendations as to how 
new members should be initiated and what they 
should receive. 

L. E. Yocum, Chairman of the Committee on 
Grants-in-Aid for Research, on the basis of ap- 
proval of his committee at a meeting on April 
29, submitted a recommendation that an Amer- 
ican Association for the Advancement of Sci- 
ence grant of $200 be made to Dr. Freeman A. 
Wess, curator of the American Type Culture 
Collection, for purchase of equipment to permit 
an examination of the Lederberg Process of pre- 
serving bacterial cultures by drying on silica gel. 
Details of the proposal were submitted. This 
grant was approved by the Board. 

Martin A. Mason, Chairman, presented cop- 
ies of a report for his Committee on a Junior 
Academy of Sciences. This report and the ap- 
pended proposed Constitution and Bylaws for 
the Junior Academy were discussed by Messrs. 
Rappleye and McPherson. In view of the present 
Bylaws of the Academy, it was decided to sub- 
mit to the membership an amendment to Article 
I, adding to it as one of the listed objectives a 
section ‘9. Sponsoring the Washington Junior 


Academy of Sciences” and a second permissive 


272 


amendment, Article XI, ‘‘The Academy may 
establish and assist a Washington Junior Acad- 
emy of Sciences for the encouragement of in- 
terest in science among students.” It was de- 
cided that a ballot for these amendments should 
be sent out within two weeks together with ex- 
planatory material and, for the information of 
the membership, a copy of the committee’s re- 
port and the proposed Constitution and Bylaws 
for the Washington Junior Academy of Sciences. 

The Secretary announced the receipt of notifi- 
cation of the death of Dr. Gzorcze W. McCoy 
on April 2, 1952. 

The Secretary reported for Vice President A. 
G. McNitsu, who was unable to attend the meet- 
ing, that the Philosophical Society of Washington 
had appointed a special committee composed of 
WruiiaM R. Duryer (Chairman), I. C. GARDNER, 
and R. K. Cook to study and make recommenda- 
tions as to suitable projection equipment and a 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 8 


suitable public address system for equipping the 
new Auditorium of the Cosmos Club which is 
expected to be available for use in the fall. It 
was felt that the Academy and a number of its 
Affihated Societies that will make use of the 
Auditorium will be interested in having excellent 
facilities available, and may therefore be in- 
terested as a group in providing desirable equip- 
ment. After a discussion, the President suggested 
that the Chairman of the Meetings Committee, 
Harry W. Wextts, look into the matter with 
Mr. Duryee and express the interest of the Acad- 
emy in this project. 

J. A. Srevenson, Archivist, commented that 
he found the reading of the early bound records 
of the Academy, turned over to him at the last 
meeting of the Board, very rewarding and men- 
tioned several items of interest. 

The meeting adjourned at 9:35 p.m. 

F. M. Dreranporr, Secretary. 


Obituary 


Oscar Benwoop Hunter died suddenly at 
Washington, D. C., on December 19, 1951, of a 
heart attack. He was born in Cherrydale, Va., 
on January 31, 1888. He received his medical 
degree from the George Washington University 
School of Medicine in 1912. In 1916 he received 
an A.B. degree and the following year an A.M. 
degree, both from the George Washington Uni- 
versity. He served his alma mater as professor of 
bacteriology and pathology from 1916 to 1932 
and assistant dean of the medical school from 
1918 to 1932. He was an active member of 
numerous scientific societies where he served in 
official capacities. He was past president of the 


Southern Medical Association, Medical Society 
of the District of Columbia, the George Wash- 
ington University Medical Society, Washington 
Society of Pathologists and the American Thera- 
peutic Society. He was also a founding member 
of the College of American Pathologists and 
served this college as local governor. Dr. Hunter 
was also a member of numerous other organiza- 
tions, including many local clubs, the National 
Safety Council, Board of Trade, and the Cham- 
ber of Commerce of the United States. He served 
as major in the medical reserve corps, U. 8S. 
Army. At the time of his death he was vice- 
president of the American Medical Association. 
Water A. BLOEDORN. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


PROSTOC TE Pens Tyee: EP NE SET Water RamBerc, National Bureau of Standards 
PIR ESTOCTUL-CLECE Ri TAN ee ee ne Odo nes F, M. Serzisr, U. S. National Museum 
SOGRARUTU a aires eee F. M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
LOR SUIC RARE Se ee eee re Howarp S. Raprieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
PAPE CILLOUS UL Maerua ses estates! his Poe eas ehnce OS yale Joun A. Stevenson, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Haravp A. Resper, U. 8. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Socteties: 


iPhilosophicallsociety or Washingtone..>.44-- +... -- cease see ses « A. G. McNisuH 
Anthropological Society of Washington........................ Waupo R. WEpDEL 
Biological Society, of Washington. .5-............+.s006:5-+5 00% Hueu T. O’ NEILL 
ChemicallSocietysoh Washington... 4s5s4oese ses. e ee joes sea Joun K. Taytor 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ FrEepERIcK W. Poos 
NationaliGeorraphiciSociety.---08 sees acess esosssssosnea: ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geoloricalésociety,of Washingtonas- ose eee eos fea A. NELSON SAYRE 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia........................ FrepD O. Coz 
ColumbrTapristoricalesocietyasnca- erratic e tore GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Bovanieall society, ot Washington... 50s ese ee se eees eee dee Les M. Hutcuins 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Wiuiiam A. Dayton 
Weashinetonisociety, of Hngineers: (5+) s.ssae cesses ees cece: Cuirrorp A. Brtrts 
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. Diuu 
Helminthological Society of Washing tont dt yaae enact oer bee L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Aneus M. GrirFrin 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcs 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers........... Hersert G. Dorsry 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 


N. R. Exvuis 

Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 
Momenuany; (ODS 5 sy cee os + 4ejne eles C. F. W. Musrsesecr, A. T. McPHERSON 
PROM MATIUTAT YODA a yasae ciietstae ctectiew slike einer Sara EH. Branuam, Mitton Harris 
ROMAIN Taal Qa Mee aicse coin, ted ve passe ent cilesefe eve ale ruegsoetel Rocer G. Bars, W. W. Drexu 
loan! Of MIGHOUCS aso 4coc0sdooesdeor ee ase All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
BOUL ARO MMELCULOTSROMG VAS SOCIALE GULOTS) ene sec eee eee. [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....WALTER RAMBERG (chairman), F.M. Serzuer, H.S.RapPLeyeE, 
WiuuramM A. Dayton, F. M. DEFANDORF 
Committee on Membership. .E. H. WALKER (chairman), M. S. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cort- 
TAM, R. C. Duncan, JoHN Fazer, G. T. Faust, I. B. Hansen, FRanK Kracex, D. B. 
Joneses, E. G. REINHARD, Retce I. Saiter, Leo A. Sarnn, F. A. Smita, Hernz Specut, 
H.M. Trent, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings....H. W. Weuts (chairman), Wm. R. Campsretu, W. R. CHar- 
LINE, D. J. Davis, H. G. Dorsry, O. W. TorrESON 

Committee on Monographs (W. N. FENTON, chairman): 


FROME TNU A Tay aM GOSH wesc Sorel iehs, or evancccleasiehals ue torrets cs tens R. W. a P. W. OMAN 

PRO ara GAP vos os asses goteese eau istorarh cascthae iere Oren bois 8S. F. Buaks, F. C. Kracex 
AN) (ETE? TEE aa tnen aeeho pecan tere ei oeroIn bin ar oimee rte W.N. FENTON, ‘ALAN STONE 

Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (J. R. SWALLEN, general chairman): 

For Biological Sciences............. J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), L. M. Hurcuins, 
MareGaret Pitrman, F. W. Poos, L. P. Scuuttz 

For Engineering Sciences............. R. C. Duncan (chairman), A. C. FIELDNER, 
Wayne C. Haut, J. W. McBurney, O. 8. Reapine, H. L. Warrremore 

op IPhapngall SCOGRCB8.000000n00800000000% L. A. Woop Ghefianen, P. H. ABELSON, 


F. 8S. Dart, Grorce W. IRvina, JR., J. H. McMruuen 

For Teaching of Science......M. A. Mason (chairman), F. E. Fox, M. H. Martin 
Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research....... L. E. Yocum (chairmanis H. N. Haton, 
K. F. HeRzFELD 


Committee on Policy and Planning: 


MO anUanyAlOGSie.Uectied cele sesh termes + W. A. Dayton (chairman), N. R. Smira 

FROMIRMUATY OO scrciays is nos vias Aeiste oo elebeuseseltkecsistns Tel, 18. ore: Jr., W. W. Rusey 

ROP ATUAL YL OOOTE cae ssc ce reese ieceponct ates slvenere eieioncun rei teacher L. W. Parr, F. B. SILsBEE 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPuErson, chairman): 

ROR ATIVATV EL OOo -sctlets or stlecsees iss cterte Siac cvantins ailaotyucategesauelocs A. H. CuarK, F. L. Moxnipr 

PROPTAIU STs LOS a a cagecne necaevtavecs eye: seeeleisiounyer sashes J. M. Cautpwe tu, W. L. Scumirr 

LORMAN UAT GOD wi erases secnatesesese tee salaa cs -gapeuqsersitneelstis ATL. McPuErson, W. T. Reap 
[ROAST OOO Oo (Chooneeds Gi) Ake Als ANG SGscaganocdceeoagdosgudoongcusacG F, M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... C. L. Gazin (chairman), Loutss M. Russet, D. R. Tats 


Committee of Tellers. ..GEORGE P. WALTON (chairman), GroraE H. Coons, C. L. GARNER 


CONTENTS 
Page 
GroLtocy.—The Murphree Valley anticline, Alabama. Grorcr W. 


ST OSB Res ea eee eeel ee attics Saaz te cutlets ee dae aR eae ee 241 
PALEONTOLOGY.—Lhe arms of Haerteocrinus. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE. 245 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Designation of the type species of Pseudochama (addi- 
tional note). | Davin Nico... 25 /05.0s..).... 22-2 oe eee 248 


EntomoLocy.—The ant larvae of the myrmicine tribe Crematogastrini. 
GrorGE C. WHEELER and JEANETTE WHEELER................. 248 


ZooLtocy.—Notes on the history and distribution of the reptiles. Avus- 
PEE N EES ©LAR Kilo. fags ieee enh Sienna ele aneod awe deh sie 262 


ZooLocy.—Poritextularia, a new Recent foraminiferal genus. ALFRED 
Re eorprica and HELEN TPAPPAN (2.0. 5.5406 05-0 eee 264 


Matacotoey.—A new glycymerid from the Western Atlantic. Davip 


INT COLO Mfrs eet oa sp Ooteven ioe aedatecgsuellekedateueea teres se eee Ct 266 
IcHTHYOLOGY.—Revision of the genus Talismanza, with description of a 

new species from the Gulf of Mexico. A. HE. Parr.............. 268 
PROCEEDINGS! THE, ACADEMY. 2)... cjec0ejcec2 sede eso ee 271 
OxnITUARY,: Oscar Benwood'Hunter. -:.:-.-..-.-......-....0ee eee 272 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


fo oO 9 D ce) Para 
<n YAS 


VoL. 42 SEPTEMBER 1952 No. 9 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


Wiuuiam F. Fossae J. P. E. Morrison Joun C. EwERrs 


U.8. NATIONAL MUSEUM U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM U.S. NATIONAL MUSEUM 


ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


F. A. Cuace, JR. Miriam L. BomuHarp 
BIOLOGY BOTANY 
J. I. HorrMan R. K. Coox 
CHEMISTRY PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 
T. P. THAYER PHILIP DRUCKER 
GEOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY 


C. W. SABROSKY 
ENTOMOLOGY 


ERTHSON IG 
sens jhntie litictc. 

SEP 14 1953 

LIBRARY 


PUBLISHED MONTHLY 


BY THE 
WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
Mount Roya & GUILFORD AVEs. 
BALTIMORE, MARYLAND 


Entered as second class matter under the Act of August 24, 1912, at Baltimore, Md. 
Acceptance for mailing at a special rate of postage provided for in the Act of February 28, 1925. 
Authorized February 17, 1949 


Journal of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


This JourNAL, the official organ of the Washington Academy of Sciences, publishes: 
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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoLuUME 42 


September 1952 


No. 9 


ASTRONOMY. —Meteors and meteorites.. SypNEY CHAPMAN, Queen’s College, 
Oxford University, England. (Communicated by Richard B. Cook.) 


When a shooting star or meteor darts 
with transient light across the night sky, 
children may think it is one of the stars of 
the pattern ‘‘come loose’’; but the pattern 
remains as before. The stars of the pattern, 
which turns daily around the celestial poles, 
are immense blazing suns, millions of millions 
of miles away. The meteors are in our at- 
mosphere, less than a hundred miles above 
the earth; and almost all of them are small, 
weighing a few pounds or less. When es- 
pecially bright they are called fireballs. 
They enter our atmosphere from outside; 
a very few of them, called meteorites, pene- 
trate to the ground, and provide our only 
substantial connection with extraterrestrial 
matter. 


METEOR OBSERVATIONS 


Among the watchers of the night sky, 
there have always been some who especially 
observe meteors, and leaders (like C. P. 
Olivier, of Philadelphia) who guide them 
and link them in societies and groups. 
Other countries, notably England, Russia, 
and India, also have such watchers. 

Even a solitary meteor observer, without 
a telescope, can do effective work. He learns 
to know the pattern of the stars and notes 
where and when, on this background, a 
meteor appears and disappears, and its 
brightness—on a scale of magnitudes re- 
lated to that used for the stars. If two ob- 
servers, located many miles apart, have 
thus recorded the flight of a meteor, with 
sufficient accuracy, its speed, its heights of 
appearance and disappearance, and the 
location of its track can be calculated. But 

1 Paper presented as the 21st Joseph Henry 


Lecture of the Philosophical Society of Washing- 
ton, April f8, 1952. 


7 


al 


only a very small minority of meteors are 
thus doubly recorded. 

Meteors can also be photographed. Some- 
times a photograph of part of the sky, taken 
with a telescope that follows the moving 
pattern, will show the trail of a meteor that 
has flashed across during the exposure. A 
fixed camera may record a meteor against 
a background of circular arcs traced on the 
plate by the stars of the moving pattern. In 
these cases the photographs do not indicate 
the time or location of the meteoric transit. 
If the same meteor is similarly photographed 
from a distance of 80 or more miles, the loca- 
tion of path, and the intrinsic brightness of 
the meteor, can be determined; but without 
visual timing the speed is not given, unless 
an occulting shutter on one of the cameras 
interrupts the exposure a few times each 
second. 

Photographs generally show only very 
bright meteors, but with a telescope the eye 
can see meteors of the tenth magnitude or 
fainter. 


THE NUMBERS OF METEORS 


On an ordinary clear night a careful ob- 
server, without a telescope, will see a first- 
magnitude meteor about once in each 2-hour 
interval. He can observe all the bright ones 
in his field of view, but will miss most of 
the faint ones; only those near the center of 
his field of vision will be noticed. From any 
one place on an average about 50 shooting 
stars are visible each hour. It is estimated 
that about 2 million meteors, at least as 
bright as the first magnitude, fall daily upon 
the whole earth. Meteor watchers at least 
have the expectation of having something to 
record on every clear night. Fletcher Wat- 
son, of Harvard, has estimated that nearly 


3 


274 


a billion billion meteors fall daily upon the 
earth, down to a lower limit of brightness of 
magnitude 30—far beyond the range of de- 
tection by the world’s greatest telescope; 
the existence of a lower limit of brightness 
is inferred on the basis that smaller objects 
must have been cleared from the solar sys- 
tem by the sun’s radiation pressure. 


RANDOM -METEORS AND SHOWER METEORS 


Besides the isolated meteors that appear 
from random directions in any part of the 
sky, there are on some nights showers of 
meteors that are found to diverge from a 
particular small region of the star pattern, 
which is called the radiant of the shower. 
The divergence is an effect of perspective; 
the meteors of a shower really move along 
nearly parallel trails. Such showers are 
often called by the name of the constella- 
tion from which they radiate—for example, 
some of the principal showers, coming from 
the constellations Leo, Perseus, Orion, 
Gemini, are called the Leonids, Perseids, 
Orionids, Geminids. 

The showers come at definite times each 
year, though not always with the same 
abundance; they may last one or more 
nights in succession. The principal showers 
are these: 


Date of Maximum Name Average hourly 
number 
JANUATY Rot ee eee Quadrantids 30-40 
ANoydll Wilas « weve co on SS CK act Pe Lyrids 7-10 
PACT 211s tal O13 papery esters Perseids 40-60 
Octobers20=23 seer eer Leer Orionids 10-20 
INovem berg 6—23heree nenkrreiics Leonids 10-15 


December iS teem ee eee ree Geminids 60 


SUPERSHOWERS 


At rare intervals, however, there are 
supershowers, when meteors rain copiously 
from the sky, attracting widespread at- 
tention. In former times they were often 
superstitiously regarded as portents of 
disaster. 

There was a great supershower of Leonids 
in November 1833, when the hourly rate 
visible may have reached 35,000 at times. 
It was then that the divergence from a 
radiant was first recognized by D. Glusted 
and others. Afterward the American meteor 
astronomer H. A. Newton collected and dis- 
cussed the original records of 13 earlier 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 9 


November supershowers, one being as far 
back as A. D. 902. (The Chinese records 
of supershowers cover 24 centuries.) He 
found that they could be fitted to a cycle of 
recurrence of 3314 years and that when they 
appeared they did so in one of the last two 
or three years of each such cycle. In agree- 
ment with his prediction, Leonid super- 
showers recurred in November 1866, 1867, 
and 1868. 


METEOR SWARMS 


The annual recurrence of a meteor shower 
is ascribed to the existence of a cloud or 
swarm of meteor particles, moving along 
an orbit intersecting that of the earth. Hach 
year, as the earth traverses the intersection, 
a meteor shower results if the swarm then 
extends along that part of its orbit. A pe- 
riodic swpershower, like that of the 1833 and 
1866 Leonids, indicates that the swarm has 
a particularly dense part, and that the time 
of travel round the orbit equals the super- 
shower period. The swarms are, however, 
very sparse; even at the peak of the 1833 
Leonid supershower the meteors must have 
been about 20 km apart. In ordinary showers 
their mutual distances must be hundreds of 
kilometers. 

Adams and Leverrier, the independent 
predicters of Neptune, were stimulated by 
the 1866 Leonids to calculate their orbit. 
The long period, 3314 years, shows that the 
swarm must travel many times farther from 
the sun than the earth; and as it comes at 
least as near to the sun as the earth, its or- 
bit must be a very elongated ellipse, like 
that of the periodic comets. 


METEORS AND COMETS 


In 1867 Schiaparelli and Peters, astron- 
omers of Italy and Germany, noticed that 
the calculated Leonid orbit agreed with that 
of a comet discovered in 1866, during its 
passage near the sun. Schiaparelli noticed 
also that the orbit of the August Perseid 
meteors agrees with that of another comet, 
discovered in 1862. 

There are now at least six well-established 
cases of close agreement between orbits of 
comets and meteor swarms. One such comet, 
discovered by Biela, has a period of 6.6 
years; its orbit was first computed in 1826. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


By looking back in the records two earlier 
appearances were identified. It returned as 
expected in 1832, but not in 1839; in 1846 it 
reappeared and then divided into two parts, 
which gradually separated. They again ap- 
peared in 1852, but have not since been seen. 
However, three periods later, in 1872, when 
the earth crossed the orbit of the lost comets, 
there was a meteor supershower, repeated in 
1885 after two more periods. This suggested 
that a meteor stream may result from the 
disruption of a comet; but this meteor 
stream, which is called either the Bielid or 
Andromedid (from its radiant in Andro- 
meda), had given good showers at least 
seven times before 1872, one as early as 
1741. The calculated position of the Biela 
comets in 1872 was far from the earth. The 
disruption of Biela’s comet was not due to 
the action of any major planet—none was 
near it in the period concerned. There is no 
evidence that the breakup of a comet pro- 
duces a meteor stream—two or more comets 
seem a more likely result. 

The Leonids have been seen in October or 
November at least since A. D. 902, the 
Perseids in August for over 1,200 years, and 
the Lyrids in April for over 2,500 years; 
but the associated comets were first ob- 
served in the nineteenth century. The na- 
ture of the comet and meteor connections is 
at present mysterious. 

In the past 120 years there have been 
six outstanding supershowers, all associated 
with cometary orbits; the Leonids in No- 
vember 1833 and 1866, the Andromedids 
or Bielids in 1872 and 1885, and the October 
Draconids in 1933 and 1946. These are also 
called the Giacobinids because of their as- 
sociation with the Giacobini-Zinner comet; 
their period also is 6.6 years; the 1946 oc- 
currence was predicted; it was very intense, 
though brief. 


METEOR SPEEDS 


When the orbit of a meteor swarm is 
known, its speed at each point is calculable; 
hence the meteor speed near the earth is 
known. The true direction from which they 
come is not that of their apparent radiant, 
which is determined by their motion rela- 
tive to the earth, itself moving along its or- 
bit with a speed of about 30 km per second. 


CHAPMAN: METEORS AND METEORITES 


275 


There has been, and still is, some dispute 
as to the speeds of meteors, but any doubts 
can only refer to the random nonrecurrent 
meteors, for which no orbits are known. 
From visual observations it is difficult to 
determine the speed of a meteor accurately, 
and photographic measurements from cam- 
eras using a periodic occulting shutter are 
still few. The main question is whether 
meteors before falling into the atmosphere 
are members of the solar system, in which 
case their speeds relative to the sun, at the 
earth’s distance from the sun, can not ex- 
ceed 42.1 km per second: or whether they 
come from outside the solar system, along 
hyperbolic paths, with greater speed. Re- 
cently the radar observation of meteors has 
added much to our knowledge of meteor 
speeds and indicates that at least the great 
majority of meteors do not have hyperbolic 
speeds. 

Relative to the earth, therefore, the 
speeds can range from 72 km/sec. (for 
meteors hitting the earth head on) to 12 
km/sec. or less (for meteors overtaking the 
earth). 


THE LIGHT FROM A METEOR 


What happens when a tiny meteor par- 
ticle, let us say as big as a pin’s head, is 
swept up by the earth, or drawn down to it 
by attraction, or maybe overtakes the earth? 

It comes into our atmosphere, generally 
along an inclined path. At first it travels in 
highly rarefied air but meets ever denser air 
as it descends. Its impact with the molecules 
of the air is very violent, owing to its great 
speed. To the meteor it seems as if the air 
molecules are rushing on to it with this speed. 
They slightly penetrate the surface of the 
meteor, and their great energy of relative 
motion is communicated to the particle in 
the form of heat. The surface layer is first 
melted, and then vaporized; the evaporated 
meteor atoms spread outward, with small 
speeds relative to the meteor, but they share 
its own great speed. Hence they collide 
violently with the air molecules they meet, 
mostly not in the direct path of the meteor 
itself. These collisions break off electrons 
from the air molecules and the meteor atoms, 
and also render the meteor atoms luminous; 
the molecules of the air are less easily ex- 


276 


cited to luminosity. Thus the meteor creates 
around itself, as it moves onward, a luminous 
cloud of its own atoms; this is what we see 
as a shooting star, a bright moving point. 
The cloud is continually blown away, and 
continually renewed by fresh evaporation 
until, in the case of small meteors, their 
substance is exhausted. 


METEOR SPECTRA 


The spectroscope is able to spread out 
this meteoric light into a band and reveal 
what kind of atoms or molecules are emitting 
the light. But the passage of a meteor is 
both rapid and unexpected, and their light 
is relatively faint, so that it 1s not easy to 
observe and photograph their spectrum. 
Only in recent years have detailed reliable 
results been obtained, notably by P. M. 
Millman, of Ottawa. They show that the 
meteoric light is emitted by metallic atoms— 
especially atoms of iron, calcium, magne- 
sium, manganese, chromium, aluminum, 
nickel, and sodium. Despite much similarity 
between all his meteor spectra, Millman was 
able to distinguish two classes, in one of 
which the lines of ionized calcium are the 
most prominent feature, whereas in the other 
they are markedly absent. 

All these metallic elements, except so- 
dium, are (as faras we know) practically ab- 
sent from the air itself. Hence it is inferred 
that they come from the meteor, and this is 
confirmed by the analysis of meteorites, 
namely, the meteors that are large enough 
to traverse the whole atmosphere and reach 
the ground. All these atoms are rather easily 
excited to luminescence by collisions. The 
light is quite different from that of comets, 
which show molecular bands in their spectra, 
and are rendered luminous not by collisions 
but by the ultraviolet light of the sun. 


METEORIC IONIZATION OF THE ATMOSPHERE 


As the tiny meteor moves onward sur- 
rounded by its small intensely luminous 
cloud of evaporated atoms, it leaves behind 
a long trail of electrons and ions, produced 
by the breakup of atoms and molecules— 
mostly atmospheric—through violent col- 
lisions with the meteor atoms. The elec- 
trons and ions recombine soon almost 
completely, usually in a second or less, but 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 9 


during this time, though so brief, they diffuse 
outward, enlarging the diameter of the trail, 
and diminishing the number of electrons 
per unit volume, or, as we say, the ionization 
density. The trail will be many miles long, 
and initially less than an inch in diameter; 
it may rapidly be distorted by nonuniform 
winds, or by gusts and turbulence in the air, 
as we see happens with aeroplane trails at 
a much lower level. 


RADAR OBSERVATION OF METEORS 


The ionization trails of meteors have in 
recent years provided a new means of ob- 
serving meteors, by radar beams. Free elec- 
trons, whether in a metal or a gas, respond 
readily to the electric alternating field of 
radio waves and scatter or reflect the waves. 
The presence of an ionized trail can be de- 
tected by a radar beam just as this can de- 
tect an airplane or a ship. The trail, dur- 
ing the brief time, usually a fraction of a 
second, in which its ionization is sufficiently 
intense, reflects back to their source those 
radio waves that meet the trail at right 
angles; waves meeting the trail obliquely are 
reflected away in other directions. The trail 
behaves, in fact, like a polished object in 
the dark, revealed by the glint of a narrow 
beam of light from an electric torch, from 
any spot where the beam meets the surface 
perpendicularly. 

The time of passage of the radiowaves, 
to the trail and back to the receiver, is to 
be reckoned in microseconds; it gives the 
distance to the point of reflexion on the trail. 

Such observations open a new chapter in 
meteoric astronomy. They are not hindered 
by clouds, so that weather need no longer 
hinder the meteor observer’s night watch on 
the sky. And they are effective by day as 
well as by night, so that meteors can now 
be observed whether they fall on the night 
or the day hemisphere of the earth, although 
in the latter case their faint luminosity 1s 
hidden from us by the daylight glare of the 
blue sky. Already some important new 
meteor streams have thus been discovered, 
which would otherwise have been beyond our 
knowledge. 

To get a sharp radio beam a large aerial 
is necessary; and to study meteors in dif- 
ferent parts of the sky, the aerial must be 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


movable, like a telescope; this is a difficult 
instrumental problem, but is being success- 
fully tackled. 

Radio beams are more sensitive than the 
eye, and can detect meteors much fainter 
than the eye can see. Thus they extend the 
range as well as the accuracy of meteor ob- 
servation, to meteors that are extremely 
small. A bright (first magnitude) meteor is 
probably Jess than a millimeter in diameter 
before entering the atmosphere; the faintest 
visible to the naked eye is less than a hun- 
dredth of an inch. 

The beams detect the trail more easily 
than the meteor itself, but radio methods of 
determining the speed of the meteor have 
been developed by C. D. Elyett and J. G. 
Davies. 


METEOR HEIGHTS 


The height of appearance and disappear- 
ance of a meteor depends on its mass and 
its speed and also on the vertical distribu- 
tion of air density in the atmosphere. The 
smaller meteors disappear at greater heights 
than the larger meteors, because they are 
more rapidly evaporated away. There is 
naturally a range of heights of appearance 
and disappearance, corresponding to dif- 
ferences of mass, speed, and inclination of 
the meteors. The heights of appearance 
range from about 80 to 110 km, with a max- 
imum frequency at about 100 km. But the 
curve of distribution of the heights of dis- 
appearance does not show the simple form 
that might be expected, but shows two max- 
ima, at about 85 and 95 km, with a minimum 
in between. In 1922 this was interpreted by 
F. A. Lindemann and G. M. B. Dobson as 
indicating that the air at about 60 km height 
is hotter than that in the lower part of the 
stratosphere; the basis of the interpretation 
was a theory of meteor luminosity in the 
atmosphere. The argument has since had to 
be revised somewhat, but the conclusion has 
been confirmed in other ways, most recently 
by rocket measurements. 


METEORS AND UPPER ATMOSPHERIC 
INVESTIGATION 


The investigation of the temperature dis- 
tribution in the upper atmosphere by means 
of meteors, begun by Lindemann and Dob- 


CHAPMAN: METEORS AND METEORITES 


207 


son, has been energetically and fruitfully 
pursued in recent years by the Harvard 
Observatory and its substations, under the 
guidance of F. L. Whipple. These studies, 
like those by means of rockets, are very 
difficult, and the problems are not yet solved. 
Meteors can give other interesting in- 
formation about the upper atmosphere; 
occasionally a meteor leaves a luminous 
trail behind it, which may last for seconds, 
minutes, or even, very rarely, an hour or 
more. Almost always the trail soon becomes 
distorted, in a way that shows how far 
from static is the air at those high levels. 
The changes of shape indicate nonuniform 
winds, which may be due to differences of 
wind at the different heights through which 
the meteor descends, usually obliquely. 
In the lower atmosphere such height differ- 
ences are often made manifest by the dif- 
ferent drifts of clouds at different levels. 
C. P. Olivier has given valuable summaries 
of the cases of long-enduring meteor trails. 
The longest lasting trail known to me is 
one that appeared on February 22, 1909, 
and stretched across the English Channel 
from England to France; the data were very 
fully discussed by J. HE. Clark. The trail 
was 150 miles long and sloped downward 
from 55 to 49 miles in height. It remained 
visible for 124 hours. One end rapidly be- 
came contorted and dispersed to invisibility, 
showing strong local turbulence; the rest 
became greatly bent and curved, revealing 
winds of speed up to nearly 200 miles an hour, 
in different directions at different levels. 
Many attempts have been made to de- 
termine the winds at considerable (though 
lower) heights by ejecting puffs of smoke 
from guns or rockets; but it has proved 
difficult to eject enough smoke to remain 
visible during the time needed to determine 
the wind from the drift. Meteors sometimes 
fulfill the desired purpose for us, at higher 
levels, but at times and places beyond our 
control and prediction. Usually these long 
lasting trails are not observed reliably from 
different places, as required for the interpre- 
tation of their motion in terms of wind. 
Another observation hitherto lacking for 
these trails is their spectrum, which would 
perhaps tell us how a trail can remain lumi- 
nous for so long. At present this is a mystery. 


278 


However, meteors without long-lasting 
luminous trails can now tell us something 
about the wind at high levels, by a new 
radio technique devised by L. V. Manning 
and O. G. Villard at Stanford. They de- 
termine the small change of frequency of 
the waves reflected by the ionized meteor 
trail; this is a Doppler effect like the change 
of pitch of a railway whistle when the train 
is approaching or receding. It gives the com- 
ponent of the wind along the direction of the 
radio beam, that is, at right angles to the 
trail. 

METEORITES 

The shooting stars so far discussed are 
those of ordinary brightness, excluding the 
very bright ones called fireballs; these are 
larger bodies than the ordinary shooting 
star, which disappears while still at a great 
height in the atmosphere, because it be- 
comes completely evaporated. 

A much bigger meteor will, like a small 
one, be heated on the outside by the impact 
of the air; until it has descended to a height 
of about 25 miles, its surface layer will be 
continuously melted and vaporized, but the 
successive layers removed will form only a 
small fraction of the whole, and the interior 
may remain almost at its initial temperature. 
When it gets to a level where the length of 
the free paths of the air particles, between 
collisions, is comparable with the size of the 
meteor, the interaction with the air changes 
its character. Instead of the air particles 
directly striking the meteorite and pene- 
trating it, a cap of compressed air forms in 
front of it, and a shock wave is set up, as 
when a bullet flies through the air at a speed 
greater than that of sound. Less heat is 
given to the meteorite, whose surface may 
still be hot enough to be melted, but not to 
be vaporized. As the meteorite descends to 
denser air, the molten layer may be blown 
off in droplets, perhaps seen as a shower of 
bright sparks scattered along its track. 
The next layer will then be melted, but be- 
low a certain height, as the meteorite gets 
slowed down, the heat and luminosity may 
decline, so that the meteorite ceases to shine. 
Sometimes near the end of its visible track 
it may break up with a loud detonation, 
perhaps due to its being in rapid rotation, 
if its form is irregular. In the last, invisible, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 42, No. 9 


part of its track a fireball may be slowed 
almost to its terminal speed, depending on 
its shape, size, and weight—a speed maybe 
comparable to that of sound but far inferior 
to its initial speed. 

Nevertheless this speed may be great 
enough for the meteorite to bury itself some 
feet below the ground, leaving a tubular 
hole behind it. 

Meteorites are indeed stones from the 
sky, and provide our only opportunity, as 
yet, of directly handling and examining mat- 
ter not originally part of the earth. In- 
directly, of course, astronomers during the 
past century have been very successful in 
finding the nature and chemical composition 
of the celestial bodies by means of the spec- 
troscope. 


METEORITES IN THE PAST 


In old times, when men readily believed 
in miracles, the fall of a stone from the sky 
was easily accepted as a sign from heaven, 
and if found, it might be regarded as sacred. 
The image of the goddess Diana of the 
Ephesians, mentioned in the Acts of the 
Apostles, where it is said to have fallen from 
the sky, may have been a meteorite. In 
Mecca, the Moslem’s holy city, there is a 
sacred black stone in the Kaaba shrine, 
which from the descriptions of it may well 
be a meteorite. 

A more skeptical temper prevailed in the 
age of Voltaire and the French Revolution; 
the learned scientists of the French Acad- 
emy were not minded to believe in miracles, 
and they dismissed stories of stones falling 
from the sky, as fabulous inventions of 
ignorant people. In 1803 very circumstantial 
stories reached Paris of a great fall of thou- 
sands of stones from the sky at L’Aigle, in 
Normandy. To put these foolish tales to 
rest, the Academy charged a distinguished 
member, Biot, a physicist, to investigate the 
stories, expecting him to report that they 
were baseless. 

However, Biot listened to the local stories, 
examined the stones said to have fallen, and 
reported that they had indeed done so. 


FREQUENCY OF METEORITE FALLS 


The fall of a sizable meteorite is a rather 
rare event in any country. Estimates must 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


be uncertain but have suggested that five 
or six fall daily on the whole earth, or less 
than 2,000 a year; and that the average 
meteorite weighs about 200 pounds before 
entering the atmosphere but is reduced to 
about 50 pounds before reaching the ground, 
by evaporation, successive blowing off of the 
molten surface layer at Jower levels, and 
breakage. The estimates of the total mass 
of meteoritic matter annually fallmg upon 
the earth vary widely, and range up to more 
than a million tons, but most of this is in 
the form of meteoritic dust. The greater 
part falls into the sea, and claims have been 
made that meteoritic nickel has been iden- 
tified in deep sea sediments. Even the high- 
est estimates signify only a negligible ac- 
cretion of meteoric mass to the earth during 
its reputed lifetime of the order of a few 
billion years. 

Very few even of the sizable falls are 
likely to be observed; they descend unseen 
into the sea or, on Jand, in lonely and desolate 
places or among snowy wastes; and many 
even of those that fall in inhabited countries 
will fall by day, or from cloudy night skies, 
and escape notice. Sounds may sometimes 
be heard, or a fireball seen, or slight tremors 
may be felt, set up by the impact with the 
ground; but still the actual fall may not be 
noticed, or if observed, the stone may not 
be found. 

Meteorites can be grouped in two broad 
classes, called stony meteorites and iron 
meteorites. Among meteorites found after 
being seen to fall, there are more than ten 
of the stony to one of the iron kind; but in 
museums, the iron meteorites outnumber the 
stony ones sixfold. The discrepancy is easily 
explained: the iron meteorites are much more 
distinctive, less like terrestrial stones, than 
the stony ones, especially after weathering 
has set in. Hence they are often recognizable 
as meteorites although not seen to fall, 
whereas the great majority of stony mete- 
orites that fall unseen have remained un- 
recognized. 


METEORITIC FINDS 


One record states that up to 1927 thenum- 
ber of falls that were seen, and followed by 
finds, was 505 (the finds were in some cases 
made weeks later); and the number of finds 


CHAPMAN: METEORS AND METEORITES 


279 


not seen to fall was given as 474. These 
numbers, doubtless incomplete, total nearly 
1,000; they refer to occasions of falls and 
finds, whether one stone or many fall at the 
same time. Some falls yielded thousands of 
stones, and specimens of them are distrib- 
uted in museums throughout the world. 
An outstanding case occurred at Pultusk in 
Poland in 1868, when perhaps 100,000 stony 
meteorites fell. Other notable cases occurred 
at Holbrook in Arizona in 1912, when 14,000 
stony meteorites fell; at L’Aigle in Nor- 
mandy in 1803 (already mentioned), 2,000 
to 3,000; and at Stannern in Moravia, 1808, 
200 to 300. 

The specimens in museums include some 
recorded falls, mostly modern; the others 
are the gleanings of millennia. 

There is an immense literature on the 
finding of meteorites and supposed mete- 
orites. Both kinds, iron and stony, are easily 
distinguishable from any terrestrial stones 
when carefully examined and _ still more 
clearly so when cut across to expose their 
internal structure. Some big masses fallen 
ages ago and still on the surface, or partly 
exposed, or incidentally uncovered, have 
been recognized by geologists, explorers, and 
others. Smaller ones have been turned up 
by the plow, and being noted as unusual 
have come to be identified by experts. 

No meteorites appear to have been found 
in coal beds or rock quarries. The deepest 
found was in gold-bearing alluvium, 31 feet 
down. 


VERY BIG METEORITES 


The biggest known piece of a meteorite 
seen to fall weighed 820 pounds, and other 
pieces were found, from 80 pounds down- 
ward; this fell m Arkansas on February 
17, 1930. At a height of 10 miles it was 
seen to break into three pieces; all were lost 
to view at 5 miles height. The big piece was 
found 3 weeks Jater in clay soil; it had made 
a hole more than 8 feet deep and had scat- 
tered clay for 50 yards around. Later a 
smaller piece was found 2 miles away. All 
were stony, not iron. 

The pieces from some exploded meteorites 
may be scattered over 100 or more square 
miles. 

The previous biggest meteorite seen to 


= 


280 


fall was a stone of 650 pounds in Czechoslo- 
vakia, in 1866. 

The biggest known meteorites were not 
seen to fall and may have fallen long ago. 
The weights range from over 35 tons down- 
ward; the biggest is the South African Hoba 
meteorite, then comes one from Greenland, 
then a 15- or 20-ton stone at Sinaloa in 
west Mexico. When Sir John Ross, about 
1820, first brought news of the Eskimos of 
the Cape York region, Greenland, he re- 
corded that they were using meteoritic iron 
for knife blades, harpoon heads, and other 
implements. Peary visited the region (Mel- 
ville Bay) in 1894 and found two large and 
one smaller iron meteorites, all of which he 
brought, in two voyages, to New York. 
The biggest, now in the Hayden Planetar- 
jum, New York, is said to measure 12 by 8 
by 6 feet and to look like polished steel. 
The main constituents are iron, 92 percent, 
and nickel, nearly 8 percent. 


THE COMPOSITION OF METEORITES 


No terrestrial rocks have such a composi- 
tion. The stony meteorites also, many of 
which contain up to 20 or 25 percent of iron 
(partly metallic, partly oxidized), differ in 
several respects from terrestrial stones; 
they may contain also about 20 percent of 
magnesium oxide; the average silicate con- 
tent is less than 40 percent, as compared 
with about 60 percent in terrestrial igneous 
rocks. 

Besides these substances, meteorites, both 
iron and stony, contain several other ele- 
ments, pure or oxidized, numbering more 
than 40 in all. They include for example 
aluminum, calcium, chromium, manganese, 
and sodium, already mentioned as contribut- 
ing to the spectrum of meteors; others 
such as carbon and hydrogen, though 
present in meteorites, have not been re- 
corded in meteor spectra. The carbon is 
sometimes crystalline, like small diamonds, 
sometimes amorphous like graphite. Some 
stony meteorites are very hard and will 
cut glass. 

Naturally there are transitional types of 
meteorites between the stony and the iron, 
and there is evidence for some exceptional 
types, one of them being glassy; two cases 
in which copper, metallic or in combination, 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 9 


was conspicuously present, have lately been 
discussed by H. H. Nininger and F. A. 
Paneth. 


THE STRUCTURE OF METEORITES 


The internal structure of meteorites is 
very remarkable. The cut surface of an 
iron meteorite, when etched with acid, 
shows crystalline markings (known as Wid- 
manstatten figures). Mingled in the iron 
there are often many crystalline particles 
of the mineral named olivine, which also 
occurs on the earth. Stony meteorites con- 
tain much olivine, mingled with bits of iron, 
sometimes apparently introduced therein 
after the olivine has been shattered. All 
known meteorites appear to be igneous; 
that is, heat has played a large part in their 
evolution, as contrasted with the sedimen- 
tary rocks we know, slowly built up by 
deposition of small particles, water (or air) 
borne. How meteorites have been formed is 
still a mystery, and a subject for discussion 
and controversy. They appear to have 
undergone repeated disruption and con- 
glomeration, and heating and cooling. Many 
of them contain remarkable rounded gran- 
ules called chondrules. 


THE RADIOACTIVITY OF METEORITES 


The radioactivity and helium content of 
meteorites has been much studied, in order 
to infer their age, or the ages of different 
parts of their conglomerate structure. Iron 
meteorites, and also some stony meteorites, 
are able to retain most of the helium result- 
ing from the decomposition of their uranium 
and thorium. F. A. Paneth, examining sepa- 
rately the metallic and silicate parts of a 
meteorite that fell at Beddgelert in Wales 
on September 21, 1949, inferred that the 
silicate seems to have solidified more than 
1,000 million years ago and the metallic 
part about 200 million years ago (these are 
preliminary estimates). The ages found for 
meteorites range very widely, from billions 
of years down to a million years. Clearly 
these stones from the sky enshrine much 
cosmic history which we may hope can 
gradually be unfolded. 


METEORIC SOUNDS AND APPEARANCES 


If a meteor no bigger than a pin’s head 
can produce a bright shooting star, meteor- 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


ites large enough to reach the ground, in 
one or more sizable pieces, may be expected 
to be much more conspicuous in their falls. 
Even the Beddgelert meteorite just men- 
tioned, that weighed a little under 2 pounds, 
though probably only part of a larger body, 
was reported as making a noise like an ex- 
press train or fast airplane. Many meteorites 
break up with great explosive sounds. In- 
tense brightness, of different colours (in 
different cases), is a common feature, though 
in the few cases of visible daylight meteors 
the light is relatively dimmed; in such cases 
a smoky trail may be left after the passage 
of the meteorite. 


LEGAL AND FINANCIAL ASPECTS 

The Beddgelert meteorite was found on 
the top floor of a hotel, having cleanly 
penetrated the roof. To whom does a mete- 
orite belong that falls thus in a building or 
on private land? The law differs from coun- 
try to country, and in England the question 
has never been determined; the Beddgelert 
meteorite was only the ninth meteorite seen 
to fall, and then found, in the history of 
England and Wales. In this and earlier 
cases the stone was disposed of by agree- 
ment; the Beddgelert hotel keeper sold the 
stone to the British Museum and the Uni- 
versity of Durham jointly; his landlords, a 
public company, laid no claim to it. 

Meteorites may raise legal and financial 
problems in other ways; for example, was 
the insurance company lable to pay for 
the damage caused to the roof? There is no 
space here to enlarge on these matters, 
except to say that from scientists and 
museums there is a considerable demand 
for meteorites, which may command up to 
500 or even 1,000 dollars per pound. 

Damage to property and persons by me- 
teorites is rare. The nineteenth-century 
French astronomer Flammarion said in one 
of his books (1872) that meteorites had 
caused 14 fatalities but did not cite his 
authorities. In 1906 there were newspaper 
reports of a Mexican sheep herder in Texas 
being killed by a meteorite, but I do not 
know whether the report was true. 


METEOR CRATERS 


Now I come to the last phase of this 
cursory survey of a wide-ranging subject— 


CHAPMAN: METEORS AND METEORITES 


281 


the hole made by a great meteorite when it 
meets the ground. 

The deepest tubular hole found was about 
8 feet long; usually it is less. One of the 
many fragments of a meteorite that fell in 
Rhodesia on October 5, 1950, broke a log 
in two and buried itself 4 feet down. 

There is, however, a quite different kind 
of hole made by meteorites of the greatest 
mass and momentum, which remain un- 
broken during their flight, or, if broken, not 
too dispersed. Holes of this second kind are 
called craters; they might well form the 
subject of a whole lecture, and more. 

Fourteen crater regions are now known, 
counting’ only craters of 100 feet diameter 
or more; in some regions the craters are 
not single but in groups of 20, 50, or even 
more. 

The most famous crater is that of Arizona, 
near Flagstaff. Alaska has one on Amak 
Island, discovered in 1942. The United 
States has yet a third crater, in Texas. 
Australia has four known craters or groups 
of craters, Canada one, Argentine one, 
Africa one, Europe one, Arabia one, and 
Siberia two. Most of the craters are pre- 
historic, but those of Siberia were formed 
in living memory in 1908 and 1947. 

The conversion of the immense kinetic 
energy of the meteorites in these cases must 
involve enormous generation of heat and 
explosive force, but seems not to cause deep 
penetration. 

I will close with a brief account of the 
greater of the Siberian falls, of 1908. It 
occurred in a desolate region consisting of 
wooded shallow swamps overlying perma- 
frost. An observer at a distance saw in the 
early morning hours of June 30 a fiery body 
rising from the southern horizon, like a small 
sun, which hurried northward. Less than a 
minute later the ground around him sud- 
denly rose and fell again—a harmless earth- 
quake shock. Then a pillar of fire mounted 
up in the sky, and at once three or four dis- 
tinct blows of incomparable force and quality 
were heard, followed by a roar and rumbling. 
This was audible over an area more than 
600 miles in radius. River waters rose in 
big waves, animals were blown off their 
feet, many buildings were damaged; all 
this was far away from the fall. An atmos- 


282 


pheric wave was set up that traveled twice 
round the globe. 

At dusk the same day enormous silver 
clouds were seen, at more than 50 miles 
height; they scattered the light of the sun 
after sunset, and almost turned night into 
day over much of Siberia. Some days later 
there were several remarkably light nights 
over England, whither some of the high 
dust had drifted. Their cause, and that of 
the barometric disturbances, was not dis- 
covered till many years had elapsed. 

Near the impact two villages disappeared, 
and all the trees were overturned within a 
radius of many miles. They were so seen 
when Russian scientists first visited the 
place 18 years later. But in the center of the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 9 


region there was no great crater like that of 
Arizona, which is nearly a mile across. There 
were also many large water-filled holes, the 
biggest of them 150 feet across. 


GENERAL REFERENCES 


Outvier, C. P. Meteors. Baltimore, 1925. 
Watson, F. C. Between the planets. London, 1947. 
Ninincer, H. H. Meteorites. 1951. 

Also recent papers in Monthly Notices of Royal 
Astronomical Society, Philosophical Maga- 
zine, Geochimica et Cosmochemica Acta, Pro- 
ceedings of the Institution of Radio Engi- 
neers, Journal of Geophysical Research, and 
Journal of Atmospheric and Terrestrial Phys- 
ics.; also, for meteorites, in Geological Maga- 
zine, American Mineralogist, and other geo- 
logical periodicals. 


BOTANY.—A n2w Guzmania from Colombia. Lyman B. Smiry, Department of 


Botany, U.S. National Museum. 


The following species of bromeliad is one 
of a large number of novelties discovered 
in Colombia by Mulford B. Foster. Its sepa- 
rate treatment here is made necessary by 
its presence in another collection which is 
due to be reported sooner than the remain- 
ing Foster novelties. 


Guzmania geniculata L. B. Smith, sp. nov. 
Fig. 1 


Verisimiliter acaulis; laminis foliorum ligulatis, 
subglabris; scapo erecto; scapi bracteis imbrica- 
tis; inflorescentia bipinnata, basi laxa; axi geni- 
culato; bracteis primariis spicas inferiores sub- 


aequantibus; bracteis florigeris quam sepalis paulo 
brevioribus, laevibus; sepalis breviter connatis. 
Probably stemless, the flowering plant 8 dm 
high; leaves 7 dm long, the sheaths about 1 dm 
long, dark castaneous at the base, purple-striped 
above, appressed-lepidote, the blades ligulate, 
acute, 4 cm wide or more, very obscurely lepidote, 
green; scape erect, stout; scape-bracts strict, 
imbricate, the lower foliaceous, the upper ovate, 
acute; inflorescence cylindric, bipinnate, lax be- 
low, dense near the apex; axis geniculate, stout, 
dark castaneous in age; primary bracts ovate, 
acute, the lower ones about equaling the spikes, 
the upper much shorter; spikes divergent, dense, 
subglobose, 3 cm long, the stipe stout, flattened, 


Fia. 1.—Guzmania geniculata: a, Section of the inflorescence X 1; b, sepals x 1. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


5-10 mm long; floral bracts broadly ovate, 
rounded with a thick apical cusp, slightly shorter 
than the sepals, coriaceous, even, glabrous, cas- 
taneous in age; flowers subsessile; sepals elliptic, 
13 mm long, connate for 3 mm, nerved; petals 
and stamens unknown. 

Type in the Gray Herbarium, collected on 


ROTH: GENUS TEGENARIA IN NORTH AMERICA 283 


trees, above Sibundoy, Territory of Putumayo, 
Colombia, altitude 2,280 meters, October 28, 
1946, by M. B. and R. Foster (no. 1972). 

Its stout geniculate floral axis distinguishes 
Guzmania geniculata from the group of species 
around G. sphaeroidea (André) André ex Mez 
where it shows its closest affinity. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—A review of the genus Tegenaria in North America (Arachnida: 
Agelenidae).. Vincent D. Roru, Oregon State College. (Communicated by 


C. W. Sabrosky.) 


This review is not intended to be a com- 
plete taxonomic discussion of the Nearctic 
Tegenaria but aims to clarify the position of 
the many names used in this genus. The area 
under consideration is that part of North 
America north of and including Mexico. This 
study was stimulated by Roewer’s Katalog 
der Araneae, in which he lists 16 species of 
Tegenaria from the Nearctic region. Since 
its publication, one more species has been 
added. Of the total, five are recognized as 
valid, three are questionable species, one 
probably does not belong to the Agelenidae, 
four are placed in synonymy, and four are 
true calymmarids. 

Keys and notes are furnished for the 
separation of the recognized species, and 
the remaining species are discussed briefly. 
The female epigynum for two of the species 
is illustrated for the first time. 

The species of North American Tegenaria 
are identified by the following character- 
istics: size moderate to long, varying from 
6 to 17 mm in length; color usually tan to 


1 Published with the approval of the Oregon 
State Monographs Publication Committee. Re- 
search Paper 201, School of Science, Department 
of Entomology. Supported in part by a grant from 
the Oregon Academy of Science. 

Unless otherwise indicated all specimens have 
been collected by and are in the collection of the 
author. Abbreviations used with distributional 
records are: USNM, United States National Mu- 
seum; AM, American Museum of Natural History; 
CAS, California Academy of Sciences; and HEF, 
the collection of Mrs. D. L. (Harriet Exline) 
Frizzell, of Rolla, Mo. 

The author expresses his thanks to Dr. W. J. 
Gertsch, of the American Museum of Natural 
History, Dr. E. A. Chapin and Dr. W. D. Field, 
of the U. S. National Museum, and Mrs. Frizzell, 
all of whom generously supplied material and 
information. In addition many thanks are ex- 
tended to Miss KE. B. Bryant, of the Museum of 
Comparative Zoology, and E. Browning, of the 
British Museum (Natural History), for  infor- 
mation concerning certain types. 


brown with darker markings; integument of 
carapace, legs, and abdomen densely to 
sparsely covered with white to brown 
plumose hair; carapace similar in shape 
to other Ageleneae, pars cephalica narrowed 
to about one-half the width of the pars 
thoracica; eyes similar in size; chelicerae 
slightly to strongly geniculate, promargin 
bears 3 to 6 teeth, the retromargin 3 to 6 
teeth and none to 2 or 3 denticles; legs 
moderately long with scattered spines; spin- 
nerets subapical in position; anterior and 
posterior spinnerets widely separated, the 
latter situated laterally and slightly dor- 
sally to the median spinnerets; distal seg- 
ment of the anterior spinnerets small, 
hemispherically shaped; median spinnerets 
almost as long as anterior spinnerets; basal 
segment of posterior spinnerets as long as 
anterior spinnerets, distal segment as long 
as the basal segment, slender and tapering 
distally. The followimg key will separate 
the Tegenaria from other North American 

Agelenidae: 

1. Plumose hair present on carapace, abdomen, 
and legs (visible with 30-100 X magnifica- 
tion). (The hairs are often scarce on speci- 
mens that have been shaken about in alcohol 
for many vyears.)......(AGELENEAER)....2 

Plumose hair absent on carapace and abdomen; 
hair either setose or barbed (Cybaeota) 
other AGELENIDAE 

2. Anterior eye row almost straight; anterior 
median eyes located between the anterior 
lateral eyes. Tegenaria 

Anterior eye row strongly procurved; anterior 
median eyes located, more or less, between 
the posterior lateral eyes. .other AGELENEAR 


The following key to the species of 
North American Tegenaria is adaptable 


to both immature and adult spiders: 


1. Promargin of chelicera with 3 teeth 2 


Promargin of chelicera with 4 to 6 teeth, oe- 


casionally 3 on one side but never on both 
SIG ES ei jeer ace rece ee eta an ei renner 4 
. Retromargin with 3 or 4 teeth and no ) denticles 
(cosmopolitan). _domestica (Clerck) 
Retromargin with 4 to 6 teeth and 2 or 3 den- 
FA (Se Fear Cee ae lard ac Bincetnnd bua retecaras Gs 3 
3. Sternum with 3 or occasionally 2 pairs of dis- 
tinct, round, light spots laterally; conductor 
of male palpus ending with a single spur; 
epigynum bearing 2 broad lateral spurs 
(Pacific Northwest). 
gigantea Chamberlin and Ivie <fl. 
Sternum usually lacking paired light round 
spots, if present, indistinct; conductor of 
male palpus terminated by 2 long pointed 
teeth; epigynum lacking lateral spurs (Pa- 
cific Northwest, Europe). 
agrestis (Walckenaer) <fe 
4. Sternum with two pair of light round spots 
laterally and a median mark which is tri- 
dentate posteriorly (southern U. 8. from 
California to Alabama).......antrias Crosby 
Sternum lacking paired, light round spots 
(southern Mexico). fleruosa O. P. Cambridge 


RECOGNIZED NORTH AMERICAN SPECIES OF 
TEGENARIA 
Tegenaria agrestis (Walckenaer) 
Aranea agrestis Walckenaer, 1802: 216 (# 2). 
Tegenaria magnacava Exline, 1936: 23, fig. 5 (@ ). 
Tegenaria magnacava Exline, Chamberlin and Ivie, 
1937: 213 (synonymy suggested at this time). 
Tegenaria agrestis Walckenaer, Exline 1951: 308- 
310, figs. 1-5 (79). 
For complete synonymy and references consult 
Roewer, 1944: 24. 


Color: Sternum yellowish orange, with two 
dusky markings extending from the lateral edges 
of the labium, posteriorly to opposite the third 
coxae where the lines fade out. On immature 
specimens the dusky markings are darker, out- 
lining three pairs of light, round spots laterally 
and a median light line. Legs lack dusky annula- 
tions. 

Chelicera: Promargin armed with 3 teeth; 
retromargin bearing 4 or 5 teeth and 2 or 3 
denticles. 

Size: Males (2) 9.5 and 10.8 mm; female (1) 
12.7 mm. 

Distribution: Europe. Seattle, Wash. OREGON: 
Corvallis, Aug. 29, 1947 (#2), May 18, 1949 
(imm.), April 16, 1951 (amm.). 

Type locality: The female holotype of T. 
magnacava Exline from Seattle, Wash., has been 
placed in the Museum of Comparative Zoology 
at Harvard University. The type locality of T. 
agrestis Walckenaer was probably France. The 
original description was not available to author. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, NO. 9 


Tegenaria antrias Crosby 
Tegenaria antrias Crosby, 1926: 2, fig. 3 (2). 
Tegenaria simplex Bryant, 1936: 90, fig. 9 (2) (n. 
syn.). 
een castro Chamberlin and Ivie, 1942: 21, 
figs. 27-29 (7 @) (n. syn.). 

The author has had on hand males and females 
from the type localities of T. antrias Crosby and 
T. simplex Bryant, and a female from the type 
locality of T. castro Chamberlin and Ivie. There 
are no significant differences in structure or color, 
only the minor variations one finds in long series. 
Miss Bryant graciously compared the type of 
T. simplex Bryant with specimens from the three 
type localities and declared them identical. 

Color: Sternum dusky with a median lght 
band, trifureate on the posterior half. Anterior 
portion flanked by two light spots on either side. 
Legs with dusky annulations, darkest on legs IV, 
becoming lighter on the anterior legs, indistinct 
on legs I. 

Chelicera: Promargin armed with 4 teeth, oc- 
casionally 3 or 5 on one side. Retromargin with 
3 to 5 teeth, the mesal two teeth often fused at 
base. 

Size: Males (7) range in size from 5.5 to 10.1 
mm, averaging 7.5 mm; females (15) 5.3 to 10 
mm, averaging 7.2 mm. 

Distr bation Southern United States from 
Alabama to California and north to Sacramento, 
Calif. It is also probably present in northern 
Mexico. New Mexico: Carlsbad Caves, 1941, 
no other data (#2), USNM; Cattrornia: 
Sacramento, May 27, 1918, H. Van Duzee (2 9), 
CAS; San Francisco, R. F. Sternitsky (3 9), AM; 
Castro Valley, Alameda County, Sept. 16, 1938, 
W. M. Pearce (82), AM; Nov. 11, 1938, W. M. 
Pearce (?), Feb. 26, 1939, W. M. Pearce (imm.), 
AM, Texas: 3-4 miles west of Dallas, 1935-37, 
Ottys Sanders (2), AM; Austin, Nov. 25, 1945, 
D. L. and H. E. Frizzell (24, 79), HEF, April 
27, 1946, D. L. and H. E. Frizzell (39), HEF; 
ALABAMA: Mobile, 1941, Archer (7 @), AM. In 
addition one specimen (¢) labeled ‘‘Altoona, 
Pennsylvania” is in the collection at the United 
States National Museum. This is undoubtedly 
mislabeled. 

Type locality: Female type of Tegenaria 
antrias Crosby from Carlsbad Caves, N. Mex. 
This type is supposedly deposited in the United 
States National Museum, but the author was 
unable to locate it during a visit in the summer 
of 1950. Female holotype of T. simplex Bryant 
from Dallas, Tex., is deposited in the Museum of 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


Comparative Zoology at Harvard University. 
The female holotype of 7’. castro Chamberlin and 
Tyie from Castro Valley, Alameda County, Callif., 
male allotype irom Lindsay, Okla., both in the 
University of Utah collection. 


Tegenaria domestica (Clerck) 
Araneus domesticus Clerck, 1757: 76, fig. 9 (@). 
Tegenaria detestabilis O. P. Cambridge, 1877: 275 

(Q) (nm. syn.). 

T. derhami Scopoli, Exline, 1938: 24-25, figs. 25-26 
@))- 
7 apts Scopoli, Kaston, 1948: 279-280, figs. 

895-899, 2053-2055 (72). 

For complete synonymy and references consult 

Roewer, 1944: 31. 

T. detestabilis O. P. Cambridge was described 
from one female which, “had been damaged by 
an attempt at preservation in turpentine, whereby 
the eyes were concealed .. . For the same reason 
the exact form of the genital aperture was 
searcely plain.” At the request of the author, 
E. Browning, of the British Museum, graciously 
cleaned the type and forwarded an exceptionally 
clear illustration of the external epigynum which 
compares favorably with that of 7. «domestica 
(Clerck). 

Color: Sternum varies from a yellowish brown 
with no markings to a dark brown with a pale 


ROTH: GENUS TEGENARIA IN NORTH AMERICA 


285 


median line flanked with two or three pale spots. 
Legs variable, usually with dusky annulations, 
occasionally without. 

Chelicera: Promargin armed with 3. teeth, 
retromargin usually armed with 4 teeth, occa- 
sionally 3. 

Size: Males (9) range in size from 6.1 to 8.5 
mm, averaging 6.84 mm; females (11) 6.3 to 
8.9 mm, averaging 7.53 mm. E 

Distribution: Cosmopolitan. In the area con- 
sidered in this paper, 7’. domestica (Clerck) has 
been collected from northern Canada (lat. 79° 
N., long. 74° W. on the east coast of Ellesmere 
Island, the type locality of T. detestabilis O. P. 
Cambridge) to southern Mexico (Uruapan, Mi- 
choacan, September 17, 1943, M. Cardenas (<7), 
AM) and from the Pacific to the Atlantic coasts. 


Tegenaria flexuosa F. O. Pickard-Cambridge 
Figs. 1, 2 
Tegenaria flecuosa F. O. Pickard-Cambridge, 1897— 
1905: 334, figs. 34-34a. (@). 


T. flecuosa F. O. Pickard-Cambridge was de- 
scribed from a single male and two immature 
females from Omilteme in Guerrero, Mexico. 
Several mature females from southern Mexico 
were studied for the present review. 


Fras. 1, 2.—Tegenaria flecuosa F. O. Pickard-Cambridge: 1, Female epigynum, ventral view; 2, 
female epigynum (cleared) dorsal view. (S, spermatheea; F, fertilization duct; O, opening of the epigy- 
num.) ; : 3 

Figs. 3-5.—Tegenaria gigantea Chamberlin and Ivie: 3, Female epigynum, ventral view; 4, lateral 
view of spermatheca; 5, female epigynum (cleared), dorsal view. (S, spermatheea; F, fertilization duct.) 


286 


Color: Sternum dark brown with a light-brown 
rectangular mark extending from the base of the 
labium to the middle of the sternum where it 
narrows to form a slender, light mark to the 
posterior edge. Median mark absent in the lighter 
colored specimens. Legs with dusky annulations 
which become lighter distally. They are darkest 
on the first pair of legs, becoming successively 
lighter on the posterior pairs. 

Chelicera: Promargin of chelicera armed with 
4 teeth, retromargin armed with 5 or 6 teeth 
and 2 or 3 denticles. 

Epigynum: The external epigynum is quite 
simple and lacks heavy sclerotization as is usually 
present in Tegenaria. The most evident structure 
is a transverse subrectangular median sclerite, in 
front of which is a whitish, membranous area. 
Barely visible through the integument are parts 
of the spermathecae lying at a 45° angle from the 
lateral anterior edges of the median sclerite. 

The internal epigynum consists of two separate 
halves. One side is herewith described. The 
transparent connecting canal arises along the 
lateral edge of the median sclerite and extends 
dorsally to the spermatheca. The latter consists 
of a heavily sclerotized tube, strongly twisted, 
and folded back upon itself at two points as il- 
lustrated in figure 2. A slender fertilization duct 
arises posteriorly along the mesal edge of the 
spermatheca and curves dorsally. 

Size: Male (type) 7 mm; females (3) range in 
size from 7 to 9.8 mm. 

Distribution: All recorded specimens and 
specimens seen by the author have been collected 
within a 180-mile radius from Mexico City, 
Mexico. Moretos, Cuernavaca, Sept. 1941, H. 
Wagener (2), AM; San Luts Porosi, Tamazun- 
chale, July 6-7, 1941, L. I. Davis (¢), AM; 
Mexico, Tenaningo, Sept. 27—Oct. 7, 1946, H. 
Wagner (@); GurERRERO, Parque Humboldt 
near Taxco, 2,500 m., Dec. 26, 1943, C. Bolivar, 
C. Tellez (imm.), AM; Feprrau Disrricr, De- 
sierto de los Leones, Mar. 12, 1944, M. Cardenas 
(imm.) AM. 

Type locality: A male type and two immature 
females were collected at Omilteme, Guerrero, in 
Mexico and are deposited in the collection of 
F. D. Godman and O. Salvin at the British 
Museum. 


Tegenaria gigantea Chamberlin and Ivie 
Figs. 3-5 


Tegenaria gigantea Chamberlin and Ivie, 1935: 31, 
fig. 106 (co). 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 9 


T. gigantea Chamberlin and Ivie, Exline, 1936: 21, 
fig. 3 (ot). 

T. gigantea Chamberlin and Ivie, Exline, 1938: 25, 
figs. 30-31 (@). 


Color: Sternum dark brown with a pale 
median stripe arising at base of labium, expand- 
ing slightly and then narrowing posteriorly. 
Three pale spots lie laterally to the median line. 
Occasionally the posterior spot nearly connects 
with the median line forming a tridentate mark. 
Legs lack annulations. Male femur in this species 
often a very dark brown, contrasting with the 
yellowish brown of the other legs. 

Chelicera: Promargin armed with 3 teeth; 
retromargin teeth variable, usually 5 or 6 teeth, 
occasionally 4 and 2 or 3 denticles. 

Epigynum: The female of 7’. gigantea Chamber- 
lin and Ivie was never described or illustrated, 
although female paratypes were designated. The 
following description of the epigvnum was taken 
from females collected at the type locality. 

The external epigynum consists of an irregular, 
convex median sclerite widened posteriorly. At 
each of the lateral edges is a depression and the 
opening of the spermathecae. Two broad, flat 
spurs extend over the lateral edges of the median 
sclerite toward the median line. The dull points 
of the spurs end at the three-quarter mark from 
the anterior end of the median sclerite. 

Internally the strongly sclerotized epigynum is 
quite simple and slightly asymmetrical. One half 
is herewith described. The spermatheca consists 
of an irregular tube lying longitudinally and curv- 
ing ventrally at the external opening where it is 
slightly constricted. The distal portion between 
the opening and the main portion of the sperma- 
theca is bulbous and bears a short and blunt 
lateral projection as illustrated in Fig. 4. 

Size: Males (12) range in size from 9.1 to 15 
mm, averaging 12.02 mm; females (10) 11.8 to 
17 mm, averaging 13.93 mm. 

Distribution: Found only on the southern half 
of Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Many 
males and females from “‘Vancouver Island” col- 
lected by R. Guppy from May to October are in 
the American Museum of Natural History in 
New York City. 

The male holotype was collected on “Van- 
couver Island,” British Columbia, female allo- 
type at Sidney, a small town 14 miles north of 
Victoria, British Columbia. Both types are de- 
posited in the University of Utah. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


STATUS OF OTHER “‘TEGENARIA”’ LISTED IN 
ROEWER’S “KATALOG DER ARANEAB”’ 
Tegenaria arboricole Walckenaer 

Abbot, 1792: 12, figs. 109, 110. 

Tegenaria arboricole Walckenaer, 1841: 6 (0%). 
Fig. 110 of Abbot’s. 

T. nemorensis Walckenaer, 1841: 10-11 (in part, 
variety 2) (Q). Fig. 109 of Abbot’s. 

T. arboricole Walckenaer, Chamberlin and Ivie, 
1944: 128-129. 


Chamberlin and Ivie (1944: 128-129) state, 
“Tt (Abbot’s figure) is undoubtedly an Agelenid, 
but we are not certain of the genus so leave it in 
Tegenaria for the present.” 

Type locality: Georgia. Abbot’s figure 110 was 
used as the basis for the description of 7. arbori- 
cole Walckenaer. There apparently was no speci- 
men on hand at the time the description was 
drawn up. 


Tegenaria flavens Hentz 
Tegenaria? flavens Hentz, 1847: 464, fig. 22 (9). 


