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57 


VOLUME 64 
Number 1 


Journal of the MARCH, 1974 


vi ASHINGTON 
4 CADEMY..SCIENCES 


Issued Quarterly 
at Washington, D.C. 


CONTENTS 


Research Reports: 


JOHN A. DAVIDSON: Observations of Oncometopia orbona (Fabricius) 
meaion (tiomeptera: Cicadelidac) ...... 6.026. 2 ss sense ea cawenes 3 


M. D. DELFINADO and E. W. BAKER: Varroidae: A New Family 
of Mites on Honeybees (Mesostigmata: Acarina).................005- 4 


GEORGE C. STEYSKAL: A Gynandromorphic Specimen of the Genus 
Pb nA SCION ZIGAG) 0) 2 cea b Fic nd week aeeeeueds secieries 11 


W. BRYAN STOLZFUS: Biology and Larval Description of Procecido- 
memes pemciope (Diptera: Lephritidae) .... <2... 0. ac wee ecb een ees 


I rer tee ls i re ee ts cuidate s ou teeels Oersw oon a : 


} 


_ Academy Affairs: 
Board of Managers Meeting Notes (October, 1973)...............00e00ee- 18 


EMRE STE UN NNISe Se ot ey ry Mem ere ees oo a 


EIEN 5 = sc ie de cece en ees Seen NS fate Sead Sain aie eke 


Obituaries: 

Richard Stevens Burington peters | MAR a cape ak it Se, EA eat 
/ \ 

Sebastian Karrer 11D Te Sagan Nee Ly A Sb LAER) See TS OM Pr POE hat 


Leland W. Parr PRMMIPE ECT ett at ame emt ii ca!) Fi aes wi aie wide ah 


Ld + 


Washington Academy of Sciences 


4 
a 


EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


President 
Grover C. Sherlin 


President-Elect 
Kurt H. Stern 


Secretary 
Patricia Sarvella 


Treasurer 
Nelson W. Rupp 


Board Member 
Samuel B. Detwiler, Jr. 


BOARD OF MANAGERS 


All delegates of affiliated 
Societies (see facing page) 


EDITOR 


Richard H. Foote 


EDITORIAL ASSISTANT 


Elizabeth Ostaggi 


ACADEMY OFFICE 


9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda) 


Washington, D.C. 20014 
Telephone (301) 530-1402 


Founded in 1898 


The Journal 


This journal, the official organ of the Washington Aca- 
demy of Sciences, publishes historical articles, critical 
reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; proceedings 
of meetings of the Academy and its Board of Mana- 
gers; and other items of interest to Academy members. 
The Journal appears four times a year (March, June, 
September, and December) — the September issue 
contains a directory of the Academy membership. 


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Back Issues 


Obtainable from the Academy office (address at bot- 
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(1898-1910) Index: To Vols. 1-13 of the Proceedings 
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Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the 
Washington Academy of Sciences, 9650 Rockville Pike, Washington, D.C. Second class 
postage paid at Washington, D.C. and additional mailing offices. 


DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


Piety OF WaASMINGTON ... 1. ccc cence evap earenececeusncee Bradley F. Bennett 
rer aeGIely Of WaSHiINStONn ....... 00. cc eee se cen edececesncepeensens Jean K. Boek 
EE TETSUUUON WW ASMINGTON 06... 6. cc eeepc ea eneteusvevncecs Delegate not appointed 
rere MU CSIMOTON . 0. ck cee ec eee cede ndeeutussuacbeeeentle Alfred Weissler 
Demme sOGiety Of Washington ....... 0.06.0. cic c cee eee nw cee ene Beee William E. Bickley 
IPE SOGICLY 65/65 fh cle cine ot een he eae adeeb aw sue wie clele Weis Alexander Wetmore 
EON ASDINOTON: . oc eifs cas ialc ape ses eked ete Gale cw des veweeuee neue Charles Milton 
eee aecicry OF the District of Columbia .............0.0000ceeeaee Delegate not appointed 
ERIE SOCICTY <1. J. fo Ms alee cine aces cere cece eva blsae saellescevesecee Paul H. Oehser 
ETT ITN UT 09 1 a Conrad B. Link 
ET IREMMETOLGSICLS: 2.40) hoe. eho hh oc ie ice wa w tld ee ccna sae ei aleee ll ous Robert Callaham 
PITERENMICICIVUOR FMNGIMECTS ... 2... ile cde eee ee eee ecea dbs ceteneute George Abraham 
Seeereeereeiceiicd) and Electronics Engineers .........0.0000 0000 ce were cues eesseuce Harry Fine 
ere seeicnveel Mechanical ENgineers).... 5.5.6 h iwc ce cae i alec eee ce aeenes Michael Chi 
SeeemmnminmmrredtSsncicety OF Washington «2... 6c ie ce ce die cs bee eee new ates James H. Turner 
MN MMIEIIOLNIVICTODIOIOSY «0.0506. c eo ee ce lene hate ceteneaeuevcens Lewis Affronti 
ean vmnichical Military Engineers... 00. ....0.0. 5000 ccc ccs c ccc eeewececceees H.P. Demuth 
ety SOIC Vil FE NPINECErS . 62). 4. Js csc kee ceo es case nsacaeneea ves es Carl H. Gaum 
Pua Experimental Biology and Medicine ............0.....000.cceeceecs Carlton Treadwell 
Sa SISTER UP GE rrr ee Glen W. Wensch 
eeemaeial Association for Dental Research .............0..0...200 00005 Norman H.C. Griffiths 
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics ................... ech cee nite aos Franklin Ross 
DC MNETCOROIOVICd! SOCICLY ....5 5 ce eee teh cect ae wewes Delegate not appointed 
DMEM SOCICOyTO! Washington ...-....... 06sec ce cecccecceccscrscucecvors H. Ivan Rainwater 
MEIER NO OATMCTICA: % 00.5.5 ac cos gris hbo wea de meee oe cb vee bed dae eae Gerald J. Franz 
IPCI SDCICEN 0.0. ois edb io 5 cs bcd See ceiod ea due ss LawBale cols Delegate not appointed 
PPERMMEISIGIPCCHNOIOLIS(S ... 2.0.0.3. cece aed eee eee cba nd ede weseucwen William Sulzbacher 
aE MEMES OCIONY © ory io 0 ss eto dat ae ba Meo sld deeb eee wonea qe sae aeleide vale W.T. Bakker 
I DRI MECC 28 8 HY 2 ey cr csciains abv # bt a adel ewig wt os ye Waal ae elas Stanley D. James 
mmtiseny or Science Clubs... ie. eck ce eee eenee Delegate not appointed 
een association Of Physics Teachers..............0000.cscecescccscsee Bernard B. Watson 
INE MINH UTI RCC 8 oho a. la tee cakes late 4 sid A acw asad poe wis i dhels va wi wars James B. Heaney 
emmomcicty or Plant PhysiologistS. 0... 05. ojecs ce lhncliaes seca c ec ceeeees Walter Shropshire 
meeinctations Research Council... 1.0.00. cece ee cee nnenees John G. Honig 
MMNEMEICEN OE ANIMICTICA 05 sss dn vice te seek celeb awa cbalaweades Delegate not appointed 


American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical 


eB OEMS TICES: 5). )0 5. oi oie ai shiv dv ale tise 'sivicieid seen eee Geb cle ees Delegate not appointed 
MEH WAGIRONOMICES). | 0105/0. 02. co- ec ec sb le cee cco ec cee cee uecweuentne John A. Eisele 
EEE ASSOCIATION Of AMETICA 6. 0..00.0 2 ccc edie bee eae sieccsteeeeunens Daniel B. Lloyd 
INERT RUNES MICTMISES (0, 0/5 06 cc be clea ce ec cada ete dcdeaduecevssceensecs Miloslav Recheigl, Jr. 


Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective societies. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 1 


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RESEARCH REPORTS 


Observations of Oncometopia orbona (Fabricius) 
Migration (Homoptera: Cicadellidae) 


John A. Davidson 


Department of Entomology, University of Maryland, College Park, 


Maryland 20742. 


ABSTRACT 


The leafhopper Oncometopia orbona (Fabricius) was observed migrating from the 
western shore of the Chesapeake Bay, at Sandypoint State Park, to the eastern shore of 


the Bay on October 14, 1973. 


While on a fishing trip to Sandy Point 
State Park, Maryland, on October 14, 
1973, my daughter, Lynn Davidson, and 
I made the following observations on 
Oncometopia orbona (Fabricius). 

We arrived at the park about 1:00 
p.m. The park is on the west side of the 
Chesapeake Bay just north of the 
Chesapeake Bay Bridge. It was a sunny 
day with the temperature about 75°F 
and wind from the west at 10-15 miles 
per hour. We parked near the beach 
beside 2 red maple trees about 30 feet 
tall. As we walked past the trees toward 
the water, we noticed what at first 
appeared to be a swarm of bees flying 
on the lee side of each tree. On closer 
inspection they proved to be leafhop- 
pers. Forty specimens were collected 
and later determined to be Oncometopia 
orbona (Fabricius). This species is often 
found in collections with the preoc- 
cupied name Oncometopia undata 
(Fabricius). 

Scientific Article no. A1971, Contribution no. 


4906, of the Maryland Agricultural Experiment 
Station. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


We left the leafhoppers and walked 
about 200 yards across open sand to the 
water and began fishing. As the day 
wore on, we began noticing these 
leafhoppers flying about on the sand 
near the water. Slowly their numbers 
increased until they were landing in 
swarms on the lee side of any object 
near the water’s edge, apparently seek- 
ing protection from the wind. They were 
quite annoying and several people left 
the beach because of their activity. 


About 4:00 p.m. the wind subsided 
and the leafhoppers were seen flying 
from the water’s edge in what looked 
like loose swarms across the bay. They 
flew facing the wind, but allowed the 
wind to carry them eastward. 


We left the park about 5:00 p.m. and 
as we passed the 2 maple trees at the 
parking lot, we noticed the leafhoppers 
were gone. 


I wish to thank Dr. James P. Kramer, 
Systematic Entomology Laboratory, 
U.S.D.A., for the species determination 
and review of this note. 


Varroidae, A New Family of Mites on 
Honey Bees (Mesostigmata: Acarina) 


M. D. Delfinado! and E. W. Baker 


New York State Museum and Science Service, Albany, N. Y. 12224, 
and Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Agr. Res. Serv. USDA, 


Beltsville, Md. 20705, respectively. 


ABSTRACT 


The mite Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans, a parasite of honey bees in Asia, is redescribed 
and figured; Euvarroa sinhai, n. gen., n. sp., also a parasite of honey bees, is described 
and figured from India; both are from Asia. The family Varroidae is erected for the two 


genera. 


The genus Varroa was proposed by 
Oudemans (1904a, b) to accommodate a 
laelapid-like mite found parasitizing 
Apis indica Fabricius in Java. Although 
the male was unknown, Oudemans did 
not hesitate to place this mite in the 
Laelaptinae because ‘‘the female, con- 
cerning the dorsal and ventral shields, 
seems to be nearest to Hypoaspis 
myrmemophilus (Berlese) and Hypoas- 
pis Canestrini (Berlese) which are pro- 
vided too with metapodial as well as 
with inguinal shields, a rare coinci- 
dence; and concerning its being covered 
dorsally with so numerous hairs,— 
Hypoaspis arcualis (C. L. Koch).’’ 
Baker and Wharton (1952) subsequently 
listed Varroa in the subfamily Hypoas- 
pidinae (Laelapidae) and it has not until 
now been removed from that group. 

Upon further examination of the 
mites infesting honey bees in Southeast 
Asia we noted that Varroa jacobsoni 
Oudemans (type-species of Varroa) 
showed characteristics that do not fit the 
present concept of Laelapidae. The dis- 
covery of the new genus Ewvarroa 
provides us additional support for as- 


1 Published by permission of the Director, New 
York State Science Service, Journal Series No. 
152. 


4 


signing these mites separate family 
status under the present classification. 


In distinguishing Varroidae from 
other Mesostigmata, especially the 
Dermanyssidae-Laelapidae group sensu 
Evans and Till (1965), we considered 
Oudemans’ diagnostic bases for the 
genus Varroa as the major features for 
characterization of the group, namely 
the marked modification in the structure 
of the chelicerae which completely lack 
the fixed digit, and the number and 
arrangement of the gnathosomal setae. 
However, Oudemans (1904b: 216) mis- 
interpreted the cheliceral structure: 
‘*’ , . that the mandibles in the female 
sex lack the upper-jaw and have a fixed, 
not a movable, under-jaw.’’ We are 
including in this diagnosis other features 
important in differentiating Varroidae 
from other groups, especially the palpus 
and leg chaetotaxy. An interesting fea- 
ture of the leg and palpus chaetotaxy is 
the reduction in number of setae com- 
pared with those of the Dermanys- 
sidae-Laelapidae group sensu Evans and 
Till (1965). 

The material upon which this study is 
based was received through the cour- 
tesy of Dr. A. S. Michael, Bee 
Laboratory, U. S. Department of Ag- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


riculture, Beltsville, Maryland, Dr. 
Donald Johnston, Acarology Labora- 
tory, The Ohio State University, Col- 
umbus, Ohio, and Dr. Preston Hunter, 
Department of Entomology, University 
of Georgia, Athens, Georgia. The ter- 
minology and chaetotaxy used here are 
those of Baker and Wharton (1952) and 
Evans and Till (1965). 


Family Varroidae, n. fam. 


Type-genus: Varroa Oudemans (1904a 
b). 


The 2 genera included in this family 
are parasites of wild and domestic 
honey bees in Southeast Asia, India, 
Korea, Japan, and the Soviet Far East. 
They have been collected on dead and 
live pupae, on adult bees, and in comb- 
cells and sealed brood. 

The females are readily distinguished 
from other members of the Mesostig- 
mata by the marked modifications in the 
structure of the chelicerae which com- 
pletely lack the fixed digit, and by the 
number and arrangement of the 
gnathosomal setae. The stigmata and 
peritreme are situated ventrolateral; the 
peritreme is short and strongly looped 
and directed posteriorly or laterally in 
the region of coxa IV. The tined setae 
on the palps are 2-pronged, with the 
basal prong markedly reduced in size. 
The body is strongly sclerotized with 
a single dorsal plate covered with a dense 
pattern of setae. The form of the trito- 
sternum, sternal region and _ genital- 
ventral plate shows an affinity to the 
Laelapidae-Dermanyssidae group, and 
the arrangement of the gnathosomal 
setae is the type seen in the Trachy- 
toidea or Uropodoidea. However, the 
reduction in the number of gnathosomal 
setae and the structure of the chelicerae 
are unique; the latter has lost many of 
the characteristics of the basic der- 
manyssid type as given by Evans and 
Till (1966). 

Female.—Relatively large, hairy. Chelicerae 
short, simple; fixed digit completely lacking; mov- 
able digit dentate; slender, almost pointed, with- 
out setae, evidently developed for piercing and 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


tearing the skin of the hosts. Corniculi slender, 
tapering distally and blade-like dorsally. Three 
pairs of gnathosomal setae present, namely: | pair 
at base of gnathosoma and 2 pairs on hypostome. 
Tectum if visible simple, with smooth anterior 
margin. Dorsal plate entire, covering entire dor- 
sum, with narrow thickened margin and or- 
namented with polygonal network of simple lines 
or striations and covered with dense pattern of 
setae which may be simple or barbed, the marginal 
setae distinctly differing in size from discal setae. 
Tritosternum if present weak, bifurcate. Sternal 
plate well developed and bearing 3 pairs of setae, 
except in Varroa which has 5 or 6 pairs. Genitai 
plate with more than 10 setae, the posterior 
extension approaching anterior margin of ven- 
trianal plate. Anal plate bearing 3 setae; anus 
terminal. Peritremal plate absent, or possibly 
fused with podal plates. Podal plates (Evans and 
Till, 1965) well developed, half circling posterior 
border of coxae IV; metapodal plates present and 
markedly developed in Varroa. Stigmata and 
peritreme ventrolateral in position; peritreme 
strongly looped and extending laterally or pos- 
teriorly from stigmata. Exopodal plates curiously 
developed in Varroa but weak in Euvarroa. Legs 
strongly formed; II-IV 7-segmented, and with 
metatarsus; claws if present not well developed. 


Genus Varroa Oudemans 


Varroa Oudemans, 1904a (July 1), Entomol. Ber. 
(Amst.) 18: 161; 1904b (July), Notes Leyden 
Mus. 24: 216. 


Type-species: Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans, 1904; 
by monotypy. 


This remarkable genus with 1 species 
(the type V. jacobsoni) has the following 
features in the female: 3 pairs of 
gnathosomal setae; deutosternal groove 
smooth, lacking denticles; exopodal 
plates completely fused with each other 
anteriorly; podal or endopodal and 
metapodal plates markedly developed, 
the latter densely setate; ventral plate 
covered with dense pattern of setae; 
sternal plate with 5-6 pairs of setae and 
4—5 pairs of pores; stigmata and peri- 
treme ventro-lateral. Peritreme strongly 
looped and directed laterad of stigmata; 
peritremal plates lacking or presumably 
fused with podal plates; dorsal plate 
entire with a narrow thickened margin, 
covered with dense smooth and finely 
barbed setae; legs II-IV 7-segmented. 
The male is similar to the female but 
poorly sclerotized; the spermatodactyl 
is absent and it is possible that the 


5 


modified strongly grooved chelicerae 
function as spermatophore bearers. 

Varroa is placed close to Euvarroa, n. 
gen. by the structure of the chelicerae, 
by the number and arrangement of 
gnathosomal setae and by the lack of 
peritremal plates. The main differences 
between the genera appear to be the 
presence of denticles in the deutosternal 
groove and the absence of sternal pores 
in Euvarroa. However, there are other 
differences, especially in the palpus and 
leg chaetotaxy which will be discussed 
in the species descriptions. 


Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans 


Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans, 1904a (July 1), En- 
tomol. Ber. (Amst.) 18: 161; 1904b (July), Notes 
Leyden Mus. 24: 216 (as jacobsonii). Type-loc.: 
Samarang, Java, on Apis indica Fabricius. 

Varroa ricinus Oudemans, 1904c, Entomol. Ber. 
(Amst.) 19: 169. Nomen nudum. 

Myrmozercon reidi Gunther, 1961, Proc. Linn. 
Soc. N.S.W. 76: 155. Type-loc.: Singapore, 
Malaya, on Apis indica Fabricius; Delfinado, 
1963, J. Apic. Res. 2: 113. Synonymy. 


Female.—Large, brown, hairy species; body 
broadly elliptical, dorsum completely covered by 
sclerotized plate; surface of dorsal plate covered 
with numerous finely barbed setae of varying 
lengths, discal setae shorter than posterior and 
lateral setae; ornamented with striations and 
polygonal network of simple lines; a narrow 
thickened margin broadened antero-laterally, dor- 
sally bearing short setae, 21-23 stout lanceolate 
setae at each side as figured. Gnathosoma small, 
completely hidden beneath dorsal plate, lying 
between coxae I. Cheliceral bases relatively short, 
slender; chelicerae short, fixed digit absent, mov- 
able digit slender, tapered distally and bearing 2 
small teeth, without setae, as figured. Deutoster- 
nal groove smooth, without denticle. Tectum as 
figured, smooth anteriorly. Corniculi blade-like, 
appearing flat in profile. Salivary stylets present, 
hyaline and tapering. Three pairs of gnathosomal 
setae arranged in longitudinal row; 2 pairs of 
short setae on hypostome, a pair at base of 
gnathosoma slightly longer than hypostomals. 
Palpus 6-segmented; tarsal tined seta with short, 
small basal prong. Palpal chaetotaxy formula as 
follows: the figures represent trochanter, femur, 
genu, tibia and tarsus: 1, 2-3, 2, 7-8, 12. Number 
of setae on femur and tibia variable. Sternal plate 
with strong internal ridges, extending from an- 
terior margin of coxae II to coxae IV; very long 
anterior protuberance between coxae I and II; 
5-6 pairs of sternal setae and 4-5 pairs of pores 
present; 3 pairs of pores situated between setae 1 
and 2 (pore 1), 2 and 3 (pore 2), 3 and 4 (pore 3), 
pore 4 laterad or below seta 5. Metasternal plate 


obviously fused with sternal plate. Genital open- 
ing located below sternal plate and difficult to see 
unless specimens dissected. Ventral plate wider 
than long, uniformly sclerotized, covered with 
numerous setae (over 100) except anterior portion; 
posterior extension straight and approaching an- 
terior margin of anal plate. Anal plate small, 
bearing 3 setae; paranals situated on each side of 
anus; with 1 post anal. Anus terminal. Metapodal 
plates conspicuous, subtriangular and very large, 
occupying the greater portion of area below lateral 
plates, completely covered with setae. Endopodal 
plates (Evans and Till, 1965) greatly enlarged, 
arising ventrally from posterior region of sternal 
plate half circling posterior margin of and extend- 
ing laterally beyond region of coxae IV; lateral 
portion greatly expanded with strong ridges or 
protuberances and with 5-8 setae; adjacent in- 
tegument with 5-8 setae. Exopodals strong, com- 
pletely fused with each other anteriorly and 
forming a framework along anterior border of 
dorsal plate, enclosing the cavities between coxae 
I and II, II and IV. This structure is best seen in 
dissected specimens, as figured. Stigmata and 
peritreme ventro-lateral, stigmata located in region 
of coxae III and IV; peritreme short, strongly 
looped distally, extending posteriorly from stig- 
mata in region of coxae IV. Legs robust, 
7-segmented with metatarsi present on II-IV 
although tarsi I show slight evidence of secondary 
division. Claws do not appear developed. Leg 
chaetotaxy formula as follows: the figures repre- 
sent coxa, trochanter, femur, genu, tibia, metatar- 
sus and tarsus. Number of setae on genu, tibia and 
tarsus of leg IV somewhat variable. 


LegI — 2,5, 10, 12, 13, 0, 34 
Leg II — 2, 5,8, 11, 11, 4, 13 
Leg III — 2, 5, 8, 11, 11, 4, 13 
Leg IV — 1, 6, 7, 9-11, 10-11, 4, 12-13 


Body length 1135 yu; width 1666 pu. 


Male.—Gnathosoma as in female; deutosternal 
groove without teeth; with 3 pairs of setae in 
longitudinal line; cheliceral bases as in female, 
fixed chelae lacking, movable chela broadly ta- 
pered to blunt tip and deeply grooved its entire 
length; corniculi blade-like as in female; palpal 
tine claw with tiny basal prong. Tritosternum 
weakly sclerotized, bifurcate. Genital opening 
anterior; sternal plate weakly sclerotized, with 5 
pairs of setae; venter of plate posterior to coxae 
IV area with numerous short setae. Stigmata and 
peritreme ventral-lateral, situated between coxae 
III and IV and directed anteriorly. Endopodal 
plates present, weak, half circling coxae IV; other 
plates not or barely discernable; anal plate with 3 
pairs of setae. Dorsal plate weakly sclerotized, 
striated, covered with numerous simple setae, the 
posterior marginal setae being stronger than others 
but not as much as in female. Body oval, broadest 
at coxae IV area. Legs robust, coxae I-IV 
contiguous as in female, tarsal claws not de- 
veloped. Body length 800u; width 706. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


Varroa jacobsoni Oudemans. Fig. 1, venter of female with details of dorsal setae; fig. 2, venter of 
gnathosoma with tectum; fig. 3, chelicera; fig. 4, sternal plate; fig. 5, genital plate; fig. 6, exopodal plate; 
fig. 7, endopodal plate; fig. 8, leg I; fig. 9, leg II; fig. 10, leg III; fig. 11, leg IV. 


V. jacobsoni has been found parasitiz- 
ing Apis indica Fabricius, Apis mellifera 
Linnnaeus and Apis cerana javana En- 
derlein in Southeast Asia, India and the 
Soviet Far East; males were recently 
found in Swon, Korea by K. S. Woo on 
Apis mellifera (Crane, 1968; Delfinado, 
1963; Ehara, 1968; Gupta, 1967; Kshir- 
sagar, 1967; Kulikov, 1965; Stephen, 
1968; Yoshikawa and Ohgushi, 1965). 
Kulikov (1955) cited a number of in- 
teresting observations concerning the 
biology and behavior of this mite on 
bees. Although the mites freely occur 
on the back surface and under the wings 
of the bees, feeding takes place on the 
abdomen ‘‘with their mouthparts in the 
area of the intersegmental membranes 
whereby the anterior part of the body is 
hidden below the chitin segment of the 
bees’ abdomen’’ (translation from the 
Russian). Apparently the mites suck 
tissue fluid or haemolymph of the host, 
but Kulikov suggested that the mites 
possibly also feed on the regurgitated 
content of the honey sac. He further 
observed that jacobsoni is viviparous. It 
is possible that they give birth to first 
stage nymphs. But we have not ob- 
served any intrauterine development in 
the specimens on hand. The mites 
chiefly affect drone brood, and up to 
5000 individuals may be found in one 
colony. 


Genus Euvarroa, n. gen. 
Type-species: Euvarroa sinhai, n. sp. 


This new genus is similar to Varroa 
by the structure of the chelicerae which 
lack the fixed digit, by possessing three 
pairs of gnathosomal setae and by the 
form and location of the stigmata and 
peritreme. It obviously differs in that 
the deutosternal groove possesses 13- 
14 small triangular denticles. 


Female.—Dorsal plate covered with moderately 
dense simple setae of nearly uniform length, 
ornamented with reticulate pattern; a narrow 
lightly thickened margin, broader posteriorly, 
bearing 39-40 very long lanceolate setae; sternal 
plate rectangular with thickened anterior and 
lateral margins, with three pairs of setae lacking 
associated pores; a pair of metasternal setae lies 


outside plate just above remnants of the metaster- 
nal plates; metapodal plates small, rounded; podal 
plates half circle posterior border of coxae IV; 
exopodal plates very lightly sclerotized. Stigmata 
and peritreme ventro-lateral, stigmata situated 
adjacent to coxae IV, peritreme strongly looped 
and directed laterad of stigmata in region of coxae 
IV. Peritremal plates absent or possibly fused 
with podal plates. Legs well developed, with stout 
setae, II-IV 7-segmented; claws simple, de- 
veloped. Laciniae and tritosternum not seen, 
probably absent. Forked tine of palpus possesses 
a tiny basal prong. Palpal and leg chaetotaxy 
formula as given for species. 


Euvarroa sinhai, n. sp. 


Female.—Moderately large, brown setaceous 
mite, body broadly pear-shaped, dorsum com- 
pletely covered by single sclerotized entire plate; 
surface of dorsal plate covered with moderately 
dense simple setae of almost uniform length, 
ornamented with reticulate pattern, a lightly thick- 
ened margin present, broader posteriorly and 
bearing 39-40 very long lanceolate setae dorsally 
on individual protuberances as figured; other 
marginal setae small and dorsal. Gnathosoma 
small, completely hidden below dorsal plate. 
Cheliceral bases short; chelicerae short, modified 
as in V. jacobsoni, fixed digit completely lacking; 
movable digit with 2 large teeth and tapering to 
pointed tip. Corniculi short, blade-like, salivary 
stylets well developed. Deutosternal groove with 
2-3 uneven rows of small triangular denticles. 
Three pairs of gnathosomal setae present, with 
hypostomal setae 2 outside line between hypo- 
stomal 1 and gnathoscmal setae as figured (the 
position of 2 may vary); gnathosomal setae longer 
than hypostomals. Tritosternum not seen. Tectum 
not seen. Palpal tined seta with tiny basal prong as 
figured. Palpal chaetotaxy formula as follows, the 
figures representing trochanter, femur, genu, tibia 
and tarsus: 2, 2—3, 1-2, 5, 12; setal numbers may 
be variable. Sternal plate rectangular, extending 
from posterior margin of coxae I to coxae III, 
with strong protuberances between cavities of 
coxae I and II and III, with thickened anterior 
and lateral margins, with 3 pairs of sternal setae 
lacking associated pores; a pair of metasternal 
setae lies outside sternal plate just above remnants 
of metasternal plate between region of coxae III 
and IV; associated metasternal pore also missing. 
Genital plate large, pear- or flask-shaped with 
straight posterior margin approaching anterior 
margin of anal plate, bearing 9-10 setae, un- 
iformly sclerotized except anterior portion as 
figured. Anal plate large, larger than ventral plate, 
squarish with shallow median indentation at pos- 
terior margin; 2 paranals longer and stronger than 
post anal seta. Anus terminal, hyaline or mem- 
branous. About 26 pairs of setae on integument 
adjacent to anal and ventral plates, 2 or 3 pairs of 
setae may be situated on anal plate. Metapodal 
plates small, rounded, without setae. Podal plates 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


Euvarroa sinhai, n. sp. Fig. 12, venter of female; fig. 13, details of posterior dorsal margin; fig. 14, 
venter of gnathosoma; fig. 15, chelicera; fig. 16, sternal plate; fig. 17, genital plate; fig. 18, anal plate; fig. 
19, endopodal plate, peritreme and small metapodal plate; fig. 20, tarsus, tibia and genu of leg I; fig. 21, 


ambulacra of leg I. 


small, subtriangular, half circling posterior border 
of coxae IV, without setae. Stigmata and peri- 
treme ventro-lateral; stigmata situated adjacent to 
coxae IV; peritreme strongly looped and directed 
laterad of stigmata in region of coxa IV. Peri- 
tremal plates absent, probably fused with podal 
plates. Exopodal plates very lightly sclerotized, 
enclosing cavities of coxae I-IV and continuing 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


anteriorly as in V. jacobsoni. Legs short, strong, 
II-IV more robust than I; coxal and dorsal setae 
stronger and stouter than others; legs II-IV 
7-segmented, tibia I with a short, strong antero- 
dorsal spur; claws developed, simple. Leg 
chaetotaxy formula as follows: the figures repre- 
sent coxa, trochanter, femur, genu, tibia, metatar- 
sus and tarsus. Compared with V. jacobsoni the 


chaetotaxy of E. sinhai shows a reduction in 
number of setae in trochanters I-III and femur 
and genu IV. This overall deficiency in leg 
chaetotaxy of both E. sinhai and V. jacobsoni is 
an interesting feature not well known in the 
Dermanyssidae-Laelapidae group. 


Rep 9) 3, 10212) hea) 37 
Lee I> 2/3 10 e103 no 

Leg III — 2, 4, 5, 10, 10, 3, 12 

Leg IV — 1, 6,4, 8: 10, 3/2 


Body length 1040 y, width 1000 yp. 
Male.— Unknown. 


Holotype.—-Female, U. S. National 
Museum No. 3580, taken from colony 
of Apis florea Fabricius, New Delhi, 
India, August 28, 1971, by R. B. P. 
Sinha. 


Paratypes.—Nine females in the 
U. S. National Museum collection; the 
Acarology Laboratory, Ohio State Uni- 
versity, and the New York State 
Museum and Science Service, Albany, 
New York; all with the data of the 
holotype. 


This species is named for Dr. R. B. 
P. Sinha of New Delhi, India. 


References Cited 


Baker, E. W., and G. W. Wharton. 1952. An 
Introduction to Acarology. Macmillan Co. 
N.Y., 465 pp. 


10. 


Crane, E. 1968. Mites infecting honeybees in 
Asia. Bee World 49(3): 113, 114. 

Delfinado, M. 1963. Mites of the honeybee in 
South-East Asia. J. Apic. Res. 2(2): 113, 114. 
Ehara, S. 1968. On two mites of economic 
importance in Japan (Arachnida: Acarina). 

Appl. Entomol. Zool. 3(3): 124-129. 

Evans, G. O., and W. M. Till. 1965. Studies on the 
British Dermanyssidae (Acari: Mesostigmata) 
Part I External Morphology. Bull. Br. Mus. 
(Nat. Hist.) Zool. 13(8): 249-294. 

. 1966. Studies on the British Dermanys- 
sidae (Acari: Mesostigmata) Part II Classifica- 
tion. Buil. Br. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool. 14(5): 
109-370. 

Gunther, C. E. M. 1951. A mite from a beehive on 
Singapore Island (Acarina: Laelaptidae). Proc. 
Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 76(3—4): 155-157. 

Gupta, G. A. 1957. Varroa jacobsoni: a mite pest 
of Apis indica. Bee World 48(1): 17, 18. 

Kshirsagar, K. K. 1967. Mites on the Indian 
honeybee. Bee World 48(3): 84, 85. 

Kulikov, N. S. 1965. ‘“‘Varroa disease’’ of the 
honey bee. [in Russian]. Pchelovodstvo (11): 
1S, 16. 

Oudemans, A. C. 1904a. Acarologische Aan- 
teekeningen XII. Entomol. Ber. (Amst.) 18 
(July 1): 161. 

. 1904b. Note VIII. On a new genus and 

species of parasitic acari. Notes Leyden Mus. 

24 (July): 216-222. 

1904c. Acarologische Aanteekeningen 
XIII. Entomol. Ber. (Amst.) 19: 169. 

Stephen, W. 1968. Mites: A beekeeping problem 
in Vietnam and India. Bee World 49(3): 119, 
120. 

Yoshikawa, K., and E. Ohgushi. 1965. Tropical 
beekeeping in Cambodia. J. Biol. Osaka City 
Univ. 16: 81-88. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


A Gynandromorphic Specimen of the Genus Limnia 


(Diptera: Sciomyzidae) 


George C. Steyskal 


Systematic Entomology Laboratory, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA, clo U. S. National 


Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560 


ABSTRACT 


A serial gynandromorph of a species of Limnia (segments 8 and following, female; 


otherwise male) is described and figured. 


Among specimens of the genus 
Limnia being examined for a revision of 
the genus, Lloyd V. Knutson found a 
most interesting gynandromorphic 
specimen, which, because of its nature, 
could be determined only as far as a 
group of species including L. fitchi 
Steyskal, L. ottawensis Melander, and a 
few less common species. The tip of the 
abdomen is here figured (Fig. 1a), to- 
gether with the tip of the abdomen of a 
normal female (Fig. 1b) for comparison. 
The abnormal specimen is basically 
male, with the abdomen modified as is 
normal in males of the genus. The Ist 5 
segments are essentially as in normal 
males. The following 2 segments (6 and 
7, protandrium) are also much as in 
normal specimens. The ultimate seg- 
ments (8th and following) are very ab- 
normal. The sterna of segments 6 and 7, 
as in normal males, are greatly reduced. 
Tergum 6, also as in normal males, is 
virtually absent, but tergum 7 is well 
developed. Tergum 8 (epandrium) is 
dome-like as in normal males, but the 
hypandrium is not evident. Perhaps a 
flap (f) in the membrane mesad of 
tergum 7 and attached only at its caudal 
end represents sternum 8 (hypandrium). 
A plate that may correspond at least to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


Fig. 1. Limnia sp., terminal segments of abdo- 
men in oblique ventral view. a, gynandromorph; 
b, normal female. c = cercus; f = flap (possibly 
analogous to male hypandrium); numbers refer to 
abdominal segments. 


part of sternum 8 of a normal female 
subtends segments 9 and a pair of cerci, 
which are very similar to those parts of 
a normal female (b). 

The specimen, captured at Brecken- 
ridge, Ontario, 26 June 1959, by C. H. 
Mann, has been returned to the Cana- 
dian National Collection, Ottawa. 


11 


Biology and Larval Description of 


Procecidocharoides penelope 


(Osten Sacken) (Diptera: Tephritidae) 


W. Bryan Stoltzfus 


Department of Zoology and Entomology, Iowa State University, 


Ames, Iowa 50010 


ABSTRACT 


The biology of Procecidocharoides penelope (Osten Sacken) is discussed, including 
its seasonal and geographical distribution and the relationship to its host plant 
Eupatorium rugosum. The mature third-instar larva and puparium are described and 


illustrated. 


Procecidocharoides penelope (Osten 
Sacken, 1877) is seldom collected, but 
like many other tephritids it can be 
collected readily if a large stand of its 
host plant can be found. In the summer 
of 1972 a series of this species was 
collected from Eupatorium rugosum 
Houttuyn. This is the first species in 
this genus for which a host plant has 
been reported. 

The genus Procecidocharoides was 
erected by Foote (1960) for Pro- 
cecidochares penelope and 3 newly de- 
scribed species. He included a key to 
genera, wing illustrations and descrip- 
tions for all 4 species in the genus. 


Biology.—The distribution of P. 
penelope as given by Foote (1965) in- 
cludes Massachusetts, New Jersey, 
New York, Pennsylvania, Ohio and 
Michigan. It has also been taken from 
various localities in Iowa. Its host plant, 
Eupatorium rugosum, or white snake 
root, is known from New Brunswick to 
Saskatchewan, south to Georgia and 
Texas (Gleason, 1968), where it is found 
in rich woods and thickets. 

P. penelope adults occur from June 25 
in Iowa to August 26 as reported in 
Pennsylvania (Foote, 1960). Peak popu- 


12 


lations seem to be reached around the 
first of August. 


The larva develops in the heads of E. 
rugosum, destroying nearly all of the 
12-24 developing achenes. The flower 
head of this plant is only approximately 
5 mm. in height, and it is surprising that 
the larva is able to obtain sufficient food 
in one flower head to mature. No 
enlargement of the flower head due to 
infestation was noticed, and no external 
disfiguration of the head gave any indi- 
cation of the presence of the larva, at 
least in the earlier stages of develop- 
ment. Only 2 larvae were taken in 200 
heads examined. Larvae were fully de- 
veloped by mid-September and were 
leaving the flower heads. By the first 
week of October no larvae were found 
in the flower heads. Empty larval sites 
were found, indicating that the larvae 
had left the heads to pupate, presumably 
in the ground. 


The method for obtaining reared 
specimens was to place large numbers 
of flower heads in plastic bags during 
September. The larvae would leave the 
heads as the flowers dried out and could 
be obtained from the bottom of the 
plastic bag. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


ASp 
StA 


ose 


IS LS MH 


moe) 0.08 


pene 2020.27 
a 


Procecidochares penelope (O. S.): Fig. 1, lateral view of larva; fig. 2, larval antenna and maxillary 
palp; fig. 3, cephalopharyngeal skeleton; fig. 4, anterior spiracle; fig. 5, caudal segment; fig. 6, posterior 
spiracular plate (line lengths expressed in mm). 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 13 


The larvae of P. penelope have no 
spinules and probably are unable to 
burrow very deeply in the soil to pu- 
pate. This lack of spinules is rather rare 
among tephritids. Of the 45 species 
described by Phillips (1946), only 2 
species, Procecidochares atra (Loew) 
and P. australis Aldrich, lack spinules. 
Both of these species form galls and 
pupate within them. However, Pro- 
cecidocharoides penelope pupates in the 
soil. Perhaps the lack of spinules sug- 
gests that it once formed galls in which 
it pupated but now has found a new host 
plant on which it is unable to produce 
galls. 


Larval Description.—The terminol- 
ogy used in describing the cephalo- 
pharyngeal skeleton follows Roberts 
(1971). Terms used for other larval 
structures are after Phillips (1946). 


Third-instar larva (Fig. 1): length 3.68 mm, 
width 1.98 mm, light yellow to white. Head region 
tapering anteriorly, body truncate posteriorly. 
Twelve to 20 sensilla around each thoracic and 
abdominal segment. Spinules absent. 


Anterior spiracle (Fig. 4): dark yellow, with 3 
segments; dorsal and ventral segments subequal, 
bearing 6 tubules each; shorter middle segment 
with 4 tubules. Stigmatic chamber indistinctly 
reticulated, about 8 cells wide and 7 cells long; 
cells ending before base of tubules. 


Antenna (Fig. 2): width 0.011 mm, height equal to 
width, with a distinct rim distally, less than its 
width from maxillary palp. 


Maxillary palp (Fig. 2): width 0.012 mm, height 
equal to width, with 2 larger pegs and several 
smaller pegs set within a distal rim. 


Cephalopharyngeal skeleton (Fig. 3): length 0.33 
mm, sclerotized dark brown except marginal areas 
of clypeofrontal phragma and cibarial phragma. 
Each mandible with 2 teeth, strongly arched 
dorsally, with pointed tips. Lateral teeth nearly as 
long as medials. Intermediate sclerite enlarged 


14 


distally and mesally. Labial sclerite slender, length 
0.14 mm, appearing spindle-shaped laterally but 
plate-like dorsally and bearing a triangular-shaped 
salivary duct aperture. Sclerite connecting tentor- 
ial phragmata ventrally lightly sclerotized. Basal 
sclerite dark, with a long narrow window pos- 
teroventrally. Clypeofrontal phragma dark an- 
teriorly, with a hyaline margin distally. 


Caudal segment (Fig. 5): shagreened, similar to 
rest of larva, with 16 small tubercles. Stigmatic 
area with no tubercles, slightly darker than sur- 
rounding area. 


Posterior spiracular plate (Fig. 6): width 0.18 mm, 
with four small, distinct, unsclerotized triangular 
areas near outer edge, each bearing 4 indistinct 
interspiracular processes. With 3 spiracular slits; 
outer slits of one plate at 95° to each other. Inner 
slits of opposing plates nearly parallel, outer slits 
pointing directly away from each other. Spiracular 
slits 0.34 mm long, wider medially. Indistinct 
trabeculae extend from sides of slits, obscuring 
most of opening. Stigmatic chamber dark; meshes 
small, inconspicuous and numerous. 


Puparium: length 3.25 mm, width 1.7 mm. Black, 
barrel-shaped. Integument similar to third-instar 
larva. Anterior spiracles with tubules projecting 
anteriorly. Posterior spiracular slits easily visible, 
similar to third larval instar. 


References 


Foote, Richard H. 1960. A new North American 
fruit fly genus, Procecidocharoides (Diptera: 
Tephritidae). Ann. Entomol. Soc. Amer. 53(5): 
671-675. 

. 1965. Family Tephritidae, p. 658-678. In 
Stone et al. A Catalog of the Diptera of 
America North of Mexico. USDA Agr. Hand- 
book 276, 1696 pp. 

Gleason, Henry A. 1968. The New Britton and 
Brown Illustrated Flora of the Northeastern 
United States and Adjacent Canada. 3 vol. 
Hafner Publishing Co., New York. 

Phillips, Venia T. 1946. The biology and 
identification of trypetid larvae (Diptera: 
Trypetidae). Amer. Entomol. Soc., Mem. No. 
12, 161 p., 16 pl. 

Roberts, Michael J. 1971. The structure of the 
mouthparts of syrphid larvae (Diptera) in rela- 
tion to feeding habits. Acta Zoologia (Stockh.) 
51: 43-65. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


American Entomologists by A. Mallis. Rutgers 
University Press, New Brunswick, N.J., 1971, 
xvii + 551 pp. $15.00. 


Though Europe is the cradle of insect 
science, New World entomologists have 
had a lion’s share in its development. A 
few outstanding students were working 
in the Americas during the eighteenth 
century, while the nineteenth century 
produced dozens or perhaps hundreds 
of entomologists of high reputation who 
have positively influenced the progress 
of the science. The American en- 
tomologists must be particularly cred- 
ited with the development of economic 
—mainly agricultural—entomology. Eu- 
ropean countries were much slower in 
recognizing the importance of the study 
of insects for national economies than 
some of the American countries. In the 
United States, the first federal en- 
tomologist and the first state en- 
tomologist were appointed as early as 
1854; and from that time on economic 
entomology has been given much sup- 
port. It is necessary to say, however, 
that the Americas also produced many 
top specialists in all branches of theoret- 
ical entomology. 

In his book on American en- 
tomologists, Arnold Mallis brings to life 
the foremost of these students of in- 
sects. He has not written a history of 
American entomology but rather a col- 
lection of life histories of those diverse 
men whom we normally know only as 
author names of learned papers. Mallis 
does not represent an account of the 
Scientific accomplishments of each of 
them but rather gives us a picture of 
each person’s character, way of life, 
interests, abilities as well as eccen- 
tricities, friendships and associations 
with other scientists, personal victories 
and unfortunate events. Every personal- 
ity is vivified before our eyes, with his 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


~ BOOK REVIEWS 


good and bad features highlighted. Dis- 
playing a deep understanding of each of 
them, Dr. Mallis succeeds in presenting 
a voluminous book replete with facts, 
which nevertheless remains as thrilling 
to read as good detective fiction. 

From the dozens of life histories of 
entomologists included in the book (only 
deceased individuals who worked in 
the Americas, and immigrants, are in- 
cluded) certain general conclusions may 
be drawn. First, it seems that a valid 
assumption could be made to the effect 
that top entomologists as teachers pro- 
duce students who also become out- 
standing entomologists. Simple trans- 
mission of knowledge alone is not 
enough; of equal importance is learning 
the style of work, the scientific appreci- 
ation of exactness, inventiveness, initia- 
tive and enthusiasm. Second, success in 
the science of insects does not necessar- 
ily arise from basic talent and good 
working conditions, but is rather the 
result of tenacity, good friends and good 
advisers, and particularly of enthusiasm 
and devotion. Strong personal involve- 
ment has always been the most con- 
spicuous feature of the majority of suc- 
cessful entomologists, whether in the 
Americas or elsewhere. 

The author of the book has a fine 
appreciation of the variations in human 
character, and of both the outstanding 
qualities and amusing traits of many of 
the well-known entomologists. He has a 
good sense of humour, and at the same 
time is well able to appraise seriously 
the contribution of every individual to 
entomology and society. The book is 
not merely interesting and engaging but 
also represents a part of that general 
background information which every en- 
tomologist, whether in America or 
elsewhere, should possess or at least be 
aware of. 


J. Zuska 


15 


Environmental Management: Planning for 
Traffic by J. Antoniou. Chartered Architect & 
Town Planner, Doxiadis Associates, Athens, 
Greece. 200 pages plus index; 260 illustrations; 
11% x 8%; McGraw-Hill; $19.50. 


This book examines the elements of 
environmental management and _ their 
practical application to show the effects 
of such techniques in Great Britain and 
the United States. First published in 
England and now published in the 
United States by McGraw-Hill, it studies 
ways to reorganize internal urban traffic 
flow so that it is less damaging to the life 
of the city. 

Antoniou defines environmental man- 
agement as the method for protecting an 
area from the adverse effects of motor 
traffic, using measures designed to pre- 
vent the entry of extraneous traffic. He 
draws examples of existing problems 
and the methods for dealing with them 
from numerous European and American 
towns and cities. 

Divided into five chapters, Environ- 
mental Management first discusses pres- 
ent traffic problems and the limitations 
of current solutions. The following 
chapters investigate long-term and 
short-term solutions and improvements; 
pedestrian access; traffic pollution; pub- 
lic transport; and the techniques for 
change. Established principles are ap- 
plied to practical case studies in several 
examples to show what can be accom- 
plished to improve the quality of the 
environment by controlling vehicular 
traffic. 


Concepts in Architectural Acoustics by M. 
David Egan, 200 pages; 243 illustrations; 8% 
X 11; $16.50; McGraw-Hill. 

A comprehensive source of practical 
step-by-step examples and design pro- 
cedures, this book is based on a new 
highly illustrated approach to the pre- 
sentation to acoustics. By means of 
illustrations which are often both 
humorous and informative, the book 
analyzes those concepts vital to the 


16 


understanding of sound behavior in the 
environment as concisely as possible. 
On the premise that the goal of architec- 
tural acoustics is to make the environ- 
ment best serve the functions intended, 
the text briefly reviews basic theory 
before proceeding with chapters on 
sound absorption, sound isolation, 
speech privacy, mechanical system 
noise and vibrations, room acoustics, 
and sound-reinforcing systems. 

Head of his own consulting firm in 
South Carolina, Mr. Egan is an As- 
sociate Professor in the College of Ar- 
chitecture at Clemson University and 
Visiting Professor at the Georgia Insti- 
tute of Technology. His business career 
has included positions at the Shell Oil 
Company and on the consulting staff of 
Bolt, Beranek and Newman, Inc., 
where he worked on the design and 
engineering of a wide range of projects 
in architectural acoustics and noise con- 
trol. 


Handbook of Precision Engineering, edited by 
A. Davidson. Vol. 3: Fabrication of Non-Metals. 
270 pages; 6 xX 9; $13.50; Vol. 4: Physical and 
Chemical Fabrication Techniques. 166 pages; 
6 X 9; $12.50; Volume 5: Joining Techniques. 297 
pages; 6 x 9, $14.50; Volume 6: Mechanical 
Design Applications. 320 pages; 6 x 9, $14.50. 


Originally published in England, this 
series deals with all aspects of the 
design and manufacture of close toler- 
ance devices and mechanisms such as 
telecommunications equipment; cam- 
eras; calculating machines; electric shav- 
ers; and electronic equipment. 

Volume 3 covers both the traditional 
and newly developed techniques in the 
rapidly growing area of working and 
shaping non-metallic materials. Com- 
prehensive information is provided on 
such materials as plastics, glass, cer- 
amics, and monocrystalline materials. 

Volume 4 presents the physical and 
chemical techniques that have become 
increasingly important in the fabrication 
of precision components, especially in 
microminiaturization and in the con- 
struction of integrated circuits. These 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


techniques range from electrical dis- 
charges, ultrasonics, and thin-film tech- 
nology to etching processes for a wide 
range of materials. 

Volume 5 describes the numerous 
methods available for permanent join- 
ing, ranging from mechanical joining, 
welding and soldering, to gluing, wind- 
ing and braiding. A special section deals 
with the techniques of application of 
printed texts onto a variety of materials. 

Volume 6 examines the ways that 
mechanical design is applied in engineer- 
ing a precision product. A study of the 
construction elements found in a variety 
of precision parts and components is 
followed by a number of practical appli- 
cations. Finally, the basic elements for 
the construction of optical apparatus are 
discussed. 

Individual chapters in each of the 13 
volumes which will constitute Hand- 
book of Precision Engineering have 
been contributed by experts drawn from 
the Philips Organization working under 
the general editorship of A. Davidson. 
Subsequent volumes in the series will be 
published two at a time at six-month 
intervals. 


Through the Crust of the Earth by Lord 
Energlyn, McGraw-Hill, $10.95. 


The author, a brilliant scientist, traces 
the evolution of earth science and shows 
how man is linked to geology and 
geology to man. He explains the ways in 
which volcanoes spout energy, how the 
threshing of subterranean masses pro- 
duces earthquakes, and describes the 
processes that formed our planet; he 
reveals new discoveries and theories 
made directly from the rocks that tell us 
basic things we neither knew nor could 
explain before. These discoveries, Lord 
Energlyn believes, may be extremely 
significant to our survival. 

Lord Energlyn, professor and head of 
the department of geology at the Uni- 
versity of Nottingham, England, discov- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


ered the first antibiotic to be found in 
coal. He advises governments around 
the world on geological matters and acts 
as a consultant to various major mining 
and chemical companies. 


Lost Discoveries —The Forgotten Science of 
the Ancient World by Colin A. Ronan, 
McGraw-Hill, $10.95. 


Amazing discoveries of the distant 
past—an unexpected blooming of 
scientific achievements which were sub- 
sequently lost, destroyed or suppressed 
and were not rediscovered for many 
centuries—return to life in the hand- 
somely illustrated pages of this book. 

A fellow of the Royal Astronomical 
Society, member of the Royal Ar- 
cheological Society, member of the 
British Astronomical Association, and a 
full-time lecturer and author of over 
twenty books, Dr. Ronan explains each 
discovery in full. He also gives an 
account of its later rediscovery and 
subsequent effect and importance. Art- 
work specially commissioned for this 
book helps the reader to understand 
these early, complex inventions, what 
they looked like and how they worked. 

Highlights of Lost Discoveries include 
the calendar—more accurate than 
ours—used by the Mayan Indians of 
Central America, and the atomic theory 
developed by the Greeks over 2,000 
years before the birth of John Dalton. 
Dr. Ronan explains how, 300 years 
before Christ, astronomers in Mesopo- 
tamia were predicting the movements 
of the planets and producing astronomi- 
cal almanacs. He shows how the 
Ancient Romans built water-powered 
mass-production factories, and used 
‘‘taxis’’ complete with automatic meters. 

As Dr. Ronan notes, human ingenuity 
frequently hit on ideas that are errone- 
ously considered purely modern. Lost 
Discoveries is a fascinating account of 
these ideas. 


17 


ACADEMY AFFAIRS | 


BOARD OF MANAGERS MEETING NOTES 


Oct. 31, 1973 


The 623rd meeting of the Board of 
Managers was called to order at 8:00 
p.m. by President Sherlin in the confer- 
ence room in the Lee Building at 
FASEB. 


Secretary.—Moved by Dr. Bennett 
and seconded by Dr. Robbins that the 
minutes of May 17, 1973 be approved. 
Passed. 


Treasurer. — Budget will be studied at 
the next meeting. 


Nominating Committee.—Dr. Men- 
zer made the following report for the 
nominating committee: The Commit- 
tee consisted of Richard K. Cook, 
Chairman; Jean K. Boek, John A. 
Eisele, Carl H. Gaum, Peter Heinze, 
Robert E. Menzer. The committee met 
on Oct. 16 and offers the following slate 
for the upcoming election: For 
President-elect: George Abraham, 
Raymond J. Seeger; Secretary, Patricia 
Sarvella, Mary Aldridge; Treasurer, 
Nelson Rupp, Alred Weissler; 
Managers-at-large, William Bickley, 
John Honig, Howard Laster, Richard 
Farrow. All of the persons nominated 
have agreed to run and serve if elected. 
Moved by Dr. DePue and seconded by 
Dr. Bennett that the report of the 
nominating committee be accepted. 


Meetings. —A list of the programs for 
1973-74 was passed out by Dr. Ab- 
raham. A commendation was given to 
him for having a complete program at 
this time of year. 


Grants-in-Aid. —Dr. Shropshire re- 


18 


ported that letters have been mailed to 
the school liaison people. Two student 
reports were passed around. 


Membership.—It was moved, sec- 
onded and passed that the following 
nominees be elected to fellowship: Bar- 
ney J. Conrath, John O. Corliss, J. 
Robert Dorfman, Virgil C. Kunde, John 
D. Mangus, John C. Pearl, James J. 
Rhyne, Edward J. Finn, Carla G. Mes- 
sina, Harold J. Raveche, Fred Schul- 
man. The following new delegates were 
also made fellows: W. T. Bakker, Harry 
Fine, Michael Chi. 


JBSEE.—Dr. Sarvella reported that 
the Blue Books would be out in about 2 
weeks. Dr. Peter Heinze, 11411 Cedar 
Lane, Beltsville, Md. 20705 will edit the 
calendar of events for The Reporter. 
Please mail any upcoming scientific 
events to him. 


Scientific Achievement. —Nominees 
for awards for scientific achievement 
are to be sent to Dr. Aldridge. 


Teller. —Mr. Detwiler is reported on 
the mend. 


Membership Promotion.—Dr. O’ Hern 
has accepted this position and is solicit- 
ing applications. 


Announcements.—Dr. Weissler at- 
tended the ceremony presenting the 
book Chemistry in Action. 

A Symposium with 8 co-sponsors on 
‘Statistics and the Environment’’ is 
scheduled for March 6, 7 & 8. WAS will 
publish the proceedings in the Journal. 
The Federal Highway Administration 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


has given us a grant for $2500 and an 
application has been submitted to EPA 
for the same amount to help defray 
publication costs. 


New Business.—Dr. Gaum ques- 
tioned whether WAS has any plans to 
celebrate the bicentennial. WAS will 


investigate how we can become in- 
volved. 

It was suggested that emeritus and 
retired members should be identified in 
the membership lists. 


The meeting adjourned at 9:15 
p.m.—Patricia Sarvella, Secretary. 


SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS 


Contributions in this section of your Journal are earnestly solicited. 
They should be typed double-spaced and sent to the Editor three months 
preceding the issue for which they are intended. 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


Lloyd V. Knutson, Agricultural Re- 
search Service, has been named Chair- 
man of the Insect Identification and 
Beneficial Insect Introduction Institute, 
Beltsville Agricultural Research Center. 
Formerly a systematic entomologist in 
the Institute’s Systematic Entomology 
Laboratory, Dr. Knutson will continue 
his taxonomic studies on the snail-killing 
flies and will enlarge his field investiga- 
tions into the role they play in the control 
of schistosome-bearing snails. He will 
also play a leading role in ARS efforts to 
make the biological control of insect and 
weed pests more effective. 


NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH 


Mark Winton Woods, research biolo- 
gist, Cytochemistry Section, Laboratory 
of Biochemistry, NCI, recently retired 
after over 25 years of Federal service. 

Before joining the Government, Dr. 
Woods spent 3 years in active duty with 
the U.S. Navy and a decade of teaching 
and research at the University of Mary- 
land. 

He was one of the first American 
Scientists to stress the role of both 
mitochondria and viruses in plant and 
animal heredity, metabolism, and growth 
and also their great importance for cancer 
research. 

In 1965 he shared the Gerhard Damagk 
prize for cancer research, showing the 
specific importance of glucose metab- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


olism in the development and growth 
of hepatomas, and he continued experi- 
mentation in this field until his retirement. 

Dr. and Mrs. Woods are now living in 
Sun City, Ariz. 


Koloman Laki, National Institute of 
Arthritis, Metabolism, and Digestive 
Diseases, has been given the James F. 
Mitchell Foundation award for his re- 
search on the cardiovascular system. 

Dr. Laki, who is chief of the Labora- 
tory of Biophysical Chemistry, was cited 
for his discovery of Factor XIII, a plasma 
transglutaminase, which plays an impor- 
tant role in hemostasis and wound heal- 


ing. 
Dr. Laszlo Lorand, department of 
chemistry, Northwestern University, 


co-discoverer of Factor XIII, and Dr. A. 
G. Loewy, department of biology, 
Haverford College, shared the award 
with Dr. Laki. 

The award ceremony, held at Sibley 
Memorial Hospital in Washington, D.C., 
on Nov. 16, included a half-day sym- 
posium featuring research presentations 
by noted investigators in the field. 

Dr. Laki has recently returned from 
Budapest where he participated in cere- 
monies honoring Albert Szent-Gyorgyi, 
Nobel Laureate, on his 80th birthday. 

Dr. Laki attended the ceremonies at 
the invitation of the Hungarian Academy 
of Sciences. 


Stephen D. Bruck, the National Heart 
and Lung Institute, has authored a book, 


19 


entitled Blood Compatible Synthetic 
Polymers —An Introduction, published 
in December by Charles C. Thomas, 
Springfield, Ill. 

Dr. Bruck is program director for 
Biomaterials in the NHLI Division of 
Blood Diseases and Resources. 


Marshall W. Nirenberg, chief of the 
Laboratory of Biochemical Genetics, 


National Heart and Lung Institute, re- 
cently received an honorary doctorate in 
medicine from the University of Pavia in 
Milan. The award was presented by Prof. 
Antonio Fornari, rector of the Univer- 
sity. Dr. Nirenberg, who shared the 1968 
Nobel Prize in Physiology, was cited for 
‘‘special merits in the biological sci- 
erices.”’ 


NEW FELLOWS 


Stuart A. Aaronson, Head, Molecular 
Biology Section, Viral Leukemia & 
Lymphoma Branch, Viral Oncology, 
NIH, in recognition of his outstanding 
contributions to understanding the rela- 
tionship of viruses to cancer. Sponsors: 
Robert M. Stephan, Bernice E. Eddy, 
Dean Burk. 


Frank J. Adrian, Assistant Group 
Supervisor, Applied Physics Lab., 
Johns Hopkins Univ., for theoretical 
and experimental investigation of the 
structure of molecules and the solid 
state. Sponsor: Kelso B. Morris. 


James S. Albus, Section Head, 
Cybernetics and Subsystem Develop- 
ment Section, Goddard Space Flight 
Ctr., in recognition of his advances in 
artificial intelligence; developing a 
model for memory in the brain. Spon- 
sors: P. E. Landis, Helmut Sommer. 


Anton M. Allen, Chief, Comparative 
Pathology Section, NIH, in recognition 
of his significant contributions to the 
knowledge of diseases in research ani- 
mals. Sponsors: Robert M. Stephan, 
Bernice E. Eddy, Dean Burk. 


Lowell D. Ballard, Mechanical En- 
gineer, National Bureau of Standards, 
for contributions to vibration analysis 
and in particular his original method of 
absolute measurement of mechanical 
shock; and his contribution to physics 
by the introduction of a new method of 
measuring the acceleration of gravity. 


20 


Sponsors: Grover C. Sherlin, Russell 
W. Mebs, Nelson Rupp. 


Jay P. Boris, Division Consultant, 
Plasma Physics Div., Naval Res. Lab., 
for contributing major advances to the 
state of the art in computational 
physics. Sponsor: Kelso B. Morris. 


Joseph M. Botbol, Project Chief of 
Computer Graphics Development, U.S. 
Geological Survey, for outstanding 
achievement in the application of com- 
puter technology to geological data. 
Sponsor: Kelso B. Morris. 


Alfred F. Campagnone, Mechanical 
Engineer, U.S. Atomic Energy Com- 
mission, in recognition of his contribu- 
tion to mechanical engineering and in 
particular for his development of stand- 
ards for concrete radiation shields and 
design criteria for mechanical system 
components. Sponsors: Grover C. Sher- 
lin, Howard B. Owen, Russell W. 
Mebs. 


Barney J. Conrath, astrophysicist, 
NASA Goddard Space Flight Ctr., for 
deriving the Martian temperature field, 
water vapor distribution, and topog- 
raphy from infrared spectra of Mariner 
9. Sponsors: Kelso B. Morris, Mary H. 
Aldridge. 


John QO. Corliss (From Member to 
Fellow), Professor & Chairman, Dept. 
of Zoology, University of Maryland, in 
recognition of his contributions to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


knowledge of the protozoa with special 
emphasis on the biosystematics of 
ciliates in the genus Tetrahymena 
and in recognition of professional 
leadership in zoology. Sponsors: 
William E. Bickley, Conrad B. Link, 
Robert E. Menzer. 


J. Robert Dorfman, Professor, Insti- 
tute of Fluid Dynamics & Applied 
Mathematics, University of Maryland, 
for basic research in the kinetic theory 
of gases and in hydrodynamics. 
Sponsors: Kelso B. Morris, Mary H. 
Aldridge. 


Ronald Fayer, Senior Parasitologist, 
U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, for cultivat- 
ing Sarcocystis in cell culture and estab- 
lishing its proper taxonomic status. 
Sponsors: Robert M. Stephan, Bernice 
E. Eddy, Dean Burk. 


Earl H. Fife, Jr., Chief, Dept. of 
Serology, Walter Reed Army Institute 
of Research, in recognition of his lead- 
ership in the development and im- 
provement of serodiagnostic tests for 
microbial diseases and delineation of 
auto-antibodies in health and disease. 
Sponsors: Howard E. Noyes, F. Mari- 
lyn Bozeman, Ruth G. Wittler. 


Edward J. Finn, Assoc, Professor of 
Physics, Naval Res. Lab., in recogni- 
tion of his contributions to the teaching 
of physics both as a lecturer and as an 
author of a text translated into nine 
languages. Additional recognition is 
merited by his long service to the 
Committee on the Encouragement of 
Science Talent. Sponsors: Grover C. 
Sherlin, Richard K. Cook, Nelson W. 
Rupp. 


Richard S. Fiske, U.S. Geological 
Survey, for creative contributions to 
fundamental understanding of volcanic 
processes. Sponsors: Kelso B. Morris, 
Mary H. Aldridge. 


David R. Flinn, Research Chemist, 
Naval Research Lab., in recognition of 
his contribution to electrode kinetics, 
and in particular his researches on the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


mechanism of the hydrogen electrode 
reaction. Sponsors: Kurt H. Stern, Fred 
E. Saalfeld. 


Moshe Friedman, Research Physicist, 
Plasma Physics Division, Naval Res. 
Lab., for sustained creative experiments 
with relativistic electron beams. 
Sponsor: Kelso B. Morris. 


Rabindra N. Ghose, President and 
Chairman of Board of Directors, 
American Nucleonics Corp., Los 
Angeles, Calif., for contributions in the 
field of microwave theory and _ tech- 
niques, and novel antenna concepts. 
Sponsors: George Abraham, Leland D. 
Whitelock. 


Charles M. Guttman, Chemist, Dielec- 
tric & Thermal Properties Section, NBS, 
for his experimental work with polymers. 
Sponsor: Kelso B. Morris. 


Melvin H. Heiffer, Chief, Dept. of 
Pharmacology, Walter Reed Army Inst. 
of Res., in recognition of his contribu- 
tion to pharmacology as it relates to 
development and evaluation of experi- 
mental drugs for therapy of refractory 
cases of malaria. Sponsors: Howard E. 
Noyes, Ruth G. Wittler, Ronald E. 
Ward. 


(Mrs.) Hope E. Hopps, Chief, Im- 
munology Section, Lab. of Viral Im- 
munology, NIH, for her contributions to 
rickettsiology and virology, and in par- 
ticular her researches on rubella virus and 
the serological diagnosis of rubella infec- 
tion. Sponsors: Mary Louise Robbins, 
Rudolph Hugh, Margaret Pittman. 


Kun-Yen Huang, Assoc. Professor of 
Microbiology, George Washington Univ. 
School of Med., for contributions to 
microbiology and in particular, research 
on the method of action of interferon, 
especially in relation to non-viral or- 
ganisms. Sponsors: Mary Louise Rob- 
bins, L.F. Affronti. 


William R. Krul, Research Plant 
Physiologist, USDA, in recognition of 
his original and creative contributions in 
plant physiology, especially his work on 


21 


the mechanism of action of plant growth 
substances and their movement in higher 
plants. Sponsors: W. Shropshire, Jr., 
Robert L. Weintraub. 


Virgil C. Kunde, Astrophysicist, 
NASA, Goddard Space Flight Ctr., for 
deriving the Martian temperature field, 
water vapor distribution, and topography 
from infrared spectra of Mariner 9. 
Sponsors: Kelso B. Morris, Mary H. 
Aldridge. 


Andrew M. Lewis, Jr., Research Staff, 
Viral Oncology Section, Lab. of Viral 
Diseases, NIH., in recognition of his 
characterizing adeno-SV40 hybrid vi- 
ruses, thus providing major tools for 
studying the genetics of a tumor virus. 
Sponsors: Robert M. Stephan, Bernice 
Eddy, Dean Burk. 


John D. Mangus, Physicist & Head, 
Optics Branch, Goddard Space Flight 
Ctr., for his outstanding technological 
contributions in the fields of optical 
research and applied optics. Sponsors: 
Kelso B. Morris, Mary H. Aldridge. 


Robert E. Menzer, Assoc. Professor of 
Entomology, University of Maryland, for 
contributions to biochemistry and in 
particular his research into the effects of 
pesticides upon plants and animals. 
Sponsors: Patricia Sarvella, Edward 
Hacskaylo, Grover C. Sherlin. 


Carla G. Messina, Physicist, Data 
Systems Design Group, NBS, inrecogni- 
tion of her contributions to computer 
technology and in particular to her 
innovative work in the development and 
operation of a comprehensive system for 
computer-assisted typesetting. Sponsors: 
Grover C. Sherlin, L. Ballard, Nelson W. 
Rupp. 


Elizabeth M. O’Hern, Health Scientist 
Administrator, NIH, for contributions to 
microbiology and in particular her re- 
search on host-parasite relationships in 
the systemic mycoses. Sponsors: Mary 
E. Warga, Norman H. C. Griffiths, 
R. R. Colwell. 


Robert R. Oltjen, Research Animal 


22 


Husbandman, USDA, Beitsville, Md., 
for development of life cycle utilization of 
non-protein nitrogen by cattle. Sponsors: 
Robert M. Stephan, Bernice E. Eddy, 
Dean Burk. 


John C. Pearl, Astrophysicist, NASA, 
Goddard Space Flight Ctr., for deriving 
the Martian temperature field, water 
vapor distribution, and topography from 
infrared spectra of Mariner 9. Sponsors: 
Kelso B. Morris, Mary H. Aldridge. 


Robert H. Purcell, Investigator, Lab. of 
Infec. Dis., Natl. Institute of Allergy & 
Infec. Dis., NIH, in recognition of his 
contributions to current understanding of 
mycoplasmas and hepatitis. Sponsors: 
Robert M. Stephan, Bernice E. Eddy, 
Dean Burk. 


Harold J. Raveche, Research Chemist, 
NBS, in recognition of his contributions 
to the molecular theory of the bulk and 
structural properties of liquids. Sponsors: 
Grover C. Sherlin, Nelson W. Rupp, 
Alphonse F. Forziati. 


Melvin Reich, Associate Professor of 
Microbiology, George Washington 
Univ., in recognition of his contributions 
to microbiology, particularly his research 
on the isolation and characterization of 
mycobacterial antigens. Sponsors: Mary 
Louise Robbins, Robert C. Parlett. 


James J. Rhyne, Research Physicist, 
Naval Ordnance Laboratory, for his 
discovery of new conduction and mag- 
netic phenomena in rare earth systems. 
Sponsors: Kelso B. Morris, Mary H. 
Aldridge. 


Richard W. Roberts, Director, NBS, in 
recognition of his personal research in 
vacuum technology and surface chemis- 
try and the management of industrial 
research in materials, which included the 
laboratory production of the first gem- 
quality diamonds. Sponsors: Lawrence 
M. Kushner, Grover C. Sherlin, Richard 
K. Cook. 


John W. Rowen, Operations Res. 
Analyst; Deputy Program Manager, Pub- 
lic Policy and Program Analysis, Insti- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. i, 1974 


tute of Applied Technology and NBS, in 
recognition of his contributions and re- 
search in solid state materials and 
biophysics. Sponsors: Lawrence A. 
Wood, James M. Cassel, Richard K. 
Cook. 


Theron S. Rumsey, Research Animal 
Husbandman, USDA, Beltsville, Md., in 
recognition of his research on effects and 
deposition of chemicals in body tissues of 
cattle. Sponsors: Robert M. Stephan, 
Bernice E. Eddy, Dean Burk. 


Lester D. Shubin, Program Manager for 
Standards, National Institute of Law 
Enforcement and Criminal Justice, for his 
contributions to lunar science through his 
role in designing the Physical-Chemical 
Sections of the Lunar Receiving 
Laboratory and his leadership in the 
application of science and technology to 
the problems of law enforcement and 
criminal justice. Sponsors: Jacob J. 
Diamond, Lawrence H. Bennett, Donald 
D. Wagman. ° 


Fred Schulman, Special Assist. to 
Manager of the Joint NASA/AEC Space 
Nuclear Systems Office, Washington, in 
recognition of his early research in the 
field of surface chemistry, but more 
recently of nine years of distinguished 
leadership for nuclear electric power 
programs for the National Aeronautics 
and Space Administration. Sponsors: 
Grover C. Sherlin, Alphonse F. Forziati, 
Howard E. Noyes. 


Harry K. Sleeman, Supervisory Re- 
search Biochemist, Walter Reed Army 
Institute of Research, for recognition of 
his basic studies on the biochemistry of 
septic and endotoxic shock, which have 
helped elucidate the multiple changes 
associated with the shock syndrome and 
have provided a biochemical basis for 
intensive care procedures currently used 
to treat shock patients. Sponsors: How- 
ard E. Noyes, F. Marilyn Bozeman, 
Ruth G. Wittler. 


David R. Smith, Research En- 
tomologist, Systematic Entomology 
Laboratory, USDA, Washington, D.C., 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


in recognition of his distinguished re- 
search in the systematics of the 
Hymenoptera. Sponsors: Robert M. 
Stephan, Bernice E. Eddy, Dean Burk. 


Barry N. Taylor, Chief, NBS, Absolute 
Electrical Measurements Section, for 
pioneering in quantum electronics and its 
application to metrology. Sponsor: Kelso 
B. Morris. 


Sidney Teitler, Branch Head, Semi- 
conductors Branch, Solid State Div., 
NRL, in recognition of his contribu- 
tions to solid state physics and in par- 
ticular to his work on semiconductors. 
Sponsors: James R. McNesby, John L. 
Torgesen, John Mandel. 


Ronald A. Ward, Assistant Chief, 
Dept. of Entomology, Walter Reed Army 
Institute of Res., for contributions to 
entomology and in particular his re- 
searches on the role of vectors of diseases 
such as malaria and trypanosomiasis. He 
has been an important participant in the 
comprehensive updating of the mos- 
quitoes .of Southeast Asia and is the 
authority on the distribution and medical 
significance of arthropod vectors of dis- 
eases in Afghanistan. Spons ors: Howard 
E. Noyes, Ruth G. Wittler, F. Marylyn 
Bozeman. 


Frederick K. Willenbrock, Director, 
Institute for Applied Technology, NBS, 
in recognition of his contributions to 
engineering education, and of his out- 
standing administration of engineering 
research and the application of science 
and engineering to national needs. 
Sponsors: Jacob J. Diamond, Howard E. 
Sorrows, Lawrence M. Kushner. 


George L. Wright, Jr., Assistant Pro- 
fessor, Dept. of Microbiology, George 
Washington Univ., for contributions to 
immunobiology, and in particular for the 
development of highly sensitive and 
efficient electrophoretic procedures for 
the isolation, purification, and charac- 
terization of antigens. Sponsors: Mary 
Louise Robbins, L.F. Affronti, Rudolph 
Hugh. 


OBITUARIES 


Richard Stevens Burington 


Richard Stevens Burington died De- 
cember 24, 1973, at the age of 72. He 
retired in 1971 after 30 years of civilian 
service with the Navy Department. His 
latest position was in Naval Air Systems 
Command where he was Chief Mathe- 
matician and consultant to the staff on 
scientific policy matters. 

He was born in Columbus, Ohio in 
1901. He graduated from Ohio State 
University in 1925 and received his Ph.D. 
in mathematics from there in 1931. From 
1926 to 1941 he was professor of 
mathematics at Case-Western Reserve 
University in Cleveland, Ohio. 

Dr. Burington is the author of many 
research and educational papers. He is 
senior author of a widely used textbook 
called Higher Mathematics. He is known 
internationally for his Handbook of 
Mathematical Tables and Formulas 
which has been printed in five editions. 
He also co-authored the Handbook of 
Probability and Statistics. 

He joined the Navy Bureau of Ord- 
nance in 1941 where he became a pioneer 
in weapons effectiveness analysis. He 
first worked on the mine and anti- 
submarine systems needed in World War 
II. This grew into a wide range of 
analyses of naval weapons of all types, 
including the anti-air systems used 
against kamikaze attacks, and the begin- 
nings of the nuclear era of weapons. He 
participated in the first atomic tests in the 
Pacific. He also was influential in estab- 
lishing quantitative systems analysis as 
the Navy moved into the missle age. He 
was instrumental in planning the initial 
design and use of modern electronic 
computer systems. 

Dr. Burington had the Distinguished 
Civilian Service Award and the Meritori- 
ous Civilian Service Award from the 
Navy Department for work done during 
the War. Among his numerous other 
awards is the Superior Civilian Service 
Award presented by the Navy Depart- 
ment upon his retirement. He isa member 


24 


of the honorary societies Phi Beta Kappa, 
Sigma Xi and Pi Mu Epsilon. 

Throughout his career Dr. Burington 
has been active in various mathematical, 
educational and engineering societies. He 
organized the Mathematical Division of 
the American Society for Engineering 
Education and served as its chairman. He 
has served on the Council of the ASEE. 
For several years he was a member of the 
Committee on Evaluation of Engineering 
Education, whose published recommen- 
dations have resulted in major curricula 
changes in the engineering schools of the 
United States. He has served as the 
Chairman of the Applied Mathematics 
Committee of the American Mathemati- 
cal Society. He is a member of the 
Cosmos Club of Washington. 

Professional societies of which Dr. 
Burington was a member include the 
following: Washington Academy of Sci- 
ences; American Mathematical Society; 
American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science (Fellow); Philosophical 
Society of Washington; Mathematical 
Association of America; Institute of 
Mathematical Statistics; American Phys- 
ical Society; U. S. Naval Institute; 
American _ Statistical Association; 
American Society for Engineering Edu- 
cation; Operations Research Society 
(Fellow); Society for Industrial and Ap- 
plied Mathematics; Association of Naval 
Weapons Engineers and Scientists. 

He is survived by his wife, Jennet, of 
1834 N. Hartford St., Arlington, Va., and 
three children, Artha Jean Snyder of 
Darnestown, Md., Richard Edward 
Burington of Alexandria, Va., Juanita 
Sulmonetti of Baltimore, Md., and six 
grandchildren. A brother, Arthur M. 
Burington of Smithville, Ohio, and a 
sister, Mrs. Florence Bucher of Colum- 
bus, Ohio, also survive. 


Sebastian Karrer 


Mr. Sebastian Karrer of Scientist Cliffs 
died at Johns Hopkins Hospital, Balti- 
more, Friday, Dec. 7, 1973, aged 84. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


He is survived by his wife, Mrs. Annie 
May (Hurd) Karrer, Scientist Cliffs; a 
brother, Lawrence Karrer of Bellevue, 
Washington; three sisters, Mrs. Clara 
Young of Seattle, Mrs. Joanne Arm- 
strong of Griffin, Ga., and Mrs. Roselle 
Hersh of Cleveland Heights, Ohio; and 
nieces and nephews. 

Born April 10, 1889 in Rich Hill, Mo., 
_ he grew up in and near Roslyn, Wash. His 
education included an A.M. degree from 
the University of Washington (Seattle) in 
1913, and a Ph.D. degree in physics in 
1918 from the University of Illinois. His 
scholarship at these institutions was 
recognized by election to Phi Beta 
Kappa, Sigma Xi and Gamma Alpha. 

In 1919 he came to Washington, D.C., 
to head the physics division of the Fixed 
Nitrogen Research Laboratory, which 
developed domestic production of ni- 
trogen compounds for munitions and 
fertilizers. 

From 1926-46 he was Director of 
Research for the Baltimore Gas and 
Electric Co. There he invented the now 
widely-used thermoelectric device 
known as BASO, for automatic shutoff of 
gas when the pilot light fails. For this 
invention, he received the Modern 
Pioneer award of the National Associa- 
tion of Manufacturers. 

In 1942-45 he was a consultant for the 
Applied Physics Laboratory of Johns 
Hopkins University, Silver Spring, 
where his invention of a rugged vacuum 
tube made possible the proximity fuse, a 
major contribution to the World War II 
effort. For this he received a Naval 
Ordnance Development award. 

He also served as consultant for the 
National Defense Research Committee. 

Following the war in 1946, he became 
chief consultant for the research and 
development division of the School of 
Mines in Albuquerque, N. Mex. 

From 1948-1958 he was director of 
research for the Milwaukee Gas Spe- 
cialty Co. that was making the gas shutoff 
device, later called the BASO Co. 

In 1958-59 he was consultant for the 
electrical products division, and in 
1960-61 was Associate Director of Cen- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


tral Research for Minnesota Mining and 
Manufacturing Co. There he and his 
associates continued work begun at 
BG&E that led to the gas industry’s first 
thermoelectric generator, precursor of 
later devices useful in other fields, such as 
SNAP, basic for space satellites. 

During the period from 1958 to 1962 he 
was also a consultant for the U.S. Naval 
Weapons Laboratory in Dahlgren, Va. 
From 1964 to 1968 he was a research 
associate of the Georgetown University 
Observatory. 

He was a member of the Newcomen 
Society, the Washington Academy of 
Sciences, a Fellow of the American 
Association for the Advancement of 
Science, and of the American Physical 
Society, and a director of the Maryland 
Academy of Sciences. He was a member 
of the American Chemical Society, the 
Philosophical Society of Washington, the 
Crystallographic Institute, and the Geo- 
physical Institute. 

Some of his major contributions were 
in the fields of production, distribution, 
and use of gas and electricity; refrigera- 
tion; thermoelectric control devices; 
solid state of matter; and thermo- 
electricity. 


Leland W. Parr 


Leland W. Parr, of Scientists’ Cliffs, 
Port Republic, died in Baltimore, Mary- 
land, on December 15, at the age of 81. 
Dr. Parr retired to his home in Scientists’ 
Cliffs in 1960 after a distinguished career 
as a medical educator and microbiologist 
at the School of Medicine of George 
Washington University in Washington. 

Leland Wilbur Parr was born in 
Cooksville, Illinois, on November 2, 
1892. He was educated at Drake Univer- 
sity and the University of Chicago, 
receiving the B.S. from Chicago in 1916 
and the Ph.D. in 1923. He taught at 
Assiut College in Egypt from 1916 to 
1919, and at the American University of 
Beirut in Lebanon from 1923 to 1930. He 
worked as chief bacteriologist at the 
Rockefeller Foundation Field Research 
Laboratory in Andalusia, Alabama from 


25 


Leland W. Parr 


1930 to 1932, and then he joined the 
faculty of George Washington University 
in Washington, D.C. From 1938 to 1958 
he served as Professor and Chairman of 
the Department of Bacteriology, 
Hygiene and Preventive Medicine. 
Emeritus rank was conferred upon Pro- 
fessor Parr in 1958 by the University. 
Professor Parr was a fellow of the 
American Academy of Microbiology, 
and a member of the Washington 
Academy of Medicine, the American 
Society of Experimental Pathology, the 
American Public Health Association, the 
Society of Experimental Biology and 
Medicine, the American Genetic Associ- 
ation, and the American Association for 
the Advancement of Science. He served 


as President of the Washington Academy 
of Sciences in 1943, and as Secretary- 
Treasurer of the Society of American 
Bacteriologists from 1944 to 1949. He 
helped found the Association of Teachers 
of Preventive Medicine and was chair- 
man of that group in 1949. He was also an 
organizer of the American Institute of 
Biological Sciences. For many years he 
was an adviser to the Director of Selec- 
tive Service, and he also served as 
consultant to the National Institutes of 
Health, the Surgeon-General of the 
Army, and the Veterans Administration, 
for which services he received an Army 
Service Forces Award. He was a member 
of Phi Beta Kappa, Sigma Xi, Nu Sigma 
Nu, Alpha Omega Alpha, Phi Delta 
Theta, and the Cosmos Club. He was the 
author or coauthor of many research 
papers, the ‘‘Dr. Leyland’’ series of 
articles in Hygeia magazine, and the 
books Anthropology of the Near East 
(1934) and Laboratory Methods of the 
United States Army (1944). 

In 1939 Professor Parr and his wife 
built the home in Calvert County to which 
they retired in 1960. Dr. Parr was an 
active member of Christ Church, and on 
the County Commission on Aging, which 
was instrumental in bringing the Calvert 
Nursing Home to the County. 


He is survived by his wife, the former 
Grace Ghormley; his daughter Mrs. 
Patricia Bash of Scientists’ Cliffs; his son 
Robert of Baltimore; his brother Arthur — 
of Newman, Illinois; his sister Mrs. Edith — 
Santis, also of Newman; six grandchil- 
dren and three great grandchildren. 

Contributions in Professor Parr’s 
memory may be sent to The George 
Washington University School of Medi- 
cine, 2300 Eye Street, N.W., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20037. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 1, 1974 


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Washington Academy of Sciences 
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VOLUME 64 


| Number 2 
) Journal of the JUNE, 1974 


WASHINGTON 
ACADEMY -.. SCIENCES 


Issued Quarterly 
at Washington, D.C. 


Symposium 
Issue 


CONTENTS 


Symposium — Statistics and the Environment 


Keynote Session 


RALPH C. WANDS: Introduction to the Symposium.................. 29 
VAUN A. NEWILL: Regulatory Decision Making: 

ihe Scientist's Role.........: Prana Clore ete RN Slee re ag cs esa todh he es 31 
MICHAEL BROWNLEE: Keynote Address: Statistics and the 


aISIRDTERIIC ETI eee SN ae Gra ch yh eae Bie toh a eer 


are) siaselelte: ele. eles el bile e1 ie) (85 


CHI OO GeO OOO OCOD OO CNG OO Oo OO Old Cen oO 


Carcinogens — Safe Doses? 


BEATRICE S. ORLEANS: Opening Remarks ........................ 62 
ee eG ke. WANN: Introduction 3). .26 2.62.6 < ce ec cs wea cee Sea ee 62 
DAVID P. RALL: Problems of Low Doses of Carcinogens ............ 63 
MARVIN A. SCHNEIDERMAN: Safe Dose? Problem of the Statistician 
MEPNERLY ONG OF (UFANS-SCIENEE . 0-1 oss sles bie caw waste obese hy eee 68 
TPS ESI S STON 5 isi Pec tiated odie cle WS bse Sb Wee oe kd Sb eae 79 


Air Pollutants — Safe Concentrations? 


Meme CA RHROP: Introduction 0 556. 2... ko sila wee soe es 2 Oke 91 
JOHN F. FINKLEA: Auto Emissions and Public Health: Questions, 
Statistical Problems, and Case Studies . ..... 0.02... 0008 05060000555 9] 
JOHN D. HROMI: Some Aspects of Determining New Motor Vehicle 
Papinic EMISSION WEVEISi ess iid os ce deci oc Bowed wea ss bl. ow nelie dee 109 


EE SPE SOL) SSLOIN G3 ices oh ahs, os aise lak std mtn brad Ge Sate bee w aialee © oe 
(Continued on Back Cover) 


Washington Academp of Sciences 


EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


President 
Kurt H. Stern 


President-Elect 
George Abraham 


Secretary 
Mary Aldridge 


Treasurer 
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BOARD OF MANAGERS 


All delegates of affiliated 
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EDITORIAL ASSISTANT 


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Founded in 1898 


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This journal, the official organ of the Washington Aca- 
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“ 


DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


En CIPEN OF WASIINGION £ ce. 5 we cece caciec cece wees ec cceuecnanne George E. Hudson 
SEITE A VOICEY OL WaSMINPION - ose ee ee ccc ewe eens ebanceceene Jean K. Boek 
nmUmere WUASHINOTON . 2... 6... ee ce een ee vecsewenesace Delegate not appointed 
EME ASOIISEON so sw. so ee ee ee ee eee tenes Robert F. Cozzens 
Pmrtet SOCICLY OF WaSDINSION .. 2.5... ccc ees wee ee ct ae meee nee Delegate not appointed 
REECE 8 rs os. ob, 8s Os as ae SOR Sk Se ee aoe wea eee oie. Alexander Wetmore 
ee IEICE GE WI ASHINIPEON oy... occ o's cin os ase oa Ses we eb wied wie ec cie dae 0 Hye meats ws Charles Milton 
Memeaseciety of the District of Columbia... :..... 06.0... 005.0. .00005eeeeees Delegate not appointed 
Na EEICO MEE 2 io Pit 2h Ti a). cision wigae hie tereeens Riad wee aGete Paul H. Oehser 
ee ee ERO ASINNIEEOM 22 /fo)s i's. Sin eae os es Seid ca Deals ee eis Beeb eet ewe Conrad B. Link 
ee MRI TSPRECIECSUCES |. 0S bcc 5b. Sl tole o Bln ene keds woe elds etd lekien odele Robert Callaham 
SP eIENCEUMENOENOMICEES 2.0.25 «2/2 so Se ee ee tie shes eee nese sb ee sas we George Abraham 
Penner ceiied and Electronics Engineers .. 2... bo oc ie ie ecw ee ecules esaess Harry Fine 
Perea oeiceyanivicchanical Engineers .... 2.2. ce se eee ce ete se eevee eees Michael Chi 
Lame AL SOCICLY OF WaSHINDION .. 1... 5. ee ee nce bee ceeetecs James H. Turner 
eT Met reness WHCTODIOIOSY . 22. 2. ss. kes cele eee e eevee seve ses seecueeas Lewis Affronti 
i ee eMEneaaONMMEATY FNSINECES cc soc cn see oe ee cede et sre awe ese saaeneee H.P. Demuth 
rte meee CO 1Vil IMOIMECETS .. .. os Sea's Ee ie ie join esd ee cees Pare Carl H. Gaum 
Beeevet Expectmental Biology and Medicine ..... 0.2... 5.... cee cece deen en Donald Flick 
emi IPN TMMEIE TRCEAIS (2 1020. 2b 5 to Sb kic dino wie Siw ol diols = wile & be bide s sas + viele Glen W. Wensch 
International Association for Dental Research ................ 2.0.00 e ee eeee Norman H.C. Griffiths 
PaeMeAn stitute OF Acronautics and Astronautics ............ 0... cence eee canes Franklin Ross 
nai ane ORONPIEAl SOCICLY ... .- -ccc cae nce cee ce cede cee ee semeaveace Delegate not appointed 
JT EPS EEE CTSSS7 LEWES TS 0 rr Robert J. Argauer 
(LE TEL DEL ESS G75" Circo FR oa ee rR Gerald J. Franz 
ME TEE OD ELES SS SDSS 0 A ee a Delegate not appointed 
Spare PUMERCECEHINOIOPISES. 20 cs ea oie wrecid vie yee eae Se ee idee see se William Sulzbacher 
Se eS ME SIME SOULE) 9 5) 5) 3.5 06chs «Ad &., dS ark ater esstege tol g'eiviw ove's 008 oie Woe vie mex Delegate not appointed 
Se ee ENOEIC Rs = a 28 SEL TON ate ce ue wae wa deel David Schlain 
PP emeUMMILtISIOEY OF SCICICe CIID... .. 6. cic on on nce eel ence ep ese see seine Delegate not appointed 
ewes association Of Physics Teachers .......-....0..0000c8e cee cee sewcwese Bernard B. Watson 
Sen Dan NHAC ar fe eke oe Sl ee. Irving H. Malitson 
ee wemetemOr Piatt Physiologists .....:.........2ce-uecenccccccccceccess Walter Shropshire 
MeL AIONS KeESCArch COUNCI....... 8.2. 2c cl bee c ce wenecc ee te cw cwcanees John G. Honig 
0) J PLEE) DT CEASE re eS Delegate not appointed 
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical 
CE REPU LSUT al BUT Vero) eS A od ey Delegate not appointed 
NE MELEE PNEY US EFEITIGIHIGES yee. x) shai ics hava erates Sal oes ba ehSle ace ebm John A. Eisele 
Pent ASSOCIAUION Of ATMECTICA .. 0... . ec. eck bance Ce new eecceeeee Delegate not appointed 
ERAS NENEE CY OND EINES ES nets) hate baa hs fo os anc coo, wi alent ec wala be Yo Miloslav Recheigl, Jr. 


Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective societies. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 27 


STATISTICS AND THE ENVIRONMENT 


A Forum For Interdisciplinary Interaction 


Hugh Dryden Memorial Auditorium, National Academy of Sciences, 
Washington, D.C. 


Sponsors 


American Society for Quality Control 
—Washington, D.C. Section 
e American Statistical Association 
Committee on National Statistics — 
NAS/NRC 
e Committee on Toxicology— 
NAS/NRC 
e Federal Highway Administration— 
Department of Transportation 
e Environmental Protection Agency 


e National Bureau of Standards 

e National Institute for Occupational 
Safety and Health 

e National Institute of Environmental 
Health Sciences | 

e Society of Toxicology 

Washington Academy of Sciences 

e Washington Operations Research 
Council 

e Washington Statistical Society 


Steering Committee 


Food and Drug Administration 


E.M. Bisgyer (Proceedings) e John Huth 


American Statistical Association 


James J. Filliben e 
National Bureau of Standards 


Environmental Protection Agency 


Richard Franzen (Publicity) e 


National Bureau of Standards 


Naval Medical Research Institute 


Clifton Bailey (Arrangements) e Frank E. Grubbs 


Army Ballistic Research Laboratories 


Naval Ship Systems Command 


William Kracov (Publicity) 


Army Materiel Command 


A.F. Forziati (Proceedings) e Fred C. Leone (Program) 
American Statistical Association 


Gary Liberson (Registration) 


Environmental Protection Agency 


Seymour L. Friess (Program) e@ John Mandel (Program) 
National Bureau of Standards 


e Harold Nisselson 
National Center for Educational Statistics 
e Beatrice S. Orleans 
(General Chairperson) 
Naval Ship Systems Command 


e Alan O. Plait (Arrangements) 


Computer Sciences Corporation 


e Joan R. Rosenblatt 
National Bureau of Standards 


e Grover S. Sherlin (Proceedings) 
National Bureau of Standards 


e Ralph C. Wands (Program) 
Advisory Center on Toxicology/NAS 


Steering Committee Message 


Our objective is ‘‘to provide a forum for the interchange of ideas of mutual interest 
among experts in toxicology and environmental areas with specialists in the statistical 


techniques of data gathering and analysis.” 


This is not a meeting where statisticians will speak statistically to their colleagues, 
or environmentalists conversing in their own language to their co-scientists. 

It is hoped that attempts to solve environmental problems will be enhanced by an 
interdisciplinary approach resulting from the communication among the pertinent 


professions. 


Beatrice S. Orleans 
_General Chairperson 


Acknowledgments 


The publication costs of this issue were met in 
part through grants supplied by the Environmen- 
tal Protection Agency and the Federal Highway 
Administration of the Department of Transpor- 
tation. 

For recording the Symposium we acknowledge 
the assistance of David S. Garber, a specialist in 
corporate life development recording. As an in- 
dustrial personnel specialist he has had wide ex- 
perience recording and communicating every 
phase of corporate life from human _ factor 


changes in top management personnel to produc- 
ing, indexing and editing minute-by-minute 
archival recordings of important meetings and 
symposia. 

For transcribing and typing of discussion 
sessions and manuscripts we acknowledge the 
assistance of Suzanne C. Ressler. 


Richard H. Foote, Editor 
Elizabeth Ostaggi, Editorial Assistant 


Introduction to the Symposium 


Ralph C. Wands 


Director, Advisory Center on Toxicology, National Academy of Sciences, 
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington, D. C. 20418 


It is my pleasure this morning to intro- 
duce several people to you and to make a 
few general announcements before we 
get the program underway. The person 
I would like to introduce to you in 
particular is perhaps the spark plug of 
this whole operation. The Symposium 
began, as far as I was involved at any 
rate, in a series of conversations be- 
tween people from the Naval Ship 
Systems Command, particularly Dr. 
Huth and Bea Orleans in conjunction 
with Dr. Seymour Friess at the Naval 
Medical Research Institute and myself. 
Out of those several conversations of the 
four of us this Symposium continued 
to grow. Today we are seeing the cul- 
mination of those early brainstorming 
sessions. As I have said, the spark 
plug is the one I want to introduce 
to you— Bea Orleans, who is the chair- 
person of this Symposium. Bea has 
steadfastly refused to say anything more 
than ‘“‘thank you.’’ It is we who say 
*‘thank you”’ to her. 

At this point I would like to acknowl- 
edge the support of our co-sponsors— 
for moral support and, in some instances, 
financial support. They are listed on 
the cover of your program. Let me 
review the names of the organizations 
that have been behind the planning and 
Operation and conduct of this Sym- 
posium: The American Society for 
Quality Control; the Washington, D. C. 
Section, American Statistical Associa- 
tion; Committee on National Statistics- 
National Academy of Sciences-National 
Research Council; Committee on Toxi- 
cology of the NAS-NRC; Environmental 
Protection Agency; Federal Highway 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Administration; National Bureau of 
Standards; National Institute for Oc- 
cupational Safety and Health; National 
Institute of Environmental Health Sci- 
ences; Society of Toxicology; Washing- 
ton Academy of Sciences; Washington 
Operations Research Council; and 
Washington Statistical Society. Of these 
we are particularly indebted to the 
Federal Highway Administration, the 
EPA, and NIOSH for providing financial 
support for the conduct of this Sym- 
posium. We are also indebted to the 
Washington Academy of Sciences for 
publishing the proceedings. Our Steering 
Committee is also in your program. 
I would like to pay a special word 
of thanks to those members of the Pro- 
gram Committee—Dr. John Mandel, 
Dr. Seymour Friess, and Dr. Fred 
Leone—for putting together this out- 
standing group of speakers and setting 
the stage that would attract all of you 
from the far regions of our country. 
Many of you come from as far as 
the West Coast to be with us. We do 
appreciate your interest and we look 
forward to having your vital and active 
participation in the discussions. We are 
naturally very grateful to all our various 
speakers for their willingness to share 
their time and thoughts with us in this 
Symposium. 

Before I introduce our speakers, there 
are a few general announcements which 
should be made. Tomorrow after- 
noon we will be passing out evalua- 
tion sheets. We would like to know 
your impressions, your opinions, and 
your comments on the Symposium. 
These will be very valuable to us in 


29 


determining the possibility of planning 
additional Symposia of this sort or on 
additional topics. 

I have two changes to announce in 
our program. One of our panelists, Dr. 
Boyd Shaffer, is unable to be with us 
this afternoon. We are fortunate to have 
as his replacement Dr. Harold Peck, 
who is an M.D., a toxicologist and 
member of the Committee on Toxi- 
cology. He is in charge of toxicology 
and safety evaluations for Merck and 
Company. One other change: Our 
chairman for tomorrow morning’s ses- 
sion on air pollution will be Mr. Henry 
Lathrup. Also, Dr. David Solomon, 
who was scheduled to chair tomorrow 
morning’s session, is not able to be with 
us—he is asking his Deputy, Mr. Henry 
Lathrup, to fill in for him. Mr. Lathrup 
is the Deputy Chief of the Environ- 
mental Design and Control Division of 
the Federal Highway Administration. 

I would like to move now to the 
introduction of our program for this 
morning. Some time ago when some of 
us on the Academy staff were discussing 
this Symposium— Statistics and the En- 
vironment—one of them said, ‘‘Well, 
a symposium had been defined as the 
last resort of the intellectually bankrupt.”’ 
As I though about that a little bit I 
decided this is true in some regards 
for this Symposium today. As bankrupt 
people are pretty much faced with 
insurmountable problems, certainly 
those of us in this Symposium are faced 
with some insurmountable problems, 
particularly as we may well not be 
intellectually bankrupt in our own area 
of specialization but where we are totally 
ignorant or at least only moderately 
aware and competent in the other 
person’s area of specialties. And as we 
try to improve and correct the damage 
that has been done to our environ- 
ment we find that it requires many, 
many disciplines— many, many areas of 
specialization. Two of the critical ones 
are those concerned with the health 
aspects of our environment and those 
concerned with statistics as their field 
of specialization. It has been our ex- 


30 


perience, as members of one of the 
health science professions, that very few 
of us have any more than a nodding 
acquaintance with statistics or even with 
Statisticians, and when we need their 
help we desperately need it. Certainly 
this is true for the problems which 
we will be discussed at this meeting. 
What I am saying is that it is most 
appropriate in terms of this concept of 
intellectual bankruptcy in the other 
person’s area of specialty for these two 
groups of professionals—the statisti- 
cians and the health scientists—to get 
together to talk about the problems re- 
lating to our environment. This is the 
total purpose of our Symposium today— 
to bring together on a face-to-face, one- 
to-one basis representatives of both dis- 
ciplines so that they can begin not 
only to get acquainted personally but 
to share ideas and concepts in the hopes 
of developing some new approaches to 
some of the very critical problems that 
will be discussed here. In this regard 
the Program Committee has limited the 
speakers and the topics to statistics 
as they may be applied to problems 
involving the toxicity of chemicals 
entering our environment. We recognize 
that the concepts and principles that may 
be developed here are quite likely to 
be applicable to other problems of the 
environment involving low levels of 
physical insults such as noise, trauma, 
and radiation. Some of you in this 
audience are knowledgeable in those 
specific fields. We hope that your ex- 
perience will be shared with the rest 
of us as we tackle these problems of 
chemical toxicity. Particularly, I am 
thinking of the experience of the folks 
in the field of nuclear radiation where 
they have been struggling with the issue 
of identifying effects at a very low level 
of response from extremely low levels 
of exposure. This is the kind of prob- 
lem we are running into as chemicals 
enter into our environment. We do hope 
that the people with those kinds of 
backgrounds will share them with us 
in the discussion. 

Our first speaker of the morning is 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


a gentleman with whom I have been 
acquainted for the last several years and 
have thoroughly enjoyed my relation- 
ship with him—he is a delightful person 
and an extremely skilled professional. 
He holds an M.D. degree from the 
University of Pittsburgh in Epidemiology 
and Internal Medicine. He taught at 
Western Reserve University in Cleve- 


Regulatory Decision Making: 


Scientist's Role 


Vaun A. Newill, B.S., M.D., S.M. Hyg. 


land and in the late 60’s he moved into 
the Federal establishment in the field of 
air pollution control. Today he is special 
assistant to the Administrator of the 
Environmental Protection Agency with 
responsibilities for health effects. It is a 
pleasure to introduce to you Dr. Vaun 
Newill. 


The 


Office of the Administrator, Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, D.C. 


Regulatory decision making implies 
that there is a problem that needs regula- 
tion and that some organization or group 
has the responsibility, interest, authority 
and means to do something about it. 
Having recognized at different points 
in time that certain environmental ex- 
posures were a threat to the health 
of our population, the Legislative and 
Executive Branches of our federal 
government developed laws and the in- 
stitutional arrangements to deal with such 
problems. The early efforts brought en- 
vironmental sanitation, which, when 
coupled with other medical advances, 
particularly the advances in the treatment 
of acute infectious diseases, contributed 
to a longer expectation of life. This 
increase in the average number of years 
that the population is living permits more 
persons to develop the chronic degenera- 
tive diseases and other manifestations 
of longer exposure to environmental 
contaminant risks. The major task of 
the environmental regulatory agencies is 
to reduce such environmental risks and 
their resulting disbenefits. 

For discussion the environmental regu- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


latory. process will be presented in 
simplistic terms around 4 major steps 
(Fig. 1) (Newill, 1972a), namely: (1) 
Problem identification and assessment, 
(2) alternative control strategies, (3) im- 
plementation and enforcement of an 
action program, and (4) action program 
assessment. 


Environmental Problem Identification 
and Assessment 


Environmental problems are identified 
in two general ways. One is by focusing 
on the environmental factors (agents) 
to which the population is exposed. 
Another is by focusing on disease deter- 
minants and mechanisms. The two ap- 
proaches can be easily visualized by 
considering a 4-fold table (Table 1) that 
relates environmental contaminant ex- 
posure to disease. It is natural that the 
regulatory agencies primarily approach 
these problems by investigations that 
relate the effects that result from ex- 
posure to the environmental contaminant 
while the health agencies, at least classi- 
cally, approach the problems through 
studies related to the disease process 


31 


ENVIRONMENTAL PROBLEM IDENTIFICATION AND 
ASSESSMENT - SET PRIORITIE 


: 


For each problem in priority jorder 


EVALUATE ALTERNATIVE CONTROL STRATEGIES-CHOOSE 
STRATEGY AND TIME FRAME FOR ACTION 


IMPLEMENT ACTION PROGRAM 


ASSESS ACTION PROGRAM-FEEDBACK OF PROBLEMS 


Fig. 1. Simplified schematic of the environ- 
mental control process. 


itself. When the resulting data from either 
approach demonstrates or even strongly 
suggests a causal relationship, the sus- 
pect agent becomes a candidate and 
strong contender for regulatory action. 
The number of potential environmental 
contaminant problems is quite large and 
both the human and financial resources 
to study them are limited. Thus, it 
becomes essential to deal with such 
problems in a priority order. Factors 
considered in placing the problems in 
a priority order include such considera- 
tions as: (1) characteristics of the pol- 
lutant, i.e., ubiquity, expected levels of 
exposure to the population, innate 
toxicity, bioaccumulation and persist- 
ence; and (2) the pollutant’s potential 
for playing an important role in public 
health problems, i.e., affecting the fre- 
quency, severity or trend pattern of a 
specific disease. Pollutants suspected as 
being related to diseases that are com- 
mon, severe, and increasing in preva- 
lence should gain the highest priority 
for regulatory action (Newill, 1972b). 


Table 1.—Relationship between environmental 
factor and disease 
Environ- Disease 
mental 
Factor 


Yes No 


Yes 
No 


32 


To the best of my knowledge no major 
systematic effort aimed at establishing 
such a set of priorities for individual 
problems is underway, although there 
have been several efforts that have at- 
tempted this process on a much broader 
problem scale (Flinn and Reimers, 1974). 
Before ending this cursory discussion 
of the problem of prioritization, it should 
be mentioned that public interest in a 
specific problem can increase the priority 
beyond that which would be assigned 
without such public interest. The number 
of such crisis reactions could be use- 
fully reduced and more effort should be 
expended to anticipate and defuse them. 

The identification process needs to be 
followed by an in-depth assessment of 
each problem in priority order to decide 
if, on the basis of existing informa- 
tion, (1) no regulatory action is required, 
(2) adequate information is available to 
proceed with preparation of a set of 
control options, or (3) insufficient in- 
formation is available and additional 
research is required. Parenthetically, it 
should be noted that much more knowl- 
edge is required to decide how to deal 
with a problem than is necessary merely 
to identify the problem. 

The number of problems referred 
for research is large, certainly more than 
available resources can accommodate 


simultaneously. Thus, there must be a-- 


second order prioritization, where each 
new research problem must be evaluated 
to learn how well it can compete for 
resources against the total set of prob- 
lems already under investigation. 

My remarks will not address the 
specific research that needs to be per- 
formed but will rather address issues 
that affect the research. One such issue 
is, ‘Should the research effort related 
to a specific problem be supported by 
the public or the private sector?’’ As 
most of you know, the responsibility 
for the research on the effects of general 
ubiquitous air and water pollution prob- 
lems have been accepted by the public 
sector whereas the private sector is ex- 
pected to provide the effects research 
information for the registration of a 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


pesticide, or acceptance of a new drug. 
In many areas, however, no such clear 
responsibility can be assigned for the 
research activity. Furthermore, the 
quantity of research for which the public 
sector is responsible is so large that only 
a limited amount can be performed; 
thus in order to assure that the more 
needed research is done, acceptable ways 
must be found for the public and private 
sectors to cooperate to speed the process 
along. 

As indicated earlier more information 
is necessary to know what regulatory 
action to take than is necessary to 
identify a problem. When regulatory 
action is rushed prior to the develop- 
ment of sufficient information for regula- 
tory decision making, this rush assures 
that the control action will be prudent, 
supposedly conservative and in the best 
interest of the population. Prudent 
actions, however, tend on the average 
to be more stringent than necessary, 
thus more expensive, and not necessarily 
in the best interest of the population 
they are to protect. 

Now let us consider some issues with 


which the environmental health scientist 
must deal in the detailed assessment 
of specific problems. 

Integrated information from several 
disciplines is useful in the health assess- 
ment of these problems. The major 
disciplines involved are epidemiology, 
clinical research and the whole set of 
experimental studies that I will include 
under the term toxicology, being fully 
aware that many other disciplines will 
be involved in these studies (Fig. 2). 

Each of these discipline approaches 
has useful and, in some instances, unique 
information to provide. A well-designed 
program, integrating the unique capa- 
bilities and crosswalks between these 
disciplines can provide a most satis- 
factory basis for regulatory action. Epi- 
demiology can provide studies of popula- 
tion exposure in real life settings. The 
advantages of epidemiology are the 
natural exposure, no need for extrapola- 
tion of data to the human, the most 
vulnerable groups in the population can 
be studied, and both current and long- 
term low-level exposures can be eval- 
uated. The major problems relate to 


Epidemiology 


Clinical 
Studies 


Overlap: 


identical biological endpoints 


Fig. 2. Methods to demonstrate biological response to pollutants. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


33 


quantifying the exposure, to dealing with 
the many co-variates, to obtaining dose- 
response data and to deciding associa- 
tion vs. causation. 

Clinical research studies can be used 
to gather human data on either normal 
or diseased persons regarding absorp- 
tion, metabolism and excretion of pol- 
lutants and can be used for in-depth 
studies of humans accidentally exposed 
to high levels of pollutants where new 
study parameters and response indicators 
can be identified. The advantages of 
clinical studies are: the pollutant expo- 
sure is controlled so that improved dose 
measurements are obtained; since each 
person can usually be used as his own 
control, covariates are well controlled; 
vulnerable subjects can be included in 
the studies; cause-effect relationships are 
more easily ascertained; there is no need 
for extrapolation to humans; and thus 
the derived information gives maximum 
input into standards. The problems are 
that the exposure is artificial, there can 
be no long-term exposures thus only 
acute effects are determined, and there 
can be real hazard to the exposed person. 

Toxicologic studies can use many 
response systems, such as whole ani- 
mal, organs, cells or biochemical sys- 
tems. The advantages of toxicologic 
studies are: maximum dose-response 
data can be obtained, though this is 
incomplete at the low end of the curve; 
data acquisition is rapid; cause-effect 
relationships are more sure; and mecha- 
nism of response studies, such as kinetics 
of pollutant absorption, distribution, 
metabolism and excretion, can be per- 
formed. While known quantitative ex- 
posure requirements are most easily 
satisfied under controlled or experi- 
mental exposure settings, appropriate 
human disease models in animals have 
not been available and thus have not 
been evaluated in this manner. Neither 
can such experimental studies readily 
identify delayed responses or chronic 
cumulative effects of exposure. Labora- 
tory experimental studies cannot provide 
complete assurance of dose effects be- 


34 


cause community exposures cannot be 
duplicated in the laboratory. Further- 
more, the difficulties of extrapolating 
the data to the human remains, par- 
ticularly estimating the threshold of 


- human response. 


Planning for the detailed assessment 
of a pollutant problem or evaluation of 
the existing information for a regulatory 
decision can usefully be performed by 
keeping these three approaches in mind. 


Pollutants Response and Human Exposure 


“The effects of pollutants on human 
health depends on the physical and 
chemical properties of the pollutant, 
on the duration, concentration and route 
of exposure and on the human uptake 
and metabolism of the pollutant. Man’s 
biological response is likewise a func- 
tion of occupational, psychosocial and 
climatologic factors and is tempered by 
the phenomena of tolerance and adapta- 
tion. These exposure factors underlie 
attempts to understand the impact of 
pollutant exposure on human health.’’! 

‘*The physical and chemical properties 
of pollutants determine their potential 
as a health hazard. These properties— 
including size, density, viscosity, shape, 
electrical charge, volitility, solubility 
and chemical reactivity—all affect the 
absorption, retention and toxicity of the 
pollutants. Many pollutants do not retain 
their exact identities after entering the 
environment. Thermal, chemical and 
photochemical reactions occur when pol- 
lutants move through the environment 
from source to receptor. These factors 
affect the final physical and chemical 
state at the point of human exposure 
and help determine the toxic potential 
of the pollutants.’”? 


1 Message from the President of the United 
States Transmitting the Report of the Department 
of Health, Education and Welfare and the En- 
vironmental Protection Agency on the Health 
Effects of Environmental Pollution, Pursuant to 
Title V of Public Law 91-515. 92d Congress, 
House of Representatives Document No. 92-241, 
February 1, 1972. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


The Response Spectrum‘ 


Environmental pollutants can affect the 
health of individuals or communities over 
a broad range of biological responses. 
One can conveniently think of 5 biologi- 
cal response stages of increasing severity 
as illustrated in Fig. 3: (1) a tissue 
pollutant burden not associated with 
other biological changes, (2) physiologic 
or metabolic changes of uncertain signifi- 
cance, (3) physiologic or metabolic 
changes that are clear-cut disease sen- 
tinels, (4) morbidity or disease, and 
(5) mortality or death. Boundaries be- 
tween categories may occasionally over- 
lap. Furthermore, each category shows 
a range of responses rather than a simple 
all-or-none phenomenon. 

At any point in time more severe 
effects, such as death or chronic disease, 
will be manifest in relatively small 
proportions of the population. In very 
few cases can death or disease be at- 
tributed directly and solely to pollutant 
exposure. Death and disease are end 
products of repeated cumulative insults 
(cumulative risks) from sources such as 
diet, cigarette smoking, physical inac- 
tivity, infectious challenges, and acci- 
dental injury. In general, the role of 
environmental contaminants in the mor- 
tality or morbidity experience of a com- 
munity is difficult to quantify because 
so many other determinants of death 
and disease cannot be adequately 
measured. 

The lower levels of the response spec- 
trum shown in Fig. 3 are subclinical 
manifestations of pollutant exposures. 
Larger portions of the population are 
affected at these levels. Pathophysiologic 
responses such as impaired mucociliary 
clearance and bronchoconstriction, and 
physiologic changes of uncertain signifi- 
cance, such as neurobehavioral re- 


’ Message from the President of the United 
States Transmitting the Report of the Department 
of Health, Education and Welfare and the En- 
vironmental Protection Agency on the Health 
Effects of Environmental Pollution, Pursuant to 
Title V of Public Law 91-515. 92d Congress, 
House of Representatives Document No. 92-241, 
February 1, 1972. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Adverse 

Health 

Effects 
A 


Pathophysiologic 
Changes 


ee Ce ee) eee 


Physiologic Changes of 
Uncertain Significance 


Pollutant Burdens 


<——Proportion of Population Affected———_> 


Fig. 3. Spectrum of biological response to pol- 
lutant exposure. 


sponses, are more adaptable to experi- 
mental studies on animals or humans 
than is the case with acute or chronic 
disease and can be more readily asso- 
ciated with specific pollutant exposures. 
Pollutant burdens are tissue residues 
resulting from pollutant exposure. Pol- 
lutant burdens are highly specific effects 
of exposure, can be readily quantified 
in population studies and may be used 
as indicators of environmental quality. 
If the bridge between the lower and 
higher levels of the response spectrum 
can be established, the disease risk asso- 
ciated with pollutant burdens or physio- 
logic changes can be shown, and ul- 
timately the role of pollutant exposure 
in the total community morbidity and 
mortality experience can be defined. 

Some groups within the population 
may be especially susceptible to environ- 
mental factors. Notably these include the 
very young, the very old, and those 
affected by a disease. Thus susceptibility 
may be temporary or permanent. In- 
herited abnormalities such as alpha 
antitrypsin deficiency and abnormal 
hemoglobins are examples of perma- 
nently altered sensitivity. Temporary 
increased sensitivity may be associated 
with periods of growth, with weight 
reduction, with pregnancy and with re- 
versible illnesses.! 

Diseases commonly result from com- 
plex causal webs rather than single 
factors (MacMahon, et al., 1960). En- 
vironmental pollution may contribute a 


35 


number of strands to such webs. Other 
strands may arise from such diverse 
origins as genetic heritage, nutritional 
status and personal habits. Moreover, 
pollutant exposure may alter the severity 


of disease without altering its frequency.! 


Exposure Response Matrix 


The duration and concentration of 
pollutant exposure are measures of the 
total dose to the human. It must be 
remembered that the rate at which the 
total dose is received may influence 
response. 

Health effects of an environmental 
pollutant may be either short-lived 
(acute) or relatively permanent and ir- 
reversible (chronic). Acute or chronic 
effects may occur after a single ex- 
posure to a hazardous substance. This 
can be illustrated by acute radiation 
exposure which can cause acute radia- 
tion gastroenteritis and chronic leukemia. 
An air pollution episode may have similar 
effects though the permanent sequelae 
of acute episodes have never been ade- 
quately studied. Likewise, acute and 
chronic effects can result from long- 
term exposure. For example, excess 
acute respiratory illness and chronic 
respiratory disease have been repeatedly 
demonstrated in high exposure cities. 
Acute effects and short-term exposures 
are less difficult to study than chronic 
effects or long-term exposure. More- 
over, the effects of dose rate, i.e., large 
dose in a short interval vs. repeated 
small doses over a long period, have 
seldom been investigated systematically. 
Little effort has been expended on the 
monitoring of long-term exposure and 
disentangling the causal webs under- 
lying chronic effects of pollutant ex- 
posure. Such effort has been hampered, 
however, by methodologic difficulties. 


1 Message from the President of the United 
States Transmitting the Report of the Department 
of Health, Education and Welfare and the En- 
vironmental Protection Agency on the Health 
Effects of Environmental Pollution, Pursuant to 
Title V of Public Law 91-515. 92d Congress, 
House of Representatives Document No. 92-241, 
February 1, 1972. 


36 


Estimation of Exposure 


Population exposure to individual pol- 
lutants or pollutant mixes (Shy, 1973) 
changes rapidly with time; they vary 
with season, day and hour. Also, within 
short-time frames, our very mobile pop- 
ulation moves from indoor to outdoor 
environments and from one neighbor- 
hood to another. Approximately 20% 
of the U.S.A. population changes resi- 
dence each year. Many cross-sectional 
studies of communities have shown that 
one-third of the population have resided. 
at their current address for only two to 
three years. 

Attempts to derive estimates of long- | 
term integrated exposure, even of small 
populations in a single neighborhood, 
are fraught with difficulties in quantifying 
personal exposure. Quiet, tolerable and 
small-scale instruments for personal 
monitoring are being developed. How- 
ever, when developed they will not 
reduce the need for stationary monitors 
even for community research. Control 
programs will still need to be managed 
by stationary monitoring systems and 
integrated exposures, for personal mon- 
itors will need to be related to the 
measurements at stationary sites. 

Stationary monitors have inherent 
draw-backs due to variation in. per- 
formance over time and between instru- 
ments, interferences caused by variations 
in temperature or in concentration of 
pollutants, and simple instrument mal- 
function. Continuous monitoring, re- 
quired to assess the effect of short- 
term exposures, is very costly and tech- 
nologically complex. Furthermore, 
monitoring equipment is too often dis- 
sociated in time and space from meas- 
ured health effects, especially where 
chronic effects are considered. 

Studies of disease frequency in a large 
city or metropolitan area often rely on 
exposure estimates based on one or a 
few stationary monitoring units. These 
stations are usually not representative 
of community-wide exposure and often 
provide erroneous estimates of exposure 
in residential areas. Conclusions based 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


on such results may imply higher ex- 
posures than actually occurred in resi- 
dential areas having pollutant-associated 
disease excess. On the other hand, 
ascribing excess chronic disease to pol- 
lutant concentrations currently measured 
may imply lower than actual exposure 
since, for example, air pollutant levels 
in larger cities in U. S. A. in the 1940’s 
and 1950’s tended to be considerably 
higher than in 1970 or 1971, when sulfur 
restrictions and particulate control meas- 
ures were more prevalent. 

Information is seldom available to cope 
adequately with these methodologic 
problems. In establishing exposure-re- 
sponse relationships, the weakest links 
in the association are quantitative es- 
timates of exposure. However, sound 
criteria require as precise data about 
exposures as about effects. Actions 
based on poorly-defined criteria may be 
either over-restrictive or under-protec- 
tive of health. 


Evaluating Exposure-Response Relationships 
(Shy, 1973) 


Given adequate characterization of ex- 
posures and health effects, many ad- 
ditional considerations bear on the 
scientific validity of the exposure-re- 
sponse relationship. Hill (1965) has given 
an exposition of criteria that can be 
used to judge whether an observed ex- 
posure-disease relationship is causal. 
Hill’s criteria were developed as guides 
for occupational health studies. With 
minimal modification, however, they can 
be applied to general population studies. 
These criteria are: Consistency of ob- 
served associations, coherence of re- 
sults, plausibility of the association, 
and strength of association. Brief descrip- 
tions of exposure response gradient, 
intervention, and control of covariates 
are included. 


1. Consistency of observed associa- 
tion.—Consistency of observed asso- 
ciation is, perhaps, the most important 
criterion. Does the health effect occur 
in various age, sex and race groups? 
Has the effect been repeatedly observed 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


in different places, circumstances and 
times? Even small differences that are 
not quite statistically significant bear 
great weight in standard setting when 
the criterion of consistency is met. When 
the same effect is observed in a variety 
of population groups under varying con- 
ditions and at different times, the likeli- 
hood of a constant error or fallacy be- 
comes progressively less. 


2. Coherence of results.— When ani- 
mal studies, experimental human ex- 
posures, and epidemiologic data are 
coherent, i.e., they all demonstrate the 
same or similar health effects of ex- 
posure, the bits and pieces of evidence, 
when brought together, form a mosaic 
of health intelligence. One study sup- 
ports another; experimental exposures 
identify pathophysiologic pathways by 
which effects observed in epidemiologic 
surveys become biologically explainable. 
The three disciplinary approaches dis- 
cussed earlier are needed to form this 
interlocking mosaic: animal experimenta- 
tion, controlled human exposures and 
epidemiologic studies. Crosswalks be- 
tween each discipline can be readily 
identified. Through animal studies, meta- 
bolic pathways, organs of response, and 
effects newly identified in humans can 
be verified across a broad range of 
pollutant exposures. In well controlled 
human exposure studies (as employed 
extensively in tests of new drugs) re- 
sults from animal studies can be made 
more relevant to human exposure at 
ambient levels. Also, effects observed 
in population studies can be studied 
under well controlled human exposures 
from near zero to ambient levels at 
varying exposure times. Such results 
have high immediate utility for short- 
term air quality standards. Finally, epi- 
demiologic surveys of communities 
before and after introduction of en- 
vironmental quality control measures 
provide unique data for evaluating the 
adequacy of established standards and 
demonstrating the health benefits of con- 
trol. Results from epidemiologic studies 
provide the impetus to develop animal 


37 


disease models from which more com- 
plete dose-response curves may be 
developed. 

By reinforcing results obtained in one 
approach with studies in another, a 
coherent health intelligence system will 
provide scientifically strong and readily 
acceptable guides for costly air quality 
controls. 


3. Plausibility of the Association.— 
Initial studies may uncover unexpected 
relationships between exposures and ef- 
fects. Mere statistical associations must 
be rejected when no reasonable biological 
explanation, based on experimental 
evidence, can justify the association. 
On the other hand, when experimenta- 
tion points to a disturbed physiologic 
process which may lead to some clinical 
manifestation, subsequent epidemiologic 
studies designed to test such hypotheses 
are well grounded in biologic plausibility. 
New exposure-response associations re- 
quire support from other disciplines be- 
fore causal inferences can be readily 
defended. 


4. Strength of the Association.— 
When disease frequency is nine to tenfold 
greater in exposed than in non-exposed 
populations, the exposure-effect relation- 
ship is extremely strong. Relationships 
of this magnitude have been found in 
studies of cigarette smoking and respira- 
tory disease including lung cancer and 
bronchitis. However, pollutant expo- 
sures are generally less intense and less 
reactive than cigarette smoke inhaled 
deeply into the lungs. Differences in 
exposure between high and low pollu- 
tion neighborhoods seldom exceed 2- 
or 3-fold concentration gradients. At 
present ambient air concentrations, rela- 
tive differences in effects between high 
and low exposure areas are unlikely 
to be as striking as ratios observed 
in smokers vs. nonsmokers. However, 
for common and frequent disease events 
such as acute respiratory disease, rela- 
tively small differences in disease ex- 
perience can have a large and costly 
impact. 


38 


5. Exposure-Response Gradients.— 
When a stepwise increase in exposure 
can be associated with a stepwise in- 
crease in the frequency of the adverse 


health effect, the evidence is strong 


for a cause-effect relationship. Linear 
relationships over an exposure gradient 
become increasingly difficult to explain 
by third intervening variables. Response 
gradients can be investigated in relation 
to exposure gradients across geographic 
areas, differences in length of residence 
in high exposure areas, and migration 
gradients constructed from various com- 
binations of childhood and adult ex- 
posures of the same individuals. Human 
exposures occur naturally over an ex- 
posure gradient, especially over time and 
across areas. Exposure-response gra- 
dients obviously can be easily created in 
experimental settings. 


6. Intervention. — Protection of health 
requires society to intervene in public 
exposures to air pollution. This inter- 
vention is largely based on observed 
exposure-health effects associations. As 
desirable air quality is achieved, will 
the frequency of adverse health effects 
be affected? If so, the causal nature 
of the exposure-response association is 
strongly supported. The high .cost of 
air pollution control warrants a national 
program of community health and en- 
vironmental surveillance in those places 
where achievement of required air quality 
will require vigorous abatement efforts. 


7. Control of Covariates.—The 
causal nature of an exposure-response 
association is convincingly identified 
when, after the effects of known co- 
variates are first displayed, increased 
disease risk within covariate classes can 
be clearly demonstrated in high exposure 
populations. For example, in any studies 
of chronic bronchitis prevalence, 
smokers and males show more disease 
than nonsmokers and females respec- 
tively. An air pollution-chronic bron- 
chitis study should reveal the above 
smoking-sex differences in prevalence 
rates, thereby assuring readers that the 
study has internal consistency. If smok- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


ing-sex specific groups in high exposure 
neighborhoods have excess chronic bron- 
chitis, the hypotheses that air pollution 
exposure causes excess chronic bron- 
chitis is considerably more convincing 
than if the smoking-sex covariates were 
not analyzed. Most epidemiologic studies 
of air pollution require similar analysis 
of excess disease risk within covariate 
categories, with particular attention 
given to age, sex, smoking, socioeco- 
nomic level and duration of residence 
at current location. When covariates 
are systematically analyzed for relation- 
ships to the health indicator under study, 
residual excesses in disease frequency 
can be attributed to area differences in 
pollution exposure with a reasonable 
degree of confidence. 

Once the information regarding a 
specific problem indicates it is of suf- 
ficient risk to require regulatory action 
then the next step in the control process 
becomes the focus. 


Alternate Control Strategies 


Fig. 4 is a schematic diagram pre- 
senting several of the principal factors 


Possible maximum 


Acceptable 
minimum 


Degree of health protection 


S 
NIL 


Cost of control of air pollution 44» 


in the decision-making process con- 
cerning air pollution control (WHO, 
1972). It indicates that the degree of 
health protection attained is a function 
of pollution control costs. The minimum 
acceptable level of health protection is, 
at the very least, that level necessary 
to protect from death; and the immediate 
regulatory action program adopted for 
environmental pollution control should 
certainly protect from illness as well. 

The degree of health protection to 
be selected above the minimum accept- 
able level is a matter for political de- 
cision. The appropriate authority must 
decide on the level of health protec- 
tion desirable for his society. Increments 
of health protection above the minimum 
acceptable level are generally purchased 
at ever increasing increments in control 
costs. Furthermore, the cost of the con- 
trol program is directly related to the 
deadlines by which it is to be opera- 
tional; for example, it is more expensive 
to achieve goals in three years than in 
10 years. The zone in which increased 
health protection (benefit) is obtained at 
increasing control costs (the cross- 
hatched area in Fig. 4) is also the region 


WHO 20230 


Fig. 4. Schematic representation of degree of health protection as a function of cost of 


air pollution control. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


39 


of social decision-making. The level of 
health protection desired must, of course, 
take into account the existing environ- 
mental pollution effects, but other con- 
siderations are also important, including 
general social, cultural and economic fac- 
tors, as well as the magnitude of other 
health problems. In deciding where to 
spend limited money resources, the total 
set of risks that man must bear needs 
to be considered and the greatest efforts 
should be expended to reduce the largest 
risks. 

For our U. S. A. society air pollution 
risks, for example, have been adjudged 
to be sufficiently significant to justify 
a major control program. Thus, we havea 
Clean Air Act, the legislative mandate, 
and the Environmental Protection 
Agency, an institutional arrangement, 
to implement an air pollution control 
program. . 

Each regulatory action is taken for 
society's benefit. However, each action 
also has a societal disbenefit because it 
will consume a certain quantity of the 
society’s resources for its accomplish- 
ment. Obviously there must be some 
give and take between the societal 
benefits and disbenefits. Decisions in- 
volving this process are difficult because 
the group to benefit may be different 
from the group that will receive the dis- 
benefits, and thus it is difficult to make 
this an equitable process. 

Another important concept follows 
from further consideration of Fig. 4. 
Infinite health protection is unattainable; 
thus society must either decide what 
level of health risk is acceptable, a 
decision that will be reflected in the 
societal investment in environmental pol- 
lution control; or the decision will be 
made indirectly since the societal invest- 
ment in environmental pollution control 
will dictate the level of health protec- 
tion to be achieved. 

It is our purpose here to examine the 
process of making decisions concerning 
the acceptable health risk, particularly 
the scientist’s role in this process. The 
scientist’s role simply stated is to un- 
ravel and develop understanding of the 


40 


problem. The scientist should be able 
to provide judgments that will bound 
the problem and make suggestions for 
action that will aide the administrator/ 
politician in making appropriate 
decisions. 

The need for regulatory action is predi- 
cated on the demonstration of an effect 
at the levels of a pollutant to which 
the population is or can be predicted 
to be exposed. The kind of control 
options available to prevent such effects 
and to choose among are environmental 
standard setting, registration, certifica- 
tion, licensing, limiting use, banning and 
economic incentives such as effluent 
charges or taxes. For simplicity, the 
only option that will be addressed is en- 
vironmental standard setting. 

An environmental standard in itself 
is acomplex issue. The ambient standard 
is the maximum permissible level of 
exposure of the public to a pollutant 
permitted for a specified period of time. 
For a pollutant that is only present in 
the air, the environmental standard is 
the primary ambient air quality standard. 
However, when the pollutant is one 
where human exposure comes not only 
from the air, but from the food and 
water as well, the environmental stand- 
ard becomes a set of standards, each 
representing an allocation of a portion 
of the permissible exposure through each 
of the media from which exposure comes. 
No such environmental standards have 
been set in the U. S. A. to date (Newill, 
1973). 

The actual permissible level of ex- 
posure permitted must be decided in 
some philosophical framework. At the 
present time the framework varies some- 
what by medium of exposure and by 
effect of exposure, in some instances 
by legislative mandate, and in others 
by differing beliefs of those responsible 
for the program. It certainly is the 
scientist’s role to be interested in such 
problems and to supply a coherent and 
rational basis for the framework within 
which regulatory decision-making can 
proceed. 

Certain other concepts are useful to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


consider when discussing standard 
setting, such as threshold dose “‘safety,”’ 
dose-response, extrapolation of data 
from animal to man, and combined 
effects. 


Threshold Dese 


A biological effect may not be ob- 

served until the dose reaches a certain 
level. This level is called the threshold 
dose, and it may be defined as the 
minimum dose required to produce a 
detectable effect. The concept is im- 
portant from both a practical and a 
theoretical point of view, since a true 
threshold implies that below a given 
dose there is no adverse change what- 
soever with regard to toxic effect of 
the substance studied; this allows a 
*‘safe’’ limit or standard to be specified. 
As one uses more sensitive indicators 
responses are identified at lower levels 
and the thresholds decrease. For ex- 
ample, illness frequently is a more sensi- 
tive measure of response than death, 
and both will be preceded by physio- 
logic changes heralding the onset of 
disease. For many pollutants, such as 
ionizing radiation, there may be no 
threshold for the response.!: 

The existence of a threshold may be 
due in part to the build-up in man of 
tolerance to the particular pollutant. 
Tolerance represents the ability of man 
to endure pollutant exposures without 
apparent ill effects. The level of tolerance 
to environmental agents may be directly 
related to a number of characteristics 
including age, sex, and nutritional state. 
The concept of adaptation signifies an 
increase in tolerance with long-term low- 
level exposure to a given adverse 
environment. Adaptation is characteris- 
tically related to the stressful components 
of the environment. The ability to adapt 


1Message from the President of the United 
States Transmitting the Report of the Department 
of Health, Education and Welfare and the En- 
vironmental Protection Agency on the Health 
Effects of Environmental Pollution, Pursuant to 
Title V of Public Law 91-515. 92d Congress, 
House of Representatives Document No. 92-241, 
February 1, 1972. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


varies in a population and is deter- 
mined by anatomic, physiologic and bio- 
chemical characteristics of individual 
organisms.! 


“‘Safety”’ 


It is my present opinion that thresh- 
old concept is not a very helpful one 
because it is a level that changes with 
time, i.€., aS measurement methods for 
either the pollutants or the biological indi- 
cator improve, the threshold will shift. 
Similarly a shift can come from an altera- 
tion in the conditions under which an 
experiment is performed. This shift in 
threshold can cause a shift in standard 
which in turn results in regulated industry 
attempting to control to a moving target. 
Furthermore, there are many pollutants 
where no threshold exists or else it seems 
to be negligibly low. The concept of 
threshold carries with it the implied as- 
surance that there is a “‘safe’’ level 
of exposure. While this may occasionally 
be true, it certainly is not always true. 
Science recognizes no absolutes. Rather 
than think in the terms of safety in an 
absolute sense, ‘‘. . . our goal must be 
to reduce the risk (or probability) of 
hazard to a minimum consistent with 
the needs of our society. We must 
recognize that all human activity affects 
other humans, harmfully in some cases; 
our regulatory function is to evaluate how 
harmful activities under our regulations 
are, who is harmed, and how great are the 
benefits of permitting the activity to 
continue in spite of harmful effects. This 
latter has been frequently referred to as 
standard setting based upon evaluation of 
risks against benefits. During this transi- 
tional phase, it is important that all of 
our guidelines, criteria, etc. be stated in 
such a way as to make it clear that we 
are not expecting to achieve absolute 
safety to man or his environment (Elkins, 
1974). 

‘It must also be recognized that we 
have a history of many years during 
which our scientists have attempted to 
accommodate to the popular (and some- 
times Congressional) demand for safety. 


41 


To do so they have developed definitions 
for words suchas “‘safe level,’’ ‘‘no effect 


level,’’ and others that use quantifying. 


adjectives such as “‘negligible,’’ ‘‘triv- 


9 668 


ial,’’ “‘virtual,”’ ‘‘insignificant,’’ that tend 


to satisfy their intellectual recognition 
that absolutes do not exist in most com- 
mon situations but still permit use of 
terms in such a way that the general 
public is given the implication of safety 
as an absolute. It is not possible for any 
one regulatory agency to avoid use of 
terms thus defined as long as their use 
remains well entrenched in the scientific 
and regulatory community.’ (Elkins, 
1974). 

In another personal communication, 
Lindsay” indicated that, “‘Estimates of 
‘safety’ are expressions of ignorance. 
They are based on what we do not 
know.” 


Dose Response 


Dose-response data extracted from 
either community or experimental stud- 
ies 1s crucial for the decisions that must 
be made. However, when the informa- 
tion is available, as it rarely is, it has 
been gathered in animals at rather high 
exposure levels and needs to be extrap- 
olated to man who will be exposed at 
lower levels. Man, however, will gen- 
erally be exposed in greater numbers and 
for longer periods of time so that low- 
level risk can be manifest. We urgently 
need more specific research into the 
issues of extrapolation so that better 
decisions can be made. Since dose- 
response information is frequently lack- 
ing, other techniques need to be con- 
sidered. 


Extrapolation? 


Studies of laboratory animals have 
been used to assure that the toxicity 
risk from an environmental chemical is 
acceptably low. Such assurance should 


*Lindsay.~ D2: 
March, 1974. 

3Weinhouse, S. and Rall, D.: Personal com- 
munication, January, 1974. 


Personal communication, 


42 


be given before a chemical is introduced 
into the environment in a fashion where 
there can be human exposure. However, 
relating animal studies to possible effects | 
in man poses difficult and practical 
problems. As more chemicals for which 
there is sufficient toxicity testing are 
introduced into the environment where 
man can have similar exposure, we 
can learn more about the validity of the 
testing. Until that time we rely on such 
information as “‘. . . cancers in labora- 
tory animals are essentially the same as 
human cancers and with a single possible 
exception, all known human carcinogens 
are carcinogens in laboratory animals, 
laboratory animal studies seem to pre- 
dict for man. Thus, for ethical and 
practical reasons, data derived from use 
of laboratory animals for toxicity test- 
ing is the foundation of efforts to protect 
the public from the possible harmful 
effects of new and old chemicals in the 
environment.”’ 

The normal sequence of animal tests of 
a new chemical agent begins with studies 
to determine the mechanism through 
which laboratory animals respond to a 
compound, the nature of metabolites, the 
distribution of the parent compound, the 
metabolism in the tissues and organs, 
and the rates and routes of elimination 
of the compound or its derivatives. Com- 
parison of the similarity of the results 
of these tests can be made among various 
animal species, thus laying the ground 
work for prediction of the exposure 
events in man. Attempting to systematize 
this process is a prime area for research. 
Also, it must be remembered that this 
approach is most useful for observing 
effects that occur soon after the com- 
pound is administered, but is less useful 
for observing subtle long-term effects. 

When attempting to bridge the gap 
between non-human and human toxicity 
one must recognize two steps involved in 
the extrapolation of laboratory toxicity 
data to man. First, the extrapolation of 
what might be called the average or 
median mouse to the average or median 
man. This consists of extrapolation from 
the average or even the most sensitive 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


one, two or three laboratory animal 
species to an average man living under 
conditions with a commonly encountered 
genetic make-up. The second step re- 
quires identifying and allowing for vari- 
ability in the human population. The 
median mouse to median man extrap- 
olation is the easiest step. Biomedical 
research results are beginning to illu- 
minate the differences and similarities 
between species and are beginning to 
provide a rational basis for extrapolation. 
The second step, allowing for varia- 
ability and diversity—both genetic and 
environmental, is much harder. 

In summary, there is a basis for com- 
parison of the median mouse to the 
median rat to the median dog to the 
median man. More and more patterns 
that are useful for extrapolation to man 
are being recognized and can be identified 
in the course of the study of the pharma- 
cological disposition of a chemical. Most 
of the differences that have been ob- 
served suggest that man is more sensitive 
than the usual experimental animal, and 
this must be kept in mind when develop- 
ing safety factors. 

The following principles were stated in 
the Weinhouse and Rall communication 
_as this subject related to carcinogenesis 
testing: 


1. The major principle that must be 
accepted if we are to deal at all with long- 
term assessments of toxicity in man is 
that effects in animals, properly qualified, 
are applicable to man. 

2. Methodologies do not now exist 
to establish a safe threshold for long- 
term exposure to toxic agents. 

3. The exposure of experimental ani- 
mals to toxic agents in high doses is a 
necessary and valid method of assessing 
carcinogens hazard to man. 

4. Agents should be assessed in terms 
of relative risks rather than as safe or 
unsafe. 


Combined Pollutant Effects 


Physical-chemical interactions occur 
among the pollutants in the environment 
which in turn alter the biological activity 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


of the contaminants as well as the reac- 
tions within the tissues of man and ani- 
mals. The resulting bioeffects may be 
synergistic, additive or antagonistic, 
resulting in a reaction whose magnitude 
is greater, equal to, or less than the sum of 
the individual constituents. 

One of the most recent and best 
demonstrations of synergism of two 
pollutants was presented by Bates and 
Hazucha (October, 1973). The following 
is a quote from that paper: 

‘Our most recent experiments have 
been concerned with an additional prob- 
lem, namely a possible interaction 
between ozone and SO,. The episode of 
pollution in Rotterdam that occurred two 
years ago had several puzzling features. 
Although the ozone levels did not reach 
much beyond 0.2 ppm, and the SO, levels 
at the same time were about 0.2 ppm 
also, there was considerable morbidity, 
particularly amongst people bicycling 
in such an atmosphere. These levels of 
the individual constituents seemed to be 
too low to have caused the considerable 
symptoms which were reported. There is 
evidence that ozone and SO, together 
affect plants at lower concentrations than 
each would individually, and since nowa- 
days ozone exposure and SO, exposure 
may be expected to occur together, it 
seemed most important to us to try and 
study the interaction of the two.”’ 

Fig. 5 (Bates and Hazucha, 1973) 
shows the effect on four measures of pul- 
monary function of 0.37 ppm of SO, 
and 0.37 ppm of ozone exposure in- 
dependently, and then the enhancement 
of effects when both gases are present 
simultaneously. It is interesting to note 
that the effect of the two gases ad- 
ministered simultaneously is greater than 
the sum of the effect of each individually, 
thus a synergistic effect has been demon- 
strated that might account for episodes 
such as the one mentioned above and 
others both in U. S. A. and Japan. 


Least Case and Worst Case Range 
Estimates (Shy, 1973) 


Derivation of range estimates based on 
least case and worst case assumptions 


43 


(N24) 


mM 0-37 ppm SO, 
79 ¢ 0°37 ppm Og; (N#3) 
A 0°37 ppm $O,+0, (N24) 


FVC 


E = - 


ee 
meinen _—_—_: 
———— 


Se a 


~ *- 
Oo * }- ’ EXPOSURE RECOVERY ;- EXPOSURE RECOVERY 
cc 
= 
= 10 Te Fe Ie ree 
(oe) - ee ry 
oO ha a oan Dia) (aaa 
Se a ° 
i 
83 co 
"70 Ore ye 70 
a 4a 
60 We fe @ 
MMER MEFR SOL 
so 4 : so 
3 7 eee q 
0 0-5 1:9 1-5 2-0 2-50 1-0 1-5 z-0 2-5 
TIME (hrs) 


Fig. 5. Effect on 4 measures of pulmonary function of 0.37 parts per million of SO, and 0.37/ppm of ozone 
independently, and then the enhancement of effect when both gases are present simultaneously. (Based on 
Fig. 14, p. 534, of U. S. Congress Document No. 93-15). 


is another way to develop a workable 
plan upon which action decisions can be 
based. In least case assumptions, quanti- 
tative assessment of exposure or re- 
sponse is made on the assumption that 
current exposures are not representative 
of long-term trends or that adverse health 
responses should first be attributed to all 
known covariates, and only residual 
excesses of illness frequency be at- 
tributed to pollutant exposure. For 
example, in the frequently encountered 
situation where high exposure and low 
socioeconomic status geographically 
concur, the effect of low economic level 
on illness frequency would be identified 
first. Any excess illness which could not 
be accounted for by economic level 
would be quantified as a residual effect. 
After all covariates were considered in 
turn, the final residual excess would be 
called an air pollution-related health 
effect. Least case estimates attribute 
the smallest possible effect to pollutant 
exposures, do not allow for interaction 


44 


between covariates and exposure, and 
give a maximum quantitative estimate of 
human exposures associated with ad- 
verse responses. 

Worst case assumptions attribute ad- 
verse health effects first only to covari- 
ates which are known to be strong deter- 
minants of disease frequency, such as 
cigarette smoking in relation to chronic 
bronchitis. But covariates which are not 
well founded as determinants of illness 
frequency are eliminated from final 
analysis, and air pollution exposure is 
assumed to have contributed to the 
relatively larger residual in excess ill- 
ness frequency. Likewise, if information 
on past exposures is of low quality or 
unavailable, current exposures are 
assumed to represent past experience, 
and chronic disease frequencies are cal- 
culated as a function of exposures at 
current levels. Worst case assumptions, 
therefore, give minimum estimates of 
exposures associated with adverse health 
responses, and tend to maximize the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


proportion of disease frequency at- 
tributable to pollutant exposure. 

The truth may lie at either end of the 
quantitative range which can be derived 
from least case and worse case as- 
sumptions. When health intelligence 
cannot give precise quantitative informa- 
tion, the decision maker should be pro- 
vided with least and worst case range 
estimates. At that point, the degree of 
control becomes a function of other 
policy considerations, including control 
costs, alternate control strategies (and 
the health effects of these), the severity or 
magnitude of the effect, the population at 
risk, etc. Failure to present range esti- 
mates leaves less room for control 
options and forces decisions based on one 
set of numbers derived from arbitrary in- 
terpretations about study results. 


Least Cost Protective 
Standards (Shy, 1973) 


Air quality criteria supply the existing 
rationale for air quality standards. The 
process of standard setting requires 
policy decisions concerning protection of 
public health at least cost to society. 
Sound quantitative exposure response 
data allows the policy maker to make 
clear-cut decisions which can be de- 
fended. When range estimates are 
broad due to inadequate health intel- 
ligence one of two possible kinds of error 
may be made. The resulting standards 
could be too lenient and not protective 
enough or they could be too strict and 
excessively costly for the real benefit 
derived. Thus, society must pay a price 
for not generating adequate environ- 
mental health information. It must also 
be remembered that generation of health 
information itself can be costly and that in 
some instances it may be less costly to 
Overcontrol than develop the specific in- 
formation required. 

Margins of safety built into standards 
are judgements required to bridge the 
gap between the inadequacy of health 
intelligence and the need to stop con- 
tinued exposure to hazardous pollutant 
levels. Greater degrees of uncertainty 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


generate larger safety margins. Un- 
fortunately control costs increase ex- 
ponentially as exposure is limited more 
severely. The health benefit from the 
additional degree of control may be 
insignificant or actually negative if 
overly stringent controls cause health 
disbenefits, as could occur if scarce 
resources are diverted from health care 
or protection to unnecessary pollution 
abatement. 

The function of a health intelligence 
system in the standard setting process 
can be graphically displayed in the form 
of marginal cost curves (Fig. 6). The true 
social cost of pollution is equal to the sum 
of the marginal cost of control and the 
health and welfare cost of exposure. 
Health costs of disease, and more 
especially of physiological dysfunction, 
cannot be readily estimated with current 
scientific knowledge. Health and welfare 
costs increase with higher exposures, 
while control costs increase as exposures 
are lowered. True social costs of pol- 
lution are minimal where the two 
marginal cost curves intersect. If 
society will tolerate some pollutant-as- 
sociated excess health costs, curve AD 
(Fig. 6) may represent this social 
preference. On the other hand, if society 
places a very high premium on prevent- 
able disease or reducing risk of disease, 


Health Cost 
High 
Assumption 
Marginal 
Cost 
of 
Control 


Cost of 
Control 


Marginal 
Health 
Cost 
of 
Exposure 


Assumption 


Pollutant Concentration 


Least Cost Standard: C or B' 
Excessively Stringent Standard: A, 8, A' 
Too Lenient Standard: 0D, C', D' 


Fig. 6. Least cost protective standards. 


45 


curve A’D’ (Fig. 6) may well represent 
this attitude. On both curves, the points 
B or B’ represent the lowest pollutant 
exposure associated with adverse health 
(or welfare) effects. Under the low health 
cost assumption (curve AD), society 
will accept the health costs (and as- 
sociated adverse health effects) repre- 
sented by the vertical distance between B 
and C. Under the high cost assumption, 
society will not allow any adverse health 
effect caused by exposure and will re- 
quire control to point B’, where high 
marginal cost of control is equated with 
derived health benefit. 

Excessively stringent standards are 
shown at point A and B under the low 
cost assumption and at point A’ under the 
high assumption, while too lenient stand- 
ards are reflected in point D under the 
low assumption and C’ and D’ under 
the high assumption. The least cost 
standard, in terms of true social costs, is 
at point C under the low health cost as- 
sumption and at point B’ under the high 
assumption. Least cost standards protec- 
tive of health require adequate quanti- 
tative exposure-response information, 
knowledge of control costs and range 
estimates of health cost of pollution 
effects. 

Even range estimates of pollutant- 
related health costs are difficult to derive. 
Many direct and indirect health costs 
must be considered, including: Im- 
mediate and delayed health effects of 
short-term and long-term exposure; the 
contribution of pollutant exposure to 
the occurrence and severity of major 
public health problems such as acute and 
chronic respiratory diseases, heart dis- 
ease, cancer and congenital defects; and 
adverse health effects of control strat- 
egies. While these estimates are formid- 
able tasks, failure to make the estimates 
will prevent even the possibility of 
achieving least social cost standards, 
except entirely fortuitously. Re- 
quired annual reports of air pollution 
control costs clearly warrant better 
and more quantitative health effects data 


46 


and concerted efforts to convert health 
effects to health costs. 


Implementation and Enforcement 


Implementation is the translation of a 
control regulation into an action pro- 
gram that hopefully will achieve the 
prescribed goal (standard) within a 
designated time-frame. Enforcement is 
policing of the system and bringing action 
against offenders who do not meet the 
requirements of specific emission or 
effluent standards as deemed necessary 
under the implementation plan. Each 
of these steps in the process has many 
statistical problems. 


Ambient Standards vs. Emission Standards 


Ambient air quality standards are dif- 
ficult to enforce for if such an air standard 
is exceeded, who is to blame? It is a 
community standard and surely the 
whole community is not to be punished. 
However, since pollutants come from 
specific emittors, an effort is made during 
development of an implementation plan 
to establish a set of emission standards 
that, when integrated to the monitoring 
sites for the specified time periods, will 
keep the measured levels of pollutants 
below the ambient air quality standards. 
Since there are many pollutant sources 
at varying distances from the meas- 
urement sites and since there are varia- 
tions in measured levels depending on the 
sampler, the day of week, and other fac- 
tors, it is not difficult to speculate about 
a host of statistical problems. The situa- 
tion is, of course, even more difficult be- 
cause standards, or legal limits, are 
expressed in rather absolute terms, 75 
ug/m? as an annual average or 0.08 ppm 
for 1 hr not to be exceeded more than 1 
time annually. These numbers are or 
are near upper bound values and never 
give any indication of the magnitude of 
the variation in the system that arrived 
at the number. Problems arise when the 
implementation plans are being evaluated 
for adequacy or when an enforcement 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


action is to be taken. A clear state- 
ment of the variability, or at least some 
components of it, would provide a 
sounder basis for evaluation. 

I do not wish to give the impression 
that there are no mathematical models 
relating ambient air quality and emission 
levels. Such models are available, and 
are still in need of refinement. Further- 
more, information is available to place 
confidence intervals around the air 
standards or at least to indicate what 
mean value the upper bounds designated 
as Standards actually imply. 


Assessment of the Action Program 


One activity frequently forgotten in 
public programs is evaluation to learn 
if the program does or does not achieve 
its desired end. Environmental pollution 
control programs are assessed in two 
ways: (1) One in terms of monitoring 
pollutant levels and (2) the other in terms 
of community surveillance to learn if the 
health and welfare improvement desired 
is achieved. The first method is the least 
expensive way to evaluate the program, 
but has the disadvantage that the benefits 
sought are assumed rather than measured 
and new problems that might arise be- 
cause of the program are not identified 
until much later. Since health surveil- 
lance can both indicate achievement of 
the program and identify new or con- 
tinuing problems simultaneously, it is 
an important part of the regulatory 
program. 


Summary 


The regulatory control process was 
_ Schematized into four steps, namely: 

Environmental problem identification 
and assessment, alternate control strat- 
egies, implementation and enforcement 
and assessment of the action program. 
These steps in the control process were 
used to discuss issues in health re- 
search and use of the data for decision- 
making, such as: Public sector vs. pri- 
vate sector responsibility for research 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


support; need for an integrated program 
using the disciplines of epidemiology, 
clinical research and toxicology; pol- 
lutant exposure and human response 
emphasizing the spectrum of response, 
the exposure response matrix, estimates 
of exposure and evaluation of the ex- 
posure response relationship; health 
protection vs. control costs; environ- 
mental standards; threshold dose; 
‘‘safety;’’ dose-response; extrapolation; 
combined pollutant effects; least case- 
worst case range estimates; and least 
cost protective standards. 

The role of the scientist as viewed by 
me is to unravel and develop under- 
standing of the environmental problems. 
This understanding should be used to 
provide judgements that will bound the 
problem for the administrator/politician 
decision-maker as well as supply a co- 
herent and rational basis for the frame- 
work within which regulatory decisions 
can be made. There is room for much 
Original and innovative thinking in this 
area. 


References Cited 


Bates, D. V., and Hazucha, M. 1973. The short- 
term effects of ozone on the human lung. 
Proceedings of the Conference on Health 
Effects of Air Pollutants, NAS, NRC, October 
3-5, 1973, pp. 513-540. U.S. Congress Docu- 
ment Serial No. 93-15, November 1973. 

Elkins, C. L. 1974. Memorandum entitled, ‘‘Use 
of Words to Describe Hazards in OHMC 
Publications,’ dated January 29, 1974. 

Flinn, J. E., and Reimers, R. S. 1974. Development 
of predictions of future pollution problems. 
Contract No. 68-01-1837. Implementation 
Research Division, Washington, Environ- 
mental Research Center, Office of Research 
and Development. U.S. Environmental Pro- 
tection Agency, Washington, D. C. 20460, 
January, 1974. 

Hill, A. B. 1965. The environment and disease: 
Association or causation. Proc. Royal Soc. 
Med. 58:295-—300, 1965. 

MacMahon, B., Pugh, T. F., and Ipsen, J. 1960. 
Epidemiologic Methods. Little, Brown and 
Company, Boston, Massachusetts, 1960, pp. 
18-21. 

Newill, V. A. 1972a. The administrative need for 
environmental health research. Briefing to the 
Administrator, Washington, D. C., February 
1972 and Presentation as a Keynote address 


47 


at the Annual Conference of the National 
Environmental Health Association, New York 
City, July 1972. 

Newill, V. A. 1972b. PSAC Briefing on the EPA Air 
Pollution Health Effects Research Program, 
Washington, D. C. May 22, 1972. This briefing 
was based on many in-house reports from the 
Division of Health Effects Research, NERC 
RTP, EPA, North Carolina. 

Newill, V. A. 1973. Nature and source of pollutants. 


Presented at the American Academy of | 


Pediatrics Conference, Evanston, Illinois, June 
11, 1973. 


Shy, C. M. 1973. Health intelligence for air 


re ee 


quality standards. Presented at the Meeting of 


the President’s Air Quality Advisory Board, 
St. Louis, Missouri March 27, 1973. 

WHO. 1972. Air Quality Criteria and Guide 
for Urban Air Pollutants. Wid. Hlth. Org. 
Techn. Rep. Ser. 1972, No. 506. 


Keynote Address: Statistics and the Environment 


Michael Brownlee 


Professional Staff, Senate Committee on Commerce, Room 5202, Dirksen 
Senate Office Bldg., Washington, D. C. 20510 


““Keynote speech’’ is defined by 
Webster as ‘“‘a speech, as at a political 
convention, that sets forth the main 
line of policy.*’ While that is an admirable 
definition when visualizing the political 
process, the definition seems strangely 
misplaced here. Not only would it be 
presumptuous of me to attempt to set 
policy for the organizations represented 
here, but this gathering hardly resembles 
a political convention. There are no ban- 
ners, there is no music, the ambient level 
of smoke in this room seems rather low, 
and I doubt if any votes are to be taken. 

Scientists rarely engage in any of the 
ballyhoo associated with the political 
process. The rewards of scientific en- 
deavor are found largely in the endeavor 
itself and in the recognition of accom- 
plishment by one’s peers. Certainly those 
rewards are honorable and have played 
an enormous role in fostering scientific 
advances throughout history. 

But I wonder if the image of the scien- 
tist tucked away in his laboratory, speak- 
ing a language often known only to him- 
self and his peers, should not be changed 
and changed dramatically. Quite 
frankly, I find myself longing to attend a 
scientific meeting that more closely re- 
sembled a political convention. While 


48 


obviously a symposium like this is no 
place for much of what goes on every 
fourth year, political conventions do 
serve the very important function of 
rallying members of each party around a 
central theme. In that respect, perhaps 
a bit more of the political convention 
atmosphere might be in order in scientific 
meetings. And if I-were to choose a 
theme to rally behind, it is that the 
scientific community must strive to make 
itself more visible and available to policy 
makers than it has in the past. My specific 
frame of reference is the Congress and 
that is the essence of the theme I would 
like to develop this morning. The 
Congress has a pressing need for solid 
scientific advice, and it has been all too 
hard to get in the past. 

Before developing this theme in more 
detail, it might be helpful to describe my 
role on the staff of the Committee on 
Commerce. Perhaps then it might be 
easier to understand my feelings about 
good scientific advice and its role in the 
legislative process. 

My job is primarily to offer technical 
advice which is relevant to the formula- 
tion of regulatory policy on certain en- 
vironmental matters. Stated differently, 
it is my function to attempt to under- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


stand environmental threats and then to 
translate this understanding into legis- 
lative language that hopefully will pro- 
vide appropriate remedies. My job is not 
substantially different from those of other 
staff members on the hill. Identifying 
problems and proposing legislative reme- 
dies is a function shared by most com- 
mittee staffers, although my area of 
specialty probably requires a greater 
understanding of scientific principle than 
others. 

In one respect, however, my per- 
spective differs substantially from that 
of many of my peers on the hill. I do have 
a degree in fish and wildlife biology and 
engaged in that profession for a number 
of years before joining the staff of the 
Committee on Commerce. 

This does give me a certain uniqueness 
which is not at all unwelcome. At certain 
times, however, I find this piece of per- 
sonal history to be more a hindrance 
than a benefit. Unfortunately, many of 
my lawyer peers regard anyone who 
might even remotely be termed a “‘sci- 
entist’’ an automatic expert on every- 
thing from thermodynamics to biostatis- 
tics, both of which, incidentally, I have 
been called upon to speak in the past. 
I would find this tale somewhat amusing 
were it not for the fact that it illustrates 
a very serious lack of technical expertise 
available to Congress. 

As we all know, a great deal of legis- 
lation to protect the environment has 
been proposed and enacted in the past 
few years. Far-reaching legislation to 
protect our air and water resources has 
become law, as has tighter control over 
noise, radiation, ocean dumping, and 
the protection of other components of the 
living environment. In each case, and I 
really am not aware of any exception to 
this rule, the enactment of a statue has 
occurred only after scientific facts or 
alleged facts have sounded the alarm. 
The death of Lake Erie and the dis- 
astrous effect on biological systems of 
the polluted waters of the Houston ship 
channel and the Cuyahoga River created 
strong pressures for the enactment of 
a stiff water pollution control law. The 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


effects, or potential effects, of air pol- 
lution in the smog-filled Los Angeles 
Basin and Washington, D. C. for that 
matter, created strong motivation for the 
enactment of the Clean Air Act amend- 
ments of 1970. Within my sphere of 
responsibility, the discoveries of poly- 
chlorinated biphenyls in edible chicken 
and the effects of phosphates on aquatic 
eutrophication have provided much of 
the impetus necessary for Congress to 
focus attention on the Toxic Substances 
Control Act, which, hopefully, will be- 
come law in the near future. Likewise, a 
survey conducted by EPA entitled ‘“‘The 
Community Water Supply Study’’ has 
provided much of the ammunition to 
shepherd the Safe Drinking Water Act 
through the Senate. 

The common thread among all of 
those examples is that each of them 
requires at least a rudimentary under- 
standing of the effects of pollutants on 
biological systems. 

Obviously, the importance of scientific 
input goes far beyond the bounds of 
environmental legislation. Health legis- 
lation, foreign affairs, housing, drug 
abuse, agriculture, fiscal and monetary 
policy, and many other areas of legisla- 
tive endeavor would be doomed were it 
not for the lynch pin of technical input 
at some point in the legislative process. 

The formulation of scientific fact and 
its translation into terms laymen can 
understand is a fundamental need of an 
aggressive Congress. Much of the 
reluctance that we find in Congress to 
developing specific policy directives in 
matters of science results from a lack 
of understanding of the scientific prin- 
ciples involved. For example, a key issue 
for the House and Senate Conferees on 
the Emergency Energy Act was the 
degree of discretion to be given to the 
President to impose emergency energy 
conservation measures. If better infor- 
mation were available to the Congress on 
the effectiveness of the various measures 
contemplated, one can legitimately 
question whether the issue of how much 
power be given to the President might 
cease to be an issue at all as Congress 


49 


would take the initiative. To carry the 
principle to its logical conclusion, might 
not the lack of technical input and under- 
standing of technical information by the 
Congress be a prime factor leading to the 
very substantial transfer of authority 
from Congress to the Executive Branch 
in recent years. 

It is perhaps unfortunate that often the 
predominant scientific input to the 
legislative process comes from those who 
are most vociferous. While assertiveness 
is an admirable quality, the essential 
ingredient of impeccable scientific 
credentials is too often difficult to 
discern. As many of you Know, itis a staff 
responsibility to seek out witnesses for 
Congressional hearings. In structuring 
hearings involving matters of scientific 
principle, there is no more difficult 
task than finding respected scientists who 
can speak on an issue forcibly and in 
layman’s terms. The frustration becomes 
overwhelming after supposedly having 
found such a witness and listening to 
thirty minutes of excellent scientific testi- 
mony, the Chairman of the hearing turns 
to the staffer at his elbow and asks under 
his breath, ‘‘What the hell is he saying?”’ 

Lest these comments be interpreted as 
undue criticism of the scientific testimony 
we do receive, I have nothing but admira- 
tion for those scientists who volunteer 
time and time again to offer testimony to 
the Committee. Despite this, however, 
all too frequently we are forced to call 
upon the same witnesses to address them- 
selves to a variety of issues, some of 
which they are obviously the more 
qualified to speak to than others. 

The disparity in the amount and 
types of technical support between the 
Congress and the Executive Branch is 
indeed staggering. For example, Dr. 
Stanley Greenfield has nearly 2,000 em- 
ployees at his disposal to carry out the 
research and monitoring functions of the 
Environmental Protection Agency, one 
of the smaller agencies of the Executive 
Branch. In fact, over a quarter of 
a million persons are employed in 
technical positions in the entire Exec- 


50 


utive Branch. On the other hand, 
the standing committees of the Con- 
gress, who are responsible in large 
part for escorting legislation through 
the legislative process, employ approxi- 
mately 1,500 people. Obviously, the 
duties of the Legislative and Execu- 
tive Branches are not comparable. But 
there is little wonder in my mind as 
to why the support of the Administration 
is SO very important in passing legislation 
which requires scientific understanding. 
Quite frankly, we are unmercifully out- 
gunned. 

Obviously, there are some institutional 
changes which Congress must consider 
to narrow the technology gap. In fact, 
a number of changes are already evi- 
dent. As many of you know, the Con- 
gressional Research Service of the 
Library of Congress has long provided 
technical research service to members of 
Congress. Their staff is highly overtaxed, 
however, and emergency requests can 
rarelv be honored. 

The Congress has established an 
Office of Technology Assessment within 
the Library of Congress. The purpose of 
OTA, now in its formative stages, is to 
aid Congress “‘in the identification and 
consideration of existing and probable 
impacts of technological application,” 
obviously a vital service. 

The General Accounting Office, 
Congress’ so-called watchdog agency, is 
made up largely of technical experts 
whose function it is to audit government 
programs which many times are technical 
in nature. Again, a vital function. 

On the non-governmental side, there is 
evidence that scientific and professional 
organizations are gradually turning their 
attention to the Congress. The American 
Association for the Advancement of 
Science (AAAS) sponsors several Con- 
gressional fellows each year as does 
the American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers (ASME), the American Phys- 
ical Society (APS), and the Institute of 
Electrical and Electronic Engineers 
(IEEE). The Committee on Commerce 
was blessed to have the first such 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


fellow, Dr. Barry Hyman of George 
Washington University, assigned to 
the Committee this past year. Dr. 
Hyman played a substantial role in 
the Committee’s consideration of the 
National Fuels and Energy Conserva- 
tion Act and other energy legislation. 
Dr. Hyman has agreed to join the 
staff for an additional year and to assume 
staff responsibility for the Subcommit- 
tee on Science, Technology, and Com- 
merce. 

Obviously, the prime responsibility 
for obtaining technical information per- 
taining to legislation must lie with the 
Congress. But should the responsibility 
end there? What should be the role of the 
scientific and professional organizations 
like many of those sponsoring this 
symposium? And how about the role of 
the National Academy of Sciences, 
whose name has become synonymous 
with scientific excellence in this country, 
at least in most circles. Is there not a 
responsibility to make your voices 
heard loud and clear in legislative 
matters involving science? And I am 
speaking about a great deal more than 
lobbying to keep research budgets at 
such and such a level, although that role 
obviously is vital. I am talking about 
taking some lessons from the public inter- 
est movement and aggressively involving 
yourselves throughout the legislative 
process in matters ranging from the regu- 
lation of the chemical industry, to oc- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


cupational safety and health, and perhaps 
more to social issues which bear on 
science, like the manner in which the 
fruits of science (like certain pesticides) 
are to be used in warfare. Obviously the 
list of potential legislative matters in 
which you could involve yourselves is 
very long. 

Keeping abreast of Congressional 
activity and offering your services not 
only to those who actively seek help, 
but to those who might reluctantly accept 
it, can only foster a greater understanding 
within the Congress of science and sci- 
entists. For the scientific and profes- 
sional organizations, this could well in- 
volve staffing a national office here in 
Washington as some have recently 
done and employing sufficient com- 
petent lobbyists and staff to make 
your point abundantly clear. It is a dif- 
ficult, often unrewarding task, but one 
which stands to yield substantial benefits. 

To complete this exhortation, let me 
depart from a promise I made at the out- 
set of this talk, that of not being pre- 
sumptuous enough to attempt to set 
policy for this symposium. As you con- 
tinue for the next three days and after you 
go back home, I would hope that each of 
you would continually ask the question, 
‘*Do I have knowledge that has legisla- 
tive application and might it help to set 
policy if it were known to the Congress?”’ 
If you decide in the affirmative, please 
let us know. 


51 


Statistics and the Environment 


George E. P. Box! 


Department of Statistics, University of Wisconsin, Madison 53715 


The Problem 


It seems only a little time ago that we 
were concerned with matters which now 
seem comparatively trivial. We had for 
some time lived with the knowledge that 
our survival was threatened by nuclear 
attack by a foreign enemy, but it seems 
only recently that we have noticed a more 
insidious threat of our own making. Most 
of us now recognize that we are well on 
the way to destroying ourselves by over- 
population, pollution, the frittering away 
of our raw materials, and the poisoning of 
our food by inadequately tested chemi- 
cals. 

Opinions differ as to how long it will 
take before various predictable crises 
occur and how much each problem will 
complicate the solution of the others, 
but it is very clear that we will be hard 
pressed and we will be lucky to escape by 
the skin of our teeth. The truth is that 
although we are called on to meet very 
difficult problems of great urgency we 
know pathetically little of the facts. So 
we must learn fast. 

Now it is precisely this ability to learn 
fast that has got us into our present dif- 
ficulties. It was only a few hundred years 
ago that men’s minds seriously turned to 
the question of how the, normally very 
slow, process of learning by chance 
experience might be accelerated. Sci- 
entific method, the secret of learning fast, 
has altered the normal birth and death 
process, yielding perhaps a more com- 
fortable world but at the cost of world 
Overpopulation. Scientific method has 
provided us with motor cars and fac- 
tories producing convenient products, 


1 Supported by the United States Office of Army 
Research under grant number DA-ARU-D-31- 
124-72-G162. 


52 


but the by-products of both are threat- 
ening the air we breathe and the water we 
drink. Furthermore, their insatiable 
appetite for raw materials is stripping the 
earth of its irreplaceable treasure. Sci- 
entific method has provided us with 
conveniently packaged foods with 
chemical additives which make them 
taste good, look good, and last a long 
time on the shelves of the supermarket, 
but pharmacologists will tell you that 
it is almost impossible to keep up 
with the flood of these new substances 
which we ingest, and to be sure what are 
their long term effects on human beings. 
So we are hopeful that the same sci- 
entific method which has in a period of 
a few hundred years got us to where we 
are now, can in a few decades get us to 
where we would like to be. 
I believe it can, but with two provisos: 
First, we must release, by public edu- 
cation, the will to make it happen. 
Second, because with so little time we 
cannot afford inefficient investigation, we 
must catalyze the learning process still 
further. The catalyst is the proper use 
of Statistical Methods. 


Science and Statistics - 


It was Lord Kelvin who said, ‘“‘When 
you can measure what you are speaking 
about and express it in numbers, you 
know something about it; but when you 
cannot measure it, when you cannot 
express it in numbers, your knowledge is 
of a meagre and unsatisfactory kind: it 
may be the beginning of knowledge, 
but you have scarcely, in your thoughts, 
advanced to the stage of science.’’ But, in 
case that should seem too much an en- 
couragement to those who believe that 
mere unthinking accumulation of num- 
bers is synonymous with good science 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


FACTS 


D 


DEDUCTION INDUCTION 
HYPOTHESES ‘’ \ ra 


MODEL 
CONJECTURE 
THEORY 
IDEA 


Fig. 1. The iterative learning process. 


and will of itself solve the problem, I 
hasten to add the well known words at- 
tributed, among others, to Mark Twain, a 
contemporary of the noble lord’s: ‘‘There 
are three kinds of lies—lies, damn lies, 
and Statistics.” 

What then is scientific method and 
what part does Statistics play within it? 

Scientific method is a process of con- 
trolled learning. The object of statistical 
method is to make that learning process 
as efficient as possible. 

Learning is an iterative process, il- 
lustrated in Fig. 1, in which a hypothesis 
(or theory or model or conjecture) leads 
by a process of deduction to certain con- 
sequences which may be compared with 
known facts. Usually the consequences 
and the facts fail to agree, leading by a 
process called induction to modification 
of the hypothesis. Thus a second itera- 
tion is initiated, the consequences of 
the modified hypothesis are worked out 
and again compared with facts (old or 
newly acquired) which, with luck, leads 
to further modification and to further 
gaining of knowledge. 

This process of learning can be 
thought of in terms of the feedback 
loop shown in Fig. 2, where dis- 
crepancy between the facts and the con- 


INDUCTION 


CONSEQUENCES 
OF H 


DEDUCTION 


sequences of the initial hypothesis H 
leads to the modified hypothesis H’. 
This view makes it clear why there is no 
place in science for the man who wants to 
demonstrate that he has always been 
right. For it is by arranging matters so 
that there is maximum opportunity to find 
out where he may be wrong, that most 
progress is made. 


Suppose at a certain stage in an investi- 
gation the situation is that shown in the 
bottom half of Fig. 3. A hypothesis H 
concerning the state of nature has been 
formulated, leading to certain conse- 
quences that have been compared with 
the facts deduced from analysis of the 
available data. Discrepancies have 
suggested a modification from H to H’. 
Consequences of H’ may now be in 
accord with the data analysis or may 
still be discordant. When it is not 
clear what modification should be made 
to an unsatisfactory hypothesis or, 
alternatively, when confirmation of an 
apparently satisfactory hypothesis is 
needed, further data must be sought. De- 
pending on the context, the further data 
may come from a designed experiment, 
a sample survey, or already existing re- 
sults. Whatever the source of the data, 
careful attention must be given to its 
selection or design. As illustrated in Fig. 
3, the direction of the effort at data get- 
ting will inevitably depend on our latest 
view of the state of nature and the hopes 
and fears which surround that view. 

While, at a particular stage, the conjec- 


tured state of nature may be false or at 
least inexact, the data themselves are 


generated by the true state of nature. It is 
because of this that the comparison of 


H’ REPLACES H 


HYPOTHESIS H 


Fig. 2. The learning process as a feedback loop. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


53 


AVAILABLE 
DATA 


NEW 
DATA 
DATA 
AN 


CONSEQUENCES 
OF H 


INDUCTION 


DEDUCTION 


TRUE STATE 
OF 
NATURE 


eevee 
J 
8 
¢ 
s 


©. 
§ 
RYPOTHESIS 4" $ HYPOTHESIS H 


eeeeeeneoQdee & 


Fig. 3. Data analysis and data getting in the process of scientific investi- 


gation. 


successively conjectured states of nature 
with actual data can lead to convergence 
on the truth. Even if we could see 
such data free of experimental error, 
however, the task of discovery would 
usually not be easy because of the com- 
plexity of the systems that need to be 
studied. So in practice in addition to 
complexity, we have to cope with an 
added difficulty—that the data contains 
experimental error (or noise), which 
tends to mislead. 

Scientific investigation, then, is not 
easy, and obviously the process we have 
described depends crucially on the sci- 
entific wit and subject matter knowledge 
of the investigator. The statistician’s job 
is to advise and assist the investigator 
in two crucial tasks, so as to allow the in- 
vestigator to employ his talents most 
efficiently. These tasks are: 

(1) deciding what would be appropri- 
ate data to get at each stage of the investi- 


54 


gation. Broadly we can call this the 
design problem. 

(2) deciding what the data entitles us to 
believe at each stage of the investigation. 
We can call this the analysis problem. 

Of the two, design—the decision as to 
what are the appropriate data to get—is 
of paramount importance. This is equally 
true whether by actual design of an appro- 
priate experiment, the planning of a suit- 
able sample survey, or the proper choice 
of a data base. No amount of skill in data 
analysis can extract information which is 
not there to begin with. The second task 
of the statistician, although not so vital as 
the first, is still very important. In- 
appropriate analysis of data can pro- 
duce unjustifiable conclusions or fail to 
discover justifiable ones. Worse, it can 
fail to unearth those hints of, perhaps un- 
expected, phenomena which often cata- 
lyze the investigator’s progress to a solu- 
tion. In any case, inappropriate analysis 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


of data will greatly hamper convergence 
of the scientific iteration. 

In summary then, we learn through 
numbers. But what numbers or data 
should we try to get and what do they 
mean when we have them? These are the 
questions that good statisticians are 
trained to answer. It is very easy to ac- 
- quire useless or irrelevant data. It is very 
easy to be misled by data once they are 
acquired. The design of each stage of an 
enquiry so as to produce useful data 
with the minimum of time and expense, 
and the analysis of data of each stage so as 
to produce, not only valid conclusions, 
but also valuable hints on how the investi- 
gation ought to proceed, these are the 
two critical tasks in which the statistician 
plays a key role. 

Part of the statistician’s job is also, I 
think, to encourage and accompany the 
scientist in the slightly schizophrenic 
role that he has perforce to play. 

Having entertained a _ tentative 
model (hypothesis, etc.) it is up to the 
Statistician to see that fully efficient 
means are used to investigate the conse- 
quences of that model. That is the in- 
ference step in Fig. 4. However, having 
then produced the best analysis pos- 
sible, supposing the model to be accurate, 
he must now change his stance from that 
of a sponsor to a critic. He becomes a 
doubting Thomas prepared to find fault 
by inspecting residuals for suspicious 
features, etc. This criticism can lead to 
modification of the model, either at once 


or at some time after more data has been 
taken. 

Switching alternately from sponsor to 
critic and back again is a painful business 
but one which we must steel ourselves 
to pursue. The Pygmalions who have fal- 
len in love with their models some- 
where along the way are a nuisance anda 
hindrance to progress. 

Another part of the statistician’s 
job is to make sure that Statistics and 
Computers do not separate the investi- 
gator from his data but, on the contrary, 
help him to see his data from many dif- 
ferent angles. We must remember that the 
best induction machine so far devised is 
the human mind, and if modern methods 
of dealing with data result in separating 
the investigator from his data, they are 
almost certainly doing more harm than 
good. 

Going now into a little more detail, 
what then are some of the difficulties that 
appropriate use of statistical methods can 
alleviate or avoid? 


Coping with Natural Variation 


We live in a world which is universally 
variable. How much air a man breathes 
depends on the particular man, his 
temporary physiological state, the atmos- 
phere he is presently in, and so forth. And 
yet, until quite recently, attempts were 
made to study variable phenomena in an 
entirely deterministic manner. Varia- 
tion was frowned upon, as if disapproval 


INFERENCE 


iene AL Pye 


TENTATIVE E 


AUNGAGE Vos: LS 


MODEL CRITICISM 


SPONSOR z 


CRITIC 
Qe 


Fig. 4. Statistical analysis as an iterative process. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


55 


ait 
Hit 
| 


Mm 
jh 
{ ATT {!I| ' 


| 
HH 
il 
| 


ee | 
| A | 


rat 
CL 


[ap a Times ese] 


f= 
3 alg ny (nani ale [PLES S| ea gis el os i 


Fig. 5. Monthly average of hourly readings of O, (pphm) at downtown Los Angeles (1955-1972), with 
the weight function for estimating the effect of intervening events in 1960. 


would make it go away, and probability 
statements were treated as in some way 
unsatisfactory. There was little readiness 
to admit that everything varies and, ex- 
cept perhaps from God himself, every 
statement, if exactly made, would have to 
be a probability statement. 


Increasing Accuracy by Exploiting 
the Variational Structure 


Environmental data are usually highly 
variable. It is by facing this fact, rather 
than running away from it, that we can 
solve some of our problems. Indeed, it is 
a fascinating fact, that it is the structure 
of the variation or noise, which deter- 
mines how we can extract the information 
which the data contain. As an illustra- 
tion, Fig. 5 shows monthly averages of 
oxidant (O;) levels observed in down- 
town Los Angeles from 1955 to 1972. 
These data are highly seasonal and 
variable. About the beginning of 1960 two 
events occurred which might have been 
expected to change these levels. These 


56 


events were the diversion of traffic by 
the opening of the Golden State Freeway 
and the coming into effect of a new law 
(Rule 63), which reduced the allowable 
proportion of reactive hydrocarbons in 
the gasoline sold locally. By a study of the 
structure of the variation it is possible to 
obtain (Box and Jenkins, 1970; Box and 
Tiao, 1965, 1973; Tiao et al., 1973) a valid 
and most sensitive test of the possibility 
that the events in January 1960 changed 
the oxidant level and to estimate the 
change. For this data the estimate 
turns out to be —1.10 + 0.10 p.p.h.m. 
The function shown at the top of the 
diagram displays the manner in which the 
data are weighted in the optimal dif- 
ference estimate. As common sense 
might expect (i) most weight is given 
to values obtained immediately before 
and after the events and remote data 
are suitably discounted, (ii) the weight- 
ing is automatically chosen so _ that 
seasonal effects are eliminated. 

I believe that the use of ‘Intervention 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Analysis’? such as the above, in which 
difference equation models are used to 
represent dynamic and stochastic sys- 
tems, has much to contribute in uncover- 
ing possible effects of public policy 
changes. For example, it could show the 
effect of the opening of a nuclear power 
station on the ecology of the river from 
which cooling water is drawn and re- 
turned. It is clear that studies of this 
kind are vital to the intelligent framing 
of new laws. 


We owe to Sir Ronald Fisher the con- 
cept that we can exploit the patterns of 
natural variation in data to design en- 
quiries and experiments so that errors are 
minimized. For example, randomized 
block designs and stratified sampling 
plans can eliminate major sources of dis- 
turbance and ensure that important com- 
parisons are made within the least vari- 
able material. 

Another tool which should, I believe, 
find much application is the use of com- 
ponents of variance to improve tests of 
environmental quality. The analysis of 
variance table used in the analysis of 
data from the randomized block designs I 
mentioned above may also be employed 
in conjunction with suitable designs to 
estimate components of variation, for 
example, in tests of environmental 
quality. Suppose we take a sample froma 
stream and perform an analysis. How 
accurate is the result we get? What do we 
mean by that question? Certainly not how 
closely repeated chemical analyses of 
that same sample would agree with one 
another. What we want to know is how 
nearly does our analysis give a picture of 
the quality of that stream at that time 
and place. 

An appropriate study of components of 
variance—how much variation is as- 
sociated with chemical analysis, how 
much with the sampling method, how 
much with change of location in the river, 
together with knowledge of how much it 
will cost to take a sample and perform 
a chemical analysis—enables us to 
devise a testing scheme which can be 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


dramatically more accurate and eco- 
nomical than one naively chosen. 


Causation and Correlation 


Many years ago when I studied 
Statistics at University College London 
there was a plot of some data which none 
who saw could easily forget. On the x 
axis was the number of storks’ nests ob- 
served each year in a certain town; on the 
y axis was the corresponding human birth 
rate for that year. The data showed an al- 
most perfect straight line relationship. It 
is perhaps superfluous to explain that the 
correlation arose because, over the 
period of years in which the data were 
taken, the stork population was increas- 
ing and so was the human population. It is 
also unnecessary to point out that our 
Over-population problem will not be 
solved by shooting storks. 

In case these remarks should seem 
frivolous we must remember that it was 
precisely this kind of question which 
was debated in some of the early discus- 
sions on smoking and lung cancer and 
which bedevil much data analysis in 
other fields. 

Again it was Fisher who showed how 
in planned experimentation the introduc- 
tion of randomization could break the 
purely correlative chain and enable 
causation to be distinguished. In cases 
where planned experiments are not pos- 
sible the situation is always very tricky, 
and very careful analysis is needed to 
decide in any given case precisely what 
the data allow us to conclude. 


Complexity in the Face of High Noise Levels 


Many of the phenomena we face in 
considering the environment are com- 
plex. To cope with problems which are 
complex, as well as being obscured by 
experimental error, we would be wise to 
welcome whatever help we can get. Even 
though the complexity of problems is 
admitted, the idea that variables should 
only be studied one at a time dies hard. 
The one variable at a time method would, 
of course, only be a satisfactory mode of 


57 


study if nature were so obliging as to have 
its variables affect the environment inde- 
pendently. Again, it was Fisher who 
pointed out that by the use of suitable 
design the effect of experimental error 
could be averaged out at the same time 
that provision was made for the estima- 
tion of complex effects. Designs of this 
kind may be used, not only for empirical 
descriptions of phenomena, but also for 
testing mechanisms. This is done by 
treating as data the estimated constants of 
the system. If the model is correct, these 
should remain constant when extraneous 
conditions are varied. When, as is 
usually the case initially, the model is not 
wholly correct, analysis of the changes in 
the ‘‘constants’’ provides a valuable 
diagnostic tool for model testing, pointing 
to where the model needs attention. 
Endelman (1973) has recently used these 
methods at Wisconsin to study nitrogen 
changes in the soil and soil water. In 
many ways this study was a model one, in 
which the Departments of Soil Science, 
Chemical Engineering, and Statistics 
all cooperated. 

While on the subject of complexity a 
word should be said about the models 
needed to represent complex phenom- 
ena. In any given investigation it seems to 
me we can err in two ways. We can have 
too simple a model or too elaborate a 
model. My recent experience has been 
that investigators have often erred in 
building models that are too elaborate. 
There is a tendency to try to model each 
step that the investigator can imagine, 
whether there is strong evidence that 
that step really occurs in the system or 
not, whether the step affects the solution 
or not, and whether the data could pos- 
sibly supply any information about that 
step or not. Even if he had a 50% chance 
of being right about any given step, the in- 
vestigator need only introduce a few such 
steps into a system and the chance of 
error becomes overwhelming. My ex- 
perience is that we must borrow William 
of Occam’s razor and use it rather ruth- 
lessly to remove deadwood. Usually, 
models are best built up from simple 
beginnings, elaboration being introduced 


58 


only as it is shown to be necessary by 
actual comparison with data, as in Fig. 3. 


The Peril of the Open Loop 


Perhaps of all the problems that face 
us, whether personal, professional, sci- 
entific or statistical, the most menacing 
of all is the danger of the open loop. 

I have spoken of the process of sci- 
entific learning in terms of a feedback 
loop. If the loop is open, learning stops, 
of course. The idea applies more gen- 
erally. As an earlier speaker has so ably 
pointed out, feedback is essential be- 
tween scientists and legislators; other- 
wise, even when the scientists know what 
to do, it cannot get done. 

As another example, I recently at- 
tended a seminar where the speaker was 
building a pollution model for a city. The 
method he used was to calculate by dead 
reckoning the amount of every substance 
going into the atmosphere over each 
small area of the city. For example, 
he could calculate over, say, a given 
hundred yards square area, how much 
rubber.was worn off the tires of auto- 
mobiles passing through that area and 
hence presumably going into the atmos- 
phere. There was nothing wrong with 
that, but I was surprised to hear him ex- 
plain, as he commenced his seminar, that 
there were two kinds of modelling— his 
kind based on dead reckoning and statis- 
tical modelling based on data. Learn- 
ing happens surely only when the loop is 
closed and what can be calculated from 
dead reckoning is compared with what 
the data actually say. 


The Supply of Competent Statisticians 


Perhaps finally I should say something 
about the supply of statisticians. A little 
while ago I saw a report prepared by 
a distinguished panel of mathematicians 
on the current need for graduate training 
in mathematics and mathematically re- 
lated subjects. One conclusion was that 
since a principal outlet for Ph.D. mathe- 
maticians was as university teachers and 
since the great expansion of the universi- 
ties had now ceased, we must plan fora 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


major cut-back in the production of 
Ph.D.’s or face the possibility of pro- 
ducing a glut of unemployed mathemati- 
cians. I was alarmed because the ‘‘mathe- 
matically related subjects’? which the 
report claimed to cover included statis- 
tics! 

Now whatever may be true about the 
future need for pure mathematicians, the 
fact is that we face a scarcity of trained 
statisticians competent to deal with real 
problems. Furthermore as, one by one, 
the various environmental crises become 
more obviously imminent and the need 
for hard facts on which to take sensible 
action becomes inescapable, the de- 
mand for such people will markedly in- 
crease. It takes many years to produce 
a properly trained statistician. It cannot 
be over-emphasized that steps must be 
taken now not to restrict but to expand 
the educational facilities available for 
the training of competent statisticians. 

How do we get competent statisti- 
cians? Neither surely by producing mere 
theorem provers nor mere users of a cook 
book. A proper balance of theory and 
practice is needed and, most important, 
Statisticians must learn how to be good 
scientists, a talent which, I think, has to 
be learned by example. At Wisconsin, we 
have taken a number of steps to help 
this along: 


e Toobtain any graduate degree, a stu- 
dent must have spent a period of 
time in the Statistical Consulting 
Lab working with the statistician in 
residence and other faculty to deal 
with clients’ problems. This counts 
as a course for credit, and no stu- 
dent can graduate without passing 
this course. 

e The Masters Degree, which all stu- 
dents are encouraged to take, 
whether or not they proceed to a 
Ph.D., is not a ‘‘failed Ph.D.’’ 
degree but is awarded on their 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


demonstrated competence to be- 
coming a practicing statistician. 

e A Monday night beer session is held 
in the basement of my house where 
research problems are discussed on 
an ongoing basis. 

e The department is deliberately di- 
versified with joint appointments 
and research interests in engineer- 
ing, business, medicine and agri- 
culture. 

e Students act as research assistants in 
projects such as the Analysis of the 
Los Angeles Air Pollution data, the 
improvement of operating methods 
for the local sewage works, etc. 

When we look at the history of the 

subject of statistics itself, there is no 
doubt that it develops most rapidly when 
there is active feedback, with practical 
problems initiating new theory and new 
theory in turn showing new ways to 
handle real situations. I believe we are 
moving now into a period of great statis- 
tical activity where, because of the serv- 
ice it will render to the community, our 
science will come into its own. In doing 
so, it will inevitably undergo new and 
exciting development. 


Literature References 


Box, G. E. P., and Jenkins, G. M. 1970. Time 
Series Analysis: Forecasting and Control. 
Holden-Day. 

Box, G. E. P., and Tiao, G. C. 1965. A change in 
level of a non-stationary time series. Biometrika, 
Vol. 52. 

Box, G. E. P., and Tiao, G. C. 1973. ‘‘Interven- 
tion Analysis with Applications to Environ- 
mental Problems’’, Technical Report No. 335, 
Department of Statistics, University of Wis- 
consin, Madison. 

Endelman, F. 1973. ‘“‘Systems Studying of the 
Transport and Transformations of Soil Nitro- 
gen’, Ph.D. Thesis, University of Wisconsin, 
Madison. 

Tiao, G. C., Box, G. E. P., and Hamming, W. J. 
1973. “‘Analysis of Los Angeles Photochemical 
Smog Data: A Statistical Overview’’, Technical 
Report No. 331, Department of Statistics, Uni- 
versity of Wisconsin, April. 


59 


Keynote Session 
Discussion 


Moderator: Mr. Ralph C. Wands, National Academy of Sciences 


ELLIOT HARRIS (NIOSH)—I 


would like to ask a question of Dr.. 


Newill. Dr. Newill rejects the threshold 
concept for a variety of reasons and 
believes that the cost benefit approach 
probably would be the best, selecting 
a population which would be at nisk. 
I would like to know how he proposes 
to select that risk population. Would it 
be based on age, or upon the severity 
of the response, or perhaps upon the 
potential of productivity? 


DR. NEWILL—I usually think about 
these problems more in terms of the 
general population than I do just the 
occupational population. I think that the 
same kind of rules would apply. The 
population that I try to get at in the 
general population is that group which 
is most susceptible. This means that I 
am not limited to a specific age range, 
or I can go through the whole set of 
covariance. I try to identify those people 
who are most likely to respond. That 
is where I would like to look for the 
effects, and then starting with the risk 
in that population, work back from there. 


MR. WANDS—Dr. Newill, would 
you be saying, then, that the occupational 
population is the most vulnerable, not 
particularly because of its greater sus- 
ceptibility but because of its greater po- 
tential exposure? | 


DR. NEWILL—In many situations 
this is true. In fact, for many things 
the only data that we have available 
are ones that come from the study of 
occupational populations. I believe that 
dealing even with general populations 
this is where we should start—to look 
at the occupational health data. But if 
we find no effects among people that 
are exposed in occupational settings, 
then I think we have to turn to the 


60 


general public. I think that all positive 
information that comes out of the occupa- 
tional area is useful. I think most of 
the negative information from the oc- 
cupational health situation needs to be 
looked at very critically and tested in 
the general population before we accept 
it as a negative, because it does eliminate 
many of the susceptibles from the 
population. 


Q—At the Academy session here on 
energy and fuels, one of the representa- 
tives from Johns Hopkins Public Health 
Department mentioned the fact that he 
was much more concerned about the air 
pollution that arose within dwellings re- 
sulting from faulty adjustment of fuel 
burning apparatus than he was about 
what came from the outside. Now it is 
curious to me that in all this discussion 
is there any discussion from the environ- 
mentalist? I would like Dr. Newill to 
comment on where we find the areas 
in which the most good can be accom- 
plished from a relatively small ex- 
penditure. | 


MR. WANDS—Dr. Newill, this fits 
into the graph which you showed— 
cost versus degree of health protection. 


DR. NEWILL—One of the problems 
that we have is that nobody has the 
overall responsibilities. The holistic ap- 
proach is very difficult because it has 
always been fragmented, even though it’s 
better now than it was a few years 
ago. You mentioned the exposures that 
can occur indoors. These are very real 
and as far as I know now there is no 
group in the Federal Government that 
has a responsibility for indoor exposure. 
I would agree with you that there are 
effects that can come from this, certainly 
around the cooking of foods if nothing 
more. We have measured levels of nitro- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


gen oxides where people use natural 
gas for cooking and find that the levels 
to which they are exposed are in fact 
higher than the levels outside of the 
home, so that there are times when you 
could get the greatest benefit by paying 
attention to this. All I would plead for 
is that we have to look at this kind 
of thing systematically across the whole 
range and apply our money where we are 
getting the most effects. I don’t think 
we have a good integrated system of 
doing that at the present time. 


MR. WANDS—There is one oppor- 
tunity for controlling the exposures 
within the home— it rests with our new 
Consumer Product Safety Commission. 
As part of their responsibility they can 
control the performance specifications of 
such things as space heaters in our home; 
whereas if these are poorly designed 
or maladjusted, action can be taken to 
limit their distribution, remove them from 
the homes, etc. This has been a major 
problem in many dwelling places, par- 
ticularly temporary dwellings such as 
trailers, campers, etc., where portable 
heaters release excessive amounts of 
carbon monoxide. The technique of con- 
trolling the hardware or products enter- 
ing the home has a potential of assuring 
a minimum of pollution within the home. 
But it is not an easy task just to say 
that in your home or in my home the 
level of ozone or the level of oxides 
of nitrogen shall not exceed so much, 
because this involves a matter of invasion 
of privacy for one thing. It is a very 
difficult situation, and as Dr. Newill 
has indicated it is very hard to come 
by that approach in terms of the dollars 
- and cents. A terrific big brother type of 
bureaucracy would have to be invoked 
in order to police everyone’s home. 
But we can protect the public from un- 
expected and unforeseen insults on the 
air within our homes through the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


mechanism of Consumer Product Safety 
Commission. 


Q—May I direct a question to Prof. 
Box? The speaker prior to you had sug- 
gested that there should be some 
scientific input into these congressional 
regulations, and you applauded that. 
Right now there is a certain amount of 
social experimentation going on, par- 
ticularly attempts with negative income 
tax. Would you be willing to support, 
or can you think of an adequate kind 
of experimental design that one might 
use to propose regulations in segments 
of the community? 


DR. BOX—Well, when the previous 
question was being asked I was wonder- 
ing whether it was really so impossible 
to get information about that particular 
subject. It certainly isn’t necessary to 
look into and monitor everybody’s home. 
What we need is some kind of reason- 
able sample to determine the kind of 
level at which various dangerous sub- 
stances might be present in ordinary 
homes. And I know in the case of 
testing industry’s products that this kind 
of thing is done all the time. People 
go to a home with some slight incentive 
which might really be the fact that this 
is even going to do some good. People 
are prepared to go to a little trouble 
to have censuses in the home, and I 
would imagine that on a sample basis, 
say 30 homes chosen in some appro- 
priate random manner, this would be a 
great deal better than nothing to give 
us some idea. I think that we need 
to educate. Part of such an educa- 
tional effort [make that part of this] 
would emphasize that the public can 
do something—it can volunteer to 
be part of an experiment. I believe 
that a lot of people are around who 
realize that the situation is pretty des- 
perate. They would be glad to do that. 


61 


Carcinogens —Safe Doses? 
Opening Remarks 


Beatrice S. Orleans 


General Chairperson 


We are just about on time, I think. In 
case you are surprised that I am up here, 
I had to take advantage of the offer 
to speak given to me this morning. 
There was a slight oversight, and this isa 
perfectly wonderful time to make things 
right. So I am really here to introduce 
your introducer, who is Dr. Nancy 
Mann. My reason for doing this is be- 
cause this morning Dr. Wands kept say- 
ing that I was the spark plug for this 
Symposium. | felt that you should all 
know who the spark plug to the spark 
plug was—it is Dr. Mann. She started 


Carcinogens —Safe Doses? 
Introduction 


Nancy R. Mann 


two years ago. This is now the third 
conference which has the name Statistics 
and the Environment. This was a germ 
in her mind two years ago which 
started that first conference in Cali- 
fornia. The second one was also in 
California. So my spark plugging started 
then, and it took these two years 
for me to find the interest and per- 
haps get the wherewithall and the knowl- 
edge to start something in Washington. 
With these introductory words I turn this 
meeting over to Dr. Mann. 


Senior Scientist, Reliability and Statistics, Advanced Programs, Rocketdyne, 
Rockwell International, 6633 Canoga Ave., Canoga Park, Calif. 91304 


Thank you, Bea. I guess Bea has al- 
ready said what I was planning to say 
concerning the history of Statistics and 
the Environment, that the first two of 
these symposia were held in Southern 
California. What she didn’t say was that 
they both involved the hard work and 
cooperation of many people from the 
Southern California Chapter of the 
American Statistical Association and 
from other professional organizations in 
Southern California. 


62 


This present Symposium, I believe, 
stresses more of the health aspects and 
fewer of the other aspects of environ- 
mental problems than did the West 
Coast meetings, and the title has been 
changed from ‘‘Statistics and the Envi- 
ronment—A Symposium on the Applica- 
tion of Statistical Techniques to the 
Analysis of Environmental Problems’’ 
to ‘‘Statistics and the Environment—a 
Forum for Interdisciplinary Interac- 
tion.’’ The spirit of what was originally 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


intended appears, however, to have re- 
mained intact. 

I would like now to introduce the 
first speaker of this session, Dr. David 
Platt Rall. Dr. Rall is the Director of the 
National Institute of Environmental 
Health Sciences. He has been in that 
position since 1971. Since 1971 he has 
also been Assistant Surgeon General of 
the U. S. Public Health Service. Dr. 
Rall holds both an M.D. and a Ph.D. in 
Pharmacology from Northwestern Uni- 
versity. Currently he is U. S. Coordina- 


» ao 


tor, Environmental Health Program, 
U. S.-USSR Health Exchange Agree- 
ment and a member of the Editorial 
Board, Pharmacological Reviews. He is 
also a member of the Graduate Council 
of the George Washington University. 
Dr. Rall has authored over 100 pub- 
lished papers relating to comparative 
pharmacology, cancer chemotherapy, 
blood-brain barrier, blood CSF barrier, 
pesticide toxicology, and drug research 
and regulation. 


Problems of Low Doses of Carcinogens 


David P. Rall, M.D., Ph.D. 


National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, Research 


Triangle Park, No. Car. 27709 


My assigned topic today is the ques- 
tion of how to assess for carcinogenic 
potential those chemicals that we find 
in our environment. It is, I suspect, 
unnecessary to dwell on the problem 
of cancer as a serious public health 
threat. There have been estimates sug- 
gesting that as much as 80% of the cancer 
in man in the United States is related to 
environmental chemical factors. It be- 
comes really of enormous importance to 
eliminate as much as possible, as much 
as feasible, carcinogenic compounds 
from the environment. This area of dis- 
cussion has in the past, and I am sure will 
in the future, often generate rather more 
heat than light, particularly with respect 
to the role of animal testing in environ- 
mental carcinogenesis. The classic state- 
ment is that the proper study of mankind 
is man. I think there is an undercurrent 
of feeling amongst some people that per- 
haps the use of animals studied ap- 
propriately or inappropriately in carcino- 
genicity testing is not as necessary as it is 
claimed to be. It seems to me that we 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


must in fact use animal tests, today at 
least, as the basis for prediction of car- 
cinogenic activity. Surveillance of the 
human population or selected subsets of 
the population for incidents of tumors is 
very, very important; but this is a last re- 
sort. If, in fact, an agent does enter the 
environment that does cause cancer in 
man, by the time it would be detectable 
in any sort of reasonable disease sur- 
veillance system, we would already 
have a massive epidemic of environ- 
mentally caused carcinogenesis. It is too 
late a point in time to have identified the 
carcinogen. Secondly, the manpower 
resources in the United States in terms of 
chronic epidemiology are so woefully 
weak in numbers—not in quality, but in 
numbers—that it would simply be 
unrealistic to view, any time in the near 
future, epidemiology taking on any more 
than it is doing right now. This is a 
matter of fact, an urgent national prob- 
lem, that I hope can be addressed as soon 
as possible. We simply do not have 
enough capability in chronic epide- 


63 


miology, and we must begin to get more. 
Finally, the view is that if cancer is 
proven in man, and everybody agrees 
that the compounds are carcinogenic in 
man, this would tend to end controversy. 
I think history would prove that this is not 
true. Some of you may be familiar with 
the University Group Diabetes Program, 
which seemed to an innocent non-epide- 
miologist like myself a reasonably de- 
signed and executed prospective study 
with a rather straightforward outcome. It 
is inconceivable to believe that anything 
involved in carcinogenesis would gen- 
erate less controversy than that study 
evolved. Therefore we are stuck with 
animal studies. 

I would like to spend my time de- 
scribing the problems of using animal 
studies to extrapolate to man. J shall 
concentrate more on problems of com- 
parative pharmacology, physiology, and 
toxicology and leave the statistics to 
Marvin Schneiderman. (On the other 
hand, he isn’t going to talk about statis- 
tics either.) 

Fig. 1 presents a way of looking at this 


I. Median mouse vs. median man 


II. Genetic and environmental heterogeneity in man 


Fig. 1. Assessment of environmental chemicals 
for carcinogenesis. 


which I shall try to develop—that is, 
trying to take results from a well-con- 
ducted animal study and applying them to 
man. There is, first, the systematic dif- 
ferences between the species that you are 
looking at in the laboratory, the mouse, 
and the species that you are trying to 
extrapolate to, in this instance, man. I 
would like to divide this up into first 
a “‘median mouse’’ to ‘‘median man’’ 
consideration. That is, in a very homo- 
geneous population under strict en- 
vironmental control, what are the dif- 
ferences in response between a very 
small mammal with its own peculiar set of 
metabolic processes and a relatively large 
mammal, a man with his own peculiar set 
of physiological, biochemical, and phar- 
macological processes? This is the first 


64 


sid UW 


step. The second step then is to look at 


the final organism we are trying to pro- — 


tect; that is, one individual person in a 
very large population, a very diverse pop- 
ulation within the United States. Here we 
must get into the genetic and environ- 
mental heterogeneity in man. 

To make discussion smoother I would 
like to present this in a somewhat dif- 
ferent organizational rubric where I 
would like first to consider some dif- 
ferences and sensitivity in laboratory ani- 
mals with respect to pharmacologic re- 


ceptor differences, temporal, and size | 


differences; then discuss some problems 
of population difference; and then very 
briefly some problems of environmental 
differences. 

Fig. 2 shows some problems of 


I. Sensitivity of laboratory animals as compared to man 
A. Pharmacological differences 
B. Receptor differences 
C. Temporal differences 
D. Size differences 


II. Population differences 
A. Size 


B. Heterogeneity 
C. Selected nature of test population 


Environmental differences 
A. Nutritional 

B. Physical 

C. Chemical 


Fig. 2. Assessment of environmental chemicals 
for carcinogenesis— differences between test ani- 
mals and man. 


pharmacological differences between one 
species and another. We must recognize 
that before a compound acts at its final 
site of action, whether this be a com- 
pound interacting with DNA in a bone 
marrow cell to initiate a leukemia or 
what, there are a variety of steps that 
compound must pass through before it 
reaches this final site of action in its final 
chemical form. Each of these steps from 
absorption and distribution to metab- 
olism and excretion and finally its 
arrival past some variety of cell bar- 
riers and its ultimate interaction with that 
final receptor enzyme or chemical can 
vary from one animal species to another. 
Some vary in a predictable way. 
Briefly, it is rather well known that 
absorptive mechanisms are not terribly 
different between various species. One 
interesting problem is the different hydro- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


gen ion concentrations in the stomach of 
some of the herbivorous and carnivorous 
animals. I shall come back to this prob- 
lem of distribution later because this 
seems to be more a function of size than 
a species difference. Now metabolism— 
the xenobiotic metabolism of foreign 
compounds—differs greatly from 
‘species to species. Some recent work is 
beginning to suggest some general prin- 
ciples in the differences which may be of 
importance. It is quite clear that herbi- 
vores in general have a much more active 
xenobiotic metabolism system than 
carnivores. This was perhaps first 
brought to our attention when the veter- 
inarians in the zoo tried to anesthetize a 
tiger with pentobarbitol (which works 
very well with small mammals). The tiger 
fell asleep promptly but never woke. 
Since this was a prized animal, com- 
parative pharmacology became quite 
important. The metabolic patterns are 
increasingly important because we are 
beginning to realize more and more 
clearly that very often the compound 
that was administered is not the ultimate 
carcinogen, and it takes metabolic proc- 
esses within the body to create the active 
compound. There are some differences in 
excretory rates between species but these 
do not seem to be of major importance. 
The various cellular and intracellular 
barriers seem to be surprisingly constant 
throughout the vertebrate kingdom. With 
regard to receptor differences and the 
ultimate mode of action, it seems that this 
is surprisingly constant in the vertebrate 
kingdom. A molecule of DNA from a 
mouse, a rat, or from a man is not very 
different, and the interactions of that 
molecule with chemicals which come 
ultimately from the environment are 
surprisingly similar. However, there are 
temporal differences which I think have 
not been considered in the past. It takes 
time to develop a tumor, and at least 
some of that time is related to the actual 
cell division process. The renewal rate 
of the bone marrow or of the gastro-in- 
testinal tract of the mouse can be com- 
pared with the rate in man. The cell 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


division rate is significantly faster in small 
animals. The cell cycle times are about 
half, the cell turnover periods are about 
double in man. Mice and rat cells turn 
over faster. The latent period for the 
development of tumors is faster in mice 
and rats. One example of this is shown in 
Fig. 3, the latent period for the develop- 
ment of thyroid tumors after radiation 
iodine administration in the rat, the dog, 
and man. Rats developed the tumors in 
the order of 1-12 years, dog with a spread 
from 4—10 years, and man took close to 
12 years to develop the tumor. There is 
apparently a systematic difference in the 
latent period related to body size. 

It is important also to realize that the 
life span of man is about 35 times that of 
mouse or rat. How can we put this all 
together? The cell division time is twice 
as fast in the smaller animal, so there is in 
a sense twice as great a chance for some 
untoward event to happen. The more 
rapid cell division rate in part must ac- 
count for the shorter latent period in the 
very much smaller animals. However, 
the life span of man is so much longer 
indeed that there is much longer lifetime 
opportunity to develop a tumor. I would 
suggest that what I have run through is a 
very simplistic view of these temporal dif- 
ferences. But I think in the future we 
should spend more time considering 
them as we consider the implications of 


Absorption 
Distribution 
Metabolism 


Excretion 


Arrival at site of action 
Ultimate action 


Fig. 3. Steps a drug must pass before it can act. 


65 


lifetime studies in small animals for life- 
time exposure in large animals. I think as 
we learn more about the actual mech- 
anism of carcinogenesis in experimental 


studies, this view of the temporal dif- 


ferences between very small and very 
large animals might be very useful 
indeed. 

Now let us move into problems of size 
differences. The size determines in many 
ways the rate of distribution of foreign 
compounds throughout the body. To take 
a very simple example, the blood volume 
of a mouse is about | ml. The cardiac out- 
put of that mouse is about 1 ml./m. The 
mouse turns over its blood volume in 
about 1 minute. In man the cardiac output 
is only about 1/20 of the blood volume in 
man. The mouse moves things around 
about 20 times faster than man. Thus, the 
exposure of a tissue to a compound ina 
small animal occurs more rapidly. But 
excretion also would be much more 
rapid, and on a weight basis small animals 
excrete compounds more rapidly. There- 
fore, it is reasonable to expect that small 
animals would be able to tolerate larger 
doses of compounds. Fig. 4 shows the 
toxic doses of a number of anti-cancer 
drugs, to compare, not on a weight basis, 
but on either a surface area or a weight to 
two thirds power basis. There is reason- 


@ Antimetobolites 
4 Alkyloting ogents 


MAN; MAXIMUM’ TOLERATED DOSE 
(MG/M2} QD I-5 DAY SCHEDULE) 


BFD, MOUSE; LDio 
(MG/M*; QD I-5 DAY SCHEDULE) 


Fig. 4. Toxic doses of a number of anti- 
cancer drugs. 


66 


ably good agreement between the human 
toxic dose and the BFD, mouse toxic 
dose. In essence man is about 12 times 
more resistant than the mouse. There is 
another aspect to this slower rate of dis- 
tribution and metabolism in the large 
animals that I think is important, and that 
is in terms of long-term studies. Fig. 5 


Average USA Man and Average Mouse on 2 ppm in Diet 


Intake Mouse 10 ug/day 3.6 mg/year 


Man 30 ug/day 10.8 mg/year 


Total Intake 1-2 years 5 + mg or 200 mg/kg 


Man 20-30 years 250 + mg or 4 mg/kg 


DDT Concentrations in fat = 5-6 ppm in 
man and mouse. 


Fig. 5. DDT intake in mice and man. 


presents a mixture of data from the U. S. 
Market Basket Survey, from the Pesti- 
cide Survey on the human levels of DDT, 
and from an IARC (Lyon) report on 
the fat and tissue levels of DDT in a 
carcinogenesis experiment in mice. The 
intake of the mouse was 2 ppm DDT in 
the diet. This was about 6-8 pg/day, or 
about 3 mg/year. Man, according to the 
Market Basket Survey, 3 or 4 years ago 
ingested about 30 uwg/day of DDT ora 
total of about 10.8 mg/year. The total 
intake in the mouse over 1 to 2 years of 
the experiment was about 5 mg, or a total 
of 100 mg/kilo. The average DDT con- 
centration in the fat of the mice at 
sacrifice at the end of the experiment was 
5 to 6 ppm. Man in his 20 to 30 years’ 
exposure to DDT had a quarter of a 
gram or about 4 mg/kgm total exposure; 
but this steady state fat concentration on 
the average was about the same or about 5 
to 6 ppm in the fat. We need to know more 
about the final concentration of the com- 
pound in the experimental animal and the 
exposed human population. 

