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: ISSUBD AUGUST 26, 1953
“| VOL. LXXXVIT POR > PARTI
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
2 ee OF THE
| ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1953
(INCORPORATED 1881)
PART L_
OF
VOL. LXXXVII
~ Containing List of Members, Report of Council, Balance Sheet,
Obituary Notices, Presidential Address and Papers read
in April, 1953.
EDITED BY
G. D. OSBORNE, D.Sc., Ph.D.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
_ THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
1953
CONTENTS
+ > -
EMBERS .
AAD EVA
“ANNUAL REPORT OF THE Counci ae 3° Ps EA ig o
OF.
He ee ia oe Te a on ¥ "f Seeieh aera WSs
- Rerort or Suction or Geonocy .. . PUAN Ge erage tna
OBITUARY |... e. es “ge : o- ae oe oe vi wee basen Je)
5
ArT. I.—Presidential Address. - By C. J.-Magee— Peet) eae Pe
= ; ree fo I. Work of the Society —.. See A ce ears
Bee xe aah ae of Seismic Rays. By K. BE: Bullén 47S”
TY. —A Note on the Sooprece of the Essential Oil of Eucalyptus ede Hook.
ge | ave
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1953
(INCORPORATED 1881)
VOLUME LXXXVII
Part I
EDITED BY
G. D. OSBORNE, D.Sc., Ph.D.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
THES AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
PUAN
a py
i TY,
Royal Society of Nem South Wales
OFFICERS FOR 1953-1954
Patrons :
His EXcELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA,
FIELD-MARSHAL Str WILLIAM SLIM, G.c.M.G., G.C.B., G.B.E., D.S.O., M.C.
His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SouTH WALES,
LIEUTENANT-GENERAL Sir JOHN NORTHCOTT, K.C.M.G., C.B., M.V.O.
President :
IDA A. BROWNE, D.sc.
Vice- Presidents :
R. C. L. BOSWORTH, m.sc., D.sc. (Adel.), | PHYLLIS M. ROUNTREE, pD.sc. (Melb.),
Ph.D. (Camb.), F.A.C.1., F.Inst.P. | Dip.Bact. (Lond.).
C. J. MAGEE, D.sc.agr. (Syd.), M.Sc. (Wis.). | H. W. WOOD, M.sc., A.Inst.P., F.R.A.S.
Honorary Secretaries :
G. BOSSON, .sc. (Lond.). | G. D. OSBORNE, bD.sec. (Syd.), Ph.D.
| (Camb.), F.G.S.
Honorary Treasurer :
H. A. J. DONEGAN, A.8.1.c., A.A.C.1.
Members of Council :
J. P. BAXTER, B.sc., Ph.D., A.M.I.Chem.E. F. D. McCARTHY, Dip.anthr.
H. B. CARTER, B.v.sc. P. R. MCMAHON, .agr.sce. (N.Z.), Ph.D.
A. R. DARVALL, M.B., B.s., D.O. (Leeds), A.R.I.C., A.N.Z.1.C.
N. A. GIBSON, M.sc., Ph.D., A.R.I.C.
T. IREDALE, D.sc., F.R.1.c.
A. V. JOPLING, B.sc., B.E.
R. S. NYHOLM, p.sc., Ph.p. (Lond.),
M.Se. (Syd.).
O.U. VONWILLEBR, B.sc., F.Inst.
iv NOTICES.
NOTICE.
THe Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “ Philosophical Society
of Australasia’’; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name
of the ‘* Australian Philosophical Society ’’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the
name was changed to the “* Philosophical Society of New South Wales ”’; in 1866, by the sanction
of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated
by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881.
TO AUTHORS.
Particulars regarding the preparation of manuscripts of papers for publication in the
Society’s Journal are to be found in the “ Guide to Authors’, which is obtainable on appli-
cation to the Honorary Secretaries of the Society.
FORM OF BEQUEST.
4s bequeath the sum of £ to the Royat Socrery or New Sourn WA tEs,
Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt
of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the
said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease,
without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise,
out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose.
[Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of New South Wales by Legacies
are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. ]
The volumes of the Journal and Proceedings may be obtained at the Society’s Rooms, Science
House, Gloucester Street, Sydney.
Volumes XI to LIII (that is to 1919)
B TV) LXVI (1920 to 1932)
a LXVIII (1936) ©
oy LXX ,, LXXXII (1938 to 1948)
A LXXXIIT and LXXXIV
Volumes I to X (to 1876) and LX VII and LXIX (1935 and 1937) are out of print.
Reprints of papers are available.
LIST OF THE MEMBERS
OF THE
Royal Society of New South Wales
as at April 1, 1953
P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s Journal. The numerals
indicate the number of such contributions.
+ Life Members.
Elected.
1944 Adamson, Colin Lachlan, Chemist, 36 McLaren-street, North Sydney.
1938 P 2 |fAlbert, Adrien, D.Sc., Ph.D. Lond., B.Sc. Syd., F.R.1.C. Gt.B., Professor of Medical
Chemistry, The Australian National University, 183 Euston-road, London,
N.W.1.
1935 tAlbert, Michael Francois, ‘“‘ Boomerang,” Billyard-avenue, Elizabeth Bay.
1950 Alexander, Albert Ernest, B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D., Professor of Chemistry, N.S.W.
University of Technology; p.r. 178 Raglan-street, Mosman.
1898 tAlexander, Frank Lee, Surveyor, 5 Bennett-street, Neutral Bay.
1941 tAlldis, Victor le Roy, 1.s., Registered Surveyor, Box 57, Orange, N.S.W.
1948 Anderson, Geoffrey William, B.sc., c/o Box 30, P.O., Chatswood.
1948 Pe Andrews, Paul Burke, 5 Conway-avenue, Rose Bay.
1948 Arnold, Joan W. (Mrs.), 202 Separation-street, Northcote, Victoria.
1930 1B sil! Aston, Ronald Leslie, B.sc., B.E. Syd., M.sc., Ph.D. Camb., A.M.1.E. Aust., Senior
Lecturer in Civil Engineering and Surveying in the University of Sydney ;
p.-r. 24 Redmyre-road, Strathfield. (President, 1948.)
1919 | canes | Aurousseau, Marcel, B.sc., c/o Royal Geographical Society, Kensington Gore,
London, S.W.7.
1949 Pe Backhouse, James Roy, m.sc. Syd., Lecturer, Sydney Technical College ;
p.-r. Fowler-avenue, Bexley North.
1924 2 Bailey, Victor Albert, M.A., D.Phil., F.Inst.P., Professor of Experimental Physics
in the University of Sydney.
1934 2 Baker, Stanley Charles, M.sc., A.mnst.P., Head Teacher of Physics, Newcastle
Technical College, Tighe’s Hill; p.r. 8 Hewison-street, Tighe’s Hill, N.S.W.
1937 Baldick, Kenric James, B.sc., 19 Beaconsfield-parade, Lindfield.
1951 Banks, Maxwell Robert, B.sc., Lecturer in Geology, University of Tasmania,
Hobart, Tasmania.
1946 P Barclay, Gordon Alfred, Chemistry Department, Sydney Technical College,
Harris-street, Broadway, Sydney; p.r. 78 Alt-street, Ashfield.
1919 Bardsley, John Ralph, 29 Walton-crescent, Abbotsford.
1951 Basden, Kenneth Spencer, 4.s.1T.c., Technical Officer, Department of Mining
and Applied Geology, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney.
1950 Baxter, John Philip, B.sc., Ph.D., A.M.I.chem.E., The Director and Professor of
Chemical Engineering, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway,
Sydney.
1947 Beckmann, Peter, a.s.t.c., Lecturer in Chemistry, Technical College, Wol-
longong.
1933 Bedwell, Arthur Johnson, Eucalyptus Oil Merchant, ‘“‘ Kama,” 10 Darling
Point-road, Edgecliff.
1926 | Bentivoglio, Sydney Ernest, B.sc.agr., 42 Telegraph-road, Pymble.
1937 P 7 | Birch, Arthur John, M.sc., D.Phil. Oxon., Professor of Organic Chemistry,
University of Sydney, Sydney.
1920 {Bishop, Eldred George, Manufacturing and General Engineer, 37-45 Myrtle-
street, Chippendale ; p.r. 264 Wolseley-road, Mosman.
1939 IPOS Blake, George Gascoigne, M.I.E.E., F.Inst.P., 6 Wolseley-road, Lindfield.
1948 Blanks, Fred Roy, B.sc. (Hons.), Industrial Chemist, c/o Australian Depart-
ment, I.C.I. Ltd., London, 8.W.1, England.
1946 Blaschke, Ernest Herbert, 6 Illistron Flats, 63 Carrabella-street, Kirribilli.
1933 | P 29 | Bolliger, Adolph, pPh.v., F.R.A.c.1., Director of Research, Gordon Craig Urological
Research Laboratory, Department of Surgery, University of Sydney.
(President, 1945.)
vi
Elected.
1951
1920
1951
1939
1938
1946
1952
1919
1942
1945
1941
1935
1913
1952
1947
1940
1946
1898
1952
1950
1950
1938
1903
1945
1950
1944
1933
1940
1952
1951
1935
1935
1938
1941
1940
1940
1940
1948
1940
Pete
P 26
Pook
Pian
P 10
P 23
(Pel
PZ
P 5
Bae2
Ba
Pea
Booker, Frederick William, m.sc., c/o Geological Survey of N.S.W., Mines
Department, Sydney.
Booth, Edgar Harold, M.c., D.sc., F.Inst.p., “‘ Hills and Dales,’’ Mittagong.
(President, 1936.)
Bosson, Geoffrey, M.Sc. Lond., Professor of Applied Mathematics, N.S.W.
University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney.
Bosworth, Richard Charles Leslie, m.sc., D.sc. Adel., Ph.D. Camb., F.R.A.C.1.,
F.Inst.p., c/o C.8.R. Co. Ltd., Sydney ; p.r. 52 Beechworth-road, Pymble.
(President, 1951.)
Breckenridge, Marion, B.Sc., Department of Geology, The University of Sydney ;
p.r. 19 Handley-avenue, Thornleigh.
Breyer, Bruno. M.D., Ph.D., M.A., F.R.A.C.I., Senior Lecturer in Agricultural
Chemistry, Faculty of Agriculture, The University of Sydney.
Bridges, David Somerset, Schoolteacher, 14 Mt. Pleasant-avenue, Normanhurst.
Briggs, George Henry, D.sc., Ph.D., F.Inst.p., Officer-in-Charge, Section of
Physics, National Standards Laboratory of Australia, University Grounds,
Sydney ; p.r. 13 Findlay-avenue, Roseville.
Brown, Desmond J., M.se. Syd., Ph.D. Lond., D.1.c., Department of Medical
Chemistry, Australian National University, 183 Euston-road, London,
N.W.1.
Brown, Norma Dorothy (Mrs.), B.sc., Biochemist, 2 Macauley-street, Leich-
hardt.
Brown, Samuel Raymond, A.c.a. Aust., 87 Ashley-street, Chatswood.
Browne, Ida Alison, p.sc., Geology Department, The University of Sydney.
tBrowne, William Rowan, D.sc., 51 Nelson-street, Gordon. (President, 1932.)
Bryant, Raymond Alfred Arthur, .s.T.c., Lecturer in Mechanical Engineering,
N.S.W. University of Technology ; p.r. 32 Bruce-street, Brighton-le-Sands.
Buchanan, Gregory Stewart, B.Sc. (Hons.), Lecturer in Physical Chemistry,
Sydney Technical College; p.r. 19 Ferguson-avenue, Thornleigh.
Buckley, Lindsay Arthur, B.sc., 29 Abingdon-road, Roseville.
Bullen, Keith Edward, M.A., Ph.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathe-
matics, University of Sydney, Sydney, N.S.W.
tBurfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., M.B., Ch.M., B.Sc. Syd., F.R.A.C.S., “* Radstoke,”’
Elizabeth Bay.
Burke-Gaffney, Rev. Thomas Noel, s.s., Director, Riverview College
Observatory, Riverview, N.S.W.
| Burton, Gerald, B.sc. Syd., Geologist, c/o Bureau of Mineral Resources,
Canberra, A.C.T.
Caldwell, John Henry, B.sc. Syd., 63 Arthur-street, Homebush.
tCarey, Samuel Warren, D.sc., Professor of Geology, University of Tasmania,
Tasmania.
tCarslaw, Horatio Scott, Sc.D., LL.D., F.R.S.E., Emeritus Professor of Mathe-
matics, University of Sydney, Fellow of Emmanuel College, Cambridge ;
Burradoo, N.S.W.
Carter, Harold Burnell, B.v.sc., Officer-in-Charge, Wool Biology Laboratory,
17 Randle-street, Sydney.
Carver, Ashley George, 234 Shell Cove-road, Neutral Bay.
Cavill, George William Kenneth, m.sc. Syd., Ph.D. Liverpool, Senior Lecturer,
Organic Chemistry, N.S.W. University of Technology ; p.r. “ Alwilken,”’
Coral-road, Cronulla.
Chalmers, Robert Oliver, a.s.t.c., Australian Museum, College Street, Sydney.
Chambers, Maxwell Clark, B.sc., c/o Coty (England) Ltd., 35-41 Hutchinson-
street, Moore Park; p.r. 58 Spencer-road, Killara.
Chapman, Dougan Wellesley, Surveyor, 3 Orinoco-street, Pymble.
_ Charlwood, Joan Marie, B.sc., Biochemist, 184 Queen-street, Concord West.
| Churchward, John Gordon, B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., 1 Hunter-street, Woolwich.
| Clark, Sir Reginald Marcus, K.B.E., Central Square, Sydney.
Clune, Francis Patrick, Author and Accountant, 15 Prince’s-avenue, Vaucluse.
| Cohen, Max Charles, B.Sc., 9 Richmond-street, East, Toronto 1, Ontario,
Canada.
Cohen, Samuel Bernard, M.Sc., A.R.A.C.1., 74 Boundary-street, Roseville.
Cole, Edward Ritchie, B.sc., 7 Wolsten-avenue, Turramurra.
Cole, Joyce Marie, B.sc., 7 Wolsten-avenue, Turramurra.
Cole, Leslie Arthur, Company Executive, 21 Carlisle-street, Rose Bay.
Collett, Gordon, 8.Sc., 27 Rogers-avenue, Haberfield.
Vil
Elected.
1948 | Cook, Cyril Lloyd, M.sc., Ph.D., c/o Propulsion Research Laboratories,
Box 1424H, G.P.O., Adelaide.
1946 Cook, Rodney Thomas, 4.s.T.c., 10 Riverview-road, Fairfield.
1945 Coombes, Arthur Roylance, A.s.T.c. (Chem.), 14 Georges River-road, Croydon.
1913 P 5 ‘{Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and Tanning, Sydney
Technical College ; p.r. Bannerman-crescent, Rosebery.
1933 Corbett, Robert Lorimer, Scot Chambers, Hosking-place, Sydney.
1940 Cortis-Jones, Beverly, M.sc., 62 William-street, Roseville.
FOLD) | Cotton, Frank Stanley, p.sc., Professor in Physiology in the University of
Sydney.
1909 P 7 |{Cotton, Leo Arthur, M.a., D.Ssc., Emeritus Professor of Geology, Sydney Uni-
versity ; 113 Queen’s Parade East, Newport Beach. (President, 1929.)
1941 P 1 | Craig, David Parker, ph.p., Professor of Physical Chemistry, University of
Sydney.
1951 Crane, Roslyn Ann, B.se., Librarian, Australian Leather Research; p.r. 6
Chesterfield-road, Epping.
1921 P 1 |tCresswick, John Arthur, A.R.A.0.1., F.c.S., Production Superintendent and Chief
Chemist, c y. o The Metropolitan Meat Industry Commissioner, State Abattoir
and Meat Works, Homebush Bay; p.r. 101 Villiers-street, Rockdale.
1948 Cymerman-Craig, John, Ph.D., D.I.C., A.R.C.S., B.Sc., A.R.1.C., Lecturer in Organic
Chemistry, University of Sydney.
1940 | Dadour, Anthony, B.sc., 25 Elizabeth-street, Waterloo.
1951 | Darvall, Anthony Roger, M.B., B.s., D.o., Medical Practitioner, Royal Prince
Alfred Hospital, Missenden-road, Camperdown.
1952 | Davies, George Frederick, a.m.1.E.T. Britain, Engineer, 57 Hastern-avenue,
Kingsford.
1952 | Davison, Clem Newton, A.s.T.c., B.E. (Mining Engineering), ¢/o Territory
| Enterprises Pty. Ltd., Rum Jungle, N.T.
1952 Day, Alan Arthur, 8B.sc., c/o Department of Geophysics and Trinity College,
Cambridge, England.
1919 Pac? de Beuzeville, Wilfred Alex. Watt, 3.P., ‘‘ Melamere,’’ Welham-street, Beecroft.
1952 Debus, Elaine Joan, Chemist, 62 Tarrant’s-avenue, Eastwood.
1928 Donegan, Henry Arthur James, A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I., A.R.I.M.M., Senior Analyst,
Department of Mines, Sydney ; p.r. 18 Hillview-street, Sans Souci.
1947 Downes, Alan Marchant, B.sc.
1950 Drummond, Heather Rutherford, B.sc., 15 Watson-street, Neutral Bay.
1943 Dudgeon, William, Manager, Commonwealth Drug Co., 50-54 Kippax-street,
Sydney.
1937 P15 | Dulhunty, John Allan, D.sc., Geology Department, University of Sydney ;
p.r. 40 Manning-road, Double Bay. (President, 1947.)
1948 Dunlop, Bruce Thomas, B.se., Schoolteacher, 77 Stanhope-road, Killara.
1951 Dunn, Thomas Melanby, B.sc., c/o Chemistry Department, University College,
Gower-street, London, W.C.1.
1924 Dupain, George Zephirin, A.R.A.0.1., F.c.S., Director Dupain Institute of
Physical Education and Medical Gymnastics, Manning Building, 449
Pitt-street, Sydney ; p.r. 15 Calvert-parade, Newport Beach.
1934 Pros Dwyer, Francis P. J., D.se., Senior Lecturer in Chemistry, University of Sydney,
Sydney.
1945 | Eade, Ronald Arthur, B.sc., 21 Steward-street, Leichhardt.
1951 Edgar, Joyce Enid (Mrs.), B.sc., 16 Cooper-street, Cessnock.
1950 Edgell, Henry Stewart, 8 Barkly-crescent, Forrest, Canberra, A.C.T.
1946 or El Nashar, Beryl, B.sc., Ph.D., Dip.Ed., 9 San Francisso de Sales 50 C, Moncloa,
| Madrid, Spain.
1934 xi? Elkin, Adolphus Peter, M.a., Ph.D., Professor of Anthropology in the University
of Sydney. (President, 1940.)
1949 Ellison, Dorothy Jean, m.sc. (Hons.) N.Z., Science Teacher, Abbotsleigh,
Wahroonga; p.r. 51 Tyron-road, Lindfield.
1940 Emmerton, Henry James, B.Sc., 37 Wangoola-street, East Gordon.
1944 Erhart, John Charles, Chemical Engineer, c yh o ‘‘ Ciba ” Coy., Basle, Switzerland.
1908 tEsdaile, Edward William, 42 Hunter-street, Sydney.
1935 Evans, Silvanus Gladstone, a.1.a.a. Lond., A.R.A.1.A., 6 Major-street, Coogee.
1949 | Everingham, Richard, 3 The Bastion, Castlecrag.
Vili
Elected.
1950
1909
1940
1940
1933
1949
1932
1943
1950
1951
1940
1944
1945
1952
1935
1939
1926
1942
1947
1947
1948
1945
1951
1947
1949
1936
1949
1948
1952
1952
1952
1938
1946
1948
1947
1934
1892
1949
1940
1905
Piatt
Pa
2
4
PP. 6
Poa
1
8
P 14
PEG
Fallon, Joseph James, B.Ec. Zurich, Photographer, 1 Coolong-road, Vaucluse.
{Fawsitt, Charles Edward, D.sc., Ph.D., F.R.A.C.I., Emeritus Professor of
Chemistry, 144 Darling Point-road, Edgecliff. (President, 1919.)
Finch, Franklin Charles, B.sc., Kirby-street, Rydalmere, N.S.W.
Fisher, Robert, B.sc., 3 Sackville-street, Maroubra.
Fletcher, Harold Oswald, Palaeontologist, Australian Museum, College-street,
Sydney.
Flinter, Basil Harold, B.sc., Colonial Geological Survey, Federation of Malaya,
Batu Gajah, Malaya.
Forman, Kenn P., M.1.Refr.E., Box 1822, G.P.O., Sydney.
Frederick, Robert Desider Louis, B.E., 1540 High-street, Malvern, Victoria.
Freeman, Hans Charles, m.sc., 43 Newcastle-street, Rose Bay.
French, Oswald Raymond, Research Assistant, University of Sydney; p.r.
66 Nottinghill-road, Lidcombe.
Freney, Martin Raphael, B.sc., 27 Wycombe-road, Neutral Bay.
Friend, James Alan, m.sc. Syd., Ph.D. Camb., Biochemistry Unit, Wool Textile
Research Laboratories, 343 Royal parade, Parkville, N.2, Victoria.
Furst, Hellmut Friedrich, B.p.s. Syd., p.mM.p. Hamburg, Dental Surgeon, 158
Bellevue-road, Bellevue Hill.
Garan, Teodar, Geological Professional Officer, | / 22nd Street, Warragamba
Dam, N.S.W.
Garretty, Michael Duhan, D.sc., ‘“‘ Surry Lodge ’’, Mitcham-road, Mitcham,
Victoria.
Gascoigne, Robert Mortimer, Ph.p. Liverpool, Department of Organic Chemistry,
N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney.
Gibson, Alexander James, M.E., M.Inst.C.E., M.1I.E.Aust., Consulting Engineer,
906 Culwulla Chambers, 67 Castlereagh-street, Sydney ; p.r. “‘ Wirruna,”’
Belmore-avenue, Wollstonecraft.
Gibson, Neville Allan, M.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.1.C., 103 Bland-street, Ashfield.
Gill, Naida Sugden, B.sc., Ph.D., 45 Neville-street, Marrickville.
tGill, Stuart Frederic, Schoolteacher, 45 Neville-street, Marrickville.
Glasson, Kenneth Roderick, B.sc., Geologist, 70 Beecroft-road, Beecroft.
Goddard, Roy Hamilton, F.c.a.aust., Royal Exchange, Bridge-street, Sydney.
Goldstone, Charles Lillington, B.agr.sc. N.Z., Lecturer in Sheep Husbandry,
N.S.W. University of Technology, c/o East Sydney Technical College,
Darlinghurst.
Goldsworthy, Neil Ernest, M.B., ch.m. Syd., Ph.D., D.T.M. & H. Camb., D.T.M. & H.
Eng., D.P.H. Camb., 65 Roseville-avenue, Roseville.
Gordon, William Fraser, B.sc. Syd., Industrial Chemist ; p.r. 176 Avoca-street,
Randwick.
Goulston, Edna Maude, B.sc., 83 Birriga-road, Bellevue Hill.
Gover, Alfred Terence, M.com., 32 Benelong-road, Cremorne.
Gray, Charles Alexander Menzies, B.sc., B.E., 75 Woniora-road, Hurstville.
Gray, Noel Mackintosh, B.Sc. W.A., Geologist, Research Sub-Branch,
M.W.S. and D. Board, 341 Pitt-street, Sydney.
Griffin, Russell John, B.sc., Geologist, c/o Department of Mines, Sydney.
Griffith, James Langford, B.A., M.sc., Dip.Ed., Senior Lecturer in Applied
Mathematics, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney.
Griffiths, Edward L., B.Sc., A.R.A.C.I., A.B.1.c., Lot 7, Kareelah-road, Hunters
Hill.
Gutmann, Felix, Ph.D., F.Inst.P., M.I.R.E., N.S.W. University of Technology,
Broadway, Sydney.
Gyarfas, Eleonora Clara, m.sc. Budapest, Ph.D. Syd., Research Assistant,
Chemistry Department, University of Sydney.
Hall, Lennard Robert, B.sc., Geological Survey, Department of Mines, Bridge-
street, Sydney.
Hall, Norman Frederick Blake, m.sc., Chemist, 154 Wharf-road, Longueville.
tHalloran, Henry Ferdinand, L.s., A.M.1.E.Aust., F.S.I.Eng., M.T.P.I.Eng., 153
Elizabeth-street, Sydney ; p.r. 23 March-street, Bellevue Hill.
Hampton, Edward John William, a.s.T.c.; p.r. 1 Hunter-street, Waratah,
N.S.W.
Hanlon, Frederick Noel, B.sc., Geologist, Department of Mines, Sydney.
tHarker, George, D.Sc., F.R.A.C.1. ; p.r. 89 Homebush-road, Strathfield.
1943
1942
1951
1951
1949
1951
1935
1948
1935
1940
1924
1948
1943
1920
1952
Beta
Bes
1X
Harper, Arthur Frederick Alan, M.sc., A.Inst.p., National Standards Laboratory,
University Grounds, City-road, Chippendale.
Harrington, Herbert Richard, Teacher of Physics and Electrical Engineering,
Technical College, Harris-street, Ultimo.
Harris, Clive Melville, B.sc., A.s.T.C., A.R.A.C.I., Lecturer in Inorganic Chemistry,
N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney ; p.r. 12 Livingstone-
road, Lidcombe.
Harris, Henry Maxwell, B.sc., B.E., Assistant Engineer, W.C. & I.C., 25 Prospect-
road, Summer Hill.
Harrison, Ernest John Jasper, B.sc., Geologist, N.S.W. Geological Survey,
Department of Mines, Sydney.
Hayes, William Lyall, a.s.T.c., A.R.A.c.1., Works Chemist, c/o Wm. Cooper &
Nephews (Aust.) Ltd., Phillip-street, Concord ; p.r. 34 Nicholson-street,
Chatswood.
Heard, George Douglas, B.sc., Maitland Boys’ High School, East Maitland,
N.S.W.
Henriques, Frederick Lester, Billyard-avenue, Elizabeth Bay.
Hewitt, John William, B.sc., Geologist, Main Roads Department; p.r. 31
Wetherill-street, Narrabeen.
Higgs, Alan Charles, Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., Pyrmont; p.r. 29
Radio-avenue, Balgowlah.
Hill, Dorothy, v.se. Q’ld., Ph.D. Cantab., Department of Geology, Uni-
versity of Queensland, St. Lucia, Brisbane, Queensland.
Hirst, Edward Eugene, A.M.1.e., Vice-Chairman and Joint Managing Director,
British General Electric Co. Ltd. ; p.r. “‘ Springmead,”’ Ingleburn.
Hogarth, Julius William, B.sc., 8 Jeanneret-avenue, Hunters Hill.
Holm, Thomas John, Engineer, 524 Wilson-street, Redfern.
Holmes, Robert Francis, 15 Baden-street, Coogee.
Howard, Harold Theodore Clyde, B.sc., Principal, Technical College, Granville.
Hughes, Gordon Kingsley, B.se., Department of Chemistry, University of
Sydney.
tHynes, Harold John, D.sc.agr., M.Sc., Assistant Director, Department of Agri-
culture, Box 36a, G.P.O., Sydney ; p.r. “‘ Belbooree,” 704 Pacific-highway,
Kallara.
Iredale, Thomas, D.sc., F.R.1.c., Reader, Chemistry Department, University of
Sydney; p.r. 96 Roseville-avenue, Roseville.
Jaeger, John Conrad, M.A., D.sc., Professor of Geophysics, Australian National
University, Canberra, A.C.T.
Jamieson, Helen Campbell, a.s.t.c.; p.r. 3 Hamilton-street, Coogee.
Johnson, William, Geologist, c/o The Supervising Engineer, Warragamba
Dam, N.S.W.
Joklik, Gunther F., B.Sc., ¢ /0 Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra, A.C.T.
Jones, Roger M., Laboratory Assistant, Sydney Technical College; p.r. 69
Moore Park-road, Centennial Park.
Joplin, Germaine Anne, B.A., Ph.D., D.sc., Geophysics Department, Australian
National University, Canberra, A.C.T.
Jopling, Alan Victor, B.sc., B.E., Geology Department, N.S.W. University of
Technology, Broadway, Sydney.
Kelly, Caroline Tennant (Mrs.), Dip.Anth.; p.r. ‘“‘ Avila,” 17 Heydon-avenue,
W arrawee.
Kennard, William Walter, 9 Bona Vista-avenue, Maroubra.
Kenny, Edward Joseph, Under Secretary of the Department of Mines, Sydney ;
p.r. 17 Alma-street, Ashfield.
Kimble, Frank Oswald, Engineer, 16 Evelyn-avenue, Concord.
Kimble, Jean Annie, B.Sc., Research Chemist, 383 Marrickville-road, Marrick-
ville.
Kirchner, William John, B.sc., A.R.A.c.1., Manufacturing Chemist, c/o Messrs.
Burroughs Wellcome & Co. (Australia) Ltd., Victoria-street, Waterloo ;
p.r. 18 Lyne-road, Cheltenham.
Kirkpatrick, Colin Bruce, m.sc. Syd., Senior Lecturer in Applied Mathematics,
N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney.
P 56
kd Fd
ws
Knight, Oscar Le Maistre, B.E. Syd., A.M.1I.C.E., A.M.I.E.Aust., Engineer, 10
Mildura-street, Killara.
Koch, Leo E., Dr.Phil.Hrabil Cologne, Research Lecturer, N.S.W. University of
Technology, Broadway, Sydney; p.r. ‘‘Shalford,’ 21 Treatt’s-road,
Lindfield.
Lambeth, Arthur James, B.sc., ‘‘ Naranje,’”’ Sweethaven-road, Wetherill
Park, N.S.W.
Lancaster, Kelvin John, B.sc., 43 Balfour-road, Rose Bay.
Langley, Julia Mary, B.sc., 17 Clifford-street, Gordon.
Lawrence, Laurence James, B.sc., Lecturer in Geology, N.S.W. University of
Technology ; p.r. 28 Church-street, Ashfield.
Leach, Stephen Laurence, B.A., B.Sc., A.R.A.C.I., British Australian Lead
| Manufacturers Pty. Ltd., Box 21, P.O., Concord.
| Le Fevre, Raymond James Wood, D.sc., Ph.D., F.R.1.C., Professor of Chemistry,
| University of Sydney.
Lemberg, Max Rudolph, D.Phil., F.R.s., Institute of Medical Research, Royal
| North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards.
tLions, Francis, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.R.1.C., Reader, Department of Chemistry, Uni-
versity of Sydney ; p.r. 160 Alt-street, Haberfield. (President 1946-47.)
Lions, Jean Elizabeth (Mrs.), B.Sc., Dip.Ed., 160 Alt-street, Haberfield.
Livingstone, Stanley Edward, a.s.T.c. (Hons.), A.R.A.C.1., B.Sc., Lecturer in
Organic Chemistry, N.S.W. University of Technology ;_ p.r. 5 Parker-street,
Rockdale.
Lloyd, James Charles, B.sc. Syd., N.S.W. Geological Survey, 41 Goulburn-street,
Liverpool.
Lockwood, William Hutton, B.sc., c/o Institute of Medical Research, The
Royal North Shore Hospital, St. Leonards.
tLoney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M.Am.Soc.Refr.E., National Mutual Building,
| 350 George-street, Sydney.
Loughnan, Frederick Charles, B.sc., “‘ Bodleian,’’ 26 Kenneth-street, Longue-
ville.
Lovering, John Francis, B.sc., Assistant Curator, Department of Mineralogy
and Petrology, Australian Museum, College-street, Sydney.
Low, Angus Henry, B.Ssc., 74 Turnbull-street, Merewether.
| Lowenbein, Gladys Olive (Mrs.), B.sc. Melb., F.R.1.c. Gt.Brit., A.R.A.C.1., 9
‘** Churchill,’’ Botany-street, Bondi Junction.
tLuber, Daphne (Mrs.), B.sc., 98 Lang-road, Centennial Park.
Luber, Leonard, Pharmacist, 80 Queen-street, Woollahra.
Lyons, Lawrence Ernest, B.A., M.Sc., Chemistry Department, University
College, Gower-street, London, W.1.
Lyons, Raymond Norman Matthew, m.sc., Biochemical Research Worker,
84 Marine-parade, Maroubra.
Maccoll, Allan, m.sc., Department of Chemistry, University College, Gower-
street, London, W.C.1.
McCarthy, Frederick David, pip.anthr., Curator of Anthropology, Australian
Museum, Sydney; p.r. 10 Tycannah-road, Northbridge.
McCoy, William Kevin, Analytical Chemist, c/o Mr. A. J. McCoy, 39 Malvern-
avenue, Merrylands.
McCullagh, Morris Behan, Inspecting Engineer, 23 Wallaroy-road, Edgecliff.
McElroy, Clifford Turner, B.sc., 147 Arden-street, Coogee.
McGregor, Gordon Howard, 4 Maple-avenue, Pennant Hills.
McInnes, Gordon Elliott, B.sc., Ewan House, Billyard-avenue, Wahroonga.
McKenzie, Hugh Albert, B.sc., 52 Bolton-street, Guildford.
McKern, Howard Hamlet Gordon, A.8S.T.C., A-R.A.C.1., Senior Chemist, Museum
of Applied Arts and Sciences, Harris-street, Broadway.
| McMahon, Patrick Reginald, m.agr.sc. N.Z., Ph.D. Leeds, A.R.1.C., A.N.Z.1.C.,
Professor of Wool Technology, N.S.W. Univer sity of Technology, Broadway.
| McMaster, Sir Frederick Duncan, xkt., “‘ Dalkeith,’ Cassilis, N S.W.
| McNamara, Barbara Joyce (Mrs.), M.B., B.S., Yeoval, 7.W.
| McPherson, John Charters, 14 Sarnar-road, Greenwich.
Magee, Charles Joseph, p.sc.agr. Syd., M.Sc. Wiss., Chief Biologist, Department
| of Agriculture ; p.r. 4 Alexander-parade, Roseville. (President, 1952.)
| Mahoney, Albert John, B.sc., Industrial Chemist, 112 Archer-street, Chatswood.
_ Males, Pamela Ann, 13 Gelding-street, Summer Hill.
Elected.
1947
1951
1940
1947
1949
1946
1935
1949
1912
1929
1950
1940
1951
1922
1941
1934
1950
1948
1944
1946
1915
1951
1950
1930
1943
1932
1950
1935
1945
1920
1947
1940
1951
1947
1921
1950
eae
P 25
xi
Maley, Leo Edmund, M.sc., B.sc. (Hons.), A.R.A.C.I., A.M.A.IL.M.M., 116 Maitland-
road, Mayfield.
Mallaby, Hedley Arnold, B.Sc. (For.), Dip.For. Canberra, 114 Kurrajong-avenue,
Leeton.
Malone, Edward E., 33 Windsor-road, St. Marys.
Mapstone, George E., M.Sc., A.R.A.C.I., M.Inst.Pet., Coal Research Section,
C.S.1.R.O., Chatswood.
Marshall, Charles Edward, Ph.D., D.sc., Professor of Geology, The University
of Sydney.
May, Albert, Ph.pD., m.a., 94 Birriga-road, Bellevue Hill.
Maze, William Harold, M.sc., Registrar, The University of Sydney, Sydney.
Meares, Harry John Devenish, Technical Librarian, Colonial Sugar Refining
Co. Ltd., Box 483, G.P.O., Sydney.
tMeldrum, Henry John, B.a., B.Sc., Lecturer, The Teachers’ College, University
Grounds, Newtown; p.r. 98 Sydney-road, Fairlight.
Mellor, David Paver, D.Sc., F.R.A.C.I., Reader, Department of Chemistry, Uni-
versity of Sydney ; p.r. 137 Middle Harbour-road, Lindfield. (President,
1941-42.)
Millar, Lily Maud (Mrs.), 4 Waratah House, 43 Bayswater-road, King’s Cross.
Millership, William, m.sc., Chief Chemist, Davis Gelatine (Aust.) Pty. Ltd.
p.r. 18 Courallie-avenue, Pymble.
Minty, Edward James, B.sSc., ‘“ Roseneath,’’ Lynch-street, Parkes, N.S.W.
Morrison, Frank Richard, F£.R.A4.C.1., F.C.S., Deputy Director, Museum of
Applied Arts and Sciences, Harris-street, Broadway, Sydney. (President,
1950-1951.)
Morrissey, Mathew John, B.A., F.S.T.C., A.B.A.C.I., M.B., B.S., c/o Residents’
Quarters, Sydney Hospital, Macquarie Street, Sydney.
Mort, Francis George Arnot, A.R.A.C.1., Chemist, 110 Green’s-road, Fivedock.
Mortlock, Allan John, m.sc., Research Officer, Division of Physics, C.8.1.R.O. ;
p.r. 28 Stanley-street, Chatswood.
Mosher, Kenneth George, B.Ssc., Geologist, ¢ if o Joint Coal Board, 66 King-street,
Sydney.
Moye, Daniel George, B.sc., Chief Geologist, c/o Snowy Mountains Hydro-
Electric Authority, Cooma, N.S.W.
Mulholland, Charles St. John, B.sc., Government Geologist, Department of
Mines, Sydney.
tMurphy, Robert Kenneth, Dr.Ing:Chem., A.S.T.C., M.I.Chem.E., F.R.A.C.1., 68
Pindari-avenue, North Mosman.
Murray, James Kenneth, B.sc., 464 William-lane, Broken Hill, N.S.W.
Murray, Patrick Desmond Fitzgerald, M.A., D.sc., Professor of Zoology, Uni-
versity of Sydney.
Naylor, George Francis King, M.a., M.Sc., Dip.Ed. Syd., Ph.D. Q’ld., Senior
Lecturer in Psychology and Philosophy, University of Queensland, Brisbane.
tNeuhaus, John William George, 32, Bolton-street, Guildford.
Newman, Ivor Vickery, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.M.S., F.L.S., ; p.r. 1 Stuart-street,
Wahroonga.
Ney, Michel, 3.sc.
Nicol, Phyllis Mary, mM.sc., Sub-Principal, The Women’s College, Newtown.
Noakes, Lyndon Charles, Geologist, c/o Mineral Resources Survey, Canberra,
A.C.T.
tNoble, Robert Jackson, M.Sc., B.Sc.agr., Ph.D., Under Secretary, Department of
Agriculture, Box 36a, G.P.O., Sydney; p.r. 324 Middle Harbour-road,
Lindfield. (President, 1934.)
Nordon, Peter, A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I., Chemical Engineer, 42 Milroy-avenue,
Kensington.
Nyholm, Ronald Sydney, m.sc. Syd., ph.D., D.sc. Lond., Associate Professor of
Inorganic Chemistry, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway.
tO’Dea, Daryl Robert, a.s.t.c., Box 68, P.O., Broadway.
Old, Adrian Noel, B.sc.agr., Chemist, Department of Agriculture ; p.r. 4 Spring-
: field-avenue, Potts Point.
Osborne, George Davenport, D.sc. Syd., Ph.D. Camb., F.G.S., Reader in Geology
in the University of Sydney. (President, 1944.)
Oxenford, Reginald Augustus, B.sc., 9 Cambridge-street, Singleton, N.S.W.
Xi
ailogted:
1951
1920
1949
1948
1938
1935
1946
1943
1919
1949
1921
1938
1945
1927
1918
1945
1935
1922
1919
1947
1931
1951
1947
1946
1950
1947
1947
1939
1939
1940
1949
1951
1940
1948
1945
1952
Poul
17h)
1
lee) fe:
iP. 2
Pe
Pins
6
3
Pt
Pl
Pug
Pyias
PG
| Packham, Gordon Howard, B.sc., 61 Earlwood-avenue, Earlwood.
Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.R.4.C.1., F.c.S., Director, Museum of Applied Arts
and Sciences, Harris-street, Broadway, Sydney. (President, 1935.)
Penrose, Ruth Elizabeth, s.sc., 92 Baringa-road, Northbridge.
Perry, Hubert Roy, B.sc., 74 Woodbine-street, Bowral.
Phillips, Marie Elizabeth, B.sc., 4 Morella-road, Clifton Gardens.
Phillips, Orwell, 55 Darling Point-road, Edgecliff.
Pinwill, Norman, B.A. Q’ld., The Scots College, Bellevue Hill.
Plowman, Ronald Arthur, 3B.sc., Ph.D. Lond., A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.1., Chemistry
Department, University of Queensland, Brisbane.
Poate, Sir Hugh Raymond Guy, M.B., ch.m. Syd., F.R.c.S. Eng., L.R.c.P. Lond.,
F.R.A.C.S., Surgeon, 225 Macquarie-street, Sydney ; p.r. 38 Victoria-road,
Bellevue Hill.
Poggendorff, Walter Hans George, B.sSc.Agr., Chief of the Division of Plant
Industry, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Box 364, G.P.O., Sydney.
Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, F.R.1.C., A.R.A.C.I., Company Executive, c/o
Colonial Sugar Refining Co., O’Connell-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘‘ Wansfell,’’
Kirkoswald-avenue, Mosman.
Powell, John Wallis, A.s.T.c., A.R.A.C.I., Managing Director, Foster Clark
(Aust.) Ltd., 17 Thirlow-street, Redfern.
Prescott, Alwyn Walker, B.Eng., Lecturer in Mechanical and Electrical
Engineering in the University of Sydney ; p.r. Harris-road, Normanhurst.
Price, William Lindsay, B.E., B.sc., Teacher of Physics, Sydney Technical
College; p.r. 8 Wattle-street, Killara.
tPriestley, Henry, M.p., ch.m., B.Sc., 54 Fuller’s-road, Chatswood. (President,
1942-43.)
Proud, John Seymour, B.E. (Mining), Mining Engineer, Finlay-road, Turra-
mutra.
tQuodling, Florrie Mabel, B.sc., Lecturer in Geology, University of Sydney.
Raggatt, Harold George, D.sc., Secretary, Department of National Develop-
ment, Acton, Canberra, A.C.T.
Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.sc., B.E., 57 William-street, Sydney.
Ray, Reginald John, Plastics Manufacturer and Research Chemist; p.r.
*“* Treetops,’ Wyong-road, Berkeley Vale.
Rayner, Jack Maxwell, B.sc., F.Inst.P., Deputy Director, Bureau of Mineral
Resources, Geology and Geophysics, 485 Bourke-street, Melbourne, Vic.
Rector, John, B.sce., Research Officer, Engineering Production, Metrology
Division, C.8.I.R.O.; p.r. 46 Sir Thomas Mitchell-road, Bondi Beach.
Reuter, Fritz Henry, ph.p. Berlin, 1930, ¥.R.A.c.1., Associate Professor of Food
Technology, N.S.W. University of Technology; p.r. 94 Onslow-street,
Rose Bay.
Rhodes-Smith, Cecil, 261 George-street, Sydney.
Rickwood, Frank Kenneth, Senior Lecturer in Geology, The University of
Sydney.
Ritchie, Arthur Sinclair, 4.s.t.c., Lecturer in Mineralogy and Geology, New-
castle University College ; p.r. 188 St. James-road, New Lambton, N.S.W.
Ritchie, Bruce, B.Sc. (Hons.), c/o Pyco Products Pty. Ltd., 576 Parramatta-
road, Petersham ; p.r. 249 West Botany-street, Rockdale.
Ritchie, Ernest, m.sc., Senior Lecturer, Chemistry Department, University of
Sydney, Sydney.
Robbins, Elizabeth Marie (Mrs.), M.sc., Waterloo-road, North Ryde.
Robertson, Rutherford Ness, B.sc. Syd., Ph.D. Cantab., Senior Plant Physiologist,
C.S.I.R.O., Division of Food Preservation, Private Bag, P.O., Homebush ;
Robertson, William Humphrey, B.sc., Astronomer, Sydney Observatory.
Sydney.
Roheion Dana Hugh, 4.s.T.c., Chemist, 21 Dudley-avenue, Roseville.
Rosenbaum, Sidney, 23 Strickland-avenue, Lindfield.
Rosenthal-Schneider, Ilse, Ph.D., 48 Cambridge-avenue, Vaucluse.
Rountree, Phyllis Margaret, D.sc. Melb., Dip.Bact. Lond., Royal Prince Alfred
Hospital, Sydney.
Rutledge, Harold, B.sc. Dunelm, Ph.p. Hdin., Geology Department, University
of Sydney.
Elected.
1945
1920
1948
1940
1950
1949
1933
1950
1948
1936
1945
1948
1943
1950
1933
1952
1940
1947
1919
1949
1916
1914
1948
1951
1900
1942
1916
1951
1918
1919
1920
1941
1948
1915
1944
1952
| Sampson, Aileen (Mrs.), Sc.Dip. (A.Ss.T.c., 1944), 9 Knox-avenue, Epping.
Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.sc. Syd., A.R.A.C.I., F.C.S.; p.r. 10 Buena Vista-
Avenue, Clifton Gardens.
Schafer, Harry Neil Scott, B.sc., C.S.I.R.O., Coal Research Section, P.O. Box 3,
Chatswood; p.r. 18 Bartlett-street, Summer Hill.
Scott, Reginald Henry, B.sc., 3 Walbundry-avenue, East Kew, Victoria.
Searl, Robert Alexander, B.sc., Geologist, c/o Bureau of Mineral Resources,
Canberra, A.C.T.
See, Graeme Thomas, Technical Officer, School of Mining Engineering and
Applied Geology, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway; p.r.
9 Fairlight-street, Manly.
Selby, Esmond Jacob, Dip.com., Sales Manager, Box 175D, G.P.O., Sydney.
Sergeyeff, William Peter, Mining Geologist and Engineer, c/o P.O. Yerranderie,
via Camden, N.S.W.
tSharp, Kenneth Raeburn, B.sc., c/o 8.M.H.H.A., Cooma, N.S.W.
Sherrard, Kathleen Margaret Maria (Mrs.), m.sc. Melb., 43 Robertson-road,
Centennial Park.
Simmons, Lewis Michael, B.sc., Ph.D. Lond., F.R.A.C.1., Head of Science Depart-
ment, Scots College; p.r. The Scots College, Victoria-road, Bellevue Hill.
Simonett, David Stanley, M.sc., Geography Department, The University of
Sydney ; p.r. 14 Selwyn-street, Artarmon.
Simpson, John Kenneth Moore, Industrial Chemist, ‘‘ Browie,’’ Old Castle
Hill-road, Castle Hill.
Sims, Kenneth Patrick, B.sc., 13 Onyx-road, Artarmon.
Slade, George Hermon, B.sc., Director, W. Hermon Slade & Co. Pty. Ltd.,
Manufacturing Chemists, Mandemar-avenue, Homebush ; p.r. “ Raiatea,”’
. Oyama-avenue, Manly.
Slade, Milton John, B.sc., New England University College, Armidale, N.S.W.
Smith, Eric Brian Jeffcoat, 1 Rocklands-road, Wollstonecraft.
Smith-White, William Broderick, m.a. Cantab., B.sc. Syd., Department of
Mathematics, University of Sydney ; p.r. 28 Canbrook-avenue, Cremorne.
Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.E., M.A., B.Sc., B.Sc.Agr., Principal, Hawkes-
bury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W.
Stanton, Richard Limon, m.sc., Lecturer in Geology, The University of Sydney,
Sydney; p.r. 42 Hopetoun-avenue, Mosman.
tStephen, Alfred Ernest, F.c.s., c/o Box 1158HH, G.P.O., Sydney.
tStephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.S., M.B., Ch.M., 135 Macquarie-street, Sydney ;
p.r. Captain Piper’s-road and New South Head-road, Vaucluse.
Stevens, Neville Cecil, B.sc., Mining Museum, Sydney ; p.r. 12 Salisbury-street,
Hurstville.
Stevens, Robert Denzil, 32 Menangle-road, Camden.
tStewart, J. Douglas, B.v.Sc., F.R.C.vV.S., Emeritus Professor of Veterinary
Science in the University of Sydney; p.r. Gladswood House, Gladswood
Gardens, Double Bay. (President, 1927.)
Still, Jack Leslie, B.sc., Ph.p., Professor of Biochemistry, The University of
Sydney, Sydney.
tStone, Walter George, F.S.T.cC., F.R.A.C.I.; p.r. 26 Rosslyn-street, Bellevue
Hill.
Stuntz, John, B.sc., 511 Burwood-road, Belmore.
tSullivan, Herbert Jay, Director in Charge of Research and Technical Depart-
ment, c/o Lewis Berger & Sons (Australia) Ltd., Rhodes ; Box 23, P.O.,
Burwood; p.r. “‘ Stonycroft,’’ 10 Redmyre-road, Strathfield.
tSutherland, George Fife, a.r.c.sc. Lond., 47 Clanwilliam-street, Chatswood.
Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.E., M.D., D.P.H. Melb., B.sc. Oxon.; p.r. “ Lynton,” 27
Kent-road, Rose Bay.
Swanson, Thomas Baikie, M.sc. Adel., c/o Technical Service Department,
Icianz, Box 1911, G.P.O., Melbourne, Victoria.
Swinbourne, Ellice Simmons, Organic Chemist, A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I., 1 Raglan-
street, Manly.
tTaylor, Brigadier Harold B., M.c., D.Sc., F.R.1.C., F.R.A.C.1., Government
Analyst, Department of Public Health, 93 Macquarie-street, Sydney ;
p.r. 12 Wood-street, Manly.
Thomas, Andrew David, Squadron Leader, R.A.A.F., M.sc., A.Inst.P., 26
Darebin-street, Heidelberg, N.22, Victoria.
Thomas, Penrhyn Francis, A.s.T.c., Optometrist, Suite 22, 3rd Floor, 49 Market-
\
street, Sydney.
X1V
Elected.
1946 |
1935
1923
1940
1949
1951
1943
1952
1949
1921
1935
1933
1903
1948
1919
1948
1913
1919
1919
1944
1911
1921
1951
1949
1943
1951
1951
1949
1949
1943
1936
1906
1916
1946
1952
1950
P 2 | Thompson, Nora (Mrs.), B.sc. Syd., c/o Mines Department, Wau, T.N.G.
Tommerup, Eric Christian, M.sc., A.R.A.C.I., Queensland Agricultural College,
Lawes, via Brisbane, Queensland.
Toppin, Richmond Douglas, A.R.1.c., 51 Crystal-street, Petersham.
Tow, Aubrey James, M.Sc., M.B., B.S., Manning River District Hospital, Taree.
Trebeck, Prosper Charles Brian, A.C.1.s., F.com.A. Hng., F.F.1.A., A.A.A., J.P.,
P.O. Box 76, Moree.
| Tugby, Mrs. Elise Evelyn, B.sc.; p.r. 76 Bream-street, Coogee.
Turner, Ivan Stewart, M.A., M.Sc., Ph.D.; p.r. 120 Awaba-street, Mosman.
Ungar, Andrew, Dipl.Ing., Dr.iIng., 6 Ashley Grove, Gordon.
Baal Vallance, Thomas George, B.Sc., F.G.S., Geology Department, University of
Sydney; p.r. 57 Auburn-street, Sutherland.
Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Woollen Mills, Marrickville.
Vickery, Joyce Winifred, m.sc., Botanic Gardens, Sydney; p.r. 17 The
Promenade, Cheltenham.
P 6 Voisey, Alan Heywood, D.sc., Lecturer in Geology and Geography, New
England University College, Armidale.
P10 |f£Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sc., F.Inst.P., Emeritus Professor of Physics in the
University of Sydney; p.r. ‘“ Avila,” 17 Heydon-avenue, Warrawee.
(President, 1930.)
Walker, Donald Francis, Surveyor, 13 Beauchamp-avenue, Chatswood.
P 2 |tWalkom, Arthur Bache, D.sc., Director, Australian Museum, Sydney; p.r.
45 Nelson-road, Killara. (Member from 1910-1913. President, 1943-44.)
Ward, Judith, B.sc., c/o 68 Upper-street, Bega, South Coast, N.S.W.
5 |tWardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, p.sc. Syd., F.R.A.C.1., c/o Kanematsu Institute.
Sydney Hospital, Macquarie Street, Sydney. (President, 1939.)
iL Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.E. Syd., ‘“‘ Rarotonga,’’ 42 Archer-street, Chats-
wood.
i Waterhouse, Walter L., M.c., D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C., F.L.S.; p.r. ‘‘ Hazelmere,”’
Chelmsford-avenue, Lindfield. (President, 1937.)
Watkins, William Hamilton, B.sc., Industrial Chemist, ¢ jo Cablemakers
(Aust.) Pty. Ltd., Illawarra Road, Liverpool, N.S.W.
P 1 |tWatt, Robert Dickie, M.a., B.sc., Emeritus Professor of Agriculture, Sydney
University, ‘“‘Garron Tower,’ 5 Gladswood Gardens, Double Bay.
(President, 1925.)
tWatts, Arthur Spencer, “‘ Araboonoo,”’ Glebe-street, Randwick.
Weatherhead, Albert Victor, F.R.M.S., ¥F.R.P.S., Technical Officer, Geology
Department, N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway ; p.r. 3 Kennedy-
avenue, Belmore.
Westheimer, Gerald, B.Sc., F.S.T.C., F.1.0., Optometrist, 727 George-street,
Sydney.
Whiteman, Reginald John Nelson, M.B., Ch.M., F.R.A.C.S., 143 Macquarie-street,
Sydney.
Whitley, Alice, B.sc., Teacher, 39 Belmore-street, Burwood.
Ped Whitworth, Horace Francis, M.sc., Mining Museum, Sydney.
Williams, Benjamin, A.s.T.c., 18 Arkland-street, Cammeray.
Williamson, William Harold, Hughes-avenue, Ermington.
Winch, Leonard, B.Sc.
PA Wood, Harley Weston, M.sc., A.Inst.P., F.R.A.S., Government Astronomer,
Sydney Observatory, Sydney. (President, 1949.)
P12 |{Woolnough, Walter George, D.sc., F.G.S., 28 Calbina-road, Northbridge.
(President, 1926.)
tWright, George, Company Director, c/o Hector Allen, Son & Morrison, 7
Wynyard-street, Sydney ; p.r. 22 Albert-street, Edgecliff.
Wyndham, Norman Richard, m.p., mM.s. Syd., F.R.C.S. Eng., F.R.A.C.S.,
Surgeon, 225 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
Wynn, Desmond Watkin, B.sc., Geologist, c/o Department of Mines, Sydney.
Zehnder, John Oscar, B.sc., Geologist, c/o Australasian Petroleum Coy..
Port Moresby, Papua.
Elected.
1949
1951
1952
1949
1914
1946
1912
‘1935
1948
1948
1946
xv,
HONORARY MEMBERS.
Limited to Twenty.
Burnet, Sir Frank Macfarlane, M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., Director of the Walter and
Eliza Hall Research Institute, Melbourne.
Fairley, Sir Neil Hamilton, C.B.E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., 73 Harley-street, London,
Wel:
Firth, Raymond William, M.a., Ph.D., London School of Economics, Houghton-
street, Aldwych, W.C.2, England.
Florey, Sir Howard, M.B., B.S., B.Sc., M.A., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Pathology,
Oxford University, England.
Hill, James P., D.sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University College, Gower-
street, London, W.C.1, England.
Jones, Sir Harold Spencer, M.a., D.Sc., F.R.S., Astronomer Royal, Royal
Observatory, Greenwich, London, 8.E.10.
Martin, Sir Charles J., C.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Roebuck House, Old Chesterton,
Cambridge, England.
O’Connell, Rev. Daniel, 5.K., S.J., D.Sc., D.Ph., F.R.A.S., Director, The Vatican
Observatory, Rome, Italy.
Oliphant, Marcus L., B.Sc., Ph.D., F.R.S., Professor of Physics, The Australian
National University, Canberra, A.C.T.
Robinson, Sir Robert, M.a., D.Sc., F.C.S., F.I.C., F.R.S., Professor of Chemistry,
Oxford University, England.
Wood-Jones, F., D.Sc., M.B., B.S., F.R.C.S., L.R.C.P. Lond., F.R.S., F.Z.S., Professor
of Anatomy, University of Manchester, England.
OBITUARY, 1952-53.
1906 William Dixson.
1906 Arthur Marshall McIntosh.
1896 Roland James Pope.
1893 Cecil Purser.
THE REV. W. B. CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND.
The Rev. W. B. Clarke Memoriai Fund was inaugurated at a meeting of the Royal Society
of N.S.W. in August, 1878, soon after the death of Mr. Clarke, who for nearly forty years rendered
distinguished service to his adopted country, Australia, and to science in general. It was resolved
to give an opportunity to the general public to express their appreciation of the character and
services of the Rev. W. B. Clarke “as a learned colonist, a faithful minister of religion, and an
eminent scientific man.’ It was proposed that the memorial should take the form of lectures
on Geology (to be known as the Clarke Memorial Lectures), which were to be free to the public,
and of a medal to be given from time to time for distinguished work in the Natural Sciences done
in or on the Australian Commonwealth and its territories; the person to whom the award is
made may be resident in the Australian Commonwealth or its territories, or elsewhere.
The Clarke Memorial Medal was established first, and later, as funds permitted. the Clarke
Memorial Lectures have been given at intervals.
CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURES.
Delivered.
1906. ‘The Volcanoes of Victoria,” and ‘“‘The Origin of Dolomite’’ (two lectures). By
Professor E. W. Skeats, D.Sc., F.G.S.
1907. ‘Geography of Australia in the Permo-Carboniferous Period ’”’ (two lectures). By
Professor T. W. E. David, B.A., F.R.S.
‘“‘ The Geological Relations of Oceania.”” By W. G. Woolnough, D.Se.
‘** Problems of the Artesian Water Supply of Australia.”’ By EK. F. Pittman, A.R.S.M.
“The Permo-Carboniferous Flora and Fauna and their Relations.’’ By W. 8S. Dun.
1918. ‘“‘ Brain Growth, Education, and Social Inefficiency.” By Professor R. J. A. Berry,
M.D., F.R.S.E.
1919. ‘*‘ Geology at the Western Front,’ By Professor T. W. E. David, C.M.G., D.S.O., F.R.S.
1936. ‘‘ The Aeroplane in the Service of Geology.” By W. G. Woolnough, D.Sc. (THs
JOURN., 1936, 70, 39.)
1937. ‘*‘ Some Problems of the Great Barrier Reef.’’ By Professor H.C. Richards, D.Sc. (Tus
JOURN., 1937, 71, 68.)
1938. ‘‘The Simpson Desert and its Borders.” By C. T. Madigan, M.A., B.Sc., B.E.,
D.Sc. (Oxon.). (THIs Journ., 1938, 71, 503.)
1939. ‘‘ Pioneers of British Geology.” By Sir John 8S. Flett, K.B.E., D.Sc., LL.D., F.R.S.
(THis JouRN., 1939, 73, 41.)
1940. ‘‘ The Geologist and Sub-surface Water.” By E. J. Kenny, M.Aust.I.M.M. (Tuis
JourRn., 1940, 74, 283.)
1941. ‘* The Climate of Australia in Past Ages.” By C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S. (THis Journ.,
1941, 75, 47.)
1942. ‘* The Heroic Period of Geological Work in Australia.’’ By E. C. Andrews, B.Sc.
1943. ‘‘ Australia’s Mineral Industry in the Present War.” By H. G. Raggatt, D.Sc.
1944. ‘‘ An Australian Geologist Looks at the Pacific.” By W. H. Bryan, M.C., D.Se.
1945. ‘‘ Some Aspects of the Tectonics of Australia.’’ By Professor E. 8. Hills, D.Se., Ph.D.
1946. ‘“‘ The Pulse of the Pacific.”” By Professor L. A. Cotton, M.A., D.Sc.
1947. “The Teachers of Geology in Australian Universities.”” By Professor H. 8. Summers,
DSe.
1948. ‘‘ The Sedimentary Succession of the Bibliando Dome: Record of a Prolonged Proterozoic
Ice Age.”? By Sir Douglas Mawson, O.B.E., F.R.S., D.Sc., B.E.
1949. ‘* Metallogenetic Epochs and Ore Regions in Australia.”” By W. R. Browne, D.Sc.
1950. ‘‘ The Cambrian Period in Australia.” By F. W. Whitehouse, Ph.D., D.Sc.
1951. ‘‘ The Ore Minerals and their Textures.”” By A. B. Edwards, D.Sc., Ph.D., D.I.C.
AWARDS OF THE CLARKE MEDAL.
Established in memory of
The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKH, M.a., F.R.S., F.G.S., etc.
Vice-President from 1866 to 1878.
The prefix * indicates the decease of the recipient.
Awarded.
1878 *Professor Sir Richard Owen, K.C.B., F.R.S.
1879 *George Bentham, C.M.G., F.R.S.
1880 *Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.s.
1881 *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.S., F.G.S.
1882 *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.D.
XVil
Awarded.
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
1891
1892
1893
1895
1895
1896
1900
1901
1902
1903
1907
1909
1912
1914
1915
1917
1918
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
194]
1942
1943
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1949
1950
1951
1952
*Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.C.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
*Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.
*Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., G.C.S.I., C.B., M.D., D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
*Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p.
*Sir James Hector, K.C.M.G., M.D., F.B.S.
*Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S.
*Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.S., F.R.A.S.
*George Bennett, M.D., F.R.C.S. Eng., F.L.S., F.Z.S.
*Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.S., F.G.S.
*Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, K.C.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., LL.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.
*Professor Ralph Tate, F.L.s., F.G.S.
*Robert Logan Jack, LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.
*Robert Etheridge, Jnr.
*The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, C.M.G., F.R.G.S.
*Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., Sc.D., F.RB.S.
*Edward John Eyre.
*F, Manson Bailey, C.M.G., F.L.S.
*Alfred William Howitt, D.Sc., F.G.S.
*Professor Walter Howchin, F.c.s., University of Adelaide.
*Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.A.
*W. H. Twelvetrees, F.G.s.
Sir A. Smith Woodward, LL.D., F.R.s., Keeper of Geology, British Museum (Natural
History), London.
*Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S.
*Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., C.M.G., D.S.0., M.A., SC.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., F.G.S.
*Leonard Rodway, c.mM.c., Honorary Government Botanist, Hobart, Tasmania.
*Joseph Edmund Carne, F.G.s.
*Joseph James Fletcher, M.A., B.Sc.
*Richard Thomas Baker, The Crescent, Cheltenham.
*Sir W. Baldwin Spencer, K.C.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.B.S.
*Joseph Henry Maiden, 1.s.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., J.P.
*Charles Hedley, rF...s.
*Andrew Gibb Maitland, F.a.s., ‘‘ Bon Accord,’’ 28 Melville Terrace, South Perth, W.A.
*Krnest C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S., 32 Benelong Crescent, Bellevue Hill.
*Professor Ernest Willington Skeats, D.Sc., A.R.C.S., F.G.S., University of Melbourne,
Carlton, Victoria.
L. Keith Ward, B.A., B.E., D.Sc., Government Geologist, Geological Survey Office, Adelaide.
*Robin John Tillyard, M.A., D.Sc., Sc.D., F.R.S., F.L.S., F.E.S., Canberra, F.C.T.
*Frederick Chapman, A.L.S., F.R.S.N.Z., F.G.S., Melbourne.
Walter George Woolnough, D.sc., F.G.s., Department of the Interior, Canberra, F.C.T.
*Edward Sydney Simpson, D.Sc., B.E., F.A.C.I., Carlingford, Mill Point, South Perth, W.A.
*George William Card, 4.R.S.M., 16 Ramsay-street, Collaroy, N.S.W.
Sir Douglas Mawson, Kt., 0.B.E., F.R.S., D.Sc., B.E., University of Adelaide.
J. T. Jutson, B.Sc., LL.B., 9 Ivanhoe-parade, Ivanhoe, Victoria.
*Professor H. C. Richards, p.sc., The University of Queensland, Brisbane.
*C. A. Sussmilch, F.a.s., F.s.t.c., 11 Appian Way, Burwood, N.S.W.
Professor Frederic Wood Jones, M.B., B.S., D.Sc., F.R.S., Anatomy Department, University
of Manchester, England.
William Rowan Browne, D.sc., Reader in Geology, The University of Sydney, N.S.W.
Walter Lawry Waterhouse, M.C., D.Sc.Agric., D.I.C., F.L.S., Reader in Agriculture,
University of Sydney.
ater, Wilfred Eade Agar, 0.B.E., M.A. D.Sc., F.R.S., University of Melbourne, Carlton,
ictoria.
Professor William Noel Benson, B.A., D.Sc., F.G.S., F.R.G.S., F.R.S.N.Z., F.G.S.Am., University
of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z.
Black, J. M., a.u.s. (honoris causa), Adelaide, S.A.
*Hubert Lyman Clark, a.B. D.sc., ph.D., Hancock Foundation, vu.s.c., Los Angeles,
California.
Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.sc., Director, Australian Museum, Sydney.
Rupp, Rev. H. Montague, 24 Kameruka-road, Northbridge.
Mackerras, Ian Murray, B.Sc., M.B., Ch.M., The Queensland Institute of Medical Research,
Brisbane.
Stillwell, Frank Leslie, p.sc., C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne.
Wood, Joseph G., Ph.D. Cantab., p.sc. Adel., Professor of Botany, University of Adelaide,
South Australia.
XViil
AWARDS OF THE JAMES COOK MEDAL.
Bronze Medal.
Awarded annually for outstanding contributions to science and human welfare in and for the
Southern Hemisphere.
1947 Smuts, Field-Marshal The Rt. Hon. J. C., P.c., C.H., K.C., D.T.D., LL.D., F.R.S., Chancellor,
University of Capetown, South Africa.
1948 Houssay, Bernado A., Professor of Physiology, Instituto de Biologia y Medicina Ex-
perimental, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
1949 No award made.
1950 ~=— Fairley, Sir Neil Hamilton, C.B.E., M.D., D.sc., F.R.S., 738 Harley-street, London, W.1.
1951 Gregg, Norman McAlister, M.B., B.s., 193 Macquarie-street, Sydney.
1952 Waterhouse, Walter L., M.c., D.sc.Agr., D.1.C., F.L.S., “‘ Hazelmere,’”’ Chelmsford-avenue,
Lindfield.
°
AWARDS OF THE EDGEWORTH DAVID MEDAL.
Bronze Medal.
Awarded annually for Australian research workers under the age of thirty-five years, for
work done mainly in Australia or its territories or contributing to the advancement of Australian
Science.
1948 Giovanelli, R. G., m.se., Division of Physics, National Standards | Tent
Sydney. Award.
Ritchie, Ernest, M.sc., University of Sydney, Sydney.
1949 Kiely, Temple B., D.sc.agr., Caroline-street, East Gosford.
1950 Berndt, Ronald M., 8B.A., Dip.Anthr., University of Sydney. , Joint
Berndt, Catherine H., M.A., Dip.Anthr., University of Sydney. J Award.
1951 Bolton, John G., B.a., C.S.I.R.O., Division of Radiophysics, Sydney.
1952 Wardrop, Alan B., ph.p., C.S.I.R.O., Division of Forest Products, South Melbourne.
AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE.
Money Prize of £25.
Awarded.
1882 John Fraser, B.A., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘‘ The Aborigines of New South
Wales.”’
1882 .Andrew Ross, M.D., Molong, for paper entitled ‘* Influence of the Australian climate and
pastures upon the growth of wool.”
The Society’s Bronze Medal.
1884 W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘‘ Water supply in the Interior of New South
Wales.”
1886 8S. H. Cox, F.G.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘“‘ The Tin deposits of New South
Wales.”
1887 Jonathan Seaver, F.Gc.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ Origin and mode of occurrence of
gold-bearing veins and of the associated Minerals.”
1888 Rev. J. E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.s., F.L.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The Anatomy and
Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to Australia.”
1889 ‘Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for paper entitled “‘ List of the Marine and Fresh-
water Invertebrate Fauna of Port Jackson and Neighbourhood.”
1889 Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled “‘ The Australian Aborigines.”
1891 Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘“‘ The Microscopic Structure of
Australian Rocks.”’
1892 Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper entitled ‘“ The effect
which settlement in Australia has produced upon Indigenous Vegetation.”’
1894 J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘“‘ Timbers of New South Wales.”’
1894 R. H. Mathews, L.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled “‘ The Aboriginal Rock Carvings and
Paintings in New South Wales.”
1895 C. J. Martin, D.sc., M.B., F.R.S., Sydney, for paper entitled “‘ The physiological action of
the venom of the Australian black snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).”
1896 Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘‘ The occurrence of Precious Stones in
New South Wales, with a description of the Deposits in which they are found.”’
1943 Edwin Cheel, Sydney, in recognition of his contributions in the field of botanical
research and to the advancement of science in general.
1948 Waterhouse, Walter L., M.s., D.Sc.Agr., D.I.C., F.L.S., Sydney, in recognition of his valuable
contributions in the field of agricultural research.
xix
1949 Elkin, Adolphus P., M.a., Ph.D., Sydney, in recognition of his valuable contributions in
the field of Anthropological Science.
1950 Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.Sc., F.Inst.P., Sydney, in recognition of his valuable contributions
in the field of Physical Science.
1951 Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.R.A.C.1., F.c.S., Director, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences,
Sydney.
1952 No award made.
AWARDS OF THE WALTER BURFITT PRIZE.
Bronze Medal and Money Prize of £75.
Established as the result of a generous gift to the Society by Dr. W. F. Burrirt, B.A., M.B.,
Ch.M., B.Sc., of Sydney, which was augmented later by a gift from Mrs. W. F. Burritt. Awarded
at intervals of three years to the worker in pure and applied science, resident in Australia or
New Zealand, whose papers and other contributions published during the past six years are
deemed of the highest scientific merit, account being taken only of investigations described for
the first time, and carried out by the author mainly in these Dominions.
Awarded.
1929 Norman Dawson Royle, M.D., ch.m., 185 Macquarie Street, Sydney.
1932 Charles Halliby Kellaway, M.c., M.D., M.s., F.R.c.P., The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute
of Research in Pathology and Medicine, Melbourne.
1935 Victor Albert Bailey, M.a., D.phil., Associate-Professor of Physics, University of Sydney.
1938 Frank Macfarlane Burnet, m.v. (Melb.), ph.p. (Lond.), The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute
of Research in Pathology and Medicine, Melbourne.
1941 Frederick William Whitehouse, D.sSc., Ph.D., University of Queensland, Brisbane.
1944 Hereward Leighton Kesteven, D.sc., M.D., c/o Allied Works Council, Melbourne.
1947 John Conrad Jaeger, M.A., D.Sc., University of Tasmania, Hobart.
1950 Martyn, David F., p.sc. (Lond.), F.R.s., Radio Research Board, c/o Commonwealth
Observatory, Mount Stromlo, Canberra, A.C.T.
AWARDS OF LIVERSIDGE RESEARCH LECTURESHIP.
This Lectureship was established in accordance with the terms of a bequest to the Society
by the late Professor Archibald Liversidge. Awarded at intervals of two years, for the purpose
of encouragement of research in Chemistry. (THis JouRNAL, Vol. LXII, pp. x-xiii, 1928.)
Awarded.
1931 Harry Hey, c/o The Electrolytic Zine Company of Australasia, Ltd., Collins Street,
Melbourne.
1933. W. J. Young, D.sc., M.sc., University of Melbourne.
1940 G. J. Burrows, B.sc., University of Sydney.
1942 J.8S. Anderson, B.Sc., Ph.D. (Lond.), A.R.C.S., D.1.c., University of Melbourne.
1944 F. P. Bowden, Ph.D., sc.D., University of Cambridge, Cambridge, England.
1946 Briggs, L. H., D.Phil. (Oxon.), D.Sc. (N.Z.), F.N.Z.LC., F.R.S.N.Z., Auckland University
College, Auckland, N.Z.
1948 Ian Lauder, M.sc., Ph.D., University of Queensland, Brisbane.
1950 Hedley R. Marston, F.R.s., C.S.I.R.O., Adelaide.
1952 A. L. G. Rees, D.sc., C.S.I.R.O., Division of Industrial Chemistry, Melbourne.
BB
wey
Royal Society of New South Wales
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst MARCH, 1953.
PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL AND GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING OF THE SOCIETY,
ist Aprit, 1953, IN ACCORDANCE WITH RULE XXVI.
The membership of the Society at the end of the period under review stood at 382. Twenty-
one new members were elected during the year, nineteen members were lost by resignation, and
one member was removed from the register.
Four members have been lost to the Society by death since 2nd April, 1952 :
William Dixson (elected 1906).
Arthur Marshall McIntosh (elected 1906).
Roland James Pope (elected 1896).
Cecil Purser (elected 1893).
During the year nine General Monthly Meetings were held, the average attendance being
thirty-six. Thirteen papers were accepted for reading and publication by the Society, six less
than the previous year.
Lecturettes given during the year were as follows:
7th May :
‘* Chemical Weed Control.’’ The speakers were B. Cortis-Jones, M.Sc., and Kelvin Green,
B.Sc. Agr.
2nd July :
‘‘The Heat Pump ’”’, by R. C. L. Bosworth, D.Sc. (Adel.), Ph.D. (Camb.).
‘* Soil Conditioning Problems with particular reference to “‘ Krilium ”’, by T. H. John, M.Sc.
3rd September :
‘** Aboriginal Rock Carvings: Their Techniques and Significance’’, by F. D. McCarthy,
Dip. Anthr.
Two meetings were devoted to Symposia, at which the following addresses were given :
4th June:
‘* Symposium on Sulphur ”’—
‘* The Occurrence and Commercial Sources of Sulphur ”’, by G. D. Osborne, D.Sc. (Syd.),
Ph.D. (Camb.), F.G.S.
‘“The Present Industrial Position of Sulphur ’’, by T. G. Hunter, D.Sc., Ph.D. (Bir-
mingham).
‘** The Biological Production of Sulphur ’’, by E. J. Ferguson-Wood, M.Sc., B.A.
6th August :
‘* Symposium on Time ’—
‘** Cosmological Time ’’, by K. C. Westfold, M.A., B.Sc., D.Phil.
‘** Geological Time ”’, by A. V. Jopling, B.Sc., B.E.
‘* Measurement of Time ’’, by H. Wood, M.Sc., F.R.A.S.
The meeting devoted to the Commemoration of Great Scientists was held on Ist October.
The following addresses were given :
‘“The Curies”’, by Dr. D. P. Mellor.
‘* Emil Fischer ’’, by Professor A. J. Birch.
‘* Leonardo da Vinci’”’, by Dr. I. Rosenthal-Schneider.
A Film Evening was held on 5th November and, through the courtesy of the Department of
External Affairs (Antarctic Division) and the Sydney Scientific Film Society, two very interesting
films were shown :
‘** Macquarie Island’, with an address by Mr. J. Bunt.
“Science and Cinematography ’’, with an address by Dr. A. R. Michaelis.
Five Popular Science Lectures were delivered during the year :
15th May: “ Science of Washing ’”’, by Professor A. E. Alexander.
19th June: “‘ Electrons and Arithmetic ’’, by Professor D. M. Myers.
18th September: “Science versus Waste: Food Storage and Transport for a Hungry
World ’’, by Dr. R. N. Robertson.
Xx REPORT OF COUNCIL.
16th October: ‘‘ Queer Fish ”’, by Mr. A. N. Colefax.
20th November: ‘“‘ The Enjoyment of Architecture ’’, by Mr. A. A. Gamble.
The thanks of the Society are due to the five gentlemen who gave these lectures.
The Annual Dinner of the Society was held in the Withdrawing Room of the University
Union, Sydney, on 26th March, 1953. There were present forty-seven members and friends.
The Section of Geology had as Chairman Mr. R. O. Chalmers and as Hon. Secretary Mr.
T. G. Vallance. The Section held eight meetings during the year, including a symposium,
lecturettes, notes and exhibits. The average attendance was twenty members and seven visitors.
The Council of the Society held eleven ordinary meetings and one special meeting during
the year. The average attendance at the meetings was twelve.
On the Science House Management Committee the Society was represented by Mr. H. A. J.
Donegan and Mr. F. R. Morrison ; substitute representatives were Dr. R. C. L. Bosworth and
Mr. H. O. Fletcher.
The representatives of the Society on Science House Extension Committee were the pei ee
Dr. C. J. Magee, and the Hon. Treasurer, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan.
During the year one of our Vice-Presidents, the Rev. Dr. D. J. K. O’Connell, was appointed
Director of the Vatican Observatory. Mr. H. Wood was elected to fill the vacancy caused by
Father O’Connell’s departure, at the Council meeting held on 24th September.
Following a request from the Conservator of the Muogamarra Sanctuary for representation
of this Society on the proposed Trust, Miss Joyce Vickery, M.Sc., was appointed to occupy this
position.
Raymond William Firth, M.A., Ph.D., was elected an honorary member of the Society at the
Annual and General Monthly Meeting held on-2nd April, 1952.
The Liversidge Research Lecture for 1952 was delivered by Dr. A. L. G. Rees on 17th July
in the Chemistry School of the University of Sydney.
The title of the lecture was “ Electron Diffraction in the Chemistry of the Solid State ”
The Clarke Medal for 1953 was awarded to Dr. A. J. Nicholson, Chief of Division of
Entomology, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra, for his distinguished contributions to Australian entomology,
particularly his studies on mimicry and insect populations.
The Edgeworth David Medal for 1952 was awarded to Dr. Alan B. Wardrop for his out-
standing contributions in the field of botany, particularly his work on cell-wall organization of
timbers.
The James Cook Medal for 1952 was awarded to Professor W. L. Waterhouse for his out-
standing contributions in the field of agricultural science, particularly his work on the breeding
of rust-resistant wheats.
During the year the Council entertained the distinguished scientist Professor E. A.
Guggenheim, of the University of Reading, on the occasion of his visit to this city.
The financial position of the Society, as disclosed in the annual audit, is still difficult. Despite
Council’s efforts to keep expenditure within income, the deficit for the current year is £212 8s. 8d.
This, however, is a great improvement on the deficit of £736 incurred in the previous year. An
important factor in the improvement has been the generous grant of £400 from the Rural Credits
Development Fund of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia, for which the Society is deeply
grateful. The second main factor in the relative improvement is the increase made in members’
subscriptions. Although the outlook is distinctly better than in recent years, the financial
position is one that demands constant attention.
A new typewriter for the office has been purchased, and the old one traded in.
At the General Meeting held on Ist October, the following clause was added to Rule IX :
‘““ The Council shall have the power to reduce to one and a half guineas the annual subscription
of any member who is absent from Australia and who makes application in writing for a reduction.
Such reduction may be granted for a period not exceeding two years.”
The Society’s share of the profits from Science House for the year was £495, an increase of
£65 on the previous year.
The grant from the Government of New South Wales of £400 continues, and the Society
appreciates very much the Government’s continued interest in its work.
At the Special Meeting held on the 11th November, 1952, Council appointed a standing
committee to advise the Council on library matters.
It is with regret that I have to report the resignation of Mrs. M. Golding, who has rendered
such valuable service as library assistant. She has been succeeded by Mrs. B. Sommerville,
who has had previous library experience in New Zealand and the McMaster Laboratory.
The Library. The amount of £60 15s. 5d. has been spent on the purchase of periodicals
and £107 18s. 6d. on binding. A wash-basin has been installed in the library.
Exchange of publications is maintained with 420 societies and institutions, an increase of
three.
REPORT OF COUNCIL. Xx
The number of accessions entered in the catalogue during the year ended 28th February,
1953, was 2,654 parts of periodicals.
The number of books, periodicals, etc., borrowed by members, institutions and accredited
readers was 336.
Among the institutions which made use of the library through the inter-library scheme were :
National Standards and Radiophysics Laboratory, Waite Agricultural Research Institute,
Fisher Library, Colonial Sugar Refinery, McMaster Laboratory, Sydney Technical College,
Forestry Commission of N.S.W., Sydney Hospital Library, Department of Health, N.S.W.,
Department of Public Works, N.S.W., Food Preservation Laboratory, Homebush, Standard
Telephones and Cables, Department of Agriculture, N.S.W., Bureau of Mineral Resources,
M.W.S. and D. Board, N.S.W., C.S8.I.R.O. Division of Industrial Chemistry, Division of Fisheries,
Division of Entomology, Building Research, Highett, Plant and Soils Laboratory, Brisbane,
Wool Textile Research Laboratory, Regional Pastoral Laboratory, Snowy Mountains Hydro-
Electric Authority, Taubman’s Ltd., University of Melbourne, Queensland Institute of
Medical Research, Kraft Walker Cheese Co., Melbourne, Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences,
Sydney County Council, Australian National University, Canberra, National Museum, Victoria,
Hydro-Electricity Commission, Tasmania, University of Western Australia, University of Queens-
land, State Library of Tasmania, Timbrol Ltd., N.S.W. University of Technology, Australian
Leather Research Association, Wollongong Technical College, School of Public Health and
Tropical Medicine, Sydney.
C. J. MAGEE,
President.
XXiv
7,428
24,088
£31,922
24
5
£31,922
BALANCE SHEETS.
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1953.
LIABILITIES.
Accrued Expenses :
Subscriptions Paid in Advance
Life Members’ Subscriptions—Amount ‘carried
forward
Trust and Monograph Capital Funds (detailed
below)—
Clarke Memorial
Walter Burfitt Prize
Liversidge Bequest :
Monograph Capital Fund
ACCUMULATED FUNDS
Contingent Liability (in connection with Perpetual
Leases. )
ASSETS.
Cash at Bank and in Hand
Investments—
Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock, etce.—
at Face Value—
Held for—
Clarke Memorial Fund
Walter Burfitt Prize Fund
Liversidge Bequest :
Monograph Capital Fund
General Purposes
Debtors for Subscriptions ..
Less Reserve for Bad Debts _
Science House—One-third Capital Cost .
Library—At Valuation
Furniture—At Cost—less Depreciation
Pictures—At Cost—less Depreciation
Lantern—At Cost—less Depreciation
1,896 10
1,111 13
700 0
3,752 10
a s.
1,800
1,000
700
3,000
2,860
ooooo
122 11
122508
1953.
oo et
£ Ss.
11ers
34 13
135 12
7,460 13
d.
3
0
0
11
23,851 4 6
£31,593 6 8
aOna!looocooe
9,360 0
14,835 4
£31,593 6
6,800 0
402 15
23 (0
4 0
BALANCE SHEETS. XXV
TRUST AND MONOGRAPH CAPITAL FUNDS.
Clarke Walter Burfitt Liversidge Monograph
Memorial. Prize. Bequest. Capital Fund.
£.., 8. d. si. Gs fae Sa id: £ s. d.
Capital at 29th February, 1952. .. 1,800 0 0 1,000 0 0 700 0 0 3,000 0 0
Revenue—
Balance at 29th February, 1952 141 16 9 81 16 8 44 5 1 659 18 4
Income for Twelve Months .. 53 15 2 DO lien yok 20 18 1 92 11 8
195 11 11 Li is 9 65 3 2 752 10 O
Less Expenditure eos = yo) i 9 — 65 3 2 —
Balance at 28th February, 1953 £96 10 2 £11113 9 — £752 10 0O
ACCUMULATED FUNDS.
£ s. d.
Balance at 29th February, 1952 Bs a .. 24,088 1 2
Less—
Increase in Reserve for Bad Debts.. £20 4 0
Deficit for twelve months (as shown
by Income and Expenditure Ac-
count) are a3 es ee elie oS 28
Bad Debts written off 4 4 0
236 16 8
£23,851 4 6
The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and
Vouchers of The Royal Society of New South Wales, and is a correct statement of the position
of the Society’s affairs on the 28th February, 1953, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied
ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and
_ registered.
HORLEY & HORLEY,
Per Conrad F. Horley, F.C.A. (Aust.),
| Chartered Accountants.
Prudential Building,
39 Martin Place,
Sydney, llth March, 1953. .
(Sgd.) H. A. J. DONEGAN,
Honorary Treasurer.
Xxvl BALANCE SHEETS.
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT.
Ist March, 1952, to 28th February, 1953.
1951-2. 1952-53
£ £ +s: ad: £ sod.
To Annual Dinner—
Expenditure ae oa , 7 ats 70 16 6
20 Less Received .. i er ae aye 68 12 0
-= 2 4 6
32 ~=«gy:~Audit a ays A a ee 48 a 3110 O
41 ,, Cleaning .. ae ye ee he ns oe 70 10 O
19 ,, Depreciation an ae ae ne we ie 18 3 0
11 —s,,_~ Electricity atte ie te ne 22 12 4
6 ,, Entertainment Expenses. ms ua rs mi A inBie oS
12, Insurance . aN Ay at Li 43 92
66 = ,, Library Purchases and Binding Eis abe ae 64.7% 2
100 ~=S,,_~‘Miscellaneous i ee oe Ra us 87 18 3
76 ,, Postages and Telegrams aft oe ss 939 4
, Printing and Binding Journal—
Vol. 85 4 ns es an a 700 8 3
Vol. 86, Parts I and 1B ose ae - * 293 8 7
755 ee 993 16 10
145, ~Printing—General oe 116; 8. 5
107 + +,, Rent—Science House Management Committee es 74 16 2
Less Receipts from Subletting .. a5 Ls 47 16 8
26 19
128 ~,, Reprints .. a a Sai ap ie a —-
— ,, Repairs... at £. Ais Ei sa Le 46 14 6
783 ,, Salaries... ra ae Biss Ks if a 886 13 3
25 ,, Telephone re Je ie ns a sis 31 ll 4
£2,326 £25505. 15. 73
1951-2 1952-53
Be 5S.) 'd.
633 By Memberahip Subscriptions ae ae vs bas a 973 17 6
i0 _,, Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions i ce a 11 ll 0
400 ,, Government Subsidy .. ae As a ae 200 O O
— ,, Commonwealth Bank—Special Grant ae a a Ae 400 0 0
430 ., Science House—Share of Surplus ae a ie Lh Ane 495 0 0O
117 ~«,,.~* Interest on General Investments ae ae ote sis ad 109 5 7
— ,, Other Receipts—Sale of Reprints .. Ue ae Mi a 103 2 6
1,590 2,292 16 7
736 ,, Deficit for Twelve Months ie oe a ne ou ee 212. 8) 18
£2,326 £2,505 5 3
XxvVil
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
OF THE SECTION OF
GEOLOGY
Chairman: R. O. Chalmers, A.S.T.C.
Hon. Secretary: T. G. Vallance, B.Sc., F.G.S.
Meetings. Eight meetings were held during the year, the average attendance being twenty
members and seven visitors.
April 18th.—Address by Dr. G. D. Osborne on “ Spilites of New South Wales and the Spilite
Problem ’’. The speaker reviewed the occurrence of Paleozoic true spilites and spilitoid
rocks in N.S.W., and dealt with the serpentine-spilite association. Tectonic, petrological
and environmental implications of spilite lavas were mentioned and it was concluded that
there is no justification for the conception of a primary spilitic magma. The idea of a close
connection, in space and time, between invasion of peridotites and the irruption of spilites
was questioned.
May 16th.—Short talks, illustrated by Kodachrome slides, on the following areas of geological
interest : (a) Victorian Alps (Mr. N. C. Stevens) ; (b) Northern Queensland (Dr. H. Narain) ;
(c) Hart’s Range, Central Australia (Mr. G. F. Joklik); (d) Braidwood district, N.S.W.
(Mr. G. E. McInnes).
June 20th.—Contributions to Geology from the N.S.W. University of Technology. Short talks
by (a) Prof. D. W. Phillips on “ Structures Produced by Mining Operations”; (b) Dr.
L. E. Koch on “ Observations on the So-called ‘Sunburn’ of Basalts and its Technical
Implications’; (c) Mr. L. J. Lawrence on the “ Petrology and Ore Deposits of the Mole
Tableland ”’ (northern N.S.W.) ; (d) Mr. A. V. Weatherhead on ‘“‘ Some Recent Observations
in the Micro-Petrology of Clays as Revealed by a New Technique ”’.
July 18th.—Address by Dr. H. Rutledge on ** The Petrology of the Southern Part of the Loch
Doon (Galloway, Scotland) Plutonic Complex ”’. An abstract of this work is given in Proc.
Geol. Soc. London, No. 1484, 1952.
August 15th.—Short address by Dr. L. E. Koch entitled “* On the Adhesiveness of Minerals and
Rocks and its Technical Applications ’’. The speaker mentioned such phenomena as desert
varnish and the ‘ streak’ produced on polished glass surfaces by certain minerals, as well
as the utilization of this physical property of ‘ adhesiveness’ in such operations as froth
flotation.
September 19th.—Symposium on Some Aspects of the Geology of the Sydney District. (a) ‘‘ Sub-
division of the Triassic’, by Dr. W. R. Browne. (b) “‘ The Volcanic Necks’, by Dr.
G. D. Osborne. (c) ‘ Observations on the Wianamatta Group ”’, by Mr. J. F. Lovering.
Dr. Browne believed that the usually recognized divisions of the Triassic (Narrabeen,
Hawkesbury and Wianamatta) in the Sydney district were true series established on the
evidence of the contained fossils by David in 1932. Dr. Osborne referred especially to the
breccia masses which display evidence of tilting or downward-drag of the well-bedded tuff
or breccia and to the pleonaste-pyroxene symplectites in gabbroic cognate xenoliths in the
basalt of some necks. Mr. Lovering presented a suggested stratigraphical sequence of
eight formations (based on lithological features) which comprise the Wianamatta Group.
October 17th.—Address by Mr. F. K. Rickwood on “ The Structure of the Central Highlands
of New Guinea ”’.
November 2lst.—Address by Mr. E. O. Rayner entitled ‘“‘ Some Geological Observations in
Central and Northern Australia’’. The speaker gave an account of the geological field
investigations of the Australian Museum Expedition to Northern Australia in April-August,
1952.
XXVIili
Obituary
WiuuiamM Dixson, who was elected a member of the Society in 1906, was born at Sydney on
the 18th April, 1870, and received his education at All Saints’ College, Bathurst.
Leaving Sydney in 1889, he served his time m Scotland as an engineer, and returned to
Australia in 1896 and took a position within the family business of Dixson and Sons, Ltd., tobacco
merchants. He soon rose to important executive positions in the firm.
He was created a Knight in 1939.
He had a very deep interest in the materials of Australian history, of which he made, during
his lifetime, a great collection, second only to that of David Scott Mitchell on the bibliographical
side; on the pictorial side Dixson’s was the greater.
His books, manuscripts and pictures are bequeathed to the Trustees of the Public Library
to form a Dixson Library, for which he has provided a generous endowment, the full extent of
which will not be known until the bequest is handed over to the Trustees of the Public Library.
The Dixson Wing of the Public Library, opened in 1929, contains the magnificent pictures and
other material which he presented during his lifetime.
He died at the age of 82 on the 17th August, 1952.
ARTHUR MARSHALL McINTOSH was elected a member of the Society in 1906, shortly after
he was registered, in 1905, as a dentist for New South Wales. He practised until his retirement
in 1949, his registration being terminated, at his request, in 1950.
He died on the 7th March, 1952, at the age of 72.
ROLAND JAMES PopE, who joined the Society in 1896, and died on the 27th July, 1952, aged
88 years, was an ophthalmic surgeon. He ceased practising some twenty-five years ago, and thus
was not well known in his profession in recent decades. During his career he was an Honorary
Ophthalmic Surgeon for a considerable period.
CrcrIL PuRSER, one of the greatest physicians this State has known, died on the 13th January,
1953, aged 90 years, full of honour and profoundly respected by a host of friends in the medical
and academic worlds.
He was born on the 13th January, 1862, at Castle Hill, and educated in that district. He
entered Sydney University and graduated as follows: B.A. 1885, M.B., Ch.M. 1890. He did
his medical courses in those historic days when Sir Thomas Anderson Stuart was establishing the
Sydney Medical School. Soon after his graduation he gained such experience, and made such
a mark on his contemporaries, that he was soon occupying positions of trust and responsibility.
A full list of his appointments would take too much space, but we record his appointment
as Resident Medical Officer at Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, and later (1891-93) a most successful
Medical Superintendent. He was Hon. Assistant Physician, 1896-1898, Hon. Senior Physician,
1898-1912, Hon. Consulting Physician from 1912 until his death.
His great administrative ability displayed itself in his election as a Director of the Board of
Management of R.P.A. Hospital, followed by being Vice-Chairman 1920-23 and finally Chairman
1924-33.
In addition to these great services, he contributed much effective work upon various boards
and committees of medical institutions.
Th other great field of his honorary service was the University of Sydney. He was elected
to the Senate in 1909, retiring in 1929 after twenty years as a Fellow, during which time he was
Vice-Chancellor (under the old scheme) in 1917, 1918 and 1923, and Deputy-Chancellor 1924—25.
He was a great supporter of the College Scheme of University residence, and entered St.
Andrew’s College as a student, later being elected to its Board of Trustees. He also helped in
the foundation of Wesley College, and was appointed a Foundation Trustee. The latest extension
at Wesley has been named the Cecil Purser Wing.
Purser was truly a great man, full of sympathy for the under-privileged. In spite of his
many official commitments, he developed a very great practice and was the ‘“‘ family doctor ”
to numbers of folk who drew from him understanding and sympathy in their illnesses, both of
body and of spirit.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
By C. J. MAGEE, D.Sc.Agr. (Syd.), M.Sc. (Wis.).
Delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, April 1, 1953.
PART [. WORK OF THE SOCIETY.
The Annual Report of Council records a year of useful activity. The
programme of meetings has been of fairly wide interest, but considering our
membership of 383, average attendance at meetings continues to be poor. This
is doubtless largely due to the high degree of specialization that exists in Science
today and the many other societies members also now support. It has been
my observation, however, that when our business paper includes an item of
wider interest than usual, either as a contributed paper or lecturette, attendance
improves. Symposia are regarded by members with favour and the two
symposia which were held during the year were well attended. So was the film
evening. Improvement in the design of meetings should continue to be a special
consideration for the incoming and future Councils, since it is most desirable
that our Society, besides its other activities, remains a meeting place for scientists
of all disciplines.
Special attention was given during the year by Council to the Society’s
Library, which is fast exhausting its filing capacity. A sub-committee consisting
of Messrs. F. N. Hanlon, A. V. Jopling and H. Wood was appointed in May to
enquire into the composition of the library, the amount of use made of it, and
to estimate its storage life. The sub-committee presented a valuable report,
which influenced Council in calling a special meeting in November to discuss the
present-day function of the library and to formulate a policy to be adopted for
its development. A Standing Committee was appointed, consisting of the
President, Professor K. E. Bullen (Hon. Sec.), Mr. F. N. Hanlon (Hon. Librarian),
Mr. H. Wood, Mr. A. V. Jopling, Dr. D. P. Mellor and Dr. G. H. Briggs, to
advise Council during the next few years on library matters. Council also
recommended that the Library Standing Committee be reviewed each year to
ensure that each branch of science retains representation. It is clear that there
are many engineering, medical and other journals in the library which are no
longer received by the Society and could appropriately be disposed of by gift,
loan or sale to other libraries, and that there is still unnecessary duplication of
filing with the library of the Linnean Society of New South Wales. The present
day purpose of the library was defined by Council, and with the assistance of
the Standing Committee it will be possible to institute a number of improvements
and greatly extend the storage life of our existing premises. It is of interest
that about 38 per cent. of the publications received by the Royal Society library
are not available elsewhere in Sydney.
It is gratifying to record that the financial position of the Society remains
sound during this difficult period of inflation, in which all costs have risen steeply,
particularly publication costs and salaries. Although our Income and
Expenditure Account for the year shows a deficit, it is the smallest deficit the
Society has had for several years and payment was made for the printing of
six parts of our Journal instead of the usual four. The action taken at the end
oO
2 Cc. J. MAGEE.
of the previous financial year of increasing members’ subscriptions has greatly
assisted the Society this year, and the grant of £400 received from the Rural
Credits Development Fund of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia has been of
special value. I wish to record my thanks to the Governor of the Bank for the
Support given to our Society in a very difficult period. The Government of
New South Wales has again given generous help and made a grant of £400
towards our activities, but an amount of £200 only appears in our Balance Sheet,
as this year the grant was made in quarterly instalments. Council has practised
numerous economies, but it has adhered to the Society’s policy of not declining
to publish any scientific paper of merit because of cost alone. This policy
over the last few difficult years has, without doubt, been the main contributor
to the fall in value of the accumulated funds of the Society from £26,081 in 1949
to the present figure of £23,851. Nevertheless, it is considered that the financial
position of the Society is still secure enough for maintenance of the policy.
The Liversidge Research Lecture for 1952, sponsored by this Society,
was delivered on 17th July at the University of Sydney by Dr. A. L..G. Rees,
Division of Industrial Chemistry, C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne. He chose as his
subject ‘‘ Electron Diffraction in the Chemistry of the Solid State’. The Royal
Society of New South Wales co-operated with the University of Sydney in
arranging the Pollock Memorial Lecture, which was held on 15th September
at the University of Sydney. The lecture, entitled ‘‘ Post-War Physics ”’, was
given by Professor H. 8S. W. Massey, Quain Professor of Physics, University
College, London. I presided at both meetings, which were well attended,
particularly by young scientists, and I could not help feeling how perfectly the
lectures fulfilled the wishes of Liversidge and Pollock in being lectures ‘“ to
encourage research and draw attention to research that should be done’”’.
There has been much public and scientific interest during the year in the
discovery of substantial deposits of uranium ore in Northern Territory. These
appear to be of sufficient importance to influence strongly Australia’s future.
An Atomic Energy Commission has been appointed by the Commonwealth
Government, and we take pride in the fact that Professor J. P. Baxter, a valued
member of Council, is one of the three members of this Commission.
The year was notable in that the 29th Meeting of the Australian and New
Zealand Association for the Advancement of Science was held in Sydney from
20th to 27th August, and many members of our Society participated actively
in its proceedings. The meetings of the fifteen sections of the Association,
which were open to the press and members of the public, could not have failed
to widen the appreciation of science in this State. The tenth General Assembly
of the Union Radio-Scientifique Internationale was also held in Sydney, for the
first time in Australia, from 11th to 23rd August. The A.N.Z.A.A.S. and
U.R.S.I. meetings, in addition to their main functions, were of special benefit
in that they brought to Sydney many eminent overseas scientists.
Many members of the Society took part also in the Centenary Celebrations
of the University of Sydney, which were held on 26th to 31st August. The
University of Sydney was founded in 1852 and early members of our Society,
particularly Dr. Henry Gratton Douglass and Dr. Charles Nicholson, played a
prominent part in its foundation.
The Annual Dinner of the Society was held again this year and was attended
by 47 members and guests. The function was a most enjoyable one. The
original minute book of the Philosophical Society of Australasia, from which the
Royal Society of New South Wales stems, was exhibited at the dinner. This
historical relic was discovered in 1921 (see THIS JOURNAL, Vol. LV), but its
whereabouts in recent years has been unknown. It is a pleasure to record that
it is now filed under call number D.142 at the Mitchell Library, Sydney.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3
I wish to take this opportunity to thank members of Council, and indeed.
the general membership of the Society, for the co-operation I have received
during the year. In particular I wish to thank members of the Executive
Committee for their help and guidance and the Hon. Librarian for his attention
to the library. This Society is indebted, too, to a wide circle of friends in this
and other States who have assisted during the year in the refereeing of con-
tributed papers, in serving on selection committees, in helping with symposia
and popular science lectures, and I wish to make grateful acknowledgement
to them.
It.is with regret that I have to record the deaths of the following members :
Sir William Dixson, who was elected a member of the Society in 1906.
Arthur Marshall McIntosh, who was elected to membership of the Society
in 1906.
Dr. Roland James Pope, who was elected a member of the Society in 1896.
Dr. Cecil Purser, who was elected a member in 1893.
PART II. SOME ASPECTS OF THE BUNCHY TOP DISEASE
OF BANANA AND OTHER MUSA SPP.
(Plates I-VL.)
Our rules do not contain any instruction that the President shall deliver ar
address, but it has become traditional for him to do so. It has become
traditional, too, for your President to take the liberty of occupying this portion.
of the Annual General Meeting with a consideration of scientific matters in
which he has a special interest and to invite members to join him in appreciating
their significance. For almost 30 years I have maintained an interest in one of
the plant virus diseases, namely the bunchy top disease of bananas and other
Musa spp., and as I have had the opportunity of observing it in a number of
countries besides Australia, it is thought that this would be a suitable occasion
to present a review of some of my observations. Tonight I will deal with its
history and distribution, and since the establishment of its distribution rests on
recognition of symptoms, I will discuss the variability of its symptoms and the
confusion which exists regarding identity of the disease in certain species.
The genus Musa is one of the most important groups of plants in tropical
regions and provides a staple food, bananas and plantains, for several hundreds
of millions of people. These plants surpass all other food crops in yields per
acre and possess the special advantages that they are perennials and with their
aid areas of land can be brought into food production in a comparatively short
time. The food they supply also is non-seasonal in its harvest, obviating the
need for storage and lessening the risk of famine. During the last century or
so, peoples living in temperate climates have also come to regard bananas
with favour, and there are now large industries based on their culture in the
tropics and sub-tropics and their shipment to regions or countries with temperate
climates.
Bananas and plantains are plants of great antiquity, and some philosophers
consider that they were one of the first foods of man and among the first crops
to be cultivated by him (Reynolds, 1951). All scientific evidence (Sands, 1925 ;
Hill, 1926; Harland, 1928; Howes, 1928) points to the banana and plantain.
being indigenous to the Indo-Malayan region, whence they have been distributed.
to Africa, the Americas and to the Pacific region. Linnzeus, who named two of
the most important species of the genus, has perpetuated legends which surround
these important food plants. The legend reached Europe that the sages of India.
reposed in the shade of the banana tree and refreshed themselves with its fruit.
4 C. J. MAGHE.
Linnzus has preserved this myth in his Musa sapientum. An eastern legend
also held that the banana flourished in the Garden of Eden, being in fact the
tree of knowledge (a more acceptable supposition than the apple tree, although
neither is mentioned in Genesis) and this legend is believed to have influenced
Linneus in naming his Musa paradisiaca. All the most important varieties
of bananas and plantains appear to belong to these species and to one other
species, erected by Lambert in 1836, M. cavendishii. The classification of
Musa spp. is, however, still rather tentative but is being proceeded with at the
Imperial College of Tropical Agriculture, Trinidad, a most worthy task in view
of their importance in food production and commerce.
All the species of Musa producing edible seedless fruit, and all the fertile
or seed-bearing species which have been examined, are subject to attack by the
bunchy-top virus. I will refer especially tonight to symptoms of the disease
on two of the seed-bearing species: the Abyssinian banana, M. ensete Gmel.,
a tall-growing ornamental and shade plant, and M. textilis Née, from which
abaca or manila hemp fibre is extracted. An important industry in the Philip-
pines is based on this latter species.
EARLY HISTORY AND GEOGRAPHICAL RANGE.
Lye.
: The bunchy top disease of the banana first attracted notice in the islands
of the Fiji Group, where it seriously interfered with the development of an
important export industry. Several references to the disease were published
in the Fiji Times during 1889. Short accounts of the early efforts which were
made to determine its cause are given in the Kew Bulletin of 1890 and 1892.
Two interesting letters have been preserved at the Royal Botanic Gardens,
Kew, and extracts of these are worthy of quotation because of their bearing on
the early history of the disease. These quotations are made with the permission
of the Director.
Under date December 6, 1890, the Governor of Fiji, Sir John Thurston,
reported as follows to the Colonial Office: ‘In or about 1879, M. cavendishit
growing in the island of Moturiki were attacked with a disease. In time all
the bananas were killed off and the disease attacked the more robust indigenous
plantains and killed them. From Moturiki it spread all over the group to
leeward. Then by careless transporattion of plants it got to windward and the
disease is now everywhere. No such disease was ever known before. Its attacks
appear capricious for in a banana plantation the individuals do not suffer from
propinquity or apparently not; healthy and apparently healthy plants growing
among those diseased. There appears to be no difference between plants in old
plantations, new plantations, virgin soil, forest land, littoral or inland
districts 7
‘¢ Tn 1878 our first coolie ship came from India and landed at depots built
on a small island close to Moturiki, named Yanuca, and it is opined that all
bananas were there and then attacked and that the disease was blown across
the few yards of water that divided the one island from the other. Is it possible
that some pest came with Indian rice, curry stuffs and baggage generally ? ”
In February, 1891, Sir John wrote as follows to the Colonial Office :
‘‘ Perhaps the most singular character of the disease is its capriciousness. It
does not and has not (Moturiki excepted) attacked all plants in contiguity but
only some of them. Healthy and unhealthy plants may sometimes be seen
rising from the same stool. The state of the land whether old or new, virgin soil
or well exhausted is not in question. The disease in its capricious way attacks
plants in every condition as regards soil, and here and there even individuals
of the order Musa growing wild in the forest...”
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5
‘‘ The disease, whatever it may be, causes both plants to appear constricted
or choked at what may loosely be described as the junction of the leaves and the
stem. The stem of the banana is really nothing more than the strong sheathing
bases of the petioles and it is just where the petioles rise from these bases that
appearance of constriction presents itself. I enclose a photograph of a half-
grown plant and its sucker showing the leaves crowded and compressed together
in the centre or line of growth. Also another showing the manner in which
suckers finally grow. They attain no height, bear narrow, lanceolate leaves,
fail to flower and ultimately decay and rot away...”’
‘‘T also find that as the disease increases the petioles of the leaves become
dry and brittle and will snap or break off shortly and show the inner cellular
structure dry and almost entirely wanting in sap or moisture. The conclusion
at which I have arrived is that the seat of the disease is below the surface of the
ground—that the root feeders are in some way affected and the plant rendered
unable to elaborate the sap necessary to the formation of healthy cells and cell
contents. The plant so affected therefore grows feebly, abnormally in habit,
and soon dies. Planters cut down and root out every plant as soon as the least
sign of disease appears, and this plan has the effect at least of retarding the
spread of the disease...”
‘* It is not likely that the banana export will be seriously affected or brought
to an end by this disease, but it is needless to say that the cost of production and
the anxiety of the planters are much increased. At the suggestion of the Kew
authorities I am sending them the roots, stem and leaves of a diseased plant
preserved in a clear pickle of salt and water, and it is not improbable that the
highly trained intelligence at Kew may detect that which is beyond our observa-
tion here.”’
Reproductions of the photographs enclosed by Thurston in his second
despatch are shown in Plate I, Figs. 1 and 2, and together with his description
they leave little doubt of the identity of the Fijian disease. Further confirmation
of this was obtained by me in discussions with old residents of the Colony during
a visit to Fiji in 1937. The specimens Thurston sent to Kew Gardens were
examined in August, 1891, by Arthur E. Shipley, of Christ College, Cambridge,
who reported! that there was ‘‘ no evidence of any foreign organism ”’ in the
specimens.
Thurston somewhat underestimated the dangers of the disease as a few
years later it reached epiphytotic form and seriously upset the industry.2, Some
idea of the disastrous effects of the disease is obtained from a study of the export
figures® for bananas about this time. The banana industry in Fiji dates back
_ to 1877, in which year 3,100 bunches were shipped. Within ten years exports
had grown to 359,000 bunches, and by 1892 a peak of 788,000 bunches was
reached. During the next three years, primarily as a result of floods and the
rapid spread of bunchy top, production steeply declined and in 1895, 114,000
bunches only were exported, about one-seventh of the 1892 total. Then, from
1896 onwards an improvement occurred, 463,000 bunches being shipped in
1899, although by 1905 exports had fallen to the low figure of 147,000 bunches.
The reasons for the temporary recovery of the industry around 1896 have
never been chronicled, and a search I made of Fijian official records in 1937
brought to light only one likely contributory factor, namely the introduction
in 1892 by the Fijian Government of two cases of suckers of the Gros Michel
ee 1 Fiji Despatches from the Secretary of State, 1891. At Colonial Secretary’s Office, Suva,
iji.
* Minute Paper No. 1069 of 1893. At Colonial Secretary’s Office, Suva, Fiji.
? Council Paper No. 23. Legislative Council, Fiji, 1906.
6 Cc. J. MAGEE.
variety from Jamaica, in the hope that this variety would prove resistant to the
disease. It is probable that the gradual distribution of this variety, which we
now know to be highly resistant to bunchy top, was partly responsible. The
tall growing Gros Michel, however, did not prove the most satisfactory for
Fijian conditions owing to its greater liability to hurricane damage than the
dwarf Cavendish and it did not entirely displace the latter variety. The Gros
Michel also was found to be more susceptible to Sigatoka disease or leaf spot
(Cercospora muse) than the Cavendish.
The revival of banana growing in Fiji from 1912 to 1916, when exports
of 14 millions of bunches were the rule, does not appear to have been caused by
any organized attempt to control bunchy top by eradicatory measures, but to
the extension of plantations into new districts and islands. In 1918 the industry
received a new check because of shipping difficulties and later tariff changes on
the Australian market, and has not since recovered.
The disease is still widespread in Fiji, and surveys I made in 1937 showed
that at that time from 5 to 30 per cent. of plants in all plantations and gardens
were infected, depending on the care and supervision of the owners. It is
remarkable, however, that no plantings which were 100 per cent. infected were
then seen and it is thought this must be attributed to the use of the Gros Michel
and Veimama varieties. There is a special feature about the resistance of the
Veimama variety. This is thought to be of an acquired type following recovery
or partial recovery from an attack of the disease (Magee, 1948).
Although bunchy top first came into prominence in Fiji, it is improbable in
view of the history of its gradual spread there and its known wide geographical
range, that it had its origin in that colony. Thurston’s suggestion that the
disease was imported with the baggage of early immigrants from India has not
received any support from recent studies on its distribution in that region.
These immigrants would have been recruited in south-western India, probably
in Bombay, but there is no very early record of bunchy top in this part of India.
The disease is now known to be present in Travancore-Cochin and also in the
State of Bombay, but it has attracted attention there only during the past ten
years. Simmonds (1931), who had much experience in Fiji, has suggested that
the disease was imported into Fiji from Tanna in the New Hebrides with an
‘‘immune ”’ strain of suckers in 1886. There have been no reports in recent
years of the presence of the disease in the New Hebrides, but no authoritative
surveys have been made.
Mediterranean Region.
Bunchy top occurred in Egypt at least as early as 1901 (Fahmy, 1924)
and has since been a limiting factor in banana production. While returning
from England in 1928 I made an inspection® of banana plantations in Lower
Egypt on behalf of the British Government and was able to identify the disease
with the one I had previously studied in Australia. Recent correspondence
(Soliman, 1951) indicates that bunchy top is still a disease of major importance
in Egypt. The origin of the disease in Egypt is not known.
There were reports some years ago that bunchy top had been introduced
into Israel from Egypt but the disease is now stated not to be present there
(Reichert, 1952).
*Council Paper No. 107. Legislative Council, Fiji, 1917.
5 Report on bunchy top in Egypt. To Director, Commonwealth Mycological Institute,
London, 1928.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. bs
Ceylon.
Bunechy top first appeared in Ceylon about the middle of 1913 (Petch,
1913 ; Bryce, 1921). It was confined to the Colombo district for some time
but gradually spread to neighbouring districts and became well established in
the Central and Western Provinces, destroying most of the banana plantings
and a plot of manila hemp at Peradeniya. Surveys® I made in Ceylon in 1928,
on behalf of the Government of Ceylon, showed that, while the disease was
widespread in these two Provinces, it was absent from other parts of the island
visited, suggesting that the introduction into the Colombo district or Peradeniya
was the primary focus for its distribution. An investigation of the disease by
Hutson and Park (1930) demonstrated that its vector (the banana aphid
Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq.) in Ceylon is the same as that in Australia. The
source from which the disease reached Ceylon is not known, although it has been
stated (Harland, 1928) that it was probably introduced from Fiji.
Australia.
The early history of the bunchy top disease in Australia is recorded in
reports by Darnell-Smith (1919), Darnell-Smith and Tryon (1923), Darnell-Smith
(1924) and Magee (1927). The disease was introduced into New South Wales
in 1913 in infected banana suckers from Fiji at a time when the foundations
of the industry were being laid in this State. Rapid expansion of banana
planting occurred towards the end and after World War I, primarily as a result
of disruption in the continuity of supplies of Fijian bananas to Australian
markets brought about by shipping difficulties, and the encouragement given to
repatriated soldiers to adopt banana growing as a livelihood. Several soldiers’
settlements were established in banana areas. Further impetus to development
came in 1921 when the Commonwealth Government imposed a heavy duty on
the importation of bananas as a protection to soldier settlers. As planting
progressed, the disease gradually spread, this being facilitated, as we now know,
by the distribution of infected planting stock. Production reached a peak in
1922, but two years later the industry had collapsed. The hardship caused
by the disease was intense and led to special Commonwealth and State action.
An investigation of the disease was made and its virus nature and its vector were
discovered. A scheme of control based upon eradication and replanting with
disease-free stock was instituted and as a result of the co-operative efforts of
banana growers and the Departments of Agriculture of New South Wales and
Queensland over the past twenty years, the industry has been completely
rehabilitated (Magee, 1936 ; Eastwood, 1946). The area over which the disease
originally spread has been progressively reduced, the industry has greatly
expanded and in most districts at the present time bunchy top affected plants
can be found only by searching for them.
Paetfie Islands.
In the Pacific region, in addition to the occurrence of the disease in Australia,
and almost all the inhabited islands of the Fiji group, bunchy top has been
recorded from the Ellice Island (Campbell, 1926), Wallis Islands (Simmonds,
1933) and Bonin Island (Gadd, 1926). A complete survey of the Pacific would
doubtless show a wider distribution, although it is of interest that Samoa has
apparently so far escaped the disease (Simmonds, 1933) and also the Hawaiian
Islands (Jensen, 1946). During 1951 I carried out a survey of virus diseases of
plants in the Territory of Papua and New Guinea on behalf of the Commonwealth
Government, paying particular attention to bananas, without seeing any evidence
of bunchy top in this plant. It seems likely that these islands, too, in which
* Report on visit to plantain areas of Ceylon. To Director of Agriculture, Ceylon, 1928.
8 Cc. J. MAGER.
bananas are such an important item in the diet of the natives, have not yet had
the disease introduced to them. There have been newspaper reports of the
occurrence of the disease in the neighbouring Solomon Islands, but these have
never been fully investigated.
In the Philippine Islands, there is a disease of abaca or manila hemp (Musa
textilis), which is very similar to or identical with banana bunchy top. This
disease has been present in the Philippines at least since 1910, although it did
not cause serious losses until 1923. (Ocfemia, 1926, 1930.) The identity of this
disease with banana bunchy top will be discussed later.
In 1946 and again in 1950 the opportunity was given me of examining an
outbreak of a destructive disease in a number of large abaca estates on the
Semporna Peninsula of North Borneo. The disease presented a number of
puzzling features in relation to symptoms (Reinking, 1950) and the pattern of its
spread inwards from the margin of the estates bordering the jungle which I was
unable to interpret fully. The disease was affecting bananas as well as abaca
and I formed the opinion that the virus was the same as that which has caused
losses in Australia, or a closely related strain. The estates in which the disease
occurred were planted by a Japanese company prior to World War II with
planting stock which it is presumed came from Mindanao, Philippine Islands.
I was unable to establish how the disease originated in North Borneo, but it is
probable it was introduced along with the planting stock. It spread throughout
the estates during and after the war and has since led to their eradication and
replanting.
Malaya.
Whether the disease occurs in Malaya is uncertain. It is my opinion,
however, that certain foliar symptoms I saw in a plot of abaca at Serdang
Agricultural Experiment Station, near Kuala Lumpur, during a one day’s visit
in 1950 were caused by a mild chronic infection of the bunchy top virus. The
foliage was upright and narrow, isolated chlorotic areas occurred in the leaves,
and as leaves matured their margins became chlorotic and later brown and
parchment-like. The abaca plants were named varieties of Philippine origin
and some local hybrids.
India.
An endeavour has been made by correspondence during the past year to
determine the distribution of bunchy top in the Indian sub-continent. Reports
have been received of the occurrence of the disease in Travancore-Cochin State,
Bombay State, Western Hyderabad and in Orissa, Assam and Hast Pakistan.
The worst outbreak has occurred in Travancore-Cochin State in the Cochin,
Kottayam and Quilon districts. The disease is believed to have been introduced
about 1940 from Ceylon and is now known to occur over some hundreds of
square miles (Samraj, 1952). Photographs received from Travancore show
typical symptoms of the disease. In Bombay, the worst affected areas have
been observed in east Khandesh at Shendurni, Jalgaon and Nasirabad (Vasudeva,
1952). An outbreak in the Aurangabad district of Hyderabad State is reported
to have originated from planting stock introduced from east Khandesh and to
have been dealt with by eradication. In Assam, Orissa and East Pakistan the
disease is reported as occurring in many gardens, but there is still some doubt
about its identity. I have received official reports from the respective govern-
ments that the disease is not present in United Provinces, Central Provinces,
Madras, Mysore, Rajasthan and West Pakistan. The disease position in West
Bengal and Bihar is uncertain but there have been unconfirmed reports of its
occurrence in both States.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9
No full investigation of bunchy top appears to have been carried out in
India, and it is possible that in some States there is confusion between it and the
less serious mosaic disease. Nevertheless, the importance of the disease is
generally realized and in several States there is legislation against the introduction
of planting stock from areas in which it is known or thought to occur and also
for its eradication (Mehta, 1952; Ramachandran Nair, 1944).
Regions not so far Invaded.
The important banana exporting countries such as the West Indies, Central
and South America, the Canary Islands and most parts of Africa appear to have
escaped bunchy top. It is known that surveys have been made in some of
these countries in search of the disease, without success. There have also been
no reports of the disease from Java, Sumatra, Formosa, Burma, Siam, Indo-China
or China. Where bunchy top originated is uncertain, although it is clearly a
disease of the Eastern Hemisphere, the accepted place of origin of the banana
and plantain.
VARIABILITY OF SYMPTOMS OF BUNCHY TOP IN DIFFERENT MUSA
SPECIES.
The present published descriptions of symptoms of the bunchy top disease
of bananas only inadequately cover the range the virus is capable of causing and
consequently there occur opportunities for error in its diagnosis in different
Musa spp. and varieties. Further detailed investigations of the symptoms
caused by this virus are clearly necessary. Such studies should include field
Symptoms, as well as those normally observed under glasshouse conditions, as
there is already evidence of the existence in mature plants of some varieties
and species of a mild chronic form of the disease. It is proposed, however,
merely to indicate how the symptoms described for some varieties and species
cannot be accepted for all.
When the symptoms of bunchy top were first described (Darnell-Smith,
1924; Magee, 1927) much reliance was placed on the occurrence of dark green
streaks, either continuous or morse code-like in pattern in the petioles and along
the main and subsidiary veins of the lamine of leaves, as a crucial symptom in
deciding whether or not the plant was infected with the virus. The need to
refer to a well-defined symptom of this type arises frequently in field work
because congestion of leaves at the apex of plants, which is a field symptom
that gave the disease its name, or another constant symptom, chlorosis of the
last emerged leaves, may also be caused by unfavourable environment or mal-
nutrition. When it was shown (Magee, 1939) that the green streak symptom
was caused by tissue alterations in the phloem and adjacent regions of vascular
bundles and that the derangement of the phloem was primarily the cause of
upset in health of plants, its value in diagnosis seemed undisputed. In the
Cavendish and Gros Michel groups of banana varieties (Cheesman, 1934) the
usefulness of the green streak symptom is still unquestioned. In these varieties
of edible bananas green streaks are the first symptom of infection both in field
and in glasshouse studies and they generally persist throughout the life of
infected plants. In some of the fertile or seed-bearing species of Musa to which
bunchy top has been transmitted experimentally, this symptom is also a reliable
diagnostic one, but in certain others, e.g. M. ensete and M. textilis, the green
Streak symptom occurs so rarely as to lose nearly all its value as an aid
in diagnosis. Further, in at least one variety in the Cavendish group, namely
the Veimama of Fiji, there is an acute and a mild chronic phase of the disease
(Magee, 1948), and plants in the latter phase (partially-recovered) display the
green streak symptom only in some leaves, and when present, in a much reduced
10 C. J. MAGEE.
distribution. Thus, in deciding the health of such partially-recovered plants,
the green streak symptom is useful when present, but in practice close study of
the plants throughout their growth becomes necessary.
Symptoms of Banana Bunchy Top in Musa ensete Gmel.
In this species bunchy top takes the form of a ‘‘ yellows ”’ disease, and when
observed for the first time its identity with bunchy top of edible bananas could
easily be doubted. Green streaks have been observed only twice in several
hundreds of plants of WM. ensete which were successfully inoculated under glass-
house conditions and then only to a minor extent in the petioles. Following
infection, the first-symptom leaf shows either a general or localized chlorosis
and the youngest (right) half of the lamina fails to unroll completely after
emergence from the pseudostem (Plate II, Fig. 1). The base of this half of the
leaf usually shows a water-soaked or membranous area which later collapses,
resulting in malformation. Whether further leaves emerge from the pseudostem
or not depends on the severity of the disease, and in a high percentage of cases
rotting (‘‘ heart rot’) occurs in the central cylinder. This is the result of a
general collapse of the young developing leaves within the pseudostem. In
other cases one or more leaves may emerge after the first-symptom leaf, but
these are usually small and malformed (Plate II, Fig. 2).
The symptoms shown by WU. ensete are of interest in view of their close
resemblance to those described for the bunchy top disease of abaca (Ocfemia,
1930). |
Symptoms of Banana Bunchy Top in Abaca (M. textilis) Née.
Transmission of the banana virus to abaca results in slightly different
symptoms, depending on whether seedlings or vegetatively propagated material
is employed. The variation is a difference in the extent of chlorosis in the
first-symptom leaf and the compactness of the rosette of leaves subsequently
formed ; a difference apparently conditioned by the relative robustness of the
plants. The first symptoms shown by young abaca seedlings very closely
resemble those I have described for M. ensete seedlings. The disease can be first
detected from 29 to 42 days in the third or fourth leaf that emerges from the
pseudostem after inoculation. The young furled heart leaf, when about half
emerged, shows white streaks or areas towards its base. Sometimes the whole
basal portion is white in colour. On unfurling, the leaf shows marginal chlorosis
and indefinite chlorotic areas or chlorotic bands extending from the margin of
the lamina towards the midrib, and varying degrees of upward rolling of one or
both sides of the lamina (Plate II, Fig. 3). Sometimes the chlorosis is confined
to the right side of the leaf only when viewed from its adaxial surface. Examina-
tion of the leaf in transmitted light reveals a translucency or clearing of some or
many of the main and sub-main veins which is visible from both sides of the
leaf. As the leaf matures portion of the chlorotic areas may collapse, becoming
membranous and later light brown in colour.
There is considerable variation in the degree of abnormality shown by the
first-symptom leaf depending apparently on the stage of development at which
the leaf comes under the influence of the virus. The first symptoms shown by
some seedlings are very mild, consisting merely of a slight marginal chlorosis of
the leaf and the appearance of faint yellowish streaks in the lamina (Plate I,
Fig. 4), while others early show a severe reaction to infection. In the latter
cases chlorosis is pronounced ; most of the veins are cleared, white and then
membranous areas appear in the leaf and when these collapse the leaf is badly
deformed (Plate III, Fig. 1). In still other cases an intermediate reaction is
shown by the first-symptom leaf in which chlorosis is restricted to the margin of
the lamina and vein clearing is the most definite sign that infection has occurred.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. a fab
The leaf which emerges after the first-symptom leaf is usually shorter,
narrower and highly chlorotic, with one or several membranous areas near the
margin of the lamina (Plate III, Fig. 2). Both sides of the lamina may be rolled
upwards. The next three or four leaves, which emerge slowly, may be of similar
type but without the extreme chlorosis and membranous areas and if cultural
conditions are good, slightly larger leaves then appear. The general effect of
this restricted growth is to produce a rosette of narrow leaves, but the rosette
is of a looser type than that observed in banana varieties.
The course of the disease in a vegetative offset of abaca is illustrated in
Plate IV. The effect of the virus in the variety studied is less marked than in
young seedlings, but this would be expected to vary with the variety. Following
an initial check in growth in which one to three shortened leaves with chlorotic
margins, cleared venation and chlorotic areas are formed subsequent leaves
tend to increase in length as though a tolerance to the virus has been built up.
This prevents the formation of a tight rosette, but all leaves are narrower than
normal and show a characteristic upturning of their margins.
Green streaking of the vascular traces of the leaf, the most important
diagnostic symptom of bunchy top in bananas, is observed to a very minor
extent in abaca, and then usually in the petiole and midrib only of some of the
first infected leaves. Green streaks are occasionally observed also along a few
of the veins of the lamina. In abaca the clearing or translucency of the main and
some of the subsidiary veins of the first-symptom leaf and most subsequent
leaves is, however, almost as useful diagnostically as the green streak symptom
in the case of the banana, particularly in glasshouse studies (Plate III, Fig. 3).
Cleared venation is an associated symptom also of bunchy top in banana varieties
(Magee, 1927 ; Plate IV, Fig. 1), but is not an early symptom, and because of the
prominence of the green streaks has been overlooked in descriptions of the
disease.
A comparison of the symptoms just described in M. ensete and M. textilis
with published descriptions of the bunchy top disease in edible bananas reveals
many variations, and in the absence of transmission studies it would be easy to
conclude that more than one virus is involved. There is no single symptom or
group of symptoms on which a definite diagnosis could be based in all cases.
The characteristic green streaks or cleared venation are reliable criteria for
diagnosis when present, but the symptoms of chlorosis shown by M. ensete
and M. textilis are too indefinite for a firm decision to be made without clinical
study, unless the observer has had much experience with the disease. The
position is complicated, too, by the fact that there is at least one other virus
disease of Musa spp. which is relatively common in tropical and sub-tropical
countries, namely mosaic or infectious chlorosis (Wellman, 1934; Ocfemia
and Celino, 1938; Magee, 1940a) caused by the widespread cucumber mosaic
virus. Although this is clearly a mosaic type rather than a yellows type disease,
rosetting or bunching of the leaves may be associated, leading sometimes to the
disease being wrongly diagnosed as bunchy top. Symptoms of the chronic mild
form of this disease consisting of bands of mosaic tissue extending from the
mid-rib to the margin of otherwise apparently normal leaves could also be
mistaken for chronic symptoms of bunchy top in certain varieties of bananas
and abaca.
The high percentage of infected M. ensete seedlings which develop heart
rot in glasshouse inoculations is of particular interest since this symptom has
been one of the barriers against accepting the identity of banana and abaca
bunchy top. Heart rot is a well recognized secondary symptom of bunchy top
in abaca in the Philippines (Ocfemia, 1930 ; Ramos, 1933) but is less frequently
observed in bananas, its incidence fluctuating with climatic conditions.
2 C. J. MAGEE.
The tendency of infected abaca plants to show at first a severe and later a
milder reaction to the virus (Plate IV) was strikingly different from the behaviour
of the Cavendish and other varieties of bananas I had previously studied. It
was not, however, until a few years later, when the remarkable behaviour of the
Veimama variety in making a partial recovery from bunchy top was examined
(Magee, 1948), that the importance of the tendency of abaca to grow out of the
disease especially attracted my attention. The significance of this was further
emphasized in 1950 when I was commissioned to report’ on the health status of
abaca planting stock in a series of estates in North Borneo. Here it was observed
that suckers of the Tangongon and Bangkura varieties of abaca could be selected
from stools which were badly affected with the disease and if replanted under
favourable conditions would make fairly vigorous growth, giving rise to stools of
generally healthy appearance (Plate V, Figs. 1 and 2). During this field survey
I formed the opinion that some varieties of abaca at least are able to tolerate a
chronic infection in much the same manner at the Veimama banana. There
was no opportunity of making a clinical study of the partially-recovered abaca
plants while in Borneo, but I will briefly refer to two of the symptoms which |
they showed. Many stools were seen which were of normal habit of growth, but
close examination showed the presence of chlorotic bands of a characteristic
type in the lamina of some of the leaves (Plate V, Fig. 3). Also, if a search were
made, dark brown streaks or stripes were occasionally to be found in the mid-rib
and petioles of some leaves (Plate V, Fig. 4). These stripes are quite different
in nature from the green streaks referred to earlier, but like them are associated
with modification of the phloem and adjacent tissues. A histological examina-
tion of the stripes reveals that they are caused by the phloem and neighbouring
tissues of some of the more superficial vascular bundles becoming partially or
wholly impregnated with brown gum. Gum stains are to be seen also in some
epidermal and hypodermal cells in many superficial fibre bundles. Other
pathological changes of the type normally associated with the bunchy top
disease (Magee, 1939) are also present in the phloem of the gum-blocked vascular
bundles. The effect of the gum accumulations is to give an external display
of dark brown stripes in the mid-rib and petiole. The green streak symptom,
on the other hand, is caused by the development of abnormal chlorophyll-
bearing tissue adjacent to deranged phloem tissues.