After studying the illustration of 7. jflavens 
Hentz Dr. W. J. Gertsch stated, through cor- 
respondence, ‘‘Tegenaria flavens does not belong 
to the genus and probably not even to the fam- 
ily.” The author is inclined to agree with him. 

Type locality: Alabama. The type has appar- 
ently been lost. 


Tegenaria nemorensis Walckenaer 


See 7. arboricole Walckenaer and Coras medi- 
cinalis (Hentz). 

Type locality: “Georgia.”’ Abbot’s figures 107 
to 109 were used as the basis for the description 
of T. nemorensis Walckenaer. There were appar- 
ently no specimens on hand at the time of the 
description. 


Tegenaria obscura Banks 
Tegenaria obscura Banks, 1898: 230-231, fig. 26 (9 ). 


Tegenaria obscura Banks was described from a 
single female from ‘“‘San Miguel de Horcasitas.” 
This is probably the river which is now named 
Rio de San Miguel, whose headwaters are about 
28 miles southeast of Nogales, Ariz., in Mexico. 
The type was deposited in the California Acad- 
emy of Sciences and was apparently lost during 
the San Francisco fire and earthquake of 1906. 
This species is close to and probably identical 
with 7’. antrias Crosby which has been collected 
in the southwestern part of the United States. 


ROTH: GENUS TEGENARIA IN 


“I 


NORTH AMERICA 28 


Tegenaria praegrandis Fox 
Tegenaria praegrandis Fox, 1937: 176-177, fig.3 (9 ). 


Tegenaria praegrandis Fox was described from 
a single female from ‘‘Washington D. C. Dept. 
Grounds, Hothouse, outside” (Marx’s catalog). 
A species as large as this (13.96 mm) and with 
the conspicuous habits of the genus would surely 
be collected again in 56 years. (No date was 
given, but Marx died in 1895.) In view of this 
and the fact that Marx’s locality labels have 
often been found to be inaccurate, the author is 
including this species under the “unrecognized 
Tegenaria.”” The female is close to T. gigantea 
Chamberlin and Ivie but the genitalia are defi- 
nitely different. It will probably prove to be an 
exotic species. 

The type (no. 1255) is deposited in the United 
States National Museum at Washington D. C. 


Calymmaria cavicola (Banks) 


Tegenaria cavicola Banks, 1896: 202-203 (imm.). 

Calymmaria cavicola Banks, Chamberlin and Ivie, 
1937: 213. 

Tegenaria cavicola Banks, Roewer, 1944: 33. 

Calymmaria cavicola Banks, Muma, 1945: 95. 


Calymmaria modestella (Roewer) 


Tegenaria modesta Banks, 1898: 230, fig. 21 (9). 
(Preoccupied by Keyserling 1877.) 

Calymmaria modesta Banks, Chamberlin and Ivie, 
1937: 213. 

Tegenaria modestella Roewer, 1944: 33 (new name). 


Calymmaria persica (Hentz) 


Tegenaria persica Hentz, 1847: 468, fig. 23 (92). 
T. persica Hentz, Roewer, 1944: 33. 


The type of 7. persica Hentz has apparently 
been lost but the illustration given by Hentz 
indicated the probable genus. Dr. W. J. Gertsch 
states through correspondence, ““Tegenaria per- 
sica Hentz is very clearly a Calymmaria and a 
species occurs in Alabama (the type locality of 
T. persica Hentz) which I have not been able 
to differentiate from (Calymmaria)  cavicola 
Banks.” 

Calymmaria quadrata (xline) 
Tegenaria quadrata Exline, 1936: 22, fig. 4 (@). 
Calymmaria quadrata Exline, Chamberlin and Ivie, 

1937: 213. 

Tegenaria quadrata Exline, Roewer, 1944: 33. 
Coras medicinalis (Hentz) 
Abbot, 1792: 12, figs. 107-108 (o"@ ). 
Tegenaria medicinalis Hentz, 1821: 53, figs. la, 1b. 
Tegenaria nemorensis Walckenaer, 1841: 10-11 (in 
part, varieties 1 and 3) (o7@). Figs. 107-108 of 
Abbot’s. 


288 


Coras medicinalis Hentz, Chamberlin and Ivie 
1944: 129. 

Coras medicinalis Hentz, Roewer, 1944: 20. 

Tegenaria nemorensis Walckenaer, Roewer, 1944: 
33. 

Coras medicinalis Hentz, Muma, 1946: 4-5, figs. 
1-3, 21-24 (7 @). 

Coras medicinalis Hentz, Kaston. 1948: 281-282, 
figs. 900-902, 1914-1915 (79). 

See Roewer, 1944: 20 for additional synonymy. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Axspor, John T. Drawings of the insects of Georgia, 
in America 14: 116 plates. 1792. (MSS.) 

Banks, N. Indiana caves and their fauna (arachnid 
section). Ann. Rep. Indiana Dept. Geol. and 
Nat. Res. 21: 202-205. 1896. 

. Arachnida from Baja California and other 
parts of Mexico. Proc. California Acad. Sci. 
(Zool.), ser. 3, 1 (7): 205-308. 1898. 

Bryant, E. B. New species of southern spiders. 
Psyche 43(4): 1-79. 1935. 

CHAMBERLIN, R. V., and Ivin, Witton. Miscel- 
laneous new American spiders. Bull. Univ. 
Utah 26(4): 1-79. 1935. 

. New spiders of the family Agelenidae 
from western North America. Ann. Ent. Soe. 
Amer. 30(2) : 211-241. 1937. 

. A hundred new species of American 
spiders. Bull. Univ. Utah 32(13): 1-117. 1942. 

. Spiders of the Georgia region of North 
America. Bull. Univ. Utah 35(9): 1-267. 1944. 

CierckK, C. Aranei Suecici: 1-154. Stockholm, 
1757. 

Crossy, C. R. Some arachnids from the Carlsbad 
Cave of New Mexico. Proc. Ent. Soc. Wash- 
ington 28(1): 1-5. 1926. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


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Exiting, H. New and little known species of 
Tegenaria (Agelenidae). Psyche 43(1): 21- 
25. 1936. 

. The Araneida of Washington: Agelenidae 

and Hahniidae. Univ. Washington Publ. Biol. 

9(1): 1-44. 1938. 

. Tegenaria agrestis (Walckenaer), a Euro- 
pean agelenid spider introduced into Washing- 
ton State. Ann. Ent. Soc. Amer. 44(3) : 308-310. 
1951. 

Fox, I. Notes on North American agelenid spiders. 
Can. Ent. 69: 174-177. 1937. 

Hentz, N.M. A notice concerning the spiders whose 
web is used in medicine. Journ. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 2: 53-55. 1821. 

. Descriptions and figures of the Aranedes of 
the United States. Boston Journ. Nat. Hist. 
5: 443-478. 1847. 

Kaston, B. J. The spiders of Connecticut. State of 
Connecticut Public Document 47. State Geol. 
and Nat. Hist. Surv. Bull. 70: 1-874. 1948. 

Muna, M. H. New and interesting spiders from 
Maryland. Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington 58: 
91-104. 1945. 

. North American Agelenidae of the genus 
Coras Simon. Amer. Mus. Novy. 1329: 1-14. 
1946. 

PICKARD-CAMBRIDGE, F. O. Araneida. In Biologia 
Centrali-Americana 2: 313-424. 1902. 

PIcKARD-CAMBRIDGE, O. On some new and little- 
known spiders from the Arctic regions. Ann. 
Mag. Nat. Hist., ser. 4, 20: 273-285. 1877. 

Roewer, C. Fr. Katalog der Araneae 2: 1-160. 
Bremen, 1944. 

WaALCKENAER, C. A. Faune Parisienne: Insectes 
2: 187-250 (spiders). Paris, 1802. 

. Histoire naturelle des insectes: Apteres 2: 

1-548. Paris, 1841. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Johnsonaepsylla audyi, a new genus and new species of flea 
from North Borneo, with notes on the subfamily Leptopsyllinae (Siphonaptera) . 
Ropert Travus, Lt. Col., M.8.C., Army Medical Service Graduate School, 


Washington, D. C. 


In connection with studies on the epidemi- 
ology of scrub typhus and leptospirosis, a 
jomt U. 8. Army-British Colonial Office 
Medical Research Team operated in North 
Borneo in July and August 1951. During 
the course of these investigations, fleas, 
mites, and other ectoparasites were collected 
from small mammals, particularly on Mount 
KGnabalu. Among the material represented 
in the valuable collections is the unusual 
flea herein described as a new genus and 


1 Published under the auspices of the Surgeon 
General, Department of the Army, who does not 
necessarily assume responsibility for the profes- 
sional opinions expressed by the author. 


new species of the family Ceratophyllidae, 
subfamily Leptopsyllinae. Fleas of this 
subfamily are frequently true parasites of 
Rattus, as well as of Mus and other mice, 
and hence are of potential medical signifi- 
cance. 

A discussion of the subfamily Leptopsyl- 
linae is included in this paper because of 
recorded differences of opinion as to the 
systematic position of this important group 
of fleas and because the new genus makes 
necessary a reevaluation of the diagnostic 
characters of the subfamily. This genus also 
indicates relationship between the Leptop- 
syllinae and the Amphipsyllinae. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 TRAUB: NEW 


Family CERATOPHYLLIDAE 
Subfamily LEpropsyLLINAE 
Johnsonaepsylla, n. gen. 


The only leptopsylline flea which lacks a 
genal ctenidium or which has five pairs of lateral 
plantar bristles. Agrees with Paractenopsyllus 
Wagner, 1938, and Peromyscopsylla I. Fox, 1939, 
in the absence of a dark tuber above upper margin 
of the antennal groove in vicinity of the charac- 
teristic pale ring (Fig. 1, RG.). Agrees with 
Paractenopsyllus Wagner, 1938, in that the an- 
terior portion of the head is normal in shape, 
not conical as in other leptopsyllines. Caput 
fractum. Eye distinct but somewhat reduced. 
Preantennal region with three rows of bristles, 
some of first row submarginal and somewhat 
spiniform. Frontal tubercle distinct. Postan- 
tennal area with three rows of bristles. Antennal 
segment 2 with bristles short; in male, not reach- 
ing beyond proximal fourth of club. Antennal 
groove not extending onto propleuron. Labial 
palpi much shorter than forecoxae. First vin- 
culum or link-plate (VC.1) received in distinct 
sinus of prosternosome. Pronotal comb consist- 
ing of narrow spines. Pronotum with one row of 
long bristles. Some of dorsolateral bristles of 
protibiae short and straight, forming a reduced 
comb; these bristles on mesotibiae and metatibiae 
smaller, so that comb is vestigial (unlike other 
fleas in subfamily). Procoxae with many lateral 
bristles scattered over length of segment; other 
coxae with very few bristles and these on ante- 
roventral margin. Profemora with very few 
lateral and mesal bristles. Mesosternum (Fig. 7, 
MST.) apparently enlarged so that metasternum 
appears as if divided into dorsal and ventral 
regions by an oblique sclerotization. Lateral 
metanotal area (L.M.) distinct. Pleural region 
of metasternosome fitting into well-sclerotized 
socket, the pleural arch (PL.A.). Metanotum 
and some of typical abdominal terga with apical 
spinelets. Unmodified terga usually with two 
rows of bristles, but first row reduced, or absent 
on some. Spiracles subovate. Male with three 
antepygidial bristles. Eighth tergum fairly well 
developed, extending as far caudad as middle of 
immovable clasper. Eighth sternum (Fig. 4, SS.) 
relatively large and unmodified. Digitoid (F.) 
with stout bristles but no spiniforms. Apical 
appendage of aedeagus (AP.A.) very well de- 
veloped. Sclerotized mner tube (Fig. 9, S.J.7.) 
oblique and relatively unarmed, with distinct 


SPECIES OF FLEA 289 


apicomedian sclerite (A.M.S.). Crochets (CR.) 
very large and conspicuous. Distal arm of ninth 
sternum narrow and sinuate; without spini- 
forms. 

The female of this genus is unknown. 

Genotype: Johnsonaepsylla audyi, n.sp. 

The genus is named for Miss Phyllis Johnson, 
of the Department of Entomology, Army 
Medical Service Graduate School, Walter Reed 
Army Medical Center, Washington, D. C., one 
of the most promising students of medical 
entomology and to whom I am much indebted. 


Johnsonaepsylla audyi, n. sp. 


Types.—Holotype male ex Hylomys suillus 
Muller, a small spineless hedgehog (Insectivora, 
Erinaceidae); North Borneo, Mount Kinabalu, 
elevation 5,000 feet, Tenompak; July 16, 1951; 
collected by R. Traub. Two paratype males 
with same data but from two other Hylomys 
suillus. A fourth paratype male, ibid., but at 
Lumu Lumu, elevation 6,300 feet, in the cloud 
forest; July 21, 1951. Holotype deposited in the 
collections of the United States National Mu- 
seum. Paratypes deposited in the Chicago 
Natural History Museum, the British Museum 
(Tring), and the author’s collection. 

Head (Fig. 1).—Preantennal region with 
bristles as follows: First row of six, ventral four 
of which are stout and more or less spiniform, 
particularly the upper two at level of frontal 
tubercle; second row of two large bristles, ventral- 
most submarginal; third row of two long bristles, 
uppermost at or somewhat above level of eye. 
Anterior arm of tentorium (7'.4.) visible on each 
side as a rodlike structure anterior to eye. Eye 
subovate, small. Genal process subacute. Maxil- 
lary lobe with anterior wing weakly sclerotized 
but distinct, arising anterior to base of maxillary 
palpi. The more heavily sclerotized portion 
(that area usually depicted in drawings of 
maxillary lobes of most fleas) originating 
definitely posterior to these palpi. Apex of 
maxillary lobe extending distad of base of fourth 
segment of maxillary palpi. Labial palpi 5- 
segmented, extending three-fourths length of 
forecoxae. Scape of antenna with about three 
short dorsomarginal subapical bristles. Second 
antennal segment with apical bristles short, 
not reaching beyond apex of third segment of 
club. Postantennal region with rows of bristles 
arranged 3-4(5)-6 per side, ventralmost of 
last row displaced to ventrocaudal angle; at 


290 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 9 


JOHNSONAEPSYLLA AUDYI N.GEN.,N. SP od 


Fie. 1.—Head and prothorax, male. Fre 2—Protibia. Fic. 3.—Immovable process of clasper 
and digitoid. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


times with an additional dorsomarginal bristle 
at base of flange; intercalaries displaced caudad 
along margin of flange. First vinculum or link 
plate (VC.1.) somewhat irregular in shape, at 
times subpyriform. 

Thorax.—Pronotum with a row of four or five 
long bristles; small intercalaries displaced caudad; 
with a comb of about 10 or 11 spines on a side; 
the spines straight or slightly concave. Second 
vinculum (VC.2.) almost completely concealed 
by lower spines of pronotal comb; very broad at 
base, apex upcurved where it hooks onto mesep- 
isternum. Mesonotum (Fig. 7, MSN.) with 
about four rows of bristles, first row of shortest 
bristles, those of last row longest, about four in 
number; ventralmost arising above midpoint of 
notum. Mesonotal flange on each side with a sub- 
dorsal pseudoseta (PS.S.). Mesopleuron with a 
total of about 11 or 12 bristles, of which two to 
four appear to be on mesepisternum (MPS.), the 
remainder on mesepimere (MPM.). Metanotum, 
together with its flange, slightly longer than 
mesonotum; with three rows of bristles, none ex- 
tending ventrad to midline. Metanotal flange 
with a dorso-apical tooth. Lateral metanotal 
area (L.M.) almost twice as long as broad; with 
two bristles, dorsomarginal the longer. Metepi- 
sternum (M7'S.) with one long bristle in pos- 
terodorsal region. Metepimere (M7TM.) with 
about seven long bristles arranged 3-3-1. 

Legs.—Profemur with about four lateral non- 
marginal bristles, mesofemur and metafemur 
with about three or four subapical, lateral bristles; 
none on apicoventral flange. Legs long and nar- 
row, e.g., metatarsal segment one almost six 
times as long as broad. Protibia (Fig. 2) with 
five pairs of dorsomarginal bristles and with a 
single stout bristle between dorsalmost and sec- 
ond pairs and another such bristle between third 
and fourth pairs. Mesotibia and metatibia the 
same but three of these pairs much more con- 
spicuous and of longer bristles than the others; 
also differing in that there are two single stout 
bristles between third and fourth pairs. None of 
tarsal bristles reaching beyond apex of following 
segment. Measurements (in microns) of tibiae 
and segments of tarsi (petiolate base deleted) of 


holotype: 

Leg Tibia Tarsal Segments 
I II JUG TN V 
Pro- 225 95 90 80 55 120 
Meso- 340 190 145 100 60 125 
Meta- 450 330 220 135 75 140 


TRAUB: NEW SPECIES OF FLEA 


291 


Abdomen.—First tergum (/7.) with two rows 
of bristles and one or two subdorsal spinelets. 
Basal sternum with one ventromarginal bristle 
on each side. Terga II to V with with one apical 
spinelet per side. Second terga with first row of 
bristles represented by three bristles, third and 
fourth terga with one or two such bristles; re- 
maining unmodified terga with but one row of 
bristles; second row of bristles extending slightly 
below spiracle in each case. Typical sterna with 
two subdorsal bristles per side. Antepygidial 
(antesensilial) bristles with middle bristle twice 
length of lower bristle; upper bristle slightly 
shorter than lower. 

Modified abdominal segments (Fig. 4) —Eighth 
tergum (S7’.) extending as far caudad as base 
of acetabulum and ventrad to upper portion of 
aedeagal apodeme; with a long apical bristle 
and two long median bristles, one of these below 
sensilium. Eighth sternum extending apicad 
only to about level proximad of midpoint of 
distal arm of ninth sternum; extending dorsad 
slightly above manubrium and therefore some- 
what broader than long; with two subventral 
bristles. 

Immovable process of clasper (P. and Fig. 3.) 
subovate, about two-thirds or three-fourths as 
broad as long; dorsal margin slightly convex; 
ventral margin evenly convex, caudal margin 
fairly straight. Process P. with two dorsomarginal 
subapical bristles and two or three much smaller 
bristles adjacent to anteromost of these; caudal 
margin with a subapical bristle and a longer 
bristle well above midpoint, the last suggestive 
of characteristic bristle of so many leptopsylline 
fleas and perhaps homologous with acetabular 
bristles of true ceratophyllid fleas. Movable 
finger or digitoid (F.) imserted relatively well 
proximad on P.; almost twice as long as broad, 
but basally recurved; anterior margin apically 
fairly straight; posterior margin convex. F. with 
two long bristles, one at midpoint and one at 
proximal third; caudal margin withthree or 
four much smaller bristles above stout median 
bristle; then a few scattered hairs. Manubrium 
(MB.) long and narrow, apically somewhat up- 
turned. 

Ninth sternum with proximal arm (P.A.9) 
slightly longer than distal arm (D.A.9); vela- 
tively long and narrow, apically subacuminate, 
resembling slightly crooked finger. Distal arm 
of ninth sternum (D.A.9 and Fig. 6.) also rela- 
tively long and narrow. Morphological ventral 


292 


margin markedly sinuate at apical third, the 
resulting convexity or lobe bearing four bristles, 
two of which are quite long; apical portion of 
arm above sinus distally ovate; with three sub- 
apical marginal thin bristles; with about five or 
six dorsomarginal bristles and three or four small 
scattered bristles. Aedeagal apodeme (AE.A.) 
almost three times as long as portion of aedeagus 
distad of apodemal strut; over three times as 
long as broad; with a very well developed apical 
appendage (AP.A.) and a well-developed prox- 
imal spur (Fig. 9, P.S.). Median dorsal lobe 
(M.D.L.) shallowly convex and turning straight 
ventrad; apically subtruncate and _ recurved; 
with a pair of long narrow apicomedian sclerites 
(A.M.S.) which are distally angled and expanded 
ventrad. Crochets (CR.) very large, longer than 
endchamber distad of apodemal strut; twice as 
long as broad, but with apical half conspicuously 
narrowed and upcurved, so that distal portion 
of crochet resembles geologist’s hammer. Sclero- 
tized inner tube (S.J.7.) fairly short, about twice 
as long as broad at maximum, oblique, with dis- 
tinct sclerotized band of inner tube (B.J.T.) 
extending from its apex. Armature of inner tube 
(A.I.T.) represented as two dorsal spurs. Lateral 
lobes (L.L.) weakly sclerotized, extending from 
wall of aedeagal pouch to base of crochet at 
proximal portion of S.J.T. Wall of aedeagal 
pouch (P.W.) extending as a straight line from 
proximal spur; ventrally somewhat convex. 
Penis rods (P.R.) long but not fully coiled, 
paralleling apodemal rod of ninth sternum. 
Ventral intramural rod of endophallus (/.R.) 
heavily sclerotized. Sclerites of apodemal strut 
(AP.S.) not clearly defined. Tenth segment 
conspicuous; sensilium (Fig. 4, SN.) very flat; 
with about 17 pits per side. Dorsal lobe of proe- 
tiger (D.A.L. and Fig. 5.) with four or five dorso- 
marginal and two ventromarginal bristles. Ven- 
tral lobe (V.A.L.) of proctiger with two subapical 
ventromarginal bristles, its dorsal margin weakly 
sclerotized. 

The species is named for Dr. J. R. Audy, 
director of the Colonial Office Scrub Typhus 
Research Unit, Kuala Lumpur, Malaya, who has 
contributed much to our knowledge of arthropod- 
borne diseases. As a member of the U. 8S. Army 
Medical Research Units in Malaya and Borneo, 
1948-1951, I am particularly indebted to him 
for his splendid cooperation throughout the 
course of our investigations. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 9 


DISCUSSION OF THE SUBFAMILY 
LEPTOPSYLLINAE 


Fleas of the subfamily Leptopsyllinae are 
characteristic parasites of murid and cricetid 
rodents and of certain insectivores. As a group 
these fleas are widely distributed, indigenous 
forms being known from Europe; much of Asia, 
including the Middle East, Asiatic U.S.S.R., 
and China; Africa; North America; New Guinea; 
North Borneo and the Philippines.2? Some con- 
fusion exists in the literature as to the systematic 
position of Leptopsylla Jordan and Rothschild, 
1911, and its allies: Peromyscopsylla I. Fox, 
1939, Pectinoctenus Wagner, 1929, Paractenopsyl- 
lus Wagner, 1938, and Sigmactenus Traub, 1950. 
According to the traditional emphasis upon 
presence of a genal comb and of a fracticipit 
head-capsule, these fleas belong to the Hystri- 
chopsyllidae. More recent workers, studying 
independently, and to a certain extent utilizing 
different morphological characters; have stated 
that this complex belongs with the ceratophyllid 
fleas (3, 4, 6, 7). It is felt by these students that 
the presence or absence of genal spines or a 
fracticipit condition does not necessarily indicate 
fundamental relationship. For this reason Traub 
(6) restored the combless? Catallagia Rothschild, 
1915, to proximity with the combed Epitedia 
Jordan, 1938, and Neopsylla Wagner, 1903 (a 
position intended by the authors), instead of 
leaving it in the ‘“Dolichopsyllidae” where it 
had been placed among combless fleas which 
were otherwise very different morphologically 
Gia). 

Leptopsylla and allies agree with the cerato- 
phyllid fleas in the following characters (parlim): 
(1) Metanotum with apical spines; (2) sensilium 
dorsally straight; (8) male with third aedeagal 
rod arising as a tendon from the ninth sternum; 
(4) male eighth tergum large, enclosing much or 
most of genitalia; (5) male eighth sternum cor- 
respondingly reduced, covering relatively little 
of genitalia; (6) aedeagal crochets typically 
very large, movable, articulated ventrally near 
base of sclerotized inner tube. 


2 Acropsylla Rothschild is now regarded by 
some workers as belonging in the tribe Meso- 
psyllini, subfamily Amphipsyllinae, a group of 
fleas related to the Leptopsyllinae, as shown be- 
low. Acropsylla occurs in India and Burma. 

’ The comb referred to is the genal ctenidium 
and not the pronotal comb. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


In contrast, the Hystrichopsyllidae may be 
characterized as follows: (1) Metanotum lacking 
apical spines; (2) sensilium more or less convex; 
(3) third aedeagal rod free, lying within end- 
chamber and not definitely arismg as a tendon 


TRAUB: NEW SPECIES OF FLEA 


293 


from the ninth sternum; (4) male eighth tergum 
reduced, enclosing very little of genitalia; (5) 
male eighth sternum correspondingly enlarged, 
ensheathing much of genitalia; (6) crochets 
relatively small, not freely movable. 


JOHNSONAEPSYLLA AUDYI, N.GEN., N. SP 


Fra. 4.—Modified abdominal segments, male. Fra. 5.—Dorsal and ventral anal lobes. Fre. 6.—Distal 
arm of ninth sternum. 


294 


The Leptopsyllinae* prior to the discovery of 
Johnsonaepsylla, n. gen., could be separated from 
true ceratophyllids thusly: (1) Genal comb pres- 
ent; (2) arch of endoskeleton visible as tentorial 
arm (Fig. 1, 7.4.) in front of eye; (8) fracticipit; 
(4) antennal groove closed so that club of male 
antenna does not extend onto propleuron; (5) 
upper eye bristle not directly in front of eye, 
(6) some of head bristles stout and slightly 
curved, “‘spiniform’’; (7) an ovate pale area or 
ring (Fig. 1, RY.) above ventral margin of an- 
tennal groove, near midpoint of groove; (8) 
male eighth tergum relatively smaller, not com- 
pletely enclosing genitalia, extending caudad 
only to about middle of claspers and ventrad 
to middle of proximal arm of ninth sternum; 
(9) male eighth sternum correspondingly larger, 
extending dorsad to near base of clasper. 

The following additional characters are typical 
of the Leptopsyllinae but may occur in true cera- 
tophyllids: (10) Eye vestigial; (11) dorsolateral 
bristles of tibia forming a false comb; (12) 
crochets lacking a well-defined basal peglike or 
barrel-shaped sclerotization (if the peg is indi- 
cated it is ventromarginal); (13) a characteristic, 
long submedian marginal bristle on the immoy- 
able process (items 10 through 13 rarely occur 
in the Ceratophyllidae); (14) last segment of 
tarsi with four pairs of stout lateral plantar 
bristles and one pair of mesal plantar bristles. 

Johnsonaepsylla, n. gen., does not fit with this 
diagnosis of the subfamily in that it possesses a 
distinct (although somewhat reduced) eye, and 
lacks a genal comb, while the tibial false combs 
are so reduced (or undeveloped) as to be almost 
inapparent. Johnsonaepsylla is also unique in 
possessing five lateral plantar bristles on the last 
tarsal segment of each leg. 

It has been pointed out above that it is com- 
patible with a concept of dynamic evolution 
for related fleas to differ regarding the presence 
of a genal comb. Similarly, many instances are 
known in which “blind” fleas very closely re- 
semble species with well-developed eyes. In- 


4 Jordan, in Smart (4), treats Leptopsylla and 
allies in a separate family within an undeclared 
superfamily of ceratophyllid fleas. In litt., Dr. 
Jordan agrees that certain of the ‘“‘families’’ in 
this chapter could equally well be considered 
“subfamilies”? today, as I am doing in this paper. 
Our present state of knowledge of the higher 
classification of fleas is insufficient to categorically 
define superfamilies, families, and subfamilies, 
even though many authors now agree as to the 
various ‘“‘groups”’ of fleas. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 9 


deed, reduction of eyes in fleas is frequently 
adaptive and correlated with parasitism of 
subterranean and/or nocturnal hosts (cf. Pulex 
sinoculus Traub, 1950, and P. irritans Linnaeus 
(6)). The presence of a genal ctenidium is highly 
correlated with that of a reduced eye, while 
combless fleas usually have well-developed eyes, 
unless parasitizing a subterranean host (6, 8). 
Jellisonia Traub, 1944, is an example of a genus 
in which certain species have well-developed 
tibial “‘combs”’ and others have lost this structure 
on some legs (6, 9). Stivalius is another case 
where some forms have well-developed tibial 
“combs,’’ while most species lack them (4). 
The number of lateral plantar bristles on the 
tarsi also varies in related genera. 

For these reasons I feel that these differences 
between Johnsonaepsylla and other leptopsyllines 
are secondary, not fundamental, and that John- 
sonaepsylla is merely an unspecialized 1f not some- 
what primitive form. Johnsonaepsylla agrees 
with the basic, essential characteristics of the 
leptopsyllimes—those listed as numbers 2, 3, 4, 
6, 7, 8, 9, and 13 above, while its genitalia are of 
a pattern typical of the subfamily. This new 
genus agrees with Leptopsylla and allies in two 
other characteristics typical (but not exclusive) 
of the group—viz, the maxillary lobe has a rela- 
tively well sclerotized wing which clearly arises 
anterior to base of the maxillary palpi, instead 
of being virtually invisible as in most fleas; the 
male proctiger has a distinct basal transparent 
collar or flange. The preantennal region is much 
more rounded in Johnsonaepsylla than in typical 
leptopsyllines, where this region is subconical. 
However, Paractenopsyllus also lacks a conical 
frons. 

Johnsonaepsylla indicates a close relationship 
with the Amphipsyllinae and in my opinion links 
the Leptopsyllinae with the Amphipsyllinae. 
Thus, fleas of the latter subfamily possess a 
visible tentorial arch, and may lack a genal 
ctenidium. At times there is an indication of the 
interantennal suture and certain of these fleas 
possess the pale ring above the lower margin 
of the antennal groove. Some of these fleas have 
distinct eyes, while pre-antennal bristles modified 
so as to suggest spiniforms occur in Ctenophyllus 
Wagner, 1927. In the Amphipsyllinae, however, 
the male eighth sternum is well developed, 
large, and/or modified. The head is normally 
integrecipit, and if there is a suture indicated, 
it is not as apparent as in Johnsonaepsylla, in 


SEPTEMBER 1952 TRAUB: NEW SPECIES OF FLEA 295 


which it is well developed as in such typical SUMMARY 


Jeptopsyllids as Peromyscopsylla. The peglike Johnsonaepsylla audyi, n. gen. and n. 


sclerotization of the crochet is usually well gp. collected ex Hylomys on Mount Kina- 
indicated in the Amphipsyllinae. balu, North Borneo, is described and figured. 


JOHNSONAEPSYLLA AUDYI, N. GEN. N.SP 


Fig. 7.—Mesothorax and metathorax. Fre. 8 —Highth tergum (partim), male. Fre. 9.—Apieal portion 
of aedeagus. 


296 


The genus is unique in the subfamily 
Leptopsyllinae in that it lacks a genal 
ctenidium and it possesses a distinct eye and 
has five pairs of lateral plantar bristles on 
the last segment of the tarsi. While essenti- 
ally an unspecialized leptopsylline flea, the 
new genus links this subfamily with the 
Amphipsyllinae. 


ACKNOWLEDGMENTS 


I am indebted to Dr. Karl Jordan, F. R. 
S., and Messrs. G. H. E. Hopkins and F. 
G. A. M. Smit, of the British Museum, 
for verification of the status of this inter- 
esting genus and for pertinent and valuable 
comments. Certain of the characteristics of 
the Leptopsyllinae listed herein are based 
in part upon observations by Jordan and 
Hopkins in litt. 


REFERENCES 


(1) Ewine, H. E. A manual of external parasites: 
225 pp., 96 figs. 1929. 

(2) Ewina, H. E., and Fox, I. The fleas of North 
America. U. 8. Dept. Agr. Mise. Publ. 
500: 1-142. 1943. 

(3) Houtnanp, G. P. The Siphonaptera of Canada. 
Dominion of Canada Dept. Agr. Techn. 
Bull. 70: 1-306, 350 figs. 1949. 

(4) Jorpan, K. Chapter on ‘‘Fleas’”’ in Smart, J. 
Insects of medical wmportance: 211-245. 
British Museum, London, 1948. 

(5) Jornpan, K., and Roruscuiup, N. C. On 
Pygiopsylla and the allied genera of Siphon- 
aptera. Ectoparasites 1: 231-265, 56 figs. 
1922. 

(6) Traus, R. Siphonaptera from Central Amer- 
tcaand Mexico. Fieldiana: Zoology Memoirs 
1: 1-127, 54 pls. 1950. 


(7) Notes on Indo-Malayan fleas, with 
descriptions of new species. Proc. Ent. Soc. 
Washington 52(3): 109-143, 64 figs. 1950. 

(8) Hoogstraalia turdella, a new genus 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


voL. 42, No. 9 


and species of flea from the Philippines. 
Proc. Ent. Soc. Washington 53(2): 97-104, 
figs. 1-11. 1951. 

(9) Traus, R.,and Jonnson, P.T. Atyphloceras 
tancitari, and Jellisonia bonia, new species 
of fleas from Mexico. Amer. Mus. Nov. no. 
1558: 1-19. figs. 1-24, 1952. 


LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS 


AE.A. Aedeagal apodeme. 

A.I.T. Armature of inner tube of aedeagus. 

A.M.S. Apicomedian sclerites of aedeagus. 

AP.A. Apical appendage of aedeagus. 

APS. Sclerite of apodemal strut. 

B.1.T. Band of inner tube extending distad of 
apex of sclerotized inner tube. 

CR. Crochet of aedeagus. 

D.A.L. Dorsal anal lobe. 

D.A.9 Distal arm of ninth sternum. 

ine Digitoid or movable finger. 

LR. Ventral intramural rod of endophallus. 

L.M. Lateral metanotal area. 

MB. Manubrium 

M.D.L. Median dorsal lobe. 

MPM Mesepimere 

MSN Mesonotum 

MPS. Mesepisternum 

MTM. Metepimere 

MST. Mesosternum 

MTS. Metepisternum 

Ri Immovable process of clasper. 

P.A.9 Proximal arm of ninth sternum. 

PL.A. Pleural arch of metathorax. 

P.R. Penis rods. 

PS. Proximal spur of aedeagus. 

PS.S. Pseudoseta 

P.W. Wall of aedeagal pouch. 

RG. Pale ring above ventral margin of an- 
tennal groove. 

S.1.T Sclerotized inner tube. 


SN. Sensilium 


T.A. Anterior tentorial arm of endoskeleton. 
V.A.L. «Ventral anal lobe. 

VC. 1 First vinculum or link-plate. 

VC. 2 Second vinculum or link-plate. 

8S. Eighth sternum. 

1T. First tergum. 


MALACOLOGY .— Generic and subgeneric names in the molluscan class Scaphopoda. 
WiuuiAmM K. Emprson,? Museum of Paleontology, University of California. 
(Communicated by Harald A. Rehder.) 


The supraspecific categories of the mol- 
luscan class Scaphopoda have not received 
serious study for more than 50 years. In the 
light of present knowledge it is apparent 
that they are in need of taxonomic review. 
The purpose of this paper is to indicate the 

1 Contribution no. 66 from the Allan Hancock 
Foundation, University of Southern California. 


2 Formerly of the Allan Hancock Foundation, 
University of Southern California. 


nomenclatural units that are available for 
future taxonomic and phylogenetic work in 
the class. 

The Scaphopoda, the smallest of the five 
classes of the phylum Mollusca, are divided 
into the families Dentalidae and the Si- 
phonodentaliidae.? The families are distin- 


3D. K. Greger, 1933, p. 373, described Thro- 
opella typa, n. gen., n. sp., from the Devonian of 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


guished from each other by differences in 
the median tooth of the radula, the form of 
the foot, and certain definite shell charac- 
ters. The reader is referred to the excellent 
monographs by Pilsbry and Sharp (1897— 
98) and Henderson (1920) for keys which 
differentiate the two families and for the 
distinguishing characters of the genera and 
subgenera which comprise the two families. 

With the exception of the fossil genus 
Plagioglypta, the genus Dentalium (sensu 
lato) has been considered by many taxono- 
mists to include all the remaining repre- 
sentatives of the family Dentaliidae. Thus, 
the genus Dentalium has been divided into 
a number of subgenera, some of which are 
of much greater biological significance than 
others. On the other hand, most students 
have recognized for the Siphonodentaliidae 
three genera, Entalina, Siphonodentalium, 
and Cadulus. The last named has been 
divided into several subgenera and sections. 
While some of these nomenclatural units are 
useful for distinguishing evolutionary trends, 
many are objectionable synonyms of no ap- 
parent taxonomic significance. 

A number of tubiculous gastropod shells 
and calcareous worm tubes were described 
as scaphopods during the early period of 
systematics. Thus, tubes of the gastropod 
family Caecidae and the annelid family 
Serpulidae form a sizable list of spurious 
scaphopods. Some of the Siphonodentaliidae 
were originally assigned to vermian genera 
by their describers. 

Procedure.—All scaphopod generic and 
subgeneric names known to the writer are 
reviewed and the genotype (type species) of 
each valid supraspecific unit is indicated. In 
order to retain a purely objective approach, 
no distinction is made between genera, sub- 
genera, and “sections.” It is beyond the 
scope of this paper to evaluate their taxo- 
nomic rank. Such an evaluation is reserved 
for a future paper. 

The nomenclatural units are listed alpha- 
betically with the valid names in boldface 
letters and the invalid names in italics. 


central Missouri. Should this actually prove to 
be a scaphopod, a new family would have to be 
formed to contain it. 

‘The changes in the Régles made by the 1948 
meeting of the International Commission on 


EMERSON: GENERIC NAMES IN SCAPHOPODA 


297 


Although the capitalized names are valid, 
many are junior synonyms and, therefore, 
are not available taxonomically. Names 
which are objective synonyms® of earlier 
valid names are so indicated. Every effort 
has been made to rigidly follow the Inter- 
national Rules of Zoological Nomenclature 
in establishing the types of the genera. In 
order to prevent any misunderstanding with 
regard to the selection of the types, and thus 
the generic concepts, the reason governing 
the type selection is given. Fortunately, the 
majority of the names have original designa- 
tions or are monotypic. In cases of subse- 
quent designations, the species originally 
contained in the genus are listed together 
with the author and the date of the subse- 
quent designation. By possessing these data 
the reader may determine the validity of 
possible earlier designations without having 
access to the original description. The source 
of the original description is cited for each 
genotype and reference is made to a generally 
accessible subsequent description and illus- 
tration. Inasmuch as the locality data for 
the fossil and living species were obtained 
principally from Pilsbry and Sharp (1897), 
the majority of the geologic age assignments 
is of that date. 

Acknowledgments——The author is _ in- 
debted to Drs. Harald A. Rehder and 
David Nicol, of the United States National 
Museum, for checking otherwise inaccessible 
references; to Dr. William H. Easton, pro- 
fessor of geology, University of Southern 
California, for many helpful suggestions and 
criticisms, and to the administration of the 
Allan Hancock Foundation for material aid. 


Zoological Nomenclature became effective Janu- 
ary 1, 1951. While the official Régles are not at 
this date in print, it is the author’s : underst anding 
that under the revised Régles emendations of 
generic names whether justified or not, preoccupy 
for the purpose of homonymy, and erroneous 
emendations are available as Junior synonyms in 
cases where the original names are later rejected. 
This change creates a rather unfortunate and 
nearly infeasible system for determining the next 
available junior synonym in cases of rejected 
names. Until this situation is clarified, it seems 
proper to consider unjustified emendations as 
being invalid and unavailable. 

* Objective or absolute synonyms 
having identical genotype species 


are those 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, NO. 9 
elephantinum Linné, 1758. As a result of the 


above designation, Dentalia is a junior ‘‘ob- 


GENERA AND SUBGENERA ALPHABETICALLY 
ARRANGED 


DENTALIIDAE 


Antale Sacco, 1896, p. 97, for Antale vulgare (Da 
Costa), etc. Genotype: (by subsequent desig- 
nation, Sacco, 1897, p. 98) Antale vulgare (Da 
Costa), 1778, p. 28; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, 
p. 41, pl. 8, figs. 22-24. Recent, Mediterranean 
and Adriatic Seas, Northeastern Atlantic 
Ocean; Pliocene of Italy. Name taken from 
Antale of ‘“‘Aldrov. [andus] 1618.” A junior 
objective synonym of Dentale Da Costa, 1778. 
Used by subsequent authors, e. g., Rovereto, 
1900, p. 201, and Cossmann and Peyrot, 1916, 
p. 160. 

Antalis Herrmannsen, 1846, vol. 1, p. 63 (genus 
without species; first species assigned by H. 
and A. Adams, 1854, vol. 1, p. 457, for 16 
species, including ‘“Antalis entalis Linn.”’). 
Genotype: (by subsequent designation, Pilsbry 
and Sharp, 1897, p. 37) Dentalium entalis 
Linné, 1758, p. 758; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, 
p. 42, pl. 8, fig. 25. Recent, North Atlantic 
Ocean. Herrmannsen, 1846, proposed Antalis 
without species from Antale Aldrovandus, 1606, 
see Emerson, 1951, p. 17. Antalis is often 
attributed to H. and A. Adams, 1854, vol. 1, 
p. 457, genotype: (by subsequent designation, 
Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 37) Dentaliwm 
entalis Linné, 1758, p. 758. 

Bathoxiphus Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 121, 
for Dentalium ensiculus Jeffreys, 1877, D. en- 
siculus var. didymum Watson, 1879. Genotype: 
(by subsequent designation, Boissevain, 1906 
p. 48) Dentalium ensiculus Jeffreys, 1877, p. 
154; Henderson, 1920, p. 81, pl. 14, figs. 1, 
4, 5, 7, 9. Recent, Atlantic Ocean in deep 
water. 

Coccodentalium Sacco, 1896, p. 98. Genotype: 
(by original designation) Coccodentaliwm radula 
(Schroeter, 1784), p. 530; Sacco, 1897, p. 111, 
pl. 10, figs. 7-21. Miocene, Piedmont of Italy. 

Compressidens Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 123. 
(See under family Siphonodentaliidae.) 

Dentale Da Costa, 1778, p. 24. Genotype: (by 
monotypy) Dentale vulgare Da Costa, 1778, p. 
24, pl. 2, fig. 10; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 41, 
pl. 8, figs. 22-24. Recent, Mediterranean and 
Adriatic Seas; Atlantic Ocean from Spain to 
Belgium, etc.; Miocene of Belgium, Pliocene 
of Italy. For a review of the synonymy of this 
unit see Emerson, 1951, p. 19. 

Dentalia Perry, 1811, pl. 52, for Dentalia viridis 
Perry, 1811, D. bandata Perry, 1811, D. denacta 
Perry, 1811. Genotype: (here designated) Den- 
talia viridis Perry, 1811, p. 52 = Dentalium 


jective” synonym of Dentaliwm Linné, 1758. 

Dentalinm Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. xxviii. 
Error for Dentalium Linné, 1758. 

Dentalites Schlotheim, 1813, pp. 91, 100, 110, 
for Dentalitus striatus, D. obsoletus, and D. 
minutus, nude names. Genotype: (here de- 
signed) Dentaliwm elephantinum Linné, 1758, 
p. 785. With the above designation Dentalites 
is a junior objective synonym of Dentaliwm 
Linné, 1758. 

Dentalium Linné, 1758, p. 785, for D. elephanti- 
num L., D. Dentalis L., D. Entalis L., D. 
minutum L. Genotype: (by subsequent desig- 
nation, Montfort, 1810, p. 23) Dentalium ele- 
phantinum Linné, 1758, p. 785; Pilsbry and 
Sharp, 1897, p. 1, pl. 1, figs. 1-7. Recent, 
Amboyna and Philippine Islands. 

Dentalius Forbes, 1841, p. 253, for ‘“‘Dentalius 
Entalis.” Error for Dentalium Linné, 1758. 

Dertalium Krotow, 1885, p. 153. Error for Den- 
talium Linné, 1758. 

Entale Herrmannsen, 1848, vol. 1, p. 423 (genus 
without species). Genotype: (here designated) 
Dentalium elephantinum Linné, 1758, p. 785. 
Asa result of the above designation, Entale is a 
junior objective synonym of Dentaliwm Linné, 
1758. Name taken from Entale of Tournefortio 
in Gualtieri, 1742. No species were validly 
assigned but a brief description was given. 

Entaliopsis Newton and Harris, 1894, p. 66. 
Genotype: (by original designation) Dentaliwm 
entalis Linné, 1767, p. 1263 = D. entalis 
Linné, 1758, p. 785. Proposed as a new name 
for the preoccupied Entalis of Gray, 1847, not 
Sowerby, 1839, an annelid genus. Hntaliopsis 
is a junior objective synonym of Antalis Herr- 
mannsen, 1846. 


Entalis Gray, 1847, p. 158. Genotype: (by original 


designation) “‘Dentaliwm e.[ntalis] Desh. [ayes] 
1825” p. 359 = Dentalium entalis Linné, 1785, 
p. 785; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 48, pl. 8, 
fig. 25. Recent, Atlantic Ocean. Not Entalis 
Sowerby, 1839, p. 42 (Annelida, Serpulidae). 
A junior objective synonym of Antalis Herr- 
mannsen, 1846. 

Episiphon Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 117, for 
Dentalium sowerbyt Guilding, 1834, D. fistula 
Sowerby, 1860, D. filum Sowerby, 1860, D. 
innumerabile Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, D. sub- 
rectum Jeffreys, 1882, D. longum Sharp and 
Pilsbry, 1897, D. tornatum Watson, 1879. Geno- 
type: (by subsequent designation, Suter, 1913, 
p. 821) Dentaliwm sowerbyi Guilding, 1834, p. 
35, pl. 3, fig. 7; Henderson, 1920, p. 77, pl.13, 
figs. 2, 3, 10. Recent, off Southeastern United 
States and West Indies. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


Eudentalium Cotton and Godfrey, 1933, p. 140. 
Genotype: (by original designation) Dentaliwm 
quadricostatum Brazier, 1877, p. 58. Recent, 
Princess Charlotte Bay, Australia; Katow, 
New Guinea. 

Fissidentalium Fischer, 1885, p. 894. Genotype: 
(by monotypy) Dentaliwm ergasticum Fischer, 
1882, p. 275; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 74, 
pl. 15, figs. 35-36. Recent, Gulf of Gascony 
and Atlantic Ocean in deep water. 

Fustaria Noszky, 1936, p. 83. Error for Fustiaria 
Stoliczka, 1868. 

Fustiaria Stoliczka, 1868, p. 439, for Dentaliuwm 
circinatum Sowerby, 18238, D. eburneum 
Lamarck, 1818 = D. eburneum Linné, 1767. 
Genotype: (by subsequent designation, New- 
ton and Harris, 1894, p. 64) Dentalium ebur- 
neum Linné, 1767, p. 1264; Pilsbry and Sharp, 
1897, p. 115, pl. 20, figs. 33, 34. Recent, South 
Pacific. 

Gadilina Foresti, 1895, p. 259. Genotype: (by 
monotypy) Siphonodentalium (Gadilina) tri- 
quetrum (Brocchi), 1814, p. 628; Sacco, 1897, 
p. 118, pl. 10, figs. 35-46. Miocene, Piedmont 
of Italy. 

Graptacme Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 85, for 
D. sericatum Dall, 1881, D. circumcinctum 
Watson, 1879, D. eborewm Conrad, 1846, D. 
leptum Bush, 1885, D. semistriatum Turton, 
1819, D. semistriatum var. semrpolitum Bro- 
derip and Sowerby, 1829, D. aciculum Gould, 
1859, D. novaehollandiae Chenu, 1858, D. acu- 
tissimum Watson, 1879, D. inversum Deshayes, 
1825, D. splendidum Sowerby, 1832. Genotype: 
(by subsequent designation, Woodring, 1925, p. 
201) Dentalium eboreum Conrad, 1846, p. 27; 
Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 89, pl. 16, figs. 47— 
49, 55-56. Recent, off Southeastern United 
States and West Indies. 

Heteroschisma Simroth in Bronn, 1895, p. 460, 
for Dentalium inversum Deshayes, 1825, D. 
subter fissum Jeffreys, 1877, D. Leoninae Meu- 
nier, 1878. Genotype: (here designated) D. 
subter fissum Jeffreys, 1877, p. 154; Pilsbry and 
Sharp, 1897, p. 61, pl. 7, figs. 15-19. Not 
Heteroschisma Wachsmuth, 1883, (Kchino- 
dermata), nor Kofoid and Skogsberg, 1928, 
(Protozoa). Since this is not considered to be a 
natural biological unit no new name is here 
proposed. 

Laevidentalium Cossmann, 1888, p. 7. Genotype: 
(by original designation) Dentaliwm incertum 
Deshayes, 1825, p. 362, pl. 7, fig. 17. Eocene of 
Paris Basin. 

Lobantale Cossmann, 1888, p. 7. Genotype: (by 
original designation) Dentaliwm duplex De- 
france, 1819, p. 71; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898, p. 
203, pl. 39, fig. 12. Eocene of Paris Basin. 


EMERSON: GENERIC NAMES IN SCAPHOPODA 


Paradentalium Cotton and Godfrey, 1933, p. 139. 
Genotype: (by original designation) ‘D. 
lentalium] intercalatum Gould, 1859,” p. 166; 
Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 23, pl. 11, figs. 88— 
89. Recent, “China Seas.”’ Cotton and Lud- 
brook, 19388, p. 218, state that D. intercalatum 
of Cotton and Godfrey, 1933, was misidentified, 
being actually D. bednalli Pilsbry and Sharp, 
1897, p. 248, and that the genotype of Para- 
dentalium thus should be considered the D. 
bednallt. In the case of a misidentified geno- 
type, the original genotypic concept can not 
be changed once formulated unless an appeal 
is made to and is favorably acted upon by the 
Commission. 


Plagioglypta Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. xxxi. 


Genotype: (by original designation) Dentaliwm 
undulatum Muenster, in Goldfuss, 1844, p. 3, 
pl. 166, fig. 8. Triassic, St. Cassian, Tyrol 
mountains. 


Prodentalium Young, 1942, p. 120. Genotype: 


(by original designation) Prodentaliwm ray- 
mondi Young, 1942, p. 120, pl. 20, figs. 3-6, 8, 
12. Pennsylvanian, Magdalena group, New 
Mexico. 


Pseudantalis Monterosato, 1884, p. 32, for Den- 


talium fissura Lamarck, 1818, D. inversum De- 
shayes, 1825, D. rubescens Deshayes, 1825, D. 
tenurfissa Monterosato, 1884, D. filwm Sowerby, 
1860. Genotype: (by subsequent designation, 
Sacco, 1897, p. 111) Pseudantalis rubescens 
(Deshayes), 1825, p. 363, pl. 16, figs. 23-25; 
Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 105, pl. 19, fig. 2. 
Recent, Mediterranean Sea; Pliocene of 
Italy. 


Schizodentalium Sowerby, 1894, p. 158. Geno- 


type: (by monotypy) Schizodentalium pluri- 
jfissuratum Sowerby, 1894, p. 158, pl. 12, fig. 24; 
Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 82, pl. 6, figs. 87— 
89. Recent, ‘Hong Kong?” 


Rhabdus Pilsbury and Sharp, 1897, p. 112. Geno- 


type: (by original designation) Dentaliwm 
rectius Carpenter, 1865, p. 59; Pilsbry and 
Sharp, 1897, p. 113, pl. 21, fig. 45. Recent, 
Eastern North Pacific Ocean. 


Tesseracme Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898, p. 249, for 


“oroup of D. quadrapicale” = Dentaliwm dispar 
Sowerby, 1860, D. quadricostatum Brazier, 
1877, D. dipsycha Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, D. 
quadrapicale Sowerby, 1860, D. tesseragonum 
Sowerby, 1832, D. quadrangulare Sowerby, 
1832, D. fishert Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897. Geno- 
type: (by subsequent designation: Woodring, 
1925, p. 119) Dentaliwm quadrapicale Sowerby, 
1860, p. 108, pl. 225, fig. 61; Pilsbry and 
Sharp, 1897, p. 34, fig. 50. Recent, Cochin and 
Malabar, Eastern seas. 


300 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 9 


SIPHONODENTALIIDAE 


Cadulus Philippi, 1844, p. 209. Genotype: (by 
monotypy) Dentaliwum ovulum Philippi, 1844, 
p. 208, pl. 27, fig. 21; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898, 
p. 157, pl. 32, figs. 40-41. Recent, southern 
Italy; Pliocene of Calabria and Sicily; Miocene 
of Piedmont, Italy. 

Cladulus Jaeckel, 1932, p. 311, (caption for text 
fig. 9). Error for Cadulus Philippi, 1844. 

Compressidens Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 123. 
Genotype: (by original designation) Dentalium 
pressum Sharp and Pilsbry, 1897, p. 124, pl. 
22, figs. 50-52; new name for D. compressum 
Watson, 1879, p. 516, not D’Orbigny, 1850, p. 
233. Recent, Caribbean to off Florida Keys. 
The taxonomic position of this genus is some- 
what uncertain. Though it is generally placed 
in the family Dentaliidae, a reexamination of 
the anatomy may necessitate placing it in the 
Siphonodentaliidae. 

Dicides Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898, p. 253. Error 
for Discides Sacco, 1897. 

Discides Sacco, 1897, p. 115. Error for Dischides 
Jeffreys, 1867. 

Dischides Jeffreys, 1867, p. 251. Genotype: (by 
monotypy) Dentaliwm bifissum S. Wood, 1848, 
p. 190, pl. 20, fig. 3 = Ditrupa polita S. Wood, 
1842, p. 459, pl. 5, fig. 14; Pilsbry and Sharp, 
1898, p. 144, pl. 27, figs. 90-94. Recent, Medi- 
terranean and Eastern Atlantic; Pliocene of 
England and Italy. The designation of the 
type might possibly be interpreted as being 
by original designation as Jeffreys, 1867, states, 
“2D. bifissum Searles Wood, from the Coralline 
Crag, is possibly of the type of another genus, 
for which I would suggest the name of Di- 
schides.”’ 

Entalina Monterosato, 1872, p. 27, for ‘“‘Den- 
talium ?tetragonum, Broce.” = “D. quin- 
quangulare, Forbes.” Genotype: (by subsequent 
designation, Sacco, 1897, p. 114) Entalina 
tetragona (Brocchi), 1814, p. 627, pl. 15, fig. 
26; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898, p. 234, Miocene 
of northern Italy and Vienna Basin. 

Gadila Gray, 1847, p. 159, no. 280. Genotype: 
(by original designation) Dentalium gadus 
Montagu, 1803, p. 496, pl. 14, fig. 7; Pilsbry 
and Sharp, p. 186, pl. 31, figs. 28-32. Recent, 
British Channel, fide Montagu, 1803. 

Gadilopsis Woodring, 1925, p. 206. Genotype: 
(by original designation) Ditrupa dentalina 
Guppy, 1873, p. 87, pl. 1, fig. 11; Pilsbry and 
Sharp, 1898, p. 190, pl. 36, figs. 21-22. Miocene 
of Jamaica. 

Gadus “‘“Rang”’ Deshayes, 1861 (“1864’’), p. 217, 
for Gadus parisiensis Deshayes, 1861, G. bila- 
biatus Desh., 1861, G. brevis Desh., 1861. Not 
Gadus of Rang, 1829, p. 498, nor of Linné, 


1758, pp. 242, 251. Deshayes, 1861, incor- 
rectly assigned three ‘‘new”’’ species from the 
Paris Basin to the pteropod genus Gadus of 
Rang, 1829; Gadus of Linné, 1758, a fish 
genus, is the first valid use of the name. 
Conrad, 1866, p. 75, used “Gadus, Montagu? 
Rang, 1829” for Dentaliwm clavatus Gould, 
1859, D. pusillum Gabb, 1864, D. subcoarctata 
[sic] (Gabb), 1860, and D. thallus Conrad, 
1834, considering Helonyx of Stimpson, 1865, 
a synonym. 


Helonyx Stimpson, 1865, p. 63. Genotype: (by 


original designation) Dentalium  clavatum 
Gould, 1859, p. 166; Stimpson, 1865, p. 63, pl. 
9, fig. 14. Recent, Western Pacific, “Hong 
Kong.” 


Loxoporus Jeffreys, 1883, p. 664. Genotype: (by 


monotypy) Cadulus olivt (Scacchi), 1835, p. 56, 
pl. 2, fig. 6, a b; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898, p. 
170, pl. 31, figs. 33-35. Pliocene of southern 
Italy and Sicily. 


Platyschides Henderson, 1920, p. 104. Genotype: 


(by original designation) Cadulus grandis 
Verrill, 1884, p. 219, pl. 44, fig. 20; Pilsbry and 
Sharp, 1898, p. 154, pl. 25, fig. 66. Recent, 
Western Atlantic, north of Cape Hatteras. 


Polyschides Pilsbry and Sharp, 1898, pp. 142, 


146. Genotype: (by original designation, p. 
146) Cadulus (Polyschides) tetraschistus Wat- 
son, 1879, p. 521; Watson, 1885, p. 15, pl. 2, 
fig. 8. Recent, off Fernando Noronha, Brazil. 


Pulsellum Stoliczka, 1868, p. 441, for Szphono- 


dentalium lofotense M. Sars, 1865, S. affine M. 
Sars, 1865, S. pentagonum M. Sars, 1865. 
Genotype: (by subsequent designation, Coss- 
mann, 1888, p. 11) Pulsellum lofotense (M. 
Sars), 1865, p. 297, pl. 6, figs. 29-33; Pilsbry 
and Sharp, 1897, p. 188, pl. 24, figs. 40-44. 
Recent, North Eastern Atlantic, Mediterra- 
nean and Aegean Seas; Pliocene of Calabria 
and Sicily. 


Stphodentalis Paetel, 1888, p. 565. Error for 


Stphonentalis G. O. Sars, 1878, p. 104. 


Siphodentalium Monterosato, 1874, p. 258. An 


invalid emendation of Stphonodentalium M. 
Sars, 1859. Other authors, including: Jeffreys, 
1877, p. 155 (and later papers), and Watson, 
1879, p. 519 (and later papers), have followed 
Monterosato in using this emendation. 


Siphonentalis G. O. Sars, 1878, p. 104, for Szpho- 


nentalis lofotensis (M. Sars), 1865, S. affinis 
(M. Sars), 1865, S. tetragona “Brocchi” G. O. 
Sars = Dentalium quinquangulare Forbes, 1844, 
a member of the genus Hntalina of Monterosato, 
1872. Genotype: (here designated) Siphono- 
dentalium lofotense M. Sars, 1865, p. 297, pl. 
6, figs. 29-383; Pilsbry and Sharp, 1897, p. 138, 
pl. 24, figs. 40-44. Recent, North Eastern 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


Atlantic, Mediterranean and Aegean Seas; Plio- 
cene of Calabria and Sicily. As a result of the 
above designation of Stphonodentalium lofotense 
as genotype, Siphonentalis becomes a junior 
objective synonym of Pulsellum Stoliczka, 1868. 
Siphonodentalis Clessin, 1896, p. 30. Error for 
Siphonentalis G. O. Sars, 1878, p. 104. 
Siphonodentalium M. Sars, 1859, p. 52. Geno- 
type: (by monotypy) Siphonodentalium vitreum 
(M. Sars) = D. vitrewm M. Sars, 1851, p. 178, 
(not Gmelin, 1791, p. 3739), = Siphonodenta- 
lium lobatum (Sowerby), 1860, p. 100, pl. 225, 
fig. 44. Recent, North Atlantic. 
Siphonodontum Locard, 1887, p. 149 (contained 
in footnote). An invalid emendation of Sipho- 
nodentalium M. Sars, 1865, p. 296 = Srpho- 
nodentalium M. Sars, 1859, p. 52. 
Tubidentalium Locard, 1887, p. 149, (contained 
in footnote). An invalid emendation of Szpho- 
nodentalium M. Sars, 1865, p. 296 = Sipho- 
nodentalium M. Sars, 1859, p. 52. 


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TEASEL NEMATODE 303 


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16 (1): 120-125, pl. 20, 2 figs. 1942. 


NEMATOLOGY .—The teasel nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci (Ktihn, 1857), Filip- 
jev, 1936. WitpuR D. Courtney, Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Ag- 
ricultural Fngineering. (Communicated by G. Steiner.) 


Textile mills have long depended on the 
spiny heads or “‘burs” of cultivated teasel 
plants to produce the nap on fine woolens. 
Other materials have been tested for this 
use, but only nylon bristles have shown 
promise of success. Teasel culture constitutes 
an agricultural crop of extreme geographical 
limitations with the principal American 
planting being located in the Pacific North- 
west. 

The teasel is a biennial with a rosette of 
stout, coarse leaves attached to a fleshy 
crown during its first year. In late spring 
of the second year, a main stem with side 
branches rapidly grows or ‘runs’ to a 
height of 4 to 7 feet and bears a spiny head 
at each terminal. When these heads are in 
the correct stage of development they are 
removed from the plant together with some 
8 inches of stem. This is a hand operation, 
since the heads mature at three or four 
different times, depending on the part of 
the plant to which they may be attached. 
The harvested heads are placed in large, 
aerated sheds to cure, after which the sal- 
ables are trimmed, graded to size and shipped 
to various textile mills. These teasel heads 
must be of uniform cylindrical shape and 
bear strongly attached spines in order to 
serve their purpose in finishing fine woolens. 

The production of ‘“‘puff balls’? instead 
of sound heads, and the failure of second 
year plants to produce heads have resulted 
in various degrees of losses due to nematode 
infection. These losses have ranged from a 


trace, in a number of cases, to complete 
destruction, in a few isolated fields. 

The bulb and stem nematode, Ditylen- 
chus dipsaci, was first described by Kiihn 
(2) in 1857 as the cause of ‘‘Kernfaule”’ 
of the inflorescence in fullers teasel, Dipsacus 
fullonum L. His description of the symptoms 
of nematode infection in teasels was confined 
to the characteristic misshapen,  ‘‘soft 
shelled” heads or puff balls instead of the 
normal burs. Later, Ritzema Bos (3) re- 
ported negative results in his attempts to 
transfer the rye, onion and hyacinth popu- 
lations of the bulb and stem nematode to 
teasel seedlings. His work was restricted 
since he had never observed nematode 
infection of teasel plants. These early in- 
vestigations were quoted by later workers 
and little in addition was accomplished 
until Thorne (4) in 1945 illustrated and 
amended the diagnosis of the teasel nema- 
tode from the Pacific Northwest. 


SYMPTOMS OF NEMATODE INFECTION 


Bulb and stem nematodes usually enter 
teasel plants in the young seedling stage 
during prolonged moist conditions. They 
feed and reproduce in the young crowns 
and leaves, causing large populations to be 
built up under favorable circumstances. 
When the bud for the central shoot develops 
from an infected crown during the second 
year many nematodes attack the tissue sur- 
rounding the growing point, reproduce 
rapidly and are carried upward by plant 


304 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 9 


growth. They are present, therefore, when the bur gradually widens to a more or less 
the growing points terminate in developing _ spherical soft-walled mass. As the puff ball 
teasel heads or burs. The woody, vascular matures and becomes dry the nematodes 
bundles surrounding the pith in the teasel collect m whitish masses in and near the 
head are so weakened by this infection that pith as well as becoming attached to the 


aes eT es NE A 
Fic. 1.—Teasel field showing severe nematode infection. 


Fic. 2.—Close-up view of teasel plants, with their crowns cut open. Normal plant on right and in- 


| 
. . 
fected plant on left. The pressure of cutting caused the weakened crown to break into the four sections. | 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


pedicel of each seed. These nematode masses 
and those attached to the seed enter a 
quiescent stage in which they can live for 
at least 23 years, if kept dry, according to 
Fielding (/). Upon becoming moist the 
nematodes revive and may remain active 
for a year or two in moist soil without their 
host plant. 

First year plants which are lightly in- 
fected may apparently grow well and give 
little indication of their weakened crowns. 
Moderately infected plants may survive 
during favorable seasons but are too weak 
to withstand poor growing conditions. 
Heavily infected plants develop leaves with 
discolored areas along their midribs, are 
often unduly curled and gradually die. In 
such cases the infection is chiefly concen- 
trated in the crown, the tissue of which 
becomes discolored and progressively ne- 
erotic until, in last stages, only a tangled 
mass of vascular bundles remains within 
the crown covering. The discolored and 
distorted tissues contain all stages of these 
nematodes. 

Second year plants which are lightly 
infected may appear normal with the excep- 
tion of a few soft malformed heads. Moder- 


COURTNEY: THE TEASEL NEMATODE 


305 


ately infected plants may be considerably 
dwarfed, produce puff balls instead of nor- 
mal heads and often die prematurely. 


TRANSFER OF TEASEL NEMATODE TO 
OTHER PLANTS 


Studies of transfer of the present nematode 
from teasels to other plants were prompted 
by the finding of a few areas of infestation 
in a field of teasels which had not produced 
this crop for more than 10 years. As the 
teasel seed used for planting had been hot- 
water treated and was therefore nematode 
free, it appeared that the infestation had 
remained in the soil for that period of time, 
especially since no obvious method of spread 
could be determined. The following weeds 
growing on these areas were examined for 
nematode infection, with the results shown 
in Table 1. 

As noted above, the only weeds having a 
nematode infection were the large-flowered 
colleomia and the buckhorn plantain. No 
symptoms, however, were found in either 
of these plants. The plantain contained only 
limited numbers of preadult nematodes 
and very young adult forms, while consider- 
able numbers of nematodes in all stages ot 


Fic. 3.—Teasel heads, normal on left and infected (puff ball) on right. 


305 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 9 


TaBLe 1.—NuMBER OF INFECTED WEED PLANTS GROWING IN SoIL INFESTED WITH THE 
TrasEL NEMATODE 


Plant Total plants examined Plants infected 

Amaranth, redroot (Amaranthus retroflecrus L.).......... 12 0) 
Bent grass, redtop (Agrostis alba L.).................... 4 0 
Camomile, mayweed (Anthemis cotula L.)................ 20 0 
Catsear, spotted (Hypochoeris radicata L.).............. 20 0 
Collomia, large-flowered (Collomia grandiflora Dougl.)... 35 20 
Dandelions @iarazacumyoficinalesy) pee eee 16 0 
IDYoYSc, Cubdlhy (CMe CHSDUS Is) So ococouscecdooncnsaasnee 5 0 
Fern, bracken (Pteridium aquilinum pubescens Underw.). 13 0 
Fleabane, horseweed (Hrigeron canadensis L.)........... 10 0 
Gilia, skunkweed (Gilia squarrosa H. and A.) . Benes 5 0) 
Goosefoot, lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L. ys : 9 0 
Knotw eed, prostrate (Polygonum aviculare L.)........... 4 0 
Lettuce, prickly Ghactucarsenndolamss pene ee ee 9 0 
Plantain, buckhorn (Plantago lanceolata L.)............. 40 3 
Radish, wild (Raphanus raphanistrum L.)............... 10 0 
Ryegrass, Italian (Lolium multiflorum Lam.)............ 18 0 
Salsify, meadow (Tragopogon pratensis L.).............. 10 0 
Shepherdspurse (Capsella bursa-pastoris (1..) Moench). . 3 0 
Sorrel, sheep (Rumex acetosella L.)...................... 20 0 
Sowthistle, common (Sonchus oleraceus L.).............. : 5 0 
Thistle, bull (Cirsium lanceolatum (L.) Scop.)........... 14 0 

Dio Gall oie cece yee pe A pane ae er oe ae Nee reat oot EU 282 23 


TABLE 2.—NUMBER OF INFECTED CROP PLANTS GROWING IN SOIL INFESTED WITH THE TEASEL NEMATODE 
AND IN GREENHOUSE TESTS WITH INOCULUM FROM OATS 


Field Grown 
Greenhouse 
Grown 
Crop plant Spring Winter 

| 15 plants of each 48 plants of each 20 plants of each 

variety examined variety examined | variety examined 
Barleya(Hondewmaulganeull:) peers ei cree oe 0 0 0 
Clover, Hubam (Melilotus alba var. annua Coe)..... 0 0 0 
Clover, crimson (Trifolium incarnatum L.)........... 0 0 0 
Clover, red (frifoliwm pratense L.).................. 0 0 1 
Corn (CAG TONES Ie) boca toscsonseb00recvoscnoddsace 0 0 0 
Oats yispring. (Awenagsatiiagll®) reer reeset re 0 15 6 
Oatsh wantens Awenassativa sls) hier eee ee | 0 16 13 
Peas, field (Pisum sativum arvense L.)............... 0 0 0 
Rye, Riosenu@Secalescenealenlo) meee ere re 0 0 8 
Measelss(Dipsaciussfulloniw7iels> ps sae ne 0 30 12 
WOCIN CYGCIGs SHORE Wii ooess éaclsodoécdsassascuesces 0 0 0 
Wheat, spring (Triticum aestivum L.)................ 0 14 14 
Wheat, winter (Triticum aestivum L.)................ 9 18 11 


TABLE 3.—PERCENTAGE OF GERMINATION OF TEASEL SEED TREATED IN WATER AT DIFFERENT 
TEMPERATURES, DURATIONS, AND CHEMICALS ADDED (GERMINATION TrEsts DETERMINED 
AT SEED LABORATORY, OREGON STATE COLLEGE) 


Duration Temp. °F. Water Water + Vatsol! Water + Formalin? | Vatsol + Formalin? 
(Untreated check) 91.6 90.7 93.1 93.2 
1 hour 75 89.5 90.2 13.5 32.0 
120 78.5 61.2 40.5 0.0 
122 57.5 46.5 0.0 0.0 
2hour | 75 89.5 92.5 6.0 14.7 
120 41.2 40.5 0.0 0.0 
122 12.0 9.7 0.0 0.0 


1Vatsol O.S. used at rate of 8 oz. in 100 gallons of water. 
2 Formaldehyde solution U.S.P. 1 pint in 25 gallons of water. 
3 Vatsol and formaldehyde combined at the above rates. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 COURTNEY: THE 
development were usually found in the 
collomia. 