There is one other aspect to the size 
difference which I would like to touch on 
very briefly. The large animal has a very 
much larger number of susceptible cells 
in his body that may interact with the 
potential carcinogenic agent. For in- 
stance, there are from 160 to 2000 times 
more susceptible cells in one man than in 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


one mouse. Thus, one man is equivalent 
to at least a 160-mouse experiment. If 
there is a relationship between the initia- 
tion of a carcinogenic event and the num- 
ber of susceptible cells, and this to me is 
logical, then one man is possibly more 
sensitive than one mouse. 

Let us now move on to population dif- 
ferences. The first problem, one that has 
been extensively discussed, concerns the 
problem of extrapolating toxicity or 
carcinogenicity results from a few hun- 
dred laboratory animals to a few hundred 
million people. Another major problem is 
the heterogeneity of the human popula- 
tion. I believe Fig. 6 illustrates this very 
well. What is shown is the steady state 
plasma level of a tricyclic antidepressant 
given to anumber of patients at the stand- 
ard clinical dose after allowing a steady 
state to develop. In this random group 
of patients the plasma concentrations at 
steady state varied from about 10 pg/l to 
300 ug/l in plasma, an enormous variabil- 
ity. So it is pertinent to ask, if one is trying 
to extrapolate data from a laboratory ex- 
periment to man, does the laboratory ex- 
periment reflect those patients on the far 
left corner, the middle, or the right 
corner? There can be very great dif- 
ferences. I have shown this only for the 
metabolism of this one drug. The 
body rids itself of foreign organic com- 
pounds largely by metabolic rather than 
purely excretory mechanisms. This is 
largely a difference of xenobiotic meta- 


myq/mi plesme 


PR SE LA ZR 86 Lae Sax S68 83. AS. OM US. Wi AM. Hy. 


Fig. 6. Steady state levels of NT during daily 
oral dosage of 3 x 25 mg. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


bolic pathways, yet every aspect of the 
handling of a compound by the body is 
potentially involved in such human 
heterogeneity. 

It is also necessary to consider the very 
selective nature of the test population. 
Laboratory scientists go to all ends to 
select vigorous, well fed, healthy animals 
to extrapolate to a population which 
contains sub-populations that have all 
varieties of illness, weakness, and dis- 
ease. Thus, population differences re- 
lated to size, to genetic heterogeneity, 
and to the very selected nature of the 
test population are important. 

Finally, there are environmental dif- 
ferences which I shall touch on briefly. I 
think many of these are obvious. Nutri- 
tional differences clearly can alter re- 
sponse to carcinogenic agents. This is 
well documented. The laboratory animal 
is on a diet that is well supplemented with 
vitamins, minerals, adequate proteins, 
and so forth, while many segments of the 
American population have diets of vary- 
ing quality. The possibility of significant 
differences is apparent there. The 
physical environment— heat, light, ion- 
izing radiation, etc.—can affect re- 
sponses. Again we know the very great 
difference between a well controlled ani- 
mal room and the human situation. 
Perhaps the major problem is the chemi- 
cal environment. The proper laboratory 
scientist makes every effort to be sure 
there are no mycotoxins in the feed for 
his animals and that there are no 
nitrosamines in the feed for his animals; 


the next morning he sits down and has 


bacon for breakfast. With the various 
potentially toxic compounds in air and 
water and food and with concurrent drug 
administration there exists a great op- 
portunity for synergistic toxicity. This 
is a problem that is only beginning to be 
approached in the environmental field. In 
the field of therapeutic drugs, the joint 
toxicity of two drugs has been demon- 
strated many times. 

These differences, nutritional, physi- 
cal, chemical, and environmental, all 
must be considered in any attempt to use 
laboratory animal toxicity or carcino- 


67 


genicity data to extrapolate to man. The 
net result of all of these differences 
suggests to me at least that the laboratory 
animal is not a sensitive indicator of 
carcinogenicity in tests with environ- 
mental chemicals. If results from labora- 
tory animal tests are to be used to 
set up guidelines to protect very large 
human populations it is prudent to be ex- 
tremely conservative in trying to apply 
this extrapolation. 

Another way of looking at this is shown 
in Fig. 7. Some of you may have read 
an article in Science about seven years 
ago about some behavioral scientists who 
had been studying LSD in the cat and 
wished to see what happened in the 
elephant. They gave the mg/k dose of 
LSD which provided whatever behav- 
ioral response they wanted in the cat to 
an elephant borrowed from one of the 
local zoos. The result in a relatively 
few minutes was a very, very large ele- 
phant convulsing, defecating, and finally 
dying. What I would like to suggest is that 


Fig. 7. “‘I just got tired of rats and mice, rats 
and mice.”’ 


we must not forget this principle of 
comparative pharmacology and toxi- 
cology as we try to extrapolate data from 
laboratory animals to man, or we may be 
associated with a very large convulsing 
and defecating elephant. 


Safe Dose? Problem of the Statistician in the 


World of Trans-Science 


Marvin A. Schneiderman, Ph.D. 


National Cancer Institute, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland 20014 


When the statistician works on an issue 
in the public arena he often finds that the 
data he collects, and the manner in which 
he analyzes the data are conditioned by 
things outside his own _ professional 
competence. This paper gives some 
examples that attempt to discuss what the 
Statistician might do that despite these 
pressures he might provide, if not an un- 
biassed picture, at least a fuller picture. 
Because I am from the National Cancer 
Institute, Iam mainly concerned with the 
problems of what causes cancer, how we 


68 


determine that a material is a carcin- 
ogen, and the statistician’s role in estab- 
lishing ‘‘safe’’ doses, if there are such 
things. 

The statistician is constrained by the 
biological models of his laboratory col- 
leagues. If the research worker with 
whom you are working is of the opinion 
that there is threshold in carcinogenesis, 
i.e. there are some doses that are suf- 
ficiently low so that they will not produce 
any cancer whatever, then it is extremely 
likely that he will design experiments 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


(consciously or unconsciously) that will 
yield data that point to the existence of a 
threshold. If on the other hand, if the 
biologist with whom you are working 
is aman who questions the threshold con- 
cept, his data likely will be developed in 
such a way as to demonstrate that the 
probability of a threshold is either ex- 
tremely unlikely or data are of such a 
nature that you can’t demonstrate 
whether a threshold exists or not. 

If there are difficulties in unravelling 
threshold in the laboratory, the diffi- 
culties are multiplied many fold when we 
try to interpret the results of exposures 
of humans to potentially harmful mate- 
rials. I will give an example from asbestos 
exposure. Asbestos hazards have been in 
the headlines recently and much work, 
some of it of very high quality, has been 
done. In reviewing the published papers 
in the relation between human asbestos 
exposure and the possible development 
of cancer, I found that two authors, 
McDonald (1972) and McDonald et al., 
(1971) of McGill University in Canada 
and Enterline et al. (1972, 1973) of the 
University of Pittsburgh in the U. S., 
have attempted to develop a quantita- 
tive dose response relationship. Mc- 
Donald and Enterline have used the same 
measure of exposure, millions of parti- 
cles per cubic foot years (MPPCF years). 
A physical measure was taken of the 
number of particles present in a sample of 
air in the vicinity of the worker and then 
this multiplied up by the number of 
years that the worker was exposed at 
those levels. There are difficulties in such 
a dose measure. Workers are not at the 
same job all of the time, the levels of 
exposure are not the same all the time, 
and, thus, the dose for any specific 
worker is only an approximation. Fur- 
ther, there is always the problem that not 
all the particles measured in their millions 
of particles per cubic foot years are 
asbestos particles. Asbestos is a very 
difficult material to identify and measure 
in its submicroscopic state. Of all the 
papers I have read these two authors are 
the only ones who have attempted to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


quantify dose to give a dose response re- 
lationship. 

There are some differences between 
McDonald’s and Enterline’s studies. 
McDonald’s population is a population of 
working asbestos miners in Canada. 
Enterline’s population is a population of 
retired industrial asbestos workers in the 
United States. McDonald measures his 
response in terms of equivalent average 
death rate. Enterline measures his re- 
sponse in terms of standard mortality 
ratio. I don’t know how to equate these 
two. In the figures here, I attempted to 
put them on the same scale. Fig. 1 gives 
the mortality rates for cancer of the 
bronchus and lung for McDonald’s 
measure of equivalent average death rate 
and for Enterline’s measure standard 
mortality ratio. I have equated equiva- 
lent average death rate of 10 with a stand- 
ard mortality ratio of 100. This is very 
likely to be wrong. I don’t know what to 
equate in the equivalent average death 
rate to standard mortality ratio. In Fig. 
1 the standard mortality ratio is 10 
times the equivalent average death rate. 

Fig. 1 shows two dose response curves 
of roughly the same shape. The solid 
line is fitted to the solid dots; those are the 
McDonald data. The dashed line is fitted 
to the x’s, the Enterline data. In one 
paper, Enterline combined the three 
doses under 125 mppcf years, into one 
single dose group and that is shown on the 
figure by an x in a circle. 

Because of the problem of equating 
equivalent average death rate to standard 


Bronchus and Lung 


e@ McDonald) —— 
x Enterline 


Equivalent Average Death Rate 


Standard Mortality Ratio 


Dose Mppcf- Years (Log Scale) 


Fig. 1.— Mortality rates for cancer of bronchus 
and lung. 


69 


Bronchus & Lung 


@ McDonald 
* Enterline 


Equivalent Average Death Rate 


Standard Mortality Ratio 


Dose Mppcf-Years (Log Scale) 


Fig. 1A.— Mortality rates for cancer of bronchus 
and lung, with scale changes (see text for details). 


mortality ratio and because these two 
dose response lines don’t seem to lie 
together, I have modified Fig. 1 into Fig. 
1A. Here I have squeezed the standard 
mortality ratio scale down by a factor of 
two. I have taken the equivalent average 
death rate of 20 to equal a standard 
mortality ratio of 400, equivalent average 
death rate of 40 to equal a standard 
mortality ratio of 800 and so on. With 
this scale change on Fig. 1A, it looks as 
if a single response curve might be fitted 
to all the data. The McDonald and the 
Enterline data now don’t seem far apart. 
As I have drawn this figure it looks as 
if there could possibly be a threshold in 
the vicinity of dose of under 10 mppcf 
years, although this is really quite uncer- 
tain. Concerning the possibility of thresh- 
old, McDonald says ‘‘The excess was 
virtually confined to persons with a dust 
index of over 200 mppcf years.’’ Enter- 
line says ‘‘There appears to be no direct 
relation between dust exposure and 
respiratory cancer below 125 mppcf 
years. Important increments in respira- 
tory cancer mortality apparently oc- 
curred somewhere between 100 and 200 
mppcf years.”’ 

It is difficult for me to talk about 
excess with respect to McDonald’s data 
because his measure of the equivalent 
average death rate essentially has no 
‘“normal’’ against which to measure ex- 
cess. Enterline’s standard mortality ratio 
measure does give an opportunity to 
measure excess and I find it interesting 
that all his points below a dose of 100 lie 


70 


above the standard mortality ratio of 
100. These all indicate an excess mor- 
tality. There is no question that Enter- 
line’s statement that there is no direct 


relationship between exposure and res- 


piratory cancer below 125 mppcf years is 
correct. Should the data above 125 mppcf 
have any effect on what one says about 
what happens below 125 mppcf? At least 
two interpretations are possible of these 
sets of data. One: there is a threshold 
(although it is chancy). Two: there is no 
threshold shown. 

To examine the threshold concept a 
little further, I have reproduced Enter- 
line’s data in a table. Table 1 shows the 
dose, the standard mortality ratio at this 
dose and the 95% confidence limits on the 
standard mortality ratio. I have both 
combined the three lowest doses as 
Enterline has done and also presented the 
3 lowest doses separately. We have 
equivocal results. With the 3 lowest doses 
combined there is a standard mortality 
ratio of 166.7; the confidence limits on 
this standard mortality ratio range from 
93 to 275. Since 93 to 275 includes 100, 
one can say that these lowest doses are — 
not different from 100. On the other hand, 
with an upper confidence as high as 275, 
the data are consistent with a substan- 
tial effect. 

Have we demonstrated no excess for 
these three lower doses or have we only 
shown problems concerning the small 
number of persons exposed at the three - 
lower doses? Was follow-up as good for 
the short-term workers (who then got low 


TABLE I 
Dose 95% Confidence 
MPPCF Standard Limits on SMR 
Years Mortality Ratio (Haensel, 1962) 
<25 153.8 ; 18-555 
25-— 62.4 166.7 fa 93-275 {12-30 
62.5—124.9 108.7 35-253 
125—249.9 250.0 129-437 
250-—499.92 326.9 lower limit 
500-749.9 500.0 well over 
>750 555.6 100 


@ This is given as 400 by Enterline, but that appears to 
be a misprint. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


doses) as for the longer term workers who 
got the higher doses? Should the people in 
the regulatory agencies be suspicious of a 
result that has such a high upper confi- 
dence limit or should they say that since 
no significant excess has been demon- 
strated, that a safe level has been demon- 
strated? 

The data given so far are concerned 
with problems of the inhalation of 
asbestos. There is more current concern 
Over ingestion from water, or food. We 
would like to find out what happens when 
asbestos gets into the digestive system. 
On Fig. 2 are the data from McDonald 


Digestive System 


@ McDonald 
* Enterline 


Equivalent Average Death Kate 
Standard Mortality Ratio 


10 100 1000 


Dose Mppcf-Years (Log Scale) 


Fig. 2.— Digestive system cancers vs. exposure. 


and Enterline showing the digestive sys- 
tem cancers vs. exposure. There were far 
fewer digestive system cancers reported 
then bronchus and lung cancers in this 
group of workers. The data show a wider 
range of fluctuation. In the McDonald 
data there are at least 2 inversions. Yet at 
lis lowest dose level, somewhere be- 
tween 1 and 10 mppcf years, he has 
an equivalent average death rate well 
above 10. The Enterline data also show 
some inversion. I plotted Enterline’s 3 
lowest points as he has done into a single 
point, an x with a circle around it. 
The next highest dose shows a standard 
mortality ratio of under 100. If there were 
a threshold fluctuation in sampling would 
give some rates below 100. The next two 
doses show SMR’s over 100, and the next 
dose shows a lower standard mortality 
ratio, an inversion. 

What could one say from these data? 
The McDonald data seem to say that in- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


haled asbestos, which then gets into the 
digestive system, is quite likely a diges- 
tive system carcinogen. The Enterline 
data lead to no such clean conclusion. To 
try to make more sense of these data I 
have combined some of the dose groups 
within each set. It seems to me that there 
is nothing sacrosanct about one particular 
dose range as compared to another, 
hence my dose groups are as ‘‘valid’’ as 
any.! The effect of combining various 
dose groups is shown on Figure 2A. The 


Digestive System 


@ McDonald |——— 
* Enterline |-—— 


Equivalent Average Death Rate 


Standard Mortality Ratio 


Dose Mppcf-Years (Log Scale) 


Fig. 2A.—Digestive system cancers vs. ex- 
posure, showing effect of combining various dose 
groups (see text for details). 


dose response curve that was on Figure 2 
is now shown on Figure 2A as the 
line made up of small triangles. The 
McDonald points, which in Figure 2 
comprised six dose groups, have been 
collapsed into four. Enterline’s data 
which comprised five dose groups have 
now been collapsed into three. The 
McDonald data now show a distinct dose 
response relationship lying well above the 
equivalent average death rate of 10 which 
I have previously suggested was ‘‘nor- 
mal.’’ The Enterline data show a dose 
response curve below, but perhaps paral- 


1 This is not strictly true. William Cochran (1968) 
discussed this problem in a Rietz Lecture pub- 
lished in 1968 in BIOMETRICS. My colleague, 
John Gart, has given me some references 
(Connor, 1972; Gart, 1971; Hamilton, 1974) show- 
ing how to compute a dose-response relation- 
ship for data like these without combining data into 
groups. One needs to have the individual data, of 
course. I will suggest Gart’s approach to both 
McDonald and Enterline. 


71 


lel to the McDonald’s, but still lying 
above the standard mortality ratio of 100. 
Are these data consistent with a thresh- 
old? McDonald’s data are not consistent 
with a threshold. The Enterline data 
could be. If one continues the straight 
line that I have drawn for the Enterline 
data, it would come down to or cross the 
standard mortality ratio of 100 line some- 
where between 10 and 100 mppcf years. 

What have I shown here? Even a set of 
rather well collected data can be looked at 
in several different ways. The different 
ways might lead one to exactly opposite 
conclusions with respect to the important 
question of whether some human data 
have or have not demonstrated the 
existence of a threshold. Since when one 
is concerned with establishing the exist- 
ence of the “‘safe’’ dose, one must be 
able to establish the existence of a thresh- 
old, it then seems to me that the statistical 
problem of establishing a “‘safe’’ dose be- 
comes effectively an unsolvable problem. 
This puts us into the field of trans-science 
in the Alvin Weinberg sense (Weinberg, 
1972). There is not much that we can do 
within science to answer that particular 
question. We must go on and look at some 
other ways to handle and solve this issue 
of so-called ‘‘safe’’ doses. 

As Statisticians we try to “‘model’’ the 
real world. The statistician in looking at a 
dose response relationship often finds 
that he is working with one of several 
mathematical models—in biology, usu- 
ally one of three models. The probit 
model makes the assumption that the re- 
sponse is linear (as the integrated normal 
curve) against the logarithm of the dose. 
The second model is generally the logit 
model and it derives in part from certain 
kinetic considerations. The third model is 
the so-called ‘‘one-hit’’ model. This 
model postulates that one event is all that 
is necessary to create an activity and that 
this activity leads to an observable re- 
sponse. In the most extensive studies of 
radiation as a carcinogenic process, re- 
search workers and the technical re- 
viewers seem to have come to an uneasy 
agreement that the one-hit model repre- 
sents what is going on there. The appro- 


72 


priateness of the model becomes an issue 
that is not solvable by the statistician 
alone. Whatever model the statistician 
uses for his dose response model must 


have reality in the biology. And the 


Statistician is not the judge of what is the 
reality in the biology, though his opinions 
are valid. He has to pay attention to 
those people who say that it takes some 
minimum number of molecules, not a 
single molecule to produce an effect. He 
has to pay attention to those theorists 
who would define cancer as a ir- 


reversible, self-replicating change. That 


is, once an event occurs it causes a 
change, perhaps a change in the genetic 
material of the cell, and this is self-perpet- 
uating. That’s very close to a one-hit 
concept. 

However, no matter what the reality 
of the biology, these three major mathe- 
matical models of the biological dose 
response give, in the real experimental 
world nearly identical results for most of 
the dose range. In the range in which 
most work is done and given the size of 
most experiments, these models are in- 
distinguishable. In a paper by an advisory 
committee of the Food and Drug 
Administration (FDA, 1971), the three 
models were compared over a 256-fold 
dose range over which they were nearly 
identical. Differences occur when one 
tries to extrapolate to the very low doses. 
In general the probit model has the high- 
est order of contact; the one-hit model the 
lowest order of contact. The probit model 
having the highest order of contact, it 
says that the dose that it takes to produce 
a 1 in 1 million effect is higher than the 
dose that the logit or one-hit model would 
call for. Therefore, the model that one 
chooses is of considerable consequence 
when one wants to talk about responses 
at very low doses. And, of course, in 
the environment to which we are ex- 
posed, for most people we are concerned 
about very low doses.It does not seem to 
me at this time that it is possible for us to 
choose among these three models down 
at the very low doses. In fact, as a statis- 
tician wandering in biology, I am con- 
vinced that none of these models is ap- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


propriate at very low doses. Certainly not 
for the heterogenous human population. 

Whichever of these models one 
chooses, one is usually working in a yes- 
no situation. The statistician analyzes 
data after someone else has decided that 
there is a tumor or there is not a tumor. 
The pathologist says an animal has a 
- tumor or the animal does not have a 
tumor. It is to this kind of situation that 
these three common mathematical mod- 
els pertain. Usually there is more infor- 
mation in an experiment, i.e., the time-to- 
appearance of the tumors. Early work by 
Druckrey (1967) of Germany related the 
time-to-appearance of tumors to the dose 
of the carcinogen. The larger the dose the 
earlier the tumor and the shorter the so- 
called ‘“‘latent’’ period. If we could take 
advantage of this kind of information, 
perhaps we could demonstrate that with 
very low doses the tumors might be ex- 
pected to appear so very late in a lifetime 
as to be of no consequence. Albert and 
Altschuler (1973), starting with the 
Druckrey concept have attempted to pro- 
duce a time-to-appearance model car- 
cinogenesis. Their work was published in 
the Proceedings of a Hanford Sympo- 
sium and generally is not easily available. 
This is unfortunate because more people 
should exploit this model to see what it 
implies. In its present stage of develop- 
ment the model has some flaws. Their 
time distribution for the appearance of 
tumors has been questioned. They use the 
lognormal distribution and several people 
(Pike, 1966; Peto et al., 1972) disagree 
that this is the appropriate distribution. 
Gehan showed that it has a peculiar 
hazard function (Gehan, 1969). Albert 
and Altschuler considered the problem of 
the median time-to-appearance of tu- 
mors. This is inappropriate if we want to 
extrapolate to man. What we want to 
know is the time-to-appearance of the 
tumors in some very small per cent of the 
population, i.e. 1/10% or 1/1000%, etc. 
Finally, theirs is an estimating, or extrap- 
olation model, and we need a way to 
put in a ‘“‘guarantee’’ that the risk shall 
not exceed a certain amount. Mitchell 
Gail (1974) of the National Cancer Insti- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


tute looking at the data on the study of the 
United States veterans with respect to 
lung cancer and smoking found lung 
cancer, if it were the only cause of death 
(as in an Albert/Altschuler computation) 
would have a mean time of appearance of 
about 320 years. But lung cancer is a 
serious problem because a good deal of 
lung cancer appears long before the age 
of 320. 

The Albert/Altschuler work considers 
the life shortening effect of cancer not 
just the appearance or non-appearance of 
cancer. Since everyone must die at some 
time, the fact that a dose of a material 
produces a given number of additional 
cancers is not of as much consequence 
as if it produced that many cancers (or 
even fewer) at young ages. David Hoel 
and colleageues (1972) have done some 
work on this problem. Mitchell Gail 
attempts to estimate what he calls ‘‘three 
measures of merit.’’ His first measure of 
merit is the actual life shortening that 
would occur in the whole population— 
given a new form of cancer or given that 
cancers appeared at some given age in 
the population and in some proportion of 
the population. Dublin and Lotka many 
years ago showed that all of the cancers 
in the population in the United States 
would reduce average life span some- 
what of the order of less than 2 years. 
The second measure of merit is the life 
shortening for those people who develop 
cancer. For these people the shortening is 
a good deal greater. It ranges from 12 to 
15 years more or less depending on the 
nature of the cancer. Finally, Gail (1974) 
adds another measure of merit. This 
measure of merit is the one of directly 
asking what does the cancer cost by ask- 
ing how much life shortening it produces 
before some given age. Murray and 
Axtell (1974) of the National Cancer In- 
stitute have looked at the ‘‘costs’’ to the 
United States economy for all the cases of 
cancer who died in one year. They found 
that by taking the average life span and 
finding how much of the working life has 
been lost by cancer victims and multiply- 
ing this by the average annual income for 
persons employed at that time, that one 


73 


year’s death from cancer in the United 
States cost of the order of $18 billion dol- 
lars. They do not include medical costs, 
or any secondary costs to the families. 


The problem of cost is not simple. The. 


British Department of Welfare and Social 
Security (1972) asked the question, “*‘Sup- 
pose we were able to reduce smoking in 
current British smokers by 20% or 40%, 
what would the net monetary effect be?’’ 
Up to sometime in the 1980’s or 1990’s 
there would be a net gain to the British 
economy, but following that there would 
be anet loss. The net loss would occur be- 
cause those persons who had not died 
from their smoking-related diseases 
would live long enough to draw pensions 
and the costs of the pensions would ex- 
ceed the contributions (monetary) that 
these persons would have made to 
society by extending their working lives. 
This particular example shows the prob- 
lems of a quick look at a cost-benefit 
analysis. As persons get older in our 
population they are no longer producers 
and they cost something to our working 
population to keep them alive. A sim- 
plistic cost-benefit analysis taking this 
into account might consider that these 
persons were not of any particular worth. 
A logical conclusion from such a cost 
benefit analysis would say that these peo- 
ple are costing us more than the society is 
benefitting from them. Therefore, there is 
no good reason to keep them in the popu- 
lation at all. One wonders at this time 
whether one should take an Orwellian 
point of view and by carrying this cost- 
benefit analysis to its somewhat silly, 
logical extreme and see to it that people 
did not smoke but also to see to it that 
they died promptly at the age of 65 so 
that they would not draw any pensions. 
I’m not recommending this. 

There has been substantial talk and 
little work done on the problems of cost- 
benefit with respect to materials that may 
be carcinogens that are added to our en- 
vironment. There could be important 
gains from some of the food additives or 
some of the pesticides like DDT. Since 
these materials have great economic 
importance, an attempt has been made to 


74 


equate the economic gains from in- 
creased food production following from 
using a pesticide, to the economic losses 
associated with illness and premature 
death from cancer. With respect to the 
cost-benefit computations, I think first, 
the ‘‘logical’’ results from the British 
Department of Welfare and Social Secu- 
rity should be kept in front of our faces. 
Second, the answers to Cornfield’s ques- 
tion need to be considered openly. Corn- 
field asks the question ‘‘costs to whom 
and benefits to whom?’’ Are the costs and 
benefits to the same person? If the costs 
and benefits are not to the same person 
what action then is appropriate for 
societies to take? Is it appropriate for me 
to benefit by having my electric bill 
reduced at the expense of some workers 
in atomic energy electrical plants getting 
too high a dose of radiation and dying 
sooner? 

There are many situations in which 
benefits might accrue to only one portion 
of the population and the costs to another 
portion of the population. What are so- 
ciety’s responsibilities within this set of 
circumstances? Is society as a whole 
responsible since the benefits accrue to 
Society (now with a capital S)? Is Society 
responsible for ameliorating the costs? 
Does it mean that Society should pension 
off the family of the wage earner who had 
died early of a bladder cancer as a re- 
sult of exposure to an industrial carcin- 
ogen which is used in making dyes from 
which all of us benefit by having the more 
brightly colored environment about us? 
Should this worker’s family get a full 
pension equivalent to his income for the 
remainder of his working life that he may 
have lost? On a much lower scale, should 
all this worker’s medical costs be born by 
‘*Society’’? I put Society in capitals here 
because we must ask who makes up 
society? Is it the Federal Government, 
the local government, the community? 
We all pay for what some of us gain. 

Finally, with respect to the cost-benefit 
problem in general, let me give a not-so- 
hypothetical example. Let us say that the 
American Cancer Society in its efforts 
to cut down deaths following smoking 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


develops an effective program in anti- 
smoking propaganda. Let us say that 
their program is effective in reaching 
young people and those other groups in 
the population that their older programs 
have not been so effective in reaching — 
the Blacks, the women, etc. This is a 
program that will have some economic 
-costs—you and I contribute to the 
American Cancer Society and that’s a 
cost. It will have some benefits. There 
will be people who will live longer, who 
will not die of lung cancer or perhaps 
cancer of the bladder, or one of the other 
things associated with smoking. Al- 
though the American Cancer Society is 
doing it, some of these people will not die 
of heart disease or emphysema or certain 
forms of bronchitis. And finally, some of 
the people will live long enough to get 
on the pension roles and remain there for 
along time. To whom should these parti- 
cular costs now be ascribed? On whose 
account do we check out that these 
things are costs? If the American Cancer 
Society's program is very successful it 
may be that there will be some industrial 
workers who are put out of jobs— people 
manufacturing cigarettes. It may be that 
the tobacco farmers will not be able to 
grow tobacco and not get that income. If 
they move from tobacco to say soybeans 
and get a higher income, should that be 
reckoned as a negative cost? I don’t know 
the answer to any of these questions, but 
it seems to me that the cost-benefit 
problem is a very much more complicated 
one than we have realized in the past. It 
also seems to me that the problem of 
computing costs and benefits can not be 
left to people who are interested 
parties. I don’t know in whose hands the 
computations ought to be put, but just as 
my first example on the problems of 
how one interprets the asbestos data in- 
dicated that the same set of data might 
very well be interpreted differently by 
different people, it also seems to me that 
the computations of costs and benefits 
will come out to be very different if done 
by different people. I’m not asking that 
Statisticians be appointed (or anointed) to 
do these computations. Statisticians are 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


no more free of their personal cultural 
histories than anyone else. Michael 
Polanyi (1969) pointed out many years 
ago that the scientific ideal of an absolute 
truth divorced from human judgment is 
worse than foolish—it also impedes sci- 
entific progress. 

Thus, it seems to me that the problems 
of determination of ‘“‘safe’’ dose are 
problems that transcend our field of 
statistics. They are problems that trans- 
cend the field of the laboratory worker; 
they are problems that transcend the 
field of the epidemiologist; they do not 
seem to me to be problems that can be 
solved even by those of us in the three 
fields working together. The problems 
of social costs which flow from our 
determination of “‘safe’’ doses require 
a whole group of other kinds of in- 
put. What then can be done to attempt to 
help assure that we have a safer society 
within which to live? I’d like to give two 
sets of recommendations—one from a 
colleague who has worked and thought 
about this problem at some length and 
one from a well-known geneticist. 
Here’s what my first colleague says: 
‘‘Do monitoring. Use registries and 
record linkage to detect sudden increases 
in space-time occurrence of the kinds of 
diseases we are concerned with. When 
followback reveals that these are due to 
some specific drug or chemical we are 
already in a bad situation. A great many 
people have already been exposed but at 
least the causative agent can be recog- 
nized and if it is then removed from the 
environment perhaps we can prevent an 
epidemic.’’ The implementation of his 
suggestion requires that there be alert 
people, groups of experts looking all the 
time for these sudden increases or clus- 
ters. Many of the things reported as sud- 
den increases or clusters will turn out to 
be dead ends, useless leads. This is com- 
parable to the occasional breaking 
through the limits in a quality control 
chart and where we find nothing wrong, 
no departure in our process. Nonethe- 
less, these unusual events will still have 
to be examined. They will have to be 


75 


investigated just as we do in quality 
control. 

What about things that are not yet in 
the environment? We certainly must do 
animal testing. We must screen materials. 
for carcinogenic effects in rodents and 
perhaps in higher animals. In spite of all 
the difficulties that Dr. Rall expressed in 
the last paper, we must pay substantial at- 
tention to these results. Materials that 
appear to be carcinogenic in these exper- 
iments will probably have to be excluded 
from the environment. Some exceptions 
probably will be made or can be made for 
drugs or related materials that are used to 
treat uniformly or rapidly fatal illnesses in 
which quite obviously the benefit to be 
gained by the person taking the drug will 
be very much greater than the cost of 
possible cancer to this person some 
years in the future. However, for 
materials in which the gain and benefits 
do not accrue to the same person it is 
likely that these materials will not be 
marketable. If it appears, however, that 
the material is of very great economic 
potential then obviously work on metab- 
olism and biochemistry will have to be 
done. If it can be demonstrated that the 
material is metabolized substantially 


differently by the experimental animal 


than it is by man, then this would indicate 
thatwe must do further laboratory-animal 
research to find species in which metab- 
olism is closer to that of man and do 
carcinogenic testing in them. If in such 
species we can demonstrate the identity 
of the metabolic pathway to man’s and 
such species can demonstrate that the 
material is not a dangerous material, then 
obviously it becomes marketable. In 
addition we will have learned a great deal 
about the metabolism of different kinds of 
animal species. Finally, we obviously 
must encourage research into laboratory 
methods that will give us answers quickly 
as to possible positives. I think we have 
to develop some no-false negatives 
screening systems to cut down on the 
enormous number of materials that now 
seem to have to be tested in long-term life 
span animal feeding experiments. If 
quick methods can be developed that 


76 


produce no-false negatives, even if the 
methods ask us to test five true negatives 
for every one positive they would intro- 
duce many economies in money and in 
time. 

The second suggestion that should be 
taken quite seriously was made by James 
Crow (1973), the geneticist, in the publi- 
cation of the National Institute of En- 
vironmental Health Sciences. Crow 
takes a lead from the work on radia- 
tion risks and with the so-called ‘‘allow- 
able’’ increased dose of radiation per- 
mitted from sources such as the produc- 
tion of power through atomic energy. 
Crow notes that among the early maxi- 
mum levels that were established by such 
groups as the BEIR group (1972) and 
others was an addition of radiation to the 
environment roughly equal to ihe amount 
that one naturally received from nature. 
Crow further suggests arithmetically con- 
verting the hazards from chemicals to a 
radiation equivalent dose, and setting this 
equal to the early ‘‘maximum’’ per- 
missible addition, 170 millirems. In doing 
this. we soon get into problems of the 
appropriate dose response curve at low 
levels; what are the incremental cancers 
that occur given this particular dose of 
chemicals? If we can make this chemical- 
radiation equivalence perhaps even 
crudely, Crow then recommends that we 
treat any new material entered into the 
environment as a potential additional 
‘‘burden.’’ If this added burden then 
brings us up over the equivalent of 
170 millirems, then action must be taken 
to bring the total burden down to its al- 
lowable level. In other words if we intro- 
duce a new chemical into the environ- 
ment and it is of such economic impor- 
tance that it must be introduced, there 
then have to be other chemicals that will 
come out of the environment, since the 
new materials plus the old materials 
would bring us up above the maximum 
permissible additional burden. This 
would create a situation in which the 
people who manufactured and marketed 
the old material might be required to 
present information to demonstrate why 
their material should remain in the en- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


vironment rather than permitting the new 
material to enter into the environment. 
And the promoters of the new material 
would have to present the contrary argu- 
ments. Under these circumstances there 
would be some healthy competition as to 
what new materials might come into 
the environment. It might very well in- 
fluence a company which already has a 
substantial number of materials on the 
market to not introduce another. one 
because the new one would require that 
an old one be taken out of sale. It might be 
a useful thing for the Shell Comapny, 
manufacturers of Dieldren, and the 
Montrose Chemical Company of Califor- 
nia, the manufacturers of DDT, to pres- 
ent arguments as to which of the two (or 
either of them) might better remain in the 
environment. 

There is something Crow neglects and 
that we have not talked about here today. 
It presents serious statistical problems. 
Crow’s limit assumes that each additional 
material added to the environment has a 
simple additive effect. There is evidence 
that this is likely not to be true. To see 
this one has only to recall the experience 
of the smoking asbestos worker as com- 
pared to the asbestos worker who does 
not smoke or the smoker who does not 
work in asbestos factory or the smoking 
uranium miner as compared to the 
uranium miner who does not smoke and 
again the smoker who is not an uranium 
miner (Doll, 1971). If we can get multi- 
plicative effects of smoking and asbestos 
exposure or smoking and radon expo- 
sure it may very well be that some of the 
environmental chemicals we have give us 
multiplicative rather than additive ef- 
fects. These things obviously will have to 
be tested and we will have to see what 
combinations break through Crow’s 
upper equivalent of 170 millirems. These 
problems of testing multiple materials for 
their additive non-linear interactions, are 
once again problems for the statisticians 
in designing the experiment and in evalu- 
ating the data. 

In all these activities that the statisti- 
cian has to participate, he can not go it 
alone. He is involved with the epide- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


miologist in the monitoring. He is in- 
volved with the computer people in help- 
ing develop data linkage systems. He is 
involved with the laboratory worker in 
setting up the animal screening systems 
and he is involved with the administor in 
evaluating the effectiveness of these 
animal screening systems. He is in- 
volved with helping set up and evaluate 
the quick laboratory methods. Thus, I 
see the statistician intimately and deeply 
involved with much more than just 
mathematical theory for setting “‘safe’’ 
doses. I see a great many research prob- 
lems that need to be worked on. I see 
that these can not be worked in a statisti- 
cal vacuum. I see problems of social 
values intruding on the scientists and in- 
truding on the statistician. There is no 
way that these can be escaped. Perhaps 
the best thing that the statistician can do 
is to declare his loyalties and his biases 
and let people then evaluate the work he 
has done. Since I advocate that statisti- 
cians be open about their biases, I owe it 
to this audience to be open about mine. 
As I reviewed the data relating asbestos 
to cancer in the first part of this paper, it 
seemed that my bias in coming to you out 
of the field of cancer research certainly 
affected what I did with the data, how I 
handled them, and how I interpreted 
them. I, therefore, declare I am em- 
ployed by the National Cancer Institute, 
an arm of the Federal Government, a 
research agency, and my personal bias is 
strongly against cancer. 


Acknowledgements 


The ideas in this paper come from 
many sources—mostly imaginative col- 
leagues, only some of whom have I 
mentioned in the main body of the paper. 
Some of the others who have been so 
helpful have been David Byar, Robert 
Elashoff, David Gaylor, John Gold- 
smith, Ruth Kirschstein, Nathan Mantel, 
Robert Miller, Umberto Saffiotti, Irene 
Schneiderman, and Milton Sobel. Al- 
most all the ideas that are worthwhile are 
theirs. All the ideas that are half-baked 
are exclusively mine. 


TF 


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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Carcinogens —Safe Doses? 
Panel Discussion 


Chairman: Dr. Nancy R. Mann, North American Rockwell 


Panelists: 


Dr. Harold M. Peck, Merck Institute 


Dr. David P. Rall, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences 
Dr. Marvin A. Schneiderman, National Cancer Institute 
Dr. Jane Worcester, Harvard School of Public Health 


DR. PECK—In industry, if a new 
chemical is shown to be carcinogenic 
by relatively simple tests, a decision 
is made on whether or not to proceed 
beyond this point of discovery, even be- 
fore the information gets to the govern- 
mental level. One decision is to go 
ahead with research and development 
if the chemical is of potential great value, 
either therapeutically as a drug, or per- 
haps in the chemical industry. A second 
decision, which is perhaps the easiest, 
is to drop all interest in the chemical 
at that point. A third decision may be 
to try to alter the chemical structure 
so that the carcinogenic potential would 
be lost but the utility would be retained. 
Chemists and biologists in the pharma- 
ceutical industry have employed the third 
alternative to advantage. Not infre- 
quently it is possible to alter a chemical 
structure to retain the desired pharma- 
cologic activity and diminish the toxi- 
cologic activity. 

If the chemical under study proves to 
be a potent carcinogen, this fact is quite 
easily determined, and thus the appro- 
priate decisions can be made. The real 
problem arises when the tests designed 
to demonstrate carcinogenicity produce 
_ results which are equivocal. Do the tests 
really show that the chemical is a car- 
cinogen? If the chemical is a moderately 
potent carcinogen, again there is prob- 
ably no real problem. It may take a 
little longer, and a few extra tests to 
show that it is or is not. On the other 
hand, it is very, very difficult to show 
that a chemical is not a carcinogen. 
As with any toxic effect, if you look 
long enough, hard enough, and in enough 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


species of animals, you probably would 
eventually do a test which would sug- 
gest that the chemical is a potential 
carcinogen, even though it may not be. 

This relates directly to the “‘noise”’ 
that Dr. Box mentioned this morning, 
and I think this is where the problem 
of communication that Dr. Schneider- 
man discussed is extremely important. 
Occasionally the statistician, using the 
results submitted to him by the biologist, 
will show that there is a significant dif- 
ference between the results of a test 
group of animals and a control group of 
animals. The biologist may not believe 
this to be a fact on the basis of his 
knowledge of animal variation. The 
Statistician and the biologist may not be 
able to communicate to each other the 
actual meaning of their test results. The 
communication between the statistician 
and the biologist has not been very good, 
but it is certainly improving. The biol- 
ogist fails to understand the statistician 
and believes the statistician tries to 
deal with ideal situations which rarely, 
if ever occur, in the biological area. 
The statisticians occasionally fail to 
realize that in carcinogenic tests the 
animals being used have a variable in- 
cidence of spontaneous tumors which 
must be taken into consideration in eval- 
uating the carcinogenic potential of an 
agent. This communication is extremely 
important and biologists and non-biol- 
ogists should try to reach a mutual 
understanding. We had an analogous 
situation in our organization in which 
the toxicologists and the programming 
people in the computer area had dif- 
ficulty communicating. We spent a 


79 


couple of years trying to get a computer 
program which would be useful to the 
toxicologist, without much success. 
Finally, one programer was able to 
bring the two groups together because 
of her ability to understand the toxi- 
cologist as well as the programers. 
When an understanding was reached, we 
were successful in obtaining a usable 
computer program which gave the toxi- 
cologist what he needed. There is a great 
need for thorough and informal discus- 
sions to arrive at understanding between 
two groups of scientists trained in 
biological and non-biological areas. Per- 
haps a weekly beer party where in- 
hibitions can be diminished is not too 
bad an idea. 

I would also like to point out to 
Dr. Schneiderman that the problems 
he would like to have defined for handling 
by statistics are not always definable 
in the early stages of biological re- 
search. In effect, what we have at the 
initial stage is a chemical. We may know 
what its proposed use is, but we may 
not and probably do not know what it 
is going to do in terms of adverse ef- 
fects. Once we have studied the chemical 
in appropriate tests in a given species 
of animals, we can define the problem 
for that species. If we go to another 
species, the problem may change some- 
what, and if we go to man, it may change 
again. So, you really cannot define the 
problem except in a general way. We 
want to know what is going to go wrong 
when we give this drug to an animal, 
including man. 

Another thing which is a little difficult 
to define is the “‘safe dose.’’ Does this 
mean ‘“‘no effects,’’ “‘no adverse ef- 
fects,’ ‘‘no observable effects,’’ or just 
what? There is another term that could 
be used, and that is ‘‘risk.’’ Risk is 
related both to the more or less arbitrary 
‘*safe dose’’ and to the ‘‘exposure level.’’ 
How much of a risk can we take? 
Another term that is being used is 
“virtually safe dose’’ which in essence 
encompasses both risk and safe dose. 
These are the things I think we should 
address ourselves to, but again I would 


80 


like to expand on the noise question 
which is our real problem in the area 
of toxicology. I am sure Dr. Rall 
recognizes this, and I think Dr. Schneid- 
erman does also. I have two tables which 
were used last spring at the Academy 
conference on carcinogenicity testing. 
Table I lists the variety of tumors that 
occurred in various organs in control 
animals. It can be seen that a large 
variety of tumors can occur spontane- 
ously in a large number of organs. Table 
II shows the tumors occurring in two 
concurrent control groups, each con- 
sisting of 70 male and 70 female rats. 
The tumors with the asterisk are tumors 
which occurred in control animals but 
not in treated animals. There were a 
fair number of this type of tumor in- 
cidence including a transitional cell car- 
cinoma of the urinary bladder. This 
finding in control aniamls but not in 
treated animals would tend to make 
you wonder about the validity of the 
cyclamate studies. Also, I would like 
to point out, under the adrenal gland, 
the occurrence of pheochromocytomas 
in both control groups of animals. It 
is to be noted that a larger number of 
pheochromocytomas occurred in the 
male animals of control group I than in 
the male animals of control group II. 
Statistically, this is a significant dif- 
ference. Suppose control group I had 
been a treated group? How would this 
be handled? On the surface it would 
appear that the pheochromocytomas oc- 
curring in the one group would have been 
due to treatment and therefore we had 
a carcinogenic agent. This is a problem 
we often meet and this is the reason 
we are running two control groups in 
our studies. We recognize this difference, 
not only in the terms of carcinogenicity, 
but also in the terms of other toxicologic 
parameters. 


DR. WORCESTER—Well, Ill be 
very brief, hoping that somebody will 
have something to say in general dis- 
cussion. I think that Dr. Rall has dis- 
missed epidemiologic studies perhaps 
too lightly in certain instances. I'll grant 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


TABLE I.—Spontaneous Tumors in 1362 Control 
CRCD Male and Female Rats in 12 Studies (57 to 
104 weeks’ duration). 


Tissue 


Adrenal 


Brain 


Cervix 
Hematopoietic 
Liver 


Lung 


Kidney 
Mammary gland 


Ovary 


Pancreas 


Parathyroid 
Pituitary 
Salivary gland 
Sebaceous gland 
Skeletal 

Skin 


Spleen 

Striated muscle 
Stomach 

Testes 

Thymus 
Thyroid 
Urinary bladder 


Uterus 


Vagina 


Miscellaneous 


Tumors 


adenoma, adenocarcinoma, 
pheochromocytoma 


astrocytoma, glioma, 
neurofibrosarcoma 


fibroma 
hemangiosarcoma, leukemia 
adenoma 


lymphosarcoma, non- 
chromaffin paraganglioma 


carcinoma, cortical adenoma 


adenoma, fibroadenoma, 
fibroma, adenocarcinoma, 
cyst adenoma, papillary 
cystadenoma, papillary 
cyst adenocarcinoma 


granulosa cell tumor, papillary 
cyst adenocarcinoma 


adenoma, islet cell carcinoma, 
acinar cell adenoma 


adenoma, adenocarcinoma 
adenoma, adenocarcinoma 


adenocarcinoma 


carcinoma 
osteogenic sarcoma 


papilloma, carcinoma, 
squamous cell carcinoma, 
trichoepithelioma, basal cell 
carcinoma, fibroadenoma, 
keratoacanthoma 


lymphoma 

fibrosarcoma, fibroma 
papilloma 

interstitial cell tumor 
carcinoma, sarcoma, thymoma 
adenoma, adenocarcinoma 
transitional cell carcinoma 


Sarcoma, adenocarcinoma, 
polyp 


leiomyosarcoma 


reticulum cell sarcoma, 
fibrosarcoma, lipoma, 
odontoma, liposarcoma, 
lymphoma, fibroma, 
sarcoma, lymphosarcoma 


TABLE II.—Spontaneous Tumors in Control 


CRCD Rats in a 96-week Study. 


Control I Control II 


Sex F 
No. rats examined 70 
Organ/Tumor: 
Lung 
non-chromaffin 
paraganglioma 0 
Liver 
hepatocellular 
adenoma 1 
reticulum sarcoma 0 
Kidney 
adenoma 0 


Urinary Bladder 
transitional cell 
carcinoma ic 


Skin 

adenoma 0 
lipoma 0 
keratoacanthoma 0 
squamous cell 

carcinoma 0 
basal cell carcinoma 0 
fibroadenoma 0 


Mammary Gland 
adenoma 6 
fibroadenoma 11 
cyst adenoma — 
papillary cyst adenoma 2 
adenocarcinoma 4 

papillary cyst 
adenocarcinoma 5 


Uterus 
polyp 2 


Ovary 
granulosa cell tumor bas 
papillary cyst 
adenocarcinoma — 


Testes 
interstitial cell tumor — 


Pituitary 
adenoma 2S 
adenocarcinoma 5 
Adrenal 
pheochromocytoma ] 
cortical adenoma 1 
Thyroid 
adenoma 1 


adenocarcinoma 


Pancreas 
islet cell adenoma 2 
acinar cell adenoma 0 


M 


69 


F 


69 


—y 
WN RS OW 


12 


12 


0 
0 


M 


69 


— 


3 
1 


(Continued on page 82) 


TABLE II.—(Continued) 
Control I Control II 


Sex F 1%) neal = M 


Thymus 
thymoma 0 1 1 1 
Spleen 
lymphoma 1 0 0 
reticulum cell sarcoma 0 0 0 i 


Brain 

glioma alles 0 0 
Skeletal Muscle 

fibrosarcoma 0 0 0 2 
Bone 

osteosarcoma 0 1 0 0 


— 
— 


myelogenousleukemia 1 


@ Found only in control animals. 


there are rare instances they can be 
carried on successfully, and they don’t 
necessarily take a long time to do. 
The so-called case controlled studies are 
ones in which you are able to identify 
your response in terms of a particular 
type of tumor. You can get a group 
of tumors, a group of controls, find out 
the exposure on the basis of history. 
These studies of course do get criticized 
severely in many instances because they 
are badly done. Occasionally you can do 
a study that is prospective in the sense 
that you are able to identify a cohort 
of individuals to which something hap- 
pened in the past and follow them up at 
the present time. Such a study was done 
on mustard gas where the men were 
exposed in World War I and the ef- 
fects were measured in, I think, 1965. 
So you could get risks in that sort 
of study. I think also that surveillance 
might be thought about at least in the 
sense that now in certain industries 
union and management are working to- 
gether and pooling their records in in- 
vestigations of health of the workers. 
If it were possible to get decent docu- 
mentation of industrial processes and 
their changes, we might get a little in- 
formation out of that. 

Now, I asked a variety of my friends 
for a definition of threshold, and my 
toxicological friends all seem to insist 


82 


that thresholds do exist. Another toxi- 
cologist replied that this was a trans- 
science question with no observable 
answer; and perhaps after listening to 
Dr. Schneiderman I[ think this is not 


a bad response to this particular ques- 


tion. Regarding numbers of observations 
in the study, assume one is working 
in the range where the probability of 
response, P, is something like one in a 
thousand. Then gq” is a probability of 
observing no response in a group of 
size n, and if we set that equal to .05, 
we find that n has to be in the order 
of magnitude of 3000 animals studied 
at that particular dose in order to be 
sure of getting some sort of response. 
This really means that most of our in- 
formation in the low dose range is going 
to be obtained by extrapolation from the 
high dose range. And it is this of course 
that is getting us into trouble, because 
if we have only observations of the high 
dose range, we have no way to predict 
what the shape of the curve is in the 
low dose range. It was that sort of 
extrapolation that got us into trouble 
in the’ Cutter incident involving the use 
of the Salk vaccine. It’s dangerous 
business but it has to be done. I 
think that anytime that it does have 
to be done there is some duty to put 
a confidence interval on the extrapola- 
tion so we can at least know where 
we are. 


DR. MANN— During your remarks 
it occurred to me that giving high doses 
is analogous to over stress testing or 
accelerated life testing in the area of 
reliability, so that some of you pharma- 
cologists or toxicologists might be inter- 
ested in looking at the literature that’s 
been published in that area. There may 
be some value in communication between 
investigators in the two areas. 


DR. PECK—I would like to ask one 
question. In the epidemiological studies 
you were talking about, I assume 
you have a definable problem. 


DR. WORCESTER—I have a de- 
finable response. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


DR. PECK— Since you do have a de- 
finable response, I think Dr. Rall will 
agree with me that this makes the epi- 
demiological study much easier. 


DR. RALL— Yes. 


DR. PECK—There is one problem 
in epidemiological studies in the indus- 
trial situation. Workers may be exposed 
to a variety of chemicals in different 
situations because they are so mobile 
now, and I wonder if they are in one 
industrial situation long enough for a 
defined response to be a useful 
observation. 


DR. WORCESTER—There are 
some kinds of union situations where 
the employee’s record does go along 
with him. 


DR. PECK—There are environ- 
mental changes, however. 


DR. WORCESTER— Yes, there are 
environmental changes. 


DR. PECK— Then this would be only 
so useful unless you assume that a 
chemical produces one type of effect. 


DR. WORCESTER— Of course I am 
not assuming that this is the only kind 
of study that can be done. I am trying 
to make the point that epidemiological 
studies should not be thrown out. 


DR. PECK—I agree to that. 


DR. RALL—I guess I had better 
defend myself. I thought after I said 
that, I made a plea for increased sup- 
port in epidemiology and if I did want 
to throw out epidemiological studies I 
wouldn’t suggest we need many more 
epidemiologists now. The specific point 
I was trying to address was that in 
looking for new carcinogens in the en- 
vironment I think it’s much more ef- 
ficient to study them in laboratory 
animals first, rather than totally depend 
upon human epidemiology to identify 
them. We certainly need the human epi- 
demiological surveillance anyway, be- 
cause an awful lot of compounds in 
the environment have never been tested 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


and probably never will. This is one 
way we can pick them out. But I'll 
defend epidemiology to my dying day. 


DR. PECK—One question I would 
like to ask you, Dr. Rall. You mention 
the fallacy of using young healthy animals 
for the carcinogenic studies. I wonder 
if this is really wrong. In the human 
population in industry we are supposedly 
young and healthy, with exceptions of 
course, and then as we get older we 
get a variety of diseases. The same is 
true of animals. It is true that we don’t 
know all the genetic variations in animals, 
or at least variations that we can 
detect. We do run across an occasional 
animal that has liver disease, diabetes, 
or some other disease. I am not sure 
that our procedure is all that wrong. 


DR. RALL—No, I don’t think it 
is wrong. I think it is the only thing 
you can do. But I think when you 
try to compare groups of animals that 
have really been picked for prime health 
at the weanling age or before, they aren’t 
really quite representative of an entire 
population. Now admittedly these ani- 
mals will grow, get old, and get sick. 
You know they’re really selected to be 
in perfect shape. It is all we can do. 
We simply must, I think, realize this 
makes it a little harder for simple one- 
to-one extrapolation. 


DR. PECK—We could catch our 
animals in the wild and use them, but 
I would not recommend this procedure. 


DR. RALL—No, I’m not recom- 
mending it. I think you’ve got to do 
exactly what you do but realize that it 
still isn’t quite ideal. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN—I want to 
comment on the interaction of materials, 
because almost everybody mentioned 
this. We’ve always behaved as if car- 
cinogens operated independently of each 
other, or at worst were additive. Richard 
Doll gave a paper at the International 
Cancer Conference in Houston with a 
more Statistical version published in the 
Journal of the Royal Statistical Society 


83 


in which he reported that in certain 
industrial exposures, namely the uranium 
miners and the asbestos workers, the 
interaction between industrial exposure 
and cigarette smoking was multiplica- 


tive—a very serious kind of interaction 


which enhanced the hazards. So maybe 
the James Crowe suggestion that I picked 
up will not be conservative, if these 
things interact multiplicatively. We are 
now doing some work in cooperation 
with both the statisticians and the 
biologists, at the Stanford Research In- 
stitute in which we are attempting to 
evaluate interaction. We have a series 
of materials which we are giving two at 
a time to an animal, using one of Milton 
Sobel’s group-testing approaches and 
trying to see whether these materials 
will give us additive effects, interactions, 
non-linear additive effects, multiplicative 
effects, or whether they actually inhibit 
each other. Some preliminary results are 
already in. I saw Dr. Newell here from 
Stanford, who remarked to me that it 
looks as if we’re getting every result 
you can think of—interactions, straight 
additivity, and some inhibition. The kind 
of modeling we are doing derives both 
from a statistical modeling and from 
working with the biologist. 

Concerning the problem of epidemi- 
ology, I’d like to mention a meeting 
in LaCaravelle, in Guadeloupe, at the 
Institut de la Vie, which was con- 
cerned with formulating a better ap- 
proach to screening chemical and physi- 
cal agents that might cause birth defects. 
This is of consequence to cancer workers 
because people think there may be some 
relationship between birth defects and 
cancer effects. Let me read to you the 
recommendation from one member of 
this group. First, do monitoring, using 
registeries, record linkage etc. to detect 
sudden increases in time-space occur- 
rence of specific malformations—in 
other words the epidemiologic approach. 
Second, assure that there are expert 
committees who can look at these things. 
If you don’t have a mechanism for 
people to look at the data, it’s not 
worthwhile getting it. 


84 


Third, a very interesting idea and one 
I would like to hear some of the 
physicians comment on, when deemed 
appropriate and when ethical considera- 
tions permit—new drugs may be tested 
by administering them to pregnant 
women just before an abortion is per- 
formed with careful examination of the 
conceptus for evidence of teratogenicity. 
Two final laboratory points. Temporize 
through animal testing; screen chemicals 
for teratogenic effects. The results may 
exclude certain useful drugs which are 
teratogenic in certain species but not in 
man. These drugs will eventually be 
cleared for use in man after basic re- 
search shows that metabolism in man 
differs from that which is responsible 
for the malformation of animals. You 
will recall that Dr. Rall remarked that 
this is one of the most important areas 
in which we don’t know much—com- 
parative metabolism. And finally, the last 
point—encourage research into quick 
laboratory methods such as tissue culture 
and the work of DiPaolo and people 
like him. Notice the order in which these 
actions came. The conference was 
concerned with teratogenic effects— 
things that occur quickly and that you 
can see quickly. I’m not at all sure 
that this same order is applicable to 
problems in cancer. But I thought that 
these particular ideas were sufficiently 
important and provocative that I would 
like to read them to you. 


DR. RALL— Relative to metabolism 
studies, of course, this is being done 
now. But when it comes to pregnant 
women with abortions there is a real 
problem. A number of years. ago it 
was thought we could do this in Sweden 
when abortions were legal. But ap- 
parently there is some political difficulty 
in Sweden, and certainly we have the 
political and ethical problem in this 
country, which is becoming worse, I 
believe. It would be very useful to be 
able to do this, but when it will come 
I don’t know. I was at that same meeting 
at Guadeloupe and I should report to 
Dr. Schneiderman that the man who 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


wrote that summary was an epidemi- 
ologist and that the overall report of the 
conference is slightly different. Tera- 
togenic effects really occur very rapidly 
—suddenly when a compound which was 
highly teratogenic to man came into the 
environment there were the good sort 
of surveillance systems that are being 
set up now between I guess NCI, CDC 
and the National Foundation. You would 
detect it really very quickly with minimal 
human damage, hopefully. I’m not sure. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN-— Sure you 
would, Dave. But there is a problem 
here that the physician faces if he should 
give a drug to a woman for an illness 
not covered by the package insert. 
He must weigh benefit to risk, but if 
the baby ends up with a malformation 
and he reports it, he has a legal and a 
malpractice problem which may make 
him very reluctant to report the effect. 
This is true not only in teratogenesis 
but in all areas of adverse reporting. 


UNIDENT.—The system really, I 
think, can’t work. We are getting too 
specifically into drugs now, which I 
think is kind of a mistake. The system 
really can’t work the way you describe 
it with the individual physician reporting. 
You’ve got to have surveillance of all 
babies born in certain hospitals—is 
the pattern of birth defects remaining 
constant? And as soon as that pattern 
changes then you initiate a special ef- 
fort to find out why. 


DR. RALL—If you get into the other 
types of non-therapeutic chemicals, there 
is still a problem of ethics whether 
or not you can really give this to man 
even as an experimental procedure for 
metabolic studies. Here you really have 
to file an IND and have all the con- 
trol manufacturing and so on data avail- 
able. I’m not sure how necessary this 
is, but it’s the law. So this creates 
a real problem in metabolic studies. 


MR. WANDS—I would like to ask 
Dr. Schneiderman about a comment 
that was included in that report from 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Guadeloupe. As I remember the phras- 
ing, it was to set up a surveillance 
system which would indicate trouble as 
soon as we saw a marked increase in 
birth defects. Now I maintain that as 
soon as anyone sees a marked increase, 
he doesn’t need the statistician. It is 
when we don’t see the marked increase 
and the low-dose-effect-response situa- 
tion comes into play fully that we need 
the statistician. This is where we need 
the kind of guidance you’ve been giving 
us already in your professional career, 
Dr. Schneiderman. I would like to have 
some detailed comments on what con- 
stitutes a marked increase. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN—We are 
here among people who are co-sponsors 
—the quality control society, some of 
whom I’m sure consider themselves 
Statisticians and whose major business 
is to indicate to the manufacturer when 
a sharp increase in defects has occurred 
—that something has gone wrong. In 
manufacturing you have a quality control 
system; you have a time scale, and you 
can see when you go out of the con- 
trol limits. I think maybe the quality 
control people ought to say whether 
by and large the production people notice 
those things with or without them. My 
experience is that the production people 
usually do not notice those things. In 
looking at quality control procedures in 
hospital laboratories in which I have had 
a little experience, we found very often 
that the laboratory chief did not know 
when he had gone out of control. He 
can have a pretty substantial drift in 
one of his machines measuring some- 
thing and he may not notice it for quite 
some time. Maybe I’m talking about 
smaller differences that Ralph Wands is 
talking about. But these are big enough 
differences so that you might take a 
different action with the patient. I would 
see a surveillance system operating like 
a quality control system. If you don’t 
want a Statistician, at least let’s have a 
quality control engineer doing it. 
‘‘Marked,’’ by the way, is outside the 


85 


quality control limits —or the upper limit, 
at least. 


DR. FRED LEONE (ASA)—First 
of all, I would like to back up Marv 
Schneiderman’s remark, because there 
are many cases in which, by use of good 
statistical surveillance, you catch this 
much before the public or manufacturer 
would. You would catch drifts before 
you catch catastrophes, let’s say. So, 
if it is a good system, then it does 
work. I think you have a lot to gain. 
I wanted to mention a couple of points 
and ask for one of the panelist to show 
a comparison or perhaps tell us what 
has been done along these areas. This 
morning Dr. Newill showed us the ex- 
posure response matrix itself, saying 
that, as far as he knows, very little 
has been done relating or comparing the 
acute effect, short-term exposure versus 
the chronic effect, long-term exposure. 
Another matrix is a high dose for a 
short term versus a low dose for a 
very long term. And then finally, as 
referred to earlier by Dr. Mann, there 
is an accelerated test in an industrial 
environment to see what would happen 
for destruction of a product which might 
ordinarily take ten years and you want 
to carry out the accelerated test in a 
period of one or two weeks. I think 
these have a lot in common. I would 
like to have other panelists say what 
has been done. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN—In the 
same set of experiments that I referred 
to earlier, in which we are testing 
many materials at the same time, we’re 
also attempting a correlation between 
early effects, acute effects, medium 
short-term chronic effects, and long-term 
chronic effects. Mrs. Maunder is here— 
she has worked directly on this problem 
using the Stanford Research Institute 
data with Bob Ellashoff. With respect 
to the short burst versus the long-term 
exposure, a fair number of attempts 
have been made to do something. It’s 
quite difficult to know what the appro- 
priate dose metameter is in man. Is 


86 


it the integrated dose that people are 
exposed to over a long period of time, 
or is it the peaks of dose that some- 
body gets at times? Enterline separated 


his workers into two different groups— 


production workers who are exposed at 
a relatively uniform level over time as 
compared with maintenance and other 
workers who got bursts of exposure. 
For the same total integrated dose it 
looked as if the maintenance workers 
were at higher risk. That seems to say 
that bursts are worse, or more damaging. 

One last remark relates to something 
that Dr. Mann had said. There was a 
seminar this past summer—several 
weeks at the University of Florida in 
Tallahassee under Frank Proschan— 
on reliability and biometry, so that the 
techniques which were used in both 
areas might be brought together and dis- 
cussed. We at the Cancer Institute helped 
support part of it because we thought 
that these issues—destructive testing, 
high level doses, and so on—were im- 
portant to us. The Proceedings are 
already available from SIAM (Society 
for Industrial and Applied Mathematics). 


UNIDENT.—You were talking 
about the type of dosing or type of 
exposure. Have you looked at the ac- 
cumulative exposure under these con- 
ditions? It has been my impression— 
I don’t know how valid it is—that it 
is not that you are getting small doses 
over each day or large doses every other 
week, but it is the total amount to 
which you are exposed over a period 
of time that determines whether you then 
develop cancer. 


DR. RALL—I think there are clearly 
defined experiments that ought to be 
done and that haven’t been done. These 
are very real questions. Just to get back 
to the drug field it poses questions 
clearly. Suppose you have a drug that 
is quite effective for myocardial in- 
farction. It is certainly not appropriate 
to test it for carcinogenicity using wean- 
ling or newborn animals because they 
almost never get myocardial infarctions. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


It would be appropriate to test it with a 
_ middle-aged animal and so on. But this 
sort of exploratory examination I think 
has really not been done or pulled to- 
gether so that you can see any sort 
of overall patterns emerging. 


UNIDENT.—Well, the oncologists 
very often use the term “‘total dosage.’”’ 
_ Maybe it’s just that it develops quicker 
if you give a few large doses. I just 
don’t know. 


DR. MANN— I would like to mention 
that I too gave a paper at Frank Proshan’s 
Conference on Reliability and Biometry. 
It wasn’t on the subject I very often 
write about—that is the Weibull dis- 
tribution. I notice that reprints of 
many of the papers of mine that con- 
cern the Weibull or extreme-value dis- 
tributions are requested by medical 
people. It may be that this is a very 
nice distribution for analysis of pharma- 
cological and toxicological data, par- 
ticularly because there is a three-param- 
eter Weibull distribution with a threshold 
parameter. Most of my work is related 
to the two-parameter form of this dis- 
tribution. It may be that for some of 
the things we have talked about today 
some form of the Weibull distribution 
is a very good model. One of the things 
you might do is plot your data on 
Weibull liable probability paper to see 
if this may help you in its analysis. 


DR. LYLE CALVIN—Id like to ask 
Marvin a couple of questions. First of all, 
he made a statement that if we thought 
that the statistician was objective we 
were fooling ourselves, and I think Marv 
was fooling himself. He fell into the 
one-sample trap. At least he demon- 
strated that one statistician may have 
been fooling himself. There are several 
references to cost benefit analysis. 
Marvin, you talked about some of the 
problems with it. We’ve been looking 
at this with respect to a lot of dif- 
ferent types of evaluations, and one thing 
that hasn’t been mentioned and bothers 
us is that cost benefit analysis is basi- 
cally a one-variant analysis. This is 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


often brought back to a dollar figure 
by economists. In reality when we look 
at these costs and benefits, whether we 
are talking about coal miners or us, 
the problems are basically multi-dimen- 
sional. If you look at it from this as- 
pect, you really have a multi-response 
surface. It is very difficult with changes 
of any type to raise the surface at all— 
to say it is a benefit to society. What 
we generally do, I believe, is to tip 
the surface or move it all around, but 
basically it is going to stay at about 
the same level. We want to weigh one 
part of the population. If it tips up this 
way that’s the way we want to make a 
decision, and then it is a benefit to 
that particular group of people. But if 
it tips another way it is a benefit to 
somebody else. Perhaps this is where 
the trans-science questions come in de- 
ciding how we want to tip that surface. 
But I would like your reactions to the 
approach of looking at it as a multi- 
dimensional problem. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN— The com- 
ment to the first comment is that Lyle 
is probably correct. Maybe it is just one 
Statistician with one simple who has 
fooled himself. I wanted to show you 
how, if I hadn’t given you the early 
data, I might have fooled you too 
without being corrupt, renal, or nasty. 
I’m glad Prof. Calvin noted that a cost- 
benefit analysis based on the single meas- 
ure of the dollar cost really can get 
you into great trouble. For example, 
how should I measure the cost of a life? 
Should I measure the total lifetime earn- 
ings that are not earned? If I do, 
does the life of a person over the age 
of 65 have a negative value? Quite ob- 
viously, from that kind of cost-benefit 
analysis, when you reach the age of 65 
the most cost-effective thing is to have 
you executed. Perhaps we ought not to 
attempt to prevent or cure any diseases, 
because if we do we’ll have lots more 
people over the age of 65 and we'll 
have to pay lots more pensions. Quite 
obviously that simple and simplistic ap- 
proach is inadequate. I’m very pleased 


87 


to hear that Dr. Calvin’s group at Oregon 
are working on this problem because 
I think some good things will come of it. 
I’m very much in agreement with him 


that it has to be considered multi- 


dimensional—but different people place 
different importance on the same data, 
which then in turn would tip that surface 
for one person or put bulges or hollows 
in places for others. If one recognizes 
that, then I agree one certainly gets 
into trans-science questions—who is 
more important? What is more im- 
portant? How can I evaluate that? 
Richard Doll once ran away from that 
one by saying he didn’t want to be in 
a position of comparing the worth of a 
life of a child with that of a member 
of the Royal Society. If I were asked 
to answer that, I would run away too. 


DR. PECK—I wonder if there isn’t 
something that you haven’t said de- 
liberately—this matter of loss of life 
isn’t as important to me as the suf- 
fering that occurs before the individual 
dies, as well as the suffering and 
tremendous financial drain on the family 
and on the community. I think I would 
rather die suddenly than suffer two or 
three years. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN—I hadn’t 
not said it deliberately. I don’t know 
how to say it, or measure it, or evaluate it. 


MR. WANDS—I wonder if Dr. 
Schneiderman would like to comment on 
the Mantel-Bryan approach that FDA 
apparently accepted and then went back 
on. Would you comment specifically on 
their proposal, and also the general con- 
cept if you don’t like the number one 
hundred million or if you don’t like a 
probit of one. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN~—A com- 
ment on the general proposal. I think 
the Mantel-Bryan approach is lovely 
from the following point of view. It 
has built-in ways to benefit people who 
do better research. From that point of 
view I think it is a marvelous idea. 


88 


If the manufacturer does more and more 
animal work at higher and higher doses 
and his material keeps turning out not 
to be a carcinogen—not to show any 
difference from the controls, he then 
gets to use the material at higher doses. 
This is clearly to his benefit. I think 
in that sense this is a very nice ap- 
proach. Statisticians ought to be working 
on experimental techniques that have 
positive payoff to the persons doing the 
experiment. Most (or all) techniques 
don’t have that kind of thing. I think we 
have to build in some kind of reward 
system and the Mantel-Bryan approach 
does this. I think social and political 
pressures will help establish a “‘virtually 
safe level’’—perhaps different from 
Mantel’s 1 in 108. Where one uses the 
probit model or one of the other models 
should come out of a mixture of 
biology, rationality and conservatism. 


DR. PECK—The Delaney Clause. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN—I think 
the FDA proposal was not using the 
procedure as Mantel had intended. I 
know Mantel wrote them a letter and 
objected to their use of it, and that 
seems to me evidence that he thought 
they weren’t using it his way. 


UNIDENT.—A sample size of one, 
however. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN— A sample 
size of one, but I do think it is ob- 
jective evidence that they weren’t using 
it the way he intended it. 


ISRAEL ROCKMAN-— have three 
comments. First, on the matter of dying 
rather than suffering. My sister-in-iaw’s 
mother suffered from diabetes and for the 
last few years always had a simple reply 
to her friends when they complained 
about the pains of old age. She would 
tell them it was better than the alterna- 
tive. I also know of at least one lady 
who, for the past 20-25 years, has been 
suffering from one ailment or another, 
starting with some kind of cancer, and 
who has in the meantime in spite of her 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


suffering done tremendously useful work 
both in her professional career and as 
a humanitarian, so that suffering isn’t 
the only measure of evil. Second, your 
comment about making comparisons be- 
tween large doses and small doses using 
an analogy of testing the destruction. 
I think the reason for testing for de- 
struction may be more useful in mechan- 
ical applications where the mechanism 
is better understood. So you can more 
readily make the transfer of informa- 
tion from what happens when you test 
something severely to the point where 
it breaks and figure out what might have 
happened if lesser molds. It is my im- 
pression that in biology the mechanisms 
are usually not that well understood, 
so the transfer of information would be 
much more difficult. 


DR. MANN—They are not under- 
stood in the physical sciences either. 


DR. ROCKMAN—I wonder if any- 
body has every tried to extrapolate 
from a small animal like a mouse, 
say, to a dog or to a monkey and stated 
“‘This is what I have observed in a 
mouse—this is what should happen in 
a dog.’’ Now you can run an ex- 
periment with an animal much more 
readily than you can with people to 
see whether your method of prediction, 
your method of transfer, is really cor- 
rect. Has anybody ever tried this? 


DR. PECK—I can give you at least 
one example. However, regarding your 
first remark, when I am talking about 
suffering I really mean suffering. I have 
diabetes, but I am not suffering and I 
am still, I hope, productive. There are 
many people with cancer who are able 
to tolerate their pain sufficiently that they 
are still productive, or at least not an 
undue burden on others. 

Now, when you try to extrapolate 
from mice to monkeys to dogs, I think 
one remark you made was very im- 
portant. There is a lot we don’t know 
about biology. We had one compound 
we are working with for animal science, 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


which in the rat, in the dog, and in 
the sheep (which was the target animal) 
produced optic degeneration at high 
doses. Although much larger doses were 
given to monkeys, optic degeneration 
was just not obtained. This was a dif- 
ference in absorption of the chemical 
from the gastrointestinal tract with re- 
sultant very low blood levels in the 
monkey. The monkey for some unknown 
reason just did not absorb the material 
whereas the other species did. Oddly 
enough, if the chemical was given in 
plasma to the monkey, higher blood 
levels were obtained, but optic degenera- 
tion was not obtained probably because 
sufficiently high doses could not be 
given. There are species differences 
which we have to recognize. When we go 
from animal to man, we have to accept 
the possibility that man may not be like 
any of the animals that we have tested. 
However, as a general rule there is 
enough similarity so that the extrapola- 
tions can be relatively reliable, although 
not 100% certain. There is probably 
more of a quantitative difference than a 
qualitative difference in metabolism. I 
don’t think this has really been examined 
carefully enough in the past. We are 
collecting more data now, and eventually 
we may be able to get a better feel 
for the reliability of the animal work. 


DR. RALL—In the study I referred 
to very briefly in my talk, we looked 
at a series of 20 odd anti-cancer drugs 
tested on mouse, rabbit, hamster, dog 
and monkey. There were some sys- 
tematic differences. The rat tended to be 
rather more susceptible than the other 
species, and I think this really is be- 
cause rats weren't very healthy 10 years 
ago. There is some information on that 
paper which was published in Cancer 
Chemotherapy Reports. This was short- 
term toxicity—not acute but short-term 
—and this may or may not be relevant 
to carcinogenicity. Some few years later 
Phil Schien, who is still at the National 
Cancer Institute, looked at the qualita- 
tive toxicity of a variety of cancer chemo- 


89 


therapeutic agents in dogs, monkeys and 
man. That paper was published in 
Clinical Pharmacology Therapeutics and 
is very interesting. I won’t attempt to 
summarize it. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN—I would 
like to point out that the authors of 
that last paper had a real advantage 
over the usual tester of drugs or chemi- 


cals. They worked on anti-cancer agents. 
They gave toxic doses to man. Thus 
they were able to get a better corre- 
lation than we can in our other types 
of work. 


DR. RALL—Absolutely. You just 
cannot do it with something like aspirin, 
or if I may use one of the terms, 
trivial drugs. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Air Pollutants —Safe Concentrations? 


Introduction 


Henry Lathrop 


Deputy Chief, Environmental Design and Control Division, Federal Highway 


Administration, Washington, D.C. 20590 


Good morning, ladies and gentlemen. 
Welcome to the Thursday session of Sta- 
tistics and the Environment. The session 
this morning is entitled ‘‘Air Pollutants 
—Safe Concentrations?’’ Your program 
lists David Solomon as your moderator. 
Mr. Solomon regrets that he is not able to 
be with you this morning. He is out of 
town and I am his deputy in the Environ- 
mental Design and Control Division of 
the Office of Research, Federal Highway 
Administration. Our work is, of course, 
related to these subjects and we’re very 
much interested in it. 

Before introducing the first speaker, let 
me introduce two additional panelists. 
We will hold all questions until after the 
second speaker has finished. Our first 


panelist is Dr. William Kirchhoff, who is 
a physicist and Deputy Manager, Meas- 
ures for Air Quality, National Bureau of 
Standards, Gaithersburg. Our second 
panelist is Dr. Nozer Singpurwalla, Pro- 
fessor of Operations Research, School 
of Engineering and Science, George 
Washington University. 

Our first speaker this morning is Dr. 
John Finklea, an MD and a DPH who 
has had a wide experience throughout 
the years, having grown up in South 
Carolina and now the Director of the 
National Environmental Research Cen- 
ter, EPA at Research Triangle Park, 
North Carolina. It is a pleasure to wel- 
come you, Dr. Finklea. 


Auto Emissions and Public Health: 
Questions, Statistical Problems, and Case Studies 


John F. Finklea, M.D. 


Environmental Protection Agency, 


Research Triangle Park, North Carolina 


Industrial nations now recognize that 
environmental factors are among the 
most important determinants of man- 
kind’s future physical and economic 
well-being. The effects of environmental 
Stressors upon human health and the 
actions necessary to protect public health 
are areas of public concern and pub- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


lic disagreement. No environmental 
problem is of greater interest to the 
average American than the control of 
emissions from the nation’s fleet of more 
than 100 million vehicles. This report will 
discuss the problem of determining ‘‘safe 
concentrations’’ of air pollutants in 3 
Stages beginning with a general overview 


91 


composed of 12 key questions and their 
answers, progressing to a brief discussion 
of 6 unresolved statistical problems and 
ending with a review of short case studies 
on oxides of nitrogen and on problems 
engendered by oxidation catalysts. The 
present communication is not intended to 
address all of these problems in detail 
but rather to help the reader better under- 
stand the scientific and regulatory 
challenges faced by his society. The 
viewpoint expressed is that of a public 
health physician inextricably entangled 
in the problems described and the candid 
observations contained herein do not 
necessarily represent the official views of 
any agency. 


Twelve Questions 


The conceptual and practical scientific 
and regulatory problems encountered in 
defining and achieving ‘‘safe ambient 
concentrations’ of pollutants emitted 
from automotive sources can be better 
understood after we provide the best 
available answers to the following 12 
questions: 


e What is a “‘safe level’’ of an air 
pollutant? 

e What kinds of information are 
needed to control an air pollutant? 

e How does one compensate for in- 
formation gaps? 

e What are the consequences of un- 
restrained advocacy? 

e How should we assess alternate 
control strategies? 

e What pollutants are emitted from 
mobile sources? 

e What are the major determinants of 
automotive emissions? 

e How well can we measure pollutants 
in emissions and in ambient air? 

e How important are dispersion and 
transformation? 

e How well do emissions controls 
work? 

e How does one link pollutant emis- 
sions to human exposures? 

e What should a minimally adequate 
health intelligence base assess? 


92 


What is a ‘‘safe level’’ for an air pollutant? 


Scholars, scientists, public interest 
groups, industry and regulatory bodies 
each approach the definition of a “‘safe 
level’’ with a differing set of biases. As 
has been pointed out earlier in this 
symposium, society also lacks consis- 
tency in defining safe levels and accept- 
able risks across the broad range of 
problems which are regulated to protect 
the public health and welfare. For 
ambient air quality our society has 
established a clear legal directive. The 
Clean Air Act as amended in 1970 
requires that health-related or primary air 
quality standards be set to protect fully 
the public health and that these standards 
contain an adequate margin of safety. 
This legislation requires that ambient air 
quality standards protect both specifi- 
cally susceptible subgroups and healthy 
members of the population. The Act 
excludes severely infirmed persons who 
require an artificial environment. In 
theory, accelerated mortality of hospi- 
talized or institutionalized patients with 
severe, pre-existing illnesses might not 
be an appropriate effect upon which to 
base a primary air quality standard. In 
practice, regulatory agencies have duly 
considered mortality studies. It is well 
known that the Clean Air Act specified 
rather demanding time frames for setting 
and achieving health-related air quality 
standards and emissions standards for 
motor vehicles. Many of you may not, 
however, recall that passage of the 1970 
Clean Air Act amendments was preceded 
by a half century of lightly regarded 
warnings about health problems 
attributable to motor vehicle exhausts 
and 6 years of activity under the more 
permissive 1965 Amendments. The net 
result of the latter efforts was a con- 
tinuing deterioration in urban air quality 
indices which reflected the impact of 
automotive emissions. The Congress 
also provided for careful technical and 
legislative review of the problems en- 
countered in implementing their legisla- 
tion. It is my opinion that any review of 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


the ‘‘safe level’’ problem which isolates 
the issue from its legislative context is 
not likely to prove very useful. 

At least two other approaches to the 
‘“‘safe level’’ problem are frequently 
espoused. They are the cost-benefit ap- 
proach and a view that argues that any in- 
crease over natural background levels of 
a pollutant is likely to be harmful and 
therefore either total prohibition of pollu- 
tant emissions or maximum achievable 
controls should be instituted. The cost- 
benefit approach attempts to balance 
control costs against the health benefits. 
Such an approach is superficially attrac- 
tive but it is difficult to apply. Basically 
it is much easier to calculate control 
costs than to develop the needed health 
damage functions. With our present 
limited health intelligence base and with 
the present methodologic difficulties in 
assigning and apportioning health costs, 
there would be a tendency to underesti- 
mate true health costs. A cost-benefit 
approach will require rather precise dose- 
response functions for each adverse 
effect. Such functions cannot be con- 
structed in the next few years without a 
greatly increased research effort. In my 
opinion precipitous movement to a cost- 
benefit philosophy would tend to slow 
drastically the air pollution control effort 
and probably ignore a large but as yet 
poorly defined residual of continuing ill 
health. It has always seemed to me 
paradoxical that my colleagues who 
argue most forcefully for applying the 
cost-benefit approach in the immediate 
future are most often not the same 
individuals who support efforts to con- 
duct the health research necessary to 
- generate reliable health damage func- 
tions. Indeed, it often seems that advo- 
cates of the more stringent ‘‘threshold’’ 
approach are more likely to under- 
stand the need for a better health in- 
formation base. 

The third approach is to require total 
prohibition of pollutant emissions or 
maximum feasible controls. Among 
the advocates of this course there is 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


great disagreement on how to define 
‘‘feasible.”’ Those pursuing the maxi- 
mum control approach often argue that 
any increase in pollutant levels over 
natural background concentrations is 
harmful to the public health and welfare. 
The probable harmful effect of low back- 
ground levels or seasonal swings in 
familiar environmental stressors upon 
especially susceptible subgroups is often 
cited as justification for the total prohibi- 
tion or maximum feasible control ap- 
proach. While it may be theoretically 
attractive to agree that any environ- 
mental stressor can adversely affect 
susceptible subgroups, there is little 
practical information to support this 
position. In fact, it is increasingly difficult 
to measure adverse effects upon sus- 
ceptible subgroups as one approaches 
the primary ambient air quality standards 
for motor vehicle related pollutants. One 
also encounters tactical advocacy of the 
maximum feasible control philosophy 
among a few who really do not intend to 
support either the necessary efforts to 
develop the control technology leading to 
stringent emissions reduction or the 
necessary health research to estimate 
which adverse effects are really ‘“‘no- 
threshold’’ problems. In fact the 
latter individuals are sometimes alleged 
to be interested in ‘“‘cosmetic controls’’ 
which take advantage of a limited, 
technical information base to advocate 
measures which do little more than 
minimize ‘‘first costs’’ to special interest 
groups. 

There may also be substantial room for 
honest disagreement on what constitutes 
an adverse health effect. In this case the 
problem usually involves deciding which 
changes in bodily function represent an 
increased risk for future disease or for 
aggravation of existing disorders and 
which changes are simple adaptive func-: 
tions. Points of dispute are not easily 
resolved because pollutant exposures are 
not usually the sole cause of death or the 
sole cause of any single disease or group 
of disorders. 


93 


What kinds of information are needed? 


Ambient air quality standards rest 
upon a broad interlocking scientific 
information base. Weaknesses in one or 
more of these knowledge areas may 
severely constrain efforts to establish a 
health-related air quality standard or to 
reduce the levels of ambient air pollution. 
Realistic assessment of our current infor- 
mation base shows that major gaps 
exist for each of the pollutants covered by 
the primary ambient air quality stand- 
ards. 

Scientifically defensible air pollution 
controls require adequate measurement 
methods for sources and for ambient air, 
emissions profiles with sufficient tempro- 
spatial detail to accommodate imple- 
mentation planning, a reasonable under- 
standing of pollutant transport and trans- 
formation in the atmosphere so that one 
can quantify the determinants of sec- 
ondary pollutants generated in the atmos- 
phere, a good air monitoring data base, 
dose response information linking pol- 
lutant exposures to adverse effects on 
health and welfare, predictive models 
linking emissions to air quality and to 
adverse effects, and viable control 
technologies. Without this information 
we must deal with major uncertainties 
and run substantial risks of instituting 
less than optimal contro! strategies. 


How does one compensate for information gaps? 


How does one compensate for infor- 
mation gaps when faced with legislative 
mandates that include demanding sched- 
ules for the promulgation of standards 
and institution of control measures? At 
least 3 options are available. In my 
opinion the first and most reasonable 
option is to initiate the required regula- 
tory actions and to define the range of 
uncertainty, assess its importance and 
initiate the necessary research program 
to reduce uncertainty to tolerable levels. 
A second option which may be used along 
with the first is to include margins of 
safety in health-related standards to 
compensate for uncertainties. When one 
is dealing with stringent controls of emis- 


94 


sions, safety margins are an expensive 
way to compensate for uncertainty. A 
third option is to make decisions that 
either ignore uncertainty or employ un- 
certainty in an asymmetrical fashion to 
Support particular decisions while 
making serious efforts to do the research 
necessary to gain a more complete under- 
standing of the problem. This brings us 
face to face with another question: how 
much information is enough? Frankly, it 
has been my experience that the answer is 
more economic than health-related. Con- 
trols that affect major, tightly organized 
industrial enterprises are likely to require 
the greatest technical justification over 
and above that required by any postu- 
lated adverse health effects attributable 
to the problem. From a public health 
point of view the amount of information 
required for a control action would 
depend upon the ubiquity and intensity of 
exposure, the severity and frequency of 
adverse health effects, the likelihood of 
interactions intensifying the effect of 
other major determinants of ill health and 
the ability of existing technology to 
assess the problem in question. There 
may be occasions when health priorities 
and economic priorities do not coincide. 


What are 
advocacy? 


the consequences of unrestrained 


Scientists and the legal profession 
must learn to understand each other and 
to work together towards solving envi- 
ronmental problems. Working together 
does not mean assuming a posture of un- 
restrained advocacy. In fact, unre- 
strained advocacy complicates and can 
impede efforts towards rational solu- 
tions. Scientists and lawyers should be 
seeking ways to make available all 
relevant information developed by 
government, industry or other groups 
rather than pursuing unrestrained ad- 
vocacy. How much could information 


hidden in the files of industry and govern- 


ment assist our national effort to achieve 
rational environmental controls? I do not 
know the answer to this question but it is 
apparent that the information needs are 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


very large and that our nation should 
strive to optimize its use of limited re- 
search data resources. There is also 
substantial danger that unrestrained ad- 
vocacy might channel limited research 
resources into supporting an advocacy 
position and not towards reducing the 
most important areas of uncertainty. 
Finally, along series of adversary actions 
focused on existing problems may cause 
us to overlook emerging problems that 
can be ameliorated or avoided if our 
efforts are more properly focused. On the 
other hand, there can be no doubt that 
poorly targeted, meandering scientific 
efforts not focused on adequate legal 
mandates will also fail to serve the best 
interests of our nation. We need to 
develop mutual understanding between 
scientists and lawyers to ascertain how 
we can attain clearly defined goals sub- 
scribed to by aconsensus of our society. 


How should we assess alternate control strategies? 


The Clean Air Act established precise 
goals for the reduction of automotive 
emissions but allowed somewhat more 
flexibility in the time allowed to attain 
these emission reductions. Several al- 
ternate control strategies have been pro- 
posed or informally discussed by scien- 
tific panels, industrial concerns, other 
governmental units and by public interest 
groups. Usually one does not have the 
minimal information base necessary to 
evaluate alternate proposals. For each 
alternate control strategy one should ask 
and answer the following questions. 
What time frame is envisioned? What is 
the impact on fuel economy? What 
capital investments and consumer costs 
are involved? How effective is the 
proposed strategy when compared to 
other strategies? How do controls 
influence emissions not currently regu- 
lated? And finally, what hazards may be 
produced by the control strategy itself? 
In other words, one must understand 
the impact of controls not only on air 
quality and the economy but on over- 
all environmental quality and _ public 
health as well. Neither the Federal 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


government nor American industry has 
done a good job with these problems. 
Serious questions are often raised about 
proposed controls early in their de- 
velopment but these problems are too 
often inadequately addressed until large 
investments have been made. Serious 
current problems in both stationary and 
mobile source control programs could 
have been avoided if the environmental 
and public health impacts of proposed 
control strategies had been carefully 
considered. Controls based upon a 
fragmentary understanding of the prob- 
lems one wants to correct seem the most 
likely to themselves produce large prob- 
lems. 


What pollutants are emitted from mobile sources? 


The Clean Air Act specifically man- 
dated reductions in emissions of gaseous 
hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and 
carbon monoxide from light duty motor 
vehicles. The Act also contained specific 
provision for later regulation of exhaust 
particulate levels if this was deemed 
advisable and for the regulation of fuel 
additives and fuel composition. The 
Environmental Protection Agency has 
proposed regulations which will reduce 
the amount of lead in gasoline and require 
registration of both fuels and additives to 
fuels and lubricants. Small amounts of 
sulfur oxides and certain metals are also 
emitted from current vehicles. Complex 
exhaust particulates are usually com- 
posed of a core of lead or other metals 
and a shell of complex hydrocarbons. 
These particles are small enough to 
penetrate deeply into the lung. The 
hydrocarbons emitted and the resulting 
hydrocarbon shell which is formed 
around particulate nuclei contain a num- 
ber of carcinogens and co-carcinogens. 
Use of fuel additives or lubricants con- 
taining other metals, for example man- 
ganese, would undoubtedly alter the 
structure of exhaust particulates. Emis- 
sions control systems used with current 
automotive power plants and the intro- 
duction of alternate power systems can 
further alter emissions profiles. For 


95 


example, gas turbines might emit worri- 
some quantities of certain nickel com- 
pounds, and stratified charge and diesel 
engines might emit greater quantities of 
poorly characterized exhaust particu- 
lates. Emissions control systems also can 
change complex gaseous hydrocarbon 
profiles. 


What are the major determinants of auto 
emissions? 


Major determinants of emissions in- 
clude certain characteristics of the 
vehicle population (age, size, power plant 
and growth rate), driving habits and pat- 
terns, vehicle maintenance, performance 
and deterioration of emission control 
devices, and certain characteristics of the 
fuels, fuel additives and lubricants 
utilized. 

Vehicle populations, like human popu- 
lations, have characteristics which vary 
from place to place and over time. There 
is currently a shift towards smaller 
vehicles and one may see a trend towards 
a longer survival of older, uncontrolled 
vehicles because of their somewhat 
greater fuel economy and possibly as a 
result of economic dislocations. The 
introduction of alternate power plants 
would also change emissions patterns. 
An even more important influence is the 
growth rate. Different assumptions for 
the growth of the vehicle population will 
lead to markedly different projections at 
the end of a decade but will not greatly in- 
fluence projections for 1, 2 or 3 years. 
Energy constraints might be expected to 
slow the rate of growth for the vehicle 
population. Since stationary and area 
sources contribute significantly to hydro- 
carbon and nitrogen oxide emissions, 
the relative importance of these sources 
to mobile sources should be kept in mind 
and the expected variations of each over 
time considered. 

Energy shortages may well change 
driving habits sufficiently to alter emis- 

sions projections in that the number of 
cold starts and the number of vehicle 
miles driven will probably be reduced. 
However, if there is a larger reduction 


96 


in vehicle miles than number of trips, one 
may well find that the number of cold 
starts has been only minimally reduced. 
Since cold starts account for a dispropor- 
tionately large fraction of the emissions 
measured during the currently used test 
cycle, adjusting emissions estimates on 
the basis of reductions in vehicle miles 
traveled overstates the effectiveness in 
reducing emissions. Reducing top cruis- 
ing speeds on arterial thoroughfares from 
60 or 70 to 50 mph will increase emissions 
of carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons 
but decrease emissions of nitrogen 
oxides. Overall it is difficult to predict the 
exact effect of likely changes in driving 
habits engendered by our energy short- 
ages. In general, the direction would be to 
reduce emissions, especially in non- 
urban areas, but the reduction would not 
be proportionate to the reduction of 
vehicle miles traveled. 

In the hands of consumers, control 
devices may be intentionally circum- 
vented or simply deteriorate because of 
improper maintenance. A great deal of 
uncertainty surrounds the overall impact 
of control device deterioration. Ob- 
viously, this factor will greatly influence 
emissions projections. 

Energy or regulatory constraints may 
also lead to alterations in fuel composi- 
tion that could influence the reactivity of 
hydrocarbon emissions and the emissions 
of presently unregulated complex organic 
compounds. Similarly, fuel composition 
and fuel additives can affect the per- 
formance of emission control devices. 
The impact of such changes on each emis- 
sions category is not easy to predict at 
the present time. 


How well can we measure pollutants in emissions 
and in ambient air? 


In general methods for exhaust emis- 
sion measurements constitute less of a 
problem than measuring pollutants at the 
lower concentrations which are found in 
ambient air. It is also less difficult to 
characterize and measure accurately a 
primary pollutant like carbon monoxide 
than transformation pollutants like the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


nitrogen dioxide, ozone, other oxidants 
and the aerosols derived from nitric oxide 
and sulfur oxides emissions. A final 
general observation is that measurement 
methods can always be improved. It is 
our opinion that measurement methods 
for exhaust emissions of carbon mon- 
oxide, gaseous hydrocarbons and nitro- 
gen oxides are reasonably adequate for 
current vehicles but more _ sensitive 
methods may be required to monitor 
vehicles that meet statutory standards. 
Usable methods also exist for measuring 
emissions of exhaust particulates and 
metals. On the other hand, better 
methods are needed for exhaust aerosols 
and more complete characterization of 
exhaust particulates, aerosols and hydro- 
carbons is required for both exhaust 
streams and ambient air. Adequate 
methods also exist for measuring carbon 
monoxide and ozone in ambient air. Our 
present Federal Reference Method for 
measuring non-methane hydrocarbons in 
ambient air is not sufficiently sensitive as 
the lower detectable limit of the level 
approximates the ambient standard 
instead of being sensitive enough to 
measure levels only one-tenth the stand- 
ard, as would be preferable. This 
difficulty is not of monumental impor- 
tance as the ambient hydrocarbon stand- 
ard is at present used only for planning 
purposes in the control of oxidants and 
not as a standard enforced because of 
adverse health effects attributed to 
hydrocarbons per se. 


How important are dispersion and transformation? 


Atmospheric processes profoundly 
affect ambient air quality. Certain pollu- 
tants like photochemical oxidants, nitro- 
gen dioxide, acid aerosols and fine 
particulate sulfates and nitrates arise 
principally through atmospheric trans- 
formations. The relationship between 
oxidant precursors and oxidants is a 
crucial area of uncertainty. This com- 
plex relationship can lead to situa- 
tions that alter reactivity in such a 
way that oxidant levels at a central 
city monitoring station could be re- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


duced while oxidant levels at down- 
wind sites on the urban fringe might re- 
main elevated or even increase. There is 
also substantial disagreement among 
reputable scientists on the importance 
and extent of regional variations in the 
formation of secondary pollutants. 
Present control plans recognize that 
background levels of pollutants exist but 
temprospatial differences in background 
levels are not considered and no pro- 
vision has been made to consider the 
transport of pollutants from one air 
quality control region to another. Failure 
to address these emerging problems 
greatly increases the uncertainty of the 
efficacy of control strategies. 

Other exposures like carbon monoxide 
and lead derived from fuel additive com- 
bustion are maximal where vehicles are 
concentrated. Use of vehicles equipped 
with catalytic converters will shift acid 
aerosol exposures into this category. 
Likewise, widespread use of manganese 
additives or turbine seals sloughing 
nickel could create this type of exposure 
problem. Such pollutants will reach their 
highest levels in urban street canyons, 
along arterial thoroughfares and around 
complex sources like shopping centers 
and sports complexes. Meteorologic fac- 
tors are responsible for dispersing and 
diluting pollutants which are emitted 
directly from vehicles or formed in the 
atmosphere from precursor pollutants 
emitted from vehicles. Meteorological 
factors are especially important when 
considering the frequency and magnitude 
of short term peak exposures. Most 
existing analyses have assumed that 
meteorological factors do not vary 
appreciably from year to year and have 
not considered the influence of regional 
and seasonal differences in altitude, sun- 
light, temperature, humidity and other 
parameters. 


How well do emissions controls work? 


Beginning with the 1968 model year, 
each new cohort of motor vehicles was 
equipped with some sort of emissions 
control system as required by Federal 


97 


regulations. Thus far emissions controls 
might be expected to have their greatest 
impact on carbon monoxide and hydro- 
carbons with only a modest reduction in 
nitrogen oxides. Has ambient air quality 
improved? Our monitoring data are not 
adequate to answer the question defin- 
itively but several hopeful trends are 
evident. California monitoring data 
show a reversal of previously upward 
trends and a substantial reduction in daily 
maximum carbon monoxide levels. Simi- 
larly, peak hourly oxidant levels in cities 
participating in the EPA continuous air 
monitoring program have been reduced 
by roughly 25%. Thus far there are 
inadequate data to evaluate the effects of 
recent fuel restrictions on urban air 
quality. Sufficient information does exist 
to lead us to conclude that performance of 
emissions control systems on consumer 
operated vehicles does deteriorate sig- 
nificantly. 


How does one link pollutant emissions to human 
exposures? 


Models linking emissions to human 
exposure are helpful but crude and often 
unvalidated. Major problem areas in- 
clude the influence of human activity pat- 
terns, indoor air pollutant levels at home 
and at work, and our limited under- 
standing of the processes that transform 
primary pollutants into secondary pollu- 
tants. When pollutant exposures involve 
a large area as in the case with oxidants 
the problem of constructing an appro- 
priate exposure model will probably 
prove manageable. Progress is also 
possible when exposures are largely 
determined by the proximity of sub- 
stantial numbers of vehicles, as is the 
case with carbon monoxide. Then human 
activity patterns become most important. 
Control strategies have not adequately 
considered how human activity in- 
fluences exposure to carbon monoxide. 
This failure is especially important be- 
cause urban exposures manifested by 
carboxyhemoglobin levels in non- 
smokers who donate blood reflect higher 
carbon monoxide exposure than one 


98 


would expect from most existing air 
monitoring data. The most complex 
situation occurs when emissions from 
different types of sources and exposures 
via several environmental media are 
involved, as is the case with lead. To 
date only a limited number of investiga- 
tors have reported studies in which they 
attempted to establish and utilize human 
exposure models. Much more work re- 
mains to be done if the more obvious 
major uncertainties are to be reduced. 


What should a minimally adequate health 
intelligence base assess? 


A minimally adequate health intel- 
ligence base should ascertain the effects 
of long-term low level exposures and the 
effects of single or repeated short-term 
exposures. In general it is easiest to 
ascertain what acute effects follow short- 
term fluctuations in air quality. Less com- 
plete information is available on the acute 
and chronic effects which follow long- 
term low level exposures and very little is 
known about the chronic effects of peak 
exposures. The present primary air 
quality standards usually consider only 
an annual average or a single short-term 
averaging time. It is assumed that the 
necessary air quality controls will also 
protect against repeated short-term 
exposures that are less than the stand- 
ards. This is an untested assumption and 
further refinement of the standards may 
prove necessary. 

All reasonably expected adverse 
health effects should be considered when 
setting a standard. In fact, adverse 
effects which are postulated but not 
proven have not always been carefully 
considered. Failure to consider what is 
reasonably expected but not yet eluci- 
dated ignores a large important area of 
uncertainty. The effects of air pollu- 
tants on respiratory cancers, on the un- 
born infant and on aging represent three 
areas of great uncertainty. 

The most important expected inter- 
actions with other pollutants and with 
other major determinants of each adverse 
effect should be determined. In practice, 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


standards based upon community studies 
do consider pollutant interactions and 
from a combination of research ap- 
proaches one may at times assess the 
relative importance of other determinants 
of disease. In the case of the automotive 
pollutants such assessments have not 
been completed. 

Most adverse health effects are best 
evaluated by blending complementary 
research approaches. Epidemiology, 
clinical research and animal toxicology 
each have their advantages and limita- 
tions. Epidemiologic studies are set in 
the real world and thus allow considera- 
tion of the effect of complex long- and 
short-term pollutant exposures on sus- 
ceptible segments of the population. 
However, community studies utilize 
rather crude health measurements. They 
must cope witha host of strong covariates 
and are restricted to a limited range of 
exposures. Clinical studies utilize more 
sophisticated health measurements and 
carefully controlled exposures of human 
volunteers. Susceptible segments of the 
population may be studied and many of 
the bothersome covariates found in 
community studies may be avoided. 
However, long-term exposures cannot be 
easily evaluated. Toxicology studies 
provide the opportunity to control strong 
covariates carefully, to utilize a wide 
range of pollutant exposures and to 
examine body tissues. Unfortunately, 
differences between species and lack of 
appropriate laboratory models for all 
susceptible segments of the population 
limit the usefulness of animal studies. 
Thus, it is apparent that all 3 re- 
search approaches may be necessary and 
that the design of these studies should 
provide biological bridges between them 
in terms of exposure levels considered 
and health indicators utilized. It is rare 
that this blend of information can be 
found. 

The present information base does not 
allow construction of good exposure- 
response functions for each adverse 
effect. In fact, we must candidly admit 
significant uncertainties in our estimates 
of the effects thresholds for each adverse 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


effect associated with each currently 
regulated ambient air pollutant. Real- 
istically, the best we can do at present is 
to define “‘lower boundary,’ ‘‘upper 
boundary,’ and ‘‘best judgment’’ esti- 
mates for each “‘no effect’’ threshold esti- 
mate. Hopefully, these 2 boundary 
assumptions would provide limits for the 
arena in which reasonable men might dis- 
agree. That is, there should be general 
agreement that pollution levels higher 
than the upper boundary assumption re- 
sult in a particular adverse health effect. 

Susceptible population segments sub- 
ject to greater risk include persons with 
pre-existing diseases which may be ag- 
gravated by exposures to elevated levels 
of pollutants in the ambient air. Some 
quantitative information is available on 
the aggravating effects of air pollutants on 
asthma, chronic obstructive lung disease 
and chronic heart disease. One could be 
legitimately concerned about the aggra- 
vating effect of air pollutants on a number 
of other susceptible population segments: 
persons with hemolytic anemias, patients 
with cerebrovascular disease, persons 
with malignant neoplasms, premature in- 
fants and patients with multiple handi- 
caps. Little quantitative information 
exists about the aggravating effect of pol- 
lutants on these disorders. 

Air pollutants may also increase the 
risk in the general population for the 
development of certain disorders. Many 
if not all of the general population may 
experience irritation symptoms involving 
the eyes or respiratory tract during 
episodic air pollution exposures. Simi- 
larly, even healthy members of the 
general population may experience im- 
paired mental activity or decreased 
physical performance after sufficiently 
high pollution exposures. The general 
population, especially families with 
young children, is almost universally 
susceptible to common acute respiratory 
illnesses including colds, sore throats, 
bronchitis and pneumonia. Air pollutants 
can increase either the frequency or 
severity of these disorders. Personal air 
pollution with cigarette smoke, occupa- 
tional exposures to irritating dusts and 


99 


fumes and possibly familial factors in- 
crease the risk of developing chronic 
obstructive lung disease and respiratory 
cancers in large segments of our popula- 


tion. Air pollutants can also contribute to. 


the development of these disorders. A 
few animal studies indicate that air 
pollutants may also accelerate athero- 
sclerosis. 


Examples of Major Unresolved 
Demographic and Statistical Problems 


At least 6 major unresolved demo- 
graphic and statistical problems hamper 
efforts to control air pollutants. First, the 
population at risk should be character- 
ized more precisely. Gross estimates are 
available for that portion of the general 
population exposed to elevated levels 
of one or more air pollutants but much 
better estimates are needed. A key 
missing parameter is more accurate 
assessment of temprospatial variation in 
air quality for automotive pollutants. Sus- 
ceptible subgroups within the general 
population must be identified and better 
characterized by rational groupings of 
clinical diagnoses which are located, 
quantified and described by age, sex, 
ethnic group and socio-economic status. 
Defensible health damage functions will 
require much better information about 
populations at risk. A second problem 
involves improving our vital statistics 
and air monitoring data base so that one 
can assess the effect of short-term fluc- 
tuations in air pollutant levels or fluctua- 
tions in daily mortality. At present there 
is a hiatus of several years in the national 
vital statistics base needed for this effort. 
A third problem involves improving the 
classification of outpatient illnesses so 
that selective morbidity indices based 
upon outpatient records can become an 
integral part of environmental monitoring 
systems. With few exceptions, the 
usual types of available morbidity data 
are difficult to utilize because of 
nomenclature problems, physician vari- 
ability, difficulty in specifying denomina- 
tors for rates and problems in assessing 
pollutant exposures. 

A fourth problem already briefly men- 


100 


tioned is that of developing improved 
models for estimating past, current and 
future exposures. Recapitulating prior 
exposures in a mobile society is espe- 
cially troublesome as is following cohorts 
of mobile individuals through rapidly 
changing exposures. Another vexing 
facet of the exposure problem is develop- 
ing techniques to overcome problems 
posed by a single environmental station 
and multiple respondents or health 
sensors. One question of dispute in such 
cases is whether the respondents should 
be considered as individual or as a 
grouped observation. A fifth challenge is 
to develop improved statistical tech- 
niques to deal with repeated measure- 
ments on the same subjects, that is the 
problem of inter-correlated multivariate 
time series. A final closely related need is 
to improve statistical techniques to deal 
with intercorrelated independent vari- 
ables in health studies. 


~ The Case of Nitrogen Oxides 


Nitric oxide emissions from both sta- 
tionary and mobile sources have in- 
creased during the last seven years as a 
result of growth and as a result of early 
emissions controls on light duty motor 
vehicles which reduced carbon monoxide 
and hydrocarbon emissions but allowed 
nitrogen oxide emissions to increase. 
Atmospheric processes transform nitric 
oxides into two pollutants, nitrogen 
dioxide and suspended particulate ni- 
trates, that are considered public health 
problems. Nitrogen oxides also enter into 
photochemical reactions that produce 
and scavenge ozone and other photo- 
chemical oxidants. Major residual un- 
certainties which hamper control efforts 
involve health effects, measurements 
methods and air monitoring. The atmos- 
pheric chemistry of nitrogen oxides, 
modeling problems and control tech- 
nology are technical areas that also 
require more work but they will not be 
discussed. 


Health Intelligence Problem 


The limited health intelligence base for 
nitrogen dioxide leaves little doubt that 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


long-term exposures and repeated short- 
term exposures to elevated levels of 
nitrogen dioxide can increase suscepti- 
bility to acute respiratory illness and in- 
crease the risk of chronic lung disease. 
There is also ample reason to suspect that 
other oxides of nitrogen including nitrous 
acid, nitric acid and suspended par- 
ticulate nitrates will adversely affect 
health. Acid aerosols and finely divided 
particulate nitrates would be expected to 
ageravate asthma and exacerbate the 
symptoms of chronic heart and lung 
diseases. Of equal concern is the pos- 
sibility that acid aerosols, nitrites and 
nitrates might increase the risk of res- 
piratory and perhaps gastrointestinal 
cancers. Actually, there are only a few 
relevant studies of these problems (see 
Table 1). There are so many missing 
pieces in the health data puzzle that one 
cannot be assured that the present 
ambient standard protects against the 


most severe adverse effects. Further- 
more, most of the studies upon which 
the standard is based are community 
studies. Without accompanying clinical 
and toxicological studies, community 
studies usually remain suspect. The 
other types of studies are required 
to give a biologically coherent picture 
and more adequate dose-response 
relationships. 

There is no short-term Federal air 
quality standard for nitrogen dioxide. 
Empirical distribution models for cities 
with continuous air monitoring stations 
show that the present annual average 
standard for nitrogen dioxide is roughly 
equivalent to a 1-hour level of 1400 yg/ 
m?. Even this extremely high value is 
substantially below the best judgment 
estimates for adverse effects (excluding 
odor) following short-term exposures 
(Tables 2 and 3). 

Best judgment and boundary estimates 


Table 1.— Adverse effects which might be attributed to nitrogen dioxide exposures. 


RESEARCH APPROACH 


TOXICOLOGY 


AT LOW EXPOSURE LEVELS 
(<9000 pig/m3) 


EXPECTED EFFECT 


INCREASED SUSCEPTIBILITY 
TO ACUTE RESPIRATORY 
DISEASE 


THREE REPLICATED 
STUDIES 


INCREASED SEVERITY OF 
ACUTE RESPIRATORY 
DISEASE 


TWO REPLICATED 
STUDIES 


INCREASED RISK OF TWO STUDIES SHOW 


EP | DEMIOLOGY 


CLINICAL 
NO DATA REPLICATED RODENT 
STUDIES 


NO DATA TWO STUDIES WITH 


RODENTS 


ANECDOTAL FOUR STUDIES WITH 


CHRONIC RESPIRATORY 
DISEASE 


AGGRAVATION OF ASTHMA 


AGGRAVATION OF HEART 
AND LUNG DISORDERS 


CARCINOGENES |S* 


FETOTOXICITY OR 
MUTAGENESIS 


A WORRISOME FINDING 
OF REDUCED VENTILATORY 
FUNCTION IN CHILDREN 
ONE STUDY SUGGESTS 
PARTICULATE NITRATES 
AGGRAVATE ASTHMA 


NO DATA 


NO DATA 


NO DATA 


“THROUGH NITRATES OR NITRITES. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


CASE 
REPORTS 


NO DATA 


NO DATA 


NO DATA 


NO DATA 


RODENTS 


NO DATA 


NO DATA 


NO DATA 


NO DATA 


101 


Table 2.— Best-judgment exposure thresholds for 
adverse effects due to nitrogen dioxide (short term). 


EFFECT THRESHOLD, jig/m3 


DIMINISHED EXERCISE TOLERANCE 9400 FOR 15 MINUTES 


SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ACUTE 
RESPIRATORY INFECTION 


2800 FOR 2 HOURS® 


DIMINISHED LUNG FUNCTION 


PRESENT STANDARD EQUIVALENT TO 1400 pigim3 FOR ONE HOUR 


*BASED ON ANIMAL STUDIES ONLY. 


3800 FOR ONE HOUR 


for long-term nitrogen dioxide exposures 
(Tables 4 and 5) are complicated by the 
need to consider a variety of averaging 
times. The situation is further clouded by 
the pivotal nature of community studies 
conducted in Chattanooga in neighbor- 
hoods near the Volunteer Army Arsenal 
Plant which emitted acid aerosols as well 
as nitrogen dioxide. Within the uncer- 
tainties posed by the available health 
studies, the existing standard seems 
adequate with a margin of safety greater 
than the margin for sulfur oxides and 
suspended particulates. 

Fortunately, other laboratory, clinical 
and epidemiology studies on the effects of 
nitrogen dioxide are becoming available. 
Each of these is needed to improve our 
scientific information base and all of these 
studies have thus far indicated that there 
is a real need to control ambient levels 
of nitrogen dioxide. If our strong sus- 
picions about the adverse effects at- 
tributable to acid aerosols and suspended 
nitrates are confirmed, more stringent 
control of nitrogen oxides may be re- 
quired to protect public health. 


Measurement Method Problem 


When the Air Quality Criteria Docu- 
ment for Nitrogen Oxides was issued 
there was no acceptable method for 
demonstrating the equivalency of two or 
more measurement methods. The 2 most 
frequently utilized measurement 
methods for ambient air were the con- 
tinuous Griess-Saltzman method and 
the Jacobs-Hochheiser method which 
utilized a 24-hour bubbler system. Both 
methods were internally consistent but 
they did not agree well with each other. 
Because the National Air Sampling Net- 


102 


work and a series of key health studies 
utilized the cheaper Jacobs-Hochheiser 
24-hour bubbler method, this method was 
designated as the Federal Reference 


‘Method for nitrogen dioxide measure- 


ment. Unfortunately, when adequate 
permeation tubes became available, our 
laboratories found that the Federal 
Reference Method was not acceptable 
because of a variable collection effi- 
ciency. This finding required that the 
Agency designate acceptable alternate 
monitoring methods and reassess the 
primary ambient air quality standard for 
nitrogen dioxide. 

When the original Federal Reference 
Method was retracted, 3 tentative 
candidate methods were proposed to 
serve during an interim period while all 
candidate methods were being thor- 
oughly evaluated. These candidate meth- 
ods are the continuous chemiluminescent 
method, the continuous Griess-Saltzman 
method and the 24-hour arsenite bubbler 
method. The latter 2 methods depend 
upon the same diazotization reaction but 
differ in the pH of the collection media, 
the elapsed time prior to analysis and the 
use of a stabilizing agent. The present Air 
Quality Standard for nitrogen dioxide is 
based upon an annual average pollutant 
concentration and both continuous and 
short-term integrated methods (e.g., 24- 
hour bubbler methods) can be used to 
demonstrate achievement of the annual 
standard. However, if an air quality 
standard based on a shorter term of 
exposure is adopted, then a continuous 
monitoring method will be needed to 
measure compliance. In that case the 24- 
hour bubbler methods, which are cheaper 
and easier to operate, can be used to 
identify problem areas requiring con-— 
tinuous monitors and to satisfy some 
implementation plan needs. 

Let me briefly summarize our current 
information about the measurement of 
nitrogen dioxide. First, the recently re- 
tracted Federal Reference Method which 
assumed a constant collection efficiency 
of 35% is not tenable because the true 
collection efficiency is very high at low 
concentrations of nitrogen dioxide and 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


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103 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Table 4.— Best-judgment exposure thresholds for 
adverse effects due to nitrogen dioxide (long term). 


EFFECT THRESHOLD, jig/m3* 


INCREASED SUSCEPTIBILITY TO ACUTE 188 
RESPIRATORY INFECTION 


INCREASED SEVERITY OF ACUTE 141 - 
RESPIRATORY DISEASE 


INCREASED RISK OF CHRONIC RESPIRATORY 470°° 
DISEASE 


DECREASED LUNG FUNCTION 188 


PRESENT STANDARD 100 ug/m3 ANNUAL AVERAGE 


“ANNUAL AVERAGE EQUIVALENT. 
**BASED SOLELY ON ANIMAL STUDIES. 


quite low at high concentrations (Fig. 1). 
Since nitrogen dioxide concentrations 
may vary a great deal during the 24-hour 
sampling period there is no easy way to 
adjust for a variable collection effi- 
ciency over a 24-hour sampling period. 
Ignoring the latter problem, the usual 
result of the variable collection efficiency 
error would be to underestimate the true 
exposures at concentrations greater than 
120 g/m? and overestimate exposures at 
lower levels. In general the shape of the 
collection efficiency curve suggests that 
the overestimation problem would be 
more severe. Another problem is that 
nitric oxide has proved to cause a sig- 
nificant positive interference with the re- 
tracted method. 

Our laboratories are evaluating 5 other 
measurement methods including the 3 
tentative candidate methods previously 
mentioned. This evaluation should allow 
our Agency to designate a scientifically 
defensible measurement method and to 
relate that method to the continuous 
Saltzman method and to the arsenite 
bubbler method. The latter task is 
necessary because the Saltzman method 
was employed in many of the health 
studies upon which the primary standard 
was based and because the major portion 
of our meager national air monitoring 
data base depends upon the arsenite 
method. In brief, it seems that the con- 
tinuous Saltzman method may have prob- 
lems in that measurements at low ambient 
concentrations are unreliable and ozone 
exerts a worrisome negative interference. 
A number of investigators outside of 


104 


government disagree with us and feel 
that the Saltzman method is quite 
reliable. The arsenite bubbler method has 
a Stable 85% collection efficiency over a 


wide range of nitrogen dioxide con- 


centrations. However, interferences 
caused by gases commonly present in 
urban air handicap this method: carbon 
dioxide causes a positive interference 
and nitric oxide a negative interference. 
These worrisome interferences vary 
depending on the absolute concentrations 
of the interfering gases and the ratio of 
their concentration to that of nitrogen 
dioxide. The triethanol amine guaicol sul- 
fite (TGS) method appears quite prom- 
ising even though it is not one of the 3 
proposed candidate methods. The TGS 
method has a stable 93% collection effi- 
ciency. No interferences caused by 
ambient pollutants have been identified 
and the collection media has good 
stability after sampling. The continuous 
chemiluminescent method avoids many 
of the problems inherent in wet chemical 
procedures but most instruments thus far 
evaluated either suffer from early produc- 
tion problems or require highly qualified 
field operators. However, the chemi- 
luminescent approach retains a great deal 
of promise. To establish a new reliable 
reference method which is properly 
standardized and field tested will require 
another year with collaborative field test- 
ing occupying at least 6—9 months. 


Air Monitoring Data 


When nitrogen dioxide levels in ambi- 
ent air were measured at 196 sites using 
two 24-hour bubbler methods, the former 
Federal Reference Method and the 
arsenite method, it was apparent that the 
Federal Reference Method, which as- 
sumed a constant 35% collection effi- 
ciency, resulted in readings that were 
more than twice as high as those obtained 
by the arsenite method with an assumed 
constant 85% collection efficiency. This 
relationship was observed in several 
sites that had annual average arsenite 
readings which were just below or just 
above the primary ambient air quality 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


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105 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


80 


70 


60 


50 v 


OVERALL EFFICIENCY (4%) 


20 


apm 016, OST |, ORO I Aes de e18 


pe/m3 = 3, i ee ee ee 


@ 1ST PERMEATION TUBE 
@ 2ND PERMEATION TUBE 
& 3RD PERMEATION TUBE 
WV 4TH PERMEATION TUBE 


a 
a & 
21 24 27 .30 34 37 40 


390 450 510 570 630 690 750 


CONCENTRATIONS OF NITROGEN DIOXIDE SAMPLED 


Fig. 1.—Response to the NO, reference method. 


standard. Such sites were located in Los 
Angeles, Chicago, New York and Balti- 
more. A somewhat lower ratio of 1.6 be- 
tween a slightly modified version of the 
Federal Reference Method and the 
arsenite method was obtained at 7 sites 
in Chattanooga, California and St. Louis 
by the same group of Federal investiga- 
tors who conducted the Chattanooga 
School health studies of nitrogen dioxide 
3 years prior to these recent aerometric 
studies. When the ratio between the con- 
tinuous Saltzman and Federal Reference 
Methods (FRM) was compared, the 
Federal Reference Method was 2.6 times 
higher in the 6 continuous air monitoring 
stations which are part of the same opera- 
tion that maintained the National Air 
Sampling Network. When similar data 
from 3 stations operated by the investiga- 
tors conducting health studies were com- 
pared a ratio of only 1.4 was observed. 
Interestingly enough, almost the same 
difference in FRM to Saltzman ratios, 3.1 
vs. 1.5, was noted when these 2 groups 
operated stations in close proximity in the 
same city. In the critical region for health 


106 


effects, that is between 90 and 149 g/m, 

the Federal Reference Method in the 

hands of the health investigators gave 

readings that were about 20% lower than 

the Saltzman method, whereas Federal | 
Reference Method readings from the 
continuous air monitoring program were 
more than twice as high as Saltzman 
readings. Fortunately, it was also pos- 
sible to compare Federal Reference 
Method readings made by the health in- 
vestigators in Chattanooga with Saltz- 
man readings made at a nearby site by 
the U.S. Army. Overall and within the 


critical concentration range, the Federal 


Reference Method to Saltzman ratios 
were intermediate, being higher than 
those observed by the health group and 
lower than those found in the con- 
tinuous air monitoring program. These 
relationships, seen in Fig. 2, can be 
compared with what one would expect 
given the theoretical collection efficiency 
curve and assuming that there was no sig- 
nificant diurnal variation in nitrogen 
dioxide. This analysis explains why the 
Federal Reference Method appeared so 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


CAMP- \| 


COMBINED @ 
3.0 
ARMY - 
COMBINED @ 
2 
THEORETICAL * 5 
= C.E. CURVE 
= 20 \ | 
a ee a 
=z CHESS- \ | A 
Ee COMBINED ‘“@® 
= \ ® 
ce 
° 
= 
<= 
c= 
iJ 
co 
= 
m1 p 
> 
<x 
SALTZMAN VALUE 
0 
0 30 60 | 90 | 120 | 150 | 
| 
<60 60-89 90-119 120-149 >150 


SALTZMAN INTERVAL 


“BASED ON EFFICIENCY CURVE OF FRM. THIS CURVE REPRESENTS 
THE EXPECTED EFFECT ON THE RATIOS BETWEEN THE TWO 
METHODS IGNORING THE EFFECTS OF INTERFERENTS AND 
EMPIRICAL METHODOLOGICAL VARIABILITY. 


Fig. 2.— FRM FRM/Saltzman ratio vs. Saltzman interval. 


much higher than the Saltzman method in 
cities participating in the continuous air 
monitoring program. More importantly, 
the analysis points out the need for a 
strong quality assurance program for air 
quality measurements. The foregoing 
analysis also helps explain why the 
Federal Reference Method happens to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


give a fair approximation of Saltzman 
measurements in Chattanooga during 
the Chattanooga health studies but a 
poor approximate elsewhere. A _ re- 
analysis of these health studies using 
only Saltzman measurements will be 
discussed later. 

Another legitimate question is to ask 


107 


how well the 3 tentative candidate 
methods compare with one another. The 
continuous Saltzman method operated by 
the continuous air monitoring program 
(CAMP) compares fairly well with the 


arsenite method except when nitrogen — 


dioxide concentrations are very low. In 
the former case the ratio between the 2 
methods ranged between 0.8 and 1.2 with 
a correlation coefficient of greater than 
0.8. The ratios were higher (1.2 to 1.5) 
and the correlation poorer when the 
Saltzman method was used by our health 
investigators. The continuous Saltzman 
and chemiluminescent methods were also 
compared and the health investigators 
seemed to get a better relationship with 
ratios of 1.1 to 1.4 than did the CAMP 
program ratios of 0.7 to 1.3. Unfortu- 
nately in this comparison the correlation 
coefficients were quite variable—0.3 to 
0.8—for both groups. One can thus state 
little more than that the 3 methods seem 
roughly comparable in field settings 
and that the planned standardization and 
quality assurance programs are clearly 
needed. 


The Case of the Oxidation Catalyst 


One way to reduce the amounts of car- 
bon monoxide and unburnt hydrocarbons 
emitted by current sparkfired internal 
combustion engines is to pass exhaust 
steam through an oxidation catalyst 
which converts these pollutants to 
harmless carbon dioxide and water. 
Work with oxidation catalysts began over 
a decade ago and this course was 
chosen by major U.S. auto manufac- 
turers four years ago. Catalysts-equipped 
vehicles require low phosphorous, lead- 
free fuels because these substances 
adversely affect catalyst performance. 
Current legislation requires that auto- 
mobile manufacturers develop control 
technology for reducing automotive 
emissions but the pathway and time 
frame for assuring that control devices 
pose no public health problem is 
less clear. At any rate, health problems 


108 


could arise from undesirable thermal 
effects of improperly shielded catalytic 
converters, the emission of catalyst attri- 
tion products or the ability of catalysts 
to alter unregulated mobile source emis- 
sions. Catalysts are scheduled to be — 
installed on 1975 model year vehicles. A 
vigorous research program is underway 
to assess what health trade-offs might be 
involved. Major certainties involve 
emission levels of catalyst attrition 
products and acid aerosols, dispersion 
of these pollutants, the magnitude of the 
resulting personal exposures and the ex- 
pected adverse effects. Research pro- 
grams in the Federal Government and 
in industry should avoid similiar prob- 
lems in the future by making safety 
assurance an integral part of the research 
and development effort devoted to any 
control technology. 


Summary and Conclusions 


Protection of public health and exist- 
ing legislative mandates require that auto- 
motive emissions of carbon monoxide, 
hydrocarbons, oxides of nitrogen and a 
number of currently unregulated emis- 
sions be reduced to acceptable levels. 
Scientific uncertainty makes the task 
extremely difficult and contributes to 
public acrimony. Unrestrained advocacy 
hampers efforts to reveal existing infor- 
mation, reduce uncertainty and avoid 
emerging problems. Despite these socie- 
tal and other technical difficulties prog- 
ress is being made in that air quality is 
beginning to improve. Case studies of 
nitrogen oxides and catalytic converters 
illustrate the interrelationship between 
major technical components required by 
a rational control effort. Shifting from 
the present ‘‘no-effect’’ threshold risk 
philosophy to a cost-benefit risk philos- 
ophy would only intensify the impact of 
technical uncertainties. The most ra- 
tional approach is to unite and intensify 
governmental and private efforts to re- 
duce bothersome scientific uncertainty to 
more acceptable levels. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Some Aspects of Determining New Motor 
Vehicle Engine Emission Levels 


John D. Hromi 


Safety Research-Environmental and Safety Engineering Staff, 
Ford Motor Co., P. O. Box 2053, Dearborn, Mich. 48121 


Automobile manufacturers are certify- 
ing new motor vehicles and new motor 
vehicle engines in accordance with regu- 
lations established by the Environmental 
Protection Agency (EPA) for the control 
of air pollution. These EPA regulations 
are contained in Title 40 of the Code of 
Federal Regulations (CFR)— Protection 
of Environment, Part 85. 

The emission standards set limits on 
exhaust emissions, evaporative emis- 
sions and crankcase emissions. For ex- 
ample, emission certification levels for 
1973 and 1974 light duty vehicles for hy- 
drocarbons, carbon monoxide, and ox- 
ides of nitrogen as measured by the con- 
stant volume sample-cold test procedure 
(CVS-C) were 3.4, 39.0, and 3.0 g/mi, 
respectively. In fuel evaporative emis- 
sion tests, the hydrocarbons were not to 
exceed 2 grams and no crankcase emis- 
sions were permitted to be discharged 
into the ambient atmosphere from any 
new motor vehicle. 

The certification procedure is de- 
scribed in 40 CFR, Part 85. It addresses 
such matters as application for certifica- 
tion, approval of procedure and equip- 
ment, required data, selection of test 
vehicles, vehicle and engine preparation, 
gasoline specifications, chassis dyna- 
‘' mometer driving schedule, emissions 
sample procedures and equipment, infor- 
mation to be recorded, calculations of 
emissions, compliance with emissions 
Standards, and testing by the EPA 
Administrator. 

Of the guidelines provided in the 
certification procedure, this paper will 
focus on certification to exhaust emission 
standards. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Certification to Exhaust Emission Standards 


Certification test vehicles designated 
in the regulations as durability data 
vehicles are driven, with all emission 
control systems installed and operating, 
for 50,000 miles or such lesser distance as 
the EPA Administrator may agree to as 
meeting the objectives of the test pro- 
cedure. Emission tests are to be con- 
ducted on these vehicles after 4,000 miles 
of driving and at accumulated mileages 
that are multiples of 4,000 miles. (The 
mileage intervals increased to 5,000 miles 
for 1975 light duty vehicles.) Ad- 
ditionally, test vehicles designated as 
emission data vehicles are required to 
be driven 4,000 miles with all emission 
control systems installed and operating. 
Emission tests are to be conducted on 
emission data vehicles at zero miles and 
4,000 miles. Fifty thousand-mile emis- 
sion levels for each emission data vehicle 
are computed by multiplying the 4,000- 
mile exhaust emission test results by a 
factor. This multiplier is called the 
deterioration factor (DF), and is com- 
puted from the emissions data produced 
by the durability data vehicles. It is ex- 
pressed as: 


exhaust emissions interpolated to 
DE = 50,000 miles 


~ exhaust emissions interpolated to 
4,000 miles 


Values for the numerator and de- 
nominator of this ratio are required to 
be taken from a straight line, like the one 
shown in Fig. 1, where all applicable 
HC measurements made on a durability 
data vehicle are plotted as a function of 
the mileage on the system. It should 


109 


Hydrocarbons (gm./mi.) 


12 16 20 24 28 32 36 40 44 48 5O 


Mileage (Thousands of Miles) 


Fig. 1.—Graph for determining deterioration 
factor (Durability Test Vehicle No. 1012—for 
hydrocarbons). 


be noted that HC measurements were 
made at 4,000 miles, mileages that are 
multiples of 4,000, and at mileages where 
scheduled major maintenance (e.g., 
tune-up point) of the durability vehicle 
took place. In the case of major main- 
tenance both before and after main- 
tenance tests are included. 

The straight line fitted to the emission 
data is to be a least squares best fit 
straight line. The interpolated exhaust 
emissions that are required for determin- 
ing the deterioration factor are defined as 
the 4,000-mile and 50,000-mile intercepts 
on this line. In Fig. 1, their values are 
0.532 g/mi of HC and 0.875 g/mi of HC, 
respectively. Their ratio, 0.875/0.532, 
provides a DF value of 1.611 obtained 
from HC measurements on durability test 
vehicle No. 1012. As noted earlier, to 
determine compliance of an emission 
data vehicle (4,000-mile vehicle) of the 
same emission system combination, the 
50,000-mile HC emission level is esti- 
mated by multiplying its 4,000-mile HC 
emission level by the DF, 1.611. This 
extrapolated emission value then must be 
below the applicable acceptance level. 

In the event that a durability data 
vehicle is not tested to 50,000 miles 
(with the approval of the EPA Adminis- 
trator), the data for mileages greater than 
that actually run are to be determined by 


110 


extending the line of best fit established 
for the test data at lesser mileages. 

Further, it should be noted that if a 
deterioration factor as determined by the 
aforementioned method is less than 1, 
then according to arule stated in 40 CFR, 
Part 85, that deterioration factor shall 
be assumed to be one. 

Separate emission deterioration fac- 
tors are to be determined from the emis- 
sion results of the durability data vehicles 
for each emission system combination. 
Also, an individual deterioration factor is 
to be established for exhaust hydro- 
carbons, exhaust carbon monoxide, and 
exhaust oxides of nitrogen. 

When the procedures discussed above 
are followed. the practice gives rise to 
some interesting questions. These ques- 
tions are examined in some detail in the 
next section of this paper. 


Discussion of the Procedure 
for Calculating and Applying the DF 


As shown in the preceding section, a 
deterioration factor for an emission 
system combination is defined as the 
ratio of ordinate values of two special 
points on a line that is a least squares 
linear fit of emission data collected over 
50,000 miles of emission testing on a 
durability data vehicle. 

The deterioration factor developed by 
50,000-mile testing of a representative 
vehicle is then used as a predictor of emis- 
sion durability characteristics of similar 
vehicles which are tested only through 
4,000 miles. The 4,000-mile levels are pro- 
jected to 50,000 miles by application of 
the appropriate deterioration factor. 

The purpose of the deterioration factor 
is to provide a means for predicting emis- 
sion compliance at 50,000 miles without 
actually testing all certification vehicles, 
as selected by the EPA, over the entire 
50,000-mile durability test schedule. 
Thus, cars are tested at 4,000 miles and 
emission compliance is determined by 
projecting these 4,000-mile emission 
levels to 50,000 miles by means of the 
vehicle emissions system ‘‘predictor”’ 
(i.e., the applicable deterioration factor). 

A curious aspect of the procedure for 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


determining the deterioration factor from 
a least squares best fit line is that the 
line is not used as a regression line in 
the usual sense. Ordinarily, a regression 
line used for making predictions is based 
on certain underlying assumptions about 
past performance. In this instance it is as- 
sumed that the deterioration factor repre- 
sents deterioration of the emissions sys- 
tem between 4,000 miles and 50,000 miles 
of operation. However, the deteriora- 
tion in emission levels that occurs be- 
tween 4,000 miles and 50,000 miles can 
be viewed as the difference between the 
4,000-mile and the 50,000-mile intercepts 
on the least squares best fit line (as is the 
case for evaporative emissions and heavy 
duty truck exhaust emissions). Such 
depreciation is not represented by a dete- 
rioration factor expressed as a ratio. 
As. mentioned above, the current 
method of determining the deterioration 
factor for exhaust emissions from light 
duty vehicles is based on a least squares 
best fit line. Once this line is established, 
only the ratio of the 50,000-mile to the 


1975 
Federal Standar 
For California 

9.0 -f/mi. 


co (gm./mi.) 
uw 
° 


0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 
VEHICLE MILES (IN THOUSANDS) 


FIGURE 2-B 


1975 

ederal Standard 

or California 
9 


co (gm./mi.) 
w 
° 


VEHICLE MILES (IN THOUSANDS) 


Fig. 2.—Methods of determining the 4,000- 
mile emission “‘bogey’’ level for exhaust emissions 
from light-duty vehicles. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


4,000-mile intercepts is used for 
predictive purposes. This approach tends 
to ignore the significance of the slope of 
the least squares best fit line. This point 
can be best exemplified by examining 
Figs. 2-A and 2-B. 

Let us assume that a 1975 model 50 
state certification vehicle was run to 
50,000 miles and exhibits emission per- 
formance for carbon monoxide as shown 
by Line I in Fig. 2-A. The 4,000-mile 
and 50,000-mile intercepts are 2.0 g/mi 
and 3.0 g/mi respectively, with a 
resultant DF (ratio) of 1.50. Applying 
this DF to the emission acceptance level, 
a maximum allowable 4,000-mile emis- 
sion level or ‘““‘bogey’’ can be generated, 
which all 4,000-mile emission data 
vehicles must be less than or equal to. In 
this example, the CO ‘‘bogey’’ is 6.0 
g/mi. 
4,000-mile bogey 

_ 50,000 mile standard 


DF 
9.0 
4,000-mile bogey = 7 g/mi = 6.0 g/mi 


Reconstructing an emission perform- 
ance line based on the 9.0 g/mi accept- 
ance level and 6.0 g/mi “‘bogey’”’ yields 
Line II in Fig. 2-A. From a practical 
engineering standpoint a comparison of 
Lines I and II of Fig. 2-A indicate that 
two different deterioration rates exist. 
However, as defined in 40 CFR, Part 85, 
the deteriorations have the same repre- 
sentation; i.e., the deterioration factors 
(when expressed as a ratio) are identical. 

Line III on Fig. 2-B can be regarded as 
more representative of actual emission 
depreciation on the durability vehicle 
because it has the identical emission de- 
terioration rate (slope) as the 50,000- 
mile vehicle. Thus, in this context, a 
‘‘bogey’’ of 8.0 g/mi is more appro- 
priate. Interestingly enough, Line I and 
Line III, with identical deterioration 
rates, would obviously have significantly 
different DF’s when calculated by the 
ratio method (1.50 vs 1.125, respec- 
tively). 


111 


An incongruous feature of the applica- 
tion of the deterioration factor is that the 
deterioration factor, from the 50,000-mile 
durability vehicle, can only be used to 
determine emission system compliance 
if both the 4,000-mile and 50,000-mile 
intercepts are below the acceptance 
levels. Based on earlier discussions of the 
purpose of the DF (i.e., to project 4,000- 
mile emission levels to 50,000 miles) and 
the fact that emission system compliance 
to standards is predicated on the 4,000- 
mile emission data vehicle’s projected 
50,000-mile emission levels being below 
the standard, it would appear that such 
a constraint on the DF is rather severe. 
For, as previously stated, the DF is 
nothing more than a predictor of emis- 
sion system depreciation and, as such, 
should be a valid indicator regardless of 
the actual emission levels of the dura- 
bility vehicle selected to represent the 
emission system. 

How good, then, is the DF expressed 
as a ratio and the 50,000-mile emission 
projection resulting from its use? Would 
not the difference between the 50,000- 
mile intercept and the 4,000-mile inter- 
cept of the straight line be a better meas- 
ure of total vehicle emissions deprecia- 
tion? 

The DF, which is a variable in a sta- 
tistical sense, is used as shown earlier for 
setting manufacturer’s development ob- 
jectives. Knowing more about the sta- 
tistical properties of the DF is essential 
to finding answers to some of the prob- 
lems raised in the next section of this 
paper. 


Factors Associated with Setting 
In-House Emission Development Objectives 


Given a 50,000-mile emission level that 
a certification vehicle should not exceed 
(acceptance level), a manufacturer may 
desire to set an in-house development ob- 
jective for a 4,000-mile emission data 
vehicle so that he can be reasonably 
assured that any individual certification 
vehicle within the emission system will 
qualify. 

To address this problem, a statistician 
needs to know how measured and calcu- 
lated emission values tend to be dis- 


112 


tributed; that is to say, how they tend to 
vary. He needs to understand, too, to 
what extent calculated DF’s can be ex- 
pected to vary. Unless the nature of these 
distributions is known, it is difficult to 
establish the probabilities implied in 
the preceding paragraph, and it be- 
comes necessary to consider other sta- 
tistical approaches to setting emission 
developmental objectives. 

For resolving some of the earlier- 
mentioned problems, Monte Carlo 
simulation is a useful approach. This is 
a methodology that usually requires the 
assistance of a computer for constructing 
and sampling distributions from which 
estimates of the desired probabilities 
can be extracted. This approach is being 
used in some quarters. 


Summary 


Certification criteria make use of a fac- 
tor that is defined to reflect deterioration 
of the emissions control system up 
through 50,000 miles of usage. This paper 
explains how the deterioration factor is 
used for projecting a 50,000-mile emis- 
sion level from an observed 4,000-mile 
emission level. Recognition was given to 
the fact that the statistical properties of 
most of the observed and calculated 
variables need to be better understood. 
No attempt was made to provide answers 
to the statistical questions that were 
raised in the discussion. Useful ap- 
proaches to some of the statistical prob- 
lems were provided in hope that more 
attention would be given to a statistical 
base for evaluating emission-related 
systems. 


Acknowledgments 


This paper could not have been writ- 
ten without the assistance of Mr. D. N. 
Hwang, who first brought some of the sta- 
tistical problems to my attention, and 
to others in Ford Motor Company who 
have given these problems considerable 
attention and who were generous in shar- 
ing their views on the problems and their 
possible resolution. The help of these 
gentlemen and others from Ford Motor 
Company is appreciated. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Air Pollutants —Safe Concentrations? 


Panel Discussion 


Chairman: Dr. John D. Hromi, Ford Motor Co. 


Panelists: 


Dr. William H. Kirchoff, National Bureau of Standards 


Dr. Vaun Newill, Environmental Protection Agency 
Dr. Nozer D. Singpurwalla, George Washington University 


DR. HROMI—The theme of this 
conference is ‘“‘Statistics and the En- 
vironment.’ We have heard this morning 
about some problems that suggest a 
statistical approach to a solution. We 
hope that, interspersed among the ques- 
tions today, will be those that pertain 
to the use of statistics. I don’t think 
that it is intended today that statistics 
will be presented as a panacea for all 
problems that confront us today. After 
Dr. Finklea’s presentation this morn- 
ing we all appreciate the complexity of 
the control of air pollution. I think, 
however, it is necessary to establish a 
perspective that puts statistics in a role 
of helping to solve some of the related 
problems. I now ask for questions. 


DAVID SALSBURG (Kaiser)—I 
have a few comments or questions, 
first of all for Dr. Newill. Has any- 
one considered or organized planned ex- 
periments on a national scale similar 
to the way advertising news is eval- 
uated? Something like this: You would 
pair off relatively small communities 
and take some sort of stratified sample 
of cars that represented something better 
than 50%, apply to each community 
a different method of emission control, 
then for six months take measurements 
on ambient air values on short-term 
health characteristics just to give some 
kind of well planned experimental design. 
Secondly, Dr. Hromi. I was impressed 
by the point you made. I took a 
quick look at the variance of this ratio. 
You might point out to the Federal 
authorities that by picking the two 
end points of the line, they have exag- 
gerated the variances as much as 
possible, because the variance of the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


predicted value of y is of course a 
function of the square of the distance 
from the x bar to the value. 


DR. NEWILL—As far as I am aware 
we have not considered any planned 
experiments on a national scale. There 
are several reasons for this. One is 
that resources are scarce, and an ef- 
fort to do this kind of thing would 
be extremely expensive. The second is 
that we would be using the general public 
as a testing system, to which there is a 
great deal of aversion. In human ex- 
perimentation in this country, one must 
have informed consent for participation. 
This would make it rather difficult, since 
whether you think you are only looking 
at the different strategies or not, you 
are in fact involving the population. 


DR. HROMI—Ilike the question that 
was raised from the standpoint that any 
experimental program, no matter how 
complex, requires some planning and 
forethought. On a number of occasions 
Dr. Finklea mentioned the desirability 
of accumulating certain kinds of data. 
This is basic to other research prob- 
lems, too. We need to think through an 
experiment before we conduct one. We 
should decide what kind of data to col- 
lect and how much data to gather and 
what to do with them a priori to actual 
experimentation. 


DR. JOHN GOLDSMITH— The ex- 
perimental data to which the previous 
questioner addressed himself are acces- 
sible in the sense that epidemiologists 
have a chance to observe results of 
natural or technological perturbations. 
That applies, for example, to the require- 
ment for certain types of motor vehicle 


113 


exhaust control in California, at an earlier 
date than in the rest of the country. 
It is conceivable, that additional data sets 
can be analyzed especially with the kind 
of approach which Prof. Box earlier 


presented to this Symposium. One could - 


detect the contribution of various types 
of control systems in several types of 
communities, but the control of all other 
measured variables may by no means be 
sufficient. There is an increase in the 
proportion of motor vehicles which use 
fuels of different class, in relation to the 
requirements of the engine as determined 
by the manufacturer. For example, the 
sulfur content of fuel sold in the 
southern California basin is higher than in 
other parts of the country. Climatic 
as well as meterologic conditions may 
affect the resulting pollution levels. 
Nevertheless, we do know a lot about 
how some of these variables behave. 

I might add that the impending use 
of catalytic exhaust control systems in 
California provides a new and perhaps 
even more important opportunity for ob- 
taining such data. 

Dr. Hromi, it seems to me that the 
approach and the questions you raised 
about the deterioration factor are a matter 
of some consequence. Of course there 
are mathematical relationships between 
the variance of a ratio and the variance 
of its numerator and denominator. How- 
ever, one must have ali of the data 
relevant to the numerator and denomina- 
tor, and as one who has only oc- 
casionally looked at emission data, I 
find some peculiar truncations. Unless 
all of the data obtained in such a series 
are available, the estimates of variances 
that have been made, at least in the 
open literature, are rather peculiar. The 
truncations that I have observed show 
a clustering: of values just below the 
accepted emission standards set by the 
California Air Resources Board. Would 
you like to comment? 


DR. HROMI—Your comment on 
truncation is an interesting one. It leads 
me to mention truncation in another 
sense: 


114 


When a deterioration factor is cal- 
culated according to the Code of Federal 
Regulations and turns out to be less 
than one, we then must assign to it 
a value of one. A truncated deteriora- 
tion factor distribution results. ' 

My involvement with this problem is 
rather recent and my background is 
unlike that which you appear to have, 
yet I think it is easy to understand 
that we need to know more about the 
quantities that we are asked to analyze 
and interpret. 


DR. HAROLD PECK (Merck)— 
Speaking as a consumer, it is desirable 
to have those ideal conditions where 
you have no emissions whatever as op- 
posed to the situation in which there 
is no control. Obviously, we are going 
to have something in between complete 
control and no control. These controls 
cost money in the terms of original 
cost, in terms of fuel economy, in terms 
of maintenance and probably replace- 
ment. When is the public going to rebel 
because of excessive cost? There is 
already a lot of concern about the dif- 
ficulty of starting cars, keeping them 
running until they get warmed up, and 
the increased use of fuel, particularly 
in the fuel shortage. How can we cal- 
culate the point at which the public 
will break? 


DR. NEWILL—I don’t know. Cer- 
tainly public opinion is an extremely 
important thing in determining research 
priorities both in terms of what is done 
in the agency and the constraints that 
are going to be placed on regulation. 
There are many social variables that 
are just not being looked at in terms 
of any of these things. I can only say 
that this is another one of the areas 
we should be taking into consideration. 
In many ways the energy crisis has 
been very helpful because people have 
begun to discover what part of their 
transportation is essential and what isn’t. 
I think both the public and the people 
within some of the agencies are better 
able to look at these problems than they 
were a year ago. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


DR. KIRCHOFF— I have a few com- 
ments. First of all, concerning Dr. Peck’s 
question about public tolerance and just 
how much the public can stand, it 
doesn’t appear to be in the Clean Air 
Act at all that EPA is to worry about 
the economics of environmental con- 
trol—it is simply to get the air as 
clean as possible. If the public really 
demands a different approach, then it 
will probably have to go through the 
Federal legislature. Dr. Hromi, I actually 
wanted to talk to you a little bit con- 
cerning your presentation. I have a 
couple of questions and, before you 
respond, a statement about statistics. 
The questions are: How many auto- 
mobiles of a given class were used in 
the durability tests? How many auto- 
mobiles were used as the certification 
vehicles? The comment is about statistics 
because the argument you raised this 
morning was clearly statistical in nature. 
You argued that one way to look at a 
certain class of numbers is better than 
another way. Eventually arguments such 
as these will be presented to legislators 
or policy makers and may very well 
exasperate them. If I were a member 
of a Senate Subcommittee, I might say 
‘Well heck, you are from the auto- 
mobile company and the reason you 
choose one approach over the other is 
because you can get by with a higher 
level in your certification vehicles.’’ As 
a policy maker, I would be hard pressed 
to make judgments based on statistics. 
Now concerning the argument you pre- 
sented, you were in reality making some 
assumptions about the nature of de- 
terioration—that deterioration is some- 
thing that occurs in an absolute rather 
than in a proportional sense. It was 
thus not really a statistical argument 
at all, but rather an argument about 
the nature of deterioration. You could 
perhaps determine the nature of deteri- 
oration if you took several thousand cars 
out and ran them around the track for 
50,000 miles, but without such an ex- 
periment, your argument is only con- 
jecture. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


DR. HROMI—I think your question 
is a very good one. They are ques- 
tions that certainly are of untold con- 
cern to both industry and the regu- 
lators. We in industry do not choose 
an approach. The approach that I de- 
fined and questioned is in the Code of 
Federal Regulations, so we have no 
choice in the approach. The Code of 
Federal Regulations, Title 40, Part 85, 
contains a procedure that specifies the 
selection of cars by the EPA based on 
sales volume. In certain makes and 
models in which sales volume is not 
appreciable there is a minimal number. 
I don’t know what our recent numbers 
of test cars are, but there could be as 
few as one per engine family—at the 
discretion of the EPA. 


DR. KIRCHOFF— What is the max- 
imum number that could be tested? 


DR. HROMI—I have no idea what 
the maximum number could be, but it 
certainly is not a thousand. 


DR. HENDERSON (Olin)—Men- 
tion was made of human experimenta- 
tion, and Dr. Finklea indicated some 
questions about the catalytic converters 
that will be mandatory in 1975. It would 
appear to me that we are making the 
total US population an experimental 
group for a system that is possibly 
questionable. I would like some comment 
on that. 


UNIDENT.—California is the only 
place they are going to be used in 1975. 


UNIDENT.—So California then be- 
comes the test population? Has every- 
body in California given their informed 
consent for that experiment? 


UNIDENT.—In California cata- 
lysts are being introduced on a very 
limited scale. How much of the car 
population is actually changed over ina 
course of one year and how much adverse 
health effect will come from that limited 
edition exposed to the population? By 
actually introducing it in such a limited 
fashion you will have the opportunity 


115 


to monitor and discover whether or not 
our speculations are valid. The actual 
quantity of sulphur in gasoline that will 
be converted to sulphate is not very 
large. The problem lies in the fact that 
it will be concentrated close to major 
freeways, so that there may be much 
higher exposure levels than we really 
want. In estimating those, we have used 
only dispersion models. Any of you who 
have been part of that process know 
about the tremendous fight over whether 
the models we have used are proper 
or not. We can detect many of the 
problems only by making some kind 
of limited introduction into the popula- 
tion and observing for the suspected 
risks. 


DR. HROMI—You indicated that 
some results take a long time to acquire. 
Dr. Singpurwalla, would you care to 
address that question from the stand- 
point of a reliability engineer and statisti- 
cian who is studying accelerated data 
collection? 


DR. SINGPURWALLA—Yes, I 
would. The problem that I have been 
working on is the analysis of accelerated 
life tests—that is, data collected under 
accelerated environments. I suspect that 
this is a very nice analogy wherein 
similar techniques could be used in en- 
vironmental studies, whether they in- 
volve human populations or automobile 
populations. There are methods by which 
such failures can be analyzed based on 
physical hypotheses or biological hy- 
potheses about certain failure mecha- 
nisms and those techniques could es- 
sentially be transferred to whatever 
extent they are feasible into the prob- 
lem of this particular nature. Along those 
lines, Dr. Hromi, your first view 
graph contained a straight line for hydro- 
carbons on the vertical axis and mileage 
on the horizontal axis. Without running 
a regression I notice that rather than 
being a straight line, might it be two 
segmented lines? 


DR. HROMI—Your point is well 
taken and it’s one that we ourselves 


116 


question. Yet I want to stress that at 
the moment this is the direction that 
was provided by the Code of Federal 
Regulations, and this is the way we must 
respond. We must draw least squares 


_ best fit lines over those points. Whether 


the points suggest something else is 
another matter. 


DR. DOMEY (U. Texas)—This is 
far too peaceful a conference. Dr. Hromi, 
let me ask you a question. In 1957 
the city of Seattle was the scene of a 
conference that had to do with the 
problem of atmospheric contamination 
by vehicles. At that time we were as- 
sured by representatives of the industry 
that they were hard at work on this 
problem. In the meantime the DuPont 
Corporation had outfitted several ve- 
hicles with the complex equipment 
capable of continuous monitoring of at- 
mospheric contaminants. Registers in 
four colors for example, on a con- 
tinuously-rotating paper were presented. 
First of all, we are here because of a 
mutual concern over this problem. I 
wish to defend my friends in Govern- 
ment, though I do not consider them 
necessarily my close friends. At least 
they have generated a target at which 
industry must direct its criticism. It 
matters not whether this line slopes this 
much or that much at the moment. 
That is a trivial point. My question is 
to industry, which has had some 15 
years to collect the data. Where are the 
basic data? 


DR. HROMI—I wish I were able 
to answer that question. I think I have 
indicated that I am not involved in 
emission work on a continuing basis. 
My occasional involvement is that of a 
Statistical consultant. I have no idea 
what kinds of records were kept over 
the last 15 years. Dr. Domey, I would 
like very much, though, to take your 
question back. So, after the session 
let’s formulate the question you would 
like to have answered and I'll try to 
get an answer. I'll see you after the 
session. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


DR. BOX (U. Wis.)—I also felt 
very sympathetic with the last speaker. 
The thing that I wonder about is the 
provision for feedback. The Ford Motor 
Co. has a great deal of money and a 
lot of expert statisticians and they pre- 
sumably have recommendations as to 
how this analysis ought to be made. 
You did hint that there is some kind 
of conversation going on. Is there some 
mechanism whereby there can be some 
negotiation and things can be changed? 


DR. HROMI— Yes. However, let me 
go back a moment and say that it 
certainly was not my intent to make 
anybody else look bad. I try to focus 
on some problems that exist because 
of the state that we are in at the 
moment. When I started to write the 
paper I was privy to some information 
that existed in the ’72 and °73 version 
of the Code of Federal Regulations. 
I was reminded recently that there have 
been many changes in those regulations 
that have occurred over the last three 
or four years as a result of dialogue, 
some formal and some informal, with 
people in the administration. As far as 
I know, there isn’t any routine mecha- 
nism for providing feedback. 


DR. BOX—There’s nothing like a 
hearing where people can just come and 
give evidence? 


DR. HROMI—I know of none. 


DR. BOX—Just one other comment 
on the question of ethics—of the public 
being experimented on and so on. It 
seems to me that we are always in 
this situation to some extent. In the 
testing of cancer drugs and so forth 
—first, there are benefits; second, there 
are possible dangers; and third, have 
we done everything we can do before 
we get to this point? It is clear there 
is a great deal of information already 
potentially available possibly which is 
viable but not yet fully exploited. For 
example, there is a 17-year record of 
hourly measurements of several pol- 
lutants at a number of different loca- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


tions in Los Angeles County. We were 
asked at Wisconsin about 18 months ago 
to (a) try to get the data out so that 
it was available for everyone, and (b) try 
to discover its significance. This meant 
that we had to invent some statistical 
methods. We’ve been working pretty 
hard on that. I imagine there are other 
sets of data as well. The fact is, in 
Los Angeles they have introduced a 
number of new regulations from time to 
time. I suspect that some of these regu- 
lations have made no difference what- 
soever. As far as I know they have 
not repealed those laws. But there are 
some effective laws, and the effects have 
not been exactly what one would have 
expected. Others of us can learn from 
this experience. 

The American public is somewhat 
spoiled and I think it may be a very 
good thing if it is in for a period of 
deprivation. It may set some values 
straight. Americans live in a poor world 
and are going to go the way of other 
aristocrats unless something is done 
about it. I could manage with less money 
than I do. I don’t really need two cars. 
I would be a lot better off if I cycled 
to work. Having an energy crisis, and 
reorienting our priorities, and the fact 
we are not going to be fooled into buying 
big cars we don’t need and very often 
using drugs we don’t need either is 
going to be a very good thing. And I 
remember that in England during WW II 
when we had fair rationing, we got 10- 
penny worth of meat but we knew that 
nobody else was getting more, and we 
had a pretty good time. People had a 
purpose then, and the war years held 
some of the happiest times I remember. 
Shortages don’t necessarily mean that 
things are going to be black—they are 
perhaps just going to be more interesting. 


DR. HROMI—Something else oc- 
curred to me this morning after George 
made a point about having a formal 
channel for a continuing dialogue. Fred 
Leone, one of the organizers of this 
Conference, talked with me. Fred said 
that one of the purposes of this Con- 


117 


ference is to try, at least on an in- 
formal basis, to establish more healthy 
dialogue between the kinds of people 
in this room. But then he asked the 
question, ‘‘What next?’’ I think that 
bears on what you have in mind, George. 
A result of this symposium should be 
a continuing kind of forum such that, 
even though my remarks might have 
sounded like they were intended to be 
maliciously critical, can be regarded as 
constructively critical. We need a forum 
where we can put these problems out 
on the table.—where we can attempt 
to solve some of these problems with 
the kind of knowledge we already have, 
or define needs for new knowledge, 
as you indicated was necessary in the 
California study. 


DR. MARCUS (U. Md.)—Dr. 
Kirchhoff, you talked about the possible 
extremely serious potential health effects 
of pollutants from the internal combus- 
tion engine. We have talked about one 
control strategy, which consists of 
putting some sort of Rube Goldberg 
device on the tailpipe to be obscurely 
evaluated, argued about, and probably 
disconnected in appreciable numbers. 
There are other alternative transporta- 
tion control strategies. The core of the 
problem is that about 40% of the work- 
day motor vehicle trips in urban areas 
are made during the four peak hours 
with an average ridership of about 1.3 
people per car. It seems to me it should 
be the purpose of the Department of 
Transportation as much as EPA, to do 
something about the control strategies 
in that area. Are the air pollution emis- 
sion consequences of some of the 
strategies being monitored or assessed 
and to what extent? Are they being 
developed? 


DR. KIRCHOFF—That is a double 
barreled question, part of which I can- 
not answer. As you know, car pooling is 
one measure to reduce peak transporta- 
tion demand. Mass transit and the in- 
centives which have been placed on the 
expansion of mass transit are measures 


118 


which the Department of Transportation 
has taken seriously, not so much to 
reduce pollution but to conserve energy. 
I think Dr. Newill can probably tell 
you more about monitoring of emis- 


sions. Traffic volume will surely be 


monitored very carefully and various 
areas will be combining these data with 
emission data to find out exactly what 
the effects are. 


DR. NEWILL— The implementation 
plans that are required for an area to 
actually meet the ambient air quality 
standards requires monitoring. A great 
deal of monitoring is being done, much 
more than a few years ago, so that there 
will be data available. The intimation 
has been that the energy crisis hasn’t 
gone for a long enough period of time 
for us to actually have those data. There 
are several reasons for that. One reason 
is that the data probably still reside in 
the places where they’re originally 
gathered, not yet having reached the 
offices where they will be evaluated. 
I’m sure that a great deal of monitoring 
is going on for most of the pollutants we 
are discussing here. . 

The EPA has recognized that there 
hasn’t been as good a forum for the 
scientific community as there should be. 
Industry, more than the scientific com- 
munity in general, has availed itself of a 
direct opportunity by asking for meet- 
ings and presenting their point of view. 
They haven’t always had a time reach- 
ing the people within the agency as they 
probably should have, and this was part 
of the impetus behind the establishment 
of a Science Advisory Board within the 
Agency, the approval for which was 
published in the Federal Register on 
January 18. The Board is being assem- 
bled at the present time. I think this will 
be a mechanism whereby the scientists 
can, in fact, communicate with the 
agency in a fashion differently than they 
did before. 

I have talked to Fred Leone about the 
possibility that this association should 
ask the Agency to place some statistical 
talent on that particular Board— 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


someone who can reflect to the ad- 
ministration the need for this kind of 
thing. We are talking about all the 
short-term solutions, but they will take 
a very long time to come—generations. 
One of the biggest things we have to 
change are people. All of the problems 
we are talking about here should be 
taken particularly seriously by those in 
academic communities. Here is where 
they can think unencumbered about 
these long-term problems and can begin 
to train a new generation of people to 
handle them in a different fashion than 
in the past. As with so many other 
things, time will put the problem into 
perspective. These short-term effects 
are certainly not going to be disastrous. 


DR. HROMI—You made a com- 
ment that reminded me about the 
mechanisms for establishing a dialogue 
between the regulator and the regulated. 
I don’t know what your agency’s 
mechanism is. | am somewhat more 
familiar with the opportunity to discuss 
proposed rules and regulations before 
they become law in the National High- 
way Traffic Safety Administration in 
DOT. Notices of safety standards are 
posted in the Federal Register and the 
whole world has an opportunity to 
respond before the proposal becomes a 
law. 


DR. KIRCHOFF— There is always 
a problem in communication between 
regulator and regulatee in that the rela- 
tionship is primarily an adversary one. 
Perhaps this is because the government 
is run by lawyers. I don’t think scien- 
tists are comfortable with such an ad- 
versary relationship. We would rather 
approach problems from the standpoint 
- of ascertaining the truth of a particular 
idea rather than to present arguments 
supporting a particular point of view 
and to subject these arguments to judg- 
ment. Unfortunately, this adversary re- 
lationship persists in the public hearings 
related to environmental legislation. 


UNIDENT.—I think it is time to 
express a little bit of the 30-year experi- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


ence of the AEC with some of these 
problems. Relative to the public having 
a chance to have its opinion brought to 
bear, the Agency does respond to the 
legislative and executive branches of the 
government— it is really through them 
that the public has its first avenue of 
expression. Public hearings have be- 
come standard, and adversary relation- 
ships are going on constantly. However, 
getting into the scientific arena does not 
eliminate the adversary nature one bit. 
In fact, the situation is made even more 
difficult. Our most trying adversaries in 
the atomic energy business are some of 
the world’s best scientists. This is an 
intellectual challenge that makes it good 
fun. However, the suggestion that the 
informed public should have a plebiscite 
on the types of regulations that are 
made leads to ‘“‘every man for himself ”’ 
in the case of unrestrained advocacy. In 
this regard I think that the AEC and 
EPA are sometimes in confrontation. In 
their defense, we have to respond to 
public needs and interest within the 
limits of enabling legislation, with full 
opportunity for the public to have re- 
dress through the judicial process. It is a 
long, tedious procedure but it is availa- 
ble and it certainly is better than the - 
plebiscite approach to the problem. 

We have been challenged lately on 
the possibility that radiation standards 
are not set for susceptible groups of the 
population. This is true—radiation 
standards essentially define the standard 
man. The evidence is considerably 
stronger now that there are susceptible 
sub-groups with regard to air pollution 
problems. Dr. Newill, how do you 
rationalize the problem of recognized 
susceptible subgroups in regard to set- 
ting risks? 


DR. NEWILL—We are having a 
great deal of difficulty with this prob- 
lem. At the present time we interpret 
the Clean Air Act to mean that you 
want to protect the people who are 
particularly susceptible to respiratory 
problems against an increase in the 
number of symptoms they have. In the 


119 


air pollution area I think we are doing a 
very good job. Other areas are more 
difficult. It will be some time before we 
have the same philosophical framework 
for our regulations and every media and 
categorical program. One of the reasons 
for this is that we operate under differ- 
ent legislative mandates in these differ- 
ent areas. A good example was that 
Mr. Ruckelshaus’ statement about the 
reduction in the amount of traffic to 
meet the clean air standards in the Los 
Angeles area were really borne out of 
frustration that he had no flexibility in 
the way he could achieve them except 
to delay things for a year or so. He had 
to bring home to the people what the 
consequences were, and you will have 
to admit it did start a dialogue. 


UNIDENT.—I am a ésstatistician 
with the EPA. One must look at the 
purpose of the deterioration factor 
rather than worry about the specifics of 
it. The idea is to control the total 
emission over time of vehicles to set 
some sort of method of estimating what 
total emission true time will be. It is 
immaterial whether a least square fit is 
appropriate, or whether a normal dis- 
tribution or a segmented function might 
be better. Rather, is this the best way 
of establishing a method for controlling 
total emission? That is the only criterion 
that should be used for judging these 
functions. 


DR. KENNETH BUSCH (NIOSH) 
—Whether a ratio or a difference is 
appropriate between the 4,000-mile 
and the 50,000-mile values is one mat- 
ter which can be determined by test- 
ting real vehicles and taking more 
data—it is an engineering problem that 
should be solved. The reason for using 
more multiple points on a fitted model is 
to smooth out the data and gain the 
advantage of precision from the addi- 
tional monitoring data. You are predict- 
ing, from results of the test vehicle at 
4,000 miles, a value which it would 
attain at 50,000 miles. Assuming that 
the difference model is appropriate, the 
prediction would have a confidence in- 


120 


terval centered around the predicted 
value, so that 50% of the time the true 
value would be above and 50% of 
the time below the prediction. This 
means we are running a 50-50 risk 


of being higher or lower than the 


intended standards. Should we not use 
the upper confidence limit as a point of 
comparison, rather than predicted val- 
ue? 


DR. SINGPURWALLA—We have 
been confusing technical and non- 
technical issues. One individual says 
that it’s not important whether it is a 
straight line or a normal distribution or a 
segment. Someone else agrees with him 
but says it should be looked at as a 
confidence level limit—we are getting 
into technical issues. I don’t know what 
the answer to that is, but if we have the 
technical skills and the abilities to look 
at a problem as precisely as we can, 
why should we not look at it that way? 
Therefore, I challenge the statement 
that it is something gross that we should 
look ats”... 


UNIDENT.—I don’t think it’s 
gross. Let’s answer the real ques- 
tion—not to get the best fit we can 
but to do the best job of answering the 
real question. These are two different 
things in this case. 


DR. SINGPURWALLA—But 
would we be able to answer it better if 
we look at it properly? 


UNIDENT.—Properly, yes, but 
properly may not be a least square 
sample. | 


DR. SINGPURWALLA—Oh, I 
agree. But as Dr. Schneiderman said 
yesterday just be sure you’re asking the 
right question when you answer it bet- 
tek. 


DR. JAMES TAYLOR—As an 
economist who is interested in fuel and 
energy, I would like to raise the point of 
gasses from high stacks, in electrical 
power plants for example. This is a 
problem that involves billions of dollars 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


of expense currently to the American 
public in capital investment and in ex- 
penditures for low sulphur fuels. Take 
the case of a large coal-burning electric 
power plant in southern Nevada, com- 
pleted in 1971. To conform to the 
country air-pollution regulations, they 
say they must spend $100 million, pro- 
vided an economical method can be 
devised for removing sulphur and other 
noxious gases from the emissions. The 
concept of the ambient air stream being 
affected by this kind of situation has 
been publicly challenged by Dr. Philip 
Abelson, President of the Carnegie In- 
stitution, in his annual report last year. 
He points out that more sulphur is put 
into the ambient air stream every day by 
nature than by man. It seems almost 
impossible to achieve the President’s 
goal of self-sufficiency in fuel and 
energy production in the United States 
in the next 5—15 years unless large 
particles of coal with a good deal of 
sulfur content are burned. If we are to 
avoid that, we must spend a perfectly 
prodigious amount. I have heard noth- 
ing about this major problem in air 
pollution control, or anything about 
water control. 


DR. NEWILL—One of the things 
that worries me is what the use of coal 
will to do to the environment per se. It 
is true that taking sulphur out of coal 
costs money, but many of the new 
processes such as coal gasification and 
liquefication will result in a much 
cleaner fuel. I wish that the wisdom to 
invest more money in those processes 
had resulted in some earlier budgets that 
would have allowed us to have the 
_technologicals now. However, we 
weren't that wise, and we probably will 
suffer from some increase in adverse 
health effects. That nature puts more 
sulphur into the atmosphere than does 
industry doesn’t concern me in the 
least. What does concern me is its effect 
on people. Industrial sulfur in the at- 
mosphere is a distributional problem. 
We must determine how much risk 
people are willing to tolerate from their 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


exposure. This has nothing to do with 
the energy crisis except that it might 
increase their tolerance a little bit. It 
doesn’t mean that we should give up the 
idea of protecting people from these 
pollutants. Certainly we have to have 
short-range solutions to the problem, 
but the long-range goals should not be 
changed by the energy crisis. I don’t 
worry very much about electrical power 
plants because the total amount of 
money being spent is nothing tremen- 
dous. 


DR. HOMAN (Nat. Cancer Inst.) 
—I am a toxicologist. Some con- 
cern has been expressed by handling 
deterioration factors of less than one. A 
valid deterioration factor of less than 
one tends to imply that pollution con- 
trols, like good wine, improve with age. 
If you reject this contention, what is 
suggested with respect to data that 
produced such a number? 


DR. GOLDSMITH—I would like to 
introduce a fairly important statistical 
problem—that of available data sets on 
air quality—which I think would yield 
useful results with some additional at- 
tention. I refer to the requirement under 
the regulations of EPA for establishing 
emergency plans. In California we are 
expected to notify people so they can 
take protective measures when we think 
something unusual may occur, such as 
high levels of air pollution over a spe- 
cific period of time or at a specific 
location. Very often, available monitor- 
ing station data cover past periods. We 
currently face two classes of problems 
of a statistical nature for which I think 
some practical statistical applications 
would help us a great deal. The first 
problem pertains to a systematic use of 
sampling strategy to determine how well 
monitoring is located to measure what 
people are breathing. We have no 
reason to assume a priori that a given 
monitoring station is sensing the same 
air that is breathed by a given popula- 
tion, yet we have every reason to 
determine how these two are related. 
Collectively I think we who are espe- 


121 


cially concerned with health have been 
somewhat negligent because if we had 
been a little more articulate, perhaps it 
wouldn’t have taken so long to get our 
point across to those who operate the 


monitoring programs. At present we. 


don’t know what monitoring stations 
represent in terms of area or population 
exposure. The second problem has to 
do with monitoring system data now 
available which will help us _ predict 
within certain probability limits how 
much exposure will exist at some time 
in the near future. For example, can we 
predict at 6 AM that it would be better 
to carpool than to drive one’s individual 
car? While there is a good deal of 
discussion about car pooling, nothing is 
being done to facilitate it. There is no 
arrangement for providing gasoline; the 
very real economic incentives are very 
poorly documented; and there are usu- 
ally no facilities for gathering people 
who want to ride in the same direction, 
although there are boards in which 
people are supposed to put cards. It’s 
very difficult for car poolers to 
foregather in some windswept corner. 
Therefore, I ask the panel to suggest 
some practical way to solve these two 
statistical problems. 


UNIDENT.—Regarding the car 
pooling situation, it is true that you see 
boards, but if you don’t have a radio, 
you don’t hear station WTOP promot- 
ing the car pool. Various industries are 
computerizing car pools, and a number 
of communities and industries through- 
out the country are using these com- 
puterized programs for car pool match- 
ing with various incentives. I believe 
Minnesota Mining has bought a number 
of 12-passenger minibuses for employee 
car pools. We would like to see rider- 
ship increase here in Washington from 
its present 1.6 to about double that. We 
feel that this would drop our peak hour 
concentrations 20% or better. Car and 
bus pooling has been very much in our 
minds and we are doing what we can 
about it, but it’s awfully hard to wean 


the American from his personal trans-— 


122 


portation. I’ve been told that if gasoline 
goes to a dollar a gallon we’ll have no 
problem except malnutrition, because 
some people will pay a dollar a gallon 
for gasoline and eat fried potatoes from 
then on and not get out of their car. 


DR. KIRCHOFF—I wanted to 
make a comment concerning Dr. Fink- 
lea’s mention of the EPA’s problems 
with the NO, measurement techniques. 
Because of the unreliability of the EPA 
Reference Method for the determination 
of NO, a great deal of important data 
may have been irrevocably lost. A 
unique situation existed in Chattanooga 
in that a TNT plant was a prominent 
source of NO, in a rather local area. 
Health studies were made of people 
who were exposed to the NO, and 
people who weren’t. These health 
studies, which relied on the NO, meas- 
urements for the determination of ex- 
posure levels, were critical in the setting 
of national primary standards and au- 
tomotive emissions standards for NQ,. 
Well, the war in Vietnam is over and 
the TNT plant has closed and repetition 
of the study is no longer possible. A 
detailed description of the effect of the 
discovery of the unreliability of the NO, 
measurement method on the National 
Air Quality Standards and on the au- 
tomotive emission standards appears in 
the June 8, 1973, Federal Register. A 
large amount of data is presented and I 
invite the statisticians in the audience 
here today to take a look at it. If 
anything, it should convince you of the 
need for a sound statistical and scientific 
basis for environmental decision. In- 
formation such as this is in the public 
domain whether published in the Fed- 
eral Register or available from EPA 
under the Freedom of Information Act. 
Go look at it and work with it! 


DR. LEONE— You just hit a sensi- 
tive nerve when you said that the 
information is there—go look at it. I 
don’t think that is really what we want. 
Rather, let’s get information together, 
talk about it together, plan the way we 
get it, and go ahead. We are trying to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


agree to talk before the decisions are 
made—together we will talk about the 


risks, about how we get the data, about. 


whether the data is meaningful, and 
about potential conclusions relative to 
the type of data we get. Not com- 
municating is the thing we have to 
overcome. 


DR. KASTENBAUM— The follow- 
ing quotations are from the book, 
‘“Geography’’, by Henrik William van 
Loon: ‘“‘We are, all of us, fellow pas- 
sengers on the same planet. We’re, all 
of us, equally responsible for the happi- 
ness and well-being of the world in 
which we happen to live.’’ “‘We have 
plundered it all in less than a century 
without paying any attention to the 
interests of those coming after us.”’ 
Both these quotations relate to some of 
the statements made by George Box 
yesterday. 

As a result of much of what has been 
said today, I have the feeling that many 
of us are acting as if we have just 
invented the wheel. We have only to 
examine the vast literature on the ef- 
fects of ionizing radiation to realize how 
naive and inaccurate such an attitude is. 
Indeed in the area of radiation biomet- 
ry, many concepts of interest to statisti- 
cians and environmentalists, such as 
doses, dose-rates and thresholds have 
been considered and discussed at con- 
siderable length. A National Academy 
of Science report released just a few 
weeks ago devotes an entire section to 
the concept of low dose. The amazing 
thing about this is that the committee 
responsible for writing the report found 
it necessary to devote a section to a 
discussion of this apparently simple 
concept, in spite of a fifty year history 
of research and literature on an agent 
which is known to be carcinogenic, 
mutagenic, and teratogenic. This report 
is entitled “‘Research Needs for Es- 
timating the Biological Hazards of Low 
Doses of Ionizing Radiation’’. I rec- 
ommend it to all serious students of the 
application of statistics to problems of 
the environment. Two other com- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


prehensive studies of the effects of 
ionizing radiation are at least as impor- 
tant. These are: 


1. BEIR; The Effects on Populations of Expo- 
sure to Low Levels of Radiation, National 
Research Council (1972). 

2. UNSCEAR, A/8725: G.A. Official Records, 
27th Sess. Suppl. No. 25 (1972). 


MR. WANDS—During the course 
of our discussion yesterday and this 
morming, three words were bandied 
about—‘‘risk,’’ ‘‘benefit,’’ and ‘‘anal- 
ysis.’ So far we have focused our at- 
tention almost entirely on risk meas- 
urement and analysis but have touched 
very lightly, if at all, on the question of 
benefits. An administrator must resolve 
this very important side of the equation 
in setting some kind of regulatory stand- 
ards. I grant that the data are even 
fewer and more unmanageable in the 
area of benefits than they are in the area 
of risk, but it is time for us to begin 
planning a concentrated approach to 
quantifying benefits. It’s the old ques- 
tion of equating dollars with lives or 
marginal illness, etc., but there is still 
much to be done before we can achieve 
the long-term rational approach to the 
goals of which Dr. Newill has just 
spoken. 

In response to the last speaker, one o 
the reasons this Symposium is being 
held at this particular time is because of 
the Environmental Mutagens Society 
meeting this weekend and, following 
that, the Society of Toxicology. This 
does assure a potential at least of half 
the interested scientific communities 
being in town and available, particularly 
since we wanted to make this Sym- 
posium nationwide rather than local as 
the two preceding ones were. We were 
very hopeful that particularly the radia- 
tion biometry group would be in our 
audience to share their experience with 
us, even though we are focusing our 
attention today on the problems of 
chemicals entering the environment. 

Yesterday and again today we heard 
statisticians Nancy Mann and Dr. 
Singpurwalla mention the use of inten- 


123 


sive testing for failure as a means of 
predicting ultimate long life. This is 
fairly straightforward in terms of mech- 
anisms that are simple and well under- 
stood, such as flex fatigue in metal 


strips or of paint failure under sunlight, 


radiation, etc. However, in biological 
systems one usually finds two entirely 
different mechanisms—one in relation- 
ship to the short-term, heavy-dose ex- 
posure and the other to the long-range, 
low-level exposure. Standard tech- 
niques within the field of toxicology 
are available for doing intensive short- 
term studies. Sometimes it is as short as 
a single dose, for example, determining 
an LD; ). More intensive, repeated 
doses once were used by the National 
Cancer Institute in its chemotherapy 
screening program in which animals 
were dosed at least twice a day for 
seven days at a maximum tolerated 
dose. We wanted the animals to stay at 
least barely alive so that we could study 
the effects of the chemotherapeutant on 
the animal carrying the experimental 
tumor. Perhaps Dr. Schneiderman 
would like to comment on the statistics 
that were used in evaluating those ex- 
periments. There is also a thirty-day 
feeding study which lasts a little bit 
longer than a single dose or a daily 
dosing. Sometimes this is modified by 
increasing the dose every week to the 
point of failure of the test system; ie., 
death of the animals. Perhaps Caroll 
Weil, who is in the audience and is quite 
familiar with the statistics commonly 
used in the field of toxicology might like 
to rise to that issue. 

Last night’s Washington-Star News 
[Mar. 6, 1974] carried in the women’s 
section a big front color spread on the 
nitrite question. Attention, of course, is 
being focused on nitrites in our food. 
Two or three times during our discus- 
sions yesterday and today we have had 
some rather vague, but nevertheless 
real, suggestions that the oxides of 
nitrogen which are inhaled might ulti- 
mately react with some of the body 
proteins or amino acids to form these 
nitroso amines which are of concern in 


124 


our diet, particularly those meat prod- 
ucts which are preserved with nitrite. 
Congress has established a system for 
protecting the public health based upon 
routes by which toxicants enter our 


bodies. For example, FDA controls 


what we eat, EPA administers one law 
controlling the air we breathe and 
another controlling our drinking water. 
The problem is that there are many 
substances, such as the nitrosamines, 
which enter our bodies by several of 
these routes. Dr. Finklea gave us the 
example of lead in his paper this 
morning. Yet, there is no concerted 
effort to correlate the controls of these 
multi-entry insults to our bodies. 

I would like the panel, particularly 
the statistician, to discuss how to tackle 
the nitrite problem. We know that the 
nitrosamines are formed in some foods 
containing nitrite, for which there is at 
present no substitute. We have been 
eating such foods for over a century and 
during that time some people have 
developed cancers. 


DR. SINGPURWALLA—I ap- 
preciate the complexity and the niag- 
nitude of the problem, but it is not 
something that I can answer in a minute. 


DR. HROMI—I think I can para- 
phrase what you said. One needs to 
understand what the long-range problem 
is before he can respond to it. That does 
appear to be a rather complex problem, 


and to try to respond on the spot is 
difficult. 


DR. BOX—I would like to return to 
a question raised some time ago in the 
discussion by Dr. Goldsmith concern- 
ing the relation between measured 
levels of pollutants and levels actually 
breathed. One thing that is clear is that 
the level measured may be far less 
reliable than people imagine. In the 
records that we have been analyzing, 
for example, dramatic changes in appar- 
ent pollution levels can be traced to 
changes in location of instruments and 
to changes in carrying out the details of 
the analysis. Because reproducibility at 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


a given station is high, one can easily be 
lulled into believing that a measurement 
is accurate. Cooperative studies are 
needed on a continuing basis to provide 
checks. 


DR. ROTKIN—I am here as an 
individual, so this comment is an ex- 
pression of purely personal prejudice. 
Dr. Hromi, I was happy to hear a paper 
that, instead of saying what factors 
should be considered, actually consid- 
ered them. 

I don’t think you should deplore 
adversary relations. Unless you con- 
sider them, this Symposium has an 
unreal air about it. Whenever you deal 
with problems on which people will 
either have to devote energy or spend 
money, it is unrealistic to seek the best 
solution from an overall humanitarian 
point of view. If someone must extend 
effort or some fortune to achieve this 
result, you can expect him to put up a 
fight to oppose it. And there is no use 
devising a nice procedure for helping 
humanity if you ignore the fact that you 
will get opposition—you might as well 
consider who will oppose you, and why, 
and what you can do about it. This 
implies adversary relations. 

Concerning the indignant remark 
about one of the early comments re- 
garding how long people will put up with 
this—will people have lost their pa- 
tience? One of the first clean water acts 
was passed during the 19th century. 
People got sick and tired of their water 
being made dirty by all kinds of pollu- 
tants. They lost their patience again 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


more recently when they began to find 
soapy foam in every stream and when 
several people near highways died of 
suffocation because of inversion. People 
lost their patience a long time ago— you 
don’t have to ask when they will lose it. 

It’s odd that when the government or 
some academic group wants to conduct 
experiments involving humans, people 
worry about the ethics. Nobody consid- 
ers the ethics when a manufacturer 
introduces a new hair spray that mil- 
lions of women will breathe. Nobody 
worries about these guinea pigs. Nor 
when someone introduces a new soft 
drink the label on which lists water as 
the only natural ingredient—everything 
else is one chemical or another. It is 
made to taste like raspberry juice, but 
there is no shred of raspberry in it. I’m 
sure you can think of many other 
examples. 

Now, my specific objection to your 
paper, Dr. Hromi. You objected to a 
ratio—you said that an arithmetic dif- 
ference might be a better way to look at 
it. I suggest that, especially when you 
deal with catalysts, you should consider 
the possibility that deterioration will 
increase as the level increases. Perhaps 
you should have, rather than a ratio, 
some kind of an exponential which 
would make matters worse for the com- 
pany rather than better. 


DR. HROMI—If this question- 
answer period is typical, perhaps our 
Symposium is achieving its purpose. 
Being adversaries in a friendly kind of 
atmosphere like this is helpful. Thank 
you. 


125 


Occupational Exposures —T hresholds? 


Introduction 
Bertram D. Dinman, MD 


Chairman, Committee on Toxicology, 
National Research Council 


This afternoon we address our con- 
cerns toward the area of occupational 
exposures; the title for this afternoon’s 
session is ‘‘Occupational Exposures— 
Thresholds?’ I have clearly taken a posi- 
tion in the past (1972) that there is sucha 
thing as a threshold; having taken that 
position, I presume later I will have to 
back it up. 

It might be useful to review previous 
history with regard to development of 
occupational standards—that is, stand- 
ards for control of the occupational en- 
vironment, in particular as relates to 
chemical agents. The first efforts were 
those of the National Academy of 
Sciences in the later ’20’s and early ’30’s, 
the set of volumes entitled ‘‘Critical 
Tables.’ These were rather rudimentary 
attempts to arrive at numbers to describe 
safe exposures. The next organized at- 
tempt was that of the USSR, which in the 
°30’s developed a series of maximum per- 
missible concentrations. This was fol- 
lowed in the U. S. to a limited extent by 
the Public Health Service during WW II 
which developed similar standards. But 
the first set of values in this country were 
largely, aside from the National Acad- 
emy effort, due to the ACGIH, which 
first promulgated a series of what were 
called, about 1947 or 1948, Maximum AI- 
lowable Concentrations. At the same 
time, the American Standards As- 
sociation through its Z-37 committee 
began the development of a number of 
standards. This activity persisted to some 
degree during the late °40’s and early 
’°50’s, then became quiescent. The 
ACGIH (American Conference of Gov- 
ernmental Industrial Hygienists), a non- 


126 


governmental, voluntary organization, 
has up to now developed a list of slightly 
less than 500 compounds for which a 
series of ‘“Threshold Limit Values’’ has 
been developed. This term has taken the 
place of the term ‘‘Maximal Allowable 
Concentrations.’’ The latter was re- 
placed since there was a problem with the 
connotation ‘‘allowable’’; ie., if you set 
a number and you said it was “‘al- 
lowable,’’ that implied one could be 
‘‘allowed’’ to build atmospheric concen- 
trations right up to that level. This ob- 
viously is not the intent of any of the 
standards that merely set an upper limit 
which it would be advisable to avoid 
wherever feasible. The term “*‘Maximal 
Allowable Concentration’’ still persists 
and is still used by several of the Euro- 
pean countries. It has been replaced 
largely in the United States by the term 
‘*Threshold Limit Values.’’ In the US for 

many years there were no Federal 
standards except those embodied in the 
Walsh-Healy Act and several Long- 
shoreman Acts; such standards were 
essentially adaptations of the ACGIH 
standards. This picture of course 
changed with the development of the pas- | 
sage of the Williams Steiger Bill—the 
Occupational Safety and Health Act of 
1970. As a result of this law NIOSH 
(National Institute for Occupational 
Safety and Health) develops documenta- 
tion for the Occupational Safety and 
Health Administration (OSHA) of the 
Department of Labor, which hopefully 
promulgates on the basis of these recom- 
mendations of NIOSH _ occupational 
standards. As of this date they have 
promulgated one permanent standard for 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


asbestos and (famous or infamous, de- 
pending upon your point of view) the 14 
standards dealing with the carcinogens. 
Except for these specific standards, 
promulgated by the Department of 
Labor, there are still standards based 
upon reference to the other consensus 
standards developed by ANSI, ACGIH, 
etc. Up until the time of the passage of the 
Occupational Safety and Health Act no 
ACGIH standards stated that the values 
promulgated are designed to protect 
‘‘most workers’’ (and I underline and 
quote ‘“‘most workers’’) during an 8-hour 
day, S-day week, 40-year working life. 
Now the Secretary of Labor is instructed 
by the Occupational Safety and Health 
Act to set standards ‘“‘such that no 
employee will suffer material impairment 
of health or functional capacity for the 
period of a working life.” 

For the sake of our discussion, and 
especially within this context of a con- 
cern with statistical approaches to these 
problems, the point of departure for my 
subsequent discussion will be largely the 
point of view taken by the ACGIH of 
protection of most workers, because if 
We are going to use as our point of 
departure ‘‘no effects upon no workers,”’ 
then we have no basis for further discus- 
sion. We might as well close this ses- 
sion and go home, because I don’t 
think there are many statistics associated 
with zero, although I undoubtedly will 
stand corrected. So, with your forebear- 
ance I will use as a point of departure 
the concept of ‘‘most workers pro- 
tected,’’ for on this basis we have room 
for discussion. By contrast, with all 
workers or nobody having any effects, 
there is not much room for discussion. 
__ The scientific premise inherent in these 
time variables—8-hours-on, 16-hours- 
off—assumes that during the 16-hours- 
off period there will be metabolic de- 
gradative processes which should render 
harmless the material in question. These 
degradative processes obviously consti- 
tute a multivariate system. One has 
Simultaneous enzymatic detoxification 
processes operating within certain rate 
limits, excretory activity within certain 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


rate limits, regeneration of enzymatic de- 
toxifications system within certain rate 
limits, and kinetic equilibria between cir- 
culating material and storage compart- 
ments. And, quite obviously, you have 
multiple variables subsumed by time and 
quantity considerations. Since each of 
these variables operate simultaneously, 
both independently and dependently, we 
are obviously dealing with a rather com- 
plex interaction. Of course there is 
another rather large and significant set of 
variables which assumes, since we are 
dealing with biological systems, that all of 
these biological functions occur in a 
population over some type of distribu- 
tion. The implications of this will become 
apparent as we go on. 

Those are some of the tips of the ice- 
bergs of scientific questions. Pragmati- 
cally, the fact is we don’t have handles on 
all of these mechanisms. If one considers 
the problem of multiplicity, we have 
literally tens of thousands of chemicals to 
consider without data available on a 
quantitative basis. So, pragmatically 
speaking, we use what data we have, 
hoping that by proper experimental and 
Statistical design we can integrate these 
variables in our output systems. And ob- 
viously here we have to turn to what, at 
the risk of being called a sexist, I will 
refer to as the handmaiden of the sciences 
—the statistical capabilities we are so 
fortunate to have. 

Turning to another major considera- 
tion—the concept that the standard will 
protect most workers. Here the statisti- 
cian and the toxicologist recognize an 
area for rather fruitful discussion. For 
instance, who are ‘‘most’’? Each of the 
previous degradative systems will be a 
dependent function to some extent on the 
biologically independent variables of age, 
sex, and race. The second question which 
might be asked is, ‘‘How many are 
most?’? What criteria do we apply 
when we say ‘“‘most people will be pro- 
tected?’’ Are we talking about persons 
who fall within one, two, or three stand- 
ard deviations? Or are we referring to 90, 
95, or 99% confidence limits? Obviously, 
these are questions that could be dis- 


127 


cussed. What I am getting to is the ques- 
tion of the distribution of coping with 
capabilities as these occur within a work- 
ing population. Now, where do we stand 
in this regard? Previously we assumed 
that most people working were by impli- 
cation healthy. But we know, for 
example, that most people over 35 years 
of age have latent coronary artery, 
atherosclerotic changes; to this extent 
they are not healthy. We do know those 
in the working population who have 
various other disease states, both latent 
and minimal. And these people will be at 
risk. Are these within the purview of 
most? We therefore perceive a problem 
here which has practical ramifications. 
One might consider, for instance, cost 
implications inherent in this process of 
standard setting. And each one of these 
considerations will have rather direct 
effects. In addition there are other prob- 
lems to which I would allude to rather 
briefly. For instance, chemicals rarely 
exist uniquely in a working or general en- 
vironment. Rather, they occur as an 
infinite mix of interactions— synergistic, 
antagonistic, additive—you name the 
effects. A second question that might be 
asked is what constitutes an effect or 
what constitutes toxicity? In this con- 
nection there is the position of Soviet 
science, which being heavily endowed 
with a Pavlovian point of view takes the 
position that an effect was any biologi- 
cal response that one could measure. 
By extension of the Pavlovian approach 
an effect was almost per se deleterious. 
(We have never been able to tie the Rus- 
sians down to why a response per se is 
deleterious.) So the question remains— 
does any biological response represent 
the exceeding of a threshold beyond the 
allowable? Is a biological response an ef- 
fect which must be prevented? I hope we 


128 


will get some discussion to that. I have 
taken the position in my article in Science 
(1972) that ‘‘effect’’ is a neutral word; at 
least it is so stated in our dictionaries. 
‘Effect’? does not necessarily imply a 
deleterious resolution of a set of events. 

These are briefly some of the problems 
inherent in this area of setting work place 
standards. I would hope this afternoon 
the panel and the members of this forum 
will bring these questions forward for dis- 
cussion. Our first speaker is Dr. Richard 
Henderson, who did his undergraduate 
and graduate work at MIT and has his 
Ph.D. in Biochemistry. He was on the 
staff of the Biology Department there be- 
fore WW II and during the war served as 
an Army Chemical Warfare Service offi- 
cer. He returned to MIT to complete his 
work for his doctorate and then joined the 
faculty of Syracuse University where he 
was Assistant Professor and Associate 
Professor of microbiology. Dr. Hender- 
son joined: Olin Mathison in 1955, where — 
he became manager of Environmental 
Hygiene services in 1962. He is presently 
Director of the Environmental Hygiene 
and Toxicology Department of Olin 
Matheson Corporation. In that capacity 
he is responsible for the planning of toxi- 
cological evaluation of new products 
and processes and for the control of 
exposure to chemicals, heat, noise, light, 
and ionizing radiation in Olin’s opera- 
tions. Dr. Henderson is a member of 
numerous professional societies and the 
author of many scientific and technical 
publications. I will ask Dr. Henderson to 
open the forum for this afternoon. 


Reference Cited 


Dinman, B. D. 1972. ““Non-concept” of “‘no- 
threshold’’: Chemicals in the environment. 
Science 175: 495. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Thresholds for Control of Potential Hazards 
in Occupational Environments 


Richard Henderson, Ph.D. 


Director, Environmental Hygiene & Toxicology Department, 
Olin Corporation, 275 Winchester Ave., New Haven, Conn. 06511 


The goal of an environmental hygiene- 
occupational medical program should be 
to assist individuals in the maintenance of 
their health. The following will concen- 
trate on some aspects of evaluation and 
control of potential hazards in work en- 
vironments. Before starting on the oc- 
cupational factors of importance to 
health, one fact should be emphasized. 

A review of the record of visits to the 
medical departments in industrial plants 
shows that only approximately 20% of the 
visits are for treatment of illness or injury 
directly related to potential hazards of the 
work environment. Headaches and upset 
stomachs that result from poor interper- 
sonal relations with a fellow worker or 
foreman should not be considered ill- 
nesses related to potential hazards 
inherent in the work environment. There 
may be many more visits for such ill- 
nesses than from exposure to a chemical 
or physical agent. Such illness does need 
to be treated and the causes recognized 
and minimized both for maintenance of 
health and for efficient operations. 

Another source of data on occupa- 
tional versus non-occupational illness 
and injury is the record of non-occupa- 
tional group sickness and disability and 
Workmen’s (or should it be Workper- 
son’s) Compensation insurance costs. A 
- number of industrial operations employ a 
sufficient number of people to obtain a 
rating different than the general popula- 
tion for non-occupational group sickness 
and disability insurance. The medical 
costs for a broken leg in a skiing accident 
should be about the same as a comparable 
broken leg from an industrial accident. 
There will be Workperson’s Compensa- 
tion payments while unable to work and 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


there may be payment for residual dis- 
ability in the case of the broken leg from 
an industrial accident. A review of the 
costs of non-occupational sickness and 
disability insurance and Workperson’s 
Compensation insurance, both experi- 
ence rated, has shown that the Work- 
person’s Compensation cost is 15-20% 
of the total and non-occupational group is 
80 to 85%. Another review has shown 
876 days lost for on-job accidents and 
6,022 days lost for off-job accidents 
(Baldwin, 1973). 

We concentrate on the minor portion of 
the total health maintenance problem 
when we concentrate on occupational 
causes of sickness and disability. It 
should be much easier to measure and 
control potential hazards from a few 
chemical and physical hazards on a 
specific job than it is to measure and 
control the myriad potential hazards to 
which an individual is exposed off the 
job. Before we can control the potential 
hazards, we should know what they are 
and how to measure them. 

Paracelsus wrote 450 years ago “‘dosis 
sola facet venenum,’’ dose alone makes a 
poison. In terms of environmental 
hygiene, the rate of dosing alone changes 
a potential hazard to a hazard. There- 
fore, we must know what rate of dos- 
ing can be handled by the human body 
without injury. The emphasis is on rate 
because we are dealing with the dynamic 
system of intake-detoxication-excretion. 

The Threshold Limit Values of the 
American Conference of Governmental 
Industrial Hygienists and the allowable 
limits of exposure established by the 
Occupational Safety and Health Ad- 
ministration for chemical substances are 


129 


expressed as concentrations, not as rates, 
for less than a work day. The rate of 
systemic dosing can be calculated from 
the concentration in air if the breathing 
rate and rates of absorption through the 
lungs are known. There is some informa- 
tion on some chemicals relative to rates of 
absorption through the lungs but cer- 
tainly not enough to specify the range of 
rates of absorption over the range of tem- 
peratures, work loads, concentrations of 
the chemical and individual variations en- 
countered in industry. Approximately 20 
percent of the mercury vapor in a single 
inhalation is present in the exhaled air ofa 
person who has not imbibed. But after 
a couple of beers, approximately 50% 
of the inhaled vapor appears in the ex- 
haled air. How many other intakes of 
foods, beverages or drugs can cause 
similar alterations in absorption of in- 
haled chemicals? 

We have some measure of the limits 
of rates of caloric utilization and hence 
of oxygen utilization and breathing rates. 
Minimum recommended daily caloric 
requirements of a sedentary male are 
approximately 2500 calories per day. The 
maximum caloric expenditure from con- 
tinuous hard work is approximately 6000 
calories per day. If 1500 of the calories 
in both cases are expended in the 16 hours 
off work, then the variation in calories 
expended in work may range from 1000 
to 4500 for the 8-hour work day. Does the 
person breathing at a rate to expend 
4500 calories have 4.5 times the exposure 
of a person breathing at a rate to 
expend only 1000 calories in an 8-hour 
work day? Or does the rate of absorption 
change as the breathing rate changes? 

The fact that 20% of inhaled mercury 
vapor is present in exhaled air has been 
mentioned. If a person takes one 
breath of air containing 0.5 mg/m? of 
mercury vapor, the exhaled air should 
contain 0.1 mg/m? of mercury vapor. If 
this is followed by an inhalation of air 
containing 0.1 mg/m? of mercury, is any 
of this mercury absorbed, does it con- 
stitute a systemic dose? If a person 
alternately breathes 0.5 mg/m? and 0.1 
mg/m? of mercury vapor in uniform 


130 


breath volume at uniform rate for an 8- 
hour work day, is the effective exposure 
2 mg hours/m? or is it 2.4 mg hours/m?? 
Assuming we determine the effective 
exposure, i.e. what fraction of the 
exposure is absorbed, this may not be the 
effective systemic dose. Once absorbed, 
a chemical may undergo changes and the 
rate of change may be the limiting factor 
in controlling the potential hazard. The 
chemical that is dosed and its metabolites 
may have different effects on different 
organs. 

The brain is considered the critical or- 
gan for mercury vapor and the kidney the 
target organ for ionic salts cf mercury. 
Animals given a dose of elemental 
mercury accumulated approximately 10 
times as much mercury in the brain as 
animals given an equal dose of an in- 
organic salt of mercury. This is true for 
both intravenous and inhalation dosing— 
at the rates of dosing used in the experi- 
ments (Magos, 1967; Rabinovitz, 1972; 
Viola and Cassano, 1968). 

The rate of oxidation of elemental 
mercury in blood has been studied 
(Clarkson, et al., 1961). It is logical to 
assume that there is a rate of oxidation 
such that elemental mercury absorbed 
through the lungs is oxidized to ionic 
mercury before it gets to the brain. 
Elemental mercury vapor dosed at this 
rate would have the potential hazard of an 
inorganic salt of mercury for the brain. 

If some of the mercury absorbed from 
inhalation of one breath of air containing 
0.5 mg/m? of elemental mercury vapor 
travels from the lungs to the brain without 
oxidation but none of the mercury 
absorbed from inhalation of one breath of 
air containing 0.1 mg/m? of elemental 
mercury vapor travels from the lungs 
to the brain without oxidation, the two 
exposures can have a tenfold difference 
in potential hazard for damage to the 
critical organ, the brain. Is there a 10-fold 
difference in brain loading from 10 
minutes exposure to 0.6 mg/m? of 
elemental mercury vapor plus 50 minutes 
of no exposure compared with 60 minutes 
exposure to 0.1 mg/m? of elemental 
mercury vapor? There are some data to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


TABLE I.—Summary Tissue Analyses (from Smith, 1967). 


Hg Concentration, ug/g (Dry Weight) 


Control 0.1 mg/m? 0.5 mg/m? 1.0 mg/m? 
Kidney 23 130 428 930 
Brain 
Medulla 0.1 0.2 24 bi 
Cerebellum 0.4 0.6 11 64 
Occipital 0.2 0.4 15 84 
Frontal 0.3 0.6 12 87 


indicate that the brain loading of mer- 
cury is not proportional to dose but that 


the kidney loading is proportional in- 


monkeys (Smith, 1971). 

Kidney function tests showed no im- 
pairment of kidney function in any of the 
test groups. The monkeys exposed to 1.0 
mg/m? did exhibit signs of neurological 
effects—shyness, irritability—in the 
first months of the exposure but appeared 
to adapt with time. 

Once absorbed and distributed, mer- 
cury leaves the body via urine, feces, 
sweat, hair, nails and expired air. Values 
for urinary, fecal and biliary mercury of 
monkeys exposed to 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 
mg/m? of elemental mercury vapor are 
shown in Table II. 

The extremely high fecal mercury 
values for the 1.0 mg/m* exposure group 
may be the result of ingestion of mercury 
during grooming; mercury condensed on 
fur at this dose. 

Urinary mercury is used as a guide 
in evaluating and controlling exposure to 
mercury in work environments. On a 
group average basis, urinary mercury has 


_ TABLE II.— Urinary, Fecal, and Biliary Mer- 
cury Concentrations (from Smith, 1967). 


Urine Feces Bile 

Group mg/l] mg/kg mg/l 
Control 0.03 0.36 0.12 
0.1 mg/m? 0.06 0.58 0.72 
0.5 mg/m? 0.17 1.56 3573 
1.0 mg/m? 1.45 54.8 14.50 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


been found to correlate with estimated 
time-weighted average workday expo- 
sure. Fig. | illustrates the relation. From 
this plot it can be determined that 0.15 
mg/l of mercury in urine corresponds to 
an estimated time-weighted average 
workday exposure of 0.05 mg/m’. On the 
basis of this, some persons have sug- 


1.00 


URINE Hg/mg/I 
uncorrected for S.G. 


0.05 0.10 
Hg AIR LEVELS (mg/m3) Time — weighted averages 


0.15 0.20 0.25 0.30 0.35 


Fig. 1.—Concentrations of mercury in urine 
(uncorrected for specific gravity) in relation to 
time-weighted average exposure levels (from 
Smith, et al., 1970). 


gested that there should be a limit of 
0.15 mg/l for urinary mercury. It can be 
seen from Table III that a limit of 0.15 
mg/l for urinary mercury would fail to 
detect over 60% of persons exposed to 
more than an estimated time-weighted 
average 0.05 mg/m? of mercury vapor for 
the workday. It would also errone- 
ously detect as excessively exposed a 
significant fraction of persons not ac- 
tually overexposed. 

Another possible error in assessing 
potential hazard-on the basis of urinary 
mercury is the possibility of equal urinary 
mercury concentration from equal doses 


131 


TABLE III.—Relationship of Mercury Exposure to Mercury Levels in Urine 
Uncorrected for Specific Gravity (expressed as percentage of each exposure level 
group within designated ranges of urine mercury levels) (from Smith et al., 1970). 


TWA 
Exposure 
Level 
Groups Number of 
(mg/m?) Workers <0.01 
Controls 0.00 142 35-2 
<0.01 29 6.9 
0.01-—0.05 188 6.9 
0.06-0.10 91 0 
0.11-0.14 60 Ses 
0.24-—0.27 27 0 


of ionic and elemental mercury that are 
not equal in potential hazard. There also 
is the possibility that the numerically 
equivalent exposures of 0.6 mg/m? for 
10 minutes and 0.1 mg/m? for 1 hour 
will yield essentially the same urinary 
mercury values but, as indicated pre- 
viously, may have different potential for 
damage. | 

The preceding has outlined some of the 
possible biological factors that can lead 
to erroneous assessment of potential 
hazards. Another factor that can cause 
error is the actual measurement of ex- 
posure. The micro-environment around 
a worker may have a different concen- 
tration of mercury vapor than the general 
work environment. This is shown in 
Table IV. Most published work on 
effects of exposure to mercury have 
based estimates of exposure on measure- 
ments in the general work environment. 
This can grossly underestimate actual 
exposure. Also, it is possible to 
have exposure continue beyond the 
workday from mercury on the body and 
clothing. 

Hippocrates observed that excessive 
exposure to mercury appeared to be 
related to certain disorders of certain 
workers. Approximately 2400 years 
later we have a rough estimate of what 
the limit of exposure can be without 
damage. There is disagreement regarding 
the need for a greater margin of safety 


132 


Percentage of Group Within Urine Level Range 


(mg/liter) 

.01-.10 .11-.30 .31-.60 .61-1.0 >1.00 
62.7 pis) 0 0 0 
86.2 6.9 0 0 0 
66.0 24.5 Qui 0 0 
62.6 30.8 6.6 0 0 
18.3 S17 16.7 23.3 6.7 
14.8 29.6 44.5 7.4 39] 


than that provided by 0.1 mg/m?. Is the 
benefit to be derived from the increased 
margin of safety of a limit of 0.05 mg/m? 
worth the cost of decreasing the limit? 
The effects of mercury, regardless of 
form, are systemic. Another example of a 
Threshold that does not appear to be 
based on mode of toxic action of the 
compound is the Threshold for phosgene. 
The effects of exposure to phosgene 
appear to be solely on the surface layers 
of the lungs without direct effect on other 
organs. There are effects from loss of 
fluid into the alveolar spaces of the lungs 
but the fluid and electrolyte imbalance 
is not sufficient to cause death. The 
present allowable limit for exposure to 
phosgene is 0.1 ppm. Several years ago 
the Threshold Limit Value Committee of 
the American Conference of Govern- 
mental Industrial Hygienists recom- 
mended that there should be a ceiling 
but that recommendation was withdrawn. 
The Occupational Safety and Health Ad- 
ministration limit is also 0.1 ppm. The 
American Conference of Governmental 
Industrial Hygienists recommends limit- 
ing excursions to 3 x the Threshold Limit 
Value for periods not to exceed 1556 
minutes. The OSHA limit does not 
specify what range of excursion may be 
permitted for phosgene other than that 
the 8-hour average shall not exceed 0.1 
ppm. The total exposure would be 48 ppm 
minutes/m? for 8 hours at 0.1 ppm. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


TABLE IV.—Mercury Vapor Concentrations in Air Near Contaminated Clothing 


and Skin. 


October 24—26, 1972 


Locker Room 


General Room Atmosphere 


Air Near 


Mg Mercury/ 
Cubic Meter of Air 


0.03-0.04 


1. Outer clothing furnished by company and laundered daily; 


worn one shift before measurements 
. Gloves 
. Hands (before washing) 
. Clean Hands (washed) 


Nn ra F-_ W WN 


. Rubber Coated Shoes (inside) 


(outside) 


. Sweater (employee in mercury recovery area) 


0.1 -0.2 
0.08-0.2 
0.5 —0.6 
0.04-0.08 
0.2 -0.5 
0.02-0.05 
0.10-0.5 


7. Cotton undershirt worn approximately 6 hours in cell room. 
5 Person had no known contact of outer clothing with liquid 


mercury nor salts of mercury 


8. Cell Room, breathing height— October 


— November 


A person is unlikely to breathe 48 ppm 
of phosgene for 1 minute, an equivalent 
exposure. This concentration is im- 
mediately severely irritating to the 
respiratory tract. A person might breathe 
5 ppm for 1 minute and repeat this each 
hour for 8 hours; a total exposure of 
40 ppm minutes/m?. Such an exposure 
might cause damage. Certainly under the 
standard operating procedures used by 
phosgene manufacturers, the person who 
breathed 5 ppm for 1 minute would be un- 
likely to repeat it the next hour; he or she 
would be in the medical department 
under observation. 

There are sampling and analytical 
methods that can detect 0.1 ppm of 
phosgene in a small volume of air. Air 
is drawn through a chemically impreg- 
nated filter paper. The colored reaction 
product on the filter paper can be ex- 
tracted in chloroform and quantitated 
colorimetrically. By changing filter pa- 
pers every few minutes, it would be pos- 
sible to determine short-term peak ex- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


0.01 
0.06-—0.116 
0.02-0.08 


posures. The infrequent peak exposures 
may be more important than the uniform 
low level exposure relative to long-term 
effects of exposure to phosgene. Phos- 
gene producers are planning a long- 
term study to try to improve our 
knowledge of the effects of exposure to 
phosgene. 

The problem of evaluating long-term 
effects of low level exposure to tolylene 
diisocyanate are similar to those for phos- 
gene with one exception. The allowable 
limit for tolylene diisocyanate is 0.02 ppm 
and we do not have sampling and 
analytical procedures to tell us whether 
an exposure is 0.2 ppm for 1 minute or 
0.02 ppm for 10 minutes. In terms of 
potential hazard, these two exposures are 
probably different. 

Congress provided enough ‘‘weasel 
words’’ in Section 6(b)(5) of the Oc- 
cupational Safety and Health Act to 
make it possible for the Secretary of 
Labor to comply with the Act in setting 


standards. The Secretary ‘‘shall set the 


133 


standard which most adequately assures, 
to the extent feasible, on the basis of the 
best available evidence, that no employee 
will suffer material impairment of 
health or functional capacity even if 
such employee has regular exposure to 
the hazard dealt with by such standard for 
the period of his working life.”’ 

No matter how much data we collect 
and how thoroughly we apply statistical 
methods to the evaluation of the data, the 
only really meaningful datum to the 
individual employee is which part of the 
LD:, or effective doses) or other measure 
she or he is in. The ultimate decision of 
whether a potential hazard is being 
adequately controlled is determined by 
careful periodic medical evaluation of 
each individual. The Occupational Safety 
and Health Act provides for the granting 
of a variance when the preponderance of 
evidence shows that the ‘‘conditions, 
practices, means, methods, operations, 
or processes used or proposed to be used 
by an employer will provide employment 
and places of employment to his 
employees which are as safe and healthful 
as those which would prevail if he com- 
‘plied with the standard.’’ If a plant has 
been operating unchanged for 100 years, 
the average length of employment has 
been 45 years and all retired employees 
have died when over 90 years of age as 
the result of automobile accidents that 
occurred on the way home from their 


134 


daily 2 hours of tennis, that would 
probably be acceptable as a prepon- 
derance of evidence that the work 
environment of the plant was as health- 
ful as it would be if an OSHA standard 


Was met. 


References Cited 


Baldwin, Doris. 1973. Safety and Health: Grounds 
for Competition. A Coffee Company’s Multi- 
Plant Contest Combines Some Unusual Ingre- 
dients to Lower Worker Injury Rate. Job 
Safety and Health, 1: 18 (December 1973) United 
States Department of Labor, Occupational 
Safety and Health Administration. 

Clarkson, T. W., Gatzy, J., and Dalton, C. 1961. 
Studies on Equilibrium of Mercury Vapor in 

- Blood. Division of Radiation Chemistry and 
Toxicology, University of Rochester Atom. 
Ener. Project, Rochester, N.Y. U.R. 582. 

Magos, L. 1967. Mercury-blood interaction and 
mercury uptake by the brain after vapor expo- 
sure. Environ. Res. 1: 323. 

Rabinovitz, S. H. 1972. The uptake of mercury 
in the brain of gerbils chronically exposed to 
mercury vapor and to mercuric nitrate. Thesis 
for Doctor of Philosophy, Wayne State Uni- 
versity. 

Smith, R. G. 1971. The Effects of Chronic Expo- 
sure to Mercury Vapor. Presented at the 1971 
American Industrial Hygiene Association Con- 
ference, Toronto, Canada, May. 