THE QUESTION OF IDENTITY OF BANANA AND ABACA BUNCHY TOP.
The successful transfer of bunchy top from banana to abaca (Magee, 1927)
confirmed the observation made by Bryce in 1918 on the susceptibility of this
plant in the field in Ceylon. During the banana investigation, reports were
received of a serious disease which was destroying the abaca crop in Cavite
Province, Philippine Islands. The symptoms of the malady corresponded so
closely to those of banana bunchy top that the opinion was expressed that the
diseases were identical. About the same time, Ocfemia (1926, 1927, 1930) was
successful in transmitting the abaca disease in the Philippines by means of
Pentalonia nigronervosa Coq., the vector also of banana bunchy top, and concluded
that the same virus was causing destruction in both Australia and the Philippines.
Later, however, doubt arose regarding the identity of the diseases. Ocfemia
and Buhay (1934) observed that Philippine varieties of banana growing in
proximity to diseased abaca did not contract bunchy top and that experimental
attempts to transmit abaca bunchy top to several banana varieties were unsuc-
cessful. In a series of communications with Professor Ocfemia, the identity or
otherwise of the two diseases was discussed without finality. In addition to
the apparent non-transmissibility of abaca bunchy top to banana, there was the
? Report to Colonial Development Corporation, Singapore, 1950.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13
symptom of heart rot associated with a high percentage of infected abaca plants
which was not then an accepted symptom of the banana disease.
During 1936, 1937 and again recently, I made further studies on the trans-
mission of banana bunchy top to abaca, using both seedling and vegetatively-
propagated material, and confirmed that the banana virus could be transmitted
at will from banana to abaca and back to banana. This transmission was
performed several times by using groups of 20 apterous aphids (P. nigronervosa)
which had fed during their nymphal stages on recently infected plants. The
variety of banana used was the Cavendish. Young and vigorous plants only
of each species were employed. During these transmissions a further study of
the symptoms of banana bunchy top in abaca was made. <A comparison of
these symptoms with those described by Ocfemia (1930) strengthened my
opinion that the same virus was involved in both countries. An endeavour
was made to make a closer study of the diseases, but an export ordinance of the
Philippine Government prevented me obtaining living abaca plants infected
with bunchy top for comparison with diseased plants in Australia, so that
the question of identity has not been settled.
Comparison of the Phloem Abnormalities in Australian and Philippine
Material.
Through the courtesy of Professor Ocfemia in supplying some preserved
material of abaca bunchy top, I was enabled in 1938 to make a further comparison
of the diseases. Histological preparations were made of the Philippine material
and also of tissues of similar age from abaca plants infected with the Australian
virus. All material was fixed in formol-acetic-alcohol and stained in Haiden-
hain’s iron-alum-hematoxylin and light-green. Studies of these preparations
showed that the primary effect of the virus, or viruses, in upsetting the normal
development of the phloem is very similar indeed.
The banana bunchy top virus in abaca causes a derangement of the phloem
very like that described for the banana (Magee, 1939), but with the difference
that the hyperplastic changes are not so general, either within the phloem or
in the surrounding ground tissue. In Plate V, Fig. 1, is depicted a phloem
strand of abaca affected with banana bunchy top. The phloem is almost
entirely replaced by an abnormal tissue, composed of hypertrophic and hyper-
plastic cells. As in the banana (loc. cit.), hypertrophic or ‘‘ giant ’’ cells reach
their greatest development in the abaxial region of the strand, where they may
be associated with areas of obliteration or necrosis. These abnormal changes,
which commence during the early differentiation of the phloem, may involve
portion or the whole of the fibrous sheath and result in its replacement by
hypertrophic cells.
Plate V, Figs. 2 and 3, show the same type of phloem malformation in the
Philippine material. The normal phloem and fibrous sheath are replaced by
hypertrophic and hyperplastic cells, and several areas of obliteration are present.
In the Philippine material, besides the infiltration of gum into the areas of
obliteration or necrosis, the lumina of certain of the cells of the phloem were
blocked with gum. Whilst this was found, to some extent, in Australian material
both of banana and abaca, the heavy gum deposits were more characteristic of
the Philippine material (see also Plate V, Fig. 4).
In the abnormal phloem strand shown in Plate V, Fig. 3, there is to be seen
an extension of the hyperplastic influence to the ground tissue, resulting in the
formation of a miniature-celled tissue. This was observed to occur only rarely
in both the Australian and Philippine abaca material, but its occurrence in the
latter is of special interest since hyperplasia of the ground tissue adjacent to the
phloem is such a prominent feature of the effect of the Australian virus on the
14 C. J. MAGEE.
Cavendish banana. On the rare occasions when extension of hyperplasia to the
ground tissue occurs in abaca it is considered it would become visible externally,
as it does in banana, as a green Streak.
Plate V, Fig. 4, shows in longitudinal section the structure of the phloem
of abaca infected with the Philippine virus. Here again is evident a point of
similarity in the effect of the Australian virus in both abaca and banana. Many
of the cells which constitute the abnormal phloem tissue contain the same
type of hypertrophied nuclei as has been described in the case of bunchy top
of the Cavendish banana.
The Heart-kot Symptom in Abaca and the Philippine Reports of the
Failure of Transmission of the Abaca Virus to the Banana.
In the Philippines, a high percentage of abaca plants infected with bunchy
top later develop a rot of the centre of the pseudostem, which may extend down
as far as the rhizome, and cause death of the plants. Heart-rot was at one
time considered to be a specific disease in the Philippines, and was the subject
of much investigation and speculation as to its cause.
Following his investigation of bunchy top of abaca, Ocfemia (1930) con-
cluded that 11 to 17 per cent. of abaca plants infected with bunchy top
ultimately die of heart-rot, and later Ramos (1933), in assessing the different
causes of heart-rot disease in Laguna and Cavite Provinces, placed the bunchy
top figure at 10 to 22 per cent., and those cases where heart-rot was secondary
to injury from beetle borer (Cosmopolites sordidus Germar) at 53 to 90 per cent.
Heart-rot is not a symptom of bunchy top of Cavendish bananas in Australia,
but I have observed occasional bunchy top affected bananas dying of heart-rot
in Ceylon and Fiji (Plate I, Fig. 3). The symptom is regarded as a purely
secondary one, and Ocfemia, too, has indicated that the onset of heart-rot is
dependent on weather conditions and represents an extreme case of collapse of
chlorotic tissues and their subsequent invasion by bacteria. This is clearly
the origin of heart-rot when Australian bunchy top is inoculated to M. ensete.
It is considered that the absence of heart-rot in association with outbreaks of
bunchy top in any country cannot be regarded as evidence of the presence of a
distinet virus.
The most formidable barrier to the acceptance of the identity of the banana
and abaca virus is the fact that Philippine banana varieties have been reported
by Ocfemia (1930) and Ocfemia and Buhay (1934) not to succumb to abaca
bunchy top when growing in close proximity to infected plants in the field.
Further, attempts to transmit the abaca disease experimentally to a number of
banana varieties, including the Cavendish variety, have proved unsuccessful.
How much importance should be attached to the negative field observations is
difficult to judge. Many instances of apparent non-infectiousness of bananas
infected with bunchy top have been observed in the field in Australia, and,
before the nature of the disease was understood, this was a subject of much
speculation. It is of interest that the capricious nature of the spread of the
disease was commented on by the Governor of Fiji as early as 1891. Even
under severe epiphytotic conditions in an established Cavendish plantation in
Australia, diseased and healthy stools may remain side by side for months, or
even a year or two, without symptoms of the disease being detected in the
healthy plants. In the case of the Gros Michel variety, with its greater resistance
to the disease, many disconcerting observations have been made, such as groups
of stools having been surrounded for years by infected Cavendish stools without
contracting the disease. Further data on the range of the Philippine observa-
tions, and the varieties and circumstances, would be helpful.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15
In reference to the attempts of Ocfemia and Buhay (1934) to transmit
abaca bunchy top to banana experimentally, it is doubtful whether the negative
evidence should be accepted as final. Two of the three experiments concerned
are open to criticism. In these experiments, infective aphids (unchecked for
infectivity to abaca) were transferred to each of two, or four, banana suckers
standing in water in battery jars, and were killed after feeding for 48 hours.
The plants were then planted in pots of soil and their further growth observed.
Since there is always a lapse of two or three weeks before suckers without roots
establish themselves, it is questionable whether this method of inoculation would
prove successful even in a small percentage of a large number of trials, because
of the condition of the plants at the time of inoculation.
In the third experiment ten healthy suckers each of the Latundan, Bungulan,
Saba, Lacatan and Cavendish varieties growing in pots and ten suckers of each
variety growing under field conditions were used. To each plant 50 adult
wingless aphids which had been allowed to feed on diseased abaca plants for
5 days to acquire the virus were transferred and allowed to feed for 10 days.
Though at first sight it may seem most unlikely that negative resuits should
occur in all plants in this experiment, if the virus involved is the banana bunchy
top virus there are conditions under which it could occur. From studies on
the acquisition of the virus by adult and nymphal aphids (Magee, 1940b) it
is known that even with recently-infected banana plants acquisition of the virus
by adults is of a low order as compared with nymphs, and if, as occurs in the
banana, availability of the virus in abaca falls with ageing and loss of vigour,
the employment by Ocfemia and Buhay of anything but recently-infected
sources of inoculum would be expected to give negative results with adults.
No details of the sources of inoculum are given, and check inoculations to abaca
to prove infectivity for the aphids were apparently not made.
It is felt that further field observations must be made on bananas growing
in abaca plantations in which bunchy top is spreading actively and further
experimental inoculations to bananas must be carried out using as vectors
aphids which have fed as nymphs on a recently-infected source of the virus
before it can be accepted that the Philippine virus is distinct, or even a distinct
strain, from that which occurs in Australia and Ceylon. In view of the remark-
able behaviour of the Veimama banana in making a partial recovery from the
disease and the robust plants formed by suckers taken from diseased stools of
the abaca varieties in North Borneo, the possibility cannot be overlooked that
some of the Philippine bananas may be also partially-recovered plants. It is
known (Magee, 1948) that Veimama plants of this type display an acquired
resistance to re-infection.
One other point of similarity between the Australian and Philippine disease
should be mentioned. In both cases there is an incubation period in the vector.
This need not be evidence for identity, but it is relatively rare for there to be an
incubation period with viruses transmitted by aphids. In the case of abaca
bunchy top, using groups of 25 aphids, Ocfemia and Buhay (1934) found that
between 24 and 48 hours must elapse after feeding on an infected source before
the aphids were capable of infecting healthy seedlings. The duration of this
period for banana bunchy top depends on the individual aphid and varies from a
few hours to 48 hours (Magee, 19400).
The aspects of the bunchy top disease I have selected for consideration this
evening are a challenge for further investigation. We do not know where the
disease originated, and in view of the variable symptoms which may be caused
by the virus there are difficulties to be cleared away in establishing its incidence
and identity in different countries. Further studies of symptoms should be
16 Cc. J. MAGEE.
made by inoculating the virus to a wider range of Musa species and varieties
and by following the subsequent behaviour of inoculated plants in the field.
This could be done without risk in the field, provided the infected plants are
regularly treated with one of the modern insecticides to prevent colonization of
the vector on the plants. It is probable that the question of the identity of
banana or plantain bunchy top and the abaca disease could be resolved by an
interchange of infected material. Sufficient is known about the diseases to
enable a safe comparative study to be made under quarantine conditions in
either the Philippines or in Australia, although all risks would be removed if
the study were made in Australia where abaca is never likely to be a crop of
economic importance.
My desire for a more complete knowledge of the bunchy top disease arises
from the belief that in addition to the Veimama variety other varieties of bananas
and some varieties of abaca can carry the virus almost symptomlessly, and
because of this a danger exists of their spreading the disease to new territories
and countries. There is little doubt that the entry of bunchy top into North
Borneo, where it now occurs in both bananas and abaca, resulted from theintroduc-
tion ofabaca planting stock which carriedachronicmildinfection. Inendeavouring
to account for the present world distribution of the disease, it is thought that
special scrutiny should be given to early importations of abaca planting stock.
It is not known how the disease penetrated into Ceylon, but Bryce’s report
that the disease destroyed a plot of abaca at the Peradeniya Experiment Station
in 1918 might be relevant, as the plot was probably a trial of introduced material
and Peradeniya is many miles from Colombo, where the disease was first reported
in 1913. Chronic infections in bananas might also have played a part in spreading
the disease in the past, and we should not pass over Simmonds’ suggestion that
bunchy top was introduced into Fiji in ‘‘ immune ”’ stock from one of the Pacific
Islands until more is known about the distribution of the disease in the many
islands in this region.
The great importance of chronic and often symptomless infections with
plant viruses is now being realized. Evidence is accumulating that they
constitute an insidious threat even where there are well organized plant
quarantine barriers against the introduction of new diseases. For instance, the
disaster which befell the citrus industries in Argentine and Brazil in recent years,
when nine million citrus trees succumbed to the Tristeza disease, is attributed
to the introduction of trees or budwood from South Africa (Costa, Grant and
Moreira, 1950). It is now known that such trees or buds would have carried
the Tristeza virus symptomlessly. Also, recent surveys carried out by Fraser
(1952) in New South Wales show that this virus is almost universal in its dis-
tribution in our coastal citrus areas, and probably has been for many years,
so that the Tristeza disease could easily have been introduced to South America
from Australia. The Tristeza virus has also penetrated into Californian citrus
areas, again, presumably, in symptomless planting stock or budwood,;
The importance of bananas and plantains as food crops in the tropics is
strong reason for the continuance of investigations on the bunchy top disease,
and also for organized surveys to determine its geographical range. Special
attention should be given to such surveys in the Pacific region, and this might
be a project that could be appropriately taken up by the South Pacific
Commission. From the Australian point of view, and considering our political
commitments, it would be a calamity if the disease were to penetrate into the
Territory of Papua and New Guinea because of the important part bananas
play in the diet of the natives of this territory. As a first step in protecting
New Guinea, surveys should be conducted in the Solomon Islands, New Hebrides
and other island linkages with the Fiji Group and the Ellice Islands where
bunehy top occurs.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVIT, 1953, Plate I
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LDXXXVIT, 1953, Plate II
W., Vol. EXXXVII, 1953, Plate IIT
Journal Royal Society of N.S
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVIT, 1953, Plate V
Pemies
ee RE
is
4
%
%
Ye
a
a hy"
Co
SS
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVII, 1953, Plate VI
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. eG
REFERENCES.
Bryce, G., 1921. The Bunchy Top Plantain Disease. Dept. Agric. Ceylon, Leaflet 18.
Campbell, J. G., 1926. Ann. Rept. Fiji Dept. Agric., (1925), 12.
Cheesman, E. E., 1934. Trop. Agriculture, 11, Nos. 6, 7, 8.
Costa, A. S., Grant, T. J., and Moreira, S., 1950. California Citrograph, 35, 504.
Darnell-Smith, G. P., 1919. Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., 30, 809.
—__-____-—_____—— 1924. _ Qld. Agric. J., 21, 169.
—_______-_-______— and Tryon, H., 1923. Qld. Agric. J., 19, 23.
Eastwood, H. W., 1946. Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., 57, 571.
Fahmy, T., 1924. A Banana Disease Caused by a Species of Heterodera. Min. Agric. Egypt,
Bull. 30.
Fraser, Lilian R., 1952. Records N.S.W. Dept. of Agric., Sydney. Unpubl.
Gadd, C. H., 1926. Trop. Agriculturist, 66, 3.
Harland, S. C., 1928. Trop. Agriculture, 5, 23-24, 54-56, 90-91.
Hill, A. W., 1926. Nature, 117, 757.
Howes, F. N., 1928. Kew Bull. Misc. Inform., 8, 305.
Hutson, J. C., and Park, M., 1930. Trop. Agriculturist, 75, 127.
Jensen, D. D., 1946. Proc. Hawaiian Entom. Soc., 14, 535.
Magee, C. J., 1927. Investigation on the Bunchy Top Disease of Bananas. C.S.I.R.O.,
Melbourne, Bull. 30.
—— 1936. J. Aust. Inst. Agric. Sc., 2, 13.
1939. Pathological Changes in the Phloem and Neighbouring Tissues of the
Banana Caused by the Bunchy Top Virus. N.S.W. Dept. Agric.
Se., Bull. 67:
—— 1940a. J. Aust. Inst. Agric. Sc., 6, 44.
1940b. J. Aust. Inst. Agric. Sc., 6, 109.
1948. J. Aust. Inst. Agric. Sc., 14, 18.
Mehta, P. R., 1952. Office of Plant Pathologist to Govt. U.P., Kanpur, India. (Personal
communication. )
Ocfemia, G. O., 1926. Phytopathology, 16, 894.
——_——_—_———— 1927. Phytopathology, 17, 255.
1930. Amer. J. Bot., 17, 1.
and Buhay, G. G., 1934. Philippine Agric., 22, 567.
—_—_____—_— and Celino, M. S., 1938. Philippine Agric., 27, 593.
Petch, T., 1913. Trop. Agriculturist, 41, 427.
Ramachandran Nair, K. R., 1944. Indian Farming, 5, 36.
Ramos, M. M., 1933. Philippine Agric., 22, 322.
Reichert, J., 1952. Rehovot, Israel. (Personal communication.)
Reinking, O. A., 1950. Plant Disease Reporter, 34, 63.
Reynolds, P. K., 1951. Earliest Evidence of Banana Culture. Supplement to J. Amer. Oriental
poc., 17, 4.
Samraj, J., 1952. Univ. of Travancore, Kayangulam, India. (Personal communication.)
Sands, W. N., 1925. Malayan Agric. J., 13, 275.
Simmonds, H. W., 1931. Agric. J. Dept. Agric., Fiji, 4, 135.
—_____—_—————- 1933. Report on Visit to Samoa. Dept. Agric., Fuji. (Unpublished.)
Soliman, A., 1951. Farouk University, Alexandria. (Personal communication.)
Vasudeva, R. S., 1952. Indian Agric. Res. Inst. New Delhi. (Personal communication.)
Wellman, F. L., 1934. Phytopathology, 24, 1032.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Puate I.
Figs. 1 and 2.—Reproductions of photographs enclosed by the Governor of Fiji in a despatch
to the Colonial Office in 1891. The plants are of the Cavendish variety and the symptoms shown
leave no doubt of the identity of the disease which destroyed the Fijian industry about this
time. Reproduced by permission of the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
Fig. 3.—Bunchy top stool of the Cavendish variety, Fiji, 1937, showing dieback of plants
following heart-rot. Photo. by B. E. Parham, Department of Agriculture, Fiji.
PuatTe II.
Figs. 1 and 2.—Symptoms of bunchy top in a seedling of the Abyssinian banana, Musa
ensete, showing chlorosis, membranous areas, X, and malformation of leaves. Fig. 1, first
symptom-leaf and Fig. 2 the following leaf.
Fig. 3.—First symptom-leaf of abaca (M. textilis) infected with banana bunchy top. The
leaf is chlorotic ; the right side of the lamina has failed to unfurl completely and a membranous
area is developing near its base. Two-thirds natural size.
Fig. 4.—Another type of first-symptom commonly shown by abaca seedlings affected with
banana bunchy top. The leaf is slightly chlorotic and faint yellowish streaks are present towards
its base. Such streaks are sometimes visible before the leaf unfurls. Natural size.
D
18 Cc. J. MAGER.
Puate ITI.
Fig. 1.—Severe symptoms shown by the first-symptom leaf of an abaca seedling infected
with banana bunchy top. Most of the main veins are cleared, the lamina is highly chlorotic,
particularly towards its margin, and is malformed as the result of the collapse of membranous
areas. Natural size.
Fig. 2.—Second infected leaf of an abaca seedling to which the banana bunchy top virus has
been transmitted, showing the type of symptom commonly displayed. Symptoms are usually
more severe than in the first-symptom leaf. Note cleared veins, severe chlorosis, and the mal-
formations of the lamina caused by collapse of membranous areas. Two-thirds natural size.
Fig. 3.—Portion of abaca leaf affected with banana bunchy top showing nature of the cleared
vein symptom when viewed from the under-surface of the leaf. Clearing is to be seen in both the
main and subsidiary veins of leaves which emerge after the first-symptom leaf but may be present
also in the first-symptom leaf. The clearing is either continuous or broken into dots and dashes.
Natural size.
Puate IV.
Vegetatively propagated abaca plant infected with banana bunchy top illustrating type of
growth which occurs subsequent to infection. The central plant was inoculated at the fifth-leaf
stage and the other two plants are infected suckers which have arisen as offsets. The lowest
leaf, X, of the parent plant is the last healthy leaf formed and the first-symptom and next two
leaves are indicated at 1, 2 and 3. Note that leaves formed later than these instead of becoming
shorter as occurs in infected bananas, proceed to increase in length. The leaves, however,
remain narrow, upright and have slightly upturned margins. A similar behaviour is to be seen
in the sucker on the right, where the later-formed leaves are also beginning to increase in length.
PLatTE V.
Figs. | and 2.—Showing in Fig. 1 a twenty-months-old stool of the Bangkura variety of abaca
and in Fig. 2 a twelve-months-old stool of the Tangongon variety which grew from suckers selected
from stools that became badly affected with bunchy top during a period of rapid spread of the
disease on Tiger Estate, North Borneo, in 1950. Note apparently normal foliage and vigour.
Close examination of such stools revealed symptoms which are considered to indicate that they
had a mild chronic form of bunchy top disease similar to that reported in the case of the Veimama
variety of Fiji.
Fig. 3.—Portion of abaca leaf showing yellow bands which were associated with a. suspected
mild chronic form of bunchy top in North Borneo. The bands may be broad and conspicuous
or narrow and fleeting. Note on the left side of the leaf the yellow bands are well defined only
near the margin. Photo. by Mr. N. Young.
Fig. 4.—Illustrating the dark brown stripe symptom which was associated with a severe
outbreak of bunchy top in abaca in North Borneo. Although the symptom was a capricious one,
even in badly diseased stools, it was occasionally seen in plants with the mild chronic form of the
disease. Photo. by Mr. N. Young.
PruatEe VI.
Fig. 1.—Australian material. Phloem strand from petiole of abaca infected with the banana
virus, showing replacement of the phloem and portion of its fibrous sheath by morbid tissue.
F, fibrous sheath; G, hypertrophic or “ giant” cells; O, region of obliteration or necrosis.
x 370.
Fig. 2.—Philippine material. Phloem strand from petiole of abaca infected with the abaca
virus, showing replacement of the phloem and its fibrous sheath by morbid tissue and blocking
of the lumina of two cells with gum. F, remnant of fibrous sheath ; G, hypertrophic or “ giant ”’
cells; O, regions of obliteration; M, mucilage duct. 370.
Fig. 3.—Philippine material. Abnormal phloem strand of abaca infected with the abaca
virus showing extension of hyperplasia into the parenchyma to form a miniature-celled tissue.
x 370.
Fig. 4.—Philippine material. Longitudinal section of portion of a phloem strand from a
petiole of abaca infected with the abaca virus showing hypertrophic nuclei and accumulations
of gum. x 700.
OCCULTATIONS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY
DURING 1952.
By K. P. SIMS, B.Sc.
Manuscript received, February 3, 1953. Read, April 1, 1953.
The following observations of occultations were made at Sydney Observatory
with the 114-inch telescope. A tapping key was used to record the times on a
chronograph. The reduction elements were computed by the method given in
the Occultation Supplement to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the reduction
completed by the method given there. The necessary data were taken from the
Nautical Almanac for 1952, the Moon’s right ascension and declination (hourly
TABLE I,
Serial N.Z.C.
No. No. Mag. Date. LOA be Observer:
hm s
244 337 5-7 Feb. 2 11-27 50:7 WwW
245 1547 3°8 Mar. 10 11 36 26-5 s
246 1315 6-9 Apr. 4. 13 09 12-5 W
247 1754 6-9 May 6 9 30 40-7 )
248 1815 4°8 June 3 10 24 57-9 S
249 2039 5:6 June 5 hao 20-0 W
250 2045 6-4 June 5 8 50 51-5 W
251 2051 5:7 June 5 9 37 49-3 W
252 1885 7°4 July 1 TOSS i 24< 2 NS)
253 2109 6-1 July 3) 7 50 57-2 W
254 2268 4°8 July 4 12 06 31-8 R
255 2273 5-9 July 4 12 51 05-2 WwW
256 2084 6-5 July 30 12 39 23-3 WwW
257 2650 4-7 Aug. 30 13 55: 51-4 Ww
258 2809 4-9 Aug. 31 10 14 40-2 WwW
259 2575 6-8 Sept. 26 11 09 53-0 R
260 3196 6-1 Sept. 30 8 43 48-0 | R
261 2872 6-2 Oct. 25 10 27 03-3 | Ww
262 2875 6-1 Oct. 25 NOVS tet ies W
263 3308 6-2 Oct. 28 13 42 43-5 WwW
264 3311 7-0 Oct. 28 14 08 35:6 Ww
265 65 7°3 Dec. 24 9 56 40°8 s
table) and parallax (semi-diurnal table) being interpolated therefrom. No
correction was applied to the observed times for personal effect but a correction.
of —0-00152 hours was applied before entering the ephemeris of the Moon.
This corresponds to a correction of —3”-0 to the Moon’s mean longitude.
Table I gives the observational material. The serial numbers follow on
from those of the previous report (Robertson and Sims, 1952). The observers
were H. W. Wood (W.), W. H. Robertson (R) and K. P. Sims (8S). In all cases
DD
20 K. P. SIMS.
the phase observed was disappearance at the dark limb. Table II gives the
results of the reduction, which were carried out in duplicate. The N.Z.C.
numbers given are those of the Catalog of 3539 Zodiacal Stars for the Equinox
1950-0 (Robertson, 1940), as recorded in the Nautical Almanac.
TaBLeE II.
Coefficient of
Serial Luna-
No. tion. p q p pq q Ac pcs | gc
Aa Ads
244 360 |+ 97 | +24 94 23 6 |—0-2 |—0-2 0-0 |} +11-5 | +0-57
245 361 |+ 96 | —29 92 —28 8 |—1-2 |—1-2 |+0-3 | +10-7 | —0-69
246 362 |+ 53 | +85 28 +45 72 |+1-0 |+0-5 |+0-8 | +11-0 |) +0-62
247 363 |+ 96 | +27 93 +26 7 |+0-6 |+0-6 |+0-2 | +14-7 | —0-21
248 364 |+ 97 | —26 93 —25 7 |—1-3 |j—1-3 |+0-3 | +11-1 | —0-67
249 364 |+ 91 |.—42 82 —38 18 |+0-8 |+0-7 /—0-3 |} + 9-9 | —0-72
250 364 |+ 62 | —78 39 —49 61 /+0-8 |+0-5 |—0-6 |} + 4-3 | —0-95
251 364 |+ 89 | —46 79 —4]1 21 |+0-8 |+0-7 |\—0-4 | + 9-5 | —0-75
252 365 |+ 98 | +18 97 +18 3 |+1-8 |+1-8 |+0-3 | +14-2 | —0-26
253 365 |+ 66 | —75 44 —50 56 |+0-4 1+0-3 |—0-3 | + 5-5 | —0-92
254 365 |+ 97 | +24 94 +23 6 |+0-7 |+0-7 |+0-2 | +13°6 | +0-04
255 365 |+ 69 | +72 48 +50 52 110-5 |+0-3 |+0-4 | +11-2 | +0-57
256 366 i+ 97 |) +26 93 | +25 7 |+1-1 |+1-1 |+0-3 | +14-1 | —0-07
257 367 + 89 | —46 704 fal 21 |j—2-4 j|—2-1 |41-1 +12-4 | —0-37
258 367 |+100 | — 5 100 — 5 0 /|+1-9 |+1-9 |—0-1 | +13-5 | +0-15
259 368 |+100 | —10 99 —10 1 |+1-1 /+1-1 |—0-1 | +13°3 | —0-06
260 368 |+ 91 | —41 83 —37 17 |\—0-°5 |—0-5 |+0-2 | +14°6 | +0-01
261 369 |+ 92 | —40 84 —37 | 16 |j—1-3 |—1-2 |-+0:-5 | 13-6 | —0-17
262 369 |+ 84 | —54 | 71 41 29 |+0-6 |+0-5 |—0°3 | +13:-1 | —0:-31
263 369 |j+ 50] +87 25 +43 75 |—0-3 |\—0-2 |—0-3/} + 0-9 | +1-00
264 369 i+ 85 | +53 72 +45 28 |—0-8 |—0-7 |—0-4 | + 7-8 | +0-85
265 371 j;+ 69 | +72 48 +50 52 |+0-6 |+0-4 |4+0-4 | + 4-4 | +0-95
REFERENCES.
Robertson, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, Vol. X, Part II.
Robertson, W. H., and Sims, K. P. Turis JourNAL, 86, 20; Sydney Observatory Papers No. 18.
PARAMETERS OF SEISMIC RAYS.
By K. E. BULLEN, M.A., Sc.D., F.R.S.
Manuscript received, February 18, 1953. Read, April 1, 1953.
1. In the standard theory of seismic rays, it is customary to use polar
coordinates 7, 0, taken as in the Figure, where P is any point of the ray AB,
Lis the lowest point of the ray, and O is the centre of the Earth, here taken to be
spherically symmetrical. The purpose of this note is to show that there are
advantages in using (p, 7) coordinates, where p is the perpendicular from O to
the tangent at P. In particular, the salient properties of the parameter of a
seismic ray (taken as A below) are derived very directly.
2. The shape of rays for a given velocity distribution, v(r) say, is commonly
determined (Jeffreys, 1952) by using the analogue of Fermat’s principle in the
form that the time 7 along a ray, given by
ds
where s is the arc-length AP, is stationary when the distance AB is assigned.
In polar coordinates, (1) becomes
ra [iG 5) tek ae, er ct he Gro ane (2)
and the condition that the integral in (2) is stationary leads to the usual Euler
differential equation, which is then solved to give various properties of the ray.
In (p,7) coordinates, (1) becomes
*o 2rdr
22 K. E. BULLEN.
where ry is the Earth’s radius and q is the value of p at the point ZL of the ray.
The interesting and simplifying feature in using (3) is that the integrand formally
contains no derivative, as does (2) through the presence of dr/d0. The integral
in (3) has to be made stationary subject to the condition that the angle A sub-
tended by AB at O is assigned. This condition needs a second integral to
describe it, namely
A=|ap
aS a
Es =| Wargy) ee (4)
where A is assigned. The use of (p, 7) coordinates thus converts the original
variation problem into an isoperimetrical one, to be solved using an undetermined
multiplier, A say.
Writing
T—-A= VA, eres cat ae (5)
q
so that
By | a
y=2(; rye fab WacPaee eI Nes ehh S20 (6)
a necessary condition that the travel-time is stationary is then given by
OY
aie On. bce il ne eee (7)
where the parameter A will be constant along a particular ray. The condition
(7) leads by simple differentiation and reduction to the formula
which is the form of Snell’s law of refraction relevant to a spherical Earth.
(For refraction at a spherical surface of discontinuity, (8) shows that v—! sin »
is unchanged, » being as in the Figure.)
3. Substituting from (8) into (6) gives
V=2(r0) (9? pF ae se bw (9)
which by (5) immediately gives another standard formula, namely
LVN, | Tree? eyade, 6. (10)
where 4=r/v. ;
4. The formula
aaa LALA ROR (11)
connecting the parameter A with the travel-time-distance relation, can now be
readily deduced independently of the more geometrical process usually followed.
Since r=p at the lowest point ZL, it follows by (9) that ,_, is zero. Hence,
by (5),
pe ye AD
da ae
=| Ov( (A; P) a
On é
qg
PARAMETERS OF SEISMIC RAYS. 23
where (A, p) is expressed in the form (6), d(A, p)/Op being then zero by (7).
Thus
d 7)
ie:
aT dA
ANN aN oo
which gives (11).
The derivation of all three of the results (8), (10) and (11) in this way throws
more light on the parameter A than the usual methods. (Cf. Bullen, 1947,
pp. 108-111.)
REFERENCES.
Bullen, K. E., 1947. An Introduction to the Theory of Seismology. Cambridge University
Press.
Jeffreys, H., 1952. The Earth. 3rd Ed. Cambridge University Press.
A NOTE ON THE COMPOSITION OF THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF
EUCALYPTUS CITRIODORA HOOK., TYPE.
By H. E.G. McokKERn enc,
and (Mrs.) M. C. SPIES, A.A.C.I.
Manuscript received, February 20, 1953. Read, April 1, 1953.
Notwithstanding the many analyses which have been made on the essential
oil of Hucalyptus citriodora and its forms, there appears to be little reliable
information about the minor constituents of oil of the ‘‘ Type” (65-85%
dl-citronellal). Apart from the identification of the major component citronellal
by Schimmel & Co. (1888), the only other chemical examination of this oil
appears to be that of Chiris (1925). Chiris reported the presence of citronellol,
geraniol and acetates of these alcohols, as well as citronellyl butyrate and
citronellate, pinene, cineole, isopulegol and unidentified sesquiterpene com-
pounds, whereas a recent examination of authentic samples by ourselves failed
to detect the presence of geraniol, butyric acid or cineole.
As the studies in progress at the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences,
Sydney, on the essential oils of HL. citriodora Type and its various physiological
forms (Penfold e¢ al., 1951) call for knowledge of the minor constituents, it has
been found necessary to examine freshly distilled oils from naturally occurring
trees in Queensland, and from cultivated specimens in New South Wales.
The aldehyde contents of the oils examined ranged from 65-8 to 77%,
and the constituents found (other than citronellal) were isopulegol, citronellol,
the formic, acetic and citronellic acid esters of these alcohols, «-pinene, 6-pinene,
and zsovaleric aldehyde. No evidence could be found for the presence of geraniol,
cineole, propionic, butyric or valeric acids in any of the oils examined.
EXPERIMENTAL.
Samples of oil used in this work were steam-distilled from freshly-cut leaves and terminal
branchlets of Hucalyptus citriodora Hook., both from naturally-occurring trees at Cordalba,
Queensland, and from cultivated specimens near Sydney, N.S.W. After drying with anhydrous
sodium sulphate, the physico-chemical constants of the oils fell within the following ranges :
di? 0-8660 to 0-8752; n20° 1-4528 to 1-4582; ap +0-0° to +3-51°; ester No., mg. KOH/g.,
12-5 to 18-5; ester No. after acetylation 264 to 300; citronellal content, 65-8 to 77-0% ; soluble
in 0-5 to 1-5 volumes of 70% W/W alcohol. The oils examined are thus seen to possess physico-
chemical constants falling within the range quoted by Penfold et al. (1951, loc. cit.) for the
‘“Type”’ oil, 7.e. the oil marketed commercially (E. Guenther, ‘“‘ The Essential Oils’, Vol. 4,
p. 473). It is not proposed to quote at length all the experimental data gained on every oil
examined, since much of it is repetitive, and some results secured for a typical case only will be
given.
Crude oil of H. citriodora was obtained in 0-52% yield on steam-distillation of fresh leaves
and terminal branchlets of Type trees growing near Sydney. The oil had daz 0:8752 ; a 1-4582:
COMPOSITION OF ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS CITRIODORA HOOK. 25
py —0-25°; soluble in 1-3 volumes of 70% W/W alcohol; ester No., 12-5; after acetylation,
264; citronellal content, 65-89%. One litre of this oil was submitted to fractional distillation
at 20 mm., the lower boiling (terpenic) fractions only being taken off, as shown in the table.
| Volume.
Boiling as ° 20°
Fraction. Range, | | | die PD Dp
20 mm. | Mis. | %
Vapour trap, aqueous — 4 0-4 — 1-3346 —
Vapour trap, non-
aqueous a — 3 0°3 — — --
1 ie 53° 6 0-6 0-8574 1-4672 —8-50°
2 53°-60° 15 1:5 0-8588 1-4652 —4-45°
3 60°-65° 11 el 0- 8584 1-4664 —5-3°
4 65°—69° 6 0-6 0- 8604 1-4714 —9-65°
5 69°—96° 9 0-9 0-8531 1-4702 —3-45°
After fraction 5, oxygenated constituents (citronellal and isopulegol) began to appear and frac-
tionation was stopped. A vapour-trap immersed in an acetone-dry-ice freezing mixture was
interposed between the fractionation assembly and the vacuum pump.
Aqueous distillate (4 ml.), although giving a positive test with Schiff’s reagent, failed to give
a significant quantity of 2,4—dinitrophenyl-hydrazone, and from the refractive index appeared
to be mainly water.
Determination of Iso-valeric Aldehyde. Refractionation of the non-aqueous phase collected
in the vapour-trap, together with fractions 1, 2 and 3, gave 1 ml. of first runnings. It was a
colourless mobile liquid (n2° 1-4053) of choking odour and gave a strongly positive Schiff test.
It yielded a p-nitro phenyl hydrazone (yellow needles) of m.p. 113-5°, and admixture with an
authentic specimen of iso-valeric aldehyde p-nitro phenyl hydrazone of m.p. 110-5° gave a m.p.
of 112-5°.
Found: C, 59-45%, 59-64%; H, 6-72%, 7:06%; N, 19-01%.
Calculated for C,,H,,;0,N,;: C, 59°69%; H, 6-83%; N, 18-99%.
Determination of a-pinene. Refractionation of fractions 1, 2 and 3 gave a fraction bogs,
90-96° ; dies 0-8618 ; ne 1-4695; ap —11-35° which yielded a nitrosochloride, m.p. 109°.
Oxidation of the fraction (6 g.) with cold neutral permanganate (potassium permanganate,
12-6 g.; water, 150 ml.; ice, 57 g.) yielded an oily acid which formed a semicarbazone, m.p. 202°,
from methanol. Admixture with an authentic specimen of pinonic acid semicarbazone of m.p.
205° raised the m.p. to 204°.
Determination of 8-pinene. Refractionation of fractions 4 and 5 gave a fraction having
bes 92-100°; di?, 0-8650; n2°, 1-4744; ap, —11-5. Oxidation of the fraction (7 ml.) with
alkaline permanganate (potassium permanganate, 14 g.; sodium hydroxide, 3 g.; water, 180 ml.)
gave a good yield of white crystals, m.p. 127°, from benzene. Admixture with an authentic
specimen of nopinic acid produced no depression of m.p.
Determination of Acids. Another specimen of crude oil (500 g.) from the same source was
saponified with alcoholic potash (0-5N ; 4-5 litres) at room temperature for,3 days. Dilution
of the reaction mixture with water enabled the saponified oil to be removed.
Citronellic Acid. After reduction to a small bulk, acidification of the aqueous solution of
potassium salts with sulphuric acid (5N), followed by steam-distillation, resulted in the collection
of a colourless oily acid (12 ml.) of characteristic ‘‘ fatty acid’’ odour. After drying it had
by 140-143°; dj? 0-9303; n201-4549; ap +0-5° and yielded a p-phenylphenacyl ester, m.p. 38°,
26 MCKERN AND SPIES
and a S-benzylthiuronium salt, m.p. 143°, both undepressed by admixture with specimens pre-
pared from an authentic sample of citronellic acid.
Neutralization equivalent: 169-0.
Calculated for citronellic acid: 170.
Formic and Acetic Acids. The aqueous portion of the distillate from the steam-distillation
of the acidified mixture of potassium salts was collected in three fractions. Fraction 1 was shown
to contain a considerable amount of formic acid and attempts to prepare a silver salt resulted in
rapid reduction to metallic silver. In order to determine other acids, the formic acid was
destroyed by boiling with alkaline permanganate in the usual way. The residue obtained on
evaporating the reaction mixture to dryness was distilled with syrupy phosphoric acid to yield a
liquid acid of pungent odour from which the silver salt was prepared. 0-1396 g. yielded 0-0904 g.
Ag, equivalent to 64-76%. Fraction 2, also containing formic acid, was similarly treated, and
the silver salt of the residual acids prepared. 0-1400g. silver salt yielded 0-0906 g. Ag, equivalent
to 64-71%. Fraction 3 contained only a small amount of acids, and the silver salt prepared
therefrom after destruction of the formic acid could not be rigorously purified. 0-0432 g. Ag
salt gave 0:0283 g. Ag, equivalent to 65-5%. Silver acetate requires 64-67% ; silver propionate
would require 59-67%. No evidence for the presence of appreciable quantities of the butyric
or valeric acids was observed, either in this oil or any others examined.
Determination of Alcohols. The saponified oil, after separation of the acids, was washed free
of alkali and treated with hydroxylamine as described by Penfold e¢ al. (1952) ta convert all
citronellal present to its high-boiling oxime. Four hundred and thirty grammes of this oximated
oil was then fractionally distilled at 3 mm.
Isopulegol. The first fraction (b; 60-66°; dj? 0-9131; n2? 1-4732; apy —0-25°) had the
characteristic odour of isopulegol and gave with a-naphthyl isocyanate an a-naphthyl urethane
m.p. 120° from methanol undepressed by an authentic specimen of isopulegol «-naphthyl urethane.
[In order to confirm the presence of isopulegol as an original constituent of the freshly-
distilled crude oil of this species, another oil (dj? 0- 8692 ; mae 1-4545 ; ap +3-51°; ester number,
18-5; ester number after acetylation, 300; citronellal content, 75%) was oximated at 0° without
any other preliminary treatment and fractionally distilled at 10 mm. The fraction boiling at 95°
again yielded an «-naphthyl urethane, m.p. 119°.]
Citronellol. A portion of the oximated oil boiling at 67-93° at 3 mm. (33 g.) was refluxed
2 hours with equal weights of phthalic anhydride and benzene, after which water was added.
The reaction-mixture was brought to neutrality with sodium hydroxide solution and extracted
with ether to remove unreacted material. On acidification the acid phthalate ester was separated
and steam-distilled with excess sodium hydroxide solution. A colourless oil (10 ml.) of pleasant
rose-odour was obtained, having physical constants (die 0- 8678 ; ne 1:4574; ap —0-55°)
closely corresponding to those of citronellol. It yielded an allophanate which on recrystallization
from benzene melted at 107°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of citronellyl allophanate.
Sesquiterpenes. Still pot residues from the various fractional distillations gave the usual
colour tests for sesquiterpenes, but owing to the small quantities present they were not further
investigated.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
We wish to express our thanks to the Trustees and Director (Mr. A. R.
Penfold) of the Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences for permission to publish
this Note.
REFERENCES.
Chiris, A., 1925. Parfums de France, 18, 72.
Penfold, A. R., et al., 1951. THis JouRNAL, 85, 120.
Schimmel & Co., 1888. Bericht, October, p. 16.
The Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences,
Sydney.
A SYSTEM OF INDEPENDENT AXIOMS FOR MAGNITUDES.
By F. A. BEHREND, Ph.D. (Berlin), Sc.D. (Prague),
Unversity of Melbourne.
Manuscript received, March 9, 1953. Read, April 1, 1953.
1. INTRODUCTION.
Let S be a set of elements a, 0, ¢, . . . in which are defined (i) an order
relation (for any a, 6, a<b is either true or false), (ii) an addition operation
(any a, b determine a unique sum a--b); a second operation (iil) multiplication
by a natural number x can be defined, inductively, in terms of (ii) (l.a=a,
(x+1)a=xa-+a).
The condition for S to be isomorphic [with respect to (i), (ii)] to a sub-
sroup G of the (additive) group # of the real numbers is well known: S must
be an archimedean-ordered group.! The following related question is of interest :
under what conditions is S isomorphic to the set G* of the positive elements of
such a group G? When S is a Set of magnitudes like lengths, areas, volumes,
weights, times, etc., this amounts to the problem of measuring the magnitudes
by means of positive real numbers. It will be shown that such a set S may be
characterized by the following system of independent axioms :
(la)
(1b)
least
For any a,b at a
one of a<b, a=b, b<a holds (trichotomy
law).
(II) (a+b) +c=a+(b-+e) (associative law).
(III) If a<b, then the equation a+v=b has at least one solution x (right
inverse law).
(IV) a<xa-+0 (right law of positivity).
(V) To any a,b, a natural number x exists such that b<xa (law of
Archimedes).
The necessity of these laws is obvious; their sufficiency will be proved
in Nos. 2 and 3, their independence in No. 4.
2. CONSEQUENCES OF THE AXIOMS.
(VI) b<b’ implies a+b<a-+b’ (right monotonic law).
Proof: b+a#=b'; by (III); a+b<(a+b)+e=a+(b+ax)=a-+b', by
(TV), (EH).
(III*) a+a=b has at most one solution a, ie. a+xv=a-+y implies r=y
(right cancellation law).
Proof: By (Ia) it is sufficient to exclude «Sy; x Sy implies a+aSa+y,
by (VI), which contradicts a+a=a-+y, by (Ib).
10. Holder, Ber. sdchs. Akad. Wiss., Leipzig. Math. phys. Kl. 53, 13-14 (1901); R. Baer,
J. reime u. angew. Math. 160, 212-218 (1929) ; H. Cartan, Bull. Sci. Math. (2), 63, 201-205 (1939) ;
F. Loonstra, Proc. Ned. Akad. Wet. 49, 41-46 (1945) ; see also G. Birkhoff, ‘‘ Lattice Theory ”’,
revised edition, 1948, p. 226.
28 F. A. BEHREND.
(VII) a<b, b<ec imply a<c (transitive law).
Proof: a+a%=b, b+y=c, by (III); a<a+(e%+y)=(a+a)+y=b+y=c,
by (IV), (11).
(VIII) For any a, the correspondence x<-—xa is an isomorphism of the
Sets 41..\2,, 35... and, {4.20 cogs. ey
Proof: a<2a<3a<..., by (IV), (VII); (x+A)a=xa+Aa, by (II).
(V*) If a<b, then A exists such that Aw<b<(A-+1)a.
Proof: b<xa, for some x, by (V); xa<(x+1)a, by (IV); b<(x+1)a,
by (VII). If x’ is the least number with b<x’a, then 2<x’, and A=x’—1
satisfies (V*).
(LV’) b<a-+b (left law of positivity).
Proof: By (Ia) either b<a or a<xb. If b<a, then (IV) implies }<a-+4,
by (VII); if a<b, then Aqa<b<(A+1)a=a+)Aa<a+b, by (V*), (VIII), (VI),
(VII).
(VI’) a<a’ implies a+b<a’+b (left monotonic law).
Proof: a+a=a’', by (III); b<a-+b, by ([V’); hence a+b<a+(x%+b)=
(a+#)+b=a'-+-b, by (VI), (II).
3. SUFFICIENCY OF THE AXIOMS.
We distinguish two cases:
3a. S possesses a smallest element e, i.e.
(IX) e<a for all a. |
By (V*), A exists for every a such that Ae<a<(A+1)e; this implies Ae =a,
as Ae<a leads to Ae+a—=a, by (III), and a<(A+1)e=dAe+e<A+a=a, by (1X),
(VI), (VIL), contradicting (Ib). S thus is the set {e, 2e, 3e, . . .} which, by
(VIII), is isomorphic to the set {1, 2, 3,.. .} of the positive integers.
3b. S possesses no smallest element, i.e.
(X) No element a exists such that a<b for all b.
It follows that, to every a, lan element b exists such that a<|{b, Le. b<a,
by (Ia). Moreover, b’ exists such that 2b’<a; for b<a leads to b4+a=a,
by (III), and if b’=min (b,x),? then 2b’=b’+)' <b’+a<b+a=a, by (VI),
(VEE) a (Cyeleyy
(XI) a+b=b-+a (commutative law).
Proof: By (Ia), it is sufficient to exclude a+b Sb+a. Suppose a+b<b-+a.
By (II), (a+b)+a=b-+a. Choose y, by (X), such that 2y<a, and put
z—=min (a,b, y)?; then z<a, <b, 22=e+2e<ze+y<yty=za, by (VI), (VY),
(VII). By (V*), x, A exist such that | .
UE<A<(x+1)z, he<b<(A+1)z,
whence, by (VI), (VI’), (VII), (VIIT), (IT)
b+a<(At+l)e+(x+1)e=xze+re +22 <a+b+ax=b)-+a,
in contradiction to (Ib).
(XI) implies the validity of the remaining left laws; and by adjunction of
the elements 0 and —a, in the usual manner, S may be extended to form an
archimedean-ordered group which is isomorphic to a subgroup G of R; S itself
is isomorphic to Gt.
2 The minimum of a finite number of elements exists in virtue of (I), (VII).
A SYSTEM OF INDEPENDENT AXIOMS FOR MAGNITUDES. 29
4. INDEPENDENCE OF THE AXIOMS.
The independence of the axioms will be proved by exhibiting, for each of
the six axioms, the example of a set satisfying all but this particular axiom.
Examplela. Let S={2,3,4,. . .} with the usual addition, and define a <b
to mean the existence of xin S such thata+a=—b. As 243, and neither 2+a”=3
nor 3+a=2 have a solution in S, (Ia) is false. The other axioms are easily
verified.
Example 1b. Let S={0, +1, +2,. . .} with the usual addition, and define
a<b to hold between any a,b. All axioms hold except (Ib).
Example 2. Let S be the set of all real numbers a>1 with the usual order,
the ‘sum ” of two elements a,b being given by a». (II) is false, as (a?)eAaP® ;
the other axioms are easily verified.
Example 3. Let S={2, 3, 4,.. .} with the usual addition and order. All
axioms hold except (IIT) (the equation 2-+-#=3 has no solution).
Example 4.2 Let N={1, 2, 3,.. .} and let a be any transformation which
maps WN in a one-one-manner on a subset Na=N’ of N whose complement
N—WN’ is infinite. Let 7 ={a, b, c,. . .} be the set of all such transformations.
The product ab of two transformations is obtained by first applying a then b.
Multiplication clearly satisfies the associative law (i) (ab)e=a(be). Moreover,
the following two properties hold : (ii) z~v implies a4 a” ; for, by the definition
Nat-+1 is a proper part of Nat so that Na, Na?, Na®,. . . and hence a, a, a3,. ..
are all different. (iii) The equation ax=b has a solution for any a, b. @ is
found thus: Let a map x on xa=x’, and let b map x on xb=x"; defining
x'x=x", we get xax=xb; «x is then defined for all x’ in N’=WNa, its range being
N"=Nb; the definition of x on N—WN’ is arbitrary provided its values lie in
N—N" and omit an infinite part of N—N”. axv=b thus has an infinity of
solutions ; a special one can be singled out and called the special quotient b/a.
From T an enumerable subset S={a,, do, a3, . . .} satisfying (i), (ii), (iii) can
be selected by starting with any element a, and constructing the subset generated
from a, by the multiplication and special quotient operations. Defining
Oy <yg<<g<. . . (and using the multiplicative instead of the additive notation
in S), S satisfies (Ia), (1b), (II) (trivially), (IIL) (as every equation ax=b has a
solution), and (V) as a, a, a®, . . . are all different and any b=a, exceeds a
finite number (A—1) of elements only. As a+a=a has a solution, (IV) is
false.
Example 5. Let S be the set of all ordinal numbers greater than 0 and
less than w? with the usual addition and order. All axioms hold except (V)
(x-1<w for all x).
5. CONCLUSION.
The present system of axioms is only one of many similar ones. A more
systematic investigation of the various possible systems, as well as their relation
to the problem of isomorphism with the full subgroups G@ of & (and also Hélder’s*
axioms for sets isomorphic to R+) will be the subject of a subsequent paper.
The merits of the present system may be described as follows: Only the
one-sided laws (IIT), (IV) are used, whereas the investigations of ordered semi-
groups usually assume both right and left inverse and monotonic laws. The
3 TI am indebted to Dr. B. H. Neumann for drawing my attention to this adaptation of an
example given by R. Baer and F. Levi (Svtz. ber. Heidelberg Akad. Wiss. Math.-naturwiss. Kl.
1932, 2, Abh., 7-8).
4 Loc. cit. footnote 1, 4—7. Parts of the proof in Nos. 2, 3 of the present paper are taken from
Holder ; but he assumes both inverse and both positive laws.
30 F. A: BEHREND.
restriction to the one-sided laws appears particularly natural when applied to
physically irreversible magnitudes like time-intervals. An axiomatic treatment
of time was given by H. Weyl?). His treatment assumes the existence of clocks
which are described as systems which return, after a while, to a prior state and
hence are periodical; this would imply a directly numerical measurement of
time. For the present system of axioms an aperiodic (hence somewhat simpler
and more fundamental) type of clock is required: a clock is a system which
may be started at any given moment from a standard initial state and whose
subsequent states are all different (e.g., a sample of radio-actively decaying
matter), so that the various states a’, b’, c’,. . . of the clock represent the time
intervals a, b, c, . . . elapsed since the clock was started. It is assumed that
of two different states a’, b’ one can be recognized as the earlier state ; it is also
assumed that all clocks, wherever and whenever used, always behave in exactly
the same manner. a<b then means that the state a’ is earlier than b’ ; and the
sum c=a-+b of two time intervals is obtained by starting a clock A, starting
a second clock B when A has reached the state a’, and observing the state c’
of A when B has reached the state b’. The laws (Ia), (Ib), (II) and (IV) are
direct consequences of these definitions ; and the equation (III) a+a=b may
be solved by starting a clock X when A has reached the state a’ and observing
its state «’ when A reaches b’. The corresponding left equation y-+-a—b can
not be solved in this way as this would require the determination of a state y’
of a clock Y such that a clock A, started when Y is in the state y’, reaches the
state a’ when Y reaches b’; as the process is irreversible, the state y’ which
depends on a later event cannot be found. Similarly, the left law of positivity
(IV’) b<a-+bd is not an a priori consequence of the definitions. The law of
Archimedes (V) plays an exceptional role; it has to be added, as a further
natural law, to the assumptions made about the clocks.
Department of Mathematics,
University of Melbourne,
March, 1953.
5“ Space, Time, Matter ’’ (London, 1922), Introduction.
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oa ; 1953,
BE. : (INCORPORATED 1881)
: PART IL |
oe OF : Hy
ee VOL. LXXXVII
Containing the Clarke Memorial Lecture and Papers read in
July and August, 1953, with Plates VII—IX |
EDITED BY
_ THE HONORARY EDITORIAL SECRETARY _—it
-THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE ~~ si
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: SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE |
- @LOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS :
1953 an
. CONTENTS
Ps VOLUME LXxxyie
a : | Part Il es | ‘ : 2
Art. VI.—Clarke Memorial Lecture. Some Problems of Wertiary Geology
at ae ee Australia. - By Martin F. Glaessner a cl | AAR, Seok 5 oa
3 cee ‘Teichort ae
4) RID VII. —On the Interpretation of Certain parecer Operator Functions.
7 ee a Griffith cee Remar ss a
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1953
(INCORPORATED 1881)
VOLUME LXXXVII
Part II
EDITED BY
G. D. OSBORNE, D.Sc., Ph.D.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
CLARKE MEMORIAL LECTURE*
SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN
AUSTRALIA.
By MARTIN F. GLAESSNER, Ph. D., D.Sc.
Department of Geology, University of Adelaide.
With three text-figures.
CONTENTS.
Page
Introduction rae : ae 1c ae a 33 ae Sol
Principles of Tertiary cone . oP ne ae ses) poe
Stratigraphic Sequence of the Adelaide Basin - we she ce ao
Marginal Basins ifs is me acs oe a Ms .. 35
Subsurface Conditions .. 5s Ja a eo me te .. 36
Time Stratigraphy ae eh bu See EM Ss dese ue |
Geological History =a Ie : :. ‘6 hd a 0 Lao
Basement and Tertiary Sedimentary Gs: bss ie si .. 43
Acknowledgements ss es an oe ee ns cas .. 45
INTRODUCTION.
We are assembled to honour the memory of the Rev. W. B. Clarke, who has
been called the Father of Australian Geology. It is particularly appropriate
to honour a pioneer in geological science because it is the fundamental philosophy
of geology to look back in time, to gain that insight into the nature of things
which is needed in order to plan and make the next step forward. Looking
back at the work of our pioneers, we are impressed with their freshness of outlook,
their random sampling of data from the unlimited number presented by nature,
their determination to gather information and record it as found, and most of
all their ability to recognize facts as such. In the years which have passed we
have gone a long way. Where we stand now we are deeply troubled by uncer-
tainty about facts, an attitude which would have appeared strange indeed to
the pioneers. We doubt whether a granite is a plutonic igneous rock or a
migmatite, whether a sandstone is a greywacke, a subgreywacke or an arkose,
whether a sedimentary basin is a mobile shelf, a miogeosyncline or a paralia-
geosyncline, and whether an orogeny builds mountains or pushes the earth’s
surface downward. This is partly the result of living in an age of uncertainty
and confusion, affecting all branches of human activity, and among them every
branch of science. But it is not altogether a bad or deplorable state of affairs.
Our untroubled predecessors have unearthed facts in such prodigious quantities,
prodigious particularly when we compare the conditions of their work with the
manpower and technical and transport facilities available to us. Their observa-
tions have since been grouped and built into a framework of hypotheses and
theories. New facts are no longer gathered indiscriminately but are immediately
weighed against or assessed in terms of current theories.
* Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, June 18, 1953,
32 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER.
PRINCIPLES OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY.
Those who are familiar with the history of exploration of the Tertiary strata
of southern Australia will agree that it would be futile to attempt to summarize
its course aS an introduction to current or new problems in this field. It -will
suffice to say that very significant contributions have been made by such
indefatigable searchers for facts and fossils as Tate and Howchin in South
Australia, and McCoy, Wilkinson, Dennant, Hall and Pritchard, Chapman,
Singleton, Miss Crespin and others in Victoria. If discussions became somewhat
confused in the earlier days and somewhat acrimonious at various stages, this
can be taken as proof of the lively interest and great enthusiasm of the workers
in this field. The study of the record shows that the great majority of authors
of contributions to the study of the Tertiary of Australia are or were paleont-
ologists. This means that the abundant and beautifully preserved large and
small fossils in these rocks have for many years attracted far more interest
than the rocks themselves. This means also, though it does not detract from
what has been achieved, that much was left undone. And while it would be
absurd to suggest that the scope of the work on fossils should be reduced, I
feel the time has come to advance on a broader front if we want to clarify the
record of Tertiary time in Australia and extract from it all the data of theoretical
and practical value which it contains.
There is no need to say much about the practical side of Tertiary geology
as the facts are well known. The brown coal developments in Victoria, the
lignite resources of Moorlands in the Murray Basin and near St. Vincent Gulf in
South Australia need only be mentioned. They are receiving constant attention
from geologists and mining experts. A considerable portion of the subterranean
water resources of Australia, perhaps the most valuable economic mineral deposits
of the continent, is contained in Tertiary strata. Looking further afield and
optimistically ahead we remember that most of the world’s petroleum production
comes from Tertiary reservoir rocks, and while no immediate objectives. are ~
known here I feel that the last word has not been said and that hopes for finding
oil or gas in these rocks in southern Australia should not be abandoned. Any
new discoveries in this field should be closely scrutinized for favourable indica-
tions. Lastly, Tertiary rocks form the environment of much of our civilization,
and particularly agriculture, contributing to the soil of vast fertile areas; and
just as London, Paris, Vienna, Budapest and Rome came to grow up, for good
reasons, in Tertiary basins, so did Perth, Adelaide and Melbourne. From a
practical point of view, from the point of view of gaining all possible benefit
from our environment and at the same time understanding how it came into
being, Tertiary basins are an important object of geological studies.
From a theoretical point of view, that of advancing our knowledge of
fundamental geological processes and thereby advancing the science of geology
itself, they are no less important. That they have been somewhat neglected by
geologists and have attracted less attention than they deserve is due, among
other causes, to two misconceptions. One is that the Tertiary period is a short
span of geological time, somewhat of the same order as the Quaternary, so that
‘Tertiary rocks can form only a rather insignificant veneer on the really important
older rocks. This is patently incorrect as we know now that the Tertiary Period
lasted some 70 million years, against one million years of the Quaternary. The
other ingrained misconception is that Tertiary rocks are unfolded and basically
undisturbed except by irregular fracturing, so that nothing can be gained from
their study for the understanding of the structure of the earth and the nature
of earth movements. We are just beginning to find that this, too, is quite
incorrect.
Tertiary geology is as much a study in four dimensions as the study of any
other part of the geological record. They are the three dimensions of space and
SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 33
the dimension of time ; every one is essential and no single one can tell the full
story. We need the linear dimension of the stratigraphic column, the two
dimensions of the geological map, the third dimension of subsurface study, and
the careful placing of the record against the relative or absolute scale of geological
time to give a full account of geological history.
STRATIGRAPHIC SEQUENCE OF THE ADELAIDE BASIN.
We have selected the Adelaide Basin as the proving ground for the soundness
of this approach. The Adelaide Basin is a geological feature of a respectable
size, some 130 miles long and about 50 miles wide. Over half of this area is
covered by the shallow waters of the Gulf St. Vincent. This represents a valuable
reserve fund of information on sedimentation and it is hoped that an investigation
of its sediments will be carried out in the not too distant future. The land area
can be divided into the Adelaide Plains Basin and its northern extension to about
100 miles north of the city, the Tertiary areas on Yorke Peninsula where detailed
studies have not yet been carried out, the marginal basins south of Adelaide
known as the Noarlunga and Willunga Basins, and isolated outcrops on Kangaroo
Island and in the southern Mount Lofty Ranges. The Adelaide Plains area is
poor in natural outcrops, but being an artesian basin its subsurface geology is
known from many bores and the available information was recently ably
summarized in detail by Dr. K. R. Miles (Miles, 1952). Only one bore in the
deepest part of the basin reached the pre-Cambrian bedrock, at a depth of 2,242
feet, in 1892, revealing the entire Tertiary sequence. Structural conditions
make it possible to study this sequence in the coastal sections south of the city,
and the-first phase of the investigation involved the detailed survey of these
sections leading to the construction of measured stratigraphic columns. They
show the following units :
Firstly, there is a series of cross-bedded quartz-sands up to 60 feet thick
containing plant remains in intercalated clay lenses, with a few sponge remains
and poorly developed foraminifera in laminated sands near the top indicating
brackish water conditions. This unit is known as the North Maslin Sands.
These sands rest on lateritized pre-Cambrian or on Permian tillite, and are capped
with ironstone in some places. In a quarry north of Maslin Beach the next unit
is seen to follow with an angular unconformity. This unit, the South Maslin
Sand, is a fine quartz sand with glauconitic and limonitic pellets and interstitial
calcareous and glauconitic clay. Its colour is purplish, green or brown. Marine
fossils occur sporadically. It is at least 100 feet thick in Maslin Bay, but thin
or absent elsewhere. After a slight unconformity, with a pronounced cut-and-fill
effect, follows the Tortachilla Limestone, 6-10 feet thick, glauconitic, with
limonitic material derived from the underlying beds. Its lower part is polyzoal,
its upper part shelly, with a rich fauna of mollusea, echinoids and foraminifera.
It grades upward into glauconitic marl which is, according to Reynolds (1953),
the basal member of the Blanche Point Marls. In this bed, which is 7-14 feet
thick, Parr found Eocene foraminifera including Hantkenina. The next member
of the Marls is distinctly banded, being developed as an alternation of soft argil-
laceous and hard siliceous marls. These are followed by soft marls with few hard
bands. The Blanche Point Marls, about 100 feet thick, are very rich in sponge
remains, a fact which is genetically related to the occurrence of siliceous bands.
Turritella aldinge Tate is a common fossil throughout this formation. It is
overlain by the Chinaman’s Gully Beds, a very distinctive formation which is
only four feet thick in the coastal sections. It contrasts vividly with the under-
lying and overlying strata by its sandy composition and green, yellow and red
colours. The top is a cross-bedded, limonite-cemented quartz grit. This
formation, which is unfossiliferous, is considered as non-marine. Above it are
EE
34 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER.
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Fault; F;, Clarendon (Moana) Fault; F,, Willunga Fault, tertiary formations in part of the Adelaide Basin. Fy, Para Fault ; F,, Eden-Burnsi
Explanation of Section : A, Croydon Bore (Adelaide) ; B, 1} miles south of Sellick’s Beach ; C, south of Myponga. 1, Recent and Pleistocene ; 2, Pliocene ;
3, Port Willunga Beds including subsurface Miocene strata; 4, Blanche Point Marls, Tortachilla Limestone and equivalents ; 6, North and South Maslin Sands.
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SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 35
over 100 feet of predominantly bryozoal beds, calcarenites and clays with nodules
and pellets, with pronounced current-bedding at the base and intermittently at
higher levels. These are the Port Willunga Beds.
All these Tertiary formations are cut off up-dip by about 20 feet of partly
fossiliferous sandy limestones, sands and sandy clays. The marine fauna in
these beds is of Pliocene age. There is an angular unconformity between the
Pliocene which shows a dip of 1° and the underlying formations which dip at 2°
in a general direction to the south-south-west. As the dips are very regular,
the unconformity becomes very pronounced over the great length of coastal
exposures. It was recognized as such by early observers, though not fully
appreciated in its general significance.
MARGINAL BASINS.
The next step following upon the detailed mapping of the coastal traverses
and construction of stratigraphic columns was the mapping of the inland
extension of the different formations. This was carried out at the scale of
two inches to one mile by B. Daily and G. Woodard (unpublished). In the
available time only the Tertiary formations could be mapped, and neither the
pre-Tertiary nor the post-Pliocene could be studied closely. Obviously, the
more detailed the stratigraphic subdivision of the standard section into mappable
formations, the greater the structural detail which can be revealed by areal
mapping. Tate’s original stratigraphic division into ‘‘ Eocene ’’ and ‘‘ Miocene ”’
produced no recognizable structural picture. The later division into ‘‘ Oligocene
freshwater beds ’’, ‘‘ Miocene limestones ”’ and, along the coast, a strip of uncon-
formable marine Pliocene led to the picture of tilted fault blocks which was
developed gradually by Benson, Howchin, Mawson, Fenner and Sprigg. It
was known that at the southern end of the fault blocks which revealed the
standard sections the beds were tilted up to dip north-westward, but this was
explained as ‘‘ drag on the faults ’’.. When the southern margin of the Noarlunga
Basin was mapped the oldest instead of the youngest beds of the Tertiary
sequence were found exposed and the structure was recognized as a syncline
instead of a tilted block. It is, however, very asymmetric, with a very narrow
southern limb and considerable thinning of strata towards the southern edge.
There are no drag effects such as distortion of fossils or sliding on bedding planes.
The southern margin of the Willunga Basin has pre-Pliocene strata exposed
only in the sea cliffs south of Sellick’s Beach. This is six miles south of the
point where the pre-Pliocene unconformity disappears below sea level. As it
has a fall of 25 feet per mile between this point and the northern edge of the basin
(Reynolds, 1953), it should be 150 feet below sea level at its southern end,
according to the concept of tilted blocks. Instead, outcrops of marine
fossiliferous Pliocene have now been found there above sea level, overlying Port
Willunga beds. When next seen, above the Cambrian basement of the southern
margin of the basin, these beds rise steeply, with dips increasing to vertical and
then moderating upwards to about 40°. These magnificent exposures were
described by Howchin (1911). But instead of the expected drag effects and
faulted contact we found a flexure in the well-bedded Port Willunga Beds,
sigmoidal in vertical plane, with a transgressive basal breccia. Even the most
fragile fossils are virtually undistorted. The most impressive proof of
undisturbed transgressive contact is supplied by the occurrence of infillings of
fossiliferous Tertiary limestone in fissures in the underlying Cambrian, which
are up to 15 feet deep. The Port Willunga Beds occur also as isolated remnants
in the higher country to the south, at Myponga and above Hindmarsh Falls,
where they were found by Madigan and Howchin (at an elevation of about
900 feet). Here they rest either on pre-Cambrian or on Permian beds. As the
36 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER.
older members of the Tertiary sequence occur neither here nor on the southern
edge of the Willunga Basin, they must wedge out somewhere under the Basin.
We shall see that there is evidence for a shoreline in this position, over which
the Willunga Beds transgressed, as they transgressed in the coastal sections over
the preceding non-marine Chinaman’s Gully Beds.
Marine Pliocene is found outcropping only within a short distance of the
present coastline. The most distant surface occurrence is probably in the
grounds of the University of Adelaide, about six miles from the coast. Litho-
logically similar deposits found further inland are unfossiliferous and probably
non-marine. They are mostly quartz sands and well-rounded quartz gravels,
with sandy limestones occurring nearer to the shoreline. These deposits were
laid down on a peneplaned surface which probably had acquired a gentle seaward
slope by the time of the Pliocene transgression. This surface and the covering
Marine and non-marine Pliocene deposits were further disturbed by gentle
warping and strong faulting.
SUBSURFACE CONDITIONS.
The variations in thickness of strata in different bores proved puzzling
from the earliest days of exploration. Variations in facies were recognized
more recently. These conditions call for detailed stratigraphic analysis. In
this work, micropaleontological examination of samples from bores provides
very valuable data. It is fortunate that some samples from the Croydon bore,
the only bore in the Adelaide Plains area which reached bedrock, have been
preserved. The study of the foraminifera from these samples is being carried
out together with the study of surface samples taken from the measured coastal
sections and of selected other bore material. It is not yet completed, but data
obtained have enabled us to make a rough correlation of strata in the Croydon
bore and to compare them with bores on the next higher fault block, across the
Para Fault. Combining paleontological data and correlations with the litho-
logical descriptions we find that the missing thickness of pre-Pliocene marine
strata on the upthrown block represents an erosional interval on an unconform-
able contact, corresponding to that which is so well exposed along many miles
of coastal cliffs. As the pre-Pliocene marine Tertiary beds preserved in the
Kent Town bore contain the foraminiferal fauna which is found near the base
of the marine section of the Croydon bore, we find that about 1,300 feet of strata
were removed from this site on the upthrown block. This was the amount of
pre-Pliocene or early Pliocene movement on the fault in this vicinity, as the
surface of Pliocene deposition was almost level (peneplaned). That this level
surface was further disturbed in late or post-Pliocene time is shown by the fact
that in the Croydon bore it is about 600 feet deep (550 feet below sea level),
while in the Kent Town bore it is approximately at sea level. This indicates
the later faulting in this cross-section.
Subsurface investigations provide information not only of structural but
also of facies development. Sores in the Adelaide Basin at some distance from
the coast have encountered lignites which do not outcrop in the coastal clifis.
In some bores two lignitic series were found, separated by fossiliferous marine
rocks. A bore put down to a depth of 680 feet in the Willunga Basin produced.
a log which seemed to have little resemblance to the columnar section of the
coastal cliffs only three or four miles to the west. It is obvious that facies
changes are greater from west to east than in a meridional direction, where
there is little change in ten miles of section. It is not surprising that the plant-
bearing deltaic North Maslin Sands become lignitic inland, but it is interesting
that in several instances the proven lignite areas end abruptly against faults,
without reappearing as expected in the upthrown continuation of the same
SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 37
formation. This means that during the deposition of the lignite a scarp formed
the boundary of the swampy basin. It was probably a fault scarp formed
by earlier movement, as Sprigg (1942, 1945, 1946) has shown clearly that Late
Tertiary to Recent movements occurred on earlier, probably Paleozoic faults.
A revival of movement would then turn the boundary scarp again into a fault.
A study of bore records from the Adelaide and Willunga Basins and outcrop
observations suggest that the upper lignites (which do not seem to be of economic
importance here) are related to the Blanche Point Marls. This may seem
surprising as along the coast this formation is not only entirely marine but also
rich in sponges and free from coarse clastic material suggesting uniform still-water
conditions. But still water is not necessarily deep water, and even deep water
is not necessarily farfromland. In outcrops we see unfossiliferous fine micaceous
sands appearing in this formation, and in bores the same sand with gravels and
lignite occurs in equivalent positions, above the glauconitic beds with the
Hantkenina-fauna and either above or below the Twrritella and sponge-spicule
fauna of the Blanche Point Marls. The glauconitic beds overlap the basement,
cutting out the Maslin Sands. This is taken as evidence of a shoreline in the
eastern part of the basins or, in other words, at the foot of the present Ranges.
A reflection of a more widespread regressive phase is seen on the coast in the
development of the thin non-marine Chinaman’s Gully Beds above the Blanche
Point Marls, and this regression also provides the explanation of the absence of
Tertiary strata older than the Port Willunga Beds south of the Willunga Basin,
in the Myponga area. Pre-existing structural lines influenced sedimentation
in the basins not only as shoreline trends but also as boundaries of relatively
high or less subsiding areas. Evidence for this is seen in thinning against these
highs which were wrongly interpreted as subsequently upthrown basement
blocks. The Blanche Point Marls are less than 100 feet thick in the coastal
sections which were measured down the flanks of two of these blocks, while
they are over 200 feet thick in the Willunga bore, which is in the axial part
of the basin.
We have seen that the Port Willunga Beds are transgressive. Their sub-
surface distribution in the basins under the cover of soil, alluvium or Pliocene
has been traced with the aid of bore records. Erosion has confined them to the
axial portions of the basins near the coast, confirming synclinal folding in pre-
Pliocene time. There is no evidence of these beds having ever covered the
whole of the Mount Lofty Ranges, and the suggestion has been made that the
transgression followed structurally low zones. A lignite band was found in
this formation in the Myponga bore.
Under the conditions here described, shoreline, lignitic, non-marine, and
particularly conglomeratic formations of different ages, must be expected to
occur and to be so similar in composition and appearance that their dating
becomes an exceedingly difficult and in some instances impossible task. In the
subalpine Tertiaries of Europe much of the diastrophic history of the mountains
can be worked out from the evidence of such formations. Their dating is often
assured by abundant vertebrate fossils. As the vertebrate population of the
Australian continent must have been extremely poor in numbers throughout
the Tertiary these methods cannot be applied here, but it is hoped that meticulous
field and subsurface stratigraphic studies together with investigations of sedi-
mentary petrology and paleobotany will supply some of the missing clues.
‘TIME STRATIGRAPHY.
Stratigraphy, from its beginnings in history, means the study of the succes-
sion of strata and their dating in terms of the geological time scale. Neither of
these aspects is sufficient in itself. A study of the rocks alone is bound to
38 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER.
overlook gaps in the succession and the influence of contemporaneous events
in other areas, and the naming and dating of fossil collections without regard
to the full sedimentary record does not produce a statement of geological history.
If properly collected, identified or described, and interpreted, the fossils provide
a framework of time data which is indispensable for the study of Tertiary geology.
Much work on our own collections and those of our predecessors, particularly
Tate and Howchin, remains to be done, and I do not propose to discuss here
paleontological or ‘biostratigraphic problems.
Paleontological work to date has provided some fixed points for an outline
of geological history of the area. They are Mawson and Chapman’s discovery
of a flora of Tertiary aspect in the North Maslin sands, Parr’s discovery of the
Eocene Hantkenina-fauna at the base of the Blanche Point Marls which showed
that the flora cannot be younger than Eocene (and may be older), and the
discovery of Austrotrillina, of Lower Miocene age, by Miss Crespin in bryozoal
limestones in the upper part of the pre-Pliocene Tertiary section of bores near
Adelaide. This fossil was also found in similar limestones from Yorke Peninsula
by Howchin. The Myponga bore shows Lepidocyclina, of the same age, occurring
in a bryozoal limestone overlying 242 feet of similar strata which can be cor-
related with the Port Willunga Beds of the type section. There is little doubt
that the fossiliferous zone of Lower Miocene age is missing from the coastal
sections because of later Miocene denudation. No index fossils of similarly
world-wide significance have been found in the upper part of the Blanche Point
Marls or the lower part of the Port Willunga Beds. I have stated (Glaessner
1951) that I consider these parts of the sequence as Oligocene (including equi-
valents of the Aquitanian) and I have not materially altered my opinion. The
subject will remain controversial until the succession of faunas which have been
found is fully described and analysed.
GEOLOGICAL HISTORY.
The observations made in the Adelaide area can now be summarized in
an outline of geological history of Tertiary time in ten stages. Some of the
stages and events in the geological history of the area which we have studied
in detail are also apparent throughout southern Australia, and we shall briefly
review the more significant points.
1. At the beginning of Tertiary time there was an eroded land surface
composed of folded pre-Cambrian and Cambrian strata and in some places also of
essentially unfolded remnants of unconsolidated Permian glacial deposits.
There is evidence of lateritization of the surface of the olderrocks. The difference
in resistance to erosion between them and the glacial deposits in South Australia
must have had a considerable influence on the configuration of the land surface.
The contribution made by later erosion of the soft sands to Tertiary sediments
must be considered when the distribution of the glacial strata before the Tertiary
is reconstructed. Under these conditions the nature of the pre-Tertiary land
surfaces is doubtful and it would be premature to make assumptions, such as ’
complete peneplanation, on local evidence alone.
2. The beginning of deposition of angular, often coarse and gravelly current-
bedded sands indicates rejuvenation of the land surface in early Tertiary time.
Lignites were formed in structural lows adjacent to fault scarps. There is
evidence of deltas laid down in proximity to the sea shore and of a lateritized
surface of these beds.
3. The next phase is characterized by marine ingression, by the appearance
of glauconite and of detrital limonite which occurs in a form suggesting denuda-
tion of earlier laterites from highs, Sedimentation, still deltaic with strong
SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 39
cross-bedding, seems to have been confined to low areas. Lateritization may
have continued during this time. This is the last phase of laterite formation
which can be proved to have occurred prior to the end of the Pliocene.
The events leading up to the appearance of the first widespread marine
transgression of Upper Eocene age have undoubtedly influenced large areas of
south-eastern Australia. The deposition of angular gravels and coarse sands
on an old land surface, and of lignites in structural lows with thicknesses varying
according to rates of subsidence, the occurrence of marine ingressions and the
formation of glauconite are features commonly found throughout southern
Australia. There is a long span of time available for this paralic phase, from the
beginning of Cainozoic time or even earlier (depending on whether the flora is
really Tertiary or Late Cretaceous), to the end of the Hocene or, where the Late
Eocene marine phase is missing, even Oligocene. The dating of the Pebble
Point fauna of western Victoria as Paleocene or Lower Eocene does not fix the
age of similar facies elsewhere within this range. One might point to possible
correlations between the North Maslin Sands, in which the Noarlunga lignites
occur, the Pebble Point beds of western Victoria, the Eastern View Coal Measures
.and the Lower, if not the Lower and Upper, Latrobe Valley Coal Measures,
which contain the Yallourn coals, but there is as yet no paleontological proof
of these correlations.
Similarly, one would be inclined to think of the South Maslin Sands as
possible equivalents of the Demon’s Bluff Formation, formerly known as
Anglesean, and its equivalents, but again there is no decisive paleontological
evidence though its stratigraphic position was clarified by Raggatt and Crespin
(1952). There is clearly a long pre-Upper Eocene period of paralic deposition
including coal formation. It begins usually with a series of coarse clastics.
4. A pronounced marine phase follows. It transgresses in the Adelaide
Basin over the sands on to the basement rocks on the margins of the highs.
The sediments are glauconitic and calcareous, with a rich shelly fauna preserved
in deposits of the sublittoral zone. This is the first distinctive fauna of
foraminifera, mollusca and echinoderms in the Basin. It indicates Upper
Eocene age. The small number of planktonic foraminifera compared with that
of similar deposits on the open coasts of Victoria suggests deposition in a basin
with restricted access to the open sea.
The Upper Eocene marine transgression can be traced on the evidence of
its marine fauna, as yet largely undescribed, westward through the northern
part of Kangaroo Island and part of Yorke Peninsula to the lower limestones
of the Nullarbor basin, and eastward into the Cape Otway area. This raises two
questions: What corresponds to it in the south-east of South Australia and
western Victoria? Why has it not been found west of Cape Otway? These -
questions will be left undecided. I have collected in both areas marine rocks
containing a younger marine fauna resting on paralic (and in Victoria also on
- voleanic) facies. Whether these facies extend upwards to include equivalents
of the marine Upper Eocene or whether marine Upper Eocene is missing on
unconformities such as those observable at Knight’s quarry near Mt. Gambier,
Airey’s Inlet and elsewhere, cannot yet be decided.
5. Conditions become more uniform throughout the Adelaide Basin, with
still-water deposition of dark, less glauconitic calcareous muds rich in sponge
remains. This brings to mind Woolnough’s interesting speculations (Woolnough
1942) on the influence of the denudation of a lateritized peneplaned continent on
composition of the surrounding seas and on life and sedimentation in them.
Woolnough suggested that radiolarites would be formed, but it appears that
less extreme conditions in early to mid-Tertiary time favoured the growth of
FE
MARTIN F. GLAESSNER.
40
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SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. AT
siliceous sponges. The marine sediments grade inland into deposits of sandy
lagoons and swamps where some lignites were formed, and there is evidence of
regression of the sea.
Equivalents of the Blanche Point Marls of the Adelaide Basin can be traced.
in both shell- and plant-bearing facies to Yorke Peninsula, but not definitely
beyond. In Western Australia a careful comparison with the Plantagenet beds
which are similarly rich in sponges has yet to be made. The observed relations.
between the Blanche Point Marls and the upper lignites of the Adelaide Basin is.
significant. It is possible that favourable conditions for the formation of
lignites younger than those formed during the basal Tertiary paralic phase
extended over a large area.
6. A second very widespread marine phase follows. It transgresses over
some of the highs, with the development of a thin bed of basal breccia.. The
muds are still glauconitic and calcareous but organic sedimentation dominates.
Bryozoa which made a brief appearance at the beginning of the first marine
phase are now the main rock-forming organisms, but mollusca, echinoderms,,
brachiopods and foraminifera are common and form a distinctive marine
assemblage.
7. The upper part of this bryozoal limestone and clay stage contains the
well-known Lower Miocene fauna with Austrotrillina and Lepidocyclina and
associated smaller foraminifera constituting the third distinctive marine fauna
of the basin.
The marine phase which transgresses as Port Willunga Beds over the
margins of the Adelaide Basin can be recognized over large areas. Faunal
correlations can be made between them, the Gambier Limestones and parts of
the Torquay Group (formerly known as Janjukian). Paleontological work
on these faunas and their correlations is now in progress. What is significant:
geologically is not the exact age of these beds in terms of the general strati-.
graphic time scale but the fact that the marine transgression does not appear:
to have reached all areas at the same time. In other words, it appears to be a.
progressive overlap affecting various fault-bounded or warped basement blocks
at various times. At Mt. Gambier the exposed base of the Gambier Limestone
resting unconformably with a nodule bed on the exposed paralic series may
correspond with the base of the Port Willunga Beds where they overlie the
Chinaman’s Gully Beds, but elsewhere it may be older. On the Gellibrand’
River near Princetown in Victoria a phosphate deposit marks a break in
deposition followed by strata which are slightly older than the first appearance
of the Lower Miocene foraminiferal fauna (Parr, in Baker, 1944). On the Aire
Coast the Calder River limestones and clays (Singleton, 1941, p. 75) are similarly
transgressive. From the Nullarbor area complete sections are not yet available,
but Lower Miocene limestones which are widespread overlie 110 feet of lignitic
‘*‘ lacustrine ”’ strata near Pidinga (King, 1951). In the Murray Basin the base
of the limestones overlying the paralic deposits previously assigned to the
Oligocene is not likely to be an exact time-stratigraphic horizon.
8. After the deposition of these beds the entire area, highs as well as lows,
is affected by regression and mild diastrophic movements. There is considerable
movement on normal faults which have since become the major boundary faults
of the Mount Lofty Range, and there is gentle folding movement in the basins.
following lines indicated by old faults. The subsiding areas in which greater
thicknesses of sediment accumulated become now more definite synclines and
the relatively rising areas with thinner sedimentary cover become anticlines..
Erosion strips the sedimentary cover from the anticlinal cores and reduces the
entire observable area to a peneplain. There is, however, no renewed
lateritization.
42 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER.
The widespread Middle to Late Miocene regression and phase of slight
movement which affected the Adelaide Basin has regional significance over the
greater part of southern Australia, though possibly not in east Gippsland.
Throughout the Murray Basin the Pliocene rests disconformably on Miocene,
as it does at Hamilton in western Victoria. Some of the folding of the Tertiary
may be older, as on the Aire Coast. We have seen that some is younger. But
the regression appears to have been general, starting in Middle Miocene time,
and deposition and subsequent removal before the Pliocene transgression of any
great thickness of Middle or Upper Miocene is unlikely. The ‘‘ Cheltenhamian ”’
Upper Miocene may have been confined to the Port Phillip area and Gippsland.
9. Deposition takes place again in the Adelaide area on a peneplaned
surface. It is marine in the vicinity of the present coast, grading into non-
marine sands and gravels landward. The marine fauna indicates Pliocene age,
but its position within the Pliocene is still undecided. In accordance with the
concept of peneplanation the gravels consist of well-rounded quartz pebbles
‘Text-fig. 3.—Block diagram showing structural relations of basement and Tertiary cover in the
area between Adelaide (left) and Myponga (right). Not to scale.
indicating transport from a distant and possibly preformed source. The Pliocene
sea extended to Eyre Peninsula and possibly to the Nullarbor Plain and also
through the Murray Basin.
10. Movements continue, more or less along the old lines. The surface on
which the Pliocene deposits rest subsides further along the boundary fault of
the main Adelaide basin and in the vicinity of the axes of the pre-Pliocene
synclines, and the anticlinal highs continue to rise. The faults which run in
parallel curves from the Mt. Lofty Ranges southward and then westward towards
the coast show near the coast either no displacement or a minimum amount of
displacement. In the ranges where the uplifted pre-Pliocene surface is recogniz-
able, it is displaced by these faults up to at least 600 feet. This type of hinge
faulting requires compression near the coast, where gentle up- and down-warping
is observed, and tension in the Ranges, where normal faulting occurs in a number
of pronounced steps. To some extent the movement was rotational, following
the curved structural trend from the Mt. Lofty Ranges towards Kangaroo
Island. This concept explains the observed southward tilting of each of the
blocks in the hills which was the basis for the hypothesis of tilted fault blocks.
It accounts equally well for the observed stratigraphic and structural relations
of the Tertiary formations in the coastal zone including the synclinal nature of
the basins and the flexured transgressive contact at Sellick’s Beach, which are
contrary to the tilting hypothesis. A further advantage of the new concept is
SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 43:
that it eliminates the need for the postulated graben-type faulting of St. Vincent
Gulf, for which there is no geological evidence.
The time of inception of the strong scarp-forming movements is marked
by the appearance of the remarkable fanglomerate or outwash gravel and
breccia which forms cliffs up to 200 feet high at the foot of the Willunga scarp
at Sellick’s Beach, resting on fossiliferous Pliocene without apparent break, and
by scattered patches of boulder beds along the foothills. There is also evidence
that the movement continues, in a less violent form, to the present day.
The ultimate deformations of the Tertiary rocks resulting from movements. .
during and after the Tertiary, have not been studied elsewhere in so much detail
as in South Australia. Complex fault patterns are now being revealed in south-
western Victoria (Boutakoff, 1952), in the Port Phillip area and in Gippsland.
Folding can be clearly seen on the east coast of Yorke Peninsula, where at Port
Julia a large anticline in equivalents of the Port Willunga Beds shows dips of 8°
on both flanks and at Meninie Hill south of Ardrossan, where another anticline
exposes Blanche Point Marls dipping similarly north-east and south-west.
Both anticlinal axes pitch south-eastward under St. Vincent Gulf. Anticlinal
folding with dips of 10—20° is clearly seen east of Castle Cove on the Aire Coast
(Victoria), and four anticlines are visible in 20 miles of coastline from Airey’s
Inlet to Torquay. This folding is comparable in intensity with that south of
Adelaide, where three faulted anticlines occupy 24 miles of coastline. The
recent account of the brown coals of Victoria by Thomas and Baragwanath
(1949-1950) shows folding (Morwell anticline, Baragwanath anticline) and
faulting in Gippsland. Post-Pliocene faulting on Hyre Peninsula was recently
described .by Miles (1952a). Tertiary and post-Tertiary folding, similar in
different areas in amplitude and in the spacing of fold axes, is widespread, but
there are also unfolded or very weakly folded Tertiary strata. There has been
in the past some reluctance to admit the occurrence of ‘‘ genuine ”’ folding in the
Tertiary. This should now be recognized and the significance of its distribution
determined. There has also been a tendency to consider all disturbance of
Tertiary strata as basically due to faulting and to refer the movements to the
Kosciusko epoch. This term refers to post-Pliocene movements. Its application
to the deformation of pre-Pliocene strata which may have occurred either during
their deposition or in the Late Miocene is bound to confuse the record and should
be discontinued. In the Adelaide area there were “ Kosciusko ’’ movements
in the sense defined by Andrews (1910) and followed by David and Browne, but
there were also earlier and later movements. The nature and significance of
these movements and their relation to sedimentation will be the final topics in
this discussion.
BASEMENT AND TERTIARY SEDIMENTARY COVER.
The relation of deformations of sedimentary rocks at the surface to move-
ments of crystalline or metamorphic basement rocks at depth is one of the
fundamental problems of geology. Obviously an area where contacts between
pre-Cambrian or Cambrian rocks and Tertiary sediments are exposed over miles
of coastal cliffs can provide valuable information for the discussion of this
problem. While these investigations were in progress, the Presidential Address.
to the Geological Society of London, entitled ‘‘ Foreland Folding ’”’, by G. M.
Lees, was published (Lees, 1952). This fundamentally important paper states
the problem clearly. Lees, on the basis of his great experience and penetrating
analysis, comes to the conclusion that ‘‘ the cover of sedimentary rocks plays a
passive role and accommodates itself to movements of the basement beneath ”’
and that ‘‘ a crystalline basement complex can flexure and form the cores of
anticlines with, in some cases, little or no faulting ’’. He gives an example of
A4 MARTIN F. GLAESSNER.
compression in a flexured shield area in Nigeria where anticlines with basement
cores were formed in a sedimentary basin, and concludes that in rift valleys
compression is dominant. In the Gulf of Suez area ‘‘ the basement is deformed
in a pattern of anticlines and synclines, complicated by faults it is true, but
nevertheless showing a behaviour very different from the rigid pattern of tilted
fault-blocks usually ascribed to rift-valley tectonics ’’. In the sections described
by Lees the sedimentary cover is about ten times thicker than in southern
Australia. I do not think this affects the validity of the comparison. The
Australian examples confirm the statements quoted here and add to the picture
the important observation that Tertiary and post-Tertiary movements occurred
on lines of weakness which, as Sprigg has shown, date back to the original
deformation of the Adelaide Geosyncline, that is, to Paleozoic time. The
persistent control of structural development by such lineaments was recently
postulated in Victoria by Boutakoff (1952). We are at present unable to explain
the apparent inactivity of these lineaments during the long span of Mesozoic
time and the sudden resumption of activity at the beginning of the Tertiary.
The results of recent work in the Leigh Creek Triassic coal basin (Parkin 1953)
indicate folding of a similar nature to that in the Tertiary. It may well be that
when detailed stratigraphic and structural studies are extended to other Mesozoic
areas the periods of complete quiescence will be shortened and the varying
intensity of movement may be found to reflect normal cycles.
We have answered the question of the nature of the Tertiary structure by
stating that it indicates essentially a revival (or a continuation) of compressive
Stresses acting on old lines of weakness. The movement of the basement may
be either flexuring or fracture, to which the sedimentary cover adjusts itself.
What is the nature of the resulting sedimentation? Sedimentation over a
large area is comparable with that of a continental terrace (Nullarbor, Gambier
Sunklands, Gippsland), with inland extensions (Adelaide Basin, Murray Basin,
Port Phillip Sunkland) which may be compared with intermontane basins as
their structures conform at least in part with folded mountain zones. Both the
continental terrace and the inland basins show unusual features which are due
to the fact that their inception does not follow in the usual manner soon after
the formation of the mountain zones on the continent. Theirs is not the relation
of the Molasse and the attached Vienna and Pannonian Basins to the Alps, or
of the Northern European basins to their Saxonic and Variscan background.
Neither is it comparable to the history of the Atlantic and Gulf Coastal terrace
of North America which commences in the Jurassic or Lower Cretaceous, not so
very long after the Late Paleozoic folding. The long time during which the
folded mountains were worn down, the Late Paleozoic and the Mesozoic,
reduced the amount of terrigenous material available for sedimentation in the
Tertiary. The only significant amounts of coarse clastics are found at the
beginning, when much weathered material was available on the old eroded
surface, and at the end when renewed uplift had formed a relief which was
possibly somewhat more prominent than that seen to-day. It is interesting that
the only really thick Tertiary section found, reaching in the Nelson bore a
depth of over 7,000 feet, is thick in the Lower Tertiary portion, which corresponds
probably only to the first paralic phase. Later sedimentation is starved of
detrital terrigenous material, because of low relief on the continent. During
Middle Tertiary time it is dominantly organic, with bryozoa as the main rock-
building organisms. In the intermontane basins the foraminiferal plankton,
which at that time could have been rock-forming (Globigerina marls), is poor
owing to restricted access to the open ocean. The main contribution from the
continent is clay, which often becomes glauconitic, and at an earlier stage silica
which is used by sponges. Subsiding areas, on downfaulted blocks of the terrace
and in downwarps in the basins, collect greater thicknesses of these sediments.
- SOME PROBLEMS OF TERTIARY GEOLOGY IN SOUTHERN AUSTRALIA. 45
The area of Tertiary deposits in southern Australia is essentially a ‘‘ mobile
shelf ’’ in the sense of Bubnoff, which makes it a miogeosyncline in Stille’s
terminology. These terms and others which could be equally well applied to the
area, are useful for general orientation, but its peculiarities must not be over-
looked under the cover of a convenient geotectonic label. They are firstly the
intense fracturing of some areas, which follows old lineaments, the fact that
apparently only the “‘ hinge belt ’’ of the basin is visible while its greater part is
under the waters of the Southern Ocean, and secondly the poor supply of
terrigenous sediment which is due to the enormous time lag between the last
mountain building on the continent and the beginning of paralic sedimentation.
These unusual conditions make the problem difficult, but they also make the
study of Tertiary geology a worthwhile contribution both to the history of the
continent and to fundamental geological knowledge.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was made possible through grants from the General Research
Funds of the University of Adelaide. The participation in this work of the
following graduates and Research Scholars of the University of Adelaide, whose
contributions are being prepared for publication elsewhere, is also gratefully
acknowledged: B. Daily, M. A. Reynolds, M. J. Wade and G. D. Woodard.
I wish to thank also Mr. R. C. Sprigg, Senior Geologist of the Mines Department
of South Australia, for helpful discussions, and the Departments of Mines of
South Australia (Director, Mr. 8. B. Dickinson) and Victoria (Chief Government
Geologist, Dr. D. E. Thomas) for their co-operation.
REFERENCES.
Andrews, E. C., 1910. Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia in late-Tertiary and post-
Tertiary Time. THis JOURNAL, 44, 420.
Baker, G., 1944. The Geology of the Port Campbell District. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 56, n.s.,
77-108.
——-—-— 1953. The Relationship of Cyclammina-bearing Sediments to the Older Tertiary
Deposits South-east of Princetown, Victoria. Mem. Nat. Mus. Melbourne,
No. 18, 125-134.
Boutakoff, N., 1952. The Structural Pattern of South-west Victoria. Min. Geol. Journ., 4,
No. 6, 21-29.
David, T. W. E. (ed. W. R. Browne), 1950. The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia, 1.
London.
Glaessner, M. F., 1951. Three Foraminiferal Zones in the Tertiary of Australia. Geol. Maq.,
88, 273-283.
Howchin, W., 1911. Description of a Disturbed Area of Cainozoic Rocks in South Australia.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 35, 47-59.
King, D., 1951. Geology of the Pidinga Area. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 74, 25-43.
Lees, G. M., 1952. Foreland Folding. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. London, 108, 1-34.
Miles, K. R., 1952. Geology and Underground Water Resources of the Adelaide Plains Area.
Geol. Survey S. Aust. Dept. Mines, Bull. 27.
1952a. Tertiary Faulting in North-eastern Eyre Peninsula, South Australia.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 75, 89-96.
Parkin, L. W., 1953. The Leigh Creek Coalfield. Geol. Surv. S. Aust. Dept. Mines, Bull. 31.
Raggatt, H. G., and Crespin, I., 1952. Geology of Tertiary Rocks between Torquay and Eastern
View, Victoria. Aust. Journ. Sct., 14, 143-147.
Reynolds, M., 1953. The Cainozoic Succession of Maslin and Aldinga Bays, South Australia.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 76.
Singleton, F. A., 1941. The Tertiary Geology of Australia. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 53, n.s.,
1-125.
Sprigg, R. C., 1942. The Geology of the Eden-Moana Fault Block. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust.,
66, 185-214.
—-——————_ 1945. Some Aspects of the Geomorphology of Portion of the Mount Lofty
Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 69, 2777-307.
—-——————— 1946. Reconnaissance Geological Survey of Portion of the Western Escarpment
of the Mount Lofty Ranges. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust., 70, 313-347.
-—— 1952. The Geology of the South-east Province, South Australia, etc. Geol.
Surv. S. Aust. Dept. Mines, Bull. 29.
Thomas, D. E., and Baragwanath, W., 1949-1950. Geology of the Brown Coals of Victoria.
Min. Geol. Journ., 3, No. 6, 28-55; 4, No. 1, 36-52; No. 2, 41-63; No. 3, 36-50.
Woolnough, W. G., 1942. Geological Extrapolation and Pseud-abyssal Sediments. Bull.
Amer. Assoc. Petroleum Geol., 26, 765-792.
A NEW AMMONOID FROM THE EASTERN AUSTRALIAN
PERMIAN PROVINCE.
By Curt TEICHERT.
Unwersity of Melbourne and New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology.
(Communicated by F. K. Rickwoop.)
With Plate VII and two Text-figures.
Manuscript received, May 19, 1953. Read, July, 1, 1953.
Abstract.—Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense, n.sp., is described from the upper part (Farley
Formation) of the Lower Marine Group of New South Wales. The evidence of this species
points towards an Artinskian age of these beds.
STRATIGRAPHICAL OCCURRENCE.
Ammonoids are so rare in the Eastern Australian Permian province that
every new find must be regarded as something of a sensation. The only pre-
viously described Permian ammonoid from eastern Australia is Adrianites
(Neocrimites) meridionalis Teichert and Fletcher (1943) from the lower part
(‘‘ Branxton Stage ’’) of the so-called ‘‘ Upper Marine Group ”’ of New South
Wales. Two additional specimens of ammonoids have recently come to light
during a reorganization of the palaeontological collections in the Geology
Department of the University of Sydney, and I am greatly indebted to Messrs.
F. K. Rickwood and P. J. Coleman for making these important finds available
to me for study. The specimens which represent a new species of Pseudo-
gastrioceras, here described as.P. pokolbinense, were collected not later than
in 1932.
The specimens come from micaceous sandstones of the Farley Formation,
probably not more than a few hundred feet below the top of the ‘‘ Lower Marine
Group ’’.1 The type locality is situated near the southern extremity of the
structure known as Lochinvar Dome, only 17 miles south-west of the locality
where Adrianites (Neocrimites) meridionalis was found on the east flank of the
same structure (Fig. 1). Stratigraphically the two species are separated by the
Greta Coal Measures, which are only 200 feet thick, but the exact vertical
distances of the occurrences of the ammonoids in relation to the coal measures
are unknown. The two species may, therefore, be several hundred feet, perhaps
even more than 1,000 feet, apart stratigraphically.
For exact map references, the reader is referred to David (1907), and more
particularly to the more recent work of L. J. Jones (1939). The latter has given
a detailed description of the Greta Coal Measures of the Lochinvar Dome. The
general stratigraphy of the area was described by Walkom in 1913, and the
detailed sequence of the Lower Marine Group by Osborne (1949).
SIGNIFICANCE FOR CORRELATION OF NEW SouTtTH WALES PERMIAN.
A detailed comparison of Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense (see below) with
other species of the same genus suggests that its affinities are with Artinskian
1 Formerly this was known as ‘“ Lower Marine Series’ and its subdivisions, which have
formational rank, were called ‘‘ Stages ’’. It is proposed to follow Voisey (1952) in his tentative
reclassification of the Permian rocks of New South Wales.
NEW AMMONOID FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIAN PERMIAN PROVINCE. AT
and younger forms. Pseudogastrioceras, in the more restricted sense here
applied, does not seem to appear before the Artinskian.
Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense belongs to a group of ammonoids which
presents taxonomic difficulties (see Miller and Furnish, 1940; Teichert and
Glenister, 1952), because its members represent an almost completely inter-
grading morphological series ranging from openly umbilicate shells with depressed
whorl section and strong transverse ribs on the umbilical wall (Paragastrioceras)
to involute shells with compressed whorls and weak longutidinal ribs (Altudoceras,
Pseudogastrioceras), and finally to keeled forms in which the ribs are practically
restricted to the ventral and ventro-lateral regions (Strigogoniatites). It is
possible that this morphological series also represents a succession in time.
LOCALITY PLAN
eDubbo
Bathurst
=n
ame Kurs WAY
y bee NY Gein. ly
VL INME CLL
ti Wy
vi wy
Le rn mem ee Cet Li a) Me2sures % Py Se A oy WMe2SUlES
= Lower Marine Series (lYgner Marine Series |_| Triassic
§
| Te
Text-fig. 1.—Geological sketch-map of the country west of Newcastle, New South Wales. The
numbers indicate the occurrences of (1) Adrianites (Neocrimites) meridionalis Teichert and Fletcher,
(2) Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense Teichert, n.sp.
Typical broad-whorled, evolute Paragastrioceras appears in the Sakmarian
(Maximova and Ruzhencev, 1940; Ruzhencev, 1950), whereas compressed and
involute Pseudogastrioceras and keeled Strigogoniatites are characteristic of the
Sosio Limestone of Sicily and the Basleo beds of Timor. Intermediate forms
represented by Altudoceras and more openly coiled species of Pseudogastrioceras
are perhaps more typical of the Artinskian and equivalent beds, although they
continue into younger strata. Uraloceras, which occurs both in the Sakmarian
and Artinskian, is probably outside this lineage, because of the different course
of the growth-lines and constrictions of its shell.
Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense represents an advanced stage along the
line from Paragastrioceras to Pseudogastrioceras. It is similar to typical Pseudo-
gastrioceras in the absence of transverse ribs and in the compressed whorl section,
but differs from advanced species of the genus in the weakness of the longitudinal
ribs and the less involute coiling of the shell. On the whole, the morphological
characters of Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense agree most closely with those of a
majority of Artinskian species of that genus. This trend of evidence is in
harmony with that derived from the detailed study of the Upper Marine
48 CURT TEICHERT.
ammonoid, Adrianites (Neocrimites) meridionalis Teichert and Fletcher (1943)
and both the upper part of the Lower Marine Group and the lower part of the
Upper Marine Group are placed in the Artinskian.
There is now complete unanimity of opinion among Australian strati-
graphers that all the rocks between the base of the Lower Marine Group and the
top of the Newcastle Coal Measures, together with their equivalents elsewhere
in Australia and in Tasmania, should be placed in the Permian System. In
David’s ‘‘ Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia ’’ (1951) the section below
the Farley ‘‘ Stage ’’ is correlated with the Sakmarian, which most geologists
include in the Permian.
In recent years several South American geologists have published correlation
tables in which not only the Lower Marine Group, but also the Upper Marine
Group of New South Wales are placed in the Carboniferous, sometimes rather
low in that system. Thus Fossa-Mancini (1944) places the Lower Marine in the
Viséan and the Upper Marine in the Moscovian, but his discussion of the
significance of the occurrence of ‘‘ Agathiceras’’ and of ‘‘ Paralegoceras”’ in
Australia is not in harmony with present knowledge. Frenguelli (1946) seems
to accept the same correlations. More recently, Maack (1952), without discussing
the matter in detail, places in the Upper Carboniferous the whole of the Lower
Marine as well as the basal Upper Marine, that is, those beds in which, as we
now know, Artinskian ammonoids occur.
DESCRIPTION.
Pseudogastrioceras Spath.
Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense Teichert, n.sp.
(Plate VII, Figs. 1-4, Text-fig. 2.)
Description of Holotype.-—The holotype is an internal cast of a complete
specimen. It is discoidal and moderately evolute. About one and a half whorls
are preserved. One-third of a whorl is taken up by the body chamber, which
- seems to be preserved in its entirety. The maximum diameter of the specimen
is 57-5 mm. The umbilicus is 15 mm. wide. At the aperture the shell is
23-5 mm. wide and 27 mm. high and the height of the venter above that of the
last whorl is 16 mm. The ventral side is evenly rounded and the flanks are
slightly convex. The umbilical shoulder is narrowly rounded and smooth and
the umbilical wall is steep. The shell is not preserved, but the surface of the
internal cast, especially on the body chamber, shows fine lirae, spaced about
half a millimetre apart. No umbilical ribs or nodes or other transverse orna-
mentations are present.
Quite close to the aperture the cast is very slightly constricted. The
constriction is relatively broad (about 3 mm. wide) and quite shallow and the
aperture is slightly flared. Across the flanks the course of the constriction is
gently concave ; it runs across the ventro-lateral zone, swinging slightly forward
and forming a shallow ventral lobe.
The septa are closely spaced. The mature sutures form a broad ventral
lobe, divided by a large ventral saddle. Hach of the two prongs of the ventral
lobe is slightly wider than the adjoining lateral lobe, which is situated in the
middle of the flanks. There is a small pointed umbilical lobe. The internal
suture has not been studied, but is known from the paratype (see below).
Paratype.—The second specimen is a smaller fragment of a phragmocone
of which nearly two whorls are preserved. Its maximum diameter is 27-3 mm.
the width of the umbilicus 6-5 mm. At the adoral end the width of the conch
is 14 mm. and the height of the whorl 12-5 mm. The surface of the shell is
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXViI, 1953, Plate VII
Dh i = ,
‘
rf al
- bs, o
j : a
’ ‘
a
ee
‘
‘
—
¢
- '
ts
roe
to +
NEW AMMONOID FROM EASTERN AUSTRALIAN PERMIAN PROVINCE. “49
smooth. Where the height of the whorl is 11 mm., the whorl is constricted by
a narrow transverse groove whose course is slightly concave across the flanks
and curved slightly backward across the venter. |
Repository.—Holotype: No. 866. Paratype: No. 867. Both in the
Department of Geology, University of Sydney.
Localitya—In Portion 74 of the Parish of Pokolbin, New South Wales.
This locality is about three miles south-west of Cessnock and 29 miles almost
due west of Newcastle.
Horizon.—Farley Formation of the Lower Marine Group. Judging from
L. J. Jones’ map (1939) the beds within Portion 74 should range from about 370
to about 950 feet below the top of the Lower Marine Series. The total thickness
of the Farley ‘‘ Stage’ is given as 800 feet, so that the possibility cannot be
altogether excluded that the specimen may have come from the top beds of the
next lower Lochinvar ‘‘ Stage ’’.
Text-fig. 2.—Suture of Pseudogastrioceras pokol-
binense, n.sp. (The exact shape of the internal
lateral lobes has not been accurately determined.)
Affinities.—The Australian species is very close to the genotype of Pseudo-
gastrioceras, P. abichianum Moller (see Miller, 1944, pl. 44, figs. A and B). Since
the umbilicus of P. pokolbinense is slightly wider, this species is somewhat inter-
mediate between the genotype and P. roadense Bose. The latter was referred
to Aliudoceras by Teichert and Glenister (1952), but may with equal right be
included in Pseudogastrioceras s. str. Gastrioceras altudense Bose (1917), on
which Ruzhencev (1940) established the genus Altudoceras, has a still wider
umbilicus than Gastrioceras roadense and it has prominent transverse ribs on the
umbilical shoulders. The scope of Altudoceras is more or less identical with
Bése’s ‘* Group of Gastrioceras zitteli’’, which Plummer and Scott (1937) referred
to Paragastrioceras. However, the only figures of Gastrioceras zitteli reproduced
by them (pl. 22, figs. 10-11) are those of an immature individual taken from
Gemmellaro’s monograph (1887, pl. 6, figs. 22, 23). Mature specimens are almost
three times as large and the last one and a half to two whorls lack ribs on the
umbilical shoulders. Also the longitudinal ribs become strongest in the ventral
and ventrolateral regions and almost disappear from the flanks. The venter
becomes quite narrowly rounded and on the whole, mature specimens of Gastrio-
ceras zitteli are quite similar to forms which Miller (1944) included in Strigo-
goniatites (e.g. S. kingi Miller). These conditions, previously overlooked, further
emphasize the many transitions which connect all the ‘“‘ genera ’”’ concerned.
Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense is undoubtedly quite close to the true
Pseudogastrioceras end of this morphological series. Closely related species are
Pseudogastrioceras karpinskit Frédérix and P. suessi Karpinsky, from the
Artinskian of the Urals, from both of which it differs by a somewhat narrower
umbilicus. Pseudogastrioceras goochi Teichert (1942) from the Permian of
Western Australia is a much bigger species, has flat flanks, and its whorl-section
is broadest near the umbilical shoulder.
50 ; CURT TEICHERT.
REFERENCES.
Bose, E., 1917. The Permo-Carboniferous Ammonoids of the Glass Mountains, West Texas,
and Their Stratigraphical Significance. Univ. Texas Bull., No. 1762, pp. 5-241, pls. 1-11.
David, T. W. E., 1907. The Geology of the Hunter River Coal Measures, New South Wales.
Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Mem. No. 4, pp. 1-273, pls. 1-43.
—-—-——————.., 1951. The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Edited by W. R.
Browne. Vol. 1, 747 pp. London.
Fossa-Mancini, E., Las transgressiones marinas del Antracolitico en la America del Sur. Riv.
Mus. La Plata, N.S., Sece. Geol., Vol. 2, pp. 49-183.
Frenguelli, J., 1946. Consideraciones acerca de la ‘‘ Serie de Paganzo ”’ en las Provincias de
San Juan y la Rioja. Rw. Mus. La Plata, N.S., Sece. Geol., Vol. 2, pp. 313-376.
Frédérix, G., 1915. La fauna Paléozoique superiéure des environs de la ville de Krasnoufimsk.
Mém. Comité Géol., N.S., Livr. 109, pp. 105-117, pls. 1-10.
Gemmellaro, G. G., 1887. La Fauna dei Calcari con Fusulina della Valle del Fiume Sosio nella
Provincia di Palermo. Gorn. Sci. Nat. Econ., Palermo, Vol. 19, pp. 1-106.
Jones, L. J., 1939. The Coal Resources of the Southern Portion of the Maitland-Cessnock-
Greta Coal District (Northern Coalfield). Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Min. Resources, No. 37,
pp. 1-225.
Karpinsky, A. P., 1891. Von den Ammoneen der Artinskschen Etage und von einigen denselben
verwandten Carboniferen Formen. Kais. mineral. Gesellsch. St. Petersburg, Verhandl.,
Ser. 2, Vol. 27, pp. 15-208, pls. 1-4.
Maack, R., 1952. Die Entwicklung der Gondwana-Schichten Siidbrasiliens und ihre Beziehungen
zur Karru-Formation Stidafrikas. XIX Congr. Géol. Intern., Sympos. Séries de Gondwana
(ed. C. Teichert), Alger, pp. 341-372.
Maximova, S. V. and Ruzhencev, V. E., 1940. On the Distribution of Ammonites in the
Lower Permian of the Urals and the Resulting Stratigraphic Conclusions. Acad. Sci.
U.R.S.S., Doklady, Vol. 28, pp. 160-163.
Miller, A. K., 1944. Geology and Paleontology of the Permian Area North-west of Las Delicias,
South-western Coahuila, Mexico. Part 4, Permian Cephalopods. Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec.
Pap., No. 52, pp. 71-172, pls. 20-45.
Miller, A. K. and Furnish, W. M., 1940. Permian Ammonoids of the Guadalupe Mountain
Region and Adjacent Areas. Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap., No. 26, pp. 1-242, pls. 1-44.
Osborne, G. D., 1949. The Stratigraphy of the Lower Marine Series of the Permian System in
the Hunter River Valley. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. 74, p. 205.
Plummer, F. B. and Scott, G., 1937. The Geology of Texas, Volume 3, Part 1, The Paleozoic
Ammonites in Texas. Univ. Texas Bull., No. 3701, pp. 13-516, pls. 1-41.
Ruzhencev, V. E., 1938. Ammonoids of the Sakmarian Stage and Their Stratigraphic Sig-
nificance. Probl. Paleontol., Vol. 4, pp. 187-285, pls. 1-7.
, 1940. On the Question of the Taxonomic Position of Some of the Upper
Paleozoic Ammonites. Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., Doklady, Vol. 28,
No. 3, pp. 285-288. ,
, 1950. Type Section and Biostratigraphy of the Sakmarian Stage. (In
Russian.) Acad. Sci. U.R.S.S., Doklady, Vol. 71, pp. 1101-1104.
Teichert, C., 1942. Permian Ammonoids from Western Australia. Jour. Paleont., Vol. 16,
pp. 221-232, pl. 35.
Teichert, C. and Fletcher, H. O., 1943. A Permian Ammonoid from New South Wales and the
Correlation of the Upper Marine Series. Aust. Mus. Rec., Vol. 21, pp. 156-163, pl. 11.
Teichert, C. and Glenister, B. F., 1952. Lower Permian Ammonoids from the Irwin Basin,
Western Australia. Jour. Paleont., Vol. 26, pp. 12-23, pls. 3-4.
Voisey, A. H., 1952. The Gondwana System in New South Wales. XIX Congr. Géol. Intern.,
Sympos. Séries de Gondwana (ed. C. Teichert), Alger, pp. 50-55.
Walkom, A. B., 1913. Stratigraphical Geology of the Permo-Carboniferous System in the
Maitland-Branxton District, with some Notes on the Permo-Carboniferous Palaeogeography
in New South Wales. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. 38, Pt. 1, pp. 114-145, pls. 8-13.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE VII.
Figs. 1-4.—Pseudogastrioceras pokolbinense Teichert, n.sp. 1-3. Lateral and apertural views of
holotype (No. 866). 4. Lateral view of paratype (No. 867). All natural size.
ON THE INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN
OPERATOR FUNCTIONS.
By J. L. GRIFFITH, B.A., M.Sc.
School of Mathematics, New South Wales University of Technology.
Manuscript received, January 22, 1953. Read, August 5, 1953.
SUMMARY.
Assuming that the operator \V is defined by
_ 0w(x, y) , Ow(a, Y)
VY 2w(x, y= Ox2 ale oy2
then expressions of the following type are determined :
1 9 a ba 2 sane ae
eae ele sw(x%—is a 0, y—ts sin A Pas sag,
—sg?)2
2m cr.
J o(2V )w(a, aa w(%—iz COS —, y—22 SIN ¢—E)dg.
0
Section 7 is devoted to a brief discussion of the algebra of the operator V .
PREFACE.
In the determination of the solution of Laplace’s equation
o2
ae +V #0 =0
(where Wit mae ter
and similar equations, especially the equation of elasticity, one of the most
popular methods is to use the two-dimensional Fourier transformation (equations
(1.5) and (1.6) of this paper). The use of this method demands that the functions
considered should be small at infinity.
In particular, the adoption of this method immediately eliminates all those
functions 9(#, y) for which the equation
V **o(a, 4) —0 (7 INGO OTA mec Ne ie wei ees (P.1)
holds.
We may proceed to solve the equations using the symbol VV as a differential
operator. The use of this method demands that at every step the functions
considered must be expressed in the form
n=0
where w(x, y) is a suitably restricted function. The method will certainly not
prevent discussion of functions which are solutions of equation (P.1). In fact,
it will be seen that the V/ -method is particularly suited for the treatment of
such functions. Section 7 of this paper presents some remarks on types of
functions which may be introduced.
52 J. L. GRIFFITH.
Now it is obvious that, in certain cases, a problem may be solved by the
V -method and by the two-dimensional Fourier method. A means of identifying
the results is necessary and this is provided by equation (1.11).
In this paper the author has determined some definite integral expressions
for some of the more elementary expressions of the type (P.2).
I. INTRODUCTION.
If we consider the two-dimensional operator VV defined by
V Soatoy? lee ates he's) «eee (1.1)
we observe that Laplace’s oe
ee 2 +V ee
possesses formal solutions of the type
sin 2 3
-| y Y | (HY) [COS CV eos a) ie eee (1.2)
where the symbolic expressions in square brackets are defined by the formal
power series
sin 2VV & (—1)rgtntly 2n
= Ys __—",n. eee 1.3
Yo ee ae
and
ms 00 (—1)"22"\7 2n
cos 2\/ Fa, SR 6 6 he On (1.4)
In aa paper, integral expressions are found for certain functions defined
by f(V )w(a, Y).
ne methods of finding the results will involve the use of the two dimen-
sional Fourier Transform defined in the form
F,[w(a, y)]=w(&, ») ==) ee eSe+nyw(a, ydady, ........ (1.5)
which has the inverse transformation
By foe, D=we, =| | eerie, main... (16)
Corresponding to equation (1. My we have the convolution formula
Fe '(f(E ng nls ae i i B— yy Y —Y3)9(@1, yi)da,dy,
eM i (1.7)
1 + co
=a,[ [fen nole—ay, yi ndosdy,
oe = w(x, y)=w(k) where hk? =x? +y? (ie. w is a radial function) then
w(é, n)=w(e) (where p2=82+7?) (i.e. w is also a radial function [B.C. p. 167]
nd a eeticss (1.5) and (1.6) reduce to Hankel Transforms of order zero.
Thus
w(o)= | “Rw(R)I(eR)@R=H,[w(R)] .........--- (1.8)
0
and
w(R)= | : eW(o)s (pak Hg [eo(e\e 2). cs ae (1.9)
INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 53
Assuming that w(x, y) and its derivatives are suitably restricted, equation
(1.5) gives i
PAV ?w(x, y) = —(6? +n?) w(8.n)
or more generally, if
then EN
PETA 00 Lien) =F 07 )00 (Gaur) tomnageies oe os 3 (1.10)
In this paper we will treat only those functions which may be expressed
aS &@ power series involving even powers of \/, so equation (1.10) may be written
as
F.[o(V )w(a, y)]=glip)w(E, n) occ. cece eeaee (ellie)
where g(V )=f(V ’),
i.e.
WV Joa, y)=P>"[g(te) Pow, y)] «1. (1.12)
2. INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS FOR [(sinh 2V )/V w(x, y) AND
[(sin 2V )/V ]w(a, y).
Using equation (1.11) we obtain
vee 2V/ tam Zo—
F 2 g |vte Yy) 5 UE (See) ofp isktae Ostet secu (2.1)
Since (sin ze)/e is radial, equation (1.9) gives
1
0
(2—R2)-? 2>R
O0<e<R .... (2.2)
[W.B.F., p. 405.]
Now combining equations (2.1), (2.2) and the two-dimensional Fourier
convolution theorem (equation (1.7)) we e obtain the first part of
Theorem (2.1).
Tf (a) F[w(#, y)]
and = (b) [(sinh z2V )/V ]w(a, y) exist,
then
sinh 2V/ wa —a
[aaa W) | oy =a le (22 ae eae z arr eee re cece (2.3a)
(2>0).
(A being the interior of a circle with centre the origin and radius 2.)
270 == as 1
lt sw(x&—s COS o, Y—S SIN asd
9)
J)(fe) sin zede
0
eel l.
:
(?—9%)i
He. pn em (2.3D)
(z>0)
__ & [2% 71 sw(%@—zs COs ¢, y —%s Sin o)
“2, 0 i? (1 —s*)? ial
SRE) otk nage eee (2.3¢)
(all real 2).
54 J. L. GRIFFITH.
Equation (2.3b) follows from equation (2.3a) by an obvious change of
variable. Equation (2.3c) also follows by change of variable, but, in addition,
obviously holds over the extended range of z.
We now proceed formally from (2.3c) and derive an integral expression
for [(sin 2V )/V Jw(a, y) by replacing 2 by 27.
Stated fully, the new result is
Theorem (2.2).
If (a) w(u, v) is analytic in both uw and v in the region h=lmu=—h,
: h=Imv=—h, where h>| z|
and (b) w(u,v)—+0 uniformly, as Rew and Rev—>-+oo in such a way that
F[w(@+ta,, y+ty,)] exists (absolutely) for O<|a,|<h and
OS| 41 |<h
then
sin 2\/ __ & (27 (1 sw(x—izs cos 9, y—izs sin ¢-)
7 | mee fe | nn =r nc |
go hbes a Cea ae (2.4a)
2m (2 sw(x—is COS 9, y—is Sin ¢)
or eb) 6) o: '/ejca ah alle taelistanee EN (2.45)
for 2>0
ae W(%— thy, Y —1Y)3)
= oe ; eye M04) ) cadens (2.4¢)
for 2>0.
(where A is the area described after equation (2.3a)).
Clearly equations (2.4b) and (2.4¢c) are obtainable from equation (2.4a) by
change of variable.
Proof.—Since F'2 ‘T(sinh zo)/o] does not exist, the results cannot be obtained
directly from the convolution theorem.
Proceeding from a right side of equation (2.4c) :
x —in,, y—iy,)
L=F | a5 li cases e492 — TAL diay, |
Baa Bake L—W, Y—4
eel nh ‘f Be ea i elem dar, dy dady
aes wee G—Iix PAE eae on We
(the ntechange Ba the ze of He eeilen being justified by absolute con-
vergence),
a +ny1) +o0-iy,s (+0 Page
=F. ere gre yey [Poa]! da, dy, | | v)eiEu+mdudv
—-oO-iy,d) —o—in,
(by change of vas U=x“—ivn, and v=y —ty;,).
Since w is analytic in the region quoted in the hypothesis, we can change
the path of integration to the real axes.
i * e-(Ea +n) Dua [im ( (7 {" +f" iv:
—— er ace an rid y
An? al [24 gene p, 9,7, S>+ 0 —O— Wi) —p )|
$—12,
( res [ - I ye (u, vjeiSutmdudo.
Tada yh ears
INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 55
Since w(u, v) +0 as Reu and Rev ++ 0, the first and last integrals in the
curved brackets vanish so
e-(En +N) +0 +00 ’
ae vel. lle Ca aa yey dx,dy, : | w(u, veut dudy
27f#p—pt cos _
| ee il ERS ¥ +
(by an ao change of Bae where tana = —7/6).
vad by a change of origin in the 0-integral, we obtain
we eee | aoa 008 0
9
et 2 t1,(ot)
=w(&, 7) @-ay
aE ne SEE EE Es ne (2.5)
(by [W.B.F., p. 79] where I,(¢) is the Bessel function of the first kind with
imaginary argument).
Using the series expansion for the Bessel function
ite Zz © opel ead
L=w(§, »f 3 pa (2B) XT (n +1 ypagan Mt
=w(é, 7) S auro Fup | sina
(by the substitution 1=<z sin {).
By using the \ raciaeeriile formula for the integral
perentt gen +1)}
m6) 2 soera@epiyt Pato)
wit © /g2nt+1o2n+1\ 1
=w(é, ay (2n-+1)! );
Ciliary Ae Cnet og Ried ener eat Ae een (2.6)
Finally, our assumptions and equation (1.11) together with equation (2.6)
show that [(sin z\/ )/V ]w(#, y) exists and equals the right side of (2.4c) which
we aimed to prove.
3. INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS FOR [cosh 2V ]w(z, y) AND [cos 2V ]w(a, y).
By integrating the Bead side of (2.3b) by parts we obtain
sinh 2V/ ih : ,
| a | (ae; y)= on ie (2? —s?)?w(a—s cos o, y—s sin p) de
2m ,0W(X% —S COS O, Y—S Sin ¢-)
ee yoo et OSI Y <8 BIR
2p |e $7) a5 dsdo
27 ,0w(%—Ss COs ~, y—s sin o)
lt cane Bigs er eect. oe
ZW (2, y)+5 : [© $2) As dsdo.
BM ahs 5 arg ahie kel san Re (3.1)
Now from the series definition we observe that
o [ (sin zV
all 7 )w(e, »| =(COS 2V )w(%, Y) ........ (3.2) —
56 J. L. GRIFFITH.
The boundedness and differentiability of w(x, y) allows us to differentiate
equation (3.1)to obtain
Theorem (3.1).
If (a) F,[w(a, y)]
and (b) [cosh zV ]w(a, y) exist,
then
[cosh 2V/ }w(a, y)
es ee adalh Ow(x%—s COS 9, ¥Y—S Sin ¢)
Te ho cama mn om
Stes oie che ss cee (3.3a)
(2>0)
ie et te , Ow(x%—z2s COS Y, y—es SiN ¢)
40 (0, Ya A ia —s?)3 a
« dis a oe aks ere (3.3D)
(all real 2).
Proceeding from equation (2.3b) analogously we have
Theorem (3.2).
Under the assumptions of Theorem (2.2)
[cos 2V/ ]w(x, y)
L (27 e’ 2 Ow(“% —is COS o, y—is sin ¢)
(t, ¥) +5 } =r Var rered oS
oo Clare Viet h CE Eee (3.4a)
(2>0)
1 (4m (til 0w(x —iz8 COS o, y —izs sin ®) ag
+: steun\eijen 0 etek ee (3.4b)
(all real 2).
4. REMARKS ON THE RESULTS OBTAINED IN SECTIONS 2 AND 3.
The equation of Theorems (2.1), (2.2), (3.1) and (3.2) have been derived
with the assumption that w(x, y) has a two-dimensional Fourier transform.
It will be seen that this is not necessary.
We will assume that w(u, v) is an analytic function in the neighbourhood
of u=x and v=y. That is to say that for certain positive P and Q
LAG Kd 7)
w(xt-+a, yo) = (ag, tbg,) ele y) rete eee eees (4.1)
for all a and b so that | a|<P and | b/<@q.
We will assume that
2. maim (P,Q). saber. « Sie tire ee (4.2)
So examining equation (3.4a), we proceed :
ancl dsdo_ Ow (%—1z28 COS 0, ¥ —izs SiD ¢)
Mal ie Cea ee Os
_[(?"(' dsdp 08 S % cos? ge sin"? A
=| le —s)8 > Oa, optim pee) pete
(— 1)"8n22" Q2n
iL
Wot) SATO MA a oe aes ont ey t
==, rep +1)0(2n —2p +1) aarwayen— 20's y) | (1 —s?)-4ds
INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 5T
where the order of integration and summation has been inverted (the convergence
being uniform). In the integration with regard to ¢ it has been observed that
terms involving odd powers of sino or of cos » disappear after integration.
After simplification we have
oO 2n1'(n+1) o2n
=e __] \ne2n ‘
BS pad) T@a FIT @ +L —p Hl) | darray—wi 9)
(ce) Qn Nn 2n
n=1 (2n)!, ol (p +1) P(n—p +1) BaP dyn ap" y)
=2n 3 (—1y oil gga tage) 9
=2n{[cos zV ]w(a, y)—w(a, y)}.
So
[eos 27 Jw(a, 9) =wlmr, y)+ <M
as required.