During the early spring of the following 
year attention was called to the unusual 
appearance of another field in which winter 
oats had been planted following an infected 
teasel crop. The uneven growth in this field 
showed as prominent spots of dead and 
dying oat plants. Upon examination these 
distorted plants resembled the ‘‘segging”’ 
or “‘tulip-root”” as described by various 
workers and contained huge numbers of 
teasel nematodes. This observation indicated 
that winter oats might also have been serving 
as a host of the teasel nematode. To test 
this theory, oat plants infected from this 
soil were used to inoculate various crop 
plants growing in sterilized soil in pots in 
greenhouse tests listed in Table 2. 

The same kinds of crop plants used in 
these greenhouse tests were also planted in 
a field which had recently produced heavily 
infected teasels. The weather was warm and 
dry that spring so that these plants rapidly 
grew to maturity and showed little infection 
upon examination. The following autumn 
they were re-planted on the same soil and 
slowly grew through the winter, under wet 


Fic. 4.—Same as Fria. 3 except the heads are cut open. Note the healthy 


TEASEL NEMATODE 307 
conditions. Results of the examination of 
both spring and fall planted crop plants, 
at their maturity, are presented in Table 2. 

The infected crop plants listed above 
contained bulb and stem nematodes in all 
stages of development. These data show that 
several crop plants including oats, red clover, 
rye and wheat act as carriers of bulb and 
stem nematodes infecting teasels. It was 
possible to transfer the disease from winter 
oats to teasels and it may be that similar 
transfers could have been made from the 
other hosts if time and facilities had per- 
mitted their study. Evidently plants which 
grow over winter after autumn seeding are 
more likely to become infected than fast 
growing annuals seeded in the spring. This 
is probably due to the increased opportunity 
for nematode invasion because of the pro- 
longed seedling stage and wet surroundings 
of autumn planted seed. 


CONTROL 


There are two chief sources of nematode 
infection of teasel plants and both are the 
result of contamination. These two sources 
are nematodes on the seed used for planting 
and nematodes remaining in the soil after 


ie = 
a 


pith in the normal head and 


discoloration in the infected head. 


JOURNAL OF THE 


Fic. 5.—Infected teasel leaf. Note discolored 
areas along midrib. 


an infected teasel or other host crop or weed 
has grown on the field. Control is a matter 
of eliminating these nematodes, as follows: 

1. Teasel seed should be treated in hot 
water at 122°F. for one hour, or 120°F.for 
two hours in order to obtain a complete 
nematode kill. Experiments used in estab- 
lishing these treatments included the use 
of formaldehyde solution and a wetting agent 
(Vatsol O.S.) in the treating bath, as these 
materials had previously increased the 
nematode killing power of this bath as used 
for narcissus bulbs. The germination of 
teasel seed exposed to these treatments is 
given in Table 3. In addition to the germina- 
tion tests, the treated seed was planted in 
the field and readings were later taken on 
the early growth, mid-season growth, final 
stand, and condition of mature teasel heads 
and spines. 

An examination of the above data to- 
gether with that of criteria mentioned 
earlier indicated that: 

a. Formaldehyde solution used in the 
treating water is harmful to the germination 


WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 9 
of teasel seed and also to the later growth of 
the plants. 

b. Vatsol O.S. used in the treating water 
exerts little influence on the germination of 
teasel seed or the later growth of the plants. 

c. Teasel seed may be treated at 122°F. 
for one hour or 120°F. for two hours in water 
with or without Vatsol. Such treatments 
reduce the seed germination, however, so 
that twice as much treated seed must be 
planted in order to secure normal field 
stands of teasels. Fortunately this is an 
unimportant factor, due to the abundance 
of seed produced by this crop. Teasel plants 
resulting from treated seed showed increased 
mid-season growth, more vigorous and 
upright mature plants with increased num- 
ber of heads and normal stiffness of spines. 

2. Soil can be freed of D. dipsacz by rota- 
tion with crops which are not host plants, 
provided it is kept free of weeds, especially 
in wet seasons. 


Fic. 6.—Normal teasel leaf. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


Nematode infection of teasel plantings 
became nearly non-existent as a result of 
planting hot-water-treated teasel seed on 
properly managed soil. Fields known to be 
infested were plowed or disked in the autumn 
to destroy all growing plants and seeded the 
following spring to fast growing annuals to 
be harvested or used as a cover crop. After 
a 3-year period these fields were relatively 
free of nematode infestation, providing the 
residue from the former teasel crop had 
been properly destroyed. 


SUMMARY 


The nematode Ditylenchus dipsaci has 
been recorded as doing extensive damage to 
teasel crops in the Pacific Northwest, when 
proper control measures were not used. 

Infected teasel plants may be dwarfed 
in appearance, having leaves with discolored 
areas along their midribs, later dying. The 
crown is often discolored and may be rotted 
to various degrees. Top growth from such 
crowns may be of normal size, but bear 
misshapen heads or burs, known as_ puff 
balls. In severe cases no top growth is 
produced. 

In a series of tests made, plants which 
became heavily infected with bulb and stem 
nematodes from teasels, were. large flowered 
collomia, oats (winter and spring types), 
rye, and wheat (winter and spring types). 


NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY 


309 


Buckhorn plantain and red clover plants 
contained a few nematodes, which were 
unable to reproduce. Corn, crimson clover, 
Hubam clover and field peas failed to be- 
come infected. 

Control consists of eliminating the two 
main sources of infection, namely, the 
nematodes remaining in the soil after an 
infected crop has been harvested and those 
with the seed. Nematodes are eliminated 
from the soil by rotation with resistant 
crops, special attention being given to weed 
control, and from the seed by treatment 
with hot water. 


LITERATURE CITED 


(1) Freupine, Max J. Observations on the length 
of dormancy in certain plant infecting nema- 
todes. Proc. Helminth. Soc. Washington 
18 (2): 110-112. 1951. 

(2) Ktiun, Junrus. Uber das Vorkommen von An- 
guillulen in erkrankten Bliitenképfen von Dip- 
sacus fullonum L. Zeitschr. Wiss. Zool. 9 
(1): 129-137. 1857. 

(3) Rirzema Bos, JAN. L’Anguwillule de la tige 
(Tylenchus devastatrix Kvihn) et las maladies 
des plantes dues a ce nématode. Arch. Mus. 
Teyler (2) 3 (4): 333-348. 1890. 

(4) THorNE, GpeRALD. Ditylenchus destructor, 
n.sp., the potato rot nematode, and Ditylen- 
chus dipsaci (Kiihn, 1857) Filipjev, 1936, 
the teasel nematode (Nematoda: Tylenchidae). 
Proce. Helminth. Soc. Washinton 12 (2): 
27-34. 1945. 


NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY 


There follows a list of persons elected to mem- 
bership in the Academy, by vote of its Board of 
Managers, since April 1, 1950, who have since 
qualified as members in accordance with the 
bylaws (see also this JouRNAL 40: 302-306, 1950). 


RESIDENT 
Elected April 17, 1950 


Chan-Mou Tchen, physicist, National Bureau 
of Standards, in recognition of his contributions 
to the theory of fluid mechanics, especially the 
application of statistical methods to motion of 
small particles and chain molecules, and the 
treatment of flow problems involving heat addi- 
tion. 


Elected June 18, 1951 


Francis C. Breckenridge, physicist, National 
Bureau of Standards, in recognition of his con- 
tributions to aviation lighting and signal colors, 
and in particular for the evaluation of approach 
light systems, the development of a chromaticity 
diagram and the coordination of signal colors, 
and for his productive work with the I.E.S. and 
the I.C.I. in these fields. 

Newbern Smith, Central Radio Propagation 
Laboratory, National Bureau of Standards, in 
recognition of his contributions to studies of 
radio propagation and the ionosphere, and their 
application to problems of radio communica- 
tion. 


310 


Elected November 19, 1951 


Ernest N. Cory, assistant director, Extension 
Service; head, Department of Entomology; and 
State entomologist, University of Maryland, in 
recognition of his contributions to entomology, 
in directing research, teaching, and regulatory 
work of the Department of Entomology at the 
University of Maryland since 1914; having an 
important part in the growth of the American 
Association of Economic Entomologists; having 
managed the Journal of Economic Entomology 
with a world-wide distribution; having published 
approximately 200 scientific articles on a wide 
variety of insects, and having initiated and di- 
rected the published works of many associates. 

George McMillan Darrow, pomologist, U.S. 
Department of Agriculture, in recognition of his 
outstanding contributions to plant breeding and 
genetics, particularly with respect to the utiliza- 
tion and interpretation of polyploidy in plants. 

Carlton M. Herman, game pathologist, Fish 
and Wildlife Service, U. 8. Department of the 
Interior, in recognition of his contributions to 
knowledge of parasites of birds and mammals, 
including bird malaria, and the epidemiology of 
diseases of wildlife. 

Michael J. Pelezar, associate professor, De- 
partment of Bacteriology, University of Mary- 
land, in recognition of his research work per- 
formed in the field of bacterial physiology and 
metabolism. 

John H. Zeller, in charge of swine investiga- 
tions, Bureau of Animal Industry, in recognition 
of his contributions to the science of swine pro- 
duction. 


Elected December 17, 1951 


Richard 8. Hunter, optical engineer, Henry A. 
Gardner Laboratory, in recognition of his con- 
tributions to tristimulus photoelectric colorimetry, 
to the analysis of gloss and its measurement, to 
the design of apparatus for testing appearance 
properties of materials. 

Philip R. Karr, physicist, National Bureau of 
Standards, in recognition of his studies of radia- 
tion fields and of the penetration and diffusion 
of X-rays through barriers. 

Kathryn Knowlton, biochemist, National Insti- 
tute of Arthritis and Metabolic Diseases, Na- 
tional Institutes of Health, in recognition of her 
contributions in research and development of 
analytical methods for metabolic research. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 9 


Louis R. Maxwell, physicist, Naval Ordnance 
Laboratory, in recognition of his studies on aver- 
age lifetime in excited states (atomic), electron 
diffraction of gases and liquids, and magnetic 
investigations of antiferromagnetic materials. 

Norman B. McCullough, chief, Laboratory of 
Clinical Investigations, National Microbiological 
Institute, National Institutes of Health, in recog- 
nition of his many outstanding contributions to 
our knowledge of the cause, diagnosis and treat- 
ment of brucellosis in man. 

Sherman Ross, associate professor of psychol- 
ogy, University of Maryland, in recognition of his 
contributions to the science of psychology, and 
in particular his researches on the effects of diet 
on social behavior. 

James A. Shannon, associate director, National 
Heart Institute, National Institutes of Health, 
in recognition of his outstanding research parti- 
cularly in areas of the physiology of excretion and 
of the pharmacology and chemotherapy of anti- 
malarial drugs. 

Falconer Smith, scientist, U. S. Public Health 
Service, in recognition of his work on radiation 
sickness. 

Lawrence Zeleny, chief, Standardization Re- 
search and Testing Division, U. 8. Department 
of Agriculture, in recognition of his work in the 
chemistry of fats and oils and cereal chemistry. 


Elected January 14, 1952 


Edith K. Cash, mycologist, Division of Mycol- 
ogy and Disease Survey, U. S. Department of 
Agriculture, in recognition of her contributions 
to mycology and in particular her researches on 
the taxonomy of the Discomycetes. 

Raymond N. Doetsch, assistant professor of 
bacteriology, University of Maryland, in recog- 
nition of his contributions to general bacteriology 
with particular emphasis on physiology and dairy 
bacteriology. 

Anna Hietanen-Makela, chief, Petrological In- 
vestigations Unit, U. S. Geological Survey, in 
recognition of her contributions to metamorphism 
and structural petrology. 

Alice Phillips Withrow, plant physiologist, 
Smithsonian Institution, in recognition of her 
contributions to radiation physiology. 

Robert B. Withrow, chief, Division of Radia- 
tion and Organisms, Smithsonian Institution, in 
recognition of his contributions to radiation phys- 
iology. 


SEPTEMBER 1952 


Elected February 18, 1952 


Clifford Evans, associate curator of ethnology, 
U. S. National Museum, in recognition of his 
contributions to South American archeology, espe- 
cially the Amazon region. 

Thomas J. Killian, science director, Office of 
Naval Research, in recognition of his contribu- 
tions to the science of physics, particularly his 
research on electrical discharges in gases, and his 
outstanding contributions as an administrator 
of Navy sponsored basic research. 

E. R. Piore, deputy chief and chief scientist, 
Office of Naval Research, in recognition of his 
contributions to the science of physics, particu- 
larly his work on electron emission, and_ his 
outstanding services in the encouragement and 
administration of basic research. 


Elected March 17, 1952 


L. B. Aldrich, director, Astrophysical Observa- 
tory, Smithsonian Institution, in recognition of 
his ability and accomplishments both as an in- 
vestigator in astrophysics and as administrator 
of the Astrophysical Observatory. 

Howard L. Andrews, chief, section on Nuclear 
Radiation Biology, National Institutes of Health, 
in recognition of his achievements in research 
on and the teaching of nuclear radiation phenom- 
ena in relation to public health and civil defense. 

M. Thomas Bartram, chief, Bacteriological 
Branch, Division of Microbiology, U. 8. Food and 
Drug Administration, in recognition of his work 
on the bacteriology of foods. 

E. P. Cronkite, head, Hematology Division, 
Naval Medical Research Institute, in recognition 
of his contributions in use of blood derivatives 
in clinical medicine, hematologic effects of radia- 
tion, hemostasis in normal and irradiated animals, 
and hematologic and lethal effects of atomic 
bomb radiation (Bikini and Eniwetok). 

R. Harold Draeger, head, Atomic Medical 
Division, Naval Medical Research Institute, in 
recognition of his work in the field of atomic 
medicine, particularly the biological engineering 
of equipment for the exposure of animals to 
atomic bomb air blast, thermal and ionizing 
radiation. 

Wilham H. Hoover, chief astrophysicist, Astro- 
physical Observatory, Smithsonian Institution, 
in recognition of his ability as a research investi- 
gator in physics, astrophysics, and plant physiol- 
ogy. 


NEW MEMBERS OF THE ACADEMY 


dll 


Richard H. Lee, commander, Allied Science 
Section of the Medical Service Corps, U.S. Navy, 
in recognition of his research in night vision and 
biological aspects of the testing of atomic weapons. 

Hui-Lin 1i, visiting research scientist, U. 8. 
Department of State, in recognition of his con- 
tributions to the botany of Chinese plants, espe- 
cially his studies of the Scrophulariaceae and of 
the flora of Formosa. 

William D. Reed, entomologist, Department 
of the Army, Office of the Chief of Engineers, in 
recognition of his services to the science of ento- 
mology in research and administration. 

Glenn G. Slocum, chief, Division of Micro- 
biology, Food and Drug Administration, in rec- 
ognition of his work on the microbiology of 
foods and drugs. 


Elected April 7, 1952 

Ralph A. Alpher, physicist, Johns Hopkins 
University Applied Physics Laboratory, in rec- 
ognition of his contributions to astrophysics, 
particularly his contributions to theories of the 
origin of the elements, as well as other work in 
fluid mechanics and cosmic rays. 

Harold J. Coolidge, executive director, Pacific 
Science Board, National Research Council, in 
recognition of his researches in mammalogy and 
his outstanding work in organizing and directing 
various scientific expeditions and promoting in- 
ternational conservation of wildlife and world 
extension of national parks and primitive areas; 
especially for his work in extending international 
cooperation in Pacific science. 

Alden H. Emery, executive secretary, Amer- 
ican Chemical Society, in recognition of his 
contributions to the knowledge of sources of rock 
strata gases, sources and collection of dust in 
mines, mineragraphic identification of minerals; 
microscopic mineralogy, treatment and utiliza- 
tion of nonmetallic minerals, and mineral fillers. 

Robert C. Herman, physicist, Johns Hopkins 
University Applied Physics Laboratory, in reec- 
ognition of his contributions to molecular phys- 
ies, solid state physics, and astrophysics, and in 
particular his work in molecular dynamics, lumi- 
nescence and photoconductivity, and the origin 
of the elements. 


NONRESIDENT 
Elected November 19, 1951 


O. Wilford Olsen, head, Department of Zoology, 
Colorado Agricultural and Mechanical College, 


312 


Fort Collins, Colo., in recognition of his investi- 
gations on control and therapeutics of parasites 
of cattle, particularly liver flukes, and parasites 
of wildlife. 

Robert L. Weintraub, supervisory plant phys- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 9 


iologist, Camp Detrick, Maryland, in recogni- 
tion of his research in plant physiology and 
chemistry, particularly his contributions to the 
knowledge of plant growth substances and the 
effect of radiant energy on plants. 


Obituary 


James Ler Prrers, curator of birds at the 
Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard Uni- 
versity, died in Boston in his 62d year on April 
19, 1952, after a rather sudden heart attack com- 
plicated by pneumonia. Aside from field trips 
to various parts of North and South America 
and to Europe, his entire life was spent in the 
Boston region, where he was born on August 13, 
1889, and his whole scientific career, save for a 
short service in the field with the old Biological 
Survey of the Department of Agriculture, was 
centered in the great museum at Harvard. Fol- 
lowing his graduation from Harvard in 1912 he 
worked without title or salary for a number of 
years as assistant to the late Outram Bangs, 
later becoming assistant curator and, on the 
death of Bangs in 1932, curator of the division 
of birds. 

In the early years of his work at the museum 
Peters made numerous expeditions, beginning 
with a trip to Quintana Roo in 1912. Four years 
later he collected in the northern part of the 
Dominican Republic. He served with the U.S. 
Army in France in the first World War, but after 
the armistice resumed bird work. In 1920 and 
1921 he was in Argentina, and particularly in 
Patagonia, making special observations on the 
ducks for the late John C. Phillips, but obtained 
a general collection of the avifauna of the region 
as well. In 1922 he spent some time on the island 
of Anguilla, West Indies, and late in 1927 he 
made the first ornithological survey of the Corn 
Islands, off the coast of Honduras. From these 


islands early in 1928 he went to the Caribbean 
lowlands of Honduras, where he collected for some 
three months. This was his last field trip, and 
while his personal collecting was confined to New 
World birds, his studies were world-wide. He 
wrote technical reports on other collections from 
Asia, Africa, and New Guinea and became deeply 
interested in nomenclature and_ classification. 
This provided the background for his major 
work, his Check list of birds of the world, the first 
volume of which appeared in 19381, the seventh in 
1951. At the time of his death he had much 
manuscript prepared for the eighth volume and 
anticipated that the total work would require 
about 15 volumes. This great work, only partly 
accomplished, will long remain his monument. 
Few recent publications are in more constant use 
by systematic ornithologists the world over than 
these books, and it is hoped that a way may be 
found to have the task completed. In 1934 the 
German Ornithological Society made him a cor- 
responding member because of the excellence of 
this work, and six years later he was further 
recognized by the American Ornithologists’ Union 
with their highest award, the Brewster Medal. 
He was president of this society from 1942 to 
1945. 

His interest in questions of nomenclature led 
him eventually to the presidency of the Inter- 
national Commission of Zoological Nomenclature, 
which position he held at the time of his death. 
His passing leaves a gap it will be difficult to fill. 

HERBERT FRIEDMANN. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


IBV EStGETI EA «NA Sha Sea ish WaLtTER RamBere, National Bureau of Standards 
PEPE OSt CLETELCLECE sass se oats ered ois So Ferrey tee eee F, M. Serzuer, U. 8. National Museum 
ISECTELIET UNS rnPpaek 5s bree sis NG re dene Shera F, M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
ERED STAR oop doen cece oie Serer: Howarp 8S. Rappueye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
ANA COTETS GRACES ARE ORG bin clrcece tee Joun A. StevENSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Harawp A. Reupar, U. 8. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


Philosophical Society of Washington......................eeeeeeees A. G. McNisu 
Anthropological Society of Washington........................ Wawpo R. WEDEL 
iBrolorical) Society, of Washingtonian cece eset aeee seen ene Hues T. O’N5ILL 
ChemicallSocietyz of Washingtonees- jess eee eee Joun K. Taytor 
Entomological Society of Washington........................ FRepERIcK W. Poos 
INationaluGeographic)Societys--ceeen-ases a eee eee ee ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geological Society of Washington.............. Fea Poe OE A. NELSON SAYRE 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia........................ FRED O. Cor 
ColumbiayeustoricallSociety eos ee ee eee oe ee eee GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Botanical Society,of Washington-e-eerrerne sere eece eee Les M. Hutcnins 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Wiutiiam A. Dayton 
Mashimeconusociety, of Hneineerstasessee oe oe eae een Currrorp A. Betts 
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Hngineers..RicHarp 8. DrLu 
Helminthological Society of Washington................ ......... L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Aneus M. GRIFFIN 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. HoucH 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers............ Herspert G. Dorsry 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 


N. R. Exits 

Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 
PRoRUamUAT 95S sas cisco sie waldo C. F. W. Mussssecr, A. T. McPHERSON 
POM Me mUTATI VoD ois A cise «eka eddvesraroncressa cine Sara E. Brannam, Mitton Harris 
pom ereratsvawl OD eee sprees Stee tae n; Hovaeeanecnes aekerscrs nara oe Roger G. Bartss, W. W. DizHu 
oondnojmVionagensss S244 5s: snes) cons aoe All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
OUTORO;MELCUCOT STATO PA'SSOCUALEM EL ALLOT.S eee dee een: [See front cover] 


Executive Commitiee.... WALTER RAMBERG (chairman), F.M. Sprzter, H.S.Rappieye, 
WiuuiaM A. Dayton, F. M. DEFANDORF 
Committee on Membership. .E. H. WALKER (chairman), M. 8. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cort- 
Tam, R. C. Duncan, JoHN Faper, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, FRANK Kracnx, D. B. 
Jones, EK. G. REINHARD, Reece I. Satter, Leo A. SHinn, F. A. Suita, Hernz Specut, 
H.M. Trent, AtFreD WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings....H. W. Weuus (chairman), Wm. R. Campspeu, W. R. CHap- 
LINE, D. J. Davis, H. G. Dorsry, O. W. TorrEson 

Committee on Monographs (W. N. FEnton, chairman): 


PROMMAMUL ATR pL OD Stee Site techn tte sees Re ea nya ee nage creas R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 

PROM ATA ATMOS A Be aa ve Asn hace gat Mou eats S. F. Buaxn, F. C. Kracex 

MOR Mamira tye 955m er as ee iyacl teres Maree eee Moen ee aerchsha se W.N. Fenton, ALAN STONE 

Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (J. R. SWALLEN, general chairman): 

For Biological Sciences............. J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), L. M. Hutcuins, 
Maraaret Pirrman, F. W. Poos, L. P. Scuuttz 

For Engineering Sciences............. R. C. Duncan (chairman), A. C. FIELDNER, 
Wayne C. Haut, J. W. McBurney, O. 8. Reapine, H. L. Woirremors 

HOT BENUSTCOUIS CLENCESHamEn ee een te L. A. Woop (chairman), P. H. ABELSON, 


F.S. Darr, Gores W. Irvine, Jr., J. H. McMiLiten 
For Teaching of Science...... M. A. Mason (chairman), F. E. Fox, M. H. Martin 


Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research....... L. E. Yocum (chairman), H. N. Eaton, 
K. F. HerzFreLp 


Committee on Policy and Planning: 


MorJamuarye 953 sce veces cis aeons aunt: W. A. Dayton (chairman), N. R. Surra 

PROV IAT AT 09 SA cies in < eecre tice ete Sects Bs cesaaateans H. B. Couns, Jr., W. W. Rusey 

Ror amuatiysel Qooweme: mene terre mee riceeevar eescgareec meseaucce L. W. Parr, F. B. SILsBEE 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPHmRson, chairman): 

PROT AMAT VBL DO pw Aree rem Sewn Eas Me Nie hy cates Sela a A. H. Cruark, F. L. MouLer 

Mov January Oden evs Mr aec nota «tac J. M. Catpwetu, W. L. Scumrrr 

oman uany el GooR ear. oee cae merece maven ase ens A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap 
IRGTORAB THO? O@ Common! OF Alo Blo Alo Sloocasoccutsannodotuunadososaccac F. M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... C. L. Gazin (chairman), Loutss M. Russgeuu, D. R. Tare 


Committee of Tellers. ..G@rorGE P. WALTON (chairman), GEorGE H. Coons, C. L. GARNER 


CONTENTS 


Page 
Astronomy.—Meteors and meteorites. SYDNEY CHAPMAN..........- 273 
Botany.—A new Guzmania from Colombia. Lyman B. SMITH....... 282 


Enromo.tocy.—A review of the genus Tegenaria in North America 
(Arachnida: Agelenidae). Vincent D. Roru................... 283 
Entomo.tocy.—J ohnsonaepsylla audyi, a new genus and new species of 
flea from North Borneo, with notes on the subfamily Leptopsyllinae 


(Siphonaptera). ROBERT RAUB. 0. eee 288 
Mataco.tocy.—Generic and subgeneric names in the molluscan class 

Scaphopeda. WintrAw Ke PIMERSON. ... 2... 2.12) eee 296 
Nematotocy.—tThe teasel nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kuhn, 1857), 

Bilipjev, 1936. Winsur DD. CouRTNEY.----- 4-5-2 > See 303 
New MrmMprrsior rim ACADEMY. ©: 25554525. 425 0- o Re eee 309 
OxsitTuary: James Lee Peters................. Roel See 312 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


A/S wa 
506. (~ 


Yin Bt ae W 23 


OctoBerR 1952 No. 10 


OF THE 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 42 


October 1952 


No. 10 


BIOCHEMISTRY .—A bioassay of some stereoisomeric constituents of allethrin. 
W. A. Gersporrr and Norman Mituin, U.S. Bureau of Entomology and 


Plant Quarantine. 


In the study of the toxicity of pyrethroids 
in relation to chemical structure it has been 
of interest to determine the effect, if any, 
of differences in the arrangement of the 
atoms in the molecule. The relative toxicity 
of position isomers has been touched upon 
only with a comparison of two esters differ- 
ing in point of attachment of the acyl group 
to the cyclopentenolone nucleus (LaForge 
et al., 1948), two pairs of esters differing in 
position of the double bond in the butenyl 
side chain (LaForge et al., 1948; Gersdorff, 
1949a), two monochloro derivatives of al- 
lethrin (Gersdorff and Mitlin, 1951), and 
three pairs of esters of different cyclopro- 
panecarboxylic acids (LaForge et al., 1952). 

Most of the available isomers have dif- 
fered only in spatial configuration. In tests 
with the pyrethrins and cinerins no differ- 
ences in relative toxicity were demonstrated 
between the esters formed from the same 
d-trans acid with the d-cis and dl-cis forms 
of the same pentenolone (Gersdorff, 1947). 
Appreciable differences in toxicity were 
found, however, when there were differ- 
ences in optical activity in the acid com- 
ponent, whether the cyclopentenolone pos- 
sessed the 2-butenyl side chain (Gersdorff, 
1949a) or the allyl side chain (Gersdorff, 
1949a, b; Elhott et al., 1950; Fales et al., 
1951; LaForge et al., 1952). No differences 
in toxicity were found between the esters of 
the cis and trans forms of the acid compo- 
nent, whether the cyclopentenolone pos- 
sessed the 2-butenyl or the allyl side chain 
(Gersdorff, 1949a). However, only small 
amounts of the acids were available for the 
preparation of the esters (Schechter et al., 
1949), so that there was some question of 
their purity (Gersdorff and Mitlin, 1951); 


313 


(OCT 24 1962 


therefore, small differences in their toxicity, 
otherwise measurable, could have heen 
missed. 

A similar interest has continued in the 
studies with the stereoisomeric constituents 
of allethrin (dl-2-allyl-4-hydroxy-3-methyl- 
2-cyclopenten-1-one—that is, dl-allethrolone 
—acylated with a mixture of c/s and trans 
dl-chrysanthemum monocarboxylic acids). 
Information on their relative toxicities and 
contents in allethrin would be of consider- 
able importance. Allethrin may be con- 
sidered a mixture of four racemic pairs of 
isomers, two being esters of the czs form of 
the acid and two of the trans form. 

In 1950 chemists in the Bureau of Ento- 
mology and Plant Quarantine prepared the 
cis and trans fractions in nearly pure condi- 
tion and in quantities adequate for extensive 
tests. A study was therefore undertaken to 
determine under these improved conditions 
the relative toxicities of the two fractions 
and of allethrin itself and to estimate by 
means of these values the amounts of the 
two in allethrin. By cooling distilled allethrin 
the chemists also obtained a crystalline com- 
pound which they identified as one of the 
racemic trans pairs and designated the a-dl- 
trans isomer of allethrin. A sample (A) of 
this compound was included in the study. 

In 1951 one of the manufacturers of al- 
lethrin submitted to the Bureau a crystalline 
compound (sample C) obtained by hoiding 
commercial allethrin at 4° C. and found to 
be identical chemically with the Bureau’s 
sample of the a-dl-trans isomer (Schechter 
et al., 1951). Another series of tests was 
made to compare the two products imsec- 
ticidally, this time a newly prepared sample 
(B) from the distilled allethrin being used. 


314 


The oil obtained from the filtrate from the 
a-dl-trans isomer, designated the $-dl-trans 
isomer, was included in this series. 

Materials ——Thus four new materials were 
available for comparison of toxicity—the 
mixture of the two dl-cis isomers, the mix- 
ture of the two dl-trans isomers, the a-dl- 
trans isomer, and the -dl-trans isomer. The 
term “isomer” refers in each case to a pair 
of optical isomers. The first two mixtures 
were about 95 percent pure. The sample of 
the a-dl-trans isomer was pure. The 6-dl- 
trans isomer contained about 5 percent of 
dissolved a-dl-trans isomer. The a-dl-trans 
isomer was represented by three separately 
prepared samples (A, B, and C). Two mix- 
tures of the dl-cis and dl-trans fractions in 
the proportions 3:7 and 1:1 were also pre- 
pared. A distilled sample of allethrin, ana- 
lyzing 95 percent by the hydrogenolysis 
method, and a sample of pyrethrins, 52 per- 
cent of which consisted of pyrethrin I and 
cinerin I (A.O.A.C. method), were used as 
standards of comparison. 

Sprays of these materials were prepared 
by dissolving them in refined kerosene at 
concentrations selected according to pre- 
liminary tests. 

Evaluation of relative toxicity —The 
method of assay was based on the compari- 
son of the relative toxicities of the compo- 
nents of a mixture with the relative toxicity 
of the mixture. These values were obtained 
from replicated tests at four concentrations 
made with the Campbell turntable. The test 
insect was the laboratory-reared adult house 
fly (Musca domestica L.). Approximately 100 
flies, averaging 2 to 3 days in age, were used 
in each test. Knockdown and mortality are 
summarized in Table 1. The results are ar- 
ranged in two series, each giving the means 
obtained with a different group of seven 
populations of flies. Tests with all materials 
in each group were made simultaneously. 

Methods of probit analysis described by 
Finney (1947) were used to fit the regression 
lines to the mortality data and to estimate 
the LC 50 and its standard error for each of 
the materials. The estimations are given in 
Table 2. Relative toxicity is calculated as 
the inverse ratio of LC 50’s. The equations 
for the lines showing the regression of mor- 
tality, expressed in probits, on concentration 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VoL. 42, No. 10 


in milligrams per deciliter, expressed as loga- 
rithms, are as follows: 


Series 1: 


Y = 2.902X — 0.7654 
Y = 2.902X — 0.2040 


dl-cis isomers 
dl-trans isomers 
Mixtures of dl-cis and dl-trans 


isomers: 

3:7 Y = 2.902X — 0.3823 

isil Y = 2.902X — 0.4390 

Allethrin Y = 2.902K — 0.5684 
a-dl-trans isomer, sample A Y = 3.722X — 4.0297 
Pyrethrins Y = 2.384X — 0.7338 

Series 2: 

a-dl-trans isomer. 

Sample B Y = 3.241X — 2.8675 

Sample C Y = 3.241X — 2.8706 
B-dl-trans isomer Y = 2.690X + 0.2439 
Allethrin Y = 2.499X + 0.0583 
Pyrethrins Y = 2.479X — 0.8047 


In series | the slopes of the individually 
fitted lines with their standard errors were, 
respectively, 2.814+0.097, 2.952+0.095, 
2.678+0.093, 3.054+0.099, 3.050+0.101, 
3.722+0.118, and 2.384+0.088 probits per 
unit log concentration. The results with the 
cis and trans fractions and their mixtures 
could be fitted with parallel lines, so this 
was done as their equations above show, the 
generalized regression coefficient being 
2.902+0.043. The slopes of the lines for the 
a-trans isomer and pyrethrins were signifi- 
cantly different, however, so their individual 
equations are given. 

In series 2 the individual slopes with their 
standard errors were, respectively, 3.3862 
0.112, 3.109+0.107, 2.690+0.093, 2.499+ 
0.093, and 2.479+0.094. The data for the 
two samples of the a-trans compound could 
be fitted by parallel lines with a generalized 
regression coefficient of 3.241+0.077. The 
slopes for the three other materials are sig- 
nificantly different from those for the e-trans 
samples but not among themselves. How- 
ever, the slope for allethrin is usually slightly 
greater than that for pyrethrins when com- 
pared by this method. Therefore, it was 
thought best to use the individually fitted 
lines for these three materials. That these 
lines will show more nearly true relation- 
ships may be seen if allethrin, the e-trans 
isomer, and pyrethrins are compared by 
means of LC 50’s in the two series. The 
difference in relative susceptibility of differ- 
ent populations of flies has resulted in 
greater variation in the measurements with 


OcToBER 1952 GERSDORFF AND MITLIN: CONSTITUENTS OF ALLETHRIN 315 


pyrethrins. Therefore, differences in relative Tape ape NCR HOHIN AND Mes TAUay or House 
ovias meee Seon eae <5 : im LIES CAUSED BY CONSTITUENTS OF / LLETHRIN 
toxicity values involving pyrethrins are due (ani JESTER IM EERLUTeIOS Tm IRGSTEORTSIN Gh 


essentially to the measurements made with All tests replicated 7 times 
that insecticide. 


Knock- Mor- 


Assay—To estimate the amounts of com- "etal Concen-| down | tality 
ponents in a mixture by means of relative ea Ieee Bee 
toxicity, it is necessary to determine equiva- 
lents and to assume or establish that the perent | Percent | Percent 
joint action of the components is of the gears 1: 
similar type as defined by Bliss (1939). It dl-cis isomers 2.0 | 100 83.8 
does not seem likely that synergistic or an- ae ie : re 
tagonistic action will occur in mixtures of 25 | 997 8.4 
components so nearly alike structurally. In Hi pen genes, may learn ai 
the three mixtures of the czs and trans frac- 1.0 | 100 72.5 
tions there can be no pronounced action of 0.5 | 100 41.0 
either of these types. As shown by the LC co ae se 
50’s in Table 2, by the equations, or indeed Muxturesiol.db-cisiand'dl-trans 
by the mortalities in Table 1, the toxicities Saas 2.0 | 100 90.9 
of these mixtures fall between those of the 10 | 100 61.0 
individual fractions, in themselves not ne te ae 


greatly different in toxicity. If one of the 


fractions is chosen as a standard of com- S a iss ee 
parison and the insecticide equivalents in 0.5 | 100 24.9 
terms of this standard calculated for the 20 OE Bes 
LC 50’s of the two prepared mixtures, it Altethrin Am | a9 539) 
will be found that they do not differ greatly 1.0 | 100 62.7 
from the standard. This was done in Table 2 Hee mae ae 


with the cis fraction as the standard. 


To find whether there was a significant geen Rome ae oF mae eee, 
departure from similarity, the relative tox- 2.0 99.9 | 26.8 
icity on the equivalent basis was deter- Bd BO | bbe 
mined. This is also given in Table 2, together Pyrethrins 8.0 | 100 88.4 
with its logarithm, since tests of significance RSPEI ceases 
are properly made on the log concentration 10 | 10 | 172 
scale. When these log ratios are compared s,s 9: 
with the minimum log ratio required to a-dl-trans isomer: 
demonstrate synergism or antagonism, it is Seta 18 me ae | ae 
seen that there is no difference from simi- 20 97.7 | Bee 
larity in the action of these components 1.0 $5.0 | 10.9 
when mixed. Sample C 8.0 | 100 94.4 

If the joint action is similar one compo- 4.0 98.9 | 72.9 
nent may be substituted for the other in a Ai ae ae 
constant ratio without altering the toxicity [ie 

F 31.0 B-dl-trans isomer 2.0 100 | 90.6 

of the mixture. The percentage composition 10 | 10 | 74.1 
of the two fractions in the sample of allethrin 0.5 99.7 | 48.0 
used may therefore be calculated on the ba- Visa ance eas 
sis of their relative toxicities. Thus, the sum Allethrin 2.0 | 100 80.3 
of the equivalents of the components would ae | Be a o 
equal the equivalent of the mixture, stated eral GAG) || RS 
as a general equation as follows: Pyrethrins ay ern ee 
1.0) | 5.100 21.7 


‘in WANE foe TS WS Tove) NOVO, @! Was CoS oS Ee ee 


316 


tion and R,, R,, and R,, are the respective 
toxicity ratios of the czs and trans fractions 
and the mixture. The ratios may be relative 
to any standard, but if based on allethrin the 
values given in Table 2 may be introduced 
as follows: 


p- 0.85 + (1 — p,) 1.33 = 1.00 


from which p, = 0.69 and 1 — p, = 0.81. 
Thus, according to this bioassay the cis iso- 
mers comprised about 69 percent and the 
trans isomers about 31 percent of the sample 
of allethrin used in this study. 

The use of relative toxicities in such an 
assay may be tested by substituting the 
appropriate values for the two prepared 
mixtures in the above equation, as follows: 

For the 3:7 mixture, p. 0.85 + (1 — p.) 
1.33 = 1.16, from which p, = 0.35. 

For the 1:1 mixture, p. 0:85 -— (1 — p,) 
1.33 = 1.11, from which p. = 0.46. 

The differences from the actual propor- 
tions of the czs fraction used in the mixtures, 
0.30 and 0.50, are within experimental error. 

In series 2 the assay of the a-dl-trans and 
B-dl-trans isomers may proceed in the same 
fashion, since the two together form the 
total trans fraction. However, in this case 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 10 


similar action is assumed since no prepared 
mixtures were tested. Since the 6-dl-trans 
fraction tested still contained about 5 per- 
cent of the a-dl-trans isomer, a correction 
for this should first be made. The substi- 
tuted equation for the correction is 


0.05 X 0.35 + 0.95 X Rs = 1.62 


from which Rg (the ratio of toxicity of the 
pure £-dl-trans isomer) is 1.69. Now the 
proportion of the two isomers may be ob- 
tained from the substituted equation, pa. 
representing the proportion of a isomer 


Da 0.35 + (1 — pa) 1.69 = 1.33 


from which’ pz. =| (0:27 and ily —spee—s0n3 
Thus, 27 percent of the dl-trans fraction 
consisted of the a isomer and 73 percent the 
8B isomer. Since the trans fraction was only 
31 percent of allethrin, the two isomers 
comprised 8 and 23 percent of allethrin, 
respectively. 

Discussion.—In the present study with 
materials of 95 percent purity, the trans 
fraction was shown to be 1.56 as toxic as the 
cis fraction. This ratio, obtained in the com- 
parison of the separate materials, 1s sub- 
stantiated by the relative toxicities deter- 


TABLE 2.—RELATIVE TOXICITY OF SOME CONSTITUENTS OF ALLETHRIN AND THEIR DERIVED CONTENT 
IN ALLETHRIN 


LC 50 Toxicity Relative to— 
Fi ne OF, Content 
Material ¢ . ~C1S atio o in 
Original reas (Ouenal pets Equivalents | Allethrin 
Basis oes d quivalent 
Equivalent Basis Basie 
mg per dl mg per dl percent 
Series 1: 
dl-cis isomers 97.0 + 2.3 97.0 0.85 1.0 — 69 +5 
dl-trans isomers 62.1 +1.4 — 1.33 — — 3145 
Mixtures of dl-cis and dl-trans isomers: 
3:7 71.5 + 1.7 99.5 1.16 (1.19)! 0.975 —0.011 = 
eit 74.8 + 1.6 95.7 1.11 (1.09) 1.014 0.006 = 
Allethrin 82.9 41.8 —_— 1.0 a = = 
a-dl-trans isomer, sample A 266.5 + 5.1 — 0.31 _ _— T+12 
Pyrethrins 254.0 + 6.6 — 0.33 = = = 
Series 2: 
a-dl-trans isomer: 
Sample B 267.8 + 5.6 _— 0.35 _ _ U seb 
Sample C 268.4 + 6.0 — 0.35 — _ T+£P 
B-dl-trans isomer 58.6 + 1.4 — 1.62? — | — 24 + 12 
Allethrin 94.9 + 2.5 — 1.0 = | = = 
Pyrethrins 219.5 + 5.8 0.43 _— = = 
Minimum required to demonstrate synergism or antagonism.................. 20.20 e eee eevee eee ee +0.030 — 


1 Figures in parentheses calculated for similar action. 


2 When corrected for the presence of 5 percent of a-dl-trans isomer in the B-dl-trans fraction, the relative toxicity of 100 percent 
B-trans isomer becomes 1.69 and the content figures 8 and 23 percent. 


OcToBER 1952 


mined for the two prepared mixtures. This 
substantiation is very readily shown by sub- 
stituting the appropriate values in the gen- 
eral equation above and using for them the 
toxicities relative to the czs fraction. These 
ratios are not given in Table 2, but are easily 
obtained from the LC 50 values. Thus, the 
ratio for the 3:7 mixture is 1.36 and for the 
1:1 mixture 1.30. The equations then be- 
come as follows: 
For the 3:7 mixture, 0.3 X 1.00 + 0.7R, 

= 1.36, anclin; = iol 
For the 1:1 mixture, 0.5 X 1.00 + 0.5R, 

= stl) ame! Ji, = 140) 
These two indirect estimations of the rela- 
tive toxicity of the trans fraction.agree well 
with the direct estimation. 

In series 2 the samples of the a-dl-trans 
isomer prepared at different laboratories are 
shown to be toxicologically identical. When 
these results are compared with the results 
obtained with an earlier preparation against 
different populations of flies in series 1, the 
agreement is still good. The significantly 
higher regression coefficient for this com- 
pound shows that mortality caused by it 
increased more rapidly with concentration 
than did that caused by pyrethrins. There- 


fore, although the two toxicants had about 


the same range of effective concentrations, 
equal mortalities were not obtained through- 
out the course of toxic action. However, at 
the 50 percent mortality level the two mate- 
rials were about equally toxic. This relation- 
ship, the relatively simple chemical nature 
of the a-dl-trans isomer with the accom- 
panying assurance of high purity and uni- 
formity, the greater ease of handling, and 
the probably greater stability suggest that 
this compound may serve as a welcome sub- 
stitute for pyrethrins as a standard for fly 
sprays. 

The mixed ester formed by the acylation 
of racemic allethrolone with l-trans chrysan- 
themum monocarboxylic acid has been 
found to have little toxicity to house flies 
in comparison with allethrin (4 percent, 
LaForge et al., 1952). Even this may be 
due to a shght impurity, so that for prac- 
tical purposes the allethrin equivalent of the 
mixed ester may be considered zero. There- 
fore, unless there is a mutually masking, 
antagonistic joint action, which is unlikely, 


GERSDORFF AND MITLIN: CONSTITUENTS OF ALLETIHRIN 


317 


the two optical isomers in the ester—that is, 
the l-trans acid with d-allethrolone and with 
l-allethrolone—must have allethrin equiva- 
lents of zero. Now the a-dl-trans isomer is 
one of two optical pairs—d-trans acid with 
d-allethrolone plus l-trans acid with J-al- 
lethrolone, or d-trans acid with /-allethrolone 
plus ltrans acid with d-allethrolone—and 
the 6-dl-trans isomer is the other pair 
(Schechter et al., 1951). These two pairs 
have been found in this study to have al- 
lethrin equivalents of 0.35 and 1.69. But one 
isomer in each pair, as deduced above, is 
nontoxic. Therefore, the remaining two iso- 
mers—d-trans acid with d-allethrolone and 
with (-allethrolone—have allethrin equiva- 
lents twice those for the mixtures, or 0.70 
and 3.38. The more toxic isomer, if sepa- 
rated, would be the most toxie pyrethroid 
known, about 10 times as toxic as natural 
pyrethrins. If these two isomers were mixed 
to give the esters that would be formed by 
the acylation of racemic allethrolone with 
the d-trans acid, in equal proportion, this 
mixture would have an allethrin equivalent 
of 2.04, for 


0.5 X 0.70 + 0.5 XK 3.38 = 2.04. 


This value has been demonstrated in 
actual tests with such a mixture. In four 
comparisons by the same method as used in 
the present study (Gersdorff, 1949b, and un- 
published data), representing a total of 32 
replications at four concentrations for each 
material, the estimations of the allethrin 
equivalent of a prepared ester of d-trans 
acid with dl-allethrolone were 1.98, 2.15, 
2.01, and 2.04. 

The ratio of toxicity of allethrin to py- 
rethrins in the first series, 3.06, was close to 
the mean of evaluations by this method, 
but in the second series this ratio, 2.31, was 
the lowest ever obtained with five or more 
replications at several concentrations for 
each insecticide. 

It is shown in Table 1 that all the sepa- 
rated constituents of allethrin caused high 
knockdown of flies at the concentrations 
used, knockdown value in general parallel- 
ing toxic value. 

Summary.—A_ bioassay of stereoisomeric 
constituents of allethrin was made by means 
of an evaluation of their relative toxicity 


318 


and that of their mixtures. The materials 
were applied as contact insecticides in re- 
fined kerosene on the Campbell turntable. 
The house fly (Musca domestica L.) was 
used as the test insect. 

The dl-trans fraction of allethrin was 1.56 
as toxic as the dl-cis fraction. The toxic ac- 
tion of the two fractions when applied in 
mixtures was identified as similar action. 

The trans fraction was 1.33 and the cis 
fraction 0.85 as toxic as the sample of al- 
lethrin used. On this basis the czs isomers 
comprised about 69 percent and the trans 
isomers about 31 percent of allethrin. 

A erystallme compound separated from 
the trans fraction was only 0.35 as toxic as 
allethrin and constituted 8 percent of that 
insecticide. The remainder of the trans frac- 
tion was 1.69 as toxic as allethrin and con- 
stituted 23 percent of that insecticide. 

It is deduced that half of each portion of 
the trans fraction is relatively nontoxic and 
that, of the remaining two isomers, d-trans 
acid with d-allethrolone and d-trans acid 
with l-allethrolone, one is 0.70 and the other 
3.38 as toxic as allethrin. 

All the separated constituents possessed 
high knockdown value. 


LITERATURE CITED 


Buss, C. I. The toxicity of poisons applied jointly. 
Ann. Appl. Biol. 26(3) : 585-615. 1939. 

Evuiorr, M., NeepuamM, P. H., and Porter, C. 
The insecticidal activity of substances related 
to the pyrethrins. I. The toxicities of two syn- 
thetic pyrethrin-like esters relative to that of the 
natural pyrethrins and the significance of the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 10 


results in the bioassay of closely related com- 
pounds. Ann. Appl. Biol. 37(3) : 490-507. 1950. 

Faces, J. H., Netson, R. H., Funron, R. A., and 
BovensteEIn, O. F. Insecticidal effectiveness of 
aerosols and sprays containing esters of syn- 
thetic cyclopentenolones with natural chrysan- 
themum monocarborylic acid. Journ. Econ. 
Ent. 44(2): 250-253. 1951. 

Finney, D..J. Probit analysis: 256 pp. Cambridge, 
1947. 

Gersporrr, W. A. Toxicity to house flies of the 
pyrethrins and cinerins, and derivatives, in 
relation to chemical structure. Journ. Econ. 
Ent. 40(6) : 878-882. 1947. 

——— Toxicity to house flies of synthetic com- 
pounds of the pyrethrin type in relation to 
chemical structure. Journ. Econ. Ent. 42(3): 
532-536. 1949. 

. Toxicity to house flies of new synthetic 

pyrethroid. Soap and Sanit. Chem. 25(11) : 129, 

131, 139. 1949. 

and Miriin, NorMan. Relative toxicity of 
allethrin analogs to house flies. Journ. Econ. 
Ent. 44(1): 70-73. 1951. 

LaFores, F. B., Gersporrr, W. A., GREEN, 
NatHaAN, and ScuecutErR, M. S. Allethrin- 
type esters of cyclopropanecarboxylic acids and 
their relative toxicities to house flies. Journ. 
Organ. Chem. 17(3): 381-389. 1952. 

LaFores, F. B., Green, NaTHan, and GeErs- 
porFF, W. A. Constituents of pyrethrum flowers. 
XXII. Synthesis and relative toxicity of two 
isomers of cinerin I. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 
70: 3707-11. 1948. 

ScHecutTpR, Mitron §., Green, NatHan, and 
LaForae, F. B. Constituents of pyrethrum 
flowers. XXIII. Cinerolone and the synthesis 
of related cyclopentenolones. Journ. Amer. 
Chem. Soc. 71: 3165-73. 1949. 

ScHECHTER, Mitron §8., LaForasn, F. B., Zim- 
MERLI, A., and Tuomas, J. M. Crystalline 
allethrin isomer. Journ. Amer. Chem. Soc. 
73: 3541-2. 1951. 


PALEONTOLOGY .—New species of Lecanocrinus. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE, Bar- 
tlesville, Okla. (Communicated by Alfred R. Loeblich, Jr.) 


Much of the material used in the present 
study has been made available through the 
generosity of Drs. G. A. Cooper and A. R. 
Loeblich, of the U. S. National Museum, 
and Richard Alexander, at present a student 
at the University of Oklahoma. One rare 
specimen from the Haragan formation was 
collected by Mrs. Beverley Graffham on the 
occasion of the first field trip by herself and 
her husband, Allen Graffham, to the old 
Hunton town site under the guidance of 
Richard Alexander. Numerous specimens 
from the Henryhouse formation have been 


collected by the author and his wife, Mrs. 
Melba Strimple. 

The three most distinctive forms of 
Lecanocrinus found in the Henryhouse for- 
mation are described as new species: L. brevis, 
L. erectus, and L. invaginatus. One form from 
the Brownsport (Lobelville) formation is de- 
scribed as L. lindenensis, n. sp. The Haragan 
form is described as Lecanocrinus huntonen- 
Sts, Nl. Sp. 

Abbreviations are given in the first syste- 
matic description below and are used there- 
after without explanation. 


OcroserR 1952 STRIMPLE: 
Genus Lecanocrinus Hall 
Lecanocrinus brevis, n. sp. 
Figs. 13-17 


Dorsal cup broad, robust, bowl-shaped, with 
shallowly concave base. Lower portions of basals 
(BB) as well as the three infrabasals (IBB) 
occupy the basal concavity. BB are five large 
plates which reach a height of 5.7 mm above the 
basal plane of the cup. Radials (RR) are five 
broad pentagonal plates which curve sharply 
inward before contacting the first primibrachials 
(PBrBr). The general contour of each radial 
plate is more or less flattened, whereas most 
species referred to the genus have gentle to strong 
curvature. Two low ridges and subsequently 
formed grooves pass from each basal to the 
adjoining radials. Adsutural areas of BB and RR 
are slightly raised, which condition continues 
onto the arms. Posterior interradius (post. IR) is 
occupied by a rather large, obliquely placed 
radianal (RA) and a broad anal X. The area 
about and including RA is strongly protruded. 
Conversely, anal X is sharply depressed in upper 
midsection. Anal X has a broad contact with 
posterior basal (post. B) and has very irregular 
lateral sides, particularly near the summit where 
right and left posterior radials and arms are en- 
deavoring to regain width, which is lost in 
proximal portions to the large anal plates. The 
right posterior is the more successful in this 
respect and develops next to the largest arm of 
the crown. 

The broad arms form a completely closed dome 
over the body cavity. Those of the right posterior, 
right anterior, and left anterior are broader and 
longer than the anterior and left posterior. This 
condition is reflected in the width of the RR with 
the exception of the right posterior where addi- 
tional width is gained by encroachment upon the 
right distal edge of anal X. The left anterior ray 
is the most dominant, and the right anterior is 
slightly smaller than that of the right posterior. 
First bifurcation takes place with the second 
primibrachials in all rays; however, in the holo- 
type it is the third primibrachial (PBr) that is 
axillary. The lateral edges of all arms are raised 
to form low ridges. In all rays except the anterior 
there is normally a second bifurcation with the 
third or fourth secundibrachials. 

Surface ornamentation is absent other than 
previously noted ridges and grooves. The proxi- 
mal columnals are round and small. 


NEW SPECIES 


OF LECANOCRINUS 319 
Measurements (in mm) .— 

Holotype 
Heightioficrowneres enna nace eee ae oee 22.0 
Height of dorsal cup.......... Wn ey ye ere tes ray ess 6.9 
Maximumiwidthiofscupeereeecee see oe eeeniasmaee PBI 
Width of cup at summit (anterior to posterior)... 22.7 
Maximum width of IBB circlet................... 8.0 
engthiofersants Beco rece cian 10.5* 
Widthyofsrtants Bren eee re eer ceric tee een ree 10.5” 
beng thyoterfantse Reece ice oe cle eee 8.9* 
Wid thio feregara tee hace nr rer err errr alate: sere 13.5* 
Weng throtmevAre eect aan ise pee pu anes een er 
Wid tho fgiRvAr etaeies srs orb need orsias ay serra fs oye tele hr he 21629) 
Wength of analieXen cease Were cicero 10.9 
Maximum width of anal X....................... 8.1 


* Measurements taken along curvature of plates. 


Remarks.—Among described species of the 
genus, only two are reported to have a strong 
tendency toward development of raised ridges. 
These are L. angulatus Springer (1920) and L. 
bacchus (Salter) (1873), which both have upflared 
IBB, readily visible in side view of the dorsal 
cup. L. soyet Oehlert (1882) has an outline of dor- 
sal cup comparable to that of L. brevis. It is a 
smaller species of lower Devonian age having a 
strongly granular surface. 

The broad bowl-shaped dorsal cup and the 
unusual ridges and grooves are sufficiently dis- 
tinctive to separate L. brevis from other known 
species. 

Occurrence—Upper Henryhouse formation, Si- 
lurian; holotype collected by Richard Alexander, 
NW/4SW/4 section 4, T.2 N., R.6E., paratype 
SW/4 NW/4 NW/4 section 33, T.3 N., R.6 E., 
two paratypes (crowns) collected by A. R. Loeb- 
lich, Jr., and W. E. Ham near the center NE/4 
SW/4 section 10, T. 2 N., R. 6 E., one paratype 
collected by Melba Strimple in NW/4 SW/4 
section 4, T.2 N., R. 6 E., allin Pontotoe County, 
south of Ada, Okla. 

Types.—To be deposited in the U. 8. National 
Museum. 


Lecanocrinus erectus, n. sp. 
Figs. 9, 10 


This species, known from specimens having 
complete dorsal cups and the first few brachials 
of the arms, is one of the largest observed in the 
Henryhouse formation. Three IBB form a flat- 
tened base, mildly impressed in midsection for 
reception of the proximal columnals. Distal por- 
tions of IBB are upflared and are readily visible 
in side view of the cup. Expansion of the cup is 
rather rapid to above midheight, thereafter it is 
slowly expanded to just below distal extremity 


320 


where there is a mild constriction. Above the 
IBB circlet, there are five BB, five large RR, one 
RA and one anal X. The radials are irregular in 
width and have somewhat flattened profiles. In 
the holotype, that of the right posterior has a 
width of 11.7 mm; right anterior, 13.6 mm; 
anterior, 11.8 mm; left anterior, 15.4 mm; and 
left posterior, 11.2 mm. RA is small and has the 
form of a regular quadrangle. Anal X is large 
and elongated and extends only a short distance 
above the cup summit. Raised ridges originate 
in the center of each basal and pass to adjoining 
radials where they meet just above midheight of 
the plates. In the post. IR, additional ridges are 
found. A third ray passes from r. post. R to RA 
and continues onto anal X. The right ray of post. 
B passes to anal X and a third ray passes to RA 
and continues onto r. post. R. In addition to the 
above ridges, there is a swelling along the sutures 
just above midheight of the RR. The area about 
and including the RA is protruded. Median por- 
tion of anal X is decidedly concave. Both r. post. 
and |. post. RR sacrifice width to the anal plates, 
but near the summit of the cup they regain a 
large portion of their width at the expense of 
anal X. 

First primibrachials are low, wide elements; 
the second PBrBr are low and axillary. In the 
holotype, the right and left posterior axillary 
PBrBr have no posterolateral sides but have 
normal lateral sides to the anterior. This arrange- 
ment would allow first and second SBrBr to con- 
tact the distal extremity of anal X. Articulating 
facets of the radials and brachials are very re- 
stricted in length. A tendency toward swelling has 
been noted in proximal portions of the lateral 
sides of brachials, indicating raised ridges com- 
parable to those found in L. brevis. 

Measurements (in mm).— 


Holotyte Paratype 
Height of dorsal cup..... 0 WGI] 16.0 
Maximum width of dorsal cup....... 22.3 23.3 
Height of IBB above basal plane... . ? 2.0 
Height of BB above basal plane..... 9.0 10.5 
Maximum width of IBB circlet...... 8.0 9.6 
Length of r. ant. B..... Bes oes 9.5* 10%3% 
Widthrofsrant-: Sb arermere ries 10.0* 10.3* 
OYA) Ci irs Ais Ieee din donbooudaeos 9.6* 10.0* 
Width of rant. Rio... --. 13.6* 14.0* 
Weng thiotvAter ere sete eee On) 6.4 
Width oftRi Avan aac: raise eccrine: 6.0 5.1 
eng thyoffanal eX ere ree 11.2 9.8 
Maximum width of anal X.......... 8.8 6.7 


* Measurements taken along curvature of plates. 


Remarks.—This species appears to be more 
closely related to L. brevis than other described 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 10 


species; however, the general outline of the cup 
is somewhat comparable to that of L. soyei 
(Oehlert) (1882). The later is a lower Devonian 
species of small size and has a decidedly granular 
surface. In L. brevis the ridge like structures are 
doubled and adjacent grooves are present. The 
tendency toward swelling along sutures is more 
widespread in L. brevis but is nevertheless found in 
the upper portion of the cup in L. erectus. The 
two species are quite different in shape of cups. 

Occurrence—Upper Henryhouse formation, Si- 
lurian; holotype and one paratype collected by 
Richard Alexander in SW/4 NW/4 NW//4 sec- 
tion 33, T. 3 N., R. 6 E., measured paratype by 
A. R. Loeblich, Jr., in exposure along east side of 
road in bluff NW/4 SW/4 section 4, T. 2 N., 
R 6 E., Pontotoc County, south of Ada, Okla. 

Types.—To be deposited in the U.S. National 
Museum. 


Lecanocrinus lindenensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 5-8 


The large dorsal cup is turbinate-shaped with 
upflared IBB visible in side view of cup. The 
surface is mildly granular and sutures are slightly 
impressed. Five BB are of equal width and height. 
Five RR are only slightly wider than high. RA 
is a small quadrangular plate, obliquely placed 
at the lower right hand corner of the long anal 
X. Anal X has an even width within the cup 
and extends a short distance into the interbrachial 
area where it terminates in a point. There is a 
slight depression just below the termination, 
smaller but similar to that found in L. brevis and 
L. erectus. First primibrachials are nonaxillary 
and are very low elements. 

Measurements (in mm).— 


Holotype 
Heighti of dorsalicupt-e--aseene eee eee 8.9 
Maximum) widthioficuphe-- see eee eee eee 13.2 
Height of IBB above basal plane................. 0.9 
Maximum width of IBB circlet................... 4.6 
Height of BB above basal plane.................. 4.6 
Length ofirant., Bic: :<.c)100. te mosee Coe athe 
Wadthrofinant Bree re ener eee aortas eee eres 
Length' of'riiant:. Reccn.oceeeceiy. Case eee 6.4* 
Widthiofrvant.)Rip.0 en gate ee eee Siaaes 
Length: of RA)... so. cioenee ose = eee Bo Ik 
Widthlof Rian. c05.h. neonate eee eee 3.4 
Length iofanall X..9. 4sqepce a ee Cee eee 6.2 
Maximum)! width) of/anall 2X&---.- ae ea 


* Measurements taken along curvature of plates. 


Remarks—The elongated cup with mildly 
granular surface, slight constriction at summit, 
and upflared IBB of L. lindenensis provides differ- 
entiation from other described species. Elongated 


OcToBER 1952 STRIMPLE: NEW SPECIES OF LECANOCRINUS 321 


Fras. 1-4.—Lecanocrinus invaginatus, n. sp.: Holotype viewed from right posterior, anterior, base, 
and summit (posterior at top), X 1.6. Fras. 5-8—Lecanocrinus lindenensis, n. sp.: 5-7, Holotype viewed 
from anterior, base (posterior at top), and right posterior, X 1.6; 8, paratype viewed from summit 
(posterior at top), X 16 Fras. 9, 10.—Lecanocrinus erectus, n. sp.: Holotype viewed from anterior 
and posterior, X 1.6. Frias. 11, 12.—Lecanocrinus huntonensis, n. sp.: Holotype viewed from base and 
posterior, X 2. Fras. 13-17.—Lecanocrinus brevis, n. sp.: 183-16, Holotype viewed from summit (pos 
terior at top), anterior, base, and posterior, X 1.6; 17, paratype viewed from left posterior, X 14. 


322 


RR and somewhat prominent BB suggest affinity 
with L. fascietatus (Angelin) (1878), and L. 
huntonensis, n. sp. The former species apparently 
has no tendency toward constriction at the sum- 
mit of the cup and the anal plate is almost en- 
tirely within the dorsal cup. The later species has 
more pronounced surface ornamentation, more 
acute termination of anal plate, more deeply im- 
pressed sutures, and IBB not visible in side view 
of cup. 

L. erectus is a larger species with somewhat 
comparable cup outline if angulation is disre- 
garded. It is different in that radial plates are 
proportionately wider, there is no surface granu- 
lation, impressed sutures are absent and the RR 
are more irregular in width in L. erectus. 

Occurrence—Brownsport (Lobelville) forma- 
tion, Silurian; holotype and three paratypes col- 
lected by A. R. Loeblich in road cuts on north 
side of Short Creek, North-central Rectangle, 
Linden Quadrangle, TVA 32 SE, east of Linden, 
Tenn. 

Types.—To be deposited in U. 8. Nat. Museum. 


Lecanocrinus invaginatus, n. sp. 
Figs. 1-4 


Dorsal cup truncate bowl-shaped with concave 
base. IBB are restricted to the basal invagina- 
tion. BB are five normal plates having width 
equal to length except where affected by the 
additional plates of the posterior interradius. RR 
are pentagonal and only slightly wider than long. 
RA is very small, quadrangular and is obliquely 
placed at the lower right corner of anal X. Anal 
X is unusually long and narrow. There is no ten- 
dency toward strong tumididity, raised ridges or 
impressed sutures in the dorsal cup. 

The arms are broad and occupy an area almost 
equal to that of the dorsal cup. In the holotype, 
first bifurcation takes place with the second 
PBrBr in all rays except the left posterior, wherein 
the first PBr is axillary. In the larger rays of the 
right posterior, right anterior and left anterior 
there is another bifurcation with the second 
secundibrachials in all rays. Yet another branch- 
ing occurs in the inner rays only of the left ante- 
rior rami on the third tertibrachials (TBrBr). In 
the arms of the right posterior only, the right rami 
are long enough to accomodate more than three 
brachials above the second dichotomy and the 
third TBr of the inner ray is axillary. The rami 
of the right anterior, anterior and left posterior 
terminate with the third TBrBr. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 42, No. 10 


Measurements (in mm).— 


Holotype 
Height: of crown: s:cie soccer esc OEE Ee 18.2 
Heightiofidorsalucup essence eee eee eee 19.1 
Maximum width of dorsal cup.................... 16.4 
Maximum width of cup at summit............... 16.4 
HengthiofirvantiRir ere. te le eee eee eter 6.3* 
Widthvofir-jant Riss. aac eee eee eee eee eee Ee 9.0* 
Length of'r.jant3 Bas. eae eee ener 6.6* 
Width ofr: vant: 0B! sey oe ore Cee eee 6.5* 
ength: of SBuAs «:s).5) ecpracen02o is Gace ee OREO 2.6 
Widthiof RA.) 55a. e estore a0 ee 2.6 
Length of'anal X°...c95 5.26 sedan EO EOE 7.0 
Maximum widthiofvanal Xe. eee eee eeenre 5.2 
Height of BB above basal plane.................. 6.9 


* Measurements taken along curvature of plates. 


Remarks.—L. invaginatus appears to be com- 
parable to L. pusillus (Hall) (1863) and L. pisi- 
formis (Roemer) (1860). The concave nature of 
the basal area most readily distinguishes it from 
those species as well as the narrow, elongated 
nature of the anal X. L. meniscus Springer (1920), 
has a broad base with IBB covered by the proxi- 
mal columnals, but the sutures of that species 
are sharply impressed and the mode of arm 
branching is different above the first dichotomy. 

Occurrence-—Upper Henryhouse formation, Si- 
lurian; Holotype and one paratype collected by 
the author in the NE/4 SW/4 section 10, T. 2 
N., R. 6 E., Pontotoe County, south of Ada, 
Okla. 

Types.—To be deposited in the U.S. National 
Museum. 


Lecanocrinus huntonensis, n. sp. 
Figs. 11-12 


Dorsal cup truncate bowl shaped. Three un- 
equal IBB form a small subhorizontal basal 
platform, the median portion of which is sharply 
depressed. The smaller IB is right posterior in 
position. Five BB are rather small, hexagonal 
except in the posterior interradius where addi- 
tional facets are necessary for reception of the 
two anal plates. Five RR are large, long, pentag- 
onal plates. RA is a small quadrangular element 
in oblique position to the lower right of anal X 
which plate is long with even width and an 
acute distal termination. Sutures of cup plates 
are impressed. 

Fragmentary portions of the arms consist of 
low nonaxillary PBrBr in all rays except the 
anterior which is missing from the IBB cirelet 
upward. In the right and left posterior there are 
low axillary second PBrBr and a few secundi- 
brachials. 