Smith, R. G., Vorwald, A. J., Patil, L. S., and 
Mooney, T. F., Jr. 1970. Effects of exposure 
to mercury in the manufacture of chlorine. 
Amer. Ind. Hyg. Assn. J. 31, Nov.-Dec. 

Viola, P., and Cassano, G. B. 1968. Effect of 
chlorine on mercury vapor intoxication. Auto- 
radiographic study. Med. Lav. 59(6—7): 437-— 
44, 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Study of Long-Latent Disease 


In Industrial Populations 


J. William Lloyd 


Health Surveillance and Biometrics, National Institute for Occupational Safety 
_ and Health, 5600 Fishers Lane, Rm 3-32, Rockville, Md. 20852 


We all recognize that our decisions 
concerning the control of environmental 
pollutants must frequently be based on 
incomplete information and imperfect 
measurement of exposure to toxic 
agents and of disease response. This is 
especially true in the case of diseases 
that appear many years after exposure 
to the toxic agent. Because lack of 
sufficiently detailed information may 
lead to misinterpretation regarding 
causal relationships, it is important to 
consider some of the pitfalls in the study 
of these diseases. 

The material I am presenting here 
was prepared primarily to demonstrate 
how we identify occupational groups at 
excess risk of long-latent disease and 
how evidence is developed on cause- 
effect relationships. At the same time, 
because I am particularly concerned 
with the possible misinterpretation of 
epidemiological findings, I have tried to 
emphasize some basic principles that 
are frequently ignored and which may 
lead to erroneous conclusions of a cause 
and effect relationship or the lack of a 
cause and effect relationship. 

The first point I should like to make is 
that in studying the relationship be- 
tween occupational exposure and disease 
that appears many years after exposure, 
we are immediately limited as to the 
population groups to be studied, the way 
in which exposure can be characterized, 
and the disease entities to be studied. 
Thus, the study of currently employed 
industrial populations would be inap- 
propriate for identifying effects related 
to exposures many years in the past, 
unless the turnover of the work force 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


was extremely low. The obvious answer 
to this problem is to identify populations 
that have been employed in specific 
occupations many years in the past and 
to undertake a prospective study in 
retrospect of their disease experience. 
This we have been able to do in a 
number of industrial situations, includ- 
ing the one which I shall describe 
shortly. Unfortunately, such an ap- 
proach imposes severe limitations on 
our measurement of disease response. 
For most industrial populations, infor- 
mation on the early stages of disease 
is available only for the currently 
employed survivors. Consequently, our 
studies of long-term disease are usually 
restricted to an analysis of mortality 
patterns, and as a further consequence 
must be limited to the fatal diseases in 
which we might expect that mortality 
provides a good index of disease inci- 
dence. 

The population chosen for study con- 
sisted of 59,000 steelworkers employed 
at 7 plants of 3 major steel firms in 
Allegheny County, Pennsylvania in 
1953. Employment records on these 
men were recovered in 1962 and 
follow-up was initiated to determine 
vital status through 1961. As shown in 
Fig. 1, only 32,263 of the original study 
population had continued employment 
into 1962. It is thus seen that a study of 
current employees to determine the re- 
lationship between health status and 
prior exposures of the study cohort 
would exclude almost one half of the 
exposed population. 

Thirteen percent of the study cohort 
had retired during the observation 


135 


59,072 


DIED, WHILE 
EMPLOYED 
1,839 


RETIRED 
7 ,842 


97 


POPULATION 
EMPLOYED 1953 


CONTINUED 
EMPLOYMENT 
32,263 


LOST TO 
FOLLOW UP 


LEFT 
EMPLOYMENT 
17,128 


29.0% 


Fig. 1.— Followup of Allegheny County steelworkers population showing initial employment status 


and vital status at end of study. 


period and the 1,500 deaths within this 
group could be identified by reference to 
company records. Another 3% of 
employees had died between 1953 and 
1962 while employed. A frequently used 
approach to the study of industrial 
mortality is to relate these deaths to the 
average employment level during the 
period of study or to contrast the pro- 
portionate mortality due to specific 
causes among retirees with some stand- 
ard group. Again, it should be noted 
that if we are concerned with relating 
disease response to prior exposures, we 
would be ignoring the experience of the 
17,000 men who had left employment, 
and whose vital status could not be 
determined by reference to employer 
records. Extensive follow-up of those 
who had left employment showed that 
8% of this group had expired before 
1962, about the same level of mortality 
as seen for the total cohort. However, 
when we recognize that the population 
and deaths which could be followed 
through reference to employer records 
are heavily loaded with retirees in the 
older ages, it is seen that the total 
mortality rate for those who left 


136 


employment is actually higher than for 
those who remained. As seen in the box 
at the bottom of Fig. 1, vital status was 
eventually determined for all but 97, or 
0.2%, of the original study cohort. 

A further consideration in deciding 
whether records available to the 
employer might be appropriate for the 
study of work related mortality, is 
whether these records reflect the same 
distribution of cause-specific mortality 
as would be seen in the original cohort. 
The figures displayed in Table 1 further 
emphasize the limitation of studies 
based on these records. Here it is seen 
that there is considerable variation in 
the percentage of deaths identifiable by 
employer records according to specific 
cause of death. As might be expected a 
large part of deaths from diseases of the 
nervous system and the circulatory sys- 
tem can be identified by employer rec- 
ords because of the high mortality from 
heart disease and from strokes among 
the retirees and men with long service. 
On the other hand, almost 45% of 
deaths due to malignant neoplasms were 
unknown to the employer. Even within 
the malignant neoplasms there is con- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Table 1.—Number of deaths from selected causes by employment status at death and knowledge of 
employer (Allegheny County steelworkers, 1953-1961). 


International Unknown 


List Total Known to Employer To Percent 
Cause of Death Number Deaths At Work Retired Employer Unknown 
All Causes (001-999) 4,716 1,839 1,496 1,381 29.3 
Malignant neoplasms, all sites (140-205) ] ,008 212 346 450 44.6 
Lung and Bronchus (162-163) 295 68 87 140 47.5 
Prostate (t277)) 56 7 36 13 CBN 
Brain and other nervous system (193) 28 3 3 22 78.6 
Diseases of nervous system and 
sense organs (330-398) 382 136 174 72 18.8 
Diseases of circulatory system (400-468 ) 2,001 905 672 424 21.2 
Arteriosclerotic heart disease, 
including coronary (420-422) 1,680 792 543 345 20.5 
Diseases of respiratory system (470-527) 165 57 55 53 32m 
Diseases of digestive system (530-587 ) 267 109 74 84 S15 
Accidents (800-965) 356 208 39 109 30.6 


siderable variation in the percentage of 
deaths unknown to the employer, rang- 
ing from 23% for cancer of the prostate, 
a group which is heavily loaded with 
retirees, to 78.6% of deaths from malig- 
nancies of the brain and central nervous 
system. It is thus seen that the mortality 
studies based on employer records must 
be interpreted with caution unless we 
can be assured of an extremely low 
turnover of personnel. 

The next important factor to consider 
in the study of occupational disease is 
the choice of a control or comparison 
group. I think you would find general 
agreement in the field of occupational 
studies that there is no such thing as the 
‘“‘ideal’’ control population with which 
to compare our industrial populations. 
Usually it is a question of which of 
several comparison groups is the least 
biased, and in many cases the only 
available data for contrast is that for the 
general population. As a consequence, 
we continue to see reports in the occu- 
pational health literature of unusually 
low mortality for certain industrial 
groups contrasted with the general 
population, with the implication that no 
health hazards exist. However, when 
we consider that for many industrial 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


populations a certain level of good 
health is required for employment and 
continuing good health is required for 
continued employment, this is exactly 
the pattern we would expect to see. As 
shown in Table 2 this is what we did 
observe for the steelworker population 
in contrast with the general population 
of Allegheny County. From 1953 
through 1961 we observed 4,716 deaths 
in steelworkers where we would have 
expected to see 5,767. The same pattern 
is observed for each of the specific 
causes of death with the exception of 
accidents. This is not surprising, since 
we would expect more accidents in an 
industrial population. The extent to 
which such comparisons might lead to 
erroneous conclusions is also seen to 
vary both by cause and by race. For 
example, mortality from the infectious 
and parasitic diseases is less than 40% 
of expectation, whereas mortality from 
the malignant neoplasms in steelwork- 
ers is about 90% of expectation. It is 
also seen that the deficit in mortality is 
considerably greater for the non-white 
workers than for white, mortality for the 
former group being only 64% of expec- 
tation. Particularly striking is the 53% 
deficit for vascular lesions affecting the 


137 


Table 2.— Observed and expected deaths from selected causes by race (Allegheny County Steelworkers, 


1953-1961). 
Lact Total 

Cause of Death Number 
All Causes 4716 
Infective and parasitic diseases 001-138 65 
Malignant neoplasms 140-205 1008 
Vascular lesions affecting C.N.S. 330-334 365 
Heart disease 400-443 1996 

Arteriosclerotic and deg. 

heart disease 420-422 1680 
Other heart disease (400-416) 226 
(430-443) 

Diseases of respiratory system 470-527 165 
Accidents 800-962 356 
Homicide and suicide (963-964) 118 


(970-985) 


All other causes Residual 733 


Observed Expected 


White 
Observed Expected 


Nonwhite 
Observed Expected 


5766.8 4083 4773.5 633 89354 
166.9 39 94.7 26 72.2 
1091.4 861 929.0 147 162.4 
464.3 310 359.8 55 104.5 
2311.3 1721 2012.5 185 298.8 
2002.9 1537 1773.4 143 229.5 
308.4 184 239.1 42 69.3 
237.6 136 178.4 (ae 59.2 
311.8 302 252.6 54 D9.2 
138.7 94 100.7 24 38.0 
1044.8 620° 845.8 113 199.0 


*Expected deaths calculated by applying age, race and calendar year specific rates of the study county to steelworker 


person years at risk. 


central nervous system observed for 
non-white steelworkers. 

For study of specific occupational 
groups within the steel industry, we 
have used the total steelworker popula- 
tion as the control group. This is, of 
course, preferable to comparison with 
the general population in that it over- 
comes selection related to employabil- 
ity. At the same time, it should be 
recognized that other selective factors 
may be operating. Principal among 
these is selection for health which may 
be expected to occur within specific 
work areas. Thus for certain occupa- 
tions that are very demanding and re- 
quire good health for initial and con- 
tinued employment, the less healthy 
individual would be expected to choose 
work in other areas or, by company 
policy, be assigned to less demanding 
areas when ill health develops. Con- 
sequently, certain work areas may show 
marked deficits or excesses in mortality 
unrelated to exposure in the occupa- 
tional environment. 

Another important and frequently 
overlooked factor to be considered is 
that striking differences in mortality 
may be expected by chance alone when 
we make many comparisons. This is 
seen in Table 3 which displays some of 
the comparisons for men employed in 


138 . 


1953 in each of 53 work areas within the 
steel industry. Although such a division 
is not unexpected, it should be noted 
that almost half of the work areas show 
a lower mortality rate than expected (28 
above and 25 below). Because of con- 
cern with potential hazards in the occu- 
pational environment, many studies of 
occupationally related disease have 
been directed at the identification of 
employed groups showing excess dis- 
ease, and deficits have been mostly 
ignored. However, deficits in mortality 
may indicate the selection of more 
healthy individuals into certain work 
areas and, as a possible consequence, 
the assignment of less healthy individuals 
to other areas. For that reason, an 
evaluation of the relationship between 
the area of employment and consequent 
mortality must include an assessment of 
both excesses and deficits. We note in 
Table 3 that significant excesses in total 
mortality were seen for janitors and men 
working in the machine shop, while a 
significant deficit in mortality is noted 
for men working in the carpenter shop. 
The excess for janitors was predictable, 
and is not related to occupational expo- 
sures. Rather, the high mortality for this 
group is due to assignment of workers 
from other areas because of ill health. 
We should also note in Table 3 that the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Table 3.— Number employed in 1953, observed and expected deaths from all causes and standardized 
mortality ratios by work area (Allegheny County steelworkers, 1953-1961). 


Number Observed Expected 

Work Area Employed Deaths Deaths SMR! 
All steelworkers 58 ,828 4,685 4,685.0 100 
Annealing normalizing peley 121 109.2 111 
Batch pick]. - sheet dry. 76 6 5.8 103 
Billet bloom & slab 3,136 290 ra es 105 
Blacksmith shop 271 26 28.2 92 
Blast furnace 3,455 244 265.6 92 
Carpenter shop 406 29 40.9 Te 
Coating 332 19 23.4 8] 
Coke plant (SSRs 206 198.9 104 
Cont. pick]. & elec. clean. 205 be 9.8 122 
Cold reducing mills 1,499 100 87.1 115 
Electric main. assg. 1,616 118 T2723 93 
Electric furnace 742 46 43.8 105 
Electric shop 561 39 49.5 79 
Foundry 1,143 90 101.1 89 
Gen. admin. & clerical 3,02 224 240.8 93 
Gen. finish & ship. 473 38 40.2 95 
Gen. receiv. & stores 196 17 19.0 89 
Gen. technical PaaS tz3 130.1 95 
General labor 969 84 78.4 107 
Heat treat. & forging TOTS 75 76,4 96 
Hot pack mills 572 55 66.6 83 
Hot strip mill 161 19 17.0 Laz 
Hot strip rolling 1,014 63 73.9 85 
Janitors 521 113 84.5 134** 
Loco & car repair 129 1] bk? 94 
Machine shop 1,450 151 130.2 116* 


Observed deaths 


] = 
oe Expected deaths 


X 100 


Significance based on summary chi-square with 1 degree of freedom. 


* 5% level 
** 1% level 


mortality for coke plant workers, which 
will be discussed in detail, appears to be 
little different from that of other steel- 
workers. 

One of the most serious deficiencies 
in the study of long-term disease is that 
we only rarely have access to measure- 
ment data which depict the extent of 
exposure to specific toxic agents in the 
work place. In the present study, for 
example, degree of exposure could only 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


be characterized in terms of length of 
employment within specified work areas 
and in a few cases by reference to 
recent measurements within smaller 
sub-divisions in these work areas. As 
crude as these measures are, we would 
expect that they would reflect any 
dose-response relationship unless there 
was a rapid turnover of the work force 
due to early removal of “‘more sensi- 
tive’’ individuals. An example is shown 


139 


in Table 4 where we have noted the 
work areas which show a significant 
excess or deficit in total mortality for 
persons employed five or more years in 
each work area. Here it is seen that 


significant differences in mortality have 


been noted for several of the work areas 
which were not noted in Table 3. An 
interesting observation, for which 
figures are not shown in Table 3, is the 
25% excess in total mortality for white 
steelworkers employed as _ general 
laborers. White steelworkers employed 
in this area in 1953 showed a slight 
deficit in mortality during the study 
period. This suggests that the inclusion 
of many short-term employees may 
have masked important differences. We 
also notice in Table 4 that the total 
mortality experience of white and non- 
white workers employed at the coke 
plant for 5 years is quite different. While 
the non-whites show a 22% excess in 
total mortality, the experience for the 
white workers is about as expected. 
Another problem in limiting our 
analysis to persons employed in a single 
year, such as 1953, is that persons 


suffering ill health may migrate to other 
work areas. Consequently, we may 
draw erroneous conclusions about 
health status from our observation of 
the more healthy survivors. To illustrate 
how extensive this problem might be, 
we show in Table 5 the distribution of 
workers employed in the 2 major sub- 
divisions of the coke plant in 1953 and 
in prior years. This subdivision into 
coke oven and non-oven areas was 
based on previous information which 
suggested that excess mortality of coke 
plant workers might be associated with 
exposure to coke oven effluent. Of the 
59,000 steelworkers employed in 1953, 
2,552 were working in the coke plant. 
However, an additional 978 men 
employed in other areas in 1953 had 
been employed at the coke plant in 
some prior year. Thus, limiting the 
study to those employed in 1953 would 
exclude 28% of mean with prior coke 
plant exposure. It is also seen that the 
distribution of white and non-white 
workers is considerably different for 
oven and non-oven areas, and that the 
proportion of coke oven workers 


Table 4.—Persons years at risk, observed and expected deaths from all causes and standardized 
mortality ratios for men employed at least 5 years in specified work areas (Allegheny County steelworkers, 


1953-1961). 
Work Area Race Person Years at Risk Observed Deaths Expected Deaths SMR 
Batch pickling-sheet drying Total 525 18 9.9 182* 
Carpenter Total 2,963 30 44.4 68* 
Coke Plant White 11,549 130 130.8 99 
Nonwhite 6,509 96 F ize 
Cold reducing mills White 8,204 7] 70.7 100 
Nonwhite 593 14 6.3 222%* 
General finish. and ship. White 4,385 69 64.4 107 
Nonwhite 1,041 8 16.9 47* 
General labor White 4,989 102 81.6 T25* 
Nonwhite 3,636 49 46.1 106 
Janitors White Usihiv7s 54 34.5 157 ** 
Nonwhite 2,015 33 33.1 100 
Maintenance NOS Total 2,246 10 28.9 Ssox* 
Mech. main. assg. White 228313 377 318.4 TSs4 
Nonwhite 72) 16 14.3 112 
Merchant mills White 18,372 253 266.9 95 
Nonwhite 2,966 28 42.4 66* 
Sheet fin. and ship. White 13,466 158 SSia5 118* 
Nonwhite 438 5 13 68 


* 5% level 
xk 61% level 


140 


a: WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Table 5.—Distribution of Allegheny County Coke plant workers by work area, race, and period of 


employment. 
Coke Oven Nonoven 
Coke Plant Number Percent Number Percent 
Employed in 1953 
Total 23552 e327 52.0 13225 48.0 
White 1,645 520 31.6 Welle 68.4 
Nonwhite 907 807 89.0 100 11.0 
Employed in 1953 or Prior Years 
Total 3,530 2,048 58.0 1,482 42.0 
White 2,369 993 41.9 1,376 58.1 
Nonwhite 1,161 15055 90.9 106 9.1] 


excluded by an analysis limited to 1953 
is greater for whites than for non- 
whites. Overall, 35% of men with prior 
coke oven exposure would not be in- 
cluded in such an analysis, while 42% of 
white coke oven workers would be 
excluded. 

Mortality from specific causes for the 
coke oven workers is shown in Table 6. 
Here it is seen that of the 184 deaths 
among men previously employed at the 
coke ovens, only 100 deaths would have 


been related to this area in 1953. As 
regards the cause-specific mortality of 
these workers, it is seen that the 
greatest part of the excess mortality for 


the non-white coke oven workers is due 


to a significant excess in respiratory 
cancers. While the differences are not 
significant, the respiratory cancer mor- 
tality for white coke oven workers also 
suggests the possibility of an excess risk 
for this disease. Looking now at Table 
7, we see that the only suggestion of an 


Table 6.— Observed and expected deaths and standardized mortality ratios for men employed in 1953 
and in prior years (Allegheny County coke oven workers, 1953-1961). 


Cause of Death 


All Causes 
Malignant neoplasms-respiratory system 
Malignant neoplasms-digestive organs and peritoneum 
Other malignant neoplasms 
Vascular lesions affecting CNS 
Heart disease 
Diseases of respiratory system 
All other causes 


All Causes 
Malignant neoplasms-respiratory system 
Malignant neoplasms-digestive organs and peritoneum 
Other malignant neoplasms 
Vascular lesions affecting CNS 
Heart disease 
Diseases of respiratory system 
All other causes 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Employed in 1953 


Employed in 1953 or Prior 


Observed Expected Observed Expected 
Deaths Deaths SMR Deaths Deaths SMR 
White 
25 31.4 80 80 80.2 100 
3 1.9 - 8 520 160 
] 2.4 - 6 6.1 98 
2 foe - 6 5S 103 
] fon} - 6 6.4 94 
9 We 70 29 32.9 86 
0 1.0 - 2 2-5 - 
9 8.9 101 23 20.5 UZ 
Nonwhite 
75 65.2 115 104 92.9 112 
17 eT 298** 25 8.4 298** 
3 4.] - 3 S57 53 
8 526 143 10 8.3 120 
6 5.6 107 9 7.8 115 
13 18.9 69 20 27.6 72 
4 3.0 - 5 4.2 119 
24 22.4 107 32 31.0 103 
141 


Table 7.— Observed and expected deaths and standardized mortality ratios for men employed in 1953 
and in prior years (Allegheny County non-oven workers, 1953-1961). 


Cause of Death 


All Causes 
Malignant neoplasms-respiratory system 
Malignant neoplasms-digestive organs and peritoneum 
Other malignant neoplasms 
Vascular lesions affecting CNS 
Heart disease 
Diseases of respiratory system 
All other causes 


All Causes 
Malignant neoplasms-respiratory system 
Malignant neoplasms-digestive organs and peritoneum 
Other malignant neoplasms 
Vascular lesions affecting CNS 
Heart disease 
Diseases of respiratory system 
All other causes 


excess for respiratory cancer was in the 
non-whites who worked in the non-oven 
area in 1953. Since men employed only 
in the non-oven area in 1953 or prior 
years show a deficit for respiratory 
cancer, this would suggest that these 
deaths are associated with exposure at 
the coke ovens in years prior to 1953. 
Analysis of the data with reference to 
place of employment in 1953, therefore, 
would have attributed these deaths to 
exposure in the non-oven area. 

Further subdivision of the coke oven 
population according to exposure levels, 
as defined by work assignments and 
years of employment, demonstrates the 
relationship between exposure to coke 
oven effluent and lung cancer response. 
This is shown in Table 8. Here we see 
that the excess of lung cancer is as- 
sociated with 5 or more years employ- 
ment at the coke ovens and that the 
level of risk increases with amount of 
exposure, the greatest exposure to 
effluent being at the top side of the 
ovens. These findings also serve to 
illustrate how occupationally-related 
disease might be masked by limiting 
study to broad occupational groups. 


142 


Employed in 1953 Employed in 1953 or Prior 


Observed Expected Observed Expected 
Deaths Deaths SMR Deaths Deaths SMR 
White 

89 89.7 99 119 113.6 105 

] a, 18 3 r/o 4] 
10 7.4 135 14 8.8 159 
5 6.0 83 4 8.2 49 
12 Tee 167 1] 8.9 124 
38 37.4 102 58 47.6 122 
6 3.1 194 5 3.9 128 

7 23.0 74 24 28.9 83 

Nonwhite 

7 12.6 135 7 13:3 123 

4 V4 - ] ee - 

2 0.8 - 3 0.9 - 

3 lez - 2 1.4 - 

0 Wat - 2 Te2 - 

4 S09 - 4 4.) - 

2 0.6 - 2 0.6 - 

2 3.8 - 3 4.4 - 


Since the top-side workers constitute 
only 15% of coke oven workers and 
only 9% of coke plant workers, the 
extremely high risk for top-side workers 
is reflected as a considerably lower 
relative risk for coke oven workers and 
coke-plant workers. If the lung cancer 
rate for top-side workers had been only 
double the rate for other steel workers, 
we would have failed to note a sig- 
nificant excess for coke oven workers, 
while a 5-fold risk would have been 
insufficient to demonstrate a significant 
excess for coke-plant workers. A simi- 
lar diluting effect may result from inclu- 
sion in the study group of coke oven 
workers with too few years of observa- 
tion to allow for the appearance of 
latent effects. 

Finally, it should be pointed out that 
before we draw inferences about causa- 
tion, we should, to the extent that 
information is available, rule out other 
factors which might explain the rela- 
tionship. While we could not identify 
any artifactual relationship which would 
produce such a unique picture only for 
Allegheny County, it was suggested that 
replication of this study in other geo- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Table 8.—Number employed, observed and expected deaths and standardized mortality ratios for 
selected causes by length of employment and work area in 1953 and prior years (Allegheny County coke 
oven workers, 1953-1961). 


Work Area and Length 


of Employment 


Coke Oven, < 5 Years 


Coke Oven, > 5 Years 


Side Oven Only 
Side and Topside 


Topside 


Coke Oven, < 5 Years 


Coke Oven, > 5 Years 


graphical areas would provide additional 
evidence on the subject. Further study 
of coke oven workers throughout the 
United States and Canada was under- 
taken and some of the findings are shown 
in Table 9. Here it is seen that coke-oven 
workers from other geographical areas 


Side Oven Only 
Side and Topside 
Topside 


Number 
Employed 


1,144 


904 
496 
276 
132 


All Causes 
Observed Expected 
Deaths Deaths 
67 F208 
117 100.3 
53 55.1 
29 27.9 
35 17.4 


SMR 


92 


117 
96 

104 

201** 


Other Malignant Neoplasms 


Observed Expected 
Deaths Deaths 
7 10.5 
20 16.4 
7 8.9 
9 4.3 
4 Se 


SMR 
67 


122 


Malignant Neoplasm of Lun 
Observed Expected 


Deaths 


4 


15 


Diseases of Res 


Observed d 


Deaths 
0 


Deaths SMR 
4,7 - 
7.6 355** 
4.1 146 
2.1 286** 
be 1 ,000** 

. System 
Expecte 

Deaths SMR 
2.8 - 
4.0 WAS 
a8! - 
Woe - 
O57 - 


also experienced unusually high lung 
cancer mortality; that the highest risk is 
observed for the top-side workers; and 
that men employed at the coke ovens 
also are at excess risk of genito-urinary 
cancer. A second point to be considered 
in determining causality is whether the 


Table 9.— Observed and expected deaths, 1951-1966, and relative risk for selected causes for coke oven 
workers employed during 1951-1955 at 10 non-Allegheny County plants for coke oven workers employed 
during 1953 at 2 Allegheny County steel plants. 


Cause of Death 


All Causes 


Malignant neoplasms-lung, 
bronchus, and trachea 


Malignant neoplasms-genito- 
urinary organs 


Other malignant neoplasms 


Tuberculosis of the respi- 
ratory system 


Other diseases of the 
respiratory system 


Cardiovascular renal diseases 
Accidents 


All other causes 


Full Topside 


Exp. 
Deaths 


Obs. 
Deaths 


23 


Significance of Relative Risk (Rel. Risk) based on summary chi-square with one degree of freedom. 


bd 


5% level 


** 1% level 


less than five deaths 


144, 


10. 


16. 


Ze 


1 


1 


Rel. Obs. Exp. 
Risk Deaths Deaths 
ea2 73 69. 
7.24%% 7! 3 

= 2 0. 
0.86 5 9 

= 0 0 
0.99 5 3 
0.84 39 33 
Os%2 7 7 
1.00 8 10 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


2 


4 


oie 


Partial Topside 


Rel. 
Risk 


0.76 


Obs. 
Deaths 


359 


27 


15 


35 


Exp. 


Side Oven 


Deaths 


s78)- 


1G). 


40. 
66. 


7 


143 


findings are consistent with other com- 
parable observations. A review of the 
literature shows that all of the occupa- 
tional groups engaged in the carboniza- 
tion of bituminous coal or in handling of 
the by-products are at excess risk of 
cancer for 1 or more sites. More spe- 
cifically, all of the 3 populations engaged 
in the carbonization of bituminous coal 
have shown a striking excess of lung 
cancer and the lung cancer response is 
positively associated with the tempera- 
ture of carbonization. 

One final factor which must be consid- 
ered, because of the recognized as- 
sociation with lung cancer mortality, is 
the possible role of cigarette smoking in 
the unusual mortality experience of the 
coke oven workers. Unfortunately, as 
with most long-term studies, no smok- 
ing histories are available. However, it 
is possible to determine by reference to 
lung cancer mortality rates for cigarette 


smokers in the United States whether 
the unusual lung cancer experience of 
the coke oven workers might be 
explained by differences in smoking 
habits. As seen in Table 10, while the 
total steelworker population shows a 
lung cancer mortality somewhat like 
that observed for all cigarette smokers, 
and the coke-oven workers, never top- 
side, show rates not too different from 
those for heavy cigarette smokers, the 
rates for top-side workers and for those 
employed more than 5 years top-side 
are far beyond what would have been 
predicted by differential cigarette 
smoking experience. While the possibil- 
ity of a synergistic relationship between 
cigarette smoking and exposure to coke 
oven effluent certainly cannot be ruled 
out, we can say that the unusual lung 
cancer mortality experience of the coke 
oven workers cannot be accounted for 
by cigarette smoking habits alone. 


Table 10.—Estimates of average annual lung cancer mortality rates (per 100,000 person-years) for 
selected U.S. smoking groups, 1954—1962 and steelworker groups, 1953-1961. 


A U.S. Smokers 
G 


E Steelworkers 


Never smoked or occasional only 
Current cigarette smokers - total 
Current cigarette smokers, 1-9/day 


Current cigarette smokers, over 39/day 


Steelworkers 
Coke oven, never topside 
Coke oven, topside 


Coke oven, >5 years topside 


144 


35-44 45-54 55-64 65-74 

<45 45-54 >55 

é i 12 29 

5 39 158 258 

E = 69 119 

: 104 321 559 
12 126 160 
E 130 387 
228 1,058 1,307 
265 1,587 1,961 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Occupational Exposures —Thresholds? 


Panel Discussion 


Chairman: Dr. Bertram D. Dinman, 4luminum Company of America 


Panelists: Dr. Samuel W. Greenhouse, National Institute for Child Health and 


Human Development 


Dr. Richard Henderson, Olin Corporation 
Dr. J. William Lloyd, National Institute for Occupational Safety and 


Health 


Dr. Charles Powell, National Institute for Occupational Safety and 


Health 


DR. GREENHOUSE—The chair- 
man and I have agreed that I will 
not speak for more than 15 minutes. 
This agreement was arrived at on the 
assumption that 15 minutes was a 
good threshold level above which we will 
observe detectable behavioral physio- 
logical effects on the audience and below 
which we will not observe any adverse 
effects at all. This is the definition that 
Dr. Vaughn Newill gave yesterday morn- 
ing. I hope you deduce from what I 
said that I don’t believe in threshold 
levels. 

Dr. Henderson’s paper with regard to 
his subject matter is one on informa- 
tion—obtaining knowledge on setting 
standards. Thresholds are involved. 
These are matters in which it is very 
difficult to arrive at reasonable decisions. 
These are problems related to environ- 
ment, and the statistical roles in these 
problems are much larger than that. 
I agree with Dr. Newill in that ‘‘thresh- 
old”’ is not a very useful concept scien- 
tifically in the sense that fever, for 
example, isn’t a very useful concept. 
Dr. Henderson made some statements 
which I think may gain him enemies. 
Answers to questionnaires do not neces- 
sarily reflect the real changes included 
in his actual statement. The entire 
Census Bureau would be up in arms 
against the implications of that state- 
ment. Are synthetics in the environ- 
ment worse than the natural ones? 
Well, I’m not so sure. This may be a 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


judgment on Dr. Henderson’s part. I 
interpret it as a judgment. I’m not sure 
we have any evidence that this is indeed 
SO. 


DR. HENDERSON —I do not object 
to the use of questionnaires and answers 
to questionnaires as one means of ob- 
taining data. I do object to opinions 
expressed in answer to questionnaires 
being accepted as fact. The number 
of ‘‘yes’’ answers to the question on a 
medical history, ‘‘Have you lost 
weight??? was found to correlate with 
estimates of exposure to elemental 
mercury vapor during working hours. 
This was a one-time medical history. 
Actual weight measurements over ten 
years did not show any weight changes 
that correlated with exposure to ele- 
mental mercury vapor. 

Persons who have cited the paper 
reporting the findings on the “‘yes”’ 
answers to the questionnaire have indi- 
cated that exposure to elemental mercury 
vapor causes loss of weight; this is not 
what the authors of the paper stated, 
although this is what the figure sum- 
marizing their data indicates. 


DR. GREENHOUSE— Dr. Lloyd’s 
report is remarkable as an epidemiologi- 
cal study as it does not reflect a planned 
experiment. There is no randomization, 
according to Prof. Box, and as a result 
one must be very careful in analyzing 
the data. Conclusions and inferences are 
very tricky. Dr. Lloyd has taken all 


145 


the necessary precautions in arriving at 
conclusions, and he is left now with 
the really meaningful effects. He is to be 
congratulated because these are the kinds 
of studies that we are going to have to 
depend upon more and more. This is a 
wide open field. To me, the basic issue 
is the relationship in a mathematical 
sense between two areas: (1) our agents 
and (2) the human subject. There are lots 
of problems with regard to the agent: 
How much is there? Does it act 
by itself? Does it interact with other 
agents? There are lots of problems 
in regard to the host—the human 
being. One of the medical, physio- 
logical and biological parameters that 
we have to be concerned about is 
whether we know enough about bio- 
logical systems and how they react with 
drugs and agents and pollutants. We 
still don’t have answers to the vital 
problem, namely, what are the relation- 
ships between the two and how does 
one influence the other in terms of chang- 
ing the health status of our population 
or affecting biological systems which may 
be detectable only in future generations. 
This is the fundamental issue. 

It reminds me about the story of a 
lad going through life asking one ques- 
tion to which he cannot get an adequate 
answer. He asked his grade-school 
teachers, and when he got into high 
school he asked his high school teachers, 
and when he went to college he asked 
his professors. He asked his mother and 
father. Everyone said, ‘‘I don’t know— 
I can’t give you an answer.’’ He said, 
“This is the sole question I have to ask 
of God—how can I look up a word 
in the dictionary if I don’t know how to 
spell it?’’ Essentially the ingredients to 
that question are the ingredients to our 
problems. Statisticians have a tradition 
for not being associated with research 
inquiries which are labeled ‘‘fishing ex- 
peditions.’’” How much of what we’ve 
heard yesterday morning and what I’ve 
heard at other symposia on the environ- 
ment (this is my third) has focused on 
measurement of the agents? I hope 


146 


many of you were fortunate to hear 
Prof. Box’s talk at the Berkeley Sym- 
posium in which he gave details about 
the Los Angeles data. They are remark- 
able data. The analysis was remarkable. 


_He had graphs with black dots starting 


at 6:00 a.m. representing hourly observa- 
tions of the increase in atmospheric 
pollution as traffic started moving, and 
from the ocean up to the hills of San 
Bernardino depending upon whether the 
sun was shining, the nature of the winds, 
and so on. Remarkable. But I’m sure 
that Prof. Box will be the first to agree 
with me that that’s only the beginning 
of our problem—namely, to discover 
these techniques of analyzing from time 
series or other approaches—analyzing 
problems related to the agents and 
tying them in to the problems related 
to the human being. Now we are fall- 
ing short of this in most instances except 
for epidemiologic studies of the kind that 
Dr. Lloyd talked about. - 
We have very serious problems from 
a Statistical point of view. I do not 
think personally that we can have 
randomization. I can’t for the life of me 
see how we’re going to randomize human 
individuals so that one stays within one 
mile downwind of a nuclear power plant 
and another stays two miles downwind 
or east or north or south, and then 
wait 20 years to discover the effect 
of these various dosage levels. Es- 
sentially that is what we are getting 
at—an attempt to get a dose response 
curve through natural observations. This 
leads me to another point. There are a 
lot of loose references to terms which 
ought to be defined very carefully. Many 
people have different conceptions of 
what an experiment is. When you live 
25 years with a group of intermural 
scientists—I call them whitecoats— you 
learn that an experiment is a very delib- 
erate, planned intervention of a human 
being into a natural phenomenon. The 
use of the word ‘‘experiment’’ this morn- 
ing was ambiguous. It wasn’t clear 
whether people meant that kind of inter- 
vention by investigators, or they were 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


talking about observations of the natural 
course of events. I think it would be 
best to call these observational studies. 
Some of these have been well thought 
out, well designed, and well planned in 
advance. Others, of course, have been 
very sloppy. There are biases in all of 
these things. The best planned prospec- 
tive study with human societies involving 
_ randomization has very serious problems 
from the point of view of the basic 
issue—that is, long-term follow-up of 
individuals who are subjected to low 
doses of contaminants in our environ- 
ment. 

I definitely believe our problems with 
food supply may be even more serious 
than with pollutants in the air. It seems 
to me that this issue is a significant one 
from the point of view of statisticians. 
People come to a symposium with dif- 
ferent expectations. Some of you may 
have come here hoping that statisti- 
cians will give you a way to get at these 
relationships—the bridge between the 
agents and the human individual. I’m 
’ not so sure that we have these methods 
on hand. In the absence of randomiza- 
tion, prospective studies have biases 
just as serious as retrospective studies. 
We are dealing with phenomena which 
in many instances have incidences of 6 
per 1,000 or 6 per 10,000—for example, 
the incidence of stroke in young women 
between the ages of 16 and 19. I shouldn’t 
say incidences, because mortality from 
stroke in young women between the ages 
of 15 and 19 is something like one in 
a million. It is inconceivable that any 
Federal agency, at this point in time, 
can devote a prospective randomized 
study to determine the effects of oral 
contraceptives in increasing excess risks 
for stroke. Yet we have seen some ad- 
ditional cases of stroke in young women 
in which retrospective studies combined 
with some estimates of relative risks 
have been disregarded by many mathe- 
matical statisticians, who go to the ex- 
tremes of saying the information cannot 
be used as cause and effect—ergo, no 
decisions on the basis on the part of 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


regulatory agencies should be made. One 
of the biggest shibboleths, I believe, after 
many, many years of confrontation with 
this Issue; 1s “cause .and effect.*’ I 
think we tend to throw the term around 
very carelessly and in many instances 
unknowingly as to what cause and ef- 
fect really is in biological phenomena. 
We think we know what it is in physics. 
I’m not sure we know what it is in 
the biological sciences. We know there 
are some people with a disease who 
do not show the symptoms. The counter 
argument is that they have not lived 
long enough. I don’t understand what 
that means and yet we talk about 
cause and effect as if this is to be 
the great counter to the statistical 
studies that come up with so-called asso- 
ciations. Now, statistical associations 
may be the only way we can arrive 
at answers to relationships. It is in this 
very field where I predict the future of 
Statistics is going to be very bright, 
because no scientists have been able 
to obtain answers to these questions— 
the long-term effects of nitrogen oxides 
or sulphur dioxides on man. Laboratory 
scientists may be able to tell you the 
effect of varying dosage on a cell or 
tissue, but they will not be able to 
tell you what it is on the living human 
organism, and only statistical studies will 
be able to give an answer. This will 
revolutionize the status of statistics in 
science. To the man in the laboratory 
for many, many years statistics was a 
way of doing t tests in the analysis 
of variance. Statistics will come into 
its own right by providing the funda- 
mental knowledge required to solve this 
particular problem. 

There are serious problems with regard 
to the agents, and symposia should start 
zeroing in on what those problems are 
and what methods are required for 
solving them. There are serious problems 
with regard to the human individual— 
namely, what biological systems do we 
a priori on theoretical grounds think will 
be affected by these various chemicals, 
then try to zero in on identifying them. 


147 


Then there will be statistical studies 
which may be long-term. I don’t see 
how they can be short-term. 


DR. DINMAN—Thank you, Dr. 
Greenhouse. I couldn’t agree with you 
more. As a practicing toxicologist of 
sorts I become utterly desperate when 
faced with laboratory data on animal 
models upon which we are supposed to 
take action to protect human health. 
This is obviously the most ethical ap- 
proach to solutions of these problems, 
which are real for myself and for society. 


DR. POWELL—Thank you, Bert. 
After the discussion we just had and two 
very fine papers, there is really very 
little left that can be said. In that regard 
I take the position that at best it is a 
matter of pursuing scientists and at worst, 
anti-scientist. Let’s start looking at some 
very basic questions. When we start 
to collect data and analyze it, what is our 
purpose? Dr. Henderson was obviously 
developing some information that could 
be utilized for standards. Dr. Lloyd, 
in his paper, had done a tremendous 
job in identifying a very big problem 
area. Now we are suddenly in a posi- 
tion where professional judgment may 
play a lesser role than before because 
we are faced with standards. If I had any 
criticism of Dr. Henderson’s paper, it 
would be that the very role we are 
playing today is the one in which we are 
faced with standards, yet we still must 
apply our own professional judgment. 
You can’t really call that a criticism, 
but it is a quandary we are faced with— 
OSHA versus preventive medicine, if 
you will. When you look at the OSHA 
standards and what they have had to 
start with, they picked those things that 
were available to them. The present 
standards don’t give us the flexibility 
that we have always exercised. I think 
we are in a true transitional period. 
When you look at this kind of transi- 
tion and how the data is presently being 
utilized, you recognize suddenly that 
when you wrote that paper five years 
ago that really wasn’t what you intended 
at all, but somebody has picked it up 


148 


and is now utilizing it to develop a 
standard. Being involved in criteria 
development puts you in one mell of a 
hess because the data isn’t the kind that 
you would have liked to have to do 
that kind of job with—it’s skimpy at 
best. Dr. Lloyd had a very large group 
to work with, he was able to form many 
different subgroups, and he was able to 
identify the problems for us, but he 
wasn’t able to identify any kind of dose 
response or cause-and-effect relation- 
ship. We’re not even sure what it is in 
coke oven emissions that’s causing the 
problem. I shouldn’t say yet because 
there are probably a number of things 
that are acting and reacting with one 
another. Oxides of nitrogen is another 
case in which large group studies will 
be necessary. Yet when we look at oxides 
of nitrogen individually, we can’t even 
tell whether they are acting alike— 
in fact, we suspect that they aren’t. 
So large groups are needed to solve 
these problems because it is only statis- 
tically that you can look at them 
effectively. 

Let us go back to Dr. Henderson’s 
paper. He had a rather small group and 
was trying to develop a cause and effect. 
We have talked about the data that he has 
collected a number of times. Most of us 
recognize that he has begun to make a 
very significant contribution. For years 
we have been trying to relate environ- 
mental factors to biological monitoring 
and it just has not worked out. You can do 
it in a group but not individually. I don’t 
think you would want to use that kind of 
data for standards, which then goes back 
to the transition we are looking at. For 
Dr. Henderson or others to use the kind 
of information he has developed on an 
individual plant basis is extremely good, 
but to try to apply it as a national standard 
sends chills up both our backs, I think. I 
would like again to reinforce the concept 
that we are in a transition—we are 
moving into something entirely different 
—and we may have to start looking at the 
kind of data we collect a little differently 
than in the past. It’s not a matter of indi- 
vidual scientists looking at papers and 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


using their own professional judgment — 
suddenly it will become something we 
have to live with whether we like it or not. 
These two papers emphasize this point 
better than anything that I could con- 
tinue to say. 


DR. DINMAN—This session is 
titled ‘‘Occupational Exposures— 
Thresholds?’’ I detect among us a com- 
mon concern about whether there is such 
a thing as a threshold. For instance, Dr. 
Henderson points out that the weight 
change recorded was a response to a 
questionnaire and that perhaps from a 
quantitative point of view there are more 
objective measurements of weight 
change. Well, objectively you are quite 
right. We can measure weight loss or 
weight gain, and indeed that is an effect. 
But one of the premises in standard 
health protection is that we will have the 
information upon which to act long before 
any severe debilitating effect occurs. 
Therefore, one might ask, if one were to 
wait for weight change of an objective 
quantitative nature, whether or not we 
would be meeting that objective. On the 
other hand, weight gain on a question- 
naire basis can be approached from a 
totally different point of view. What is 
perceived as a vague dys-ease—I’m not 
saying “‘disease’’— may express itself in 
weight gain or weight loss. It may express 
itself in a malaise which certainly can’t 
be quantitative, yet we know in pre- 
clinical phases before significant damage 
is done to the individual, such findings al- 
most inevitably occur. Of course they 
occur due to other causes, too. But that’s 
not the point. We are looking for these 
early changes. In a sense Dr. Lloyd is 
also talking about the same thing. The 
threshold and response to excess mor- 
tality suffers from similar problems as to 
the detection of a threshold for morbidity, 
as Dr. Henderson pointed out. How 
much of a signal amplitude is necessary 
before we arrive at detection? I agree 
with Dr. Greenhouse that in this 
convergence of statistics and human 
biology and epidemiology, be it retro- 
spective or prospective, that we do have 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


the mechanism—regrettably it is a post 
hoc mechanism after the damage has 
been done—for definitively developing 
association. However, the point can be 
made that the signal-to-noise ratio here 
—except in such very unusual events as a 
bladder tumor or an angina sarcoma 
(perhaps two or three cases in the U.S. 
a year)—the epidemiologic tool was also 
faced with this problem of the sensitivity 
of the threshold for detection of the signal 
over the background of considerable 
noise. Unless you have this unusual 
situation of an almost unique event, then 
the threshold for detection and response 
by the epidemiologic method does suffer 
this imperfection. Now I suppose one can 
go from this to the laboratory setting. 


DR. GREENHOUSE— Concerning 
the small incidence versus the rare event 
versus the more common event, I think 
you will find statisticians are not stupid 
people. When you are dealing with 
phenomena which occur with relatively 
large frequency—one in a 100—in 
which, in 100,000 people you may expect 
1,000 cases per year with a two-fold 
increase in risk, so that you want to 
distinguish between the 1,000 or 2,000, 
everyone would agree to do the study and 
do it in the best way possible. But here 
we are talking about cancers, tumors, and 
other phenomena which are rare—one 
in 1,000 or one in 10,000. This issue 
becomes a very fundamental one. Let 
me repeat again what I may not have 
made very clear. When we are talking 
about low-dose phenomena we are con- 
cerned about rare-phenomena events. If 
they were not rare we wouldn’t have this 
trouble because the increased risks would 
already have been detected. You 
wouldn’t have to go to your statistician to 
assess the impact of an increase in the 
pollutants in the air if they affect 
phenomena which occur frequently. That 
I think is the fundamental point. 


DR. GOLDSMITH—Dr. Dinman 
may have inadvertently pointed out a 
little difficulty in talking about threshold 
problems when he talked about signal and 


149 


noise and detectability of rare events. It 
seems to me that there are two or three 
very commonly used terms which the 
toxicologist has every right to use and to 
encourage others to use—‘‘threshold”’ 
and ‘‘synergism’’. The toxicologist who 
designs an experiment with different 
dosages appropriately related to one 
another is perfectly entitled to say he has 
identified a threshold when he finds no 
effect of the type he is looking for at a 
level of such and such, but at a some- 
what higher level he does find an effect. It 
is logically and scientifically appropriate 
to say that between those numbers there 
is a threshold. If a toxicologist finds that 
two agents together produce an effect 
which is greater than either of them would 
produce alone and that their effect 
together is greater than the sum of those 
effects, he is properly talking about 
synergism. However, when we talk about 
the human population exposures, we are 
not dealing with planned experiments and 
we should not use either term, in my 
opinion. This is true especially when we 
have not very clearly specified the agent 
as unfortunately is often the case with 
community air pollution or with such 
occupational exposures. In the study of 
human population exposures we are not 
dealing with an experimental system. The 
number of variables to be considered be- 
comes potentially infinite, although Dr. 
Newill gave a list of 10 classes of 
variables. The variables are not under the 
control of the scientist. He must accept 
the intrinsic variation, must accept 
perhaps the fact that in some occupations 
there are more cigarette smokers than in 
others. He must decide how he will 
handle this factor; either by getting 
smoking histories or talking only about 
non-smokers, and so forth. Now, if there 
is a Single agent under the control of the 
technical process manager, the threshold 
notion may be useful. I am not trying to 
deny its utility. But when one begins to 
extend this notion to combined exposures 
where they are not subject to the control 
of any managerial force, then in my 
judgment we are not using these terms 
with precision. 


150 


With many of the pollutants for which 
we have been collecting, over the years, 
a great deal of information—radiation, 
carbon monoxide, lead, and mercury, for 
example—we still have doubts about the 
applicability of the threshold concept. 
The mere fact that we have been 
collecting information about these four 
for a long time doesn’t assure us that we 
really understand a great deal about 
them with respect to general population 
exposure. My personal experience has 
been with only two of these—lead and 
carbon monoxide—and I think from the 
research that I and my colleagues have 
done in the last decades we have evolved 
different views about where the impor- 
tant biological effects are occurring. In 
the case of lead in the last decade we’ve 
paid more attention to hemo-synthesis 
and less to wrist drop and colic. In the 
case of carbon monoxide we’ve paid 
more attention to cardiovascular disease 
and less to losing consciousness. But for 
whatever it’s worth, just because we have 
been collecting a lot of information for a 
long period of time about an agent, we 
must not pretend that we really know 
enough to say at what level we ought to 
intervene or at what level we do not need 
to intervene because the risk of ignorance 
is small. The concept of the thresh- 
olds for these exposures may no longer be 
appropriate. An argument can be made 
for the difficulty in establishing a thresh- 
old for lead and carbon monoxide. We 
know how to draw a line which will 
clearly enough distinguish which people 
might be harmed and which people might 
not. I think that the toxicologist is per- 
fectly entitled to talk about thresholds 
and to get other people to apply what he 
has learned. When we start talking about 
general community exposures I think we 
must be willing to ask a more sophis- 
ticated set of questions. 


DR. DINMAN-—I really can’t 
disagree with you. Indeed, there may be 
individuals in the total population whose 
cardiovascular status is so compromised 
that the addition of one molecule of car- 
bon monoxide is sufficient to plunge him 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


over the brink. And I think the point is 
well taken that we are not operating in a 
uni-agent environment. Now, on the 
other hand, there is something more than 
just synergism or indeed additive effects. 
There is the other side of the coin, of 
course. There are antagonistic effects 
and there are subtractive effects. As to 
matter not having enough knowledge, I 
think we are between the Scylla and 
Charibdes of two positions, one which 
represents the position of Kierkegaard 
when he speaks of the paralysis of 
knowledge—that we don’t know enough, 
the other which says ‘‘don’t do some- 
thing—just stand there.’’ So we are be- 
tween these two extremes. I don’t know 
the answer to whether we have enough 
knowledge about CO or lead. I think, 
however, society is asking us to take 
some position, some action. I think we 
are faced with this responsibility to 
respond. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN-—I want to 
rise to your bait of how many are ‘“‘most’’ 
when we talk about most workers not 
being harmed by some level of a 
pollutant. Let’s use the current issue of 
the excess of angiosarcomas in the PVC 
workers as an example. I don’t remember 
the number that have been discovered so 
far among the PVC workers — six, seven, 
eight? 


DR. DINMAN— Eight. 


DR. LLOYD—Ten in the United 
States at this point. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN—Ten in 
the United States at this time. I would 
then say that ten of 4,000 to 15,000 
workers who have been exposed is being 
interpreted as exceeding the level al- 
lowed for “‘most’’ workers not to be 
damaged. It seems to me that the number 
““most’’ (or really 100% minus whatever 
percent ‘“‘most’’ represents) is some very 
small number and it gets very close to the 
zero workers harmed that you can’t talk 
about. Angiosarcoma of the liver is a very 
rare disease. There may be more than two 
a year here in the United States (aside 
from these exposed workers) but prob- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


ably not more than 20. It would seem to 
me that we really are getting very close to 
zero when we are concerned about 10 in 
15,000 and thus very close to what the law 
requires—ie., no one harmed. The 
nonofficial group whose standards 
OSHA has accepted has talked about 
‘*most’’ workers being unharmed in spite 
of the fact that the law talks about all 
workers being unharmed. So in terms of 
public reaction to this kind of exposure 
and illness, I would say that ‘“‘most’’ is 
only infinitesimally different from “‘‘all’’. 

Dr. Lloyd, you broke down your 
workers into those exposed for more than 
5 years and those exposed less than 5 
years. Do you mean to imply that 5 years 
was a Safe level and that a guy could 
work topside for 5 years at no risk? Be- 
cause if that’s so, then you’ve got a 
threshold. 


DR. LLOYD—I would say no. The 
primary reason for picking a number 
like 5 years is because we would expect a 
smaller effect at that level. Inclusion of 
large numbers of workers with short 
exposures or insufficient latency might 
dilute to the extent of masking significant 
differences. 


DR. HENDERSON—We have to 
look at this question of “‘most’’ and “‘all’’ 
in terms of the requirements of industry. 
At least one of the factors we must con- 
sider is hiring and lack of discrimination. 
One of the exercises we have just been 
going through is looking at thresholds in 
terms of women in childbearing age, 
where the risk to the women of child- 
bearing age may be greater than the risk 
to older women, women with hyster- 
ectomies, or males. I wonder, then, 
whether we can expose them alike or 
must we discriminate against them in that 
situation? We’ve gone through a similar 
exercise in terms of the glucose-six- 
phosphate-dehydrogenase deficiency 
that shows up in 10-12% of American 
negroes and under 1% of American 
whites. On theoretical grounds at least 
they are probably more susceptible to 
exposures to the methemoglobin-forming 
compounds. We have had a genetic 


151 


screening program but we have had to 
argue on the basis of fair employment 
practices in order to do that. We were 
actually challenged by the NAACP that 
we were discriminating when we started 


to do this and we had a job of. 


explaining, and I understand the case was 
dropped. But you see as long as we can 
exercise selection of our work popula- 
tion, we’re probably not too badly off. 
However, when you have the post 
coronary patient which you are reluctant 
to take back because of a possible aggra- 
vation of his pre-existing condition, and 
you don’t have another place to assign 
him, then that actually gets in the way of 
utilizing the limited productive capacity 
of somebody who already has some dis- 
abilities. We are faced with hiring the 
whole person and anything that happens, 
if it is aggravation, we are responsible. 
We get into cost-benefit ratios in terms of 
alot of people. How many people are we 
going to force out of work if we make the 
standards for all so stringent that it 
costs us too much to enforce it? If we 
have to take these people who have a 
higher-than-usual risk when we may be 
able to accept a standard on a selective 
population, we may have costs that 
exceed benefits. 


UNIDENT.—One response that one 
has to make to Dr. Schneiderman is in 
reference to the question of protection. 
First of all, this statement comes from 
the ACGIH list—you will find in the 
ACGIH publication chemicals but not 
carcinogens, except for one. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMAN— Hasn’t 
ACGIH set a standard for asbestos 
exposure? 


UNIDENT.—Well, there is also a 
standard for asbestos according to 
OSHA—like get down to one particle. 


DR. SCHNEIDERMANW— Asbestos 
is another carcinogen, in addition to 
nickel carbonyl. 


UNIDENT.—OK, but all chemicals 
in large enough doses will produce 
toxicity. All chemicals in large enough 


152 


doses won’t produce carcinomas. The 
Hartwell and Shubik list is a long one but 
not as long as the lead toxic sub- 
stances volume which is put out annually 
by NIOSH. When you are talking about 
most carcinogens you are quite right 
—this is unacceptable. But there are 
other things in this world than carcin- 
ogens. 


DR. DOMEY—You just said that 
large enough doses of any chemical entity 
would cause some sort of disorder, but 
that in some doses they would not. Will 
you name one? 


UNIDENT.— Oxygen. 

DR. DOMEY — Another one. 
UNIDENT.— Water. 
UNIDENT.— Salt. 

DR. DOMEY — Another? 
UNIDENT. — Sugar. 

DR. DOMEY — Another? 
UNIDENT.— Alcohol. 


DR. DOMEY — Some of the ones you 
have been naming have been cited as 
possible toxicants. But you have not 
named even one of the toxicants men- 
tioned before—hydrocarbons, nitrous 
oxide, and the like. 


DR. HENDERSON—There is an 
FDA proposal for labeling oxygen—do 
not use for longer than one hour at atime. 


DR. DOMEY—Of course the . . 


DR. HENDERSON — It is identified 
as a toxic agent. 


DR. DOMEY—A moment ago you 
said that at high levels almost any agent 
will produce deleterious effects. At some 
reduced level some will not produce car- 
cinogenic effects—no, deleterious 
effects. Please name one. 


UNIDENT.— Vitamin A. 


DR. DOMEY—Would you be pre- 
pared to defend that? - 


UNIDENT.— Yes. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


DR. DOMEY—Very well, then, is 
that a standard? 


UNIDENT.—Well, if they are pres- 
ent at a level at which one can detect 
the deleterious effect, then there must be 
a standard. . 


UNIDENT.— It’s a threshold. 


DR. DOMEY — The threshold would 
become the standard. 


UNIDENT.—Well, no. No, no, no. 


DR. DOMEY—Well, wouldn’t you 
say that at the point where the agent was 
determined to cause an effect, it would 
be deleterious? If it was deleterious, 
then would you say that we ought to 
erect defenses against it? 


UNIDENT.—With vitamins there 
are some standards that are set by the 
FDA —no more than X amount a day. 


DR. DOMEY — Yes, well, then why 
do we attack, for example, the concept of 
standards? One sees here that you are 
having some difficulty in accepting the 
idea of a threshold. 


UNIDENT.— We don’t. 


DR. DOMEY—Then if there is a 
threshold, why can’t there be a standard 
set around it? 


UNIDENT.—That’s what we are 
doing. 


DR. DOMEY— But apparently there 
is a general sentiment abroad that these 
threshold are not settable. 


UNIDENT.—We don’t acknowledge 


~~ DR. DOMEY—Then it is a matter of 
obtaining data. 


UNIDENT.—True. 


DR. DOMEY—Then why don’t we 
obtain it? If so, then we are back to the 
circularity of the thresholds-standards 
problem. 


DR. GREENHOUSE—That’s the 
heart of the problem. If you are at that 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


low a dose, the effect you are going to 
expect will be very small and it may take a 
long time to detect it. 


DR. DOMEY—Well, 
don’t we do it? 


DR. GREENHOUSE—That is a 
rational argument. You might have 
changed your question as follows: ‘‘For 
no carcinogenic agents are there thresh- 
old levels?’’ Then there is another mode 
of reasoning. The definition used 
yesterday is a difficult one in a sense that 
if you have a minimum dose above which 
you begin to see clinical signs of cancer, 
then it follows almost immediately that if, 
before that dose there was an onset of a 
sub-clinical latent period in cancer, that 
level as a threshold is meaningless. Now 
let me say again what I said once before. 
The concept of a threshold is not an 
unimportant concept. To argue about it 
is, I think, an important thing because it 
is very difficult for agencies to obtain— 
they have to have standards, they have to 
set arbitrary thresholds. There must be a 
decision made somewhere for regulation 
purposes. Industry will argue with the 
agencies as to whether the standard is 
appropriate or not. The scientific issue of 
the threshold does us no good. We might 
just as well explore other issues. 


DR. DOMEY—Except there is the 
Question OF) "=". 


DR. GREENHOUSE—The dose 
response curves, for example. 


UNIDENT.— Yes, but there is the 
question of demonstrating statistically, 
which is about all one can do—that an 
event is not the cause. Didn’t you say that 
if under x, y, z circumstances you cannot 
demonstrate that, an effect ‘‘x’’ is pres- 
ent? 


DR. DOMEY— Only within a prob- 
ability limit. 

UNIDENT.—Well, certainly within 
a probability limit. 


DR. DOMEY—There will be only 
one person in a hundred billion that will 
react. 


then, why 


153 


UNIDENT.—So we are debating 
whether there will be standards set with 
which we can negotiate risk. 


DR. DOMEY—If you can identify 
large toxic doses, then why don’t you 


test backward until the deleterious 


effects disappear and infer your thresh- 
old and standard that way? 


UNIDENT.— Well, why not? 


DR. GREENHOUSE— You are 
zeroing in on the heart of the problem, 
Bert. You see, if a phenomenon occurs 
with very rare frequency, p is equal to 
1:100,000. | 


UNIDENT.—Surely. 


DR. GREENHOUSE—And if you 
are going to explore 5000 individuals in 
an industry your chances of finding it are 
zero. 


DR. DINMAN—And it is conceiv- 
able, then, that perhaps we should shift 

to methods for establishing a way of 
- negotiating with the general public. If 
within some degree of reason we can 
explain to the workers the varieties of 
risks which they may take in some 
particular job, then we would involve 
them in a decision-making process which 
might please them. If, for example, if we 
could say in some graded response that x, 
y, Z condition is more risky than another, 
perhaps we could compensate them 
differentially for the varieties of risk. 
That is merely widening the range in 
which we speak. 


DR. GOLDSMITH—The Occupa- 
tional Safety and Health Acts specifies 
one other thing that you have just hit 
upon—each employee shall be informed 
of the toxic effects of excessive exposure 
to a material for which there is a stand- 
ard, shall be informed what the standard 
is, and also shall be promptly informed 
when he is being overexposed and what 
is being done about the overexposure. 
The Act makes it a responsibility of the 
employer to inform the employee of what 
the risks are. This is something that we in- 
clude as part of the training program in 


154 


any operation. Now when you do this 
with a high risk material, especially in 
case of an accidental spill or a break in a 
pipe, some people will opt not to work in 
that particular job. So that is part of the 
hiring practices and you face that. But the 
employee by act of Congress must be 
informed in this decision-making process 
and has the choice of whether he wants to 
work in that particular environment. 


DR. GREENHOUSE— In response 
to that last comment, there is a lot of con- 
fusion about what I think was manifested 
in that discussion. The objectives of this 
Symposium are not to talk about thresh- 
olds, nor to talk about Federal agencies 
being correct or incorrect, nor whether 
industry is doing something correct or in- 
correct. The objective of this Symposium 
is to bring people together to contribute 
knowledge accumulated since the last 
Symposium. About Dr. Henderson, for 
example, who initiated a study which 
says: Given such and such a concentra- 
tion of mercury in the inhaled air of my 
workers, what is the effect on their 
health? That is the objective of this 
Symposium—that and nothing else. All 
the other things are peripheral, and 
when you say they’re peripheral it 
doesn’t in any way lower their signifi- 
cance. Obviously, in the political arena 
the setting of a standard is extremely 
difficult and from the point of view of 
industry economically extremely impor- 
tant. But from the point of view of 
scientific gain of knowledge the objective 
is clear. How do we establish the impacts 
of concentrations once we know how to 
measure them on the health of our 
people? I must say, one of the 
deficiencies in my discussion is that I 
should have taken two moments to 
indicate the ideal way in the best of all 
possible worlds of getting at this ques- 
tion. Remember, the idea is to discuss 
the ideal method and procedure for 
obtaining an assessment of impact—the 
effect of these pollutants on increased 
disease incidence. 

One of the big areas that hasn’t been 
mentioned here enough (Dr. Schneider- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


man may have mentioned it yesterday 
afternoon) is the teratogenic effect. For 
six years I have been trying to set up a 
registry of congenital malformations— 
presumably, any possible effect that 
undue concentrations of various con- 
taminants and pollutants in the atmos- 
phere would have on pregnancy and on 
the fetus. Very difficult to do—can’t 
even get it off the ground. That hasn’t 
been mentioned as a serious impact. Re- 
ports from CDC in Atlanta mentioned 
7 monsters being born in one week in 
North Dakota (or South Dakota). Every- 
body observed airplanes with DDT. 
When epidemiologists investigated this, 
they found that there was no excess risk 
in terms of excess probability due to 
chance. But finding these 7 in one week 
once causes one to take account of the 
appropriate defined area, appropriate 
population, etc. These are the difficult 
problems that I think are the objectives 
of this Symposium—tying in, knowing 
how, what are the best techniques, are 
there any techniques, what can be done to 
obtain a procedure which will say that 
after a 10-year exposure to such and such 
a concentration of this pollutant we 
found no ill effects, we found an increase 
or double increase in cardiovascular 
disease, 1.5 increase on the risk of cancer 
of the bladder, etc., etc. Those are the 
things we have to get at if we are going to 
know what we are talking about. If we 
had these dose response curves, admin- 
istrative decisions would be quite simple 
and quite easy. Despite the fact that I say 
it is simple to formulate what we need, 
I’m not so sure that the implementa- 
tion may ever be performed. 


UNIDENT.—In view of Marvin’s 
talk yesterday and Dr. Rall’s and Dr. 
Lloyd’s talks today on cancer mortality, I 
think the picture is misleading because 
unless you can demonstrate that the 
degree of mortality is directly related to 
the incidence, you may not be getting the 
correct and proper information at all. 
Among other things, many cancers are 
treatable—many people who have 
cancers don’t die of cancer. You’re not 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


taking these cases into account. There is 
also the very proper question, I believe, 
of the effect of concurrent disease on 
mortality due to cancer or related 
disease. I think these things have to be 
taken into very serious consideration. 


DR. LLOYD—One of the very first 
statements I made was to this point. 
When we are looking at long latent 
disease we would like nothing better than 
to be able to see these people when they 
are alive and try to intervene. The 
records just don’t exist anywhere— 
that is one of the problems we have to 
attack. On the question of how cancer 
mortality reflects the incidence of the 
disease, it depends on what we are 
looking at. If we are looking at angio- 
sarcomas of the liver—count the dead 
ones—they don’t live very long. That’s 
still pretty well true for lung cancer 
incidence. It is no longer true for skin 
cancer anymore— we couldn’t doa study 
like that on skin cancer. 


UNIDENT.—A great variety of 
cancers depend upon what the survival 
rates look like. Until we set up some 
way of getting this information during the 
morbid state before we perceive death, I 
don’t know any way to attack the 
problem. I know we would have never 
identified the problem if we had been 
trying to count the people who were 
coming down with lung cancers, because 
most of them had long departed from the 
distilling industry. 

DR. DINMAN—I would like to 
thank members of the panel and the 
speakers this afternoon. I must say that 
the charge Dr. Greenhouse suggests we 
should take sounds like the charge of a 
working committee of seven maids with 
seven mops and seven years worth of 
time. That does not minimize its value, 
however. This afternoon I have been re- 
assured, because up until a few months 
ago I was not too sure that there were 
such things as thresholds. Everybody 
seems to agree it is not worth even 
arguing about. I have found it to be a 
rather important issue in fact. I must say 
we made some progress. 


155 


Summary Session 
Introduction 


Seymour L. Friess 


Director, Environmental Biosciences Department, Naval Medical Research 
Institute, National Naval Medical Center, Bethesda, Md. 20014 


Good morning ladies and gentlemen. 
On behalf of the Program Committee 
I'd like to extend a special welcome to 
you this morning. Our numbers are 
somewhat reduced at the end of a three- 
day symposium. The diehards really are 
with us. This is appropriate because we 
view our discussions today as consti- 
tuting essentially a summary and a 
wrap-up session. Therefore I shall take 
advantage of this opportunity to talk to 
you from the standpoint that the 
Program Committee adopted a certain 
philosophy for this Symposium which 
may be somewhat in conflict with the 
views that have been expressed by 
certain participants up to this point. Let 
us speak to the problem of the nature of 
this Symposium for a bit—the philoso- 
phy behind it and potentially how we will 
move forward into the future. 

As a preliminary remark, I might also 
note that yesterday’s panel ended on the 
question of ‘‘what is the purpose or the 
theme of this Symposium?’’ Moving 
directly to the set of biases that the Pro- 
gram Committee expressed on this point, 
I'd like to review with you the fact that 
each session has had program elements 
on stage which were carefully selected 
for given purposes. You will note that in 
each of our major scientific sessions there 
was a biological scientist, skilled in re- 
search and focusing on problems of the 
environment; a statistician whose em- 
phasis on problems of the environment 
had been demonstrated; and a political 
figure—a person engaged in duties of 
legislative or regulative character who 
required useful interaction with two prior 
disciplines that preceded him on the pro- 


156 


gram. Sometimes the order of presenta- 
tion got a little inverted. From the Pro- 
gram Committee level, we felt that these 
three disciplinary areas of national impor- 
tance with respect to chemicals, man, and 
the environment should be brought 
together in the context of cross-fer- 
tilizing the approaches to the solution of 
national problems. ; 

Now obviously this interaction must 
begin with a man who is blessed or 
cursed with duties in the legislative or 
regulatory area. He desperately needs — 
information which will permit him to 
make judgments on very important 


topics. These topics embrace the effects 


of chemicals on man in terms of safety, 
risk, hazard, permissible levels of ex- 
posure. In order to make effective and 
sensible judgments with respect to these 
very important topics he needs, above all, 
data which pertain to low-dose versus 
response relationships in a test organism 
as close to man as possible. The levels 
or doses tested should be so low that the 
effects observed are almost at the mini- 
mum level. Not quite zero, as Dr. 
Dinman said yesterday, but quite close to 
zero. In effect the legislator or regulator 
needs information about the shape of the 
dose response curve for a particular 
response to a particular chemical agent 
at doses which are so low that the 
effects are marginal. In this Symposium 
you have heard that what we are worried 
about is detecting tiny response signals 
in the presence of background noise 
which may be large enough because of 
biological variability to obscure the sig- 
nal. Dr. Dinman made this point clearly. 
So we view the legislative regulator as 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


requiring this kind of information as his 
chief tool in looking at the problem of 
safety, chemicals, man and the environ- 
ment. I believe it was Dr. Worcester 
who made this point first and most 
strongly on the first day. Thereafter the 
idea, which is quite correct and impor- 
tant, became submerged in a sea of adula- 
tion about the beauty of collecting data on 
the human by the epidemiological route. 
We would like to resurrect the idea and 
bring it forward. One of the prime points 
of the morning is to look at the important 
problem of dose versus response 
curves in biological systems including 
man, at very low concentrations, because 
it is quite clear that the shape of that dose 
response curve at the point at which the 
response takes off from zero is terribiy 
important in defining or making sensible 
use of the word threshold, which has been 
mentioned often in this Symposium. So 
at this time we must view the generation 
of important dose vs. response data 
at the very lowest end of the curve as one 
of the scientific elements of highest 
priority in dealing with the problem of 
contamination in the environment. 

At this precise point, then, one has to 
consider the entrance of the biologist and 
the statistician into the planning of 
experiments which lead to meaningful 
probing of the reactions of chemicals in 
animal models, to get to meaningful data 
which will cast light on effects at very 
lowest level of discernment. The Pro- 
gram Committee viewed one of its prime 
tasks in setting up this Symposium as that 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


of bringing the biologist and the statisti- 
cian together in advance, if possible, for 
joint analysis of available experiments 
which have led to meaningful data bear- 
ing on the problems of health, welfare, 
man, and chemicals in the environment. 
We weren’t entirely successful, I fear, in 
bringing about the interaction of the 
biologist and the statistician a priori, but 
we view it as a matter of interest in the 
ultimate success of the interaction if this 
meeting triggers the biologists and statis- 
ticians to get together for effective plan- 
ning in the future before the experiments 
begin, rather than after. The prime reason 
for this is that the low-dose sector of 
the response curve is the most expen- 
sive, the most tedious, the most la- 
borious, and the most difficult part to in- 
vestigate. Consequently, excellent plan- 
ning is required to make appropriate use 
of resources. And that’s my lead-in to 
introduce to you this morning a man 
who is one of those entrusted with highest 
national responsibility for meaningful 
work leading to evolution of information 
on the low-dose versus response part of 
the curve. This information is entrusted 
in its execution to a center called the 
National Center for Toxicological Re- 
search, in Jefferson, Arkansas. This 
morning we are extremely pleased to 
welcome its distinguished director, Dr. 
Morris Cranmer, to talk to us about the 
basic problem of low-dose versus re- 
sponse and include in his discussion, I 
hope, the wonderful concept of the mega- 
mouse experiment. Dr. Cranmer. 


157 


Reflections in Toxicology 


Morris F. Cranmer, PhD. 


Director, National Center for Toxicological Research, Jefferson, Arkansas 72079 


Thank you for your kind introduction, 
Doctor Friess. I will try to weave a few 
of my own comments and opinions with 
comments by previous speakers and 
observers into a review of what has been 
stated or implied. I will also try to docu- 
ment what research the NCTR is doing 
that may impact on these problem areas. I 
have borrowed a few slides from previous 
speakers to emphasize certain points. 

Few people will dispute the fact that 
chemical technology has in large measure 
contributed to the achievement of our 
present standard of living. Accompany- 
ing these benefits, however, are the many 
subtle and sometimes gross effects that 
are threatening the health of our society. 
The existing implications on future gen- 
erations demand the adoption of a 
rational policy on chemical utilization 
that will enable the highest possible 
standard of living accompanied by an 
acceptable risk-to-benefit ratio. 

Persons suffering from an incurable, 
fatal disease would not want to have 
treatment with a drug withheld because of 
a potential danger of developing cancer 
far into the future. Similarly, persons be- 
yond the reproductive years certainly 
have less concern for exposures to chemi- 
cals that produce birth defects or genetic 
change than do young adults. In short, 
society accepts considerable risks when 
the risks are necessary and when accept- 
able alternatives do not exist, but is pre- 
dictably unwilling to accept risks when 
the information quantitating those risks is 
not available. 

Efficacious products are generally ap- 
proved for use if there is an acceptable 
safety margin between anticipated resi- 
dues, by appropriate usage patterns, and 
that level estimated to be safe to humans. 


158 


The toxicologist is faced with the di- 
lemma of estimating risk to an enormous 
and variable human population from 
small numbers of highly controlled 
experimental animals. Thus, there exists 
a considerable potential for error in 
assessing the risk/benefit ratio under 
present conditions. 

Several facts which contribute to the 
uncertainty of toxicological evaluations 
should be stated clearly. There is no way 
to guarantee absolute safety! Small popu- 
Jations of experimental subjects, either 
animal or man, provide an imprecise 
basis for comparison to a large human 
population of variable genetic/disease 
states, cultural backgrounds and ages. 
Toxicological assessments are made sin- 
gularly and humans are exposed to a 
milieu. It should be equally clearly under- 
stood that a proper experimental design 
will minimize noise and maximize com- 
parisons and that we are constantly ex- 
panding our toxicological armamentar- 
ium. Doctor Rall explored many of the 
strengths and weaknesses of toxicologi- 
cal evaluation in his paper on Wednesday 
morning. 

Is the toxicologist faced with a para- 
dox of absolutes? What are the ap- 
proaches available in attempts to gener- 
ate reasonable policy and guides for 
chemical use and control? An examina- 
tion of the involvement of the toxicolo- 
gist in guaranteeing an adequate and 
acceptable food supply will be illumi- 
nating. There are three major control 
strategies available for the regulation of 
toxicants, including carcinogens: 1. the 
all-or-none approach, (for example, the 
Delaney Clause of the Food, Drug, and 
Cosmetic Act [FD&C Act]); 2. the use of | 
safety factors (commonly applied to non- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


carcinogenic lesions); and 3. statistical 
extensions beyond the experimentally 
observable range. Each approach has its 
proponents and critics, its advantages 
and disadvantages. Doctor Schneider- 
man made several comments on the 
Mantel-Bryan model for extrapolation, 
and I will try to expand this point. 


All-or-None Approach 


The Delaney Clause of the FD&C Act 
is an all-or-none approach and an under- 
standing of complications in the quest of 
absolute safety is required. The Delaney 
Anticancer Clause contains two main 
segments; one for human and one for 
animal food additives. The segment ad- 
dressing human food additives states 
that in evaluating the safety of such com- 
pounds used in food-producing animals, 
consideration must be given to the safety 
from possible residues in the products of 
those animals which are a source of food 
for man. When there is insufficient evi- 
dence to establish that a finite or negli- 
gible residue of the compound is safe in 
human food, or when the anticancer 
clauses contained in sections 409(c)(3) 
(A), 512(2)(1)(H), and 706(b)(5)(3) of the 


Act are applicable, a zero tolerance (no 


residue) must be required. Under the 
provisions of the anticancer clauses, no 
compound may be administered to 
animals which are raised for food produc- 
tion if such compound has been shown to 
induce cancer when ingested by man 
or animal, unless such compound will not 
adversely affect the animal and no resi- 
dues, as determined by methods of 
analysis prescribed or approved by the 
Secretary (DHEW), are found in the 
edible products of such animals under 
conditions of use specified in labeling 
and reasonably certain to be followed 
in practice. 


How Does One Establish the Toxicity; 
e.g., Carcinogenesis of a Compound? 


A protocol advanced by the National 
Cancer Institute for carcinogen screening 
calls for 50 male and 50 female animals to 
be tested at or near the maximum toler- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


ated dose and a like number at half 
that dose. A maximum tolerated dose 
ideally would be that which does not kill 
the animal except via tumor production in 
significantly less than a normal lifespan. 
The choice of using high doses is a statis- 
tical expedient in order that high inci- 
dences of tumors above background can 
be detected with small sample sizes. 
There is no biological basis for use of high 
doses. Such high doses may completely 
alter metabolic pathways, absorption and 
distribution. 

Positive and negative results are 
treated in a completely different manner. 
If the screening test shows positive car- 
cinogenic action, under the Delaney 
Clause there is no alternative but to ban 
the compound even if more than adequate 
information was available to perform a 
risk/benefit analysis. All too often, a 
negative result is interpreted as indicating 
a noncarcinogenic compound. The nega- 
tive cannot be proved statistically. Thus, 
it is common practice to take an arbitrary 
fraction, say 1/100, of the minimum ‘‘no- 
effect’? dosage as safe. Again, the mini- 
mum ‘‘no-effect’’ dosage is ill-defined 
and is a random variable depending on 
the number of animals tested. Two state- 
ments will be repeated in this and subse- 
quent discussions. First, it is argued that 
such an approach has worked over the 
years. Second, do we have epidemiologi- 
cal evidence to show that no small in- 
creases in cancer have resulted from such 
environmental chemicals? Until recently 
we were not aware of the vinyl chloride 
problem even though billions of pounds 
are manufactured each year. Most new 
chemicals have not been in the environ- 
ment long enough for effects to be noted 
where long latent periods may exist. 


Zero Tolerance—No Residue 


If one defines zero as complete ab- 
sence, the dilemma of a no-residue con- 
cept quickly takes form. First, let us con- 
sider the ways by which one might attain 
the complete absence of a residue. The 
first would be to never allow contact, and 
the second would be to consider a rate of 


159 


removal or transformation that after a 
given waiting period would result in com- 
plete removal. 

Since the first approach effectively 
eliminates the use of a chemical, let us 
proceed with the concept of removal. 
The process of removal may be passive, 
e.g., the removal of a persistent pesticide 
from a food by rain or washing, or it may 
be via active excretion or metabolism. If 
an enzymatic process is involved, the 
process will be accelerated. 

The rate of an enzymatic process can 
be either zero (**/dt = Ko = KoC’), first 
order (—%/dt = k,OC = k,C), or sec- 
ond order (—*/dt + k,(C x C) = k.C?). 
If one solves these equations for time 
needed to achieve the removal of the 
last molecule, it is a very long time in- 
deed. Further practical complications 
arise via the determination of analytical 
methodologies which would be accept- 
able for determining zero. To carry the 
discussion to the extreme, we would have 
to analyze the complete extract of the 
complete sample with an analytical sensi- 
tivity of one molecule. 

We will probably all agree that there 
are certain advantages to the use of bio- 
logically active chemicals and there is 
also the need to insure that the popula- 
tion is not exposed to hazardous resi- 
due levels. One reasonable approach 
would be to insure the absence of any 
hazardous quantity of a residue. The ad- 
vantage of this approach would first be to 
fix the amount of residue which is ex- 
pected to be hazardous and at the same 
time determine the sensitivity of a 
method required for analysis to support 
regulatory actions. Rephrased, require- 
ment for methodology would be defined 
by need rather than state of the art. Use 
of a chemical would not be approved 
until acceptable methodology was devel- 
oped. 

As is often the case. problems are not 
solved, they simply are reshaped, for we 
now have the problem of determining the 
acceptable residue level. 

The Delaney Clause, or any similar 
all-or-none approach. is likely to be in- 
adequate in two respects. First, it pro- 


160 


vides a false sense of security by ignoring 
the problem of ‘‘false negatives’ which 
may result from inadequate testing. The 
FDA is charged with the responsibility of 
attempting to minimize such occur- 
rences, but the question remains as to 
how to best accomplish this formidable 
task. Second, because of current toxi- 
cological ignorance we have little to offer 
as a substitute for the Delaney Clause 
which requires banning of food additives 
shown to be carcinogenic in animal tests. 
However, with adequate data, yet to be 
produced, the benefits of a food additive 
in preventing food poisoning, for ex- 
ample. might be documented to far out- 
weigh a carcinogenic risk which may 
occasionally occur only late in life. 


Safety Factors 


Safety evaluation at the present time is 
founded on the concept of the**Maxi- 
mum no-effect dose.”’ The procedures 
are designed to determine the intake over 
extended periods (including a lifetime) 
that will not produce the injurious effects 
characteristic of the substance when 
given in large, that is. toxic amounts. 
Also important is the exclusion of 
the possibility that these “‘subtoxic” 
amounts will produce some hitherto 
unsuspected reaction. A summary of the 
kinds of specific studies usually under- 
taken can be found in the paper by 
Friedman and Spiher (FDA Papers, 
Nov. 1971). 

The unique difficulties in safety evalua- 
tion arise from the unusual goal of 
attempting to prove scientifically that no 
deleterious effect has taken place, 1.e., 
to prove the negative. Experiments are 
usually designed to establish that phe- 
nomena. apparently resulting from exper- 
imental manipulations. are real. are not 
artifacts or have not occurred simply by 
chance. On the other hand, the more 
appropriate concern would be to ensure 
that the absence of positive findings 
(assuming adequate protocols and pro- 
cedures), is not due to chance or to the 
inadequacies of sample size. Pursuing 
this point supports the awareness that 
positive findings may be artifacts and 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


| 


therefore adequate probing of techniques 
and replication of experiments to verify 
findings is mandatory. Insistence on any 
desired degree of assurance against 
making a wrong conclusion is standard 
operating procedure. Conventionally, a 
statistically significant finding must have 
a probability of no more than one chance 
in twenty of being a chance occurrence, 
and often risks of only | in 100, or 1 in 
1000, or less, are desired. Clearly the 
severity of an all or none approach to 
avoid the risk of a false positive rein- 
forces the desire of a petitioner for the 
clearance of a compound. Have we 
dealt equally with false negatives? 

A practical approach for dealing with 
these uncertainties for noncarcinogens 
has been the use of the 100-fold margin of 
safety. Substances to be added to food 
should not demonstrate an effect in ani- 
mals when fed at a dose at least 100 times 
greater than the likely human exposure. 
Our intuition tells us that this approach 
has usually worked very well: however. 
we should not forget the absence of an 
experimental or theoretical basis. When 
followed blindly, rather irrational experi- 
mental practices, interpretation and 
rationalization can be made. 

There have been attempts to apply 
safety factors to carcinogens in our food 
supply. One of the latest discussions was 
by Carrol S. Weil (1972 Toxicology and 
Applied Pharmacology, 21(4): 454) where 
a safety factor of 5.000 was suggested. 
Weil argued, as had Friedman, that it 
was contrary to ‘scientific judgment” to 
try to extrapolate mathematically beyond 
the range of experimental observation. 
Weil suggested that it was, however, 
more scientific to use a safety factor of 
5,000. 

The application of a safety factor estab- 
lished from a “‘no effect level” in a toxi- 
cological evaluation has a number of pit- 
falls which were succinctly summarized 
by Weisburger and Weisburger (1968, 
Food Cosmetic Toxicology. 6: 235-242): 


It seems to us a “‘no effect dose”’ for a carcinogen 
is a highly relative level which applies only for the 
precise experimental conditions generated. While 
similar considerations hold for drugs. the risk is not 


_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


nearly so intense. More often than not, an improper 
dose rate for rapidly acting drugs is detected almost 
immediately and appropriate remedial action can be 
taken. With chemical carcinogens and their long, 
latent period, the disease condition resulting from 
inappropriate selection of dose levels and alteration 
of environmental conditions leading to potentiation 
may become visible only years after the exposure. 
At that time remedial action is obsolete and often 
worthless. 


Itis necessary to add to the Weisburger 
remarks that a no-effect dose, with the 
exception of a threshold, is sample-size 
dependent and therefore is not some ab- 
solute reference point. 

A number of the contributors and ob- 
servers, including Doctor Worcester and 
Doctor Henderson. during the discussion 
periods on Wednesday and Thursday. 
spoke of thresholds. 

A few comments on “threshold” are 
an appropriate prelude to a discussion of 
methods for mathematical extrapolation. 
The concept of a threshold dose is based 
on the premise that a smaller dose will not 
produce an effect. There are several 
problems with demonstrating the reality 
of a threshold. More refined methods of 
observation may lower the observed 
threshold: repeated examination of the 
bioassay will demonstrate variability 
even within the same individual, and 
heterogeneity of the population will 
influence the responses observed. Many 
toxicologists have stated that for any 
compound there must be a “biologically 
insignificant dose.’* There is little doubt 
that this is true: however. what is 
our definition of insignificant. A case in 
point are reports which have been used to 
estimate that 3—5 percent of those people 
hospitalized have drug complications 
severe enought to extend their duration of 
care, a very ominous statistic. 


Mathematical Extrapolation Models 


One of the real pleasures of my scienti- 
fic career has been being associated with 
discussing mathematical models with Dr. 
Dave Gaylor, and much I will say is his 
work. Due to, at least, the toxicological 
uncertainties of extrapolating risks from 
relatively high experimental dosages in 
animals to low human exposure levels, 


161 


there are many people who propose com- 
plete prohibition when a chemical is dem- 
onstrated to be a carcinogen. A modifi- 
cation would be to use a conservative 
method of linear extrapolation from an 


upper confidence limit on the experi- 


mental result back to a zero response at 
zero dosage. This procedure is described 
by Gross, Fitzhugh, and Mantel (1970) 
and the FDA Advisory Committee on 
Protocols for Safety Evaluation (1971). 
This procedure is based on the premise 
that at low dosages, many dose-response 
curves are concave upward and a straight 
line is a conservative upper limit to such 
curves. In the simplest case with a single 
dosage and no spontaneous background 
occurrence of tumors, the extrapolation 
would proceed from setting an upper con- 
fidence limit on the observed tumor rate 
at the experimental dosage, d, and con- 
structing a line back to zero. Such a 
straight line is likely to be above the true 
dose-response curves at low doses. For 
low dosages, the one-hit curve is approxi- 
mately proportional to dosage (linear). 

For the particular experimental condi- 
tions, a conservative upper limit, po, 
can be estimated for any low dosage, 
d,. Ifa threshold dosage does exist below 
which no tumors are produced, the true 
tumor rate at d, may be zero. An objec- 
tion to this method of linear extrapolation 
is that in order to obtain small risk levels, 
P,, the levels of d, which could be toler- 
ated often would be too small to make the 
food additive effective for its intended 
purpose. However, this procedure en- 
courages better experimentation in that 
as the number of animals tested is in- 
creased, the upper confidence limit will 
generally decrease thereby increasing 
d, for any given level of estimated risk, 
P,.. [The more complicated and common 
situations of non-zero spontaneous back- 
ground and multiple dosages are dis- 
cussed by Gross, Fitzhugh, and Mantel 
(1970). 7 

Of the common mathematical models 
often proposed for extrapolation (one-hit, 
logistic, extreme value, and probit) the 
Mantel-Bryan (1961) procedure proposes 
the use of the probit. 


162 


The model for extrapolation usually 
cannot be determined from experimental 
results. For example, consider the probit, 
logistic, and one-hit curves which all 
give a 50% tumor response at a unit dose 
and 16% tumor response at 1/4 that dose. 
These curves would be indistinguishable 
in the 8% to 92% tumor response range as 
usually observed in experiments. Several 
thousand animals would be required to 
distinguish between the probit and logis- 
tic curves in the 2% to 4% response range 
with no guarantee that either model 
would be applicable at lower levels. In 
Table 1 are shown extrapolated doses 


Table 1.—Doses required to give low estimated 
risks from experimentally indistinguishable results 
with 8—92% tumors (a dose of one unit produces 
50% tumors). 


Estimated Risk Probit Logistic One-hit 
10-3 SO 31 5e1058 LAS 1s 
10-6 VA x 10m 9.8 x 10-6 peels Tre 
10-8 L626 1088 1A. x -10=2 


Ant <lOm 


producing small risks where the experi- 
mental data appear almost identical in the 
8% to 92% tumor response range (FDA 
Advisory Committee on Protocols for 
Safety Evaluation (1971)). 

For example, if a dose of one unit pro- 
duced 50% tumors, then a dose of .015 
units would be expected to produce 1 
tumor in 1000 animals, assuming extra- 
polating with the probit curve. Extreme 
differences between models in estimated 
doses are noted when extrapolating to a 1 
in a million risk. The “‘extreme value”’ 
curve, another possible model, would 
generally lie between the probit and logis- 
tic, depending on slopes, Chand and Hoel 
(1973). Thus, the choice of a model for 
extrapolation is extremely critical, the 
one-hit being the most conservative and 
the probit the least conservative of those 
examined here. 

Fig. 1 illustrates procedures utilized in 
the Mantel-Bryan model. The Mantel- 
Bryan (1961) procedure utilizes a linear 
relationship between probits and log 
dosage. They propose a conservative 
slope of one probit per 10 fold reduction 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


(99.87%) e t| Observed Outcomes 


2 
(97.7%) 


1 
(84%) 


oO 
(50%) 


-1 
(16%) 


=2 
(2.3%) 


Conservative Extrapolation 
With Slope of 1 Normal °° 
Deviate per Log 3% ? 


-3 
(0.13%) 


NORMAL DEVIATE (Probability) 


-4 

(0.0032%) -? 

¢ Calculated ‘'Safe'' 
-5 

(0.000029%) 


? 
? 9x10-8 mg 


2-26 2-24 2-22 2-20 2-16 2-16 


x Maximum P Values, 99% Assurance 
Percent Outcomes & Maximum 
P Values Shown in Parentheses 


od 
eo” (1/1000,000,000) Dose: 


2-14 2-12 


tnoo%) 


Maximum Likelihood Line, 
' Slope 264 Normal Deviates 
Per Log 


FINO ie oly SIRI al Syed eT = Ce) 


mg MCA PER MOUSE (Single Injection) 


Fig. 1.—Estimation of the ‘‘safe’’ dose from test results with a carcinogen, methyl- 


- cholanthrene, at several dose levels. 


in dose. These lines are fitted at moderate 
to high responses, usually high experi- 
mental doses and generally using homo- 
geneous groups of animals, which would 
be expected to produce steep slopes. 
There is no guarantee that slopes might 
not be less than one at low doses to which 
a heterogeneous human population is 
exposed. In fact, the dose-response in the 
smoking lung cancer data for man (per- 
cent of men developing lung cancer ver- 
sus number of cigarettes smoked per day) 
gives a probit slope of about 0.75. How- 
ever, a slope of one, hopefully, repre- 
sents a conservative slope in the dosage 
range below the experimental dosages. 
The only notable exceptions with experi- 
mental slopes less than one which have 
been established are the hormonal animal 
feed additive growth promoters. In such 
cases, a slope less than one would be 
recommended for extrapolation. 

The Mantel-Bryan procedure has these 
advantages: it does not require an experi- 
mental estimate of the slope; it does not 
require the demonstration of a statisti- 
cally significant increase in tumors 
(which depends heavily upon the number 
of animals tested); it allows for a non-zero 
spontaneous background tumor rate; 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


however, more research is needed where 
background rates are high, often resulting 
in treated animals with fewer tumors; it 
considers multiple dosage experiments. 
The estimated risks using the Mantel- 
Bryan procedure depend upon the degree 
of the uncertainty in the experimental 
data by starting the extrapolation from 
upper confidence limits on tumor rates 
and not upon proof of carcinogenicity. It 
does not assume that the dose-response 
relationship is probit log-dosage at low 
dosages. Ifa non-probit response curve is 
plotted on a probit scale and if its deriva- 
tive is always greater than one, then the 
slope of one applied by the Bryan-Mantel 
procedure at low dosages gives a propor- 
tion of tumors which is higher than the 
actual proportion. However, if the same 
principle is applied to logistic plotting, 
lower extrapolated dosages will result for 
a given risk. It is not necessary to extra- 
polate to a ‘‘virtually safe’’ safe risk of 1 
in 100 million. This value was selected by 
Mantel and Bryan as an “‘illustrative’’ 
value which probably would not be in 
conflict with the intent of the Delaney 
Clause. ‘‘Acceptable risk’’ is a social 
judgment which will have to be made by 
open discussions after weighing the bene- 


163 


fit of each chemical, its possible syner- 
gism with other compounds, and the 
uncertainty in extrapolating from ani- 
mals to man. 

A dichotomous procedure could be 
employed by extrapolating with an ex- 
tremely conservative linear model for ex- 
perimentally demonstrated carcinogens 
and extrapolating with a less conser- 
vative procedure, such as the Mantel- 
Bryan procedure for chemicals not 
demonstrated to be carcinogens. A di- 
chotomous extrapolation rule may not 
encourage good experimentation to de- 
tect tumors in order that a less conserva- 
tive extrapolation procedure could be 
used leading to higher tolerance levels. 

The extreme differences between 
models for extrapolating to low risks 
have been .demonstrated in Table 1. 
Even given a particular model, e.g. the 


probit, the slope was used for extrapola- — 


tion produces widely different results 
(Table 2) where extrapolations were 


Table 2.—Fraction of experimental dose using 
probit extrapolation with different slopes for an 
estimated risk of 1 in 190 million. 


Observed tumors Slope = 1 Slope = 1.5 Slope = 2.0 


0/50 1/18,000 1/690 1/135 
0/100 1/8,300 1/410 1/91 
0/500 1/1,800 1/150 1/42 
0/1,000 1/1,000 1/100 1/32 


made from the upper 99% confidence 
limit. 

For example, if no tumors were ob- 
served in 100 animals, one could be 99% 
confident that the true risk is no more 
than 1 in 100 million if the dose-response 
curve has a slope of one probit per factor 
of 10 change in dose, when the experi- 
mental dosage is divided by 8300. In 
Table 2 it is illustrated that the current 
practice of taking 1/100 of an observed 
no-effect level for 100 animals would 
provide a risk of approximately 1 in 100 
million if the response curve were a probit 
with a slope of two. However, if the slope 
were actually 1, then the estimated dose 
should be about 90 times smaller. Thus, 


164 


not only is the choice of an extrapolation 
model critical, but the parameters used 
in the model, particularly the slope, are 
critical. 

Unfortunately, one cannot verify ex- 
perimentally the correct curve (model 
and slope) to use for extrapolation at 
extremely low dosages. It would be use- 
ful to obtain dose-response curves at 
levels lower than currently used in exper- 
iments. Perhaps a data bank can be 
accumulated for low dosage levels which 
provoke few, if any, tumors. Such data 
might eventually provide reasonable esti- 
mates of low dosage exposures, or per- 
haps, a check on the form of mathe- 
matical models. One difficulty would be 
differences in protocol employed by 
different investigators. 

As was discussed by Doctors 
Schneiderman, Rall and Newill, we are 
still faced with the uncertainties in extra- 
polating from well-controlled animal ex- 
periments to heterogeneous human popu- 
lations. Thus, there are those who rightly 
contend that no method of precise mathe- 
matical extrapolation exists to date. 
However, as I mentioned before, using 
1/100 of an observed no-effect level as 
relatively safe is, in fact, performing an 
arbitrary and crude extrapolation which 
ignores the uncertainty in the experi- 
mental data. Predictions of tolerable 
dosages from animal experiments must 
be made. Should these predictions be 
made with or without the benefit of all of 
the scientific knowledge at hand? It is 
interesting to compare the Mantel-Bryan 
procedure with the 1/100th rule. As seen 
in Table 2, Mantel-Bryan would set lower 
levels using a slope of one if a risk of 1 in 
100 million is used. Adopting an extra- 
polation slope of 1.5 would be in agree- 
ment with the 1/i00th rule for large ex- 
periments. 

An important aspect of extrapolation is 
the choice of the dose scale. Log dosage 
on a per body weight basis is frequently 
used as is ppm. Dosage on a surface area 
basis as mentioned by Doctor Rall has 
been investigated and appears to give a 
better fit to experimental data in some 
cases and appears useful when extra- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCi., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


polating from small to large animals. No 
single choice can be recommended. The 
tendency is to express dosage in terms 
that give a nearly linear fit to the data in 
the experimental range. 

Data in man, either dose-response or 
metabolic, may suggest greater or lesser 
sensitivity than the experimental animal. 
Human data seldom is available, but 
when it is available it generally is not 
clear how such data should be employed 
in a mathematical procedure for predic- 
tion of dosages producing low risks. 
Much more epidemiological data is 
needed. A current example of this is the 
need to use the human data from benzi- 
dine as a component of setting water 
effluent standards by the EPA. 

Petitioners should be encouraged to 
conduct experiments in more than one 
species. Selecting the lowest tolerance 
for extrapolation to man from the species 
tested, in order to be conservative, may 
tend to discourage testing in several spe- 
cies. This appears to be the most pru- 
dent approach. Perhaps to encourage 
testing in more species, the slope for ex- 
trapolation could be increased as the 
number of species is increased. For ex- 
ample, if the Mantel-Bryan procedure is 
used in a single species, a slope of one 
could be used unless experimental results 
indicated a shallower slope. If more spe- 
cies were tested, steeper slopes could be 
allowed for extrapolation with each spe- 
cies, still employing the lowest tolerance 
from among the species tested if the ex- 
periments were done with sufficient pre- 
cision that the lower confidence of the 
slope could be determined statistically 
with high confidence to be greater than 
the slope to be used. For example, an 
experimental slope of 4 with a lower 
boundary of 3 might allow for using 1.5 
rather than 1. This procedure is only a 
suggestion which should be investigated 
with existing data to determine its work- 
ability. 

Another important aspect of extrapola- 
tion is determining the level of an accept- 
able risk. This is a social-political de- 
cision which cannot be made by the scien- 
tist alone, but requires a risk-benefit anal- 


__ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


ysis with input by many segments of 
society. This is an awesome task, but we 
are faced with it daily in setting speed 
limits, building codes, etc. Admittedly, it 
may be easier to perform risk-benefit 
analyses for many aspects of life than for 
food additives. Few, if any persons, 
would want a potential carcinogen added 
to the food supply if its only benefit were 
esthetic. There would be no need for 
extrapolation to a tolerable dosage and 
the Delaney Clause should remain un- 
changed. However, if an additive is a 
preservative which prevents or lessens 
the risks of other diseases, a nutrient 
which may reduce the risk of other dis- 
eases, Or improve nutrition by making 
food less expensive, then a risk-benefit 
analysis may be in order. For compara- 
tive purposes, dose reduction factors for 
a risk of 1 ina million are given in Table 3 


Table 3.—Fraction of experimental dose using 
probit extrapolation with a slope of one for an 
estimated risk of one in a million. 


Fraction of 
Observed tumors experimental dosage 
0/50 1/2,500 
0/100 1/1,140 
0/500 1/250 
0/1,000 1/140 


using a probit slope of 1. Again, with a 
large number of animals, the 1/100th 
dosage of an experimental no-effect level 
is not too different. 

If the extrapolations were correct what 
does a risk of 1 in 100 million for a lethal 
tumor really mean? Approximately 1/6 of 
the people in the United States eventually 
die due to cancer. An additional 1 ina 100 
million would be unnoticeable. Mantel 
and Bryan suggested that a calculated 
risk of 1 in 100 million is the prac- 
tical equivalent of 0 since the con- 
servative procedure used, if correct, 
sets 1 in 100 million as the upper 
limit on the true risk. The Mantel- 
Bryan procedure does nat attempt to 
accept a risk of 1 in 100 million but is 
directed toward a zero risk not exceeding 
1 in 100 million. 


165 


Table 4.—Probability of tumor incidence esti- 


mated using Mantel and Bryan. 


Benzo (a) pyrene Probit slope Probit slope 
mg/kg/man/day 1.0 |) 
.010 “il x HOS Lx. 1044 
.020 1 x d0-2 1S 10%? 
.040 Zo 10 Lx 1 


Some estimated risks are calculated by 
Friedman (1973) (Table 4) using the 
Mantel-Bryan procedure based on a 
mouse intubation study for benzo(a) 
pyrene by Berenblum and Haran (1955). 
Depending on daily intake at human ex- 
posure levels, estimated risks range from 
2 x 10°° to 10°, depending heavily upon 
the slope used. These data illustrate that 
we already may be accepting what some 
people would regard as a relatively high 
risk, 2 in 100,000, in our food supply from 
charcoal broiled meat. Of course, the 
individual can make a choice in this in- 
stance. Such information, which is often 
meager and tentative, may not be avail- 
able or meaningful. 


Experimental Design 


In testing for carcinogenicity, it is not 
clear that current experimental designs 
and methods of analysis are the best that 
can be developed. It is difficult to detect 
and estimate the dose for even a high 
risk, say .01, when the spontaneous back- 
ground rate is high, say 0.10. However, it 
may not be desirable to choose a strain of 
a species of animals with a 0 or near-0 
spontaneous rate, as that strain may be 
resistant to the chemical. It may be desir- 
able to consider relative rather than abso- 
lute rates. 

The choice of responses to analyze 
(e.g., proportion of animals with tumors, 
number of tumors per animal, or time to 
tumor) will dictate the experimental de- 
sign. Consideration must be given to the 
range of dosages, number of dosages, 
number of animals, length of feeding 
(total dose), and times of sacrifice, if any. 

If a procedure such as the Mantel- 
Bryan procedure were adopted for extra- 
polation, it is possible to calculate 


166 


‘‘acceptable dosages’’ for given risks as a 
function of the proportion of the experi- 
mental animals producing tumors (which 
may be zero) and the number of animals 
employed. 

Considerably more research is needed 
in the development of experimental pro- 
tocol for predicting carcinogenicity of 
chemicals, and I feel the NCTR will 
impact heavily on this area. 


Time to Tumor Occurence 


A risk of 1 in 100 million represents an 
additional two people, now living in the 
United States, who would eventually die 
of cancer rather than due to some other 
cause. This raises an important and dif- 
ficult question. Since cancer generally 
occurs late in life, would these two cases 
result in the loss of life of a few days, 
weeks, or years? Murray and Axtell 
(1973) investigated this question. The 
question of time to tumor occurrence 
becomes critical. Extrapolating to low 
dosages from a classical dose-response 
curve does not consider the time at which 
tumors occur. 


tumors occurring over the lifetime or up 
until the termination date of an experi- 
ment. One recognized difficulty with 
gross rates is that the animals at the 


highest doses may have shorter life spans - 


due to toxicity of the chemical and there- 
fore have less opportunity to develop 
tumors. Thus, the highest dosage may 
exhibit the lowest gross proportion of 
tumors. Some, but not all, researchers 
have made adjustments for changes in 


The experimental re- — 
sponse may be the gross percentage of © 


mortality due to competing causes of © 
death. The simplest device which has © 


been employed is to sacrifice animals at a 
fixed point in time (e.g., 18 months with 
mice) and to observe the percentages of 


those animals possessing particular tu- © 


mors. This gives the proportion with tu- 


mors to a given time which can be plotted | 


against dose. As an attempt to study time 
to tumor development, serial sacrifice 
experiments have been employed with 


scheduled sacrifices at several points | 
during the life span of the animals. Such | 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


experiments, require a large number of 
animals. A procedure such as Mantel- 
Bryan could be used for extrapolation at 
each time of sacrifice. Now a difficult 
question arises, does one use the highest 
tolerable dose found at different sacrifice 
times or should more weight be given to 
the earlier tumors? If more weight should 
be given to early tumors, how much? 
Also, a great deal of information is gener- 
ally lost due to animals that die before 
the termination date or between serial 
sacrifice times of an experiment. In fact, 
it may be these animals which die early 
that contain the most important informa- 
tion because they afford an opportunity 
to observe tumors early in life. 


Time Concept 


I hope the highlighting of the work of 
Blum, at the beginning of this discussion, 
indicates that we in chemical toxicology 
are not completely ignorant of the contri- 
butions made in radiation as was sug- 
gested by one observer. 

Blum, in his 1959 work on ‘‘Carcino- 
genesis by Ultraviolet Light’’, demon- 
strated a log normal distribution of ex- 
posure and cancer development time. 
(Princeton University Press, Princeton, 
New Jersey (1959) ). It was Druckrey 
however who dramatized the relation- 
ships of time, dose, and dose rate for 
chemicals in a 1967 monograph repre- 
senting 25 years work and 10,000 experi- 
mental animals. (Quantitative Aspects 
in Chemical Carcinogenesis, U.I.C.C. 
Monograph No. 7, Potential Carcino- 
genic Hazards from Drugs, pp. 60-77 
(1967) ). 

Fig. 2 was chosen because it demon- 
Strates that over a considerable dose 
range there is not an experimentally 
observable no effect or threshold dose for 
diethylnitrosamine. Mr. Wands asked 
questions of risk benefit and used nitros- 
amines as an example. Also this figure is 
the work of Druckrey on which much 
of which I will speak is based. Can we 
further quantitate risk? 

Druckrey emphasized that if proper 
scientific judgments are to be made re- 


_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Total dose DENA administered-mg/kg 


Fig. 2.—Dose-response relationships for the 
carcinogenic action of diethylnitrosamine (DENA) 
in BD II rats. 


garding risks from carcinogens, knowl- 
edge of the pharmacological relation- 
ships, especially dose-response relation- 
ships, must be established. He pointed 
out that thorough investigations of these 
fundamental problems are only possible 
in systematic, highly controlled, mutually 
comparable animal experiments. He fur- 
ther pointed out that true advances can 
only be expected from quantitative re- 
sults that are expressible in measurement 
and number and are available for 
criticism. 

Druckrey first demonstrated with 4- 


-dimethyl-amino-benzene the dependancy 


of time and dose. According to the rela- 
tionship developed, the product of daily 
dosage and induction time is a constant 
(k = dt). He observed that the same car- 
cinogenic response was obtained for 
smaller dose rates and total doses if time 
was extended (k = dt"). These results, 
and others, suggested that primary car- 
cinogenic effects for 4-DAB remain 
irreversible over a whole lifespan and 
suggested the appropriateness of the 
concept of ‘‘Summation Action’? which 
he had introduced 20 years earlier. 

Druckrey extended his observations to 
4-dimethyl-amino-stilbene (DAST) as 
illustrated in Fig. 3. 

The plot of percentages of tumors ex- 
pressed as probits vs. log total dose of 
4-dimethyl-amino-stilbene (Druckrey, 
Schmahl, and Dischler, 1963), demon- 
strates a parallel and linear relationship 
between probits of ear duct and mam- 
mary carcinoma and log total dose. This 
clearly demonstrates that for 4-DAST 


167 


Percentage of carcinomas 


50 100 200 300 500 


Total dose 4-DAST administered-mg/kg 


1000 


Fig. 3.—Incidence of carcinomas is dependent 
on the sum of doses, 4-dimethylamino-stilbene: 


r=) 
° 
° 


wu 
(=) 
t=) 


i 
f=) 
° 


Carcinogenic 
total dose Dso mg/kg b.w. 
re) 
°o 


0.05 0.1 0.2 0.5 1 2) 33. aS 10 


Daily dosage, mg/kg b.w. 


Fig. 4.— Linear dependence of the median car- 
cinogenic total dose D., and of the median induction 
time T;, on the daily dosage of 4-dimethylamino- 
stilbene. . 


Daily dosage, mg/kg b.w. 


100 200 300 500 1000 2000 
Induction time: tso days 


Fig. 5.—Linear dependency of the median in- 
duction times (Ts 9) upon the daily dosages of 
diethylnitrosamine. 


the total dose required to produce a given 
incidence is clearly smaller at smaller 
dose rates. 

A replot of log total dose, and median 
induction time, vs. log dose rate also 
demonstrates a linear relationship be- 


168 


F forestomac 

E ethmoturbinalia 
K kidney 

O oesophagus 


| intestines 

P plasmocytoma 
T tongue 

J jawbone 


Percent tumor yield 


B brain 
S gland.stomac 


400 500 
Induction time—Days 


Fig. 6.—Normal distribution of the induction 
times in carcinogenesis, dependent upon the variety 
of organs of tumor development in BD rats. 


tween the log median induction time and 
log dose rate (Fig. 4). 

This plot identifies the limiting com- 
ponent lifespan. This figure illustrates 
for a replot of Druckrey’s data, that time 
begins to be limiting as an experimental 
variable, a fact that toxicologists and 
Statisticians must work together to ex- 
ploit. Doctor Schneiderman’s comments 
of a 300 year component in cigarette 
smoking however demonstrates the com- 
plexity of the concept. The difficulty in 
observing this is not great but attention 
should be placed on the lack of evidence © 
or suggestion of a sub-threshold dose 
(Fig. 5). For this specific example, 
n = 3 and k = dt?. 

Surprising to me, but as you can see 
from Fig. 6, the linear relationship held 
for a number of organ and tumor types 
generated with methyl nitrosourea and 
n-nitroso piperidine. 

What data exists for man? Doll ad- 


vanced the concepts relating time and 


dose still further in his 1970 paper read 
before the Royal Statistical Society (The 
Age Distribution of Cancer: Implications 
for Models of Carcinogenesis. J. Royal 
Stat. Soc. 134 (2): 133-166 (1971) ), 
where he proposed the I, = b (t-v-w)* 
where v is time of beginning exposure, 
and w is the minimum time for clinical 
recognition for a tumor. Doll applied this 
concept to data on the incidence of bron- 
chial carcinoma in cigarette smokers. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Doll examined data reported by Day in 
1967 on tumors from tar painted on the 
skin of mice. The n obtained for cigarette 
smoking in man and skin tumors in mice 
were strikingly similar and encouraging 
to those that are supportive of efforts to 
describe mathematically, similarities in 
cancer responses. 

Doll points out that a wide range of 
‘pairs of values for k and w in the formula 
I, = b (t-v-w)* would fit the data and that 
a better approach would be to design 
protocols to estimate the values inde- 
pendently. This is an important point 
that the carcinogenesis protocol at 
NCTR addresses. Doll further pointed 
out that examination of skin cancer gen- 
erated by benzo (a) pyrene would fit ba 
dose” better than ba dose. 

There has been some more recent re- 
search in statistical techniques to analyze 
time to tumor data. One useful measure 
of the impact of carcinogenesis on a popu- 
lation may be age-specific incidence rates 
or the amount of life shortening due to a 
tumor. Time to tumor data requires life 
time studies to estimate a relationship 
between tumor rates, time, and dosage. 
This is followed by extrapolations to low 
dosages which may project time to tumor 
development beyond the normal lifespan 
of an animal. Then, for a given dosage a 
time to tumor distribution must be em- 
ployed to estimate the proportion of ani- 
mals expected to develop tumors within 
their lifespan before dying of other 
causes. The approach is quite compli- 
cated and depends on mathematical 
assumptions which need to be checked 
experimentally (the statistical distribu- 
tion of time to tumors and their relation- 
ships with dosage) for many different 

types of chemicals, tumors, and experi- 
mental animals. Such experiments re- 
quire survival studies and several dos- 
ages employing large numbers of animals. 
Again, there does not appear to be suf- 
ficient evidence at this time to recom- 
-mend specific procedures. It is important 
to obtain dosage rate effects on the time 
pattern of response, especially to deter- 


_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


mine the extent it influences incidence 
rate and to the extent it influences time to 
tumors at all incidence levels. 

Albert and Altshuler (1973) have devel- 
oped a mathematical model for predicting 
tumor incidence and life shortening based 
on the work of Blum (1959) on skin tumor 
response with chronic ultraviolet irradia- 
tion in mice and on Druckrey (1967) fora 
variety of chemical carcinogens in ro- 
dents. Albert and Altshuler have investi- 
gated radiation cancer in mice exposed to 
radium and also to cigarette smokers. In 
review, the basic relationship used is: 
dt" = c, where dis dosage, t is the median 
time to occurrence of tumors, n is a pa- 
rameter greater than one, and c is a con- 
stant depending on the given experi- 
mental conditions. It is of interest to 
determine the time it takes for a small 
proportion of the population to develop 
tumors. With this formulation, as the 
dosage is increased, the time to tumor 
occurrence is shortened. Albert and 
Altshuler use the log-normal distribu- 
tion to represent time to tumor occur- 
rence assuming the standard deviation 
to be independent of dosage. 

Dr. Nancy Mann, in addition to lively 
introductions and elevation of the es- 
thetic level of the speakers’ platform, dis- 
cussed the Weibull distribution. The 
Weibull distribution for time to tumors 
has been suggested by human cancers, 
(Cook, Doll, and Fellingham 1969; Lee 
and O’ Neill, 1971); I = bd™ (t-w)*, where 
I is the incidence rate of tumors at time t, 
bis aconstant depending on experimental 
conditions, d is dosage, w (the minimum 
time to the occurrence of an observable 
tumor), m and k are parameters to be esti- 
mated. Also, Day (1967), Peto, Lee and 
Paige (1972) and Peto and Lee (1973) 
have considered the Weibull distribution 
for time to tumor occurrence. Theoretical 
models of carcinogenesis also predict the 
Weibull distribution (Pike, 1966). Theo- 
retical arguments and some experimental 
data suggest the Weibull distribution 
where tumor incidence is a polynomial in 
dose times a function of age. 


169 


The log-normal distribution of tumor 
times corresponds to the probit trans- 
formation as employed in the Mantel- 
Bryan procedure. Use of the Weibull 
distribution for time to tumor leads to an 
extreme value distribution relating tumor 
response to dosage (Chand and Hoel, 
1973). Hoel (1972) gives techniques when 
adjustments must be made for competing 
causes of death. Albert and Altshuler 
(1973) discuss other distributions of time 
to tumor. What must be done is to encour- 
age more experimentation and statistical 
research on survival studies. It probably 
would be much more palatable to set safe 
doses on the basis that the probability ofa 
tumor is remote if an animal lived to, say, 
twice its normal lifespan; rather than to 
say that the probability is remote that an 
animal develops a tumor during its life- 
span. However, it is still the latter quan- 
tity which is of concern. We have invited 
Doctors Albert and Altshuler to examine 
the data bases at NCTR in hope of 
increasing the documentation of their 
model in large carefully controlled animal 
experiments. 


Variation in Exposure 


I am borrowing Doctor Newill’s slide 
to demonstrate variation in exposure. 
Human intake of a chemical varies among 
individuals and varies daily for a given 
individual. The simplest approach and 
perhaps adequate for our current state of 
knowledge is to calculate risks for anti- 
cipated ‘“‘maximum’’ exposure levels. 
This gives additional conservatism for 
any prediction technique. Some contend 
that it is not necessary to attempt to pro- 
tect every last individual with unusual 
habits, but to base predictions on average 
intake, for example, in an attempt to esti- 
mate the actual risk to the population. 

Mathematically, the proper approach 
to calculate the risk for the total popu- 
lation is to calculate the risk for a given 
dosage (a most difficult task as discussed 
in the previous sections) and then to 
multiply that risk by the proportion of the 
time that dosage occurs followed by inte- 
gration over the distribution of dosages. 


170 


Generally, the distribution of dosages for 
an environmental chemical in a human 
population would be unknown. Thus, 
introducing variation in consumption 
adds another dimension to be investi- 
gated to an already complicated problem. 
This, in effect, gives the average risk and 
does not consider a segment of the popu- 
lation which may be at high risk. Indeed 
the lively discussion from the floor about 
NOx levels in a kitchen speaks to this 
problem. 

I wish to share with you an outline of 
one of the chronic dose-response studies 
being conducted with 2-AAF, a carcin- 
ogen, at NCTR. I feel that an introduc- 
tion into the needs of FDA and EPA may 
be of value in understanding our ap- 
proach. 


I. Responsibilities 


A. Food and Drug Administration. — 
The general public may be exposed to 
chemical carcinogens from the food it 
consumes, the drugs it uses, and the cos- 
metics it enjoys. It is the responsibility of 
the FDA to determine the risk involved 
in the use of these commodities by the 
general public. However, it must be rec- 
ognized that there is no way to guarantee 
absolute safety. Small populations of ex- 
perimental subjects, either animal or 
man, provide an imprecise basis for com- 
parison to a large human population of 
variable genetic and disease states, cul- 
tural backgrounds, and ages. Further- 
more, toxicological assessments are 
made on individual chemicals and hu- 
mans are exposed to a milieu of inter- 
acting chemicals. Leading us somewhat 
out of this apparently chaotic situation, 
studies with laboratory animals have 
shown that nearly all chemicals that 
are carcinogenic in man are also car- 
cinogenic in one or more animal species 
although the tumors may be of a dif- 
ferent type. Thus, the carcinogenic 
properties of a chemical may be detected 
in experimental animals just as we 
detect the life shortening or lethal 
properties of a chemical. It is ap- 
parent that, while cancer testing in ani- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


mals in terms of ‘‘an all-or-none effect’’ 
has reached a sophisticated level of de- 
velopment, the area of quantitative dose- 
response relationship for testing of chem- 
ical carcinogens needs much more in- 
depth study. It is precisely this area 
that must develop if a rational assess- 
ment is to be made of ‘‘acceptable risk’’ 
and ‘‘acceptable daily intake’’ of achemi- 
cal carcinogen in our food, drugs, or 
cosmetics. 


B. Environmental Protection Agency. 
—An understanding of why certain en- 
vironmental agents produce adverse 
effects and the circumstances that deter- 
mine the severity of these effects is the 
basis of all environmental health regula- 
tory control. Carcinogenic substances 
pose a hazard to man and the environ- 
ment through several distinct pathways. 
The most obvious of these is direct in- 
gestion. Control of chemical food addi- 
tives is the responsibility of the Food and 
Drug Administration as indicated earlier. 
However, the presence of unintentional 
residues in food such as residues of pesti- 
cides and other toxic substance is a re- 
sponsibility of the Environmental Pro- 
tection Agency. This responsibility ex- 
tends to cover chemicals present in water 
and air and their effects not only on man 
but to any component of the environ- 
ment. 

In terms of man, it is clear that the main 
chemical carcinogenic hazards result 
from exposure associated with food, 
water, and air. The degree of the hazards 
involved depends on many factors. One 
of the basic factors involves the quanti- 
tative aspects of a chemical carcinogenic 
action. Although the many factors in- 
volved are important, it is the quanti- 
tative aspects which has not received in- 
tensive study and which is basic to deter- 
mining acceptable daily exposure levels 
for a chemical carcinogen. These accept- 
able daily exposure levels, in turn, are a 
basic requirement to setting standards 
for chemical carcinogens in our food and 
our environment. 


C. Others.—The National Institute 
of Occupational Safety and Health 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


(NIOSH) of the Department of Health, 
Education, and Welfare and the Occupa- 
tional Safety and Health Administration 
(OSHA) of the Department of Labor 
share the regulatory responsibilities for 
the control of hazards in the occupational 
environment. These responsibilities in- 
volve the control of hazards associated 
with occupational exposure to chemical 
carcinogens. Thus, the concepts method- 
ology involved in evaluating quantita- 
tively the risk involved in exposure to 
these substances is a basic need of these 
agencies. 

Finally, it must be recognized that the 
necessity of information on the quantita- 
tive determination of acceptable expo- 
sure levels to carcinogens is basic not 
only to the regulatory agencies, but is of 
particular importance to those involved 
in meeting our extensive chemical needs. 
Chemicals as part of various products, 
drugs, pesticides, food additives, water 
additives, etc., are anecessity of life and, 
in turn, create a necessity of information 
permitting their use within acceptable 
limits of risk. 


Il. Deficiencies in Work to Date and 
Factors to be Considered in Protocol 
Development.— Most of the deficiencies 
in carcinogenic testing result mainly from 
the concept that this testing involves only 
the determination as to whether or not a 
compound can be made to produce a neo- 
plastic tumor. However, it is now recog- 
nized that carcinogenic testing must, of 
necessity, consider both qualitative and 
quantitative factors. The main deficien- 
cies in past studies of these factors in- 
volve primarily two areas, 1.e., experi- 
mental design and definition of end 
points. 


A. Experimental Design: 


1. Statistics. —The bulk of the tech- 
nical literature reflects the lack of statisti- 
cally valid experimental design including 
adequate numbers of animals at low 
levels of carcinogenic response. 


2. Dose Response.—Only limited 
use of dose response studies are reported 


171 


in the technical literature for the pur- 
pose of determining tumor incidence and 
time to tumor in terms of dose rate and 
total dose. The prediction of risk at a 
given exposure level requires dose re- 
sponse information. 


3. Low-Dose Studies. — Little infor- 
mation is available on dose-response 
studies at low levels of exposure and re- 
sponse. At low levels of exposure envi- 
ronmental factors may alter extensively 
the quantitative aspects of a response. 


4. Mathematical Models. —There is 
only limited mathematical definition of 
the dose-response curves at low levels of 
exposure in terms of variables affecting a 
chemical carcinogenic response. 


5. Life-Shortening.—There is lim- 
ited use of experimental designs which 
permit proper observation and evaluation 
of life-shortening effects of chemical 
carcinogens in relation to dosage. 


6. Age Sensitivity. —The hazards 
involved in exposure to a chemical car- 
cinogen depend not only on the nature of 
the chemical itself, the route of exposure, 
and the extent of exposure in terms of 
amount of time, but also on the suscepti- 
bility of the animal at the time of expo- 
sure. There are only limited studies 
available on the influence of age on the 
sensitivity of an animal to a chemical 
carcinogen. 


7. Recovery.—There is a lack of 
evaluation of the possible regression or 
progression of pretumorous lesions such 
as hyperplasia in relation to dosage. 


8. Tumor Growth Rate.—The 
technical literature shows an impressive 
lack of study of the possible dependency 
of tumor growth rate on dosage. 


9. Reproducibility of Results.— 
There is an extensive lack of evaluation 
of the quantitative reproducibility of 
chemical carcinogenic testing. 


B. Endpoints: 


1. Tumorigenesis. —Tumorigene- 
sis is aS important an endpoint as car- 


172 


cinogenesis. Benign tumors may cause 
death in man and animals without ever 
undergoing malignant transformation. 
There can be no doubt from a survey of 
the technical literature that benign neo- 


- plasms are often precursors of malignan- 


cies. In the light of present knowledge, all 
tumorigens must be regarded as potential 
carcinogens. Hyperplasia and number, 
type, grade, and individual distribution 
of tumors must all be carefully used as 
endpoints in the evaluation of chemical 
carcinogenesis. 


2. Time to Tumors.—Insome cases 
the only manifestation of an effect con- 
sists of an earlier occurrence of tumors in 
the treated animals than in the controls. 
Time to tumor may be a very sensitive 
endpoint permitting estimation of ‘‘ac- 
ceptable exposure levels’? from dose- 
time to tumor curves. This endpoint in 
chemical carcinogen testing merits fur- 
ther in-depth study. 


3. Life Shortening.—As indicated 
earlier, there is limited use of experi- 
mental design which permit proper obser- 
vations and evaluation of life-shortening 
effects of chemical carcinogens in rela- 
tion to dosage. 


4. Pathology.—lIt is of the utmost 
importance that a complete and accurate 
pathological examination be conducted 
on all animals used in carcinogenesis 
studies. There is no doubt that benign 
tumors may cause death without under- 
going malignant transformation. All le- 
sions, including precancerous lesions 
such as hyperplasia, must be described. 
Number, type, grade, and individual 
distribution of tumors must all be care- 
fully evaluated in a chemical carcino- 
genesis study. The lack of proper patho- 
logical capabilities often limits this most 
critical aspect of such a study. 


5. Biochemistry. —The evaluation 
of carcinogenic hazards for man is based 
on a judgment of all available informa- 
tion. That is, it is based not only on the 
carcinogenic bioassay, toxicity tests, 
epidemiological data, and on the extent 
and route of exposure of man, but also on 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


metabolic, biochemical, and pharma- 
cokinetic studies. Each compound must 
be evaluated individually on the nature of 
its absorption, distribution, metabolism, 
retention, and excretion. 

Ancillary support experiments, gener- 
ally independent of the large EDp, 
Barrier Study, will be undertaken within 
the programs of the Divisions of Chem- 
istry and Comparative Pharmacology. 
The purpose of these studies will be to 
define appropriate biochemical endpoints 
and the role of pharmacokinetics to aid in 
_ the evaluation and interpretation of the 
large carcinogenic bioassay. For the most 
part, these studies will be undertaken 
with mice not maintained in the barrier 
experiment. A select number of biochem- 
ical parameters, however, can be meas- 
ured in some mice at the time that these 
animals are removed from the ED,, ex- 
periment. 

Biochemical endpoints, as an indicator 
of or response to carcinogen exposures, 


are not usually included in carcinogenic | 


bioassays. Identification of reliable in- 
dices that relate directly to tumorigenesis 
would be invaluable to possibly define 
susceptible or non-susceptible individ- 
uals in an animal population or to pos- 
sibly determine the time to onset of ir- 
reversible lesions during a precancerous 
induction period. This concept is highly 
important to and related to the chronic 
low dose carcinogenic bioassays. How- 
ever, the current status of this concept 
has not been definitely proven or con- 
firmed and, as such, must be considered 
as an activity peripheral to the large bio- 
assay study at this time. 

Logically, any stimulus such as a 
chemical carcinogen producing an ana- 
bolic or precancerous change in a tissue 
such as liver should produce some re- 
sponse, such as stimulation or inhibition 
of an enzyme(s) that can be detected bio- 
chemically in the affected tissue or pos- 
sibly in the blood. The inherent problem 
is to select or find the proper biochemical 
endpoint. Several prospective endpoints 
have been defined, but their potential 
utility as predictors or indicators of re- 
sponse remains to be established. Re- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


search activities in some of these bio- 
chemical indicators are centered in the 
Divisions of Chemistry and Comparative 
Pharmacology. 

The role of DNA repair in the toxic and 
carcinogenic effect of 2-AAF also must 
be considered in relation to the chronic 
low dose bioassay. Recent evidence re- 
sulting from studies on the effect of radia- 
tion on biological systems indicates that 
mammalian cells have the capability of 
repairing damage to their DNA. More re- 
cently it has been demonstrated that 
many chemicals such as AAF form cova- 
lent bonds with DNA and are removed 
by a process of ‘“‘unscheduled DNA syn- 
thesis’? or DNA “‘repair synthesis’’. The 
process appears to involve the excision of 
the damaged segment of DNA with con- 
comitant replacement by repair synthe- 
sis. The importance of this process was 
made evident with the demonstration that 
the resistance of numerous tumors to 
chemotherapeutic agents could be cor- 
related with their level of DNA repair 
activity. Tumors resistant to chemo- 
therapeutic agents were found to be sus- 
ceptible in the presence of DNA repair 
inhibitors such as caffeine or chloro- 
quine. 

It is often assumed that DNA repair 
always acts in a protective way by re- 
moving damaged DNA segments or 
bound chemical residues. It is known, 
however, that the probability of an error 
in DNA replication which might result in 
a mutation increases with the extent of 
DNA synthesis. The possibility of AAF 
producing mutations in DNA by stimu- 
lating extensive DNA repair synthesis is 
a real one and must be considered in any 
study concerning the role of DNA repair 
in carcinogenesis. In any event, a more 
complete understanding of how a cell 
repairs the damage inflicted upon its 
genetic information by chemicals in gen- 
eral and carcinogens in particular will be 
necessary. An understanding of the role 
of DNA repair in carcinogenesis is basic 
to the question of whether small chemical 
insults to acell are completely repaired or 
accumulate over a long period of chronic 
exposure. 


173 


A study to investigate the role of DNA 
repair in the carcinogenic process has 
been initiated within the Division of 
Comparative Pharmacology. The spe- 
cific objectives of this study are to 
seek a correlation between DNA re- 
pair and tumorigenesis under several 
experimental conditions, to determine 
the effects of acute and chronic doses 
of 2-AAF on DNA repair, to evaluate the 
effect of DNA repair inhibitors on 
tumor incidence, and to investigate 
the possible interrelationships between 
DNA repair and cell division in car- 
cinogenesis. Results from this study 
will provide valuable input to the under- 
standing and interpretation of the chronic 
study with 2-AAF. 


6. Pharmacokinetics. —In order to 
provide a firmer basis for evaluation of 
results obtained in the large chronic low- 
dose carcinogenic bioassay, it will be 
essential to develop a correlation be- 
tween dietary level of the carcinogen, 
total and/or daily intake of chemical, 
incorporation of chemical into the target 
site (bladder in this instance) and the 
incidence of bladder tumors as a function 
of duration and level of exposure. In- 
volved also in this correlation is the need 
to evaluate the role of blood levels (total 
as well as unbound) and urinary excre- 
tion patterns of the chemical and/or its 
metabolites. The overall concept or proc- 
ess described is the basis and definition 
of pharmacokinetics. Pharmacokinetics 
basically measures rates of chemical 
absorption, distribution, tissue binding 
and storage, metabolism, and elimina- 
tion. Elimination in this case meaning ex- 
cretion through urine, feces, and expired 
_ air. Mathematical models are designed to 
analyze results by means of computer 
simulation. — 

With 2-AAF, a unique opportunity is 
presented to relate dietary levels and feed 
consumpation to relative levels of the 
compound or metabolites in blood, urine, 
urinary bladder, and incidence of bladder 
tumors. The key comparisons will have 
to evolve based on chronic exposure of 

the animal to the test compound. How- 


174 


ever, to develop a model on which to 
evaluate results from chronic exposure, it 
was necessary to undertake a series of 
acute and subacute experiments designed 
to determine as a function of dose level 


the absorption, distribution, metabolism, 


excretion, and bladder binding of 2-AAF 
following single and multiple P.O., I.P., 
and I.V. doses of chemical as well as 
following dietary exposure. Based on 
models developed from these studies, re- 
sponses were predicted for chronic 
exposure to 2-AAF; the accuracy of 
these predictions will be verified from 
results that will be obtained in a chronic 
exposure metabolism study. In terms of 
the large ED ,,-2-AAF study, this ap- 
proach will be limited to establishing 
dosage levels of 2-AAF to concentrations 
of the compound and/or its metabolites in 
blood with reference to time and to the 
effect on the endpoint being studied. 

The more in-depth pharmacokinetic 
study will be undertaken within the Divi- 
sion of Comparative Pharmacology as a 
separate study from the large ED,,;— 
2-AAF experiment. 


Ill. Approaches.—It is clear that hu- 
man exposure to many chemical carcino- 
gens is inevitable at the present time and 
in the foreseeable future. It follows that a 
need exists for capabilities which would 
permit an evaluation of the relative ha- 
zards posed by different chemical carcin- 
ogens. The development of methodology 
for adequately evaluating carcinogenic 
risk involves two major approaches. The 
first is the establishment of a carcinogen 
dose-response relationship using various 
endpoints such as tumor prevalence, time 
to tumor, life shortening, etc. This carcin- 
ogen dose-response relationship must 
permit some mathematical extrapolation 
downward on the curve so as to facili- 
tate determination of risk at levels of 
realistic exposure. These are the primary 
objectives of this study. The second ap- 
proach which is beyond the scope of this 
study is to develop methodology and con- 
cepts which will permit extrapolation of 
results to man. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


A. Dose Response.—The dose-re- 
sponse of tumor prevalence in terms of 
dose rate and total dose, giving appro- 
priate consideration to cause of death, 
will be determined. Such data should 
rival the best mathematical model for the 
conservative extrapolation from dose- 
tumor prevalence curves to an exposure 
level that would pose a‘‘socially accept- 
able risk’’. | 


B. Time to Tumor.—There is in- 
creasing interest in the time to tumor 
dose-response relationship in chronic 
studies. Early tumors have much more 
impact on lifespan than do late tumors. 
Furthermore, for some carcinogens, in 
particular at low levels of exposure, the 
only manifestation of an effect consists of 
an earlier occurrence of tumors in the 
treated animals than in the controls, the 
tumor prevalence being the same in both. 
The prevalance of tumors as a function of 
age (time to tumor) over the life span of 
the animals provides a better description 
of the tumorigenic process than at a single 
point in time of sacrifice or the total prev- 
alence of tumors over the life span. Two 
problems need to be resolved. First, the 
relationship between dosage and median 
time to tumor must be established. Sec- 
ondly, given the dosage, the distribution 
of time to tumors must be established to 
estimate the prevalence of tumors during 
the life span for a given dosage. The sur- 
vival group (life span group) in the ex- 
perimental design of this protocol will 
provide good data for such analyses. 


C. Life Shortening.—The lifespan 
portion of the experimental design allows 
the evaluation of life shortening as an 
endpoint for chronic studies. All of the 
information gathered on time to tumor 
development also demonstrate life short- 
ening for lethal tumors. 


D. Age Sensitivity.—WHazards in- 
volved in exposure to a chemical carcin- 
ogen depend not only on the nature of the 
chemical itself, the route of exposure, 
and the extent of exposure in terms of 
amount and time, but also on the suscep- 
tibility of the animals at the time of ex- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


posure. Age sensitivity studies are being 
conducted in a separate experiment in 
order to permit evaluation of possible age 
sensitivity to 2-AAF in relation to spe- 
cific periods of treatment of mice with this 
compound during serial sacrifice and 
serial treatment phase of the ED,),— 
2-AAF Study. 


E. Regression or Progression of 
Effects. —The experimental design per- 
mits groups fed 2-AAF for 6, 9, and 12 
months and sacrificed to be compared 
with groups fed the same length of time 
but sacrificed at 18 months. The purpose 
is to study the possible regression or pro- 
gression of pretumorous lesions such as 
hyperplasia in relation to dosage and 
time. 


F. Tumor Growth Rate.—The ex- 
perimental design permits an approach to 
the question of the possible dependence 
of tumor growth rate on dosage and treat- 
ment as will be revealed in the serial sacri- 
fice and serial treatment phases of the 
study. 


IV. Experimental Design.—The design 
contains both basic types of experiments: 
survival (lifespan) and serial sacrifice. 
The serial sacrifice portion is sub-divided 
into continuous and discontinued feed- 
ing. 


A. Pilot Studies.—A pilot study in 
which 2-AAF was administered in the 
feed of mice for eighteen months estab- 
lished the suitability of the strain and sex 
and gave indications of the dosage-time 
range to be used in the more extensive 
ED , Study. The results of the pilot study 
will be published elsewhere. 


B. Animals 


1. Species, Strain, and Sex.—Mice 
were selected for this study because of 
the need for large numbers of animals 
required for the statistical validity of 
dose-response studies at low levels of 
exposure (dosage) to a chemical carcino- 
gen. The choice of mice is further sub- 
stantiated if one considers the availability 
of well defined inbred strains of animals 
having a relatively short life span. 


175 


The BALB/c strain was selected be- 
cause of the lack of spontaneous bladder 
tumors in contrast to its high suscepti- 
bility to 2-AAF induction of these tu- 
mors. Based on general concepts and on 
Pilot Study results, the main objective, 
that is the development of suitable mathe- 
matical description of a chemical carcino- 
gen dose-response curve permitting ex- 
trapolation from high to low levels of 
response, was determined to be equally 
possible with either sex of the selected 
strain. The dosage range studied in the 
pilot experiment gave better data points 
on the curve for the female than for the 
male BALB/c mice, therefore, females 
were selected for the ED), Study. The 
nature of the dose-response curve at low 
levels of prolonged exposure to a chemi- 
cal carcinogen could be studied using 
both sexes of several strains of mice and 
using several carcinogens and types of 
tumors. Such an extensive experiment 
would be considered best after a limited 
and more circumscribed study revealed 
the need, amplified the approach and indi- 
cated the success and usefulness of such 
an undertaking. 


2. Age of Animals.—All animals 
allocated to the experiment will be wean- 
lings, three to four weeks of age. 


3. SPF-DF Animals.—All mice 
used in the experiment will be “‘specific 
pathogen free defined flora’ animals de- 
rived in the breeding colony of NCTR 
from a Charles River substrain of 
BALB/c mice. 


C. Dosages.—Based on the Pilot 
Study results, seven dosages expressed 
as ppm of 2-AAF in the feed were se- 
lected to give approximately a tumor 
prevalence of 64 through 1% as indicated 
in Table 5. It must be recognized that the 
dose-response relationship expressed in 
Table 5 is based on an 18-month study in 
which the animals used were not SPF- 
DF animals maintained under barrier 
conditions. Furthermore, although the 
mice were BALB/c females, they were 
from a commercial source and were not 
derived from the NCTR mice breeding 


176 


Table 5.— Bladder tumor prevalence with 2-AAF 
in feed. 


2-AAF Concentration Bladder Tumor 
in Feed (ppm) Prevalence (ED %) 
200 64 
175 32 
150 16 
100 8 
50 4 
D5 2 
10 1 


colony. It must be stressed that the dose 
response relationship is considered the 
best approximation which could be made 
when all the available data were con- 
sidered. The accuracy of this approxi- 
mation can only be determined by the 
EDpo,-2-AAF Chronic Study. 


D. Type and Duration of Treatments. 
—The survival phase of the study in- 
volves a lifespan exposure to 2-AAF in 
the feed. The animals in this phase of the 
study will be removed from the experi- 
ment as they become moribund. The 
serial sacrifice phase involves treatment 
for and sacrifice at 6, 7, 8, 9, 12, 15, and 18 
months. The serial treatment or recovery 
study involves treatment for 6, 9, and 12 
months followed by recovery and sacri- 
fice at the eighteenth month of entering 
the experiment. 


E. Statistics. 


1. Grouping and Randomization of 
Animals.—As animals are received from 
Animal Husbandry Division, they will be 
randomly allocated to the various experi- 
mental groups. This will insure that any 
differences in animals, feed, laboratory 
conditions, or handling will be approxi- 
mately the same for all experimental 
groups. For ease of operation, treatments 
will be grouped in tiers of six cages on a 
rack. This will also average out floor-to- 
ceiling differences in temperature, light, 
and humidity if these should be important 
factors. 


2. Sequential Entry.—The animals 
will be placed on experiment, a room ata 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


* 


time. Each barrier room pertinent to the 
ED,;-2-AAF Chronic Study will be 
loaded at the rate of two racks per week, 
requiring seven weeks to load a room. 
The randomization of animals to treat- 
ments described above should nearly 
eliminate most changes that occur with 
time. 


3. Replication of Module.—To 
conduct the experiment, the module pre- 
sented in the experimental design will be 
replicated six times. That is, the experi- 
ment will be conducted in six barrier 
rooms. This should provide adequate 
numbers of animals to estimate dose- 
response slopes within +50% and to esti- 
mate the ED,, levels within a factor of 
two. Thus, mathematical models that 
differ by a factor of three at the EDo; 
levels can be detected. 

Table 6 presents the number of differ- 
ent dose groups and the number of differ- 
ent experimental components in each of 
the six rooms. 


Summary 


Many facets of life, including food 
products currently consumed involve 
risks. It is a worthy goal to strive for 
absolute safety, but it is impossible to 
demonstrate absolute safety experimen- 
tally. 


Table 6.—2-AAF Chronic Study (Cages/Room). 


The problem is not to determine 
whether or not a socially necessary com- 
pound is a carcinogen at high experi- 
mental doses, but to estimate risks at low 
dosages approximating human exposure 
levels. Such estimation procedures 
should require the setting of tolerances 
based on the certainty of experimental 
results. 

In order to observe biological effects 
with adequate statistical precision from a 
reasonable number of animals, experi- 
mental dosages are generally well above 
human exposure levels. Thus, extrapola- 
tion of effects to lower dosages must be 
made to estimate risks. 

Estimated risks vary widely depending 
on the mathematical model used for ex- 
trapolation and the values of the param- 
eters used in the model. 

Age specific tumor rates may give an 
incomplete description of the tumori- 
genic process. More emphasis is needed 
on survival studies in which time to tumor 
occurrence is studied. A parameter such 
as life shortening may be more meaning- 
ful than the proportion of animals devel- 
oping tumors. 

More information is needed on com- 
parisons of results for various chemicals 
and species from survival studies, in- 
cluding the effect of dosage on the param- 


Serial Diag- 
Purpose Survival Serial Sacrifice Treatment nostic Total 
Mo. of Sacrifice None 18 15 12 9 8 7 6 18 tS “LS 
Mo. on 2-AAF Life 0-18 0-15 0-12 0-9 0-8 0-7 0-6 0-12 0-9 0-6 
EDe 6 12 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 78 
ED;. 6 12 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 6 72 
ED,, 17a 24 12 12 6 6 6 6 12 ea 192 120 
ED, 12 24 18 18 | OAS ppl Ace 0 (7 Ale 18 18s" 18 174 
ED, 18 36 24 18 96 
ED, 36 jp 36 144 
ED, 72 144 216 
ED, 18 36 12 12 6 6 6 6 6 108 
Total 180 5604 24a FY? 36036 636.5 36. 42 1a s (Rs 42 1008 


Months denoted as time on treatment. 


Dosages based on expected % of bladder tumors at 18 months. 

Four mice per cage; 72 cages per rack; 14 racks per room. 

Repeat experiment in 6 rooms for a total of 24,192 animals. 

Replace cages for diagnostics as animals are depleted after 6 month serial sacrifice. 


Use BALB/c female weanling mice. 


_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


177 


eters of the time pattern response both 
in man and animals. 

More information is needed on human 
intake of various chemicals so that esti- 
mates of risk can take into account varia- 


tion in exposure rather than calculating 


risks for average or ‘“‘maximum’’ con- 
sumption. 

I would be remiss if I did not stress 
that the major advantage of animal toxi- 
cology over human epidemiology is that 
the toxicity can be predicted before hu- 
man exposure. 

I hope that I have adequately dealt with 
some of the questions from the floor and 
discussed some of the needs in statistics 
from the vantage point of a toxicologist. I 
have attempted to identify one of the sci- 
entific programs at NCTR, the chronic 
low level dose response experiment with 
2-AAF. 

I must emphasize that there are two 
other areas in toxicology equally needy in 
basic dose response experimentation: 
mutagenesis and teratogenesis. The 
NCTR is launching programs in these 
areas equal in depth to the chronic study I 
have described. In closing let me take a 
few minutes of your time to discuss why 
we cannot make decisions as to the ad- 
verse health of any chemical in a vacuum. 
We are now facing a severe fossil fuel en- 
ergy shortage. Most of the world is facing 
a severe nutritional shortage. Consider 
the following chain of events. The United 
States exports grain and improves our 
balance of payments. The United States 
imports oil and shifts our balance of pay- 
ments toward a deficit. The EPA wishes 
to improve air quality and among several 
approaches is the use of low sulfur fuel 
and control technology. Both cost 
money. An energy crunch comes along 
with escalating costs. The FDA, also op- 
erating under laws to protect the public 
from adverse health effects, limits the use 
of growth promotants; the EPA controls 
the use of certain pesticides and the result 
is less grain available after domestic use. 
The use of natural gas is limited in the 
production of fertilizers and farmers may 
have less fuel. All of this results in less 
grain at a higher cost. When less grain is 


178 


available for export we have less money 
for low sulfur fuels and the air becomes 
less clean or control technology costs 
escalate. The point is that agricultural 
production and many other components 
of a highly technological society are very 
closely webbed with options for a clean 
environment. More attention should be 
placed on legislation consistent with inte- 
grated control and quality. It is the task of 
the toxicologist and statistician to pro- 
vide the decision makers with data which 
can be used in establishing relative health 
effects. 


References Cited 


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Altshuler, B. 1970. Theory for the measurement of 
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Berenblum, J., and Haran, N. 1955. The influence 
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Berg, J. W. 1964. Disease-oriented end results. 
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Berkson, J., and Elveback, L. 1960. Competing 
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Blum, H. F. 1959. Carcinogenesis by Ultraviolet 
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Breslow, N. 1970. A generalized Kruskal-Wallis test 
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patterns of censorship. Biometrika 57: 579-94. 

Chand, N., and Hoel, D. G. 1973. A comparison of 
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Biometry, Florida State University, Tallahassee. 

Chiang, C. L. 1968. Introduction to Stochastic Pro- 
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Cook, P. J., Doll, R., and Fellingham, S. A. 1969. 
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Culter, S. J., and Ederer, F. 1958. Maximum utili- 
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Day, T. D. 1967. Carcinogenic action of cigarette 
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Druckrey, H. 1967. Quantitative aspects of chemi- 
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Drugs, (Evaluation of Risks) pp. 60-78. Editor 
Rene Truhaut. Springer-Verlag, N. Y. 

FDA Advisory Committee on Protocols for Safety 
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Friedman, Leo. 1973. Personal communication. 

Gross, M. A., Fitzhugh, O. G., and Mantel, N. 
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181-194. 

Hoel, D. G. 1972. A representation of mortality 
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Hoel, D. G. and Walburg, H. E. 1972. Statistical 
analysis of survival experiments. J. Nat. Cancer 
Inst. 49: 361-372. 

Kaplan, E. L. and Meier, P. 1958. Nonparametric 
estimation from incomplete observations. J. 
Amer. Statist. Assoc. 53: 457-81. 

Kimball, A. W. 1958. Disease incidence estimation 
in populations subject to multiple causes of 
death. Bull. Int. Stat. Inst. 36: 193-204. 

Lee, P. N., and O’Neill, J. A. 1971. The effect both 
of time and dose applied on tumor incidence rate 
in benzopyrene skin painting experiments. Br. 
J. Cancer 25: 759-770. 

Mantel, N., and Bryan, W. R. 1961. Safety testing 


of carcinogenic agents. J. Nat. Cancer Inst. 
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Mantel, N., and Haenszel, W. 1959. Statistical 
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719-48. 

Moeschberger, M. L., and David, H. A. 1971. Life- 
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909-33. 

Murray, J. L., and Axtell, L. M. Impact of cancer: 
Years of life lost due to cancer mortality (to be 
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Peto, R., Lee, P. N., and Paige, W. S. 1972. 
Statistical analysis of the bioassay of continuous 
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Peto, R., and Lee, P. 1973. Weibull distributions for 
continuous-carcinogenesis experiments. Bio- 
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Peto, R., and Pike, M. C. 1973. Conservatism of the 
approximation 2(O-E)’/E in the logrank test for 
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29: 579-589. 

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Summary Address for the Symposium— 
Statistics and the Environment 


-Fred C. Leone 


Executive Director, American Statistical Association, 
806 15th St., N.W., Washington, D. C. 20005 


As the pilot said to his passengers 


while trying to find his way along the 


coast in inclement weather, ‘‘Folks, I 
have some good news and some bad 
news’’, I can say that I have some good 
and some bad to report. But first the 
bad, then the good. 

The objective of this Symposium as 
stated in the program was ‘‘to provide a 
forum for the interchange of ideas of 
mutual interest among experts in toxi- 
cology and environmental areas with 
specialists in the statistical techniques 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


of data gathering and analysis. This is 
not a meeting where statisticians will 
speak statistically to their colleagues, or 
environmentalists will converse in their 
own language to their co-scientists. It is 
hoped that attempts to solve environ- 
mental problems will be enhanced by an 
interdisciplinary approach resulting 
from the communication among the per- 
tinent professions.”’ 

If in fact this meant that we will solve 
many problems here, we have failed and 
failed miserably. If the purpose is, as 


179 


Dr. Sam Greenhouse stated yesterday, 
not to talk about threshold (this is 
peripheral but important) but rather put 
together our accumulated knowledge on 
how Dr. Henderson and others may 
continue in their research, then perhaps 
we have succeeded. If it is to determine 
how to establish the impact of concentra- 
tions on health, how to find ways to 
answer the question of what procedure 
to use for obtaining an assessment of 
impact of an increased pollution to the 
heart, the lung, limb malformations, 
then perhaps we have succeeded. No, 
we have not answered the question, but- 
we have convinced ourselves that this 
can be anwered better by a team which 
involves both the environmentalist and 
the statistician. But let me say more 
about that later. First, I would like to 
answer the following questions: 


1. What have we said here in general? 
2. What have we said specifically — 
(a) the keynoters? 
(b) the environmentalists? 
(c) the statisticians? 
(d) the discussants? 
3. What kind of response do I hear— 
(a) from individuals? 
(b) from associations? 
Following this I will come back to the 
question — 
4. What did we accomplish? 
and finally — 
5. Where do we go from here? 


What Have We Said in General? 


In general, the toxicologists, 
epidemiologists and other environmen- 
talists presented some issues, some 
concerns, and a broad view of areas of 
environmental research. In some of 
these a great deal has been ac- 
complished in the past, while in others 
we have hardly gotten off the ground. 
The reasons for the poor state of affairs 
in some areas varies all the way from 
lack of knowledge of what to measure, 
the inability to measure, the failure 
to determine—the population, the 
difficulty of transferral of one type of 
test on one population to a test on 


180 


another population, etc. Low dose, safe 
dose, safe concentrations and thresh- 
olds seemed to pervade the discus- 
sions at regular intervals. The gen- 
eral view was that a great deal of 
reasearch has been performed but its 
applicability is at times questioned. So 
also, in some cases, is the statistical 
methodology employed to analyze these 
data. The statistician, on the other 
hand, may not come into these prob- 
lems with 20 years of research experi- 
ence in the subject matter area. He 
must develop some parallel expertise, 
not alone, but as a member of a re- 
search team including the environmen- 
talist. There are too few statisticians 
who have worked for many years in 
epidemiology, toxicology, medicine, 
public health, etc. 

Perhaps what I am asking for is an 
understanding and patience on the part 
of the environmentalist who wants 
cooperative assistance from the statisti- 
cian. Just as he asks the statistician for 
patience in attempting to learn the prob- 
lem, so also he must be patient. There 
are too many statisticians today who 
claim to be applied statisticians, whose 
concept of handling a real problem is to 
work with and manipulate the data in a 
vacuum, completely unrelated to the 
real problem. These people might be 
treating the number of students who 
obtained various grades on College 
Board Tests the same way as they 
would treat the number of deaths due to 
lung cancer from excessive exposure of 
one type or another. Statistical methods 
need not be wedded to one area alone. 
But statisticians cannot help solve real 
problems unless they know what the 
real data are and what these data mean. 


What Have the Speakers Said? 


Now let us be more specific about the 
presentations and discussions. What did 
they tell us (or me, a statistician)? 


The Keynoters.—The keynoters did 
just that. Slightly out of sequence, let 
me turn first to the remarks of Mr. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Brownlee. From the point of view of 
our responsibility toward legislative ac- 
tion he said, “‘If I were to choose a 
theme (for us) to rally behind, it is that 
the scientific community must make 
itself more visible and available to pol- 
icy makers than it has in the 
past. . . . The Congress has a pressing 
need for legitimate scientific advice, and 
it has been too hard to get it in the 
past.”’ He pointed to the pathetic lack 
of technical expertise available to Con- 
gress, and the fact that Congressmen 
must make decisions on very little sci- 
entific knowledge and that we have 
failed to translate the fundamental facts 
to them in a simple layman’s language. 
Just as we need an aggressive Congress 
so also we need aggressive scientists 
and aggressive scientific organizations 
to provide Congress with facts that they 
can understand. Essentially we have a 
choice— either to have legislation by an 
uninformed Congress or assure that 
Congress be informed and so hopefully 
make the proper decisions. Specifically 
I ask each of us ‘“‘What have the 
organizations which we represent done 
to influence Congress by way of good 
scientific information?”’ 

Dr. Vaun Newill in his keynote re- 
marks asked each of us very pointedly: 
Who establishes research priorities, and 
how are these done? Who should sup- 
port this research? How do we identify 
the problem and how do we assess the 
alternative solution? In short, we are 
faced with a certain environmental ex- 
posure which is a threat to our popula- 
tion or a segment of this population. 
The task then is to reduce the environ- 
mental risks and the resulting dis- 
- benefit. In an attempt to look for a 
solution we are faced with a host of 
common covariates. These must be 
considered if the solution is to be valid. 
He touched on the problem of balance 
of degree of health protection with the 
cost and, finally, the problem of im- 
plementation and enforcement. 

Dr. George Box reviewed with us his 
concept of the iterative learning proc- 
ess, which goes from hypothesis via 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


deduction to fact; then induction back ° 
to hypothesis, and the loop continues as 
a closed loop. To this the true state of 
nature introduces noise or random er- 
ror. In all of this statistical method, the 
tool, the catalyst of the scientists is at 
the disposal of the scientist. But what of 
scientific method? While the closed loop 
depends on the wit and knowledge of 
the investigator, the statistician’s job is 
to advise and assist in two crucial tasks. 
These relate (1) to the design and (2) to 
the analysis. The term design is used 
here quite loosely. In this, one must 
include not only experimental design 
where applicable but also surveys and 


the examination of past data. In es- 


sence, this includes the proper choice 
and collection of the data. Just as 
important is the analysis where the 
statistician plays a key role in interpre- 
tation of the data themselves, with the 
scientist drawing further conclusions 
from this. But in all of this the scientist 
and statistician together are faced with a 
world of variation and the problem of 
causation. To cope with this variation 
proper sampling techniques, weighting 
methods, test improvement, and 
economy of operations all play a role. 
In causation versus association, this 
problem cannot be solved by either of 
the two (environmentalist or statistician) 
alone, but together, if in fact it can be 
solved adequately in all cases. Finally; 
the research team in developing models 
must not err either in over simplicity 
nor over elaboration. 


Carcinogens —Safe Doses?—In dis- 
cussing the topic of safe doses of car- 
cinogens, Dr. David Rall ruled out 
human epidemiological studies as not 
being of sufficient help to assure safety 
since (1) they take too long, (2) they are 
very expensive in available personnel 
and dollars, and (3) they are always 
subject to severe criticism. However, in 
animal studies there are such problems 
as pharmacological differences, receptor 
differences, temporal differences, and 
size differences. Once the translation 
from animal to human is attempted, we 


181 


are still faced with other differences, 
namely, those due to population—that 
is, its size, its genetic heterogeneity, its 
health, age, etc.—and those due to 
environment—that is, nutritional, 
chemical and physical. | 

Dr. Marvin Schneiderman next man- 
aged to place us in a world of trans- 
science, that is, that world of scientific 
problems which cannot be solved by the 
scientist himself. The statistician must 
live in this world and be a part of it and 
listen and plan and work with its other 
members. They must help determine 
just what problem is to be solved, what 
data are to be collected. Too often the 
wrong data are collected and analyzed 
about some other problem. Together the 
statistician and the environmentalist 
must design and plan and determine 
their domain and frame of reference. 
And together they must interpret. In the 
matter of the determination of safe 
doses, the statistician is faced with both 
non-statistical and statistical problems 
of estimation. Together they must de- 
termine risks, costs, benefits and many 
other criteria. 

What can the biological scientist learn 
from the physical scientist? This topic 
was touched upon but with little depth. 
For example, the Weibull distribution 
was mentioned. This particular family 
of curves is used extensively by the 
industrial and mechanical engineers in 
reliability studies. It may prove most 
effective in the study of the effect of 
increase of doses. This particular curve 
has three parameters, or constants, 
which affect its location, shape, and 
range. 

In the discussion following the earlier 
papers, Drs. Harold Peck and Jane 
Worcester emphasized the importance 
of stronger communications between 
the biologist and statistician, the coop- 
eration of union and management in 
keeping and sharing good records. They 
discussed the problems of adequate 
sample size and proper confidence in- 
tervals. Even if, for example, the ex- 
pected probability of an event is in fact 
0.001, a sample size as large as 1000 


182 


tells us very littl. If we have no 
occurrences of the event, the estimated 
probability is zero. But we have 95% 
confidence that it is at most 0.02. That 
is not too informative, is it? 

Another topic which came up several 
times in our discussion sessions was 
that of accelerated tests. These are 
carried out rather successfully in en- 
gineering, though not without hazards in 
drawing conclusions. Though most dis- 
cussants did not feel that there was a 
great applicability in biological studies, 
there is in my opinion a methodology 
well worth considering. Some tests cer- 
tainly will not lend themselves to accel- 
eration. But is this true in all cases? 

Finally, the area of cost benefit 
analysis was explored briefly. Perhaps 
the greatest difficulty here is the con- 
tinued attempt to consider this simply as 
a univariate problem when in essence it — 
is specifically multivariate, both in input — 
of control data and the response. 


Air Pollutants—Safe Concentra- 
tions?—In the discussion of the topic 
of air pollutants Dr. John Finklea 
first posed a series of 12 questions 
about auto emissions and public health. 
Since this particular presentation was 
covered most capably by Dr. Morris 
Cranmer, I shall address myself to 
just two points—first on a personal 
tone, second as a Statistician. He de- 
veloped briefly the topic of ‘“‘unre- 
strained advocacy’’. What a polite term 
for ‘‘you look out for your interest and 
I'll look out for mine.’’ Perhaps this is 
too harsh. Yes, we are biased and we 
do have special interests. But let us, 
manufacturer or consumer, public or 
private, labor or management, tox- 
icologist or statistician, not get into that 
Archie Bunker mentality of “‘Don’t give 
me any facts, my mind is made up.”’ 
Advocacy can be healthy, but there is 
some ground in between. 

The other point concerns a task of 
rather monumental proportions. I wish I 
could take the time, the hours, the 
weeks necessary to explore with Dr. 
Finklea all of the twelve questions he 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


posed and to develop for each of these 
one or two simple, clear examples in his 
field. With these the students in my field 
could then obtain the motivation to 
work with him and his colleagues. Just 
as the biological scientist is encouraged 
in the utility of proper statistical 
analysis when he sees some statistical 
techniques at work (in his language), the 
statistician must see some clear, simple, 
short success stories. And each should 
be five pages or less if I am to present 
them to a student I want to interest in 
applied statistics. There are a number of 
things I would like to say further, but 
hopefully these will come out in the 
discussion. 

Dr. John Hromi’s presentation cen- 
tered mainly around the concept of 
deterioration factor (D. F.). It is rather 
unfortunate that he did not develop 
further all of the statistical design and 
planning which went into this problem. 
There are many other facets of this 
problem which he touched upon such as 
the distribution of emission values. The 
underlying distribution in itself is key to 
the understanding and ultimate solution 
of many environmental problems. Add 
to this truncation of data and changes in 
the data base, and the problems are 
much more difficult. But what if a 
particular distribution cannot be as- 
sumed? What of the whole area of 
so-called distribution-free statistics? 
The biostatistician has done much with 
this. How much is the _ toxicologist 
using this? 

The discussion which followed the 
two presentations on air pollutants was 
the highlight of the entire symposium. 
In this Drs. William Kirchhoff and 
Nozer Singpurwalla touched on such 
items as (1) the public breaking point, 
(2) the involvement of the statistician 
and mathematician in significant com- 
plex problems, (3) the multivariate re- 
sponses, and (4) measurement errors. 

There was some concern as to 
whether basic data have been generated 
in some areas, as well as the nature of 
these data. If the data do exist, who has 
them? Are there provisions for feed- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


back? What is the implementation of 
planning and design? How good is the 
monitoring? Is the coordination among 
monitoring agencies adequate? Does it 
exist, or is there a serious fragmenta- 
tion? In short, is there a concerted 
effort to evaluate and control the insult 
to the human body by all manners of 
pollutants? 


Occupational Exposures—Thresh- 
olds?—Standards are legal implica- 
tions. They alone do not accomplish 
the objectives. With this thought in 
the background, Dr. Richard Hender- 
son proceeded to develop his topic 
of ‘‘Potential Hazards in Work En- 
vironment.’’ He discussed compara- 
tive figures on urinary, fecal and biliary 
mercury concentrations. For each of 
these measurements we are still con- 
cerned with the distribution of the meas- 
urement and the effect of many other 
factors which create “‘noise’’. Are the 
data from the urine samples simply a set 
of random numbers? What about the 
problem of equal doses not being equal 
potential hazards? What does the 
threshold mean, and how is it related to 
some established standard? Should we 
recognize a distribution of standards? 
How can we use the distribution in 
estimation? 

A report on *“‘The Study of Steelwork- 
ers Mortality’’ was presented by Dr. 
William Lloyd. This study covered the 
years 1953-1961 and involved a popula- 
tion of 59,072 individuals. This is a most 
significant study in which expectations 
of deaths in various categories are com- 
pared with the actual results. Within 
this study of the Allegheny County 
steelworkers many factors were ex- 
plored, such as causes of death, types 
of employment, location in the plant, 
white-non white employees and others. 
Even when drawing conclusions the 
issue of causation was treated carefully. 
Other studies of the same nature hope- 
fully will be available to compare with 
this. 

In the discussion which followed, 
Drs. Samuel Greenhouse and Charles 


183 


Powell explored the problems of the 
relationship of agent and human host, 
the purpose of the original data collec- 
tion and their continued use at later 
dates, and the reluctance of a statisti- 
cian to go on a “‘fishing expedition’’ for 
data when the random variable, the 
measurement and the parameters are 
not very clear at the early stages of the 
research. 


What Kind of Responses Do We Hear? 


From individual participants in this 
symposium on Statistics and the Envi- 
ronment we hear a range of responses. In 
part there is disappointment that we did 
not tackle the nitty-gritty of a number of 
real problems. We did a little, but 
perhaps too little. Could we have done 
more in this short time, with this for- 
mat? From a very small minority we 
hear that all of this which we have 
discussed has been done. We are redis- 
covering the wheel? To these I answer 
humbly, ‘“‘“The wheel for one car may 
not fit another. Help us modify it and 
don’t shout at us or you'll end up 
talking to yourself.’ From others, the 
majority, we hear a plea of cooperation, 
communication and team effort. To 
them I say: “‘Many of my statistical 
friends may not understand the toxi- 
cological problem. But don’t confuse 
this with lack of interest and willing- 
ness. They may not call you. Perhaps it 
is because they are not aware of the 
challenge, the complexity, the full di- 
mensions of the problem. Why don’t 
you call them?’’ 

But what do we hear from the 
organizations—those represented here 
and those of whom we are members? 
Organizations are slow to move. The 
older they are, sometimes, the longer 
it takes. Incidentally, the American 
Statistical Association was born in 1839. 
That simply means that there is more of 
a challenge to us. As associations we 
should begin to be aggressive. We rep- 
resent professional societies. Why were 
these established? To write papers, to 


184 


get brownie points or to be a service to 
the profession and to the small and large 


and larger community of which they are 
members? And when I say community I 
am not referring to inanimate structures, 
but people and families and brothers 
and sisters, however you define them. 
In brief I believe that we have ac- 
complished our purpose. No, we have 
not solved any problems, except the 


problem of learning about the word 


‘‘communications’’. Let’s keep talking 


and learning from each other and learn- 


ing to work with each other. 


Now, Where do we Go from Here? 


I would be very sad if all of the 
activity of the past three days would 


end as we leave this National Academy — 


of Sciences Auditorium. I somehow feel 


that there is a sort of personal mandate © 
for each of us to move forward. Now | 
what form shall it take? Let me ask — 


about some possibilities. 


1. Let me begin by informing you © 
that I am exploring with Vaun Newill — 


the potential of a closer relationship 
between ASA and EPA. Where it will 
go I don’t know, but we shall explore. 


2. Should we attempt to establish a 


more formal interrelationship between 
the statistician and the toxicologist on 
an Association level? Some of us will 
explore this. 

3. Should we have a similar sym- 
posium in about 12 or 18 months with 
the same and expanded participants? 
This might start with preprints of prob- 


lems to be presented and then explored © 


in workshops. 

4. Should we try to develop a 
Casebook—not lengthy, but with 10 to 
12 case histories? What would be its 
purpose? And who would be the audi- 
ence? 


5. Should some permanent committee | 


on an association-to-association level be 
established? 

Those are some of the questions— 
now where do we go? 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


Summary Session 
Panel Discussion 


Chairman: 


Panelists: 


Dr. Seymour L. Friess, Naval Medical Research Institute 


Mr. Leon G. Billings, Senate Subcommittee on Air and Water Pollution 


Dr. Morris F. Cranmer, National Center for Toxicological Research 
Dr. Fred C. Leone, American Statistical Association 


DR. FRIESS—That ends the formal 
program of the morning. I now open to 
the floor and to the panel a question- 
and-answer period in which you can 
range as broadly into the past and future 
as you like. 


DR. MARVIN A. KASTEN- 
BAUM—I would like to start in the 
British tradition by thanking Fred 
Leone for his excellent summary of 
this meeting. I would like, also, to 
publicly offer my assistance to Fred and 
to the American Statistical Association 
in following up some of the proposals 
made at this meeting. 

I was motivated to comment by a 
statement that Phil Kirchhoff made yes- 
terday concerning the failure to study 
employees of a TNT factory in Chat- 
tanooga. He asserted that, having once 
failed to study this group, we have lost 
forever the opportunity to examine the 
effects of nitrogen dioxide on an ex- 
posed population. In response to this 
assertion I would remind you that all 
knowledge we have on the effects of 
radiation on the populations of 
Hiroshima and Nagasaki has been 
gathered retrospectively. Indeed the 
Atomic Energy Commission has spent 
Over 25 years in an attempt to establish 
valid dosimetric measurements. Thus if 
nitrogen dioxide is sufficiently important 
in a population which is no longer being 
exposed, and if such a previously ex- 
posed population exists, it is certainly 
not too late to study that population 
exactly as the populations of Hiroshima 
and Nagasaki have been studied. These 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


are not opportunities that we must 
necessarily consider as completely lost. 
We should rather address ourselves to 
the relative importance of specific ques- 
tions that demand answers. 

A similar suggestion applies to the 
question raised a few moments ago by 
Mr. Billings concerning the effects of 
disposal of solid waste in the soil. Many 
years ago the Atomic Energy Commis- 
sion saw, as its obligation, the need to 
study the effect of disposal of all 
radioactive wastes on the soils and 
water systems in the areas where such 
problems arose. I’m not suggesting that 
this problem is exactly analogous to the 
one cited by Mr. Billings, but the fact is 
that this type of scientific input was avail- 
able to Congress, and in that instance 
Congress called upon the scientific 
community to present available options. 
The responsibility for these matters is 
not entirely in the hands of the scientific 
community; some of it rests with Con- 
gress whose prerogative it is to call for 
this information when it needs it. 

One point that I’m glad Fred brought 
up concerns the exchange of informa- 
tion among statisticians working in the 
areas of engineering, physical, and 
biological sciences. The subject of re- 
liability and biometry is an excellent 
case in point. In this area engineers and 
actuaries have been working for many 
years on similar mathematical and 
Statistical problems without a mutual 
exchange of information. What en- 
gineers have referred to as failure rates 
and hazard rates, the actuaries and 
biostatisticians have been calling death 


185 


rates, force of mortality, and mortality 
rates. The mathematical reduction of all 
of these concepts is identical. The 
statisticians in their respective fields of 
application have been talking about the 
same thing. Yet it wasn’t until just 
recently that Frank Proschan finally 
brought this material together in a book 
called Reliability in Biometry. We must 
realize that such things as multiple 
risks, multiple component failures, and 
competing risks all deal with the same 
or similar problems. If the terminology 
is different, the statistical community 
must educate itself to this fact. 

One point that Dr. Cranmer raised 
this morning concerns the serious ques- 
tion of decision-making. I believe that 
Statisticians must address themselves to 
this question as it relates to the matter 
of professional ethics. Dr. Cranmer 
spoke of acceptable risks in terms of 
anti-cancer therapeutic agents. Anti- 
cancer therapeutic agents are generally 
used on human populations, and this 
practice has been interpreted by some 
people as human experimentation. We 
are told that the patients for whom these 
risky agents are prescribed may be more 
willing to accept the associated risk. 
The truth of this statement depends to a 
great degree on the alternatives that are 
presented to the patient. If the choice is 
between death and extension of life, 
then a relevant and important factor in 
this equation must be ‘‘the quality of 
life.’’ It is not sufficient, therefore, for 
the statistician who examines the ‘‘end- 
results’’ of such studies to make deci- 
sions based only on the extension of 
life. He must also assign appropriate 
weights to ‘“‘the quality of life.”’ 

This matter of decision making relates 
to the subject of teratogenesis raised by 
both Marvin Schneidermann and David 
Rall. Many years ago, in a major exper- 
iment in mouse genetics at the Oak 
Ridge National Laboratory, Dr. Wil- 
liam Russell produced more mutations 
with 300 roentgens of radiation than 
with 1000 roentgens. On the basis of 
these results he might have concluded 
that 1000 r was less teratogenic than 300 


186 


r. Instead, he pursued his studies 


further until he found that 1000 r was ~ 


killing a large number of immature 
sperm that hadn’t had a chance to 
develop into mutants. 

Finally, I will say a few words on the 
subject of trans-science. One of the 
examples that Dr. Alvin Weinberg cites 
in his MINERVA paper on the subject 
of trans-science was based on a real 
statistical problem presented to me in 
Oak Ridge. It was the usual question 


_ posed to statisticians concerning the 


size of sample necessary to detect a 
prescribed difference in the means of 
two samples. The spontaneous mutation 
rate from Dr. Russell’s strain of mice is 
56 in a million. This means that during 
the past quarter of a century, Dr. 
Russell has looked at almost a million 
mice and has counted almost 56 muta- 
tions. It is not a number to be treated 
lightly. The question that was asked is: 
How large a sample would be needed to 
demonstrate, with a certain degree of 
alpha and beta risk, that a small dose of 
radiation increases the mutation rate by 
0.5%? The answer to this question, 
using standard statistical techniques, is 
8 billion mice. This doesn’t mean that 
the experiment can’t be done; it simply 
means that nobody in his right mind 
would do it. And this is trans-science. 


MR. BILLINGS—I’m rather in- 
terested in the comment concerning the 
AEC studies on disposition of solid- 
liquid radioactive materials, and the 
extent to which the knowledge and 
information developed by those studies 
is transferable to polyethylene bags and 
aerosol cans. 


DR. KASTENBAUM—I said that 
they were not directly analogous. In 
order to get this information, Congress 
needs to ask its questions seriously. It 
should not expect that answers will be 
volunteered for questions that have not 
been asked. 


DR. FRIESS—Id like to comment 
on current modes of the interaction 
between Congressional committees and 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


scientists, particularly in that there ap- 
pears to be a breed of scientist who is a 
born testifier, with influence directly 
depending on his fluency with words. 


MR. BILLINGS—We call those 
scientific streakers today. 


DR. FRIESS—Is there any way that 
Congressional committees can select 
the kind of scientific talent they want for 
consultation, or are they at the mercy of 
whoever happens to step forward for 
one motive or another? 


MR. BILLINGS—Well, we tried 
something a little bit unique when we 
wrote the 1972 Water Act. We assigned 
a scientist to our staff—that is unique 
for [the] Congress, I can assure you. He 
did some really superb things in helping 
us put some flesh on definitions of toxic 
and hazardous materials and son on. He 
was able to reach into the scientific 
community. I’m absolutely sure he 
reached a number of people we couldn’t 
have, but I’m not sure that the people 
he reached were any better or worse 
than the people who would reach out to 
us on a regular basis. My eight years of 
experience on this subcommittee has 
been that we try to absorb all the 
information we can get. The scientific 
loudmouths are the best things going 
because they’re the only ones we can 
hear. We have a limited capacity to 
understand the very technical published 
material, so we have to depend on the 
scientists who can speak in plain lan- 
guage. That tends to cause over- 
simplification and a certain amount of 
scientific horror among their colleagues. 
On the other hand it is the only really 
_ relevant information that we get. Com- 
munication must be initiated by the 
scientific community, because we don’t 
know who they are, and we have no 
way of asking the appropriate persons 
for it. We need people to come forward 
who can express fairly complex infor- 
mation in layman’s terms. We know 
some of the words, most of us can read, 
and some of us even listen. Let me 
give you an example of the problem we 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


have. Up until two years ago the 
staff of the subcommittee on Air 
and Water Pollution consisted of one 
person—myself. We had one excel- 
lent minority staff person who had 
scientific credentials—this was rela- 
tively rare. That was the total subcom- 
mittee staff capacity directed toward the 
writing of the Clean Air Act. Well, that 
gives you absolutely no time to absorb 
other data, especially when you are 
writing speeches, articles, and reports, 
conducting hearings, and so on. I think 
I have put some of the parameters on 
our problem. 


DR. LEONE—I know that each 
committee decides its own method of 
obtaining witnesses. Does yours ask the 
associations to recommend a key wit- 
ness in this area or that? Once you go to 
the top level of an association, there is 
no axe to grind, no prima donna to take 
care of, no loudmouth to worry about. 
In fact, they would avoid these people 
because they would recommend their 
most competent individual. In fact, in 
such a thing as the Clean Air Act, 
perhaps an association can identify 
people who would spend time working 
on it as part of their professional activity. 


MR. BILLINGS—Let me make a 
couple of comments. I doubt that I can 
tell you the names of three or four 
associations, or how many there are. 
That is how poor the communication 
has been. It’s partly my fault—mostly 
limitation of time. Our experience with 
most associations outside the scientific 
community has been that the associa- 
tion has represented the lowest common 
denominator of any point of view, 
rather than a generally useful perspec- 
tive from the best elevation. By the 
way, when I use that word—loud- 
mouth—I use it kindly. If it hadn’t 
been for loudmouths there wouldn’t 
have been any push. We have gone 
to what academic institutions we could, 
and obtained information from what 
we have been able to read. When 
anyone has something to say in the 
science magazines, we call him up and 


187 


ask him to come down and testify. I 
think my brother is a member of the 
American Statistical Association, but 
other than that, I had never heard of it 
before. And I never heard that there 
was a toxicological association, either. I 
know there are toxicologists. We de- 
pend on EPA labs and EPA people like 
Jack Finklea and David Rall at NIEHS. 
We didn’t even know who they were 
until they came out of the woodwork 
when the Nixon administration decided 
to kill science. There are some real 
limitations. I don’t feel embarrassed 
about it all because I know why we 
haven’t been able to find you, but I 
wonder why you haven’t been able to 
find us? I suppose that is part of the 
problem. 


MR. WANDS—I don’t want to pick 
on our fresh guest too heavily this morn- 
ing, but you'll recognize him as a 
newcomer to our entire group. We’ve 
been at each other’s throats for the last 
two days, and you’ve just arrived, Mr. 
Billings, so we will direct quite a few of 
our questions to you this morning. I’m 
glad to hear that there is a mutual 
seeking of each other’s help. The 
mutual frustration is not knowing whom 
you're reaching for. I can tell you that 
the scientific community by and 
large — particularly toxicology and other 
environmental types of sciences and of 
course, as Dr. Leone has said, the 
Statistician community—is most anx- 
ious to be helpful at any stage in the 
legislative process. We can offer you 
reliable and responsible witnesses who 
will have credibility within the scientific 
community and who will have com- 
municability to the lay public. 

Now I would like to ask you two 
questions, if I may. One, the Nation’s 
largest employer is the U. S. Govern- 
ment. How does it stand in relationship 
to environmental laws which Congress 
has passed? What is its status as to 
compliance with those regulations? 
Two, during the last two days, we have 
skirted around a basic issue which was 
discussed here at the Academy a few 


188 


months ago—how safe is safe? The 
question has been the concept of the 
acceptance of some degree of risk— 
—maybe a very infinitesimal risk such 
as one case of cancer in a hundred 
million. That number has been pub- 
lished and bandied about here. Perhaps 
you have a little better finger on the 
public pulse regarding this kind of situa- 
tion than we in the scientific community 
have. How do you feel about the possi- 
bility of assessing the public’s willing- 
ness to accept some degree of risk in 
order to maintain the life style of which 
you spoke? 


MR. BILLINGS—You asked two 
questions and I’m giving three answers. 
First, on your question of being helpful, 
remember that limited capacity we have 
to seek you out. When we have a 
problem we will appreciate your volun- 
teering the best assistance that you 
have. I really would be making false 
promises if I suggested any real possibil- 
ity of us knowing well enough what kind 
of input you and your colleagues would 
be able to make sufficiently in advance 
to go out and get it. 

Second, the Federal Government’s 
job in environmental improvement is 
relatively adequate but not if you as- 
sume that the national government was 
expected to take a leadership role in 
these areas. Let me give you one exam- 
ple. The Tennessee Valley Authority is 
one of the leading utilities undermining 
the Clean Air Act and not responding to 
its challenge. I must say that the De- 
fense Department has been remarkably 
effective in most areas, partly because 
their funding is more adequate. 

Now as to ‘‘how safe is safe?’’, which 
I think is the most important question 
you asked. There is a tendency to put 
policy makers into the position of hav- 
ing to define some acceptable degree of 
risk based on scientific evidence, or 
conversely to show that which occurs is 
not unacceptably risky. Now I don’t 
really know how you cope with that 
problem except in these ways. We are 
living in a technological society— 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


technology is responsible for the life 
style which both you and I prefer. It 
seems elemental to insist that the 
minimum controls on environmental deg- 
radation be those which are technolog- 
ically possible. After you have achieved 
that which can be done, you have an 
opportunity to evaluate what remains to 
be done. The fact of the matter is that, 
short of draconian measures, you are 
not going to effect many enviromental 
improvements beyond the limits of 
technology. The most difficult changes 
to make are beyond the limits of 
technology. You then get into the alter- 
ation of life styles, transportation and 
consumption patterns and so on. Those 
are the last changes you want to make, 
because it is then that you really get into 
the public’s defining that degree of risk. 
Once you have said, ‘‘All right, the best 
you can get out of the technological pig 
is this particular squeal,’’ then the pub- 
lic can say, “‘Well, we are willing to 
take the risk because we don’t want to 
make these changes.’’ Then policy 
makers get into the extremely difficult 
and often untenable political position in 
which a majority of the public least 
exposed to the risk is willing to impose 
a greater risk than the minority of the 
public is willing to accept—the infirm, 
the old, and the young. But now there 
will be a problem in the air quality area 
in places like the Los Angeles basin, 
where the people won’t want to change 
their living pattern and where the limits 
of technology will be achieved. There 
will still be unacceptable levels of risk 
to health for a considerable sector of the 
people. I doubt that there is an easy or 
even an acceptable political response to 
this problem, but on the other hand I 
have some faith that the response will 
come about. It will take a lot more time 
than we envision in the Clean Air Act. 


DR. CRANMER—I would like to 
make a few comments, if I may, on a 
point that we often bandy about in 
discussions at our laboratory. We must 
accept the fact that you can never prove 
something absolutely safe. It is not 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


playing with words when one says there 
is a relativeness to all safety evaluation. 
Often the relativeness is ignorance. I 
wish to also comment on statements 
made about the input from the AEC 
program. The AEC has much informa- 
tion which can and has been used in 
drawing comparisons to chemical toxi- 
cology. When I described Druckrey’s 
model, I should have introduced my 
statements by describing Blum’s ul- 
traviolet work which certainly fit the 
model and was developed earlier. 

Dr. William Russel of the Oak Ridge 
National Laboratory, Division of Biol- 
ogy, has developed a program comparing 
the relative mutagenicity of chemicals 
with a broad background of information 
that he has accumulated with radiation. 
It may indeed, as mentioned, take eight 
or ten billion mice to adequately de- 
scribe a mutation rate of 56 in a million 
with a half a percent increase in that 
rate. Let us not forget, however, about 
the materials which produce this abso- 
lute mutation rate of a percent or so in 
experimental animals. This potential de- 
scribes a completely different aspect of 
the problem. Where are we in chemical 


_ mutagenesis? In mammals, we are only 


able to detect the very potent mutagenic 
agents. If the compounds of interest are 
weak or have a high acute toxicity, or 
produce recessive mutations, we have 
hardly any tools at all. We hope we will 
be able to attack the problem by utiliz- 
ing some of the genetic trace capabilities 
of large animal colonies at NCTR. For 
instance, in my presentation I said we 
were concerned that spontaneous muta- 
tion might occur, and we developed a 
system to trace and identify. We can 
also administer mutagenic compounds 
to animals and identify mutations that 
occur by the same multiple generation 
trace capability. The same type of logic 
base is required. There are also other 
carryovers from the radiation program. 
In some cases, higher doses of radiation 
produces fewer cancers than slightly 
lower doses. The cancer data at the 
higher doses suggest the radiation had a 


189 


protective effect and indeed it might 
have killed some cells which had, or 
would have, been transformed. Studies 
at NCTR with 2-AAF chemical car- 
cinogens show a lower observable inci- 


dence of tumors at high doses. We 


partially explain this by observing that if 
you kill the animal, it isn’t available to 
develop a tumor. However, there re- 
mains an unexplained component which 
may be parallel with radiation effects, 
cell death rather than transformation. 
In summary, I don’t think we have 
done as badly as might appear in terms 
of utilizing information that’s been ac- 
cumulating through AEC programs. We 
are actively bridging the gap between 
these two activities. | 


DR. DOUGLAS BALLARD— 
There is a very good paper on the 
risk due to coke ovens. My first com- 
ment is that if you ask any steel worker, 
he could have told you there was a risk 
50 years ago. Relative to the risk in 
coke ovens, the people who will run 
coal gasification plants to solve the 
energy crisis are going to face the same 
risks. A minority of people will have to 
face the risk of converting coal to gas to 


run our cars. How are we going to trade 
this off? 


MR. BILLINGS—One of the 
answers is that a way to avoid that risk 
entirely is to do something with the 
automobile itself. 


DR. ISRAEL ROTKIN— Instead of 
considering only the risks and benefits 
inherent in any particular activity, it 
would be more useful to consider to- 
gether the risks and benefits of all 
alternative ways of achieving the same 
human goal. Apparently, the easiest 
way to avoid 50,000 deaths per year in 
the USA would be to abolish all au- 
tomobiles here or, as someone sug- 


190 


gested to me yesterday, to slow them 
all down to 5 mph. There is no doubt 
that it would be effective in the 
sense that almost no one would be killed 
by an auto. However, our death toll 
would not be reduced by 50,000. Alter- 
native means of transportation would be 
needed. People were killed by horses 
too. A_ scientific audience like this 
should recall that the co-discoverer of 
radium, Pierre Curie, was killed by a 
horse-drawn truck. Not only were 
people run down by horses, but they 
were also killed by diseases transmitted 
by horses. Thus, to save lives, it is not 
enough to consider the lethality of the 
auto; the lethality of all reasonable 
alternatives must also be taken into 
account. In general, in spite of the 
difficulty, we must find out which way 
of behaving would result in the greatest 
overall benefit to mankind. This ap- 
proach would be much more useful 
than the concept of risk as it has been 
treated here. 

I must add that I don’t like the idea of 
turning exclusively to authoritative or- 
ganizations. I remember Louis Pasteur; 
had the world listened to the authorita- 
tive organizations at the time he was 
making his proposals, we might be 
dying of infectious disease to a much 
greater extent. 


DR. FRIESS—Thank you. We are 
approaching the end of the morning. I 
should like to take the chairman’s pre- 
rogative on behalf of all the participants, 
all the speakers, all the panel members, 
and the audience to thank our host for 
the use of this wonderful auditorium, 
and the chance to explore the field as 
we did. I would also like to assure those 
of you who are still with us that the 
Executive Committee will carry on from 
this point to determine the future prog- 
ress and planning of follow-up sym- 
posia, if they are so indicated. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 


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Symposium— Statistics and the Environment 


Approx No. 
Keynote Session of Minutes 
wae RALPH C. WANDS: Introduction to the Symposium .......... 20 
nee) 2 VAUN A. NEWILL: Regulatory Decision Making: 
eeeSGICMIISICS RONG. 2 Sioa sa cere «diem esa wees ease sad bewet ss 45 
ee ee MICHAEL BROWNLEE: Keynote Address: Statistics and the 
ERRUIRDININEC ING cn ce a ce isya 5 otis avers aielg ais 6 9 eters a licieidiein dle wialsye alts 45 
pe. 4 GEORGE E.P. BOX: Statistics and the Environment............ 45 
og | 5 Be NOWE SESSION DISCUSSION -(:i)c2 23 fees oe kee cele te wees 45 
Carcinogens— Safe Doses? 
ee 66 Be SRMCE S“OREEANS: Opening Remarks .........55..0-.:4- 10 
ge 7 See IVUAIN IN: /IMETOCUICLION:. 224 2% os Sots caine onl ieee oe 10 
ae 6 DAVID P. RALL: Problems of Low Doses of Carcinogens ...... 45 
ee a MARVIN A. SCHNEIDERMAN: Safe Dose? Problem of the 
Statistician in the World of Trans-Science .................. 45 
ee TO 62.5 BLS SWISS LOIN EES Sr Cas is ee ane nee a 60 
Air Pollutants—Safe Concentrations? 
pee tT MEME PATLIROL: INtOGUCTION.. -—-.. . 225i eke ds cede weet nek: 10 
Sa a JOHN F. FINKLEA: Auto Emissions and Public Health: Questions, 
Statistical Problems, and Case Studies .......0.. 00. 0c08ceu88. 45 
a #13 JOHN D. HROMI: Some Aspects of Determining New Motor 
Meme iEmome EMISsion LeVElS -.:...6 6.6. ces ce ke cea ees 45 
es oe 14 Romer DISCUSSION 2. acco kee ads: Pe ai oer e ate Wau dre Maen ras cet 90 
Occupational Exposures — Thresholds? 
age TS Beara |. DINMAN: Introduction ..........6.54....6 60868 10 
Beg 16 RICHARD HENDERSON: Thresholds for Control of Potential 
, fiazards un Occupational Environments: ..........6...66. 65. 45 
ee 7 J. WILLIAM LLOYD: Study of Long-Latent Disease in Industrial 
PD SLES Se ae ce a A oe a i 45 
a #18 PEPER SUOIN ae cia cinta Tehei «c aie wets So edie ed concee ee s 60 
Summary Session 
eee 19 See nOWK EL ERIESS: Introduction ......-2......-. 2.52. se.s > 10 
= F 20 MORRIS F. CRANMER: Reflections in Toxicology ............. 45 
oe 21 FRED C. LEONE: Summary Address for the Symposium ....... 45 
ae 6 F 22 Jos UE DUST SIGS S18 ee aE TAA ae eee ca 45 


NAME: 
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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 2, 1974 191 


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CONTENTS (Continued from Front Cover) 


Occupational Exposures — Thresholds? 
BERTRAM D, DINMAN: Introduction 2... 0.005.) .w:is 22: oe 
RICHARD HENDERSON: Thresholds for Control of Potential Hazards 


in Occupational Environments .....06.. 06 6. i 2s oo oes ee 


J. WILLIAM LLOYD: Study of Long-Latent Disease in Industrial 


Populations: (2.9 6 se Vo fee ns so be oa 2 bd Se oho eer 


PANEL DISCUSSION © 0.05 200 hoo be0 6 oie aes oe beer 


Summary Session 
SEYMOUR’ L. FRIESS: Introduction ....«... 2.5.5.9: e eee 
MORRIS F. CRANMER: Reflections in Toxicology ................ 


FRED C. LEONE: Summary Address for the Symposium.............. 
PANEL DISCUSSION .j ... 5 occ cccne ces bic aess eae Oe eee 


NOUUCE oo ice levi i aes ee ar 


Fie 


th lama mam oe he St oh 


126 


129 


135 
145 


156 
158 
179 
185 


191 


ia WE'D ‘ 
VE ee tN. |" 3 


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TAR AGE IDLE 
Pern Pawn Dw ~ ‘ 


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AA Ot R i 


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ZW23 


VOLUME 64 
Number 3 


by ournal of the SEPTEMBER, 1974 
I 


WASHINGTON 
ACADEMY. SCIENCES 


\ Nad / Issued Quarterly 
; . L{ ER ae at Washington, D.C. 


CONTENTS 


Features 


Centennial of Gibbs’ Thermodynamics — A Symposium 


; eon. J. SEEGER: Introductory Remarks ........2.5....00.c006% 
; RAYMOND D. MOUNTAIN: A Geometrical Description of Critical 


Sue MR RRTSEE UP tT Pn RM ete ey Pt a eo a 


DOUGLAS RUMBLE, III: Gibbs Phase Rule and Its Application in 
(aT BERS i eR eg aR EE 8 ee ae eA 


HAROLD J. MOROWITZ: A Biologist’s View of Gibbs’ Contributions. . 
Peso: Concudine REMATKS . 61.0555. cs. ces cee dels e ce be oe bee wes 


Profile 
PLA mE ATMO LOADS? <<). 5 co) c.c 0 ac. «eS ot Sle 3s eis da oe le was wu anda ve 


Research Reports 


DONALD R. WHITEHEAD: Variation and Synonymy in Hypselonotus 
(SELES T EL EIS SUS ers VE IA Beater e CON SAN tres A ea RL CE Ra LEE 


GEORGE C. STEYSKAL: A New Species of Zonosemata Benjamin from 
Meamitnia CEMBICTa: PGDATEGAE) sacs: etd coc ne babe haiemiek cs ae Soden. 


(Continued on Back Cover) 


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DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


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Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective societies. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 193 


FEATURES 


CENTENNIAL OF GIBBS’ THERMODYNAMICS 


The paper appearing below and the four that follow were delivered as a 
symposium at the 543rd meeting of the Washington Academy of 
Sciences in the John Wesley Powell Auditorium of the Cosmos Club, 
Washington, D.C. on Feb. 21, 1974. 


Centennial of Gibbs’ Thermodynamics — 


Introductory Remarks‘ 
Raymond J. Seeger 


National Science Foundation (Ret.) 


When the Gottingen Physical 
Chemist, Walther Hermann Nernst 
(Nobel Prize in Chemistry, 1920) gave 
the Silliman Lectures at Yale Univer- 
sity in 1906, he inquired if there were 
any memorials to Gibbs. ““The chemist, 
Oliver Wolcott Gibbs?’’ was the query. 
‘‘No, the physicist, J. Willard Gibbs’”’ 
was the reply. Accordingly, Nernst 
gave Yale his honorarium ($500) as an 
initial donation for a memorial to the 
outstanding American Scientist of the 
nineteenth century, possibly the out- 
standing American theoretician ever. At 
that time Gibbs was appreciated more 
in Europe than in the United States— 
probably still true today. In 1912 a 
bronze portrait tablet was placed in the 
then new Sloane Physics Laboratory at 
Yale; in 1955 it was moved to the new J. 
Willard Gibbs Research Laboratory. 

Gibbs has always been identified with 


1R. J. Seeger, ‘“‘J. Willard Gibbs, American 
Physicist par Excellence,’’ Pergamon Press 
(1974). 


194 


New Haven where he was born Feb- 
ruary 11, 1839; his father was a theolog- 
ical scholar at Yale College. At the age 
of 10 he began attending the colonial 
Hopkins Grammar School. At fifteen he 
entered Yale College where he received 
the classically oriented B. A. and a Phi 
Beta Kappa Key. At 19, he commenced 
graduate work in engineering and later 
earned the first Ph.D. degree in en- 
gineering in the United States. At 24, he 
accepted a 3-year appointment as a 
Tutor in Yale College. The first two 
years he was required to teach Latin; 
the third year he was free to select 
his own interest, namely, natural phi- 
losophy. At 27, he left his habitat 
with his two sisters for three years of — 
informal postgraduate study at the 
European universities of Paris, Heidel- 
berg, and Berlin. At the time of the 
departure abroad one could rephrase the 
autobiographical comment of Henry 
Brooks Adams at the conclusion of his 
own Harvard schooling, namely, “‘the 
scientific education of J. Willard Gibbs 
had not really begun.”’ 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


After his return, at the age of 32, 
Gibbs was appointed Professor of 
Mathematical Physics in Yale College. 
At 34 (1873), he published two papers 
on ‘‘Graphical Thermodynamics’”’ in the 
Transactions of the Connecticut 
Academy of Arts and Sciences. A third 
paper, ‘‘Heterogeneous Equilibria,’’ 
was published in two parts in 1875 and 
1878. At 63, Gibbs published a book 
written specially for the Yale Bicenten- 
nial (1901). It was a unique contribution 
to classical physical science in that it 
related continuum thermodynamics to 
kinetic theory; despite the subsequent 
development of quantum theory it still 
remains the statistical mechanics foun- 
dation for so-called rational thermo- 
dynamics. 

On April 28, 1902, Gibbs died. He 


was buried in Grove St. Cemetery near 
his home and office. 

Though Gibbs was elected in 1879 to 
the National Academy of Sciences, he 
was never a member of the American 
Physical Society or of the American 
Chemical Society, and he joined the 
American Mathematical Society only 
shortly before his death. On April 1, 
1900, however, Charles Walcott, Presi- 
dent of the Washington Academy of 
Sciences, wrote to H. E. Hadley at 
Yale to urge him to encourage accept- 
ance by eight Yale faculty recently 
elected to the Washington society. 
Gibbs accepted; he was a member of 
the Washington Academy of Science, 
hence this occasion to commemorate 
the centennial of his epoch-making 
thermodynamics. 


A Geometrical Description of Critical Phenomena 


Raymond D. Mountain 


National Bureau of Standards, Washington, D. C. 20234 


ABSTRACT 


Gibbs made extensive use of geometrical concepts in his development of thermody- 
namics. In this talk we examine the use of geometrical ideas to clarify our understanding 
of the thermodynamics of fluids in the vicinity of the critical point. The influence of Gibbs 
on recent developments in the study of critical phenomena is emphasized. 


The study of thermodynamics de- 
scribed in Gibbs’ three papers is a rich 
source of information and insight for the 
contemporary student.! Today I want to 

‘focus our attention on Gibbs’ use of the 
geometrical features of thermodynamics 
in his development of the mathematical 
structure of the theory. He began with the 


*Gibbs’ work on thermodynamics is reprinted in 
The Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Vol. 1, 
Thermodynamics. Dover Publications Inc., New 
York (1961). This, in turn, is a reprint of the volume 
originally published by Longmans, Green and Co. 
in 1906, 3 years after Gibbs died. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


formulation embodied in eqs. (1) and (2) 
(vide infra) and went on to develop ther- 
modynamics to the point where it is not 
conceptually distinguishable from pres- 
entations found in current texts. After we 
have examined Gibbs’ use of geometrical 
relationships in formulating thermo- 
dynamics, we shall see how the use of 
geometry has aided our understanding of 
the unusual thermodynamic properties 
observed in the vicinity of the liquid- 
vapor critical point. 

Let us begin by briefly considering the 
content of Gibbs’ three papers. The first 


195 


paper, published in 1873, considers vari- 
ous 2-dimensional representations of 
thermodynamic properties. P-V_ dia- 
grams were in common use at that time, 
and he explored alternative ways of rep- 
resenting thermodynamics. In addition 
to showing that T-S diagrams have useful 
properties, he also investigated other 
possibile combinations of thermody- 
namic variables and some of the prop- 
erties of such diagrams. 

Later in 1873 he published a second 
paper on the use of surfaces to represent 
thermodynamics. By that time the experi- 
ments of Andrews on critical phenomena 
in CO, had stimulated Thompson to sug- 
gest that a PVT surface would be a useful 
way of representing thermal properties. 
Gibbs in a footnote (as frequently occurs 
in his work) takes note of Thompson’s 
work and points out that the surfaces 
Gibbs is considering have a much greater 
information content than do Thomp- 
son’s. The sort of surface Thompson has 
in mind is shown in Fig. 1. This is the 
familiar PVT surface which represents 
observations of properties faithfully but 
does not convey the essence of thermo- 
dynamics. Gibbs was proposing instead 
to use a surface representing the entropy, 
energy and volume of the fluid from 
which the equation of state can be ob- 
tained by differentiation. That is, the 


Pressure —> 


Volume > 


Fig. 1. A pressure-volume-temperature surface 
for a substance which contracts on freezing. The 
critical point (C.P.) and the critical isotherm 
(T.) are indicated. 


196 


energy U is a function of the entropy S 
and the volume V subject to the condition 


dU = TdS — PdV (1) 


He then proceeded using eq. (1) and the 
by then known condition for thermo- 
dynamic stability 


(6S)p = 0 (2) 


to deduce the convexity properties of the 
U (S,V) surface. Again in a footnote the 
conditions for the equilibrium among 
different parts of the system are stated. 
These conditions are that the tempera- 
ture, pressure, and what we now know as 
the chemical potential be uniform 
throughout the system. 

In his third and major paper on thermo- 
dynamics, 1876-1878, the subject is ex- 
plored and set out in a very elegant and 
complete way. The ideas in the footnotes 
in his second paper are (among many 
others) expanded and applied to a variety 
of interesting situations. For the purpose 
of the discussion at hand I want to focus 
on the quantity now known as the Gibbs 
free energy and the property that the 
chemical potentials (Gibbs free energy 
per unit mass) for phases in thermody- 
namic equilibrium are equal. The type of 
surface that results is shown in Fig. 2. 

The advertised topic of this talk is criti- 
cal phenomena. For one-component 


Pressure 


Fig. 2. A portion of a Gibbs free enerzy (G) 
pressure (P) temperature (T) surface in the vicinity 
of the critical point (C.P.). The critical isotherm 
(T.) and the liquid-vapor coexistence curve are 
noted. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


fluids the critical point is the point where 
distinction between liquid and gas van- 
ishes. It is indicated in Fig. 1 at the top of 
the liquid-gas dome. Gibbs realized that 
the critical point is characterized by a 
horizontal isotherm with 0 curvature. It is 
displayed in Fig. 1 as the critical isotherm 
T,. The critical point can be character- 
ized by the conditions 


Rede” (a ),-° © 


Critical phenomena is a topic which 
has, over the years, come and gone as a 
popular subject for scientific research. It 
has grown in interest because of its ob- 
vious significance for the study of ther- 
modynamic properties of matter and be- 
cause of its own intrinsic scientific inter- 
est. The study of critical phenomena has 
declined in time because of the lack of 
adequate experiments (which are quite 
difficult) and the corresponding difficulty 
of developing useful theory. During the 
1950’s and early 1960’s there was a re- 
newed interest in the study of critical phe- 
nomena. This time the interest in the sub- 
ject did not die out but has grown into a 
full-fledged, mature understanding of 
critical phenomena. A turning point can 
now be recognized as occurring in 1965 
when aconference on critical phenomena 
was held at the National Bureau of Stand- 
ards.” 

Shortly after that conference a number 
of things happened which have a definite 
Gibbsian flavor to them. One of these 
was the publication of a paper by Widom? 
which analyzed the thermodynamics of 
the critical region in ways that had not 
been used before and which were con- 
sistent with the anomalous properties of 
thermodynamic quantities. Built into this 
work is the crucial idea that in some way 
critical phenomena are universal features 
of matter, independent of the specific 


Critical Phenomena, Proceedings of a Con- 
ference; Editors: M. S. Green and J. V. Sengers. 
U. S. Government Printing Office, Washington, 
D. C. 20234, (1966). NBS Misc. Publication 273. 

3B. Widom, J. Chem. Phys. 43, 3898 (1965). 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


fluid in question. 

Now what are the significant features 
of thermodynamic properties in the vicin- 
ity of the critical point? They can be 
characterized by divergences in the iso- 
thermal compressibility 


Ke =e ( }. ~(T-Ty’, 4) 


y= 1.2 


in the specific heat at constant pressure 


ive ) ~«- Eaaaty, 


and in the specific heat at constant volume 


aU it 
Cy = (2) ~a-1 ) (6) 


a~0.1 


The topic we wish to pursue is the 
understanding of these anomalies from an 
essentially geometrical point of view. The 
Gibbs free energy-pressure-temperature 
surface, Fig. 2, can be characterized 
mathematically as 


dG =— SdT + VdP, 


(7) 
(5G)p,r = 0 


The only striking feature of this surface 
is the ridge representing the liquid- 
vapor coexistence curve. The approach 
to the critical point is characterized by 
having this ridge become less and less 
pronounced and finally vanishing at the 
critical point. 

This can be envisioned by taking a 
sheet of paper and cutting a pie-shaped 
wedge out of it as indicated in Fig. 3. 
Take the sheet of paper and fold the cut- 
off wedge so that the edges touch. Then 
note at the point of the wedge that the 
curvature is different depending on 
whether one goes along the line which is 
the extension of the cut or whether one 
goes at some other angle. The strong and 
weak divergences observed in the com- 
pressibility and in the heat capacities re- 
flect the different curvatures in the Gibbs 


197 


Fig. 3. A rough model of the Gibbs free energy 
surface can be made by cutting and folding a sheet 
of paper as indicated. The straight lines on the flat 
sheet of paper become curved when the sheet is 
folded. 


free energy surface in the vicinity of the 
critical point, and that is the essence of 
the geometrical characterization of the 
anomalies occurring in the critical re- 
gion. This concept was set forth in a ther- 
modynamic theory of critical phenomena 
by Griffiths and Wheeler in a 1970 paper.‘ 
The theory, which is geometric in flavor, 
makes use of the properties of the Gibbs 
free energy surface in a definitely 
Gibbsian way to elucidate the thermo- 
dynamics of the critical region and to 
predict how multicomponent critical 
phenomena will (and apparently do) 
manifest themselves. 

There are two essential features of 
this theory. The first is the idea of uni- 
versality; that is that the shape of the 


4R. B. Griffiths and J. C. Wheeler, Phys. Rev. A, 
2, 1047 (1970). 


198 


Gibbs free energy surface near the criti- 
cal point is independent of the substance. 
The second feature is that there is only 
one ‘“‘direction’’ of any significance, that 
of the coexistence curve. The curvature 
along an extension of the coexistence 
curve characterizes the weak divergence 
observed in the specific heat at constant 
volume, while the curvatures associated 
with other directions characterize the 
strong divergence observed in the iso- 
thermal compressibility and the specific 
heat at constant pressure. These ideas 
lend themselves to a geometric view of 
multi-component critical phenomena 
with predictions which appear to be 
borne out with experiment, the ultimate 
test of any theory. 

In summary, Gibbs was able to de- 
velop thermodynamics from a set of 
tentative empirical statements into a full- 
fledged, mathematically sophisticated 
physical theory through the insights 
gained through the geometrical consid- 
erations which he employed so skillfully. 
In recent times this geometrical view- 
point, when applied to the problem of the 
properties of matter near critical points, 
has been invaluable in sorting out and 
clarifying the many observations of 
anomalous properties. This is an out- 
come which would not have surprised 
Gibbs in the least, and I am sure it would 
have pleased him. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Gibbs Phase Rule and Its Application in Geochemistry 


Douglas Rumble, [il 


Geophysical Laboratory, Carnegie Institution of Washington. 


ABSTRACT 


In his treatise “‘On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances’’ Gibbs developed 
a method of formulating multicomponent, multiphase equilibria that remains useful 
today. Gibbs wrote down a system of linear differential equations consisting of one 
of his equations (97) (the ‘““Gibbs-Duhem’’ equation) for each phase together with 
such conditions of equilibrium as are necessary to eliminate dependent components. 
To this system of equations may be added others which give the relationships between 
pressure, temperature, exchange potential, and phase composition. A complete discrip- 
tion of a heterogeneous system in chemical equilibrium can be so obtained in terms 
of the variables pressure, temperature, chemical potentials of components, and phase 
composition. This review paper shows how Gibbs’ method can be applied to rocks 
in order to extract from them information on the conditions under which they formed. 


‘*A system of r coexistent phases, each of which has the same n independently 
_ variable components is capable of n + 2 —r variations of phase. . . . Or, when the 
r bodies considered have not the same independently variable components, if we still 
denote by n the number of independently variable components of the r bodies taken 
as a whole, the number of independent variations of phase of which the system is 


capable will still ben + 2 — r.” 


The phase rule has its chief geochem- 
ical application in the field of petrology, 
the study of the origin of rocks and the 
minerals that compose them. Petrologists 
are faced with the problem of locating 
and mapping rocks at or near the earth’s 
surface and deducing under what condi- 
tions of pressure (P) and temperature 
(T) they were formed. Many studies show 
that the chemical and textural charac- 
teristics of rocks originating at great depth 
are preserved at the earth’s surface. Thus 
information on the ambient conditions 
deep beneath the earth’s surface is con- 
tained in rocks accessible to anyone own- 
_ ing a rock hammer. The petrologist uses 
estimates of P-T conditions for specific 
assemblages of minerals in rocks together 
with their spatial distribution mapped at 
the earth’s surface to reconstruct the 
thermal structure of the earth at various 
times in the geological past. Such studies 


1 Gibbs’ equation (97) (op. cit., p. 88) is so 
named in honor of its independent derivation by 
Gibbs and by Pierre Maurice Marie Duhem (1886, 
p33): 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


— Gibbs, 1876, reprinted 1961 by 
Dover Publications, pp. 96-97 


present one of the few methods available 
for testing geophysical models of the 
earth’s evolution. Gibbs phase rule is in- 
dispensible in this work in at least two 
respects: first, it is used to interpret 
laboratory experiments designed to re- 
produce rocks and minerals under con- 
trolled P-T conditions; second, it is used 
to learn whether the variance of naturally 
occurring mineral assemblages is com- 
parable with that of systems investigated 
experimentally and, therefore, whether 
the laboratory results are applicable to 
estimating the P-T conditions of natural 
mineral assemblages. 

The purpose of this review is to show 
how the analytical methods used by 
Gibbs in deriving the phase rule can be 
applied to rocks in order to obtain infor- 
mation on the conditions under which 
they originated. 


Problems in Application 
of the Phase Rule to Rocks 


The phase rule cannot be indiscrimi- 
nately applied to rocks and minerals. 


199 


Various potential difficulties present 
themselves and have been thoroughly 
discussed (Thompson, 1959, 1970; Zen, 
1963; Weill and Fyfe, 1964, 1967; 
Korzhinskii, 1959, 1966, 1967). Three of 


these difficulties are worth emphasizing, 


as they limit the applicability of the 
phase rule and the validity of conclusions 
drawn from it. 

1. A given rock may have been sub- 
jected to a variety of geological processes 
prior to the time it is collected at the 
earth’s surface. Its mineralogical charac- 
teristics may record conditions at a spe- 
cific depth in the earth or they may 
record the conditions of a variety of 
environments that were experienced in 
succession. In order to obtain meaningful 
information on conditions beneath the 
earth’s surface it is essential to apply 
the phase rule only to assemblages of 
coeval minerals. By taking into account 
the geological history of an area together 
with the successive mineral assemblages 
found in its rocks, it is usually possible 
to construct a chronology of mineral 
crystallization. In view of the many geo- 
logical processes acting to alter ancient 
or deep-seated rocks it may seem sur- 
prising that any evidence can survive. 
Nevertheless, measurements of radio- 
active isotopes and their daughter prod- 
ucts indicate that the mineralogical 
record of events in the earth’s crust as 
old as 3.5 billion years has been pre- 
served. Similarly, the occurrence at the 
earth’s surface of high-pressure minerals 
such as diamond proves that rocks can 
be brought from depths of 150 km or 
more without alteration. 

2. The phase rule is valid only for sys- 
tems in equilibrium. Before applying the 
phase rule it must be determined that a 
given assemblage of coeval minerals was 
in equilibrium at some time in its geologi- 
cal history. It canot be verified by direct 
measurement that the equilibrium condi- 
tions of uniform P, 7, and chemical 
potentials of components (u,) (Gibbs, 
op. cit., p. 65) were met at some time in 
the past history of the rock. One of the 
most powerful indirect methods for judg- 
ing whether a rock was once in equi- 


200 


librium is to measure the chemical 
compositions of its coeval minerals to 
learn whether they obey the rules of 
equilibrium phase diagrams as set forth 
by Gibbs in his chapter on ‘‘Geometrical 
Illustrations”’ (op. cit., pp. 115-129; cf. 
Kretz, 1959; Zen, 1963; Greenwood, 
1967). 