The other results may be treated similarly, so
Theorem (4.1).
Tf (a) w(a+a, y+b)= y =
n=on.
0 0
(a3, +PGy) "ol 9
for |a|<P and | b|<Q,
and (b) | 2|<min (P, 9),
then the conclusions of Theorems (2.1), (2.2), (3.1) and (3.2) hold.
5. INTEGRAL EXPRESSIONS FOR [1)(2zV/ )]w(a, y) AND [J,(2zV )]w(a, y)..
An alternative method of deriving formulae of the type we have been
considering is to use the integral formulae for [J)(zV ) ]w(a, y) and [Jo(2V ) }w(a, y)
where again [,(¢) and J,(t) are the Bessel functions discussed in [W.B.F., pp. 79
and 48] respectively.
If we write 5(t) for the Dirac impulse function we have
{ i ea >| Jo(oR)RAR=84(c2).
0
Then referring back to equations (1.8) and (1.9) we obtain formally
Pe" [J o(e2) ] =H 5 "LJ o(92)]
oleae) ee) Oe eee (5.1)
From equation (1.9)
FA [Ip(2V ) ro(a, y)} =Fo(@o)wlE, 1).
Thus from the convolution theorem
1 (2 (an __ Pp
[Tol2V )W0(0, 9) =o { | w(a—R’ cos 9, y—R’ sin ore HO) Raga?
TOO fr
27
== w(e—z COS 9, y—zZ8IN p)dp. .......... (5.2);
POUEO
Replacing z by 2 in the equation (5.2) we have
27¢
[Jo(2V ) Jw(a, N=52| w(%—tz COS Oo, y—tz Sin —)dp .... (5.3)
0
58 J. L. GRIFFITH.
As in section 4, we may prove equations (5.2) and (5.3) by using the Taylor
expansion and obtain
Theorem (5.1).
If w(u, v) satisfies the conditions of Theorem (4.1), then equations (5.2)
and (5.3) hold.
Now the formula
sin ee sJ 9 oH
where k is a constant can be easily obtained. So formally
aa (a, y) = =| aoa i[Jo(sV ) w(a, y)ds
°z sds 2 : ce Mt
=| “| w(x —is Cos 9, y—ts sin o)do
0
0
as previously obtained.
Considering (5.4) as an identity in power series we may write
sin aa =|" 2sJ ,(sV )
(Z2 —s?)2
Equations (5.2) and es are extremely important theorems in the develop-
ment of the theory of the V -operator.
6. THE PREVIOUS RESULTS SPECIALISED FOR RADIAL FUNCTIONS AND
HANKEL TRANSFORMS OF ORDER ZERO.
If we assume that w(a, y) is radial, the formulae we have derived may be
simplified. If the Hankel transform exists, then the result may be expressed
in this form.
sinh 2V/ 20 (1rw(R,)drdd ee
ae eee
| ce “ol eile (2.31)
with Bh? 2 2972 2her COS @. \\..- «gleam (A)
sin zV/ 2m (lyw(R,)drdd
Po |e mie), Jae
ae ee i; Oe es ky 2.49
i : (0) j (2.49)
with R2=—R* —29r? —2iRer cos0. ..... +. ee (B)
[cosh 2V Jw(k) =w(R) + { ‘ | fal Sa: ae Vara6
0 J0
{=H [cos 2p, WG) Tain ceeds «ot: a ules s) seen (3.17)
1 fn ft 1 R
[cos aV/ ]w(#) =w(k) oz : ee —z, arab
{=H ‘Teosh zp.w(e)]}.) ea Le (3.2r)
INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 59
TeV oR) = ae), oe
PB Muacavinipy i fesc fo eee eae << ce (5.2r)
with R2=F* ie DS COB ue Go tue woe esate 45 (C)
[Jol2V )w(R) = = i cae Aree 10 ae (5.37)
{=H 5 1[Lo(Ze) - et
with R ets —DURZ COS ei ets ots, ts a. (D)
It is clear that equations (2.37) and (formally) (5.27) are direct consequences.
of the Hankel Convolution formula ;
et Ses 2 (2
H(fle\slell =5,.| "| rfBadolryarad
0 0
1 pon
= [om rf(r)g(Ry)Ord® we. eee eeeeee (6.1)
with R2=k?-+-r?—2kr cos0
These last formulae may be derived easily from formulae (1.7) by change
of variable.
7. SOME REMARKS ON THE ALGEBRA OF THE OPERATOR \.
Suppose that we have two series
f(V)= E a,¥ See on Ree (7.1)
and
and a set of functions w(«, y) which are to act as operands.
In order to obtain the unique hae
TA GON 20 (25 Y) =a (V7 IF (YW we, Y) |) wn ae ee ies nee (7.3a)
=[9(V )f(V ae U's Teen ets ia i ac iereee (7.3b)
-| x) e p> ae ye peo (OO Vi kee aire scsi-= (7.3e)
we will assume the sufficient condition: the double series
DO DIN A8t PIO W) iia ele. Miata sue wk a (7.4)
n, p
is absolutely convergent. This condition will be assumed to hold whenever we write
FV )g(V Jw, y)-
Now in order to obtain a meaning for [f(V )]-! we will proceed as follows :
If we assume that we are given
f(V)= % a, a 1h Ee TS a (7.5)
then we can derive the unique power series
g(V )= BDV 2n, Dy a hee (7.6)
©0 yh J. L. GRIFFITH.
with the property
n .
IN WHO VRS ee (7.7)
p=
Thus if the double series (7.4) is Cone convergent then
LAY a (V7 )l wa, y)=w@, 7)... eee (7.8)
or for the set of functions mn :
HV gH 1.. 2 eee (7.9)
Thus we define
Definition (7.1).
If * fV)=2 4,V%, G40
n=0
and g(V ad ~ Pav 2n, b= —
5 0
where 3 nes p=9, n+4~0
Ba
then g(V )=Lf(V )]—? is defined to be the inverse of f(V ).
As a simple example of an inverse as defined above we see that
(L—V *#)-4=:, 7 7%. 2k. eee (7.10)
n=0
This inverse can be used to demonstrate the necessity of examining the
operand before applying the definition (7.1).
If the operand is e*
then (1—V 2)e*=0,
xv 2n)[(1—V 2)er] =0 Le*.
But
tg
(1—V %)e = Tel"
(Eyed —v jel = Ey 2y7e
n=0
Stee oe Jet
=¢?,
Now it is clear that in special cases there may be alternative power series
which could act as inverses. For example, if w(x”, y) is any biharmonic function
then
1+V2+ 55,7
n=2
for arbitrary b, is an inverse for 1—\?.
We may then state
Definition (7.2).
If .
HV SF (V ole, Y) =LI(V I-F(V Jw(a, y) =(@, Y) .-- ee (7.11)
for a set of functions a y) then g(V ) is defined to be a particular inverse of
f(V) for the set of functions w(z, y).
INTERPRETATION OF CERTAIN LAPLACIAN OPERATOR FUNCTIONS. 61
As a result of the foregoing analysis we are able to solve
N/a) (EE) TOF 5 YO ee rh ao ns a ssi asia (7.12)
where f(\/ ) is a aes of Es type (7.5). oe have simply
LAV )ITF(V ola, y) =LF(V )-7*h(@, 9)
W(x, W=T(V ]-th( (x, y)
or we may replace [f(V )]-! by any other eae inverse.
It is to be emphasised that if aj=0, then f(V ) does not possess an inverse,
in the sense here defined.
We now proceed to derive formally some integral formulae.
Taking K,(t) to be the Bessel function of the second kind with imaginary
argument and understanding that the integral represents a power series, we
have
oe) 2nb
{ sK,(as)I (bs yas = “eel 8) geo eam Sete a0
0
ee (n 1)222n
2n 2n
= _geut- K,(as)s2"+1ds
n= o(
“2 27 2n 22n(n!)2
m ao(ml)2o2" gan +2
- : [W.B.F., p. 388]
1 fo) n
a NG / 270
FAM » tr OO i a ee ahh a (7.13)
(a> b2V/ ys
Similarly, |
| Sih (G8) (USN NOS EUAN) Ar tes oe ns scl vine (7.14)
0
Thus using the results of section 5 we obtain
[a*—b°V7 2] -1w(a, y Fall ie sK,(as)w(%—sb cos 2, y —sb sin o)dods
Be RENO Sere TE TR (7.15)
[a? +b2V 2]-1w(a, y) = a [e sK,(as)w(x%—1sb cos ~, y —isb sin ~)dods.
BO eee oe eae (7.16)
Now from [W.W., p. 135] we obtain
1 ey. U U a
Uw COSeC Zu Tis 2 le ae cal (—1)
oe) aT \n 2
yi a emia As (7.17)
2 n—1U?2" — n* 7?
where &’ indicates that the term in n=0 is omitted from the sum.
Considered as a function of uw, the series (7.17) can be rearranged to give a
power series. If now wu is replaced by VV we have the formal inverse of
(sin 2V )/V. However, the form of the series in equation (7.17) allows us to
proceed to
V cosec 2\/ ="+ > 2eV7 2(—1)"+1 | " sK,p(nms)Io(82V )ds
n=1
0
62 J. L. GRIFFITH.
1.e.
1
[V cosec 2V7 }eo(a, y)=—w(@, y)
tad
Tv
(oe) co (27
x (—1)"+1 | | SK o(n7s)w(x —sz COS —, y —8z Sin ~)deds.
fie oJ 0
wee tele gsc o (7.19)
An interesting form occurs when we adopt the same procedure for
(sin 2V )/(sin cV ), | 2|<e.
From the same section of [W.W.] we obtain
; 1 1
sin zu 2 qo YJ ——__ + . nme2
———=--+ },’ nr nr} (—1)" sin — |2|<e
sinc’ ¢C y-_xo|/e—-— — c
Cc Cc
2n7te 2c NZ
—= oD 22 ain
bial ms ) cu? rm lg c
So again replacing wu by VV and using the result (7.13) we obtain
snzeV 2 & ai _ 2e . NTz
Siow mya ean: us [nrc ie : SK (n7s)I(csV )ds nm a
Putting the a a in this result, we find the Fourier series
Baal wo, y) =", 9)
sin cV/
fe.@) co 2
+e ae | "sKq(nns)w(«e—es COs ©, y —cs sin o)dods— 20 (2, |
Gran oJ0
8. ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.
‘The author wishes to express his appreciation to Professor G. Bosson of
_ the New South Wales University of Technology, who suggested the topic of
this paper.
REFERENCES.
[W.W.] Whittaker, E. T., and Watson, G. N. ‘*‘ Modern Analysis.” Cambridge, 1927.
[W.B.F.] Watson, G. N. ‘‘ Theory of Bessel Functions.’’ Cambridge, 1945.
[B.C.] Bochner, S., and Chandrasekharan, K.: ‘‘ Fourier Transforms.’ Ann. Math.
Studies No. 19. Princeton.
[T.T.F.] Titchmarsh, E. C. ‘‘ Theory of Functions.’ Oxford, 1932.
JURASSIC FISHES OF NEW SOUTH WALES (MACROSEMIID)
WITH A NOTE ON THE TRIASSIC GENUS PROMECOSOMIN A.
By R. T. WADE, M.A., Ph. D.
(With Plates VIII and IX and two Text-figures.)
Manuscript received, May 13, 1953. Read, August 5, 1953.
| INTRODUCTION.
In 1941, in an account of the Jurassic fishes of New South Wales, I included
a preliminary note on Uarbryichthys latus, a new Jurassic macrosemiid. At
that time the head was in London in the care of Professor D. M. 8S. Watson,
and it remained in his careful custody till after the war ended. On its return
to me this head was placed in the Australian Museum, where it is catalogued as
No. F.43258 (a), the trunk of the same fish receiving the number F.43258 (b).
Together with that fossil Professor Watson returned to the Museum a nearly
complete fish now listed as No. F.43606, to which I have given the name
Uarbryichthys incertus.
I am thus once again indebted to Professor Watson for encouragement and
advice, and to the authorities of the Australian Museum for many forms of help
they have given me there. In particular I am grateful to Mr. Howard Hughes,
who made the photographs, and to Mr. G. P. Whitley, who drew Text-fig. 2.
Family Macrosemiidz.
Genus Uarbryichthys
Plate VIII, Text-figs. 1, 2.
Interature.
1895. Woodward, A. 8. Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., Part ITI. —
1916. Woodward, A. S. Pal. Soc. London, VI and XXVI.
1939. Brough, J. The Triassic Fishes of Besano. Brit. Mus. Cat.
1941. Rayner, D. H. Biol. Reviews, Vol. XVI, p. 218.
1941. Wade, R. T. The Jurassic Fishes of New South Wales. THIS
JOURNAL, Vol. LXXV.
1948. Rayner, D. H. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lon., No. 601.
1949. Saint-Seine, M. P. de. Les Poissons des Caleaires lithographiqus
de Cerin. Nowvelles Archives de Mus. @historie Nat. de Lyon.
1952. Lehman, Jean-Pierre. Etude Complémentaire des poissons de
VKotrias de Madagascar. Kungl. Sven. Vel. Hand. Fjdrde
Serten, Band 2, No. 6.
Diagnosis. Small Macrosemiidse rather deeply fusiform in shape. Heads
rather large, triangular, with somewhat pointed snout; orbit small, placed
well back ; suspension forwardly inclined ; gape small. Conspicuous ornament
of branching ruge on many external bones of the head. Frontals long; wide
behind orbits, taperedinfront. Parietals small, roughly quadrangular. Tabular
bones possibly in two pairs, the outer quadrangular, the inner triangular.
Operculum nearly twice as deep as long. Sub-operculum much smaller than
64 R. T. WADE.
operculum, having an antero-dorsal triangular extension overlapped by
operculum ; interoperculum small; preoperculum short where adjacent to
operculum, longer and turning somewhat forward before the suboperculum and
interoperculum. Branchiostegal rays not numerous. Six infraorbitals of
varied shapes and sizes. Suborbital area apparently undivided. Mazxilla
small, comparatively deep near gape, tapering rapidly towards snout ; posterior
margin sigmoidal. Mandibles fairly robust, having greatest depth in coronoid
region, thence tapering rapidly anteriorly ; very slight droop at symphysis of
the mandibles. Supraorbital sensory canal probably ends at back of frontal.
Single long continuous dorsal fin, arising only slightly behind head ; pelvics
midway between pectorals and anal; anal about midway between pelvics and
caudal. Fin rays have long proximal portions, but thereafter are divided into
small joints, and distally branch. Fulcra absent. Pectorals have scaleless
lobes with at least five long slender basals. Scaly upper lobe of tail is small.
Seales thick, ‘‘ rhombic ’’, ganoine covered ; on anterior trunk are deeper
than long; ventrally and on the produced upper lobe of the tail they are as
deep as long; in the caudal region longer than deep, elaborately ornamented
with short irregular ruge on anterior trunk, with fewer ruge posteriorly.
Genotype. U. latus Wade.
Uarbryichthys latus.
Diagnosis. As for genus.
Holotype. A somewhat incomplete fish in partial counterpart in the
Australian Museum, Sydney (No. F.43258 (a), (b)).
Material. The holotype and several fragments in the Australian Museum,
Sydney.
The matrix is a close-grained highly siliceous chert, impregnated with iron
oxides. All bone has disappeared but imprints are heavily stained by iron oxide
and there are some casts. Because of the fine texture of the original mud,
many details are very clearly preserved. The crushing together of the bones
of the head, followed by the irregular cleavage of the chert block in recovering
the specimen, have made exact delimitation of bones difficult or impossible.
Measurements. The measurements of the holotype are as follows: Length
from tip of snout to base of tail, 190 mm. ; maximtm depth of trunk, 65 mm. ;
depth at origin of caudal fin, 22 mm.; length of head with opercular apparatus,
65mm. Maximum depth of head, 58 mm.
The Head (Text-fig. 1). The bones of the cranial roof were thick and so
firmly sutured that under crushing its anterior has moved as a unit to a short
distance from the rest of the head. The frontals make up most of the covering,
which is wide behind and just in front of the orbits, but more anteriorly tapers
rapidly. In this region the suture of the frontals is straight, but from a point
between the orbits undulates gently before reaching the parietals. In No.
F'.43258 (a) the outer margin, behind the orbit of one of the frontals, has been
deeply pressed into the matrix, perhaps by the neurocranium, and its outer limit
is not determinable. However, the counterpart, F.43258 (b), preserves almost
certainly the outer segment of a frontal bearing a channel and cast of a supra-
orbital canal parallel to its outer margin, to which it is very close, and extending
to the junction of frontal and parietal.
In No.43258 (a) part-only of the second frontal is preserved behind the
orbits. One parietal is almost completely delimited. Its width almost equals
its length. Its anterior margin has nearly straight junction line with about
three-quarters of the posterior margin of the adjacent frontal. Its common
suture with the other parietal, estimated from the distribution of ornamental
JURASSIC FISHES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 65
ruge, is gently concave to the midline of the head.
Its junction with the supra-
temporal is uneven and the parietal is shorter there than on its inner side.
Posteriorly it is slightly convex backward where it lies in contact with the
triangular tabular, but above that its margin is not clearly determinable.
Near
Md., Ant. R. Br.
Text-fig. 1.—Head of Uarbryichthys latus Wade.
Genotype.
R.Br.
No. F.43258 (a) ( x 3/2), Australian
Museum, Sydney.
Ang. =Angular.
Ant.R.Br.=Anterior branchiostegal ray or
lar.
Clei. =Cleithrum.
C.O. =Circumorbitals.
C.S.C.=Casts of sensory canal.
Dent. =Dentary.
Fr. =Frontal.
I.Op. =Interoperculum.
Md. 1 and 2=Mandibles.
Mdc.=Mandibular sensory canal.
Mx. = Maxilla.
Na. ?=Nasal ?.
Op. =Operculum.
Orb. = Orbit.
Pa. = Parietal.
Pas. = Parasphenoid.
P.Cl. = Post-cleithral scales.
P.Op. = Preoperculum.
P.Op.C.=Fragments of preopercular sensory
canal.
P.T. =Post-temporal.
Qu.. | and 2.=Quadrates.
R.Br. =Branchiostegal rays.
8.Cl. =Supracleithral scale.
8.0. =Supraorbital.
S.Op. =Suboperculum.
S.0.C.=Supraorbital sensory canal.
S8.T. =Supratemporal.
Sym.=—End of symplectic (?).
Tab.=Tabular or extrascapular.
x=Unplaced bone.
y=Surface damage.
Serrated lines indicate damage in the specimen.
the posterior margin of the parietal, and about half its width from its inner
margin, there is a small area from which an ornament of ruge radiates. In
almost the centre of this area there is a cylindrical cast 1-5 mm. long which
probably represents a sensory pore.
‘peAresqo oq p[noo uolMIpuos esoym sequinu 1reus Ajoatyereduioo we seqze poztAys shea urg ‘AoupAg ‘umnesny, uvsipeaysny
(‘xoidde #/g¢x) ‘ggzer'ad “ON uocutloeds uo poseq uoNonMsuODeYy ‘ope snyn) shyghyoiisquoQ—% ‘BY-4Xe],
ee SS
a
Sve
Soe wie
vaen rseawenal tte
_——nesaere ae
ds KES
Ba _ ARN
zor TE FRO SS
ON
R. T. WADE.
ORY
= TARR 8
Sih AR $
~e of
4 6% Qt
tH iP,
Lay xy e
SED x EC
SG ot
' ASD ae
LZ ao
so ,
A rs
8 ,
a
66
JURASSIC FISHES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 67
In F.43258 (b) it seems that small bones, the outer polygonal, the inner
triangular (with curved sides), make up each triangular tabular row of about
10 mm. wide, but one cannot be quite certain. Triangular post-temporals,
slightly less wide than the tabular row, are connected by irregular scales or
small supra-cleithrum to scales behind the opercula. At the outer margin of
the nearly complete parietal described above there is the posterior segment of
an incompletely determinable supratemporal, whose anterior has been destroyed
by crushing.
The parasphenoid seems to have been turned in the crushing movement
so as to show much of its width. The impression in No. F.43258 (a) is 32 mm.
long and6 mm. deep. It is damaged both anteriorly and posteriorly ; ventrally
it was pressed deep into the matrix, and since bony material has disappeared a
deep, very narrow trench bounds the impression there. Nearer the hinder end
the ventral margin dips somewhat, forming an are which is concave downwards,
and then ends abruptly at a break in the specimen.
Extending forwards some 10 mm. from beneath the damaged anterior
margin of the parasphenoid there is an impression 5 mm. wide, having parallel
dorsal and ventral margins, and at its anterior end a margin which is an arc
convex outwards. The impression as a whole is a shallow trough, concave
upwards, being more depressed close to its anterior margin. It is lightly
ornamented by very small sharply pointed projections. It bears a calcitic
internal cast of branching sensory canal slightly to the dorsal side of the midline
of the bone and turning upwards as it approaches the anterior end of the impres-
sion, and embedding its end there. Along the midline there is the merest
suggestion of a suture. A small fragment of sensory canal is present near the
antero-ventral margin of the impression. Having in mind the position of this
impression, i.e. extending back from the very tip of the snout ; its comparatively
large size; its width, which equals that of the anterior end of the frontals, the
position of its sensory canal as it lies close to a midline in such a way that it
could easily continue the similarly placed canal of a frontal, the author considered
that there is here evidence of paired nasals which extended between the tip of
the snout and the cranial roof. The fact that the impression is covered
posteriorly by the parasphenoid is probably due to the rolling motion of the
crushing which moved the cranial roof and turned the parasphenoid so as to
show much of its base.
The bones of the snout were crushed deep into the matrix and much broken
when the specimen was uncovered. Impressions of the parts that remain are
situated partly below the probable nasals but separate bones cannot be distin-
guished. Parts of internal calcitic casts of the sensory canal are lying ventral
to the nasals, but issuing from a greatly crushed bone, which must have been
the anterior circumorbital of the other side of the head. Anterior to the nasals
is the rounded anterior of the snout, which was probably a rostral as it carries
some of an internal cast of sensory canal.
Although exact delimitation is not possible, the circumorbital bones are
for the most part satisfactorily determinable. One of them, a supraorbital,
which bears a conspicuous ornament of ruge nearly concentric with the orbital
margin of the bone, is 8-5 mm. long, about 3 mm. deep, and is placed in the
orbit immediately behind the widest part of the cranial roof. Then behind
the orbit and deeply impressed into the matrix there was a bone of which only
a large fragment remains. This is roughly rectangular in shape, 7 mm. deep
and 3-5 mm. long, greatly ornamented, but preserving nothing of sensory canal.
A break in the specimen, which damaged that bone, damaged also the upper
margin of a large bone that lies partly behind and partly below the orbit. In
this is preserved very prominently an internal cast of part of the infraorbital
68 R. T. WADE.
sensory canal which branches several times. Anterior to this bone there are
four bones below the orbit, each channelled and carrying the calcitic cast of the
infraorbital sensory canal. The first of the four, roughly oval in shape, is about
10 mm. deep and 10 mm. long; the second, of the same depth, is only about —
half as long and has both interior and posterior margins concave backwards ;
the third, wide behind and throughout most of its length, becomes pointed
anteriorly ; finally, carrying the sensory canal into the snout, there is the fourth
bone, about 22 mm. long and 4 mm. where deepest, and tapering towards each
end from its maximum depth.
The operculum is 28 mm. deep, 14 mm. long near its ventral margin, but
only 10 mm. long at about one-third of its depth. The suboperculum is a much
smaller bone, only about half as deep as the operculum. Its anterior margin is
gently concave forwards, its upper margin more deeply concave upwards, and
the two margins form an acute angle in front of the antero-ventral margin of
the operculum. The almost triangular interoperculum is 16 mm. x6-5 mm.,
and in the specimen is damaged ventrally. This damage has affected, also,
nearly the whole branchiostegal region, so that only short lengths (the longest
7 mm. long) of four narrow strap-like branchiostegals lie ventral to the impression
of the cleithrum. A triangular impression about 7 mm. long but much deeper
at its broken posterior end than any other preserved branchiostegal fragment is
either an anterior branchiostegal ray or small gular.
Much of the preoperculum is clearly distinguishable, but conditions in some
parts of it are obscure. In its middle section, i.e. where it lies adjacent to about
three-quarters of the anterior margin of the operculum, the anterior and posterior
margins of the bone, and also its general shape, are clearly indicated, and it
bears a part of the internal cast of the preopercular sensory canal. The upper
section of the bone is very narrow, but it widens considerably in front of the
suboperculum, where also the bone is bent at a wide obtuse angle. But at the
junction of suboperculum and interoperculum the latter (which is there somewhat
in advance of the suboperculum, as though it had been pushed forwards at the
time of crushing) greatly diminishes the width of the preoperculum. From that
point the preoperculum tapers very rapidly till its anterior end reaches the
mandible. In this latter section two fragments of interval cast of sensory canal
mark the triangular preopercular area with certainty.
The area that borders the post-orbitals is slightly ornamented at its upper
end, which is in relief, by very small short ruge of varied lengths, but con-
spicuously wrinkled into two or three very small ridges and furrows very close
to the post-orbitals, where its margin is straight and gives the impression of
truncating the posterior margins of those bones. There are no recognizable
subdivisions of this area. At about half the depth of the area in relief there is -
the false appearance of a cast of sensory canal, but the fragment is that of a
highly ornamented bone whose undersurface produced the smooth impression
now revealed.
In the region of the cheek impressions of parts of bones occur at different
levels. Near the lower mandible the preoperculum is at the lowest level. On
the next level above it, and resting against the mandible, there is a large segment
of quadrate. From the base of this fan-shaped bone, and directed backwardly,
there is a conical 5 mm. of calcite with some circular grooves round it. From
its position this may be the anterior end of a symplectic.
At this same level, about 4 mm. away there is a smaller calcitic cone parallel
to the first and resting in a groove on the triangular impression of part of a
possible preoperculum. On the next level there is a nearly complete fan-shaped
impression of a second quadrate.
JURASSIC FISHES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 69
There are impressions of the mandibles of both sides of the head, having
their anterior ends not widely separated. The lower impression is about 27 mm.
long, and has a well-marked longitudinal depression near its ventral margin,
close beside which the course of the mandibular sensory canal is indicated by
some calcitic casts of canal and sensory pores. Dorsally it is overlapped by a
damaged impression of the second of the mandibles. This latter has a dorsal
margin which rises to a pronounced hump at about half the length of the bone,
measuring from the posterior margin, and then descends rapidly anteriorly.
In both instances the ventral margins display a slight anterior droop.
The maxilla of the specimen is folded along the margin of the mouth and
it is damaged at points along its inner margin. It is deepest near its posterior
margin, from which it tapers to a very narrow projecting anterior end as it enters
the snout. The posterior margin is sigmoidal, convex outwards throughout most
of its course but changing to form a curve of slight concavity or notch near the
margin of the mouth. There are no indications of a supramaxillary or of teeth.
The ornamentation on dermal bones of the head comprises ruge of varying
lengths sometimes branching, radiating from a centre, or fanning out from a
point or points near a margin. It is conspicuous on the cranial roof behind the
orbits, but not anterior to them; possibly the smooth surfaces are those of
undersides of the bones. The opercular bones, too, and the circumorbitals were
heavily ornamented.
Much of the sensory canal system of the head has been preserved as external
casts or calcitic segments of internal casts. The supraorbital canals are very
clear in the frontals to points just behind the orbits. Mention has already been
made above of the probable preservation of a portion of the canal as it ends back
in the posterior margin of a frontal (No. F.43258 (b)).. No trace of canal appears
on the parietals, but merely a small sharply pointed calcitic projection suggesting
a sensory pit in the original bone. The preservation of parts of the sensory
canal system in bones of the snout, in the circumorbitals, in the preoperculum
and in the mandible has been described above.
Appendicular Skeleton. Of the bones of the pectoral girdle, the cleithrum
is in great part determinable from external casts. It is arcuate and excavated
somewhat at the insertions of the pectoral fin. The upper end of the nearly
vertical arm is slender and not clearly delimited, the nearly horizontal lower
arm seems stout and sharply convex outwards. Two highly ornamented post-
cleithral scales are preserved in specimens No. F.43258 (a), and an irregularly
shaped scale is observable below the post-temporal, but, although the region is
completely preserved in No. F.43258 (b), nothing definite can be determined
about conditions between these two parts.
The pectoral fin rays fringed a scaleless fleshy lobe which is reinforced by
long, slender basals. Casts of six of these basals are clearly discernible in
specimens No. F.43258 (a) and (b). The fan-shaped pectoral fin (partly damaged
distally) comprises about fourteen rays, of which the most anterior is robust
with an expanded head at its insertion. The eighth and ninth rays are nearly
complete and no doubt show the characteristics of fin rays of any of the fins.
A long smooth proximal shaft is continued by a section divided into very small
joints. Division of the ray into two closely jointed branches takes place, and
in some instances there is most distally a further subdivision into four. There
is no indication of fulcra on the anterior ray of the pectoral fin, but it is possible
that some are obscurely shown on the small pelvic fin (five rays). As preserved
in No. F.43258 (b), the anal fin is very small and may have had no more than five
or six rays, but the long dorsal fin, comprising at least thirty-seven rays, is very
prominent. Its point of insertion is at about the tenth scale row behind the
head, where there are four or five sharply pointed rays of increasing Jength before
70 R. T. WADE.
the robust anterior ray. Because of a break in the specimen all the rays of the
dorsal fin are distally curtailed except for a few posterior rays. No endoskeletal
fin supports are preserved.
The caudal fin is far from complete. The tip of the produced upper scaly
lobe is missing, as are the distal ends of all rays, the proximal ends of about
eight rays, and in their entirety the rays which fringed the upper lobe.
From a small area at the extremity of the lower caudal lobe some scale-casts
have been broken away, revealing about eight slender irregular endoskeletal
ray supports. However, fragments large or very small indicate that the tail
comprised more than twelve rays.
The thick rhombic or rhomboidal ganoid scales which covered the whole
trunk were ornamented by an intricate pattern of small irregular ruge, very
numerous on the scales of the anterior trunk but reduced to a few longitudinal
rugee near to and on the caudal region. Scales of most of the anterior flank are
appreciably deeper than long (measurable scales reach 6 mm.x2-5 mm.).
Measurable scales near the base of the tail are 2 mm. long by 1-5 mm. deep.
On the produced upper lobe they are still smaller and apparently equilateral.
The dorsal margin of the incomplete upper lobe is capped by several small scute-
like scales.
Remarks. In respect of the trunk, Uarbryichthys latus has a somewhat
deeper body than macrosemiid genera other than Histionotus. It has the single
long dorsal fin of Macrosemius and Distichiolepis and other fins and fin rays
of a type common to the family. Its scales, of one kind only, are thick, ganoid,
completely covering the trunk, which is not the case in Macrosemius or Distichio-
lepis; they are appreciably deeper than long over most of the trunk, as in
Histionotus ; they are profusely ornamented and not at all pectinated. Finally,
the suspensorium is forwardly directed to the extent true of Histionotus, with
the accompanying resemblances to that genus of small mouth, pointed snout,
sloping parasphenoid and slight mandibular droop observable in that genus.
In the dermal bones of the head, however, it stands apart from any of the
known Macrosemiide. The pair of frontals, which forms the greater part of the
cranial roof, extend back well behind the orbits. The roof as a whole, which is
wide anterior to the orbits, tapers thence anteriorly to a place not far from the
tip of the snout. The parietals are comparatively small bones.
In the upper orbital area, part only of the region is occupied by one well-
developed kidney-shaped supraorbital. Just behind the orbit there is a
somewhat rectangular bone, and at the infero-posterior corner a well-developed
circumorbital. Both of these have similarly shaped and placed counterparts in
Ophiopsis guigardi (Saint-Seine, 1949) and also in the eugnathid Caturus Portert
(D. H. Rayner, 1948). In Macrosemius helenae there are three circumorbitals,
which are placed below the posterior two-thirds of the orbit; in Distichiolepis
fourneti there are two only, and they are beneath and before the orbit. However,
in Uarbryichthys the complete series of five are well defined and clearly marked
out by a prominent infraorbital canal; moreover the most anterior of them is
large and reaches forward to the snout, in contrast with the conditions observable
in Ophiopsis, Macrosemius and Distichiolepis.
Like Macrosemius helenae, no supramaxilla is present in Uarbryichthys
latus, but, unlike that species, the maxilla of U. latus has a sigmoidal posterior
margin such as is seen in Ophiopsis guigardi. In the mandible the coronoid
process is situated at about half the bone measured from the posterior margin
and is only moderately prominent, and although the bone is much less deep
anterior to the process than behind it there is not the great difference observable
in Macrosemius helenae and others.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DXXXVIT, 1955, Plate VIII
Tule
pan
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LDXXXVIT, 1955, Plate
JURASSIC FISHES OF NEW SOUTH WALES. val
Except for the operculum, which is somewhat like that of Macrosemius
helenae, the opercular bones differ considerably in size and shape from those in
Macrosemius, Distichiolepis or Ophiopsis. The region between the upper end of
the preoperculum and the two post-orbitals shows no indication of subdivision.
The division of the tabular into two small plates has been observed in one
specimen only, and may be due to an accident in crushing. Again, for the
position of the supraorbital sensory canal, viz. near the outer margin of the
frontal and ending at the junction of frontal and parietal, there is only the
evidence of a fragment of cranial roof preserved in No. F.43258 (0).
In the above there is evident a general simplicity of design in the head of
Uarbryichthys latus. If the two post-orbitals and the sigmoidal posterior margin
of the maxilla are eugnathid characters shared with Ophiopsis guigardi, the
pattern of the cranial roof, the structure of jaws, of the supraorbital region, of
the suborbital region do not follow Macrosemius, Distichiolepis or Ophiopsis
in any degree of agreement with the Eugnathide. On the other hand the
infraorbital row, especially the most anterior of these, resembles some
Eugnathide. As for the trunk, the proportions of it, its scales, its fins (except
the dorsal) and fin rays quite resemble Hoeugnathus, and the shape of the head,
the inclined suspension, small eye and small mouth recall Histionotus and
Heterolepidotus. Whatever the ancestor which Uarbryichthys shared with the
other Macrosemiide, it has developed differently in the fresh waters of eastern
Australia.
Uarbryichthys incertus sp. nov.
(Plate IX.)
Diagnosis. A Uarbryichthys having maximum depth of trunk about the
length of the head and contained about three times in the total length of the fish.
Produced upper caudal lobe nearly one-third the length of the upper part of the
caudal fin and at its base about one-third of the total depth of the tail. Number
of fin rays approximately as follows: pectorals, 18; pelvics, 5; dorsal, 42;
anal, 5; caudal, 20. Transverse scale rows are more numerous on dorsal than
ventral parts of the caudal region of the trunk.
_ Holotype. A nearly complete fish with greatly crushed head in the
Australian Museum, Sydney (No. F.43606).
Material. The unigue holotype. It is preserved in the same kind of
material and in the same condition as U. latus (No. F.43258), but the bones of
the head are more completely crushed together, all the fins are defective in
some particulars, and the scale rows of the anterior half of the trunk are consider-
ably disarranged.
Description. The measurements of the holotype are as follows: length
to base of caudal pedicle, 265 mm.; maximum depth of trunk, 90 mm. (2);
length of head with opercular apparatus, 90 mm. (?); depth at origin of caudal
fin, 25 mm.(?). These measurements are all approximate because of the
difficulty (due to crushing) of determining exact margins. The produced upper
lobe is certainly 22 mm. long and has a depth, at its junction with the tail as a
whole, of 9 mm.
_ The Head. Asin U. latus, crushing caused the anterior part of cranial roof
to move away from the rest of the head. But in this case the frontals were
Separated from each other slightly and somewhat of their anterior inner margins
can be seen. A number of other bones are identifiable but no useful description
can be given of them.
The Fins. In the dorsal fin many of the fin rays have been split proximally
and in crushing there has been some displacement. This is especially in evidence
hear the origin of the fin, so that one cannot be quite certain as to the exact
number of fin rays. Again, there is some damage distally throughout much
H
72 R. T. WADE.
of the length of the fin, but two or three rays most posteriorly placed are nearly
complete and resemble small whips of four, six or eight lashes on a short handle.
The pectoral fins, larger than those of U. latus, are also more completely divided
into small joints and have shorter undivided proximal segments. In both pelvic
and anal regions the surface of the specimen is greatly damaged and neither their
exact position nor the number of rays in them is known.
The caudal fin is much more satisfactorily preserved. Fulcral scales and
fuleral rays border its dorsal margin, the proximal undivided parts of the rays
are very short, and each ray is divided into many small joints. A few rays
of the upper part of the fin, somewhat crowded together, are well preserved
almost to their distal ends. In the rest of the fin the rays are more widely spaced
and there has been considerable damage to the specimen.
Although the produced upper lobe has received slight damage not far from
the tip, it is very well preserved. One long narrow rectangular scale, from which
a long fin ray runs backward, covers the extreme tip. Two small scales are
placed just before this, and thereafter the scaly area increases and the fin grows
larger as fin rays are added at the under margin and fulcral scales along the
upper.
The Scales. Over the caudal area posterior to the anal fin scale impressions
are well preserved, and the greater number of transverse rows on the dorsal
region is very noticeable; at intervals a row resembling a wedge of small,
narrowing scales pushes down from the dorsal margin to the mid flank, where
the scales are much larger. As regards the rest of the trunk, it is highly probable
that before the fish was deeply covered by sediment deterioration of the flesh
had occurred, so that crushing, when it came, greatly disarranged the rows of
scales and the scales in the rows. But a sufficient number of measurements
has been possible to show the much shorter lengths of dorsal transverse rows
and therefore the greater number of rows necessary to cover the fish there. The
state of preservation prevents a definite computation of the exact relationship
of the number of dorsal and flank or ventral rows that corresponded, but quite
clearly the conditions in general show considerable similarity to that known in
Districhiolepis fourneti (Saint-Seine, 1949).
The similarity extends also to the thinness of scales near the dorsal margin,
particularly in the region above that between the pelvics and the anal fin, where
a few endoskeletal ray-supports can be made out.
NOTE ON THE TRIASSIC GENUS Promecosomina.
Literature.
1941. Australian Triassic Fishes. THIS JOURNAL, Vol. LX XIV.
1952. Lehman, Jean-Pierre. Etude Complémentaire des poissons de
l’Kotrias de Madagascar. Kungl. Sven. Vet. Hand. Fyjdarde
Serien, Band 2, No. 6.
In the latter work Lehman, in a discussion of Parasemionotide that includes
new genera Stensionotus, Jacobulus, Thomasionotus with characteristic pre-
opercula, gives it as his opinion that (page 185) “il apparait en réalité que
Promecosomina est un Parasemiontide & préopercule divisé.’’
This writer agrees with this conclusion and readily withdraws the family
name Promecosominide which he set up in 1941. |
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Prate VIII.
(a) Head of Xarbryichthys latus Wade. Specimen F.43258 (a). (x1/2.)
(6) Trunk of Xarbryichthys latus Wade. Specimen F.43258 (6b). (x5/6.)
Prate IX.
(a) Complete specimen of Xarbryichthys incertus sp. nov. Wade. Specimen F.43606. (x 2/5.)
(b) Caudal region of Xarbryichthys incertus sp. nov. Wade. Specimen F.43606. (x 4/5.)
AUSTRALASIAN ‘MepicaL PusisHine CoMPANY
Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N.S.
° 1953 2
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VOL. LXXXVII Ee Al
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HONORARY EDITORIAL SECRETARY :
__ THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE ee be
| STATEMENTS MADE AND THE )PINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN |[
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PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
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1953
(INCORPORATED 1881)
VOLUME LXXXVII
Part III
EDITED BY
F. N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip. Ed.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
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THE ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES
By KatTHureN M. SHERRARD
With Plates X and XI and two Text-figures.
Manuscript received, July 15, 1953. Read, October 7, 1953.
CONTENTS.
Page
Introduction and Acknowledgements =o - eis 73
Geographical Distribution of Graptolite- bearing 1 Rocks ae es de 74
Lithology of Graptolite- Crane Rocks ue a cs ‘iis 74
Graptolite Zones Ea ss “3 oh ets és 75
Graptolite Assemblages ae bf: be ae ae . me 78
Ordovician is ae Se kts £2 we ite hips 78
Arenig oe ee auf oe i - hs 78
Zone of Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus a vat a 78
Llandeilo a's as ay os oe ie me sie 79
Zone of Glyptograptus teretvusculus ae os as 79
Zone of Nemagraptus pertenuis Ae aie Be ae 80
Caradoc ees sis ait sss se ae ne 81
Zone of Climacograptus peltifer Sa ays we ie 81
Zone of Clumacograptus wilsoni ie 84
Zone of Orthograptus calcaratus and Plegmatograptus neti 84
Zone of Orthograptus quadrimucronatus and Pleurograptus
linearis 2s - a be ae ate: 85
Other Ordovician Oceutrences os 3% Av sie os 89
Silurian. . as -. md a a a - we)
Llandovery .. a ee ee e 90
Zone of M negra pts gregarius o os 2. ms 90
Zone of Monograptus crispus ss fe sy us 90
Wenlock ate he = ae Ef a8 7 he 90
Zone of Cyrtograpius insectus a3 5 oe - 90
Zone of Monograptus testis .. By, ie ae as 91
Ludlow be oy ie ae ae oes ve om oul
Zone of Monograptus nilssoni sue As ss ae ot
Zone of Monograptus scanicus Ag a sh on
Stratigraphical Relationship between Graptolite Zones i 92
Structural Relationship between Ordovician and Silurian Graptolite-
bearing Rocks... : as ee re ae ne 93
Graptolite-bearing Localities an ae i site sei ae 93
Systematic Descriptions - ors a: ae sits ok ae 94
Summary bE: ar ae bs he Ae Ee Se Mey BOO
References 5 ae nes ae a ae a oe a LOO
Explanation of Plates =e 5 ane ye ae ss eld
INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.
In New South Wales, as in other countries, it has become apparent that
Similar suites of graptolite species or ‘assemblages of graptolites” occur
repeatedly in the various localities where graptolite-bearing Ordovician and
Silurian rocks outcrop. The graptolites making up the assemblages in New
South Wales are not always the same, however, as those which are found in
assemblages in other places such as Victoria, New Zealand, Great Britain,
Bohemia, Sweden and North America.
I
74 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
It has been found elsewhere that different assemblages correspond to
differences in age, constituting “zones” within the Ordovician and Silurian
sedimentary rocks. In a few cases in New South Wales the different
assemblages of graptolites occur in a series where by superposition their age
relations can be observed directly in the field, but in general, the age of the
rocks containing graptolites, often steeply folded, has to be determined by
correlation of their graptolites with those of known age from other places.
In carrying out the work described in this paper, it was possible through
the courtesy of Professor W. B. R. King, F.R.S., to conduct some of the
correlations by means of direct comparison with the graptolite collections of
the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, where Miss G. L. Elles kindly advised me
in the work. Professor C. E. Marshall, D.Sc., Ph.D., of the University of
Sydney; Mr. H. O. Fletcher, Palaeontologist to the Australian Museum; Mr.
H. F. Whitworth, Curator of the Mining Museum, Sydney; Dr. N. H. Fisher,
of the Bureau of Mineral Resources, Canberra; and Mr. D. G. Moye, Senior
Geologist to the Snowy Mountains Authority, have been good enough to allow
me to examine graptolites in collections in their charge. Mr. N. C. Stevens has
been particularly generous in allowing me to study graptolites from his
extensive collecting, and Mr. R. A. Keble, F.G.S., Mr. G. H. Packham, Mr.
H. W. Williamson, Mr. K. Crook and Mr. M. MacKellar have also kindly made
available others, all of which have extended greatly the collections I have made
myself.
As a result, assemblages typical of different zones have been selected for
New South Wales and are given in this paper. Graptolites from over one
hundred localities within the boundaries of the State and excluding the
Australian Capital Territory are correlated with these typical assemblages.
A list of these localities not otherwise referred to is given on page 93.
GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF GRAPTOLITE-BEARING ROCKS.
Keble and Benson (1939) referred to all localities in New South Wales
from which graptolites had been recorded when they wrote. Those localities
and others in which graptolites have been found since that time lie mainly
within three areas in the State.
(1) The Southern Highlands where both Silurian and Ordovician
graptolites occur at numerous places within a broad strip running south-south-
west from Tallong, Goulburn and Crookwell to Tumbarumba, Geehi and the
County of Wellesley ;
(2) an area in the Central West where both Silurian and Ordovician
graptolites occur in a strip running north from Mandurama to Tomingley and
Wellington ;
(3) a narrow strip running north from Wagga through Ariah Park to
Yalgogrin and Weja, in which Ordovician graptolites have been obtained.
Lying away from these three areas are occurrences on the South Coast
near Cobargo and Bermagui (Brown, 1981). The oldest known Ordovician
graptolites occur near Narrandera. There is little doubt that more graptolite-
bearing localities remain to be discovered.
LITHOLOGY OF GRAPTOLITE-BEARING Rocks.
Graptolites of Ordovician age from New South Wales are generally
preserved as chitinous or pyritic films in a highly compressed condition in
strongly folded slates, usually dark-blue or greyish in colour, but occasionally
bleached white as at Geehi and Woodstock. Metamorphism has sometimes
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 75.
caused the development of chiastolite in the slate. Dr. G. A. Joplin (1945)
made chemical analyses of a number of graptolite-bearing slates, finding an
unusually high percentage of silica (about 80%) in them. It may or may not
be significant that the slate with the highest percentage of silica (87%) among
those analysed, is also one of the slates (Loc. 17, Yass River) with the oldest
eraptolites in the analysed group. However, the correlation cannot be carried
further, since the slate from Yalgogrin, placed in a high graptolite zone, has
a higher silica percentage than some of the slates with older graptolites, for
example that from Gygederick Hill, Berridale.
Although the majority of Ordovician graptolites in New South Wales are
preserved as films on slates, there are a few instances of casts of graptolites
preserved in quartzites from which they stand out in slight relief, for example
in the Shoalhaven Gorge (Sherrard, 1949) and in the Malongulli Formation
near Mandurama (Stevens, 1952). Finally, some Ordovician graptolites occur
in a calcareous matrix (Stevens, 1950) and some in a leached limestone in the
Mandurama district.
Silurian graptolites are found generally in New South Wales in gently
dipping sandy rocks, sometimes in slight relief and sometimes as compressed
films. More rarely they occur as films in strongly folded argillaceous rocks, as
near Goulburn.
GRAPTOLITE ZONES.
Certain assemblages of graptolites have long been recognized in Britain
as typical of strata of a definite age and have enabled the recognition of
graptolite zones each “characterised by a special association of Graptolites
...and... that form in this association which apparently combines restricted
vertical range with wide horizontal distribution is most conveniently selected
as the index of the zone” (Elles and Wood, 1914, p. 515). However the typical
species or index graptolite selected in other places to name the zone cannot
always be recognized in the assemblages examined from New South Wales, so
that other types have had to be chosen. It is noticeable that a few distinctive
species characterize each group, but these may be accompanied by other species
persisting from older groups. New species can be observed to make their
appearance in the new group and though the old species persist, they have
often changed materially in size or other character. Miss G. L. Elles of the
Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, has frequently insisted that this “coming in of
new species marks an advancement in graptolite development only to be
accounted for by the passage of time” (1925).
By comparison of the graptolite assemblages found in rocks in New South
Wales with those in other places the following zones are recognized in this
State:
Silurian.
Ludlow.
Zone of Monograptus scanicus.
Zone of Monograptus nilssoni.
Wenlock.
Zone of Monograptus testis.
Zone of Cyrtograptus insectus.
Llandovery.
Zone of Monograptus crispus.
Sub-zone of Monograptus triangulatus.
Zone of Monograptus gregarius.
76 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD
Ordovician.
Caradoc.
Zone of Orthograptus quadrimucronatus and Pleurograptus linearis.
Zone of Orthograptus calcaratus and Plegmatograptus nebula.
Zone of Climacograptus wilsoni.
Zone of Climacograptus peltifer.
Llandeilo.
Zone of Nemagraptus pertenuis.
Zone of Glyptograptus teretiusculus.
Arenig.
Zone of Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus.
ff ba
IMJIMS
ay
N
6
me P44 \
Text-fig. 1.
Monograptus exiguus (Nich.), Four Mile Creek.
Climacograptus antiquus Lapw., Digger’s Creek, Cadia (F.3417, Mining Museum).
. Cyrtograptus aff. insectus Boucek, Four Mile Creek.
Monograptus marri Perner, Four Mile Creek.
M. dubius (Suess), Four Mile Creek.
. Amplexograptus arctus Elles and Wood, Cadia (F.29896, Australian Museum).
(Nos. 1, 3, 4, 5 collected by Messrs. Stevens and Packham.)
> OUR 09 bo
Equal importance cannot be attached to all the zones selected for New
South Wales; for example only one occurrence of the Tetragraptus quadri-
brachiatus zone is known so far. In the Caradoc all zones but that of
Climacograptus wilsont are widely distributed. That zone is included with
some doubt, as is explained below. Orthograptus calcaratus and Plegmato-
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. UE
graptus nebula selected as joint index fossils for one zone are not restricted to
that zone, as is desirable for an index fossil. These graptolites are, however,
particularly well developed in assemblages assigned to their zone. The
Nemagraptus zone is included in the Caradoc in Britain (Pocock and
Whitehead, 1948) and in Sweden (Hede, 1950), and in Czechoslovakia, the zone
with Glyptograptus trubinensis (related to G. teretiusculus) is included in the
Caradoc (Kettner and Boucek, 1936; Pribyl, 1951). However, since in New
NEW SOUTH pom snaiey Wallingten
Peak Hill
se
pone rk
Narrandera
Yass a oa
eee
NG
‘ O
bu tain's >
Y
O 20 40m
as
Strike and Dip |
~~~. Delegate
Text-fig. 2
Sketch-map showing position of localities from which graptolites
have been obtained and direction of fold axes of Ordovician strata
at some localities.
South Wales, Didymograptus caduceus survives into the Nemagraptus
pertenuis zone, this zone is retained in the Llandeilo. Glyptograptus
teretiusculus is very wide-spread in this zone, but Dicranograptus and
Nemagraptus occur with it in the Walli district and indicate the coming in of
a later zone than that of Glyptograptus teretiusculus.
In the cases of two of the Silurian zones, those of M onograptus testis and
Cyrtograptus insectus, their nearest counterparts occur in Czechoslovakia
78 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
and accordingly zones set up there have been selected for New South Wales
(Kettner and Boucek, 1936).
The graptolite zones recognized in this paper correspond approximately to
only seven of the fifteen Ordovician zones recognized in Britain and to six of
the twenty Silurian zones set up there. In Victoria, the extensive occurrence
of Lower Ordovician graptolites has enabled the division of the rocks of that
age into more zones than have been recognized in Britain. In general the trend
of the strike in Victoria is sub-meridional, which means that the same beds
may be expected to crop out to the north in New South Wales. However, north
of a line running east and west approximately from Elmore to Charlton in
Central Victoria, the Lower Palaeozoic rocks are covered by Post-Tertiary
deposits which extend to the boundary of the State and continue further north
into New South Wales masking older rocks. So far the outcrop near
Narrandera of the Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus zone is the only representa-
tive of a low zone in the Ordovician known in the State. Except for the record
from Tallebung on about the same longitude this is to the west of other
graptolite-bearing strata in New South Wales but to the east of the main
Lower Ordovician localities of Victoria. It seems not unlikely that further
inliers of low Ordovician age will be found in the future in this part of New
South Wales.
The zones from that of Nemagraptus pertenuis to that of Plewrograptus
linearis approximate fairly closely to the zones making up the Gisbornian,
Eastonian and the lower part of the Bolindian of Victoria. Dr. Ruedemann
(1947) has pointed out similarities between high Ordovician graptolites of
Western America and of Australia.
In the Silurian, the instructive sections at Yass and Cadia, where several
zones are found in superposition, have enabled a more satisfactory zoning of
this period than has yet been possible in Victoria (Thomas, 1947). Similarities
between the Wenlock of New South Wales and Bohemia and between the
Ludlow of New South Wales, Oklahoma and Sweden are also apparent.
GRAPTOLITE ASSEMBLAGES,
For each of the zones, a typical locality has been selected and its
assemblage of graptolites is given. The assemblages from any other localities
placed in the zone follow or are given in Tables I-IV. It will be seen
that in most cases graptolites occur in the corresponding table which have not
been identified in the typical locality. The localities are arranged in the tables
in the order of decreasing variety in their assemblages. Assemblages with only
one or two species such as that from Tumbarumba in the Cl. peltifer zone and
those from Trunkey and Taralga in the O. quadrimucronatus zone are included
with some doubt.
Ordovician.
Arenig.
Zone of Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus.
Graptolites of this zone, the oldest so far found in New South Wales,
occur in a chiastolite slate inlier in Portions 56 and 57, Par. Corobimella, 15
miles S.S.W. of Narrandera. Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus (F 39696-7,
Australian Museum) from this locality is in a state of fair preservation and
has been described and figured (Keble and Macpherson, 1941). The accom-
panying graptolites are incomplete. Most are wide forms, some with a
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 79
well-marked central tube, some with spines. They can be identified only
approximately. The assemblage may be:
Tetragraptus quadribrachiatus,
ef. Glossograptus acanthus
ef. Trigonograptus ensiformis
? Amplexograptus confertus
| ? Glyptograptus dentatus
This zone is equivalent to either zone 3, 4 or 5 of the British succession,
to the Middle Ordovician as recognized in Victoria (Harris and Thomas,
1938), to the lowest graptolite horizon of the Pittmann Formation of the
Ordovician in the Australian Capital Territory (Opik, 1954) ; and to the Lower
Didymograptus zone of Sweden (Hede, 1950).
Llandeilo.
Zone of Glyptograptus teretiusculus.
This zone occurs typically in siltstone in several localities in the Parish of
Clarendon in the Cadia District (Locs. 12, 12a, 18, 18a, gi, go). Apart from
traces of dendroids, the only graptolite found after wide collecting is Glypto-
graptus teretiusculus or its affiliates (Stevens, 1954).
It often occurs in slight relief when its dimensions vary from those seen
in the compressed state. Glyptograptus teretiusculus seems generally the best
attribution, but its dimensions under some conditions link it with Orthograptus
apiculatus or with Mesograptus foliaceus (sensu stricto, HUes and Wood,
1907, p. 259) which is also generally recorded without associates. For example
from locality g:, Portion 118, Par. Clarendon (south-west corner), near Cadia,
have been obtained numerous specimens up to 4 cm. long though generally
incomplete, and up to 3 mm. wide, though usually 2°5 mm., gradually tapering
to 0-7 mm. There are 12 thecae in 10 mm. almost invariably, which are
inclined at 40 degrees to the vertical. These are best called Mesograptus
foliaceus (s.s.). The rhabdosomes are seen in differing aspects, the thecae
changing from the shape of a leaf with both apertural and ventural margins
convex, to the shape of a cup or bracket with the apertural margin concave
and the ventral margin sigmoidally curved. Sometimes scalariform aspects of
the rhabdosome are seen so that it appears as an almost bare stipe with very
faint outlines of thecae on one side only. This “monograptid” aspect was
Seen in Glyptograptids from Badgery’s Crossing, Shoalhaven Gorge, and
its true nature pointed out by Miss G. L. Elles (Sherrard, 1949).
Collections from Locs. 12, 18 and 19 Shoalhaven Gorge, from Mandurama
Ponds Creek and from Junction Reefs, Belubula River, between Mandurama
and Lyndhurst are also placed in this zone. Graptolites from the last locality
were described by T. S. Hall (1900) as Diplograptus manduramae and
Climacograptus affinus, both new species which Hall explained he was erecting
with some doubt. Comparison of the holotypes of these species, now in the
Mining Museum, Sydney, with descriptions and plates in “British Graptolites”
published after T. S. Hall’s paper, enables the correlation of D. manduramae
and Cl. affinus with G. teretiusculus, which name has priority. The assemblage
for this zone is therefore:
Glyptograptus teretiusculus
G. rostratus
Mesograptus foliaceus s.s.
Dendroids.
80 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
Zone of Nemagraptus perténuis.
The type area for this zone is Licking Hole Creek, 500 yards south-west of
Malongulli Trig, between Mandurama and Walli (Stevens, 1952), where
graptolites are piled in profusion on dark, calcareous slate. The assemblage is:
Isograptus (Didymograptus) caduceus var. tenuis (rare)
Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis (common)
Clumacograptus cf. antiquus (rare)
Dicellograptus cf. divaricatus
ilyptograptus teretiusculus
Retiograptus geimitzianus
Thamnograptus sp.
Since it is commonly found on a much lower horizon (Castlemainian), the
occurrence of a variety of [sograptus caduceus is noteworthy. Only one
specimen has been identified. It occurs on the same slab as Nema. pertenuis.
It is recorded from one locality in the Gisbornian division of the Ordovician in
Victoria (Harris, 1924; Thomas, 1932) with a somewhat similar assemblage.
A rather different assemblage occurs at “Trilobite Hill”, near Walli (Grid
reference 845468), also in the Malongulli Formation:
Dicellograptus cf. divaricatus
Dicranograptus zie zac var. minimus
Glyptograptus teretiusculus (very common)
Jlimacograptus cf. antiquus
? Thamnograptus sp.
Bryozoa, sponge spicules, brachiopods, gasteropods and trilobites are
associated with graptolites at both these localities. Similar assemblages and
associates are recorded from Llandrindod, Wales (Elles, 1940), and Sweden
(Hadding, 1918).
The puzzling assemblage at Captain’s Flat railway station is included in
this zone. It may be:
Mesograptus cf. multidens
cf. Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus
Cryptograptus tricornis
Nemagraputs pertenuis
The first member of this assemblage is of different dimensions from
those of any graptolites seen elsewhere in New South Wales or known at the
Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge. The first collection from this locality was
made by Messrs. H. W. Williamson and Glasson and consisted of fragments
of diplograptid forms from 3:5 to 5:°3 mm. wide with a very broad virgular
tube (0°6 mm.). Thecae were 8-10 in 10 mm. up to 3°5 mm. long with two-
thirds overlap. These were tentatively correlated with Orthograptus calcaratus
var. vulgatus. Later collections made for the Bureau of Mineral Resources
contained diplograptids up to 11 mm. wide and 4°5 cm. long (Plate XI, fig. 13)
and obviously related to the earlier collections. There was in addition in the
later collections a form up to 10 cm. long with an almost non-existent
periderm. It has been suggested that this may be a scalariform view of the
first. It is hard to imagine such a wide graptolite coming to rest on its side.
Like the Mesograptus it is too poorly preserved to be the holotype of a new
Species and it is compared with Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus.
Ruedemann (1947, p. 111) commenting on another species says “it has in its
large size a peculiarly Australian character”. The country rock is a highly
compressed blue slate which dips west at about 85 degrees. The Captain’s Flat —
area is strongly folded, heavily faulted and highly mineralized and the rolling
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 81
out to a greater width of a convexo-concave graptolite such as a Mesograptus
ean be visualized. The increase in length of a graptolite contained in folded
strata to one and a half times its usual length is recorded from Victoria (Hills
and Thomas, Geol. Mag., 1944, p. 218).
The collection from Tomingley (Dun, 1898; Hall, 1902), is remarkable for
its wealth of dendroids. These also occur sparingly in other collections placed
in this zone. Though the Tomingley assemblage has many species charac-
teristic of the Climacograptus peltifer zone of Britain, it has been retained in
the Nemagraptus pertenuis zone because of the complete absence in a large,
well-preserved collection of any member of the Climacograptus bicornis family
including Cl. peltifer.
Slates with ? Nemagraptus pertenuis from Portion 169, Par. Talagandra,
Nanima-Bedulluck district, to the east of Loc. 63 may indicate this zone.
The Kiandra Beds (Opik, 1952) at their outcrop about 1700 feet above
the Tumut Pond Camp of the Snowy Mountains Authority contain graptolites
of this zone. They were also found in the core from a hole drilled not far from
the outcrop, which after passing at an angle of 45 degrees for 235 feet through
unfossiliferous rocks penetrated graptolite-bearing Kiandra Beds.
Caradoc.
Zone of Climacograptus peltifer.
The type area for this zone is in the Shoalhaven Gorge at its junction with
Bungonia Creek (Loc. 11, Sherrard, 1949). Various collections from other
parts of the Gorge fall into this zone, while the collection from the Tolwong
Mine described by T. S. Hall in 1902 seems to belong here also.
The assemblage at Bungonia Creek mouth is:
Dicranograptus nicholsoni (very common)
Climacograptus bicornis
Cl. peltifer (very common)
Cl. tridentatus
Corynoides calicularis
Orthograptus calcaratus
O. pageanus var. abnormispinosus
O. apiculatus
Glossograptus hincksu
Cryptograptus tricornis
Mastigograptus sp.
Climacograptus bicornis shows spines of most diverse form, ranging from
very stiff and straight hairs to a pitchfork shape. In one case the two long,
thick, stout, straight spines and the rhabdosome together make a figure like
the Three Legs 0’ Man. The rhabdosome may be as long as 4:5 cm. but is
usually shorter. Cryptograptus tricornis is up to 1:5 cm. long, which is
unusual in this species in New South Wales. The variations in the appendages
to Cl. peltifer have been commented on before (Sherrard, 1949). This
eraptolite is not common elsewhere in New South Wales. This assemblage
has many species in common with the total assemblage from Balclatchie,
Scotland (Bulman, 1947) but it does not correspond precisely with any of the
separate bands.
The assemblage collected by Mr. R. A. Keble from near Tumbarumba
occurs in a blue-black micaceous mudstone which is intruded by granite. The
rock does not cleave parallel to the bedding and though graptolites are
82 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
TABLE I.
Localities in Zone of Nemagraptus pertenuis.
Column hes ba es 1 2 3 4 5 6 a 8 9 10
Isograptus caduceus var.
tenuis Harris : x cf.
Leptograptus validus Lapw.. ef. ef.
(Loc. | L. sp.
Nemagraptus eee (Lap-
worth) : Xx
N. eaplanatus var. pertenuis
(Lapw.) 2. x x ? x
Dicellograptus divaricatus
Hall of cf.
D. divaricatus var. salopiensis
E. & W. ah
D. patulosus Lapw.. .
D. angulatus E. & W. :
D. sextans Hall a 3 x
Dicranograptus ziczac var.
minimus Lapworth a x x x
Climacograptus scharenbergi
Lapw. Bs we x
Cl. antiquus Hall ae cal pees x x cf. cf.
(rare)
Cl. brevis E. & W. .. Ma Xx
Mesograptus multidens
aca) 1S he Se x M. sp. cf.
M. foliace.u (Murchison) be x x Xx
Orthograpius apiculatus
(EK. & W.) .. aye
O. whitfieldi Hall
O. calcaratus var. acutus
Lapw. eile Ls -
Glyptograptus teretiusculus
(His.) Xx
Amplexograptus arctusE. &W.
A. perexcavatus Lapw. :
Retiograptus geinitzianus Hall x
Lasiograptus mucronatus
(Hall) a3 Xx Xx
L. mucronatus var, bimucro-
natus (Nich.) she Xx
Cryptograptus tricornis (Carr. ) x x
Dendroids.. ie Sie x V.c, Xx x x
cf. cf. var. D. sp.
IK OS aX
x
PR SK ek OR
vV.c.= very common.
Column
1 Mandurama-Walli, Licking Hole Creek, Cliefden Caves.
2 ‘Tomingley.
3 Tumut Pond.
4 Cadia. Australian Museum Collection.
5 Mandurama, “ Trilobite Hill ’’.
6 Mandurama, Localities 7 and 9.
7 Greenwich Park-Towrang Road. (Naylor, 1950.)
8 Parish of Lawson, County of Wellesley.
9 Cargo.
10 Captain’s Flat. Railway Station.
common, they are difficult to determine and the assemblage may not belong to
this zone.
The Yass River assemblages in this zone are rich in email dicellograptids
which are identified as D. angulatus and small climacograptids, taken as Cl.
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 83
brevis. Small dicellograptids, such as D. pumilus and small examples of
Cl. minimus are common in higher zones in the Yass River district.
The assemblage from Loc. 62, near Piccaree Hill, Nanima-Bedulluck, has
been placed in the Orthograptus calcaratus zone, but at this locality there
TABLE II.
Localities in Zone of Climacograptus peltifer.
Column de a ] 4 3 4 5 6 A 8 9 10
Dicellograptus morrist
Hopk. ME Se GE. ef.
D. caduceus Lapw. .. Xx
D. angulatus KE. & W. x
Dicranograptus nichol-
sont Hopk. Se ult Vac, cf. x Xx x cD:
sp.
D. ramosus var. hians
(T. S. Hall) Be Xx Xx x
De ramosus ‘var.
spinifer Lapw.
D. zczac Lapw.
Climacograptus bi-
cornis (Hall) ay x x x x Xx Xx Xx x
Cl. peltifer (Lapw.) .. | v.c.
Cl. tridentatus (Lapw.) x x x ?
Cl. caudatus Lapw. x x
Cl. brevis HE. & W. .. Xx x
Cl. scharenbergi Lapw. ?
Orthograptus calcaratus
x X
x
~D
SD
Lapw. ce ay Xx var. O. sp.
O. pageanus Lapw. .. x Xx cf.
O. pageanus var. ab-
NOTMUSPINOSUS
mie go W. ... 25 x x
O. apiculatus (E.&W.)| x x x Ch cf.
Cryptograptus tri-
cornis (Carr.) x x Xx V.c
Glossograptus hincksii
(Hopk.) .. me Xx Xx
Plegmatograptu
nebula K.& W. .. Xx
Lasiograptus hark-
nesst (Nich.) ie x : var.
Corynoides calicularis
Nich. ae We x
Mastigograptus Sp.
indet. Ruedemann cf.
Column
1 Shoalhaven Gorge, Loc. 11.
2 Shoalhaven Gorge, Locs. 16, 17.
3 Shoalhaven Gorge, Tolwong Mine.
4 Yass River, Locs. 17, 24, 34.
5 Snowy Mountains, Por. 95, Par. Bullenbalong.
6 Gygederick Hill, Berridale.
7 Tumbarumba-Jingellic.
8 Molong (a).
9 Molong (bd).
10 Grabben Gullen.
seems to be a passage down from a typical O. calcaratus assemblage to one in
which small Climacograptus bicornis, Cryptograptus tricornis and Lasio-
graptus harknessi predominate, that is down to the Cl. peltifer zone.
84 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
Zone of Climacograptus wilsoni.
Graptolites occur in a slate dipping east at 80 degrees which has been
quarried on Wagga Common, 20 chains west of Moorong Trig, Parish of
Uranquinty, about three miles west of the town of Wagga. Graptolites, all
diplograptids, are so prolific that in one case 50 can be counted in a space of
four square inches. They are obscured, however, by the development of
chiastolite, which frequently masks thecal character and proximal ends. In
addition the slate does not cleave evenly. All diplograptids increase in width
very gradually to a maximum of 3 mm., and are up to 6-5 cm. long. In many
cases the rhabdosomes are not preserved in true profile, thecae on one side
being climacograptid and on the other orthograptid in shape. Of a large
number examined, only one is complete proximally with a thread-like virgella
3 mm. long.
The assemblage is considered to be best described as:
cf. Climacograptus wilsont var. tubularis
Orthograptus calcaratus var.
The horizon may be somewhere about that of Cl. wilsom. This attribution
is supported by the wealth of diplograptids and absence of other families.
The assemblage of diplograptids poorly preserved in andalusite slate
from Mt. Tallebung, 47 miles north-west of Condobolin (Raggatt, 1950) may
belong to this zone.
Zone of Orthograptus calcaratus and Plegmatograptus nebula.
The assemblage in the lower beds on the eastern side of Wambrook Creek,
Portion 40, Par. Lake, 11 miles west of Cooma, has been selected as the type
for this zone. This assemblage is comparable with that of the British zone of
Dicranograptus clingani, though no dicranograptid has been found at the type
locality. Dicranograptus ramosus occurs in a collection in the Australian
Museum made from this vicinity where graptolites are prolific. The assemblage
1S:
Dicellograptus caduceus
D. morrisi
Climacograptus bicornis
Cl. peltifer (very rare)
Cl. caudatus
Orthograptus calcaratus
O. cf. apiculatus
Plegmatograptus nebula, though not found at the type locality, is common
in other outcrops of this zone, for example at Stockyard Flat Creek, County
of Wellesley in the remote south-east of the State on the Victorian border
(Dun, 1897; T. S. Hall, 1902). Dr. Hall described a new species, Climaco-
graptus hastata from this locality. The holotype is in the Mining Museum,
Sydney (F 3400). It is 8 em. long, including virgula and a virgella of 1:2 cm.
of which 0:5 cm. is covered by a membrane. The rhabdosome is 0-6 mm. wide
proximally, increasing to 1:7 mm. after 1 cm., then to 2-2 mm. and no more.
There is a very wide virgular tube (0-5 mm.) which can be seen within the
rhabdosome before it emerges at the distal end to continue 1:1 cm. to the edge
of the slab. Thecae are 9 in 10 mm. with their ventral walls convex at first and
then pressed in their lower part into a concave curve. Thecal apertures usually
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 85
show a sinuous curve. Four strong spines are attached to the basal thecae.
Cl. hastata seems more satisfactorily placed in Orthograptus calcaratus
(Plate XI, fig. 17). This species had not been raised above the rank of a
variety of Diplograptus foliaceus when Hall wrote in 1902.
Hall also erected Dicellograptus affinus from material at Stockyard Flat
Creek (Holotype F 3402, Mining Museum). Two dicellograptids are on the
slab (Plate X, fig. 7) of which the right-hand one is that figured by Hall in
Plate XIII, fig. 1 (Hall, 1902). The holotype carries a paper label between
the stipes of the right-hand specimen “Dicell. affinus Type fig.”. Hall gave no
dimensions with his description other than “thecae ... about 10 in 10 mm.”,
and he noted that the hydrosome resembled D. morrisi Hopk. The graptolite
on the left-hand side of the slab has a hand-written paper label ‘fig. specn.
F 3402”. It is apparently the original of Plate XIII, fig. 3; Dicellograptus cf.
divaricatus. However, its dimensions correspond with D. morrist. In 1909 in
referring specimens from Tolwong Mine to D. affinus, Hall wrote (p. 340)
“the differences between Dicello. elegans and D. affinus are very slight, and I
am not sure whether D. affinus is more than a variety with longer basal
spines”. A new description of D. affinus was issued by Keble and Harris in
1925 which showed that in the absence of dimensions in Hall’s original
diagnosis, new attributions to D. affinus differed considerably from Hall’s
holotype. The new description, for instance, gave maximum width for stipes
of 0-6 mm. and their total length as usually less than 1 cm., whereas both
graptolites on Hall’s holotype have stipes more than 5 cm. long and the width
of the stipes of the right-hand specimen increases from 0°6 cm. to 0°83 mm.,
which, with its other dimensions, shows that Hall was right in 1909 when he
wrote that D. affinus was but a variety of D. elegans.
Hall (Plate XII, fig. 1, 1902) figured Pleurograptus(?) from Stockyard
Flat Creek. On this slab (F 3412, Mining Museum) this graptolite is entangled
in the long, drooping spines (1:2 em. long) of Cl. bicornis (Plate X, fig. 1).
It may be Amphigraptus divergens var. radiatus. Four very thin stipes
(0-4 mm. wide) radiate from nearly the same point, 10 thecae occur in 10 mm.,
each being about 1-5 mm. long and overlapping for half its length. The associa-
tion of this leptograptid with Cl. bicornis recalls the conditions at Wambrook
Creek, Cooma, where Plewrograptus linearis occurs 25 feet stratigraphically
above Cl. bicornis in the type locality of this zone, and a zonal boundary has
_ been drawn between them. It may be that in New South Wales, leptograptids
of the Plewrograptus and Amphigraptus type occur in lower strata than else-
where and that no zonal boundary should be placed in Wambrook Creek.
Other leptograptids, such as Leptograptus capillaris occur in association with
Orthograptus pageanus and Climacograptus bicornis at Loc. 13, Shoalhaven
Gorge, placed in this zone.
Zone of Orthograptus quadrimucronatus and Pleurograptus linearis.
Both index graptolites do not occur in all assemblages of this zone.
Orthograptus quadrimucronatus is more widely distributed than Pleuro-
graptus linearis. The assemblage at the Municipal Quarry, Portion 42, Par.
Queanbeyan, 145 chains south of the Queanbeyan railway station, has been
Selected as the type for the zone. The graptolites occur in a blue-grey slate
dipping west at 85 degrees and splitting along the bedding to almost paper-
thin layers. Harris and Keble (1929) described a small collection from this
locality which was erroneously stated in that paper to be within the Australian
KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
86
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TIL @TaviL
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 87
Capital Territory. Collections from this locality in the Australian Museum
provide a representative assemblage, which is:
Leptograptus flaccidus
Dicellograptus caduceus
D. morrisi (very common)
D. elégans
D. pumilus
Climacograptus tubuliferus (very common)
Orthograptus quadrimucronatus
O. calcaratus |
Mesograptus ingens
Each of these species except Mesograptus ingens and Dicellograptus
caduceus occurs in Zone 13 of the British succession. Much the same
assemblage is found in the Eastonian of Victoria, and the Mt. Peel beds, New
Zealand (Keble and Benson, 1929) are also perhaps comparable.
The very large diplograptid, Mesograptus ingens (T. S. Hall) is confined
to this horizon. Its development is probably related to that of large diplo-
graptids found in other countries on high Ordovician horizons. Orthograptus
calcaratus var. basilicus from the Hartfell Shales (A 19916, Sedgwick Museum,
Cambridge) in the zone of Pleurograptus linearis is 12 em. long and 4 mm.
wide, with 10 to 8 thecae in 10 mm. The virgula is over 1 mm. wide and 2°5 cm.
long. The thecae are long tubes with everted apertures but without visible
spines. Glossograptus quadrimucronatus var. paucithecatus Decker from
Arkansas (Decker, 1935; Ruedemann, 1947) is of the same great width and
length, and occurs in uppermost Ordovician with Dicellograptus complanatus
and D. anceps. as associates. Pribyl (1951) records Diplograptus vulgatus up
to 3-5 mm. wide and Boucek (1937) notes from the same uppermost Caradoc
of Bohemia (Bohdalec Beds) a Mesograptid whose thecae resemble Diplo-
graptus multidens and whose general form is like Meso. modestus.
This zone is also found on the Hume Highway in various road cuttings
8 to 10 miles east of Goulburn and near the intersection of the road to
Brayton, where the assemblage is:
Pleurograptus linearis,
Climacograptus tubuliferus
Cl. supernus
Orthograptus quadrimucronatus.
These graptolites occur in steeply dipping bleached shales, which are in
close proximity to shales with Silurian graptolites of the Monograptus nilssoni
zone or Zone 33 of the British succession.
Naylor (1939, 1950) records from Ordovician outcrops in the same
vicinity, assemblages of species which, though somewhat different from those
given here, also belong ,to the O. quadrimucronatus zone.
P. linearis has also been collected at Wambrook Creek, 11 miles west of
Cooma (Opik, 1952), in dark-blue slate dipping north at 50 degrees. Its only
associate is a small Dicellograptus caduceus with stipes 1-5 cm. long which do
not always cross. The slate at this locality conformably overlies slate with an
assemblage belonging to the Orthograptus calcaratus zone. It has already
been pointed out that the advent of Plewrograptus here may not indicate
passage to a higher zone.
KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
88
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ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 89
Other Ordovician Occurrences.
In addition to the graptolites whose state of preservation has enabled
them. to be allotted to one of the zones in the Ordovician recognized in New
South Wales, poorly preserved graptolites have also been obtained from a
number of other localities.
The following occurrences can probably be assigned to a zone in the
Caradoc:
1. Site of Adaminaby Dam, Snowy Mountains Authority, Parishes of
Nimmo and Eucumbene, 8 miles south-south-west of Adaminaby.
Diplograptus sp., Climacograptus sp., Dicellograptus sp., ?Lepto-
graptus sp.
2. Localities near the Murrumbidgee River, about 13-14 miles east of
Adaminaby; Portion 79, Par. Brest; Portion 64, Par. Backalum.
Diplograptus sp. or Climacograptus sp.
3. Between the Murrumbidgee River and Adaminaby; Portion 87, Par.
Bolaira.
Diplograptus sp. (broad).
4, About 5 miles south-south-east of Berridale; Portion 28, Par.
Bobundara.
Diplograptus sp., Climacograptus sp. and Dicellograptus sp.
5. About 8 miles west of Cooma; Portion 158, Par. Coolringdon.
Diplograptus sp. and Climacograptus sp.
6. Headwaters of Bundara Creek.
Diplograptus sp. (broad).
7. Quaama; Por. 17, Par. Cadjangarry, 8 miles east of Quaama.
Diplograptus sp.
8. About # mile north-west Narira Trig, North of Cobargo.
Diplograptus sp., Climacograptus sp. and Dicellograptus sp.
9. Weja, 3 miles north of railway station.
Diplograptus sp.
10. 30 miles north-west of Crookwell, on road to Bigga between
Markdale and Blanket Flat.
Dicranograptus sp. |
The following occurrences can probably be assigned to a zone in the
Llandeilo:
1. North-west corner Portion 1389, Par. Carlton, Cadia District
Diplograptid.
2. Cadiangullong Creek, Grid: 937547, Canowindra sheet, Military
Map.
Glossograptus cf. hinckstui
Diplograptus or Climacograptus.
3. Belubula River near junction with Merrimalong Creek, Grid:
911496, Canowindra sheet, Military Map. 3
ef. Glyptograptus teretiusculus.
4. North of Forest Reefs, 6 miles west of Millthorpe
2Glyptograptid.
Probable graptolite traces have been obtained from Buddong Falls, near
Batlow.
Ordovician graptolites are reported from the following localities but
have not been examined:
Cox’s River, south-west of Katoomba (David and Browne, 1950, p. 156).
East of Braidwood (verbal communication).
90 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD
Silurian.
Six graptolite zones can be recognized in the Silurian of the State. These
correspond to Zones 19, 23, 28(?), 31(?), 33 and 34 of the British Silurian
succession. In spite of the gaps in the zonal succession as recognized in
Britain, the first four have been found in a conformable series dipping west at
from 30 to 70 degrees at Four Mile Creek near Cadia (Stevens and Packham,
1953), and near Hatton’s Corner, Yass, the last three zones occur in a
conformable sequence (Brown and Sherrard, 1952).
Llandovery.
Zone of Monograptus gregarius.
The oldest zone in the Silurian recorded in New South Wales until the
present is that of M. gregarius occurring at the bottom of the Four Mile Creek
sequence, where the assemblage is:
M. gregarwus
Climacograptus sp.
Sub-Zone of Monograptus triangulatus.
A collection made by Mr. N. C. Stevens (1954) on Angullong Property in
Portion 112, Par. Carlton, several miles south of Four Mile Creek village,
belongs either to the M. triangulatus sub-zone of the M. gregarius zone or
possibly to a slightly higher zone. It contains:
Climacograptus hughesi
Glyptograptus tamariscus
G. sinuatus
Mesograptus sp.
Petalograptus sp.
Orthograptus insectiformis
Monograptus intermedius
M. triangulatus
? Rastrites longispinus
R. aff. approxivmatus
Zone of Monograptus crispus.
Twenty feet stratigraphically above the zone of M. gregarius at Four Mile
Creek the zone of M. crispus is well represented with the following:
M. exiguus
M.marri
M. cf. variabilis
M. cf. nodifer
M. (?) galaensis
Retiolites geinitzianus.
The same zone is recorded from Bungonia (Naylor, 1935) with WM. exiguus
and M. barrendei. This zone is widely represented in Victoria (Keble and
Harris, 1934; Thomas, 1947). ‘ .
Wenlock.
Zone of Cyrtograptus insectus.
Some hundreds of feet of conformable strata separate ‘he last zone from
that of Cyrtograptus insectus at Four Mile Creek, where the following
assemblage is recorded:
Cyrto. aff insectus,
Monograptus priodon,
Monograptid of vomerinus group.
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 91
The zone of Cyrto. insectus is recognized in Bohemia (Kettner and Boucek,
1936) between the British zones of Cyrto. murchisoni and M. riccartonensis.
Cyrto. insectus, while similar to Cyrto. symmetricus and Cyrto. rigidus, is
differentiated by the conspicuous thecal spines seen in some aspects under
strong magnification.
Zone of Monograptus testis.
This zone, characteristic of beds at the top of the Wenlock in Bohemia, is
represented in the Bedulluck area by the following assemblage (Sherrard,
1952) :
| Monograptus flemingw var. elegans
M. flenungu var. compactus
M. vomerinus
M., testis var. nornatus.
M. vomerinus has also been collected in other parts of the Yass District
(Brown and Sherrard, 1952), notably at the bottom of the Hatton’s Corner
sraptolite sequence.
The beds at the top of the conformable series at Four Mile Creek must be
equivalent to this zone, since they contain the following assemblage:
M. dubius
M. cf. vulgaris.
M. flemingui var. primus found in Portion 184, Par. Carlton, to the south
of Four Mile Creek, denotes the same zone.
Ludlow.
Zone of Monograptus nilssoni.
Shale with graptolites of this zone outcrops more or less persistently
round the asymmetrical trough into which the Silurian at Yass is folded. It
forms the middle member of a conformable series of three graptolite zones
(Brown and Sherrard, 1952). Brachiopods, lamellibranchs and eurypterids
are associated with the graptolites. An association with similar shelly fossils
is recorded for this graptolite zone in Sweden (Hede, 1918). The assemblage
at Yass is:
Monograptus nilssoni (including “Linograptus” )
M. bohemicus
M. roemert
M. crinitus
Dictyonema sp.
A similar graptolite assemblage is described from Oklahoma (Decker,
1935). The assemblage at Yass is found in a greyish-brown sandy shale
dipping west-south-west at 7 degrees, but much the same assemblage is found
in a very different facies at the junction of the Hume Highway with the
Brayton road, 8 miles east of Goulburn, where M. nilssoni and M. bohemicus
occur in white shale with an almost vertical dip (Naylor, 1939). IM. bohemicus
has also been recorded from near the town of Goulburn (Naylor, 1950) and
with M. chimaera from east of Taralga (Naylor, 1938).
Zone of Monograptus scanicus.
The type area for this zone is Silverdale, Portion 34, Par. Derrengullen,
2 miles east-north-east of Bowning. The first record of graptolites from New
JI
92 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
South Wales was from Bowning (Mitchell, 1886), but it is not known if they
were from this locality. The assemblage at Silverdale is:
Monograptus salweyi
M. cf. twmeéescens
Dictyonem«a sp.
M. salweyi has also been found about 9 miles to the south-south-east at
the junction of Taemas and Good Hope roads, Portion 15, Par. Hume, 13
miles south-south-west of Yass railway station, where sandstone containing it
conformably overlies shale with graptolites of the M. nilssoni zone. It is also
found in other localities near Yass (Brown and Sherrard, 1952). In all cases,
small brachiopods and crinoid stems occur on the same slabs as the graptolites.
M. salweyi has not been recorded from Victoria, but varieties of the
Swedish form, M. wncinatus, to which it is closely related (Tullberg, 1882),
occur widely (Thomas, 1947).
STRATIGRAPHICAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN GRAPTOLITE ZONES.
A conformable passage from slates with graptolites of the Orthograptus
calcaratus zone up to slates with those of a higher zone can be observed in
Wambrook Creek, 11 miles west of Cooma, as has been explained. Elsewhere
stratigraphical relationships are not so clear. The Yass River localities Nos.
2 and 24 with graptolites of the Orthograptus quadrimucronatus zone and the
Climacograptus peltifer zone respectively are less than a quarter of a mile
apart (Sherrard, 1943). The slates containing them are not in contact, but
both dip at 40 degrees to the north-west and must be quite conformable. Apart
from minor faults which are frequent within the series, all the Ordovician
slates in the Yass River region appear conformable, although containing
graptolites of three different zones.
In the Shoalhaven Gorge, graptolites of the zone of Glyptograptus
teretiusculus have been collected recently by Messrs. K. Crook and M.
Mackellar in quartzite at locality 18 on the right bank of Barber’s Creek at
its junction with the Shoalhaven River. Graptolites of the zone of Ortho-
graptus calcaratus were collected almost immediately opposite on the left
bank of the same creek in a cliff of blue-black slate dipping east (downstream)
at 75 degrees (Loc. 9, Sherrard, 1949). These slates must overlie the quartzite
with Glyptograptus. The junction is probably hidden by the great load of
debris, mostly granite boulders 6 to 8 inches in diameter brought down by
Barber’s Creek, and dropped at its mouth.
Near Berridale, two zones have been recognized in outcrops about 33
miles apart. Graptolites of the O. quadrimucronatus zone occur in spotted
shales striking north-north-east and dipping almost vertically, which outcrop
14 miles west of the town, while 23 miles north-east of the town on Gygederick
Hill, silicified slate dipping nearly west at 60 degrees, with graptolites
probably of the Climacograptus peltifer zone has been collected. The structural
relation between these slates has not been determined. Dr. W. R. Browne has
pointed out (1944) that a record of Didymograptus and Tetragraptus from
Berridale was an error. | }
In the Mandurama-Canowindra district, beds with graptolites of the
Glyptograptus teretiusculus and Nemagraptus zones are widespread, but their
relationship to slates with graptolites of younger zones at Woodstock and
Wellington is not known. Conformable relations are pictured between strata
in the Goulburn district which contain Ordovician graptolites from more than
one zone (Naylor, 1950).
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 93
STRUCTURAL RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORDOVICIAN AND SILURIAN
GRAPTOLITE-BEARING ROCKS.
In a number of places, such as Nanima-Bedulluck (Yass District), near
Cadia and near Bungonia, rocks with Ordovician graptolites outcrop in fairly
close proximity to rocks with Silurian graptolites, but the relations between
the rocks of the two periods are never plain. At Piccaree Hill in the Nanima-
Bedulluck area (Sherrard, 1952) steeply folded and denuded Ordovician slates
occur as “islands” whose stratigraphical relation to the nearest Silurian
rocks has not been determined after careful search. Locality 64 in this
neighbourhood with Ordovician graptolites is about 5 miles north-north-west
of locality 71 with Silurian graptolites of the Monograptus testis zone. The
dips and strikes of the sedimentary rocks between them, where not hidden by
igneous rocks or alluvium, seem quite concordant.
The relation between Ordovician and Silurian graptolite-bearing rocks is
apparently also obscure near Cadia (Stevens and Packham, 1953). A faulted
junction has been recognized in one place (Stevens, 1954).
In the district east of Goulburn, Naylor (1950) has postulated an over-
folded anticline involving Ordovician and Silurian sedimentary rocks and
apparently causing the Silurian to dip beneath the Ordovician in exposures
near the intersection of the Hume Highway with the road to Brayton and on
the Goulburn to Bungonia road. The structure, whatever it is, has to account
for the close proximity of shales with Ordovician graptolites of Zone 13 to
Shales with Silurian graptolites of Zone 33 at the first locality and of Zone 23
at the second.
GRAPTOLITE-BEARING LOCALITIES.
Details of some localities have been given in the paper, others were listed
in previous publications (Sherrard, 1943, 1949, 1952; Brown and Sherrard,
1952). Particulars of others referred to in the paper are as follows:
Apsley: near railway station, Portions 109, 281, Par. Wellington.
Ariah Park: 5 miles south-west of railway station, Portion 29, Par.
Windeyer, Co. Bourke.
Cadia: Localities near Orange-Angullong road, near turn-off to Four Mile
Creek Post Office: Loc. 12: 14 miles east of P.O.; Loc. 12a: 14 miles
north-east of P.O.; Loc. 13: 1% miles south-east of P.O.; Loc. 18a: 14
miles south-east of P.O.; Loc. g1: south-west, Portion 114, Par.
Clarendon; Loc. go: north-west, Portion 160, Par. Clarendon.
Cargo: Portion 98, Par. Cargo.
Cobargo: 7 miles east of Cobargo, on Bermagui road, Portion 176, Par.
Bermaguee.
Geehi River: between Geehi River and Bogong Creek, Portion 15, Par.
Hume, Co. Selwyn.
Grabben Gullen: Portion 152, Par. Grabben Gullen; Portion 194 or 195,
Par. Lampton.
Jinjera, Parish of: 64 miles south of Captain’s Flat on Cooma Road,
Portion 34.
Mandurama-Walli:
(a) Licking Hole Creek: Grid reference, Military Map, Canowindra
Sheet: 818450.
(b) “Trilobite Hill”: Grid reference, same sheet: 845468.
(c) Loc. 7: south of Belubula River, west of Cliefden Caves: Grid
856481,
94. KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
(d) Loc. 8: north bank of Belubula River, north of Cliefden Caves:
Grid 865487. ;
Molong:
(a) half-way between Molong and Euchareena, Parish of Copper Hill.
(6) 5 miles north-west of Euchareena, Portions 4, 10, 84, Par.
Nubrigyn.
Quaama: 3 miles east of Quaama, on Pipeclay Creek, Portion 17, Par.
Cadjangarry.
Shoalhaven Gorge: (Locs, 1-12 in Sherrard, 1949)
Loc. 18: Barber’s Creek, about 1 mile upstream from junction with
Shoalhaven River.
Loc. 14: about 100 yards downstream from Loc. 138.
Loc. 15: Barber’s Creek (not in sitw).
Loc. 16: Shoalhaven River, about 200 yards downstream from mouth
of Bungonia Creek.
Loc. 17: Shoalhaven River, about 100 yards downstream from mouth
of Bungonia Creek.
Loc. 18: right bank of Barber’s Creek, in quartzite, near mouth.
Loc. 19: Bungonia Creek, upstream almost to limestone.
Snowy Mountains :
Loc. P.495. Centre of C.P.L. 85, Par. Backalum, Co. Wallace, about
34 miles north of Backalum Creek.
Locs. P.486, 326, north-east corner, Portion 84, Par. Backalum.
Loc. P.767, right bank Snowy River, north, Portion 118, Par. Beloka,
Co. Wallace.
Taralga: 6 miles from Taralga on Bannaby road.
Tomingley: mine dump in village.
Trunkey: near Wilson’s Reef, between Trunkey and Newbridge.
Tumbarumba: Carboona Gap, in road cutting, 18 miles south-west of
Tumbarumba and 10 miles north-east of Jingellic.
Tumut Pond: south of Tumut River, south-east of camp, 1700 feet above
it. Grid Reference: Military Map, Toolong Sheet: 295168.
Wellington: Res. 6, Par. Nanima, 13 miles north-west of Wellington on
Wuuluman Road.
Woodstock: 1 mile north of Woodstock. Grid Reference: Military Map,
Canowindra Sheet: 810305.
Yalgogrin: 3 miles north of Yalgogrin North, Portion 30, Par. Murrengrew
(S.E.) and Portion 11, Par. Brolga (N.E.).
SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTIONS.
Order GRAPTOLOIDEA.
Family IsocrapTip™.
Genus Isograptus
Tsograptus caduceus var. tenuis Harris, 1933.
Plate X, fig. 5.
Graptolites (Didymograpsus) caduceus (Salter), McCoy, 1874, Prod. Pal. Vic.
Dec. 2; 30, Pl. XX, figs. 3-5.
Tsograptus caduceus var. tenuis Harris, 1933, 93, figs. 53, 54.
Horse-shoe shaped rhabdosome, stipes diverging downward first at 115
degrees, then upward at 300 degrees; stipes up to 1 mm, wide, Thece almost
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 95
conical, 0-5 mm. wide at aperture but 0:25 mm. initially; 10 thece in 10 mm.
2-2 mm. long, inclined at 15 degrees, overlap one-fifth, apertures everted with
strong denticle. Sicula stout and blunt.
Associates: Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis, Dendroid.
Locality: Licking Hole Creek, Mandurama.
Family LeproGrapPripa.
Genus Leptograptus.
Leptograptus capillaris (Carruthers).
Plate XI, fig. 8.
Leptograptus capillaris (Carr.), Elles and Wood, 1908; 112; Pl. XV, figs.
4, a-d.
Stipes crowded and interlocked on slabs. Curved into almost complete
circles. Stipes 0-4-0-6 mm. wide. Thece 10 in 10 mm., about 15 mm. long,
overlap one half, ventral walls sigmoidally curved; apertures with denticles
sometimes forming semi-circular excavation, sometimes introverted. No sicula
seen.
No associate on same slab.
Locality: Public Reserve, Long Point, Tallong (Loc. 5, Sherrard, 1949).
Leptograptus flaccidus (Hall).
Plate X, fig. 3.
Leptograptus flaccidus (Hall), Elles and Wood, 1903, 106; Pl. XIV, figs. 1, a—g.
Stipes diverge at 215 degrees then after horizontal development of first
theca, bend till 140 degrees between stipes, which may be over 8 cm. long when
broken on edge of slab. Width 0°6 mm. proximally, 1:2 mm. distally. Sicula
2mm. long. Thece, 8-10 in 10 mm., proximal thece being more widely spaced,
each 2 mm. long, overlap one-third. Ventral margins, sigmoidally curved.
Apertures often introverted, forming semi-circular excavation.
Locality, Associates: Orthograptus calcaratus, Climacograptus bicornis (at
Yass River, Loc. 1); none at Barber’s Creek, Shoalhaven River.
Nemagraptus explanatus var. Der tenins (Lapworth).
Plate X, fig. 2
Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis eee Elles and Wood, 1903,
134; Pl. XIX, figs. 7, a-f.
habdvsomes Ecomplete: Very slender, gracefully curved stipes, dorsally
flexed describing almost semi-circles, 0:25-0:35 mm. wide Angle of divergence
60 degrees, square axil. Stipes about 1-5 cm. preserved. Thece 9-11 in 10 mm.
Thece 15-2 mm. long, almost no overlap, apertures apparently introverted.
Thin branches about 1 cm. long rarely project from a theca.
Associates: Retiograptus geinitzianus, Glyptograptus teretiusculus.
Locality: Licking Hole Creek, Mandurama.
Family DicrANoGRAPTID®.
Genus Dicranograptus.
Dicranograptus ramosus var. spinifer Lapworth.
Plate X, fig. 4.
Dicranograptus ramosus var. spinifer Dapwoutl Elles and Wood, 1904, 176;
Pl. XXIV, figs. 8, a—c.
Biserial section 2 cm. long, fusiform in alveepe 1:0 mm. wide proximally,
3 mm. wide at 6 mm., decreases to 2°5 mm. near bifurcation, All biserial
96 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
thece spined, 14 thece in first 10 mm. Virgella 0-5 mm. long. Spines generally
appear apertural, sometimes mesial, up to 1 mm. long. Thece with curved
ventral wall, 2 mm. long, overlap one-half, apertures generally slightly intro-
verted. Uniserial stipes enclose angle of 40 degrees, they are 2 mm. wide, 11
thece in 10 mm., each 2 mm. long, overlap one-half, ventral walls curved,
introverted apertures, no spines. Uniserial stipes broken at 3-5 cm.
Associates: Dicranograptus ramosus var. hians, Plegmatograptus nebula,
Locality: Shoalhaven River, 100 yards downstream from mouth of Bungonia
Creek (Loc. 17).
Dicranograptus ramosus var. hians (T. S. Hall).
Dicranograptus hians T. S. Hall, 1905, Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict. (n.s.), XVIII;
24; Pl. VI, fig. 6.
Biserial section 3 mm. long, 15 mm. wide, with four thecz on each side,
each with rounded ventral walls. Uniserial stipes enclose angle of 110 degrees,
they are 0-8 mm. wide and curve back towards one another slightly in 5 cm. or
more of length. Thece 10 in 10 mm., each 2 mm. long, with ventral wall
curved, overlap one-quarter. Well-marked septum in biserial section. Spines
seldom seen. This species is identical with specimens A 19567 a, b in the
Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, labelled Dicranograptus ramosus var. deflexus
Elles ms. and regarded as equivalent to Dicranograptus spinifer var.
geniculatus Ruedemann, 1908. T. S. Hall’s published name takes precedence.
Associates and Locality: as for D. ramosus var. spinifer.
Family DiPpLoGRapTip™®.
Genus Climacograptus.
Climacograptus wilsont var. tubularis Elles and Wood.
Plate XI, fig. 18.
cf. Climacograptus wilsont var. tubularis Elles and Wood, 1906, 199; PI.
XXVI, fig. 138.
Rhabdosome up to 65 cm. long, not including virgula. Width, 0-5 mm.
proximally, 2-5 mm. distally, virgella thread-like 3 mm. long, though seldom
retained. Basal spines sometimes seen. Thecz 14-12 in 10 mm. each 1:5—2 mm.
long, 0:4—0°6 mm. wide. Thece impressed below, aperture concave, denticle at
apertural angle, overlap one-half. Exvacation marked, Septum incomplete.
Thece alternate.
Associates: Diplograptids.
Locality: Wagga Common.
Genus Diplograptus.
Sub-genus Orthograptus.
Orthograptus pageanus var. abnormispinosus EWes and Wood.
Plate XI, fig. 11.
Orthograptus pageanus var. abnormispinosus Elles and Wood, 1907, 226;
Pl. XXVITI, fig. 5a. |
Rhabdosomes about 3 cm. long, width 1 mm. proximally, increasing to
4 mm. distally. Thece 12 in 10 mm., each 2-5 mm. long, ventral walls
sigmoidally curved, each with fine spines but 9th and 10th or 13th and 14th
thece have spines 5 mm. long. Basal spines also pronounced. Broad tube
within rhabdosome. Virgula 5 mm. long where broken.
Localities: Shoalhaven Gorge, Locs. 11, 13, 15,
Associate; Climacograptus bicornis,
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 97
Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus Lapw.
Plate XI, fig. 14.
Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus Lapw., Elles and Wood, 1907, 242,
Pl. XXX, figs. 3, a—c.
Rhabdosomes up to 6 cm. long and 4 mm. wide. Proximal end blunt.
Thece 11-9 in 10 mm. normally, but 5 in 10 mm. in distorted forms. Each
theca 3-5 mm. long, many with pronounced flange at angle of apertural and
ventral walls. The long, thin forms from Captain’s Flat seem best compared
with this species. At this locality rhabdosomes up to 10 cm. long where broken
distally. Complete proximally, 1-5 mm. wide proximally, 3:3 mm. wide at 2 cm.,
4-0 mm. at 3°5 cm., which width is maintained. Short faint virgella in one
specimen. Two curved basal spines, basal theca 1 mm. long with ventral wall
horizontal for half length then curved vertically downward ending in basal
spine. Later thece with half ventral wall vertical then bent in right angle and
curving sigmoidally downward. LHarly thece 2 mm. long. Overlap about one-
third. Apertures slightly everted. Proximal thece 10 in 10 mm. Periderm
very thin but visible. At 3-5 cm. from proximal end, thece 45 in 10 mm. At
this distance the periderm is absent, lists outline thece. A very strong parietal
list, ogee in shape, which is thicker on one side of rhabdosome than other, is
joined to a fainter but distinct pleural list marking outer ventral wall and
hour-glass-like in shape. Faint septal strands, apparently zig-zag can also be
discerned. At this distance from proximal end, all thecz at least 3 mm. long,
overlap apparently slight. Where parietal and pleural lists meet a denticle is
formed.
In spite of its greater length and tenuous periderm it bears comparison
with normal specimens of O. calcaratus var. acutus from Tomingley. The
greater length may be due to distortion. It also suggests Retiograptus.
Associate: Mesograptus cf. multidens.
Localities: Tomingley, Captain’s Flat.
Sub-genus ‘‘ Mesograptus ”’.
Mesograptus ingens (T. S. Hall).
Plate XI, fig. 9.
Diplograptus ingens T. 8S. Hall, 1906, Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 1, 276; PI.
XXXIV, fig. 7.
Glossograptus quadrimucronatus var. paucithecatus Decker, 1935, 708; figs.
2, i-k.
Mesograptus ingens (T. 8S. Hall), Keble and Benson, 1939, 81.
Rhabdosomes large, F 30418, Aust. Mus. from Queanbeyan, 6 cm. long
where cut off at edge of slab. Width at broad proximal end is 3 mm., 3:3 mm.
at 1 cm., 45 mm at 3 cm. Thin virgella produced 4 mm., two mesial spines,
curved, on basal thecze, each 2 mm. long. Ventral edges of basal thece
arranged horizontally. 11 thece in 10 mm., each 2 mm. long, ventral walls
Sigmoidally curved, apertures introverted, overlap one-half. Specimen from
Loc. 50 Yass (Pl. XI, fig. 9), 2 cm. long, 2 mm. wide at blunt proximal end,
increasing to 7 mm. wide at 1 cm. and decreasing to 6 mm. distally. Thece
9 in 10 mm., each straight tube with everted apertures and suggestion of short
Spine on some. Curved basal spines 2 mm. long. Virgula broken off at edge of
slab. Another specimen from Queanbeyan shows a fragment of M. ingens, 9 cm.
long, crossing a slab of slate from side to side with neither proximal nor distal
98 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
end visible. It is 3 mm. wide throughout and is traversed by a broad, virgular
tube. Thece of typical undulate shape are 9 in 10 mm. with faint spines.
Associate: Dicellograptus morrisi.
Localities: Queanbeyan; Loc. 50, Yass River; Yalgogrin.
Mesograptus multidens Elles and Wood.
Plate XI, fig. 18.
cf. Mesograptus multidens Elles and Wood, 1907, 261; Pl. XX XI, figs. 9, a—d.
Rhabdosomes up to 4:5 cm. long, complete proximally but not distally ;
from 4°5 to 11 mm. wide with the average 8-9 mm. wide. Rhabdosomes widen
rapidly from initial breadth of 2 mm. at the broad proximal end. Short, basal
spines. Thece 8 in 10 mm., each about 4 mm. long and 0°5 mm. wide, overlap
one-third. Test very attenuated, graptolite preserved as network with strongly
developed parietal lists. Central virgular tube conspicuous, which is typical of
M. multidens, though width of rhabdosomes too great and thece per 10 mm.
too few for typical MW. multidens. However, the slate at Captain’s Flat in
which cf. M. multidens occurs, has suffered intense pressure, which could
have caused a graptolite which is convexo-concave in cross-section (as all
Mesograpti are) to roll out to a great width. The dimensions of this graptolite
under description agree more closely with those of J/. ingens, but M. ingens
does not occur with Cryptograptus tricornis and Nemagraptus explanatus
var. pertenuis (of more or less normal width) which have been collected from
the same locality though not on the same slabs as the Mesograptus.
Associate (on same slabs): cf. Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus. At the
same locality on different slabs Cryptograptus tricornis, Nemagraptus
explanatus var. pertenuis.
Locality: Railway station, Captain’s Flat.
Sub-genus Glyptograptus.
Glyptograptus tamariscus Nicholson.
Plate XI, fig. 19.
Glyptograptus tamariscus Nicholson, Elles and Wood, 197, 247; Pl. XXX,
figs. 8, a-—d.
Rhabdosome 5°5 mm. long of which virgella, which is complete, occupies
0:5 mm., increases in width from 0:6 to 1:4 mm., then slightly decreases.
Thece alternate, 9 on each side, ventral wall with flowing sigmoidal curvature,
thecze up to 155 mm. long, overlap one-quarter to one-third. Excavation one-
quarter width of rhabdosome. Apertural margins concave.
Associate: Monograptus intermedius.
Locality: Cadia district.
Glyptograptus teretiusculus (Hisinger).
Plate XI, fig. 16.
Glyptograptus teretiusculus (Hisinger), Elles and Wood, 1907, 250; Pl.
XXXI, figs. 1, a-e. |
Rhabdosomes up to 3 cm. long, seldom complete but one or two with
conspicuous virgella 2 mm. long, and short basal spines. Virgula sometimes
conspicuous, up to 25 mm. long. Well marked septum. Proximal width 0:5
mm. increasing to not more than 2 mm. Thece up to 16 in 10 mm., alternate,
1:5 mm. long, overlap one-sixth to one-third, ventral wall sigmoidally curved,
drawn out to denticle. Excavation pouch-like, taking up one-half ventral
margin and one-third width of rhabdosome, This graptolite differs from
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 99
Glyptograptus teretiusculus var. euglyphus in having far more thece per
10 mm.
Associates: Isograptus caduceus, Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis,
Dicranograptus zic zac.
Localities: Mandurama District, Cadia, Tumut Pond.
Family GLOSSOGRAPTID.
Genus Retiograptus.
Retiograptus geinitzianus Hall.
Plate XI, fig. 20.
Retiograptus geinitzianus Hall, Elles and Wood, 1908, 316; Pl. XXXIV, figs
7, a-d.
Rhabdosomes up to 8 mm. long and 2 mm. wide, exclusive of spines.
Longest spines are 1:5 mm. long, occurring in central part of rhabdosome,
where they are twice as long as others. Rhabdosomes devoid of test, except
for slight indications in proximal portions up to about 3rd theca. Each
rhabdosome formed of clathria of horizontal and vertical lists outlining thecze
which are diplograptid in shape and measure 15 in 10 mm., overlapping about
three-fifths of length. Thece about 15 mm. long and 0-75 mm. wide, with
two spines at intersection of apertural and ventral margins of thece, one stiff
and straight, one drooping. Along mid-line of rhabdosome appears another
set of thecz as though the cross-section were cruciform. Stout virgella visible.
Associates: Glyptograptus teretiusculus, Nemagraptus explanatus var.
pertenuis.
Localities: Licking Hole Creek, Mandurama, Tomingley.
Genus Lasiograptus.
Lasiograptus mucronatus var. bimucronatus (Nicholson), Elles and Wood.
Lasiograptus mucronatus var. bimucronatus (Nicholson), Elles and Wood,
1908, 328; Pl. XXXITI, figs. 8, a-e.
Rhabdosome up to 4 cm. length revealed, increasing in width from 1:5 mm.
to 45 mm. Thece 14 in 10 mm., about 3 mm. long, apertural margins concave,
apertural angles slightly introverted, slender spines visible on some. Very
pronounced excavation, one-third width of rhabdosome. In one case a
membrane connects many of the elongated spines giving the appearance of a
flag 25 mm.-long and 0:6 mm. wide flung out from either side of the
rhabdosome. These represent the scopulate processes seen in this variety. The
rhabdosome has a lax appearance.
Locality: Tumut Pond.
| Family Monocraprip.
Genus Monograptus.
Monograptus triangulatus (Harkness).
Plate XI, fig. 22.
Monograptus triangulatus (Harkness), Elles and Wood, 1918, 471; Pl. XLVII,
figs. 4, a-f.
Rhabdosome incomplete, convexly curved, 7 mm. long, width including
thece 15 mm. 9 triangular thece, scarcely in contact, each about 2 mm.
long, with ventral (lower) edge crescentic, very slightly recurved at tip.
Greatest width of theca 0-5 mm.
Associates: M. intermedius, ?Rastrites longispinus.
Locality: Portion 112, Par. Carlton. Cadia district.
100 KATHLEEN M. SHERRARD.
Monograptus intermedius (Carruthers).
Plate XI, fig. 21.
Monograptus intermedius (Carr.), Elles and Wood, 1913, 485; Pl. XLIX,
figs. 3, a-c.
Rhabdosomes incomplete, 1-5 cm. long; 0-6 mm. wide including barb,
ventral curvature, thece 10 in 10 mm., each about 1:5 mm. long, overlap
one-half, ventral margin sigmoidally curved with recurved barb.
Associates and locality: as for M. triangulatus.
Rastrites longispinus (Perner).
Plate XI, fig. 21.
?Rastrites longispinus (Perner), Elles and Wood, 1914, 489; Pl. L, figs. 2, a—g.
Distal fragment 5 mm. long, shows slight convex curve and is not more
than 0-25 mm. wide. Thece 4 in 5 mm., on convex side of rhabdosome, each
4 mm. long with reflexed apertural termination.
Associates and locality: as for M. triangulatus.
SUMMARY.
Rocks from over one hundred localities in New South Wales containing
graptolites have been placed in seven zones of Ordovician age and six zones
and one sub-zone of Silurian age on the basis of the assemblages of graptolites
they contain. Correlations with graptolite-bearing strata in other countries
are suggested. Some of the localities have not been recorded previously
as possessing graptolite-bearing strata, and some of the graptolites are
recorded and described for the first time for New South Wales. Lists of
assemblages of graptolites identified from each locality are given. The
localities are shown on a sketch-map, on which is shown also, where possible,
the direction of the general fold axes of the Ordovician strata.
REFERENCES.
Boucek, B., 1937. Bull. Soc. Geol. France, 5th Ser., 7, 456.
Brown, I. A., 1931. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 56, 468.
Brown, I. A., and Sherrard, K. M., 1952. Tuis Journat, 85, 127.
Browne, W. R., 1944. THis JoURNAL, 77, 156.
Bulman, O. M. B., 1947. Mon. Pal. Soc., 101, 7.
David, T. W. E., and Browne, W. R., 1950. Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Arnold.
Decker, C. E., 1935. Journ. Pal., 9, 434, 703.
Dun, W. S., 1897, 1898. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 5, 124, 179.
Elles, G. L., and Wood, E. M. R., 1901-1918. Mon. Pal. Soc., 55-70.
Elles, G. L., 1925. Geol. Mag., 62, 337.
1940. Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc., 95, 383.
Hadding, A., 19138. Lunds Uni. Arsskr. N.F., Afd. 2, 9.
Hall, T. S., 1900, 1902. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 7, 16, 49.
—-——— 1909. JIbid., 8, 340.
Harris, W. J., 1924. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., (n.s.), 36, 103.
—_—_—— 1933. Jfbid., 46, 93.
Harris, W. J., and Keble, R. A., 1929. Ibid., 42, 27.
Harris, W. J., and Thomas, D. E., 1938. Min. and Geol. Journ. Vict., 1, 62.
Hede, J. E., 1918. Geol. Unders. Arsbk., 12, 8, Ser. C, 291.
—-_-__— 1950." Lamds Uniw. Arsskr. NF ., Afd. ‘46, 7.
Joplin, G. A. 1945. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 70, 158.
Keble, R. A., and Benson, W. N., 1929. Trans. Proc. N.Z. Inst., 59, 842.
eee 6D Mem. Nat: Moss clo UY,
Keble, R. A., and Harris, W. J., 1925. Rec. Geol. Surv. Vict., 4, 515.
$e EI em.” Nate Minis, Melb S ton:
Keble, R. A., and Macpherson, J. H., 1941. Rec. Aust. Mus., 21, 47.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVII, 19538, Plate X.
4
3, Plate XI.
5)
CYS Of ENS. W., Vol. DX XMVAT, 19:
ve
Journal Royal Soc
wieate
ASSEMBLAGES OF GRAPTOLITES IN NEW SOUTH WALES. 101
Kettner, R., and Boucek, B., 1936. Prague Univ. Geol. Pal. Trav., 18.
Mitchell, J., 1886. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 1, 577,
Naylor, G. F. K., 1935. Tuis JourRNAL, 69, 123.
—_—_____—__—_——. 1938. Jbid., 71, 45.
—__—_—_—_—__—_—__——— _ 1939. Ibid., 72, 129.
—__—___—_—_—— 1950. Ibid., 83, 279.
Opik, A. A., 1952. Commonwealth of Aust. Bur. Min. Res. Records, 1952/12. (Unpubl. t)
—— 1954. Geology of the Canberra City District in Canberra, A Nation’s Capital.
Pocodk. R. W., and Whitehead, T. H., 1948. Welsh Borderland (2nd ed.) Geol. Surv. and Mus.
London.
Pribyl, A., 1951. Bull. Internat. Acad. Tcheque des Sciences. 1.
Raggatt, H. G., 1950. Min. Dept. N.S.W. Geol. Rept. 1939-45, 57.
Ruedemann, R., 1947. Geol. Soc. America, Mem. 19.
Sherrard, K., 1943. THis JourRNAL, 76, 252.
—_—__—__—_——- 1949. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 74, 62.
—___—_—_—_——. 1952. Tuis JOURNAL, 85, 63.
Stevens, N. C., 1950. Aust. J. Sci., 13, 83.
—-——__—_—_—— 1952. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 77, 114.
—-——_—__—__—_—— 1954. Jbid., 78, 262.
Stevens, N. C., and Packham, G. H., 1953. Tuis JourNAL, 86, 94.
Thomas, D. E., 1932. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 44, 268.
—_—_—_—_—__—_—_——— 1947. Mem. in relation to Geol. Surv. Vict., No. 16.
Thomas, D. E., and Keble, 1933. Proc. Roy. Soc. Vict., 45, 50.
Tullberg, S. A., 1882. Sver. Geol. Undersok., Ser. C, 50.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
PLATE X.
Fig. 1.—Cf. Amphigraptus divergens var. radiatus Lapw. and Climacograptus bicornis (Hall),
Stockyard Flat Ck. (F.3412, Mining Museum). Mag. x4.
Fig. 2.—Nemagraptus explanatus var. pertenuis (Lapw.), Licking Hole Ck. Mag. x3.
Fig. 3.—Leptograptus flaccidus (Hall), Barber’s Ck., Shoalhaven Gorge. Mag. x 2.
Fig. 4.—Dicranograptus ramosus var. spinifer Lapworth, Loc. 17, Shoalhaven Gorge. Mag. x1.
Fig. 5.—Isograptus caduceus var. tenuis Harris, Licking Hole Ck. Mag. xl.
Fig. 6.—Diucellograptus elegans Carr., Loc. 31, Yass River. Mag. x1.
Fig. 7.—Dicellograptus elegans and D. morris, holotype of ‘‘ Dicellograptus affinus”’ T. 8. Hall,
Stockyard Flat Ck. (F.3402, Mining Museum). Mag. xl.
PuateE XI.
Fig. 8.—Leptograptus capillaris (Carr.), Long Point Lookout, Tallong. Mag. x2.
Fig. 9.—Mesograptus ingens (T. S. Hall), Loc. 50, Yass. Mag. x2.
Fig. 10.—Dicellograptus morrist Hopk., Wambrook Ck., Cooma. Mag. x1.
Fig. 11.—Orthograptus pageanus var. abnormispinosus E. & W., Barber’s Ck., Shoalhaven Gorge.
Mag. x2.
Fig. 12.—Mesograptus foliaceus (Murch.), Loc. gl, Cadia. Mag. x3.
Fig. 13.—Mesograptus cf. multidens or ingens, Captain’s Flat. Mag. x2. Coll. Bureau of
Mineral Resources.
Fig. 14.—Cf. Orthograptus calcaratus var. acutus Lapw., Captain’s Flat. Mag. x1.
Fig. 15.—Hallograptus mucronatus (Hall), Tumut Pond. Mag. x1.
Fig. 16.—Glyptograptus teretiusculus (His.), as for Fig. 2. Mag. x3.
Fig. 17.—Orthograptus calcaratus (‘‘ Climacograptus hastata’’, T. S. Hall, holotype), F.3400,
Mining Museum. Mag. x1.
Fig. 18.—Climacograptus wilsoni var. tubularis E. & W., Wagga. Mag. x1.
Fig. 19.—Glyptograptus tamariscus Nich., Portion 113, Par. Carlton, Cadia. Mag. x3.
Fig. 20.—Retiograptus geinitzianus Hall, Loc. as for Fig. 2. Mag. x3.
Fig. Sie onograptus intermedius (Carr.) and ? Rastrites longispinus (Perner), Loc. as for Fig. 19.
ag. x3.
Fig. 22.—Monograptus triangulatus (Hark.), Loc. as for Fig. 19. Mag. x8.
Note.—Nos. 2, 5, 8, 12, 16, 19, 20, 21, 22 collected by Mr. N. C. Stevens.
Nos. 3, 4, 11 collected by Messrs. M. MacKellar and K. Crook.
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA MYRTIFOLIA
HOOKER HT HARVEY.
Part II. THE OCCURRENCE OF PHYSIOLOGICAL FORMS.
By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L,
H. H. G. McKERN, A.A.C.1.,
and (Mrs.) M. C. SPIES, A.A.C.I.,
Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Sydney.
Manuscript received, July 23, 1953. Read, November 4, 1953.
SUMMARY.
The essential oils from foliage of four trees of Backhousia myrtifolia Hooker
et Harvey from Fraser Island, Queensland, have been examined. One of the
oils corresponded to the form originally described by Penfold (Part I, 1922)
in containing elemicin as the major constituent. Two oils contained iso-elemicin
as major constituent, whilst the fourth consisted principally of methyl iso-
eugenol. The detection of methyl eugenol in substantial amount, together with
the foregoing phenol ethers, in an oil distilled from a “ bulk-cut ”’ of foliage
from the same population indicates the probable existence of a third physiological
form within this species. A biosynthetic mechanism appears to be in operation
in this species, similar to that in Melaleuca bracteata F. Muell. (Penfold et al.,
1950).
The occurrence of iso-elemicin in nature is recorded for the first time.
INTRODUCTION.
In Part I, Penfold (1922) showed that the essential oil obtained on steam-
distillation of the foliage of Backhousia myrtifolia Hooker et Harvey collected
from the vicinity of Sydney and southwards to Currowan, N.S.W., consists of
75 to 80 per cent. of elemicin (1,2,6-trimethoxy-4-allylbenzene), no other phenol
ether being detected. Recently, however, a consignment of mixed foliage
collected from several trees of the same species from Fraser Island, Queensland,
was steam-distilled, and the essential oil was found to differ markedly from the
elemicin form previously described, which is now designated the Type.
The essential oil from this bulk cut of foliage (Part A in the Experimental
section), like that from the Type, was heavier than water ; but, in addition to
elemicin, it contained methyl zso-eugenol as a major constituent, together with
methyl eugenol and iso-elemicin. The presence of the asarones was suspected
from the high refractive index of the iso-elemicin fraction, but the quantity
of material available did not permit separation. Associated with the phenol
ethers are small amounts of terpenes (principally «-pinene), unidentified esters,
paraffins, and an alkali-soluble substance.
In order to determine whether these trees all produce the above mixture of
compounds, or whether the population is made up of a number of physiological
forms, samples of leaf from individual trees were secured, and the oils submitted
to separate examination (Part B of the Experimental section). It was found
that it is highly probable that individual trees produce oils containing as a major
ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA MYRTIFOLIA. 103
constituent a single phenol ether only. The occurrence of different but closely
related compounds aS major constituents in individual trees of the same species
is very interesting from the biogenetic point of view, particularly as a similar
series of compounds has been found in Melaleuca bracteata F. Muell. (Penfold
et al., 1950). Apparently a similar biosynthetic mechanism is in operation in
both species.
The occurrence in nature of iso-elemicin is of interest, since this is the first
instance of which the authors are aware.
Further work on this species is in progress, since the presence of further
forms in other localities is suspected. |
HXPERIMENTAL.
(All melting points are uncorrected.)
(A) Mixed Foliage.
The foliage used consisted of air-dry leaves and terminal branchlets weighing 184-5 lb.,
which on steam-distillation yielded 0-359% of an amber-coloured heavier-than-water oil, possessing
the following characteristics :
Specific gravity at 15°/15° .. us - seleO3i
Refractive index at 20°C. . 1-5368
Optical rotation, 100 mm. tube .. Too dark to read
Do., after NaOH wash +0-29°
Solubility in 70% (W/W) alcohol ; .. 1-0 volume
Acid number, mg. KOH/g. .. a ie Re hay
Ester number, mg. KOH/g. .. Bs Sa -- 16°6
Do., after acetylation ae Me mA 81049
The crude oil (160 ml.) was shaken twice with aqueous sodium hydroxide solution (10% ;
100 ml.), twice with brine (15% ; 100 ml.) and finally with water (50 ml.). The pale amber-
coloured oil had dae 1-031, ney 1-5372 and «, +0-29°, after drying with anhydrous magnesium
sulphate. From the alkaline extract was obtained 0-665 g. of a viscous liquid of phenolic odour
and giving a fugitive dirty violet colour with alcoholic FeCl, solution. Its identity could not be:
determined.
Fractional Distillation (see Table 1). 135 ml. of the alkali-washed oil were fractionally’
distilled at 10 mm., using a dry-ice and acetone trap between the fraction take-off and the vacuum.
pump.
KK
TABLE 1.
Boiling qis 20 Ln
Fraction. Range. Volume. 15 2D
Trap —— 1-6 ml. 0- 8664 1-4742 Inactive.
] 42°— 60° 8-6 ,, 0-8590 1-4743 Inactive.
2 60°— 80° 2-0 ., 0- 8584 1-4792 +2-6°
3 80°-115° Ascites 0-9104 1-4775 +3:1°
4 115°-126° Ora. «55 0:-9747 1-5110 —1-6°
5 126°-136° ZBOeO.,, 1-040 1-5444 Inactive.
6 136°-140° 43-5 ,, 1-060 1-5544 Inactive.
7 140°-144° Loe bars, 1-069 1-5436 Inactive.
8 144°-151° SOuilass 1-074 1-5391 Inactive.
9 151°-157° LOO «5, 1-083 1-5519 +0-21°
Residue — 48. 5, —- 1-543 —
(approx.)
104 PENFOLD, McKERN, AND SPIES.
Determination of x-pinene. The 1-6 ml. from the trap was mixed with fraction 1 and the
first 7 ml. (b.p. 156°-165°) slowly distilled off at 760 mm. This yielded a nitrosochloride, m.p.
103°-104° (decomp.), undepressed on admixture with an authentic specimen of «-pinene nitro-
sochloride of m.p. 103°. Each was then recrystallized to 107° and 107-5° respectively, and no
depression of m.p. of the mixed product was noted. A final recrystallization to m.p. 110° and
109° respectively showed a mixed m.p. of 109-5°.
A further portion of this fraction (4 ml.) was oxidized in the usual way with permanganate
to furnish an acid which failed to crystallize, and which was converted directly to a semicarbazone
of m.p. 207°, undepressed by admixture with an authentic specimen of dl-pinonic acid semi-
carbazone.
Other Terpenes. Fraction 2, terpenic in nature, failed to yield either a nitrosite or a bromide.
Limited quantity of material prevented further investigation.
Determination of Methyl Eugenol. From fraction 5 was prepared, on re-fractionation, a
fraction having dae 1-028, ne 1-5348, a, +0°. The fraction (2 ml.) when brominated by the
method of Underwoeal Baril, and Toone (1930) yielded white needles, m.p. 77° from absolute
alcohol, undepressed on admixture with an authentic specimen of bromoeugenol methyl ether
dibromide. Another portion of the fraction (7 ml.), oxidized with aqueous potassium perman-
ganate according to Wallach and Rheindorff (1892), yielded veratric acid, m.p. 181-5°, since
on admixture with an authentic specimen.
Determination of rae Ree eugenol. Fraction 6 was re-fractioned to give a main fraction
by) 139°-140°, dae 1-058, me 01-5589, a1, +0°, also yielding veratric acid on permanganate
oxidation as just described, but in addition yielding by Underwood, Baril and Toones’ (loc. cit.)
procedure a dibromide, m.p. 102° from dry ether, undepressed on admixture with an authentic
specimen of methyl iso-eugenol dibromide.
Determination of Elemicin. Fractions 7 and 8 were combined, and on re-fractionation a
traction was obtained by, 143°, qi? 1-070, ney Lists ew Pes oan +0°. Seven ml. were oxidized with
alkaline aqueous potassium permanganate solution (KMnO,, 15-4 g.; KOH, 2-1 g.; H,O,
490 ml., and ice 490 g.). From the reaction mixture, after removal of MnO, and acidification,
was isolated trimethyl gallic acid, m.p. 169° from alcohol, undepressed on admixture with an
authentic specimen. Ether extraction of the mother-liquor from the precipitation of this acid
yielded trimethyl homogallic acid, m.p. 118-5°-119°, undepressed by an authentic specimen.
Determination of Iso-elemicin. Fraction 9 (5 g.) was oxidized with KMnO, according to
Fabinyi and Széki (1906). A good yield of trimethyl gallic acid was obtained, m.p. 170°, unde-
pressed on admixture with authentic material. 0-4092 g. required 19-2 ml. 0-1 N NaOH.
Neutralization equivalent, 212-7. Calculated for C,)H,,0;, 212-2. No trimethyl homogallic
acid could be found among the products of oxidation. Fraction 9 (1-2 g.), brominated by the
procedure of Semmler (1908), yielded 1-0 g. of a white crystalline dibromide, m.p. 91° from
petroleum ether. A duplicate preparation gave a product m.p. 90-5°. Found: C, 39-37,
39°14%; H, 4:35, 4-48%; Br, 43-0, 43-2%. Calculated for C,,.H,,O,;Br.: C, 39-15%;
H, 4°38%; Br, 43-42%.
Occurrence of Paraffins. From the residue (4:8 ml.) in the still-pot a small quantity of a light
waxy deposit precipitated which could not be purified to constant melting point. It appeared
to be a mixture of higher paraffins.
(B) Individual Trees.
Four trees, forming part of the population from which the mixed foliage described in (a)
was collected, were selected at random and the foliage therefrom steam-distilled to furnish the
oils shown in Table 2. Phenol ether contents, calculated as the major phenol ether subsequently
found, were determined by the Zeisel method for alkoxy groups.
On fractional distillation in vacuo, each of the above oils gave a major fraction of fairly
constant boiling point. Data for this fraction only are given in each case.
Tree No. 1. by, 148°-144° ; ai 1-054 ; ne 1-5659; «ap, imactive. Bromination as
previously described for methyl iso-eigenol yielded a bromide, m.p. 102°, undepressed by methyl
ESSENTIAL OIL OF BACKHOUSIA MYRTIFOLIA. 105
iso-eugenol dibromide. Oxidation by permanganate gave a white crystalline acid, m.p. 182°,
undepressed on admixture with veratric acid.
Tree No. 2. DWyo.5 142°-150° ;s die 1-067 ; mee 1-5312; a, mactive. Seven grammes of
the fraction, oxidized by alkaline permanganate, gave two solid acids, m.p. 170° and m.p. 118°-119°,
undepressed by trimethyl gallic acid and trimethyl homogallic acid respectively. Neither the
fraction nor the still-residue could be induced to give a solid bromide.
Tree No. 3. by) 153°-160° ;s die 1-079 ; ma 1-5474 ; o, inactive. Seven grammes oxidized
by alkaline permanganate gave a solid acid m.p. 170-5°, undepressed by trimethyl gallic acid-
No trimethyl homogallic acid could be found. Bromination yielded a dibromide m.p. 91°, unde-
pressed by iso-elemicin dibromide.
TABLE 2.
Tree Number. | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4
Weight of leaf .. ae a cei. boelbal. | e2oeomlbs, “44 Ib. 35-5 Ib.
Yield of oil : ee cf esl Or hn |. | ORAS 028°, 0-10%
Sp. gr. at 15°/15° es Ae i l028 1-027 1-047 1-045
Refr. index, 20°C... ee te 1-5489 1-5181 1-53832 | 1-5411
Opt. rot., 100 mm... Ma +1-0° | Se ue Inactive. Inactive.
Solubility in 70% W/W alcohol mA 0-8 vol. | O=Bevol. | 0:8 vol. 0-7 vol.
Phenol ether content .. a 80:7% 12ALG, 78°4% 77°5%
(cale. as (calc. as (cale. as (cale. as
methyl iso- | elemicin). | 180- 180-
eugenol). | elemicin) elemicin)
Tree No. 4. Only six grammes of oil were obtained from this tree, and this could only be
roughly resolved into a main fraction, b,, 148°—156° ; die 1-066 ; ney 1-5449; ap, inactive.
It gave, however, a copious yield of a white crystalline dibromide, m.p. 91°-91-5°, undepressed.
by 2so-elemicin dibromide. Insufficient material prevented oxidation from being carried out,
but this was done for the material from tree No. 3.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
We wish to acknowledge the assistance given us in this work by the Queens-
Jand Sub-Department of Forestry, in particular Mr. D. A. Markwell, Forester,
Fraser Island ; and by Mr. R. O. Hellyer, A.S.T.C., in many of the analytical
determinations. Combustion micro-analyses are by the C.S.I.R.O. Division
of Industrial Chemistry. We are indebted to Mr. J. L. Willis, M.Sc., for botanical
determinations and much helpful advice and criticism.