OcToBER 1952 


The entire surface of this specimen is covered 
by medium pustules which tend to become con- 
fluent and form minute ridges. 

Measurements (in mm).— 


Holotype 

Height of dorsal cup.....-- suonucddesooconnoemuates (oil 
Maximumiwidthioncupr ss... tos series cei « 11.7 
Maximum width of cup at summit............... TSB} 
Maximum diameter of IBB circlet................ Bio 0/ 
henge UnvOlenean top Sesser separ ne erate Sale 1aisayet pas 5.0% 
Wid thiotarsants Dns cians ete seco meisiciod Ov 
ILaiedin @? Ri PINGS Dee ecegeuccesssecesannpannnanee 5.5* 
Wid Gheofer ran taght ssn: sation eee ctaneeieiasiehs Wlaere 6.7* 
ILDYGIN GY IRN peosboanueumeoenceassacedapencsnons YH 
Vikan Gi? IRA ee eno ere neaae aeoahsed sadoerdaeca 1.8 
LOnaiin Of EMA OG seat een beoewacenbosesocodoceued 4.7 
Maximum width of anal X....................... S352) 
Height of BB above basal plane.................. Blots 

* Measurements taken along curvature of plates. 
Remarks.—L. fascietatus (Angelin) has an 


appearance more comparable to L. huntonensis 
than other described species. It differs in lacking 
constriction at the summit of the dorsal cup and 
in restriction of anal X to the cup. Anal X in 


JENKINS AND MILLER: SPHACELOMA ON MAGNOLIA 


323 


L. huntonensis extends well into the interbrachial 
area, although it does not pass above the first 
PBrBr. L. invaginatus has a somewhat com- 
parable appearance, particularly in the elongate 
nature of the RR plates, but other characters 
are quite different. 

The surface ornamentation of the present spe- 
cies is distinctive from that of other described 
species. 

Occurrence—Lower portion of the Haragan 
formation (about 15 feet above the Camarocrinus 
zone), Devonian; collected by Mrs. Beverly Graff- 
ham near Hunton townsite, west of Clarita, 
Okla. 

Type.—Deposited in the U. S. National Mu- 
seum. 


REFERENCES 


All cited references are to be found in BassteEr, 
R.S., and Moopry, Marcaret W. Bibliographic 
and faunal index of Paleozoic Pelmatozoan Echino- 
derms, Geol. Soc. Amer. Special Publ. 45. 1943. 


BOTANY.—A new species of Sphaceloma on magnolia. ANNA E. JENKINS, U.S. 
Bureau of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural Engineering, and JuLian 


H. Mitirr, University of Georgia. 


A technical description of the new species 
of Sphaceloma on Magnolia grandiflora L. 
is here provided as follows: 


Fig. 1 


Spots on upper leaf surface, not visible below, 
few to almost innumerable, scattered or localized, 
often concentrated along midrib and on marginal 
and apical areas, circular to irregular, often up 
to 1.5 mm in diameter, gray (“pale mouse gray”’),? 
with a brown (‘‘sorghum brown’’) margin, slightly 
raised, coalescent, sometimes discoloring much 
of the upper leaf surface except basal area; leaf 
tissue in marginal and apical region sometimes 
killed, then noticeably brown (‘snuff brown’’) 
below; acervuli, numerous, epiphyllous, arising 
intraepidermally, erumpent, black, generally with 
a hyaline prosenchymatic base, 20-40, in diam- 
eter, 12-24. thick; palisade of conidiophores 12— 
164 thick; conidiophores characteristically awl- 
shaped, continuous or 1-septate; conidia not seen 
on the acervuli. 


Sphaceloma magnoliae n. sp. 


1 JmnKINS, A. E. Sphaceloma causing scab of 
Magnolia grandiflora. Abst. Phytopathology 33: 
6. 1943. 

2 Ripaway, R. Color standards and color nomen- 
clature. 45 pp., 42 pls. Washington, 1912. 


Elsinoé stage in process of development: 

Maculae epiphyllae, sparsae ad numerossimae 
conspersae, saepe aggregatae vel confluentes, sub- 
elevatae, circulares vel subcirculares, usque 1.5 
mm in diam., griseae, margine brunneo circum- 
datae, ex acervulis atro punctatae; acervuli intra- 
epidermales, dein erumpentes, compacti, usque 
40u in diam. et 12—24u crassi; conidio phora 
obscura, continua vel | septate, usque 16yz, stro- 
mate pallido oriunda; conidia non visa. 

Distribution—Producing the disease termed 
“magnolia scab” on leaves of Magnolia grandi- 


flora (Magnoliaceae) in Florida, Georgia, Lou- 


isiana, and Mississippi. The disease was abundant 
in Georgia in 1941-1943, in some cases causing 
severe leaf fall. More recently its attack appears 
to have been less harmful. 

Specimens examined.—As follows’: 


FLORIDA: 


of Plant Industry, Soils, and Agricultural [Enegi- 
neering, Plant Industry Station, Beltsville, Md. 
IB = Herbarium, Seccao de Fitopatologia, 
Instituto Biologico, Sao Paulo, Brazil. 
MSE = Jenkins — Bitancourt, Myriangiales 
selecti exsiceati. 


324 JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 10 


hyphae (6). H,a,Hypha, x 500. I, Lesionsfrom A, c, X 5. 


OcroBeR 1952 


GEORGIA: 

Athens, June 1943 (edge of aswamp) and Aug. 
26, 1948, J. H. Miller. 

Augusta, Fruitland Nurseries, December 
1941, J. H. Faull, Comm. Alma W. Water- 
man: February 1942 and March 23, 1942 
(ryPE, USM 74223, IB 4673, MSE 427), 
J. H. Miller. Goshen Plantation, Apr. 7, 


SABROSKY: NEW LARVAEVORID FLY 


325 


1943, Mrs. J. Mck. Speer (MSE 428). 
Savannah, April 1944, M. E. Fowler. 
LourstaNa: Hammond, Apr. 1 and Oct. 15, 1943 
(MSE 429), A. G. Plakidas. Culture isolated 
by Plakidas, Nov. 8, 1950, deposited in Amer- 
ican Type Culture Collection, no. 11187. 
Mississippi: Poplarville, July 16 and Sept. 3, 
1942; Apr. 21 and May 19, 1943, J. A. Pinckard. 


ENTOMOLOGY —A new larvaevorid fly parasitic on tortoise beetles in South Amer- 
ica (Diptera). Curtis W. Sasrosky, Bureau of Entomology and Plant Quaran- 


tine. 


In the course of studies by H. L. Parker 
and associates in the South American 
Parasite Laboratory of the U. 8. Bureau 
of Entomology and Plant Quarantine, a 
larvaevorid fly of the genus Hucelatoriopsis 
Townsend was reared from tortoise beetles 
(Chrysomelidae: Cassidinae). It was recog- 
nized as new by several workers, but no 
description has been published. With ad- 
ditional material of the genus before me, 
and with material kindly made available by 
Raul Cortés, I have reexamined the problem 
and offer the following description of the 
new species. 

The genus Lucelatoriopsis ‘Townsend 
(1927) was monobasic for E. teffeensis 
Townsend. Another species, Dexodes meridio- 
nalis Townsend (1912), was referred there 
by Townsend (Manual of myiology, pt. 10: 
51, 1940), but it differs from the genotype 
and also from the new species described 
below in having a strong pair of median 
marginal bristles on the first abdominal 
segment of the female, minute hairlike 
ocellar bristles, and quite conspicuously 
(though short) haired eyes. It may not 
belong in Hucelatoriopsis sensu _ stricto. 

The material before me also contains 
several undescribed species that do belong 
to Hucelatoriopsis in its restricted sense. 
Some of these may be important parasites, 
for all specimens of known origin were reared 
from various species of cassidine beetles. 
It is hoped that workers who have access to 
infestations of these beetles will rear ade- 
quate series of the parasites so that the other 
forms may be properly studied. At present 
there are available only one to four speci- 
mens per species, and usually only one sex, 
and it is undesirable in a group of such 
closely related forms to describe from such 
inadequate material. 


Eucelatoriopsis parkeri, n. sp. 


Distinguished from its congeners by the head 
bright yellow pollinose, body with bluish-gray 
appearance, and thorax almost bivittate as seen 
with the naked eye. 

Male.—Head black, the parafrontals, para- 
facials, cheeks, and postorbits uniformly bright 
yellow pollinose, the clypeus silvery and the 
facials somewhat intermediate; occiput black 
above but silvery gray pollinose below; occipital 
hairs white except for a few near the vertex; 
hairs of cheeks and parafrontals black, those of 
the latter short and inconspicuous; antennae and 
palpi black. Thorax black with bluish-gray 
pollen, in strong contrast to H. teffeensts which 
has bright yellowish-gray pollen; mesonotum 
with four moderately broad black stripes, the 
outer twice the width of the inner, the inner 
stripes much more widely separated than either 
is from the adjacent outer stripe, so that to the 
naked eye the mesonotum appears to have only 
two stripes (an appearance accentuated by any 
discoloration). Abdomen black in ground color, 
last three segments broadly gray pollinose on 
anterior two-thirds, subshining brown-black 
posteriorly, with narrow median black stripe, 
especially when viewed at certain angles. Legs 
black, claws brown, pulvilli yellowish. Wings 
clear to faintly tinted with brown. 

Frontal bristles descending to point opposite 
the apex of second antennal segment, usually 
three on each side below base of antennae; 
typically three pairs of reclinate upper frontals; 
ocellars approximately equal in length to inter- 
mediate frontal bristles; facial bristles ascending 
only three or four, and decreasing sharply in 
length, above the vibrissae; width of front at 
vertex approximately one-fourth the width of 
the head. Prosternum with fine hairs laterally. 
Lower sternopleural bristle much shorter than 
the others, rarely absent or hairlike. Scutellum 


326 


broadly rounded distally, the subapical marginal 
scutellar bristles widely spaced, long and strong, 
extending beyond the hind margin of the second 
abdominal segment; apical scutellars cruciate, 
not quite as long as the discal scutellars, each of 
the latter inserted almost directly anterior to the 
base of a subapical scutellar. Abdomen typically 
with one pair, occasionally two, of median discal 
bristles on second to fourth segments. Third 
vein with two to four setae at base; claws and 
pulvilli long. 

Female.—As described for the male, but with 
two pairs of reclinate upper frontal bristles and 
two pairs of proclinate frontals; width of front 
at vertex approximately three-tenths the width 
of the head, the front widening anteriorly; 
piercing sternotheca short, approximately equal 
to length of fourth abdominal segment; spines on 
ventral carina on second and third segments 
notably stronger toward the hind margin of the 
segment; claws and pulvilli very short. 

Length.—5-6.5 mm. 

Types.—Holotype male (no. 61492 in U. 8. 
National Museum) and allotype, Montevideo, 
Uruguay, emerged December 21, parasite of 
Chelymorpha varrabilis var. crucifera Boheman 
(determined by Juan Bosq and H.S. Barber) feed- 
ing on Convolvulus arvensis L. (AH. L. Parker no. 
213). Paratypes: 84(387¢7 #, 479 2), same local- 
ity and collector, with other data as follows: 
114e¢c%, 729), same data as_ holotype; 
19110, 77% 929), February 1942, same host 
and host plant as holotype (Parker no. 703.1); 
54(23 7H, 31 92), parasitic on Anacassis prolixa 
(Boheman) feeding on Baccharis spicata Peri, 
December 1941 and February 1942 (Parker nos. 
634, 638). Paratypes have been deposited in the 
collections of the U.S. National Museum, Ameri- 
can Museum of Natural History, British Museum 
(Nat. Hist.), H. J. Reinhard, Ratl Cortés, 
and Paul H. Arnaud, Jr. 

Remarks.—The conspicuously and_ evenly 
yellow-pollinose head and bluish-gray body will 
distinguish the species easily from the genotype, 
E. teffeensis, and either or both of these features 
from most of the undescribed species now before 
me. In most of the others, furthermore, the 
mesonotum appears quadrivittate to the naked 
eye. 

An analysis of the variation in the long and 
homogeneous series (topotypic and host-typic) 
showed that absence of a pair of median marginal 
bristles on the first abdominal segment in the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY 


OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 10 
female, presence of a pair of apical scutellar 
bristles, three pairs of postsutural dorsocentrals, 
three sternopleurals, one posterior bristle on the 
fore tibia, and one anterior bristle on the mid- 
tibia are unusually stable characters. Most 
specimens have the infrasquamals present, but 
occasional specimens lack any trace of them. 
The median discal bristles on the intermediate 
segments are definitely variable in number, es- 
pecially in the females, with occasional speci- 
mens having them entirely absent, and others 
having them present in various combinations on 
different segments and sometimes between right 
and left sides. 

The proper generic position of the new species 
will require much further study on a broad basis 
because of the many restricted genera proposed 
by Townsend in the Neotropical fauna. However, 
the presence in the female of a piercing sterno- 
theca and spined ventral carina on the abdomen 
associates it readily, and probably also funda- 
mentally, with a group of compsilurine genera 
such as Compsilura and Eucelatoria and with a 
few genera placed by Townsend in other tribes. 
Of this group, Eucelatoriopsis and Eucelatoria 
differ from the others particularly in lacking a 
pair of median marginal bristles on the first 
abdominal segment of the female. The former 
differs from Hucelatoria in having a pair of apical 
scutellar bristles and in lacking strong bristles 
on the facialia. If these last three characters 
prove not to be generic in value, considerable 
synonymy may result, but they serve for present 
purposes to indicate the association of the new 
species. 

The new species agrees with the generic 
characters listed for Hucelatoriopsis by Townsend 
(Manual of myiology, pt. 10: 50, 1940) except 
as follows: Eyes with minute, sparse hairs; 
ocellar bristles moderately short in female, but 
decidedly longer in male (the opposite of Town- 
send’s statement); three pairs of postacrostichal 
bristles (the holotype of EH. teffeensis has only 
two pairs, but this may be variation, as several 
specimens of EH. parkeri show the same thing); 
anal segment of female not as high and as large 
as in teffeensis; female abdomen generally with a 
pair of median discal bristles on third and fourth 
segments and often on the second, but sometimes 
with none, suggesting that the holotype of 
teffeensis, which lacks discal bristles, may also 
be atypical of its species. In Townsend’s key to 
the tribe Compsilurini (Manual of myiology, pt. 


OcToBErR 1952 


4: 90, 1936), the use in the second couplet of the 
unreliable (in this species at least) character of 
median discal bristles will cause all males and 


CHAMBERLIN: ARRANGEMENT OF PREPODESMIDAE 


327 


most females of parkeri to pass to couplet 3, but 
parkert is quite unrelated to either of the genera 
there. 


ENTOMOLOGY .—An arrangement of the Prepodesmidae, a family of African milli- 
peds. RALPH V. CHAMBERLIN, University of Utah. (Communicated by C. W. 


Sabrosky.) 


The group of millipeds for which Dr. O. F. 
Cook in 1895 proposed the family name 
Prepodesmidae is likely to prove to be one 
of considerable size. Owing to additions made 
by more recent workers, a revision of the 
family seems desirable, and such has been 
projected by the present writer. However, 
pending the accumulation of more adequate 
material for this purpose, it is hoped that 
the present checklist, embracing the arrange- 
ment and conception of genera provisionally 
adopted, may prove useful. My thanks are 
due to Dr. E. A. Chapin, of the U.S. Na- 
tional Museum, for the privilege of studying 
the prepodesmids of the important O. F. 
Cook collection, thus making it possible for 
the first time to indicate with confidence the 
relationships of the genera proposed by that 
pioneer student of West African Diplopoda. 


Family PREPODESMIDAE Cook 


Prepodesmidae Cook, Amer. Nat. 30: 416, 1896. 
Cordyloporinae (as a subfamily of Oxydesmidae) 
Brolemann, Ann. Soc. Ent. France 84: 562. 1916. 


PREPODESMINAE, n. subfam. 


Proposed for the group of genera in which the 
male gonopods have a conspicuous accessory 
process arising from the femoral division proxi- 
mad of the origin of the solenomerite. 


Genus Ancylochetus Attems 
Ancylochetus Attems, Zoologica 30 (3/4) (Heft79) : 
96. 1931. 
Generotype: Ancylochetus signatus Attems. 
Ancylochetus signatus Attems 


Ancylochetus signatus Attems, Zoologica 30 (3/4) 
(Heft 79): 96, figs. 138-140. 1931. 
(LIBERIA.) 


Basacantha, n. gen. 


Characterized primarily by having a branch or 
spine from the base of the solenomerite. (Fig. 1.) 
Generotype: Anisodesmus lundae Chamberlin. 


Basacantha decora (Attems) 


Cordyloporus decorus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 17: 334, fig. 41. 1929. 
(BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Basacantha lundae (Chamberlin) 


Anisodesmus lundae Chamberlin, Publ. Cult. Com- 
panhia Diamantes Angola 10: 82, figs. 45-46. 
1951. (ANGOLA.) 


Basacantha mechowi (Karsch) 


Rachidomorpha Mechowt Karsch, Berliner Ent. 
Zeitschr. 25: 287. 1881. 

Cordyloporus mechowi Attems, Denkschr. Akad. 
Wien 67: 365, pl. 5, figs. 108-110. 1898. 

Paltophorus mechowi Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 
17: 338, fig. 46. 1929. (BELGIAN CoNGo.) 


Genus Diaphorodesmus Silvestri 


Diaphorodesmus Silvestri, Ann. Mus. Genova 36: 
199. 1896. 


Generotype: Paradesmus dorsicornis Porat. 


Diaphorodesmus dorsicornis (Porat) 


Paradesmus dorsicornis Porat, Bihang. Svenska 
Akad. 20 (5): 38, fig. 3. 1894. 
Diaphorodesmus dorsicornis Silvestri, Ann. Mus. 
Genova 36: 197. 1896. 
(CAMEROUN, SPANISH GUINEA.) 


Kisantus, n. gen. 


Related most closely to Pimodesmus. Distin- 
guished in having the mesal branch of the gono- 
pods long, straight, and with a spine at base; 
the ectal lobe of the tibiotarsus a broad lamina 
widening distad and at the end curving into a 
hood or canopy beset with spinous points. 
(Fig. 2.) 

Generotype: Paltophorus tridens Attems. 


Kisantus tridens (Attems) 


Paltophorus tridens Attems, Rey. Zool. Bot. Afr. 
30: 62, figs. 41-43. 1937. 
(BELGIAN CoNnGo.) 


Congesmus, n. gen. 


Related to Basacantha but lacking a spine at 
base of the solenomerite. The lateral femoral 


328 


process in the form of a short, typically subtri- 
angular leaf. 
Generotype: Paltophorus probus Attems. 


Congesmus brevilobus (Attems) 


Paltophorus brevilobus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 30: 59, figs. 37-38. 1937. 
(BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Congesmus probus (Attems) 


Paltophorus probus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 
31: 239, figs. 16-17. 1938. 
(BELGIAN CoNnGo.) 


Genus Kyphopyge Attems 


Kyphopyge Attems, Zoologica 30 (3/4) (Heft 79): 
93. 1931. 


Generotype: Kyphopyge granulosa Attems. 


Kyphopyge granulosa Attems 


Kyphopyge granulosa Attems, Zoologica 30, (3/4) 
(Heft 79): 94, figs. 1383-137. 1931. 
(CAMEROUN.) 


Genus Mesodesmus Carl 
Mesodesmus Carl, Rev. Suisse Zool. 17: 302. 1909. 


Generotype: Scaptodesmus roccati Silvestri. 


Mesodesmus roccati (Silvestri) 


Scaptodesmus roccati Silvestri, Boll. Mus. Torino 
22, (560): 4. 1907. 

Mesodesmus rugifer Carl, Rev. Suisse Zool. 17: 
303, fig. 1. 1909. (West UGANDA.) 


Mesodesmus roccati rugifer (Silvestri) 


Scaptodesmus rugifer Silvestri, Bull. Mus. Torino 
22, (560): 6. 1907. 

Mesodesmus rugifer Carl, Rev. Suisse Zool. 17: 
304, figs. 6, 1. 1909. (UGANDA.) 


Genus Pimodesmus Chamberlin 
Pimodesmus Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist. 57: 248. 1927. 
Paltophorus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 30: 41, 
54. 1937. 


Generotype: Pimodesmus aglaus Chamberlin. 


Pimodesmus aglaus Chamberlin 
Pimodesmus aglaus Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. Mus. 
Nat. Hist. 57: 248, figs. 173-181. 1927. 
Paltophorus lisalanus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 30: 56, figs. 34, 35. 1937. 
(BELGIAN ConGco.) 


Pimodesmus arenaceus (Attems) 


Palltophorus arenaceus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 30: 60, figs. 39-40. 1937. 
(BELGIAN Conaco.) 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 10 


Pimodesmus asperus (Carl) 


Cordyloporus (Neocordyloporus) asperus Carl, Mem. 
Soc. Espan. Hist. Natur. 1: 269, pl. 6, fig. 4. 
1905. (West AFrica, CAPE SAN JUAN.) 


Pimodesmus dentatus (Silvestri) 


Scaptodesmus rugifer var. dentatus Silvestri, Il 
Ruwenzori 1: 332, fig. 27. 1909. 
Mesodesmus rugifer var. dentatus Carl, Rev. Suisse 
Zool. 17: 305. 1909. 
Paltophorus dentatus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 
30: 55. 1937. 
(CENTRAL AFRICA, BIHUNGA.) 


Pimodesmus denticulatus (Attems) 


Scolopopleura denticulata Attems, Zoologica 30, 
(3/4) (Heft 79): 99, figs. 143-146. 1931. 
Paltophorus denticulatus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 30: 55. 1937. 
(LipertaA, Lora River.) 


Pimodesmus falcatus (Attems) 


Cordyloporus falcatus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 17: 334, figs. 42-45. 1929. 

Paltophorus falcatus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 
30: 56. 1937. (BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Pimodesmus gladiator (Attems) 
Cordyloporus gladiator Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 17: 340, fig. 47. 1929. 
Paltophorus gladiator Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 


Afr. 30: 56. 1937. 
(BELGIAN Conao.) 


Pimodesmus imperfectus (Attems) 
Paltophorus imperfectus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 31: 59, figs. 37-38. 1937. 
(BELGIAN CoNnGo.) 


Pimodesmus longipes (Carl) 


Cordyloporus longipes Carl. Rev. Suisse Zool. 21: 
222, figs. 14-18. 1913. 

Paltophorus longipes Attems, Rev. 
Afr. 30: 56. 1937. 


Zool. Bot. 


(CAMEROUN. ) 


Pimodesmus nigerianus (Attems) 


Scolopopleura nigeriana Attems, Zoologica 30, 
(3/4) (Heft 79): 98, figs. 141-142. 1931. 

Paltophorus nigerianus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 30: 55. 1937. (SoutH NIGERIA.) 


Genus Prepodesmus Cook 


Prepodesmus Cook, Amer. Nat. 30: 416. 1896. 

Cordyloporus Attems, Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 
67 : 363. 1896. 

Cordyloporus subgen. Neocordyloporus Carl, Mem. 
Soc. Espan. Hist. Natur., 1: 269. 1905. 

Cordyloporus + Pleuroariwm (pro part. max.) 
Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 17: 328, 332. 1929 


Generotype: Prepodesmus tigrinus Cook. 


OctToBeR 1952 CHAMBERLIN: ARRANGEMENT OF PREPODESMIDAE 3: 


5] 

Fig. 1.—Basacantha lundae (Chamberlin): Gonopod, preaxial view. Fic. 2.—Kisantus tridens 
(Attems) : Gonopod. Fig. 3.—Tylodesmus crassipes Cook: Gonopods, postaxial aspect. Fie. 4.— 
Prepodesmus tigrinus Cook: Gonopod, subcaudal aspect. Fig. 5.—Cheirodesmus ater Cook: Gonopod, 
postaxial aspect. Fiac. 6.—Isodesmus tmmarginatus Cook: Gonopod, subectal aspect. Fie. 7.— 
Morphotelus laciniosus (Attems): Gonopod, preaxial view. Fia. 8.—Morphotelus mareest (Carl): 
Gonopod, preaxial view. Fic. 9—Tylodesmus albus Chamberlin: Gonopod, anterior aspect. (A, 


Femoral or accessory branch; I, basal spine of solenomerite; P, prefemur; S, solenomerite.) 


330 


Prepodesmus aubryi (Lucas) 


Paradesmus aubryi Lucas, Archiv Ent. 2: 440. 
1858. 

Cordyloporus aubryt Attems, Das Tierreich, Lief. 
69: 379. 1988. (GUINEA.) 


Prepodesmus dubius (Attems) 


Cordyloporus dubius Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 
30: 45, figs. 24-25. 1937. (BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Prepodesmus mimus Cook 


Prepodesmus mimus Cook, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 1896: 258. 
(LIBERIA: MUHLENBERG MIssIoNn.) 


Prepodesmus ornatus (Peters) 


Polydesmus (Paradesmus) ornatus Peters, Monatsb. 
Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1864: 540. 
Cordyloporus aubryi Attems (nec Lucas), Denkschr. 
Akad. Wiss. Wien 67: 366. 1898. 
Cordyloporus ornatus Brolemann, 
Exper. 65: 109, figs. 110-113. 1926. 
(CAMEROUN, Goup Coast, AND CONGO.) 


Arch. Zool. 


Prepodesmus ornatus martinseni (Attems) 


Cordyloporus aubryi var. martinseni Attems, 
Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 67: 367. 1898. 

Cordyloporus ornatus var. martinsent Attems, Das 
Tierreich, Lief. 69: 374. 1988. 


Prepodesmus ornatus interferens, n. var. 


Cordyloporus ornatus ornatus Attems (nec Peters), 
Das Tierreich, Lief. 69: 374. 1938. 


Differing from ornatus sens. str. in having the 
underside of the body, together with legs and 
antennae, dark brown instead of wine red, and in 
having on the poriferous keels a large, round, 
rose-red spot, which does not quite reach the 
anterior margin or in having these keels some- 
times entirely red. Middorsal region always 
dark. A transverse mark on the collum and the 
tips of the second and third keels yellowish. 
Dorsum black except as noted. 

Localities: Gaboon, Togo, Cameroun, and 
Belgian Congo. 


Prepodesmus pictus Cook 
Prepodesmus pictus Cook, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 1896: 263. (Toao.) 
Prepodesmus sulcatus (Attems) 


Cordyloporus sulcatus Attems, Denkschr. Akad. 
Wiss. Wien 67: 364. 1898. 
(LocaLIty UNKNOWN.) 


Prepodesmus tigrinus Cook 


Prepodesmus tigrinus Cook, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 1896: 258. 
(LipERIA: Mount Corres.) 


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vou. 42, No. 10 


TYLODESMINAE, n. subfam. 


Proposed for those genera in which the gono- 
pods lack an accessory branch from the femoral 
division. 

Genus Anisodesmus Cook 


Anisodesmus Cook, Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 18: 99. 
1895; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1896: 
260. 


Generotype: Anisodesmus cerasinus Cook. 
Anisodesmus cerasinus Cook 


Anisodesmus cerasinus Cook, Proc. U. S. Nat. 
Mus. 18: 99. 1895; Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Phila- 
delphia 1896: 260. 

(LipertA, Bororu, St. Pau RIver.) 


Anisodesmus erythropus (Lucas) 


Polydesmus erythropus Lucas, Archiv Ent. 2: 
63, pl. 13, fig. 8. 1858. 

Polydesmus  (Paradesmus) erythropus Peters, 
Monatsb. Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1864: 624. 

Cordyloporus serratus Attems, Denkschr. Akad. 
Wiss. Wien 67: 364. 1898. 

Oxydesmus erythropus Attems, Das Tierreich, Lief. 
69: 340. 1938. 

(LIBERIA.) 


Genus Cheirodesmus Cook 
Cheirodesmus Cook, Amer. Nat. 30: 416. 1896. 
Generotype: Cheirodesmus ater Cook. 
Cheirodesmus ater Cook 
Fig. 5 


Chetrodesmus ater Cook, Proce. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 1896: 259. 
(LIBERTA.) 


Cheirodesmus discolor Cook 


Chetrodesmus discolor Cook, Proce. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 1896: 259. 
(LIBERIA.) 


Genus Cordyloconus Attems 


Cordyloconus Attems, Das Tierreich, Lief. 69: 
380. 1938. 


’ Generotype: Paracordyloporus vitiosus Attems. 
Cordyloconus vitiosus (Attems) 


Paracordyloporus vitiosus Attems, Zoologica 30 
(3/4): 92, fig. 130. 1931. 
Cordyloconus vitiosus Attems, Das Tierreich, Lief. 
69: 380. 1938. 
(CAMEROUN.) 


Genus Doidesmus Chamberlin 


Doidesmus Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist. 57: 243. 1927. 


Generotype: Doidesmus explorator Chamberlin. 


OcToBER 1952 


Doidesmus explorator Chamberlin 
Doidesmus explorator Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. 
Mus. Nat. Hist. 57: 246, figs. 182-187. 1927. 
(BELGIAN CoNGo.) 
Genus Graphidiochirus Attems 
Graphidiochirus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 17: 
333. 1929. 
Generotype: Graphidiochirus spadix Attems. 
Graphidiochirus spadix Attems 


Graphidiochirus spadix Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 17: 333. 1929. 
(BELGIAN CONGO.) 
Genus Isodesmus Cook 
Tsodesmus Cook, Proc. U. 8. Nat. Mus. 18: 99. 
1895. 


Generotype: [sodesmus immarginatus Cook. 
Isodesmus immarginatus Cook 
Fig. 6 
Isodesmus immarginatus Cook, Proc. U. 8. Nat. 
Mus. 18: 99. 1895. (LIBERIA.) 
Isodesmus interruptus Cook 


Isodesmus interruptus Cook, Proc. Acad. Nat. 
Sci. Philadelphia 1896: 260. 
(LIBERIA.) 


Morphotelus, n. gen. 


In this genus the tibiotarsus consists of two 
large laminate lobes the outer of which presents 
a margin sometimes more or less dentate or 
laciniate, the two lobes forming something of a 
calyx enclosing the much shorter, bladelike, and 
simple solenomerite. (See Figs. 7, 8.) 


Generotype: Cordyloporus mareest Carl. 
Morphotelus corruptus (Attems) 


Cordyloporus corruptus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 30: 45, figs. 24-25. 1937. 
(BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Morphotelus laciniosus (Attems) 


Cordyloporus laciniosus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 30: 46, fig. 26. 1937. 
(BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Morphotelus mareesi (Carl) 


Cordyloporus mareesit Carl, Rev. Suisse Zool. 17: 
300, pl. 6, fig. 2. 1909. 
(CENTRAL AFRICA.) 


Morphotelus sequens (Chamberlin) 


Anisodesmus sequens Chamberlin, Publ. Cult. 
Companhia Diamantes Angola, 10:84, figs. 40- 
44. 1951. (ANGOLA.) 


CHAMBERLIN: ARRANGEMENT OF PREPODESMIDAE 


331 


Morphotelus terreus (Attems) 


Cordyloporus terreus Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 


30: 43, fig. 23. 1937. 


Genus Paracordyloporus Brolemann 


Paracordyloporus Brolemann, Ann. Soc. Ent. 
France 84: 563. 1916. 
Grallodesmus Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 


Hist. 57, art. 4: 242. 1927. 


Generotype: Cordyloporus dilatatus Carl. 
Paracordyloporus alternatus (Karsch) 


Polydesmus alternatus Karsch, Zeitschr. Ges. 
Naturw. 52: 825. 1879. 

Cordyloporus alternatus Attems, Denkschr. Akad. 
Wiss. Wien 67: 367. 1898. 

Paracordyloporus alternatus Brolemann, Ann. Soc. 
Ent. France 84: 563. 1916. 


(West AFRICA.) 


Paracordyloporus camerunensis (Attems) 


Cordyloporus camerunensis Attems, Ann. Mus. 
Wien 41: 20, fig. 27. 1927. 

Paracordyloporus camerunensis Attems, Das Tier- 
reich, Lief. 69: 385. 1938. (CAMEROUN.) 


Paracordyloporus camerunensis papillatus Attems 
Paracordyloporus camerunensis papillatus Attems, 


Zoologica 30, (3/4): (Heft 79): 93. 
(CAMEROUN.) 


Paracordyloporus dilatatus (Carl) 
Cordyloporus dilatatus Carl, Mem. Soc. Espan. 
Hist. Natur. 1: 264, pl. 6, fig. 3. 1905. 
Paracordyloporus dilatatus Brolemann, Ann. Soc. 
Ent. France 84: 563. 1916. 
(SPANISH GUINEA.) 


Paracordyloporus malangensis Chamberlin 
Paracordyloporus malangensis Chamberlin, Publ. 


Cult. Companhia Diamantes Angola 10: 55, 
fig. 47. 1951. (ANGOLA.) 


Paracordyloporus diplogon (Chamberlin) 
Grallodesmus diplogon Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. 

Mus. Nat. Hist. 57: 242, figs. 167-172. 1927. 
(BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Paracordyloporus moeranus (Attems) 


Cordyloporus moeranus Attems, Ann. Mus. Wien 
41: 69, figs. 24-26. 1927. 
Paracordyloporus moeranus Attems, Rev. 
Bot. Afr. 14, (8): 345, figs. 50-57. 1929. 
(CENTRAL AFRICA.) 


Zool. 


Paracordyloporus pulcher (Carl) 


Cordyloporus pulcher Carl, Mem. Soc. 
Hist. Natur. 1: 267, p. 6, fig. 5. 1905. 
Paracordyloporus pulcher Brolemann, Ann. Soe. 

Ent. France 84: 563. 1916. 
(SPANISH GUINEA, CABO SAN JUAN.) 


Hspan. 


332 


Paracordyloporus speciosus Attems 


Paracordyloporus speciosus Attems, Rev. Zool. 
Bot. Afr. 17: 342, figs. 48-49. 1929. 
(BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Genus Scolopopleura Attems 


Scolopopleura Attems, Ergeb. D. Zentr.-Afr.- 


Exped. 4: 302. 1912. 
Gitadesmus Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. 
Hist., 57: 241. 1927. 


Generotype: Scolopopleura spinosa Attems. 
Scolopopleura graciliramus (Chamberlin) 


Gitadesmus graciliramus Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. 
Mus. Nat. Hist. 57: 241, figs. 160-166. 1927. 
(BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Scolopopleura insignis (Attems) 
Cordyloporus insignis Attems, Ann. Mus. Wien 
41: 71, figs. 28-29. 1927. 
Scolopopleura insignis Attems, Das Tierreich, 
Lief. 69: 390, fig. 426. 1938. (CENTRAL AFRICA.) 


Scolopopleura limbata Attems 
Scolopopleura limbata Attems, Rey. Zool. Bot. 


Afr. 17: 348, figs. 58-60. 1929. 
(BELGIAN Conaco.) 


Scolopopleura limbata rubripes Attems 


Scolopopleura limbata var. rubripes Attems, Rey. 
Zool. Bot. Afr. 17: 350. 1929. 
(Kikwit, BELGran Conao.) 


Scolopopleura pokana (Chamberlin) 
Gitadesmus pokanus Chamberlin, Bull. Amer. Mus. 
Nat. Hist. 57: 241, figs. 160-166. 1927. 
(BELGIAN CoNnGo.) 


Scolopopleura pectinata Attems 


Scolopopleura pectinata Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 17: 352, fig. 64. 1929. (BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Scolopopleura pulcherrima Attems 


Scolopopleura pulcherrima Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 17: 350, figs. 61-63. 1929. 
(BELGIAN CONGO.) 


Scolopopleura spinosa Attems 


Scolopopleura spinosa Attems, Ergeb. D. Zentr.- 
Afr. Exped. 4: 302, figs. 3-6. 1912. (Conco.) 


Genus Tylodesmus Cook 


Tylodesmus Cook, Amer. Nat. 30: 416. 1896. 

Lyrodesmus Cook, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sei. Phila- 
delphia; 1896: 259. 

Cordyloporus Attems (in part), Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 17: 328. 1929. 

Pleuroarium Attems (in part), Rev. 
Afr. 17: 332. 1929. 


Zool. Bot. 


Generotype: Tylodesmus crassipes Cook. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 10 


Tylodesmus albus, n. sp. 
Fig. 9 


Agreeing in most features with 7. nigerrimus 
Cook but contrasting in being nearly white 
throughout. The gonopods are of the form shown 
in Fig. 9. (LIBERIA.) 


Tylodesmus amoebus Cook 
Tylodesmus amoebus Cook, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 1896: 259. 
(MUHLENBERG Misston, LIBERIA.) 


Tylodesmus crassipes Cook 
Fig. 3 


Tylodesmus crassipes Cook, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philadelphia 1896: 259. 
(LIBERTIA.) 


Tylodesmus nigerrimus Cook 
Tylodesmus nigerrimus Cook, Proc. Acad. Nat. 


Sci. Philadelphia 1896: 259. 
(LIBERTIA.) 
Tylodesmus studeri (Carl) 
Cordyloporus studert Carl, Rev. Suisse Zool. 21: 
207, figs. 4-5. 1913. 
Pleuroarvum studert Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 
17: 332. 1929. 
(StprrA LEONE, LIBERIA.) 


Tylodesmus studeri spectandus (Attems) 


Pleuroarium studeri spectandum Attems, Rev. Zool. 
Bot. Afr. 17: 332. 1929. 

Cordyloporus studert spectandus 
Tierreich, Lief. 69: 376. 1938. 


Attems, Das 


(LIBERIA.) 


Tylodesmus liberiensis (Peters) 


Polydesmus  (Paradesmus) liberiensis Peters, 
Monatsb. Preuss. Akad. Berlin 1864: 540. 

Cordyloporus liberiensis Attems, Denkschr. Akad. 
Wiss. Wien 67: 368, pl. 5, fig. 107. 

Pleuroarium liberiense Attems, Rev. Zool. Bot. 
Afr. 17: 332. 1929. (LIBERTA.) 


Tylodesmus viabilis, n. sp. 


Dorsum dusky brown, with no different colora- 
tion on any of the keels. Legs and antennae yel- 
low. Three series of setae on the collum, appar- 
ently four in each series; two similar series of 
setae on the second tergite, and but one series 
on subsequent tergites, this series toward the 
anterior border of the metazonite. Keels moder- 
ately bent upward, more strongly upbent on 
posterior segments. Anal tergite proportionately 
longer and narrower than in 7. nigerrimus. An- 
terior legs of male not obviously thickened as 
they are in crassipes. 


OcTOBER 1952 


Length of male, about 38 mm; width, 4.5 mm. 
Locality: Liberia (Mount Coffee). Male holo- 
type collected by F. C. Strand and two males by 
Collins in 1896. Types in U.S. National Museum. 


REFERENCES 


Arrems, CARL GRAFEN. System der Polydesmiden. 
Denkschr. Akad. Wiss. Wien 67 and 68 1898. 

. Diplopoden des Belgischen Congo. Poly- 

desmoidea I. Rev. Zool. Bot. Afr. 17 (3): 

253-378. 1929. 

. Polydesmoidea des Belgischen 

Nachtrag. Ibid. 30 (1): 19-70. 1937. 

. Diplopoden des Belgischen Congo. Poly- 

desmoidea. II Nachtrag. Ibid. 31 (2): 224-225. 

1938. 

. Polydesmoidea IT. Das Tierreich 69. 19388. 

Bro.teMann, H. W. Essai d’une classification des 
Polydesmiens. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 84. 1916. 

Car, JoHann. Diplopodes de la Guinee espagnole. 
Mem. Soc. Espan. Hist. Nat. 1: mem. 15, 
261-284. 1905. 

. Reise von Dr. J. Carl im Nordlichen Cen- 
tral-Afrik. Seengebiet. Diplopoden. Rev. Suisse 
Zool. 17 (2): 281-365. 1909. 

CHAMBERLIN, RaupH V. The Chilopoda and Diplo- 
ploda collected by the American Museum of 
Natural History Congo Expedition. Bull. Amer. 
Mus. Nat. Hist. 57: (4): 177-240. 1927. 

. On Diplopoda of North-East Angola. Publ. 

Cult. Companhia de Diamantes Angola 10: 63- 

94. 1951. 


Congo. I 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


Cook, Orator F. West African Diplopoda of the 
suborder Polydesmoidea collected by William 
Astor Chanler. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus. 18: 
81-111. 1895. 

. A new diplopod fauna in Liberia. Amer. 

Nat. 30: 416. 1896. 

. Summary of New Liberian Polydesmidae. 
Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia 1896. 
——.. On the Xyodesmidae, a new family. Brandtia 

4: 15-17. 1896. 

Kkarscu, F. West Afrikanische Myriopoden und 
Arachniden gesammelt von Herrn Stabsarzt 
Dr. Falkenstein. Zeitschr. Ges. Naturw. 3: 
825-837. 1879. 

. Zwei neue Polydesmiden von Quango. Ber- 
liner Ent. Zeitschr. 25: 287. 1881. 

Lucas, H. Description des Arachnides et des My- 
riopodes qui habitent le Gabon. Archiv Ent. 2: 
61-69. 1858. 

Perers, W. C. H. Ubersicht der im Konigl. zoolog. 
Museum befindlichen Myriopoden. Monatsh. 
Preuss. Akad. Wiss. Berlin 1864: 529-551. 

Porat, C. C. von. Myriopoder fran West-Och 
Syd-Afrika. Bihang Svensk. Akad. 18 (7): 
5-51. 1892. 

——. Zur Myriopodenfauna Kamerun. Ibid. 20 
(5): 1-90. 1894. 

Sttvestri, F. J Diplopodi, I, parte systematica. 
Ann. Mus. Civ. Stor. Nat. Genova (2), 16. 

. Nuove specie de Diplopodi. Bull. Mus. 

Zool. et Anat. Comp. Torino 22: 560. 1907. 

. Relaz. scient., Miriopodi. Il Ruwenzori 1: 

317-318. 1909. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY OF WASHINGTON 


1334TH MERTING 


The 1334th meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, October 20, 1950, 
President Kracrk presiding. 

Program: Partie H. Aprison, Carnegie In- 
stitution of Washington: Isotope tracers: Past, 
present, and future.—A brief history was given of 
the development of isotope tracers, their nature 
and methods of production. It was pointed out 
that there are now about 1,200 isotopes but that 
only about 15 are important from the viewpoint 
of radioactivity. These tracer elements have, 
owing to present large scale production methods, 
been utilized widely in medicine, biology, agri- 
culture, plant physiology, etc. Their most publi- 
cized use in medicine has been disappointing 
primarily because of the lack of sufficient care in 
protecting healthy cells. Tracer elements have 


also been used in the measurement of friction, in 
the construction of thickness gauges, process 
control, measurement of time, in diffusion stud- 
les, ete. 

The speaker suggested that in the future iso- 
topic traces would be used primarily in the study- 
ing of metabolic pathways, relation between 
structure and function, conversion of one or- 
ganism to another and the division of cells. Ifone 
cell is once understood, the possibility of under- 
standing 10! cells will not be so remote. (Secre- 
tary’s abstract.) 


1335TH MEETING 


The 1335th meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, November 3, 1950, 
President Kracrk presiding. 

Program: GrorGe Gamow, George Washing- 


334 


ton University: The first half hour of creation.— 
Methods involving radioactive decay and the 
age of the ocean from the thickness of salt de- 
posits gave 3 to 4 billion years. The age of the 
rocks, rate of recession of the moon, and the 
age of the sun and stars gave about 2.5 billion 
years. If the present expanding universe is con- 
tracted at the same rate as the present expansion 
until all the galaxies are united, a figure of 1.8 
billion years is obtained. 

At the time of the creation, the universe was 
visualized as consisting of only neutrons, pro- 
tons, and electrons at an average density of 
10-3 grams/cm? at a temperature of about 10°°K. 
Upon cooling, these particles by combination 
produced all the elements in the relative abun- 
dances now known. In this cooling process, all the 
neutrons were supposed to have disappeared in 
about 35 minutes, so that the formation of the 
elements was completed within this time. In 
various positions within the universe local vari- 
ations from this relative abundance curve are 
found, but these were ascribed to different forces 
of attraction of the bodies in question. When 
and how the various galaxies were formed has 
not been quite so clear because of turbulence and 
other factors entering into their formation. 
(Secretary’s abstract.) 


1336TH MEETING 


The 1336th meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, November 17, 1950, 
Vice-President McNisu presiding. 

Program: JoHN StroNG, Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity: The new Johns Hopkins ruling engine.— 
The speaker first described some of the experi- 
ences which Rowland and Anderson had in mak- 
ing and working with the older Rowland engines. 
In these engines the diamond point is moved 
back and forth over the grating blank which is 
advanced by rotating a single screw. The new 
Johns Hopkins ruling engine, however, has two 
screws which support only the diamond point, 
and the grating blank is moved back and forth 
under this point to rule the grating lines. The 
methods of making the bearings, screw, and di- 
viding head were all discussed separately. To 
secure straight line motion a conically shaped 
bearing surface was used. The two screws after 
turning were each lapped about 2,000 hours to 
give a uniform pitch and diameter. The process 
used for making and lapping the dividing head 
was also described. This new engine is capable of 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 10 


ruling two gratings per week with 14,400 lines 
to the inch. The ghost intensities have been of 
the order of 1/600 to 1/1,000 in the first 25 or 30 
gratings. A motion picture of the ruling engine 
in motion was then shown. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1337TH MEETING 


The 1337th meeting, the 80th annual meeting, 
was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos Club, 
December 1, 1950, President Kracrx presiding. 

The report of the Treasurer, LAwRENCE A. 
Woop, showed a total income during the year of 
$1,969.31. The expenses were $1,395.17, leaving 
a net gain of $574.14. The total estimated assets 
of the Society were $18,324.51 as compared with 
$17,215.85 the year before. The Auditing Com- 
mittee reported that the records and report were 
correct. 

The joint report of the Secretaries showed a 
net gain of 8 new members during the year and 
an active membership of 540. 

The report of the Committee on Elections 
indicatéd that the following officers had been 
elected: 


President: E. U. Connon 

Vice Presidents: A. G. McNtsu, A. I. Manan 

Recording Secretary: L. A. Woop 

Treasurer: T. J. CARROLL 

Members at Large of the General Committee: 
CHESTER Pace, W. R. DurRYEA 


Program: L. R. Harsrap, Atomic Energy 
Commission: The reactor program of the Atomic 
Energy Commission.—The history of atomic 
fission was traced from the first artificial disinte- 
gration of lithium in 1932 up to the present. A 
reactor was defined as a device for converting 
atomic energy into energy of useful forms. The 
difficulties encountered in building such reactors 
were enumerated. Several different types of re- 
actors were mentioned. These were the produc- 
tion reactor, the research reactor and the mobile 
power reactor. The present reactor program 
consists of building four reactors. The cost of 
installing reactors was estimated at $1,400 per 
kilowatt, while other more conventional power 
sources cost approximately $200/kw. In closing 
the speaker suggested that with the present in- 
crease in coal prices and decreasing costs of re- 
actors the two price curves might some day 
cross. 

The newly elected President, Mr. Conpon, 
was conducted to the chair by Past Presidents 


OcToBER 1952 


Stimson and JoHNSTON and was presented the 
avel by the Retiring President, Mr. Kracrx. 
Secretary’s abstract.) 


1338TH MEETING 


The 1338th meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, December 15, 1950, 
Vice-President McNisu presiding. 

Program: CHEsTER H. Pac, National Bureau 
of Standards: The mathematical theory of com- 
munication (published under the title Jnforma- 
tion theory in this JouRNAL 41: 245-249. 1951). 
—The quantitative measure of information: is 
introduced in terms of the minimum number of 
symbols needed to distinguish a particular mes- 
sage from all others of a given set. The set is 
usually described as an ensemble (finite or in- 
fmite) of messages generated by a specified 
stochastic process. The message probabilities 
resulting from this process lead to an average 
information per message that is analogous to 
entropy in statistical mechanics. 

The rate of communication over a noisy chan- 
nel is derived, and Shannon’s theorem (that the 
full channel capacity can always be utilized) is 
explained. The paper concludes with results 
relative to communication by continuous func- 
tions, and the engineering formula relating 
channel capacity to bandwidth and signal/noise 
power ratio. (Author’s abstract.) 


1339TH MEETING 


The 1339th meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, January 12, 1951, 
President Connon presiding. 

The Retiring President, FRanK C. Kracex, 
delivered the presidential address on The appli- 
cation of thermochemistry to geophysical problems. 
He showed how determinations of the heat 
changes which accompany chemical reactions 
and changes of state furnish thermodynamic 
data required for evaluating the relative stabili- 
ties and conditions of formation of minerals in 
their various associations in nature. Detailed 
applications were made to the formation of 
quartz, jadeite, and feldspar. (Secretary’s ab- 
stract.) 


1340TH MEETING 


The 1340th meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, January 26, 1951, 
Vice-President Manan presiding. 

Program: J. W. Grawam, Department of Ter- 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


335 


restrial Magnetism, Carnegie Institution of 
Washington: The determination of the earth’s field 
in geologic time.—Mr. Graham described meas- 
urements of the magnetization of magnetite 
particles in sedimentary rocks in different parts 
of the United States. These furnish information 
regarding the magnetic field existing at the time 
the rocks were cooled through the Curie point. 
There was found to be good evidence that the 
earth’s field had not exceeded 10 gauss at any 
time since the deposits were laid down several 
hundred million years ago, and that the direc- 
tion of magnetization under certain circum- 
stances is retained for this period of time. How- 
ever, it is difficult to understand the reason for 
magnetization observed in some instances which 
is opposite to that of the earth’s present field. 
It is thought to be due not to an actual reversal 
of the earth’s field or to continental drift but 
possibly to chemical changes in a 2-component 
system. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1341sT MEETING 


The 1341st meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, February 9, 1951, 
Vice-President MAHAN presiding. 

Program: GLENN D. Camp, Operations Evalu- 
ation Group, U. 8. Navy: Operations research: 
A quantitatwe aid to executive decision.—Opera- 
tions research, under that name, had its origins 
in England in 1940 as part of the antiaircraft 
defense effort. Its introduction into the United 
States came as part of the antisubmarine war- 
fare. An operation is defined as a purposeful 
activity usually involving large aggregates of 
men and machines. Operations research is an 
applied science that is concerned with analyzing 
and maximizing the performance of any set of 
operations designed to achieve a specified goal. 
It is characterized by the use of teams of scien- 
tists representing diverse fields who combine 
conclusions into a unified recommendation di- 
rectly to a high-level executive. Isomorphism in 
diverse and apparently unrelated operations is 
thoroughly exploited. Its greatest successes thus 
far have been in military operations, where 
nothing of the sort had been previously applied. 
It is rapidly expanding into civilian operations, 
for example including problems of mass produc- 
tion, warehousing, traffic control, and congestion 
of communication channels. A text on the sub- 
ject by Morse and Kimball will soon be published. 
(Secretary’s abstract.) 


336 


1342D MERTING 


The 1342d meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, February 23, 1951, 
President Conpon presiding. 

Program: HE. Maxwe.u, National Bureau of 
Standards: Recent developments im superconduc- 
tiwity.—One very recent discovery has been the 
addition of osmium and ruthenium to the list 
of superconductors by workers in Cambridge, 
England. The superconducting elements are 
chiefly found in two regions in the periodic table. 
A periodic table was shown which gave, for the 
superconductors, the temperature of transition 
into the superconducting state and, for the other 
elements, the Jowest temperature at which an 
unsuccessful search for superconductivity had 
been made. Isotope effects on the transition 
temperature, have within the past two years 
been discovered independently at the National 
Bureau of Standards and at Rutgers University. 
In mercury and tin the higher the average iso- 
topic weight the lower is the transition tem- 
perature for a given magnetic field. Recent the- 
ories of Frolich in England and Bardeen at the 
Bell Telephone Laboratories have attempted to 
explain superconductivity in terms of an electron 
level of lower energy than the normal conduction 
state and to ascribe the origin of this level to the 
interaction of lattice vibrations and electron 
waves. Colored motion pictures of classical ex- 
periments in superconductivity were shown. 
These were taken at the National Bureau of 
Standards and showed a magnet floating above 
a superconducting tin dish and a magnet repelled 
by a superconducting tin sphere. Repulsion 
ceased when the temperature was raised above 
that of the transition. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1343D MEETING 


The 1343d meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, March 9, 1951, President 
Convon presiding. 

Program: Earu K. Fiscumr, National Bureau 
of Standards: High-speed motion pictures as a 
research tool.—Whereas normally motion pictures 
are taken at speeds of 16 and 24 frames/sec., 
high speed is defined as any rate between 250 
and 10,000 pictures per sec., and ultra-high 
speeds refer to rates above 10,000 per sec. Rates 
as high as 107 per sec. are sometimes achieved 
but these methods are not strictly image-forming 
camera devices, which usually operate at a rate 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON 


ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 10 
less than 10! per sec. Top speed of Eastman 
cameras, for example, is 3000 frames/sec., or 
roughly a 200-fold speedup when projected at a 
rate of 16 per sec. Comparisons of the image 
formation in Eastman, Fastax, and Edgerton 
cameras were made. Motion and still pictures 
were shown illustrating the high speed shuttle 
action in a loom, the formation, oscillations and 
splashing of waterdrops. Comparisons were made 
of surface tension measurements of surface ten- 
sion of several soaps by the oscillating drop, the 
ring, and the capillary rise methods. Mr. Fischer 
expressed the opinion that the modest cost 
($2,000-$10,000) and comparatively light weight 
(30-50 Ib.) qualified high speed motion pictures 
as an eminently practical research tool. (Secre- 
tary’s abstract.) 


1344TH MEETING 


The 1344th meeting of the Society was the 
occasion of the twentieth Joseph Henry Lecture. 
It was held in the auditorium of the Cosmos 
Club, March 23, 1951, President Conpon pre- 
siding. 

Program: LymMaN Spitzer, Princeton Uni- 
versity: The formation of stars (published under 
the title The birth of stars from interstellar clouds 
in this JourNAL 41: 309-318. 1951).—Stars may 
be grouped in two main classes: primeval stars 
and cloud stars. Primeval stars are observed in 
systems where there are no clouds of interstellar 
matter. Presumably they began their existence 
about 3 xX 10° years ago and have been dimin- 
ishing in brightness ever since. The brightest are 
about as bright as 10% suns, and their velocities 
are found to be in the range 60-180 km/sec. The 
cloud stars, on the other hand, according to 
present ideas, are being formed continually out 
of the matter in interstellar space. This matter, 
which has a total mass about equal to that of the 
matter in the stars, has an average density of 
about one hydrogen atom per cubic centimeter. 
The cloud stars are found where clouds of inter- 
stellar matter are known to be present from 
other evidence. They have velocities in the 
range 10-30 km/sec. and the luminosity of the 
“Supergiant’’ members of this class may be as 
much as 10° suns. Two small grains of inter- 
stellar matter can be pushed towards each other 
by radiation pressure, since each screens the 
other from the pressure. When this process is 
repeated a critical size may be reached above 
which the gravitational attraction is sufficient to 


OcToBER 1952 


build up the particles into a protostar. Conden- 
sation gives rise to heating and the release of 
atomic energy by atom-building. Of course this 
is a relatively rare event, but when it happens a 
new star is found. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1345TH MEETING 


The 1345th meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, April 6, 1951, Presi- 
dent ConpDon presiding. 

Program: Rene A. Spirz, M.D., New York 
Psychoanalytical Institute: Methodological con- 
sideration in psychoanalytical research.—Psycho- 
analysis, a development of the present century, 
finds difficulty in controlling the conditions of an 
experiment. Freud was the first physician to 
study carefully the behavior of irrational people. 
He developed two methods for discovering the 
event or sensation which was at the root of the 
patient’s difficulties. The first, called catharsis 
and based on hypnotism, was abandoned in 
- favor of “free association” in which the patient 
responds to various words with the first idea 
which comes to his mind. In this manner it has 
been found that the formative period for an 
individual ego is in the first months of life. Mr. 
Spitz’s researches have concerned children in the 
first 18 months, the preverbal stage. Events at 
ages earlier than 18 months can not be remem- 
bered but may have extremely important conse- 
quences as far as the health and personality are 
concerned, especially events between the ages of 
6 and 12 months. Moving pictures showed the 
striking comparison between children in a penal 
nursery where the children were normally in 
constant contact with their mothers and in a 
foundling home where a nurse had to care for 
about ten children. Effects of the absence of the 
mother for periods of several months were like- 
wise shown. In the penal nursery the children 
developed normally but in the foundling home 
mortality was extremely high (33 percent in the 
first two years), diseases rampant, and both 
physical and mental development stunted per- 
manently. Absence of the mother for more than 
3 months also produced irreversible changes in 
the child but up to this time recovery was rapid 
on the return of the mother. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1346TH MEETING 


The 1346th meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, April 20, 1951, Presi- 
dent Conpon presiding. 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


337 


Program: ErRNest Potiarp, Yale University: 
The physics of viruses.—Viruses have three 
notable characteristics, namely, the ability to 
reproduce (which they share with living matter), 
the production of symptoms in the host, and the 
production of antibodies in the host. When a 
virus enters a cell it appears to dominate the 
activity of the cell and reproduces itself at a very 
great rate—for example, a multiplication by a 
factor of 10% in 12 hours has been observed in 
some instances. The medical approach to virus 
diseases has been to introduce the virus in some 
modified form which is not particularly harmful 
and which does not reproduce too rapidly, and 
to rely on the formation of antibodies to destroy 
not only the modified virus but also more de- 
structive viruses of a similar nature. The electron 
microscope has shown the size of a virus particle 
to range from 150 Angstroms (foot and mouth 
disease) to several thousand (cow pox). Plant 
viruses, such as the tobacco mosaic virus, are 
apparently simpler than bacterial viruses, can 
sometimes be crystallized, and may consist of a 
large single molecule. 

Mr. Pollard’s researches have involved the 
destruction of viruses by bombardment with 
deuterons from a cyclotron, and a measurement 
of their effective cross sections. It is concluded 
that a single hit on a plant virus is sufficient to 
inactivate it, but that the bacterial viruses have 
regions not inactivated by a direct hit. The 
observations are consistent with a rod-structure 
for plant viruses, and a rod-structure with a head 
for the bacterial viruses. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1347TH MEETING 


The 1347th meeting was held in the audito- 
rium of the Cosmos Club, May 4, 1951, Vice- 
President McNisu presiding. 

Program: Gorpon F. Hutu, Dartmouth Col- 
lege and the Office of Naval Research: The 
properties of microwaves.—The lecture was a 
demonstration lecture in which the similarities 
between the physical properties of three centi- 
meter microwaves and usual optical waves were 
pointed out. The microwave source was a cavity 
type resonating tube and the receiver of the 
crystal type. The reflecting and transmitting 
properties of various materials were first shown. 
To establish that microwaves could be made to 
interfere, Young’s double-slit experiment and a 
Michelson Interferometer were assembled. The 
beam splitter for the interferometer was made of 


338 


a system of equally spaced wires and the full 
reflecting plates were of brass. Alternate in- 
creases and decreases in the signal could easily 
be heard when one of the brass plates was moved 
slowly in one direction. Fresnel and Fraunhofer 
diffraction were both detectable when various 
restricting apertures were used. A Fresnel zone 
plate made from a series of concentric sheet 
metal rings showed focusing properties which 
could easily be detected. To show that micro- 
waves could be refracted, a large paraffin prism 
and a prism constructed from a series of parallel 
equally spaced triangular plates were used. The 
paraffin prism had a refractive index greater than 
unity while the parallel plate prism had an effec- 
tive refractive index less than unity. It was 
shown also that lenses could be made either from 
refractory materials or from a series of plane 
parallel metal plates of the correct shape. The 
properties of birefringent materials were discussed 
and both quarter and half wave plates were 
made. In closing, Mr. Hull showed some specially 
prepared plywood samples having quite striking 
transmitting characteristics. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1348TH MEETING 


The 1348th meeting was held in the audi- 
torium of the Cosmos Club, May 18, 1951, Vice- 
President McNisu presiding. 

Program: Lours N. RipENour, University of 
Illinois: Present and future trends in electronics.— 
Electronics may be said to have had its birth 
with the invention of the 3-element ‘“‘audion” 
vacuum tube by De Forest in 1906. This was, 
of course, based on the Edison effect of 1883, 
almost the only truly scientific discovery of the 
great inventor. The Fleming valve was another 
antecedent of the ‘‘audion” also. There were 
spurts of activity during both world wars, with 
radio broadcasting following the first and popular 
television the second. The greatest total output 
of electronic equipment was in 1944 when about 
4.5 billion dollars worth of equipment was pro- 
duced. The number of television receivers in 
operation, estimated at about 10,000 in 1946, is 
now about 13 million, with a production capacity 
of about 8 million a year realized in 1950. In 
radio and television receivers quality and re- 
lability are definitely sacrificed in favor of low 
prices; in the telephone system the reverse is 
true, where submerged repeaters, for example, 
may be expected to remain in operation 20 years 
without attention. Electronic equipment is still 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 10 


not sufficiently reliable for central office switch- 
ing or for local line repeaters. The trend in equip- 
ment is to reduce the size of the chassis and the 
vacuum tubes. Since power dissipation is not 
much changed temperature rises are higher. 

The approximate limit of complexity seems to 
have been reached in the ENIAC digital com- 
puter and the transcontinental telephone line, 
each of which involves the functioning of about 
18,000 vacuum tubes. The announcement of the 
transistor in 1948 by Bardeen and Brattain of 
the Bell Telephone Laboratories gives promise 
of a more reliable and satisfactory element than 
the vacuum tube. Mr. Ridenour closed by pre- 
dicting that, whereas the vacuum tube permits 
machines about 100 times as complex as mechani- 
cal elements, this number may be raised by 
another factor of 100 if we can get rid of vacuum 
tubes by some such device as the transistor. 

It was announced that the meeting was the 
last of the season and that Friday night would 
continue to be the regular meeting mght next 
season, in view of a mail vote of the membership 
which gave a preference of 100-45 for Friday. 
(Secretary’s abstract.) 


1349TH MEETING 


The 1349th meeting was held in the audi- 
torium of the Cosmos Club, October 12, 1951, 
Vice-President McNtsu presiding. 

Program: R. E. Gipson, Johns Hopkins Uni- 
versity Applied Physics Laboratory: An intro- 
duction to the natural philosophy of guided missiles. 
—Mr. Gibson, a former president of the Society, 
pointed out that our Society was founded in an 
era when it was possible for one man to under- 
stand, discuss, and even make valuable con- 
tributions to several distinctly different branches 
of science. As the Society has grown older the 
various sciences have grown apart in becoming 
more and more specialized. However, in the mid- 
twentieth century a reverse trend has become 
apparent, and because of the development of 
unifying generalizations there is less need of pure 
memory of facts than formerly. This makes it 
possible to consider again natural philosophy, — 
which includes an understanding and an organ- 
ized basis for explaining the phenomena of 
nature. An accelerated growth in technology has — 
also been accompanied by great progress i 
scientific understanding. 

Weapons—military tools for a specific purpose 
—have had as their aim the removal of the fight- 


OcToBER 1952 


ing man further and further from actual hand-to- 
hand contact. The effort is to strike a blow and to 
avoid retaliatory blows. Logical development of 
antiaireraft artillery and of intercepter planes 
was bound to lead inevitably to the guided mis- 
sile. Two features of missile research are the 
necessity for simulation of flight conditions by 
wind tunnels, vacuum chambers, and models and 
the extensive use of telemetering. A demonstra- 
tion of telemetering was presented and moving 
pictures of take-offs of several types of guided 
missile. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1350TH MEETING 


The 1350th meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, October 26, Vice-President 
McNisu presiding. 

Program: Francis O. Rice, Catholic Univer- 
sity: Recent advances in free radical chemistry.— 
The existence of free radicals was demonstrated 
experimentally for the first time by Paneth in 
1929 who was able to remove a lead mirror by 
free methyl radicals in a stream of gas. Since 
then a number of free radicals have been studied. 
They include: methyl (CH3;), methylene (CH), 
ethyl (CoH), hydroxyl (OH), imine (NH), and 
several others. They are stable, with dissociation 
energies exceeding 100 kcal per mole in most 
cases. However, they are extremely reactive. The 
methy] radical combines with itself to form ethane 
so rapidly that its half life is only about 6 milli- 
seconds. The methylene radical similarly forms 
ethylene in about the same time. Combination 
of free radicals with metallic mirrors a few atoms 
thick is a reaction often used in studying them. 
This reaction will not proceed if the metallic film 
is thick enough to form crystallites or if the sur- 
face is contaminated. Free radical theory has 
been very successful in explaining the amounts 
of hydrocarbons in equilibrium with each other 
at high temperatures. 

If the imine radical is condensed on a tube 
maintained at liquid air temperatures a vivid 
blue solid of unknown structure and composition 
is formed. This undergoes a transition to a white 
solid, ammonium azide (NH,N3), with the 
evolution of heat at a temperature of —125°C. 
A demonstration of these solids and the transi- 
tion was presented. Colors in the atmospheres of 
some of the planets may have a similar origin. 
(Secretary’s abstract.) 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


339 


1351stT MEETING 


The 1351st meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, November 9, 1951, Vice- 
President McNisH presiding. 

Program: ArTHUR E. Ruark, Johns Hopkins 
Institute for Cooperative Research: How to under- 
stand relatiwity —Mr. Ruark, former Correspond- 
ing Secretary of the Society, described experi- 
ments conducted by one observer Robert in a 
frame of reference F and other experiments 
conducted by another observer Mack in a frame 
of reference F! moving along the x-axis of frame 
F with a velocity V. The results of the experi- 
ments conducted by Robert should be found to 
be the same as the results of the experiments 
conducted by Mack, including determinations 
of the velocity of light by each observer. The 
consequences of this statement, which partakes 
somewhat of the nature of an assumption or 
axiom, are the Lorentz transformation, the Fitz- 
gerald contraction, and the other familar results 
of relativity theory. 

Attention was given to the electromagnetic field 
of a charge in uniform motion, and to the be- 
havior of simple clocks, as for example a particle 
rotating about a center with a uniform angular 
velocity, as observed by Robert and by Mack. 
The difference in the clock-readings of the two 
observers is exactly balanced by the difference 
in measured distances, to give the same measured 
velocity of light. There was also discussion of a 
comparison of the times of events separated in 
space and of the synchronization of separated 
clocks. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1352D MEETING 


The 1352d meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, November 30, 1951, Vice- 
President McNisu presiding. 

Program: KmNNETH 8. Coin, National Naval 
Medical Center: Progress in biophysics.—The 
speaker pointed out that biophysics can be 
traced back to ancient origins and that many 
men well known for their contributions to classi- 
cal physics had conducted investigations in 
biological physics as well. These included such 
men as Gilbert, Hooke, Franklin, Galvani, 
Young, Brown, Poiseuille, Mayer, Fick, Helm- 
holtz, Maxwell, and Weber. Of these Gilbert, 
Young, Poiseuille, Mayer, and Helmholtz actu- 
ally had M.D. degrees. It is not generally re- 
membered that Hooke was the originator of the 


340 


theory of biological cells or that Franklin first 
proposed that the body was cooled by the heat 
of evaporation of perspiration. 

Modern biophysics, as compared with bio- 
chemistry, for example seemed to make relatively 
slow progress prior to World War II. Since then 
there has been a considerable increase in activity 
and some appreciable accomplishment. Three 
branches may be recognized: fundamental, ap- 
plied, and technical. In fundamental biophysics 
studies are made of physical problems in biology. 
Certain questions are asked by performing a 
certain experiment and certain answers are given. 
A well-trained physicist is usually required to 
formulate the questions to ask and to interpret 
the answer that is given. Illustrative examples 
are nerve currents, the nature of cell-membrane, 
rise of sap in trees, the sphericity of sea urchin’s 
eggs, and the physical characteristics of muscle. 
Applied biophysics has been concerned with such 
topics as brain waves, skin temperatures, physics 
of the ear, and cybernetics to mention a few. 
Technical biophysics has called on physicists to 
design, build, and operate physical tools for the 
biologist. 