3. Components of each mineral (or 
phase) must be chosen so that they 
satisfy the conditions laid down by 
Gibbs: ““The substances 5455.0: 
of which we consider the mass composed, 
must of course be such that the values 
of the differentials dm,, dm., . . . dm, 
shall be independent, and shall express 
every variation in the composition of the 
homogeneous mass considered, including 
those produced by the absorption of sub- 
stances different from any initially pres- 
ent. It may therefore be necessary to have 
terms in the equation relating to com- 
ponent substances which do not initially 
occur in the homogeneous mass con- 
sidered, provided, of course, that these 
substances, or their components, are to 
be found in some part of the whole given 
mass’ (Gibbs, op. cit.) -pe{G3eee 
Thompson, 1959, pp. 445-448). If the 
components of each mineral in a rock are 
so chosen, then all the components of all 
the minerals of the rock (or system) will 
not necessarily be independent. Gibbs 
provides the equations necessary to 
eliminate the dependent components 
when systems of more than one phase 
are considered (Gibbs, op. cit., p. 72, eq. 
43; p. 74, eq. 51). The practical conse- 
quence of Gibbs’ definition of the com- 
ponents of a phase (or mineral) is that 
the study of a single rock specimen is 
not likely to afford a complete list of all 
the components of its minerals. The 
enumeration of the components of a given 
mineral will change as more data are 
collected about the range of its possible 
compositional variations and as more 
sensitive techniques are used to measure 
its composition. 


Gibbs’ Analytical Formulation 
of Phase Equilibria 


As stated in the quotation at the head 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


of this paper, the Gibbs phase rule re- 
lates the number of phases and com- 
ponents in a system to the number of 
independent variations of which it is ca- 
pable, and this is the form in which it 
is customarily presented. Gibbs (op. cit., 
p. 88, eq. 97) derived the phase rule by 
considering a set of simultaneous equa- 
tions consisting of the ‘‘Gibbs-Duhem’’! 
equations together with such equations 
as are needed to eliminate dependent 
components. As Morey (1936, p. 233) 
once observed “‘the phase rule itself is 
but an incidental qualitative deduction 
from these equations.’’ Morey’s opinion 
suggests that applications of the phase 
rule might profitably follow the analytical 
treatment pioneered by Gibbs (op. cit., 
pp. 97-100) and so ably elaborated by 
Morey (Morey and Williamson, 1918; 
Morey, 1936) rather than concentrating 


on the numerical relations between vari- 


O— Saf — V,dP + mydpy + moydpy + Ma,dpz 
0 =Ss,dT — VapdP + migdp, + Mogdpy + Mapdps 
0 =ScdT — VcdP + mycdp, + Mocdptz+ Macdps 
0 = SpdT — VpdP + myipdp, + Mopdp. + Mapdps 


where S$, and V, are the entropy and 
volume, respectively, of phase A, and 
M,,4 1S the number of moles of component 
1 in phase A. The chemical potentials 
}41, 2, and yz were defined by Gibbs (op. 
cit., p. 63) as ““the differential coefficients 
of (the internal energy) taken with respect 
Penis sand m3, ¢.g.; a, = (OE,/ 
eae aeoconstant S$,, V4, mo,, and 
M3,.- 

It is more convenient to use these 


0 =S,dT —V,dP + Xy4(du, — dps) + X24(dpz — du3) + drg 
0 =S,dT —VzdP + X p(dp, — dz) + Xo—(dp2 — dz) + dug 
0 Sear = VcdP + Xic(du, — dys) + Xo(duz — dz) + dug 
0 =SpdT —VpdP + Xi p(du, — dus) + Xop(du2 — dz) + dug 


These equations can be solved, as Gibbs 
did (Gibbs, op. cit., p. 98, eq. 129), by 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


ance, components, and phases. If the 
analytical method is followed rigorously, 
of course, the relations between variance, 
components, and phases will be implicit 
in the systems of simultaneous equations. 
The remainder of this review will de- 
scribe how to obtain information on the 
environment in which rocks form by the 
analytical formulation of their mineral 
equilibria. 


Univariant Equilibria 


Consider a naturally occurring ex- 
ample of a univariant equilibrium in a 
ternary chemical system. There are four 
minerals (4, B, C, D) and three com- 
ponents (1, 2, 3). The four minerals are 
all ternary solid solutions such that the 
same three components can be chosen 
for each mineral. For each mineral a 
Gibbs-Duhem equation (Gibbs, op. cit., 
p. 88, eq. 97) may be written: 


(1) 
(2) 
(3) 
(4) 


equations in a slightly different form, ob- 
tained by dividing through equation (1) 
by the number of moles of phase 4 


(M14 + Mo4 + M34), equation (2) by the 


number of moles of phase B (711, + mo, 
+ m3), and so on. Substituting S, = S$ ,/ 
(M14 + Mo4 + Mg4), Vg = Vali 4 + Mog 
+ M34), and X14 = my4/(M44 + Mog 
+ m3,), and so on, and eliminating X3;, 
by virtue of the relation X¥3, = 1— Xi, 
— X>5,, we obtain 


(5) 
(6) 
(7) 
(8) 


eliminating du ;, du2, and du; to obtain 
the slope of the univariant equilibrium on 


201 


a pressure-temperature diagram: 


This equation does not provide much 
help in estimating the P-T conditions for 
the rock under consideration: the rock 
lies somewhere along the univariant 
curve on the P-T diagram, but its co- 
ordinates are not known. In order to 
obtain this information it is necessary to 
introduce the differentials of mineral 
composition dX,,, dX>5,, and so on, as 
additional unknowns so that changes in 


d(u1 — Ms) = ( 


O((L — Ms) ) 
or P,X 44X24 


(9) 


mineral composition along the univariant 
curve can be followed. Thus, by measur- 
ing the composition of the minerals in 
the rock, its coordinates on the P-T 
diagram can be located. Equation (5) 
contains the quantities (du, — dus;) and 
(du, — dus) that are functions of P, T, 
X14, and X.,. The total differential of 
d(1 — 43) 18 equal to: 


dT 


O(M1 — Ms) 


+ ( Opa = Hs) ) dP + ( AX 4; 
oP Rakes OX 4 © PLEX 
a ( ee) dXo, an 
OX 24 Pee, 
Substituting | 
O(My = [43)/ OT = —Si4 — S34) 
(My rey [43)/OP = (Vig - V34) 


[O(uy — Ms)/OX al P.T,X5, ay [O(0G 4/0X 14) p,7.x,,/0X 14] P, Pox Gia 


and 


[O(uy — Ms)/OX 24] = [O(OG 4/OX 14)p, T,X,,/OX 24] P, T Xi iare Ge 


(du, = d 13) a —(Si4 —S3,)dT ate O14 me: V54)dP 
+ Gyy4dX 14 + G 24d X 24 


S,4 18 the partial molar entropy of com- 
ponent | in phase A and is related to S, 
by the equation S4 =X 4814 + X24So4 
+ X34534. V1, 18 the partial molar volume 
of component | in phase A and is related 
to V, by the equation V4 =X44Vi4 
+X ou 5 X-a4V 94> Grn ds tne molar 


202 


ace! 


Gibbs free energy of phase 4 and is re- 


lated to 1, M2, and w3, by the equation 
G4 =X abi + Xo4be + Xg4M3- Gira, Gaga, 
and G,., are the principal and cross 
curvatures of the Gibbs free energy with 
respect to the two independent mole 


fractions X,, and X.,. Similarly for 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


(dus — dus) the resulting equation is 


(dry — djs3) = —(So, — S34)dT ‘ts Vox = V34)dP 


ri CE en 9, Sa ng Goa, 


Equations like these have been put to 
similar uses by Butler (1936, pp. 175- 
176), Morey (1936, pp. 251-254), and 
others. The present form of equations 
(11) and (12) was developed by Prof. 
J. B. Thompson, Jr., in class lectures 
at Harvard University; they are used by 
him in obtaining equations such as (13) 
and in studying the ‘‘Gibbs-Konovalow”’ 
theorems (cf. Prigogine and Defay, 1954, 


=V 4 X44 X04 
—V; X 4B X op 
Ve Xic Xo 
—Vp Xin. Xop 
(is, ay Ve) yl 0 
eet Voy V54) 0 
7a ay 
—Vz NG as 
—V¢ Mic X se 
—V_ X ip X op 
a Oy Va) =1 0 
Uae a (see 0 =| 


Equation (13) emphasizes that if a rock 
containing a univariant equilibrium of 
minerals is found, the composition of 
only one of its minerals need be meas- 
ured in order to estimate the P-T con- 
ditions under which it originated, pro- 
vided that the necessary thermodynamic 
data on V,, S,, and so on, are avail- 
able. Equations such as (13) can be ob- 
tained for the variation in composition 
of any other mineral participating in the 
equilibrium by including pairs of equa- 
tions similar to (11) and (12) written for 
the mineral of interest. 

Quantitative utilization of equations 
such as (13) is necessarily dependent on 
adequate thermodynamic data. The vol- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


(12) 


pp. 278-284). Considering equations 
(5)-(8) together with (11) and (12) it is 
to be noted that although two new un- 
knowns have been added, two new equa- 
tions have also been added; therefore, 
the variance of the system remains un- 
changed. There are six homogeneous 
equations in seven unknowns, and one 
can solve for 


1 =o 0 

1 —S, 0 

iF —S¢ 0 

1 —§) 0 

0 (Say s Sy) Gy 
0 (Sey, -¥ Ss) G. (13) 
1 0 

1 0 0 

1 0 0 

1 0 0 

0 G, 14 G, 2A 
0 Gos Gos: 


ume terms V,, V,,, and so on, are much 
better known than the other quantities 
because they can be measured relatively 
easily using X-ray diffraction or other 
techniques (Robie et al., 1966; Skinner, 
1966; Birch, 1966). The entropy terms, 
S4, S14, and so on, and the Gibbs’ free 
energy terms G4, G,,4, and so on, are 
less well known because it is more diffi- 
cult to measure them. Data of this kind 
are most abundant for minerals of fixed 
chemical composition (Robie and Wald- 
baum, 1968). Data on the mixing proper- 
ties of solid solutions from which terms 
such as S,, and G,,, can be evaluated 
are currently being gathered by analysis 
of experimentally determined phase dia- 


203 


grams (Thompson and Waldbaum, 1968, 
1969) and by calorimetric techniques 
(Waldbaum and Robie, 1971). 


Divariant Equilibria 


Consider the divariant equilibrium of 
minerals A, B, and C in the same ternary 
system considered above. In this ex- 
ample equations (5)—(7), (11), and (12) 
are applicable. Two equations of the type 


(11) and (12) written for mineral B can be 
added. There are seven equations and 
nine unknowns for this system of homo- 
geneous equations. Solutions such as (9) 
and (13) can be obtained by assigning 
a constant value to one of the unknowns 
so that d(unknown) = 0. For petrological 
purposes, it is necessary to obtain two 
solutions, first with X,, = constant and 
second with X,,; = constant. 


—S4 bee eHiat he (C 
—S, Xan ti Xap ose 
—S¢ Mie Nee ee 
(S14 ap Sa) mil 0 
oP M (So, = Saa) 0 (14) 
oT (X,, = constant) —=V 4 X14 Xo 1 
ay Vz Xip Xap | 
ge Ve X KO Xoo | 
(a= Vey = OS 
(Vex i Va) 0 =| 0 
and 
Sy, AG yn Gy ete 
—Sx An, ekon | 
-S¢ Nie Xoo \ 
(Sis —Ssa) 1 0 
ap Ses Se 0 ie 
oT (X12 = constant) a V4 X44 X94 1 
Vp Xip Xop 1 
=e Mie 4 Moe; wl 
| 
(Beals ne al 0 0 Gre 
a3 ce; Vp) 0 Ties © Goop 


Equations (14) and (15) can be used to 
contour mineral compositions in the di- 
variant region of the P-T diagram where 
minerals A, B, and C, are in equi- 
librium. Each equation produces a 
set of isopleths, and the two sets of 
contours form an intersecting grid on the 
P-T diagram. The P-T conditions for the 
formation of a rock containing a divariant 
mineral equilibrium can be estimated 
simply by measuring the compositions of 
two of the minerals and locating the P-T 


204 


coordinates where their appropriate iso- 
pleths intersect. The theoretical basis for 
the petrogenetic grids of O’ Hara (1967, 
p. 396, Fig. 12), Hensen and Green 
(1973, p: 154, Fig. 2: p. 155, Fig23) same 
Boyd (1973) is provided by equations 
such as (14) and (15). 


The Fluid Phase 
of Metamorphic Rocks 


An additional problem, not discussed 
previously, is encountered in the applica- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


tion of the phase rule to metamorphic 
rocks. Metamorphic rocks are derived 
from sediments or igneous rocks by deep 
burial and consequent recrystallization 
(regional metamorphism) or by heating 
caused by intrusive igneous rocks (con- 
tact metamorphism). The problem in 
application of the phase rule arises be- 
cause the aqueous fluid likely to have 
been present before and during meta- 
morphism is almost completely expelled 
from the rock by recrystallization. The 
fluid phase of metamorphic rocks is not 
readily accessible to direct chemical 
analysis, and therefore, its components 
can only be enumerated by assumption. 
Thus, the true variance of a given 
mineral equilibrium is in doubt. Further- 
more, estimates of the P-T conditions of 
rock recrystallization based on mineral 
equilibria in which fluid species partici- 
pate are likely to be affected by varia- 
tions in the properties of the fluid phase. 
One method of attacking this problem is 
to study equilibria of minerals that con- 
tain substances that are likely to be com- 
ponents of the fluid phase. The composi- 
tions of such minerals are readily meas- 
urable quantities that are functions of the 
composition of the fluid phase as well as 
temperature and pressure. In order not to 
become entangled by simultaneous con- 


A (MresalisSisOssHs — M!MesAlisSisOssHo) 


= 2d (Mes A14Si2010(0H)s ae [Meo AlsSi2010(0H)s) 


sideration of geothermometry, geobar- 
ometry, and the fluid phase, it is neces- 
sary to select a regionally metamorphosed 
outcrop area containing as wide a variety 
as possible of different rock types and 
different mineral equilibria, but small 
enough(say 10m x 10m) sothatit canbe 
assumed the rocks experienced uniform 
pressure and temperature at any given 
time during metamorphism. In this ex- 
periment 7 and P can be set to constant 
values (dT = dP = 0), and it is possible 
to study the behavior of the fluid phase 
as it is expressed by trivariant and 
quadrivariant mineral equilibria. 


Trivariant Equilibria 


Consider the trivariant five-component 
system SiO,-Al,0,-FeO-MgO-H,O con- 
taining the four minerals quartz (SiO,), 
kyanite (Al,SiO;), staurolite (Fe,A1,.Sig- 
O.3H, — Mg.Al,3Sig0,,H,), and chlori- 
toid (Fe,Al,Si,0,.(0H), — Mg,Al,Si,- 
O,. (OH),). In addition to the four Gibbs- 
Duhem equations written with the com- 
ponents indicated in parentheses, we 
have the following conditions of equi- 
librium: one condition of Fe-Mg ex- 
change equilibrium between staurolite 
and chloritoid 


(16) 


one condition of heterogeneous equilibrium between sy,0, a likely component 
species of the fiuid, and the components of the minerals 


d(3 Ux,0) = d(5apsios “i 2 MMe2AlsSi2010(0H)s <r I Usios 


(17) 


ae I {Me.AlseSi cO«sHe) 


There is also one of the equations of type (11) written for a binary solution: 


A (res AlisSisOssH> os MMgsAl:sSi sOssHo) 


oy —(Sre.st Ei Sme,sd ] aia Uses 7 Vesper a (Gerais Fe,.St 


where the subscript ‘‘Fe’’ refers to the 
Fe component of staurolite and the sub- 
script “‘St’’ refers to the mineral stauro- 
lite. Taking into account equations 


Opn. a= 
( = ) = Grere,st(X re.st — X re.ct)/3 
P,T | 


OX Fe.st 
J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


(18) 


(14-18), the four Gibbs-Duhem equa- 


tions, and the conditions dT = dP = 0, 
we can solve for 


(19) 


where the subscripts are as above and 
‘“Ct’’ refers to the mineral chloritoid. 
This equation demonstrates that the 
properties of a probable component of 
the fluid phase can be measured simply 
by analyzing the compositions of two 
minerals. Because of the binary nature 
of the solid solutions considered, it is 
possible to evaluate the sign of the right- 
hand side of equation (19) without re- 
strictive assumptions as to the solution 
properties of the minerals. The quantity 
G rere,st Is necessarily positive for a stable 
binary solution (Gibbs, op. cit., pp. 100- 
115, 129-134); therefore, the sign of (19) 
is determined by the relative magnitudes 
of the easily measured quantities X fest 
and Xre.ct- If thermodynamic data are 
available on the mixing properties of the 
binary solution of interest, and if reason- 
able estimates of P and T can be made, 
equations such as (19) can be used to 
measure the magnitude of chemical po- 
tential gradients between rocks which 
have the same mineral assemblage but 
whose minerals have different composi- 
tions. In the absence of data on the mix- 
ing properties of solid solutions an order- 
of-magnitude calculation can be made 
using the ideal solution model. Differen- 
tiating 


d(8Lrerios) = d(8Usioz oy 


— MFesAlisSisO4sH2 a MFesAlisTisOssH2 


G4 aa X yap? ts Xo 4[2" 
=F RTC, In Xia = Xo In Xow 


twice with respect to the independent 
mole fraction X,, the following result 


( OG 4 } vi Meee 

OX 14” 121 h X14 a 1 OF 
where R is equal to the universal gas 
constant and p,° and p,° are the chemical 


potentials of pure components | and 2 at 
the P and 7 of interest. 


is obtained: 


Quadrivariant Equilibria 


Consider the quadrivariant seven-com- 
ponent system SiO,-TiO,-Al,O3-Fe,O3- 
FeO-MgO-H,O containing the five min- 
erals quartz, kyanite, chloritoid, ilmenite 
(FeTi0;-Fe,O3), and staurolite 


(Fe,AligSig04g Ho-Mg.AlgSigO1gHo- 
Fe,Alig TigO4gHo). 


In this example, staurolite is a ternary 
solution with Fe-Mg and Si-Ti substitu- 
tion. In addition to the five Gibbs- 
Duhem equations we have equation 
(16), equation (17), one condition of 
heterogeneous equilibrium between the 
Ti components of ilmenite and staurolite, 


8Lalsios op 4 WresAlsSi2010(0H)4 


84120) (20) 


one condition of equilibrium between phase, and the components of the 
/4o,, a probable component of the fluid minerals, 


d((0,) = d(4pa),sios ae 2 Mires Al48i2010(0H)s ar lay Viren ae 


and two equations of type (18) for 
chloritoid and ilmenite. Taking into ac- 
count the conditions dT = dP = 0, 


( 0x30 ) 
OLo, P DX reso sitnenste 


be (4X Fe.ct a 


(8X Fes Al sSieOasHo.St + 8X FesAlysTisOssHo,St — 


206 


2)X FesAlraTisOssH>,St + (2X Fe,AlssSisOasH>.St 


411420) (21) 


AX ¥es03.ilmenite = 0, and the eleven equa- 
tions one can solve for 


a 2X Fe,ct) 


(22) 
2X Fe.ct Fez. 6) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


and, with AX Fe.ct = 0, 


( OLHL0 ) 
OMG. 7 PT Xn c 


8X Fe.03,ilmeniteX FesAl; sTis04sHe2,St 


(16X ges AlisTisOssHo,St te 16.X Fe.03,ilmeniteX FesAl:sTisOasH>,St 


Equations (22) and (23) define contours 
of mineral composition in the quadri- 
variant regions of an isothermal, isobaric 
tuo — Mo, diagram in the same way that 
equations (14) and (15) defined contours 
in the divariant regions of a P-T diagram. 
The “y,0 — Mo, Conditions of recrystal- 
lization for a given quadrivariant mineral 
equilibrium can be estimated by analyzing 
the compositions of two of its minerals, 
locating the intersection of the appropri- 
ate isopleths on a py,9 — Mo, diagram 
and reading off the coordinates of the 
intersection. Equations (22) and (23) con- 
tain readily measurable composition 
terms on their right-hand sides. These 
equations imply that the rocks them- 
selves contain all the information needed 
to deduce relative differences in chemical 
potentials of volatile components be- 
tween adjacent mineral assemblages. 
Thermodynamic data are required, of 
course, to calibrate the quadrivariant 
Lu.0 — Mo, grid to specific numerical 
values of uy,0 and Uo,. 

The treatment of trivariant and quadri- 
variant equilibria given here differs from 
the conventional form but is compatible 
with it. The method used by Korzhinskii 
(1959) and others in analyzing p,; Vs. p; 
diagrams is best suited to studying min- 
erals of fixed chemical composition. The 
method described above is well suited to 
the study of mineral solid solutions of 
variable composition. 


Conclusion 


The analytical method developed by 
Gibbs in deriving the phase rule remains 
today one of the most powerful means 
of formulating phase equilibria. It is 
hoped that the examples discussed in this 
review adequately demonstrate to the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


(23) 


hh OX resouimenite rt 6) 


reader how to apply this method to rocks 
and what kinds of information may be 
gained from its application. One advan- 
tage of the method is that the equations 
are derived in the most general way with 
a minimum of assumptions. Mineral as- 
semblages containing any number of 
phases and components may be so 
treated. The method is well suited to the 
study of mineral assemblages containing 
solid solutions of variable chemical 
composition. When assumptions are 
made in order to evaluate numerically 
the equations, they have to be introduced 
explicitly and their consequences are im- 
mediately obvious. Full realization of the 
potential of Gibbs’ method must await 
experimental measurement of additional 
thermodynamic data, especially with re- 
gard to the mixing properties. of solid 
solutions. The existence of Gibbs’ 
method and the quality of the informa- 
tion on the conditions of rock formation 
that it can provide should act as an 
inspiration to experimental petrologists to 
redouble their efforts to acquire basic 
thermodynamic data. 


Acknowledgments 


I wish to thank J. D. Frantz, H. K. 
Mao, and H. S. Yoder, Jr., of the 
Geophysical Laboratory, for contribut- 
ing to this study through discussion and 
criticism. 

References Cited 
Birch, F., 1966. Compressibility; elastic constants. 


In S. P. Clark, Jr. (ed.), Handbook of Physical 
Constants. Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 97: 97-173. 


Boyd, F. R., 1973. A pyroxene geotherm. Geochim. 
Cosmochim. Acta 37: 2533-2546. 


Butler, J. A. V., 1936. The general thermodynam- 
ical system of Gibbs. Jn F. G. Donnan (ed.), A 


207 


Commentary on the Scientific Writings of J. 
Willard Gibbs, Vol. 1. Yale University Press, 
New Haven, Conn., pp. 61-179. 


Duhem, P. M. M., 1886. Le Potential Thermo- 
dynamique et ses Applications. As cited on page 
25 in Guggenheim, E. A., 1949. Thermody- 
namics. North-Holland, Amsterdam, 394 pp. 


Gibbs, J. W., 1876, 1878. On the equilibrium of 
heterogeneous substances. Trans. Conn. Acad. 
3: 108-248, 343-524. (Reprinted 1961 as The 
Scientific Papers of J. Willard Gibbs, Vol. 1. 
Dover Publications, New York, pp. 55-371.) 


Greenwood, H. J., 1967. The n-dimensional tieline 
problem. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 31: 465- 
490. 


Hensen, B. J., and D. H. Green, 1973. Experimental 
study of the stability of cordierite and garnet in 
pelitic compositions, part 3. Contrib. . Mineral. 
Petrol. 38: 151-166. 


Korzhinskii, D. S., 1959. Physicochemical Basis of 
the Analysis of the Paragenesis of Minerals. 
Consultants Bureau, New York, 142 pp. 


. 1966. On thermodynamics of open 
systems and the phase rule. Geochim. Cosmo- 
chim. Acta 30: 829-835. 


. 1967. On thermodynamics of open 
systems and the phas rule. Geochim. Cosmo- 
chim. Acta 31: 1177-1180. 


Kretz, R., 1959. Chemical study of garnet, biotite, 
and hornblende from gneisses of southwestern 
Quebec. J. Geol. 67: 371-402. 


Morey, G. W., 1936. The phase rule and heterogene- 
ous equilibrium. Jn F. G. Donnan (ed.), A 
Commentary on the Scientific Writings of J. 
Willard Gibbs, Vol. 1. Yale University Press, 
New Haven, Conn., pp. 233-293. 


Morey, G. W., and E. D. Williamson, 1918. 
Pressure-temperature curves in univariant sys- 
tems. J. Amer. Chem. Soc. 40: 59-84. 


O’Hara, M. J., 1967. Mineral parageneses in 
ultrabasic rocks. In P. J. Wyllie (ed.), Ultra- 
mafic and Related Rocks. John Wiley and Sons, 
New York, pp. 393-403. 


208 


Prigogine, I., and R. Defay, 1954. Chemical Ther- 
modynamics, translated by D. H. Everett. 
Longmans, Green, New York, 543 pp. 


Robie, R. A., P. M. Bethke, M. S. Toulmin, and 
J. L. Edwards, 1966. X-ray crystallographic 
data, densities, and molar volumes of minerals. 
In S. P. Clark, Jr. (ed.), Handbook of Physical 
Constants. Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 97: 27-73. 


Robie, R. A., and D. R. Waldbaum, 1968. Thermo- 
dynamic properties of minerals and related 
substances at 298.15°K and one atmosphere 
pressure and at higher temperatures. U. S. Geol. 
Surv. Bull. 1259, 256 pp. 


Skinner, B. J., 1966. Thermal expansion. /n S. P. 
Clark, Jr. (ed.), Handbook of Physical Con- 
stants. Geol. Soc. Amer. Mem. 97: 75—96. 


Thompson, J. B., Jr. 1959. Local equilibrium in 
metasomatic processes. Jn P. H. Abelson (ed.), 
Researches in Geochemistry. John Wiley and 
Sons, New York, pp. 427-457. 


. 1970. Geochemical reaction and 
open systems. Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 34: 
529-551. 


Thompson, J. B., Jr., and D. R. Waldbaum, 1968. 
Mixing Properties of sanidine crystalline solu- 
tions, part 1. Amer. Mineral. 53: 1965-1969. 


. 1969. Mixing properties of sanidine 
crystalline solutions, part 3. Amer. Mineral. 54: 
811-838. 


Waldbaum, D. R., and R. A. Robie, 1971. Calori- 
metric investigation of Na-K mixing and poly- 
morphism in the alkali feldspars. Z. Kristallogr. 
134: 381-420. 


Weill, D. F., and W. S. Fyfe, 1964. A discussion 
of the Korzhinskii and Thompson treatment of 
thermodynamic equilibrium in open systems. 
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 28: 565-576. 


. 1967. On equilibrium thermody- 
namics of open. systems and the phase rule. 
Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta 31: 1167-1176. 


‘Zen, E., 1963. Components, phases, and criteria 


of chemical equilibrium in rocks. Amer. J. Sci. 
261: 929-942. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


A Biologist’s View of Gibbs’ Contributions 


Harold J. Morowitz 


Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, 


Yale University, New Haven, Conn. 


ABSTRACT 


Five examples illustrate the particular orientation given by Gibbs’ thermodynamics 
or statistical mechanics to approaches to contemporary research in the life sciences. 


Approaching the hundredth anniver- 
sary of Gibbs’ work on heterogeneous 
equilibrium, and trying to assess Gibbs’ 
influence on biology arouses feelings of 
nostalgia. I must therefore introduce 
my topic with a few personal notes. 
I first learned of Gibbsian thermo- 
dynamics in Leigh Page’s course on 
Introduction to Theoretical Physics, 
where I was introduced to the W, x, 
¢ functions of the Professor. So while 
the rest of the world talked of enthalpies, 
free energies, and the rest, we contented 
ourselves with the original 1875 nomen- 
clature. This quaint approach was not 
so strange, for Page came to Yale 
in 1900 and spent the first 3 years of 
his career in a department in which 
Gibbs was still an active contributor. 
Thus, I feel myself a member in a line 
of direct microcanonical succession from 
the master himself. 

These psychological ties go deeper, for 
on several occasions when my unease 
Over a Scientific problem rendered me 
peripatetic I have wandered from the 
Gibbs laboratory where I work to the 
nearby Grove Street Cemetery to pause 
before the Gibbs family gravesite and 
wonder where this modest man drew the 
inspiration to penetrate problems with 
such clear and brilliant insight. However, 
lest we get maudlin, let us turn from 
the man to his work. 

Gibbsian concepts have so penetrated 
modern biological and biochemical 
thought that any attempt to survey their 
impact would go far beyond the limits 
of this presentation. Rather, we will 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


focus attention on 5 examples from con- 
temporary life science, where the par- 
ticular orientation given by Gibbs to 
some aspect of thermodynamics or statis- 
tical mechanics has motivated a signif- 
icant approach to some biological area. 

One of the most fertile papers in 
modern molecular biology has been 
‘Equilibrium Sedimentation of Macro- 
molecules in Density Gradients’’ by 
Meselson et al. (1957). These studies 
opened the way to the separation of 
isotopically labeled nucleic acids on the 
basis of density. It provided immediately 
successful analytical and separatory 
techniques which have been among the 
principle tools in the study of both 
prokaryotic and eukaryotic genetic ma- 
terial. The application of this technique 
quickly led to an understanding of the 
semiconservative replication of bacterial 
DNA (Meselson and Stahl, 1958). Much 
of our detailed understanding of the 
nature of DNA replication rests on ex- 
periments using equilibrium density 
gradients. 

The theory of density gradients fol- 
lows from the generalization of the 
chemical potential set forth by Gibbs 
in his study of heterogeneous equi- 
librium. Thus the theory section of the 
density gradient paper begins: 


‘*II Quantitative Relations 


The total potential of any component 
at equilibrium in a closed system at 
constant temperature must be uniform 
through the system. In a centrifugal 


209 


field this requirement results in the 
rigorous condition. 


M,(1 aan V,0(r))w*rdr = > oe dC, a 


k k 
where Mi, Vi, wi, Cy, are molecular 
weight, partial specific volume, partial 
molar (Gibbs) free energy and con- 
centration of the ith component.”’ 


Reference 3 in the above quotation 
is to T. Svedberg and K.O. Pedersen, 
The Ultracentrifuge (1940). Interestingly 
enough, Pedersen in his chapter on sedi- 
mentation equilibrium in the reference 
just cited has a footnote which states: 
‘*For the thermodynamical deduction 
of equations for sedimentation equilib- 
rium compare, for instance: The Scien- 
tific Papers of J. W. Gibbs J, 144-50 
(London 1906); etc, etc.’’ The reference 
in Gibbs is to a section called ‘‘The 
Conditions of Equilibrium for Hetero- 
geneous Masses under the Influence of 
Gravity.’ The equation given by Mesel- 
son et al. (1957) follows directly from 
the treatment given by Gibbs with the 
substitution of the centrifugal accelera- 
tion w*r for the gravitational accelera- 
tion. We have thus traced the direct 
link from the cesium chloride gradients 
for DNA back to the underlying theory 
as set forth in 1875. 

The second example I would like to 
give has provided a central theme to 
modern theoretical ecology and has 
formed the underlying assumption of a 
number of studies. The paper I refer 
to is “‘A Statistical Mechanics of Inter- 
acting Biological Species’? by Edward 
Kerner (1957). Kerner is a physicist 
and an unabashed Gibbsian who has 
used the insights of statistical mechanics 
to attempt to deal with biological prob- 
lems of such high order of complexity 
that detailed treatment seems to be im- 
possible. Kerner’s approach has stim- 
ulated theoretical studies in cell biology 
(Goodwin, 1963), neurophysiology 
(Cowan, 1972), and complex chemical 
systems (Kerner, 1964). 7 

Kerner’s reliance on Gibbs’ statistical 
mechanics is most clearly seen in the 


210 


Now, 


following quotation from the 1957 paper: 


‘“To proceed at once from the starting 
Volterra equations is therefore plainly 
desirable, if not absolutely necessary. 
the statistical mechanics cus- 
tomary in physics, that form of it 
elaborated by J. W. Gibbs (1902), rests 
on the Hamiltonian form of the equa- 
tions of motion only weakly, almost 
incidentally, the role of Hamilton’s equa- 
tions being to make evident the two 
corner stones of the statistical develop- 
ment: Liouville’s theorem and energy 
conservation. It will appear that the 
initial Volterra equations readily admit 
a Liouville’s theorem and a universal 
constant of the ‘“‘motion’’ somewhat 
like the Hamiltonian of classical dy- 
namics; and then a statistical analysis 
of some simplicity, parallel to Gibbs’, 
becomes feasible. Herewith we find a 
lesson from physics as well as to physics, 
an example of how much broader is 
the statistical side of statistical mechanics 
than the mechanics which calls it into 
existence.”’ 


With the above in mind Kerner pro- 
ceeds to recast the Volterra equations 
into equations of motion and then to 
form a ‘“‘Gibbs ensemble of biological 
associations.’ For such an ensemble 
he proves ‘‘Liouville’s theorem of con- 
servation of density in phase.’ The 
analogy is carried forward to the intro- 
duction of a number of new parameters 
which have provided stimulus to eco- 
logical thought. 

The statistical ideas of Gibbs stressed 
by Kerner had already entered biology 
by an entirely alternate route. Norbert 
Wiener in his book Cybernetics (1948) 
opened up a whole new paradigm on 
the role of feedback systems in biology. 
Chapter II of that book deals extensively 
with the work of Gibbs and Henn 
Lebesque. Wiener wrote: 


‘‘Gibbs, mathematician that he was, 
always regarded mathematics as ancillary 
to physics. Lebesque was an analyst 
of the purest type, an able exponent 
of the extremely exacting modern stand- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


ards of mathematical rigor; ... 
Nevertheless, the work of these two men 
forms a single whole in which the ques- 
tions asked by Gibbs find their answers, 
not in his own work, but in the work 
of Lebesque.”’ 


Wiener proceeds to a detailed discus- 
sion of the ergodic hypothesis which 
serves as an introduction to his dis- 
cussion of information. Thus the cy- 
bernetic and information theory ap- 
proaches in biology are also touched by 
a Gibbsian influence. 

Gibbsian statistical mechanics, insofar 
as it provided part of the foundation 
of information theory, has had a broad 
and difficult task to delineate influence 
on contemporary biology. The informa- 
tion measure of Shannon, which relates 
closely to the entropy measure of statis- 
tical mechanics, has been widely used 
by biologists in a series of problems rang- 
ing from evaluating primary sequence in 
biopolymers to behavioral studies dealing 
with the rate of information processing 
in humans (Quastler, 1953). 

The next example is much more ex- 
perimental in outlook, yet illustrates the 
power of one of the concepts from the 
discussion of heterogeneous equilibrium. 
For a number of years the detailed study 
of membrane structure has been a prob- 
lem of great difficulty. The obvious 
chief role of the plasma membrane is 
to separate the aqueous interior of the 
cell from the aqueous exterior. Such 
separation is mecessary to accord an 
integrity to the interior, so that a degree 
of regulation is possible. Since all mem- 
branes contain appreciable amounts of 
amphiphilic molecules such as phospho- 
lipids, these substances were some of the 
logical candidates for the non-aqueous 
phase. The very notion of phase in this 
sense goes back to the section of the 
heterogeneous equilibrium paper called 
‘“On Coexistent Phases of Matter.” 

The notion that membranes consist 
largely of bimolecular leaflets of polar 
lipid molecules with interior lipid and 
exterior polar groups has been one of 
the popular membrane models since late 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


in the 1920’s. However, proof was lack- 
ing. In 1969 Stein and coworkers (Stein 
et al., 1969) examined purified mem- 
branes of Acholeplasma laidlawii by dif- 
ferential scanning calorimetry and ob- 
served a distinct heat absorption peak 
which they took to be associated with a 
phase transition in the membrane bi- 
layer. They extracted the membrane 
lipids, formed synthetic bilayers from 
them, and observed that these materials 
yielded differential calorimetric scanning 
patterns similar to the membrane. 

In our laboratory we have repeated 
Stein’s results and have been able to 
utilize Dr. Sturtevant’s highly sensitive 
calorimeter to demonstrate the phase 
transition in whole living cells (Melchior 
et al., 1970). Engelman (1970) used the 
phase transition to measure the change 
of bilayer thickness during the phase 
transition by the technique of x-ray dif- 
fraction. The phase change and change 
of thickness aided in interpreting the dif- 
fraction pattern. This series of phase 
change measurements has now made it 
very clear that most of the lipids in 
mycoplasma membranes are in the bi- 
molecular leaflet configuration. 

Our final case study involves an area 
where the answers are not yet completely 
in—the attempts to develop a non- 
equilibrium thermodynamics and statis- 
tical mechanics appropriate to biology. 
An example of this approach is the book 
‘“Nonequilibrium Thermodynamics in 
Biophysics’’ by Aharon Katchalsky and 
Peter F. Curran (1965). They start with 
the introduction of the Gibbs equation 


dU = TdS — PdV + fdl 
k 
Seal SEM re 11 Hi Sane 
—s 


which is strictly applicable to equilibrium 
reactions and extend it to near equilib- 
rium by the assumption of local equilib- 
rium. They note ‘‘the range of ap- 
plicability of the Gibbs equation cannot 
be specified on a priori grounds, and 
the justification of its use rests in the 
final analysis, on the validity of the 


211 


results obtained. On the basis of this 
criterion, many irreversible processes of 
interest can be treated using Eq. (7-2) 
as a Starting point.’ Using this approach, 
the authors develop an approach to mem- 


brane and transport processes which has . 


been influential in the current study of 
these problems in biology. 

The possible treatment of nonequi- 
librium cases has been pursued in statis- 
tical mechanics as well as_ thermo- 
dynamics. E. T. Jaynes in his paper 
‘Information Theory and _ Statistical 
Mechanics’’ (1957) has extended the 
Statistical mechanics of Gibbs to make 
contact with the information theory of 
Shannon and Weaver (1964) and has pro- 
vided a basis for extending the ensemble 
approach into the nonequilibrium do- 
main. Jaynes has written: 


‘‘The mathematical facts concerning 
maximization of entropy were pointed 
out long ago by Gibbs. In the past, 
however, these properties were given 
the status of side remarks not essential 
to the theory and not providing in 
themselves any justification for the 
methods of statistical mechanics. The 
feature which was missing has been 
supplied only recently by Shannon in 
the demonstration that the expression for 
entropy has a deeper meaning, quite 
independent of thermodynamics. This 
makes possible a reversal of the usual 
line of reasoning in statistical mechanics. 
Previously, one constructed a theory 
based on the equations of motion, sup- 
plemented by additional hypotheses of 
ergodicity, metric transitivity, or equal 
a priori probabilities, and the identifi- 
cation of entropy was made only at 
this end, by comparison of the resulting 
equations with the laws of phenomeno- 
logical thermodynamics. Now, however, 
we can take entropy as our starting 
concept, and the fact that a probability 
distribution maximizes the entropy sub- 
ject to certain constraints becomes the 
essential fact which justifies use of that 
distribution for inference.”’ 


In the Jaynes formalism the maximiza- 
tion of entropy is the equivalent to 


212 


making the maximally noncommittal 
statement with respect to missing in- 
formation. It is an extension of La- 
place’s principle of insufficient reason 
to any case where constraints can be 
formulated and a probability distribu- 
tion is a reasonable way to formulate 
the problem. It is therefore applicable 
to any situation where ensembles and 
ensemble averages are appropriate for 
the formulation of a problem. 

We have attempted to use the Jaynes 
approach in 3 studies aimed at develop- 
ing non-equilibrium statistical techniques 
for biological problems (Rider and Moro- 
witz, 1968; Morowitz, 1971; Corbet and 
Morowitz, 1972). While such approaches 
are in their early stages, they do indi- 
cate the potential power of the ensemble 
technique in problems extending beyond 
the original equilibrium mechanics 
treated by Gibbs. 

‘In retrospect it is surprising to realize 
the number of crucial areas in modern 
biological thought where concepts 
originally set forth by Josiah Willard 
Gibbs have come to maturity. It re- 
quires an event such as this symposium 
to force us to focus attention on the 
fruits of the labors of a modest genius 
such as Gibbs. 

As a biologist, one can only lament 
that Gibbs failed to make a contribu- 
tion to the gene pool. While he left 
no children, he has numerous intellectual 
heirs who share the huge wealth of 
ideas left deposited in his writings. 


References Cited 


Corbet, A., and H. J. Morowitz. Phys. Rev. 
A, 6, 2298, 1972. 

Cowan, J. in Proceedings of the Sixth IUPAP 
Conference on Statistical Mechanics, University 
of Chicago Press, 1972. 

Engelman, D. M. J. Mol. Biol. 47, 115, 1970. 

Goodwin, B. Temporal Organization in Cells. 
Academic Press, 1963. 

Jaynes, L. T. Phys. Rev. 106, 620, 1957. 

Katchalsky, A., and P. Curran. Non-Equilibrium 
Thermodynamics in Biophysics. Harvard Uni- 
versity Press, 1965. 

Kerner, E. H. Bull. Math. Biophys. 19, 121, 1957. 

Kerner, E. H. Bull. Math. Biophys. 26, 333, 1964. 

Melchior, D. L., H. J. Morowitz, J. M. Sturte- 
vant, and T. Yow Tseng. Biochim. Biophys. 
Acta 219, 114, 1970. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Meselson, M., F. W. Stahl, and J. Vinograd. 
P.N.A.S. (U.S.) 43, 581, 1957. 

Meselson, M., and F. W. Stahl. P.N.A.S. (U.S.) 
44, 671, 1958. 

Morowitz, H. J. p. 37-41 in Chemical Evolution 
and the Origin of Life. Buvet, R. and C. 
Ponnamperuma. North Holland Publishing Co., 
1971. 

Quastler, H. Essays on Information Theory in 
Biology. University of Illinois Press, 1953. 

Rider, K., and H. J. Morowitz. J. Theoret. Biol. 
21, 278, 1968. 


Shannon, C. E., and W. Weaver. The Mathematical 
Theory of Communication. University of Illinois 
Press, 1964. 


Stein, J. M., M. E. Tourtellotte, J. C. Reuert, 
R. N. McElhaney, and P. L. Rader, P.N.A.S. 
(U.S.). 63, 104, 1969. 


Svedberg, T., and K. O. Pederson. The Ultra- 
centrifuge. Oxford, 1940. 


Wiener, N. Cybernetics. John Wiley and Sons, 
1948. 


Centennial of Gibbs’ Thermodynamics — 


Concluding Remarks 


R. E. Gibson 


Director Emeritus, Applied Physics Laboratory, The Johns Hopkins University 


The President’s reference to the 18 
years that have elapsed since I held the 
position he now occupies is one of two 
recent instances that have reminded me 
of the rapid passage of time. The other 
occurred a few days ago when, in prepa- 
ration for this symposium, I looked into 
the volumes of Gibbs’ collected works 
that I first studied some 45 years ago. 
Although I had remembered vividly the 
pleasure that came from following the 
closely knit arguments and ingenious 
graphical demonstrations that led him 


from two very simply stated but preg- — 


nant general principles to elucidate phe- 
nomena and laws covering a vast area of 
physical chemistry, I found with some 
dismay that much of the content seemed 
unfamiliar, forgotten over years of pre- 
occupation with other matters. Only 
handwritten marginal notes assured me 
that once I had studied these papers as- 
siduously. The papers tonight brought 
alive again the realization that those arti- 
cles published— mostly in the Transac- 
tions of the Connecticut Academy 
approximately a century ago—are still a 
rich mine of scientific gold. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Let me base these concluding remarks 
on a passage from a memorial biography? 
written in 1903 by H. A. Bumstead, a 
student and colleague of Gibbs, and later 
Professor of Physics and Director for 
many years of the Sloane Physics Lab- 
oratory at Yale: 


‘*Although he disregarded many of the shibbo- 
leths of the mathematical rigorists, his logical 
processes were really of the most severe type; in 
power of deduction, of generalization, in insight 
into hidden relations, in critical acumen, utter 
lack of prejudice, and in the philosophical breadth 
of his view of the object and aim of physics, he has 
had few superiors in the history of the sciences; and 
no student could come in contact with this serene 
and impartial mind without feeling profoundly its 
influence in all his future studies of nature.” 


Through the exercise of these logical 
processes, Gibbs left a legacy of elegant 
instruments of thought such as the con- 
cept of the chemical potential (often very 
loosely called the ‘‘Free Energy’’ or 
‘‘Partial Free Energy’’) together with 


1 American Journal of Science, Series 4, Vol. XV, 
September 1903. Reprinted in ‘‘The Collected 
Works of J. Willard Gibbs, Vol. I, Longmans, 
Green & Co., New York, 1928. 


213 


equations and diagrams using this con- 
cept. Dr. Rumble has shown how these 
methods, combined with a knowledge of 
the components present in a geochemical 
system, can enable the ingenious investi- 
gator to thread his way through the maze 
of complicated reactions taking place in 
the formation of metamorphic rocks and 
deduce the conditions under which they 
were formed, thereby strengthening our 
knowledge of the thermal history of the 
earth’s crust. Dr. Mountain has shown us 
that the graphical expressions logically 
derived by Gibbs to describe, among 
other things, the thermodynamics of 
critical phenomena have relevance not 
only to the classical cases but also to 
‘‘phase’’ transitions which are some of 
the most exciting phenomena in modern 
solid state physics. 

Gibbs’ insight into hidden relations 
implicit in simple, empirically established 
general principles is a feature of ‘‘On the 
Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Sub- 
stances’’ that strikes the attention of any 
reader. In following his logical arguments 
relentlessly to take into account all 
imaginable variables that might influence 
a system, such as gravity, capillarity, and 
electromotive force, Gibbs formulated 
relationships that over the years have 
assumed more and more general signifi- 
cance. Dr. Morowitz has laid before us 
many examples illustrating clearly the 
direct and indirect consequences in the 
fundamental exploration of biological 
systems of ‘‘hidden relations’’ uncovered 
by Gibbs. 

Taken together, the discussions we 
have heard tonight amply endorse Bum- 
stead’s assessment of the surpassing 
Philosophical breadth of his (Gibbs’) 
view of the object and aim of physics. 

Although this symposium is primarily 
concerned with the thermodynamics of 
Gibbs, I can not refrain from a further 
remark inspired by a statement made by 
Dr. Morowitz concerning Gibbs’ studies 
of statistical mechanics to the effect that 
the mathematical statistical structure 
Gibbs developed now transcends in im- 
portance the mechanics that have been 
incorporated into it. 


214 


The following extract? from the preface 
to ‘‘Elementary Principles in Statistical 
Mechanics’”’ is illuminating: 


ee 


. . . Even if we confine our attention to the 
phenomena distinctively thermodynamic, we do not 
escape difficulties in as simple a matter as the num- 
ber of degrees of freedom of a diatomic gas. It is 
well known that while theory would assign to the 
gas six degrees of freedom per molecule, in our 
experiments on specific heat, we cannot account for 
more than five. Certainly, one is building on an 
insecure foundation, who rests his work on hy- 
potheses concerning the constitution of matter. 

‘‘Difficulties of this kind have deterred the author 
from attempting to explain the mysteries of nature, 
and have forced him to be contented with the more 
modest aim of deducing some of the more obvious 
propositions relating to the statistical branch of 
mechanics. Here, there can be no mistake in regard 
to the agreement of the hypotheses with the facts of 
nature, for nothing is assumed in that respect. The 
only error into which one can fall, is the want of 
agreement between the premises and the conclu- 
sions, and this, with care, one may hope, in the 
main, to avoid.”’ 


The choice and definition of a subject 
to which he is to devote his time and effort 
for an indefinite period is the most im- 
portant decision a scientific investigator 
makes. The problem must be significant, 
material for its solution must be at least 
foreseeable, and the solution must be 
within, indeed call for, the highest intel- 
lectual powers of the investigator. The 
ability of a person to assess these condi- 
tions and choose appropriate problems 
proclaims the genius of the investigator 
and separates the first class from the nth 
class scientist. 

These criteria are compatible with 
Gibbs’ rank as a first class natural phi- 
losopher, although, if confronted with 
his proposal, it is not so certain that “‘blue 
ribbon’’ panels today would have sup- 
ported his effort. 

Tonight’s symposium brings out 
clearly that the thinking of Gibbs has had 
a lasting influence on the theoretical and 
experimental development of all areas of 
modern science. 

Let me now call attention to an area of 
human activity where the example of 


2**The Collected Works of J. Willard Gibbs, 
Vol. II, Longmans, Green & Co., New York, 
1928, p. x (preface). 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Gibbs’ life and work has considerable 
relevance but which now goes on as if he 
and other thinkers had not existed. You 
will recall that the series of papers ‘‘On 
the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Sub- 
stances’? began with the following 
words: 


““ “Die Energie der Welt ist constant. 
Die Entropie der Welt strebt einem Maximum 
Zu.” 
—Clausius 


The comprehension of the laws which govern any 
material system is greatly facilitated by considering 
the energy and entropy of the system in the various 
states of which it is capable.”’ 


On the basis of these empirical princi- 
ples Gibbs gives as the criterion for a sys- 
tem (isolated) to be in equilibrium, any 
change in the state of the system must be 
such that (6S); = 0, where S is the en- 
tropy and E the energy of the system. 
Without introduction of energy from 
without the system in equilibrium has no 
potential for yielding useful work and is 
dead. In moving towards this state of 
equilibrium, the system undergoes a 
number of spontaneous changes in which 
the useful work given out under specific 
conditions may be expressed as W = 
AE — TAS. If these changes take place 
reversibly —1.e., they are held in control 
by a mechanism that constrains them to 
take place under equilibrium conditions, 
slowly enough, the work that can be ob- 
tained approaches its maximum value. 

If, on the other hand, these changes are 
uncontrolled, highly irreversible, the use- 
ful work obtained for a given energy 
change is much less than the maximum 
obtainable, indeed sometimes close to 0, 
the energy being all absorbed by TAS, the 
system rushes rapidly and wastefully to 
the equilibrium state where the entropy 
takes on its maximum value. For ex- 
ample, if we burn hydrogen and oxygen in 
a flame no useful work results, with an 
intermediate device such as a steam en- 
gine we may obtain some useful work at 
the expense of the entropy increase, with 


’Transactions of the Connecticut Academy, III, 
pp. 108-248, Oct. 1875—May, 1876, and pp. 
343-524, May 1877-July 1878. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


a fuel cell we may control the speed of the 
hydrogen oxygen reaction by sensing and 
adjusting the electromotive force of the 
cell in a way that brings the useful work 
yielded as close to the maximum as we 
wish. The human body is well supplied 
with control mechanisms which sense 
departure from equilibrium conditions 
and control the processes taking place to 
use most economically the energy in- 
trinsic in the food we eat and the air we 
breathe. 

Today, we are in thé midst of a so- 
called ‘‘energy crisis.’’ The word 
‘energy’ is used by the propagandists of 
all kinds to lend an aura of scientific dig- 
nity in making capital out of a situation in 
which the demand for certain non-re- 
newable (or rather difficultly renewable) 
resources exceed the supply, fuel now 
and metals soon being the chief items of 
concern. If one has to use a word, well 
defined in science but not well under- 
stood elsewhere, it might be better to de- 
scribe the current situation as an ‘‘en- 
tropy crisis’’. This term would at least 
cover three important current problems 
and emphasize the close relationship be- 
tween them. For the current fuel or “‘free 
energy’ crisis that commands so much 
public attention—written and spoken 
words today—the pollution or waste 
problem that held the center of the stage 
yesterday, and the materials problem 
which will arouse as much concern to- 
morrow; all arise from a common source, 
uncontrolled dispersal of resources— 
runaway increase of entropy, to state the 
matter succinctly if loosely. 

I have spoken of the role of control 
systems in regulating the processes 
whereby nature permits us to extract 
from the resources* assembled over mil- 
lions of years ‘‘useful work’’ and its 


*Looking at “‘non renewable’’ resources such as 
fossil fuels, metallic ore concentrations, we may 
consider the earth to be an isolated system. How- 
ever, as regards ‘‘renewable’’ resources such as 
water power, farm-and forest products, the earth is 
not an isolated system; the energy received from the 
sun continually reducing the entropy, increasing 
the potential of part of the system to yield useful 
work. 


215 


social equivalent, commodities, services, 
and even luxuries.® Through intellects 
like that of Gibbs, man has learned that 
there are fundamental limits to these 
processes and, within these limits, how to 
realize the maximum benefits from them. 

The resources of the earth are vast but 
not unlimited, and it is high time that this 
knowledge was used to greater social 
effect, but to do so may require very 
fundamental changes in our thoughts and 
communications. An essential feature of 
the control of any process or machine is 
‘“‘negative feed back control.’’ A sensor 
gives timely and accurate information 
concerning the present magnitude and 
trend of the output of the process or 
machine; in a comparator this informa- 
tion is compared with what the magni- 
tudes and trends should be to preserve 
stable and efficient operations, and dif- 
ferences are converted into information 
signals sent to change the input of the 
machine to oppose undesirable trends in 
its operation. Thus stability is main- 
tained. If because information concern- 
ing the output is untimely, inaccurate, or 
the system is deliberately so designed, 
increase in the output may result in in- 
crease in the input, and the control sys- 
tem reinforces rather than opposes trends 
in the system’s operation. This is known 
as ‘‘positive feed back’’ and results in 
exponential growth of the speed of the 
output of the process or machine. Ex- 
plosions, be they in bombs, population, 
pollution or knowledge, all involve ‘‘posi- 
tive feed backs.’’ Such processes are 
irreversible, large amounts of energy 
being required to restore the system to its 
original state. 

Social systems may be regarded as 
complex, dynamic and sensitive ma- 
chines, designed to promote survival ina 
hostile environment of the system itself 
and of its individual components. Their 
successful operation depends on the 
sophistication and reliability of their con- 


‘The word ‘‘wealth’’ as used by classical 
economists describes the social equivalent of “‘use- 
ful work.”’ 


216 


trol systems to conduct operations in 
accordance with the laws of nature, in 
particular the laws of thermodynamics. 
In democratic societies the input of the 
social machine is basically through the 


motivation, thought and action of the 


individual, the output is group behavior, 
concerted effort to optimize the creation 
of intellectual and material products 
needed to support the life and welfare of 
the system. The control system in a mod- 
ern society is very complex. There are 
many sensors detecting and predicting 
the outputs and trends of the system— 
public servants, writers, philosophers, 
and religious leaders, to give some ex- 
amples. The ‘‘information’’ generated by 
these sensors may or may not be timely 
and accurate, and, when processed 
through the comparator furnished with 
the corporate memory of history, yields 
control signals of varying and often un- 
known quality, often being tinged with 
the human tendency to dramatic exagger- 
ation. The channels communicating these 
signals to the input also introduce the 
noise of untimeliness, uncertainty and 
error. Thus the signals, arriving at the 
input of the machine are very noisy, the 
negative feed backs so necessary to sta- 
bility often being submerged by stronger 
messages causing positive feed backs and 
introducing hysteria or crisis psychology 
into the motivation of the individual. 

This is not at all an ideal state of 
affairs and I fear that the scientific seg- 
ment of society is by no means free from 
non-ideal observations, formulations, 
communications and motivations. How- 
ever, the experience of mankind gives no 
hope of a system-wide improvement— 
we must turn to the individual. A key to 
the individual response is given in the 
last phrases of the above quotation from 
Gibbs’ biographer: 


ce 


. and no student could come in contact 
with this serene and impartial mind without feeling 
profoundly its influence in all his future studies of 
nature.”’ 


We might conjecture that the serenity 
and impartiality of this mind came from 
its will and ability to discern in strident 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


and noisy communications pouring in 
from all sides the ‘‘still small voice’’ of 
truth, and its determination to follow 
rigorously courses of action motivated by 
this truth and this truth alone. After a 
century this serene and impartial mind 
still shines through the great scientific 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


works of Willard Gibbs, giving to the stu- 
dent, overwhelmed by the inconsisten- 
cies, the confusion and violence of the 
world of today, determination to refine 
the gold of truth from the dross of false- 
hood and error, and courage to follow 
this truth relentlessly. 


217 


PROFILE 


Who is Harry Diamond Labs? 


ABSTRACT 


A new location for the Harry Diamond Laboratories of the U.S. Army Material 
Command puts a new emphasis on its research in nuclear weapons effects, advanced 
radar techniques, fluidics, and instrumentation. 


The name is derived from the man, _ electrical engineering from Lehigh Uni- 
Harry Diamond, born in Russia on Feb-_ versity in 1925. From 1927 until his death 
ruary 12, 1900, and emigrated to the’ in 1948, his career was a long succession 
United States as a child. A graduate of of major technical achievements in radio 
the Massachusetts Institute of Tech- and electronics. 
nology, he received a masters degree in. §Mr. Diamond joined the staff working 


Fig. 1.—Physics research conducted within the lab includes a program to adjust an optical 
parametric oscillator (turnable laser). 


218 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


KS 


\ 


Fig. 2.—Assembling a unique telemetry unit 
a test firing. 


on the first radio-range beacon system for 
the airways when he came to National 
Bureau of Standards: a year later he was 
made chief of the activity. New develop- 
ments evolved rapidly until the project 
was transferred out in 1933. The work 
culminated in the development of the first 
complete instrumented system for land- 
ing aircraft ‘““‘blind.’’ Today’s Instrument 
Landing System derives from this work 
of more than 30 years ago. 

Next, with his staff, he developed the 
radiosonde, a balloon-carried automatic 
weather station; about 2,000,000 have 
been launched. It is still the primary 
means of measuring atmospheric condi- 
tions which determine weather. 

About a year before Pearl Harbor, 
Harry Diamond was given responsibility 
for the Bureau’s part in developing prox- 
imity fuzes for non-rotated missiles. It 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


to a mortar round to acquire information during 


was calculated—and proved in com- 
bat—that a fuze which would explode a 
warhead near an air-borne target or at the 
best height above a surface target would 
increase damage by a factor of five or ten. 
Much of the basic proximity fuze tech- 
nology was developed under his direc- 
tion. 

At the end of World War II, Mr. 
Diamond became interested in still more 
advanced electronic systems and in new 
electronic component developments. 
Printed circuits were given their first 
real start in this program, and consider- 
able progress was made in automatic 
assembly process high-polymer potting 
compounds, and electrical transducers 
and controls. 

While the initial charter of the organi- 
zation directed all of its efforts into 
weapons fuzing, its current activities 


219 


Fig. 3.—In 1960, HDL announced the invention of the first family of fluidic devices that have 
since evolved into the development of a whole new technology including a three-axis stability 
augmentation system for helicopters that uses no moving parts. 


(including proximity fuzing) range 
through a wide variety of interests. 
Among the more important fields covered 
are: 

Nuclear Weapons Effects.—HDL 
pioneered in the field of transient radia- 
tion effects (TREE) in the internal and 
external electromagnetic pulse (EMP) 
effects on electronics. Presently, it is the 
lead laboratory in this area for the Army 
Materiel Command and co-ordinates all 
AMC activities in this field. To harden 
electronic components for tactical and 
Strategic systems, HDL maintains nu- 
clear, X-ray, gamma, and electromag- 
netic pulse simulators that are used by 
many elements of DOD. 

Advanced Radar Techniques.—Pres- 
ent emphasis is upon advanced-radar 
techniques for target detection and signa- 
ture analysis for a wide range of environ- 
ment. The technique of combining co- 
herent radar signals in phase and in 


220 


Fig. 4.—The first transportable Electromagnetic 
Pulse Simulator (EMP) was developed by HDL in 
1973. In support of Defense Nuclear Agency and 
Defense Communication agencies, it is being used 
to study the effects of EMP on telecommunica- 
tion systems throughout the U.S. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Fig. 5.—The AURORA facility is operated as a tri-service facility ‘“‘to lessen the dependence 
of the nation on underground testing of weapon systems.’’ The Defense Nuclear Agency funded 
the facility to study the ionizing effects of gamma rays and fast neutrons. The output of four 
Marx generators and four Blumlein pulse forming networks are synchronized to form a radiation 
pulse 100 billionths of a second long. 


quadrature to obtain the direction of the 
target’s movement was conceived and 
developed by HDL for the purpose of 
detecting moving targets in a cluttered 
environment. 

Fluidics. —Since the invention of the 
first family of fluid devices at HDL in 
1960, it has been the lead laboratory for 
AMC on the application of fluidics. 

Instrumentation.—The task of re- 
covering information from in-flight artil- 
lery shells and missiles has led to a highly 
refined capability to apply ruggedized, 
miniaturized electronic devices by HDL. 
An early recognition of this capability 
was the 1957 micro-miniaturization 
award won by HDL for the application of 
photo-lithographic techniques to transis- 
tor production. 

The Laboratories have a complement 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


of approximately 1500 personnel led by 
500 engineers and scientists, who are 
principally electronic and mechanical 
engineers and physicists. Last Septem- 
ber, the Laboratories marked its twenti- 
eth anniversary by affixing the corner- 
stone at its new facility in Adelphi, 
Maryland. 

When construction is completed in 
1976, the installation will utilize 90 of 137 
acres for laboratory and support build- 
ings. The remaining areas will be devoted 
largely to a buffer zone from the adjacent 
residential and business area. The site 
located five miles from the northeast 
boundary of the District of Columbia, 
straddles the line between Montgomery 
and Prince George’s Counties in subur- 
ban Maryland and was transferred from 
the Naval Ordnance Laboratory, White 


221 


Oak, Md., in late 1969. The collocation 
of two such recognized R & D activities 
is anticipated to not only support but 
reinforce the other in their similar mis- 
sion assignments while keeping with 
government objectives of minimizing 
duplicative programs. 

U. S. Army Corps of Engineers and 
Harry Diamond Laboratories project 
officers for the planning and construction 
of the research complex are proud that it 
is staying close to cost estimates despite 
the impact of inflation. They also con- 
sider it unique in several design engineer- 
ing aspects, assuring that facilities will be 
‘‘fully matched to HDL needs.”’ 

Located at 2800 Powder Mill Road in 


222 


Adelphi, the HDL complex is designed in 
the form of an H. In addition to adjacent 
support facilities, 600 or more feet away, 
it consists of four buildings linked to- 
gether by the administration center at the 
front end and a center building crossway 
between General Purpose Laboratories 1 
and 2. The crossway provides a secure 
courtyard at the east end and a west 
courtyard accessible to visitors. 

In January 1974, HDL occupied Gen- 
eral Purpose Lab 1 and three support 
buildings. By January 1975, the Admin- 
istration wing and the center building 
crossing will be completed, bringing the 
number of employees relocated to 
Adelphi to approximately 900. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


RESEARCH REPORTS 


Variation and Synonymy in Hypselonotus 
(Heteroptera: Coreidae) 


Donald R. Whitehead 


Organization for Tropical Studies, % Department of Entomology, U.S. National 
Museum of Natural History, Washington, D. C. 20560. 


ABSTRACT 


In the coreid genus Hypselonotus Hahn, 35 specific and varietal names, most in current 
use, are available. Analysis of chromatic variation reveals that 4 species are complexly 
varied, and that these 35 names pertain to 9 species here recognized. The following new 
synonymies are proposed: H. bitrianguliger Berg 1892 (=var. mendax Horvath 1913); 
H. fulvus (De Geer) 1773 (=lanceolatus Walker 1871 and var. gentilis Horvath 1913); 
H. interruptus Hahn 1833 (=atratus Distant 1881, balteatus Horvath 1892, andinus 
Breddin 1901, var. hilaris Horvath 1913, and aberrans Horvath 1913); H. linea (Fabricius) 
1803 (=proximus Distant 1881, loratus Breddin 1901, fuscus Osborn 1904, var. 
procerus Horvath 1913, pedestris Horvath 1913, simulans Horvath 1913, and 
aequatorialis Horvath 1913); and H. lineatus Stal 1862 (=intermedius Distant 1881, var. 
neglectus Horvath 1913, and var. detersus Horvath 1913). Hypselonotus lineatus 
Stal and H.. punctiventris Stal are removed from synonymy with H. fulvus (De Geer) and 


reinstated as recognized species. 


In order to provide the correct names 
of Costa Rican species of Hypselonotus 
in ecological studies by L. A. Realand D. 
H. Janzen, University of Michigan, I 
found it necessary to do a short study of 
chromatic variation to determine which 
of some 35 available names merit recogni- 
tion and which pertain to phenotypic and 
geographic variants. The most recent 
comprehensive treatment of the genus 
was by Horvath (1913). His treatment is 
in general clear and easy to interpret, ex- 
cept that some forms were not available 
to him. I accept his work as reliable, since 
it is likely that he had access to type 
material. Despite his careful treatment, 
however, I think his interpretation of 
species much too narrow; thus, I treat as 
synonyms many names considered by 
Horvath to represent full species. Ido not 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


recognize sympatric varietal names; and 
I do not recognize subspecies since, at 
least at present, few if any can be 
adequately defended as geographic 
entities. 

Various names proposed by Walker 
(1871) were not treated by Horvath, who 
probably regarded them as not conge- 
neric with Hypselonotus; as judged from 
original descriptions, these excluded 
names are not conspecific with forms 
treated here. Other names not treated by 
Horvath are linea Fabricius, thoracicus 
Signoret, and fuscus Osborn. Types of 
these were not examined, but I think they 
are readily identifiable from original and 
subsequent descriptions. 

In this study, based on material in the 
United States National Museum of 
Natural History (USNM), I attempted to 


223 


Key to Species of Hypselonotus 


|... Femora‘arnmed with pawed subapical ventral teeth) ..:05 2. ~~ «i Hgie ps eee Zz 
FF SUNN UCLA ITN aoc“, sn a oy ee 8. oR 8 noe Sr ova gs Perel ue naiiene a yal = 5 
2(1). Femora with two rows of fine denticles before subapical teeth; corium wholly 
POO. oisrwta.d koade oc ad ote baa ale ro ekg eae MI oe one eee bitrianguliger Berg 
Femora without distinct denticles before subapical teeth; corium wholly black 
or black with yellow maculation’.; ...50.0.0..usee. sooo es nee ee eee 3 
3(2).. Coriumy wholly, blackis.-: ob seetoe ce eee ee a ee thoracicus Signoret 
Corium with yellow maculationy ozs 2 02. ic). -.raeads eens ote 2-2 oe ee 4 
4(3). Dorsum black except for bold yellow stripe along midline of pronotum, 
scutellum, claval suture, and interior margin of corium...... linea (Fabricius) 
Dorsum black except for yellow external margin on pronotum and elytron... 
on aly aid ae Se OE a ne ee ee eee tricolor Breddin 
5(1). Femora distinctly annulated with dark spots or bands ..................... 6 
Femora- UnicOlorOusis 3). ac sive cien oars eee ie tae ae ee interruptus Hahn 
6(5). Rostrum with three distal segments black ............ 0.0.0. cece cence eeee 7 
Rostrum with three distal segments pale, or diffusely infuscated or with one 
or two black segments in some South American specimens .............. 8 
7(6). Abdomen without spots, or with median row of spots only ........ lineatus Stal 
Abdomen with five rows of spots ........... subterpunctatus Amyot & Serville 
8(6). Abdomen with four or five rows of spots .................5- punctiventris Stal 


Abdomen without spots ............ 


determine how geographic samples are 
related and thus how to treat the available 
names. My procedure was to organize 
material geographically and to search for 
geographically and chromatically inter- 
mediate forms. Sympatric chromatic 
forms are treated as distinct if independ- 
ently varied, or as phenotypic variants if 
not independently varied. 


Hypselonotus bitrianguliger Berg 


Hypselonotus bitrianguliger Berg 1892: 101. 
Hypselonotus bitrianguliger var. mendax Horvath 
1913: 372. New synonymy. 


This species differs from all others by 
having the undersurfaces of the femora 
biserrulate as well as apically bidentate. 
I regard the 2 named forms as minor color 
varieties. Horvath (1913) reported speci- 
mens of both forms from ‘‘Rio Grande do 
Sul,’’ Brazil. Among material examined, 
specimens with the pronotal markings 
weakly developed (mendax) are from 
Villarrica and “‘Sao Paulo.’’ This species 
is known from northern Argentina, 
southeastern Brazil, and Paraguay. 

Material examined.—BRAZIL. 
Parana: Rondon (1). Santa Catarina: 


224 


Leet FS FRR Der eerie, eee fulvus (De Geer) e 


Nova Teutonia (1). Sao Paulo: “‘Sao 
Paulo’”’ (4), Sorocaba (1). PARAGUAY. 
No Locality (3). Guaira: Villarrica (1). 


Hypselonotus fulvus (De Geer) 


Cimex fulvus De Geer 1773: 341. 

Hypselonotus fulvus: Dallas 1852: 464. 

Cimex striatulus Fabricius 1775: 721. 

Lygaeus striatulus: Fabricius 1794: 161. 

Hypselonotus striatulus: Burmeister 1835: 320. 

Lygaeus venosus Fabricius 1794: 142. 

Hypselonotus venosus: Stal 1868: 56. 

Hypselonotus fulvus var. venosus: Horvath 1913: 
369. 

Hypselonotus dimidiatus Hahn 1833: 189. 

Hypselonotus striatulus var. dimidiatus: Horvath 
1913: 369. 

Hypselonotus lanceolatus Walker 1871: 140. New 
synonymy. 

Hypselonotus lanceolatus var. gentilis Horvath 
1913: 369. New synonymy. 


These names are based on minor varia- 
tions in color of beak, pronotum, and 
corium. There is some geographic basis 
to this variation, but the forms are not 
sufficiently constant to merit recognition 
as subspecies. Variation is particularly 
complex in western South America. This 
species is related to H. lineatus and H. 
punctiventris, but all specimens are dis- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


tinguished from the former by the pale 
beak and from the latter by complete 
lack of abdominal maculation. 

The corium in most specimens is 
banded, but in some from Colombia, 
Venezuela, Trinidad, Brazil, and Peru it 
is unbanded (fulvus, lanceolatus, stri- 
atulus). In most banded specimens the 
band is triangular, but in some from 
‘*Colombia,’’ Venezuela (Caracas, 
Esmeralda), Guyana (Kartabo), Brazil 
(Manaus, Tefé), Bolivia (Cavinas), and 
Peru (Iquitos, Pucallpa, Yurimaguas) it is 
transverse and narrow. In some speci- 
mens from Peru, the last 2 or even 3 seg- 
ments of the rostrum are diffusely dark- 
ened (lanceolatus, gentilis: Iquitos, 
‘Peru,’ Pucallpa, Yurimaguas), and in 
one from Caracas the second segment is 
black while the other segments are pale. 

The pronotum in lanceolatus and 


gentilis is strongly vittate and not nigro- 


punctate, in fulvus and venosus nigro- 
punctate and not strongly vittate, and in 
striatulus and dimidiatus neither nigro- 
punctate nor vittate. The distribution of 
nigropunctate and non-nigropunctate 
forms is geographic: generally nigropunc- 
tate in Panama, Colombia, Venezuela 
(except Caracas and Esmeralda), 
Guyana, Surinam, Trinidad, and north- 
erm Brazil (‘“‘Amazon,’’ Manaus, Para, 
Tefé; also one specimen from Rio de 
Janeiro); non-nigropunctate elsewhere. 
This distinction is imperfect, and in some 
nigropunctate specimens the dark punc- 
tations are few. In some specimens from 
Bolivia and Peru (Iquitos, ‘‘Peru,”’ 
Yurimaguas) the pronotum is strongly 
vittate, in others (Cavinas, Pacallpa, 
*‘Peru’’) faintly vittate, and in another 
(Chanchamayo) non-vittate. These all 


have strongly developed preocellar vit- 


tae. Others from the same area have the 
pronotum non-vittate and lack preocellar 
vittae (‘‘Bolivia,’’ ‘‘Peru,’? Chancha- 
mayo, Coroico, Tingo Maria). Within 
this area, specimens with the pronotum 
faintly to strongly vittate all have a nar- 
row corium band while in the other speci- 
mens the band is absent, triangular, or 
has weakly defined apical limits. Else- 
where, the pronotum is faintly vittate in 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


some specimens with the nigropunctate 
pronotum (some specimens from Brazil 
and Guyana) and in one with the 
pronotum non-nigropunctate (Esmer- 
alda). Preocellar vittae are developed in 
all nigropunctate specimens, but also in 
some non-nigropunctate specimens from 
Brazil (Chapada, Nova Teutonia), 
Bolivia, and Peru. 

McAtee (1919) placed H. punctiventris 
as a synonym of H. fulvus, but I think 
these 2 forms deserve recognition at least 
at subspecies level. I have seen 1 speci- 
men of fulvus from Belize, and 4 of 
punctiventris from Belize and Guate- 
mala, but have seen none of either from 
elsewhere in Central America north of 
Panama. The fulvus and punctiventris 
specimens do not intergrade: the fulvus 
specimen lacks pronotal vittae and ab- 
dominal spots, and is much smaller. 

Material examined.—No locality (7). 
BELIZE. Toledo: San Antonio (1). 
PANAMA. Canal Zone: Bobio (3), Juan 
Mina (1), Tabernilla (1). Panama: Colon 
(4), Panama (1). COLOMBIA. No lo- 
cality (1). Antioquia: Medellin (3). 
Cordoba: San Jerénimo (1). Cundina- 
marca: El Colegio (2). Magdalena: Rio 
Frio (3). Meta: Villavicenzo (3). Tolima: 
Armero (2). Valle del Cauca: Cali (2), 
Palmira (2). VENEZUELA. No locality 
(5S). Esmeralda (1). Miranda (1). Aragua: 
Maracay (1). Distrito Federal: Caracas 
(4). Monagas: Quiriquire (2). Yaraguy: 
San Felipe (1, on ‘“‘Sida caprifolia’’). 
TRINIDAD. No locality (6), Caparo 
(3), Caranege (1), Caroni River (8), 
D’Abadie (1), La Brea (1), Maracas 
Valley (3, on “‘Cordia cylindrostachia’’), 
Palo Seco (1), Port-of-Spain (2), River 
Estate (1), Saint Augustine (5, on Cordia 
and pigeon peas), San Fernando Hill (1). 
GUYANA. Blairmont Plantation (2). 
Demerara: Georgetown (9). Essequibo: 
Bartica (1), Kartabo (10). SURINAM. 
Marowijne: Moengo (1). BRAZIL. No 
locality (1). ‘‘Amazon’’ (1). Amazonas: 
Manaus (4), Tefé (3). Bahia: Caldeiras 
(1). Ceara: Ceara (1). Mato Grosso: 
Chapada (3), Corumba (2), Rio Cara- 
guata (1). Minas Gerais: Sabara (1), 
Vicosa (1). Para: Para (1). Pernambuco: 


225 


Bonito (4), Recife (1). Rio de Janeiro: 
Rio de Janeiro (4). Santa Catarina: Nova 
Teutonia (13). Sao Paulo: Campinas (2), 
Guaituba (1), Sao Paulo (1). PARA- 
GUAY. Central: Asuncién (1), Luque 
(1). Concepcion: 45 mi. e. Horqueta (8). 
Guaira: Villarrica (1). Paraguari: 
Sapucay (1), ARGENTINA. Jujuy: 
Calilegua (1). Misiones: Misiones (1), 
Posada (1). Tucuman: Tucuman (2). 
CHILE. Colchagua: Cordillera de los 
Cipreses (1). BOLIVIA. No locality (4). 
Beni: Cavinas (1). La Paz: Coroico (3). 
PERU. No locality (3). Chanchamayo 
(2). Huanuco: Tingo Maria (3). Loreto: 
Iquitos (3), Pucallpa (1), Yurimaguas (1). 


Hypselonotus interruptus Hahn 


Hypselonotus interruptus Hahn 1833: 187. 

Hypselonotus bilineatus Westwood 1842: 21. 

Hypselonotus concinnus Dallas 1852: 465. 

Hypselonotus lineaticollis Stal 1855: 185. 

Hypselonotus interruptus var. lineaticollis: 
Horvath 1913: 370. 

Hypselonotus propinquus Walker 1871: 142. 

Hypselonotus concinnus var. propinquus: Horvath 
1913: 370. 

Jadera subvittata Walker 1871: 145. 

Hypselonotus subvittatus: Horvath 1913: 370. 

Hypselonotus atratus Distant 1881: 152. New 
synonymy. 

Hypselonotus balteatus Horvath 1892: 260. New 
synonymy. 

Hypselonotus andinus Breddin 1901: 25. New 
synonymy. 

Hypselonotus atratus var. hilaris Horvath 1913: 
370. New synonymy. 

Hypselonotus aberrans Horvath 1913: 370. New 
synonymy. 


I found no morphological features to 
distinguish any of these forms, and think 
they are best treated as 1 geographically 
varied species. If this treatment is cor- 
rect, variation is more complex than in 
other species of the genus. Particularly 
in South America, 2 or more phenotypes 
may exist in the same or in nearly 
proximate localities, with no or incom- 
plete intergradation. However, sufficient 
intergradation exists to justify treatment 
of all these forms as conspecific. The 
following discussion of variation is ar- 
ranged by geographic area, from north to 
south. 

Specimens from Mexico are concinnus 


226 


or propinquus, or intermediates. No geo- 
graphic differentiation is evident. In all 
specimens, the head lacks extensive dark 
maculation on jugum or ocellar tubercles, 
the pronotum lacks paired white vittae, 


the scutellum is pale, and the abdomen is 


unspotted. In propinquus the corium is 
wholly pale and the pronotum is pale 
except for 2 small basal spots, while in 
concinnus the corium is banded and the 
pronotum is more extensively darkened 
but with the midline pale. Material ex- 
amined. —MEXICO. No locality (13). 
Chiapas (2). Colima: Colima (4). Dis- 
trito Federal: Mexico (3), Tacubaya (2). 
Guerrero: [xcuinatoyac (1), Rincon (1), 
Xucumanatlan (1). Morelos: Cuernavaca 
(4), Hujintlan (2), Tepoztlan (1). Oaxaca: 
Isthmus of Tehuantepec (1), 44 mi. e. 
Juchitan (2), Oaxaca (1). Tabasco: Teapa ~ 
(1). Veracruz: Atoyac (1), Cérdoba (6), 


- Jalapa (4), Orizaba (1). 


Specimens from Belize, Guatemala, 
and Honduras are concinnus, with the 
following exceptions. Some specimens 
from Acatenango and Yepocapa are 
nearly as pale as in propinquus. One of 
10 specimens from Punta Gorda is 
andinus (extensive black on jugum and 
ocellar tubercles, scutellum vittate, pale 
band of corium narrow, abdomen spot- 
ted) and another is an andinus-concinnus 
intermediate (abdomen not spotted). No 
other Central American specimens have 
the abdomen spotted. One of the 5 speci- 
mens from Chiquimula is a pale balteatus 
(pronotal maculation reduced, with 
paired white lines on each side; in this 
specimen the corium is wholly pale 
and the scutellum dark), and 3 are 
atratus (scutellum black; pronotal col- 
lar black at least in part). The balteatus 
specimen is the only pure balteatus 
from Central America. One of 16 
specimens from Morales is atratus. 
One of 2 specimens from Trece Aguas is 
an atratus-concinnus intermediate, with 
scutellum partially darkened and with 
small black spots on the pronotal collar. 
Material examined. —BELIZE. Uyace 
Peak (1). Belize: Belize (1). Toledo: 
Punta Gorda (10). GUATEMALA. No 
locality (8). Bananera (1). Cayuga (1). 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Finca Los Cerritos (1). Alta Verapaz: 
Trece Aguas (2). Chimaltenango: 
Acatenango (4), Yepocapa (71). Chiqui- 
mula: Chiquimula (5), El Naranjo (3, on 
Cinchona). Guatemala: Guatemala (1). 
Izabal: Livingston (1), Morales (16), 
Puerto Barrios (1). Sacatepequez: An- 
tigua (5). Solola: Olas de Moka (1). 
HONDURAS. Francisco Morazan: 
Tegucigalpa (2), Zamorano (1). 

One specimen from northwestern 
Costa Rica (Palo Verde) is concinnus. 
All other specimens from Costa Rica and 
western Panama are either pure airatus 
or the minor variety hilaris (pronotal 
collar pale). In some, the dark areas of the 
pronotum and scutellum are divided by a 
fine pale line visible only under magnifi- 
cation. This form is known also from 
Guatemala where it intergrades with 
concinnus, and from central Panama 
where it intergrades with both concinnus 
and balteatus. Material examined.— 
COSTA RICA. Guacimo (1). Navarro 
Farm (2). Cartago: 3 mi. w Turrialba 
(1), Volcan Irazi (2). Guanacaste: 
Bagaces (Palo Verde) (1), Pozo Azul (3). 
Puntarenas: Monteverde (1). San José: 
Candelarita (1), Escazt (6), San Carlos 
(3), San Jose (11), Santiago Puriscal (2). 
PANAMA. Chiriqui: Boquete (13). 

Specimens from central and eastern 
Panama are mostly pure concinnus or 
intermediates, but some pure atratus and 
balteatus are represented. Some speci- 
mens from Colombia are concinnus or 
balteatus-concinnus, some are balteatus, 
and one (Rio Dagua) is andinus-con- 
cinnus. All specimens from Venezuela 
are balteatus. In series of balteatus from 
Rio Frio and Los Teques, the corium is 
banded in some specimens and wholly 
pale in others. In some specimens of 
various phenotypes from Colombia and 
Venezuela the pale band of the corium is 
narrow. One specimen from Trinidad is 
balteatus-concinnus. Material ex- 
amined. PANAMA. No locality (1). 
Canal Zone: Ancon (3), Barro Colo- 
rado (1), Bobio (1), Cabima (21), Cora- 
zal (1), Las Cruces (1), Limon (3), 
Pedregal (1), Summit (7). Darién: 
Sabanas (1). Panama: Taboga Island (5). 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


COLOMBIA. No locality (1). Antio- 
quia: Medellin (8). Caldas: Chinchina (2). 
Cundinamarca: Bogota (4), El Colegio 
(1). Magdalena: Rio Frio (11). Meta: Rio 
Meta (1). Narino: Pasto (1). Santander: 
Cararé (2), Landazuri (3). Valle del 
Cauca: Cali (3), Rio Dagua (1). VENE- 
ZUELA. Amazonas: Culebra (1). 
Aragua: Rancho Grande (1). Miranda: 
Los Teques (14, on “Coffea arabica’’). 
TRINIDAD. Port-of-Spain (1). 

Specimens from Bolivia (Christal- 
Mayu), Brazil, Paraguay, and Argentina 
have a distinct white annulation at the 
base of antennal article three, and have 
the corium banded (interruptus), wholly 
pale (lineaticollis), or intermediate. 
These specimens otherwise have the 
characteristics of balteatus. In northern 
Brazil (‘‘Amazon’’), specimens are ob- 
viously intermediate in that the antennal 
annulation is narrowed. Material ex- 
amined. —BOLIVIA. No locality (2). 
Cochabamba: Christal-Mayu (1). 
BRAZIL. No locality (5). ‘‘Amazon’’ 
(2). Alto de Sera (1). Distrito Federal: 
Jacaré pagua (1). Mato Grosso: Campo 
Grande (1), Chapada (5), Ouro Preto (4), 
Rio Caraguata (1). Minas Gerais: Vicosa 
(1). Parana: Curitiba (1). Pernambuco: 
Bonito (1). Rio de Janeiro: Bico do 
Papagaio (1), Nova Friburgo (3), Rio de 
Janeiro (4), Teresopolis (5). Rio Grande 
do Sul: Porto Alegre (1). Santa Catarina: 
Nova Teutonia (38). Sao Paulo: Cam- 
pinas (3), Guaituba (5), Maua (2), Sao 
Paulo (6). PARAGUAY. No locality (1). 
Guaira: Villarrica (6). Paraguari: Sapu- 
cay (25). ARGENTINA. Puesta (1). 
Misiones: Ignacio (1). Salta: Salta (1). 
Tucuman: Tucuman (1). 

In specimens from Ecuador, Peru, and 
Bolivia (except Christal-Mayu) there are 
3 types of abdominal maculation: 7 rows 
of spots (aberrans: ‘‘Bolivia’’, 1; Cara- 
baya, 1; Ivon, 1; Ixiamus, 1; Rio Blanca, 
7; Rurrenabaque, 1; Santa Isabel, 3; 
Tumupasa, 4); 2 or 4 rows of spots 
(andinus: Cachabi, 7; Chimbo, 1; Pal- 
latango, 2; Quevedo, 3; Rio Pescado, 7; 
Santa Rosa, 1); and no spots (unnamed: 
‘Bolivia,’ 4; Ixiamas, 3; Rio Chapare, 
1; Rurrenabaque, 3; Tumupasa, 17). In 


227 


specimens from Ecuador and Peru (Rio 
Chapare) the pale band of the corium is 
narrower than in specimens from Bolivia, 
indicating relationship with Colombian 
specimens. In most specimens with the 
abdomen spotted the pronotum is ex- 
tensively maculated and has dark lateral 
margins, but the pronotal maculation is 
reduced in some Ecuadorian specimens 
with abdominal spots (Chimbo, Palla- 
tango, Quevedo, Rio Pescado, Santa 
Rosa) and is strongly developed in some 
specimens without abdominal spots (Rio 
Chapare, some Bolivian specimens). 
The scutellum is wholly black in some 
Bolivian specimens with abdomen un- 
spotted but is vittate in all others. There 
is no significant variation in maculation in 
series from any of the Ecuador localities. 
In series from three Bolivia localities, 
however, spotted and unspotted speci- 
mens are represented in each. | regard 


these color forms as conspecific because . 


in both forms the first segment of the 
beak has amore strongly developed white 
annulation than in more northern speci- 
mens and because some specimens of 
each agree in pronotal and scutellar 
coloration. I also regard them as con- 
specific with interruptus because some 
specimens have paired white pronotal 
vittae as in balteatus and interruptus, 
because specimens with similar dorsal 
maculation are known from Colombia 
and northward, and because some 
Bolivian specimens have a trace of the 
antennal annulation characteristic of 
interruptus. Material examined.— 
ECUADOR. Cachabi (7). Rio Blanca 
(7). Chimborazo: Pallatango (2). El Oro: 
Santa Rosa (1). Guayas: Chimbo (1). 
Los Rios: Quevedo (3). Manabi: Rio 
Pescado (7). PERU. Rio Chapare (1). 
Cuzco: Santa Isabel (3). Puno: Carabaya 
(1). BOLIVIA. No locality (5). Beni: 
Ivon (1), Rurrenabaque (4), Tumupasa 
(21). La Paz: Ixiamas (4). 3 

In summary, the color variants of H. 
interruptus are essentially geographic 
phenotypes, with the exceptions of a pale 
balteatus in Guatemala (normally in 
Colombia and Venezuela) and a Chimbo- 
like andinus in Belize (normally in 


228 


Ecuador and Peru). Pale and dark forms 
are sympatric in Mexico (concinnus), 
Colombia and Venezuela (balteatus), 
and Brazil and Paraguay (interruptus). 
Intergrades are known for all geographic 
variants, but in some areas 2 or more 
phenotypes may occur with little or no 
intergradation. Thus, in specimens from 
Bolivia the abdomen is either conspicu- 
ously spotted or is unspotted. The pat- 
tern of variation is least understood in 
western South America; further study is 
particularly needed in Bolivia, where ~ 
interruptus and aberrans occur in adja- 
cent departments with little intergrada- 
tion. 


Hypselonotus linea (Fabricius) 


Lygaeus linea Fabricius 1803: 220. 
Hypselonotus linea Dallas: 1852: 465. 
Hypselonotus proximus Distant 1881: 153. New 


synonymy. 

Hypselonotus loratus Breddin 1901: 25. New 
synonymy. 

Hypselonotus fuscus Osborn 1904: 199. New 
synonymy. . 


Hypselonotus loratus var. procerus Harvath 1913: 
370. New synonymy. 

Hypselonotus pedestris- Horvath 1913: 370. New 
synonymy. 

Hypselonotus simulans Horvath 1913: 371. New 
synonymy. 

Hypselonotus aequatorialis Horvath 1913: 371. 
New synonymy. 


These names pertain to geographic 
color varieties. There is a complex pat- 
tern of variation, too complex to fully 
resolve here and too complex to permit 
recognition of subspecies. Horvath 
(1913) did not recognize linea in his 
material and was not familiar with 
fuscus, but these names are readily 
recognized from the literature (Distant 
1881, Osborn 1904, Horvath 1913). 

All specimens from Volcan de Chiri- 
qui and northward (proximus) are dis- 
tinguished from all specimens from cen- 
tral Panama and southward by having 
the elytral fascia parallel to the corium 
margin rather than bent away from the 
lateroapical angle. All specimens from 
Costa Rica and northward have the upper 
thoracic pleural spots discrete, while in 
some specimens from Volcan de Chiriqui © 
and in all specimens from central Panama 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


and Ecuador these spots are fused. The 
jugum is partly darkened in some Central 
American specimens, and preocellar 
spots are present in some. 

No specimens are represented in 
USNM material between Panama and 
Ecuador, but no important differences 
between Central and South American 
specimens were found. Further, speci- 
mens from Panama and Ecuador agree in 
the form of markings of the thoracic 
pleura. 

Horvath named aequatorialis and 
simulans for Ecuadorian and Peruvian 
specimens with univittate pronota and 
dilated elytral fasciae. Specimens from 
Paramba and Cachabi have annulate 
femora, lack preocellar vittae or jugal 
markings, and have the upper spots of the 
thoracic pleura fused (aequatorialis). 
Specimens from Hacienda Maria have 
dark femora, jugum dark laterally, and 
discrete pleural spots (simulans). Two 
other specimens have broad elytral 
fasciae but have trivittate pronota: 1 from 
Venturia is otherwise as in aequatori- 
alis, while 1 from Iquitos has notably 
wide elytral fasciae and otherwise agrees 
with simulans except for having annulate 
femora. From remarks by Horvath 
(1913), I suspect the characteristics of the 
Iquitos specimen are close to or the same 
as those of the type of linea. 

Two forms, simulans and pedestris, 
have dark femora. These Peruvian color 
variants were both reported by Horvath 
from Marcapata. In pedestris the elytral 
fasciae are not dilated (this difference is 
slight), the jugum is more extensively 
though not completely darkened (vari- 
able), and the pronotum is trivittate. I 
examined seven specimens of pedestris 
from Calanga, Rio Chapare, and Tingo 
Maria. 

Horvath distinguished lJoratus and 
procerus from pedestris chiefly by the 
annulate femora, and Osborn’s fuscus fits 
here by locality and description. Some 
but not all specimens have dark preocel- 
lar markings, and in most specimens the 
jugum is wholly dark. This form ranges 
widely in Bolivia, Brazil, and Peru. The 
variety procerus was distinguished by 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


having quinquevittate rather than tri- 
vittate pronota and by having dark rather 
than pale corium venation. Both pronotal 
variants are represented in series from 
Chanchamayo, Ixiamas, and Satipo. 
Forms with pale venation are known only 
from Bolivia and Brazil, but in series 
from Huachi and Ixiamas some speci- 
mens are fully dark. In Peru, procerus 
and pedestris were both reported by 
Horvath from Pozuzo. 

Material examined.—BELIZE. To- 
ledo: Punta Gorda (1), San Antonio (1). 
GUATEMALA. Chiquimula: Chi- 
quimula (2). COSTA RICA. ‘‘Waldeck’’ 
(2, on “Sida rhombifolia’’). Cartago: 
Carillo (3), Turrialba (5). Guanacaste: 
Pozo Azul (6). Lim6én: Guapiles (4), 
Parismina (3). San José: San Carlos (1). 
PANAMA. Canal Zone: Alhajuelo (1), 
Cabima (1), Rio Trinidad (5). Chiriqui: 
Volcan de Chiriqui (7). Panama: Cerro 
Campana (2), El Valle (5). ECUADOR. 
Cachabi (2), Paramba (5), Venturia (1). 
PERU. Chanchamayo (15), Chapare (1). 
Cuzco: Calanga (3), Hacienda Maria (3). 
Huanuco: Tingo Maria (2). Junin: Satipo 
(4). Loreto: Iquitos (1). Pasco: 
Oxapampa (1). San Martin: Tarapoto 
(1). BOLIVIA. Beni: Huachi (5), Ivon 
(1), Rosario (1), Rurrenabaque (13), 
Tumupasa (7). La Paz: Ixiamas (13). 
BRAZIL. *‘Amazon’’ (1). Minas Gerais: 
Vicosa (1). 


Hypselonotus lineatus Stal 


Hypselonotus lineatus Stal 1862: 297. 

Hypselonotus intermedius Distant 1881: 
New synonymy. 

Hypselonotus lineatus var. neglectus Horvath 
1913: 369. New synonymy. 

Hypselonotus lineatus var. 
1913: 369. New synonymy. 

Hypselonotus fulvus: McAtee 1919: 9. 


15. 


detersus Horvath 


These forms were distinguished for 
variants in color pattern. They cannot be 
distinguished consistently, and the geo- 
graphic pattern is too complex to merit 
recognition of subspecies. I examined 
132 specimens from Mexico, Central 
America, and northwestern South Amer- 
ica. These may be grouped into 5 geo- 
graphic areas (Fig. 1): 

Area 1.—Pacific slope of Mexico 


229 


Fig. 1. Distribution and variation of Hypselonotus lineatus in Mexico and Central America. See text for 
description and discussion of color variants in the 5 geographic areas indicated by broken lines. 


north of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. 
All specimens have six moderate to 
strong longitudinal pronotal vittae, short 
preocellar vittae, wide preapical band on 
corium, and small median spot on one or 
more of abdominal sterna 3-5. Material 
examined.— MEXICO. Colima: Colima 
(6). Durango: Presidio (1). Morelos: 
Cuernavaca (1), Hujintlan (1), Puente 
de Ixtla (1). Nayarit: San Blas (1). 
Oaxaca: Puerto Angel (1). Sinaloa: La 
Concha (1). - 

Area 2.—Atlantic slope of Mexico. 
All specimens have 6 strong longi- 
tudinal pronotal vittae, long preocellar 
vittae, and no abdominal spots. In about 
half of the specimens the preapical band 
of the corium is narrow, in the other half 
itis absent. This is true lineatus. Material 
examined. —MEXICO. ‘“‘Mexico’’ (9). 
Oaxaca: Tuxtepec (1), Valle Nacional 
(2). Tamaulipas: Tampico (1). Veracruz: 
Cordoba (4), San Rafael-Jicaltepec (4). 
Yucatan: ‘‘Yucatan’’ (1), Chichén Itza 
(1), Temax (2). 


230 


Area 3.—Isthmus of Tehuantepec to 
Guatemala. Variation in this area is com- 
plex. Some specimens from the Isthmus 
of Tehuantepec and Belize have pronotal 
vittae. Some specimens from throughout 
the area have long preocellar vittae, and/ 
or abdominal spots, and/or wide pre- 
apical corium band. These variations are 
correlated neither with one another nor 
with sex. The type of intermedius is from 
this area (San Geronimo, Baja Verapaz, 
Guatemala), and has abdominal spots but 
lacks pronotal vittae. Material examined. 
—MEXICO. Oaxaca: Almoloya (12), 
‘Isthmus of Tehuantepec’’ (1), Tolosa 
(1). BELIZE. Toledo: Punta Gorda (5), 
San Antonio (2). GUATEMALA. Alta 
Verapaz: Seganguin (1). Chiquimula: 
Chiquimula (5). Izabal: Morales (2). 
Retalhuleu: Champerico (2). 

Area 4.—El Salvador to Costa Rica. 
All specimens lack pronotal vittae and 
none have long preocellar vittae; elytral 
and abdominal characters are as in area 
3. A series from Piedras Negras (type 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


locality of detersus) includes specimens 
with the characters of detersus, neglec- 
tus, andintermedius. Material examined. 
—‘‘Volcan Isalco’’ (1). EL SALVA- 
DOR. ‘El Salvador’? (1). Cuscatlan: 
Rosario (2). La Libertad: San Andres (2). 
San Salvador: San Salvador (2). Son- 
sonate: Acajutla (1) HONDURAS. 
Francisco Morazan: Zamorano (2). 
NICARAGUA. Leon: Guadalupana 
(2). Managua: Managua (1). COSTA 
RICA. Salinas (1). Alajuela: Orotina (1). 
Guanacaste: Bagaces (Palo Verde) (5), 
Santa Rosa (1). San José: Candelarita (2), 
Piedras Negras (9), San Carlos (1), Santa 
Ana (1). 

Area 5.—Panama and northwestern 
South America. All specimens lack long 
preocellar vittae, pronotal vittae, and 
abdominal spots; eight specimens from 
Panama have the wide preapical corium 
band. Material examined. PANAMA. 
Canal Zone: Barro Colorado Island (2), 
Cabima (3), Comacho (1), Juan Mina (6), 
Paraiso (2), Summit (2), Upper Rio Indio 
(1). Panama: Panama (2), Taboga Island 
(2). Veraguas: Santiago (1). COLOM- 
BIA. Valle del Cauca: Rio Dagua (3). 
ECUADOR. El Salado (1). PERU. 
Tequetepeque (2). 


Hypselonotus punctiventris Stal 


Hypselonotus punctiventris Stal 1862: 297. 
Hypselonotus fulvus: McAtee 1919: 9. 


Van Duzee (1917) listed 2 species of 
Hypselonotus from the United States: 
H. punctiventris Stal and H. fulvus var. 
venosus (Fabricius), the latter a doubt- 
ful record from Texas. McAtee (1919) 
suggested that all names for Nearctic 
members of the genus are synonymous 
with H. fulvus (De Geer). However, in 
USNM material there are 3 specimens of 
true punctiventris from Texas and Mex- 
ico variously labelled by McAtee as H. 
fulvus, H. fulvus var. lineatus, and H. 
fulvus var. punctiventris. I conclude that 
the only Nearctic species is H. punc- 
tiventris. It is possible that punctiventris 
is conspecific with fulvus, but if so it 
should be treated as a well marked geo- 
graphic subspecies; punctiventris ranges 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


south through Mexico to Belize and 
Guatemala, where it overlaps but does 
not intergrade with fulvus. 

As implied by the lack of names in 
synonymy, there is little conspicuous 
variation. The pronotum tends to have 
the 6 longitudinal vittae less developed 
in most specimens from Texas and 
northeastern Mexico than elsewhere. In 
all specimens preocellar vittae are pres- 
ent, and in all specimens the pale band of 
the corium is present and triangular. 

Material examined. — UNITED 
STATES. Arizona: Santa Cruz County, 
near Nogales (1). Texas: No locality (2); 
Bee County, Beeville (2); Bexar County, 
San Antonio (8); Cameron County, 
Brownsville (17, on ‘“‘Abutilon hypo- 
leucum,’’ cotton, and ‘‘Wiesidula 
holosericea’’); Dimmit County, Asher- 
ton (1, on blackeyed pea), Carrizo 
Springs (3, on blackeyed pea and egg- 
plant); Duval County, San Diego (1); 
Guadalupe County, Seguin (1); Hidalgo 
County, Thayer (2, on ragweed); Jim 
Wells County, Alice (2); Nueces County 
(4); Victoria County, Victoria (20, on 
cotton, Croton, and flowers). MEXICO. 
No locality (15). Coahuila: Zaragoza (1). 
Colima: Colima (8). Distrito Federal (1). 
Durango: Ventanas (1). Jalisco: Chapala 
(1), Sayula (1). Morelos: Cuautla (2), 
Cuernavaca (21, on “‘Eupatorium adeno- 
phorum’’). Nuevo Leon: Linares (1). 
Oaxaca: Almoloya (1). Salina Cruz (1), 
San Geronimo (11), Tehuantepec (1), 
Tlacolula (1). San Luis Potosi: Tamazun- 
chale (2). Sinaloa: Villa Union (1). 
Tamaulipas: Ciudad Victoria (4), 
Matamoros (9, on ‘‘Pseudabutilon 
lozani’’), Tampico (1). Veracruz: 
Cordoba (1), Pueblo Viejo (3). Yucatan: 
Temax (2). BELIZE. Toledo: Punta 
Gorda (2). GUATEMALA. Chi- 
quimula: Chiquimula (2). 


Hypselonotus subterpunctatus Amyot & Serville 


Hypselonotus subterpunctatus Amyot & Serville 
1843: 242. 


I cannot judge the true status of this 
form. The black beak suggests affinity 
with H. lineatus, but the spotted abdo- 


231 


men is distinctive and no intergrades are 
known. All specimens examined have a 
wide transverse pale band on the corium. 

Material examined—BOLIVIA. 
Cochabamba: Christal-Mayu (10). La 
Paz: Ixiamas (1). BRAZIL. Mato 
Grosso: Rio Caraguata (3). Sao Paulo: 
Campinas (1). 


Hypselonotus thoracicus Signoret 


Hypselonotus thoracicus Signoret 1862: 581. 


This is the only described species with 
wholly black elytra, and was described 
from Yurimaguas, Peru. I have seen 
nothing to exactly match the original 
description. I have seen 1 specimen from 
Peru with wholly black elytra, but the 
head is red rather than yellow and the 
pronotum and abdomen are differently 
maculated. This specimen is similar also 


to H. tricolor but has the head largely - 


rufous rather than testaceous, pronotum 
trivittate and with black margins, elytra 
wholly black, and abdomen densely 
maculated. 

Material examined. —PERU. San 
Martin: Tarapoto (1). 


Hypselonotus tricolor Breddin 


Hypselonotus tricolor Breddin 1901: 25. 


Specimens of this species are readily 
distinguished by having the pronotum 
and elytra black with pale margins. This 
species was reported by Horvath (1913) 
from 2 localities in Peru. 

Material examined.—No locality (1). 


Discussion 


Hypselonotus is represented in Mexico 
and Central America by 5 abundant, 
widespread species, 3 of which are also 
abundant and widespread in South 
America. Of these, H. fulvus, H. linea- 
tus, and H. punctiventris are closely 
related. Hypselonotus lineatus and H. 
punctiventris are sympatric throughout 
Mexico and are independently variable, 
and thus are unquestionably reproduc- 
tively isolated. Hypselonotus fulvus is 
principally South American but extends 
through northwestern South America 


232 


and Central America in sympatry with 
H. lineatus and marginally overlaps H. 
punctiventris in Guatemala. Only 1 speci- 
men of AH. fulvus was examined from 
north of Panama and, though I think it 
unlikely, H. fulvus may intergrade with 
H. punctiventris. Itis even less likely, but 
not impossible, that H. fulvus and H. 
lineatus may intergrade in western South 
America, where some specimens of H. 
fulvus have the rostrum darkened and the 
pale band of the corium narrow. 

Four of these widespread species are 
extremely varied geographically, notably 
in Central America and western South 
America. Southern Mexico and Guate- 
mala form the principal area of inter- 
gradation of various forms of H. lineatus, 
but even as far south as Costa Rica 
samples of this species are not uniform. 
Clinal variation in maculation of pleura 
and elytra occurs in H. linea from Costa 
Rica to Ecuador, and more complex 
chromatic variation occurs from Ecuador 
to Bolivia. Complex chromatic variation, 
only partly geographic, occurs through- 
out the range of AH. interruptus but is 
most extreme in Central America and 
from Ecuador to Bolivia. Similar com- 
plex chromatic variation occurs in A. 
fulvus in the area between Ecuador and 
Bolivia. Careful field studies of popula- 
tions and genetics are needed in these 
areas. 

Four localized South American spe- 
cies are less well known. Hypselonotus 
bitrianguliger is morphologically dis- 
tinctive, but its color forms need further 
study. Hypselonotus thoracicus and H. 
tricolor are probably distinct from H. 
linea but may not be distinct from each 
other. Aypselonotus subterpunctatus 
probably is most closely related to H. 
lineatus but probably is not conspecific 
with that species since no intergrades are 
known; it is sympatric with 7. fulvus but 
differs chromatically and is independ- 
ently varied. 


Acknowledgements 


I thank my friends R. C. Froeschner, R. D. 
Gordon, J. ‘LL. Hering,’ D: HS Janzen, one 
Kingsolver, and L. A. Real for assistance and 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


comment. Funding was provided by D. H. Janzen 
from NSF Grant 35032X. 


References Cited 


Amyot, C. J. B., and A. Serville. 1843. Histoire 
naturelle des insectes. Hémiptéres. Librairie 
encyclopédique de Rorrt, Paris. Ixxvi + 675 p. 

Berg, C. 1892. Nova Hemiptera faunarum Argen- 
tinae et Uryguayensis. Ann. Soc. Cient. Argen- 
tina 33: 97-104 (continuation). 

Breddin, G. 1901. Neue Coreiden und Pyrrhocori- 
den. Soc. Entomol. 16: 25-26. 

Burmeister, H. C. C. 1835. Handbuch der Ento- 
mologie. Vol. 2, Schnabelkerfe, Rhyngota, Ber- 
lin. iv + 400 p. 

Dallas, W. S. 1852. List of the specimens of hemip- 
terous insects in the collection of the British 
Museum. Part 2. London. p. 369-592. 

De Geer, C. 1773. Mémoires pour servir a l’histoire 
des insectes. Vol. 3. Stockholm [not seen]. 

Distant, W. L. 1881. Biologia Centrali- Americana. 
Insecta, Rhynchota, Hemiptera-Heteroptera, 
Vol. 1. Coreidae, p. 103-173. London. xx + 
462 p. 

Fabricius, J. C. 1775. Systema entomologiae 
sistens insectorum classes, ordines, genera, 
species, adjectis synonymis, locis, description- 
ibus, observationibus. Flensburgi et Lipsiae. 
832 p. 

. 1794. Entomologia systematica emendata 
et aucta, secundum classes, ordines, genera, 
species, adjectis synonymis, locis, observation- 
ibus. Vol. 4. Hafniae. v + 472 p. 

1803. Systema Rhyngotorum secundum 
ordines, genera, species, adjectis synonymis, 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


locis, observationibus, 
Brunsvigae, vi + 314 p. 

Hahn, C. W. 1833. Die Wanzenartigen Insecten. 
Vol. 1. Nuirnberg. p. 159-190. 

Horvath, G. 1892. Hemiptera nova africana. 
Termész. Fiizetek 15: 254-267. 

. 1913. Revisio critica generis Paryphes 
Burm. et affintum. Ann. Mus. Nat. Hung. 11: 
344-373. 

McAtee, W. 1919. Notes on Nearctic Heteroptera. 
Bull. Brook. Entomol. Soc. 14: 8-16. 

Osborn, H. 1904. Notes on South American 
Hemiptera-Heteroptera. Ohio Nat. 4: 195-204. 

Signoret, V. 1862. Description d’Hémiptéres 
nouveaux de Jurimaguas et Moyabamba (Pérou). 
Ann. Soc. Entomol. Fr., Ser. 4, 2: 579-588. 

Stal, C. 1855. Nya Hemiptera. Ofvers. Svenska 
Vet.-Akad. Forh. 12: 181-192. 

. 1862. Hemiptera mexicana enumeravit 
speciesque novas descripsit. Stett. Entomol. 
Zeitt. 23: 81-118, 273-325. 

. 1868. Hemiptera Fabriciana. Fabrician- 
ska Hemipterarter, efter de i KO6penhavn och 
Kiel fOrvarade typexemplaren granskade och 
beskrifne. Svenska Vet.-Akad. Handl. 7: 3- 
148. 

Van Duzee, E. P. 1917. Catalogue of the Hemip- 
tera of America north of Mexico excepting 
the Aphididae, Coccidae and Aleurodidae. Univ. 
Calif. Press, Berkeley. xiv + 902 p. 

Walker, F. 1871. Catalogue of the specimens of 
heteropterous-Hemiptera in the collection of the 
British Museum. Part 4. London. 211 p. 

Westwood, J. O. 1842. A catalogue of Hemiptera in 
the collection of the Rev. F. W. Hope. Part 2. 
J. C. Bridgewater, London. 26 p. 


descriptionibus. 


233 


A New Species of Zonosemata Benjamin 
from Colombia (Diptera: Tephritidae) 


George C. Steyskal 


Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIII, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA. Mail address: 
% U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560. 


ABSTRACT 


Zonosemata ica, new species, is described from Colombia. It is the first South Ameri- 
can representative of the genus, otherwise known only from North America and the 


Antilles. 


The genus Zonosemata Benjamin con- 
sists of 5 species found in North America 
(Bush, 1966; Foote, 1967). The southern- 
most records so far are of Z. vidrapennis 
Bush from the State of Oaxaca, Mexico 
and Z. minuta Bush from Jamaica, almost 
as far south. Two specimens of a 6th 
species have been received from Dr. 
Lazaro Posada O., chief of the entomo- 
logical section of the Instituto Colom- 
biano Agropecuario. These are the Ist 
records of the genus from South 
America. The known hosts of the North 
American species are plants of the family 
Solanaceae (fruits of horse nettles and 
eggplant, Solanum spp., and of peppers, 
Capsicum spp.). Unfortunately no host 
of the new species herein described is 
known. 


Zonosemata ica Steyskal, new species 


Female.—Length of wing 4.5 mm. Very similar 
to Z. vittigera (Coquillett), agreeing with that 
species in the Ist paragraph of the key by Bush 
(1965: 313) in having distinct black spots in the pre- 
sutural area of the mesoscutum, although lacking a 
black spot on the sternopleuron. Differences from 
the described species of Zonosemata are chiefly in 
the color pattern of the body and wing. 

Color yellowish, with white J-shaped supra-alar 
stripe, humerus, and medial stripe (ending broadly 
rounded before scutellar suture and extending very 
narrowly to anterior margin of thorax), and with 
dark-brown to black marks as follows: crescentic 
spot at anterior end of yellow stripe mesad of 
humerus, small squarish patch about base of an- 
terior notopleural bristle, broad band in scutellar 


suture faintly connected at each end with pair of 


diffuse spots on each pair of submedian yellow 
stripes behind midway of distance from scutellar to 


234 


transverse suture, spot on postalar declivity near 
base of wing, hourglass-shaped spot on ptero- 
pleuron between pteropleural and sternopleural 
bristles, small spot at lower base of scutellum, 
metanotum (including postscutellum) in full width 
of scutellum, small spot dorsal to base of halter, 
oval spot on last preabdominal tergum at width of 
spot from lateral margin of tergum, small dot in 
similar position on penultimate tergum, narrow 
apical margin of ovipositor sheath and more exten- 
sive bases of sclerotic strips in base of ovipositubus. 

Wing with brown pattern similar to that of Z. 
vittigera (Bush, 1966: 309, f. 5), with rather broad 
and dark stripes from humeral vein to extension of 
anal cell, from pterostigma through anterior cross- 
vein to wing margin, and from costal to hind margin 
through posterior crossvein. Anterior end of latter 
stripe, however, faint in cells R, and R; and brown- 
ish costal margin to apex of wing also faint; bar 
between latter 2 stripes in cells R, and R; similarly 
faint and closer to stripe through posterior crossvein 
than to one through anterior crossvein; these latter 
transverse stripes faintly connected near posterior 
margin of wing. 

Cheek 0.52 as high as width of face between 
vibrissal angles (in Z. vittigera 0.67 to 0.81 as high). 

Ovipositor 1.25 mm long by 0.18 mm wide, 
parallel sided but rapidly tapering to simply 
aciculate point. 


Holotype, female, Ciicuta, Colombia, 
January, 1974 (L. Nufiez), ICA no. 727; 
paratype (sex?, apical half of abdomen 
lacking), Blonay, Colombia, June, 1973 
(J. A. Martinez), ICA no. 63, with night 
wing on microscope slide; both speci- 
mens captured in traps in coffee trees; 
type no. 73063 in U. S. National 
Museum. 

The species name is a noun taken from 
the acronym ICA of the Instituto Colom- 
biano Agropecuario. I am indeed grateful 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


to the authorities of that Instituto for the 
privilege of studying these flies. 


References Cited 


Bush, G. L. 1966 (issue mailed March 10). The 
genus Zonosemata, with notes on the cytology of 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


two species (Diptera-Tephritidae). Psyche (1965) 
72: 307-323. 


Foote, R. H. 1967. Family Tephritidae (Trypetidae, 
Trupaneidae). Jn Vanzolini, E. P., and Papavero, 
N., eds., A catalogue of the Diptera of the 
Americas south of the United States. Dept. Zool., 
Secr. Agr., Sao Paulo, fasc. 57: 1-91. 


235 


ACADEMY AFFAIRS 


SIX SCIENTISTS RECEIVE ACADEMY’S ANNUAL AWARDS 


Awards for outstanding scientific 
achievement were conferred upon three 
research scientists and three science 
teachers at the Annual Awards Dinner 
meeting of the Academy on March 21, 
1974. 

The research investigators honored 
were Dr. Ronald B. Herberman of the 
National Cancer Institute, in the biologi- 
cal sciences; Mr. Thomas N. Pyke, Jr. 
of the National Bureau of Standards, 
in the Engineering Sciences; and Dr. 
Jogesh Chandra Pati, of the University 
of Maryland, in the Physical Sciences. 

The science teachers honored were 
Dr. Joseph A. Bellanti, School of Medi- 
cine, Georgetown University; Dr. Phillip 
I. Connors, Physics Department, Uni- 
versity of Maryland; and Mr. Robert 
Leroy Wistort, High Point Senior High 
School, Beltsville, Maryland. 


Biological Sciences 


Ronald B. Herberman was cited for 
‘“‘his scientific contributions in develop- 


ing an important area of cancer im- 
munology, for selective leadership in 
fostering, coordinating, and encouraging 
research in cellular immune reactions to 
human tumor-associated antigens.’’ 

Dr. Herberman was born December 
26, 1940 in Brooklyn, New York. He 
received his BA in 1960, summa cum 
laude, from New York University and 
his M.D. in 1964 from New York 


‘University School of Medicine. His 


internship and first year residency in 
medicine were spent at Massachusetts 
General Hospital 1964-66. From 1966-68, 
he was a clinical associate in the Im- 
munology Branch of the National Cancer 
Institute, moving up to Senior Investi- 
gator in 1968 and to Head of the Cel- 
lular and Tumor Immunology Section, 
Laboratory of Cell Biology in 1971, 
his present position. 


Engineering Sciences 


Thomas N. Pyke, Jr. was cited for 
‘‘valuable contributions to the field of 


Ronald B. Herberman 


236 


Thomas N. Pyke, Jr. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


computer networking technology.’”’ 

Mr. Pyke was born July 16, 1942 in 
Washington, D.C. He obtained his 
B.S.E.E. in 1964 from Carnegie Mel- 
lon University, and his M.S.E. in 1965 
from the University of Pennsylvania. 
He was a student trainee at the National 
Bureau of Standards from 1960-64, Chief 
of the Computer System Section ICST, 
1969-73. In 1973, he became Acting Chief 
of the Computer Systems Engineering 
Division, and Chief of the Computer 
Networking Section for Sciences and 
Computer Technology, the position he 
now holds. 


Physical Sciences 


Dr. Jogesh Chandra Pati was cited 
‘for contributions toward a_ unified 
theory of elementary particles.”’ 

Dr. Pati was born on April 3, 1937. 
He received his B.S. with Honors 
from Ravenshaw College, Utkal Uni- 
versity, India, in 1955, his M.S. in 
1957 from Delhi University, and his 
Ph.D. in 1961 from the University of 
Maryland. He held a Tolman Post- 


Jogesh C. Pati 


doctoral Fellowship at California In- 
stitute of Technology (1960-62). He was 
a member of the Institute for Advanced 
Study at Princeton (1962-63) and a 
Visiting Scientist at the Brookhaven 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


National Laboratory during the summer 
of 1963. He is presently in the De- 
partment of Physics and Astronomy at 
the University of Maryland. During the 
past year and in cooperation with Dr. 
Abdus Salam, Director, International 
Center for Theoretical Physics, Trieste, 
Italy, he has proposed a unified gauge 
theory of the strong, electromagnetic 
and weak interactions. A _ successful 
unified theory is the dream of all particle 
physicists, and this is one of the most 
promising which has been put forward 
in the context of the new gauge ap- 
proach to elementary particle inter- 
actions. 


Teaching of Science 


Medical School.—Joseph A. Bellanti, 
Professor of Pediatrics, School of Medi- 
cine, Georgetown University, was cited 
for ‘‘being an outstanding scientific in- 
vestigator and dedicated teacher.’’ He is 
the youngest faculty person ever to be 
elevated to full professorship in the 
School of Medicine at Georgetown Uni- 
versity. He was named as one of the 
‘‘Outstanding Educators of America in 
1972,”’ a listing recommended by Col- 
lege Presidents and Deans. He has 
authored a textbook entitled, “‘Im- 
munology’’ published by Saunders, 1971. 
Currently this book is being used as a 
textbook in over 50 medical schools 


Joseph A. Bellanti 


237 


throughout the country. The textbook 
has been widely acclaimed for its suc- 
cess in presenting the difficult principles 
of immunology in a straightforward man- 
ner, easily comprehended by students. 

Dr. Bellanti was born in Buffalo, 
New York, November 21, 1934. He 
received his B.A. from the University 
of Buffalo, (Phi Beta Kappa) in 1954 
and his M.D. from the University of 
Buffalo in 1958. He joined the George- 
town University School of Medicine in 
1963 as an Assistant Professor of 
Pediatrics and Microbiology, rapidly ad- 
vancing up the ranks to Associate Pro- 
fessor in 1967 and to full professor in 
1970, his present position. 


University.—Phillip I. Connors, an 
assistant Professor in Physics at the 
University of Maryland, was cited for 
being an effective and innovative teacher 
who has been particularly successful in 
elementary courses for nonscience 
majors. He pioneered in the use of self- 
paced or Keller Plan teaching methods 
and developed the first entirely self- 
paced course at the University. He has 
also played a unique and important role 


Phillip I. Connors 


in the improvement of college science 
teaching in general in the Washington 
and Chesapeake Bay Area by his ad- 
ministration and direction of three 


238 


important programs: As Director, since 
1969 of The Chesapeake Physics Asso- 
ciation, aimed primarily at improving 
the scientific competence and level of 
teaching at small colleges; as Director 


of COSIP, College Science Improve- 


ment Program Maryland Physics Con- 
sortium, aimed primarily at the Com- 
munity Colleges; and as Director of NSF 
Summer Institutes in Physics offered to 
strengthen the background of teachers at 
predominantly black colleges. 

Dr. Connors was born October 7, 
1937 in Norfolk, Virginia. He obtained 
his B.S. in 1959 from the University 
of Notre Dame, his M.S. in 1962, 
and his Ph.D. in 1966, both from 
Pennsylvania State University. He was 
an instructor at Pennsylvania State Uni- 
versity in 1963, a Junior Research Asso- 
ciate at Brookhaven National Laboratory 
1963-65, a Research Associate at the 
University of Maryland 1965-69, be- 
coming an Assistant Professor in 1969, 
his current position. 


High School. — Robert Leroy Wistort, 
a biology teacher at High Point Senior 
High School, in Beltsville, Maryland, 
was cited for being a truly outstanding 
teacher, exceptionally talented in his 
ability and accomplishments in inspiring 


Robert L. Wistort 


sO many young people to love and enjoy 
science. He holds to the concept that 
students kept under high pressure will 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


produce to the best of their ability and 
he gets results. He arouses the curiosity 
and interest of his students in timely 
biological problem-solving situations and 
he has developed a curriculum for the 
course and contributed to a county cur- 
riculum for the advanced biology classes. 
Several years ago he was recognized 
as the ‘“‘Outstanding Biology Teacher’’ 
in the State of Maryland. He contributed 
to the development of the BSCS cur- 
riculum (Ecology version) in Boulder, 


Colorado, and he has taught at National 
Science Foundation Institutes held at 
Howard University. 

Mr. Wistort was born on January 5, 
1929 in Chicago, Illinois. He received 
his B.S. from the University of Illinois, 
and had almost completed his Masters 
degree in Zoology before the Army inter- 
vened. He is currently completing 
another Master’s degree in Human 
Development at the University of 
Maryland. 


BOARD OF MANAGERS MEETING NOTES 


Feb. 7, 1974 


The 624th meeting was called to order 
at 8:00 p.m. by President Sherlin in the 
conference room in the Lee Building 
at FASEB. 


Secretary.— Dr. Stern moved and Dr. 
Noyes seconded that the minutes be ap- 
proved as corrected. Passed. 


Treasurer.— Dr. Rupp presented the 
1973 annual report. He noted that income 
from dues, mutual funds and the Journal 
sales was less than expected while 
Journal costs were higher. Total deficit 
was about $5000. The Executive Com- 
mittee met and discussed the 1974 
budget. To balance the budget a dues 
increase is necessary. Dr. Rupp moved 
and Dr. Abraham seconded that the dues 
be increased by $3.00 and the Journal 
by $2.00 as in the proposed budget. 
Passed. Dr. Stern suggested that we 
appeal for voluntary contributions. Mr. 
Sherlin suggested that each member 
of the Board of Managers bring in 
five new members. Dr. Stern moved and 
Dr. Robbins seconded that the Journal 
subscription rate be raised to $12.00 
domestic and $13.00 foreign. Passed. 
President Sherlin will appoint a com- 
mittee to study the office expenses 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


in relation to the Philosophical Society 
and JBSEE. Dr. Forziati moved and 
Dr. Boek seconded that the budget be 
accepted. Passed. 


Membership.—Mrs. Forziati pre- 
sented seven nominees for fellowship. 
They are: Frank J. Adrian, Jay P. 
Boris, Joseph M. Botbol, Charles M. 
Guttman, Elizabeth O’Hern, and Barry 
N. Taylor. Two new delegates were 
also presented: George E. Hudson, 
Philosophical Society, and Robert F. 
Cozzens, Chemical Society. Dr. Boek 
moved and Dr. Stern seconded that these 
candidates for fellowship be accepted. 
Passed. 

A letter from Dr. Mebs on a recent 
trip reported that he had seen Rev. 
Francis J. Heyden, S.J. who is in the 
Philippines. His address is: Astronomi- 
cal Observatory, P.O. Box 1231, Manila, 
Philippines D404. A letter will be drafted 
to Rev. Heyden encouraging his scien- 
tific studies in the Philippines. 


Grants-in-Aid.— Dr. Shropshire said 
they had made 16 awards for $466. 
Forty-three applications were received. 
A simple report will be asked from each 
student. Mr. Sherlin indicated that we 
had unspent funds for three projects. 
There is a commiittee for each project. 


239 


Program.—Dr. Abraham suggested 
that we start an annual lecture series 
called the Gibbs lecture. In February 
the 543rd meeting will be the ‘‘Centen- 
nial of Gibbs’ Thermodynamics.’’ The 
speakers will be: Dr. Raymond Moun- 
tain, who will speak on “‘A Geometrical 
Description of Critical Phenomena;”’ 
Douglas Rumble III will speak on 
‘*Gibbs’ Phase Rule and its Application 
to Geochemistry;’’ and Harold J. Moro- 
witz will speak on “‘A Biologist’s View 
of Gibbs’ Contributions.’’ Dr. Abraham 
moved and Dr. Robbins seconded that 
we have an annual Gibbs lecture during 
the year. Passed. Questions of any 
finances will be referred to the Finance 
Committee, as no commitments were 
made for funds. 

A lecture series on Solar Energy start- 
ing March 14 will be jointly sponsored 
by the Institute of Electrical and Elec- 


tronics Engineers and WAS at the Univ. ° 


of Md. There were no commitments 
made for support by WAS. In the future 
other joint lecture series might be co- 


sponsored and possibly be funded with - 


grants. 


Symposium.—Dr. Forziati said that 
the grant was signed for publication 
costs. He did not know the number 
enrolled for the symposium. 


Science Achievement.— Dr. Aldridge 
reported the awardees are: Biological 
Sciences, Dr. Ronald Herberman, NIH, 
for his scientific contributions in develop- 
ing an important area of cancer im- 
munology; Engineering Sciences, Mr. 
Thomas N. Pyke, Jr., NBS, for valuable 
contributions to the field of computer 
networking technology; Physical Sci- 
ences, Dr. Jogesh Chandri Pati, Univ. 
of Md., for contributions towards a 
unified theory of elementary particles; 
Teaching of Science, Medical Science, 
Dr. Joseph A. Bellanti, Georgetown 
Univ., Dr. Phillip I. Connors, Univ. 
of Md., Mr. Robert L. Wistort, High 
Point Senior High School, Beltsville, 
Md. It was moved by Dr. Forziati, 
seconded by Dr. Robbins that the Board 
go on record that the awards dinner 


240 


be held in April in 1975. Passed. Dr. 
Aldridge moved that these candidates 
be approved, seconded by Dr. DePue. 
Passed. (See elsewhere this issue. Ed.) 


Membership Promotion.—Dr. 
O’Hern stated that one membership 
notice had appeared in the Journal. 
Affiliated societies are asked to nominate 
members. Seventy-five new members 
have joined between June and February. 


Joint Board on Science and Engineer- 
ing Education.— February ts to be estab- 
lished as the time for the annual payment 
to JBSEE. 


Management Policy.—A committee 
will be appointed to make their report 
at the March meeting. 


Election Results.—President Sherlin 
read the new officers for 1974-75. 
President: Dr. Kurt Stern 
President-elect: Dr. George 
Abraham 
Secretary: Dr. Mary Aldridge 
Treasurer: Dr. Nelson Rupp 
Managers-at-Large: Dr. William 
Bickley, Mr. Richard Farrow. 


The next Board meeting will be held in 
the first two weeks of March. Dr. 
Weissler moved, seconded by Dr. Sulz- 
bacher, that the meeting be adjourned. 
Passed. 


The meeting adjourned at 9:45 p.m.— 
Patricia Sarvella, Secretary. 


Mar. 12, 1974 


The 625th meeting was called to order 
at 8:10 p.m. by President Sherlin in 


the conference room in the Lee Build- | 


ing at FASEB. 


Secretary.— George E. Hudson asked 
to have his middle initial included in 
his name in the minutes. Dr. Robbins 
moved and Dr. Rowen seconded that 
the minutes be accepted as corrected. 
Passed. 


Treasurer.—No report. A letter was 
sent to members requesting contribu- 
tions. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Science Achievement.— Dr. Aldridge 
reported that everything is ready for the 
banquet and that a report has been 
prepared for the Journal. Elizabeth 
Ostaggi will take care of the publicity 
for the annual awards dinner. 


Membership.—Mts. Forziati reported 
on two candidates for fellowship. The 
citation on Richard Donovick will be 
changed to conform with the format of 
the other fellows. Dr. Rupp moved that 
the candidates be elected to fellow- 
ship (Victor E. Adler, Richard Dono- 
vick). Seconded by Dr. Robbins. Passed. 
Miss Ostaggi will notify the candidates 
of their election. 


Symposium on Statistics and the En- 
vironment.—Dr. A. Forziati reported 
there were about 150 people present. 
It appears that expenses were met. 
Many attendees wanted a sequel. He 
raised the question whether we wanted 
to participate but not publish the pro- 
ceedings. Publicity about the Symposium 
was not sent out to industry since ex- 
penses limited the mailing distribution. 
The size of the cafeteria limited the size 
of the Symposium. Mr. Garber recorded 
the sessions. The tapes are being 
_transcribed as fast as run off. 

Dr. Forziati suggested that we have 
another symposium next year, possibly 
on ‘‘Energy-Generating Impact on the 
Environment.’’ Topic ideas should be 
given to Dr. Stern. 


Joint Board on Science and Engineer- 
ing Education.—Montgomery County 
will have a Science Fair this year with 
the National Bureau of Standards as a 
co-sponsor so they don’t have to obtain 
insurance. Copies of press releases were 
passed out. The Science booklet is pro- 
vided by NBS, the affiliation fee by 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


JBSEE, and the student expense to the 
International Fair by Montgomery Area 
Science Fair Association. 


Program Committee.— Dr. Abraham 
reported on three meetings coming up 
this year: in Sept. a joint meeting with 
the Jr. Academy and on Nov. 21 the 
Gibbs Lecture. Perhaps meetings with 
other societies should be continued, since 
they were well attended this year. 


Science Fair.—Dr. Stern said that we 
should encourage the member societies 
to go around to the Area Science Fairs 
and give certificates, etc. An article might 
be written up and put in the Journal. 


Journal.— Dr. Foote reported that the 
printer will soon be back on schedule 
with the Journal. The June issue will 
be on the Symposium. Only two accept- 
able manuscripts have been received so 
far. The grant from EPA is $2500, or 
25% of the money spent, whichever is 
less. The bookkeeping will have to be 
very carefully done. By the end of 
March there should be an idea of the 
length of the Symposium issue. The size 
will be kept to a minimum. 


Fellows.—Mr. Sherlin again re- 
quested that each member of the Board 
of Directors should try to obtain five 
new fellows. The society representatives 
should try to compare the list of their 
members with the fellows. New fellows 
will be introduced at the annual meeting. 
There will be a meeting in April to 
process new fellows. 


AAAS .—In 1977 the AAAS will meet 
in Washington. 


Dr. Rupp moved that the meeting be 
adjourned, seconded by Dr. Noyes. 
Passed. The meeting adjourned at 9:30 
p.m.—Patricia Sarvella, Secretary. 


241 


NEW FELLOWS 


Paul R. Achenbach, Chief, Building 
Environment Div., Ctr. for Bldg. Tech., 
NBS, in recognition of his contribution 
in Mechanical and Electrical Engineer- 
ing and in particular for his many years 
of successful research management of 
building environment investigations. Ad- 
ditional notice is taken of his contribu- 
tions to engineering standards and to 
recent programs on energy conservation. 
Sponsors: Grover C. Sherlin, Max 
Tryon, John W. Rowen. 


Victor E. Adler, Research Entomolo- 
gist, USDA, for his contributions to 
insect olfaction, and in particular his 
researches on the electrophysiological re- 
sponses of insects to attractants and 
pheromones. Sponsors: Martin Jacob- 
son, Morton Beroza, Milton S.- 
Schechter. 


Edith R. Corliss (Mrs.), Physicist, 
Sound Section, NBS, in recognition of 
her contributions to acoustics, and in 
particular for her researches on the 
physical measurement of the parameters 
of speech and hearing. Sponsors: Richard 
K. Cook, Martin Greenspan, Daniel 
P. Johnson. 


Richard Donovick, Director, American 
Type Culture Collection, Rockville, 
Md., in recognition of his contributions 
to scientific literature in the areas of 
fermentation and antibiotic research. He 
is now director of American Type 
Culture Collection. Sponsors: R. R. Col- 
well, H. Finley. 


Donald F. Flick, Health Sciences Co- 
ordinator, Food & Drug Adm., in recog- 
nition of his contributions to nutrition 
and biochemistry, particularly his re- 
searches on the metabolic effects of 
chlorinated hydrocarbons. Sponsors: 
Carleton R. Treadwell, Mary Louise 
Robbins, H. W. Mandel. 


Allan L. Forsythe, Director of Special 
Projects & Science Dept. Chairman, 
St. Albans Sch., Washington, D.C., 


242 


in recognition of his outstanding teach- 
ing of science to young men and women 
in their formative years. Especially 
notable is the integration of several dis- 
ciplines in his course in aquatic systems. 
Sponsors: Jean K. Boek, Bernard B. 
Watson, George W. Irving. 


William B. Fox, Head, Inorganic 
Chemistry Branch, Chemistry Div., 
Naval Res. Lab., in recognition of his 
contributions to the field of inorganic 
fluorine chemistry, particularly his re- 
search on the synthesis of high-energy 
species, the characterization of unstable 
intermediates at cryogenic temperatures, 
and the elucidation of the structures and 
chemistry of hypervalent molecules. 
Sponsors: Kurt H. Stern, Fred E. Saal- 
feld, David R. Flinn. 


Robert N. Goldberg, Chemist, NBS, 
in recognition of his contributions to 
chemical thermodynamics, and in par- 
ticular his research on the application 
of irreversible thermodynamics to elec- 
trochemical cells having liquid junctions. 
Sponsors: John W. Rowen, Donald D. 
Waxman, Kelson B. Morris. 


Louis S. Jaffe, Assoc. Clinical Pro- 
fessor of Epidemiology & Environmental | 
Health, George Washington University, 
in recognition of his contributions to 
environmental medicine, in particular 
his valuable surveys of the toxicological 
implications of carbon monoxide, ozone, 
and other atmospheric pollutants for 
man and other biological systems. 
Sponsors: J. Murray Mitchell, Jr., 
Donald H. Pack. 


Eugene Jarosewich, Chemist-super- 
visory, Smithsonian Institution, in recog- 
nition of his demonstrated exceptional 
skill in analytical chemistry of complex 
substances such as meteorites, minerals, 
lunar samples and rocks. Sponsors: 
E. P. Henderson, A. Wetmore. 


Berenice G. Lamberton, retired (Lec- 
turer, Georgetown University, 1962- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


72), in recognition of her contributions 
to science education and in particular 
her exceptional span of service, extend- 
ing over 26 years from 1947 to date, 
in the science encouragement programs 
of the WAS. Sponsors: Grover C. Sher- 
lin, Max Tryon, John W. Rowen. 


Julius Lieblein, Mathematical Statisti- 
cian, NBS, in recognition of his con- 
tributions to the statistical theory of 
extreme values and their application to 
failure phenomena. Sponsors: John W. 
Rowen, Churchill Eisenhart, Grover C. 
Sherlin. 


Henry S. Liers, Research Physicist 
in Special Studies Office, Naval Re- 
search Laboratory, in recognition of his 
contributions to nuclear physics and in 
particular his researches on nuclear 
polarization phenomena. Sponsors: 
George Abraham, A. Schindler, Leland 
A. DePue. 


Thomas P. Meloy, Vice President, 
Research & Development, Meloy Labs, 
Springfield, Va., in recognition of his 
contribution to mineral engineering, in 
particular his theoretical contributions to 
the particle science field. Sponsors: 
George Abraham, Grover C. Sherlin, 
William Gage. 


Raymond D. Mountain, Chief, Statis- 
tical Physics Section, NBS, in recog- 
nition of his contributions to statistical 
mechanics, with particular applications 
to the study of the equilibrium and trans- 
port properties of liquids. Sponsors: 
Grover C. Sherlin, Nelson W. Rupp, 
Max Tryon. 


James H. Mulligan, Jr., Secretary/ 
Executive Officer, National Academy 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


of Engineering, in recognition of his 
contributions to network theory and elec- 
tronic feedback systems. Sponsors: 
George Abraham, A. Schindler. 


Hajime Ota, Agricultural Engineer, 
USDA, in recognition of his contribu- 
tions to agricultural engineering, espe- 
cially in the areas of poultry housing 
and environmental conditions. Sponsors: 
Patricia Sarvella, Grover C. Sherlin, 
Robert E. Menzer. 


Anton Peterlin, Physicist, NBS, in 
recognition of his contribution to rhe- 
ology, rheoptics and light scattering 
of dilute polymer solutions and to the 
study of the relationship between physi- 
cal properties and morphology of crystal- 
line polymer solids. Sponsors: John W. 
Rowen, Grover C. Sherlin, James M. 
Cassel. 


Jenny E. Rosenthal, Physicist, Dept. 
of the Army, in recognition of her 
achievement in spectroscopy, optics, and 
mathematical techniques and their ap- 
plication to electronic engineering. Spon- 
sors: George Abraham, Lowell Ballard, 
Richard K. Cook. 


Marjorie R. Townsend, Project Man- 
ager, Small Astronomy Satellite, God- 
dard Space Flight Center, in recognition 
of her contributions to electrical en- 
gineering and in particular her accom- 
plishments as project manager of the 
Small Astronomy Satellites. Additional 
recognition is given to her service to 
science education, particularly her work 
as a member of the JBSEE. Sponsors: 
Grover C. Sherlin, Nelson W. Rupp, 
Max Tryon. 


243 


SPECIAL NOTICE 


To: The Members and Fellows of the Academy 
From: Nelson W. Rupp, Treasurer | 


The Academy’s financial status has been carefully reviewed and the 
Board of Managers has voted to increase the annual dues ef- 
fective on January 1, 1975. The increase to both Fellows and Members 
is a total of $3.00; two of the dollars are a result of increasing the 
Journal subscription and the other is added to the dues. This will 
make the dues as of January 1, 1975, for Fellows $18.00 and 
Members $13.00. 

The increase is necessary to cover the rise in costs for supplies, 
services and office management. The previous dues increase, voted in 
1970, was adequate for the first two years but not for 1973 and 
1974. The major contribution to the 1973 deficit was the markedly 
reduced income from our mutual funds. The Board is seeking 
means to improve the investment of the reserve funds. 

The increase in dues will generate sufficient income to meet 
1975’s anticipated expenses. Meanwhile, the deficit will continue for 
calendar year 1974. The Board of Managers, therefore, is asking 
all Fellows and Members for a contribution to relieve the pres- 
sure on this year’s budget. The suggested contribution is $5.00 
for Fellows and $2.50 for Members. The contribution can be made 
by check payable to the Washington Academy of Sciences, and 
can be mailed to the above address. 

In addition to the search for improving the income from invest- 
ments the Board has taken measures to reduce expenses, for example, 
moving the office into a smaller space, thus reducing the rent. 
Cost consciousness continues to be a major concern. 

For those who have not paid their 1974 (or 1975-Ed.) dues, 
you may add your contribution and send a check for the total 
to the Academy. 


244 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS 


Contributions in this section of your Journal are earnestly solicited. 
They should be typed double-spaced and sent to the Editor three 
months preceding the issue for which they are intended. 


DEPARTMENT OF DEFENSE 


Donald B. Dinger has been installed for 
a l-year term as president of the Belvoir 
_ Chapter of Sigma Xi/The Scientific Re- 
search Society of North America. 

He received a BS in electrical engi- 
neering from the University of Rhode 
Island in 1958 and his MS in engineering 
from George Washington University in 
1964. While at URI, he was Outstanding 
Junior Engineering ROTC Student and 
Outstanding Senior Electrical Engi- 
neering ROTC Student. Since 1958 he 
has been associated with the U. S. Army 
Mobility Equipment Research and De- 
velopment Center at Fort Belvoir, Va., 
including 6 months active duty there as 
an Army Corps of Engineers officer. In 
1966, he was elected a Fellow of the 
Washington Academy of Sciences on the 
basis of his achievement at the Center, 
where he is currently Associate Tech- 
nical Director for Research and Develop- 
ment. 


GEORGE WASHINGTON 
UNIVERSITY 


Ariel C. Hollinshead, Professor of 
Medicine of The George Washington 
University Medical Center, was selected 
as outstanding cancer scientist by the 
Board of Directors of AAAS, and was 


invited by ““Znaniye’’ (knowledge), the. 


2-% million member scientific organiza- 
tion of the USSR, to be their guest for 
the promotion of scientific friendship, 
good will, and the exchange of informa- 
tion in the field of oncology. Dr. Hol- 
linshead enjoyed both formal and in- 
formal scientific exchanges and a very 
impressive cultural program, which in- 
cluded attendance at the opera both in 
Moscow and Leningrad, the Red Army 
Chorus, the Moscow circus, the ballet, 
and the other first-class performances as 
well as the special privilege of invitations 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


to the homes of some of the scientists. 
She was impressed with the warmth, 
friendliness and expertise of her col- 
leagues in the USSR and by the well 
organized and extensive influence of the 
Znaniye groups. While there, she was 
privileged to visit members of the Soviet 
Women’s Committee of the USSR and to 
learn of their work in aiding under- 
developed nations and in developing 
friendship with women professionals all 
over the world. 

Dr. Hollinshead lectured at the 
Gamaleya Institute of Epidemiology & 
Microbiology, of the Academy of Medi- 
cal Sciences, USSR; at the Herzen State 
Oncologic Institute situated in Moscow; 
at the Institute of Experimental and 
Clinical Oncology, Academy of Medical 
Sciences, USSR; at the Petrov Research 
Institute of Oncology in Leningrad; at 
the Pavlov Medical Institute of Lenin- 
grad; and other places. 


NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH 


Dean Burk, who has been with the 
National Cancer Institute since 1939, 
retired recently after 45 years of Federal 
service. Dr. Burk headed NCI’s Cyto- 
chemistry Section, Division of Cancer 
Biology and Diagnosis, from 1946 until 
his retirement. 

Dr. Burk began his Federal career in 
1929 as an associate physical chemist in 
the Department of Agriculture before 
joining NCI as a senior chemist. 

He is noted for his research on the 
role of fermentation and the Pasteur re- 
action in relation to cancer cell growth; 
studies of the one quantum mechanism 
and energy cycle in photosynthesis, and 
more recently, studies on “‘healthier 
cigarettes’’ and cancer chemotherapy. 

Dr. Burk is best known for the “‘Line- 
weaver-Burk Plot’’ for the determination 
of enzyme dissociation constants which 


245 


was published in 1934, and for his co- 
discovery of biotin. 

Dr. Burk received both his B.S. and 
Ph.D. degrees from the University of 
California. From 1927 until 1929 he was a 
Fellow with the National Research 
Council and the International Education 
Board at the University of London, the 
Kaiser Wilhelm Institute for Biology, 
and Harvard University. 

His scientific honors include the Hille- 
brand Award of the American Chemical 
Society and the Gerhard Domazk Award 
for Cancer Research. In 1971 he received 
the National Health Federation Humani- 
tarian Award. 

Dr. Burk was made a foreign scientific 
member of the Max Planck Society in 
1953, and was knighted in 1970 by the 
Medical Order of Bethlehem, founded by 
the Vatican. 

Dr. Burk is the author of 227 papers, 
and is on the editorial board of the Record 
of Chemical Process and Enzymologia. 

He will continue to write and lecture, 
and will serve as a Visiting scientist at the 
National Naval Medical Center. Dr. 
Burk also plans to go on with his work in 
portrait painting and his interest in music. 


RICE UNIVERSITY 


Frederick D. Rossini, Professor of Chem- 
istry, was awarded the degree of Doctor 
of Philosophy, Honoris Causa, by the 
University of Lund, Lund, Sweden, at 
exercises held there on May 31, 1974. 
The award was made in recognition of 
his scientific work in thermodynamics 
and thermochemistry, physical chem- 
istry of petroleum and hydrocarbons, and 
numerical data for science and tech- 
nology. Rossini was born in Mononga- 
hela, Pennsylvania, did his undergrad- 
uate work at the Carnegie Institute of 
Technology (now Carnegie-Mellon 
University), completed his graduate 
studies at the University of California- 
Berkeley, and served on the staffs of the 
National Bureau of Standards (1928-50), 
the Carnegie Institute of Technology 
(1950-60), and the University of Notre 
Dame (1960-71), before going to Rice 
University. 


246 


OTHER SCIENTISTS 


Milton Harris received the Wilbur 
Lucius Cross Medal of Yale University 
on May 20. The citation read “‘dedicated 


alumnus, chemist, inventor, research 


administrator, and statesman of sci- 


ence.”’ 


R. N. Ghose was elected Chairman of 
the Board of American Nucleonics Cor- 
poration. He had been President of the 
Company for the last eleven years. Dr. 
Ghose is a Fellow of the IEEE, IEE 
(London), Institute of Physics (London), 
American Association for the Advance- 
ment of Science, Washington Academy 
of Sciences, and APS. 


Eugene Weber, Washington, D. C. con- 
sulting engineer and Commissioner U. S. 
Section, International Joint Commission 
1948-1973, has received the Can-Am 
Civil Engineering Amity Award from the 
Americal Society of Civil Engineers. The 
Can-Am Civil Engineering Amity Award 
gives recognition to those civil engineers 
who have made outstanding and unusual 
contributions toward the advancement of 
professional relationships between 
American and Canadian civil engineers. 
Born in Stacyville, Iowa, in 1910, Mr. 
Weber received his degree in civil engi- 
neering at the University of Minnesota 
in 1930. His civilian service with the 
Corps of Engineers began in 1931 in the 
Great Lakes area and New England and 
concluded with his retirement in 1965 as 
Deputy Director of Civil Works for 
Policy in the Office of the Chief of 
Engineers. For his military assignments 
during World War II, he received numer- 
ous decorations including the Legion of 
Merit, the Bronze Star Medal, the Army 
Commendation Medal and French Croix 
de Guerre. His civilian awards include 
the Rockefeller Public Service Award, 
the Army’s Exceptional Civilian Service 
Award and the Defence Department’s 
Distinguished Civilian Service Award. 
His activities with the International 
Joint Commission included the major 
projects for the mutual benefit of the two 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


countries. Also, the St. Lawrence Proj- 
ect was one of his principal concerns, 
as well as the related developments in 
controlling the levels and flows of the 
Great Lakes and the preservation of 
Niagara Falls. 

In recent years, the IJC has been 
concerned with air and water pollution 


along the entire boundary, but particu- 
larly along the Great Lakes, where as a 
result of an IJC report, President Nixon 
and Prime Minister Trudeau signed a 
Great Lakes Pollution Agreement on 
April 15, 1972. This agreement has given 
great impetus towards restoring the 
quality of these boundary waters. 


OBITUARIES 


Lewis J. Clark 


Lewis Jesse Clark, 62, an organic 
chemist who retired last year as research 
chemist in the Naval Research Labora- 
tory’s metallurgy division, died in 
George Washington University Hospital 
following heart surgery. He lived on 
Newark Street NW. 

Dr. Clark, a District resident since 
1930, worked for the federal govern- 
ment for about 40 years. A native of 
Chester, N. H., he received his under- 
graduate degree from George Washing- 
ton University in 1937 while working for 
the U. S. Geological Survey. In 1954 he 
received his Ph.D. from the University 
of Maryland, where he studied soil 
chemistry. 

Dr. Clark had a number of papers 
published in analytical chemistry publi- 
cations and at the time of his death was 
writing a paper on titanium determina- 
tion in iron-base materials. 

While at the National Bureau of Stand- 
ards from 1942 to 1953 Dr. Clark was 
awarded a medal and certificate for his 
work on the atomic bomb and a certifi- 
cate from the Office of Scientific Re- 
search and Development. 

Later in the 1950s he was a chemist 
for the Agriculture Department’s soil 
and water conservation research branch 
and in 1956 became a chemist for the 
Naval Research Laboratory. 

Dr. Clark was a fellow of the American 
Institute of Chemists and the American 
Association for the Advancement of 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Science. He was acharter member of the 
Geochemical Society. He was active in 
American Youth Hostels, Audubon 
Naturalist Society and organizations of 
All Souls Unitarian Church. 

He leaves his wife, Julie C., three 
sisters Mrs. Warren Butman of Spring- 
field, Mass., Mrs. Francis Mills of War- 
renton, Va., and Mrs. Arnold Tayler of 
Branford, Conn., and four brothers, 
Charles, of Lebanon, Mo., Fred and 
Frank, of Manassas, and Lyman, who 
lives in Kensington. 


David Livingston Crawford 
1889-1974 


David Livingston Crawford, ento- 
mologist, author, administrator and edu- 
cator, died in Moorestown, New Jersey, 
January 16, 1974 of mesenteric throm- 
bosis. He had been troubled with Parkin- 
son’s disease for several years before his 
death, but in spite of this debilitating 
disease he remained remarkably active 
until October 1973, and his mind was 
alert and clear to the end. 

This account of his life and activities 
records a few of the accomplishments of 
his distinguished career and provides a 
list of his taxonomic papers in ento- 
mology. The bibliography of 5 titles on 
the Thysanoptera and 32 on the Psyllidae 
(Homoptera) will aid librarians, bibliog- 
raphers, thrips and psyllid workers. 

Dr. Crawford’s earliest work in insect 
taxonomy was with thrips, or Thysa- 


247 


David Livingston Crawford 


noptera, on which he published in 1909 
and 1910. His interest in this group seems 
to have been short lived, however, be- 
cause he did not continue their study. 
Simultaneously with his work on thrips, 
he began the study of the jumping plant 
lice or Psyllidae, and his interest centered 
around this group from 1910 to 1928 when 
he published his first and last taxonomic 
papers on the family. During this time he 
acquired many psyllids and in 1945 gen- 
erously presented his collection to the 
Smithsonian Institution, Washington, 


D.C. Most of his thrips collection, how- — 


ever, is in the Canadian National Col- 
lection, Ottawa, Canada. 

Dr. Crawford ’s first articles on psyllids 
appeared while he was an undergraduate 
student at Pomona College. His compre- 
hensive study, ‘““A monograph of the 
jumping plant-lice of the New World,”’ 
published in 1914 by the U. S. National 
Museum, established him as an authority 
on this family of insects, and thereafter 
he received and described numerous 
psyllids from many parts of the world. 
Although he maintained an interest in 
entomology over the years, he had little 
time to devote to psyllids after becoming 
president of the University of Hawaii and 
was unable to properly care for the in- 
sects in his private collection. Thus when 
his collection was received by the 
Smithsonian, some specimens had been 


248 


lost and others were fragmented. Still 
others, however, were in reasonably 
good condition for delicate, pinned in- 
sects that had been shipped long dis- 
tances. Examples of all species described 
by Dr. Crawford were not represented in 
his collection and are presumed to have 
been deposited in the collections of the 
institutions which furnished them. Re- 
prints of Crawford papers on the Thysa- 
noptera and Psyllidae are not available 
from the Smithsonian Institution or the 
U. S. Department of Agriculture. 

David Crawford was born March 7, 
1889 in Hermosillo, Mexico, the son of 
Matthew and Harriet Crawford, church 
missionaries in Mexico, and the grandson 
of Albert A. and Susan Thomas Sturges, 
the first missionaries in Ponape, 
Micronesia. This heritage doubtless had 
a strong influence on David as he grew up 
and considered his life’s work. Although 
he did not enter the religious missionary 
field, he pioneered in education and good 
works and in so doing continued, in a 
sense, the work of his ancestors. 

David’s early schooling was acquired 
at private and public schools in or near 
Claremont, California. His higher educa- 
tion was obtained at Pomona College 
where he received a B.A. degree in 1911, 
at Stanford University which awarded 
hima M.A. degree in 1912, and at Cornell 
University where he spent one year 
(1912-1913) as a graduate student. He 
was awarded the LL.D. degree by 
Pomona College in 1934 and by the Uni- 
versity of Hawaii in 1966. 

After instructing at Cornell while a 
graduate student, working for some time 
as an entomologist in Mexico, and teach- 
ing botany at Pomona for three years, Dr. 
Crawford in 1917 moved to the 10-year- 
old College of Hawaii. There he became 
active in community as well as scholastic 
affairs. He engaged in welfare and juven- 
ile employment work with the Hawaiian 
Pineapple Company. He zealously pro- 
moted athletic events, coaching cham- 
pion football teams at the College and 
officiating in local games and sports. At 
the College, where was a professor of 
entomology, he was instrumental in de- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


veloping the Extension Department and 
was its director from 1921 to 1926. During 
this period the College of Hawaii became 
the University of Hawaii. Dr. Crawford 
became its president in 1927, and served 
in this capacity until 1942. During his 25 
years tenure at the University, Dr. Craw- 
ford gave providential guidance to the 
young institution. During these years, 
he became an authority on the Islands 
and authored books on them and their 
people. 

Following his retirement from the Uni- 
versity of Hawaii and return to the con- 
tinental United States, Dr. Crawford 
served the Federal Government as ad- 
ministrator of the War Production Board, 
the Foreign Economic Administration 
and as a representative on the Education 
Committee to study Latin America. He 
later became a consultant to Pineapple 
Canneries, Mexico, for three years. In 
1948 he became president of Doane Col- 
lege, Crete, Nebraska, from which he 
retired in 1954. For several years after 
retirement from Doane, Dr. Crawford 
lived in Arlington, Virginia and later 
moved to Moorestown, New Jersey. 

During his later years Dr. Crawford 
and his wife spent a great deal of time 
researching a vast amount of literature, 
letters and notes on religious missionary 
work in the South Pacific, including that 
carried out by his grandparents. The en- 
deavors of Dr. and Mrs. Crawford cul- 
minated in an interesting book, co- 
authored by them and entitled ‘‘Mission- 
ary Adventures in the South Pacific’ 
1967 (Charles E. Tuttle Company, pub- 
lishers). This volume will be a lasting 
memorial to this widely experienced, 
accomplished couple. 

Dr. Crawford is survived by his 
widow, Leona, a daughter, a son, 7 
grandchildren, and a brother. 

I am greatly indebted to Mrs. Craw- 
ford for information on the life of her 
husband. 


D. L. Crawford Publications on Thysanoptera 


19092. Some new Thysanoptera from southern 
California. I. Pomona J. Entomol. 1: 
100-108, illus. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


1909b. Some Thysanoptera of Mexico and the 
South. I. /bid., 109-119, illus. 

1909c. Notes on California Thysanoptera I. /bid., 
120-121. 

1910a. Thysanoptera of Southern California. II. 
Ibid., 2: 149-152, illus. 

1910b. Thysanoptera of Mexico and the South. II. 
Ibid., 2: 153-170, illus. 


D. L. Crawford Publications on Psyllidae 


1910a. American Psyllidae I (Triozinae). Pomona 
J. Entomol. 2: 228-237, illus. 
1910b. American Psyllidae II (Triozinae). /bid., 
347 —362, illus. 
191la. American Psyllidae III (Triozinae). /bid.., 
3: 422-453, illus. 
1911b. American Psyllidae IV (A partial revision 
of subfamilies). [bid., 3: 480-503, illus. 
1911c. American Psyllidae V. Ibid., 3: 628-632, 
illus. 
1912a. A note on certain Psyllidae. [bid., 4: 684. 
1912b. A new insect pest (Trioza alacris Flor). 
Bull. Calif. State Comm. Hort. 1: 86-87. 
Indian Psyllidae. Rec. Indian Mus. 7 
(pt. 5): 419-435, illus. 


1912c. 


1913. New genera and species of Psyllidae from 
the Philippine Islands. Philippine J. Sci. 
8 (sec. D): 293-301, illus. 

1914a. A recently described psyllid from East 


Africa (Hemip.). Entomol. News 25: 
62-65, illus. 

1914b. A Monograph of the Jumping Plant-Lice or 
Psyllidae of the New World. U. S. Nat. 
Mus. Bull. 85: i-ix + 186, illus. 


1915. Ceylonese and Philippine Psyllidae 
(Homoptera). Philippine J. Sci. 10 (sec. 
D): 257-269, illus. 

1917. Philippine and Asiatic Psyllidae. [bid., 12 


(sec. D): 163-175, illus. 


1918. The jumping plant lice (family Psyllidae) of 
the Hawaiian Islands. Proc. Hawaii. 
Entomol. Soc. 3: 430-457, illus. 

1919. The jumping plant lice of the Palaeotropics 


and the South Pacific Islands— Family 
Psyllidae, or Chermidae, Homoptera. 
Philippine J. Sci. 15: 139-207, illus. 

1920a. New or interesting Psyllidae of the Pacific 
Coast (Homop.). Entomol. News 31: 
12-14. 

1920b. Notes on Psyllidae (Homoptera). [bid., 
31: 69-70. 

1920c. Cerotrioza (Psyllidae, Homoptera). Proc. 
Hawaii. Entomol. Soc. 4: 374-375, illus. 

1920d. The Psyllidae of Borneo. Philippine J. Sci. 
17: 353-361, illus. 

1924a. New Indian Psyllidae. Rec. Indian Mus. 
26(pt. 6): 615—625, illus. 

1924b. The Bishop Museum Collection of Psyl- 
lidae (Homoptera). Proc. Hawaii. 
Entomol. Soc. 5: 369-370. 

1925a. Notes on Hawaiian Psyllidae. /bid., 6: 
27=29. 


249 


1925b. Notes on California Psyllidae. Ibid., 6: 
30-31. 

The homopterous genus Mesohomotoma 
(Psyllidae or Chermidae). [bid., 6: 32- 
35: 

The genus Macrohomotoma (Psyllidae or 
Chermidae). Jbid., 6: 36-39, illus. 

Notes on Psyllidae. Philippine J. Sci. 28: 
39-43, illus. 

Psyllidae of South America. Broteria (ser. 
zool.) 22 (fasc. 2): 56-74, illus. 

Insecta of Samoa, Psyllidae (Chermidae). 
pt. 2 (fasc. 1): 29-33, illus. 

Psyllidae of Molokai. Proc. Hawaii. Ento- 
mol. Soc. 6: 423-424. 

A new psyllid from Maui. [bid., 7: 33. 

Psyllidae of Fiji and Samoa. [bid., 7: 33- 
35% 

Fauna sumatrensis (Beitrage Nr. 61). Psyl- 
lidae. Entomol. Mitt. 17: 425-426, illus. 


Louise M. Russell 

Systematic Entomology Laboratory, 
IIBII Inst., Agr. Res. Serv., USDA, 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 


1925c. 


1925d. 
1925: 
1925f. 
1927a. 
1927b. 


1928a. 
1928b. 


1928c. 


Senekerim Mardiros Dohanian 
1889-1972 


Senekerim Mardiros Dohanian was 
born in Malatia, Armenia on Oct. 12, 
1889. He died in Oakland, California on 
Feb. 17, 1972. His family called him 
‘*Sennie,’’ but to me and most of his 
friends he was known as “‘Doh.”’ 

After the massacres of 1895 when 
Doh’s father and grandfather were killed, 
his mother sent him to an orphanage fora 
year in Brusa. During the next 5 years 
his remarkable mother disposed of her 
possessions, organized her small family 
and left Malatia in the fall of 1902 for 
America. Mother, grandmother, uncle 
and three brothers left the seaport of 
Alexandretta in an English freighter, 
sailed to Marseilles and headed for 
America by way of Paris and a Holland 
American steamship. 

The Dohanian family settled in Som- 
merville, Massachussetts, and Senek- 
erim attended the public schools, 
graduating from Sommerville High 
School in 1909. During these years he 
earned money for college by selling news- 
papers, shining shoes, washing dishes, as 
a short order cook on Cape Cod and 


250 


caddy master at a golf course in the White 
Mountains. 

He entered the Massachussetts Col- 
lege of Agriculture in Amherst in the fall 
of 1909 but soon transferred to Tufts 
College, which was closer to home. He 
received his B.S. degree from Tufts in 
1913 and continued at Harvard Univer- 
sity School of Forestry in Petersham, 
Mass. He received the degree of M.S. 
from Harvard in 1915 and was soon em- 
ployed by the U. S. Department of 
Agriculture as an entomologist until he 
enlisted in the U. S. Air Force in 1917. 
He was stationed in Texas and was in the 
Medical Corps in charge of sanitation at 
Kelly Field until his discharge on 21 Jan. 
1919. 

Dohanian then returned to the U. S. 
Department of Agriculture and was sent 
to Europe in 1924 to collect parasites to 
fight the gypsy moth. He established a 
laboratory in Madrid for the care and 
shipment of these parasites, and while 
there his laboratory was visited by King 
Alfonso XIII and Queen Isabella of 
Spain. I arrived in Madrid in the Spring 
of 1924 and was delighted to find my old 
friend already there. We had a number of 
visits in the next month or so. I was 
pleased to find he had established excel- 
lent relations with Dr. Manuel Aulld, 
Head of Forest Insect Control for the 
Spanish Government. Dr. Aullé6 compli- 
mented him to me for his good command 
of the Spanish language. This had been 
accomplished by Doh taking a room ina 
house with several University students 
with whom he ate breakfast and as many 
other meals as possible. 

Just off Puerto del Sol we found a little 
semi-basement German restaurant with 
black and red table cloths which served 
black bread, cheese, dill pickles and other 
German food and good cold tap beer. My 
wife also enjoyed this occasional change 
from local food. 

Following Spain, he travelled to a num- 
ber of countries including France, Ger- 
many, Italy, and Austria, and he was in 
Portugal during its revolution. His next 
assignment was in South America to col- 
lect parasites to combat the sugar cane 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


borer (Diatraea) for introduction into 
Puerto Rico. He was in Trinidad, Peru, 
and British Guiana and he finished this 
5-year project in 13 months. During 
1925-1926 he was Entomologist for the 
American Cyanamid Company of New 
York City. 

Then again for the U. S. Department 
of Agriculture Doh was sent to Eugene, 
Oregon to establish a laboratory designed 
to save the filbert trees from attack by 
insects and to study their parasites. This 
assignment lasted from 1937 to 1947, 
following which he was transferred to the 
International Airport in New York City 
as inspector of flowers, fruits, and meats 
from foreign countries. This was an ex- 
acting job with long and irregular hours, 
but he performed it faithfully in his 
characteristically thorough manner. He 
retired from government service in 1960 
after about 43 years of distinguished and 
devoted service often performed under 
difficult circumstances both here and 
abroad. 

Although Dohanian made his home at 
the residence of his 5-year-younger 
brother, Luke M. Dohanian, South New- 
bury, N. H., he spent most of the winters 
in Arizona and California because of 
health reasons. He was of course an ex- 
cellent and intelligent collector of insects. 
During his several winters in Arizona he 
made a number of collections of aphids 
for me. The data for each collection were 
fully given and clearly written. Although 
I was able to determine only 11 aphids to 
species, it appears that little else is known 
of the aphids of Arizona. 

Although in the earlier years of our 
acquaintance I used to see Doh fairly fre- 
quently, I had not seen him for a number 
of years prior to his death. I recall him as 
rather slight and energetic with black 
hair and moustache and with a very 
friendly though retiring manner. He 
never married and was thoroughly dedi- 
cated to his work. He had a droll sense of 
humor which I always enjoyed. 

Doh was a member of the American 
Association for the Advancement of 
Science (Fellow), Entomological Society 
of America, Entomological Society of 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Washington (1928), California Academy 
of Science (1966), Oregon Academy of 
Science and Oregon Entomological Club, 
and the Cambridge Entomological Club 
(V. P. in 1928). He was a member of the 
fraternal order of John Abbot Lodge AF 
and AM of Sommerville, Mass.—a 51- 
year Mason at the time of his death. In 
April 1942 Dohanian and I attended 
sessions of the Third International Con- 
gress of Malaria and Tropical Medicine in 
Washington, D. C. 

In the Dohanian file in the Tufts 
Alumni Office is a memo, possibly in his 
handwriting, which says he was the 
author of 19 entomological papers and 
bulletins, several of which are of con- 
siderable economic importance. How- 
ever I can find record of only the fol- 
lowing titles attributable to him: 


1935. The European corn borer on Long Island. 
Psyche 41(4): 214-220. (Dec. 1934, but 
apparently published in Jan. 1935.) 

1937. Life history of the thrips parasite Dasycam- 
pus parvipennis Gahan and the technique 
for breeding it. J. Econ. Entomol. 30(1): 
78-80. 

The introduction of parasites of the sugar- 
cane borer into Puerto Rico. J. Agr. Univ. 
Puerto Rico 21(2): 237-241. 

La busqueda de insectos beneficiosos en los 
tropicos americanos para introducirlos en 
Puerto Rico. Rev. Agr. Puerto Rico 30(3): 
408-412. 

Melissopus lateriferreanus as a pest of filberts 

in the Northwest. J. Econ. Entomol. 33(6): 
852-856. 

Parasites of the filbert worm. J. Econ. 

_Entomol. 36(6): 836-841. 

Variability of diapause in Melissopus lati- 
ferreanus. J. Econ. Entomol. 35(3): 406- 
411. 

Muesebeck, C. F. W., and S. W. Dohanian. 
A study in hyperaparasitism, with par- 
ticular reference to the parasites of 
Apanteles melanoscelus (Ratzeburg). 

U.S. Dept: Agr., Dept. Bull. 1487: 1—35. 


1937. 


1938. 


1940. 


1942. 


1942. 


1927. 


Mortimer D. Leonard 

Collaborator, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA, 
2480 16th St. N.W.., 

Washington, D. C. 20009 


Alfred J. Zmuda 


Alfred J. Zmuda, a senior geophysicist 
of the Johns Hopkins University Applied 


251 


Physics Laboratory, died in July at the 
age of 53 after an apparent heart attack. 

Dr. Zmuda, a native of Shenandoah, 
Pa., received his B.S. degree from St. 
Francis College in Pennsylvania and his 
Ph.D. in physics from Catholic Univer- 
sity in 1951. During World War II he 
served in the Marine Corps in the South 
Pacific. 

Dr. Zmuda, a specialist in geomag- 
netism, ionospheric physics and space 
physics, made studies with research 
satellites which led to a better under- 
standing of the earth’s magnetic field and 
the causes of the Northern Lights. He 
had worked for Johns Hopkins since 
1951. 

A pioneer in developing theoretical 
models of the earth’s magnetic field, Dr. 
Zmuda discovered electric currents flow- 
ing along the magnetic field lines in the 
auroral zones of the earth. He also stud- 
ied high energy particles from solar flares 
which appear over the polar regions, and 
he developed the ionospheric models to 
explain the communications blackouts 
that often accompany such events. 

He published more than 50 scientific 
papers. 

In recent studies Dr. Zmuda explained 


that the electrical currents that form the 
outer boundaries of the Van Allen belt 
flow down along lines of the magnetic 
field of the earth to collide with the con- 
stituents of the atmosphere, resulting in 


light emissions described as the Aurora 


Borealis or Northern Lights. 

Dr. Zmuda was a former president of 
the American Geophysical Union’s sec- 
tion on geomagnetism and paleomagne- 
tism. He was. secretary general of the 
World Magnetic Survey Board of the 
International Association of Geomag- 
netism and Aeronomy and was editor of 
the program in 1971. 

He also was a member of the Inter- 
national Scientific Radio Union, Wash- 
ington Academy of Sciences and the 
Philosophical Society. In the early 1960s 
he was a consultant to the geophysics 
panel of the Scientific Board of the Air 
Force. 

He leaves his wife, the former Mar- 
garet Koval; two daughters Carole Ann 
of Silver Spring and Mrs. Mary Alice 
Lutty of the District; his father, Frank 
L.; a sister, Mrs. Ruth O’ Neill of Shen- 
andoah, and three brothers, Robert of 
Kensington, Frank of Rockville and 
Richard, of Hershey, Pa. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Wednesday 
Oct. 9, 1974 
2:30 p.m. 


Wednesday 
Nov. 20, 1974 
1:30 p.m. 


Wednesday 
Dec. 4, 1974 
2-30 p.m. 


Wednesday 
Jan. 15, 1975 
2:30 p.m. 


NOTICE 


1974-1975 


FALL/WINTER PROGRAM 
MAIN AUDITORIUM, ADMINISTRATION BUILDING 


AGRICULTURAL RESEARCH CENTER 
U.S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 
BELTSVILLE, MARYLAND 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Speaker: 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Chemical Signals in the Development of Slime 
Molds 

Dr. John T. Bonner 

Princeton University 

Princeton, New Jersey 


Dr. Philip Handler 
President, National Academy of Sciences 
(topic to be announced) 


The Vitamin D-based Endocrine System 
Dr. Hector F. DeLuca 

University of Wisconsin 

Madison, Wisconsin 


Oxygen Radicals, Oxygen Toxicity and the 
Superoxide Dismutases 

Dr. Irwin Fridovich 

Duke University 

Durham, North Carolina 


Sponsored by 


The Graduate School, U.S. Department of Agriculture 


and 


Beltsville Agricultural Research Center 


1974-1975 BARC OVERVIEW 


A series of seminars designed to acquaint the scientific community with the 
many varied research programs in progress at the Beltsville Agricultural Research 


Center: 


Wednesday 
Sept. 18, 1974 
2:30 p.m. 


Wednesday 
Oct. 30, 1974 
2:30 p.m. 


Wednesday 
Nov. 13, 1974 
2:30 p.m. 


Wednesday 
Dec. 11, 1974 
2:30 p.m. 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Research Activities in the Nutrition Institute 
Dr. Walter Mertz, Chairman, NI 


Research Activities in the Agricultural En- 
vironmental Quality Institute 
Dr. Loran L. Danielson, Chairman, AEQI 


Research Activities in the Agricultural Market- 
ing Research Institute 
Dr. Essex E. Finney, Jr., Chairman, AMRI 


Research Activities in the Plant Physiology 
Institute 
Dr. Harry R. Carns, Chairman, PPI 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 253 


Wednesday 
Jan. 29, 1975 
2:30 p.m: 


Wednesday 
Feb. 12, 1975 
2:30 p.m. 


Wednesday 
March 12, 1975 
2:30 p.m. 


Wednesday 
April 2, 1975 
2:30 p.m. 


Wednesday 
May 7, 1975 
2:30 p.m. 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Topic: 


Speaker: 


Research Activities in the Insect Identification 
and Beneficial Insect Introduction Institute 
Dr. Lloyd K. Knutson, Chairman, IIBII 


Research Activities in the Plant Protection 
Institute 
Dr. Burton Y. Endo, Chairman, PPI 


Research Activities in the Animal Parasitology 
Institute 
Dr. Frank D. Enzie, Chairman, API 


Research Activities in the Animal Physiology 
and Genetics Institute 
Dr. James W. Smith, Chairman, APGI 


Research Activities in the Plant Genetics and 
Germplasm Institute 
Dr. John G. Moseman, Chairman, PGGI 


Directions to Beltsville Agricultural Research Center: take Beltway Exit 27 north (U.S. 
Route 1) and bear right shortly before first traffic signal in order to cross over to west side of 
highway. Administration building is center of group of three buildings facing Route 1. 


254 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


NOTICE 


Make a Contribution to your Academy! 


The Academy’s financial status has been carefully reviewed and the 
Board of Managers has voted to incr2ase the annual dues effective on 
January 1, 1975. The increase to both Fellows and Members is a total of 
$3.00; two of the dollars are a result of increasing the Journal subscription 
and the other is added to the dues. This will make the dues as of January 1, 
1975, for Fellows $18.00 and Members $13.00. 

The increase is necessary to cover the rise in costs for meetings, 
supplies, services and office management. The previous dues increase, 
voted in 1970, was adequate for the first two years but not for 1973 and 
1974. The major contribution to the 1973 deficit was the markedly reduced 
income from our mutual funds. The Board is seeking means to improve 
the investment of the reserve funds. 

The increase in dues wili generate sufficient income to meet 1975's 
anticipated expenses. Meanwhile, the deficit will continue for calendar year 
1974. The Board of Managers, therefore, is asking all Fellows and Members 
for a contribution to relieve the pressure on this year’s budget. The sug- 
gested contribution is $5.00 for Fellows and $2.50 for Members. Your con- 
tribution for any amount can be made by check payable to the Washington 
Academy of Sciences, and can be mailed to the Academy office (see inside 
front cover). 

In addition to the search for improving the income from investments the 
Board has taken measures to reduce expenses, for example, moving the 
office into a smaller space, thus reducing the rent. Cost consciousness 
continues to be a major concern. 

Tear out this page and mail it with your check today. Your contribution 
is tax deductible; the Academy’s Tax Exempt number is 53-0241911. 


Name 


Address 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 255 


THE DIRECTORY OF THE ACADEMY FOR 1974 


Foreword 
The present, 49th issue of the Academy’s direc- 
tory is again this year issued as part of the Septem- 
ber number of the Journal. As in previous years, 
the alphabetical listing is based on a postcard 
questionnaire sent to the Academy membership. 
Members were asked to update the data concerning 


address and membership in affiliated societies by 
June 14, 1974. In cases in which cards were not 
received by that date, the address appears as it was 
used during 1973, and the remaining data were 
taken from the directory for 1973. Corrections 
should be called to the attention of the Academy 
office. 


Code for Affiliated Societies, and Society Officers 


1 The Philosophical Society of Washington (1898) 
President: George E. Hudson, Code 026, Naval Ordnance Lab., Silver Spring, Md. 
20910 


Vice-President: Ralph P. Hudson, NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234 


Secretary: Patricia S. Willis, 2824 W. George Mason Rd., Falls Church, Va. 
22042 
Delegate: George E. Hudson 


2 Anthropological Society of Washington (1898) 
President: Lawrence Angel, Dept. of Anthropology, 

Washington, D.C. 20560 

Philleo Nash, Dépt. of Anthropology, American Univ., Washington, 
D.C. 20016 

Marjorie G. Whiting, 407 Sth St., S.E., Washington, D.C. 

Jean K. Boek, Dir., Div. of Special Studies, National Graduate 
Univ., 3408 Wisconsin Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 


3 Biological Society of Washington (1898) 
President: Joseph Rosewater, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 
Secretary: Richard C. Banks, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 


4 Chemical Society of Washington (1898) 
President: Alfred Weissler, BF 430, FDA, 200 C St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20204 
President-elect: Robert F. Cozzens, George Mason Univ., Dept. of Chemistry, Fairfax, 

Va. 22030 
Noel H. Turner, Naval Res. Lab., Code 6171, Washington, D.C. 20375 
Robert F. Cozzens 


Smithsonian Institution, 
President-elect: 


Secretary: 
Delegate: 


Secretary: 
Delegate: 


5 Entomological Society of Washington (1898) 


President: Barnard D. Burks, 446 Natural History Bldg., Washington, D.C. 20560 
President-elect: H. Ivan Rainwater, 633A Center Bldg. 1, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 
Secretary: Raymond J. Gagné, W616 Natural History Bldg., Washington, D.C. 20560 
Delegate: None appointed 


6 National Geographic Society (1898) 
President: Melvin M. Payne, 17th & M Sts., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 
Vice-President 


& Secretary: Robert E. Doyle, 17th & M Sts., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 


Delegate: Alexander Wetmore, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 
7 Geological Society of Washington (1898) 

President: E. A. Zen, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va. 22092 

Vice-President: Joshua I. Tracey, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va. 22092 

Secretary: David S. Harwood, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va. 22092 

Delegate: Charles Milton, Dept. of Geology, George Washington Univ., Washington, 


D.C. 20005 
8 Medical Society of the District of Columbia (1898) 


President: William S. McCune 
President-elect: Frank S. Bacon 
Secretary: Thomas Sadler 
Delegate: Not appointed 


256 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


Columbia Historical Society (1899) 


President: Hemer T. Rosenberger, 1307 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20036 
Vice-President: Wilcomb E. Washburn, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 
Secretary: Edward F. Gerber, 1233 30th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 
Delegate: Paul H. Oehser, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036 
Botanical Society of Washington (1902) 
President: Charles R. Gunn, USDA, ARS, Beltsville, Md. 20750 
Vice-President: R.W. Read, Smithsonian Institution, Dept. of Botany, Washington, D.C. 
20560 
Secretary: Theodore R. Dudley, U.S. National Arboretum, Washington, D.C. 20225 
Delegate: Conrad B. Link, Dept. of Horticulture, Univ. of Md., College Park, 
Md. 20742 
Society of American Foresters, Washington Section (1904) 
Chairman: Carrow T. Prout, Jr., Soil Conservation Serv., USDA, Washington, 
D.C. 20250 
Chairman-elect: Thomas B. Glazebrook, 7809 Bristow Dr., Annandale, Va. 22003 
Secretary: Murl Storms, 5112 Ampthill Dr., Alexandria, Va. 22313 
Delegate: R. Z. Callaham, 3720 Acosta Rd., Fairfax, Va. 20230 
Washington Society of Engineers (1907) 
President: Thomas P. Meloy, 6715 Electronic Dr., Springfield, Va. 22151 
Vice-President: George Abraham, 3107 Westover Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020 
Secretary: Joseph L. Scott, 140 11th St., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20003 
Delegate: George Abraham 
Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, Washington Section (1912) 
Chairman: Marjorie R. Townsend, 3529 Tilden St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 
Vice-chairman: John J. Kelleher, 3717 King Arthur Rd., Annandale, Va. 22003 
Secretary: Dennis Bodson, 233 N. Columbus St., Arlington, Va. 22203 
Delegate: . Harry Fine, 808 Hyde Ct., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 
American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Washington Section (1923) 
Chairman: Henry M. Curran, Hittman Assoc., Columbia, Md. 21045 
Vice-chairman: Andre H. Gage, PEPCO, 1900 Pennsylvania Ave., N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20006 
Secretary: William H. Walston, Jr., Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of Md., 
College Park, Md. 20742 
Delegate: Michael Chi, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Catholic Univ., 


Washington, D.C. 20017 


Helminthological Society of Washington (1923) 
President: Thomas K. Sawyer, National Marine Fishery Service, Biological Lab., 
Dept. of Commerce, Oxford, Md. 21654 
Vice-President: Robert S. Isenstein, Animal Parasitology Lab., BARC-East, Beltsville, 


Md. 20705 
Secretary: William R. Nickle, Nematology Lab., Plant Protection Inst., BARC-West, 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 
Delegate: James H. Turner, Division of Research Grants, NIH, Bethesda, Md. 
20014 
American Society for Microbiology, Washington Branch (1923) 
President: Lewis F. Affronti, Dept. of Microbiology, The George Washington Univ., 


2300 I St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 
Vice-President: Joseph C. Olson, Jr., NIH, Bethesda, Md. 20014 


Secretary: Charles H. Zierdt, NIH, Bethesda, Md. 20014 
Delegate: Lewis F. Affronti 
Society of American Military Engineers, Washington Post (1927) 
President: Brig. Gen. William Wray, USA, Office Chief of Engineers, Forrestal 


Bldg., Washington, D.C. 20314 
Vice-President: Cdr. Theodore J. Wojnar, USCG, Coast Guard Hdatrs., Attn: (ECV), 
Washington, D.C. 20590 p 


Secretary: Lt. Col. Ancil R. Pressley, USA, Office Chief of Engineers, Forrestal 
Bldg., Washington, D.C. 20314 
Delegate: Cdr. Hal P. Demuth, 4025 Pinebrook Rd., Alexandria, Va. 22310 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 257 


18 American Society of Civil Engineers, National Capital Section (1942) 


President: Floyd D. Peterson, 9627 Hawick Lane, Kensington, Md. 20795 
Vice-President: Philip L. Brach 

Secretary: John B. Roose, 6008 Jennings Lane, Springfield, Va. 22150 
Delegate: Shou Shan Fan, 2313 Glenallen Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20906 


19 Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, D.C. Section (1952) 
President: Benjamin H. Bruckner, Natl. Inst. for Occupational Safety & Health, 
Rm. 3-44, Park Bldg., 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 
President-elect: Leon Prosky, 9521 Cherry Oak Ct., Burke, Va. 22015 
Secretary: Juan Penhos, 5402 Surrey St., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 
Delegate: Donald Flick, 930 S. 19th St., Arlington, Va. 22015 


20 American Society for Metals, Washington Chapter (1953) 
Chairman: Klaus M. Zwilsky, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Washington, D.C. 20545 
Vice-chairman: Alan H. Rosenstein, Air Force Office of Scientific Res., 1400 Wilson 
Blvd., Arlington, Va. 22209 
Secretary: Joseph Malz, NASA, Code RWM, Washington, D.C. 20546 
Delegate: Glen W. Wensch, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Washington, D.C. 20545 


21 International Association for Dental Research, Washington, Section (1953) 


President: F.A. San Filippo, Dental Corps, U.S. Army, Ft. Belvoir, Va. 22060 

President-elect: Robert W. Longton, NMRI, Bethesda, Md. 20014 

Secretary: W.H. Bowen, Extramural Programs, NIDR, Westwood Bldg., Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 

Delegate: N.H.C. Griffiths, Howard Univ., College of Dentistry, Washington, 
D:G:; 20001 * 


22 American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Capital Section (1953) 
President: Philip R. Compton, 6303 Mori St., McLean, Va. 22101 
Vice-President: Jack Suddreth, Code RLC/Aero. Prop. Div., NASA Headquarters, 
Washington, D.C. 20546 


Secretary: Paul M. Burris, The Boeing Co., 955 L’Enfant Plaza North, S.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20024 
Delegate: Franklin J. Ross, Deputy for Rqmts., Off. Asst. Sec. of A.F., The 


Pentagon, Rm. 4E973, Washington, D.C. 20330 


23 American Meteorological Society, D.C. Chapter (1954) 


Chairman: Clifford J. Murino, National Science Foundation 
Vice-chairman: James K. Angell, ESSA 

Secretary: Mary Ann Ruzecki, ESSA 

Delegate: None appointed 


24 Insecticide Society of Washington (1959) 
President: Richard J. Daum, Federal Bldg., USDA, APHIS, PPQ, Rm. 602, 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 
President-elect: Richard C. Back, Union Carbide Corp., Suite 1250, 1730 Pa. Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006 


Secretary: John W. Neal, USDA, ARS, PGGI, Bldg. 467-C, ARS-East, Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 
Delegate: Robert J. Argauer, USDA, ARS, AEQI, ARC-East, Bldg. 309, Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 
25 Acoustical Society of America (1959) 
Chairman: John A. Molino, Sound Section, NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234 
Vice-chairman: Charles T. Molloy, 2400 Claremont Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22043 
Secretary: William K. Blake, Naval Ship R&D Ctr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 
Delegate: Gerald J. Franz, 9638 Culver St., Kensington, Md. 20795 
26 American Nuclear Society, Washington Section (1960) 
Chairman: Oscar M. Bizzell, Atomic Energy Comm. 
Vice-chairman: Justin L. Bloom, Atomic Energy Comm. 
Secretary: Leslie S. Ayres, Arms Control & Disarmament Agency 
Delegate: None appointed 


258 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


27 


29 


31 


32 


33 


35 


Institute of Food Technologists, Washington Section (1961) 


Chairman: Tannous Khalil, Giant Foods, Inc., Landover, Md. 20785 
Vice-chairman: Florian C. Majorack, Food & Drug Adm., Washington, D.C. 20204 
Secretary: Glenn V. Brauner, National Canners Assoc., Washington, D.C. 20036 
Delegate: William Sulzbacher, 8527 Clarkson Dr., Fulton, Md. 20759 
American Ceramic Society, Baltimore-Washington Section (1962) 
Chairman: W. T. Bakker, General Refractories Co., P.O. Box 1673, Baltimore, 
Md. 21203 


Chairman-elect: L. Biller, Glidden-Dirkee Div., SCM Corp., 3901 Hawkins Point Rd., 
; Baltimore, Md. 21226 


Secretary: Edwin E. Childs, J. E. Baker Co., 232 E. Market St., York, Pa. 
17405 
Delegate: None appointed 
Electrochemical Society, National Capital Section (1963) 
Chairman: Murray Rosen, Naval Res. Lab., 4555 Overlook Ave., S.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20390 
First Vice- 
chairman: Judith Ambrus, Naval Ordnance Lab., White Oak, Md. 20910 
Secretary: David Flynn, Naval Res. Lab., 4555 Overlook Ave., S.E., Washington, 
D.C. 20390 
Delegate: David Schlain, P.O. Box 348, College Park, Md. 20740 
Washington History of Science Club (1965) 
Chairman: Richard G. Hewlett, Atomic Energy Comm. 
Vice-chairman: Deborah Warner, Smithsonian Institution 
Secretary: Dean C. Allard 
Delegate: None appointed 
American Association of Physics Teachers, Chesapeake Section (1965) 
President: William Logan, D.C. Teachers College, 2565 Georgia Ave., Washington, 
D.C. 20001 


Vice-President: Eugenie V. Mielczarek, George Mason Univ., 4400 University Dr., 
Fairfax, Va. 22030 


Secretary: John B. Newman, Towson State College, Towson, Md. 21204 
Delegate: Bernard B. Watson, 6108 London Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20034 
Optical Society of America, National Capital Section (1966) 

President: Irving H. Malitson, NBS, Physics 266-A, Washington, D.C. 20234 

Vice-President: Barton J. Howell, Code 941, Goddard Space Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, 
Md. 20771 

Secretary: William B. Fussell, NBS, Physics, 203-A, Washington, D.C. 20234 

Delegate: Irving Malitson 


American Society of Plant Physiologists, Washington Section (1966) 
President: William R. Krul, USDA, Plant Hormone & Reg. Lab., Plant Industry 
Station, Beltsville, Md. 20705 
Vice-President: Bert Drake, Smithsonian Radiation Biology Lab., 12441 Parklawn Dr., 
Rockville, Md. 20852 


Secretary: Aref Abdul-baki, USDA, Admin. Bldg., Agr. Res. Ctr., W., Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 
Delegate: W. Shropshire, Jr., Smithsonian Radiation Biology Lab., 12441 Parklawn 


Dr., Rockville, Md. 20852 
Washington Operations Research Council (1966) 


President: Donald Gross, The George Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 20005 

President-elect: Frank Trippi, Naval Facilities Eng. Command, Alexandria, Va. 22313 

Secretary: Craig C. Sherbrooke, 8413 Kingsgate Rd., Potomac, Md. 20854 

Delegate: John G. Honig, 7701 Glenmore Spring Way, Bethesda, Md. 20034 
Instrument Society of America, Washington Section (1967) 

President: Francis C. Quinn 

President-elect: John I. Peterson 

Secretary: Frank L. Carou 

Delegate: None appointed 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 259 


36 


37 


38 


39 


260 


American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical & Petroleum Engineers (1968) 
Chairman: Robert W. Ageton, Securities & Exchange Comm., 500 N. Capitol-St., 
Washington, D.C. 
Vice-Chairman: William L. Lennemann, AEC, Washington, D.C. 20545 


Secretary: Reno Masiello, Southern Railway System, P.O. Box 1808, Washington, 
D.C. 20013 
Delegate: None appointed 
National Capital Astronomers (1969) 
President: John A. Eisele, 3310 Curtis Dr., No. 202, Hillcrest Heights, Md. 20023 
Vice-President: Henning E. Leidecker, 4811 Avondale Rd., Washington, D.C. 20018 
Secretary: Estelle Finkle, 939 26th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 
Delegate: John A. Eisele, 3310 Curtis Dr., No. 202, Hillcrest Heights, Md. 20023 
Maryland-District of Columbia and Virginia Section of Mathematical Assoc. of America (1971) 
Chairman: Geraldine A. Coon, Goucher College, Baltimore, Md. 
Secretary: John Smith, George Mason College, Fairfax, Va. 
Delegate: None appointed 
D.C. Institute of Chemists (1973) 
President: Kelso B. Morris, 1448 Leegate Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20012 
President-elect: Leo Schubert, 8521 Beech Tree Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 
Secretary: Fred D. Ordway, 2816 Fall Jax Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22042 
Delegate: Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr., 1703 Mark Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


| 


Alphabetical List of Members 


M = Member; F = Fellow; E = Emeritus member. Numbers in parentheses refer to numerical code in 


foregoing list of affiliated societies. 


A 


AARONSON, STUART A., 1006 Harrison St., 
Great Falls, Va. 22066 (F) 

ABELSON, PHILIP H., President, Carnegie In- 
stitution of Washington, 1530 P St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20005 (F-1, 4, 7, 16) 

ABRAHAM, GEORGE, Ph.D., 3107 Westover Dr., 
S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020 (F-1, 6, 12, 13, 
31, 32) 

ACHTER, M. R., Code 6306, U.S. Naval Research 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-20, 36) 
ADAMS, CAROLINE L., 242 North Granada St., 

Arlington, Va. 22203 (E-10) 

ADAMS, ELLIOT Q., 1889 Edgewood Dr., Twins- 
berg, Ohio 44087 (E) 

ADLER, SANFORD C., 14238 Briarwood Terr., 
Rockville, Md. 20853 (M-1) 

ADLER, VICTOR E., 8540 Pineway Crt., Laurel, 
Md. 20810 (M-5, 24) 

ADRIAN, FRANK J., Ph.D., Applied Physics 
Lab., The Johns Hopkins Univ., 8621 Georgia 
Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F) 

AFFRONTI, LEWIS, Ph.D., Dept. of Microbiology, 
George Washington Univ. Sch. of Med., 
2300 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 
(F-16) 

AHEARN, ARTHUR J., Ph.D., 9€21 East Bexhill 
Dr., Box 294, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-1) 

AKERS, ROBERT P., Ph.D., 9912 Silverbrook Dr., 
Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-6) 

ALBUS, JAMES S., 6100 Westchester, 1406, Col- 
lege Park Md. 20740 (F) 

ALDRICH, JOHN W., Ph.D., 6324 Lakeview Dr., 
Fails Church, Va. 22041 (F-3) 

ALDRIDGE, MARY H., Ph.D., Dept. of Chemistry, 
American University, Washington, D.C. 20016 
(F-4) 


ALEXANDER, ALLEN L., Ph.D., 4216 Sleepy 


Hollow Rd., Annandale, Va. 22003 (F-4) 
ALEXANDER, BENJAMIN H., Ph.D., 2522 S. 
Dakota Ave., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20018 
(F-4) 
ALGERMISSEN, S. T., 3355 Heidelburg Dr., 
Boulder, Colo. 80303 (F) 


ALLEN, ANTON M., 11718 Lakeway Dr., Manas- 


sas, Va. 22110 (F) 

ALLEN, D. J. FRANCES, Ph.D., 7507 23rd Ave., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20783 (F) 

ALLEN, WILLIAM G., 8306 Custer Rd., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F-14) 

ALTER, HARVEY, Ph.D., Nat. Center for Re- 
source Recovery, Inc., 1211 Connecticut 
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (F) 

ALTMAN, PHILIP L., 9206 Ewing Dr., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (M) 

AMIRIKIAN, ARSHAM, Sc.D., 6526 Western Ave., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-17, 18) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


ANDERSON, FRENCH, Nat. Heart & Lung Inst., 
Nat. Inst. Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

ANDERSON, MYRON S., Ph.D., 1433 Manchester 
Lane, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-4) 

ANDERSON, WENDELL L., Rural Rt. 2, Box 
2069G, La Plata, Md. 20646 (F-4) 

ANDREWS, JOHN S., Sc.D., Animal Parasitology 
Inst., ARS, Beltsville Agr. Res. Ctr. East, 
USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-15) 

ANDRUS, EDWARD D., 1600 Rhode Island Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (M-7, 25) 

APPEL, WILLIAM D., B.S., 12416 Regent Ave., 
N.E., Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87112 (E-6) 

APSTEIN, MAURICE, Ph.D., 4611 Maple Ave., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-13) 

APOSTOLOU, GEORGIA L., 1001 Rockville Pike, 
#424, Rockville, Md. 20852 (M) 

ARGAUER, ROBERT J., Ph.D., 4208 Everett St., 
Kensington, Md. 20795 (F) 

ARMSTRONG, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 1401 Dale Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1, 4, 6) 

ARNOLD KIETH, Ph.D., 6303 Cedell St., Camp 
Springs, Md. 20031 (F) 

ARONSON, C. J., 3401 Oberon St., Kensington, 
Md. 20910 (M-1, 32) 

ARSEM, COLLINS, 10821 Admirals Way, Po- 
tomac, Md. 20854 (M-1, 6, 13) 

ASLAKSON, CARL |., 5707 Wilson Lane, Be- 
thesda, Md. 20034 (E-1, 6, 12, 18) 

ASTIN, ALLEN V., Ph.D., 5008 Battery Lane, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 13, 22, 31, 35) 
AXILROD, BENJAMIN M., 9915 Marquette Dr., 

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1) 
AYENSU, EDWARD S., Ph.D., 103 G St., N.W., 
#B219, Washington, D.C. 20024 (F-3, 10) 


BAKER, ARTHUR A., Ph.D., 5201 Westwood Dr., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-7) 

BAKER, DONALD J., 9913 Edgehill La., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (M) 

BAKER, LOUIS C.W., Ph.D., Dept of Chemistry, 
Georgetown University, N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20007 (F-4) 

BALLARD, L. DOUGLAS, 722 So. Colonial, Ster- 
ling, Va. 22170 (F-1, 13, 32) 

BARBROW, LOUISE., Natl. Bureau of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 13, 32) 

BARGER, GERALD L., Ph.D., 209 W. Bayou Dr., 
Dickinson, Tex. 77539 (F-23) 

BARNHART, CLYDE S., Sr., Rt. 4, Box 207A, 
Athens, Ohio 45701 (F) 

BARRETT, MORRIS K., Mrs., Ph.D., 5528 John- 
son Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-6) 

BASS, ARNOLD M., Ph.D., 11920 Coldstream Dr., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-1, 32) 


261 


-BEACH, LOUIS A., Ph.D., 1200 Waynewood 
Blvd., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-1, 6) 

BEACHAM, LOWRIE M., Jr., U.S. Food and Drug 
Admin., Rm. 3171, South Bldg., USDA, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20250 (F-4, 27) 


BEACHEM, CEDRIC D., Code 6313 Metallurgy 


Div., Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 
20375 (F-6, 20, 36) 

BEASLEY, EDWARD E., Ph.D., Physics Dept., 
Gallaudet College, Washington, D.C. 20002 
(F-1) 

BECKER, EDWIN D., Inst. Arthritis & Metabolic 
Dis., National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 (F-4) 

BECKETT, CHARLES W., 5624 Madison St., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 4) 

BECKMANN, ROBERT B., Dean, College of 
Engineering, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 
20742 (F-4, 39) 

BEDINI, SILVIO A., 4303 47th St., N.W., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20016 (F) 

BElJ, K. HILDING, B.S., 69 Morningside Dr., 
Laconia, N.H. 03246 (F-1) 

BEKKEDAHL, NORMAN, Ph.D., 405 N. Ocean 
Bivd., Apt. 1001, Pompano Beach, Fla. 33062 
(E-4, 6) 

BELLANTI, JOSEPH A., 4105 Dunnell Lane, 
Kensington, Md. 20795 (F) 

BELSHEIM, ROBERT, Ph.D., Code 8403, U.S. 
Naval Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 
(F-1, 12, 14) 

BENDER, MAURICE, Ph.D., CHP Council of 
Spokane Co., W 933 3rd, Suite 206, Spokane, 
Wash. 99204 (F) 

BENESCH, WILLIAM, Ph.D., Inst. for Molecular 
Physics, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 
20742 (F-1, 32) 

BENJAMIN, C. R., Ph.D., 1|O/AGR, Dept. of State, 
Washington, D.C., 20520 (F-10) 

BENNETT, BRADLEY F., 3301 Macomb St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F) 

BENNETT, JOHN A., 7405 Denton Rd., Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 (F-20) 

BENNETT, MARTIN TOSCAN, 3700 Mt. Vernon 
Ave., Rm. 605, Alexandria, Va. 22305 (F-4) 

BENNETT, WILLARD H., Dept. of Physics, North 
Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, N.C. 27207 (F) 

BENSON, WILLIAM, 2101 Constitution Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418 (M) 

BERCH, JULIAN, 2100 Washington Ave., #10B, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E-4) 

BERGMANN, OTTO, Institut fur Theoretische 
Physik, Der Univ. Wien, A-1090, Buldzmann- 
gasse 5, Austria (F) 

BERLINER, ROBERT W., M.D., Dean, Yale U. 

Sch. of Med., New Haven, Conn. 06510 (F) 

BERNSTEIN, BERNARD, 11404 Rouen Dr., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (M-25) 

BERNTON, HARRY S., M.D., 4000 Cathedral Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-8) 

BEROZA, MORTON, Ph.D., Agr. Res. Center (E), 
Rm. 313A, Bidg. 306, USDA, Beltsville, Md. 
20705 (F-4, 5, 19, 24) 

BERRY, ARNEICE O., 5108 Hayes St., N.E., 
Wash., D.C. 20019 (F) 


262 


BESTUL, ALDEN B., 9400 Overlea Ave., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20850 (F-1, 6) 

BICKLEY, WILLIAM E., Ph.D., Dept of En- 
tomology, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 
20742 (F-5, 24) 

BIRD, H. R., Animal Science Bg., Univ. of Wis- 
consin, Madison, Wisc. 53706 (F) 

BIRKS, L. S., Code 6680, U.S. Naval Research 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F) 

BLAKE, DORIS H., M.A., 3416 Glebe Rd., North, 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-5) 

BLANK, CHARLES A., Ph.D., 5110 Sideburn Rd., 
Fairfax, Va. 22030 (M-6) 

BLOCK, STANLEY, Ph.D., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 
BLUNT, ROBERT F., 5411 Moorland Lane, 

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

BOEK, JEAN K., Ph.D., Dir., Div. of Special 
Studies, Natl. Graduate Univ., 3408 Wis- 
consin Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C: 2001 
(F-2) 

BOGLE, ROBERT W., Code 5307B, Naval Res. 
Lab., 4555 Overlook Dr., Wash., D.C. 20390 
(F) 

BONDELID, ROLLONO., Ph.D., Code 6610, Naval 
Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F) 

BORTHWICK, HARRY A., Ph.D., 13700 Creekside 
Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (E-10, 33) 

BOTBOL, JOSEPH M., 2301 November La., 
Reston, Va. 22901 (F) 

BOWLES, ROMALD E., Ph.D., 2105 Sondra Ct., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-6, 22) 

BOWMAN, PAUL W., 3114 5th St. N., Arlington, 
Va. 22201 (F) . 