REFERENCES.
Fabinyi and Széki, 1906. Ber., 39, 3680.
Penfold, A. R., 1922. Tuis Journat, 56, 125.
Penfold, Morrison, McKern and Willis, 1950. Res. Ess. Oils Aust. Flora, Mus. Tech. Appl. Sct.,
2, 8.
Semmler, F. W., 1908. Ber., 41, 2186.
Underwood, Baril and Toone, 1930. J. Am. Chem. Soc. 52, 4090.
Wallach and Rheindorff, 1892. Liebig’s Ann., 271, 306.
NAR RABEEN GROUP: ITS SUBDIVISIONS AND CORRELATIONS
BETWEEN THE SOUTH COAST AND NARRABEEN-WYONG
DISTRICTS.
By F. N. HANLON, B.Sec., Dip.Ed?
G. D. OSBORNE, D.Sc., Ph.D.”
and H. G. RAGGATT, D.Sc.*
With one Text-figure.
Manuscript received, August 26, 1953. Read, October 7, 1958.
INTRODUCTION.
The nomenclature of the Mesozoic rock units in the Cumberland Basin
has been dealt with by Hanlon, Joplin and Noakes (1952), the revised nomen-
clature being as follows :
Wianamatta Group.
Hawkesbury Sandstone.
Narrabeen Group.
These beds are probably of Triassic age.* The present paper deals with the
further subdivisions of the Narrabeen Group.
It is not proposed to review the literature in detail, as this has already been
done in the paper referred to above. However, one point which needs clarifying
arises from doubts which have been expressed as to whether the ‘‘ Upper
Narrabeen ”’ of Raggatt (1938) should be included in the Narrabeen Group,
or whether all the beds above the so-called ‘‘ Chocolate Shales ’”’ should be
regarded as part of the Hawkesbury Sandstone. As long ago as 1885 Wilkinson
(1885) referred to fossil plants found by himself and David in ‘“ the shale beds
immediately underlying the Hawkesbury Sandstone on the coast at Narrabeen ’’.
The fossiliferous shale beds are above the so-called ‘‘ Chocolate Shales ’’ and
Wilkinson would have included the Upper Narrabeen of Raggatt in the Narrabeen
Group. Most authors have followed this procedure in recent years.
The authors of this paper have been or are interested mainly in different
areas. One (H.G.R.) has worked mostly from the Hawkesbury River north-
wards through Gosford and Wyong to the Broke-Denman area. The results
of this work were embodied in a thesis (Raggatt, 1938) presented to Sydney
University for the degree of Doctor of Science. In the thesis the Narrabeen
Group was referred to as the Narrabeen Series and subdivided into Upper,
Middle and Lower Narrabeen. Another author (F.N.H.) has been concerned
with the stratigraphy of the Narrabeen Group mainly in the Southern Coalfield,
where he is conducting a geological re-survey, and neighbouring areas, as well
as in the North-western Coalfield to the north-west of Murrurundi. The third
author (G.D.O.) has worked in the Pittwater area south of the Hawkesbury
1 Geological Survey, Department of Mines, N.S.W. Collaboration in paper by kind per-
mission of the Under Secretary, Department of Mines.
2 Reader in Geology, Sydney University.
3 Secretary, Department of National Development, Canberra.
* The possibility that the upper part of the Wianamatta Group may be Jurassic needs to be
envisaged.
NARRABEEN GROUP. 107
River and in the National Park-Clifton district (Osborne, 1948), his work thus
serving, to some extent, as a link between that of the other authors.
The present subdivisional names do not accord with the principles laid down
in the Australian Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature. The purpose of the
present paper is to revise the nomenclature and to indicate the probable cor-
relation between the rock units of the South Coast and the Narrabeen-Wyong
districts.
PROPOSED NOMENCLATURE.
The proposed nomenclature and the correlation between the Narrabeen-
Wyong and South Coast districts are set out in Table I. Comparative sections
from the South Coast through Sydney to the Wyong district are shown in Figure 1.
From this it will be seen that there is a general thinning from north to south
which applies particularly to the Gosford Formation.
TABLE I.
Subdivisions of the Narrabeen Group, showing Correlation between the Narrabeen-Wyong and South
Coast Districts.
Narrabeen-Wyong District. South Coast District.
Mangrove Sandstone Member. No members named at this
Gosford Formation. Ourimbah Sandstone Member. stage.
Wyong Sandstone Member.
Bald Hill Claystone.
Collaroy Claystone.
| Bulgo Greywacke.
Tuggerah Formation.
Stanwell Claystone.
Clifton Sub-Group. |
Scarborough Greywacke.
Munmorah Conglomerate. Wombarra Shale.
Otford Greywacke Member.
| ee
Coalcliff Greywacke.
It will be noted that in the above table the rock unit name of ‘‘ Sub-Group ”’
has been used. The use of this term in cases where no alternative is practicable
was approved recently by the A.N.Z.A.A.S. Standing Committee on Styrati-
graphic Nomenclature (Raggatt, 1953). In this case the necessity to use the
term arises from the desire to alter accepted terminology as little as possible.
Present knowledge indicates that the lower part of the Triassic System along
the Central Coast of N.S.W. comprises one rock grou» from the top of the
Newcastle Coal Measures to the top of the so-called ‘‘ Upper Chocolate Shales ”’,
Separated in many areas from the overlying Hawkesbury Sandstone by a forma-
tion which in most places at least is lithologically distinct from both. As the
term ‘‘ Narrabeen Shale Beds ”’ (Wilkinson, 1887) includes the top beds of the
‘“ Upper Chocolate Shales ”’ and the overlying fossiliferous shales ; and the term
‘* Narrabeen ”’ is generally accepted as including all beds down from the base of
the Hawkesbury Sandstone as exposed at Narrabeen to the top of the Newcastle
Coal Measures, considerable confusion would probably be caused if the term
‘* Narrabeen ”’ were restricted to either the basal group or the overlying forma-
tion. Under these circumstances it is considered advisable to classify the
basal unit as a ‘‘ Sub-Group ” and include it and the overlying formation in the
Narrabeen Group.
108 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT.
GOSFORD FORMATION.
The formation is typically developed in the Gosford District and is named
after the town of Gosford, located in latitude 8. 35° 25’ and longitude HE. 151° 21’.
It comprises mainly shales, shaley sandstones and sandstones and was referred
to by Raggatt (1938) as the Upper Narrabeen. This author (H.G.R.) was
principally concerned with structural geology and, for this reason, only the
prominent members in the Gosford Formation which were used as horizon
markers for structural control were named.
The difference between the Gosford Formation and the overlying
Hawkesbury Sandstone in the Gosford District will be apparent from the detailed
descriptions given below. Generally speaking, the sandstones contain a much
larger proportion of matrix than in the typical Hawkesbury Sandstone and tend
towards greywackes in composition.
The Gosford Formation crops out in the Narrabeen-Pittwater area, along
the lower reaches of the Hawkesbury River to the coast near Gosford, and
thence through Ourimbah and to the west of Wyong. It forms the bold coastal
cliffs from Box Head to the Skillion at Terrigal. On the near South Coast
in the Stanwell Park-Bald Hill area, the upper part of the steep, talus-
covered slopes below the mural escarpment formed by the Hawkesbury Sandstone
and above the top of the Clifton Sub-Group, comprises sandstones, underlain by
shales and siltstones. The maximum thickness of these beds is about 100 feet.
The sandstones are typically quartzose and are being mapped by one of us
(F.N.H.) as the Undola Sandstone Member at the base of the: Hawkesbury
Sandstone. The shales and siltstones are probably the equivalent of the Gosford
Formation. Further along the coast towards Sydney, to the north of Garie
Beach, the section is so similar in many respects to that at the base of the Gosford
Formation in the Pittwater District, that there can be little doubt the beds are
equivalent. However, to the west of Sydney in the Warragamba area the
lithology of the Gosford Formation closely resembles that of the Hawkesbury
Sandstone (Browne, Waterhouse and Moye, 1951) and it is difficult to separate
the two formations.
It is proposed to give five sections for comparative purposes, namely a
generalized section of the beds in the Gosford District, a natural section measured
partly at Kangy and partly on the Lisarow-Mt. Elliott Rd., the section recorded
in the log of Windeyer’s Hawkesbury River Bore, a section from the Pittwater
District, and one from north of Garie Beach on the South Coast.
Generalized Section—Gosford District (Raggatt, 1938). Thickness
: in Feet.
Shale and shaley sandstone. Fossil plants common : 120-150
Mangrove Sandstone Member. Commonly well-bedded and with
pebbly base, yellow in colour; cavernous Vane sie 20— 30
Shaley sandstone and shale .. bs 65-— 70
Ourimbah Sandstone Member. Fine to medium sandstone. 30
In places mainly shale with abundant plant impressions, chiefly i in
lower half; also shaley sandstone a 70— 80
Wyong Sandstone Member. Medium to coarse sandstone, passing
into grit. Usually makes bold Oren ee ae 60-100
Shale and shaley sandstone .. é a4 Lies Le 75-100
Total ae Age ea Be bs ras .. 500-600
The Wyong Sandstone Member forms a most useful horizon for geological
mapping. It is a massive coarse to pebbly sandstone which usually makes
bold outcrops, rendered all the more conspicuous by the shaley lithology of the
underlying strata. It forms the cap to the reservoir hill in Wyong township
and thence to the south-west, west and north.
109
NARRABEEN GROUP.
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110 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT.
The Ourimbah Sandstone Member forms a small cliff in the type locality
and on the catchment of Ourimbah Creek, but is not a persistent horizon like
the Wyong and Mangrove Sandstones.
The Mangrove Sandstone Member is also a rather distinctive bed and has
been used for geological mapping along Mangrove Creek and its tributaries,
the headwaters of Wyong Creek, and along Murray’s Run Creek. This sand-
stone is usually well-bedded, commonly yellow in colour, and weathers into
caverns.
Natural Section measured partly at Kangy and partly on the Lisarow-Mt. Hlliott Road.
(Raggatt, 1938.)
Thickness
in Feet
Base of renee ey Sandstone.
Shale ae = Bi ae a she as om 50
Shaley sandstone sie ae Bas Me aye BS as 100
Shale a a 25
Mangrove Sandstone Member. Shaley_ sandstone, pebbly | base .. 30
Shale ae af 15
Sandy and ferruginous ‘shale with some sandstone ans ik 50
Ourimbah Sandstone Member .. sits si Bie ee Wr 30
Shaley sandstone and shale .. oe ae ie ae ng 60
Hard white sandy shale re tes AS hes we a 20
Wyong Sandstone Member. Sandstone, coarse to pebbly.. as 60
Total one fe ae a sie she ie 440
Section from Windeyer’s Hawkesbury Rwer Bore. (Depth 214 ft. 6 in. to 776 ft.)
Thickness
Ft... Tn.
Shaley sandstone ve ae as ol sh aN e 2. 6
Shale oe . By sb ae ae ie oes 3. 0G
Shaley sandstone : Bu es Br a ee at iy i,
Broken shaley sandstone ae Bs Be By Me Be 13 3
Sandstone and shale .. ae a ie te ing kee 14 O
Sandstone Se a Le we si ue le it. 6
Shaley sandstone | i a ae a an ae oe 3 66
Shale oe : = a3 ee Be be A ae 2.3
Shaley sandstone a wily a a a ars sis Bs seve
Sandstone sie ae a ae ate - Be se 10 3
Shaley sandstone hg hes As she am ae ae 6
Chocolate shale fF oe eo ae SI bh So Las
Shaley sandstone ore Ene ay ae ae a ae Oe ag
Shale : Suge
Shale and cacletone 5 9
Sandstone : 3. «6
Shaley sandstone - 2) ie
Chert 9
Shaley sandstone 9
Shale . ae 28 use ae a ray 6
Shaley sandstone oat i ae ae a a rsiciagt ag lg
Chocolate shale Ex ae a Ps ees a An 4 10
Sandstone and shale .. ae aie 126
Sandstone (probably Mangrove "Sandstone Member. Tee. oa 22) 0
Sandstone, shale and conglomerate .. 3 a ae es 12. cs
Sandstone and conglomerate .. ae ae hs B 12.3
Shaley sandstone ae ae me he BS ae sis 12 2
Chocolate shale a on oe re ke a ie D PUaT
Shaley sandstone ul is aes S3 de eo a0 Dh 9
Sandstone and shale .. Je Me xe oe Re oF 25 0
Sandstone : os Ae at ae we me ae 12 ye
Shaley sandstone ei a si ae Be oe ae 13 (OO
Sandstone nee ie se At TO "gg
Shaley sandstone and sandstone layers ihe ne =e id 10 2
Shale : : te Be, 6
NARRABEEN GROUP. 111
Thickness
Hts in;
Shaley sandstone and sandstone layers = Ht ae St; 15 10
Sandstone ie re Br oh ‘8 * a ne 4 0
Grey shale t whe $i: 10 «6
Fine grey sandstone (Ourimbah Sandstone Member (2 ). H.G.R.) oo no
Shale and sandstone .. me aes Re Re if. a4 ey)
Sandstone : a es a ae a Ses Bie 225 9
Shaley sandstone as as ye as a xt i 3. «0
Shale a3 ie a es Sr ae beg os 4 9
Shale and sandstone es se ae a ws ae on 330
Grey sandstone | 6 0
Ba aiciats + (Probably one Sandstone Member. H.G.R.)
Sandstone 5) 30.6
Shale, sandstone and as Sol as oh i es 4 6
Conglomerate... : 5:6 as sie ae Ss ua a
Hard shaley sandstone : ne Pe ee ee ll 2
Shaley sandstone and sandstone layers a ae ae es 12 3
Sandstone ; ae ve oF ne 12 6
Shaley sandstone ‘and sandstone layers e aes ss an 12 6
Grey shale as ss ae oe Bie a sae a 6 3
Shale and sandstone .. ~ us aan ue =p as 10 +O
Sandstone ae ape Ss - os 7 a ae 7 3
Total me in a ve ae ie =. ~ 06L- <6
Section, Pittwater District. (Osborne, 1948.)
Thickness
in Feet
Sandy shales and flaggy sandstone .. ee bs ae 90
Sandstone, massive (Bilgola Sandstone Member) aes ee ae 46
Shales and sandstones, Sea ee banded a = a 35
Sandstone, brown , a 36 ae 15
Conglomerate lenses... ee = Me i a ss 12
Shale
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
Shale :
Pebbly ironstone om a
Sandstone, finely laminated, current- bedded, z “slump ” and “ rill ”’
structure, honeycomb weathering = = me ahs 9
Shale ess
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone :
Sandy shale, finely laminated, “with plant remains.
Sandstone, purplish, with odd shale fragments and swirl marks
Sandstone, purplish, alternating with shale :
Sandstone, coarse, with washouts and pockets of carbonaceous
shale :
Sandstone, fine, with little purplish * shale breccia. Ripple marks
well developed ‘ ot
Clayshale
Shales, fine, black, ‘with good ripple marks and plant 1 remains
Sandstone, fine, shaley with ripple marks
Sandstone, red, climatically banded
Shale, flaky, sandy
Shale, swirl-marked
15
LO ell eel ell SOO)
bole
bole
eee)
—/,
24
HB Re bo OB bo & bb
bo
non DO Oo Oo ey ke OU
—
112
places cross-bedded.
HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT.
Sandstone, shaley, fine current-bedded
Shale, black
Sandstone, laminated, ripple- marked _
Shale, sandy, fine, with plant remains
Sandstone, black and ironstone nodules
Worm tracks in quartzitic sandstone
Shale, sandy, pe suiaically bedded
Ironstone shales
Sandstone and shales
Sandstone, fine, laminated ie,
Sandstone, shaley, with cylindrical sand-casts
Ironstone
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone
Shale with siderite ; sis
Sandy shale, current- bedded ..
Sandstone He
Shale
Sandstone
Shale
Sandstone :
Sandstone, purplish, fine, ripple- marked
Total
kt
=)
Thickness
in Feet
3
1
2
3
2
3
4
1
2
4
3
7
10
2
12
3
9 6
4
4
2
8
10
10
350
——
1
The Bilgola Sandstone Member is evenly bedded, finely laminated and in
It commonly crops out in large freestone beds and is
exposed in the quarry just above and to the south of Bilgol a Beach. It is a
very useful key horizon for mapping and will probably be found to be equivalent
to the Mangrove Sandstone Member.
Section on the coast about two miles north of Garie Beach.
Greywacke, fine, interbedded with shales as below ; slump bedding
in band near middle ae
Shale, dark grey to black, being finely laminated in places, abundant
plant remains 5
Claystone, grey, grading up into siltstone
Siltstone, light grey, indurated oe
Claystone, grey to dark grey
Siltstone, rhythmically bedded :
Greywacke, fine to siltstone, indurated, honeycomb weathering |
Shale, dark grey, rhythmically interbedded with fine greywacke.
Abundant reed casts on some horizons
Siltstone, grey to reddish-brown, two thin pebbly bands composed
mainly of quartz and chert ‘
Greywacke, fine, Epyvnrolostlyg interbedded with shale—proportions
vary laterally a
Siltstone, grey ..
Greywacke, coarse grey, similar to topmost bed of Bald Hill
Claystone A : Bi
Claystone, grey, indurated, sideritic
Total
CLIFTON SUB-GROUP.
comprise the Middle and Lower Narrabeen of Raggatt (1938).
has been named after the town of Clifton (latitude S, 34°16’; longitude
(Hanlon, 1952).
Thickness
Ft. In.
Pe
8 0
1 6
9
7 Re
8 0O
1 0
6 6
5-6
3.62.0
9 O
1 6
5 0
60 6
The beds are well developed in both the northern and southern areas and
The sub-group
NARABEEN GROUP. 113
BE. 150° 58’) on the South Coast because the best complete natural sections
are exposed in the cliff faces in this area between Clifton and Bulgo Headland.
It is proposed to describe and name the formations which make up the
sub-group in the South Coast district first and then in the Narrabeen-Wyong
area, pointing out probable correlations.
South Coast District (Hanlon, 1952).
A generalized section of the Clifton Sub-Group in the Clifton District is
included in Figure 1. Preliminary examination of bore logs indicates that the
formations named will generally be recognizable as far south as Mt. Kembla,
but beyond that area identification may not be possible everywhere.
The beds comprise greywackes, claystones, shales and greywacke con-
glomerates. The pronounced rhythmical character of the sedimentation, on
both a major and minor scale, has previously been pointed out by one of the
authors (Osborne, 1948). The most outstanding feature of the sediments is
the reddish-brown colour which characterizes many of the claystones and shales,
and to a lesser extent some of the greywackes. Claystones and shales in various
shades of green are alsocommon. In the Gosford District green beds are almost
as common as those coloured reddish-brown. The tuffaceous nature of these
beds has been referred to by several authors and, at least in part, they appear
to represent redistributed tuffs.
The beds referred to as greywackes have always been described previously
as sandstones. However, recent work by one of the authors (Hanlon, 1952)
has caused him to conclude that greywacke is a preferable designation, because
the quartz content of these sediments in the Clifton-Bulgo area is less than 50%
and generally in the range 10%-20%. Grains of chert, jasper and chalcedonic
material are abundant, but claystone, felspar and volcanic rock fragments are
also common. The matrix is generally siliceous and clayey and the colour
characteristically grey or greenish grey, although to a lesser extent it may be
yellowish-grey, green or reddish. Southwards, and particularly westwards, the
arenaceous sediments become more quartzose, and in the Burragorang area the
Clifton Sub-Group is represented by sandstones with certain beds tending towards
arkose or greywacke in composition. In the northern area also the arenites
appear to be greywackes rather than sandstones. However, in the absence of
any recent collection and examination of the complete sequence the old ter-
minology has been retained. The term greywacke is used purely in a descriptive
sense and not in a genetic sense as implying any particular mode of origin for.
the sediments.
Bald Hill Claystone.—This formation has been previously referred to as the
‘* Chocolate Shales ’’, ‘‘ Upper Chocolate Shales ’”’ and ‘*‘ Upper Red Beds’’. It
comprises mainly reddish-brown claystones, with some mottled claystone and
reddish-brown greywacke bands in places. A detailed section is given below.
The colour is hard to describe exactly—a reddish-brown being perhaps the best
general description. It is certainly not a true chocolate colour. Comparison of
Specimens with the ‘‘ Rock-Colour Chart ’’ distributed by the National Research
Council, Washington, D.C., shows that the colour lies between very dusky red
(10R2/2) and greyish-red (10R4/2), the numerical designation 10R3/2 probably
being the closest approximation to the normal colour. This is also the colour
of the equivalent beds at the top of the Clifton Sub-Group in the Narrabeen
District.
The thickness of the formation is about 50 feet in the type area at Bald Hill,
to the north of Stanwell Park, after which it has been named and where it forms
conspicuous outcrops. Under the microscope some bands appear to be tuffaceous
and the formation as a whole may represent redistributed tuffs.
L
114 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT.
Section Bald Hill Claystones and upper portion of Bulgo Greywacke—above Bulgo Headland.
Thickness
Et.) Tm:
Breccia, grey and cream, lower part indurated along joints 6 60
Claystone, reddish-brown, numerous small solution cavities 3 66
Claystone, reddish-brown, few cavities, occasional sBromish reat
areas up to about 6 inches diameter .. 6 O
Claystone, mottled, reddish-brown and light grey 2) GG
Claystone, reddish-brown, slightly mottled, represents. gradual
transition between zones above and below 6 ,.;0
Claystone, reddish-brown, oa grey mottling, ‘sudden
lateral colour changes Be ip : ais, |)
Claystone, reddish-brown : £2) 0
Claystone, light reddish- brown, mottled ae ae
Claystone to fine greywacke, reddish-brown. tT 8
Base of Bald Hill Claystone—Top of Bulgo Greywacke.
Thickness of Bald Hill Claystone, 52 feet.
Greywacke, fine to medium, hens grey, pare: reddish-brown in
places ae §: : : es es 8
Breccia, medium
Greywacke, fine to medium, ‘light Brey, pale reddish- brown i in
places : ut a : : Fs oe es 2
Shale, reddish- biotin
Greywacke, fine to medium, ‘light grey, pale reddish-brown in
places, laterally shows pee mea) with reddish-
brown shale : :
Claystone, reddish- brown, mottled in ‘part .
Greywacke, fine, greenish-grey, odd reddish- brawn Toone
Shale, reddish-brown .. = ;
Greywacke, greenish-grey, finely bedded
Shale, reddish-brown ..
Greywacke, fine to medium, light grey
Shales, reddish-brown ..
Greywacke, fine to medium, light grey :
Claystone, reddish-brown, few grey and greenish- -grey bands
Greywacke, fine, light greenish-grey
Greywacke, rhythmically interbedded reddish-brown and greenish:
grey
Greywacke, fine to medium, greenish- -grey .
Greywacke, fine, a apie interbedded reddish- brown and
greenish-grey
Greywacke, fine, light grey xe
Shale, reddish-brown with odd greenish bands :
Greywacke, fine, light grey, up to 18 inches at base softer and shaley
Greywacke, fine to medium, irregular breccia band about 1 foot
from base .
Greywacke, reddish-brown and greenish- _grey
Claystone, silty, grey, erey wae bands near centre
Greywacke, medium ... ae
Claystone, silty, greenish- “grey
Greywacke, medium ..
—
bo Ge WO
OnWD > CO SD Bm bo 1c bo —
CoCo CoOoooOo OOOO OO OOOO OWAWOOW
bo
Owwb 0 — =I
Total
—
oo |
oO
(o.2)
In the Burragorang Valley area the beds which are equivalent to the Bald
Hill Claystone differ considerably from those on the coast and in many places
there are no reddish-brown claystones in the Narrabeen sequence.
Bulgo Greywacke.—The Bulgo Greywacke comprises approximately 390 feet
of sediments consisting mainly of greywacke and has a somewhat banded
appearance due to the weathering of soft greywacke and claystone bands. It
forms very prominent outcrops in the Bulgo area, after which it has been named,
and northwards towards National Park and southwards in the Coal Cliff-Clifton
area.
NARRABEEN GROUP. 115
Down to 40 feet particularly, and to almost 100 feet from the top in places,
there are a few intercalated beds of reddish-brown claystone and greywacke.
However, as these beds would only be mappable in restricted areas, and as they
appear to die out in a southerly direction, they have been included in the Bulgo
Greywacke and not in the Bald Hill Claystone, which has been restricted so as
to include only the main reddish-brown beds which are readily mappable as a
unit.
It appears likely that the proportion of reddish-brown beds in the upper
part of the formation increases northwards and their lower limit may extend
further down the sequence. It is for this reason that in the correlation shown in
Table I and Figure I the Collaroy Claystone is regarded as equivalent to the
upper part of the Bulgo Greywacke as well as the Bald Hill Claystone.
A detailed section of the upper part of the Bulgo Greywacke has been
given above. No useful purpose would be served by giving a detailed section
of the lower part of the formation because it consists of a number of lenticular
beds of somewhat different lithology, but generally similar to the overlying
and underlying beds.
Stanwell Park Claystone.—This formation has been previously known as the
‘‘ Cupriferous Tuffs ’’, ‘‘ Lower Chocolate Shales’? and ‘‘ Lower Red Beds ’’.
It outcrops at Stanwell Park and along the bed of Stanwell Creek. It has been
named after this locality, although the best natural sections are exposed at Bulgo
(see below) and between Coal Cliff and Clifton (see below), which has been taken
as the type section. The formation comprises reddish-brown and greenish-grey
claystones, greywackes and tufts, the ratio of claystones to the other rock types
being in general about three to one. Greenish and bluish calcareous tuffs have
been described by one of the authors (Osborne, 1948).
Type Section of Stanwell Park Claystone—between Coal Cliff and Clifton.
Thickness
Ft. In.
Claystone, reddish-brown, ies and grey ate a ms ms 18 6
Greywacke, greenish - oy a ; 3 0
Claystone, reddish-brown, green and grey : 330
Greywacke, greenish ; : : 3. 0
Claystone, reddish-brown ie ne 6 0
Greywacke, greenish-grey Bee : as 7 O
Claystone, green and reddish- pron 6 O
Greywacke, greenish-grey 2 6
Claystone, reddish-grey 4 0
Greywacke, greenish a 1 0
Claystone, grey, green and reddish-brown .. 6 0
Greywacke, fine, speckled ; 1 6
Greywacke, fine, grey and reddish- brown, much speckled 6 O
Claystone, reddish- brown and grey with greywacke bands 16 «6
Greywacke, argillaceous, grey with reddish-brown speckling on
weathered surface . ue bes af as bs ove 1 0
Total Bie ie se - ne ne or 121 0O
Section, Stanwell Park Claystone at Undola.
Thickness
Ft. In.
Claystone, greenish-grey to reddish-brown ; 207 +0
Greywacke, coarse and pebbly at base, grading to medium at top.. 13 OO
Claystone, reddish-brown and greenish- Brey a ae ie he 50
Greywacke, medium, fawnish-grey ate Ra a ae o
Claystone, reddish-brown and queens -grey Ee bs i 3. («6
Greywacke, medium to fine, greenish and fawn .. 4 0
Claystone, reddish-brown and ene -grey, with thin greywacke
bands ; 9 N0
Greywacke, fawn, greenish- -grey, iron-stained 6 0
LL
116 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT.
Thickness
Ft, ine
Claystone, reddish-brown, green and grey, grading upwards into fine
greywacke .. 14 O
Greywacke, medium, greenish- -orey, with reddish- brown claystone 6 60
Greywacke, fine, greenish-grey 7 sks eS A 1 @ 10 =O
Greywacke, medium, greenish-grey a we ate ries
Claystone, fawn, grey, green and reddish- brown .. one Je 41 0
Claystone, green, grey and reddish-brown, iron-stained .. oe £5.90
Shale, grey, starchy fracture ah 320
Greywacke (6 to 9 inches thick) and alternating shale bands is 9 0O
Total sy 8 sis ae sa rs Pa 174 0
Scarborough Greywacke.—The name of the formation is taken from Scar-
borough Station, above and north of which it forms prominent outcrops. The
formation consists essentially of greywackes and greywacke conglomerates (see
section below). It is approximately 80 feet thick and forms prominent cliffs
in the Clifton, Coal Cliff, Stanwell Park and Bulgo areas.
Section, Scarborough Greywacke—between Coal Cliff and Clifton.
Thickness
Ft. In.
Greywacke, medium to coarse, with pebbly bands : 24 O
Greywacke conglomerate, fine, multi-coloured pebbles, grades inbo
greywacke above ... 15 6
Greywacke, medium to Coanee, irregular ‘conglomeratic bands,
particularly basal 4 feet a3 bie is SA ae 44. 0
Total Ey Pa Pa gs: a ae ae 83 6
Wombarra Shale.—This formation has been named after the village of
Wombarra, through which it passes above and to the west of the railway line.
It is generally obscured by soil and talus cover. Good natural sections can be
seen in the Coal Cliff-Clifton area and the type section given below is taken from
this area. It comprises shales, claystones and siltstones with intercalated grey-
wackes and ranges in thickness from 100 to 120 feet. About 20 feet from the
top there is a bed of greywacke which forms prominent outcrops from Scar-
borough northwards through Clifton to Coal Cliff and which can be readily
identified in bores at Stanwell Park and Otford. It has been named the Otford
Greywacke Member. 'The thickness averages about 20 feet, but varies somewhat
due both to lenticularity of individual beds and sharp lateral facies changes of
the upper and lower beds to shales. It tends to become conglomeratic in places.
Section, Wombarra Shale—between Coal Cliff and Clifton.
Thickness
Ft. In.
Shale, light grey : ate ae ae ate a sie a .08
Greywacke, greenish- _grey a a oe os on BS ligase
Shale, grey, starchy fracture 13-0
( Greywacke, medium, with few pebbly bands, greenish,
Otford | grey, soft PP 6
Greywacke <~ Greywacke, medium to ¢ coarse, ‘with pebbly bands. EOS
Member Greywacke conglomerate, fine, mostly greenish,
multi-coloured pebbles .. ee te Leer d
Shale, grey, reddish-brown in places, starchy fracture .. oe 44 0O
Greywacke, argillaceous rs bis aa)
Shale, grey, starchy fracture, ‘few greywacke bands ay are BD ringed
Shale, grey, with numerous greywacke bands ay ne se Lance
Total aid We ve +3 vtes aa .. (ADS es
NARRABEEN GROUP. di er
The beds described as shales comprise also claystones, laminated siltstones
and very fine greywackes. It is probable that the basal 19 feet of the section
given above may pass laterally into greywackes, and these beds could be the
stratigraphical equivalents of the top portion of the Coal Cliff Greywacke at
points where the latter is thickest.
The shales and claystones are generally greyish in colour, but reddish-brown
beds are present in some places. This could lead to incorrect correlations
between sections in the Illawarra district and those of adjoining districts in
places where the Stanwell Park Claystone is not recognizable.
Coal Cliff Greywacke.—This formation consists essentially of medium to
coarse greywacke with pebbly bands and forms prominent outcrops in the
Scarborough-Clifton-Coal Cliff area. The basal section immediately overlying
the Bulli Coal Seam commonly consists of fine to very fine greywacke, indurated
in places, and passes into shales in some localities. The thickness ranges from
30 feet at Coal Cliff to over 50 feet at Scarborough, partly due to variable thick-
ness of individual beds and partly due to lateral facies changes similar to that
referred to in the description of the Wombarra Shale.
Section, Coalcliff Greywacke—between Coalcliff and Clifton.
Thickness
Ft. In.
Greywacke, light grey, medium to fine ‘ e ae ‘ 3. «(OO
Shale, silty, light grey, indurated bands* .. : : 6 6
Greywacke, medium to coarse, pebbly bands, ironstone con-
cretions in places .. 22 «60
Greywacke, very fine, argillaceous, indurated, dark near " under-
lying coal seam _ .. ae ae re sis hs i: i
Total Ae me Be a Be oat! Pina 32 = «8
* This band passes laterally into greywacke in a southerly direction.
Narrabeen-Wyong District (Raggatt, 1938).
A generalized section of the Clifton Sub-Group in the Gosford area is given
below.
Thickness
Formation. in Feet. Lithology.
Collaroy Claystone .. 400-550 Mainly red and green shales with
sandstone beds up to 10 feet thick.
100-150 Sandstone and fine conglomerate.
Tuggerah Formation 45-100 Red and green shales.
75-100 Sandstone and fine conglomerate.
40-100 Mainly red and green shales.
( 280 Sandstone and fine conglomerate
with some green shales.
Munmorah Conglomerate 500 Red, green and grey shales and
sandstone with fine conglomerate.
Continuous complete natural sections, such as those around Clifton on the
South Coast, are not available and therefore it has been necessary to take sections:
from bores as types for the formations comprising the Clifton Sub-Group in the
Narrabeen-Wyong area.
Collaroy Claystone.—The Collaroy Claystone includes the original ‘‘ Chocolate
Shales ’’ described from Long Reef in the Collaroy area, previously included as
part of the Narrabeen District. However, only the uppermost beds are exposed
in this area and it is proposed to take the type section from the log of Windeyer’s
Hawkesbury River Bore, given below.
118 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT.
Section, Collaroy Claystone—Windeyer’s Hawkesbury River Bore. (Depth 1776 ft. to
1,224 tite 6 in.) Thickness
Ft... In.
‘“ Chocolate’? and grey shale .. nA ie ee wks e 26
‘* Chocolate ”’ shale mr Be ih ba me Bae OF 12
Grey shale sf
Shale and sandstone
Sandstone 1
“* Chocolate ”’ shale
** Chocolate ’’ shale and sandstone
‘* Chocolate ”’ shale
Grey shale and sandstone
Sandstone ee
Soft grey shale ..
‘* Chocolate ”’ shale i
“Chocolate ”’ shale and sandstone
“* Chocolate ”’ shale
Grey shale ae
‘* Chocolate ”’ shale
Fine grey sandstone
‘* Chocolate ”’ shale
Sandstone Me
** Chocolate ”’ shale tr
‘““Chocolate ’? and grey shale ..
Grey shale and sandstone
Ou
—
>
KH OUWeEWOWWOR ED
Sandstone a: ok os ot = = Rs My 10
‘“Chocolate ’’ and grey shale .. ay ee ve ae ne 35
‘* Chocolate ”’ shale a a6 fn ce A oe ie 1
Grew shale ae a ae =e if, sar he se +
Sandstone ts =. ae as at fe Be 10
‘““ Chocolate ’’ and grey shale .. o mae a ee an 14
Sandstone th ae a are Lie ee a ut ]
Grey shale ae ee Be Be a os a as 9
Sandstone ay ee Be ae as ae a 14
“* Chocolate ”’ shale on Ae be: oe me et eo: 4
Grey shale and sandstone ae ar 2% sis a. Be 15
Sandstone Se ne a a hy ae x. 10
Shale and sandstone a7 one Se she a oa oe 3
Sandstone afte 7 im 9
“ Chocolate” and grey ‘shale and sandstone on “i oe 10
— = bo —
H 00 bo CO GO bo WH
=r) WADTCODOORDCOAOHRDOHOSOAOAWWBSDSOHRGOAGHGGCGCONOSaSEDS
Total ve re a ed <i Mins ‘2 448
The beds are well exposed on the lower slopes of the hills around Wyong
and form the valley bottoms over much of the country west and north of the
township. Good partial sections are to be seen in the cutting to the south of
Wyong Railway Station and on the coast between Wamberal Headland and
Toowoon Bay.
Tuggerah Formation.—This formation comprises red and green shales,
sandstones and fine conglomerates. It crops out around Tuggerah Lakes after
which locality it has been named. The type section of this formation is also
taken from Windeyer’s Hawkesbury River Bore and is given below.
Section Tuggerah Formation— Windeyer’s Hawkesbury River Bore. (Depth 1,224 ft. 6 in.
to 1,547 ft5 56 in.) Thickness
Ht. dn.
Sandstone a A Be a, a ae 7 ee
Sandstone and conglomerate ie ae ‘93 pie a 556
Sandstone, conglomerate and grey shale... fe = ae 14 0O
Sandstone by. ae oe By, na bes sa 20 3
Sandstone and shale .. ae she ans oh whe ee Hines
‘“ Chocolate ”’ shale ve ae a ae ite Se S 4 9
Shaley sandstone ae ‘es sits is ie sot ~ 10 «6
Sandstone oe ie ue Uys ae bir Theres
“ Chocolate” and grey ‘shale .. es Me is at Lt 20 O
““ Chocolate ”’ shale ms a ue Ls un at xt 4 0
NARRABEEN GROUP. 119
Thickness
Ft. In.
Grey shale ie sie iy as ee ae ae fs 6 0
Sandstone a4 is ve - ih ll O
Sandstone, shale and conglomerate ee it ad De an (aes)
Sandstone and conglomerate .. eg fa ‘- ie e%, 3 «(0
‘** Chocolate ”’ shale ne a ae, ae a we a 13 6
Shaley sandstone oe cA a oe : 6
Sandstone se3 Be hs a = ae ar 7 O
Shaley sandstone )
Fine conglomerate : 386
Grey shale and sandstone 6 0
‘** Chocolate ”’ shale ate 3. 9
‘** Chocolate ’’ and erey shale .. 1 3
Shaley sandstone ah 2 9g
Sandstone 6 0
Fine conglomerate ; Mie OS)
‘“* Chocolate ”? and omy shale 38 3
Grey shale fs ap 2 93
‘** Chocolate ”’ shale 1 9
Grey shale 1 6
Total a ae “8 ae at ais .. 3825 0
Munmorah Conglomerate.-—The Munmorah Conglomerate comprises con-
glomerates, sandstones and red, green, blue and grey shales. The conglomerates
are, for the most part, characterized by evenness in size of the
pebbles, which are from 4 in. to ? in. in diameter. They contain lenses of
sandstone, but these are rarely persistent. The conglomerates become more
conspicuous and coarser northwards from Wyong and north-westerly up the
Hunter Valley. Southwards towards Gosford and Sydney the formation is
much less pebbly.
The formation crops out in the country between the Great Northern Railway
north of Warnervale and Lake Macquarie. The higher sandstones and con-
glomerates may be seen between The Entrance, Tuggerah and Toowoon Bay,
and the lower around the foreshores of Lake Munmorah (after which the forma-
tion has been named) and the southern end of Lake Macquarie. The type
section is taken from the log of the Wyong Bore, which is given below. The
base of the formation rests on the Wallarah Coal Seam, which is the topmost
bed of the Newcastle Coal Measures.
Section Munmorah Conglomerate—Wyong Bore. (Depth 274 ft. 4 in. to 787 ft. 64 in.)
Thickness
Ft. In.
Conglomerate with jasper pebbles .. so she 4 7 6
Blue and red shales, thin beds conglomerate aes = a 16 4
Fine brown and grey conglomerate an an a: we 13 44
Green and grey shales with Phyllotheca aie 12 94
Conglomerate with jasper pebbles, green and blue shales, sandstone
and fine conglomerate .. 68 10
Conglomerate with jasper pebbles, and three beds of greenish shale,
and a little sandstone... a nF lf me ses 81 6
Green shales a as its he a i ll 9
Conglomerate and green "shales ee os i whe os 53 = -O4
Green shale and sandstone .. fe Bee a ahs an 21 O
Coarse conglomerate... Se yaa
Greenish sandstone, green and! red shales. fine sitll coarse con-
glomerate, with jasper pebbles .. ee Hs is Me 336
Red, green and blue shales .. ae si ays i .& 30.) 9
Conglomerate with jasper pebbles... oh S), me ae 48 7
Green, red and brown shales as me 388
Fine and coarse conglomerate with beds of dark shale - aye 40 O
Sandstone and shale .. a: ae os . as ite Ze 40
Total aM 2 oe oe i Es .. 4513 \ 24
120 HANLON, OSBORNE AND RAGGATT.
SUMMARY.
The Narrabeen Group is subdivided into the Gosford Formation and the
Clifton Sub-Group. In the South Coast the latter comprises the Bald Hill
Claystone, Bulgo Greywacke, Stanwell Park Claystone, Scarborough Greywacke,
Wombarra Shale and Coal Cliff Greywacke. In the Narrabeen-Wyong District
it comprises the Collaroy Claystone, Tuggerah Formation and Munmorah
Conglomerate. The group thins generally from north to south. The tops of
the Bald Hill Claystone and Collaroy Claystone are probably equivalent horizons
and the bases of the Stanwell Park Claystone and Tuggerah Formation may be
equivalent.
REFERENCES.
Browne, W. R., Waterhouse, L. L., and Moye, D. G., 1951. Journ. Inst. Eng. Aust., p. 74.
Hanlon, F. N., 1952. ‘‘ Geology of the Southern Coalfield, N.S.W.’’ Mines Dept., N.S.W.,
unpublished report.
Hanlon, F. N., Joplin, G., and Noakes, L. C., 1952. Aust. J. Sct., 14, 179.
Osborne, G. D., 1948. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 73, iv.
Raggatt, H. G., 1938. D.Sc. Thesis, Syd. Univ. Unpublished.
Wilkinson, C. 8., 1885. Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 130, 148.
> 1887. Ann. Rept. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 137.
A NEW SPECIES OF HADROPHYLLUM FROM THE GARRA BEDS
AT WELLINGTON, N.S.W.
By G. H. PACKHAM.
Unwersity of Sydney.
With one Text-figure.
Manuscript received, September 24, 1953. Read, October 7, 1953.
This species of Hadrophyllum occurs in richly fossiliferous shale of the Garra
Beds in Por. 50, Parish Curra. The locality is on the east bank of Curra Creek
three hundred yards south of where the Wellington-Arthurville road crosses
Curra Creek. Hill (1942) described a number of corals from the same portion.
They are Eddastrea expansa Hill, Phillipsastrea aperta Hill, P. sp. cf. P. speciosa
Chapman and P. linearis Hill, Favosites bryant Jones and Lf. allani Jones. In
addition Basnett and Colditz (1945), who described the general geology of the
area, record Stromatopora sp., Atrypa sp., Leptena sp. Brachiopods are the most
common fossils at the point from which Hadrophyllum was collected.
The genus Hadrophyllum, which has not yet been recorded from Australia,
is widely distributed ; it occurs in the Devonian rocks of North America, Europe
and south-east Asia and in the Carboniferous rocks of North America.
Family Hadrophyllide Stumm, 1949.
Genus Hadrophyllum Edwards and Haime, 1850.
The genus is described by Bassler (1937, p. 197) as follows: ‘‘ Cushion or
top-shaped, short thick coralla, with calyx restricted to convex upper surface
and extended into a peduncle terminating sharply or bluntly beyond the centre,
opposite the counter fossula. The calyx shows a broad excavated cardinal
fossula, a distinct but narrow counter fossula, two less conspicuous alars, all of
which delimit four groups of smooth septa with several of each group united to
the one outlining the fossula. Minor septa short, generally united to the major ;
cardinal and counter septa well developed. The thick elevated corallum with
the calyx presenting four well developed fossule and the base a conspicuous
peduncle of attachment, characterize this genus.”’
Hadrophyllum wellingtonense N.sp.
Material. Holotype 7100, paratypes 7101-7104. All specimens are in the
collection of the Department of Geology, University of Sydney.
Diagnosis. Discoid Hadrophyllum lacking peduncle of attachment. Counter
septum flanked on either side by a major septum which has no associated minor
septum.
Description. Coral slightly elliptical, elongated in the counter-cardinal
direction. Mean diameter about sixteen millimetres and maximum thickness
two and a half millimetres. Upper surface slightly convex, base flat with well
developed growth lines of varying size. Scar of attachment small and eccentric,
lying on the counter side of the geometrical centre.
122 G. H. PACKHAM.
There are fifty-two to fifty-six smooth septa in the mature individual
varying in degree of development ; both major and minor septa are large in the
region of the counter septum, while on the cardinal side of the alar septa the
major and minor septa are strongly differentiated. All the minor are joined
to the major septa at their axial ends. On the third to sixth major septa from
the counter septum there are slight prominences at the junction of the major
and minor septa. Reduction in the size of septa occurs in the fossule. In
the alar fossule on the counter side of the alar septa one of the septa is reduced
in size to that of its associated minor septum. The next major septum is less
reduced and the third is not reduced at all. A similar phenomenon occurs on
either side of the cardinal septum in the cardinal fossula. A counter fossula is
not developed. The first four to six septa of these fossular regions are pinnate
and further away become radial.
The alar septa are the best developed in the coral and have a minor septum
associated with each of them on the counter side. The cardinal septum is long
and slender. The counter septum is shorter and stouter. On either side next
to it is a stout but slightly shorter major septum which has no associated minor
septum. These are possibly the counter laterals.
A. Upper surface of holotype (specimen slightly distorted). a, Alar septum. c, Cardinal
septum. k, Counter septum.
B. Profile of section along cardinal septum (on left) raised axial area and counter septum
(on right).
C. Lower surface of paratype (7101) showing eccentric growth lines.
All drawings twice natural size.
The major septa on the cardinal side of the alar septa are long and merge
into an axial raised area separated from the septa on the counter side of the alars
by a slight depression. The raised area is not in the geometrical centre of the
coral but on the counter side of it.
The microstructure of the septa is poorly preserved but appears to be
entirely fibrous. The fibres are apparently normal to the base of the coral
radiating upwards and outwards to the top of the septa.
Remarks. H. wellingtonense has affinities with two species, H. brancat
(Frech) and Microcyclus intermedius Bassler. This group of three species is
intermediate in characters between the two genera. All of them have the flat
discoid form of Microcyclus and all have alar fossule; that of M. intermedius
is better developed than any other species in the genus. The two species of
Hadrophyllum have eccentric growth lines on the base, and lack a large smooth
axial area, H. wellingtonense has a small raised axial area in a broader axial
depression. Some specimens of H. brancai from Indo-China figured by Mansuy
(1916) show this feature, but those of Yin (1938) from China show no sign of any
axial structure. WM. intermedius, on the other hand, has concentric growth lines
and a large smooth axial area occupying nearly half the width of the coral.
A NEW SPECIES OF HADROPHYLLUM. 123
A counter septum flanked on either side by a major septum which has no
associated minor septum occurs in H. wellingtonense, M. intermedius, M. discus,
M. lyrulatus and possibly in H. pauctradiatum. Another type of septal arrange-
ment where the counter septum has a minor septum adjacent to it on either side
then alternating major and minor septa further away occurs in H. brancat, and is the
most common in the two genera.
H. wellingtonense has been placed in the genus Hadrophylium because of
the three well developed fossule, the absence of a large smooth axial region and
the presence of eccentric growth lines on the base.
The microstructure, although not well preserved, seems to be a simple
arrangement of fibrous material. This suggests the possibility of some relation
to the Streptelasmide of Wang (1950).
Age. The closely related species H. brancat occurs in south-east Asia
associated with the Spirifer tonkinensis fauna which Yin (1938) considers to be
at about the Lower and Middle Devonian boundary. Such an age for H. wel-
lingtonense is probable, since Hill (1942) says: ‘‘ The fauna in Por. 50, Parish
of Curra, is comparable with that of the Loomberah limestone of the Tamworth
district which is possibly early Couvinian.’’
REFERENCES.
Basnett, E. M., and Colditz, M. J., 1945. Tuis Journat, 79, 37-47.
Bassler, R. 8., 1937. Jour. Paleont., 11, 189-201.
Hill, D., 1942. THis Journat, 76, 182-189.
Mansuy, H., 1916. Mem. Serv. Geol. Indochine, Vol. V, fase. IV, 1-24.
Wang, H. C., 1950. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., (B), 23, 175-246.
Yin, T. H., 1938. Bull. Geol. Soc. China, 18, 33-66.
ovata Bie
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OURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS.
OYAL SOCIET
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
1953
(INCORPORATED 1881)
PART IV (pp. 124-170)
OF
VOL. LXXXVII
Containing Papers read in December, with —
Plates XII-XV and Index ;
EDITED BY : ,
F. N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip.Ed.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
i STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
| SYDNEY.
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
1954
red at the General Post Office, Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical ~
fe
c aes Seige ge oe age Sat Magee barre
4 a j
: hag XIV.—Measures
.
ART. X
OE ee Me Me ce
VOLUME LXXXVII |
ae
oh
he
Pt i
oy
Double Stars on Sydney Astrographic_ Plates, ‘
Pehl) to —58°. y W. H. Robertson — Bt s nh hae
OLyar
“Armidale District, N.S.W. Part I. The Puddledock Area.
By Alan Spy
XVII. Ee olory and Sub- Surface Waters 0
_ XVII .—Mineralisation of the Ashfield Shale, Wianamatta Group. ‘By
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1953
(INCORPORATED 1881)
VOLUME LXXXVII
Part IV
EDITED BY
F. N. HANLON, B. Sc., Dip. Ed.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
MEASURES OF DOUBLE STARS ON SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC PLATES,
DECLINATIONS —52° TO —58°.
By W. H. ROBERTSON.
Manuscript received, September 30, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953,
The stars in the following lists were measured on plates taken for the Sydney
Section of the Astrographic Catalogue. The object was to improve knowledge
of past positions, and only stars having satisfactory and reasonably separated
images have been included. Rectangular coordinates were measured in a
machine having a short screw micrometer which could be rotated to deal with
the coordinates in turn. Secale and orientation were defined in the first place by
the reseau lines on the plate. Adjustments in accordance with the plate con-
stants were used whenever these had been determined. In other cases a mean
value for the scale correction was assumed and the orientation correction was
found by measuring two stars, separated widely in the field but differing little
in declination, on two plates, the one with determined plate constants and the
other for which the orientation was required. Then if X,, Y,, X,, Y, are the
measures of the two stars on one plate, X,, Y2, X,, Y, those on the other, and
D,, D, the corresponding plate constants the approximate relation is
(Y {2 ey.) ve)
X,—X,
DD)
Let «, 5 be the equatorial coordinates of the primary star, &, y its standard
coordinates on a plate centred at Ay, Do, and Aa, Ad, AE and Ay the corresponding
differences between the coordinates of the secondary and the primary. Then
differentiating the usual relations
Aa cos §=A&(1 —&? sec? Dj +42? tan? D)—4?)
+An(& tan Do+&y tan? Do)+. « 4; 1
AS=An(1 38? sae? Dy?) (1)
—A&(E tan Dy +&n sec? Dy) +...
Equation (1) is in radians and in the notation of the Sydney Astrographic
Catalogue 3
&=—{X —14—A(X —1)—B(Y —30) —C}300 sin 1’,
4 ={Y —43 —D(X —1) —H(Y —30) —F}300 sin 1”.
By substituting this in (1) and expressing the result in seconds of arc we obtain
Aa cos 8= —300AX (1 — A) + AR (3008 “0 -4363(X —14) tan De
A3=300AY(1 —E) —AX{300D +0-4363(X —14) tan Dj}+. . .
Tables including also terms of second order in X and Y, which in practice
were found negligible, were used to assist computation in accordance with (2),
after which the position angle and distance were calculated.
MEASURES OF DOUBLE STARS ON SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC PLATES.
TaB_e [.
Name C.P.D. R.A. 8. Dec. Epoch P d Mags
h m ° 4 ° 4
Hul551 53°9 003-7 52 53 94-72 122-6 8-28 8-3, 11-0
h3360 53°72 +3 016-7 53 05 20-74 33°5 14-48 9-5, 10-2
h3383 54°153 0 35:6 53 56 92:87 217-6 7-18 9-8, 10-5
h3388 54°159+0 0 38:0 5440 93-61 238-9 16-70 S-1, 8-3
h 398 52°90+1 042-2 52 33 25:96 131-6 28-28 SoSi5 9-3
h3402 54°186 045-1 54 43 94-78 60-9 12-74 eer 1 |
h3412 56°198-+9 0 56:9 5642 94-76 142-3 27-70 8-7, 10-9
20-80 137-6 28-20
h3422 56°256 t 10-9 +5610" 92-73 56:6 13-88 7-6, 11-6
A4 54°358 1 34:9 53 57 92-87 104-2 10-46 7:6, 8-2
Hul554 54°369 1 39:2 54 44 27-87 280-2 5:74 970, 998
h3514 56°444 2 30-7 56 34 94-71 21:0 30-82 9-4, 10-3
Corl4 53°462 235-5 53 23 20°56 128-6 9-32 8-8, 9:3
Al10 51°361-+3 3 01-4 5143 92-70 69-2 37-65 UO ets} 3)
h3571 [53°674 | 316-3 53 28 21-16 94:4 20-09 11-5, 12-1
h3575 51°404 3 21-6 5125 94-75 45-0 35-64 6-6, 10-2
B49 54°556 322-4 5407 92-97 70-0 4-47 9-6, 11-4
Cor22 56°679 425-4 5608 92-97 139-4 6-44 9233. 9
h3669 53°728 433-2 53 04 93:95 312-4 13-92 9°6, 9-9
h3680 52°551 438-1 5205 92-85 210-9 10-19 Or 4 9b
A43 53°777 455-5 53 33 93-46 309-3 8-32 8:4, 9-4
h3731 56°787 5 06-2 5601 92-79 303-8 10-04 9:2; 110
h5450 56°811 5 12-1 .56 55 25-95 268-2 6-90 9-3, 9-4
h3777 54°853 5 31:8 5458 26-09 104-0 11-30 10-0, 12-7
h3786 53°904 5 35-6 53 33 94-03 96-0 13-44 9-6 ie
h3787 54°867 +6 5 35:8 54 37 94:00 248-2 23-82 8-0, 10°3
24:02 248-0 24-91
h3802 55°864 5 43:4 55 46 92-97 305-0 7-74 8-4, 10-3
h3808 57°894 5 47-9 5740 94-84 306-8 6-43 Dey
h3828 53°990 5 58:1 53 55 94-038 124-4 13-48 oN) tb,
25:21 118-8 13-48
h3837 55°940 6 04:2 55 57 94:05 293-8 11-52 8:0, 12-0
h3854 54°1020 GLIS-4 rot 28" 25-215 1269 — E39 9:3, 11-6
h3898 56°1181+0 649-1 5607 93-12 309-9 16-73 ol dete te)
h3906 55°1102+1 6 54-0 55 28 96-98 223-0 19-28 92D. 29-9
24°98 223-3 19-41
Cor47 52°1074 703-0 52 28 23-16 90-34) 2-08 8-0, 10-4
Hul421 55°1162 706-2 55 14 94-04 31-9 599 921 Or O
h3952 53°1302 714-0 53 52 92:06 276-1 16-13 A 2 ella?
h3961 57°1195 718-5 57 30 93-96 254-2 13-58 JO =O
R75 55°1222 7) 19°44 55 09)-) 93512" 270-6 5:05 10-0, 10-8
§5°1222+-1 93-12 261-0 31-25 10-0, 10-4
h3971 57°1220 722-7 5744 92-56 190-2 16-89 9-2, 10-4
LP110 57°1263 adil? 82-9733" 20°99 . 192-2" 113° hl 9-2, 10-8
h4016 §1°1312+3 749-1 5109 92-05 169-4 16-95 979 10a
20°15 169-4 17-00
Gls77 53°1480+9 7 52:9 53 20 93-11 340-6 33-84 7:4, 7-9
h4065 53°1567+9 8 10°5 53 45 92-56 44-6 10-90 oS
57°1484+3 817-8 57 21 94:05 337-9 15-75 S27, 9-0
Cor78 53°1998 8 53-5 53 25 93-19 142-6 10-56 8-1, 8-3
h4177 55°1924 901-7 55 56 00-07 262-2 13-96 6-9; 8-8
LP117 52°1957 904-6 5246 00-12 354-0 8-72 9-0, 10-2
LP119 56°2039 908-7 56 36 24:22 246-1 5-56 SAO oe
h4189 53°2209 9509-0" ds 3a) Ios" “LOT 2) 19+ 77 7-9, 11-0
R107 57°1966 9113-8) dT 09." | (937426 27978 9-55 9-0, 10-4
Rill 56°2109 917-9 5650 24-038 212-5 9-36 eee aso)
55°2129 9) 20-Me Sb 840 °° 93509) 9220-71. 11+32 9-5) (OT
93-08 176-6 18-97 97, Allies
h4207 §4°2238+9 9 20:5 54 28 92-83 128-2 16-14 Weve | i )iore:
Cor83 52°2346 9 22-4 5249 94-04 150-5 19-36 The Ea,
LP120 53°2397 9 22-7 53 28 93:05 174-4 4-35 9-8, 10-2
1830 56°2212 925-0 56 54 93-05 56-8 17-74 (his ete,
R120 55°2269 9 28:8 55 35 23:39 215-6 9-28 82.0 Go -2
Syd 56°2300 9 29-7 56 39 95-08 23-1 11-24 7:4, 10-4
M
125
Weight
2a
2a
2b
2b
2b
2b BC
2b
2b AB
2a AC
2b
2b
2a
2b AB
2b
5a AB
4a BC
126
Name
Cor86
h4221
Cor88
h4234
h4260
Cor93
R137
h4266
Cor98
h4297
h4319
Cor103
h4328
LP132
h4401
h4411
h4417
R172
h4446
h4492
LP133
h4508
h4511
h4534
R205
R206
h4546
A127
Cor146
h4564
h4573
LP138
h4615
Cor162
Al51
A155
h4673
h4675
h4691
LP148
h4709
h4747
h4754
p58
h4778
h4789
C.P.D.
§2°2512
52°2515
56°2383
51°2496+-5
57°2367
52°2885
54°2821 42
51°2761
53°3177
54°3269
53°3793
51°3322
51°3358-+0
53°4311
54°4294
52°425]
54°4397
55°4402+4-3
51°4266
54°4812
54°4935
54°5046
55°4936--7
54°5108
57°5607-+6
57°5611-+0
55°5203-42
52°5847
55°5316-+7
57°5852-+1
55°5343
55°5439
54°5516
57°6313-+4
57°6347
55°5793-+-4
53°5879-+0
51°6793
54°5998
56°6723
55°6094
54°6102
55°6233
54°6260
55°6451-+-0
57°7024
54°6559
52°8475+4
55°6624
54°6599
54°6603
51°8448
54°6705
55°7659
52°10471
54°8105
56°8154-++5
ObadewhwwHww HR ena
WNW SHAHKRONWANRISAA
WOWDORHOAWDOWDDONAWOND OH
S. Dec.
°
53
53
56
ol
57
52
54
ol
54
54
53
52
51
53
54
52
54
315)
dl
54
54
54
55
54
57
57
55
52
55
57
55
55
54
57
57
55
53
51
54
57
55
54
55
54
55
57
54
52
55
54
55
51
54
55
52
54
56
4
01
00
30
50
45
43
33
37
17
38
23
03
22
24
42
27
53
24
54
23
09
47
14
58
34
43
21
13
22
36
08
44
17
34
56
33
13
58
21
19
16
57
48
34
21
38
23
32
20
10
01
31
27
59
16
18
19
Epoch
W. H. ROBERTSON.
TABLE I.—Continued.
MD CO CD OLD LOW DODOWORWDOONORODROSUWHOSARNNERANWAWHANDORODONSHOHHPDANWUIRPWDHAAGS
05
-20
—_
Cor M0OCHOUKUMHAGCUOMDOWDOOMNO OI
—
=
—
No) OO 0 co ~1 fe eee)
&
Nos
»
WN OD DOD
7
v_ eo
.
7
vv v v . ~y v
mM AIDDWOWODEFOPN EAP
7
<)
i)
See Ss
v_ Vw a
DNDN HDODOP SONNE OPO
.y
=
©
a9
M
i
—
=
a
HOCH
ke) OMOWTwoOoonwmnDmwo or OOS : SOoeeooes : i fos owe
HK RR OAARAWOROWAHDHWADTEH CD FMAM |W OSD CLD WWD CLD H © 1 WO © He bo © ee bo bo > OO S Oi 00 CO >
— oi
ooo oO
AB
BC
AB
AC
MEASURES OF DOUBLE STARS ON SYDNEY ASTROGRAPHIC PLATES. 127
TABLE I.—Continued.
Name C.P.D. R.A. S. Dec. Epoch Pp d Mags Weight
h m ° / e) aM
h4950 57°8577 17 21:5 57 28 94-35 307-4 10-46 9-6, 10-4 4b
h4959 55°8221+2 17 27-8 55 34 23-48 294-9 19-56 9-2, . 9-3 6a
h4994 52°10927+6 17 49-3 52 11 95-42 209-0 13-80 9-9, 10-1 2a
h5027 54°8761 18 05-5 54 23 94:46 102-4 12-24 8-0, 9-2 2a
h5050 57°9126 18 30-8 5729 23-438 107-0 12-12 9-0)" 95 2b
h5447 54°9530 19 48-4 54 22 92-62 267-2 9-56 9-3, 11-0 «2a
h5193 57°9677 20 182201057. 08*) 94-52 1 °332°0). 17-91 9-0, 10-2 2b
h5239 55°9506+5 20 56:8 55 44 92-70 212-0 12-80 8:6, 9:4 a
h5241 55°9515 20 59°5 5553 92-70 40-1 12-41 10-0, 10-4 2a
h5290 54°9934 21 37:6 54 36 92-62 291-3 11-10 9-5, 10-8 2a
Hul542 54°10019 22 00-4 5416 92°76 119-0 5-70 985, 12-7 2a
56°9854+5 22 10:0 5613 94-54 13-2 16-86 11-2, 12-0 2a
h5364 57°10150 22 44:3 57 01 94-54 98-0 10-52 92, 9-7 2a
h5379 56°9991+0 22 57-6 5650 20-61 328-6 12-00 10-3, 10-7 2a
h5424 56°10166 23 45:0 56 26 26-82 Dio! Te 28 9597 tie7 2b
NOTE.
The position angles of the following stars conform to the Southern Double Star Catalogue but
uppeared different by 180° on the plates.
Star R.A. Star R.A.
h4016 7 49-1 A155 14 O1-1
h4401 11 00-4 h4754 1d 139
R205 12 33-5 h4959 17 27-8
TABLE II.
Barton CoE). R.A. 8. Dec. Epoch p d Mags. Weight
h m ° / 1?) 4
2018 54°364 138-2 54 28 92°84 137-2 5-15 11:4, 12-0 2b
21381 ~ 136-7 5-39 lb
2019 . §2°306 2 24:3 52 28 92°85 220-0 5:58 # 10-5, 11-8 2b
; 19:76 219-0 5:30 2b.
2025 52°1082 704-8 52 32 23-33 200-8 3:75 11-0, 11-5 lb
3115 7 25-3 ("57 32 91-97 228-4 3-72 11-8, 11-8 2a
2028 53°1388 7 35:7 53 22 23:34 249-8 3-90 10-9, 11-5 2b
3116 738-0 5610 92-08 68-0 4-48 11-6, 12-2 2a
2537 54°1424 7 50:4 5440 26-18 151-0 4:58 11-9, 12-7 lb
ivent Li 58°1043 8 02-1 58 04 94-05 301:6 4-36 11-7, 12-3 2b
3118 8 07-2 58 08 93:12 354-0 3-638 12-0, 12-2 lb
2029 53°1668 8) 22"2 153,33 © 94:03). 159-2. 4°88 11-2,°11-7 2b
24-02 157-4 4-72 2a
3119 $: 29°6), 56UE7" | 25208 Le Or 93-90) Vliet 1-8 2b
3122 8 33:0 5650 25-08 294-6 3:52 11-8, 11-8 la
2541 54°1814 8 44:0 54 44 94-04 120-1 3-93 11-0, 11:8 la
2542 54°1818 8 44-6 54 38 94-04 TO .4019) | El-4y 1-4 la
Rst 57°1883 905°3 57 44 24:22 348-6 3:42 11-4, 12-2 2b
3125 914-5 55 52 26-10 323-7 4:84 11-8, 12-2 la
2546 D212 D6 is. 93508) (15929) 4°39 12-4, 12-6 la
2037 9 26-8 5403 92-08 155-9 4-35 11-4, 12-2 la
2039 OSE 30) 52), 26 20215 1 2292-6). 5°29 11-0; 11-6 2a
2550 56°2417 9 36-8 5612 94:27 234-8 4-06 12-0, 12°4 1
3127 58°1632 941-6 58 09 24-30 249-2 4-13 11-3, 11-9 la
3130 56°2614 950-0 56 28 24-12 199°5 4-61 12-0, 12-5 3a
2042 952-1 52 11 92°05 2385-2 4:49 12-3, 12-5 2a
24-36. 23775 , 3-95 3a
2555 56°2680 953-5 5641 24-14 19-8 3:41 12-3, 12-5 4a
2557 9 54-2 5753 24-10 227-4 4-36 12-2, 12-6 la
2044 53°3131 955-5 53 30 24°35 238-8 3:78 11-7, 12-1 2a
2045 53°3136 9 55°8 53 23 24-35 32°9 4-92 12-0, 13-0 2a
128 W. H. ROBERTSON.
TaBLE II.—Continued.
Barton (Des gen DH R.A. 8. Dec. Epoch Pp d Mags Weight
h m ° / ° uM
2558 57°2523 9 56-6 5728 24-10 114:4 3-54 12-0, 13-0 lb
2046 54°3002 956-8 5419+ 92:08 145°3 4:96 12-1, 12-7 2b
2047 9 57-0 54 06 (792-08 119°6 3:02 (12525 12"4 > 2a
2559 57°2535 9 57-2) ' (57 48 993-15 9135-2 4:13 Ties eS a
or) 53°3192 9 583. 53 55 9792-08 —§165:5 5:82 Ulta as-35 2a
3133 55°2829 959-3 5519 24-16 72°3 4:32 12-2, 12-2 2a
3134 959-4 58 08 93-15 203-7 4:48 11-8, 12-2 lb
2562 56°3268 10 20°8 56 26. 94-27 299-0 4-91 10-7, 10-9 la
2052 53°3817 10 23-3 53 59 92-08 54:8 4:03 11:6,12:2 2b
2053 10 25-9 (54 04 7792-08 167-2 3:20. 4252, 02-2 ~ 2h
2563 54°3751 10 26-6 54 57 93-19 26-2 4:22 Jl-6, A1-7 2a
26-09 27-6 4-03 2a
2564 10 30-8 55 36 26-09 240-7 3-27 11-8, 12-4 la
3146 58°2530 10 37-0 58 42 9.24-30. 219-5 4°97 . 2S 2a
2055 53°4192 10 47-1 53 59 92-08 162-5 3-43 iD eite2 la
3153 56°3923 10 47:3 56 58 24-16 68-3 4°65 11-2, 12-2 lb
3154 10 48-8 57 51. 93-15 127-4 4-49 12-0, 12-2 la
2569 54°4161 10 51-3 54 56 196-67 320-9 5-32 10-8, 11:3. “2a
25-15 323-2 5:06 la
3156 10 51:4 5637 24-16 235-6 4-86 11-6, 12-2 2a
2062 11 10-5 53 47 92-08 1-9 5°24 i)-8, i228 2a
2064 11 14-0 54°08 . 92-08 76-9 4-83 12-0, 12-4 2b
2065 54°4455 11 14:0 (54 22 92-08: 357-8 4°70 JieGo ATG 2p
2577 54°4486 1] 16-6 (54 59 9920-21, (939-73 4:26 9 TOS Rl se
3166 1] 49-7 1°55 47° 994-25 (179°8 3:98 “S122 selo 2s
2075 53°5827 13: 53:7 53 21, 918-41 210-6 3-96) View es 2a
2077 52°7207 14 18-0 52 22 18-40 54°8 5-24 11-4, 11-6 2a
2814 14 41-2 57 01 94-18 142-8 4-938 12-0, 12-2 la
2815 15 05-6 56 38 24-27 120-1 4-06 11-8, 12-2 2a
2083 52°8744 15 34:3 52 22 94-53 190-9 5-47 | Dl-2) 1-3 eb
2819 57°8006 16 18-3 57 39.9 24-44 214-5 3-53 11270) 112-2 lb
NOTE.
Attention is drawn in the case of the following stars to the C.P.D. identification which was
incorrect or marked as doubtful in Barton’s lists.
No. R.A. No. R.A.
3117 8 02-1 2042 9 52-1
2037 9 26-8 3134 9 59-4
2550 9 36°8 3154 10 48-8
The stars in Table I were chosen from Innes’ Southern Double Star Catalogue,
and those in Table II from among the doubles discovered by S. G. Barton in
published Sydney catalogues. Column 1 gives the name of the star or Barton’s
number, column 2 the C.P.D. number, and columns 3 and 4 the position (1900-0).
The C.P.D. numbers given by Barton have been altered in a few cases noted at
the end. Columns 5, 6 and 7 give respectively the epoch, position angle and
distance ; in cases where two or more plates differed in epoch by only a few years
the results have been combined. Column 8 gives the magnitudes of the stars.
In Table I these are taken from Innes’ Catalogue. In Table II they were
estimated from the plates adjusted in the case of C.P.D. stars, so that the
combined magnitude equalled the C.P.D. magnitude with the corrections given
in Harvard Annals, Vol. 80, No. 13. Column 9 gives the number of images
measured and an estimate of the quality of a single measure depending on the
size and shape of the images and the separation and magnitude difference of the
components. The probable error in distance was 0”-13 for a measurement of a
single image pair of quality a and 0”-17 for quality Db.
THE THERMAL METAMORPHISM OF PORTIONS OF THE WOOLOMIN
GROUP IN THE ARMIDALE DISTRICT, N.S.W.
Part I. THE PUDDLEDOCK AREA.
By ALAN SPRY, M.Sc.
With Plate XII and two Text-figures.
(Communicated by S. WARREN CAREY.)
Manuscript received, September 28, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953.
ABSTRACT.
A portion of the intrusive contact between the New England batholith,
and the eugeosynclinal Woolomin Group occurs near Puddledock, in northern
New South Wales. The igneous complex comprises mainly quartz monzonite
with subordinate hypersthene diorite, pyroxene granite, biotite porphyrite and
dolerite. The sedimentary group originally consisted of greywacke, quartzite
and basic lava, which are now represented by biotite hornfels, saccharoidal
quartzite and a group of rocks rich in ecalc-silicate minerals.
INTRODUCTION.
The great New England batholith is a multiple intrusion of subsequent type
which extends for over two hundred miles through the eastern highlands of
northern New South Wales and southern Queensland as a meridional belt. It
is chiefly acid in character, although there are variations from basic to ultra-acid
types.
The intruded rocks around Armidale consist of a thick and broadly folded
eugeosynclinal series consisting of greywackes (as defined by Pettijohn, 1949),
polymictic breccias, sub-greywackes, quartzites, jaspers and basic lavas which
has been named the Woolomin Series by Benson (1918) and Voisey (1942).
These rocks are referred to here as the Woolomin Group, rather than the
Woolomin Series, in accordance with the Code of Stratigraphic Nomenclature
(Raggatt, 1950) because the length of time involved in their deposition is at
present unknown, hence the ‘‘ rock ’’ term growp is preferred to the ‘‘ time-rock ”’
term series. Due to the lack of diagnostic organic remains, the age of these
rocks is not known, but they are regarded as probably Silurian-Devonian.
Regional metamorphism is lacking unless the silicification which gave rise to the
widespread jaspers can be regarded as a low-grade regional metasomatic process.
Thermal metamorphism by both the Epi-Silurian (?) and Permian batholiths
is rather slight, and restricted to fairly narrow contact aureoles. Metasomatism
associated with the intrusions is uncommon, although scapolitization of the
basic lavas has been found in two localities. These rocks are well shown in the
area described, which is about half a mile north-east of the Puddlecock Dam and
10 miles north-east of Armidale. A portion of the intrusive contact is exposed
in an area of about two acres, which is entirely surrounded by flat-lying Tertiary
basalts. Mapping was done by plane-table on a scale of 200 feet to 1 inch,
and the contours shown on Figure 1 are taken from a purely arbitrary 1,000 feet
datum level.
130 ALAN SPRY.
THE IGNEOUS ROCKS.
The main body is a quartz monzonite with a chilled margin and a steeply
dipping sharp contact with the sediments. The other igneous rocks are found
in small bodies and their mutual relations are somewhat obscured by soil cover
and consequently the intrusive sequence could not be established definitely.
The probable order is as follows:
(1) Biotite porphyrite.
(2) Hypersthene diorite.
(3) Quartz monzonite.
(4) Pyroxene granite.
(5) Dolerite.
The biotite porphyrite occurs as an elongated, dyke-like body about 30 feet
wide and 800 feet long. It appears to be cut off at one end by the hypersthene
diorite and consequently is regarded as the earliest intrusive. It is a light grey
LEGEND
: [aa ALLUVIUM
PAL AEOZOIC
WOOLOMIN GROUP
Ej BIoTITE HORNFELS (GREYWACKE)
QUARTZITE
AY BASIC HORNFELS
IGNEOUS ROCKS
TERTIARY
BASALT
PERMIAN
Hil
eal
iT}
> ee eT
Is
Hose
I
Ke BIOTITE PORPHYRITE
AK
MONZONITE (CLOSER HACHURING
INDICATES CHILLED MARGIN)
SCALE /N FEET
(6) 200 400 600
ee eed
Text-fig. 1—A geological map showing the relations of the igneous and metamorphic rocks at
Puddledock.
porphyritic rock with a very fine-grained groundmass rich in poorly twinned
albite crystals and contains phenocrysts of biotite, hornblende and andesine
(Abgs).
The hypersthene diorite is a coarse-grained brownish rock consisting of
almost equal amounts of felspars and ferromagnesian minerals. The relative
amounts of orthoclase and plagioclase are variable and the rock might be termed
diorite in some specimens and monzonite in others. Plagioclase is most abundant
(35%) aS subhedral crystals which are often. strongly zoned (oligoclase Ab,,
to andesine Ab,,) and twinned on combinations of the Albite and Carlsbad laws.
Orthoclase is present in quantities up to 30% and appears as slightly perthitic
crystals which are frequently moulded on plagioclase giving 3 monzonitic fabric.
The dark minerals are augite, hypersthene, hornblende and biotite. The
pyroxene is chiefly augite, accompanied by quite abundant hypersthene, and
THERMAL METAMORPHISM OF PORTIONS OF THE WOOLOMIN GROUP. 1S 8b
the two may be intergrown or surrounded by a corona of hornblende or biotite.
There is about 5% quartz occurring as tiny intergranular crystals or as blebs
and myrmekitic growths in the orthoclase. A striking feature is the presence of
about 2% of apatite which occurs as aggregates of rod-like prisms frequently
radiating outwards from the pyroxene. As this intrusion is early in the sequence,
the coronas of hornblende and biotite and also the growths of apatite could be
interpreted as being due to the thermal metamorphism of the rock by later
intrusions, but it is thought they are most probably the result of deuteric crystal-
lization.
The quartz monzonite is a light coloured, medium-grained rock becoming
dark coloured and fine-grained in the chilled marginal zone. Near the contact
the rock is a micro-monzonite, generally even grained, or slightly porphyritic
with larger plagioclase phenocrysts set in a slightly finer grained matrix con-
taining felspar with biotite, augite, hornblende and occasional hypersthene.
It is usually a mid-andesine, but may be zoned from oligoclase Ab,, to andesine
Ab;,. Dusty orthoclase is present in amounts up to about 20% and quartz may
be almost absent or up to 15%. The most abundant ferromagnesian mineral
is biotite. Green augite and hypersthene are usually fringed with biotite or
pale green hornblende.
The normal quartz monzonite differs from the border phase in its coarser
grain and lack of pyroxene. It is a medium to coarse grained rock containing
plagioclase, orthoclase and biotite with a little hornblende and quartz, and shows
a monzonitic fabric. The plagioclase is well formed and is andesine, but shows
zoning from Ab,, to Ab;;. Orthoclase is anhedral and dusty and surrounds the
plagioclase. Quartz is present up to 20% as grains or vermiculate growths with
felspar. Biotite is abundant and often intergrown with pale hornblende.
The pyroxene granite occurs as a few small outcrops located between the
monzonite, diorite, porphyrite and hornfels. It does not show any significant
relation towards them and there is nothing to indicate whether it was intruded
before or after the neighbouring rocks. It is only about 50 feet by 30 feet in
area. It is a coarse-grained, leucocratic rock containing perthitic orthoclase
(65%), quartz (24%), augite (8%), sphene (3°) and a very little plagioclase
(oligoclase Ab,y). The augite is green and slightly pleochroic while sphene is
remarkably abundant as brown prisms and grains.
The dolerite is a fine-grained greenish-grey rock which occurs in a very small
outcrop in the east end of the central basic hornfels mass. It occurs only a
few feet from the monzonite and intrudes the Group B hornfelses. It has an
intergranular texture with laths of albite up to 0-1 mm. long forming an imperfect
mesh enclosing the ferromagnesian minerals. These are entirely secondary and
consist chiefly of pale green, almost isotropic chlorite, tiny needles of tremolite (?)
and a very little brown hornblende. Epidote occurs as scattered small grains,
and ilmenite is very abundant with a great deal of finely granular sphene. This
dolerite has many affinities with the spilites and was at first considered to have
been a pre-granite intrusion associated with the Woolomin volcanism. However,
as it occurs within basic rocks which have been strongly metamorphosed and
which contain garnet, pyroxene, wollastonite, etc., it is unlikely, in view of its
unmetamorphosed character, that it could have been in position prior to the
emplacement of the monzonite, and consequently it is placed at the end of the
intrusive cycle.
The texture, composition and dyke-form of the biotite porphyrite are more
in keeping with the later phases of emplacement of the batholith, and it was at
first considered to be part of the widespread system of dykes of porphyry and
lamprophyre which are a feature of the last phases of this intrusive cycle. The
field evidence appears to preclude this view, and indicates that the dyke invaded
132 ALAN SPRY.
the sediments first, and was followed and partly obliterated by the later
hypersthene diorite. The diorite was followed by the major intrusion of quartz
monzonite which cuts across all the other rocks. This has a chilled margin
and the mineralogical differences from the edge inwards indicate the trend of
crystallization. The micro-monzonite has less quartz, less hornblende and a
more basic plagioclase and contains augite and hypersthene, which are absent
from the quartz monzonite. The position of the rather basic pyroxene granite
in the sequence is not known, but from the abundance of quartz and orthoclase
it has been tentatively regarded as the last plutonic unit toform. The abundance
of such minerals as pyroxene (augite and hypersthene) apatite and sphene in the
hypersthene diorite and pyroxene granite suggests that they may have been
contaminated by absorbing some spilite, but no field evidence was found to
support this hypothesis.
THE METAMORPHIC ROCKS.
The rocks which have been altered by the intrusion were originally fine
grained greywacke, quartzite and spilite. These have been altered to varying
degrees, but because of their widely different chemical compositions it was not
possible to find zones of decreasing grade of metamorphism away from the
intrusion. Both greywackes and spilite attained the amphibolite facies of
Turner (1948), but the latter may have reached the pyroxene hornfels facies in
one place.
THE BASIC HORNFELSES.
The most interesting of the thermally altered rocks are those derived from
the basic lava flow. It has been observed in several localities around Armidale
that basalts have been altered to rocks of spilitic nature prior to the intrusion
of the batholith and that the thermal metamorphism operated on the spilitic
mineral assemblage. There are two major groups which have different
mineralogical and textural characteristics and each of these groups is subdivided
into varieties.
A. Those showing original igneous texture.
(1) Hornblende rich.
(2) Diopside rich.
(3) Seapolite or prehnite rich.
B. Those not showing original igneous texture.
(1) Calcite quartz bearing.
(2) Wollastonite bearing.
Group A.
The spilite which occurs as the narrow band shown in the upper central
part of Figure I is less altered and still retains some of the original igneous
(amygdaloidal and intergranular) texture. The three varieties show differing
original composition and degree of alteration with the typical associations
hornblende-albite, diopside-andesine and diopside-scapolite (or prehnite).
The hornblende rich variety is a dense green rock which appears to show
least alteration. Blasto-intergranular texture is shown by radiating laths of
original poorly twinned albite with fresh pale yellowish-brown to dark brown
hornblende and colourless diopside crystallizing between the felspar. Secondary
plagioclase (andesine Ab,,) occurs only in amygdales, where it may be accom-
panied by diopside and sphene.
The diopside-rich variety is pale greenish grey in the hand specimen and it
is common to find the diopside and hornblende rich varieties together, even in
one hand specimen. The intergranular texture is not shown so well as in the
THERMAL METAMORPHISM OF PORTIONS OF THE WOOLOMIN GROUP. 133
previous variety, but the albite laths form radiating growths with diopside
granules between. Secondary fresh plagioclase (albite to basic andesine) is
sporadic and is usually found in amygdales, although in parts the original
basaltic texture is replaced by a granoblastic aggregate of plagioclase and
diopside. The amygdales were probably originally filled with calcite, and
during metamorphism there has been a migration, chiefly of lime out from the
amyegdale and alumina, silica, etc., into the amygdale from the surrounding rock.
This resulted in a zone of grossular ringing the amygdale, with a central zone
containing one or more of the following minerals: calcite, plagioclase, scapolite,
prehnite, diopside or apatite, as shown in Figure 2. The texture is often
Text-fig. 2.—Sketches of some amygdales in the basic hornfelses of group A showing a rim of
grossular in each case with a filling of (a) prehnite, (b) plagioclase, calcite and prehnite, (c) calcite,
scapolite, prehnite and garnet, (d) plagioclase, diopside and garnet. x46 approximately.
diablastic with growths of calcite and andesine, calcite and grossular, diopside
and andesine, etc. Some of the grossular is birefringent. Scapolite and prehnite
are restricted to amygdales in this variety but become abundant in the mass of
the rock in the third type. .
Where seapolite or prehnite become very abundant, they replace original
albite laths over large areas. The primary basaltic texture is obliterated as the
scapolite envelops the plagioclase and forms comparatively large crystals with
sutured margins. These areas contain unaltered diopside granules whose mutual
relations still show the intergranular texture to some extent. Growth of other
minerals from the amygdales outward tends to give a coarse granoblastic texture.
134 ALAN SPRY.
The amygdales contain similar assemblages to the diopsidic variety mentioned
previously, untwinned or poorly twinned plagioclase being notable. The
scapolite and prehnite both form from plagioclase and the scapolite may alter
to prehnite. The scapolite is a mizzonite Ma,; with N-=1-546, N,=1:-574,
D.R.=0-028. These values were measured by immersion methods on fragments
of a large crystal from an amygdale, but measurements with a Berek Compen-
sator on the groundmass scapolite in thin sections indicated generally a more
sodic dipyre Ma,, with D.R. averaging 0-012. In one specimen where calcite
was abundant, a lime-rich scapolite occurred and was greatly altered to
wollastonite suggesting that the scapolite and wollastonite may not be stable
together, the latter mineral representing a higher grade of metamorphism.
The three varieties probably do not indicate differing grades of
metamorphism, but rather differing compositions which may be original or due
to metasomatism. The mineral assemblages indicate that equilibrium has not
been established, thus enabling a series of metamorphic changes to be recognized.
Group B.
The mineral assemblage of this group is quite different from that of the
preceding one, both because the original basic rock was much richer in calcite
and also because the metamorphic grade is higher. This richness in calcite has
been observed in unmetamorphosed spilites which contain closely packed
amygdales filled with calcite so that the rock contains at least 50° of that
mineral. Calcite also has replaced plagioclase by a premetamorphic process.
Rocks of this group occur in a small patch surrounded by quartz monzonite,
pyroxene granite and biotite porphyrite and their elevation to at least the
cordierite-anthophyllite sub-facies of the amphibolite facies and possibly to the
pyroxene hornfels facies is a reflection of the proximity of igneous rock almost
completely surrounding the hornfels. Complete recrystallization has taken
place and no vestige of the igneous structure remains. The structure is coarse
and irregular with diablastic and poikiloblastic textures common. The minerals
present include calcite, quartz, wollastonite, diopside-hedenbergite and grossular.
Members of this group are divided into two classes, depending on the presence of
calcite plus quartz or wollastonite, and thus a division is made between rocks
of different metamorphic grade.
The lower grade hornfels is typically light coloured with large bladed crystals
of both plagioclase and calcite up to 3 ems. long, containing pyroxene or garnet
poikiloblastically. The garnet, which is pale brown and probably grossular,
sometimes constitutes up to about 90% of a dark, heavy garnet-rock. The
pyroxene is deep greenish-brown in colour with a relief close to that of grossular
and a D.R. of 0-027, and thus is an iron-bearing diopside as distinct from the
colourless diopside in the group A _ hornfelses. Calcite and quartz grow
diablastically without any tendency to form wollastonite. Sphene and scapolite
or prehnite occasionally occur, while a greenish-brown fibrous amphibole replaces
the pyroxene as a retrograde product in some rocks. The plagioclase is a basic
andesine.
Those hornfelses which contain wollastonite instead of calcite plus quartz
usually have a coarse and irregular texture or are granoblastic aggregates of
wollastonite, pyroxene, garnet and plagioclase (as basic as labradorite Ab,)).
Some hornfelses of this group are indistinguishable from calc-silicate rocks
derived from lime-rich sediments. They are presumed to be the products of
metamorphism of calcite rich basic igneous rocks rather than sediments for the
following reasons : | °
(a) No limestones have been found in the Woolomin Group.
(6) They occur in the line of strike of the basic lava.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVII, 1953, Plate XII
a
ea
ay
THERMAL METAMORPHISM OF PORTIONS OF THE WOOLOMIN GROUP. 135
They are frequently porphyroblastic with large grossular crystals set in a
decussate growth of wollastonite with abundant tiny pyroxene crystals. Calcite
“may occur where there was not sufficient silica to allow the complete change to
wollastonite.
SEDIMENTARY HORNFELSES.
The metamorphosed sediments found here are regarded as having been
derived from fine-grained greywackes and quartzite. The most common hornfels
is a black, saccharoidal, rather soft rock which is spotted with biotite flakes
growing along the bedding. The texture is porphyroblastic with large flakes or
aggregates of biotite set in a very fine granoblastic aggregate of quartz, felspar
and biotite. Each of the large biotite crystals is surrounded by a zone barren of
mica, from which the ferromagnesian material has been derived. Quartz and
felspar are usually equally abundant and each constitutes about 40% of the
rock. The felspar is quite fresh and is chiefly untwinned plagioclase varying in
composition from oligoclase to andesine (Abgy_.). The freshness and range
of composition suggest that the plagioclase is metamorphic and has been derived
from the cloudy felspar common in the unaltered Woolomin greywackes. A few
erystals which have a cloudy core and a fresh peripheral zone represent partially
recrystallized felspar. A little chlorite and poorly crystallized muscovite may
occur with apatite as accessories. One hornfels contains abundant tiny granules
of diopside in groups with quartz and oligoclase.
The coarse white saccharoidal quartzite is very pure and has a granoblastic
to sutured texture. It contains only minute amounts of minerals other than
quartz; tiny crystals of muscovite, epidote, apatite, pyrite, magnetite and rutile
occur.
DEGREE OF METAMORPHISM.
The rocks show the impress of a moderate grade of thermal metamorphism
with a higher grade where there has been repeated intrusion. Metasomatism
appears to have been restricted to a little introduction of halogen and water to
the basic rocks where scapolite and prehnite were formed from plagioclase. The
spilite was much more susceptible to both metamorphism and metasomatism
than the sediments. There was a distinct period of retrograde metamorphism
when pyroxene altered to hornblende. The mineral assemblages of the basic
lava are typical of thermal metamorphism of such rocks. The basaltic rocks of
group A originally contained the assemblage augite plus labradorite and this
was changed to the spilitic assemblage albite plus hornblende, epidote, calcite
and actinolite prior to the thermal metamorphism. The original minerals are
not found here but the first process was presumably an alteration of actinolite
to hornblende, while the albite was unchanged. At a further stage the albite
recrystallized. In rocks which were richer in epidote or calcite, diopside appeared
with albite and hornblende. At higher temperatures the assemblage diopside
plus andesine was accompanied by grossular. The scapolite and prehnite which
earlier were restricted to the amygdales then replaced the groundmass plagioclase
over large areas. The processes have been arrested at various stages of com-
pletion, and the failure to achieve equilibrium between the minerals is typical
of these rocks.
The group B rocks probably originally contained calcite, albite, chlorite,
actinolite and a little quartz. The first stage was the production of the
assemblage andesine-pyroxene-grossular with calcite plus quartz. The second
Stage was marked by the combination of calcite plus quartz to give wollastonite
with garnet, pyroxene and plagioclase. The hornblende rich members of
group A contain hornblende-diopside-albite, which is an unstable assemblage
arrested in its trend to hornblende-diopside-plagioclase probably representing
the cordierite-anthophyllite sub-facies of the amphibolite facies. Amphibole
136 ALAN SPRY.
is not found in the other basic hornfelses, which may extend up into the pyroxene-
hornfels facies. The assemblages diopside-plagioclase, diopside-plagioclase-
scapolite (prehnite)-grossular, diopside-grossular or diopside-grossular-wol-
lastonite are not critical and may indicate the upper part of the amphibolite
or the lower part of the pyroxene hornfels facies. The presence of plagioclase
as basic as labradorite Ab,) would indicate that some at least of the wollastonite
bearing rocks of group B lie in the latter facies. The change from an assemblage
in which calcite and quartz occur together to one in which wollastonite is stable
marks a definite step in the metamorphic processes and Turner (1948) states
that calcite plus quartz is stable over the lower part of the cordierite-anthophyllite
sub-facies, while wollastonite is stable over the upper half, thus calcite plus
quartz does not extend into the pyroxene-hornfels facies.
In the greywackes, the assemblage quartz plus oligoclase or andesine plus
biotite with or without diopside indicates that the sediments reached the same
approximate level of metamorphism as the basic rocks in the cordierite-antho-
phyllite sub-facies. However, some biotite hornfelses contain albite or acid
oligoclase with a little muscovite and chlorite, and possibly represent a stage as
low as the actinolite-epidote hornfels sub-facies of the albite-epidote-amphibolite
facies. The presence of abundant potash which is represented by biotite
prevented the appearance of such minerals as cordierite, andalusite or almandine,
ete. There is a moderately close relation between the degree of metamorphism
of the spilite and the greywackes, but in general the basic rocks contained a
mineral assemblage which is susceptible to metamorphism and were permeable,
thus suffering considerable alteration, whereas the fine-grained massive grey-
wackes were both structurally and mineralogically more resistant.
Somewhat similar rocks have been found in similar environments at Tilbuster
and Dumaresq, some miles to the west, and a description of these other areas
will be presented in the second part of this paper.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
This work was undertaken while the author was on the staff of the New
England University College, Armidale, and the author wishes to thank Dr. A. H.
Voisey for making this research possible. Appreciation must be particularly
expressed to those students who assisted in the field mapping. The work was.
completed at the University of Tasmania, where Professor 8S. Warren Carey and
his staff have assisted by criticism of the manuscript.
REFERENCES.
Benson, W. N., 1918. ‘‘ The Great Serpentine Belt of New South Wales”’, Part III. Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
Pettijohn, F. J., 1949. ‘‘ Sedimentary Rocks.” University of Chicago Press.
Raggatt, H. G., 1950. ‘‘ Stratigraphic Nomenclature.”” Aust. Journ. Science, 12, No. 5.
Turner, F. J., 1948. ‘‘ Structural Evolution of the Metamorphic Rocks.” Geol. Soc. Amer.
Mem. 30.
Voisey, A. H., 1942. ‘‘ Geology of County Sandon, New South Wales.” Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S.W., 67.
1945. ‘‘ North Coast and New England Districts.” D.Sc. Thesis, University
of Sydney.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE.
PLATE XII.
Fig. 1.—Apatite prisms surrounding biotite and pyroxene as radial growths in the hypersthene
diorite. x60.
Fig. 2.—Hornfels of group A containing diopside and plagioclase with the intererants
texture almost destroyed. x60.
Fig. 3.—Hornfels of group B showing a decussate aggregate of wollastonite with pyroxene
and garnet. x60.
Fig. 4.—Hornfels of group B showing a granoblastic aggregate of diopside and plagioclase.
x 60.
SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES IN THE
SINGLETON-MUSWELLBROOK COALFIELD: AN INTRO-
DUCTORY STUDY.*
By F. W. Booker, M.Sc.,
C. BURSILL, M.A. M.Sc.,
and C. T. McELRoy, B.Sc.
With Plates XIII and XIV and three Text-figures.
Manuscript received, October 14, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953.
I. INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
For the past few years the authors have studied, both independently and
collaboratively, several aspects of the stratigraphy, lithology, petrology, sedi-
mentation and sedimentary tectonics of the Tomago Coal Measures in the
Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield, Central Hunter Valley, New South Wales.
This paper discusses these matters briefly, and is intended to be the first
of a series on sedimentation in certain areas of N.S.W., in which it is hoped the
collaboration of field geologist and petrologist will continue.
In this paper the sections on stratigraphy, lithology and sedimentation are
the work of Booker. Bursill is responsible for the petrological study of the
Bayswater Bore, and McElroy for the petrology of the rocks from the surrounding
area.
The authors desire to express their grateful appreciation of the assistance
of Mr. H. F. Whitworth, M.Sc., Dr. Paul and Mr. R. O. Chalmers in the prepara-
tion of microscopic sections and plates for this paper, of Dr. H. Rutledge for
his meticulous reading of the paper and valuable comments thereon, and of Mr.
P. McKenzie for his able co-operation during the field investigations. Helpful
discussion by Dr. G. D. Osborne is also acknowledged.
II. GENERAL STRUCTURE.
The Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield of Upper Permian Age is situated
in the Central Hunter River Valley of New South Wales, embracing the region
between these two towns, which are on the Great Northern Railway.
Sediments referable to the Tomago Coal Measures occupy an area of approxi-
mately 300 square miles in this field. They occupy a synclinal area between the
Muswellbrook Dome on the west, and the Loder and Darlington Domes on the
east ; they are bounded on the north by the Hunter Overthrust and on the
south by the Newcastle Coal Measures, which are in turn overlain by the Triassic,
as Shown in Fig. 1.
The structure in the Tomago Coal Measures of this field is not a simple
syncline. Rather there is a series of anticlines and synclines with more or less
meridional axes. The axial planes all appear to dip westerly and are generally
arcuate. In the southern part of the area the convexities of the ares are directed
to the east, but in the north there is a tendency to reversal. The axis of the
* Published by permission of the Under Secretary, Department of Mines, N.S.W.
138
BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY.
eet
LEGEND
Post Tertiary, Alluvium
VA
GE GHZ
NY SANE Sf
Triassic
| BNE
Upper Coal Measures
Upper Marine Series
Permian
Mulbring Beds
Branxton Beds
Carboniferous
Igneous
UPPER COAL MEASURES OF SINGLETON~ MUSWELLBROOK COALFIELD
S mites
4
Scale
mites 2
SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 139
Muswellbrook Dome is an exception to this generalization. On the north the
fold structures are truncated by the Hunter overthrust and its subsidiary, the
Hebden Thrust. To the south the intensity of the folding decreases rapidly,
and the folds are barely reflected in the Newcastle Coal Measures and the over-
lying Triassic.
III. GENERAL STRATIGRAPHY.
In the Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield the Tomago Coal Measures consist
of some 1,600 to 1,700 feet of sediments, which can be subdivided into two
formations :
(1) The Bayswater Formation. Transition beds between the underlying
marine Crinoidal Shales or Mulbring Beds of the Upper Marine Group and the
Coal Measures proper. They consist of about 200 feet of dark shales containing
occasional fragments of Glossopteris, and a few pyritic concretions, grading
downwards into similar marine shales containing numerous foraminifera and
an occasional macro-fossil.
The Bayswater Formation or Bayswater Shales, which are readily recogniz-
able, can be traced over the whole length of both margins of the basin, and have
been identified in every bore deep enough to penetrate them. They can only
be separated from the underlying marine shales on paleontological evidence,
and in this connection the authors here desire to record the valuable work of
Miss I. Crespin, B.A., of the Bureau of Mineral Resources, whose micro-palzeont-
ological work has been a major contributing factor in delineating these beds.
(2) The Rix’s Creek Formation. 1,400 to 1,500 feet thick, mainly greywacke,
sandstone, shale and siltstone with numerous coal seams. In the north-eastern
part of the area there occurs a distinct conglomerate facies.
In the vicinity of Liddell, Ravensworth and Rix’s Creek the Rix’s Creek
Formation consists of a rhythmic succession of greywackes, sandstones, shales,
siltstones, claystones and coal seams. Conglomerate is a minor rock type, and
when it does occur, is generally as a component of graded bedding in greywacke.
As the massive greywackes of the Rix’s Creek Formation are traced northwards
they pass into conglomerates. The first indication of the change in sedimentation
is the occurrence of lines and small irregular lenses and wedges of pebbles in the
grey wacke, a relationship which at this stage appears to resemble graded bedding
(Plate XIII, Fig. 1). The pebbles become larger and more numerous, the lenses
and wedges thicken, and the next stage is a series of interlocking lenses of
ereywacke and greywacke conglomerate.
Further north there is a transition from a massive greywacke with only
occasional pebbly bands to a massive conglomerate with minor lenses of grey-
wacke. At this stage the pebbles are relatively small, up to a maximum of two
inches in diameter. Still further north, the size of the fragments increases until
the conglomerate contains small boulders up to a foot in diameter. This change
takes place in a distance of less than four miles.
Excellent exposures of the early stages of the facies change may be seen
in the railway cuttings between Nundah and Rix’s Creek. The medium and
fine conglomeratic stages are exposed in Glennies Creek to the east and north
from Glennies Creek Railway Station ; the’coarser phases occur in Reedy Creek
and Stony Creek, tributaries of Glennies Creek, east of the Singleton-Goorangoola
Road. The conglomerate facies of the Rix’s Creek formation occupies a sector
of a circle bounded by the Hunter Overthrust and extending as far south as
Nundah and Glennies Creek, and as far west as Coal Hole Creek, east of Antienne.
The coarsest phases lie to the east, grain becoming finer to the south and west.
140 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY.
The conglomerate pebbles comprise a heterogeneous assemblage of the
harder and more resistant sedimentary types, such as chert, jasper and chal-
cedony, aS well as resistant igneous rocks. Petrological examination of a
number of pebbles from these conglomerates, carried out by Mr. H. F. Whitworth,
M.Sc., suggests that all could have been derived from rocks of Carboniferous age
outcropping to the north.
Raggatt (1938) made a comprehensive study of the facies of the Muree in
this part of the Hunter River Valley, and found a comparable and parallel facies
change. He failed, however, to recognize the facies change of the Rix’s Creek
Formation and referred its conglomerate facies to the Newcastle Coal Measures,
under the name of Fal Brook Conglomerates.
LV. SEDIMENTATION.
The Bayswater Bore displays the most complete section of the Tomago Coal
Measures in the Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield so far available. Thus it
may be regarded as typical of the Tomago sedimentation in the Liddell-Ravens-
worth-Rix’s Creek area.
In this bore a thickness of approximately 1,170 feet of strata belonging to
the Rix’s Creek Formation is made up of the following :
Feet Jo
Greywacke ae a ys 594 equivalent to 51
Greywacke conglomerate... bestia mentee 9 ‘tas
Shale, siltstone and mudstone .. 404 i aD)
Coal ts ihe te igs 33 LOO 3 Af tiadc,
Several of the members included above under the heading of greywacke
contain minor amounts of conglomerate, as components in the graded bedding.
The sediments represented in the bore are referred to five groups:
(1) Rudites.
(2) Arenites :
(a) Epiclastic.
(b) Pyroclastie.
(3) Lutites.
(4) Rocks containing siderite in characteristic form.
(1) Rudites. In hand specimen all of these are very similar, varying from
pebbly greywacke through gritty greywackes with scattered pebbles to fine
conglomerate of the greywacke type. The overall colour is light to medium grey.
The phenoclasts are polygenetic and much the same in all specimens examined,
the commoner being :
1) Very weathered green (?) volcanic rock.
) Grey-brown quartzite.
) Light brown porphyry.
) Various grey to brown cherty rocks.
) Rare vein quartz.
) Blackish quartzite.
) Basalt (?).
) Brownish altered sandstone.
Most are commonly rounded to sub-rounded, but a few are sub-angular.
‘They are often well weathered, though indurated in the process of cementation,
SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 141
the rocks thus formed being hard, firmly cemented and not very porous. The
diameters of the phenoclasts vary from 0-9to3:5em. The following specimens
selected over a fairly considerable depth range may be regarded as representative
of this class of sediment :
Specimen Approximate Phenoclast
Number. Depth. | Diameter.
(Feet.) (Centimetres. )
R.W. 24 520 3°5
23 520 2-0
it 184 1:9
22 514 1-6
8 158 1-0
7 146 O38)
Quartz grains, mostly euhedral, are common, but few accessory minerals
have escaped alteration. Most of the rock fragments are fine-grained, cherty or
quartzose. Specimen R.W. 7 contains a small pebble with a micrographic
inter-growth of quartz and felspar.
Cementation occurs by four methods which appear in all specimens :
(1) (a) Reaction. The boundaries of the grains, particularly between the
quartzites and some less easily recognizable grains, are seen to merge into each
other indefinitely at their contact.
(b) Recrystallisation (or Enlargement). This is well developed in specimen
R.W. 7, in which a chalcedonic cement has formed round and _ between
chalcedonic pebbles.
(c) Degradation. This is probably the main cause of cementation. The
weathered surfaces of pebbles and grains have become homogeneous with a
clay-based matrix which has invaded the less resistant grains, particularly the
plagioclase felspar.
(d) Carbonation. This is the normal interstitial infilling by carbonates,
and it is found in the more porous specimens. The carbonates may be calcite
or siderite or mixed carbonates of iron and lime (ankerite). Frequently they
are impure, due to the presence of the clay fraction. They are reactive and
occasionally replace entire detrital grains which retain some of their original
shape, or invade them, leaving, as in specimen R.W. 23, a curious skeleton-crystal
or scopulitic structure. There seems to be no evidence of pressure welding.
(2) Arenttes. (a) Hpiclastic. The epiclastic arenites in hand specimen
are whitish-grey to medium grey in colour. All are hard, compact and not very
porous. They have a “ pepper-and-salt ’’ appearance, due to the presence of
dark rock fragments and carbonaceous material, as well as light-coloured quartz
and rock fragments. The more finely grained varieties are very tough. Bedding
is rarely apparent, but when present, is irregular. Graded bedding is fairly
common in the coarser arenites (Plate XIII, Fig. 1).
Under the microscope the grains are seen to consist of much the same rock
types as the rudite phenoclasts with quartz and very few ferro-magnesian or
other accessory minerals. The grains vary in shape from elongate to equant,
but rarely show the high sphericity of many of the rudite pebbles. Many of the
grains are angular to sub-angular, the angularity varying inversely as the
size. The quartz grains are fresh and more or less euhedral. These grains
are commonly fractured but frequently retain several perfect faces and
N
142 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY.
undamaged coigns. Cherty, chalcedonic and quartzitic fragments are dominant
in the rocks. There is much interlocking of grains, the interstices being filled
with smaller grains, thus reducing porosity. The fraction below arenite grain
size, say 0-12 mm., is quite small, generally under 10% if sideritic material is
excluded.
Approximate estimates of the detrital quartz fractions in specimens of
arenites from the Bayswater Bores are as follow :
Estimated
Specimen Detrital
Number. Quartz.
R.W. 6 1%
20 T%
15 5%
30 8%
3 aN
18 10%
14 10%
The felspar fraction in these rocks is always less than 5° and comprises
plagioclase (common) and orthoclase (less common). The felspars, while
retaining their euhedral shape, are usually weathered to some extent.
The cementation of the arenites is the same as that of the rudites discussed
above. The carbonate cementation, however, takes two forms :
(i) A brown granular cementing material probably composed of clayey
ferrous carbonate.
(ii) A crystallised form of the material referred to above, almost invariably
consisting of small crystals of mixed carbonates of calcium and iron, and probably
magnesium.
(b) Pyroclastic. Tuffs are relatively common in the section of the Bayswater
Bore. They are most conspicuous when they are intercalated with coal or
carbonaceous shales. Specimens R.W. 111 from 1,412 feet (Plate XIV, Fig. 6)
is an excellent example of a crystal tuff occurring between layers of carbonaceous
Shale. Carbonaceous shale containing scattered plagioclase crystals breaks off
sharply and is replaced by a band of crystal tuff which is perfectly graded upward
from incoherent crystals to fine bentonitic clay. The tuff band is only one and
a half inches thick. No quartz is present ; about 25% of the rock consists of
euhedral plagioclase, cracked, embayed and stained ; 10% consists of macerated
woody material with well preserved cellular structure, and 15% of fine-grained
cherty angular rock fragments. The residue is clayey material.
A remarkable rock from a depth of about 1,342 feet, specimen R.W. 104,
has the appearance of black welded crystalline ash with its upper surface pitted
with circular depressions two to four millimetres in diameter. It is about three
inches thick, and has a curious pitted fracture throughout (Plate XIII, Fig. 5).
Under the microscope the groundmass is brownish and indeterminate. The
rest consists of quartz fragments, often deeply embayed, which could not possibly
have survived water transport. Many of the fragments are completely shattered.
Some primary calcite, mica and pieces of woody tissue are present (Plate XIV,
Fig. 5).
The ashy rock of specimen R.W. 104 may be a form of ignimbrite deposited
by a nuée ardente, and the shattering and surface vesiculation may have been |
SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 143
caused by cooling in shallow water. The vesicule are filled with laminated
shale. The presence of woody tissue seems to eliminate any possibility of it
being a stringer from a sill.
It is possible that the fresh plagioclase found in the rudites and arenites
is derived from pyroclastic material transported by water, but crystal tuffs of
the type represented by specimen R.W.111 could only have been deposited
from the air.
(3) Lutites. The following specimens chosen over a wide vertical range in
the Bayswater Bore are typical of this group of rocks.
Maximum Average Approximate
Specimen Grain Size. Grain Size. Depth.
Number. (Millimetre.) | (Miullimetre.) (Feet.)
R.W. 12 0-63 0-10 186
2 0-20 0-12 48
13 0-50 0-26 336
38 0-25 0-09 1,148
37 0-35 0-10 | hae!
Dil) 0-30 0-07 204
5 = 0-04 113
19 0-70 0-09 | 488
103 ! 0-15 | 0-04 1,342
100 | = | a 1,339
Except in grain-size most of these specimens differ little from the arenites.
The higher proportion of carbonate cement in some cases reduces the cohesion
of the grains, but in others it may produce a uniformly well-cemented and non-
porous rock. There is a tendency for the coarser lutites, as well as the finer
arenites, to be jointed, but jointing appears to be reduced as the clay fraction
increases.
The quartz fraction of the lutites consists of very angular grains, and the
proportion increases inversely as the grain size, except in the more clayey
specimens. The following table shows the estimated quartz content of selected
specimens of lutites from the Bayswater Bore.
Specimen Estimated Quartz
Number. Content.
R.W. 12 15%
2 27%
13 30%
38 50%
37 50%
21 40%
19 30%
5 15%
103 Mainly non-detrital
100 Mainly non-detrital
Plagioclase felspar, biotite, sericite and chlorite are present in all specimens ;
potash felspar and olivine are rare, The more clayey varieties contain much
mica.
144 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY.
It is often difficult to distinguish the clay from the carbonate cementing
material. The following are very approximate estimates of the carbonate
content of selected specimens.
Specimen Estimated Carbonate
Number. Content.
%
R.W. 12 5
2 70 (including clay)
13 7
38 Less than 1
37 5 (excluding veinlets).
2] 5
19 | 5
5 ' Less than 5
103 80 (carbonate and clay)
100 100 (calcium carbonate with
devitrified glassy shards)
As in the arenites, the carbonate cementing material is usually complex
and present either in a minutely crystalline form or in a granular clayey form.
Specimen R.W. 2 is almost a limestone with a fairly large clay fraction and
scattered quartz grains. Specimen R.W. 103 is a marl, and R.W. 100 a limestone,
possibly containing some tuffaceous material as there are traces of the presence
of devitrified glassy shards in it.
(4) Rocks Containing Siderite in Characteristic Form. Few of the rocks from
the rudites to the clays are without some proportion of siderite. The following
specimens consist mainly of siderite and they are arranged in order of the grain
size of the small detrital fraction they contain.
Approximate
Specimen Depth. Form of Siderite.
Number. (Feet.)
R.W. 31 861 Equal siderite and clay with scattered
quartz and rock fragments.
26 743 As above.
35 L1ts As above.
32 948 Spherosideritic ironstone.
25 728 Clay ironstone.
The mixed silty or sandy carbonate rock contains ferrous carbonate either
as small, ill-defined crystals or as irregularly shaped flocculi, which are finely
eranular and reticulate, showing a fine network structure. In carbonaceous
rocks these floceculi may coalesce into irregular globose masses along the bedding
planes, often surrounded by woody tissue, suggesting an origin between layers or
within vegetable tissue. These flocculi can also occur scattered along the
bedding planes of the arenites. Specimen R.W. 32, a dense black ironstone, is a
beautiful example of spherosiderite, containing perfect zoned spherulites of
siderite. Clearly the invasion of some of the siderite into arenites is, and some
nodules are, diagenetic ; some of the flocculi are deposited as such along with
the detritus, possibly by a co-precipitation process, and others, particularly
SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 145
the globose material and spherulites, are formed authigenically. The reticulate
structure may substantiate a flocculous, precipitated origin.
The above summary of the petrology of the Tomago Coal Measures is based
almost entirely on the section proved in’ the Bayswater Bore, but numerous
samples collected over a very wide lateral and vertical range only serve to
confirm it. |
Of the many samples taken from bore cores and outcrops in the area, thirty
specimens were selected for microscopic study. The specimens were taken from
localities within a zone approximately 13 miles long by five miles wide, the long
axis of which trends north-westerly and south-easterly through the Bayswater
Bore, which is four miles from the north-western end of the zone.
The majority of the specimens were taken from the cores of diamond drill
bores situated from 14 to 24 miles west of the Bayswater Bore. They were
taken over a maximum vertical range of 630 feet, and the stratigraphic equi-
valents of the specimens are represented in the Bayswater Bore.
Specimens taken from outcrops of wider lateral distribution than those
from the bore cores are representative of beds stratigraphically equivalent to
practically the whole vertical range of the Bayswater Bore.
The specimens studied included rudites, arenites and lutites, but the
arenites, being the most abundant, received the closest attention.
The arenites from the core of the Bayswater Bore contained up to 55%
of rock fragments, the dominant assemblage being cherts, siltstones and quartzites
with very subordinate amounts of the igneous rocks. The dominance of this
siliceous assemblage, which justifies the use of the term ‘‘ oligomictic,”’ is main-
tained in the specimens collected from the zone referred to above. Micrographic
intergrowths similar to that recorded in specimen R.W. 7, from the Bayswater
Bore, were observed in several localities.
As in the Bayswater Bore, cementation has taken place by the processes of
carbonation, and also by a siliceous cement and interstitial primary clay. The
siliceous material is in the form of chalcedony and micromosaics of quartz,
while the clay minerals form well-defined interstitial, scaly aggregates, sometimes
clouded by sideritic material. Specimen M.S. 66, from an outcrop 23 miles
north-east of the Bayswater Bore, exemplifies the skeletal sideritic cementation
recorded in specimen R.W. 23 from that bore.
The mineral grains in the rocks are angular to sub-angular, and the rock
grains are sub-angular to sub-rounded. The fragmental constituents of the
arenites range from 0-1 to 1-0 mm. in diameter and are fairly well sorted.
The estimated percentage of quartz in the arenites from surrounding
localities are higher than those in the Bayswater Bore, up to 31% having been
determined. The felspar content of the rocks is somewhat higher, up to 12%
having been determined.
Over the whole of the zone studied, the great majority of the rocks of any
particular class show similarity of texture and composition, both laterally and
vertically.
In summing up prevailing views, Pettijohn (1949) concluded that induration
and dark colour were necessary for the correct use of the term ‘‘ greywacke.”’
Large, very angular detrital grains, mainly quartz, felspar and rock fragments
in a Sericitic and chloritic matrix, were also requisite.
The rocks from the Tomago Coal Measures are classed as greywackes as
defined by Condon (1952), but it is felt by the authors that it would be preferable
to erect a new name for these mildly indurated, light-coloured arenites.
Such a name must imply sandy texture and composition dominantly quartz
and rock fragments, but it must not convey previously accepted implications
146 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY.
not applicable to these rocks. In the meantime the use of the term greywacke
to describe these rocks merely implies that they are arenites having the mineral
composition of greywackes.
From the above description it will be seen that the log of the Bayswater
Bore represents superficially a very uniform example of sedimentation. In
reality the keynote of the sequence is restless instability, alternating with long
periods of quiescence.
The greywackes which constitute the major part of the sequence show every
sign of having been rapidly removed from the source area and rapidly poured
into the area of deposition with little or no winnowing. The heterogeneity of
the constituent rock types, the comparative freshness of the felspar and the
occurrence of inclined or foreset bedding are all evidence of rapid deposition and
quick burial. The occurrence of graded bedding in rocks deposited under such
conditions is somewhat difficult to explain in view of the generally accepted
theories as to its origin (Pettijohn, 1949) and its occurrence can merely be
recorded in a paper of this nature (Plate XIII, Fig. 1). The rapid change of
facies from conglomerate to greywacke, siltstone and shale in a matter of four
miles may be accepted as proof of proximity to high, rapidly rising source areas,
and the affinities of the constituent rock fragments are strong evidence that the
source areas were composed of rocks comparable with those of the Carboniferous
outcropping immediately to the north.
The greywackes of the area have been deposited in a series of interlocking
lenses, of which the horizontal axes are not always parallel to the true bedding,
and there is frequently an angular difference of as much as 30 degrees between
the true bedding as represented by a shale bed or a coal seam and that of the
_ greywacke lenses. Examples of this may be seen in Foy Brook Open Cut and
Pyke’s Gully Open Cut at Liddell.
In Pyke’s Gully Open Cut the junction of the overlying greywackes with the
Liddell Seam is exposed. The photograph shown in Plate XIII, Fig. 2, was
taken before extraction of the coal had begun, and the floor of the cut is virtually
the roof of the seam. Here the foreset beds of the Liddell Sandstone (Grey-
wacke) are inclined at an angle of about 30 degrees to the bedding of the coal
seam. Above the seam is a few feet of shale, on to which the greywacke detritus
has been poured. The weight of the material and the forward slumping of the
great bulk of rapidly introduced sediment has crumpled the shale overlying the
seam and even the topmost plies of the coal itself.
Lenticular sedimentation of this nature is the rule in the Singleton-Muswell-
brook Coalfield and applies equally to the Greta as to the Tomago Coal Measures.
Consequently wide variations of interseam thicknesses are everywhere in
evidence, making it impossible to accept interseam thickness or lithology as
reliable criteria in seam correlation.
Cone-in-Cone Structure. The lenticulation of the coarser sediments occurs
also in the argillaceous deposits. An interesting form of cone-in-cone structure
is apparently associated with this feature and with the presence of tuffaceous
clays and recrystallising carbonates. The structure is always associated with
bentonitic clays or shales, and generally with clay ironstones. It consists of
thin calcareous bands up to one foot thick, of no great lateral extent. The
bands themselves comprise a succession of minutely plicated veins and veinlets
of calcite, often traversed by secondary veins. The small plications imprison
lenticles of clay. Both the clay and the calcite may be partially sideritized.
The bands usually rest upon grey, blue-grey, or white bentonitic clay or shale,
and are frequently overlain by a band of clay ironstone. The plicated veins
may be contorted to such an extent that they form conical structures which
may be associated with slickensiding or apparent chatter marks in the clay,
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVII, 1953, Plate XIII
o t 2 INCHES
SERRE
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LEANER
Mitre
Z INCHES
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Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVITI, 1953, Plate XIV
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SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 147
This type of structure, which has not hitherto been described in detail from
this area, may have been referred to by David (1884) when he described a portion
of a bore core from East Maitland as follows: ‘‘ Five inches of soapy clay shale
with fibrous calcareous veins ’’ and “ eight inches of clay shales, soapy, with
irregular calcareous veins one-eighth to one and one-half inches thick.”
During a boring campaign by the Commonwealth Bureau. of Mineral
Resources in the Newcastle District, the phenomenon was noticed in several
bores, particularly in the Buchanan-Maitland area, but always in sediments
referable to the Tomago Coal Measures, never in the Newcastle Coal Measures.
The fact that the structure is found in almost every stage of development
may throw some light on _the growth of cone-in-cone structure. It is suggested
that the conditions necessary for the formation of the initial plicate structure
depend on minute lenticulation of alternate sideritic and possibly ashy clay that
becomes altered to bentonitic clay in time. The lenticles of siderite above and
below the clay layer meet from time to time, forming nodes which act as centres
of crystallization of the siderite. The outward growth of crystalline siderite
will then naturally have a conical tendency, as nodes further and further from the
centre become incorporated, while the clay lenticles are isolated entirely.
It seems likely that at an early stage the siderite may be replaced by calcite,
which may be contributed in part at least from the clay.
Stages in the development of cone-in-cone structure ranging from slight
sideritic plications to elaborate calcite cones have been observed (Plate XIII,
Figs. 3 and 4). The “ chatter marks ”’ may result from movement of the clay as
crystallisation alters the volume, or they may be merely small isolated lenticles
of clay which simulate the effects of movement. The association of slickensiding
does, however, substantiate to some extent the occurrence of movement, probably
of the ‘‘ stick-slip ”’ type. It should be noted that lenticles of bentonitic clays
are found in which the lenticle boundaries are coated with secondary carbonate
(ankerite), and this may suggest an alternative method of growth.
CYCLic SEDIMENTATION.
The sedimentation of the Rix’s Creek Formation as a whole presents a
picture of alternating instability and quiescence. The numerous and thick coal
seams must be deemed to have required long periods of stability under conditions
favouring the prolonged existence of coal swamps for their formation. In
contrast, the interseam sedimentation, with its thick, lenticular greywackes and
conglomerates, foreset bedding and rapid lateral variation, suggests rapid
accumulation and rapid burial of the deposits. This occurred under conditions
requiring the abrupt rejuvenation of the source areas and rapid sinking of the
depositional areas, possibly accompanied by water level variations, between
each period of coal formation. The log of the Bayswater Bore (Text-fig. 2)
shows a rhythmic sequence of greywackes, mudstones, siltstones, shales and
coal seams forming a cyclic suite. Four major cycles of sedimentation
can be identified in a depth of 1,250 feet, and on these are superimposed many
minor cycles. Similar cycles can also be identified in most other bores in the
area.
Cycles or rhythms in sedimentation are a world-wide phenomenon.
Text-figure 3 (a) (Raistrick and Marshall, 1939), illustrates a cycle or coal
measure ‘unit’? from the Carboniferous Coal Measures of England. It is
described as ‘‘a unit cycle of sedimentation related to depth of water and
Supply of sediment in a deltaic area,”’ and is the result of the shoaling and filling
of the depositional area and the formation of coal swamps. The section might
well have been taken from the log of almost any bore in the Singleton-Muswell-
148 BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY.
brook Coalfield, except that the marine phases of the cycle are not there
represented.
Cyclic sedimentation in the Pennsylvanian of America was recognized by
Udden as early as 1906. In 1912 he described cyclic sediments in the Pennsyl-
vanian of the Peoria Quadrangle of Illinois. The study of cyclic sedimentation
in the Pennsylvanian has since been developed by Weller, Wanless, Shepard and
others until to-day the literature on the subject is extensive.
In the Pennsylvanian of America the equivalent of the coal measure ‘ unit ”’
is the cyclothem, defined by Weller (1930) in the following terms: ‘ A series
of beds deposited during a single sedimentary cycle of the type that prevailed
during the Pennsylvanian Period.”’
Under ideal conditions the cyclothem contains ten members, five fresh-
water and five marine. The concept of the “ideal ’’ cyclothem was developed
to represent the optimum succession of deposits during a complete sedimentary
cycle. Weller defined an ideal cyclothem for the State of Illinois, which is
reproduced in Text-fig. 3 (b). )
A comparison of the figures reproduced will demonstrate the essential
similarity of the coal measure ‘“ unit’’ and the cyclothem.. Variations in
tectonic intensity and periodicity and its relationship to both source and
depositional areas must influence the nature and succession of cyclic deposits,
and the relationship of the area of deposition to the source area alone can be
responsible for major variations in the sedimentation of a cycle. Text-fig. 3 (c)
after Wanless and Shepard (1936), shows three types of cyclothem ranging from
near-source to shallow marine conditions. Text-fig. 3 (d) shows a cycle from the
Tomago Coal Measures of the Singleton-Muswellbrook Coalfield and a comparison
of this section with those shown in Text-fig. 3 (c) suggests a strong similarity
between it and the piedmont type of cyclothem.
Although the cycles of sedimentation in the Tomago Coal Measures have
many features in common with the coal measure ‘“‘ units ’’ of the Carboniferous
of England and the cyclothems of the Pennsylvanian of America, there are,
however, differences which cannot be overlooked in any comparison.
First, while the English and American cycles range in amplitude from marine
to fresh-water, the examples from the Tomago Coal Measures are restricted to
fresh-water conditions.
Secondly, the English and American examples commence and terminate
with unconformity. So far intraformational unconformity has not been found
in the Tomago Coal Measures.
Thirdly, the complete coal measure ‘‘ unit ’’ or cyclothem is nowhere
represented in the Tomago Coal Measures, or for that matter in any of the coal
measure sediments in New South Wales.
Fourthly, in the Pennsylvanian of America individual cyclothems have
been identified over wide areas and have been suggested as a basis of coal seam
correlation (Weller, 1930). The cycles in the Tomago Coal Measures of this
area have not yet been established as continuous over any great area.
Fifthly, Weller assigns the rank of formations to the cyclothems of the
Pennsylvanian, but similar ranking of the Tomago cycles does not appear to be
warranted. It will be appreciated, therefore, that although the cyclic sedimenta-
tion of the Tomago Coal Measures has much in common with that of the
Carboniferous of England and the Pennsylvanian of America, there are so many
points of difference that it would be unwise at this stage to draw more than
general inferences from a comparison.
Numerous hypotheses have been advanced from time to time in explanation
of the phenomena of cyclic sedimentation. In 1936 Wanless and Shepard
800
f
00 —
100
400
400°
500
600!
Too’ _
800
goo'_
1000"
100° _
1200'_
1300" es
1400' _
1500'_
SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO GOAL MEASURES,
BAYSWATER
LOG GRAINSIZE
INDICATION ONLY
149
BMR. Nl BORE
0” Sandstone
0° Shales and mudstone, grey to yellow
>
silt
0° Sandstone 4
0” Greywacke , frequent siltstone and shale bands.
0" Shale~grey, silty.
0” Coal
0. Shale, calcareous.
G Mudstone, grey, with silty and sandy bands.
0 Greywacke
0” Coal
0 Sandstone-grey, with shale bands.
3° Coal
0" Grey tvacke comglomerate.
Siltstone, grey.
"Coal aay
0" Sandstone, grey, medium.
0
Shale, gr J
: Shale, $7 ey stity on fop.
6 Coal 6
Siltstone—grey, with shale bands.
Shale -~grey with siltstone bands.
Coal
Col.
" Sannstane, white. 36" 5; re
0” Grey wackefine, grey Dole 296 ELV oe
0” Shale and siltstone-grey.
Greywacke with tivo Ift. Coal bands and 3'6" Shale band
Shale and siltstone, grey.
Sandstone, fine, light grey.
Mudstone, grey, silty,
Greywacke, grey, medium,
a)a 22.9.0,
Shale and _miutdstone - grey.
_ Sandstone, fine, calcareous 3° Coal
2" Coal
6" Siltstone , ardillaceous «
— 26) SEY, ATS 10" Coallpistributed with bands
oF Crane = Shale at base 3" Vbetween 340'10"— 344"
oa,
6° Siltstone, grey.
0” Sandstone - wacke, mudstone at base.
Coal Cha en 368—370', separated
a fey 13" band
Siltstone, grey. eS
GA
0" Greywacke
0° Shale, grey, silty
6 White greywacke, pebbly between 432'- 434!
occasfonal shale bands.
Coal
Siltstone ~ grey, sandy, shale at base.
i CELLO PEE ef
DR
5
)
O
6
8
0
Sandstone, fine, grey, silty.
0° Siltstone, grey, with shale bands.
0” Greywacke conglomerate.
0 Sandstone, fine, argillaceous.
6" Mudstone and shale, grey.
oe Coal
G Sandstone, fine, grey
0” Mudstene-grey, silty, with shale bands from
558 = 592 containing coal.
0" Siltstone~ grey, argillaccous, sandy at top.
0" Sandstone ~grey, argillaceous.
0 Siltstone- grey, argiflaceous,
6° Mudstone — grey
40" Coal
6" Mudstane
0 Greywacke-white, with siltstone and clay tronstone,
Distributed, with bands,
between 687'4°—697's”
Mudstone grey
Coal
» &
{ °
of
ria
Mudstone and shale, grey, silty in places.
0” Greywacke-white to green, scattered pebbles.
conglomerates at 740-753, 784-7387 1189 ~ 793 and’ at base.
6" Shale, grey.
G 2
5 2" Distributed, with bandas,
, Coat " 3. between 5056" —§211'5”
7 Shale, grey 2" 2. Distributed with bana's
Coal 5” between 823° §29' +”
0" Sandstone, grey, silty.
o" Greywacke, white
6" Siltstone grey.
6" Mua'stone, grey
2. Coal
0" Shale and mudstone, grey
0" Siltstone~ argillaccous, grey, with bands of shale
and clay
0 Greywacke, white
oa" Siltstone, grey with sandy /enses.
Mudstone, grey, siity, grading to shale at base.
fs
Mudstone- silty and shale with coal bands.
Greywacke -white
(e]
De
2
5
"
o" Muadstone-silty, grey
6 Greywacke, light grey.
3° Coal
0 Grey wacke-white, coarse, with conglomerate bands,
0” Greywacke~ grey, fine, silty
°" Mudstone, silty, grey.
0" Greywacke ~ grey, coarse grained with 2° conglomerate at tap,
@ Mudlstone , grey, with sandy lenses.
0° Greywacke, grey, medium,
0” Greywacke, fine, grey, with siltstone and shale bands.
0 Greywacke-medium, grey, with siltstone bands
0° Greywacke, grey, mecium.
0” Siltstone ~grey, with greywacke from 1178 ~ 178° 9"
BASE OF TOMAGO BEDS
TRANSITION OR BAYSWATER BEDS
0 =Mudstfone ais grey with occasional shale and
siltstone hands.
o' Siltstonc, grey, argillaceous.
0" Mudstone, dark grey, silty fo sandy.
0" Siltstone, grey.
TOP OF UPPER MARINE BEDS
0 Mudstone-grey to black, pyritiferous ?
0 Shale - light blue
Ammodiscus Mulficinckus of 1330’,
0" Mudstone-dark grey, pyrttic, siliceous,
Basslerdila sp. at 1346
Oo Shale, dark grey, pyritic.
Mudstone, grey.
Shale, blue, with some mudstone
0" Mudstone - grey to black, with shale partings
and bands of crystal tuffs.
Nodosaria Serocoldensis at 1428’ 5437.
0" Shale - black with 1'6" black mudstone.
0” Mud'stone, black -
0" Shale, black,
0" Mudstone, black 4
Text-figure 2.
Coal Seam
Seat Earth
Sana'stone
Bind or Shale
‘ussel Band
oal
Sanalstone
Bind
Jronstone Nodules
Coal
Flagsy Sandstone
Sandstone
Jronstone
Flagstone
Black Bind
Coal Seam
Seat Earth
Detail of Coal Measure Unit
(after Raistrick § Marshall)
Fig, ae
Piedmont Deltaic Neritic
Three tynes of cyclothems showing cha
near-source areas to shallow fluctuating marine conditions.