The book American men of science lists only 
49 men claiming a major interest in biophysics; 
about 140 more claim it as a secondary or tertiary 
interest. However the teaching of biophysics is 
expanding rapidly and there are about a dozen 
institutions now granting a Ph.D. in biophysics. 
(Secretary’s abstract.) 


1353D MEETING 


The 1353d meeting, the 8lst annual meeting, 
was finally called to order by Vice-President 
McNisu at 8:52 p.m. on December 14, 1951, in 
the auditorium of the Cosmos Club. Circum- 
stances were most unusual. Owing to a severe 
storm and general disruption of transportation, 
only 17 members were present. Owing to the 
absence of the Secretary no report was presented. 

The Treasurer’s report, presented by Mr. Car- 
roll, showed expenditures of about $1,673 and a 
net gain for the year of $650. The number of 
members of the Society was reported to have 
increased during the year from 541 to 560. The 
Auditing Committee’s report was favorable. 

The report of the Committee on Elections was 
as follows: 

President: A. G. McNtsu 


Vice-Presidents: A. 1. Manan, 8. E. Forsusu 
Corresponding Secretary: B. L. W1tson 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 10 


Treasurer: T. J. CARROLL 
Members at Large of General Committee: 
L. Marton, H. C. BEAMAN 


Program: E. R. Prorn, Office of Naval Re- 
search: The mobilization of American science. 


13547TH MEETING 


The 1354th meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, January 4, 1952, President 
MeNisH presiding. 

Program: R. B. KersHner, Johns Hopkins 
University Applied Physics Laboratory: Fownda- 
tions of arithmetic.—Arithmetic, as commonly 
taught, has been little more than a compendium 
of observed facts regarding numbers. Modern 
advances perhaps should be treated as number 
theory. Numbers originated as a series of differ- 
ent grunts. Questions of how far and how long 
were answered by comparison with standard 
lengths by counting the number of standard 
lengths in the unknown. Fractured standards 
then led to fractions and debits led to negative 
numbers. Geometry was given axiomatic treat- 
ment by Euclid and this has persisted ever since. 
Number theory, however, was almost nonexistent 
until it become obvious after 1800 that funda- 
mental concepts had to be clarified, since direct 
contradictions were being obtained. Careful 
definition of fundamental terms and ideas was 
required, and this had to be followed by proof of 
the existence of the terms defined. 

Dr. Kershner stated that the basic undefined 
terms in number theory could be reduced to two, 
namely: ‘“‘set of elements” and “ordered pair.” 
He showed how these could be used to define rig- 
orously the concepts Cartesian product, relation, 
function, and operation. 

A scientific arithmetic is made possible by 
these definitions. Three axioms suffice to set up 
the set of positive integers, for example. They 
are: (1) for every element in the set there is a 
successor; (2) no element has the integer 1 as 
successor; and (3) any subset contaming the 
integer 1 and satisfying the first two axioms is 
identical with the set of positive integers itself. 
All the operations of integers commonly regarded 
as intuitive can be defined in terms of these 
axioms. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1355TH MEETING 


The 1355th meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, January 18, 1952, President 
McNisu presiding. 


OcToOBER 1952 


Program: H. K. Harriine, Johns Hopkins 
University: The electrical actiwity of optic nerve 
fibers—The speaker pointed out that the cells 
which make possible the existence of an animal 
in a complex environment are those of the cen- 
tral nervous system. The entire nervous system 
is the aggregate of living cells having long fila- 
mentous nerve fibers a few microns in diameter. 
The function of these fibers, which display ir- 
ritability developed to a remarkable degree, is 
to transmit signals over long distances in the 
animal. A stimulus on the far end sets up local 
chemical changes which produce local electrical 
currents. These, in turn, stimulate adjacent 
regions. This process proceeds at a rate of many 
meters per second. Since the wave passing along 
a nerve fiber is accompanied by small electrical 
disturbances, the response can be measured. The 
nature of the response to an external influence 
such as visible light is such that either trains of 
discrete impulses all rather uniform in size are 
transmitted or nothing at all is transmitted along 
a given fiber. The sensibility of nerve fiber is ex- 
tremely limited and each fiber responds to only 
one kind of signal. Thus many different kinds of 
fibers, each of which responds to only one stimu- 
lus, are required. 

Measurements of the response of the optic 
nerve fibers of the king crab, squid, and house 
fly were described. By reducing the area of the 
spot of visible light falling on the receptor element 
of the eye of the crab it is possible to stimulate 
a single cell. Oscillograms showing the signals 
transmitted from the receptor along the nerve 
fiber for steady and intermittent light of different 
intensities were shown. The delay between the 
stimulus and the electrical response was shown 
and it was pointed out that the eye obeys the 
reciprocity law better than photographic plates 
for short flashes of light. Single element receptors 
were shown to respond to a range of intensity of 
10! compared to the range of 10° for the more 
complicated human eye. Experiments in’ which 
a weak electrical current is passed through an 
optic nerve fiber attached to a receptor stimu- 
lated by light of low intensity show the two effects 
are additive provided the polarity is#correct. 
Some fibers respond steadily to prolonged light, 
some only at the beginning and ending of the 
interval of illumination and others only at the 
end of the interval. The signals from individual 
receptors pass along fibers to junctions of various 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


341 


types of neuron cells where the information from 
different cells is compared and processed before 
being transmitted to the brain. (Secretary’s 
abstract.) 


1356TH MEETING 


The 1356th meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, February 1, 1952, President 
MeNtrsu presiding. 

Program: Kurt 8. Lion, Massachusetts In- 
stitute of Technology: Physics in vision and 
fatigue—Since there is no agreement on the 
definition of fatigue, it is not surprising that 
different laws relating to fatigue are found when 
different types of test are used. The main ques- 
tion seems to be whether the observer insists on 
some direct type of experiment or whether he 
allows measurement of some associated phe- 
nomenon. Carmichael and his coworkers have 
taken the former viewpoint, while Lukiesh and 
his collaborators have made observations of the 
latter type. Following the idea of Parry Moon 
that visual fatigue is muscular, the researches 
conducted by the speaker have been concerned 
with the 6 extrinsic muscles rotating the eyeballs 
about a vertical axis. It is found that a potential 
difference between the temples is developed as 
the eyes rotate. It is found to be closely propor- 
tional to the angle of rotation, zero when the eyes 
are looking straight ahead, and reverses polarity 
when they are moved from left to right. Poten- 
tials up to about 30 microvolts are found. Re- 
corders with associated electronic circuits are 
arranged to give position, velocity, and accelera- 
tion, the latter being obtained by the use of 
differentiating circuits. 

It is found that the actual velocity is constant 
to a first approximation, lower average velocities 
being obtained as a series of steps with no change 
of position between the steps. Motion toward the 
center was found to be at least 30 percent faster 
than motion away from the center. The in- 
dividual is unable to control the actual velocity 
by conscious effort. From the fact that the 
acceleration records show no decrease with con- 
tinued rotation of the eyes it is concluded that 
there is no decrease of force and consequently no 
fatigue of the muscles. There is thought to be 
considerable feed-back of some by-products of 
muscular activity (1) on the muscle itself and 
(2) on the central nervous system which is the 
motivating cause of the muscle action. No corre- 


342 


lation between the blinking rate and fatigue is 
found. Both visual and nonvisual tasks show a 
falling off of accuracy with decreased levels of 
illumination. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1357TH MEETING 


The 1357th meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, February 15, 1952, President 
McNish presiding. 

Program: J. W. Beams, University of Virginia: 
Some recent developments in the production of high 
rotational speeds and their application.—The 
pioneer work of Svedberg and Nichols led to the 
development of the self-balancing ultracentrifuge 
in 1934. With this equipment molecular weights 
can be determined over the complete range from 
2, for hydrogen, to hundreds of millions, for some 
viruses. Commercial ultracentrifuges are now 
available and are approaching the stage of push- 
button control. For accurate work it is now 
recognized that studies of the rate of sedimenta- 
tion are inadequate and equilibrium must be 
attained. Accurate temperature control, some- 
times for several days, is required. 

High rotational speeds are obtainable from 
synchronous motors with magnetically supported 
rotors and with rotating magnetic fields furnished 
by currents from oscillators. At 20,000 revolu- 
tions per second the speed can be maintained 
constant within | part in 10 million. The friction 
and windage can be reduced so much that a free- 
spinning rotor will decelerate at the rate of only 
about one revolution per second per day. Many 
different types of experiments can be performed 
with mirrors rotating at these speeds. 

Studies have been made of the adhesion and 
tensile strength of thin films on the surfaces of 
high-speed rotors. The tensile strength is inde- 
pendent of thickness until a certain critical thick- 
ness is reached. Below the critical thickness the 
tensile strength increases rapidly as the thick- 
ness is decreased. Other studies have been made 
of the mobility and identification of ions in elec- 
trolytes. Balls as small as 1 mil. in diameter can 
be rotated at ultra-high speeds. (Secretary’s 
abstract.) 

1358TH MEETING 


The 1358th meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, February 29, 1952, President 
MeNtsu presiding. 

Program: Evias Bursrern, Naval Research 
Laboratory: Optical properties of diamond, sili- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, No. 10 


con, and germanium.—After discussing the elec- 
tron configurations of the three substances, the 
speaker presented graphs of the absorption as a 
function of wavelength. Attention was also given 
to the dielectric properties, refractive indices, 
and energy levels. The specific impurity, as yet 
unidentified, present in type I diamonds gives 
absorption in the region 6-10 microns as well as 
that which is easily accounted for as being due to 
lattice vibrations. It is transparent in the far 
infrared and consequently is useful for windows 
in infrared equipment. Germanium has useful 
transmission from 2-15 microns and probably 
also at wavelengths greater than 40 microns. 
Absorption measurements give information con- 
cerning the semiconducting states present in the 
different materials and about the processes in- 
volved. The mobility of electrons in a semicon- 
ductor is found to be about three times that of 
“holes” involved in conduction. (Secretary’s 
abstract.) 


1359TH MEETING 


The 1359th meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, March 14, 1952, President 
McNisH presiding. 

Program: THorNToN Pack, Operations Re- 
search Office, Johns Hopkins University: Density 
of matter in the universe—The speaker sketched 
the early astronomical developments by which 
the observations of Brahe led to the formulation 
of Kepler’s Laws, particularly the one stating 
that the cube of a planet’s distance from the sun 
is proportional to the square of its period. New- 
ton’s work showed that the sum of the masses of 
the sun and the earth was a factor of the propor- 
tionality constant. This leads very directly to 
conclusion that the ratio of the sum of the masses 
of a pair of binary stars to that of the sun is the 
ratio of the cube of their distance of separation 
(measured in units of the earth-sun distance) to 
the square of their period (measured in units of 
the earth’s period). This is the basis for getting 
the masses of double stars and even of galaxies. 
The rotation period of a spiral nebula, for ex- 
ample, has been measured as a few hundred mil- 
lion years by observation of the Doppler shift of 
different portions. The masses of the galaxies, 
calculated in this manner are 10° to 10" the 
mass of the sun. There are other types of calcula- 
tion which give values more nearly 10% times the 
mass of the sun. 


OcToBER 1952 


Mr. Page in the past 5 years has been checking 
the differential radial velocities of pairs of 
galaxies and has shown that they are not zero in 
general. Thus far he has studied 20 pairs, but 
hopes to extend the observations to 40 pairs or 
more. The mean mass resulting thus far is 80 x 
10° times the sun’s mass—one-third of them 
being 4-5 xX 10° and another third being over 
200 x 10%. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


1360TH MEETING 


The 1360th meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, March 28, President Mc- 
Nisu presiding. 

Program: Herman Yacopa, National Insti- 
tutes of Health: The mesons of cosmic-ray physics. 
—These particles were first predicted by Yukawa, 
a Japanese physicist, as being necessary for the 
conservation of energy and momentum in calcu- 
lations he was making. He predicted an unstable 
particle with a mass of 140 times the electron mass 
and a half-life of the order of half a microsecond, 
with an electron and a neutrino as the decom- 
position products. Independently Anderson and 
Neddermayer found by direct experiment parti- 
cles of both positive and negative charges inter- 
mediate in mass between that of the electron and 


proton (hence the name meson—intermediate ' 


particle). 

The new technique of measuring ionizing 
tracks in photographic emulsions has expanded 
very greatly the observation of mesons. It now 
appears that there are mesons of several different 
masses. Some of those mentioned had masses 
about 270, 960, 1200 (Pi-mesons or pions) and 
2300 (Mu-mesons) electron-masses. Their life 
times are very short. 

An informal communication was presented by 
A. T. McPherson who spoke on behalf of the 
Washington Academy of Sciences on the encour- 
agement of science in the high schools. He pointed 
out that in 1944 13 per cent of the local high- 
school students were enrolled in science courses, 
but in 1952 this figure had dropped to only 6 per 
cent. Other employment has attracted many of 
the best physics teachers and there is a real 
dearth of encouragement to the students. The 
Academy is establishing a register of working 
scientists who will give advice, counseling, and 
talks to secondary school students and teachers. 
He offered the opportunity to enlist in this effort 
to members of the society. (Secretary’s abstract.) 


PROCEEDINGS: PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY 


343 


1361sT MEETING 


The 1361st meeting of the Society was the 
occasion of the twenty-first Joseph Henry Lec- 
ture and was held in the auditorium of the Cos- 
mos Club, April 18, 1952, President McNisH 
presiding. 

Program: SYDNEY CHAPMAN, Oxford Univer- 
sity: Meteors and meteorites (published in this 
JOURNAL 42: 273-282. 1952). 


1362D MEETING 


The 1362d meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, April 25, 1952, President 
McNisu presiding. 

Program: A. I. Manan, Naval Ordnance 
Laboratory: Some of the geometrical, physical, 
and physiological properties of ight—Mr. Mahan, 
Vice-President of the Society, presented a demon- 
stration lecture on some properties of light. After 
a few introductory remarks on the wave theory 
of light, the small portion of the electromagnetic 
spectrum that is visible was singled out as the 
realm of the talk. The sensitivity curve of the 
eye was shown against a color background of the 
visible spectrum. Experiments on the continuous 
spectrum of a tungsten lamp and the line spec- 
trum of a high-pressure mercury are were demon- 


_ strated, using color filters and a transmission 


diffraction grating, singly and in combination. 
A striking illustration was offered by the illumi- 
nation of various colored papers by these two 
light sources. Polarization by reflection was also 
demonstrated. 

Some physiological phenomena were illustrated 
by the negative after-image effect yielding com- 
plementary color changes and the positive 
after-images obtained by looking into a photo- 
flash. This last experiment allowed the audience 
to watch a sequence of fascinating color changes 
for some minutes. 

Lens aberrations were discussed in terms of 
patterns yielded by confining illumination pen- 
cils to various aperture zones. After photographs 
of the effects were shown, the phenomena were 
demonstrated. 

The principle of Schlieren images was discussed 
and demonstrated with the aid of an electric 
soldering iron. Slides of such images obtained in 
wind tunnel studies were shown. (Secretary’s 
abstract.) 


344 


1363D MEETING 


The 1363d meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, May 9, 1952, President 
McNish presiding. 

Program: THomas H. Jounson, Atomic 
Energy Commission: The place and future of 
organized research in modern society.—The speaker 
regarded Federal support of fundamental re- 
search as in a somewhat precarious position, 
because of a lack of appreciation and under- 
standing on the part of the general public. The 
people, unlike the scientists, are not clearly 
aware of the benefits of such research. Congress, 
in its appropriations, must reflect the desires of 
the average person. Support is not easily obtained 
in years when there is need for an expenditure of 
100 billion dollars and heavy taxes yield only 
half that amount. The Federal Government has 
not been a source of support of fundamental 
research in the days before World War II, unlike 
other national governments. 

Against this background the Bush Report in 
1945 and the Steelman Report a few years later 
outlined patterns which finally culminated in the 
National Science Foundation in 1950. The 
appropriations for the Foundation have been so 
small as to place severe limits on its effectiveness 
and there has been substantial support of funda- 
mental research by the Atomic Energy Commis- 
sion, in those fields where it could be justified, 
and by the Office of Naval Research. The former 
Agency is devoting about 12 million dollars to 
basic research out of a total of 800 million dollars 
allocated to research and development. 

It seemed to the speaker unwise at the present 
time to entrust the whole major responsibility 
for basic research to the National Science Founda- 
tion, an agency financially dependent on the 
general public’s appreciation of the importance 
of basic research. Constant efforts should be 
made by scientists to increase this appreciation 
and to make clear the reasons why basic science 
requires support not accorded equally to art, 
literature, and music, for example. (Secretary’s 
abstract.) 

1364TH MEETING 


The 1364th meeting was held in the auditorium 
of the Cosmos Club, May 23, 1952, President 
McNisu presiding. 

Program: FraNkKLIN V. Taytor, Naval Re- 
search Laboratory: Research on man-machine 
systems.—Typical problems arose in World War 
II in connection with gunsight operation. It was 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


- VOL. 42, No. 10 


found that operator errors were partly due to 
the fact that the equipment was not designed to 
fit the man. For example, some dials were in- 
accessible when the operator was in a position 
to read the indicators; both clockwise and 
counterclockwise dial rotations were used to 
increase a variable, etc. 

Psychologists were asked to help redesign 
equipment so that ordinary men could operate 
it. This led to the concept of “‘anthropomechani- 
cal” or “man-machine” systems, where the hard- 
ware is one component and the operator the 
other component of an over-all system. Design- 
ing of such systems is called “engineering psy- 
chology” or “human engineering.” 

The engineer’s picture of the over-all system 
as a servomechanism or as an information- 
handling channel naturally lead to a demand 
that the psychologists measure the “human 
transfer function” so that the engineers could 
treat the operator as a ‘“‘black box’’. One of the 
basic problems is that man’s “black box” is 
definitely nonlinear in operation, in fact it is in- 
termittent as a follow-up device. (This inter- 
mittency was brought out in an earlier address 
before this Society by K. 8. Cole.) 

The concept of compatibility between control 
and display was discussed and some experiments 
relating the effect of compatibility on reaction 
time and error were described. It has been found 
that compatibility (similarity, in the cases shown) 
is so important that a good control paired with a 
bad display gives worse results than a control 
which is normally poor, but is compatible with 
the given display. The same results were found 
with the roles of control and display interchanged. 

A practical example of applied engineering 
psychology was presented. A man operating a 
tracking device that has a time lag preceding 
the display has a tendency to develop violently 
oscillating corrections. It requires considerable 
training to achieve even passable operation. A 
corrective network between the control and dis- 
play, via an additional mixer or comparison cir- 
cuit, so that there is no lag in the operator’s 
knowledge of what his control is doing, stabilizes 
the over-all system. The lag between the actual 
operation and the display is still present. 

In conclusion, the speaker offered the hope 
that a long term result of this marriage of psy- 
chology and engineering will be a better under- 
standing of man’s behavior. (Secretary’s abstract.) 

L. A. Woop, Recording Secretary. 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


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PROM pM Ty LO boven sere code slates bry waster aan cceicsones W.N. Fenton, ALAN STONE 

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F. Herzreup 
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“tty dewaieyay IObR so Gooch bao aha don eGede ne W. A. Dayton (chairman), N. R. Suits 
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Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPueErRson, chairman): 
ROWAN UA TY OOS Nearer Seer RS spon AaisnnsaR armen line ANG Maly CLARK, F. L. Monier 
Rowers al OSA Ah edt caine sieer aniae dus coe dv agai J. M. Catpwe tt, W. L. Scumitr 
FROMM ANUAT OSD ee re isn rea ometUn Genns. flkreteaia snd ASR. McPuerson, W. T. Reap 
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Committee of Tellers...GEORGE P. WALTON (chairman), Grorcr H. Coons, C. L. GARNER 


CONTENTS 


B1OCHEMISTRY—A bioassay of some stereoisomeric constituents of alle- 
thrin. W. A. GERSDORFF AND NORMAN MITLIN...............-. 


PALEONTOLOGY.—New species of JLecanocrinus. HARRELL L. 
STRUMPLM ¢, 27.) sieve otiive cree eeietelets Se ee cosas tia eS ee Oe 


Botany.—A New species of Sphaceloma on magnolia. ANNA E. 
JENKINS AND JULIAN ER Maine. 32. .-. se oe. - eee 


EnromoLocy.—A new larvaevorid fly parasitic on tortoise beetles 
in South America (Diptera). Curtis W. SABROSKY............. 


Entomotocy.—An arrangement of the Prepodesmidae, a family of 
African millipeds: RALPH V. CHAMBERLIN: ...-- 4... -ee eee 


PROCEEDINGS: PAllOSOPHICAT SOCIE DY). ee seen Loe 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


Page 


313 


318 


323 


325 


Vot. 42 NovemMBER 1952 No. 11 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


Wituiam F. FosHaG J. P. E. Morrison JoHNn C. EwErs 


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ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


F, A. Cuace, JR. Miriam L. BomHarp 
BIOLOGY BOTANY 
J. I. HorrMan R. K. Coox 
CHEMISTRY PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 
T. P. THAYER PHILIP DRUCKER 
GEOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY 


C. W. SaBrRosKy 
ENTOMOLOGY 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 42 


November 1952 


No. 11 


ETHNOLOGY.— Animal names, anatomical terms, and some ethnozoology of the 
Flathead Indians. GrorGrE F. Wetset,! Montana State University, Missoula, 
Mont. (Communicated by John C. Ewers.) 


A number of dictionaries and word lists 
have been made of the Flathead tongue, but 
no effort in the nature of an ethnozoological 
list has been undertaken. Not being natural- 
ists, those who have studied the Flathead 
and allied Salishan tribes were unable to 
obtain accurate European and scientific equiv- 
alents for the Indian names of animals. 
Also, many of the lesser known animals were 
overlooked. 

The most complete inventories of the Flat- 
head language are Grammatica linguae Seli- 
cae by P. Mengarini, 8. J. (1861), and A 
dictionary of Kalispel or Flat-Head language 
compiled by J. Giorda, S. J. (1877-79). Both 
of these contain only the names of the more 
obvious animals, and they do not use modern 
linguistic description. There exist a number 
of short lists of Flathead terms gathered 
by early traders. Examples of these may be 
found in The journals and letters of Major 
John Owen (1927, pp. 319-325) and in The 
journals of Alexander Henry and of David 
Thompson (1897, pp. 714-718). The fron- 
tiersmen made no attempts at phonetic spell- 
ing, and, as they were primarily interested 
in trade, the animals listed were restricted 
to the fur bearers and the larger game 
species. There is some linguistic material in 
standard phonetic transcription in a paper 
by Turney-High (1937, pp. 150-160), but 
it is very limited and the animal terms are 
ill defined. 


1T wish to express my gratitude to Carling I. 
Malouf who first interested me in pursuing this 
study, and who rendered invaluable aid through- 
out its preparation. I am indebted also to Dr. 
Philip L. Wright for his help on mammal identifi- 
¢ation and to Dr. Royal B. Brunson for aid with 
the invertebrates. Expenses were defrayed by a 
grant from the Research Committee, Montana 
State University, Missoula, Mont. 


345 


wav 19 1952 


By far the most exact work on the Flat- 
head language was done by Hans Vogt. 
In his monograph The Kalispel language 
(1940, p. 7) he asserted that the Kalispel 
tongue is almost identical with the Flat- 
head. However, his dictionary does not in- 
clude many of the animal names listed in 
this paper, and some of his terms are identi- 
fied merely as “kind of bird” or ‘‘a fish.” 
Other terms are not given their precise Eng- 
lish name. For instance, his ‘red-headed 
wood-pecker” is more exactly the western 
pileated woodpecker. Most of Hans Vogt’s 
names coincide rather well with those taken 
from my informants. Some discrepancies 
may be due to differences in Flathead and 
Kalispel dialects. 

The homeland of the Flathead tribe 
proper, at least in historic times, was Just west 
of the Continental Divide in the Bitterroot 
Valley of Montana (Teit, 1930, p. 310; Tur- 
ney-High, 1937, p. 12). The fauna in this 
area has remained less changed since the 
advent of white men than most. Big-game 
species, such as elk, deer, bear, and moun- 
tain goat, are hunted there today. Undoubt- 
edly, if the accounts of early travelers 
through this country are to be acknowledged, 
most of the mammals have been depleted 
greatly, especially bighorn sheep and grizzly 
bear (Koch, 1941, pp. 357-869). The Flat- 
head relied on these animals and on wild 
plants for their needs. There is no evidence 
that they had domesticated plants. They 
were a nomadic people, well supplied with 
horses, who supplemented their local sus- 
tenance with buffalo, which they hunted 
regularly on the plains east of the moun- 
tains (Rep. Comm. Ind. Affairs, 1857, pp. 
663-669; Ewers, 1948, p. 14). These factors 


346 


make the Flathead admirably suited for eth- 
nozoological study. As the original fauna is 
qualitatively intact, the informants do not 
have to rely on hearsay for the recognition 
of animals; and, as they once depended on 
hunting and fishing for food, they are keenly 
aware of the animals around them. 

Several Flathead Indians were questioned 
on aspects of ethnozoology, but it was soon 
evident that they cast aside veracity in 
their efforts either to please or to “‘pull the 
lee” of the interrogator. The chief informant 
finally selected was Ellen Big Sam, a woman 
of 71 years at closest estimate. She is ex- 
ceptionally bright, has always been a close 
observer and lover of animals, and is sincere 
in her answers. She was born in the Bitter- 
root Valley and married into the tribe. Al- 
though she has some Shoshonean ancestry, 
she is said to speak as pure Flathead as 
anyone on the Flathead Reservation. Since 
she does not speak English, her adopted 
son, Joe Big Sam Woodcock, acted as in- 
terpreter. He is an intelligent man who 
served several years with the army in the 
South Pacific. According to Joe, Ellen knows 
the Indian names of more animals than any 
other Flathead. He claims that members of 
his own generation are acquainted with but 
few of them and that his young boy learns to 
speak Flathead reluctantly. Evidently, the 
older Indians—the few who can recall the 
days when most of their living came from 
the hunt—are the only ones who know most 
of the terms. This generation has practically 
died out. Acculturation has proceeded so 
rapidly that in another five to ten years the 
information will no longer be available. 

To associate the Indian names as ac- 
curately as possible with the various ani- 
mals, the principal informant was taken to 
the Zoology Museum of the University of 
Montana where mounted or pickled speci- 
mens were laid before her. A previous at- 
tempt at using colored pictures proved a 
failure. Ellen is not conditioned to visualiz- 
ing from a flat perspective. In some 
instances, when she could not recall the 
name of a bird or a fish, she was allowed to 
take the specimen for further consideration 
to Mrs. Jerome Vanderberg, another older 
woman encamped near the University 
gathering bitterroots. Ellen possesses an 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


vou. 42, no. 11 


amazing knowledge of the local fauna and is 
undoubtedly accurate in her identifications. 
If she does not recognize an animal, or has 
forgotten its name, she admits it. To test 
her acumen, she was shown an eastern brook 
trout and a rainbow trout. Neither of these 
fish is native to the upper Columbia water- 
shed, but they closely resemble the bull 
trout and the cut-throat trout, respectively, 
which are indigenous. She immediately 
spotted these two species as ones intro- 
duced into the country by white men. 

For anatomical terms, a dissected cat and 
an articulated human skeleton were used. 
Although it was realized that older Indians 
had dressed out many mammals, it was 
still a surprise to find how well the viscera 
are known and the detail in which they are 
classified. For example, the greater omentum 
is not lumped in one word with the other 
mesenteries but is given a separate name. 

The means of hunting and the role differ- 
ent animals played in the subsistence of the 
Flathead have been fairly well covered by 
Teit (1930, pp. 341-849) and Turney-High 
(1937, pp. 111-129). No particular effort 
was made to gather more information on the 
subject. However, a number of miscellaneous 
and out-of-the-ordinary observations were 
collected. 

The simplified form of phonetic symbols 
from Phonetic transcription of Indian lan- 
guages (Smithsonian Mise. Coll., 1916) is 
used in this study. Admittedly, my limita- 
tions in the highly specialized training 
needed for Indian orthography do not im- 
part the precision desired. However, it is 
believed that the words can be easily recog- 
nized and that they should be of use to 
ethnologists and linguists who wish more 
accurate animal identifications than were 
previously provided. 


FISHES 


The fish fauna of western Montana has been 
greatly altered in the past 50 years. Accounts by 
men who were in the territory in 1850-65 reveal 
that trout were amazingly abundant in the Clark 
Fork and Bitterroot Rivers (Dodson, 1852, origi- 
nal MS.; Stewart, 1925, p. 186; McAdow, 1952, 
p. 45). But today it takes an expert fisherman 
and modern equipment to make much of a catch 
in these rivers. Pollution, irrigation, and overash- 


NOVEMBER 1952 


ing have taken their toll. Except for the intro- 
duction of rambow trout (Salmo gairdneri), 
brown trout (Salmo trutia), and brook trout 
(Salvelinus fontinalis), the species that inhabit 
the rivers and creeks must be the same as ages 
ago. In the lakes many more exotic species have 
been added. These include lake trout (Salvelinus 
namycush), Great Lakes whitefish (Coregonus 
clupeaformis), black bullhead (Amezurus melas), 
yellow perch (Perca flavescens), largemouth bass 
(Micropterus salmoides), and pumpkinseed (Lepo- 
mis gubbosus). 

Although fish were extensively used for food 
by the Flathead, fishing contributed much less 
to their livelihood than hunting. There were no 
large runs of fish in their streams that could be 
relied on to furnish ample provender at certain 
times of the year. Their related tribes—the 
Pend d’Oreille, Kalispel, and Spokan—were much 
more dependent on fisheries. 

The Flathead were well acquainted with the 
salmon, although it is not native to the waters 
of western Montana. There is a legend that 
Coyote attempted to bring them this fish, but, 
when part way up the west side of Lolo Pass, he 
became tired and dropped it, and it flopped back 
down the Idaho side of the divide. Lolo Pass, 
made famous in the journey of Lewis and Clark, 
bears the Indian name of tumsumceli (no salmon). 
However, the Flathead used to go south to the 
Snake and Salmon Rivers in Idaho for the salmon 
runs, often fishing in cooperation with Shoshones, 
Banacks, or Nez Percé. Women and children, as 
well as men, took part in catching the fish with 
weirs, traps, hooks, spears, and even clubs. 
Salmon usually were dried on racks and then 
packed in parfleches lined with wild mint. 

Of the indigenous fish, dolly varden and cut- 
throat trout were favored most for food. Rattle- 
snake Creek, which flows into the Clark Fork 
River at Missoula, is called n:se’ai’ for the dolly 
varden found there. These trout were caught with 
a baited hook and a line of woven horsehair, or 
snagged with bone hooks. Ellen Big Sam demon- 
strated how the bone hooks were manufactured 
from the scapula of deer. This thin, flat bone, 
when fresh, was fractured easily and the slivers 
fashioned into a barbed point, which was then 
fastened with sinews to a straight piece of bone 
or to a small stick. 

Suckers and large minnows were utilized also. 
Fishing for them took place at any time of the 
year. Squawfish and chub, both large minnows, 


WEISEL: ETHNOZOOLOGY OF FLATHEAD INDIANS 


BAT 


were among the commonest and most easily 
caught. Like suckers, they were fried until crisp, 
as they are very bony. One means of cooking 
them in the past was to clean them and run a 
pointed willow into the mouth and posteriorly 
through the flesh of the back by the tail. Two or 
three fish could be skewered on a single stick and 
roasted over a fire. Fish that were caught locally 
were seldom preserved by drying or pounded into 
pemmican. 

Two species of fish, the American grayling 
(Thymallus signifer) and the burbot (Lota lota), 
common in the upper Missouri River but not 
found in the Bitterroot, were shown to the princi- 
pal informant. She had never seen or heard of 
them. When the Flathead were in the Missouri 
River country, they were intent on hunting and 
avoiding their enemies and undoubtedly did little 
if any fishing. 

Eastern brook trout, yellow perch, largemouth 
black bass, and pumpkinseed were recognized by 
the Indians as transplanted and are known by 
the inclusive term sinptqit’tqu, translated as 
“thrown in.” 

With a few minor omissions, the fish shown to 
the informant represent all kinds that are to be 
found in the drainage of the Bitterroot, Flathead, 
and Clark Fork Rivers—the streams that flow 
through the homeland of the Flathead Indians. 
They included introduced as well as native spe- 
cies. As with the other lists of vertebrate animals, 
the fish are grouped in Table 1 according to their 
systematic arrangement rather than alphabeti- 
cally. The scientific and common English names 
are those approved by the Committee on Com- 
mon and Scientific Names of Fishes (Trans. Amer. 
Fish. Soc., 1945, pp. 355-884). 


AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 


There are relatively few species of amphibians 
in the Rocky Mountain area, and what there are, 
are not numerous. Only on rare occasions, when 
starvation was imminent, were they used for 
food. The different species of frogs were not 
recognized, but they were distinguished from the 
toads. As the English translation of the Flathead 
name for tadpoles is “young frog,’”’ the Indians 
must have realized that tadpoles metamorphosed 
into the adult form and were not another kind of 
animal. In many respects the Indians were farther 
advanced in their knowledge of zoology than 
Europeans of two centuries ago. 

The only reptile eaten was the turtle, which 


348 


was roasted in pits. Turtle eggs also were con- 
sidered a delicacy. The reptiles listed below 
(Table 2) are common throughout the area, 
except the rattlesnake, which is more or less 
restricted to the upper part of the Bitterroot 
Valley. 

BIRDS 


The Flathead ate all the birds and their eggs, 
but, with the flesh of large mammals as plentiful 
as it was, birds were not seriously hunted. In 
particular, Frankln’s grouse was taken fairly 
often, mostly because this ‘fool hen”? can be 
procured simply by hitting it with a stick. Boys 
and squaws would sometimes set snares for 
sharp-tailed grouse; and snow buntings and wax- 
wings, which come into the country in large 
flocks early in winter, were shot and trapped for 
food. Magpie eggs were probably taken more 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 42, No. 11 


frequently than eggs of any other bird. The mag- 
pie’s large nests are constructed in low trees and 
brush, and so they are conspicuous and easily 
accessible. Some effort was made to obtain eagles 
and large hawks for wing bones, from which 
medicine flutes were made, and for feathers. 
Ellen confirmed Turney-High’s statement (1937, 
p. 113) on the method of capturing eagles. The 
hunter dug a camouflaged pit and placed a bait of 
guts on the edge of it. When an eagle lighted on 
the bait, it was grabbed with the hands. An eagle 
hunter always took several sweat baths before 
hiding in the pit, making it less likely that his 
body odor would betray his presence. Pileated 
woodpeckers were sought for an unusual purpose. 
The bill of this bird was considered to be effica- 
cious for relieving toothache. It was ground to a 
powder and packed in tooth cavities. 


TaBLe 1—FLATHEAD INDIAN NAMES OF FISHES 


Scientific classification English name 


Fish in general 
Red salmon 
Cut-throat trout 


Oncorhynchus nerka................-..| 
Salo Qhailids cade so sdbos mode ogueo nes 


Dolly varden: 
small 
large 


Salvelinus fontinalis.................. 


Prosopium williamsoni............... 
Catostomus catostomus................ 
Catostomus macrocheilus.............. 
Ptychocheilus oregonense........-.....- 
Mylocheilus caurinum 
Rhinichthys cataractae................. 
Richardsonius balteatus................ 
PARI LELUUTUSIITLCLO,S see fetal inners eet 


Zen COMLALUESCEIUS taste einai 
Micropterus salmovdes...............-- 
We pOMIStGLUDOSUS Ss aac Select e eee 
(COMUS COMA seo deunusedacnbeedeus 


Eastern brook trout 


Mountain white fish 

Lorgnose sucker 

Columbia largescaled sucker 
Columbia squawfish 
Columbia River chub 
Longnose dace 
Redsidelshinersyaee eee 
Black bullhead 


Yellow perch 
Largemouth black bass 
Pumpkinseed 

Slimy muddler 


Flathead name Remarks 
sawé’is 
stimsli 
eskUaik’Uaistie The term refers to the “black’’ color 
their backs have in water when 
viewed from above. 
se’ai’ 
ai’ 
sinpiqit’tq" Called “thrown in” because they are 
planted. 
xoyu Translated ‘puckered lips.’’ 
heottene 
k’dqué 
cit/laus : 
atte The term is used for small fish in 
cla’wé 
general. 
aupuputsi The name “‘whiskers’’ refers to the bar- 
bels. 
pana’ See brook trout above. 
s‘tit’ma 


Taste 2.—FLATHEAD INDIAN NAMES OF AMPHIBIANS AND REPTILES 


Scientific classification 


Amphibia: 


A TLUIFUDLET Stn Perera attire 
Rana pretiosa...... SAG aGania guar 
Hroglanvasscec cece cu aoe. sees 
IBUAON NONE: og Toda ene sou aa badecabe 
Ambystoma macrodactylum.......... 


Reptilia: 


Ophidiarelaense ath etch me meee 
Thamnophis elegans...............--. 
Thamnophis ordinatus............... 
Pituophis catenifer..... wAGHAaae ES eae 
(CHOSE sostinsedocderheodoeases 
(ON SPT ATOUS TOG keiaem neon A capeicto he uearsice ones 


English name Flathead name English equivalent 

Aa AE Leopard frog 
eae Spotted frog sumac ianae 
Sh econ Tadpole sixtlt’slumslame Young frog 
Hee ee Toad senaqlequa 
Seo Long-toed salamander silsilé 
JEEAGES Snakes sleééwile’ 
Parents Versace q’ai‘slecewile’ Black snake 
a eee Gopher snake solé’nii 
Rabie Rattlesnake k’lai’olex” 

Painted turtle spel’qta 


NOVEMBER 1952 


TABLE 3—FLATHEAD INDIAN NAMES OF BIRDS 


WEISEL: ETHNOZOOLOGY OF FLATHEAD INDIANS 349 


Scientific classification 


English name 


Flathead name 


Remarks 


CSET (7 CEO nie a ee 
Aechmorphorus occidentalis........ 
Ardea herodwas....-.... 2... see 


Botaurus lentiginosus............- 
Cygnus columbianus.............. 


mmntidael Gnepart)....... <<... ..:.. 
Chen hyperborea................... 
Branta canadensis................. 


PESIIEMILCO SO aetinieicicis Soe ets 
J 07 G6 EON 0: a 


Mergus merganser................- 
COGS CORE Re Soe ee RO ee 
Meleagris gallopavo............... 
NeripiteriiGae:...-. 0. ..-2.2<-s0s.s 


PAISERTIOLELCODULUS oes tase oes 
BORON ISAS £2 ie A AA 


UCTULTUCN CHEN USCLELOS HE, Scio nt sti) ses oa 


Haliaeetus leucocephalus.......... 
UT CUSINUGSONUUSS: os ai-0 05 xis <2: 
Pandion haliaetus................ 
HOLEOMMETEGTUNUS =. 55s). joe ew ne: 
alcovSparveriwus.. .:,.=-= j.22.25.-+ 
Dendragapus obscurus............ 
Bonasa umbellus................. 
Pedioecetes phasianellus.......... 
Phasianus colchicus.............. 
WiLL UCON CANETICONG She. a av ae oe 


Oxyechus vociferus...............- 
Totanus melanoleucus............ 


Larus californicus................ 
Zenaidura macroura.............. 


Bubo virginianus..............-... 
INO GIEES TELE On cols CREE SOE IE EEe 
Speotyto cunicularia.............. 
Chordeilus minor.................+ 


ISLCLUULG COUIOPE. .... +202 verses 
Megaceryle alcyon................. 
Galambes Caper) ..< 60a sche cw aes wos 
Ceophloeus pileatus............... 


Asyndesmus lewis................. 
Dryobates pubescens............... 
Tyrannus verticalis................ 
UDOT MU DOTIG.« 82%) Wissen td e es 
Hirundo erythrogaster............. 


Cyanocitta stellert................. 


ECL UC HONS st ek ch erai or elasa alot 
BoTDURICOTAD Piensa alioui cc Nea es 


Loon 
Western grebe 
Great blue heron 


American bittern 
Whistling swan 


Geese in general 
Snow goose 
Canada goose 


Domestic white goose 
Ducks in general 


American merganser 
Turkey vulture 
Domestic turkey 
Hawks in general 
Small hawks 
Goshawk 

Red-tailed hawk 


Golden eagle 

Old dark golden eagle 
Bald eagle 

Marsh hawk 

Osprey 

Duck hawk 

Sparrow hawk 

Blue grouse 

Ruffed grouse 
Sharp-tailed grouse 
Ring-necked pheasant 
American coot 


Long-billed curlew 


Killdeer 
Greater yellowlegs 


California gull 
Mourning dove 


Great horned owl 
Snowy owl 
Burrowing owl 
Nighthawk 


Calliope hummingbird 
Belted kingfisher 
Red-shafted flicker 
Pileated woodpecker 


Lewis’s woodpecker 
Downy woodpecker 
Arkansas kingbird 
Bank swallow 

Barn swallow 


Steller’s jay 


American magpie 
Raven 


usolus 
ste‘luksin 
semalq”™é 


x’awito" 
s'pak’ami 


k"esix’O 
wa’d 
tpetap 2 


spa’ k’ami 
sestlexum 


sxaxal 


n‘slet’slata 
stelstelstamu 
s'kakan6o 
s*k’ak’ai 


mlekanu 
skaiimi 

p kaltkai 
k’ak’alstse 
stex’ux’u 
xa’tot 
e’lea 

ka 

sq'isq' is 
sk’a 
éusue’squisq"is 
li’dle 


wat tluwit 


stécun 
nosxina 


xemi's*xem 


s"nine 
n’spsinme 
n’éecuwa 
S’spas 


l’Owatni 
tsalis 
q"elqele 
spuwalqen 


tsiutst 
etelxti 
cleéeéa 


clemo 


quasq’i 


aun 
m’‘la 


So named because its throat is rounded 
like a hill. 


The term is referable to ‘“‘something 
white.” 


Named for the sound they make. 

The informant was not sure this was the 
goose to which the term applied. 

See swan above. 

The informant was unable to differ- 
entiate the mallard, baldpate, green- 
winged teal, pintail, or shoveller. 


Not recognized. 


The term means, ‘‘it grabs.’’ 


This is one of the commonest hawks in 
the area, but it was not recognized. 


The name means ‘‘white head.”’ 


Term also used for domestic chickens. 


Translated as ‘‘Chinamen’s chicken.”’ 

Name derived from the noise they 
make. 

The ery of the curlew sounds like its 
Indian name. 


The name, ‘‘long nose”’ refers to this 
bird’s long beak. 


The name is from the cooing sound the 
dove makes. 


When the nighthawk dives through the 
air, its wing feathers make a vibra- 
tory noise. The term is derived from 
this sound. 


Term is referable to “‘red wings.” 
Term alludes to the beak and means 
“pick.’” 


The swallows are named ‘mud’? for 
the material from which they con- 
struct their nests. 

Term is derived from the dark color 
of the bird. The bluejay dancers are 
so named because they paint them- 
selves dark. Evidently there is no 
connection between the medicine 
dance and the bird. 


300 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 11 


Tassie 3.—(Cont.) 


Scientific classification English name 


Flathead name Remarks 


Crow 

Clark’s nutcracker 
Mountain chickadee 
Dipper 

Robin 

Mountain bluebird 
Golden-crowned kinglet 
Cedar waxwing 


Corvus brachyrhynchos..........--. 
Nucifraga columbiana...........- 

Penthestes gambeli................ 
Cinclus mericanus........5....5.- 
Turdus migratorius............... 
Sialia currucoides.........:....... 
Regulus satrapa.............-..... 
Bombycilla cedrorum..........-... 


Vireo olivaceus.......-...+.+.++-:- Red-eyed vireo 


English sparrow 
Western meadowlark 
Red-winged blackbird 
Bullock’s oriole 
Western tanager 
Black-headed grosbeak 
Evening grosbeak 
Pine grosbeak 

Red crossbill 

Oregon junco 

Song sparrow 

Snow bunting 


Passer domesticus................. 
Sturnella neglecta................ 
Agelaius phoeniceus.............> 
cteraisnDUllockur cr mee a yteiert) =e tye 
Piraga ludoviciana................ 
Hedymeles melanocephalus.. . 
Hesperiphona vespertina........ 
Pinicola enucleator................ 
Loaia curvirostra............ 
Jumnco oreganus...........+2.++.5. 
Melospiza melodia........... 
Plectrophenax nivalis.............. 


sca‘a’ 

snalsqu 

ctuskane 
k’axuméne 
sk’léxaxaé 
n'squilquata The term means “‘it’s blue.”’ 

Recognized, but no name recalled. 

The waxwing’s name means “star,” 
perhaps for the yellow spot near the 
wing tip. 

Same term used for other vireos, tana- 
gers, and small yellow birds in gen- 
eral. 

Translated as ‘‘white man’s bird.’’ 


kakusum 


elqakutleaqto 


stiap’slue’wia 
we'o'wl 
elkaiclkiskla 
Wwe'O'xXO 
elqakutleaqUo 


Translated as ‘pinto blackbird.’’ 


See Vireo above. 


The Indian name means “big nose,” 


“qita’nak’ 
mn Orlane Ae alluding to the large beak. 


Translated ‘‘crossed nose.’’ 
Common, but not recognized. 


Term derived from thesound of its song. 
Name translated as “little snows.” 


clai‘ai’xosa 


s xlasasi 
xslum’men’kum/kut 


According to the Indians, ducks, sharp-tailed 
grouse, and bitterns are much less numerous now 
than formerly. Also, they realize that the Cali- 
fornia gull, English sparrow, and Chinese pheas- 
ant are newcomers. 

A checklist of the birds of western Montana 
compiled by the U. S. Forest Service (no date), 
contains 256 different species and subspecies. A 
great many of these are infrequent visitors to 
the state. Also, groups of them—especially the 
sparrows, warblers, and shorebirds—include nu- 
merous species that are difficult for even the avid 
birdwatcher to tell apart. Rather than include the 
whole list in this study, 70 of the most common 
and distinguishable birds were selected and ex- 
hibited to the informant. Their arrangement and 
nomenclature (Table 3) are adopted from the 
A.O.U. Check-List of North American birds (1931). 


WILD MAMMALS 


By far the greatest part of the Flathead’s sub- 
sistence came from hunting large mammals. Al- 
though the narrow valleys in their own country 
had but few buffalo, there was an abundance of 
sheep, goat, elk, and deer which could support 
them. However, with the advent of the horse, it 
became more feasible to hunt the great herds of 
buffalo which grazed the plains on the other side 
of the Divide. In their seasonal quest for bison, 
the Flathead went at least as far east as the 


Lower Musselshell and Big Horn, and as far 
south as Fort Hall. (For further information on 
this subject and the methods used on the hunt, 
see Teit, 1930, pp. 344-348; Turney-High, 1937, 
pp. 112-123; and Ewers, 1948, p. 14.) 

Smaller mammals had important, though often 
overlooked, values. For instance, the weasel was 
trapped in the winter for its white fur and tail, 
which were much esteemed for trimmings on 
dress. It is still one of the most popular adorn- 
ments on Flathead fancy clothes. Porcupine quills 
also were favored for decoration on clothing. 
Only the longest and most even quills were 
chosen; the sharp ends were cut off; and then 
they were boiled. Before the introduction of 
commercial dyes, quills were frequently colored 
by adding yellow lichen (Hvernia barbata) to the 
water. After boiling, the softened quills were 
flattened by drawing them through the fingers. 
They were sewn in a zigzag fashion, held fast at 
each angle with sinews. Usually, two needles were 
used in sewing. It was a more arduous process 
than decorating with beads. 

Small mammals were also a source of food. 
Rabbits were caught in snares for this purpose by 
children, and ground squirrels and marmots were 
hunted frequently. The last two, when baked or 
barbecued, were considered excellent eating. In 
preparation, the hair was first burnt off; next, 
they were gutted; and then the legs, which were 


NOVEMBER 1952 


cut off close to the body, were sewn inside the 
coelomic cavity. Badgers were eaten sometimes, 
but the more numerous red squirrels seem to have 
received little attention. 

Tn his checklist of the recent mammals of Mon- 
tana, Wright (1951, pp. 47-50) includes 137 
species and subspecies; 73 of these are thought to 
occur west of the Continental Divide. Most of 
the genera in the list have a number of species 
and subspecies which are so much alike that 
only a qualified mammalogist can separate them. 
As examples, there are 10 different chipmunks 
(genus Tamias) and 9 different pocket gophers 
(genus Thomomys). A test with a series of various 
chipmunk species showed that the Indians did not 
differentiate the mammals by obscure distinc- 
tions like cranial characters or coat color, such 
as used by systematists. Consequently, only 50 
kinds of mammals were selected for identifica- 
tion—one chipmunk, one pocket gopher, etc.— 
but they are believed to be representative of all 
the mammals in Flathead country (Table 4). 


DOMESTIC MAMMALS 


The Flathead had comparatively large herds 
of horses, which were notably superior in stamina 
and quickness to most Indian cayuses. Traders 
came from the Emigrant Road in the 1850’s to 
barter for these fine animals. One, Van Etten, 
came all the way from Salt Lake City to procure 
horses for the Pony Express, an organization that 
required the best. The Blackfeet, as well as white 
traders, coveted these horses and made frequent 
raids to steal them. A Blackfoot brave told 
Governor Stevens that he “stole the first Flat- 
head horse he came across—it was sure to be a 
good one” (Rep. Explor. ete., 1855, vol. 1, p. 
148; Woody, 1896, p. 97; Hamilton, 1900, p. 48; 
Stuart, 1925, vol. 1, p. 169). The Flathead used 
to castrate their horses before the coming of 
white men, even with flint knives; and they knew 
that if gelded after maturity the horse would 
retain more of the vigor of the stallion. 

Some of the first herds of cattle in Montana 
were possessed by Flathead. They procured most 
of them from men who traded for worn-out 
stock along the Oregon Trail late in the 1840’s and 
who wintered the animals in the relative safety 
of Flathead country. This animal husbandry was 
encouraged by the Jesuit missionaries at St. 
Marys in the Bitterroot Valley, and later at St. 
Ignatius, Flathead Valley (Rep. Explor. etce., 
1855, vol. 1, p. 3238; Stuart, 1925, vol. 2, p. 97; 


WHISEL: ETHNOZOOLOGY OF FLATHEAD INDIANS 


351 


Owen, 1927, numerous short references). It is 
evident from Table 5 that terms referring to 
cattle are derived from those used for buffalo. 

The place of the dog in Flathead culture has 
been dealt with by Turney-High (1937, pp. 104- 
105). Ellen agreed that they did not use dogs 
for food as so many of the plains tribes did. 


VERTEBRATE ANATOMY 


Because they frequently dressed and prepared 
game, Flathead are naturally thoroughly familiar 
with vertebrate anatomy. They utilized practi- 
cally all the carcass. Of the viscera, only the gall 
and urinary bladders were not eaten. Of course, 
sweetbreads, kidney, and liver were used; but 
besides, fat in the mesenteries was extracted for 
use in cooking; fat deposited around the kidney 
was considered a special dainty; brains served for 
food but were saved mostly for softening hides; 
and not only were the stomach and intestines 
devoured, but their contents were also. When the 
animal was reduced to a skeleton, the bones were 
not wasted, but were cracked to yield marrow 
(s'tos), and were mashed and boiled to’ make a 
broth. The greasy part of the broth which was 
skimmed off is called stéelamost. 

Ellen related an interesting use of one of the 
bones. Flathead sharpers manufactured stick 
game bones from the humerus of man. They 
believed that if the human humerus were used, it 
would numb the hand of the opponent, and 
betray which held the bone. Should the opponent 
suspicion such treachery, he could wash his hands 
in water containing the petals of wild roses, which 
allowed him to handle the bone with impunity. 

Some terms given in Table 6—such as thumb, 
wrist, and arm—are used also to designate the 
bones in that portion of the body. Rather than 
repeat them, they are listed only with the skeletal 
terms. 


INVERTEBRATES 


Unlike some tribes in arid regions to the south, 
the Flathead do not seem to have considered any 
of the invertebrates as food. The reason is clear. 
None of the invertebrates occurred in great abun- 
dance in western Montana, and the more edible 
plants and game animals were generally plentiful 
enough for their needs. This lack of reliance on 
invertebrates as a food source is reflected in the 
relatively poor acquaintance, compared with the 
vertebrates, that the Flathead have with insects, 
worms, and molluses. 


352 


Taste 4.—FLatHEap InpIAN Names oF MAMMALS 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 42, No. 11 


Scientific classification 


English name 


Flathead name 


Remarks 


ISONCXACUIVENEUS Ie pei ae aier ern leon aa 


WTAE ONS ie rina aaa nce tocsa 
Ursus americanus 

Ursus horribilis........... 
Mantesupennanuttiann secant averse 


Martes americana. 
Mustela frenata....... 


Mustela vison...... 
Gietlovlascusenm ae et): AA 
Men itisiie Dhitiswem pissin sie) 
Taxidea tarus............ 
Lutra canadensis...... 
Wulpesi(ulu@=-) tne seen 
Ganisilatransin.cscn. 
ChaRUS WEIDER. seas Shacd ee ses 
HelisiCONCOLOT Mean ciieei iio: 
Lynx canadensis... 
Lynt rufus... : 
Marmota flaviventer. . 


Citellus columbianus...... 
Citellus lateralis........:.:... 
Citellus tridecemlineatus........ 
Cynomys ludovicianus........... 


Tamias amoenus............ 
Tamiasciurus hudsonicus 
Glaucomys sabrinus...... 
Thomomys talpoides.. 

Castomcaonadensiseen eee Eee 
Dipodomys ordii...... 


Peromyscus maniculatus........... 
Neotoma cinerea...... es 
Microtis pennsylvanicus......... 
Ondatra zibethica.....,......... 
Zapus princeps....... 
IVIRLSWIUUSCULUS eet ee eine 


Erethizon dursatum............... 
Ochotona princeps........ 

WE DUSIC MCT COILS Hee see 
Lepus townsendii................ 
Sylvilagus nuttallii....... 
Cervusicamdensissenesenin se ee 


Odocoilus virginianus........-........ 


Odocoileus hemionus.............. 


PA CESKCITLET:ICA.NGM: taints att ORE oh ee 


Long-tailed shrew 


Little brown bat 
Black bear 
Grizzly bear 
Fisher 


Marten 

Long-tailed weasel: 
white pellage 
dark pellage 

Mink 

Wolverine 

Striped skunk 

Badger 

Otter 

Red fox 

Coyote 

Timber wolf 

Couger 

Canada lynx 

Bobeat 

Golden-mantled mar- 
mot 

Columbian ground 
squirrel 

Golden mantled 
ground squirrel 

Thirteen-lined 
ground squirrel 

Black-tailed prairie 
dog 

Western chipmunk 

Red squirrel 

Flying squirrel 

Pocket gopher 

Beaver 

Kangaroo rat 


White-footed mouse 
Bush-tailed wood rat 
Meadow mouse 
Muskrat 

Jumping mouse 
House mouse 


Poreupine 
Rocky Mountain pika 
Snowshoe rabbit 
Jack rabbit 
Cottontail 
Wapiti: 
general term 
cow 
bull 
White-tailed deer: 
doe 
buck 
Rocky Mountain mule 
deer: 
doe 


buck 

fawn 

fawn in fall 
American moose 


t’elt’elue 
unslamk’ai 
samk’ai 


tlo‘lo 


x’la*pa 
clei 
sta*xalé 


x’a‘steu 
sI'xoi’xd 

Itka 

wa’ wa'a 

sinéélé 
n'tstutsen 
s‘squ°tesumuye 
senk’asu 
senk’asu 
senctesa 


cleku 


kUk"stawe 
iséé 
sxo’pope 
polée 
skaléu 


qreukutene 
xé@' ot 
stumxoini 
éeéelexo 


qveukutene 


sqvel’a 
s'¢ine 

el'qta 

el’ qUa 
wiuscle’aéen. 


tsétéa 
sene 
tséosene 


sta’o 
swatle 


stoltse 


powe 
spalpi 
sleqtkuelt® 
saselkes 


This small nocturnal animal was not 
recognized. 


This mammal is searce in the area. It 
was not recognized. 


Rare this far south. Not recognized. 


Not present on west side of Divide in 
Montana, 


Not recognized. It occurs only east of 
the Rockies, 


Not recognized. 

This introduced species is given the 
same name as the  white-footed 
mouse. 


The same term -is used for domestic 
mules. 


ee ET SA ON Poy 


NOVEMBER 1952 


WEISEL: ETHNOZOOLOGY 


Taste 4.—(Cont.) 


OF FLATHEAD INDIANS 


353 


Scientific Classification 


English name 


Flathead Name 


Remarks 


Rangifer montanus............ 


Antilocapra americana...... 


CSD (PR Ae 


PNA SCAMAACTISIS ES 6 «a2 0 sis; s 0s sn 
Oreamnos americanus.........-.. 


| 
| 
| 
| 


Mountain caribou 


| American pronghorn 


American bison: 
general term 
bull 
cow 
ealf 
yearling 

...| Bighorn 

...| Mountain goat 


stiele’st® 


ste’an 


qtoilquai 


q"oilqUaistolslem 
qoilqUaiste’ma 
qoilqtaitselqtelq"ele 
stqUoik°k® 

cla*O6mene 

eld tlé 


Caribou did not range as far south as 
Flathead country, but the neigh- 
boring Kalispel undoubtedly hunted 
them. 

Occasional pronghorns were possibly 
found on the west side of the Con- 
tinental Divide. 

Translated as ‘black mass.’’ 


Tasie 5—FLATHEAD INDIAN NAMES OF DoMESTIC MAMMALS 


English name Flathead Name 
Dog: | 
general term............... ...--..| qvasami 
WIND.) sachhoone ¢ oO Reb eee | sk’altamixuq’asami 
IDV Tacs Ako hee Soe eee claméq"asami 
DOM =. doco 3 Ua ee s'sltitié 
Horse: 
general term......... 5 eee ee sinéelsaska 
SLANT ONM ME ice csi ess pe os se n’melmelq"e 
REGUNYS. 5. sue cae SEE ae sk’altemxoska 
TEE: alas do aS SoGe OE Dee eee | samo 
GUSTS Ses She gads deo Ean e s'lamdéskl’akai‘i 
ColinecLsonm panes SRO PORE See eee sk’altamixuk’akai‘i 
MEAT O ARE Oey es) sie > an | el’ kék6me 
RAGEAHOLSC SOME Tie sie siocestei nisi ..| sinskoikésinséelsaska 


English name Flathead name 
Colors of horses: 
APALOOSALA eee alls ebay éela‘elxa 
| OFF Aig eae Hd SRR TRS ed gat qvel 
Dla cleans i Se eee he Sel quai 
IDrO WI eae Saray pitts RR ae éelée’e 
buckskin setae ers Ce lott 
BEAY ola eee En Res CLR EUL 
Ealaminowae cere eee ees ...| epi 
INTO Sra ee ee Syncing Nae eee as k’aive 
smoky éelpa 
COWS ieee eee eae ste’ma 
Bay eA ONE ER ee EE erEe stolslem 
Calltese ne see OOS | tselq"elqvele 


Only the commonly occurring invertebrates 
were displayed for the informant. In the list 
below (Table 7), the arthropods are classified 
just to order, as this is about the level of recogni- 
tion that the Indians have for them. It is true 
that the Flathead identify more insects than this 
list indicates, but they designate most of them 
merely by adfixing the color of the animal, or 
large or small, to its general term—like red ant, 
black ant, and so on. The table is arranged 
according to the alphabetical sequence of the 
English names. 


LITERATURE CITED 


AMERICAN ORNITHOLOGISTS’ Unton. Check-list of 
North American birds, ed. 4. 1931. 

ANNUAL Reports, COMMISSIONER OF INDIAN ArF- 
FATRS. Washington, D. C., 1857. 

CoMMITTEE ON CoMMON AND ScrienvTiric Names 
or Fisues. A list of common and scientific 
names of the better known fishes of the United 
States and Canada. Trans. Amer. Fish. Soc. 
75: 355-384. 1945. 

Dopson, Joun F. [Original MS. diary in collec- 


tions of Montana State Historical Society, 
Helena, 1852.] 

Ewers, JoHN C. Gustavus Sohon’s portraits of 
Flathead and Pend d’Oreille Indians, 1854. 
Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 110(7): 1-68. 1948. 

GiorpA, J. A dictionary of the Kalispel or Flat- 
Head Indian language, compiled by the mis- 
stonaries of the Society of Jesus, 2 vols. St. 
Ignatius, Mont., 1877-79. 

Hamiuton, WiiutAm T. A trading expedition among 
the Indians in 1858, from Fort Walla Walla to 
the Blackfoot country and return. Contr. Hist. 
Soc. Mont. 3: 33-123. 1900. 

Henry, ALEXANDER, and THomeson, Davip. The 
journals of Alexander Henry and of David 
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Kocu, Wuuers. Big game in Montana from early 
historical records. Journ. Wildlife Manage- 
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McApow, Perry W. Perry W. McAdow and Mon- 
tana tin 1861-1862. HWdited by Ross Toole. 
Montana Mag. Hist. 2(1): 41-53. 1952. 

MepnGaARINI, Gregory. Grammatica linguae Seli- 
cae. New York, 1861. 

Owen, Joun. The journals and letters of Major 


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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


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Washington, D. C., 1855. 


1 of 12 vols. 


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TABLE 6.—FLATHEAD INDIAN ANATOMICAL TERMS 


English term 


Flathead term 


English term 


Flathead term 


External anatomy: 

‘Backsolyanyeanimealsonre sare aia er 
Beak of bird or nose of mammal.......... 
(CEOS ES aint ae cae Rn s Sas is See a rintee 
Chestrofanysanimal geno sec os. cee 

Claws of bird or mammal 
Ear of mammal or operculum of fish 
Elbow 


Feather 
Fins of fish: 


Mandible of mammal or lower beak of bird 
Pads on feet of dog, ete.................. 
Scalesrois ish, ser cyte eyo ya ener octet pve: 


Skeletal system: 
Ankles (tarsals)sscss etos seinen cd ee eee 
Arm (including humerus, radius, ulna)... . 
Breast bone (sternum) .. 
Collar bone (clavicle)...................... 
Finger (phalanges): 
Ingenerallyse sees ay we ele ee Ue 
Arttlesfinger “se ecnuicn nut aera ei senor 
muiddleyfingerme eee ecce eee eee 
Pubs T9) 1beN Y= yale cre Revs ree Wee tale 
thumb 


Shank (tibia and fibula)................... 
Skeletons: Gree eh ca ieee ete eee 


senéeméées 
sunpesa 
senolxawééensen 
s-ééawadcé 
k’olk’ai 

tene 
s:¢umwosaxum 
s-éuq"elu 

skapu 


tu’oc 
sinéleéen 
to’tis 

spum 
sp’elki-n 
k’ett 
stumst-e 
séumkai’sene 
stéemakasées 
giep® 

steces 
cééméées 
senéumk’ai 
susps 
sk’ai‘em 
ctestis 
éuwaxunska’pu 


sg’eléumsiéen 
séawaxun 
sk’épemin 
ntclelk’ai 


saqamen 
sta’otekai 
saq"amenesl'nq"6 
stadtkaisInq"6 
stulést 
sémeléen 
éenkaieéen 
t-kaleme 
sx0x’tip 
s¢émakeéen 
spa’estso 


Skull 
Tail (caudal vertebrae).................... 
Thigh (femur).. 
Moesi(phalanges) pence eee eee 
Vertebrae . 
meurall'spine 37. esse ee eee Ee 
Wrist (carpals)..... 
Internal anatomy: 
Afterbinth) (placenta))= 21. se ssi eee 
Anus 


Caecums 4.) csiisu. ote eG ee ee 
Diaphragm = 25.055 scassngsee eeeee 
Gallbladder’. foc)... ot ee eee 
Greater omentum....... : 


Intestine jlange /.-20)\. 5: oo Ale e eeee 
Intestine, small 


Mesentery, other than omentum...... tuple 
INostrileetae ree DSSS etn eee 


Spleen 


sharp teeth as canines................... 
bridle;teeth:of- elk. 4.2 eee eee 


spelkainiépa 
susps 
st06éin? 
stoo¢in 
asxap-m 
e-liéen 
sqUaléumsene 


senumxumwxel 
senpoten 
senxule 
k’ak’alxum 
sapenk’ai-n 
salené 

estwep 

qualin 

sétqve 

spu’us 
spalekai 

stxené 

m-tas 

olixost 

pe/niné 
spe’upuxa 
séosu 

senla 

xelip®? 

spoou 
senéemééensxus 
xelip® 

o:lin 

sk’ai’etle 
e-xaip® 
x’alewxo 
wiexenx’alewx” 
senk’axumi 
tiné 
sk’almelten 
tixucé 
c’apeclk’altlet® 
senteéita 

té’e 
senswo’sewxelten 
t-ééi 


fx 


NOVEMBER 1952 


BATTEN: TYPE SPECIES OF PROTOSTYLUS 


355 


TABLE 7.—FLATHEAD INDIAN NAMES OF INVERTEBRATES 


Scientific classification 


English name 


Flathead name 


Remarks 


PLATYHELMINTHES: 
Mo.iusca: 
Margaritana margaritifera........... 


Helisoma trivolvis............+.--+-- 
Lymnea stagnalis..............----- 
ANNELIDA: 


Placobdella parasitica............... 
ARTHROPODA: 
Hymenoptera....... 
Hymenoptera............ 
Me nlea lentes s.20io8e yn eSoes 


MRE PIGODLert eater cotta one este 


Trichoptera........ Z 


DE rODOR ARE ie esis Selec ese sey 
@rihopterdseers es cise Sond setae ae 
CHOATE: 5 ose bas See eee 


IDEAS 12 coke Se oe ae 


IRlECODLEL ates seis. coirec fassts seiesie, oa 
BIG G2. 33 Route CIE RSs eae 
Acarina........ 3 ES SORE Seve 


Tapeworm 


Clam 
Cowry 


Snail 
Snail 


Earthworm 
Leech 


Ant 
Bee 
Beetle 


Larva of wood beetle 
Butterfly 

Caterpillar 
Caddis-fly larva 


Crayfish 
Cricket 
Dragonfly 


Fly 
white maggot 


black maggot in meat 
Grasshopper 
Hive of wasps 


Mosquito 
Spider 

large spider 
Stonefly 
Water strider 
Wood tick 


senxa’seme 


skéq"ilane 
ta’mi6 


pra’mto 


éttequqané 
ta’mio 


sxwowl 
skol'wi 
ta’so’oc 


slwi’élqla 
k"el"lodlex® 
élilaqYate 
te’ ¢éanéanpi 


salsl 
x’awatekaine 


xelmalten 
xelmalten 


tétéslu 
ttace 
skolslesx" 
éqreqte’ene 
se‘lakus 
sée’it 
two’pn’ 
sta’kanéen 
stetoome 
éésteléen 


Translated as ‘“‘breeding inside.’’ 


Procured by trade from coast Indians 
and used to decorate the dress. 
Translated as ‘‘sucking on something.” 


The term means ‘“‘bait.”’ It is used for 
fish-bait other than earthworms. 
Identical word used for snail. 


Word used for small clicking beetles 
(family Elateridae). 


The aquatic larvae of the caddis-fly 
construct portable cases of sand or 
vegetable debris. The Indian name 
translated as “‘bound on the outside”’ 
Tefers to this case. 

Not recognized. 


The word is used for insects with two 
pairs of large flight wings, 


As the maggot has the same name as the 
fly, it was evidently realized that the 
larvae metamorphosed into flies. 


Translated as “horns lying down,”’ 
and has its origin from a legend in 
which the tick loses a set of horns it 
once had. 


PALEONTOLOGY —The type species of the gastropod genus Protostylus. Rocrr L. 
Batten, Geology Department, Columbia University. (Communicated by G. 


A. Cooper.) 


In preparing the classification of Paleozoic 
gastropods for the Treatise on invertebrate 
paleontology, 1t was noticed that the type for 
the genus Protostylus has not been fixed. The 
genus was proposed by H. Mansuy in 1914! 