BOWMAN, THOMAS E., Ph.D., Div. of Crustacea, 
U.S. Nat. Mus. Nat. Hist., Smithsonian Inst., 
Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-3) 

BOZEMAN, F. MARILYN, Div. of Virol., Bur. of 
Biol., Food & Drug Admin., 5600 Fishers 
La., Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-16, 19) 

BRANCATO, E. L., Code 4004, U.S. Naval 
Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F) 

BRANDEWIE, DONALD F., 6811 Field Master Dr., 
Springfield, Va. 22153 (F) 

BRAUER, G. M., Dental Research A-123 Polymer, 
Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 

_ 20234 (F-4, 21) 

BRECKENRIDGE, R. G., 19252 Kinzie St., North- 
ridge, Calif. 91324 (F) 

BREGER, IRVING A., Ph.D., 212 Hillsboro Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4, 6,-7) 

BREIT, GREGORY, Ph.D., 73 Allenhurst Rd., 
Buffalo, N.Y. 14214 (E) 

BRENNER, ABNER, Ph.D., 7204 Pomander Lane, 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 6, 29) 

BREWER, CARL R., Ph.D., 8113 Lilly Stone Dr., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-16) 

BRICKWEDDE, F. G., Ph.D., 6 Osmond Lab., 
Dept. of Physics, Penn. State Univ., University 
Park, Pa. 16802 (F-1) 

BRIER, GLENN W., M.A., 1729 N. Harrison St., 
Arlington, Va. 22205 (F-23) 

BROADHURST, MARTIN G., Ph.D., 504 Calvin 
Lane, Rockville, Md. 20851 (F) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


BROMBACHER, W. G., 6914 Ridgewood Ave., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E-1) 

BROOKS, RICHARD C., M.S.E., 6221 N. 12th 
St., Arlington, Va. 22205 (M-13, 34) 

BROWN, EDWARD H., 1301 Delaware Ave., S.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20024 (M) 

BROWN, RUSSELL G., Dept. of Botany, Univ. 
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F-10) 

Brown, THOMAS McP., 2465 Army-Navy Dr., 
Arlington, Va. 22206 (F) 

BRUBAKER, GERALD L., Ph.D., 1123 Powhatan 
St., Alexandria, Va. 22314 (M-4) 

BRUCK, STEPHEN D., Ph.D., 1113 Pipestem PI., 
Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-4, 6) 

BRYAN, MILTON M., 3322 N. Glebe Rad., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (M-11) 

BURAS, EDMUND M., Jr., Gillette Research Inst., 
1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 
(F-4, 39) 

BURGER, ROBERT J., (USAF Ret.) 5307 Chester- 
field Dr., Camp Springs, Md. 20031 (F-22) 

BURGERS, J. M., D.M.P.S., 4622 Knox Road, 
Apt. 7, College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1) 

BURK, DEAN, 4719 44th St., Washington, D.C. 
20016 (F) 

BURKE, KENNETH S., 310 Souder Rd., Bruns- 
wick, Md. 21716 (M-25) 

BURNETT, H. C., Metallurgy Division, Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F) 

BYERLY, PERRY, Ph.D., 5340 Broadway Terr., 
#401, Oakland, Calif. 94618 (F) 

BYERLY, T. C., 6-J Ridge Rd., Greenbelt, Md. 
20774 (F) 


C 


CALDWELL, FRANK R., 4821 47th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 6) 

CALDWELL, JOSEPH M., 2732 N. Kensington 
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-18) 

CALLAHAM, ROBERT Z., Ph.D., 3720 Acosta 
Rd., Fairfax, Va. 22030 (F-11) 

CAMERON, JOSEPH M., A345 Physics Bldg., 
Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1) 

CAMPAGNONE, ALFRED F., P.E., 9321 Warfield 
Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F) 

CAMPBELL, F. L., Ph.D., 2475 Virginia Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-5, 24) 

CANNON, E. W., 5 Vassar Circle, Glen Echo, 
Md. 20768 (F) 

CAREY, FRANCIS E., 12 N. Edison St., Arlington, 
Va. 22203 (F) 

CARHART, HOMER W., Ph.D., 6919 Lee Place, 
Annandale, Va. 22003 (F-1, 6) 

CARNS, HARRY R., Bldg. 001, Beltsville Agr. 
Res. Ctr., Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M) 

CARROLL, KAREN E., 11565 N. Shore Dr., 
#21A, Reston, Va. 22090 (F) 

CARROLL, WILLIAM R., 4802 Broad Brook 
Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


CARTER, HUGH, 2039 New Hampshire Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (F) 

CASH, EDITH K., Box 44, Nineveh, N.Y., 13813 
(E-10) 

CASSEL, JAMES M., Ph.D., 12205 Sunnyview 
Dr., Germantown, Md. 20767 (F-4, 20) 

CATHEY, HENRY M., 1817 Bart Dr., Silver Spring, 
Md. 20904 (F-33) 

CHALKLEY, HAROLD W., Ph.D., 4609 Highland 
Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-19) 

CHANEY, JAMES G., Rt. 2, Box 232L, Sotterley 
Hghts., Hollywood, Md. 20636 (M) 

CHAPLIN, HARVEY P., Jr., 1561 Forest Villa 
Lane, McLean, Va. 22101 (F-22) 

CHAPLINE, W. R., 4225 43rd St., N.W., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20016 (E-6, 10, 11) 

CHEEK, CONRAD H., Ph.D., Code 8330, U.S. 
Naval Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 
(2) 

CHEZEM, CURTIS G., Ph.D., Mgr., Nuclear 
Activities, Middle South Services, Box 61000, 
New Orleans, La. 70161 (F-26) 

CHI, MICHAEL, Civil-Mechanical Engineering 
Dept., Catholic Univ., Washington, D.C. 20017 
(F) 

CHOPER, JORDAN J., 121 Northway, Greenbelt, 
Md. 20770 (F) 

CHRISTIAN, ERMINE A., 7802 Lakecrest Dr., 
Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (M-1, 25) 

CHURGH? -LEOYD:E., De.D» S:,..PhiDy 8218 
Wisconsin Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1) 

CLAIRE, CHARLES N., 4403 14th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-1, 12) 

CLARK, FRANCIS E., ARS Research Lab., P.O. 
Box E, Ft. Collins, Colo. 80521 (F) 

CLARK, GEORGE E., Jr., 4022 North Stafford 
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F) 

CLARK, JOAN ROBINSON, Ph.D., U.S. Geologi- 
cal Survey, Stop 906, 12201 Sunrise Valley 
Dr., Reston, Va. 22092 (F-7) 

CLARK, KENNETH G., Ph.D., 4816 46th St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-4) 

CLAUSEN, CURTIS P., University of Calif., River- 
side, Calif. 92507 (E-5) 

CLEEK, GIVEN W., 5512 N. 24th St., Arlington, 
Va. 22205 (M-4, 28, 32) 

CLEMENT, J. REID, Jr., 3410 Weltham St., 
Suitland, Md. 20023 (F) 

CLEVEN, GALE W., Ph.D., 201 Ocean Ave., 
#1109-B, Santa Monica, Calif. 90402 (F-1, 6) 

COHN, ROBERT, M.D., 7221 Pyle Rd., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F-1) 

COLE, KENNETH S., Ph.D., National Institutes 
of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1) 

COLLINS, HENRY B., Dept. Anthropology, 
Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560 
(E-2) 

COLWELL, R. R., Ph.D., Dept. of Microbiology, 
Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 
(F-6, 16) 

COMPTON, W. DALE, Executive Dir., Sci. Res. 
Staff, Ford Motor Co., P.O. Box 2053, Dear- 
born, Mich. 48121 (F) 

CONGER, PAUL S., M.S., U.S. National Museum, 
Washington, D.C. 20560 (E) 


263 


CONNORS, PHILIP |., Dept. of Physics & 
Astronomy, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, 
Md. 20742 (F) 

CONRATH, BARNEY J., 3804 Irongate La., 
Bowie, Md. 20715 (F) 

COOK, HAROLD T., Ph.D., Box 303, Rt. 3, 
Edgewater, Md. 21037 (E-10) 

COOK, RICHARD K., Ph.D., Rm. B-214-Physics, 
Natl. Bur. Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 
(F-1, 25) 

COOLIDGE, HAROLD J., 38 Standley St., 
Beverly, Maine 01915 (E-6) 

COOLIDGE, WILLIAM D., 1480 Lenox Rad., 
Schenectady, N.Y. 12308 (F) 

COONS, GEORGE H., Ph.D., 7415 Oak Lane, 
Chevy Chase, Md., 20015 (E-10) 

COOPER, G. ARTHUR, U.S. Natl. 
Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-7) 

CORLISS, EDITH L. R., 2955 Albemarle St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F) 

CORLISS, JOHN O., 9512 E. Stanhope Rad., 
Kensington, Md. 20795 (F) 

CORLISS, JOSEPH J., 6618 Bellview Dr., 
Columbia, Md. 21046 (M) 

CORNFIELD, JEROME, G.W.U. Biostat-Ctr., 7979 
Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

CORY, ERNEST N., Ph.D., 4710 College Ave., 
College Park, Md. 20742 (E-5, 24) 

COSTRELL, LOUIS, Chief 241. 02, Natl. Bureau 
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 
13) 

COTTAM, C., Welder Wildlife Foundation, Box 
1400, Sinton, Texas 78387 (F-3, 6) 

COX, EDWIN L., DSAD, ARS, Bg. 226, Ag. Res. 
Center (E), Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-6) 

COYLE, THOMAS D., National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6) 

CRAFT, CHARLES C. USDA, ARS, Market Quality 
Res., % Boyden Lab., U.C.R., P.O. Box 
112, Riverside, Calif. 92502 (F) 

CRAFTON, PAUL A., P.O. Box 454, Rockville, 
Md. 20850 (F) 

CRAGOE, CARL S., 6206 Sengleton Place, 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-1) 

CRANE, LANGDON T., Jr., 7103 Oakridge Ave., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1) 

CREITZ, E. CARROLL, 10145 Cedar Lane, Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (E-32) 

CROSSETTE, GEORGE, 4217 Glenrose St., Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (M-6, 9, 11, 17) 
CULBERT; “DOROTHY (Ki 812. “A..St., 

Washington, D.C. 20003 (M-6) 

CULLINAN, FRANK P., 4402 Beechwood Rad., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-6, 10, 33) 

CULVER, WILLIAM H., Opticom, 3600 M St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 (M) 

CURRAN, HAROLD R., Ph.D., 3431 N. Randolph 
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-16) 

CURRIE, CHARLES L., SJ., Wheeling Coll., 
Wheeling, W. Va. 26003 (F-4) 

CURTIS, ROGER W., Ph.D., 6308 Valley Rd., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

CURTISS, LEON F., 1690 Bayshore Drive, Eng- 
lewood, Fla. 33533 (E-1) 


Museum, 


S.E3 


264 


CUTHILL, JOHN R., Ph.D., 12700 River Rd., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-20, 36) 

CUTKOSKY, ROBERT DALE, 19150 Roman Way, 
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-6, 13) 

CUTTITTA, FRANK, 12911 Bluhill Rd., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20906 (F-4, 6, 7) 


D 


DARRACOTT, HALVORT., M.S., 3325 Mansfield 
Rd., Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F-13) 

DAVENPORT, JAMES C., Virginia State College, 
Petersburg, Va. 23803 (M) 

DAVIS, CHARLES M., Jr., 8458 Portland Place, 
McLean, Virginia 22101 (M-25) 

DAVIS, MARION MACLEAN, M.M.D., 5315 29th 
St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-4, 6) 
DAVIS, R. F., Ph.D., Chairman, Dept. of Dairy 
Science, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, 

Md. 20742 (F) 

DAVIS, RAYMOND, 5315 29th St., N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20015 (E-1, 4) 

DAVISSON, JAMES W., Ph.D., 400 Cedar Ridge 
Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20021 (F-1) 

DAWSON, ROY C., Ph.D., 7002 Chansory La., 
College Hgts. Estates, Md. 20782 (E-16) 

DAWSON, VICTOR C. D., 9406 Curran Road, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-6, 14, 20, 22) 

DE BERRY, MARIAN B., 3608 17th St., N.E., 
Washington, D.C. 20018 (M) 

DE PUE, LELAND A., Ph.D., Code 2303.3, Naval 
Res. Lab., Washington D.C. 20375 (F-6, 20) 

DE VOE, JAMES R., 17708 Parkridge Dr., Gai- 
thersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4, 6) 

De WIT, ROLAND, Metallurgy Division, Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1, 6, 36) 

DEDRICK, ROBERT L., Natl. Insts. of Health, 
Bldg. 13, Rm. 3W13, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

DEITZ, VICTOR R., 3310 Winnett Rd., Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20016 (F-28) 

DELANEY, WAYNE R., The Wyoming Apts., 111, 
2022 Columbia Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20009 (M-6, 20, 22, 32) ~ 

DEMUTH, HAL P., MSEE, 4025 Pinebrook Rad., 
Alexandria, Va. 22310 (F-13, 17) 

DENNINGHAM, ROBERT L., 321 Terrell Ave., 
Forest Heights, Md. 20021 (M) 

DENNIS, BERNARD K., 915 Country Club Dr., 
Vienna, Va. 22180 (F) 

DERKSEN, WILLARD L., 11235 Oak Leaf Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M) 

DESLATTES, RICHARD D., Jr., Ph.D., 610 Aster 
Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F) 

DETWILER, ROBERT H., M.D., 5027 N. 30th 
St., Arlington, Va. 22210 (M) 

DETWILER, SAMUEL B., Jr., 631 S. Walter 
Reed Dr., Arlington, Va. 22204 (F-4, 39) 

DEVIN, CHARLES, Jr., 629 Blossom Dr., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20850 (M-25) 

Di MARZIO, E. A., Ph.D., 14205 Parkvale Rd., 
Rockville, Md. 20853 (F) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


DIACHOK, OREST L., 6038 Richmond Hwy., 
Alexandria, Va. 22303 (M) 

DIAMOND, J. J., Physics B-150, Natl. Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 4, 
6, 28) 

DIAMOND, PAULINE, 6436 Bannockburn Dr., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 4, 28) 

DICKSON, GEORGE, M.A., Dental Research Sec- 
tion, National Bureau of Standards, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20234 (F-6, 21) 

DIEHL, WALTER S., 4501 Lowell St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-22) 

DIEHL, WILLIAM W., Ph.D., 1512 N. McKinley 
Rd., Arlington, Va. 22205 (E-3, 10) 

DIGGES, THOMAS G., 3900 N. Albemarie St., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-20) 

DIMOCK, DAVID A., 4800 Berwyn House Rad., 
#114, College Park, Md. 20740 (M) 

DOCTOR, NORMAN, B.S., 3814 Littleton St., 
Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F-13) 

DOFT, FLOYDS., Ph.D., 6416 Garnet Drive, Ken- 
wood, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6, 19) 

DONNERT, HERMANN J., Ph.D., Dept. Nuclear 
Engineering, Kansas State Univ., Manhattan, 
Kans. 66506 (F) 

DONOVICK, RICHARD, 16405 Alden Ave., Gai- 
thersburg, Md. 20760 (F-6, 16, 19) 

DOUGLAS, CHARLES A., Sec. 21211 Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1, 6, 32) 

DOUGLAS, THOMAS B., Ph.D., 3031 Sedgwick 
St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-4) 

DRAEGER, R. HAROLD, M.D., 1201 N. 4th Ave., 
Tucson, Ariz. 85705 (E-32) 

DRECHSLER, CHARLES, Ph.D., 6915 Oakridge 
Rd., University Park (Hyattsville), Md. 20782 
(E-6, 10) 

Du PONT, JOHN ELEUTHERE, Newton Square, 
Pennsylvania 19073 (M) 

DUPRE, ELSIE, Mrs., Code 5536 A Optical 
Sci. Div., Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 
20390 (F-32) 

DUERKSEN, J. A., 3134 Monroe St., 
Washington, D.C. 20018 (E-1, 6) 

DUNKUM, WILLIAM W., 256 Burgess Ave., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22305 (F) 

DUNN, JOSEPH P., 14721 Flintstone La., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20904 (M) 

DUNNING, K. L., Ph.D., Code 6670, Naval Res. 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-1) 

DURIE, EDYTHE G., 5011 Larno Dr., Alexandria, 
Va. 22310 (M) 

DURST, RICHARD A., Ph.D., Chemistry Bldg., 
Rm. A219, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 


E 


EASTER, DONALD, 1405 N. Cleveland St., Arling- 
ton, Va. 22201 (M) 

ECKHARDT, E. A., Ph.D., 840 12th St., Oakmont, 
Allegheny County, Pa. 15139 (E-1) 

EDDY, BERNICE W., Ph.D., 6722 Selkirk Ct., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-6, 16, 19) 


N.E., 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


EDERER, DAVID L., Far U V Physics Section, 
Rm. A251, Bldg. 221, National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-32) 

EDMUNDS, LAFE R., Ph.D., 6003 Leewood Dr., 
Alexandria, Va. 22310 (F-5) 

EGOLF, DONALD R., 14600 Cambridge .Dr., 
Upper Marlboro, Md. 20870 (F-10) 

EISELE, JOHN A., 3310 Curtis Dr., #202, Hill- 
crest Hghts., Md. 20023 (F) 

EISENBERG, PHILLIP, 6402 Tulsa La., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (M-14, 22, 25) 

EISENHART, CHURCHILL, Ph.D., MET B-268, 
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-1, 30) 

EL-BISI, HAMED M., Ph.D., 1017 Aponi Rd., 
Vienna, Va. 22180 (M-16) 

ELBOURN, ROBERT D., 8221 Hamilton Spring 
Ct., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 13) 

ELLINGER, GEORGE A., 739 Kelly Dr., York, Pa. 
17404 (E-6) 

ELLIOTT, F. E., 7507 Grange Hall Dr., Oxon 
Hill, Md. 20022 (F) 

EMERSON, K. C., Ph.D., 2704 N. Kensington 
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F-3, 5, 6) 

EMERSON, W. B., 415 Aspen St., N.W., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20012 (E) 

ENNIS, W. B., Jr., 4011 College Hgts. Dr., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F) 

ETZEL, HOWARD W., 7304 River Hill 
Washington, D.C. 20021 (F) 

EWERS, JOHN C., 4432 26th Rd., N, Arlington, 
Va. 22207 (F-2) 


Rd., 


= 


FAHEY, JOSEPH J., U.S. Geological Survey, 
Washington, D.C. 20242 (E-4, 6, 7) 

FALLON, ROBERT, 8251 Toll House Rd., Annan- 
dale, Va. 22003 (F) 

FARROW, RICHARD P., National Canners Assn., 
1133 20th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 
(F-4, 6, 27) 

FAULKNER, JOSEPH A., 1007 Sligo Creek Pky., 
Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (F-6) 

FAUST, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 9907 Capitol View 
Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-7, 31) 

FAUST, WALTER L., Ph.D., U.S. Naval Res. Lab., 
Code 6510, Washington, D.C. 20375 (M) 

FAUST, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 5907 Walnut St., 
Temple Hills, Md. 20031 (F-1, 6) 

FEARN, JAMES E., Ph.D., Materials & Com- 
posites Sec., Natl. Bureau of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 

FELDMAN, SAMUEL, NKF Engrg. Assocts., Inc., 
8121 Georgia Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 
(M) 

FELSHER, MURRAY, Sr. Staff Geologist, Off. 
Techn. Anal. Enforcement, EPA, Washington, 
D.C. 20460 (M-1, 7) 

FERGUSON, ROBERT E., 6307 Tone Dr., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20034 (F-4) 

FERRELL, RICHARD A., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics, 
University of Maryland, College Park, Md. 
20742 (F-6, 31) 


265 


FIELD, WILLIAM D., Div. of Lepidoptera, Smith- 
sonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 
(F-5) 

FIFE, EARL H., Jr., General Delivery, Royal Oak, 
Md. 21662 (F) 

FINE, HARRY, 808 Hyde Court, Silver Spring, 
Md. 20902 (F) 

FINLEY, HAROLD E., Head, Dept. of Zoology, 
Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001 (F-3) 

FINN, EDWARD J., 4211 Oakridge La., Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 25) 

FIVAZ, ALFRED E., 804 Dale Drive, Silver Spring, 
Md. 20910 (E-11) 

FLETCHER, DONALD G., Natl. Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Rm. A102, Bldg. 231-IND, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (M-4) 

FLICK, DONALD F., Ph.D., 930 19th St. South, 
Arlington, Va. 22202 (F-4, 19, 39) 

FLINN, DAVID R., Code 6160, Naval Res. Lab., 
Washington, D.C. 20375 (F) 

FLINT, EINAR P., Ph.D., 6229 Radcliffe Rd., 
Alexandria, Va. 22307 (F-4, 20, 28, 36) 

FLORIN, ROLAND E., Ph.D., Polymer Chemistry 
Section, B-324 Poly, National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 

FLYNN, DANIEL R., 17500 Ira Court, Derwood, 
Md. 20855 (F) 

FLYNN, JOSEPH H., Ph.D., 5309 Iroquois Rd., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-4) 

FOCKLER, H. H., MSLS, 10710 Lorain Ave., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20014 (M) 

FONER, S.N., Applied Physics Lab., The Johns 
Hopkins University, Silver Spring, Md. 20910 
a) 

FOOTE, RICHARD H., Sc.D., 8807 Victoria Road, 
Springfield, Va. 22151 (eS. 6) 

FORSYTHE, ALLAN L., 3821 Garfield St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20007 (F) 

FORZIATI, ALPHONSE F., Ph.D., 9812 Dameron 
Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-1, 4, 29) 

FORZIATI, FLORENCE H., Ph.D., 9812 Dameron 
Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4) 

FOSTER, AUREL O., 4613 Drexel Rd., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (F-15, 24) 

FOURNIER, ROBERT O., 108 Paloma Rd., Por- 
tola Valley, Calif. 94025 (F-6, 7) 

FOWELLS, H. A., Ph.D., 10217 Green Forest, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (F-11) 

FOWLER, EUGENE, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., 
Washington, D.C. 20545 (M-26) 

FOWLER, WALTER B., Code 673, Goddard 
Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. 20771 
(M) 

FOX, DAVID W., The Johns Hopkins Univ., 
Applied Physics Lab., Silver Spring, Md. 
20910 (F) 

FOX, WILLIAM B., 1813 Edgehill Dr., Alexandria, 
Va. 22307 (F) 

FRANKLIN, PHILIP J., 5907 Massachusetts Ave. 
Extended, Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-4, 13) 

FRANKLIN-RAMIREZ, LOUISE, 2501 N. Florida 
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (M-6) 

FRANZ, GERALD J., M.S., 9638 Culver St., Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (M-6, 25) 


266 


FREDERIKSE, H. P. R., Ph.D., 9625 Dewmar 
Lane, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F) 

FREEMAN, ANDREW F., 5012 N. 33rd St., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (M) 

FRENKIEL, FRANCOIS N., Applied Math. Lab., 
Naval Ship Res. & Develop. Ctr., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F-1, 22, 23) 


FRIEDMAN, LEO, Ph.D., Director, Div. of Tox- 


icology (HFF-150), Bureau of Foods, Food & 
Drug Admin., HEW, Washington, D.C. 20204 
(F-4, 19) 

FRIEDMAN, MOSHE, 3850 Tunlaw Rd., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20007 (F) 

FRIESS, S. L., Ph.D., Environmental Biosciences 
Dept., Naval Med. Res. Inst. NNMC, Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 (F-4) 

FRUSH, HARRIET L., 4912 New Hampshire Ave., 
N.W., Apt. 104, Washington, D.C. 20011 
(F-4, 6) 

FULLMER, IRVIN H., Lakeview Terrace Retire- 
ment Center, P.O. Box 116, Altoona, Fla. 
32702 (E-1, 6, 14) 

FULTON, ROBERT A., 530 Merrie Dr., Corvallis, 
Oregon 97330 (E-4, 5) 

FURUKAWA, GEORGE T., Ph.D., National 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1, 4, 6) 

FUSILLO, MATTHEW H., VA Hospital, 50 Irving 
St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20422 (M-6, 16) 


G 


GAFAFER, WILLIAM M., 133 Cunningham Dr., 
New Smyrna Beach, Fla. 32069 (E) 

GAGE, WILLIAM, Ph.D., 2146 Florida Ave., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-2) 

GALLER, SIDNEY, 6242 Woodcrest Ave., Bal- 
timore, Md. 21209 (F-6) 

GALLOWAY, RAYMOND A., Dept. of Botany, 
University of Maryland, College Park, Md. 
20742 (F-10, 33) 

GALTSOFF, PAUL S., Ph.D P:O= Boxe wer 
Woods Hole, Mass. 20543 (E-3) 

GALVIN, CYRIL J., Jr., 7728 Brandeis Way, 
Springfield, Va. 22153 (F-7, 18, 30) 

GANT, JAMES O., Jr., 1835 Eye St., N.W., 
Suite 201, Washington, D.C. 20006 (M-8) 
GARNER, C. L., The Garfield, 5410 Connecticut 
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-1, 4, 

12:17, 18) 

GARVIN, DAVID, Ph.D., 18700 Walker’s Choice 
Rd., Apt. 519, Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 
F-4 

GAUM, CARL H., 9609 Carriage Rd., Kensington, 
Md. 20795 (F-18) 

GAUNAURD, GUILLERMO C., 4807 Macon Rad., 
Rockville, Md. 20852 (M-6, 25) 

GHAFFARI, ABOLGHASSEN, Ph.D., D.Sc., 7109 
Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20015 (Life-1) 

GHOSE, RABINDRA N., 8167 Mulholland Terr., 
Los Angeles Hill, Calif. 90046 (F) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


GIACCHETTI, ATHOS, Dept. of Scientific Affairs, 
O.A.S., 1735 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20006 (M) 

GIBSON, JOHN E., Box 96, Gibson, N.C. 28343 
(E) 

GIBSON, KASSON S., 4817 Cumberland St., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E) 

GINTHER, ROBERT J., Code 6406, U.S. Naval 
Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-28, 29) 

GISH, OLIVER H., 7107 S. Indian River Dr., 
Fort Pierce, Fla. 33450 (E-1, 6) 

GIWER, MATTHIAS M., 204-206 S. St. Asaph St., 
Alexandria, Va. 22314 (M) 

GLADSTONE, VIC S., 7 Deauville Ct., Baltimore, 
Md. 21208 (M-6, 25) 

GLASGOW, AUGUSTUS R., Jr., Ph.D., 4116 
Hamilton St., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-4, 6) 

GLASSER, ROBERT G., Ph.D., Univ. of Maryland, 
College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

GLICKSMAN, MARTIN E., 2223 Hindle Lane, 
Bowie, Md. 20716 (F-20) 

GODFREY, THEODORE B., 7508 Old Chester 
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E) 

GOLDBERG, MICHAEL, 5823 Potomac Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1) 

GOLDBERG, ROBERT N., 19610 Brassie Place, 
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F) 

GOLDMAN, ALAN J., Applied Math. Div., Inst. 
for Basic Standards, Natl. Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

GOLDSMITH, HERBERT, 238 Congressional 
Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (M) 

GOLDSTEIN, GORDON D., 9520 Saybrook Ave., 
Silver Spring, Md. (M-4, 32, 35) 

GOLUMBIC, CALVIN, 6000 Highboro Dr., Be- 
thesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

GONET, FRANK, 4007 N. Woodstock St., Arling- 
ton, Va. 22207 (F-4) 

GOODE, ROBERT J., B.S., Strength of Metals 
Br., Code 6380, Metallurgy Div., U.S.N.R.L., 
Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-6, 20, 36) 

GOODMAN, RALPH, 6600 Melody Lane, Be- 
thesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

GORDON, CHARLES L., 5512 Charles St., Be- 
thesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 4, 6) 

GORDON, RUTH E., Ph.D., Inst. of Microbiology, 
Rutgers Univer., New Brunswick, N.J. 08903 
(F-16) 

GRAF, JOHN E., 2035 Parkside Dr., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (F-3, 5, 6) 
GRAHN, MRS. ANN, 1508 34th St. N.W., Washing- 

ton, D.C. 20007 (M). 

GRASSL, CARL O., Sugar Plant Field Station, 
P.O. Box 156, Canal Point, Fla. 33438 (F) 
GRAY, ALFRED, Dept. Math., Univ. of Maryland, 

College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

GRAY, IRVING, Georgetown Univ., Washington, 
D.C. 20007 (F) 

~ GREENBERG, LEON, Ph.D., 6209 Poindexter 
Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (F) 

GREENOUGH, M. L., M.S., Rm. A109 Poly, 
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F) 

GREENSPAN, MARTIN, 12 Granville Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1, 25) 


N.W., 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


GRIFFITHS, NORMAN H. C., D.Sc. 3100 20th 
St., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20018 (F-21) 
GRISAMORE, NELSON T., Natl. Academy of Sci., 
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington, 

D.C. 20418 (F) 

GROSSLING, BERNARDO F., Rm. 7213, USGS 
Natl. Ctr., 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, 
Va. 22092 (F-7) 

GUARINO, P. A., 6714 Montrose Rd., Rockville, 
Md. 20852 (F-13) 

GURNEY, ASHLEY B., Ph.D., Systematic En- 
tomology Lab., USDA, % U.S. National 
Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-3, 5, 6) 

GUTTMAN, CHARLES M., 9616 Marston La., 
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F) 


H 


HACSKAYLO, EDWARD, Ph.D., Plant Industry 
Station, USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-6, 10, 
11, 33) 

HAENNI, EDWARD O., Ph.D., 7907 Glenbrook 
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4) 

HAGAN, LUCY B., Natl. Bur. Stds., Rm. A155, 
Bg. 221, Washington, D.C. 20243 (M) 

HAINES, KENNETH A., ARS, USDA, Federal 
Center Bldg., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-5) 

HAKALA, REINO W., Ph.D., 707 Prospect St., 
Sault Ste. Marie, Mi. 49783 (F) 

HALL, E. RAYMOND, Museum of Natural History, 
Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. 66045 (E) 

HALL, R. CLIFFORD, M.F., 316 Mansion Drive, 
Alexandria, Va. 22302 (E-11) 

HALL, STANLEY A., Agric. Res. Center (E), 
USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-24) 

HALL, WAYNE C., 557 Lindley Dr., Lawrence, 
Kansas 66044 (E) 

HALLER, WOLFGANG, Ph.D., National Bureau 
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 
HALSTEAD, BRUCE W., World Life Res. Inst., 
23000 Grand Terr., Colton, Calif. 92324 

(F) 

HAMBLETON, EDSON J., 5140 Worthington Dr., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-3, 5, 6) 

HAMER, WALTER J., 3028 Dogwood St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-4, 13, 29, 39) 
HAMILTON, C. E. MIKE, Federal Power Comm., 
441 G St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20426 

(M-7, 36) 

HAMMERSCHMIDT, W. W., Ph.D., 7818 Holmes 
Run Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22042 (M) 

HAMMOND, H. DAVID, Ph.D., 14 Chappel St., 
Brockport, N.Y. 14420 (M-10) 

HAMPP, EDWARD G., D.D.S., National Institutes 
of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-21) 

HANCOCK, JUDITH M., Biol. Dept., St. Joseph’s 
College, North Windham, Me. 04062 (M) 

HAND, CADET H., Jr., Bodega Marine Lab., 
Bodega Bay, Calif. 94923 (F-6) 

HANSEN, LOUIS S., D.D.S., School of Dentistry, 
San Francisco Med. Center, Univ. of Calif., 
San Francisco, Calif. 94122 (F-21) 


267 


HANSEN, MORRIS H., M.A., Westat Research, 
Inc., 11600 Nebel St., Rockville, Md. 20852 
(F-34) 

HARDENBURG, ROBERT EARLE, Ph.D., Agr. 
Mktg. Res. Inst., Agr. Res. Ctr. West, USDA, 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-6) 

HARRINGTON, FRANCIS D., Ph.D., 4600 Ocean 
Beach Blvd., Apt. 204, Cocoa Beach, Fla. 
32931 (M) 

HARRINGTON, M. C., Ph.D., 4545 Connecticut 
Ave., N.W., Apt. 334, Washington, D.C. 20008 
(Fa0°13)22.-31,\32) 


HARRIS, MILTON, Ph.D., 3300 Whitehaven St., » 


N.W., Suite 500, Washington, D.C. 20007 (F) 

HARRISON, W. N., 3734 Windom PI., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1, 28) 

HARTLEY, JANET W., Ph.D., National Inst. of 
Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National 
Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 
(F) 

HARTMANN, GREGORY K., Ph.D., 10701 Kes- 
wick St., Garrett Park, Md. 20766 (F-1, 25) 
HARTZLER, MARY P., 3326 Hartwell Ct., Falls 

Church, Va. 22042 (M-6) 

HASKINS, C. P., Ph.D., 2100 M St., N.W., Suite 
600, Washington, D.C. 20037 (F) 

HASS, GEORG H., 7728 Lee Avenue, Alexandria, 
Va. 22308 (F-32) 

HAUPTMAN, HERBERT, Ph.D., Medical Founda- 
tion of Buffalo, 73 High St., Buffalo, N.Y. 
14203 (F-1) 

HAYDEN, GEORGE A., 1312 Juniper St. N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (M) 

HEANEY, JAMES B., 6 Olivewood Ct., Greenbelt, 
Md. 20770 (F-32) 

HEIFFER, M. H., Whitehall, Apt. 701, 4977 
Battery La., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

HEINRICH, KURT F., 804 Blossom Dr., Woodley 
Gardens, Rockville, Md. 20850 (F) 

HEINZE, P. H., Ph.D., 11411 Cedar La., Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 (F-4, 6, 10) 

HENDERSON, E. P., Div. of Meteorites, U.S. Na- 
tional Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (E) 


HENDERSON, MALCOLM C., Ph.D., 2699 Shasta. 


Rd., Berkeley, Calif. 94708 (F-1) 

HENNEBERRY, THOMAS J., 1409 E. Northshore 
Dr., Tempe, Ariz. 85282 (F) 

HENRY, WARREN E., P.O. Box 761, Howard 
Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001 (F) 

HENVIS, BERTHA W., Code 6472, Naval Res. 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M-32) 

HERBERMAN, RONALD B., 8528 Atwell Rd., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F) 

HERMACH, FRANCIS L., 2415 Eccleston St., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-13, 35) 

HERMAN, ROBERT, Traffic Sci. Dept., General 
Motors Res. Lab., 12 Mi & Mound Rads., 
Warren, Mich. 48090 (F-1) | 

HERSCHMAN, HARRY K., 4701 Willard Ave., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-20) 

HERSEY, JOHN B., Ph.D., 8911 Colesbury PI., 
Fairfax, Va. 22030 (M-7, 25) 

HERSEY, MAYO D., M.A., Div. of Engineering, 
Brown Univ., Providence, R.I. 02912 (E-1) 


268 


HERZFELD, KARL F., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics, 
Catholic Univ., Washington, D.C. 20017 (F-1) 

HESS, WALTER C., 3607 Chesapeake St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-4, 6, 19, 21) 

HEWSTON, ELIZABETH M., Felicity Cove, Shady 
Side, Md. 20867 (F-39) 

HEYDEN, FR. FRANCIS, Manila Observatory, 
P.O. Box 1231, Manila, Philippines D-404 
(F-32) 

HIATT, CASPAR W., Ph.D., Univ. of Texas 
Medical School, San Antonio, Texas 78229 
(F) 

HICKLEY, THOMAS J., 626 Binnacle Dr., Naples, 
Fla. 33940 (F-13) 

HICKOX, GEORGE H., Ph.D., 9310 Allwood Ct., 
Alexandria, Va. 22309 (F-6, 14, 18) 

HILDEBRAND, EARL M., 11092 Timberline Dr., 
Sun City, Ariz. 85351 (E) 

HILL, FREEMAN K., 12408 Hall’s Shop Rad., 
Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-1, 6, 22) 

HILSENRATH, JOSEPH, 9603 Brunett Ave., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1) 

HILTON, JAMES L., Ph.D., Plant Industry Station, 
USDA, ARS, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-33) 
HOBBS, ROBERT B., 7715 Old Chester Rd., 

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4) 

HOERING, THOMAS C., Carnegie Inst. of Wash- 
ington, Geophysical Lab., 2801 Upton St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-4, 7) 

HOFFMANN, C. H., Ph.D., 6906 40th Ave., Univer- 
sity Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-5, 11, 24) 

HOGE, HAROLD J., Ph.D., Head, Thermodyn. 
Lab. Prd., U.S. Army Natick Labs., Natick, 
Mass. 01760 (F-1) 

HOLLIES, NORMAN R. S., Gillette Research 
Institute, 1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 
20850 (F-4) 

HOLLINSHEAD, ARIEL C., Ph.D., Virus & Cancer 
Research Dept. of Medicine, Ross Hall, Rm. 
526, 2300 | St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20037 (F-16, 19) 

HOLMGREN, HARRY D., Ph.D., P.O. Box 391, 
College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1) 

HOLSHOUSER, WILLIAM L., 513 N. Oxford 
St., Arlington, Va. 22203 (F-6, 20) 

HONIG, JOHN G., Office Chief of Staff, Army, 
The Pentagon, Washington, D.C. 20310 (F-1, 
4, 34) 

HOOD, KENNETH J., Ph.D., 2000 Huntington 
Ave., 1118, Alexandria, Va. 22303 (M-33) 
HOOKER, MISS MARJORIE, U.S. Geological 
Survey, Washington, D.C. 20242 (F-7) 
HOOVER, JOHN I., 5313 Briley Place, Washing- 

ton, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 6) 

HOPP, HENRY, Ph.D., Org. of Amer. States, 
Casilla Postal 5060-CCI, Quito, Ecuador 
(F-11) 

HOPPS, HOPE E., Mrs., 1762 Overlook Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20903 (F-16,19) 

HORNSTEIN, IRWIN, 5920 Bryn Mawr Rd., Col- 
lege Park, Md. 20740 (F-4, 27) 

HOROWITZ, E., Deputy Director, Institute for 
Materials Res., National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 


_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


HORTON, BILLY M., 3238 Rodman St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1, 13) 

HOUGH, FLOYD W., C.E., Woodstock, Va. 22664 
(E-17, 18) 

HOWE, PAUL E., 3601 Connecticut Ave., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-3, 4, 6, 8, 19) 
HUANG, KUN-YEN, Ph.D., 6100 Johnson Ave., 

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-16) 

HUBBARD, DONALD, 4807 Chevy Chase Dr., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 6, 32) 

HUBBARD, HARVEY H., 23 Elm Ave., Newport 
News, Va. 23601 (M-22, 25) 

HUBERT, LESTER F., 4704 Mangum Rd., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (F-23) 

HUDSON, COLIN M., Ph.D., Chief Scientist, U.S. 
Army Armament Command, Rock Island, Ill. 
61201 (F-22) 

HUDSON, GEORGE E., Code 026, Naval Ord. 
Lab., White Oak, Silver Spring, Md. 20910 
(F-1) 

HUGH, RUDOLPH, Ph.D., George Washington 
Univ. Sch. of Med., Dept. of Microbiology, 
2300 Eye St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 
(F-16, 19) 

HUNT, W. HAWARD, 11712 Roby Ave., Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 (M) 

HUNTER, RICHARD S., 9529 Lee Highway, 
Fairfax, Va. 22030 (F-27, 32) 

HUNTER, WILLIAM R., Code 7143, U.S. Naval 
Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-1, 
6, 32) 

HUNTOON, R. D., Ph.D., 7901 40th Ave., N., 
#122, St. Petersburg, Fla. 33709 (F-1, 13) 
HURTT, WOODLAND, Vegetation Control Div., 

Fort Detrick, Frederick, Md. 21701 (M) 

HUTCHINS, LEE M., 1.1.C.A., OAS, Turrialba, 
Costa Rica (E-10, 11) 

HUTTON, GEORGE L., 809 Avondale Dr., W. 
Lafayette, Ind. 47906 (F) 


INSLEY, HERBERT, Ph.D., 5219 Farrington Rd., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 7) 

IRVING, GEORGE W.), Jr., Ph.D., 4836 Langdrum 
Lane, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 27) 
IRWIN, GEORGE R., Ph.D., 7306 Edmonston Rd., 

College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1, 6) 
ISBELL, H. S., 4704 Blagden Ave., N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20011 (F-4) 


J 


JACKSON, H. H. T., Ph.D., 122 Pinecrest Rd., 
Durham, N.C. 27705 (E-3) 

JACKSON, PATRICIA C., Rm. 207, Bldg. 001, 
Agric. Res. Ctr. (W), Beltsville, Md. 20705 
(M-33) 

JACOBS, WOODROW C., Ph.D., 6309 Bradley 
Blvd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-23) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


JACOBSON, MARTIN, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 
Agr. Res. Center (E) Beltsville, Md. 20705 
(F-4, 24) 

JACOX, MARILYN E., Ph.D., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 
JAFFE, LOUIS S., 1001 Highland Dr., Silver 

Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4, 39) 

JAMES, L. H., The James Laboratories, 189 W. 
Madison St., Chicago, Ill. 60602 (F) 

JAMES, MAURICE T., Ph.D., Dept. of Ento- 
mology, Washington State University, Pull- 
man, Washington 99163 (E-5) 

JANI, LORRAINE L., 2733 Ontario Rd., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20009 (M) 

JAROSEWICH, EUGENE, 10th & Constitution 
Ave., Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 
20560 (M) 

JAY, GEORGE E., Jr., Ph.D., National Cancer 
Inst., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-6) 

JEN, C. K., Applied Physics Lab., 8621 Georgia 
Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F) 

JENKINS, WILLIAM D., 1829 Ingleside Terr., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20010 (M-20) 

JENSEN, ARTHUR S., Ph.D., Westinghouse 
Defense & Electronic Systems Ctr., Box 1521, 
Baltimore, Md. 21203 (M-13, 31, 32) 

JESSUP, R. S., 7001 W. Greenvale Pkwy., Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6) 

JOHANNESEN, ROLF B., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 
JOHNSON, DANIEL P., 9222 Columbia Blvd., 

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1) 

JOHNSON, KEITH C., 4422 Davenport St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F) 

JOHNSON, PHYLLIS T., Ph.D., Nat. Marine 
Fisheries Serv. Lab., Oxford, Md. 21654 
(F-5, 6) 

JOHNSTON, FRANCIS E., 307 W. Montgomery 
Ave., Rockville, Md. 20850 (E-1) 

JONES, HENRY A., Desert Seed Co., Inc., Box 
181, El Centro, Calif. 92243 (F) 

JORDAN, GARY BLAKE, 1012 Olmo Ct., San 
Jose, Calif. 95129 (M-13) 

JUDD, NEIL M., Georgian Towers, Apt. 120-C, 
8715 First Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E) 


K 


KAISER, HANS E., 433 South West Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (M-6) 

KARLE, ISABELLA, Code 6030, U.S. Naval Res. 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F) 

KARLE, JEROME, Code 6030, U.S. Naval Re- 
search Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-1, 4) 

KARR, PHILIP R., 5507 Calle de Arboles, Tor- 
rance, Calif. 90505 (F-13) 

KARRER, ANNIE M. H., Port Republic, Md. 20676 
E) 

eee H. P., Box 1135, Fedhaven, Fla. 
33854 (F-12) 

KEARNEY, PHILIP C., Ph.D., 13021 Blairmore St., 
Beltsville, Md. 20702 (F-4) 


269 


KEGELES, GERSON, RFD 2, Stafford Springs, 
Conn. 06076 (F) 

KENNARD, RALPH B., Ph.D., 3017 Military Rd., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-1, 6, 31, 32) 

KENNEDY, E. R., Ph.D., Biology Department, 
Catholic University, Washington, D.C. 20017 
(F-16) 

KESSLER, KARL G., Ph.D., Optical Physics Div., 
Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1, 6, 32) 

KEULEGAN, GARBIS H., Ph.D., 215 Buena Vista 
Dr., Vicksburg, Miss. 39180 (F-1, 6) 

KLEBANOFF, PHILIP S., Aerodynamics Sect., 
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-1, 22) 

KLINGSBERG, CYPRUS, Natl. Academy of Sci- 
ences, 2101 Constitution Ave., Washington, 
D.C. 20418 (F-28) 

KLUTE, CHARLES H., Ph.D., Apt. 118, 4545 Con- 
necticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 
(F-1, 4) 

KNAPP, DAVID G., 4695 Osage Dr., Boulder, 
Colo. 80303 (F) 

KNIPLING, EDWARD F., Ph.D., Sc.D., 2623 N. 
Military Rd., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F) 

KNIPLING, PHOEBE H., Ph.D., 2623 N. Military 
Rd., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F) 

KNOBLOCK, EDWARD C., 12002 Greenleaf Ave., 
Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-4, 19) 

KNOWLTON, KATHRYN, Apt. 837, 2122 Mas- 
sachusetts Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20008 (F-4, 19) 

KNOX, ARTHUR S., M.A., M.Ed., 2006 Columbia 
Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (M-6, 7) 

KNUTSON, LLOYD V., Ph.D., Systematic En- 
tomology Lab., ARS, USDA, Bg. 003, ARC 

_  (W), Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M-5) 

KOHLER, HANS W., 607 Owl Way, Bird Key, 
Sarasota, Fla. 33577 (F-6, 13, 31) . 

KOHLER, MAX A., 402 Dennis Ave., Silver Spring, 
Md. 20910 (F-18, 23) 

KRUGER, JEROME, Ph.D., Rm B254, Materials 
Bldg., Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-4, 29) 

KRUL, WILLIAM R., 1809 Belvedere Blvd., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20902 (F-33) 

KURTZ, FLOYD E., Ph.D., 8005 Custer Rad., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4) 

KURZWEG, HERMAN H., 731 Quaint Acres Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-1, 22) 

KUSHNER, LAWRENCE M., Ph.D., Commis- 
sioner, Consumer Product Safety Commis- 
sion, Washington, D.C. 20207 (F-36) 


L 


LABENZ, PAUL J., 9504 Kingsley Ave., Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 

LADO, ROBERT, Ph.D., Georgetown Univ., 
Washington, D.C. 20007 (F) 

LAKI, KOLOMAN, Ph.D., Bldg. 4, Natl. Inst. of 
Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 


270 


LAMANNA, CARL, Ph.D., 3812 37th St., N., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (F-16, 19) 

LAMBERTON, BERENICE, 1509 34th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20007 (M) 

LANDER, JAMES F., NOAA, EDS D6, Boulder, 
Colo. 80302 (F) 

LANDIS, PAUL E., 6304 Landon Lane, Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F-6) 

LANDSBERG, H. E., 5116 Yorkville Rd., Temple 
Hills, Md. 20031 (F-1, 23) 

LANG, MARTHA E. C., B.S., 3133 Conn. Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-6, 7) 

LANGFORD, GEORGE S., Ph.D., 4606 Hartwick 
Rd., College Park, Md. 20740 (F-5, 24) 

LAPHAM, EVAN G., 5340 Cortez Ct., Cape Coral, 
Fla. 33904 (E) 

LARMORE, LEWIS, Ph.D., Off. of Naval Res., 
800 N. Quincey St., Arlington, Va. 22217 
(M-6, 32) 

LASHOF, THEODORE W., 10125 Ashburton 
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

LASTER, HOWARD J., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics 
& Astron., Univ. of Maryland, College Park, 
Md. 20742 (F-1, 31) 

LE CLERG, ERWIN L., 14620 Deerhurst Terrace, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (E) 

LEE, RICHARD H., RD 2, Box 143E, Lewes, 
Del. 19958 (E) 

LEINER, ALAN L., Hopkinson House, 602 Wash- 
ington Square So., Philadelphia, Pa. 19106 
(F) 

LEJINS, PETER P., Ph.D., Univ. of Maryland, 
Inst. of Criminal Justice & Criminology, 
College Park, Md. 20742 (F-10) 

LENTZ, PAUL LEWIS, 5 Orange Ct., Greenbelt, 
Md. 20770 (F-6, 10) 

LEVERTON, RUTH M., Ph.D., 3900 16th St. N.W., 
Apt. 240, Washington, D.C. 20001 (F) 

LEVIN, ERNEST M., 7716 Sebago Rd., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F-4, 28) 

LEVY, SAMUEL, 2279 Preisman Dr., Schenec- 
tady, N.Y. 12309 (F) 

LEWIS, ANDREW M., Jr., MD, NLAID, LVD Bg. 
7, Rm. 313, NIH, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 
LEWIS, KEITH H., Ph.D., 1701 No. Kent, Apt. 

1006, Arlington, Va. 22209 (M) 

LI, HUI-LIN, The Morris Arboretum, Chestnut 
Hill, Philadelphia, Pa. 19118 (F) 

LIDDEL, URNER, 2939 Van Ness St. N.W., Apt. 
1135, Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-1) 

LIEBLEIN, JULIUS, Ph.D., 1621 E. Jefferson 
St., Rockville, Md. 20852 (F) 

LIERS, HENRY S., 3052 Bel Pre Rd., #304, 
Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F-13) 

LINDQUIST, ARTHUR W., Rte. 1, Bridgeport, 
Kans. 67424 (E-6) 

LINDSEY, IRVING, M.A., 202 E. Alexandria Ave., 
Alexandria, Va. 22301 (E) 

LING, LEE, % P.O. Box 2205, Stanford, Calif. 
94305 (E) 

LINK, CONRAD B., Dept. of Horticulture, Univ. 
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F-6, 
10) 

LINNENBOM, VICTOR J., Ph.D., Office of Naval 
Res. (London), Box 39, FPO, NY 09510 (F-4) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


LIPKIN, LEWIS E., Bg. 36, Rm. 40-25, NIH, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (M) 

LIST, ROBERT J., 1123 Hammond Pkwy., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22302 (F-23) 

LITTLE, ELBERT L., Jr., Ph.D., U.S. Forest Ser- 
vice, Washington, D.C. 20250 (F-10, 11) 

LOCKARD, J. DAVID, Ph.D., Botany Dept., Univ. 
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (M-33) 

LOCKHART, LUTHER B., Jr., Ph.D., 6820 Wheat- 
ley Ct., Falls Church, Va. 22042 (F-4) 

LONG, AUSTIN, 2715 E. Helen St., Tucson, Ariz. 
85716 (F) 

LONG, B. J. B., Mrs., 416 Riverbend Rd., Oxon 
Hill, Md. 20022 (M) 

LORING, BLAKE M., Sc.D., P.O. Box 852, Bald- 
win Park, Calif. 91706 (F-20, 36) 

LUSTIG, ERNEST, Ph.D., GMBF, D3301 Stock- 
heim/Braunschweig, Mascheroder Weg 1, W. 
Germany (F-4) 

LYNCH, MRS. THOMAS J., 4960 Butterworth PI., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (M) 


MA, TE-HSU, Dept. of Biological Science, West- 
ern Hlinois Univ., Macomb, Ill. 61455 (F-3) 

MADDEN, ROBERT P., Natl. Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20034 (F-32) 

MAENGWYN-DAVIES, G. D., Ph.D., 2909 34th St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-4, 6, 19) 

MAGIN, GEORGE B., Jr., 7412 Ridgewood Ave., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-6, 7, 26) 

MAHAN, A. |., 10 Millgrove Gardens, Ednor, Md. 
20904 (F-1) 

MAIENTHAL, MILLARD, 10116 Bevern Lane, 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-4) 

MALONEY, CLIFFORD J., Div. of Biological 
Standards, NIH, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 
MANDEL, H. GEORGE, Ph.D., Dept. of Phar- 
macology, George Washington Univ. Sch. of 

Med., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-4, 19) 

MANDEL, JOHN, A345 Chem. Bg., Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1) 

MANGUS, JOHN D., 6019 Berwyn Rad., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (F) 

MANNING, JOHN R., Ph.D., Metal Physics Sec., 
Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-20) 

_ MARCUS, MARVIN, Ph.D., Dept. Math., Univ. of 
California, Santa Barbara, Calif. 93106 (F-6) 

MARGOSHES, MARVIN, Ph.D., 69 Midland Ave., 
Tarrytown, N.Y. 10591 (F) 

MARION, JERRY B., Dept. of Physics, Univ. of 
Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

MARSHALL, LOUISE H., Div. Med. Sci., Nat’! 
Res. Council, 2101 Constitution Ave., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20418 (F) 

MARTIN, BRUCE D., P.O. Box 234, Leonardtown, 
Md. 20650 (F-7) 

MARTIN, JOHN H., Ph.D., 124 N.W. 7th St., Apt. 
303, Corvallis, Oregon 97330 (E-6) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


MARTIN, ROBERT H., 2257 N. Nottingham St., 
Arlington, Va. 22205 (M-23) 

MARTON, L., Ph.D., Editorial Office, 4515 Lin- 
nean Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 
(E-1, 13) 

MARVIN, ROBERT S., Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
A537 Admin., Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 
4, 6) 

MARYOTT, ARTHUR A., Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6) 

MASON, HENRY LEA, Sc.D., 7008 Meadow Lane, 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6, 14, 35) 
MASSEY, JOE T., Ph.D., 10111 Parkwood Dr., 

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

MATLACK, MARION, Ph.D., 2700 N. 25th St., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E) 

MAUSS, BESSE D., M.D., Rural Rt. 1, New 
Oxford, Pa. 17350 (F-25) 

MAXWELL, LOUIS R., Ph.D., 3506 Leland St., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1) 

MAY, DONALD C., Jr., Ph.D., 5931 Oakdale Rd., 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F) 

MAY, IRVING, U.S. Geological Survey, Stop 
923, Reston, Va. 22092 (F-4, 7) 

MAYER, CORNELL H., 1209 Villamay Blvd., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22307 (F-1, 6, 13) 

MAYOR, JOHN R., Div. of Human & Community 
Resources, Francis Scott Key Bldg., Univ. 
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

MAZUR, JACOB, Ph.D., Natl. Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-6) 

MC BRIDE, GORDON W., Ch.E., 100 Park Ave., 
Suite 2209, New York, N.Y. 10017 (F-4) 

MC CAMY, CALVIN S., All Angels Hill Rd., 
Wappingers Falls, N.Y. 12590 (F-32) 

MC CLELLAN, WILBUR D., Ph.D., USDA, ARS, 
WR, 2021 S. Peach Ave., P.O. Box 8143, 
Fresno, Calif. 93727 (F-6) 

MC CULLOUGH, JAMES M., Ph.D., 6209 Apache 
St., Springfield, Va. 22150 (M) 

MC CULLOUGH, N. B., Ph.D., M.D., Dept. of Mi- 
crobiology & Public Health, Michigan State 
Univ., East Lansing, Mich. 48823 (F-6, 8) 

MC ELHINNEY, JOHN, Ph.D., 11601 Stephen Rad., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-1) 

MC GRATH, JAMES R., Ph.D., 5900 Madawaska 
Rd., Washington, D.C. 20016 (M-25) 

MC GUNIGAL, THOMAS E., J.D., 13013 Ingleside 
Dr., Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-1, 13) 

MC INTOSH, ALLEN, 4606 Clemson Rad., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (E-6, 15) 

MC KELVEY, VINCENT E., Ph.D., 6601 Broxburn 
Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-7) 

MC KENZIE, LAWSON M., 5311 Westpath Way, 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1) 

MC KINNEY, HAROLD H., 1620 N. Edgewood St., 
Arlington, Va. 22201 (E-6, 10, 16, 33) 

MC MURDIE, HOWARD F., Natl. Bur. of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-28) 

MC NESBY, JAMES R., Measures for Air Quality, 
Natl. Bur. of Standards 223.53, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F) 

MC NICHOLAS, JOHN V., 1107 Nelson St., 
Rockville, Md. 20850 (M-25) 


271 


MC PHEE, HUGH C., 3450 Toledo Terrace, Apt. 
425, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-6) 

MC PHERSON, ARCHIBALD T., Ph.D., 4005 
Cleveland St., Kensington, Md. 20795 (F- 
Life-1, 4, 6, 27) 

MC WRIGHT, CORNELIUS G., 7409 Estaban PI., 
Springfield, Va. 22151 (M) 

MEADE, BUFORD K., NOAA, Nat’! Ocean Survey, 
Washington Science Ctr., Rockville, Md. 
20852 (F-17) 

MEARS, FLORENCE M., Ph.D., 8004 Hampden 
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

MEARS, THOMAS W., B.S., 2809 Hathaway Ter- 
race, Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F-1, 4, 6) 

MEBS, RUSSELL W., Ph.D., 6620 32nd St., N., 
Arlington, Va. 22213 (F-12, 20) 

MEINKE, W. WAYNE, Ph.D., 1351 Glendalack 
Cir., Ann Arbor, Mich. 48104 (F-4) 

MELMED, ALLAN J., 732 Tiffany Court, Gaithers- 
burg, Md. 20760 (F) 

MELOY, THOMAS P., Ph.D., 5124 Baltan Rd., 
Sumner, Md. 20016 (M) 

MENIS, OSCAR, Analytical Chem. Div., 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
20234 (F) 

MENZER, ROBERT E., Ph.D., 7203 Wells Pkwy., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-4, 24) 

MERRIAM, CARROLL F., Prospect Harbor, 
Maine 04669 (F-6) 

MESSINA, CARLA G., 9916 Montauk Ave., Be- 
thesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

MEYERHOFF, HOWARD A,., Ph.D., 3625 S. Flor- 
ence PI., Tulsa, Okla. 74105 (F-7) 

MEYERSON, MELVIN R., Ph.D., National Bureau 
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-20) 

MEYKAR, OREST A., P.E., 200 E. Luray Ave., 
Alexandria, Va. 22301 (M-13, 14) 

MEYROWITZ, ROBERT, Analytical Chem., En- 
vironmental Geology Progr., Univ. So. Cali- 
fornia, Los Angeles, Calif. 90007 

MICHAEL, ALBERT S., 17605 Dominion Dr., 
Sandy Spring, Md. 20860 (M) 

MICHAELIS, ROBERT E., National Bureau of 
Standards, Chemistry Bldg., Rm. B330, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-20) 

MICKEY, WENDELL V., 1965 Kohler Dr., Boulder, 
Colo. 80303 (F) 

MIDDLETON, H. E., 430 E. Packwood, Apt. 
H-108, Maitland, Fla. 32751 (E) 

MIDER, G. BURROUGHS, M.D., Exec. Off., Amer. 
Soc. Exper. Path., 9650 Rockville Pike, Be- 
thesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

MILLAR, DAVID B., Ph.D., NMRI, NNMC, Environ- 
mental Biosciences Dept., Physical Bio- 
chemistry Div., Washington, D.C. 20014 (F) 

MILLER, CARL F., P.O. Box 127, Gretna, Va. 
24557 (E-6) 

MILLER, CLEM O., Ph.D., 6343 Nicholson St., 
Falls Church, Va. 22044 (F-4, 6) 

MILLER, J. CHARLES, 10600 Eastbourne Ave., 
Apt. 7, W. Los Angeles, California 90024 
(E-7) 

MILLER, PAUL R., Ph.D., Bg. 001, Agr. Res. 
Ctr. (W), USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-10) 


Natl. 
D:G. 


272 


MILLER, RALPH L., Ph.D., 5215 Abington Rd., 
Washington, D. C. 20016 (F-7) 

MILLER, ROMAN R., 1232 Pinecrest Circle, ‘Silver 
Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4, 6, 28) 

MILLIKEN, LEWIS T., M.S., NHISA Res. Inst. 
N43-20, Rm. 5210 Nassif Bldg., 400 7th St., 
S.W., Washington, D.C. 20590 (M-1, 4, 6, 7) 

MILTON, CHARLES, Dept. of Geology, George 
Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 20006 
(F-7) 

MITCHELL, J. MURRAY, Jr., Ph.D., 1106 Dog- 
wood Dr., McLean, Va. 22101 (F-6, 23) 

MITCHELL, JOHN W., 9007 Flower Ave., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (F) 

MITTLEMAN, DON, 80 Parkwood Lane, Oberlin, 
Ohio 44074 (F) 

MIZELL, LOUIS R., 108 Sharon Lane, Greenlawn, 
N.Y. 11740 (F) 

MOEZIE, FATEMEH T., 5432 N. 24th St., Arling- 
ton, Va. 22205 (M) 

MOHLER, FRED L., Ph.D., 2853 Brandywine St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-1) 

MOLINO, JOHN A., Ph.D., Sound Sec., Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (M-25) 

MOLLARI, MARIO, 4527 45th St., N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20016 (E-3, 5, 15) 

MOLLER, RAYMOND W., Ph.D., Catholic Univ. 
of America, Washington, D.C. 20017 (F-38) 

MOORE, GEORGE A., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of Stand- 
ards 312.03, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-6, 
20, 29, 36) 

MOORE, HARVEY C., Dept. of Anthropology, 
American Univ., Washington, D.C. 20016 
(F-2) 

MORAN, FREDERICK A., 7711 Kipling Pkwy., 
Washington, D.C. 20028 (M-23) 

MORRIS, J. A., 23-E Ridge Rd., Greenbelt, 
Md. 20770 (M-6, 15, 16) 

MORRIS, JOSEPH BURTON, Chemistry Dept. 
Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001 (F) 
MORRIS, KELSO B., Howard Univ., (Chemistry) 

Washington, D.C. 20001 (F-4, 39) 

MORRISS, DONALD J., 102 Baldwin Ct., Pt. 
Charlotte, Fla. 33950 (E-11) 

MOSTOFI, F. K., M.D., Armed Forces Inst. of 
Pathology, Washington, D.C. (F) 

MOUNTAIN, RAYMOND D., Ph.D., Natl. Bureau 
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

MUEHLHAUSE, C. O., Ph.D., 9105 Seven Locks 
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 26) 

MUELLER, H. J., 4801 Kenmore Ave., Alexandria, 
Va. 22304 (F) 

MUESEBECK, CARL F. W., U.S. Natl. Museum 
of Nat. Hist., Washington, D.C. 20560 (E-3, 5) 

MULLIGAN, JAMES H., Jr., 11613 Danville Dr., 
Rockville, Md. 20852 (F) 

MURDOCH, WALLACE P., Ph.D., Rt. 2, Get- 
tysburg, Pa. 17325 (F-5) 

MURRAY, WILLIAM S., 1281 Bartonshire Way, 
Potomac Woods, Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-5) 

MYERS, ALFRED T., USGS Geochemistry & 
Petr., Denver Federal Ctr., Denver, Colo. 
80225 (F-4, 6) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


MYERS, RALPH D., Physics Dept., Univ. of Mary- 
land, College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1) 


N 


NAESER, CHARLES R., Ph.D., 6654 Van Winkle 
Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22044 (F-4, 7) 

NAMIAS, JEROME, Sc.D., 2251 Sverdrup Hall, 
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La 
Jolla, Calif. 92037 (F-23) 

NELSON, R. H., 7309 Finns Lane, Lanham, Md. 
20801 (E-5, 6, 24) 

NEPOMUCENE, SR. ST. JOHN, Villa Julie, Valley 
Rd., Stevenson, Md. 21153 (E-4) 

NEUENDORFFER, J. A., Ph.D., 911 Allison St., 
Alexandria, Va. 22302 (F-6, 34) 

NEUSCHEL, SHERMAN K., 7501 Democracy 
Blvd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-7) 

NEUSTADT, HERBERT M., E.E. Dept., U.S. Naval 
Academy, Annapolis, Md. 21042 (M-25) 

NEWMAN, MORRIS, Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

NEWMAN, SANFORD B., Ph.D., Room A 1000, 
Administration, Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

NEWTON, CLARENCE J., Ph.D., 1504S. 2nd Ave., 
Edinburg, Texas 78539 (E) 

NICKERSON, DOROTHY, 2039 New Hampshire 
Ave., Washington, D.C. 20009 (E-6, 32) 

NIKIFOROFF, C. C., 4309 Van Buren St., Univer- 
sity Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E) 

NIRENBERG, MARSHALL W., 7001 Orkney 
Pkwy., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4) 

NOFFSINGER, TERRELL L., Spec. Weather Serv. 
Br., NOAA/NWS, Gramax Bldg., Silver Spring, 
Md. 20910 (F-23) 

NOLLA, J. A. B., Ph.D., Apartado 820, Mayaguez, 
Puerto Rico 00708 (F-6) 

NORRIS, KARL H., 11204 Montgomery Rad., 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-27) 

NOYES, HOWARD E., Ph.D., 4807 Aspen Hill Rd., 
Rockville, Md. 20853 (F-16, 19) 


O 


O'BRIEN, JOHN A., Ph.D., Dept. of Biology, 
Catholic Univ. of America, Washington, D.C. 
20017 (F-10) 

O’CONNOR, JAMES V., 10108 Haywood Circle, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (M-6, 7) 

O’HERN, ELIZABETH M., Ph.D., 633 G St., S.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20024 (M-16) 

O’KEEFE, JOHN A., NASA, Goddard Space 
Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, Md. 20771 (F-1) 

OEHSER, PAUL H., 9012 Old Dominion Dr., 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-1, 3, 9, 30) 

OKABE, HIDEO, Ph.D., 316.00, Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


OLIPHANT, MALCOLM W., Ph.D., Hawaii Loa 
Coll., P.O. Box 764, Kaneohe, Oahu, Haw. 
96744 (F) 

OLSEN, HAROLD W., Br. of Engr. Geol., U.S. 
Geological Survey, 345 Middlefield Rd., 
Menlo Park, Calif. 94025 (M) 

OLSON, JOSEPH C., Jr., Ph.D., BF-210, Food & 
Drug Admin., 200 C St., S.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20204 (M-16, 27) 

OLTJEN, ROBERT R., 3514 Susquehanna Dr., 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F) 

ORDWAY, FRED, Ph.D., 5205 Elsmere Ave., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4, 6, 20, 28) 

ORLIN, HYMAN, Ph.D., NOAA-NOS, Rockville, 
Md. 20852 (F-17) 

OSER, HANS J., 8810 Quiet Stream Ct., Potomac, 
Md. 20852 (F-6) 

OSGOOD, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 2756 Macomb St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-14, 18) 
OSWALD, ELIZABETH J., Ph.D., Rm. 1846, 
FDA, 200 C St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 

20204 (F-16) 

OTA, HAJIME, M.S., 5708 64th Ave., E. Riverdale, 
Md. 20840 (F) 

OWENS, JAMES P., M.A., 14528 Bauer Dr., 
Rockville, Md. 20853 (F-7) 


p 


PACK, DONALD H., 1826 Opalacka Dr., McLean, 
Va. 22101 (F-23) 

PAFFENBARGER, GEORGE C., D.D.S., ADA Res. 
Div., Nati. Bur. of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-21) 

PAGE, BENJAMIN L., 1340 Locust Rd., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20012 (E-7, 6) 

PAGE, CHESTER H., 15400 Layhill Rd., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20906 (F-1, 6, 13) 

PAGE, R. M., 10222 Berkshire Rd., Bloomington, 
Minn. 55437 (F-13) 

PARK, J. HOWARD, 36174 59th Ave., S.W., Seattle, 
Washington 98116 (F-13) 

PARKER, KENNETH W., 6014 Kirby Rd., Be- 
thesda, Md. 20034 (E-3, 10, 11) 

PARKER, ROBERT L., Ph.D., Chief, Crystalliz. of 
Metais Sect., Rm. B-164 MATLS, Natl. Bur. 
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

PARMAN, GEORGE K., 8054 Fairfax Rd., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22308 (F-27) 

PARR, L. W., 302 Scientists Cliffs, Port Republic, 
Md. 20676 (E-16, 19) 

PASSER, MOSES, Ph.D., 6647 32nd PI., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (F) 

PATI, JOGESH C., Ph.D., 8604 Saffron Dr., 
Lanham, Md. 20801 (F) 

PATTERSON, GLENN W., 8916 2nd St., Lanham, 
Md. 20801 (F-4, 33) 

PAYNE, FAITH N., 1745 Hobart St., N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20009 (M-7) 

PAYNE, L. E., Dept. Math., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, 
N.Y. 14850 (F) 


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PEISER, H. STEFFEN, 638 Blossom Dr., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20850 (F-1, 4, 28) 

PELCZAR, MICHAEL J., Jr., Vice Pres. for Grad. 
Studies & Research, Univ. of Maryland, Col- 
lege Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

PERROS, THEODORE P., Ph.D., Dept. of Chem- 


istry, George Washington Univ., Washington, - 


D.C. 20006 (F-1, 4) 

PHAIR, GEORGE, Ph.D., 14700 River Rad., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-7) 

PHILLIPS, MRS. M. LINDEMAN, 2510 Virginia 
Ave., N.W., 507N, Washington, D.C. 20037 
(F-1, 13, 25) 

PIKL, JOSEF, 211 Dickinson Rd., Glassboro, N.J. 
08028 (E) 

PITTMAN, MARGARET, Ph.D., 3133 Connecticut 
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E) 

POLACHEK, HARRY, 12000 Old Georgetown 
Rd., Rockville, Md. 20852 (E) 

POOS, F. W., Ph.D., 3225 N. Albemarle St., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-5, 6) 

POPENOE, WILSON, Antigua, Guatemala, Cen- 
tral America (E-3) 

POTTS, B. L., 119 Periwinkel Ct., Greenbelt, 
Md. 20770 (F) 

PRESLEY, JOHN T., 3811 Courtney Circle, Bryan, 
Texas 77801 (E) 

PRESTON, MALCOLM S., 10 Kilkea Ct., Balti- 
more, Md. 21236 (M) 

PRINZ, DIANNE K., Ph.D., Code 7121.5, Naval 
Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M-32) 
PRO, MAYNARD J., 7904 Falstaff Rd., McLean, 

Va. 22101 (F-26) 

PRYOR, C. NICHOLAS, Ph.D., Naval Ord. Lab., 
White Oak, Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F) 
PURCELL, ROBERT H., Rt. 1, Box 113B, Boyds, 

Md. 20720 (F) 

PYKE, THOMAS N., Jr., 4720 N. 21st St., Arling- 

ton, Va. 22207 (F-6, 13) 


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RABINOW, JACOB, |. A. T., 6920 Selkirk Dr., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

RADER, CHARLES A., 15807 Sherwood Ave., 
Laurel, Md. 20810 (F-4) 

RADO, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 818 Carrie Court, 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-1) 

RAINWATER, H. IVAN, Plant Protect. & Quaran- 
tine Programs, APHIS, Fed. Center Bg. 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-5, 6, 24) 

RALL, DAVID P., Director, National Institute of 
Envir. Health Sciences, P.O. Box 12233, 
Research Triangle, Raleigh, N.C. 27709 (F- 
6, 19) 

RAMBERG, WALTER G. C., Box 75-A, Belfast 
Rd., Sparks, Md. 21152 (E-1) 

RANEY, WILLIAM P., Code 102, Office of Naval 
Research, Arlington, Va. 22217 (M) 

RAPPLEYE, HOWARD S., 6712 4th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (E-1, 6, 12, 17, 18) 


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RAUSCH, ROBERT, Arctic Health Res. Bldg., 
University of Alaska, Fairbanks, Alaska 99701 
(F-3, 15) 

RAVITSKY, CHARLES, M.S., 1808 Metzerott Rd., 
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (F-32) 

READING, O. S., 6 N. Howells Point Rd., Bellport 
Suffolk County, New York, N.Y. 11713 (E-1) 

REAM, DONALD F., Holavallagata 9, Reykjavik, 
Iceland (F) 

RECHCIGL, MILOSLAV, Jr., Ph.D., 1703 Mark 
Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-3, 4, 19) 

REED, WILLIAM D., 3609 Military Rd., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-5, 6) 

REEVE, WILKINS, 4708 Harvard Rd., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (F-4) 

REEVES, ROBERT G., Ph.D., U.S. Geological 
Survey, EROS Data Ctr., Sioux Falls, S.D. 
57198 (F-7, 14) 

REGGIA, FRANK, MSEE, 6207 Kirby Rd., Be- 
thesda, Md. 20034 (F-6, 13) 

REHDER, HARALD A., Ph.D., U.S. Natl. Museum 
of Nat. Hist., Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-3, 6) 

REICH, MELVIN, Dept. Microbiology, George 
Washington Univ. Med. Ctr., 2300 Eye St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F) 

REINHART, FRANK W., 9918 Sutherland Rad., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-4, 6) 

REINHART, FRED M., P.O. Box 591, Oak View, 
Calif. 93022 (F-20) 

REINING, PRISCILLA, Ph.D., 3601 Rittenhouse 
St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-2) 

REMMERS, GENE M., 7322 Craftown Rad., Fair- 
fax Station, Va. 22039 (M-25) 

REVEAL, JAMES L., Ph.D., Dept. Botany, Univ. 
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

REYNOLDS, CALVIN O., 3661 E. Virginia Beach 
Blvd., P.O. Box 12342, Norfolk, Va. 23502 (M) 

REYNOLDS, ORR E., Ph.D., The Amer. Physio- 
logical Soc., 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 (F) 

RHODES, IDA, Mrs., 6676 Georgia Ave., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (F) 

RHYNE, JAMES J., Ph.D., 15012 Butterchurn 
La., Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F) 

RICE, DONALD A., 1536 Crofton Pkwy., Crofton, 
Md. 21113 (F) 

RICE, FREDERICK A. H., 8005 Carita Court, 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4, 6, 19) 

RIOCH, DAVID MckK., M.D., 2429 Linden Lane, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-3, 8) 

RITT, P. E., Ph.D., GTE Labs., Inc., 40 Sylvan 
Rd., Waltham, Mass. 02154 (F) 

RITTS, ROY E., Jr., Dept. of Microbiology, Mayo 
Clinic, Rochester, Minn. 55901 (F) 

RIVLIN, RONALD S., Ctr. for Application of Math., 
Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pa. 18015 (F) 

ROBBINS, MARY LOUISE, Ph.D., George Wash- 
ington Univ. Med. Ctr., 2300 Eye St. N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-6, 16, 19) 

ROBERTS, ELLIOT B., 4500 Wetherill 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 18) 

ROBERTS, RICHARD B., Ph.D., Dept. Terrestrial 
Mag., 5241 Broad Branch Rd., N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20015 (F) 


Rd., 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


ROBERTS, RICHARD C., 5170 Phantom Court, 
Columbia, Md. 21044 (F-6) 

ROBERTS, RICHARD W., Director, Natl. Bureau 
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 
ROBERTSON, A. F., Ph.D., 4228 Butterworth PI., 

N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F) 
ROBERTSON, RANDAL M., Ph.D., 1404 Highland 
Circle, S.E., Blacksburg, Va. 24060 (F-1, 6) 
ROCK, GEORGE D., Ph.D., The Kennedy Warren, 
3133 Conn. Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20008 (E) 


RODNEY, WILLIAM S., 8112 Whites Ford Way, 


Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-1, 32) 

RODRIGUEZ, RAUL, 3533 Martha Custis Drive, 
Alexandria, Va. 22302 (F-17) 

ROGERS, L. A., Patten, Maine 04765 (E-16) 

ROLLER, PAUL S., Ph.D., 1440 N St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20005 (E) 

ROMNEY, CARL F., 4105 Sulgrave Dr., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22309 (F-7) 

ROSADO, JOHN A., 1709 Great Falls St., McLean, 
Va. 22101 (F) 

ROSENBLATT, DAVID, 2939 Van Ness St., N.W., 
Apt. 702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1) 

ROSENBLATT, JOAN R., 2939 Van Ness St., 
N.W., Apt. 702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1) 

ROSENSTOCK, HENRY M., 10117 Ashburton 
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

ROSENTHAL, JENNY E., 7124 Strathmore St., 
Falls Church, Va. 22042 (F-13,32) 

ROSENTHAL, SANFORD, M., Bidg. 4, Rm. 122, 
National Insts. of Health, Bethesda, Md. 
20014 (E) 

ROSS, FRANKLIN, Deputy for R Qrmts, Rm. 


4E973, Off. of Asst. Secy. of the Air 
Force, The Pentagon, Washington, D.C. 
20330 (F) 


ROSS, SHERMAN, National Research Council, 
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20418 (F) 

ROSSINI, FREDERICK D., Ph.D., Dept. Chemis- 
try, Rice Univ., Houston, Tex. 77001 (F-1) 

ROTH, FRANK L., M.Sc., Box 441, Nogales Star 
Rt., Amado, Ariz. 85640 (E-6) 

ROTH, ROBERT S., Solid State Chem. Sect., 
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F) 

ROTKIN, ISRAEL, 11504 Regnid Dr., Wheaton, 
Md. 20902 (F-1, 13, 34) 

ROWEN, JOHN W., Washington Towers #2407, 
9701 Fields Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F) 

RUBIN, MORTON J., M.Sc., Bldg. 5, NOAA, 
6010 Executive Bidg., Rockville, Md. 20852 
(F-23) 

RUBIN, VERA C., Ph.D., 3308 McKinley St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F) 

RUPP, N. W., D.D.S., American Dental Assoc., 
Research Division, National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-21) 

RUSSELL, LOUISE M., Syst. Ent. Lab., Agr. 
Res. Center (West), USDA, Beltsville, Md. 
20705 (F-5) 

RYALL, A. LLOYD, Route 2, Box 216, Las Cruces, 
N. Mex. 88001 (E-6, 10, 27) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


RYERSON, KNOWLES A., M.S., Dean Emeritus, 
15 Arimonte Dr., Berkeley, Calif. 94707 (E-6) 


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SAALFIELD, FRED E., Ph.D., Naval Res. Lab., 
Code 6110, Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-4) 
SAENZ, ALBERT W., Nuclear Sciences Div., 
Naval Research Laboratory, Code 6660, 

Washington, D.C. 20390 (F) 

SAILER, R. |., Ph.D., 3847 S.W. 6th PI., Gaines- 
ville, Fla. 32607 (F-5) 

SALISBURY, LLOYD L., 10138 Crestwood Rad., 
Kensington, Md. 20795 (M) 

SALLET, DIRSE W., Ph.D., Max-Planck-Institut 
fur Storomungsforschung, 3400 Gottingen, 
Germany (M-1, 14) 

SAN ANTONIO, JAMES P., Crops Res. Div., 
ARS, Plant Industry Stn., Beltsville, Md. 
20705 (M) 

SANDERSON, JOHN A., Ph.D., 303 High St., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22203 (F-1, 32) 

SANFORD, ROBERT B., Jr., 321 Geo. Mason Dr., 
Apt. #1, Arlington, Va. 22203 (F) 

SARVELLA, PATRICIA A., Ph.D., 4513 Romlion 
St., Apt. 302, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-6) 

SASMOR, ROBERT M., 1301 S. Scott St., Arling- 
ton, Va. 22204 (F) 

SAULMON, E. E., 202 North Edgewood St., 
Arlington, Va. 22201 (M) 

SAVILLE, Thorndike, Jr., M.S., 5601 Albia Rd., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-6, 18) 

SAYLOR, CHARLES P., 10001 Riggs Rad., 
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (F-1, 4, 32) 

SCHAFFER, ROBERT, Chemistry A367, Natl. 
Bur. Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

SCHECHTER, MILTON S., 10909 Hannes Court, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-4, 5, 24) 

SCHINDLER, ALBERT |., Sc.D., Code 6003, U.S. 
Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 
(F-1) 

SCHLAIN, DAVID, Ph.D., P.O. Box 348, College 
Park, Md. 20740 (F-20, 29, 36) 

SCHMID, HELLMUT, 20740 Warfield Court, 
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-6, 17) 

SCHMIDT, CLAUDE H., 1827 No. 3rd St., Fargo, 
No. Dak. 58102 (F-5) 

SCHMITT, WALDO L., Ph.D., U.S. National 
Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (E-3) 

SCHNEIDER, SIDNEY, 239 N. Granada St., 
Arlington, Va. 22203 (M) 

SCHOEN, LOUIS J., Ph.D., 8605 Springdell PIl., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F) 

SCHOENEMAN, ROBERT LEE, 9602 Ponca PI., 
Oxon Hill, Md. 20022 (F) 

SCHOOLEY, ALLEN H., Ph.D., 6113 Cloud Dr., 
Springfield, Va. 22150 (F-13) 

SCHOOLEY, JAMES F., 13700 Darnestown Rad., 
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-6) 

SCHOONOVER, IRL C., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 4) 


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SCHRECKER, ANTHONY W., Ph.D., Dept. of 
Biochemistry, Scripps Clinic & Res. Fndn., 
476 Prospect St., LaLolla, Calif. 92037 (F-4) 

SCHUBAUER, G. B., Ph.D., 5609 Gloster Rd., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-22) 

SCHUBERT, LEO, Ph.D., The American Univ., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 4, 30) 

SCHULMAN, FRED, 11115 Markwood Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20902 (F) 

SCHULMAN, JAMES H., London Branch Office, 
U.S. Office of Naval Res., 223 Old Marylebone 
Rd., London, England (F) 

SCHWARTZ, ANTHONY M., Ph.D., 2260 Glen- 
more Terr., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-4) 

SCHWARTZ, BENJAMIN, Ph.D., 888 Montgom- 
ery St., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11213 (E) 

SCHWARTZ, MANUEL, Sc.D., 321-322 Med. Arts 
Bg., Baltimore, Md. 21201 (M-25) 

SCOFIELD, FRANCIS, 2403 Eye St., N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20037 (M-4, 32) 

SCOTT, DAVID B., D.D.S., Case Western Re- 
serve Univ., Sch. of Dentistry, 2123 Abing- 
ton Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44106 (F-21) 

SCRIBNER, BOURDON F., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 32) 

SEABORG, GLENNT., Ph.D., Lawrence Berkeley 
Lab., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif. 
94720 (F) 

SEEGER, RAYMOND J., Ph.D., 4507 Wetherill 
Rd., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 30, 31) 
SEITZ, FREDERICK, Rockefeller University, New 

York, N.Y. 10021 (F-36) 

SERVICE, JERRY H., Ph.D., Cascade Manor, 65 
W. 30th Ave., Eugene, Oreg. 97405 (E) 

SETZLER, FRANK M., Sc.D., 950 E. Shore Dr., 
Culver, Ind. 46511 (E-2, 3, 6) 

SHAFRIN, ELAINE G., M.S., Apt. N-702, 800 4th 
St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024 (F-4) 

SHALOWITZ, A. L., 1520 Kalmia Rd., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (E-17) 

SHANAHAN, A. J., 7217 Churchill Rd., McLean, 
Va. 22101 (F-16) 

SHAPIRA, NORMAN, 86 Oakwood Dr., 
Md. 20810 (M) 

SHAPIRO, GUSTAVE, 3704 Munsey St., 
Spring, Md. 20906 (F-13) 

SHELTON, EMMA, National Cancer Institute, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

SHEPARD, HAROLD k., Ph.D., 2701 S. June St., 
Arlington, Va. 22202 (F-5, 24) 

SHERESHEFSKY, J. LEON, Ph.D., 9023 Jones 
Mill Rd., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E) 

SHERLIN, GROVER C., 4024 Hamilton St., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-1, 6, 13, 31) 

SHIELDS, WILLIAM ROY, A.M.S.S., Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Physics Bidg., Rm. B28, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20234 (F) 

SHMUKLER, LEON, 151 Lorraine Dr., 
Heights, N.J. 07922 (F) 

SHNEIDEROV, A. J., 1673 Columbia Rd., #309, 
Washington, D.C. 20009 (M-1, 22) 

SHOTLAND, EDWIN, 418 E. Indian Spring Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M-1) 


Dunkirk, 


Silver 


Berkeiey 


276 


SHROPSHIRE, W., Jr., Ph.D., Smithsonian Radia- 
tion Bio. Lab., 12441 Parklawn Dr., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20852 (F-6, 10, 33) 

SHUBIN, LESTER D., Proj. Mgr. for Standards, 
NILECJ/LEAA, U.S. Dept. Justice, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20530 (F) 

SIEGLER, EDOUARD HORACE, Ph.D., 201 Tulip 
Ave., Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (E-5, 24) 

SILVER, DAVID M., Ph.D., Applied Physics Lab., 
Johns Hopkins Univ., Silver Spring, Md. 
20910 (M-4, 6) 

SILVERMAN, SHIRLEIGH, Academic Liaison, 
Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1) 

SIMHA, ROBERT, Ph.D., Case Western Reserve 
Univ. Circle, Cleveland, Ohio 44106 (F) 

SIMMONS, JOHN A., Rm. A157, Bldg. 223, Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1) 

SIMMONS, LANSING G., 4425 Dittmar Rd., N., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (F-18) 

SITTERLY, BANCROFT W., Ph.D., 3711 Brandy- 
wine St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 
(E=1; 34,32) 


SITTERLY, CHARLOTTE M., Ph.D., 3711 Brandy- — 


wine St., 
(E-1, 6, 32) 

SLACK, LEWIS, 106 Garden Rd., Scarsdale, N.Y. 
10583 (F) 

SLAWSKY, MILTON M., 8803 Lanier Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20910 (F-6, 12, 22, 31) 

SLAWSKY, ZAKA I. 
Oak, Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F) 

SLEEMAN, H. KENNETH, Ph.D., Div. Biochem, 
WRAIR. Washington, D.C. 20012 (F-4, 19) 

SLOCUM, GLENN G., 4204 Dresden St., 
sington, Md. 20795 (E-16, 27) 

SMILEY, ROBERT L., 1444 Primrose Rd., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (M-5) 

SMITH, BLANCHARD DRAKE, M.S., 5265 Port 
Royal Rd., Springfield, Va. 22151 (F-6, 13) 

SMITH, EDGAR R., Box 52, Lottsburg, Va. 22511 
(E-4) 

SMITH, FLOYD F., Ph.D., 9022 Fairview Rd., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-5, 24) 

SMITH, FRANCIS A., Ph.D., 1023 55th Ave., 
South, St. Petersburg, Fla. 33705 (E-6) 

SMITH, JACK C., 3708 Manor Rad., Apt. 3, Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (F) 

SMITH, NATHAN R., 322 S. Washington Dr., St. 
Armands Key, Sarasota, Fla. 33577 (E-6, 10, 
16) 

SMITH, PAUL A., 4714 26th St., 
Va. 22207 (F-6, 7, 18, 22) 

SMITH, ROBERT C., Jr., 4200 Peachtree PI., 
Alexandria, Va. 22304 (F-4, 22) 


N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 


N., Arlington, 


SMITH, SIDNEY T., D.Eng., 5811 Sunderland 


Court, Alexandria, Va. 22310 (F-1, 13, 32) 
SMITH, WILLIE, Natl. Insts. of Health, Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 (F-19) 
SNAVELY, BENJAMIN L., Ph.D., 721 Springloch 
Rd., Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-24, 31, 32) 
SNAY, HANS G., 17613 Treelawn Dr., Ashton, 
Md. 20702 (F-6, 25) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


, Naval Ordnance Lab., White © 


Ken- — 


SNOW, C. EDWIN, 1431 Chesterfield Rd., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20853 (M-32) 
SOKOLOVE, FRANK L., Ph.D., 2546 Chain 
Bridge Rd., Vienna, Va. 22180 (M) 
SOLOMON, EDWIN M., 11550 Lockwood Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (M) 
SOMERS, IRA |., 1511 Woodacre Dr., McLean, 
Va. 22101 (M) 
SOMMER, HELMUT, 9502 Hollins Ct., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F-1, 13) 
SORROWS, H. E., 8820 Maxwell Dr., Potomac, 
Md. 20854 (F) 
SPALDING, DONALD H., Ph.D., 17500 S.W. 
89th Ct., Miami, Fla. 33157 (F-6, 10) 
SPECHT, HEINZ, Ph.D., 4229 Franklin St., Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (F-1, 6) 
SPENCER, LEWIS V., Box 206, Gaithersburg, 
Md. 20760 (F) 
SPERLING, FREDERICK, 1131 University Blvd., 
W., #1122, Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-19) 
SPICER, H. CECIL, 464 Fairway Village, Largo, 
Fla. 33540 (E-7) 
SPIES, JOSEPH R., Ph.D., 507 N. Monroe St., 
| Arlington, Va. 22201 (F-4) 
-~ SPOONER, CHARLES S., Jr., M.F., 346 Spring- 
vale Rd., Great Falls, Va. 22066 (F) 
SPOONER, RONALD L., Ph.D., Planning Sys- 
tems, Inc., 7900 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 
22101 (M-25) 
SPRAGUE, G. F., Dept. Agronomy, Univ. of 
Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 61801 (E) 
ST. GEORGE, R. A., 3305 Powder Mill Rd., 
| Adelphi Station, Hyattsville, Md. 20783 (F-3, 
| 5, 11, 24) 
'STADTMAN, E. R., Bldg. 3, Rm. 108, Natl. 
| Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 
(F) 
STAIR, RALPH, P.O. Box 310, Newburg, Oreg. 
97132 (E-6) 
STAKMAN, E. C., Univ. of Minnesota, Inst. of 
Agric., St. Paul, Minn. 55101 (E) 
STALLARD, J. MICHAEL, Ph.D., Naval Ord. 
Lab., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (M-6, 25) 
STAUSS, HENRY E., Ph.D., 8005 Washington 
Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-20) 
STEARN, JOSEPH L., 6950 Oregon Ave, N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (F) 
STEELE, LENDELL E., 7624 Highland St., 
Springfield, Va. 22150 (F-20, 26) 
-STEERE, RUSSELL L., Ph.D., 6207 Carrollton 
Ter., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-6, 10) 
_STEGUN, IRENE A., Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 
STEINER, BRUCE W., 6624 Barnaby St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (M) 
STEINER, ROBERT F., Ph.D., 2609 Turf Valley 
Rd., Ellicott City, Md. 21043 (F-4) 
STEINHARDT, JACINTO, Ph.D., Georgetown 
Univ., Washington, D.C. 20007 (F-4) 
STEPHENS, ROBERT E., Ph.D., 4301 39th St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 32) 
STERN, KURT H., Ph.D., Naval Res. Lab., Code 
6160, Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-4, 29, 30) 


| 
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STEVENS, HENRY, 5116 Brookview Dr., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20016 (E) 

STEVENS, RUSSELLB., Ph.D., Div. of Biological 
Sciences, N.R.C., 2101 Constitution Ave., 
Washington, D.C. 20418 (F-10) 

STEVENSON, JOHN A., 4113 Emery PIl., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-6, 10) 

STEWART, |. E., 4000 Tunlaw Rd., N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20007 (F) 

STEWART, KENNETH R., 2306 Monument Ave., 
Richmond, Va. 23220 (M) 

STEWART, T. DALE, M.D., 1191 Crest Lane, 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-2) 

STIEBELING, HAZEL K., 4000 Cathedral Ave., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E) 

STIEF, LOUIS J., Ph.D., Code 691, NASA God- 
dard Space Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, Md. 20771 
(F-4) 

STIEHLER, ROBERT D., Ph.D.; Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 4, 6, 
14, 39) 

STILL, JOSEPH W., M.D., P.O. Box 891, West 
Covina, Calif. 91791 (E) 

STILLER, BERTRAM, 3210 Wisconsin Ave., N.W., 
Apt. 501, Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1) 

STIMSON, H. F., 2920 Brandywine St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-1, 6) 

STIRLING, MATHEW W., 3311 Rowland PI., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-2, 6) 

STRAUSS, SIMON W., Ph.D., 4506 Cedell PI., 
Camp Springs, Md. 20031 (F-4) 

STUART, NEIL W., 1341 Chilton Dr., 
Spring, Md. 20904 (F-10) 

SULZBACHER, WILLIAM L., 8527 Clarkson Dr., 
Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-16, 27) 

SWICK, CLARENCE H., 5514 Brenner St., Capitol 
Heights, Md. 20027 (F-1, 6, 12) 

SWINGLE, CHARLES F., Ph.D., Pauma Valley, 
Calif. 92061 (E) 

SYKES, ALAN O., 304 Mashie Dr., S.E., Vienna, 
Va. 22180 (M-25) 

SYSKI, RYSZARD, Ph.D., Dept. of Mathematics, 
Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 
(F) 


Silver 


= 


TALBERT, PRESTON T., Dept. of Chemistry, 
Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001 (F-4) 

TALBOTT, F. LEO, R.D. #4, Bethlehem, Pa. 
18015 (F-1, 6) 

TASAKI, ICHIJI, M.D., Ph.D., Res. Branch, Natl. 
Inst. of Mental Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 
(F) 

TATE, DOUGLAS R., B.A., 11415 Farmland Dr., 
Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-1) 

TAUSSKY, OLGA, California Inst. of Technology, 
Pasadena, Calif. 91109 (E) 

TAYLOR, ALBERT L., P.O. Box 12017, Gaines- 
ville, Fla. 32604 (E-15) 

TAYLOR, B. N., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Rm. B258, Bldg. 220, Washington, D.C. 20234 
(F) 


277 


TAYLOR, JOHN K., Ph.D., Chemistry Bldg., Rm. 
B-326, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-4, 29) 

TAYLOR, LAURISTON S., 7407 Denton Rad., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E) 

TAYLOR, LEONARD S., 706 Apple Grove Rad., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (M) 

TAYLOR, MODDIE D., Ph.D., 4560 Argyle Ter- 
race, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-4) 
TCHEN, CHAN-MOU, City College of the City 
Univ. of New York, Mechanical Engin. Dept., 

New York, N.Y. 10031 (F) 

TEAL, GORDON K., Ph.D., 5222 Park Lane, 
Dallas, Tex. 75220 (F-6, 13, 29) 

TEITLER, S., Code 6470, Naval 
Washington, D.C. 20390 (F) 

TEPPER, MORRIS, 107 Bluff Terrace, Silver 
Spring, Md. 20902 (F-22, 23) 

THAYER, T. P., Ph.D., U.S. Geological Surv., 
Washington, D.C. 20242 (F-7) 

THEUS, RICHARD B., 1312 Van Buren Dr., Oxon 
Hill, Md. 20022 (F) 

THOMPSON, JACK C., 281 Casitas Bulevar, Los 
Gatos, Calif. 95030 (F) 

THURMAN-SCHWARTZWELDER, E. B., 30 Ver- 
sailles Blvd., New Orleans, La. 70125 (F) 

TILDEN, EVELYN B., Ph.D., 55 West Chestnut 
St., Chicago, Ill. 60610 (E-6) ; 

TITUS, HARRY W., 7 Lakeview Ave., Andover, 
N.J. 07821 (E-6) 

TODD, MARGARET RUTH, Miss, P.O. Box 902, 
Vineyard Haven, Mass. 02568 (F) 

TOLHURST, GILBERT, Ph.D., 7 Red Fox Lane, 
Amherst, Mass. 01002 (F-25) 

TOLL, JOHN S., Pres., State Univ. of New York, 
Stony Brook, L.I., N.Y. 11794 (F) 

TORGESEN, JOHN L., Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Materials Bldg. B-354, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-4, 6) 

TORIO, J. C., The Intl. Rice Res. Inst., P.O. 
Box 933, Manila, Philippines (M) 

TORRESON, OSCAR W., 4317 Maple Ave., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-6) 

TOUSEY, RICHARD, Ph.D., Code 7140, Naval 
Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-1, 32) 

TOWNSEND, MARJORIE R., Mrs., B.E.E., 3529 
Tilden St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 
(F-13) 

TRAUB, ROBERT, Ph.D., 5702 Bradley Bivd., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-3, 5, 15) 

TREADWELL, CARLETON R., Ph.D., Dept. of 
Biochemistry, George Washington Univ., 
2300 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 
(F-19) 

TRENT, EVA M., Mrs., 413 Tennessee Ave., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22305 (M) 

TRUEBLOOD, MRS. CHARLES K., 7100 Armat 
Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-19) 

TRYON, MAX, 6008 Namakagan Rd., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20016 (F-4, 6) 

TULANE, VICTOR J., Assistant President, Living- 
stone Coll., Salisbury, N.C. 28144 (F) 

TUNELL, GEORGE, Ph.D., Dept. of Geol. Sci., 
Univ. of California, Santa Barbara, Calif. 
93106 (E-7) 


Res. Lab., 


278 


TURNER, JAMES H., Ph.D., 11902 Falkirk Dr., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-15) 


U 


UHLANER, J. E., Ph.D., U.S. Army Res. Inst. 
for Behavioral & Soc. Sci., 1300 Wilson Blvd., 
Arlington, Va. 22209 (F) 

USDIN, EARL, 2924 N. Oxford St., Arlington, Va. 
22207 (F-4, 19) 


V 


VACHER, HERBERT C., 2317 Huidekoper PI., — 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 (E) 

VAN DERSAL, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 6 S. Kensing- 
ton St., Arlington, Va. 22204 (F-6) 

VAN EVERA, R. W., 901 No. Kensington St., 
Arlington, Va. 22205 (F) : 

VAN TUYL, ANDREW H., Ph.D., 1000 W. Nolcrest — 
Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (F-1, 6, 22) | 

VEITCH, FLETCHER P., Jr, PhD: -Depi- ar 
Chemistry, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, 
Md. 20742 (F-4) 

VIGUE, KENNETH J., Dir., Internatl. Projects, ITT 
Corp., ITT Bldg., 1707 L St., N.W., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20036 (M-13, 31) | 

VINCENT, ROBERT C., Dept. Chem., George © 
Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 20006 
(F) | 

VINTI, JOHN P., Sc.D., M.I.T. Measurement Sys- — 
tems Lab., Bldg. W-91-202, Cambridge, Mass. 
02139 (F-1, 6) 

VISCO, EUGENE P., B.S., 2100 Washington 
Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (M-1, 34) 
VON BRAND, THEODOR C., M.D., Ph.D., 8606 
Hempstead Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-15, 

19) 

VON HIPPEL, ARTHUR, 265 Glen Rd., Weston, — 

Mass. 02193 (E) 


W 


WACHTMAN, J. B., Jr., Ph.D., B306 Matis. Bidg., 
Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1, 6, 28) 

WAGMAN, DONALD D., 7104 Wilson Lane, 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4) 

WALKER, E. H., Ph.D., 7413 Holly Ave., Takoma 
Park, Md. 20012 (E-10) 

WALTER, DEAN I., Code 6370, Naval Res. Lab., 
Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-4, 6) 

WALTHER, CARL H., Ph.D., 1337 27th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20007 (F-6, 18) 

WALTON, W. W., Sr., 1705 Edgewater Pkwy., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (F-4) 

WARD, RONALD A., 15404 Carrolton Rd., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20853 (F) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


WARGA, MARY E., 2475 Virginia Ave., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-1, 4, 6, 32) 

WARING, JOHN A., 8502 Flower Ave., Takoma 
Park, Md. 20012 (M-30) 

WATSON, BERNARD B., Ph.D., General Re- 
search Corp., McLean, Va. 22101 (F-6, 31) 

WATSON, ROBERT B., 1176 Wimbledon Dr., 
McLean, Va. 22101 (M) 

WEAVER, DE FORREST E., M.S., Geological 
Survey, Washington Bldg., Rm. 110, 1011 
Arlington Blivd., Arlington, Va. 22209 (E-4) 

WEAVER, E. R., 6815 Connecticut Ave., Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6) 

WEBB, HAMILTON B., M.D., Chief, Health Serv., 
Library of Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 
(M-6) 

WEBB, RAYMON E., Ph.D., Vegetable Lab., 
Agr. Res. Center, USDA, Beltsville, Md. 
20705 (M) 

WEBER, EUGENE W., B.C.E., 2700 Virginia Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-6, 12, 17, 18) 

WEBER, ROBERT S., 1825 Martha Ave., Harl- 
ingen, Tex. 78550 (M) 

WEIDA, FRANK, 19 Scientists Cliff, Port Repub- 
lic; Calvert County, Md. 20676 (E-1) 

WEIDLEIN, E. R., Weidacres, P.O. Box 445, 
Rector, Pa. 15677 (E) 

WEIHE, WERNER K., 2103 Basset St., Alexandria, 
Va. 22308 (F-32) 

WEINBERG, HAROLD P., B.S., 1507 Sanford Rd., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-20) 

WEINTRAUB, ROBERT L., 305 Fleming Ave., 
Frederick Md. 21701 (F-4, 10, 16, 33) 

WEIR, CHARLES E., Rt. 3, Box 260B, San Louis 
Obispo, Calif. 93401 (F) 

WEISS, FRANCIS JOSEPH, Ph.D., Sc.D., 6121 
Montrose Rd., Rockville, Md. 20852 (E-1, 4, 
B10, 16, 26, 27, 33) 

WEISS, MICHAEL S., 17609 Cashell Rd., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20853 (M) 

WEISSBERG, SAMUEL, 14 Granville Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1, 4) 

WEISSLER, ALFRED, Ph.D., 5510 Uppingham 
St., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 4, 25) 
WELLMAN, FREDERICK L., Dept. of Plant Path- 
ology, North Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, 

N.C. 27607 (E) 

WENSCH, GLEN W., Esworthy Rad., Rt. 2, Ger- 
mantown, Md. 20767 (F-6, 20, 26) 

WEST, WILLIAM L., Dept. of Pharmacology, 

Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001 (M-19, 
26) 

WETMORE, ALEXANDER, Ph.D., Smithsonian 
Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-3, 6) 

WEXLER, ARNOLD, Phys, B 356, Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 35) 

WHEELER, WILLIS H., 2902 N.W. 13th Ct., 
Gainesville, Fla. 32605 (E) 

WHERRY, EDGAR T., Ph.D., 41 W. Allens La., 
Philadelphia, Pa. 19119 (E) 

WHITE, HOWARD J., Jr., 8028 Park Overlook Dr., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


WHITELOCK, LELAND D., B.S.E.E., 5614 Green- 
tree Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-13) 

WHITMAN, MERRILL J., 3300 Old Lee Highway, 
Fairfax, Va. 22030 (F-26) 

WHITTEN, CHARLES A., 9606 Sutherland Rad., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1, 6) 

WICHERS, EDWARD, Ph.D., 9601 Kingston Rd., 
Kensington, Md. 20795 (E-4) 

WILDHACK, W. A., 415 N. Oxford St., Arlington, 
Va. 22203 (F-1, 6, 22, 31, 35) 

WILHELM, PETER G., 7810 Elroy Pl., Oxon Hill, 
Md. 20021 (F) 

WILLENBROCK, F. KARL, Director, Inst. for 
Appl. Tech., Natl. Bur. Standards, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20234 (F) 

WILLIAMS, DONALD H., 4112 Everett St., Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (M-27) 

WILSON, BRUCE L., 20 N. Leonora Ave., Apt. 
204, Tucson, Ariz. 85711 (F-1, 6) 

WILSON, WILLIAM K., M.S., 1401 Kurtz Rd., 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-4) 

WINSTON, JAY S., Ph.D., 3106 Woodhollow Dr., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-6, 23) 

WISE, GILBERT H., 8805 Oxwell Lane, Laurel, 
Md. 20810 (M-6) 

WISTORT, ROBERT L., 11630 35th PI., Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 (F) 

WITHINGTON, C. F., 3411 Ashley Terr., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-7) 

WITTLER, RUTH G., Ph.D., 83 Bay Dr., Bay Ridge, 
Annapolis, Md. 21403 (F-16) 

WOLFF, EDWARDA., 1021 Cresthaven Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20903 (F-6, 13, 22, 23) 

WOLFLE, DAEL, Graduate School of Public 
Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, 
Washington 98195 (F) 

WOLFRAM, LESZEK J., Gillette Res. Inst., 1413 
Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F) 
WOLICKI, E. A., Ph.D., Nuclear Sciences Div., 
Code 6601, U.S. Naval Res. Lab., Washington, 

D.C. 20390 (F) 

WOMACK, MADELYN, Ph.D., 11511 Highview 
Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4, 19) 

WOOD, LAWRENCE A., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 4) 

WOOD, MARSHALL K., M.P.A., 2909 Brandywine 
St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F) 

WOOD, REUBEN E., 3120 N. Pershing Dr., 
Arlington, Va. 22201 (F-4, 29) 

WOODS, MARK W., 10718 Brookside Dr., Sun 
City, Ariz. 85351 (F-10, 19) 

WORKMAN, WILLIAM G., M.D., 5221 42nd St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-6, 8) 

WRENCH, CONSTANCE P., 10230 Democracy 
Lane, Potomac, Md. 20854 (M-6) 

WRENCH, JOHN W., Jr., 10230 Democracy Lane, 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-6) 

WULF, OLIVER R., Noyes Lab. of Chem. Phys., 
Calif. Inst. of Tech., Pasadena, Calif. 91109 
(E) 

WYMAN, LEROY W., Sr., Ch. E., 134 Island View 
Dr., Cape St. John, Annapolis, Md. 21401 (F-6, 
20, 36) 


279 


Y 


YAO, AUGUSTINE Y. M., Ph.D., 336 Brockton 
Rd., Oxon Hill, Md. 20022 (M-23) 


YAPLEE, BENJAMIN S., 6105 Westland Dr.,. 


Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-13) 

YEATMAN, JOHN N., 11106 Cherry Hill Rd., 
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (M-27, 32) 

YOCUM, L. EDWIN, 1257 Drew St., Apt. 2, Clear- 
water, Fla. 33515 (E-10, 33) 

YODER, HATTEN S., Jr., Geophysical Lab., 2801 
Upton St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 
(F-4, 7) 

YOLKEN, H. THOMAS, Rm. B314, Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-29) 
YOUNG, BOBBY G., Dept. of Microbiology, Univ. 

of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (M-16) 

YOUNG, CLINTON J. T., M.S., 300 Rucker Pi., 
Alexandria, Va. 22301 (M-32) 

YOUNG, DAVID A., Jr., Ph.D., 612 Buck Jones 


280 


Rd., Raleigh, N.C. 27606 (F-5) 

YOUNG, M. WHARTON, 3230 Park PI., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20010 (F) 

YUILL, J. S., M.S., 4307-A Hartwick Rd., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (E-5, 6, 24) 


Z 


ZELENY, LAWRENCE, Ph.D., 4312 Van Buren 
St., University Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E) 

ZIES, EMANUEL G., 3803 Blackthorne St., Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6, 7) 

ZOCH, RICHMOND T., 12612 Craft Lane, Bowie, 
Md. 20715 (F) 

ZON, GERALD, Ph.D., Dept. of Chemistry, 
Catholic U. of America, Washington, D.C. 
20017 (M) 

ZWEMER, RAYMOND L., 5008 Benton Ave., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


== 


BYLAWS 


Washington Academy of Sciences 


Last Revised in February 1972 


Article 1. OBJECTIVES 


Section 1. The purposes of the Washington Academy of Sciences shall be: (a) to stimulate 
interest in the sciences, both pure and applied, and (b) to promote their advancement and the 
development of their philosophical aspects by the Academy membership and through cooperative 
action by the affiliated societies. 


Section 2. These objectives may be attained by, but are not limited to: 

(a) Publication of a periodical and of occasional scientific monographs and such other 
publications as may be deemed desirable. 

(b) Public lectures of broad scope and interest in the fields of science. 

(c) Sponsoring a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences. 

(d) Promoting science education and a professional interest in science among people of high 
school and college age. 


(e) Accepting or making grants of funds to aid special research projects. 

(f) Symposia, both formal and small informal, on any aspects of science. 

(g) Scientific conferences. 

(h) Organization of, or assistance in, scientific expeditions. 

(i) Cooperation with other Academies and scientific organizations. 

Gj) Awards of prizes and citations for special merit in science. 

(k) Maintaining an office and staff to aid in carrying out the purposes of the Academy. 


Article Il. MEMBERSHIP 
Section 1. The membership shall consist of three general classes: members, fellows and patrons. 


Section 2. Members shall be persons who are interested in and will support the objectives of 
the Academy and who are otherwise acceptable to at least two-thirds of the Committee on Member- 
ship. A letter or application form requesting membership and signed by the applicant may suffice for 
action by the Committee; approval by the Committee constitutes election to membership. 


Section 3. Fellows shall be persons who by reason of original research or other outstanding 


service to the sciences, mathematics, or engineering are deemed worthy of the honor of election to 
Academy fellowship. 


Section 4. Nominations of fellows shall be presented to the Committee on Membership as a 
form approved by the Committee. The form shall be signed by the sponsor, a fellow who has 
knowledge of the nominee’s field, and shall be endorsed by at least one other fellow. An explanatory 


letter from the sponsor and a bibliography of the nominee’s publications shall accompany the com- 
pleted nomination form. 


Section 5. Election to fellowship shall be by vote of the Board of Managers upon recom- 
mendation of the Committee on Membership. Final action on nominations shall be deferred at least 
’ one week after presentation to the Board, and two-thirds of the vote cast shall be necessary to elect. 


Section 6. Each individual (not already a fellow) who has been nominated as a Delegate by a 
local affiliated society or who has been chosen to be the recipient of an Academy Award for Scientific 
Achievement shall be considered nominated for immediate election to fellowship by the Board of 
Managers without the necessity for compliance with the provisions of Sections 4 and 5S. 


Section 7. An individual of unquestioned eminence may be recommended by vote of the 
Committee on Membership Promotion for immediate election to fellowship by the Board of Managers, 
without the necessity for compliance with the provisions of Sections 4 and 5. 


Section 8. Persons who have given to the Academy not less than one thousand (1,000) dollars 


or its equivalent in property shall be eligible for election by the Board of Managers as patrons (for life) 
of the Academy. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 281 


Section 9. Life members or fellows shall be those individuals who have made a single payment 
in accordance with Article III, Section 2, in lieu of annual dues. 


Section 10. Members or fellows in good standing who are retired and are no longer engaged in 
regular gainful employment may be placed in emeritus status. Upon request to the treasurer for 
transfer to this status, they shall be relieved of the further payment of dues, beginning with the 
following January first; shall receive notices of meetings without charge; and at their request, shall be 
entitled to receive the Academy periodical at cost. 


Section 11. Members or fellows living more than 50 miles from the White House, Washington, 
D.C., shall be classed as nonresident members or fellows. 


Section 12. An election to any dues-paying class of membership shall be void if the candidate 
does not within three months thereafter pay his dues or satisfactorily explain his failure to do so. 


Section 13. Former members or fellows who resigned in good standing may be reinstated upon 
application to the Secretary and approval by the Board of Managers. No reconsideration of the 
applicant’s qualifications need be made by the Membership Committee in these cases. 


Article III. DUES 


Section 1. The annual dues of each class of members shall be fixed by the Board of Managers. 
No dues shall be paid by emeritus members and fellows, life members and fellows, and patrons. 


Section 2. Members and fellows in good standing may be relieved of further payment of dues 
by making a single payment to provide an annuity equal to their annual dues. (See Article II, Section 
9.) The amount of the single payment shall be computed on the basis of an interest rate to be 
determined by the Board of Managers. 


Section 3. Members or fellows = dues are in arrears for one year shall not be entitled to 
receive Academy publications. 


Section 4. Members or fellows whose dues are in arrears for more than two years shall be 
dropped from the rolls of the Academy, upon notice to the Board of Managers, unless the Board shall 
otherwise direct. Persons who have been dropped from membership for nonpayment of dues may be 
reinstated upon approval of the Board and upon payment of back dues for two years together with 
dues for the year of reinstatement. 


Article 1V. OFFICERS 


Section 1. The officers of the Academy shall be a President, a President-elect, a Secretary, and 
a Treasurer. All shall be chosen from resident fellows of the Academy. 


Section 2. The President shall appoint all committees and such non-elective officers as are 
needed unless otherwise directed by the Board of Managers or provided in the Bylaws. He (or his 
substitute—the President-elect, the Secretary, or the Treasurer, in that order), shall preside at all 
meetings of the Academy and of the Board of Managers. 


Section 3. The Secretary shall act as secretary to the Board of Managers and to the Academy at 
large. He shall conduct all correspondence relating thereto, except as otherwise provided, and shall be 
the custodian of the corporate seal of the Academy. He shall arrange for the publication in the 
Academy periodical of the names and professional connections of new members, and also of such 
proceedings of the Academy, including meetings of the Board of Managers, as may appropriately be of 
interest to the membership. He shall be responsible for keeping a register of the membership, showing 
such information as qualifications, elections, acceptances, changes of residence, lapses of membership, 
resignations and deaths, and for informing the Treasurer of changes affecting the status of members. 
He shall act as secretary to the Nominating Committee (see Art. VI, Sect. 2). 


Section 4. The Treasurer shall be responsible for keeping an accurate account of all receipts 
and disbursements, shall select a suitable depository for current funds which shall be approved by the 
Executive Committee, and shall invest the permanent funds of the Academy as directed by that 
Committee. He shall prepare a budget at the beginning of each year which shall be reviewed by the 
Executive Committee for presentation to and acceptance by the Board of Managers. He shall notify 
the Secretary of the date when each new member qualifies by payment of dues. He shall act as 
business advisor to the Editor and shall keep necessary records pertaining to the subscription list. In 
view of his position as Treasurer, however, he shall not be required to sign contracts. He shall pay no 
bill until it has been approved in writing by the chairman of the committee or other persons author- 
ized to incur it. The fiscal year of the Academy shall be the same as the calendar year. 


282 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


Section 5. The President and the Treasurer, as directed by the Board of Managers, shall jointly 
assign securities belonging to the Academy and indorse financial and legal papers necessary for the uses 
of the Academy, except those relating to current expenditures authorized by the Board. In case of 
disability or absence of the President or Treasurer, the Board of Managers may designate the Presi- 
dent-elect or a qualified Delegate as Acting President or an officer of the Academy as Acting 
Treasurer, who shall perform the duties of these officers during such disability or absence. 


Section 6. An Editor shall be in charge of all activities connected with the Academy’s publi- 
cations. He shall be nominated by the Executive Committee and appointed by the President for an 
indefinite term subject to annual review by the Board of Managers. The Editor shall serve as a member 
of the Board. 


Section 7. An Archivist may be appointed by the President. If appointed, he shall maintain the 
permanent records of the Academy, including important records which are no longer in current use by 
the Secretary, Treasurer, or other officer, and such other documents and material as the Board of 
Managers may direct. 


Section 8. All officers and chairmen of standing committees shall submit annual reports at the 
May meeting of the Board of Managers. 


Section 9. The Nominating Committee (Article IV, Section 2) shall prepare a slate listing two or 
more persons for each of the offices of President-elect, of Secretary and of Treasurer, and four or 
more persons for the two Managers-at-large whose terms expire each year and at least two persons to 
fill each vacant unexpired term of manager-at-large. The slate shall be presented for approval to the 
Board of Managers at its first meeting in October. Not later than November 15, the Secretary shall 
forward to each Academy Member and Fellow an announcement of the election, the committee’s 
nomination for the offices to be filled, and a list of incumbents. Additional candidates for such offices 
may be proposed by any Member or Fellow in good standing by letter received by the Secretary not 
later than Dec. 1. The name of any eligible candidate so proposed by ten Members or Fellows shall be 
entered on the ballot. 


Section 10. Not later than December 15, the Secretary shall prepare and mail ballots to 
members and fellows. Independent nominations shall be included on the ballot, and the names of the 
nominees shall be arranged in alphabetical order. When more than two candidates are nominated for 
the same office the voting shall be by preferential ballot in the manner prescribed by the Board of 
Managers. The ballot shall contain also a notice to the effect that votes not received by the Secretary 
before the first Thursday of January, and votes of individuals whose dues are in arrears for one year or 
more, will not be counted. The Committee of Tellers shall count the votes and report the results at the 
annual meeting of the Academy. 


Section 11. The newly elected officers shall take office at the close of the annual meeting, the 
President-elect of the previous year automatically becoming President. 


Article V. BOARD OF MANAGERS 


Section 1. The activities of the Academy shall be guided by the Board of Managers, consisting 
of the President, the President-elect, the immediate past President, one Delegate from each of the 
affiliated societies, the Secretary, the Treasurer, six elected Managers-at-Large, and the Editor. The 
elected officers of the Academy shall hold like offices on the Board of Managers. 


Section 2. One Delegate shall be selected by each affiliated society. He shall serve until re- 
placed by his society. Each Delegate is expected to participate in the meetings of the Board of 
Managers and vote on behalf of his society. 


Section 3. The Board of Managers shall transact all business of the Academy not otherwise 
provided for. A quorum of the Board shall be nine of its members. 


Section 4. The Board of Managers may provide for such standing and special committees as it 
deems necessary. 


Section 5. The Board shall have power to fill vacancies in its own membership until the next 
annual election. This does not apply to the offices of President and Treasurer (see Art. IV, Sect. 5), 
nor to Delegates (see Art. V, Sect. 2). 

Article VI. COMMITTEES 


Section 1. An Executive Committee shall have general supervision of Academy finances, ap- 
prove the selection of a depository for the current funds, and direct the investment of the permanent 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 283 


funds. At the beginning of the year it shall present to the Board of Managers an itemized statement of 
receipts and expenditures of the preceding year and a budget based on the estimated receipts and 
disbursements of the coming year, with such recommendations as may seem desirable. It shall be 
charged with the duty of considering all activities of the Academy which may tend to maintain and 
promote relations with the affiliated societies, and with any other business which may be assigned to it 
by the Board. The Executive Committee shall consist of the President, the President-elect, the Secre- 
tary and the Treasurer (or Acting Treasurer) ex officio, as well as two members appointed annually by 
the President from the membership of the Board. 


Section 2. The President, with the approval of the Board of Managers, shall appoint a Nominat- 
ing Committee of six Fellows of the Academy, at least one of whom shall be a past President of the 
Academy, and at least three of whom shall have served as Delegates for at least one year. The 
Chairman shall be a past President. (See Article IV, Section 9.) 


Section 3. The President shall appoint in advance of the annual meeting an Auditing Com- 
mittee consisting of three persons, none of whom is an officer, to audit the accounts of the Treasurer 
(Art. VII, Sect. 1). 


Section 4. On or before the last Thursday of each year the President shall appoint a committee 
of three Tellers whose duty it shall be to canvass the ballots (Art. IV, Sect. 10, Art. VII, Sect. 1). 


Section 5. The President shall appoint from the Academy membership such committees as are 
authorized by the Board of Managers and such special committees as necessary to carry out his 
functions. Committee appointments shall be staggered as to term whenever it is determined by the 
Board to be in the interest of continuity of committee affairs. 


Article VII. MEETINGS 


Section 1. The annual meeting shall be held each year in May. It shall be held on the third 
Thursday of the month unless otherwise directed by the Board of Managers. At this meeting the 
reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, Auditing Committee (see Article VI, Sect. 3), and Committee of 
Tellers shall be presented. 


Section 2. Other meetings may be held at such time and place as the Board of Managers may 
determine. 


Section 3. The rules contained in ‘‘Robert’s Rules of Order Revised’’ shall govern the Academy 
in all cases to which they are applicable, and in which they are not inconsistent with the bylaws or 
special rules of order of the Academy. 


Article VIII. COOPERATION 


Section 1. The term ‘‘affiliated societies’’ in their order of seniority (see Art. VI, Sect. 2) shall 
be held to cover the: 


Philosophical Society of Washington 

Anthropological Society of Washington 

Biological Society of Washington 

Chemical Society of Washington 

Entomological Society of Washington 

National Geographic Society 

Geological Society of Washington 

Medical Society of the District of Columbia 

Columbia Historical Society 

Botanical Society of Washington 

Washington Section of Society of American Foresters 

Washington Society of Engineers 

Washington Section of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 
Washington Section of American Society of Mechanical Engineers 
Helminthological Society of Washington 

Washington Branch of American Society for Microbiology 

Washington Post of Society of American Military Engineers 

National Capital Section of American Society of Civil Engineers 

District of Columbia Section of Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 
Washington Chapter of American Society for Metals 

Washington Section of the International Association for Dental Research 
Washington Section of American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 


284 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


D.C. Branch of American Meteorological Society 

Insecticide Society of Washington 

Washington Chapter of the Acoustical Society of America 
Washington Section of the American Nuclear Society 

Washington Section of Institute of Food Technologists 
Baltimore-Washington Section of the American Ceramic Society 
Washington-Baltimore Section of the Electrochemical Society 
Washington History of Science Club 

Chesapeake Section of American Association of Physics Teachers 
National Capital Section of Optical Society of America 

Washington Section of American Society of Plant Physiologists 
Washington Operations Research Council 

Washington Section of Instrument Society of America 

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers 
National Capital Astronomers 

Maryland-District of Columbia-Virginia Section of the Mathematical Association of America 
District of Columbia Institute of Chemists 


and such others as may be hereafter recommended by the Board and elected by two-thirds of the 
members of the Academy voting, the vote being taken by correspondence. A society may be released 
from affiliation on recommendation of the Board of Managers, and the concurrence of two-thirds of 
the members of the Academy voting. 


Section 2. The Academy may assist the affiliated scientific societies of Washington in any 
matter of common interest, as in joint meetings, or in the publication of a joint directory: Provided, it 
shall not have power to incur for or in the name of one or more of these societies any expense or 
liability not previously authorized by said society or societies, nor shall it without action of the Board 
of Managers be responsible for any expenses incurred by one or more of the affiliated societies. 


Section 3. No affiliated society shall be committed by the Academy to any action in conflict 
with the charter, constitution, or bylaws of said society, or of its parent society. 


Section 4. The Academy may establish and assist a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences for 
the encouragement of interest in science among students in the Washington area of high school and 
college age. 


Article IX. AWARDS AND GRANTS-IN-AID 


Section 1. The Academy may award medals and prizes, or otherwise express its recognition and 
commendation of scientific work of high merit and distinction in the Washington area. Such recog- 
nition shall be given only on approval by the Board of Managers of a recommendation by a committee 
on awards for scientific achievement. 


Section 2. The Academy may receive or make grants to aid scientific research in the Wash- 
ington area. Grants shall be received or made only on approval by the Board of Managers of a 
recommendation by a committee on grants-in-aid for scientific research. 


Article X. AMENDMENTS 


Section 1. Amendments to these bylaws shall be proposed by the Board of Managers and 
submitted to the members of the Academy in the form of a mail ballot accompanied by a statement of 
the reasons for the proposed amendment. A two-thirds majority of those members voting is required 
for adoption. At least two weeks shall be allowed for the ballots to be returned. 


Section 2. Any affiliated society or any group of ten or more members may propose an 
amendment to the Board of Managers in writing. The action of the Board in accepting or rejecting this 
proposal to amend the bylaws shall be by a vote on roll call, and the complete roll call shall be entered 
in the minutes of the meeting. 


ACT OF INCORPORATION OF 
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
We, the undersigned, persons of full age and citizens of the United States, and a majority being 
citizens of the District of Columbia, pursuant to and in conformity with sections 545 to 552, inclu- 


sive, of the Revised Statutes of the United States relating to the District of Columbia, as amended by 
an Act of Congress entitled ‘‘An Act to amend the Revised Statutes of the United States relating to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 285 


the District of Columbia and for other purposes,’’ approved April 23, 1884, hereby associate ourselves 
together as a society or body corporate and certify in writing: 


ie That the name of the society is the Washington Academy of Sciences. 
2 That the term for which the Corporation is organized shall be perpetual. 
Sis That the Corporation is organized and shall be operated exclusively for charitable, educa- 


tional and scientific purposes and in furtherance of these purposes and for no other purpose shall have, 
but not be limited to, the following specific powers and purposes: 


a. To encourage in the broadest and most liberal manner the advancement and promotion 
of science. 
0), To acquire, hold, and convey real estate and other property and to establish general and 


special funds. 

To hold meetings. 

To publish and distribute documents. 

To conduct lectures. 

To conduct, endow, or assist investigation in any department of science. 

To acquire and maintain a library. 

And, in general, to transact any business pertinent to an academy of sciences. 

Provided, however, that notwithstanding the foregoing enumerated powers, the Corpora- 
tion shall not engage in activities, other than as an insubstantial part thereof, which are not in 
themselves in furtherance of its charitable, educational and scientific purposes. 

4. That the affairs, funds, and property of the Corporation shall be in general charge of a 
Board of Managers, the number of whose members for the first year shall be nineteen, all of whom 
shall be chosen from among the members of the Academy. 

3 That in the event of dissolution or termination of the Corporation, title to and posses- 
sion of all the property of the Corporation shall pass to such organization, or organizations, as may be 
designated by the Board of Managers; provided, however, that in no event shall any property of the 
Corporation be transmitted to or vested in any organization other than an organization which is then 
in existence and then qualified for exemption as a charitable, educational or scientific organization 
under the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, as amended. 

Editor’s Note: This Act of Incorporation is shown as amended in 1964 by Francois N. 
Frenkiel, President, and George W. Irving, Jr., Secretary, acting for the Washington Academy of 
Sciences, in a Certificate of Amendment notarized on September 16, 1964. A copy of the original Act 
of Incorporation dated February 18, 1898, appears in the Journal for November 1963, page 212. 


mag ho a0 


286 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 3, 1974 


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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Instructions to Contributors 


General 

Type manuscripts on white bond paper 
either 8% by 11 or 8 by 10% inches. Double 
space all lines, including those in abstracts, 
tables, legends, quoted matter, acknowledg- 
ments, and references cited. Number pages 
consecutively. Place your name and com- 
plete address in the upper right hand corner 
of the title page. 


Title, Author, and Affiliation 

Page | of your manuscript should contain 
only this information and your name and 
address. Choose a concise but complete and 
meaningful title. In research papers con- 
cerning biological subjects, include an indi- 


cation of the order and family of the taxa 


discussed. Academic degrees will not nor- 
mally be included unless the author so 
specifies. If possible, combine your affilia- 


tion and mailing address (including Zip) so 


that readers can write to you directly. 


Abstract 

Type on a separate sheet at the end of the 
manuscript. Make the abstract intelligible 
without reference to the text of the paper. 
Write an informative digest of the significant 


content and conclusions, not a mere descrip- 


tion. Generally, the abstract should not ex- 
ceed 3% of the text. 


Footnotes 

Use footnotes as sparingly as possible. 
Number text footnotes consecutively with 
Arabic numerals and type them on a sepa- 
rate sheet of paper at the end of the manu- 


Script. Type table footnotes, if any, below 
_ each pertinent table on the same page. 


Illustrations and Legends 


The quality of all original illustrations 


~ must be high enough to facilitate good offset 
_ reproduction. They should have ample mar- 
gins and be drawn on heavy stock or 
_ fastened to stiff cardboard to prevent bend- 
_ing. They should be proportioned to column 


(1 x 3) or page (2 x 3) type-dimensions, 
leaving space for legend material. Photo- 


graphs should have a glossy finish. They re- 
produce best when the contrast is fairly 
high. Identify each illustration with number 
and author in light pencil marks on the 
reverse side. Submit all illustrations sepa- 
rately — please do not glue or clip them to 
the pages of the manuscript. 

Do not type or write legends directly on 
the illustrations. Type legends on a separate 
sheet or sheets at the end of the manuscript. 
Indicate where you want illustrations to 
appear in the printed paper by writing the 
figure numbers lightly in the text margins, 
and be sure that each figure is properly re- 
ferenced in the text itself. Original “art” will 
be returned only at the author’s request and 
expense. 


Tables 

Include tables only when the same infor- 
mation cannot be presented economically in 
the text, or when a table presents the data in 
a more meaningful way. Consider preparing 
extremely complicated tabular matter in a 
form suitable for direct reproduction as an 
illustration. In such cases, the use of the 
typewriter is not recommended. 


References to Literature 

Limit references within the text and in 
synonymies to author and year (and page if 
needed). In a “Reference Cited” section, list 
alphabetically by senior author only those 
papers you have included in the text. Like- 
wise, be sure all the text references are 
listed. Type the “References Cited” section 
on a separate sheet after the last page of 
text. Abbreviations should follow the USA 
Standard for Periodical Title Abbreviations, 
739 .5-1963. 


Submission of Manuscripts 

Send completed manuscripts and sup- 
porting material to the Academy office (see 
address inside front cover) in care of the 
Editor. Authors will be requested to read 
Xerox “proofs” and invited to submit re- 
print orders prior to publication. 


Reprints - Prices for reprints may be obtained on request. 


CONTENTS (Continued from Front Cover) 


Academy Affairs 


Six Scientists Receive Academy’s Annual Awards ...:..........92ss5e0ee 236 
Board of Managers Meeting Notes 


Feb. 37 ATA. coe Cen bie du dd Meee CaS TR ee 239 
LE gael PAR oe: ieee a eres Peele ESR RR Ge eres 240 
New shellaws on(-5 osaceediecssaac | dulbee, Soi ode te alge uae’ sal olen ee ee ae er 242 
Scientists.im the NEWS ss... sec eaies abies ccs sceee eee 63 oe 245 
Obituaries ; 
Lewis J.) Clank oo 0.5 sb oie aie i vb wae ae os dO so ey Se ee ee 247 
David TE. Crawiord: 2.5 6 o.6 25 § occ eisiaiana dys cies 6 acm 0 pie ieee 247 
Sénekerim M. Dohanian ....... 0. 00.0026. ocele ce oe 250 
Alfred J.) Zimda.. o.oo de wee ow Se ease eee eee Se eee Renee 254 
INOLICES Gs Sie ore Gia e147 4 eelnd SA eS amok Cee ee hee ee ee 244, 253, 255 
Directory, 1974 
Foreword): 205 $2.) see Boe ile eee aie ee sci be ee 256 
Directory of the Academy ©. 0.0.) ocloeuws cece eos tae pee oo eee 256 
Alphabetical Listing ....... Bot asdadh eae ed Gletd fo Scher sig Oe (261 m 
a ~ s 
Bylaws of the Academy .............5...<.04. 00+ ¢05+105 0:50 a 
=a > & 
— ami =. 
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OG, 7S 
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VOLUME 64 
Number 4 


Jour nal of the DECEMBER, 1974 


WASHINGTON 
ACADEMY. SCIENCES 


Issued Quarterly 
at Washington, D.C. 


Feature 
A. BRAMLEY: Speculations Concerning the Dependence of Emission 

Line Contour on Frequency Shift in the Scattering of Mono- 

MIRO ANT Cm ACH ALOU re ras ciel Cult at clare. £50 a vauchateslie mictaltue tana soot & 


Research Reports 
J. E. DRIFMEYER: Zn and Cu Levels in the Eastern Oyster, 
Crassostrea virginica, From the Lower James River ................ 292 
W. T. ATYEO, E. W. BAKER, and M. D. DELFINADO: Gaudiella 
minuta, A New Genus and Species of Mite (Acarina: Acaridia) 


Ecloneine. tothe New Family Gaudiellidae ...........2..2.:20.0620: 295 
ROBERT L. SMILEY: A New Species of Coccipolipus Parasitic on 

the Mexican Bean Beetle (Acarina: Podapolipidae).................. 298 
EDGAR F. RIEK: Biological Note on the Acridid Grasshopper Stenacris 

vitreipennis vitreipennis (Marschall) (Insecta: Orthoptera)............ 302 


LOUISE M. RUSSELL: Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch), the Correct 
Name of the Grape Phylloxeran (Hemiptera: Homoptera: Phyl- 
Pepe IGR AS PEP est tee ert oie WS eR oP tiny he Wane ava Meee ch 303 
WOJCIECH PULAWSKI: Synonymical Notes on Larrinae and Astatinae 
BEMUAMETIO PECKAsr SPHECIGAG)) js: sieuseichss ak Utes laieiels oud os ose sie aes 


Academy Affairs 
Board of Managers Meeting Notes— April 30, 1974 ..................0.- 324 
1 EY FEL OU veel eerie c Ble. cies a hae er cee Ene eee Oe AMR is ena 

Obituaries 
IEPISS IM CAG i Se ees eat Rennes Cook ots of SI Eg a ls ee Re ee 
ETE VB. [SGA Ee Ce Pe WIE ad AS Speke a 


Washington Academy of Sciences 


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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 287 


o 


FEATURE 


Speculations Concerning the Dependence of Emission Line 
Contour on Frequency Shift in the Scattering of 


Monochromatic Radiation 


A. Bramley’ 


7124 Strathmore St., Falls Church, Va. 22042 


ABSTRACT 


The importance of small red wavelength shifts occurring in the scattering of visible 
light is discussed with regard to the interpretation of the contour of stellar emission lines. 


The observed distribution of the in- 
tensity of stellar radiation as a function 
of wavelength has led to conclusions 
concerning the structure of the universe. 
In view of the importance of these con- 
clusions, one should make certain that 
no possible causes contributing to the 
form of the contour have been ignored. 
Small red shifts accompanying scat- 
tering, besides those originating in the 
Doppler effect, have been observed and 
are discussed theoretically below. Thus 
if the conditions are such that scattering 
accompanied by wavelength shifts plays 
a role in determining the shape of this 
curve, then the results might be sig- 
nificantly altered from those obtained 
without considering the contribution to 
the curve of this particular type of 
scattered radiation. 

Cabanne and Daure (C.R. 186, 1533, 
1928) reported a red shift of the Rayleigh 
lines of the order of 0.06 A in a variety 
of liquids. This was later confirmed by 
Maener (C.R. 191, 1121, 1930). I ob- 
served similar data (Phys. Rev. 34, 1061, 


‘Submitted by Mrs. Arthur Bramley as a post- 
humous contribution from the author. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


1929), namely a red shift in the intense 
scattering at small angles of light passing 
through a Kerr cell operated at 300 MHz 
with water as the dielectric. This effect 
may arise from the orientation of the 
water dipole in the field to form a coarse 
grating as suggested by Dodd and San- 
chez (Amer. Phys. Soc. Bull., Ser. II, 
13, GFS, 101, 1968). Finally, Singh 
(Proc. Phys. Soc. London 66A, 309, 
1953) showed that Raman lines of CCl, 
excited by the Hg 4358 A line suffered 
a red shift when an electric field was 
impressed across the liquid. He sug- 
gested that the electric field may have 
induced an ordered orientation of the 
liquid molecules modifying the condi- 
tions under which scattering occurs. All 
these observations were made with 
liquids because the scattering in gases is 
of very low intensity and the measure- 
ments of the line profile tend to be 
obscured by stray diffused light. 

These observations have been largely 
ignored in calculating the distribution of 
scattered radiation. Conditions in the 
stellar atmospheres are often such that 
multiple scattering predominates. This 
situation makes it all the more important 


289 


that the analysis of the scattering process 
be adequate and all inclusive. 

Another relevant aspect which I found 
(Electron. Letters 3, 266, 1967) is the 


scattering of ultrashort monochromatic . 


coherent pulses, about 100 wavelengths 
long, by free electrons. This process 
occurs as aresult of the rectifying interac- 
tion of ultrashort pulses with a nonlinear 
intensity gradient with free electrons 
in a highly ionized medium. Consider 
an asymmetric light pulse propagated 
in the z-direction and polarized in 
the y-direction. Let the envelope of the 
absolute value of the electric vector E 
be triangular in shape as expressed in 
Eq. (2) of my earlier paper (Electron. 
Letters 3, 266, 1967). Carrying out the 
indicated integration over the duration T 
of the light pulse, we obtain for the 
change in the momentum M, of the light 
pulse 


— eWVs Hmax 
6p N 


The bar denotes the average value of the 
electron velocity in the x-direc- 
tion during the passage of the light 
pulse. This change in momentum re- 
quires the energy of the light pulse to 
change by an amount AW = cM,. The 
parameters are shown in Table 1. 

It is obvious that in the absence of a 
third process, the conservation of energy 
and momentum cannot be maintained in 
the interaction of a free electron and an 
electromagnetic pulse. 

The interaction of the electron with 
the ionized medium may be of sufficient 


M, = 


Table 1. Terminology and Typical Values for the 
Parameters 


Parameter Symbol Typical value 
Velocity of light Cc 3-108 m/sec 
Magnetic field, maximum 

absolute value Hac 0.4-10? amp-turn/m 
Average electron velocity 

in x-direction Vx 1-108 m/sec 
Frequency of light v 3-10 seca! 
Number of wavelengths 

per pulse N 100 
290 


strength to make possible a transfer of 
momentum to a third particle, an ionized 
atom or molecule, so that the electro- 
magnetic energy change can be assumed 
by the electron. The other alternative is 
the radiation of electromagnetic energy 
by the accelerated electron or, what is 
probably equivalent, a redistribution of 
the waveform for the coherent ultrashort 
pulse to satisfy the conservation of 
energy consistent with the value for the 
electromagnetic momentum. 

For values of Enax = 1.5 10'° v/m, 
readily obtainable in continuous coherent 
light beams, a wavemechanical repre- 
sentation is required. However, the recti- 
fying interaction considered here is gen- 
erated for the typical case N = 100, 
A = 1:10-*mbyapulse 0.1 mm inlength. 
In this region, the classical electro- 
mechanical approach should be valid. 

The final consideration concerns the 
magnitude of the energy transferred 
between the ultrashort light pulse and the 
electron. This transfer will occur 
between a single photon and the electron. 

On the basis of the parameters listed 
in Table 1, we obtain Av/y = 1-10°°. 
The agreement between this result and 
the experimental data cited above is 
purely coincidental. In stellar radiation 
processes, possible values of v as high 
as 108 m/sec have been considered. The 
value of Enax = 1.6°10° Vim iss 
lower range for E max in ultrashort pulses 
produced in the laboratory. It it is as- 
sumed that v ~ 5-10’ m/sec and Enax 
~ 3-10°, then Av/p is 1-107. 

If collisions are to play a significant 
role in the rate of adjustment of momen- 
tum and energy, then the lower limit for 
the density of electrons and atoms or 
molecules in an ionized medium is 10° 
per m?. Since in this process the radiation 
from the accelerated electron is emitted 
at the collision with an ionized atom or 
molecule, the radiation pattern resulting 
from the interaction of an ultrashort 
coherent pulse with a free electron will 
approach that of an antenna, provided 
the width of the coherent light beam is 
much larger than Nd. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


The wavelength shift on scattering 
may well play a significant role in the 
interpretation of stellar observations. In 
the measurements by Wilson, discussed 
by Unsold (‘Der neue Kosmos,’’ 195, 
Springer, Heidelberg, 1967), the half- 
width of the emission lines of stars of 
spectral type G to M* was found to be 
substantially greater than expected. The 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


observations on the contour of the emis- 
sion lines fit in with the data presented 
in this note. In the case of multiple 
scattering of a high order, the contour of 
an emission line is fundamentally 
changed. This does not represent an 
absorption of energy but a displacement 
of energy in the blue towards the red end 
of the spectrum. 


291 


RESEARCH REPORTS 


Zn and Cu Levels in the Eastern Oyster, 
Crassostrea virginica, From the Lower James River 


J. E. Drifmeyer 


Dept. Environmental Sciences, University of Virginia, 


Charlottesville, Virginia 22903 


ABSTRACT 


Levels of Zn and Cu in shucked, whole bodies of the oyster Crassostrea virginica 
ranged up to 10,000 ppm Zn and 584 ppm Cu, with levels averaging 3915 ppm Zn and 
180 ppm Cu. These levels are near the upper limits of values previously reported for 
the species and are considerably higher than levels reported in a previous survey of the 
same area. The data may indicate increased Zn contamination of lower James River 


oysters over the period 1971-1973. 


Live oysters were collected on 27 June 
1973 from a rock retaining wall along 
Craney Island, a large man-made penin- 
sula extending into the lower James River 
(Fig. 1). After shucking, the oyster body 
was dried to a constant weight at 105° C. 
and digested using nitric and perchloric 
acids (Baumhardt and Welch, 1972; 
Anderson, 1972). Zn and Cu concentra- 
tions were determined using atomic ab- 
sorption spectrophotometry and results 
are expressed on the basis of wgm metal/ 
gm dry oyster tissue. A total of 104 
oysters was sampled. These were pooled 
in order to provide sufficient material 
for analysis, yielding 50 pairs of Zn and 
Cu concentrations (Fig. 2). 

As a check on analytical procedure, 
replicate samples of standard bovine liver 
were carried through the entire digestion 
analysis procedure. Results of these 
determinations, shown in Table 1, indi- 
cate generally good agreement with the 
prescribed National Bureau of Standards 


292 


values. The fact that observed levels 
were slightly below the prescribed con- 
centrations may mean that levels re- 
corded for the oysters may be slight 
underestimates. 


Discussion 


The bioaccumulation of heavy metals, 
especially Zn and Cu, by Crassostrea 
virginica has been well documented 
(Hiltner and Wichmann, 1919; Hunter 
and Harrison, 1928; McFarren ef al., 
1962; Galtsoff, 1964; Pringle et al., 1968; 
Shuster and Pringle, 1969; Kopfier and 
Moyer, 1969; Pequegnot et al., 1969; 
Wolfe, 1970; Windom and Smith, 1972; 
and Bender et al., 1972). 

In their survey of Virginia estuaries, 
including the area sampled in this study, 
Bender et al. (1972) advanced a linear 
relationship between Zn and Cu content 
in oysters from areas without unnatural 
inputs of either of the metals. A 95% 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Crane Is. 
Study site = 


ATLANTIC OCEAN 


Fig. 1. Craney Island study site, lower James River. 


confidence band about this least squares 
regression line (Y = 1.9 + 0.09X) was 
described by Y = —33 + 0.07X and Y 
= + 30 + 0.11X. Points lying either 
below or above this confidence band indi- 
cate unnatural contamination of oysters 
by Zn or Cu, respectively. Zn and Cu 
levels in oysters from this study are 
described by the equation Y = —31 
+ 0.05X, indicating increased Zn con- 
tamination (Fig. 3). 

Several factors may be advanced to 


450 


Table 1. Analysis of standard bovine liver. 


Zn (ppm) Cu (ppm) 
National Bureau 
of Standards 130 + 10 193 = 10 
This study 180 =. 5:0 


108 + 6.0 


explain the observed increase in Zn 
levels in lower James River oysters over 
the period 1971 to 1973. First, the chemi- 
cal methods utilized to digest the oyster 
tissue differed slightly. Bender ef al. 
(1972) employed a nitric acid process, 
while I used a nitric and perchloric 
acid digestion. Secondly, part of the 
increase in Zn levels might be ascribed 
to seasonal changes in the elemental 
composition of the oyster (Galtsoff, 
1953). Bender et al. collected oyster sam- 
ples from February to March, while I 
sampled in June. Thirdly, the study by 
Bender et al., being a survey report of 


3 
(8200, 545) ee 
(10000, 489) 


3000 


4000 


5000 6000 7oo0o 


Zn ppm. 


Fig. 2. Relationship between zinc and copper in oysters from the lower James River. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


293 


Fig. 3. Oyster data indicating Zn contamination, 
after Bender, Huggett, and Slone (1972). The 
natural range represents the 95% confidence inter- 
val for Zn and Cu levels in oysters from uncon- 
taminated Virginia estuaries. 


general conditions in several Virginia 
estuaries, may not have had sampling 
points dense enough to detect this local 
area of higher contamination. Lastly, 
the difference between the Zn levels 
reported for 1971 and those observed in 
1973 may reflect a real increase in Zn 
pollution of this waterway. 


Summary 


A survey of Zn and Cu in oysters 
inhabiting the lower James River was 
conducted and results of the analysis 
compared to a previous survey of the 
Same area. A substantial increase in Zn 
content of the oysters was observed over 
the 2-1/2 year period between the studies. 
An increase in the Zn contamination of 
the waters and/or seasonal variation in 
the elemental composition of the oyster 
are probable causes. 


294 


References cited 


Anderson, J. 1972. Wet digesting versus dry ashing 
for the analysis of fish tissue for trace metals. 
Atomic Absorpt. Newsl. 11(4): 88-89. 

Baumhardt, G. R., and L. F. Welch. 1972. Lead 
uptake and corn growth with soil applied Pb. 
J. Environm. Qual. 1(1): 92-94. 

Bender, M. E., R. J. Huggett, and H. D. Slone. 
1972. Heavy metals—an inventory of existing 
conditions. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 62(2): 144-153. 

Galtsoff, P. S. 1953. Accumulation of Mn, Fe, Cu, 
and Zn in the body of American oyster. Anat. 
Rec. 117: 601. 

. 1964. The American oyster, Crassostrea 
virginica. Fish. Bull. 64: 383-396. 

Hiltner, R. S., and H. J. Wichmann. 1919. Zinc 
in oysters. J. Biol. Chem. 38: 205-221. 

Hunter, A. C., and C. W. Harrison. 1928. Bac- 
teriology and chemistry of oysters. U. S. Dept. 
Agric. Tech. Bull. #64. 

Kopfier, F. C., and J. Moyer. 1969. Studies on 
trace metals in shellfish, pp. 67-80, in Proc. 
Gulf and S. Atlantic Shellfish Sanitation Re- 
search Conf., Cincinnati, Ohio. 

MeFarren, E. F., J. E. Campbell, and J. B. Engle. 
1962. The occurrence of copper and zinc in 
Shellfish, pp. 229-234, in National Shellfish 
Sanitation Workshop. 

Pequegnot, J. E., S. W. Fowler, and L. F. Small. 
1969. Estimates of Zn requirements of marine 
organisms. J. Canada Fish. Res. Bd. 26: 
145-150. 

Pringle, B. H., D. E. Hissong, E. L. Katz, and S. T. 
Mularka. 1968. Trace metal accumulation by 
estuarine mollusks. J. Sanitary Engr. Div. ASCE 
94: 455-475. 

Shuster, C. N., Jr., and B. H. Pringle. 1969. 
Trace metal accumulation by the American 
eastern oyster, Crassostrea virginica. Proc. 
Nat. Shellfish Assoc. 59: 91-103. 

Windom, H. L., and R. G. Smith. 1972. Dis- 
tribution of Fe, Mg, Cu, Zn, and Ag in oysters 
along the Georgia coast. J. Fish. Res. Bd. 
Canada 29(4): 450-452. 

Wolfe, D. A. 1970. Levels of stable Zn and 65 Zn 
in Crassostrea virginica from North Carolina. 
J. Fish. Res. Bd. Canada 27: 47-57. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Gaudiella minuta, A New Genus and Species of Mite 
(Acarina: Acaridia) Belonging to the New Family 


Gaudiellidae'? 


W. T. Atyeo, E. W. Baker, and M. D. Delfinado 


Department of Entomology, University of Georgia, Athens 30602; Systematic 
Entomology Laboratory, IIBIII, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705; and 
New York State Museum and Science Service, Albany, N. Y. 12234; respectively 


ABSTRACT 


A new family, genus, and species, Gaudiellidae, Gaudiella minuta, is described from 
a stingless bee, Melipona quadrifasciata Lep., from Brazil. 


Originally, we had intended to publish 
a new genus and species, but to assign 
the unique specimen being studied, it was 
necessary to delve into the higher classi- 
fication of the Astigmata. In this study 
we discovered an interesting method of 
partially defining some of the higher cate- 
gories with both morphological and bio- 
logical characterizations. 

Utilizing the suprafamial groups of 
Krantz (1970) as an example, the sub- 
order Astigmata (Acaridiae of authors) 
is divided into 2 supercohorts—the 
Acaridia with the superfamilies Ano- 
etoidea, Canestrinoidea, and Acaroidea, 
and the supercohorts Psoroptidia with 
the remaining superfamilies including 
Ewingoidea, Psoroptoidea, Analgoidea, 
and Sarcoptoidea. Using the chaeto- 
taxal and solenidiotaxal signatures of 
Grandjean (1939), the following charac- 
ters can be used to separate certain 
suprafamilial taxa without resorting to 
host data or pretarsal modifications: 

1. Supercohort Acaridia, superfamily Ano- 
etoidea: tibia I with two ventral setae (gT, hT) 
and solenidion ¢; venter with 2 pairs of large 
ring structures not associated with the genital 


region; genital discs large. 


2. Supercohort Acaridia, superfamily Aca- 


"Research supported in part by the National 
Science Foundation (GB-15105). 

?Published by permission of the Director, New 
York State Science Service, Journal Series No. 168. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


roidea: tibia I with 2 ventral setae and solenidion 
gy; venter with 2 pairs of well-developed genital 
discs associated with genital region. 

3. Supercohort Acaridia, superfamily Canes- 
trinoidea: tibia I with only solenidion ¢, without 
ventral setae; venter with 2 pairs of well-de- 
veloped discs associated with region. 

4. Supercohort Psoroptidia, superfamily 
Ewingoidea: tibia I with 2 ventral setae and with 
atrophied genital discs; all other superfamilies 
(we have not examined all families): tibia I with 
1 ventral seta (gT) and solenidion ¢; venter without 
genital discs or with atrophied genital discs asso- 
ciated with genital region. 


The new taxon, Gaudiella minuta, is 
adequately distinct to be considered to 
represent a new family in the Acaroidea, 
Gaudiellidae. Characters are the maxi- 
mal leg chaetotaxy of Grandjean (1939), 
the external morphology of Knille 
(1959), and the idiosomal chaetotaxy of 
Atyeo and Gaud (1966). The mite has 
features typical of the Acaridia and 
others common to most Psoroptidia but 
with the following differences: 


1. Well-developed genital discs associated with 
the genital region. 

2. Two pairs of setae ventrolateral on tibia I. 

3. Four pairs of lyrifissures (lyriform pores), 
of which 3 pairs are on the dorsal idiosoma and 
one pair is subterminal, lateral to the anal slit. 

4. Many pairs of setae surrounding the anal 
slit. In the Psoroptidia, there are usually 1 or 2 
pairs. 

5. Seta wF on tibia IV. Although this seta 
occurs in the Psoroptidia, it is very rare. 

6. Setae u, v and p,q at the apices of the tarsi. 
In the Psoroptidia (and many Acaridia), these 
setae are absent or only p and q are present. 


295 


7. Found on insects—common hosts for para- 
sitic or phoretic forms of the Acaridia. 


These differences from the generalized 
Acaroidea usually would not be suffi- 
cient for the establishment of a new 
family. Singly, some of these differences 
can be found in known taxa, but together 
the unique morphological modifications 
give sufficient evidence for establishing 
the family Gaudiellidae. The following 
characteristics are distinctive of this new 
family. 

1. The disc-shaped ambulacrum sup- 
ported by a short stalk has only one 
counterpart in the supercohort Acaridia, 
namely, the Hypoderidae (Hypo- 
dectidae) (see Fain and Bafort, 1967). 
The Hypoderidae, subcutaneous para- 
sites of birds in the deutonymphal stage, 
have a very reduced ambulacral disc 
reminiscent of the Sarcoptidae or similar 
to a clawless Glycyphagidae. The 
ambulacrum of the Gaudiellidae is simi- 
lar to many of the taxa of the super- 
cohort Psoroptidia, especially some of 
the Psoroptoidea and Analgoidea. 

2. The structure of the oviporus is 
unique (fig. 2), although most com- 
ponents can be homologized with those 
of other Acaroidea (compare with 
Glycyphagus destructor (Schrank) as 
illustrated by Kniille, 1959, fig. 33). 

3. The relative positions of the three 
dorsal lyrifissures and dorsal idiosomal 
setae are unique. In species that we are 
familiar with the general pattern of 
lyrifissures and setae can be related to 
those of Acarus siro L. as illustrated 
by Kniille (1959, fig. 20). In Gaudiella 
minuta, regardless of the interpretation 
of the setal pattern, there is little re- 
semblance between the two conditions. 
One pair of dorsal hysterosomal setae is 
absent (either J, 2 or h), and 1 pair of 
lyrifissures is almost middorsal in posi- 
tion in G. minuta. 

4. There are no dorsal hysterosomal 
glands (opisthonotal glands), or is there 
evidence of a vestigeal pore. 

5. The sejugal suture is absent while 
there is a deep furrow on the prodorsal 
shield— almost a tectum. 


296 


6. An invagination lateral to the an- 
terior genital setae is situated at the mesal 
termination of a thin, horizontal apo- 
deme. This invagination could be the 


Opening to a ventral hysterosomal gland; 


such a gland has been observed in males 
of 2 undescribed species of feather mites 
(Analgidae: Xolalginae). 

7. Certain setae and solenidia are 
lacking from leg I, namely, aa, a2, 
o2, and the famulus. These deficiencies 
are not unique, only indicative of a trend 
for reduction found in other Astigmata. 


Family Gaudiellidae, new family 


Diagnosis.—Small acaroid mites at present 
associated with stingless bees (Melipona quadri- 
fasciata Lep.). Female with small disc-shaped 
ambulacra supported on short stalks. Dorsal 
hysterosoma lacking external vertical setae as well 
as 1 pair of dorsal setae and sejugal suture; 3 
pairs of lyrifissures present, 1 of which is mid- 
dorsal in position. Ventral idiosoma with re- 
duced, simple coxosternal skeleton; midventral 
oviporous Y-shaped and partially covered by integ- 
umental flaps; numerous setae and 1 pair of 
lyrifissures near anal slit. Legs 5-segmented, each 
ending in a small disc-shaped ambulacrum on a 
short stalk; tarsi with setae u, v, p, q; tibia I 
with setae hT, gT; femur IV with wF. 


Type-genus.—Gaudiella, new genus. 


Genus Gaudiella, new genus 


Diagnosis. — Acaroid mite parasitic (or phoretic) 
on South American stingless bees. Female with 
epimerites I fused, other epimerites simple; coxal 
fields I-IV open. Oviporus Y-shaped, partially 
covered by flaps; 2 pairs of genital setae, 2 pairs 
of well-developed genital discs. Anus subterminal, 
flanked by numerous pairs of anal and adanal 
setae subequal in length. Dorsum with antero- 
and poster-lateral setae enlarged, coarsely 
branched, with deep suture on prodorsum. Legs 
5-segmented, each bearing small stalked ambula- 
cral disc rather than empodial claw. 


Type-species.—Gaudiella minuta, 
new species. 


Gaudiella minuta, new species 
(Figs. 1-5) 


Female (holotype).—Small, ovoid with 
idiosoma 204 wu in length, 163 in width, covered 
by lightly sclerotized shields without striae. Dorsal 
idiosoma with prominent suture between rows of 
scapular setae; 3 pairs of lyrifissures (lyriform 
pores); setae vi, sci, | 1, | 3, | 4, 1 5 enlarged 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


’ dy 


Gaudiella minuta, new species. Fig. 


1, dorsum of female; fig. 2, venter of female; fig. 3, 


tarsus-tibia-genu of leg I; fig. 4, tarsus-tibia-genu of leg II; fig. 5, tarsus-tibia of leg IV. 


with coarse branchings, other setae simple; setae 
ve, / 2 (or h) lacking. Ventral idiosoma with 
Y-shaped epimerites I, other epimerites simple, 
slightly curved; all coxal fields open; remnant 
of epimerite III mesally with possible gland open- 
ing. Oviporus Y-shaped, covered anteriorly and 
posteriorly by flaps; posterior genital setae and 
coxal IV setae form transverse line. Anal slit 
flanked by 8 pairs of setae (anals, adanals) 
plus setae d 5, / 5 and ventral lyrifissures. 

Legs with pretarsi stalked with simple ambulacra; 
each ambulacral disc with 2 small unguiform 
sclerites flanking divided central sclerite. Chaeto- 
taxy of legs I-IV as follows: trochanters, 1-1-1-0; 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


femora, 1-1-0-1; genua, 2-2-1-0; tibiae, 2-2-1-1, 

tarsi, 9-11-10-10. Solenidiotaxy: genua, 1-1-1-0; 

tibiae, 1-1-1-1; tarsi, 2-1-0-0. Tarsus I with setae 

u fused with p and v fused with q; setae lacking 

from maximal complement: f, aa, famulus. Tarsi 

II-IV with setae p, g, u, v independent. 
Male.— Unknown. 


Type Data.—Holotype, female 
deposited in the Department of Zoology, 
Universidade de Sao Paulo, Piracicaba, 
Brasil, ex Melipona quadrifasciata Lep., 
Ribeirao Preto, Sao Paulo, Brasil, De- 


297 


partment of Genetics, Faculdade de 
Medicina, October 1973, Dr. Velthuis 
(coll.), sent by H. Shimanuki of the Bee 
Laboratory, USDA, Beltsville, Mary- 
land. 


Remarks.—This mite is named for Dr. 
Jean Gaud, Laboratoire de Parasitologie, 
Faculté de Médicine, 35000-Rennes, 
France. 


References Cited 


Atyeo, Warren T., and J. Gaud. 1966. The 
chaetotaxy of Sarcoptiform feather mites 


(Acarina, Analgoidea). J. Kansas Entomol. 
Soc. 39(2): 337-346. 

Fain, A., and J. Bafort. 1967. Cycle éolutif et 
morphologie de Hypodectes (Hypodectoides) 
propus (Nitzsch) acarien nidicole a deutonymphe 
parasite tissulaire des pigeons. Acad. Roy. 
Belgique, Bull. Cl. Sci. Sér. 5, 53: 501-533. 

Grandjean, F. 1939. La chaetotaxie des pattes 
chez les Acaridiae. Bull. Soc. Zool. France 
64: 50-60. 

Krantz, G. W. 1970. A Manual of Acarology, 
Oregon State Book Stores, 335 pp. 

Knille, W. 1959. Morphologische und ent- 
wicklungsgeschichtliche Untersuchungen zum 
phylogenetischen System der Acari: Acariformes 
Zachv. II Acaridiae: Acaridae. Mitt. Zool. Mus. 
Hamburg 33(1): 97-213. 


A New Species of Coccipolipus Parasitic 
on the Mexican Bean Beetle (Acarina: Podapolipidae) 


Robert L. Smiley 


Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIII, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA, Beltsville, 


Maryland 20705 


ABSTRACT 


Coccipolipus epilachnae n. sp. is described and illustrated. Observations on the 
biology of the mite are discussed. The mite causes reduction in egg production of the 
Mexican bean beetle, Epilachna varivestris Mulsant. 


I am describing a new species of 
Coccipolipus that was associated with 
the Mexican bean beetle, Epilachna 
varivestris Mulsant (Coccinellidae). 
Husband (1972) erected the genus Cocci- 
polipus for C. macfarlanei Husband, 
which was found associated with the 
coccinellid Cycloneda sanguinea (L.). 
Feldman-Muhsam and Havivi (1972) 
described Podapolipus (Bakerpolipus) 
coccinellae, which was collected from 
the underside of the elytra of C. san- 
guinea together with the fungus Hes- 
peromyces. They did not report adverse 
affects caused by the mite or fungus. 


Coccipolipus epilachnae , new species 
(Figs. 1-5) 


According to Husband’s (1972) key to 
species of Coccipolipus (which contains 


298 


4 species), C. epilachnae is more closely 
related to C. macfarlanei Husband than 
the other species of the genus. C. epilach- 
nae can be separated from C. macfar- 
lanei by the adult female having 2 pairs 
of legs; the male having a lateral spur on 
tibia I; and by the larviform female 
having 3 pairs of setae on the propo- 
dosoma. C. macfarlanei adult female has 
1 pair of legs; the male has a spine on 
tibia I; and the larviform female has 2 
pairs of setae on the propodosoma. 


Female (Fig. 1): Gnathosoma wider than long, 
strongly sclerotized. Palpi reduced, without 
apparent setae on basal segments. Chelicerae 
not visible. 

Idiosoma.—Eggshaped, smooth; without setae, 
and yellowish in alcohol; 5 subequal anterolateral 
lobes; dorsoventrally flat. 

Legs.—Two pairs; Ist pair with 5 segments; 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Fig. 1.—Coccipolipus new 


species, venter of female. 


epilachnae, 


as figured; distal segment terminated with dark 
sclerotized hook-shaped claw, 1 dorsolateral short 
spur, and 1 fingerlike process. Second pair reduced 
in length; femur with short anterolateral, simple 
seta; distal segment terminated with 2 strong, 
short spurs. Body 517 uw long by 440 yw wide. 
Larviform Female (Fig. 2, 3): Gnathosoma 
spherical, wider than long. Cheliceral cone pro- 
truding. Chelicerae thin, hooked shaped; with 
wide base and short stylets, ending without ap- 
parent teeth. Palpi 2-segmented; distal segment 


with 1 ventral simple seta and 1 anterolateral 
short spur. One pair of long lateral simple setae; 
ventrally and adjacent to this pair of setae, a 
smaller pair of simple setae. 

Dorsum.—Propodosomal shield rectangular 
shaped, wider than long; with 2 pairs of short 
subequal simple setae; 1 pair of pores; posterior 
pair of simple setae longer and stronger. Hystero- 
somal shield elongated; with 3 pairs of setae; 
humeral setae longer than anterior or posterior 
pair; posterior pair longer and stronger than 
anterior pair. Opisthosoma oval, with 1 pair of 
simple setae. 

Venter. —Coxal plates I and II fused mesially, 
separated from plate III by fine striae. Each coxal 
plate with 1 seta; plate I and III each with small 
pore. One distinct plate on each side of body 
between legs II and III. Caudal plates well 
developed; with a pair of accessory setae, one on 
each side of caudal setae as figured. 

Legs.—Short and robust. Chaetotaxy on femur, 
genu, tibia and tarsus I: 2+ 1 spine—3—5+1 
spine—2+1 spur+2 solenidia+1 bifurcate claw; 
leg II: 1 spur—1 spine—4—2+3 spurs+2 bifurcate 
claws; leg III: 0—1—4—2+3 spurs+2 bifurcate 
claws. Body 217 pw long by 127 uw wide. 

Male (Fig. 4, 5): Gnathosoma oval, wider than 
long. Cheliceral cone protruding. Chelicerae thick, 
wide at base; with short stylets, ending without 
apparent teeth or barbs. Palpi 3-segmented; distal 
segment with 1 microseta and 1 short spine; 
second segment without apparent setae; proximal 
segment with 2 microsetae; 1 pair of strong, 
short spurs adjacent to proximal segment; dorsal 
anterolateral margin with 1 pair short spurs, each 
spur located above palp as figured. 

Dorsum.—Propodosomal shield elongated; with 
4 pairs of microsetae as figured. Hysterosomal 


Figs. 2, 3.—Coccipolipus epilachnae, new species, larviform female. 2, dorsum; 3, venter. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


299 


——— 7 
WS SS 


G 


Figs. 4, 5.—Coccipolipus epilachnae, new species, male. 4, dorsum; 5, venter. 


shield triangular; with 1 pair of microsetae; with 
aedeagus situated middorsally, the orifice at the 
apex of shield; with 1 pair of microsetae subequal 
in length in region of the metapodosoma. 

Venter.—Pair coxal plates I and II fused 
mesially, coxal plates I and II each with 1 micro- 
seta; each coxal plate I with a pore. Coxal 
plates III without apparent pore, but with 1 pair 
of microsetae; metapodosoma separated from 
coxal plates II by fine striae. Caudal plates 
poorly developed. 

Legs.—Short and robust. Chaetotaxy on femur, 
genu, tibia and tarsus I: 2+1 spur—2—4+1 thick 
thumb-like spur—2 solenidia+1 simple spur+1 
thumb-like spur+3+1 uncinated claw; leg II: 
1—1—2+2 spurs—1+3 spurs, claws absent; leg III: 
0—1—2+2 spurs—1+3 spurs, claw absent. Body 
159 uw long by 121 pw wide. 


Holotype: Male, U. S. National 
Museum of Natural History No. 3620, 
collected from Epilachna varivestis Mul- 
sant, originally found in San Salvador, 
El Salvador, 8 Dec. 1972, by Dr. F. F. 
Smith. 

Paratypes: 3 females, 6 males and 32 
larviform females with the above data. 

Discussion: The preceding new mite 
Species was made available for taxo- 
nomic study through the courtesy of 
Dr. Floyd F. Smith, Collaborator, Orna- 


300 


mentals Laboratory, ARS, USDA, 
Beltsville, Maryland. While on duty tour 
as Consulting Entomologist with the 
AID program in El Salvador, C.A., 
about 15 adult Mexican bean beetles, 
Epilachna varivestis Mulsant, were col- 
lected on 7 November 1971 from pole 
beans, taken from variety test plots at 
the National Agriculture Experiment 
Station at San Andres, El Salvador. 
By prearrangement, Dr. Roger Lawson 
was provided with a special permit, and 
he brought these beetles to the Beltsville 
Agricultural Research Center. They 
were delivered to Dr. W. W. Cantelo 
for conducting cross-mating studies with 
the local Mexican bean beetles. The El 
Salvador beetles in the colony were 
sluggish, fed little and laid few egg clus- 
ters. When the males were mated with 
virgin Beltsville females, the eggs pro- 
duced were sterile, but Beltsville males 
mated with the virgin Salvador females 
resulted in the production of fertile eggs. 
These progeny were mated with El 
Salvador and Beltsville males and fe- 
males in reciprocal crosses, and egg pro- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


duction was normal (W. W. Cantelo, 
unpublished data). 

On 20 July 1972, Dr. Smith and Ing. 
Jose Mancia, El Salvador Entomologist, 
collected a second lot of beetles that 
included adults and larvae from unstaked 
beans (27-R variety) in fields on the high 
slopes of the Volcano San Vincente. 
The beans were maturing and leaves were 
yellowing. They were scheduled for 
pulling and harvesting as dry beans in 
about 2 weeks. The foliage damage was 
estimated as less than 5%, very low by 
comparison with the usual damage in the 
U. S. However, it was the worst damage 
yet observed in El Salvador. No sprays 
had been applied for control. Dr. Smith 
brought samples of these beetles, under 
permit, to Beltsville on 24 July 1972. 
This colony was established in a separate 
cage. Again, adults fed little, rested on 
sides of the cages, and laid few eggs on 
the host plants. Fertile eggs were pro- 
duced from all reciprocal crosses of males 
and virgin females of the Beltsville and 
El Salvador colonies. In late October 
egg production dropped in the colonies 
for no apparent reason. In November 
Dr. Boswell, Dr. Cantelo’s assistant, 
observed slightly raised elytra and 
protruding bodies of small mites on 
some of the beetles. Upon raising the 
wing covers of adults of both col- 
onies he found numerous mites closely 
packed together and apparently feeding 
on the dorsal surface of the host ab- 
domen. Apparently these parasitic mites 
were associated with the decline in vigor 
and reproduction of the colonies. They 
probably gained access to the Beltsville 
colony when selecting individuals for 
cross mating tests with individuals from 
El Salvador. The colonies were not 
mixed in a common cage at any time. 
The mites may have been transferred on 
the hands or in vials used in handling 
the insects. A mite-free colony of bean 
beetles was established by examining a 
few egg clusters for absence of the mites 
and by rearing the hatching larvae in a 
Separate green house. This colony with 
normal reproduction is now being main- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


tained. Dr. Smith had assumed that the 
infested colonies would be retained for 
further experimentation to determine the 
potentialities of this new mite as a means 
of biological control for the Mexican 
bean beetle, but he failed to discuss this 
with anyone. Upon later inquiry he 
learned that after obtaining hatching 
larvae from isolated eggs, all other 
beetles were destroyed and cages thor- 
oughly cleaned. 

Although the parasitic mites were not 
discovered until after the mating tests 
had been made with beetles from the 
second collection from the San Vincente 
area, it is possible that they were present 
in the earlier collection from San Andres. 
Fewer cross mating tests were made from 
this colony, and any transfer of mites 
to beetles of the Beltsville colony was 
not evident. Since the beetles’ behavior 
in both collections was similar, ap- 
parently, most if not all beetles from 
El Salvador were infested. All Mexican 
bean beetles had disappeared during the 
1973 dry season, resulting in failure to 
collect mite-infested beetles for further 
studies at Beltsville. 

Dr. Smith states, “‘from my 10 years 
observation in El Salvador during fairly 
regular periodic tours of duty with AID 
programs, the Mexican bean beetle was 
observed to be a minor pest in all bean 
growing seasons and required no insecti- 
cide treatment to protect the crops.”’ 

Studies are now being initiated to 
determine the mite’s host range and po- 
tential effectiveness as a biological con- 
trol agent. 


Acknowledgments 


I wish to thank Dr. Floyd F. Smith, 
Collaborator, Ornamentals Laboratory, 
ARS, USDA, Beltsville, Maryland for 
mite specimens and valuable information 
included in this manuscript. I also wish to 
thank Dr. W. W. Cantelo, Vegetable 
Laboratory, ARS, USDA, Beltsville, 
Maryland for his suggestions and review 
of the original manuscript. I am also 
indebted to Dr. Robert F. W. Schroder, 


301 


Beneficial Insect Introduction Labora- 
tory, IIBIII, Beltsville, Maryland who 
collected additional specimens of the 
mite species here described from Epi- 
lachna varivestis and the mite Cocci- 


polipus macfarlanei Husband from the — 


coccinellid Cycloneda sanguinea (L.) at 
San Vincente, El Salvador on 17 July 
1974. 


References Cited 


Feldman-Muhsam, B., and Y. Havivi. 1972. Two 
new species of the genus Podapolipus (Poda- 
polipidae, Acarina), Redescription of P. 
aharonii Hirst, 1921 and some notes on the 
genus. Acarologia 14 (fasc. 4): 657-674. 

Husband, R. W. 1972. A new genus and species 
of mite (Acarina: Podapolipidae) associated 
with the coccinellid Cycloneda sanguinea. Ann. 
Entomol. Soc. Amer. 65(5): 1099-1104. 


Biological Note on the Acridid Grasshopper 
Stenacris vitreipennis vitreipennis (Marschall) 


(Insecta: Orthoptera) 


Edgar F. Riek 


CSIRO, Division of Entomology, P.O. Box 1700, Canberra, A.C.T. 2601, Australia 


« ABSTRACT 


Stenacris vitreipennis vitreipennis oOviposits in the pithy stems of Sagittaria sp. 


in Florida. 


All Leptysmini and many other 
Cyrtacanthacridinae are hygrophilous, 
frequenting vegetation growing in or 
about ponds, streams, and lakes, and 
occurring at times even on grasses and 
sedges standing in water of considerable 
depth. Biological information on Stena- 
cris is scanty, but Cornops aquaticum 
Bruner, another cyrtacanthacridine, is 
known to oviposit in the thick soft 
petioles of the leaves of a water hyacinth, 
Eichhornia azurea (Swartz), a common 
plant in the streams and rivers of Uru- 
guay (de Zolessi 1956). 

Rehn (1952) referred to Gesonula 
punctifrons (Stal) ovipositing in the 
succulent stems of taro. Rehn and 
Hebard (unpublished information in 
Rehn and Eades 1961) noted Stenacris 
vitreipennis vitreipennis on arrowhead, 
Sagittaria sp., at Tallahassee, Florida, 
but did not record any information on the 


302 


biology. This species was reared from 
egg-pods deposited in the pithy stems of 
Sagittaria sp. at a pond 1 mi north of 
Spring Creek, Wakulla Co., Florida in 
the summer of 1973. Egg-pods were in- 
serted in the stems of the Sagittaria, 
and recovered from below water level, 
although they were not necessarily 
deposited below water level because 
there were marked fluctuations in water 
level in the pond both prior to and 
following the discovery of the oviposi- 
tion scars and embedded egg-pods. 

The hatching of the nymphs in the 
laboratory corresponded with collection 
of first-instar nymphs in the field. Sub- 
sequent collections resulted in the collec- 
tion of nymphs and adults in the late 
spring and summer of 1973, but details 
of the occurrence of the various instars 
were not noted. Preserved material of the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


nymphs is deposited in the collections of 
the Laboratory for Aquatic Entomology, 
Florida Agricultural and Mechanical 
University, Tallahassee, Florida. Speci- 
mens of the eupelmid egg parasite and 
parasitised egg pods are deposited, to- 
gether with adult grasshoppers, in the 
United States National Museum. 


Acknowledgments 


I am grateful to Dr. Ashley B. Gurney, 
Systematic Entomology Laboratory, 
ARS, USDA, for references to literature 


dealing with this unusual mode of ovi- 
position in acridoid grasshoppers. 


References Cited 


Rehn, J. A. G. 1952. On the genus Gesonula. 
Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc. 78: 117-136. 

Rehn, J. A. G., and D. C. Eades. 1961. The 
tribe Leptysmini (Orthoptera; Acrididae; 
Cyrtacanthacridinae) as found in North 
America and Mexico. Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. 
Philad. 113: 81-134. 

de Zolessi, L. C. 1956. Observationes sobre 
Cornops aquaticum Br. (Acridoidea, Cyrtacan- 
thacr.) en el Uruguay. Rev. Soc. Uruguaya 
Entomol. 1(1): 1-28. 


Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch), the Correct Name of the 
Grape Phylloxeran (Hemiptera: Homoptera: Phylloxeridae) 


Louise M. Russell 


Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIII, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA, 


Beltsville, Md. 20705 


ABSTRACT 


Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch) is shown to be the correct name of the grape 
phylloxeran. The numerous name combinations by which the insect has been known, 
the synonyms, and the various spellings of its generic and specific names are listed. 


An investigation was undertaken to 
determine the correct name of the grape 
phylloxeran. This action was desirable 
because more than one spelling of the 
specific name and more than one name 
combination are in current use for the 
species. The inquiry revealed that 
Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch) is the 
oldest available name for the species. 

The grape phylloxeran, a native of 
North America, has been of economic 
importance since its accidental introduc- 
tion into Europe and other viticultural 
centers of the world in the last century. 
At that time it virtually destroyed the 
grape industry in severely infested areas. 
Although the insect is no longer seriously 
destructive in some areas, it is injurious 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


in others, and its symbionts, its biology, 
and its control are being studied. Federov 
(1959) discussed the injuriousness of the 
phylloxeran and stressed the need for its 
adequate control. Shaposhnikov (1967) 
stated, ‘‘This is the most serious pest of 
grapevine.’’ Maillet (1957) gave an ex- 
tensive discussion, review, and bibli- 
ography of the species. Literature on the 
biology, morphology, ravages, and con- 
trol of vitifoliae is voluminous. 

The names, spellings, accreditation of 
author names and the earliest noted 
publication of names of the grape phyl- 
loxeran are as follows: 


Pemphigus Vitifoliae Fitch 1855: 862. 
Byrsocrypta? (pemphigus) vitifoliae 
(Fitch).— Walsh 1863: 30S. 


303 


Pemphigus vitifolia Fitch.—Shimer 
1866: 290. 

Daktulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch).— 
Shimer 1866: 365. 

Dactylosphaera? 
Shimer 1867: 2. 

Viteus vitifoliae (Fitch). — Shimer 1867: 6. 

Rhizaphis vastatrix Planchon (in Bazille, 
Planchon and Sahut) 1868: 336. 

Rizaphis vastatrix Planchon (in Bazille, 
Planchon and Sahut) 1868: 336. 

Phylloxera vastatrix (Planchon) 1868: 
588. 

Rhyzaphis vastatrix (Planchon).—Sig- 
noret 1869: 580. : 

Pemphigus vitis folii (Fitch).—[Plan- 
chon and Lichtenstein] 1869: 189. 

Phylloxera_ vitifoliae (Fitch).— Walsh 
and Riley 1869: 248. 

Pemphigus vitifolii (Fitch).—Signoret 
1869: 56S. 

Peritymbia_ vitisana 
109. 

Phylloxera vitis folii (Fitch).— Plan- 
chon and Lichtenstein 1871: 5. 

Rhizovaga devastatrix Hartig 1879: 269. 

Dactylosphaera vitifolii (Shimer).— 
Lichtenstein 1885: 44. 

Perytimbia vastatrix (Planchon).— 
Lichtenstein 1885: 161. 

Phylloxera pemphigoides 
1887: 1246. 

Rhizocera vastatrix (Planchon).— Kirk 
1897: 3. 
Xerampelus vastator (Planchon).— Del 
Guercio 1900: 80. 
Peritymbia vitifolii 
Borner 1908: 601. 
Phylloxera vitifolii 
Borner 1908: 609. 
Peritymbia vitifolii pervastatrix Borner 
1910: [4]. 

Phylloxera (Viteus) vastator (Planchon). 
—Grassi 1912: 10. 

Phylloxera (Viteus) vastatrix (Plan- 
chon).—Grassi 1912: 10. 

Peritymbia vitisfoliae (Fitch).— Grassi 
1912: 10. 


Westwood 1869: 


Donnadieu 


(Fitch-Riley).— 


(Fitch-Riley).— 


Peritymbia vitifolii (Fitch).— Grassi 
1912: 10. 

Peritymbia vitisfolii (Fitch).—Grassi 
1912: 10. 

304 


vitifoliae (Fitch).— ~ 


Viteus vitisfolii (Fitch).—Grassi 1912: 
10. 

Phylloxera (Peritymbia) pervastatrix 
Borner 1914: 219. 

Peritymbia (Phylloxera) vitifolii per- 
vastatrix Borner 1914: 59. 

Daktulosphaira (Pemphigus) vitifoliae 
(Fitch).— Borner 1930: 159. 

Pemphigus (Viteus) vitifoliae (Shimer).— 
Borner and Schilder 1932: 698. 

Viteus vitifolii (Fitch).—BOormmer 1952: 
Zl 2n 

Viteus vitifolii vulpinae Borner 1952: 213. 

Dactylosphaera (Peritimbia) vitifolii 
(Fitch).— Ambrus 1959: 526. 


Although vastatrix was used exten- 
sively for several years after publication, 
it as well as the other specific names 
listed above have long been recognized 
as synonyms of vitifoliae. 

Fitch (1855: 862, 1855: 158, 1857: 397) 
invariably called the insect whose galls 
he observed on grape leaves in New 
York State ‘‘the grape leaf louse (Pem- 
phigus Vitifoliae).’’ Signoret (1869: 556, 
565) spelled the name vitifolii. Planchon 
and Lichtenstein (1871: 5) stated that 
vitifoliae was incorrect and should be 
rectified to vitis folii. Riley (1871: 95) 
rejected their opinion, stating “. 
though ‘‘folii’’ would of course be more 
grammatically correct, one would sup- 
pose the Doctor [Fitch] had some reason 
for his conduct.’’ Thomas (1879: 158) 
also indicated that the spelling should 
be vitis-folii or vitifolii, but he approved 
vitifoliae, and wrote “‘. . . names with 
the termination have been too long re- 
ceived for this to be a valid objection in 
this case.’’ Grassi (1912: 10) suggested 
vitisfoliae as well as vitisfolii and vitifolii. 
All spellings except vitisfoliae have been 
used, with Europeans tending to use 
vitifolii and Americans usually using 
vitifoliae. 

Article 32(a)(ii) of the International 
Code of Zoological Nomenclature 
states ‘“‘ . . . incorrect transliteration, 
improper latinization, and use of an 
inappropriate connecting vowel are not to 
be considered inadvertent errors. . .”’ 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Thus according to the Code, vitifoliae is 
the legal spelling of the name. 

The generic name with which viti- 
foliae has been combined has varied. 
Fitch (1855, 1857) always, and Walsh 
(1863) originally, placed vitifoliae in 
aphid genera. Later Walsh (1866: 111, 
1867: 284) indicated that Fitch erred in 
considering the insect an aphid, did not 
mention his own 1863 assignment, and 
stated (1867: 284) that the insect was 
*« . . a true bark-louse belonging to the 
Coccus family’’ and that it “*. . . must 
become the type of a new and very 
aberrant genus.”’ 

Shimer (1866: 290) studied ‘‘Pemphi- 
gus vitifolia’’ stating, ““The result of 
these investigations developes a new 
genus, of a new family, in the third 
division Monomera of the Homoptera, 
for this and another insect (also one of 
Mr. Walsh’s coccus) found in a small 
subglobular gall on the leaf of the Pignut 
Hickory; and probably, some two or 
three other insects that I have seen. 
These may possibly comprehend more 
than one genus when more thoroughly 
studied.”’ 

Shimer (1866: 290) then described but 
did not name the genus, indicated that 
vitifoliae and possibly another species 
belonged in it, and stated, ‘“The insect 
inhabiting the small gall on the Pignut 
Hickory (Caoja[!] glabra) and which 
doubtless is identical with that referred to 
by Mr. Walsh, P.E., 111, although the 
galls are mostly all larger than a ‘‘cabbage 
seed,’ I believed after careful examina- 
tion of the female and larva to belong 
to the same genus as the ‘‘grape leaf 
louse,’’ and suggested for it the species 
name of globosum.”’ 

The reference to Walsh and the size of 
the gall were the only statements that 
could be construed as a description of 
globosum. Walsh (1866: 111-112) de- 
scribed the gall referred to by Shimer as 
** . . an undescribed gall the size of a 
cabbage-seed on the leaves of the Pignut 
Hickory (Carya glabra). This pre- 
sumably meets the requirements of 
Article 16(a) (viii) of the Code as an 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


indication of a specific name, but it does 
not meet the requirements of Article 11(g) 
(ii) because globosum was not combined 
with a generic name. 

Shimer (1866: 365) referred to his 
earlier (1866: 290) article, named and 
briefly described the new genus Dak- 
tulosphaira and placed a single species, 
Pemphigus vitifoliae Fitch, in it but 
(p. 365) did not mention globosum. And 
he did not give the derivation of his 
new generic name which is, according to 
Steyskal (1974), a literal translation of the 
Greek. 

The following year Shimer (1867: 
2) described ‘‘Dactylosphaera. New 
genus’’ and gave the Greek from which 
the name was derived. This spelling, 
also according to Steyskal (1974), is a 
classical Latin transcription of the name. 
Shimer (1867: 2-11) also described 
‘‘Dactylosphaera globosum, n. sp.”’ 
placing that species before vitifoliae 
which he assigned to Dactylosphaera 
with a question. His only mention of his 
former articles was to state that in 1866 he 
had called vitifoliae the ‘‘Grape leaf 
louse.’’ He (1867: 5-8) redescribed viti- 
foliae and stated ‘‘In case, however, the 
characters given above should be suf- 
ficient to separate, generically, vitifoliae 
from D. globosum, 1 would propose the 
generic name of Viteus for the former.”’ 

Walsh (1867: 24-28) immediately ac- 
cepted Dactylosphaera vitifoliae as the 
correct name for the grape leaf louse, 
while Riley (1871: 84) used Phylloxera 
vitifoliae, the name that was used much 
more frequently than Daktulosphaira 
vitifoliae or Dactylosphaera vitifoliae for 
many years. 

Because Shimer’s original descriptions 
of globosum and Daktulosphaira were 
published in a farm journal of uncertain 
distribution, and because the articles 
were not cited in his 1867 publication 
where he described globosum and 
Dactylosphaera as new, the 1866 articles 
presumably were overlooked or ignored 
by some workers while others apparently 
assumed that Dactylosphaera was a 
correction of Daktulosphaira and that the 


305 


name should date from 1867. Later 
Shimer (1869: 386-398) described or 
redescribed several phylloxeran species 
that lived in galls on hickories, placing 
them in Dactylosphaera. He (p. 392- 
393) again mentioned D. globosum as a 
species living on hickories but did not 
use the name vitifoliae. 

Pergande (1904: 236b—238) treated 
globosum as Phylloxera globosum, citing 
Shimer’s 1867 publication. Although 
Pergande did not discuss the status of 
Dactylosphaera, he presumably con- 
sidered the name a synonym of Phyl- 
loxera, because he placed in the latter 
genus the various species included in 
Dactylosphaera by Shimer in 1869. Per- 
gande (p. 213) mentioned vitifoliae only 
in a quotation from Shimer 1867 and did 
not refer to Shimer’s 1866 articles. 

Wilson (1910: 150, 155) listed Dac- 
tylosphaera Shimer 1867 with globosum 
the type, Daktulosphaira Shimer 1866 
with vitifoliae the type, and Viteus 
Shimer 1867 also with vitifoliae the type. 
Borner (1930: 159, 162, 193) synony- 
mized Viteus with Daktulosphaira, but 
later (1952: 212, 227) recognized as valid 
genera, Dactylosphaera with globosum 
as its type-species and Viteus with 
vitifoliae as its type-species, stating 
that Daktulosphaira (1866) with vitifoliae 
as its type was an error for Dac- 
tylosphaera (1867). 

Prior to 1952, both while and after 
synonymous names were in use, Phyl- 
loxera vitifoliae was the most commonly 
used name for the species. Dactyl- 
osphaera vitifoliae appeared occa- 
sionally, and Daktulosphaira vitifoliae 
and Viteus vitifoliae were rarely cited. 
Since 1952 non-Americans have tended 
to use Dactylosphaera vitifoliae (or 
vitifolii) or Viteus vitifoliae (or vitifolii) 
while Americans, without critical con- 
sideration of the insect’s name or rela- 
tionships, have continued the use of 
Phylloxera vitifoliae. 

Daktulosphaira falls under Article 
32(a)(ii) of the Code because, in the 
original publication, there is no ‘‘clear 
evidence of an inadvertent error, such 
as a lapsus calami, or a copyist’s or 


306 


printer’s error’ and ‘‘(incorrect trans- 
literation, improper latinization. . . 

are not to be considered inadvertent 
errors).’’ Since vitifoliae was the only 
species included in the genus, Dak- 


tulosphaira vitifoliae (Fitch) is the 


correct name for the grape phylloxeran, 
and Viteus is a synonym of the older 
generic name. Because there has not been 
unanimous use of one name in recent 
years, common usage would not be seri- 
ously disrupted by using Daktulosphaira 
vitifoliae, the name that merits general 
acceptance. 

The identity of globosa is uncertain. 
Types of the species are not known to 
exist, and morphological characteristics 
of the insects have not been adequately 
diagnosed. Recognition of the species has 
depended primarily on the appearance of 
its galls which Shimer (1869: 392-393) 
indicated he believed he had confused 
with galls of Dactylosphaera cary- 
aesemen Walsh in his 1867 description 
of globosum. Pergande (1904: 213, 237) 
affirmed this opinion and redescribed and 
illustrated the galls of the two species. 
Shimer (1869: 393) also indicated that the 
trees on which he observed globosum 
and caryaesemen in 1867 were Carya 
amara instead of Carya glabra as he 
had previously reported. Pergande (1904: 
213) noted galls of caryaesemen on Carya 
glabra in the Mississippi River Valley 
but did not state whether galls of glob- 
osum were present. I believe there may 
be some uncertainty concerning the true 
host(s) of globosa. 

Perhaps it would be possible to collect 
galls and specimens of globosa and, after 
critical field and laboratory studies, 
determine the identity of the species. 
But until such studies are made, the 
status of globosa and Dactylosphaera 
will remain unclear. 

Daktulosphaira vitifoliae differs mor- 
phologically and biologically from 
Phylloxera quercus Boyer de Fonsco- 
lombe (1834: 223—224), the type-species 
of Phylloxera Boyer de Fonscolombe 
(1834: 222), and the two are not con- 
generic. D. vitifoliae lacks prominent, 
tuberculate dorsal and marginal proc- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


esses and lives in galls on the leaves and 
in cavities of swellings on the roots of 
Vitis. P. quercus has strongly developed, 
elongate processes on the dorsum and 
margin of the body in apterae and on the 
head and thorax in alatae. This species 
lives on the lower surface of the leaves 
of oak and does not cause galls. 


Acknowledgments 


I am indebted to A. S. Menke, C. W. 
Sabrosky, and G. C. Steyskal, all of the 
Systematic Entomology Laboratory, 
ARS, USDA, for helpful reviews of 
this article. 


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Synonymical Notes on Larrinae and Astatinae 


(Hymenoptera: Sphecidae) 
Wojciech Pulawski 


Zoological Institute, Wroclaw, Poland 


308 


ABSTRACT 


The following new synonyms, new combinations, and new names are indicated: 
Tachysphex projectus Nurse, 1905, and Tachysphex rufoniger Bingham, 1897 = Tachy- 
sphex pompiliformis (Panzer), 1805; Tachysphex mysticus Pulawski, 1971 = Tachysphex 
excelsus Turner, 1917; Tachysphex latissimus Turner, 1917, and Tachysphex pectoralis 
Pulawski, 1964 = Tachysphex erythrophorus Dalla Torre, 1897; Tachysphex laniger 
Pulawski, 1964 = Tachysphex gujaraticus Nurse, 1909; Tachysphex japonicus Iwata, 
1933 = Tachysphex nigricolor (Dalla Torre, 1897); Tachysphex varihirtus Cameron, 
1903, Tachysphex rugidorsatus Turner, 1915, and Tachysphex mindorensis Williams, 
1928 = Tachysphex puncticeps Cameron, 1903; Tachysphex spinosus Pulawski, 1974, 
nec Fox, 1893 = Tachysphex spinulosus Pulawski, new name; Tachysphex brevitarsis 
Kohl, 1901 = Tachysphex bengalensis Cameron, 1889; Tachytes sericops Smith, 1856, 
Tachysphex depressus (Saussure), 1867, and Tachysphex helmsi (Cameron), 1888 
= Tachysphex nigerrimus (Smith), 1856; Tachysphex lilliputianus Turner, 1917 
= Tachysphex minutus Nurse, 1909; Tachysphex imperfectus de Beaumont, 1940 
= Tachysphex fulvicornis Turner, 1918; Tachytes ceylonicus Cameron, 1900, and 
Tachytes aurifrons Cameron, 1900, nec Lucas, 1849 = Tachysphex panzeri (vander 
Linden), 1829; Tachysphex ablatus Nurse, 1909 = Tachysphex panzeri pulverosus 
(Radoszkowski), 1886; Tachysphex foucauldi de Beaumont, 1952 = Tachysphex 
vulneratus fouca uldi de Beaumont; Tachysphex heliophilus Nurse, 1909 = Tachysphex 
schmiedeknechti Kohl, 1883; Tachysphex strigatus Turner, 1917 = Tachysphex sub- 
fuscatus Turner, 1917; Tachysphex inventus Nurse, 1903 = Tachysphex erythropus 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


(Spinola), 1838; Tachysphex actaeon de Beaumont, 1960 = Tachysphex selectus 
Nurse, 1909; Tachysphex fluctuatus (Gerstaecker), 1857 = Tachysphex sericeus 
(Smith), 1856; Tachysphex pollux Nurse, 1903 = Holotachysphex holognathus (Morice), 
1897; Prosopigastra acanthophora Gussakovskij, 1933 = Prosopigastra creon (Nurse), 
1903; Homogambrus cimicivorus Ferton, 1912 = Prosopigastra creon cimicivora 
(Ferton); Prosopigastra carinata Arnold, 1922 = Prosopigastra creon carinata Arnold; 
Tachysphex nudus Nurse, 1903 = Prosopigastra nuda (Nurse); Parapiagetia integra 
(Kohl), 1892 = Parapiagetia genicularis (F. Morawitz), 1890; Tachysphex substri- 
atulus Turner, 1917 = Parapiagetia substriatula (Turner); Parapiagetia denticulata 
(Morice), 1897, and Parapiagetia saharica de Beaumont, 1956 = Parapiagetia eryth- 
ropoda (Cameron), 1889; Larrada obliqua Smith, 1856 = Larropsis (Ancistromma) 
obliqua (Smith); Tachytes serapis Pulawski, 1962 = Tachytes fucatus Arnold, 1951; 
Tachytes maculitarsis Cameron, 1900 = Tachytes brevipennis Cameron, 1900; Tachytes 
griseolus Arnold, 1951, and Tachytes rufitibialis Arnold, 1951 = Tachytes diversicornis 
Turner, 1918; Tachytes pulchricornis kolaensis Turner, 1917 = Tachytes pulchricornis 
Turner, 1917; Tachytes patrizii Guiglia, 1932 = Tachytes comberi Turner, 1917; 
Tachytes andreniformis Cameron, 1902, nec Cameron, 1889, and Tachytes fulvovestitus 
Cameron, 1904 = Tachytes fulvopilosus Cameron, 1904; Tachytes proximus Nurse, 
1903 = Tachytes tabrobanae Cameron, 1900; Tachytes maculipennis Cameron, 1904 
= Tachytes modestus Smith, 1856; Tachytes shiva Nurse, 1903, Tachytes varipilosus 
Cameron, 1905, and Tachytes formosanus Tsuneki, 1966 = Tachytes saundersii 
Bingham, 1897; Tachytes suluensis Williams, 1928 = Tachytes saundersii suluensis 
Williams; Tachytes guichardi Arnold, 1951 = Tachytes basilicus Guérin-Méneville, 
1844; Tachytes neavei Turner, 1917 = Tachytes velox Smith, 1856; Tachytes melanopy- 
~ gus Costa, 1893 = Tachytes argyreus (Smith), 1856; Tachytes basalis Cameron, 1889, 
Tachytes calvus Turner, 1929, and Tachytes seminudus Arnold, 1951 = Tachytes 
pygmaeus Kohl, 1888; Gastrosericus binghami Cameron, 1897 = Gastrosericus rothneyi 
Cameron, 1889; Liris nitidus Cameron, 1913 = Liris aurifrons (Smith), 1859; Notogonia 
pseudoliris Turner, 1913 = Liris croesus (Smith), 1856; Notogonia chapmani Cameron, 
1900 = Liris jaculator (Smith), 1856; Notogonia pulchripennis Cameron, 1889, and 
Notogonia luteipennis Cameron, 1890 = Liris conspicua (Smith), 1856; Astata argenteo- 
fascialis Cameron, 1889 = Lyroda argenteofacialis (Cameron); Odontolarra rufiventris 
Cameron, 1900 = Lyroda formosa (Smith), 1859; Astata agilis Smith, 1875 
= Astata boops (Schrank), 1781; Astata chilensis Saussure, 1854 = Astata australasiae 
Shuckard, 1837; Astata stecki de Beaumont, 1942 = Astata kashmirensis Nurse, 1909; 
Astata absoluta Nurse, 1909 = Astata compta Nurse, 1909; Astata fletcheri Turner, 
1917, and Astata hirsutula Gussakovskij, 1933 = Astata quettae Nurse, 1903; Astata 
eremita Pulawski, 1959 = Astata lubricata Nurse, 1903; Astata interstitialis Cameron, 
1907 = Astata (Dryudella) orientalis Smith, 1856. A number of lectotypes are designated 
for the first time. 


During the last few years I have had 
several opportunities to examine types of 
Sphecidae preserved in various Euro- 
pean institutions, and my recent stay in 
the British Museum (Natural History) 
was dedicated mainly to studying types. 
As a result, numerous new synonyms 
and new combinations have been found, 
and they are discussed below. 

There are several reasons why a 
species may be described 2 or more times 
as new: inaccurate diagnoses of previous 
writers, insufficient knowledge of taxo- 
nomically important characters, absence 
of good diagnostic features, sexual 
dimorphism, scarcity of material, etc. A 
usually unappreciated factor is the occur- 
rence of many species in 2 or 3 zoo- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


geographic regions; in such cases they 
often receive a different name in each 
region. Indeed, authors dealing with the 
Palaearctic, Ethiopian and Oriental Lar- 
rinae and Astatinae (including myself), 
usually have concentrated on the fauna 
of 1 region and ignored species in- 
habiting other territories. The number of 
synonyms resulting from such limited 
Surveys is considerable, and several 
examples are found below. 

I take this opportunity to express my 
heartiest thanks to the staff of the Hy- 
menoptera Section of the British Mu- 
seum (Natural History), and especially 
to Dr. M. Day and Mr. C. R. Vardy 
for their hospitality and kind assistance. 
The help of Dr. Z. Boucek of the Com- 


309 


monwealth Institute of Entomology is 
particularly appreciated. I sincerely 
thank Mr. E. Taylor and Mr. Ch. 
O’Toole for their help during my short 


visits in the Oxford University Mu- . 


seum. I am much indebted to Dr. A. S. 
Menke (Systematic Entomology Lab- 
oratory, USDA, Washington, D. C.) 
for his critical remarks and help with 
English. 

In the following text, an exclamation 
mark before the name of a species 
indicates that the holotype or syntypes 
have been examined. 


Tachysphex pompiliformis (Panzer) 


'Larra pompiliformis Panzer, 1805: pl. 13, &. 
Holotype 2°: Germany (Zool. Samml. Munich). 

'Tachysphex projectus Nurse, 1903b: 517, @&. 
Holotype °: Kashmir, 5000-6000 ft. (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.244). Syn. n. 

!Tachysphex rufo-niger Bingham, 1897: 195, ¢. 
Lectotype 2: ‘‘North-West Provinces [of 
India],’’? or Pakistan (British Mus., Type Hym. 
21.247), present designation. Syn. n. 


The types of 7. projectus and T. 
rufoniger are identical with the common 
T. pompiliformis. 


Tachysphex excelsus Turner 


!Tachysphex excelsus Turner, 1917a: 320, 9°. 
Lectotype °: China: Tibet: Gyangtse, 13000 ft. 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.266). Present 
designation. 

!Tachysphex mysticus Pulawski, 1971: 81, 2°, 6. 
Holotype 2: Mongolia: Ulan-Bator (Zool. Inst. 
Leningrad). Syn. n. 


The 3 syntype females of T. excelsus 
possess the diagnostic characters of T. 
mysticus: peculiar clypeus (highest point 
of middle clypeal lobe near clypeal hind- 
margin); vertex hair erect; gastral terga 
without silvery, apical fasciae; terga I- 
III with sparse, microscopic punctures; 
underside of forefemora with fine, dense, 
punctures, and with large, sparse, punc- 
tures; outer face of foretibiae with 
glabrous zone. The disk of the meso- 
scutum is sparsely punctate (punctures 
several diameters apart). 


Tachysphex erythrophorus Dalla Torre 


'Tachysphex erythrogaster Cameron, 1889: 143, 
2. Holotype 2: India: Bombay State: Poona 


310 


(Oxford Univ. Mus., coll. Rothney). Nec 
Tachysphex erythrogaster (Costa), 1882. 
Tachysphex erythrophorus Dalla Torre, 1897: 


679 (new name for T. erythrogaster Cameron, 
nec Costa). 

!'Tachysphex latissimus Turner, 1917d: 199, 
2, 6. Lectotype 2: India: Bihar: Pusa (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.254). Present designation; 
syn. n. 

!Tachysphex pectoralis Pulawski, 1964: 101, 
2, 6. Holotype 9: Egypt: Abu Rawash NW of 
Cairo (coll. Pulawski). Syn. n. 


The types of 7. erythrogaster Cam- 
eron and T. latissimus agree with T. pec- 
toralis, as characterized by me (Pulaw- 
ski, 1971). Diagnostic characters are: 
vestiture long, woolly, completely ob- 
scuring integument of mesopleura and 
forecorners of mesoscutum; anterior (ob- 
lique) part of mesosternum with short, 
suberect hair; legs and usually gaster 
red; flagellomere I long. The holotype 
of T. erythrogaster Cameron bears a 
label ‘‘Larra erythrogaster Cameron.”’ 
The lip of its clypeus is distinctly 
emarginate mesally. Unlike all other 
specimens seen, gastral terga II-V are 
black (except for colourless apical de- 
pressions) in the lectotype of 7. latis- 
simus. 


Tachysphex gujaraticus Nurse 


!Tachysphex gujaraticus Nurse, 1909: 516, °, 
6. Lectotype 2: India: Bombay State: Deesa, 
140 km NNE of Ahmadabad (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.247). Present designation. 

!Tachysphex laniger Pulawski, 1964: 105, 2°, 
6. Holotype 2: Egypt: Abu Rawash NW of 
Cairo (coll. Pulawski). Syn. n. 


The types of T. gujaraticus and T. 
laniger are identical. Diagnostic charac- 
ters of TJ. gujaracticus are: vestiture 
long, woolly, almost totally hiding sculp- 
ture of mesopleura and forecorners of 
mesoscutum; gaster and legs red in fe- 
male and usually in male; lip of female 
clypeus denticulate. 


Tachysphex nigricolor (Dalla Torre), comb. n. 


'Larrada nigricans Smith, 1873: 192 (sex not 
mentioned). Lectotype 2: Japan: Nagasaki 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.256. Present 
designation. Nec Walker, 1871. 

Larra nigricolor Dalla Torre, 1897: 670 (new name 
for Larrada nigricans Smith, nec Walker). 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Tachysphex japonicus Iwata, 1933: 47, 9, 6. 
Holotype 2°: Japan: Honshu: Ikeda, Settsu 
(Kyoto Univ. or Tokyo Mus.). Syn. n. 


Tsuneki (1964a) synonymized Larra 
nigricans Smith with Liris japonica Kohl, 
but the lectotype female of the former 
species is actually identical with T. 
japonicus Iwata (the only representative 
of the genus in Japan). For the charac- 
teristics of this species see Pulawski 
(1971) and Tsuneki (1971). 


Tachysphex puncticeps Cameron 


!Tachysphex puncticeps Cameron, 1903: 127, 
2. Holotype °: India: Bengal: Barrackpore, 
20 km N of Calcutta (Oxford Univ. Mus., 
coll. Rothney). 

'Tachysphex varihirta Cameron, 1903: 128, 6. 
Holotype ¢: India: Bengal: Barrackpore (Ox- 
ford Univ. Mus., coll. Rothney). Syn. n. 

'Tachysphex rugidorsatus Turner, 1915: 556, 
2. Lectotype 2°: Tasmania: Eaglehawk Neck 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.216). Present 
designation; syn. n. 

!Tachysphex mindorensis Williams, 1928: 92, 
6, 2. Holotype 6: Philippines: Mindoro Is.: 
San Jose (Bishop Mus. Honolulu). Syn. n. 


This species belongs to the pompili- 
formis group and is rather similar to T. 
nitidus Spinola. It may be easily recog- 
nized by the mesoscutal hair which is 
shorter than the midocellus diameter. 


Tachysphex spinulosus, nom. n. 


'Tachysphex spinosus Pulawski, 1974: 72, @&. 
Holotype °: Brazil: Mato Grosso: Xavantina 
(British Mus.). Nec W. Fox, 1893. 


Tachysphex bengalensis Cameron 


'Tachysphex bengalensis Cameron, 1889: 154, 
2. Lectotype 2: India: ‘Bengal: Tirhoot”’ 
= Bihar: Muzalfarpur (Oxford Univ. Mus., 
coll. Rothney). Present designation. 

'Tachysphex brevitarsis Kohl, 1901: 783, 2. Syn- 
types: Ceylon: Badurelia (Nathist. Mus. 
Vienna). Syn. n. 


T. bengalensis is probably a roach 
collector because tarsomeres IV of the 
female are obtusely emarginate and wider 
than long, a trait common to such wasps. 
It differs from other Indian Tachysphex 
by the long, woolly hair on the head and 
thorax, strongly punctate mesopleura, 
ridged propodeal sides, and black body. 

The species called T. bengalensis by 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Williams (1928) is actually 7. tinctipennis 
Cameron (holotype seen). It is very 
different from true T. bengalensis but is 
rather similar to T. nigricolor. 


Tachysphex nigerrimus (Smith) 


'Tachytes nigerrimus Smith, 1856: 302, @ (ref- 
erence to White’s MS name Larra nigerrima). 
Holotype 2: New Zealand (British Mus., Type 
Hym. 21.213). White in Butler, 1874: pl. 7 
(Astata); Turner, 1908: 491 (Tachysphex). 

'Tachytes sericops Smith, 1856: 302, “2” 
= 6. Holotype 6: New Zealand (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.212). Syn. n. 

!Tachytes depressus Saussure, 1867: 69, 2. Holo- 
type 2: New Zealand (Nathist. Mus. Vienna). 
Syn. n. Kohl, 1885: 401 (Tachysphex). 

Tachytes Helmsii Cameron, 1888: 182, 2 . Type(s): 
New Zealand: Greymouth (location unknown). 
Syn. n. Kirkaldy, 1910: 131 (Tachysphex). 


The types of T. nigerrimus and T. 
sericops are the opposite sexes of one 
species. I was unable to locate the type 
of T. helmsii, but this species is certainly 
a synonym of T. nigerrimus. In the 
original description, Cameron says ‘‘this 
species belongs to the genus Tachysphex 
(Kohl),’’ and the only Tachysphex oc- 
curing in New Zealand is 7. nigerrimus. 
A female specimen in the British 
Museum bears a label in Cameron’s 
handwriting “‘Tachytes Helmsi Cam. N. 
Zealand,’ and it is T. nigerrimus; 
obviously this is the specimen mentioned 
by Cameron (1898). 

Diagnostic characters of this species 
are: female mandibles without lobe 
midway on lower margin; female clypeus 
almost flat, with middle lobe slightly 
raised along mid line; male hindtibiae 
fusiform, narrow basally, male foretarsi 
with rake. 


Tachysphex minutus Nurse 


!Tachysphex minutus Nurse, 1909: 516, 2, 6. 
Lectotype d¢: India: Bombay State: Deesa 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.258a). Present 
designation. 

'Tachysphex lilliputianus Turner, 1917d: 198, 
36. Holotype ¢: India: Bihar: Pusa (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.254). Syn. n. 


This species belongs to the brevipennis 
group and is very similar to T. rugosus 
Guss. "and: f.- guadrifurct Pul. ‘It 
differs from the former by the longer 


311 


foretarsal rake in the male and from the 
latter by the female gena, which is thick 
as seen from above. Possibly these dif- 
ferences represent geographic variation. 


Tachysphex fulvicornis Turner 


!Tachysphex fulvicornis Turner, 1918b: 363,°9. 
Holotype @: India: Bengal: Chapra (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.259). 

Tachysphex imperfectus de Beaumont, 1940: 178, 
2. Holotype 2 (de Beaumont, 1947a: 210): 
Algeria: Biskra (Oxford Univ. Mus.). Syn. n. 


The holotype of T. fulvicornis is identi- 
cal with North African specimens of 
T. imperfectus in all taxonomically 
important characters, such as rugose 
frons, very densely punctate gastral 
terga, basal flagellomeres ferrugineous, 
etc., but it differs from other females 
in having a tectiform pygidial area, 
a rather unimportant character. 


Tachysphex panzeri (vander Linden) 


!Tachytes panzeri vander Linden, 1829: 22, 6, 
2 (2 = Tachysphex pseudopanzeri de Beau- 
mont). Type: Spain (lost). Neotype 6 (Pulawski, 
1971: 262): Spain: Toledo (Rijksmus. Nat. Hist. 
Leiden). Kohl, 1884: 368 (Tachysphex). 

!Tachytes ceylonica Cameron, 1900a: 21, 6. 
Holotype 6: Ceylon (Oxford Univ. Mus.). 
Syn. n. 

!Tachytes aurifrons Cameron, 1900a: 23, ‘‘?”’ 
= 6. Lectotype 6: Ceylon: Trincomalli 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.252). Present 
designation. Nec Tachytes aurifrons Lucas, 
1848 = Tachysphex panzeri (vander Linden). 
Syn. n. 


The types of T. aurifrons Cameron and 
T. ceylonicus do not differ from the 
Palaearctic 7. panzeri. All have the same 
external morphology, and the shape of 
the volsella is identical. 


Tachysphex panzeri pulverosus (Radoszkowski) 


'Tachytes pulverosus Radoszkowski, 1886: 32, 
2, &. Syntypes: Uzbek SSR: Samarkand 
(Zool. Inst. Cracow). 

!Tachysphex ablatus Nurse, 1909: 516, 2°. Lecto- 
type °: India: Bombay State: Deesa (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.253), present designation. 
Syn. n. 


I could not find any difference between 
the lectotype female of 7. ablatus 


312 


and a female of T. panzeri pulverosus 
from Fezzan, Libya, with which I com- 
pared it. 


Tachysphex vulneratus foucauldi de Beaumont, 
stat. n. 


'Tachysphex vulneratus Turner, 1917b: 325, 9. 
Lectotype 2: East Zambia: Niamadzi River 
near Nawalia, 2000 ft. (British Mus., Type Hym. 
21.214). Present designation. 

!Tachysphex foucauldi de Beaumont, 1952b: 190, 
6. Holotype 6: Algeria: Hoggar: Tinhamour 
(Mus. Zool. Lausanne). 


T. vulneratus and T. foucauldi are 
certainly conspecific, but they differ 
enough to be recognized as geographic 
races. In the nominate subspecies, the 
gaster is red apically, and the tibiae 
are pubescent throughout; in the female, 
the gena is moderately developed as seen 
from above, the mesoscutal interspaces 
are mat, the mesopleural interspaces 
are linear, tergum V is finely, densely 
punctate, the undersides of the fore and 
midfemora are covered with appressed 
hair; and in the male, the dorsal, apical 
process of the volsella is widely rounded. 

In T. vulneratus foucauldi the gaster is 
black, and the outer face of the foretibia 
is glabrous; in the female, the gena is 
narrow as seen from above, the meso- 
scutal interspaces are shining, the meso- 
pleura are rugose (punctures contiguous), 
tergum V is finely, sparsely punctate, 
and the undersides of all femora are 
glabrous; in the male, the dorsal, pre- 
apical process of the volsella is narrow, 
truncate. 


Tachysphex schmiedeknechti Kohl 


!Tachysphex Schmiedeknechti Kohl, 1883: 170, 
2. Syntypes: Greece: Egina = Aiyina (Nathist. 
Mus. Vienna). 

!Tachysphex heliophilus Nurse, 1909: 515, °&, 
6. Lectotype ¢: India: Bombay State: Deesa 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.245). Present 
designation; syn. n. 


T. schmiedeknechti may be easily 
recognized by the peculiar, reticulate 
sculpture of the mesoscutum and meso- 
pleura, by the densely serrate inner 
hindtibial spur, and by the dark, trans- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


verse band of the forewing. Usually the 
female gaster is black in this species, 
but in the lectotype female of T. helio- 
philus tergum I and II are brownish red 
with black spots. 


Tachysphex subfuscatus Turner 


'Tachysphex subfuscatus Turner, 1917b: 323, 

~ &. Holotype 2. Malawi: Mlanje (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.240). 

'Tachysphex strigatus Turner, 1917b: 324, °. 
Lectotype 2: East Zambia: on road Ft. Jame- 
son to Lundazi, 4000 ft. (British Mus., Type 
Hym. 21.238). Present designation; syn. n. 


The gaster is entirely red in the lecto- 
type female of 7. strigatus, while seg- 
ments III-VI are black in the holotype 
of T. subfuscatus (pygidial area brownish 
red). Otherwise, both individuals are 
identical. 

As in T. schmiedeknechti, the pro- 
podeum is truncate and the mesoscutum 
and mesopleura are strongly reticulate, 
but unlike this species the clypeal rim 
is denticulate, and the hindtibial spurs 
are of the usual form in subfuscatus. 


Tachysphex erythropus (Spinola) 


Lyrops erythropus Spinola, 1838: 479, ‘‘?” 
= 6. Holotype ¢ (de Beaumont, 1952a:47): 
Egypt (Inst. Mus. Zool. Univ. Turin). 

!Tachysphex inventus Nurse, 1903b: 516, 6. 
Lectotype 6: India: Bombay State: Deesa 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.251). Present 
designation; syn. n. 


The lectotype male of JT. inventus 
displays all characters of T. erythropus, 
including the compressed forefemoral 
notch (without erect hair on proximal 
margin) and the nonagglutinate hair 
fringes on the gastral stera. 


Tachysphex selectus Nurse 


'Tachysphex selectus Nurse, 1909: 514, 6. 
Holotype 6: India: Bombay (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.248). 

'Tachysphex actaeon de Beaumont, 1960: 16, 
2, 6. Holotype 6: Israel: Jerusalem (Mus. 
Zool. Lausanne). Syn. n. 


The holotype of T. selectus agrees with 
T. actaeon in all characters (see Pulaw- 
ski, 1971). 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Tachysphex sericeus (Smith) 


'Larrada sericea Smith, 1856: 285, °. Holotype 
2: Gambia (British Mus., Type Hym. 21.237). 
Turner, 1917d: 197 (Tachysphex). 

'Lyrops fluctuata Gerstaecker, in Peters, 1857: 
510, 2. Holotype 2: Mozambique: Tette (Zool. 
Mus. Berlin). Kohl, 1883b: 226 (Tachysphex). 


Turner (1917d) and Arnold (1923a) 
considered these species as synonyms, 
but Arnold (1945) subsequently regarded 
them as distinct. My examination of the 
types has revealed that only 1 species 
is represented. For the characteristics of 
T. sericeus see Pulawski (1971: 416, 
as T. fluctuatus). 


Holotachysphex holognathus (Morice) 


Tachysphex (?) integer Morice, 1897: 308, &, 
6. Syntypes: Egypt: near Cairo (Oxford Univ. 
Mus.). Nec Tachysphex integer Kohl, 1892 
= Parapiagetia genicularis (F. Morawitz), 1890. 

Tachysphex (?) holognathus Morice, 1897: 434 
(new name for 7. integer Morice nec Kohl). 
Pulawski, 1972: 818 (Holotachysphex). 

!Tachysphex pollux Nurse, 1903b: 516, 6. 
Holotype 6.: India: Bombay State: Deesa 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.516). Syn. n. 


The holotype of Tachysphex pollux 
does not differ from Egyptian individuals 
of H. holognathus. The species was 
characterized by de Beaumont (1947a) 
and Pulawski (1972). 


Prosopigastra creon (Nurse) 


!Homogambrus creon Nurse, 1903a: 2, 6. Lecto- 
type ¢: India: Bombay State: Deesa (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.1,148). Present designa- 
tion. 

'Prosopigastra (Homogambrus) acanthophora 
Gussakovskij, 1933: 159, d. Holotype ¢: Turk- 
men SSR: Komarovskiy village S of Askhabad 
(Zool. Inst. Leningrad). Syn. n. Pulawski, 1965: 
574 (P. cimicivora acanthophora). 

Prosopigastra cimicivora cypriaca de Beaumont, 
1954: 154, 2, ¢. Holotype 6: Cyprus: Zakaki 
(Mus. Zool. Lausanne). Syn.: Pulawski, 1965: 
574. 


The lectotype male of P. creon displays 
all basic features of both P. acanthophora 
and P. cimicivora cypriaca and 1s cer- 
tainly conspecific. Diagnostic characters 
of P. creon are: thoracic hair erect 
(hair length on anterior part of meso- 
scutum equaling 1.5—2 midocellus 


313 


diameters), propodeal enclosure regu- 
larly ridged, knees yellow. It should be 
noted that in the lectotype of P. creon 
both pairs of lateral, mesosternal proc- 
esses are well developed, the forewing 


marginal cell is short (its foremargin 


equaling pterostigma), and the gaster is 
black, except tergum I is largely brown- 
ish red. 


Prosopigastra creon cimicivora (Ferton), stat. n. 


Homogambrus cimicivorus Ferton, 1912: 406, 
2, o&. Syntypes: Algeria: La Calle (Mus. 
Natl. Hist. Nat. Paris). 


As shown by de Beaumont (1954), 
the Algerian form (P. cimicivora) and the 
Cyprian form (P. cimicivora cypriaca 
= P. creon) are geographic forms of 1 
species. Because P. creon is the oldest 
available name, P. cimicivora becomes a 
subspecies of it. 


Prosopigastra creon carinata Arnold, stat. n. 


Prosopigastra carinata Arnold, 1922: 129. Holo- 
type 6: Rhodesia: Lonely Mine or Victoria 
Falls (Rhodesia Mus. Bulawayo). 


A male from Matetsi, Rhodesia, deter- 
mined as P. carinata by G. Arnold, 
and agreeing with the original descrip- 
tion, is conspecific with the type of 
P. creon. It displays the diagnostic 
characters listed above, and also the 
penis valve is the same as in P. creon. 
However, P. carinata differs from Palae- 
arctic and Oriental populations in having 
dichoptic eyes (there is small space be- 
tween them which equals 0.7 of a mido- 
cellus diameter). I consider this form as 
a subspecies of P. creon. 

Species with holoptic eyes have some- 
times been placed in the subgenus Homo- 
gambrus, but the holoptic-dichoptic 
variation in P. creon indicates the in- 
appropriateness of this subgeneric 
scheme. 


Prosopigastra nuda (Nurse), comb. n. 


!Tachysphex nudus Nurse, 1903b: 515, 2. Lecto- 
type 2: India: Bombay State: Deesa (British 
Mus., Type Hym.: 21.398). Present designation. 


The lectotype female of Tachysphex 
nudus is actually a Prosopigastra. The 


314 


legs and gaster are light red; the wings 
display a slightly infuscate transverse 
band; the clypeal lip is regularly arcuate, 
not folded; the frontal swelling is of the 
usual size; the mesoscutum is densely, 
distinctly punctate (some interspaces on 
the disk slightly larger than punctures); 
the vertex and mesoscutum have ap- 
pressed hair; and the foremargin of the 
marginal cell is longer than the ptero- 
stigma. 


Parapiagetia genicularis (F. Morawitz) 


!Tachysphex genicularis F. Morawitz, 1890: 592, 
2. Holotype °: Turkmen SSR: station Perevai 
between Djebel and Kazandjik (Zool. Inst. 
Leningrad). de Beaumont, 1955: 223 (Para- 
piagetia). 

!Tachysphex (?) integer Kohl, 1892: 216, 6. 
Holotype 6: Armenia: Arax valley (Nathist. 
Mus. Vienna). Syn. n. de Beaumont, 1947b: 
677 (Parapiagetia). 


The types of P. genicularis and P. 
integra are actually opposite sexes of 1 
species, which is characterized by the 
long marginal cell (its apical truncation 
is much shorter than 4th abscissa of the 
radial sector); the erect hair on vertex and 
the appressed hair on mesoscutum and 
scutellum; the nonemarginate middle 
clypeal lobe in female, and arcuate 
middle clypeal lobe in the male. The 
species is related to P. odontostoma 
Kohl. 


Parapiagetia substriatula (Turner), comb. n. 


!Tachysphex substriatulus Turner, 1917d: 197, 
2. Holotype ¢@: Pakistan: Punjab: Lahore 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.255). 


Similar to P. genicularis, but the vertex 
hair is appressed, the mesoscutum is 
densely punctate (interspaces about 1 
diameter apart), and the lateral corners 
of clypeal rim are sharp, prominent. 


Parapiagetia erythropoda (Cameron) 


'Tachytes erythropoda Cameron, 1889: 135, °&. 
Holotype ¢: India: Uttar Pradesh: Mussooree 
(Oxford Univ. Mus., coll. Rothney). Cameron, 
1890: pl. IX, fig. 5S (Notogonia); Turner, 1917d: 
196 (Parapiagetia). 

!Tachytes denticulata Morice, 1897: 305, &. 
Holotype 2: Egypt: Zeitun near Cairo (Oxford 
Univ. Mus.). Syn. n. Pulawski, 1961: 86 (Para- 
piagetia). 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


'Parapiagetia saharica de Beaumont, 1956: 201, 
6. Holotype ¢: Libya: Fezzan: Brak (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.1755). Syn. n. 