150
Coal & undercley
may bs present.
ge from
(Adapted from Wanless §& Shepard Geol Soc.Am Bull 1938)
Fig.“c”
BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY.
Member 10.
Member 9.
Member 8.
Member 7.
MemberG.
Member 5,
Member 4.
Member 3.
Member 2.
Member |.
Grey shale sandy at top marine fossils §
ironstone concretions tn lower part.
Limestone; marine fossils.
Black laminated shale,large marine
fossils. 3
Limestone -marine fossils.
Grey shale, pyritic nodules, ironstone
concretions at base, marine fossils rare
Coal
Underclay, med. light grey, lower part calesreous
Freshwater limestone ngaules, disc
beds, usully CE peratl liscontinuous
Grey sandy shale.
Fine gr micaceous sanaistone and
siltstone, massive @ thin bedded plant
remains,
The ideal cyclothem (adapted from Wilman § Payne ///, Geol.
Survey Bull, G6. /942.& other sources.
Fig. “bp”
Sand-—loose Conglomerate
Soft Sandstone & Shale
Shaly Sandstone
Grey Shale
Coal & two 3” bana's
Shale-some coal bands at top.
Shale with bands of sandstone
Shaly Sandstone
Sandstone
Grey Shale
Shaly Sandstone
Detail from N21 Bore Ravensworth State Coal Mine Reserve.
Text-figure 3.
Fig.'da°
150
idercley
esent.
m
‘ conditions.
BOOKER, BURSILL AND MCELROY.
Member 10. Grey shale sandy at top marine fossils &
Member 9.
Member 8.
Member 7.
MemberG.
Member 5,
Member 4.
Member 3.
Mamber 2.
Mamber [.
ironstone concretions in lower part.
Limestone; marine fossils.
Black laminated shale, large marine
fossils.
Limestone -marine fossils.
Grey shale, pyritic nodules, ironstone
concretions at base, marine fossils rare.
Coal.
Underclay, med. light grey, lower part calcareous.
Freshwater limestone nodules, discontinuous
beds, usully non-fossiliferous,
Grey sandy shale.
Fine gr micaceous Sandstone ana
siltstone, massive @ thin bedded plant
remains,
The ideal cyclothem (adapted from Wilman § Payne //1, Geol.
‘Survey Bull, G6. /942.& other sources.
Fig. “fp
|
HHH
nil
|
LL
|
|
|
|
|
|
|
Sand—loose Conglomerate
Soft Sandstone & Shale
Shaly Sandstone
Grey Shale
Coal & two 3° bands
Shale-some coal bands at top.
Shale with bands of sandstone
Shaly Sandstone
Sandstone
Grey Shale
SEDIMENTATION OF THE TOMAGO COAL MEASURES. 151
examined the various hypotheses which may be summarized as (1) the hypothesis
of intermittent subsidence, and (2) the hypothesis of alternate subsidence and
uplift, and proposed a third hypothesis of sea-level fluctuations. Included in
their hypothesis is a postulation of glacial control of sea-level fluctuations as a
factor in cyclic sedimentation.
As this is the first record of cyclic sedimentation in the coal measures of
New South Wales, it is considered premature at this stage to attempt to theorize
as to its causation. Any or all of the hypotheses referred to above might be
applicable. The suggestion of glacial control of sea-level fluctuations is, however,
of more than passing interest in view of the widespread glacial conditions known
to have existed in the Permian of the Hunter River Valley of New South Wales.
REFERENCES.
Condon, M. A., 1952. Aust. Jour. Science, 15, 53-55.
David, Sir T. W. E., 1907. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W. G4, p. 211. Govt. Printer, Sydney.
Krumbein, W. C., and Sloss, L. L., 1951. ‘‘ Stratigraphy and Sedimentation ”’, p. 377. W. H.
Freeman & Co., San Francisco.
Pettijohn, F. J., 1949. ‘*‘ Sedimentary Rocks ’’, p. 137. Harper & Brothers, New York.
Raistrick, A., and Marshall, C. E., 1939. ‘‘ The Nature and Origin of Coal Seams ’’, p. 23.
English Universities Press Ltd., London.
Raggatt, H. G., 1938. D.Sc. Thesis, University of Sydney, pp. 42, 43, 62. Unpublished.
Udden, J. A., 1912. U.S. Geol. Surv. Bulletin 506, p. 26.
Wanless, H. R., and Shepard, F. P., 1936. Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 47, 1177-1206.
Willer, J. M., 1930. Jour. Geol., 38, 101-110.
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Purate XIII.
Fig. 1.—Graded bedding in greywacke, No. 6 Bore, Ravensworth State Coal Mine Reserve.
Fig. 2.—The Liddell Sandstone resting on shales overlying the Liddell Seam, Pyke’s Gully
Open Cut. The shales overlying the seam and the topmost plies of the seam itself have been
crumpled by the weight and the forward slumping of the overlying sediments.
Fig. 3.—Minute lenticles in shale, Bayswater Bore.
Fig. 4.—Well developed cone-in-cone structure, Bayswater Bore. XI.
Fig. 5.—Surface pitting on ignimbrite(?), Bayswater Bore. The pitting may be due to
deposition in shallow water or, more probably, rain prints. Xl.
PLATE XIV.
Fig. 1.—Arenite from No. 6 Bore, Ravensworth State Coal Mine Reserve. x40. Specimen
No. M.S8.6.
Fig. 2.—Arenite from No. 8 Bore, Ravensworth State Coal Mine Reserve. x40. Specimen
No. M.S. 160.
Fig. 3.—Arenite from the Bayswater Bore. 40. Specimen No. R.W.20.
Fig. 4.—Lutite from the Bayswater Bore. x40. Specimen No. R.W. 37.
Fig. 5.—Ignimbrite (?) from the Bayswater Bore. 40. Specimen No. R.W. 104.
Fig. 6.—Crystal tuff from the Bayswater Bore. x40. Specimen No. R.W. 111.
GEOLOGY AND SUBSURFACE WATERS OF THE MOREE
DISTRICT, NEW SOUTH WALES.
By J. Rapr*
With four Text-figures.
Manuscript received, October 23, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953.
INTRODUCTION.
The Moree district is situated in the north of New South Wales
immediately south of the Queensland border and forms part of the area
included in the eastern lobe of the New South Wales section of the Great
Artesian Basin. It has been selected for description on account of its impor-
tance in regard to the stratigraphy and structure of the Great Artesian
Basin. It occupies an area of approximately 6500 square miles between
Goondiwindi, Mungindi and Narrabri.
Previous references to the artesian water of this district are to be found
in Symmonds (1912), Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission’s
Artesian Investigations (19389, 1940) and David (1950).
In compiling the present paper full use was made of bore data collected
by the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission of N.S.W. The
boundaries of the Cretaceous series were determined from the data obtained
by Miss Irene Crespin of the Mineral Resources Bureau, Canberra, during
an examination of microfossils from samples taken from several bores in
the area between 1940 and 1946. The writer made a number of visits to the
district for purposes of field investigation.
The country contains but few rock outcrops, being mostly covered by
Pleistocene and Recent black soil and waste; the surface is very flat with a
slight slope to the west and the rivers traversing it have very shallow and
meandering courses. Henee all the information as to the geology has been
gained from the logs of artesian and subartesian bores. Since these are
numerous it has been possible to obtain a fairly accurate idea of the strata
below the surface, though the boundaries shown in the maps and section
can only be regarded as tentative. It has been more difficult to determine
the depth of bedrock because many bores were not carried down to it, and
in the compilation of the bedrock map (Fig. 1) only the most significant
bores were taken into account. However, though there may be errors of
detail, it is considered that the countours obtained help to throw some light
on the structure of the basement complex.
Some trouble was taken to determine as exactly as possible the boundary
between Cretaceous and Jurassic beds because of the probability that the
variations in this surface reflect variations in the bedrock surface. Less
importance was attached to the Cretaceous Roma and Winton Series.
* Geologist, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney.
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 153
STRATIGRAPHICAL GEOLOGY.
Apart from some Tertiary basalts and a probable thin cover of Tertiary
freshwater sediments overlying the Winton series near the Queensland border,
the rocks in the Moree district are Palaeozoic and Mesozoic. As shown by
the bores the bedrock consists of Palaeozoic shales, conglomerates, felspar-
porphyries and granites. Partly as the result of a study of the Warialda
Intake Area, now under investigation by the writer, it is thought that the
beds underlying the main aquifers may be chiefly Triassic, Permian, Carboni-
ferous and Devonian, and partly Silurian and Ordovician. The granites inter-
. sected by bores in the south-western part of the district are Palaeozoic and
are referred tentatively to the Kanimblan orogeny, but the possibility must
not be excluded that late Permian intrusions are present in the extreme east.
In the Warialda Intake Area, some 50 miles east of Moree, are Triassic
beds consisting of conglomerates, sandstones and shales resting on the
Palaeozoic basement and overlain by sandstones of the Jurassic Walloon
Series. In shales interbedded with sandstones and bituminous shales on
the banks of Warialda Creek N.W. of Delungra, the writer recently found
a well-preserved flora including Thinnfeldia odontopteroides, and Johnstonia
sp., plants characteristic of the Triassic Ipswich Series of Queensland. From
the available bore logs it would appear that the Triassic beds occur only
on the eastern margin of the district and thin out quickly towards the west,
so that the Walloon strata rest directly on the older rocks.
The Walloon Series varies considerably in thickness from place to place
because of its deposition on an irregular surface not far from the shoreline,
and changes in lithological facies are observed within the limits of the
district. The lower part of the series is composed of shales which are correlated
with the Purlawaugh Beds of Mulholland (1950), while the upper part consists
of the porous sandstones known as the Pilliga Beds. With these through
change of facies some shales are interstratified and gradually they assume
a Shaly character. The thickest shale intercalations are found in the deeper
parts of the basin, as for example in Boronga No. 2 bore 58 miles N. of Moree.
The maximum thickness about 1500 feet of the Walloon Series was
disclosed in the Dolgelly bore, 40 miles N. of Moree, and the minimum
recognized thickness of about 170 feet was found in the Coonal bore, 31 miles
W. of Moree. The average thickness of the series is estimated to be about
700 feet. Apart from some indeterminable plant-remains, no fossils have
been found in the beds.
According to David (1950, p. 459) the Marburg and Bundamba beds of
Queensland and the soft Upper Coal-measures of the Walloon Series are
not represented in the New South Wales part of the Great Artesian Basin.
Of great interest is the transition from the Walloon Series to the Lower
Cretaceous. David (1950, p. 484) correlates outcrops in the far north-west
of N.S.W. with the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series of Queensland,
which is regarded as lacustrine. In several bores in the Moree district there
are sandy shales with lignite and coal and intercalations of sandstone between
Jurassic sandstones and Cretaceous marine shales; these beds, which have
yielded no microfossils, the writer regards as equivalents of the Blythesdale
Series. In the Walloon bore 20 miles N.W. of Moree a coal-seam 1’ 3” thick
between beds of shale was recorded at a depth of 1650 feet. In the Talmoi
bore, 26 miles N.W. of Moree, at a depth of 2640 feet 8 feet of shale were
found with small seams of coal, associated with sandy shale, white shale,
PP
154 J. RADE.
erey sandstone and clay. The average thickness of the series is thought
to be about 600 feet.
The Blythesdale Series in N.S.W. has yielded plant-remains. Walkom
(1918, p. 58) refers to fragments of Taeniopteris spatulata obtained at
1630 feet in the Walloon bore. This plant has a considerable vertical range,
and according to David (1950, p. 502) reaches its highest stratigraphical level
in the Upper Cretaceous Styx River beds of Queensland.
The Blythesdale beds are overlain by the marine Roma Series, consisting
of light bluish-grey shales or shaly mudstones. The lithological character is
very persistent, and intercalations of sandstone and sandy shale are but few.:
The series may attain a considerable thickness, estimated to be about 13800 feet
in the Boronga No. 2 bore and 1095 feet in Neargo No. 2 bore. The average
thickness is approximately 700 feet.
In the Roma beds a rich foraminiferal fauna has been found (Crespin,
1944, 1945, 1946). Many of the forms are identical with those of the Lower
Cretaceous of Western Australia (Crespin, 1937), and some are found
in the Upper Cretaceous of the North-west Basin (Crespin, 1938). According
to Miss Crespin the sandstones and gravels in Boronga No. 2 bore between
25 and 75 feet are Tertiary. From 100 to 250 feet clay was reported, containing
fine angular quartz grains, imonite and fragments of Bryozoa referable to
genera characteristic of Upper Cretaceous and Tertiary, as, for example,
Hornera, Cribrilina, Retepora beaniana and Filisparsa. At 275 feet the bore
passed into sediments of definitely Cretaceous age, in which fossils were
found from 752 to 2054 feet. From 902 feet down a persistent assemblage of
foraminifera was encountered, dominated by arenaceous genera including
Ammobaculites, Haplophragmoides, Trochammina and Arenobulimina together
with the following: Anomalina sp., Arenobulima puschi, Cassidulina cf.
subglobosa, Cibicides lobatulus, Crithionina, Globigerinoides trilobus, Globi-
gerina sp., Glomospira, Gyroidina winbilicata, Haplophragmium aequale,
Heronallenia sp., Hyperamminoides sp., Lagena globosa, Lenticulina cf. gibba,
L. cf. rotulata, Marginulina bullata, Nodosaria subtertenuata, Reophax,
Rzehakina, Spiroplectammina cf. scott, Spiroplectoides, Textularia sp., Ver-
neuilina polystropha.
The writer would place the boundary of the Winton and Roma Series
in Boronga No. 2 bore at 752 feet, and the boundary of Roma and Blythesdale
Series at approximately 2195 feet.
Another bore of the Moree district examined by Miss Crespin for
microfossils was Neargo, in which a typical assemblage of Lower Cretaceous
foraminifera was present from 355 to 1450 feet.
According to Walkom (1918, p. 58) Lower Cretaceous rocks with marine
fossils were encountered to 1500 feet in the Walloon bore; this depth approxi-
mately determines the boundary of Roma and Blythesdale Series.
Above the Roma Series lies the Upper Cretaceous Winton Series, repre-
senting a return of freshwater lacustrine conditions following the disappear-
ance of the Roma sea. Into the Winton Lake flowed rivers from the highlands of
New England bringing sand and mud, and at frequent intervals the occurrence
of swampy conditions resulted in deposits of lignite. The town of Moree
iS approximately on the old shore-line of the Winton Lake. In the Moree
artesian bore carbonaceous shale 29 feet 6 inches thick was encountered at
673 feet, and at 806 feet lignite alternating with dark shale, clay and sand-
stone, to a total thickness of 116 feet. The sequences begin with sandy layers,
which pass up into clay and shale, reflecting the conditions prevailing in
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 155
CONTOUR PLAN
OF BASEMENT COMPLEX OF
THE MOREE DISTRICT _
Scale —— |
(Miles 43200 4 8 2 0 e20oMiles z ee
| | oe ; Byer: :
OGGABILLA &
|
i!
°Z 8INSY-}X9,L
S0I@_ WHTIA ae FLMeSO (22,
ae SHWIIS NOOTIVM Ssvypr JO SVT “rt uv
Ei: ~ ; NOLLVNAOS SNOTIVLISI SO ISVI mm seacaeieeee
SWSTS TIVOSTHLATE —
INOIJWUAIS) JIMOT = = = oe
SO NOLISOH YI1VM
at 7
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 155
‘gr BASEMENT COMPLEX OF
CONTOUR PLAN |
THE MOREE DISTRICT
™.
GOONDIWINDI®
Text-figure 1.
156 J. RADE,
GEOLOGICAL SECTION A-B
HORIZON?)
wee TAL SCALE |
rep re HLL, SOLE say
N
BY
RY
8 8
= ag
Re
af §
w
g rs
OOH
AAAI
iit
I
HNN
Il
ON
AAA
=
Sey WATER. HORIZON OF
ANDY SHALE = -—— LOWER CRETACEOUS
SAND BLYIMESDALE SERIS iS
[E554 SANDSTONE =.=: BASE OF CRETACEOUS FORMATION
(MM) ¥¢A7e erseh, BASE OF HURAC, WALLOON SERIES
Tr GRAMTE
Text-figure 2.
J. RADE.
GEOLOGICAL SECTION A-B
156
eee ee AA
vg
=
a
“N
Siw
Sop 88
x |
ls g
NIN Zev sitog snag Wistiniisiii'l
Nx 8
<I
$ >
Mies Fji2:/10
Reef mabaaee
FI0G Srenpresnies
/ OW 7TIFJAC oe Oo fee Met te
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 157
CONTOUR PLAN OF THE BASE
OF THE LOWER CRETACEOUS
BLYTHESDALE SERIES
=e.
Text-figure 3.
158 J. RADE.
MAP OF THE MOREE DISTRICT |
SHOWING
BORES. FLOW LINES. GEOLOGICAL
SECTION LINES
SCALE GOONDIWINDI=.
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Y Text-figure 4.
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. 159
Winton time, the lignite and carbonaceous shale having been deposited in
a much more tranquil environment than the coarser sediments. The car-
bonaceous shale beginning at 673 feet is underlain by 1’ 6” of sand and
eravel, possibly deposited by rivers in a shallow lake. It is suggested
that the lignite layers beginning at 806 feet were laid down in the deltaic
region of a river entering the Winton Lake; they are underlain by 40 feet
of sandstone with streaks of lignite, and these may have been laid down in
a tranquil part of the delta occasionally inundated by floodwaters. As time
went on the conditions changed and the deposits were more of a swampy
lacustrine character with very fine deposits of clay and shale.
According to David (1950, p. 489) Winton beds to a thickness of 900 feet
and consisting of shale, carbonaceous shale and shaly sandstone with plant-
fragments, were found in the Walloon bore, resting on the marine Cretaceous
beds. On the bore-data available the thickness of the series in the Dolgelly
bore north of Moree may be placed at about 800 feet.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.
It is not proposed to consider the structure of the bedrock in detail here
as the author hopes in a later paper to deal with this question for the whole
area of the Great Artesian Basin within New South Wales.
From the contour-map (Fig. 1) it would appear that in the Moree
district a number of trends are expressed as valleys and ridges in the
bedrock, the most prominent being north-east and north-north-west respec-
tively. Some of the structures, possibly due to faulting, were apparently
imposed in post-Cretaceous time, since they are shown not only in the bedrock
contours but also in those of the base of the Lower Cretaceous, as in the
S.W. and N.E. parts of the district.
A fault striking W.N.W. is shown west of Bellata, evidence for which
was found in the Karinga bore, 4 miles S.W. of Bellata, where signs of strong
shearing were detected in shale samples recovered from the boring.
GROUNDWATER Hyprouocy.
Some salt water aquifers are met at depths between 60 and 200 feet,
but these are of no practical value. The first artesian flows are found in the
Blythesdale Series ,and the highest flow is at approximately 2400 feet in the
western part of the district; for example in the Wirrah bore 53 miles N.W.
of Moree it was struck at 2435 feet. In the northern part this flow was at
its greatest known depth of 2844 feet in Boronga No. 2 bore. The second
flow in the Blythesdale Series is often small and may be only a trickle. In
many places, particularly in the western part of the district, it is really two
separate flows.
The aquifers are in the sandstone beds. That from which the highest
flow is derived is between 30 and 100 feet thick, while the aquifer from which
the second flow comes varies considerably but averages between 40 and
50 feet in the western part of the district. This is split by a bed of shale
into two aquifers, as is seen on the geological section forming Fig. 2, in
Four Posts No. 2 bore, 43 miles N.W. of Moree, where the shale is 79 feet
thick. In the west the interval between the aquifers of the highest and the
second flows is between 170 and 340 feet.
The waters of these two flows differ greatly from those of the flows in
the Walloon Series in containing a markedly greater percentage of total
solids. The composition of the Blythesdale waters is illustrated in the
J. RADE.
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GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS. ; 161
accompanying table. The high percentage of total solids is due in part
to the carbonates occurring abundantly in the beds of the Blythesdale Series.
The main aquifers of the Moree district are situated in the Walloon
sandstones. The average depth of the first aquifer below the deepest Blythes-
dale aquifer is between 200 and 400 feet. Since from the practical point of
view it is important to know the depth to the first main flow, a contour-map
of the base of the Blythesdale Series has been prepared (Fig. 3). The
contours are, of course, only tentative, but the error cannot be very great
because the top of the Walloon Series is marked fairly distinctly by the
occurrence of sandstones containing small intercalations of shale. The first
main aquifer is further below the base of the Blythesdale Series in some
places than in others, being overlain by some thickness of sandstone: in the
Boomi bore 53 miles N.W. of Moree this overlying sandstone is about 100 feet
thick, in the Midkin No. 3 bore 21 miles N.W. of Moree it is about 160 feet,
and the greatest known thickness of 300 feet is found in the Roma bore,
42 miles S.W. of Moree.
The: Walloon sandstone is very porous, and therefore very favourable
for the accumulation and movement of underground water. To judge from
MulhoHand’s (1950, p. 126) investigations in the Coonamble area, only some
of the sandstones belonging to the Pilliga beds are permeable—usually friable
sandstones separated by relatively impermeable beds of harder sandstone
and sandy shale.
The water in the Walloon Series is softer than that in the Blythesdale
Series. Its chemical composition is illustrated in the table above.
It is of interest to note the relation between the chemical composition
of the artesian waters in the Moree district and the structural features of
the basement complex. For this purpose we may take Plan No. 11 accom-
panying the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission’s Artesian
Investigations, 2nd Interim Report (1940), which shows total mineral content
in grains per gallon in the bores east of the Narran River; this may be
compared with the contour-plan of the basement complex of the Moree district
forming Fig. 1 of the present paper. On both maps it is possible to recognize
at once the main thalweg of the artesian water, stretching from southern
Queensland into the eastern part of the Moree district. It is characterized
by water containing from 40 to 45 grains per gallon of total solids, which
moves from the deeepest part of the basin in the vicinity of Boronga No. 2
bore, south past Moree to the bores of Bellata and Fairview, where, to the
N.W. of Bellata, it is blocked by the Bellata fault. Areas whose waters have
a higher content of total solids are situated west of the main thalweg, and
the water with highest content of mineral matter is found in the N.E. part
of the district just at its boundary with the Warialda intake beds, as in
Currumbah, Marlow, Baroma No. 2 and Coolleearlee bores. Since the move-
ments of the water are indicated by the differing content of total solids from
place to place, we may infer that the Warialda intake beds have only
subordinate significance in regard to the supply of water to the Moree
district. These intakes yield water containing 61 grains per gallon and
upwards of total solids, and it is thought that these high figures may be
related to a possible thin cover of Blythesdale overlying the Walloon beds
on the western margin of the Warialda intake beds; if the beds were strongly
fractured the solution products of the calcareous layers might well leak
down into the Walloon sandstones and affect the chemical composition of
the main flows. However, the water with the high content of mineral matter
162 J. RADE.
very soon joins the main body of water coming from Queensland, so that its
content of total solids is much reduced.
The water derived from the intake beds about Narrabri and to the west
of it moves in a N.W. direction, as shown in Fig. 4.
SUMMARY.
The strata in the Moree district are mainly Mesozoic and Palaeozoic.
Palaeozoic trends are dominant in the structure of the basement complex.
The highest artesian flows are in the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series,
but the main flows come from the Jurassic Walloon Series. In chemical
composition the waters of the Blythesdale Series differ greatly from those
of the Walloon Series, the latter having a smaller content of total solids.
The chemical composition of the main flows is related to the movements of
the water, which in turn are governed by the geological structure of the
basement complex.
REFERENCES.
Crespin, I., 1937. ‘‘ Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera in Perth Bores.’’ J. Roy. Soc. W. Austr.,
24, 71. (In paper by W. J. Parr.)
1938. ‘‘ Upper Cretaceous Foraminifera from N.W. Basin.” J. Palaeont., 12, 391.
1944. ‘‘ Some Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from Bores in the Great Artesian
Basin, Northern New South Wales.’’ THis JouRNAL, 78, 17-24.
1945. ‘*‘ A Microfauna from Lower Cretaceous Deposits in Great Artesian Basin.”’
Commonwealth Miner. Res. Surv. Rept., 1945/16.
—— 1946. ‘‘ Lower Cretaceous Fauna in N.W. Basin.’ J. Palaeont., 20, 505.
David, Sir T. W. Edgeworth, 1950. ‘‘ The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia.’”” Edited
by W. R. Browne, London.
Mulholland, C. St. J., 1950. ‘* Review of Southern Intake Beds, New South Wales, and Their
Bearing on Artesian Problems.” Rep. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 125-127.
Symmonds, R. S., 1912. ‘“‘ Our Artesian Waters.” Sydney.
br ee A. B., 1918. ‘‘ Lower Mesozoic Rocks of Queensland.’’ Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W.,
Sion.
Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission. Artesian Investigations. Ist Interim Report,
1939. 2nd Interim Report, 1940.
MINERALIZATION OF THE ASHFIELD SHALE, WIANAMATTA
GROUP.
By JoHN F. LOVERING, M.Sc.
Department of Mineralogy and Petrology, The Australian Museum, Sydney.
With Plate XV and one Text-figure.
Manuscript received, October 30, 1953. Read, December 2, 1953.
CONTENTS.
: Page
Abstract .. 2, Bes Ae ai is ue a As .. 163
Introduction i. : he De oa ate oe .. 163
The Lithological Favitonniont ad = si ais i .. 164
Mineral Paragenesis :
Barite a8 Fa a ae ae he .. 164
Pyrite and Marcasite ae bs ie WA <r us .. 165
Kaolinite .. a ae she sig hs bi, ws .. 166
Siderite oie te Ses is ifs ae sick ae .. 166
Calcite bes ss big .. 166
The Geochemical aes Resceiated with epeetiont
Barite—Significance of Fluorescence .. mr a age .. 166
The Iron Sulphide Deposition .. aie ae sh .. 168
Siderite, Kaolinite and Calcite Deposition ae ae are -2 £69
The Mineralization Episodes .. ss a as eee a «+ 169
Acknowledgements Pe ne me axe Sige Pe! oe eo 170
References : a a me ae ie Ss .. 170
Explanation of Bete XV ne ae ae ies ee ahs ao AO
ABSTRACT.
Barite, pyrite, marcasite, kaolinite, siderite and calcite occur associated
with the sideritic mudstone bands in the Ashfield Shale, basal formation of the
Wianamatta Group.
Authigenic processes have formed syngenetic siderite and pyrite under
neutral to alkaline conditions. Epigenetic processes, with the agency of acid
supergene waters, have reprecipitated siderite, converted pyrite to marcasite
and sedimentary mica to kaolinite, deposited barite and calcite. Some processes
(e.g. redistribution of iron sulphide as marcasite) are apparently still in progress.
A hydrothermal episode, associated with the early Tertiary basic alkaline
intrusions of the Sydney district, is suggested as the source of the massive vein
barite.
INTRODUCTION.
In this work a suite of minerals, including barite, associated with the
Ashfield Shale, is described along with the various physical and chemical tech-
niques used to elucidate their origins. D and F numbers refer to registered
Specimens in the Australian Museum collections.
164 JOHN F. LOVERING.
Barite crystals have been recorded previously from the ‘* Wianamatta
Shales ’’ at Macdonaldtown and St. Peters, near Sydney (Anderson, 1905) and
from the Hawkesbury Sandstone at Cook’s River (Smith, 1891) Fivedock and
Pyrmont (David, 1894); Northmead (Hodge-Smith, 1930). From the descrip-
tions given it seems that the occurrences in the ‘‘ Wianamatta Shales ’’ were
limited to crystals of epigenetic barite deposited in joint planes in the Ashfield
Shale.
THE LITHOLOGICAL EKNVIRONMENT.
The Ashfield Shale (Lovering, 1953) is a black shale, in places humic and
sandy, with a maximum thickness of 200 feet, lying directly on top of the
Hawkesbury Sandstone of the Triassic System, Sydney Basin. Small vitrainous
lenses are abundant in the shales, but the most important variant is a sideritic
mudstone (‘‘ clay ironstone ’’) forming bands and lenses at irregular intervals
throughout the sequence. The 40 feet thick section in the brick quarry at
Ashbury (Sydney 1 inch:1 mile military sheet reference 120123) shows nine
such bands varying in thickness from one to ten inches. Associated with the
bands are cylindrical shaped masses isolated within the black shales.
Siderite, a major constituent of this sideritic mudstone, occurs as rounded
pellets set in a base of indeterminate clay material. Partial analyses of four
sideritic mudstones (Lovering, 1953) shows ferrous carbonate between
39 -5-48-7%. The absence of barium is of importance.
These sideritic mudstone bands are the host rock of a suite of minerals
(barite, pyrite, marcasite, kaolinite, siderite, calcite) which reflects a series of
mineralization episodes commencing in syngenetic deposition and continuing
up to the present time.
MINERAL PARAGENESIS.
The mineral paragenesis is consistent over the whole areal extent of the
Ashfield Shale. The minerals are, in general, restricted to the sideritic mud-
_ Stones. They occur in several environments.
(a) Concretionary structures: Hollow, spherical (diameter <3 cm.),
concretionary structures are found in the sideritic mudstones. On a weathered
surface they appear as spherical nodules locally on the same horizontal plane.
The hollow cores of these concretions are more or less completely filled with
barite, kaolinite, siderite and iron sulphides (Plate XV, Fig. 2).
(b) Vein fillings: Irregular veins and lenses up to 1 cm. across occur in the
sideritic mudstone bands and, particularly, the cylindrical masses. Partly
filed veins have allowed crystallization of barite, while others are completely
filled with massive barite, iron sulphides and kaolinite.
(c) Fault breccia and joint plane fillings: Minor normal faults through the
Ashfield Shale often have a localized brecciated zone with which is associated
veins and cavities filled with fibrous and crystalline calcite. Thin rosettes of
milky barite crystals, as well as single crystals, occur in the vertical joints
(striking N. 10° K. and E.-W.) and horizontal joints in the Ashfield Shale.
Barite.
Barite occurs in the concretionary nodules both massive and as short
(<5 mm.) tabular and prismatic crystals. When massive, it is white, but the
crystals may be clear and colourless, white or even iron stained. Crystals are
found also in some of the open veins. Thin sections through concretionary
nodules show barite of two generations. The earlier barite occurs on the walls
of the nodules and is always clouded by clay inclusions. The later barite occurs
towards the centre of the vugh and is relatively clear and free from inclusions.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVII, 1953, Plate XV
a : :
:
” =
f
. :
or
oe
MINERALIZATION OF ASHFIELD SHALE, WIANAMATTA GROUP. 165
The massive barite filling veins may be white and translucent or clear. This
massive variety fluoresces strongly under ultra-violet radiation.
Barite also occurs as thin buff-coloured rosettes of platy crystals and as
single crystals along joint planes in the sideritic mudstones and normal shales.
Pyrite and Marcasite.
Pyrite and marcasite are intimately associated with each other in the
concretionary nodules, the irregular veins, and as isolated crystals and lens-
Shaped masses in the sideritic mudstone bands.
Mr. R. L. Stanton, from examination of polished sections, has reported in a
personal communication that pyrite and marcasite occur in approximately equal
proportions. The ideal section of a sulphide vein shows
(1) Inner zone of coarse, platy sulphide.
(2) Intermediate zone of fine-grained sulphide with a rather spongy
appearance due to inclusions of sideritic and shaley material.
(3) Outer zone very much broken with these inclusions.
This structure has arisen from the mode of deposition of the sulphide
originally filling cracks and veins in the sideritic mudstones. As the deposition
continued, the original space was filled and the surrounding shaley material
was then more or less replaced by the sulphide.
Fig. 1.—Iron sulphide (marcasite after pyrite) veins (black)
with some barite (lined) associated with siderite-rich mudstone
(dotted) and clay mudstone (white). Camera lucida x 4.
Figure 1 shows the association of the sulphide and barite veins with the
siderite-rich and clay mudstones. Lens-shaped masses of sulphide are always
horizontal, arising from deposition in horizontal cracks. These lenses are often
associated with fish remains (e.g. F43740 Myriolepis ? from Thornleigh).
The concretionary nodules may be filled with massive sulphide or contain
small cubes and pyritohedra. In all associations pyrite has been the first
mineral deposited. A subsequent change in the environment has converted the
pyrite to marcasite—a process beginning along cleavage traces in the pyrite and
Spreading into the body of the crystal.
166 JOHN F. LOVERING.
Kaolinite.
A white clay mineral often fills the centres of the concretionary nodules
and is associated with barite in some veins. An X-ray powder photograph
shows the characteristic pattern of kaolinite together with three unknown lines
at 2-800 A, 1-896 A and 1-620 A.
Sidertte.
As well as occurring as a syngenetic constituent of the sideritic mudstone,
siderite is found in the concretionary nodules as a result of re-deposition at a
later period. The siderite, apparently the last formed mineral in the concretion,
occurs with barite and sulphide and always has a radiating structure.
Calcite.
Calcite has been found only in faulted zones in the Ashfield Shale. The
calcite occurs mostly as thin veins of fibrous crystals, but in places the faulting
has opened up larger cavities which are lined with white to colourless nail-head
crystals.
THE GEOCHEMICAL PROCESSES ASSOCIATED WITH DEPOSITION.
Barite—Significance of Fluorescence.
Specimens of barite from each of the three modes of occurrence in the
Ashfield Shale were examined under monochromatic ultra-violet light (A =2536 A)
with the following results :
(a) Massive and crystalline barite from concretionary nodules gave no
fluorescence.
(b) Single crystals and aggregates from joint planes gave no fluorescence.
(c) Massive vein fillings in the sideritic mudstones gave a strong pale-green
fluorescence.
In addition, specimens of barite, of hydrothermal origin at Prospect and.
the basic breccia filled neck of Dundas, both close to Sydney, gave an identical
strong pale-green fluorescence. .
The positive or negative fluorescence appears to be dependent on the manner
of deposition, and so indicative of the origin, of the barite.
Barite (barium sulphate) is an inorganic crystal phosphor whose lumin-
escence depends essentially on the crystalline nature of the base material
(Pringsheim, 1949). Although little is known about the effect specific crystal
structures have on luminescence, the so-called layer lattice structures shown by
many compounds with large negative ions (such as SO,-, NO,- and I-) have
been suggested as particularly favourable phosphors because interstitial atoms
can penetrate easily into the relatively large spacings which separate the tightly
packed layer planes. The interstitial atoms causing luminescence may be atoms
or ions of either radicle displaced from their lattice positions or they may be
impurities. These ‘foreign activators’? may actually quench luminescence
by excessive concentration and are normally related to the base as
(1) Ions replacing ions of the base material in the matrix lattice.
(2) Interstitial atoms slightly deforming the surrounding lattice.
(3) Ions or atoms embedded at points of lattice defects.
Semi-quantitative spectrographic analyses made by Mr. D. A. Sinclair,
Defence Research Laboratories, N.S.W., of three barite specimens with various
MINERALIZATION OF ASHFIELD SHALE, WIANAMATTA GROUP. 167
fluorescent behaviours, localities and origins, indicate the activators present
(Table 1). The three specimens were :
(a) D35754. SBarite crystals associated with the basic breccia filling
volcanic pipe at Dundas, near Sydney. Strong pale green fluorescence.
Hydrothermal origin. |
(b) D38136. Massive barite, filling vein associated with sideritic mudstone
in Ashfield Shale, at the Ashfield Brickworks quarry, Milton St.,
Ashfield. Strong pale green fluorescence. Hydrothermal ?
(c) D9440. Flat barite crystals filling joint planes in Ashfield Shale from
Macdonaldtown, near Sydney. No fluorescence. Epigenetic.
According to Smith (1944), suitable activators for barium sulphate are
Cu, Ag, Au, Mn, Pb, Ni, Sb, Bi, V, U. Of these only Cu is present in the spectro-
eram of the fluorescent varieties, and is probably partially responsible for the
fluorescence as an activator. The absence of Fe is of importance.
TABLE l.
Spectrographic Analyses of Barite.
Barite. Barite. | Barite.
Spectrogram Dundas. D 35754. Ashfield. D 38136. Macdonaldtown.
Indication of Fluorescent. | Fluorescent. D 9440. Non-
Amount Present. Hydrothermal. | Hydrothermal ? Fluorescent.
Epigenetic.
Major element ena: Ba. Ba.
Minor element .. a Fe.
J $1
Strong trace ihe Sa ee ae | Sr, Al, Mg.
_——_—_—— dw Cu
Trace se ee a Sr: Ca.
Faint trace set 5, | Ca,..S1,, Mg. Si, Ale Me. Cu. | Nie Pb?
Very faint trace Se Ous ome oe? Mn, Sn?, Ti?
Not detected .. .. | Fe, Al, Mn, Ni, Ti.*.| Ca, Fe, Mn, Ni, Sn, *
| Pbi*
* Li, Na, K, Be, Ag, Au, Zn, Cd, Hg, Bi, As, Sb, Cr, Co, V, \ Were not detected in
Mo, W, Zr, P, B. ft all samples.
N.B.—Queried indications are of doubtful authenticity.
Analyst: D. A. Sinclair, Defence Research Laboratories, N.S.W.
By contrast the non-fluorescent epigenetic barite contains four possible
activators (Cu, Ni, Mn, Pb). The explanation of this apparent anomaly lies
in the very high Fe content of the non-fluorescent barite. The effect of this Fe
is that of a ‘‘ poison,’’ quenching the fluorescence of the other activators.
The spectrographic analyses of Table 1 also show the agreement of the
nature and concentrations of the trace elements in both fluorescent specimens.
This evidence suggests that the vein barite in the sideritic mudstones has
been deposited, like the Dundas barite, from hydrothermal fluids related to the
Tertiary basic intrusions of the Sydney district.
The analysis of the epigenetic material from Macdonaldtown is very different,
with impurities abundant both in number and concentration. Fe and Si are
particularly abundant, reaching the proportions of minor elements. This
abundance of impurities is probably a reflection of the origin of the barite.
168 JOHN F. LOVERING.
In deposition from solution, barium sulphate has a remarkable tendency
to carry down other salts as it precipitates (Vogel, 1947). This process of co-
precipitation is due primarily to impurity absorption on the surface of the
primary particles of the crystal. The impurity may become trapped in the
spaces of the layer lattice structure of the barium sulphate or may form a solid
solution with it. Ions that heavily co-precipitate with BaSo, are Nat, K+, Lit,
Catt, Srtt, Altt+, Cr+++, Fet++, Of these Fet++, Al+++, Cat+ and Sr** are
all abundant impurities in the epigenetic barite (Table 1). It is only to be
expected that the supergene solutions transporting the BaSo, had: dissolved a
number of impurities as they percolated through the rocks and these impurities
were then co-precipitated with the epigenetic barite.
The normal solubility of barium sulphate is 0-0023 g. per litre. To account
for the abundance of this epigenetic barite there would need to be some factor
operating to increase the mobility of BaSo,. Palmquist (1938) has proved that
Cl- ion increases solubility, and Old (1942) has shown that supergene water from
the Ashfield Shale contains between 378 and 1,555 grains Cl- per gallon. Increased
mobility would also arise from the increased concentration of H+ ions available
from the oxidation of the iron sulphide.
The Iron Sulphide Deposition.
Edwards (1953) has developed a technique based on the work of V. M.
Goldschmidt and others by which the likely origin of iron sulphides may be
indicated from a determination of the ratio of sulphur to selenium in the mineral.
Tron sulphides (i.e. marcasite and pyrite) of hydrothermal origin have ratios
of the order S:Se: 10,000: 1, while those of sedimentary or supergene origin
have S:Se ratios of about 200,000: 1 or greater.
TABLE 2.
S : Se Ratios of Iron Sulphides (FeS,) from the Ashfield Shale (Wianamatta Group) and Hawkesbury
Sandstone.
(Per courtesy of Dr. A. B. Edwards.)
é
D 38865. D 38130. DR 7443.
Warragamba Brick Quarry, Brick Quarry,
Dam Site. Midson Road, Thornleigh.
Eastwood.
Formation Hawkesbury Ashfield Ashfield
Sandstone (?) Shale. Shale.
YAS) 42-99 24-38 20-53
%Se 0- 0002 Nil 0-0001
S/Se wt. 204,950 250,000 or 205,300
greater
Analyst: G. C. Carlos, C.S.I.R.O. Mineragraphic Investigations, Melbourne.
Determinations carried out at the Mineragraphic Section, C.S.I.R.O., of
the S : Se ratios of two iron sulphide samples from thin vein fillings in the sideritic
mudstones of the Ashfield Shale indicate supergene origin for them (Table 2).
Most of this iron sulphide is marcasite, which has more or less completely replaced
pyrite.
The evidence suggests that the FeS, precipitated by the anaerobic bacteria
(see later) has gathered in contraction cracks in the semi-colloidal ferrous car-
bonate muds and given rise to the sideritic mudstones. In this environment
MINERALIZATION OF ASHFIELD SHALE, WIANAMATTA GROUP. 169
the FeS, was deposited as pyrite rather than marcasite, and the pyrite formed
the original fillings of the veins and isolated crystals found in vughs in the
mudstones, indicating that the environment was neutral or alkaline (Edwards
and Baker, 1951).
The changing conditions of the epigenetic environment (from oxidation of
the sulphide ?) have converted the pyrite more or less completely to marcasite,
indicating that the environment had become acid (Edwards and Baker, 1951).
Some of the marcasite has probably been precipitated as a primary deposit
from the supergene waters. Marcasite is still being deposited from the acid
supergene waters of the Hawkesbury Sandstone. Coralloidal and stalactitic
iron sulphide filling a sub-horizontal shear zone in the Hawkesbury Sandstone (?)
about R.L. +30 feet at the site of Warragamba Dam excavation was proved
to be mareasite, and is apparently still in the process of being deposited. The
S:Se ratio (Table 2) of this marcasite was determined at the Mineragraphic
Section, C.S.I.R.O., and is of the order 204,950: 1, indicative of a supergene
origin.
Siderite, Kaolinite and Calcite Deposition.
The siderite is apparently of two generations—syngenetic and epigenetic.
As the main constituent of the sideritic mudstones, it is obviously of syngenetic
origin. The reducing conditions and neutral to alkaline pH at the depositional
site were the factors controlling the concentration and deposition of Fe as ferrous
carbonate (siderite).
The later change to acid conditions during the epigenetic stage caused
solution of the siderite, followed by reprecipitation as radiating aggregates in
the concretionary nodules.
The kaolinite fillings in the concretionary nodules are also a result of the
changing environment of epigenetic times. The sedimentary mica, unstable
under the acid conditions, has been altered to kaolinite and concentrated in the
nodules.
The calcite has been deposited from supergene waters in the latest stage of
mineralization—the post-faulting epigenetic stage, and is probably still forming.
The calcium carbonate has been dissolved from such calcareous members of the
Ashfield Shale as the cone-in-cone horizon (Lovering, 1953).
THE MINERALIZATION EPISODES.
The processes leading to the deposition of the various minerals described
in previous sections show the effect of four distinct mineralization episodes.
(1) The Ashfield Shale was deposited under humid lagoonal conditions
with restricted circulation and alternating marine-freshwater inundations, with
essentially neutral-alkaline pH environment (Lovering, 1953). These conditions
led to the formation of humic black shales and sideritic mudstone bands with
associated pyrite. The reducing environment and neutral-alkaline pH ensured
the formation of pyrite, rather than marcasite (Edwards and Baker, 1951), and
iron carbonate rather than oxide.
The iron sulphide was probably deposited by anaerobic sulphur bacteria,
which flourish under such conditions (Galliher, 1933). They generate colloidal
ferrous sulphide which migrates and fills contraction cracks in the ferrous
carbonate muds, partly replaces the walls, and later stabilizes as pyrite, either
Massive (in the veins) or as tiny cubes and pyritohedra (in the cavities).
Associations of sideritic mudstone bands with black humic shale sequences
are of world-wide occurrence. It is usually suggested that the siderite has
formed because of an inordinate amount of iron being introduced. This would
presuppose an unusual source area as well as a special depositional environment.
It is more likely that the conditions associated with the special depositional
170 JOHN F. LOVERING.
environment concentrated the incoming iron and precipitated it in a restricted
horizon as ferrous carbonate rather than distributing it through the shale
sequence as oxide.
(2) With the advent of the epigenetic stage and removal of the sediments
from the sedimentary (authigenic) environment, a change of pH conditions
occurred. The syngenetic siderite in the mudstones was locally leached, existing
cavities enlarged and the concretionary nodules were formed. Existing pyrite
became unstable and was converted to marcasite; sedimentary mica altered
to kaolinite ; some barite (with kaolinite inclusions) was deposited ; siderite was
reprecipitated as spherical crystal aggregates.
(3) Hydrothermal solutions associated with early Tertiary intrusions of
basic alkaline magma around the Sydney district appear to have introduced
barite in favourable horizons. This barite is only found in irregular veins,
commonly replacing kaolinite formed in the second episode.
(4) Epigenetic mineralization has continued up to the present day. Calcite
has been deposited from supergene waters in late Tertiary fault zones. Much
barite has been deposited also in this last episode in veins, cavities and joint
planes, from waters containing BaSo, in solution dissolved from the relatively
large quantity deposited by the hydrothermal fluids. Marcasite has been, and
apparently is still being deposited, from supergene waters below the water table.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
The author would like to record his sincere appreciation of the assistance
given to him by Mr. R. L. Stanton, Department of Geology, University of
Sydney, by his examination of polished sections ; Dr. A. B. Edwards, Minera-
graphic Investigations, C.S.I.R.O. (S:Se ratio determinations); Dr. J. A.
Ferguson, Division of Building Research, C.8.I.R.O. (X-ray identification of
kaolinite) ; officers of the Defence Research Laboratories (preparation of
polished sections and spectrographic analyses).
The permission of the Trustees of the Australian Museum to publish in this
Journal is gratefully acknowledged.
REFERENCES.
Anderson, C., 1905. Mineralogical Notes No. 2. Rec. Austr. Mus., 6, 89-90.
David, T. W. E., 1894. Notes on the Occurrence of Barytes. THIs JOURNAL, 27, 407.
Edwards, A. B., 1953. Personal communication.
Edwards, A. B., and Baker, G., 1951. Some Occurrences of Supergene Iron Sulphides in Relation
to Their Environments of Deposition. Journ. Sed. Petrol., 21, 34-46.
Ferguson, J. A., and Hosking, J. S., 1953. Industrial Clays of the Sydney Area, N.S.W. I.
Geology and Mineralogy. (In the press.)
Galliher, E. W., 1933. The Sulphur Cycle in Sediments. Journ. Sed. Petrol., 3, 51-63.
Hodge-Smith, T., 1930. Mineralogical Notes No. 4. Rec. Austr. Mus., 17, 408-413.
Lovering, J. F., 1953. The Stratigraphy of the Wianamatta Group, Triassic System, Sydney
Basin. Rec. Austr. Mus. In the press.
Old, A. N., 1942. The Wianamatta Shale Waters of the Sydney District. N.S.W. Dept. Agri-
culture, Misc. Pub. No. 3225.
Palmquist, 8., 1938. On the Solubility Relations of Barium Sulphate. Kumngl. Fys. Salls. I Lund
For., 8, 103-109. .
Pringsheim, P., 1949. Fluorescence and Phosphorescence. Interscience Publishers, New York.
Smith, F. G., 1944. Fluorescence as Related to Minerals. Univ. Toronto Studies, Geol. Ser.
No. 49. Contributions to Canadian Mineralogy, 1944, pp. 41-54.
Smith, H. G., 1891. On the Occurrence of Barite in the Hawkesbury Sandstone near Sydney.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 6, 131-132.
Vogel, A. I., 1947. A Textbook of Quantitative Inorganic Analysis. Longmans, Green & Co.,
London.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE XV.
Fig. 1.—Pyrite-marcasite veins associated with hydrothermal ? barite in sideritic mudstones.
D 38145. x1.
Fig. 2.—Concretionary nodules with pyrite-marcasite, barite, kaolinite, siderite. D 38151. X#.
INDEX
A
Page
Assemblages of Graptolites in N.S8.W... 73
Awards... Bee are = ee XV
B
Balance Sheet .. : XXIV
Behrend, F. A.—A Seton: of In-
dependent Axioms for Magnitudes.. 27
Booker, F. W., Bursill, C., and McElroy,
C. T.—Sedimentation of the Tomago
Coal Measures in the Singleton-
Muswellbrook Coalfield: An Intro-
ductory Study . oe Been 137
Bursill, C.—See Beeeer. F. W., ete.
Cc
Clarke Medal, Awards of the .. PD 311
Clarke Memorial Lectures, List of .. xvi
Clarke Memorial Lecture — Some
Problems of Tertiary Geology in
Southern Australia, by Martin F.
Glaessner a ae ae oot fool
D
Dixson, William.—Obituary .. XXVill
E
Edgeworth David Medal, Awards of the xviii
Essential Oil of Backhousia myrtifolia
Hooker et Harvey. Part II. The
Occurrence of Physiological Forms .. 102
G
Geology and Subsurface Waters of the
Moree District, N.S.W. sis oe Ow
Geology Section.—Abstract of Pro-
ceedings : ; XXV1l
Glaessner, Martin F. WS iio Ezoploms of
Tertiary Geology in Southern Australia 31
Griffith, J. L.—On the Interpretation
of Certain Laplacian ee Func-
tions fic ee : - Seo
H
Hanlon, F. N., Osborne, G. D., and
Raggatt, H. G.—Narrabeen Group:
Its Sub-divisions and Correlations
between the South Coast and Narra-
been-Wyong Districts sis -. LOG
J
Page
James Cook Medal, Awards of the = xvili
Jurassic Fishes of N.S.W. (Macro-
semiidz) with a Note on the Triassic
Genus Promecosomina .. ae pei 3)
L
Liversidge Research ee Awards
of them. : > 4 -<
Lovering, John F. AS Niawer nieatibn of te
Ashfield Shale, Wianamatta Group.. 163
M
McElroy, C. T.—See Booker, F. W., etc. 137
McIntosh, Arthur Marshall.—Obituary xxviii
McKern, H. H. G., and Spies, (Mrs.)
M. C.—A Note on the Composition of
the Essential Oi of ae aa
citriodora Hook. Type : 24
McKern, H. H. G.—See Penfold, A. R. se
etc. sh 102
Magee, C. J. Ue eeibniiel ee ae ]
Measures of Double Stars on Sydney
Astrographic Plates, Declinations
—52° to —58° a a .. 124
Members, List of ah ws thas GV
Mineralisation of the Ashfield Shale,
Wianamatta Group... a8 7+ 168
N
Narrabeen Group: Its Sub-divisions
and Correlations between the South
Coast and the Narrabeen- ens
Districts sie 106
New Ammonoid ae oe “Raster n
Australian Permian Province. 46
New Species of Hadrophyllum aon ai
Garra Beds at Wellington, N.S.W. .. 121
Note on the Composition of the Essential
Oil of ee eae citriodora Hook.
Dy penis: ; 23 .. 24
O
Occultations Observed at Sydney
Observatory during 1952 as Bee eee)
Officers for 1953-54 an aad wa
On the Interpretation of Certain
Laplacian Operator Functions yan Od
Osborne, G. D.—See Hanlon, F. N., etc. 106
Xxx INDEX
P Page q
Society's Medal and Money Prize,
Page Awards of the .. bs XVili
Packham, G. H.—A New Species of Some Aspects of the Bunchy Top
Hadrophyllum from the Garra Beds _ Disease of Banana and other Musa
at Wellington, N.S.W. Wn . 121 spp. 5
Penfold, A. R., McKern, H. H. G., and Some Peoples of tertiaey Geology i in
Spies, (Mrs.) "M. C.—The Essential Oil Southern Australia eg
of Backhousia myrtifolia Hooker et A\uth
Harvey. Part II. The Occurrence of pps ibe) ee iy
Physiological Forms a0 FOZ See McKern, H. H. G., 24
Pope, Roland ffog Umea Riary XXVill See Penfold, A. R., oy 102
Presidential Address, by C. J. Magee .. 1 Spry, Alan.—The Thermal Metamor-
P he ee ee phism of Portions of the Woolomin
ben eiaea awh hing Group in the Armidale District,
N.S.W. Part I. The Puddledock Area 129
R System of Independent Axioms for
Magnitudes he 27
Rade, J. — Geology and Subsurface
Waters of the Moree District, N.S.W. 152
Raggatt, H. G.—See Hanlon, F. N., etc. 106 x
nee H a es M re D ble ac Teichert, Curt.—A New Ammonoid from
obertson, Pie ee oe Oe. OUR the Eastern Australian Permian
Stars on Sydney Cee ak Provinces 4G
g —52° a 2 '
TeR RUA Ls boinc M6 Thermal Metamorphism of Porhiens of
the Woolomin Group in the Armidale
Ss District, N.S.W. Part. 4... ihe
Puddledock Area ek ia, Loe
Sedimentation of the Tomago Coal
Measures in the Singleton-Muswell-
brook Coalfield: An LaaNeC ae Ww
Study : 137
Sherrard, eethiven, ithe Assemblages Wade, R. T.—Jurassic Fishes of N.S.W.
of Graptolites in N.S.W. 73 (Macrosemiide) with a Note on the
Sims, K. P.—Occultations Observed at Triassic Genus Promecosomina 63
Sydney Observatory during 1952 .. 19 Walter Burfitt Prize, Awards of the xix
*
AUSTRALASIAN MrpicaL Pusiisuinc Company
Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N.S.W.
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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1954
(INCORPORATED 1881)
VOLUME LXXXVIII
Parts I-IV
EDITED BY
F. N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip. Ed.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
Issued as a complete volume September 27, 1955,
a
7
CONTENTS
VOLUME LXxXXxVIII
Part 1*
OFFICERS FOR 1954-1955
NOTICES
List OF MEMBERS
AWARDS
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE COUNCIL
BALANCE SHEET
REPORT OF SECTION OF GEOLOGY
Art. I.—Presidential Address. By Ida A. Browne
I. The Society’s Activities During the Past Year
II. A Study of the Tasman Geosyncline in the Region of Yass, New South
Wales es side as = ssi os - a
Arr. II.—Note on a Paper by J. L. Griffith. By G. Bosson
Art. III.—The Essential Oil of Hucalyptus maculata Hooker. Part I. By H. H. G.
McKern, (Mrs.) M. C. Spies and J. L. Willis
Art. IV.—Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1953. By K. P. Sims..
Art. V.—Geology and Sub-surface Waters of the Area North of the Darling River between
Longitudes 145° and 149° E., N.S.W. By J. Rade
Part II}
Art. VI.—Organ Transformation Induced by Cistrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial
(Trichosurus vulpecula). By A. Bolliger ..
Art. VII.—Warialda Artesian Intake Beds. By J. Rade
ArT. VIII.—The T-Phase from the New Zealand Region. By T. N. Burke-Gaffney
vi
xii
12
15
22
24
33
40
50
* Published November 24, 1954.
+ Published December 10, 1954.
CONTENTS.
Part III*
Page
Art. 1X.—The Palsozoic Stratigraphy of Spring and Quarry Creeks, West of Orange,
N.S.W. By G. H. Packham and N. C. Stevens eas Ae ae a ig 55
Art. X.—A Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms.
By J. L. Griffith HS te oe ns ays a a oe ie even Ok
Art. XI.—Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory During 1953. By W. H.
Robertson ar 3 a om ae ae vs es is ik ane 66
Part IV+
Art. XII.—On the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms. By J. L. Griffith .. 71
Art. XIII.—Geology and Sub-surface Waters of the Coonamble Basin, N.S.W. By
J. Rade ais ash ae ze Sat ie a BI ae se ee LG
Art. XIV.—Quartzite Xenoliths in the Tertiary Magmas of the Southern Highlands,
N.S.W. By R. D. Stevens ae che ne he ae = ae ahs 89
Art. XV.—Petrology of the Greywacke Suite Sediments from the Turon River-Coolamigal
Creek District, N.'S.W. By K. A. W. Crook .. iG ie of sh sie igi
ArT. XVI.—The Permian Coal Measures of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough. By F. C.
Loughnan abs is ic i bea os ri. 106
Art. XVII.—Liversidge Research Lecture. Chemical Structure and Biological Function
of the Pyrrole Pigments and Enzymes. By R. Lemberg .. of we .. 114
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS = iy sis be he a sf a4 Bae <1 |
Sympostum,—Oil, Australia and the Future.
Search for Oil in Australia and New Guinea: The Geological Background. By H. G.
Raggatt Be a a Hie ae ae a oe ob es oni) oa
Oil Products and Their Utilisation. By Professor Hunter os ae ae -. | eee
Petroleum Chemicals. By R. F. Cane i a ANA he a ig oo See
The Economic Effects of an Oil Industry on the Australian Economy. By Professor C.
Renwick ie Us whe sie bite = oe ae a Me .. 837
* Published May 10, 1955.
+ Published September 27, 1955.
INDEX
A
| : Page
Abstract of Proceedings. . : Xili
Annual Report of the Council vi
Awards Vv
B
Balance Sheet x
Bolliger, A.—Organ Transformation In-
duced by Cstrogen in an Adolescent
Marsupial (Trichosurus vulpecula)
Bosson, G.—Note on a igi 2 J. L.
Griffith .
Browne, Ida A. Br dential aie:
Burke-Gaffney, T. N.—The T-Phase
from the New Zealand Region
Cc
Chemical Structure and_ Biological
Function of the ae pene and
Enzymes
Clarke Medal, The
Crook, K. A. W.—Petrology of ie aes
wacke Suite Sediments from the Turon
River-Coolamigal Creek District,
N.S.W. a o ae :
E
Edgeworth David Medal
Essential Oil of Hucalyptus maculata
Hooker. Part I ue we
G
Geology and Sub-surface Waters of the
Area North of the Darling River
between ae 145° and 149° E.,
N.S.W...
Geology and Sub- ae Waters of the
Coonamble Basin, N.S.W.
Geology, Report of Section of
Griffith, J. L.—
A Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic
Behaviour of Hankel Transforms
On the Asymptotic Behaviour of
Hankel Transforms
Griffith, Note on a Paper by ..
J
James Cook Medal
50
114
oF
15
. xu
L
Page
Lemberg, R.—Liversidge Research
Lecture—Chemical Structure and Bio-
logical Function of the ae me
ments and Enzymes .
List of Members ..
Liversidge Research
Lemberg, R.
Lecture.—See
Loughnan, F. C.—The peenian Coal
Measures of the Stroud-Gloucester
Trough
M
McKern, H. H. G., Spies, (Mrs.) M. C.,
and Willis, J. L.—The Essential Oil
of Hucalyptus maculata Hooker. Part I
Members, List of
Minor Planets Obsdeved at “Sydney
Observatory During 1953...
N
Note on a Paper by J. L. Griffith
Notices
O
Occultations Observed at eyaney. Obser-
vatory During 1953
Officers for 1954-1955
On the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel
Transforms
Organ meee eatin Tn aticed -
Cistrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial
(Trichosurus vulpecula)
P
Packham, G. H., and Stevens, N. C.—
The Paleozoic Stratigraphy of Spring
and Quarry Creeks, West of Cee
N.S.W. :
Palzeozoic ee Givens: of amine and
Quarry Creeks, West of aac
N.S.W.
Permian Coal eer of the Sino
Gloucester Trough
Petrology of the Greywacke Suite
Sediments from the Turon River-
Coolamigal Creek District, N.S.W. ..
Presidential Address, by Ida A. Browne
Proceedings, Abstract of
15
12
iv
22
ill
71
33
55
.. Xi
XVIII INDEX
Q Page
c Hae Page Society’s Medal .. ‘ Be, Se
uartzite Xenoliths in the Tertiary M M. O=
Magmas of the Southern pe aie poe ee See McKom, 15
IES oe ox Stevens, N. C. Suge Packie a. is ie 55
Stevens, R. D.—Quartzite Xenoliths in
R the Tertiary Magmas of the Southern
Radoen = Highlands, N.S.W. .. 89
Geology and Sub-surface Waters of Study of the Tasman Geosyneline i in this
the Area North of the Darling River Region of Yass, N.S.W. . 3
between Longitudes 145° and 149° E.,
N.S.W. : 24
Geology and Sub- surface Waters of T
the Coonamble Basin : eng, : :
Warialda Artesian Intake Beds 40 Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic
Behaviour of Hankel Transforms 61
Robertson, W. H.—Minor Planets :
Observed at Sydney Observatory T-Phase from the New Zealand Region.. 50
During 1953 66
WwW
S
Section of Geology, Report of See ct Walter Bardi. Paz i
Sims, K. P.—Occultations Observed at Warialda Artesian Intake Boas 40
Sydney Observatory During 1953 22 Willis, J. L.—See McKern, H. H. G. 15
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
1954
(INCORPORATED 1881)
PART I (pp. 1-32) _ eels
OF
VOL. LXXXVIII
Containing List of Members, Report of Council, Balance Sheet,
Obituary Notices, Presidential Address and Papers read
in April, 1954.
EDITED BY
F.N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip.Ed.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
_ STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
1954
% in a
ny A . ee s
Bs : ; a ota Mei =
CONTENTS “
9 te
VOLUME LXXXVITI
Part I
OFFICERS FOR 1954-1955 ae wie as TSE he i 2
©
_ NotTIcEs i bis a of we as A re os ate as
List or MEMBERS .. we ie i 3 i Ss ne oe ri
™~
AwaRps.. bat is e. f ag a Bese a Me
ANNUAL REPORT OF THE CoUNCIL ay BS a be a3 “a Ne
BALANCE SHEET .. .., .. a ie hen co % ema
ReEportT OF SECTION OF GEOLOGY os af - a ve Hes .
Art. I.—Presidential Address. By Ida A. Browne :
‘ I. The Society’s Activities During the Past Year a xe eee
II. A Study of the Tasman u Goce? in the > Regie of Yass, Sow South
Wales NS: Bs ‘ BL hae eee |
Arr. Il.—Note on a Paper by J. L. Griffith. By G. Boson .. <.. ..
Arr. III.—The Essential Oil of Eucalyptus maculata Hooker. Part I. By H. H. G.
McKern, (Mrs.) M. C. Spies and J. L. Willis’... AS re tN ee
Art. IV.—Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1953. By Ke Sims. . mp ge
Art. V.—Geology and Sub-surface Wane ne the Area North of the Dares River borers
_ _Longitudes 145° and 149° E., N.S.W. As J. Rade... os 4 et
=
te
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1954
(INCORPORATED 1881)
VOLUME LXXXVIII
Part I
EDITED BY
F. N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip. Ed.
Honorary Editorial Secretary —
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
Royal Society of Nem South Wales
OFFICERS FOR 1954-1955
Patrons:
His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA,
FretpD MarRsHALL Sir WILLIAM SLIM, G.c.B., G.c.M.G., G.C.V.0., G.B.E., D.S.O., M.C.
His ExcELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEW SoutTH WALES,
LIEUTENANT-GENERAL SiR JOHN NORTHCOTT, K.c.M.G., K.C.V.0., C.B.
President :
R. S. NYHOLM, D.sc., Ph.p. (Lond.), M.sc. (Syd.).
Vice-Presidents:
R. C. L. BOSWORTH, m.se., D.Sc. (Adel.), | C. J. MAGEE, v.sc.agr. (Syd.), M.se. (Wis.).
Ph.D. (Camb.), F.A.C.1., F.Inst.P. | PHYLLIS M. ROUNTREE, p.se. (Melb.),
IDA A. BROWNE, D.sc. | Dip.Bact. (Lond.).
Hon. Secretaries:
G. BOSSON, m.sec. (Lond.). | F. N. HANLON, B.sc.
Hon. Treasurer :
H. A. J. DONEGAN, A.s.1.¢., A.A.C.1.
Members of Council:
J. P. BAXTER, B.se., Ph.D., A.M.I.Chem.E. | F. D. McCARTHY, pip.anthr.
Rev. T. N. BURKE-GAFFNEY, s.3. | P. R. MeMAHON, m.agr.se. (N.Z.), Ph.D.
D. P. CRAIG, pPh.p. | (Leeds), A.R.I.C., A.N.Z.I.C.
N. A. GIBSON, mM.sc., Ph.D., A.R.I.C. | G. D. OSBORNE, op.se. (Syd.), Ph.D.
J. L. GRIFFITH, B.a., M.sc., Dip.Ed. | (Camb.), F.G.S.
M. R. LEMBERG, D.Pphil., F.R.S. | J. S. PROUD, B.£. (Mining).
iv NOTICES.
NOTICE.
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and subsequent issues.
Volumes I to X (to 1876) and LXIX and LXXI are out of print.
NOTICES. vi
LIST OF MEMBERS.
A list of members of the Royal Society of New South Wales up to Ist April, 1953, is included
in Volume LXXXVII.
During the year ended 31st March, 1954, the following have been elected to membership of
the Society :
Christie, Thelma Isabel, B.sc., 181 Edwin-street, Croydon.
de Lepervanche, Beatrice Joy, 560 Homer-street, Earlwood.
Golding, Henry George, 4.R.c.S., B.Sc., Technical Officer, School of Minmg Engineering and
Applied Geology, N.S.W. University of Technology, Sydney.
McKenzie, Peter John, B.Sc., Geologist, Geological Survey of N.S.W., Mines Department, Bridge
Street, Sydney.
Phillips, June Rosa Pitt, B.sc., c/o Geology Department, the University of Sydney.
Rade, Janis, M.sc., Geologist, P.O. Box 70, Alice Springs, N.T.
Veevers, John James, B.Sc., c/o Geology Department, Imperial College, London, England.
During the same period resignations were received from the following :
Arnold, Joan W. (Mrs.).
Barclay, G. A., Ph.D.
Breckenridge, Marion, B.Sc.
Carver, Ashley George.
Clune, Francis Patrick.
Gillis, R. G.
Kennard, William Walter.
Lederer, Michael.
Martin, Cyril Maxwell.
Nicol, A. C., A.S.T.C., A.R.A.C.I.
Still, Jack Leslie, B.Sc., Ph.D.
Warner, Harry, A.S.T.C.
Webb, Gordon Keyes, A.F.1.A., A.C.1.S.
Wogan, Samuel James.
Obituary.
1898 Frank Lee Alexander.
1935 Reginald Marcus Clark.
1919 Wilfred Alex. Watt de Beuzeville.
1938 Edward L. Griffiths.
1892 Henry Ferdinand Halloran.
1952 Harold Rutledge.
1946 Cecil Rhodes-Smith.
1919 Harold Henry Thorne.
1943 Reginald John Nelson Whiteman.
AWARDS.
. The Clarke Medal.
1953 Nicholson, Alexander J., D.sc., Chief of the Division of Entomology, C.S.I.R.O., Canberra.
The James Cooke Medal.
1953 Rivett, Sir David, K.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., 11 Eton Square, 474 St. Kilda-road, Mel-
bourne, S.C.2.
The Edgeworth David Medal.
1953 No award made.
The Society’s Medal.
1953 Walkom, Arthur Bache, D.se., Director, The Australian Museum, Sydney.
The Walter Burfitt Prize.
1953 Bullen, Keith E., .a., Pb.D., Sc.D., F.R.S., Professor of Applied Mathematics, the University
of Sydney.
Koyal Society of New South Wales
REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst MARCH, 1954.
PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL AND GENERAL MontHLY MEETING OF THE SOCIETY,
7TH Aprit, 1954, IN ACCORDANCE WITH RULE XXVI.
The membership of the Society at the end of the period under review stood at 361. Seven
new members were elected during the year, 14 members were lost by resignation, and five members
were written off.
Nine members have been lost to the Society by death since Ist April, 1953:
Frank Lee Alexander (elected 1898).
Reginald Marcus Clark (elected 1935).
Wilfred Alex. Watt de Beuzeville (elected 1919).
Edward L. Griffiths (elected 1938).
Henry Ferdinand Halloran (elected 1892).
Harold Rutledge (elected 1952).
Cecil Rhodes-Smith (elected 1946).
Harold Henry Thorne (elected 1919).
Reginald John Nelson Whiteman (elected 1943).
During the year nine General Monthly Meetings were held, the average attendance being 36.
Seventeen papers were accepted for reading and publication by the Society, an increase of four
on the previous year.
Addresses given during the year were as follows:
6th May: ‘‘ Recent Researches on the Earth’s Interior’’, by Professor K. E. Bullen.
‘** Some Factors Affecting Health and Safety in Mines ’’, by the visiting English
scientist, Professor Ivon Graham.
Ist July: ‘‘ The Chemistry of Ants”, by Dr. G. W. K. Cavill.
5th August: “‘ The Application of Science to Leather Manufacture ’’, by Dr. H. Anderson,
of the Australian Leather Research Association.
2nd September: ‘‘ Recent Advances in the Fields of Linguistics, Chemistry and Geology.”’
The speakers were Dr. A. Capell, Professor A. E. Alexander and Dr. J. A. Dulhunty.
As part of the Coronation celebrations, the meeting held on 3rd June was devoted to a
Symposium on “ Science in the Time of the First Elizabeth’’. The following addresses were
given :
** Physical Science’, by Mr. J. B. Thornton.
‘“* Medical Science and Health’’, by Professor Harvey Sutton.
The meeting devoted to the Commemoration of Great Scientists was held on 7th October,
and the following addresses were given:
“Wilhelm Ostwald ’’, by Emeritus Professor C. E. Fawsitt.
‘Benjamin Thompson, Count Rumford, Administrator, Statesman and Natural
Philosopher’, by Dr. G. H. Briggs.
‘* Anton de Bary, the Founder of Plant Pathology and Modern Mycology ”’, by Dr. N. H.
White.
A Film Evening was held on 17th September and, through the courtesy of the South Pacific
Commission and the N.S.W. Film Council, the following films were shown :
b)
‘“* Kapingamarangi ”’,
“The River ”’,
and at the meeting held on 4th November films of general scientific interest were shown.
Two Popular Science Lectures were delivered during the year:
2lst May: ‘‘ The Conquest of the Air’, by Professor A. V. Stephens.
15th October: ‘‘ Northern Australia’s Prospect ’’, by Professor J. Macdonald Holmes.
In place of the Annual Dinner, a Sherry Party was held in the Society’s rooms on Thursday,
25th March. There were present 80 members and friends.
ANNUAL REPORT. Vil
The Section of Geology had as Chairman Dr. J. A. Dulhunty and as Hon. Secretary Mr.
R. D. Stevens. The Section held eight meetings during the year, including lecturettes, notes
and exhibits. The average attendance was 20 members and five visitors.
The Council of the Society held eleven ordinary meetings and one special meeting during
the year. The average attendance at the meetings was 13.
The President represented the Society on the Board of Visitors of the Sydney Observatory.
At the A.N.Z.A.A.S. meeting held this year, the President and Mr. H. W. Wood attended
as delegates of the Society.
On the Science House Management Committee the Society was represented by Mr. H. A. J.
Donegan and Mr. F. R. Morrison ; substitute representatives were Dr. R. C. L. Bosworth and
Mr. H. O. Fletcher.
The representatives of the Society on Science House Extension Committee were the President,
Dr. Ida A. Browne, and the Hon. Treasurer, Mr. H. A. J. Donegan.
Election of Councillor.—Mr. F. N. Hanlon was elected to the Council at the meeting held on
29th July, 1953, to take the place of Mr. A. V. Jopling, who had resigned his membership of the
Council as he was leaving Australia for an extended trip overseas. At the meeting held on 28th
October, 1953, Mr. F. N. Hanlon was appointed to act as Hon. Editorial Secretary following
Dr. G. D. Osborne’s resignation from this position on the Council owing to illness.
The Rev. Daniel J. K. O’Connell, s.3., D.sc., Ph.p., F.R.A.S., Director of the Vatican Obser-
vatory, was elected an Honorary Member of the Society at the Annual and General Monthly
Meeting held on Ist April, 1953.
The Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1953 was delivered by Dr. M. F. Glaessner on 18th June.
The title of the lecture was ‘‘ Some Problems of Tertiary Geology in Southern Australia ”’
The Clarke Medal for 1954 was awarded to Emeritus Professor E. de C. Clarke for his distin-
guished contributions to geological sciences.
The Walter Burfitt Prize for 1953 was awarded to Pr Oe K. E. Bullen for his outstanding
contributions in the field of geophysics.
The Society’s Medal for 1953 was awarded to Dr. A. B. Walkom, Director of the Australian
Museum, in recognition of his outstanding services in the organization of Science in Australia
and his distinguished contributions in Palzobotany.
The James Cook Medal for 1953 was awarded to Sir David Rivett, K.c.M.G., F.R.S.
Royal Tour.—On the occasion of the Royal visit to Sydney, the Society was represented
officially by the President at the luncheon given by the Government of New South Wales in
honour of Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth IT, and also at the garden party at Government House.
Under the auspices of the Royal Society of New South Wales, the British Astronomical
Association and the Institute of Physics, a lecture entitled ‘“‘ The Sun, the Stars and the Nebulz ”’
was delivered by Professor Otto Struve of the University of California, who is also President
of the International Astronomical Union. The lecture was held in the Hall of Science House.
on llth January, and was very well attended.
The financial position of the Society, as disclosed in the annual audit, is not a satisfactory
one, the deficit for the twelve months being £184 12s. 8d.
The Society’s share of the profits from Science House for the year was £450.
The Society has again received a grant of £400 from the Government of New South Wales.
The Government’s interest in the work of the Society is much appreciated.
A special grant from the Rural Credits Development Fund of the Commonwealth Bank of
Australia, amounting to £200, is gratefully acknowledged.
The Library.—The Library Committee continues to meet, and has been helpful in advising
Council on library matters.
The amount of £55 12s. has been spent on the purchase of periodicals and £94 4s. 3d. on
binding.
Exchange of publications is maintained with 415 societies and institutions—five less than in
the previous year.
The number of accessions entered in the catalogue during the year ended 28th February,
1954, was 2,725 parts of periodicals.
The number of books, periodicals, etc., borrowed by members, institutions and accredited
readers was 399—an increase of 63 on last year’s figures.
Among the institutions which made use of the library through the inter-library scheme were
C.S.1.R.0.—Coal Research Section, Head Office, Melbourne, McMaster Animal Health Laboratory,
Division of Fisheries, Division of Industrial Chemistry, Wool Textile Research Laboratories,
Animal Genetics Section, Division of Entomology, Division of Plant Industry, Division of Food
Preservation, Commonwealth Research Station, Irrigation Research Station, National Standards
Vili ANNUAL REPORT.
and Radiophysics Laboratory, Colonial Sugar Refining Co. Ltd., Sydney Technical College,
University of Melbourne, Fisher Library, University of Sydney, Forestry Commission of N.S.W.,
Division of Wood Technology, Granville Technical College, Australian National University,
Royal Society of Tasmania, N.S.W. Department of Agriculture, Commonwealth Observatory,
University of Queensland, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Sydney, Newcastle
Technical College, Wollongong Technical College, National Museum of Victoria, W. D. and H. O.
Wills, Ltd., Melbourne Public Library, B.C.P.A., S.M.H.E.A., Antarctic Division, Department of
External Affairs, Sydney Hospital, University of Adelaide, University of Tasmania, Australian
Paper Manufactures Association, Timbrol Ltd., Dental Hospital, Sydney, Lever Bros., Waite
Agricultural Research Institute, Australian Museum, M.W.S. and D. Board, Bureau of Mineral
Resources, Taubman’s Ltd., Queensland Institute of Medical Research, N.S.W. Department of
Health, Standard Telephones and Cables Ltd., N.S.W. University of Technology.
IDA A. BROWNE,
President.
BALANCE SHEETS. 1X
THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES.
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 28th FEBRUARY, 1954,
LIABILITIES.
1953 1954
£ £ s. d. £ ise de
~- Australian and New Zealand Bank Ltd.—Overdraft 148 8 5
111 Accrued Expenses i : : 33 9 O
35 Subscriptions Paid in Advance : 28 17 6
135 Life Members’ Subscriptions—Amount carried forward 124 1 O
Trust and Monograph coe Funds aes sa
Clarke Memorial ; .. 1,809 10 7
Walter Burfitt Prize ve oe ast .. 1,055 14 9
Liversidge Bequest .. os <a be .. 72017 6
Monograph Capital Fund .. a. _ .. 3,844 19 7
7,461 ——— 7,431 2 5
23,851 ACCUMULATED FUNDS _.. : 23,644 4 4
Contingent Liability (in connection with Perpetual
Leases.)
£31,593 £31,410 2 8
ASSETS.
1953. 1954
£ a SU ra ey Ss. a.
168 Cash at Bank and in Hand . 4 9 10
Investments—Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock,
at Face Value—
Held for—
Clarke Memorial Fund .. a = .. 1,800 0 0
Walter Burfitt Prize Fund .. ae a .. 1,000 0 O
Liversidge Bequest... ae ie a .. 700 0 O
Monograph Capital Fund me wa ne .. 3,000 0 O
General Purposes oie ss 6 re .. 2,860 0 0
9,360 9,360 0 9O
Debtors for Subscriptions... ar oe bs As 111 7 O
Less Reserve for Bad Debts... oe ae a lll 7 O
14,835 Science House—One-third Capital Cost .. ve oe 14,835 4 4
6,800 Library—At Valuation : sat Ps ve 6,800 0 O
403 Furniture—At Cost—less Depreciation = aye ae 385 8 6
23 Pictures—At Cost—less Depreciation we ae ae 22 0 9
4 Lantern—At Cost—less Depreciation sts ae - 3 0 90
£31,593 £31,410 2 8
—— —
xX BALANCE SHEETS.
TRUST AND MONOGRAPH CAPITAL FUNDS.
Walter Monograph
Clarke Burfitt Liversidge Capital
Memorial. Prize. Bequest. Fund.
£ Bud £° ‘Sand: £ Ss. Gd: £ s. d.
Capital at 28th February, 1953 .. 1,800 0 0 1,000 0 O 700 0 O 3,000 0 0O
Revenue—
Balance at 28th February, 1953 96 10 2 PE AS sos 752 10 O
Income for twelve months .. 53 13 11 29 16 5 20 17 6 Spal Lf
150 4 #1 141 10 2 20 "LT 6 844 19 7
Less Expenditure a m. 140 13 6 85 15 5 — —
Balance at 28th February, 1954 .. £9 10 7 £55 14 9 S20 TG £844 19 7
ACCUMULATED FUNDS.
£ s. d.
Balance at 28th February, 1953 set she oo (2c, 861" 72566
Add Decrease in Reserve for Bad Debts. . ae ll 4 6
23,862 9 0
Less—
Deficit for twelve months (as
shown by Income and Ex-
penditure Account) os eee Zs 1S
Bad Debts written off fot, a3 12.0
poe 218 4 8
£23,644 4 4
(Sgd.) HENRY DONEGAN,
Honorary Treasurer.
The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Accounts, Accounts and
Vouchers of The Royal Society of New South Wales, and is a correct statement of the position
of the Society’s affairs on the 28th February, 1954, as disclosed thereby. We have satisfied
ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and
registered.
HORLEY & HORLEY,
Per Conrad F. Horley, F.C.A. (Aust.),
Chartered Accountants (Aust.).
Prudential Building,
39 Martin Place,
Sydney, 17th March, 1954.
1952-3.
994
116
27
47
887
32
£2,505
1952-3.
£
974
12
200
400
495
109
103
2,293
212
£2,505
BALANCE SHEETS.
INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT.
Ist March, 1953, to 28th February, 1954.
To Annual Dinner—
Expenditure
Less Received
Audit
Cleaning
Depreciation
Electricity :
Entertainment Expenses
Insurance :
Library Purchases and Binding
Miscellaneous : me
Postages and Telegrams
Printing and Binding Journal— _
Vol. 86, Parts 3 and 4
Vol. 87, Parts l-and 2
Printing—General
Rent—Science House Management
Repairs
Salaries
Telephone
Membership Subscriptions
Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions
Government Subsidy
Commonwealth Bank—Special Grant :
Science House eee of Surplus -
Interest on General Investments.
Reprints
Other Receipts—Sale of Furniture,
Deficit for Twelve Months
195
eka Soa
54 15 5
20) 8 ()
391 14 9
360 3 3
Xi
3-54
£ es. ad.
25 AT oo
31 10 O
75 10 O
22 6 O
35 16 6
11 10 9
68 14 5
89 9 7
101 9 2
751 18 O
130 5 9
36 14
19 14 11
991 18 6
30 14 9
£2,426 2 5
1953-54.
Css ae
939 4 6
li ll O
400 0 QO
200 0 O
450 0 O
109 3 O
28 13 9
102 17 6
2,241 9 9
184 12 8
£2,426 2 5
Xil
ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS
GE@EOGy
Chawman: J. A. Dulhunty, D.Sc.
Honorary Secretary: R. D. Stevens.
Meetings.—Eight meetings were held during the year, the average attendance being 20
members and five visitors.
April 17th.—
(a) Mrs. K. Sherrard exhibited a specimen of Didymograptus (Isograptus) caduceus from
Licking Hole Creek, Cliefden Caves, near Mandurama.
(6) Address by Mr. F. C. Loughnan on the ‘‘ Coal Measures of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough,
INS aWVer
May 15th:
(a) Address by Mr. T. G. Vallance entitled ‘‘ Some Observations on Metamorphic Zones ”’.
(6) Address by Mr. P. McKenzie entitled ‘‘ Studies on Shore-Line Processes along the New
South Wales Coast ”’.
June 19th:
(a) Mr. N. C. Stevens exhibited a specimen of epistilbite collected from a pegmatite in a
road cutting near the village of Hartley.
(b) Address by Sarwar Mahmud on ‘“‘ Water Supply Problems of the Salt Range, Punjab,
Pakistan and Adjoining Areas ’”’.
July 17th:
(a) Mr. R. O. Chalmers exhibited specimens of rutile in sillimanite schist from the Thacka-
ringa Sillimanite Quarry, and of titanite in an amphibolite from a locality 11 miles 8.8.E.
of Broken Hill.
(6) Dr. W. R. Browne noted the occurrence of prismatic structure in Hawkesbury sandstone
near Coal and Candle Creek Road and West Head Road. Dr. Browne also exhibited a
photograph of a similar structure from Mt. Irvine.
(c) Mrs. K. Sherrard exhibited a Triassic fish fragment collected from a quarry near the
road from Appin to Wilton, about 2} miles 8.W. of Appin.
(d) Dr. L. E. Koch made further observations on the epistilbite from Hartley, N.S.W.
(e) Mr. N. C. Stevens exhibited specimens of hornblendite from Mainmaru, andalusite from
Wagga and Reid’s Flat, and axinite from Armidale.
(f) Mr. T. G. Vallance exhibited Kodachrome slides of the Broken Hill district, and a
specimen of sillimanite from Thackaringa.
(g) Dr. J. A. Dulhunty exhibited a specimen of a hard black sideritic rock from the South
Coast Coal Measures.
August 21st:
Address by Dr. Harold Rutledge on “ Beach Sands ’’.
September 18th:
Address by Mr. L. R. Hall and Mr. R. O. Chalmers on “ The Amblygonite-Cassiterite Peg-
matite of the Euriowie District ”’.
October 16th:
Address by Mr. Frank Jeffries on “‘ Oil-field Development in Western Canada ’”’.
November 20th :
(a) Address by Mr. R. L. Stanton on ‘‘ Some Impressions of New Caledonian Geology ”’.
(6) Mr. R. D. Stevens exhibited Kodachrome slides of Tasmania, in particular of the Cradle
Mountain-Lake St. Clair, National Park.
(c) Mr. N. C. Stevens noted the occurrence of Ordovician limestones south of Cargo and at
Canowindra. These limestones were previously thought to have been of Silurian age.
Mr. Stevens also exhibited a specimen of a clastic vein in Ordovician sediments from
the Belubula River.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS
By IbpA A. BROWNE, D.Sc.
With Plate I and two Text-figures.
Delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, April 7, 1954.
PARTI,
THE SOCIETY’S ACTIVITIES DURING THE PAST YEAR.
The outstanding event of the past year was the Coronation of Her Majesty
Queen Elizabeth IT in June, 1953, which was followed by the Royal Visit to
New South Wales last February.
We join with other citizens in expressing our loyalty to the Crown and our
pleasure in the presence of the Queen and the Duke of Edinburgh in our midst.
Their graciousness and devotion to duty must be an inspiration and example
to us all.
The Annual Report of the Council records another year of progress in the
work of the Society.
According to our Rules, ‘‘ the Object of the Society is to encourage studies
and investigations in, and to receive at its stated meetings, and to publish,
original papers on Science, Art, Literature and Philosophy, and especially on
such subjects as tend to develop the resources of Australia, and to illustrate
its Natural History and Productions ”’.
It is my opinion that the publication of the results of original scientific
research is the most important work of the Society. On the one hand, a per-
manent record of the research is made ; and on the other, the preparation of a
paper for publication provides a valuable discipline in the training of a scientist
to present his results clearly and concisely.
It seems to me, therefore, that it is unfortunate that during the past two
years fewer papers, and on less varied subjects, have been submitted to the
Society for publication. The Society has not altered its policy of accepting
suitable papers on all subjects included under its first Rule, and up to the present
has not rejected any paper solely on account of the cost of printing.
There are differences of opinion regarding the form of presentation of a
paper that may be adopted at the general meetings. Some workers prefer to
discuss their results in technical terms, but where the subject is highly specialized
few, if any, of the audience may be able to appreciate it. In such a case it is
surely better to give, in non-technical terms, an account of the objects and
results of the research, which should be of interest to the majority of members.
This matter and the related one of the pattern of the ordinary monthly meetings
and of the popular science lectures were discussed by the Council at a special
meeting, and are still under consideration.
The Standing Committee appointed two years ago to advise on Library
matters met again during the year, and now that we have a trained Librarian,
Mrs. B. Somerville, the Library is being put into proper order.
That the Library is playing an important part in the life of the community
is shown by the increasing number of borrowers, among whom the Government
2 IDA A. BROWNE.
Departments, both Federal and State, teaching and research institutions and
private industry are prominent. The Library consists essentially of scientific
periodicals, not individual books, and has been built up chiefly by exchange for
our own Journal and Proceedings, but also by purchase. A recent survey
indicated that nearly 40° of the publications are not available in other libraries
in Sydney, so that our library service is a valuable contribution to the needs of
scientific research workers here.
During the year this Society was represented at several meetings of other
scientific organizations. Sir Douglas Mawson represented it at the Centenary
Meeting of the Royal Society of South Australia in September.
The Canberra meeting of A.N.Z.A.A.S. in January, 1954, was attended by a
number of our members, many of whom took leading parts in its proceedings.
Mr. H. Wood and I were the official delegates of the Society at this meeting. I
have to report that during the Canberra meeting it was resolved that the
Australian National Research Council should gradually hand over its functions
and commitments, partly to A.N.Z.A.A.S. and partly to the newly formed
Academy of Sciences, by which it has been superseded. To the new Academy
of Sciences we offer our best wishes.
We congratulate Mr. A. R. Penfold, one of our former Presidents, and the
recipient of the Society’s Medal two years ago, on receiving the Fritzsche Award
of the American Chemical Society for outstanding achievements in research on
essential oils and related chemicals. Many of Mr. Penfold’s papers have been
published in our Proceedings.
We offer congratulations to those of our members who have been honoured
by the award to them of scholarships and travel grants to enable them to pursue
their studies abroad. Prof. K. E. Bullen, Prof. A. J. Birch and Dr. I. 8. Turner
have been awarded grants from the Carnegie Corporation of New York to visit
the United States and Europe under the British Dominion’s programme, and
several of our younger members, including Dr. T. G. Vallance and Mr. J. F.
Lovering, have received Fulbright Scholarships for study in the United States,
Mr. H. B. Carter, who has been a valued member of our Council for several
years, leaves us at the end of the month to take up a permanent scientific
appointment with the Agricultural Research Council of Great Britain, and will
be resident at Edinburgh, Scotland. He takes with him our best wishes for
success and happiness.
The financial position of the Society continues to cause concern to the
Council. The deficit is about the same as last year, although less than it was a
couple of years ago. This apparent improvement is due partly to the publication
of fewer papers and partly to the special grant of £200 from the Rural Credits
Development Fund of the Commonwealth Bank of Australia, for which we are
erateful.
The Government of New South Wales has again made a grant of £400 towards
the work of the Society, which has been of considerable benefit to us.
The Society has been fortunate in having the services of a number of guest
speakers as well as members at its meetings, and has had the advice of a number
of non-members on its various sub-committees. Their assistance is greatly
appreciated, and I wish to thank all these gentlemen for their contribution to the
work of the Society.
I also wish to thank all members of Council for the cooperation I have
received during the year; each and every one has performed special services
for the Society in addition to attending the formal meetings of the Council :
I am especially indebted to the members of the Executive and to our Assistant
Secretary, Miss M. Ogle, for their help and guidance during my tenure of office.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3
The death of nine of our members during the year has been announced by
the Honorary Secretary. These include Harold Henry Thorne, who was a
former member of Council; also one of our oldest members, Henry Ferdinand
Halloran, elected in 1892, and one of our newest members, Harold Rutledge,
elected in 1952, whose tragic death in the plane disaster at Singapore shocked
us a few weeks ago.
It may not be generally known that it was owing to the generosity of Mr.
Halloran that two of the coveted awards of the Society—the Edgeworth David
Prize and the James Cook Medal—were instituted. Mr. Halloran very modestly
did not wish his name to be associated with the names of the prizes, but I feel
that members would wish to record our indebtedness to such a benefactor.
ART EL.
A STUDY OF THE TASMAN GEOSYNCLINE IN THE REGION
OF YASS, NEW SOUTH WALES.
For the second part of my address I have chosen a subject which has been of
special interest to me for more than twenty years, the Paleozoic history of the
region surrounding the town of Yass, on the Southern Tablelands of New South
Wales, about 150 miles south-west of Sydney. For a long time this region
has been known to geologists on account of its interesting structures and its
remarkably rich and varied fossil faunas, but until recently (Brown, 1941) no
detailed map showing the order of succession of the Silurian beds in the neighbour-
hood of Yass had been published, and until now there has been no similar map
for the even more interesting Devonian sequence developed to the south-west
of Yass. My own field work was undertaken in an effort to establish the order
of succession and the geographical distribution of the various fossiliferous
formations, to study the faunas preserved in them, to make age-correlations
with occurrences in other parts of the world, and to work out the geological
structure and history of the region.
TASMAN GEOSYNCLINE.
There is general agreement among geologists that the main areas of deposition
of marine sediments are geosynclines—elongated troughs—either in the oceans
bordering continental masses, or within the borders of the continents themselves.
These troughs are somewhat mobile, and appear to subside slowly during periods
of sedimentation. Whether the accumulation of great thicknesses of shallow-
water deposits in geosynclines is the cause or the result of the subsidence is not
yet known, and G. M. Lees (1953) maintains that ‘‘ no adequate reason for the
broad geosynclinal depressions has yet been offered ’’.
An examination of the geological map of Australia (David, 1932) shows that
the marine sediments of lower and middle Paleozoic age, whose fold-axes are
approximately meridional, outcrop over a large area of eastern Australia from
Tasmania and Victoria through New South Wales to Queensland and that
probably the Mesozoic sediments of the eastern portion of the Great Artesian
Basin are underlain by older Paleozoic rocks. From this it is inferred that the
sea formerly extended over this whole area, and studies of the sediments in
various places indicate that land probably existed both to the east and to the
west of it. The great trough occupied by this sea was named by Schuchert
(1916) the Tasman Geosyncline. Various geologists have described its develop-
ment in general terms (David, 1950), but much yet remains to be learned of the
details of its structure, extent and history. The rocks of the Yass region occur
4 IDA A. BROWNE.
within the site of this geosyncline, and I propose to outline the probable history
of the region during a part of the Paleozoic era, as interpreted from the geological
formations there.
Pre-Ordovician (2) Sedimentation.
On the far South Coast of New South Wales apparently unfossiliferous
altered sediments, strongly folded, outcrop over a considerable area north and
south of the Wagonga River, near Narooma. Their geological age is uncertain,
but they are known to be pre-Upper Ordovician, and from their lithological
similarity to certain rocks at Heathcote, in Victoria, it seems possible that they
may be of Cambrian age. These are the oldest known sediments of the Tasman
Geosyncline. They were originally sandy or shaly ; no limestones are known
to occur with them.
Lithologically similar strata outcrop east of Jerrawa, only about 12 miles
east of Yass, and are well exposed in railway cuttings there. In the absence of
paleontological evidence to the contrary these may also be regarded as possibly
of Cambrian age. Their relations to the younger rocks are not known.
Ordovician Sedimentation.
During the Ordovician period the Tasman Geosyncline extended far to the
west of the meridian of Yass, for Lower Ordovician graptolitic slates are known
near Narrandera, 140 miles to the west; from the south-east of Yass, near
Canberra, sandy shales, mudstones and argillaceous shales containing Radiolaria
and low Middle Ordovician graptolites have been recorded by Opik (1954).
Upper Ordovician graptolitic shales are known from a number of localities
between Jerrawa, Canberra and Queanbeyan and the coast near Cobargo.
The Upper Ordovician graptolitic facies is widespread, but the shelly facies,
represented by limestones, so far has been recorded only from the Canowindra
and Mandurama districts, some 90 miles north of Yass, although it is possible
that other limestones mapped as Silurian may be actually of Ordovician age.
It is not known whether the sea covered the Yass area in Lower and Middle
Ordovician times ; the only Ordovician rocks known belong to the Upper Series,
the graptolitic black slates of the Jerrawa district east of Yass, which have been
described by Mrs. Sherrard (1943), who has identified more than 40 species of
graptolites.
There is no evidence of volcanic activity in the Yass district during the
Ordovician period unless the rather siliceous black slates are really composed
of very fine volcanic dust, as Dr. Joplin (1945) has suggested. In this case the
carbonaceous material may represent the remains of floating marine vegetation,
such as forms in the Sargasso Sea of the present day, and the graptolites that
were associated with it may have been killed off by the showers of fine volcanic
ash. To the north of Yass, near Mandurama, lavas and tuffs are associated with
the shallow-water limestones of the shelly facies.
The occurrence of a thick series of unfossiliferous sandstones and shales
overlying the graptolite beds south-west of Jerrawa indicates a change in the
conditions of sedimentation, with uplift and relatively rapid erosion of land to
the east. Near the top of this series occurs the Mundoonan Sandstone, which
has a more or less uniform dip to the west (Sherrard, 1939). This sandstone
is regarded by Mrs. Sherrard as Upper Ordovician, but, since it shows markedly
less intense folding than the graptolitic beds and is more or less conformable
with the overlying Silurian beds to west, there seems a possibility that it forms
the base of the Silurian sequence (Fig. 1).
At or shortly after the close of the Ordovician period there was an epoch of
earth-movement and plutonic intrusion, known as the Benambran epoch
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVIII » 1954, Plate I
|
a en
MAP
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXX XVIII, 1954, Plate I
GEOLOGICAL SKETCH
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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5
(Browne, 1947), during which the Ordovician sediments in the central part of
the geosyncline were folded and altered and were elevated to form a geanticline.
The Yass region was within the limits of this geanticline. The uplifted Ordovician
sediments were subjected to erosion, and after subsidence they formed a more
or less rigid basement on which the Silurian formations were later deposited
unconformably. The structural relations of the Ordovician and Silurian in the
region of the geanticline are thus very different from those in south-central
Victoria, where sedimentation continued without interruption and there is no
angular unconformity between the Ordovician and Silurian.
No granitic intrusions of Benambran age are known close to Yass, but
contaminated granite, somewhat similar to the epi-Ordovician granite of Cooma,
intrudes and metamorphoses old sediments west of Cullerin on the Hume
Highway, 32 miles east of Yass.
Silurtan Sedimentation.
In Silurian time the Tasman Geosyncline was probably more restricted
in its width than in the Ordovician, but its true western boundary is obscured
by the Cainozoic deposits of the Riverina district. It was a broad, generally
shallow sea-way, probably dotted with islands and archipelagoes, with which
were associated coral reefs and beach deposits. In the eastern portion of the
geosyncline the water was probably much deeper than in the west, and this
may account for the known variations of lithological and paleontological facies.
Other minor variations might be due to the existence of embayments, channels
and terrestrial barriers.
The greater part, if not the whole, of the Silurian sequence was developed
in the region of Yass. Naylor (1935) found Lower Silurian graptolites in slates
near Bungonia, south-west of Goulburn, and Opik (1954) records similar forms
from near Canberra. Although the shelly faunas of the Yass sequence have not
yet been described in detail, they are known to range from the Halysites fauna
of the Bango limestone, of probable Lower Silurian age, to the fauna of the
Upper Trilobite Bed at Bowning, close to the Siluro-Devonian boundary.
Graptolites occurring on a number of horizons enable close correlations with
parts of the British and North American successions.
The general succession in the Yass district has been described previously
(Brown, 1941). Apart from the Mundoonan sandstone, which may form the
lowest unit, the sequence, in descending order, is as follows :
Approx.
Thickness
(Feet).
Hume Series, including shales with the Upper Trilobite bed, interbedded
shales and thin bands of conglomerate, tuffaceous sandstone with
Monograptus fleming, shales and sandstones, Middle Trilobite Bed,
shale with M. bohemicus, Black Bog shales, Lower Trilobite Bed includ-
ing Hume Limestone, Barrandella shales, Bowspring Limestone .. ¢. 800
Laidlaw Series, fine and coarse tuffs and porphyries ee a oe 900
Yass Series, sandstones, calcareous shales and mudstones, thin beds of lime-
stone. Richly fossiliferous ae = a ee 800
Douro Series, chiefly coarse tuffs with some (?) porphyry .. a .. 3,000
Bango Series, marmorised limestone and shales, in part tuffaceous, with
Halysites cs ar cm a ae sins be - a 800
Hawkins Series, chiefly coarse tuffs, in part fossiliferous, in part intrusive
into Bango shales... ue a ae a ae oe .. 2,000
Approximate total thickness... Si ras bt .. 8,300
6 IDA A. BROWNE.
Of the total thickness nearly three-quarters, about 6,000 feet, consists of
igneous material occurring chiefly in three series alternating with the fossiliferous
Bango, Yass and Hume Series. Thus there are great rhythms in sedimentation ;
smaller rhythms are evident in the repetition of limestones and shales, and
minor rhythms are conspicuous within the limestones themselves. While there
is general conformity within the succession, in detail there are disconformities
or erosional breaks between the various units. (See section, Fig. 1.)
The normal sediments show abundant evidence of their shallow-water
origin by the occurrence of fossil rain-prints, ripple-marks and organic remains.
They also contain much fine pyroclastic material, which must have been showered
over the sea-floor as fine volcanic ash and dust, and which was probably
responsible for the death of organisms inhabiting the littoral zone and for their
quick burial and preservation as fossils.
The tuffaceous igneous material, although broadly conformable with the
associated normal sediments, exhibits locally intrusive relations with them.
Much of this material is coarsely crystalline and shows some resemblance to
quartz-porphyry in handspecimen, but its clastic character is apparent under
the microscope. The apparently intrusive character of these clastic rocks forms
one of the major problems of Silurian geology in this State, where ‘‘ intrusive
tuffs ’’ occur over a great area of the Southern and Central Highlands. One
broad belt extends from the vicinity of Cooma (Browne, 1929) north along the
Murrumbidgee Valley and through the Australian Capital Territory (as at Mt.
Ainslie, Yarralumla, Uriarra Crossing) and Queanbeyan to Yass district, and
thenee far north through Canowindra. Although a number of geologists have
studied these tuffs in various places, there is yet no concensus of opinion as to
their origin. Associated with the crystal tuffs are dacitic lavas and intrusions
of co-magmatic quartz-porphyrite and quartz-porphyry.
Marine conditions in the region of Yass during Silurian times must have
been very similar to those around some of the tropical islands of the Pacific Ocean
of the present day, with warm, shallow waters favourable to the growth of
coral-reefs, and normal sedimentation interrupted intermittently by coastal or
Submarine volcanic activity.
Perhaps the most interesting part of the succession at Yass is that within
the Hume Series. After the prolonged outburst of volcanic activity during the
Laidlaw epoch, relatively quiet sedimentation continued for a long time, during
which the clear seas favourable for the growth of coral-reefs gave place to muddy
waters in which trilobites and other organisms flourished. During the closing
phase of this epoch and following the deposition of shales, sandstones and thin
bands of interbedded conglomerate, the Upper Trilobite Bed near Bowning
Railway Station was deposited. In addition to a number of forms that were
abundant earlier, it contains a few that foreshadowed the new forms of life that
were to develop in the succeeding period.
The problem of the boundary between two geological systems and periods
is one about which there are differences of opinion in every country, since
geological time is continuous and earth-movements that produce unconformities
or breaks in the deposition of sediments do not occur simultaneously all over
the world: in fact, they do not affect the whole of a geosyncline at the same
time. Many people regard the paleontological evidence as more reliable, ‘‘ the
incoming of new forms in abundance ’’ marking the beginning of a new epoch.
As yet, however, insufficient paleontological research has been accomplished
to enable a settlement of all difficulties in the application of this criterion.
So here at Bowning there is a problem of determining the Siluro-Devonian
boundary, and on the available evidence I consider that the top of the shales
containing the Upper Trilobite Bed should be taken as marking the top of the
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS.
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8 IDA A. BROWNE.
Silurian. The succeeding tuffaceous conglomerate in the neighbourhood of
Bowning Hill transgresses unconformably the Hume series, and clearly belongs
to the overlying Devonian volcanic sequence.
The Silurian Period was apparently brought to a close by the Bowning
orogeny (Browne, 1947) during which the strata in the Yass-Bowning area were
gently folded along a north-north-west axis. The Hume Series now forms a
closed oval basin surrounding Bowning Hill, and the underlying formations
appear in confocal troughs, which become progressively more elongated. The
outcrops of Bango limestone appear along a belt roughly parallel to the Siluro-
Ordovician boundary. Cross-warping in the vicinity of Boambolo, south of
the main basin, has produced an inlier of the Yass Series along the main fold-
axis.
No plutonic intrusions related to the Bowning orogeny are known at Yass,
but the intrusion of the Gunning granite, which outcrops about 16 miles to the
east, possibly took place during that epoch.
Devonian Sedimentation.
After an interval of erosion that followed the Bowning orogeny, ocean
waters once again flooded the Tasman Geosyncline and the Devonian Period in
the Yass district opened with a great display of volcanic activity. On the
sinking shoreline west of Yass this commenced with the deposition of an
agglomerate or conglomerate, in which waterworn boulders of hard Silurian tuff
and fossiliferous limestone, with volcanic blocks of andesite, are embedded in a
coarse tuffaceous matrix. On Bowning Hill this rock is overlain by flows of
andesite and beds of tuff, which are succeeded by flows of rhyolite. This
occurrence is an outlier of a great suite of voleanic rocks named the Black Range
Series (Brown, 1941), which outcrops extensively in the Black Range and in the
country between Bowning Hill and Burrinjuck Dam, and through Narrangullen
Mountain to the south.
Along the eastern border of the main outcrop the base of the sequence is
hidden by heavy faulting, but the series consists of flows of rhyolite and pyroxene-
andesite interbedded with fine tuffs, the whole being overlain by a thick sequence
of coarse tuffs and volcanic breccias. North of Narrangullen Mountain black
Shales overlie the rhyolites, but these thin out south of Taemas. Fine, shaly
red tuffs are conspicuous near the top of the sequence.
The thickness of the lava flows varies from place to place: a thickness of
1,800 feet has been measured north of Good Hope, and elsewhere it may be
greater. The overlying tuffs also vary in thickness and in places taper out and
disappear, but it is probable that the thickness of lavas and tuffs is of the order
of at least 2,500 feet. The rock-types produced during this epoch of vulcanicity
were quite distinct from those of the preceding period, the felsitic rhyolites with
small felspar phenocrysts and dense stony groundmass being particularly
characteristic, and the experienced field worker has little or no difficulty in
distinguishing them from the Silurian igneous rocks. The occasional presence
of marine fossils in the tuffs indicates submarine deposition.
To the south and south-west of Yass the Black Range Series is succeeded
by a sequence of Middle Devonian sediments called by Stssmilch (1914) the
Murrumbidgee Beds and by David (1932) the Murrumbidgee Series and later
(1950) the Taemas Series. These sediments, approximately 2,000 feet thick,
consist of two great formations of richly fossiliferous limestone separated by
fine-grained siliceous clastic sediments. Thus again in the Devonian, as in the
Silurian succession, there is evidence of great rhythms in sedimentation.
The lower limestones are well-bedded, and individual beds may be traced
for many miles. Harper (1909) described part of the sequence, distinguishing,
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9
from the base up, the Bluff Limestone, the Yellow Limestone and the Currajong
Limestone, and mentioning some of the fossils occurring therein. Corals are
abundant in a few thin bands near the base and in limited bands higher up,
but the most abundant organisms are brachiopods, notably spirifers of the gens
Spirifer yassensis (which range from the base to the top of the sequence), also
chonetids, atrypids, small rhynchonellids and meristids ; Mollusca, including
lamellibranchs, gastropods and nautiloid cephalopods ; and Bryozoa, sponges
and trilobites.
The overlying fine, clastic sediments are mainly unfossiliferous except in
their upper portions. Rhythmic alternations of unfossiliferous bands with beds
a few inches thick containing myriads of spirifers and chonetids are well seen
near the western approach to old Taemas Bridge and along the river bank to
the south. Red beds are prominent within these sediments.
The upper limestone, which occurs along the western bank of the Murrum-
bidgee River, north of old Taemas bridge, contains Bryozoa, brachiopods, corals
and cephalopods, and also the plates of ganoid fishes. The specimen of Dipno-
rhynchus sussmilcht described by E. 8S. Hills (1941) came from this limestone.
As in other parts of the State, the Devonian beds have been extensively
folded. In the region south-west of Yass, between the Murrumbidgee and
Goodradigbee Rivers, the lavas and tuffs of the Black Range Series outcrop in a
great trough or syncline plunging to the south from Illalong Creek Railway
Station, in the centre of which a median anticline forming Narrangullen Mountain
has raised the rhyolites more than 3,000 feet above sea-level. Around these the
overlying shales and tuffs outcrop in a great are pitching at a low angle to the
north, but dipping more steeply to the north-east and to the west, and the beds
of the Murrumbidgee Series, eroded off this axis, are now confined to two more or
less closed elongated basins, one on either side of the anticline. The western
basin is along and to the west of the Goodradigbee River (Fig. 2) and is intruded
by the Burrinjuck granite and related igneous intrusions ; the eastern basin
extends from the Yass River, below the Devil’s Pass, south across the Murrum-
bidgee River and through the parishes of Taemas and Cavan. The general
stratigraphical succession is similar in the two basins, though the thicknesses of
Strata are different. The similar order of succession of the faunas in the lower
beds is very striking and indicates similar conditions of sedimentation and
environment over a wide area.
It was chiefly from the lower limestones of the eastern basin in the neigh-
bourhood of Taemas and Cavan that W. B. Clarke and others (D. Hill, 1941)
collected fossils that have made the area geologically famous ; and in this area
also is the spectacular folding of the limestones that has been illustrated by
Sussmilch (1914), David (1950) and others.
However, no detailed map of the whole structure has been made until now,
so that it has been almost impossible to place fossils from different localities in
their correct stratigraphical horizons.
As may be inferred from the map (Plate I) and geological section (Fig. 2),
the eastern basin is really a compound structure, consisting of two synclinoria,
_the eastern one much broken by faults. The most easterly fault has brought
the Black Range Series down against the Silurian (Figs. 1 and 2), while a parallel
fault two miles to the west throws down to the east, so that between the faults
there is a long narrow belt of downthrown Devonian rocks. Within this are two
other faults, between which a central zone has been upthrust.
Of the minor foldings some are symmetrical, others very asymmetrical, and
some small elongated domes and basins are developed. The folded and faulted
rocks are strongly cleaved.
10 IDA A. BROWNE.
Since the fossils in the limestones indicate a Middle Devonian age for the
sediments, it is probable that their folding and faulting took place at the close
of Middle Devonian time, during the epoch of diastrophism which affected much
of south-eastern Australia (Brown, 1932), and which is known as the Tabberab-
beran orogeny (Andrews, 1937-1938). Some of the minor folding and crumbling
is closely related to the faulting, and this accounts for the intensity of folding of
the Devonian rocks in contrast with the generally gentle, open folding of the
Silurian near Yass.
No intrusive igneous rocks occur in the eastern basin, but the granite and
quartz-porphyrite of Burrinjuck are probably related to the Tabberabberan
orogeny.
Historical Summary.
In the cross-section we have taken of the Tasman Geosyncline in the latitude
of Yass district, we have seen that in its early stages, perhaps during Cambrian
or Lower Ordovician times, it extended far to the east and to the west of Yass ;
during the Ordovician, fine-grained muds were deposited within the geosyncline,
and graptolites inhabited its waters. Coral and other shelly faunas lived in the
shallower waters north of Yass during Middle and Upper Ordovician times and
built up limestones.
At the close of the Ordovician, folding of the sediments, intrusion of granite
to the east and the formation of a geanticline within the geosyncline marked the
epoch of Benambran orogeny. An interval of erosion was followed by sub-
mergence of the region and the transgression of the early Silurian sea.
Silurian sedimentation occurred in a somewhat more restricted geosyncline.
The alternations of shallow-water, sandy, muddy and calcareous sediments
record fluctuations of sea-level and changes of environment for their enclosed
faunas of corals, brachiopods, trilobites and other organisms. The enormous
quantities of associated igneous material are evidence of periodic displays of
volcanic: activity on a tremendous scale.
The Silurian Period closed with the Bowning orogenic epoch, when the
Silurian sediments were gently folded and somewhat faulted, and granite was
injected into the sediments around Gunning.
A somewhat similar set of conditions was repeated in the Devonian ; great
thicknesses of rhyolitic lava, tuff and ash were deposited over the eroded surface
of Silurian formations as a result of widespread volcanic activity. In the Middle
Devonian conditions became favourable for the formation of extensive coral
reefs, which developed on a subsiding floor and produced thick deposits of
limestone.
By this time the Tasman Geosyncline in the Yass region contained sediments
and products of igneous activity of the order of many thousands of feet thick,
Silurian and Devonian alone accounting for at least 12,000 feet. The folding
and faulting of the Middle Devonian and the accompanying intrusions of
Burrinjuck granite and quartz-porphyrite of the Tabberabberan epoch may have
been caused by fracture of the basement of the geosyncline by this enormous
load of superimposed sediments.
No Upper Devonian or younger Paleozoic sediments are known in the Yass
district, although the widespread distribution of Upper Devonian in other parts
of the State suggests that probably they also occurred here, but have been
completely worn away.
PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11
CONCLUSION.
Although much has been written of the Tasman Geosyncline, much yet
remains to be known of the details of sedimentation in various localities ; of
changes of facies, both lithological and paleontological ; of migrations of faunas
within the geosyncline at different stages in its history ; of distribution in space
and time of vulcanicity and igneous intrusion ; of the character and timing of
earth-movements which have produced folding, faulting and unconformity
within the sediments. The solution of these and other problems lies in the
detailed mapping and study of the geology and paleontology of particular areas
and the integration and summation of all the knowledge thus obtained.
REFERENCES.
Andrews, E. C., 1937-1938. THis JoURNAL, 71, 118.
Brown, Ida A., 1932. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 57, 323.
—-—______—_—. 1941. Tuis JouRNAL, 74, 312.
Browne, W. R., 1929. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 54, ix.
—-——_——_—_— _ 1947. Scr. Progress, 35, 623.
David, T. W. E., 1932. Geological Map of the Commonwealth of Australia. Com. C.S.I.R.,
Sydney, 1932.
——- 1950. ‘‘ Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia’’, Vol. I. Edward
Arnold & Co., London, 1950.
marper, L. F.,,1909. Rec. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 9, 1.
Hill, Dorothy, 1941. Turis JourNAL, 74, 247.
Hills, E. S., 1941. Rec. Aust. Mus., 21, 45.
Joplin, Germaine A., 1945. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 70, 158.
Lees, G. M., 1953. Pres. Add. Q.J.G.S., 109, 217.
Naylor, G. F. K., 1935. THis JourNa.L, 69, 75, 123.
Opik, A. A., 1954. In ‘“‘ Canberra, A Nation’s Capital.’ Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1954.
Schuchert, C., 1916. Amer. Jour. Scr., 42, 91.
Sherrard, Kathleen, 1939. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 64, 577.
—_—___—____—_____—. 1943. Tuis JourRNAL, 76, 252.
Sussmilch, 1914. ‘‘ Geology of New South Wales.” Sydney: Angus and Robertson, 1914.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE I.
Geological Sketch-map of the Yass-Taemas District.
The Silurian in the N.E. is from the author’s map (Brown, 1941) with additional boundaries
from K. Sherrard (1939) and information kindly supplied by Mr. A. J. Shearsby of Yass.
The Devonian part of the map is mainly original but incorporates some material from L. F.
Harper (1909). Alluvium is omitted.
NOTE ON A PAPER BY J. L. GRIFFITH.
By G. BOSSON, M.Sc.
Manuscript received, November 6, 1953. Read, April 7, 1954.
If f(@1, %, . . ., #,) be a harmonic function of n variables, it is well known
that the mean of the function taken over the (n—1)—dimensional boundary of
an n-dimensional sphere is equal to the value of the function at the centre of
the sphere. However, the writer has not been able to find, in the literature,
any generalization of this theorem for the case of a function which is not harmonic,
except that due to Griffith for a function of two variables.
In a recent paper (Griffith, 1954), has shown that, if f(x, y) possesses
derivatives of all orders within and on a circle of radius A whose centre is (x, y),
then the mean value of the function taken round the circle
vy es ;
moll: f(@+A cos 0, y+A sin 0)Ad0
1 (2
=5-| f(v+ A cos 0, y+A sin 0)d0
47) O
=F (AVo)f (G9 )p ee os ole es Me 0. sald oo (1)
provided
T(AVa) f(x, y) exists.
In this theorem y2=0?/0u?-+0?/dy? and
m= (1) 2n
T,(avye)f(e, y= 2 we f(a, Yor Bio eee (2)
1)(AVe)f(@, y) will exist provided the series on the right of (2) is convergent.
In the present paper, a formal derivation of the corresponding theorem for
a function of three variables is given together with its application to the solution
of the Equation of Wave Motions for three spatial co-ordinates.
Suppose f(x, y, 2) possesses derivatives of all orders within and on a sphere
of radius 4 and centre at a given point (#, y, z). We denote the mean of the
function taken over this sphere by f(z, y,2; A). We take
Vi=dvGa2. 0 | Cy" Coe,
and assume (i) that f(x, y, z), gua function of x and y, satisfies the conditions of
Griffith’s theorem and (ii) that f(x, y, 2), qua function of z, possesses a convergent
Maclaurin expansion. Then
f(®,Y, 23 A=
1 Tv 27
z|| { f(w+A sin 0 cos 9, y+A sin 0 sin o, 2+A cos 0) sin Oded.
Ga) (Oia) 10
NOTE ON A PAPER BY J. L. GRIFFITH. BS
On use of (1), this takes the form
F(®, Y, 25 A)
=3/"1, (A sin 6. aioe y, 2+A cos 9) sin 0d0
=1/"7, (A sin 6. ya)er ors 9-D sin 640. f(a, y, 2
ee , (A sin 8 . V2) cosh (A cos 9. D) sin. dO. f(a, y, 2
: n= 0 r2n sin2” 8) ‘ vo" m= a ne cos2m 4) sin 0. p2m
Rey ome ~ (2m)! Ee
Assuming that it is legitimate to interchange the order of summation and
integration, we have now
F(@, Y, 25 2)
N= 0 _— m=O 2m +05" D2m
=)
n=0 ,m=0 227 (n!)? (2m)!
ak cos?” 9 sin2”+1 Od0 f(a, y, 2
N=O M=O A2(m +075" P2m Dim +3)T (n ty)
n=0 mao 22%(n!)2(Q2m)! ~
0 0 (n-)°(2m) or (m+n+3)
ERs Bye ack we ss (4)
On using the duplication formula for the gamma function, equation (4) becomes
N= 0 _mM=c 2m +075" D2m(m +n)!
ees K) =D pa,
IK no 83 4) n=0 m=0 mini(2m+2n +1)!
7 = 00 ,2r ? 2n Ter —2ny'
i 9) ve (x, Y, 2)
(“, Y, 2)
T= 22"(73-+D?)" r= 0 2°73 2r
pete : =)
rare (2r+1)! Hes y, ca, @r+1)!
TAGs Ye)
ww p27
f(@, ¥, 2; v= EI | f(w-+a sin 8 cos 9, y+A sin 0 sin @, 2+A cos 9) sin OdedO
0/0
__ sinh Avs
. f(g SO. |. hee 5
ic f(x, y, 2) (5)
It is interesting to note that a well known general solution of the equation
of wave motion follows rapidly from this result.
14 G. BOSSON.
The wave motion equation for three-dimensional space may be written
(writing, from now on, V for Vs)
where J=v(a, y, 2, t) is the ‘‘ velocity potential ”’.
Solving this equation formally, as though it were an ordinary differential
equation with ¢t as independent variable and Vy were an algebraic quantity, we
have
sinh ctv
OF
v=cosh cty . Yo(2, ¥; z)+° . (8, Y, 2). eae (7)
where Wy=(Y);=0 and ¥,=(Ab/0t); 0
If |) possesses derivatives of all orders and if the series
cosh ay. Yy=a Dart SP a ee (8)
and
sinh ciy | eee ely ae ,
= y= ae nti Ry cn ts 378.83 (9)
are convergent and may be differentiated twice, it is easy to see that (7) is, in
fact, a valid solution of (6). Further, on differentiating (9) with respect to 1,
we have
N= (efr)2n
ae =cosh cty . Uj,
0 = ay
at Tee
paar
so that, writing J) in place of ,, we have
cosh city . Y= g oa oN Sa (10)
ae jot
Finally, on using (5), (7) and (10), we have the following well known solution
of the wave equation (6):
A peench i perens }
snp Sel | Yo(x +et sin 0 cos o, y-+ct sin 9, 2-+ce¢ cos 0) sin idea
oJ 0
TMT f
+4] | v,(v-+ct sin8coso, y+ctsin 0 sino, 2+ct cos 9) sin Oded.
oJ0
ee ee ey |: (11)
School of Mathematics,
New South Wales University of Technology,
Sydney, Australia.
REFERENCE.
Griffith, J. L., 1954. THis Journat, 87, 51.
THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS MACULATA HOOKER.
Parr I,
By H. H. G. MCKERN, A.R.A.C.L,
(Mrs.) M. C. SPIES, A.R.A.C.L.,
and J.. L. WILLIS, M.Sc.
Museum of Applied Arts and Sciences, Sydney.
Manuscript received, January 15, 1954. Read, April 7, 1954.
SUMMARY.
Essential oils from H. maculata have been examined from both Queensland
and N.S.W. trees. The latter appear to produce oils of uniform composition,
containing as major constituents cineole, (-+)-a-pinene, dipentene and
(+)-limonene, cadinene, cadinol and a levo-rotatory sesquiterpene. The
Queensland trees so far examined, whilst containing only (-++)-«-pinene as the
major constituent, show some variations among themselves with respect to the
minor constituents. Similar oils have been observed from some of the progeny
of the low-aldehyde form of H. citriodora (Penfold et al., 1953), and the specific
status of the two species is discussed.
INTRODUCTION.
The essential oil of H. maculata was first described by Baker and Smith
(1920,) who examined two oils, one from southern and one from northern New
South Wales. These authors reported the presence of cineole, pinene and
sesquiterpene (assumed by them to be aromadendrene) in these oils. They
could find no evidence for the presence of citronellal. Since this date no further
work on the essential oil of this species has been carried out, owing to the fact
that the oil showed no promise of either commercial value or scientific interest.
However, following the discovery by Penfold e¢ al. (1948, 1951) of variant
oil forms within the species H. citriodora Hooker, it has been found necessary
to define the essential oil status of #. maculata more accurately both in Queens-
land and New South Wales.
This arises from the fact that some of the progeny from the low-aldehyde
form of H#. citriodora have been shown by Penfold et al. (1953) to yield oils
strikingly similar in composition to oils from #. maculata trees naturally occurring
in Queensland. Secondly, although the geographical ranges of these two trees
overlap northwards from about latitude 253°8., each species seems to occupy
its own distinct area within this range, and they rarely intermingle to any
creat extent. Notwithstanding this, several individual trees within weil-defined
populations of H. citriodora, and remote from any occurrences of EH. maculata,
have given oils very similar in composition to #. maculata oils.
This evidence has led us to review the relationship between EH. citriodora
and what is known in Queensland as #. maculata. Morphologically, the two
Species, as they occur in Queensland, are remarkably alike, and it is virtually
impossible to separate them on these grounds alone. Mueller (1879) maintained
16 MCKERN, SPIES AND WILLIS.
there were no morphological differences between the two, and considered
. citriodora to be merely a variety of EL. maculata. Maiden (1922, 1924) agreed,
aS he considered the two trees did ‘‘ not differ in important morphological
characters ’’. Blakely (1934) mentions that the pedicels of EH. citriodora are
more slender than those of H. maculata, the buds less pointed, and the leaves,
on the whole, shorter, but in our experience these characters are too variable to
be of much value as specific differences. In addition, a critical examination
of the wood anatomy of the two trees, carried out on our behalf by Byrnes
(1953), has failed to show any differences between H. citriodora and Queensland
H. maculata. Consequently, it is the opinion of the present authors that the
name £. maculata has, up to the present time, been employed in Queensland
solely to designate those trees whose leaves do not give an odour of citronellal
when crushed. In view of what is now known of the occurrence of physiological
forms or chemical varieties within a single species (Penfold, 1949), the separation
of trees into species on purely chemical grounds can no longer be justified.
It may also be of significance that the oils from the various collections of
EH. maculata so far examined from Queensland sources, although varying some-
what among themselves (e.g. guaiol present in some oils) are all fundamentally
different in composition from oils from the tree known in New South Wales as
E. maculata. The relationship between N.S.W. EH. maculata and the Queensland
E. maculata-E. citriodora complex is also at present being examined at this
Institution.
THE ESSENTIAL OILS.
The essential oils obtained by steam-distillation of the foliage showed
marked variations in composition both between the Queensland and New South
Wales samples, as well as within the Queensland samples.
The two N.S.W. oils were similar in composition, consisting principally
of cineole, (+)-«-pinene, dipentene, (-+-)-limonene, cadinene, cadinol, a levo-
rotatory sesquiterpene yielding cadalene on dehydrogenation, and small amounts
of an unidentified sweet-smelling substance.
The two Queensland oils, differing from each other and from other Queens-
land oils in the course of examination, differed markedly from the N.S.W. oils.
Although the major constituent in each case was found to be (-+)-a-pinene,
it was associated, in the case of the Brisbane oil, with tso-valeric aldehyde,
dipentene, terpinolene, an ester of terpineol (?), a levo-rotatory and a dextro-
rotatory sesquiterpene, both yielding an azulene on dehydrogenation, and a
sesquiterpene alcohol fraction giving a mixture of cadalene and an azulene on
dehydrogenation. In the case of the Tiaro oil, the pinene was associated with
cuaiol, together with dipentene, a levo-rotatory sesquiterpene and a sweet-
smelling constituent which could not be identified. The occurrence of guaiol
in this oil may be not without significance in the question of the #. maculata-
E. citriodora relationship, as Harris and McKern (1950) have already demonstrated
the frequent occurrence of this compound in oils of the low-aldehyde form of
E. citriodora. Data for the crude oils are given in Table I.
EXPERIMENTAL.
(In each case the essential oils were obtained by the steam-distillation of leaves and terminal
branchlets. All melting points are uncorrected.)
New South Wales Trees.
The oils from Moorebank and Bateman’s Bay (see Table I) were examined separately ;
however, as the oils were subsequently shown to be of similar composition, a typical examination
only will be described.
Leo
ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS MACULATA HOOKER.
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18 MCKERN, SPIES AND WILLIS
Fractional distillation : 475 ml. of oil after washing with alkali to remove acidic and phenolic
constituents had ae 0: 9206 ; nA 1:4861 ; chy) +2-40°. On fractional distillation at reduced
pressure the fractions described in Table II were obtained.
Taste IT.
Fractional Distillation of N.S.W. E. maculata Ozl.
Boiling
Fraction. Range. Pressure. | Volume. de: me, Xp:
mm. ml.
1 40—60° 10 203-0 0-8970 1-4632 oo
2 60—110° 9 30-5 0-9109 1-4846 — 5-8°
3 110-112° 9 31-0 0-9149 1-5034 9- 85°
4 112-113° 9 39-0 0-918] 1-5061 — 0-6°
5 113—125° 9 30-0 0-9239 1-5094 +21-0°
6 125—128° ) 30-0 0-9307 1-5096 +33: 0°
7 128—132° 10 22-0 0-9519 1-5080 OO
8 120-125° 5 57-0 Ono 797 1-5075 —23-0°
Determination of Cineole. Fraction 1 had a cineole content (Cocking method) of 60-5%.
The cineole was removed from 190 ml. by repeated extraction with 50% aqueous resorcinol
solution. The aqueous solution of the cineole-resorcinol addition compound was steam-distilled
with an excess of sodium hydroxide solution to give a colourless oil of camphoraceous odour
having ane 0-9281 ; no 11-4607 ; 1 202: The identity of the cineole was confirmed by the
preparation of the o-cresol addition compound of m.p. 56-56-5°, undepressed by an authentic
specimen.
The cineole-free oil from fraction | was refractionated at reduced pressure to give the fractions
described in Table III.
TaBLe III.
Boiling
Fraction. Range. Pressure. Volume. aes nen, Xp:
mm. ml
A 42—52° 19 11-6 0- 8569 1-4681 +30-3°
B 52—58° 19 oe 0-8529 1-4706 +26 - 66°
C 58° 17 24-8 0-8450 1-4767 +19-35°
Determination of (+)-a-pinene. Fraction A yielded a nitrosochloride of m.p. 109°, unde-
pressed by an authentic specimen of a-pinene nitrosochloride. Confirmation was obtained by
permanganate oxidation of the fraction to an oily acid which gave a semicarbazone of m.p. 205°,
undepressed by an authentic specimen of pinonic acid semicarbazone.
Alkaline permanganate oxidation gave no indications for either 2-pinene or sabinene.
Determination of Dipentene. Fraction C in glacial acetic acid readily yielded a bromide of
m.p. 124-125°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of dipentene tetrabromide.
Determination of (+-)-lumonene. Using amyl] alcohol and ether a second bromide preparation
from fraction C gave, on fractional crystallisation, a bromide of m.p. 104°, undepressed by an
authentic specimen of limonene tetrabromide.
The Laevo-rotatory Sesquiterpene. Refractionation of fractions 2, 3 and 4 at reduced pressure
gave a fraction by., 112—117° ; dae 0-9082 ; ne 1-5001; ap, —22-2°. Dehydrogenation of 10 ml.
with sulphur for 24 hours at 185—220°, followed by extraction with ether and distillation under
ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS MACULATA HOOKER. 19
diminished pressure yielded 3-8 ml. of a greenish-brown oil having ae 0-9817 and no 1-5680.
It gave a good yield of an orange picrate of m.p. 116°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of
cadalene picrate. The fraction yielded also a nitrosochloride of m.p. 155° (with decomposition)
but a hydrochloride could not be prepared.
Determination of Cadinene. Refractionation of fractions 5 and 6 gave a fraction b,, 133-139° ;
di? 0-9250 ; nn 15097; ap +43-27°. The fraction gave a good yield of a glistening white
hydrochloride of m.p. 119°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of cadinene dihydrochloride.