1 Mansuy, H., Nowvelle contribution @ la paléon- 
tologie du Yunnan: 1. Mémoires du Service Géolo- 


with two described species P. lantenoisi and 
P. dussaultt. The better illustrated and de- 
scribed species is P. lantenoist, and it is here- 
by designated as the genotype species. 


gique de L’indochine, pp. 11-12, pl. 1, figs. 17 a, b, 
18 a, b. 1914. 


356 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. I1 


PALEONTOLOGY .— Morphology of the test in the foraminiferal genus Tristix Mac- 
fadyen. ALFRED R. Lonsuicu, JR., and HeLten Tappan, U.S. National Mu- 


seum. 


During the course of many years’ work 
on the Mesozoic Foraminifera in America, 
the writers have encountered numerous 
specimens of the genus T’ristix Macfadyen. 
In almost every occurrence, both in America 
and elsewhere, the species of this genus are 
accompanied by specimens like the form 
described as Quadratina by ten Dam (1946, 
p. 65). Although in the past the writers have 
differentiated these two morphological types, 
Tristix being triangular in section and 
Quadratina quadrate in cross section, the 
evidence now seems to indicate definitely 
that they are congeneric, and the name 
Quadratina ten Dam should be suppressed 
as a Junior synonym of T’riatix Macfadyen. 

Duplication of species—In any large 
series of Tristix, selected from a single sample 
there are invariably a few quadrate forms 
that can be associated with the typical 
specimens by a similarity in all other char- 
acters. Macfadyen (1941, p. 55) in describing 
the genus Tristix also noted that some 
“species” were quadrangular in section 
instead of triangular, and stated that these 
“may possibly be found to be congeneric.”’ 
A study of the occurrence of described 
species of Quadratina shows that almost 
invariably they are associated with very 
closely similar species of T'ristix, and prob- 
ably one or the other of the specific names 
should be placed in synonomy. An example 
of this is shown by four Jurassic species 
described by the writers (1950, p. 52) from 
the western interior of the United States 
and here shown in Figs. 1-4. These speci- 
mens were originally referred to Tristix 
alcma Loeblich and Tappan (Fig. 1) and 
Quadratina imornata Loeblich and Tappan 
(Fig. 2), but they are similar in being com- 
paratively large, robust and with rounded 
angles, and large circular apertures. The 
latter name is here placed in synonymy. 
Another pair of ‘‘species’”’ from the same 
beds were Tristix reesidei Loeblich and 
Tappan (Fig. 3) and Quadratina juncta 
Loeblich and Tappan (Fig. 4), the “types” 
of both similarly being smaller than the 
preceding form, more sharply angled and 
with more deeply excavated sides. The 


last name here is also placed in synonymy. 
An example from the Lower Cretaceous is 
described later in this paper, under T'ristix 
quadrata (Vieaux). 

There are numerous other instances that 
could be cited from the American Lower 
Cretaceous, but a complete list of syn- 
onymies will be given by the writers in 
their forthcoming monograph; hence is not 
discussed here. A similar duplication of 
species can be shown for most other oc- 
currences of Quadratina, as they seem always 
to be associated with triangular forms of 
close affinity. 

Evidence from “‘freaks.’—It has been 
often observed that occasional ‘‘monstrous”’ 
specimens may be of value in determining 
relationships of foraminiferal genera. Ex- 
amples are specimens of Gaudryina, with 
an occasional terminal chamber showing a 
tendency toward Gaudryinella (Tappan, 
1943, p. 489), and Citharinella, which de- 
velops a third angle, showing a relationship — 
with Tribrachia (Loeblich and Tappan, 
1941, p. 19). We have also in our Lower 
Cretaceous collections specimens of Citharina 
with an occasional equitant chamber show- 
ing a development toward Frondicularia, a 
Lenticulina that develops a long series of 
globular uniserial chambers like Nodosaria, 
Flabellammina developing into Frankeina, 
Giimbelina developing into Rectogiéimbelina, 
Textularia with a central terminal chamber 
or two suggesting a relationship with 
Bigenerina and many similar examples. 

In the large quantity of Lower Cretaceous 
material examined by the writers there have 
been found a few such monstrosities which 
show some bearing on the relationships of 
the forms now under discussion. A specimen 
from the Glen Rose formation (Fig. 7) is a 
typical Tristix in its early stages, but at 
about the midpoint of its development it 
became suddenly quadrate, so that it is a 
Tristix for half of its life span and a ‘“‘Quad- 
ratina’’ in its later life history. A record of a 
similar occurrence of a “mixed” form is 
found in Berthelin (1880, p. 47). He re- 


corded Rhabdogonium acutangulum Reuss — 


from the French Albian, stating: 


mee 


NoOvEMBER 1952 


My specimens have chambers a little less ser- 
rated than the type, and tend to approach f. 
maertenst Reuss; but do not have a quadrangular 
section. 

The triangular shells are in general somewhat 
more numerous than the quadrangular; but the 
character is not an absolutely constant one. J 
possess a specimen of an upper Jurassic species, 
which shows an abrupt passage without any transi- 
tion from one to the other form. (Free transla- 
tion.) 

From this description Berthelin appar- 
ently had a specimen similar to the ‘‘mixed”’ 
form of Fig. 7. Obviously a single specimen 
cannot change its generic identity midway 
in its growth, and these freaks thus show a 
definite relationship between these ‘‘genera.”’ 
Another freak in our Lower Cretaceous 
collection (although not here illustrated) is 
a Lingulina in its early stage, and becomes 
triangular in the later development. These 
two examples would seem to definitely 
indicate that Lingulina, Tristix and ‘‘Quad- 
ratina”’ should at least be placed in the same 
family, with Lingulina probably ancestral 
to Tristix. 

A specimen that shows an even more 
interesting development is shown in Fig. 8. 
This is a twinned specimen which developed 
chambers simultaneously in opposite direc- 
tions from the proloculus, one series of 
chambers being triangular in section (Fig. 
8c) and the opposite extremity being quad- 
rate in section (Fig. 8b). This specimen 
shows no transition from one genus to an- 
other but apparently it belonged to the two 
“genera’’ simultaneously and therefore sup- 
plies additional evidence that Tristix and 
Quadratina are synonymous, the number of 
angles being variable as are the number of 
ribs in a Nodosaria, etc. 

Character of the aperture-—The aperture 
of Tristix presents several problems. It 
varies from a simple rounded one to tri- 
radiate or radiate. The genotype species 
of Tristix, Rhabdogonium liasinum Berthelin, 
has a circular aperture. Our Jurassic species 
also have only simple apertures (Loeblich 
and Tappan, 1950 a, b) as do the majority 
of the Lower Cretaceous species (Tappan, 
1940, 1943). An occasional species which has 
deeply excavated sides may show a triradiate 
aperture, as does T’ristix excavata (Reuss) 
as shown by van Voorthuysen (1947), and 
as can be seen on certain of our Lower 
Cretaceous specimens. This reaches a climax 


LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN: TRISTIX MACFADYEN 


B57 


in such forms as T'riplasia temirica Dain, 
1934, which has a radiate aperture. It is 
possible that forms with definite radiate 
apertures should be excluded from this 
genus, but because of the fact that numerous 
genera of the Lagenidae may have either 
rounded or radiate apertures and as no 
specimens of this Russian Jurassic species 
have been available to the writers for ex- 
amination, the radiate aperture is not here 
considered sufficiently important to warrant 
separation of this species. 

“Quadratina” shows a similar variation 
in apertural characters. The genotype 
species, Quadratina depressula ten Dam, 
was described as having a radiate aperture. 
Other described species have simple rounded 
apertures. These quadrate forms are always 
less frequent than the triangular ones, 
however, hence as great a variation is not 
to be expected, because of the more limited 
number of available specimens. 

Van Voorthuysen (1947, p. 44) figured a 
short internal tube in Tristix excavata 
Reuss from the Albian of Holland, but 
these could only be observed in young 
specimens with delicate and hollow tests. 
The writers have not been able to demon- 
strate an internal tube in the abundant 
specimens from the Comanchean strata 
(Albian) of Texas, but this may in part be 
due to the type of preservation and more 


probably, these short delicate internal 
tubes may have been resorbed by the 
organism. 


Relationship of Tristix and Dentalinopsis. 
—In general Tristix is strongly triangular 
in section and Dentalinopsis Reuss is rounded 
in cross section, with three faint longitudinal 
keels. However, some species of T'ristix 
closely approach the generic characters of 
Dentalinopsis and they seem to be closely 
related. This is especially true of some of the 
quadrate species such as Dentalinopsis 
subquadrata Tappan, 1940, which has very 
poorly developed angles and Quadratina 
euthemon Loeblich and Tappan which is 
nearly circular in section, with four faint 
longitudinal keels. It is possible that these 
species should be placed in Dentalinopsis, 
because of the lack of angularity and if so, 
this genus also would vary from triangular 
to quadrangular, presenting another char- 
acter In common with Triste and Dental- 


308 


inopsis and suggesting some relationship 
between them. 

It is interesting to note, however, that 
these two genera are placed in separate 
families by various authors. Cushman 
(1948, p. 261) places Dentalinopsis in the 
family Buliminidae and derives it from the 
series Angulogerina-Trifarina—Dentalinopsis 
by acceleration of the uniserial stage, and 
Tristix was placed in the Lagenidae. Gallo- 
way (1933, p. 372) places Dentalinopsis in 
the family Uvigerinidae and also derives it 
from Trifarina by acceleration of the uni- 
serial stage. Galloway notes that Dentalinop- 
sis may have had some other ancestry as 
such uniserial forms are produced in many 
lines of evolution and also noted that 
Dentalinopsis occurs much earlier in the 
geologic column than does Trifarina, which 
was not mentioned by Cushman. Van 
Voorthuysen (1947, p. 45) also derives 
Dentalinopsis from Trifarina and has the 
line Tristiz—Entosolenia |=Oolina| derived 
from an offshoot of the line Trifarina— 
Dentalinopsis. The derivation of Oolina 
(Entosolenia of van Voorthuysen) from 
Tristix is untenable in the writers’ opinion, 
as we strongly doubt that unilocular forms 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 11 


literature. Oolina occurs as low stratigraphi- 
cally as the Albian in Texas and the Upper 
Lias of Switzerland and if earlier records of 
Lagena were critically examined it may be 
found that some true Oolina occurred in 
earlier strata. 

The presence of the internal tube in 
Tristix has led to its being placed by van 
Voorthuysen in the family Buliminidae, but 
it seems more difficult to see why Dental- 
imopsis, which appears so closely related to 
the Lagenidae, and incidentally to Tristiz, 
is placed in the Buliminidae, for no internal 
tube has been demonstrated in Dentalinopsis. 
At the present time, the writers are uncertain 
as to what value in classification should be 
placed on these internal tubes. Parr (1947, 
p. 128) has included Oolina (Entosolenia), 
Fissurina, and Parafissurina in the family 
Lagenidae although all possess clearly 
defined internal tubes. Some other lagenids, 
such as Lingulina falcata Heron-Allen and 
Earland, possess internal tubes. Glandulina 
glans d’Orbigny of the Polymorphinidae has 
been demonstrated to possess an internal 
tube by Selli (1947, pl. 3) and G. laevigata 
d’Orbigny also has been shown to have this 
identical structure by van Voorthuysen 


are invariably the evolutionary end mem- 
bers, derived from multilocular ancestors, 
although this has been often stated in the 


(1950, p. 37). These tubes have been ob- 
served by the present writers in Glandulina 
from as far back as the Eocene. 


Fies. la-2b.—Tristix alcima Loeblich and Tappan: 1a, Side view of triangular holotype (USNM 
105007); 1b, top view, showing subacute angles and rounded aperture; 2a, side view of quadrate form 
(USNM 105013) originally described and named as Quadratina inornata Loeblich and Tappan; 2b, top 
view, showing quadrate section, subacute angles, and rounded aperture. All X 95 and both specimens 
from the Redwater shale member of the Sundance formation (Oxfordian) of South Dakota. 

Fias. 3a-4b.—T ristiz reesidei Loeblich and Tappan: 3a, Side view of holotype (USNM 105009) show- 
ing arched sutures, acute angles, and pointed base; 3b, top view, showing triangular section, acute 
angles, and rounded aperture X 95; 4a, side view of quadrate form (USNM 105017) showing pointed 
base and moderately excavated sides (this form was originally described as Quadratina juncta Loeblich 
and Tappan); 4b, top view, showing quadrate section and rounded aperture. All X 158 and both speci- 
mens from the Redw: ater shale member of the Sundance formation (Oxfordian) of South Dakota. 

Figs. 5a-7b.—Tristix comalensis Loeblich and Tappan, n.sp.: 5a, Side view of holotype (USNM P. 
842) showing arched sutures, triangular form with little excavation ’of the sides; 5b, top view showin 
triangular form with rounded angles and rounded aperture; 6, side view of paratype (USNM P. 848a) 
showing more slender form than that of the holotype; 7a, side view of paratype (USNM P. 8438b) show- 
ing form with early 7ristix-stage and later stages developing a quadrate section (‘‘Quadratina”’ stage) 
thus producing a “‘mixed”’ form; 7b, top view showing quadrate outline of late chambers of the ‘“‘mixed”’ 
form. All X 150 and all from the Glen Rose formation, Trinity group, Lower Cretaceous of 
Comal County, Tex. 

Fics. 8a-9b.—Tristix quadrata (Vieaux): 8a, Side view of twinned hypotype (USNM P. 845) with 
the quadrate half oriented at the top of the figure and the lower half exhibiting the triangular section, 


both parts arising from the same proloculus; 8b, top view of ‘‘Quadratina’’ half showing rounded aper- 


ture and slightly excavated sides; 8c, top view of Tristix portion of the twin showing elongate aperture 
(from the Kiamichi formation, Fredericksburg group, Lower Cretaceous, of Tarrant County, Tex.); 
9a, side view of typical triangular hypotype (USNM P. 846) showing rounded proloculus and arched 
sutures; 9b, top view showing rounded aperture and sides with little excavation (from the Kiamichi 
formation, Fredericksburg group, Lower Cretaceous, of Johnston County, Okla.). All X 150. 

All illustrations are shaded camera-ludica drawings. Figs. 1-4 by Helen Tappan Loeblich; Figs. 5-9 
by Sally D. Lee, scientific illustrator, Smithsonian Institution. 


NOVEMBER 1952 LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN: TRISTIX MACFADYEN 359 


Frias. 1-9. (See opposite page for legend). 


360 


Other members of the Polymorphinidae 
such as Polymorphina williamsoni Heron- 
Allen and Farland, P. acuta Roemer and P. 
soria Reuss also have well-defined internal 
tubes. In addition the writers have in prep- 
aration the description of a Recent fauna in 
which many of the Polymorphinidae have 
internal tubes. It seems that this character 
appears in widely divergent families in the 
Foraminifera and may ke considerably 
more prevalent than is noted in the litera- 
ture. The writers hesitate to remove from 
the Polymorphinidae the species that possess 
internal tubes, until the whole group is 
studied in detail, and it seems best to con- 
sider both Dentalinopsis and Tristix as 
members of the family Lagenidae, closely 
related to each other and to Lingulina, and 
although all three appear early in the history 
of the family, the last two appear to be 
somewhat specialized in that at least some 
of their species possess well-defined internal 
tubes. 

With the above considerations in view 
concerning the form of the test the writers 
consider it advisable to suppress the name 
Quadratina as a junior synonym of T'ristix 
and to revise the generic description of 
Tristix so as to include quadrate as well as 
triangular forms. 


Genus Tristix Macfadyen, 1941 


Tristic Macfadyen, Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, 
ser. B, biol. sci., no. 576, 281: 54. 1941. 

Tricarinella ten Dam and Schijfsma. C. R. Somm. 
Soc. Geol. France, no. 16: 233. 1945. 

Quadratina ten Dam, Bull. Soc. Géol. France, ser. 
5, 16: 65. 1946. 

Dentalinopsis Reuss (part, of authors) 

Rhabdogonium Reuss (part, of authors) 

Triplasia Reuss (part, of authors) 


Emended diagnosis.—Test free, uniserial, gen- 
erally triangular in section, but occasionally 
quadrate; wall calcareous, hyaline; aperture 
terminal, rounded to radiate, with an internal 
tube in at least some species. 


Tristix comalensis Loeblich and Tappan, n. sp 
Figs. 5-7 

Test free, narrow elongate, slightly tapering, 

sides nearly flat, angles broadly rounded; cham- 

bers up to 9 in number, increasing gradually in 

height as added, final chamber of approximately 

equal height and breadth; usually triangular in 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. I1 


section, and infrequently quadrate; sutures 
distinct, shghtly depressed, gently arched at the 
center of each face of the test, curving gently 
downward to the angles of the test; wall calcare- 
ous, hyaline, surface unornamented; aperture 
terminal, rounded. 

Length of holotype (Fig. 5), 0.65 mm; greatest 
breadth, 0.18 mm; length of paratype of Fig. 
6, 0.60 mm; breadth, 0.15 mm. Length of para- 
type of Fig. 7, 0.73 mm. Other specimens range 
from 0.26 to 0.99 mm in length. 

Remarks.—This species differs from T. quad- 
rata (Vieaux) in being larger and broader with 
higher chambers and less strongly arched su- 
tures, more rounded angles and less excavated 
sides. 

Types and occurrence.—Holotype (USNM P. 
842) and paratypes of Figs. 6, 7 (USNM P. 
843a-b) and unfigured paratypes (USNM P. 
844a-v) all from the Glen Rose formation (Trin- 
ity group), Lower Cretaceous, from 520 feet 
below the top of the formation, in a road cut on 
the east side of U. 8S. Highway 281, 2.4 miles 
north of the junction with Texas Highway 46, 
in Comal County, Tex.; collected by A. R. 
Loeblich, Jr., 1949. 


Tristix quadrata (Vieaux) 


Dentilinopsis excavata (Reuss) Plummer (not Rhab- 
dogonium excavatum Reuss, 1862), Univ. Texas 
Bull. 3101: 187, pl. 9, figs. 11-12. 1931. 

Dentalinopsis excavata (Reuss) Tappan, Journ. 
Pal. 14 (2): 118, pl. 18, figs. 10 a-b. 1940. 

Dentalinopsis mdartensi (Reuss) Tappan (not Rhab- 
dogonium mdrtensi Reuss, 1863), Journ. Pal. 
14 (2): 119, pl. 18, figs. 11 a-c. 1940; Journ. 
Pal. 17 (5): p. 509, pl. 81, figs. 23 a-b. 1943. 

Dentalinopsis quadrata Vieaux, Journ. Pal. 15 
(6): 626, pl. 85, figs. 8 a-b. 1941. 

Tristix acutangula (Reuss) Loeblich and Tappan 
(not Rhabdogonium acutangulum Reuss, 1863), 
Woodbine Symposium, Southern Methodist 
Univ., Fondren Sci. Ser. no. 4: 88, pl. 2, figs. 
17-18. 1951. 


Test free, small, narrow, parallel-sided; con- 
sisting of a rectilimear series of about 3 to 9 
chambers, increasing gradually in height as 
added and either triangular or quadrangular in 
section, with angles fairly sharp and sides moder- 
ately excavated; sutures distinct, slightly de- 
pressed, strongly arched on the faces, extending 
sharply downward at the angles; wall calcare- 
ous, hyaline; aperture terminal, rounded. 

Length from 0.3 to about 0.7 mm, breadth of 
a face 0.13 to 0.18 mm. 


NOVEMBER 1952 


Remarks—This species has been referred to 
various European species in the past, but the 
European species are distinct. Rhabdogonium 
excavatum Reuss is a much larger species, with 
flaring rather than parallel sides and with much 
more deeply excavated faces. R. médrtenst Reuss 
is a quadrangular form with sharper angles and 
more excavated sides and is much larger (the 
type being 1.15 mm in length) and more flaring. 
R. acutangulum Reuss differs m being larger, 
with much lower chambers, which are only very 
slightly arched centrally. 

The only available name proposed for the 
present species is Dentalinopsis quadrata Vieaux. 
This specific name was proposed for the quadrate 
forms, but must be applied to the entire species, 
even though it is actually descriptive of only a 
small percentage of the specimens, the majority 
being triangular in section. 

The holotype of Vieaux was stated to be in 
the University of Oklahoma collections, but 
Vieaux’s types have never been received at that 
institution and are thus not available for com- 
parison. However, the present writers were on 
the collecting trip with Vieaux when his samples 
were obtained, and a duplicate set of all samples 
is in our collection. These samples have supplied 
many specimens of both the triangular forms, 
which Vieaux referred in his faunal list to Den- 
talinopsis excavata (Reuss), and the quadrangular 
forms on which he based his species D. quadrata. 
The specimens referred by Tappan (1943, p. 
509) to D. quadrata are a distinct species, a much 
larger form than the present species, and with 
more excavated sides. 

Types and occurrence.—Holotype (in Vieaux 
collection) from the Denton formation of north 
Texas. 

Hypotype of Fig. 8 (USNM P. 845) from the 
Kiamichi formation, from a 5-foot section of 
brown marl, 11 feet above the base of the ex- 
posure in a deep road cut on the Stove Foundry 
Road, just north of the new Texas and Pacific 
Railroad shops, in Fort Worth, Tarrant County, 
Tex. Collected by A. R. Loeblich, Jr., and Helen 
Tappan Loeblich, 1941. 

Hypotype of Fig. 9 (USNM P. 846) from the 
Kiamichi formation, from a 4.2-foot section of 
dark blue-gray clay shale with sandy seams, in 
a zone of abundant Gryphea navia 3 feet above the 
base of the exposure and 15 feet below the base 
of the Duck Creek, in a deep roadside ditch on 


LOEBLICH AND TAPPAN: TRISTIX MACFADYEN 


361 


the south side of the road in the SE, sec. 10, 
T.58., R. 7 E., 1 mile east of Bee, Johnston 
County, Okla. Collected by W. E. Ham, of the 
Oklahoma Geological Survey, and A. R. Loeb- 
lich, Jr., 1946. 

Other published records figure this species 
from the Del Rio clay of central Texas, the 
Grayson and Duck Creek formations of northern 
Texas and southern Oklahoma, and the Maness 
formation (subsurface) of east Texas. It thus 
ranges from the Kiamichi formation (Fredericks- 
burg) through the Maness formation (uppermost 
Washita). 


REFERENCES 


BeRTHELIN, M. Mémoire sur les foraminiferes 
fossiles de V étage Albian de Moncley (Doubs). 
Mém. Soc. Géol. France (3) 1 (5): 1-84. 1880. 

CusuMan, J. A. Foraminifera, ‘their classification 
and economic use, ed. 4: 1-605. Harvard Univ. 
Press, 1948. 

TEN Dam, A. Les espéces du genre de foraminiferes 
Quadratina, genre nowveau de la famille des 
Lagenidae. Bull. Soc. Géol. France (5) 16: 
65-69. 1946. 

Gattoway, J. J. A manual of Foraminifera: 
1-483. Bloomington, Ind., 1933. 

Lorsuiicu, A. R., Jr., and Tappan, H. Some 
palmate Lagenidae from the Lower Cretaceous 
Washita group. Bull. Amer. Pal. 26: (99): 
1-23. 1941. 

North American Jurassic Foraminif- 
era: I. The type Redwater shale (Oxfordian) 
of South Dakota. Journ. Pal. 24: 39-60. 1950a. 

North American Jurassic Foraminif- 
era II. Characteristic western interior Cal- 
lovian species. Journ. Washington Acad. Sci. 
40: 5-19. 1950b. 

MacrapyEn, W. A. Foraminifera from the Green 
Ammonite beds, Lower Lias, of Dorset. Phil. 
Trans. Roy. Soc. London (B), biol. sci. no. 
576, 281: 1-73. 1941. 

Parr, W. J. The lagenid Foraminifera and their 
relationships. Proc. Roy. Soe. Victoria 58: 
116-130. 1947. 

Sevir, R. La struttwra della Glandulina glans 
d’Orbigny e la posizione systematica del genere. 
Riv. Italiana Pal. 52: 1-20. 1947. 

Tappan, H. Foraminifera from the Grayson forma- 
tion of northern Texas. Journ. Pal. 14: 93- 
126. 1940. 

Foraminifera from the Duck Creek forma- 
tion of Oklahoma and Texas. Journ. Pal. 17: 
476-517. 1943. 

VAN VoortTHuyYsEN, J. H. An internal tube in the 
genus Tristix Macfadyen, 1941. Geol. Mijnb. 
no. 3: 44-45. 1947. 

The quantitative distribution of the Plio- 

Pleistocene Foraminifera of a boring at the 

Haque (Netherlands). Med. Geol. Stich., n.s., 

no. 4: 81-49. 1950. 


362 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES vou. 42, No. 11 


PALEON POLOGY.—A rare Tertiary glycymerid from South Carolina and Florida. 
Davin Nicot, U. 8. National Museum. 


F. S. MacNeil, of the U. S. Geological 
Survey, several months ago showed me some 
specimens of an unusual glycymerid which 
had been collected from a water well near 
Miami, Fla. Recently I examined the 
specimens more closely and decided that they 
are not Glycymeris quinquerugata, as they 
had been labeled, but are Pectunculus 
transversus 'Tuomey and Holmes from 
Smith’s Goose Creek, 8. C. Although the 
description given by Tuomey and Holmes 
is brief, the salient characters mentioned 
by them (the great length and the wrinkled 
posterior side) are significant enough to 
identify the specimens in the Museum as 
the same species. Unfortunately, Pectunculus 
transversus Tuomey and Holmes, 1856, is a 
homonym of Pectunculus transversus La- 
marek, 1819, and Tuomey and Holmes’s 
species is herein renamed. 


Glycymeris aberrans Nicol, n. name 
Figs. 1-5 
Pectunculus transversus Tuomey and Holmes, Plei- 
ocene fossils of South-Carolina: 51,%pl. 17, fig. 
6c. 1856; not Pectunculus transversus Lamarck, 
Animaux sans vertébres 6 (pt. 1): 55. 1819, 


Description.—The following is the origina 
description by Tuomey and Holmes: 


Shell ovate transverse, equilateral; anal side 
on the interior wrinkled; pallial margin finely 
crenulated. 

This specimen, although a cast, is so very 
characteristic that it cannot be confounded with 
any other species. The length is nearly twice the 
breadth, and the teeth are closer on the anal than 
on the buccal ridge of the hinge. 


With the additional material at hand, the 
following can be added to the original description: 
Beaks orthogyrate, located at the middle of the 
dorsal border; ligament small and low, made up 
of three or four chevrons, amphidetic; dorsal 
border long and straight, ventral margin broadly 
arched; teeth located on a broad arch, 20 to 25 
in number, the larger ones grooved in the middle; 
crenulations on interior margin numerous, nar- 
row, closely spaced, eight per em on the mid- 
ventral border of a specimen 27 mm in height; 
central part of shell has broad, slightly raised 
radial ribs, which disappear at both ends of the 
shell; no radial striae appear on the broad ribs, 


but the absence of striae may be due to poor 
preservation; radial threads present on the umbo 
and occasionally on the ends of the shell. 
Most striking feature is rugae on outside of 
shell; rugae large and numerous, commonly 
reflected on interior margin of shell as small 
undulations, particularly on posterior and dorsal 
margins but in some specimens on anterior mar- 
gin too; rugae best developed on umbo and at 
both ends of shell, middle of larger shells rela- 
tively free of them; rugae not parallel to growth 
lines and commonly split up by them. 
Measurements in mm— 


U.S. N. M. no. Height Length Convexity 
Hypotype 561486.............. 26.8 33.6 19.3 
Hypotype 561484.............. 16.9 209 13 7 


Comparisons.—The closest related species to 
Glycymeris aberrans is the rugate form of G. 
americana (Defrance). G. aberrans differs from 
it by bemg more elongate, by having well- 
developed rugae on both ends of the shell, and 
by not having well-developed striae on the broad 
radial ribs. 

Localities —This species was reported from 
Smith’s Goose Creek, S. C., by Tuomey and 
Holmes. The locality is described in greater 
detail by Cooke (1936, p. 129) as follows: 


U.S. Geological Survey Loe. no. 10412. Bluff on 
southeast side of Goose Creek a third of a mile 
southeast of Seaboard Air Line Railway and 
three-fourths of a mile southeast of Melgrove 
(Berkeley County, South Carolina). 


The specimens in the U. 8. National Museum 
are from U.S. Geological Survey loc. no. 15112. 
From well G.—188, Krome Avenue and Tamiami 
Trail, 19 miles west of Miami, Dade County, 
Fla. (67.8 to 144.9 feet below the surface). 

Geologic age.—Tuomey and Holmes called the 
Smith’s Goose Creek locality Pliocene. Cooke 
(1936, p. 1380) tentatively assigns the beds at 
Smith’s Goose Creek to the Pliocene but says 
that they may be upper Miocene. Miss Juha 
Gardner identified the well material at the depths 
where Glycymeris aberrans was found as upper 
Miocene. The closest relative to G. aberrans, the 
rugate form of G. americana, is confined to upper 
Miocene strata. 

Types and other specimens.—Hypotype U. 8. 
N. M. no. 561484 and hypotype U.S. N. M. no. 


| 


NOVEMBER 1952 


561486 and 13 other specimens in U. 8. N. M. 
Coliection with nos. 561483, 561485, 561487, 
561488, 561489. 


REFERENCES 
Geology of the Coastal Plain 


Cooks, C. WYTHE. 


HOPKINS: SYNONYMY IN SIPHONAPTERA 


363 


of South Carolina. U. 
867: 196 pp. 1936. 

Tuomey, M., and Hormss, F.8. Pleiocene fossils 
of South-Carolina: containing descriptions and 
figures of the Polyparia, Echinodermata and 
Mollusca: 152 pp., 30 pls. Charleston, S. C., 
1855-1857. 


S. Geol. Surv. Bull. 


Frias. 1-5.—Glycymeris aberrans: 1, Interior view and 3, exterior view, right valve, hypotype U.S 
N. M. no. 561484; 2, internal cast, copied from Fuomey and "Holmes, 1856, pl. a fig. 6c; 4, exterior view 
and 5, interior view, right valve, ‘hypoty pe U.S. N. M. no. 561486. "All figures natural size. Hypotypes 
from U.S. G.§. loc. no. 15112, 19 miles west of Miami, Dade County, Fla. Tuomey and Holmes’s speci- 
men from U.S.G.S. loc. no. 10412, Smith’s Goose Creek, Berkeley County, 8. C 


ENTOMOLOGY .—Notes on synonymy in Siphonaptera. G. H. E. Hopxrns, Brit- 
ish Museum (Natural History). (Communicated by C. F. W. Muesebeck.) 


In the course of preparing a catalogue of 
of the N. C. Rothschild collection of fleas 
a few instances have come to light in which 
names currently accepted as referring to 
the same taxonomic unit actually apply to 
different units, and many more in which 
names believed to refer to separate units 
are synonyms. The volume dealing with the 
Pulicoidea is now in the press, and it is 
hoped that it will be published this year, 
but it seems desirable to put on record some 
of the other hitherto-unpublished instances 
in which the accepted placing of a taxonomic 
unit appears to be incorrect. Unless stated 
otherwise, all instances in which changes in 
the placing of species and subspecies are 
suggested are based on examination of 
specimens, commonly types or paratypes. 
With regard to genera, which are subjective 
units and not objective, there are two 
courses which can be adopted if two ap- 
parently natural groups of species differ 
by characters apparently of little phylo- 
genetic significance, and the choice between 


them seems to be mainly a matter of con- 
venience. Obviously a difference in phylo- 
genetically important characters must be 
recognized by generic separation, but where 
this is not the case it seems to me to be 
better to emphasize the resemblances be- 
tween the two groups than their differences 
unless considerations of convenience force 
one to snatch at any chance of breaking up 
an unwieldy group. Where, therefore, a 
small group has been broken up into sub- 
genera on phylogenetically unimportant 
characters I can see little advantage in 
retaining this arrangement, whereas if the 
same thing has happened in a large group 
convenience dictates accepting it. This is, 
for instance, the case in the Rhadinopsyl- 
linae, where I have grave doubts whether 
Rhadinopsylla and Rectofrontia are really 
generically separable or even whether they 
they are entirely natural groups, but have 
kept them separate because the group would 
otherwise be so inconveniently large. 
Apart from instances of synonymy at- 


364 


tributed below to other workers who have 
kindly informed me about them, there are 
many other instances in which a particular 
synonymy has been suggested to me as 
probable by some other worker (especially 
G. P. Holland) and confirmed by me; I 
have not thought it necessary to make a 
specific acknowledgment in such instances, 
because the final responsibility for such 
synonymies is mine. 


Family CopropsyLLIDAB 

Neocoptopsylla Wagner, 1932 = Coptopsylla 
Jordan and Rothschild, 1908. Admittedly the 
type species, V. wassilievi Wagner, is a good 
deal more distinct from the other species than 
these are from one another, but its characteris- 
tics do not seem to merit generic rank and its 
retention as a subgenus would serve no particu- 
larly useful purpose in so small a group as Cop- 
topsylla. 

Coptopsylla lamellifer fallax loff and Tiflov, 
1934 = C. lamellifer ardua Jordan and Roth- 
schild, 1915. The fact that the latter name was 
based on males whose characteristics were altered 
by parasitic castration in no way affects its 
validity. 

Family VERMIPSYLLIDAE 


Arctopsylla Wagner, 1930, is extremely difficult 
to separate from Chaetopsylla Kohaut, 1903, 
because the two characters that have been used 
to define it (the permanent, instead of deciduous, 
frontal tubercle and the number of segments in 
the labial palp) do not always go together. 
Provisionally I accept it as a subgenus of Chae- 
topsylla and refer to it those species in which the 
frontal tubercle is permanent. 

Pulex ursi Rothschild, 1902 = Chaetopsylla 
(Arctopsylla) tuberculaticeps ursi (Rothschild). 

Vermipsylla strandi Wahlgren, 1903 = Chae- 
topsylla (A.)t.tuberculaticeps (Bezzi), 1890. 


Family LEPTOPSYLLIDAE 
Ctenopsyllus fallax Rothschild, 1902 = Pero- 
myscopsylla silvatica fallax (Rothschild). 
Typhlopsylla spectabilis Rothschild, 1898 = 
Peromyscopsylla silvatica spectabilis (Rothschild). 
Pectinoctenus adalis Jordan, 1929 = Pectinoc- 
tenus pectiniceps (Wagner), 1893. 


Family IscHNOPSYLLIDAE 


Ischnopsyllus noctilionis Costa Lima, 1920 
(referred by Pinto, 1930, to Hormopsylla) be- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 11 


longs to neither of these genera but is almost 
certainly a Ptilopsylla. No specimens have been 
available, but Dr. Costa Lima has kindly pro- 
vided photo-micrographs of the holotype. 

Aptilopsylla carlsbadensis Ewing, 1940 = 
Sternopsylla texana (C. Fox), 1914 (information 
kindly supplied by Lt. Col. R. Traub). 

Eptescopsylla 1. Fox, 1940 = Nycteridopsylla 
Oudemans, 1906. 

Nycteridopsylla eusarca major Rothschild, 
1909 = Nycteridopsylla eusarca Dampf, 1908. 
In 1949 (Entomologist 82: 134-136) I placed 
eusarca as a synonym of Nycteridopsylla pungens 
(Walckenaer), 1802, and I still think that this is 
probably correct. But there is a certain element 
of doubt in the matter and in any case Walcke- 
naer’s name has not been used (except on this 
one occasion) for very many years. I therefore 
intend to ask the International Commission on 
Zoological Nomenclature to suppress the name 
Pulex pungens Walckenaer, 1802, and pending 
their decision I intend to revert to calling the 
flea N. eusarca Dampf. 

Myodopsylloides Augustson, 1941 = 
dopsylla Jordan and Rothschild, 1911. 

Myodopsylla notialis Jordan, 1937 =- Myo- 
dopsylla wolffsohni wolffsohni (Rothschild), 1903. 

Ischnopsyllus livi Chao, 1947 = Ischnopsyllus 
liae Jordan, 1941. 

Ischnopsyllus  tateishii Sugimoto, 
Ischnopsyllus indicus Jordan, 1931. 

Ischnopsyllus ashworthi Waterston, 1913 =. 
Rhinolophopsylla ashworthi (Waterston). 

Ischnopsyllus ectopus Jordan, 1937 = Rhino- 
lophopsylla ectopa (Jordan). 


Myo- 


1933 = 


Family HypsoPHTHALMIDAE 


Chiastopsylla numae klaveriana De Meillon, 
1940 = Chiastopsylla numae (Rothschild), 1904. 

Chiastopsylla caffrarica De Meillon, 1940, and 
C. crassus De Meillon, 1940 = C. rossi (Waters- 
ton), 1909 (information kindly suppled by 
Dr. De Meillon). 

Chiastopsylla couchae De Meillon, 1940 = 
C. godfreyi Waterston, 1913. 


Family HystricHoPsyLLIDAE 
Subfamily Hystrichopsyllinae 


Pulex gigas Kirby, 1837, has been variously 
placed. Baker (1895) used the name for a species 
now referred to the Neopsyllinae; Rothschild 
(1915) thought it a Stenoponia; and Jordan 
(1929) considered it to be a Hystrichopsylla. 


NOVEMBER 1952 


Baker’s suggestion is certainly wrong, for the 
flea undoubtedly belongs to the Hystrichopsyl- 
lidae, but the description and figure are not 
good enough to make it possible to decide with 
any certainty whether it is a Stenoponia or a 
Hystrichopsylla, though the latter genus seems 
a little more likely than the former. The name 
should be discarded until topotypical specimens 
can be obtained. 

Saphiopsylla Jordan, 1931 = Atyphloceras 
Jordan and Rothschild, 1915, but could be recog- 
nized as a subgenus if this would serve any par- 
ticular purpose. 

Atyphloceras artius Jordan, 1933, and A. 
felix Jordan, 1933 = A. multidentatum (C. 
Fox), 1909. 


Subfamily Dinopsyllinae 


Dinopsyllus lypusus Jordan and Rothschild, 
1913 = Dinopsyllus ellobius lypusus Jordan and 
Rothschild. 

Dinopsyllus tenax Jordan, 1930 = 
frons tenax Jordan. 

Dinopsyllus semnus Jordan, 
jursutus semnus Jordan. 


D. longi- 


19375 =D: 


Subfamily Listropsyllinae 


Ceratophyllus stygius Rothschild, 1908 = 


Listropsylla dolosa Rothschild, 1907. 


Subfamily Rhadinopsyllinae 


Corypsylloides Hubbard, 1940 = Corypsylla 
C. Fox, 1908. It could be accepted as a subgenus, 
principally on the presence of pseudosetae under 
the collar of the metanotum, but there is little 
object in recognizing subgenera in a genus con- 
taining only three known species. 


DAMON: TITAEA, MONOGRAMMIA, AND ARANEOMYCES 


365 


Corypsylla setosifrons Stewart, 1940 = Coryp- 
sylla ornata C. Fox, 1908 (information kindly 
supplied by Dr. EH. W. Jameson). 

Nearctopsylla hygini laurentina Jordan and 
Rothschild, 1923 = N. g. genalis (Baker), 1904. 

Rhadinopsylla s.g. Rangulopsylla Darskaya, 
1949 = Rectofrontia Wagner, 1930. 

Actenophthalmus C. Fox, 1925, is at most a sub- 
genus of Rectofrontia Wagner, 1930, and is pro- 
visionally recognized in that grade. 

Micropsylloides Ewing, 1938, is a subgenus of 
Rectofrontia Wagner, 1930. 

Rhadinopsylla bureschi Jordan, 1929 = Recto- 
frontia fraterna bureschi (Jordan), Rhadinopsylla 
casta Jordan, 1928 = Rectofrontia fraterna casta 
(Jordan), and Rhadinopsylla integella Jordan 
and Rothschild, 1921 = Rectofrontia fraterna 
integella (Jordan and Rothschild). Rhadinopsylla 
(Rectofrontia) integella concava Toff and Tiflov, 
1946, and R.(R.)integella pilosa Ioff and Tiflov, 
1946, of which specimens have not been avail- 
able, are presumably also subspecies of Recto- 
frontia fraterna (Baker), 1895. 

Micropsylla Dunn, 1923, is a subgenus of 
Rectofrontia Wagner, 1930. 


Subfamily Anomiopsyllinae 


Megarthroglossus procus oregonensis Hubbard, 
1947 = Megarthroglossus procus Jordan and 
Rothschild, 1915. 

Megarthroglossus divisus wallowensis Hubbard, 
1947 = Megarthroglossus divisus divisus (Baker), 
1898 (information kindly supplied by Lt. Col. 
Traub). 

Anomiopsyllus congruens Stewart, 1940 = 
Anomoopsyllus falsicalifornicus congruens Stew- 
art. 


MYCOLOGY.—On the fungus genera Titaea, Monogrammia, and Araneomyces. 
5. C. Damon,! Quartermaster Depot, Philadelphia, Pa. (Communicated by 


G. W. Martin.) 


While studying genera of staurosporous 
Moniliaceae, a striking similarity between 
Monogrammia miconiae, Araneomyces acari- 
ferus, and species of Titaea was noted. In- 


1T wish to express my appreciation to Dr. - 


W. L. White, of the Farlow Herbarium, for the 
opportunity to study the type specimen of Araneo- 
myces acariferws, and to Dr. Leland Shanor, of the 
University of Illinois, for his cooperation in 
searching for the type specimen of Monogrammia 
miconiae among the Stevens collections. 


vestigation into all available information 
has led to the reduction of Monogrammia 
and Araneomyces, both monotypic genera, 
to the synonymy of Titaea, with the trans- 
fer of their species to that genus. In this 
connection, type material of Tvtaea clarkeae 
Ell. and Ev. (originally published as 7. 
clarket) has been re-examined, and it has 
been shown to be congeneriec with other 
species assigned to the genus. 


366 


Titaea was erected for a staurosporous 
fungus growing parasitically, according to 
Saceardo (1876), on a species of Dimero- 
sporium. In addition to the type species, 7’. 
callispora, four others had been added prior 
to the two recent papers by Hansford (1944, 
1946), in which five more species were de- 
scribed. The four older species were treated 
with particular reference to the morphology 
of their conidia by Ingold (1942) in connec- 
tion with his treatment of Tetracladium. In- 
gold agreed in part with the older opinion 
advanced by von Hohnel (1914) that 7. 
maxilliformis Rostrup was so distinct from 
T. callispora as to warrant its removal from 
Titaea. Hohnel, accordingly, erected the 
genus MJazillospora for this species, but In- 
gold concluded from his studies on Tetra- 
cladiwm marchalianum that the two species 
were congeneric and transferred Rostrup’s 
fungus to Tetracladium. At that time he 
characterized the genus not on an ecological 
basis, as had been done previously, but on 
the morphology of its spores, which, he said, 
had branches arising or diverging from a 
central axis as in Tvtaea but differmg in 
having a single upwardly directed cell or 
process arising (at some distance from the 
central axis) from one of the branches. This 
extra-axial process is somewhat hard to de- 
termine in Tetracladiwm setigerum because 
of the difficulty in defining the central axis 
in that species. Furthermore, the different 
morphology of this process in the species 
of the genus is also somewhat confusing. 
It would seem that Tetracladium as an eco- 
logical genus could be distinguished from 
Titaea more easily than on its present mor- 
phological basis; but a conclusive discussion 
of this matter must await study of more 


Jo Bg 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. I1 


forms than are presently available. With 
the exception of 7. marchalianwm, which 
has filiform processes like those of T. 
clarkeae, the spores of Tetracladium species 
have a somewhat cheiroid appearance, 
whereas the spores of T7taea have upwardly 
and downwardly, outwardly directed arms 
suggestive of no particular structure. An- 
other feature of Titaea spores which sepa- 
rates them from those of Tetracladium is 
the fact that the central axis is 2-celled and 
forms an integral part of the spore, whereas 
in Tetracladium the central axis, though de- 
finable, sometimes lacks this distinctness. 
If these are the characteristics of T7ztaea and 
Tetracladium spores, it will be noted that 
there are no suitable distinctions between 
those of Titaea and Monogrammia or Araneo- 
myces. Unfortunately, Monogrammia mico- 
niae is known only from its original deserip- 
tion and illustration (reproduced in Fig. 1, 
A) and was described by Stevens (1917) 
for a fungus occurring in association with 
Hyalosphaeria miconiae in Puerto Rico. 
Araneomyces acariferus, of which type mate- 
rial exists in the Hohnel collection in the 
Farlow Herbarium,! was based upon (1909) 
a fungus found on stromata of Rosellina 
miconiae. The spores of this fungus are illus- 
trated in Fig. 1, B. From the spores of both 
A. acariferus and M. miconiae it is obvious 
that they are only specifically different from 
other species of T7taea. Furthermore, both 
occur on foliicolous ascomycetes in tropical 
regions, as do almost all other species of 
Titaea; and though it is possible that future 
studies will provide evidence by which 
Titaea may be divided into more homoge- 
neous groups it is felt that Araneomyces and 
Monogrammia should be merged under the 


\o4 


Fic. 1.—A, Spore of Monogrammia miconiae redrawn from Stevens (1917); B, spores of Araneo- 


myces acariferus drawn from type material (X 1,000); C, 


Y 


spores of Titaea clarkeae drawn from 


type material (X 750) (reduced approximately 1%). 


| 


NOVEMBER 1952 


older name. Although there is a striking 
similarity between the spores of both spe- 
cies, there can be no evaluation of this be- 
eause of the lack of material of A. miconiae, 
and it is felt that they should both be main- 
tained as valid species of T7taea. The follow- 
ing two new combinations are therefore 
proposed: 
Titaea acarifera (von Hoéhnel) comb. nov. 
Araneomyces acariferus von Hoéhnel, Sitzb. 
Akad. Wiss. Wien 118: 894, illus. 1909. 
Titaea miconiae (Stevens) comb. nov. 


Monogrammia miconiae Stevens, Trans. Illi- - 


nois Acad. Sci. 10: 202, illus. 1917. 


Although well described by Ellis and 
Everhart (1891), Titaea clarkeae Ell. and 
Ey. is discussed here because it has been 
found that some specimens under this label 
in the North American Fungi, no. 2466, 
have material of hyphomycetes other than 
T. clarkeae present; and because Ingold 
(1942) remarked upon the lack of spore illus- 
trations upon which to base a judgment of 
the species. 7’. clarkeae, though not foliic- 
olous, is found in association with a species 
of Dichaena and possesses spores (Fig. 1, C) 
most like those of 7. doidgeae Hansford in 
that the branches are long and filiform, but 


PROCEEDINGS: ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


367 


differmg from that species in other details. 
It possesses the 2-celled axis typical of 
Titaea of which the upper cell is globose as 
in the spores of 7’. toddaliae, and T. ugandae. 

It is felt that this is a typical species of 
Titaea, and, so far as is known, it 1s the only 
species of the genus occurring in continental 
North America. 


REFERENCES 


Extrs, J. B., and Everuart, B. M. New species of 
fungi from various localities. Proc. Acad. Nat. 
Sei. Philadelphia 43: 76-93. 1891. 

Hansrorp, C. G. Contributions toward the fungus 
flora of Uganda. V. Fungi Imperfecti. Proc. 
Linn. Soc. London 155: 34-67, illus. 1944. 

——. The folricolous ascomycetes, their parasites 
and associated fungi. Myce. Paper (C.M.l1.) 
no. 15: 240 pp., illus. 1946. 

Incoup, C. T. Aquatic hyphomycetes of decaying 
alder leaves. Trans. Brit. Myc. Soc. 25: 339- 
417, illus. 1942. 

von Hounen, F. Fragmente zur Mykologie (VII. 
Mitt.). Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien 118: 813- 
904, illus. 1909. 

Fragmente zur Mykologie (XVI. Mitt.). 
Sitzb. Akad. Wiss. Wien 123: 49-155. 1914. 

Saccarpo, P. A. Fungi venett novi vel critici. 
Nuov. Giorn. Bot. Ital., ser. 5, 8: 181-211. 
1876. 

Stevens, F. L. Porto Rican fungi, old and new. 
Trans. Illinois Acad. Sci. 10: 162-218, illus. 
1917. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


ANTHROPOLOGICAL SOCIETY 


The Anthropological Society of Washington 
held its annual business meeting on January 14, 
1952, and elected the following officers: President, 
Waupo R. Wepre. (reelected); Vice-President, 
Georce M. Foster, Jr. (reelected); Secretary, 
Winuram H. Ginpert, Jr. (reelected); Treasurer, 
Marearer C. Buaknr (reelected); Councilors to 
the Board of Managers, Jonn C. Hwnurs (re- 
elected), Joun A. Jones, Mark H. Warkrns (re- 
elected), GzorGrE TRAGER (reelected), Martan 
L. VANDERBILT (reelected), and SipNry ADAMS 
(reelected); Representative to the Washington 
Academy of Sciences, Watpo R. Weber (re- 
elected). 

A report of the membership and activities of 
the Society since the last annual meeting follows. 


The total membership totaled 98, an increase of 8 
over a year ago. Thirteen new members were 
elected during the year as follows: Harry W. 
BaspuHart; Dr. DintHER VON DEN STEINEN; Dr. 
JoHNn Auan Jones; Mrs. Linian FuLLER Jones; 
CuHarutes H. FarrBanks; Jehan Hussey, Mrs. 
Maury H. Travis; Rev. C. M. Lewis; Mrs. 
Marearer C. Ginpert; Dr. Harotp Henry 
Proucu; Mis. EpireH CrowreLu Tracer; Dr. 
Marian W. Suirs; and RatepH Kerter Lewis. 

Death of two members during the year was 
reported: Dr. ANrontio GouBAUD-CarRERA, Am- 
bassador from Guatemala to the United States, 
on March 9, 1951, and Mrs. Anice L. L. Fereu- 
SON, artist, archeologist, and writer, on June 7, 
1951. 

The report of the Treasurer for the year ended 
December 31, 1951, follows: 


368 


Credit: 


Balance forwarded ssanceseect ao eee tae eee 
Withdrawn, Perpetual Building Association....... 
Sale of U.S. Savings Bond, Series G............. 
Puesicollected rina canvas Nae ae 


Dividends, Investment Co. of America. 


Year-end dividend, Investment Co. of America... 
Dividends, Washington Sanitary Housing Co..... 


Dividends, Massachusetts Investor’s Trust. 


Debit: 


PURSES OF SAAT, soc snaagc0ons 20s 05500a20006 
Deposited in Perpetual Building Association...... 
AAA dues paid for Secretary, Treasurer, and one life member................. 


Refund to AAA 


Sea kere ee see mere Malin Mal iaia seca uu) nu Cuneta. SeenRai 
Incidental meeting expenses...................... 
BriniinesandamailimemOticest en. ae oe ee 


Florist’s bill. 


Balance dimplya mie) ei eww cyan teeth eco a ice cee ea 


Assets: 


Cash balance from capital gain dividend, Massachusetts Investor’s Trust. .... 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 11 


$1,634.11 
1,986.50 
486 .50 
135.00 


$4,483.72 


$3,919.85 
$ 563.87 


Funds invested in Perpetual Building Association (with interest to Dec. 31,1951) $ 536. 12 
4 shares Washington Sanitary Housing Co. (including stock dividend of 2 shares, 


Nov. 21, 1951) @ $100 per share................ 
110 shares Investment Co. of America @i$l2 46spershares se). ie easel ae ee 
50 shares Massachusetts Investor’s Trust @ $37.61 per share................... 
1 share Massachusetts Investor’s Trust @ $35.59 per share..................... 


Cash in bank. 


$4,786.68 
4,334.11 


452.57 


*The report of 1950 erroneously showed a total of $5,674.96, an excess of $1,340.85. This amount, re- 
sulting from the sale of Washington Sanitary. Improvement Co. stock, was listed as such, but was also 


included in the figure representing cash in bank. 


Programs during the year were arranged by 
Dr. Eugene C. Worman, chairman of the program 
committee, and by the Secretary. All meetings 
were held at the U. S. National Museum. Speak- 
ers and the titles of papers presented before the 
Society in 1951 were as follows: 


January 24, Dr. Irvine Rousn, Archeological 
excavations in Venezuela (with motion pictures). 

February 22, Dr. Cuirrorp Evans, Prehistory 
to history at the mouth of the Amazon River (with 
slides). 

March 20, Mrs. Exppn E. Biuirnes, Mexico’s 
musical Indians. 

April 17, Dr. Reetna Fuannery, Dr. WILLIAM 
N. Fenton, and Dr. Wititam H. Gitsert, The 
Eastern Woodland Indians, then and now. 

May 15, Dr. Grorcr Tracer, Linguistic and 
ethnological history of the Southwest, some methodo- 
logical considerations. 


October 16, Dr. Donaup N. WiLBER, Jran and 
Afghanistan, a challenge to the ethnologist (with 
slides). 

November 29, Dr. Martan W. Smita, The west- 
ern heritage in Indian and Pakistani nationalism. 


Plans for perfecting and improving the So- 
ciety’s system of accounts were presented at the 
annual meeting on January 14, 1952. The Presi- 
dent was authorized to appoint a planning com- 
mittee to expand the activities of the Society in 
conjunction with the program committee. In 
November 1951 President Wedel extended an 
invitation in behalf of the Society to the American 
Anthropological Association to hold its annual 
meeting in 1953 at Washington, D. C. 


Wituram H. Givpert, Secretary. 


ntigi MR ae 


Officers of the Washington Academy of Sciences 


FR OSLUETIO Np eS Sik g ae Ee eee WatterR RamBere, National Bureau of Standards 
EAE OSTOLCTUL<ELEGE = Smt Wars CL ro yok Oe Ae A Sa eae LY F, M. Serzuer, U. S. National Museum 
SPEARS Gee Ate HOR eer enn Eee F. M. Deranporr, National Bureau of Standards 
LRAT A POSED REI OER aR eE Howarp S. Raprieye, U.S. Coast and Geodetic Survey 
2279 (OTR eo dare OO eae CREE ae Joun A. StEveNSON, Plant Industry Station 


Custodian and Subscription Manager of Publications 
Harrap A. Reuper, U.S. National Museum 
Vice-presidents Representing the Affiliated Societies: 


PhilosophicaliSociety, of Washingtonwe. ssc) 44eee 46 see ence cee A. G. McNisa 
Anthropological Society of Washington........................ Wawtpo R. WEDEL 
Biological Society, of Washingtons 5). 5-- -t..s:5-s2 eee eee es Hvueu T. O’ NEILL 
@hemicaluSociety,of Washingtonas: 2s sn wacinene ch cio notciaeine JOHN K. TaYyLor 
Entomological Society of Washington......................5. FREDERICK W. Poos 
WNeationalkGeorraphici Societys asaya aie eee ALEXANDER WETMORE 
Geological Society of Washington........................5..05. A. NELSON SAYRE 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia........................ FRED O. Coz 
ColumbiavtlistoricaldSociety.s soo en seo e sie se sie GILBERT GROSVENOR 
Bovanicalssociety; of Washingtons.-a¢. 6. onnne css ce owe cere Les M. Hutcuins 
Washington Section, Society of American Foresters.......... Wiiiram A. Dayton 
Washington Society of Engineers..........................0-: Cuirrorp A. Butts 
Washington Section, American Institute of Electrical Engineers...... A. H. Scorr 
Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp S. DILL 
Helminthological Society of Washington.......................... L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Aneus M. GRIFFIN 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers........... ‘Hersert G. Dorssy 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 


N. R. Evuts 

Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 
ponvanmany 958i oof ecco oniske aoe ae ase ets C. F. W. Mussesecr, A. T. McPHERSON 
Na dipmmeniny ll y io ee eect eestor gts One echo Sara EH. Branuam, Mitton Harris 
ROMINA Tg ODO fe cei onc Sei uae ttt gs oe ES Roger G. Batss, W. W. Dinxu 
(BOUROROPPMUIGNAGETS: 26.45 ssc cee. cee All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
zn! OF LCCORS Cpe) ABSOCQKGHS JHUHORSs ooccbocbvocnooonuscuuboudaucnns [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....WALTER RAMBERG (chairman), F. M. Serzuer, H.S.Rappieyve, 
Wiuriam A. Dayton, F. M. DEFANDORF 
Committee on Membership. .E. H. WALKER (chairman), M.S. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cot- 
TAM, R. C. Duncan, JoHN Faser, G. T. Faust, I. B. HANSEN, FRANK Kracnk, D. B. 
Joneses, EH. G. RetnuHarpD, Reece I. Satter, Leo A. Suinn, F. A. Surry, Heinz Sprecut, 
H.M. Trent, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings....H. W. Weuus (chairman), Wm. R. CampBpetu, W. R. CHap- 
LINE, D. J. Davis, H. G. Dorsny, O. W. ToRRESON 

Committee on Monographs (W. N. FENTON, chairman): 


“TRG TOMEI? A RY aii ease er et er nee PL R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 

POMM TATA ODA ar eyes nyievs choke ioye toesteuve nl aalet Rene enencdes S. F. Buaxs, F. C. Kracex 

Ike Hamby Osis 6 Bere ae ae dle HelG oe atop not SIE ae W.N. Fenton, ALAN STONE 

Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (J. R. SWALLEN, general chairman): 

For Biological Sctences............. J. R. SWALLEeN (chairman), L. M. Hurtcuins, 
Marearet Pirrman, F. W. Poos, L. P. Scuutrz 

For Engineering Sciences............. R. C. Duncan (chairman), A. C. FIELDNER, 
Wayne C. Hatt, J. W. McBurney, O. S. Reapine, H. L. WHiTremMore 
HOnmeanUSvCalmSCLENnces ee erie L. A. Woop (chairman), P. H. ABELSON, 


F.S. Dart, Grorcs W. Irvine, Jr., J. H. McMiLuen 
For Teaching of Science......M. A. Mason (chairman), F. E. Fox, M. H. Martin 
Committee on Grants-in- aang Sor Research ee Siri L. EK. Yocum (chairman), H. N. Eaton, 
. F. HeRzFELD 

Committee on Policy and Planning: 
To January 1953... 


W. A. Dayton (chateman) N. R. Suirre 


a ee ‘To January. LASER yo 2 yeah en eae ol H. B. Couuins, Jr., W. W. Rusey 

HOM ANUTD IV MEG OOP arise eicl toes oe ernie oie cuss cual L. W. Parr, F. B. StusBEE 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPHERson, chairman): 

PROG ANUTAT YT LO DS Hwee trees cay censors seal pereua Nie sce coraesas tone A. H. Cuark, F. L. Mouurr 

PRO VI AMUAT ViwlO 4 gems eis vincten meste StarseMene Ie e atcis J. M. CALDWELL, W. L. Scumitt 

FRO RATT LODO rer erec ores sccrerenenene reels fate erevacrcieveseieie A. T. McPuHerson, W. T. Reap 

RE DRERENLALLUCHOTAOOUNCUL Of PACRAREA GH cenit sleineieelieiie oie einen F. M. SETzLER 

Committee of Auditors...... C. L. Gazin (chairman), Loutss M. Russetu, D. R. Tats 


Committee of Tellers... GEORGE P. WALTON (chairman), GEorGE H. Coons, C. L. GARNER 


CONTENTS 


ErHNoLocy.—Animal names, anatomical terms, and some ethnozoology 
of the Flathead Indians. GrorGe F. WEISEL.............000058 


PaLEontoLtocy.—The type species of the gastropod genus Protostylus. 
Roger. L. BATTEN. 33 30%. os be oe hsb Galan) a 


PaLEONTOLOGYy.—Morphology of the test in the foraminiferal genus 
Tristiz Macfayden. Aurrep R. Lorsuicu, JR., and HeLen Tap- 


PaLEontoLocy.—A rare Tertiary glycymerid from South Carolina and 
Florida.” DAvip), Nicob.2. o5 342) Me wn ce ee 


_Entomo.tocy.—Notes on synonymy in Siphonaptera. G. H. E. Hop- 
Myco.tocy.—On the fungus genera T%taea, Monogrammia, and Araneo- 


myces. 5) (©. DAMON Ss bo Gales e505 axle Ane oe ee 


PRocEEDINGS: Anthropological Society... ..-+.- +22 > ee eee 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodieals, 


Page 


345 


309 


306 


362 


363 


Vou. 42 DECEMBER 1952 No. 12 


Ay) HSON/, Wy 
DEC 30 1952 
LIBRARY 


JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY 
OF SCIENCES 


BOARD OF EDITORS 


Wituiam F. Fosuac J. P. E. Morrison Joun C. EwERS 


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ASSOCIATE EDITORS 


F, A. Cuacs, JR. Miriam L. Bomuarp 
BIOLOGY BOTANY 
J. I. HorrMan R. K. Coox 
CHEMISTRY PHYSICS AND MATHEMATICS 
T. P. THAYER Puinip DRUCKER 
GEOLOGY ANTHROPOLOGY 


C. W. SaBROSKY 
ENTOMOLOGY 


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JOURNAL 


OF THE 


WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOLUME 42 


December 


1952 No. 12 


BOTANY .—Notes on Fraxinus (ash) in the United States. Etpnrt L. Littie, 


Jr., U.S. Forest Service. 


Under a conservative treatment the genus 
Fraxinus L. (family Oleaceae), common 
name ash, contains 16 native species with 
2 additional important varieties in the 
United States. This article presents taxo- 
nomic and nomenclatural notes on 11 of 
these, including publication of a new spe- 
cies from the Mexican border of Arizona and 
Sonora, reduction of F. lowellii to a variety 
of F. anomala, inclusion of F. dipetala as a 
tree species, a new combination for a Mexi- 
can variation of F. greggii, acceptance of the 
older name F’. latifolia for F. oregona, addi- 
tion of F. papillosa as a native tree species 
and State record for Arizona, restoration of 
F. profunda in place of F. tomentosa, and 
reduction of several varieties to synonymy. 

In the last formal descriptive and illus- 
trated treatment of Fraxinus in the United 
States, Sargent (Man: Trees North Amer. 
ed. 2, 833-853, illus. 1922; ed. 2, corr., 833- 
853, illus. 1926) accepted 19 native species 
and 10 varieties, of which only 2 varieties 
were illustrated. Two of the species merely 
were mentioned, F’. dipetala Hook. & Arnott 
as a shrub and F. papillosa Lingelsh. of 
Mexico as known from a single plant, pos- 
sibly a shrub, along the southwestern bor- 
der of New Mexico. Sudworth (Check List 
Forest Trees U. 8. 224-228. 1927) followed 
Sargent, except that the 2 shrubby species 
and 1 variety (Ff. cuspidata var. macro- 
petala) were omitted. 

Later authors have united several names. 
Fernald (Rhodora 40: 450-452, t. 528. 1938) 
took up F. tomentosa Michx. f. for F. pro- 
funda (Bush) Bush (F. michauaxii Britton), 
a change rejected here. Kearney and Pee- 
bles (Fl. Pl. Ferns Ariz. 672. 1942) united 
F. standleyi Rehd. with F. velutina Torr., 
and Benson and Darrow (Man. Southwest. 
Desert Trees Shrubs 260, 877. 1945) re- 


369 


DEC23 1952 


duced the varieties of the latter to syn- 
onymy. Fernald (Rhodora 50: 186-190. 
1948) placed F. pauciflora Nutt. under F. 
caroliniana Mill.,: while distinguishing varie- 
ties and forms of the latter. 

Jonathan W. Wright, of the United States 
Forest Service, has published the following 
two articles on his experimental studies in 
Fraxinus: “Genotypic Variation in White 
Ash,” Journ. Forestry 42: 489-495. 1944; 
“Heotypic Differentiation in Red Ash,” 
Journ. Forestry 42: 591-597. 1944. In the 
former he united F. biltmoreana Beadle with 
F. americana L., and in the latter reduced 
F. pennsylvanica var. lanceolata to syn- 
onymy. I am indebted to him for further 
suggestions. 

In checking the nomenclature of Fraxinus 
I have examined the specimens at the Na- 
tional Herbarium (US), of the United States 
National Museum, which contains many 
types, isotypes and other important speci- 
mens in this genus. The synonymy given 
here is that directly related to the names 
discussed. Lists of additional and especially 
old synonyms were compiled by Sargent 
(Silva North Amer., 14 vols., illus. 1891- 
1902) and Rehder (Bibliog. Cult. Trees 
Shrubs, 825 pp. 1949). 

Of the 16 native species of Fraxinus ac- 
cepted here, Fraxinus nigra Marsh. and F. 
quadrangulata Michx. are clearly distinct 
and need not be mentioned further. F’. texen- 
sis (A. Gray) Sarg. of Texas and Oklahoma 
is a southwestern xeric ash closely related 
to F. americana but with fewer and smaller 
leaflets and originally named as a variety 
of the latter. Similarly, F’. berlandieriana A. 
DC. is a xeric Texan and Mexican relative 
of F. pennyslvanica with reduced leaflets and 
has been regarded also as a variety of green 
ash. F’. cuspidata Torr. consists of 2 varie- 


370 


ties, var. cuspidata and var. macropetala 
(Eastw.) Rehd. Var. serrata Rehd. was re- 
duced to a synonym of the former by Stand- 
ley (Trees Shrubs Mex. 1135. 1924). Notes 
on the remaining 11 species follow in alpha- 
betical order. 


Fraxinus americana L. WuitE ASH 
Fraxinus americana L., Sp. Pl. 1057. 1753. 
Fraxinus juglandifolia Lam., Encycl. Méth. Bot. 

2: 548. [1788.] 

Fraxinus americana juglandifolia 
Browne, Trees Amer. 398. 1846. 
Fraxinus curtisst Vasey, Cat. Forest Trees U.S. 
20. 1876; U. S. Commr. Agr. Rpt. 1875: 168. 

1876; nom provisor. et subnud. 

Fraxinus americana var. microcarpa A. Gray, 
Synopt. Fl. North Amer. 2 (1): 75. 1878. 

Fraxinus biltmoreana Beadle, Bot. Gaz. 25: 358. 
1898. 

Fraxinus catawbiensis Ashe, Bot. Gaz. 33: 230. 
1902. 

Fraxinus americana var. subcoriacea Sarg., Bot. 
Gaz. 67: 241. 1919. 

Fraxinus americana var. crassifolia Sarg., Man. 
Trees North Amer. ed. 2, 841. 1922. 

Fraxinus americana var. ascidiata A. M [eunis- 
sier], Gard. Chron., ser. 3, 76: 335, fig. 122. 
1924. 

Frazinus americana var. biltmoreana (Beadle) J. 
Wright ex Fern., Rhodora 49: 159. 1947. 

Frazinus americana {. ascidiata (Meunissier) 
Rehd., Bibliog. Cult. Trees Shrubs 557. 1949. 


[(Lam.)] 


The minor variations of Fraxinus americana 
cited above need not be distinguished except in 
special studies. Biltmore ash, F. biltmoreana, 
which has been accepted as a species, has already 
been reduced to synonymy. Jonathan W. Wright 
(Journ. Forestry 42: 489-895. 1944) distinguished 
three ecotypes in F’. americana. He experimented 
with Biltmore ash and white ash, growing prog- 
enies from seeds of both from different localities 
and found that the former, separable only by 
pubescence and absent northward, was not a 
good species, as the seed of one may give the 
other. Thus, he concluded that Biltmore ash, 
which was not distinguished in lumbering, need 
not be separated either in taxonomy or silvicul- 
ture. In 1941 Wright annotated the type collec- 
tion of F. biltmoreana (Biltmore, N. C., Oct. 
1895, No. 4049; type in US) as F. americana var. 
biltmoreana but did not formally make varietal 
reduction. Fernald afterward published this com- 
bination from Wright’s herbarium name. Inde- 
pendently, Donald C. Peattie informed me by 
letter in 1946 that he knew this tree well in the 
field and thought it should be made a variety or 
synonym of F. americana. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 12 


The small-fruited southeastern variation was 
first named F. curtissi Vasey, a doubtful new 
species provisionally published with inadequate 
very brief description and not afterward ac- 
cepted. F. americana var. microcarpa A. Gray, 
with “fruit (seemingly full grown but seedless) 
remarkably small, half to two-thirds inch long,” 
was based partly upon the same type collection 
(Curtiss, Eufaula, Ala., in 1875, US). Though 
the material may be teratological in part, I find 
filled as well as empty fruits in this collection. 
Variations in size of fruit occur in several species 
and scarcely merit recognition. 