The holotype female of Tachytes 
erythropoda bears a label ‘‘Notogonia 
erythropoda”’ in Cameron’s handwriting. 
This specimen is identical with P. den- 
ticulata (see Pulawski, 1961). Several 
Indian males, collected with females of 
P. erythropoda, are identical with P. 
saharica. 


Larropsis (Ancistromma) obliqua (Smith), comb. n. 


'Larrada obliqua Smith, 1856: 281, “2”? = 6. 
Holotype 6: Cape of Good Hope (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.331). Turner, 1917c: 291 
(Tachytes). 


Bohart and Bohart (1966) consider 
Larropsis and Ancistromma as distinct 
genera, but I cannot share their opinion. 
The subalar fossa is carinate below in 
Larropsis s.s. and not carinate in Ancis- 
tromma, but in my opinion this feature 
alone does not merit the generic separa- 
tion of the 2 taxa, especially because 
all other basic structures of both are 
the same. L. obliqua belongs to species 
in which the subalar fossa is not carinate 
and is rather similar to the Palaearctic 
L. punctulata Kohl. In L. obliqua, how- 
ever, the vertex is slightly wider than 
long; the clypeal lip is narrower than 
the middle lobe of the clypeus; and the 
gaster is black, with segments I and II 
brownish. 


Tachytes vestitus (Smith) 


'Tachytes tarsatus Smith, 1856: 297, 2. Holotype 
2: India, ? or Pakistan (British Mus., Type 
Hym. 21.365). Nec Say, 1823. 

‘Larrada vestita Smith, 1873: 293, “9” = 6. 
Holotype 6: India, ? or Pakistan (British 


Mus., Type Hym. 21.366). Syn.: Bingham, 
1897: 188. 


Tachytes tarsalis Dalla Torre, 1897: 685 (new 
name for T. tarsatus Smith, nec Say). Nec 
Tachytes tarsalis (Spinola), 1838. 


Bingham (1897) synonymized Tach- 
ytes tarsatus Smith and Larrada vestita, 
and my examination of their types con- 
firms that the two forms are the opposite 
sexes of 1 species. T. vestitus is charac- 
terized as follows: scapes, vertex, meso- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


scutum and tergum I with erect hair; 
female: vertex almost as wide as long, its 
hair slightly longer than midocellus 
diameter; mesopleura and forecorners of 
mesoscutum totally obscured by ap- 
pressed tomentum; gastral terga I-V with 
silvery, apical fascia; sternum II and 
hindfemora without erect hair; apical 
lobe of hindfemora large; gastral seg- 
ments I-III red, the remaining black; 
legs black, the inner face of foretibiae 
and all tarsi reddish; male: vertex wider 
than long, its hair equaling midocellus 
diameter; flagellum cylindrical; meso- 
pleurae and forecorners of mesoscutum 
almost totally hidden by appressed 
tomentum; apical margin of sternum VIII 
rounded; basitarsi of midlegs as in T. 
obsoletus Rossi; gastral sterna I-II and 
basal half of III red, the remaining black; 
legs black, tarsi reddish. 


Tachytes fucatus Arnold 


!Tachytes fucata Arnold, 1951: 149, °. Lecto- 
type 2: S. Mauritania: Aleg (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.341). Present designation. 

!Tachytes serapis Pulawski, 1962: 379, 2, 6. 
Holotype ¢@: Egypt: Heluan (Mus. Zool. 
Lausanne). Syn. n. 


The hindfemora are red in the lecto- 
type female of 7. fucatus, but otherwise 
this specimen agrees perfectly with the 
original diagnosis of T. serapis (accord- 
ing to which the female hindfemora are 
black or sometimes dark ferrugineous). 
As in T. serapis, the clypeal bevel is 
indistinct. 


Tachytes brevipennis Cameron 


'Tachytes brevipennis Cameron, 1900: 22, °. 
Lectotype °: India: Bengal: Barrackpore (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.369), present designation. 

'Tachytes maculitarsis Cameron, 1900: 24, 6. 
Syntypes: India: Bengal: Barrackpore (Oxford 
Univ. Mus.). Syn. n. 


The types of T. brevipennis and T. 
maculitarsis are the opposite sexes of 1 
species. The vertex, mesoscutum and 
tergum I have long, erect hair, but the 
hair on the scapes is short and appressed. 
The vertex is wider than long. The gaster 
and legs are black. The apical lobe of 
the female hindfemora is small. The male 


315 


flagellum is cylindrical, and sternum VIII 
is emarginate apically. The basitarsi of 
midlegs as in T. obsoletus. 


Tachytes diversicornis Turner 


'Tachytes diversicornis Turner, 
2. Lectotype ¢: Pakistan: Karachi (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.370). Present designation. 

'Tachytes griseola Arnold, 1951: 149, 9, 6. 
Lectotype ¢: Ghana: Labadi (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.340b). Present designation; syn. n. 

'Tachytes rufitibialis Arnold, 1951: 150, ¢. Lecto- 
type 6: Mali: Tillembeya (British Mus., Type 
Hym. 21.342). Present designation; syn. n. 


T. diversicornis was correctly inter- 
preted by me (Pulawski, 1962), and T. 
griseolus and T. rufitibialis have proven 
to be synonyms of this species. Unlike 
Asiatic, Egyptian and Sudanese speci- 
mens, the hindtibiae are reddish basally 
in both sexes of T. griseolus, and entirely 
red in 7. rufitibialis. 


Tachytes pulchricornis Turner 


'Tachytes pulchricornis Turner, 1917b: 38, 6. 
2. Lectotype 6: Malawi: Mlanje (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.323). Present designation. 

!Tachytes pulchricornis subspecies kolaensis 
Turner, 1917b: 38, 6, 2. Lectotype ¢: Mozam- 
bique: Kola River near E. Mt. Chiperone 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.322). Present 
designation; syn. n. 


In the lectotype male of T. pulchri- 
cornis, the basitarsi of the midlegs are 
strongly modified, almost as in T. maculi- 
cornis Saunders (see Pulawski, 1962: 
fig. 119). The flagellum is cylindrical, 
except that the ventral face of flagel- 
lomeres VIII and IX is slightly pointed 
apically; the hindfemora do not have 
erect hair. The vertex is as wide as long. 
In the lectotype male of T. kolaensis, 
the flagellum is slightly more marked 
with yellow, and the vertex is slightly 
longer than wide, but these differences 
are of an individual, not subspecific 
order. 


Tachytes comberi Turner 


!'Tachytes comberi Turner, 1917d: 201, 9, 6. 
Lectotype 2: Pakistan: Karachi (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.371). Present designation. 

!Tachytes Patrizii Guiglia, 1932: 475, ¢. Holotype 
6: Libya: Kufra oasis (Mus. Civ. St. Nat. 
Genoa). Syn. n. 


316 


1918a: 94, 3, 


An easily recognized species (see 
Pulawski, 1962). 


Tachytes fulvopilosus Cameron 


'Tachytes andreniformis Cameron, 1902b: 64. 
Lectotype @: India: Assam: Khasia Hills 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.285a). Present 
designation. Nec Tachytes andreniformis 
Cameron, 1889. 

'Tachytes fulvo-pilosa Cameron, 1904: 297, @. 
Holotype 2: Northern India (Oxford Univ. 
Mus.). Syn. n. 

!Tachytes fulvo-vestita Cameron, 1904: 298 (sex not 
mentioned). Holotype ¢: Northern India (Ox- 
ford Univ. Mus.). Syn. n. 


In 7. fulvopilosus the gaster is black, 
without golden or silvery fasciae. The 
mesoscutum has golden, appressed 
tomentum which totally obscures the 
sculpture in the female and almost totally 
so in the male. The femora are largely 
and the tibiae are totally red. 


Tachytes tabrobanae Cameron 


'Tachytes tabrobanae Cameron, 1900: 23, °&. 
Holotype 2: Ceylon (British Mus., Type Hym. 
21.380). Present designation. 

'Tachytes proxima Nurse, 1903b: 515, 2, o. 
Lectotype 9: India: Bombay State: Deesa 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.376). Present 
designation; syn. n. 


T. proximus is a synonym of T. 
tabrobanae. The species (only females 
were examined) is characterized by the 
dense, appressed vestiture on the meso- 
pleura and on the dorsal side of thorax 
and gaster, which totally obscures the 
integument at the forecorners of the 
mesoscutum. The legs are red except for 
black coxae. 


Tachytes modestus Smith 


!Tachytes modestus Smith, 1856: 299, 2. Lecto- 
type 2: India: Punjab (British Mus., Type Hym. 
21.384). Present designation. 

'Tachytes maculipennis Cameron, 1904: 299, o. 
Holotype 6: India: Assam: Khasia (Oxford 
Univ. Mus.). Syn. n. 


The lectotype female of 7. modestus 
agrees with the current interpretation of 
this species (Tsuneki, 1964b, 1967). Diag- 
nostic characters are: galea as long as 
scape; clypeal lip emarginate mesally; 
femora (at least apically) and tibiae red; 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


gastral terga I-IV with silvery, apical 
fascia; female gastral sternum II densely 
punctate throughout (including apical de- 
pression). 


Tachytes modestus neglectus Turner, stat. n. 


!Tachytes neglecta Turner, 1917b: 32, 2. Lecto- 
type 2: Malawi: Mlanje (British Mus., Type 
Hym. 21.314). Present designation. 


The type of T. neglectus is conspecific 
with T. modestus but this African form is 
sufficiently different to warrant sub- 
specific status. It is characterized by the 
black femora and the dense, long hair of 
the underside of the hindfemora (longest 
hair equaling 2.5 midocellus diameters). 


Tachytes borneanus Cameron 


!Tachytes borneana Cameron, 1902a: 96, 2°. 
Lectotype 2: Borneo: Kuching (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.279a). Present designation. 

!Tachytes banoensis Rohwer, 1919: 8, 2. Holo- 
type °: Philippines: Luzon Is.: Los Banos 
(U. S. Natl. Mus. Washington). Syn. n. 


T. borneanus is morphologically 
identical to T. modestus, but it differs 
from the latter in having black femora 
and mid and hindtibiae. 


Tachytes astutus Nurse 


!Tachytes astutus Nurse, 1909: 513, 3. Lecto- 
type 6: India: Madhya Pradesh: Jubbulpore 
= Jabalpur (British Mus., Type Hym. 21.392). 
Present designation. 

Tachytes shirozui Tsuneki, 1966: 11, 2. Holotype 
2: Taiwan: Nantou-Hsien Pref.: Nanshanchi 
(Kyushu Univ. Fukuoka). Syn. n. 


I have compared the syntypes of T. 
astutus with male specimens of T. 
shirozui received from Dr. K. Tsuneki 
and have found them identical in their 
external morphology and in the structure 
of their genital organs. The shape of the 
penis valve is characteristic for this 
species (Tsuneki, 1967), and male 
sternum VIII is not emarginate. Female 
sternum II is finely, densely punctate 
(including apical depression). 


Tachytes saundersii Bingham 


'Tachytes saundersii Bingham, 1897: 189, 9°, 
36. Lectotype 2: Burma: Tenasserim: Haundraw 
Valley (British Mus., Type Hym. 21389). Pres- 
ent designation. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


'Tachytes shiva Nurse, 1903a: 3, 2. Lectotype 
2: India: Bombay State: Deesa (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.391). Present designation; syn. n. 

!Tachytes varipilosa Cameron, 1905: 159, ‘*?”’ 
= 6. Holotype 6: Borneo: Kuching (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.340). Syn. n. 

Tachytes formosanus Tsuneki, 1966: 12, 3d. Holo- 
type 6: Taiwan: Taipei-Hsien Pref.: Yangming- 
shan (Kyushu Univ. Fukuoka). Syn. n. 


The female of 7. saundersii may be 
easily recognized by the large punctures 
on sternum II (especially laterally before 
apical depression, where interspaces are 
slightly larger than punctures). The 
genitalia of a syntype of T. saundersii 
and of the holotype of T. varipilosus 
(which lacks the head) were examined. 
The penis valve of each is identical with 
figure 24 in Tsuneki (1966). 


Tachytes saundersii suluensis Williams, stat. n. 


Tachytes suluensis Williams, 1928: 88, 2°. Holo- 
type 2: Philippines: Mindanao Is.: Dapitan 
(Bishop Mus. Honolulu). 


I examined 1 2 and 1 ¢ paratype of 
T. suluensis from Surinao, Mindanao. 
They differ from T. saundersii in lacking 
silvery, apical fascia on the gastral terga. 
In the male, the preapical notch of the 
penis valve is about twice as wide as in 
T. saundersii. 1 consider T. suluensis 
as a geographic form of T. saundersii. 


Tachytes basilicus (Guérin-Méneville) 


Lyrops basilicus Guérin-Méneville, 1844: 440, 
2. Holotype 2: Senegal (Mus. Civ. St. Nat. 
Genoa). 

!Tachytes guichardi Arnold, 1951: 146, ¢. Holo- 
type 6: Senegal: Dakar (British Mus., Type 
Hym. 21.1761). Syn. n. 


I could not find any significant dif- 
ference between 7. guichardi and T. 
basilicus. For characteristics of T. 
basilicus see Pulawski (1962). 


Tachytes velox Smith 


!Tachytes velox Smith, 1856: 301, ¢. Lectotype 
3: Gambia (British Mus., Type Hym. 21.295). 
Present designation. 

!Tachytes neavei Turner, 1917b: 13, ¢. Holotype 
6: Zaire: Lualaba River, 2500-4000 ft. (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.297). Syn. n. 


Contrary to Turner’s (1917b, in key) 
statement, flagellomeres II-VII are 


317 


convex below in the type of 7. velox; 
therefore, the supposed difference be- 
tween this species and JT. neavei do not 
exist. The types of both species are 
identical in all details examined. | 

T. velox is similar to T. basilicus but 
differs from the latter by the labrum 
which protrudes slightly beyond the clyp- 
eal foremargin, by the black gaster and 
by the different basitarsi of male mid- 
legs. The same characters distinguish 
T. velox and T. monetarius Smith (syn- 
types examined). 


Tachytes argyreus (Smith), comb. n. 


'Larrada argyrea Smith, 1856: 276, ““2”> = 6. 
Holotype 6: Northern India, ? or Pakistan 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.250). Cameron, 
1889: 143 (Tachysphex). 

'Tachytes melanopyga Costa, 1893: 99, 2. Holo- 
type 2: Tunisia (Ist. Zool. Univ. Naples). 
Syn. n. 

!Tachysphex debilis Pérez, 1907: 498, 2, 6. 
Lectotype 2 (Pulawski, 1971: 5): Persian Gulf 
(Mus. Natl. Hist. Nat. Paris). Syn.: Pulawski, 
1974-5: 


The holotype male of 7. argyreus 
agrees with T. melanopygus in-all details 
of external morphology and in the struc- 
ture of the genitalia (especially the penis 
valve). Its small size and fine sculpture 
indicate that T. argyreus is not a syno- 
nym of T. bidens Guss. 


Tachytes pygmaeus Kohl 


!Tachytes pygmaea Kohl, 1888: 134, 2, 6 (6 
= T. argyreus Smith). Lectotype 2 (Pulawski, 
1962: 465): Egypt (Nathist. Mus. Vienna) 

!Tachytes basalis Cameron, 1889: 142, 2. Holo- 
type @: India: Uttar Pradesh: Mussoorie hills 
(Oxford Univ. Mus., coll. Rothney). Bingham, 
1897: 188 (as synonym of T. tarsatus Smith). 

!Tachytes calvus Turner, 1929: 556, 2. Lecto- 
type 2: S.W. Africa: Okahandja (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.335). Present designation; syn. n. 

'Tachytes seminuda Arnold, 1951: 153, 2. Lecto- 
type 2: Mali: Tillembeya (British Mus., Type 
Hym. 21.336). Present designation; syn. n. 


T. pygmaeus is easy to recognize be- 
cause of its short, appressed vestiture, 
the glabrous propodeal enclosure, the 
shape of the clypeus, etc. The holotype 
of T. basalis does not differ from North 
African specimens described by Pulaw- 
ski (1962). In the holotype of T. calvus, 


318 


the gaster is totally red, and the hair of 
the pygidial area is pale brownish. In the 
holotype of T. seminudus, the vestiture 
does not obscure the integument at the 
forecorners of the mesoscutum, and the 
inner face of the foretibiae is red. I 
think that these last 2 specimens are 
merely extreme forms of T. pygmaeus. 


Gastrosericus rothneyi Cameron 


!Gastrosericus Rothneyi Cameron, 1889: 147, 9. 
Syntypes: India: Bengal: Barrackpore (Oxford 
Univ. Mus.). 

!Gastrosericus Binghami Cameron, 1897: 22, 6. 
Holotype 6: India: Bengal: Barrackpore (Ox- 
ford Univ. Mus.). Syn. n. 


Contrary to Cameron’s (1897) opinion, 
the holotype of G. binghami (which lacks 
the head) is obviously the opposite sex 
of G. rothneyi. This species is charac- 
terized by the short, appressed vestiture 
of the head and thorax; the long marginal 
cell; the middle lobe of the clypeus 
produced into a narrow process; the 
finely, distinctly punctate propodeum; 
the black gaster; and the yellow outer 
face of tibiae. 


Liris aurifrons (Smith), comb. n. 


'Larrada aurifrons Smith, 1859: 16, ¢. Holotype 
6: Celebes (Oxford Univ. Mus.). Kohl, 1885: 
242 (Larra). 

iris nitidus Cameron, 1913: 113, 2. Holotype 
2: India: Uttar Pradesh: Dehra Dun (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.124). Syn. n. 


In my opinion, L. aurifrons and L. 
nitida are opposite sexes of 1 species. 
The mandibles are entire (subgenus Liris 
s.S.); the body is black; the wings are 
strongly infuscate (especially in female); 
the gaster has weak, silvery fascia on 
terga I-III; the gena adjacent to eyes has 
golden appressed tomentum which 
obscures the sculpture; the propodeal 
sides have evanescent ridges; and 
sternum II is convex basally. 


Liris croesus (Smith) 


'Larrada croesus Smith, 1856: 284, 2. Holotype 
2: Gambia (British Mus., Type Hym. 21.165). 
Kohl, 1894: 300 (Notogonia); Arnold, 1923b: 
235 (Notogonidea). 


'Notogonia pseudoliris Turner, 1913: 750, &. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Lectotype 2: Uganda: Entebbe (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.166). Present designation; syn. n. 

\Motes deceptor Turner, 1916: 253, 2. Holotype 
2: Nigeria: Offi (British Mus., Type Hym. 
21.174). Syn.: Arnold, 1923b: 235. Turner, 
1917a: 320 (Notogonia); Arnold, 1923b: 235 
(Notogonidea). 


According to the original description 
the claws of Notogonia pseudoliris are 
simple, but actually the lectotype female 
of this species has a tooth on each claw 
and is otherwise identical with the type of 
L. croesus. The shape of the labrum is 
diagnostic in this species: it is convex, 
slightly protruding beyond the clypeal 
foremargin and has a transverse fold 
which is distinctly emarginate mesally. 


Liris docilis (Smith) 


'Larrada docilis Smith, 1873: 192, 2. Lectotype 
2: Japan: Hyogo: Hokodadi (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.143). Present designation. 

'Larrada Tisiphone Smith, 1873: 192, 2. Holotype 
2: Japan: Nagasaki (British Mus., Type Hym. 
21.142). Nec Larrada tisiphone Smith, 1857. 
Syn.: Tsuneki, 1964a: 221. 


Tsuneki (1964a) correctly synony- 
mized these species. 


Liris jaculator (Smith) 


'Larrada jaculator Smith, 1856: 279, 2. Holotype 
2: India: North Bengal (British Mus., Type 
Hym. 21.147). Cameron, 1889: 129 (Notogonia 
jaculatrix). 

'Notogonia Chapmani Cameron, 1900: 25, @&. 
Holotype 2°: India: Himalaya (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.148). Syn. n. 


L. jaculator is very similar to L. 
memnonia Smith (type seen) in having 
silvery, apical fascia on gastral terga 
I-IV, in having a distinct, sinuate carina 
on the hindtibiae, and in other characters 
(see de Beaumont, 1961). In L. jaculator, 
however, the subcostal vein of the fore- 
wings is reddish brown rather than black 
as in L. memnonia. The holotype female 
of L. chapmani agrees with that of L. 
jaculator in all details examined. 


Liris conspicua (Smith), comb. n. 


'Larrada conspicua Smith, 1856: 276, °. Holo- 
type 2: India (Oxford Univ. Mus.). Kohl, 1885: 
242 (Larra); Bingham, 1897: 187 (Tachytes). 

'Notogonia pulchripennis Cameron, 1889: 129, °. 
Holotype 2: India: Orissa: Jeypore (Oxford 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Univ. Mus.). Syn. n. Dalla Torre, 1897: 672 
(Larra). 
Notogonia luteipennis Cameron, 1890: pl. IX fig. 2. 


I consider a female bearing a label 
‘‘Notogonia luteipennis Cam. type’’ in 
Cameron’s handwriting as the holotype 
of L. pulchripennis. The former name is 
doubtless a lapsus for L. pulchripennis 
described a year earlier. The valid name 
is L. conspicua, whose holotype is con- 
specific with that of L. pulchripennis. 
The species is very distinctive: mandibles 
emarginate, claws unarmed, middle lobe 
of clypeus not emarginate; spines of fore- 
tarsal rake spatulate; propodeal sides 
ridged; apicoventral margin of tar- 
someres V convex, but much less than in 
other species; gastral segments I-III and 
legs red; and forewings yellow, with 
sharply limited external band. 


Lyroda argenteofacialis (Cameron), comb. n. 


!Astata argenteofacialis Cameron, 1889: 151, 
“0”? = 6. Syntypes: India: Bengal: Barrack- 
pore (Oxford Univ. Mus.). 


The 2 male syntypes, 1 of which bears 
a label ‘‘Astata argenteofacialis Cam.”’ 
in Cameron’s handwriting, actually be- 
long in the genus Lyroda! The free 
margin of the middle lobe of the clypeus 
is broadly concave, but the concavity 
contains a mesal, arcuate lobe. The 
gaster is black, except that tergum I is 
brownish. 

Bingham (1897) listed _A stata argenteo- 
facialis as a questionable synonym of 
Lyroda formosa. Unfortunately, I am 
unable to confirm this synonymy. 


Lyroda formosa (Smith) 


Morphota formosa Smith, 1859: 17, 2. Holotype 
2: Celebes (British Mus.). 

'Odontolarra rufiventris Cameron, 1900: 36, °. 
Holotype 2: India: Assam: Khasia (Oxford 
Univ. Mus.). Syn. n. Turner, 1914: 256 (Lyroda). 


The holotype of Odontolarra rufiven- 
tris is identical with Lyroda formosa. 
Both have the same clypeal shape, and 
gastral segments I-III are red. 


Astata boops (Schrank) 


Sphex Boops -Schrank, 1781: 384 [d]. Type: 
Austria: Pratter = Vienna (lost). 


319 


'Astata agilis Smith, 1875: 39, 2. Holotype 2°: 
India: Nischiudipore (Oxford Univ. Mus.). 


Syn. n. 


The holotype female of A. agilis agrees 
with the present interpretation of the 
common Palaearctic A. boops. 


Astata australasiae Shuckard 


'4stata Australasiae Shuckard, 1838: 72, 2. Holo- 
type 2: New Holland = Australia, but actually 
Chile or Argentina (British Mus., Type Hym. 
21.68b). 

!Astata chilensis Saussure, 1854: 23, 2. Lecto- 
type 2 (Parker, 1968: 848): Chile (Mus. Hist. 
Nat. Geneva). Syn. n. 


A. australasiae is identical with A. 
chilensis,a South American species. The 
genus Astata is unknown in Australia 
and Shuckard’s material was doubtless 
mislabeled. The type of A. australasiae 
compares favorably with the features of 
A. chilensis discussed by Parker (1968). 
I also examined the stigmal area of the 
propodeum, the basitarsi of the midlegs 
(foretarsi missing), and many other 
details. 


Astata kashmirensis Nurse 


\Astata kashmirensis Nurse, 1909: 512, ¢. Holo- 
type 6: Kashmir, 5000-6000 ft. (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.67). 

Astata (Astata) stecki de Beaumont, 1942: 407, 
2, 6. Holotype 2: Switzerland: Valais: 
Euseigne (Nathist. Mus. Basle). Syn. n. 


The holotype of A. kashmirensis is a 
typical representative of the common 
European species known as A. stecki. It 
is characterized by long flagellomeres 
with peculiar tyloids, the black gastral 
sternum II, the short mesal brush on 
sterna IV-VI, the concave inner face of 
the midcoxae, and the yellowish brown 
foretibiae (darkened on posterior face). 


Astata compta Nurse 


!4stata compta Nurse, 1909: 510, 2. Holotype 2°: 
India: Mt. Abu, ? or Pakistan (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.58). 

!Astata absoluta Nurse, 1909: 511, ¢. Holotype 
6: India: Mt. Abu, ? or Pakistan (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.59). Syn. n. 


The holotypes of A. compta and A. 
absoluta are obviously opposite sexes of 


320 


1 species. A. compta is characterized by 
the black gaster and by the well de- 
veloped, very long vestiture. In the 
female, the head and thorax do not have 
stiff, dark or silvery setae, and the 
basitarsi of the fore and midlegs are 
similar to those of A. minor Kohl. 


Astata quettae Nurse 


!Astata quettae Nurse, 1903a: 1, 2, 3 (6 
= Astata resoluta Nurse). Lectotype 2 (Nurse, 
1909: 510): Pakistan: Quetta (British Mus., 
Type Hym. 21.53). 

!Dimorpha (olim Astata) fletcheri Turner, 1917d: 
193, 2. Lectotype ¢: India: Bihar: Pusa (British 
Mus., Type Hym. 21.66). Present designation; 
syn. n. 

!Astatus (in sp.) hirsutulus Gussakovskij, 1927: 
281, 2. Holotype 2°: Mongolia: Lake Gashun 
area: Sachzhou oasis (Zool. Inst. Leningrad). 
Syn. n. 

!Astata (s.s.) hungarica Pulawski, 1958: 195, °. 
Holotype 2: Hungary: Orszent Miklos (Zool. 
Mus. Budapest). Syn.: Pulawski, 1965: 572. 


The lectotypes of A. quettae and A. 
fletcheri agree with the original descrip- 
tion of A. hungarica. In the lectotype of 
A. fletcheri, the frontal bristles are con- 
centrated on the lower part of the frons, 
but there is some variation in the para- 
lectotypes. The mesopleura are sparsely 
punctate in the syntypes of A. fletcheri, 
and the interspaces are broader than the 
punctures. 


Astata lubricata Nurse 


l4stata lubricata Nurse, 1903b: 514, 2, 6. 
Lectotype @: India: Bombay State: Deesa 
(British Mus., Type Hym. 21.64b). Present 
designation. 

l4stata eremita Pulawski, 1959: 359, ¢. Holo- 
type ¢: S.E. Egypt: Gebel Elba (coll. Pulaw- 
ski). Syn. n. 


This species belongs to the miegi group 
in which the propodeal dorsum is haired. 
Indian males differ from Egyptian in- 
dividuals only in the following charac- 
ters: hindcoxae with pale hair only, 
underside of hindfemora with uni- 
colorous, sparse hair, whose length 
equals about 0.5 a hindfemoral diameter. 


Astata (Dryudella) orientalis Smith 


!4stata orientalis Smith, 1856: 310, ¢. Holotype 
6: India, ? or Pakistan (British Mus., Type 
Hym 21.55). 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


!Astata interstitialis Cameron, 1907: 1011, “*2”’ 
= 6. Lectotype d6: India: Bombay State: 
Deesa (British Mus., Type Hym. 21.54b). 
Present designation. Syn.: Meade Waldo, 1915: 
336. Nurse, 1909: 511 (type = ¢, not @). 


A. orientalis belongs in the tricolor 
group. The species is characterized (in 
the male sex) by a large, yellow frontal 
spot, yellow tegulae and precostal plates, 
and by having the basal veins of the 
forewings yellow; by the middle lobe of 
the clypeus which narrows anterad to a 
small, sharp point which is bent upward 
apically; and by the absence of a lobe 
on lower edge of the mandible, and no 
teeth or indentations on the inner edge. 

According to Turner (1917d), A. 
maculifrons Cameron is also a synonym 
of A. orientalis, but I cannot agree with 
his opinion. Although the clypeus is 
pointed in both forms, the 2 are different 
enough to consider them as distinct 
species. 


References Cited 


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321 


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. 1913. On some new and other species of 
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Costa, A. 1893. Miscellanea entomologica. 
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Dalla Torre, C. G. de. 1897. Catalogus Hymenop- 
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Ferton, Ch. 1912. Hyménoptéres nouveaux 
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Guérin-Méneville, F. E. 1844. Insectes, vol. 3, 
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Guiglia, D. 1932. Spedizione scientifica all’oasi 
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Gussakovskij, V. 1927. Les espéces paléartiques 
du genre Astatus Latr. (Hymenoptera, 
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Iwata, K. 1933. New species of Pemphredon 
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Kirkaldy, G. W. 1910. Summaries of some papers 
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Kohl, F. F. 1883. Uber neue Grabwespen des 
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XVII-XVIII. 

1885. Die Gattungen und Arten der 

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IX; 327-454, pl. XI-XII. 

. 1888. Neue Hymenopteren in den Samm- 

lungen des k.k. naturhistorischen Museums. 

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. 1892. Neue Hymenopterenformen. Ann. 

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322 


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Linden, P. L. vander. 1829. Observations sur les 
Hyménoptéres d’Europe de la famille de © 
Fouisseurs, deuxiéme partie. Bembecides, 
Larrates, Nyssoniens et Crabronites. Nouv. 
Mém. Acad. Roy. Sci. Bel. Let. Bruxelles 
5: 1-125. 

Meade-Waldo, G., C. Morley, and R. E. Turner. 
1915. Notes and synonymy of Hymenoptera in 
the Collection of the British Museum. Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist. (8)16: 331-341. 

Morawitz, F. 1890. Hymenoptera Fossoria trans- 
caspica nova. Horae Soc. Entomol. Ross. 24: 
570-645. 

Morice, F. D. 1897. New or little known Sphegidae 
from Egypt. Trans. Entomol. Soc. London 
1897: 301-316, 434 (a Correction) + pl. VI. 

Nurse, C. G. 1903a. New species of Indian 
Hymenoptera. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 15: 
1-18. 

. 1903b. New Species of Indian aculeate 

Hymenoptera. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (7)11: 

511-526, 529-549. 

1909. New and little known Indian 
Hymenoptera. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 19: 
510-517. 

Panzer, G. W. F. 1805. Faunae Insectorum 
Germaniae initia oder Deutschlands Insecten. 
Achter Jahrgang. LX XXIV-XCVI. Heft, Nirn- 
berg: pl. 1-22 + index systematicus p. 1-13. 

Parker, F. D. 1968. On the subfamily Astatinae. 
Part IV. The South American species in the 
genus Astata Latreille. Ann. Entomol. Soc. 
Amer. 61: 844-852. 

Pérez, J. 1907. Mission J. Bonnier et Ch. Pérez. 
(Golfe Persique, 1901). II.—Hyménoptéres. 
Bull. Sci. France Belgique, 41: 485-505. 

Peters, C. H. 1857. Ubersicht der von ihm in 
Mossambique aufgefundenen und von Hrn. Dr. 
Gerstacker bearbeiteten Hymenopteren aus der 
Familien der Crabronites, Sphegidae, Pompi- 
lidae und Heterogyna. Monatscher. Akad. Wiss. 
Berlin 1857: 590-513. 

Pulawski, W. 1958. Deux espéces nouvelles du 
genre Astata Latr. (Hym., Sphecid.) de la 
Hongrie. Polskie Pismo Entomol. 27 (1957): 
193-199. j 

- 1959. Espéces nouvelles ou peu connues 

du genre Astata Latr. Ibid. 29: 359-416. 


. 1961. Remarques sur les Parapiagetia 
Kohl d’Egypte (Hym., Sphecidae). bid. 31: 
8 De 


. 1962. Les Tachytes Panz. de la région 
paléarctique occidentale et centrale (Hym., 
Sphecidae). Ibid. 32: 311-475. 

. 1964. Etudes sur les Sphecidae (Hym.) 
d’Egypte. Ibid. 34: 63-155. 

1965. Sur la synonymie de certains 
Sphecidae (Hym.) paléarctiques. Ibid. 35: 
563-578. 
1971. 


Les Tachysphex Kohl (Hym., 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Sphecidae) de la région paléarctique occidentale 

et centrale. Wroclaw, 464 pp. 

1972. Notes synonymiques sur quatre 

Sphecidae (Hym.) paléarctiques. Polskie Pismo 

Entomol. 42: 817-820. 

. 1974. A revision of the Neotropical 
Tachysphex Kohl (Hym., Sphecidae). [bid. 44: 
3-80. 

Radoszkowski, O. 1886. Faune Hyménoptérologi- 
que Transcaspienne. Horae Soc. Entomol. Ross. 
20: 3-56 + pl. I-XI. 

Rohwer, S. A. 1919. Philippine wasp studies. 
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Exp. Sta. Hawaii. Sug. Plant. Assoc. Entomol. 
Ser. No. 14: 5-18. 

Saussure, H. de. 1854. Mélanges Hyménoptérologi- 
ques. Mem. Soc. Phys. Hist. Nat. Genéve 
14: 1-67. 

. 1867. Reise der Osterreichischen Fregatte 
Novara um die Erde in den Jahren 1857, 
1858, 1859 unter den Befehlen des Commodores 
B. von Willerstorf-Urbair. Zoologischer Theil, 
Zweiter Band. Hymenoptera. Familien der Ves- 
piden, Sphegiden, Pompiliden, Crabroniden 
und Heterogynen, Wien: 1-138 + pl. I-IV. 

Schrank, F. de P. 1781. Enumeratio Insectorum 
Austriae indigenorum. Augustae Vindelicorum: 
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aculeate Hymenoptera. Trans. Entomol. Soc. 
London, 2: 68-82, pl. VIII. 

Smith, F. 1856. Catalogue of hymenopterous in- 
sects in the collection of the British Museum. 
Part IV. Sphegidae, Larridae, and Crabronidae. 
London: [4], 207-497, pl. VI-XI. 

. 1859. Catalogue of hymenopterous insects 

collected at Celebes by Mr. A. R. Wallace. 

J. Proc. Linn. Soc., Zool. 3: 4-27. 

. 1873. Descriptions of aculeate Hymenop- 

tera of Japan, collected by Mr. George Lewis 

at Nagasaki. Trans. Entomol. Soc. London 

1873: 181-199. 

1875. Descriptions of new species of 
Indian aculeate Hymenoptera, collected by Mr. 
G. R. James Rothney, member of the Ento- 
mological Society. Ibid. 1875: 33-51, pl. I. 

Spinola, M. 1838. Compte-rendu des Hyménop- 
téres recuellis par M. Fischer pendant un voyage 
en Egypte, et communiqués par M. le Docteur 
Waltl a Maximilien Spinola. Ann. Soc. Entomol. 
France 7: 437-546. 

Tsuneki, K. 1964a. Notes on the nomenclature of 
the Japanese species of Larrini (Hymenoptera, 
Sphecidae, Larrinae). Kontyt 32: 214-222. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


. 1964b. The genus Tachytes Panzer of Japan 
and Korea (Hymenoptera, Sphecidae). Etizenia 
No. 5: 1-11. 

- 1966. Contribution to the knowledge of 

the Larrinae fauna of Formosa and the Ryukyus 

(Hymenoptera, Sphecidae). /bid. No. 17: 1-15. 

. 1967. Studies on the Formosan Sphecidae 

(1). The subfamily Larrinae (Hymenoptera). 

Ibid. No. 20: 1-60. 

- 1971. Studies on the Formosan Sphecidae 
(XI). A supplement to the subfamily Larrinae 
(Hymenoptera). Ibid. No. 55: 1-21. 

Turner, R. E. 1908. Notes on the Australian 
fossorial wasps of the family Sphegidae, with 
descriptions of new species. Proc. Zool. Soc. 
London 1908: 457-535, pl. XX VI. 

. 1913. On new species of fossorial Hymenop- 

tera from Africa, mostly Elidinae, Trans. 

Entomol. Soc. London 1912: 720-754. 

. 1914. Notes on fossorial Hymenoptera, 

XII. On some new Oriental species. Ann. Mag. 

Nat. Hist. (8)14:245—257. 

. 1915. Notes on fossorial hymenoptera, 

XVI. On the Thynnidae, Scoliidae, and Crab- 

ronidae of Tasmania. Ibid. (8)15: 537-559. 

. 1916. Notes on fossorial Hymenoptera, 

XX. On some Larrinae in the British Museum. 

Ibid. (8)17: 248-259. 

- 1917a. Notes on fossorial Hymenoptera, 

XXVII. On new species in the British Museum. 

Ibid. (8)19: 317-326. 

. 1917b. A revision of the wasps of the genus 

Tachytes inhabiting the Ethiopian Region. [bid. 

(8)20: 1-43. 

- 1917c. Notes on fossorial Hymenoptera, 

XXIX. On new Ethiopian species. Ibid. (8)20: 

289-298. 

- 1917d. On a collection of Sphecoidea sent 

by the Agricultural Research Institute, Pusa, 

Bihar. Mem. Dep. Agric. India, Entomol. 

Ser. (4)5: 173-205. 

- 1918a. Notes on fossorial Hymenoptera, 

XXXII. On new species in the British Museum. 

Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9)1: 89-96. 

. 1918b. Notes on fossorial Hymenoptera, 

XXXV. On new Sphecoidea in the British 

Museum. [bid. (9)1: 356-364. 

- 1929. Notes on fossorial Hymenoptera, 
XLIII. On new Ethiopian Sphegidae. Ibid. (10)4: 
554-559. 

Williams, F. X. 1928. Studies in tropical wasps— 
Their hosts and associates (with descriptions of 
new species). Bull. Exp. Sta. Hawaii. Sug. 
Plant. Assoc., Entomol. Ser. No. 19: 1-179. 


323 


ACADEMY AFFAIRS 


BOARD OF MANAGERS MEETING NOTES 


April 30, 1974 


The 626th meeting was called to order 
at 8:08 p.m. by President Sherlin in the 
conference room in the Lee Building at 
FASEB. 


Secretary.—Dr. Rupp moved that the 
minutes be accepted. Seconded by Dr. 
Robbins. Passed. 


Treasurer. — The treasurer, Dr. Rupp, 
reported that printing expenses at Lan- 
caster Press have been increased over 
6%. He moved, seconded by Dr. Irving, 
that the subscription rates to nonmember 
subscribers be increased to $14 for U.S. 
and $15 for foreign. The single copy rate 
would be $4.50. Passed. Dr. Rupp ex- 
plained our deficit budget. Dr. Robbins 
moved that the treasurer be authorized 
to liquidate securities up to $4000 in the 
case of absolute need. Seconded by Dr. 
Rupp. Passed. It was noted that we can 
submit a bill to DOT as soonas we havea 
firm price for the Symposium issue. 


President-elect. — Dr. Stern requested 
that the committee chairmen turn in the 
names of their committee members, 
tenure, and function of the committee by 
the time of the annual meeting. The 
committees will be constituted before 
summer—especially Ways and Means 
and Policy Planning. We need to look at 
what the Academy is doing and its func- 
tion. 


324 


New Members and Fellows.—Dr. 
O’Hern said that a welcome letter had 
been sent to new members asking them to 
suggest other new members. 


Membership.—Mrs. Forziati_ pre- 
sented the names of 18 people for elec- 
tion to fellowship. It was moved by 
Dr. Abraham, seconded by Dr. Robbins, 
that these nominations be accepted. The 
following fellows were elected: Paul R. 
Achenbach, Robert N. Goldberg, Julius 
Lieblein, Raymond D. Mountain, Anton 
Peterlin, Marjorie R. Townsend, Allan 
L. Forsythe, Louis S. Jaffe, Berenice G. 
Lamberton, Edith R. Corliss, Thomas P. 
Meloy, Hajime Ota, Eugene Jarosewich, 
Donald F. Flick, William B. Fox, Henry 
S. Liers, James H. Mulligan, Jr., Jenny 
E. Rosenthal. 


Annual Meeting. — Will be held at the 
Cosmos Club on May 16, 1974. 


New Business.—Dr. Rupp suggested 
that we should recognize the work that 
Dr. Foote does on the Journal either in 
the form of a letter or certificate. It was 
also agreed to include Mr. Detwiler’s 
name. 

It was moved by Dr. Abraham that — 
certificates be printed that are suitable 
for recognition for Science Fair students, 
seconded by Dr. Robbins. Passed. 

It was moved by Dr. Stern, seconded 
by Dr. Irving, that the meeting be ad- — 
journed. Passed. Meeting adjourned at 
9:05 p.m.— Patricia Sarvella, Secretary. | 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


NEW FELLOW 


Alan S. Whelihan, Assistant Commissioner, Officer of Standards & Quality Con- 
trol, General Services Adm., Federal Supply Service, in recognition of his 
contribution to improvement of efficiency of planning and management of the 
complex defense electronic systems as well as his innovative leadership in support 
of the Experimental Technology Incentives Program in the Federal Supply Service. 
Sponsors: Philip J. Franklin, Maurice Apstein, Roger W. Curtis. 


SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS 


Contributions in this section of your Journal are earnestly solicited. 
They should be typed double-spaced and sent to the Editor three 
months preceding the issue for which they are intended. 


AGENCY FOR INTERNATIONAL 
DEVELOPMENT 


Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr., Ph.D., bio- 
chemist and research administrator, has 
been elected and installed as new Presi- 
dent of the Czechoslovak Society of Arts 
and Sciences in America. The Society, 
whose foundation some 16 years ago was 


instigated by Einstein’s distinguished 


disciple Prof. Vaclav Hlavaty of In- 
diana University, is an international 
cultural, non-political and non-profit 
organization, dedicated to the advance- 


ment of Czechoslovak studies. Active 


branches of the Society, which has its 
headquarters in the United States, may 
be found on virtually every continent, 
from the United States and Canada to 
Asia and Australia, from Latin America 
to United Kingdom and Western Europe. 
Membership is open to any individual, 
regardless of national background, in- 
terested in furthering Czechoslovak 
scholarship. 

Apart from his purely scientific pur- 
suits and research administrative re- 
sponsibilities, for which he is generally 
Known to his scientific colleagues, Dr. 
Rechcigl is recognized as an authority 
in the area of Czechoslovak studies. 
He is an expert on general and science 
bibliography of Czechoslovakia and East 
Europe as a whole, in which field he 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


contributed several significant publica- 
tions. Among others, he is the author of 
Czechoslovakia and its Arts and Sci- 
ences: A Selective Bibliography in the 
Western European Languages (Mouton 
& Co., 1964), Czechoslovakia in Bibli- 
ography: A Bibliography in Bibliogra- 
phies (Mouton & Co., 1968), and a con- 
tributor to East Central Europe: A 
Bibliographic Guide to Study and Re- 
search (University of Chicago Press, 
1969) and contributing editor to periodic 
‘*Critical Bibliography of the History of 
Science and its Cultural Influences’’, 
published by the History of Science 
Society journal /S/S. 

As an ardent student of Czecho- 
slovak culture he authored and edited 
several noteworthy books, including The 
Czechoslovak Contribution to World 
Culture (Mouton & Co., 1964), a two- 
volume set entitled Czechoslovakia Past 
and Present (Mouton & Co., 1968), and 
the forthcoming Studies on Czechoslovak 
Culture and Society. 

He also organized the first two con- 
gresses of the Czechoslovak Society of 
Arts and Sciences and has been responsi- 
ble for the publication program of the 
Society for a number of years. 

At his 44 years of age, he is the 
youngest person elected to Presidency of 
the Society to date. 


325 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


Newsweek magazine ran an article 
describing the work of Patricia Sarvella, 
Geneticist, Field Crops Lab., BARC, 
and Marlow W. Olsen, formerly a physi- 
ologist with the old Poultry Res. Br., 
on the parthenogenesis of turkeys and 
Dark Cornish hens. Parthenogenetic 
birds are those which are hatched from 
unfertilized eggs. 


Henry M. Cathey, Chief, Ornamentals 
Lab., BARC, was featured in a special 
section in House Beautiful magazine de- 
voted to ‘‘Super Thumbs”’ of gardening. 


Robert E. Hardenburg, Chief, Horti- 
cultural Crops Marketing Lab., BARC, 
has been elected a Fellow of the Ameri- 
can Society for Horticultural Science, in 
recognition of his outstanding contribu- 
tions and leadership in maintaining the 
high quality of fruits, vegetables, and 
- flowers during marketing. 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 


Mary Aldridge has been appointed 
Chairman of the Honor Scroll Committee 
for the American Institute of Chemists. 


Leo Schubert was invited to be part of 
an ‘‘American Chemical Society Task 
Force on Work-Study Programs’? which 
was held December 6 and 7, 1974, in 
Washington, D.C. This meeting was 
organized by the American Chemical So- 
ciety and the formal discussion topic was 
Changes Needed in the Goals of Chemi- 
cal Education. 


HARRY DIAMOND LABS 


The Army’s Harry Diamond Labora- 
tories Headquarters has officially re- 
located to 2800 Powder Mill Road, 
Adelphi, Maryland, as of 10 January 
1975. 

The new site is located approximately 
five miles from the northeast boundary 
of the District of Columbia and repre- 
sents the most modern laboratory center 
planned, designed and built by the U. S. 
Army exclusively for research and de- 


326 


velopment. In January 1975, some 400 
personnel engaged in mostly administra- 
tive functions joined nearly 400 scientists 
and engineers who relocated in February ~ 
1974. This will officially mark the trans- 
fer of the Labs from its present facilities 
in northwest Washington, D.C. to 
Adelphi. Remaining at the D.C. site and 
scheduled to move during the summer of 
1976 are some 400 researchers engaged in 
such areas as fluidics, nuclear radiation 
effects on electronics, radar antennas, 
and microwave electronics. 

Under the leadership of Col. David W. 
Einsel, Jr., Commander, and Mr. Billy 
M. Horton, Technical Director, the 
installation has become a full spectrum 
laboratory capable of all phases of re- 
search, development, engineering, and 
assistance in the establishment of an 
industrial production base for items 
evolved within the Lab. 

The new site consists of 137 acres that 
was transferred by the Department of the 
Navy to the Department of the Army in 
late 1969. Located on the southeast 
corner of the Naval Surface Weapons 
Center, the collocation of two such well- — 
recognized R&D activities is anticipated 
to reinforce each other in their similar 
mission assignments. 

Just a few days before the U. S. 
Army’s Harry Diamond Laboratories 
(HDL) moved to the new laboratory 
complex he helped design and promote, 
Billy M. Horton resigned as Technical 
Director of HDL. Thus as 1974 came 
to a close, so also ended the 33-year 
federal career of one of the Army’s 
most distinguished science and engineer- 
ing executives. 

Mr. Horton left the Naval Research 
Laboratory and joined the Ordnance 
Division of the National Bureau of 
Standards (subsequently Diamond Ord- 
nance Fuze Laboratories, now HDL) in — 
1951, and almost immediately introduced 
the notion of using noise-modulation in 
radar ranging and detecting systems. This 
has led to a new class of missile fuzes 
that are highly resistant to counter- 
measures. Later, he invented the basic 
stream interaction Fluid Amplifier that 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Billy M. Horton 


started the field of Fluidics, which is 
now being applied to a wide range of 
control systems, including those used for 
aircraft stabilization, jet thrust reversing, 
ordnance power supplies, safing and 
arming systems, industrial controls, and 
respirators. This invention ultimately led 
to HDL being designated as the Army’s 
Lead Laboratory for Fluidics. Holder of 
20 patents covering diverse fields ranging 
from an eye-saving Light Disrupter to a 
Coaxial Gravity Meter, Horton is one of 
the Army’s most prolific inventors. 
During the 13 years that Mr. Horton 
has been Technical Director, HDL has 
made many advances and accomplish- 
ments. In recognition of HDL’s pioneer- 
ing work in transient radiation effects, 
the Army’s Electromagnetic Effects 
Laboratory was transferred to HDL and 
HDL was named the Army’s Lead 
Laboratory for Nuclear Weapon Effects 
in 1971. HDL now has extensive nuclear 
simulation facilities including a nuclear 
reactor, several electromagnetic pulse 
simulators, and AURORA, a huge 
gamma-ray simulator funded by the 
Defense Nuclear Agency. Under Mr. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


Horton’s leadership, microminiaturiza- 
tion and solid state technology were 
brought to fruition in projectile fuzes, 
resulting in greatly improved per- 
formance at a fraction of the unit cost. 
HDL also developed a unique foliage 
penetration radar for use in Vietnam, and 
several radar simulators. 

During his tenure, Mr. Horton empha- 
sized employee development by formal 
training, by developmental assignments, 
and by staff mobility. Heavy use of 
strong leadership by Associate Technical 
Directors, each having responsibilities 
that span the whole organization, has 
been a characteristic of his management. 

Mr. Horton’s many contributions to 
science and management have been 
recognized by the numerous awards he 
has received. These honors include the 
U.S. Army R&D Achievement Award, 
the U. S. Army Decoration for Excep- 
tional Civilian Service, and the Depart- 
ment of Defense Distinguished Civilian 
Service Award. He also received the 
Arnold O. Beckman Award of the In- 
strument Society of America in 1960, the 
John Scott Award of the City of Phila- 
delphia in 1966, a special award from 
the American Society of Mechanical 
Engineers in 1970 marking the 10th 
anniversary of the invention of fluidics, 
and the Inventor of the Year Award for 
1971 from the Patent, Trademark and 
Copyright Research Institute of the 
George Washington University. Mr. 
Horton is a Fellow of the Institute 
of Electrical and Electronic Engineers, 
and a member of the Washington 
Academy of Science, the Philosophical 
Society of Washington, and the Cosmos 
Club. 

During the past decade, a major objec- 
tive of Mr. Horton’s and the several 
Commanding Officers of HDL has been 
the relocation of HDL to a new and 
permanent site. Their zeal and untiring 
efforts, with the aid and support of 
Army and Congressional leaders, has 
resulted in the construction of an entirely 
new facility at Adelphi, Md., designed 
and equipped specifically for R&D ac- 
tivities. Headquarters of HDL were 


327 


officially moved to the new site on 
January 10. One of Mr. Horton’s regrets, 
aside from leaving associates and proj- 
ects with which he has been closely 
involved, is that he will not have the 
opportunity to enjoy the advantages of 
the new site, whose design so strongly 
shows his influence. 

Mr. Horton is retiring, he says, be- 
cause he has ‘‘“—a gnawing desire to 
become more personally involved in 
some technical projects that have been 
bugging me for a long time—some of 
them for several years,’’ and he plans to 
devote his principal energies to those 
projects including a high pressure 
machine, foldable structures, a new kind 
of mechanical control system, and a 
rotary pump of new geometry. He says 
he has deep regrets about leaving ‘‘one 
of the best jobs in the country, — Techni- 
cal Director of HDL,’’ but feels that 
HDL has a “‘tremendous depth of talent’’ 
and that “‘mobility and change are good 
for organizations as well as for in- 
dividuals.”’ 

Mr. Horton was born in Bartlett, 
Texas, and is a graduate of the Univer- 
sity of Texas in 1941, BA (Physics), 
and University of Maryland, MS 
(Physics), in 1949. 

He currently resides in Washington, 
D. C., with his wife Grace. The Hortons 
have two sons, Phillip Edward, 32, and 
Stephen Douglas, 21. 


P. Anthony Guarino, Associate Tech- 
nical Director of the U. S. Army’s 
Harry Diamond Laboratories (HDL), 
Washington, D.C., since 1958 has re- 
tired after nearly 30 years of Federal 
Civil Service. 

Mr. Guarino joined HDL’s staff as a 
radar specialist in 1948 and was made 
responsible for the design and develop- 
ment of specific proximity fuzes for vari- 
ous bombs, rockets, and mortar shells. 

Over the years he was given increas- 
ingly greater responsibility for the 
management of technical programs which 
included artillery fuzing, guided projec- 


328 


P. Anthony Guarino 


tile and missile fuzing and more recently _ 
special purpose radars. In 1969 he re-- 
ceived the Army’s R&D Achievement 
Award for his efforts during one such 
technical program. 

An author of nearly fifty technical 
reports on fuzing, radar, radio, and 
countermeasures, Mr. Guarino has 
served as consultant on numerous work- 
ing groups including the NATO team on 
Mutual Weapons Development and the 
United States-United Kingdom-Canada- 
Australia Technical Cooperation Pro- 
gram. In the 1960’s he represented the 
U. S. Army in the National Space 
Program Research and Development 
Briefings, and in recent years has been 
an Army Consultant to the Re-Entry 
Systems Advisory Group of the U. S. 
Air Force Space and Missile Systems. 
Organization. 

Born in Cambridge, Mass. in 1912, 
Mr. Guarino received his B. S. in 1935 § 
from Massachusetts Institute of Tech-. 
nology, and in 1940 a M.S. (Physics) | 
from University of Notre Dame. He 
currently resides in Rockville, Md. with 
his wife Betty. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


OBITUARIES 


Ernest M. Levin 


Ernest M. Levin, a chemist at the 
National Bureau of Standards who 
gained an international reputation for his 
work on glass and ceramics, died of 
cancer on August 7, 1974, at the Veterans 
Administration Hospital in Washington. 
He was 59. 

Mr. Levin’s specialty was_ high- 
temperature phase diagrams. These are 
analyses of chemical reactions of ma- 
terials subjected to intense heat. The 
diagrams of these reactions enable re- 
search and industrial scientists to predict 
how materials will behave under cer- 
tain conditions. 

In recent years, Mr. Levin had been 
chief author of “‘Phase Diagrams for 
Ceramists.”’” The book is known as 
‘‘the bible’? for virtually all scientists 
working with glass and ceramics. 

The diagrams have industrial applica- 
tions ranging from the construction of 
kilns in steel mills to the most delicate 
optical systems. They have also been 
used in developing new types of glasses, 
magnetic devices for computers, devices 
for converting electrical energy into 
mechanical energy, as in phonograph 
recordings and tape recorders, and in 
the manufacture of single crystals for 
laser beams and optical communications 
systems. They have also been used in 
developing materials with high resistance 
to corrosion in the petrochemical and 
steel industries. 

Mr. Levin’s latest project, completed 
shortly before his death, was the com- 
pilation of nearly 1,000 new phase dia- 
grams for a new edition of ‘‘Phase 
Diagrams for Ceramists.”’ 

For this and his earlier work, Mr. 
Levin was nominated for the 1974 
Department of Commerce Gold Medal 
Award, the highest honor the depart- 
ment can confer. The medal was 
presented to his family at a ceremony 
this fall. 

‘*This is the capstone of a career which 
began with research and concluded with 
a combination of compilation (of phase 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


diagrams), evaluation and research,”’ 
says Dr. John B. Wachtman, chief of 
the inorganic materials division of the 
Bureau of Standards. 

‘‘The point is that evaluation is not 
something just a clerk can do. It’s an act 
of analysis and judgment which only an 
experienced and highly qualified man can 
do.”’ 

Besides the Gold Medal, Mr. Levin’s 
awards included the Bronze and Silver 
Medals of the Commerce Department 
and the Special Achievement Award of 
the Bureau of Standards. He was the 
seventh person to receive the Presi- 
dential Citation from the American 
Ceramic Society in the 75-year-history 
of that organization and he was also a 
recipient of the society’s S. B. Meyer 
Award. 

Mr. Levin was a member of numerous 
profession organizations, including the 
American Ceramic Society, the Ameri- 
can Institute of Chemists, the British 
Ceramic Society and the American 
Chemical Society. 

Mr. Levin was born in Detroit and 
graduated from the University of Cali- 
fornia at Los Angeles in 1935. He earned 
a master’s degree from UCLA and began 
his 37-year-career with the National 
Bureau of Standards at Riverside, Calif. , 
in the same year. He was transferred 
to Washington in 1944. He was a GS-15 
with a salary of about $32,000 a year 
at the time of his death. 

In private life, Mr. Levin enjoyed 
gardening and practicing and teaching 
yoga. 

Survivors include his wife, Doris, of 
the home at 7716 Sebago Rd., Bethesda; 
two sons, Fred and Robert, both of the 
home; a daughter, Ellen Share, of Brook- 
ville; his parents, Dr. and Mrs. N. P. 
Levin of Los Angeles, and a grandchild. 


Paul E. Howe 


Paul E. Howe, 89, a retired Army 
colonel and well known nutrition au- 
thority, died on Sept. 27, 1974 in Wash- 
ington after a short illness. 


329 


Col. Howe was a native of Chicago 
and studied at the University of Illinois, 
earning bachelor’s, master’s and doc- 
toral degrees. He taught at Columbia 
University and at the Rockefeller Insti- 
tute at Princeton, N. J., before coming 
to Washington in 1924 to take a job 
with the Department of Agriculture as a 
research nutritionist. 

During World War I he had been one 
of the Army’s first nutrition officers. In 
World War II he was head of the division 
of foods and nutrition of the surgeon 
general’s office. During the postwar 
occupations of Germany and Japan, he 
worked on the nutritional needs of the 
civilian populations of those two coun- 
tries. 


330 


Col. Howe also served as a nutritional | 
adviser to the Bureau of Prisons and — 
developed a way of evaluating and main- 
taining nutritional adequacy in institu-— 
tional feeding. 

Col. Howe retired from the Depart- 
ment of Agriculture in 1955, but con- 
tinued to work as a consultant for, among 
others, the California Department of 
Corrections and as a Fulbright lecturer 
at the Instituto Nazionale Della Nu- 
trizione in Rome. ) 

He is survived by his wife of 61 years, 
Harrient Rinaker of Washington; two 
daughters, Clarissa Beerbower of West- ° 
field, N. J., and Elizabeth Hyde of Bly, - 
Ore.; five grandchildren and five great- 
grandchildren. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 64, NO. 4, 1974 


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9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda) ees nt Wis 
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Return Requested with Form 3579 ae = | 


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VOLUME 65 
Number 1 


JOUr nal of the MARCH, 1975 


WASHINGTON 
ACADEMY. SCIENCES 


" Issued Quarterly 
at Washington, D.C. 


CONTENTS 
Features: 
JOSEPH F. COATES: Technology Assessment and Public Wisdom ....... 3 
ELAINE G. SHAFRIN et al.: Washington Junior Academy of Sciences— 
(TE SPRES  DONESIGERLIKG Tn TAS SS aS ee ee 12 
RICHARD H. FOOTE and JUDITH ZIDAR: A Preliminary Annotated 
Bibliography of Information Handling Activities in Biology ............ 19 
Research Reports: 
JOHN M. KINGSOLVER: Amblycerus acapulcensis, A New Species 
of Seed Beetle from Mexico (Coleoptera: Bruchidae).................. 33 


DONALD R. WHITEHEAD: Species of Conotrachelus Schonherr and 
Microscapus Lima (Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Cryptorhynchinae) 
Associated with Hymenaea courbaril Linnaeus in Central America, with 
Notes on the Cristatus Group of Conotrachelus .............0000 0000 36 


LOUISE M. RUSSELL: Euceraphis punctipennis (Zetterstedt), the Fourth 
Aphid Species with Four Cornicles (Hemiptera: Homoptera: Aphididae) .. 40 


Academy Affairs: 
Beate ot Manarers Meeting Notes—Oct. 17, 1974.................-e0 cee 42 
RIN eee) subline dls elawiw ees deeceeae' a 44 
i EE MOSS PRUE FAD Sto 2 one fi sae 1a, Wiehe ane Goda oe adi a eles G8 Gadde es wets es 44 


Obituaries: 
7 2 EL D2 eee Tea ae ee een sence eee e eee ees 46 
S. M. Dohanian (addendum)..... RMT HSIN aS ER eae 48 


APR 9 40 
SLBHAKIES 


Washington Academy of Sciences 


EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


President 
Kurt H. Stern 


President-Elect 
George Ahraham 


Secretary 
Mary Aldridge 


Treasurer 
Nelson W. Rupp 


Members at Large 
Norman H. C. Griffiths 
Patricia Sarvella 


BOARD OF MANAGERS 


All delegates of affiliated 
Societies (see facing page) 


EDITOR 
Richard H. Foote 
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT 
Elizabeth Ostaggi 


ACADEMY OFFICE 


9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda) 


Washington, D.C. 20014 
Telephone (301) 530-1402 


Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the 
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DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


CECT VOL WASMINCTON . 6... cc cis ec ences wee cece peenenaeees Ralph P. Hudson 
eR SOCICEY OF WASMINGION .. 0c. ck cnt ete c wee ea van oeceececeness Jean K. Boek 
CE STIMTIOCON, «5 5. £ 5 ci eicle ccc o.o cs etic cv sln ard cievneusdeeecseeeuweavedeuds Inactive 
RE PIMIMICEUECTNVASMINIOTON . cc's ce cee ct ee cv eee wsccnwsbevedel's Robert F. Cozzens 
MEM SCICHY Of WaASMNPTON .....5.. ccc cece nae s cece eee esaseeeseecs Maynard Ramsay 
PEM SOCICLY 2c) ccc eae eee cece enwaenencbeues Alexander Wetmore 
8 SEES ESS (0) rr Charles Milton 
ee eneemmetne I istrict Of Columbia... : 2.20. 5.5 cc cece cence eee cect eu eenense Inactive 
IR MMSE TIE INE TCUY. fe a0) 5c. sicje lec als vc ale distowein q.eisls oid lage lie’ wile aid eevee e's en oes Paul H. Oehser 
SE VE IESG TTY C 0 Conrad B. Link 
CEMT-IMEIMUGOLCSICrS (00. bbs i a ek cece se dees ea cnet secesencas Robert Callaham 
2 ADEE) CLE LENT (Sha George Abraham 
Semicon electiical and Electronics Engineers ............00..0cccecsccncsecues George Abraham 
eeememciciy Ot Mechanical ENPINCEM .... 2.2.62. .6. cache eee semen cee a ceeneevs Michael Chi 
Pemnnneleeical Society Of Washington ............060..00 ccc cs cues ce eaccucees James H. Turner 
American Pete EMMMOUICLEIOIOP Yo oie eh. 228 sl Sess ahsle ¢ skied ge dale mane # Oia bs sce btele Thomas Cook 
Perm neAn Willitary ENPINCers .......... 00.0000 e cee esac erlnnccsednseescues H.P. Demuth 
ee MEIC MMO C@IVil FNGINCEES 2.2... 6266 bc ce ke cece cs ce bases teeedeccseedos Shou Shan Fan 
Mea sweemempeimental Biology and Medicine ...........5.0.0..ccccc ees ecec ee neenes Donald Flick 
Sie See TE REE TELAIS O10 oo as cg cle ck lanlelns cease vg deveeucetegeedes Glen W. Wensch 
imemianonal Association for Dental Research .......5..5..000 000008 c eee eeee Norman H.C. Griffiths 
PMicteam nsec of Acronautics and Astronautics ............0. 0000 cece eee eee eee Franklin Ross 
ne nC PCOLOIOPICAl SOCICLY:. 6.565 5. esc c ec wc de welnsee ce beewecseceecetoys A. James Wagner 
W238) DELLE STG LSAy CWE 11 0) rr Robert J. Argauer 
ee MBO ATHCTICS (0. oo fos jc cic s sae bona dese aula esau cedigesugu cence Gerald J. Franz 
FE EEE SDSS i 8 SUR ARIA eg no oo Dick Duffy 
RUE ILI NCCHNOIOPISIS ..) 2. 6... cc enter eee deeleeueeeeewees William Sulzbacher 
ME ME REA MARES LSU La 05) 8 06 Adele wtb (a) baud Sasa rallel Mela SW wlel lal alavae idiew ssa Aylalae a/O Inactive 
SPO Pi REESESE DOS SING oC Sipe i ae a eee David Schlain 
ere eenUOI SCIENCE CIID. 22 ee occ bb odie ae bie wis cas won pea ane eee neewse gas Inactive 
Pane ssociation of Physics Teachers...............00. cee ccs c ec ceecees Bernard B. Watson 
ee PRICE CA. co) oi) 5) ieiciad aon ale sis w diese seid ed AbGloeiieheneb eee ees Irving H. Malitson 
amermemeicry int Plant Physiolopists-............ 00. .0ccl eae cec es ceneenceces Walter Shropshire 
Am Meeperations Research Council ..2.... 6.0.0... cc ee ee eee eee tees John G. Honig 
EE 25 ES? CIP Vs SGT Ce Re eS Re es i) ON Inactive 


American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical 


St FR OPT LETL LEIDOTPSEERS 2 SAS ee a en Pe A Dine gS BO Inactive 
Pm tPP AINE ASUCOMOINICES, 2 ./.- bce bales toe das whe clecicle de elcalacacesecuceaeve’ John A. Eisele 
eee we SSSOCIAION OF AIMCTICA 23% 22sec). seus 3 ook ims va cues cclge duces ue evles seaeees Inactive 
are NMEM ESE ONG CTEIESEST 5.52 hc eel cis) wire wold Giehe Gadeerate die aisle ec. ev ee's Miloslav Recheigl, Jr. 
Beene srenolopical ASSOCIALION «.... <<< s'-': 0. cae cnis es cle dicta ewadevecececeeens Delegate not appointed 


Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective societies. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 1 


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FEATURES 


Technology Assessment and Public Wisdom 


Joseph F. Coates 


Office of Technology Assessment, U.S. Congress 


On the average of once a month since 
World War II, the United States public 
has been exposed to an incident of tech- 
nological failure, alarm, concern or major 
uncertainty sufficiently important: to 
merit attention in the national press. 
Virtually every sector of our economy 
has contributed to this relentless flow of 
public concerns. Pesticide residues in 
Christmas cranberries, nerve gas stored 
on the flight path of the Denver Airport, 
mercury residue in tunafish, regional 
electric power blackouts, chronic water 
pollution from petroleum with occasional 
major spills, faulty vehicles and faulty 
road design, toys that are unsafe, baby 
clothes that are highly combustible, 
convenience packages with inconvenient 
aesthetic side effects, and it goes on, and 
on, and on. 

Reaching into recent files of such inci- 
dents, I find, for example: 


1. New York Times, December 25, 
1974, an alleged ‘‘murder for insurance’”’ 
scheme in Lexington County, South 
Carolina, closely modeled on a recent 
television program. 

2. New York Times, December 24, 
1974. Four pound cans of pimentos were 
recalled by the Food and Drug Adminis- 
tration because ofa possible public health 


The material in this paper is the responsibility 
of Mr. Coates and does not represent the position 
of any government agency or the U. S. Congress. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


risk since they might have been proc- 
essed improperly and contain poten- 
tially dangerous micro-organisms. 

3. January 11, 1975. A major manu- 
facturer of baby food recalls a quarter of 
a million cases of dry food. It may 
contain metal fragments due to the failure 
of process machinery. 

4. January 17, 1975. New York State 
Supreme Court jury finds New York 
City’s liability up to 65% on claims total- 
ing more than $50 million for a gas 
explosion in a building, fatal to a dozen 
people. 

5. New York Times, January 2, 1975. 
Many University students are reported 
using U. S. food stamps as a form of 
scholarship, an innovation in subsidies 
not intended by the legislation. 


The incidents may be large or small. 
They may be of national or local scope. 
They may hit anyone, anywhere, ran- 
domly or systematically. What is the 
underlying situation that makes such 
incidents not only more frequent but of 
growing public concern? Basically I 
believe it is because we moved past a 
situation in which man was in constant 
struggle with a dominant natural environ- 
ment. Until very recently nature could 
not only recover from man’s intrusions 
but could thwart the goals and intentions 
of most human endeavors. Within the 
last two generations, that situation has 
nearly reversed in the United States. 


3 


The life of most Americans is within a 
fully man-made world. Most of the 
readers of this article are surrounded 
entirely by human artifacts and nothing 
else. We depend on them for food, 
shelter, clothing, work, entertainment 
and leisure. Only on those special oc- 
casions when we purposely set aside 
the time, and go to the trouble, do we 
encounter something like nature in the 
raw. Even then, it is likely to be a 
simulated or man-sustained situation. 

While our world has changed, the rules 
and regulations reflected in our insti- 
tutional, personal and organizational 
orientation toward the world have be- 
come obsolescent. They reflect categor- 
ies and approaches appropriate to a 
parochial gross struggle against a uni- 
versally powerful nature. The enterprises 
of man have reached a stage where 
their scale, their scope, the size of 
investments; the speed with which tech- 
nological change permeates society; the 
relative irrevocability of big enterprises 
—all demand conceptually fresh ap- 
proaches in the social management of 
technology. Crucial to that new approach 
are foresight, feedback and flexibility. 
It is literally true that federal highway 
programs, be they good or bad, are set 
in concrete, and that concrete, except 
in rare occasions, will remain set for 30 
to 60 years. The building of a major 
power plant, whether conventional or 
nuclear, is an event which is likely to be 
functionally irreversible for a long time. 
The opening of a new waterway, the 
immigration of a new pest or predator, 
the construction of a new high rise 
building, all make more or less irrevo- 
cable commitments to the future. Even 
in the social area, the institution of a 
new social program, new benefits, new 
legislation, or new regulations tend to 
lack flexibility and responsiveness 
which permits timely compensation for 
error, mistake or shortfall. 

How did this come about? In my view, 
the technological economic planning in 
the United States has been overwhelm- 
ingly premised on an affirmative response 
to very little more than three questions: 


4 


e Is the technological objective 
feasible? 

e Will it sell? That may be via direct 
competition in a free market, or the 
competition may be for public funds 
and government programs. 

e Is it safe? 


Reflection on any of the above illus- 
trative shortfalls and failures of tech- 
nology does not suggest that these criteria 
are not good, but rather that they are 
inadequate. Many of the most significant 
consequences in our highly tech- 
nologized society do not happen imme- 
diately. They may be slow in building 
(such as the evil thoughts planted by a 
television program), they may be conver- 
gent (as when new contraceptive tech- 
nology, increased levels of education, 
and prosperity promote the women’s 
liberation movement), they may be 
incidental (as when the one in a few 
thousands of a broadly dispersed tech- 
nological item fails) or they may be 
catastrophic when an otherwise well 
functioning system collapses as a result 
of an administrative or technological 
glitch (the crash of a giant passenger 
airplane). 

The above criteria must be extended 
and expanded so that the range of con- 
siderations which enter into public and 
private decision making are appropriate 
to our world. Before any organizational, 
institutional, economic or technical 
remedies or controls should be insti- 
tuted, we must better understand the 
future implications of any particular 
technological development and the poli- 
cies for its management. Technology 
Assessment is one approach to provid- 
ing this expanded foresight. It may be 
defined as a class of policy studies ex- 
amining the fullest range of impacts of 
the introduction of a new technology or 
the expansion of a present technology 
in new or different ways. It is an analysis 
of the total impact of a technology 
on society. Technology assessment, 
therefore, is much broader than the tradi- 
tional technological planning, which is 
usually based on meeting some sort of 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


potential or felt need, of satisfying or 
creating some new market. 

Technology assessment does not deal 
only with the dark, the negative, the 
unfortunate consequences of technology. 
It is a tool for optimizing the benefits 
and penalties that technology may bring. 
Why is it, for example, that the widely 
touted benefits implicit in new ap- 
proaches in education through computers 
and telecommunications have been such 
a disappointment? Why is it that cable 
television in the U. S. remains under- 
developed and relatively uninteresting? 
Why is it that the modern technologi- 
cal advances applicable to architecture, 
design and building repeatedly end up in 
junky, malfunctioning, aesthetic insults? 
The answer, in part, has to do with 
the inadequacy of the three traditional 
techno-economic planning criteria. With 
every actor in the drama optimising in 
his own self interest, with nobody in 
charge, with no one having a synoptic 
grasp of the matter, the yield must be 
less than the best. 

A third class of activities that will 
also benefit from holistic evaluation are 
those situations in which there is a belief 
that physical, biological, or social tech- 
nology offers some opportunity to allevi- 
ate or deal with a public issue. Problems 
of welfare, education, delinquency, 
crime, resource control, energy, con- 
servation, and others in the limitless 
stream of issues are potential candidates 
for illumination by technology assess- 
ment. 

Three major developments ought to 
be considered with regard to technology 
assessment, since the term was first 
coined and used by the Subcommittee 
on Science, Research and Development 
of the House of Representatives’ 
Committee on Science and Astro- 
nautics. 

First, there is the development of a 
comprehensive systematic modestly 
funded program of technology assess- 
ment at the National Science Founda- 
tion (see Table 1). Second is the attempt 
at technology assessment by a number 
of Federal agencies, most of which so 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


far involve single attempts with little 
follow-through. There are of course the 
studies which qualify as more or less 
comprehensive or partial technology 
assessments, undertaken under other 
names by federal agencies for many 
years. These have been reviewed and 
analyzed through 1971 (reference I). 
And finally, there is the formation of the 
Office of Technology Assessment in 
November, 1973, as a new agency of 
government specifically dedicated to 
assisting Congress in meeting its study 
needs. Those needs relate to four Con- 
gressional functions; legislation, over- 
sight, budget, and policy formulation. 


How To Do a Technology Assessment 


It would be convenient were there a 
formula or prescription for technology 
assessment. Unfortunately it is unlikely 
that a general formula will ever be 
available, since the approach to and con- 
tent of an assessment is determined 
by three primary considerations: the 
subject; the budget; and the primary 
user. Clearly, different factors are im- 
portant in the technologies, conse- 
quences, and policies of genetic engineer- 
ing, weather modification, and airport 
siting. Consequently different conceptual 
tools are certain to be appropriate in a 
holistic analysis of each of them. With 
regard to budget, a technology assess- 
ment may be done at a wide range of 
funding levels. One analyst or a panel of 
wise men working for a few months 
could do one kind of job for $20,000, 
while a major think tank study team with 
$500,000 and two years would do a quite 
different job. Different techniques would 
be appropriate for these different study 
efforts which might nevertheless be 
dealing with the same subject matter. 
The assessment of earthquake predic- 
tion technology, noted in Table I, is 
being paralleled by an effort one-tenth 
as large by a single investigator. The 
third major determinant influencing the 
scope of the study is its principal user. 
The range of impacts and consequences 
of a drug considered by a drug company, 


5 


Table 1—NSF Completed and Current Technology Assessments. 


Agency 


Completed Projects 
Stanford Research Institute 
Menlo Park, Calif. 


University of Oklahoma 
Norman, Okla. 

Hittman Associates, Inc. 
Columbia, Md. 


Columbia University 
New York, N.Y. 

Kansas State University 
Manhattan, Kan. 

Virginia Polytechnic Institute 
Blacksburg, Va. 


University of Michigan 
Ann Arbor, Mich. 

Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute 
Troy,.NcyY: 


Current Projects 
National Academy of Sciences 
Washington, D.C. 
University of California 
Los Angeles, Calif. 


The Futures Group 
Glastonbury, Conn. 
Arthur D. Little, Inc. 
Cambridge, Mass. 
Midwest Research Institute 
Kansas City, Mo. 
Midwest Research Institute 
Kansas City, Mo. 
University of Minnesota 
Minneapolis, Minn. 


Haldi Associates, Inc. 
New York, N.Y. 
Braddock, Dunn and 
McDonald, Inc. 
Vienna, Va. 
Stanford Research Inst. 
Menlo Park, Calif. 
Arthur D. Little, Inc. 
Cambridge, Mass. 
Stanford Research Inst. 
Menlo Park, Calif. 


Title 


Technology Assessment Study of Winter 
Orographic Snowpack Augmentation 
in the Upper Colorado River Basin 

A Technology Assessment of Offshore 
Oil Operations 

Evaluation of the Ecological, Resources 
and Socio-Economic Impacts of 
Advanced Automotive Propulsion 
Systems 

The Automobile and the Regulation of 
its Impact on the Environment 

Political and Scientific Effectiveness in 
Nuclear Materials Control 

Assessing the Implementation Aspects 
of Technology for the Disposal of 
Solid Waste 

Assessing the Impact of Remote Sensing 
of the Environment 

Technology Assessment for Cable 
Television 


Assessment of Biomedical Technology 


A General Approach to Risk-Benefit 
Evaluation for Large Technological 
Systems 

Technology Asséssment of Geothermal 
Energy Resource Development 

The Cashless-Checkless Society: An 
In-Depth Technology Assessment 

A Technology Assessment of Biological 
Substitutes for Chemical Pesticides 

An In-Depth Technology Assessment of 
Integrated Hog Farming 

Technology Assessment of Conversion 
from the English to Metric System 
in the United States 

Technology Assessment of Alternative 
Work Schedules 

Technology Assessment of Alternative 
Strategies and Methods for 
Conserving Energy 

A Technology Assessment of a 
Hydrogen Energy Economy 

Technology Assessment of Terrestrial 
Solar Energy Resource Development 

A Technology Assessment of 

- Earthquake Prediction 


Starting Date/ 


Duration 


01/12/71 
14 months 


07/01/71 
28 months 
07/01/71 
34 months 


09/01/71 
24 months 
06/01/70 
24 months 
06/11/71 
10 months 


06/01/72 
15 months 
11/15/72 
12 months 


06/15/71 
12 months 
06/01/73 
18 months 


07/16/73 
12 months 
09/28/73 
18 months 
01/02/74 
12 months 
01/02/74 
18 months 
10/01/73 
18 months 


11/01/73 
18 months 
11/15/73 
18 months 


07/01/73 
12 months 
07/16/73 


12 months - 


06/01/74 
12 months 


$ Amount 


179,479 


288,600 


326,129 


310,000 
254,000 


40,000 


141,500 


48 ,900 


86,800 


343,600 


191,882 
220,706 
113,700 
212,879 


179,100 


207,400 - 


238,638 


122,200 
246,664 


283,500 


a state agency, the FDA, the White 
House, and the Congress are increasingly 
wide in scope because of the increasing 
range of responsibility of each of those 
groups. Since experience and general 
principles preclude any common set of 


6 


tools or techniques applicable to the 
examination of the impacts of all tech- 
nologies, it is important to note that 
there are common features to all tech- 
nology assessments. The organization of 
an effective work plan must take these 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


common modules or elements into con- 
sideration if the goals of a technology 
assessment are to be met and it is to be 
more than a cost-benefit, marketing, 
feasibility or systems study. 


Ten Modules of a Technology Assessment 


(1) Definition of the problem, the 
technology, issue or project to be 
assessed. The client or user of a tech- 
nology assessment is likely to be un- 
clear as to what the problem is. Hence 
close examination and reworking is in 
order to put it in a proper form to 
permit a useful study with a decision- 
related output. 

(2) Definition of alternative systems to 
be examined. 

(3) The unfolding of impacts. The 
identification of impacts requires a com- 
bination of experience, skills, imagina- 
tion, and creativity. There literally are 
no complete models, paradigms, or 
algorithms by which one can identify 
the consequences of a given technology. 
In some cases the technology itself may 
suggest where to look for impacts. For 
example, with geothermal energy, the 
physical system offers a logical path 
along which to look for effects. In some 
cases the technology may be so diffuse, 
as with the four-day workweek, that one 
must go to one or another ‘‘methods of 
exhaustion’ to identify impacts. 

(3) Evaluation of the significance of 
impacts. Many qualitative and quanti- 
tative tools may be brought to bear here, 
including tools of economic analysis, 
social surveys, scaling techniques, and 
others, but one can expect that the evalu- 
ation is likely to be a mixture of rela- 
tively hard and soft outputs. One must 
_ be on guard that the study team not limit 
its evaluation to what is easy to do, at 
the price of ignoring the crucial and 
difficult. 

(5) The decision apparatus relevant to 
the problem should be identified ex- 
plicitly and the range of responsibilities 
of individual components defined as far 
as is feasible. 

(6) Defining options and alternatives 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


open to the decision apparatus is some- 
thing of a creative enterprise. One must 
attempt to innovate with regard to action 
options and alternatives and to relate to 
the apparatus at hand. The failure to do 
this often leads to vague, uncertain or 
useless options and conclusions. 

(7) Parties at interest with regard to a 
particular technology. It is important to 
identify who in fact or in principle has 
a stake in the technology and in its 
possible impacts and consequences. This 
is important from an analytical view in 
helping to identify impacts and conse- 
quences. It is also important from a 
decision point of view by indicating who 
may influence the range and kind of ac- 
tion options which the decision maker 
has before him. The parties at interest 
after all are those who will or should 
have the strongest influence on the 
decision apparatus. 

(8) It is important to recognize and 
analyze the impacts of variations on the 
technology under consideration. How- 
ever, there is another set of technologi- 
cal alternatives which must be considered 
and these are what one might call macro 
alternatives. For example, the various 
ways of removing oil from the north 
slope of Alaska would not comprise 
macro alternatives but rather systems 
alternatives. A macro alternative might 
be the development of geothermal re- 
sources, or the cutting down on the 
demand for energy. 

(9) Exogenous factors should have a 
prominant place in any technology 
assessment. By exogenous factors I 
mean those changes in society, its goals, 
its orientation, or its technology which 
could have an influence on the primary 
technology or factors interacting with 
it. These exogenous factors may vary 
anywhere from another new technology 
itself, to an economic upturn or down- 
turn, change in the international situa- 
tion, or modification of legislation. 
Again, as with impacts, the identifica- 
tion of exogenous variables is a partially 
analytical and partially creative exer- 
cise. The shift in Arab oil policy is 
an example of the failure to anticipate 


ty 


a potential exogenous factor relating to 
energy policy and plans. 

(10) One must examine all the above to 
come to some Set of conclusions, possibly 
to some recommendations. In general, 


it is best not to come to a precise 


and definitive single set of recommenda- 
tions. A set of alternatives and an 
analysis of the consequences is most 
useful for the decision maker. 


In general, a technology assessment 
cannot be conducted as a once-through 
exercise in filling out each of the cate- 
gories mentioned above. Experience 
suggests that any particular assessment 
study should be done three times over. 
The first time to define and understand 
the problem, the second time to do it 
right, and the third to burnish the results, 
fill in the detail, and to bring the report 
to the best possible state within the avail- 
able time, budget, and manpower. This 
recycling is important to keep in mind 
since many uninitiated schedule their 
work to do the study once and make no 
allowances for response, review, criti- 
cism, or their own learning process. 


The Consequences of Technology Assessment 


The consequences of technology as- 
sessment are important to consider be- 
cause the actions open to the decision 
maker may have a profound influence 
on the scope and depth of the examina- 
tion and the very organization of a 
comprehensive technology assessment. 
Among the outcomes of a successful 
technology assessment may be the fol- 
lowing: 


(1) Redefining the issue or restruc- 
turing the problem. 

(2) Modifying the project or tech- 
nology to reduce disbenefits or to in- 
crease benefits. 

(3) Defining a monitoring or surveil- 
lance program with regard to the tech- 
nology as it becomes operational. 

(4) Stimulating research and develop- 
ment, to define risks more reliably, 
forestall anticipated negative effects, 
identify alternative methods of achieving 


8 


the goal of the technology, and identify 
feasible corrective measures for negative 
effects. 

(5) Identifying regulatory, legislative, 
or other control needs. 

(6) Identifying needed 
changes or innovations. 

(7) Providing sound inputs to all 
parties at interest. 

(8) Preventing a technology from 
developing (an unusual but not impos- 
sible outcome). 

(9) Defining a set of intervention ex- 
periments or stepwise implementation 
of the technology. 


institutional 


Technology Assessment in Government 


Table 1 outlines the principal com- 
pleted or ongoing technology assessment 
projects sponsored by the National 
Science Foundation. As the federal 
agency with lead responsibility in the 
field the principal goals of its program 
are: 


(1) To sponsor high quality substan- 
tive assessments relevant to policy in 
order to demonstrate the value and prac- 
ticality of the concept and to effect 
public policy in a useful way. 

(2) To promote the development of 
methodology and techniques for assess- 
ment. 

(3) To develop individual and insti- 
tutional competence to undertake assess- 
ments for other agencies. 

(4) To support state-of-the-art review 
activities and to assist in organizing and 
consolidating this new field. 


Needless to say, the full consequence 
of even the best technology assessment 
may be slow in developing, inasmuch as 
it is One input into the continuing policy 
process. 

Other federal agencies, alert to the 
significance of technology assessment, 
have sponsored projects of direct interest 
to their missions. For example, NASA 
is currently sponsoring a _ technology 
assessment of inter-city transportation 
and another one on fuels alternative to 
petroleum. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


Several years ago, jointly with the 
Department of Transportation (DOT), 
‘it funded with Civil Aviation R&D 
Study which assessed a number of civil 
air systems. The Postal Service has 
sponsored a combination technological 
forecast and technology assessment. 
The Office of Coal Research has also 
been in the field. 

DOT is about to receive the final 
report on a project stemming from the 
Congressional rejection of support for 
the SST. That study looks at the climatic 
implications of atmospheric pollution. 
NIH has made some rudimentary move- 
ment into TA with studies of cardiac 
transplant and the artificial heart. 

Municipal government has been indif- 
ferent to the concept, but several state 
agencies have become alert to TA. The 
State of Hawaii has sponsored an assess- 
ment of harvesting manganese nodules 
from the ocean. The Western Interstate 
Nuclear Board has done an assessment 
of Project Plowshare. The Port of New 
York Authority sponsored an assessment 
by the National Academy of Sciences 
of a proposed extension of the Kennedy 
Jetport into Jamaica Bay. The West 


HOUSE OF REPRESENTATIVES 


Standing, Special, Select and Joint Committees 


Virginia legislature sponsored an assess- 
ment of strip mining conducted by the 
Stanford Research Institute. 

Of the international agencies, only the 
OECD is significantly involved in 
technology assessment, although the 
UN and the EEC (European Economic 
Community) are taking the preliminary 
steps in this direction. Among foreign 
governments the Japanese are most 
conspicuously active. The Swedish, 
Canadian, British, and German govern- 
ments directly or through associated in- 
stitutions are active in technology assess- 
ment (references 2,3). 


The Office of Technology Assessment 


Perhaps the most significant develop- 
ment in the United States in this field 
is the formation of the Office of Tech- 
nology Assessment (OTA) established 
by the Technology Assessment Act of 
1972 (Public Law 92—484). OTA’s mis- 
sion is to examine the many ways, ex- 
pected and unexpected, in which tech- 
nology affects people’s lives. OTA con- 
sists of a non-partisan Congressional 
board, comprised of six Senators and 


SENATE 


aa SS a ge Oe EL BE TES Se a Pe Ee PE eT ee a 
1 i 
| | OFFICE TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT BOARD TECHNOLOGY | | 
ASSESSMENT - 
| | TECHNOLOGY Director and Staff ADVISORY 
ASSESSMENT COUNCIL ! 
we ee ey cree H 
Congressional National General 
Research Science Accounting aoe 
Service Foundation Office GROUPS 


Contractors and Consultants 


Fig. 1. Organization relationships of the Office of Technology Assessment. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


six House Members, which sets policy; 
a Director, who also is a member of the 
board, a Deputy Director and other 
officers and employees, and a twelve 
member citizens advisory council, which 
includes as ex-officio members the 
Comptroller General of the United 
States and the Director of the Congres- 
sional Research Service of the Library 
of Congress (see Table 2). 

The chairmanship of OTA’s Congres- 
sional board rotates between the Senate 
and the House in alternate Congresses. 
The first Board Chairman was Senator 
Edward M. Kennedy, Democrat of 
Massachusetts. The first Vice Chairman 
was Congressman Charles A. Mosher, 
Republican of Ohio. With the opening of 
the 94th Congress in 1975 the current 
Board Chairman is Congressman Olin 
Teague, Democrat of Texas, and the 
Vice Chairman is Senator Edward Case, 
Republican of New Jersey. 


Table 2.— Office of Technology Assessment. 


The Director of OTA is Emilio Q. 
Daddario, a former Member of Congress 
who was instrumental in the development 
of the Technology Assessment Act. The 
Deputy Directoris Daniel V. DeSimone, 
a former White House science policy 
assistant. The Chairman of the citizens 
advisory council is Dr. Harold Brown, 
President of the California Institute of 
Technology. The Vice Chairman is Dr. 
Edward Wenk, Jr., of the University of 
Washington. 

Early in 1974, OTA began its work for 
Congress by launching assessments in 
six areas: food, energy, the oceans, 
materials resources, health, and urban 
mass transportation (reference 4). 


Implications of Technology Assessment 
For Business 


As part of the continuous tightly knit 
fabric of American society business will 
be affected by technology assessment to 


Emilio Q. Daddario, Director 
Daniel De Simone, Deputy Director 


TECHNOLOGY ASSESSMENT BOARD 


Olin E. Teague, Texas, Chairman 
Clifford P. Case, N.J., Vice Chairman 


Edward M. Kennedy, Mass. 
Ernest F. Hollings, S.C. 
Hubert H. Humphrey, Minn. 
Richard S. Schweiker, Pa. 
Ted Stevens, Alaska 


Morris K. Udall, Ariz. 
George E. Brown, Jr., Calif. 
Charles A. Mosher, Ohio 
Marvin L. Esch, Mich. 
Marjorie S. Holt, Md. 


Emilio Q. Daddario 


ADVISORY COUNCIL 


Dr. Harold Brown, Chairman, President, Cali- 
fornia Institute of Technology. 

Dr. Edward Wenk, Jr., Vice Chairman, Director, 
Program in the Social Management of Tech- 
nology, University of Washington. 

Mr. J. Fred Bucy, Executive Vice President, 
Texas Instruments, Inc. 

Mrs. Hazel Henderson, author and lecturer on 
environmental and social issues, Princeton, 
New Jersey. 

Mr. Lester S. Jayson, Director, Congressional 
Research Service, Library of Congress. 

Mr. J. M. (Levi) Leathers, Executive Vice Presi- 
dent, DOW Chemical Corporation. 


Dr. John McAlister, Jr., Associate Professor, 
Department of Engineering-Economic Sys- 
tems, Stanford University. 

Dr. Eugene P. Odum, Director, Institute of 
Ecology, University of Georgia. 

Dr. Frederick C. Robbins, Dean, Case Western 
Reserve University School of Medicine (Nobel 
Laureate). 

Mr. Elmer B. Staats, Comptroller General of 
the United States. 

Dr. Gilbert F. White, Director, Institute of Be- 
havioral Science, University of Colorado. 

Dr. Jerome B. Wiesner, President, Massachu- 
setts Institute of Technology. 


SS 


10 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


its very core to the extent that govern- 
ment applies any new techniques of 
foresight, feedback, flexible control, 
policy analysis, and long range planning. 
As a minimum, technology assessment 
will become another, and in my judge- 
ment, crucial long range planning tool 
in business. The concept is central to the 
anticipation of new markets, future in- 
stitutional and regulatory environments, 
and such elements of business as work 
force, resources, and public attitudes. 
Inasmuch as a large enterprise must have 
a long time horizon (automotives, steel, 
resources, telecommunications, aircraft, 
chemicals, housing, transportation, 
marketing chains) they will need tech- 
nology assessments of their own, for 
the very reason that government is using 
this tool, to set policy, plans, and 
programs. 

By and large, industry to date has been 
indifferent, hostile, or confused about 
technology assessment. One study done 
by a management consulting firm re- 
vealed that large numbers of corporations 
claimed they were doing T.A. but on 
closer examination virtually none were. 
They were confusing it with feasibility 
studies, market research, technological 
forecasting, product evaluation, and a 
variety of other well established business 
tools. 

On the other hand, many who have 
understood the goals and objectives of 
T.A. have highlighted a potential risk 
in excessive scrutiny and hyper concern 
for potential risks in leading to a gen- 
eral ambience of technology arrestment. 
In general, I think one can anticipate 
that if any major bureaucracy with vast 
commitments of funds, labor and invest- 

ment in on-going enterprises either will- 
ingly or unwillingly has its preconcep- 
tions and tacit assumptions laid bare 
and examined, trouble must result. One 
sees this to some extent in the environ- 
mental impact statement process, which 
attempts to get to the core of the environ- 
mental implications (a partial technology 
assessment) of many activities. I believe 
this turbulance is a necessary part of a 
transition process in which a systematic 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


look to the future implications of tech- 
nology will become integrated into earlier 
and earlier stages of public planning. 
As Ian Wilson of the General Electric 
Company has pointed out, any major 
corporation or large enterprise may 
exhibit a variety of responses to external 
and internal pressures for institutional 
change. These may vary from last ditch 
resistance and most begrudging ac- 
quiescence on the one hand to early 
recognition and integration of the inevita- 
ble consequences of change into the 
corporate operation with a view to taking 
positive advantage of the inevitabilities. 
An enthusiastic view of the role of 
technology assessment has been pre- 
sented by Carl Madden, Chief Econo- 
mist of the Chamber of Commerce of 
the United States, in a recent National 
Planning Association monograph (ref- 
erence 5). 


Conclusion 


Technology assessment, whether or 
not it flourishes under that rubric and in 
its present institutional context, is less 
important than the fact that it is a con- 
cept and an activity inevitably to be- 
come a part of the public and private 
planning process. It is associated with a 
number of long-term trends in American 
government and public and private 
bureaucracies. Among these are: (a) an 
awareness of alternative futures and long 
range planning; (b) the use of planning 
and policy studies and study groups; 
(c) within government, the institutional- 
ization of foresight, as in the require- 
ments for environmental impact state- 
ments; (d) the redress of a long term 
imbalance in analytical and support capa- 
bilities between the Executive and the 
Legislative branches. 


Additional Readings 


Technology Assessment, A Quarterly Journal 
of the International Society for Technology 
Assessment (ISTA), which contains general and 
in-depth articles on the methodology, organization 
and activities involving technology assessment. 
The Society’s Washington address is P.O. Box 
4926, Cleveland Park Station, Washington, D. C. 
20008. 


11 


‘‘Technology Assessment,’’ Joseph F. Coates, 
McGraw-Hill Yearbook Science and Technology, 
McGraw/Hill Book Company, 1974. 


Energy Under the Oceans, A_ Technology 
Assessment of Outer Continental Shelf Oil and 
Gas Operations, Don E. Kash et al., University 
of Oklahoma Press, Norman, Oklahoma, 1973. 


The Impacts of Snow Enhancement: Tech- 
nology Assessment of Winter Orographic Snow- 
pack Augmentation in the Upper Colorado River 
Basin, Leo W. Weisbecker, Stanford Research 
Institute, University of Oklahoma Press, Norman, 
Oklahoma, 1974. 


The Automobile and the Regulation of its Impact 
on the Environment, Legislative Drafting Re- 
search Fund, Columbia University, New York, 
New York (forthcoming, University of Oklahoma 
Press). 


A Technology Assessment of Geothermal 
Energy, The Futures Group, Glastonbury, 
Connecticut (forthcoming). 


References Cited 


1. Technology and Public Policy: The Process of 
Technology Assessment in the Federal Gov- 


ernment, by Vary Taylor Coates. Program 
of Policy Studies in Science and Technology, 
The George Washington University, Washing- 
ton; BD. ‘C.,. duty 1972: 


. Technology Assessment in a Dynamic En- 


vironment, Marvin Cetron and Bodo Bartocha, 
Eds., Gordon and Breach, New York, 1973. 
Contributors— American, European and Jap- 
anese. 


. Society and the Assessment of Technology: 


Premises, Concepts, Methodology, Experi- 
ments, Areas of Application, Francois Het- 
man, Organization for Economic Cooperation 
& Development, Washington and Paris, 1974. 


. ‘‘Science Report/Infant OTA Seeks to Alert 


Congress to Technological Impacts,’’ John F. 
Burby, National Journal Reports, Washing- 
ton, D. C€., September 21, 19740 Voekow, 
No. 38, 1418-1429. 

‘‘Technology Report/OTA Works to Produce 
Track Record with Six Major Projects,’’ John 
F. Burby, National Journal Reports, Washing- 
ton, D. C., September 28, 1974, Vol. 6, 
No. 39, 1454-1464. 


. Clash of Culture: Management in an Age of 


Changing Values, Carl H. Madden, National 
Planning Association, Washington, D. C., 
October 1972, Report No. 133. 


Washington Junior Academy of Sciences — 


Christmas Convention 


12 


An annual highlight of the Washington Junior Academy of Sciences 
program is the Christmas Convention featuring the student presen- 
tation of research papers selected from written theses submitted by 
students of the public, private, and parochial high schools in the 
Greater Washington Metropolitan Area. The 1974 Convention was a 
two-day activity held at Georgetown University on December 13th 
and at the National Zoological Park on December 14th. The program 
was organized and presided over by David Leighton, Vice-President, 
WJAS, and a senior at Washington-Lee High School. 

Both opening day sessions were devoted to the presentation of the 
ten papers. The papers were judged by a panel of five scientists 
and engineers recruited by Dr. Russell W. Mebs, a Senior Advisor 
to the WJAS. In addition to Dr. Mebs (physicist), the panel 
consisted of Miss Lucille V. Peoples (mathematician), Mrs. Mary 
Izzard (botanist), Mr. Joseph Krostein (chemical engineer) and Mr. 
Karl Izzard (highway engineer). 

The morning session of the second day was spent on a highly 
informative behind-the-scenes tour of the Zoo, led by Mr. Mike 
Morgan of the Zoo staff. In the afternoon an awards ceremony was 
held at which Certificates of Commendation were presented to the ten 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


student speakers and to Mr. Morgan. Cash prizes of $5.00 to $20.00 
were then presented to the authors of the four papers ranked 
highest by the judges. First prize was awarded to Reginald Jenkins, 
second to Ursula Schwebs, third to John Foltz, and fourth to Jandel 


Allen. 


The program closed with a vote of appreciation to the judges who 
had devoted the whole of Friday to their deliberations and to both 
the NUS Company and the TRW Company who had donated the 
money which made possible the granting of financial awards. 

Abstracts of most of these papers are presented below. 


—Mrs. Elaine G. Shafrin, Chairman 
WAS Committee on Encouragement of 
Science Talent 


THE EFFECT OF CHALONES 
ON TRANSFORMED 
LYMPHOCYTES 


Reginald Jenkins 


Gonzaga High School, 
Washington, D.C. 


Chalones are specific mitotic inhibitors 
responsible for the controlled division of 
normal lymphocytes. Bullough and Lau- 
rence proposed that epithehal cells make 
a specific inhibitor of the mitosis of the 
cell. Subsequent studies by others have 
indicated that these mitotic inhibitors 
might also be obtained from melano- 
cytes, granulocytes, kidney cells, cells 
of the lense, and from spleen and 
thalmus glands. 

Studies of the physiological effects of 
chalones on lymphocytes stimulated by 
phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) have shown 
that the chalone is most effective when 
introduced during stimulation of the 
lymphocytes with PHA (day zero). This 
_ brings to light the question of how 
chalones effect the morphology of stim- 
ulated (transformed) lymphocytes. 

This experiment examines various 
morphological changes of transformed 
lymphocytes in respect to cell size and 
vacuolization when treated with spleen 
chalone. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


ELECTRICAL 
CHARACTERISTICS OF 
PLANTS 


Ursula Schwebs 


Washington-Lee High School, Arling- 
ton, Va. 


This science project started last year 
with an attempt to verify claims made 
by Cleve Backster and others that 
‘‘nlants have emotions similar to those 
of human beings.’’ I found that the 
‘‘Backster effect’’ does not exist, plants 
do not have feelings as we know them, 
but plants generate an electric field that 
interacts with its environment. Results 
were reported in HARPER’s, June 1973. 

The 1973/1974 experiments were de- 
signed to gain a better understanding 
of the selfgenerated electrical potential 
of plants of different origin, structure 
and leaf texture. Feeding was varied 
from distilled water to salt solutions and 


combination of minerals. Reactions to 


different feedings and to changes in the 
external environment were measured, 
such as humidity, temperature, light, 
sound, and electrostatic fields. 

My experiments show evidence that 
all living cells generate an electrical po- 
tential. Through internal conductance 
paths, measured as resistance, a small 
current flows through the plant. Absolute 


13 


values vary with the plant structure, 
its water content and external humidity 
and electrical fields. The internal current 
is related to growth. Light influences 
the internal potential and current the 


same way as externally applied voltage. 


Both can increase, decrease or reverse 
the internal potential. Both start an 
electro-chemical reaction that continues 
for about 20 minutes after light or volt- 
age is turned off. Current is in a 
delicate balance. A slight increase ac- 
celerates growth, but if exceeded, growth 
is retarded. Electroculture would work 
consistently if the electrical fields were 
controlled to produce the correct current 
in each plant. 

The measured electrical character- 
istics permit a rational explanation for 
most of the reported interactions between 
humans and plants. 


DETERMINATION OF 
BACTERIAL SUSCEPTIBILITY 
TO EXPERIMENTAL 
CHEMOTHERAPEUTIC 
AGENTS 


John C. Foltz 


Mt. Vernon High School, Alexandria, 
Va. 


Purpose.—To determine the effective- 
ness of 2 research antibiotics against 
4 laboratory strains of pathogenic bac- 
teria. 

Procedure.— Applied antibiotic im- 
pregnated discs to media swabbed with 
innoculum of each of the following 
bacteria: 1) Streptococcus pyogenes, 
2) Salmonella typhimurium, 3) Staphy- 
lococcus aureus, 4) Escherichia coli. 
Used both experimental research drugs 
(Cefazolin Sodium and Tobramycin), 
against all 4 strains of bacteria. Placed 
plates in incubator set at 37° C. Ex- 


14 


amined plates after 20—24 hours of incu- 
bation and measured zones of inhibi- 
tion of microbial growth as an indica- 
tion of antimicrobial effectiveness. 

Conclusions.—To determine the ef- 
fectiveness of these 2 experimental anti- 
biotics, I first had to determine the 
effectiveness of commercially available 
antimicrobial agents against the same 4 
Strains of bacteria. The standard way 
of differentiating the susceptibility of bac- 
teria to antibiotic impregnated discs is 
through the use of predetermined zones 
of inhibition. 

Based on the 400 tests I made with the 
standard drugs, I was able to judge the 
effectiveness of them against these bac- 
teria. Along with these series, I also 
conducted 80 trials with the experimental 
antibiotics. 

On the basis of my observation, I 
formulated a tentative zone of inhibi- 
tion for each antibiotic. Against organ- 
isms known to be gram-positive, the 
experimental chemotherapeutic agent 
Tobramycin should have a zone of 


“inhibition of 19 mm. to be called sen- 


sitive. For gram-negative organisms 
against the research antibiotic Cefazolin 
Sodium, the zone of inhibition should 
be equal to or exceed 24 mm. For the 
experimental drug Tobramycin against 
known gram-negative organisms, the in- 
hibition zone size should be at least 18 
mm. to be sensitive. 

Up to this point, the same antibiotic 
showed rather consistant sensitivity reac- 
tions against both negative and positive 
pathogenic organisms. However, one sig- 
nificant exception was noted: Cefazolin 
Sodium produced an inhibition zone of 
49 mm. against gram-positive Strepto- 
coccus pyogenes and a zone of only 
32.8 mm. against gram-positive Staphy- 
lococcus aureus. Therefore, Strepto- 
coccusS pyogenes is seemingly sensitive, 
while Staphylococcus aureus appears to 
be resistant. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


EFFECTS OF BLOOD 
TRANSFUSIONS ON ANTIBODY 
FORMATION AND CANINE 
RENAL ALLOGRAFT 
SURVIVAL 


Jandel Theresa Allen 


Immaculata Preparatory School, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 


Kidney disease, and related renal com- 
plications, have fascinated as well as 
plagued medical science for many years. 
When it was discovered that compati- 
bility among donor and recipient made 
it possible for an increase in survival 
rate of nearly 100%, there was finally 
hope for patients suffering from acute 
renal complications. However, the 
search for a compatible donor is often 
hard, tedious, and sometimes fruitless 
work. Either a suitable organ is not 
available, or, as is quite realistic, a 
compatible donor may not be willing to 
donate the kidney for various reasons. 
Therefore, scientists began to search 
for alternatives—some means of trans- 
planting incompatible kidneys— while at 
the same time administering some drug 
that will both increase survival while 
it decreases rejection. Is it possible to 
transplant incompatible organs and use 
various drugs, or combinations of drugs, 
to increase survival? What effect do 
blood transfusions administered to pa- 
tients on hemodialysis have on renal 
allograft prolongation? And from that 
point, what effect do various methods 
of preparing blood transfusions have on 
renal allograft survival, if any? These 
questions, along with many others, are 
- constantly asked and explored by re- 
searchers. While an ideal method—that 
is, one that will increase survival rate 
to 100%—has yet to become a reality, 
science gets closer to an answer with 
each passing experiment. 

In discussion of blood transfusions 
as a possible means, one main factor 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


must be considered, and this is the com- 
position of blood. Blood consists of red 
blood cells, white blood cells, and 
plasma. It is the white cells, or leuko- 
cytes, we must be concerned with when 
discussing transfusion and their effects 
in renal allograft survival, and more im- 
portant, antibody formation. When 
foreign bodies of any form or fashion 
enter the conditioned internal environ- 
ment, these leukocytes immediately go to 
work to form antibodies that will com- 
bat these objects. These antibodies will 
then set out to reject the foreign 
object. This tends to throw off the body’s 
metabolism. If one could find some pos- 
sible way of controlling the formation 
of these antibodies, we would be a 
step closer to a solution to the rejec- 
tion problem. 

This paper seeks to show how, by 
means of blood transfusions, renal allo- 
graft survival is, in fact, increased and 
how blood prepared in a variety of 
methods further increases this rate. 

(This work was performed as part of 
a team at Washington Hospital Center 
as a Washington Heart Association 
summer research student.) 


THE ANALYSIS OF TAP WATER 
SAMPLES FOR DDT AND ITS 
ISOMERS THROUGH USE OF 
THE GAS CHROMATOGRAPH 


Stephany DeScisciolo 


Washington-Lee High School, 
Arlington, Va. 


This summer I was given the oppor- 
tunity to work in a chemical laboratory 
through the Summer Student Research 
Program sponsored by the National 
Science Foundation. The purpose of my 
experiment was to determine whether 
or not area water treatment plants have 


15 


an efficient way of ridding the raw water 
of any DDT, DDD, or DDE residue. 
To do this, samples of water had to be 
collected from the water treatment plant 
before treatment and samples after all 
treatments for drinking water had been 


completed. Then the samples had to be 


prepared for the gas chromatograph 
(GC), run on the GC, and the results 
calculated in terms of what kind of pes- 
ticide and how much was present in the 
sample. Three area water treatment 
plants were contacted, and samples were 
collected from two of them—Lorton 
Treatment Facilities on the Occoquan 
River, and Dalecarlia Water Plant on the 
Potomac River. 

The samples were collected in acid- 
washed, 1-liter bottles. The first water 
plant from which samples were collected 
was Lorton Treatment Facilities. Two | 
treated water, and 2 | raw, untreated 
water were collected from the plant. 
The samples were then taken back to the 
lab, and preparations for the gas chro- 
matograph were begun immediately. The 
raw water was filtered, and the particu- 
lates from each of the 2 samples of raw 
water were treated as separate samples. 
To extract the filter paper, a Soxhlet 
extractor was set up and the paper ex- 
tracted for 24 hr. Two blanks consist- 
ing of distilled water were also prepared. 
The prepared samples were then injected 
into the gas chromatograph. As soon 
as all samples had been run, a calcula- 
tion of the results was started. After 
calculating the results of the GC trac- 
ing, I found evidence of p,p’-DDE, 
p,p'-DDT, o,p'-DDT, and p,p’-DDD 
in the samples collected from Lorton. 

The next step was to prepare stand- 
ards of each of the previously named 
pesticides so that quantitative results 
could be found. Standards of 10 ppb, 
100 ppb, and 300 ppb were prepared 
for each of the pesticides found in the 
samples. After the standards were run 


through the gas chromatograph, quanti-. 


tative analysis was begun. The samples 
of raw water (particulates and liquid 


16 


treated as one sample in reporting re- 
sults) taken from the Lorton Treatment 
Facilities yielded .1565 ppb of p,p’ 
DDE, .1765 ppb p,p’-DDT, .2745 ppb 
o,p'-DDT, and .028 ppb p,p’-DDD. 
(The above numbers are averages of the 
two samples of raw water taken). In 
the treated water from Lorton, there 
was no evidence of DDT, DDE, or 
DDD. As I am still calculating the 
results obtained from the water samples 
collected from Dalecarlia Water Plant, 
I do not have sufficient results to report. 

After completing the study of the 
samples taken from Lorton Treatment 
Facilities, I conclude that this particular 
water treatment plant has an efficient 
method of removing DDT and its isomers 
from raw, untreated water. 


LEUKEMIA— 
A COMPREHENSIVE REPORT 


_Robert Kucbel 


McLean High School, McLean, Va. 


Leukemia means white blood, which is 
the name that was given to this disease 
when it was first discovered in 1847. 
The name is misleading however, as 
leukemia is a cancer of the tissues in 
which blood is formed, mainly the bone 
marrow, the lymph nodes, and the 
spleen. 

Leukemia is worldwide in distribution, 
and during the second quarter of this 
century, the incidence of this disease 
more than doubled. Altogether, the dif- 
ferent types of leukemia are responsible 
(either directly or indirectly) for 15- 
19,000 deaths annually in the United 
States. The incidence of leukemia is 
greater in males than in females, but 
the increase is prevalent in both sexes, 
especially in the older age group. 

In 90% of all detected leukemia, 
2 types—granulocytic and lymphocytic 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


—and 2 recognized clinical forms— 
acute and chronic—are involved. The 
remaining 10% are mainly cases of acute 
monocytic leukemia. 

In the acute leukemias, primitive and 
undifferentiated leukocytes are produced 
and discharged into the blood. They have 
an irregular structure, they fail to mature, 
and upon division, they may produce 
3 or more daughter cells instead of the 
normal 2. 

In chronic leukemia, the leukemic 
cells are well differentiated and mature, 
as well as being quite similar in many 
aspects to their normal counterparts. 
The distinguishing abnormal character- 
istics are found in the chromosomes and 
in the cell metabolism. 

Among the many causes of leukemia 
are genetic factors, chemicals (although 
proof is still scant), radiation, and 
viruses. 

Symptoms of acute leukemia may 
include lack of energy, fatigue, head- 
ache, persistent sore throat, loss of 
appetite and weight, pallor, anemia, 
shortness of breath, and recurrent in- 
fections. If leukemia is not detected at 
this stage, it may suddenly manifest 


itself with fever, severe fatigue, and 


bleeding disturbances. Chronic leukemia 
follows the same course, only it occurs 
in a span of 2—10 years before hemor- 
rhaging and infection occur. 

Twenty years ago, a leukemic child 
lived only 3 months after diagnosis. 
Today most youngsters live 2—5 years, 
and in some cases even longer after 
diagnosis. Treatments include drug ther- 
apy, antimetabolites, alkylating agents, 
antibiotics, plant alkaloids, and L-as- 
paraginase (the first use of an enzyme 
in cancer chemotherapy). 

Scientists are working on methods to 
totally kill the leukemic cell. This is a 
concentrated and time-consuming effort 
in which there are many dead ends, 
but it will be the key that will unlock 
more mysteries on the function of 
chemicals in the human body. This 
key will also provide a new insight 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


to biology, or the need for biology to 
understand nature’s processes. 


COLI/STREP RATIOS 
IN SPOUT RUN 


John Maloney 


Washington-Lee High School, Arling- 
ton, Va. 


The purpose of this project was to 
attempt to determine whether the high 
coliform counts in Spout Run can be 
attributed to contamination from the 
Sanitary sewers which run parallel to 
the stream (as well as the storm sewers 
feeding it), or to contamination by the 
water which runs off the streets which 
could be fouled by the wastes of small 
mammals (cats, dogs, squirrels, etc.). 
A series of 2-part bacterial counts, one, 
a fecal coliform (indicator of human 
fecal wastes) count, and the other, a 
fecal streptococcus (indicator of small 
animal wastes) count, has been suggested 
as a tentative test to determine whether 
waste material in a stream is of animal 
or human origin. The ratio of the coli- 
form count to the Streptococcus count 
would indicate the kind of fecal material 
which was present in the stream. A 
ratio of 4.4:1, coliform to Streptococcus, 
has been suggested as being very strong 
evidence of human fecal material in the 
stream. 

Using the membrane filter technique 
I plotted the counts on a graph. These 
counts seem to indicate that, during cer- 
tain times of the year at least, there is 
human waste material present in the 
stream. This would indicate that the sani- 
tary sewers are leaking and/or seeping 
into Spout Run and that some action 
should be taken by Arlington County’s 
Sanitation Department to correct this 
situation. 

Acknowledgment.—I would like to 
thank the Arlington County Depts. of 


17 


Highways and Sanitation for providing 
me with maps of the sewer lines. A 
special vote of thanks goes to the Ar- 
lington Environmental Improvement 
Commission for their help and for pro- 


viding the material and equipment which 


made this project possible. 


AIR POLLUTANTS AND 
MORTALITY IN 
WASHINGTON, D.C.— 

A STATISTICAL ANALYSIS 


Monica A. Schwebs 


Washington-Lee High School, Arling- 
ton, Va. 


Although scientific investigations have 
shown some high pollutant concentra- 
tions to be detrimental to health, very 
little is known about the actual effect 
on mortality of pollutants in ambient 


city air. For instance, Washington air - 


pollution measurements have been re- 
corded for several years and air pollu- 
tion alerts have been issued, but Mr. 
David DiJulio, Air Quality Program 
Manager of the Metropolitan Washing- 
ton Council of Governments, informed 
me that this study was the first ever 
done on the relationship between air 
pollutants and mortality in Washington. 

The relationships between mortality 
and Washington pollutant levels of NO, 
(nitrogen dioxide), O; (ozone), and CO 
(carbon monoxide) were investigated in 
this study. Possible associations were 
examined by the use of scatter plots 
and regression analysis. The results indi- 
cate, among other things, that NO, 
has a negative correlation with mortality, 
O; is not correlated with mortality, 
and CO has a significant positive corre- 
lation with mortality. The NO, result 
may be attributed to a negative cor- 
relation between NO, and CO. Accord- 
ing to Dr. Wilson Riggan, the director 
of the E.P.A. Human Effects Labora- 


18 


tories in Durham, N.C., the CO results 
provided evidence for the first time of the 
suspected association between mortality 
and ambient CO levels of a city and 
gave added justification for the E.P.A. 
national standards. This relationship was 
pronounced in Washington because CO 
levels are unusually high—they fre- 
quently exceed national standards. 

It is hoped that many more stud- 
ies of this type will be done for urban 
areas that have different pollutant mix- 
tures and weather conditions so that 
national standards can be established 
with adequate confidence that the air 
will be safe to breathe. 


THE ULTRASTRUCTURE 
OF VIRAL NUCLEIC ACIDS 


Julia Worsley 
Madeira School, Greenway, Va. 


This study involved the nature of viral 
nucleic acids, RNA or DNA. The 
viruses studied include those containing 
single-stranded RNA, principally, ves- 
icular stomatitus virus (VS V) and various 
RNA tumor virus. The control mole- 
cules were the single-stranded DNA con- 
taining bacteriophage @X 174. Two 
methods were used to study the purified 
nucleic acids. The first method is a 
technique which allows for purified RNA 
and DNA molecules to be seen with 
the electron microscope. This allowed 
for an analysis of molecule length and 
conformation. The second method is a 
way of biochemically confirming the re- 
sults found with the electron microscope, 
i.e. by velocity sedimentation centrifuga- 
tion. This latter method allows for the 
analysis or separation of different mole- 
cules on the basis of size, by centrifu- 
gation through a gradient of sucrose 
or glycerol. 

The first technique involves the prepa- 
ration of grids to be viewed with the 
electron microscope using the methods 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


of Kleinschmidt and Zahn (1959). The 
2 spreading conditions are the aqueous 
spread which contains no denaturing 
agent and the urea formamide spread 
which contains the denaturing agents 
urea and formamide. RNA or DNA 
molecules which are double-stranded will 
appear the same under both conditions, 
but those molecules which are single- 
stranded will appear clumped under 
aqueous spreading conditions and ex- 
tended under the urea formamide spread- 
ing conditions. The single-stranded mole- 
cules are not extended without dena- 
turing conditions because they have 
numerous intramolecular bonds. Thus 
not only the nature of the molecules 
but also the measurement of their length 
can be determined after spreading them 
under both conditions. 


The second method of analyzing the 
nucleic acid molecules is by velocity 
sedimentation centrifugation. The RNA 
is radioactively labeled with tritium and 
applied to a 10-30% (v/v) glycerol gra- 
dient. After centrifugation, fractions are 
collected and samples from each frac- 
tion are taken and counted in a Packard 
scintillation counter to measure the 
amount of radioactivity. The activity of 
each fraction can be analyzed and the 
size of the molecules calculated. 

These techniques are important for 
determining the length and size of the 
DNA and RNA molecules. They were 
used also to study the nature of the 
RNA from a mutant of USV thought 
to have double-stranded RNA as its 
genome. The results of the 2 techniques 
complement each other. 


A Preliminary Annotated Bibliography of Information 
Handling Activities in Biology 


Richard H. Foote and Judith Zidar 


Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIII, Agricultural Research Service, 


USDA, Beltsville, Maryland 20705 


ABSTRACT 


A selected bibliography containing about 300 references to information handling 
activities in the biological sciences is presented. Each reference is annotated to indicate 
subject matter. The bibliography generally excludes a) articles that are limited to Homo 
sapiens and his disorders, b) many articles published before 1965, c) general texts and 
papers not specifically related to biological subjects, and d) most references not in the 


mainstream of the biological literature. 


During the past several years biologists 
have awakened to the need for finding 
better ways to handle the rapidly grow- 
ing amount of information they use and 
generate. This need has been expressed 
by a few, but the lack of concerted 
action in this direction has been an ever- 
growing source of concern to many 
biologists. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


The disciplines of biology vary so 
greatly in their subject matter and metho- 
dology that a centralized effort to es- 
tablish a truly comprehensive informa- 
tion ‘‘system’’ in biology may never 
succeed. Nevertheless, progress toward 
solving information handling problems 
has advanced in varying degrees from 
discipline to discipline, and in some 


19 


cases it is evident that quite satisfactory 
solutions are well on the way toward 
being made. In the large picture, BIOSIS 
of Biological Abstracts has made im- 
pressive progress toward the control 
of the biological literature, but other 


areas of activity have hardly been 


touched upon by biological scientists. 
In a very real way the following 
bibliography represents a recorded sum- 
mary of progress made to date by the 
biological community in various areas 
of information handling. It is intended 
to indicate the outstanding specific efforts 
made in several biological disciplines, 
and it presents sources of information 
about the more comprehensive activities 
in biology. At the same time it em- 
phasizes those areas in which more con- 
certed activity seems to be indicated 
(e.g., the use of microform by biologists). 


Exclusions 


The user of this bibliography should 
be aware of its limitations: 


1. References dealing largely or ex- 
clusively with Homo sapiens and _ his 
origins, development and disorders have 
been excluded. However, an occasional 
reference in this subject matter area is 
included because a described system or 
project may provide information ap- 
plicable to organisms other than humans 
(see Eichhorn and Reinecke, 1970, con- 
cerning the Vision Information Center, 
which is known to deal in part with 
information concerning vision in insects 
and other animals). 


2. In large part, references to general 


works, including textbooks, that do not 
deal specifically with the subject matter 
of biology. These include books and 
papers dealing with the principles govern- 
ing the generation, use, and effective 
handling of information not related to a 
specific biological discipline. (In exclud- 
ing such works, we recognize that we 
may be doing an injustice to the reader, 
but this immense body of literature has 
been or is being covered elsewhere and 


20 


is beyond the scope of the present 
work.) 

3. References that might be difficult 
for biologists to obtain or use. This 
includes most foreign-language publica- 
tions; most articles that appear solely in 
the literature of information science; 
and many notes, comments, published 
letters, addenda, etc., relating to specific 
biological subjects that are hardly under- 
standable without reference to some 
larger, more comprehensive work. 

4. Many articles on the subject that 
were published before 1965, a date we 
regard as a turning point in information 
handling activity in biology. 


Almost no bibliography, no matter 
what the subject, escapes the short- 
coming of failing to include everything 
of significance. This collection is no 
exception. Wherever we have excluded 
a significant reference by oversight, we 
tender our sincere apologies. Where we 
have deliberately excluded an article 
or area of activity, we hope the users 
of this article will argue their point © 
with us privately or in the press. In 


either case, an effective future revision — 


of this compilation will depend largely — 
on your comments and cooperation. 


Subject Matter Classification 
and Annotations 


Each entry in the following bibliog- 
raphy is annotated in accordance with 
the following subject matter classifica- 
tion: 


A. General 


1. State-of-the-art, problems, 
need for improvement. 

2. Descriptions of broadly based 
(organizational) information ef- 
forts. 

3. General texts. 


B. Primary publications 


1. State-of-the-art, problems, 
need for improvement. 
2. Surveys of primary publications 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


by discipline, descriptions of 
core literature. 


C. Secondary literature information 


activities 


1. Description of primary-second- 
ary relationships and need for 
improvement. 

2. Cataloging and indexing, in- 
cluding discussions of indexing 
terms, subject headings, the- 
sauri, etc. 

3. Abstracts. 

4. Descriptions of secondary sys- 
tems, subject-matter content, 
methodology, critiques. 


D. Data information systems 


1. Descriptions of systems, sub- 
ject-matter content, methodol- 
ogy, critiques. 

‘2. Descriptions of computer pro- 
grams. 

3. Management of collection, mu- 
seum, and specimen data. 

4. Surveys, automated mapping 
procedures. 

5. Automated identification pro- 
cedures. 

6. Automated catalogs, taxonomic 
catalogs. 

7. Bionumeric codes. 


E. Personal information systems 


1. Mechanical. 
2. Automated. 


A section following the bibliography 
accumulates all of the references within 
each of the subject-matter categories 
listed above. 


Acknowledgments 


Several individuals reviewed a pre- 
liminary draft of the manuscript, thereby 
guiding us very effectively in producing 
the present version: Ross H. Arnett, 
Jr., Siena College, Loudonville, N.Y.; 
Robert Chenhall, Strong Museum, Roch- 
ester, N.Y.; Gordon Gordh, SEL, 
IIBUI, ARS, USDA, Washington, 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


D.C.; Karl Heumann and Philip Alt- 
man, FASEB, Bethesda, Md.; H. E. 
Kennedy, BIOSIS, Philadelphia, Pa.; 
Irvin Mohler, BSCP, George Washing- 
ton University, Washington D.C.; Stan- 
wyn Shetler, Smithsonian Institution, 
Washington, D.C.; and Susan Trauger, 
University of Wisconsin, Madison. 

Theodore J. Crovello, University of 
Notre Dame; Peter Rauch, University 
of California at Berkeley; and Roy 
Shenefelt, University of Wisconsin, very 
kindly allowed us to select items at 
will from their extensive personal bib- 
liographies. Without their help, the publi- 
cation of this bibliography would not 
have been possible. 

The editors also express their appre- 
ciation for the invaluable assistance of 
Ms. Patricia Espenshade, SEL, whose 
care in the preparation of this manu- 
script was indispensable. 


A Preliminary Annetated Bibliography of 
Information Handling Activities in 
Biology 


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ADDISON, C. H., R. W. SHIELDS, and J. W. 
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ADDOR, E. E., V. E.. LAGARDE, J. K. 
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ALBRECHT, C. W., and R. V. SKAVANL. 
1974. A flexible computer program for the 
production of insect labels. Great Lakes En- 
tomol. 7: 27-29. D1, 3 

ALVERSON, RHODA A. 1964. An evaluation 
of the pesticide literature—problems, sources, 
and services. Am. Chem. Soc., 147th Nat’l 
Mtg., Phila., Pa., April 9, pp. 204-208. B1, 2 

ANDERSON, P. K. 1966. The periodical litera- 
ture of ecology. BioScience 16: 794-795. B2 

ANDERSON, S. 1962. Problems in the retrieval 
of information from natural history museums. 
Proc. Congr. Data Acquis. Proc. Biol. Med., 
p. 55-57. C2, D3 

ANDERSON, S., and R. G. VAN GELDER. 
1970. The history and status of the literature 


21 


of mammalogy. BioScience 20: 949-957. B1, 2; 
Cl, 4 

ANON. 1954. The Chemical-Biological Coordina- 
tion Center of the National Research Council. 
National Research Council, Washington, D.C., 
Sept., 33 pp. A2, Dl 


malaria eradication. Report of a drafting com- 
mittee. WHO, Geneva, 127 pp. C2 


1967. Some characteristics of primary 
periodicals in the domain of the biological 
sciences. ICSU Abstracting Board, Paris, 84 
pp. Bl 

. 1969. Information Center Profile — Science 
Information Exchange (SIE). Sci. Info. Notes 
1: 43-46. D1 


. 1970a. Information Center Profile—Na- 
tional Oceanographic Data Center. Sci. Info. 
Notes 2: 129-132. Dl 


1970b. Natural history information re- 
trieval system. Smithsonian Institution. 25 pp., 
mimeo. D2, 3 


1970c. Canadian scientific information 
system. InterAmer. News 3: 4-5. A2 


. 1972. Communications in neuroscience. 
Neuroscience Newsletter 3: 4-6. A2, C4. 


. 1973. Bug counting, computer style. Farm 
Chemicals, April, pp. 39-42. (for details, see 
Atmar, et al., 1973). D1, 5 


. 1974. Trends, priorities, and needs in 
systematic and evolutionary biology. Syst. Zool. 
23: 416-439, Al 


. [Date?]. Formats and procedures for use 
in data processing systems of the McLean 
Paleontological Laboratory. McLean Paleontol. 
Lab., Alexandria, Va. (unpublished offprint). 
D1, 3 

ARGUS, G. W., and J. W. SHEARD. 1972. 
Two simple labeling and data retrieval systems 
for herbaria. Can. J. Bot. 50: 2197-2209. D1, 3 


ARNETT, R. H., Jr. 1969a. Storage and 
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Entomol. News 80: 197-205. D3 


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News 81: 1-11. Cl, 3, 4 


. 1970a. Data document numbers. Entomol. 
News 81: 50. C3 


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of Coleoptera. Coleopterists’ Bull. 24: 76-84. 
D6 


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age and Retrieval. Bio-Rand Foundation, Inc., 
Baltimore, Md. xiii + 209 pp., illus. Al, 3 


. 1971. Guide for writing descriptors. 
Entomol. News 82: 26-27. C2 


1972. Data documents for systematic 
entomology (DDSE). Entomol. News 83: 48. Al 


22 


1963. Terminology of malaria and of. 


ATMAR, J. W., J. L. POOLER, F: C. WEBB; 
G. M. FLACHS, and J. J. ELLINGTON. 
1973. Construction of a device to identify and 
count insects automatically. Environmental En- 
tomol. 2: 713-716, illus. D4, 5 


ATZ, J. W. 1968. Dean Bibliography of Fishes. 
Am. Mus. Nat. Hist., New York, N.Y., 512 
pp. A2 


BACHMANN, B. J., E. A. ADELBERG, and 
R. BAKEMAN. 1973. SAM: The “‘Search and 
Match’’ computer program of the Escherichia 
coli genetic stock center. BioScience 23: 35-36. 
Dis2 

BAKER, D. B. 1970. Communication or chaos? 
Science 169: 739-742. Al, 2; Cl 


BAKER, D.B., P. V. PARKINS, andJ. POYEN. 
1972. The future of access (abstracting and 
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BAKER, H. A. 1970. A key for the genus 
Erica L. using edge-punched cards. J. So. 
African Bot. 36: 151-156. DS, El 


BALDWIN, P. H., and D. E. OEHLERTS. 
1964. The status of ornithological literature. 
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BAMFORD, H. E., JR. 1972. A concept 
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BARTELS, W., M. L. KIENLE, W. LAUX, 
M. MICATEK, W. STEINHAUSEN, B. 
STRECKER, and G. WEILAND. 1973. Ab- 
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BASCOMB, S., S. P. LAPAGE, M. A. CURTIS, 
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BAUM, B. R., and B. K. THOMPSON. 1970. 
Registers with pedigree charts for cultivars: 
their importance, their contents, and their 


preparation by computer. Taxon 19: 762-768. 
D1 


BEAMAN, J. H. [ed.]. 1971. Some applications 
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BEAN, J. L. 1969. An automatic data processing 
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BECKLUND, W. W. 1969. The Index-Catalogue 
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BEJUKI, WALTER M. 1965. Symposium on 
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BERRY, W. B. N. 1970. A local system of 
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Bese nee, RR. E., and J. H. SOPER. 1970. 
The automation and standardization of certain 
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BIOSIS (BioSciences Information Services of 
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BIOSIS. 1965. Conference on Communications 
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BONHAM, C. D. 1972. The ecological inventory 
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BOTTLE, R. T., and H. V. WYATT. 1967. 
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A. G. IKEDA. 1968. An automated biological 
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BRENAN, J. P. M. 1974. International conference 
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BRIDGES, K. W. 1970. Automatic indexing of 
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E2 


BRIGHAM, W. V. 1974. Journal coverage by 
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BRILL, R. C. 1971. The TAXIR primer. Occas. 
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BRINDLEY, W. A., and R. G. JONES. 1969. 
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BRODO, I. M. 1971. Publication: the need for 
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BROWN, C. E. 1964. A machine method for 
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BROWN, C. H. 1956. Most frequently cited 
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No. 16. Assoc. College & Ref. Libraries, 
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BROWN, W. L. 1961. An international taxonomic 
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BROWN: (\W..-S.,..J. Re. PIERCE, and J... F: 
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BRYAN, J. H. D. 1966. A _ multi-purpose 
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BRYGOO, P. R. 1965. Symposium on informa- 
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BULLIS, H. R., JR., and R. B. ROE. 1967. 
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BURTON, H. D. 1969. FAMULUS: A computer- 
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BYER, M. D., J. E. CANTLON, and C. M. 
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COBSI (Council on Biological Sciences Informa- 
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CREIGHTON, R. A., and J. J. CROCKETT. 
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1972b. Modabund—the computerized 

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WALTERS, S. M. 1963. Botanical nomenclature, 
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Taxon 12: 249-250. D1, El 


WHITE, K. E., and G. GRODHAUS. 1972. 
Computer information retrieval system for Cali- 
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WHITEHEAD, P. J. P. 1971. Storage and 
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WILCOX, F. H. 1968. A simple system for 
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WILLCOX, W. R., S. P. LAPAGE, S. BAS- 
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References Assigned to Subject Categories 


A. General 


1. State-of-the-art, problems, need for improve- 
ment: Anon. 1974; Arnett 1970b, d, 1972; Baker 
1970; Baker et al. 1972; BIOSIS 1965, 1970; 
Brodo 1971; Egle 1973; Favorite 1964; Foote 
1967, 1970, 1972b; Foote & Hammack 1969; 
Heumann 1974; Gordon 1969; Hattery 1961; 
Herman 1973; Kendrick 1964; Mello 1974; NAS 
1970; Parkins & Kennedy 1971; Russell 1962; 
SATCOM 1969; Shetler 1973, 1974; Shetler & 
Krauss 1971; Smith 1970; Steere 1970; Woodford 
1969. 


2. Descriptions of broadly based (organizational) 
information efforts: Anon. 1954, 1970c, 1972; Atz 
1968; Baker 1970; Bejuki 1965; BIOSIS 1970; 
Burton 1969; Egle 1973; Foote 1967, 1969, 1972a; 
Foote & Hammack 1969; Fowler 1965; Gates 1971; 
Graham & Foote 1971; Heumann 1974; Irwin 1973; 
Kiehl 1970; Krauss 1973b; Mohler 1969, 1970; 
Smith 1970; Walsh 1973; Wise 1973. 


3. General texts: Arnett 1970d; Bottle & Wyatt 
1967; Morse, Furlow & Beaman 1971. 


B. Primary publications 


1. State-of-the-art, problems, need for improve- 
ment: Anderson & Van Gelder 1970; Bamford 
1972; Brodo 1971; Brown 1961; Brown et al. 
1967; Conrad 1965; Davis 1973; Foote 1967; 
Garfield 1964; Kennedy & Parkins 1969; Lamanna 
1970; Lewin 1971; Mohler 1972; NAS 1970; Parkins 
1971; Porter 1967; Randal & Scott 1967; Walker 
1965; Wolf 1966; Wooster 1970; Yochelson, 1969; 
Zweimer 1970. 


2. Surveys of primary publications by discipline, 
descriptions of core literature: Alvorson 1964; 
Anderson 1966; Anderson & Van Gelder 1970; 
Anon. 1967; Baldwin & Oehlerts 1964; Brigham 
1974; Brown 1956; Brygoo 1965; Conrad 1965; 
Dimond 1970; Foote & Hammack 1969; Gorham 
1968; Gurtowski 1968, 1970; Hahn 1973; Ham- 
mack 1970b; Heumann 1974; ICSU-AB 1967; 
Kull 1965; Lentz 1969; Mello 1969; Norris 1971; 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


Packer & Murdoch 1974; Shilling & Benton 1964; 
Simon 1970; Smith & Reid 1972; Trauger er al. 
1974; Tunevall 1969. 


C. Secondary literature information activities 


1. Description of primary-secondary relationships 
and need for improvement: Anderson & Van Gelder 
1970; Arnett 1969b; Baker 1970; Bamford 1972; 
BIOSIS 1970; Brodo 1971; Brown et al. 1967; 
Crovello & MacDonald 1970; Edwards 1971a; 
Foote 1967; Foote & Hammack 1967; Gordon 1972; 
Kennedy & Parkins 1969; Morgans 1965a; NAS 
1970; Parkins 1971, 1974; Parkins & Kennedy 
1971; Shervis et al. 1972; Wood et al. 1972, 
1973; Zweimer 1970. 


2. Cataloging and indexing, including discussions 
of indexing terms, subject headings, thesauri, etc.: 
Anderson 1962; Anon 1963; Arnett 1971; Bean 
1969; BIOSIS 1970, 1973; Garfield 1964; Herting 
1964; Schultz 1968; Shervis & Shenefelt 1973a, 
b; Shervis et al. 1972; Travis et al. 1962; UNESCO 
1970. 


3. Abstracts: Arnett 1969b, 1970a, b. 


4. Descriptions of secondary systems, subject 
matter content, methodology, critiques: Anderson 
& Van Gelder 1970; Anon. 1972; Arnett 1969b; 
Bartels et al. 1973; Becklund 1969; BIOSIS 1970; 
Crovello 1972b; Dadd 1971; Dwinell 1970; Ed- 
wards 1971b, c; Eggins 1971; Eichhorn & Reinecke 
1970; Freeman & Hersey 1963; Garfield 1964; 
Hammack 1970a; Hepting 1967; Heumann 1974; 
Jacobus et al. 1966; Jameson 1969; Kennedy 1972; 
Kennedy & Parkins 1969; Kogan & Luckmann 
197: (Eaux 1972)" EC-NRE . 1972: Lentz. 1969; 
Mohler 1969; Namkoong & Graham 1970; Norris 
1971; Patrias 1970; Parkins 1966, 1969, 1970, 
1974; Parrish et al. 1966; Schultz 1974; Scrivenor 
1971; Shetler & Krauss 1971; Strand & Fribourg 
1972; Trauger et al. 1974; Whitehead 1971; Wise 
1972; Wood et al. 1972, 1973; Yerke 1971. 


D. Data information systems 


1. Descriptions of systems, subject-matter con- 
tent, methodology, critiques: Addison et al. 1969; 
Addor et al., 1974; Albrecht & Skavanl 1974; 
Anon. 1954, 1969, 1970a, 1973, [date?]; Argus 
& Sheard 1972; Bachmann ef al. 1973; Baum 
& Thompson 1970; Beaman 1971; Bean 1969; 
Berry 1970; Bonham 1972; Brenan 1974; Brill 
1971; Chenhall 1975; Creighton & King 1969b; 
Creighton & Packard 1974; Crovello 1972a, c; 
Crovello & MacDonald 1970; Cutbill 1971; Cut- 
bill et al. 1971; Cutbill & Williams 1971; Egel 
1973; Furlow et al. 1971; Gomez-Pompa & Nev- 
ling 1973; Greene 1972; Griner 1968; Hale & 
Creighton 1970; Haglind et al. 1969; Hudson 
et al. 1971; Hull et al. 1970; Irwin 1973; Keller 
& Crovello 1974; Kogan & Luckmann 1971; Krauss 
1973a, b; Lewis 1965; Lloyd et al. 1972; Mac- 
Donald 1966a, b, 1971; MacDonald et al. 1967; 


31 


MacDonald & Reed 1968; Manning 1969a; Mc- 
Allister et al. 1972; Meadow 1970; Morgans 1965b; 
Morse 1974a; NAS 1970; Noyce 1965; Perring 
1971b; Peters 1970; Radford & Pankhurst 1973; 
Randal & Scott 1967; Reddin & Feinberg 1973; 
Rogers 1966; Rogers et al. 1967; Savage 1964; 
Shetler 1971, 1973, 1974; Shetler et al. 
Shetler & Krauss 1971; Shetler et al. 1973; 
Shetler & Read 1973; Skerman 1973; Squires 1970; 
Suzynski 1971; Taylor 1971; Turnbull 1967; Van 
Gelder & Anderson 1967; Vance 1970; Wade 1972; 
Walker et al. 1968; Walters 1963; White & Grod- 
haus 1972; Whitehead 1971; Wood 1954; Wood 
et al. 1963; Yerke 1971. 


2. Descriptions of computer programs: Addison 
et al. 1969; Anon. 1970b; Bachmann et al. 1973; 
Burton 1969; Chenhall 1972, 1975; Creighton & 
Crockett 1971; Creighton & King 1969b; Creighton 
& Packard 1974; Creighton et al. 1972; Cutbill 
1971; Haglind et al. 1969; Hudson et al. 1971; 
Hull et al. 1970; Krauss 1973a; Pankhurst 1970b; 
Reddin & Feinberg 1973; Rickman et al. 1972. 


3. Management of collection, museum, and speci- 
men data: Albrecht & Skavanl 1974; Anon. 1970b, 
[date?]; Anderson 1962; Argus & Sheard 1972; 
Arnett 1969a; Beamen 1971; Berry 1970; Beschel 
& Soper 1970; Brenan 1974; Chenhall 1974, 
1975; Creighton & Crockett 1971; Creighton & 
King 1969a: Creighton & Packard 1974; Crovello 
1967, 1972a; Crovello et al. 1970; Cutbill et al. 
1971; Cutbul & Williams 1971; Gomez-Pompa 
& Nevling 1973; Greene 1972; Hall 1972a, b, 
1974; Heath 1971a, b; Johnson et al. 1971; King 
et al. 1967; Landrum 1969; Lewis 1967; Mac- 
Donald 1971; Manning 1969a; McAllister ef al. 
1972; Meikle 1971; Mello & Collier 1972; Morse 
1974a; Perring 1963, 1967, 1971a; Reed et al. 
1963; Shetler 1973, 1974; Shetler et al. 1973; 
Soper 1969; Soper & Perring 1967; Squires 1966, 
1968, 1971; Suszynski 1971; Vance 1970; Walker 
et al. 1968. 


32 


1969; . 


4. Surveys, automated mapping procedures: 
Atmar et al. 1973; Brown 1964; Evans 1971; 
Gould 1968; Hawkes et al. 1968; Heath 1970, 
1971la, b; Lieth & Radford 1971; Lloyd et al. 
1972; Manning 1969a; Perring 1963, 1967, 1971a, 
b; Reed et al. 1963; Rensberger & Berry 1967; 
Soper 1964. 


5. Automated identification precedures: Adams 
1974; Anon. 1973; Atmar et al. 1973; Baker 1970; 
Bascomb et al. 1973; Boughey et al. 1968; Dali- 
witz 1974; Duke 1969; Gasser & Gehrt 1971; 
Germerad & Muller 1970; Goodall, 1968; Gyl- 
lenberg 1965; Hall 1970, 1973; Kendrick 1972; 
LaPage et al. 1973; Morse 1968, 1969, 1971, 
1974b; Morse et al. 1968; Morse et al. 1971; 
Pankhurst 1970a, b, 1971, 1974; Pankhurst & 
Walters 1971; Soper 1966; Wilcox et al. 1973. 


6. Automated catalogs, taxonomic s: Arn- 
ett 1970c; Chenhall 1973, 1974, 1975; Krombein 
et al. 1974; Manning 19695; Meikie 1971. 


7. Bienumeric codes: Bullis & Roe 1967; Den- 
mark et al. 1958; Gould 1954; Hull 1966; Jahn 
1961; King et al. 1967; Little 1964; Manning 
1969a; Michener 1963; Mullins & Nickerson 1951; 
Rabel 1940; Reed et al. 1963; Rivas 1965. 


E. Personal information systems 


" 1. Mechanical: Baker 1970; Brindley & Jones 
1969; Bryan 1966; Byer et al. 1959; Duke 1969; 
Gould 1958; Levine 1955; Lloyd 1969; Morgans 
1965a; Perdue 1964; Reichl 1963; Reinecke 1967; 
Shenefelt 1969; Van Gelder & Anderson 1967; 
Walters 1963; Wilcox 1968; Wood et al. 1963. 


2. Automated: Bridges 1970; Burton 1969, 


1973; Strand & Fribourg 1972; Travis et al. 
1962; Yerke 1970; Yerke et al. 1969. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


RESEARCH REPORTS 


Amblycerus acapulcensis, A New Species of Seed Beetle 
from Mexico (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) 


John M. Kingsolver 


Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIII, ARS, USDA, % U. S. National 


Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560 


ABSTRACT 


A new species of bruchid, Amblycerus acapulcensis, that feeds in seeds of a 
leguminous tree, Caesalpinia cacalaco, in Mexico is described and distinguished 


from other species in the genus. 


To provide a name for a _ bruchid 
involved in biological studies currently 
underway, this description is presented. 


Amblycerus acapulcensis Kingsolver, n. sp. 


Male and female similar in external charac- 
teristics except for pygidium (see below). With 
characters of genus as given by Kingsolver, 
1970b, p. 471. Color: Integument dark red through- 
out. Vestiture very fine gray and golden hairs 
intermixed in faintly mottled pattern. Surface of 
body with small, black, setiferous pits especially 
noticeable on elytra. Pygidium with darker median 
area. 

Body elliptical in dorsal aspect, arched strongly 
in lateral aspect. Head turbinate, eyes coarsely 
faceted, shallowly emarginate, strongly bulging 
laterally; frons evenly convex, finely punctulate, 
with a faint median carina in lower half; clypeus 
slightly more coarsely punctulate than frons; 
labrum nearly impunctate; vestiture dense except 
for a pair of transverse bare spots on frons at 
level of dorsal margin of eyes; antenna with first 
segment as long as width of frons between eyes, 
remaining segments with proportions as in fig. 6; 
antenna reaching anterior margin of hind coxa. 
Pronotum nearly semicircular, weakly convex in 
basal half, more strongly convex toward apex, sur- 
face without asperities except for a pair of sub- 
basal depressions and remnants of the submar- 
ginal sulcus either side of basal lobe; disk punc- 
tulate with fine foveolae scattered over surface, 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


some of which are pigmented, lateral margin not 
carinate, abruptly rounded and with a fine sub- 
marginal sulcus on concave pleural surface, this 
connected with a short, vertical, submarginal sulcus 
laterad of anterior foramen; prosternum flat, con- 
stricted between coxae, precoxal margin with a 
fine submarginal carina. Elytra evenly convex, 
striae regular, only slightly impressed, strial punc- 
tures fine, elongate, approximate; elytral apices 
evenly rounded; scutellum (fig. 5) elongate-cordate, 
apex with minute nipple; mesosternum strap-like, 
rounded apically; metasternum with slight depres- 
sion in caudal half, depression divided by deep, 
narrow sulcus, postcoxal sulcus interrupted on 
intercoxal lobe, parasutural sulcus of metasternum 
extending three-fourths distance to posterior mar- 
gin; metepisternum sparsely punctate with trans- 
verse anterior sulcus deep but with parasutural 
sulcus nearly obsolete; face of hind coxa sparsely 
punctate on lateral three-fourths, and with dense 
cluster of punctures near trochanteral insertion; 
hind tibial calcar half as long as basitarsus, 
inner calcar half as long as outer calcar. Ab- 
dominal sterna without unusual modification; 
pygidium of male with terminal margin evenly 
rounded, that of female bisinuate. 

Male genitalia. — Median lobe (figs. 1, 4) some- 
what depressed, about three times as long as wide; 
ventral valve ogival in ventral aspect, apex arcuate 
in lateral aspect with base bent dorsad on either 
side to enclose dorsal valve base; dorsal valve 
U-shaped with anterior arms somewhat elongated; 
armature of internal sac consisting of two elongate, 


33 


Amblycerus acapulcensis. Male genitalia: Fig. 1, median lobe, ventral; fig. 2, lateral lobes, ventral; 
fig. 3, U-shaped sclerite of internal sac; fig. 4, median lobe, lateral. Fig. 5, scutellum. Fig. 6, antenna. 


curved processes in basal half of sac, a U-shaped 
sclerite (fig. 3) with a short nipple on the bend, 
a complex of slender sclerites in middle of sac, 
and a terminal complex of thin, rodlike sclerites. 
Lateral lobes (fig. 2) setiferous, rounded apically, 
the cleft between them deeply rounded. 


Holotype male, Mexico: Veracruz, 
Cerro Gordo, Riconada, April 1969, 
G. B. Vogt, coll., in seeds of Caesal- 
pinia cacalaco Humb. & Bonpl. USNM 


34 


Type #72812. Allotype female and 22 
male and 25 female paratypes, same 
data. Other paratypes as follows, all from 
Mexico: Veracruz, Cerro Gordo (no 
date), C. L. Gilly, in Caesalpinia 


cacalaco; Sinaloa, 6 mi. N. Los Mochis, 
24-II-1973, C. D. Johnson coll. #181-73, 


in Caesalpinia cacalaco; same locality 
and host but 12-III-1973, C. D. John- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


son coll. #508-73; Sinaloa, 4 mi. N. 
Guamuchil, 13-VII-1968, C. D. Johnson 
coll. #308-68, in Caesalpinia cacalaco; 
Sinaloa, Mazatlan, 3-V-1935, in seeds of 
Caesalpinia sp.; Sinaloa, 7 mi. N. 
Mazatlan, 11-III-1973, C. D. Johnson 
coll. #489-73, in Caesalpinia cacalaco; 
Sinaloa, 10 mi. S.E. Guamuchil, 12-III- 
1973, C. D. Johnson coll. #506-73, in 
Caesalpinia cacalaco; Sinaloa, 26 mi. S. 
Culiacan, 25-II-1973, C. D. Johnson 
coll. #189-73, in Caesalpinia cacalaco; 
Sinalao, 4 mi. S. Culiacan, 25-II-1973, 
C. D. Johnson coll. #184-73, in Caesal- 
pinia cacalaco; Colima, 10 mi. N. 
Colima, 6-III-1973, C. D. Johnson coll. 
#367-73, in Caesalpinia cacalaco; 
Colima, 3 mi. S. Colima, ca 1500’, 7-III- 
1973, C. D. Johnson coll. #374-73, 
in Caesalpinia cacalaco; Guerrero, 
Acapulco, 1903, E. W. Nelson Botanical 
coll. #6975; Oaxaca, Oaxaca, 26-XI- 
1958. Paratypes are deposited in collec- 
tions of Northern Arizona University, 
Flagstaff; Canadian National Collec- 
tions, Ottawa, Ontario; U. S. National 
Museum of Natural History, Washing- 
ton, D. C.; British Museum (N. H.), 
London. 


Amblycerus acapulcensis is closely 
related toA. robiniae (F.) which develops 
in seeds of Gleditsia triacanthos L., 
or honey locust, in the eastern half of 
the United States, and A. taeniatus 
(Suffrian) which develops in seeds of 
Caesalpinia bijuga Swartz in Cuba. 
Genitalia are illustrated for the latter 
two bruchids (Kingsolver 1970a and 
1970b, respectively). 

External differences among the 3 
species in this group are rather subtle. 
The black setiferous pits on the sur- 
face of the elytra are more conspicuous 
in robiniae and taeniatus than in acapul- 
censis, and the pygidium has the median 
area piceous in robiniae and acapul- 
censis, unicolorous in taeniatus. 

Group characters for the Robiniae 
Group are: scutellum elongate-cordate 
(Kingsolver 1970b, fig. 12, scutellum for 
taeniatus is too broad); apical margin 
of pygidium in female bisinuate, in male 
evenly rounded; surface of body with 
prominent, setiferous, black pits; male 
genitalia with characteristic form. 
Characters in the male genitalia are used 
to separate the 3 species in the following 
key: 


1. Internal sac without a pair of elongate median sclerites overlapping median 
U-shaped sclerite; U-shaped sclerite without nipple at bend of U; apices of 


lateral lobes truncated, the cleft between V-shaped and more shallow 
te aes MONS AA Se ae robiniae (F.) 


Dies Piss a «Cs © Sie eeeeceeseweeeeaevssn ee 60 6 


Internal sac with a pair of elongate sclerites; U-shaped sclerite either with 
nipple or constricted in bend of U; apices of lateral lobes truncated or rounded 


but always separated by a deep cleft 


2. U-shaped sclerite with nipple at bend (fig. 3); dorsal valve with anterior arms 
elongated; apices of lateral lobes rounded.................. acapulcensis n. sp. 

U-shaped sclerite without nipple at bend, but nearly divided into two halves; 

dorsal valve with anterior arms short, diagonally truncated; apices of lateral 


lobes truncate (Cuba only) .......... 


Caesalpinia cacalaco is listed by 
Stanley in his Trees and Shrubs of 
Mexico (1922) as a source of tannin and 
a black dye similar to that produced by 
Caesalpinia coriaria (Jacq.) Willd. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


See tes a ee oe eae taeniatus (Suffrian) 


References Cited 


Kingsolver, J. M. 1970a. A study of male genitalia 
in Bruchidae (Coleoptera). Proc. Entomol. Soc. 
Washington 72 (3): 370-386. 

1970b. A synopsis of the subfamily 

Amblycerinae Bridwell in the West Indies, with 

descriptions of new species (Coleoptera: 

Bruchidae). Trans. Amer. Entom. Soc. 96: 

469-497. 


35 


Species of Conotrachelus Schonherr and Microscapus Lima 
(Coleoptera: Curculionidae: Cryptorhynchinae) Associated 
with Hymenaea courbaril Linnaeus in Central America, 
with Notes on the Cristatus Group of Conotrachelus 


Donald R. Whitehead 


Organization for Tropical Studies, clo Department of Entomology, U.S. National 


Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 


ABSTRACT 


The Cristatus Group of Conotrachelus is defined and its 9 included species keyed; 
natural history data are given for 3 of these species. Conotrachelus boucheri White- 
head is a new species of the Cristatus Group, described from specimens extracted 
from pods of Hymenaea courbaril in the Osa Peninsula of Costa Rica. Locality 
records are given for Microscapus hymenaeae Lima, based on specimens collected 
in association with Hymenaea in Panama, Venezuela, Bolivia, and Brazil. 


Members of 3 weevil genera, all 
Cryptorhynchinae, have previously been 
reported in association with fruits of the 
legume tree Hymenaea courbaril L. and 
other Hymenaea spp. (Silva et al. 1968): 
Metoposoma Faust, Microscapus Lima, 
and Rhinechenus Lucas. During the 
course of ecological studies on HAy- 
menaea courbaril in Central America and 
northern South America, D. H. Janzen, 
of the University of Michigan, has ac- 
cumulated a wealth of fresh material. 
Included are large numbers of several 
species of Rhinochenus, which I will 
treat separately (Whitehead mss.), and 
small series each of Microscapus hy- 
menaeae Lima and a new species of 
Conotrachelus Schonherr as reported be- 
low. In order to place the new species 
of Conotrachelus in some meaningful 
systematic context, I establish herein, 
as a group of convenience, the Cristatus 
Group of Conotrachelus, include a key 
to known species, and indicate avail- 
able ecological data. 


Acknowledgments.—I am grateful to 
D. H. Janzen, J. M. Kingsolver, and 
R. E. Warner for their very helpful 
criticism and other contributions, and I 
am pleased to thank Janzen for con- 


36 


tinued financial support from NSF Grant 
GB 35032X. This study is based on speci- 
mens housed in the U.S. National 


_Museum of Natural History, Washing- 


ton, D.C. 


Terminology.—In general I follow ac- 
cepted terminology as heretofore used 
in studies on Curculionidae, but explana- 
tions are needed for the various terms 
used to describe integumental micro- 
sculpture. I use the term “‘isodiametric’”’ 
if the meshes of the microsculpture form 
a flat honeycomb effect, ‘‘granulose’”’ 
if the meshes are similar in form but 
tuberculose rather than flattened, or 
“*stretched’’ if the meshes are clearly 
elongated. Fhe arrangement of the 
‘*stretched’’ meshes on the pronotum 
and elytra is roughly transverse on 
average, and on the pronotum it matches 
the general orientation of punctations, 
rugosities, and other macrosculpture. 


The Cristatus Group of Conotrachelus 


Diagnostic combination.— Several 
species of Conotrachelus form an easily 
distinguished though not necessarily 
natural group, having the following char- 
acteristics in combination: 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


Apex of each elytron with conspicuous bare area; 
front coxae contiguous; femora bidentate; elytral 
intervals 3, 5, 7, and 9 costate, costae of inter- 
vals 3 and 5 or 3, 5, and 7 interrupted; and 
pronotum with lateral discal longitudinal stripes 
of condensed vestiture and without tubercles. 


The Cristatus Group, as construed 
herein, may be useful for no more than 
recognition purposes. Similarity in ex- 
ternal morphology may not correlate 
with similarity in genital morphology. 
I cannot, however, make broader com- 
ments on relationships without a better 
representation of members of the group 
and without first completing a thorough 
survey of the genus. 


Key to species.—All previously de- 
scribed species of the Cristatus Group 
have been treated by Champion (1904, 
Central America) and Fiedler (1940, 
South America). I attempt in the fol- 
lowing key to distinguish these 7 species, 
a new species described below, and 1 


additional undescribed species. As I have 
seen specimens of only 6 of the 9 species, 
the key is based in part on the litera- 
ture and hence may not prove wholly 
successful. I am confident of all deter- 
minations except that of C. abdominalis, 
which is not adequately distinguished in 
Fiedler’s keys or descriptions. 


Natural history. —Some natural his- 
tory data are available for 3 species 
of the Cristatus Group. The specimens 
of boucheri were extracted from pods 
of Hymenaea courbaril. Various speci- 
mens of cristatus are labelled ‘‘am 
Licht,” “am trechnem. Holz,” ‘“‘am 
trochnem Holz nachts,’’ ‘‘an welkem 
Laub Hibiscus esculentus,’’ ‘‘at light,”’ 
‘‘banana ship,’’ ‘‘bananas,”’ “‘in brown 
sugar fruit fly trap,’ “‘Inga bluten,”’ 
or ‘‘on cacao.’ Specimens of the un- 
described species are labelled ‘“bred from 
celery,’ “‘reared from Sweet Potato,”’ 


or ‘‘on parsley.’’ 


1. Rostrum slender, not compressed; vestiture of dorsum white or yellow ........ Z 
Rostrum stout, compressed; vestiture of dorsum white...................004. 6 
2. Rostrum greatly elongated, in female about twice as long as head and pronotum 
combined and with antennal insertion near middle, in male shorter and with 


antennal insertion near apical 14; vestiture of dorsum white or yellow 


ose eeee 3 


Rostrum shorter, antennal insertion much nearer apex in both sexes; vestiture 


CURGOESTINE VEUOQW 2.5.6 cca secs ose. 


@ (of (e) (@ ©. (oe) te. ©) © se is\ie 10 le: jee .0 (0, ©, 8.0. a) (6| 0: «) 60! © 6 » 0s \0 © 5 


3. Elytral intervals 5 and 7 feebly costate. (No specimens seen, described from 


‘‘Cayenne’’) 


Cr 


Elytral intervals 5 and 7 strongly costate 


SARS ee cena Nee MeN ye: C. numenius Fiedler 


4. Vestiture of dorsum yellow. (No specimens seen, described from Volcan de 


hme. Pananid):. 2... ee ee ee 


RON SOMMER ae See an C. divirgatus Champion 


Vestiture of dorsum white. (Three specimens seen, from ‘‘Guyana’’ and 


SUES Fa) ee ee 


Beh LO an We oh Rg Oe C. iris Fiedler 


5. Bare areas at elytral apices contiguous, dense vestiture of sutural intervals 
ending near middle of bare areas. (Many specimens seen, from various 


localities in Brazil and Paraguay)..... 


LORY Se. Seam area C. praeustus Boheman 


Bare areas at elytral apices well-separated, dense vestiture of sutural intervals 
ending near apex of bare areas. (Four specimens seen, from Osa Peninsula, 


LOT Ge) er ree 


C. boucheri Whitehead, NEW SPECIES 


6. Elytral intervals 5 and 7 feebly costate. (No specimens seen, described from 


Beer ean 5 ee colar al ah! 2 
Elytral intervals 5 and 7 strongly costate 


Dis 8 ie en te eee C. obsoletus Fiedler 


7. Last visible abdominal sternum coarsely punctate mesally; vestiture of middle 
and hind femora yellow. (Many specimens seen, from various localities 


i GAH ANG PCL)! 5. oc wee cece 


Bs ABA g can So C. abdominalis (Fabricius) 


Last visible abdominal sternum finely punctate mesally; vestiture of middle 


and: find femora white ............... 


8. Pronotum coarsely rugose, microsculpture stretched. (Many specimens seen, 
from various localities ranging from Mexico to Peru and northern Brazil) .... 


Vera he) se 4) elles; 6 6 4 = ea a @ © 6 a6 ie) 6 6p & 6.6 © © © « 


LA er apn NETS C. cristatus Fahraeus 


Pronotum finely rugose, microsculpture granulose. (Many specimens seen, from 


various localities in Argentina and Uruguay) 
C. sp. nr. cristatus, probably undescribed 


Bile) o: eo nial fel ie (whee) UkwKke, (6,6 7m) ele) a a! alle \0) 0 6 .0).6 8, 6 a)'e « 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


milece, ieite) es) Bien 61s e\ (e jee (Oe) e) 0) .6 14) 6.8.8 a) 6. 8) e ee 


37 


Conotrachelus boucheri Whitehead, 
New Species 


Type-material.— Holotype female la- 
belled ‘‘C. R. Puntarenas. nr. Rincon, 
Osa Peninsula. 12 March 1972. D. A. 
Boucher’’ and ‘‘ex Hymenaea courbaril 
pods CR-Osa: D. Janzen 12 March 
1972’’. Three female paratypes, same 
label data. Holotype and paratypes de- 
posited in U.S. National Museum of 
Natural History, Washington; USNM 
holotype #73362. 


Diagnostic combination.—This spe- 
cies is distinguished from other members 
of the Cristatus Group by characteris- 
tics given in the key. It is most similar 
in appearance to C. praeustus but is 
smaller and broader as well as having 
clearly separated bare areas at the elytral 
apices. 

Conotrachelus boucheri is 1 of 3 mem- 
bers of the Cristatus Group known to 
occur in Central America. Females of 
boucheri, unlike those of divirgatus, 
have the rostrum only about as long 


as the head and pronotum combined - 


and with the antennal insertion near the 
apical %. In addition to having the 
rostrum slender and the vestiture of the 
dorsum and middle and hind femora 
yellow, specimens of boucheri differ 
from those of cristatus by having the 
costa of interval 7 feebly rather than 
strongly interrupted, pronotum not 
rugose, and last visible abdominal 
sternum coarsely and densely punctate 
mesally. 


Description of female.— Length, pronotum (1.4 
mm) + elytron (3.2 mm) = 4.6 mm; width of 
pronotum, 1.6 mm; width of elytra, 2.0 mm. 
Length of rostrum, base of mandible to apex 
of antennal insertion (0.36 mm) + apex of anten- 
nal insertion to frontal fovea (1.33 mm) = 1.69 
mm; length from frontal fovea to base of 
pronotum, 1.67 mm. (For general statement of 
relative position of antennal insertion: length of 
rostrum, apex of mandible to apex of antennal 
insertion (0.47 mm) + apex of antennal insertion 
to eye (0.93 mm) = 1.40 mm; length from antero- 
ventral margin of eye to base of pronotum, 
1.71 mm). Maximum width of rostrum, 0.29 mm; 
width of head across eyes, 0.93 mm; width of 
frons between eyes, 0.22 mm. Length of antenna, 


38 


scape (0.78 mm) + funicle (0.67 mm) + club (0.33 


‘mm) = 1.78 mm; second funicle segment 3 times 


as long as wide, about % as long as first. 
Integument castaneous, venter rufopiceous. 
Vestiture recumbent, scales slender, subsetiform; 
pattern of dorsum about as in cristatus (see 
Champion 1904, plate 19, Fig. 9) except pronotum 
with discal stripes less developed and with lateral 
marginal pale stripe; vestiture throughout mostly 
of yellow to pink scales, white on posterolateral 
margins of pronotum and on scutellum; vestiture 
moderately sparse dorsally except where concen- 
trated in pronotal stripes and along basal margin 
of glabrous area at elytral apex, sparse ventrally, 
nearly uniformly dense on dorsal surfaces of 
femora. Rostrum quadrisulcate above; median 
carina broad, rounded, polished; finely, sparsely 
punctate in apical %; vestiture sparse in basal 
14 except above eyes; width nearly uniform ex- 
cept for slight constriction in front of antennal 
insertion; depth about 1!4% times greater at base 
than apex. Head densely punctate; frontal fovea 
deep; short, vague, longitudinal median carina ex- 
tended backward from fovea. Prothorax above 
densely, coarsely punctate, punctures partially con- 
fused but surface not rugose, some fine punc- 
tures on interstices; interstitial microsculpture 
transversely stretched; pronotum with short, 
vague, median longitudinal carina in apical % 
and with shallow transverse impression in apical 
4, otherwise without distinctive tubercles or im- 
pressions; pronotum not angulate laterally, slightly 
wider at middle than at base; rostral canal deep. 
Elytron with strial punctures deep, each puncture 
with slender white scale; intervals finely tuber- 
culate; intervals 3, 5, 7, and 9 costate; costae 
of intervals 3 and 5 each twice interrupted and 
with middle segment strongly raised; costa of inter- 
val 7 feebly interrupted behind humerus; glabrous 
area at apex with few, scattered, setiform scales, 
dense scales of sutural interval extended nearly 
to apex of glabrous area. Venter of pterothorax 
densely, coarsely punctate; abdomen finely punc- 
tate, last visible abdominal sternum densely, 
coarsely punctate throughout. Legs with femora 
bidentate ventrally, distal tooth small; distal comb 
of tibia orange. Female genitalia with spiculum 
ventrale and spermatheca as in Figs. 1-2. 


All 4 specimens are virtually uniform 
in size and structure; measurements are 
based on the holotype. 


Discussion.—I take pleasure in nam- 
ing this species for D. A. Boucher, 
collector of the type-material. 
According to D. H. Janzen (in litt.), 

. if [recall correctly (these weevils) 
were living inside of the pods (of 
Hymenaea courbaril) and had drilled out 
four different seeds. On the other hand, 


C6 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


0 


Female genitalia of Conotrachelus boucheri Whitehead; line scales in mm. Fig. 1, 


spiculum ventrale; fig. 2, spermatheca. 


if I also recall correctly, these were in 
pods that had been exited by Rhino- 
chenus and it may well be that they 
come into the pod after the Rhinochenus 
have left.’’ Obviously, more field inves- 
tigation is needed to work out exact 
ecological interactions among Conotra- 
chelus boucheri, the holedriller species 
of Rhinochenus, and Hymenaea cour- 
baril. Preliminary evidence, however, 
does suggest that C. boucheri is a second- 
ary seed predator dependent on Rhino- 
- chenus for access to its food supply. 
Also according to Janzen (in litt.), 
the weevils were collected ‘“within two 
miles of Rincon. . . from Hymenaea 
trees growing along what is commonly 
known as the Holdridge Ridge Trail 
which is roughly one mile south of the 
Rincon Airport and about 20 to S50 
meters in elevation. It is on red lateritic 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


hilly soil.’ There is presently some doubt 
that this population of Hymenaea is 
conspecific with H. courbaril, but Janzen 
thinks the Osa and Guanacaste popula- 
tions are continuous. 


Microscapus hymenaeae Lima 


This species was described from speci- 
mens collected in fruits of Hymenaea 
sp. from 2 localities in Brazil: Can- 
tareira, Sao Paulo and Santa Luzia, 
Minas Gerais. The original description 
and photographs (Lima 1950) and asso- 
ciation with Hymenaea are adequate for 
reliable species identification. I examined 
50 adult specimens from Central and 
South America, and found no important 
variation in external features or in female 
or male genitalia. Records cited below 
include the first report of this species 
in Central America. 


39 


Distribution records. — PANAMA. 
Cocle: Rio Hato, 8.1.1971, D. Wilson, 
from pods of Hymenaea courbaril (1 
male). VENEZUELA. Barinas: Bar- 
rancas, 21.X.1973, D. H. Janzen, from 
pods of Hymenaea courbaril (3 adults). 
BOLIVIA. Beni: Rurrenabaque, 
X11.1921, W. M. Mann, from *‘Paco 
bean’? (Hymenaea sp.) (37 adults, 11 
immatures). BRAZIL. Goias: Ilha do 
Bananal, 21.1X.1926, E. G. Holt, from 
‘fruit of Jatoba’? (Hymenaea sp.) (9 
adults). 


References Cited 


Champion, G. C. 1904. Biologia Centrali-Ameri- 
cana, Insecta, Coleoptera, Curculionidae 4: 
313-440. 

Fiedler, K. 1940. Monograph of the South American 
weevils of the genus Conotrachelus. British 
Museum, London. 365 p. 

Lima, A. M. da C. 1950. Sobre alguns gor- 
gulhos da subfamilia Cryptorhynchinae (Col. 
Curculionidae). Dusenia, Curitiba 1: 377-384 
+ 1 plate. 

Silva, A. G. d’A e, et al. 1968. Quarto catalogo 
dos insetos que vivem nas plantas do Brazil. 
Seus parasitos e predadores. Ministerio da 
Agricultura, Rio de Janeiro. Volume 2: part 
1, 622 + xx p; part 2, 265 p. 


Euceraphis punctipennis (Zetterstedt), the Fourth Aphid 
Species with Four Cornicles (Hemiptera: 


Homoptera: Aphididae) 


Louise M. Russell 


Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIII, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA, 


Beltsville, Maryland 20705 


ABSTRACT 


An adult Euceraphis punctipennis (Zetterstedt) is the first winged specimen and the 
first species of the aphid subfamily Drepanosiphinae to be recorded as having 4 cornicles. 


A winged adult female of Euceraphis 
punctipennis (Zetterstedt) with the un- 
usual characteristic of 4 cornicles was 
found among aphids collected from 
Betula sp., Mesa, Colorado, 8 June 
1967, by the late F. C. Hottes. The 
aphid is typical in other structures, and 
it is the only one of the 80 individuals 
of the lot that exhibits a duplication of 
cornicles. 

The adventitious cornicles are located 
dorsally near the body margin on ab- 
dominal segment VI, almost directly pos- 
terior to the typical pair on segment 
V. The posterior cornicles are virtually 
the same shape and length as the anterior 
ones, but in diameter are approximately 


14 narrower than the anterior ones. 
The structure of the supplementary 
cornicles appears to be similar to that 
of the typical pair. 

This example of punctipennis is the 
third winged aphid and the first species 
of the Drepanosiphinae recorded as 
having supplementary cornicles. Pre- 
viously wingless examples of 3 species 
of the Aphidinae have been reported 
to have more than the 1 typical pair. 
In most of these insects, however, the 
size of the additional cornicles does not 
equal that of the typical ones in any 
dimension. 

Zirnits (Fol. Zool. Hydrobiol. 2: 1-3, 
1930) observed branched cornicles in 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


2 apterae of Megoura viciae Buckton. 
In 1 specimen both cornicles were 
branched, while in the other only 1 
cornicle was branched but it was greatly 
enlarged basally. Remaudiére (Rev. 
Path. Veg. et Entomol. France 43: 
31-35, 1964) examined adults and 
nymphs of Aphis sp. with supernumerary 
cornicles. Of his 19 specimens, 8 had 
an additional cornicle on one-half of the 
body, 3 had an extra pair, and 8 
individuals had only the usual pair. 
Leonard (Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 
68: 320, 1967) reported 1 adult aptera 
from several examples of Aphis sambuci- 
foliae Fitch with an adventitious pair 
of cornicles. And Medler and Ghosh 
(Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 69: 366, 
1967) noted a winged example of Macro- 
siphum with 3 cornicles. As illustrated, 
the additional cornicle is nearly as large 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


as the normal ones but all cornicles 
are broken in this specimen. 

An alate adult female of Aphis sam- 
bucifoliae with an adventitious cornicle 
was collected as the prey of Asilidae, 
Baltimore County, Maryland, July 1973, 
by A. G. Scarbrough. The additional 
cornicle is located dorsally on abdominal 
segment VI distinctly mesad of the 
typical one on segment V. It is one- 
half the length of the typical cornicle 
and its greatest diameter is two-fifths 
the least diameter of the normal cornicle. 
It is slightly more slender basally than 
distally, whereas the normal ones are 
widest basally and gradually taper dis- 
tally. The operculum of the abnormal 
cornicle appears to be replaced by a 
conical invagination as described by 
Remaudiére for some of his specimens 
of Aphis. 


41 


ACADEMY AFFAIRS 


BOARD OF MANAGERS MEETING NOTES 


Oct. 17, 1974 


The 627th meeting of the Board of 
Managers was called to order at 8:00 
p.m. by President Stern in the Con- 
ference Room of the Lee Building at 
FASEB. 


Announcements.—Dr. Stern intro- 
duced the new officers and delegates. 
The minutes of the previous meeting 
were approved as corrected. 


Treasurer.—Dr. Rupp reported that 
$750 had been received since the last 
report, and that with more dues com- 
ing in, the Academy should be operat- 


ing in the black. He mentioned that — 


the Geological Society of Washington 
had withdrawn its request for office 
services from the Academy. 


Policy Planning-Ways and Means.— 
In the absence of Dr. A. Forziati, 
Dr. Stern announced that, as a result 
of the recent overall study of the 
Academy, the Committee on Policy 
Planning had been combined with the 
Ways and Means Committee for the 
current year and that it was now com- 
posed of past presidents. 


Public Information and Bicentennial 
Committees.—Dr. Stern also -an- 
nounced that Dr. J. W. Rowen is the 
current chairman of the Public Informa- 
tion Committee, and that Dr. R. J. 
Seeger is working on plans for the Bi- 
centennial which are to be presented 
to the Board in the Spring for discus- 
sion and approval. 


Meetings.—Dr. Stern announced for 
Dr. Honig that the meeting arrangements 
for the current year are all confirmed. 


42 


Encouragement of Science Talent.— 
Mrs. Elaine Shafrin reported that the 
Committee on Encouragement of Sci- 
ence Talent was very actively seeking 
100 judges for the Saturday Science 
Fairs. She mentioned that if judging 
permits, the papers presented by stu- 
dents at the 2-day program, Junior 
Sciences and Humanities, at the West- 
inghouse Christmas convention, and the 
6 papers to be presented by high school 
students at the Junior Academy will 
be published. [See Features, this issue. 
—Ed.] 


Nominating Committee.—Dr. Irving 
submitted and moved adoption of the 
following nominees for the 1975-76 
session. This motion was seconded by 
W. Sulzbacher and approved by the 
Board: 

President-elect 

Florence Forziati 

Patricia Sarvella 


Secretary 
John Honig 
Alfred Weissler 


Treasurer 
Richard Foote 
Norman Griffiths 


Managers-at-Large 
Jean Boek 
Howard Noyes 
Charles Rader 
Leland Whitelock 


Membership Committee.—The mem- 
bership committee submitted Alan S. 
Whelihan as nominee for fellowship; 
Shou Shan Fan, representing the Ameri- 
can Society of Civil Engineers; Irving 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


H. Malitson representing the Optical 
Society of America; and Dick Duffey 
representing the American Nuclear So- 
ciety. In Dr. Forziati’s absence Dr. 
Irving made a motion that all be ac- 
cepted as fellows. All four were ac- 
cepted unanimously by the Board. 


Symposium Committee.—Dr. Stern 
announced that Dr. A. Forziati was 
Chairman of the Symposium scheduled 
for March 13-14, 1975 on ‘Energy 
Recovery From Solid Wastes.”’ 


Journal.—Dr. Foote reported that 
the June issue of the Journal was out 
and that the cost was what had been 
anticipated. 


Scientific Achievement Awards .— Dr. 
Kelso Morris reported that the Scien- 
tific Achievement Awards program was 
underway, and that he had been ap- 
proached by a member of the Dept. of 
Psychology at George Mason University 
regarding the absence of an award in 
scientific achievement in Psychology. 
This was discussed by the Board. Since 
there was no delegate representing an 
affiliate society, the matter was sent to 
the Policy Planning Committee for con- 
sideration. 


New Business.— Dr. Abraham made a 
motion, seconded by Mary Louise Rob- 
bins, that the Academy consider for 
adoption a plan to organize the affiliates 
into divisions as a possible solution to 
some of the Academy’s problems. The 
tentative divisional structure consists of: 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


1) Physical Sciences and Math, 2) Bio- 
logical and Medical Societies, 3) En- 
gineering, 4) Historical and Geographi- 
cal. The concern was to improve com- 
munications by forming divisions which 
could bring more societies together, 
thereby cutting down the number of 
individual meetings. It would also serve 
to broaden the disciplines by providing 
interdisciplinary programs through joint 
symposia, panel discussions, etc. Other 
thoughts were 1) that the membership 
of the Academy would increase since 
each division would have its own set 
of officers, and 2) that funding might 
be more easily obtained. Dr. Rupp made 
an amendment to the motion, namely 
that the name be changed from Biologi- 
cal and Medical Societies to Life Sci- 
ences, which should include the His- 
torical and Geographical Societies. 
There was considerable discussion on 
the proposed divisional structure. It was 
decided that a letter should be prepared, 
outlining the divisional structure and the 
advantages of such a grouping, to go 
to the Presidents of affiliated societies 
with a copy to the delegate asking them 
to discuss the plan with their societies 
and report the reactions. 

Dr. Robbins discussed the plans for a 
joint WAS-Affiliate program, Public 
Understanding of Science, and the pos- 
sible use of educational television. She 
indicated that a statement had been 
drafted and will be sent with the letter 
on the divisional structure to Presidents 
of all affiliated societies with a copy to 
delegates.— Mary Aldridge, Secretary. 


43 


NEW FELLOWS 


Joseph F. Coates, Office of Technology 
Assessment, U.S. Congress, in recog- 
nition of his original contributions to the 
application of scientific knowledge and 
thought through the technological assess- 
ment of programs designed to ameliorate 
problems of human existence. Sponsors: 
Jean K. Boek, Alfred Weissler, Mary 
Louise Robbins. 


Anne R. Headley, Senior Professional 
Consultant, Federal Power Commission, 
in recognition of her scientific approach 


to solutions of problems of human 
existence, resulting from her study of and 
continuing intensive interest in the 
biological and social sciences. Sponsors: 
Jean K. Boek, Alphonse F. Forziati, 
Mary Louise Robbins. 


Marian M. Schnepfe, Chemist, U.S. 
Geological Survey, in recognition of her 
work in analytical chemistry, especially 
applied to rocks and minerals. Sponsors: 
Charles R. Naeser, Reuben E. Wood, 
Theodore P. Perros. 


ANNUAL REPORT OF THE TREASURER FOR 1974 


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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


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Hoar cmners é. Auditorium rental (dinners reimbursed) ..........5...0cccccecccencs 2,774.83 
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pecments for Geological Society (reimbursed) ..............0ccccccccceeccseaes 780.29 
I SUERTINEICTISESC OL) Cc = os ie te cle’ oe eiaiomss Ges ays Slee ad sk veges ns we he wae 349.24 
eee science falent (Jr. ACaGeMy) :.... 6.60.6 eed cece eens cccectcds $ 112.00 
er eerrcinuMrsed DY AAAS) . 2.6.26... ce. ccc ccc cece ct ee tees ubeecsuaecdaecaee 910.44 
Contributions 
en ecgee acevl). cemmbursed by AAAS ...... 000.022. c ccc ce cat ecewesnsenees 360.00 
ee otc Ne ee eee eg 4 esas WO eC als baa caw ele dad es 300.00 
ne a LECT) eA a 200.00 
ec ee cle Suesta Viewer ate eene sd wles wo edidedves 473.63 
EE EE IRE TET TEST SEPMEIIS: . oo. he oc ess ole clais'sjn ne elec dwicddinne s Cente wma eaeeine $35,331.50 


Capital Assets and Cash 


The capital assets are in mutual funds the total market value of which on Dec. 30, 1974 was $43,810.85. 
The total market value for past years is as follows: 


mrce. 31, 1969..... . $69,892.48 Bees Sh. P97 i 26s $71,027.22 Dec ssl i973 jos $57,852.01 
mee. 51, 1970... -. 85,311.54 Dees st 1972. ee 73,835.59 


The savings account at Perpetual Building Association plus interest is $755.76. Personal property, 
mostly in office equipment and furniture, is valued at an estimated $2000. The checking account balance 
on Dec. 31, 1974 was $7,313.41. 


WASHINGTON JUNIOR ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Checking Account Savings Account 
eameeras Or 02/31/73 ...........%. $2,552.08 Guaranteed Security Certificate 
| 404 (3 be 219.00 Purchased W/GS oe nce) : 0 sede se gee $2000.00 
—_—— FMIGKESH tOrdate Maras. cies eee se 857.10 
LoS oo) = 2,771.08 —_—- 
ARO pacar ea eA a a $2857.10 
MMISRPIESCINEMIS | .................- 826.42 
eeeamee as OF 12/31/74 ............. 1,944.66 Nelson W. Rupp, Treasurer 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 45 


OBITUARIES 


Raymond Davis 


Raymond Davis passed away, in his 
sleep, in the early morning of September 
5, 1974, at his home in Washington, 
DC. He was internationally known for 
his contributions to photographic sen- 
sitometry, colorimetry, and micropho- 
tography. 

Mr. Davis joined the National Bureau 
of Standards as a photographer in 1911. 
His camera and his insatiable curiosity 
led him to all corners of the Bureau. 
By 1917, he was constructing equipment 
for the evaluation of photographic ma- 
terials. He was an ingenious designer 
and often made his own apparatus. He 
insisted on ‘‘doing it right the first 
time’’ and when a job was done, he 
could stand back, puff his pipe, watch 
the thing work, and enjoy the fulfill- 
ing sense of satisfaction that only the 
true craftsman knows. His time-lapse 
motion picture camera, with automatic 
exposure control, photographed the con- 


struction of the Industrial Building at the - 


National Bureau of Standards, in 1918. 

By that time he had measured spectro- 
sensitivities, the resolving powers, and 
several sensitometric characteristics of 
all available American negative ma- 
terials. The Photographic Technology 
Section was established in 1920, with 
Davis as Chief. In the mid-20’s, there 
was a clear need for a standard light 
source for sensitometry, so that labora- 
tories could compare sensitometric eval- 
uations on a uniform basis. Davis and 
K. S. Gibson proposed the use of the 
spectral distribution of daylight obtained 
by an incandescent source and a liquid 
filter. This proposal was adopted not 
only nationally, but internationally, for 
sensitometry. In 1931, Davis-Gibson 
filters were adopted by the International 
Commission on illumination for use in 
photometry and colorimetry. The Davis- 
Gibson filters are used to this day 
in national and international standard 
light sources. 

Davis introduced the concept of ‘‘cor- 


46 


related color temperature’’ to charac- 
terize light sources of nearly Planckian 
spectral distribution. This is an indis- 
pensable concept in modern photog- 
raphy, lighting practice, and colorimetry. 

He made important contributions to 
every aspect of photographic sensitom- 
etry. His sensitometer was designed to 
provide continuous exposures or inter- 
mittent exposures of various kinds. He 
discovered that an intermittent exposure 
can sometimes have a greater pho- 


| 


tographic effect than a continuous ex- | 


posure of equivalent energy, and that the 
effect might be positive in the toe of 
the characteristic curve and negative in 
the shoulder, or vice versa. His sensito- 
metric processing machine was the model 
for such machines built for various 
government agencies, for many decades. 


For the sensitometric evaluation of — 


photographic papers, he devised a 
method of finding the slope of the ef- 
fective straight line portion of the char- 
acteristic curve, which he called ‘‘bar- 
gamma’’. This technique has been widely 
used in paper sensitometry and was in- 
corporated in American National Stand- 
ards. The historic research of Carroll 
and Hubbard, elucidating the process 
of emulsion making, was assisted by 
Davis’s work in sensitometry. 

Until 1932, The Federal Bureau of 
Investigation relied on NBS for scien- 
tific support and Davis was an important 
contributor to their investigations. He 
invented an ingenious technique for 
photographing the entire cylindrical sur- 
face of a bullet, as a continuous 
photograph on a single film. He invented 
a remarkably unusual application of the 
photographic process to the recovery 
of information from documents charred 
beyond legibility by fire. He assisted 
in the scientific analysis of evidence 
related to the kidnapping of Col. Charles 
A. Lindbergh’s son. 

In the early 30’s, NBS did a lot of 
research on microfilm for archival pur- 
poses. Congress enacted a law permitting 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


the destruction of federal records on 
paper, if they had been copied on film 
meeting the standards of NBS. Davis 
played a role in that research and was 
responsible for implementing the law. 
Existing national and international stand- 
ards for archival microfilm practice are 
largely based on that early work. In 
1940, he designed a resolution chart for 
routine testing of microcopying systems. 
Although I made minor modifications in 
1963, the basic pattern is still in use. 
It is specified in national and international 
standards and has been issued in larger 
numbers than any other resolution test 
chart in the world. Davis and Durand 
experimented with the relationship of 
legibility to resolving power and, on the 
basis of their results, I derived the qual- 
ity index and legibility equation used 
throughout the microfilm industry today. 

Early in World War II, Davis formu- 
lated a paint for marking military ve- 
hicles so that the markings would have 
minimum contrast in aerial photographs, 
but be legible on the ground. He de- 
vised photographic templates used in lo- 
_ cating submarines, a technique for meas- 
uring dimensional changes of aerial films, 
and an instrument for recording aircraft 
engine temperatures. 

To meet the demand on the short 
supply of handmade reticles and pre- 
cisely graduated circles for navigational 
and fire control instruments, Chester 
Pope and Mr. Davis developed a new 
light-sensitive resist for producing such 
scales on glass by photoetching. No 
one dreamed at that time that these 
techniques were to be further developed 
and be widely used in the production 
of microminiature electronic compo- 
nents. In Davis’s lifetime this technology 
‘paved the way to man’s exploration of 
the moon, instrumental exploration of 
the planets, revolutionary advances in 
aircraft instrumentation, and the de- 
velopment of inexpensive miniature 
computers. 

There was hardly a federal or mili- 
tary agency that did not call upon him 
for expert advice or assistance. He or- 
ganized and served for many years as 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 


Chairman of the Federal Photographic 
and Photolithographic Specifications 
Committee. 

He helped establish the standardiza- 
tion of photographic materials and proc- 
esses in the American Standards Asso- 
ciation, predecessor of the American 
National Standards Institute. From 1938 
until his retirement in 1958, he was 
very active in nearly every facet of na- 
tional photographic standardization and 
continued to participate after he retired, 
as a representative of the Optical So- 
ciety of America. He represented the 
United States at the meetings of the 
Photography and Cinematography Com- 
mittees of the International Organization 
for Standardization, in England, in 1958. 
He was a soft-spoken and modest man, 
but stood courageously for doing things 
right and argued persistently and per- 
suasively for his position on standards. 

He was a Charter Member and the 
first President of the Society of Pho- 
tographic Engineers, founded on January 
21, 1947. This society merged with the 
Technical Section of the Photographic 
Society of America in 1957, to become 
the Society of Photographic Scientists 
and Engineers. He was one of the first 
two Fellows of SPSE, along with John 
A. Maurer, having been awarded that 
honor in 1954. He was a Fellow of the 
Optical Society of America, Fellow of 
the Washington Academy of Sciences, 
Fellow of the American Physical So- 
ciety, and member of the American 
Chemical Society, International Con- 
gress of Photography, Philosophical So- 
ciety of Washington, Chemical Society 
of Washington, and one of the founders 
of the Federal Photographers. He was 
a Registered Engineer in the District 
of Columbia. 

He thoroughly enjoyed his work, char- 
acterizing it as ‘‘playing around, while 
Uncle Sam provides the toys.’’ That 
attitude toward long hours of hard work 
elevated him from photographer to inter- 
nationally recognized scientist and en- 
gineer. His joyful interplay with nature 
made life more enjoyable for all who 
knew him. Happily, his contributions are 


47 


so widespread and lasting that we will 
often be reminded of him. 

He leaves his wife, Dr. Marion Mac- 
lean Davis, a well recognized authority 
on the chemistry of acids and bases 
in inert solvents, who is retired from 
NBS but continues writing and editing 
in her field; two sons, Dr. Raymond 
Davis, Jr., who heads the Brookhaven 
Solar Neutrino Observatory, and Col. 
Warren P. Davis, U.S. Army, retired, 
Senior Research Scientist of the Ameri- 
can Institutes for Research; eight grand- 
children, all of whom are in or planning 
careers in science; and two great grand- 


children. 
—-C. S. McCamy 
Macbeth Color and Photometry Div. 
Kollmorgen Corp. 
Newburgh, N.Y. 


S. M. Dohanian 
(Addendum) 


In acknowledging receipt of a reprint 
of my obituary of S. M. Dohanian 
(J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 64(3): 250-251) 
which I sent to the Commonwealth 


Institute of Entomology in London,- 


the Librarian volunteered the informa- 
tion that they have found in their catalogs 
an additional 7 papers published by 
Dohanian. The references are as follows: 


1915. 


1920. 


1927. 


1927 


1937. 


es 


1944. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 1, 1975 _ 


Notes on the external anatomy of © 


Boreus brumalis Fitch. Psyche 
22: 120-123. 

Mosquito control in a southern 
army camp. J. Econ. Entomol. 
13: 350-354. 


Preliminary experiments for the © 
control of certain European © 
vine-moths by fumigating with — 


Cyanogas calcium cyanide. 
Psyche 34: 146-156. 

Some of the important forest 
insects of western Europe. J. 
Econ. Entomol. 20: 310-316. 


The search in the American tropics 
for beneficial insects for intro- 


duction into Puerto Rico. Agri- 
cultural Notes. Puerto Rico 
Exp. Sta. No. 76, 7 pp. (multi- 
graphed). 


The importation of coccinellid | 


enemies of diaspine scales into 
Puerto Rico. J. Agr. Univ. 
Puerto Rico 2/: 243-247. 


Control of the filbert worm and © 


filbert weevil by orchard sanita- 


tion. J. Econ. Entomol. 37: | 


764-766. 


— Mortimer D. Leonard 
Collaborator, Agr. Res. Serv., 
2480 16th St. N.W. 
Washington, D.C. 20009 


USDA | 


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| 


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wa W.23 
VOLUME 65 
| Number 2 
Journal of the JUNE, 1975 


WASHINGTON 
ACADEMY .- SCIENCES 


issued Quarterly 
at Washington, D.C. 


Directory Issue 


eee 


CONTENTS 


Directory, 1975 
JES ETONE DRI iy ddiig Re aero oa arg Ce re 
Meaceronvol the ACAGEMY «ci. od ccs hice ea ecu es 
Mem IRTORI CAI CTS TIME 555 a0. ie, scars 6 soakars a6. Cbs e a mae ww dao oes 


Eemusi@n Ene ACADEMY .. 2... 6. cc ee ke te cee ewes 


SEP 23 1975 


Libk ae - 
LIBRAMILS 


eee ee 


Washington Academy of Sciences 


EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE 


President 
George Abraham 


President-Elect 
F’orence H. Forziati 


Secretary 
Alfred Weissler 


Treasurer 
Richard H. Foote 


Members at Large 
Norman H. C. Griffiths 
Patricia Sarvella 


BOARD OF MANAGERS 


All delegates of affiliated 
Societies (see facing page) 


EDITOR 
Richard H. Foote 
EDITORIAL ASSISTANT 
Elizabeth Ostaggi 


ACADEMY OFFICE 


9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda) 


Washington, D.C. 20014 
Telephone (301) 530-1402 


Founded in 1898 


The Journal 


This journal, the official organ of the Washington Aca- 
demy of Sciences, publishes historical articles, critical 
reviews, and scholarly scientific articles; proceedings 
of meetings of the Academy and its Board of Mana- 
gers; and other items of interest to Academy members. 
The Journal appears four times a year (March, June, 
September, and December) — the September issue 
contains a directory of the Academy membership. 


Subscription Rates 


Members, fellows, and patrons in good standing re- 
ceive the Journal without charge. Subscriptions are 


available on a calendar year basis only, payable in ad- — 
vance. Payment must be made in U.S. currency at the ~ 


following rates: 


U.S. and Canada 7.22222 $14.00 

Foreign. ...:: 2.2.40 See 15.00 

Single Copy Price ss. eee 4.00 
Single-copy price for Vol. 64, No. 2 (June, 1974) 
is $7.50. 
Back Issues 


Obtainable from the Academy office (address at bot- — 


tom of opposite column): Proceedings: Vols. 1-13 


(1898-1910) Index: To Vols. 1-13 of the Proceedings — 
and Vols. 1-40 of the Journal Journal: Back issues, | 
volumes, and sets (Vols. 1-62, 1911-1972) and all cur- ~ 


rent issues. 


Claims for Missing Numbers 


Claims will not be allowed if received more than 60 


days after date of mailing plus time normally required — 
for postal delivery and claim. No claims will be al- — 
lowed because of failure to notify the Academy of a — 


change in address. 


Change of Address 


Address changes should be sent promptly to the Aca- 


demy office. Such notification should show both old | 


and new addresses and zip number. 


Published quarterly in March, June, September, and December of each year by the 
Washington Academy of Sciences, 9650 Rockville Pike, Washington, D.C. Second class 
postage paid at Washington, D.C. and additional mailing offices. 


DELEGATES TO THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES, 
REPRESENTING THE LOCAL AFFILIATED SOCIETIES 


TRIE UM TEGETITIOVOTS .50.506 0c Ga wc oben cen cece ecaccnwactececuucuver Ralph P. Hudson 
at OSOCICLY Of WaSHINGTON .. .. 0... ci cence scence cence ceccceccucnceons Jean K. Boek 
i IRESEOUEDEN Vg Ls coe Sc cc es wt wa weve cd yew Cewulenstacc¥wvceee ees Inactive 
IE OM ASMIMGTON sick eee eee ect cee eesecseessucesnnes Robert F. Cozzens 
TIGRE OT WASHINGTON 2... 6 i ec eee cutee cencccaves Maynard Ramsay 
TO cio Gi cu als «alone oe wk antares Sivas W'S be we Se vw eles Alexander Wetmore 
I OSU TTS 7 rr Charles Milton 
nee ee PStrict Of Columbia . ...... 2... 5. ccs eee cece ieee ecw encueececs Inactive 
EI EG 21S ese rg fe ig, oa) gata alee kia te ace. d Widkw Scn'e-e psa SA Sales Se Paul H. Oehser 
I RETRO ASTEITIOCON |. 0. io cla cc kc te alse cence sive weseteeesccncen® Conrad B. Link 
SES PE ee Alfred A. Weiner 
IE ENCES 5 oc) es 5 edocs be wale Sa Sela d ove a eeu cae dense George Abraham 
eee eeiical and Electronics Engineers ...... 22.0... 0.0. c eee eens George Abraham 
Pr mererar Mechanical ENPINGErs . 2.5... 5... 2. ee ec cece cen eeccecees Michael Chi 
rem SEICLY OF WaASIINPTION ... 2... 555.2 we ee ee et eee ee cece eas James H. Turner 
en ei mmsENAICTODIOIOPY .... 66. 6 a oc ae wie cies lew eee deen cede cesses news Thomas Cook 
Society Os TEM TT | TPS BP TE7e) gi an ge ee H.P. Demuth 
CO 2 2 SLE TE OMS SETS ae Shou Shan Fan 
Seciery sar expenmental Biology and Medicine ....................02 ccc ccccccvccess Donald Flick 
aE IOUT es oo Sh cio wis Ss Cube aieitre viv bie owe waded wie Glen W. Wensch 
International Association for Dental Research ................ 2.0. c cece eens Norman H.C. Griffiths 
Paemeam institute of Acronautics and Astronautics ...5..............0 cece eee c eee Franklin Ross 
NE OE ee IEE EE SOE LCE), Soe Sh) 3d EGS wie wl Slice aw be ae hae ie Moe A. James Wagner 
ee IEG VV ASTIITIPTON | 2 c=... 5 is sos cee ccs co veccecusceecscercess Robert J. Argauer 
en EE SEMCEICA) 2605 os. sls oo Sn So a Ree od va wee eee eden sees Gerald J. Franz 
NEES MPEP ERIE Sethe 8s yeh Ok etl, Sed ioe), aa Ged eh ieioh « bshelencea bay Dick Duffy 
NIE SREISNGTEIS ES oc Se ape pe ee AS William Sulzbacher 
en CME EEEERECE oT For i tee cal oe ae ee eee ad eeddo cdee mes Inactive 
RELI OTE ge) Pde ON et hak akin a daklocheie ee <> Delegate not appointed 
ee NeEEE ET ENCE © IUD) 55.5 5p! ood ae caee 2 ee wl a ols Heard wees ea dee aw wea ewes Inactive 
ae rmerssmeiation Of Physics Teachers ...................00cccecceescecces Bernard B. Watson 
I IRE gS 57 Fo. 2 Sos Sn SS vei tie cw SC Sine nome we dle a gee Ronald W. Weynant 
een GF Plant Physiologists .......:.5..05 00. 0cc cc cese cues eaennnees Walter Shropshire 
i omanmceaions esearch Council............-.-0ce-ec cc ec ce eee ccccccences John G. Honig 
aI ORR MRT Rl Bee ef ir ev fe 2g cysings. oo Shajeioiaais « Gc-0 wleiece sigiaisld wows Inactive 
American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical 
a ULE BS LESLIE S/S obo et A SRS ie et che A ee) ea Carl H. Cotterill 
EEE ENE STA ONICES Ge Le an ric ss ele oie aie 2 ov oh cialaic es bic s cae scesescese John A. Eisele 
EE EL ITOTNGE ABNCEICA, © 56 oo bn bc spss ccc auis vcle co wibcice be adeencsecesed es Patrick Hayes 
DE EO CIENNEN C5 ee AE Ae. Ae Pog eh dal ok td Sad sswle sas Miloslav Recheigl, Jr. 
STIR TEES SOE TAP ION oct ree oie Feijen wis oe vere oie eee dics stad avaseacees John O’Hare 


Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective societies. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 49 


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THE DIRECTORY OF THE ACADEMY FOR 1975 


Foreword 
The present, 50th issue of the Academy’s direc- 
tory is again this year issued as part of the June 
number of the Journal. As in previous years, 
the alphabetical listing is based on a postcard 
questionnaire sent to the Academy membership. 
Members were asked to update the data concerning 


address and membership in affiliated societies by 
June 30, 1975. In cases in which cards were not 
received by that date, the address appears as it was 
used during 1974, and the remaining data were 
taken from the directory for 1974. Corrections 
should be called to the attention of the Academy 
office. 


Code for Affiliated Societies, and Society Officers 


1 The Philosophical Society of Washington (1898) 
President: 
Vice-President: 
Secretary: 
Delegate: Ralph P. Hudson 

2 Anthropological Society of Washington (1898) 
President: 

D.C. 20016 

_ President-elect: 
Secretary: 
Delegate: 


Ralph P. Hudson, NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234 
Robert J. Rubin, 3308 McKinley St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 
Patricia S. Willis, 2824 W. George Mason Rd., Falls Church, Va. 22042 


Philleo Nash, Dept. of Anthropology, American Univ., Washington, 


Dr. Robert Humphrey, George Washington University, Washington, D.C. 
Marjorie G. Whiting, 407 Sth St., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20003 
Jean K. Boek, Dir., Div. of Special Studies, National Graduate Univ., 


3408 Wisconsin Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 


3 Biological Society of Washington (1898) 
President: 
Secretary: 


4 Chemical Society of Washington (1898) 
President: 
President-elect: 
Secretary: 
Delegate: Robert F. Cozzens 

5 Entomological Society of Washington (1898) 
President: 
President-elect: 
Secretary: 
Delegate: 


6 National Geographic Society (1898) 


Joseph Rosewater, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 
Richard C. Banks, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 


Robert F. Cozzens, George Mason Univ., Fairfax, Va. 22030 
David Venezky, Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 
John Moody, NBS, Chemistry, Bldg. 222, Washington, D.C. 20234 


H. Ivan Rainwater, Rm. 635, Federal Bldg., Hyattsville, Md. 20782 
George C. Steyskal, W-617, NMNH, Washington, D.C. 20560 
Theodore J. Spilman, W-605, NMNH, Washington, D.C. 20560 
Maynard J. Ramsay, Rm. 660, Federal Bldg., Hyattsville, Md. 20782 


President: Melvin M. Payne, 17th & M Sts., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 
Vice-President 
& Secretary: Robert E. Doyle, 17th & M Sts., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 
Delegate: Alexander Wetmore, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 
7 Geological Society of Washington (1898) 

President: Joshua I. Tracey, Jr., U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va. 22092 
Vice-President: Dallas L. Peck, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va. 22092 
Secretary: Penelope M. Hanshaw, U.S. Geological Survey, Reston, Va. 22092 
Delegate: Charles Milton, Dept. of Geology, George Washington Univ., Wash- 


ington, D.C. 20005 
Medical Society of the District of Columbia (1898) 


President: William S. McCune 
President-elect: Frank S. Bacon 
Secretary: Thomas Sadler 
Delegate: Not appointed 


. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 51 


10 


11 


12 


13 


14 


15 


16 


17 


52 


Columbia Historical Society (1899) 


President: Hemer T. Rosenberger, 1307 New Hampshire Ave., N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20036 
Vice-President: Wilcomb E. Washburn, Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 
Secretary: Edward F. Gerber, 1233 30th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 
Delegate: Paul H. Oehser, National Geographic Society, Washington, D.C. 20036 
Botanical Society of Washington (1902) 
President: Robert W. Read, Dept. of Botany, Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 
20560 
Vice-President: Beryl Simpson, Dept. of Botany, Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 
20560 
Secretary: Dr. Joseph Higgins, Plant Variety Protection Office, USDA, Center 
Bldg., 6525 Belcrest Rd., Hyattsville, Md. 20782 
Delegate: Conrad B. Link, Dept. of Horticulture, Univ. of Md., College Park, 
Md. 20742 
Society of American Foresters, Washington Section (1904) 
Chairman: Arthur V. Smyth, 1625 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
Secretary: George Cheek, 1619 Mass. Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
Delegate: Alfred A. Weiner, 3202 South Agriculture Bldg., Washington, D.C. 
20250 
Washington Society of Engineers (1907) 
President: George Abraham, 3107 Westover Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020 
Vice-President: Joseph H. Seelinger, 5367 28th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 
Secretary: John W. Lanier, 12902 Sturbridge Rd., Weedbridge, Va. 22191 
Delegate: George Abraham 
Institute of Electrical & Electronics Engineers, Washington Section (1912) 
Chairman: Alvin Reiner, 11243 Bybee St., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 
Vice-Chairman: J. J. Kelleher, 3717 King Arthur Rd., Annandale, Va. 22032 
Secretary: Herst Gerlach, 4521 Cheltenham Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20014 
Delegate: George Abraham, 3107 Westover Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020 


American Society of Mechanical Engineers, Washington Section (1923) 
Chairman: William Walston, Dept. of Mechanical Engineering, Univ. of Md., 
College Park, Md. 20742 
Vice-Chairman: D. Howard, Postal Service I & D Inst., 7900 Wisconsin Ave., N.W. 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 


Secretary: Charles Miller, 12013 Hamden Ct., Oakton, Va. 22124 
Delegate: Michael Chi, Dept. of Civil Eng. Catholic Univ., Washington, D.C. 
20064 
Helminthological Society of Washington (1923) 
President: Robert S. Isenstein, Animal Parasitology Inst., BARC-East, Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 


Vice-President: A. Morgan Golden, Nematology Lab., Plant Protection Inst., BARC- 
West, Beltsville, Md. 20705 


Secretary: William R. Nickle, Nematology Lab., Plant Protection Inst., BARC- 
West, Beltsville, Md. 20705 
Delegate: James H. Turner, Division of Res. Grants, NIH, Westwood Bldg., 


Rm. A25, Bethesda, Md. 20014 
American Society for Microbiology, Washington Branch (1923) 


President: Joseph C. Olson, Jr., Food & Drug Adm., Washington, D.C. 

Vice-President: Charles H. Zierdt, NIH, Bethesda, Md. 20014 

Secretary: June W. Bradlaw, Food & Drug Adm., Washington, D.C. 

Delegate: Thomas Cook, Dept. of Microbiology, Univ. of Md., College Park, 
Md. 20742 


Society of American Military Engineers, Washington Post (1927) 
President: Brig. Gen. William Wray, USA, Office Chief of Engineers, Forrestal 
Bldg., Washington, D.C. 20314 
Vice-President: Cdr. Theodore J. Wojnar, USCG, Coast Guard Hdgtrs., Attn: (ECV), 
Washington, D.C. 20590 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


18 


19 


21 


22 


25 


Secretary: Lt. Col. Ancil R. Pressley, USA, Office Chief of Engineers, Forrestal 
Bldg., Washington, D.C. 20314 
Delegate: Cdr. Hal P. Demuth, 4025 Pinebrook Rd., Alexandria, Va. 22310 


American Society of Civil Engineers, National Capital Section (1942) 
President: Homer D. Willis, Engineering Div., Office of Chief Engineer, Corps of 
Engineers, Washington, D.C. 20314 
Vice-President: L. G. Byrd, Wilbur Smith & Assoc., 2921 Telestar Ctr., Falls Church, 


Va. 22042 
Secretary: Robert D. Wolff, Planning Div., Office of Chief Engineers, Corps of 
Engineers, Washington, D.C. 20314 
Delegate: Shou-shan Fan, 2313 Glenallan Ave., #202, Silver Spring, Md. 20906 
Society for Experimental Biology & Medicine, D.C. Section (1952) 
President: Benjamin H. Bruckner, Natl. Inst. for Occupational Safety & Health, 


Rm. 3-44, Park Bldg., 5600 Fishers Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 
President-elect: Leon Prosky, 9521 Cherry Oak Ct., Burke, Va. 22015 


Secretary: Juan Penhos, 5402 Surrey St., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 
Delegate: Donald Flick, 930 S. 19th St., Arlington, Va. 22015 
American Society for Metals, Washington Chapter (1953) 
Chairman: Klaus M. Zwilsky, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Washington, D.C. 
20545 


Vice-chairman: Alan H. Rosenstein, Air Force Office of Scientific Res., 1400 Wilson 
Blvd., Arlington, Va. 22209 


Secretary: Joseph Malz, NASA, Code RWM, Washington, D.C. 20546 
Delegate: Glen W. Wensch, U.S. Atomic Energy Comm., Washington, D.C. 
20545 
International Association for Dental Research, Washington Section (1953) 
President: Robert W. Longton, Dental Sciences Dept., Naval Med. Res. Inst., 


NNMC, Bethesda, Md. 20014 
Vice-President: Nelson W. Rupp, Dental Res., NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234 


Secretary: Donald W. Turner, Dental Sciences Dept., Naval Med. Res. Inst., 
NNMC, Bethesda, Md. 20014 
Delegate: Norman H. C. Griffiths, 3100 20th St., N.E., Washington, D.C. 20018 
American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics, National Capital Section (1953) 
President: Philip R. Compton, 6303 Mori St., McLean, Va. 22101 


Vice-President: Jack Suddreth, Code RLC/Aero. Prop. Div., NASA Headguarters, 
Washington, D.C. 20546 


Secretary: Paul M. Burris, The Boeing Co., 955 L’Enfant Plaza North, S.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20024 
Delegate: Franklin J. Ross, Deputy for Rqmts., Off. Asst. Sec. of A.F., The 


Pentagon, Rm. 4E973, Washington, D.C. 20330 


American Meteorological Society, D.C. Chapter (1954) 
Chairman: John S. Perry, National Academy of Science, Rm. JH426C, 2101 
Constitution Ave., Washington, D.C. 20418 
Vice-Chairman: James L. Rasmussen, US Gate Project Office. NOAA/EM6, 6010 
Executive Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20852 


Secretary: H. Michael Mogil, NOAA/NWS/EWB/W117X1, 1426 Gramax Bldg., 
8060 13th St., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 
Delegate: A. James Wagner, NOAA/MWS/NMC Wel, 604 World Weather Bldg., 


5200 Auth Rd., Washington, D.C. 20233 


Insecticide Society of Washington (1959) 
President: Richard Back, Union Carbide, 1730 Pa. Ave., N.E., Suite 1250, 
Washington, D.C. 20006 
President-elect: John W. Kennedy, APHIS, USDA, Hyattsville, Md. 