Dehydrogenation with sulphur gave a green oil 6, 122°; are 0: 9826 ; oN 1-5747. It gave an
orange picrate of m.p. 115°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of cadalene picrate.
_ Determination of Cadinol. Refractionating of fraction 8 gave a fraction 6, 124° ; ay 0-9783 ;
nv 1-5083 ; ap —24:4°. This highly viscous oil yielded a hydrochloride of m.p. 119°, unde-
pressed by an authentic specimen of cadinene dihydrochloride. It also was dehydrogenated with
sulphur to yield an oil which readily formed a picrate of m.p. 116° undepressed by cadalene picrate.
Alkali-soluble Constituents. The various consignments of oil contained about 0:2% of
acidic and phenolic substances which were not further investigated.
Queensland Trees.
(a) Tiaro District. Four hundred and twenty-seven grammes of the crude oil (Table I)
were fractionally distilled at reduced pressure to give the fractions shown below in Table IV.
TABLE IV.
Boiling F
Fraction. Range. Pressure. Volume. ae. ny, Xp:
mm. ml.
1 39—40° 1] 373 0- 8640 1 - 4662 +39-4°
2 40-55° 9 8 0-8527 1-4782 +19-6°
3 55-120° | 9 5) 0-9103 1-4840 + 4-0°
+ 120-144° 9 Remainder solidified. — —
The first runnings had an odour of tso-valeric aldehyde. Its amount was too small to
investigate, but the presence of this aldehyde was demonstrated in the Brisbane oil which will be
described later. Refractionating of fraction I failed to alter significantly the physical data.
Determination of (-+)-x-pinene. 32 g. of a fraction having dee 0- 8636 ; nn 1-4668 ; av
+39-87° on oxidation with permanganate gave an excellent yield of a crystalline acid of m.p.
68-5°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of penonic acid. The semicarbazone was prepared
and melted at 204°, also undepressed on admixture with an authentic specimen of pinonic acid
semicarbazone.
Determination of Dipentene and Limonene. Fraction 2 yielded a bromide of m.p. 120°,
undepressed by admixture with dzpentene tetrabromide of m.p. 124-125°. It thus appears that
both dipentene and (-+-)-limonene are present. fraction 3 failed to give an «-naphthyl urethane
and was not further investigated.
Determination of Guaiol. Fraction 4 solidified to a crystalline mass. The liquid portion was
filtered off at the pump and the solid purified first by draining on a porous tile, then by recrystal-
lisation from alcoho] to m.p. 91-5°, undepressed by admixture with an authentic specimen of
euaiol.
The Laevo-rotatory Sesquiterpene. The filtrate from fraction 4 had ae 0:-9806 ; nw 1-5044 ;
kp —23° 15° and was still heavily contaminated with guaiol. It was redistilled at 8 mm. to give
20 MCKERN, SPIES AND WILLIS.
a main fraction of die 0-9454 ; no 1-5040; a, —26°. An attempt to prepare a hydrochloride
was unsuccessful.
(6) Brisbane District. Four hundred and sixty-five ml. of crude oil (see Table I) were
fractionally distilled at reduced pressure to give the fractions shown in Table V.
Determination of Iso-valeric Aldehyde. Low-boiling constituents were condensed in a trap
immersed in a “ dry-ice ’’-acetonc freezing mixture interposed between the fractionation assembly
and the manometer. This liquid was distilled directly into a solution of p-nitrophenyl hydrazine
in alcohol (30 ml.) containing acetic acid (1 g.). Distillation was discontinued when the b.p.
had reached 100°. From the above solution was isolated a brown p-nitrophenylhydrazone of
m.p. 110-5°, undepressed by an authentic specimen of isovaleraldehyde p-nitrophenylhydrazone.
Found: C, 59-56; H, 6-45; O, 14-91, 14-95; N, 18-98%. Calculated for C,,H,;0,N, :
C;59- 69 5 Hy. 6 83.5507 14-45 5) N, V828a27,
TABLE V.
Boiling ie on
Fraction. Range. Pressure. Volume. | d 15 Ny oan)
wn OF mm. ral
Trap — | 10 35-0 | 00-8640 1-4667 +37-7°
1 38 10 275-0 | 00-8634 1- 4662 +41-5°
2 39 | 10 42-0 | 0-8639 1-4669 +37-0°
3 39- 43 10 6-0 | 00-8664 1-4689 +29-5°
4 43- 51 10 5-0 | 0-8690 1-4715 +14-9°
5 51- 58 | 10 20-0 | 0-8616 1-4745 + 4-8°
6 58- 61 | 10 4-0 | 0-8608 1-4796 + 2°5°
a | 61- 66 | 10 2:0 | 0-9251 1-4863 —
8 86— 96 5 5-0 | 00-9475 1-4870 +10-1°
9 96-108 5 9-0 | O-9281 1-4958 — 7-3°
10 108-111 5 | 10-0 |) *O=9224 1-5002 — 3:4°
11 111-114 5 8-0 | 0-924] 1-5025 + 8:0°
12 114-120 5 | 8:5 | 00-9279 1-5054 +12-4°
13 120-123 5 7:5 | 00-9358 1-5088 +12-7°
14 123-125 5 T=0 |} 0-9618 1-5073 + 5:0°
15 125-126 | 5 7:0 | 00-9757 1-5052 + 5-0°
Determination of (+)-a-pinene. Fraction 1 gave on permanganate oxidation an acid of
m.p. 68:5°. The semicarbazone of the acid melted at 205°. Alkaline permanganate oxidation of
fraction 4 failed to yield any benzene-soluble acidic material.
Determination of Dipentene. Fraction 5 gave a good yield of a bromide of m.p. 124-125°
undepressed by an authentic specimen of dzpentene. tetrabromide.
Determination of Terpinolene. Fraction 6 yielded a bromide which was fractionally crystal-
lised into two main fractions. The first melted at 120° and was undepressed by an authentic
specimen of dipentene tetrabromide. The second fraction melted at 116°, was depressed by
dipentene tetrabromide, but undepressed by terpinolene tetrabromide.
Terpenyl Ester ? Fraction 8 was saponified with 0-5 N alcoholic potassium hydroxide for
2 hours on a steam-bath. Steam distillation of the reaction mixture gave 3 ml. of a colourless
oil of a pronounced terpineol odour and having dee 0-9395 and Mey) 1-4880. Attempts to prepare
a crystalline derivative failed.
Sesquiterpenes and Sesquiterpene Alcohols. All of the fractions boiling above 96° C. at 5 mm.
were separately dehydrogenated with sulphur. The dehydrogenation products in petroleum
ether were chromatographed through an alumina column. On removal of the solvent from the
various fractions, the main dehydrogenation product in each case was an intensely royal-blue
azulene. The picrate in each case formed as very dark olive-green needles melting at 115-5° C.
ESSENTIAL OIL OF EUCALYPTUS MACULATA HOOKER. 21
Attempts to prepare hydrochlorides and trinitrobenzoates failed with all fractions. Water
was formed during the dehydrogenation of fractions 14 and 15. The ester number after acetyla-
tion indicated 51% of acetylisable constituents.
Fractions 14 and 15, as well as yielding the royal-blue azulene as the main dehydrogenation
product, also gave a yellow fraction, which reacted with picric acid to give an orange-yellow
product, m.p. 114-5° C., identical in physical characteristics with, and undepressed by, admixture
with cadalene picrate.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
We should like to express our thanks to the District Forester at Bateman’s
Bay, N.S.W., for securing material from his area. The Queensland Sub-
Department of Forestry has given great assistance in arranging collections of
material from various localities in that State. Much help in the analytical
determinations was given by Mr. R. O. Hellyer, A.S.T.C. (Chem.). Micro-
analyses are by the Division of Industrial Chemistry of the C.S.I.R.0O., Melbourne.
Our thanks are due to the Director (Mr. A. R. Penfold, F.R.A.C.I.) and the
Trustees of the Museum for permission to publish this work.
REFERENCES.
Baker, R. T., and Smith, H. G., 1920. ‘‘ A Research on the Eucalypts.’’ Government Printer,
Sydney, p. 82.
Blakely, W. F., 1934. ‘‘ A Key to the Eucalypts.”’ Worker Trustees, Sydney, pp. 93-94.
Byrnes, N., 1953. Technical Notes (N.S.W. For. Comm., Div. Wood Tech.), 6, 9.
Harris, C. M., and McKern, H. H. G., 1950. Res. on Essential Ouls of the Aust. Flora (Mus. Tech.
and Appl. Sci., Sydney), 2, 15.
Maiden, J. H., 1922. ‘‘ A Critical Revision of the Genus Eucalyptus.” Government Printer,
Sydney, 5, pp. 84-92.
—-——— 1924. Ibid., 6, p. 433.
Mueller, F. V., 1879. ‘‘ Eucalyptographia.”’ Government Printer, Melbourne. Third Decade,
p. 109.
Penfold, A. R., 1949. ‘“‘ The Volatile Oils of the Australian Flora.” Liversidge Lecture.
Government Printer, Tasmania.
Penfold, A. R., McKern, H. H. G., and Willis, J. L., 1953. Res. on Hssential Oils of the Aust. Flora
(Mus. Appl. Arts and Sciences, Sydney, 3, 15.
Penfold, A. R., and Morrison, F. R., 1948. Aust. J. Sci., 11, 29.
Penfold, A. R., Morrison, F. R., Willis, J. L., MeKern, H. H. G., and Spies, M.C., 1951. Tis
JOURNAL, 85, 120.
OCCULTATIONS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY
DURING 1953.
By K. PB. SIMs, B.Sc
(Communicated by the GovERNMENT ASTRONOMER.)
Manuscript received, February 4, 1954. Read, April 7, 1954.
The following observations of occultations were made at Sydney Observatory
with the 114-inch telescope. A tapping key was used to record the times on a
chronograph with the exception of 269, which was an eye and ear observation.
The reduction elements were computed by the method given in the Occultation
Supplement to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the reduction completed by
the method given there. The necessary data were taken from the Nautical
Almanac for 1953, the Moon’s right ascension and declination (hourly table)
TABLE I.
Serial N.Z.C. | | |
No. No. | Mag. Date. | Ut. Observer.
| him. is |
266 731 a) Jan. 25 10 57 20-5 | R
267 LAG Bel Feb. 24 9 45 19-2 S
268 1282 | 6-6 Apr. 21 11 29 46-1 S
269 1385 6-5 Apr. 22 10 25 43-9 R
270 1486 4-6 Apr. 23 12 06 32-7 W
271 1759 6-5 Apr. 26 9 52 lies Ww
272 1242 6-8 May 18 9 46 38-5 S
273 2039 5-6 May 26 7 40 17-4 W
274 2045 6-4 May 26 8 45 13-6 S
275 2051 yey | May 26 9 46 42-6 S
276 2108 6-4 June 23 7 31 29-4 W
277 2109 6-1 June 23 8 16 11-8 Ww
278 1565 6-3 July 15 8 29 39-9 R
279 7-4 July 15 8 29 44-4 R
280 1967 ow July 19 12 16 AZ Ww
281 2084 6-5 July 20 13 05 21-5 W
282 2349 3-1 July 22 11 37 30-8 8
283 2524 6-0 July 23 16 49 00-9 W
284 2652 6-4 July 24 9 07 03-1 Ss
285 2286 5-4 Aug. 18 1 Li 2s W
286 2295 7-0 Aug. 18 13 14 37-3 R
287 3320 5:3 Nov. 15 13 44 27-8 W
and parallax (semi-diurnal table) being interpolated therefrom. No correction
was applied to the observed times for personal effect, but a correction of —0-00152
hour was applied before entering the ephemeris of the Moon. This corresponds
to a correction of —3”-0 to the Moon’s mean longitude.
Table I gives the observational material. The serial numbers follow on
from those of the previous report (Sims 1953). The observers were H. W. Wood
(W), W. H. Robertson (R) and K. P. Sims (8S). In all cases the phase observed
OCCULTATIONS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1953. 2s
was disappearance at the dark limb. ‘Table IT gives the results of the reductions
which were carried out in duplicate. The N.Z.C. numbers given are those of
the Catalog of 3539 Zodiacal Stars for the Equinox 1950-0 (Robertson, 1940),
as recorded in the Nautical Almanac.
The star involved in occultation 279 was not included in the Nautical
Almanac list; it is G.C. 14744. Its apparent place was R.A. 105 40™ 558-87,
Dee. +4° 59’ 27”"-0.
Tasie IT.
Coefficient of
Serial | Luna- ieee ;
No. tion. Pp q Dp? Pq q? Now pAs | qc
Aa | Ad
266 372 (+100 | + 3 | 100 + 3 0 |+0-7 |+0-7 0-0 | +13-2 ) +0-11
267 373 {+100 ; + 3 | 100 + 3 0 |+1-1 /+1-1 0-0 ; +13-4 | —0-19
268 375 |+ 69 | +73 47 +50 53 |—0-7 |—0-5 |—0-5 | +12-5 | +0-46
269 375 |+ 86 | +51 74 +44 26 |+0-4 |+0°3 |+0-2 | +14-3 | +0-14
270 375 |+ 99 | +13 98 +13 2 |+0-5 |+0-5 |+0-1 | +14-1 | —0-31
271 375 |+ 60 | —80 36 —48 64 |+0-3 |+0-2 |—0-2 | + 2-8 | —0-98
272 376 |+ 96 | —27 93 —26 7 |+0:-8 |+0-8 |—0-2 | +11-7 | —0-55
273 376 |+ 89 | +46 79 +4] 21 |+0-5 |+0-4 |+0-2 | +14-2 | +0-14
274 376 {+100 | — 9 | 99 — 9 1 |+2-6 |+2-6 |—0-2 | +13-0 | —0-41
275 376 |+ 96) +27 93 +26 7 |+0:-6 |+0-6 |+0-2 |} +14-2 | —0-06
276 377 |+ 45 | —89 20 |. —40 80 |+2-5 |+1-1 |—2-2 | + 2-4 | —0-99
277 377 = |+ 37 | —93 14 —34 86 |+2-3 |+0-9 |—2-1 | + 1-3 | —1-00
278 378 |+ 69 | —72 48 —50 52 |—0-2 |—0-1 |+0-1 |) + 4-4 | —0-95
279 378 |+ 68 | —73 47 —50 53 |+1-5 |+1-0 |—I1-1 | + 4:3 | —0-96
280 378 |+ 84) +55 70 +46 30, |—0-8 |—0-7 |—0-4 | +14-1 | +0-21
281 378 |+ 96) +28 92 +27 8 |—0:3 |—0:3 |—0-1 | +14:-1 |; —0-02
282 378 |+ 40 |] +92 16 +37 84 |—1-0 |—0-4 |—0-9 | + 6-8 | +0-86
283 378 |+100 | — 2 100 — 2 0 |+0-6 |+0-6 0-0 | +13°5 | 0-00
284 378 |+ 55 | +84 30 +46 70 |—0:-7 |—0:4 |—0-6/} + 6-2 | +0-89
285 379 |+ 51 | +86 26 +44 74 |—1-0 ;—0-5 |—0-9 | + 8:7 | +0-77
286 379 |+ 96) +27 93 +26 7 |—0-7 |—0-7 |—0-2 | +13-5 | +0-12
287 382 |+ 85 | —52 73 —44 27 |+0-7 |+0-6 |—0-4 | +14-9 | —0-10
REFERENCES.
Robertson, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, 10, Part II.
Sims, K. P., 1953. Tuis Journat, 87, 19; Sydney Observatory Papers, No. 19.
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE AREA NORTH OF
THE DARLING RIVER BETWEEN LONGITUDES 145° AND 149° E.,
NGS IW:
By J. RADE.*
With two Text-figures.
Manuscript received, December 18, 1953. Read, April 7, 1954.
INTRODUCTION.
The present paper deals with that part of the New South Wales portion
of the Great Artesian Basin stretching between the Darling-Barwon River and
the Queensland border and between longitudes 145° and 149° E. The towns
of Bourke and Walgett mark the southern boundary, while the western boundary
passes through Yantabulla. The area comprises about 14,200 square miles of
flat country, topographic features rarely rising to more than 200 feet above the
surrounding country. In the western part of the area the altitude varies from
350 feet above sea level in the south to 500 feet above sea level in the north.
Higher country is found to the east, where elevations above sea level vary from
430 feet in the south to 565 feet in the north, the latter being the highest part
of the map area. .
The area is drained by the northern tributaries of the Darling River. Narran
River is an exception, since it flows directly into Lake Narran and thus does not
enter the Darling. Such rivers as the Narran, Bokhara, Birric and Culgoa, all
located north-east of Bourke, flow in a south-westerly direction, but the more
westerly situated Warrego River has a south-south-westerly course.
During the course of the present work, the main effort was directed towards
the elucidation of the structure and composition of the Paleozoic basement
rocks, since they are of importance in a study of water potentialities of the area
and are not well known. Full use has been made of the bore data collected by
the Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney. However, it
should be noted that bore data for this area is not always reliable, despite the
intensive boring programmes carried out. Bore logs are generally inadequate,
few paleontological studies have been made, and the chemical analysis of water
samples are too few. Thus much information which would have been of great
assistance in the present study has been lost.
The two contour maps which accompany the present paper were prepared
by the author from information gained from artesian and sub-artesian bores.
Inaecuracy has been introduced by the inadequate bore records, and doubt as
to the exact localities of some of the bores. The contours must thus be regarded
as only approximate, but nevertheless they serve to elucidate the structure of
the basement in this, the most complex area of Paleozoic basement rocks in
the whole of the New South Wales section of the Great Artesian Basin.
GEOLOGY.
The area under consideration consists mainly of Paleozoic and Mesozoic
rocks. The Paleozoic rocks form the basement of this portion of the New
South Wales part of the Great Artesian Basin, while the overlying Mesozoic
rocks form the aquifers for artesian and sub-artesian water.
* Geologist, Bureau of Mineral Resources.
t
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS NORTH OF DARLING RIVER. 2
The Paleozoic rocks are of Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian age. Granites
also form a considerable part of the Paleozoic basement in the western part of
the area, while Paleozoic schists and slates are widespread in the central and
eastern parts of the area. These Paleozoic basement rocks will be considered
below in more detail.
The deepest bores of the whole area were drilled into the structural depres-
sions of the eastern section of the area under consideration, to the north of the
town of Walgett. The Gerongra bore, situated 17 miles north of Walgett,
reached Paleozoic slates at a depth of 3,053 feet, this being the greatest depth
at which the basement has been encountered. The Nullawa bore, situated
69 miles north-north-west of Walgett, encountered Paleozoic granite at a depth
of 3,018 feet. Paleozoic quartzite and schist were encountered in the Dungle
Ridge bore, situated 49 miles north-north-east of Walgett.
The Paleozoic granite has been encountered widely in many bores drilled
in the western part of the area. It has been strongly faulted, so that in some
places it forms horsts, with the result that the granite is struck at shallow depths.
In the north-western corner of the map area the granite was penetrated at a
depth of 1,553 feet in the Brindingabba No. 5 bore, 21 miles north of Yantabulla.
However, in the Yantabulla No. 1 bore, located at Yantabulla, faulting has
brought the granite to within 180 feet of the surface. Granite is met with at
varying depths in the several bores to the north-east and east-south-east of
Yantabulla. For example, the Mascotte No. 2 bore, situated 17 miles east of
Yantabulla, met granite at a depth of 839 feet, while the Maranoa No. 2 bore,
situated 28 miles north-east of Yantabulla, encountered granite at a depth of
1,469-5 feet. Granite was encountered 40 miles east-south-east of Yantabulla
at a depth of 742 feet in the Multagoona No. 9 bore, apparently in a horst.
In the Grass Hut bore, 46 miles east-south-east of Yantabulla, the granite was
struck at a depth of 430 feet. Decomposed granite and schist were encountered
in the middle part of the area, not far from the Queensland border, at a depth
of 1,595-5 feet in the Dunsandle No. 1 bore, 40 miles east-south-east of Bar-
ringun. South-east of Yantabulla the Paleozoic basement also consisted of
granite and was encountered at varying depths below the surface; in the
Boongunyarrah Springs bore, nine miles south-east of Yantabulla, it occurred
at 285 feet, while at the Pirillie No. 8 bore, 16 miles south-east of Yantabulla,
it was encountered at 1,330 feet. In the southern margin of the area, 28 miles
north-east of Bourke, the granite was struck at a depth of 700 feet.
Slates and schists of Paleozoic age were encountered in the central and
western parts of the area concerned ; slates were recorded at 1,641 feet in the
Maranoa No. 4 bore, situated 25 miles north-east of Yantabulla, at 1,820 feet
in the Belalie No. 7 bore, 12 miles south-south-west of Barringum, and at 1,795
feet in the New Eureka bore, 24 miles east-south-east of Barringum. Schistose
slate is known from a depth of 1,674 feet in the Weilmoringle No. 7 bore, 57 miles
east-south-east of Barringun. The Paleozoic basement, consisting of slates
and quartzites, was first struck at a depth of 1,300 feet in the Kerribree No. 2
bore, situated 21 miles south-south-east of Yantabulla.. Schist with quartz
veinlets was met with at 1,118 feet in the Pirillie No. 9 bore, 30 miles south-east
of Yantabulla. Paleozoic slate also forms the basement north-east of Bourke,
where it is known at a depth of 1,710 feet in the Gidgea Camp bore, 12 miles
north-north-east of Bourke, and also at a depth of 1,898 feet in the Weilmoringle
No. 9 bore, 74 miles north-east of Bourke. Slates are known at 1,860 feet below
the surface in the Milroy No. 2 bore, 63 miles north-east of Bourke. Schistose
slate was recorded from a depth of 1,674 feet in the Weilmoringle No. 7 bore,
76 miles north-east of Bourke. |
26 J. RADE.
The depths at which the granites, slates and schists are first encountered
may be compared by reference to the data given above. It is clear that the
granites occur at much shallower depths than the slates and schists. The granites
which form part of the Palzeozoic basement occur mostly as batholiths intruding
the slates and schists. The slates and schists were more susceptible to processes
of denudation, and thus form the deeper portions of the basement surface, while
the more resistant granites form the higher basement surfaces.
The Jurassic Walloon Series, consisting of sandstones with intercalations
of shales, was deposited on the Paleozoic basement. The intercalations of shale
have an average thickness of from 30 to 60 feet in the bores sunk in the area
north of Walgett. Conglomerates are also found in the Walloon Series, generally
along the flanks of the Palzeozoic basement ridges. An example is to be found
along the ridge to the north-east of Bourke, stretching in a north-north-westerly
direction into the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin. Sand,
sandstone and conglomerate, presumably derived from the abovementioned
ridges, was encountered between 1,590 feet and 1,642 feet in the Warraweena
No. 4 bore, situated 27 miles north of Bourke. Water-worn quartz gravels
were encountered at a maximum depth of 1,070 feet in the Lissington No. 4
bore, 43 miles north-north-east of Bourke. The Warraweena No. 4 bore,
mentioned above, is situated above a structural depression in the Paleozoic
basement, while the Lissington No. 4 bore is located on the northern slopes of
the adjoining ridge. Two cycles of sedimentation are represented in the strata
pierced by the Gingie bore, situated 23 miles north-west of Walgett. The
sediments in question represent the upper part of the Walloon Series. Each
cycle commenced with the deposition of conglomerate, and was terminated
with the deposition of shale. The following is the record of the older cycle of
sedimentation, taken from the Gingie bore :
1,936 to 1,945 feet below surface 9 feet of black shale.
1,945 5, 1,985 = ie AOS brown shale.
159857). 15987 a Y 7 ee drift sand.
19380 53) 2,064 zs . (te aoa sandstone.
2,064 ,, 2,072 5 53 Sreless gravel.
2,072 ,, 2,084 A . 5 re conglomerate.
A gradual transition from sediments of coarser character to sediments of
finer character can be clearly seen by the figures above. The occurrence of
brown and black shales at the top of the cycle is significant. Black shales
containing pyrite are characteristically encountered in the Jurassic deposits of
Europe, and it is thought that they are the result of deposition under tranquil
conditions. These circles of sedimentation expressed in the Gingie bore may
be taken as true reflections of the saltatory uplift of the peninsular-like structure
of the Paleozoic basement, the latter stretching from the Lake Narran area in
a north-easterly direction into the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian
Basin. The Gingie bore is situated on the south-eastern margin of this Paleozoic
ridge, and thus the earth movements which affected the ridge are faithfully
reflected by the type of sediment found in the bore.
The thickness of the Walloon Series varies within wide limits according
to the sub-surface contours of the Paleozoic basement. Thin sequences of the
Walloon Series are found on the basement ridges, but great thicknesses have been
recorded in the structural depressions. The average thickness of the Walloon .
Series is 600 feet in the eastern part of the map area, but thinner sequences are
known from the western part of the area.
The Walloon Series is overlain by the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series,
consisting largely of shales, but containing intercalations of sandy shales, sand-
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS NORTH OF DARLING RIVER. 27
stones, and some thin coal seams. The sediments are of lacustrine origin, and
on the whole are more sandy than the overlying marine Roma Series. The
average thickness of the Blythesdale Series is about 600 feet.
The Roma Series consists largely of blue-grey shales, but intercalations ot
sandy shale and sandstone are occasionally encountered. The Roma Series
generally accounts for the bulk of the sediments penetrated by the bores. Valu-
able foraminiferal studies of the Roma Series have been carried out for the
Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission by Miss Irene Crespin, of the
Bureau of Mineral Resources. As a result of these studies, foraminifera of
Lower Cretaceous age have been identified in the marine facies between 325 and
1,181 feet in the Lila Springs No. 8 bore, situated 32 miles north of Bourke.
In this same bore the marine facies is replaced at a depth of 1,200 feet by fine-
grained fawn-coloured shales containing numerous plant remains and seed pods.
Foraminifera and ostracods are no longer found, and it is assumed that this
level represents the top of the Blythesdale Series. If this be the case, then the
thickness of the Roma Series in this locality is 875 feet, which is taken to be the
average thickness.
The overlying Winton Series represents a return to lacustrine deposition.
It consists mainly of sandy clays, with occasional seams of clay and legnite.
The average thickness of the Winton Series is about 500 feet. In 1945 Miss
Crespin conducted a foraminiferal investigation of the Stanford bore, situated
58 miles north-east of Bourke. The strata between 139 and 237 feet were
referred to the Upper Cretaceous. The thickness of the Upper Cretaceous
Winton Series in this area is thus seen to be less than in other areas. In this
connection it is significant that the Stanford bore is situated towards the southern
limit of development of the Winton Series. In general, the Winton Series is
most widely developed in the vicinity of the Queensland border, while it is
absent in the south-western corner of the map area. Kenny (1934, p. 71) states
that the Upper Cretaceous sediments are not represented in the West Darling
district, although the Lower Cretaceous is represented, probably by the equi-
valents of the Roma Series of Queensland. The Winton Series is developed
in the far north-west corner of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian
Basin, adjacent to South Australia. According to Jack (1930), the Winton
Series is also developed in the adjoining area of South Australia.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.
° The accompanying figure (Fig. 1) is a contour map of the surface of the
Paleozoic basement. Before this is considered in detail, a summary of previous
investigations will be given. Mulholland (1940, p. 22) investigated the geological
structure of the area south-west of Bourke and found two sets of fold axes.
One of them was stated to vary in strike from meridional to N. 20° W., while
the other was stated to vary between N. 40° E. and N. 45° E. Domes were
identified at the points of intersection of these trend lines, and a probable fault
with a strike of S. 30° KE. was detected. From these studies by Mulholland it
can be seen that the geological structure of the area to the south-west of Bourke
is quite complex. The accompanying contour map (Fig. 1) will show that the
Paleozoic basement configuration is also complex between Bourke and
Yantabulla.
The major feature of the basement configuration is the peninsular-like
ridge which extends in a north-easterly direction into the New South Wales
portion of the Great Artesian Basin. It is suggested that this trend may be
referred to the Caledonian Orogeny. Lloyd (1936, p. 65) has detected the same
north-easterly trend in a synclinal structure located at Mt. Drysdale, between
Bourke and Cobar. The same trend can be detected in some of the basement
J. RADE.
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GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS NORTH OF DARLING RIVER. 29
faults, such as the probable fault to the north of Walgett (Fig. 1) and other
faults in the central and western parts of the map area. The main structural
depressions also follow this trend.
The north-north-westerly trend is referred by the present author to the
Variscan period of orogeny. It is expressed in the faults which cut the central
and western portions of the map area, and is clearly reflected by the alignment
of the mound springs. Of particular significance are the mound springs which
are located 42 miles north-north-west of Bourke. Here they occur along the
eastern margin of a granitic basement horst. A further alignment of the mound
springs occurs along a parallel fault to the south-east of Yantabulla. There
can be little doubt that these structural lines are true faults, as evidenced by the
mound springs and the basement contours. The faults encountered to the
north-east of Bourke are also reflected in the courses of the Darling and Culgoa
Rivers. The Culgoa River abruptly changes its course when it strikes the
south-south-easterly trending fault, and flows along the fault line for some
distance. Again, the intense branching of the Darling River, which takes place
25 miles east-north-east of Bourke, coincides in position to the area where the
south-south-easterly trending faults strike the line of the river.
The faintest trend found in the map area strikes slightly north of west.
It is seen in the fault which bounds the south-eastern corner of the horst located
42 miles to the north-north-west of Bourke, and is clearly expressed in the
alignment of the Kullyna and Native Dog mound springs. The structural
valley encountered 23 miles north-east of Bourke has the same trend direction.
Another small fault having the same strike connects the mound springs of Coon-
billy, 20 miles south-east of Yantabulla, with those of Youngarinnia, 15 miles
south-east of Yantabulla.
It is clear that these structural trends form a continuation of the trends
described from the adjoining areas of Queensland. In the latter area Whitehouse
(1945, p. 25) has shown that the bedrock occurs at shallow depths between
eastern meridians of longitude 142 degrees and 147 degrees.
The structural geology of the area has not been discussed in detail, since the
author is at present engaged in the preparation of a more extensive paper dealing
with the structural geology of the whole of the New South Wales portion of the
Great Artesian Basin.
HYDROLOGY.
Aquifers are occasionally encountered at shallow depths, but they are
saline and are thus of little practical value. Below these are the aquifers of the
Upper Cretaceous Winton Series, generally formed above the structural valleys
of the Paleozoic basement. They carry sub-artesian water.
The uppermost truly artesian aquifers are located in the sandstone inter-
calations of the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series, while the most important
artesian aquifers are found in the Jurassic Walloon Series. The accompanying
contour map (Fig. 2) represents the artesian aquifer of the Lower Cretaceous
Blythesdale Series ; however, it must be emphasized that at present the aquifer
does not yield artesian water throughout the whole of the map area. This
contour plan for the upper artesian aquifer only includes the eastern part of the
area under study, mainly the area north of Walgett. In this restricted area
the basement contours are fairly regular. Few faults are present. The central
and western parts of the map area are different in this respect, since strong
faulting in the basement has produced many irregularities in the contours of the
aquifer.
On comparing the contour plan of the artesian aquifers of the eastern portion
of the area (Fig. 2) with the same portion of the contour plan of the Paleozoic
30 J. RADE.
basement (Fig. 1), it becomes evident that the former plan approximately reflects
the main structural features of the latter. The contours of the aquifers express
the north-easterly trending ridge and the depressions occurring to the north and
east of it, just as do the contours of the Paleozoic basement.
The aquifers of the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series occur at the greatest
depths in the north-eastern part of Figure 2. Thus in the Goondablui No. 2
bore, 71 miles north-north-east of Walgett, this aquifer was encountered at
2,675 feet below the surface. The main flow from the Jurassic Walloon Series
was encountered in the abovementioned bore at a depth of 625 feet below the
aquifer of the Blythesdale Series.
MAP SHOWING CONTOURS
OF THE UPPER ARTESIAN
AQUIFER IN THE AREA
NORTH OF WALGETT
SCALE N
2 24 36 wis
Fig. 2.
The following are analyses of the water obtained from several bores.
From this table it may be clearly seen that the good quality waters of the
valuable aquifers in the Walloon Series are located at shallow depths in the
vicinity of Yantabulla.
It is usual for the aquifers bearing saline water to occur in the western
part of the area. Their distribution may be correlated with the severe faulting,
which fractured the strata and permitted leakage of saline water from the
shallow aquifers into the deeper aquifers. The long distances which the water
must travel from the intake area is also an important factor in a consideration
of salinity. The prevailing direction of sub-surface water flow is to the south-
west. The water travels in this direction from Queensland to New South Wales
31
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS NORTH OF DARLING RIVER.
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oe J. RADE.
along the structural depressions of the Paleozoic basement and along the northern
margin of the Paleozoic peninsular-like structure described above. This means
that in travelling from the intake beds the water must traverse the highly faulted
regions where the minerals from the Cretaceous shales are responsible for the
‘* salting ’”’ of the water. These considerations are especially applicable to the
aquifers of the Blythesdale Series.
The mud or mound springs are of particular interest. They are formed
when an artesian aquifer is transected by a fault, especially when an impervious
bed blocks the aquifer on the side of the fault opposite to the prevailing direction
of flow of the water. This is shown by the horst situated 47 miles east-south-east
of Yantabulla, where mound springs are developed along the faults on the eastern
side of the horst, but not on the western side. Mound springs are especially
common at the point of intersection of two faults, as may be seen in the central
map area of Figure 1.
Comparing the movement of the water and the structure of the basement,
it appears that in its movement the water uses the deeper strata as the thalweg,
and the direction of movement is closely controlled by the configuration of the
Paleozoic basement.
SUMMARY.
The strata in the area between longitudes 145° and 149° of the New South
Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin are mostly of Paleozoic and Mesozoic
age. Caledonian trends dominate the Paleozoic basement, but Variscan faulting
has an important structural control. The shallower artesian flows are from the
Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale Series, while the main artesian flows are from the
Jurassic Walloon Series. The movement of the artesian water is from Queensland
into New South Wales, and is closely controlled by the configuration of the
Paleozoic basement.
REFERENCES.
Jack, R. Lockhart, 1930. ‘‘ Geological Structure and other Factors in Relation to Underground
Water Supply in Portions of South Australia.”” Geol. Surv. S. Australia, Bull. 14.
Kenny, E. J., 1934. ‘‘ West Darling District.”” Miner. Res. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 36.
Lloyd, A. C., 1936. ‘‘ Cobar District.’’ Rep. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 95, 97.
Mulholland, C. St. J., 1940. ‘‘ Geology and Underground Water Resources of the Hast Darling
District.”” Miner. Res. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 39.
Whitehouse, F. W., 1945. ‘“* Artesian Water Supplies in Queensland.” First Intervm Rep.
Qd. Parl. Pap., 22-28.
AUSTRALASIAN MeEpIcaL ‘PUBLISHING CoMPANy -
Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N sw
ISSUED DECEMBER 10, 1954
VOL. LXXXVIII : PART II
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
-OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
a 1954
(INCORPORATED 1881)
PART II (pp. 33-54)
OF 1
VOL. LXXXVIII
Containing Papers read in June and July, with Plates I-III.
EDITED BY
F. N. HANLON, B.Sc.,-Dip.Ed.
Honorary Editorial Secretary.
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
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1954
Registered at the General Post Office, Sydney, for transmission by post as a periodical
VOLUME LXXXVIII
(Prichosurus aay. i A. Bolliger .. —
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1954
(INCORPORATED 1881)
VOLUME LXXXVIII
Part II
EDITED BY
F. N. HANLON, B. Sc., Dip. Ed.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCH HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
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ORGAN TRANSFORMATION INDUCED BY CESTROGEN IN AN
ADOLESCENT MARSUPIAL (TRICHOSURUS VULPECULA).
By A. BOLLIGER.
From the Gordon Craig Research Laboratory. Department of Surgery,
University of Sydney. :
With Plates I-ITI.
Manuscript received, March 29, 1954. Read, June 2, 1954.
The scrotum of the adolescent male of the marsupial 7. vulpecula (brush tail
phalanger or possum) can be transformed into a persistent mammary pouch by
castration and subsequent repeated administration of cestrogens (Bolliger,
1944; Bolliger and Tow, 1947). In the present paper this is confirmed and
additional changes brought on by cestrogen administration to a castrated
phalanger are described. These will be discussed under the headings of (a) cloaca,
(b) penis. (c) scrotomarsupial area, and (d) fur.
ANIMAL AND TREATMENT.
A male phalanger (7. vulpecula) about five months of age, weighing 510 grms.,
was castrated (7/3/52). The testicles, which had a diameter of 0-2 cm., were
removed through two small lateral incisions in the scrotal sac. Three days
later injections of cestradioldipropionate were begun. During the whole experi-
ment the animal remained with its mother.
Details.
0-1 mg. of estradioldipropionate on 10, 17 and 24 March, 1952.
103 Fa eae .S » ¢€ and 16 April, 1952.
LOC aes 3 ,» 26 April and 5 May, 1952.
UTE mote ee $5 » 12 and 19 May, 1952.
Oa iieger’ ss . » 26 May, 2 and 11 June, 21 July,
29 August, 29 September, 29
October, 1952.
The total amount of cestradioldipropionate administered over a period of
eight months was 4-4 mg. At the time of the last injection the phalanger was
approximately one year and two months old. At this age normal males have
reached sexual maturity (Bolliger, 1942). At the age of two years the animal
was killed (24/8/53), ten months after the last injection of cestrogen.
(a) Cloaca.
Penis, cloaca, rectum and pericloacal glands (Bolliger and Whitten, 1948)
are contained in a conically shaped hillock (Colliculus urogenitalis) with an
apical sphincteric orifice which normally only opens for excretory and repro-
ductive functions (Plate I, Fig. 1). This opening leads into a shallow cloaca.
In the cloaca can be seen the opening of the penis pocket (preputium) and
Separated by a short perineum, the terminal portions of the rectum, Externally
34 A. BOLLIGER.
the penis cannot be seen even when the animal urinates. It becomes visible
only when in a state of erection. On defecation the rectum may protrude for a
distance of about 1 mm.
This was the state of the external genitalia of our experimental animal as
injections with cestrogen were commenced. ‘The cloacal hillock measured about
4 mm. in length. Approximately one month after the first cestrogen adminis-
tration the urogenital hillock began to swell. Next, the swollen rectum attached
to a greatly altered urogenital apparatus became everted, and after another
two months it protruded from the opening of the hillock for a distance of 1 cm.
It was necessary to cover the exposed rectal mucosa frequently with penicillin
ointment in order to protect it against injury and infection.
By this time the originally conical cloacal hillock had taken on a cylindrical
elongated shape and measured about 1 cm. in length. It was capped by the
protruding, now mushroom-shaped rectum attached to the terminal portion of
a modified urogenital canal. The swollen rectal orifice measured 1-1 cm. in
diameter (Plate I, Fig. 2). After terminating cestrogen injections the protruded
rectum returned almost completely into the cloacal hillock. The cloacal hillock
also diminished in size but retained a somewhat swollen appearance for ten
months until the animal was killed.
(b) Penis.
As already mentioned, the penis cannot be seen exteriorly, and even on
inspecting the interior of the cloaca it may not be noticed, because it is retracted
in the penis pocket or preputium. If the penis is pulled out from the penis
pocket, it is noticed that it consists of two sections: distally, an unattached
part (pars libera), and proximally a part covered by a fibrous tunic (pars obtecta)
(Van den Broek, 1910). The free unattached part is an undivided cylindrical
structure of about 2-3 cms. in length when not erected, and is covered with
numerous small horny spicules. At its distal end it is provided with a flagellum
which arises near the ventral periphery of the cylindrical shaft. The flagellum
is approximately 1 cm. long and near its base is the external opening of the
urogenital canal. The relaxed penis is S-shaped, as shown in the diagram
(Plate I, Fig. 3) and about 5-6 cms. in total length. This double bend permits
large extension, the total length of the fully erected penis being about 12-14 cms.
with a diameter of about 1 cm.
About three months after the beginning of cstrogen injections when the
rectum had become protruded, it appeared as though the unattached part of
the penis with its typical flagellum and horny spicules had disappeared. At
this stage there was attached at the distal end of the rectum on its ventral aspect
a roughly pyramidal structure (base 1-5; height 0:7 cm.) of fibrous tissue
which contained at its apex a pin-sized opening (Plate I, Fig. 2). This was the
urinary outlet, and the urinary stream issuing from the small opening was at
first of very narrow diameter. This occasioned bladder distension. During
the subsequent weeks the opening became wider and adequate for the urinary
flow.
The protrusion of the rectum became less obvious about two months after
the last cstrogen injection, and finally the anus became retracted almost com-
pletely within the cloaca. At the age of two years, when the animal was killed,
the urinary outlet was seen within the cloaca as an opening of about 1 mm.
diameter. The appearance of the penis and urogenital canal at this stage
is described in the post-mortem report.
(c) Scrotomarsupial Area.
After about three months of estrogen administration, the scrotum became
transformed into a pouch, confirming previous observations (Bolliger, 1944 ;
ORGAN TRANSFORMATION INDUCED BY CG&STROGEN. 35
Bolliger and Tow, 1947). The pouch thus formed was well developed (Plate I,
Fig. 2), but a small remnant of the scrotal tip failed to invert. At the height of
its development the length of the pouch opening was 4:5 cm. The inferior
recess was 2:0 cm., and the maximum width was 4:0 cm. Some four months
after cstrogen administration had ceased the pouch gradually diminished in
size but persisted till the animal was killed.
(d) Fur.
As previously reported (Bolliger, 1944), the male phalanger treated with
cestrogen loses its typically brownish male pelage and becomes dark grey, thus
presenting an exaggeratedly female appearance.
In the present experiment this was very marked, in as much as the fur of
the whole of the posterior half of the body moulted almost simultaneously.
The new grey fur which replaced the shed hairs had the typical dark grey female
appearance. In addition the line of demarcation between old and new fur was
very distinct, as shown in Plate II, Fig. 4. Ultimately the whole of the male
animal grew a female pelage, the transformation being much slower and less
visible in the anterior region of the body. The distinctive sternal area also
exhibited this feminization of the pelage as described in previous experiments
(Bolliger and Tow, 1947).
POST-MORTEM EXAMINATION.
The phalanger weighed 1-92 kg. This was approximately normal, but the
body length of this cstrogen-treated animal was only three-quarters of that of
normal controls. It was correspondingly broader and contained large masses
of adipose tissue. The fur was also darker and thicker than in controls (Plate IT,
Fig. 5). The pouch created by administration of cestrogen was still definitely
in evidence, and the scrotal remnant had not increased materially. The cloacal
hillock measured about 1 cm. in length and in the cloaca two openings were
seen, one leading to the rectum and the other forming the urinary outlet.
Internal Organs.
On opening the abdomen the viscera were found buried in a large deposit
of fat. The kidneys were of normal size and weighed 5-3 and 5:0 grm.
A very small fibrous prostate weighing about 0-8 grm. did not show the
pigmentation which is always present in the gland of normal males. The
Cowper’s glands were about one-tenth of the normal size. The ‘ erectores
penis and urethre ’’ were small spherical bodies measuring about 0:1 cm. in
diameter. In controls these bodies have a diameter of about 1-0 to 1-5 cm.
No penis could be seen on macroscopic examination, and the structure
which had taken the place of the long S-shaped cavernous urethra was a straight
short and narrow tube measuring 2 cm. in total length. The distal third had
a diameter of about 0-1 cm. and consisted of thin translucent tissue. The
proximal two-thirds had thicker walls and measured approximately 0-2 cm. in
diameter (Plate II, Fig. 6).
The rectum appeared to be normal. The paracloacal glands were of about
the size and appearance found in fully grown females (Bolliger and Whitten,
1948). The oil glands weighed 0-25 grm. and the cell glands 0-16 grm. each.
On microscopic examination of cross sections of the prostate the urethral
lumen was found to be branched and narrow. The lining epithelium had
undergone metaplasia from a columnar to a stratified squamous type. Tubular
vestiges lined by stratified squamous epithelium were comparatively few and
most of these contained keratin plugs. The rest of the prostate was mainly
composed of fibrous tissue,
36 A. BOLLIGER.
The Cowper’s glands presented an atrophic picture similar to that seen in
the prostate gland.
Serial sections were prepared from the terminal or ‘‘ cavernous ”’ urethra
and three distinct areas (a, b and c) could be recognized.
(a) A translucent thin empty tube of about 0-5 cm. in length led into the
cloaca. Its wall measured about 0-05 cm. in thickness and consisted of fibrous
tissue, muscle and epithelium. It appeared as if this section of the urethra was
derived from the original penis pocket or preputium.
(b) In the next area the urethral tube contained a body unattached to the
wall of the urethra for a distance of about 0-3cm. The position of this body was
comparable with that of the unattached part of the penis. It resembled, how-
ever, not a phalanger’s undivided penis but had more the characteristics of the
female clitoris. A deep narrow groove now divided the former penis structure
into two parts (Plate III, Fig. 7). This cleavage is typical of the clitoris of
T. vulpecula as already pointed out by Van den Broek (1905). The bulk of this
clitoris-like structure was composed mainly of a vascular connective tissue
containing only small remnants of muscle. The blood vessels had very thin
walls and though varying in size, they nowhere assumed the size of cavernous
spaces. Epithelial septa protruded into this tissue. The erectile tissue was
concentrated on the dorsal periphery forming a distinctive oblong body. This
area was much more cellular and contained more muscle and wider cavernous
spaces.
In contrast to the undivided and unattached part of the penis this clitoris-
like. structure was bipartite and possessed neither flagellum nor spicules. It
was not endowed with the large amount of muscular tissue typical of the penis
of the phalanger and was not pierced by an urethra.
(c) Higher up the original penis pocket and the clitoris-like structure began
to grow together and a definite urethra was formed. The last third of the
cavernous urethra greatly resembled the urogenital canal of the female. The
broad submucosa consisted mainly of fibrous tissue and the lumen of the urethra
was extensively branched (Plate III, Fig. 8).
The urine is conveyed through this urethra and subsequently through a
number of narrow channels situated between clitoris pocket and clitoris into the
space beneath the clitoris and ultimately into the cloaca.
DISCUSSION.
In the case of another marsupial, the American opossum (Didelphys vir-
giniana), it is already known that by the use of sex hormones it is possible to
orient the primordia of the copulatory structures in either the male or the female
direction during the first 20 days of pouch existence. Throughout this early
period, administration of an androgen to either sex of this marsupial always
results in the formation of a precociously differentiated penis. On the other
hand, an estrogen produces a hypertrophic vulva in genetic males or females
(Moore, 1941; Burns, 1950).
In previous investigations on the effect of sex hormones on the common
phalanger or possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) it was noticed that the external
genitalia of this Australian diprotodont marsupial respond in a manner similar
to the American polyprotodont marsupial. In 7. vulpecula, however, these
responses were found to occur even 90 days or later after the birth of the phalanger
(Bolliger and Carrodus, 1940).
Furthermore, and in contradistinction to observations of the American
workers, the scrotum of the phalanger responded markedly to cestrogen adminis-
tration by forming a rudimentary pouch (Bolliger and Carrodus, 1939 ; Bolliger
ORGAN TRANSFORMATION INDUCED BY GSTROGEN. 37
and Canny, 1941). Combining estrogen administration with castration it was
possible to convert the scrotum of the phalanger into a typical permanent pouch
(Bolliger, 1944; Bolliger and Tow, 1947). The experimental demonstration
that scrotum and mammary pouch are homologous has been confirmed in the
present investigation.
This transformation of an existing organ, not merely of its primordia,
presented the question of the response to cestrogens of the male external genitalia
of the phalanger in general. In the present and previous experiments, where
this subject was not pursued further, a temporary extrusion of the urogenital
canal and of the rectum was noted after a few months of estrogen administration.
Such a reaction could be explained by the intensive growth of periurethral
connective tissue and of sinus epithelium ofter cestrogen administration which
for example, gives the vulva of the very young opossum D. virginiana a remark-
ably swollen appearance (Burns, 1942). In all probability a similar process also
operated in the present experiment, although the animal was much older. The
urogenital canal, together with the attached rectum, was thus forced to move
caudally, giving the picture of rectal prolapse.
This apparent prolapse lasted for about four months only, after which
time a normal cloaca slowly became reestablished and the remnants of the
urogenital canal and the rectum were therefore no longer visible in the living
animal.
On post-mortem examination, the rectum was similar to that of controls,
but the urogenital canal had changed profoundly. The structure which pre-
viously was the penis had much diminished in size and was now so small that
it could only be examined microscopically.
It must be emphasized that the present experiment was begun when the
animal was five months old and when a typical penis of about 3 cm. in length was
already present. Sexual maturity is established at the age of one year. At
the age of two years there is found within the urethra of the wstrogen-treated
phalanger a minute unattached structure which resembles not the free part of
the undivided penis, but a bipartite clitoris. The remainder of the original
penile urethra also resembles more the urogenital canal of the female than the
attached part of the male copulatory organ.
This would suggest that in addition to a severe regression in size a trans-
formation of a male into a female organ had been accomplished. Simultaneously
the male scrotum was transformed into a female pouch.
Compared with the penis of the fully grown male, the rudimentary structure
found in the cestrogenized animal was probably less than a fiftieth of the normal
size, erectile and muscular tissue having atrophied tremendously. The diminu-
tion of the amount of erectile tissue was reminiscent of the condition described
in the cestrogen-treated 20 days old American opossum, where little erectile
tissue remains.
Burrows (1949) pointed out that atrophy of the musculature of the penis
of the wstrogen-treated rat is an early and constant reaction. This is also
marked in the cestrogen-treated phalangers where, after cessation of the cestrogen
treatment, the penis regains its original size and shape. This indicates that in
the half-grown phalanger both castration and sex hormone administration are
necessary to reestablish that degree of plasticity of the accessory sex organs
which exists during embryonic development of higher mammals or which still
_ exists in the American opossum during the first few weeks of life. This restored
plasticity not only includes the cloaca (Zuckerman, 1950) but spreads to the
Scrotomarsupial area, and even the whole skin region in which a sudden well
demarcated replacement of the male fur by a female type occurs over the posterior
half of the rump.
38 A. BOLLIGER.
The resulting transformations of pouch, penis and pelage of the adolescent
phalanger are persistent for many months after cessation of cestrogen adminis-
tration and may therefore be considered permanent.
Compared with controls the ultimate changes produced in the genito-
urinary tract were so extensive and the concomitant interference with the lower
urinary passages so extreme that survival of the animal must be considered
extraordinary.
SUMMARY.
The administration of cestrogen to a practically half-grown castrated male
diprotodont marsupial, Trichosurus vulpecula, known as the brush tail phalanger
or possum, caused a transformation of the scrotum into a permanent pouch,
thus confirming previous experiments.
In addition, temporary protrusion of the urogenital canal and the rectum
occurred and continued for a period of six months. At this stage the penis had
altered its shape and the characteristic unattached part could no longer be
distinguished.
Subsequently the rectum regained its normal shape and position but the
atrophy of the penis progressed further, and at the age of two years the distal
part of the urogenital canal below the Cowper’s glands consisted of a narrow
urethra containing a small clitoris-like body in its lumen. 4
These anatomical changes in the distal part of the urogenital canal are
interpreted as a transformation of a male organ into its female homologue and
are comparable with the conversion of the scrotum into a pouch. Simultaneously
the pelage undergoes feminization which is particularly rapid and obvious in the
posterior half of the body.
The most remarkable aspect of this transformation process is the fact
that these phenomena occurred in the second half of the phalanger’s period of
adolescence, and, without further cstrogen administration, persisted even when
normal sexual maturity would have been established.
Both estrogen administration and castration are necessary to yield these
practically permanent transformations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
The photography was done by Mr. 8. Woodward-Smith and Mr. K. Clifford
of the Department of Illustration.
Throughout the experiment indispensable assistance was given by Mr.
N. T. Hinks.
REFERENCES.
Bolliger, A.,1942. Tuts JouRNAL, 76, 86.
——— 1944. Med. J. Aust., 1, 56.
Bolliger, A., and Canny, A. J., 1941. THis Journat, 75, 21.
Bolliger, A., and Carrodus, A., 1939. Aust. N.Z. J. Surg., 9, 155.
$$ —__________. 1940. Med. J. Aust., 2, 368.
Bolliger, A., and Tow, A. J., 1947. J. Endocrinology, 5, 32.
Burns, R. K., Jnr., 1942. Contri. Embryol. Carneg. Instit., 30, 63.
——_______—_—__——. 1950. Arch. danatomie microscop., 39, 467.
Burrows, H., 1949. Biological Actions of Sex Hormones. Cambridge: At the University
Press. 2nd Ed.
Carrodus, A., and Bolliger, A., 1939. Med. J. Aust., 2, 633.
Moore, C. R., 1941. Physiol. Zool., 14, 1.
Van den Broek, A., 1905. Petrus Camper., 3, 221.
—_—__—_—___—___—_——— 1910. Morph. Jahrbuch., 41, 347.
Zuckerman, S., 1950. Arch. d’anatomie microscop., 39, 608.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVIII, 1953, Plate I
Penis Pocket
Penis — [: ARH , nee rp Be ee “ Retractor
Urethra Penis
Flagellum —
Corpus
Cavernosum Urogenital
Urethrae Canal
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Cavernosum
Berle wemitarcde Prostate
Urethra
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PAD eee We TL
ORGAN TRANSFORMATION INDUCED BY GSTROGEN. 39
EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
| Puate I.
Fig. 1.—Scrotum and cloacal hillock in a normal male.
Fig. 2.—Cloaca and scroto-marsupial area in the castrated male phalanger (7. vulpecula)
treated with cestrogen for six months. Notice the transformation of the scrotum to a well-
developed pouch. Rectum and urogenital canal are protruding from the cloaca and the urethral
orifice is visible on the apex of the pyramid-shaped remnant of the free part of the penis which
‘is attached to the rectum.
This condition of rectum and penis as depicted had already persisted for three months.
Fig. 3.—Schematic drawing of the penis of 7’. vulpecula. (Partly after Van den Broek, 1910.)
Notice the spicules on the free part of the penis.
Puate II.
Fig. 4.—The cestrogen-treated phalanger lost the fur from the whole of the posterior half
of its body. The new, grey fur which replaced the more brownish shed hairs had the typical
dark grey colour of the female. The line of demarcation between old and new fur was very
distinct, giving the impression that the rump had been shorn.
Fig. 5.—Compare the short broad body of the cestrogen-treated phalanger with that of a
normal male.
Fig. 6.—Atrophic urogenital tract of cestrogen-treated phalanger.
(a) Bladder.
(6) Prostate.
(c) Cowper glands and erectores penis and erectores urethre.
(d) ‘‘ Cavernous ”’ urethra.
Compare with normal urogenital tract (Fig. 9). See also Carrodus and Bolliger (1939).
Pruate III.
Fig. 7.—Cross-section through clitoris-like body and wall of urethra. Note the deep cleavage
in the clitoris-like body. (x 20.)
>)
Fig. 8.—Cross-section of *‘ cavernous ”’ urethra near Cowper’s glands. Note the branched
urethral canal and the broad submucosa. ( x 20.)
Fig. 9.—Posterior aspect of normal urogenital tract of fully grown phalanger. Note the
large prostate, erectores penis and urethre, and Cowper’s glands. The dissected penis is still
somewhat bent and the naturally straight flagellum is hooked. The vasa deferentia enter the
prostatic urethra in close proximity to the bladder neck and ureters.
WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS.
By J. RADE.*
With one Text-figure.
Manuscript received, March 18, 1954. Read, June 2, 1954.
INTRODUCTION.
The area treated in the present paper comprises about 3,200 square miles
of country in the northern part of New South Wales, stretching from Delungra
and Warialda in the south to Boggabilla and the Queensland border in the north. -
The main part of the area is located in Burnett County, but portions of the
adjacent counties of Stapylton, Courallie, Murchison and Arrawatta are included.
The main purpose of the work is a consideration of the effectiveness of the
Warialda intake beds.
Full use has been made of the bore data collected by the Water Conservation
and Irrigation Commission, Sydney. The geological investigations of the area
concerned were carried out by the writer, following the main creeks on foot and
traversing the country in different directions by car.
TOPOGRAPHY.
The highest country in the map area is to the east of Delungra, where an
elevation of approximately 2,000 feet above sea level is recorded. Much lower
country occurs to the north-west, elevations of approximately 700 feet above
sea level being recorded in the extreme north-west, and elevations of 900 feet
being known from the western map border.
The northern part of the area, near the Queensland border, is drained by
the Macintyre and Dumaresq Rivers. West of the Macintyre River, several
creeks flow in a north-westerly direction, the largest of them being Ottley’s
Creek, Yallaroi Creek and Croppa or Cox’s Creek. The southern part of the area
is drained by westerly trending streams, including Gwydir River, Mosquito
Creek and Warialda Creek.
GEOLOGY.
The following is a brief outline of the rock types encountered in the map
area.
Devonian. Rocks of Devonian age outcrop on the banks of Warialda
Creek, south-west of the township of Warialda. They belong to the Upper
Devonian Barraba ‘‘ Series ’’, and consist of mudstones with intercalations of
tuff. David (1950, p. 252) has stated that the Barraba ‘ Series ’’ dip beneath
the Jurassic sediments in the Warialda area, but reappear to the north-east
of Ashford.
Carboniferous. Rocks of Carboniferous age are exposed along the banks of
Warialda Creek east of the point where this creek joins the Gwydir River, and
also in the railway and road cuttings at Yagobie and Gravesend. They consist
mainly of tuffs and lavas, with shale and slate intercalations.
* Geologist, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney.
WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS.
MAP SHOWING
SEDIMENTARY FORMATIONS
OF EFFECTIVE WARIALUA
INTAKE BEDS
4 6 8 wMLls
— ee ieee ——
ree, 5
SSS ESSER Hex dss
LEGEND...
1 ROMA GUNNEE
CRETA cco S "SERIES " TRIASSIC BEDS
BLYTHESDALE
"SERIES" CARBOMIFEROUS Reed Lees
WALLOON UPPER BARRABA
WS ale ERIES atvowian (itis) AREA,
— GRAGIN
CONGLOMERATE
<--> UPPER LIMIT OF EFFECTIVE INTAKE BEOS
-----— LOWER LIMIT OF EFFECTIVE INTAKE BEOsS |
LATE PERMIAN GRAWITE AND POST- MESOZOC ROCKS QWTTED
41
42 J. RADE.
Permian. The western portion of the late Permian New England batholith
occupies the eastern part of the map area, but is largely covered by Tertiary
basalt. Granites outcrop in the banks of Warialda Creek. They are also
encountered in several bores drilled into the cores of the north-west trending
Paleozoic ridges which will be shown to underly the Mesozoic strata. These
granites are best known from bores west of Warialda, and in the vicinity of -
Gragin Peak, 10 miles east-north-east of the township of Warialda. Spectacular
gorges have been formed in the late Permian granites which outcrop along the
banks of Warialda Creek, as for example at the Dog Trap, located 4-5 miles
east of the township of Warialda. Xenoliths of grey sandstone with contact
metamorphosed outer rims are found in the granite which outcrops in Warialda
Creek, east of Warialda township. It seems probable that these sandstones
represent remains of Palzeozoic (probably Carboniferous) sediments which were
intruded by the granite, but have since been completely removed by erosion.
Triassic. Much of the area in the northern part of New South Wales and
the adjacent portion of Queensland is occupied by the New England granodiorite
batholith, and it is clear that this intrusion forms a divide between the Clarence
Basin in the east and the area of sedimentation around Moree in the west. The
present author has recently recognized a characteristic group of sediments to
the west of this divide, in the Delungra area and to the east of Warialda. To them
the name ‘‘Gunnee Beds’”’ is hereby assigned. They consist of grey gritty
sandstone, with shale and carbonaceous shale intercalations. Well-preserved
plant fragments were found in a carbonaceous shale which outcrops in the bank
of Warialda Creek, north-west of Delungra, Portion 42, Parish of Gunnee,
County of Burnett. The following species have been determined by Dr. A. B.
Walkom :
Thinnfeldia odontopteroides (Morris).
Thinnfeldia lancifolia (Morris).
Thinnfeldia feistmanteli (Johnston).
Johnstonia coriacia (Johnston).
Stenopteris elongata (Carruthers).
All material is stored in the Australian Museum, Sydney. It is clear that the
assemblage is typical of the Ipswich “ Series ’’.
The outcrops of the Gunnee Beds found to the north-west of Delungra occur
between outcrops of granite belonging to the New England granodiorite batholith,
and it is thus clear that the granites underly the sediments. There is also-
evidence to suggest that the sediments have been partly infaulted into the
sranite. The thickness of the Gunnee Beds in this area is not evident, but it is
clear that it is greater than 100 feet.
Jurassic. The Gunnee Beds are overlain by a formation, hereby referred
to as the Gragin Conglomerate, and correlated with the Bundamba ‘“‘ Series ”’,
of Queensland. It is represented by approximately 200 feet of conglomerates,
and outcrops in the banks of Warialda Creek between Delungra and Warialda.
Occasional thin sandstone beds are encountered. Most of them are only 1-2
feet in thickness, but a 7-feet thick sandstone bed is found near the top of the
conglomerate where it outcrops in Warialda Creek, 3-5 miles east of the township
of Warialda. This same area represents the most westerly outcrop of the
formation known to the author. The Gragin Conglomerate is also known from
several bores to the south of Gragin Peak, but apart from the outcrops in Warialda
Creek, no others are known to the west of the New England granodiorite batholith.
Lloyd (1941, p. 96) has, however, recorded the Bundamba ‘‘ Series ’’ from
the Nymboida area to the east of the New England batholith. Here it is repre-
sented by 250 feet of conglomerates, overlying sediments which, it is suggested,
WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS 43
probably belong to the Ipswich ‘‘ Series ’’. It is interesting to note that there
is no great discrepancy between the thicknesses of the Bundamba sediments in
these two basins.
The equivalents of the Purlawaugh beds of the Walloon “ Series ’’ outcrop
in the Warialda intake area, and are hereby named the Delungra Shale. They
consist mainly of shales, but contain intercalations of sandstone and some coal
seams. The Purlawaugh beds of the Coonabarabran-Narrabri intake area,
described by Mulholland (1950), bear a close resemblance to these sediments.
Outcrops of the Delungra Shale in the Warialda intake area are not numerous,
since the formation in question is generally obscured by the overlying Warialda
Sandstone. It is, however, encountered in several bores around the margins
of the effective intake beds, and are met with in the structural ridges formed by
the Palzeozoic basement complex. More detailed information of the sections
encountered in these bores will be presented in the hydrological portion of the
present paper. The greatest thickness of the Delungra Shale is approximately
300 feet. In comparison, Mulholland (1950, p. 125) estimated that the greatest
thickness of the corresponding Purlawaugh beds in the Coonamble artesian basin
near Coonabarabran is in the vicinity of 200 feet.
The sediments corresponding to the Pilliga Sandstone outcrop more exten-
sively in the Warialda intake area than any of the other Jurassic rock units.
They consist of massive, coarse, porous sandstones and grits, are frequently
ferruginous, and contain ferruginous concretions surrounding fragments of wood.
Conglomeratic intercalations are rare, and occasional beds of clayey sandstone
and sandy shale are found. Current bedding is frequently encountered. These
sediments are hereby named the Warialda Sandstone.
The Warialda Sandstone outcrops most extensively to the north of Warialda,
but is also found in bores to the south-east of Moree. It was in this latter area
that David (1950, p. 459) recorded outliers of current bedded sandstone, and
quartz conglomerate with thin layers of ironstone, resting with unconformity on
the Lower Carboniferous strata.
The Warialda Sandstone has been proved to be 400 feet in thickness in
bores to the north of Warialda. Mulholland (1950, p. 126) has stated that the
corresponding Pilliga Sandstone in the intake area of the Coonamble artesian
basin has a thickness of 600 feet.
Cretaceous. The Jurassic Warialda Sandstone disappears to the north-west
and west beneath sediments consisting of shales and sandy shales, with sandstone
intercalations and small coal seams. It is clear that the latter are transitional
beds between the Warialda Sandstone and the Cretaceous Roma ‘“ Series ’’.
The lithology of the Warialda Sandstone indicates that it was deposited in a lake,
whereas Crespin (1944, 1945, 1953) has shown the marine affinities of the Fora-
minifera found in the Roma ‘Series ’’. Foraminifera are unknown from the
transitional beds. David (1950, p. 484) has suggested that the inliers found in
the far north-west of New South Wales may be correlated with the Lower
Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘Series’’. Whitehouse (1945) has shown that the
Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ occurs almost as far south as the New South Wales border,
and this proximity strengthens the present author’s correlation of the transition
beds mentioned above with this Lower Cretaceous formation.
The Blythesdale ‘‘ Series’ is considered to be of lacustrine origin. It
forms an effective intake bed, since it has been proved to contain artesian horizons
further to the west. To the west and north-west, the Blythesdale ‘ Series ”’ is
overlain by the Lower Cretaceous Roma ‘‘ Series ’’ and the Upper Cretaceous
Winton “‘ Series ’’. The former consists largely of blue shales with occasional
Sandstone intercalation, whereas the latter is more sandy in character, and
44 J. RADE.
contains coal seams. The lithology of the Winton “ Series ’’ clearly indicates
the lacustrine origin of the sediments, and demonstrates a return to lacustrine
conditions after the transgressions which were responsible for the marine Roma
“* Series ’’.
Cainozoic. Tertiary basalts are widespread, and largely obscure the older
sediments. The thickness of the basalt is variable, but bores north of Delungra
in the Gragin Peak area, north of Wallangra, north-east of Warialda and in the
middle of the Warialda intake beds, have proved it to be greater than 200 feet.
In the Warialda intake area, it is evident that the eruptions of the basalt were
of the fissure type. As will be shown later in this paper, the fissuring is closely
connected with the uplift of the New England block in Tertiary times.
Great thicknesses of alluvium, largely derived from the disintegration of the
Jurassic and Cretaceous sediments, are of widespread occurrence. The western
and north-western portions of the area under consideration are almost completely
covered by these deposits, so that outcrops of the older rocks are rarely seen.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.
In the area occupied by the Warialda intake beds, the Mesozoic strata have
a regional dip of a few degrees to the north-west. The trend in the underlying
Paleozoic basement is N. 20° W., and is thus the same as that for the Devonian
rocks encountered in the classic sections of the Tamworth district.
A north-easterly trend may also be discerned in the north-western portion
of the map area, both in the surface outcrops and from the bore data. Numerous
geological sections through the Warialda Intake Beds have been constructed for
hydrological purposes by the present author. These sections clearly show the
presence of the north-west trending sub-surface ridges, and demonstrate that
the latter are transected at their north-western extremities by the less well
marked north-eastern trends. The result of these two trends is the formation
of shallow domes and basins in the north-western part of the map area. The
Warialda Sandstone is found close to the surface in the domes, but lies deeply
buried beneath the Lower Cretaceous in the basin structures.
According to David (1950, p. 266), all of the Upper Devonian sediments of
eastern Australia were folded at the end of the Lower Carboniferous. It can
thus be assumed that the north-westerly trending ridges are a product of this
Lower Carboniferous period of orogenic activity. Bryan (1925, p. 21) has stated
that the north-easterly trend direction may be regarded as older than the north-
westerly trend.
After the intrusion of the late Permian New England granodiorite batholith,
its western margins were subjected to faulting. Evidence of the faulting may
be seen in the area between Delungra and Gragin Peak, where a tongue of the
Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘ Series ’’ is infaulted into the granite. The bore
data of this area further indicates that the granite escarpments formed by the
faulting existed as bold ridges in the lower Mesozoic, and that it was not until
the time of deposition of the Warialda Sandstone that the escarpments were
partially covered by sediment. It is also suggested that further faulting, and
rejuvenation of the faults and consequent uplift was responsible for the coarse
Gragin Conglomerate of the Jurassic Bundamba “ Series ’’, while the uniform
erain size of the Warialda Sandstone indicates gentle but uniform uplift during
the time of deposition of these sediments. Intense uplift of the New England
Block occurred in Tertiary times, partially due to the initiation of new fault
lines. Tertiary lavas reached the surface along these fracture lines, as shown
in the sections between Delungra and Gragin Peak. Hill (1930) has found
similar faulting of the intake beds of the Great Artesian Basin of eastern Queens-
land, and has shown that in some places the Esk ‘ Series ”’ has been infaulted
into the underlying Brisbane Schists.
WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS. 45
GROUNDWATER HYDROLOGY
Paleozoic Formations.
The water-bearing properties of the Paleozoic formations of the Warialda
area are limited. They serve as run-off regions, and do not constitute an
important element of the effective intake beds.
Devonian.
Little information regarding the mudstones of the Barraba ‘“ Series ’’ is
available.
Carboniferous.
Carboniferous rocks occupy the south-western portion of the map area.
The comparatively shallow bores (100 feet average) into these rocks generally
yield brackish water, but several bores ranging in depth from 150 to 300 feet
have failed to yield water.
Late Permian Granite.
Most bores drilled into the late Permian granite fail to produce water.
Occasional exceptions do, however, occur where the bores are sunk into alluvium-
filled depressions in the granite, or in the beds of creeks. Some of the bores in
the valley of Warialda Creek produce water from the joint and fracture systems
in the granite. The ridges and cupolas of the late Permian granite possess an
interesting character from the hydrological point of view. In no case have these
structures produced water, since both they and the sediments which overlie
them are denser in structure than the surrounding rocks, and thus act as run-off
areas. Typical examples of these structures are found in the vicinity of Gragin
Peak, located 10 miles east-north-east of Warialda, and in the area situated 15
miles east-south-east of Warialda. Here the granites are covered by Jurassic
sediments and Tertiary basalts. Commonly the percolating water travels
through the gently north-westerly dipping Jurassic sandstones, and thus does
not reach the cupolas and ridges of the granites. In the past, an intensive
boring campaign has been conducted in this area, but most of the bores have
proved to be failures.
Granite was struck at a depth of 458 feet on one of the north-westerly
trending structural ridges situated 5 miles west-north-west of the town of
Warialda, and this bore proved to be unproductive. Another failure bore was
drilled in the vicinity of Gragin Peak, 8 miles east-north-east of Warialda.
Here granite was encountered at a depth of 504 feet. It was overlain by a
thickness of 320 feet of Delungra Shale, this in turn being overlain by 160 feet
of Warialda Sandstone. Sixteen gallons per hour were encountered, however,
in the Delungra Shale at a depth of 290 feet. The Warialda Sandstone was
unproductive, since the strata were deposited on the basement ridge, and their
regional dip to the north-west means that favourable conditions for the accumula-
tion of sub-surface water could not occur.
Gunnee Beds.
Several bores to the north of Delungra may have penetrated the Gunnee
Beds, but bore logs are incomplete and contain little useful information regarding
these rocks.
Gragin Conglomerate.
Bores drilled into the Gragin Conglomerate commonly prove to be non-
productive. Excellent examples are the bores located west and north-west of
Delungra, and in the vicinity of Gragin Peak. A bore situated nine miles east-
46 J. RADE.
north-east of the town of Warialda, in the vicinity of Gragin Peak, was drilled
to a depth of 510 feet without providing water. Here the Gragin Conglomerate
has a thickness of 199 feet and is overlain by blue and brown shales, sandy shales,
clay, and a thin bed of sandstone. The latter sediments represent the Delungra
Shale. Small flows of water were encountered at a depth of 214 feet. A partial
analysis of the water disclosed the presence of 25-2 grains per gallon of total
solids, 12-2 grains per gallon of sodium chloride, and a pH. of 7-6.
It is tentatively suggested that the Delungra Shale overlies the Gragin
Conglomerate to the west of the Macintyre River, north of Wallangra. In a
350 feet deep bore, located 14-5 miles north-west of Wallangra, the thickness
of the Delungra Shale which overlies the Gragin Conglomerate is 220 feet, the
deposits consisting of carbonaceous shales. In a failure bore, 467 feet deep,
located 5-5 miles west of Wallangra, the Delungra Shale is represented by 267
feet of grey shale and underlies 200 feet of Warialda Sandstone.
Warialda Sandstone.
The Warialda sandstone forms the main effective intake beds of the Warialda
area, and contains several aquifers. The permeable beds are generally seen to be
sealed by thin shale intercalations. Shales are, however, not always encountered,
and the present author agrees with Mulholland (1950, p. 126) in his conclusions
for the Pilliga beds of the Coonamble artesian basin, in that the permeable beds
may be sealed by harder sandstone beds which are relatively impermeable.
The Warialda Sandstone and the aquifers it contains have a regional dip
to the north-west. Apart from this slight regional dip, the aquifers of the
Warialda Sandstone exactly reflect the regional configuration of the underlying
basement, and are transected by the N. 20° W. trending ridges of that basement.
Thus as a result of the regional dip of the strata and the configuration of the
basement complex, the water in the aquifers flows towards the border of Queens-
land. The flow trend in this direction is reinforced by the sub-surface barrier
west of Warialda, the latter having been formed by the north-westerly trending
Devonian and Carboniferous ridges. Thus only a small percentage of the water
finds its way into the Moree District. Most of the water which does reach the
Moree District is derived from the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘ Series ’’,
and 1s comparatively high in its content of total solids.
Very few of the bores drilled into the Warialda Sandstone prove to be
failures. Some bores are, however, not of sufficient depth to reach the aquifers
of the Warialda Sandstone, and other non-productive bores can be seen to lie
above the Paleozoic basement ridges, where the cover of Warialda Sandstone is
thin. In the latter case the bores penetrate the Delungra Shale and the late
Permian granite. The depth to which bores must be sunk is dependent on the
structure of the underlying basement surface, and is thus variable.
Two prominent ridges of the basement complex are encountered in the
southern portion of the Warialda Intake Beds, where most of the bores penetrate
the Warialda Sandstone. The axis of the first ridge is located approximately
5 miles west of the township of Warialda. Here granite is encountered at a
depth of 458 feet in a bore of total depth 468 feet. Many of the bores located
along the same ridge, in the area between Warialda Creek in the south-east
and Mosquito Creek in the north-west, have proved unproductive. They often
penetrate 95 to 180 feet of Warialda Sandstone and then encounter the Delungra
Shale. The most north-westerly non-productive bore drilled along this ridge is
located 16 miles north-west of the town of Warialda. It has a total depth of
220 feet, and ended in Delungra Shale. To the north-west of this point, most
of the bores encountered Warialda Sandstone and produced water from between
150 feet and 355 feet beneath surface.
WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS. 47
Similar hydrological conditions are found along the second sub-surface
basement ridge. It occurs to the north-east of the township of Warialda, where
many bores ranging in depth from 300 to 520 feet have proved unproductive.
Further to the north-west the aquifers in the Warialda Sandstone were
encountered at depths of from 200 to 577 feet. Yields of up to 800 gallons per
hour have been recorded, and few failure bores are known.
In the structural valleys of the Warialda Intake Beds (which reflect the
configuration of the basement) an aquifer is encountered in the Warialda Sand-
stone. It is found at depths of from 300 to 400 feet, and yields 400 or more
gallons of water per hour.
As a result of the regional north-westerly dip of the Warialda Sandstone
and the regional structure of the basement complex, the yield of the aquifers
increases considerably in the north-westerly direction. The water yielded by
the aquifers of the Warialda Sandstone is fairly pure and contains little saline
material.
Oretaceous.
The sandstone intercalations encountered in the Lower Cretaceous Blythes-
dale ‘‘ Series ’’ constitute the upper horizons of the effective aquifers. In the
north-west part of the area under consideration, several aquifers are found in
sandstone intercalations between the sandy shales of the Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’.
As with the lower aquifers, the regional dip of the upper aquifers is to the north-
west. Yields average from 300 to 500 gallons per hour, but the water is generally
brackish. Saline water is also encountered at more shallow depths. One such
aquifer is encountered at a depth of 150 feet, the yield averaging from 100 to
150 gallons per hour.
The structural valleys, the upper portions of which are filled by the Lower
Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’, are important from the hydrological point of
view. As pointed out earlier in the present paper, the Blythesdale ‘ Series ”’
has formed in embayments underlain by the Warialda Sandstone. Thus where
the Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ is present, the bores must be deeper so as to drill
through the unsatisfactory water horizons in these rocks and penetrate the
excellent water horizons of the Warialda Sandstone.
Tertiary Voleanies.
The hydrological conditions which prevail in the Tertiary volcanics have an
important economic bearing, since great areas of the Warialda Intake Beds are
covered by these Tertiary basalts. Boring has proved that the basalts contain
zones of cavities which are capable of storing water. It has become apparent
that, in basalt areas, any available ground water is generally located at shallow
depths, and the hydrology is dependent on local conditions, of which the topo-
graphy plays an important role. An example can be found in the country
between Inverell and Delungra, where the slight westerly dip of the land surface
has an important bearing on the hydrology of the area. The basalt flows have
followed the land surface, and thus the zones which contain abundant cavities
also dip gently to the west.
Many of the bores drilled into the basalts of the Warialda area have yielded
no water. This is because the bores have not penetrated, either one of the cavity
zones, or a fracture zone in the more solid basalt flows. Blasting to gain access
to the cavity zones or to widen existing fractures in the basalt has been under-
taken with considerable success.
Several good aquifers have been encountered in the basaltic rocks of the
Warialda intake area. Up to three aquifers have been encountered in a bore
48 J. RADE.
with a depth of 250 feet, the yields increasing with depth to 400 gallons per hour
for the bottom aquifer. The uppermost aquifer is commonly encountered at a
depth of from 80 to 90 feet, the average yield being 160 gallons per hour. How-
ever, if the surface of the basalt is weathered and fractured and is covered by
a thin layer of alluvial deposit, then the yield from this upper horizon frequently
reaches as high as 700 gallons per hour. From the accumulated bore data it
may be stated that the maximum depth from which good water supplies can be
expected in the basalt does not exceed 300 feet.
Pleistocene and Recent.
Water occurs at shallow depths in the alluvial deposits, which have originated
largely from disintegration of the Jurassic sediments. From the point of view
of the possibilities for irrigation from these bores which penetrate the alluvium,
it seems that the alluvium from the Warialda Sandstone is too fine grained
to give up the considerable yields which are necessary for irrigation purposes.
Another feature worthy of consideration in this respect is that the creeks which
cut into the Warialda Sandstone are generally youthful and thus contain little
alluvium. The river flats formed of alluvium derived from this formation are
also generally shallow. Similar features have been noticed by the author in the
Coonabarabran area, which is the intake area for Coonamble artesian basin.
In this area it is the Castlereagh River which traverses the Pilliga Sandstone.
Complete similarity in regard to these features thus exist between the Coonamble
basin and the Warialda intake beds.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
The writer is indebted to Dr. A. B. Walkom, Director of the Australian
Museum, for the determinations of the fossil plants. Thanks are also due to the
Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney, for permission to
publish this paper.
SUMMARY.
The paper deals with the Warialda intake beds, which outcrop over an area
of 3,200 square miles in the northern portion of New South Wales between
Delungra, Warialda, Boggabilla and the Queensland border. Sediments of
Devonian, Carboniferous, Triassic and Cretaceous age, as well as the late Permian
granite and Tertiary volcanics, are described. Consideration is also given to
Tertiary and Recent alluvium. The writer records the presence of the Triassic
Ipswich ‘‘ Series ’’ (Gunnee Beds) with its characteristic flora. This is the first
time the Ipswich ‘‘ Series ’? has been recorded to the west of the late Permian
New England granodiorite batholith.
The Mesozoic sediments are shown to have a gentle regional dip towards
the north-west, and to be deposited over the north-westerly trending ridges of
the Paleozoic basement complex. It is considered that this basement con-
figuration is the result of the Carboniferous orogenic period. The configuration
of the basement and the regional dip to the north-west of the Mesozoic sediments
is responsible for the movement of the ground water towards the Queensland
border. Special hydrological treatment is given to each formation of the
Warialda intake beds.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Bryan, W. H., 1925. Earth Movements in Queensland. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 37, 3.
Crespin, I., 1944. Some Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from Bores in the Great Artesian
Basin, Northern New South Wales. THis JouRNAL, 78, 17-24.
WARIALDA ARTESIAN INTAKE BEDS 49
Crespin, I., 1945. A Microfauna from Lower Cretaceous Deposits in Great Artesian Basin.
Commonwealth Miner. Res. Surv. Rep., 1945, 16.
1953. Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from the Great Artesian Basin, Australia.
Cont. Cushman Found. Foram. Research, 4, 1.
David, Sir T. W. Edgeworth, 1950. The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. Edited
by W. R. Browne. London.
Hill, D., 1930. Esk Series between Esk and Linville. Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 42, 28.
Lloyd, A. C., 1950. Clarence Coal Basin. Repts. Dept. Mines N.S.W., 96.
Mulholland, C. St. J., 1950. Review of Southern Intake Beds, New South Wales, and Their
Bearing on Artesian Problems. Repts. Dept. Mines. N.S.W., 125-127.
Whitehouse, F. W., 1945. Artesian Water—Supplies. First Interim Report. Queensland
Parl. Pap., 22, 24. Brisbane Govt. Printer.
THE T-PHASE FROM THE NEW ZEALAND REGION.
By T. N. BURKE-GAFFNEY, §8.J.
Manuscript received, April 12, 1954. Read, July 7, 1954,
On January 12 and 13, 1954, three earthquake shocks occurred at a point
south of New Zealand. On the seismograms of these from the Sprengnether
Vertical Short Period instrument at Riverview there were found waves of very
short period and of small amplitude, some seventeen minutes after the P. These
are evidently examples of the T-phase, which are of interest inasmuch as this
phase does not appear to have been reported previously from the New Zealand
region. <A careful examination of the other seismograms showed that they were
not discernible on the Galitzins, but were quite distinct on the Wiechert, though,
since they are superimposed on large surface waves, they could very easily have
been overlooked. This circumstance made it worth while to examine earlier
records from the same region to see if perhaps the T-phase had been recorded
previously and had escaped notice.
Examination showed that, in fact, the phase was to be found on 21 other
seismograms, but had not entirely escaped notice, for on five occasions it had
been reported as a ‘‘ small local shock, superimposed on coda of previous shock ’’.
This interpretation is not surprising, since the appearance of the waves is quite
similar to those produced by very small local tremors. More surprising, however,
is the fact that two of these shocks occurred within six hours one of the other
and no one appeared to have noticed the coincidence of each having a “ local
shock ”’ superimposed and at the same interval after P in each case.
It may be well to recapitulate the history of this phase. It would seem
to have been noted first in the Harvard Bulletin 5, on the shock of September 15,
1935, but was first referred to as the T-phase in a discussion of the Harthquakes
of the West Indies, by Fr. D. Linehan, of Weston College Observatory. T stands
for ‘‘ third phase ’’, the P and S phases being the first and second, for it would
seem that on the seismograms under discussion the amplitudes were comparable
to that of P, thus giving the appearance of being the beginning of another, but
smaller shock. On Riverview seismograms, there is no comparison between the
amplitudes, those of T rarely being great enough to measure. Fr. Linehan
reported the occurrence of the phase, but offered no explanation of it. The period
of the waves is of the order of 0-5 sec., so that they stand out readily on the long
surface waves which arrive at about the same time. Tolstoy and Ewing dis-
cussed the phase at length in a paper published in 1950 and there put forward
the theory that the waves are compression waves travelling through the ocean
with the velocity of sound in water along the SOFAR sound channel—that is,
at a depth of approximately 700 fathoms, where the velocity of sound is least.
Subsequently Leet, Linehan and Berger contested this conclusion and offered
evidence tending to show that the velocity of T is far from constant and has an
average value of 1-70 km./sec., whereas the velocity required on the Tolstoy-
Ewing theory is about 1-46 km./sec. Ewing, Press and Worzel replied to this
with another detailed paper, in which the conclusion is reached that the velocity
of T is 1:46 km./sec.+0-01.
In view of this controversy, it seems worth while to see what conclusion
can be drawn from Riverview seismograms. In Table I are listed the shocks,
T-PHASE FROM NEW ZEALAND REGION. 51
with date, time at origin, epicentre, distance from Riverview, magnitude, arrival
time of T, travel time of T, these last two being divided into the times for the
first observed T wave and those for the maxima, distinguished by the subscripts
i and m respectively. With these shocks is included another which occurred
since the investigation was begun. The epicentres and times at origin are taken
from Gutenberg and Richter: ‘‘ Seismicity of the Earth ” (Princeton, 1949),
or from the epicentre cards of the United States Coast and Geodetic Survey,
except in two or three cases in which neither of these gave an epicentre, when
that given by Wellington is used.
TABLE I.
|
No. Date. Epicentre. Origin. A Mag. i lar AD is T,-0. Tp-—0.
h. -‘m. ss. km. me) 1S: nes. sec. sec.
1 1932, Aug. 13 | 518. 164E.| 20 56 O1 | 2165 | 6-5 18 18 | 19 00 | 1339 | 1381
2* | 1936, Feb. 22 | 49-5 164 15 31 54 | 2035 | 7-2 52 46 | 54 11 | 1252 | 1337
3 1936, Feb. 22 | 49-5 164 19 22 43 | 2035 45 19 1356
4 1936, Feb. 22 | 49-5 164 19 30 06 | 2035 52 47 1361
5* | 1938, Dec. 16 | 45 167 17 21 25 | 1910! 7 41 35 | 42 25 | 1209 | 1300
6* | 1938, Dec. 16 | 45 167 23 14 54 | 1910 | 6 35 06 | 35 34 | 1152 | 1240
fi 1939, April 20 | 46-5 167-5 | 22 06 35 | 2035 | 6 26°47 \2% 37 | UZ125 1262
8 1943, Aug. 2 | 45 167 00 46 35 | 1910 | 6-75 | 07 O7 | O7 35 | 1232 | 1260
9 19438, Sept. 6 | 55 159 03 41 30 | 2445 | 7-8 06 48 | O07 22 | 1518 | 1552
10 1945, Sept. 1 | 46-5 165:5 | 22 44 10 | 1865 | 7-2 05 03 | 05 23 | 1253 | 1273
Il 1945, Sept. 4 | 46-3 165-8 | 17 14 04 | 1865 | 5-75 | 34 34 | 35 17 | 1230 | 1273
12* | 1947, Oct. 13 | 44-2 169-0 | 07 31 17 | 1945 | 6-8 50 47 | 52 10 | 1170 | 1253
13 1948, June 19 | 43-2 169-1 | 06 18 36 | 1880 | 6-4 40 05 1289
14 1948, June 19 | 43-2 169-1 | 07 05 36 | 1880 | 6:5 26 23 | 27 19 | 1247 | 1303
15* | 1949, May 27 | 45-3 167-0 | 08 54 11 |: 1865 | 6-25 15 02 1251
16 1949, July rel. Oe 162 11-27 35 | 2200R G25 50 20 1365
ike 1950, Feb. 5 | 50 164 01 23 30 | 2090 | 6-8 45 51 | 45 57 | 1341 | 1347
18 1950, Feb. 6, 48 164 22 53 27 | 1910 | 5-75 17 14 1427
19 1950, Aug. 5 | 50 164 09 16 48 | 2090 | 7-3 39 50 1382
20 1950, Oct. 10 | 46 167 18 42 10 | 1910 | 6-2 03 06 1256
21 1951, July 7 | 44-8 168-2 | 10 15 23 | 1900 | 6 36 11 1290
22 1954, Jan. 12 | 49 165 14 16 22 | 20385 | 6-75 | 37 52 | 38 42 | 1290 | 1340
22 1954, Jan. 12 | 49 165 14 20 26 | 20385 | 6-75 | 42 00 | 42 58 | 1284 | 1342
24 1954, Jan. 13 | 49 165 00 13 06 | 2035 | 7-25 | 33 46 | 35 22 | 1240 | 1336
20 1954, Mar. 23 18 36 28 | 2035 57 32 | 58 20 | 1264 | 1312
* Reported in Bulletin as small local shock.
Let us assume, first, that the T-phase is water-borne. This requires the
further assumption that the phase is not generated at the hypocentre, but is
given birth at, or near, the 700-fathom line, otherwise one should expect to find
it associated only with shocks which occur near the continental shelf. <A
consideration of the listed epicentres shows, however, that some of these are
quite distant from the shelf, or, rather, from the edge of the ridge upon which
New Zealand stands. This being so, it becomes necessary to make a correction
to find the true distance travelled as the T-phase and the true travel time. The
epicentral distance must be decreased by a quantity equal to the distance from
the epicentre to the point at which the T-phase can be generated, at or near
the 700-fathom line ; the time must be decreased by the time taken for normal P
waves to travel this distance. This distance is not easily determined with
accuracy. Apart from the fact that there may be an uncertainty in the epicentre,
it is not easy to judge where the 700-fathom line runs ; the only charts available
give the 600-ft. and 6,000-ft. contours, in one case, and 2,000 metres and 4,000
metres in another. At the receiving end, so to speak, a similar correction
must be made ; it is more easily determinable that the off-shore distance of the
52 T. N. BURKE-GAFFNEY.
700-fathom line is about 80 km. Less easily settled is the question of the velocity
along this land path. For present purposes the quite arbitrary assumption is
made that the velocity is that of P waves near the surface, i.e., 14 seconds are
required to traverse the latter part of the path. In every case, therefore, the
distance must be decreased by 80 km. and the time by 14 sec., while for some
shocks greater distances and times must be subtracted from the beginning.
The corrections to be made are set out in Table II (A) and the corrected times
and distances in Table III. Im this latter table the resultant velocities are
shown under the section A.
TABLE II.
Corrections to be Applied to Distances and Times in Table I.
Time. Time.
No. Dist. | No. Dist.
A B A. B
km. sec sec km. sec sec
] —80 —14 —39 14 —200 —29 —95
2 80 14 39 15 120 19 59
3 80 14 39 16 80 14 39
4 80 14 39 17 80 14 39
5 120 19 59 18 80 14 39
6 120 19 59 19 80 14 39
a 120 19 59 20 180 26 85
8 120 19 59 21 180 26 85
9 80 14 39 22 80 14 39
10 | 80 14 39 23 80 14 39
as 80 14 39 24 80 14 39
128 es e200 29 95 25 80 14 39
13 200 29 95
The velocities shown are those for the first observable wave of the series (Vj)
and for the maxima (Vm). As is evident, there is a greater uncertainty about
the former, since the waves begin very gradually and the beginning may easily
be missed, while the maxima stand out clearly and in some cases these only are
identifiable. Nevertheless, the standard errors of the means scarcely differ,
being 0-014 and 0-013 respectively. The average velocity for V; is well above
that for the minimum for sound in water, and would be yet higher if the exces-
sively low values of Nos. 13, 14, 18 and 21 were omitted.*
It is probable that the velocities in the last four shocks are the most reliable,
for these have been taken from the Sprengnether seismograms, which, with
higher magnification and faster paper rate, together with the shorter period,
make reading easier.
In their second paper Ewing, Press and Worzel suggest that the best values
for the velocity of T will be obtained from seismograms of shocks for which no
corrections have to be made, that is, for such as occur well away from the
continental shelf and are recorded close to the coast. Subject to this criterion
one should reject the shocks numbered 5 to 8, 12 to 15, 20 and 21. From the
remainder one will obtain a mean velocity for V; of 1-54 km./sec., or 1-58 km./sec.
if the 80 km. correction from coast to observatory be also dropped, and for
Vm 1°47. or 1°51 km./sec.
* It may be remarked that the distances listed in Table 1 are all calculated from the epicentres.
In the cases of those mentioned here the S-P distance is noticeably greater than that used, but for
the sake of uniformity the epicentral distance has been used in the calculation of velocities.
T-PHASE FROM NEW ZEALAND REGION. 53
To complete the investigation, it is proper to see how these results accord
with the views expressed by Leet, Linehan and Berger. From a comparison
of the arrival times of T at Weston, Harvard and Ottawa, these authors deduce
a velocity of 2:13 km./sec. for the land path. Since, with respect to the shocks
here under consideration, there is no other observatory in the same azimuth
with Riverview, it is not possible to deduce a land path velocity in a like manner.
TABLE IIT.
A. B
No Dist. | |
Ti Tn. Wa ay Ti Tm | Vi Van
km. sec. sec. | km./sec. | km./sec sec. sec. | km./sec. | km./sec.
1 2085 1325 1367 1-57 1-52 1300 1342 1-60 1-56
2 1955 1238 1323 1-58 1-48 1213 1298 1-61 1-50
3 1955 1342 1-46 1317 1-50
4 1955 1347 1-45 1322 1-48
5 1790 1190 1281 1-50 1-40 1150 1241 1:56 1-45
6 1790 1133 1221] 1-58 1-48 1093 1181 1-64 1-52
7 1915 1193 1243 1-60 1-54 1153 1203 1-66 1-60
8 1790 1213 1241 1-48 1-45 1173 1201 1-53 1-49
9 2365 1504 1538 1-57 1-54 1479 1513 1-60 1-57
10 1785 1239 1259 1-45 1-42 1214 1234 1-48 1-45
11 1785 1216 1259 1-47 1-42 1191 1234 1-50 1-45
12 1745 1141 1224 1-53 1-43 1075 1158 1:61 1-50
13 1680 1260 1-34 1194 1-41
14 1680 1218 1274 1-38 1-32 1152 1208 1-46 1-39
15 1745 1232 1-41 1192 1-47
16 2130 1351 1-54 | 1326 1-60
a 2010 1327 1333 1-52 1-51 1302 1308 1-55 1-54
18 1830 1413 1-29 1388 1-33
19 2010 1368 1-48 1343 1-50
20 1730 1230 1:41 1171 1-48
21 1720 1264 1:36 1205 1-43
22 1955 1276 1326 1-53 1-47 1251 1301 1-56 1-50
23 1955 1270 1328 1-54 1-47 1245 1303 1-56 1-50
24 1955 1226 1322 1-59 1-48 1201 1297 1-63 1-55
25 1955 1250 1298 1-57 1-51 1225 1273 1-59 1-54
Mean a = — P63 | 1°47 = = lea 1-49
| |
The velocity given is, therefore, assumed to hold also for these regions and the
necessary corrections determined. These are listed in Table II, B, and the values
of Vj and Vm subsequently determined in Table III, B. The mean velocity
thus found is lower than that found by the authors named.
It seems reasonable to suppose that the beginnings of the T-phase has not
always been observed correctly on the Wiechert or Mainka seismograms, for
reasons already given. However, since the last four shocks may be taken as
typical, and as the ratio Vi/Vm determined from them is constant, or nearly so,
it may reasonably be supposed that a truer idea of Vj may be obtained by
multiplying Vm by this constant, i.e. by 1:04. When this is done, so as to
include all shocks, it is found that the mean value of V; is unchanged.
Since the maxima are more easily observed than the beginnings, the use of
this ratio may be a more certain method of finding the true velocity of T, but a
great many good observations will first be required to confirm, or disprove,
that it is in fact constant.
54 T. N. BURKE-GAFFNEY.
It would seem, then, that the mean value for the oceanic path of T is too
great to conform with the theory that the waves are water-borne. At the same
time, the conclusion does not bear out the contention that the velocity is as high
as 1-70 km./see.
Finally, a few general remarks may be made. Firstly, an inspection of the
tables seems to show that there is a tendency for the shorter distances to yield
lower velocities. That this is not merely an effect of the corrections introduced
is shown by the fact that the same relation holds whatever the correction.
A detailed study of more abundant material might be worth while, to see if there
is indeed a true correlation.
A second point of interest is that T has not been recorded at Riverview from
shocks of magnitude much less than 6 and only rarely for magnitudes greater
than 7. There have been several of the latter class for which T has not been
found. Itis probable that the pens had been moving too rapidly to record them ;
for those of magnitude greater than 7 listed here (except No. 24) have had T
shown on the Mainka seismograms only. It is remarkable, also, that at the
other end of the scale—shocks of magnitude 6 or less—the Mainkas show T more
clearly than do the Wiecherts, notwithstanding the fact that the period of the
Mainka is 10 seconds and that of the Wiechert seven seconds, and that the latter
has also the greater magnification.
SUMMARY.
The T-phase as recorded at Riverview on seismograms of earthquake
shocks from the New Zealand region is examined with reference to two opposing
theories. Concordance is not found with either theory. No alternative theory
is offered, but possible lines of further investigation are adumbrated.
REFERENCES.
Ewing, M., Press, F., and Worzel, J. L., 1952. ‘‘ Further Study of the T-phase”’, Bull. Seis.
Soc. Amer., 42, 37.
Leet, L. D., Linehan, D. 8. J., and Berger, P. R., 1951. ‘‘ Investigation of the T-phase ”’, Bull.
Seis. Soc. Amer., 41, 123.
Linehan, D., S.J., 1940. ‘‘ Earthquakes in the West Indian Region ’’, Trans. Amer. Geophy.
Union, 229.
Tolstoy, I., and Ewing, M., 1950. ‘“‘ The T-phase in Shallow Earthquakes ’’, Bull. Ses. Soc.
Amer., 40, 25.
TEAS
AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING CoMPANY Lima
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ae _ (INCORPORATED 1881)
_—- PART III (pp. 55-70 and S1-S39)
ee 7 oe OF eae
VOL. LXXXVIII
ont ‘ining Papers read in August and ‘September and Symposium : i:
2 eer
coats 2a
= 2 eee : EDITED BY : : | Bot ae
es PON HANLON, Seee-Dip.Ed. ae
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LX XXVIII
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Bi producti and Their Utilisation. By Professor Hunter
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1954
(INCORPORATED 1881)
VOLUME LXXXVIII
Part III
EDITED BY
F. N. HANLON, B.Sc., Dip. Ed.
Honorary Hditorial Secretary
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
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PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
THE PALAOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF SPRING AND QUARRY
CREEKS, WEST OF ORANGE, N.S.W.
By G. H. PACKHAM
and N. C. STEVENS.
With two Text-figures.
Manuscript received, May 25, 1954. Read, August 4, 1954,
I. INTRODUCTION.
The fossiliferous Silurian limestones of Spring and Quarry Creeks, west of
Orange, have been known for many years through the work of Stssmilch, who
in 1907 published an account of the Silurian and Devonian strata, with a geological
map of the parish of Barton. It includes the type localities for Arachnophyllum (?)
epistemoides and several species of Halysites described by Etheridge (1904, 1909).
The area was also included in a geological map of the Wellington-Orange-
Canowindra region (Joplin, 1952), and the Silurian sediments were assigned to
the Gamboola Formation, thought to be of Lower Silurian age.
In the area dealt with in this paper, graptolites have been found at a number
of localities, and it is shown that the Silurian strata range from Lower to Upper
Silurian. The formations present resemble those at Four Mile Creek (Stevens
and Packham, 1953), and some of the same formations have been recognized.
II. STRATIGRAPHY.
(1) Ordovician.
The oldest Ordovician rocks are found in the N.W. part of the area. They
are shown on the map as ‘‘ calcareous siltstones etc.’’, but some sheared andesites
and tuffs underlie the siltstones at g,,. The calcareous siltstones have yielded
Climacograptus bicornis at g,,, and Dicellograptus cf. forchammeri, Dicellograptus
sp. and cf. Glyptograptus teretiusculus at g,3. AS the outcrops are somewhat
weathered, the graptolites are not well preserved. The forms present indicate
a zone somewhere in the lower part of the Upper Ordovician (usage of David
(1950)).
Apparently overlying the calcareous siltstones is a massive limestone (bed D
of Stissmilch) which outcrops over a moderately large area between Spring and
Oaky Creeks. It is separated from Silurian strata to the east by a strike fault.
On its eastern margin the limestone shows traces of bedding planes and a few
partly silicified corals and gastropods. Dr. D. Hill has examined one of these
specimens and reports (personal communication) that it ‘‘ contains a silicified
Coccoseris sp. encrusting a Propora sp. The Coccoseris has tabularia a little over
0-5 mm. in diameter, spaced the same distance apart, and is, I think, conspecific
with a specimen from the Bowan Park limestone of Portion 289, Parish of
Bowan. The Propora sp. has slightly wider tabularia than the common Bowan
Park Propora sp., and may or may not be conspecific with it—the material is
too poor for certainty. The evidence as far as it goes suggests that the Barton
Limestone would be similar or close in horizon to the Bowan Park limestone.
The known range of the genus Coccoseris is Middle Ordovician to Lower Silurian ;
that of Propora is Middle Ordovician to Upper Silurian.’”?’ The Ordovician age
of the limestone at Bowan Park (Portion 289, Parish of Bowan) has been recog-
nized by Dr. I. A. Brown (1952). .
Fr
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56 PACKHAM AND STEVENS.
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Fig. 1.—Geological sketch-map of Spring and Quarry Creeks.
- L=limestones of uncertain stratigraphical position.
PALMHOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF SPRING AND QUARRY CREEKS. 57
Andesitic volcanic rocks of Ordovician age outcrop on either side of the
Barton Limestone. They are indicated separately on the map as eastern and
western outcrops because of lithological differences and probable different
stratigraphical position.
The rocks of the western volcanic outcrop are mainly andesites (often
amygdaloidal) and tuffs. At g,, they are conformably overlain by thin beds
of shale and bluish-grey felspathic sandstone with Climacograptus supernus,
C. cf. mutt and Orthograptus sp., which suggest a zone near the top of the
Ordovician.
East of the Barton Limestone, andesitic lavas, breccias, tuffs and con-
glomerates outcrop along Quarry and Spring Creeks, underlying Lower Silurian
limestone. Calcareous beds with Favosites sp., Halysites sp., Heliolitids, Strepte-
lasmids and Stromatoporoids occur amongst the volcanic rocks 400 yards.N.E.
of the junction of Spring and Quarry Creeks.
Bane FAULT B
4A MILE
Fig. 2.—Geological section AB (see map). Directions and
angles of dip of faults are assumed.
Relations between the eastern and western volcanic outcrops are not
observable in the field, but the eastern outcrop is thought to be the younger,
since it underlies Lower Silurian limestone, with only a few feet of red sandy
shale intervening.
The andesitic conglomerates and breccias in Quarry Creek resemble types
in the Upper Ordovician Angullong Tuff of Four Mile Creek (Stevens and
Packham, 1953).
The sequence in the Ordovician rocks described above seems to be as
follows (the top unit may be partly Silurian) :
5. Andesitic volcanic rocks (E. outcrop).
4. Sandstones and shales (g,;)
3. Andesitic voleanic rocks (W. outcrop).
2. Barton Limestone.
1. Calcareous siltstones, ete. (211;, 213).
Several limestone lenses appear along the eastern margin of the western
outcrop of the volcanic rocks. They are unfossiliferous and their stratigraphic
position is uncertain. The boundary on which they lie is known to be faulted
east of g,; and it is possible that a continuation of this fault may pass on either
side of the limestone beds.
Silurian.
Panuara Formation. As in the type area (Stevens and Packham, 1953)
the Panuara Formation consists of a limestone near the base, followed by shales
and fine-grained sandstones, both of which are graptolite-bearing. The thickness
of the formation is probably less than 700 feet. :
58 PACKHAM AND STEVENS.
The lowest member of the formation is a bed of red sandy shale with
occasional andesite pebbles, which overlies andesitic rocks in Quarry Creek and
its tributaries. The presence of this weathered andesitic material is evidence of
a time-break between the formations.
The limestone which follows is well-bedded, richly fossiliferous and made
up largely of fossil debris, but it lacks the marly layers of the Bridge Creek
Limestone of the type area. It is proposed to call this fossiliferous limestone
the Quarry Creek Limestone Member.
The section along Quarry Creek is much disrupted by strike faults, resulting
in the appearance of the same limestone bed three times. These are beds A,
B and C (from east to west) of Stissmilch (1907), whose geological section shows
all three beds dipping east, apparently at different stratigraphical horizons.
Bed A (Quarry Creek) is the type locality for Halysites peristephesicus and
Arachnophyllum (?) epistemoides ; bed C (near the junction of Spring and Quarry
Creeks) is the type locality for H. pycnoblastoides and H. siissmilehi, and H. litho-
strotionoides has for its type localities bed C.and bed A on Spring Creek. Siissmilch
records also H. australis, H. cratus, Mycophyllum crateroides, several species of
Favosites, Heliolites and Cyathophyllum, Pachypora, Claudopora, Zaphrentis,
Astylospongia and Orthosina (?) from beds A and C. Beds A, B and C have been
found to be equivalent, since A and C have similar faunal assemblages, while
A and B overlie andesitic rocks and are overlain by beds containing graptolites
of similar age.
Fine-grained sandstones with some sponge spicules overlie the Quarry
Creek Limestone. -Monograptus cf. pragensis pragensis and dendroid graptolites
have been found in these rocks at g,, a few feet above the limestone, and on
Spring Creek at g3,, M. marri and dendroids occur about 20 feet above the
limestone. There are also dendroid graptolites in these sandstones on either
side of an anticlinal fold at g,) and g5. The graptolites at g, and g, are of Upper
Llandovery age; however, the graptolites 50 feet above the Bridge Creek
Limestone at Four Mile Creek are of Lower Llandovery age, so that the Quarry
Creek Limestone seems to be of a higher horizon.
Above the sandstones, green or brown splintery shales with M. marr,
M. cf. initialis, dendroids and Chonetes sp. (at g,) are faulted against outcrop B
of the Quarry Creek Limestone. South of Spring Creek, buff-coloured shales
at g, contain Gladiograptus sp., M. cf. griestonensis minuta, fragments of Rastrites
sp. or the proximal end of a M. triangulatus type and fragments possibly of
M. probosciformis. In the N.W. part of the area at g,., there are green shales
with M. probosciformis, M. cf. initialis and proximal fragments of M. pandus
or M.marri. The shales are faulted against the oldest Ordovician rocks on the
east and adjoin a bed of massive limestone of uncertain age on the west. The
graptolites at g,, g, and g,,. are considered to be of the same zone, near the top
of the Llandovery.
Grey shales with some calcareous and sandy beds follow. On the eastern
tributary of Quarry Creek, a lower Wenlock assemblage of graptolites includes
M. dubius, M. priodon and M. cf. linnarsson at g,, and M. dubius also occurs
at 2). .
Graptolites at g, and g,, east and south respectively of the outcrop of the
Quarry Creek Limestone on Spring Creek, seem to represent a higher horizon.
At g, grey shales with M. aff. vulgaris var. curtus and M. aff. testis var. inornatus
are associated with a thin bed of impure limestone, and at g, and g,, M. aiff.
vulgaris var. curtus is present in micaceous siltstones.
Buff-coloured shales at g,, and g),, on either side of the western outcrop of
the Ordovician volcanic rocks, have yielded M. cf. testis, and in dark green shale
at g, on Quarry Creek the same graptolite is associated with a Monograptus of
the M. vomerinus group. The age of these beds is probably Upper Wenlock.
PALMHOZOIC STRATIGRAPHY OF SPRING AND QUARRY CREEKS. 59
The youngest Silurian strata in which graptolites have been found are grey
shales at g, on Quarry Creek, and at g, near Paling Yards Public School site.
At g,, badly preserved graptolites, probably M. bohemicus and dendroids are
present, and at g, the assemblage includes M, bohemicus tenuis, M. nilssont,
M. leintwardinensis var. primus and dendroids.
Two lenses of fossiliferous limestone south of Paling Yards Public School
site should, from structural considerations, be near the top of the Panuara
Formation, but their fauna (Halysites, Cystiphyllids and Mycophyllids) is
suggestive of a lower horizon.
TABLE 1.
Stratigraphic Relations of Graptolite Assemblages in the Panuara Formation of Spring and Quarry
Creeks.
M. bohemicus tenuis, M. nilssoni, M. leintwardin-
Unnamed ensis V. primus.
M. cf. testis. Monograptus sp.
LoweErR LUDLOW.
Member
(interbedded)
fe)
‘S ,
Es fine-grained
WENLOCE. | ES | sandstone,
os siltstone
Nie es
| 3 and shale) M. priodon, M. ef. dubtus, M. cf. linnarssoni.
—
M.marri, M. cf. initialis, ‘M. probosciformis, M. cf.
| griestonensis minuta, M. sp., Gladiograptus sp.
--~-—-—- ies M. marri, M. cf. pragensis pragensis.
| Quarry Creek
| | Limestone
i
|
LLANDOVERY.
Silurian—? Devonian.
Wallace Shale. As in the Four Mile Creek area, the Panuara Formation is
conformably overlain by a formation consisting largely of unfossiliferous shales.
The shales are poorly bedded ; generally the only indication is the presence of a
thin silty band approximately every six inches. The thickness is about 800 feet.
In the upper part of Quarry Creek, green shales overlie a tuff with quartz
and orthoclase fragments and some devitrified glass shards in a fine-grained
matrix. <A similar rock has been noted on Panuara Rivulet at the base of the
Wallace Shale (Stevens, 1954). The green shales are overlain by blue-grey
Shales which locally exhibit calcareous concretions and small-scale contem-
poraneous deformations.
On Spring Creek, tuffs at the base of the Wallace Shale are overlain by green
splintery shales, at the base of which the Silurian trilobite Encrinurus cf. mitchella
has been found. As Lower Ludlow graptolites are present in the underlying
Panuara Formation, it is possible that the Wallace Shale and the underlying
tuffs extend into the Lower Devonian.
Crystal Tuffs. A formation of crystal tuffs (red tuffs of Stissmilch, 1907)
overlies the Wallace Shale on Spring and Gap Creeks. Rhyolite, considered
by Sussmilch to be at a similar horizon, outcrops near the head of Oaky Creek
60 PACKHAM AND STEVENS.
(see Stssmilch’s map and columnar sections). The authors believe this to be an
extension of the Bulls’ Camp Rhyolite of Four Mile Creek.
The tuffs are composed of orthoclase, albite and chlorite together with
devitrified glassy material. The grain-size of the mineral fragments is generally
about 0-5 mm. The tuffs occur in thick massive beds, through which are
scattered dark chloritic patches up to an inch across, containing quartz and
felspar phenocrysts. Interbedded with the tuffs on Gap Creek are shales of
lithology similar to the Wallace Shale; this suggests that the Wallace Shale
type of sedimentation continued between volcanic outbursts.
Above the Wallace Shale on Gap Creek there is an unusual succession.
The normal shale lithology is interrupted by about four one-inch bands of silt
showing graded bedding (a structure which has not been observed elsewhere in
this formation). Then follows an eighteen-inch bed of greywacke. This rock
is badly sorted, and contains angular fragments of basic lavas, albite, quartz,
orthoclase, chlorite, calcite and acid lavas (in order of abundance), all set in a
chloritic matrix. Resting on this with a sharp junction is a boulder-bearing
bed, 50 feet thick, which has not been observed at any other localities in the
area. Indefinite banding is the only sign of bedding in the rock. <A matrix of
chlorite and quartz-felspar silt makes up 75°% of the rock. Fragments ranging
from sand size to boulders 2 ft. 6 in. in diameter, scattered evenly through the
bed, make up the remainder. These blocks are of varied type: rhyolite,
quartz-felspar-porphyry (similar to the Canowindra Porphyry (Stevens, 1951)),
limestone, siltstone and greywacke (somewhat like the underlying bed) have
been recognized. The normal crystal tuff follows with a sharp boundary.
The texture of this boulder-bearing bed is not that of a normal sediment
and a pyroclastic origin is precluded by the great diversity of the rock fragments.
The best explanation seems to be that the material was deposited by a local
submarine mud-flow. Terrestrial mudflows, according to Blackwelder (1928),
are capable of carrying large blocks of rock which do not sink when the mudflow
comes to rest. It is possible that similar conditions could obtain for submarine
mudflows, but some degree of dilution could be expected. The graded beds
and the greywacke underlying the boulder-bearing bed could have been the
result of deposition of turbidity currents generated by the mudflow and flowing
ahead of it. If this is the explanation, the mudflow remained as a discrete mass,
since the boulder bed has a sharp junction against the underlying greywacke.
Unfortunately, there is no sign of any sedimentary structures which would
indicate the direction and source of the flow.
Upper Devonian and Younger Formations.
The Upper Devonian rocks have been adequately described by Stissmilch
(1907). The basalt which covers some of the area is continuous with the
Tertiary lavas of Mt. Canobolas.
If. REFERENCES.
Blackwelder, E., 1928. Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 39, 465.
Brown, I. A., 1952. Aust. J. Sci., 15, 29.
David, T. W. E., 1950. Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia. (Edited by Browne.) Arnold :
London.
Etheridge, R., Jnr., 1904. Dept. Mines, Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Mem. Pal. 13.
—_—_—_—_—— 1909. Ibid., Rec., 8, pt. 4, 304.
Joplin, G. A., 1952. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 77, 83.
Stevens, N. C., 1951. Turis Journat, 74 (1950), 46.
—-——_—__—_——. 1954. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 78 (1953), 262.
Stevens, N. C., and Packham, G. H., 1953. Tuis JouRNAL, 76 (1952), 94.
Siissmilch, C. A., 1907. Ibid., 40 (1906), 130.
A THEOREM CONCERNING THE ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF
HANKEL TRANSFORMS.
By J. L. GRIFFITH, B.A., M.Sc.
School of Mathematics, New South Wales University of Technology.
Manuscript received, June 15, 1954. Read, September 1, 1954.
SUMMARY.
Assuming that
f(u)= i “wed y( war) fa)
0
it is proved that, with certain restrictions on the functions and constants,
5 = in dy en 1 :
I. INTRODUCTION.
The Hankel transform f(u) of a function f(#) is defined by
fw) =| LI yl UB\G(B\ID, oc es ee ee ers (1.1)
0
where Jy(t) is the Bessel function of the first kind of order v.
Provided that
the inversion formula
fo)={ Ud (DU) F(U)dU, occ cee cc eens (1.3)
0
is associated with equation (1.1).
In [T.F.1.], theorem 135, it will be found that the integral in equation (1.1)
must converge absolutely, while the integral in equation (1.3) may not converge
absolutely. In [M.O.], theorem 2, the integral in equation (1.1) is not required
to converge absolutely, and that in equation (1.3) is taken to be a Césaro integral.
In this note we shall understand that
where the integral will not necessarily converge absolutely.
It will be unnecessary to assume that both equations (1.1) and (1.3) hold
at the same time.
62 J. L. GRIFFITH.
lf we refer to [S.F.T.], p. 528, we will find (with a slight change of notation)
the transform pair
f(w) =a-%e-v2
f(u) =u-{(u2 +p)? —p}
which is given for v=1. It is clear that equation (1.3) will not hold with our
definition (1.4) since
f(u)—1 as u+oo.
_ To avoid this type of difficulty we will assume that (i) if f(x) is given then
f(u) is defined by equation (1.1) and (ii) if f(w) is given then f(x) is defined by
equation (1.3).
When we adopt this procedure, it will be seen that equation (1.2) may be
relaxed. If this is done then care must be taken when v=—n is a negative
integer. The substitution J_,(x)=(—1)"J,(#) must be made and the theorems
correspondingly modified.
When the theorems are generalized to include discontinuous functions
(section 3 and section 4, end) the proofs given demand that condition (1.2) must
be applied again.
Reverting now to the result quoted in the summary, it is seen that it can be
considered as the analogue of the well known result in the Laplace Transform
theory, viz. :
If the Laplace Transform of F(¢):is P(s) and
F(t)~Bt® as t>0+
then
(G6 +-1)
F(s)~B oa
as $+,
(see [D.L.T.], p. 200, theorem 12).
Il. THE STATEMENT OF THE THEOREM WHEN a> i.
We consider first the case when a> 3.
We then have
Theorem 1. ,
Assuming that f(x) is a function of x, and that
(i) Pe es) a, Slt dO (2.1)
(ii) a0 3f (ae) 0: as) a —00's ied di ie ws. clkhd ce sea Fie (2.2)
(iii) F(v)=xf(xe) is absolutely continuous in OSa%<00; .. (2.3)
(iv) «*—4@F’(x) is absolutely integrable in 0<ySevSw; (adl y);
etl ae eee a (2.4)
then, aS u—>oo
I\(4v—4a-+1)
2—af, a eas TaN Se
_w J) > 5 epi day! J ee (2.5)
where f(w) is given by equation (1.1) and where
K=FO) tm jeg Se ee (2.6)
“0+
ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF HANKEL TRANSFORMS.
Proof.
From (iii) it follows that
K =F (0) is finite,
and that F’(x) is absolutely integrable in (0, y) for all 4 >9.
Now
efi) — | * u2— “af (2)J y(ux)dax
0
Sis } ” BevMo nce (2.7)
le dax
where
Ze) = | ” tha J y(t) dt.
By using the inequality (2.1), we see that this integral converges and
Aes ee? re (2.8)
22-11 (4v + 4a)’
((M.O.F.], p. 34).
This obviously implies that there exists a constant M, such that
NZ) | <I eae ak ay Saws 5 (2.9)
Further, if we use the asymptotic expansion for Jy(x) with large values
of « ((W.B.F.], p. 199) we see that there is a constant N such that
OAC eer. = ees ee (2.10)
for sufficiently large x.
Thus
ps —ayyt saa CG,
| F(a)Z(ux) | <| xf (a) | .
=Nut—4 | xtf(e) |
+>,
aS w—->oo by assumption (il).
Now reverting to equation (2.7) and integrating by parts,
u2—4f(u) _ fi a Z(ux)F" (a)dax
0
a0) + | 2 (GHA) G00 a rr (221)
In order to prove the theorem we must prove that the integral in equation.
(2.11) vanishes as u—-oo.
For this purpose, we split the range of integration and obtain
| [°2 (wx) PF’ a(dax) | = =|{- Zuo) (wy |” Z (ux) F" (ax)da.
n
<M" |F (0) | dn Nat-f” gt—2| F'(x) | dx
N
by using equations (2.9) and (2.10).
64 J. L. GRIFFITH.
Recalling that /’(xz) is absolutely integrable at «=—0, it is clear that if we
are given ¢>0, we may choose 7», so that
0
From assumption (iv)
fs xt~*| F(x) | dx is finite,
“ q
and so after the choice of 7 above we may choose a uw, so that
Nut-«{* gt—o | F' (an) | da<te
n
for all w> Up.
Thus
fz (uc) PF’ (a)dax | <e
for all w>Uu.
Hence E
lim {u?—4f(u)} =F(0)Z(0)
Ea P(4v—ta+1)
24-1]P\(4y+4a)
Ill. A GENERALISATION OF THEOREM 1
Now suppose that f(x) satisfies the conditions of theorem 1 except that there
is a finite discontinuity at the point v=a.
As stated in the Introduction, we add the assumption that
Ve hon os Sie oe ee ee (3.1)
Suppose that :
f(% 1-0) fla —9) fo. -- 2. eee (3.2)
We then construct the function
6) ==f(@) -+h(a), ~~... Gs. tele eae (3.3)
where
Ten 0 2 =X.
h(a) =
Oso) @ a.
The new function g(x) satisfies the conditions of the theorem and
lim: {af (a)} == amy {atg(e)), (22. he ae (3.4)
z—0+ £—>0-{-
since v>—4 and a>}.
Now
hu) | xd y(ux)h(a)da
0
=|" foe’ 1S y (ux) dar
0
=U txt tS y +1 (Ua)
({S.F.T.], p. 528.)
ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF HANKEL TRANSFORMS. 65
Then
lim {u?~*h(w)} foxy? lim {ut -2Sy 11 (way)}
u— 00 U—> 00
for all a>#.
That is
lim {u?-@f(w)}—= lim {u2-ag(u)}. ee ee (3.5)
u— 00 U-> C
So, since the theorem holds for g(a) it holds also for f(x).
Obviously, this method may be continued to show that if f(x) satisfies the
conditions of theorem 1 except that it possesses a finite number of finite dis-
continuities, then equation (2.5) holds.
IV. EXTENSION OF THE THEOREM TO THE CASE a<i.
In order to extend the result of equation (2.5) to the case ae a<4, we
will state a theorem which contains assumptions on the function f(u). It will
be observed that the theorem is stated for a<1f.
Theorem 2.
Assuming that f(w) is a function of uw, and that
(i) —v<a<l1}4
(ii) hs )+0 as u—0,
(iii) F(u)=v2-4(u) is absolutely continuous in O<u<oo and
ah ea :
Uu-—> CO
(iv) u@+vF’(w) is absolutely integrable in 0 <u<oo then as 7-00
F yoo 1P(4v+4a)
hel EPG —Fa+1)
where f(x) is given by equation (1.3).
It is easily seen that equations (2.9) and (4.1) are identical.
The proof of this theorem, and its generalization to the case when f(w)
possesses a finite number of finite discontinuities, follows very closely on the
lines of theorem 1 and will not be given.
The most important case of our result would be the case when a=0.
Theorem 2 shows that if a=0, then v>0. So our formula breaks down in the
most useful case a=0 and v=0. This situation will be examined further in a note
to be presented to this Society later.
REFERENCES
{M.O.] Macaulay Owen, P. ‘‘ Riemannian Theory of Hankel Transforms.’ Proc. Lond.
Math. Soc., (2), 39, 1935, p. 295.
FL.) Titchmarsh, E. C. ‘‘ Fourier Integrals.” Oxford, 1948.
[D.L.T.] Doetsch, G. ‘‘ Laplace Transformation.” Dover, 1943.
[W.B.F.] Watson, G. N. ‘“‘ Theory of Bessel Functions.”’ Cambridge, 1945.
[M.O.F.} Magnus, W., and Oberhettinger, F. ‘‘ Formulas and Theorems for Special Functions
of Mathematical Physics.’ Chelsea, 1949.
[S.F.T.] Sneddon, I. N. ‘ Fourier Transforms.’ McGraw Hill, 1951.
MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY
DURING 1953.
By W. H. ROBERTSON.
Manuscript received, July 20, 1954. Read, September 1, 1954.
The following observations of minor planets were made photographically
at Sydney Observatory with the 13” standard astrograph. Observations were
confined to those with southern declinations in the Hphemerides of Minor
Planets published by the Institute of Theoretical Astronomy at Leningrad.
On each plate two exposures, separated in declination by approximately
0’-5, were taken with an interval of about 20 minutes between them. The
beginnings and endings of the exposures were recorded on a chronograph with
a tapping key.
Rectangular coordinates of both images of the minor planet and three
reference stars were measured in direct and reversed positions of the plate on
a long screw measuring machine. The usual three star dependence reduction
retaining second order terms in the differences of the equatorial coordinates
was used. Proper motions, when they were available, were applied to bring
the star positions to the epoch of the plate. Each exposure was reduced
separately in order to provide a check by comparing the difference between
the two positions with the motion derived from the ephemeris. The tabulated
results are means of the two positions at the average time except in cases
32, 33, 46, 63, 76 where each result is from only one image, due to a defect
in the other or a failure in timing it. No correction has been applied for
aberration, light time or parallax, but in Table I are given the factors which
give the parallax corrections when divided by the distance. The observers
named in the last column of Table II are W. H. Robertson (R), K. P. Sims
(S) and H. W. Wood (W). I wish to thank Mr. Wood for help in initiating
this programme and Mr. Sims for assistance with the computations.
TaBLeE I
R.A. Dec. Parallax
1953 U.T. Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors
h m S °o / uM s wu
1 May 14-49466 7 Iris 14 19 35-29 | —19 05 48-0 | —0-12 —2-3
2 June 546904 7 Iris 14 04 37-66 | —17 03 03-0 | +0-02 —2:-5
3 Sep. 8- 63040 13 Egeria 0 12 37-66 | —21 21 06-5 | +0:-02 —1-9
4 Oct. 1-53735 13 Egeria 23 49 21-35 | —22 00 05-8 | —0-02 —1-8
5 May 13-43858 15 Eunomia 11 43 06-50 | —14 51 24-0 | +0-04 —2-8
6 May 14-41494 15 Eunomia 11 43 00-39 | —14 46 39-7 | —0-03 —2-8
7 May 26-40390 15 Kunomia 11 43 27-52 | —13 57 45-8 | +0-04 —3-0
8 June 11-:48122 16 Psyche 14 31 47-20 | —10 36 30-7 | +0-05 —3-4
9 June 16-45689 16 Psyche 14 30 02-08 | —10 32 23-4 | +0-02 —3-4
10 Aug. 13-47186 18 Melpomene | 19 10 40-54 | —13 51 54-5 | —0-04 —3-0
11 Sep. 8:4181] 18 Melpomene 19 08 17-52 | —17 26 27-2 | +0-02 —2:5
12 May 20-37128 25 Phocea 10 46 53-18 | — 5 26 33-2 | +0-01 —4:-2
13 June 1-37546 | 25 Phocea 10 55 15-55 | — 4 16 08:0 | +0-10 —4:3
MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1953.
TaBLE [—Continued.
67
1953 U.T.
14 Aug. 31
15 Sep. 8-
16 July 23
17 Aug. 13
18 Sep. 8-
19 June 30
20 July 27
21 Aug. 17
22 Aug. 31
23 July 15
24 July 23
25 June 15
26 June 29
27 Aug. 10
28 Aug. 31
29 July 29
30 Aug. 18
31 July 1
32 July 21
33 June 22
34 July 20
35 June 4.
36 June 9-
37 Aug. 10
38 Sep. 8:
39 Aug. 24
40 Sep. 10
41 July 30
42 Aug. 17
43 Aug. 24
44 Oct. 1-
45 Sep. 10
46 Oct. 1-
47 Aug. 12
48 Sep. 21
49 June 29
50 July 21
51 Aug. 10
52 Aug. 24
53 July 1
54 July = 22-
55 June 9-
56 July 14
57 Aug. 13
58 Aug. 17
59 June 11
60 June 22:
61 June 9-
62 June | 16
63 July 23:
64 July 30
; 65 Aug. 17
66 July 22
67 July 28
68 June oF
69 June 18
70 June 30
71 June Il
72 June 15
73 July 23
°40994
38566
-71378
-61232
53328
64034
-57700 |
-55900
-49256
- 59270
-52408
-56180
-51198
-38051
-36877
-63476
- 58358
- 60404
-55246
-60913
49942
39290
40047
- 63550
53328
- 68382
-62310
- 63948
-59794
- 64534
50016
-65815
56258
- 63965
-49100
- 62207
- 52932
*66525
- 60536
- 68752
60962
65952
-51514
-52903
-51691
- 59324
53957
55270
-52370
61480
-58956
-63116
»56474
-52686
60262
» 56482
-§3152
- 55580
-51970
- 66960
Planet
26
26
28
28
28
29
29
32
32
38
38
46
46
51
51
52
52
62
62
78
78
79
ce)
91
91
92
92
97
97
109
109
110
110
124
124
128
128
130
130
133
133
144
144
154
154
184
184
201
201
214
214
241
259
259
266
266
266
275
275
352
Proserpina
Proserpina
Bellona
Bellona
Bellona
Amphitrite
Amphitrite
Pomona
Pomona
Leda
Leda
Hestia
Hestia
Nemausa
Nemausa
Europa
Europa
Erato
Erato
Diana
Diana
EKurynome
Eurynome
Aigina
Afgina
Undina
Undina
Klotho
Klotho
Felicitas
Felicitas
Lydia
Lydia
Alkeste
Alkeste
Nemesis
Nemesis
Elektra
Elektra
Cyrene
Cyrene
Vibilia
Vibilia
Bertha
Bertha
Dejopeja
Dejopeja
Penelope
Penelope
Aschera
Aschera
Germania
Aletheia
Aletheia
Aline
Aline
Aline
Sapientia
Sapientia
Gisela
*32
-54
-74
-50
-88
-56
-03
-65
she)
2~ 91
-74
-48
04
-50
-26
-51
-40
-21
-88
-62
1)
ae
-31
“44
“12
-87
°95
-88
-61
-16
64
-33
-90
234
-56
-46
-72
-34
-81
54
-46
*95
“59
-4]
-80
*55
-47
-38
-26
-08
-25
-62
-07
*85
-61
-44
°23
-0O7
-14
*31
PION HE WOORHE DUNBAR N DOWTHOADROOCUANIRASHHADDNDHEONDDODNONNONHROW
Parallax
Factors
+0:-08 —1-0
+0:06 —1:-0
+0-138 —3-6
+0:02 —3-2
+0-04 —2-8
—0-06 —0-9
—0:10 —0:8
+0:05 —3-7
—0-02 —3-6
—0-08 —1-6
—0:06 —1-6
0-00 —2-2
—0:01 —2:3
+0:-10 —3-9
+0-19 —3-6
—0:02 —2-9
+0-02 —2-6
0-00 —1-9
+0-05 —1-8
+0:06 +0:1
+0-01 0-0
+0-04 —4-8
+0:10 —4:-8
+0:-14 —3-1
+0:03 —2-7
+0:10 —2-9
+0-08 —2-6
—0:02 —4-1
+0-03 —3-8
+0-02 —3-7
—0:03 —3-6
+0:04 —4-5
—0:04 —4-3
+0:08 —3-9
+0:02 —3-4
+0:06 —1-1
0-00 —0-9
+0:-04 —3-3
—0:01 —2-9
+0:-02 —2-0
—0-02 —2-0
+0:08 —1-4
0-00 —1-1
+0:04 +2:-5
+0:05 +2-5
+0:08 —1-4
+0-02 —1-4
+0-01 —3-2
—0:-01 —3-2
+0:-04 —1-8
+0-:03 —1-7
+0:-06 —4:-7 °
+0-05 —0-7
—0-02 —0-6
+0:01 —2-9
—0-02 —3-0
0-00 —3-1
+0:-10 —3-1
+0:03 —3:1
+0-14 —3-5
J
68
W. H. ROBERTSON.
TABLE I—Oontinued.