Var. juglandifolia (Lam.) Browne, with more 
or less serrate or crenate-serrate leaflets and more 
common northward, and var. subcoriacea Sarg. 
(var. crasstfolia Sarg., corrected in Sarg., Man. 
Trees North Amer. ed. 2., corr. 841. 1926), 
with thicker leaves silvery white beneath, and 
noted from three localities in different States, 
may be of interest in horticulture but were not 
even mentioned by Fernald in Gray’s Manual 
(ed. 8: 1148. 1950). The form ascidiata (Meunis- 
sier) Rehd. was a local dominant mutant near 
Cold Spring Harbor, Long Island, N. Y., with 
leaflets partly pitcher-shaped at base. 

Sterile specimens of F'. americana and F. penn- 
syluanica can be distinguished readily by the 
microscopic appearance of the lower epidermis of 
the leaflets, as shown in direct examination or by 
collodion leaf peels. The characteristic whitish 
lower leaf surface of the former appears under 
high magnification to be a solid mass of whitish 
beads or sleetlike particles, consisting of minute 
opaque papillae of each epidermal cell. In F. 
pennsylvanica, the lower leaf surface is greenish 
and under high magnification is less rough, though 
though often hairy or with minute peltate scales 
or irregular masses of papillae. This useful diag- 
nostic character was brought to my attention by 
Jonathan W. Wright and is further mentioned 
under F.. papillosa. 


Fraxinus anomala Torr. var. lowellii (Sarg.) Little, 

comb. nov. Lowe. AsH 

Fraxinus lowellii Sarg. in Rehd., Proc. Amer. 
Acad. Arts Sci. 53: 211. 1917. 


Fraxinus lowellii Sarg. is known only from 
northern and central Arizona, with type locality 
Oak Creek Canyon about 20 miles south of 
Flagstaff, Coconino County. Before publishing 
the name, Sargent (Rhodora 19: 23. 1917) ob- 
served that this ash is somewhat intermediate 
between F. quadrangulata Michx. of the East 


DECEMBER 1952 


and F. anomala Torr. (ex Wats. in King, Rpt. 
Geol. Expl. 40th Par. 5: 283. 1871), singleleaf 
ash, of southwestern deserts. He recorded the 
number of leaflets of F. lowellii as 5 or rarely 3 
but illustrated also 7 (Man. Trees North Amer. 
ed. 2, corr. 836, fig. 740. 1926). An isotype of 
F. lowellii (Rehder 53, US) has the leaflets mostly 
5, a few 3, and one leaf with 2 leaflets and shows 
variation in shape of leaflets from nearly orbicu- 
lar to obovate, ovate, and lanceolate. 

Goodding (Notes on native and exotic plants 
in Region8, p. 120. U.S. Dept. Agr. Soil Cons. Serv. 
Region 8, Albuquerque, N. Mex. 1938. Mimeogr.) 
noted also that F. lowelliz is closely related to 
F. anomala and similar in fruits and general 
aspect but ranges farther south in Arizona, 
becoming larger and usually forming thickets. 

F. anomala and F. lowellii are easily separated 
from other ashes of western United States except 
F. dipetala by their quadrangular twigs and 
broad flattened fruits with wing extending to 
base. Kearney and Peebles (Ferns Fl. Pl. Ariz. 
671. 1942; Ariz. Fl. 641. 1951) in their key char- 
acterized the leaves of F. anomala as “‘1- or 3- 
foliolate, the single or terminal leaflet broadly 
ovate or orbicular, truncate or short-cuneate at 
base, commonly obtuse or retuse at apex, the 
margin entire to crenate’”’ and the leaves of F. 
lowellii as “3-, 5-, or 7-foliolate; leaflets oblong- 
lanceolate, elliptic, or ovate, the terminal one 
usually obovate, cuneate at base, the margin 
commonly crenate-serrate.” 

F. anomala in its typical variation (var. anom- 
ala) is found in western Colorado, extreme north- 
western New Mexico, northern Arizona, southern 
Utah, southern Nevada, and southeastern Cali- 
fornia. Though it is distinguished by its simple 
leaves, 2- or 3-foliolate leaves are occasionally 
found on specimens throughout its range. The 
isotype examined (Newberry in 1859, US) has 
one leaf with 2 leaflets among the otherwise 
simple leaves. Leaves with 5 leaflets, while rare, 
were noted on sheets from Utah, Nevada, and 
California. Leaflets of compound leaves, including 
the terminal leaflet, tend to be narrower than 
simple leaves, becoming ovate and acute. 

F. anomala var. triphylla Jones (California 
Acad. Sci. Proc., ser. 2, 5: 707. 1895) was de- 
scribed with 3 leaflets, but the isotype examined 
(M. E. Jones 5082w, Pagumpa, Mohave County, 
Ariz., US) has both simple and 3-foliolate leaves. 
Rehder (Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 53: 212. 
1917) properly reduced this variety to synonymy, 


LITTLE: NOTES ON 


FRAXINUS 371 


while Sudworth (Check List Forest Trees U. S. 
225. 1927) first suggested the relationship of this 
variety to F. lowellit. 

Differences in number of leaflets generally are 
regarded as varietal rather than of specific rank. 
Simple-leaved variations occur in other species 
of Fraxinus. For example, Muller (Amer. Midl. 
Nat. 27: 488. 1942) reduced the simple-leaved 
Fraxinus nummularis Jones to a form, F’. greggit 
f. nummularis (Jones) C. H. Mull., here changed 
to a variety. Simple leaves are found occasionally 
in F. cuspidata var. macropetala (Eastw.) Rehd. 
of northern Arizona also. F. dipetala Hook. & 
Arnott of California has in Lower California a 
similar variety with reduced leaflets, 3 or some- 
times 1, F’. dipetala var. trifoliolata Torr. 

F. anomala and F. lowelliz have similar leaf 
texture and intergrade both in number of leaflets 
and in their shape but have ranges mostly sepa- 
rate. A few specimens are intermediate and have 
been referred under both names. Thus, the reduc- 
tion of F. lowellii to a geographical variety seems 
warranted. The more widespread, typical variety 
F. anomala var. anomala (including the synonym 
var. triphylla) with its reduced leaves and usually 
smaller size may have developed under more 
xeric conditions. 


Fraxinus caroliniana Mill. Carouina AsH 
Fraxinus caroliniana Mill., Gar. Dict. ed. 8, 
Fraxinus no. 6. 1768. 
Fraxinus platicarpa Michx., Fl. Bor.-Amer. 2: 
256. 1803. ‘ 
Fraxinus pauciflora Nutt., No. Amer. Sylva 3: 
61, t. 100. 1849. 
Frazinus platycarpa B. pubescens M. A. Curtis, 
Amer. Journ. Sci. Arts, ser. 2, 7: 408. 1849. 
Fraxinus platycarpa y. oblanceolata M. A. Curtis, 
Amer. Journ. Sci. Arts, ser. 2, 7: 408. 1849. 
Fraxinus cubensis Griseb., Cat. Pl. Cub. 170. 
1866. 

Fraxinus platycarpa var. floridana Wenzig, Bot. 
Jahrb. 4: 185. 1883. 

Fraxinus floridana (Wenzig) Sarg., Silva North 
Amer. 14: 39, t. 717. 1902. 

Fraxinus caroliniana var. B. cubensis (Griseb.) 
Lingelsh., Bot. Jahrb. 40: 221. 1907. 

Fraxinus hybrida Lingelsh, Bot. Jahrb. 40: 220. 
1907. 

Fraxinus rehderiana Lingelsh., Pflanzenreich 72 
Heft (IV. 243, I & II): 42. 1920. 

Fraxinus caroliniana var. rehderiana (Lingelsh.) 
Sarg., Journ. Arnold Arb. 2: 1738. 1921. 

Fraxinus caroliniana var. pubescens (M. A. Cur- 
tis) Fern., Rhodora 39: 442. 1987. 

Fraxinus caroliniana f. pubescens (M. A. Curtis) 
Fern. & Schubert, Rhodora 50: 188. 1948. 

Fraxinus caroliniana var. oblanceolata (M. A. 
Curtis) Fern. & Schubert, Rhodora 50: 188. 
1948. 


372 


Fraxinus caroliniana var. oblanceolata f{. hy- 
pomalaca Fern. & Schubert, Rhodora 50: 189. 
1948. 

Fraxinus caroliniana var. cubensis f{. lasiophylla 
Fern. & Schubert, Rhodora 50: 189. 1948. 


Fraxinus pauciflora Nutt. was accepted as a 
separate species by Small (Fl. Southeast. U. 8. 
918. 1903; Man. Southeast. Fl. 1039. 1933), by 
Sargent (Man. Trees North Amer. ed. 2, corr. 
839. 1926) and other authors but has been re- 
duced to synonymy by Fernald and Schubert 
(Rhodora 50: 188. 1948) and Rehder (Bibliog, 
Cult. Trees Shrubs 559. 1949). Earlier Sargent 
(Silva North Amer. 14: 39, t. 717. 1902) recog- 
nized this segregate as F’. floridana. 

Fernald and Schubert (Rhodora 50: 186-190. 
1948) noted that Fraxinus caroliniana Mill., 
of the southern Coastal Plain and Cuba, is ex- 
tremely variable and distinguished besides the 
typical variety two geographical varieties and 
three pubescent forms, one for each variety. The 
same treatment was followed by Fernald in 
Gray’s Manual (ed. 8, 1149. 1950). These three 
varieties differ in shape of the samara, which is 
broadly oblong-oblanceolate to rhombic or sub- 
elliptic in the typical variety, oblanceolate in 
var. oblanceolata, and narrowly oblanceolate in 
var. cubensis. If these minor variations in samara 
shape and pubescence merit names, similar varia- 
tions could be named in several other species. 
No varieties are distinguished here. 


Fraxinus dipetala Hook. & Arnott 
Two-preTaL ASH 
Fraxinus dipetala Hook. & Arnott, Bot. Beechey 
Voy. 362, t. 87. [1888.] 


Two-petal ash, also called California flowering 
ash, California shrub ash, and foothill ash, is to 
be accepted definitely as a tree species along with 
other usually shrubby species of southwestern 
United States, such as F. anomala, F. cuspidata, 
and F. greggw. Sargent (Silva North Amer. 6: 31, 
t. 261. 1894) admitted F. dipetala as the only 
American species not known to be arborescent 
and described it as a many-stemmed shrub 10 
or 12 feet tall, possibly under favorable conditions 
a small tree. Afterward he omitted it from his 
Manual, mentioning it as the only native species 
not becoming a tree (Man. Trees North Amer. 
ed. 2, corr. 833. 1926). Britton and Shafer (North 
Amer. Trees 811. 1908) similarly described F. 
dipetala in small type without illustration as a 
shrub not definitely known to form a tree. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 12 


MeMinn and Maino (Illus. Man. Pacific Coast 
Trees 337. 1935) and McMinn (Illus. Man. 
California Shrubs 436. 1939) included this species 
as a shrub or small tree 6 to 18 feet high. Jepson 
(Fl. California 3: 81. 1939) described F’. dipetala 
as a shrub 5 to 15 (or 22) feet high, sometimes 
distinctly arborescent. He found individuals 22 
feet tall and 4 inches in trunk diameter on the 
Arroyo Seco in Santa Lucia Mountains, Calif. 
Rehder (Man. Cult. Trees Shrubs 744. 1937; 
ed. 2, 770. 1940) recorded it as a shrub or small 
tree. Abrams (Illus. Fl. Pacific States 3: 347. 
1951) mentioned it as a small tree or shrub 2 to 
7 meters high. 

Most collections do not have data on size. The 
Forest Service Herbarium has several specimens 
of F. dipetala collected by Forest Service field 
men and described on the labels as small trees 
up to 14, 15, 20, and 25 feet tall and 2 to 6 inches 
D. B. H. One sheet in the United States National 
Museum recorded the size as a small tree 15 to 
30 feet. 


Fraxinus dipetala var. trifoliolata Torr. 

Fraxinus dipetala var. trifoliolata Torr., U.S. 
Mex. Bound. Sury. Bot. 167. 1859. 

Fraxinus schiedeana var 8. palmarum Lingelsh. 
Pflanzenriech 72 Heft (IV. 248, I & II): 38. 
1920; ex parte. 

Fraxinus jonesti Lingelsh., Pflanzenreich 72 Heft 
(IV. 2438, I & II): 35, fig. 9 G. 1920; ex parte. 
Fraxinus trifoliolata (Torr.) Lewis & Epling, 
Amer. Midl. Nat. 24: 748, fig. 2. 1940; “‘trifolr- 
ata,’’ corrected by Gray Herbarium Card- 

index Issue 204. 


This geographical variety in northwestern 
Lower California, Mexico, was originally de- 
scribed as “a shrub or small tree growing in 
clumps, sometimes 20 feet high, with a trunk 
three inches in diameter.” Var. trifoliolata has 
been elevated to specific rank by Lewis and 
Epling (Amer. Mid]. Nat. 24: 743-746, fig. 1, 2. 
1940), who mentioned the following main differ- 
ences besides geographical separation: fewer (3-1) 
entire or weakly serrate leaflets, the lateral 
smaller, and by the slightly larger petals and 
filaments forming a distinct tube. 

Lingelsheim in 1920 based his two names cited 
above partly on M. E. Jones 3740 ex parte, the 
first of two collections or cotypes cited for each 
name. This number, collected by M. E. Jones 
at Valley of Palms, Lower California, April 8, 
1882, was distributed under a printed label as 
F. dipetala. The two sheets of M. EL. Jones 3740 
(US) examined are flowering specimens of var. 


DECEMBER 1952 LITTLE: NOTES 
trifoliolata. Lingelsheim (p. 22) thought this vari- 
ety which he did not know might be a species 
and unknowingly he based a new species and 
new variety partly upon specimens of this variety. 
F. jonesti was described from sterile material of 
M. E. Jones 3740 ex parte and Pringle 137 ex 
parte from Chihuahua. Rehder (Proc. Amer. 
Acad. Arts Sci. 53: 201. 1917) cited the sterile 
branches with pubescent leaves in the latter col- 
lection as apparently representing a juvenile 
form of F. cuspidata Torr. No sterile branches 
were found on the two sheets seen of Pringle 137 
(US). Lingelsheim’s illustration (fig. 9 G) may 
have been from Pringle’s specimen. It shows a 
pubescent leaf with slightly winged rachis and 5 
leaflets. Standley (Trees Shrubs Mex. 1135. 1924) 
cited F. jonesii as a synonym of F. attenuata 
Jones, but the latter was based instead upon 
M. E. Jones 3741 from the same locality, as 
mentioned below under F. velutina. If F. dipetala 
var. trifoliolata is accepted as a species, the name 
F. jones Lingelsh., honoring the collector of the 
first of the two sterile cotypes cited, is available. 


Fraxinus gooddingii Little, sp. nov. 
Goopp1nG AsH 


Sect. Fraxinaster DC., subsect. Pauciflorae 
Lingelsh. Frutex magna vel arbor parva 6 m 
alta, plerumque sempervirens. Ramuli juniores, 
gemmae, petioli, et paniculae dense tomentulosi 
pilis multiradiatis glandulosis fulvis; ramuli te- 
retes, graciles, plerumque minus 2 mm diametro, 
demum glabrescentes et cinerel vel grisei; gem- 
mae ovoideae, parvae, 1-4 mm longae. Folia 
2.5-8 cm longa, petiolo et rachide supra canali- 
culatis, anguste alatis. Foliola 5-9, plerumque 
7, parva, sessilia, elliptica vel anguste elliptica, 
1-2.5 (0.7-3) cm longa, 0.5-1.5 em lata, basi 
acuta, apice plerumque acuta vel obtusa, charta- 
cea vel subcoriacea, venulis leviter reticulatis, 
margine plana vel subrecurva, ultra partem me- 
diam crenulata vel serrulata vel interdum fere 
integra, supra fusco-viridia, leviter nitida, glabra 
vel paucis pilis minutibus peltatis, subtus palli- 
diora, dense punctata numerosis pilis minutibus 
peltatis, costa interdum puberula. Paniculae lat- 
erales, parvae, 1-4 cm longae, ante folias. Flores 
parvi, pedicellis gracilibus 2-4 mm longis; calyx 
campanulatus, parvus, 1 mm longus, scariosus, 
leviter 4-lobatus, externe puberulens pilis mul- 
tiradiatis; corolla nulla; stamina 2, filamentis 2 
mm longis et antheris 2 mm longis; pistilum 2 
mm longum; ovarium ovoideum, compressum, 


ON FRAXINUS 373 
non calycem superans, 2-loculare; stylus exsertus; 
stigma 2-lobatum. Samara anguste oblanceolata, 
12-20 mm longa, flavo-fusca, pars inferior (cor- 
pus) teres, 5-8 mm longa et 1.5 mm crassa, ala 
3-4 mm lata, tenuis, submembranacea, fere basi 
decurrens, apice rotundata vel interdum emar- 
ginata, nervis non conspicuis, stylo raro_per- 
sistens. 

Large shrub or small tree to 20 feet tall, usually 
evergreen. Young twigs, buds, petioles, and pan- 
icles densely tomentulose with multiradiate glan- 
dular, fulvous hairs; twigs terete, slender, mostly 
less than 2 mm in diameter, at length glabrescent 
and ash-colored or gray; buds ovoid, small, 1-4 
mm long. Leaves 2.5-8 em long; petiole and 
rachis grooved above, narrowly winged. Leaflets 
5-9, usually 7, small, sessile, elliptical or narrowly 
elliptical, 1-2.5 (0.7-3) em long, 0.5-1.3 cm 
broad, acute at base, usually acute or obtuse at 
apex, chartaceous or subcoriaceous, with veins 
slightly reticulate, margin flat or slightly re- 
curved, crenulate or serrulate above middle or 
sometimes almost entire; above brownish green, 
slightly shiny, glabrous or with few minute 
peltate hairs; beneath paler, densely punctate 
with numerous minute peltate hairs, with costa 
sometimes puberulent. Panicles lateral, small, 
1-4 em long, before the leaves. Flowers small, on 
slender pedicels 2-4 mm long; calyx campanulate, 
small, 1 mm long, scarious, shallowly 4-lobed, 
with multiradiate hairs on the outside; corolla 
none; stamens 2, with filaments 2 mm long and 
anthers 2 mm long; pistil 2 mm long; ovary ovoid, 
flattened, not exceeding the calyx, 2-celled; style 
exserted; stigma 2-lobed. Samara narrowly ob- 
lanceolate, 12-20 mm long, yellow brown, lower 
part (body) terete, 5-8 mm longand 1.5 mm thick, 
wing 3-4 mm broad, thin, submembranaceous, 
decurrent nearly to base, apex rounded or some- 
times emarginate, nerves inconspicuous, style 
rarely persistent. 

Range.—Santa Cruz County, Ariz., collected 
at two localities at an elevation of 3,600 to 5,000 
feet on the Coronado National Forest about 10 
and 16 miles west-northwest of Nogales and 
within 4 miles of the Mexican border. Also at an 
elevation of 4,000 feet in northeastern Sonora, 
Mexico, about 70 miles south of the southeastern 
corner of Arizona. 

Specimens examined.—The specimens cited be- 
low kindly have been lent for study by four 
herbaria: United States National Museum (US$), 
University of Arizona (Ariz.), Soil Conservation 


374 


Service, Tucson, Ariz. (SCS), and University of 
Michigan (Mich.). Two duplicates have been 
deposited in the Forest Service Herbarium 
(USFS). All the specimens except three were 
collected by Leslie N. Goodding. Arizona, Santa 
Cruz County: Pefia Blanea, Goodding July 4, 
19384 (SCS 1878), Sept. 6, 19384 (US, Ariz.), 
March 15, 1935 (US, USFS, Ariz., SCS 1875), 
May 2, 1935 (Ariz., SCS 1976), May 3, 1935 
(Ariz., SCS 1877, 4751), May 15, 1935 (US, SCS 
1879), spring 1935 (SCS 1880). Sycamore Can- 
yon, Goodding May 15, 1934 (US, USFS, SCS 
1874), May 15, 19386 (US 1634003 HoLoTyPE, 
1699998); Charles Proctor Aug. 18, 1936 (SCS 
3030). [Near] Nogales, Thornber, Goodding, and 
Nelson 243, March 16, 1935 (US, Ariz.). Mexico, 
Sonora, Cafion del Temblor, 4,000 feet elevation; 
region of Rio de Bavispe, northeastern Sonora, 
Edwin A. Phillips 786, Aug. 24, 1940 (Mich.). 

Remarks.—Fraxinus gooddingw is named for 
Leslie Newton Goodding, who discovered this 
species in 1934, while employed as botanist by 
the Soil Conservation Service, U. 8. Department 
of Agriculture, and who tested it in cultivation 
as an ornamental. I am indebted to him for speci- 
mens and notes. Goodding, who has done exten- 
sive field work with southwestern plants for 
many years, believes that this species in the 
United States is confined to Santa Cruz County. 
In a letter he explains that the specimens from 
Pena Blanca came from the north slope of a 
high butte a mile or so southwest of that place. 
Pena Blanca is a spring and concrete water tank 
in sec. 35, T. 23 8., R. 12 E., on the road between 
Nogales and Ruby, about 10 miles west-north- 
west of Nogales. Sycamore Canyon is in T. 23 
S., R. 11 E., south of Ruby also about 16 miles 
west northwest of Nogales, and drains southward 
into Mexico. This species does not occur along 
the stream but up on the steep, dry, rocky slopes 
and ridges. 

Goodding states that this species is a small 
tree, usually not more than 20 feet tall and 
frequently is shrubby. Two or three trees were 
grown in the Soil Conservation Service nursery 
at Tucson, where they were beautiful small 
ornamentals. Though normally evergreen, they 
shed their leaves in cold winters. According to 
the specimens, flowers are formed from March 
to early May and fruits mature in May. At least 
some of the flowers are perfect, and the species 
is not dioecious. 

Under the name Frazinus greggti, this ash has 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 12 


been recorded from Arizona in a few botanical 
publications. Its occurrence in Arizona was un- 
known when the genus was monographed by 
Rehder (The genus Fraxinus in New Mexico 
and Arizona. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 53: 
197-212; 1917). This species escaped notice by 
collectors of the two Mexican boundary surveys. 
After discovering it in Arizona in 1934, Goodding 
(Notes on native and exotic plants in Region 8, 
p. 120. Soil Conservation Service, Albuquerque, 
N. Mex. 1938. Mimeogr.) first recorded it as a 
small handsome tree or tall shrub which grows 
on very arid rocky slopes, not along streams, and 
which would be of use probably only as an orna- 
mental. Kearney and Peebles (FI. Pl. Ferns 
Ariz. 672. 1942; Ariz. Fl. 642. 1951) cited only 
Goodding’s collection in 1936 and _ predicted: 
“Further study may show the Arizona form to 
be at least a good variety.” They listed several 
differences of this collection from specimens of 
F. greggii from Texas and Mexico. 

Benson and Darrow (Man. Southwest. Desert 
Trees Shrubs 260. 1945) mentioned Fraxinus 
greggii from Sycamore Canyon also. In my popu- 
lar handbook (Southwestern Trees 99-100. fig. 
1950), I cited only the Sycamore Canyon record 
from Arizona but illustrated a representative 
specimen of F. greggii from Chisos Mountains, 
Brewster County, Tex. (Warnock 1078, US). 
(The scale of the fruit was shown there incor- 
rectly as 14 X instead of 1X.) 

Any proposed new species of: native trees in 
the United States naturally is subject to critical 
review because of the improbability that a tree 
species could have escaped detection and recogni- 
tion so long by botanists in this well explored 
country. However, this small tree is from barely 
inside the United States on the edge of foreign 
territory botanically relatively unexplored. Syca- 
more Canyon on the Mexican border and draining 
into Mexico, has an unusual element of Mexican 
plants reaching their northernmost occurrence a 
few miles across the border in southern Arizona. 
In this rugged canyon within the Coronado 
National Forest many interesting plant species 
have been discovered including several rarities 
not found elsewhere in the United States, as 
related by Goodding (A hidden botanical garden, 
planted only by nature, Sycamore Canyon in 
southern Arizona yields species of plants from 
distant regions as well as numerous rarities, 
Journ. New York Bot. Gard. 47: 86-96, illus. 
1946). 


DECEMBER 1952 


In a search for specimens from adjacent north- 
ern Mexico, a reference to Fraxinus greggit A. 
Gray was noted in the published flora of the 
region of Rfo de Bavispe in northeastern Sonora 
by Stephen 8S. White (Lloydia 11: 289. 1948). 
One specimen cited was borrowed from the 
University of Michigan Herbarium and found 
to be F. gooddingit. 

Fraxinus gooddingii is not a segregate repre- 
senting a minor variation of an older known 
species but is a new discovery first doubtfully 
assigned from a few specimens to a related species 
occurring some hundreds of miles away. The 
several collections now assembled for study show 
flowers and fruits and the constancy and varia- 
tion of the characters. Besides, this new species 
has been grown in cultivation. 

According to the monograph of Fraxinus L. 
by A. Lingelsheim (Oleaceae-Oleoideae-Fraxi- 
neae. Pflanzenreich 72 Heft (IV 248, I. & II): 
1-65, illus. 1920), the new species is placed in 
Sect. Fraxinaster, Subsect. Pauciflorae. This sub- 
section comprised about five other species of 
xerophytic habit in Mexico and F. greggi also 
in western Texas, characterized by few-flowered 
inflorescences, winged rachises, small leaflets, 
and small fruits. Ff. gooddingi is related to F. 
rufescens Lingelsh., illustrated by Lingelsheim 
(fig. 9, C, D) and known only from the Mexican 
type (from Veracruz?), which has not been avail- 
able for study. The latter differs in its ferrugineous 
tomentose twigs, petioles, and panicles and in 
its smaller, usually entire, ovate leaflets. 

Fraxinus gooddingii is distinguished from the 
closely related species F’. greggii by the following 
characteristics: (1) twigs, buds, and _ petioles 
densely and minutely tomentose with multiradi- 
ate fulvous hairs, instead of young twigs slightly 
gray puberulent; (2) leaflets more numerous, 
5-9, commonly 7, instead of 3-7 (or 1); (3) 
leaflets elliptical, broader and thinner, usually 
acute at apex, often slightly puberulent beneath, 
instead of oblanceolate narrow and coriaceous, 
obtuse at apex, glabrous except for the minute 
peltate hairs; (4) leaflet margin flat or slightly 
reflexed, crenulate or serrulate above middle, 
instead of reflexed, entire or crenulate; (5) wing 
of fruit decurrent nearly to base, instead of 
slightly decurrent at upper end. 

From other species of the genus in Arizona, 
Fraxinus gooddingit is recognized by: (1) twigs 
slender, mostly less than 2 mm in diameter, 
fulvous tomentulose when young; (2) leaves ever- 


LITTLE: NOTES ON FRAXINUS 


375 


green or nearly so, usually persistent until flowers 
appear in spring; (3) rachis narrowly winged; 
(4) leaflets small, only 1-2.5 em long; (5) rela- 
tively small fruits only 12-20 mm long. 


Fraxinus greggii A. Gray (Proc. Amer. Acad. 
Arts Sci. 12: 63. 1876), Gregg ash, occurs in 
Trans-Pecos Texas and the Mexican states of 
Tamaulipas, Nuevo Leén, Coahuila, Chihuahua, 
and Zacatecas. F’. greggii was discovered in 1847 
in Nuevo Leén by Josiah Gregg but was first 
named F’. schiedeana var. parvifolia Torr. (in 
Emory, U. 8. Mex. Bound. Surv. Bot. 166. 
1859) from specimens collected a few years later 
by botanists of the Mexican boundary survey. 
The following Mexican variety may be distin- 
guished from the typical variation: 


Fraxinus greggii A. Gray var. nummularis (Jones) 
Little, comb. nov. 
Fraxinus nummularis Jones, Contrib. West. Bot. 
12: 59. 1908. 
Fraxinus greggit A. Gray f. nummularis (Jones) 
C. H. Muller, Amer. Midl. Nat. 27: 488. 
1942. 


Standley (Trees Shrubs Mex. 1135. 1924) sug- 
gested that F. nwmmularis Jones, which has 
simple leaves, probably was a form of F’. greggv. 
Muller reduced the former to a form after study- 
ing a series of intermediate specimens with simple 
leaves and 3-, 5-, and 7-foliolate leaves from 
Chisos Mountains in western (Trans-Pecos) Texas 
(Torreya 34: 40. 1934). For a consistent treat- 
ment, this xeric geographical variation with sim- 
ple oval, coin-shaped leaves is here made a variety 
of the species typically with 3 to 7 oblanceolate 
leaflets. Var. nummularis ‘in its extreme variation 
is not found in the United States but occurs in 
Coahuila, Mexico, where the type came from 
Sierra Mojada Mountains (M. E. Jones April 
19, 1892, US), the center of this extreme varia- 
tion. The intermediate plants of western Texas, 
which have much the aspect of the typical varia- 
tion, may be referred to var. greggit. 


Fraxinus latifolia Bentham OrEGoN ASH 

Fraxinus pubescens 8. Hooker, Fl. Bor.-Amer. 2: 
51. [1888.] 

Fraxinus latifolia Bentham, Bot. Voy. Sulphur 
33. 1844. 

Fraxinus oregona Nutt., North Amer. Sylva 3: 
59, t. 99. 1849. 

Fraxinus oregona B. riparia Nutt., North Amer. 
Sylva 3: 59, t. 99e. 1849. 

Fraxinus oregona var. e. latifolia (Bentham) 
Lingelsh., Bot. Jahrb. 40: 220. 1907. 


376 


Recently Abrams (Illus. Fl. Pacific States 3: 
346, fig. 38778. 1951) has adopted the older 
name Fraxinus latifolia Bentham for the species 
universally known as F’. oregona Nutt. As Abrams 
made no explanation and as I had independently 
detected this older name, my notes on the nomen- 
clature are summarized here. 

When I first checked these names about 10 
years ago, I noted that F. latifolia Bentham 
would be the correct name for Oregon ash unless 
an earlier homonym could be found. After veri- 
fying the nomenclature later I delayed action 
in the hope that the International Rules would 
be amended in 1950 to prevent replacement of 
an established name by an older one not in use. 
As proposals to conserve specific epithets were 
decisively defeated at the Stockholm Congress 
in 1950 and as Abrams has already taken up F. 
latifolia, there is no need to postpone this name 
change any longer. Fraxinus latifolia Bentham 
was not an obscurely published name in an over- 
looked rare book but was properly published for 
an ash collected at San Francisco with full 
Latin diagnosis by a recognized authority in a 
botanical work well known to contemporaries 
and later taxonomists. 

Torrey (U. 8. Rpts. Explor. Surv. Miss. Pacif. 
4: 128. 1857) united the two names under F. 
oregona Nutt. but cited Bentham’s name as F. 
grandifolia. The spelling F’. oregana and synonym 
F. grandifolia were used by Gray (in Wheeler & 
Wats., Bot. California ed. 2, 1: 472. 1880). Later, 
Gray (Synopt. Fl. North Amer. ed. 2, 2(1): 76. 
1886) retained the spelling F. oregana but cor- 
rected the synonym to F. latifolia. 

Modern usage of Fraxinus oregona Nutt. for 
this species perhaps was established by Sargent 
(Silva North Amer. 6: 57. 1894), who cited as a 
synonym the earlier name F. latifolia Bentham, 
“(not Willdenow).” I have searched in vain for 
an earher homonym of F. latifolia Bentham by 
Willdenow or any other author. Index Kewensis 
and Supplementa listed none, nor did the mono- 
graph by Lingelsheim (Pflanzenreich 72 Heft (IV. 
243, I & II). 1920). Rehder (Bibliog. Cult. 
Trees Shrubs 559. 1949) likewise had none while 
citing with dates the older name F. latifolia 
(1844) as a synonym of F. oregana (1849). Munz 
and Laudermilk (Aliso 2: 49-62, illus. 1949) in a 
taxonomic study of this species accepted the 
name Fraxinus oregona Nutt. without mention 
of F. latifolia Bentham. 

Willdenow did use the epithet latifolia irregu- 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 12 


larly for two varieties: Fraxinus carolinana.. . 
6. F. latefolia Willd., L., Sp. Pl. ed. 4, 4: 1108. 
1805 [1806] and Fraxinus pubescens...y. F. 
latifolia Willd., L.Sp. Pl. ed. 4,4: 1104. 1805 [1806]. 
These unnumbered names designated by Greek 
letters clearly were not species or bmomials and 
were not considered as such by later authors. 
They are not of the same rank as F. latifolia 
Bentham and therefore not earlier homonyms 
(art. 61). Both these varieties are now referred 
to F. pennsylvanica Marsh. The latter varietal 
name had been published earlier as F. pubescens 
y. latifolia Vahl (Enum. Pl. 1: 52. 1804). The 
same varietal epithet was used by other authors 
under two additional species in this genus. Ap- 
parently Sargent rejected F’. latifolia Bentham 
under an old ‘American Code” rule against use 
of the same varietal or specific epithet a second 
time within a genus, as he cited the trinomial 
Fraxinus carolinana 8 latifolia Willd. (Silva North 
Amer. 6: 50. 1894). 

Lingelsheim (Pflanzenreich 72 Heft (IV. 248, 
I & II): 42. 1920) placed F. latifolia Bentham 
as a variety of F. oregona Nutt. Apparently he 
believed Nuttall’s name had priority, dating it 
as 1842-44. Though the first volume of Nuttall’s 
Sylva was issued in 1842-43 and the second in 
1844, the third was not published until 1849. 

As no varieties of this species are now recog- 
nized, varietal names made under F. oregona 
need not be transferred to F. latifolia. F. oregona 
var. riparia Nutt., with lanceolate samaras and 
serrate leaflets, scarcely merits recognition. Some 
variation in shape of fruits occurs in the speci- 
mens examined. 

Fraxinus oregona var. glabra Lingelsh. (Bot. 
Jahrb. 40: 220. 1907; nom. nud. Lingelsh. ex 
Rehd., Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 58: 207. 
1917. Lingelsh., Pflanzenreich 72 Heft (IV. 248, 
I & II): 48. 1920) has been accepted by some 
authors as a glabrous variety of southern Cali- 
fornia. However, Munz and Laudermilk (Aliso 
2: 49-62, illus. 1949) suppressed this variety as a 
synonym of F. velutina var. coriacea (S. Wats.) 
Rehd. Abrams (Illus. Fl. Pacif. States 3: 347. 
1951) noted also that California plants of the 
latter were not quite typical and had been de- 
scribed as F. oregona var. glabra Lingelsh. 
Fraxinus papillosa Lingelsh. ASH 

Frazinus papillosa Lingelsh., Bot. Jahrb. 40: 

219. 1907. 

Lingelsheim (Pflanzenreich 72 Heft (IV. 243, 

I & II): 38, fig. 10A. 1920) knew this species 


DECEMBER 1952 LITTLE: NOTES 
apparently from just the type collection, C. H. T. 
Townsend & C. M. Barber 354 (two isotypes 
seen at US), from Sierra Madre in western 
Chihuahua, Mexico. He placed this species next 
to F. americana, as both species had the leaflets 
papillose and glaucous beneath, but separated 
the former by its lax, few-flowered panicle and 
sessile leaflets. F. texrensis (A. Gray) Sarg. was 
included there under F. americana var. albicans 
(Buckley) Lingelsh. 

Rehder (Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 53: 210- 
211. 1917), in his monograph of Fraxinus in New 
Mexico and Arizona cited two additional collec- 
tions. One of these, H. A. Mearns 2583 (US) from 
San Luis Mountains, Hidalgo County, near the 
southwestern corner of New Mexico just across 
the international boundary, extended the range 
to the United States. He noted that this species 
differed from his then new species F’. standleyr 
chiefly in the glaucous papillose under surface 
of the leaflets and from F. americana in its sessile 
smaller leaflets. Two other specimens cited by 
Rehder under F’. standleyi are here referred to 
F. papillosa. 

Sargent (Man. Trees North Amer. ed. 2, 840. 
1922) in a note under F. standleyz mentioned the 
New Mexico record of F. papillosa as “‘a single 
plant, possibly a shrub.”’ Subworth (Check List 
Forest Trees U. 8. 295 pp. 1927) omitted this 
species. Standley (Trees Shrubs Mex. 1136. 1924) 
suggested that F’. standleyi Rehd., F. papillosa 
Lingelsh., and F. pringlei Lingelsh., probably 
would have to be united ultimately. F. papillosa 
was not listed for Arizona by Kearney and Peebles 
(Fl. Pl. Ferns Ariz. 672. 1942; Ariz. Fl. 642. 
1951) or by Little (Southwestern Trees 100. 
1950). 

Further study reveals six additional collec- 
tions (three by U. 8. Forest Service personnel on 
the Coronado National Forest) from different 
localities in the United States, extends the range 
to southeastern Arizona and northeastern Sonora, 
and confirms the tree size (from a forester’s 
label) as 22 feet high and 12 inches D. B. H. 
These collections in the U. S. National Museum, 
Forest Service Herbarium, and University of 
Michigan Herbarium had been referred, with one 
exception, to F’. velutina (or F. standleyr), which 
is common in the same region. The range of F. 
papillosa includes mountains of southwestern 
New Mexico and southeastern Arizona, north- 
eastern Sonora, and Sierra Madre of western 
Chihuahua. Labels record an altitudinal distri- 
bution from 5,200 to 7,700 feet. 


ON FRAXINUS 377 

As its specific epithet indicates, F. papillosa 
is characterized by the papillose, glaucous or 
whitish under surface of the leaflets. This feature, 
which has been mentioned under F’. americana, 
is found also in F. texensis and suggests a relation- 
ship with those species in addition to the simil- 
arity with F. velutina (or F. standleyi). These 
minute papillae, though not shown by a hand 
lens, are revealed by a high power (40x) dis- 
secting microscope or by low power (50x to 
100 x) of a compound microscope through direct 
examination of leaves or collodion leaf peels. 
Under high magnification the lower surface ap- 
pears as a solid mass of whitish beads or sleetlike 
particles, the minute opaque papillae of each 
epidermal cell. The lower surface is without hairs 
except along the midrib and sometimes also 
larger veins. In F. velutina the greenish lower 
surface varies from hairy to glabrous and also 
may bear many minute peltate scales (character- 
istic of the family Oleaceae) and often numerous 
irregular or scurfy papillae not in a solid sleetlike 
mass. Specimens of F. papillosa generally can 
be recognized by the whitish, mostly glabrous 
under surface of the leaflets. 

F. papillosa is closely related to F. texensis 
of Texas and Oklahoma but has somewhat 
smaller, sometimes elliptical, sessile (except in 
one specimen) leaflets with inconspicuous teeth 
or nearly entire. The small samaras of both are 
of the F. americana type, with broad terete body 
and longer wing usually only slightly decurrent. 

The range of F’. americana extends from north- 
eastern United States into eastern Texas. Its 
xeric relative, F. terensis, is found in central 
Texas, including Edwards Plateau southwest to 
Devils River near the Mexican boundary. E. J. 
Palmer (Journ. Arnold Arb. 10: 42. 1929) re- 
ported this species as the commonest ash in 
Davis Mountains, Jeff Davis County, in Trans- 
Pecos, Texas. He also extended the range to 
Arbuckle Mountains, Murray County, in south- 
ern Oklahoma. Milton Hopkins (Rhodora 45: 
274-275. 1943) recorded it also from Cherokee 
County in the northeastern part of Oklahoma. 

The known range of the more xeric southwest- 
ern representative, Fraxinus papillosa, in moun- 
tains of western Chihuahua and northeastern 
Sonora and extending less than 30 miles north 
of the Mexican boundary into 4 counties of New 
Mexico and Arizona is somewhat separated. As 
F. papillosa hitherto has been unrecorded from 
Arizona, examination of herbarium specimens 


378 


and field searches may reveal additional localities 
and a more extensive distribution. A first record 
from Sonora was discovered in a loan of specimens 
of Fraxinus collected and cited by Stephen S. 
White (Lloydia 11: 289. 1948) in his flora of the 
region of Rio de Bavispe. 

The 10 collections of F. papillosa examined by 
me are cited below: Mpxico, CHIHUAHUA, Sierra 
Madre near Colonia Garcia, C. H. T. Townsend 
& C. M. Barber 354, Sept. 29, 1899 (type collec- 
tion, 2 sheets in US); E. slope of Sierra Madre 
between San Mateo and Guasarachi, #. A. Gold- 
man 153, Sept. 24, 1898 (US). Sonora, Puerto 
de los Aserraderos, region of Rio de Bavispe, 
northeastern Sonora, S. S. White Aug. 4-9, 1940 
(Mich.). New Mexico, Luna County, Florida 
Mountains, #. A. Goldman 1482, Sept. 8, 1908 
(US); Hidalgo County, west side San Luis Moun- 
tains, H. A. Mearns 2588, Oct. 2, 1893 (US). 
Arizona, Cochise County, Jack Wood Canyon, 
Chiricahua Mountains, Coronado National For- 
est, H. D. Burrall 2088, Aug. 1907 (22 feet high, 
12 inches D. B. H.; US); Cave Creek Public 
Camp, Chiricahua Mountains, Coronado Na- 
tional Forest, Rorana S. Ferris 9975 (Mich.; dis- 
tributed as F. papillosa); Bear Cave, Huachuca 
Mountains, Coronado National Forest, Robert 
Thompson 76, July 1, 1928 (USFS 58857); Miller 
Canyon, Huachuca Mountains, Coronado Na- 
tional Forest, Robert Thompson 78, July 1, 1928 
(USFS 58858). Santa Cruz (?) Co., Santa Ritz 
Mountains, Coronado National Forest, D. Grif- 
fiths & J. J. Thornber 176, Sept. 20 to Oct. 4, 
1902 (US). 


Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh. GREEN ASH 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica Marsh., Arbustr. Amer. 
51. 1785. 

Fraxinus lanceolata Borkh., 
Handb. Fortsbot. 1: 826. 1800. 

Fraxinus juglandifolia 8. subintegerrima Vahl, 
Enum. P1l.1: 50. 1804. 

Frazinus viridis Michx. f., Hist. Arb. Forest. 
Amér. Sept. 3: 115, t. 10. 1813; non Bose 
(1809). 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. lanceolata (Borkh.) 
Sarg., Silva North Amer. 6: 50, t. 272. 1894. 
Fraxinus darlingtoni Britton, Man. Fl. North. 

States Canada 725. 1901. 

Frazxinus campestris Britton in Britton & Shafer, 
North Amer. Trees 799, fig. 726. 1908. 

Fraxinus smallii Britton in Britton & Shafer, 
North Amer. Trees 805, fig. 735. 1908. 


Theor.-Prakt. 


Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. typica Fern., 
Rhodora 40: 458, t. 529, fig. 3, 4. 1938. 
Frazinus pennsylvanica var. austini Fern., 


Rhodora 40: 452, t. 529, fig. 1, 2. 1938. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 12 


Fraxinus pennsylvanica campestris (Britton) F. 
C. Gates, Trans. Kansas Acad. Sci. 41: 102. 
1938; 42: 137. 1939. 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica var. subintegerrima 
(Vahl) Fern., Rhodora 49: 159. 1947. 


It seems unnecessary to maintain green ash 
and red ash as botanically distinct varieties. 
The typical variety of Fraxinus pennsylvanica 
has been associated with the pubescent variation 
known as red ash. Green ash has been regarded 
as a glabrous variety (or species) of broader and 
especially more western range under the name 
F. pennsylvanica var. lanceolata. That combina- 
tion was made by Sargent under an old “American 
Code” rule by which the oldest epithet, whether 
specific or varietal, was to be taken up. Sargent 
(Silva North Amer. 6: 51. 1894; Man. Trees North 
Amer. ed. 2, corr. 845-847, fig. 749, 750. 1926) 
noted the occurrence of many intermediate forms 
and that flowers and fruits of the two variations 
were indistinguishable. After mentioning the older 
names before (Rhodora 40: 453. 1938), Fernald 
in 1947 took up the oldest varietal epithet, which 
Sargent had cited in synonymy. 

Jonathan W. Wright (Journ. Forestry 42: 
591-597. 1944) in progeny tests obtained small 
percentages of pubescent seedlings from both the 
pubescent typical variety and the glabrous var. 
lanceolata, indicating that pubescence, the only 
character by which the two may be separated, 
is not true breeding. Thus, the glabrous variety 
should be reduced to synonymy. He noted three 
or more ecotypes in this species. As the glabrous 
variation known as green ash is commoner and 
more widespread than the pubescent typical 
variation known as red ash, the common name 
green ash is adopted here for the species without 
recognized botanical varieties. 

Fernald (Rhodora 40: 450-454, illus. 1938; 
Gray’s Man. ed. 8, 1148-1149, illus. 1950) dis- 
tinguished a third variation of this species which 
passes into the other two, var. austin Fern. 
This intermediate variation within the same 
range, characterized by the pubescence of the 
typical variety and the toothed leaflets and 
shorter samaras of var. subintegerrima likewise 
scarcely merits recognition. 

Three specific names by Britton cited above 
have previously been united with this species 
by other authors. Meuli (Proc. Minnesota Acad. 
Sci. 4: 38-42, illus. 1936) and Meuli and Shirley 
(Journ. Forestry 35: 1060-1062, illus. 1937), of 
the United States Forest Service, in testing 


DECEMBER 1952 


drought resistance of green ash seedlings from 
seeds collected in seven States placed F. cam- 
pestris Britton with F. pennsylvanica var. lanceo- 
lata. 


Fraxinus profunda (Bush) Bush PuMPKIN ASH 

Frazinus americana profunda Bush, Missouri 
Bot. Gard. Ann. Rpt. 5: 147. 1894. 

Fraxinus pennsylvanica profunda (Bush) Sudw., 
U.S. Dept. Agr. Div. Forestry Bull. 14: 329. 
1897. 

Fraxinus profunda (Bush) Bush, Gard. & Forest 
10: 515. 1897. 

Fraxinus michauxii Britton, Man. Fl. North. 
States Canada. ed. 2, 1075. 1905. 

Frazinus profunda var. ashet KE. J. Palmer, 
Journ. Arnold Arb. 13: 417. 1932. 


Pumpkin ash, Fraxinus profunda (Bush) Bush, 
has been widely accepted as a species since its 
recognition by Britton (Man. Fl. North. States 
Canada 725. 1901) and Sargent (Silva North 
Amer. 14: 35-36, t. 714, 715 1902). Jonathan W. 
Wright informs me that it is a polypoid (6 n). 

Fernald (Rhodora 40: 452, t. 528. 1938) took 
up Fraxinus tomentosa Michx. f. (Hist. Arbr. 
Forest. Amér. Sept. 3: 112, t. 9. 1813) for this 
species and assigned F. michauxw Britton to 
synonymy, after listing F. profunda the year 
before (Rhodora 39: 331, 442, 1937). Use of F. 
tomentosa by Fernald in the new Gray’s Manual 
(ed. 8: 1148, fig. 1396. 1950) may result in wide- 
spread acceptance of this name. 

Unfortunately, F. tomentosa Michx. f. must be 
rejected as nomenclaturally superfluous when 
published (art. 60) because Fraxinus pubescens 
Lam. was cited in synonymy. Thus, F’. tomentosa 
with similar meaning was indicated by its author 
to be a renaming of F. pubescens. In Index Ke- 
wensis F’. tomentosa is a synonym of F.. pubescens. 
F. A. Michaux similarly changed several other 
names without justification in the same work. 
I shall discuss these in another article. 

Britton in proposing the new name F’. michauxir 
explained that it was F’. tomentosa Michx. as to 
plate but not description, which applied to F. 
pennsylvanica. Later Britton in Britton & Shafer 
(North Amer. Trees 804. 1908) noted that Mi- 
chaux cited Fraxinus pubescens Lamarck ‘(which 
is the same as F. pennsylvanica Marshall)” as a 
synonym. Fernald, in quoting a portion of Brit- 
ton’s statement while reducing F. michauxii to 
synonymy, omitted Britton’s significant remarks 
about Michaux’s synonymy. 

Fraxinus pubescens Lam. (Eneyel. Méth. Bot. 
2: 548. [1788] is generally regarded as a synonym 


LITTLE: NOTES ON FRAXINUS 


379 


of F. pennsylvanica Marsh. The type of F. 
pubescens Lam., according to a photograph kindly 
lent by the Gray Herbarium, apparently is as 
identified but has no fruits. F. pubescens Walt. 
(Fl. Carol. 254. 1788) appeared the same year 
and is the same, according to Sargent (Silva No. 
Amer. 6: 49. 1894). 


Fraxinus velutina Torr. VELVET ASH 

Frazinus velutina Torr. in Emory, Notes Mil. 
Reconn. Ft. Leav. Calif. 149. 1848. 

Fraxinus pistaciaefolia Torr., U.S. Rpts. Explor. 
Surv. Miss. Pacif. 4: 128. 1857. 

Fraxinus coriacea 8. Wats., Amer. Nat. 7: 302. 
1873 

Fraxinus vistaciaefolia var. coriacea (Torr.) A. 
Gray, Synopt. Fl. North Amer. 2 (1): 74. 
1878. 

Fraxinus americana var. pistaciaefolia (Torr.) 
Wenzig, Bot. Jahrb. 4: 182. 1883. 

Frazinus papillosa Lingelsh., Bot. Jahrb. 40: 
219. 1907. 

Fraxinus oregona var. 8. glabra Lingelsh., Bot. 
Jahrb. 40: 220. 1907; nom. nud. Lingelsh., 
Pflanzenreich 72 Heft (IV. 243, I & II): 48. 
1920. 

Fraxinus attenuata Jones, Contrib. West. Bot. 
12: 59. 1908 (March 26). 

Fraxinus toumeyt Britton in Britton & Shafer, 
North Amer. Trees 803, fig. 732. 1908 (April). 
Fraxinus oregona var. glabra Lingelsh. ex Rehd., 

Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sei. 53: 207. 1917. 

Fraixnus glabra Thornber ex Rehd., Proc. Amer. 
Acad. Arts Sei. 53 : 207. 1917; pro syn. Thornber 
ex Gray Herbarium Card-index Issue 77. 
Thornber ex Tidestrom & Kittell, Fl. Ariz. N. 
Mex. 516. 1941. 

Fraxinus standleyi Rehd., Proc. Amer. Acad. 
Arts Sei. 53: 208. 1917. 

Fraxinus standleyi var. lasia Rehd., Proc. Amer. 
Acad. Arts Sci. 53: 210. 1917. 

Fraxinus velutina var. coriacea (S. Wats.) Rehd., 
Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci. 53: 206. 1917. 

Fraxinus velutina var. glabra Rehd., Proc. Amer. 
Acad. Arts Sei. 53: 207. 1917. 

Fraxinus velutina var. toumeyi (Britton) Rehd., 
Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sei. 53: 204. 1917. 

Fraxinus velutina var. «. typica Lingelsh., Pflan- 
zenreich 72 Heft (IV. 248, I & IT): 48. 1920. 

Fraxinus velutina var. y. glabrata Lingelsh., 
Pflanzenreich 72 Heft (IV. 2438, I & II): 48. 
1920; ex parte. 


Variations in pubescence within this species 
have resulted in several names. Soon after de- 
scribing the tomentose form as F. velutina, Tor- 
rey saw additional specimens and deliberately 
changed the name to F. pistaciaefolia. He ex- 
plained that the species was excessively variable 
in its foliage and was so much more generally 
smooth than pubescent or velvety. Sudworth 


380 


(U.S. Dept. Agr. Rpt. 1892: 326. 1893) restored 
the older name F. velutvna and reduced F. cori- 
acea to synonymy. The isotype examined of 
F. pistaciaefolia Torr. (US 49948) is a mixture. 
It was collected by J. M. Bigelow and bears a 
printed label with locality, ‘‘California.’”’ The 
original description published the following col- 
lection data: “Rocky ravines of Williams’ River 
[probably near Williams, Arizona]; January 3 
[1854]: fruit only.” This specimen consists of 
four leafless winter twigs of F. cuspidata var. 
macropetala, of which one has one attached 
fruit and two have old panicles without fruits. 
One of the latter has also two glabrous fruiting 
panicles of F. velutina bearmg many small fruits, 
but the two panicles are not joined to the twig 
but merely glued to the sheet in natural, opposite 
arrangement at the same node. In the pocket 
are two broad fruits of F. cuspidata var. macro- 
petala and many fruits of F. velutina. Fortunately, 
F. pistaciaefolia Torr. is rejected as nomencla- 
torially superfluous (Art. 60) and thus cannot be 
adopted for the main element of the mixture 
(Art. 64, emend. 1950) as an older name to re- 
place F. cuspidata Torr. (in Emory, U. 8. Mex. 
Bound. Surv. Bot. 166. 1859) and F. macropetala 
Eastw. (Bull. Torrey Bot. Club 30: 494. 1903). 
Bigelow’s specimen apparently is the oldest col- 
lection of F. cuspidata var. macropetala (EKastw.) 
Rehd. 

Alfred Rehder (The genus Fraxinus in New 
Mexico and Arizona, Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts 
Sci. 53: 199-212. 1917) also recognized the great 
variability of southwestern ashes, noting extreme 
forms connected by intermediates and glabrous 
and pubescent forms growing mostly side by 
side. However, as cited above, he proposed one 
new species and two new varieties while reducing 
F. coriacea and F. toumeyi to varieties. 

Kearney and Peebles (Ferns Fl. Pl. Ariz. 672. 
1942; Ariz. Fl. 642. 1951) suppressed F’. standleyi 
but maintained var. towmeyi with distinctly 
stalked leaflets and var. glabra with glabrous 
leaves and twigs and noted that Arizona material 
of the latter occasionally approached var. cori- 
acea. Benson and Darrow (Man. Southwest. 
Trees Shrubs 259-260, 377, t. 85, 86. 1945) 
accepted Fraxinus velutina without varieties, in- 
cluding F’. coriacea and F. attenuata as well as F. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 12. 


oregona var. glabra in the synonymy. I agree 
with Benson and Darrow’s reductions. 

Fraxinus attenuata Jones was based upon two 
specimens, M. EF. Jones 3741, Valley of Palms, 
Lower California, Mex. (US), and Thornber June 
15, 1903, Catalina Mountains, Ariz. (US), both 
variations of F’. velutina. The former specimen 
was also a cotype (the first specimen cited) of F. 
velutina var. glabrata Lingelsh., which was based 
upon F. berlandieriana Schellenberg (Repert. 
Spec. Nov. Regni Veg. 12: 239. 1913), nom. 
nud., non DC., and which represents in part the 
variation with narrow, long-stalked, coriaceous 
leaflets. 

Fraxinus coriacea 8. Wats. was described from 
two specimens, G. M. Wheeler in 1871, “Ash 
Meadows,” Nev. (designated by Rehder as the 
type; not seen) and Bigelow, ‘‘Devil’s Run Can- 
yon, Arizona” [western Tex.], the latter referred 
by Rehder to F. texensis (A. Gray) Sarg. This 
xeric variation with coriaceous, more reticulate 
leaflets occurs in southwestern Utah, southern 
Nevada, southeastern California, and northern 
Lower California, with transitions in Arizona. The 
coriaceous, slender-stalked, often coarsely serrate 
leaflets vary in shape from elliptic and obtuse in 
the type to rhombic-lanceolate and attenuate 
southward (F. attenuata Jones, Jones 3741; US). 
Some of the material from southern California is 
not coriaceous and was cited by Rehder as F. 
oregona var. glabra, for example Purpus 5556 (co- 
type and first specimen cited, US). 

Philip A. Munz and J. D. Laudermilk (A 
neglected character in western ashes (Fraxinus), 
El Aliso 2: 49-62, illus. 1949) referred the south- 
ern California ashes to var. coriacea, maintained 
as a northern and western geographic variety, 
with F. oregona var. glabra as a synonym. They 
excluded typical F. velutina from California. 
However, Jepson (Fl. Calif. 3: 80. 1939) and 
Abrams (Illus. Fl. Pacif. States 3: 347, fig. 
3779. 1951) accepted both typical F. velutina 
and var. coriacea for southern California. On the 
basis of one plant examined, Herbert Taylor 
(Cyto-taxonomy and phylogeny of the Oleaceae, 
Brittonia 5: 337-367, illus. 1945) reported var. 
coriacea to be a tetraploid. 

Jonathan W. Wright informs me that F. velu- 
tina crosses readily with F. pennsylvanica and 
is closely related to the latter. 


DECEMBER 1952 


BASSLER: FOSSIL AND RECENT BRYOZOA 


381 


PALEONTOLOGY —Tazxonomic notes on genera of fossil and Recent Bryozoa. 
R.S. Basser,’ U. 8. National Museum. 


Since the publication of an article Generic 
descriptions of Upper Paleozoic Bryozoa in 
this JouRNAL in 1941,? the writer has had 
occasion to check the nomenclature of this 
phylum in some detail while bringing his 
working generic catalogue up to date and 
rearranging the bryozoan study collection in 
the U. S. National Museum. As a result, a 
number of new genera as well as other neces- 
sary changes came to light, some of which 
had been recognized as long ago as 1900 
when the late John M. Nickles and the 
writer published their Synopsis of American 
fossil Bryozoa.’ As these new genera are 
concerned in the preparation of the bryo- 
zoan chapter for the Treatise on invertebrate 
paleontology, which will not include descrip- 
tions of new genera and species, it is neces- 
sary to validate their names in advance. 
The following changes in taxonomy include 
a number of new names proposed in honor 
of bryozoan specialists who have contrib- 
uted much to the science. As the complete 
citations to the described type species are 
given in several of the standard biblio- 
graphic works on Bryozoa, only the page, 
plate, and figure are quoted herewith. 

Order Crenostomata Busk, 1852 
Family Vinellidae Ulrich and Bassler, 1904 

Condranema, n. name to replace Heteronema 
Ulrich and Bassler, 1904, not Dujardin, 1841. 
Type species: Heteronema capillare Ulrich and 
Bassler, 1904, p. 278, pl. 65, fig. 11. Silurian of 
Gotland. 

Marcusodictyon, n. gen. Like Condranema, but 
the threads (stolons) unite to form usually 
6-sided polygons. Type species: Heteronema 
priscum Bassler, 1911, p. 58, figs. 6a—d. Lowest 
Ordovician; Esthonia. 

Family Ascodictyonidae Ulrich, 1890 

Eliasopora, n. gen. Like Ascodictyon, but vesicles 
are oval and radiately arranged in clusters, 
which are connected at intervals by stolons. 
Type species: Ascodictyon stellatum Nicholson 
and Etheridge, 1877, p. 464, pl. 19, figs. 1-6 
Middle Devonian; western New York. 

1 Published by permission of the Secretary, 
Smithsonian Institution. 

2 BassuER, R. §., Journ. Washington Acad. 
Sci. 31 (5): 173-179, figs. 1-24. 1941. 


3 NickuEs, J. M., and Bassuer, R. 8., U. S 
Geol. Surv. Bull. 173: 1-663. 1900. 


Order CyctostomaTa Busk, 1852 
Family Diastoporidae Gregory, 1899 


Flabellotrypa, n. gen. Like Sagenella, but zooecia 
open only along outer edge of the incrusting 
flabelliform zoarium. More or less circular at- 
tached disks about 3.5 mm wide, of parallel, 
contiguous, transversely striated tubes. Type 
species: F. rugulosa, n. sp. Helderbergian 
(Linden); near Chaseville, Benton County, 
western Tennessee, Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 
116416. [Fig. 1, x 10.] 

Mitoclemella, n. gen. Like Mitoclema, but 
apertures project upward in rapidly ascending 
spirals. Type species: Mitoclema mundulum 
Ulrich, 1890, p. 177, figs. 4a, b, c, Trentonian 
(Nematopora bed); Cannon Falls, Minn. 
Cotypes: U.S.N.M. no. 43297. 

Osburnostylus, n. gen. Like Mitoclema, but 
zoarium of minute, jointed segments. Type 
species: O. articulatus, n. sp. Individual seg- 
ments about 4 mm long with usually six 
parallel encircling rows of apertures and both 
ends pointed for attachment. Ordovician- 
Blackriveran (Benbolt); near Rye Cove, Va. 
Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 116418 (Fig. 2a), 
paratype (Fig. 2b). 

Voigtopora, n. gen. Like Stomatopora, but the 
individual zooecia are broad, elliptical, slightly 
constricted at their base, and marked by 
parallel transverse lines. Type species: Alecto 
calypso d’Orbigny, 1852, p. 844, pl. 630, figs. 
5-8. Cretaceous (Senonian) of France. 


Semiceidae, n. name 


Semiceidae, n. name (based on Semicea d’Orbigny 
1854). Proposed to replace Ceidae d’Orbigny, 
1852, which was named after Cea d’Orbigny, 
1854, preoccupied by Walker, 1837. Family of 
Cretaceous cyclostomatous Bryozoa. 


Family Fistuliporidae Ulrich, 1882 


Duncanoclema, n. gen. Solid twiglike fragments 
with internal structure of Fistulipora except 
that the lunaria are pierced by 6-8 hollow 
tubes or pores similar to those in Anolotichia 
of the Ceramoporidae. Type species: Fistulz- 
porella marylandica Ulrich and Bassler, 1913, 
p. 266, pl. 45, figs. 8-11. Silurian (Keyser); 
western Maryland. 

Xenotrypa, n. gen. A small solid dome-shaped 
mass of rounded untabulated zooecia with 
indistinctly developed lunaria, separated by 
typical vesicular interzooecial spaces traversed 
by large, thick, dense, granulose acanthopore- 
like tubes. Type species: Fistulipora primaeva 


382 


Bassler, 1911, p 109, text fig. 40. Ordovician 
(Glauconite ls.); Government of St. Peters- 
burg, Russia. 


Hexagonellidae, n. fam. 


Hexagonellidae, n. fam. Proposed for the recep- 
tion of Hexagonellinae Crockford, 1947, sub- 
family of Fistuliporidae Ulrich, 1882. Ten 
genera with the special characters of the sub- 
family are already known, so that its elevation 
to family rank seems not unreasonable. 


Order TREPOSTOMATA Ulrich, 1882 
Family Monticuliporidae Nicholson, 1881 


Prasoporina, n. gen. Like Prasopora, but cysti- 
phragms isolated, semiglobular structures con- 
nected with opposite wall by a few diaphragms. 
Type species: Prasopora (Monticulipora) sel- 
wyntt Nicholson, 1881, p. 206, fig. 44; Ulrich 
1893, p. 250, pl. 16, figs. 16, 17. 


Family Batostomellidae Ulrich, 1890 


Canutrypa, n. gen. Ramose, with thick polygonal 
amalgamated zooecial walls in mature zone 
separated by a row of tabulated mesopores and 
lined in most cases by large, sometimes spheri- 
cal, cystiphragms suggesting ovicells. Type 
species: C. francqana, n. sp. Upper Devonian; 
Ferques, France. Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 
116417. [Figs. 3, 4, tangential and vertical thin 
sections.] 


Family Stenoporidae Duncan, 1939 


Lioporidra, n. name for Liopora Girty, 1915, not 
Nicholson and Etheridge, 1878. Thin layers of 
zooecia with numerous mesopores, no dlia- 
phragms but spinelike projections from the 
walls. Type species: Liopora subnodosa Girty, 
1915, p. 341, pl. 38, figs. 2, 2a. Pennsylvanian 
(Oread |s.); Missouri. 

Stenophragmidium, n. name for Stenophragma 
Munro, 1912, not Skuse, 1890. Like Stenopora, 
with monilae and acanthopores but semi- 
diaphragms project from only one side of walls. 
Type species: Stenophragma lobatum Munro, 
1912. Carboniferous of England. 


Family Halloporidae Bassler, 1914 


Panderpora, n. gen. Zoarium hemispheric with : 
zooecia bearing distantly spaced, curved 
diaphragms and separated by small, closely 
tabulated mesopores. Type species: Hallopora 
dybowskw Bassler, 1911, p. 335, pl. 5, figs. 1-le; 
text figs. 211, 212. 


Family Constellariidae Ulrich, 1890 


Hennigopora, n. gen. Like Nicholsonella but has 
clean cut acanthopores indenting the apertures 
and mesopores occupied by block like tabulae. 
Type species: Callopora florida Hall, 1852, p. 
146, pl. 40, figs. 2a-f; Bassler, 1906, p. 38, pl. 
14, figs. 10, 11. Clintonian; western New 
York. 

Revalotrypa, n. gen. Like Nicholsonella, but 
diaphragms practically absent in both zooecia 
and mesopores. Granular wall structure as in 
Dianulites. Type species: Nicholsonella gibbosa 
Bassler, 1911, p. 224, fig. 126, pl. 11, figs. 1-6. 
Ordovician of Esthonia. 


Family Phylloporinidae Ulrich, 1890 


Carinophylloporina, n. gen. Like Phylloporina, 
but fenestrules angular, hexagonal, with a 
sharp carina dividing six parallel rows of aper- 
tures into two sets on the frontalasin Septopora; 
dorsal side longitudinally striated. Type 
species: C. typica, n. sp. The carina with three 
or four rows of closely spaced zooecia on each 
side almost vertically arranged is characteristic 
of the species. Blackriveran (Edinburg); 4 
mile east of Strasburg Junction, Va. Holotype: 
U.S.N.M. no. 116410 (Fig. 5) and paratypes 
(Figs. 6, 7). 

Oeciophylloporina, n. gen. Like Subretepora, 
but branches divide and join again at con- 
siderable intervals forming very elongate 
fenestrules; ovicell-like structures, about width 
of branches, develop on frontal; dorsal bears 
longitudinal, granular striae. Species further 
characterized by well-separated, elevated circu- 
lar peristomes and prominent acanthoporelike 
intervening nodes. Type species: O. typicalis, 
n. sp. Blackriveran (Edinburg); 14 mile east of 
Strasburg Junction, Va. Holotype: U.S.N.M. 
no. 116414 (Fig. 8) and paratype (Fig. 9). 


Figs. 1-27.—1, Flabellotrypa rugulosa, n. gen. and sp., incrusting zoarium, X 10; 2, Osburnostylus 
articulatus, n. gen. and sp., segments with ends for articulation, X 10; 3, 4, Canutrypa francqana, n. 
gen. and sp., tangential and vertical thin sections, X 20; 5-7, Carinophylloporina typica, n. gen. and 
sp., frontal (5) X 10, (6) X 6, and striated dorsal (7), X 10; 8, 9, Oectophylloporina typicalis, n. gen. 
and sp., frontal and dorsal, X 15; 10, 11, Trepostomina crassa, n. gen. and sp., frontal and dorsal sides, 
X 8; 12, 13, Moorephylloporina typica, n. gen. and sp., frontal and dorsal sides, X 15; 14, 15, Hemul- 
richostylus lineatus, n. gen. and sp., frontal and dorsal sides, X 20; 16-18, Heminematopora virginiana, 
n. gen. and sp., basal, frontal, and dorsal, X 20; 19-21, Arthrostyloecia nitida, n. gen. and sp., frontal 
(19, 20) and dorsal (21), X 15; 22-24, Ottoseetaris bipartitus, n. gen. and sp., tangential (22), transverse 
(23), and vertical (24) thin sections, X 20; 25-27, Nematazidra piercensis, n. gen. and sp., tangential 
(25), transverse (26), and vertical (27) thin sections, X 25. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 12 | 


383 


BASSLER: FOSSIL AND RECENT BRYOZOA 


DECEMBER 1952 


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384 


Trepostomina, n. 


gen. Zoarium of elongate 
reticulate fenestrules with three to five rows of 
angular, thick-walled zooecia on the frontal; 
dorsal coarsely striated. Type species: T. 
crassa, n. sp. Trepostomelike apertures alone 
form the frontal. Blackriveran (Edinburg); 
1 mile of Strasburg Junction, Va. Holotype: 
U.S. N. M. no. 116413 (Fig. 10) and paratype 
(Fig. 11). 