Secretary: John Neal, ARS, ARC, Bldg. 467, Beltsville, Md. 20705 

Delegate: Robert Argauer, ARS, ARC, Bldg. 309, Beltsville, Md. 20705 
Acoustical Society of America (1959) 

Chairman: John A. Molino, Sound Section, NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234 

Vice-chairman: Charles T. Molloy, 2400 Claremont Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22043 

Secretary: William K. Blake, Naval Ship R&D Ctr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 

Delegate: Gerald J. Franz, 9638 Culver St., Kensington, Md. 20795 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 53 


26 


27 


29 


31 


32 


33 


35 


American Nuclear Society, Washington Section (1960) 


President: Parks Honeywell, NUS Corp., Rockville, Md. 20850 
Vice-President: Andre Gage, Potomac Electric Power, 1900 Pa. Ave., Washington, D.C. 
Secretary: Peter F. Wiggins, US Naval Academy, Annapolis, Md. 
Delegate: Dick Duffey, Nuclear Engineering, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 
20742 
Institute of Food Technologists, Washington Section (1961) 
Chairman: Tannous Khalil, Giant Foods, Inc., Landover, Md. 20785 
Vice-chairman: Florian C. Majorack, Food & Drug Adm., Washington, D.C. 20204 
Secretary: Glenn V. Brauner, National Canners Assoc., Washington, D.C. 20036 
Delegate: William Sulzbacher, 8527 Clarkson Dr., Fulton, Md. 20759 
American Ceramic Society, Baltimore-Washington Section (1962) 
Chairman: W. T. Bakker, General Refractories Co., P.O. Box 1673, Baltimore, 
Md. 21203 


Chairman-elect: L. Biller, Glidden-Dirkee Div., SCM Corp., 3901 Hawkins Point Rd., 
Baltimore, Md. 21226 


Secretary: Edwin E. Childs, J. E. Baker Co., 232 E. Market St., York, Pa. 17405 
Delegate: None appointed 
Electrochemical Society, National Capital Section (1963) 
Chairman: Judith Ambrus, Naval Surface Weapons Ctr., White Oak, Md. 20910 
Vice-chairman: John B. O’Sullivan, 7724 Glenister Dr., Springfield, Va. 22152 
Secretary: John Ambrose, NBS, Washington, D.C. 20234 
Delegate: None appointed 
Washington History of Science Club (1965) 
Chairman: Richard G. Hewlett, Atomic Energy Comm. 
Vice-chairman: Deborah Warner, Smithsonian Institution 
Secretary: Dean C. Allard 
Delegate: None appointed 
American Association of Physics Teachers, Chesapeake Section (1965) 
President: William Logan, D.C. Teachers College, 2565 Georgia Ave., Washington, 
D.C. 20001 


Vice-President: Eugenie V. Mielczarek, George Mason Univ., 4400 University Dr., 
Fairfax, Va. 22030 


Secretary: John B. Newman, Towson State College, Towson, Md. 21204 
Delegate: Bernard B. Watson, 6108 London Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20034 
Optical Society of America, National Capital Section (1966) 
President: Ronald W. Waynant, 13101 Claxton Dr., Laurel, Md. 20811 
Vice-President: James Heaney, NASA/GODDARD, Code 722, Greenbelt, Md. 20771 
Secretary: Marilyn Dodge, NBS, A251, Physics, Washington, D.C. 20234 
Delegate: Ronald W. Waynant 
American Society of Plant Physiologists, Washington Section (1966) 
President: Bert Drake, RBL, 12441 Parklawn Dr., Rockville, Md. 20852 
Vice-President: Aref Abdul-baki, USDA, Post Harvest Physiology Lab., Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 
Secretary: Dale Blevins, Dept. of Botany, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 20742 
Delegate: W. Shropshire, Jr., RBL, 12441 Parklawn Dr., Rockville, Md. 20852 
Washington Operations Research Council (1966) 
President: Frank T. Trippi, 5809 Clermont Dr., Alexandria, Va. 22310 
President-elect: Craig C. Sherbrooke, 8513 Kingsgate Rd., Potomac, Md. 20854 
Secretary: Neal D. Glassman, 1 Paddock Ct., Potomac, Md. 20854 
Delegate: John G. Honig 
Instrument Society of America, Washington Section (1967) 
President: Francis C. Quinn 
President-elect: John I. Peterson 
Secretary: Frank L. Carou 
Delegate: None appointed 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


37 


American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical & Petroleum Engineers (1968) 


Chairman: Carl H. Cotterill, US Bureau of Mines, 2401 E St., N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20241 
Vice-chairman: Herbert R. Babitzke, US Bureau of Mines, 2401 E St., N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20241 
Secretary: John R. Babey, US Dept. of Interior, 18th & F St., N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20240 
Delegate: Carl H. Cotterill 
National Capital Astronomers (1969) 
President: John A. Eisele, 3310 Curtis Dr., No. 202, Hillcrest Heights, Md. 20023 
Vice-President: Henning E. Leidecker, 4811 Avondale Rd., Washington, D.C. 20018 
Secretary: Estelle Finkle, 939 26th St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 
Delegate: John A. Eisele, 3310 Curtis Dr., #202, Hillcrest Heights, Md. 20023 
Maryland-District of Columbia and Virginia Section of Mathematical Assoc. of America (1971) 
Chairman: Geraldine A. Coon, Goucher College, Baltimore, Md. 
Secretary: John Smith, George Mason University, Fairfax, Va. 
Delegate: Patrick Hayes, Analytic Services Inc., 5613 Leesburg Pike, Falls 


Church, Va. 22041 
D.C. Institute of Chemists (1973) 


President: Kelso B. Morris, 1448 Leegate Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20012 
President-elect: Leo Schubert, 8521 Beech Tree Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 
Secretary: Fred D. Ordway, 2816 Fall Jax Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22042 
Delegate: Miloslav Rechcigl, Jr., 1703 Mark Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 

The D.C. Psychological Association (1975) 
President: Margaret Ives, 302 Rucker Place, Alexandria, Va. 22301 
President-elect: Lee Gurel, 2723 Woodley Place, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20003 
Secretary: John F. Borriello, 4620 North Park Ave., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 
Delegate: John J. O’Hare, 301 G St., S.W., #824, Washington, D.C. 20024 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 55 


Alphabetical List of Members 


M = Member; F = Fellow; E = Emeritus member. Numbers in parentheses refer to numerical code in 


foregoing list of affiliated societies. 


A 


AARONSON, STUART A., 1006 Harriman St., 


Great Falls, Va. 22066 (F) 

ABRAHAM, GEORGE, M.S., Ph.D., 3107 West- 
over Dr., S.E., Washington, D.C. 20020 (F-1, 
6, 12, 13, 31, 32) 

ACHTER, M. R., Code 6413, U.S. Naval Research 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-20, 36) 
ADAMS, CAROLINE L., 242 North Granada St., 

Arlington, Va. 22203 (E-10) 

ADAMS, ELLIOT Q., 1889 Edgewood Dr., 
Twinsberg, Ohio 44087 (E) 

ADLER, SANFORD C., 14238 Briarwood Terr., 
Rockville, Md. 20853 (M-1) 

ADLER, VICTOR E., 8540 Pineway Ct., Laurel, 
Md. 20810 (F-5, 24) 

ADRIAN, FRANK J., Applied Phys. Lab., Johns 
Hopkins Univ., 8621 Georgia Ave., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20910 (F) 

AFFRONTI, LEWIS, Ph.D., Dept. of Microbiology, 
George Washington Univ. Sch. of Med., 2300 
Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-16) 

AHEARN, ARTHUR J., Ph.D., 9621 East Bexhill 
Dr., Box 294, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-1) 

AKERS, ROBERT P., Ph.D., 9912 Silverbrook Dr., 
Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-6) 

ALBUS, JAMES S., 6100 Westchester, 1406, Col- 
lege Park, Md. 20740 (F) 

ALDRICH, JOHN W., Ph.D., 6324 Lakeview Dr., 
Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F-3) 

ALDRIDGE, MARY H., Ph.D., Dept. of Chemistry, 
American University, Washington, D.C. 20016 
(4) 

ALEXANDER, ALLEN L., Ph.D., 4216 Sleepy 
Hollow Rd., Annandale, Va. 22003 (F-4) 
ALGERMISSEN, S. T., 5079 Holmes PI., Boulder, 

Colo. 80303 (F) 

ALLEN, ANTON M., D.V.M., Ph.D., 11718 Lake- 
way Dr., Manassas, Va. 22110 (F) 

ALLEN, J. FRANCES, 7507 23rd Ave., Hyattsville, 
Md. 20783 (F-3) 

ALTER, HARVEY, Ph.D., Nat. Center for 
Resource Recovery, Inc., 1211 Connecticut 
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (F) 

ALTMAN, PHILIP L., 9206 Ewing Dr., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (M) 

ANDERSON, FRENCH, Nat. Heart & Lung Inst., 
Nat. Inst. Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 
ANDERSON, JOHN D., Jr., Dept. Aerospace 
Eng., Univ. Maryland, College Park, Md. 

20742 (F) 

ANDERSON, MYRON S., Ph.D., 1433 Manchester 
Lane, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-4) 

ANDERSON, WENDELL L., Rural Rt. 4, Box 4172, 
La Plata, Md. 20646 (F-4) 

ANDREWS, JOHN S., Sc.D., Animal Parasitology 
Inst., Agr. Res. Cent. (E), USDA, Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 (F-15) 


ANDRUS, EDWARD D., 1600 Rhode Island Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20036 (M-7, 25) 
APOSTOLOU, Mrs. GEORGIA L., 1001 Rockville 

Pike, #424, Rockville, Md. 20852 (M) 
APPEL, WILLIAM D., B.S., 12416 Regent Ave., 
N.E., Albuquerque, N. Mex. 87112 (E-6) 
APSTEIN, MAURICE, Ph.D., 4611 Maple Ave., 

Bethesda, Md., 20014 (F-13) 
ARGAUER, ROBERT J., Ph.D., 4208 Everett St., 
Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-24) 
ARMSTRONG, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 1401 Dale Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1, 4, 6) 
ARONSON, C. J., 3401 Oberon St., Kensington, 
Md. 20910 (M-1, 32) 
ARSEM, COLLINS, 10821 Admirals Way, 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (M-1, 6, 13) 

ASTIN, ALLEN V., Ph.D., 5008 Battery Lane, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-1, 13, 22, 31, 35) 
AXILROD, BENJAMIN M., 9915 Marquette Dr., 

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-1) 


BAKER, ARTHUR A., Ph.D., 5201 Westwood Dr., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-7) 

BAKER, DONALD J., 9913 Edgehill La., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (M) 

BAKER, LOUIS C.W., Ph.D., Dept of Chemistry, 
Georgetown University, N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20007 (F-4) 

BALLARD, LOWELL D., 722 So. Colonial, Ster- 
ling, Va. 22170 (F-1, 13, 32) 

BARBROW, LOUIS E., Natl. Bureau of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 13, 32) 

BARGER, GERALD L., Ph.D., 209 W. Bayou Dr., 
Dickinson, Tex. 77539 (F-23) 

BARNHART, CLYDE S., Sr., Rt. 4, Box 207A, 
Athens, Ohio 45701 (F) 

BARRETT, MORRIS K., Mrs., Ph.D. 5528 
Johnson Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-6) 
BEACH, LOUIS A., Ph.D., 1200 Waynewood 

Bivd., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-1, 6) 

BEACHAM, LOWRIE M., Jr., 2600 Valley Drive, 
Alexandria. Va. 22302 

BEASLEY, EDWARD E., Ph.D., Physics Dept., 
Gallaudet College, Washington, D.C. 20002 
(F-1) 

BECKER, EDWIN D., Inst. Arthritis & Metabolic 
Dis., National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 (F-4) 

BECKETT, CHARLES W., 5624 Madison St., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 4) 

BECKMANN, ROBERT B., Dean, College of 
Engineering, Univ. of Md., College Park, Md. 
20742 (F-4) 

BEDINI, SILVIO A., L.L.D., 4803 47th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


BEKKEDAHL, NORMAN, Ph.D., 405 N. Ocean 
Bivd., Apt. 1001, Pompano Beach, Fla. 33062 
(E-4, 6) 

BELLANTI, JOSEPH A., 4105 Dunnell 
Kensington, Md. 20795 (F) 

BELSHEIM, ROBERT, Ph.D., Code 8403, U.S. 
Naval Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 
20375 (F-1, 12, 14) 

BENDER, MAURICE, Ph.D., CHP Council, 
Spokane Co., Suite 201, N507 Howard St., 
Spokane, Wash. 99201 (F) 

BENESCH, WILLIAM, Inst. for Molecular Physics, 
Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 
(F-1, 32) 

BENJAMIN, C. R., Ph.D., IPD/ARS, USDA, Rm. 
459, Federal Bg., Hyattsville, Md. 20782 
(F-10) 

BENNETT, BRADLEY F., 3301 Macomb St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1) 

BENNETT, MARTIN TOSCAN, 3700 Mt. Vernon 
Ave., Rm. 605, Alexandria, Va. 22305 (F-4) 

BENNETT, WILLARD H., Dept. of Physics, North 
Carolina State Univ., Raleigh, N.C. 27207 (F) 

BENSON, WILLIAM, 2101 Constitution Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20418 (M) 

BERCH, JULIAN, 2100 Washington Ave., #10B, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E-4) 

BERGMANN, OTTO, Ph.D., Dept. 


La., 


Physics, 


George Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 


20006 (F-1) 

BERLINER, ROBERT W., M.D., Dean, Yale 
School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. 06510 
(F) 

BERNSTEIN, BERNARD, 11404 Roven Dr., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (M-25) 

BERNTON, HARRY S., 4000 Cathedral Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-8) 

BEROZA, MORTON, Ph.D., Agr. Res. Center (E), 
Rm. 312 So. Lab., USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 
(F-4, 5, 19, 24) 

BERRY, Miss ARNEICE O., 5108 Hayes St., 
N.E., Washington, D.C. 20019 (M) 

BESTUL, ALDEN B., 9400 Overlea Ave., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20850 (F-1, 6) 

BICKLEY, WILLIAM E., Ph.D., Dept. of 
Entomology, Univ. of Md., College Park, 
Md. 20742 (F-5, 24) 

BIRD, H. R., Animal Science Bg., Univ. of Wis- 
consin, Madison, Wisc. 53706 (F) 

BIRKS, L. S., Code 6480, U.S. Naval Research 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F) 

BLAKE, DORIS H., M.A., 3416 Glebe Rd., North 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-5) 

BLANK, CHARLES A., Ph.D., 5110 Sideburn Rad., 

Fairfax, Va. 22030 (M-6) 

BLOCK, STANLEY, Ph.D., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 
BLOOM, FLOYD E., M.D., Div. Spec. Mental 
Health Res., NIH, St. Elizabeth’s Hospital, 

Washington, D.C. 20032 (F) 

BLUNT, ROBERT F., 5411 Moorland Lane, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

BOEK, JEAN K., Ph.D., Natl. Graduate Univ., 3408 
Wisconsin Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20016 (F-2) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


BOGLE, ROBERT W., Code 53071, Naval Res. 
Lab., 991 Skylark Dr., La Jolla, Cal. 92037 
(F) 

BONDELID, ROLLON O., Ph.D., Code 6610, Naval 
Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F) 

BOTBOL, J. M., 2301 November Lane, Reston, 
Va. 22901 (F) 

BOWLES, ROMALD E., Ph.D., 2105 Sondra Ct., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-6, 22) 

BOWMAN, PAUL W., 3114 5th St. N., Arlington, 
Va. 22201 (F) 

BOWMAN, THOMAS E., Ph.D., Dept. Invert. 
Zoology, Smithsonian Inst., Washington, 
D.C. 20560 (F-3) 

BOZEMAN, F. MARILYN, Div. Virol., Bur. 
Biologics, FDA, 8800 Rockville Pike, Rock- 
ville, Md. 20014 (F-16, 19) 

BRANCATO, E. L., Code 4004, U.S. Naval Re- 
search Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F) 
BRANDEWIE, DONALD F., 6811 Field Master Dr., 

Springfield Va. 22153 (F) 


BRAUER, G. M., Dental Research A-123 Polymer, 
Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-4, 21) 

BRECKENRIDGE, R. G., 19252 Kinzie St., North- 
ridge, Cal. 91324 (F) 

BREGER, IRVING A., Ph.D., 212 Hillsboro Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4, 6, 7) 

BREIT, GREGORY, 73 Allenhurst Rd., Buffalo, 
N.Y. 14214 (E-13) 

BRENNER, ABNER, Ph.D., 7204 Pomander Lane, 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 6, 29) 

BRIER, GLENN W., M.A., Dept. Atmosph. Sci., 
Colorado State Univ., Ft. Collins, Colo. 
80523 (F-23) 

BROADHURST, MARTIN G., 504 Blandford St., 
Apt. 4, Rockville, Md. 20850 (F) 

BROMBACHER, W. G., 6914 Ridgewood Ave., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E-1) 

BROOKS, RICHARD C., 6221 N. 12th St., Arling- 
ton, Va. 22205 (M-13) 

BROWN, EDWARD H., U.S. Office of Education, 
P.O. Box 8204, Washington, D.C. 20024 (M) 

BROWN, THOMAS, McP., S. 25th St. and Army- 
Navy Dr., Arlington, Va. 22206 (F) 

BRUBAKER, GERALD L., Ph.D., 1123 Powhatan 
St., Alexandria, Va. 22314 (M-4) 

BRUCK, STEPHEN D., Ph.D., 1113 Pipestem PI., 
Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-4, 6) 

BRYAN, MILTON M., 3322 N. Glebe Rd., Arling- 
ton, Va. 22207 (M-11) 

BURAS, EDMUND M., Jr., Gillette Research Inst., 
1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 
(F-4) 

BURGER, ROBERT J., (USAF Ret.) 5307 Chester- 
field Dr., Camp Springs, Md. 20031 (F-22) 
BURK, DEAN, 4719 44th St., N.W., Washington, 

D.C. 20016 (E) 

BURKE, KENNETH S., 310 Souder Rd., Bruns- 
wick, Md. 21716 (M-25) 

BURNETT, H. C., Metallurgy Division, Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F) 


57 


BYERLY, PERRY, Ph.D., 5340 Broadway Terr., 
#401, Oakland, Calif. 94618 (F) 

BYERLY, T. C., 6-J Ridge Rd., Greenbelt, Md. 
20770 (F) 


C 


CALDWELL, FRANK R., 4821 47th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 6) 

CALDWELL, JOSEPH M., 2732 N. Kensington St., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-18) 

CALLAHAM, ROBERT Z., Ph.D., 3720 Acosta 
Rd., Fairfax, Va. 22030 (F-11) 

CAMERON, JOSEPH M., A345 Physics Bldg., 
Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1) 

CAMPAGNONE, ALFRED F., P.E., 9321 Warfield 
Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F) 

CAMPBELL, F. L., Ph.D., 2475 Virginia Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-5, 24) 

CANNON, E. W., 5 Vassar Cir., Glen Echo, 
Md. 20768 (F) 

CARHART, HOMER W., Ph.D., 6919 Lee Place, 
Annandale, Va. 22003 (F-1, 6) 

CARNS, HARRY R., Bg. 001, Agr. Res. Cent. (W.), 
USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M-33) 

CARROLL, Miss KAREN E., 11565 N. Shore Dr., 
#21A, Reston, Va. 22090 (M) 

CARROLL, WILLIAM R., 4802 Broad Brook Dr., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

CARTER, HUGH, 2039 New Hampshire Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (F) 

CASH, EDITH K., 505 Clubhouse Rd., Bingham- 
ton, N.Y. 13903 (E-10) 

CASSEL, JAMES M., 12205 Sunnyview Dr., 
Germantown, Md. 20767 (F-4, 20) 

CATHEY, HENRY M., 1817 Bart Dr., Silver Spring, 
Md. 20904 (F-33) 

CHALKLEY, HAROLD W., Ph.D., 4609 Highland 
Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-19) 

CHANEY, JAMES G., Rt. 2, Box 232L, Sotterley 
Hghts., Hollywood, Md. 20636 (M) 

CHAPLIN, HARVEY P., Jr., 1561 Forest Villa 
Lane, McLean, Va. 22101 (F-22) 

CHAPLINE, W. R., 4225 43rd St., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-6, 10, 11) 

CHEEK, CONRAD H., Ph.D., Code 8330, U.S. 
Naval Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 
20390 (F-4) 

CHEZEM, CURTIS G., Ph.D., Middle South Serv., 
Inc., P.O. Box 61000, New Orleans, La. 
70161 (F-26) 

CHI, MICHAEL, Sc.D., Civil-Mech. Engr. Dept., 
Catholic Univ., Washington, D.C. 20064 
(F-14) 

CHOPER, JORDAN J., 121 Northway, Greenbelt, 
Md. 20770 (M) 

CHRISTIAN, ERMINE A., 7802 Lakecrest Dr., 
Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (M-1, 25) 

CHURCH, LLOYD E., D. D. S., Ph.D., 8218 Wis- 
consin Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1, 6, 19) 


N.W., 


58 


CLAIRE, CHARLES N., 4403 14th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-1, 12) 

CLARK, FRANCIS E., ARS Research Lab., P.O. 
Box E, Ft. Collins, Colo. 80521 (F) 

CLARK, GEORGE E., Jr., 4022 North Stafford 
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F) 

CLARK, JOAN ROBINSON, Ph.D., U.S. Geologi- 
cal Survey, 345 Middlefield Rd., Menlo Park, 
Calif. 94025 (F-7) 

CLARK, KENNETH G., Ph.D., 4816 46th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-4) 

CLAUSEN, CURTIS P., 2541 Northwest 58th, 
Oklahoma City, Okla. 73113 (E-5) 

CLEMENT, J. REID, Jr., 3410 Weltham St., 
Suitland, Md. 20023 (F) 

CLEVEN, GALE W., Ph.D., 201 Ocean Ave., 
#1109B, Santa Monica, Cal. 90402 (F-1, 6) 

COATES, JOSEPH F., 3712 Military Rd., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (F) 

COLE, KENNETH S., Ph.D., National Institutes 
of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1) 

COLLINS, HENRY B., Dept. Anthropology, 
Smithsonian Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560 
(E-2) 

COLWELL, R. R., Ph.D., Dept. of Microbiology, 
Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 
(F-6, 16) 

COMPTON, W. DALE, Sci. Res. Staff, Ford. 
Motor Co., P.O. Box 1603, Dearborn, 
Mich. 48121 (F) 

CONGER, PAUL S., M.S., U.S. National Museum, 
Washington, D.C. 20560 (E) 

CONNORS, PHILIP I., 12909 Two Farm Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F) 

CONRATH, BARNEY J., 18201 Queen Elizabeth 
Dr., Olney, Md. 20832 (F) 

COOK, HAROLD T., Ph.D., 1513 Londontown Ct., 
Edgewater, Md. 21037 (E-10) 

COOK, RICHARD K., Ph.D., Room B-214-Physics, 
Natl. Bur. Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1, 25) 

COOLIDGE, HAROLD J., 38 Standley St., Bev- 
erly, Me. 01915 (E-6) 

COONS, GEORGE H., Ph.D., 7415 Oak Lane, 
Chevy Chase, Md., 20015 (E-10) 

COOPER, KENNETH W., Dept. Biol., Univ. of 
California, Riverside, Cal. 92502 (F) 

CORLIS, EDITH L. R., Mrs., 2955 Albemarle 
St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F) 

CORLISS, JOHN O., Ph.D., 9512 E. Stanhope 
Rd., Kensington, Md. 20795 (F) 

CORLISS, JOSEPH J., 6618 Bellview Dr., Colum- 
bia, Md. 21046 (M) ; 

CORNFIELD, JEROME, G.W.V. Biostat-Ctr., 7979 
Old Georgetown Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20014 
(F) 

CORY, ERNEST N., Ph.D., 4710 College Ave., 
College Park, Md. 20742 (E-5, 24) 

COSTRELL, LOUIS, Chief 241. 02, Natl. Bureau 
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

COX, EDWIN L., NAL, Room 013, Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 (F-6) 

COYLE, THOMAS D., National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


CRAFT, CHARLES C., % Boyden Lab., Univ. 
Calif. Riverside, P.O. Box 112, Riverside, 
Cal. 92502 (F) 

CRAFTON, PAUL A., P.O. Box 454, Rockville, Md. 
20850 (F) 

CRAGOE, CARL S., 6206 Singleton Place, 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-1) 

CRANE, LANGDON T., Jr., 7103 Oakridge Ave., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6) 

CREITZ, E. CARROLL, 10145 Cedar Lane, Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (E-32) 

CROSSETTE, GEORGE, 4217 Glenrose St., Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (M-6, 9, 11, 17) 

CULBERT, DOROTHY K., 812 A St., S.E., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20003 (M-6) 

CULLINAN, FRANK P., 4402 Beechwood Rad., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-6, 10, 33) 

CURRAN, HAROLD R., Ph.D., 3431 N. Randolph 
St., Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-16) 

CURRIE, CHARLES L., S.J., President, Wheeling 
College, Wheeling, W.Va. 26003 (F-4) 

CURTIS, ROGER, W., Ph.D., 6308 Valley Rd., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

CURTISS, LEON F., 1690 Bayshore Drive, Eng- 
lewood, Fla. 33533 (E-1) 

CUTHILL, JOHN R., Ph.D., 12700 River Rad., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-20, 36) 


D 


DARRACOTT, HALVOR T., M.S., 3325 Mansfield 
Rd., Falls Church, Va. 22041 (F-13) 

DAVENPORT, JAMES C., Virginia State College, 
Petersburg, Va. 23803 (M) 

DAVIS, MARION MACLEAN, Ph.D., 5315 29th 
St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-4, 6) 
DAVIS, R. F., Ph.D., Chairman, Dept. of Dairy 
Science, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, 

Md. 20742 (F) 

DAVISSON, JAMES W., Ph.D., 400 Cedar Ridge 
Dr., Oxon Hill, Md. 20021 (F-1) 

DAWSON, ROY C., 7002 Chansory Lane, Hyatts- 
ville, Md. 20782 (E-16) 

DAWSON, VICTOR C. D., 7002 Chancery La., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-6, 14, 20, 22) 

DE BERRY, MARIAN B., 3608 17th St., N.E., 
Washington, D.C. 20018 (M) 

DEDRICK, R. L., Bg. 13, Rm. 3W13, NIH, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1) 

DE PUE, LELAND A., Ph.D., Code 2303.3, Naval 
Res. Lab., Washington D.C. 20390 (F-6, 20) 

DE VOE, JAMES R., 17708 Parkridge Dr., Gai- 
thersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4, 6) 

DE WIT, ROLAND, Metallurgy Division, Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1, 6, 36) 

DELANEY, WAYNE R., The Wyoming Apts., 111, 
2022 Columbia Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20009 (M-6, 20, 22, 32) 

DEMUTH, HAL P., MSEE, 4025 Pinebrook Rd., 
Alexandria, Va. 22310 (F-13, 17) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


DENNINGHAM, ROBERT L., 321 Terrell Ave., For- 
est Heights, Md. 20021 (M) 

DENNIS, BERNARD K., 915 Country Club Dr., 
Vienna, Va. 22180 (F) 

DESLATTES, RICHARD D., Jr., 610 Aster Blvd., 
Rockville, Md. 20850 (F) 

DETWILER, ROBERT H., 5027 N. 30th St., 
Arlington, Va. 22210 (M) 

DETWILER, SAMUEL B., Jr., 631 S. Walter Reed 
Dr., Arlington, Va. 22204 (F-4, 39) 

DEVIN, CHARLES, 629 Blossom Dr., Rockville, 
Md. 20850 (M) 

DI MARZIO, E. A., 14205 Parkvale Rd., Rockville, 
Md. 20853 (F) 

DIACHOK, OREST I., 3826 Regency Pkwy., Apt. 
T-2, Suitland, Md. 20023 (M) 

DIAMOND, J. J., Physics B-150, Natl. Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 4, 
6, 28) 

DICKSON, GEORGE, M.A., Dental and Med. 
Materials Sect., National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-6, 21) 

DIEHL, WALTER S., 4501 Lowell St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-22) 

DIEHL, WILLIAM W., Ph.D., 1512 N. McKinley Rd., 
Arlington, Va. 22205 (E-3, 10) 

DIGGES, THOMAS G., 3900 N. Albemarie St., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-20) 

DIMOCK, DAVID A., 4800 Barwyn House Rad., 
#114, College Park, Md. 20740 (M) 

DOCTOR, NORMAN, B.S., 3814 Littleton St., 
Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F-13) 

DOFT, FLOYD S., Ph.D., 6416 Garnett Drive, Ken- 
wood, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6, 19) 

DONNERT, HERMANN J., Ph.D., Dept. Nuclear 
Engineering, Ward Hall, Kansas State Univ., 
Manhattan, Kans. 66506 (F) 

DONOVICK, RICHARD, 16405 Alden Ave., Gai- 
thersburg, Md. 20760 (F) 

DOUGLAS, CHARLES A., Sec. 221.12, Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1, 6, 32) 

DOUGLAS, THOMAS B., Ph.D., 3031 Sedgwick 
St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-4) 
DRAEGER, R. HAROLD, M.D., 1201 N. 4th Ave., 

Tucson, Ariz. 85705 (E-32) 

DRECHSLER, CHARLES, Ph.D., 6915 Oakridge 
Rd., University Park (Hyattsville), Md. 20782 
(E-6, 10) 

DU PONT, JOHN ELEUTHERE, P.O. Box 281, 
Newtown Square, Pennsylvania 19073 (M) 

DUPRE, ELSIE, Mrs., Code 5536A, Optical Sci. 
Div., Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 
(F-32) 

DUFFEY, DICK, Nuclear Engineering, Univ. 
Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F-26) 
DUNCOMBE, RAYNOR L., Ph.D., 2335 King PI., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 (F-1, 22) 
DUNKUM, WILLIAM W., M.S., 402 Tennessee 

Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22305 (F) 

DUNN, JOSEPH P., 14721 Flintstone La., Silver 

Spring, Md. 20904 (M) 


59 


DUNNING, K. L., Ph.D., Code 6603D, Naval Res. 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-1) 

DURIE, EDYTHE G., 5011 Larno Dr., Alexandria, 
Va. 22310 (M) 


E 


EASTER, DONALD, Inst. Gas Technology, 1825 
K St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006 (M) 
ECKHARDT, E. A., Ph.D., 840 12th St., Oakmont, 

Allegheny County, Pa. 15139 (E-1) 

EDDY, BERNICE E., Ph.D., 6722 Selkirk Ct., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-6, 16, 19) 

EDERER, DAVID L., Far U V Physics Section, 
Rm. A251, Bldg. 221, National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-32) 

EDMUNDS, LAFE R., Ph.D., 6003 Leewood Dr., 
Alexandria, Va. 22310 (F-5) 

EGOLF, DONALD R., 3600 Cambridge Court, 
Upper Marlboro, Md. 20870 (F-10) 

EISELE, JOHN A., 3310 Curtis Dr., #202, Hillcrest 
Hghts., Md. 20023 (F) 

EISENBERG, PHILLIP, C.E., 6402 Tulsa Lane, 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (M-14) 

EISENHART, CHURCHILL, Ph.D., Met B-268, 
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-1, 30) 

EL-BISI], HAMED M., Ph.D., 1017 Aponi Rad., 
Vienna, Va. 22180 (M-16) 

ELBOURN, ROBERT D., 8221 Hamilton Spring 
Ct., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 13) 

ELLINGER, GEORGE A., 739 Kelly Dr., York, Pa. 
17404 (E-6) 

ELLIOT, F. E., 7507 Grange Hall Dr., Oxon Hill, 
Md. 20022 (E) 

EMERSON, K. C., Ph.D., 2704 Kensington St., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (F-3, 5) 

EMERSON, W. B., 415 Aspen St., N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20012 (E) 

ENNIS, W. B., Jr., Ph.D., 4011 College Hgts. Dr., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F) 

ETZEL, HOWARD W., 7304 River Hill Rd., Oxon 
Hill, Md. 20021 (F-6) 

EWERS, JOHN C., 4432 26th Rd., N., Arlington, 
Va. 22207 (F-2) 


FAHEY, JOSEPH J., U.S. Geological Survey, 
Washington, D.C. 20242 (E-4, 6, 7) 

FALLON, ROBERT, 8251 Toll House Rd., Annan- 
dale, Va. 22003 (F) 

FAN, SHOU SHAN, 2313 Glenallen Ave., Apt. 202, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (F-18) 

FARROW, RICHARD P., National Canners Assn., 
1950 6th St., Berkeley, Calif. 94710 (F-4, 6, 27) 

FATTAH, JERRY, 20008 S. Eads St., #902, 
Arlington, Va. 22202 (M) 

FAULKNER, JOSEPH A., 1007 Sligo Creek Pky., 
Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (F-6) 


FAUST, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 9907 Capitol View 
Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-7, 31) 

FAUST, WALTER L., Ph.D., U.S. Naval Res. Lab., 
Code 6510, Washington, D.C. 20375 (M) 

FAUST, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 5907 Walnut St., 
Temple Hills, Md. 20031 (F-1, 6) 

FEARN, JAMES E., Ph.D., Materials and Com- 
posites Sect., Natl. Bureau of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 


_ FELDMAN, SAMUEL, NKF Engr. Associates, 


Inc., 8720 Georgia Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 
20910 (M-25) 

FELSHER, MURRAY, Sr. Staff Geologist, Off. 
Techn. Anal. Enforcement, EPA, Washington, 
D.C. 20460 (M-1, 7) 

FERGUSON, ROBERT E., 6307 Tone Dr., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20034 (F-4) 

FERRELL, RICHARD A., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics, 
University of Maryland, College Park, Md. 
20742 (F-6, 31) 

FIELD, WILLIAM D., Dept. Entomology, Smithso- 
nian Institution, Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-5) 

FIFE, EARL H., Jr., Box 122, Royal Oak, Md. 
21662 (E) 

FILIPESCU, NICOLAE, M.D., Ph.D., 4836 S. 7th. 
St., Arlington, Va. 22204 (F) 

FINE, HARRY, 808 Hyde Ct., Silver Spring, Md. 
20902 (F) 

FINLEY, HAROLD E., Ph.D., Head, Dept. of 
Zoology, Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 
20001 (F-3) 

FINN, EDWARD J., 4211 Oakridge La., Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (F) 

FLETCHER, DONALD G., Natl. Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Rm. A102, Bldg. 231-IND, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (M-4) 

FLETCHER, HEWITT G., Jr., Box 217, Sandy 
Spring, Md. 20860 (F) 

FLICK, DONALD F., 930 19th St. So., Arlington, 
Va. 22202 (F-19) 

FLINN, DAVID R., Code 6130 Naval Res. Lab., 
Washington, D.C. 20375 (F) 

FLORIN, ROLAND E., Ph.D., Polymer Stab. and 
React. Sect., B-324, National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 

FLYNN, DANIEL R., 17500 Ira Court, Derwood, 
Md. 20855 (F) 

FLYNN, JOSEPH H., Ph.D., 5309 Iroquois Rd., 
Bethesda, Md. 20016 (F-4) 

FONER, S. N., Applied Physics Lab., The Johns 
Hopkins University, 11100 Johns Hopkins 
Rd., Laurel, Md. 20810 (F-1) 

FOOTE, RICHARD H., Sc.D., 8807 Victoria Road, 
Springfield, Va. 22151 (F-5, 6) 

FORD, W. KENT, Jr., Dept. of Terrestrial Mag- 
netism, Carnegie Institution of Washington, 
5241 Broad Branch Rd., N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20015 (F) 

FORSYTHE, ALLAN L., 3821 Garfield St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20007 (F) 

FORZIATI, ALPHONSE F., Ph.D., 9812 Dameron 
Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-1, 4, 21, 29) 

FORZIATI, FLORENCE H., Ph.D., 9812 Dameron 
Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


FOSTER, AUREL O., 4613 Drexel Rd., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (E-15, 24) 

FOURNIER, ROBERT O., 108 Paloma Rad., Por- 
tola Valley, Calif. 94025 (F-6, 7) 

FOWELLS, H. A., Ph.D., 10217 Green Forest, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (E-11) 

FOWLER, EUGENE, Int. Atomic Energy Agency, 
Kartner Ring 11, A-1011, Vienna, Austria 
(M-26) 

FOWLER, WALTER B., Code 673, Goddard 
Space Flight Center, Greenbelt, Md. 20771 
(M-32) 

FOX, DAVID W., The Johns Hopkins Univ., 
Applied Physics Lab., Silver Spring, Md. 
20910 (F) 

FOX, WILLIAM B., 1813 Edgehill Dr., Alexandria, 
Va. 22307 (F) 

FRANKLIN, PHILIP J., 5907 Massachusetts Ave. 
Extended, Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-4, 13) 

FRANZ, GERALD J., M.S., 9638 Culver St., Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (M-6) 

FREDERIKSE, H. P. R., Ph.D., 9625 Dewmar 
Lane, Kensington, Md. 20795 (F) 

FRENKIEL, FRANCOIS N., Applied Math. Lab., 
Naval Ship Res. & Develop. Citr., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F-1, 22, 23) 

FRIEDMAN, LEO, Ph.D., Director, Div. of Tox- 
icology (BF-150), Bureau of Foods, Food & 
Drug Admin., HEW, Washington, D.C. 20204 
(F-4, 19) 

FRIEDMAN, MOSHE, 3850 Tunlaw Rd., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20007 (F) 

FRIESS, S.L., Ph.D., Environmental Biosciences 
Dept., Naval Med. Res. Inst. NNMC, Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 (F-4) 

FRUSH, HARRIET L., 4912 New Hampshire Ave., 
N.W., Apt. 104, Washington, D.C. 20011 
(F-4, 6) 

FULLMER, IRVIN H., Lakeview Terrace Retire- 
ment Center, P.O. Box 116, Altoona, Fla. 
32702 (E-1, 6, 14) 

FULTON, ROBERT A., 530 Merrie Dr., Corvallis, 
Oregon 97330 (E-4, 5) 

FURUKAWA, GEORGE T., Ph.D. National Bureau 
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 
4, 6) 


G 


GAFAFER, WILLIAM M., 133 Cunningham Dr., 
New Smyrna Beach, Fla. 32069 (E) 

_ GAGE, WILLIAM, Ph.D., 2146 Florida Ave., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-2) 

GALLER, SIDNEY, 6242 Woodcrest Ave., Balti- 
more, Md. 21209 (F-6) 

GALLOWAY, RAYMOND A., Dept. of Botany, 
University of Maryland, College Park, Md. 
20742 (F-10, 33) 

GALTSOFF, PAUL S., Ph.D., P.O. Box 167, 
Woods Hole, Mass. 20543 (E-3) 

GALVIN, CYRIL J., Jr., 7728 Brandeis Way, 
Springfield, Va. 22153 (F-7, 18, 30) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


GANT, JAMES O., Jr., M.D., 1835 Eye St., N.W., 
Suite 201, Washington, D.C. 20006 (M) 

GARNER, C. L., The Garfield, 5410 Connecticut 
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-1, 4, 
12, 17, 18) 

GARVIN, DAVID, Ph.D., 18700 Walker’s Choice 
Rd., Apt. 519, Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-4) 

GAUM, CARL H., 9609 Carriage Rd., Kensington, 
Md. 20795 (F-18) 

GUANAURD, GUILLERMO C., Ph.D., 4807 Macon 
Rd., Rockville, Md. 20852 (M-6, 25) 

GELLER, ROMAN R., 4977 Battery Lane, #406, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E) 

GHAFFARI, ABOLGHASSEN, Ph.D., D.Sc., 7109 
Connecticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20015 (Life-1) 

GHOSE, RABINDRA N., 8167 Mulholland Terr., 
Los Angeles Hill, Calif. 90046 (F) 

GIACCHETTI, ATHOS, Dept. Sci. Affairs, OAS, 
1735 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20006 
(M-32) 

GIBSON, JOHN E., Box 96, Gibson, N.C. 28343 
(E) 

GIBSON, KASSON S., 4817 Cumberland St., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E) 

GINTHER, ROBERT J., Code 6445, U.S. Naval 
Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-28, 29) 

GISH, OLIVER H., 7107 S. Indian River Dr., Fort 
Pierce, Fla. 33450 (E-1, 6) 

GIWER, MATTHIAS M., 204-206 S. St. Asaph St., 
Alexandria, Va. 22314 (M) 

GLADSTONE, VIC S., 8200 Andes Ct., Baltimore, 
Md. 21208 (M-6, 25) 

GLASGOW, A. R., Jr., Ph.D., 4116 Hamilton St., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-4, 6) 

GLASSER, ROBERT G., Ph.D., Univ. Maryland, 
College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

GLICKSMAN, MARTIN E., 2223 Hindle Lane, 
Bowie, Md. 20716 (F-20) 

GODFREY, THEODORE B., 7508 Old Chester 
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E) 

GOFF, JAMES F., 3405 34th Pl., N.W., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 6) 

GOLDBERG, MICHAEL, 5823 Potomac Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1) 

GOLDBERG, ROBERT N., Ph.D., 19610 Brassie 
Pl., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F) 

GOLDMAN, ALAN J., Applied Math. Div. Inst. for 
Basic Standards, Natl. Bureau of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

GOLDSMITH, HERBERT, 238 Congressional 
Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (M) 

GOLUMBIC, CALVIN, 6000 Highboro Dr., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

GONET, FRANK, 4007 N. Woodstock St., Arling- 
ton, Va. 22207 (F-4) 

GOODE, ROBERT J., B.S., Strength of Metals 
Br., Code 6380, Metallurgy Div., U.S.N.R.L., 
Washington, D.C 20390 (F-6, 20, 36) 

GOODMAN, RALPH, 6600 Melody Lane, 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

GORDON, CHARLES L., 5512 Charles St., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-1, 4, 6) 


61 


GORDON RUTH E., Ph.D., Waksman Inst. of 
Microbiology, Rutgers Univer., New Bruns- 
wick, N.J. 08903 (F-16) 

GRAHN, Mrs. ANN, 849 So. La Grange Rad., 
La Grange, Ill. 60525 (M) 

GRASSL, CARL O., Sugar Plant Field Station, 
P.O. Box 156, Canal Point, Fla. 33438 (F) 
GRAY, ALFRED, Dept. Math., Univ. of Maryland, 

College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 


GRAY, IRVING, Georgetown Univ., Washington, 


D.C. 20007 (F) 

GREENBERG, LEON, Ph.D., 6209 Poindexter 
Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (F) 

GREENOUGH, M. L., M.S., Rm. A109 Poly, 
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F) 

GREENSPAN, MARTIN, 12 Granville Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20902 (F-1, 25) 

GRIFFITHS, NORMAN H. C., D.D.S., M.S.D., 
Sc.D., 3100 20th St., N.E., Washington, D.C. 
20018 (F-21) 

GRISAMORE, NELSON T., Nat. Acad. Sci., 2101 
Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20418 (F) 

GRISCOM, DAVID L., Ph.D., Material Sci. Div., 
Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 
(F-28) 

GROSSLING, BERNARDO F., Rm. 7213, USGS 
Nat. Ctr., 12201 Sunrise Valley Dr., Reston, 
Va. 22092 (F) 

GUARINO, P. A., 6714 Montrose Rd., Rockville, 
Md. 20852 (F-13) 

GURNEY, ASHLEY B., Ph.D., U.S. National 
Museum, Smithsonian Inst., Washington, 
D.C. 20560 (F-3, 5, 6) 

GUTTMAN, CHARLES M., 9616 Marston La., 
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F) 


H 


HACSKAYLO, EDWARD, Ph.D., Agr. Res. Ctr., 
USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-6, 10, 11, 33) 

HAENNI, EDWARD O., Ph.D., 7907 Glenbrook 
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4) 

HAGAN, LUCY B., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. Stds., Rm. 
A155, Bg. 221, Washington, D.C. 20234 (M-4, 
32) 

HAINES, KENNETH A., ARS, USDA, Federal 
Center Bidg., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-5) 
HAKALA, REINO W., Ph.D., 707 Prospect St., 

Sault Ste. Marie, Mi. 49783 (F) 

HALL, E. RAYMOND, Museum of Natural History, 
Univ. of Kansas, Lawrence, Kans. 66044 (F) 

HALL, R. CLIFFORD, M.F., 316 Mansion Drive, 
Alexandria, Va. 22302 (E-11) 

HALL, STANLEY A., 9109 No. Branch Dr., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-24) 

HALL, WAYNE C., Ph.D., 557 Lindley Dr., 
Lawrence, Kans. 66044 (E-13) 

HALLER, WOLFGANG, Ph.D., National Bureau 
of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 


62 


HALSTEAD, BRUCE W., World Life Res. Inst., 
3000 Grand Terr., Colton, Cal. 92324 (F) 
HAMBLETON, EDSON J., 5140 Worthington Dr., 

Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-3, 5, 6) 

HAMER, WALTER J., Ph.D., 3028 Dogwood St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-6, 13, 29) 

HAMILTON, C. E. MIKE, Federal Power Comm., 
441 G St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20426 
(M-7, 36) 

HAMMERSCHMIDT, W. W., Ph.D., 7818 Holmes 
Run Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22042 (M) 

HAMPP, EDWARD G., D.D.S., National Institutes 
of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-21) 

HANCOCK, JUDITH M., Biol. Dept., St. Joseph’s 
College, North Windham, Me. 04062 (M) 

HAND, CADET H., Jr., Bodega Marine Lab., 
Bodega Bay, Calif. 94923 (F-6) 

HANSEN, LOUIS S., D.D.S., School of Dentistry, 
San Francisco, Med. Center, Univ. of Calif., 
San Francisco, Calif. 94122 (F-21) 

HANSEN, MORRIS, H., M.A., Westat Research, 
Inc., 11600 Nebel St., Rockville, Md. 20852 
(F-34) 

HARDENBURG, ROBERT EARLE, Ph.D., Agr. 
Mktg. Inst., Agr. Res. Ctr (W), Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 (F-6) 

HARRINGTON, FRANCIS D., Ph.D., 4600 Ocean 
Beach Blvd., #204, Cocoa Beach, Fla. 
32931 (M) 

HARRINGTON, M. C., Ph.D., 4545 Connecticut 
Ave., N.W., Apt. 334, Washington, D.C. 20008 
(E-1, 13, 22:31, 32) 

HARRIS, MILTON, Ph.D., 3300 Whitehaven St., 
N.W., Suite 500, Washington, D.C. 20007 (F) 

HARRISON, W. N., 3734 Windom PI., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1) 

HARTLEY, JANET W., Ph.D., National Inst. of 
Allergy & Infectious Diseases, National In- 
stitutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

HARTMANN, GREGORY K., 10701 Keswick St., 
Garrett Park, Md. 20766 (F-1, 25) 

HARTZLER, MARY P., 3326 Hartwell Ct., Falls 
Church, Va. 22042 (M-6) 

HASKINS, C. P., Ph.D., 2100 M St., N.W., Suite 
600 Washington, D.C. 20037 (F) 

HASS, GEORG H., 7728 Lee Avenue, Alexandria, 
Va. 22308 (F-32) 

HAYDEN, GEORGE A., 1312 Juniper St. N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (M) 

HEADLEY, ANNE R., Ms., 2500 Virginia Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F) 

HEANEY, JAMES B., 6 Olivewood Ct., Greenbelt, 
Md. 20770 (F) 

HEIFFER, M. H., Whitehall, #701, 4977 Battery 
La., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

HEINRICH, KURT F., 804 Blossom Dr., Woodley 
Gardens, Rockville, Md. 20850 (F) 

HEINZE, P. H., Ph.D., Horticultural Crops Re- 
search, USDA, ARS, MQ., Rm. 803 F.C.B., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-4, 6, 10) 

HENDERSON, E. P., Div. of Meteorites, U.S. Na- 
tional Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (E-7) 

HENDERSON, MALCOLM C., Ph.D., 2699 Shasta 
Rd., Berkeley, Calif. 94708 (F-1) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


HENNEBERRY, THOMAS J., 1409 E. North 
Share, Temple, Ariz. 85282 (F) 

HENRY, WARREN E., P.O. Box 761, Howard 
Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001 (F) 

HENVIS, BERTHA W., Code 5277, Naval Res. 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M) 

HERBERMAN, RONALD B., 8528 Atwell Rd., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F) 

HERMACH, FRANCIS L., 2415 Eccleston St., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-13, 35) 

HERMAN, ROBERT, Traffic Sci. Dept., General 
Motors Res. Lab., 12 Mi & Mound Rads., 
Warren, Mich. 48090 (F) 

HERSCHMAN, HARRY K., 4701 Willard Ave., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-20) 

HERSEY, JOHN B., 8911 Colesbury PI., Fairfax, 
Va. 22030 (M-25) 

HERSEY, MAYO D., M.A., Div. of Engineering, 
Brown Univ., Providence, R.1. 02912 (E-1) 
HERZFELD, KARL F., Dept. of Physics, Catholic 

Univ., Washington, D.C. 20017 (E-1) 

HESS, WALTER, C., 3607 Chesapeake St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-4, 6, 19, 21) 
HEYDEN, FR. FRANCIS, Manila Observatory, 
P.O. Box 1231, Manila, Philippines D-404 

(E-32) 

HIATT, CASPAR W., Ph.D., Univ. of Texas Health 
Science Center, 7703 Floyd Curl Dr., San 
Antonio, Texas 78284 (F) 

HICKLEY, THOMAS J., 626 Binnacle Dr., Naples, 
Fla. 33940 (F-13) 

HICKOX, GEORGE H., Ph.D., 9310 Allwood Ct., 
Alexandria, Va. 22309 (E-6, 14, 18) 

HILDEBRAND, EARL M., 11092 Timberline Dr., 
Sun City, Ariz. 85351 (E) 

HILL, FREEMAN K., 12408 Hall’s Shop Rd., 
Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-1, 6, 22) 

HILLABRANT, WALTER, Dept. Psychology, 
Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001 (M) 

HILSENRATH, JOSEPH, 9603 Brunett Ave., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1) 

HILTON, JAMES L., Ph.D. Agr. Res. Ctr. (W), 
USDA, ARS, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-33) 
HOBBS, ROBERT B., 7715 Old Chester Rad., 

Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4) 

HOERING, THOMAS C., Carnegie Inst. of Wash- 
ington, Geophysical Lab., 2801 Upton St., 
N.W. Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-4, 7) 

HOFFMANN, C. H., Ph.D., 6906 40th Ave., Univer- 
sity Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-5, 11, 24) 

HOGE, HAROLD J., Ph.D., 5 Rice Spring Lane, 
Wayland, Me. 01778 (F-1) 

HOLLIES, NORMAN R. S., Gillette Research 
Institute, 1413 Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 
20850 (F-4) 

HOLMGREN, HARRY D., Ph.D., P.O. Box 391, 
College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1) 

HOLSHOUSER, WILLIAM L., 513 N. Oxford St., 
Arlington, Va. 22203 (F-6, 20) 

HONIG, JOHN G., Office, Dep. Chief of Staff 
for Res., Dev. and Acquis., Army, The Penta- 
gon, Washington, D.C. 20310 (F-1, 4, 34) 

HOOD, KENNETH J., 2000 Huntington Ave., 
#1118, Alexandria, Va. 22303 (M-33) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


HOOKER, Miss MARJORIE, 2018 Luzerne Ave., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-7) 

HOOVER, JOHN I|., 5313 Briley Place, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 6) 

HOPP, HENRY, Ph.D., Org. Amer. States, Casilla 
Postal 5060 CC1, Quito, Ecuador, S.A. (F-11) 

HOPPS, HOPE E., Mrs., 1762 Overlook Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20903 (F-16) 

HORNSTEIN, IRWIN, 5920 Bryn Mawr Rd., Col- 
lege Park, Md. 20740 (F-4, 27) 

HOROWITZ, E., Deputy Director, Institute for 
Materials Res., National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

HORTON, BILLY M., 3238 Rodman St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1, 13) 

HOUGH, FLOYD W., C.E., Rt. 2, Box 239, Mt. 
Jackson, Va. 22842 (E-17, 18) 

HUANG, KUN-YEN, M.D., Ph.D., 1445 Laurel 
Hill Rd., Vienna, Va. 22180 (F) 

HUBBARD, DONALD, 4807 Chevy Chase Dr., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 6, 32) 

HUBERT, LESTER F., 4704 Mangum Rad., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (F-23) 

HUDSON, COLIN M., Ph.D., Chief Scientist, U.S. 
Army Armament Command, Rock Island, Ill. 
61201 (F-22) 

HUDSON, GEORGE E., Code 213, Naval Ord- 
nance Lab., White Oak, Silver Spring, Md. 
20910 (F-1) 

HUDSON, RALPH P., Ph.D., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1) 
HUGH, RUDOLPH, Ph.D., George Washington 
Univ. Sch. of Med., Dept. of Microbiology, 
2300 Eye St. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 

(F-16, 19) 

HUNT, W. HAWARD, 11712 Roby Ave., Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 (M) 

HUNTER, RICHARD S., 9529 Lee Highway, 
Fairfax, Va. 22030 (F-27, 32) 

HUNTER, WILLIAM R., Code 7143, U.S. Naval 
Research Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 (F-1, 
6, 32) 

HUNTOON, R. D., Ph.D., 7901 40th Ave. N., 
#122, St. Petersburg, Fla. 33709 (F-1, 13) 
HURTT, WOODLAND, ARS, USDA, P.O. Box 

1209, Frederick, Md. 21701 (M-33) 

HUTCHINS, LEE M., Cacao Ctr., Institute of 
Agriculture, Turrialba, Costa Rica (E-10, 11) 

HUTTON, GEORGE L., 809 Avondale Dr., W. 
Lafayette, Ind. 47906 (F) 


INSLEY, HERBERT, Ph.D., 5219 Farrington Rd.., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 7) 

IRVING, GEORGE W., Jr., Ph.D. 4836 Langdrum 
Lane, Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-4, 27) 
ISBELL, H. S., 4704 Blagden Ave., N.W., 

Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-4) 


63 


J 


JACKSON, H. H. T., Ph.D., 122 Pinecrest Rd., 
Durham, N.C. (E-3) 

JACKSON, PATRICIA C., Ms., Rm. 207, Bg. 001, 
Agr. Res. Ctr. (W), ARS, USDA, Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 (M) 

JACOBS, WOODROW C., Ph.D., 6309 Bradley 
Blivd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-23) 

JACOBSON, MARTIN, U.S. Dept. of Agriculture, 
Agr. Res. Center (E) Beltsville, Md. 20705 
(F-4, 24) 

JACOX, MARILYN E., Ph.D., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 
JAFFE, LOUIS S., M.A., 1001 Highland Dr., 

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4) 

JAMES, L. H., The James Laboratories, 189 W. 
Madison St., Chicago, III. 60602 (F) 

JAMES, MAURICE T., Ph.D., Dept. of Ento- 
mology, Washington State University, Pull- 
man, Washington 99163 (E-5) 

JANI, LORRAINE L., 2733 Ontario Rd., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20009 (M) 

JAROSEWICH, EUGENE, NMNH, Smithsonian 
Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560 (M-4) | 

JAY, GEORGE, E., Jr., Ph.D., National Cancer 
Inst., Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-6) 

JEN, C. K., Applied Physics Lab., 8621 Georgia 
Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F) 

JENKINS, WILLIAM D., 1829 Ingleside Terr., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20010 (M-20) 

JENSON, ARTHUR S., Ph.D., Westinghouse 
Defense & Electronic Systems Ctr., Box 1521, 
Baltimore, Md. 21203 (F-13, 32) 

JESSUP, R. S., 7001 W. Greenvale Pkwy., Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6) 

JOHANNESEN, ROLF B., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4) 
JOHNSON, DANIEL P., 9222 Columbia Bivd., 

Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-1) 

JOHNSON, KEITH C., 4422 Davenport St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F) 

JOHNSON, PHILLIS T., Ph.D., Nat. Marine 
Fisheries Serv., Oxford Lab., Oxford, Md. 
21654 (F-5, 6) 

JOHNSTON, FRANCIS E., Ph.D., 307 W. Mont- 
gomery Ave., Rockville, Md. 20850 (E-1) 
JONES, HENRY A., 1115 South 7th St., El Centro, 

Calif. 92243 (E) 

JONES, HOWARD S., 6200 Sligo Mill Rd., N.E., 
Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-13) 

JORDAN, GARY BLAKE, 1012 Olmo Ct., San 
Jose, Calif. 95129 (M-13) 

JUDD, NEIL M., Georgian Towers, Apt. 120-C, 
8715 First Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (E) 


K 


KABLER, MILTON N., Ph.D., 3109 Cunningham 
Dr., Alexanaria, Va. 22309 (F) 

KAISER, HANS E., 433 South West Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (M-6) 


KALLBOM, CLAES, Box 13017, 58320, Link- 
oping, 13, Sweden (M) 

KARLE, ISABELLA, Code 6030, U.S. Naval Res. 
Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F) 

KARLE, JEROME, Code 6030, U.S. Naval Re- 
search Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 
(F-1, 4) 

KARR, PHILIP R., 5507 Calle de Arboles, Tor- 
rance, Calif. 90505 (F-13) 

KARRER, ANNIE M. H., Ph.D., Port Republic, 
Md. 20676 (E-6) 

KAUFMAN, H. P., Box 1135, Apt. 461, Fedhaven, 
Fla. 33854 (F-12) 

KEARNEY, PHILIP C., Ph.D., 13021 Blairmore St., 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-4) 

KEGELES, GERSON, RFD 2, Stafford Springs, 
Conn. 06076 (F) 

KENNARD, RALPH B., Ph.D., 3017 Military Rd., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-1, 6, 31, 32) 

KENNEDY, E. R., Ph.D., Biology Department, 
Catholic University, Washington, D.C. 20017 
(F-16) 

KESSLER, KARL G., Ph.D., Optical Physics Div., 
Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1, 6, 32) 

KEULEGAN, GARBIS H., Ph.D., 215 Buena Vista 
Dr., Vicksburg, Miss. 39180 (F-1, 6) 

KLEBANOFF, PHILIP S., Aerodynamics Sect., 
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-1, 22) 


KLINGSBERG, CYRUS, Natl. Academy of Sci- 
ences, 2101 Constitution Ave., Washington, 
D.C. 20418 (F-28) 


KLUTE, CHARLES H., Ph.D., Apt. 118, 4545 Con- 
necticut Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 
(F-1, 4, 39) 


KNAPP, DAVID C., 4695 Osage Dr., Boulder, Colo. 
80303 (F) , 


KNIPLING, EDWARD F., Ph.D., Sc.D., Science 
Advisor, ARS-OA, USDA, Rm. 205, Nat. Agr. 
Library, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-5) 

KNIPLING, PHOEBE H., Ph.D., 2623 N. Military 
Rd., Arlington, Va. 22207 (F) 

KNOBLOCK, EDWARD C., 12002 Greenleaf Ave., 
Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-4, 19) 

KNOX, ARTHUR S., M.A., M.Ed., 2006 Columbia 
Rd., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20009 (M-6, 7) 

KNUTSON, LLOYD V., Ph.D., Systematic Ento- 
mology Lab., ARS, USDA, Bg. 003, ARC (W), 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M-5) 

KRUGER, JEROME, Ph.D., Rm. B254, Materials 
Bldg., Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-4, 29) 

KRUL, WILLIAM R., 13814 Sloan St., Rockville, 
Md. 20853 (F) 

KURTZ, FLOYD E., 8005 Custer Rd., Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 (F-4) | 

KUSHNER, LAWRENCE M., Ph.D., Commis- 
sioner, Consumer Product Safety Commis- 
sion, Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-36) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


L 


LABENZ, PAUL J., 9504 Kingsley Ave., Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 

LADO, ROBERT, Ph.D., Georgetown Univ., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20007 (F) 

LAKI, KOLOMAN, Ph.D., Bldg. 4, Natl. Inst. of 
Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

LAMANNA, CARL, Ph.D., 3812 37th St., N., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (F-16, 19) 

LANDER, JAMES F., Dep. Dir., Nat. Geophys. and 
Solar Terr. Data Center, NOAA, ERL, R1015, 
Boulder, Colo. 80302 (F) 

LANDIS, PAUL E., 6304 Landon Lane, Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F-6) 

LANDSBERG, H. E., 5116 Yorkville Rd., Temple 
Hills, Md. 20031 (F-1, 23) 

LANG, MARTHA E. C., 3133 Connecticut Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-6, 7) 

LANGFORD, GEORGE S., Ph.D., 4606 Hartwick 
Rd., College Park, Md. 20740 (F-5) 

LAPHAM, EVAN G., 5340 Cortez Ct., Cape Coral, 
Fla. 33904 (E) 

LARMORE, LEWIS, Off. of Naval Res., 800 N. 
Quincey St., Arlington, Va. 22217 (M) 

LASHOF, THEODORE W., 10125 Ashburton 
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

LASTER, HOWARD J., Ph.D., Dept. of Physics 
& Astron., Univ. of Maryland, College Park, 
Md. 20742 (F-1, 31) 

LATTA, RANDALL, 2122 California St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-5) 

LE CLERG, ERWIN L., 14620 Deerhurst Terrace, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20906 (E) 

LEE, RICHARD H., RD 2, Box 143E, Lewes Del. 
19958 (E) 

LEINER, ALAN L., 580 Arastradero Rd., #804, 
Palo Alto, Calif. 94306 (F) 

LEJINS, PETER P., Univ. of Maryland, Inst. 
Crim. Justice and Criminology, College Park, 
Md. 20742 (F-10) 

LENTZ, PAUL LEWIS, 5 Orange Ct., Greenbelt, 
Md. 20770 (F-6, 10) 

LEVY, SAMUEL, 2279 Preisman Dr., Schenec- 
tady, N.Y. 12309 (F) 

LEWIS, ANDREW M., Jr., MD, NLAID, LVD Bg. 
7, Rm. 313, NIH, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

- LEWIS, KEITH H., Ph.D., 3755 Grennoch Lane, 
Houston, Tex. 77205 (M-16, 19, 27) 

LIDDEL, URNER, 2939 Van Ness St. N.W., Apt. 
1135, Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-1) 

LIEBLEIN, JULIUS, 1621 E. Jefferson St., Rock- 
vile, Md. 20852 (F) 

LIERS, HENRY S., 3052 Bel Pre Rd., #304, 
Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F) 

LINDQUIST, ARTHUR W., Rte. 1, Bridgeport, 
Kans. 67424 (E-6) 

LINDSEY, IRVING, M.A., 202 E. Alexandria Ave., 
Alexandria, Va. 22301 (E) 

LING, LEE, 1608 Belvoir Dr., Los Altos, Calif. 
94022 (E) 

LINK, CONRAD B., Dept. of Horticulture, Univ. 
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F-6, 
10) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


LINNENBOM, VICTOR J., Ph.D., Code 8300, 
Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20390 
(F-4) 

LIPKIN, LEWIS E., Bg. 36, Rm. 40-25, NIH, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (M) 

LIST, ROBERT J., 1123 Hammond Pkwy., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22302 (F-23) 

LITTLE, ELBERT L., Jr., Ph.D., U.S. Forest Serv- 
ice, Washington, D.C. 20250 (F-10, 11) 

LOCKARD, J. DAVID, Ph.D., Botany Dept., Univ. 
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (M-33) 

LOEBENSTEIN, WILLIAM V., Ph.D., 8501 Sun- 
dale Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4, 21) 

LONG, AUSTIN, 2715 E. Helen St., Tucson, Ariz. 
85716 (F) 

LONG, B. J. B., Mrs., 416 Riverbend Rd., Oxon 
Hill, Md. 20022 (M) 

LORING, BLAKE M., Sc.D., Rt. 2, Laconia, N.H. 
03246 (F-20, 36) 

LOTT, GEORGE A., 1812 Queens Lane, Apt. 218, 
Arlington, Va. 22201 (M-1, 37) 

LUSTIG, ERNEST, Ph.D., GMBF, D3301 Stock- 
heim/Braunschweig, Mascheroder Weg 1, W. 
Germany (F-4) 

LYNCH, Mrs. THOMAS J., 4960 Butterworth PI., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (M) 


MA, TE-HSIU, Dept. of Biological Science, West- 
ern Illinois Univ. Macomb, Ill. 61455 (F-3) 
MADDEN, ROBERT P., A251 Physics Bldg., Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 

20234 (F-32) 

MAENGWYN-DAVIES, G. D., Ph.D., 15205 Totten- 
ham Terr., Silver Spring, Md. 20206 (F-4, 
6, 19) 

MAGIN, GEORGE B., Jr., 7412 Ridgewood Ave., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-6, 7, 26) 

MAHAN, A. I., 10 Millgrove Gardens, Ednor, Md. 
20904 (F-1) 

MAIENTHAL, MILLARD, 10116 Bevern Lane, 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-4) 

MALITSON, IRVING, Physics, A251, Nat. Bureau 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

MALONEY, CLIFFORD J., Div. Biol. Standards, 
Nat. Insts. Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

MANDEL, H. GEORGE, Ph.D., Dept. of Phar- 
macology, George Washington Univ. Sch. of 
Med., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-4, 19) 

MANDEL, JOHN, Ph.D., A345 Chem. Bg., Natl. 
Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 
(F-1) 

MANDERSCHEID, RONALD W., 202 Montgomery 
Ave., 1, Rockville, Md. 20854 (M) 

MANGUS, JOHN D., 6019 Berwyn Rad., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (F) 

MANNING, JOHN R., Ph.D., Metallurgy Div., 
Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-20) 

MARCHELLO, JOSEPH M., Ph.D., 3624 Marl- 
borough Way, College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 


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MARCUS, MARVIN, Ph.D., Dept. Math., Univ. of 
California, Santa Barbara, Calif. 93106 (F-6) 

MARGOSHES, MARVIN, Ph.D., 69 Midland Ave., 
Tarrytown, N.Y. 10591 (F) 

MARION, JERRY B., Dept. of Physics, Univ. of 
Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

MARSHALL, LOUISE H., Div. Med. Sci., Rm. 351 
NAS-NRC, 2101 Constitution Ave., Washing- 
ton. D.C. 20418 (F) 

MARTIN, BRUCE D., P.O. Box 234, Leonardtown, 
Md. 20650 (F-7) 

MARTIN, JOHN H., Ph.D.,124 N.W. 7th St., Apt. 
303, Corvallis, Oregon 97330 (E-6) 

MARTIN, ROBERT H., 2257 N. Nottingham St., 
Arlington, Va. 22205 (M-23) 

MARTON, L., Ph.D., Editorial Office, 4515 Lin- 
nean Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E- 
1, 13) 

MARVIN, ROBERT S., Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
A537 Admin., Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 
4, 6) 

MARYOTT, ARTHUR A., Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 6) 

MASON, HENRY LEA, Sc.D., 7008 Meadow Lane, 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 6, 14, 35) 
MASSEY, JOE T., Ph.D., 10111 Parkwood Dr., 

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-1) 

MATLACK, MARION, Ph.D., 2700 N. 25th St., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E) 

MAUSS, BESSE D., Rural Rt. 1, New Oxford, Pa. 
17350 (F) 

MAXWELL, LOUIS R., Ph.D., 3506 Leland St., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F) 

MAY, DONALD C., Jr., Ph.D., 5931 Oakdale Rd., 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F) 

MAY, IRVING, U.S. Geological Survey, National 
Ctr. 923, Reston, Va. 22092 (F-4, 7) 

MAYER, CORNELL H., 1209 Villamay Blvd., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22307 (F-1, 6, 13) 

MAYOR, JOHN R., A.A.A.S., Francis Scott Key 
Hall, Rm. 1120H, Univ. Maryland, College 
Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

MAZUR, JACOB, Ph.D., Natl. Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-6) 

MC BRIDE, GORDON W., Ch.E., 100 Park Ave., 
Suite 2209, New York, N.Y. 10017 (F) 

MC CAMY, CALVIN S., 54 All Angels Hill Rd., 
Wappingers Falls, N.Y. 12590 (F-32) 

MC CULLOUGH, JAMES M., Ph.D., 6209 Apache 

~ St., Springfield, Va. 22150 (M) 

MC CULLOUGH, N. B., Ph.D., M.D., Dept. of 
Microbiology & Public Health, Michigan State 
Univ., East Lansing, Mich. 48823 (F-6, 8) 

MC ELHINNEY, JOHN, Ph.D., 11601 Stephen Rd., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-1) 

MC GUNIGAL, THOMAS E., J.D., 13013 Ingleside 
Dr., Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-1, 13) 

MC INTOSH, ALLEN, 4606 Clemson Rd., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (E-6, 15) 

MC KELVEY, VINCENT E., Ph.D., 6601 Broxburn 
Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-7) 

MC KINNEY, HAROLD H., 1620 N. Edgewood St., 
Arlington, Va. 22201 (E-6, 10, 16, 33) 


66 


MC MURDIE, HOWARD F., Natl. Bur. of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-28) 

MC NESBY, JAMES R.., Chief, Off. Air and Water 
Measurement, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

MC NICHOLAS, JOHN V., Ph.D., 1107 Nelson St., 
Rockville, Md. 20850 (M) 

MC PHEE, HUGH C., 3450 Toledo Terrace, Apt. 
425, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-6) 

MC PHERSON, ARCHIBALD T., Ph.D., 4005 
Cleveland St., Kensington, Md. 20795 (F-1, 
4, 6, 27) 

MC WRIGHT, CORNELIUS G., 7409 Estaban PI., 
Springfield, Va. 22151 (M) 

MEADE, BUFORD K., NOAA, Nat’! Ocean Survey, 
Washington Science Ctr., Rockville, Md. 
20852 (F-17) 

MEARS, FLORENCE, Ph.D., 8004 Hampden 
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

MEARS, THOMAS W., B.S., 2809 Hathaway Ter- 
race, Wheaton, Md. 20906 (F-1, 4, 6) 

MEBS, RUSSELL W., Ph.D., 6620 32nd St., N., 
Arlington, Va. 22213 (F-12, 20) 

MELMED, ALLAN J., 732 Tiffany Court, Gaithers- 
burg, Md. 20760 (F) 

MELOY, THOMAS P., 5124 Baltan Rd., Sumner, 
Md. 20016 (F) 

MENIS, OSCAR, Analytical Chem. Div., Natl. 
Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F) 

MENZER, ROBERT E., Ph.D., 7203 Wells Pkwy., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-4, 24) 

MERRIAM, CARROLL F., Prospect Harbor, 
Maine 04669 (F-6) 

MEYERHOFF, HOWARD A., Ph.D., 3625 S. Flor- 
ence PI., Tulsa, Okla. 74105 (F-7) 

MEYERSON, MELVIN R., Ph.D., A347, Polymer 
Bg., National Bureau of Standards, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20234 (F-20) 

MEYROWITZ, ROBERT, 1946 Overland Ave., 
#306, Los Angeles, Calif. 90025 (F) 

MICHAEL, A. S., 7215 N. Magic PIl., Casas 
Adobes W., Tucson, Ariz. 85704 (M) 

MICHAELIS, ROBERT E., National Bureau of 
Standards, Chemistry Bldg., Rm. B316, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-20) 

MICKEY, WENDELL V., 1965 Kohler Dr., Boulder, 
Colo. 80303 (F) 

MIDDLETON, H. E., Ph.D., 430 E. Packwood, Apt. 
H-108, Maitland, Fla. 32751 (E) 

MIDER, G. BURROUGHS, M.D., Exec. Off., Amer. 
Soc. Exper. Path. & Univ. Assoc. Res. & Educ. 
Pathol., 9650 Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 
20014 (F) 

MILLAR, DAVID B., NMRI, NNMC, Stop 36, 


Physical Biochemistry Div., Washington, 
D.C. 20014 (F) 

MILLER, CARL F., P.O. Box 127, Gretna, Va. 
24557 (E-6) 


MILLER, CLEM O., Ph.D., 6343 Nicholson St., 
Falls Church, Va. 22044 (F-4, 6) 

MILLER, J. CHARLES, 10600 Eastbourne Ave., 
Apt. 7, W. Los Angeles, California 90024 
(E-7) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


MILLER, PAUL R., Ph.D., ARS, USDA, Beltsville, 
Md. 20705 (E) 

MILLER, RALPH L., Ph.D., 5215 Abington Rad., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-7) 

MILLER, ROMAN R., 1232 Pinecrest Circle, Silver 
Spring, Md. 20910 (F-4, 6, 28) 

MILLIKEN, LEWIS T., SSL Res. Inst. 43-20, 
NHTSA, 400 7th St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 
20590 (M-1, 4, 7) 

MILTON, CHARLES, Dept. of Geology, George 
Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 20006 
(F-7) 

MITCHELL, J. MURRAY, Jr., Ph.D., 1106 Dog- 
wood Dr., McLean, Va. 22101 (F-6, 23) 

MITCHELL, JOHN W., 9007 Flower Ave., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (F) 

MITTLEMAN, DON, 80 Parkwood Lane, Oberlin, 
Ohio 44074 (F) 

MIZELL, LOUIS R., 108 Sharon Lane, Greenlawn, 
N.Y. 11740 (F) 

MOLINO, JOHN A., Ph.D., Sound Section, Nat. 
Bureau Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 
(M-25) 

MOLLARI, MARIO, 4527 45th St., N.W., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20016 (E-3, 5, 15) 

MOLLER, RAYMOND W., Ph.D., Catholic Univ. 
of America, Washington, D.C. 20017 (F) 
MOORE, GEORGE A., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of Stand- 
ards 312.03, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-6, 

20, 29, 36) 

MOORE, HARVEY C., Dept. of Anthropology, 
American Univ., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-2) 

MORRIS, J. A., 23-E Ridge Rd., Greenbelt, Md. 
20770 (M-6, 15, 16) 

MORRIS, JOSEPH BURTON, Chemistry Dept. 
Howard Univ., Washington, D.C. 20001 (F) 

MORRIS, KELSO B., Howard Univ., Washington, 
D.C. 20001 (F-4) 

MORRISS, DONALD J., 102 Baldwin Ct., Pt. Char- 
lotte, Fla. 33950 (E-11) 

MOSTOFI, F. K., M.D., Armed Forces Inst. of 
Pathology, Washington, D.C. 20306 (F) 

MOUNTAIN, RAYMOND D., B318 Physics Bg.., 
Nat. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F) 

MUEHLHAUSE, C. O., Ph.D., 9105 Seven Locks 
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-1, 26) 

MUELLER, H. J., 4801 Kenmore Ave., Alexandria, 
Va. 22304 (F) 

MUESEBECK, CARL F. W., U.S. Natl. Museum 
of Nat. Hist., Washinton, D.C. 20560 (E-3, 5) 

MULLIGAN, JAMES H., Ph.D., 12121 Sky Lane, 
Santa Ana, Calif. 92705 (F-13) 

MURDOCH, WALLACE P., Ph.D., Rt. 2, Gettys- 
burg, Pa. 17325 (F-5) 

MURRAY, WILLIAM S., 1281 Bartonshire Way, 
Potomac Woods, Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-5) 

MYERS, ALFRED T., 11675 West 31st PI., Lake- 
wood, Colo. 80215 (E-4, 6) 

MYERS, RALPH D., Physics Dept., Univ. of Mary- 
land, College Park, Md. 20740 (F-1) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


NAESER, CHARLES R., Ph.D., 6654 Van Winkle 
Dr., Falls Church, Va. 22044 (F-4, 7) 

NAMIAS, JEROME, Sc.D., 2251 Sverdrup Hall, 
Scripps Institution of Oceanography, La 
Jolla, Calif. 92037 (F-23) 

NELSON, R. H., 7309 Finns Lane, Lanham, Md. 
20801 (E-5, 6, 24) 

NEPOMUCENE, SR. ST. JOHN, Villa Julie, Valley 
Rd., Stevenson, Md. 21153 (E-4) 

NEUENDORFFER, J. A., 911 Allison St., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22302 (F-6, 34) 

NEUSCHEL, SHERMAN K., 7501 Democracy 
Blivd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-7) 

NEUSTADT, HERBERT M., E.E. Dept., U.S. Naval 
Academy, Annapolis, Md. 21042 (M-25) 

NEWMAN, MORRIS, Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

NEWMAN, SANFORD B., Ph.D., Room A 1000, 
Administration, Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

NEWTON, CLARENCE J., Ph.D., 1504 S. 2nd Ave., 
Edinburg, Texas 78539 (E) 

NICKERSON, DOROTHY, 2039 New Hampshire 
Ave., Washington, D.C. 20009 (E-6, 32) 

NIKIFOROFF, C. C., 4309 Van Buren St., Univer- 
sity Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E) 

NIRENBERG, MARSHALL W., 7001 Orkney 
Pkwy., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4) 

NOFFSINGER, TERRELL L., Spec. Weather Serv. 
Br., NOAA/NWS, Gramax Bidg., Silver Spring, 
Md. 20910 (F-23) 

NOLLA, J. A. B., Ph.D., Apartado 820, Mayaquez, 
Puerto Rico 00708 (F-6) 

NORRIS, KARL H., 11204 Montgomery Rad., 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-27) 

NOYES, HOWARD E., Ph.D., Assoc. Dir. Res. 
Mgmt., WRAIR, Walter Reed Army Med. Ctr., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (F-16, 19) 


O 


O’BRIEN, JOHN A., Ph.D., Dept. of Biology, 
Catholic Univ. of America, Washington, D.C. 
20064 (F-10) 

O’CONNOR, JAMES V., 10108 Haywood Cir., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (M) 

O’HARE, JOHN, Ph.D., 301 G St. S.W., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20024 (F) 

O’HERN, ELIZABETH M., Ph.D., 633 G St., S.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20024 (M-16) 

O’KEEFE, JOHN A., Code 640, Goddard Space 
Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, Md. 20770 (F-1) 

OEHSER, PAUL H., 9012 Old Dominion Dr., 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-1, 3, 9, 30) 

OKABE, HIDEO, Ph.D., Rm. A-243, Bg. 222, Natl. 
Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 
(F-4) 

OLIPHANT, MALCOLM W., Ph.D., Hawaii Loa 
Coll., P.O. Box 764, Kaneohe, Oahu, Haw. 
96744 (F) 


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OLTJEN, ROBERT R., 3514 Susquehanna Dr., 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F) 

ORDWAY, FRED, Ph.D., 5205 Elsmere Ave., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-4, 6, 20, 28) 

ORLIN, HYMAN, Ph.D., NOAA-NOS, Rockville, 
Md. 20852 (F-17) 

OSER, HANS J., Ph.D., 8810 Quiet Stream Ct., 
Potomac, Md. 20852 (F-6) 
OSGOOD, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 2756 Macomb St... 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-14, 18) 
OSWALD, ELIZABETH J., Ph.D., 9107 Jones Mill 
Rd., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-16) 

OTA, HAJIME, 5708 64th Ave., E. Riverdale, 
Md. 20840 (F) 

OWENS, JAMES P., M.A., 14528 Bauer Dr., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20853 (F-7) 


p 


PACK, DONALD H., 1826 Opalocka Dr., McLean, 
Va. 22101 (F-23) 

PAFFENBARGER, GEORGE C., D.D.S., ADA Res. 
Unit, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-21) 

PAGE, BENJAMIN L., 1340 Locust Rd., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20012 (E-1, 6) 

PAGE, CHESTER H., 10701 N. 99th Ave., #158, 
Sun City, Ariz. 85351 (F-1, 6, 13) 

PARKER, KENNETH W., 6014 Kirby Rad., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-3, 10, 11) 

PARKER, ROBERT L., Ph.D., Metallurgy Div., 
Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F) 

PARMAN, GEORGE K., 8054 Fairfax Rd., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22308 (F-27) 

PARRY-HILL, JEAN, Ms., 3803 Military Rd., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (M) 

PASSER, MOSES, Ph.D., 6647 32nd PI., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (F) 

PATTERSON, GLENN W., 8916 2nd St., Lanham, 
Md. 20801 (F-4, 33) 

PATTI, JOGESH C., 8604 Saffron Dr., Lanham, 
Md. 20801 (F) 

PAYNE, FAITH N., 1745 Hobart St. N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20009 (M) 

PAYNE, L. E., Dept. Math., Cornell Univ., Ithaca, 
N.Y. 14850 (F) 

PELCZAR, MICHAEL J., Jr., Vice Pres. for Grad. 
Studies & Research, Univ. of Maryland, Col- 
lege Park, Md. 20742 (F-16) 

PEROS, THEODORE P., Ph.D., Dept of Chem- 
istry, George Washington Univ., Washington, 
D.C. 20006 (F-1, 4) 

PETERLIN, ANTON, Polymers Div., Inst. Ma- 
terials Res., Nat. Bureau Standards, Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

PHAIR, GEORGE, Ph.D., 14700 River Rd., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F-7) 

PHILLIPS, Mrs. M. LINDEMAN, 2510 Virginia 
Ave., N.W., #507N, Washington, D.C. 20037 
(F) 


PIKL, JOSEF, 211 Dickinson Rd., Glassboro, N.J. 
08028 (E) 

PITTMAN, MARGARET, Ph.D., 3133 Connecticut 
Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (E) 

POLACHEK, HARRY, 12000 Old Georgetown 
Rd., Rockville, Md. 20852 (E) 

POOS, F. W., Ph.D., 3225 N. Albemarle St., 
Arlington, Va. 22207 (E-5, 6, 26) 

POTTS, B. L., 119 Periwinkel Ct., Greenbelt, Md. 
20770 (F) 

PRESTON, MALCOLM S., 10 Kilkea Ct., Balti- 
more, Md. 21236 (M) 

PRINZ, DIANNE K., Ph.D., Code 7121.5, Naval 
Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (M) 

PRO, MAYNARD J., 7904 Falstaff Rd., McLean, 
Va. 22101 (F-26) 


PRYOR, C. NICHOLAS, Ph.D., Naval Surface 
Weapons Ctr., White Oak, Silver Spring, Md. 
20910 (F) 

PURCELL, ROBERT H., Rt. 1, Box 113B, Boyds, 
Md. 20720 (F) 

PYKE, THOMAS N., Jr., Techn. Bg. A231, Nat. 
Bur. Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 


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RABINOW, JACOB, 6920 Selkirk Dr., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F) 

RADER, CHARLES A., Gillette Res. Inst., 1413 
Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-4) 

RADO, GEORGE T., Ph.D., 818 Carrie Court, 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-1) 

RAINWATER, H. IVAN, Plant Protect. & Quaran- 
tine Programs, APHIS, Fed. Center Bg. #1, 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E-5, 6, 24) 

RALL, DAVID P., Director, National Institute of 
Envir. Health Sciences, P.O. Box 11233, 
Research Triangle, Raleigh, N.C. 27709 
(F-6, 19) 

RAMIREZ, LOUISE, 2501 N. Florida St., Arlington, 
Va. 22207 (M) 

RAMSAY, MAYNARD, Plant Prot. Quar., APHIS, 
USDA, Hyattsville, Md. 20780 (F) 

RANEY, WILLIAM P., Code 102, Office of Naval 
Research, Arlington, Va. 22217 (M) 

RAPPLEYE, HOWARD 6&., 6712 4th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (E-1, 6, 12, 17, 18) 

RAUSCH, ROBERT, Dept. Microbiol., Western 
College of Veterinary Medicine, U. of Sas- 
katchewan, Saskatoon, Sask., Canada 57N 
OWO (F-3, 15) 

RAVITSKY, CHARLES, M.S., 1808 Metzerott Rd., 
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (F-32) 

READING, O. S., 6 N. Howells Point Rd., Bellport 
Suffolk County, New York, N.Y. 11713 (E-1) 

REAM, DONALD F., Holavallagata 9, Reykjavik, 
Iceland (F) 

RECHCIGL, MILOSLAV, Jr., Ph.D., 1703 Mark 
Lane, Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-3, 4, 19) 

REED, WILLIAM D., 3609 Military Rd., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-5, 6) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


REEVE, WILKINS, 4708 Harvard Rd., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (F-4) 

REEVES, ROBERT G., Ph.D., U.S. Geol. Surv., 
EROS Data Ctr., Sioux Falls, So. Dak. 57198 
(F-7, 14) 

REGGIA, FRANK, MSEE, 6207 Kirby Rd., Be- 
thesda, Md. 20034 (F-6, 13) 

REHDER, HARALD A., U.S. Natl. Museum of Nat. 
Hist., Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-3, 6) 

REICH, MELVIN, Dept. Microbiology, George 
Washington Univ. Med. Ctr., 2300 Eye St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F) 

REINER, ALVIN, 11243 Bybee St., Silver Spring, 
Md. 20902 (M-6, 13, 22) 

REINHART, FRANK W., 9918 Sutherland Rad., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-4, 6) 

REINHART, FRED M., P.O. Box 591, Oak View, 
Calif. 93022 (F-20) 

REINING, PRISCILLA, Ph.D., 3601 Rittenhouse 
St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (F-2) 
REMMERS, GENE M., 7322 Craftown Rd., Fairfax 

Station, Va. 22039 (M) 

REVEAL, JAMES L., Ph.D., Dept. Botany, Univ. 
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 
REYNOLDS, CALVIN O., 3661 E. Virginia Beach 

Bivd., P.O. Box 12342, Norfolk, Va. 23502 (M) 

REYNOLDS, ORR E., Amer. Physiol. Soc., 9650 
Rockville Pike, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

RHODES, IDA, Mrs., 6676 Georgia Ave., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (F) 

RHYNE, JAMES J., 15012 Butterchurn La., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F) 

RICE, DONALD A., 1518 East West Highway, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F) 

RIOCH, DAVID McK., M.D., 2429 Linden Lane, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-3, 8) 

RITT, P. E., Ph.D., GTE Labs., Inc., 40 Sylvan 
Rd., Waltham, Mass. 02154 (F) 

RITTS, ROY E., Jr., Dept. of Microbiology, Mayo 
Clinic, Rochester, Minn. 55901 (F) 

RIVLIN, RONALD S., Lehigh University, Bethle- 
hem, Pa. 18015 (F) 

ROBBINS, MARY LOUISE, Ph.D., George Wash- 
inton Univ. Med. Ctr., 2300 Eye St. N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-6, 16, 19) 

ROBERTS, ELLIOT B., 4500 Wetherill 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 18) 

ROBERTS, RICHARD B., Ph.D., Dept. Terrestrial 
Mag., 5241 Broad Branch Rd., N.W., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20015 (F) 

ROBERTS, RICHARD C., 5170 Phantom Court, 
Columbia, Md. 21044 (F-6) 

ROBERTSON, A. F., Ph.D., 4228 Butterworth PI., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (F) 

- ROBERTSON, RANDAL M., Ph.D., 1404 Highland 
Circle, S.E., Blacksburg, Va. 24060 (F-1, 6) 

ROCK, GEORGE D., Ph.D., The Kennedy Warren, 
3133 Conn. Ave., N.W., Washington, D.C. 
20008 (E) 

RODNEY, WILLIAM S., 8112 Whites Ford Way, 
Rockville, Md. 20854 (F-1, 32) 

RODRIGUEZ, RAUL, 472 Soldado Alvarado, 
Roosevelt, Puerto Rico 00918 (F-17) 

ROLLER, PAUL S., 1440 N St., N.W., Apt. 208, 
Washington, D.C. 20005 (E) 


Rd., 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


ROMNEY, CARL F., 4105 Sulgrave Dr., Alex- 
andria, Va. 22309 (F-7) 

ROSADO JOHN A., 1709 Great Falls St., McLean, 
Va. 22101 (F) 

ROSENBLATT, DAVID, 2939 Van Ness St., N.W., 
Apt. 702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1) 

ROSENBLATT, JOAN R., 2939 Van Ness St., 
N.W., Apt. 702, Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-1) 

ROSENSTOCK, HENRY M., 10117 Ashburton 
Lane, Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F) 

ROSENTHAL, JENNY E., 7124 Strathmore St., 
Falls Church, Va. 22042 (F-13, 32) 

ROSENTHAL, SANFORD M., Bldg. 4, Rm. 122, 
National Insts. of Health, Bethesda, Md. 
20014 (E) 

ROSS, FRANKLIN, Off. of Asst. Secy. of the Air 
Force, The Pentagon, Rm. 4E973, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20330 (F-22) 

ROSS, SHERMAN, National Research Council, 
2101 Constitution Ave., N.W., Washington, 
D.C. 20418 (F) 

ROSSINI, FREDERICK D., Dept. Chemistry, Rice 
Univ., Houston, Tex. 77001 (F-1) 

ROTH, FRANK L., M.Sc., 3306 N. Garden, 
Roswell, N. Mex. 88201 (E-6) 

ROTH, ROBERT S., Solid State Chem. Sect., 
National Bureau of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F) 

ROTKIN, ISRAEL, 11504 Regnid Dr., Wheaton, 
Md. 20902 (F-1, 13, 34) 

ROWEN, JOHN W., Washington Towers #2407, 
9701 Fields Rd., Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F) 

RUBIN, MORTON J., M.Sc., World Meterol. Org., 
Casa Postale #5, CH-1211, Geneva 20, 
Switzerland (F-23) 

RUBIN, VERA C., Ph.D., 3308 McKinley St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (F) 

RUPP, N. W., D.D.S., American Dental Assoc., 
Research Division, National Bureau of Stand- 
ards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-21) 

RUSSELL, LOUISE M., Bg. 004, Agr. Res. Center 
(West), USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (F-5) 

RYALL, A. LLOYD, Route 2, Box 216, Las Cruces, 
N. Mex. 88001 (E-6, 10, 27) 

RYERSON, KNOWLES A., M.S., Dean Emeritus, 
15 Arlmonte Dr., Berkeley, Calif. 94707 (E-6) 


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SAALFIELD, FRED E., Naval Res. Lab., Code 
6110, Washington, D.C. 20375 

SAENZ, ALBERT W., Ph.D., Radiation Techn. 
Div., Naval Research Laboratory, Code 
6660, Washington, D.C. 20390 (F) 

SAILER, R. |., Ph.D., 3847 S.W. 6th PI., Gaines- 
ville, Fla. 32607 (F-5) 

SALLET, DIRSE W., 12440 Old Fletchertown Rad., 
Bowie, Md. 20715 (M-1) 

SAN ANTONIO, JAMES P., Agr. Res. Center 
(West), USDA, Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M) 
SANDERSON, JOHNA., Ph.D., 303 High St., Alex- 

andria, Va. 22203 (F-1, 32) 


69 


SANFORD, ROBERT B., Jr., 321 George Mason 
Dr., #1, Arlington, Va. 22203 (M) 

SARVELLA, PATRICIAA., Ph.D., 12104 Dove Cir., 
Laurel, Md. 20811 (F-6) 

SASMOR, ROBERT M., 1301 Scott St., S., 
Arlington, Va. 22204 (F) 

SAULMON, E. E., 202 North Edgewood St., 
Arlington, Va. 22201 (M) 

SAVILLE, THORNDIKE, Jr., M.S., 5601 Albia Rd., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-6, 18) 

SAYLOR, CHARLES P., 10001 Riggs Rad., 
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (F-1, 4, 32) 

SCHAFFER, ROBERT, Chemistry A367, Natl. 
Bur. Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

SCHECHTER, MILTON S., 10909 Hannes Court, 
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-4, 5, 24) 

SCHINDLER, ALBERT I., Sc.D., Code 6000, U.S. 
Naval Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 
(F-1) 

SCHLAIN, DAVID, Ph.D., P.O. Box 348, College 
Park, Md. 20740 (F-6, 20, 29, 36) 

SCHMID, HELLMUT, Rebweisser 2, 8702 Zolli- 
kon, Switzerland (F) 

SCHMIDT, CLAUDE H., 1827 No. 3rd St., Fargo, 
No. Dak. 58102 (F-5) 

“SCHMITT, WALDO L., Ph.D., U.S. National 
Museum, Washington, D.C. 20560 (E-3) 
SCHNEIDER, SIDNEY, 239 N. Granada St., 

Arlington, Va. 22203 (M) 

SCHNEPFE, MARIAN M., Ph.D., 2019 Eye St., 
N.W., #402, Washington, D.C. 20006 (F-7) 

SCHOEN, LOUIS J., Ph.D., 8605 Springdell PI., 
Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F) 

SCHOENEMAN, ROBERT LEE, 9602 Ponca PI., 
Oxon Hill, Md. 20022 (F) 

SCHOOLEY, ALLEN H., 6113 Cloud Dr., Spring- 
field, Va. 22150 (F-6, 13, 31) 

SCHOOLEY, JAMES F., 13700 Darnestown Rd., 
Gaithersburg, Md. 20760 (F-1, 6, 35) 

SCHRECKER, ANTHONY W., Ph.D., Dept. Bio- 
chem., Scripps Clin. Res. Fndn., 476 Prospect 
St., La Jolla, Cal. 92037 (F-4) 

SCHUBAUER, G. B., Ph.D., 5609 Gloster Rd., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 22) 

SCHUBERT, LEO, Ph.D., The American Univ., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1, 4, 30) 

SCHULMAN, FRED, Ph.D., 11115 Markwood Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F) 

SCHULMAN, JAMES H., Ph.D., U.S. Off. Naval 
Res., Branch Off., 223 Old Marylebone 
Rd., London, England NW1, 5TH (F-1, 32) 

SCHWARTZ, ANTHONY M., Ph.D., 2260 Glen- 
more Terr., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F-4) 

SCHWARTZ, BENJAMIN, Ph.D., 888 Mont- 
gomery St., Brooklyn, N.Y. 11213 (E) 

SCHWARTZ, MANUEL, 321-322 Med. Arts Bg., 
Baltimore, Md. 21201 (M) 

SCOFIELD, FRANCIS, 2403 Eye St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20037 (M-4, 32) 

SCOTT, DAVID B., D.D.S., Dean, Case Western 
Reserve Univ., Sch. of Dentistry, 2123 Abing- 
ton Rd., Cleveland, Ohio 44106 (F-21) 

SCRIBNER, BOURDON F., National Bureau of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-4, 32) 


70 


SEABORG, GLENN T., Ph.D., Lawrence Berkeley — 
Lab., Univ. of California, Berkeley, Calif. 
94720 (F) 

SEEGER, RAYMOND J., Ph.D., 4507 Wetherill 
Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20016 (E-1, 30, 31) 

SEITZ, FREDERICK, Rockefeller University, New 
York, N.Y. 10021 (F-36) 

SERVICE, JERRY H., Ph.D., Cascade Manor, 65 
W. 30th Ave., Eugene, Oreg. 97405 (E) 

SHAFRIN, ELAINE G., M.S., Apt. N-702, 800 4th 
St., S.W., Washington, D.C. 20024 (F-4) 

SHALOWITZ, A. L., 1520 Kalmia Rd., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (E-17) 

SHANAHAN, A. J., 7217 Churchill Rd., McLean, 
Va. 22101 (F-16) 

SHAPIRA, NORMAN, 86 Oakwood Dr., Dunkirk, 
Md. 20810 (M) 

SHAPIRO, GUSTAVE, 3704 Munsey St., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20906 (F) 

SHELTON, EMMA, National Cancer Institute, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

SHEPARD, HAROLD H., Ph.D., 2701 S. June St., 
Arlington, Va. 22202 (F-5, 24) 

SHERESHEFSKY, J. LEON, Ph.D., 9023 Jones 
Mill Rd., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (E) 

SHERLIN, GROVER C., 4024 Hamilton St., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-1, 6, 13, 31) 

SHIELDS, WILLIAM ROY, A.M.S.S., Teledyne 
Isotopes, Inc., 110 W. Timonium Rd., Timon- 
ium, Md. 21093 (F) 

SHMUKLER, LEON, 151 Lorraine Dr., Berkeley 
Heights, N.J. 07922 (F) 

SHNEIDEROV, A. J., 1673 Columbia Rd., N.W., 
#309, Washington, D.C. 20009 (M-1, 22) 
SHOTLAND, EDWIN, 418 E. Indian Spring Dr., 

Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (M-1) 

SHROPSHIRE, W., Jr., Ph.D., Radiation Bio. Lab., 
12441 Parklawn Dr., Rockville, Md. 20852 
(F-6, 10, 33) 

SHUBIN, LESTER D., Proj. Mgr. for Standards, 
NILECJ/LEAA, U.S. Dept. Justice, Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20530 (F) 

SIEGLER, EDOUARD HORACE, Ph.D., 201 Tulip 
Ave., Takoma Park, Md. 20012 (E-5, 24) 
SILVER, DAVID M., Ph.D., Applied Physics Lab., 
Johns Hopkins Univ., Silver Spring, Md. 

20910 (M-4, 6) 

SILVERMAN, SHIRLEIGH, Academic Liaison, 
Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1) 

SIMHA, ROBERT, Ph.D., Case Western Reserve 
Univ., Cleveland, Ohio 44106 (F) 

SIMMONS, JOHN A., Rm. B120, Bldg. 223, 
Natl. Bureau of Standards, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-1) 

SIMMONS, LANSING G., 3800 N. Fairfax Dr., 
Villa 809, Arlington, Va. 22203 (F-18) 

SITTERLY, BANCROFT W., Ph.D., 3711 Brandy- 
wine St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 
(E-1, 31,32) 

SITTERLY, CHARLOTTE M., Ph.D., 3711 Brandy- 
wine St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 
(E-1, 6, 32) 

SLACK, LEWIS, 106 Garden Rd., Scarsdale, N.Y. 
10583 (F) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


SLAWSKY, MILTON M., 8803 Lanier Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20910 (F-6, 12, 22, 31) 

SLAWSKY, ZAKA I., Ph.D., Univ. Maryland, 
College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

SLEEMAN, H. KENNETH, Ph.D., Div. Biochem. 
WRAIR. Washington, D.C. 20012 (F) 

SLOCUM, GLENN G., 4204 Dresden St., Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (E-16, 27) 

SMILEY, ROBERT L., 1444 Primrose Rd., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20012 (M-5) 

SMITH, BLANCHARD DRAKE, M.S., 5265 Port 
Royal Road, Springfield, Va. 22151 

SMITH, FLOYD F., Ph.D., 9022 Fairview Rd., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (F-5, 24) 

SMITH, FRANCIS A., Ph.D., 1023 55th Ave., 
South, St. Petersburg, Fla. 33705 (E-6) 

SMITH, HENRY LEE, Jr., Ph.D., 112 Depew Ave., 
Buffalo, N.Y. 14214 (F-2) 

SMITH, JACK C., 3708 Manor Rd., Apt. 3, Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (F) 

SMITH, PAUL A., 4714 26th St., N., Arlington, 
Va. 22207 (F-6, 7, 18, 22) 

SMITH, ROBERT C., Jr., %Versar, Inc., 6621 
Electronic Dr., Springfield, Va. 22151 (F-22) 

SMITH, WILLIE, Natl. Insts. of Health, Bethesda, 
Md. 20014 (F-19) 

SNAVELY, BENJAMIN L., 721 Springloch Rd., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (F-24, 31, 32) 

SNAY, HANS G., 17613 Treelawn Dr., Ashton, Md. 
20702 (F-6, 25) 

SNOW, C. EDWIN, 14317 Chesterfield Rd., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20853 (M-32) 

SOKOLOVE, FRANK L., 2546 Chain Bridge Rd., 
Vienna, Va. 22180 (M) 

SOLOMON, EDWIN M., 11550 Lockwood Dr., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (M) 

SOMERS, IRA I., 1511 Woodacre Dr., McLean, 
Va. 22101 (M-4, 6, 27) 

SOMMER, HELMUT, 9502 Hollins Ct., Bethesda, 
Md. 20034 (F-1, 13) 

SORROWS, H. E., Ph.D., 8820 Maxwell Dr., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F) 

SPALDING, DONALD H., Ph.D., 17500 S.W. 89th 
Ct., Miami, Fla. 33157 (F-6, 10) 

SPECHT, HEINZ, Ph.D., 4229 Franklin St., Ken- 
sington, Md. 20795 (F-1, 6) 

SPENCER, LEWIS V., Box 206, Gaithersburg, 
Md. 20760 (F) 

SPERLING, FREDERICK, 1131 University Blvd., 
W., #1122, Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-19) 

SPICER, H. CECIL, 701 Poinsettia Rd., #102, 
Belleair Beach, Florida 33516 (E) 

SPIES, JOSEPH R., 507 N. Monroe St., Arlington, 

Va. 22201 (F-4) 

SPOONER, CHARLES S., Jr., M.F., 346 Spring- 
vale Rd., Great Falls, Va. 22066 (F) 

SPOONER, RONALD L., Ph.D., Planning Sys- 
tems, Inc., 7900 Westpark Dr., McLean, Va. 
22101 (M-25) 

SPRAGUE, G. F., Ph.D., Dept. Agronomy, Univ. of 
Illinois, Urbana, Ill. 61801 (E) 

ST. GEORGE, R. A., 3305 Powder Mill Rd., 
Adelphi Station, Hyattsville, Md. 20783 (F-3, 
5, 11, 24) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


STADTMAN, E. R., Bldg. 3, Rm. 114, Natl. 
Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

STAIR, RALPH, 1686 Joplin St. S., Salem, Ore. 
97302 (E-6) 

STAKMAN, E. C., Univ. of Minnesota, Inst. of 
Agric., St. Paul, Minn. 55108 (E) 

STALLARD, JOHN M., Ph.D., Naval Surface 
Weapons Ctr., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 
(M-25) 

STAUSS, HENRY E., Ph.D., 8005 Washington 
Ave., Alexandria, Va. 22308 (F-20) 

STEARN, JOSEPH L., 6950 Oregon Ave., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (E) 

STEELE, LENDELL E., 7624 Highland St., 
Springfield, Va. 22150 (F-20, 26) 

STEERE, RUSSELL L., Ph.D., 6207 Carrollton 
Ter., Hyattsville, Md. 20781 (F-6, 10) 

STEINER, BRUCE W., 6624 Barnaby St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20015 (M) 

STEINER, ROBERT F., Ph.D., 2609 Turf Valley 
Rd., Ellicott City, Md. 21043 (F-4) 

STEINHARDT, JACINTO, Ph.D., Georgetown 
Univ., Washington, D.C. 20057 (F-4) 

STEPHENS, ROBERT E., Ph.D., 4301 39th St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-1, 32) 

STERN, KURT H., Ph.D., Naval Res. Lab., Code 
6160, Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-4, 29) 

STEVENS, HENRY, 5116 Brookview Dr., Wash- 
ington, D.C. 20016 (E) 

STEVENS, RUSSELL B., Ph.D., Div. of Biological 
Sciences, N.R.C., 2101 Constitution Ave., 
Washington, D.C. 20418 (F-10) 

STEVENSON, JOHN A., 4113 Emery PI., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E-6, 10) 

STEWART, I. E., Apt. 514, Kenwood House, 5100 
Dorset Ave., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F) 

STEWART, KENNETH R., 12907 Crookston La., 
#16, Rockville, Md. 20851 (M-25) 

STEWART, T. DALE, M.D., 1191 Crest Lane, 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-2, 6) 

STIEBELING, HAZEL, K., 4000 Cathedral Ave., 
Washington, D.C. 20016 (E) 

STIEF, LOUIS J., Ph.D., Code 691, NASA God- 
dard Space Flight Ctr., Greenbelt, Md. 20771 
(F-4) 

STIEHLER, ROBERT D., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 4, 6, 
14) 

STILL, JOSEPH W., M.D., P.O. Box 891, West 
Covina, Calif. 91791 (E) 

STILLER, BERTRAM, 3210 Wisconsin Ave., N.W., 
Apt. 501, Washington, D.C. 20016 (F-1) 

STIMSON, H. F., 2920 Brandywine St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (E-1, 6) 

STIRLING, MATHEW W., 3311 Rowland PI., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-2, 6) 

STRAUSS, SIMON W., Ph.D., 4506 Cedell PI., 
Camp Springs, Md. 20031 (F-4) 

STUART, NEIL W., 1341 Chilton Dr., 
Spring, Md. 20904 (F-10) 

SULZBACHER, WILLIAM L., 8527 Clarkson Dr., 
Fulton, Md. 20759 (F-16, 27) 

SWEENEY, WILLIAM T., 8411 Buckland Mill Rd., 
Gainesville, Va. 22065 (F-16, 21) 


Silver 


71 


SWICK, CLARENCE H., 5514 Brenner St., Capitol 
Heights, Md. 20027 (F-1, 6, 12) 

SWINGLE, CHARLES F., Ph.D., 431 Humboldt 
St., Manhattan, Kans. 66502 (E-10) 

SYKES, ALAN O., 304 Mashie Dr., S.E., Vienna, 
Va. 22180 (M-25) 


SYSKI, RYSZARD, Ph.D., Dept. of Mathematics, 
Univ. of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 
(F) 


+ 


TALBOTT, F. LEO, R.D. #4, Bethlehem, Pa. 
18015 (F-1, 6) 

TASAKI, ICHIJI, M.D., Ph.D., Lab. of Neuro- 
biology, Natl. Inst. of Mental Health, 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F) 

TATE, DOUGLAS R., B.A., 11415 Farmland Dr., 
Rockville, Md. 20852 (F-1) 

TAUSSKY, OLGA, California Inst. of Technology, 
Pasadena, Calif. 91125 (E) 

TAYLOR, ALBERT L., 2620 S.W. 14th Dr., Gaines- 
ville, Fla. 32608 (E-15) 

TAYLOR, B. N., Bg. 220, Rm. B258, Nat. Bureau 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F) 

TAYLOR, JOHN K., Ph.D., Chemistry Bldg., Rm. 
B-326, Natl. Bur. of Standards, Washington, 
D.C. 20234 (F-4, 29) 

TAYLOR, LAURISTON S., 7407 Denton Rad., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E) 

TAYLOR, LEONARD S., 706 Apple Grove Rad., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20904 (M) 

TAYLOR, MODDIE D., Ph.D., 4560 Argyle Ter- 
race, N.W., Washington, D.C. 20011 (F-4) 
TCHEN, CHAN-MOU, City College of the City 

Univ. of New York, New York, N.Y. 10031 (F) 

TEAL, GORDON K., Ph.D., 5222 Park Lane, 
Dallas, Tex. 75220 (F-6, 13, 29) 

TEPPER, MORRIS, 107 Bluff Terrace, Silver 
Spring, Md. 20902 (F-22, 23) 

THAYER, T. P., Ph.D., U.S. Geological Surv., 
Mail Stop 954, Reston, Va. 22092 (F-7) 

THEUS, RICHARD B., 8612 Van Buren Dr., Oxon 
Hill, Md. 20022 (F) 

THOMPSON, JACK C., 281 Casitas Bulevar, Los 
Gatos, Calif. 95030 (F) 

THURMAN-SCHWARTZWELDER, E. B., 30 Ver- 
sailles Blvd., New Orleans, La. 70125 (F) 

TITUS, HARRY W., 7 Lakeview Ave., Andover, 
N.J. 07821 (E-6) 

TODD, MARGARET RUTH, Miss, P.O. Box 902, 
Vineyard Haven, Mass. 02568 (F-7) 

TOLHURST, GILBERT, Ph.D., 7 Red Fox Lane, 
Amherst, Mass. 01002 (F) 

TOLL, JOHN S., Pres., State Univ. of New York, 
Stony Brook, L.I., N.Y. 11790 (F) 

TORGESEN, JOHN L., Natl. Bur. of Standards, 
Materials Bldg. B-354, Washington, D.C. 
20234 (F-4, 6) 

TORIO, J. C., P.O. Box 933, Manila, Philippines 
(M-4) 


72 


TORRESON, OSCAR W., 4317 Maple Ave., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E-6) 

TOUSEY, RICHARD, Ph.D., Code 7140, Naval 
Res. Lab., Washington, D.C. 20375 (F-1, 32) 

TOWNSEND, MARJORIE R., 3529 Tilden St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 (F-13, 22) 

TRAUB, ROBERT, Ph.D., 5702 Bradley Bivd., 
Bethesda, Md. 20014 (F-5) 

TREADWELL, CARLETON R., Ph.D., Dept. of 
Biochemistry, George Washington Univ., 
2300 Eye St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 
(F-19) 

TRENT, EVAN M., Mrs., P.O. Box 1425, Front 
Royal, Va. 22630 (M) 

TRUEBLOOD, EMILY E., Ph.D., 7100 Armat 
Dr., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-19) 

TRYON, MAX, 6008 Namakagan Rd., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20016 (F-4, 6) 

TUNELL, GEORGE, Ph.D., Dept. of Geol. Sci., 
Univ. of California, Santa Barbara, Calif. 
93106 (E-7) 

TURNER, JAMES H., Ph.D., 11902 Falkirk Dr., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F) 


U 


UHLANER, J. E., Ph.D., U.S. Army Res. Inst. for 
Behavioral and Soc. Sci., 1300 Wilson Blivd., 
Arlington, Va. 22209 (F) 

USDIN, EARL, 2924 N. Oxford St., Arlington, Va. 
22207 (F-4, 19) 


V 


VACHER, HERBERT C., 2317 Huidekoper PI., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20007 (E) 

VAN DERSAL, WILLIAM R., Ph.D., 6 S. Kensing- 
ton St., Arlington, Va. 22204 (F-6) . 
VAN EVERA, R. W., 901 No. Kensington St., 

Arlington, Va. 22205 (F) 

VAN TUYL, ANDREW H., Ph.D., 1000 W. Nolcrest 
Dr., Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (F-1, 6, 22) 
VEITCH, FLETCHER P., Jr, PBs peseeee 
Chemistry, Univ. of Maryland, College Park, 

Md. 20742 (F-4) 

VIGUE, KENNETH J., Dir., Internati. Projects, ITT 
Corp., ITT Bldg., 1707 L St., N.W., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20036 (M-13, 31) 

VINCENT, ROBERT C., Dept. Chem., George 
Washington Univ., Washington, D.C. 20006 
(F) 

VINTI, JOHN P., Sc.D., M.I.T., Bg. W91-202, 
Cambridge, Mass. 02139 (F-1, 6) 

VISCO, EUGENE P., B.S., 2100 Washington 
Ave., Silver Spring, Md. 20910 (M-1, 34) 
VON BRAND, THEODOR C., M.D., Ph.D., 8606 

Hempstead Ave., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (E-15) 

VON HIPPEL, ARTHUR, 265 Glen Rd., Weston, 

Mass. 02193 (E) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


W 


WAGMAN, DONALD D., 7104 Wilson Lane, 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4) 

WAGNER, A. JAMES, NOAA Nat. Weather Serv., 
Nat. Meteorol. Ctr., W31, World Weather Bg., 
Washington, D.C. 20233 (F-23) 

WALKER, E. H., Ph.D., 7413 Holly Ave., Takoma 
Park, Md. 20012 (E-10) 


WALTHER, CARL H., Ph.D., 1337 27th St., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20007 (F-6, 18) 
WALTON, W. W., Sr., 1705 Edgewater Pkwy., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20903 (F-4) 
WARD, RONALD A., Ph.D., 15404 Carrolton Rd., 
Rockville, Md. 20853 (F-5) 
WARGA, MARY E., 2475 Virginia Ave., N.W., 
Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-32) 
WARING, JOHN A., 8502 Flower Ave., Takoma 
Park, Md. 20012 (M-30) 
WATSON, BERNARD B., Ph.D., 6108 Landon La., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-6, 31) 
WATSON, ROBERT B., 1167 Wimbledon Dr., 
McLean, Va. 22101 (M-13, 25, 31, 32) 
WEAVER, E. R., 6815 Connecticut Ave., Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6) 
WEBB, HAMILTON B., Chief, Health Services, 
Library Congress, Washington, D.C. 20540 
(M) 
WEBB, RAYMON E., Agr. Res. Center, USDA, 
Beltsville, Md. 20705 (M) 
WEBER, EUGENE W., B.C.E., 2700 Virginia Ave., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20037 (F-6, 12, 17, 18) 
WEBER, ROBERT S., 1825 Martha Ave., Harl- 
ingen, Tex. 78550 (M) 
WEIDA, FRANK, 19 Scientists Cliff, Port Repub- 
lic, Calvert County, Md. 20676 (E-1) 
WEIDLEIN, E. R., Weidacres, P.O. Box 445, 
Rector, Pa. 15677 (E) 
WEIHE, WERNER K., 2103 Basset St., Alexandria, 
Va. 22308 (F-32) 
WEINBERG, HAROLD P., B.S., 1507 Sanford Rd., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-20) 
WEINTRAUB, ROBERT L., 305 Fleming Ave., 
Frederick, Md. 21701 (F-4, 10, 16, 33) 
WEIR, CHARLES E., Rt. 3, Box 260B, San Louis 
Obispo, Calif. 93401 (F) 
WEISS, MICHAEL S., 17609 Cashell Rd., Rock- 
ville, Md. 20853 (M-25) 
-WEISSBERG, SAMUEL, 14 Granville Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1, 4) 
_WEISSLER, ALFRED, Ph.D., 5510 Uppingham 
St., Chevy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-1, 4, 25) 
WELLMAN, FREDERICK L., Dept. of Plant 
Pathology, North Carolina State Univ., 
Raleigh, N.C. 27607 (E) 

WENSCH, GLEN W., Esworthy Rd., Rt. 2, Ger- 
mantown, Md. 20767 (F-6, 20, 26) 

WENTZEL, DONAT G., Astronomy Progr., Univ. 
Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

WEST, WILLIAM L., Dept. of Pharmacology, 
College of Medicine, Howard Univ., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20059 (M-19, 26) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


WESTERHAUT, GART, Ph.D., Astronomy Pro- 
gram, Space Sciences Bg., Univ. Maryland, 
College Park, Md. 20742 (F) 

WETMORE, ALEXANDER, Ph.D., Smithsonian 
Inst., Washington, D.C. 20560 (F-3, 6) 

WEXLER, ARNOLD, Phys. B 328, Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 35) 

WHELIHAN, ALAN S., 9417 Kentsdale Dr., 
Potomac, Md. 20854 (F) 

WHERRY, EDGAR T., Ph.D., 41 W. Allens La., 
Philadelphia, Pa. 19119 (E) 

WHITE, HOWARD J., Jr., 8028 Park Overlook Dr., 
Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-4) 

WHITELOCK, LELAND D., B.S.E.E., 5614 Green- 
tree Rd., Bethesda, Md. 20034 (F-13) 

WHITMAN, MERRILL J., 3300 Old Lee Highway, 
Fairfax, Va. 22030 (F-26) 

WHITTEN, CHARLES A., 9606 Sutherland Rd., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20901 (F-1, 6) 

WILDHACK, W. A., 415 N. Oxford St., Arlington, 
Va. 22203 (F-1, 6, 22, 31, 35) 

WILHELM, PETER G., 6710 Elroy PI., Oxon Hill, 
Md. 20021 (F) 

WILLENBROCK, F. KARL, Director, Inst. for Appl. 
Tech., Natl. Bur. Standards, Washington 
D.C. 20234 (F) 

WILSON, BRUCE L., 20 N. Leonora Ave., Apt. 
204, Tucson, Ariz. 85711 (F-1, 6) 

WILSON, WILLIAM K., M.S., 1401 Kurtz Rd., 
McLean, Va. 22101 (F-4) 

WINSTON, JAY S., Ph.D., 3106 Woodhollow Dr., 
Chewy Chase, Md. 20015 (F-6, 23) 

WISTORT, ROBERT L., 11630 35th Pl., Belts- 
ville, Md. 20705 (F) 

WITHINGTON, C. F., 3411 Ashley Terr., N.W., 
Washinaton, D.C. 20008 (F-7) 

WITTER, RUTH G., Ph.D., 83 Bay Dr., Bay Ridge, 
Annapolis, Md. 21403 (F-16) 

WOLFF, EDWARD A., 1021 Cresthaven Dr., Silver 
Spring, Md. 20903 (F-6, 13, 22, 23) 

WOLFLE, DAEL, Graduate School of Public 
Affairs, University of Washington, Seattle, 
Washington 98195 (F) 

WOLFRAM, LESZEK J., Gillette Res. Inst., 1413 
Research Blvd., Rockville, Md. 20850 (F) 
WOLICKI, E. A., Ph.D., Nuclear Sciences Div., 
Code 6601, U.S. Naval Res. Lab., Washing- 

ton, D.C. 20390 (F) 

WOMACK, MADELYN, 11511 Highview Ave., 
Silver Spring, Md. 20902 (F-4, 19) 

WOOD, LAWRENCE A,., Ph.D., Natl. Bur. of 
Standards, Washington, D.C. 20234 (F-1, 4) 

WOOD, MARSHALL K., M.P.H., P.O. Box 27, 
Castine, Me. 04421 (F) 

WOOD, REUBEN E., 3120 N. Pershing Dr., 
Arlington, Va. 22201 (F-4, 29) 

WORKMAN, WILLIAM G., M.D., 5221 42nd St., 
N.W., Washington, D.C. 20015 (E-6, 8) 

WRENCH, CONSTANCE P., Rt. 5, Box 258A, 
Frederick, Md. 21701 (M-6) 

WRENCH, JOHN W., Jr., At. 
Frederick, Md. 21701 (F-6) 


5, Box 258A, 


73 


WULF, OLIVER R., Noyes Lab. of Chem. Phys., 
Calif. Inst. of Tech., Pasadena, Calif. 91125 
(E) 

WYMAN, LEROY W., Sr., Ch. E., 134 Island 
View Dr., Cape St. John, Annapolis, Md. 
21401 (F-6, 20, 36) 


Y 


YAO, AUGUSTINE Y. M., Ph.D., 4434 Brocton 
Rd., Oxon Hill, Md. 20022 (M-23) 

YAPLEE, BENJAMIN S., 6105 Westland Dr., 
Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (F-13) 

YEATMAN, JOHN N., 11106 Cherry Hill Rd., 
Adelphi, Md. 20783 (M) 

YOCUM, L. EDWIN, 1257 Drew St., Apt. 2, Clear- 
water, Fla. 33515 (E-10, 33) 

YODER, HATTEN S., Jr., Geophysical Lab., 2801 
Upton St., N.W., Washington, D.C. 20008 
(F-4, 7) 


74 


YOLKEN, H. T., 8205 Bondage Dr., Laytonsville, 
Md. 20760 (F-29) 

YOUNG, BOBBY G., Dept. of Microbiology, Univ. | 
of Maryland, College Park, Md. 20742 (M-16) 

YOUNG, DAVID A., Jr., Ph.D., 612 Buck Jones 
Rd., Raleigh, N.C. 27606 (F-5) 

YOUNG, M. WHARTON, 3230 Park PI., Washing- 
ton, D.C. 20010 (F) 

YUILL, J. S., M.S., 4307-A Hartwick Rd., College 
Park, Md. 20740 (E-5, 6, 24) 


Z 


ZELENY, LAWRENCE, Ph.D., 4312 Van Buren 
St., University Park, Hyattsville, Md. 20782 (E) 

ZIES, EMANUEL G., 3803 Blackthorne St., Chevy 
Chase, Md. 20015 (E-4, 6, 7) 

ZON, GERALD, Dept. Chemistry, Catholic Univ. 
of America, Washington, D.C. 20064 (M) 
ZWEMER, RAYMOND L., 5008 Benton Ave., 

Bethesda, Md. 20014 (E) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


BYLAWS 


Washington Academy of Sciences 


Last Revised in February 1972 


Article I. OBJECTIVES 


Section 1. The purposes of the Washington Academy of Sciences shall be: (a) to stimulate 
interest in the sciences, both pure and applied, and (b) to promote their advancement and the 
development of their philosophical aspects by the Academy membership and through cooperative 
action by the affiliated societies. 


Section 2. These objectives may be attained by, but are not limited to: 

(a) Publication of a periodical and of occasional scientific monographs and such other 
publications as may be deemed desirable. 

(b) Public lectures of broad scope and interest in the fields of science. 

(c) Sponsoring a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences. 

(d) Promoting science education and a professional interest in science among people of high 
school and college age. 

(e) Accepting or making grants of funds to aid special research projects. 


(f) Symposia, both formal and small informal, on any aspects of science. 
(g) Scientific conferences. 

(h) Organization of, or assistance in, scientific expeditions. 

(i) Cooperation with other Academies and scientific organizations. 

(j) Awards of prizes and citations for special merit in science. 


(k) Maintaining an office and staff to aid in carrying out the purposes of the Academy. 


Article Il. MEMBERSHIP 
Section 1. The membership shall consist of three general classes: members, fellows and patrons. 


Section 2. Members shall be persons who are interested in and will support the objectives of 
the Academy and who are otherwise acceptable to at least two-thirds of the Committee on Member- 
ship. A letter or application form requesting membership and signed by the applicant may suffice for 
action by the Committee; approval by the Committee constitutes election to membership. 


Section 3. Fellows shall be persons who by reason of original research or other outstanding 


service to the sciences, mathematics, or engineering are deemed worthy of the honor of election to 
Academy fellowship. 


Section 4. Nominations of fellows shall be presented to the Committee on Membership as a 
form approved by the Committee. The form shall be signed by the sponsor, a fellow who has 
knowledge of the nominee’s field, and shall be endorsed by at least one other fellow. An explanatory 


letter from the sponsor and a bibliography of the nominee’s publications shall accompany the com- 
pleted nomination form. 


Section 5. Election to fellowship shall be by vote of the Board of Managers upon recom- 
mendation of the Committee on Membership. Final action on nominations shall be deferred at least 
one week after presentation to the Board, and two-thirds of the vote cast shall be necessary to elect. 


Section 6. Each individual (not already a fellow) who has been nominated as a Delegate by a 
local affiliated society or who has been chosen to be the recipient of an Academy Award for Scientific 
Achievement shall be considered nominated for immediate election to fellowship by the Board of 
Managers without the necessity for compliance with the provisions of Sections 4 and 5. 


Section 7. An individual of unquestioned eminence may be recommended by vote of the 
Committee on Membership Promotion for immediate election to fellowship by the Board of Managers, 
without the necessity for compliance with the provisions of Sections 4 and 5. 


Section 8. Persons who have given to the Academy not less than one thousand (1,000) dollars 


or its equivalent in property shall be eligible for election by the Board of Managers as patrons (for life) 
of the Academy. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 75 


Section 9. Life members or fellows shall be those individuals who have made a single payment 
in accordance with Article III, Section 2, in lieu of annual dues. 


Section 10. Members or fellows in good standing who are retired and are no longer engaged in 
regular gainful employment may be placed in emeritus status. Upon request to the treasurer for 
transfer to this status, they shall be relieved of the further payment of dues, beginning with the 
following January first; shall receive notices of meetings without charge; and at their request, shall be 
entitled to receive the Academy periodical at cost. 


Section 11. Members or fellows living more than 50 miles from the White House, Washington, 
D.C., shall be classed as nonresident members or fellows. 


Section 12. An election to any dues-paying class of membership shall be void if the candidate 
does not within three months thereafter pay his dues or satisfactorily explain his failure to do so. 


Section 13. Former members or fellows who resigned in good standing may be reinstated upon 
application to the Secretary and approval by the Board of Managers. No reconsideration of the 
applicant’s qualifications need be made by the Membership Committee in these cases. 


Article III. DUES 


Section 1. The annual dues of each class of members shall be fixed by the Board of Managers. 
No dues shall be paid by emeritus members and fellows, life members and fellows, and patrons. 


Section 2. Members and fellows in good standing may be relieved of further payment of dues 
by making a single payment to provide an annuity equal to their annual dues. (See Article II, Section 
9.) The amount of the single payment shall be computed on the basis of an interest rate io be 
determined by the Board of Managers. 


Section 3. Members or fellows whose dues are in arrears for one year shall not be entitled to 
receive Academy publications. 


Section 4. Members or fellows whose dues are in arrears for more than two years shall be 
dropped from the rolls of the Academy, upon notice to the Board of Managers, unless the Board shall 
otherwise direct. Persons who have been dropped from membership for-nonpayment of dues may be 
reinstated upon approval of the Board and upon payment of back dues for two years together with 
dues for the year of reinstatement. 


Article 1V. OFFICERS 


Section 1. The officers of the Academy shall be a President, a President-elect, a Secretary, and 
a Treasurer. All shall be chosen from resident fellows of the Academy. 


Section 2. The President shall appoint all committees and such non-elective officers as are 
needed unless otherwise directed by the Board of Managers or provided in the Bylaws. He (or his 
substitute—the President-elect, the Secretary, or the Treasurer, in that order), shall preside at all 
meetings of the Academy and of the Board of Managers. 


Section 3. The Secretary shall act as secretary to the Board of Managers and to the Academy at 
large. He shall conduct all correspondence relating thereto, except as otherwise provided, and shall be 
the custodian of the corporate seal of the Academy. He shall arrange for the publication in the 
Academy periodical of the names and professional connections of new members, and also of such 
proceedings of the Academy, including meetings of the Board of Managers, as may appropriately be of 
interest to the membership. He shall be responsible for keeping a register of the membership, showing 
such information as qualifications, elections, acceptances, changes of residence, lapses of membership, 
resignations and deaths, and for informing the Treasurer of changes affecting the status of members. 
He shall act as secretary to the Nominating Committee (see Art. VI, Sect. 2). 


Section 4. The Treasurer shall be responsible for keeping an accurate account of all receipts 
and disbursements, shall select a suitable depository for current funds which shall be approved by the 
Executive Committee, and shall invest the permanent funds of the Academy as directed by that 
Committee. He shall prepare a budget at the beginning of each year which shall be reviewed by the 


Executive Committee for presentation to and acceptance by the Board of Managers. He shall notify — : 


the Secretary of the date when each new member qualifies by payment of dues. He shall act as 
business advisor to the Editor and shall keep necessary records pertaining to the subscription list. In 
view of his position as Treasurer, however, he shall not be required to sign contracts. He shall pay no 
bill until it has been approved in writing by the chairman of the committee or other persons author- 
ized to incur it. The fiscal year of the Academy shall be the same as the calendar year. 


76 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


Section 5. The President and the Treasurer, as directed by the Board of Managers, shall jointly 
assign securities belonging to the Academy and indorse financial and legal papers necessary for the uses 
of the Academy, except those relating to current expenditures authorized by the Board. In case of 
disability or absence of the President or Treasurer, the Board of Managers may designate the Presi- 
dent-elect or a qualified Delegate as Acting President or an officer of the Academy as Acting 
Treasurer, who shall perform the duties of these officers during such disability or absence. 


Section 6. An Editor shall be in charge of all activities connected with the Academy’s publi- 
cations. He shall be nominated by the Executive Committee and appointed by the President for an 
indefinite term subject to annual review by the Board of Managers. The Editor shall serve as a member 
of the Board. 


Section 7. An Archivist may be appointed by the President. If appointed, he shall maintain the 
permanent records of the Academy, including important records which are no longer in current use by 
the Secretary, Treasurer, or other officer, and such other documents and material as the Board of 
Managers may direct. 


Section 8. All officers and chairmen of standing committees shall submit annual reports at the 
May meeting of the Board of Managers. 


Section 9. The Nominating Committee (Article IV, Section 2) shall prepare a slate listing two or 
more persons for each of the offices of President-elect, of Secretary and of Treasurer, and four or 
more persons for the two Managers-at-large whose terms expire each year and at least two persons to 
fill each vacant unexpired term of manager-at-large. The slate shall be presented for approval to the 
Board of Managers at its first meeting in October. Not later than November 1¢, the Secretary shall 
forward to each Academy Member and Fellow an announcement of the election, the committee’s 
nomination for the offices to be filled, and a list of incumbents. Additional candidates for such offices 
may be proposed by any Member or Fellow in good standing by letter received by the Secretary not 
later than Dec. 1. The name of any eligible candidate so proposed by ten Members or Fellows shall be 
entered on the ballot. 


Section 10. Not later than December 15, the Secretary shall prepare and mail ballots to 
members and fellows. Independent nominations shall be included on the ballot, and the names of the 
nominees shall be arranged in alphabetical order. When more than two candidates are nominated for 
the same office the voting shall be by preferential ballot in the manner prescribed by the Board of 
Managers. The ballot shall contain also a notice to the effect that votes not received by the Secretary 
before the first Thursday of January, and votes of individuals whose dues are in arrears for one year or 
more, will not be counted. The Committee of Tellers shall count the votes and report the results at the 
annual meeting of the Academy. 


Section 11. The newly elected officers shall take office at the close of the annual meeting, the 
President-elect of the previous year automatically becoming President. 


Article V. BOARD OF MANAGERS 


Section 1. The activities of the Academy shall be guided by the Board of Managers, consisting 
of the President, the President-elect, the immediate past President, one Delegate from each of the 
affiliated societies, the Secretary, the Treasurer, six elected Managers-at-Large, and the Editor. The 
elected officers of the Academy shall hold like offices on the Board of Managers. 


Section 2. One Delegate shall be selected by each affiliated society. He shall serve until re- 
placed by his society. Each Delegate is expected to participate in the meetings of the Board of 
Managers and vote on behalf of his society. 


Section 3. The Board of Managers shall transact all business of the Academy not otherwise 
provided for. A quorum of the Board shall be nine of its members. 


Section 4. The Board of Managers may provide for such standing and special committees as it 
deems necessary. 


Section 5. The Board shall have power to fill vacancies in its own membership until the next 
annual election. This does not apply to the offices of President and Treasurer (see Art. IV, Sect. 5), 
nor to Delegates (see Art. V, Sect. 2). 

Article VI. COMMITTEES 


Section 1. An Executive Committee shall have general supervision of Academy finances, ap- 
prove the selection of a depository for the current funds, and direct the investment of the permanent 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 77 


funds. At the beginning of the year it shall present to the Board of Managers an itemized statement of 
receipts and expenditures of the preceding year and a budget based on the estimated receipts and 
disbursements of the coming year, with such recommendations as may seem desirable. It shall be 
charged with the duty of considering all activities of the Academy which may tend to maintain and 
promote relations with the affiliated societies, and with any other business which may be assigned to it 
by the Board. The Executive Committee shall consist of the President, the President-elect, the Secre- 
tary and the Treasurer (or Acting Treasurer) ex officio, as well as two members appointed annually by 
the President from the membership of the Board. 


Section 2. The President, with the approval of the Board of Managers, shall appoint a Nominat- 
ing Committee of six Fellows of the Academy, at least one of whom shall be a past President of the 
Academy, and at least three of whom shall have served as Delegates for at least one year. The 
Chairman shall be a past President. (See Article IV, Section 9.) 


Section 3. The President shall appoint in advance of the annual meeting an Auditing Com- 
mittee consisting of three persons, none of whom is an officer, to audit the accounts of the Treasurer 
(Art. VII, Sect. 1). 


Section 4. On or before the last Thursday of each year the President shall appoint a committee 
of three Tellers whose duty it shall be to canvass the ballots (Art. IV, Sect. 10, Art. VII, Sect. 1). 


Section 5. The President shall appoint from the Academy membership such committees as are 
authorized by the Board of Managers and such special committees as necessary to carry out his 
functions. Committee appointments shall be staggered as to term whenever it is determined by the 
Board to be in the interest of continuity of committee affairs. 


Article VII. MEETINGS 


Section 1. The annual meeting shall be held each year in May. It shall be held on the third 
Thursday of the month unless otherwise directed by the Board of Managers. At this meeting the 
reports of the Secretary, Treasurer, Auditing Committee (see Article VI, Sect. 3), and Committee of 
Tellers shall be presented. 


Section 2. Other meetings may be held at such time and place as the Board of Managers may 
determine. 


Section 3. The rules contained in ‘‘Robert’s Rules of Order Revised’’ shall govern the Academy 
in all cases to which they are applicable, and in which they are not inconsistent with the bylaws or 
special rules of order of the Academy. 


Article VIII. COOPERATION 


Section 1. The term ‘‘affiliated societies’’ in their order of seniority (see Art. VI, Sect. 2) shall 
be held to cover the: 


Philosophical Society of Washington 

Anthropological Society of Washington 

Biological Society of Washington 

Chemical Society of Washington 

Entomological Society of Washington 

National Geographic Society 

Geological Society of Washington 

Medical Society of the District of Columbia 

Columbia Historical Society 

Botanical Society of Washington 

Washington Section of Society of American Foresters 

Washington Society of Engineers 

Washington Section of Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers 
Washington Section of American Society of Mechanical Engineers 
Helminthological Society of Washington 

Washington Branch of American Society for Microbiology 

Washington Post of Society of American Military Engineers 

National Capital Section of American Society of Civil Engineers 

District of Columbia Section of Society for Experimental Biology and Medicine 
Washington Chapter of American Society for Metals 

Washington Section of the International Association for Dental Research 
Washington Section of American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics 


78 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


‘ 


D.C. Branch of American Meteorological Society 

Insecticide Society of Washington 

Washington Chapter of the Acoustical Society of America 
Washington Section of the American Nuclear Society 

Washington Section of Institute of Food Technologists 
Baltimore-Washington Section of the American Ceramic Society 
Washington-Baltimore Section of the Electrochemical Society 
Washington History of Science Club 

Chesapeake Section of American Association of Physics Teachers 
National Capital Section of Optical Society of America 

Washington Section of American Society of Plant Physiologists 
Washington Operations Research Council 

Washington Section of Instrument Society of America 

American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers 
National Capital Astronomers 

Maryland- District of Columbia-Virginia Section of the Mathematical Association of America 
District of Columbia Institute of Chemists 


and such others as may be hereafter recommended by the Board and elected by two-thirds of the 
members of the Academy voting, the vote being taken by correspondence. A society may be released 
from affiliation on recommendation of the Board of Managers, and the concurrence of two-thirds of 
the members of the Academy voting. 


Section 2. The Academy may assist the affiliated scientific societies of Washington in any 
matter of common interest, as in joint meetings, or in the publication of a joint directory: Provided, it 
shall not have power to incur for or in the name of one or more of these societies any expense or 
liability not previously authorized by said society or societies, nor shall it without action of the Board 
of Managers be responsible for any expenses incurred by one or more of the affiliated societies. 


Section 3. No affiliated society shall be committed by the Academy to any action in conflict 
with the charter, constitution, or bylaws of said society, or of its parent society. 


Section 4. The Academy may establish and assist a Washington Junior Academy of Sciences for 
the encouragement of interest in science among students in the Washington area of high school and 
college age. 


Article IX. AWARDS AND GRANTS-IN-AID 


Section 1. The Academy may award medals and prizes, or otherwise express its recognition and 
commendation of scientific work of high merit and distinction in the Washington area. Such recog- 
nition shall be given only on approval by the Board of Managers of a recommendation by a committee 
on awards for scientific achievement. 


Section 2. The Academy may receive or make grants to aid scientific research in the Wash- 
ington area. Grants shall be received or made only on approval by the Board of Managers of a 
recommendation by a committee on grants-in-aid for scientific research. 


Article X. AMENDMENTS 


Section 1. Amendments to these bylaws shall be proposed by the Board of Managers and 
submitted to the members of the Academy in the form of a mail ballot accompanied by a statement of 
the reasons for the proposed amendment. A two-thirds majority of those members voting is required 
for adoption. At least two weeks shall be allowed for the ballots to be returned. 


Section 2. Any affiliated society or any group of ten or more members may propose an 
. amendment to the Board of Managers in writing. The action of the Board in accepting or rejecting this 
proposal to amend the bylaws shall be by a vote on roll call, and the complete roll call shall be entered 
in the minutes of the meeting. 


ACT OF INCORPORATION OF 
THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 
a We, the undersigned, persons of full age and citizens of the United States, and a majority being 
citizens of the District of Columbia, pursuant to and in conformity with sections 545 to 552, inclu- 


sive, of the Revised Statutes of the United States relating to the District of Columbia, as amended by 
an Act of Congress entitled ‘‘An Act to amend the Revised Statutes of the United States relating to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 79 


the District of Columbia and for other purposes,’’ approved April 23, 1884, hereby associate ourselves 
together as a society or body corporate and certify in writing: 


fi. That the name of the society is the Washington Academy of Sciences. 
2. That the term for which the Corporation is organized shall be perpetual. 
3. That the Corporation is organized and shall be operated exclusively for charitable, educa- 


tional and scientific purposes and in furtherance of these purposes and for no other purpose shall have, 
but not be limited to, the following specific powers and purposes: 


a. To encourage in the broadest and most liberal manner the advancement and promotion 
of science. 
b. To acquire, hold, and convey real estate and other property and to establish general and 


special funds. 

To hold meetings. 

To publish and distribute documents. 

To conduct lectures. 

To conduct, endow, or assist investigation in any department of science. 

To acquire and maintain a library. 

And, in general, to transact any business pertinent to an academy of sciences. 

Provided, however, that notwithstanding the foregoing enumerated powers, the Corpora- 
tion shall not engage in activities, other than as an insubstantial part thereof, which are not in 
themselves in furtherance of its charitable, educational and scientific purposes. 

4. That the affairs, funds, and property of the Corporation shall be in general charge of a 
Board of Managers, the number of whose members for the first year shall be nineteen, all of whom 
shall be chosen from among the members of the Academy. 

5. That in the event of dissolution or termination of the Corporation, title to and posses- 
sion of all the property of the Corporation shall pass to such organization, or organizations, as may be 
designated by the Board of Managers; provided, however, that in no event shall any property of the 
Corporation be transmitted to or vested in any organization other than an organization which is then 
in existence and then qualified for exemption as_a charitable, educational or scientific organization 
under the Internal Revenue Code of 1954, as amended. 

Editor’s Note: This Act of Incorporation is shown as amended in 1964 by Francois N. 
Frenkiel, President, and George W. Irving, Jr., Secretary, acting for the Washington Academy of 
Sciences, in a Certificate of Amendment notarized on September 16, 1964. A copy of the original Act 
of Incorporation dated February 18, 1898, appears in the Journal for November 1963, page 212. 


mio mo 20 


80 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 2, 1975 


space all lines, including those in abstracts, 
tables, legends, quoted matter, acknowledg- 
ments, and references cited. Number pages 
consecutively. Place your name and com- 
plete address in the upper right hand corner 
‘of the title page. 


] 
| 


Title, Author, and Affiliation 

Page | of your manuscript should contain 
only this information and your name and 
address. Choose a concise but complete and 
meaningful title. In research papers con- 
cerning biological subjects, include an indi- 
cation of the order and family of the taxa 
discussed. Academic degrees will not nor- 
mally be included unless the author so 
specifies. If possible, combine your affilia- 
tion and mailing address (including Zip) so 
that readers can write to you directly. 


| 
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‘Abstract 

Type on a separate sheet at the end of the 
manuscript. Make the abstract intelligible 
without reference to the text of the paper. 
‘Write an informative digest of the significant 
| content and conclusions, not a mere descrip- 
tion. Generally, the abstract should not ex- 
ceed 3% of the text. 


Footnotes 

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Number text footnotes consecutively with 
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each pertinent table on the same page. 
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The quality of all original illustrations 
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JOURNAL OF THE WASHINGTON ACADEMY OF SCIENCES 


Instructions to Contributors 


graphs should have a glossy finish. They re- 
produce best when the contrast is fairly 
high. Identify each illustration with number 
and author in light pencil marks on the 
reverse side. Submit all illustrations sepa- 
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sheet or sheets at the end of the manuscript. 
Indicate where you want illustrations to 
appear in the printed paper by writing the 
figure numbers lightly in the text margins, 
and be sure that each figure is properly re- 
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be returned only at the author’s request and 
expense. 


Tables 

Include tables only when the same infor- 
mation cannot be presented economically in 
the text, or when a table presents the data in 
a more meaningful way. Consider preparing 
extremely complicated tabular matter in a 
form suitable for direct reproduction as an 
illustration. In such cases, the use of the 
typewriter is not recommended. 


References to Literature 

Limit references within the text and in 
synonymies to author and year (and page if 
needed). In a “Reference Cited” section, list 
alphabetically by senior author only those 
papers you have included in the text. Like- 
wise, be sure all the text references are 
listed. Type the “References Cited” section 
on a separate sheet after the last page of 
text. Abbreviations should follow the USA 
Standard for Periodical Title Abbreviations, 
£39 51963. 


Submission of Manuscripts 

Send completed manuscripts and sup- 
porting material to the Academy office (see 
address inside front cover) in care of the 
Editor. Authors will be requested to read 
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print orders prior to publication. 


Reprints - Prices for reprints may be obtained on request. 


Washington Academy of Sciences 

9650 Rockville Pike (Bethesda) 

Washington, D.C. 20014 

Return Requested with Form 3579 < 


m 06.73 
D2W23 


VOLUME 65 
Number 3 


Journal of the SEPTEMBER, 1975 


WASHINGTON ~~ 
ACADEMY... SCIENCES 


\ f Issued Quarterly 
. at Washington, D.C. 


CONTENTS 


KURT H. STERN: Mitogenetic Radiation: A Study of Authority in 


2 lS LiE eos aot eR ES eee ese SS aaron eee Ae ine ae ene 83 
CLAUDE H. SCHMIDT: National Mosquito Control—Fish and Wild- 
life Coordination Committee: A Status Report .................-..--- 91 
History: 
PERCY A. WELLS: Some Aspects of the Early History of Penicillin 
MERE HES (127 ue We ets ocA x wh + 2x 6 A tae PSone me es 96 


Research Reports: 
ASHLEY B. GURNEY and JOSE LIEBERMANN: A New Species 
of Shield-backed Katydid from Cerro Aconcagua, Argentina, With 
Notes on Other Species and Their Habitats (Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae, 


PEC EIEE 2S eS eee eee te ae, 5 oe 102 
DONALD R. WHITEHEAD: Parasitic Hymenoptera Associated With 
Peete MeCN PIMs COSA RiCa i... 2. 622. ees als es ke et 108 


Academy Affairs: 


The Awards Program of the Academy and Recent Honorees .............. 117 
Board of Managers Meeting Notes 
ae ee aRMERINEIEEE RD SiS or ee ee eo Ne ye a ae wie we 120 
Pere NUPERIIR UMS Geren nF scot Sie ale, 122 
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ne society Of Washington ...... 2.2.55. cece cece eee ences ees James H. Turner 
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mnmetiwe! Plant Physiolopists: . .........00..0. 0000 cea cc eee ces ceenee Walter Shropshire 
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Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the respective societies. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 81 


FEATURES 


Mitogenetic Radiation: A Study of Authority in Science’ 


Kurt H. Stern 


Naval Research Laboratory, Washington, D.C. 20375 


ABS TRACT 


Scientists, in doing science, supposedly operate by a procedure known as the 
“scientific method.’’ Although this method works reasonably well within the structure 
of a particular science, scientists increasingly fail to apply it as the borders of a 
science are approached or transcended. This weakness will be illustrated by the history 
of a relatively recently studied but now almost forgotten phenomenon. 


Scientists, particularly when they ad- 
dress the general public and their stu- 
dents, espouse a view of Science which 
stresses both the impersonal nature of 
the subject and the high-mindedness of 
its practitioners. In this aspect Science 
is seen both as the body of confirmed, 
existing knowledge and as ‘'‘scientific 
method,’’ a proven procedure whereby 
this knowledge is obtained, a system 
which is basically independent of the 
particular scientists involved in it. 
Although this view surely has some 
Validity, it is also clear (particularly 
to scientists) that it omits some important 
aspects of ‘“‘sciencing,’’ i.e., the ac- 
tivities which scientists engage in when 
‘they do science. In fact, these ac- 
tivities themselves became so interest- 
ing to a number of scholars that they 
founded a new discipline, the Sociology 
of Science. Its purpose is to focus on 
_ those aspects of scientific behavior which 
arise from the fact that it is a human 
‘group activity and therefore just as 
“Susceptible of study as that of any other 
* 


4 Adapted from the presidential address to the 


social entity. One of the aspects of 
‘““sciencing’’ that has interested me for 
some time and which I wish to discuss 
here is the concept of ‘‘authority’’ in 
Science. In formally authoritarian sys- 
tems, the meaning of ‘‘authority”’ is 
quite clear. In the military, in govern- 
ments, in industry in many church or- 
ganizations, etc., there exist hierarchies 
in which commands pass from higher 
to lower in the chain so that at appro- 
priate places these commands are exe- 
cuted. To the extent that science inter- 
acts with government, whether in the 
present-day context of funding or in the 
older one of patronage, this authority 
over Science has existed for a long 
time. (He who pays the piper calls the 
tune.) However, until their social be- 
havior became itself a subject of study, 
scientists themselves assumed that there 
was no authority within science, ex- 
cept for the hierarchical relations be- 
tween scientists arising from their posi- 
tion within an organization; outside such 
organizations, scientists were essentially 
equal. All were free to pursue Knowl- 
edge and anyone might be right. Even 


' Washington Academy of Sciences, May 1975. so, it had to be recognized that some 


| J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 83 


" 


were better scientists than others, and 
sO more prestige, and hence more power, 
accrued to them. But as long as each 
scientist is free to pursue knowledge in 
his own way with access to adequate 
resources, an egalitarian view remains 
a reasonable approximation to the real 
situation. Yet when some scientists con- 
trol what others shall do because they 
pass on research proposals or control 
funding, it is naive to pretend that each 
scientist is free in his pursuit of knowl- 
edge. 

Even under the more ideal conditions 
scientists are not as free as they like 
to believe. As in other social groups, 
individual scientists tend to be leaders 
or followers. At best, leadership is at 
least partly bestowed on the basis of 
competence and merit; at its worst, it 
is largely obtained by contacts with 
sources of power outside science. At 
any rate, the pronouncements of “‘lead- 
ers’? tend to have a fairly significant 
effect on the activities of other scien- 
tists. It is well known that it makes 
a difference who authors a particular 
paper. 

We see then, that in science, too, 
there operates a kind of herd instinct 
which provides momentum for keeping 
things as they are (1). Newton’s first 
law translated into the social sphere 
might read: an accepted idea tends to 
remain accepted, an unaccepted idea 
tends to remain unaccepted. This con- 
cept is now more usually expressed in 
terms of Kuhn’s “‘paradigm,”’ i.e., at 
any particular time in history, phe- 
nomena are viewed in terms of some 
general underlying conceptual frame- 
work. 

Since threats to the existing paradigms 
are most likely to come from outside 
the established science, it is at the 
boundaries of a science that we are 
most likely to see the conflict between 
the professed democratic ideals of 
science and the authoritarian behavior 
of scientists who feel threatened by new 
ideas. For example, the question ‘‘what 
is the melting point of compound X’”’ is 
one well within a science. Although 


84 


different investigators may disagree on 
the particular value, the concept ‘‘melt- 
ing point’? is well rooted in science. 
Therefore scientists are confident that, 
given sufficient care, disagreements can 
be resolved and a satisfactory value 
arrived at. 

Other questions, although grammati- 


cally equally simple and also within a 


science, are far more complex. Thus 


in physics: “‘is energy continuous or 
quantized,’’ in geology “‘do the conti- 


nents dnft,’’ in biology ‘“‘is cancer 


caused by viruses,’’ although requir-_ 


ing only a simple “‘yes’’ or ““‘no’’ answer, 
are composed of a whole complex of 


questions which must be answered be- 


66 3° 


fore a simple ‘‘yes’’ or ‘‘no 


reply — 


can be given to the overall question. 


At this level of complexity the im- 


portance of the paradigm can be clearly — 


perceived. For example, whether energy 


is seen as infinitely divisible or as quan- 
tized has enormous implications not only 


in physics but in the way in which we 
perceive the universe. Yet all the above 
three questions are clearly within Sci- 


ence, and largely even within particular 


sciences. Hence the solution of these 
questions, although frequently involving 


acrimonious controversy, remains dis- 
course between scientists, arguing scien- 


tifically. This does not mean that the 
‘‘right side’’ necessarily wins (at least 


initially), as the history of continental 


drift attests. 

A higher level of virulence is reached 
when the questions occur at the boun- 
daries of Science itself and scientists 
feel its domain threatened. The reader 
may test his own reactions by taking 


his blood pressure while contemplating - 


the following questions: ‘‘Is extrasensory 
perception real?’’, ‘‘Are UFO’s real?’’, 
‘Ts Velikovsky right?’’. Although a 
study of scientists’ responses to these 


questions (as distinct from answers to- 


them) would provide a great deal of 
insight into their social psychology, I 


have no intention of endangering any- | 
one’s health. I have therefore chosen | 


to examine the scientific history of a 


phenomenon which, although not really | 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


outside Science, seemed to be inex- 
plicable in terms of standard science. 
An additional advantage is that, al- 
though the subject in question en- 
gendered great controversy and gen- 
erated a voluminous literature, it is by 
now so nearly forgotten that hardly any- 
one will have preconceived ideas con- 
cerning it. The phenomenon is known 
as mitogenetic radiation. 

During 1922 and 1923 Alexander Gur- 
witsch, a Russian cytologist, published 
several papers and monographs (2) in 
which he reported a large number of 
experiments demonstrating the existence 
of a mitosis-stimulating radiation, soon 
named mitogenetic radiation. This radia- 
tion (MR) had its source in the cells 
and tissues of the organism and was 
given its name by Gurwitsch after he 
became convinced that the stimulus was 
oscillatory. Gurwitsch’s original experi- 
ments were done with onion roots (Fig. 
1); one root, the so-called sender, was 
held in a horizontal position close to 
and pointing directly toward another, 
the receptor, which was held in a 
vertical position. After some hours the 
tip of the receptor was killed, stained, 
sectioned, and subjected to microscopic 
examination. It was found that on one 
side of the receptor there were more 
cells in the process of division than on 
the opposite side. This indicated to Gur- 
witsch that the sender root had radiated 
some form of energy which accelerated 
cell division, or growth, in the receptor. 
To eliminate all possible effects due to 
volatile oils given off by the onion, 
and further to ascertain the nature of the 
emanation, Gurwitsch placed glass and 
quartz between the sender and receptor 
roots and found that increase in cell 
‘multiplication in the receptor only took 
place in the case of quartz. This con- 
stituted to Gurwitsch a confirmation of 
his hypothesis that the stimulus was 
oscillatory and lay in the ultraviolet re- 
gion of the spectrum, near 200 nm. 
Although at first ignored, Gurwitsch’s 
work soon stimulated work in many 
other laboratories. Numerous biological, 
chemical, and physical investigations 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Fig. 1. Arrangement for Gurwitsch’s onion-root 
experiment. A, detector root; B, capillary glass 
tube; C, metal tube; D, sending root; E, spot 
marked for sectioning, as seen in observation 
microscope. 


were conducted to study various aspects 
of the phenomenon. Many cells, tissues, 
and organisms were said to be sources 
of MR: bacteria, yeast, hydra, eggs of 
lower animals, plant seedlings, potatoes, 
beets, human, frog, and rat blood, 
cancerous tissue, and others. Even 
simple inorganic reactions were reported 
to be sources of MR. 

By the early 1930’s the literature of 
MR had become quite large—nearly 
600 papers and books—emanating not 
only from Gurwitsch’s laboratory but 
from research workers all over Europe 
and the United States. At least part 
of the reason for this great activity 
appears to lie in the general interest 
during this period in the interaction of 
radiation with biological materials. It 
was well known that radiation, par- 
ticularly in the shorter wavelengths, had 
great effects on cells. It was thus at 
least conceivable that biochemical reac- 
tions in cells might generate radiation. 
Those who reported positive results con- 
tinued to work out the characteristics 
of MR: the radiation generally extends 
over the range 190-250 nm with ex- 
tremely low intensity, 10—1000 quanta/ 
cm?/sec. Each system emits a charac- 
teristic spectrum, although related reac- 
tions frequently exhibit similar spectra. 
A selection of spectra is shown in Fig. 2. 


85 


1900 2000 2100 2200 2300 2400 2500A 


LL 
ee Oe ee ee 


Fig. 2. Mitogenetic spectra. 1. Reduction of Cu” to Cu (electrochem.). 2. Reduction of Zn” to Zn 
(electrochem.). 3. Reduction of Hg” to Hg (electrochem.). 4. Reaction, HCl + Zn, HCl + Cu, 
HCl + Mg, HCl + Al. Sa. Reduction of O,—O” (OH) (electrochem.). 5b. H—H, (electro- 
chem.). 6. Redox reaction, Fe,(SO,); + FeSO, (electrochem.). 7. Reaction, K.Cr,0; + FeSQOx. 
8. Reaction, FeCl; + NH,OH.HCI. 9. Reaction, KMnO, + H,O,. 10. Reaction, HgCl, + SnClo. 
11. Reaction, HNO; + FeSO,(+H,SO,). 12. Reaction, KCIO,; + Zn + NaOH. 13. Reaction, Pt © 
+ H,O,. 14. Reaction, KOH + pyrogallol. 15. Reaction, NaOH + HCl. 16. Photosynthesis. 17. 

(Cont'd. on following page) 


86 J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Many workers in the field, however, 
did not achieve positive results. Conse- 
quently, experimenters divided them- 
selves into two groups: on the one 
hand those, like Gurwitsch himself, who 
regarded the existence of the rays as 
established beyond dispute and there- 
fore pursued the ramifications of the 
phenomenon; and on the other hand 
those who felt that the phenomenon 
had never been sufficiently well estab- 
lished and that the fundamental experi- 
ments needed to be repeated. In the 
first category were inevitably some less 
than competent enthusiasts who failed 
to bring all relevant variables under con- 
trol, who reported only positive results, 
neglected negative ones, and so forth. 
Positive results, however, were appar- 
ently also obtained by careful and com- 
petent investigators, but some of these 
seem to have been insufficiently aware 
of the importance of statistical analysis. 

The problem of detecting such low in- 
tensity radiation by physical means was, 
even in 1936, at the limits of the state- 
of-the-art. The problems with Geiger- 
Miller tubes are discussed in a review 
by Hollaender and Claus (3). Most 
workers therefore used biological de- 
tectors, such as yeast cells and bac- 
teria. However, the biological detectors 
likewise have their problems. Cells nor- 
mally divide even in the absence of 
ultraviolet radiation, so the problem be- 
comes one of deciding how much more 
mitosis occurs in the presence of MR 
than in its absence, i.e. the statistical 
treatment of the data becomes very im- 
portant. Obviously the shielding of de- 
tectors from very low levels of ex- 
traneous radiation is also a problem. 

Since the intensity of the emitted radia- 
tion is very low to begin with and ex- 
tends over 60 nm, Hollaender (4) es- 


(Cont'd. from preceding page) 


timated that. allowing for the usual losses 
in the slit system, a system emitting 
100 quanta/cm?/sec would produce 3 
quanta in a 10 A spectral region over 
a 2-minute period. This radiation is sup- 
posed to be enough to cause 0.5 cc 
yeast suspension to increase its growth 
by 20%. If this effect is real. it cer- 
tainly implies a very high sensitivity 
of living matter to radiation. 

In 1934, after a careful review of the 
existing literature. Bateman (5) summed 
up the situation as follows: “‘The un- 
Satisfactory state of mitogenetic litera- 
ture makes it advisable to regard all 
that has been wnitten in support of the 
existence of mitogenetic radiation with 
the greatest skepticism. The existence 
of a mitogenetic effect has been neither 
finally proved nor finally disproved; the 
evidence against it, though extensive, 
is as yet insufficient. But supposing that 
a mitogenetic effect does exist, it is 
highly improbable that it has anything 
at all to do with ultraviolet radiation’’. 

In a review wnitten in 1936, Hol- 
laender (4), who had become interested 
in the problem, blamed Gurwitsch him- 
self for the uncertainty surrounding MR 
because “‘he tends pronouncedly to ac- 
cept the work of investigators whose 
data agree with his theornes and to 
reject almost entirely criticism of a con- 
tradictory nature. The result has been 
that a large number of scientific workers 
have become prejudiced against the prob- 
lem Gurwitsch has not pub- 
lished a clear-cut, detailed description 
of the methods he has found most 
successful.”’ 

The general interest in the effects of 
radiation on living organisms is indicated 
by the establishment in 1928 of a com- 
mittee of the National Research Coun- 
cil under the chairmanship of B. M. 


Glycolysis, spectrum from blood radiation (also obtained from corneal epithelium). 18. Phosphatase 


(action on phosphates). 


19. Breaking down of creatin phosphatase. 20. Protein digestion. 21. 


Reaction, amylase with maltose. 22. Reaction, cane sugar with yeast saccharase. 23. Reaction, 
urea with urease. 24. From resting nerve. 25. From nerve pulp. 26. Nerve mechanically stimulated 
(at point of stimulation). 27. Nerve electrically stimulated between electrodes. 28. Nerve, traumatic 
stimulus about 20 mm. from the trauma. 29. Nerve, electric stimulus 20 mm. from electrodes. 30. 
Nerve, conduction of stimulus (20 min.). 31. Small brain. 32. Large brain. 33. Optic nerve. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


87 


Duggar to support research in this area. 
A subcommittee on Mitogenetic Radia- 
tion, with I. F. Lewis as chairman, 
and including the physicists L. A. Du- 
Bridge (University of Rochester) and 
F. K. Richtmyer (Cornell) was set up. 
It decided to provide for an extensive 
study of the problem by Hollaender at 
the University of Wisconsin, and to 
assist other studies by DuBridge and by 
Rahn at Cornell. It was hoped that 
close cooperation between physicists 
and biologists would be fruitful. By 1935, 
this work was in progress. The 1935-36 
report of the Committee on Radiation 
mentions a grant of $7,500 from the 
Rockefeller Foundation to support the 
work of Hollaender and Claus at Wis- 
consin, and $1,800 to DuBridge and 
Berry for ‘‘an attempt, to establish, if 
possible, the existence of a stimulatory 
effect on bacterial cells exposed to ultra- 
violet radiation.’’ Quantitative studies of 
growth and metabolism at various levels 
of intensity were proposed. 

By July of 1936 the study by Hol- 
laender and Claus was completed and 
the subcommittee was discontinued. 
Their report was published as Bulletin 
100 of the National Research Council. 
In spite, or perhaps because, of ex- 
tremely careful work, they obtained no 
evidence for the existence of MR; i.e., 
all their results were negative. Yet they 
were properly cautious in not claiming 
to have disproved MR: ‘“‘Is the work 
reported here conclusive enough to be 
considered incontrovertible evidence 
of the non-existence of mitogenetic rays? 
Such evidence has not and cannot be 
produced by any investigation, since it 
is logically not possible to prove that a 
phenomenon as described by Gurwitsch 
does not exist. . . . While we recog- 
nize the hopelessness of the present 
situation in reference to the mitogenetic 
problem, we shall not hesitate to start 
work again on it if ‘‘successful’’ investi- 
gators fulfill the conditions as we have 
outlined them. We should not hesitate 
to continue this work; in fact we should 
hope to be given the opportunity in 
the future to return to this problem if 


88 


we felt that the evidence warranted 
another attack on it.’”’ 

In spite of the carefully drawn dis- 
tinction between proof and disproof, 
the effect of the report was profound. 


Publication in this field virtually ceased. 


Since I have no evidence that publica- 
tion of further work was prevented or 
suppressed, it seems most likely that we 
are simply seeing the voluntary ac- 
ceptance of authority by scientists. The 
reasoning is simple: if all this careful 
work could not prove the existence of 
the phenomenon, how could I hope to do 
better? Even if I did, would my work 
be accepted or would I just be jeopardiz- 
ing my career? 

Nevertheless, in 1943 the Faraday 
Society sponsored a symposium at which 
MR was discussed. The French photo- 
chemist Audubert (6) reported that ultra- 
violet radiation of the intensity claimed 
for MR was emitted by a variety of 
inorganic reactions and had been de- 
tected by purely physical methods. Gur- 
witsch (7) presented a paper in which 
he claimed that as a result of photo- 
chemical work the physical basis for 
MR had been firmly established. Pre- 
viously, one of the conceptual dilemmas 
had arisen from the fact that the appear- 
ance of ultraviolet photons, correspond- 
ing to energies of 150 kcal, was in- 
consistent with the overall energies of the 
reactions which were much lower. Gur- 
witsch now argued that the observed 
energies could only arise from the com- 
bination of free radicals which must be 
present at very low concentrations. Al- 
though these papers appeared to offer 
both a plausible explanation for MR 
and a number of hypotheses suscep- 
tible to experimental investigation, their 
impact in stimulating further work seems 
to have been negligible. 

Nevertheless, although research on 
MR in the Western countries apparently 
ended after 1943, Gurwitsch and his 
collaborators continued work at a labo- 
ratory in Moscow. In 1959, after the 
death of A. G. and L. D. Gurwitsch, 
a book authored by them (8) was pub- 
lished in East Germany. In the intro- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


duction to this book, which contains a 
great deal of experimental information, 
the authors state that the results of MR 
are not easily fit into standard science. 
They therefore considered two tasks pos- 
sible for workers in the field: (a) to 
develop theories consistent with both 
‘‘classical’’ biology and with MR. This 
is desirable, but beyond the powers of 
the investigators. (b) Perform studies 
within the framework of MR which are 
not contradicted by the exact results 
of classical biology; the explanations 
developed must be testable. The nature 
of the “‘non-classical’’ results is de- 
scribed as follows: a number of micro- 
events of chemical, biological, and physi- 
cal nature can be detected only by 
non-classical techniques. They largely 
consist of statistically improbable events, 
e.g., the absorption of photons by only 
a few molecules at the beginning of 
a chain reaction leading to important 
events in cell division. 

Not surprisingly, the authors criticize 
the work of Hollaender and Claus (al- 
though they admit it is carefully done) 
on the basis that previously untested 
bacteria were used, that the cultures 
were not aged sufficiently, and that the 
exposure time was too short. They insist 
that negative results are only convincing 
if it can be shown that positive results 
have been incorrectly interpreted. 

In a review of the book, published 
in 1960 (9), Hollaender expresses sur- 
prise that MR is still with us and at- 
tributes this to the attractiveness of the 
phenomenon (if it existed) and to Gur- 
witsch’s ‘‘integrity, imagination, and 
drive’’ which persuaded Soviet author- 
ities to support his work for so long. 
He feels that the reason for Gurwitsch’s 
_ failure to induce others to take up work 
on MR lay in the failure of others to 
repeat Gurwitsch’s results. However, 
this overstates the case since in fact 
many others did reproduce Gurwitsch’s 
results, although Hollaender himself (and 
others equally competent) did not. 

We have here an interesting dilemma 
in scientific methodology which may be 
summarized as follows: Gurwitsch: If 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


positive results cannot be shown to be 
the result of incorrect experimentation or 
interpretation, they must be regarded as 
valid. Negative results only show that 
the experimenter did not perform the 
same experiment (no matter what he 
thought he was doing) and therefore 
they do not invalidate the positive results. 
Hollaender: It is logically impossible to 
establish the non-existence of a phe- 
nomenon, but the repeatability of experi- 
ments is at the essence of science, and 
if many investigators cannot repeat an 
experiment, this may not logically dis- 
prove the existence of the phenomenon 
but one must not be surprised if they 
cease working on the problem. 

Both positions are defensible, but 
historically it is obvious which won out. 
Since there were many investigators on 
both sides of the issue, it is clear 
that the authority of some carries more 
weight than that of others. This kind 
of authority is very different from the 
authority actively exercised by an in- 
dividual. Rather, it flows to him from 
a community which attributes certain de- 
sirable qualities to him. The result is 
that such an individual’s judgment, 
whether right or wrong in a particular 
instance, will be given great weight in 
forming the perceived reality and may 
outweigh that of a much larger number 
of persons not held in such esteem. 
In other fields this phenomenon is well 
known and described by the term 
‘opinion leader.’’ Yet, although scien- 
tists pride themselves on their inde- 
pendence of thought, my little history 
(and other examples I could equally 
well have chosen) show that even when 
doing science, scientists do not behave 
so differently from what has been ob- 
served for human group behavior 
generally. 

We must now ask whether the kind 
of situation I have described can be 
eliminated or, at least, whether the de- 
pendence on authority can be lessened. 
Given the natural proclivities of human 
beings, the answer is not encouraging. 
Probably the best we can do is to 
make sure that such dependence is 


89 


voluntary, rather than that it arises from 
the stifling of opposing views. Recently 
there have been complaints about the 
proliferation of journals and the dif- 
ficulties of keeping up with the litera- 
ture in various fields. However, this 
proliferation does serve to facilitate 
access to the scientific community even 
by those whose findings are contro- 
versial, since it is unlikely that a given 
work that has some merit will be turned 
down by every journal. Thus a mul- 
tiplicity of communication channels 
fosters scientific democracy. 

Aside from providing for maximum 
communication of ideas between scien- 
tists, there is a more personal duty 
that obligates every scientist to examine 
himself for bias and dogmatism. This 
point was expressed most strongly by 
Jacob Bronowski in his TV series ‘‘The 
Ascent of Man’’: the greatest fault in 
science is to be totally certain. In 
science, aS in politics, it leads to 
totalitarianism and inhumanity. 

Although it has not been my purpose 
to decide whether MR exists, but only 
to use it as an illustration of some as- 
pects of authority in science, it is inter- 
esting to speculate on a possible future 
for the subject. In 1954 Commoner, 
Townsend, and Pake (10) reported de- 
tecting (by paramagnetic resonance) low 
concentrations of free radicals in a wide 
variety of biological tissues. These radi- 
cals are associated with metabolic ac- 
tivity in both plant and animal material. 
Since then, the importance of free radi- 
cals in biological systems has become 


90 


well recognized. For example, the 
biological degradation of molecular oxy- 
gen involves superoxide, perhydroxyl, 
and hydroxyl radicals, and may give rise 
to some kinds of bioluminescence (11). 
Similar studies on inorganic systems 
have, to my knowledge, not yet been 
carried out. Whether any of these reac- 
tions give rise to low-intensity ultra- 
violet radiation is a question which 
has not yet been answered. Certainly the 
physical detectors available now are far 
more sensitive than those of forty years 
ago. It would be interesting if, as a 
result of my historical and sociological 
musings, someone were stimulated to 
devise at long last a critical test for 
mitogenetic radiation. 


References Cited 


(1) ef. B. Barber, Science 134, 596 (1961). 

(2) e.g., A. Gurwitsch, Arch. f. Entwicklungs- 
mech. /00, 11 (1923). 

(3) A. Hollaender and W. D. Claus, J. Optical 
Soc. 25, 270 (1935). 

(4) A. Hollaender, in ‘“‘Biological Effects of 
Radiation,’’ Vol. II, B. J. Duggar, ed., 
McGraw Hill Book Co., New York, 1936. 

(5) J. B. Bateman, Biol. Revs. 1/0, 42 (1934). 

(6) R. Audubert, Trans. Faraday Soc. 39, 197 
(1943). 

(7) Y. I. Frenkel and A. G. Guy 
39, 201 (1943). 

(8) ‘‘Die mitogenetische Strahlung,’’ A. G. Gur- 
witsch and L. D. Gurwitsch, Gustav 
Fischer, Jena, 1959. 

(9) A. Hollaender, Quart. Rev. Biol. 35, 246 
(1960). 

(10) B. Commoner, J. Townsend, and G. E. Pake, 
Nature 174, 689 (1954). 

(11) I. Fridovich, Am. Scientist 63, 54. (1975). 


ibid. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


National Mosquito Control—Fish and Wildlife 


Coordination Committee: 
A Status Report’ 


Claude H. Schmidt 


Agricultural Research Service, U. S. Department of Agriculture, Fargo, North 
Dakota, 58102, and Chairman of the Committee. 


ABSTRACT 


The purpose of this committee, created in 1960 in Washington, D. C., is to establish 
mechanisms that will stimulate and promote mutual objectives and closer working 
relationships between mosquito control and wildlife conservations interests. Over the past 
fifteen years, the committee has striven to meet this mandate. 


All too often people communicate 
only with others in their own interest 
group, although there is a real need to 
expand communications to include other 
disciplines, especially those that are re- 
lated. The history of the National 
Mosquito Control— Fish & Wildlife Co- 
ordination Committee is a case in point. 
It was established to provide mechanisms 
that would stimulate and promote mutual 
objectives and closer working relation- 
ships between mosquito control and wild- 
life conservation interests. So here is 
some background on this interdiscipline 
group, including a report on what has 
been accomplished over the past 15 years 
and what is being done now. 

In the late fifties, there was little 
cooperation and even less coordination 
between mosquito control and wildlife 
management groups. Each did its own 
thing to accomplish its objectives and 
had little or no concern about the 
interest or problems of the other. In 
fact, at times these groups worked at 
cross purposes. For example, an area 
would be drained to control mosquitoes 
and would thereby be rendered useless 
for fish and wildlife; or impoundments 
for fish and wildlife would be created, 


‘Based on a talk given at the annual meeting, 
Entomological Society of America, Dec. 3, 1974, 
Minneapolis, Minn. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


and there would be hordes of mosquitoes 
as a consequence. It became evident, 
as one member of our committee (Van- 
note, 1971) so aptly put it, that ‘‘Co- 
ordination cannot exist until there is 
mutual understanding of common prob- 
lems. And there must be mutual trust 
established between parties—and the 
establishment of mutual trust between 
parties can only be obtained by approach- 
ing common problems in good faith.”’ 
How could this concept be fostered and 
implemented? Well, two men of fore- 
sight, Dr. Paul Springer of the Fish and 
Wildlife Service and Mr. Robert L. 
Vannote of the American Mosquito 
Control Association, got together and 
discussed the need for coordination and 
cooperation between fish and wildlife 
workers and mosquito workers, espe- 
cially in situations where the interests 
of both were involved. By using these 
discussions as a springboard, these two 
men were able to promote the idea of 
coordination that resulted in a symposium 
on ‘‘Coordination of Mosquito Control 
and Wildlife Management”’ held in April 
1959 in Washington, D. C. One of the 
resolutions adopted at that meeting is as 
follows (Springer and Vannote, 1961): 


‘‘WHEREAS it is the opinion of this Symposium 
that coordination between mosquito and wildlife 
conservation is most desirable; now therefore, be it 

“RESOLVED, that this symposium recom- 


91 


mends the formation of a national joint commit- 
tee consisting of three members representing wild- 
life conservation; and three members representing 
the mosquito control interests, consisting of one 
member of the U. S. Department of Agriculture, 
one member of the U. S. Public Health Service, 
and one member from the American Mosquito 
Control Association; and be it further 
‘‘RESOLVED, that this committee organize 
as soon as is practicable after approval of the 
Federal interests involved, for the purpose of 
investigating the avenues of coordination between 
mosquito control and wildlife conservation, par- 
ticularly in respect to research and operation.”’ 


In accordance with the resolution, 
the following persons were designated in 
1959 by the government agencies and 
wildlife conservation groups to form the 
committee: 


Dr. Paul F. Springer, U. S. Fish and 
Wildlife Service, Secretary 

Dr. Ken A. Quarterman, U. S. Public 
Health Service 

Dr. A. W. Lindquist, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture 

Mr. Robert L. Vannote, American 
Mosquito Control Assoc., Chair- 
man 

Dr. Ira Gabrielson, Wildlife Man- 
agement Institute 

Mr. Elwood A. Seaman, American 
Fisheries Society 


Nine months after the resolution was 
passed, January 29, 1960, the first meet- 
ing of this committee took place in 
Washington. At the first meeting, an 
important item of business was the name 
of the group. Even today, many people, 
when they first hear about the committee, 
wonder about the very long name. After 
much discussion, it was concluded that 
every word was significant and that 
none of the words could be left out if the 
name was to convey the true nature of 
the committee’s charge. The long title 
was approved, National Mosquito Con- 
trol— Fish and Wildlife Coordination 
Committee. 

With the name settled, the committee 
drew up the following list of objectives 
(Springer and R. L. Vannote, 1961): 


1. To coordinate mosquito control and fish 
and wildlife management policies on national, state, 
and local levels. 


92 


2. To gather and disseminate relevant informa- 
tion and suggest standards on mosquito control 
techniques consistent with sound fish and wildlife 
management objectives. 

3. To gather and disseminate relevant informa- 
tion and suggest standards on fish and wildlife 
management techniques consistent with sound 
mosquito centrol objectives. 

4. To stimulate needed research and demonstra- 
tion projects relating to mosquito control and fish 
and wildlife management practices. 

5. To sponsor suitable meetings to further the 
purposes of this committee. 

6. To cooperate with agencies, organizations, 
and all others whose activities may relate to 
those of this committee. 


The 6 members of the committee had 
their job cut out in implementing these 
objectives, and the work was in addition 
to their other full-time duties. They felt 
the best way to begin was to prepare a 
special brochure to inform all interested 
parties about the membership of the 
committee and the objectives. The bro- 
chure also contained an invitation for 
suggestions on how the committee could 
best serve the mutual interests of the two 
other groups. 

The next project the committee tackled 
was a questionnaire that was sent out to 
all mosquito abatement districts and wild- 
life management working groups. They 
were requested to list, in priority order, 
the most important problems facing the 
respective groups. The response was 
excellent, and over 100 questionnaires 
were returned. The committee also wrote 
to all the fund granting agencies in the 
United States suggesting that it would be 
in the public interest and would also 
further the aims of the committee if 
(Quarterman, 1962) ‘‘such projects not 
be approved until they had been ex- 
panded to include a joint approach by 
representatives of both groups in cases 
where it was obvious that a joint ap- 
proach was needed in order to find a 
solution which would be usable. We 
should not spend public monies or re- 
search grant monies in an attempt to solve 
a problem only to find when we have 
apparently solved it from one point of 
view, a new problem results for another 
interest, which makes it impractical to 
use that apparent solution. The reason- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


able procedure is to work out jointly a 

solution to the problem so that it will be 

usable by both groups.’’ That statement 

aptly expresses the basic philosophy of 
the committee. 


The committee also wrote (Quarter- 


man, 1962), ‘“‘To all of the state fish 
and game commissions, state health 
departments, and state departments of 
agriculture, to universities which had 
entomotogy or wildlife departments that 
might be involved in either sponsoring 
or applying for a research grant to 
solve a problem in this field, again 
pointing out the necessity of approaching 
the problems as joint undertakings by the 
two groups.”’ 

For the first 2 years, the committee’s 
activities were quite extensive. The 
stamps, letterhead stationery, question- 
naires, and brochures were paid for by 
the contributions from many fish and 
wildlife societies and mosquito control 
groups. And every time the committee 
needed additional operating funds, they 
were obtained from both interests. 

The membership of the committee re- 
mained at 6 until 1971 when a new 
governmental unit, the Environmental 
Protection Agency, was formed. Since 
the aim of that agency reflected many 
of the objectives of our committee, 
we invited William D. Ruckelshaus, the 
Administrator of EPA, to designate a 
representative. This was done, and 
Thomas Devaney joined our group. Now 
we have 7. 

Let us take a look at the track record 
—what has been accomplished. 

During 14 years, from 1960 to 1974, 8 
meetings of conferences were co- 
sponsored by our committee as follows: 

1. Conference for Coordinated Program on 
_ Wildhfe Management and Mosquito Suppression, 
Yosemite National Park, October 15-18, 1962. 

2. 2nd Yosemite Conference—Coordinated 
Program on Wildlife Management and Mosquito 
Yosemite National Park, May 3—6, 
1964. 

3. First Gulf Conference on Mosquito Suppres- 
sion and Wildlife Management, Lafayette, 
Louisiana, 1964. 

4. Northeastern Conference on Mosquito Sup- 


pression and Wildlife Management, Newton, 
Massachusetts, April 20-22, 1966. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


5. Southeastern Conference on Mosquito Sup- 
pression and Wildlife Management, a joint meet- 
ing with the Florida Anti-Mosquito Association, 
Cocoa Beach, Florida, October 21-23, 1970. 

6. 2nd Gulf Coast Conference on Mosquito 
Suppression and Wildlife Management, New 
Orleans, Louisana, October 20-22, 1971, held in 
conjunction with the annual meetings of the 
Louisiana Mosquito Control Association and Gulf 
States Council on Wildlife Fisheries and Mosquito 
Control. 

7. Joint meeting with Northwest Mosquito and 
Vector Control Association, Eugene, Oregon, 
October 31 to November 2, 1972. 

8. Joint meeting with the North Central Region 
—American Mosquito Control Association and 
the Hlinois Mosquito Control Association, Chicago, 
Illinois, March 25-26, 1974. 


These regional meetings provided a 
place where mutual problems could be 
discussed freely and dispassionately. 
There was an additional advantage in 
holding them in different geographical 
areas because the participants and the 
committee members could get a first- 
hand look at local problems and how 
they were being resolved. Some of the 
proceedings of these meetings are still 
available, especially the more recent 
ones. 

There was a secondary, longer-lasting 
effect from at least 4 of these con- 
ferences and meetings—the formation of 
state and regional coordination commit- 
tees patterned after the national commit- 
tee. These organizations were apparently 
sparked by the comment of Dr. Quarter- 
man at the First Yosemite Conference 
(Quarterman, 1962): ‘‘Perhaps this is the 
time when you would want to consider 
organizing a coordinating committee at 
the state level, certainly in California, 
perhaps in other nearby states such as 
Utah, where there is considerable mos- 
quito control and wildlife management 
activity going on. Such a committee 
could meet at regular intervals and con- 
sider mutual problems and try to organize 
joint approaches to the solutions. I think 
you would find that this would go a long 
way towards solving problems that affect 
both groups.”’ 

The Utah delegates got the message. 
As soon as they got back home, the 
Utah Mosquito Control— Fish and Wild- 


93 


life Management Committee was formed. 
It consisted of representatives of three 
agencies: Don M. Rees, Division of 
Zoology and Entomolegy, University of 
Utah; Donald A. Smith, Waterfowl 
Supervisor, Utah Department of Fish 
and Game; Jessop B. Low, Utah Co- 
operative Wildlife Research Unit, Bureau 
of Sport Fisheries and Wildlife. This 
group has been very active in sponsor- 
ing meetings and field trips and several 
demonstration projects of great im- 
portance in wildlife management and 
mosquito control. 

The California group was not far be- 
hind. They organized their coordinating 
committee following the 2nd Yosemite 
conference in 1964. This committee was 
composed of representatives of 5 or- 
ganizations: The California Mosquito 
Control Association, The California 
State Department of Fish and Game, The 
California Department of Public Health, 
The University of California, and The 
U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service. Mr. 
Oscar V. Lopp, the representative of the 
California Mosquito Control Associa- 
tion, played a key role in the forma- 
tion of this group and served as its 
first chairman. 

The third group, the Northern Gulf 
Coordinating Council, was formed in 
Louisiana in 1965 as a result of the 
First Gulf Conference on Mosquito 
Suppression and Wildlife Management. 
The chief purpose was to create friendly 
relations among wildlife, fisheries, and 
mosquito-control interests. This group 
has stressed the concept of coordina- 
tion and has expanded it to include a 
multitude of cooperative efforts with 
rice farmers, cattlemen, shrimp and 
crawfish farmers, and landowners. | 

A fourth group was formed as the 
result of the Northeastern Conference 
on Mosquito Suppression and Wildlife 
Management held in Massachusetts in 
1966. Mr. Robert W. Spencer, president 
of the Northeastern Mosquito Control 
Association, had an active role in this 
endeavor. 

The National Mosquito Control— Fish 
and Wildlife Coordination Committee, in 


94 


addition to helping to form local and re- 
gional groups, has provided much in- 
formation to the public through answers 
to the many inquiries it has received 
over the years. For example, in the 
spring of 1968, problems developed in 
Toledo, Ohio, over the use of fenthion 
formulated as Baytex®, an organo- 
phospate insecticide that had been 
substituted for DDT 4 or 5 years before. 
Much controversy had developed as a 
result of several newspaper articles. 
Because of the problem, the Toledo 
Area Sanitary District in cooperation 
with the U. S. Fish and Wildlife Service 
ran several tests to evaluate the aerial 
application of fenthion in an area west of 
Toledo. Mr. Robert Vannote repre- 
sented our Committee at these tests. 

In 1970, the committee decided to re- 
vise the brochure prepared in 1960 be- 
cause the situation had changed during 
the intervening years. As an example, 
there was now a great deal of interest 
by the public in all things environmental. 
The point was made in the revised 
brochure that on the one hand, our health 
must be protected, but on the other, 
ecological significance of mosquitoes and 
the methods of controlling them must be 


_well understood. Also our environment 


must be protected against the potential 
hazards of pesticides, biological control 
agents, and other nonchemical methods 
of mosquito control; so the benefits 
and risks must be carefully weighed 
before decisions are made and programs 
implemented. When chemicals are used, 
water levels altered, or certain wild- 
life management practices followed, the 
environment for fish, birds, insects, and 
other beneficial creatures in the treated 
area rarely remains undisturbed. Conse- 
quently the application of management 
procedures by personnel who have not 
carefully anticipated possible detrimental 
consequences can stimulate controver- 
sies. Thus managers of each specialized 
activity, be it mosquito control or fish 
and wildlife management, should have 
some appreciation of the objectives of 
the others. This points out the need 
for guidelines for field applications. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCL, VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Our current project is the develop- 
ment of a set of broad guidelines for 
effective mosquito control which is being 
prepared under the direction of Dr. 
Frank Murphy, who represents the 
American Mosquito Control Association 
on the committee. We hope to have 
this in print within 6 months. 

The present representation on the com- 
- mittee is as follows: 


Environmental Protection 
Agency 

Wildlife Management 
Institute 

Fish and Wildlife Service, 
U. S. Department of 
Interior 

American Mosquito 
Control Association 

Agricultural Research 
Service, U. S. 
Department of 
Agriculture 

Center for Disease Control, 
U. S. Department of 


James W. Akerman! 
Lawrence R. Jahn 


Jerry R. Longcore 


Frank J. Murphey 


Claude H. Schmidt? 


James V. Smith 


1Secretary 
2Chairman 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Health, Education and 
Welfare 

American Fisheries 
Society 


Richard A. Wade 


Over the years this committee has had 
a useful function. And during the past 5 
years, there has been a great intensifica- 
tion of public concern over the environ- 
ment. I believe that the committee has 
previously and will now respond to this 
concern by providing a forum where 
problems of mutual interest can be dis- 
cussed. 


References Cited 


Vannote, R. L. 1971. 2nd Gulf Coast Conference 
on Mosquito Suppression and Wildlife Manage- 
ment. Proc. 48 pages. 

Springer, P. F., and R. L. Vannote 1961. Ac- 
tivities of the National Mosquito Control— 
Fish and Wildlife Management Coordination 
Committee. Mosquito News 21(2): 158-160. 

Quarterman, K. O. 1962. Message from the 
National Mosquito Control—Fish and Wildlife 
Management Committee. Conference for Co- 
ordinated Program on Wildlife Management and 
Mosquito Suppression held at Yosemite Na- 
tional Park. Proc.: 18-22. 


95 


HISTORY 


Some Aspects of the Early History 
of Penicillin in the United States 


Percy A. Wells 


Formerly Director, Eastern Regional Research Laboratory, Agricultural Re- 


search Service, 


U. S. Department of Agriculture, Wyndmoor, Pennsylvania 


Present address: 1223 Wheatsheaf Lane, Abington, Pa. 19001 


ABSTRACT 


When Nobel laureate, Sir Howard Walter Florey, and his associate, Dr. Norman 
Heatley, came to the United States from Oxford, England in 1941 seeking help in 
the production of a sufficient quantity of penicillin for conclusive clinical evalua- 
tion, they were directed through a chain of persons to USDA’s Northern Regional 
Research Laboratory. There the problem of penicillin production was essentially 
solved in a remarkably short time by the discovery that corn steep liquor greatly 
enhanced penicillin yields. The story of these bits of penicillin history is recounted. 


The story of penicillin has many inter- 
esting facets and much has been written 
about it and the principal people who 
participated in its discovery and devel- 
opment into one of man’s greatest weap- 
ons against infectious diseases. The 
name of Fleming, I suppose, will always 
be remembered as the discoverer of peni- 
cillin as indeed he was. Curiously, he 
failed to follow up on his momentous 
discovery, and it lay dormant in the 
scientific literature for almost a decade 
until Dr. Howard Walter Florey and his 
group of researchers at Oxford Univer- 
sity in England carried out their studies 
on antibacterial substances. 
these was penicillin. It is to Florey’s 
genius, then, that we owe our thanks in 
establishing the clinical usefulness of 
penicillin in treating many of the common 
infectious diseases. We owe him further 
for his inspiration in coming to the United 
States at the right time and finding the 


96 


Among- 


kind of help he needed to bring his dis- 
covery to complete fruition. 

It was my good fortune to play a small 
role in the penicillin drama. In my book 
Dr. Florey was one of the world’s great 
benefactors and I shall always be grate- 
ful for the opportunity I had for helping 


this great man fulfill his dream. 


It was indeed a miracle that Florey 
ever found the route to success here in 
the United States in making penicillin 
available economically in quantities ade- 


quate for large-scale use in medicine. In 


football parlance it required a quadruple 


pass with no fumbles for the ball to reach 


me and then one more pass for me to get 
Florey’s problem to the one place in the 
world where the job could best be done. 
That place was the Northern Regional 
Research Laboratory of the United 


States Department of Agriculture in 


Peoria, Illinois. This whole ‘‘series of 
plays’’ occurred in a remarkably short 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


period of time, considering the geography 
involved. From Oxford, England to New 
York. From New York to New Haven. 
From New Haven to Washington, D. C. 
And finally from Washington to Peoria. 

None of the participants knew that by 
the time Florey’s problem reached Peoria 
the ‘‘game’’ was won. The background 
and details of this fantastic story are well 
told by Lennard Bickel in his biography 
of Florey (1). The episode that occurred 
in the United States is described in Chap- 
ter 11 of this book. Since my part re- 
mains crystal clear in my memory, I 
want to set down some additional details 
that may be of interest. 

At the time of Florey’s visit to the 
United States in 1941 I was Director of 
USDA’s Eastern Regional Research 
Laboratory with headquarters in Wynd- 
moor, Pa., a small suburb of Philadel- 
phia. How did it happen that I was in 
Washington, D. C. on July 9 of that 
year when Dr. Florey and his associate, 
Dr. Normal Heatley, were brought to my 
temporary office by Dr. Charles Thom, 
world famous mycologist, of USDA’s 
Bureau of Plant Industry? I have to con- 
fess that I was there that afternoon much 
against my will and thereby hangs an 
interesting detail of this story. 

When USDA’s four Regional Re- 
search Laboratories were authorized by 
the Congress in February, 1938 for the 
purpose of developing new uses for 
farm products, Mr. H. T. Herrick, as 
head of our Bureau’s Industrial Farm 
Products Division, became deeply in- 
volved in the programs and plans for 
these new institutions. Eventually he was 
promoted to the position of Assistant 
Chief of the Bureau of Agricultural and 
Industrial Chemistry and the operations 
_ of the four new laboratories were placed 
under his direction. 

It so happened that Mr. Herrick had a 
great passion for traveling and in his new 
position found much need and oppor- 
tunity for exercising this urge. Eventually 
our Chief, Dr. Henry G. Knight, im- 
posed the restriction that he would have 
to be at his Washington, D. C. head- 
quarters long enough to perform his 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 - 


pressing duties there. Herrick was chas- 
tened but undaunted by this new direc- 
tive and he set about to arrange things 
so that he could pursue his travels. He 
not only hatched a scheme to accomplish 
this but also succeeded in having Dr. 
Knight issue orders putting the plan into 
effect. 

The plan was simple and direct. It re- 
quired each of the four Regional Labora- 
tory Directors to spend two months each 
year in Washington, D. C. These tours 
of duty were to last for one month and the 
Directors were to serve in rotation. 
From Mr. Herrick’s point of view the 
plan was perfect—it would afford him a 
cover for his job there in Washington 
during eight months of the year and 
would permit him to travel at will. I was 
the first to be ‘‘hooked’’ for this duty and 
my first service under the plan was, 
during July 1941. 

Accordingly I reported for duty in 
Washington on July 1, and sure enough, 
Mr. Herrick promptly left on an extended 
trip. Thus I was sitting in his chair on 
the afternoon of July 9 and serving as 
acting Assistant Chief of our Bureau. I 
wasn’t very happy over this turn of 
events. 

On the afternoon of July 9 Carl Speh, 
who headed our Bureau’s enlarging de- 
fense activities, had called a meeting for 
2 pm. Shortly after 1:30 the corridor 
door opened and into my office walked 
Dr. Charles Thom, whom I Knew well, 
with two men in tow. He introduced his 
guests as Dr. Howard Florey and Dr. 
Norman Heatley. They were from Ox- 
ford, England and they had urgent busi- 
ness relating to the production of peni- 
cillin by Fleming’s Penicillium notatum. 
Dr. Florey was the spokesman and he 
quickly summarized his work, his hopes 
and his needs. 

As I listened it seemed to me that 
the solution to his problem was clear. He 
wanted to make a quantity of penicillin 
by mold fermentation to extent his clini- 
cal studies. It so happened that mold 
fermentation was my special field of work 
as it has been from 1930 until 1939 when 
I left to assume charge of the Bureau’s 


97 


Eastern Regional Research Laboratory. 
Our fermentation group, formerly lo- 
cated at the Bureau’s Color Laboratory 
on the Arlington Experimental Farm 
across the Potomac River from Washing- 
ton, D. C., had been transferred to our 


Northern Laboratory in Peoria, Illinois 


when that facility was completed late in 
1940. There we had excellent arrange- 
ments for this kind of work and many 
years of research experience in both mold 
and bacterial fermentations. My mind 
was made up. Florey and Heatley should 
go there for help. It was not a difficult 
decision at all. The matter of low peni- 
cillin yields didn’t faze me. Improving 
yields of products was one of our princi- 
pal objectives in every fermentation we 
studied and we generally succeeded. 
We discussed the matter briefly and I 
explained my thinking. Dr. Florey 
readily accepted my decision. Imme- 
diately I began writing a telegram to my 
friend and. close associate, Dr. Orville E. 
May, Director of our Bureau’s Northern 
Regional Research Laboratory ex- 
plaining the mission of Florey and 
Heatley and asking if certain equipment 
was available. Our master machinist 
Rudolph Hellbach had several years 
earlier constructed a pilot type shallow 
pan aluminum fermenter which I knew 
would be useful, but I was aware from our 
experiences at Wyndmoor in starting up 
our operations that the fermenter might 
still be uncrated after its transfer journey 
from the Color Laboratory to Peoria. I 
recall now with some amusement that I 
interrupted my writing of the telegram to 
check with Dr. Florey on the correct 
spelling of his name. He nodded to indi- 
cate I had it night. I completed the wire to 
Dr. May and told our visitors that I 
would have an answer for them the fol- 
lowing morning and suggested to Dr. 
Florey that he call me about ten o’clock. 
We shook hands and my three visitors 
left the office. They had come, of course, 
to see Mr. Herrick but found me there 
instead. I looked at the clock. It was 
exactly 2 PM. I gave my long-hand 
telegram to Mr. Herrick’s secretary and 
sped off to our Bureau’s Defense Com- 


98 


mittee meeting, not realizing what im- 
portant events of the future had just been 
brewed. 

My message of July 9 to Dr. May and 
his reply that same day were terse com- 
munications. Mine read ‘‘Thom has 
introduced Heatley and Florey of Ox- 
ford. Here to investigate pilot scale 
production of bacteriostatic material 
from Fleming Penicillium in connection 
with medical defense plans. Can you 
arrange for shallow pan setup to estab- 
lish laboratory results.’’ His reply read 
‘*Pan set and organisms available Heat- 
ley and Florey experimentation. Details 
of work, of course, unknown. Suggest 
they visit Peoria for discussions. Labora- 
tory in position to cooperate imme- 
diately.”’ 

The following morning Dr. Florey 
called me from his hotel in Washington 
and-I was able to tell him that all was in 
readiness for their visit. He told me they 
would leave Washington Sunday evening 
and would expect to arrive in Peoria at 
about noon on Monday, July 14. They 
arrived as planned and were engaged in 
discussions that same afternoon with Dr. 
May and his associates at the Northern 
Laboratory. Momentous decisions and 
plans were made that day. Dr. Florey 
produced his culture of the organism 
they had been using at Oxford to make 
penicillin. It was agreed that Dr. Heatley 
would stay on at the Northern Labora- 
tory to assist in the work and to teach 
the NRRL personnel their method of 
penicillin assay. That tour of duty for 
Heatley lasted a whole year. 

Regretfully I never saw Florey or 
Heatley again after our meeting on July 9. 
As I write this in 1975 it seems a bit 
strange that Florey accepted so quickly 
my proposal for them to go to the North- 
ern Laboratory. After all, he was a free 
agent and had other places in mind where 
he would seek help. Why should he have 
accepted without hesitation? I can only 
surmise that it was the prestigious people 
that brought him and Dr. Heatley to us— 
Florey’s friend John Fulton in New 
Haven, Connecticut; Prof. Ross Harri- 
son, President of the National Academy 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


of Science; Dr. Charles Thom, world 
famous USDA mycologist. I might have 
had some influence too. I know I was 
very confident that our Northern Labora- 
tory associates could help them. Florey 
later wrote of our meeting as being ‘‘very 
friendly.”’ Whatever the reasons, they 
were part of the miracle that Dr. Robert 
Coghill, leader of the penicillin project 
at the Northern Laboratory, wrote 
about many years later (2). He said in 
part, “‘Penicillin has often been re- 
ferred to as a miracle drug, but one of 
the least understood miracles connected 
with it is that Florey and Heatley were 
directed to our Peoria laboratory.”’ 

In writing this Dr. Coghill had some- 
thing else in mind. He went on to say “‘I 
do not say this because I feel that we 
were smarter or knew more than other 
fermentation people or had a better 
understanding of the penicillin problem, 
but because it was, I am sure, the only 
laboratory in the country where the corn 
steep liquor medium would have been 
discovered. Moreover, with us it was no 
flash of genius, as has sometimes been 
suggested, but a simple routine proce- 
dure. We had tried corn steep liquor in 
every fermentation problem we ever 
studied. The discovery of its key place 
in a penicillin medium was foreordained 
and inevitable once the problem was 
assigned to our Fermentation Division.’’ 

I have to agree with Dr. Coghill that 
getting Florey and Heatley to the Peoria 
laboratory was indeed miraculous. It 
was their physical presence at the place 
where the answer to the penicillin pro- 
duction problem existed long before they 
arrived. It took a kind of fate to bring 
the question and answer together. In the 
research work at Peona it developed 
that corn steep liquor added to the cul- 
ture medium in the right amount was the 
key to success in making penicillin. The 
background of the story of its use by 
nutritional mycologist Dr. Andrew Jack- 
son Moyer precedes the very existence 
of the Northern Regional Research 
Laboratory. 

The story goes back to 1925 when the 
team of Herrick and May began the mold 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


fermentation studies at the former Color 
Laboratory of USDA’s Bureau of Chem- 
istry. The mold and bacterial fermenta- 
tions were studied there, leading to the 
production of gluconic acid, citric acid, 
kojic acid, lactic acid, the keto-gluconic 
acids, and l-sorbose. There was as- 
sembled the group of chemists and my- 
cologists that was to play such a crucial 
role in the penicillin story. There we re- 
searched under the inspiring leadership 
of Dr. Orville E. May—the same Dr. 
May to whom I sent my telegram on 
July 9, 1941. There was gathered the 
knowledge and skills necessary for Cog- 
hill’s miracle—surface and submerged 
fermentations and the equipment to make 
them succeed, and special nutrients such 
as corn steep liquor. 

By 1936 when Dr. May left the Color 
Laboratory to become Director of the 
newly established Regional Soybean 
Research Laboratory in Urbana, Illinois, 
we were approaching the crux of the glu- 
conic acid fermentation study. Success 
came slowly, and until we learned how to 
make the rotary fermenters operate 
continuously and without attention, there 
were many months of frustration. It is a 
matter of record that Dr. May, Dr. 
George Ward and I babied our rotaries 
around the clock for a long period until 
we achieved a method of operation that 
permitted repeatable experiments. Then 
the dam broke and over a short period 
we determined all the factors necessary 
for a very rapid process with high yields 
of product. 

Our next step took us to a much larger 
rotary fermenter that we had constructed 
and placed in operation at our Bureau’s 
Agricultural By-products Laboratory on 
the campus of Iowa State University at 
Ames, Iowa. This enterprise was my 
responsibility and along with A. J. Moyer 
and others we made it succeed during the 
period November 1936—March 1937. We 
called it a pilot-plant, and indeed it was 
when compared with our small rotary 
laboratory-scale fermenters. This new 
fermenter had a working capacity of 5301 
as compared to about 3 for the small ones. 
The figure 530 is mentioned, since it had 


99 


an important bearing on the discovery 
of corn steep liquor as a microbial nu- 
trient. 

Following the gluconic acid work at the 
Ames Laboratory we undertook inten- 
sive study of the sorbose fermentation 
at the Color Laboratory in Arlington, 
Virginia. This rare ketose sugar had as- 
sumed considerable commercial impor- 
tance, as it was the key intermediate in 
the synthesis of Vitamin C by the Reich- 
stein method. Our earlier know-how 
hastened this new study and soon we 
established the conditions by which 20% 
sorbitol solutions could be fermented to 
l-sorbose with nearly 100% yields in less 
than 24 hours. This represented a great 
advance in the art. Our next step, of 
course, was to pilot-plant the process in 
our large fermenter at Ames, Iowa. 
Capacity 530 liters! 

One day I sat down to determine the 
materials required for this large-scale 
study. Our nitrogen source for the fer- 
mentation was Difco Yeast extract. It 
cost about $5 a pound, but for our 
laboratory-scale experiments this was of 
little consequence. We required 5 g/l 
of culture solution, and a quick calcula- 
tion revealed that the cost of this material 
for each experiment at Ames would be 
about $30. In these days of multi-million 
dollar budgets that cost would be in- 
significant, but in those days we were 
literally poor. And a good thing too! 

I talked to our team about the problem 
and suggested that we try to find a lower 
cost substitute for the Difco Yeast 
extract. We tried many waste fruit and 
vegetable juices and found that some of 
these were promising. For example, 
both cabbage and tomato juices gave 
good sorbose yields. Then some one of 
us found a gallon bottle labeled ‘‘corn 
steep water concentrate’’. A brushing 
removed the dust and revealed that it 
came from the A. E. Staley Manufac- 
turing Company in Decatur, Illinois. It 
was recalled then that on one of his nu- 
merous trips Mr. Herrick, together with 
Dr. May, had visited the Staley re- 
search laboratory. The people there 
told them about their problem of finding 


100 


uses for a by-product obtained from the 


manufacture of corn starch by the wet 


milling process. It was the waste steep 
water which they had available as a con- 
centrate in huge quantities. Herrick and 
May were thereupon made the recip- 
ients of a gallon bottle of the concen- 
trate. They brought it back, discussed it 
with us, then it was relegated to a corner 
of the laboratory to collect dust and 
await its fate a few years hence. Corn 
steep liquor looks much like molasses. 
It contains a host of organic and inor- 
ganic substances leached from corn 
during the steeping process. 

We compared it with Difco Yeast 
extract and obtained identical results 
when we used 3 g of the steep liquor 
concentrate per liter. With the addition 
of an anti-foaming agent and making a 
minor adjustment in pH, we had a per- 
fectly satisfactory solution to our prob- 
lem. Corn steep liquor cost about $0.10 
per pound even in small amounts! This 
was one of Mr. Herrick’s trips that paid 
large dividends. 

This work was done about mid-1937 
but it was not until December 1939 that 
the results were published (3). Our asso- 
ciate, Dr. A. J. Moyer, was nota member 
of our sorbose team but he worked in the 
same laboratory with us and was thor- 
oughly familiar with our finding about 
the usefulness of corn steep liquor as a 
microbial nutrient. Therefore it was 
natural for him to try corn steep liquor 
when he began his studies on the penicil- 
lin fermentation at the Peoria laboratory 
during the summer of 1941 after the visit 
of Florey and Heatley. Presto! The effect 
was astonishing and magical. In the 
optimum concentration it multiplied the 
penicillin yield many-fold and remains 
today the key factor in the industrial 
production of this antibiotic. 

Although Dr. Moyer Knew very well 
about corn steep liquor as a nutrient, 
nevertheless he deserves full credit for 
being the one who discovered its useful- 
ness in the penicillin fermentation and 
thus contributed mightily to this great 
development. 

It was a timely discovery because 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


industrial interest was lagging until the 
information about the corn steep liquor 
results became available. More impor- 
tantly, this discovery together with other 
improvements in the process made peni- 
cillin available for massive use in treating 
battle casualties at the time of the Nor- 
mandy invasion in June 1944. This new 
drug undoubtedly saved thousands of 
_ lives during the latter part of World War 
II and many more since that time. 

The success of penicillin furthermore 
touched off many successful searches for 


other needed antibiotics. Thus penicil- 
lin was one of the great medical advances 
in the first half of the twentieth century. 


References Cited 


(1) Bickel, Lennard, ‘“‘Rise Up To Life’’, Charles 
Scribner’s Sons, New York, 1972. 

(2) Coghill, R. D., Chemical Engineering Progress 
Symposium Series, 66, 18, 1970. 

(3) Wells, P. A., Lockwood, L. B., Stubbs, J. J., 
Roe, E. T., Porges, N., Gastrock, E. A., In- 
dustrial and Engineering Chemistry 34, 1518- 
21, 1939. 


Announcement 


The VISITING LECTURER PRO- 
GRAM IN STATISTICS is continuing 
into its thirteenth successive year. The 
program is sponsored jointly by the 
principal statistical organizations in 
North America—the American Statisti- 
cal Association, the Biometric Society 
and the Institute of Mathematical Statis- 
tics. Partial support is also provided by 
the International Business Machines 
Corporation. Leading teachers and re- 
search workers in statistics—from uni- 
Versities, industry and government— 
have agreed to participate as lecturers. 
Lecture topics include subjects in experi- 
mental and theoretical statistics as well 
as in such related areas as probability 
theory, information theory and stochastic 
models in the physical, biological and 
social sciences. 


The purpose of the program is to provide 
information to students and college 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


faculty about the nature and scope of 
modern statistics, and to provide advice 
about careers, graduate study, and col- 
lege curricula in statistics. Inquiries 
should be addressed to: H. T. David, 
Visiting Lecturer Program in Statistics, 
Department of Statistics, Iowa State 
University, Ames, Iowa 50010. 


Among the participating lecturers in 
this area are: KALI S. BANERJEE, 
University of Delaware; JEROME 
CORNFIELD, George Washington 
University; CHURCHILL EISEN- 
HART, National Bureau of Stand- 
ards; SAMUEL W. GREENHOUSE, 
George Washington University; 
THOMAS B. JABINE, Department of 
Health, Education, and Welfare; DON- 
ALD JENSEN, Virginia Polytechnic 
Institute; FRED C. LEONE, American 
Statistical Association. 


101 


RESEARCH REPORTS 


A New Species of Shield-Backed Katydid from Cerro 
Aconcagua, Argentina, with Notes on Other Species and 
Their Habitats (Orthoptera, Tettigoniidae, Decticinae) 


Ashley B. Gurney and José Liebermann 


Systematic Entomology Laboratory, IIBIII, Agr. Res. Serv., USDA, Washington, 
D. C. 20560, and Instituto de Patologia Vegetal, Instituto Nacional de Tecnologia 
Agropecuaria INTA, Buenos Aires, Argentina (retired), respectively. 


ABS TRACT 


Platydecticus anaesegalae, n. sp., is a wingless, mostly black decticine which 
varies from 6 to 13 mm in length and was collected at an altitude of 4,250 m. on Cerro 
Aconcagua, Mendoza, Argentina. The closest known relative is P. angustifrons 


Chopard from Neuquén, Argentina. 


Only a few species of Decticinae have 
been reported from South America, 
though they are abundant in North 
America, so we feel privileged to study 
and report another species, this one from 
the highest South American mountain. 
Notes on other high-altitude Orthoptera 
are included. 

Comparatively little information on 
South American Decticinae has been 
published. Bruner (1915: 398), referring 
to Caudell’s 1908 review of the world 
decticine fauna, believed that there were 
no South American records of Decticinae. 
However, Caudell (1908: 1,23) noted a 
single species that was described as 
Decticus fuscescens by Blanchard (1851: 
44) from Coquimbo, Chile. Caudell 
placed it questionably in the genus 
Tettigonia, using the genus in the sense 
of the current genus Decticus. Uvarov 
(1924: 527) said that fuscescens has 
‘‘nothing to do with this purely Palearctic 
genus.’ Nevertheless, the name Tet- 


102 


tigonia was retained for it by Piran 
(1941: 135). It seems clear that the true 
generic position of fuscescens remains 
to be clarified, though the species is 
fully winged and is a quite different insect 
from Platydecticus. A second poorly 
known South American decticine is 
Anacanthopus capito, described by 
Germain (1903: 62—63) from La Mocha 
Island and Angol, Chile. It is a fully 
winged species, said to be near Decticus, 
and was mentioned without additional 
information by Porter (1933: 223). Ac- 
cording to Neave’s 1939 Nomenclator 
Zoologicus, the generic name Anacan- 
thopus is twice preoccupied. 

A third South American decticine, the 
only one well characterized and il- 
lustrated, is Platydecticus angustifrons, 
described by Chopard (1951) from 2 
males and 2 females from Cerro 
Chapelco, Neuquén, Argentina. A fe- 
male in the U. S. National Museum was 
taken at Pucara, Neuquén, Jan. 1, 1960. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


These 2 localities are near San Martin de 
los Andes. The Cerro is about 5 km. 
east of S. Martin, and Pucara is a 
peninsula on the south side of Lago 
Lacar about 25 km. west of S. Martin. 
Pucara is the site of a forestry station 
occupied for some years by the late 
Sergio Schajovskoi (deceased 1974) who 


made the initial collections on Cerro 
Chapelco. A sketch map of this area was 
given by Liebermann (1949: 130). Lieber- 
mann (1954: 173) has reported 2 addi- 
tional specimens, which were regarded 
by Dr. Chopard as P. angustifrons, 
collected by Luis E. Pena G. in nearby 
Chile in 1948. 


Key to two species of Platydecticus 


(Multiple characters have been utilized in this key in order to 
compare the species in detail and make a separate diagnosis 
unnecessary) 


Posterior margin of pronotum strongly concave; short tegmina present in male, 
absent in female; base of front tibia bearing a slitlike tympanal opening on each 
side; general dorsal color brown; size larger, length of hind femur of female about 
9.0 mm; male cercus short, thick, at apex with strong mesal armed hook; male 
subgenital plate rather wide, feebly concave posteriorly; female ovipositor with 
only moderate curvature of ventral valve in apical third (Chopard, 1951, fig. 7); 
front femur of female proportionately stouter, ratio of length to greatest width 
3.0 (Province of Neuquén, Argentina; adjacent parts of Chile) 


Oe eo & Oi ee) ee ie eh 


EEN Sone 2s Ue ln x. biolnnd sie tie ale Ntiae bw mb ole angustifrons Chopard 


Posterior margin of pronotum not concave; tegmina entirely absent; tympanal 


openings absent; general dorsal color black, appearing green in favorable light; 
size smaller, length of hind femur of female about 7.5 mm; male cercus thick only 
at extreme base, with remainder tapering sharply and curved with 2 small tooth- 
like spines basad of middle; male subgenital plate highly specialized, with median 
posterior spine (fig. 5, mps); ovipositor with strong curvature of ventral valve in 
apical third (fig. 1); front femur of female more slender, ratio of length to greatest 
width 4.5 (Province of Mendoza, Argentina) 


To ee ee 


anaesegalae, n. 


sp. 


Platydecticus anaesegalae, new species 
Figs. 1-6 


Male (holotype).— General appearance as in fig. 
1 except for ovipositor. Dorsal surface micro- 
scopically roughened reticulate, with sparse 
minute setae. Ventral surfaces smooth. Fastigium 
Narrow, as in angustifrons, conspicuously sulcate. 
Face and genae with widely separated surface 
pits. Maxillary palpi with last 3 segments 
subequal, apical one cylindrical, truncate. Anten- 
nae simple, segments longer than wide. Pronotal 
shape as in figure 2, greatest width slightly in 
front of middle; a trace of a median longitudinal 
line. Without tegmina or wings. Abdomen un- 
specialized except for copulatory organs. Supra- 
anal plate small, apically rounded. Subgenital 
plate (fig. 5) with apical half shieldlike, ex- 
panded toward apex, apical margin with sharp 
upturned median spine; styli simple, clublike. 
Cercus conspicuously curved when seen in lateral 
or mesal view (fig. 4), broad at base, tapering 
rapidly, 2 subbasal teeth, one much the larger. 
Titillators, if present, not dissected due to 
fragility of specimens; not found in angustifrons 
by Chopard. 