R.A. Dec Parallax
L953 Planet (1950-0) (1950-0) Factors
ho om Ss 2 @, s A
74 July 15-67975 359 Georgia 21 23 09-95 | —25 50 59-1 | —0-08 —1-2
75 Aug. 6: 60782 359 Georgia 21 04 21-28 | —26 50 12-8 | +0-08 —1:1
76 July 23-61480 367 Amicitia 20 39 01-34 | —21 51 00-7 | +0-04 —1-8
77 July 30-58956 367 Amicitia 20 31 34-05 | —22 25 O1-1 | +0:-03 —1-7
78 June 8-59070 372 Palma 16 36 22-78 | —52 32 20-1 | +0-16 +2-7
79 June 29-66232 375 Ursula 20 06 38-73 | —38 50 03-2 | +0-06 +0°-8 .
80 July 28-56140 375 Ursula 19 37 07-69 | —88 14 48-2 | +0-05 +0-7
81 June 16:63762 381 Myrrha 18 35 22-06 | —12 50 27-0 | +0-06 —3-1
82 July 14-54602 381 Myrrha 18 13 47-80 | —14 58 10-0 | +0-06 —2-8
83 July 21-66763 385 Ilmatar 21 36 52-95 | —26 03 54-9 | +0-06 —1-2
84 Aug. 24-55140 385 Ilmatar 21 04 59-92 | —26 32 33-0 | +0-06 —1-1
85 July 7:61489 394 Arduina 19 35 22-61 | —29 03 02-0 | +0:-04 —0-7
86 July 23-55520 394 Arduina 19 20 38-76 | —30 15 23-9 | +0-02 —0-5
87 July 7-68151 412 Elizabetha 20 51 12-77 | —22 57 24-6 | +0-08 —1:-7
88 July 29-57983 412 Elizabetha 20 33 46-17 | —25 53 25-9 | —0-01 —1-2
89 June 8: 64830 488 Kreusa 18 12 37-94 | —24 22 24-6 | +0-08 —1-4
90 July 7:-50648 488 Kreusa 17 47 53-47 | —25 40 36-4 | —0-08 —1-3
91 June 29-55973 550 Senta 17 38 50-83 | —23 23 21-2 | +0-05 —1-6
92 July 9-50516 550 Senta | 17 30 32-84 | —22 10 49-2 | —0-02 —1-8
93 July 15-63001 556 Phyllis 20 17 50-50 | —17 44 34°5 | +0-06 —2-4
94 July 30-55224 556 Phyllis 20 02 58-96 | —18 03 26-9 | —0:03 —2-4
95 July 21-71485 595 Polyxena 22 16 29-84 | —37 06 50-6 | +0-15 +0-4
96 Aug. 6- 64274 595 Polyxena 22 03 43-35 | —38 16 15-8 | —0-09 +0-6
97 Sep. 8- 66354 599 Luisa 1 03 02-71 | —20 04 41-9 | +0-02 —2-1
98 Oct 1: 60898 599 Luisa 0 39 46:41 | —19 03 38-8 | +0-09 —2:3
99 Oct 8- 56036 599 Luisa 0 32 07-61 | —18 13 57-4 | +0-02 —2-3
100 June 18-52210 675 Ludmilla 16 36 14-38 | —23 58 43-8 | —0:-03 —1-5
101 July = 13-61252 758 Mancunia 19 44 27-92 | —22 13 40-7 | —0-01 —1-8
102 July 29-54424 758 Mancunia 19 31 56-19 | —23 O1 30-9 | +0-01 —1-6
103 Aug. 13-65487 | 1303 Luthera 23 20 38:73 | —33 04 38-1 | +0-02 —0-1
TABLE IT.
Comparison Stars Dependences
1 Yale 12 II 6019, 5998, 5994 0: 30926 0: 33202 0: 35871 W
2 Yale 12 I 5287, 5286, 5260 0: 46404 0- 21685 0:-31911 R
3 Yale 13 I 39, 56, 14, 81 0: 09164 0- 42420 0: 48416 W
4 Yale 1/4 15874, 15880, 15891 0: 33268 0: 07540 0: 59192 NY
5 Yale 12 I 4605, 4599, 4591 0:-01999 0: 61379 0: 36622 S
6 Yale 12 II 4586, 4591, 4599 0: 15859 0- 20200 0: 63940 W
7 Yale 11 4354, 4356, 4365 0: 28129 0:-52478 0: 19392 NS
8 Yale 117 5114, 5099, 5104 0:79252 |—0-00264 0:21012 R
9 Yale 11 5101, 5104, 5115 0: 42218 0: 46503 0-11279 WwW
10 Yale 12 I 7126, 7151 11 6680 0: 28597 0:52188 0: 19216 R
11 Yale 72 II 7092, 7115, 7134 0- 13688 0- 45079 0: 41233 R
12 Yale 17 4123, 4135, 4148 0: 35454 0: 13039 0:51506 R
13 Yale 17 4174, 4175, 4184 0:31194 0- 18782 0: 50024 S
14 Yale 13 II 11565, 11577, 11579 0- 06233 0: 90428 0: 03339 Ny
15 Yale 13 II 11656, 11681, 11698 0:-51930 0: 21723 0: 26347 R
16 Yale 71 7880, 7883, 7889 0: 17868 0: 43960 0-38172 W
17 Yale 71 7814, 7822, 7825 0:59451 0:57106 |—0O-16557 W
18 Yale 72 I 8177, 8183, 8196 0:-13401 0: 63514 0: 23084 W
19 Yale 13 II 13437, 13460, 13489 0: 43569 0- 22986 0-33445 W
20: Yale 73) 11 131733, 13152, 13167 0: 36802 0: 36682 0: 26515 R
21 Yale 16 7458, 7474, 7494 0: 42018 0: 35586 0- 22396 R
22 Yale 11 7316, 7318, 7340 0:13722 0: 48864 0:-37414 Ss
MINOR PLANETS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1953. 69
TaBLeE LI—Continued.
Comparison Stars Dependences
23 Yale 14 13424, 13428, 13452 0:47199 0- 08448 0: 44354 Ss
24 Yale 14 13324, 13344, 13358 0- 29038 0-46044 0- 24918 Ww
25 Yale 12 II 7008, 7010, 7043 0-35149 0-41484 0: 23367 R
26 Yale 12 II 6900, 6921, 6937 0-28155 0- 24386 0-47458 Ww
27 Yale 16 5479, 5492, 5493 0-37392 0:45580 0: 17027 Ss
28 Yale 16 5595, 5596, 5604 0-51542 0-35133 0: 13325 S
29 Yale 12 I 8225, 8232, 8248 0-33960 0- 34975 0-31065 R
30 Yale 12 I 8168, 8169, 8179 | 0-28511 0-59165 0: 12325 R
31 Yale 13 I 8162, 8177, 8192 0-37422 0:46173 0- 16405 Ww
32 Yale 13 I 8009, 8027, 14 13182 0- 35482 0: 24189 0: 40329 Ww
33 Cord. C 10172, 10178, 10202 | 0-38128 0-21704 0-40168 S
34 Cord. C 9811, 9844, 9850 | 0-24832 0- 28430 0-46738 Ww
35 Yale 21 3343, 3346, 3348 | 0-27520 0: 64205 0-08274 Ww
36 Yale 21 3352, 3353, 3357 | 0-47183 0-37844 0-14973 R
37 Yale 11 7864, 12 I 8302, 8303 0-52063 0-30770 0-17166 Ww
38 Yale 12 I 8177, 8187, 8196 0: 09806 0: 43686 0-46508 Ww
39 Yale 12 I 8793, 8795, 8810 0-33512 0: 28276 0-38212 S
40 Yale 12 I 8742, 8752, 8755 | 034575 0: 28848 0-36577 Ww
41 Yale 16 7926, 7928, 7947 — 0-32270 0: 31237 0: 36493 R
42 Yale 16 7860, 7861, 7881 - 0-23254 0:37592 0-39153 R
43 Yale 16 8348, 8349, 8357 | 0-68833 0: 17106 0-14061 S
44 Yale 11 8060, 8074, 16 8176 | 0-07244 0: 46232 0: 46524 S
45 Yale 17 192, 196, 207 0:47905 0-66169 |(—0-14074 Ww
46 Yale’ 17 118, 127, 181 0-48732 0: 04623 0: 46646 S
47 Yale 16 7962, 7963, 7977 0-21681 0:37195 0-41124 Ww
48 Yale 11 7708, 7718, 7730 0- 29298 0: 58393 0- 12308 S
49 Yale 14 13299, 13 IL 12466, 12513 0-45701 0: 19267 0: 35032 Ww
50 Yale 13 II 12215, 12246, 12263 0-34541 0-27710 0:37748 Ww
51 Yale 11 8067, 8073, 8076 0-56688 0: 13027 0- 30285 Ww
52 Yale 12 I 8478, 8482, 8499 0- 14936 0:39641 0-45424 S
53 Yale 13 I 9049, 9055, 9072 0- 28430 0:48149 0: 23421 Ww
54 Yale 13 I 8943, 8945, 8953 0:00717 0: 40570 0:-58713 Ww
55 Yale 14 12845, 12879, 12890 0-41623 0+ 28807 0-29570 Ww
56 Yale 14 12306, 12321, 12340 0: 40044 0: 30750 0: 29206 S
57 Cape Ft. 18941, 18977, 19000 0-33904 0: 25359 0:40737 Ww
58 Cape Zone 18525, 18548, Cape Ft. 18919 0: 46860 0:37139 0-16001 R
59 Yale 14 11792, 11794, 11827 0: 46890 0: 23275 0- 29835 A
60 Yale 14 11698, 11704, 11731 0-42167 0:36781 0- 21052 S
61 Yale 11 5690, 5700, 5716 0: 46657 0: 20614 0: 32729 Ww
62 Yale 11 5656, 5673, 5684 0: 24537 0: 45490 0-29974 R
63 Yale 14 14342, 14357, 13 I 8872 0:33128 0:44198 0- 22674 W
64 Yale 14 14258, 14279, 14296 0- 32608 0+ 21590 0-45802 R
65 Yale 17 7805, 7809, 7816 0- 16928 0:35791 0-47281 R
66 Yale 13 II 12649, 12659, 12673 0-15754 0-36107 0-48139 Ww
67 Yale 13 II 12586, 12611, 12623 0- 26434 0: 45210 0- 28356 R
68 Yale 11 6052, 12 I 6365, 6379 0- 25488 0: 38028 0- 36484 Ww
69 Yale 11 5998, 6012, 6021 0-56687 0: 34559 0: 08754 R
70 Yale 11 5931, 5949, 5952 0-34271 0: 31392 0: 34337 Ww
71 Yale 11 5539, 5540, 5545 0-54809 0:34181 0-11010 Ww
72 Yale 11 5516, 5530, 5531 0: 22336 0: 24528 0-53136 R
73 Yale 11 7499, 7506, 7519 0- 23681 0: 42949 0:33370 Ww
74 Yale 14 14751, 14761, 14771 0-25813 0:47346 0-26841 ~
75 Yale 13 II 13869, 13910, 14 14613 0:43997 0: 25994 0-30009 S
76 Yale 14 14342, 14357, 13 I 8872 | 0-00611 0-37802 0- 61586 Ww
77 Yale 14 14258, 14279, 14296 | 0:30883 0:37642 0-31474 R
78 GC 22320, LPI A 5611, 5651 0-37190 0: 23511 0-39299 Ww
79 Perth 2 1372, GC 27941, 28055 0-32055 0: 36562 0-31383 w
80 Perth 6 1650, 1652, 1655 | 024794 0: 51467 0- 23739 R
81 Yale 1/7 6377, 6380, 6388 | 0:°15555 0: 25754 0:58690 R
82 Yale 12 I 6610, 6644, 6654 | 0-34470 0:30110 0:35420 S
83 Yale 14 14863, 14867, 14883 | 0-30029 0-35113 0:34858 Ww
84 Yale 13 IT 13899, 74 14578, 14620 0- 21529 0: 34908 0-43562 Ss
W. H. ROBERTSON.
TaBLE II1—Continued.
Comparison Stars Dependences
85 Yale 13 II 12858, 12860, 12878 0: 06922 0- 58902 0- 34176 R
86 Cord. B 12665, 12702, Yale 13 II 12671 0: 33463 0:39791 0: 26745 WwW
87 Yale 14 14467, 14487, 14496 0: 26118 0: 22663 0-51218 R
88 Yale 14 14282, 14298, 14321 0:45119 0: 15208 0: 39674 R
89 Yale 1/4 12598, 12610, 12642 0: 18303 0: 44397 0:-37300 WwW
90 Yale 74 12198, 12209, 12228 0- 16063 0:37200 0:-46737 R
91 Yale 14 12117, 12120, 12127 0: 24553 0: 34070 0:41377 WwW
92 Yale 13 I 7179, 7203, 14 12070 0- 36720 0:-19714 0: 43566 R
93 Yale 12 II 8693, 8716, 72 I 7658 0-17863 0- 32883 0: 49254 S
94 Yale 12 II 8601, 8602, 8622 0: 44909 0: 40406 0: 14685 R
95 Perth 6 1880, 1883, 1886 0: 29432 0- 20660 0-49908 WwW
96 Perth 6 1862, 1864, 1870 0- 30124 0- 25561 0: 44316 S
97 Yale 13 I 264, 281, 283 0-17273 0: 39373 0: 44354 WwW
98 Yale 12 II 152, 168, 169 0- 11204 0:57414 0: 31382 S
99 Yale 72 II 123, 133, 140 0: 37563 0: 38528 0: 23909 Ww
100 Yale 7/4 11528, 11556, 11559 0: 34121 0- 36345 0: 29534 R
101 Yale 14 13767, 13790, 13812 0: 30914 0-51402 0: 17684 S
102 Yale 14 13602, 13621, 13650 0: 25600 0: 22930 0:-51469 R
103 Cord. C 12515, 12539, 12541 0: 32531 0: 29921 0:-37548 Ww
ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES
SYMPOSIUM
OIL, AUSTRALIA
AND THE FUTURE
YDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, pee ah HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
CONTENTS.
Page
SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA: THE GEOLOGICAL
BACKGROUND. By H. G. RAGGATT .. oe - ee Ni 13)
Om PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILISATION. By PROFESSOR HUNTER .. 822
PETROLEUM CHEMICALS. By R. F. CANE... dis as 7 Be Ph)
THe EcONOMIC EFFECTS OF AN OIL INDUSTRY ON THE AUSTRALIAN
EcoNoMy. By PRoressor C. RENWICK S37
FOREWORD.
The Royal Society of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the
‘* Philosophical Society of Australasia’; after an interval of inactivity, it was
resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the ‘‘ Australian Philosophical Society ”’,
by which title it was known until 1856, when the name was changed to the
‘** Philosophical Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by sanction of Her
Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was
incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881.
Its objects, as set out in the Rules of the Society, include ‘ studies and
investigations . . . in Science . . . and especially on such subjects as tend to
develop the resources of Australia, and to illustrate its Natural History and
Productions ”’.
The Society publishes original investigations, awards medals to distin-
guished scientists and arranges for addresses by research workers on specialist
topics in Science. In addition, however, the Society is actively concerned with
the translation of scientific developments to the general public and holds regular
symposia and discussions on topics of interest to the community.
It was decided to hold in 1954 a symposium dealing with the search for oil
in Australia and the likely effects of its discovery on Australia’s economy. The
four speakers invited to address members of the Society and visitors are
authorities in their fields. .The presentation of their subjects in a manner
intelligible to the general public met with an enthusiastic response from the well
attended meeting which was held on Wednesday, 4th October, 1954, in the Hall
of Science House, Sydney.
The Council of the Royal Society of New South Wales considered that the
publication of the addresses would contribute to a broadening of the outlook
of the public on this most important subject. It was decided, therefore, to make
this publication available to the general public.
The Council takes this opportunity of expressing our appreciation of the
contributions made by the four speakers.
R. S. NYHOLM,
President.
SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA :
THE GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND.
By H. G. RAGGATT.
It is impossible to discuss the search for oil in Australia without. first:
reviewing the conditions under which oil occurs in the earth. This means, of
course, that some of you will have presented to you material similar to that
included in an address to the Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy in
Sydney on the 2nd June, 1954. However, I see no alternative to this method
of presentation. If oil had been found in commercial quantities anywhere in
Australia or Papua-New Guinea, it might have been possible to adopt a different
approach, but that is still in the future.
The search for oil is a research problem on a grand scale. I believe that
oil has been found in Western Australia mainly because the investigation was
approached basically as a piece of research, and because the Commonwealth
and Western Australian Governments accepted the view that this was a long-
range problem which ought to be tackled systematically and that no drilling
should be done until the facts had been gathered together and critically appraised.
Before a decision was made to concentrate the efforts of the Commonwealth
Bureau of Mineral Resources in the Carnarvon and Fitzroy Basins, two
propositions were examined :
_(1) What are the geological conditions in which oil occurs ?
(2) Using criteria deduced from (1), what conclusions may be drawn
concerning the oil possibilities of the sedimentary basins of Australia ?
I propose to discuss these two propositions and to outline the conclusions
reached from examination of them. In doing this we shall see that there is a
great deal known about the conditions in which oil occurs in the earth, but
that our knowledge of Australian geology is so scanty that the information
known about conditions is difficult to apply.
The geological conditions that are regarded as essential for the occurrence
of oil in commercial quantities have been stated many times, and confirmed
over and over again by experience. Recent research (Smith, 1954) shows
‘‘ that petroleum is being formed in the present era and that the crude product
is nature’s composite of the hydrocarbon remains of many forms of marine life ”’.
The research results tend to support the long-held view that both relatively and
actually organic matter such as plankton is the major source of oil, though all
forms of marine life probably are sources to a greater or lesser degree.
The abundance of organic matter in sediments decreases with increase in
grain size; clay contains twice as much organic matter as silts and silts twice
as much as sands (Trask, 1934).
Thus, the widely held belief based mainly on field observations, that dark-
coloured marine shales are to be regarded as source beds, seems to be pretty
well supported by laboratory research. It would be difficult to explain many
occurrences of oil on any other hypothesis. For example, it is the general rule
to find oil in a particular formation or formations over wide areas, whereas other
formations in the same sequence with reservoir characteristics similar to the
producing ‘‘ sands ”’ contain water only. Again, in oilfields such as Goose
S6 H. G. RAGGATT.
Creek, Texas, which is characterized by numerous lenticular sand bodies through
a section about 4,000 feet thick, oil is found in some lenses and not in others
despite the fact that the lithology of the lenses is similar (Minor, 1925). It
seems reasonable to assume that in such cases the oil came from shales adjacent
to the oil sands, and not from a common distant source. This and other evidence
(Clark, 1934) seems to rule out the migration of oil over long distances, either
vertically or laterally, as a common occurrence, though no doubt migration
does occur, e.g. along faults and at unconformities. In general, however, source
beds should be looked for first, near to where oil is found.
The first essential is, therefore, a sequence which includes fossiliferous
marine rocks, among which shales are favoured as likely to contain source
material in adequate quantities.
The next essential is that there should be porous rocks into which the oil
can move and be stored, because it is rarely that sediments which contain
abundant source material are themselves sufficiently porous to serve as reservoirs.
Finally, the reservoir must be sealed by having an impervious cover, such
as beds of shale.
In a typical oilfield, therefore, there is usually good development of shale,
and many oilfield areas are characterized by more than one formation of shale
interbedded with limestone and sandstone, thus providing an alternation of
source, reservoir and cap rock.
Western Venezuela, one of the world’s largest oil-producing regions, may
be taken as an example. Oil is produced mainly from two formations in the
Cretaceous, which has a total maximum thickness of about 13,000 feet. Excluding
4,600 feet of sandstone and conglomerate at the base, the section consists of
alternations of dark shales, limestone, and glauconitic sandstone (EK: Rod and
W. Mayne, 1954).
A striking feature of some oilfield regions is the association of commercial
accumulations of oil with unconformities.
Cunningham and Kleinpell (1934) state that a review of the evidence
concerning producing oilfields in the San Joaquin Valley, California, ‘‘ indicates
that the presence of unconformities has caused the accumulation or the avail-
ability at drillable depths of the major portion of the commercial oil of
the region’’. The unconformities to which they refer are either ‘‘ marine
transgressions rarely accompanied by the development of basal conglomerate ”’
(Miocene) or regressions marginal to a rising border or to rising structures within
the basin (Pliocene).
Levorsen (1934), referring to oilfields of the mid-continent region of U.S.A.
(Kansas, Oklahoma, Arkansas and parts of Texas and Illinois), states that :
“. . . other things being equal that district which contains the most
unconformities has the most traps capable of retaining oil and gas and is
consequently the most desirable as prospective oil and gas territory.
‘* Unconformities mark planes of increased porosity in many places.
This may be due to the porosity developed in the leaching and weathering
of the underlying formation when it is a limestone or dolomite, or to the
accumulation of unassorted fragments, pebbles, sandstones, and con-
glomerates as the basal member of the overlying formation. This porosity
may act as an avenue of migration for oil and gas, or, when developed
to the proportions of a reservoir rock and in the form of a suitable trap.
it may be the locus of an oil pool.
. ‘* Formations which overlie a plane of unconformity are commonly
of nearshore or littoral origin. Many geologists believe that petroleum and
natural gas originate in such an environment.”’
SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S7
Levorsen uses ‘“‘ unconformity ’’—in its widest sense as defined by Twen-
hofel—to include erosional, non-sequence and angularly discordant contacts.
We may consider for a moment one of Levorsen’s illustrations—a section
through the Oklahoma City field—showing the relationship of unconformities
to oil and gas production (Figure 1). It will be noted that oil and gas occur in
several formations of Ordovician age below an unconformity overlain by a shale
of Pennsylvanian age; that is, the Silurian, Devonian and Mississipian are
absent.
This example is by no means unique. In the Turner Valley, Western
Alberta, oil is produced from limestone of Mississipian age overlain unconformably
by shale of Jurassic age; that is, the Pennsylvanian Permian and Triassic are
missing. Similar conditions prevail in the Kevin-Sunburst field in northern
Montana. .
2/
Ti
Up
14
Rg
CNATY sy
|
VIOLA
Fig. 1.—Idealized section across Oklahoma City field, Oklahoma, U.S.A., showing
relation of unconformities (wavy lines) to occurrence of oil (full circles) and gas
(rayed circles). After A. I. Levorsen, 1934.
In some of the papers in which the accumulation of oil at unconformities
is described the authors do no more than state the relationship but, implicitly
or explicitly, the general view seems to be that we should look to the sediments
immediately overlying the unconformity for source material. Although there
is satisfactory evidence—e.g. gravity of oil—that this applies in many places,
it cannot be universally true. It seems unlikely to be true, for example, of the
oil occurrences in the Arbuckle limestone illustrated by Levorsen. Rise in the
rock temperature with depth of burial may be an important factor in determining
the time and rate of migration into and across unconformities in some places.
For our present purpose we need not examine the matter critically, but
merely note the fact that unconformities, even where they represent long periods
of time, are not unwelcome in the geological record of potential oilfields.
There are two other general points that deserve consideration because of
their bearing on the search for oil in Australia :
(1) Is the absence of signs of oil in outcrops, and in water bores, of particular
significance ?
(2) Is the presence of pressure water inimical to the occurrence of oil ?
S8 H. G. RAGGATT.
Absence of indications of oil in outcrops and in the hundreds of bores that
have been put down for water in many of the sedimentary basins in Australia,
has been cited as discouraging even to the point of proving that no oil exists.
Andrews (1924) wrote down the oil prospects of Australia largely on the
absence of indications of oil in outcrops and bore waters. Clapp (1926a, 1926b)
writing about the Carnarvon Basin, stated: ‘‘. . . if oil existed in commercial
quantities anywhere (in the Basin) it would seem that some trace of oil or gas
should have been found in one or more of the numerous wells.”’
Dr. W. G. Woolnough, however, after a tour of inspection of the oilfields of
U.S.A. and Argentine, reported (1931, p. 14) that ‘‘ almost complete absence of
oil seepages in Australia is far from being the unfavourable indication that some
people suppose ’’.
When we visited the United States in 1945, Mr. J. M. Rayner and I made a
special point of examining an oil field area where there was no sign of oil in the
outcropping sediments. The area selected was Big Horn Basin in Central
Wyoming. In the oilfield at Byron (Garland) the principal reservoir rock is the
Madison limestone (Mississipian). The wells in the Madison limestone were
characterized by large initial production of a low gravity oil (19°), but in the
outcrops of the Madison limestone only 30 miles away there are no seeps or oil
residues, and the smell when struck with a hammer is no different from that
commonly noticed with limestones. |
There is an absence of seepages over large areas of the United States which
include many important producing oilfields.
It was concluded that lack of evidence of oil in outcrops need not be regarded
as particularly significant, and certainly should not be taken as excluding from
examination areas that otherwise show promise as potential oilfields.
Now that it is known that oil occurs in the same formation that forms
the main artesian aquifer in the Carnarvon Basin, it may seem strange to many
that no oil was noted in drilling the artesian wells. Experience at Rough
Range shows how difficult it is to find oil, even when it is being sought by a
properly planned drilling campaign. Most of the artesian wells were not drilled
on structures favourable to the accumulation of oil. One or two were, but they
were drilled long ago with unsuitable rigs and by men who were not trained to
note the signs of oil. Moreover, once the hole fillted with water the oil would
have had to come in against the pressure of the water column in the bore ;
and, of course, the structures may not contain oil.
It is impossible to generalize about the effect of water circulation on the
accumulation of oil. Krampert (1934) makes some statements concerning the
effect of water circulation on distribution and accumulation of oil in Wyoming,
Colorado and New Mexico which, no doubt, apply to several areas in Australia.
Krampert considers that in the Rocky Mountains region ‘“‘ water circulation is
probably a necessary adjunct to oil migration ’’, but he also reports that ‘ fully
90 per cent. of the structures in the region have been adversely affected by being
either completely or partially flushed ’”’. His general conclusion about the area
may be quoted :
‘‘ Water circulation in the reservoir sands prevents accumulation of
oil and gas in structural traps, when the direction of movement is from
the structures toward the basin in which the oil and gas originates. Con-
versely, accumulation is stimulated when the water movement is from the
basin toward the structural trap.”’
Having thus somewhat sketchily examined the geological conditions in
which oil occurs, we may now turn to our second question : Using the criteria
deduced from this examination, what conclusions may be drawn concerning the
SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S9
oil possibilities of the sedimentary basins of Australia? We shall see that our
main difficulty in answering this question is that we do not know enough about
the geology of the basins, and particularly of the subsurface geology in their
deeper parts.
In a first appraisal of potentialities, the very general knowledge that we
have of the geology of large parts of Australia may be adequate, but the nearer
we get to an attempt to assess resources, or indeed, to outline with some precision
the areas to which we should give detailed attention, the more we realize how
lacking we are in detailed knowledge of the geology of Australia.
I can prove this best by some illustrations from geological investigations
of large potentially oil-bearing areas of Western Australia with which I have
been personally associated.
The broad outline of the geology of. the Carnarvon Basin was established
by the Gregory brothers between 1848 and 1861, and by Gibb Maitland between
1911 and 1919. These men did wonderfully good work under very difficult
conditions. JI am not finding any fault with their work, but it is astonishing,
nevertheless, how much has been added to the geological picture since their day.
F. G. Clapp, though he sadly underrated the oil possibilities of the Carnarvon
Basin (1926a, 1926b), made a notable contribution to knowledge by discovering
the Cape Range anticline and recording that it consisted of Tertiary rocks
(1925). !
Rudd and Dee, in 1932, named, described and mapped for the first time a
number of formations in the Permian along the Wooramel River. It has since
been shown that these formations occur throughout the Carnarvon Basin.
Condit and Rudd, in 1934, showed that the white siltstones which are such
a conspicuous feature of the geology of the area are Cretaceous and not Jurassic.
In 1934 (and again in 1935 with Dr. Washington Gray), I spent a considerable
time in the area and discovered much that was new, including :
(a) That there was not merely one glacial boulder bed but a thickness of
over 2,000 feet of fluvio-glacial deposits including at least eight distinct
boulder beds and fossiliferous marine deposits ;
(b) that the Permian section included considerable thickness of shale,*
much of which was dark in colour ;
(c) that the Permian formations thicken from south to north ;
(d) that there is an angular unconformity between the Cretaceous and the
Permian.
Although it seemed that by 1935 the general geology of the area was fairly
well known, it can now be seen that all the work that had been done, including
my own, amounted only to reconnaissance and not very detailed reconnaissance
at that.
It was not until 1948 that systematic detailed work was begun by the
Commonwealth Bureau of Mineral Resources. This resulted in many important
modifications and additions to the knowledge of the Permian and to the discovery
of fossiliferous marine rocks of Devonian and Carboniferous age. These additions
to knowledge so changed the geological picture that they led to re-orientation
in the views held by Caltex Oil Company (which itself had done some work in
the area) concerning the oil possibilities of the Carnarvon Basin. Mr. Follis,
Vice-President of Standard Oil of California, when he announced the discovery
* It is curious that such an experienced observer as Clapp (19266) should have tried to
‘“‘ explain away ”’ references to the occurrence of shale in the Carnarvon Basin when at the same
time he published a list of bores ranging in depth from 523 to 3,011 feet and yielding flows of water
up to two million gallons per day.
S10 H. G. RAGGATT.
of oil in Rough Range No. 1 well, stated: ‘‘ It was the extensive exploration
efforts of Australia’s Department of National Development which led to the
leasing of widespread acreage now held by Caltex and Ampol. This work was
what encouraged Caltex to return to Australia in the hope of bringing in the
Commonwealth’s first discovery.”’ (Lhe West Australian, 5th December, 1953.)
A similar story could be told about the results of detailed work by the
Bureau of Mineral Resources in the Fitzroy Basin. Here, not only has it been
proved that the reported showings of oil in bores put down at Price’s Creek in
1922 were genuine, but that they occur in limestone of an age—Ordovician—
whose presence has never been recorded or even suspected in Western Australia.
Not only that, but it has been shown that marine rocks of uppermost Permian
and lowest Triassic are present. This is the first record of the occurrence of
marine Triassic on the Australian continent.
The lesson to be learnt here obviously is that one cannot begin to discuss
Australia’s resources of petroleum, or even the possibility of its occurrence in
much of Australia, because there is not enough geological information available.
{It may be thought that these remarks apply only to the remote areas to which
I have just referred, but this is not so. Clearly the remarks apply most forcibly
to those areas, but there are also serious gaps in our detailed knowledge of the
veology of the sedimentary basins of eastern Australia.
Australian stratigraphy suffers from a long history of generalizations
because, except in a very few areas, there has been no economic objective to
provide the incentive necessary to work out the stratigraphy in detail. Two
simple illustrations may be given.
So great an authority as Sir Edgeworth David stated the commonly held
view when he wrote (1923) that the red beds of the Narrabeen Group provide
the rich soils upon which the citrus orchards of the Gosford district are estab-
lished. In fact the citrus orchards are not established on soils derived from red
beds and the area where these beds crop out to the north and east of Wyong is
some of the poorest country in coastal New South Wales. This area is traversed
by a railway and a highway connecting the two largest cities in New South
Wales. The red beds are exposed at the south end of the cutting at Wyong
railway station, where they have a definite southerly dip. Moreover, in a bore
at Ourimbah (N.S.W. Mines Department, 1888)—in the heart of the citrus
growing region—the first red bed was intersected at a depth of 447 feet. Yet
the view expressed by David remained current until the area was mapped by
Reeves and myself for Oil Search Ltd. in 1935.
Detailed work carried out in recent years by Miss Crespin and me (1952)
in the Torquay area 50 miles south-west of Melbourne, has shown that two
stratigraphic units of the Tertiary which, for many years, have been regarded as
distinct—the Janjukian and the Balcombian—overlap each other.
It is worth stressing that nearly all this new information has been revealed
by examination of rocks at the surface. Many of the areas which are of interest
as possibly containing oil are basins or parts of basins covering large areas and
have never been tested by deep boring. In many places there is not enough
evidence upon which even conjecture can be based as to what rocks lie deep
beneath the surface. For example
(a) What is the lower part of the Permian like, and what underlies it,
beneath Sydney ?
(6) What underlies the Tertiary rocks at the Victorian-South Australian
border, or the structures it is proposed to test near Woodside, Victoria ?
(c) What underlies the Mesozoic rocks of the Great Artesian Basin, particu-
larly to the west and south-west ?
SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. Sil
To me this last is one of the most fascinating unknowns in the search for
oil in Australia.
Answers must be found to these and many other questions before we can
begin to express any reliable opinion on the prospects of finding oil in many
parts of Australia.
The first requisite is reliable geological maps on a scale of not less than
one inch equals four miles. Happily the preparation and publication of these
maps on a co-operative Commonwealth-States basis is already under way, but
it will be many years before they will be available in large numbers. These,
of course, are not the only geological maps available. State Geological Surveys
have been publishing maps for many years, but the four-mile map series represents
the first attempt to bring together geological information systematically on
an Australian wide basis.
The second requisite is a series of geophysical profiles—magnetic, gravity
and seismic—supplemented to the greatest extent possible by scout drilling.
Magnetic surveys can be, and are being speeded up by the use of airborne
equipment, but gravity and seismic surveys are relatively slow and seismic
more so than gravity. Nevertheless, we would reach our goal more quickly
if we followed this methodical approach. As it is, some companies are going
ahead with test drilling without having found out anything more than can be
deduced from geological surveys of the surface. Moreover, some of this drilling
is being done in areas where unconformities exist and where the structure at
depth is unknown. A few simple illustrations will indicate how foolish a
procedure this is.
Figure 2 includes three sections across an anticline underlain by an uncon-
formity. In Figure 2.1 the anticlinal axis continues through the unconformity.
A well put down to test the surface anticline will be correctly placed to test the
anticline below the unconformity. In Figure 2.2 and 2.3, however, a well
sited so as to test the surface anticline will be off structure in case 2.2 and will
pass from an anticlinal to a synclinal axis in case 2.3. The dip of the beds above
and below the unconformity in cases 2.2 and 2.3 are the same and, therefore,
determination of dip will provide no clue to the fact that the structural conditions
below the unconformity are different from those above it.
This brings me to my next point. Most of the drilling for oil in Australia
was done before the modern techniques of geophysical surveying, whether from
the surface or in bore holes, were developed; certainly they were not then
available in Australia. However, these techniques are available now and there
is no excuse for not using them. The structural conditions I have just illustrated
can be worked out by geophysical surveys, the results of which may also provide
other evidence of value in working out the subsurface geology.
Magnetic methods are useful where the buried ridge type of structure is
suspected, particularly if the basement ridge is made up of rocks with relatively
high magnetic susceptibility, e.g. basalts. Gravity methods are also useful for
elucidating this type of structure and for giving a measure of the probable
thickness of sediments above bedrock.
However, it is the seismic method that has been found most useful in
exploration for oil, because it provides a means of actually mapping structures
beneath the surface. A good example of the value of seismic surveys is provided
by a traverse by the Bureau of Mineral Resources across the Giralia anticline
in the Carnarvon Basin (Figure 3). It will be seen from the illustration given
that the survey confirmed the existence of an unconformity between the
Cretaceous and Permian rocks (see page S9) and showed that the structure
below the unconformity extended to considerable depth.
S12 H. G. RAGGATT.
Geophysical logging of bore holes is now standard practice. The electrical
characteristics generally logged are resistivity and self-potential. With a
single-electrode probe, logs of resistivity and potential are recorded simul-
taneously and are useful for correlation and identification of geological strata.
ANTICLINAL AXIS BOREHOLE
A ANTICLINAL AXIS BOREHOLE
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ANTICLINAL AXIS
UNCONFORMITY
|. oa
SYNCLINAL AXIS
3. Borehole on Anticlinal Axis above Unconformity
passes into Synclinal Axis below it
Fig. 2. Structure above and below Unconformity.
Multi-electrode resistivity logging techniques provide the possibility of making
a quantitative interpretation in terms of the porosity and saturation of reservoir
sands.
Gamma-ray logging records natural radioactivity of sediments. Neutron
logging records the gamma-ray activity artificially generated in the sediments
by neutrons emitted from a source lowered into the hole.
n
[wr
S15
AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA.
SEARCH FOR OIL IN
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S814 H. G. RAGGATT.
In general, relatively high natural radioactivity is shown by shales, particu-
larly oil shales, and by bentonite and volcanic ash. Low gamma-ray activity
is shown by pure limestones, dolomites and quartz sands. Absolute identifica-
tion of formations is generally not possible from a gamma-ray log but the log is
useful in areas where the general features of the stratigraphic section have already
been established.
The chief value of the neutron log lies in the fact that the gamma-ray
output of rocks during irradiation with neutrons is closely related to hydrogen
content of the rock. Low response signifies high hydrogen content which might .
imply presence of water- or oil-saturated formations.
SEDIMENTARY BASINS
OF
AUSTRALIA & NEW GUINEA 5
teate of Miles
200 tao ° 200 400
Y &
47,
BASINYYA \
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45
ERTHPE
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% Via i SYDNEY BASIN
Sey, SYDNEY
NAMES OF BORES SHOWN ON THE MAP oa
} Rough Range No } 9 Loder Bore BS" chow entrance
2 Albata-Karoo Bore 10 Kulnura Bore od 0 GIPPSLAND BASIN
3 Cook Bore 1] Mulgoa Bore
‘4 Netson Bore 32 Cootabarlow Bore Q
5 Hollands Landing Bore 13 Morella Bore ;
6 Sperm Whale Head Bore * 44 Hutton Creek Bore Tasuiemiz
7 Belford Bores 15 Arcadia Bore =
8 Farley Bore HOBART
HEE
Fig. 4.
It is to be hoped that the government departments responsible for the
administrative oversight of the current oilfield exploration programmes will do
all they can to ensure that modern exploration survey and drilling techniques are
used.
It is to be hoped also that they will see to it that all companies keep adequate
records and samples which should be available as a permanent reference because.
undoubtedly, in the future ideas will undergo change and interpretation of
evidence will be revised many times.
SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S15
Having stressed the difficulties in advance we may now go on to discuss.
some of the sedimentary basins that may be considered as having oil prospects.
This discussion will be somewhat uneven because I wish to avoid repeating most
of what was said in my address to the Australian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy. It is proposed to refer to
(1) Carnarvon Basin,
(2) Bonaparte Gulf and Ord River Basins,
(3) Fitzroy and Canning Basins,
(4) Gippsland Basin,
(5) Sydney Basin ;
(6) Great Redan Basin,
(7) Papua.
CARNARVON BASIN.
There is no part of Australia where the geological conditions outlined earlier
in this address are so well met as in the Carnarvon Basin. The geology of the
area is briefly described in my address to the Australian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy and a report on it by Mr. Alan Condon, Acting Chief Geologist,
Bureau of Mineral Resources is in the press. Here I wish to add only some
further speculation concerning the origin of the oil struck in Rough Range No. 1
well.
The three possibilities discussed in my address to the Australian Institute of
Mining and Metallurgy were :
(1) Birdrong Formation,
(2) Formation above the Birdrong—the Muderong Shale,
(3) The Paleozoic rocks.
Possibility (3) was favoured with a preference for the Permian, but in the
light of further study of published work, some of which has been referred to in
this address, it seems at least as likely that the oil formed in the eroded surface
of the Palzozoic from material deposited in the early Cretaceous seas, and that
later flushing by water may have played an important part in determining the
emplacement of oil in structural and, perhaps, other traps. The reported
occurrence of oil and gas in shale in Cape Range No. 1 well (Shothole Canyon)
suggests that the possibility of origin in the Cretaceous cannot be excluded.
If the oil did originate in the Permian rocks that underlie the Birdrong at
Rough Range, experience suggests that the source should be sought first close
at hand to the east, that is in the opposite direction to the movement of the
artesian water.
Those of you who have been to Rough Range or have seen samples of the
oil will know that it is not fluid at surface temperature. It is, of course, quite
fluid at the rock temperature at a depth of 3,605 feet. Itis conceivable, therefore,
that during the geological past the oil may have existed in a non-fluid state and
that it only began to migrate (or began to migrate again) and collect in commercial
quantities with the rise in rock temperature due to depth of burial; at the
least, this must be a factor to be taken into consideration in examining the
mechanics of the accumulation of oil.
BONAPARTE GULF AND ORD RIVER BASINS.
In my Australian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy address I referred to
the fact that seepages are still active in the Ord River area and that they appear
to be bringing up an oil residue from the underlying rocks which, in this area,
may be basalt or Proterozoic sediments. It was stated that the view was held
S16 H. G. RAGGATT.
that the oil possibly originated in Middle Cambrian sediments and later found
its way down into the basalt, whence it is now moving upwards again. Since
that address was given I have seen for the first time the section of Proterozoic
rocks in the Ord Valley. These rocks include a considerable thickness of dark-
coloured shales which dip at low angles and are not metamorphosed ; in fact,
a Sydney geologist would be pardoned for mistaking them for Wianamatta.
It is known that the shales are marine in origin (Traves, 1954) and, therefore,
despite their great age they cannot be excluded from consideration as source
rocks. Accordingly, I suggest that these shales may be the source of the
asphaltite now found in the Cambrian basalts, and that they have to be taken
into account in considering the oil prospects of several parts of Australia, e.g.
the Fitzroy and Great Artesian Basins.
FITZROY AND CANNING BASINS.
In my earlier remarks on these basins there was an inference that the
prospects of the area rested mainly upon the possibility of oil having been
formed in the fossiliferous marine rocks and having remained therein or
accumulated at unconformities. There are two points I wish to add here:
(1) That the possibility of the occurrences of oil at unconformities should
also be examined in the light of the abundant information from other
countries to some of which I have referred in this address. Uncon-
formities of the type that have produced oil in other countries are
present between the Proterozoic and the Ordovician, the Ordovician
and the Devonian and between the Devonian and the Permian. The
conditions that prevailed when the Permian deposits were laid down
upon the Devonian reef structures must have been generally similar
to those that prevailed when the Jurassic deposits were laid down upon
the Mississipian in western Canada and north-western United States.
—_—
bo
—
For reasons outlined in discussing the Ord River area, the unconformity
between the Paleozoic and the Proterozoic cannot be excluded as a
possible target in drilling for oil.
GIPPSLAND BASIN.
Renewed interest in this Basin probably makes it worth while to speculate
further concerning the origin of the oil and of the bearing of the conclusion
reached on the possibility of finding oil in commercial quantities. The shaft
that was put down by the Commonwealth Government on the recommendation
of Mr. Leo Ranney provided an opportunity for examining the glauconitic
sandstone in which most of the bores in this area struck oil. The sandstone
is not known to crop out anywhere in Gippsland. Examination of the crosscut
from this shaft strongly suggested that the oil occurs in small lenses and the
probability, therefore, is that the oil originated in the lenses themselves or in
the adjacent rock in much the same way as is suggested for the oil sands of
Goose Creek, Texas, and other similar fields. Mr. L. C. Noakes (1947), who,
with Mr. R. F. Thyer made a special study of the distribution of the oil in the
sand, agrees with this conclusion.
Below the glauconitic sandstone at Lakes Entrance there are 6 feet to 68
feet of sandstone from which large flows of artesian water are recorded. The
meagre evidence available suggests that these are estuarine. At other localities
along the Victorian coast the basal Tertiary beds are Coal Measures (Kastern
View) or sparsely fossiliferous marine sandstones (Pebble Point). Nevertheless,
in places source material may have been deposited on the basement rocks, with
the encroachment upon them of the Tertiary sea, perhaps down dip in a facies
not seen in outcrop. It is highly probable, however, that if this happened most
SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S17
of the oil would have been flushed out of the sands at such places as Lakes
Entrance by later incursion of fresh water. It may be profitable to examine the
direction of flow of the water and whether the possibility exists for oil to have
been held in structural or stratigraphic traps in the direction of that movement.
There are several places along the Victorian coast where the contact of the
Tertiary and Jurassic rocks can be seen. At none of these places is there any
evidence of significant pre-Tertiary, post-Jurassic folding, so that it seems that
fold axes in the Tertiary will be co-planar with those in the Jurassic. This
means that wells can be sited so as to test the possibilities of the Tertiary, and of
the surface of unconformity between the Tertiary and the Jurassic for oil, and
of the Jurassic for dry gas. I do not know enough about the regional geology
to venture any opinion as to merits of any test being continued through to the
rocks underlying the Jurassic.
SYDNEY BASIN.
‘* Tests so far made have provided valuable geological information but
otherwise cannot be regarded as having done any more than narrow the area
of search for oil and gas. Hopes for the discovery of oil and gas now depend
upon a suitable structure being found, which can be proved to extend through
the Permian, and upon the Permian being in more favourable facies (a reasonable
hope) in the deeper parts of the basin.”’ (Raggatt, 1954.)
Certain conclusions may be drawn from an examination of the palexo-
geography of the Permian (see Figure 5). In the absence of information from
deep bores there is an element of conjecture in drawing the boundary of the
‘* Lower Marine ’’ sea and the area of deposition of the Greta Coal Measures ;
but the available evidence does not allow a great deal of room for error and the
boundaries shown in Figure 5 are probably sufficiently close to the truth to allow
the general inference that the northern part of the Basin has far better prospects
than the southern part. Taking into consideration the comments made con-
cerning the results of earlier drilling, the area with best prospects would appear
to be that bounded approximately by lines drawn between the following places :
Muswellbrook, Newcastle, Wollongong and Springwood. Isopachs of the
Newcastle Coal Measures and of the ‘‘ Upper Marine ’’, based on the results of
drilling, suggest that these two units are thickest in the area outlined, so that the
prospects of finding oil and gas in the upper part of the Permian are better in
this part of the Basin than elsewhere.
An examination should be made of the pre-Permian rocks around the
Basin to see whether any useful conclusions can be drawn as to the kind of rocks
that may be expected to underlie the Permian in the deeper parts of the Basin.
If, for example, the conclusion were reached that the Permian is underlain by
Kuttung and Lambian, deep drilling would be a hazardous venture ; but if the
Permian is underlain by Burindi and by Devonian and Silurian rocks such as
occur in the Yass district, deep drilling would be well worth while.
GREAT ARTESIAN BASIN.
Strictly speaking the Great Artesian Basin includes only the area of Mesozoic
rocks in which artesian water is found, but in discussing the oil prospects it is
usual to include the surrounding areas, if only for the reason that the opinion is
widely held that the oil and gas found in the Mesozoic rocks came from rocks of
the same age as those found in outcrop around its margin (Woolnough, 1931).
The search for oil and gas has so far been restricted to two objectives :
(a) testing the lower Mesozoic in the Artesian Basin area itself for gas and oil ;
(b) testing domes in the outcropping Triassic and Permian in the Springsure-
Rolleston area about 150 miles north of Roma. TI have little to add to what I
have said about this work in my earlier address. So far as Springsure-Rolleston
H
S18
H. G. RAGGATT.
is concerned, it is suggested that unless regional studies disclose some good
reason for drilling one of the other structures, it would appear preferable to
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Sydney Basin-Palaeogeography of Permian.
test further the Arcadia Dome. ‘The Arcadia bore yielded a large flow of eas.
It is true that much of the gas was carbon dioxide, but the presence of this gas
in large quantities is not unusual in oilfield regions, e.g. Montana and Mexico.
SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA. S19
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S20 H. G. RAGGATT.
The Arcadia Dome has not been geophysically surveyed. This should be done
and at least one other test well drilled before it can be said to have been adequately
tested.
Nothing has been done so far to investigate the pre-Mesozoic geology of
the western and south-western part of the Basin.
The Amadeus trough to the south of Alice Springs is 400 miles long and
150 miles wide. It contains sediments ranging in age from Upper Proterozoic to
Ordovician. The Proterozoic rocks include shale, limestone and dolomite.
The Cambrian which is upwards of 3,000 feet thick, consists of shale, limestone
and sandstone. The Ordovician is predominantly sandy. Its thickness has
been estimated at 6,000 feet; this is an overestimate, because allowance has
not been made for repetition by faulting.
These rocks may extend eastwards under the Mesozoic rocks of the Artesian
Basin. If so, in addition to their own potentialities for oil there may be surfaces
of unconformity overlain by marine sediments which should be investigated for
their oil possibilities. Obviously, this is a task which could be undertaken only
by government or by a company of wide experience and adequate financial
resources.
PAPUA NEW GUINEA.
Principal interest centres upon the test drilling by two companies: Island
Exploration Co., Pty., Ltd., and Australasian Petroleum Co. Pty., Ltd. Between
them these companies have spent nearly £12,000,000 on the search for oil in
Papua-New Guinea.
For some considerable time, and until recently, the activities of Australasian
Petroleum Co. Pty., Ltd., have been concentrated in the geological structure
known as the Aure trough. This is a deep depression named after the Aure
River, a tributary of the Purari. Drilling in the trough has disclosed a thickness
of at least 15,000 feet of Tertiary rocks, predominantly argillites of Miocene
age. It is highly probable that beneath the Tertiary there are considerable
thicknesses of Cretaceous, Jurassic and Permian rocks. Very deep drilling
would be required to test these rocks and it is not likely to be undertaken for a
long time.
Six holes, ranging in depth from 4,721 feet to 12,621 feet, were put down in
the Aure trough by Australasian Petroleum Co. Pty., Ltd. Not only were they
‘‘ dry holes ’’, but they failed to reveal suitable reservoir conditions. For this
reason the centre of interest has now moved to the country west of the trough
where the Miocene is in limestone facies.
Island Exploration Co. Pty., Ltd. has always been interested in this tract,
so that there are now two large companies drilling to test similar objectives.
Figure 6 illustrates what these objectives are: to locate and test structures
where the Miocene limestone and/or the Cretaceous are overlain by suitable
cover rocks.
Oil seepages are common in outcrops of the Cretaceous rocks on the flanks
of the Kubor range and the Miocene limestone has a high porosity. Argillaceous
rocks in the Pliocene should provide adequate cover? With the essential con-
ditions so well satisfied, a successful end to the search for oil in Papua is looked
for with considerable confidence.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.
Some of the information used in this paper has been supplied by officers
of the Bureau of Mineral Resources in response to personal inquiries. I am most
erateful for this assistance. My thanks are due to the Director, Acting Chief
Geologist and draftsmen of the Bureau and draftsmen in my own office for their
help in preparing illustrations and lantern slides,
SEARCH FOR OIL IN AUSTRALIA AND NEW GUINEA, $21
I also wish to thank the Australasian Institute of Mining and Metallurgy
for making available the block for Figure 4 and Australasian Petroleum Co.
and Island Exploration Co. for permission to use information on which Figure 6
is based.
REFERENCES.
Clapp, Frederick G., 1925. A Few Observations on the Geology and Geography of North
West and Desert Basins, W.A. Proc. Surv. Soc. N.S.W.,
50, 64.
—-—_______—_— 1926a. The Oil Problem in Western Australia. con. Ecol., 31, 421.
—-—________—— 1926b. Oil Prospects in the North-West Basins of Western Australia:
A.A.P.G., 10, 1148.
Clark, F. R., 1934. Origin and Accumulation of Oil. Problems of Petroleum Geology. A.A.P.G.,
309-335.
Cunningham, C. M., and Kleinpell, W. D., 1934. Importance of Unconformities to Oil Production
in the San Joaquin Valley, California. Problems of Petroleum Geology. A.A.P.G., 804-805.
Krampert, E. W., 1934. Geological Characteristics of Producing Oil and Gas Fields in Wyoming,
Colorado and North-western New Mexico. Problems of Petroleum Geology. A.A.P.G.,
732-733.
Levorsen, A. I., 1934. Relation of Oil and Gas Pools to Unconformities in the Mid-Continent
Region. Problems of Petroleum Geology. A.A.P.G., 771, 783-784.
Minor, H. E., 1925. Goose Creek Oilfield, Harris County, Texas. A.A.P.G., 9, 286-297.
Noakes, L. C., 1948. A Method of Determining Distribution of Oil in a Reservoir Rock by Means
of Ultra-violet Light. Turis JouRNAL, 81, 173, fig. 4.
N.S.W. Department of Mines, 1888. Annual Report, p. 145.
Raggatt, H. G., 1936. Geology of North-West Basin, Western Australia, with particular
reference to the Stratigraphy of the Permo-Carboniferous. THs
JOURNAL, 70, 100-174.
—-——______—_—— 1954. The Search for Oil in Australia and New Guinea. Aust. Inst. Min.
and Met., 172 (F.U.P.P.).
Raggatt, H. G., and Crespin, Irene, 1952. Geology of Tertiary Rocks Between Torquay and
Eastern View, Victoria. Aust. Journ. Sci., 14, No. 5, 143-147.
Rod, Emile, and Mayne, Wolf, 1954. Revision of Lower Cretaceous Stratigraphy of Venezuela.
A.A.P.G., 38, No. 2, 216-217, fig. 7.
Smith, P. V., 1954. Studies on Origin of Petroleum: Occurrence of Hydrocarbons in Recent
Sediments. A.A.P.G., 38, No. 3, 377-404.
Trask, P. D., 1934. Deposition of Organic Matter in Recent Sediments. Problems of Petroleum
Geology. A.A.P.G., 32.
Traves, D. M., 1954. Collenia frequens in Upper Proterozoic Rocks in the Northern Territory of
Australia. Proc. Surv. Soc. N.S.W., 79, 95-96.
Woolnough, W. G., 1931. Report on Tour of Inspection of Oilfields of the U.S.A. and Argentina
and on Oil Prospects in Australia. Parl. Paper, Commonwealth of Australia, 86.
OIL PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILISATION.
By PROFESSOR HUNTER.
The word ‘‘ lamp ”’ is derived from a Greek word meaning a torch. A torch
was the earliest source of artificial ight known to primitive man. The next
step in development must have been the utilisation of animal oils and fats in
some form of crude lamp. Archeological excavations have revealed that the
Egyptians and other ancient peoples used wick-fed lamps many thousands of
years ago, and until the beginning of the twentieth century, wick-fed lamps
remained the main source of artificial light.
By the middle of the nineteenth century the principal illuminant used in
lamps was sperm oil, obtained from the sperm whale.
In the late 1840’s the sperm whale fisheries of the world were seriously
declining. Sperm oil, due to declining production and constantly increasing
consumption, was becoming more and more expensive. Substitutes were being
sought. In France and Scotland lamp oil was being produced by the heating
and distilling of shale. In America the distillation of coal was employed for its
production.
On the 29th August, 1859, a Colonel Drake completed the drilling of a well
at Oil Creek, Pennsylvania, in the United States of America, and, after months
of wearisome effort, at a depth of 69 feet, he obtained petroleum, from which
lamp oil or kerosine could be prepared by a distilling process.
This petroleum was no new thing. It had a history of usefulness to man
running back into the mists of antiquity and long antedating the establishment
of the modern petroleum industry. Asphalt and bitumens were used as a
cement in building the walls of Babylon, and were an article of commerce among
the ancient Mexicans. Liquid petroleum, collected from springs, was used as a
medicine both internally and externally by many primitive peoples. Crude
petroleum was used as a lamp oil in Italy and China before the beginning of the
Christian era. Flares from burning gas and oil springs were strange and
impressive phenomena having a place in the religious rites of the ancient Persians,
Egyptians and Greeks, and formed the central mystery around which grew up
that strange sect, the fire-worshippers of Baku and Persia. At this time, in the
middle of the nineteenth century, the only question with regard to petroleum
as a suitable raw material from which to manufacture lamp oil was the all-
important one of quantity. This question was answered with an emphatic
affirmative by the developments which followed upon the completion of the
Drake well.
Within ten years from the bringing in of Drake’s well, which flowed at the
rate of 1,000 gallons a day, Pennsylvania was producing 80 million gallons of
crude oil a year. <A few years later kerosine was to be found in the remotest
parts of the world. :
By the year 1900 the use of coal gas and electricity had displaced much of
the demand for kerosine and brought a gloomy note into the young petroleum
industry. In 1900 the motor-car was still a curiosity ; the diesel engine was
in its infancy, and aeroplanes did not exist. Largely through foreign demand
and an increasing export trade the infant petroleum industry managed to survive
until the motor-car engine developed. The motor-car with its gargantuan
appetite for gasoline and lubricants, proved to be the greatest of all the economic
ee
OIL PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILISATION. $23
forces which have brought the petroleum industry to the prominent place it
occupies in the life of man today. It may well be said that while the petroleum
industry owes much of the galvanizing effect on its progress to the growth of the
internal combustion engine, the fact that the petroleum industry alone could
produce the necessary fuels and lubricants for this engine contributed in no small
part to making the motor-car and aeroplane possible.
In ninety-five years the petroleum industry has grown into the world’s
largest industry. From the first well producing five tons of oil a day, the
industry has expanded till it now produces one million tons a day of oil to supply
petrol for over 40 million motor vehicles, each of which consumes on an average
about 700 gallons of petrol a year. The industry also supplies the fuel for half
the ships of the world and all its aircraft. Today nearly half of the energy used
throughout the world is provided by petroleum. In America, 187 million
horse-power a year is generated from petroleum products for agricultural purposes
alone. All the lubricants which are required to keep the moving parts of every
machine in the world from seizing up now come from petroleum.
PRINCIPAL PETROLEUM PRODUCTS.
Petroleum always occurs in the earth along with large quantities of hydro-
carbon gases, known as natural gas. On reaching the surface the liquid crude
petroleum and this natural gas are separated.
The crude petroleum, which is a black sticky oil, must be refined. This is
done largely by the process of distillation. In this process the more volatile
components present in the crude petroleum are vapourized and condensed into
distillates. These distillates are then given a refining treatment with various
chemicals and redistilled to produce such things as petrol, kerosine, diesel oil,
lubricating oils and paraffin wax.
The residue from such a distillation process, which is not volatile enough
to be vapourized without decomposition, consists of black asphaltic matter and
coke. These residual products are utilised for such things as heavy fuel oils,
asphalt for road making and petroleum coke for making into carbon black, or
may be converted by high temperature treatment to more gasoline and petroleum
gases.
The principal products of petroleum and some of their uses are shown in
Table 1.
PETROLEUM PRODUCTS IN AUSTRALIA.
The petroleum products most largely consumed in Australia are motor and
aviation spirit, kerosine, gas oil, diesel oil and fuel oil. In the past, these
products, prepared and refined overseas, have been imported into Australia at a
cost of approximately £87 million per annum. In the last few years new
refineries have been built in Australia, and it is expected that these will be in full
production by 1956. This means that our imports of refined products will be
materially reduced, and that our imports of crude oil will, of course, be corres-
pondingly increased. It is expected that the demand for refined products in
1956 will actually be satisfied in a large part by the greatly expanding Australian
refinery facilities. The import pattern will, in consequence, be considerably
changed, and, with the new refineries in operation, the cost of petroleum imports
in 1956 should be approximately £60 million per annum, resulting in a saving of
some £27 million a year. An additional benefit from the erection of these
refineries will be that the dollar content of the oil bill will be reduced, as most of
the crude oil to be refined in Australia can be imported from sterling sources.
In Table 2 the expected output from Australian oil refineries has been
compared with the Australian consumption of petroleum products. It will be
seen from this table that some gasoline and kerosine will still have to be imported
S24 PROFESSOR HUNTER.
to satisfy demands. In the case of fuel oil, however, there will be a surplus of
some 850,000 tons per year over and above the present consumption. This fuel
oil will be residual fuel oil and can be used for industrial purposes.
TABLE |
Principal Petroleum Products and Their Uses.
Household and metallurgical fuel.
Chemicals.
Petroleum gases ae Carbon black.
Sulphur and sulphuric acid.
Fertilizers.
Motor fuel.
Gasoline .. ms oe Aviation fuel.
) Special engine fuel.
Industrial solvents.
Naphthas un aie Lacquer solvents.
] Paints.
Tractor fuel.
Domestic fuel.
Kerosine .. = ae Illuminant.
J Signal oil.
Diesel engine fuel.
Distillate fuel and gas oil >Furnace oil.
J Gas making.
Machinery lubricating.
Lubricating oil .. a Cosmetics.
Medicinal.
Electrical oils.
Containers and wrappers.
Paraffin wax ae Bt Candles.
Matches.
Polishes.
Road making.
Paints.
Coatings.
{else black.
Asphalt and bitumen
Coke Electrodes.
Fuel.
On the basis of 1 ton of black coal or 2-4 tons of brown coal being approxi-
mately equivalent to 0-73 tons of oil, the surplus of 850,000 tons of fuel is
equivalent to about 1-2 million tons of black coal or 2-8 million tons of brown
coal. This surplus could have a considerable effect on the Australian economy,
particularly on that of N.S.W., which is the State mainly producing black coal.
TABLE 2.
Expected Output from Australian Oil Refineries.
Expected Output | Consumption
Product. in Thousand in Thousand
Tons per annum.|Tons per annum.
Gasoline es a 2,281 2,492
Gas and diesel oil .. 1,188 1,075
Kerosine bs ee 220 458
Fuel oil we Bn 1,998 1,156
In 1953 the total consumption of N.S.W. black coal was 13-8 million tons.
If the surplus fuel oil equivalent to 1-2 million tons of black coal succeeds in
replacing N.S.W. black coal from the Australian market, it will mean a loss of
nearly 9% of N.S.W. trade in black coal.
OIL PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILISATION. S25
In Table 3 an estimate of the energy available to Australia is shown. It
will be seen from this that the total yearly energy available to us, calculated in
tons of black coal equivalents, is about 29 million tons. Just over 75% of this
is produced in Australia as black and brown coal, the remainder comes from
imported oil. The proportion of oil to coal used for energy purposes in Australia
has steadily risen since 1936, when 15-8°% of imported oil was employed, until
today, when this proportion is now 24:2% of oil. With the building of new oil
refineries in Australia it could be expected that this proportion could increase
considerably at the expense of the Australian coal industry.
TABLE 3.
Estimates of Energy Available to Australia.
(Thousand tons of black coal equivalents.)
Black Brown Total
Year. Coal. Coal. Coal. Oil. Electricity. Gas. Total.
1936-37 .. 11,724 1,296 13,020 2,452 37 28 15,537
1937-38 .. 11,880 1,500 13,380 2,616 40 29 16,065
1938-39 .. 12,612 1,332 13,944 2,822 43 30 16,839
1946-47 .. 14,136 2,448 16,584 3,627 70 46 20,327
1947-48 .. 14,772 2,676 17,448 4,553 77 50 22,128
1948-49 .. 14,928 2,928 17,856 5,358 84 51 23,349
1949-50 .. 14,916 3,180 18,096 6,078 88 48 24,310
1950-51 .. 16,428 3,036 19,464 6,956 97 51 26,568
1951-52 .. 19,176 3,372 22,548 7,562 105. 56 30,271
1952-53 .. 18,552 3,372 21,924 7,054 114 57 29,149
The four major uses for black coal in Australia are for metallurgical purposes
(particularly steel making), for gas making, electricity generation, and as a fuel
for railway locomotives. It is interesting to examine the possibility of these
uses for coal in the light of their possible replacement by oil.
Coal is an absolute essential for steel making and cannot be replaced by oil
in this regard, so that this market should expand with expanding steel making
capacity.
The Australian Gas Light Company of Sydney, the largest producer of town
gas in Australia, has recently signed an agreement under which half of its 1956
production of gas will be derived from oil, and it is believed that another project
is under discussion which will increase this proportion to about two-thirds.
In Victoria the Gas and Fuel Corporation is considering taking some 30°% of its
gas requirements from an oil refinery close to Melbourne. It would therefore
appear that in the future coal for gas making purposes is going to be considerably
displaced by oil.
In the field of electricity generation, there is no immediate indication that
coal will be displaced by oil, but some of the 850,000 tons per annum surplus
fuel oil from the new oil refineries could find its way into this field. At the
same time, in Australia developmental work on the utilisation of atomic energy
for electricity generation is being given serious consideration, and while atomic
power stations are not likely to displace existing coal burning power stations,
there is a strong, if remote, future possibility that some of the new electricity
generating plants may operate on atomic energy.
It is significant to note that the railway systems in the three south-eastern
States of Australia have over 230 oil burning steam locomotives in use at present.
In addition, the use of a diesel electric locomotive is about 45° cheaper than
that of a coal fired steam locomotive, while the first cost of such an engine is only
I
- $26 PROFESSOR HUNTER.
about 25% more than that of a coal fired locomotive. Already 70 diesel electric
locomotives are in operation in Australia, and further conversion to this form of
traction will undoubtedly occur in the future. The use of oil for railway
operations could therefore displace substantial quantities of coal. In this
connection, too, should be mentioned some interesting costs which have been
calculated in the United States on the operation of an atomic powered locomotive.
An approximate estimate suggests that the first cost of an atomic locomotive
will be twice that of a diesel and 24 times that of a coal fired locomotive. The
fuel for atomic powered locomotion would be uranium-235 or plutonium. The
price of these materials is secret, but the U.S. calculations have shown that an
atomic locomotive would be competitive with a diesel electric even if the price
of such fuel was £6,000 per pound against diesel fuel at about 1/- per gallon.
It is conceivable, therefore, that atomic power could in the future become a
competitor with both oil and coal for railway use.
PETROLEUM AS A RAW MATERIAL.
The most significant development in the petroleum industry during the
last ten years, however, has come from its use aS a raw material for the
manufacture of chemicals, plastics, pesticides, surface coatings, fertilizers,
explosives, synthetic fibres, synthetic rubber and detergents.
Synthetic Rubber.
For two decades synthetic rubber was an unrealized chemists’ dream.
With the loss of Indonesia and Malaya by the Allies in World War II, the U.S.A.
in just two years increased her synthetic rubber production from 8,000 to 800,000
tons. This latter figure was almost equal to the maximum world consumption
of natural rubber in any previous year. During the post-war years, aS more
natural rubber became available, synthetic production declined to 400,000
tons. Five major types of synthetic rubber are now produced, and consumption
has steadily risen to 500,000 tons in 1951, to over one million tons a year in 1952,
while today the world is producing 1-5 million tons a year of synthetic rubber
from petroleum as a raw material compared to a production of 1-7 million tons
a year of natural rubber. So that we can say that nearly 50% of world rubber
requirements is now produced from petroleum.
Fertilizers.
Ammonia and its derivatives, particularly ammonium sulphate and nitrate,
are important fertilizers. Ammonium nitrate is also used for explosive and
munitions manufacture.
Today these materials are largely synthesized from atmospheric nitrogen by
its reaction with hydrogen, obtained from steam and coke or from steam and
natural gas.
In the U.S.A. nearly 75°% of all synthetic nitrogen production is derived
from natural gas. In Australia, our most important fertilizer is superphosphate,
made from imported sulphur and imported rock phosphate. Natural gas
usually contains hydrogen sulphide. This can be converted to sulphuric acid,
which in turn could react with rock phosphate to give superphosphate. Hence,
natural gas could help supply Australia’s fertilizer requirements and free our
national economy’s complete reliance upon American sulphur, if such gas
contained fair quantities of hydrogen sulphide.
Synthetic Fibres.
In the U.S.A. three out of every four pounds of wool consumed are imported,
so that a great incentive has always existed in that country to produce a wool
substitute from indigenous raw materials. This has resulted in the recent
OIL PRODUCTS AND THEIR UTILISATION. S27
formation and rapid growth of a synthetic fibre industry founded on natural gas
and petroleum as the basic raw materials.
U.S. consumption of synthetic fibres is 556 million pounds a year, compared
to 495 million pounds a year of wool. As six square yards of cloth are produced
from one pound of synthetic fibres, against two and a half square yards from a
pound of wool, more synthetic cloth is produced in the U.S.A. than woollen
cloth.
Total sales of synthetic fibres in the U.S.A. are in excess of £500 million
per year. Capital investments in plant are in the region of £500 million. Raw
material purchases are over £200 million per year, with an annual payroll of
£100 million. |
Plastics and Paints
Synthetic plastics, resins and surface coatings in paints produced from
petroleum as a raw material now total over 150 million pounds a year in the
U.S.A. alone, which is greater than the present rate of production of all other
plastics.
Synthetic Pesticides.
In this modern age the farmer treats his crops with chemicals through all
stages from planting to harvesting. In the U.S.A. over 1,000 million pounds
a year of chemical pesticides are produced, of which 50% are derived from sulphur
and 30% from petroleum.
Synthetic Soaps.
In no chemical field has development been so spectacular and rapid as in
that of synthetic detergents—the so-called synthetic soaps or syndets. Such
materials of exceptional wetting, and excellent draining and dispersing power
have led in turn to the introduction and development of mechanical dish-
washing and home laundering machines.
In 1940 the U.S.A. produced 30 million pounds of syndets, which today
has increased to 2,000 million pounds, 65 °% of which is produced from petroleum.
All this is a symbol of things to come. Gigantic plants are already producing
rivers of chemicals, fibres, plastics and rubber from petroleum.
This is changing the economy of whole countries and will profoundly
influence world affairs in the future.
In these previous remarks I have tried to indicate briefly something of the
history and industrial significance of petroleum products. In order to assess
the real value of a petroleum industry and its products to Australia, however,
let us first compare the industrial potential of this continent with that of a highly
industrialized community—the U.S.A.
THE INDUSTRIAL POWER OF THE U.S.A.
The U.S.A., with 6-5% of the world’s population, using 61° of the world’s
petroleum production and 45% of the world’s mineral production, produces 50%
of the world’s industrial output. It is no accident that has raised the U.S. to
the position of the world’s leading industrial nation. It is due to an abundance
of raw materials and resources vigorously developed and exploited.
Seventy-five years ago about 35 metallic and non-metallic minerals satisfied
the needs of an industrial community. Today nearly 100 such minerals are
required, of which about 40 are of major significance. In 20 of these 40 minerals
the U.S.A. is over 50% self supporting, and in addition possesses important
deposits in 30 more.
On the agricultural side, abundant rainfall and high soil fertility ensures
adequate supplies of grain, dairy products, meat, fruit, vegetables and natural
S28 PROFESSOR HUNTER.
oils. This in turn has led to the development of large industries based on the
processing of these commodities. Vast forests, grown as crops, together with a
huge production of cotton, gives plentiful supplies of cellulose to support paper,
board, cotton and rayon industries.
Enormous deposits of coal, anthracite and shale ensure the U.S.A. sufficient
supplies of energy for at least 1,500 years at the present rate of consumption.
With 65% of the world’s known reserves of petroleum and natural gas, the
U.S.A. has until recently been self-supporting in respect of diesel oil, petrol,
fuel oil and lubricants. For the first time in nearly 100 years, however, the
consumption of petroleum is tending to become greater than the rate of pro-
duction.
The rapid growth of cities, industry and agriculture in America has required
large water resources which are available.
Two of America’s most important deficiencies of raw materials are rubber
and wool. The lack of these, at one time serious, has now been overcome by
the manufacture of synthetic rubber and synthetic fibres from indigenous
petroleum.
The overall picture, then, is that of a country with large natural resources,
good rail, road, water and air transportation facilities, adequate manpower and
large markets all combining to make a highly industrialized community with a
high standard of living.
THE INDUSTRIAL POTENTIAL OF AUSTRALIA.
Australian mineral resources are poor. Our only extensive deposits of
metallic minerals are lead, zinc, gold, silver and possibly aluminium. Iron ore is
high in quality but low in quantity, with estimated reserves of 250 million tons
compared to 10,000 million tons in the U.S.A. Partially deficient in copper and
tin, we are unfortunately wholly deficient in phosphorus and sulphur, upon
which the whole agricultural economy of the country depends. Australia’s
only extensive non-metallic mineral deposit is coal, with a reserve estimated
at 35,000 million tons, sufficient to last us, at our present rate of consumption,
for over 1,500 years.
On the agricultural side, inadequate rainfall with a bad seasonal and
geographical distribution combined with a low overall soil fertility result in
severe limitations on agricultural productivity. Compared with the U.S.A.,
with the same land area, Australia has only 400,000 square miles capable of
producing crops, against 1,600,000 square miles in America. No vast forests,
cotton or rubber crops are available to provide raw materials for large cellulose
and rubber industries.
Huge land areas with low rainfall and high evaporation rates mean a
deficiency of water resources for both industry and agriculture.
An antiquated rail transport system, poor roads with long distances between
settled areas, inadequate manpower and small markets complete a picture of a
community unlikely to become highly industrialized.
The discovery of extensive petroleum deposits in Australia could considerably
improve our industrial potential and further improve our standards of living.
Large discoveries of petroleum could wipe out our £60 million a year bill for
imported petroleum products and might even give us a new export trade in
these commodities. In addition, such discoveries could create new indigenous
industries in fertilizers, plastics, surface coatings, fibres, pesticides, explosives,
and rubber by providing the necessary raw materials.
Large immediate expansion of such industries and of a parent petroleum
industry should not be expected because of our small capital resources and
small markets.
PETROLEUM CHEMICALS.
By R. F. CANE, D.Sc., F.A.C.1.
INTRODUCTION.
William Bell, of American Cyanamid, once said that in his opinion the
most useful and beautiful piece of research that any scientific organization
could possibly undertake would be to work out some formula by which one
places in a test tube a bright idea, together with so many units of labour, so
much raw material, so many units of selling cost and so much of market price
and popular favour, the solution shaken with government interference and
taxation acid added, then the whole boiled for five minutes. If the contents
turn green, the project should be proceeded with forthwith—if red, immediately
abandoned, and if white, deferred until later.
Of all industries, it is felt that this formula would command the greatest
price in petrochemicals manufacture, for, although this scion of the petroleum
family has grown from birth to lusty adolescence in a brief 35 years, it has
suffered its share of growing pains, and from the annoying habit of the test
solution showing all three colours at the same time, alternatively mixed to a
dull, muddy grey.
PETROCHEMICALS.
It is first necessary to define what is meant by the term petroleum chemical—
or ‘‘ petrochemicals ’’.
One journal has defined a petrochemical as a ‘‘ chemical compound or
element recovered from petroleum or natural gas, or derived in whole or part
from petroleum or natural gas hydrocarbon and intended for chemical markets ”’.
This definition excludes mixed hydrocarbons used for other than chemicals, and
excludes a single hydrocarbon such as butane or iso-octane used as fuel. The
meaning of the term is by no means crystallized and at least three organizations
in the U.S. are studying a suitable definition of the term petrochemical.
Although many people have expressed disapproval of this pseudo-technical
word, some refusing to use it altogether, it is here to stay and to save even further
confusion among the semanticists I shall use it without apology.
In the beginning, it is well to realize that petrochemical manufacture cannot
be segregated from other fields and placed in a distinct category. It merges
with and overlaps the rubber, textile, oil and other industries, as well as being
more or less dependent upon them for both the raw material and consumption
of product. Many of its processes are not new, but have been borrowed from
those used for many years in the coal and oil field, although perhaps the scale of
operations is often larger in petrochemicals. This large scale of operation and
the high capital costs of plant make the petrochemical industry particularly
vulnerable to new discoveries and to fluctuations in markets.
This fact, to a more or less extent, is being felt in some quarters now, where
too many producers, anxious to take the cream off the market, have caused an
over-supply of certain products. New discoveries can also have far-reaching
consequences, rendering obsolete more or less overnight a particular process or
S30 R. F. CANE.
product. The general impression gained overseas this year was that the petro-
chemical industry, having passed the teething stage, and finding the road to
success no easier or harder than any other industry, was now taking stock of
itself whilst settling down to steady growth.
Organic chemicals manufacture has always been closely associated with the
production of fuel, aromatic chemistry had its genesis in the by-products of coal,
while aliphatics probably largely arose from a study of combustion itself.
The gigantic tonnage of raw materials used in the manufacture of liquid
fuel for power and locomotion has, in turn, meant that large quantities of
relatively cheap hydrocarbons have become available as by-products of the
petroleum industry, and these are replacing vegetation as a source of raw material
for chemicals.
This change from the use of vegetation to petroleum for chemical raw
material has been brought about by two factors, firstly, the cheap cost of the
hydrocarbons ; secondly, the necessity to reserve crop area for the growing of
food, itself a source of human energy. Had this change not occurred, serious
inroads would have been made into the world’s food to supply the present
requirements of organic chemicals for industry.
To give two examples of this: If the U.S. production of methyl alcohol
still depended on the distillation of wood, as it did thirty years ago, and not
largely on natural or water gas, then an area equivalent to 4% of their total
forest land would have to be reserved permanently for the growing of timber to
supply their present demands for methanol.
To supply the present world demand for ethylene by making it, not from
natural gas but by the older process of the dehydration of fermentation alcohol
from sugar, would immediately deprive one-eighth of the world’s population of
their sugar, excluding molasses.
DISTRIBUTION.
On a world-wide basis petrochemical production may be divided into two
groups with respect to the occurrence of natural gas: (1) the countries which
have it, (2) the ‘‘ have-nots ’’. As an illustration of the ‘“‘ have ’’ countries,
the obvious example is the United States, where the production of natural gas
for heating and chemical use in 1952 was eight billion cubic feet. This amount
is hard to imagine, but when it is expressed as 53 cubic miles one gets an idea of
the enormous volumes which are used. Not only about one and a half million
tons of ammonia, one million tons of carbon black and 300,000 tons of sulphur
were derived from natural gas last year in the U.S., but today something like a
quarter of the entire United States chemical industry is based on petrochemicals,
and in another decade it may contribute one-half.
England and Australia, on the other hand, would represent the ‘‘ have-nots ”’
and in the U.K. ethylene, butadiene, carbon black, glycol, etc., have to be made
from gases obtained by cracking imported oils, while ammonia is still largely
dependent on water-gas from coke.
Let us now look briefly into how these chemicals are produced and what
sort of forward picture can be envisaged for Australia. Natural gas, that great
storehouse of raw materials for petrochemicals in the U.S., is somewhat variable
in make-up, but consists always predominantly of methane, with smaller amounts
of ethane and higher hydrocarbons, together with hydrogen sulphide, nitrogen
and sometimes helium. The constituents of natural gas are chemically unreactive
and therefore are of little use, as such, in chemicals manufacture, except as
raw material for such chemically simple structures as ammonia, for which it
produces the hydrogen, methanol and carbon black. Methane is now becoming
a possible source of acetylene by the Sachsse partial combustion process.
PETROLEUM CHEMICALS. 831
AMMONIA.
Both ammonia and methanol production depend on the decomposition
of natural gas or hydrocarbon mixtures from refineries and is accomplished by
one of two methods: either natural gas is burnt in a limited supply of nearly
pure oxygen to give hydrogen and carbon monoxide, the monoxide removed
or converted and then nitrogen added to give the required three times
hydrogen : nitrogen ratio, or the gas and steam are reacted together with air to
give the ammonia synthesis gas. In either case practice then follows con-
ventional ammonia production, where the synthesis gas is passed over an iron
containing catalyst at temperatures up to 1000°F. and pressures between
3,000-15,000 p.s.i.
If nitrogen is not added, the gas can be used directly for methanol pro-
duction or as a feed to a Fischer-Tropsch synthesis. Very large ammonia
plants are operating overseas, using one or other of the above processes and
production is as large as 350 tons a day for a single plant, compared with the
10 tons a day for the average plant in Australia.
Increasing amounts of ammonia are being used for direct injection into the
soil rather than present Australian practice of using ammonium sulphate as a
source of nitrogen. Cyanides are also made petrochemically by reacting
ammonia, natural gas and air over a platinum catalyst.
Because of the high pressures used, ammonia plants are not cheap, a reason-
ably sized plant, say of 75 tons per day, might cost five million.
CARBON BLACK.
Carbon black is also made in large quantities from natural gas by burning
it in a limited air supply so as to produce a sooty flame, or by cracking the hydro-
carbon so as to form free carbon of the correct physical properties.
In places where suitable gas is not available, as in England, and would be
here, carbon black is made from a high aromatic oil, either natural or obtained
from the cycle stock from catalytic cracking.
The minimum sized plant that it pays to operate lies between 20 and 25
million pounds per year, and this is about the same size as the total Australian
market.
The only other material which I should like to mention among what might
be called non-conversion products, i.e. products not made by converting one
hydrocarbon to another, either as an end-product or an intermediate, is sulphur
and sulphuric acid.
SULPHUR.
Today approximately half a million tons per year of sulphur in the Western
world is produced from hydrogen sulphide, either from natural gas or refinery
gases. The sulphur so produced is extremely pure and can demand premium
price for certain operations.
In cases where the potential sulphur make is not quite large enough to
justify sulphur production, or there is a demand for sulphuric acid for fertilizers,
hydrogen sulphide can be converted directly to sulphuric acid.
Before we go on to the more complicated picture of what might be termed
conversion products, that is hydrocarbon to hydrocarbon to chemical, consider
how petrochemical ammonia, carbon black and sulphur fit into the Australian
picture.
With the exception of the war years, Australia has been importing ammonia
in the form of sulphate since 1929. Now, with a 55,000 tons per year
ammonium sulphate plant due for completion this year at Risdon in Tasmania,
and possible future sulphate from Mt. Morgan, there is a possibility that Australia
832 R. F. CANE.
may have an exportable surplus of ammonium sulphate, as she did after the
1914-1918 war, when her product had, of necessity, to sell overseas in severe
competition with foreign material.
It is thought possible that ammonia will be made in Australia, using refinery
gases aS araw material. If this happens it is felt there will be severe competition
for the home market, because the petrochemical product can be made at a very
much less cost than ammonia derived from coke and steam. If one of the major
oil companies decides to erect a reasonably sized plant it may be then
uneconomical to operate one or more of the small plants now making sulphate.
With regard to carbon black, as mentioned earlier, the Australian market
is about the same size as the minimum economic plant, and unless the present
purchasing agreements of the rubber companies for carbon black are altered,
the demand for a fraction of this total would not be sufficient to justify the
capital outlay and allow economic operation. In my opinion, one can write
‘‘not probable ’”’ against carbon black.
On the other hand, it is thought likely that, later on, one or more of the
refineries now being constructed will recover the sulphur from their gases. The
refinery now being erected at Kwinana in W.A. has a crude design capacity of
three million tons a year, and this represents something like 50,000 tons per year
of sulphur. Of course, only a small proportion of this eventually ends up as
hydrogen sulphide, but plants handling as little as 4,000 tons per year have been
found to be economically sound. With the increasing application of catalytic
reforming and desulphurizing in which all sulphur is removed as hydrogen
sulphide, sulphur recovery is becoming increasingly important. In the U.S.
about 5°% of their total production of six million tons is coming from petroleum
and natural gas.
HYDROCARBONS.
Having now dismissed some billion dollars of industry, we return to what
can be and is done today with what might be termed conversion products.
Although the paraffins, methane, ethane, propane, butane, etc., are not reactive
themselves, they can, by means of high temperature decomposition or cracking
be converted into the corresponding or lower olefin, which is a reactive com-
pound, suitable for chemical manipulation. These olefins are also present in
refinery gases, some in coke oven gas and in oil-gas.
Obviously methane cannot be changed into its corresponding olefin, but
quite spectacular results are being obtained by the partial decomposition of
methane in oxygen—the so-called Sachsse method for acetylene. In the Sachsse
method, methane and oxygen are preheated separately in a special burner
and then injected with a high velocity into a combustion chamber, then the gases
are quenched or cooled in the matter of two or three thousandths of a second.
The raw gas from such operations contains about 10% of acetylene and this can
be removed by selective solvents. The residual gas, consisting of hydrogen and
carbon monoxide, is used for ammonia production, the nitrogen being obtained
by either of the methods mentioned above.
Three such plants are in operation in the States, and more than this in
Europe. The disadvantage of this process is the need for an oxygen plant.
Other methods are available for conversion of paraffins to acetylene but
none, apart from the Sachsse method, has become commercially important yet.
ETHYLENE.
Normally ethylene is made from propane or ethane or mixtures of these,
and less often today recovered from refinery gases, for unless ethylene is present
in very large volumes of gas in sufficiently high concentration and without
other complications, it is usually cheaper to make it, at about 20% to 30%
PETROLEUM CHEMICALS. $33
concentration, in a plant designed for this purpose, and then separate it, than
to separate it directly from refinery gases containing 5% to 15% ethylene,
even though these gases may be considered in some ways as waste products of
no commercial value.
Here again we meet the very large scale at which these plants have to
operate to make them economically attractive. The smallest ethylene plant
that it pays to build and operate overseas is, in round figures, 10,000 tons a year.
It is relatively easy to make such ethylene and separate it from heavier gases,
but it is a problem of separating ethane and ethylene from the lighter con-
stituents, hydrogen and methane, and purifying the ethylene so produced,
that demands very large capital outlay and considerable research into technique.
A plant to produce 10,000 tons annually of ethylene might cost half a
million pounds, but the plant to purify it after production might cost four to
five million pounds, for here one is dealing with not only high pressure, but
with technique of handling gases at quite low temperature and separating con-
stituents boiling fairly closely together. This high capital cost is reflected in
the need for high throughput. One set of figures taken out in 1951 for cracking
propane at 4c./Ib. to ethylene show that at 10m. lb./yr. cost of manufacture
was 7¢./lb., at 30m. l1b./yr. cost of manufacture was 5c./lb., and only at
60 m. lb./yr. does the cost of manufacture approach 4 ¢./lb., the cost of the raw
material.
About one million tons of ethylene is made annually in America as a raw
material for the manufacture of styrene for alcohol, ethylene oxide, glycol,
acrylonitrile and a host of other minor products, while the U.S. demand for
ethylene is expected to increase to 4000 m. lb. by 1960.
Before mentioning how some of these products are made, let us first see
what sort of future they have here. The position in Australia is quite different
from that in America, for there are no known resources of natural gas nor
proven oilfields to serve as feed for the ethylene plant, the population and conse-
quently the market for ethylene derivatives is very much smaller ; the climate is
much milder and the use of glycol anti-freeze, the oldest and most important
petrochemical except alcohols, is negligible. Glycol itself absorbs over 60%
of a total annual production of 600 m. lb. of ethylene oxide, 75% of the glycol
being used directly as an anti-freeze. Also in Australia there is no large volume
use of synthetic rubber, alcohol and benzene are cheap and readily available
here, there is no need to make them specially. There is no large urban problem
of hard waters necessitating domestic synthetic detergents.
At the moment there seems little chance of synthetic alcohol competing
with the fermentation product and even today, some million gallons a year of
alcohol are blended into automotive gasoline in Queensland and burnt to carbon
dioxide and water; and, unless there were sudden and drastic changes in the
sugar industry it would appear that fermentation alcohol would have to become
very much dearer for the synthetic product to compete. At the moment the
reverse reaction appears a cheaper source of ethylene, that is the dehydration of
alcohol to make ethylene, compared with the hydration of ethylene to make
synthetic alcohol.
With regard to styrene, it seems that a case might be made for the production
of the monomer, all of which is now being imported for the polymerization plant
of Monsanto in Victoria. Styrene demands two raw materials, ethylene and
benzene. Benzene is available and cheap compared with overseas prices, and
ethylene could be made available either by the dehydration of alcohol or from
petroleum sources.
The greatest use of styrene, of course, is in synthetic rubber, and today
synthetic rubber is the greatest end-product of all petrochemical operations in
S34 R. F. CANE.
the U.S., consuming annually about one and a half million tons of hydrocarbon
and, not only does the synthetic rubber industry consume over 20° of all petro-
chemical production, but it, per se, represents the largest manufacturer. So far,
Australia has not been a large consumer of synthetic rubber, and unless there are
changes in the availability of the natural product, or a new type of rubber is
discovered with vastly superior properties, it is thought that synthetic rubber
production at our scale of consumption is most unlikely for some time.
This being so, one is left with glycol, polyethylene and styrene, and perhaps
polyvinyl chloride, as large ethylene consumers. Because of our mild climate
we are not forced to use automotive anti-freeze, and this immediately takes the
core out of the reasons for glycol production. This lack of demand for glycol
and the high Australian chlorine cost renders prohibitive other products based
on ethylene chlorhydrin. At the moment the Australian market for polyethylene
has not been fully developed and polyvinyl chloride is based on acetylene.
This leaves some five to six thousand tons of consumptive capacity for
ethylene, which is far below the minimum scale mentioned earlier, and unless
some rich source or cheaper method is found to purify the product to the purity
required by most petrochemicals, that is from 95% to nearly 100% purity, it
is seen that the immediate future in Australia for ethylene-derived-from-
petroleum is rather dismal. In five or ten years time, perhaps, when the demand
for polyethylene has increased and, as seems likely, new and improved methods
of generation, purification and manufacture of end-product have come about,
then ethylene manufacture does seem likely in this country.
As mentioned earlier, the cost of ethylene is predicated by two facts : (1) the
relatively high energy consumption per ton of product, it consuming something
like 700 times per unit quantity the amount of energy as does a normal refinery,
and (2) the high capital cost of plant to handle such ethylene when produced,
and thus the necessity for large throughputs.
In the U.S., with its great refinery capacity and ample natural gas and
markets, ethylene is usually made by cracking ethane or propane at low pressures
at 700-800° C.
In England and Europe the process has been to crack naphtha or gas oil,
and in a few places ethylene is extracted from coke oven gas by low temperature
distillation.
Ethane may appear the most attractive raw material because, by simple
dehydrogenation, only ethylene and hydrogen are obtained, and by-product
formation can be kept low. However, ethane requires much higher cracking
temperatures than does propane, and cost of transportation of the raw material
is prohibitive ; accordingly ethane cracking is confined to places where ethane
is found. Propane is easily liquefied and transported ; it requires less drastic
temperatures for cracking, but, as it can decompose in several ways, the yields
are not as high as with ethane.
In the case of naphtha and gas oil, yields are even lower and there is appreci-
able formation of by-products which are highly aromatic in nature and are
unsatisfactory for recycling, but they can serve as chemical intermediates or,
at worst, as fuel. Which ever way ethylene is made the raw gas is purified by
either straight low temperature distillation or a combination of this and oil
absorption. Mention should be made of the enormous quantities of ethylene
made at Hills by hydrogenation of acetylene from methane from coal hydro-
genation gases.
Ethylene is undoubtedly the main building block of the petrochemical
industry and occupies first or second place among all the large volume organic
chemical intermediates. Figures could be given showing the phenomenal |
growth of ethylene derivatives, such as polyethylene, ethylene dichloride, ethyl
PETROLEUM CHEMICALS. $35
chloride and polystyrene ; for instance, polystyrene production has increased
sevenfold over the last seven years, and its production is now about 400 m. Ib.
per yr. in the U.S. ; polyethylene has soared to astronomical heights in a matter
of a few years, and is expected to be the first plastic to reach 1,000 m. lb. annually.
Synthetic alcohol is fast replacing the natural product. And, in all, some
2,300 m. lb. of ethylene were used in chemicals’ manufacture in the U.S. last year.
But quoting statistics in the chemical industry is always a dangerous game: a
compound can be counted twice in cases where one organization sells a semi-
refined product to another for final purification, and in the extreme the same atom
can be counted many times in various stages of chemical manipulation. Never-
theless, as someone has said, ‘‘ a statistician is a specialist who draws a straight
line from an unwarranted assumption to a foregone conclusion ’”’ ; we can rest
assured that the conclusion here is that the production of ethylene will increase
and it will continue to be the mainstay of the petrochemical industry.
About one-third of the production of ethylene is converted to ethylene oxide,
and from the oxide to glycol and other materials. More than a quarter of the
ethylene ends up as alcohol and about one-tenth in styrene and ethyl chloride.
Other miscellaneous products aggregate about one-quarter.
Propylene is usually obtained direct from refineries, especially those with a
catalytic cracker, or from the ‘‘ heavies ’’ from an ethylene plant. Propylene
separation is easy and presents no practical difficulties, for most petrochemical
operations can tolerate the propane with which it is mixed. The dominating
outlet for propylene is hydration to isopropyl alcohol, thence to acetone, methyl
isobutyl ketone and the methacrylates, while a fast-growing demand exists for
the tetramer for alkylation with benzene to give Alkane, the base of detergents
such as Surf and Tide. The latest use for it is to make cumene as an inter-
mediate for phenol.
Butenes are used predominantly for synthetic rubber, for which they are
dehydrogenated to butadiene.
Again reverting to the Australian picture, it seems likely that one or other
of the cracking plants now being erected will produce enough propylene to justify
the manufacture of isopropyl alcohol and acetone, etc., and perhaps tetramer,
but of course the economics of running a series of small diverse plants are not as
favourable as one large unit producing a single product, and for this an overseas
market would have to be found—the final decision rests with the oil companies.
Catalytic reforming will potentially double our supply of benzene but, as
Australia is already disposing of over half the present output as automotive fuel,
the picture will be little altered. Toluene and toluene-containing solvents,
which have been short for some time, should become readily available, and there
will exist a potential supply of xylenes for the production of phthalic anhydride
and terephalic acid should the need arise.
As an overall picture, it seems that Australia, for the time being, will not
See a rapid growth of petroleum chemicals production such as has happened in
the last ten years in the U.S., and this is simply because sufficient market does
not exist here and our Pacific neighbours, although many in numbers, have not
the per capita demand as has the Western world. What I feel will happen is
that certain spearheads will be thrust into this absorbing field and then, as our
population and demand increases, the flanks will be brought into action.
The petrochemical industry, whether as a whole or some particular facet,
by reason of its phenomenal growth, has had a particular allure for the individual,
group or company, and this has, to a certain extent, been fostered by the popular
technical press. However, there is no doubt that petrochemicals are no easy
road to large profits or early retiring age. Many people are included to draw
loose comparisons between the petroleum refinery and the petrochemical plant,
S36 R. F. CANE.
and although this may be so as regards pretty photographs, to a large extent
the resemblance ends there.
The average petrochemical installation is about one-tenth the size of the
average refinery, and consequently its investment cost per unit of product is
three to four times as great. Figures taken out by the Chase National Bank in
New York show the average investment cost in refineries is about 125 dollars
per daily gallon, whereas in the petrochemical industry it is greater than 400
dollars. Service requirements are also much greater than in refineries, ranging
from 10 to 100 times. There is also the problem of transportation of finished
product which is usually more difficult than pumping gasoline or transporting
it in rail cars.
Nevertheless, while this field is indeed a fertile area for the properly trained
and equipped, entry into it must be made slowly and with caution. The large
capital investment, rapid obsolescence of plant and possibly product, high
energy and service ‘requirements and the large sums which should be ploughed
back into research and development to maintain a competitive position in this
rapidly changing picture are a few of the obstacles in the petroleum chemicals
race and even though a synthesis may look extremely attractive on paper, the
scaling-up of this a millionfold may be quite another story.
THE ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF AN OIL INDUSTRY ON THE
AUSTRALIAN ECONOMY.
By PROFESSOR C. RENWICK.
Any examination of the economic effects of an oil industry on the Australian
economy must start with a review of the state of the economy at the moment.
In the last year or so Australia has shown considerable stability in its general
economic conditions, with retail and wholesale prices remaining fairly stable
and with an increase in national income of 5%. This means that there was a
real gain in terms of goods and services for consumption in the economy. Total
wages and salaries rose by about 7°, business and professional income by about
6%, and overall there was a personal consumption expenditure which was 10%
greater than in the financial year of 1952--1953.
These figures show, then, a healthy stability in the economy in which a
wide range of industries held production at a high level. Output from the iron
and steel, coal, copper and zinc industries approached or passed previous figures,
and there was a big increase in the manufacture of many domestic articles.
This was reflected in a considerable increase in the volume of retail trade:
Markets widened, too, but our exports fell in money value even though they
remained at a relatively high figure. I think we can sum up the period in the
words of the Federal Treasurer: ‘‘ 1953-1954 was a period of stable and wide-
Spread prosperity ; perhaps never before in our history have we had a year to
equal it.”’
The prospects for the economy depend upon several factors—firstly on the
Stabilization of this high level of production and consumption ; secondly, on
the degree of national and private development ; and thirdly, on economic and
business conditions abroad.
Taking up the last of these first, it is an interesting fact that, despite an
economic decline in the United States, the prosperity of the rest of the world
has been maintained, giving the lie to the remarks that: ‘‘ When America
sneezes, the rest of the world catches pneumonia ’’. For more than a year
America has shown signs of economic malady, in fact has been sneezing vigorously,
but so far the rest of the world has failed to give, by and large, so much as a
polite cough. Industrial output in the United States is down by 10% on her
high level of a year ago, but an industrial boom continues in Western Europe.
One reason for the survival of prosperity in the rest of the world in the face
of the American recession is the degree to which America has cut herself off from
world trade. The flow of dollars is now drying up in some respects, but continues
for armament and development of ‘‘ backward areas ’”’. Another reason is that
big business in America, in such fields as steel and oil, is now determining its
own price stability. The American industrial structure is such that giant firms
dominate the various heavy industries, and these giant firms restrict output
and stabilize prices in order to conserve their position. If we take the case of
the production of oil, for.example, the surplus that could have developed has
been controlled by cuts in the production of crude oil both at the government
level, in the case of the Texas Railroad Commission, and by a voluntary cut of
refinery output by big companies themselves. In this way they have prevented
S38 PROFESSOR C. RENWICK.
the appearance of embarrassing surplus stocks. These cuts are cushions against
over-production following on over-investment, and are stabilizing in some
degree the American economy.
I have said a good deal about the case of America because she is regarded
as one of the determining factors in world economic progress, being the most
substantial and diversified industrial producer and consumer. So far we have
not caught cold from America, but the germs are in the air all the time ; should
our resistance be lowered, then the Australian economy will be seriously affected.
At this stage, then, we should look at the health of our economy with a
view to discovering what signs of stress are apparent. One thing that springs
to the eye immediately is the growth of secondary industry behind tariff walls,
which we must examine in a moment, another is unhealthy financial speculation
connected particularly with oil and uranium. Consideration of these points
brings us back to the first two of the three conditions of stability which I men-
tioned a few moments ago.
The general feature underlying tariff policy at the moment is the inflation
of costs in all fields of activity which this policy has helped to induce. This, in
turn, has brought about pressure on resources, pressure which is likely to become
still more inflationary if encouraged. Inflationary pressure will threaten the
ordinary business firm on which stability depends and also some of the develop-
mental projects, such as the Snowy Mountains Scheme and the oil explorations
in Western Australia. Rising costs will be the greatest enemy of any successful
development of an oil industry in this economy just as they have become the
enemy of long established and successful industries such as steel and wool.
Both these industries have been seriously affected by rising costs, which have
developed as a result of tariff protection.
These rising costs are like a disease: once they secure a grip on one part of
the economy, they spread outwards to all parts and even the healthiest industries
will be affected. The problem is to control costs at all points, particularly at
those points where they are most likely to increase most rapidly.
Rising costs can be explained quite simply in terms of such things as
attractive wage rates, shortages of building materials, inadequate transport and
a search for quick profits. Fundamentally, it is a question of a scramble for
Scarce resources which have many alternative uses. The Australian tariff policy,
in recent years, has tended to encourage the growth within this economy, at high
cost, of a miniature diversified industrial economy. It is a small scale replica
of the United States. This has been achieved without guaranteeing future
Stability of the economy.
In connection with the development of an oil industry within the Australian
economy we can dispose very quickly of certain illusions which have developed
with surprising speed in recent months. To quote from a popular Australian
magazine: ‘‘ The discovery of oil in substantial quantities in Australia is hoped
to play as great a part in the future development of the country as the discovery
of gold did at an earlier stage of our history. Gold brought wealth to the country.
It also brought the first big influx of free settlers, and an outstanding population
increase in what was then a backward colony. Now Australia is a nation.
Oil, together with the other great hope in our future, uranium, could make it a
powerful nation.”’
I would suggest that, for this type of development to take place, the amount
of oil discovered and usable would have to be great. At the same time there
is to be considered the fact that America, one of the great oil producers and
suppliers of capital for oil exploitation, is at this moment limiting oil production
to maintain internal stability. This suggests something of a dilemma. If
oil is to be a great source of national development, it would at the same time
ECONOMIC EFFECTS OF OIL INDUSTRY ON AUSTRALIAN ECONOMY. S39
be a source of national embarrassment if we attempted to export it in large
quantities to a stable or declining world market. But the problem is deeper
still, touching fundamentally on the matter of the formation and use of capital
in the economy.
The by-products of an oil industry are of tremendous significance to an
industrial economy providing, as they do, a great range of subsidiary commodities,
but this range of subsidiary commodities is achieved only under conditions of
large-scale and diversified production such as obtains in the United States.
The Australian economy is not really like that of the United States, even
though we enjoy a high standard of living. This is not based fundamentally
on division of labour in a large population plus growing markets at home and
abroad. Rather, we have achieved our prosperity and development by sacrificing
the development of national capital in the form of public works of all kinds,
and at the cost of losing or failing to develop much of our export market.
High levels of current consumption have replaced what seems to be an
old-fashioned but nevertheless basic activity: that of capital accumulation.
This has led to a consumption of resources in the short run which must affect
future productivity in the Australian economy.
If a large-scale oil industry were to develop in Australia, it would probably
be at the cost of still more national development, and would be established in
direct competition with alternative private capital investment. Wool still
remains our trump card in the field of exports, and the prospects of a great
export market in oil seem slight. The internal use of Australian oil would be as
a substitute for crude products brought here and refined in our refineries.
A moderate production of oil, then, would conserve our foreign balances and
make the defence position better. But it could seriously disrupt the coal
industry, which is already in a difficult position, and impinge on all other
industries in some degree. The positive gain of oil production in Australia will
lie in the extent to which we can substitute our oil for foreign oil without an
increase in costs, without retarding other essential national development, and
without thoughtlessly disrupting important spheres of production in other
sectors of the economy.
S73n.e
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AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING ComPaNy Lr
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coe
Ant. XIV. —Quartzite Xenoliths in the Tortiary Magmas of ae Souther *
r ud-Gloucester | oe
‘XVI. —Liversidge Research Lecture.
ope the Berea. Pigments and Enzymes.
/
JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS
OF THE
ROYAL SOCIETY
OF NEW SOUTH WALES
FOR
1954
(INCORPORATED 1881)
VOLUME LXXXVIII
Part IV
EDITED BY
F. N. HANLON, B. Sc., Dip. Ed.
Honorary Editorial Secretary
THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN
SYDNEY
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS
ON THE ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF HANKEL TRANSFORMS.
By J. L. GRIFFITH, B.A., M.Sc.
School of Mathematics, New South Wales University of Technology.
Manuscript received, July 19, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954.
SUMMARY.
Assuming that
glu) = | nJv(ua)g(a)der,
0
it is proved that, with certain restriction on the functions and constants,
lim {up +2—ag(u)} (gp +3v —434 +1) lim {(—aypanevse( 5) (Se Vt
u—> 0 ~ 22-11 (dp +4v +44) 204 wdx} \ av J
This formula is modified to cover the case when g(x) and its derivatives
possess a finite number of finite discontinuities.
I. INTRODUCTION.
In my previous paper [G] on the same subject, I obtained the above result
for the case p=0. This was proved in two theorems which will be referred
to as Gl and G2.
The generalizations follow very easily, provided some restrictions are placed
on the behaviour of the derivatives.
As in [G], it will be assumed that when g(x) is given, g(w) will be defined by
G(u) =|" BI yV(UDVOUD AG? nce ccs cccceees (1.1)
0
and when g(u) is given, g(x) will be defined by
gto)=| ud y(ou)g(ujdu. .......222006- (1.2)
0
The integrals in equations (1.1) and (1.2) are not assumed to converge
absolutely at the upper limit. When we are dealing with the Hankel Transforms,
we may assume that both equations hold. However, this will not be assumed
in this note.
In addition to the restrictions placed on v in the theorems, it will be assumed
that v is not a negative integer.
The following notation will be used :
GV = 0 9g (0) I oes Ss de cee we as (1.4)
_ Vp +3v—3a+1)
y(p, Vy 2) — 5517 (Spee iveera): oe eee eo wo
72 J. L. GRIFFITH.
Il. THE GENERALIZATION OF THEOREM Gl.
Theorem A (t).
If g(x) is a function of x, such that
dx
Osn<p;
(ii) 22"+2v+2Dng(y, v)>0 as 2204+, OSn<p;
(ili) a@+v+2Drg(v, x) >0 as >, OSn<p;
(iv) «?+YDrg(y, «)=f(a)
n
(i) (z) g(x) is absolutely continuous in 0<a<a< oo, for all a%>0, and
satisfies the assumptions of G1 (v-+p replacing v of that theorem).
Then
lim {w?*?—9g(u)}=y(p, v, a) lim {(—1)PartvteDPg(y, x)}, (2.1)
x—>0+
where g(u) is defined by equation (1.1) and where
4 <a <p tv+2.. 7 Ba... eee (2.2)
Proof.
Let
hw) =| xg(x)Iy(ux)da, ....... pare: (2.3)
where 0<b<c<o.
If we write
K(n, ©) =a@t"dy 4n(@),
we find from [W.B.F.], p. 45, that
£ Kn epi K (0, @).' sv sales eee (2.4)
Now multiplying both sides of equation (2.3) by u1+Y we obtain
wvhtu) = | g(v, &) . (ux)K(0, wa)da
b
i 4 K(1, ua)d
=| g(v, ©) aus) (1, wx)da.
After integration by parts
u2t+VA(u) = la ey KA, w)| at xDg(v, 7). K(1, ua)da.
b b
That is
wt+Yh(u) = ja xv). uK(1, va) =f Dg(v, ©) . (ux)K(1, wa)da.
b b
ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF HANKEL TRANSFORMS. 73
' After repeating this step p times
=1
u2P +1+Vf(w) ZS [ —1)"Dg(v, x). u2e—22-1K(n +1, wa)
n=0
Cc
b
+(—1)? | ” Deg(v, «) . (ua)K(p, wader,
b
or
uPh(u) = sy [ 1 )PEY eet) DOG ea): wT meal)
=0
4(-1)? | * w[aY+PDPg(y, ©) Wyrp(uada. . 2... (2.5)
b
We now let b—0 and c+oo. Since for large values of #
|Ju(w)| <<Aa-*
for small values of «x
|Ju(x)| <Bar
where A and B are constants, the integrated terms on the right side of equation
(2.5) vanish. So
uPg(u) =( ae a2 DPg(y, DI yt (Ueyde. 0... .220- (2.6)
0
Then referring back to G1 we obtain
lim {uP +2—aG(u)}=y(p, v, a) Vim {(—1)rwr+¥*eDrg(y, w)}, .... (2.7)
Uu—> CO
assuming that
Se ee pk a (2.8)
which proves the theorem.
We now suppose that at a finite number of points, «=a,, some (or all) of the
derivatives & Jc, O0<n<p possess finite discontinuities. For all other
values of « we assume that the assumptions of Theorem A (i) hold.
Define
(lim — lm ){avt"+1Drg(v, x)}=Gi(n, q).
@>%g+ %—>%_—
te equation (2.5) shows that the left side of equation (2.6) must be replaced
y :
p-l
UPg(w) + = 2i(—1)"G(n, q)uP—" 1S nya (UH,). .... (2.10)
n=0 q
This modification would be carried through to equation (2.7) and we have
proved
NOV'7 1955
74 J. L. GRIFFITH.
Theorem A (it).
Assuming that
(i) at a finite number of points «=z, (<2) 9 (O<Sn <p), May possess
finite discontinuities, and
(ii) otherwise the assumptions of Theorem A (i) hold, then
a}
tim (uP +2-eG(u) $75 E(—AG(n, ger" AF na)
n= qg
U—-> 0
=y(p, v, a) lim {(—1)Par+vteDrg(y, @)} 2... eee eee (al
x—>0+
where g(u) is defined by equation (1.1), and G(n, q) by equation (2.9), and where
$<a<p+v+2.
Ill. THE GENERALIZATION OF THEOREM G2.
The constants G(n, q) defined in equation (2.10) cannot be so defined in
this section; they must be defined in terms of 9(w).
Assume that
(a) a finite number of positive values of v (denoted by w,) are given, and
(b) to each #,, a set of finite constants G(n, q) is chosen.
In terms of these constants, we define the set of functions 9,(w) by
Go) =U). ee a Re valet cee re (3.1)
Ge+1(u) =ug,(u)+(—1)@(n, Iv snsi(Ue,). vee eee. (3.2)
With these definitions in mind we may prove .
Theorem B.
If g(w) is a function of uw such that
(i) | : 1g) converges uniformly in # for 0<n<p;
0
(ii) 9,(u) =f(w)
satisfies the assumptions of G2 (v+p replacing v of that theorem),
then
lim {(—1)?ar+vteDrg(v, x)}
a—0 +
p—1
=[Y(p, Y, a)|* lim (Ue eG At) X 2u(—1)"G(n, qhup—n—l—agv n+l (ya )}
—> 00 n=0 q
i | Ce (3.3)
where g(x) is defined by equation (1.2) and where
—V Dene NS. oon ou oie ae pene ae (3.4)
Proof.
Introducing the unit function H(t) defined by
H(t) =1,, 120
poe ae ed, deg (3.5)
H(t)=0, t<0 |
ASYMPTOTIC BEHAVIOUR OF HANKEL TRANSFORMS. 75
we find that
| Is41(Ua,)I,(us)du=—"_H (aw, —2),
0 a
((W.B.F.], p. 406.)
In particular, this formula gives
Z[* 2G, Wo in eater Ty (ude
0
Then
and
gly, w= |" UG (U)0 VIN UDIUU: ne cose cease (3.7)
0
After using equation (3.6) with n=0, we obtain
g(v, 2) +Q(0) = { ” Lugo() +EG(O, q)Ty 41 (wer,) wo-¥T v(mer)dee
q
0
7 | * G,(w)e-YTv(un)du.
0
This equation is now differentiated with regard to x and the result is
justified by uniform convergence. Thus
Dig(v, @) +Q(0)J=D | ° Gluyo—"T (uaa
0
arf “ ui Ma M) 5 g [ (wa) VI y(ua) du
5 Ux)
= —y1 a ui t+vg,(u)(ux) VI y 41 (ux)du
- ((W.B.F.], p. 45).
== {™ gy (ule Ty (uaa
2 0
ee)
-—| UG, (U)oVAD, (Ue)du. .. 20. eee (3.8)
0
After p steps we obtain
av+PD[D[. . .[D[g(v, v7) +9(0)]+@()]. . -14+4(p —1)]
aie | NGA) y 4p WO\ON MO er (3.9)
76 J. L. GRIFFITH.
In the neighbourhood of the origin (i.e. to the left of all the x,), it is clear
that the left side of equation (3.9) reduces to
i ag 9 6 12/0) VA oe ae UES ne (3.10)
It is also clear that equations (3.1) and (3.2) give
1
Fp(u) =urg(u)-+ DE —1yPE(m, qQur—" Ty natty)... (8-11)
n=0 q
So equation (3.9) and Theorem G2 give the required result (3.3).
We have only to show that the G(n, q) defined by equation (2.9) are the
same as the G(n, q) defined at the beginning of this section. This follows easily
after an examination of the left sides of equations (3.8), (3.9) and the inter-
mediate equations.
It is also clear that when
Gin, q) 0, Tor alls nip, 0 (3.12)
equation (3.3) reduces to equation (2.1).
| We have shown that provided g(a) and g(wu) satisfy the assumptions of the
theorems, equations (2.1) and (2.11) hold for
VP 0 eee ee See (3.13)
If f(x) or f(w), defined in Theorems A(i) and B respectively, possesses dis-
continuities, it follows from sections 3 and 4 of [G] that the additional restriction
DA Bs oe A lee te eee ate (3.14)
must be made.
The two most important special cases of equation (2.1) are:
(i) for a=0
lim {(—1)?uP+2g(u)}=(p+yv) lim [#?+YDrg(v, v)] .... (3.15)
u—> 00 20+
for p+v>0.
(ii) for v=0
lim {(—1)?uPt+?2—%9(u)}=y(p, 0, a) lim [aP+4DPg(x)] .. (3.16)
U—> 00 z—0+
for —p<a<p-+z2.
In conclusion, it must be noted that amongst the results obtained by taking
particular forms for g(v, x) we find the interesting case :
If g(x) and its derivatives are continuous, and if in the neighbourhood of
the origin can be expressed in the form
g(v) = > (He OES AMAA ce (3.17)
n=0
then
lim [u??+8g(w)]=(—1)?t1[(2p +1)(2p —1). . .1]?dep +1
uU—-> &
where g(u) is the zeroth order transform and dg, is the first non-zero odd
coefficient in equation (3.17).
REFERENCES.
[G.] Griffith, J. L. “A Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel
Transforms.’ THis JOURNAL, 88, 61.
[W.B.F.] Watson, G. N. ‘“* Theory of Bessel Functions.’ Cambridge, 1945.
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE
COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W.
By J. RADE*
Manuscript received, June 4, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954.
INTRODUCTION.
The present paper deals with the geology of the Coonamble Basin,
situated in the Dubbo area of the central portion of New South Wales. The
Coonamble Basin is taken as a separate unit, since it forms the largest em-
bayment of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin and
bears several characteristic geological features.
The main part of the Coonamble Basin is located between Gilgandra and
Warren in the south and reaches north to the vicinity of Walgett, the northern
boundary coinciding with the Barwon and Namoi Rivers. The eastern margin
is located to the west of the Warrumbungle Mountains, while the western
margin is formed by a peninsular-like structural high in the Palaeozoic base-
ment complex which stretches in a north-easterly direction into the Great
Artesian Basin. The area of the basin is approximately 9,000 square miles.
Previous geological publications concerning the artesian bores of the
Coonamble Basin include those by Symmonds (1912), Mulholland (1950), and
David (1950). The results of the foraminiferal studies of the sediments of the
Great Artesian Basin, made by Crespin (1944, 1945, 1946, 1953), are also
applicable to the smaller area at present under consideration.
Full use of the data collected by the Water Conservation and Irrigation
Commission, Sydney, has been made in the writing of the present paper.
GEOLOGY.
Paleozoic basement rocks underlie the Mesozoic rocks of the Coonamble
area. The Paleozoic basement complex consists of sediments of Ordovician,
Silurian, and Devonian age. These are intruded by Kanimblan granites,
often in the form of felspar porphyries, especially in the eastern part of the
area. It is also possible that some of the granites encountered in the western
part of the basin belong to the Caledonian orogenic epoch. The Palzxozoic
sediments are often found to be represented in the bores by slates and
micaceous schists. The granites evidently form large batholiths, and occupy
the cores of the structural ridges of the basement.
The configuration of the basement complex will be treated later in the
paper, but before this is done, a more detailed account of the lithology of the
basement complex will be given. At Coonamble the Coonamble No. 3 bore
reached the basement at a depth of 2,158 feet. The basement consisted of
slate containing a variable amount of quartz. Paleozoic slate was encoun-
tered at a depth of 1,995 feet in the Quambone No. 2 bore, situated 20 miles
to the west-north-west of Coonamble. It was overlain by the sandstones and
coarse gravel of the Pilliga Sandstone of the Walloon ‘‘Series’’. In the
*Geologist, Water Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Sydney.
78 | J. RADE.
Carinda bore, located near Carinda, Paleozoic slates were encountered at
2,240 feet below the surface, while similar slates were encountered at depth
of 2,133 feet in the Wangrewally bore, situated 27 miles south-west of Wal-
gett. The Sunny Vale No. 2 bore, situated 44 miles north-west of Warren,
700 §
590
PILLIGA
%00
200
100 |
DATUM SEA LEVEL
SCALE WARREN FAULT SHOWN THUS ==xm
eres eee ee PROBABLE FAULT SHOWN JHUS awe
: PALAEOZOIC BASEMENT CLOSE TQ SURFACE OR
OQUTCROPPING SHOWN THUS RB.
Text-fig. 1.
encountered Paleozoic slates at 1,335 feet ; the bore reached a depth of 1,577
feet 10 inches and was then reported to be in dense volcanic tuff. Volcanic
breccia is recorded at a depth of 2,020 feet below the surface of the Quam-
bone No. 1 bore, situated 32 miles west of Coonamble. In the Wingadee No.
6 bore, located 26 miles north of Coonamble, micaceous schist was encountered
at a depth of 2,075 feet.
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W. 79
The Kanimblan granites were encountered by the Tholoo bore, in the
north-eastern part of the map area, 30 miles east of Walgett. They were
first penetrated at a depth of 2,680 feet, and the drilling continued in the
granite for a further 52 feet. Granite was also encountered at Warren in the
southern part of the map area, where the Warren bore penetrated it at a depth
of 817 feet. The Three Corners bore, situated north-north-east of Warren,
struck granite at 941 feet. In both the Warren bore and the Three Corners
bore the granite was overlain directly by the Pilliga Sandstone of the Walloon
‘‘ Series’. The granites form a north-easterly trending basement ridge to the
north-north-east of Warren, and are encountered at a depth of 900 feet in the
Wildwood bore, situated 37 miles to the north-north-east of Warren. It is
suggested that these granites of the Warren district represent a north-westerly
continuation of the great granite batholith which is exposed to the south-
west of Dubbo. Evidence supporting this conclusion is found in the small
outcrops of granite which are found between Dubbo and Warren. Most of the
south-western part of the map area is underlain by granite outcropping at
Mt. Foster, Mt. Harris, and Mt. Eugolma. To the north-west of these
mountains the granite is encountered at a depth of 395 feet in a bore situated
in Portion 20 of the parish of Willie, County of Gregory, 60 miles north-west
of Warren. The granite was first struck at 717 feet, and drilled for a further
91 feet in the Thornwood bore, situated 63 miles north-west of Warren. The
dome in the Palzozoic basement complex which occupies the north-western
corner of the map area also consists of granite. On the north-west side of this
dome the Brewon No. 4 bore, situated 32 miles west-south-west of Walgett,
reached granite at a depth of 2,354 feet. The Bogewong No. 1 bore, situated
on the crest of the dome, 27 miles south-west of Walgett, struck the granite
at 1,399 feet below the surface. Granite was first reached at a depth of 1,543
feet and penetrated for a further 62 feet in the Borgara bore, situated 21 miles
south-west of Walgett. From this bore data it is clear that the granites
partially form the margins of the Coonamble Basin, either outcropping or
coming to within a shallow depth from the land surface.
The Mesozoic rocks encountered in the area are of Triassic, Jurassic and
Cretaceous age. As pointed out by Mulholland (1950, p. 126), the Triassic
sediments consist mainly of shales; they are thickest in the eastern parts of
the basin and thin considerably towards the west. As evidence of this, the
Jurassic rocks are seen to overly the Triassic sediments in the eastern part
of the basin, whereas they directly overly the Paleozoic basement complex
in the western portion.
The Jurassic sediments are much more shaly than their equivalents in the
Moree district. This is readily related to their environments of deposition,
since the sediments of the Coonamble Basin were deposited in an embayment
of the main lake. It is found that the Jurassic sediments are particularly
Shaly in the western part of the basin, but have a more usual character in the
eastern part. This is partially due to the configuration of the basement, and
partly due to the character of the sediment which was introduced into the
basin. The terrigenous material brought into the eastern part of the basin
would have been derived from the weathering of the Kanimblan granites and
the New England granodiorite batholith. The latter was being subjected to
intensive denudation during the Jurassic period, and sandy sediments are
thus to be expected. The slates and micaceous schist of the basement complex
were freely exposed to the west of the Coonamble Basin during the Jurassic,
and thus sediments of a finer texture are to be expected in this area. The
nature of the sediments must also be related to the depths in different parts
of the basin and the turbulance of the water at the time of deposition. Rela-
tively turbulant water is thought to have been present on the more open
80 J. RADE.
eastern part of the basin. However the contours of the basement rocks on
the western side of the basin seem to suggest that this area consisted of a
number of north-easterly directed embayments. Shales are known to have
accumulated in the quieter waters of this part of the basin.
n°
| 4¢'7/ QUAMBONE
Q
S
\
ff = 1300 \
Z a \F
5 £% \ Dy) fh
Ay
(Aa. aecavenn
ie
—}
ss
A)
CONTOURS SHOWN ARE BELOW SEA
LEVEL
SCALE
mites? 29 4 ‘2 /Onices
Text-fig. 2.
The high pyrite content of some of the shales seems to indicate that the
waters were tranquil and stagnant in at least some parts of the basin. Con-
ditions must have been similar to those in which pyrite is known to have
developed in some of the Jurassic sediments of Europe.
The Jurassic Walloon “ Series ’”’ consists of the Purlawaugh Shale and
Pilliiga Sandstone. The Purlawaugh Shale is best known from the eastern
part of the Coonamble Basin, where it is difficult to distinguish it on litho-
logical grounds from the lower Mesozoic sediments. In the Galga No. 1 bore,
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W. 81
situated 25 miles east-south-east of Coonamble, the Purlawaugh Shale is first
encountered at a depth of 980 feet. The upper 693 feet of the formation
consists of shale, and this is underlain by clays with a thickness of 150 feet.
Mulholland (1950, p. 125), has stated that the thickness of the Purlawaugh
Shale in the Coonabarabran area is about 200 feet. Recent investigations by
the writer have shown that the thickness of this formation in the Warialda
intake area, located east of Moree, is in the vicinity of 300 feet. It can be
concluded that only the upper part of the shales in the Galga No. 1 bore
represent the Purlawaugh Shale, and that the lower shales and clays are of
Triassic age. Investigations in the eastern part of the Coonamble Basin show
that the Purlawaugh Shale was only deposited between the granitic ridges of
the basement complex, the granitic ridges having apparently projected as land
ridges during the period of deposition of the shale.
In the eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin, the Purlawaugh Shale is
overlain by the Pilliga Sandstone, the latter formation being represented in
this area by a pure sandstone without intercalations of shale. This formation
has been penetrated in several of the bores drilled in the area under considera-
tion. The Nebea No. 2 bore, situated 12 miles north-east of Coonamble
penetrated 1,291 feet of sandstone with gravel intercalations. This formation
was overlain by the shales and clays with thin sandstone intercalations, which
are thought to be of Cretaceous age, and underlain by the Paleozoic schists
of the basement complex. In the Milchomi bore, 37 miles north-east of
Coonamble, the shales, clays, and sandstone intercalations of the Cretaceous
were penetrated to a depth of 1,151 feet, where they gave place to the sand-
stones of the Pilliga Sandstone, the latter being penetrated for a further 756
feet.
To the west of the Coonamble Basin, the Pilliga Sandstone directly over-
lies the slates, tuffaceous and micaceous schists, and granites of the basement
complex. Some bores in the eastern part of the basin, such as the Tholoo
bore, show that in some places the Pilliga Sandstone directly overlies the
Kanimblan granites. The same stratigraphic associations are known in the
southern part of the basin, as was shown earlier in the paper with reference
to the Warren bores. Further to the west in the deeper portions of the Coon-
amble Basin, the Pilliga Sandstone is known to include intercalations of shale.
Conglomeratic intercalations are sometimes encountered in the Pilliga
Sandstone. It is significant that these conglomerates generally occur in the
vicinity of the ridges of the Paleozoic basement complex. In this connection
it is interesting to examine the north-westerly trending ridge which is known
to the north-west of Coonamble. The Yowie bore is situated 12 miles to the
north-west of Coonamble and is situated on this basement ridge. The bore
logs record the repeated occurrence of conglomerates, and the sediments are
generally coarser than those of corresponding horizons in other parts of the
basin. This is to be expected, since the waters overlying this basement ridge
would have been shallower and more turbid than in the deeper parts of the
basin. Tuffaceous schists of the basement complex were penetrated by the
Yowie bore over a distance of 46 feet.
The sediments of the Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’ encountered in the Yowie bore
show clearly marked cycles of sedimentation, five complete cycles having been
recognised. They begin with fine grained sediments such as shale and fine
sand, and terminate with the deposition of conglomerates. One such cycle
was also encountered in the Cretaceous sediments. Here a bed of quartzite
pebbles and shale with a thickness of 23 feet is encountered at a depth of 397
feet, and is underlain by 40 feet coal. The whole sequence is enclosed by
beds of clay. It is considered by the present author that these cycles of
82 J. RADE.
sedimentation reflect the saltatory uplift of the margins of the Coonamble
Basin during the Mesozoic.
Conglomerates are also encountered in other parts of the Coonamble
Basin. The Woodlands bore, situated 4 miles south-south-west of Coonamble,
encountered a conglomerate bed with a thickness of 8 feet at a depth of 1,720
feet. This bore is situated on the south-western margin of the basement ridge
mentioned in connection with the Yowie bore. In the previously mentioned
Nebea bore, north-east of Coonamble, 23 feet of gravel and sand were
encountered at a depth of 1,213 feet.
Conglomerates were encountered north of Warren, in an area in which
the granites form a basement ridge which is elongated in a north-easterly to
south-westerly direction. They were met with in the Wildwood bore, situated
37 miles north-north-east of Warren. The northern, south-western and
southern sides of this basement ridge are known to be encircled by con-
glomerates. To the south-west of the ridge they are encountered at a depth
of 900 feet in the Coburg bore, situated 27 miles north-north-west of Warren.
The Stray Leaves bore, situated 28 miles north-north-east of Warren and on
the southern side of the basement ridge, encountered 13 feet of conglomerate
at a depth of 1,305 feet. To the northern side of the same ridge, 50 feet of
relatively unconsolidated sandstone and conglomerate were encountered at a
depth of 1,400 feet below the surface in the Ellerslie bore, situated 43 miles,
north-north-east of Warren. Further to the north-west, 12 feet of gravels and
sandy shale were encountered at a depth of 988 feet in the Stanley bore,
situated 57 miles north-west of Warren. Conglomeratic intercalations ranging
in thickness from 4-9 feet are recorded from the Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’ where it
was penetrated by the Wallamgambone bore, 59 miles north-west of Warren.
In Jurassic times the Coonamble Basin formed a large embayment along
the border of Lake Walloon. Sedimentation took place under tranquil con-
ditions in the western portion of the embayment, but the water must have
been more turbid in the eastern portion. However in no part of the embay-
ment were conditions as turbid as they appear to have been in the Moree
district. These tranquil conditions of deposition account for the fine texture
of the sediments in the Coonamble Basin, and for the numerous intercalations
of shale in the Pilliga Sandstone.
The average thickness of the Walloon ‘‘Series ’’ in the Coonamble Basin
is 800 feet. Mulholland (1950, p. 126), estimates the thickness of the Pilliga
Sandstone in the Coonabarabran intake area to be of the order of 600 feet.