Moorephylloporina, n. gen. Like Phylloporina but 
fenestrules small, polygonal; frontal with two 
parallel rows of circular well-spaced apertures 
separated by a delicate thread or carina bearing 
elevated nodes (acanthopores) at regular inter- 
vals as in Fenestella. Dorsal side lines longi- 
tudinally with delicate striae. Type species: 
M. typica new speceis. The median dorsal 
carina with conspicuous nodes characterize the 
species. Blackriveran (Edinburg) ; 14 mile east of 
Strasburg Junction, Va. Holotype: U.S.N.M. 
no. 116413 (Fig. 12), paratype (Fig. 13). 
Sardesonina, n. gen. Broad, closely reticulated 
branches of four to six rows of apertures 
traversed longitudinally by strong wavy 
carinae. Internal structure showing zooecial 
tubes with diaphragms, mesopores and acan- 
thopores. Type species: Phylloporina corticosa 
Ulrich, 1893 (1886) p. 212, pl. 5, figs. 1-10. 
Blackriveran of southeastern Minnesota. 


Order CryprostoMata Vine, 1883 
Family Arthrostylidae Ulrich, 1883 
Ulrichostylus, n. gen. Narrow, cylindrical stems 
bearing eight or more longitudinally arranged 
zooecial rows. Base articulated, circular sockets 
on sides for new branches. Type species: 
Helopora divaricatus Ulrich (1886) 1893, p. 191, 
pl. 3, figs. 1-3. Blackriveran; southeastern 
Minnesota. 
Glauconomella, n. name (Glauconome authors, 
non Goldfuss, 1829, Petr. Germ., p. 100, pl. 
36, figs. 5-8, based on unrecognizable Vin- 
cularias from the Tertiary of Germany). 
Zoarium branching continuously into short, 
free, lateral stipes, with noncelluliferous back 
and no basal articulation. Type species: 
Glauconome disticha Goldfuss, 1931, Petr. 
Germ., p. 217, pl. 64, fig. 15a, b. Wenlockian of 
England. (Selected as genotype of Glauconome 
but unavailable since not in the 1829 section of 
Petr. Germ.) 
Hemulrichostylus, n. gen. Like Ulrichostylus but 
jointed at base only and one of the sides with 
dorsal striations. Type species: H. lineatus, 
n. sp. The noncelluliferous broad dorsal side is 
the distinguishing character for the species. 
Blackriveran (Edinburg); 14 mile east of Stras- 
burg Junction, Va. Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 
116412 (Fig. 14) and paratype (Fig. 15). 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 12 


Heminematopora, n. gen. Like Nematopora, but 
one of the four sides without apertures and 
longitudinally striated. Type species: H. 
virginiana, n. sp. The delicate dichotomously 
branched zoarium with basal articulation only 
and one side longitudinally striated is easily 
recognized. Blackriveran (Edinburg); 4 mile 
east of Strasburg Junction, Va. Holotype: 
US.N.M. no. 116411 (Fig. 16), paratypes 
(Figs. 17, 18). 

Arthrostyloecia, n. gen. Delicate articulated seg- 
ments like Arthrostylus, but apertures have 
distinct oval peristomes which often enlarge 
into cup-shaped ovicell-like structures. Type 
species: A. nitida, n. sp. Blackriveran (Edin- 
burg); 14 mile east of Strasburg Junction, Va. 
Holotype: U.S.N.M. no. 116409 (Fig. 19), 
paratypes (Fig. 20, 21). 


Family Rhabdomesontidae Vine, 1883 


Goldfussitrypa, n. gen. Like Rhombopora in 
general structure but narrow branches of thick 
walled polygonal zooecia surrounded by rows 
of micracanthropores; diaphragms in immature 
region; no hemisepta. Type species: Rhombo- 
pora esthonia Bassler, 1911, p. 1638, fig. 82, 
Middle Ordovician; Esthonia. 

Linotaxis, n. gen. Rhombopora with zooecia arising 
gently from a central linear axis and a large 
megacanthopore at head of each aperture. 
Type species: Orthopora? magna McNair, 
1942, p. 347, pl. 47, figs. 6, 10-12, Upper 
Devonian (Chemung); Rockville, N. Y. 

Ottoseetaxis, n. gen. Narrow bifoliate smooth 
branches with wide immature zone followed by 
narrow mature one with each zooecium sur- 
rounded by a single row of micracanthopores 
but with neither hemisepta, diaphragms, nor 
mesopores developed. The bifoliate area is 
restricted to the immature zone. Type species: 
O. bipartitus, n. sp. Blackriveran (Benbolt) ; 
Knoxville, Tenn. (Figs. 22-24). Holotype: 
U.S.N.M. no. 116419. 


Nemataxidra, n. gen. Like Nematazis in internal 


structure except that diaphragms and superior 
and inferior hemisepta are wanting. Type 
species: N. piercensis, n. sp. Narrow smooth 
branches several millimeters in diameter with 
laminated structure reduced to a minimum and 
tubes arising in a central line. Blackriveran 
(Pierce); Murfreesboro, Tenn. Holotype: 
U.S.N.M. no. 117971 (Figs. 25-27). 

Nicklesopora, n. gen. Rhombopora with a single 
row of micracanthopores around each zooecium. 
No diaphragms, hemisepta, mesopores, or 
central axis. Type species: Rhombopora elegan- 
tula Ulrich, 1884, p. 33, pl. 1, figs. 3-3b. Missis- 
sippian (New Providence); Kings Mountain, 
Ky. 


DECEMBER 1952 


Saffordotaxis, n. gen. Like Nicklesopora, but one 
or two rows of megacanthopores surround 
each zooecium. Type species: Rhombopora 
incrassata Ulrich (1888), 1890, p. 652, pl. 70, 
fig. 12a-d. Mississippian (New Providence); 
Kings Mountain, Ky. 

Streblascopora, n. gen. Like Streblotrypa, but 
with a central bundle of parallel immature 
tubes as in Ascopora. Type species: Streblotrypa 


BASSLER: FOSSIL AND RECENT BRYOZOA 


385 


fasciculata Bassler, 1929, p. 66, pl. 239, figs. 
4,5. Permian of Timor. 


Order CHEILOSTOMATA Busk, 1852 
Family Gigantoporidae Bassler, 1935 


Stenopsella, n. name for Stenopsis Canu and 
Bassler, 1927, preoccupied by Stenopsella 
Rafinesque, 1815, etc. Type species: Porina 
(Stenopsis) fenestrata (Smitt, 1873), p. 47. 
Recent; Gulf of Mexico. 


ZOOLOGY .—The larva of Hymenolepis californicus in the brine shrimp (Artemia 


salina). 
E. W. Price.) 


In 1933 Stammer described a remarkable 
cestode larva, Cysticercus (Cercocystis) mira- 
bilis, in the water flea (Daphnia magna), 
which he postulated to be the larva of a 
Hymenolepis or Aploparaksis but was un- 
able to verify his suspicion by feeding ex- 
periments on ducks, either domestic or wild. 
And examination of wild birds (2 Podiceps 
cristatus, 3 Anas querquedula, and 2 Anas 
platyrhyncha) from Daphnia ponds failed 
to reveal any cestodes whose hooks were 
similar to those of this larva. The most 
striking feature of Stammer’s larva is the 
length of its tail (2.2-5.2 em) while the body 
is only 0.091—0.104 mm long. Thus the para- 
site may be ten times the length of its host. 
I have found what is the same or a closely 
related species, in the brine shrimp of Mono 
Lake and salt pools near Chula Vista, Calif., 
which I here describe, together with a note 
on its life history. 


Technique.—The larva has been studied mainly 
in freshly dissected shrimp flattened beneath a 
cover glass, but specimens fixed in Dubosq- 
Brazil’s modification of Bouin’s solution and 
stained in acetocarmine and Ehrlich’s haema- 
toxylin have also been employed. 

The larva—The larva, which corresponds to 
the “‘cyste” of Stammer, isan oval or oblong body 
varying in length from 0.073 to 0.256 mm in 
fresh specimens, and in diameter from 0.044 to 
0.088. Six specimens averaged 0.153 in length 
and three 0.061 in diameter. They are encased 
in a heavy membrane or cuticle enclosing many 
round or oval chalk bodies, and a crown of 10 
hooks, one of which is shown in Fig. 1. These 
hooks also vary in size from 0.008 to 0.017 mm. 


R. T. Youne, University of Montana (emeritus). 


Communicated by 


These differences in size of body and hooks are 
undoubtedly mainly developmental. 

Most of these larvae lie free in the body of the 
shrimp, but some of them are surrounded by a 
sack, to which isappended a tail of variable length. 
There is a small depression (pore?) in the mem- 
brane at the head end of the larva. Accurate 
measurement of the tail is impossible because of 
its bent and twisted form, being rolled about 
itself spirally as described by Daday (1900) in 
other species. I have however made an approxi- 
mate estimate of its length in one specimen, 
illustrated in Fig. 2. In this it extended about 7 
mm from the larval sack. Making due allowance 
for the amount of bending and coiling the length 
of this tail must have been at least 20 mm, 
which is considerably less than that recorded by 
Stammer. 

My interest in this study was primarily eco- 
logical rather than morphological. Nevertheless 
I have made a sufficient comparison of my 
larva with that described by Stammer to con- 
vince me of the probable identity of the two 
forms. 

Whether the free larva represents an early 
stage, the sack and tail being developed later, 
or a later stage, these structures having degen- 
erated and disappeared, is an open question. 
Stammer apparently inclines to the latter view, 
for he says (p. 81) that in copepod infesting lar- 
vae the tail degenerates, and since there are a 
number of the latter which ‘in ihrem Bau dem 
unserer Form ahneln...(I cannot deny) dass 
diese Schwanzanhiinge alle anzeichen einer 
ausgesprochenen Degeneration zeigen.’ How- 
ever, on page 82 he describes one case of a young 
larva in which ‘‘die Cyste mit dem Scolex und 
den Haken war bereits vollstindig ausgebildet, 


386 


dagegen hatte der Schwanzanhang noch nicht 
seine endgiiltige Struktur angenommen.” I be- 
lieve that both sack and tail are secondary de- 
velopments, for I have seen what were undoubt- 
edly different stages of the larva in one of which 
it was enveloped in a thin walled colorless sack 
containing only a few granules, while the fully 
developed larvae are surrounded by heavy sacks, 
brown in color and not transparent. Further- 
more, the length of the tail varies in different 
specimens. In some it is but little longer than the 
larval body, while in others it exceeds this length 
one hundred fold or more. Sack and tail appear 
to develop later in the year, being more common 
in autumn than in summer. That sack and tail 
could be readily absorbed or ejected by the 
shrimp, as must be the caseif they are degenerate 
structures, does not appear probable. And I have 
never seen fragmentary sacks or tails lying free 
in the body of the shrimp as might be expected 
if they were degenerate and in process of elim- 
ination. In only one case have I seen a larva 
lying free beside its sack and tail and in this 
instance a split in the former indicated the ex- 
trusion of the larva therefrom by extraneous 
pressure. 

Many other cercocystis larvae have been de- 
scribed by various authors,! but none of them 
resemble C. mirabilis or the present form. 

The life history—Mono Lake, Calif., is the 
summer home of a colony of California gulls, 
Larus californicus (Young, 1950), which have 
nested for many years on an island in the lake. 
These gulls feed extensively on the larvae and 
pupae of the salt fly, Ephydra, and I at first as- 
sumed that these were the intermediate hosts of 
the tapeworm Hymenolepis californicus, which 
infests the gulls. However, feeding many hundred 
maggots and pupae to two young gulls which I 
hatched and reared in the laboratory was with- 
out result and an examination of several dozen 
of the former revealed no parasites, so that we 
can safely say that the fly larvae are not the 
intermediate hosts of the worm. An examination 
of several hundred brine shrimp from Mono Lake 
and the salt pools near Chula Vista revealed 
many specimens of the larva which feeding ex- 
periments with young gulls proved to be the 
larval stage of the tapeworm in the latter. In 
both 1950 and 1951 I obtained several specimens 
of the recently hatched birds and hatching eggs 


1See especially Daday (1900) and Hall (1929). 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 12 


in the colony. All the young out of the nest I 
examined were infested with this parasite, and 9 
of 16 nestling birds harbored from one to many 
specimens. Of 14 hatching eggs I obtained in 
1951, 7 of the birds subsequently died and 2 
were used for other experiments, leaving 5 avail- 
able for the present research. Feeding shrimp to 
these five birds resulted in infesting four of them 
with from one to ten worms. The birds were fed 
frozen fish and horse meat containing no live 
parasites. 


UC 


{ 


Fic. 1.—Camera drawing of a larval hook. 


Reverse experiments (transmission of para- 
sites from bird to shrimp) were universally un- 
successful. Neither feeding eggs of the worm, 
some of which at least contained active embryos, 
to the shrimp nor placing the latter in dishes 
with feces of birds known to be infested gave a 
positive result in any experiment. This raises the 
question of the existence of any other possible 
organism on which the shrimp feed, but in the 
first place the latter feed mainly on nannoplank- 
ton, and in the second place it is very doubtful 
if any organism large enough to harbor the eggs 
of the parasite could be ingested by the shrimp. 

There is some indirect evidence, however, 
which points rather strongly to a direct transfer 
from bird to shrimp. During the nesting season 
in June and July the gulls stay rather closely by 
their nests on the island, leaving it only to forage 
for food at a garbage dump on the lake shore or 
in nearby lakes in the mountains. In August and 
September, however, when the young are able to 
fly they are present in large numbers along the 
lake shore, picking up the fly larvae on which 
they feed, and depositing their feces in the 
water. In the former months a collection of 41 
shrimps along the lake shore contained 9 larvae, 
while in August and October there were 100 
larvae in 125 shrimp examined. These results 
are set forth in the following table which shows 
the dates of examination, the number of shrimp 
examined and the number of larvae per shrimp. 


DECEMBER 1952 


Date Number of Number of larvae 
19512 shrimps per shrimp 
June 15-17 6 2/6 
July 14 20 1/20 
19 3 0/3 
20 3 0/3 
August 1 9 5/9 
19 30 5/30 
20 20 5/20 
22 32 2/32 
23 2 0/2 
24 2 1/2 
October 8 5 9/5 
9 6 11/6 
13 13 19/13 
21 5 12/5 
24-5 10 36/10 


I have divided these experiments into two 
groups, one group including those from June 15 
to August 1 inclusive, and the other including 
the remainder, and computed the probability of 
the results, based solely on chance, from a for- 
mula in Tippett (1937), i.e., 


ee xX — X’ 
BS WN N 
where X and X’ are the larger and the smaller 
averages respectively of two sets of observa- 


tions, N and N’ the corresponding number of 
observations and 


_ B@ = 207 se AG = 2) 
a N-1+N-1 


x and 2’ being the value of a given observation, 
i.e., the number of larvae in one shrimp. 
Knowing the value of 7 and the number of ob- 
servations the probability of the result can be 
determined from a table compiled by Dr. George 
F. McEwen, of the Scripps Institution of Ocean- 
ography.’ Applied to the present series of ob- 
servations this formula becomes 
+ 3 = LB = 58 
SV1/125 + 1/41 S X .05 
220.96 + 11.35 _ 


ap eee Oe aay 


S2 


U7 2 and S 


08 
1.4 X .057 


= 7.25 and the probability = 0. 


T, therefore = 


Had these observations been arranged differ- 
ently, grouping all those in summer in compari- 


2 Dates given are those of examination of the 
shrimp. Dates of collection were June 12, July 12, 
August 17, and October 6. 

3 This table is based on one in Fisher’s Statis- 
tical methods for research workers, but is more com- 
prehensive. 


YOUNG: HYMENOLEPIS CALIFORNICUS 


387 


son with those in October, after the shrimp had 
been exposed to the gulls for a longer time, the 
contrast would have been even greater. 

Further indirect evidence of the passage of the 
parasite from bird to shrimp is afforded by an 
examination of the latter from the salt pools at 
Chula Vista in different seasons in comparison 
with that of the Mono Lake shrimp at the same 
time. In June and August 1951, when the gulls 
were numerous at Mono Lake, but rare or ab- 
sent from the salt pools, the ratio of the infested 
shrimp in the former locality was 19/127,or 15 
per cent, while that in the latter was 15/242, or 
6.2 per cent. 

Seasonal variation in abundance of Cerco- 
cystis in Entomostraca in relation to the presence 
or absence of their definitive hosts in different 
seasons has already been described by Daday 
(J.c.) and need not be further discussed here. 

It is obvious that this indirect evidence is not 
proof of infestation of the shrimp by the gulls. 
It is possible, though very improbable that a 
third organism is involved. But the relationship 
between the amount of infestation of the shrimp 
and the abundance of the gulls at different sea- 
sons is very suggestive. 


The seasonal abundance of this larva is very 
different from that of Stammer’s but the differ- 
ence in the ecology of the daphnid and the 
shrimp and the different localities in which they 
are found may readily explain this. 

Summary.—A remarkable cysticercoid (Cer- 
cocystis) in the brine shrimp of Mono Lake and 
the Chula Vista salt pools in California is de- 
scribed and figured. It resembles very closely, if 
it is not identical with the Cysticercus mirabilis 


388 


of Stammers (l.c.). (Should subsequent experi- 
ments prove the correctness of my assumption 
that this larva is identical with Cystecercus mira- 
bilis, the specific name californicus will be super- 
seded by mirabilis, which has priority.) 

Feeding experiments with gulls (Larus cali- 
fornicus) have proved it to be the larva of 
Hymenolepis californicus, a parasite of this bird. 
It has not been possible to infest the shrimp with 
the larvae of the worm, but the percentage of 
infested shrimp in different seasons in relation to 
the abundance of the gulls at those seasons is 
strong indirect proof of the transfer of parasite 
from bird to shrimp. 

Acknowledgments.—It gives me much pleasure 
to acknowledge my indebtedness to the San 
Diego Zoological Society and the U. $8. Bureau of 
Animal Industry for the privilege of occupying 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VoL. 42, No. 12 


rooms in their laboratories and for many cour- 
tesies during the prosecution of this research. I 
am especially indebted to Dr. K. C. Kates of 
the latter institution for the microphotograph. 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Danay, E. von. Hinige in Stisswasser-Entomostra- 
ken lebende Cercocystis-Formen. Zool. Jahrb. 
14: 161-214. 1900. 

Haut, M. C. Arthropods as intermediate hosts of 
helminths. Smithsonian Misc. Coll. 81: 775- 
852. 1929. 

Srammer, H. J. Hine neue eigenartige Cestoden 
larva; Cysticercus (Cercocystis) mirabilis, n. 
sp. aus Daphnia magna. Zeitschr. Parasit. 6: 
76-90. 1933. 

Tippett, L. H. C. The methods of statistics. 
London, 1937. 

Youne, R. T. Cestodes of California gulls. Journ. 
Parasit. 36: 9-12. 1950. 


HELMINTHOLOGY —Helminths from the Republic of Panama: II, A new trema- 
tode from the intestine of Philander laniger pallidus Thomas and key to the 
species of the genus Phaneropsolus Looss, 1899 (Trematoda: Lecithodendriidae). 
Epvuarpo CABALLERO Y C., Institute of Biology of Mexico, and Ropsrt G. 
Grocott, Board of Health Laboratory, Ancon, Canal Zone. 


The trematodes described below were col- 
lected in August 1950 from the intestine of 
a woolly opossum. The material consists of 
15 specimens, all of which are whole stained 
mounts fixed without compression. 


Phaneropsolus philanderi, n. sp. 


The body in all specimens of the trematode is 
small, round in form, or shaped like a truncated 
cone with the anterior portion slightly narrowed 
and the posterior wide and flat. The flukes 
measures from 1.077 to 1.096 mm long by 1.096 
to 1.172 mm broad. Cuticula 0.004 mm in thick- 
ness and in anterior region of ventral surface 
armed with numerous small, conical spines meas- 
uring 0.004 mm long. These spines are less numer- 
ous at the testicular level and disappear in the 
posterior part of the body. Spines very sparse 
on dorsal surface. Oral sucker is larger than 
acetabulum, almost spherical or widened trans- 
versely, terminally placed, muscular and measures 
0.130 to 0.160 mm long by 0.210 to 0.227 mm 
broad. The spherical acetabulum is situated im- 
mediately anterior to the body equator, a little 
anterior to the reproductive glands and posterior 
to cirrus pouch at a distance of 0.294 to 0.344 
mm from anterior end, and measures 0.134 to 


0.168 mm long by 0.126 to 0.152 mm broad. The 
sucker ratio is 1:1.19 by 1:1.6 to 1:1.29 by 1:1.4. 
The mouth is circular or slightly lengthened 
in transverse diameter and measures from 0.025 
to 0.055 mm long and 0.109 to 0.118 mm broad. 
Prepharynx absent. Pharynx small, muscular, 
globoid, with transverse diameter greater than 
the anteroposterior and measures 0.055 to 0.067 
mm long by 0.088 to 0.097 mm broad. Esophagus 
absent. Intestinal ceca short and narrow and 
extend dorsolaterally to the midtesticular zone. 
The large circular genital pore is surrounded 
by a wide circular band of nucleated cells, meas- 
ures 0.034 mm in diameter, and is situated 
slightly to the right of the midline at the level 
of the posterior border of the pharynx and 0.210 
to 0.252 mm from the posterior end of body. The 
testes are laterally located in the equatorial plane 
of the parasite; they are spherical or oblong in 
shape, with smooth contour, size greater than 
that of ovary and one testis usually being larger 
than the other; right testis measures 0.134 to 
0.185 mm long by 0.168 to 0.206 mm broad, 
while the left measures 0.168 to 0.273 mm long 
by 0.181 to 0.218 mm broad. The cirrus pouch is 
very long, tubular, located in the ventral region 
in front of the acetabulum and reproductive 


DECEMBER 1952 CABALLERO Y C. AND GROCOTT: HELMINTHS FROM PANAMA 


glands and extends transversely from the level 
of the right testis to that of the left and measures 
1.050 to 1.092 mm in length and 0.097 to 0.109 
mm in breadth. The large seminal vesicle is bi- 
partite, occupies the posterior part of the cirrus 
pouch, and measures 0.218 to 0.252 mm long by 
0.055 to 0.067 mm broad. The pars prostatica 
occupies the greater part of the cirrus pouch and 
is composed of numerous cells with alveolated 
cytoplasm. The cirrus is short, thick, has the 
form of a truncated cone, and bears abundant 
tubercles on its surface. 

The ovary is also situated in an equatorial 
position to the right of and posterior to the 
acetabulum; it is tangent to the right testis, 
spherical or oblong in shape, of smooth contour, 
smaller than the testes, and measures 0.113 to 
0.155 mm long by 0.151 to 0.185 mm broad. The 
seminal receptacle is large, oblong, located pos- 
terior to the ovary and measures 0.176 to 0.214 
mm long by 0.105 to 0.113 mm broad. Mehlis’s 
gland is large, ventrally situated posterior to the 
acetabulum in the midline almost at the same 
level as the ovary, and measures from 0.105 to 
0.176 mm in length by 0.088 to 0.113 mm in 
breadth. Laurer’s canal present. The uterus fills 
almost the entire body and extends mainly over 
the lateral fields from behind the vitellaria to the 
posterior border of the body. In the central part 
of the body the uterine loops are sparse and the 
metraterm passes over to the left of the ace- 


tabulum toward the genital pore. The ova are 


very numerous, smooth-shelled, operculated, yel- 
low, and measure 0.025 to 0.029 mm long by 
0.015 to 0.017 mm broad. 

The vitellaria occupy the lateral fields in the 
anterior part of the body, and at the level of the 
genital pore and cirrus pouch they consist of 
sparse but large vitelline follicles. The vitelline 
ducts are narrow and pass obliquely caudad to 
converge in the zone of Mehlis’s gland. The ex- 
cretory vesicle is V-shaped and occupies all the 
median and dorsal area in the posterior part of 
the body. The wide cornua of the vesicle extend 
to the posterior level of the testes, the right 
cornu measuring 0.311 to 0.496 mm long by 
0.105 to 0.118 mm broad, the left 0.319 to 0.399 
mm long by 0.084 to 0.126 mm broad. The ex- 
cretory pore is subterminal, dorsally placed and 
surrounded by numerous cells that form a band 
around it. It is located 0.147 to 0.168 mm from 
the posterior border of the body. 

Host.—Philander laniger pallidus Thomas. 


389 


Habitat.—Small intestine. 

Locality —Pedro Miguel, Panama Canal Zone. 

Specimens.—Type specimen in helminthologic 
collection of the Institute of Biology of Mexico, 
no. 24-7. Cotype in U. 8. National Museum 
helminthological collection. 


Fig. 1—Phaneropsolus philandert, n. sp.: Draw- 
ing of whole mount, ventral view. 

Discussion—At the present time six valid 
species of the genus Phaneropsolus Looss, 1899, 
are known. Phaneropsolus micrococcus (Rudolphi, 
1819) Braun, 1901, whose synonym is Phanerop- 
solus sigmoideus Looss, 1899, parasitizes birds in 
Europe. The following five species parasitize 
mammals of the order Primates: Phaneropsolus 
orbicularis (Diesing, 1850) Braun, 1901; Phaner- 


Fig. 2.—Phaneropsolus philanderi, n. sp.: Pho- 
tomicrograph of whole mount, ventral view. 


390 


opsolus oviforme (Poirier, 1886) Looss, 1889; Phan- 
eropsolus longipenis Looss, 1899; Phaneropsolus 
lakdivensis Fernando, 1933; and Phaneropsolus 
bonnet Lie-Kian-Joe, 1951. Since Phaneropsolus 
sigmoideus Looss, 1899, has been considered by 
Braun to be synonymous with Phaneropsolus mic- 
rococcus (Rudolphi, 1819) Braun, 1901, there then 
remains Phaneropsolus oviforme (Poirier, 1886) 
Looss, 1899, as the type species and the one 
Looss considered to be the second allocated to 
the new genus proposed by him. 

Upon examining the descriptions and drawings 
of Ph. oviforme (Poirier, 1886) Looss, 1889, and 
Ph. lakdivensis Fernando, 1933, we have found 
that the two species are very similar and must 
therefore consider Ph. lakdivensis as a synonym 
of Ph. oviforme (Poirier, 1886) Looss, 1899. Also 
-in carefully examining descriptions and figures of 
Ph. longipenis Looss, 1899 and those of Ph. 
bonnet Lie-Kian-Joe, 1951 we find that these two 
species are very similar in size and location of the 
cirrus pouch but differ in the location of the geni- 
tal pore and other structures, the differences 
being great enough to consider them as distinct 
species. 

Through the discovery of Phaneropsolus philan- 
deri we have found that there exists no host 
specificity among the members of this genus 
since Ph. micrococcus (Rudolphi, 1899) Braun, 
1901, parasitizes birds, Passer domesticus (Lin- 
naeus) of the order Passeriformes, Caprimulgus 
europaeus (Linnaeus) of the order Caprimulgi- 
formes, and Glareola austriaca Gmelin =G. pratin- 
cola (Linnaeus) of the order Charadriiformes; 
Ph. philandert, n. sp., parasitizes Philander laniger 
pallidus Thomas, a mammal of the order Mar- 
supialia; Ph. oviforme (Poirier, 1886) Looss, 1899, 
lives in Primates of the suborder Lemuroidea such 
as Nycticebus javanicus and Loris tardigradus; 
Ph. orbicularis (Diesing, 1850) Braun, 1901, in 
Cebus trivirgatus Humboldt of the order Primates, 
suborder Anthropoidea; Ph. longipenis Looss, 
1899, also found in Primates of the suborder 
Anthropoidea and Ph. bonnet Lie-Kian-Joe, 1951, 
is found in Homo sapiens Linnaeus of the sub- 
order Anthropoidea. 

Phaneropsolus philanderi, n. sp, is similar to 
Ph. longipenis Looss, 1899, as to size of the cirrus 
pouch, but differs in the transverse position of the 
citrus pouch, in the location of the genital pore 
which is to the left of the posterior border of the 
pharynx, and in the equatorial position of the re- 
productive glands. The remaining species of the 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES VOL. 42, No. 12 


genus are distinguished mainly by the large size 
of the cirrus pouch and in the location of the 
genital pore and other structures. 


KEY TO THE SPECIES OF PHANEROPSOLUS 


I. Cirrus pouch very long. 

1. Genital pore median and at level of pos- 
terior border of pharynx; cirrus pouch 
not transverse and testes preequatorial 
ee eater MIU Re Ph. longipenis Looss, 1899 

2. Genital pore at level of posterior border 
of oral sucker; cirrus pouch not trans- 
verse and very much coiled; testes equa- 
torial..... Ph. bonnet Lie-Kian-Joe, 1951 

8. Genital pore dislocated toward left of 
pharynx; cirrus pouch transverse and 
testes equatorial...Ph. philandert, n. sp. 

II. Cirrus pouch short. 

1. Vitellaria arranged in lateral groups at 
level of intestinal bifurcation. 

a. Esophagus absent; vitellaria not pre- 
cecal; ceca not short...... Ph. micro- 
coccus (Rudolphi, 1819) Braun, 1901 

b. Esophagus absent; vitellaria prececal 
and ceca short.......... Ph. orbicu- 
laris (Diesing, 1850) Braun, 1901 

2. Vitellaria not arranged in lateral groups 
at level of intestinal bifurcation........ 
Ph. oviforme (Poirier, 1886) Looss, 1899 


BIBLIOGRAPHY 


Braun, M. Zur Kenntnis der Trematoden der 
Saugethiere. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Syst., 14(4): 
311-348. 1901a. 

. Zur Revision der Trematoden der Vogel. 
I. Zentralbl. Bakt. Parasit. und. Infek. 
29(13) : 560-568. 1901b. 

——. Fascioliden der Végel. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. 
Syst., 16(1): 1-162. 1902. 

Dawes, B. The Trematoda: xvi + 644 pp. London, 
1946. 

FERNANDO, W. Contribution to Ceylon helminthol- 
ogy. 2. Phaneropsolus lakdivensis sp. nov., 
a trematode from the Ceylon slender loris (Loris 
tardigradus). Spol. Zeylanica 17(3): 149-154. 
1933. 

FunRMANN, O. Zweite Klasse des Cladus Plathel- 
minthes. Trematoda. Handb. Zool. Kikenthal 
und Krumbach 2(3): 1-128. Leipzig, 1928. 

IMPERIAL BuREAU OF AGRICULTURE AND PARASI- 
TroLtoGcy. The helminth parasites of marsupials. 
Journ. Helm. 11(4): 195-256. 1933. 

Lir-Kran-Jor. Some human flukes from Indonesia. 
Doc. Neerl. Ind. Morb. Trop. 3(2): 105-116. 
1951. 

Looss, A. Weitere Beitrage zur Kenntnis der 
Trematoden Fauna Aegyptens, zugleich Ver- — 
such einer natiurlichen Gliederung des Genus 
Distomum Retzius. Zool. Jahrb., Abt. Syst., 
12(5/6) : 521-784. 1899. 

Menura, H.R. New trematodes of the family Lecitho- 
dendriidae Odhner, 1911, with a discussion on 
the classification on the family. Proc. Acad. 
Sci. U.P. India 5(1): 99-121. 1935. 


DECEMBER 1952 


Nicouu, W. A reference list of the trematode para- 
sites ef man and the primates. Parasit. 19(3): 
338-351. 1927. 

PorrieR, J. Trematodes nouveaux ou peu-connu. 
Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris, ser. 7, 10: 20-40. 
1886. 

SKaARBILOVIcH, T.S. Contribution to the reconstruc- 
tion of the taxonomy of the trematodes of the 
family Lecithodendriidae Odhner, 1911. Compt. 
Rend. (Doklady) Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S. 38(7): 
223-224. 1943. 

SxrsaBin, K. I. Trematody zhivotnykh 1 cheloveka. 
Osnovy trematodologii 2: 1-600. Isdatyelystvo 
Akadyemii Nauk SSSR. Moskva-Lyeningrad, 
1948. (In Russian). 

Srivastava, H. D. On new trematodes of frogs and 
fishes of the United Provinces India. Bull. 
Acad. Sei. U.P. Agra. Oudh. 3(4): 239-256. 
1934. 


SETZER: NEW NAME FOR DIPODOMYS O. FUSCUS 


391 


Srites, Cuarues W., and Hassauu, A. Index- 
catalogue of medical and veterinary zoology. 
Subjects: Trematoda and trematode diseases’ 
U. S. Hyg. Lab. Bull. 37: 1-401. 1908. 

Srrues, CHarues W., and Nouan, O. Key-catalogue 
of parasites reported for primates (monkeys 
and lemurs) with their possible public health 
importance. U.S. Hyg. Lab. Bull. 152: 409-601. 
1929. 

Travassos, L., Contribuicoes para 0 conhecimento 
da fauna helmintolojica brasileira. XV. Sobre 
as especies brasileiras da familia Lecithoden- 
driidae Odhner, 1911. Arch. Esc. Sup. Agr. 
Med. Vet. 5(1/2): 73-79. 1921. 

. Contribuicado para o conhecimento dos Leci- 
thodendriidae do Brasil. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo 
Cruz 21: 189-194. 1928. 

Viana, L. Tentativa de catalogacdo das especies 
brasileiras de trematodeos. Mem. Inst. Oswaldo 
Cruz 17: 95-227. 1924. 


MAMMALOGY.—A new name for Dipodomys ordii fuscus Setzer. Henry W. 


SerzeR, U. 8. National Museum. 


It has been called to my attention that 
the name Dipodomys ordi fuscus (Setzer, 
Univ. Kansas Publ. Mus. Nat. Hist. 1 
(23): 555. Dec. 27, 1949) is preoccupied 
by the name Dzipodomys agilis fuscus 
(Boulware, Univ. California Publ. Zool. 
46 (7): 393. Sept. 16, 1943). I therefore 


propose the name Dipodomys ordi durrantt, 
in recognition of Dr. Stephen David Dur- 
rant of the University of Utah, to replace 
the name Dipodomys ordi fuscus. I also 
wish to correct the spelling of the name of 
the type locality from Juamave to Jaumave, 
Tamaulipas, Mexico. 


Obituary 


ALBERT EuGENE McPHmRSON, a senior ma- 
terials engineer in the National Bureau of 
Standards’ engineering mechanics laboratory, 
died on August 5, 1952, at his home near Wash- 
ington, D. C. Mr. McPherson had been a Bureau 
employee since 1926. His primary field of re- 
search was in the field of aircraft structures and 
materials. While at the Bureau Mr. McPherson 
was author of a large number of technical arti- 
cles published by various technical societies, 
the National Advisory Committee for Aero- 
nautics, and the National Bureau of Standards. 
He held patents on two types of accelerometers 
used in his work. 

For many years the National Bureau of 
Standards has conducted an extensive research 
program in the field of aeronautics. The program 
extends from the development of temperature 
sensing devices for jet engines to the stress analy- 


sis of aircraft structures. Mr. McPherson was 
senior engineer in the Aircraft Structures Group 
which dealt primarily with the structural strength 
of basic aircraft components. This included re- 
search in the field of dynamic response of simple 
structures and development of instruments 
for measuring force acceleration and deformation. 

Mr. McPherson was a member of the Wash- 
ington Academy of Sciences, the Philosophical 
Society of Washington, the Institute of Aero- 
nautical Sciences, and secretary of the Wash- 
ington Chapter of the Society for Experimental 
Stress Analysis. 

Mr. McPherson was born in Washington on 
January 27, 1908. He attended George Wash- 
ington University and received his degree in 
mechanical engineering in 1933. He is survived 
by his wife, a daughter, and his father. 


INDEX TO VOLUME 42 


An asterisk (*) denotes the abstract of a paper presented before the Academy or an affiliated society. 


PROCEEDINGS OF THE ACADEMY AND AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


Anthropological Society of Washington. 367. 


Washington Academy of Sciences. 59, 135, 161, 198, 271, 309. 


Philosophical Society of Washington. 333. 


AUTHOR INDEX 


ABELSON, Puitip H. * Isotope tracers: Past, 
present, and future. 333. 

ANDERSEN, Haroup V. Buccella, a new genus of 
the rotalid Foraminifera. 143. 

BartTRAM, Epwin B. New mosses from southern 
Brazil. 178. 

BassueR, R. 8. Taxonomic notes on genera of 
fossil and Recent Bryozoa. 381. 

Batten, Rocrer L. The type species of the gas- 
tropod genus Protostylus. 355. 

Bayer, Freperick M. A new Calyptrophora (Coe- 
lenterata: Octocorallia) from the Philippine 
Islands. 82. 

. New western Atlantic records of octocorals 
(Coelenterata: Anthozoa), with descriptions 
of three new species. 183. 

Beams, J. W. * Some recent developments in the 
production of high rotational speeds and their 
application. 342. 

BENNETT, RopertT R., and Coins, GLENN 
GEnzE. Brightseat formation, a new name for 
sediments of Paleocene age in Maryland. 114. 

BrERDAN, JEAN M. See Soun, I. G. 7. 

BLoEDORN, Wa.ttTER A. Oscar Benwood Hunter 
(obituary). 272. 

BrIDWELL, J. C. A new genus of Bruchidae affect- 
ing Hibiscus in Argentina (Bruchinae: Acan- 
thoscelidini). 49. 

. Notes on Bruchidae affecting the Ana- 
cardiaceae, including the description of a new 
genus. 124. 

BurstTEIN, Evias. * Optical properties of diamond, 
silicon, and germanium. 342. 

CABALLERO Y C., EpuARDO, and Grocort, ROBERT 
G. Helminths from the Republic of Panama: 
II, A new trematode from the intestine of 
Philander laniger pallidus Thomas and key to 
the species of the genus Phaneropsolus Looss, 
1899 (Trematoda: Lecithodendriidae). 388. 

Camp, GLENN D. * Operations research: A quanti- 
tative aid to executive decision. 335. 

CHAMBERLIN, Rautpu V. An arrangement of the 
Prepodesmidae, a family of African millipeds. 
327. 

CHAPMAN, SypNEY. Meteors and meteorites. 273. 

CuHasE, AGNES. New species of grasses from 
Venezuela. 122. 

Cuavan, A. Nomenclatural notes on carditids and 
lucinids. 116. 

Cuark, Austin H. Notes on the history and dis- 
tribution of the reptiles. 262. 

CuarkKb, J. F. Gates. A new carpenterworm from 
Florida (Lepidoptera: Cossidae). 156. 


CocHraAN, Doris M. Two Brazilian frogs: Hyla 
wernerz, n. nom., and Hyla similis, n. sp. 50. 

Con, Westey R. Geographical distribution of the 
species of nemerteans of the Arctic Ocean near 
Point Barrow, Alaska. 55. 

Cor, KENNETH S. * Progress in biophysics. 339. 

CouuINs, GLENN GENE. See BENNETT, ROBERT 
R., 114. 

CourtNEy, WitBuR D. The teasel nematode, 
Ditylenchus dipsaci (Kiihn, 1857), Filipjev, 
1936. 303. 

Damon, S. C. On the fungus genera 7Titaea, Mono- 
grammia, and Araneomyces. 365. 

Dexter, Raupeu W. See Speck, FRANK G. 1. 

Du Buy, H. G. See Woops, M. W. 169. 

DunkieE, Davin H., and Witson, Joun A. Re- 
mains of Devonian fishes from Texas. 213. 

DurRBIN, Cuarues G. A new roundworm, Capil- 
laria pirangae (Nematoda: Trichinellidae), 
from the scarlet tanager (Piranga erythro- 
melas). 238. 

Emerson, WiuutaAmM K. Generic and subgeneric 
names in the molluscan class Scaphopoda. 
296. 

EMILIANI, CmEsaRE. Nomenclature and grammar. 
137. 

Frercuson, H.G. Paleozoic of western Nevada. 72. 

Fiscuer, Hart K. * High-speed motion pictures 
as a research tool. 336. 

FosuacG, W. F. Merrill Bernard (obituary). 104. 

FRIEDMANN, Herpert. James Lee Peters (obit- 
uary). 312. 

———. The long-tailed sugarbird of eastern Rho- 
desia. 31. 

Gamow, GeorcE. * The first half hour of creation. 
334. 

Gersporrr, W. A., and Mittin, Norman. A bio- 
assay of some stereoisomeric constituents of 
allethrin. 313. 

Gipson, R. E. * An introduction to the natural 
philosophy of guided missiles. 338. 

GinsBuRG, Isaac. Hight new fishes from the Gulf 
coast of the United States, with two new 
genera and notes on geographic distribution. 
84. 

GosLINE, Wiiuiam A. Notes on the systematic 
status of four eel families. 130. 

GrauaM, J. W. * The determination of the earth’s 
field in geologic time. 335. 

Grocott, Ropert G. See CABALLERO Y C., 
EpvuaArpo. 388. 

Harsrap, L. R. * The reactor program of the 
Atomic Energy Commission. 334. 


392 


DECEMBER 1952 


HaNnpiey, Cuaries O., Jk. A new pine mouse 
(Pitymys pinetorum carbonarius) from the 
southern Appalachian Mountains. 152. 

Harris, D. V. See REEsIDE, J. B., Jr. 174. 

Har7uine, H. K. * The electrical activity of optic 
nerve fibers. 341. 

Hartman, Ouea. The marine annelids of the 
United States Navy Antarctic Expedition, 
1947-48. 231. 

Hawks, Emma B. Claribel Ruth Barnett (obit- 
uary). 167. 

Hopkins, G. H. E. Notes on synonymy in Sipho- 
naptera. 363. 

Hortss, F. C. Descriptions and notes on two rare 
species of Aphididae. 127. 

Hutu, Gzorce F. * The properties of microwaves. 
337. 

James, Maurice T. The Ethiopian genera of Sar- 
ginae, with descriptions of new species. 220. 

JENKINS, ANNA E., and Miuupr, JuLiIAN H. A 
new species of Sphaceloma on magnolia. 323. 

Jounson, THomas H. * The place and future of 
organized research in modern society. 344. 

Kearney, T. H. Walter T. Swingle (obituary). 
208. 

Kenk, Roman. Fresh-water triclads (Turbellaria) 
of the Rocky Mountain National Park region, 

. Colorado. 193. 

Kersoner, R. B. * Foundations of arithmetic. 
340. 

KinG, Puriip B. The base of the Cambrian in the 
southern Appalachians. 170. 

Kracek, FRANK C. * The application of thermo- 
chemistry to geophysical problems. 335. 

Lapp, H. 8. Thomas Wayland Vaughan (obit- 
uary). 207. 

Leviton, Auan E. A new Philippine snake of the 
genus Calamaria. 239. 

Li, Hur-Lin. Notes on some families of Formosan 
phanerogams. 39. 

Lion, KurtS. * Physies in vision and fatigue. 341. 

LittLte, Evpert L. Notes on Frazinus (ash) in 
the United States. 369. 

Locker, Betty, and Rauscu, RospertT. Some 
cestodes from Oregon shrews, with descrip- 
tions of four new species of Hymenolepis Wein- 
land, 1858. 26. 

Logsiicu, ALFRED R., JR. Ammopemphix, new 
name for the Recent foraminiferal genus 
Urnula Wiesner. 82. 

. New Recent foraminiferal genera from the 

tropical Pacific. 189. 

and Tappan, HELen. Adercotryma, a new 
Recent foraminiferal genus from the Arctic. 
141. 

. Cribrotextularia, a new foraminiferal 
genus from the Hocene of Florida. 79. 

- Morphology of the test in the foram- 
iniferal genus T'ristix Macfayden. 356. 

. Poritextularia, a new Recent forami- 
niferal genus. 264. 

LONGWELL, CHESTER R. Lower limit of the Cam- 
brian in the Cordilleran region. 209. 

Manan, A. I. * Some of the geometrical, physical, 
and physiological properties of light. 348. 


INDEX 


393 


Marrox, N. T. A new genus and species of Lim- 
nadiidae from Venezuela (Crustacea: Con- 
chostraca). 23. 

Maxwe.u, E. * Recent developments in super- 
conductivity. 336. 

McConneE iu, Duncan. The nature of rock phos- 
phates, teeth, and bones. 36. 

McCoy, Grorcr W. Maurice Isadore Smith 
(obituary). 136. 

Mercatr, Z. P. New names in the Homoptera. 226. 

MrIuier, JULIAN H. See JENKINS, ANNA E. 323. 

Mittin, Norman. See Gersporrr, W. A. 313. 

Moosen, Joao. A new Clyomys from Paraguay 
(Rodentia: Echimyidae). 102. 

Nicou, Davip. A new glycymerid from the Western 
Atlantic. 266. 

———. A rare Tertiary glycymerid from South 
Carolina and Florida. 362. 

. Designation of the type species of Pseudo- 

chama (additional note). 248. 

. Nomenclatural review of genera and sub- 
genera of Chamidae. 154. 

Pace, CHartes H. * The mathematical theory 
of communication. 335. 

Pace, THorNTON. * Density of matter in the 
universe. 342. 

Parr, A. E. Revision of the genus Talismania, 
with description of a new species from the 
Gulf of Mexico. 268. 

PouiaRD, Ernest. * The physics of viruses. 337. 

RauscuH, Ropert. See Locker, Berry. 26. 

Reesipe£, J. B., Jr., and Harris, D. V. A Creta- 
ceous horseshoe crab from Colorado. 174. 

Rick, Francts O. * Recent advances in free radi- 
cal chemistry. 339. 

RimvenNour, Louis N. * Present and future trends 
in electronics. 338. 

Rospack, Setwyn 8. New species of Sarcophagini 
(Diptera: Sarcophagidae). 45. 

Rota, Vincent D. A review of the genus Tegenaria 
in North America (Arachnida: Agelenidae). 
283. 

Ruark, ARTHUR EH. * How to understand rela- 
tivity. 339. 

Saprosky, Curtis W. A new larvaevorid fly 
parasitic on tortoise beetles in South America 
(Diptera). 325. 

ScHILLER, Everett L. Hymenolepis johnsoni, 
n. sp., a cestode from the vole Microtus penn- 
sylvanicus drummondit. 58. 

SeTzeER, Henry W. A new name for Dipodomys 
ordi fuscus Setzer. 391. 

Smitu, Lyman B. A new Guzmania from Colombia. 
282. 

——. A new Nymphoides from Colombia. 160. 

SHOWACRE, JANE L. See Woops, M. W. 169. 

Soun, I. G., and Brerpan, JEAN M. Stratigraphic 
range of the ostracode genus Phanassymetria 
Roth. 7. 

Speck, FRANK G., and DextmrR, Raupu W. Util- 
ization of animals and plants by the Malecite 
Indians of New Brunswick. 1. 

Spitz, Rene A. * Methodological consideration 
in psychoanalytical research. 337. 

Spritzer, Lyman. * The formation of stars. 336. 


394 


STANNARD, Lewis J., Jk. Phylogenetic studies of 
Franklinothrips (Thysanoptera: Aeolothrip- 
idae). 14. 

StosE, GEoRGE W. The Murphree Valley anticline, 
Alabama. 241. 

STRIMPLE, HarReLL L. New species of Lecano- 
crinus. 318. 

. Some new species of crinoids from the 

Henryhouse formation of Oklahoma. 75. 

. The arms of Haerteocrinus. 245. 

——. The arms of Polusocrinus. 12. 

———. Notes on Jexacrinus. 216. 

. Two new species of Sinclairocystis. 158. 

Srrone, Jon. * The new Johns Hopkins ruling 
engine. 334. 

Tappan, HELEN. See LoEBiicu, ALFRED R., JR. 
79, 141, 264, 356. 

TayLor, FRANKLIN V. * Research on man-made 
systems. 344. 

TravusB, Rosert. Johnsonaepsylla audyi, a new 
genus and new species of flea from North 
Borneo, with notes on the subfamily Lepto- 
psyllinae (Siphonaptera). 288. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 12 


TRUESDELL, C. Preliminary report: Nonlinear 
absorption and dispersion of plane ultrasonic 
waves in pure fluids. 33. 

WEISEL, GEORGE F. Animal names, anatomical 
terms, and some ethnzoology of the Flathead 
Indians. 345. 

WHEELER, GrEorRGE C., and WHEELER, JEANETTE. 
The ant larvae of the myrmicine tribe Cremat- 
ogastrini. 248. 

WuiteE, Rosert M. Some applications of physical 
anthropology. 65. 

Witson, JoHn A. See DuNKLE, Davin H. 2138. 

Woops, M. W., SHowacre, JANE L., and Du 
Buy, H. G. Reaction of normal and mutant 
plastids of Nicotiana to neotetrazolium. 169. 

Yacopa, Herman. * The mesons of cosmic-ray 
physics. 343. 

Youna, R. T. The larva of Hymenolepis californi- 
cus in the brine shrimp (Artemia salina). 385. 

ZIMMER, JOHN T. A new finch from northern 
Pert. 103. 

Zocu, RicuMonpD T. On the variation of the aver- 
age daily temperature at Washington, D. C. 
105. 


SUBJECT INDEX 


Anthropology. Some applications of physical 
anthropology. Ropert M. Wuits. 65. 
Astronomy. Meteors and meteorites. SypNEY 
CHAPMAN. 273. 
* The formation of stars. LYMAN SprrzER. 336. 
Biochemistry. A bioassay of some stereoisomeric 
constituents of allethrin. W. A. GERSDORFF 
and NormMaNn Mittin. 313. 
Reaction of normal and mutant plastids of 
Nicotiana to neotetrazolium. M. W. Woops, 
JANE L. SHowacre, and H. G. Du Buy. 
169. : 
Biophysics. * Physics in vision and fatigue. Kurt 
S. Lion. 341. 
* Progress in biophysics. KENNETH S. CoLe. 
339. 
* The electrical activity of optic nerve fibers. 
H. K. Harruine. 341. 
* The physics of viruses. ERNEST POLLARD. 
Bole 
Botany. A new Guzmania from Colombia. Lyman 
B. Smitru. 282. 
A new Nymphoides from Colombia. Lyman 
B. Situ. 160. 
A new species of Sphaceloma on magnolia. 
ANNA E. JENKINS and JuLtian H. MILuer. 
323. 
New mosses from southern Brazil. Epwin B. 
BarRTRAM. 178. 
New species of grasses from Venezuela. AGNES 
Cuase. 122. 
Notes on Frazinus (ash) in the United States. 
Evspert L. Litrie. 369. 
Notes on some families of Formosan phanero- 
gams. Hutr-Lin Ltr. 39. 
Chemistry. * Recent advances in free radical 
chemistry. FRANcIS O. Rice. 339. 


Engineering psychology. * Research on man-made 
systems. FRANKLIN V. Taytor. 344. : 

Entomology. A new carpenterworm from Florida 
(Lepidoptera: Cossidae). J. F. Garrs 
CLARKE. 156. 

A new genus of Bruchidae affecting Hibiscus 
in Argentina (Bruchinae: Acanthoscelidini). 
J. C. BRIDWELL. 49. 

A new larvaevorid fly parasitic on tortoise 
beetles in South America (Diptera). Curtis 
W. SaBRosky. 325. 

A review of the genus Tegenaria in North 
America (Arachnida: Agelenidae). VINCENT 
D. Ror. 283. 

An arrangement of the Prepodesmidae, a 
family of African millipeds. RaupH V. 
CHAMBERLIN. 327. 

Descriptions and notes on two rare species 
of Aphididae. F. C. Hortss. 127. 

Johnsonaepsylla audyi, a new genus and new 
species of flea from North Borneo, with 
notes on the subfamily Leptopsyllinae 
(Siphonaptera). Robert Traus. 288. 

New names in the Homoptera. Z. P. MeTcaLr. 
226. 

New species of Sarcophagini (Diptera: Sarco- 
phagidae). Senwyn S. Rospack. 45. 

Notes on Bruchidae affecting the Anacardi- 
aceae, including the description of a new 
genus. J. C. BrRIDWELL. 124. 

Notes onsymonymy in Siphonaptera. G.H.E. 
Hopkins. 363. 

Phylogenetic studies of Franklinothrips (Thy- 
sanoptera: Aeolothripidae). LEwis J. STAN- 
NARD, JR. 14. 

The ant larvae of the myrmicine tribe Crema- 
togastrini. Grorce C. WHEELER and 
JEANETTE WHEELER. 248. 


DECEMBER 1952 


The Ethiopian genera of Sarginae, with de- 
scriptions of new species. Maurice T. 
JAMES. 220. 

Ethnology. Animal names, anatomical terms, and 
some ethnozoology of the Flathead Indians. 
GerorGE F. WEISEL. 345. 

Utilization of animals and plants by the 
Malecite Indians of New Brunswick. FRANK 
G. Speck and Rate W. Dexter. 1. 

Geology. Brightseat formation, a new name for 
sediments of Paleocene age in Maryland. 
Rosert R. BENNETT and GLENN GENE 
Coutins. 114. 

Lower limit of the Cambrian in the Cordil- 
leran region. CHESTER R. LONGWELL. 209. 

Paleozoic of western Nevada. H. G. FerGuson. 
G2 

The base of the Cambrian in the southern 
Appalachians. Puritip B. Kine. 170. 

The Murphree Valley anticline, Alabama. 

GrorcE W. Srose. 241. 

_ Geophysics. * The application of thermochemistry 
to geophysical problems. FRANK C. KRACEK. 
335. 

*The determination of the earth’s field in 
geologic time. J. W. Granam. 335. 

Helminthology. Helminths from the Republic of 
Panama: IJ, A new trematode from the in- 
testine of Philander laniger pallidus Thomas 
and key to the species of the genus Phan- 
eropsolus Looss, 1899 (Trematoda: Lecitho- 
dendriidae). EpuaRDO CABALLERO y C. and 
RoBert G. Grocorr. 388. 

Hymenolepis johnsoni, n.sp., a cestode from 
the vole Microtus pennsylvanicus drummon- 
dw. EVERETT L. ScHILLER. 53. 

Some cestodes from Oregon shrews, with de- 
scriptions of four new species of Hymeno- 
lepis Weinland, 1858. Berry LockrrR and 
RoserT Rauscu. 26. 

Herpetology. A new Philippine snake of the genus 
Calamaria. ALAN . Leviton. 239. 

Two Brazilian frogs: Hyla werneri, n.nom., 
and Hyla similis, n.sp. Dorts M. Cocuran. 
50. 

Ichthyology. Hight new fishes from the Gulf coast 
of the United States, with two new genera 
and notes on geographic distribution. Isaac 
GINSBURG. 84. 

Notes on the systematic status of four eel 
families. Winit1am A. GostINne. 130. 

Revision of the genus Talismania, with de- 
scription of a new species from the Gulf of 
Mexico. A. E. Parr. 268. 

Malacology. A new glycymerid from the Western 
Atlantic. Davin Nico.. 266. 

Generic and subgeneric names in the mollus- 
can class Scaphopoda. Winit1am K. EmMmr- 
SON. 296. 

Nomenclatural review of genera and sub- 
genera of Chamidae. Davin Nicou. 154. 

Mammalogy. A new Clyomys from Paraguay 
(Rodentia: Echimyidae). Jodo Moossn. 
102. 


INDEX 


395 


A new name for Dipodomys ordii fuscus 
Setzer. Henry W. Setzer. 391. 

A new pine mouse (Pitymys pinetorum car- 
bonarius) from the southern Appalachian 
Mountains. CHARLES O. HaNnpDLey, JR. 152. 

Mathematics. * Foundations of arithmetic. R. B. 
KERSHNER. 340. 

* The mathematical theory of communication. 
CHESTER H. Paanu. 335. 

Meteorology. On the variation of the average daily 
temperature at Washington, D. C. Ricu- 
MOND T. Zocu. 105. 

Mineralogy. The nature of rock phosphates, teeth, 
and bones. Duncan McConneE.u. 36. 

Mycology. On the fungus genera Titaea, Mono- 
grammia, and Araneomyces. 8S. C. DAmon. 
365. 

Nematology. A new roundworm, Capillaria pi- 
rangae (Nematoda: Trichinellidae), from 
the scarlet tanager (Piranga erythromelas). 
CHARLES G. DURBIN. 238. 

The teasel nematode, Ditylenchus dipsaci 
(Kithn, 1857), Filipjev, 1936. WitBur D. 
CourtTNEy. 303. 

Obituaries 

Barnett, Claribel Ruth. 167. 

Bernard, Merrill. 104. 

Fischer, Earl K. 64. 

French, Owen Bert. 64. 

Hunter, Oscar Benwood. 272. 

McPherson, Albert Eugene. 391. 

Peters, James Lee. 312. 

Smith, Maurice Isadore. 136. 

Swingle, Walter T. 208. 

Vaughan, Thomas Wayland. 207. 

Operations research. * Operations research: A 
quantitative aid to executive decision. 
GLENN D. Camp. 335. 

Ornithology. A new finch from northern Pert. 
JOHN T. ZimMER. 103. 

The long-tailed sugarbird of eastern Rhodesia. 
HERBERT FRIEDMANN. 31. 

Paleontology. A Cretaceous horseshoe crab from 
Colorado. J. B. RexrsipE, Jr., and D.V. 
Harris. 174. 

A rare Tertiary glycymerid from South 
Carolina and Florida. Davin Nicou. 362. 

Cribrotextularia, a new foraminiferal genus 
from the Eocene of Florida. ALFRED R. 
Lorsuicu, Jr., and HELEN Tappan. 79. 

Designation of the type species of Pseudo- 
chama (additional note). Davip Nicou. 248. 

Morphology of the test in the foraminiferal 
genus T'ristiz Macfayden. ALFRED R. 
Logsuicu, Jr., and HELEN Tappan. 356. 

New species of Lecanocrinus. HARRELL L. 
STRIMPLE. 318. 

Nomenclatural notes on carditids and luci- 
nids. A. CHAVAN. 116. 

Notes on Vexacrinus. HARRELL L. STRIMPLE. 
216. 

Remains of Devonian fishes from Texas. 
Davin H. DuNKLE and Joun A. Wixson. 
213. 


396 


Some new species of crinoids from the 
Henryhouse formation of Oklahoma. 
HARRELL L. STRIMPLE. 75. 

Stratigraphic range of the ostracode genus 
Phanassymetria Roth. I. G. Soun and 
JEAN M. BERDAN. 7. 

Taxonomic notes on genera of fossil and Re- 
cent Bryozoa. R. 8. BAssuerR. 381. 

The arms of Haerteocrinus. Harretu L. 
STRIMPLE. 245. 

The arms of Polusocrinus. 
STRIMPLE. 12. 

The type species of the gastropod genus 
Protostylus. RoGeR L. Batren. 355. 

Two new species of Sinclairocystis. HARRELL 
L. Srrrmece. 158. 

Photography. * High-speed motion pictures as a 
research tool. Eart K. FiscHer. 336. 
Physics. * An introduction to the natural philos- 

ophy of guided missiles. R. E. Gipson. 338. 

* Density of matter in the universe. THORN- 
TON PaGE. 342. 

* How to understand relativity. ARTHUR EH. 
RvuARK. 339. 

* Tsotope tracers: Past, present, and future. 
Puitie H. ABELSON. 333. 

* Optical properties of diamond, silicon, and 
germanium. Eras BursTEINn. 342. 

Preliminary report: Nonlinear absorption and 
dispersion of plane ultrasonic waves in pure 
fluids. C. TRUESDELL. 33. 

* Present and future trends in electronics. 
Louis N. RipENovrR. 338. 

* Recent developments in superconductivity. 
E. MaxwE Lt. 336. 

*Some of the geometrical, physical, and 
physiological properties of light. A. I. 
Manan. 343. 

* Some recent developments in the production 
of high rotational speeds and their applica- 
tion. J. W. Beams. 342. 

*The first half hour of creation. GEORGE 
Gamow. 334. 

* The mesons of cosmic-ray physics. HERMAN 
YaGopa. 343. 

* The new Johns Hopkins ruling engine. JoHN 
STRONG. 334. 

* The properties of microwaves. GORDON F. 
Hutt. 337. 


HARRELL L. 


JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


VOL. 42, No. 12 


* The reactor program of the Atomic Energy 
Commission. L. R. Harstap. 334. 

Psychoanalysis. * Methodological consideration 
in psychoanalytical research. RENE A. 
Sprrz. 337. 

Scientific research. * The place and future of 
organized research in modern society. 
Tuomas H. JoHNsoN. 344. 

Systematic zoology. Nomenclature and grammar. 
CESARE EMILIANI. 137. 

Zoology. A new Calyptrophora (Coelenterata: 
Octocorallia) from the Philippine Islands. 
FREDERICK M. Bayer. 82. 

A new genus and species of Limnadiidae from 
Venezuela (Crustacea: Conchostraca). N.T. 
Marrox. 23. 

Adercotryma, a new Recent foraminiferal 
genus from the Arctic. ALFRED R.LOEBLICH, 
Jr., and HELEN Tappan. 141. 

Ammopemphizx, new name for the Recent 
foraminiferal genus Urnula Wiesner. AL- 
FRED R. LoEBLICH, JR. 82. 

Buccella, a new genus of the rotalid Foram- 
inifera. Harotp V. ANDERSEN. 143. 

Fresh-water triclads (Turbellaria) of the 
Rocky Mountain National Park region, 
Colorado. Roman KeEnxK. 193. 

Geographical distribution of the species of 
nemerteans of the Arctic Ocean near Point 
Barrow, Alaska. WrmstEY R. Cor. 55. 

New Recent foraminiferal genera from the 
tropical Pacific. ALFRED R. LoEBLicu, JR. 
189. 

New western Atlantic records of octocorals 
(Coelenterata: Anthozoa), with descrip- 
tions of three new species. FREDERICK M. 
Bayer. 183. 

Notes on the history and distribution of the 
reptiles. AustIN H. CLarK. 262. 

Poritextularia, a new Recent foraminiferal 
genus. ALFRED R. LoEBLICH, JR., and HELEN 
Tappan. 264. 

The larva of Hymenolepis californicus in the 
brine shrimp (Artemia salina). R.T. Youne. 
385. 

The marine annelids of the United States 
Navy Antarctic Expedition, 1947-48. OLea 
Hartman. 231. 


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Washington Section, American Society of Mechanical Engineers. .RicHarp 8. DILL 
Helminthological Society of Washington................ ......... L. A. SPINDLER 
Washington Branch, Society of American Bacteriologists...... Ancus M. GriFrFIN 
Washington Post, Society of American Military Engineers...... Fioyp W. Houcu 
Washington Section, Institute of Radio Engineers........... HeErRBert G. DorsEy 


District of Columbia Section, American Society of Civil Engineers 
Martin A. Mason 
District of Columbia Section, Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 


N. R. Evxiis 

Elected Members of the Board of Managers: 
Monlanuarnyl953s: ls Ws. ass wees ences C. F. W. Musrsesecr, A. T. McPHERsSON 
IO Uammerny Gy Cee eimai iain et einen ater Sara E. Branuam, Mitton Harris 
ING Uigiameicy OT Ree openers ee ietGr ciate Cena eC Rocer G. Batss, W. W. Disuu 
OUT ONO fMMONAQENS.osr)- a0 2 os False eens: All the above officers plus the Senior Editor 
Roardrojelottorsvand Associate Havtorss. 25.02 sa. 5006 +e osc ee leo. [See front cover] 


Executive Committee....W ALTER RAMBERG (chairman), F.M.Srerzter, H.S.RAPPLEYE, 
WiuuiaM A. Dayton, F. M. DEFANDORF 
Committee on Membership. .E. H. WALKER (chairman), M. S. ANDERSON, CLARENCE Cot- 
Tam, R. C. Duncan, JoHn Faser, G. T. Faust, 1. B. HANSEN, Frank Kracex, D. B. 
Jonss, E. G. REINHARD, ReEcE J. Saruer, Leo A. Surtnn, F. A. Smiru, Heinz SpPecut, 
M. Trent, ALFRED WEISSLER 
Committee on Meetings....H. W. Wetus (chairman), WM. R. CaMpBELL, W. R. CHap- 
LINE, D. J. Davis, H. G. Dorsry, O. W. ToRRESON 

Committee on Monographs (W. N. Fenton, chairman): 


ROMTANUATV A Goa res secre ae ea eho ee tee teen R. W. Imuay, P. W. Oman 

POW eam aT yl O54 ee ia teteasl aba aavetiss srl eee clement S. F. Buakes, F. C. Kracex 
OMAMUAT Yl G55 rary se tien vor tese ss a snerarater tee mare senate W.N. Fenton, ALAN STONE 

Committee on Awards for Scientific Achievement (J. R. SwALLEN, general chairman): 

For Biological Sciences............. J. R. SWALLEN (chairman), L. M. HutcuHins, 
Maraarert Pittman, F. W. Poos, L. P. Scuuttrz 

For Engineering Sciences............. R. C. Duncan (chairman), A. C. FIELDNER, 
Wayne C. Hatt, J. W. McBurney, O. S. Reavine, H. L. WaitremMore 
HoTelehysicahiSclencess apr nee enter L. A. Woop (chairman), P. H. ABELSON, 


_ F.S. Darr, Gzores W. Irvine, Jr., J. H. McMiLueNn 
For Teaching of Science...... M. A. Mason (chairman), F. E. Fox, M. H. Martin 


Committee on Grants-in-aid for Research....... L. E. Yocum (chairman), H. N. Eaton, 
. HeRZFELD 
Committee on Policy and Planning: 
ROP SATU ATV PLO DSR nyt sieve tonite oi aisrenetoraie ore W. A. Dayton (chairman), N. R. Suira 
PRO MAMUAT VE GOA Rrra. sas cminn aes savers Tei eee H. B. Couins, Jr., W. W. RuBey 
MRoJanuary elo ene: sic cciccete cee cueacem os enn L. W. Parr, F. B. StnsBEE 
Committee on Encouragement of Science Talent (A. T. McPuHERsON, chairman): 
ROR SANUATY LOD SIE sean sieve Solstice er Aes a oe ein stedieemtelats A. H. Cuarrk, F. L. Monier 
PROMTANUAT VAL OAT ue fiilia pir ON erp MtN LS Scisdacetas J. M. Catpwetu, W. L. Scumirr 
MO WAnUsrye | Ibo m ae er aA CEe ron eee isc coean A. T. McPuerson, W. T. Reap 
NE DRESC LAL ChOTOOUNCULIO PA TDAGH A Seemann seeniinieiianeiee eee F. M. Serzuer 
Committee of Auditors...... C. L. Gazin (chairman), Loutss M. Russetu, D. R. Tats 


Committee of Tellers...@norGE P. WALTON (chairman), GEORGE H. Coons, C. L. GARNER 


CONTENTS 


Botany—Notes on Fraxinus (ash) in the United States. Expert L. 


dL See SSN A ee One eae MORON SE So a 


PALEONTOLOGY.—Taxonomic notes on genera of fossil and Recent 


Bryozoa-) UR. S$: BASSUBR 208 i. eee Sa. 2 ee 


Zootocy.—The larva of Hymenolepis californicus in the brine shrimp 
(Artemia'salina)., UR: I. YOUNG «0... .4)....< 0. oon 3 eee 


HELMINTHOLOGY.—Helminths from the Republic of Panama: II: A new 
trematode from the intestine of Philander laniger pallidus Thomas 
and key to the species of the genus Phaneropsolus Looss, 1899 
(Trematoda: Lecithodendriidae). Epuarpo CABALLERO y C. and 


ROBERT G. (GROCOTT...2 2h. 00 oe ho 2 ee ee eee 


Mammatocy.—A new name for Dipodomys ordii fuscus Setzer. HENRY 
WE SEUZER:. oos.ce tere. She cfendine hin atey qcntgcte ae aban Cl Geen 


OBrruARY:/ Albert Hugene McPherson ......-..:---....: 50 


INDEX TO; VOLUME AZ). 0.54 sais 4 siad Gite es eee ciel de ae 


This Journal is Indexed in the International Index to Periodicals. 


” E945) 


Page 


369 
381 


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