All 3 femora as in fig. 1, unarmed. Front 
tibia subcylindrical, non-sulcate, with 5 pairs of 
well-spaced ventral spurs, including the somewhat 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


larger apical pair, | pair of dorsal apical spurs, 
no trace of tympanum. Mid-tibia with 5 pairs 
ventral spurs, 1 dorsal spur on posterior side 
basad of middle, and 2 small dorsal apical spurs. 
Hind tibia with 6 pairs dorsal spurs, the outer 
ones increasingly longer toward apex, inner ones 


Fig. 1, Platydecticus anaesegalae,n. sp. Female 
paratype. Length, head to tip of ovipositor, 12.5 
mm. (Photo by Victor Krantz, Smithsonian 
Photographic Laboratory). 


103 


Figs. 2-6, Platydecticus anaesegalae, n. sp. 2—5, male holotype; 6, female paratype. Fig. 2, dorsal 
view of pronotum; fig. 3, dorsolateral view of right cercus; fig. 4, mesal view of left cercus; fig. 5, 
ventral view of subgenital plate; fig. 6, ventral view of subgenital plate and base of ovipositor. Shaded areas 
dark. Abbreviations: lv, lower valve of ovipositor; msp, median posterior spine; sap, supra-anal plate; 
sgp, subgenital plate; st, stylus; t8, tergum 8; uv, upper valve of ovipositor; va, first valvifer. 


(Drawings by A. B. G.) 


shorter, several minute, a pair of longer ventral 
apical calcars, also 1 pair smaller subapical spurs. 
Tarsi smooth, shiny, unarmed; length proportions 
of hind tarsomeres as 16: 12: 6: 21: plantulae 
of basal hind tarsomere short, inconspicuous; 
short divided pulvilli on tarsomeres 1-3; claws 
simple, equal; no arolium. 


Female (fig. 1).—Essentially as in male except 
for larger size and genital structures. Subgenital 
plate in ventral view (fig. 6) entire, bluntly 
obtuse at posterior margin. Ventral valve of ovi- 
positor strongly armed with serrations on and 


104 


near ventral margin, extending less than half 
distance to base; dorsal valve armed on and near 
dorsal margin, but serrations extending fully half 
distance to base. 


Coloration.—Most of dorsal surface of head, 
thorax, and abdomen blackish; in strong natural 
light and in some artificial light showing iridescent 
green; fastigium dull orange; eyes brownish; 
ventral surface tan; face dark brown, clypeus and 
labrum pale; antennae black except for pale 
ventral surface of segment 1. Legs marked as in 
fig. 6; hind femur black except ventrally and 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


ventral part of outer face, including more pale 
toward apex, knee dark. 


Measurements in mm (male holotype and 2 
female paratypes).— Body length, male 6.7, female 
12.5-13.0; pronotum length, male 1.5, female 
1.9-2.0, pronotum width, male 2.9, female 3.2; 
front femur, male 2.1, female 2.6; hind femur 
length, male 6.3, female 7.5—7.8; hind femur 
width, male 1.5, female 1.9-2.1; hind tibia, male 
4.8, female 5.7; ovipositor, female 4.5. 


Specimens examined.— 13 (3 males, 5 
females, 5 nymphs). 


Type locality. —ARGENTINA, De- 
partment of Las Heras, Province of 
Mendoza, west watershed of Cerro 
Aconcagua (32° 30’ S, 70° 03’ W.) 4,250 
m. (13,944 ft.). Holotype d, allotype °, 
2366,2 22,5 nymphs, 16 Feb. 1973. 
Near Cerro Tolosa (of Cerro Aconcagua 
region), about 4,300 m, Feb. 1974, 2 
22. All collected by J. M. Baron and F. 
Gratton. Holotype and paratypes in 
U. S. National Museum of Natural 
History, Washington, D. C. (USNM 
Type 73352); allotype and paratypes in 
Museo Argentino de Ciencias Naturales, 
Buenos Aires, Arg.; paratypes in Museo 
de La Plata, Arg. 


The specific name is chosen as a tribute 
to Sra. José Liebermann (née Ana Ethel 
Segal) who as a devoted helpmate to her 
husband throughout his long career so 
richly merits the association with this 
tiny but distinctive denizen of lofty 
places. 

It is quite possible that when thorough 
analyses of South American genera are 
made, especially as additional species 
are found, the 2 species now assigned 
to Platydecticus will warrant generic 
separation. Of the characters distinguish- 
ing the 2 species, the presence or 
~ absence of tegmina and auditory tympana, 
and the concave vs. straight posterior 
margin of the pronotum may be most 
fundamental. 

Sr. Baron has supplied us with a de- 
tailed account of the climb on Aconcagua 
and the circumstances of the Feb. 16, 
fs capture. He and Dr. Gratton 
departed on foot from Puente del Inca, 
Argentina (2,752 m.) on Feb. 12, by way 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


of the Rio Horcones Valley, passing 
through Confluencia (3,100 m.). The 
route led through the section known as 
the ‘“‘gran playon’’ (‘‘grand beach’’), 
a desertlike terrain with alluvial and 
diluvial moraines. The trail continued up 
talus slopes amid conditions of extreme 
cold and winds above 100 km/hr. The 
collection was made Feb. 16 after spend- 
ing the night in subzero centigrade 
conditions at a refuge shelter named 
General of the Division Juan Carlos 
Sanchez. 

The decticines were collected between 
10 and 11:30 a.m., starting before there 
was warmth from the morning sun. They 
were in an area of rocky talus debnis, 
with small stones and large bare rocks 
as well as some ice. Small lichens oc- 
curred, but no higher plants. The woody 
plants had ended in this area at 3,800 m. 
A composite, Chaetanthera pulvinata 
(Philippi) Hauman, occurs at about 4,000 
m., also some Umbelliferae, and higher 
up one of the Bignoniaceae, Argylia 
uspallatensis DC. The decticines were 
difficult to catch because of their vigorous 
jumping and cryptic coloration. Adults 
jumped easily, and in any direction, in 
arcs up to 50 cm high and 120 cm long 
(20 x 47 inches). Sr. Baron mentioned 
the brilliant green trimming on the back 
of some active specimens. 

The altitude of the type locality of 
P. anaesegalae is considerably more 
than half the altitude of the summit of 
Cerro Aconcagua, 6,929 m. (22,834 ft.), 
though less than half the altitude to the 
summit from the start of the climb at 
Puente del Inca. FitzGerald (1899) dis- 
cussed the Aconcagua region, with 
numerous photographs of the terrain. It 
appears that on FitzGerald’s map the 
type locality is somewhat north and 
directly cast of Los Dedos (The 
Fingers). 

In February 1974 Baron and Gratton 
made another trip and collected 2 females 
near Cerro Tolosa, a secondary peak 
near Aconcagua. 

The occurrence of Platydecticus an- 
aesegalae at high elevations near the 
border of Argentina and Chile is a re- 


105 


minder that some of the notable records 
of high-altitude Orthoptera are based on 
Decticinae. Hyphinomos fasciata Uva- 
rov, a decticine from 4,575—4,880 m. 
(15,000-—16,000 ft.) in western Tibet, 
was reported to represent the highest 
record for Orthoptera (Uvarov, 1921: 75). 
However, the current record, 5,490 m. 
(18,007 ft.) is attributed by Mani (1968: 
103) to unidentified nymphs of a typical 
grasshopper (Acrididae) from near Mt. 
Everest. Another acridid from the Mt. 
Everest area, and likewise collected by 
the noted explorer Major R. W. G. 
Hingston, was described by Uvarov 
(1925: 171) as Dysanema malloryi from 
4,875 m. (16,000 ft.), but (/.c.: 165) he 
evidently regarded the unidentified 
nymphs as a different grasshopper. 

Rehn and Hebard (1920: 258—263) re- 
ported a then new species of decticine, 
Acrodectes philopagus, from 14,500 ft. 
(4,420 m.) at the summit of Mt. Whitney, 
California, highest mountain in the con- 
tinental United States except Alaska. 
Tinkham (1944: 274-277, figs. 5, 6) 
discussed the habitat of philopagus at 
12,000 to 13,000 ft. on Mt. Whitney, 
and it is interesting, in view of the green 
color of Platydecticus anaesegalae in 
certain light, that he found the body color 
of living specimens of philopagus ‘‘a 
beautiful mottled green with flecks of 
black everywhere on the abdomen.’’ The 
few museum specimens of philopagus 
that we have seen are various shades of 
brown and black. No mention of green 
color was made by Rehn and Hebard, 
or by Rentz and Birchim (1968: 126), 
who gave further biological notes. 

What is certainly the most widely 
Known species of Decticinae in the 
United States, Anabrus simplex Halde- 
man, the Mormon cricket, also is note- 
worthy for tolerance of high altitudes. 
Although it is best known for range and 
crop injury at moderate elevations in 
numerous western states, Alexander 
and Hilliard (1969: 415-416) referred to 
it as widespread and able to develop 
at varying altitudes, going in numbers 
onto the tundra of Colorado, even above 
13,000 ft. 


106 


Lastly, we note that Mani (1968: 
table 20, p. 136) gave the highest 
record for Tettigoniidae in the South 
American Andes as 4,900 m.; however, 
we have not found a determination of 
the species to which he referred. 


Acknowledgements 


We are grateful to the following: Sr. José 
Maria Baron and Dr. Fausto Gratton of Buenos 
Aires for their sustained efforts in finding the 
specimens here reported and (in the case of Sr. 
Baron) for documenting their experiences at Cerro 
Aconcagua; Sr. Hector C. Hepper, Instituto 
Bacteriolégico Nacional, of Buenos Aires, for 
preparing specimens; Dr. and Sra. José A. 
Bronfmann of Buenos Aires and Washington, D. C., 
for personally conveying specimens to Washington; 
and Dr. David C. Rentz, Academy of Natural 
Sciences, Philadelphia, Pa., for assisting with 
information on South American Decticinae in 
connection with his study of the world genera. 


References Cited 


Alexander, G., and Hilliard, J. R. 1969. Altitudinal 
and seasonal distribution of Orthoptera in the 
Rocky Mountains of northern Colorado. Ecol. 
Monogr. 39: 385—431, 23 figs. 

Blanchard, Charles Emile 1851. Orthopteros, pp. 
5-85, 1 pl. Gay, C., ed., Historia fisica y 
politica de Chile. In vol. 6, 572 pp. Paris 
(Position of single Orthoptera plate varies in 
different sets of work). 

Bruner, L. 1915. Notes on tropical American 
Tettigonoidea (Locustidae). Ann. Carnegie Mus. 
9: 284-404. 

Caudell, A. N. 1908. Orthoptera, Fam. Locustidae, 
Subfam. Decticinae. Gen. Insectorum, fasc. 72: 
1-43, 2 pls. 

Chopard, L. 1951. Un remarquable ensifere de 
Patagonie. Acta Zool. Lilloana 9: 475-479, 7 
figs. (1950). 

FitzGerald, E. A. 1899. The highest Andes. A 
record of the first ascent of Aconcagua and 
Tupungato in Argentina, and the explorations 
of the surrounding valleys. 390 pp., 46 pls., 
maps. London. 

Germain, F. 1903. Orthoptera, pp. 62-63, In 
C. Reiche et al. La Isla de La Mocha. Estudios 
monograficos. An. Mus. Nac. Chile No. 16. 

Liebermann, J. 1949. Los Acridios de la zona 
subandina de Neuquen, Rio Negro y Chubut. 
Rev. Instit. Nac. Invest. Cienc. Nat., Zool. 
1: 125-160, 9 figs. 

. 1954. Notas de Ortopterologia Chilena, 
con la descripcion de una nueva especie de 
Philippiacris Lieb., Ph. wagenknechti. Rev. 
Universitaria, Univ. Catdl. Chile 39: 173-184, 
fig. 1. 

Mani, M. S. 1968. Ecology and biogeography of 
high altitude insects. 527 pp., 80 figs., The 
Hague. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Piran, A. A. 1941-42. Catalogo sistematico y 
zoogeografico de Tettigonioideos Argentinos. 
Rev. Soc. Entomol. Argent. 11: 119-168 (1941), 
240-287 (1942). 

Porter, Carlos E. 1933. Los estudios ortopterologicos 
en Chile. Rev. Chil. Hist. Nat. 37: 218-229. 
Rehn, J. A.-G., and Hebard, M. 1920. Descrip- 
tions of new genera and species of North 
American Decticinae. Trans. Amer. Entomol. 

Soc. 46: 225-265, 4 pls. 

Rentz, D. C., and Birchim, J. D. 1968. Revi- 
sionary studies in the Nearctic Decticinae. Mem. 
‘Pac. Coast Entomol. Soc. 3: 173 pp., 37 figs. 

Tinkham, E. R. 1944. Biological, taxonomic and 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


faunistic studies on the shield-backed katydids 
of the North American deserts. Amer. Midl. 
Nat. 31: 257-328, 28 figs. 

Uvarov, B. P. 1921. Three new alpine Orthoptera 
from Central Asia. Jour. Bombay Nat. Hist. 
Soc. 28: 71-75. 

. 1924. Notes on the Orthoptera in the 

British Museum. 3. Some less known or new 

genera and species of the subfamilies Tettigoniinae 

and Decticinae. Trans. R. Entomol. Soc. 

London, pp. 492-537, 32 figs. 

. 1925. Grasshoppers (Orthoptera, Acrididae) 

from Mount Everest. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. 

(Ser. 9) 16: 165-173, 4 figs. 


107 


Parasitic Hymenoptera Associated with 
Bruchid-Infested Fruits in Costa Rica 


Donald R. Whitehead 


University of Michigan, clo Department of Entomology, U. S. National Museum 
Washington, D. C. 20560 


ABS TRACT 


Some 43 species of parasitic wasps were reared from bruchid-infested fruits of 
various legumes and certain other plant families in Costa Rica, and represent 1 
bethylid and several braconid and chalcidoid genera. These species are discussed briefly 
in an annotated list, and simple keys intended for field use are provided for the braconids 
and chalcidoids. Species thought to be primary larval bruchid parasites belong to the 
braconid genera Allorhogas (1), Heterospilus (5), Percnobracon (?, 1), Stenocorse (1), and 
Urosigalphus (2), and to the chalcidoid genera Chryseida (1), Eupelmus (3), Horismenus 
(3), Spilochalcis (5), and Torymus (?, 1). Of these, the Spilochalcis seem to be specialists 
on Amblycerus , each host species having apparently a different parasite, and the Torymus 
might be specific on Zabrotes; these 2 bruchid genera are Amblycerinae. The other wasp 
genera are generalists, apparently attacking various genera of Bruchinae; some 
Eupelmus, Horismenus, and Urosigalphus attack members of both Amblycerus and 
Bruchinae, though especially among the Urosigalphus the wasp “‘species’’ may be sibling 
complexes. Field work is needed to clarify host-parasite relationships, host-induced 


variability, and several other problems described in this paper. 


Bruchid beetles form one of the 
prominent groups of seed predators 
reared from dry fruits in arid tropical 
lowlands. A number of systematists and 
ecologists, notably D. H. Janzen and 
colleagues, are studying bruchid-plant 
interactions and frequently encounter 
parasitic wasps in association with reared 
bruchids; for a preliminary account of 
ecological implications concerning these 
parasites, see Janzen (1975: 177-181). 
Janzen has obtained large numbers of 
reared bruchid samples principally from 
Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica, and 
from these I have accumulated a con- 
siderable body of parasite data. Here, I 
provide an annotated list of these 
parasites, along with simple keys to the 
braconids and chalcidoids based on 
determinations by P. M. Marsh and G. 
Gordh, respectively. The purposes are 
to facilitate field identifications, to 
provide a basis for comparisons with 
parasite faunas elsewhere in tropical 
America, to indicate which of the various 
wasps are plausible bruchid parasites 
as opposed to moth or seed parasites, 


108 


to comment on levels of systemic knowI- 
edge, and to indicate associations that 
might be suitable for detailed com- 
parisons. 

Collections were made by gathering 
ripe fruit crops, sealing them in plastic 
bags, and awaiting insect emergence over 
a several-month period. Consequently, 
there is no direct indication of parasitism. 
Generally, all beetles and all parasites 
were kept, but moths were generally 
discarded and, frequently, no records 
kept of their presence. This means that 
interpretation of actual hosts is provi- 
sional, and, if 2 or more bruchid species 
occurred in a given sample, then there 
is no way to distinguish the actual 
host. Detailed studies are needed to 
determine actual parasitism; many of the 
parasite species or species complexes 
probably cannot be worked out sys- 
tematically until large samples are ob- 
tained from controlled rearings. Some of 
the putative bruchid parasites appear to 
be generalists, attacking numerous gen- 
era or even spanning subfamilies; others 
appear to be specialists, restricted to 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


single genera or even species. In con- 
sequence, I attempt here to recognize 
such situations in order to suggest 
particular systems that might be rela- 
tively simple to analyze taxonomically 
and which might readily yield interest- 
ing comparisons. 

I must emphasize here that, at species 
level, this treatment is highly provisional 
on 2 counts: the collections are pre- 
liminary and hence the species repre- 
sentation may be far from complete, 
though I think that all of the most 
commonly encountered forms are repre- 
sented; and the systematics, and species 
level discrimination, particularly for the 
chalcidoids, is unsettled. I take full 
responsibility for discrimination among 
some of the chalcidoids, as Gordh’s 
analysis is not in full agreement with 
mine: notably, I distinguish several forms 
of Spilochalcis not distinguished by 
him, and I distinguish fewer forms of 
Horismenus and Eurytoma than he did. 
These differences of opinion are dis- 


cussed as appropriate. Generally, I give 
summary statements for each species, but 
in some instances specific samples are 
cited by code number: these voucher 
numbers form an index to my records, 
Janzen’s records, and mounted speci- 
mens from the reared materials which 
are deposited in the National Museum 
of Natural History, Washington, D. C. 
(USNM). 


Family Bethylidae 
Genus Parasierola Cameron 


Parasierola sp.—1 specimen, sample #1974-2, 
Acacia “‘riparia’’ complex, bruchids Stator vit- 
tatithorax (Pic) and S. limbatus (Horn). Accord- 
ing to A. S. Menke (pers. comm.), members of 
this genus are known mostly from Microlepidoptera 
but some have been recorded from bruchids. 
Bridwell (1919b) lab-tested them successfully on 
““Caryoborus monandra’’ (= Caryedon serratus 
(Olivier), J. M. Kingsolver pers. comm.) in 
Hawaii. Therefore, this probably is an incidental 
parasite of Stator spp., but its apparent low 
incidence suggests that ecological studies would 
not be rewarding. 


Family Braconidae 


1. Abdomen rigid and carapace-like, formed by fusion of terga 1-3 
Abdomen not carapace-like, terga separated by distinct sutures 


Pith ese eee ee eae eee ea ktees ese eaan een ate 


eae over 3. 5IM............ 
Small, under 3.5 mm 


ee a ee we Sim et) ee et Oe 


Urosigalphus (Bruchiurosigalphus) panamaensis 
Urosigalphus (Bruchiurosigalphus) aquilus 


4. Wing venation reduced; face without an opening between clypeus and mandibles 


DR eid ie © @€ eee Reeve usceecnner eas seeeacsean 


ie Coal UN ea Toate Apanteles spp. 


Wing venation not reduced; face with a circular opening between clypeus and 


mandibles 


G2) @cemital carinae absent .............. 
Occipital carinae present............. 


CO OSS 
ime ae DANGEO ...........5....06. 


7. First intercubital vein of forewing present, Ist and 2nd cubital cells separated 8 
First intercubital vein absent or weak, Ist and 2nd cubital cells not separated 9 


8. Posterior terga coarsely microsculptured; Ist segment of mediella of hindwing 


cual im lensth to 2nd. ..........0.. 


5 Se he Se Stenocorse bruchivora 


Posterior terga polished or finely microsculptured; Ist segment of mediella 


shorter than 2nd 


9. Head punctate behind ocelli 
Head transversely striate behind ocelli 


10. Thorax coarsely punctate 


we) bin ele. ee «(6 


See See a a ee eS 


Pe a er ae eee Allorhogas sp. 


a eee ae ee a ee Vee © a) O18) ee hea ae @ 6 eae 6 6) se aye 


Thorax not coarsely punctate except along notaulices ....................4. 11 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


109 


11. Postocellar striations fitte,)\weale..s. jc.) Jee Ge eee ee Heterospilus sp. #3 


Postocellar striations strongly developed); .....:..5 30.0: <2 + »4aisus seb ari ee 12 
12; ‘Bod¥idark Wo...o.kp Seat Sel ee os Lee een, ee eee Heterospilus sp. #4 
Body ‘pales iss ih, Pin Fae ae on ee Ge ee a Heterospilus sp. #5 


Genus Allorhogas Gahan 


Allorhogas sp.—3 samples from Lysiloma and 1 
from Albizzia; bruchids Merobruchus spp. in 
Albizzia sample and 2 Lysiloma samples, Stator 
limbatus (Horn) in Albizzia sample. According to 
Marsh (pers. comm.) this may be a bruchid 
parasite; if so, I suspect it is specialist on Mero- 
bruchus. Studied in conjunction with the species 
of Heterospilus and Stenocorse, ecological com- 
parisons should prove useful. 


Genus Apanteles Foerster 
These are moth parasites exclusively. 
Genus Bracon Fabricius 


These probably are moth parasites and thus 
merit only brief comment here. One species is 
frequent in samples from legumes including 
Acacia, Bauhinia, Cassia, and Lysiloma, with 
various genera of Bruchinae; another was found in 
1 sample of Guazuma (#17-4), with a mixture of 
Amblycerus (Amblycerinae), Acanthoscelides 
(Bruchinae), Cymatodera (Cleridae), and Tri- 
cornynus (Anobiidae); and a third was found in 1 
sample of Ipomoea (#20-27), with Megacerus sp. 
(Bruchinae). 


Genus Chelonus Panzer, subgenus Microchelonus 
Szepligeti 


Chelonus sp.—1 specimen, sample #20-42, 
Cassia biflora L., bruchids Sennius spp. This is a 
moth parasite. 


Genus Heterospilus Haliday 


These probably are bruchid parasites, and are 
detailed below. The species are apparently readily 
distinguished, and will be taxonomically revised 
in the near future by Marsh. This group needs 
intensive field investigation; I suspect that numer- 
ous additional species will be found associated with 
bruchid-infested fruits. Some species may be 
specialists, but preliminary indications are that 
they more likely are generalists at subfamily 
level on Bruchinae. I suspect that interesting 
comparisons may show up between the species, 
and among the related genera Allorhogas, Heter- 
ospilus, and Stenocorse. 


Heterospilus sp. #1.—1 sample (#20-35), un- 
identified mimosaceous shrub, bruchid genera 
Acanthoscelides and Stator. 


Heterospilus sp. #2.—5S samples, legume genera 
Acacia, Cassia, and Mimosa, bruchid genera 
Acanthoscelides, Merobruchus, and Sennius. 


110 


Heterospilus sp. #3.—4 samples, legume genera 
Acacia, Albizzia, and Bauhinia, bruchid genera 
Caryedes, Gibbobruchus, Merobruchus, and 
Stator. 


Heterospilus sp. #4.—1 sample (#72-016), Bau- 
hinia glabra Jacq., bruchids Caryedes cavatus 
Kingsolver and Whitehead and C. x-liturus (Pic). 


Heterospilus sp. #5.—1 sample (#72-005), host 
plant not known and no bruchids reared. 


Genus Percnobracon Kieffer 


Percnobracon sp.—3 specimens from 2 separate 
rearings from the same tree in 1972 (#20-43) and 
1975 (#6-75-16). Janzen (pers. comm.) states that 
this tree may be either an Albizzia or a Lysiloma; 
judging from examination of leaves and fruits, 
I suspect it is related to A. caribaea (Urb.) 
Britt. & Rose. Marsh (pers. comm.) suspects 
that this wasp is a beetle parasite, and bruchids 
from these samples include Merobruchus spp. and 
Stator limbatus (Horn). I suspect that, if it is 
indeed a bruchid parasite, it specializes on 
Merobruchus spp. which seem to have an extraor- 
dinarily broad range of parasites and frequently a 
heavy parasite load. Despite the apparent low 
incidence, ecological investigation is desirable be- 
cause parasites in fruits of Albizzia and Lysiloma 
in general are especially rich in numbers and 
diversity. 


Genus Stenocorse Marsh 


Stenocorse bruchivora (Crawford).—This is by far 
the most abundant braconid found in bruchid- 
infested fruits in Costa Rica, and probably is 
parasitic on all species of bruchinae. There ts, © 
however, a great range of variation in size and 
color, and detailed study may indicate correla- 
tion with particular hosts. In particular, I suspect 
that parasites of Megacerus may differ from those 
of other Bruchinae because of the peculiar 
biological and morphological features of Megacerus. 


Genus Urosigalphus Ashmead, subgenus Bruchiuro- 
sigalphus Gibson: 


These are bruchid parasites, and are detailed 
below. This genus was recently reviewed by Gib- 
son (1972), but the species are difficult to dis- 
tinguish and his keys difficult to use, and the 
neotropical fauna at the time of the revision was 
poorly sampled; I report here Marsh’s conclusions, 
but these differed from mine. However, these 
wasps as a group are easy to distinguish and, 
moreover, I suspect that detailed ecological 
investigations will be rewarding for both ecologist 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


and systematist. Both species listed here are 
apparently generalists, from host species spanning 
two bruchid subfamilies, but I suspect that sibling 
complexes may be involved especially in the case 
of U. aquilus. 


Urosigalphus aquilus Gibson.—2 samples from 
Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Cham. (Bor- 
aginaceae), with bruchids Amblycerus sp. (Ambly- 
cerinae); and 2 samples from Lysiloma sp., with 
bruchids Merobruchus sp. in both and Stator 
limbatus (Horn) in one. Although Marsh deter- 
mined all as U. aquilus, I originally had the 


Cordia and Lysiloma samples distinguished as 
different species. I suspect that this parasite 
represents a sibling complex. 


Urosigalphus panamaensis Gibson.—several 
samples from various Leguminosae s. /., with 
bruchid genera Merobruchus, Mimosestes, and 
Stator; and 1 sample from Cordia gerascanthos 
Jacq. (Boraginaceae), with bruchid Amblycerus sp. 
The latter (#20-14) again suggests that a sibling 
complex may be involved though in this instance 
I did not have any impression from morphological 
examination that this wasp might be distinct. 


Superfamily Chalcidoidea 


I RMIICTROMIO Et 2 otc A. Scituate Se wadlw i ss setae Vee dad 2 
MES TUR e ae kta alg oe OSM as cl en cae avd Ri wm ad alee Visits 9 
TORO 0S 2. cos 5 sgh. i whee cee awale cin les Wee ee ds ede 3 
IE MIPS Sele St a SSS he ot ie bl wwealele ooo ua cz 
nena TION HESEINICIIY VIUEAIG 65.0) oie eu ec se ee me eee ee ce eee dues sasens 4 
INERT MOAETE NEES 25 (0020) 08 1) ge Sido aie elaine oS din wd wai tc'a sie Ae ae eas 5 
4. Prescutum not distinctly vittate; under 4mm................ Spilochalcis sp. #1 


Prescutum distinctly vittate; over 4 mm 


5. Parapsida with distinct spots ......... 


Parapsida without distinct spots 


eS 
8 ET 


9. Pronotum with fine median longitudinal sulcus 


Pronotum without median sulcus 


10. Pronotum with microsculpture granulose 
Pronotum with microsculpture flattened 


11. Median carina of propodeum wide ... 
Median carina of propodeum narrow .. 


ee chen Ath ialle iid Spilochalcis sp. #2 


ate Mags mata alae stare tate 5 Spilochalcis sp. #5 
Petia tN so IR RH ONE Ghee Ba bien 6 


Be i eT ee Spilochalcis sp. #3 
Pee i NPR aed gerade Why Spilochalcis sp. #4 


we ais the aS Kee Encyrtidae, ?genus sp. #1 


the tte Ker kha wom Bh Eudecatoma sp., males 
gre ate Sosa ewe Eudecatoma sp., females 


Ba pty he- canis Catena acta ce iat ta td hy Hy 11 


A Ao tthe a a hg eat Horismenus sp. #2 
BN a en: SE ae Horismenus sp. #3 


feiaead anc thorax coarsely sculptured, punctate ................0c0c cee eeeees 13 


Head and thorax not coarsely punctate 


13. Wings pictured 


PPRENGE PICHINED 0. Soc eerie es 


14. Head and thorax distinctly metallic blue or green; interantennal process 
Hei cieiaes tae taney Chryseida sp. cf. bennetti 


long, apex acute 


> Bee ee we) ee ee, Be, ee ey © eS 


ae mee) @ le) ea ee. we ee eee 


Reehesb eee e).a) 61s a) = w ea he Se Ste se ais « @ oo «ec « e's 14 


Head and thorax black; interantennal process short, apex not acute ......... 15 

15. Neck with dull, granulose microsculpture; female gaster bicolored, micro- 
SPIER CEL ARIOUC, hie | POLED nies aie cee alah od Rem ee al aly ““Eurytoma’’ sp. #1 

Neck with shiny, flattened microscultpure; female gaster black, polished 
Sue: (Rte ya Shae ees. Sta oie efit Ms. Sian Meals din ois eels 16 
16. Punctation of head and parapsides feeble .................... Bruchophagus sp. 
Peectaon oF GEad and ParapsideSs SUONE.. 2... 6. 6 soe cece ecw cece 17 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


111 


17. Coxae and tegulae yellow ............ 


Coxae and tegulae black 


eee eee eee eee 


See pote Oe ee ““Eurytoma’’ sp. #2 
PIA eee ee ““Eurytoma’’ sp. #3 


18. Mesopleuron deeply grooved to receive femur ..................eeceeceers 19 
Mesopleuron not deeply grooved to receive femur ..................-.--+:: 26 
19.:-Hind: coxa enlarsed:ovipositor long..f: | ..64. -sha-ec oe -aie ee Torymus sp. 
Hind coxa. normal;,ovipositor SHOM oo. 2. jaeece «nce use ek ee 2 eee 20 
20. Hind tibia with 1 apical spur; head striate above mouth .................... ZA 
Hind tibia with 2 spurs; head not striate above mouth...................... 24 


21. Microsculpture of notum flattened .... 
Microsculpture of notum granulose ... 


22. Microsculpture of face flattened ...... 
Microsculpture of face granulose..... 


eer eeeceer eee eee ee ee ee ee eee eee ee ee ee 


Cr 


23. Head and pronotum with greenish reflections ....... Pteromalidae, ?genus sp. #3 


Head and pronotum with purplish reflections 


24. Legs wholly yellow ......:.......-.; 
At least hind tibia infuscated ......... 


25. Hind femur infuscated .............. 
Hind femur yellow... 5 325. .5e<ee ee: 


26. Apical 4/5 of wing infuscated ......... 


Wing hyaline 


Beene Pteromalidae, ?genus sp. #4 


CD 


sey Nee eae Eupelmus sp. nr. cushmani, males 
eee Eupelmus sp. nr. peruvianus, males 


sntles ities sane oer 27 


27. Frontal sulci not carinate externally; scape metallic; ovipositor short, not 


animate tees Gee ae 


5 ial be ito ieee Eupelmus sp. nr. peruvianus 


_Frontal sulci carinate externally; scape yellow or metallic; ovipositor long, 


annulate 


eocer eer ecw eee ee ee ew we eee we eo 


28. Scape more or less metallic; hind tibia partly infuscated.................... 


eeeeece eee eee ee ee ee ee ee ew ee ee ee ee 


eee ee eee eee eee ew eee wee eee ee ee se eee 


Family Chalcididae 
Genus Spilochalcis Thomson 


These probably are bruchid parasites specializing 
on Amblycerus (subfamily Amblycerinae), and are 
detailed below. This is a very large genus 
parasitic principally on Microlepidoptera, but the 
bruchid parasites apparently form a discrete group 
characterized by tridentate mandibles (Gordh pers. 
comm.) and therefore should be relatively simple 
taxonomically. Probably, none of the Costa Rican 
species are described. Gordh determined these as a 
single, variable species, but my impression is that 
each Amblycerus has a different parasite: the 
differences are minute and concern size and pig- 
mentation, but specimens from each series are 
constant and series from different rearings from 
the same host species are uniform. From the 
standpoint of specificity, this seems to be the 
most desirable bruchid-parasite system to study. 
Also, Spilochalcis appears to be the only parasite 
associated exlusively with any single genus, and 
the only one to be associated exclusively with 
Amblycerinae. I anticipate that the systematics of 
Amblycerus will be worked out in the near future, 
and that the systematics of pertinent Spilochalcis 


112 


Ser en ons oon Eupelmus sp. nr. cyaniceps 


should be possible to work out readily if required. 
At the outset, however, it will be necessary 
to determine if there is a sibling complex, or if 
the observed variation is host induced. 


Spilochalcis sp. #1.—1 sample (420-8), Cordia 
alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Cham., bruchid Amblycerus 
sp. 


Spilochalcis sp. #2.— 1 sample (# 17-6), Guazuma 
ulmifolia Lam., bruchids Amblycerus cistellinus 
(Gyllenhal) and Acanthoscelides guazumicola 
Johnson and Kingsolver. 


Spilochalcis sp. #3.—1 sample (#19-12), 
Combretum farinosum H.B.K., bruchid Ambly- 
cerus perfectus (Sharp). 


Spilochalcis sp. #4.—1 sample (#20-1), Cassia 
emarginata L., bruchid Amblycerus sp. 


Spilochalcis sp. #5.—2 samples (#1972-022, 
# 1974-48), Cassia obtusifolia L., bruchid Ambly- 
cerus sp. The other Spilochalcis samples are 
small, but these are sufficiently well represented 
and uniform to indicate that differences among the 
Spilochalcis ‘‘species’’ are not due to random 
variation. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Family Encyrtidae 
?Genus sp. #1 
One sample (#6-75-16), Albizzia or Lysiloma, 


bruchids Acanthoscelides sp. (possible con- 
taminant) and Merobruchus spp. I suspect this 


is a hyperparasite. 


 ?Genus sp. #2 


One fragmentary specimen (#20-49), Cassia 
skinneri Benth., bruchid Acanthoscelides ob- 
rienorum Johnson. This probably is a hyper- 


parasite. 


Family Eulophidae 
Genus Horismenus Walker 


These are bruchid parasites, and are detailed 
below. Nearctic species were recently revised by 
Burks (1971a) but the Neotropical species remain 
problematic. Gordh sorted out more forms than I 
distinguish here, and I comment on these as 
appropriate. I suspect that until the systematics 
of these bruchid parasites are worked out there 
can be no useful ecological comparisons made, but 
detailed rearings will make systematic analysis 
possible. The “‘species,’’ in the sense used here, 


_ apparently parasitize all members of Amblycerinae 


and Bruchinae. 


Horismenus sp. #1, cf. missouriensis (Ashmead). 
—This is the most frequently reared and most 
abundant of the chalcidoid parasites, reared from 
fruit crops of various Leguminosae s./., Guazuma 
ulmifolia Lam., Ipomoea sp., and Cordia ger- 
ascanthos Jacq.; most of these samples contained 
representatives of Bruchinae, but that from the 
Cordia (#20-14) contained Amblycerus only. One 
sample (#1972-016, Bauhinia glabra Jacq., 
bruchids Caryedes cavatus Kingsolver and White- 
head and C. x-liturus (Pic)) had a single Horis- 
menus , regarded by Gordh as probably a different 
species because of strongly cupreous coloration. 


Horismenus sp. #2.—1 specimen (#19-17). This 
sample was of Phaseolus lunatus L. but was 
contaminated with fruits of Cordia alliodora 
(Ruiz & Pav.) Cham.; bruchids from the Phaseolus 
were Acanthoscelides argillaceus (Sharp) and 
Zabrotes subfasciatus (Boheman), and the bruchid 
from the Cordia was Amblycerus sp. Our only 
record of Torymus sp. is also from this sample. 


E Possibly, the peculiar Horismenus and Torymus 


Tecords are associated with the Zabrotes (Am- 


_blycerinae), as this is the only reared Zabrotes 
‘sample with associated parasites; it also is pos- 


sible that this Horismenus 
parasite. 


is not a bruchid 


Horismenus sp. #3.—3 samples. Sample #17-4, 
Guazuma ulmifolia Lam., with bruchids Am- 
blycerus cistellinus (Gyllenhal) and Acanthoscelides 
gauzumicola. Johnson and Kingsolver, included 
Horismenus sp. #1 as well. Sample #19-23, 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


unidentified Mimosaceae, bruchids Stator limbatus 
(Horn), S. vittatithorax (Pic), and Merobruchus sp., 
had 9 specimens; Gordh sorted out 1 specimen 
each of 2 extra species based on differences in 
color of the antennal scape, but I think these 
differences reflect infrapopulational variation. 
Sample #20-2, Acacia farnesiana (L.) Willd., 
bruchids Mimosestes sp., apparently had the same 
Horismenus but these were not checked by Gordh. 
I suspect that this is a bruchid parasite, but as 
noted above there may be a complex of species 
grouped here. 


Family Eupelmidae 
?Genus sp. 


One specimen (#20-10), Piscidia carthagenensis 
Jacq., bruchids Ctenocolum crotonae (Fahraeus) 
and C. janzeni Kingsolver and Whitehead. Accord- 
ing to Gordh (pers. comm.) this resembles forms 
that normally parasitize eggs of Orthoptera, and 
hence probably is not a bruchid parasite. 


Genus Eupelmus Dalman 


These are bruchid parasites, and are detailed 
below. This genus is very large, but the bruchid 
parasites apparently are few and should be readily 
distinguishable given sufficient study; nomenclatural 
problems, however, may be difficult. The bruchid 
parasites belong to 2 distinct groups, with E. 
cf. peruvianus in one group and the other forms 
in the other. I distinguished 3 female forms but only 
2 male forms; association is tentative, but all 
samples with male ‘‘peruvianus’’ also had females, 
and most samples with male ‘‘cushmani/cyaniceps’’ 
also had females. The wasps are generalists, 
the group represented by ‘‘peruvianus’’ attacking 
both Amblycerinae and Bruchinae and the group 
represented by ‘‘cushmani/cyaniceps’’ attacking at 
least various Bruchinae. 


Eupelmus sp. nr. peruvianus (Crawford).— 
Numerous samples, bruchids of subfamilies Ambly- 
cerinae and Bruchinae. 


Eupelmus sp. nr. cushmani (Crawford).— Numer- 
ous samples, bruchids of various genera of 
Bruchinae. 


Eupelmus sp. nr. cyaniceps Ashmead.—5 speci- 
mens from 3 samples, only. This form is variable 
in coloration, and perhaps is just a vanant of 
““cushmani’’. More investigation is needed to 
determine taxonomic status and to determine if this 
is a bruchid parasite. Samples included various 
Bruchinae. 


Family Eurytomidae 
?Genus sp. 


One fragmentary specimen (#6-75-16), Albizzia 
or Lysiloma, bruchids Merobruchus sp., Stator 
limbatus (Horn), and Acanthoscelides sp. (con- 


113 


taminant?). More investigation is needed to deter- 
mine what this is both taxonomically and ecolog- 
ically; it evidently is not an abundant bruchid 
parasite, if indeed a bruchid parasite at all. 


Genus Bruchophagus Ashmead 


Bruchophagus sp.—3 samples from Indigofera 
and 1 specimen from Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & 
Pav.) Cham. (#20-8). The Indigofera samples 
contained the bruchid Acanthoscelides kingsolveri 
Johnson; the Cordia sample contained Amblycerus 
sp. I suspect there are 2 forms confused here, 
but my original sortation was confirmed by Gordh. 
As I am not aware of any other parasite that 
specializes on particular species of Bruchinae, I 
suspect that the Indigofera form is a seed chalcid 
rather than a bruchid parasite. 


Genus Chryseida Spinola 


Chryseida sp. nr. bennetti Burks—numerous 
samples from several plant families, bruchids of 
various genera of Bruchinae. This undoubtedly 
is a bruchid parasite, generalist at least on 
Bruchinae. These specimens are highly variable and 
Gordh thought that there might be more than 1 
species, but his identifications split series and I 
therefore suspect that only 1 species is involved. 
The genus Chryseida is moderately large, but 
the bruchid parasites apparently are easily dis- 
tinguished; it is necessary only to determine that 
there is only 1 species, and that it is con- 
specific with the Texan bennetti, to open the door 
to useful ecological comparisons made over a wide 
geographic area. 


Genus Eudecatoma Ashmead 


Eudecatoma sp.— Several samples from Albizzia 
and/or Lysiloma contained 1 or 2 specimens each, 
along with bruchids of the genera Merobruchus 
and Stator. There is a series in USNM of the 
same or a related species from Barro Colorado 
Island, Canal Zone, labeled ‘‘Inga legume’’; 
since, as far as I know, there are no bruchids 
associated with Inga, this Eudecatoma is probably 
a seed chalcid. 


Genus Eurytoma Illiger 


I distinguish 3 “‘species’’ as detailed below, but 
Gordh thought there might be others which I 
mention without additional comment. Some, at 
least, do not exactly fit the generic diagnosis 
given by Burks (1971), and hence are treated as 
‘‘Eurytoma’’ complex. For the present, I would 
regard these as impossible to deal with tax- 
onomically; most samples are poorly represented 
in numbers, so ecological studies are unlikely 
to be rewarding; and I am unable to predict which, 
if any, are bruchid parasites. I suspect that all 
are seed chalcids, from comparison of the host 
fruit samples among the genera Bruchophagus, 
Eudecatoma, and Eurytoma: all such samples 
so far examined are from Cordia alliodora (Ruiz & 


114 


Pav.) Cham. (Boraginaceae) and the legumes 
Albizzia/Lysiloma and Indigofera. 


‘“‘Eurytoma’’ sp. #1.—1 sample from Indigo- 
fera (#20-7), bruchid Acanthoscelides kingsolveri 
Johnson; and 3 samples from ‘‘Lysiloma’’, bruchid 
Merobruchus sp. Gordh distinguished 2 forms in 
the Indigofera sample, 1 of them the same as the 
Lysiloma sample. 


‘Eurytoma’’ sp. #2.—3 samples from “‘Ly- 
siloma’’, bruchid Merobruchus sp. This may be only 
a variation of E. sp. #1; I have an impression 
that the Eurytoma from Albizzia/Lysiloma are 
variable, but because there are few good, clean 
specimens I cannot reach a definite conclusion. 


‘“‘Eurytoma’’ sp. #3.—1 sample from Cordia 
alliodora (Ruiz & Pav.) Cham. (#19-7) with bruchid 
Amblycerus sp., and 3 from Albizzia/Lysiloma with 
bruchids Merobruchus spp. and Stator limbatus 
(Horm). Gordh distinguished several forms, tenta- 


tively, and I suspect that at least the Cordia 


form is distinct. 


Family Pteromalidae 
Gordh was unable to identify any of these to 


genus, and I suspect that their systematics cur-— 


rently is at a stage that would make useful 
ecological studies with them impossible. Some of 
the forms listed here are unlikely to be bruchid 
parasites. The cosmopolitan bruchid parasite 
Choetospila elegans Westwood is not represented 
in these samples. 


?Genus sp. #1 
One specimen (#20-7), Indigofera, bruchid 


Acanthoscelides kingsolveri Johnson. Probably | 


not a bruchid parasite. 
?Genus sp. #2 


One specimen (# 20-40), Mimosa, bruchid Acan- 
thoscelides sp. Probably not a bruchid parasite. 


?Genus sp. #3 


Five samples, 4 from various legumes with 
bruchids of genera Acanthoscelides, Merobruehus, 
Mimosestes, Sennius, and Stator, and 1 (#20-13) 
from Triumfetta lappula L. (Tiliaceae) with bruchid 
Acanthoscelides sp. The associated data with 
these samples imply that this probably is a bruchid 
parasite. Gordh thinks I may have several forms 
confused here. 


?Genus sp. #4 


One large sample (#19-11), Lysiloma, with © 


bruchids Merobruchus sp. and Stator limbatus 
(Horn). This might be a bruchid parasite, but I 
suspect otherwise since this sample was also 
rich in Tricorynus spp. (Anobiidae) and several 
species of wasps. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


= 


Family Torymidae 
Genus Torymus Dalman 


Torymus sp.—1 sample (# 19-17). See discussion 
of Horismenus sp. #2. If this is a bruchid 
parasite, then I suspect it specializes on Zabrotes. 


Discussion 


Most of the arid-land fruit crops 
involved in this study are from woody 
plants, and most are from legumes of 
the families Caesalpiniaceae, Fabaceae, 
and Mimosaceae. Other samples contain- 
ing parasitic wasps were from Boragin- 
aceae (Cordia spp.), Combretaceae 
(Combretum farinosum H.B.K.), Con- 
volvulaceae (Ipomoea spp.), Sterculi- 
~aceae (Guazuma ulmifolia Lam.), and 
Tiliaceae ( Triumfetta lappula L.). Plants 
of many other non-leguminous families 
are hosts especially for Amblycerus 
species, and need to be examined care- 
fully for parasitic wasps. 

The following wasp genera are known 
or suspected to include common bruchid 
parasites in Costa Rica: 1, the related 
braconid genera Allorhogas, Hetero- 
spilus, and Stenocorse, on Bruchinae; 2, 
the braconid genus Urosigalphus, on 
Amblycerinae and Bruchinae; 3, the 
chalcidid genus Spilochalcis , on Ambly- 
cerus ;4, the eulophid genus Horismenus , 
on Amblycerinae and Bruchinae; 5, the 
eupelmid genus Eupelmus, on Ambly- 
cerinae and Bruchinae; and 6, the eury- 
tomid genus Chryseida, on Bruchinae. 
The following genera have species which 
might be bruchid parasites and, if so, 
are for various reasons worthy of in- 
vestigation: 7, the braconid genus Percno- 
bracon, on Bruchinae (?); and 8, the 
torymid genus Jorymus, on Zabrotes 
(?). These are potentially important 
larval parasites; no egg parasites are 
reported here. All other genera reported 
herein either probably do not include 
primary bruchid parasites in Costa Rica, 
or appear to be of too low abundance 
to permit useful bruchid-parasite com- 
parisons. The taxonomy of the various 
parasite groups is of various complexity 
and at various levels of knowledge. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


The braconids seem comparatively 
simple, though there may be species- 
level problems in Stenocorse and Uro- 
sigalphus, and necessary taxonomic 
work can probably be accomplished 
readily. The chalcidoids are much more 
poorly known and hence more problem- 
atic, but with the possible exception of 
Eupelmus 1 expect that these problems 
can be resolved readily. 

The bruchids involved are members 
of the subfamilies Amblycerinae (Am- 
blycerus and Zabrotes) and Bruchinae 
(numerous genera). Parasites associated 
with Amblycerus include some members 
of Urosigalphus, Spilochalcis, Horis- 
menus, and Eupelmus; of these, the 
Spilochalcis are known only from Ambly- 
cerus, and each species may be host 
specific; and I suspect also that the 
Urosigalphus of Amblycerus may differ 
from those of Bruchinae. No parasites 
are definitely associated with Zabrotes, 
but a species of Torymus may be. 
The parasites of Bruchinae include all of 
the above list except Spilochalcis and 
Torymus; no specificity is apparent, 
but parasites of Megacerus are likely to 
differ from those of other Bruchinae. 
Members of some Bruchinae genera, 
notably Merobruchus, tend to have 
extraordinarily heavy parasite loads both 
in numbers and diversity; thus, their host 
plants, especially members of the 
mimosaceous genera Albizzia and Ly- 
siloma, merit particular attention. Stud- 
ies of most of the major groups of 
Central American Bruchidae have been 
completed or are currently in progress. 
The principal group still awaiting atten- 
tion is Acanthoscelides, and it is an- 
ticipated that even this group will have 
been studied within the next few years. 
Thus, there soon should be no major 
problems with bruchid systematics to 
interfere with ecological studies. 

I expect that the general pattern out- 
lined for Costa Rica will apply to 
tropical America generally, but not to 
other parts of the world. Bridwell 
(1918, 1919a, 1920), in studies of the 
parasites of the introduced Hawaiian 


115 


bruchids, reported the following: 1, the 
trichogrammatid egg parasite Uscana 
semifumipennis Girault, described from 
Texas and probably occurring in Costa 
Rica; 2, the American braconid Heter- 
ospilus prosopidis Viereck—probably 
the same as 1 of the Heterospilus re- 
ported herein; 3, the bethylid Sclero- 
derma immigrans Bridwell, probably of 
Asiatic origin; 4, the endemic eupelmid 
Charitopodinus swezeyi (Crawford), an 
apparently incidental bruchid parasite; 
and 5, 2 pteromalids including the cos- 
mopolitan Choetospilia elegans West- 
wood. 

To summarize, I have indicated var- 
ious projects that deserve study; de- 
tailed rearings to assess infrapopulational 
variation as well as to precisely deter- 
mine correct hosts—this is needed for 
all of the parasites, and studies of host 
induced variation should be easily ac- 
complished because it should be possible 
to establish and maintain lab colonies 
of most of the parasite species; studies 
of particular host-parasite systems rich 
in parasites, notably the bruchids of the 
genus Merobruchus and host plants of 
the genera Albizzia and Lysiloma; and 
comparisons of host-parasite systems 
that probably involve sibling complexes, 
the most promising such system being 
that of Amblycerus-Spilochalcis. 


Acknowledgments 


G. Gordh, J. M. Kingsolver, P. M. Marsh, and 
A. S. Menke, Systematic Entomology Laboratory, 


116 


ARS, USDA; T. L. Erwin, Smithsonian Institu- — 
tion; and D. H. Janzen, University of Michigan. 
I am deeply indebted to Gordh and Marsh for 
many hours spent on identifications of chalcidoids 
and braconids, respectively, and for constructive 
criticism; Marsh rewrote the braconid key to bet-— 
ter distinguish genera. Menke identified the 
bethylid. Kingsolver and I share responsibility 
for bruchid determinations; Kingsolver and Erwin. 
criticized the manuscript. Janzen supported the 
project by providing basic materials, commenting 
on the manuscript, and providing support from 
NSF grants GB 35032X and BMS 75-14268. 


References Cited 


Bridwell, J. C. 1918. Notes on the Bruchidae 
and their parasites in the Hawaiian Islands. 
Proc. Hawaii Entomol. Soc. 3: 465-505. 


. 1919a. Some additional notes on Bruchidae 
and their parasites in the Hawaiian Islands. 
Proc. Hawaii Entomol. Soc. 4: 15-20. 

. 1919b. Some notes on Hawaiian and other 

Bethylidae (Hymenoptera) with descriptions of 

new species. Proc. Hawaii Entomol. Soc. 4: 

21-38. 

. 1920. Notes on the Bruchidae and their 
parasites in the Hawaiian Islands, 3rd paper. 
Proc. Hawaii Entomol. Soc. 4: 403-409. 

Burks, B. D. 197la. The Nearctic species of 
Horismenus Walker (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae). 
Proc. Entomol. Soc. Wash. 73: 68—83. 

. 1971b. A synopsis of the genera of the 
family Eurytomidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcido- — 
idea). Trans. Amer. Entomol. Soc. 97: 1-89. 

Gibson, L. P. 1972. Urosigalphus of Mexico and 
Central America (Hymenoptera: Braconidae). 
Misc. Publ., Entomol. Soc. Amer. 8: 137—157. 

Janzen, D. H. 1975. Interactions of seeds and their — 
insect predators/parasitoids in a tropical de- 
ciduous forest. IN: Evolutionary strategies of — 
parasitic insects and mites, P. W. Price, ed. 
Plenum Press, New York, pp. 154-186. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


ACADEMY AFFAIRS 


THE AWARDS PROGRAM OF THE ACADEMY 
AND RECENT HONOREES 


Three research scientists and two 
science teachers were recipients last 
Spring of the Academy’s awards for out- 
standing scientific achievement. The 
presentations were made at the Annual 
Awards Dinner meeting of the Academy 
on March 20, 1975, at the Cosmos Club. 

The following research investigators 
were honored: Dr. Floyd E. Bloom, 
Division of Special Mental Health Re- 
search, National Institute of Mental 
Health, in the Biological Sciences; Dr. 
John D. Anderson, Jr., Department of 
Aerospace Engineering, University of 
Maryland, in the Engineering Sciences; 
and Dr. David L. Griscom, Material 
Sciences Division, Naval Research 
Laboratory, in the Physical Sciences. 

In the area of Teaching of Science, a 
joint award was presented to Dr. Carleton 
R. Treadwell, Professor & Chairman, 
Department of Biochemistry, The 
George Washington University School of 
Medicine, and to Dr. Donat G. Wentzel, 
Astronomy Program, University of 
Maryland. 


Biological Sciences 


Floyd E. Bloom was cited for ‘‘the 
molecular mechanisms and the function 
of axodendritic noradrenergic syn- 
apses.”’ 

Dr. Bloom was born October 8, 1936 
in Minneapolis, Minnesota. He received 
his A.B. degree in 1956, cum laude , from 
Southern Methodist University and his 
M.D. degree in 1960, cum laude, from 
Washington University School of Medi- 
cine. His internship and first year resi- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Floyd E. Bloom 


dency in medicine were spent at Barnes 
Hospital and Washington University 
School of Medicine, both in St. Louis, 
1960—1962. His memberships in learned 
societies include the following: Phi Beta 
Kappa; Alpha Omega Alpha, Sigma Xi, 
and International Society for Sterology. 
Special awards received previously by 
Dr. Bloom are the A. E. Bennett Award 
(1971), A. Cressy Morrison Award 
(1971), Arthur S. Fleming Award (1972), 
and Mathilde Solowey Award (1973). 
Educational institutions with which he 
has held important teaching and research 
positions are St. Elizabeth Hospital; 
George Washington University School; 
Yale University School of Medicine; and 
Connecticut Mental Health Center. 
Since July 1973, Dr. Bloom has served as 
Acting Director, Division of Special 
Mental Health Research Programs, Na- 
tional Institute of Mental Health, St. 
Elizabeths Hospital, Washington, D. C. 


117 


John D. Anderson, Jr. 


Engineering Sciences 


John D. Anderson, Jr., was cited for 
‘‘major contribution to manned atmos- 
pheric entry and high energy lasers.’’ 

Dr. Anderson was born October 1, 
1937 in Lancaster, Pennsylvania. He re- 
ceived the Bachelor of Aeronautical 
Engineering degree from the University 
of Florida with high honors in June 1959. 
His Ph.D. in Aeronautical and Astro- 
nautical Engineering was conferred by 
The Ohio State University in September 
1966. His memberships in learned so- 
cieties include the following: Tau Beta Pi, 
Sigma Xi, Sigma Tau, Phi Kappa Phi, 
and Phi Eta Sigma. Special academic 
honors received by Dr. Anderson are the 
J. Hillis Miller Memorial Scholarship 
(undergraduate); Institute of the Aero- 
nautical Scholastic Branch Award (1959); 
Chicago Tribune Silver Award for Mili- 
tary Merit (1958); Nominee for Mary- 
land’s Outstanding Young Scientist of 


1971 (Maryland Academy of Scientists); 


and Meritorious Civilian Service Award 
(December 15, 1972). Educational insti- 
tutions with which he has held important 
positions are analytical engineer for Pratt 
and Whitney Aircraft in Hartford, Conn.; 
Chief, Hypersonics Group, Astro- 


118 


physics Division, Naval Ordnance Lab- 
oratory; and part-time Lecturer, Me- 
chanical Engineering, Catholic Univer- } 
sity of America. Since May 1973, Dr. } 
Anderson has been Chairman and Profes- 
sor, Department of Aerospace Engineer- 
ing, University of Maryland, College 
Park, Maryland. 


Physical Sciences 


David L. Griscom was cited for ‘‘the 
imaginative use of microwave spec- 
troscopy to characterize magnetic struc- 
tures in amorphous solids.”’ 

Dr. Griscom was born November 1, 
1938 in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. He re- 
ceived the B.S. degree from Carnegie 
Institute of Technology in 1960. His 
Ph.D. degree in Physics was conferred 
by Brown University in 1966. His mem- _ 
berships in learned societies include 
the following: American Physical So- 
ciety, Sigma Xi, and American Ceramic 
Society. In 1971, he received an Out- 
standing Performance Rating at Naval 
Research Laboratory. The year follow- 
ing his completion of the doctorate in 
Physics at Brown University, he served 
as a Research Associate in Physics in 


David L. Griscom 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


the same institution. Since July 1, 1971, 
Dr. Griscom has served as Head, 
Radiation Effects Section, Solid State 
Division, Naval Research Laboratory, 
Washington, D. C. 


Teaching of Science 
(Joint Award) 


Medical School.—Carleton R. Tread- 
well was cited as a ‘‘teacher— dedicated, 
patient, concerned, always helpful—a 
man of integrity.’’ 

Dr. Treadwell was born December 28, 
1911 in Calhoun County, Michigan. He 
received the A.B. degree from Battle 
Creek College in 1934. The M.S. and 
Ph.D. degrees were both conferred by 
the University of Michigan in 1935 and 
1939, respectively. His professional 
activities include the following: Con- 
sultant in Medical Research, VA Center, 
Martinsburg, West Virginia, 1954 to date; 
Consultant in Biochemistry, Institute of 
Biochemistry, Walter Reed Army Medi- 
cal Center, 1965 to date; Chairman, Gor- 
don Research Conference on Lipids, 
1959-60; and Editorial Board, JOUR- 
NAL OF NUTRITION, 1955-59. Dr. 
Treadwell has held the following posi- 


Carleton R. Treadwell 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Donat G. Wentzel 


tions: Teaching Fellow, University of 
Michigan, 1935-39; Baylor University 
School of Medicine (Instructor of Bio- 
chemistry, 1939-42; Assistant Professor, 
of Biochemistry, 1942-43); Associate 
Professor of Biochemistry, Southwestern 
Medical School, 1943-45; and George 
Washington University School of Medi- 
cine (Assistant Professor of Biochem- 
istry, 1945-47; Associate Professor of 
Biochemistry, 1947—52; Professor of Bio- 
chemistry, 1952 to date). Since 1959, Dr. 
Treadwell has been Chairman, Depart- 
ment of Biochemistry, George Washing- 
ton University School of Medicine, 
Washington, D. C. 


University. —Donat G. Wentzel was 
cited for ‘‘promoting improved Astron- 
omy teaching on both college and second- 
ary school levels.”’ 

Dr. Wentzel was born June 25, 1934 
in Zurich, Switzerland. He received his 
B.A. degree, B.S. degree, M.S. degree 
and Ph.D. degree, all at the University 
of Chicago in 1954, 1955, 1956, and 1960, 
respectively. Educational institutions in 
which he has held positions are the fol- 
lowing: University of Michigan (Assist- 
ant Professor, 1961-64 and Associate 


119 


Professor, 1964-66). Since 1974, he has 
been a Professor in the Astronomy 
Program at the University of Maryland, 
College Park, Maryland. 


Some New Information About The 
Academy’s Awards Program 


The Board of Managers of the 
Academy has approved a sixth achieve- 
ment award area, beginning with the 1975 
Awards Program. It will be in the area of 


Behavioral Sciences. This new award 
will be restricted to the recognition of 
work involving objective, laboratory 
studies in the behavioral sciences. 

A second new policy approved by the 
Board is that the Teaching of Science 
Award will be designated in the future as 
the Berenice G. Lamberton Award for 
the Teaching of Science. The Award will 
recognize teaching scholars at the college 
and high-school levels, respectively.— 
Kelso B. Morris, General Chairman. 


BOARD OF MANAGERS MEETING NOTES 


Feb. 11, 1975 


The 628th meeting was called to order 
at 8:00 p.m. by President Stern in the 
Conference Room in the Lee Building at 
FASEB. The minutes of the previous 
meeting were corrected and approved. 


Treasurer.—Dr. Rupp presented the 
annual report for 1974, and also pre- 
sented a summary of the expenses of 
the past three years together with a bal- 
anced budget for the 1975 calendar year. 
His motion for acceptance of the annual 
report and the proposed budget was 
seconded by Dr. Sulzbacher and ap- 
proved. 


Tellers Committee.—Mr. Charles 
Rader announced the results of the 
election and recommended adoption of a 
plurality system for counting votes in the 
future. The following were elected for 
the 1975-76 session: 

President-elect: Dr. Florence H. 

Forziati 

Secretary: Dr. Alfred Weissler 

Treasurer: Dr. Richard H. Foote 

Managers-at-Large: 

Dr. Howard Noyes 
Dr. Leland Whitelock 


Membership Committee.—Dr. Flor- 
ence Forziati presented three nominees 
for Fellowship: Mr. Joseph F. Coates, 
Dr. Anne R. Headley, and Dr. Marion 
M. Schnepfe, and three new delegates: 
Dr. T. Cook, representing the American 
Society of Microbiology, Dr. Ralph 


120 


Hudson, representing the Philosophical 
Society of Washington, and Mr. A. 
James Wagner, representing the Ameri- 
can Meteorological Society. Her motion 
for acceptance of these six new Fellows 
was seconded by Dr. Rupp and ap- 
proved. 


Policy Planning/Ways and Means.— 
Dr. Alphonse Forziati presented the 
plans and the budget for the upcoming 
Symposium on ‘‘Energy Recovery 
From Solid Wastes,’’ mentioning that 
all expenses would be covered. 


Committee on Meetings.—Dr. Honig 
reported that the meeting at the Polish 
Embassy was a huge success. Two hun- 
dred people attended, and many more 
were disappointed because the Embassy 
wouldn’t accommodate them. Dr. Stern 
mentioned that he had received a few 
letters from Polish Americans protesting 
the holding of a scientific meeting at the 
Embassy (not neutral territory). 


Awards Committee.—Since Dr. 
Kelso Morris, Chairman of the Awards 
Committee, was absent, Dr. Stern pre- 
sented his report. The following were 
nominated and approved by the Board: 

Biological Sciences: Floyd E. Bloom, 

National Institute of Mental Health 
Engineering Sciences: John D. Ander- 
son, Jr., Univ. of Md. 

Physical Sciences: David L. Griscom, 
Naval Res. Lab. 

Mathematics: No Award given 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


_ Teaching of Science (joint award): 
Carleton R. Treadwell, The Geo. 
Washington Univ., and Donat G. 
Wentzel, University of Md. 


A general discussion, regarding 
whether the establishment of separate 
awards for college and High School 
teaching should be considered, followed, 
with Dr. Robbins making a motion, sec- 
} onded by Dr. Rupp, that separate awards 
be granted in the future, and that all 
nominees (losers) be invited to become 
Fellows of the Academy. This motion 
was approved by the Board. 


Committee on Encouragement of 
Science Talent.—In Mrs. Shafrin’s ab- 
sence, Dr. Stern presented her report. 
Abstracts of most of the papers pre- 
sented by the Junior Academy members 
at their annual Christmas convention 
will be published in the Spring issue of 
the Journal of the Academy. 


Bicentennial.—Dr. Raymond See- 
ger’s recommendation that the Academy 
concentrate on honoring the scientists 
in the Washington area who were impor- 
tant nationally in the development of 
science by setting up a committee of 
knowledgeable people who could speak 
about the accomplishments of a few par- 
ticular scientists at each meeting, pro- 
voked a lengthy discussion. Other sug- 
gestions included concentrating on the 
next 100 years instead of the past, placing 
a column in the Journal describing how 
the affiliates were planning to celebrate 
the Bicentennial, inviting the affiliates 
to plan a joint celebration, having the 
_ theme for the 1976 symposium to be “‘The 
_ Bicentennial,’’ drafting some historians 
of Science to help in the planning, de- 
scribing how each President of the USA 
worked with Scientists, reviewing the 
_ religion of our forefathers, etc. Dr. Rob- 
bins suggested the theme ‘‘Past is Pro- 
logue,’ therein covering the historical 
perspective and getting the plans under- 
way. Dr. Stern decided to let the Com- 
mittee on Policy Planning/Ways and 
Means consider the matter. 


_ J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Divisional Structure and Joint WAS- 
Affiliate Program: Public Understanding 
of Science.—Dr. Stern reported that 
only 14 responses had been received to 
date from the affiliate societies regarding 
the proposed divisional structure, but 
that all 14 were in agreement with the 
proposal—all affirmative. He mentioned 
that Dr. Henry Liers, NRL, had agreed 
to take the responsibility of both raising 
the money and formulating the programs 
for one year (50 programs) to be shown 
on TV. The national Bureau of Stand- 
ards and the Walter Reed Army Insti- 
tute of Research were both cited as good 
sources of films for the program. He 
stated that the divisional structure would 
certainly be an asset in operating this 
program effectively; contacting 40 dif- 
ferent societies would be a great incon- 
venience. 

Dr. Rupp moved that the Columbia 
Historical Society and the National Geo- 
graphic Society both be incorporated 
under the Life Sciences. This motion 
was seconded by Dr. Robbins and ap- 
proved. 

Dr. Stern proposed that each division 
have an elected chairman to be a member 
of the executive committee as well as a 
member of the Board of Managers, the 
main purpose being to encourage com- 
munication between societies having 
mutual interests. 

Dr. Honig suggested that each divi- 
sion formulate its objective and present 
it in writing to the Board. Dr. Recheigl 
suggested a period of experimentation 
before changing the structure of the 
Academy. 

Dr. Robbins made a motion, seconded 
by Dr. Rupp, to adopt the divisional 
structure for a trial period of two years. 
Dr. Honig made a motion, seconded by 
Dr. Bickley, to table the motion. 

Dr. Thomas Cook, representative 
from the American Society for Micro- 
biology, stated that his society has ap- 
proved of the Divisional Structure so the 
tally now stands at 15 for approval.— 
Mary H. Aldridge, Secretary. 


121 


SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS 


Contributions in this section of your Journal are earnestly solicited. 
They should be typed double-spaced and sent to the Editor three 
months preceeding the issue for which they are intended. 


AMERICAN UNIVERSITY 


Horace Isbell has had a paper published 
in Carbohydrate Research, Vol. 39, 
C4-C7, (1975) entitled ‘‘Concurrent Oxi- 
dation and Reduction Reactions of 
Cyclohexanehexone, Rhodizonic Acid, 
and Tetrahydroxy-1,4-benzoquinone 
with Hydrogen Peroxide.”’ 


Leo Schubert attended a meeting at the 
Steering Committee of Project SEED of 
the American Chemical Society on 19 
February 1975. The function of this com- 
mittee is to set up programs for the ‘‘dis- 
advantaged.’’ Dr. Schubert chairs 
‘Catalyst’? of Project SEED. He has 
also received an appointment for 1975-77 
on the Joint Board-Council Committee 
on Chemistry and Public Affairs of the 
American Chemical Society. Of the six 
appointments for this term, three are 
reappointments. The other two appoint- 
ments are Drs. Glenn T. Seaborg and 
L. J. Tepley. Dr. Schubert has been re- 
appointed to the Program Review Com- 
mittee of the American Chemical Society 
for 1975. 


DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE 


Karl H. Norris, Chief of the Instru- 
mentation Research Laboratory, U. S. 
Department of Agriculture, Beltsville, 
Maryland, was chosen by the American 
Academy of Achievement as one of fifty 
giants of accomplishment from the na- 
tion’s great fields of endeavor to receive 
the Golden Plate Award during the 14th 
annual Salute to Excellence weekend, 
June 26-28, at Evansville, Indiana. 

A nationally recognized authority on 
instrumentation— especially well known 
for developing the light-transmittance 
technique which provides the basis for 
automatic egg grading equipment in use 
today—Mr. Norris is the recipient of 
the 1974 Cyrus Hall McCormick gold 


122 


medal, the nation’s top honor in agri- 
cultural science, presented by the Ameri- 
can Society of Agricultural Engineers. 

Dedicated to the inspiration of youth 
‘‘to raise their sights high; to excel in their 
endeavors,’ the Academy annually 
honors ‘‘exemplars of excellence’”’ in 
business, the sciences, the professions, 
entertainment, sports, journalism, the 
arts, and service to fellow men. 

Over 150 national and state champion 
high school honor students joined the 
symposiums and other events during the 
weekend gathering. Dr. Michael 
DeBakey, Leon Jaworski, Lorne 
Greene, and Louis Nizer—as past 
Academy honorees—assisted in the’ 
presentation of awards at the Banquet 
of the Golden Plate. ! 


DEPARTMENT OF INTERIOR 


Honorary Membership was conferred 
on Captain Clement Leinster Garner, 
Captain, U. S. Coast & Geodetic Survey 
(Retired), by the American Congress on 
Surveying and Mapping for leadership 
and service in shaping the objectives of 
the ACSM Control Surveys Division 
and serving as its first elected Chairman. 
Presentation of the ACSM plaque was 
made on May 2, 1975, by ACSM officers 
at the home of Captain Garner. 

Captain Garner was Chief of the Coast 
Survey’s Division of Geodesy from 1937 
till his retirement some years ago. His 
various assignments included hydro- 
graphic and topographic surveys, gravi- 
metric determinations, first-order tri- 
angulation in various sections of the 
United States, and also the precise meas- 
urements of Pasadena Base Lines for use 
in determination of the velocity of light. 
He was commanding officer on Coast & 
Geodetic Survey vessels and engaged in 
military surveys during the first World 
War. | 


l 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 | 


He is a charter member and life mem- 
ber of ACSM and holds bachelor of sci- 
ence (1907) and doctorate (1940) degrees 
in engineering from North Carolina State 
College. 

Captain Garner is also a member of 
the American Society of Civil Engineers, 
Washington Academy of Sciences, 
Washington Society of Engineers, Philo- 
sophical Society of Washington, Ameri- 
can Astronomical Society, American 
Geophysical Union, Society of Ameri- 
can Military Engineers, American Asso- 
ciation for Advancement of Science, 
and American Society of Photogram- 
metry. 


NATIONAL INSTITUTES OF HEALTH 


Robert L. Dedrick, chief of the Chemi- 
cal Engineering Section, Biomedical En- 
gineering and Instrumentation Branch, 
DRS, received the 1974 Food, Pharma- 
ceutical, and Bioengineering Division 
Award of the American Institute of 
Chemical Engineers. 

The award for ‘‘outstanding contribu- 
tions . . . and professional leadership 
in biomedical engineering’ included a 
plaque, a certificate, and a check for 
$1,000. 

In his acceptance speech, Chemical 
Engineering and Cancer Research, Dr. 
Dedrick discussed the application of 
chemical engineering to the problem of 
extrapolating observations from one 
biological system to another with par- 


ticular reference to environmental toxi- 
cology. 

He has earned degrees from Yale, the 
University of Michigan, and the Uni- 
versity of Maryland. 

His publications include work in 
pharmacokinetics, adsorption kinetics, 
biomaterials, hemodialysis, and instru- 
mentation. 

Dr. Dedrick also holds a number of 
patents on devices and processes for 
dialysis and tissue culture. 


Ronald B. Herberman has been ap- 
pointed acting chief of the National Can- 
cer Institute’s newly established Labora- 
tory of Immunodiagnosis in the Division 
of Cancer Biology and Diagnosis. 

The new laboratory is primarily con- 
cerned with the characterization of anti- 
gens associated with tumor cells. 

Dr. Herberman will direct research on 
immune responses to tumor-associated 
antigens in experimental animals and 
cancer patients. 

He received a B.A. degree in 1960 from 
New York University and an M.D. 
degree in 1964 from the N.Y.U. School 
of Medicine. 

In 1966 Dr. Herberman joined NCI as 
a clinical associate in the Immunology 
Branch, and from 1968 to 1971 he was a 
senior investigator in the branch. 

In 1971 he was appointed head of the 
Cellular and Tumor Immunology Sec- 
tion, a position he held until his present 
appointment. 


NEW FELLOWS 


James F. Goff, Research Physicist and 
Branch Chief, Thermoelectric Properties 
Section, U.S. Naval Surface Weapons 
Ctr., Silver Spring, Md., in recognition of 
his contributions to and experiments in 
the field of the transport properties of 
semi-conductors and transition metals. 
Sponsors: Zaka I. Slawsky, George 
Abraham. 


Raynor L. Duncombe, Director, Nauti- 
cal Almanac Office, U. S. Naval Ob- 
servatory, in recognition of his outstand- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


ing contributions to celestial mechanics 
and dynamical astronomy, his adminis- 
trative skill and leadership as Director 
of the Nautical Almanac Office, U. S. 
Naval Observatory, and his participation 
in many national and international or- 
ganizations in his fields of interest. Spon- 
sors: Bancroft Sitterly, Charlotte M. Sit- 
terly. 


Nicolae Filipescu, Professor of Chem- 
istry, The George Washington Univer- 
sity, in recognition of his contribution to 


123 


photochemistry, in particular his re- 
search on energy transfer. Sponsors: 
C. R. Naeser, Theodore Perror, Robert 
C. Vincent. 


Arthur S. Jensen, Senior Advisory 
Physicist, Westinghouse Systems Devel- 
opment Div., Baltimore, Md., in recogni- 
tion of his contributions to basic electron 
physics and their applications to electron 
tubes and electron devices. Sponsors: 
Jenny E. Rosenthal, Richard Tousey. 


Howard St. Claire Jones, Jr., Chief, 
Microwave Res. & Dev. Branch, Super- 
visory Physical Scientist, Harry Dia- 
mond Labs., for contributions to micro- 
wave component and antenna system de- 
sign with particular emphasis on compact 
lightweight antenna arrays. Sponsors: 
Paul E. Landis, George Abraham. 


Milton N. Kabler, Head, Insulator 
Physics Branch, Material Sciences 
Division, Naval Research Laboratory, 
in recognition of his contributions to 
solid state physics and in particular his 


researches in the area of optical prop- 
erties and defects in insulating crystals. 
Sponsors: A. I. Schindler, L. Teitler, 
George Abraham. 


William V. Loebenstein, research 
chemist, Dental & Medical Material 
Sciences, Polymers Div., NBS, in recog- 
nition of his significant contributions to 
the understanding of the surface chem- 
istry of tooth structure and restorative 
materials. The results of his work provide 
some of the understanding necessary to 
solve problems related to tooth decay, 
strengthening tooth structure to resist 
decay, and the tooth-restoration inter- 
face to enhance the adhesion of restora- 
tive materials. Sponsors: Nelson W. 
Rupp, George C. Paffenbarger, George 
Dickson. 


Joseph M. Marchello, Provost, Divi- 
sion of Mathematical & Physical Sci- 
ences & Engineering, Univ. of Mary- 
land. Sponsors: George Abraham, 
Alphonse F. Forziati, Sidney Teitler. 


OBITUARIES 


Alden H. Emery 


Alden H. Emery, chief administrator 
of the American Chemical Society from 
1946 to 1966, died in Suburban Hospital 
after a long illness. He lived on Park 
Crest Drive in Silver Spring. 

Emery, a member of the American 
Chemical Society since 1923, joined the 
organization’s staff as assistant man- 
ager in 1936. He became assistant secre- 
tary in 1943, secretary in 1946 and ex- 
ecutive secretary in 1947. 

Because of Emery’s leadership the 
ACS kept abreast of the ‘‘scientific infor- 
mation explosion’? and became the 
largest chemical society, perhaps the 
most effective technical society in exis- 
tence, said Glenn T. Seaborg, president- 
elect of the society. 

In 1961 Emery was awarded the so- 
ciety’s gold medal and was cited for ad- 
ministering his office with “‘exceptional 


124 


intelligence, tact, vision and responsive- 
ness to the desires of the members.”’ 

Emery. was born in Lancaster, N. H. 
A graduate of Oberlin College, he re- 
ceived an M.A. degree from Ohio State 
University. In the early 1920s he worked 
for the U. S. Bureau of Mines, becoming 
assistant chief engineer of the experi- 
ment stations division here. 

Emery also worked on a number of 
publications of the ACS, including 
‘‘Chemical Abstracts’? and ‘‘Metal- 
lurgical Abstracts.”’ 

He was a member of the American 
Association for the Advancement of 
Science, the Washington Academy of 
Sciences and the Cosmos, Torch and 
University Clubs here. 

He leaves his wife, Dorothy R.; two 
sons, Alden H., Jr., of Lafayette, Ind., 
and Robert W., of Lancaster, Pa.; and 
five grandchildren. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Malcom Colby Henderson 


Malcom Colby Henderson, 71, a noted 
physicist, former Atomic Energy Com- 
mission official and Catholic University 
professor, died on July 18, 1975, in 
Berkeley, Calif., after a long illness. He 
moved to Berkeley in 1970 after retiring 
from Catholic University, where he had 
been a research physicist since 1954. 

Known equally for his work in intelli- 
gence and for his accomplishments in the 
field of physics, Dr. Henderson was an 
outspoken critic of what he felt was un- 
warranted government secrecy in some 
areas. 

He also carried the banner in other 
causes, such as the controversy at the 
Cosmos Club over the admittance of a 
Negro in 1962 and the 1967 massive 
rebellion at Catholic University over the 
firing of a teaching priest. 

Dr. Henderson’s work in the field of 
physics involved cyclotron design, arti- 
ficial radioactivity, transmission and re- 
ception of underwater sound, atomic 
energy, ultrasonics and thermal relaxa- 
tion in gases. Considered an authority 


Malcolm C. Henderson 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


in these areas, he had served as a con- 
sultant to the National Science Founda- 
tion and did civilian work with the Office 
of Scientific Research and Development. 
He also entered into other fields. 

Born in New Haven, Conn., he was a 
graduate of Phillips Academy at Andover 
and Yale University, where he was 
elected to Phi Beta Kappa. 

Dr. Henderson then entered Cam- 
bridge University in England, where he 
studied under Lord Rutherford at the 
Cavendish Laboratory and received a 
doctorate in nuclear physics in 1928. 

For the next four years, he was a Ster- 
ling Fellow and Honorary Research Fel- 
low at Yale. From there he went to the 
University of California at Berkeley, 
where he assisted Ernest Lawrence in 
building the first cyclotron. 

From 1935 to 1940, Dr. Henderson 
was an instructor in physics at Princeton 
University. He moved from there to 
Dartmouth College as a professor. 

During World War II, he headed a 
group at the Navy Radio and Sound 
Laboratory in San Diego, which de- 
veloped FM Sonar. This device was used 
by American submarines to detect enemy 
mines. It enabled the submarines to pene- 
trate the Sea of Japan in 1945 through 
heavily mined straits. 

After the war, Dr. Henderson served 
as a research analyst in the Intelligence 
Division of the Army for three years. 

From 1949 to 1953, he was deputy 
director of the Office of Intelligence of 
the Atomic Energy Commission. This 
was followed by a year as director of 
atomic test operations for the Federal 
Civil Defense Administration before he 
joined the faculty of Catholic University. 

It was after he had left the AEC and 
the Civil Defense Agency that Dr. 
Henderson spoke out strongly on secrecy 
in government. He voiced heavy opposi- 
tion to restricting unclassified technical 
information. 

‘*Suppressing information that is not 
classified will gain us nothing, jeopardize 
our precious liberties and impede tech- 
nical progress,’’ he declared. It was dur- 
ing a period of heavy debate on national 


125 


security and the right of the people to 
know about what its government was 
doing. 

On another occasion he said that there 
was no question that present government 
security regulations were impeding ex- 
change of scientific information and pro- 
ductive ideas between scientists. 7 

‘*Let us have restrictions on classified 
information and let us put teeth in the law 
SO we can prosecute and convict those 
who leak classified material, but let’s 
put no faith in a general atmosphere of 
secrecy in a gray area,’’ he told a meeting 
of the American Society of Newspaper 
Editors. 

Dr. Henderson, a member of the pres- 
tigious Cosmos Club, entered the contro- 
versy in 1962 when the Club refused to 
admit Carl Rowan, a Negro and then 
Deputy Assistant Secretary of State for 
Public Affairs. While he was not among 
the members to resign, Dr. Henderson 
offered a resolution, adopted by the club, 
that would have banned exclusion of any 
person from membership on account of 
religion, color, race or national origin. 
Negroes are now admitted to the club. 

The Catholic University rebellion was 
started by both cleric and lay students 
after the board of trustees decided not to 
renew the contract of the Rev. Charles E. 
Curran, an assistant professor of moral 
theology. He was known for his liberal 
views on such touchy matters as birth 
control and a new approach to morality. 

Both the cleric and the lay faculty went 
out on strike. Dr. Henderson, as chair- 
man of the Assembly of Ordinary Profes- 
sors, led the lay faculty. The issue be- 
came an overall issue of teaching free- 
dom. 

The stakes were high, but the issue was 
finally resolved with concessions from 
the board. 

Dr. Henderson was a former president 
of the Washington Philosophical Society 
and the Washington Academy of Science. 
He belonged to the Society of the Cin- 
cinnati. 

He is survived by his wife, Katherine 
Linforth Henderson, of Berkeley; two 
sons, Ian Yandell Henderson, of Louis- 


126 


ville, and Anthony Gordon Henderson, 
of New York City, and three grand- 
children. 


Hugh L. Logan 


Hugh L. Logan, 74, retired physicist 
from the National Bureau of Standards 
and an internationally known authority 
on stress corrosion cracking, died June 
23, 1975 after an illness in Arlington, 
Virginia. A native of Colorado, Mr. 
Logan joined the National Bureau of 
Standards in 1936 and remained there 
until his retirement in 1966. He obtained 
a BS in chemistry from Tarkio College, 
Tarkio, Missouri and an MS in physics at 
the University of Colorado. He had com- 
pleted all requirements for the Ph.D. 
degree in physics at the University of 
Colorado with the exception of two 
courses when the opportunity to come to 
the Bureau arose in 1936. He retired in 
1967. 

His major work at the National Bureau 
of Standards was concerned with stress 
corrosion cracking. During his career, 
he became one of the outstanding 
workers in this important field. In 1952, 
he proposed the film rupture theory of 
stress corrosion, and over the years this 
theory has seen increasing acceptance. 
It is considered one of the major mech- 
anisms for stress corrosion cracking. He 
is the author of the book “‘Stress Cor- 
rosion of Metals.’’ This is the only book 
on the subject by a single author and is 
used extensively by corrosion engineers 
and metallurgists. He organized, along 
with Dr. E. H. Phelps of the United 
States Steel Corporation, a symposium 
on stress corrosion at the 2nd Interna- 
tional Congress on Metallic Corrosion 
held in New York in 1963. He published 
over thirty papers and books. 

He was a member of the National 
Association of Corrosion Engineers, 
Electrochemical Society, and American 
Society for Metals, and a fellow of the 
Washington Academy of Sciences. As 
recognition for his outstanding achieve- 
ments, he received the Silver Medal of 
the Department of Commerce in 1960, 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


and he was the recipient of the Burgess 
Memorial Award of the Washington 
Chapter of the American Society of 
Metals in 1964. 

He is survived by his wife, Ethel, a 
son, Hugh, Jr., and a grandson. 


: Howard S. Rappleye 
| Howard Snyder Rappleye, 83, for 
‘many years an authority on precise 
leveling for the U. S. Coast and 
Geodetic Survey, has died of cancer 
in Providence Hospital. 

Rappleye was a treasurer of the Wash- 
ington Academy of Sciences and was 
editor of the journal of the Congress of 
Surveying and Mapping—both for 
periods of 10 years. 

His long association with the USCGS 
began after he left the Army as a cap- 
tain at the end of World War I. About 
1930 he was named chief of the section 
of precise leveling, a position he held 
until his retirement in 1954. 

When the White House was renovated 
during the Truman administration, 
Rappleye was consulted to insure that 
the building remained balanced while 
the extensive construction program 
progressed. 

During most of the last 30 years 
Rappleye devoted his summer vacations 
to teaching precise leveling at summer 
camps for surveying students from sev- 
eral northeastern universities. 

Rappleye’s numerous publications in- 
clude two definitive government tech- 
nical manuals. 

A native of Ithaca, N. Y., Rappleye 
attended Cornell University there and 
also studied at New York and George 
Washington Universities. 

He was a Mason and a Shriner and a 
member of Takoma Park Baptist Church, 
the Cosmos Club here and many pro- 
fessional societies. 

His wife, the former Nettie Brewer, 
died two years ago. He leaves a son, 
Robert, of College Park, a botany pro- 
fessor at the University of Maryland, and 
two grandchildren. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 


Nathan Raymond Smith 


On June 26, 1974, Nathan Raymond 
Smith died in Sarasota, Florida. Born in 
Whitehall, New York, on September 10, 
1888, to Minnie F. and Frederick Smith, 
he became a Vermonter at the age of 
eight when his family moved to Benson, 
Vermont, and then, two years later, to a 
500-acre hilltop farm near Ludlow in that 
state. In 1921 he married Katherine Reyn- 
olds of Texas. Both Dr. Smith and his 
wife (who died in 1959) were enthusiastic 
gardeners, and a beautiful garden was 
always part of their home. 

Throughout his life, Dr. Smith retained 
a close association with his former class- 
mates (Class of 1911) at the University 
of Vermont and with Benjamin Franklin 
Lutman, his bacteriology professor. For 
over 20 years Dr. Smith served as an 
officer of the Vermont Society in Wash- 
ington, D. C. From 1911 to his retire- 
ment in 1951, with the exception of two 
years (1917 to 1919) of Army service 
at the Ford Laboratory in Detroit, Dr. 
Smith worked in Washington at the 
Bureau of Plant Industry, U. S. Depart- 
ment of Agriculture, on the microflora 
of the soil, life cycles of bacteria, and the 
decomposition of organic matter in the 
soil. 


Nathan Raymond Smith 


127 


In the mid-thirties, encouraged by Dr. 
Charles Thom, his chief, he began a taxo- 
nomic project on the genus Bacillus that 
culminated in 1952 in the publication of 
Agriculture Monograph No. 16, which 
served as a basis of the section on the 
genus Bacillus in three editions of Ber- 
gey’s Manual of Determinative Bac- 
teriology. Of the 1134 strains covered, 
1114 strains, which had upon receipt 
borne 158 different species names, were 
assigned to 19 species. 

Coincident with his retirement from 
the USDA, Dr. Smith became a mem- 
ber of the Board of Trustees of Bergey’s 
Manual and, with Drs. R. S. Breed and 
E. G. D. Murray, edited the 7th edition 
of the Manual. It was a busy (‘‘every 
mail brought a letter, and sometimes two, 
from Dr. Breed’’), enjoyable association. 
After Dr. Breed’s death in 1956, Dr. 
Smith assumed the burden of correcting 
the proofs and examined every word 
under a reading glass. He was justly 


128 


| 


proud of the conclusion of Dr. L. W. Pari 
in his review of ‘‘Bergey’s Seventh” 
(Science, 1958, 127: 1403) that ‘‘The 
authors are to be congratulated on a su- 
perb task well done.”’ 

Dr. Smith was a member of the Society 
of American Bacteriologists (later the 
American Society for Microbiology), 
and was president of the Washingto 
Branch in 1941-42. He was also a mem-) 
ber of the American Association for the, 
Advancement of Science, the Soil 
Science Society, the Society of Agrono- 
mists, and the Botanical Society of 
Washington. He served the Washington 
Academy of Sciences successively as 
vice president, corresponding secretary, 
archivist, and president. His presidency 
of the Academy in 1951 was a pleasant. 
climax to his career in Washington.—, 
Ruth E. Gordon 


Reprinted, with modification and by permission, 
from ASM News, Vol. 40, No. 12, December 1974. | 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 3, 1975 _ 


General 

Type manuscripts on white bond paper 
either 8% by 11 or 8 by 10% inches. Double 
space all lines, including those in abstracts, 
tables, legends, quoted matter, acknowledg- 
ments, and references cited. Number pages 
sonsecutively. Place your name and com- 
jlete address in the upper right hand corner 
‘of the title page. 


fitle, Author, and Affiliation 
Page | of your manuscript should contain 
only this information and your name and 
ddress. Choose a concise but complete and 
meaningful title. In research papers con- 
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CONTENTS 


Feature: 
GEORGE TUNELL: The Operational Basis and Mathematical Deriva- 
Beaman ie Gibbs Differential Equation... .. 01... ce cco we ceca cme eas 


Profile: 
GEORGE B. KAUFFMAN: Raleigh Gilchrist (1893—1966)—American 
imeecwineiatinum Metal Research ........ 00.0. dex ececesvceeciuns 


Research Reports: 
C. CARTY and R. R. COLWELL: A Microbiological Study of Air and 
Suerdce Water Microlayers in the Open Ocean...............0000 000% 148 
DONALD R. WHITEHEAD and JOHN M. KINGSOLVER: Beetles 
and Wasps Associated With Cassia biflora L. (Caesalpiniaceae) 
Frits m Costa Rica (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) .............2...0.28004: 154 
DORIS H. BLAKE: Colaspis melancholica Jacoby and Its Close Rela- 
PemsatenCneepteta: CNTYSOMENGAEG) 626 's.0. oc. cee ae Wes owe hae wwe oleae 


Academy Affairs: 
Board of Managers Meeting Notes—Appril 29, 1975 ...................5. 163 
MER TELUS PME OPI scr Wath ic St iss ns Paces tra she ines Rei eco Sree Ninian ble on 


Site wl are eee el ee eer ee cel eels) se \elera el ene) whe) 0) Sia aye) e608 6Le soe Ble ce 


Obituary 
2 2 Tin) ERAS Oa a aid Tr et oy UR ok or 


alee /al-els Mselp (ole) e eo) =e 


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- American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical 


and Petroleum 1 E THISTLE Ee es oY RR es Carl H. Cotterill 
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Pieter wSSOCIAtiOn- OL AMERICA 22 ..3s)2 ss ou « a ve 4 osc col eetas/S ned Ses dre is we ho Patrick Hayes 
PEPE EUMISCENCIMISES! 2S... 5 6,06) S Aa ak sod sacs ob MEM a deine ote elma doh ieee S Miloslav Recheigl, Jr. 
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Delegates continue in office until new selections are made by the representative societies. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 29 


ry 


| eee LaF 


= 


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ps ele 


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= eee y ee ty! 
si’ atioe ae ee 
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rors ng): Vax 


FEATURE 


The Operational Basis and Mathematical 
Derivation of the Gibbs Differential Equation’ 


George Tunell 


Department of Geological Sciences, 


University of California, Santa Barbara 93106 


ABSTRACT 


Several authors have correctly indicated that the Gibbs differential equation (Gibbs’s 
equation (12)) for an open system is a generalization of the Clausius differential equation 
for a closed system. The authors of all of the textbooks of thermodynamics with which 
I am acquainted that have discussed Gibbs’s equation (12) have accepted it without 
attempting to supply an operational basis for it. However, Gibbs himself gave an excellent 
statement of the operational basis of his equation (12) on pages 140-141 of his memoir 
in Volume 3 of the Transactions of the Connecticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 
entitled ‘‘On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous Substances,’’ and from this statement 
his equation (12) is mathematically simply and easily derivable. 


It is an honor and a privilege to be here 
and to present the second annual J. 
Willard Gibbs lecture. The purpose of 
this lecture is to show that the Gibbs dif- 
ferential equation, which is the basic 
equation of chemical thermodynamics, 
has a very simple operational basis and 
that from the experimentally determin- 
able relations the Gibbs differential equa- 
tion can be obtained by a simple mathe- 
matical transformation. 

Several authors (Guggenheim, 1950, 
p. 17; Keenan, 1948, p. 449; Moelwyn- 
Hughes, 1957, p. 282—283) have correctly 
indicated that the Gibbs differential equa- 
tion for-an open system is a generalization 
of the Clausius differential equation for a 
closed system. Lynde Phelps Wheeler 
(1952, p. 70-71) in his excellent biography 
of Gibbs stated: 


1 Second annual J. Willard Gibbs Lecture pre- 
sented before the Washington Academy of Sciences 
on February 20, 1975. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


‘*This fundamental equation [i.e. the 
Clausius differential equation] formed the 
starting point for Gibbs’ development and 
extension of thermodynamics. In a sense 
it may be said to embody the whole of 
his indebtedness to his predecessors. No 
one had in the slightest degree anticipated 
the line of his further development of the 
subject. Prior to him no one had realized 
that the equation could be generalized to 
include non-homogeneous bodies, or had 
seen that when so expanded it would hold 
the key to the great domain of chemical 
equilibrium. The story of how Gibbs was 
led step by step with inexorable logic to 
his great generalization and the complete- 
ness with which he explored its conse- 
quences form a narrative almost unique 
in the history of science. ‘On the Equilib- 
rium of Heterogeneous Substances’ ap- 
peared upon the scientific horizon in the 
1870’s as unheralded as had Carnot’s 
Réflexions in the 1820’s; but whereas 


131 


Carnot’s work required that of Kelvin 
and Clausius to bring it to fruition, Gibbs’ 
work forms a completed whole in whose 
framework the developments of the suc- 
ceeding three-quarters of a century in 
the fields it covers appear for the most 
part as necessary and inevitable con 
sequences.” ; 

If the amount and kind of matter in a 
homogeneous mass is considered to be 
fixed, its energy ¢€ is a function of its 
entropy 7 and its volume v, and the dif- 
ferentials of these quantities are subject 
to the relation 


(ily: 


where ¢ denotes the absolute thermo- 
dynamic temperature and p denotes the 
pressure; this is the Clausius differential 
equation for a closed system in the nota- 
tion of Gibbs. 

The generalization of this equation that 
was required in the case of a homoge- 
neous body of variable composition and 
variable mass was stated by Gibbs 
(1874-78, p. 116 or 1928, p. 63) in the 
following way: ““But if we consider the 
matter in the mass as variable, and write 
M1, Mz, ... Mm, for the quantities of the 
various substances S,, So, ... 5S, of which 
the mass is composed, e will evidently be 
a function of n, v, m,, M2, ... M, and we 
shall have for the complete value of the 
differential of € 


de = tdyn — pdv 


de = tdn — pdv, 


(12) 


M1, Me, --- Mn denoting the differential 
coefficients of € taken with respect to 
M,,M, ... M,. This statement appears 
on page 116 of Gibbs’s memoir entitled 
‘‘On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous 
Substances’’ in Volume 3 of the Transac- 
tions of the Connecticut Academy of 
Arts and Sciences. 

The authors of all of the textbooks of 
thermodynamics with which I am ac- 
quainted that have discussed Gibbs’s 
equation (12) have accepted it without 


1 aM Boas se padi. 


2 Arabic numbers in parentheses are numbers 
of Gibbs’s equations. 


132 


attempting to supply an _ operational 
basis for it (Finkelstein, 1969, p. 84; | 
Fleury and Mathieu, 1954, p. 286; 
Guggenheim, 1950, p. 449; Kirkwood and 
Oppenheim, 1961, p. 52; Moelwyn- 
Hughes, 1957, p. 283; Partington, 1950, 
p. 106; Prigogine, Defay, and Everett, 
1954, p.67; Sommerfeld, Bopp, Meixner, 
and Kestin, 1956, p. 87; Wall, 1965, 
p. 189). Thus, for example, Prigogine, 
Defay, and Everett (1954, p. 66) state 
that: “‘For closed systems the first law 
of thermodynamics establishes the exist- 
ence of the function of state U [this is 
the same as Gibbs’s e]. We now presume 
that this function must also exist when 
the number of moles varies in an arbitrary 
manner [italics by Prigogine, Defay, and 
Everett].’’ However, in the abstract of 
his memoir ‘‘On the Equilibrium of 
Heterogeneous Substances’’ that Gibbs 
prepared for the American Journal of 
Science he did not state that e will evi- 
dently be a function of 7, v, m,, mo, 
... M,; onthe contrary he stated (Gibbs, 
1878, p. 444, or Gibbs, 1928, p. 357) that 
in the case of a homogeneous body of 
variable composition and variable mass 
‘It is easily shown that e is a function 
of 7, ¥, M,, My, ... M,, and taapeee 
complete value of de is given by the 
equation 


de = tdyn — pdv 


99 


+ idm, + podm, _” iieur 


Furthermore on pages 140-141 of his 
memoir in the Transactions of the Con- 
necticut Academy of Arts and Sciences 
Gibbs (1874-78, p. 140-141, or 1928, 
p. 85) gave an excellent statement of 
the operational basis of his equation 
(12) in the following words: “‘As, how- 
ever, it is only differences of energy and 
of entropy that can be measured, or 
indeed that have a physical meaning, 
the values of these quantities are so far 
arbitrary, that we may choose in- 
dependently for each simple substance 
the state in which its energy and its 
entropy are both zero. The values of the 
energy and the entropy of any compound 
body in any particular state will then be 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


fixed. Its energy will be the sum of the 
work and heat expended in bringing its 
components from the states in which their 
energies and their entropies are zero into 
combination and to the state in question; 
and its entropy is the value of the in- 


dQ 


tegral | —for any reversible process 
t 


by which that change is effected (dQ de- 
noting an element of the heat communi- 
cated to the matter thus treated, and f 
the temperature of the matter receiving 
it).’’ Thus he showed that the energy and 
the entropy of a compound body or 
solution can be obtained by measure- 
ments of the work done on a closed 
system and the heat received by the 
closed system provided that in the case 
of the determination of the value of the 


d 
integral | da the reactions in the system 
t 


take place in a reversible manner. 

It remains to describe a concrete ex- 
perimental method for carrying out the 
processes described by Gibbs, and to 
show that from the experimentally deter- 
minable functions, the Gibbs differential 
equation can be obtained by means of a 
mathematical transformation. Let us 
picture a constant temperature water 
bath. In this bath let us imagine a sys- 
tem of three chambers separated by semi- 
permeable membranes as represented in 
Fig. 1.2 The membrane separating cham- 
bers I and III is supposedly permeable 
only to component |; similarly the mem- 
brane separating chambers II and III is 
supposedly permeable only to component 
2. An arbitrary amount of component 1 
and nothing else is placed in chamber I 
and an arbitrary amount of component 2 
and nothing else is placed in chamber II. 
Chamber III is initially empty. All of the 
matter in the side chambers is then 
forced through the semipermeable mem- 


3 The use of semipermeable membranes was in- 
troduced into thermodynamics by Gibbs as J. R. 
Partington (1949, p. 163) has pointed out. Thus 
the use of a three-chamber system with semi- 
permeable membranes to establish an operational 
basis for the Gibbs differential equation appears 
not to be inappropriate. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


Fig. 1 (above). Thermostat containing a three- 
chamber system with semipermeable membranes 
and pistons in the initial position. 


Fig. 2 (below). Thermostat containing a three- 
chamber system with semipermeable membranes 
and pistons in the final position. 


branes into chamber III by means of the 
pistons (Fig. 2). If the volume of cham- 
ber III has been calibrated in terms of 
the piston displacement, the volume of 
the solution vy, in chamber III is then 
determinable. By conducting a series of 
experiments we can obtain v,, as a func- 
tion of the absolute temperature f, the 
pressure p, and the masses of the two 
components m, and m,: 


(1)* 


Also by determining the heat QO received 
from the water bath by the substances in 
the three chambers (a positive or negative 
quantity) and the total work W done by 
the three pistons on the substances in 
the three chambers (a positive or negative 
quantity), all of the mass of component | 
and all of the mass of component 2 being 
initially in the side chambers and finally 
in the central chamber, we can obtain the 


Vm = (t,p,m,,mM2). 


* Roman numbers in parentheses are numbers of 
equations in the derivations of the present author. 


133 


energy €y,; of the solution in chamber III 
in the final state as a function of the tem- 
perature, the pressure, and the masses of 
the two components by means of the 
relation 


€m(t,P,14,M2) <3 €,(t,p',m') 
a €,(t,p'',m'’) a Q ad W, (II) 


where p’ and p”’ denote the initial pres- 
sures in the side chambers I and II and 
p denotes the final pressure in the central 
chamber III, and e, and e, denote the 
energies of the masses of the pure com- 
ponents 1 and 2 in the side chambers I 
and II in the initial state. Finally, if the 
passage of the components through the 
semipermeable membranes is accom- 
plished under equilibrium conditions by 
maintenance of the pistons at equilibrium 
osmotic pressures, in which case p’ and 
p"’ are functions of the temperature, the 
pressure, and the mass fraction of one 
component of the solution in chamber 
III, then the entropy yy of the solution 


in chamber III in the final state can be 
obtained as a function of the temperature, 
the pressure, and the masses of the two 
components by means of the relation: 


Nu(t,P,11,M2) — n(t,p',m’) 


=n ie = | 


“e , ite 


where 7; and ny denote the entropies of 
the masses of the pure components 1 
and 2 in the side chambers in the initial 
state. Now if equations (I) and (III) can 
be solved for ¢ and p as functions of ny, 
Um, 1, Mz, we have 

= Y(u50m5/11,M2) (IV) : 
and 

Pp = O(N m.Vm5/11,M2). (V) 
Hence we have also 

em = O(nm.0m/11,M2). (VI) 


The total differential of €, is then 
given by the following equation 


O€1n 


0 6) 
dey = ( =i dym + ( =u dvyy 
Onm Vm,/711,M OU Nim, 
re O€1n 
Om, 


From the Clausius differential equation 
for a system of constant mass and con- 
stant composition we know that 


@ 
=x | =f (VIII) 
Onm Um,/N1,Mz 
and 
@ 
eu SO ES 
Ovm Nm,/11,Me 


By definition 


Oe 
m= | = | (x) 
OM, /nmvmm 
and 
Oe 
m= x | xD) 
Om, Nm Vm! 
134 


dm, + dm,. (VII) 
Nm Ym, 6) No Vm!11 


Mo 


Thus we obtain finally the result 
dey = tdny — pavyy 


=F p4,dm, fe podm, (XID) 


which is Gibbs’s equation (12). 

Now that the Gibbs differential equa- 
tion has been derived, we turn to the 
question as to what measurements are 
necessary for the determination of com- 
plete thermodynamic information for a 
chemically variable system over a given 
range of temperature, pressure, and 
concentration. 

Gibbs (1874-78, p. 143-144, or 1928, 
p. 88) stated that: ‘“Any equation. . . 
between the quantities 


€, 7); v, My, M2, D0.0 Mn, (99) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


or ee PL, MN, m,, 1 (100) 
or ote LLL ie Le m,,  (LOf) 
or Cit pm, Mo, He, = @L02) 
or Paha, fe, ..-- fin, (103) 


is a fundamental equation, and any such 
is entirely equivalent to any other. For 
any homogeneous mass whatever, con- 
sidered (in general) as variable in com- 
position, in quantity, and in thermody- 
namic state, and having n independently 
variable components, to which the sub- 
script numerals refer (but not excluding 
the case in which n = 1| and the com- 
position of the body is invariable), there 
is a relation between the quantities 
enumerated in any one of the above sets, 
from which, if known, with the aid only 
of general principles and relations, we 
may deduce all the relations subsisting 
for such a mass between the quantities 
€, Ws, X> & 1) v, My, Mz, ... My, t, P, M1, 
fo, --- Mn. Gibbs’s functions w, x, and Z 
are defined by the following equations 


ne in, 
X =e t+ pv, 
€=e+ pv — tn. 


The question then arises: What meas- 
urements will suffice to permit the 
formulation of € as a concrete function 
of n, Vv, m1, Mz, ... M,? We have already 
shown that if by means of measure- 
ments, v can be obtained as a concrete 
function of t, p, m,, mz, ... My, if € can 
be obtained as a concrete function of f, 
pam, ... M,, if y can be obtained 
as a concrete function of tf, p, m,, mo, 

. My, and finally if the first and third of 
these relations can be solved for ¢ and p 
as functions of y, v, m,, Mz, ... My, then 
e can be obtained as a concrete func- 
On OL, 0, M,, M2, ... Mp. 

The total volume v is equal to the 
specific volume i multiplied by the 
total mass 


v = Mod (XITT) 
where 


Me Me tis . . 0. + My: 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


Likewise the total energy € is equal to 
the specific energy € multiplied by the 
total mass 


aie (XIV) 


and the total entropy 7 is equal to 
the specific entropy 7 multiplied by the 
total mass 


n = M7. (XV) 
The mass fractions ™,, M2, ... Mny_; are 
defined by the equations 
: m 
mM, = a ; (XVI) 
‘ m 
My = a (XVII) 
Pp Mp— 
Mn. = ve (XVIID 


Consequently, if t, €, and 7 can be ob- 
tained as concrete functions of ft, p, m,, 
My, ... M,_1, then v, €, and y can be cal- 
culated as functions of f,p,,,M2,...Mp. 

In the case of a binary system of one 
phase it is known as a result of experi- 
ment that the pressure p, the specific 
volume 0, the absolute temperature f, 
and the mass fraction m, of component 
1 are connected by an equation of state 


E(p,v,t,m,) = 0 (XIX) 


which can, in general, be solved for any 
one of these four quantities as a function 
of the other three.° From equation (II) 
it follows that the specific energy of a 
binary system of one phase is an experi- 
mentally determinable function of the 
absolute temperature ¢, the pressure p, 
and the mass fraction m, of component 1. 
The partial derivatives of the specific 
energy with respect to temperature and 
pressure are known from the case of a 
system of constant composition and con- 
stant mass to be 


° In certain cases multiple valued functions are 
encountered. For example, in the case of water, 
which has a minimum specific volume at 4°C, the 
temperature is expressed as a multiple valued 
function of the specific volume and pressure 
over certain ranges of specific volume and pressure. 


135 


O€ . OU 
(= | =1,-p(—| , (XXI) 
Op jm, Op /um, | 


where ¢, denotes the heat capacity at 


E(t,p 51) *3 Eo(0,P 05/710) 


tpt ys ; ae be 
=| Jeo —p =| de + 1, ~ p=} dp + : 
Ot Op 


to,Po5!114 


Similarly it follows from equation (III) 
that the specific entropy of a binary sys- 
tem of one phase is an experimentally 
determinable function of the absolute 
temperature ¢, the pressure p, and the 
mass fraction m, of component 1. The 
partial derivatives of the specific entropy 
with respect to temperature and pressure 
are known from the case of a system of 
constant composition and constant mass 
to be 


t,p,m, 


ACP.) — HeoPostsd) = | 


to,Po0,My ° 


Necessary and sufficient conditions for 
equation (XXII) to be true are the 
following equations 


Ov k aD 
é( ¢,- p— Ee 
| odin Ot 1: | weg Op 
dp at : 
(XXVI 
By : 
; | Pee “2 z 
t 
s ie Te OKA 
om, Ot 
and 
a l, — p =| pee 
Op Om; 
Om, F) 
(XXVIII) 
136 


constant pressure per unit of mass and © 
|, denotes the latent heat of change of 
pressure at constant temperature per unit 
of mass. Hence the relation of the specific 
energy of a binary system of one phase 
to the absolute temperature, the pressure, 
and the mass fraction of component 1 is 
expressed by the equation (Tunell, 1960, 


p. 8) 


any) (X XII) 
om, 


“ - (XXII) 


ta 
Op ty 


Hence the relation of the specific entropy © 
of a binary system of one phase to the 
absolute temperature, the pressure, and © 
the mass fraction of component | is ex- | 
pressed by the equation (Tunell, 1960, 


p. 8) 


a 
Q 
a8 
> 
3 
| 


and 
(XXIV) 


~ [oo 


dm,|. (XXV) 


Cp ib on 
t t 7 
Likewise necessary and sufficient condi- 


tions for equation (X XV) to be true are 
the following equations 


a & a by 
t if 
ows ae (XXIX) 
Op t 
gi 5 ti 
Pe eee 
Orn, at 
and 
1 7 
Ole 
-~°" ceoom 
om, Op 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


From equations (XXVI), (XXVID), 
(XXVIII), (X XIX), (XXX) and (XXXID 
it follows that 


, ab 
La XXXII) 
P = ( 
c _ 
ee (XXXII) 
Op Ot? 
22 - 2= 
on (XXXIV) 
arom, om, am.,ot 
Beles, 08 
apam, amar 
FY 
may ste OS (REX) 
om,0p 
% ; 
eae oo (XXXVI) 
otom, om, 
and 
Pi pie 
Ca (XXXVII)° 
apam, om,ot 


Therefore in order to have complete 
thermodynamic information for a binary 
system of one phase over a given range 
of temperature, pressure, and concentra- 
tion, it would suffice to determine vd ex- 
perimentally as a function of ¢, p, and 
m,, then to determine ¢, experimentally 
atall points ina plane at constant pressure 


U 


p', and to determine experimen- 


my, 
tally along a line at constant tempera- 
ture, t’, and constant pressure, p’, and 


OO ; 
finally to determine —— experimentally 


mM, 
along a line at constant temperature, ?’, 
and constant pressure, p’ (Tunell, 1960, 
p. 12). By means of calorimetric measure- 
ments the necessary values of ¢, could be 
0€ 


obtained. The values of could be 


mM, 
determined over the range of concentra- 
tion of interest at one temperature and 
one pressure by measurements of the heat 
transferred from the water bath to the 


6 Tunell, 1960, p. 10-11. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


substances in the three chambers (a 
positive or negative quantity) and the 
work done by the three pistons on the 
substances in the three chambers (a 
positive or negative quantity) in a series 
of experiments in which different pro- 
portions of the substances 1 and 2 
are combined to form a single phase 
in the central chamber. The determi- 


nation of 


at constant temperature 


~ 


my, 

and constant pressure over the range of 
concentration of interest could also be 
accomplished in many cases by means 
of a constant volume calorimeter, since 
the determination of the energy does not 
require that the components be combined 
in an equilibrium manner. The values of 
on 
om, 
of concentration of interest at one tem- 
perature and one pressure by measure- 
ments of the heat transferred from the 
water bath to the substances in the three 
chambers (a positive or negative quantity) 
in a series of experiments in which dif- 
ferent proportions of the substances 1 
and 2 are combined to form a single phase 
in the central chamber with maintenance 
of the pistons at equilibrium osmotic pres- 
sures. However, since Gibbs (1874-78, 
p. 138, or 1928, p. 83) proved that the 
thermodynamic condition of osmotic 
equilibrium in the case of a component 
present on both sides of a semipermeable 
membrane, and which can pass through 
the membrane, is the equality of its 
chemical potentials on both sides of the 
membrane, it would be possible in the 
following way to determine the values of 


could be determined over the range 


0 : 
all without measurements of the heat 
My, 


transferred to the substances in the three 
chambers under osmotic equilibrium con- 
ditions. It is assumed that the thermo- 
dynamic properties of the pure sub- 
stances in the side chambers have been 
determined. Measurement of the osmotic 
pressures across the two membranes 
would then give the values of uw, and ps, 


[y(t,D,™4) a G(t,p') (XXX VITT) 


137 


and 


[2(t,p 4) a Git.pe oe (XXXIX) 


where ¢, and ¢, denote the specific zeta 
functions of substances | and 2. Gibbs 
(1874-78, p. 143 or 1928, p. 87) proved 
that 


C = bymM, + MoM. (XL) 
From this it follows that 
f= bym, + [2M. (XLI) 


Thus if € and w had been determined 
as functions of f, p, and m,, the value of 
% could be calculated from the relation 


~ = ~ ae Yd 
a LS ort OD 


When i, €, and 7 have been determined as 
concrete functions of t, p, m,, then by 
mathematical transformations € can be 
obtained as a concrete function of n, v, 
M,, M2, likewise Ww can be obtained as a 
concrete function of tf, v, m,, mz, also x 
can be obtained as a concrete function of 
1, P, M1, Mz, and ¢ can be obtained as 
a concrete function of t, p, m,, m2, and 
finally p can be obtained as a concrete 
function of t, 4, Mo. 

In practice measurements of osmotic 
pressure have not been found as useful 
in general in the determination of the 
values of the chemical potentials as 
measurements of the electromotive force 
in suitable galvanic cells (Lewis and 
Randall, 1923, p. 263-273, and Tunell, 
1960, p.12—15). However, the establish- 
ment of the operational basis of Gibbs’s 
equation (12) by means of the system of 
three chambers that I have described 
appears to be in accord with Gibbs’s 
statement of the general method for ob- 
taining the energy and entropy of a com- 
pound body on pages 140-141 of volume 3 
of the Transactions of the Connecticut 
Academy of Arts and Sciences, whereas 
the determination of the chemical poten- 
tials by means of galvanic cells does not 
directly correspond to this statement of 
Gibbs. 

In conclusion I would say that since 
in his own abstract of ‘‘On the Equilib- 


138 


rium of Heterogeneous Substances’”’ 
Gibbs wrote “‘It is easily shown that e 
is a function of n, v, m,, Mz, ... My, and 
that the complete value of de is given 
by the equation 


de = tdyn — pdv 


+ pidm, + podmz... + pbndmy,”’ 


it seemed to me that it should be possible 
to derive this equation from the first and 
second laws applied to aconcrete system. 
It is my hope that the explanation of the 
operational basis and mathematical deri- 
vation of the Gibbs differential equation 
which I have presented may be helpful in 
the future to some students of physical 
chemistry and geochemistry. 


Acknowledgment 


I wish to thank Professor Gunnar Kullerud of the 
Department of Geosciences of Purdue University 
and Professor Hartland H. Schmidt of the 
Department of Chemistry of the University of 
California, Riverside, for reading the manuscript of 
this lecture and suggesting improvements in the 
presentation, which I have adopted. 


References Cited 


Finkelstein, R. J., 1969. Thermodynamics and 
Statistical Physics. W. H. Freeman and Co., 
San Francisco. 

Fleury, P., and J.-P. Mathieu, 1954. Chaleur, 
Thermodynamique, Etats de la Matiére. Editions 
Eyrolles, Paris. 

Gibbs, J. Willard, 1874-78. On the Equilibrium 
of Heterogeneous Substances. Trans. Conn. 
Acad. of Arts and Sciences, vol. 3, p. 108-248 
and 343-524. 

, 1878. On the Equilibrium of Heterogeneous 

Substances, Abstract by the author. Am. Jour. 

Sci., 3rd ser., vol. 16, p. 441-458. 

, 1928. Collected Works. Vol. 1, Longmans, 
Green and Co., New York, London, Toronto. 
Guggenheim, E. A., 1950. Thermodynamics—An 
Advanced Treatment for Chemists and Physi- 
cists, 2nd Ed. North-Holland Publishing Co., 

Amsterdam. 

Keenan, J. H., 1948. Thermodynamics. John Wiley 
and Sons, Inc., New York, Chapman and Hall, 
Ltd., London. 

Kirkwood, J. G., and I. Oppenheim, 1961. Chemical 
Thermodynamics. Mc Graw-Hill Book Co., Inc., 
New York, Toronto, London. 

Lewis, G. N., and M. Randall, 1923. Thermody- 
namics and the Free Energy of Chemical Sub- 
stances. McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New 
York. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


Moelwyn-Hughes, E. A., 1957. Physical Chemistry. 
Pergamon Press, London, New York, Paris. 

Partington, J. R., 1949. An Advanced Treatise on 
Physical Chemistry, Vol. 1. Longmans, Green 
and Co., London, New York, Toronto. 

, 1950. Thermodynamics—A Modern Intro- 
duction to General Thermodynamics and Its 
Applications to Chemistry and Physics, 4th 
Ed. Constable and Co., Ltd., London. 

Prigogine, I., and R. Defay, 1954. Chemical Ther- 
modynamics. Translated by D. H. Everett. 
Longmans, Green and Co., London, New 
York, Toronto. 

Sommerfeld, A., 1956. Thermodynamics and Statis- 


tical Mechanics. Edited by F. Bopp and J. 
Meixner, translated by J. Kestin. Academic 
Press, Inc., New York. 

Tunell, George, 1960. Relations between Intensive 
Thermodynamic Quantities and Their First 
Derivatives in a Binary System of One Phase. 
W. H. Freeman and Co., San Francisco and 
London. 

Wall, F. T., 1965. Chemical Thermodynamics— 
A Course of Study, 2nd Ed. W. H. Freeman and 
Co., San Francisco and London. 

Wheeler, Lynde Phelps, 1952. Josiah Willard Gibbs 
—The History of a Great Mind, Revised 
Edition. Yale University Press, New Haven. 


1976 ACADEMY PROGRAMS 


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$:15_PiM. Nonmembers Welcome 
DATE SPEAKER 
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or Dr. James Goff, Chairman, Meetings Committee 
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J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


139 


PROFILE 


Raleigh Gilchrist (1893 —1966)—American Pioneer 


in Platinum Metal Research 


George B. Kauffman 


Chemistry Department, California State University, 


Fresno, Fresno, California 93740 


ABSTRACT 


An account of Raleigh Gilchrist’s professional career and accomplishments and their 
significance is given. An extensive list of his publications is also presented. 


In my biographical studies I have 
always been fascinated by the circum- 
stances surrounding a given scientist’s 
embarking on the field of research with 
which his name is usually associated (1). 
Often the choice seems purely fortuitous 
as was the case with Raleigh Gilchrist, 
one of America’s most prominent inter- 
nationally known authorities on the 
analytical chemistry of the platinum 
group metals and of gold. During the 
bitter cold winter of 1917—1918 Gilchrist, 
then a private in the U.S. Army Infantry, 
was undergoing training at Charlotte, 
North Carolina in a military police unit 
to be sent to France. Fortunately, by 
that time the Army was beginning to 
utilize the technical training of its recruits 
in its choice of assignments, and Gil- 
christ, whose graduate studies in chem- 
istry at Cornell University had been in- 
terrupted by the military draft, suddenly 
received orders to report for duty on 
January 28, 1918 to the Nitrate Division 
of the Ordnance Corps of the U.S. Army 
in Washington, D.C. Here he was dis- 


140 


patched to work under Dr. William 
Francis Hillebrand (1853-1925), former 
chemist for the U.S. Geological Survey 
and at that time Chief of the Chemistry 
Division of the U.S. National Bureau 
of Standards (1908-1925). 

At NBS Gilchrist was assigned the 
task of determining the effect of dif- 
ferences in composition of platinum 
catalysts on the efficiency of the Ost- 
wald process for oxidizing ammonia to 
nitric acid. The analysis of platinum 
metal alloys was then a problem of ex- 
ceptional difficulty, and Gilchrist de- 
voted his entire career—45 years at 
NBS—to this challenging work. It was 
fitting that in 1938, twenty years after 
his advent to the Bureau, he was awarded 
the Chemical Society of Washington’s 
Hillebrand Prize for his work in this area, 
for Dr. Hillebrand had initiated this re- 
search at NBS. 

Raleigh Gilchrist was born in the small 
town of Windsor, Vermont on January 8, 
1893, the youngest of three sons of Hugh 
and Ella Gilchrist (née Renfrew). The 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


Gilchrists belonged to the MacLachlan 
and Olgilvie clans, while the Renfrews 
came from Renfrewshire near Glasgow. 
Gilchrist, or ‘‘ Gil’? as he was known to 
his colleagues, was always proud of his 
Scottish heritage and in later years was 
active in preserving Scottish culture 
through his association with the St. 
Andrew’s Society in Washington (Secre- 
tary, Second and First Vice-President). 
When he and his wife visited Scotland 
in 1952, he purchased a complete formal 
Highland outfit as well as the daytime 
dress (2). His forbears, both paternal 
and maternal, had emigrated to the 
United States in the seventeenth century, 
and some of them served in the American 
Revolution. 

Gilchrist’s father, who lived to the age 
of ninety, and his mother were both news- 
paper people, who met while working for 
the Vermont Journal in Windsor. In 1896 
the Gilchrists moved to Great Falls, 
Montana, where the father worked as a 
reporter for the local newspaper. While 
attending high school, from which he 
graduated in 1910, young Gilchrist de- 
livered the morning newspaper. In order 
to earn money to attend college, he be- 
gan work in June, 1910 at the Boston 
and Montana Reduction Works of the 
Anaconda Copper Mining Company in 
Great Falls, where, as an assistant 
handling gold and silver slimes recovered 
from the electrolytic purification of 
copper, he earned $1.75 for an eight-hour 
day. In January, 1911 he became record 
and time keeper and assistant to the 
chief in charge of repairing the calcining, 
blast, converter, and reverberatory 
furnaces at $2.00 per day. Here he 
learned the art of fire assaying. In 
September, 1911 he entered the Uni- 
versity of Montana at Missoula, from 
which he received his B.A. degree with 
a major in chemistry in 1915. He earned 
his college expenses by waiting on tables 
in the girls’ dormitory during his first 
three years and by serving as a store- 
room assistant in chemistry during his 
senior year. 

In September, 1915 Gilchrist began 
graduate study at Cornell University with 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


Raleigh Gilchrist 


an assistantship in qualitative analysis. 
One of his students, a freshman named 
Elizabeth Hodgson Reigart, was des- 
tined to become his wife ten years later, 
on January 4, 1925, in Ithaca. He ma- 
jored in inorganic chemistry under the 
head of the department, Prof. Louis 
Munroe Dennis, nicknamed ‘‘The 
King,’’ and minored in physical chem- 
istry under Prof. Wilder Dwight Ban- 
croft (founder and first editor of the 
Journal of Physical Chemistry) and 
analytical chemistry under Dr. Gustav 
Ernst Fredrick Lundell. At Ithaca he 
had completed the requirements for his 
minors, passed his examinations in 
French and German, and begun his doc- 
toral research on germanium compounds 
where he was inducted into the U.S. 
Army on November 12, 1917 and sent to 
Camp Dix at Wrightstown, New Jersey. 
He was soon transferred to Charlotte, 
North Carolina and thence on January 
28, 1918 to the Inorganic Chemistry Sec- 
tion of the National Bureau of Standards 
in Washington, as related above. At the 
Bureau, Dr. Lundell, who had been one 
of his professors at Cornell, was then 
Head of the Section on Standard Samples 
and later became Chief Chemist. 


141 


In the Fall of 1918, the epidemic of 
so-called Spanish influenza hit the United 
States, resulting in about 500,000 deaths. 
Gilchrist contracted the disease, which 
was complicated by double pneumonia, 
requiring about a year’s recuperation. 
As a soldier, he received excellent treat- 


ment at the Walter Reed Hospital. Had 


he been a civilian he probably would not 
have survived. On January 15, 1919 he 
was discharged as a sergeant from the 
Army and on the same day joined the 
National Bureau of Standards as a 
civilian with the rank of Assistant Chem- 
ist ‘‘to engage upon a program of investi- 
gation of the refining and analytical 
chemistry of the platinum group metals.’’ 
Wishing to resume his graduate work 
and still remain at the Bureau, Gilchrist 
enrolled at the Johns Hopkins Univer- 
sity in Baltimore, where he began a new 
doctoral research problem under Dr. 
Joseph Christie Whitney Frazer with 
minors in physical chemistry and phys- 
ics. He was not required to take any class 
work, but he audited a course in colloid 
chemistry from Dr. Walter A. Patrick, 
who played an important role in the com- 
mercial production of silica gel. Gilchrist 
received his doctorate on June 13, 1922 
with a dissertation ‘‘The Preparation of 
Pure Osmium and the Atomic Weight of 
Osmium,’’ which was published in 1932 
under the title ““A New Determination of 
the Atomic Weight of Osmium’’ (6). 

At NBS Dr. Gilchrist rose through the 
ranks to become Chemist in 1936. He 
became Chief of the Platinum Metals and 
Pure Substances Section of the Bureau’s 
Division of Chemistry. From 1948 to 
1961 he was Chief of the Inorganic Chem- 
istry Section. He retired on November 
30, 1962, after which he served as con- 
sultant to the Chief of the Chemistry 
Division. His duties initially consisted 
of planning and carrying out experimental 
chemical research on methods for prepar- 
ing each of the six platinum metals in 
pure form and of developing a knowledge 
of their chemistry. He also tested for 
chemical composition a variety of 
precious metal alloys, materials, and 
articles from other governmental agen- 


142 


cies, and he analyzed materials where 
disputes had arisen between commercial 
chemists. He developed methods for 
analyzing materials containing the plati- 
num metals, gold, silver, and the base 
metals usually associated with them. He 
also worked on the purification of sulfur, 
nickel, zirconium, barium, strontium, 
germanium, and the rare earths as well 
as on the preparation of titanium halides 
and the analysis of ceramic dielectrics. 
The results of his systematic studies 
were of great practical value and have 
been utilized by the precious metals 
industry, displacing older, inadequate 
procedures, and by scientists in the 
aeronautical, dental, and industrial fields. 
He also supervised the preparation of 
pure substances and the testing of reagent 
chemicals. 

In 1936, 1938, and 1948 Gilchrist was 
a member of the United States Assay 
Commission, which meets yearly at the 
U.S. Mint in Philadelphia to check coin- 
age. He was an official United States 
delegate to a number of international 
conferences, including in 1934 the Third 
International Technical and Chemical 
Congress in the Agricultural Industries 
(Paris), the Eleventh Conference of the 
International Union of Chemistry 
(Madrid), and the Ninth International 
Congress of Pure and Applied Chemistry 
(Madrid). At the last-mentioned meet- 
ing, he presented the paper for which he 
was awarded the Hillebrand Prize four 
years later (7). In 1927-1928 and 1929— 
1934 he was a lecturer in chemistry 
(thermodynamics and advanced inor- 
ganic) at George Washington University 
and in 1928-1929, 1931—1932, and later 
years a lecturer in chemistry at the NBS 
Educational Schools. A _ prolific but 
meticulous writer, at NBS he _ taught 
in the 1950s a course in technical writing 
and served for more than thirty years as 
a member (later Chairman) of the Chem- 
istry Division Editorial Committee. In 
1950 he received the Meritorious Serv- 
ice Medal Award from the Department 
of Commerce and in 1966 the Alumni 
Achievement Award of the University 
of Montana. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


A longtime member (almost half a 
century) of the American Chemical So- 
ciety, Dr. Gilchrist held continuous 
office in the Chemical Society of Wash- 
ington for 32 years (Secretary, 1925- 
1928; President, 1929). For his develop- 
ment of methods for analyzing gold 
dental alloys, he was elected a member 
of the International Association for 
Dental Research. He was also a member 
of numerous honorary, scientific, and fra- 
ternal organizations, including Phi Beta 
Kappa. He was interested in wild bird life 
and astronomy, and his hobbies included 
gardening, photography, bowling, ball- 
room dancing, and crossword puzzles. 
For many years, both he and his wife 
were Braille transcribers for the Ameri- 
can Red Cross. 

The Gilchrists were fond of travel and 
visited Europe five times (1926, 1934, 
1952, 1954, and 1965) and South America 
once (1957). Three of the European trips 
were on Official business. For ten weeks 
(September—November 1926), Dr. Gil- 
christ visited England, Belgium, Hol- 
land, Germany, Italy, Switzerland, and 
France ‘‘to establish friendly relations 
with foreign laboratories in which re- 
search on the platinum metals was being 
done, to become acquainted with profes- 
sors working on these metals and to see 
as much of the great platinum works as 
possible and to discuss problems of 
mutual interest’? (8). His two-month 
trip (March—May, 1934) has already 
been mentioned in connection with his 
serving as one of ten U.S. delegates to 
three international meetings. In 1954 he 
presented an invited paper, ‘‘L’ Analyse 
chimique des métaux du groupe du 
platine’’ (9) before the Société Fran- 
¢aise de Metallurgie at Paris and also 
visited Switzerland, Spain, Mallorca, 
Portugal, and England in addition to 
France. 

Although described by a colleague as 
‘*a dour Scotsman with a barrel chest and 
legs,’ Gilchrist had ‘‘a remarkable sense 
of humor and a huge collection of stories, 
which he was very gifted at telling,”’ 
largely because of ‘‘his ability to mimic 
any accent’’ (2). He was said to be ‘‘an 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


ageless soul who defies all pretense at 
convention, and appears at work in 
shorts if he chooses; and who is con- 
sidered by his wife to be the most stub- 
born man in the world’’ (2). He was a 
perfectionist both in his work and in his 
avocations. After a short illness, he died 
in Washington on October 25, 1966 at 
the age of seventy-three. 

Platinum Metals. During World War I 
the importation of Chilean saltpeter from 
the Atacama Desert was threatened by 
German submarines, and it became 
necessary to produce synthetically the 
nitric acid and nitrates needed for ex- 
plosives. Because of the resulting in- 
tense interest in nitrogen fixation, Dr. 
William F. Hillebrand’s dream of creat- 
ing a laboratory to refine the platinum 
metals and to develop methods for deter- 
mining the individual metals became a 
reality. Young Gilchrist was assigned to 
work on the analysis of platinum-iridium 
gauzes used to convert ammonia to 
oxides of nitrogen and eventually to nitric 
acid by the process invented by Ostwald 
in 1901. The assignment was soon 
widened in scope, and in the course of 
years, analyses at NBS under Gilchrist’s 
supervision were made on ‘‘a wide 
variety of materials, ranging from the 
determination of the quantity and thick- 
ness of the gold wash on the inside of 
a cocktail goblet to that of the composi- 
tion of the highly complex native grain 
platinum’’ (5). The preparation of the 
platinum metals in highly pure form for 
the determination of various physical 
properties such as atomic weight required 
additional treatment of the commercial 
metals, and this task was also within 
Gilchrist’s purview. 

Gilchrist found that most of the analyti- 
cal methods in the literature for the 
platinum metals did not produce clean- 
cut separations, particularly the vener- 
able precipitation of platinum with am- 
monium chloride and the extraction of 
metallic mixtures with acids or with 
molten pyrosulfate. One remarkable ex- 
ception was the insolubility of iridium 
in molten lead, employed by Deville 
and Stas in analyzing the platinum- 


143 


iridium alloy used in fabricating the 
international prototype meter and kilo- 
gram (10). In this method the alloy is 
melted with ten times its weight of lead, 
producing alloys of lead and platinum, 
which are soluble in acids, and crystal- 
line iridium, which is virtually insoluble 
in aqua regia. In his first publications 
(11, 12) Gilchrist confirmed the accuracy 
of the method and modified it to increase 
its ease and speed of operation. The 
method is an excellent one for routinely 
analyzing platinum alloys containing no 
Fe, Ru, or Os. Beamish (ref. 13, p. 127) 
recommends it for determining iridium 
in platinum or palladium alloys, in which 
the latter two noble metals are not to be 
determined. The method is readily adapt- 
able to massive forms of alloys such as 
sheet or wire. 

Weeks (14) has called ruthenium *‘the 
little Benjamin of the platinum family’’ 
because it saw the light of day so much 
later than its older brothers. Gilchrist 
devised a gravimetric method for this 
least-known and last-discovered member 
of the platinum metals group that in- 
volved the principle of controlled hydro- 
lytic precipitation (15), a principle em- 
ployed in crude form as early as 1835 
by Dobereiner, who used lime water 
to isolate Pt from Os, Rh, Ir, Pd, and Cu 
(16). Gilchrist added enough NaHCO, 
to the solution to turn bromcresol indi- 
cator faintly purple, and he then boiled 
and filtered the solution. The precipitate 
was ignited in a H, atmosphere and 
weighed as metallic ruthenium. Gilchrist 
also found a delicate test for ruthenium — 
the deep red or rose color developed on 
heating when thiourea and a few drops of 
HCI are added to a neutral solution. 

Although distillation of OsO,, usually 
from a solution acidified with HNO,, 
has been generally used to separate 
osmium from the other platinum metals, 
no study of the optimum conditions or 
completeness of separation was made 
until Gilchrist’s study of 1931 (17). He 
found that the form in which the osmium 
exists in solution has a marked effect on 
the rate at which it is volatilized. He used 
a 6 N HCI solution saturated with SO, 


144 


for absorbing the distilled OsO,, and the 
osmium was recovered from this by hy- 
drolytic precipitation with NaHCOs. 
The hydrated OsO, was ignited in H, 
and CO, and weighed as metallic os- 
mium. Gilchrist concluded that a com- 
plete separation of osmium from the other 
platinum metals is possible by the tradi- 
tional method if proper precautions are 
observed. More recent investigations 
(18, 19) resulting in low values by use of 
Gilchrist’s SO,—HCI receiving solution 
have been shown to be due to aging of the 
solution rather than to actual loss of 
osmium (20). 

During the period 1915-1943 only two 
chemical determinations of atomic 
weights of the platinum metals were 
made—osmium by Gilchrist (6) and 
ruthenium by Gleu and Rehm (21). From 
the osmium content of (NH4)[OsCl,| 
and (NH,).[OsBr.], Gilchrist, returning 
to the topic of his doctoral dissertation, 
proposed the value 191.5, one consider- 
ably below today’s accepted value of 
192.2, obtained from isotopic abundance 
ratios (22). 

Gilchrist’s work, however, was not 
limited to research on the individual 
platinum metals but encompassed the 
separation and determination of each of 
the metals in the presence of the others. 
An important step in this direction was 
his paper on ‘‘Purification of the Six 
Platinum Metals,’’ published in 1928 
(23). In 1923 Wada and Nakazono noted 
that rhodium is precipitated by the re- 
ducing action of Ti,(SO,)3, while iridium 
is not, if the chloride solution of each 
metal is treated separately (24). Gilchrist 
developed this qualitative observation of 
selective reduction into a quantitative 
separation of the two metals and their 
gravimetric determination (25). The 
rhodium is redissolved in boiling H,SO,, 
reprecipitated by H.S, ignited in Hg, 
and weighed as metal. The titanium, now 
in the tetravalent state, is precipitated 
from the filtrate with cupferron (Cg,H;N- 
(NO)ONH,). The iridium is precipitated 
from the filtrate hydrolytically with 
NaHCO,, and the IrO,:nH,O is ig- 
nited in H, and weighed as metal. The 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


recent chromatographic method of Rees- 
Evans et al. (26), modified by Payne 
(27), has been reported to be simpler 
than Gilchrist’s titanium method. 

In 1934 Gilchrist devised a procedure 
for the separation of ruthenium from 
platinum, palladium, rhodium, and irid- 
jum based on hydrolytic precipitation 
(28). In the same year he employed 
hydrolytic precipitation by NaHCO, 
(pH 6) in the presence of NaBrO, 
(which prevents hydrolysis of PtCl,”~) 
to remove Pd, Rh, and Ir from a solution 
containing Pt (29). The Pt remaining in 
solution is precipitated by H.S, dissolved 
in aqua regia, precipitated with sodium 
formate, ignited, and weighed. Pd is pre- 
cipitated with dimethylglyoxime (30), 
ignited, and weighed as metal, while Rh 
and Ir are determined gravimetrically by 
Gilchrist’s earlier procedure (25). 

By 1934 Gilchrist and his colleague 
Edward Wichers had developed a new 
and reliable procedure for the separation 
and gravimetric determination of all six 
platinum metals based largely on Gil- 
christ’s work of the previous decade cited 
above. The method, which was simpler 
than the methods previously used, was 
discussed in the paper ‘‘A New System 
of Analytical Chemistry for the Platinum 
Metals’’ (7), presented by Gilchrist at the 
Ninth International Congress of Pure and 
Applied Chemistry, for which he and 
Wichers received the Hillebrand Prize 
(31). Os and Ru are first removed by 
distillation, and Pd, Rh, and Ir are 
separated from Pt by a hydrolytic pre- 
cipitation with NaHCO, under condi- 
tions of controlled acidity (pH 6-8) 
that leaves Pt, whose chloride complex 
undergoes no appreciable hydrolysis, 
alone in solution. The detailed analytical 
procedure appeared in the Journal of the 
American Chemical Society (32) and has 
been experimentally reevaluated (33; ref. 
34, p. 67). It should be noted that re- 
searchers comparing hydrolytic meth- 
ods with other methods are in effect 
examining their ability to use the method, 
which requires considerable experience 
and skill, especially with small samples 
(ref. 34, p. 75). Gilchrist also authored 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


a number of review articles on the plati- 
num metals in books, encyclopedias, 
and journals (9, 35-39). 

Gold. In addition to his work on the 
platinum metals, Gilchrist was also con- 
sidered an authority on the analytical 
chemistry of gold. In 1927 he investi- 
gated the effect of various stripping solu- 
tions on the assay of rolled gold plate 
(40), and by 1938 he had developed a new 
procedure for analyzing dental gold al- 
loys, which involved the isolation of gold 
and base metals in the presence of nitrite 
ion, which complexes the platinum 
metals (41). This method, based on 
earlier work by Swanger (42), made use 
not only of the hydrolytic precipitation 
of base metals but also of the quantita- 
tive reduction of gold as a well-coagu- 
lated metal by NO, -, a reaction that 
can be used in refining processes to pre- 
pare gold of extremely high punity. 
With this procedure and the previous 
one for the platinum metals alone (7, 32), 
Gilchrist had solved the problem of 
analyzing complex platiniferous ma- 
terials. The only problem remaining was 
lack of a suitable method for dissolving 
these refractory materials without con- 
tamination, a problem soon solved by 
Gilchrist’s co-workers at NBS, Edward 
Wichers, Charles Lewis Gordon, and 
William George Schlecht (43, 44). 

Miscellaneous. Gilchrist did not limit 
his research to the noble metals. He ex- 
tended his work on controlled hydrolytic 
precipitation to various elements, for 
which he determined the alkalinity range 
within which their hydrated oxides could 
be quantitatively precipitated (45). He 
also suggested possible analytical separa- 
tions based on careful control of pH. In 
a paper of 1960 (46) he devised a method 
for the separation of Ti, Zr, Fe, and Al 
from each other and their subsequent de- 
termination. He also developed methods 
for quantitatively separating and deter- 
mining nonmetals, e.g., I~, Br’, and Cl-. 
In a method involving controlled oxida- 
tion of halides (>1 mg of each ion pres- 
ent), he obtained standard deviations of 
0.0002 g for the I-, 0.0002 g for the Br, 


145 


and 0.0003 g for the Cl” determinations 
(47). 

Gilchrist devoted his later years to re- 
search on miscellaneous substances, es- 
pecially the preparation of materials of 
high purity. To this related group of 
works belong his method for freeing Zr 
of common impurities and for preparing 
Zr(SO,)2. and ZrO, (48), preparation of 
high-purity TiCl, (49, 50) and determina- 
tion of impurities in it by infrared spec- 
troscopy (51), and the preparation of 
high-purity NiCl, (52), BaTiO(C,O,),- 
4H.O (53), and sulfur (54). 

At the beginning of Gilchrist’s career, 
the state of development of the analytical 
chemistry of the platinum metals lagged 
far behind that of the other groups of 
metals, the methods then used being in- 
complete, inefficient, inaccurate, and in- 
convenient. Although in a number of 
cases, the methods developed by Gil- 
christ have been superseded by more 
modern methods, the fact that today the 
separation of the platinum metals is no 
longer shrouded in mystery is due in no 
small part to his pioneering efforts. 
Thanks to Raleigh Gilchrist and those 
who followed him, reliable procedures 
based on simple reactions are now avail- 
able for the analysis of platiniferous ma- 
terials—procedures comparable in 
accuracy with the best in use for more 
common metals. 


Acknowledgments 


The author gratefully acknowledges the as- 
sistance of Elizabeth R. Gilchrist and James I. 
Shultz for providing biographical information. 
He is also indebted to the John Simon Guggenheim 
Memorial Foundation and the California State 
University, Fresno Research Committee. 


References Cited 


(1) Kauffman, G. B., J. Chem. Educ., 45, 804 
(1968). 

(2) Wilson, W. K., The Capital Chemist, 6 (5), 
158 (1960). 

(3) Anon., The Capital Chemist, 17 (1), 6 (1967). 

(4) “‘Encyclopedia of American Biography’”’ (Edi- 
tor: Dodge, E. N.), American Historical 
Company, New York, 1968, Vol. 38, pp. 
119-120. 

(5) Gilchrist, R., ‘‘This I Remember,”’ 115-page 
typescript, n.d. [written in the 1960s]. 


146 


(6) Gilchrist, R., Natl. Bur. Standards J. Re- 
search, 9, 279 (1932) (R.P. 471). 

(7) Gilchrist, R., and Wichers, E., [Xth Congr. 
intern. quim. pura aplicada (Madrid, Spain), 
6, 32 (1934). 

(8) Gilchrist, R., ‘‘Report of Visit to European 
Laboratories, September—October 1926,”’ 
10-page typescript. 

(9) Gilchrist, R., Rev. Mét., 52, 287 (1955). 

(10) Deville, H. Ste.-C., and Stas, J. S., ‘‘Procés- 
verbaux, Comité International des Poids et 
Mesures,’’ 1877, Annexe No. II. 

(11) Gilchrist, R., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 45, 2820 
(1923). 

(12) Gilchrist, R., Natl. Bur. Standards Sci. 
Papers, 19, 325 (1924) (R.P. 483). 

(13) Beamish, F. E., “‘The Analytical Chemistry 
of the Noble Metals,’ Pergamon Press, 
Oxford, New York, 1966. 

(14) Weeks, M. E., ““Discovery of the Elements’’ 
(6th ed.), Journal of Chemical Education, 
Easton, Pa., 1956, p. 440. 

(15) Gilchrist, R., Natl. Bur. Standards J. Re- 
search, 3, 993 (1929) (R.P. 125). 

(16) Dobereiner, F., Ann., 14, 251 (1835). 

(17) Gilchrist, R., Natl. Bur. Standards J. Re- 
search, 6, 42 (1931) (R.P. 286). 

(18) Sandell, E. B., Ind. Eng. Chem., Anal. Ed., 
16, 342 (1944). 

(19) Allan, W. J., and Beamish, F. E., Anal. 
Chem., 24, 1608 (1952). 

(20) Geilmann, W., and Neeb, R., Z. anal. Chem., 
156, 411 (1957). 

(21) Gleu, K., and Rehm, K., Z. anorg. allgem. 
Chem., 235, 352 (1938). 

(22) Nier, A. O., Phys. Rev., 52, 885 (1937). 

(23) Wichers, E., Gilchrist, R., and Swanger, 
W. H., Trans. Am. Inst. Mining Met. Eng., 
76, 602 (1928). 

(24) Wada, I., and Nakazono, T., Sci. Papers 
Inst. Phys. Chem. Research, 1, 139 (1923). 

(25) Gilchrist, R., Natl. Bur. Standards J. Re- 
search, 9, 547 (1932) (R.P. 489). 

(26) Rees-Evans, D. B., Ryan, W., and Wells, 
R. A., Analyst, 83, 356 (1958). 

(27) Payne, S. T., Analyst, 85, 698 (1960). 

(28) Gilchrist, R., Natl. Bur. Standards J. Re- 
search, 12, 283 (1934) (R.P. 654). 

(29) Gilchrist, R., Natl. Bur. Standards J. Re- 
search, 12, 291 (1934) (R.P. 655). 

(30) Wunder, M., and Thiiringer, V., Z. anal. 
Chem., 52, 101, 660, 740 (1913). 

(31) Gilchrist, R., ‘‘Reminiscences,’’ speech ac- 
cepting the Hillebrand Prize, Washington, 
D.C., March 9, 1939, 13-page typescript. 

(32) Gilchrist, R., and Wichers, E., J. Am. Chem. 
Soc.-/57,.250) (1935); 

(33) Beyermann, K., Z. anal. Chem., 200, 161 
(1964). 

(34) Beamish, F. E., and Van Loon, J. C., ‘“Re- 
cent Advances in the Analytical Chemistry of 
the Noble Metals,’’ Pergamon Press, Oxford, 
New York, 1972. 

(35) Gilchrist, R., “‘The Platinum Metals,’’ Chap. 
10 in National Research Council, Division of 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


Chemistry and Chemical Technology, 
‘‘Annual Surveys of American Chemistry,” 
10, 138 (1935). 

(36) Gilchrist, R., Chem. Rev., 32, 277 (1943). 

(37) Gilchrist, R., Anal. Chem., 25, 1617 (1953). 

(38) Gilchrist, R., “‘Platinum Group Metals, Coor- 
dination Compounds,”’ in ‘‘Encyclopedia of 
Chemical Technology”’ (Editors: Kirk, R. E., 
and Othmer, D. F.), Vol. 10, pp. 855-859, 
1953. 

(39) Gilchrist, R., ““The Platinum Metals and 
Gold,’ Chap. 20, in ‘“‘Applied Inorganic 
Analysis’ (Editors: Hillebrand, W. F., 
Lundell, G. E. F., Bright, H. A., and Hoff- 
man, J. I.), 2nd ed., John Wiley and Sons, 
New York, 1953, pp. 339-383. 

(40) Gilchrist, R., Ind. Eng. Chem. , 19, 827 (1927). 

(41) Gilchrist, R., J. Research Natl. Bur. Stand- 
ards, 20, 745 (1938) (R.P. 1103). 

(42) Swanger, W. H., Nat. Bur. Standards Sci. 
Papers, 21, 209 (1926). 

(43) Wichers, E., and Schlecht, W. G., Nat. Bur. 
Standards, Techn. News Bull., 284, 108 
(Dec., 1940). 

(44) Wichers, E., Schlecht, W. G., and Gordon, 
C. L., J. Research Nat. Bur. Standards, 
33, 363 (1944). 


(45) Gilchrist, R., J. Research Natl. Bur. Stand- 
ards, 30, 89 (1943) (R.P. 1519). 

(46) Murphy, T. J., Clabaugh, W. S., and Gil- 
christ, R., J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards, 
64A, 535 (1960). 

(47) Murphy, T. J., Clabaugh, W. S., and Gilchrist, 
R., J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards, 53, 13 
(1954) (R.P. 2511). 

(48) Clabaugh, W. S., and Gilchrist, R., J. Am. 
Chem. Soc., 74, 2104 (1952). 

(49) Clabaugh, W. S., Leslie, R. T., and Gilchrist, 
R., J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards, 55, 
261 (1955) (R.P. 2628). 

(50) Clabaugh, W. S., and Gilchrist, R., U.S. Pat. 
2,914,364, Dec. 1, 1959. 

(51) Johannesen, R. B., Gordon, C. L., Stewart, 
J. E., and Gilchrist, R., J. Research Natl. 
Bur. Standards, 53, 197 (1954) (R.P. 2533). 

(52) Clabaugh, W. S., Donovan, J. W., and Gil- 
christ, R., J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards, 
52, 73 (1954). 

(53) Clabaugh, W. S., Swiggard, E. M., and Gil- 
christ, R., J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards, 
56, 289 (1956) (R.P. 2677). 

(54) Murphy, T. J., Clabaugh, W. S., and Gilchrist, 
R., J. Research Natl. Bur. Standards, 64A, 
355 (1960). 


AAAS LAUNCHES PROGRAM FOR THE HANDICAPPED IN SCIENCE 


The American Association for the Advancement of Science has officially launched 
its Project for the Handicapped in Science. The purpose of this initial project, which 
is funded by the Rehabilitation Services Administration of the Department of Health, 
Education, and Welfare through the George Washington University Rehabilitation 
Research and Training Center is to identify and explore barriers obstructing the 
entry and full participation of physically disabled persons to education and employment 
opportunities in science. Specifically, the project will seek to examine and evaluate 
ways in which the scientific professional associations and organizations of and for the 
handicapped can contribute to equal opportunities in science careers. 

In order to build an ongoing and realistic program, the AAAS needs the expert 
consultation of handicapped individuals who have experienced difficulties in receiving 
an education to be a scientist or in professional placement becuase of their handicap. 
If you are a disabled scientist, please identify yourself to Martha Redden, Director, 
Project on the Handicapped in Science, Office of Opportunities in Science, AAAS, 
1776 Massachusetts Avenue, N. W., Washington, D. C. 20036. The project will not 
use, without permission, the names of individual scientists who respond. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


147 


RESEARCH REPORTS 


A Microbiological Study of Air and 
Surface Water Microlayers in the Open Ocean 


C. Carty and R. R. Colwell 


Department of Microbiology, Rutgers College, New Brunswick, New Jersey 08903, 
and Department of Microbiology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland 


20742, respectively 


ABSTRACT 


A 24-station trackline from Balboa, Panama to the Galapagos Islands and from the 
islands to Guayaquil, Ecuador comprised a microbiological study of water and air 
samples collected during an oceanographic research cruise aboard the R/V HAYES. 
Results showed that the total, viable, aerobic, heterotrophic bacterial populations 
decreased in direct relation with distance from land. The predominant bacterial isolates 
in water were marine species of the genus Pseudomonas, whereas the most commonly 
isolated bacteria from air samples were Bacillus spp., lending support to the terrestrial 
origin of microorganisms in the air over the open ocean. 


Information presently available con- 
cerning the microbial flora of sea air and 
of the surface film layer of seawater is 
scanty, at best. The data which were 
available, in general, support the notion 
that the microorganisms found in air 
over the open oceans are of terrestrial 
origin (Gregory, 1961; Webb, 1961). 

The aim of this study was to determine, 
at selected sites in the course of an 
oceanographic cruise aboard the U.S. 
Navy Oceanographic Vessel, the R/V 
HAYES, the bacterial populations of 
bulk surface water, air-sea interface, and 
air over the open ocean. The effective 
concentration of bacteria in the upper 
30 wm (the microlayer) of the ocean 
was also measured and the types of bac- 
teria isolated from samples collected at 
each location were identified and classi- 
fied. The objective of the latter was to 
determine whether the bacteria found in 


148 


air over the open ocean are of marine 
or terrestrial origin. 


Materials and Methods 


Samples were taken along tracklines 
running from Balboa, Panama to the 
Galapogos Islands and from the islands 
to Guayaquil, Ecuador during February, 
1974 (Fig. 1). 

Water samples were collected from a 
depth of 5 m using a Niskin sampler 
and from the top 600 «wm with a Garrett- 
Sieburth screen sampler (Garrett, 1965). 
After collection, aliquots of the samples 
were subjected to Millipore filtration and 
plated onto Plate Count Agar (Difco) and 
SWYE [yeast extract (Difco), 0.3%; 
proteose peptone (Difco), 1.0%; NaCl, 
2.4%; KCl, 0.07%; MgSO,:7H.O, 0.7%; 
agar, 2.0%; pH 7.2 to 7.4] plates. Twelve 
250-ml samples were taken from the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


MARINE FOG STUDY 
NRL CRUISE 74-16-O2A 
USNS HAYES 
lO-24 FEB. 1974 


= oa 90° 


Niskin samples and 50-ml portions (a total 
of twelve) from the skimmer were used. 
All filtrations were done in duplicate. 

Air samples were obtained from a 
height of 5 m with a NRL cascade im- 
pactor (Bressan, personal communica- 
tion) run at 52 liters of air per minute 
for four consecutive ten-minute periods. 
These samples were streaked in dupli- 
cate onto PCA and SWYE plates. Quali- 
tative air samples were collected with a 
modiffed Batelle impactor running at 2 
liters/min of air for 8 hr. The material 
collected was streaked onto PCA and 
_ SWYE plates. 

After ineculation, all plates were incu- 
bated at 22-23°C for 1 week, at which 
time they were enumerated. Subse- 
quently the most abundant bacteria were 
picked and streaked for isolation onto 
either PCA or SWYE agar plates. Upon 
return to the laboratory, these isolates 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI, VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


5° 


Oc 


q 
f 
235 ECUADOR 
22 
af 
DI 24 


80° 
Fig. 1. Stations at which samples were collected during the 74-16-02A R/V HAYES cruise, February, 1974. 


5° 
85° 


were purified and were maintained on 
ESWYE [yeast extract (Difco), 0.3%; 
proteose peptone (Difco), 0.3%; NaCl, 
1.0%; KCl, 0.25%: MeSO,:7H,0; 
0.23%; agar, 2.0%; pH 7.2 to 7.4] slants. 

The bacterial cultures were then identi- 
fied according to a scheme based on the 
following characteristics: cell shape, 
Gram reaction (Bartholomew); motility 
at 16-24 hours; type of flagella present; 
catalase production; oxidase production; 
metabolic pathway for carbohydrate utili- 
zation (Hugh-Leifson test); sporulation; 
and fluorescence (Johnson and Colwell, 
1974, Identification of aerobic hetero- 
trophic bacteria. Manuscript in prepara- 
tion.). 


Results 


The total number of aerobic, hetero- 
trophic, viable bacteria in the water 
ranged from a high of 2.2 x 10°/liter toa 


149 


Oo WATER FROM MICROLAYER 
@ SURFACE WATER (5M DEEP) 


NO. BACTERIA x 107/LITER 


fo) 20 40 60 80 100 120 
MILES FROM LAND 


Fig. 2. Total counts at the stations at which 
samples were collected, with respect to distance 
from shore. 


low of 20/liter and the total viable counts 
decreased as the distance from land in- 
creased (Fig. 2). Counts from microlayer 
samples were 1.3—6 times higher than 
those from bulk surface water samples 
(Fig. 3). 

The bacterial population of the air 
ranged from 0 to 8/liter and also 


e 


[A WATER FROM MICROLAYER 
[_] SURFACE WATER (5M DEEP) 


LSJ 


NO. BACTERIA x 10/LITER 


5 7 IS 30 60 65 120 
MILES FROM LAND 


Fig. 3. Microlayer and bulk surface water sample 
bacterial counts. 


150 


wo +S a oa N @ 


NO. BACTERIA / LITER OF AIR 


fo) 20 40 60 80 100 120 
MILES FROM LAND 


Fig. 4. Bacterial counts for air samples correlated 
with distance from land. 


decreased as the distance from land in- 
creased (Fig. 4). It is interesting to 
note that the bacteria in the air were 
usually fewer than the molds (Fig. 5). 

The bacteria occurring most frequently 
in the water samples examined were 
Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum and 
Pseudomonas Type 2 spp., while species 
belonging to the genus Bacillus were 
most common in the air samples tested 
(Table 1). 

Discussion 

The results of the microbiological 
study carried out aboard the R/V 
HAYES (U.S. Navy Oceanographic 
Cruise No. 74-16-02A) support two es- 
tablished population trends and raise 
questions concerning the role of air-sea 
interaction insofar as the bacterial popu- 
lations of the air are affected. The total, 
viable, aerobic, heterotrophic bacterial 
populations of both the water and the air 
decreased as the distance from land in- 
creased. This is in keeping with observa- 
tions first made in the 1880’s by Fischer 
(ZoBell, 1946) and Moultec (Gregory, 
1961). In the case of aquatic bacteria, 
population size is believed to be primarily 
limited by nutrient concentrations 
(Wood, 1965), while 1umidity and ex- 
posure to ultraviolet ‘ight are more im- 
portant factors in centrolling the num- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCl, VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


ber of viable bacteria found in the air 
(Pimmick, 1969; Gregory, 1961; 
McDade and Hall, 1964; Webb, 1960). 
The tendency of bacteria to collect at 
surfaces is reflected in the relative num- 
bers of bacteria found at the air-sea inter- 
face and in water at Sm. The concentra- 
tion of bacteria observed in the micro- 
layer was 1.3—6 times greater than in 
the bulk water (Fig. 3), a concentration 
factor less than those reported for labora- 
tory experiments on suspension of 
marine (Carlucci and Bezdek, 1972; Bez- 
dek and Carlucci, 1974) and fresh-water 
(Blanchard and Syzdek, 1972) bacteria. 
This variation is due to differences in 
natural and artificial conditions and in the 
sampling techniques used. Under natural 
conditions, wind and capillary wave ac- 
tion cause continuous mixing of the 
microlayer with the bulk water, decreas- 
ing the concentration of bacteria at the 
sea surface. The decrease measured in 


Table 1.— Comparison of air and water samples. 


{A MoLps 


(_] Bacteria 


(s) 
r 


SVN 


ee S| 


SS 


MEAS 


= 


SST 
5 


s 


NO, MICROORGANISMS / LITER OF AIR 
LNG 


SSASSSSSASA 


Sta oad] 
NNNSAS MS MS SAS 


2 5 7 15 20 30 45 50 60 65 100 120 
MILES FROM LAND 


Fig. 5. Comparison of bacterial and mold counts 
for air samples. 


the experiments carried out aboard the 
R/V HAYES was compounded by the 
fact that the screen sampler employed 
is a relatively inaccurate microlayer 
sampler (Garrett, 1965; Garrett, 1974; 
Hatcher and Parker, 1974; MacIntyre, 
1974), in that it collects water from depths 
up to 600 um. Thus, the sample becomes 
diluted and the inaccuracy arising there- 


Miles Number Predominant bacteria 
Sta- from cultures 
tion land examined Air Microlayer Water 
1 0 3 Vibrio/Aeromonas Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
2 15 3 Micrococcus Pseudomonas Type 1 Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
3 45 3 Micrococcus Micrococcus 
4 120 6 Bacillus Acinetobacter 
5 100 3 Bacillus Vibrio/Aeromonas 
6 60 3 Bacillus Vibrio/Aeromonas Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
f 20 3 Streptococcus Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
8 5 6 Staphylococcus Micrococcus Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
9 2 3 Bacillus Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
10 7 3 Bacillus Micrococcus Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
11 15 3 Bacillus Micrococcus Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
12 65 6 Pseudomonas 
Spirillum Type 3 Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
13 45 3 Acinetobacter 
14 15 3 Streptococcus Vibrio/Aeromonas Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
15 2 3 Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
16 15 6 Pseudomonas Pseudomonas 
Spirillum Type 3 Spirillum Type 3 Pseudomonas Type 3/Spirillum 
17 15 3 Bacillus Pseudomonas Type 2 
18 50 3 Bacillus Pseudomonas Type 2 
(atypical) 
19 65 3 Pseudomonas 
Spirillum Type 3 
20 60 6 Bacillus Bacillus Micrococcus 
21 30 3 Bacillus Bacillus 
22, 15 3 Bacillus Bacillus Pseudomonas Type 3/(atypical) 
23 15 3 Bacillus Pseudomonas Type 3/(atypical) 
24 15 6 Bacillus Bacillus Pseudomonas Type 3/(atypical) 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


151 


from is magnified if one compares data 
obtained by this technique with results 
obtained using a bubble microtome in the 
laboratory (MacIntyre, 1968). 

The main focus of this research was to 
compare the populations and types of 
bacteria found in air with those found in 
water and, thereby, to ascertain whether 
bacteria occurring in air over the open 
ocean are of terrestrial or marine origin. 

That bacteria found in oceanic air are 
of terrestrial origin is based on the fact 
that the number of bacteria found in a 
given air mass decreases as the ‘‘age,”’ 
that is, the number of hours from origina- 
tion of the air mass from land areas, in- 
creases (Bressan, personal communica- 
tion). Air mass age is calculated by 
measuring the amount of radon in the air. 
Radon, a gas with a half-life of three days 
and a product of the decay of uranium?” 
to lead, is given off into the atmosphere 
by land masses and not by the oceans. 
Thus, the age of an air mass can be de- 
termined by measuring the amounts of 
radon and its daughter products in the 
air (Larson, personal communication). 
Since the bacterial population decreases 
as the amount of radon decreases (and 
as the air mass age increases), it has been 
suggested that the bacteria found in air 
over the ocean are terrestrial in origin. 

The belief that oceanic air bacteria are 
of marine origin is based on the role of 
bubbles in the air-sea interactions. Work 
done in the decade 1950-1960 revealed 
that most of the nonbiological particulate 
matter, i.e., ions and salt crystals, found 
in air over the ocean was ejected from the 
water by the breaking of bubbles (Wood- 
cock and Blanchard, 1957). Subsequent 
laboratory experiments have shown that 
bubbles act as “‘scavengers’’ which col- 
lect and concentrate not only nonbio- 
logical particulates found in the water 
but also the bacteria present (Blanchard 
and Syzdek, 1972; Carlucci and Bezdek, 
1972; Carlucci and Williams, 1965). 
When the bubble breaks, the attached 
material is ejected into the air. The im- 
portance of this phenomenon is evident 
when considered with the knowledge 
that, at any given instant, 3% of the 


152 


ocean is covered with bubbles and that 
approximately 10'® of these bubbles 
break every second (MacIntyre, 1974). 
The number of bacteria introduced to the 
air by this mechanism must also be large. 

These results, although not of a scope 
sufficient to be subjected to statistical 
analysis, suggest that bacteria found in 
oceanic air originate in both the marine 
and terrestrial environments. At 3 stations 
(16, 20, 22), bacteria found in the air 
were of the same generic group as those 
found in the water. At 2 other stations 
(0, 19), marine bacteria were isolated 
from the air (Table 1). These findings 
lend support to the bubble theory and the 
marine origin of oceanic air bacteria. 
However, it must also be pointed out that 
most of the bacteria found in water 
were members of the genus Pseudo- 
monas, while the genus Bacillus was the 
most abundant type found in the air. 
Pseudomonas are predominant in the 
marine environment; Bacillus spp. are 
commonly isolated from soil and fresh 
water habitats. In addition, Bacillus 
spp. form spores, permitting survival 
when exposed to harsh environments. 
The presence of bacilli in the air samples 
suggests that these bacteria were carried 
out over the open ocean by the wind. The 
radon data, when analyses are com- 
pleted, should permit observation and 
measurement of correlations between air 
mass age and generic composition of the 
bacterial populations and provide fur- 
ther elucidation of the “‘terrestrial 
origin’’ theory. Nevertheless, the data 
from this study indicate that both marine 
and terrestrial bacteria are found in air 
over the open ocean, with terrestrial 
types predominant. 


Acknowledgments 


The authors acknowledge the helpful advice of 
Dr. Jayne F. Carney on the project. Support of 
National Science Foundation Grant No. DES- 
7201673 and Grant No. 6B-35261X is gratefully 
acknowledged. 


References Cited 


Bezdek, H. F., and A. F. Carlucci. 1972. Surface 
concentration of marine bacteria. Limnol. 
Oceanogr. 17: 566-569. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


. 1974. Concentration and removal of liquid 
microlayers from a seawater surface by burst- 
ing bubbles. Limnol. Oceanogr. 19: 126-132. 

Blanchard, D. C., and L. Syzdek. 1970. Mecha- 
nisms for the water-to-air transfer and concen- 
tration of bacteria. Science 170: 626-628. 

. 1972. Concentration of bacteria from burst- 
ing bubbles. J. Geophys. Res. 77: 5087-5099. 
Blanchard, D. C., and A. H. Woodcock. 1957. 
Bubble formation and modification in the sea and 
its meteorological significance. Tellus 9: 

145-158. 

Carlucci, A. F., and H. F. Bezdek. 1972. On the 
effectiveness of a bubble for scavenging 
bacteria from seawater. J. Geophys. Res. 77: 
6608-6610. 

Carlucci, A. F., and P. M. Williams. 1965. Con- 
centrations of bacteria from sea water by bubble 
scavenging. J. Cons. Cons. Perma. Int. Explor. 
Mer. 30: 28-33. 

Dimmick, R. L. 1969. An Introduction to Experi- 
mental Aerobiology. Wiley-Interscience, New 
York. 

Garrett, W. D. 1965. Collection of slick-forming ma- 
terials from the sea surface. Limnol. Oceanogr. 
10: 602-605. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


. 1974. Comments on ‘‘Laboratory compari- 
sons of four surface microlayer samplers’”’ (R. F. 
Hatcher and B. C. Parker). Limnol. Oceanogr. 
19: 166-167. 

Gregory, P. H. 1961. The Microbiology of the 
Atmosphere. Cambridge University Press, Lon- 
don and New York. 

Hatcher, R. F., and B. C. Parker. 1974. Laboratory 
comparisons of four surface microlayer samplers. 
Limnol. Oceanogr. 19: 162-165. 

McDade, J. H., and L. B. Hall. 1964. Survival of 
gram-negative bacteria in the environment. I. 
Effect of relative humidity on exposed organisms. 
Amer. J. Hyg. 80: 192. 

MacIntyre, F. 1968. Bubbles: A boundary-layer 
‘microtome’ for micron-thick samples of a liquid 
surface. J. Phys. Chem. 72: 589-592. 

. 1974. The top millimeter of the ocean. 
Sci. Amer. 20: 62-77. 

Webb, S. J. 1961. Factors affecting air-borne bac- 
teria Can. J. Microbiol. 7: 607-619. 

Wood, E. J. F. 1965. Marine Microbiol Ecology. 
Chapman and Hall, London. 

Zobell, C. Marine Microbiology. 1946. Chronica 
Botanica, Waltham, Mass. 


153 


Beetles and Wasps Associated With 
Cassia biflora L. (Caesalpiniaceae) Fruits in Costa Rica, 
With a New Species of Sennius (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). 


Donald R. Whitehead and John M. Kingsolver 


University of Michigan and Systematic Entomology Laboratory, ITBIII, ARS, 
USDA, respectively (Mail address for both authors: % U.S. National 


Museum, Washington, D. C. 20560) 


ABS TRACT 


Sennius biflorae is described as a new seed predator of Cassia biflora in 
Costa Rica, occurring in large numbers together with a dark, southern form of 
S. auricomus. Two other species, S. celatus and S. fallax, occur with S. auricomus 
in fruits of C. biflora in Mexico but, though present in Costa Rica, may be 
ecologically displaced from C. biflora there by S. biflorae. One record of Acantho- 
scelides obrienorum from C. biflora may represent an unusual or even spurious 
occurrence, as C. skinneri appears to be the normal host for this species in 
Costa Rica. Parasites are frequently numerous, with at least one species of 
braconid and three of chalcidoids as probable parasites of both Sennius species. 
The abundance and distinctiveness of the host plant, bruchids, and parasites make 
this plant-bruchid-parasite system a desirable one for detailed study. 


In Mexico and Central America, some 
or all members of 6 bruchid genera are 
obligate seed ‘‘predators’’ (Janzen 1975: 
157) of various species of Cassia L. 
All species of 3 genera (Megasennius 
Whitehead and Kingsolver, Pygiopachy- 
merus Pic, and Sennius Bridwell) attack 
Cassia, whereas only 1 or a few species 
of the other 3 (Acanthoscelides Schilsky, 
Amblycerus Thunberg, and Zabrotes 
Horn) do. Some species of other genera 
may feed on Cassia seeds but are not 
restricted to Cassia; Stator limbatus 
(Horn) is an example. Genera and 
species specializing on the ““Cassia’’ sec- 
tion of Cassia, including Megasennius, 
Pygiopachymerus, and 1 species of Za- 
brotes, were discussed by Janzen (1971) 
and Whitehead and Kingsolver (1975). 
Various species in other sections of 
Cassia are attacked by several species 
of Amblycerus, 1 species of Acanthos- 
celides, all species of Sennius, and 1 
recently discovered, undescribed species 
of Zabrotes. At this time, there is no 
clear correlation between seed predator 


154 


species and these other sections of 
Cassia. 

The genus Sennius was reviewed re- 
cently by Johnson and Kingsolver (1973). 
This treatment has so far proven ade- 
quate for most of the Costa Rican fauna, 
but we have found that 2 species com- 
monly reared from Cassia biflora L. re- 
quire discussion in order to update the 
revision of Sennius; 1 is new, and 
the other a geographic variation. White- 
head (1975) prepared a preliminary list 
of parasitic wasps associated with bru- 
chid-infested fruits in Costa Rica, and 
more specific data for those associated 
with C. biflora are included herein. 

To facilitate comparisons, the descrip- 
tion of the new Sennius follows the for- 
mat used by Johnson and Kingsolver; 
genital figures are included, but habitus 
figures are excluded as they would be 
of little help in identification. Specimens 
are deposited in the Northern Arizona 
University, Flagstaff (NAUF) and U. S. 
National Museum of Natural History 
(USNM); these were obtained from rear- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


ings made by D. H. Janzen and from 
examination of pertinent materials in the 
National Herbarium. We thank Janzen 
also for reading the manuscript and for 
partial support from NSF Grants GB 
35032 and BMS 75-14268. 


Sennius auricomus Johnson and Kingsolver 


This was described as a pale species 
ranging from Mexico to Venezuela (John- 
son and Kingsolver 1973), but specimens 
‘from Costa Rica are in general much 
darker than are Mexican specimens; 
only 1 specimen was found with the 
pale pygidium and abdomen characteris- 
tic of northern specimens, and only a 
few have pale elytral markings. Genital 
characters, however, match those of 
the pale northern form. This species is 
known only from Cassia biflora, and new 
records are the following. 

COSTA RICA. Guanacaste: Bebe- 
dero, Taboga, 1930, O. Jimenez #777, 
from herbarium specimen of C. biflora; 
Bebedero, Taboga, 1.]11.1972, D. H. 
Janzen #20-—42, reared from C. biflora; 
Canas, 3.111.1972, D. H. Janzen #20-S, 
reared from C. biflora; Canas, D. H. 
Janzen #1972-001, reared from C. 
biflora. 


Sennius biflorae Whitehead and Kingsolver, 
new species 


Description.—Length (pronotum-elytra) 1.5-2.1 
mm. Width 1.0-1.6 mm. Maximum thoracic 
depth 0.8-1.2 mm. 

Integument black except as follows: Head with- 
out postocular spot; antenna rufotestaceous, uni- 
colorous; labrum rufous; labium and palpi rufo- 
testaceous. Front coxa dark rufous, leg otherwise 
rufotestaceous. Middle coxa black, leg otherwise 
rufotestaceous. Hind coxa black, trochanter rufous, 
leg otherwise rufotestaceous. Elytron varied from 
wholly black in most small specimens, through 
having small inconspicuous spot in basal %, to 
having large circular rufous spot across intervals 
3-10.. 

Vestiture sparse, whitish or yellowish. Dense 
white in small areas behind postocular lobe, 
on scutellum, and along posterior margin of 
metepisternum. Pygidium with vague pattern of 
dense white vestiture basally, especially along 
midline. 

Head short and broad, densely punctulate; frons 
with median carina low, narrow, alutaceous, ex- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


tended from frontoclypeal suture to vertex; frons 
width about equal to width of eye; ocular sinus 
about 34 as long as width of eye; postocular 
lobe short; distance from base of antenna to 
apex of labrum about % as long as distance 
from upper limit of eye to apex of labrum; 
antenna short, article 1 filiform, 2 and 4 monili- 
form, 3 subfiliform, 4 shorter than adjacent ar- 
ticles, S—10 eccentric and transverse, 11 about 
as long as wide and subacute apically; antenna 
extended to about base of pronotum. 

Pronotum with disc subcampanulate, coarsely 
punctate; lateral carina strong from base 2 way 
to coxal cavity; shallow median impression from 
basal lobe to basal 4%, impunctate basally. Pro- 
coxae separated by prosternum except at apices. 

Pterothorax with scutellum transverse, biden- 
tate, with dense vestiture. Elytron slightly less 
than twice as long as broad, dorsal surface 
evenly convex between humerus and median mar- 
gin; striae deep, finely punctate, no distinct 
mucronations basally; intervals finely punctulate; 
striae 5 and 6 closer to one another at base, 
striae otherwise subequally spaced; humerus not 
differentiated in sculpture. Venter finely punc- 
tulate. Hind coxa punctate. Hind femur clavate; 
ventral surface flat, with fine inner carina, sub- 
apical acuminate spine about /% as long as width 
of tibial base. Hind tibia with ventral, lateral, 
and dorsomesal glabrous longitudinal carinae, 
lateroventral carina strongly developed in basal 
24; tibial corona with 2 or 3 dorsal spinules, 
lateral tooth moderate, mucro slightly longer than 
lateral tooth, sinus at base of mucro shallow. 
First tarsomere with ventral, lateral, and mesal 
glabrous longitudinal carinae. 

Abdomen with sternum | not flattened medially, 
about as long as remaining sterna, posterior mar- 
gin straight; sterna 2-4 unmodified; sternum 5 
emarginate in male, entire in female; pygidium 
punctate, convex in lateral view. 

Male genitalia (Figs. 1-2). Median lobe mod- 
erately long; ventral valve slender, lateral mar- 
gins concave in ventral view, base much narrower 
than apex of median lobe, arcuate in lateral view; 
hinge sclerites small, falcate; internal sac with 
elongate spine cluster above ventral valve and 
densely spinulate mass from near apices of hinge 
sclerites to middle of sac, apical % of sac and 
diverticula lined with fine triangular spicules. 
Lateral lobes elongate, slightly bowed in ventral 
view, cleft for more than %4 their length, apices 
expanded mesally and setose. 


Type _ series.—Holotype male, 
“COSTA RICA. Guanacaste Prov. 1.5 
mi. W. Canas 3.]II.1972 D. H. Janzen 
#20-V’’ and ‘‘Reared from Cassia bi- 
flora emerged by 20.VI.1972’’; type no. 
73568, in U. S. National Museum of 
Natural History. Allotype female and 50 
paratypes, same data, in NAUF and 


155 


1-2, Sennius biflorae; male genitalia: 


Figs. 
1, median lobe; 2, lateral lobes. 


USNM. Another 32 paratypes in USNM 
have the following data. 

COSTA RICA. Guanacaste: Bag- 
aces, 111971, DD: VHS Sanzenr453% 
reared from C. biflora; Bebedero, Ta- 
boga, 1930, O. Jimenez #777, from her- 
barium specimen of C. biflora; Bebedero, 
Taboga, 1.III.1972, D. H. Janzen #20- 
42, reared from C. biflora; Playa de 
Coco (Playa Panama), 14.III.1971, D. 
H. Janzen #617, reared from C. biflora. 

About 590 additional, poorly pre- 
served, unmounted specimens have the 
following data. 

COSTA RICA. Guanacaste: Canas 
(Finca La Pacifica), D. H. Janzen 
# 1972-001, reared from C. biflora. 


Discussion.—Named for the host 
plant, Cassia biflora L., Sennius biflorae 
is a doubly apt name since most speci- 


156 


mens are characterized by a red spot 
on each elytron. In material reared by 
Janzen and in herbarium material col- 
lected by Jimenez, S$. biflorae was ac- 
companied by S. auricomus but was 
generally more numerous. 

Sennius biflorae, despite being very 
differently colored, seems most closely 
related to S. atripectus Johnson and 
Kingsolver because of genital similari- 
ties and is thus placed in the Fallax 
Group; S. atripectus differs from S. 
biflorae by having much of the body > 
red orange, minute spines at bases of 
elytral striae 2-6, and a much shorter 
ventral valve. Specimens of S. biflorae 
key to couplet 27 and nearest to S. 
auricomus in Johnson and Kingsolver 
(1973) but are distinguished by having 
sparse vestiture and by lacking the dis- 
tinctive spine clusters of the endophallus 
characteristic of S. auricomus (Johnson 
and Kingsolver 1973: Fig. 23); the dense 
vestiture of S$. auricomus contributes to © 
a pale, ochraceous appearance, whereas © 
S. biflorae is black in appearance and 
normally spotted. 

Sennius medialis (Sharp) and S. 
biflorae resemble one another but are 
not closely related. Among the numerous | 
differences are the following for S. 
medialis. Elytral maculation: red spot 
larger in nearly all specimens. Vesti- 
ture: dense basal vestiture on intervals 
3 and 5; pygidial vestiture long. Head: 
proportionately long. Pronotum: midline 
punctures very fine, few slightly larger 
punctures (not mostly large and shal- 
low). Elytron: striae at base well de- 
fined; intervals with cross striations 
regular. Male genitalia: internal sac not 
strongly trilobed; spicules in apical 2 of 
internal sac more slender; ventral valve 
broad. 


Acanthoscelides obrienorum Johnson 


We recently received from John 
Silander, Duke University, a small 
sample of bruchids including several 
specimens of S. biflorae and 1 of A. 
obrienorum reared from C. biflora in 
‘*Guanacaste Province,’’ Costa Rica in 
1973. This is our first record of A. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


obrienorum associated with C. biflora 
in Costa Rica, although C. D. John- 
son (pers. comm.) has Mexican records 
of this association. 

In Mexico, A. obrienorum is known 
to attack members of several sections 
we Cassia (c.e., ~“Gaumerocassia,’’, 
‘‘Palmerocassia,’ and ‘‘Pterocassia’’). 
In Guanacaste Province, Costa Rica, 
however, it has been reared repeatedly 
from C. skinneri Benth. (‘‘Phragmo- 
cassia’’ section) but except for this record 
from C. biflora (‘‘Peiranisia’’ section) 
has no other known host association. 
Consequently, we suspect that A. obrien- 
orum normally plays no major role in 
the C. biflora fauna in Costa Rica. 


Parasitic Hymenoptera 


Three of Janzen’s reared samples from 
Cassia biflora included various parasitic 
wasps; these are treated here accord- 
ing to Whitehead (1975). 

Janzen #20-5 and #1972-001: Hetero- 
spilus sp. #2 (Braconidae), Horismenus 
sp. nr. missouriensis (Ashmead) (Eulo- 
phidae), Eupelmus sp. nr. peruvianus 
(Crawford) (Eupelmidae), and ?genus sp. 
#3 (Pteromalidae). 

Janzen #20-42: Heterospilus sp. #2 
and Chelonus sp. (Braconidae). 

Except for the moth parasite Chelonus , 
these presumably are bruchid parasites 
and probably parasitize both of the 
Sennius species. Parasite numbers are 
large in some samples, with Horismenus 
represented by hundreds of individuals 
in samples #20-5 and #1972-001, but 
parasites are completely absent in other 
samples. Several other parasites may be 
expected, notably the braconid Steno- 
corse bruchivora (Crawford). 


Discussion 


Johnson and Kingsolver (1973) re- 
ported a reared series of S. auricomus, 
S. celatus (Sharp), and S. fallax (Bohe- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


man) from C. biflora in Nayarit, Mexico. 
Sennius celatus and S. fallax occur in 
Costa Rica, attack a wide range of 
Cassia species, and may therefore be 
expected occasionally in C. biflora in 
Costa Rica. However, it seems likely 
that they have been ecologically dis- 
placed by S. biflorae from that host and 
are not an important part of the C. 
biflora fauna in Costa Rica. It may also 
be that Costa Rican S. celatus and S. 
fallax differ from their northern forms 
and are not adapted to this particular 
host in Costa Rica; comparative pref- 
erences studies may, therefore. be of 
considerable interest and may yield data 
useful for analysis of geographic varia- 
tion. 

Except for S. discolor (Horn), species 
of the Fallax Group probably all oc- 
cur in or are restricted to seeds of 
members of the ‘‘Peiranisia’’ section 
of Cassia. Apparently, however, S. auri- 
comus and §. biflorae specialize on just 
1 member of this section, whereas other 
members of the Fallax Group attack 
several host species. 


References Cited 


Janzen, D. H. 1971. Escape of Cassia grandis 
L. beans from predators in time and space. 
Ecology 52: 964-979. 

. 1975. Interactions of seeds and their insect 
predators/parasitoids in a tropical deciduous 
forest. In P. W. Price, ed., Evolutionary 
strategies of parasitic insects and mites. Plenum 
Press, New York, pp. 154-186. 

Johnson, C. D., and J. M. Kingsolver. 1973. 
A revision of the genus Sennius of North and 
Central America (Coleoptera: Bruchidae). 
U.S.D.A. Tech. Bull. 1462: 1-135. 

Whitehead, D. R. 1975. Parasitic Hymenoptera 
associated with bruchid-infested fruits in Costa 
Rica. J. Wash. Acad. Sci. 65: 108-116. 

Whitehead, D. R., and J. M. Kingsolver. 1975. 
Megasennius, a new genus for Acanthoscelides 
muricatus (Sharp) (Coleoptera: Bruchidae), a 
seed predator of Cassia grandis L. (Caesal- 
piniaceae) in Central America. Proc. Ent. Soc. 
Wash. 77: (in press). 


157 


Colaspis melancholica Jacoby and Its Close Relatives 


(Coleoptera: Chrysomelidae) 


Doris H. Blake 


U.S. National Museum of Natural History, Smithsonian Institution, 


Washington, D. C. 20560 


ABS TRACT 


The taxonomy of Colaspis melancholica and its close relatives is discussed. 
Cholaspis spinigera, C. diduma, C. guatamalensis, C. shuteae, and C. brownsvil- 
lensis are described as new species, and C. balyi and C. nigrocyanea are also 
discussed. A key to the seven species is presented. 


The genus Colaspis for the most part 
consists of groups of species. These 
groups are easily recognized, but the 
species within each of the groups are 
so much alike that, without dissecting 
for the aedeagus, one has great difficulty 
in naming them. For example, the yellow 
brown costate species of Colaspis in 
the United States were for years re- 
garded as one species. Horn wrote 
that C. brunnea “‘‘is an insoluble com- 
plex.’’ The present group, which I call 
the melancholica group, is quite unlike 
the costate group, being without costae 
and black in color. However, it resembles 
the brunnea group in being composed 
of species so alike that even I, who 
have been studying them for some time, 
am unable to recognize them without 
dissecting for the aedeagus, and I cannot 


name the females at all with any cer- 
tainty. In addition to the aedeagus 
the male has another important feature— 
a spinelike projection near the end of 
the hind tibiae—found in 2 of the 8 
species of the group. The others have 
a slight swelling on the hind tibiae in- | 
stead of the spine found in some of 
the brunnea group. 


Colaspis melancholica Jacoby 
Figs. 1 & 2 
Colaspis melancholica Jacoby, Biol. Centr.-Amer. 
Col., Vol. VI, 1881, p. 143. 


Length 6.8 mm. Width 3.5 mm. Elongate oval, | 
shining black with metallic green glints in interior 
of punctures and a green lustre on legs and 
under-surface. Densely punctate throughout. 

Head with interocular space a little more than 
half width of head, densely punctate over front, 
punctures obscuring frontal tubercles, as well as 


Key to Species of Colaspis 


1. Hind tibiae in male with spinelike projection near end of hind tibiae ........... pi 
Hind tibiae in male without spinelike projection ./............22--. eee 3 
2. Aedeagus with a long, pointed asymmetrical tip............. melancholica Jacoby 
Aedeagus with a pointed, shorter and not asymmetric tip ........ spinigera, Nn. Sp. 
3.. Head with interocular space half width of head'......25......... 2222 eeeeeeeee 4 
Head with interocular space more than half width of head .................... 5 


4. Aedeagus with a very short tip 


5. Elytra not quite 3 times as long as prothorax 


Aedeagus with a longer tip ............ 


LO A es ee ee balyi Jacoby 
oh 7 wa A OS leg Sle Se a diduma, Nn. sp. 


Elytra 3. times.as long as prothorax..4.'. tos adn Wa ee eee 6 
6. Aedeagus broad before tip with a pointed tip............... guatemalensis, n. sp. 
Aedeagus narrowing more gradually before tip............. brownsvillensis, n. sp. 


158 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


1. Colaspis melancholica Jac. 2. C. melancholica Jac. 3. C. spinigera n.sp. 


7. C. brownsvillensis n.sp. 8. C. nigrocyanea Crotch 9. C. guatemalensis n.sp. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 159 


clypeus boundaries, labrum and mouthparts dark. 
Antennae black except joints 3—5 which are pale 
beneath. Prothorax about one-third wider than 
long with sides having an angularity below middle, 
rather irregularly punctate with some small flat 
impunctate spaces. Scutellum shining black with 
faint green lustre. Elytra not quite 3 times as 
long as prothorax and wider, densely covered 
with punctures in irregular lines, near suture and 
apex in single rows, elsewhere tending to be 
geminate with faintly costate ridging between, more 
pronounced on sides and at apex, epipleura as 
well as punctures with metallic green lustre. Body 
beneath with prosternum punctate, legs and ventral 
surface dark, shining with metallic lustre. A spine- 
like projection on male near apex of hind tibia. 


Type.— Male, in British Museum (Na- 
tural History). 

Type locality.—Tuxtla, Mexico, Salle 
collection (labelled syntype). 

Other locality.—Jicaltepec, 
Cruz, Mexico. 

Remarks.—In the material labelled 
Colaspis melancholica from the British 
Museum (Natural History) there are at 
least 2 species in addition to C. balyi, 
which Jacoby first described as a distinct 
species and later as a variety of melan- 
cholica. It is quite distinct from C. 
melancholica, as shown by the aedeagus 
and its general shape. I have chosen 
from the syntypes sent me labelled 
melancholica a specimen from Tuxtla, 
Mexico, as the type of melancholica. 
In the male the small spinelike projec- 
tion on the hind tibiae can be used 
to distinguish this species from most 
of the others of the melancholica group. 
Another species bearing the syntype 
label is from El Reposo. Besides lack- 
ing the spine like projection on the hind 
tibiae, this species may be separated 
by the shape of the aedeagus. In the 
Tuxtla specimen the aedeagus has a long 
asymmetrical tip, while in the E] Reposo 
specimen the tip is shorter and not 
asymmetrical. At first I thought the 
asymmetrical tip of melancholica was 
an accident, but when I had dissected 
the second specimen which had the same 
asymmetry I realized that it was just 
another species with an asymmetric 
tip that occurs in several species of the 
genus Colaspis. 


Vera 


160 


Colaspis spinigera, n. sp. 
Fig. 3 


Length 5 mm. Width 3 mm. Elongate oval, 
shining black with inside of punctures with a blue 
green lustre, labrum and antennae dark, densely 
punctate above, mesosternum also punctate. 

Head with interocular space more than half 
width of head, punctures on top of head fine 
and inconspicuous becoming coarser below, frontal 
tubercles alone smooth. Antennae entirely dark. 
Prothorax not twice as wide as long with coarse 
punctures irregularly irregularly arranged with a 
few smooth spots, sides with angularity below 
middle. Scutellum shining, smooth, black. Elytra 
densely punctate throughout, in single lines near 
suture and apex, elsewhere irregularly geminate. 
Body beneath and legs entirely dark, shining 
with a bluish lustre, hind legs in male with a 
short, spinelike projection near apex. 


Type.—Male, Museum of Compara- 
tive Zoology. 

Type locality.—Cuernavaca, More- 
los, Mexico, Wickham collection. 

Remarks.—This species resembles 
melancholica in having the hind tibia 
with a projection like a spine, but the 
aedeagus does not have as long a 
pointed tip and is not asymmetrical. 
However, the tip is longer than in most 
of the group. 


Colaspis guatemalensis, n. sp. 
Fig. 9 


Length 5.7 mm. Width 3.2 mm. Ovate, shining 
black with metallic green lustre in middle of 
punctures. Upper surface densely punctate. 

Head with interocular space more than half 
width of head, front so densely punctate as to 
obscure frontal tubercles and boundary of clypeus. 
Antennae with joints 2-6 pale and joints 8 and 9 
a little darker, remainder entirely black. Prothorax 
nearly twice as wide as long with scattered punc- 
tures, sides angulate below middle. Scutellum 
shining black. Elytra 3 times as long as pro- 
thorax and a little wider with punctures in single 
line near suture and apex and irregularly gemi- 
nate elsewhere with metallic green lustre inside 
punctures. Body beneath dark, prosternum punc- 
tate, legs dark, hind tibia slightly widened 
near apex. 


Type.—Male in British Museum (Na- 
tural History). 

Type locality. —El Reposo, 800 ft., 
Guatemala, Champion collector. 

Other locality.— Guatemala City, E. 
G. Smyth. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


Remarks.—The shape of this species 
is different from that of melancholica 
in having a broader and shorter pro- 
thorax with the elytra fully 3 times 
as long as the prothorax. The elytra 
are not so densely punctate as in C. 
melancholica, and the aedeagus has a 
shorter narrow tip. 


Colaspis balyi Jacoby 
Fig. 5 
-Colaspis balyi Jacoby, Biol. Centr. Amer. Vol. 
VI, pt. 1, 1881, pp. 143-4. 


Colaspis melancholica var. balyi Jacoby, Biol. 
Centr. Amer. Vol. VI, Suppl. Nov. 1890, p. 222. 


Length 5.2 mm. Width 2.5 mm. Elongate oval, 
shining black, densely punctate above. 

Head with interocular space approximately half 
width of head, densely punctate except over frontal 
tubercles which are smooth, labrum and mouth- 
parts dark. Antennae almost entirely black, only 
a little paler in apical half of second and fourth 
joints. Prothorax a little wider than long with 
sides subangulate below middle, disc densely punc- 
tate. Scutellum black. Elytra 3 times as long as 
prothorax and a little wider, densely punctate, 
punctures near suture and apex in single lines, 
irregularly geminate elsewhere. Surface with cross 
ridging and on sides and near apex with some 
semi-costate ridging. Body beneath and legs black, 
prosternum punctate. 


Type.—Male in British Museum (Na- 
tural History). 

Type locality. —Duenas, Guatemala, 
Champion collector. 

Remarks .— Although this species un- 
doubtedly belongs in the same group 
as those from Tuxtla and El Reposo, 
it is quite unlike either of them. It 
is smaller in size and of narrower shape. 
Also, the space between the eyes is 
only half the width of the head. The 
aedeagus has an even shorter, narrower 
tip than in either of the preceding species, 
and there is not a sign of metallic 
coloring either in the punctures or on the 
body beneath. 


Colaspis nigrocyanea Crotch 
Fig. 8 


Colaspis nigrocyanea Crotch, Proc. Acad. Phil. 
Vol. XXV, 1873, p. 45; Horn, Trans. Am. Ent. 
soc., vol. XIX, 1892, pp. 223, 224. 


Length 5.5-5.8 mm. Width 3-3.3 mm. Oval, 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


shining dark brownish black or black, densely 
punctate above. 

Head with interocular space considerably more 
than half width of head, front of head densely 
punctate except the smooth frontal tubercles, 
labrum and mandibles reddish brown. Antennae 
with basal 5 joints reddish brown, rest dark. 
Prothorax not twice as wide as long with sides 
angulate below middle, disc varying in punctures, 
some being densely punctate, others, in having 
punctures scattered with smooth areas between. 
Scutellum shining black. Elytra 3 times as long 
as prothorax and wider, punctures near suture 
and apex in single lines, elsewhere irregularly 
geminate. Body beneath and legs dark reddish 
brown or black, prosternum punctate. 


Type.—Whereabouts unknown. 

Type locality.— Arizona. 

Other localities. — Arizona: Tucson, 
Pimala. 

Remarks.—Some of the specimens 
lack the metallic blue or green in the 
punctures or undersurface from which 
Crotch derived the name nigrocyanea. 
The aedeagus is much like that of 
C. brownsvillensis, the species from 
Texas, but the short tip is very narrow. 


Colaspis brownsvillensis, n. sp. 
Fig. 7 


Length 6-6.5 mm. Width 3-3.5 mm. Ovate shin- 
ing black all over except the second, third, fourth 
and fifth antennal joints which are a little paler 
brown; densely punctate throughout the upper 
surface and sides of prosternum. 

Head with interocular space a little more than 
half width of head, densely punctate, punctures 
obscuring boundary of clypeus. Antennae dark 
with joints 6-11 deep black. Prothorax nearly 
twice as wide as long in one of the specimens, 
not so wide in some others, with scattered punc- 
tures in middle of disc, and denser punctation 
on sides, margin somewhat angulate. Scutellum 
shining black. Elytra 3 times as long as _ pro- 
thorax and wider, densely and somewhat irregularly 
punctate, punctures along suture and apex in single 
lines, elsewhere irregularly geminate. Body beneath 
entirely dark, sides of prosternum punctate, legs 
dark. 


Type.—Male and 1 male peratype, 
1 female paratype. 

Type locality.—Brownsville, Texas, 
Wickham collector, 1913. 

Remarks .— This is a close relative of 
C. nigrocyanea Crotch, but the eyes 
are closer together, the elytra are not 


161 


so densely punctate, and in general 
the beetles are a little larger than in 
nigrocyanea. 


Colaspis shuteae, n. sp. 
Fig. 6 


Length 4.8 mm. Width 2.6 mm. Oval, shining 


black with inside of punctures metallic green, 


densely punctate above. 

Head with interocular space a little more than 
half width of head, a small median depression 
on front, punctures fine and dense covering all 
but frontal tubercles, labrum dark reddish brown. 
Antennae with joints 2 to 6 paler, remainder dark. 
Prothorax not quite twice as wide as long with 
a slight angularity on sides below middle, also 
with large punctures irregularly arranged, leaving 
middle bare in spots. Scutellum shining black. 
Elytra 3 times as long as prothorax and a little 
wider with punctures in single lines near suture, 
apex and along sides, irregularly geminate else- 
where with some raised edges forming slight 
costae, more pronounced at apex and on sides, 
also transversely raised across middle. Body be- 
neath and legs dark, prosternum punctate. 


Type.— Male, in British Museum (Na- 
tural History). 

Type locality.—Rio Frio, Colombia, 
George Salt, June 26, 1927. 

Remarks.—The aedeagus of this 
species is similar to that of C. balyi 
but with a longer point. I am naming 
this after Mrs. Sharon Shute of the 
British Museum (Natural History), who 
has been of great help in picking out 
specimens for study and who has dis- 
sected many of them for me. 


162 


Colaspis diduma, n. sp. 
Fig. 4 


Length 4.8 mm. Width 2.6 mm. Brownish black 
with deep brownish black legs and undersurface. 
Upper surface with many punctures not as dense 
on elytra as on prothorax. 

Head with interocular space approximately half 
as wide as head, a median depression on front, 
densely punctate throughout with only frontal 
tubercles smooth. Antennae missing. Prothorax 
not twice as wide as long with sides having 
angularity below middle, densely punctate. Scutel- 
lum dark brown. Elytra 3 times as long as pro- 
thorax and a little wider. Punctures in single 
lines near suture and at apex, irregularly gemi- 
nate elsewhere. Body beneath with punctures 
on prosternum. Legs and abdomen dark reddish 
brown. 


Type.— Male in Museum of Compara- 
tive Zoology. 

Type _ locality.—Cochabamba, 
livia. 

Remarks .—In outline this species re- 
sembles C. shuteae, which was col- 
lected in Colombia, but the beetle is 
dark brown, almost black, not very 
shiny, with no metallic green lustre at 
all, and the punctures are not so dense 
or large on the elytra. The elytra do 
not have the rough surface of the rest 
of the melancholica group. The tip of 
the aedeagus is longer than in most of 
the group but not as long as in C. 
melancholica and not at all asymmetrical. 


Bo- 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


ACADEMY AFFAIRS 


BOARD OF MANAGERS MEETING NOTES 


April 29, 1975 


The 629th meeting was called to order 
at 8:05 p.m. by President Stern in the 
Conference Room in the Lee Building at 
FASEB. President Stern introduced Dr. 
Henry Liers who presented a proposal 
for the Bicentennial celebration entitled 
‘*Science, Engineering and Society.’’ A 
lively discussion followed with consen- 
sus that the proposed divisional structure 
for the Academy would certainly assist 
in the implementation of the program. 
The minutes of the previous meeting were 
corrected. 


Treasurer.—Dr. Rupp’s report was 
optimistic. With $2000 cash in hand and 
dues still coming in, the Academy can 
look forward to another year’s operation 
in the black. 


Membership.—Dr. Florence Forziati 
presented eight nominees for fellowship: 
Dr. Raynor L. Duncombe, Dr. Nicolae 
Filipescu, Dr. Arthur Jensen, Dr. 
Howard St. Claire Jones, Dr. Milton N. 
Kabler, Dr. William V. Loebenstein, Dr. 
James F. Goff, and Dr. Joseph M. 
Marchello. (See Vol. 65, No. 3, JWAS. 
—Ed.) Two new delegates were made 
Fellows: Dr. John O’Hare, represent- 
ing the new affiliated society, The D.C. 
Psychological Assoc.; and Dr. Carl H. 
Cotterill, representing the American 
Institute of Mining, Metallurgical and 
Petroleum Engineers. A motion for ac- 
ceptance of these new fellows was sec- 
onded and approved unanimously by the 
Board. 


Policy Planning/Ways and Means.— 
Dr. Alphonse Forziati presented the 
Committee’s recommendations for the 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


three special tasks assigned to it by the 
Board at the February 11 meeting: 

1. Method of counting ballots: The 
committee recommended adoption of the 
simple plurality system rather than the 
Hare system. A motion to this effect 
was made by Dr. Sulzbacher, seconded 
by Dr. Honig, and passed unanimously 
by the Board. 

2. Achievement Award in the Be- 
havioral Sciences: The Committee’s 
recommendation for the establishment of 
an achievement award in the Behavioral 
Sciences evoked a discussion concerning 
the intention that the award be for 
first-hand observational laboratory stud- 
ies—1.e., Original field studies. A motion 
for approval by Dr. Jean Boek was sec- 
onded by Dr. Sulzbacher and approved 
unanimously by the Board. 

3. Divisional Structure: “‘In view of 
the diverse areas of interest to Academy 
affiliates, the committee recommends the 
adoption of a divisional structure.’’ A 
motion for the adoption of the divisional 
structure was made by Dr. Rupp and 
seconded by Dr. Franz. A lengthy dis- 
cussion followed with the vote on the 
original motion being nine for and eight 
against. 

Dr. Abraham, President-elect, then re- 
quested that everyone interested in work- 
ing in an advising capacity contact him. 

Dr. Honig, on behalf of the Academy, 
extended a vote of thanks and congratu- 
lations to the committee for an excellent 
job. 


Encouragement of Science Talent.— 
Mrs. Shafrin announced that, at the 
Awards banquet to be held on May 19 in 


163 


conjunction with the Joint Board on Sci- 
ence and Engineering Education, awards 
were to be given to 40 outstanding stu- 
dents. 

Mrs. Shafrin proposed that a Memorial 
be established for Berenice Lamberton, 
who had been an outstanding teacher and 
an advisor for the encouragement of 
science in the Junior Academy for many 
years. 

Dr. Cook made a motion, seconded by 
Mr. Sherlin, that the Teaching of Science 
Award for secondary Teachers be called 
the Berenice Lamberton Award. 

Mrs. Shafrin made a motion that a 
Berenice Lamberton award plaque be 
awarded to the first-prize winner of the 
D.C. Science Fair each year, the cost to 
be funded by the Senior Academy. An 
amendment to the motion—that the 
plaque go to the school for display and 
that a certificate be given to the student 
—was passed. 


New and Old Business.—The first 
issue of the symposium ‘“‘Energy Re- 
covery From Solid Wastes’’ is being 
edited by Dr. Harvey Alter and Dr. 
Richard H. Foote. (To appear as the 
March, 1976 issue of the Journal WAS. 
—Ed.) 

A motion by Dr. Honig, seconded by 
Dr. Abraham, that a letter of commenda- 
tion be sent to Dr. William Zisman upon 
his retirement from the Naval Research 
Laboratory was approved unanimously. 


Dr. Abraham and Mrs. Shafrin will pre- | 
pare the commendation. 

Dr. Forziati presented a proposal from 
the Washington Paint Technical Group 
for affiliation with the Academy. The 
Policy Planning/Ways and Means Com- 
mittee recommended that a letter be sent 
to the Group advising them that their ap- 
plication was still under consideration. 

The committee also recommended 
that the Academy Bylaws (Article II, 
Section 6) he amended to delete the 
words ‘“‘who has been nominated as a 
delegate by a local affiliated society’ so 
that Section 6 would apply only to 
Awardees. The amended form of Section 
6 would simplify the affiliation of groups 
such as the Washington Paint Technical 
Group. 

Dr. Honig made a motion approving 
transmittal of the letter to the Washington 
Paint Technical Group but proposed that 
the newly elected Board of Managers 
take up the question of amending the 
Bylaws. This motion was seconded and 
approved by the Board. 

President Stern presented a letter from 
Edward D. Andrus, Manager of the 
Range Facilities Department, regarding 
the establishment of a ‘‘Grant-in-Aid”’ 
project to a graduate student which would 
deal with the problem of adequately 
ventilating an indoor shooting range. The 
Board was asked to submit suggestions 
to Dr. Stern.— Mary H. Aldridge, Secre- 


tary. 


(Editor's note: The minutes appearing above have not yet been read or corrected. They 
are published now in the interests of keeping the membership of the Academy up to date. 
Any amendments will be published in a future issue.) 


NEW FELLOWS 


Robert F. Brady, Chief, Paints Branch, 
General Services Adm., Washington, 
DC., in recognition of his contributions 
to organic chemistry, and in particular 
his syntheses and characterization of 
ketoses critical in the diagnosis of pen- 
tosuria. Sponsors: A. F. Forziati, Philip 
J. Franklin. 


164 


Meryl N. Christiansen, Chief, Plant 
Stress Lab., Agricultural Res. Ctr., 
USDA, Beltsville, Md., in recognition 
of his contributions to the knowledge of 
cottonseed quality, biochemistry, and 
germination of an understanding of chill- 
ing injury to crop plants, as well as for 
his innovative leadership covering broad 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


aspects of plant stress research. Spon- 
sors: J. L. Hilton, Patricia Sarvella. 


Ralph I. Cole, formerly American Univ., 
retired, in recognition of his contributions 
to engineering systems, management of 
research and development, and engineer- 
ing education. Sponsors: George Abra- 
ham, Henry Liers, E. L. Brancato. 


John W. Lyons, Director, Center for 
Fire Research, National Bureau of 
Standards, in recognition of his contri- 
butions to the understanding of poly- 
electrolytes, applied rheology, fire re- 
tardants, and fire research at NBS. 
Sponsors: George Abraham, Richard K. 
Cook, Grover C. Sherlin. 


Mark B. Mendelsohn, Ass’t Prof., 
Dept. of Psychology, George Mason 
Univ., Fairfax, Va., in recognition of 
his contribution to the field of clinical 
psychology, particularly his current re- 
search upon the effects of behavioral 
reduction of disruptive behavior upon the 


level of serotonin in the brain, and to the 
scientific community of Washington by 
initiating the development of a Be- 
havioral Sciences Branch as part of the 
WAS. Sponsors: Kurt H. Stern, Kelso B. 
Morris. 


Flora G. Pollack, Mycologist, APHIS, 
USDA, Beltsville, Md., in recognition 
of her contributions to mycology, and in 
particular her systematics research on 
economically important Fungi ‘Imper- 
fecti’ from all parts of the world. Spon- 
sors: Richard H. Foote, John A. Steven- 
son, R. R. Colwell. 


Rafael Sarmiento, Research Chemist, 
Agricultural Research Center, ARS, 
USDA, Beltsville, Md., in recognition 
of his contribution to the development of 
microanalytical techniques for and the 
synthesis of pest control agents such as 
repellents, attractants, juvenile hormone 
mimics and herbicides. Sponsors: R. J. 
Argauer, Mary H. Aldridge. 


SCIENTISTS IN THE NEWS 


FOOD AND DRUG ADMINISTRATION 


Edward O. Haenni, Consultant, Bu- 
reau of Foods, was reappointed for a 
second four-year term as Chairman, 
Commission on Food Additives, Applied 
Chemistry Division, IUPAC, at the re- 
cent 28th IUPAC Conference in Madrid. 
As a result of a restructuring of the Di- 
vision at the Madrid meeting, the Com- 
mission has increased responsibility, 
reporting directly to the Division in- 
stead of to the Food Section, which was 
abolished. 

Dr. Haenni was also reappointed this 
year as a member of the Subcommittee 
on Specifications, Food Chemicals 
Codex, NAS-NRC. He continues to 
serve on the Centennial Subcommittee 
on Mementos, American Chemical So- 
ciety, and as Chairman of the Centennial 
Committee of the Chemical Society of 
Washington. 

At its annual October meeting, the As- 
sociation of Official Analytical Chemists 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


awarded Dr. Haenni a certificate as a 
Fellow of the Association. 


FASEB 


George W. Irving, Jr., ASBC member 
and Research Associate in FASEB’s 
Life Sciences Research Office, was 
honored by the American Chemical As- 
sociation at its recent Fall meeting in 
Chicago. Dr. Irving received the John R. 
Kuebler Award, the highest honor of 
Alpha Chi Sigma, the professional chem- 
ical fraternity, for a ‘‘distinguished 
career of service to the fraternity, the 
scientific community, the government 
and the general public.’’ Formerly Ad- 
ministrator of the Agricultural Research 
Service, USDA, Dr. Irving joined the 
LSRO staff in 1972 where he coordinates 
the review of the health aspects of GRAS 
substances, currently a major effort of 
LSRO for FDA. He has an interesting 
article on the GRAS list in the April 1975 


165 


issue of FEDERATION PROCEED- 
INGS. 
UNIVERSITY OF FLORIDA 


Dr. R. I. Sailer, formerly Chairman 
of the Insect Identification and Bene- 


ficial Insect Introduction Institute at the 
Beltsville Agricultural Research Center, 
USDA, has been elected President- 
Elect of the Entomological Society of 
America. 


OBITUARY 


Aaron L. Shalowitz 


Aaron L. Shalowitz, 82, an engineer, 
lawyer, author and an authority on water 
boundaries who retired from the U.S. 
Coast and Geodetic Survey, died on 
Oct. 20, 1975 in George Washington 
University Hospital. 

In 1973 the U.S. Board on Geographic 
Names designated a newly discovered 
underwater mountain in the northeast 
Pacific Ocean as the Shalowitz Sea 
Mount in honor of his ‘‘monumental 
contribution for more than three decades 
in the realm of the law of the sea, par- 
ticularly seaward boundaries culminating 
in ‘Shore and Sea Boundaries,’ which 
has become a classic in the field of ocea- 
nography, marine cartography and the 
law of the sea.’’ According to the board, 
the occasion was the first time that 
undersea features were named for a living 
person. 

‘‘Shore and Sea Boundaries,’’ Shalo- 
witz’s major publication effort, was a 
1,200-page work published in two vol- 
umes. It has been cited and quoted ex- 
tensively in legal briefs and court deci- 
sions and in 1966 was a basis for the 
Society of American Military Engineers 
giving Shalowitz the society’s Colbert 
Medal. 

Shalowitz also received a gold medal 
and citation, the highest award of the 
Commerce Department, for his ‘‘out- 
standing contributions to science and 
technology in the field of hydrographic 
and cartographic engineering.”’ 

Shalowitz received his basic engineer- 
ing training at Baltimore Polytechnic 


166 


Institute. In 1916 he entered the service 
of the Coast Survey, first as a commis- 
sioned officer in the field, engaged in 
geodetic, topographic and oceanographic 
surveys in the United States, Alaska and 
the Virgin Islands. 

Later, as a cartographic engineer in 
the Washington office, he interpreted 
marine surveys and nautical charts for 
legal and scientific use. He retired in 1964 
as a special assistant to the director of 
the Survey. 

Shalowitz received his L.LB. degree 
with honors and a J.D. (Guris doctor) from 
Georgetown University. He also re- 
ceived a master of law degree from 
George Washington University. 

With the introduction of echo sounding 
for measuring depths at sea, Shalowitz 
contributed to the design and develop- 
ment of a new type of nautical chart in 
which submarine features were repre- 
sented by depth contours rather than 
by isolated depths. This was a great aid — 
to sea navigation. 

He was a member of the Washington 
Academy of Sciences, the American_ 
Technion Society, American Geophysi- 
cal Union, the American branch of the 
International Law Association and the 
American Congress on Surveying and 
Mapping. 

A native of Latvia, Shalowitz came 
to the United States at the age of 3. He 
was a member of Ohev Shalom Congre- 
gation. 

He leaves his wife, Pearl, and a son, 
Ernest, at home, and another son, Erwin, 
of Bethesda, and three grandchildren. 


J. WASH. ACAD. SCI., VOL. 65, NO. 4, 1975 


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| General 

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