Difficulty is sometimes encountered in the Coonamble Basin in determin-
ing on lithological evidence the transition from the Jurassic sediments to the
lacustrine Blythesdale ‘Series ’’. However, geological and hydrological in-
vestigations in the Moree district have shown that the sediments of Jurassic
and Cretaceous age are more readily separated and that the upper artesian
aquifers are located in the Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’”’. With
this information regarding the stratigraphic position of the aquifers in the
Moree district, it is possible to interpolate in the Coonamble Basin and deter-
mine the stratigraphic horizon by reference to the aquifers. The Blythesdale
‘‘ Series ’”? as developed in the Coonamble Basin is similar in lithology to the
corresponding sediments of the Moree district, consisting of shales and sandy
shales, with coal seams and sandstone intercalations. The average thickness
of the Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ in the Coonamble Basin is between 500 feet and
600 feet.
The Blythesdale ‘‘ Series’ is followed by the marine Roma ‘“‘ Series ”’,
consisting almost entirely of blue and grey shales, but with occasional inter-
calations of sandy shales. The average thickness of the Roma “ Series ”’ in
the Coonamble Basin is between 700 feet and 900 feet.
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W. 83
Foraminiferal determinations of samples from the Roma ‘‘ Series ’? have
been made by Miss Irene Crespin, Paleontologist, Bureau of Mineral
Resources. In the Lochinwar bore, situated 3-5 miles west-south-west of
Carinda, the youngest Foraminifera were found from 254-304 feet in grey
carbonaceous shale and sandstone. They were associated with indeterminate
plant remains, thin shelled Mollusca, and Ostracoda. From 704-754 feet, the
bore samples contained fragments of limestone, and from 754-802 feet, frag-
ments of calcareous sandstone, carbonaceous shale and limestones containing
rare Foraminifera were reported. Miss Crespin has kindly given permission
for the publication of her foraminiferal determinations of the fauna contained
in the Lochinwar bore between depths of 254 feet and 802 feet. They are
as follows :
Ammobaculites australe.
Ammodiscus sp.
Anomalina mawsont.
EHpondes sp.
Haplophragmoides cf. chapman.
Lagena levis.
Lenticulina ef. gibba.
Marginulina bullata.
Marginulinopsis subcretacea.
Pyrulina fusiformis.
Robulus gunderbookensis.
Saracenaria cf. acutiauricularis.
Spiroplectammina cushmani.
Valvulinertia parvula.
Ostracoda were also encountered between 254-704 feet, and they have
been identified by Miss Crespin as follows :
Bythocypris sp.
Cythereis sp.
Cytheropteron cf. concentricum.
This assemblage of Foraminifera and Ostracoda is characteristic of the
Lower Cretaceous sediments of the Great Artesian Basin.
The Roma “ Series’? in the Coonamble Basin is overlain by the Upper
Cretaceous Winton ‘‘ Series ’’, representing the lacustrine deposits which
developed in Lake Winton. These are of a more sandy character than the
marine Roma “ Series ’’, and contain small seams of lignite and coal. Gas
was encountered in the coaly intercalations between the shale at 665-675 feet
in the Keelendi No. 2 bore, situated 16 miles north-west of Pilliga. The
Winton ‘‘ Series ’’ is best known in the northern part of the Coonamble Basin,
especially towards the north-eastern portion. The average thickness of the
Winton ‘ Series ’’ in the Coonamble Basin is 500 feet.
A separate paper, by the present author, dealing with the basement
structures of the New South Wales portion of the Great Artesian Basin will
be published in the near future. Thus, only a brief summary of the basement
structures of the Coonamble Basin will be given in the present paper. It may
be seen from the accompanying contour plan that the main trend dominating
the basement of the Coonamble Basin has a north-easterly direction, being
expressed in the alignment of the ridges and valleys in the western part of the
Basin. A basement valley, elongated in the same north-easterly direction,
occurs in the eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin to the north-west of
Galargambone. A dome-like topographic feature of the basement complex,
also elongated in the north-easterly direction, is found to the south-west of
84 J. RADE.
Walgett. Most of the basement valleys which exhibit this north-easterly
alignment are extremely narrow.
Close observation of the basement contours in the north-eastern portion
of the Coonamble Basin indicates the presence of a north-north-westerly trend
direction. This trend is expressed by the ridges which protrude from the
south-eastern margin of the Coonamble Basin. They are well developed in
the vicinity of Coonamble. A basement ridge with a trend direction slightly
north of west protrudes from the east-south-east into the Coonamble Basin
about 26 miles north of Coonamble. The ridge is thought to be composed of
Kanimblan granite. The roughly meridional elongation of the central portion
of the Coonamble Basin, to the north-west of Coonamble, is thought to be due
to the interrelation of the above-mentioned trends.
Bryan (1925, p. 21), recognised two trends in Queensland, one in a north-
easterly direction and the other in a north-north-westerly direction. He
regarded the north-easterly trend as being the older of the two. The work
in the Coonamble Basin has convinced the present author that the north-
easterly trend can be referred to the Caledonian diastrophism, whereas the
north-north-westerly trend represents the Variscan diastrophism.
A contour plan of the aquifers of the Coonamble Basin has been drawn
to determine to what extent the contours of the basement complex are
reflected in the contours of the aquifers. The aquifers of the Lower Cretaceous
Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ were found to be the most easily recognised, and have
thus generally been used in the construction of the aquifer contours. . Certain
structural features are seen to be common when a comparison of the contours
of the basement complex and the aquifers is made. The same structural
basins and domes occur on both contour plans. Similarities in the two sets
of contours may be seen in the domal structure to the south-west of Walgett
and the small basin which occurs to the south-south-west of Coonamble.
Both of these structures are elongated in a north-easterly direction. It has
been seen that this trend direction dominated in the Paleozoic basement
complex of the Coonamble Basin, and that it is related to the older Paleozoic
period of diastrophism.
Of great interest are the contours of the aquifers which overly a Paleozoic
ridge which protrudes into the Coonamble Basin from the east-south-east, and
is situated 23 miles south-west of Pilliga. The contours point to the presence
of a fault along the northern side of the ridge. The strike of the fault is north
64 degrees west, and the throw is approximately 400 feet. The depression in
the aquifer contours to the north of the fault can be traced further to the
west-north-west, where it is located again 18 miles south-east of Walgett.
The west-north-westerly continuation of this depression cannot be traced in
the basement complex, so that it is clear that supplementary structures which
are unknown in the basement complex do occur in the overlying Mesozoic
rocks.
A probable fault bordering the southern side of the above-mentioned
Paleozoic ridge is encountered 33 miles south-west of Pilliga. However, the
contours of the Paleozoic basement do not reveal its basement continuation, —
probably because very little information regarding the basement is available,
few bores having reached it in this area. In better known areas, faulting of
the basement is known to be a characteristic feature. It is well known from the
eastern margins of the Great Artesian Basin, and similar infaulted embayments
in the Moree district and the Warialda intake area have recently been detected
by the present author.
A close study of the eastern portion of the accompanying contour plan
of the aquifers will reveal the presence of the later Palzeozoic north-westerly
trend. This trend is clearly expressed by the anticlinal structures which trend
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.W. 85
in fron the eastern margin of the Coonamble Basin. The interrelation of this
latter trend with the dominant trend produces, towards the centre of the
Coonamble Basin, small basin structures in both the basement and the over-
lying sediments. Several granites of Paleozoic age outcrop in the southern
part of the area covered by the contour plan. The contours of the aquifers
in this area are complex, and it is probable that the accompanying contour
plan does not represent them accurately.
HYDROLOGY.
Some shallow but salty aquifers are known from the Coonamble Basin.
The depth range of these salty aquifers is 80-200 feet, the average depth being
about 100 feet.
Subartesian aquifers are encountered in the Upper Cretaceous Winton
‘Series ’’; they are of economic value in those areas where the artesian
aquifers are found only at great depth. The water is generally brackish,
although suitable for sheep, but the yields are small. Such aquifers are known
to the north-west and west of Pilliga, and range in depth from 470-640 feet.
In this same area the first true artesian aquifers are encountered 700-800 feet
deeper than the aquifers of the Winton ‘Series ’’, and the main artesian
aquifers occur 1,100 feet below the Winton ‘‘ Series ’’ aquifers. The following
table contains information regarding the aquifers of the Winton ‘‘ Series ”’ in
the north-eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin.
Depth of
Name of Location | Year aquifer Water Yield of
Bore | completed in feet rose aquifer
Gorian .. | 24 miles NNW | 1905 518 within few very small
of Pilliga feet of supply
| surface
et as ear ies oe ee
| | |
Keelendi | 16 miles NW 1941 470 110 feet | 4800 g.p.d.
No. 2 | of Pilliga | |
|
Kiewa .. .. | 28 miles WSW | 1936 590 _ 200 g.p.h.
of Pilliga |
|
Wingadee 31 miles W | 1920 | 640 | 40 feet small
No. 7 ase of Pilliga | | supply
| |
The aquifers of the Winton ‘ Series ’’ are also encountered in the partly
infaulted embayments of the eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin. This
was the case with the Nyleve bore, situated 30 miles north-east of Coonamble
in an embayment which is known to be terminated to the south by a fault.
The aquifer was penetrated at 512 feet below the surface; the static water
level was found to be 90 feet below the surface, and the water proved to be
brackish. Apart from the areas mentioned above, the aquifers of the Winton
‘* Series ’’ are also known from the north-western portion of the map area.
The upper artesian aquifers are located in sandstone intercalations of the
Lower Cretaceous Blythesdale ‘‘Series’’. These intercalations have an
86 J. RADE.
average thickness of 30 feet. Some typical from the Coonamble Basin will
be mentioned below. In the Ottendorf bore, situated 16 miles north-west of
Coonamble, the sandstone intercalation which forms the aquifer of the Blythes-
dale ‘‘ Series ’’ has a thickness of 40 feet. The Milchomi bore, situated 36 miles
north-east of Coonamble, encountered the Blythesdale aquifer at a depth of
849 feet below the surface. It occurred in a sandy intercalation into shales
which extended from 785-890 feet. In the Thornydyke No. 2 bore, situated
25 miles north-west of Coonamble, the upper artesian aquifer of the Blythes-
dale ‘‘ Series ’’ consisted of a sandstone intercalation into the shales and
extended from 1,335-1,367 feet. The same aquifer was encountered in the
Thornydyke bore, situated 24 miles north-west of Coonamble. Water was
first struck at 1,310 feet, and occurred in a sandstone intercalation into the
shales, which extended from 1,272-1,342 feet.
The main artesian aquifers are located in the sandstones of the Jurassic
Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’. These sandstone beds are often sealed by intercalations
of shale, especially in the deeper western portions of the Coonamble Basin.
The main aquifers commonly follow the contours of the surface of the base-
ment complex, so that contour maps of the Paleozoic basement are of con-
siderable value. The main aquifers commonly lie a short distance above the
surface of the Paleozoic basement, but in the Hollywood No. 1 bore they lie
immediately above the surface of the basement.
A contour map of the upper artesian aquifers of the Coonamble Basin has
been prepared by the present author. The aquifers of the Lower Cretaceous
Blythesdale ‘‘ Series ’’ have generally been considered in this compilation.
However, the Blythesdale aquifers are not well known around the margins of
the basin, and since the map was prepared essentially for practical purposes,
the upper aquifers of the Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’ have been included in the map
where bore information regarding the aquifers of the Blythesdale “ Series ”’
is not available. This substitution of the aquifer used in mapping is par-
ticularly common in those marginal areas where the Blythesdale aquifers are
not developed. Such is the case in the southern and south-western parts of
the map area, where the Kanimblan granites outcrop at Mt. Foster and Mt.
Harris. However, it is probable that this practice does not introduce any
relatively great inaccuracy, since the maps are only of a general nature.
This contour plan has considerable practical value, since if the depths of
the Blythesdale aquifers are known, then the depths of the aquifers of the
Walloon ‘‘ Series ’’ may be readily calculated. As a rule, the contours repre-
sent the horizon of artesian flow, although in a limited number of cases the
flow has been subartesian. This was the case with the Noonbah bore, situated
38 miles south-west of Coonamble, which encountered a subartesian aquifer
at a depth of 293 feet. However, in this bore the water rose to a shallow
depth, fresh water appearing at a static water level of 50 feet below the sur-
face. In this case the water came from a 4-feet coal seam intercalated into clay
and shale. This coal seam may be used as a datum level, since in the Thurn
bore, situated 24 miles west-north-west of Coonamble, the same coal seam
was penetrated at 1,115 feet below the surface and was found to have a thick-
ness of 2 feet. The coal seam in the Thurn bore was underlain by 38 feet of
sandstone, the latter being in turn underlain by sandy shale. The sandstone
bed provided a subartesian aquifer which brought water to a static water level
20 feet below the surface and yielded 600 gallons per hour. The aquifers in
both of the bores mentioned above may be correlated with the upper aquifer
of the Blythesdale ‘“‘Series’’. This aquifer does not persist to the south-
south-west. Thus in the Buttabone No. 1 bore, situated 52 miles south-west
GEOLOGY AND SUB-SURFACE WATERS OF THE COONAMBLE BASIN, N.S.w. 87
of Coonamble, only the aquifers of the Walloon ‘“ Series ’’ were encountered
appearing at 750 feet and 850 feet below the surface. The first true artesian
aquifers in the Thurn bore did not appear until a depth of 1,717 feet had
been reached.
In the eastern portion of the Coonamble Basin the water of the main
aquifers contains less than 40 grains per gallon of total solids, but towards the
west the amount of total solids increases. This is clearly shown by the series
of chemical analysis of the waters from bores along the line connecting the
Tunderbrine No. 3 bore, situated 30 miles south-east of Coonamble, with the
Brewon No. 4 bore, situated 32 miles west-south-west of Walgett. The water
encountered in the Tunderbrine No. 3 bore is of excellent quality, containing
only 13 grains per gallon of total solids. The highest content of total solids
of the bores along this line is found in the waters of the Ottendorf bore, which
contained 76 grains per gallon. Here only the aquifers of the Blythesdale
‘* Series ’? were penetrated, and the deeper aquifers of the Walloon “ Series ”’
were not encountered. The waters from the bores in the south-western portion
of the Coonamble Basin bear approximately 50 grains per gallon of total solids,
this being a higher total solid content than is found in the bores in the south-
eastern portion of the Basin. The chemical content of the water can be related
to the change in the type of sedimentary deposit, since shales predominate in
the south-western part of the Coonamble Basin. Sodium sulphate occurs in
the waters of the bores to the south-east of the section under examination,
but in the north-west of the section, commencing with the Wingadee No. 3
bore, situated 35 miles north-west of Coonamble, no further sulphates have
been recorded. The results of the chemical analysis of the water obtained
from the bores mentioned above can be found in Report of Interstate Con-
ference on Artesian Water (1912, p. 93, 99-100, 106-108), Report of the Second
Interstate Conference on Artesian Water (1914, p. 246, 248) and Report of the
Fourth Interstate Conference on Artesian Water (1924, p. 33).
The Tunderbrine No. 1 bore, situated 38 miles south-east of Coonamble,
contains 155 grains of total solids per gallon, while the Tubba bore, situated
82 miles west-north-west of Coonamble, contains 84 grains per gallon of total
solids. Both of these bores are located near the margin of the Coonamble
Basin.
The increase in the content of total solids contained in the artesian water
towards the west of the Coonamble Basin bears a relation to the prevailing
flow direction of the water. It is considered by the present author that the
artesian water moves from the south-eastern intake area towards the west and
north-west, where it is mixed with the waters coming from the north-east.
This water from the north-east is considered to originate from the intake areas
of part of Queensland, and to traverse the Moree district in its journey to the
Coonamble Basin. The main ‘“ salting ’”’ of the artesian water probably takes
place in the western portion of the Coonamble Basin due to contact of the
water with the shales which dominate the lithology of the Mesozoic rocks in
this area. There is no further intake of water in the western part of
the Coonamble Basin, due to the lack of intake beds. On the contrary,
there is a natural outlet for artesian water, evidenced by the mound
springs. These mound springs are known to occur between the Tubba.
and Coolabah bores near the western margin of the Coonamble Basin, and are
also represented by Guddie Spring, which is situated near the Gilgoin No. 1
bore, 22 miles west-north-west of Carinda. The present author thinks it
probable that these springs are located along the eastern margin of the penin-
sular-like basement prominence which forms the western margin of the
Coonamble Basin.
H
88 J. RADE.
SUMMARY.
Rocks of both Paleozoic and Mesozoic age are represented in the Coon-
amble Basin. The trends which dominate the structure of the Paleozoic
basement complex are thought to be of Paleozoic age. The Mesozoic sedi-
ments of the Coonamble Basin were deposited in a large embayment, and this
mode of deposition is responsible for the fact that these sediments are more
shaly than corresponding sediments in other parts of the New South Wales
portion of the Great Artesian Basin. The stagnant conditions under which
sedimentation occurred in the Coonamble Basin during Mesozoic times is
responsible for the wide-spread occurrence of pyrite in the sediments. The
total solid content of the artesian waters in the Coonamble Basin increases
from east to west. This can be correlated with the type of sediment through
which the artesian waters pass, shales being more abundant towards the
western margin of the Basin.
REFERENCES.
Bryan, W. H., 1925. ‘‘ Earth-movements in Queensland ’’. Proc. Roy. Soc., Queensland.
375.3:
Crespin, I., 1944. ‘“‘ Some Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from Bores in the Great Artesian
Basin, Northern New South Wales’’. THis JoURNAL, 78, 17-24.
1945. ‘‘ A Microfauna from Lower Cretaceous Deposits in Great Artesian Basin ”’.
Commonwealth Miner. Res. Surv. Rep. 1945/16.
1946. ‘*‘ Lower Cretaceous Fauna in N.S.W. Basin’. J. Paleont. 20, 505.
1953. ‘‘ Lower Cretaceous Foraminifera from the Great Artesian Basin, Aus-
tralia’. Contr. Cush. Found. Foram. Res., 4, (1), 26-36.
David Edgeworth, T. Sir, 1950. ‘‘ The Geology of the Commonwealth of Australia ’’, edited
by W. R. Browne, London.
Mulholland, C. St. J., 1950. ‘‘ Review of Southern Intake Beds, New South Wales, and their
Bearing on Artesian Problems”. Rep. Dept. Mines, N.S.W., 125-127.
Report of Interstate Conference on Artesian Water, 1912, Sydney.
Report of the Second Interstate Conference on Artesian Water, 1914, Brisbane.
Report of the Fourth Interstate Conference on Artesian Water, 1924, Perth.
Symmonds, R. S., 1912. ‘‘ Our Artesian Waters ’’, Sydney.
QUARTZITE XENOLITHS IN THE TERTIARY MAGMAS OF THE
SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS, N.S.W.
By ROBERT STEVENS.
Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Sydney.
With Plate IV.
Manuscript received, November 8, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954.
I. INTRODUCTION.
In the course of a preliminary survey of the Tertiary volcanics in that.
part of the Southern Highlands centring around Mittagong, Bowral and Moss.
Vale, about 70 miles south-west from Sydney, the author collected specimens of
basalt and dolerite containing the quartzitic xenoliths which constitute the
subject of this paper. Such xenoliths have so far been found only in the more
basic rocks from High Range and Mt. Flora, ten miles north-west and six miles
north from Mittagong respectively.
II. GENERAL GEOLOGY.
The stratigraphy of the area is very simple in outline, the region being part:
of the elevated margin of the Sydney Basin, consisting of Permian and Triassic
sediments resting more or less horizontally and with violent unconformity on an
older Paleozoic basement-complex of Ordovician, Silurian and Devonian (?)
meta-sediments and acid plutonic rocks of a granitic nature. The Triassie
Hawkesbury Sandstone, a 600 ft. thick orthoquartzite, is particularly important.
since it was from this unit that the xenolithic fragments are thought to have
been derived.
Ill. THE XENOLITHIC ROCKS.
(a) The High Range Basalt.
The basaltic rocks on High Range are the thin remnants of an originally
more extensive sheet which has suffered continuous erosion since the Kosciusko:
uplift (late Pliocene). The rock is a rather coarse-grained olivine-titanaugite-
basalt carrying small amounts of analcite. The principal felspar is an inter-
mediate labradorite (Ab40) in laths averaging 1 mm. in length. Olivine occurs.
as phenocrysts 1 to 3 mm. across, and is generally detectable in hand-specimen.
It is a highly magnesian variety (2V nearly 90°), considerably fractured, and
sometimes marginally serpentinized. The pyroxene is a pinkish-brown titan-
iferous augite intergranular to the feldspar laths. Individual grains proved to
be too small to undertake an optical investigation, but they do not appear to be
pigeonitic. Interstitial feldspar is a basic oligoclase in anhedra up to 1mm.
across. Analcite, magnetite and apatite are the main accessory minerals.
The xenoliths are difficult to distinguish from the olivine phenocrysts
in hand-specimen and they certainly were not recognized as foreign inclusions.
in the field. In thin-section, however, they are very striking by virtue of the
spectacular reaction rims which have formed around them. These reaction rims
(Plate IV, Fig. 1) have the characteristic structure so often described in the
literature, consisting of an outer zone of closely packed small prismatic clino-
pyroxenes arranged radially to the periphery of the xenolith, followed inwardly
90 ROBERT STEVENS.
by a narrower zone of brownish, turbid glass (largely in a devitrified state)
and extremely minute, needle-like pyroxene crystallites. The outer zone is
about 0:25mm. wide and the inner zone about 0-1mm. This occurrence
departs from the usual in that there is little evidence of the production of alkali-
feldspathic material in the inner zone.
The xenoliths consist of two or more grains of quartz in very close contact
and, in nearly all cases, the formation of a glassy reaction product has extended
along the full length of the intergranular boundaries. It is where these grain
junctions intersect the periphery of the xenolith that reaction has been most
intense, and it is only in such places that we find alkali feldspar in the reaction
rim (see Fig. 1). There is also some development of a fibrous, brown micaceous
BUBBLE STREAM 29 "1, a
e?
Vv
DOLERITE
PRISMATIC
PYROXENES
x
a e
a
eo)
z
a)
<<
Text-fig. 1.
Part of the margin of a quartzite xenolith in the High Range basalt showing the mode of
occurrence of alkali feldspar in embayments at grain boundaries.
mineral along some of the fracture planes through the quartz grains, though
these fractures are commonly occupied by glass. Another characteristic of the
xenoliths in the High Range basalt is the presence of bubble streams traversing
the quartz grains (see D. L. Reynolds, 1936, p. 379). These have the appearance
of narrow channels crowded with minute globular inclusions extending from the
reaction rim into the substance of the quartzite.
No instances were found of the xenoliths having completely reacted with
the magma, but it is thought feldspathic patches and veins in a similar basalt
from Mt. Wanganderry (about five miles to the west of High Range) may
represent the final product of such a process.
QUARTZITE XENOLITHS IN TERTIARY MAGMAS OF SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS. 91
(b) The Mt. Flora Dolerite.
The Mt. Flora dolerite occurs in the form of a sill domed upwards by the
intrusion of a laccolithic body of solvsbergitic rock beneath it. It is only
where the dolerite is in contact with the Hawkesbury Sandstone that it contains
‘quartzitic xenoliths, often in great numbers. It is not difficult to find specimens
in which the proportion of xenolithic material is greater than that of the host
rock.
Normally, the non-xenolithic phase is essentially a teschenitic rock having
a fairly coarse grain-size and consisting of intermediate labradorite, pyroxene,
serpentine representing original olivine, and such accessories as titaniferous
magnetite, apatite, biotite and abundant analcite. The xenolithic phase,
however, has a rather different character in that there is no analcite, and the
pyroxene and feldspar are generally deeply altered to carbonate and chlorite.
The quartzite xenoliths range in size from 1mm. to 1 cm., and are commonly
highly irregular in outline, with large embayments clearly visible even in hand-
specimen. In thin-section the xenoliths are again surrounded by striking reaction
rims up to 2 mm. wide and consisting of an inner zone of turbid alkali-feldspathic
material, now largely replaced by calcite, and an outer zone of prismatic clino--
pyroxenes altering to carbonate and chlorite. One of the smaller xenoliths
from the Mt. Flora dolerite is illustrated in Plate IV, Fig. 2. In places the
pyroxenic mantles have been disrupted and it is apparent that in such regions
the feldspathic material of the inner zone was migrating into the surrounding
dolerite.
The quartz grains of the xenoliths have frequently developed a remarkably
good rectilinear cleavage, generally confined to the area of the bubble streams
present in these xenoliths as in those of the High Range basalt. Thin veins
of epidote cutting across the xenoliths are common, and veins and lenses of
calcite are even more abundant, in fact the xenolithic quartzite is quite often
almost completely replaced by masses of crystalline carbonate. This process
of replacement seems to have operated at a late stage in the cooling history of
the rock.
TABLE l.
Values of the Optic Axial Angles of Pyroxenes
from the Xenolithic and Non-axenolithic Phases
of the Mt. Flora Dolerite, illustrating the
Relatively Subcalcic Nature of those from the
Xenolithic Phase.
Optic Angle (2V)
Pyroxenes of Pyroxenes of
Non-xenolithic Xenolithic
Phase. Phase.
51° 48°
49° 46°
56° 47°
54° 42°
Bowen (1922a) holds that the addition of siliceous xenoliths to a basie
magma tends to decrease the amount of olivine and to increase the magnesia.
content of the pyroxene and the anorthite content of the plagioclase. The
character of the Mt. Flora dolerite supports this theory, in that the serpentine
pseudomorphs after olivine, so common in the non-xenolithic phase, are com-
pletely absent from the xenolithic phase. Also, the pyroxenes of the xenolithic
phase are slightly subcalcic relative to those of the normal rock type (see Table 1).
92 ROBERT STEVENS.
The fact that there is no significant difference in the composition of the plagio-
clases from each type indicates that the xenoliths were taken up at a time too
late to influence the course of crystallization of the feldspar.
IV. DISCUSSION.
(a) The Process of Reaction.
The reactions of quartzite xenoliths with the enclosing magma have received
considerable attention in the abundant literature since about 1890 (see Daly,
1933, table 37, p. 299). In most cases it has been shown that the xenolithic
material has in some way been incorporated in the magma, but the processes
through which this has been achieved have been the subject of considerable
Speculation.
The simplest theory postulates direct fusion of the xenolith by magmatic
superheat with subsequent incorporation in the liquid magma. Daly (1933,
p. 307) suggests that ‘‘ hundreds of cubic kilometers of Sialic rock ’’ may be
incorporated in a single basaltic injection by this means. However, the role of
direct fusion in assimilative processes is now generally discounted (Bowen,
1922a).- A point arising from consideration of the Reaction Series (Bowen,
19226) would indicate that direct fusion is at least theoretically possible in those
cases where the added minerals are lower in the Reaction Series than the minerals
crystallizing from the magma at the time of addition. As a development of
this theory, Bowen (1928) suggests that a low-melting fraction of granitic
composition (alkali feldspar and quartz) is withdrawn from the xenolith into the
liquid phase of the magma, leaving behind a recrystallized residue of the excess
silica, alumina and lime originally present in the xenolith. The heat required
for these ‘‘ stewing ’’ processes can only be provided by an increased precipita-
tion of those minerals with which the magma is saturated. In view of the fact
that the quartzite xenoliths contain no substances capable of recombining to
form a granitic fraction, it follows that no such reaction could have taken place
in the present instance.
Bowen (1922b) has shown, however, that minerals higher in the Reaction
Series can be made over into those phases with which the magma is saturated
by a process of ionic reaction with the magma itself. It is by means of chemical
rather than physical reaction that the assimilation of the quartzitic xenoliths
has been accomplished. Also, it is necessary to postulate the addition of certain
substances to the xenoliths, for only by such a process of metasomatic reaction
can they have been converted into magmatic phases.
(b) Origin of the Reaction Rims.
As indicated above, the xenoliths are surrounded by an inner reaction
rim of glass and/or alkali feldspar, and an outer rim of closely packed, small
prismatic clinopyroxenes. The outer pyroxene zone, though more striking in
appearance, is more readily explained than is the inner reaction rim. The
author does not consider the pyroxene zone to constitute a reaction rim sensu
stricto since, in his opinion, no chemical reaction between the magma and the
xenolith was involved in its formation. It is due, rather, to the operation of
purely physical (or, if the reader prefers to consider them as such, physico-
chemical) processes as will be explained below.
The absence of marked contact alteration, apart from a moderate degree
of induration at the immediate contact, in the sediments through and into which
these magmas were injected, together with faulting contemporaneous with
intrusion, attest to rapid emplacement and cooling. The character of the
consolidated igneous rocks indicates, too, that they were intruded in an essen-
tially fluid condition. One may assume, therefore, that under these conditions
QUARTZITE XENOLITHS IN TERTIARY MAGMAS OF SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS. 93
accidental inclusions of country rock would be quite cool in contrast to the
high temperature of the magma. The temperature of these fragments must be
raised to that of the enclosing magma if they remain in contact with it for any
length of time and, in so doing they will absorb a certain amount of heat from
their surroundings. As we have seen, heat can only be supplied from the magma
by an increased precipitation of those minerals with which it is saturated. It
is suggested that in this and similar cases the xenoliths were taken into the
magma at a time when it was saturated with respect to pyroxene, that is, very
early in its crystallization history, and that the heat required to raise the
temperature of the fragments and to ensure the continuation of true reaction
was supplied by the crystallization of pyroxene in their immediate vicinity as a
peripheral corona.
It now remains to account for the origin of the zone of feldspathic and
glassy reaction material so characteristically present between the pyroxene
corona and the quartz. This zone constitutes a true reaction rim, and as
indicated above, reaction in such cases as these can only take place by way of
metasomatic addition of magmatic substances to the xenoliths. Such a process
was invoked quite early in the century by Lacroix (1903) to explain the feld-
spathization of quartz-granulite xenoliths in a nephelinite from Drevain. In
1907 Campbell and Stenhouse (p. 133) indicated that reaction has involved the
addition of alkalis to the xenoliths, while in more recent times D. L. Reynolds
(1936, 1940, 1946), Holmes (1936) and Muir (1953) have ably demonstrated the
importance of metasomatic reaction in the transfusion of quartzitic xenoliths.
Holmes’ investigations in the basic and ultrabasic lavas of south-west
Uganda (1936, p. 416) show that the production of a reaction glass by meta-
somatic replacement of the quartz has resulted from the introduction of K,O,
Al,O, and H,O in proportions very different from those in which they could
have been present in the magma. He has shown that the reaction corresponds
chemically to the feldspathization of the quartzite. Holmes (p. 417) also draws
attention to the fact ‘‘ that the composition of the lavas is no more than a rough
guide to the composition the magmatic material from which the migrating
emanations were actually given off’’. The volatiles, for instance, which must
have had considerable influence on the course of chemical reactions within the
magma, have been largely lost during the later stages in the cooling history of
these rocks. Moreover, Reynolds (1936, p. 397) considers that it is unlikely
that the migrating units were oxides. It is more probable that they were free
ions, or those ions in some way combined with the fluxing volatiles.
The initial formation of a reaction glass of feldspathic composition at the
interface between the xenolith and the magma is no doubt a reaction governed
by the laws of surface chemistry, the reactants being supplied by migration of
Al,O;, K,O and H,O (or the appropriate ions) from their source environment
to the interface. Having migrated into this position they are adsorbed on the
quartz surface and are then ready to participate in reactions of chemical com-
bination or replacement. The nature and degree of activity of the minor
magmatic constituents in a catalytic capacity in these reactions is an unknown
factor, but Ramberg (1952, p. 206) tells us that they consist mainly of H,O, CO,,
F, Cl, S, B and other substances which ‘‘ tend to be concentrated in the inter-
granular adsorbed phase ...’’ He goes on to state that ‘‘ these substances
generally have relatively high vapour pressure and are weakly bonded in or on
the silicate lattices ’’.
It has been demonstrated (Muir, 1953) that the pyroxenic corona has
developed around the quartz prior to the formation of the reaction rim. Such a
zone of radiating prismatic pyroxenes cannot hinder the diffusion of ions to the
quartz surface since, no matter how tighlty packed they may be, there are always
94 ROBERT STEVENS.
inter-crystal boundaries to provide channels for migrating fluids or particles.
After the formation of the first layer of reaction products, even though only a
few molecules in thickness, we are faced with the problem of transporting the
reactants through this outer insulating mantle so that transfusion may proceed
inwards from the margins to the centre of the xenoliths, as it assuredly does.
The writer considers that this process is governed by the concept of chemical
potentials. The quartz of the xenolith contains very little or no Al,O, or K,O,
while the surrounding magma has a relatively high concentration of these
substances. Such material will, therefore, migrate towards the quartz under
the influence of the resulting potential gradient. Once a feldspathic reaction
rim has formed there is an even more marked concentration gradient across the
interface between the inner surface of the feldspathic rim and the quartz, so
that the tendency for Al,O, and K,O to leave the reaction rim and cross the
interface to the quartz is increased. This, in turn, creates a deficiency in these
substances at the outer margin of the reaction rim. In consequence of this, the
concentration gradient between the reaction rim and the magma is maintained
despite the higher total concentration of Al,O, and K,O in the reaction rim.
There is, therefore, a continued migration of material from the magma to the
rim to replace that lost to the quartz on the inner side of the reaction zone. In
this manner transfusion can proceed towards the centre of the xenolith until
falling temperature puts a stop to further reaction and/or migration. A particu-
larly interesting case has been described by Fromm (1891) of the formation
of nepheline rims around quartz xenocrysts in the Herzstein basanitoid. Such
a phenomenon records the migration in over-abundance, and at a rate faster
than the quartz— feldspar reaction can use them up, of alkalis and alumina from
an originally highly alkaline magma.
Why is it that the product of transfusion is almost invariably a potash-rich
glass, feldspar or feldspathoid (rarely), even when the magma is a dominantly
sodic one? Ramberg (1952), discussing the relative diffusibility of different
particles, has shown that at temperatures above 500°C. potassium is more
mobile than sodium, while at lower temperatures sodium is the more mobile
ion. This may in some way be bound up with the effects of solvation on the
sizes of the different ions. Ramberg suggests that the process may be akin to
the diffusion of small particles through a semi-permeable membrane which
holds back some while allowing others to pass freely. In lavas, at any rate,
these reactions take place at temperatures probably higher than 500° C, thus
accounting for the predominance of K,O over Na,O in the reaction products.
The fact that an elevation of temperature may and, in the case of quartz,
does change the dimensions of the crystal lattice has been clearly demonstrated
(see, for example, Wykoff, 1926). X-ray investigations have shown that the
dimensions of the unit cell of beta-quartz (above 572° C.) are greater than those
of alpha-quartz and it is possible that such expansions of crystal lattices may
well reduce resistance to diffusion of ions through them and will increase the
reactivity of the crystalline substances by a general weakening of the bonds.
The glassy nature of the reaction rim in its present state would indicate that it
may have been at least semi-fluid at the time of its formation. This fluidity
may well have been due to the fluxing properties of the ‘“‘ fugitive constituents ”’
(Shand, 1927) which tend to be concentrated in the reaction zone. Whatever
the origin of this condition, however, a zone of fluid reaction material would
offer little resistance to the diffusion of ions to the quartz/magma interface.
Apart from the differing diffusion rates of sodium and potassium, there is
another factor which may be at least partly responsible for the preferential
early development of a potash-rich reaction product. This is a simple reversal
of the Reaction Series (Bowen, 1922b), in which the normal sequence with decreas-
ing temperature is from calcic -plagioclase, through alkali feldspar, to quartz.
QUARTZITE XENOLITHS IN TERTIARY MAGMAS OF SOUTHERN HIGHLANDS. 95
If reaction commences at the quartz end of this series by the addition of potash,
alumina, etc., together with an elevation of temperature, quartz will be replaced
by potash feldspar and the potash feldspar by sodic feldspar if the reaction
progresses beyond the first stage. Observations supporting this hypothesis
are not difficult to find. Reynolds (1936, p. 381) notes that albite sometimes
replaces potash feldspar in the reaction rims after the formation of the latter
mineral. Muir (1953, p. 419) records a similar phenomenon associated with the
xenoliths in the Ballachulish granodiorite. These examples demonstrate that
that part of the reaction rim longest in contact with the magma is made over
into phases higher in the Reaction Series, while on the inner side of the rim those
reactions forming the lowest possible member of the Reaction Series continue the
transfusion of the xenolith.
V. PETROGENETIC SIGNIFICANCE.
Most authors agree that the material generated by the transfusion of
quartzite can become mobile, the final result depending upon whether or not the
transfused material is assimilated by the magma. If the transfusion product is
assimilated and becomes part of the magma, there is little or no effect upon the
immediate course of differentiation. The main effect is to increase considerably
the quantity of ‘“ granitic ’’ residual material formed in the later stages of
differentiation (Turner and Verhoogen, 1951). This will find expression in one
or other of two possible ways: (1) by the development of a micropegmatitic or
otherwise quartz-rich interstitial differentiate, or (2) in the formation of especially
siliceous late differentiates as separate rock types. Daly has compiled a list of
reported cases of assimilation of highly siliceous sediments up to 1933. His
table (Table 37, p. 299) illustrates the above statements when the examples are
rearranged according to the nature of the differentiation products.
In those cases where the transfusion products are not assimilated the final
result is similar, though the path by which it is reached is a very different one.
The transfused material remains as a separate phase within the enclosing magma
and, being largely fluid, constitutes a syntectic magma. Reynolds (1936) has
described this process in considerable detail in her account of the transfusion
' of quartzite xenoliths in the hornblendite of Kiloran Bay, Colonsay. Here the
development of syntectic magma has gone so far as to result in the formation
of a network of feldspathic veins through the hornblendite and ‘* without the
evidence of complete exposure, this small portion would hardly fail to be inter-
preted as resulting from the invasion of solid hornblendite by a feldspathic
magma ’’. She also observes that the appearance of this occurrence is very
similar to rock bodies which have generally been interpreted as being due to
magmatic differentiation or multiple intrusion. In Colonsay, at all events, the
vein material was in fact a syntectic magma, and the appinite and syenite
resulting from transfusion are chemically, mineralogically and texturally normal
igneous rocks (Reynolds, 1936, p. 395).
The draining off of this syntectic magma, with subsequent concentration
in some one part of the igneous mass, will result in the formation of a body of
apparently igneous rock having a seemingly younger age than the main intrusion.
In such a way at least some of those cases of ‘‘ magmatic differentiation ’’ may
be explained where the later acid differentiate exhibits sharp, even intrusive
contacts with the basic parent magma.
VI. SUMMARY.
Quartzite xenoliths from the High Range basalt and the Mt. Flora dolerite
have been described. Reaction rims consisting of an outer zone of prismatic
clinopyroxenes and an inner zone of glass and/or alkali feldspar have been
96 ROBERT STEVENS. |
developed around the xenoliths. It has been shown that only the inner zone is a
true reaction rim and that it has resulted from metasomatic transfusion of the
quartzite. The mechanism of this reaction has been explained in terms of ionic
diffusion, concentration gradients and a possible reversal of Bowen’s Reaction
Series. The effects of assimilation of quartzite xenoliths on the differentiation
trends in the host rock have been discussed and it has been shown that failure
to assimilate the transfusion products may result in the formation of a syntectic
magma.
The author wishes to express his gratitude to Dr. G. A. Joplin from the
Australian National University and Miss J. Phillips from the University of
Sydney for their help and useful criticisms in the preparation of the manuscript.
The accompanying photomicrographs were prepared by Mr. D. E. Havenstein.
VII. REFERENCES.
Bowen, N. L., 1922a. ‘‘ The Behaviour of Inclusions in Igneous Magmas.’’ Amer. J. Sci.,
30, 513-570.
19226. ‘‘ The Reaction Principle in Petrogenesis.”?> Amer. J. Sci., 30, 177-198.
1928. ‘“‘ The Evolution of the Igneous Rocks.’’ Princeston Univ. Press,
Princeston, N.J.
Campbell, R., and Stenhouse, A. G., 1907. ‘“‘ The Geology of Inchcolm.”’ Trans. Edinburgh
Geol. Soc., 9, 121-134.
Daly, R. A., 1933. ‘‘ Igneous Rocks and the Depths of the Earth.’”’ 2nd Ed. McGraw-Hill,
N.Y.
Fromm, O., 1891. ‘‘ Petrographische Untersuchung von Basatten aus der Gegend von Cassel.”
Zeits. Deut. Geol. Gesell, 43, 43-76.
Holmes, A., 1936. ‘‘ Transfusion of Quartz Xenoliths in Alkali-basic and Ultrabasic Lavas,
South-West Uganda.” Miner. Mag., 24, 408-421.
Lacroix, A., 1903. ‘‘ Note sur le Néphélinite du Drevain.” Bull. Soc. hist. nat. Autun., 16,
134-140.
Muir, I. D., 1953. ‘‘ Quartzite Xenoliths from the Ballachulish Granodiorite.” Geol. Mag.,
90, 6, 409-428.
Ramberg, H., 1952. ‘‘ The Origin of Metamorphic and Metasomatic Rocks.” Univ. Chicago
Press, Ill.
Reynolds, D. L., 1936. ‘‘ Demonstrations in Petrogenesis from Kiloran Bay, Colonsay.
I. The Transfusion of Quartzite.’’ Miner. Mag., 24, 367-407.
1940. ‘‘ Contact Metamorphism by a Tertiary Dyke at Waterfoot, Co.
Antrim.” Geol. Mag., 77, 461-469.
1946. ‘‘ The Sequence of Geochemical Changes Leading to Granitisation.”
Quart. J. Geol. Soc. Lond., 102, 389-446.
Shand, S. J., 1927. ‘‘ Eruptive Rocks.’ Woodbridge Press, Guildford.
Turner, F. J., and Verhoogen, J., 1951. ‘‘ Igneous and Metamorphic Petrology.”” McGraw-Hill,
N.Y:
Wykoff, R. W. G., 1926. ‘‘ The Crystal Structure of the High Temperature (8-) Modification
of Quartz.’’ Amer. J. Sci., 11, ser. 5, 101-112.
EXPLANATION OF PLATE IV.
Fig. 1.—Quartz xenolith from High Range basalt showing outer prismatic pyroxene corona and
a thin inner zone of turbid glass between the corona and the quartz. Fractures and bubble
streams traverse the xenolith in sub-radial arrangement. Ordinary light, X35.
Fig. 2.—Partly transfused quartzite xenolith from the Mt. Flora dolerite. Zone (P) consists
essentially of small prismatic pyroxenes ; zone (F) of alkali feldspar and glass ; zone (Q) of
quartz. Cleavages have developed in the central bubble-charged region of the xenolith.
Ordinary light, X35.
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DXXXVIII, 1954, Plate IV
PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS FROM THE
TURON RIVER-COOLAMIGAL CREEK DISTRICT, N.S.W.
By KeitH A. W. CROOK, B.Sc.,
(Deas-Thomson Scholar, University of Sydney.)
Manuscript received, November 8, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954.
INTRODUCTION.
Initial work in the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek district was incorporated
in an honours thesis at the University of Sydney (Crook, 1953). The author
wishes to acknowledge the interest and assistance rendered by Messrs. G. H.
Packham and D. K. Tompkins and the late Dr. H. Rutledge.
The area dealt with (see Text-fig. 1) is situated immediately to the west of
the Ben Bullen Complex described by Joplin (1936), and incorporates portions
of the parishes of Ben Bullen, Coolamigal, Turon and Cullen Bullen, the major
part lying in Portions 15 and 54 of the Parish of Coolamigal, County of Roxburgh.
Wilkinson (1887, p. 57) appears to have been the first to mention the
sediments in this district. He referred to them as Devonian, in which he was
followed by Carne (1908, p. 61). Joplin (1935) referred to the limestones in
the Ben Bullen Complex as Middle or Upper Devonian. She included a brief
description of the associated ‘ areno-argillaceous series ’’ (1935, p. 368), but
came to no conclusions concerning their age. She did, however, consider the
rocks to be possibly tuffaceous.
SUMMARY OF STRATIGRAPHY AND STRUCTURE.
The oldest rocks in the area are. andesitic volcanics and shales outcropping
for some distance along Coolamigal Creek. These rocks occur again on the
western edge of the area, where the shales contain fossils of Lower or Lower
Middle Silurian age. The assemblage contains some new forms, the genera
represented being Tryplasma, Syringopora, Heliolites, Rhizophyllum, Cystiphyllum
and Hnecrinurus ? bowningensis. Shales containing a similar assemblage,
including Tryplasma lonsdalet, Halysites and H. bowningensis, occur associated
with the volcanics further to the west in the valley of Palmer’s Oaky Creek.
The age of the volcanics is thus probably near the top of the Lower Silurian.
The volcanics consist of pyroxene-andesites of the type common in central
western N.S.W., with interbedded tuffs and agglomerates. In the vicinity of
the fault on Coolamigal Creek, an agglomerate has suffered shearing and replace-
ment, the contained blocks being silicified.
The volcanics are overlain, apparently conformably, by a sequence of Gray-
wacke Suite sediments, chiefly arenites but with minor amounts of coarser and
finer types. These are dealt with more fully below.
Overlying these, with apparent unconformity, are unfossiliferous ortho-
quartzites, which are provisionally assigned to the Upper Devonian. They are
pale grey, fine grained rocks which outcrop only on a high hill top in the southern
portion of the area.
No Permian rocks occur in the area, although they are well developed a
mile or so to the east. To the south and west isolated hill tops are capped with
98 KEITH A. W. CROOK.
| GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP OF THE COOLAMIGAL
; CK-TURON R. DISTRICT, a
HOLOCENE
ANlueies UPPER DEVONIAN? |
URIAN }|baz|] Quartzites age Uiinoatt |
Volcanics eé@
ha
miles
Graywackes
FAULTS
DIPS
DIRECTION
‘> VA
527 / /@
vv vVVV a
VV Vv Vo 2 ea Ve
Text-fig. 1.
PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS. 99
Permian conglomerates and shales at levels topographically lower than the
Upper Devonian.
Holocene gravels, sands and muds occur along the course of the Turon
River and its tributaries. Some of these deposits are fossil, whilst others are
still being formed.
Igneous rocks are widespread, generally as dykes and sills. LLamprophyres,
frequently more or less altered, are of common occurrence. In the south there
occurs a large area of very much altered igneous rock, apparently intrusive.
It is probable that there is a major thrust fault striking slightly west of
south down the valley of Coolamigal Creek. The outcrop of the fault plane has
not been observed, but the shearing of the andesites and the abrupt changes in
lithology, coupled with the appearance of wedges of graywacke surrounded by
sheared andesite, indicates the presence of a fault of some magnitude.
On the western side of the fault, dips have a fairly constant direction to the
west or north-west, except in the lower portions of Coolamigal Creek, where
much minor folding has occurred. Here the axes of the folds dip towards 325°
at about 50°, indicating that the major pressure came from the north-west.
On the eastern side of the fault some beds are overturned, at up to 55°,
whilst others are quite normal. This may be due to a series of tight overturned
folds with axes dipping to the north-west at about 30°.
The strike of the graywackes, relative to the distribution of the volcanics,
suggests that there may be a fault separating them in the south. In the south-
west, on Short Cut Creek, a fault brings the volcanics and graywackes in contact.
The associated shearing is on a much smaller scale than that observed near the
Coolamigal Creek fault.
SEDIMENTS.
‘The sediments overlying the volcanics are of the Graywacke Suite, as defined
by Packham (1954), whose classification is followed herein. Graded bedding is
common in the more labile members, whilst the more quartzose frequently
contain shale pebbles. Slump structures, micro-current-bedding (confined to
the coarser layers) and load casts are associated with the graded bedding.
In hand specimen these sediments—lutites excepted—are very dark green
or black, although some of the more quartzose types may be varying shades of
grey or yellow-brown.
In dealing with these rocks 27 thin sections have been cut from specimens
collected from widely spaced localities. Micrometric analyses of 16 of these
are tabulated in Table 1 and plotted on Text-figure 2. On thin section examina-
tion the sediments can be divided into two major groups without much difficulty.
These were called ‘‘ graywacke ”’ and *‘ subgraywacke ”’, and each group can be
further subdivided on texture. These names, given on thin section study, which
are shown by the key symbols on Text-figure 2, show a high degree of correlation
with the names decided from plotting the results of the micrometric analyses.
All specimens and slides are housed in the museum of the Department of Geology
and Geophysics, University of Sydney.
(a) The Labile Graywackes.
The coarsest of these are rudites, or polymictic breccias (Pettijohn, 1949,
p. 196), which are poorly sorted, grain diameter ranging from 0-1 mm. to 4 cm.,
most of the material being between 3and6mm. The paste or matrix is generally
subordinate, although in W19 it forms almost half the rock due to an abundance
of silt sized feldspar, and also possibly to shearing.
The arenites show a greater development of paste than the rudites. A thin
section mechanical analysis, following Packham’s method (in press), was carried
KEITH A. W. CROOK.
100
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PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS. 101
out, but, due to a tendency of many of the fragments to merge imperceptibly
into the chloritic paste, the results are not of great accuracy. Values of the
geometric measures of the specimen examined are:
Sorting coefficient, 1-99. Skewness, 0-79.
The siltites are difficult to deal with, due to their high percentage of paste.
In texture they vary greatly, some passing into chloritic silty shales.
Quartz is generally the best rounded constituent of the labile rudites and
arenites (see Table 2). This also applies to the siltites. Rock fragments and
feldspar are usually quite angular. :
KEY.
PASTE GRAYWACKE BRECCIA +
GRAYWACKE x
GRAYWACKE SILTSTONE
SUBGRAYWACKE fc)
SUBGW SILTSTONE -+-
{
(ej
FELDSPAR and QUARTZ &
ROCK FRAGMENTS HEAVIES
’ Text-fig. 2.
Rock fragments are a major constituent of these rocks, many varieties being
represented. Of these the most characteristic and abundant is an altered ophitic
dolerite. Its feldspar is untwinned albite, containing acicular inclusions, and
the ferromagnesian mineral, probably augite originally, is replaced by isotropic
green chlorite. Minor amounts of iron ore are present. The widespread
occurrence of this dolerite, coupled with its distinctive appearance, suggests
that it may be of value in correlation problems.
This dolerite, together with radiolarite and fine aphyric volcanics, is present
in more than 80% of the rudites and arenites. Some arenites (W4) and most
siltites contain only fine grained volcanics and silty shale fragments.
Also present in the rudites are fine black feldspathic ‘‘ tuff ’’ with radio-
laria, porphyritic volcanics, recrystallised limestone and siltstone. The pyroxene
bearing arenites contain an unusual assemblage, which includes intergranular
102 KEITH A. W. CROOK.
basalt, porphyritic andesite—generally with hornblende and feldspar phenocrysts,
devitrified spherulitic pitchstone and minor amounts of recrystallised limestone.
Feldspar is widespread, although uncommon in all rudites save W19. It is
generally clear albite with acicular inclusions, and has probably been derived
from the ophitic dolerite. Smaller amounts of more altered twinned feldspar,
an acid plagioclase, are also present. This is developed to the exclusion of the
clear albite in W4.
TABLE 2.
Roundness Values of Grains.
(Using Visual Chart, Krumbein and Sloss, 1951, p. 81.)
Roundness Values.
Nature of Grains.
Majority of Large Grains.
Grains.
Rock fragments in Graywacke Breccia 0-1-0-4 0-8
Quartz, in Graywacke Breccia 0-5-0°9 —_—
(W19 0-1-0-5) —
Rock fragments, Labile Graywacke 0-1-0-3 0-5
Feldspar, in Labile Graywacke os 0-2-0-4 -—
Amphibole and Pyroxene paeu peer? 0-2-0-4 —
Quartz, in Labile Graywacke : 0-5-0-9 —
Quartz, in Subgraywacke 0-1-0°5 _
The quartz, which is not common, appears to be entirely of igneous or vein
origin. Strings of bubbles are frequent, and composite grains are met with.
Extinction is generally undulose. No signs of secondary enlargement have
been observed. The quartz in W4 contains occasional inclusions of muscovite.
TABLE 3.
Results of Mechanical Analyses.
O6, Labile Graywacke. Q28, Subgraywacke.
Cumulative Percentage. Cumulative Percentage.
Class Limits. Class Limits.
(mm.) (mm.)
Observed. Corrected. _| Observed. Corrected.
0-0835 100-0 100-0 0-0105 100-0 100-0
0-0835—0- 167 72°3 78°4 0-0105—0- 0385 61-8 62-9
0-167 —0-334 57-6 65-5 0-0385—0- 0665 41-7 49-5
0-334 —0-501 31-2 39-6 0- 0665-0 - 0945 19-7 24-9
0-501 —0-668 13-5 18-3 0-0945-0- 119 10-9 16-9
0-668 4°5 7:2 0-119 4-6 8-0
Certain of the arenites (C19b and Q26) contain appreciable amounts of
pale green clinopyroxene and a little amphibole. In C19b limited amounts of
detrital bright green chlorite are present. The amphibole is pleochroic: X,
brown; Y and Z, deep brownish green; 2V (—) about 30°, and is very dis-
tinctive. Occasional small grains of amphibole, associated with bright green
chlorite, have been met with in the siltites.
PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS. 103
The paste, or matrix, is chloritic, but may be converted to biotite by
metamorphism, as in W4. In passing it may be noted that W4, which is
anomalous in many respects, comes from a well-defined bed, devoid of internal
bedding, associated with the overturned fold and slump structure referred to
below.
(b) The Sublabile Graywackes and Subgraywackes.
No rudaceous representatives of these have been found, and the arenites
are appreciably finer than their labile graywacke counterparts, and contain
much silt (Text-fig. 3). Mechanical analysis (Table 3, Text-fig. 3) shows a
polymodal distribution of the grains, which is probably characteristic of these
arenites.
The siltites are not so common as their labile graywacke equivalents, and
show an increase in paste and detritial muscovite over the arenites.
The roundness values of the quartz in these sediments (Table 2) is lower
than that of the quartz in the labile graywackes. There is little difference in
roundness between the arenites and siltites.
100
x
>
UO
Ze
ul ie:
= er 4
re, mee
: 50 9°
re wa : a — GRAYWACKE
____—_ _— SUBGRAYWACKE
¢ Observed Values
® Corrected Values
1! 6 .6 24 -1 .08 -.O5 -O3 Ol 005
GRAIN SIZE IN MILLIMETERS
Text-fig. 3.
The most important constituent of these rocks is quartz. The apparent
sphericity of all grains is high, and trails of bubbles and undulose extinctions
are frequent.
Rock fragments and feldspar are only minor constituents, the former
being mainly fragments of shale and siltstone, and, very occasionally, igneous
rocks. Microcline, twinned plagioclase and an untwinned feldspar, probably
orthoclase, are present.
A characteristic feature of these rocks is the heavy mineral assemblage.
Micrometric analyses show the rocks may contain up to 1-5% of heavies.
In thin section the following stand out: (1) abundant apatite; (2) blue
and yellow tourmaline abundant ; (3) zircon subordinate ; (4) rutile present in
only minor amounts. The abundance of apatite is quite striking, and may
prove diagnostic for rocks of this age.
The matrix, or paste, is partly chloritic and partly sericitic, and may sontnin
considerable amounts of comminuted muscovite. Occasional large fragments
of muscovite are present.
I
104 KEITH A. W. CROOK.
Alteration.
Alteration is restricted to low temperature diagenetic effects. Authigenic
pyrite is widely developed, generally euhedral, and is not restricted to any
particular rock type. Quartz-chlorite and quartz-carbonate veins occur
frequently, the chlorite being generally vermicular penninite. The carbonate
may be either ankerite or siderite.
SEDIMENTATION.
In dealing with the sedimentation, two sets of features are important :
sedimentary structures and composition of the sediments.
Following Kuenen (1953), use has been made of certain sedimentary
structures to determine the direction of provenance. Three determinations are
shown on Text-figure 1. That shown on Jew’s Creek was determined by calculat-
ing the direction of dip of a layer of micro-current-bedded material, allowing
for folding. This gives the direction of current flow, in this case 130°. This
value, subject to the qualifications below, may be taken as the direction of
provenance.
Two other determinations have been made, both using slump structures.
In these cases the direction of provenance is the same as the direction of slumping.
The northern occurrence gives a value of 225°. The southern occurrence is
on the overturned limb of a tight minor fold, and the direction in this case
is 60°.
Because of the small number of determinations it would be inadvisable to
draw any firm conclusions regarding direction of provenance. The variations
in direction observed may be due to:
(1) Variations in the direction of provenance during the deposition of the
sequence, such that some members were derived from one direction and
some from another.
(2) Variations in the topography of the sea floor causing currents and
slumps to have directions other than normal to the shore line.
Bearing these possibilities in mind, there is evidence that the sediments
in the north were derived from the north-east, whilst those in the south came
from the west.
The composition of the sediments gives some idea of the lithology of the
terrain from which they were derived. Several of the rock types represented
have their equivalents in the Lower Silurian of the Palmer’s Oaky district.
They may not have been derived from this region, for similar rocks may well
be present beneath the younger sediments to the east. The radiolarite,
feldspathic “ tuff’’ and several of the volcanics, particularly the andesites,
are similar to those to the west, but some types, notably the dolerite and inter-
granular basalt, have not been found in that region.
Erosion and deposition of the material was swift, as is shown by low round-
ness values, and the presence of unweathered pyroxene, amphibole and reck
fragments. The presence of unweathered euhedral pyrite in radiolarite fragments
in 23 also indicates this.
The nature of the quartz and the presence of quartzose members raises
some problems. Many of the quartz fragments in the labile members are well
rounded, indicating an appreciable distance of transport. The absence of
secondary enlargement renders derivation from a pre-existing sediment unlikely.
The quartz seems to be of plutonic igneous or vein origin, and the presence
of minor amounts of microcline in the subgraywackes suggests that part came
from a granitic terrain. It should also be noticed that veins of milky quartz
PETROLOGY OF GRAYWACKE SUITE SEDIMENTS. 105
are of frequent occurrence throughout the Ordovician and Silurian of central
western N.S.W.
The quartzose members are not shoe-string sands (Pettijohn, 1949, p. 257),
and their composition differs radically from the labile members ; they probably
represent definite influxes of material from a quartz-rich terrain. They do not
appear to be of cyclic occurrence.
CONCLUSIONS.
(1) The sediments developed in the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek district
include a sequence of graywackes of probable Middle Silurian age.
(2) Rock fragments present in the labile members are of types similar to
rocks outcropping in the Lower Silurian to the west.
(3) The detrital quartz is of plutonic igneous and vein origin, and that in
the quartzose members has probably been derived from a granitic terrain.
(4) Fragments of a distinctive type of altered ophitic dolerite are common
in the labile members. This may be valuable for correlation purposes.
(5) Apatite is abundant in the subgraywackes, and this may be of value in
correlation problems.
(6) Use of sedimentary structures as indices of provenance shows that the
sediments in the north may have come from the north-east, and those in the
south may have come from the west.
More detailed examination of this area would provide a much fuller picture
. of the sedimentation and sediments than that presented here. Circumstances,
however, do not permit the author to continue this investigation, and he feels
it best to publish the results obtained to date for the reference of future workers.
REFERENCES.
Carne, J. E., 1908. ‘‘ The Geology and Mineral Resources of the Western Coalfield.’’ Geol.
Surv. N.S.W., Mem. 6.
Crook, K. A. W., 1953. ‘‘ The Geology of the Mt. Horrible-Palmer’s Oaky-Coolamigal Creek
District.’”” Unpublished B.Sc. Honours Thesis, University of Sydney.
Joplin, G. A., 1935. ‘‘ The Exogenous Contact Zone at Ben Bullen, New South Wales.”’ Geol.
Mag., 72, 385-400.
—-——_—_———— 1936. ‘‘ The Ben Bullen Plutonic Complex, N.S.W.”? TuHis JouRNAL, 70, 69-94.
Krumbein, W. C., and Sloss, L. L., 1951. ‘‘ Stratigraphy and Sedimentation.’’ Freeman and
Sons, San Francisco.
Kuenen, Ph. H., 1953. ‘‘ Significant Features of Graded Bedding.’ Bull. Am. Assoc. Pet. Geol.,
37, 1044-1066.
Packham, G. H., 1954. ‘“‘ Sedimentary Structures as an Important Feature in the Classi-
fication of Sandstones.’”? Amer. Jour. Sci., 212, 466-476.
-——— “Volume, Weight and Number Frequency Analysis of Sediments from Thin
Section Data.’ Jour. Geol. (In press.)
Pettijohn, F. J., 1949. ‘‘ Sedimentary Rocks.’ Harper, New York.
Wilkinson, C. S., 1887. ‘‘ Mineral Products of New South Wales.” 2nd Ed.
THE Hate pon COAL MEASURES OF THE STROUD-GLOUCESTER
TROUGH.
By F. C. LOUGHNAN, B.Sc.
School of ce Engineering and Applied Geology,
N.S.W. University of Technology.
With Plate V.
Manuscript received, November 8, 1954. Read, December 1, 1954.
INTRODUCTION.
Since the discovery of coal in 1855 by Odenheimer some seven miles or so
to the north of Stroud Road, little in the way of systematic work has been
attempted in the development of this coal basin.
David visited the basin in 1889 and reported on coal seams in the Johnson’s
and Stoney Creek areas, but these examinations were too cursory to have effected
any correlation of the strata. Sussmilch, in 1921, described the Devonian and
Carboniferous stratigraphy in addition to making important contributions
towards a better understanding of the structures at the northern end of the
Trough, and later in the same year Morrison inspected coal outcrops along the
Gloucester River, within the town itself, and reported on shafts near the Avon
River, to the east of the town.
Since 1922, Osborne, in his efforts to elucidate the complicated structural
history of the Hunter-Myall-Manning Province, has been brought into contact
with the coal measures on many occasions, but, as these deposits lay beyond the
scope of his research, little attention was paid to them.
~The present paper is principally concerned with the stratigraphy, economic
potentialities and related aspects of the coal measures.
PHYSIOGRAPHY.
As a section is devoted to structures, at this point it will suffice merely to
mention the general synclinal nature of the strata which strike meridionally,
dipping toward the axis at angles ranging up to the vertical. The coal measures
extend for 25 miles in the direction of the strike whilst the width of the syncline
as it now stands is variable from a matter of a few hundred yards in the southern
extremity near Dewrang, to seven or eight miles in the vicinity of Stratford and
the Upper Avon. Further north a general narrowing takes place as the town of
Gloucester is approached and one and a half miles beyond this town the syncline
terminates abruptly in a complicated fault system.
Both Permian and Carboniferous strata have been caught up in the folding
movement, and as the upper beds of the latter system are principally volcanic
a marked contrast is made with the comparatively weak Permian strata. The
product of erosion consists of two sub-parallel lines of hills, often with precipitous
faces, exposing bare rock in piaces, whilst the coal measures occupy the valley
floor between. The foothills generally, but not invariably, mark the boundary
of the two systems.
A remarkable change in the topography of the valley floor takes place just
to the south of Craven. The undulating hilly country of the south gives way to
Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVIII, 1954, Plate V
COAL MEASURES
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COAL MEASURES
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PERMIAN COAL MEASURES OF STROUD-GLOUCESTER TROUGH. 107
flat, alluvial and swampy country on the north, some hundred or so feet higher
in elevation. The change marks the divide between the Ward’s River-Johnson’s
Oreek drainage system flowing southward to the Karuah, and eventually Port
Stephens ; and the Avon-Gloucester Rivers, which trend northward to meet the
Manning and hence to the coast. Coal Creek, a tributary of Ward’s River,
actually has its headward reaches on the northern side of the divide, but manages
to reach the parent stream by way of a deeply entrenched course.
The ubiquity of river gravels at every possible level of the present topography
is indicative of the numerous cycles of erosion to which this area has been
subjected, and as shown above the valley has embarked upon a further cycle of
base levelling, undoubtedly brought about by a tributary of the Karuah extending
its headward reaches to capture the ancestors of the Ward’s River-Johnson’s
Creek system, which, prior to this capture, flowed northward.
STRATIGRAPHY.
Rocks of Devonian, Carboniferous and Permian age outcrop in the area,
in addition to superficial river deposits referable to a late geological period. A
description of the first two systems may be found elsewhere in the literature,
and it is intended to give only a brief historical account of the area to the close
of the Carboniferous.
Summary of the History to the Close of the Permian.
The rhythmically bedded Carboniferous tuffs, mudstones and lava flows
contrast markedly with the deeper marine deposits of the Devonian, and
Sussmilch, who discussed the relationship of these two systems at some length,
was of the opinion that an angular unconformity exists. Such an unconformity
would be referable to the Tabberabberan Orogeny.
On the other hand, the conformable nature of the lower and upper Burindi
contact suggests that in this area at least the effects of the Kanimbla Diastrophism
were not felt, but rather from the commencement to the close of Burindi times a
general silting-up of a shallow basin took place, accompanied by small, inter-
mittent epeirogenic movements and, during the Upper Kuttung, the area was
dry land suffering periodic and extensive inundations of lava flows, accompanied
by contemporaneous erosion. Evidence for this is shown by the disconformable
nature of the Kuttung-Permian contact and, in one or two localities, notably
along the Faulkland Road, rhyolitic conglomerates of the Kuttung Series form
the basement beds for the Permian.
Permian.
Lying between the volcanic hills of the Upper Kuttung Series is a thick
terrestrial group of conglomerates, sandstones, mudstones, arkoses and
carbonaceous shales with numerous coal seams ranging up to 30 feet in thickness.
That these deposits are of Permian age is placed beyond doubt by the frequent
occurrence of such plant remains as Glossopteris, Gangamopteris, Noeggerathiopsis
and vertebraria.
In the southern part of the area between Craven and Dewrang, the fold
trends N.20 W. with a plunge to the north. Faulting in this vicinity has
produced a more southerly extension of the outcrop.
North of Craven, where the influence of remarkable E.-W. tear faults is
most intense, the axis swings to the N.N.E., but between Berrico Siding and
Gloucester a gentle plunge southwards is present, though this tendency is
rendered less apparent by the presence of many minor structures. Beyond
Gloucester a complicated fault system has assumed control and only the eastern
limb of the syncline is preserved, the strike being N.N.W.
108 F. C. LOUGHNAN.
Throughout the entire length of the synclinal basin the axis is displaced
to the western side of the Permian outcrops, suggestive of asymmetrical folding.
However, that this is not so may be seen by the regular and complementary
increase in dips as the measurements are made away from the axis ; and, in fact,
the apparent asymmetry is due to a divergence of the strata from west to east.
Further evidence is given by the greater predominance of conglomerates in the
west, together with the overlapping of several of the formations.
The following is a generalised section of the Permian stratigraphy in
descending order :
Approx.
Thickness
6. Broad Gully Formation of sandstones, carbonaceous
Shales, conglomerate and a little coal .. ne ils 770 ft.
5. Spring Creek Conglomerate a ee ne dee 50 ,,
4. The Craven Coal Measures i Be oe .» 2,d00° 05,
3. Ward’s River Conglomerate . 0 ie es 220.
2. The Avon Coal Measures .. ue ce we ~». 1,900i
1. Dewrang Formation of sandstones, conglomerate, arkosic
sandstones including the ‘30 Foot Seam”... ios fel hOO RAS
6,340 _,,
1. The Dewrang Formation. The presence of a considerable amount of
strike faulting between the Upper Kuttung Series and the basal beds of the
Permian, coupled with the prevalence of thick talus slopes along the contact, |
requires specialised conditions in the physiography for the observation of the
basal deposits.
However, on the eastern bank of Johnson’s Creek, to the extreme south of
the Permian outcrop, the contact is clearly exposed. Fifty feet of sandstones,
carbonaceous shales rich in flora, conglomerates and two eighteen-inch coal
seams overlie the lavas.
The same sequence may be observed a mile further north, on the Johnson’s
Creek Road, and along the eastern margin between Loggy Creek and The Glen
Road, where 600 ft. of strata consisting principally of sandstones, outcrop.
On the western side of the syncline the sandstones may be seen where
they intersect the Pacific Highway, but beyond the latitude of the Upper Avon,
conglomeratic sandstones predominate.
The conglomeratic pebbles, like those of the Ward’s River and Spring Creek
Conglomerates, consist almost exclusively of acid lavas, often with the fluidal
fabric well preserved, though tuffaceous material comprises a small proportion.
A variation in the degree of sphericity is observed between the pebbles of the
western and eastern sides, the former being more angular than the equidimen-
sional material of the east. The matrix is predominantly arkosic, consisting of
40°, silica grains with a variable amount of plagioclase, often displaying a
remarkably fresh state of preservation, and chloritised biotite, whilst a consider-
able proportion of the rock consists of unresolved clay material.
Approximately 600 feet stratigraphically from the base of the Permian
occurs a thick coal seam, to which Odenheimer in 1855 gave the name ‘ The
30 Foot Seam ’’. The seam may be traced for most of the distance round the
synclinal basin with good exposures located on the north bank of the Avon River
close to the Upper Avon Fault, near Chainey Flat Creek, along Coal Shaft Creek,
in a railway cutting a few hundred yards north of Dewrang Siding, at Barry’s
Gully and Masters Creek, and further north near Oakey Creek.
PERMIAN COAL MEASURES OF STROUD-GLOUCESTER TROUGH. 109
Several prospecting shafts are located along Coal Shaft and Masters Creeks
and at Barry’s Gully, whilst a small colliery has operated in the first-named
locality. Records of these shafts are to be found in the reports of Odenheimer
and David. (itis interesting to note that Odenheimer reports 28 feet of excellent
coal close to the surface in one of these shafts.) The seam dips steeply toward
the axis, the lowest recorded angle being 35°.
Overlying the ‘30 Foot Seam” and the associated carbonaceous shales
are approximately 500 feet of medium to coarse grained sandstones, which are
pebbly in places and locally grade into conglomerates. Bedding is fairly well
defined and the rocks contain a high percentage of plagioclase, generally in a
much decomposed state, in addition to minor amounts of chlorite, biotite,
zeolite, hematite and calcite.
2. The Avon Coal Measures. Approximately 1,100 feet above the base of
the Permian is a thick succession of intercalated sandstones and coal-bearing
strata totalling 1,900 feet in thickness. Good outcrops occur within the town of
Gloucester along the southern bank of the river and opposite the railway station.
Fifteen coal seams were counted, ranging in thickness from two to eight feet,
with a general dip south-west at 55°. Minor faulting and buckling of the strata
is prevalent, and an attempt to mine the coal by the Gloucester Main Colliery
experienced difficulty in this respect.
On the eastern bank of the Avon River, 600 yards south of the Krambach
Road, several infilled prospecting shafts are situated on the lowermost beds
of the formation. A description of one of these shafts is given by Sussmilch.
Southwards from this latter area, the formation may be traced by isolated
outcrops to within two miles of Dewrang, with good exposures occurring on the
southern bank of Ward’s River and in tributary streams of Johnson’s Creek.
On the western limb the coal-bearing strata can be followed from the
intersection with the Pacific Highway, three miles south of Ward’s River village
to the Avon River, but between the latter point and the Gloucester River evidence
is lacking, suggesting an overlap.
3. Ward’s River Conglomerate. Exposed along the eastern bank of Ward’s
River, to the south of Craven, where the stream flows parallel with the Pacific
Highway, is a massive cliff-forming conglomerate containing two horizons of
interbedded shales and coaly bands. The formation measures 220 feet in
thickness.
The conglomerate pebbles have been derived, almost exclusively, from the
Upper Kuttung Series, and are usually elongated in one or two directions, varying
in size to some extent but generally large and tightly packed, though here and
there the sandstone matrix forms small lenses and thin beds devoid of rudaceous
material. In composition the matrix resembles the basal sandstones.
Further south along the Johnson’s Creek Road, near Relf’s Creek, the same
strata may be seen striking N. 8° E. with a dip of 45° to the west. On the
western side of the axis the equivalent deposits across the Pacific Highway
within a mile south of Ward’s River village, striking N. 20° W. and dipping
to the east at 47°. The southerly extension of these beds is difficult to trace,
but the proximity of the same strata on both sides of the syncline and the
steepness of the dips involved renders a difficulty in visualising the beds as
merely folded and not faulted additionally.
To the north-west the massive conglomerate may be traced almost to
Gloucester, forming cliffs along the banks of the intersecting streams, notably
those of Spring and Sandy Creeks.
South of Craven the conglomerate is quarried for road metal, but further
north swamp and alluvium conceal the outcrop for the most part. However,
110 F. C. LOUGHNAN.
within the town of Gloucester and along the Barrington Road excellent exposures
may be seen in the various road cuttings and creek beds.
4. The Craven Coal Measures. Outcropping in a series of road and railway
cuttings less than a mile to the south-east of Craven Post Office is a thick forma-
tion containing numerous coal seams up to nine feet in thickness. The beds
have suffered considerable distortion and several classical examples of structures
in miniature may be seen. To what extent these folds and thrusts have displaced
the strata is difficult to estimate, since many more must remain concealed
beneath the thick soil cover. The succession has a thickness of approximately
2,300 feet and contains at least 30 coal seams.
North of Craven all trace of the strata is lost under the alluvium of ‘‘ The
Swamp ”’, but at the junction of the Upper Avon Road and the Pacific Highway
the uppermost beds with several coal seams may be seen cutting across the
road with a strike N. 10° E. The swing in the strike becomes more pronounced
along the East Stratford Road, where the coal-bearing strata run N. 32° EH.
with a dip of 55° N.E. Undoubtedly the Upper Avon Fault has been influential
in this respect.
Further north the strata strike more or less meridionally, but only isolated
outcrops occur, notably along Waukivory and Dog Trap Creeks; and, just to
the south of Gloucester on the Pacific Highway thick deposits of carbonaceous
shale and sandstone, with a shallow southward dip, mark the northern extent
‘of the Craven Coal Measures.
South of Craven exposures of carbonaceous shales, coal and arkosic sand-
stones in road and railway cuttings extend as far as Ward’s River village, where
the dip is to the north.
Along the western margin of the syncline the strata may be traced north-
wards to the Avon River, where a considerable thinning of the formation takes
place, and beyond this point the deposits fail to outcrop.
5. Spring Creek Conglomerate. Overlying the Craven Coal Seams is a heavy
unstratified conglomerate approximately 50 feet thick, resembling the Ward’s
River Conglomerate in composition. Good outcrops are to be found along
Spring Creek and south towards Ward’s River School, but northwards from |
Spring Creek the conglomerates are difficult to trace, which is surprising in view
of their competent nature. However, occasional outcrops of conglomerate
on the expected horizon suggests that this rock occurs right round the synclinal
basin. i
6. Broad Gully Formation. In the Spring Creek sector, lying along the
axis between the two outcrops of the conglomerate described above, is a succession
of carbonaceous shales, arkosic sandstones, conglomerates and mudstones with
several thin coaly beds. The strata on the whole deviates but a little from the
horizontal, though minor puckering coupled with the lack of good exposures
makes measurements difficult. However, from an economic viewpoint the beds
are of little interest.
WARD’S RIVER BASIN.
A mile east of Craven, along The Glen Road, the eastern boundary of the
coal basin is reached, and for a further 600 yards the road traverses the Upper
Kuttung Series, which dip steeply to the west. Beyond the lavas coal measures
are encountered once more, with a steep easterly dip. A thick arthracitic coal
seam, which outcrops along Stoney Creek, forms the basal beds with a strike
N. 20° W., dipping to the east at 50°.
The relation of the basal seam to the Carboniferous lavas is difficult to
ascertain in such rugged country, since thick talus slopes obscure the contact at
PERMIAN COAL MEASURES OF STROUD-GLOUCESTER TROUGH. 111
every occasion. However, the juxtaposition of coal measures and basement
lavas dipping steeply in opposite directions is suggestive of either an uncon-
formity or faulting.
A thick succession of mudstones, carbonaceous shales and sandstones,
which locally grade into conglomerate, overlie the coal seam, but the geology
of this subsidiary basin was not fully investigated and the extent is unknown.
Economic ASPECTS.
In describing the Permian stratigraphy, attention was drawn to the occur-
rence of coal seams in commercial thicknesses at several horizons and, though
two attempts have been made to mine the coal (at Gloucester and near Dewrang
Siding) and many prospecting shafts have been sunk, chemical analyses are
few.
On the present survey, opportunities for satisfactory sampling of the coal
were restricted to one locality, viz. a small cross-cut driven into the bank of
Coal Creek, one-half mile south-east of Craven. This drive intersected three
seams, the upper two of which were sampled. The following proximate analysis
is representative of both seams, excluding bands: hyg. moist, 10%; vol. mat.,
25%; fixed carbon, 45%; ash, 20%. The coal was in a partly weathered
state, and much soil material had been added along the cleats; the nature of
the coal in thin section indicates that a somewhat lower ash content could be
expected from a fresher sample.
In attempting to ascertain the effect of faulting on the rank of the Stoney
Creek seam, a random sample was taken from the creek bed and a proximate
analysis was carried out, yielding the following results: vol. material, 33% ;
fixed carbon, 37:39; ash, 9°7%. Recalculating. on an A.F.D. basis: vol.
material, 36:5°%; fixed carbon, 63-5%. These figures indicate a low rank
bituminous coal, which is surprising in view of the high physical rank the coal
appears to have in hand specimen. However, it must be remembered that only
one determination was made, and that on a random sample, hence the results
obtained cannot be regarded as representative.
STRUCTURAL GEOLOGY.
Perhaps no other area within the State presents such a unique opportunity
for studying the rapid succession of differing tectonic environments as the
Stroud-Gloucester Trough. However, it is not intended to duplicate the work
of Osborne, Sussmilch e¢ al. in this respect but rather to add and possibly modify
some of their work.
Undoubtedly the most remarkable feature of the area is that due to a late
K.-W. compressional stress of some magnitude which superimposed new structures
on pre-existing ones causing the development of tear fractures and the displace-
ment of whole blocks of country. The displacements were differential in part,
and where the blocks became ‘“ anchored ”’ at one extremity but yielded at the
other a certain amount of rotation took place, whilst minor fractures and folds
developed about the anchored regions. Mograni, Barrington River and Upper
Avon faults are examples of major displacements, whilst the minor structures
developed to the south of Craven (see Osborne and Andrews) and within the
town of Gloucester are located about the “ hinge ”’ regions.
A modification found necessary concerned the position of the Kiaora Fault.
This fault, which obliquely transects the coal measures to the north-west of
Gloucester, was first recorded by Sussmilch and later named by Osborne and
Andrews (1949). Alluvium covers much of the critical area, but nowhere in the
region could evidence be found to support the existence of such a fault. How-
ever, on the north side of the Gloucester River along the contact of the coal
112 F. C. LOUGHNAN.
measures and the Kuttung lavas between the railway line and Kiaora crossing
slickensides are numerous and the strata has been greatly disturbed, suggesting
faulting. It is proposed to retain ‘‘ Kiaora ”’ for this fault.
A further area in which a possible fault exists lies to the south of the
‘* Buckets ’’, where the Gloucester River cuts through the volcanic hills. A
considerable wavering of the strike occurs and the unusual courses taken by
both the Gloucester River and Sandy Creek are suggestive of faulting, though
no displacement could be measured.
Reference has been made previously to the discordant nature of the Ward’s
River Coal Measures and Kuttung lavas contact, a marked discordance which
is not observed between coal measures and Carboniferous elsewhere ; and, in
view of the prevalence of slickensides in the basal coal seam of the Ward’s River
measures it would appear that a fault separated the two systems. Moreover,
the Ward’s River Basin is associated with that block of country which has
suffered the greatest lateral movement, a stress condition more compatible with
overthrusting than normal faulting. Hence it is proposed to term this fracture
the Stoney Creek overthrust.
AGE OF THE COAL MEASURES.
Since the earliest discovery of the Gloucester Coal Basin attempts at a
correlation between these deposits and the type Permian of the Lower Hunter
area have proven unsuccessful, perhaps the reasons being the absence of recog-
nisable marine deposits and the specialised nature of the sedimentation environ-
ment. On the present survey several attempts were made at microspore
correlation, but with unsatisfactory results. Perhaps the best method of
effecting a correlation of the respective deposits would be by a correlation of the
tectonic disturbances which affected both areas.
Owing to the conformable nature of the Carboniferous-Permian boundary
and the limited extent of the measures, it would appear that the Permian was
laid down during a mild compressional period which initiated the syncline.
This period of intermittent subsidence was followed by a stress relief period
during which the tensional boundary and intragraben faults developed. At a
later period a compression of some magnitude tended to squeeze the sediments
into a tightly pinched syncline, and finally, though possibly as a culmination
of this compression, a rotational disturbance brought about the tear fractures.
In view of the magnitude of the disturbances and the close proximity of
the areas, it would be expected that disturbances in one area would be recorded
in the other and vice versa. In short, it is postulated that the Gloucester Syncline
was initiated early in the tectonic history of the Permian of the Hunter Valley
along with that of the Lochinvar Dome (epi Muree Osborne, 1950) or the Cranky
Corner Basin (pre-Greta in age). In which case the Gloucester coal measures
were developed not later than Muree times.
CONCLUSIONS.
Coal, in commercial thickness, occurs at numerous horizons throughout the
thick Permian terrestrial sediments of the Stroud-Gloucester Trough. The
quality of the coal has not been fully investigated, but the steep dip of the seams,
the presence of numerous minor structures and the high level of the water- table
wound render mining hazardous.
The associated sediments, which have been derived in toto from the under-
lying Carboniferous rocks, are predominantly coarse in grade size and there is a
gradation towards finer material from west to east, suggesting that the western
margin of the coal measures was not far removed from the source areas, whereas
the original eastern boundary extended some distance beyond its_ present
PERMIAN COAL MEASURES OF STROUD-GLOUCESTER TROUGH. 113
confines, the coal measures have since been removed by erosion. This is with
the exception of the infaulted Ward’s River Basin.
The coal measures are probably not younger than Muree.
BIBLIOGRAPHY.
Odenheimer, F., 1855. Report to the Aust. Agric. Co. (Unpublished.)
Osborne, G. D., 1938. ‘“‘ On Some of the Major Faults North of Raymond Terrace and Their
Relation to the Stroud-Gloucester Trough.’ Tuis JOURNAL,
G1, 385.
1950. ‘‘ The Structural Evolution of the Hunter-Manning-Myall Province,
N.S.W.”’ Monograph No. 1, Roy. Soc. N.S.W.
Osborne, G. D., and Andrews, P. B., 1948. ‘‘ Structural Data for the Northern End of the
Stroud-Gloucester Trough.” TxHis Journat, 81, 202.
Sussmilch, C. A., 1921. ‘“‘ The Geology of the Gloucester District of N.S.W.”’ TxHis JoURNAL,
55, 234.
Voisey, A. H., 1940. ‘ The Geology of the Country between the Manning and Karuah Rivers.”’
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 65, 192.
LIVERSIDGE RESEARCH LECTURE"
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE AND BIOLOGICAL FUNCTION OF THE
PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES.
By R. LEMBERG.
Mr. President, Members of the Royal Society, Ladies and Gentlemen,
It is a testimony to the far-sightedness of Liversidge, to whom we owe these
lectures, that the aim of the bequest is today as essential and its terms as well-
conceived, as they were at the time of his life and death. It is, indeed, difficult
for me to imagine that sixty-three years separate the short time which Liversidge
spent with Michael Foster at the Cambridge Physiology School from the time
of my collaboration with Sir Joseph Barcroft at the same school, and with Sir
Frederic Gowland Hopkins at its daughter school of Biochemistry ; the same
number of years separate our arrivals in Australia.
It was during the years Liversidge was still at Cambridge, in 1871, that
Hoppe-Seyler laid the foundations of the field of knowledge which I am going
to discuss, by his conversion of hemoglobin to a porphyrin, followed a few years
later by his discovery that the same type of compound could be obtained from
chlorophyll.
When the Royal Society entrusted me with this lecture, I felt somewhat
diffident, knowing that I had chosen a general survey of the pyrrole field as my
subject for the Presidential Address of Section N of A.N.Z.A.A.S. at the Canberra
January meeting, and that I should be in danger of repeating what I had said
there. Permit me, therefore, to put before you the story of some of my own
adventures in this field. If such a procedure is perhaps ill-suited for a ceremonial
lecture such as this—there is a good excuse to be found in Liversidge’s terms,
i.e. that these lectures should be designed to encourage research. Nothing is
more needed for the encouragement of research than the demonstration that a
research career is a great intellectual adventure compared with which ‘‘ mere
physical adventure is a pale and colourless experience’. This phrase is taken
from a lecture of Frederic Wood-Jones, F.R.S., entitled ‘“‘ The Spirit of
Adventure ’’, and found in his book ‘ Life and Living ”’, a lecture which every
student, research worker and university teacher should read. As in all
adventures, hardships and uncertainties are part of the game and heighten its
enjoyment.
It is the story of a long research adventure which I intend to put before
you. Everyone of us, however, explores only a few corners of a continent, and
a rough map of what is known today must precede the story. The field is that
of the tetrapyrrole pigments and enzymes, full of intrinsic chemical interest, but
still more fundamentally important for the physiologist and biologist. Structure,
metabolism, function and their correlation will therefore receive attention.
* Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, July 15, 1954.
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 115
BIOLOGICAL IMPORTANCE.
There are three fundamental biological processes—two of them closely
linked up—for which tetrapyrroles are essential (Text-fig. 1).
Firstly photosynthesis. The elucidation of this process by which sunlight
energy is converted into the potential energy of foodstuffs may one day bring
humanity more benefits than atomic energy, and certainly less danger and
misery. Several chlorophylls, e.g. a and 6b in higher plants, or bacterio-chlorophyll
in purple bacteria, and the bile pigment-chromoproteins of red and blue alge,
phycoerythrin and phycocyanin, are involved in photosynthesis. In addition,
we know that iron-porphyrin (hem) complexes bound to protein are also required,
such as cytochrome f in the chloroplasts of green plants, cytochrome ec, in purple
bacteria.
Photosynthesis .. .. Chlorophylls.
Phycochromoproteins.
Hem enzymes.
Cellular respiration .. Cytochrome oxidase.
Cytochromes.
Peroxidases.
Catalases.
Oxygen storage and Myoglobins and
transport. hemoglobins.
Chlorocruorin.
Text-fig. 1.—Biological role of tetrapyrroles.
Secondly, cellular respiration. We may define life as a complex organisation
by which a steady state of a free energy content far above that of the equilibrium
is maintained by a constant influx of energy needed for the maintenance of
the steady state and of the complex organisation itself. This energy is provided
in most cells by the stepwise oxidation of food materials, and in the chain of
events which require the movement of electrons from the substrates to atmos-
pheric oxygen, hemo-proteins such as cytochrome oxidase and several cyto-
chromes are involved. The peroxidases and catalases serve as auxiliaries
in this process. An overwhelming part of life on earth depends on the systole
and diastole of these two processes photosynthesis and cellular respiration.
Only a few autotrophic and a few strictly anaerobic bacteria form an exception ;
Some of the autotrophs at least, e.g. the nitrate reducing bacteria, probably also
use cytochromes, and some obligatory anaerobes contain a little catalase.
Thirdly, when an organism grows in bulk and complexity, diffusion is no
longer sufficient to bring the oxygen for cellular respiration from outside. Special
oxygen carriers in the blood are required. Hemoglobins are found in moulds,
e.g. in yeasts, and in leguminous root nodules, but their essential function appears
to begin sporadically in Invertebrates, to become regular in Vertebrates, with
the recently discovered exception of a few fishes. Finally, the red muscle which
is able to store oxygen combined with myoglobin, is a far more efficient organ
than the white muscle which lacks it.
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE.
If we now turn to chemical structure, we find that the structural basis of
_ all these compounds is the porphin ring (Text-fig. 2), directly for hem compounds
and chlorophylls, more indirectly for the bile pigments.
Porphyrins are porphin substituted with various side chains at the eight
6-positions of the four pyrrole rings; hems are their internal tetracoordinate
iron complexes, chlorophylls magnesium complexes, usually of dihydro- or tetra-
hydroporphyrins. Finally, bile pigments are essentially porphyrins whose ring
has been opened by oxidative scission.
116 R. LEMBERG.
Of the porphyrins (Table 1), protoporphyrin, with four methyl, two vinyl
and two propionic acid side chains, is the most important. It forms the
prosthetic groups of hemoglobins and myoglobins, of a number of cytochromes,
such as b and f (and in somewhat modified form of cytochromes c), of catalases
and of some peroxidases.
Text-fig. 2.—Porphin.
Porphyrins with a formyl] side chain are found as the prosthetic groups of
cytochrome oxidase (the Atmungsferment), of cytochrome a and of the oxygen
carrier in the blood of Sabellid worms, chlorocruorin.
TABLE lI.
Porphyrins and Their Occurrence as Metal Complexes and Prosthetic Groups.
Occurrence as Prosthetic Group
Porphyrin. Side Chains. | or Metal Complex.
Atio-TIl .. .. | 4M, 4B. |
Meso-IX A ae ee Meine, 2. | 0.
Proto-IX .. oo | eR OP. Fe: hemoglobins, myoglobins.
cytochromes 6.
catalases, horse radish peroxidase.
(Mg: Chlorella mutant.)
Hemato-IX.. | (oie EE 2 P Fe: (modified) cytochrome c.
Acetyldeutero- .. | 4M, 2P, 1Ac. Fe: lactoperoxidase.
Chlorocruoro- a 1 4M VATE, 2.P: Fe: chlorocruorin.
Cyto-(a)- -. | IF, along alkyl: Fe: cytochrome oxidase,
cytochrome a, ay.
Copro-I and III .. | 4M, 4P. (Cu, Zn: urine.)
Uro-I and IIT .. | 4AC, 4P. (Cu: turacin.)
(Zn: urine.)
Abbreviations :
M=methyl, .CH3. F=formyl, .CHO.
E=ethyl, .C,H;. AC=acetic acid radical, .CH,CO,H.
V—vinyl, -CH—CH.. P=propionic acid radical, .CH,.CH,.CO,H.
HE=hydroxylethyl, .CHOHCH;,
Acetyl groups are found in bacteriochlorophyll and in the peroxidase in milk
(Morell, 1953).
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 117
Coproporphyrins with four, and uroporphyrins with eight carboxyl groups
in their side chains, are found, usually in small amounts as free porphyrins,
occasionally as copper or zinc complexes. They will mainly interest us in
connection with the biosynthesis of hem.
Text-fig. 3.—Porphyrin isomers.
Porphyrins with two types of side chains (e.g. copro- or uroporphyrin)
can form four isomerides (Text-fig. 3), but only two, types III and I, have so
far been found in nature. All functionally important compounds, chlorophylls
as well as hem compounds, are derived from type III. Porphyrins with three
types of side chains, such as protoporphyrin, can form 15 isomers ; the natural
protoporphyrin IX is derived from type III.
v
mv
ae)
M E
N N N N
H H H H
OPSO HAEMO CRYPTO PHYLLOPYRROLE
M Ec M p (Carboxylic Acids)
(ee co co co Bs H
a UA NX J P CH, CH, CO,
N N
H H J
METHYLETHYL H AEMATINIC
MALEIMIDE ACID
Text-fig. 4.—Products of reductive and oxidative scission.
The correct formula for the porphin ring was given by Wilhelm Kuster
(Kuster and Deihle, 1913) based on his studies on the products of oxidative
scission, substituted maleimides, and on the studies of other workers on the
products of reductive scission with hydroiodic acid, substituted pyrroles (Text-
fig. 4). This evidence culminated in the synthesis of protoporphyrin and hemin
118 R. LEMBERG.
«
by H. Fischer in 1929 (cf. Fischer, 1937, p. 372). Monopyrroles are first con-
densed to two dipyrrolic pyrromethenes and then two of these to the unsym-
metrically substituted type III porphyrin.
pris
XS
Text-fig. 5.—Phthalocyanine.
Finally the structure has been confirmed by purely physical methods.
Phthalocyanine (Text-fig. 5), a tetrabenzenotetrazaporphin, synthesised by
Linstead (1934) was the first organic compound to give a complete Patterson
X-ray diagram in the hands of Robertson (1935). The molecule is flat and
there is no real difference between the four isoindole rings, although the symmetry
only approaches the tetragonal one. Linstead has bridged the structural gap
iQ
Text-fig. 6.—Dipyridine-diisoindole macro-
cyclic ring system of Linstead.
between phthalocyanin and porphin by synthesising tetrabenzo- and tetraazo-
porphyrins. The central 16-membered ring (Text-fig. 7) leaves a hole in the
centre with a diameter of 2-65 A, just large enough to be filled by atoms such as
iron (atomic diameter, 2-54 A.), but the ring is also adjustable by small alterations
of the length of, and angle between, its many bonds, to take larger atoms such as
Mg, and to bind even atoms like Be, otherwise never found in planar tetraco-
ordination.
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 119
Recently Linstead (1953) has synthesised similar macrocycles with two
of the four isoindoles replaced by either pyridine or benzene. The dibenzene-
diisoindole compound no longer forms metal complexes ; it lacks the possibility
of tetracoordination. The dipyridine-diisoindole compound (Text-fig. 6) forms
Text-fig. 7.—Stereochemistry of porphin.
The central circle represents the central
hole filled by two hydrogen atoms in
porphyrins and by the metal atom in the
metal complexes. The four adjoining
circles are those of the four pyrrole
nitrogen atoms, the remaining circles
represent carbon atoms.
such complexes. It is of interest that the free compound has a spectrum quite
different from that of porphins, whereas those of the metal complexes resemble
porphin complexes. In the free compound the hydrogen atoms are evidently
strictly bound to the two isoindoles, thus severely restricting resonance which
is still possible in the metal complex.
Text-fig. 8.—Porphyrin tautomerism.
The type of linkage of the central hydrogens in the free porphyrins is not
yet fully established. It appears that free porphyrins consist of mixtures of
two tautomeric forms (Text-fig. 8), each in turn stabilised by resonance of
several canonical forms.
J
120 K. LEMBERG.
Tron in the hem compounds can be bound in two different ways. In addition
to the four valancies going to the four nitrogens of the porphin ring, there are
two additional sites of coordination above and below the porphin plane (Text-
fig. 9). Ferrous hem binds, e.g. two molecules of pyridine to a hexacoordinate
complex, called hzemochromogen, or more concisely hemochrome. In this
Fect
4s ~ 4p
3d
‘ionic. OOOO (x) (x) (x)
‘<- QQOOD@ @ O@®
Text-fig. 9.—Iron porphyrin (hem) compounds.
instance the linkage, called ‘‘ covalent ’’, is of d,sp, type, using the 3d, 4s and 4p
orbitals of iron, and the molecule is diamagnetic. In other compounds, however,
the paramagnetism of ionic iron is preserved. The linkages, not quite fortunately
called ‘‘ ionic ’’, are also covalent, but involve only the 4s, 4p and perhaps 4d
orbitals of iron.
TABLE 2.
Chlorophylls and Related Compounds.
State of Isocyclic Ring X in
Ring. Side Chains. C,-Cy. -CH,-CH,CO,X.
Chlorophyll a .. | Mg dihydro- | 4M; 1H, 1V, 1P | -CO-CH(CO,M)- phytol
porphin.
Protochlorophyll .. | Mg porphin. . A phytol.
Vinylphzoporphyrina;| Mg ,, BS HP H.
Chlorophyll 6 .. | Mg dihydro- | 3M, IF; 1E, 1V, | -CO-CH(CO,M)- phytol.
porphin. Ee
Bacteriochlorophyll .. | Mg tetra - | 4M; 1H, 1Ac, 1P. | -CO-CH(CO,M)- phytol.
hydroporphin.
Phycochromoproteins.
Phycocyanin .. .. | biladiene- (a, | 4M, 2E, 2P. protein, no metal.
b).
Phycoerythrin as » +1H. ss sa
Chlorophyll (Table 2) contains Mg instead of the iron of hem. Text-figure 10
shows the relationship between hem and chlorophyll a. We may imagine
that one of the propionic acid groups of hem is curled up and oxidatively
condensed to a fifth isocyclic ring. This oxidation is partly counterbalanced
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 121
by hydrogenation of the nucleus (transforming porphin to dihydroporphin or
chlorin) and reduction of one vinyl to ethyl. Finally the carboxyl groups are
esterified, one with methyl thus protecting the @-keto acid carboxyl, and one
with the long chain aliphatic alcohol phytol. We shall see below that this
picture is not merely imaginary.
Protochlorophyll from which chlorophyll a arises on irradiation in the plant
is still a porphin, not a chlorin derivative. Chlorophyll Db carries a formyl
instead of a methyl side chain of chlorophyll a. Bacteriochlorophyll is a tetra-
hydroporphin with an acetyl side chain.
In contrast to the porphin derivatives, the bile pigments are compounds
with an open tetrapyrrolic chain, although in many instances they are probably
more correctly formulated as rings closed by a hydrogen bond; this holds at
least for their metal complexes. In the porphin series there is only one stable
hydrogenation state of the central rmg system, which remains essentially intact
Heem. Chlorophyll a
Text-fig. 10.—Relationship between hem and chlorophyll a.
if hydrogen is introduced into one or two crossed double bonds to form dihydro-
and tetrahydroporphins. Porphyrinogens with four —CH,— bridges are rather
unstable substances, probably for stereochemical reasons. No compounds are
known which contain —CH,— and —CH= bridges. This is different in the
bile pigments (Text-fig. 11) where several classes exist, varying in colour from
white to yellow, red, violet and blue-green, which differ in number of conjugated
double bonds. Wherever a —CH,— group replaces a —CH= bridge, the
conjugation becomes interrupted. The fully conjugated bilatrienes or verdins
correspond to the porphyrins, the leuco-compounds or bilanes to the
porphyrinogens. But between them we find systems with only two (urobilins),
twice two (rubins), or three pyrrole rings (violins), belonging to conjugated
systems. It is this field to the development of which my first studies contributed.
Chromoproteins of Red and Blue Algw. My starting point was a sentence
in Kostytschev’s well-known text of plant physiology. Speaking of the chromo-
proteins of red and blue algz, he concluded: ‘‘ Their chemistry has not been
sufficiently investigated.’’ These beautifully crystalline, strongly fluorescent
proteins, phycoerythrin and phycocyanin had attracted the attention of many
botanists (Engelmann, Gaidukov, Molisch, Boresch, Kylin). It had been
122 R. LEMBERG.
shown that they acted as photosensitisers of the photosynthesis of red alge,
allowing them to penetrate into deeper layers of the sea than green or brown
seaweeds. The absorption of phycoerythrin and phycocyanin is maximal in
the orange to green part of the spectrum, where that of chlorophyll is small.
This is of particular importance in deeper layers, where red light no longer
penetrates. Some Cyanophyceze also show the interesting phenomenon of
‘complementary chromatic adaptation ”’. Irradiated with coloured light,
they change their colour to one roughly complementary to that of the incident
light.
The interest of the botanists in these compounds has recently been revived
by the findings of Haxo and Blinks (1950) that light energy absorbed by phyco-
erythrin or phycocyanin is used more efficiently for photosynthesis of some algz
N Hf
NOMENCLATURE STRUCTURE fe
SYSTEMATIC GENERAL
BILATRIENES VERDINS ay y %, aa A. M. | Bee
VIOLINS | : | Fae 7 8
HO” Sn So7 NN Ri \c7\NZSOH
BILADIENES - Bee gy
(a, b)
ERY THRINS ( )
Hp
BILADIENES- RUBINS . C | CULE see =
u
(a,c)
2
BILENES-(b) acer A | } y, / LAA, A. J
UROBILINO- “f a j aq e uC J, Ne
BILANES AES \y
Text-fig. 11.—Bile pigments.
The brackets over the pyrrole rings indicate those which form a system of conjugated
double bonds.
a
than is light absorbed by the chlorophylls. While it appears that chlorophyll a
is necessary for the energy transfer in these alge, the explanation of the
phenomenon is not yet clear (cf. French and Young, 1952 ; Duysens, 1951).
Kitasato (1925) had failed to find any evidence for the pyrrolic nature of the
prosthetic group, but I suspected that his experiments were inconclusive. I
used the very suitable starting material which Kitasato had described, a Japanese
delicacy called ‘‘ nori’’ prepared from Porphyra, a red alga. At the outset I
struck the great difficulty that the prosthetic groups of both the red phyco-
erythrin and the blue phycocyanin was far more firmly bound to the protein
than in hemoglobin, and new methods had to be devised to obtain them free
from attached peptide. Once this was done, it was easy to demonstrate the
pyrrolic nature, and the strong fluorescence of the zinc complexes placed them
into close relationship to urobilins (bilenes). The prosthetic groups of phyco-
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 123
erythrin and phycocyanin were identified with two new compounds, mesobiliviolin
and mesobilierythrin (see Text-fig. 11) which could be obtained by ferric chloride
oxidation of mesobilirubinogen (mesobilane), the leuco compound of bilirubin
(Lemberg, 1930). Thus two new types of bile pigments were obtained which
were later converted into the crystalline mesobilirubin and mesobiliverdin by
alcoholic potash (Lemberg and Bader, 1933).
There is still much work to be done in this field for a chemist who is not
afraid to start with a few hundred litres of extract to end up with a few milli-
grammes of substance. The structure of the prosthetic group of phycoerythrin
and its relationship to that of phycocyanin is not yet safely established, and this
is of particular interest for the problem of complementary chromatic adaptation,
which is based on the relative increase of the substance, phycoerythrin or
phycocyanin, absorbing most of the light.
Bs Pr He Pr
a H
MC of l M MAT 1006 M
HC? ‘et SCH Cc : ; CH
= nt
aes
N N N N
V If r W MV I IV YM
OH H
(a a M V
Protohaem = ay. icy Biliverdin
V= ‘CH:CHo
Text-fig. 12.—Relation of biliverdin to protohem.
The type of linkage between prosthetic group and protein required further
study. Apart from the firm peptide linkage, there is a second weak linkage
easily broken by dilute acid. It is this linkage which is necessary for the strong
fluorescence of the native chromoproteins and for their extraordinarily strong
absorption of light.
The biogenesis of these and other invertebrate bile pigments, such as that
found in the hemolymph of insects (Hackman, 1952), e.g. our common cicada,
appears to be different from that in Vertebrates, and the nature of the side
chains indicates neither formation by oxidation from hem compounds, as in
the Vertebrates, nor photooxidation of chlorophyll.
Bile Pigments. The next step was an attack on another class of bile
pigments. Oocyan, the blue-green pigment of many birds’ egg shells, e.g. of
the duck and the emu, was the first pigment of the bilatriene class to be isolated
in pure form (Lemberg, 1931). It is this compound which causes the blue-green
colour in the well-known Gmelin or Fouchet reaction for bile pigment. At that
time I worked in Hopkins’ laboratory as a Fellow of the Rockefeller Foundation.
There was an atmosphere of adventure in which the Institutes of Hopkins,
124 R. LEMBERG.
Barcroft and Keilin were closely linked. One of those days Keilin brought
Barcroft to me to discuss a green pigment in the dog’s placenta which disturbed
Barcroft’s attempts at hemoglobin estimation. In a short time I had identified
this substance, uteroverdin, with oocyan and established its structure as that of
dehydrobilirubin or bilatriene (see Text-fig. 11) (Lemberg and Barcroft, 1932).
Later it was prepared from bilirubin by dehydrogenation (Lemberg, 1932).
Uteroverdin had been intensively studied by early biologists and embryologists
of the German and French schools. It was the careful study of this old literature
in the peaceful atmosphere of the Old Cambridge Library which made me first
doubt the primogeniture of bilirubin. Its correct structure showed biliverdin
to be more closely related to hemin than is bilirubin (Text-fig. 12). In one of
my first studies in Australia I described the reduction of biliverdin to bilirubin
PHYSIOLOGICAL REDUCTION OF BILE PIGMENTS
MOY MP PM M
| | | | } | | BILIVERDIN.
HO“ SN ‘ : c N C AN NOH
ee | aes eyes ¥
Bwtine Shite BILIRUBIN
Nucleus +4H; side chains+4H | Leta paciett enzymes
MoE Rode ae ot ne |
_» | | | | | | «< MESOBILANE
HO~ \N Ga NN N ; N’ OH
H Teale
CG
How H
2 Ho
|eeymes. Clostrid.
=. proven
eu enzymes oye teine verrucosum
P
nf ar | H aah eg
Hy i 4 MESOBILANE
N C7 ON
H Ho H
Text-fig. 13. es, ee reductions of bile pigments.
The double arrows indicate the part of the molecule at which reduction takes place.
in liver slices, and the enzyme systems which can use biliverdin as hydrogen
acceptor (Lemberg and Wyndham, 1936). This reduction (Text-fig. 13) is
continued in the mammalian organism by bacterial enzymes in the intestine
ending in a mixture of mesobilane and tetrahydromesobilane, known as uro-
bilinogen or stercobilinogen ; in the literature you find these names urobilinogen
and stercobilinogen confusingly applied to mesobilane and tetrahydromesobilane
respectively (cf: Lemberg and Legge, 1949, p. 134). The structures of tetra-
hydromesobilane suggested by Fischer is open to doubt and requires
reinvestigation.
Bile Pigment Formation. The knowledge of the properties of biliverdin
led directly to the next step, the explanation of the transformation of the haem
compounds to bile pigments. It was one of the rare instances in which a
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 125
reinterpretation of data of other workers allowed one to predict the outcome
of a study with some degree of certainty. At that time, Warburg (1932) classified
the hzemins into three classes according to their colour, red hemins derived from
protoporphyrin, green hemins derived from chlorophylls, and dichroic green-red
heemins such as the prosthetic group of the Atmungsferment, derived from what
we now know to be formylporphyrins. Warburg and Negelein (1930) had
formed such a “ green hemin’’ by coupled oxidation of hemin in pyridine
solution with hydrazine. Its supposed methyl ester, obtained by the action of
methanol hydrochloric acid, had been obtained crystalline. This ester contained
four chlorine atoms. Now hemins contain only one, there was little chance
of chlorination under the experimental conditions, and I knew that biliverdin
——> PORPHYRINS —— > HAEMOGLOBIN
+ 0
CHOLEGLOBIN
- {
VERDOHAEMOGLOBIN
CONCEPT
{ - Fe protein
BILIVERDIN
i; + H MESOBILANE
+ H
BILIRUBIN
TETRAHYDRO-
+
il : MESOBILANE |
PORPHYRIN ~~
OLD (Nee STERCOBILINOGEN
(UROBILINOGEN )
CONCEPT HAEMATIN
- protein
HAEMOGLOBIN
HAEMOGLOBIN BREAKDOWN
Text-fig. 14 —Hzmoglobin breakdown.
readily forms a ferrichloride [B]+[FeCl,]-. I could show that the “ green
hemin ester ’’ was, in fact, biliverdin ester ferrichloride, and the transformation
of hemin to biliverdin had thus been carried out inadvertently (Lemberg,
1935).
The green hemin in itself, however, was still an internal iron complex,
but with an increased lability of its iron; in fact a pyridine hemochrome,
which I called verdohemochrome. It had been formed by the removal of one
carbon atom from the ring and by its replacement by oxygen. With ammonia,
the oxygen could in turn be replaced by nitrogen, yielding a monoazahemin
with restored firm iron linkage (Lemberg, 1943). Oxidation of the ring thus
precedes iron removal, and no porphyrin is formed as intermediate of hemoglobin
breakdown. It took more than ten years of intensive work before this new
concept (Text-fig. 14) became generally accepted.
The first model was still far removed from physiological conditions, but
step by step it was brought nearer to them. Hydrazine was replaced by ascorbic
acid, hemin in pyridine by hemoglobin at physiological pH and 37°C. Inter-
126 R. LEMBERG.
mediates were observed and a clearer picture of the reaction mechanism obtained
(cf. Lemberg and Legge, 1949, Chapter X). The work was not lacking unexpected
surprises. Thus hemoglobin gave finally biliverdin, but as intermediate
choleglobin with a hem different from verdohem. The greening of hemoglobin
by certain streptococci is due to choleglobin formation, and a cholehem prosthetic
group was later found in the peroxidase of leucocytes (Foulkes, Lemberg and
Purdom, 1951).
INTERMEDIATES IN BILE PIGMENT FORMATION
Ce
Azahaem
OH
Cholehaem
Fe
C
O OH N
Jb Dc Fe
—. OH
— ee Bilipurpurin -haem
Ox 0
ty OH
(OH) Verdohaem Biliverdin
Haem
OO
HH
Biliverdin
Text-fig. 15.—Intermediates in bile pigment formation.
Text-figure 15 shows the picture as it finally emerged. The ring is at first
oxidised but remains still carbon-closed. (The structure of cholehem is here
depicted in the same way as Linstead formulates his first oxidation products of
phthalocyanine, but hydroperoxidic structures are not excluded.) Later the
carbon is replaced by oxygen and Sjostrand has recently demonstrated that
it emerges as carbon monoxide. This poison is thus not quite unphysiological.
Other hem compounds, myoglobin, catalase, methemalbumin and even free
hematin are similarly oxidised. The mechanism is essentially a peroxidative
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 127
autoxidation of the ring catalysed by the hem iron, in which a [Fe?+.H,O,]
or [Fe**+] or [FeO?*] complex is involved (Text-fig. 16).*
Catalase and Peroxidase. This brings the problem in close proximity to the
mechanism of the enzymes, catalase and peroxidase. Liver catalase contains a
verdohzem group which yields biliverdin by the action of acids (Lemberg, Norrie
and Legge, 1939). During its action on hydrogen peroxide, some of the enzyme
is destroyed by oxidation of protohem to verdohem, but the rate of destruction
is greatly increased by ascorbic acid. The inhibition of catalase by ascorbic
acid or azide is of a type quite different from that produced by cyanide (Lemberg
and Foulkes, 1948).
Foulkes and Lemberg (1948) had obtained apparent spectroscopic evidence
for a compound between catalase and ascorbic acid, overlooking that our ascorbic
acid solutions contained traces of hydrogen peroxide formed by autoxidation.
Chance (1948) found that ascorbic acid accelerated the conversion of a primary
complex of catalase with hydrogen peroxide into a secondary one, which was
our supposed ascorbic acid compound and which he formulated as ‘“ catalase-
H,O, complex I1’’. Such a complex played a normal role in the activity of
HAEMOGLOBIN
[Fe?* 0, | + HOA = ire | + 20H +O,
1 HOA Oa A HO!
H,O, + [Fe2*]—> [re4*| + 20H }
hs Evie [Ee* | Autodestruction
[re+*] + HyA —» [Fe5*] + H* + HAY
3. 4 [Fe>"] + HA — [Fe2*] + nt + wt
[Fe**] + 02 = [Fe2*0,]
Peroxidase
activity
Text-fig. 16.—Coupled oxidation of hemoglobin and ascorbic
acid [Fe] hem-iron. H,A ascorbic acid.
1. Formation of [Fet+] directly (first line), or from action of
hydrogen peroxide formed by autoxidation of ascorbic
acid.
2. Oxidation of porphin nucleus to form choleglobin.
3. Back reduction of [Fe4+] to [Fe?*].
peroxidases. Finally George (1952, 1953) has shown that the ‘ complex IT ’’
of peroxidases and of catalase can be obtained by the action of a great variety
of oxidants and cannot be formulated as hydrogen peroxide complex. It is
best formulated as [Fe*+] or [FeO?+] complex, and ascorbic acid, or even
impurities, cause a monovalent reduction of the primary complex having
‘‘ effectively pentavalent ’’ iron. It is still too early to say what is the real
valency of iron in these compounds, and whether radicals in the porphin ring or
protein are formed. One therefore speaks of ‘ effective valency ’’. Neglecting
this we may thus write the action of catalase as in Text-figure 17. Formule 1-2
represent the normal catalatic activity of catalase, formule 3-5 its comparatively
weak peroxidative activity in the presence of hydrogen donors, when the [Fe**]
complex is formed and undergoes partial autodestruction.
* The fact that ferric hzematin is not reduced to ferrous by ascorbic acid, but can be trans-
formed into bile pigment by ascorbic acid plus hydrogen peroxide (Kench, 1954) is no evidence
against this. Ascorbic acid is required for the process and may well reduce an initial [f'e*+.H,O, |
or [fe>+] complex to [Fett].
[Fe|=hem.
128 R. LEMBERG.
A [Fe*+] complex plays a normal role in the mechanism of peroxidase.
Under certain conditions, catalase can thus act as peroxidase, but differs from
peroxidase apparently in the properties of the [Fe +] and [Fe*+] complexes.
Only in catalase the [F'e°+] complex reacts (directly or indirectly) with a second
molecule of hydrogen peroxide. The [fe*+] complex of peroxidase is com-
paratively stable although some bile pigment is also formed (Kench, 1954),
The [Fe**+] complex of catalase undergoes partial oxidation of its porphyrin
ring. The verdohem groups in liver catalase, and the rapid turnover of liver
catalase iron, aS compared with erythrocyte catalase iron (Theorell et al., 1951),
are evidence for the peroxidative activity of liver catalase. No such evidence
is available for erythrocyte catalase whose function is that of a safeguard against
irreversible oxidation of hemoglobin to choleglobin by hydrogen peroxide
(Foulkes and Lemberg, 1949).
Somewhat similar reactions of catalase occur in the presence of
hydroxylamine or azide. Both are oxidised to a mixture of nitrous and nitric
oxide (Foulkes and Lemberg, 1949); Keilin and Hartree, 1954). The latter
stabilises catalase in the ferrous form as [fe2?+NO] complex. Keilin concludes
from this and other experiments that the [Fe?+] state is also passed during the
normal action of catalase on hydrogen peroxide, but the matter is not yet clear.
CATALASE
1 [Fe 34] +H,0, > [fe>*] + 20H"
2. [FoF] « 1,02 —> [Fe] + 2H" +0,
3. [Fe] +H, A —> [Fe4*] +H’ + a | 1
Peroxidase activity
i Catalahe activity
4. [Fe4*] +H, A —> [Fe3*] + Ht + HAM
5 bea | > [Fe* | Autodestruction
PEROXIDASE
1 Fe>"]~H,0,-> [Fe] + 208
2. [Fe>*] + HA —> [Fe4*] + Ht +HAm
5, [Fe 4*] + Ho A —> [Fe>*] + H*+ HAY
Text-fig. 17.—Mechanism of catalatic and peroxidative
actions. [Fe] hem iron, H,A ascorbic acid.
Cytochromes. Lately our work has been mostly concerned with the cyto-
chromes. The chain of electron passages from hydrogen donor to oxygen ends
in a series of cytochromes, e.g. b+?-—>c—a—az, where az is almost certainly
Keilin’s cytochrome oxidase and Warburg’s Atmungsferment. Whereas
cytochrome b is derived from protohem, and cytochrome e closely related to
it (it may be considered an adduct of protein—cysteine to the vinyl groups of
protohem), cytochromes a3, a and the bacterial cytochrome a, are derived from
formylporphyrin. Cytochrome a, found in bacteria such as Aerobacter, Azo-
tobacter or Escherichia coli is perhaps the terminal oxidase in these organisms ;
Barrett and Lemberg (1954) have recently isolated its hemin and shown that it
is an iron complex of a chlorin, not a porphyrin. Porphyrin a or “ cytopor-
phyrin ”’ (Warburg) has been obtained spectroscopically pure and in almost
quantitative yield from heart muscle (Lemberg, 1953). This preparation
largely excludes the formation of the cryptoporphyrins, which are artefacts,
some derived from hem a, others from protohem. The prosthetic groups of
cytochrome oxidase (cytochrome a3) and cytochrome a are generally assumed
to be identical. Recently we have obtained two fractions of porphyrin a haying
exactly the same absorption spectrum, but differing in their extractability from
ether by hydrochloric acid or phosphate buffer, as well as in their behaviour on
cellulose or silica gel chromatographic columns. We have shown that these are
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 129
mutually intraconvertible forms of porphyrin a and while it is not excluded that
one is the prosthetic group of cytochrome a,, the other of cytochrome a, our
evidence so far does not support this assumption (Lemberg, 1955).
The structure of porphyrin a is not yet finally established. It has a formyl
side chain and a side chain with a double bond conjugated with the porphin
ring, probably on a pyrrole ring opposite to the one bearing the formyl. This,
or another side chain, is a long alkyl group which increases the molecular weight
without contributing to the colour. It appears difficult, however, to account
for the two forms of porphyrin a on the basis of the present formule.
The evidence for a long paraffinic side chain in porphyrin a is of particular
interest. Both chlorophyll and cytochrome oxidase are contained in intracellular
particles, the chloroplasts and mitochondria which possess a complicated internal
structure of lipides and proteins. In the chloroplast the chlorophyll molecules
MODEL OF
CHLOROPLAST
Protein
T= lipid layer
I= protein toyer
‘so-tyclic Fino
Phytol Toil
CHLOROPHYLL CAROTENOID Oe STs enn
NO! CHLOROPHYLL AND ER
MOLECULE CARTENOIDS
Text-fig. 18.—Chlorophyll monolayers in chloroplast (according to Wolken
and Schwertz, 1953.)
form monolayers between protein and lipide layers (Text-fig. 18), with the long
phytol tails sticking into the lipid layer which also contains the carotenoids
(Wolken and Schwertz, 1953). In porphyrin a a similar structure is achieved
by different means, not by esterification but by a long aliphatic side chain.
Here is a whole new field opening for the biochemist, all that which lies between
molecular and microscopic structure.
Whereas usually flavoproteins (with isoalloxazine prosthetic groups) carry
electrons from pyridine nucleotides to the cytochromes, Appleby and Morton
(1954) have recently shown that cytochrome b,, the lactic dehydrogenase of
yeast, contains both hem and isoalloxazine groups on the same protein.
BIOSYNTHESIS OF PORPHYRINS.
The most important progresses in our field have been made during the last
eight years in the exploration of the biogenesis of the hem compounds and of
chlorophyll. H. Fischer had considered the uro- and coproporphyrins breakdown
130 R. LEMBERG.
products of protohem and products of carboxylation of protoporphyrin. As
has been shown above, however, porphyrins are not in the normal way of hem
breakdown, and there was accumulative physiological and pathological evidence
(cf. Lemberg and Legge, 1949, pp. 593 ff., 628 ff.) that these free porphyrins in
the body were formed in hemoglobin synthesis.
Uroporphyrin was the one found in the smallest amounts, so small that
only recently Lockwood (1953, 1954) has been able to isolate pure uroporphyrin
III from normal urine and to demonstrate that we excrete normally 10-30 ug.
per day, one-fifth as much as coproporphyrin. Only in certain diseases
(porphyrias), and in the fox squirrel (Sciurus niger) normally, is uroporphyrin
excreted in milligramme amounts. The quantitatively insignificant or rare,
in this instance uroporphyrin, in the instance of bile pigment formation biliverdin,
had been considered of minor significance and the suggestion of Turner (1940)
that uroporphyrin may be the primary porphyrin had found no acceptance.
When in 1946 Rittenberg, Shemin and Bloch found in isotope experiments
that N® from glycine (Shemin and Rittenberg, 1946) and deuterium from acetate
(Ponticorvo, Rittenberg and Bloch, 1949) were incorporated in the hem of
hemoglobin by the nucleated erythrocytes of birds, I suggested a new hypothesis
PORPHYRIN SYNTHESIS
Relation between porphyrins
Proto Copro Uro
2 *CH5° CH5CO5R 2 *CH5*CH5* COOH 2 *CH* CH5*CO,H
Text-fig. 19.—Porphyrin biosynthesis. Relation between
porphyrins.
The arrows indicate the two reactions which do not neces-
sarily involve the side chains of the porphyrins themselves,
but probably those of monopyrrolic or dipyrrolic precursors.
of porphyrin biogenesis in my lecture before the Adelaide Congress of
A.N.Z.A.A.S., which was published three years later (Lemberg and Legge,
1949, p. 637). At that time it was a rather daring hypothesis, but it has
meantime been proved almost entirely by American and English workers. I
have contributed nothing experimental to this development, but I believe that
my 1949 discussions with Rimington and Neuberger, Rittenberg, Shemuin,
London, Bloch, Watson and Granick have hastened this development, and I am
glad that one of my earlier pupils, John Falk, now Royal Society Foulerton
Research Fellow at London University College, has been able to put what one
may describe as the coping stone on this edifice.
My hypothesis was based on the following facts: The relationship between
the side chains of the various porphyrins is such that the conversion of uro- to
coproporphyrin (4CH,CO,H—4CH,) by decarboxylation and that of copro- to
protoporphyrin (2-CH,.CH,.CO,H~2-CH=CH,) by oxidative decarboxylation
are far more likely processes than the hitherto assumed inverse reactions (Text-fig.
19). The primary pyrrolic precursor thus should have the side chains of
uroporphyrin, acetic and propionic side chains. Acetate enters the tricarboxylic
acid cycle and in it becomes converted into «-ketoglutarate. Two molecules of
a-ketoglutarate and two molecules of glycine can be expected to be condensed
to such a precursor.
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 131
Now here is the story as it stands today (Text-fig. 20). a«-ketoglutarate
or succinyl coenzyme A formed in the citric acid cycle is condensed with one
molecule of glycine to form «-amino-$-ketoadipic acid which is decarboxylated
to 6-aminolevulinic acid (Shemin and Russell, 1953). Two molecules of this
are condensed to the pyrrolic precursor, porphobilinogen (Dresel and Falk, 1953).
This substance was discovered by Waldenstrém in 1935 as a colourless precursor
of porphyrin in the urine of patients with acute porphyria and assumed to be a
dipyrrylmethane. Recently it has been isolated (Westall, 1952) and its structure
aS @ monopyrrole established by Cookson and Rimington (1953). Finally
Falk, Dresel and Rimington (1953) have shown that porphobilinogen is converted
to uroporphyrin, coproporphyrin and the protoporphyrin of hem in the hemo-
lysates of bird erythrocytes. The picture of these reactions as given in my 1946
lecture (Lemberg and Legge, 1949, p. 672) still remains essentially unaltered
except that the assumed primary monopyrrolic precursor, and not the dipyrry!-
methane is identical with porphobilinogen. In the role of porphobilinogen we
have one more evidence, how a substance considered as the oddity of a specialist,
can assume central importance, and how the study of pathological products
can be fundamental for the explanation of normal physiological events. Inversely,
CO,H
ine Pe
CO5H CH COEH CH
if ‘ i Le
CHs CH, CH, CH5
{ { | |
CH
pe CO (R) — CH Corp as AC P
+ | + |
(R)cO CH5-(CO5H) co CHy
H,N CH if ‘a A
> 97 (CO5H) NH» H5NCH NH5 N
HoNCH, H
2 molecules a-ketoglutaric 2 molecules
acid (or succinyl-coenzyme —> ny -aminolaevu- —_ porphobilinogen
A) + 2 molecules of glycine linic acid
Text-fig. 20.—Porphyrin biosynthesis. Formation of monopyrrolic precursor.
R represents -CO,H group in «-ketoglutaric acid, -SR’ group in coenzyme A.
Groups eliminated during the reaction in parentheses.
there is now hope that our new insight will help us to find means to cure acute
porphyria, a distressing and usually fatal disease not as rare as was previously
believed.
The synthesis of chlorophyll proceeds along similar lines. The isotope
experiments of Della Rosa, Altman and Salomon (1953) show that glycine and
acetate are the primary precursors. Granick has discovered mutants of the
green alga Chlorella which, instead of chlorophyll, contain the magnesium
complex of protoporphyrin (Granick, 1948), that of vinylpheoporpbyrin a;
(see Table 2) (Granick, 1950), or free highly carboxylated porphyrins (Bogorad
and Granick, 1953).
We now begin to understand why the synthesis of porphyrins, so difficult
for the organic chemist, is so easy a task for nature. A human adult forms no
less than 80 g. of porphyrin annually and the amount of hemoglobin-porphyrin,
alone, produced by mankind alone annually is about 160,000 tons. The produc-
tion of chlorophyll is immeasurably greater and though the hematin enzymes
are found in small concentrations, they are so widespread that the amounts of
their prosthetic groups must also be very large.
These discoveries raise new problems with regard to biochemical evolution.
The synthesis of the tetrapyrroles evidently presupposes the existence of a large
132 R. LEMBERG.
part of the intermediary metabolism with its numerous enzymes so that it does
no longer appear likely that their appearance on earth can have been so primeval
as had been frequently assumed. If this is so, then almost all the metabolism
as we know it today, with photosynthesis and respiration, chlorophyll and
hem enzymes, is far from primitive in terms of biochemical evolution, although
we know from findings of porphyrins and chlorophyll derivatives in Silurian
coals that it is at least 300 million years old. Moreover, we have the apparent
contradiction that an oxidative cycle is necessary for the synthesis of the very
catalysts which catalyse the oxidation. This vast complexity of the basis of
life is often insufficiently appreciated by physicists as well as by people who
speculate on the origin of life on earth.
PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Bacterioviridin
Bacteriochlorophyll
Chlorophylls a + b
Phycochromoproteins
Chlorophylls c, d.
RESPIRATION
Cytochrome ao
Cy tochrome a,
(Cu-enzymes ) : Cytochromes as + a
(Peroxidases) |
(Catalase)
OXYGEN TRANSPORT
Haemocyanins
Haemoerythrins
Vertebrate haemoglobins
Chlorocruorin
Erythrocruorins=—- — —_ —_ —_ ‘=> Myoglobin
Text-fig. 21.—Convergent development.
There is a tendency of convergent development which is displayed by the
tetrapyrroles in nature. Nature appears to experiment with a variety of devices
before it finally accepts one, which is then no longer modified (Text-fig. 21).
Thus we find in the more primitive organism a variety of chlorophylls, and also
phycochromoproteins, as catalysts in photosynthesis which in higher plants are
replaced by the chlorophyll a, b system. In cellular respiration, a variety of
cytochromes (a@,, 4,) and non-hem catalysts such as the copper enzymes, are
finally replaced by the cytochrome a,—a system. In a way, also, peroxidases
and catalases become of minor significance with the development of this system.
In oxygen transport, non-hem oxygen carriers, the Cu containing hemocyanin,
the iron containing hemerythrins and the hemovanadins, as well as more
primitive hemoglobins and chlorocruorin, are finally replaced by the vertebrate
type of hemoglobin with four hem groups per molecule, while the perhaps more
primitive monohem protein answers a particular function as myoglobin in the
CHEMICAL STRUCTURE OF THE PYRROLE PIGMENTS AND ENZYMES. 133
red muscle cell. It appears that such compounds as hemoglobin have not been
developed once but several times by Nature, in the same way in which organs,
e.g. the placenta, have been constructed in different ways repeatedly.
RELATION BETWEEN STRUCTURE AND BIOLOGICAL FITNESS.
We may now try to sum up the chemical features which we find to be the
basis of biological fitness of the tetrapyrroles.
At first glance, it would appear difficult to reconcile the needs for a substance
required for photosynthesis with those required for one functioning in cellular
respiration, and again those for an oxygen carrier. The former requires a
substance able to absorb sunlight and being able to hand on the energy of its
activated molecule to the complicated mechanism by which the endergonic
reaction CO,+H,O0—-[CH,O]+0O, is carried out. Absorption of light energy
has no role in cellular respiration or oxygen transport. Again, the ability to
act as electron carrier between the substrates and oxygen in the respiratory
chain appears to contradict the properties demanded for an oxygen carrier.
In the first instance activation of oxygen and valency changes of the iron atom,
in the latter lack of activation of oxygen and no valency change of iron.
Nevertheless, there are physicochemical features which make the porphyrin
derivatives suitable for all these tasks. The first is the resonance structure,
which at the same time is the basis of the absorption of visible light, helps the
formation of stable metal complexes, and results in a most complicated interaction
between the z-electrons of the porphin ring and the electrons of the metal.
The role of iron in cytochrome oxidase, the cytochromes, hemoglobin,
peroxidases and catalase has been discussed. That of magnesium in chlorophyll
is less certain. The original assumption of Willstatter that its role is the binding
of carbon dioxide has been disproved. It now appears much more likely that
it is water that is bound on the magnesium atom of chlorophyll, and that the
first reaction of photosynthesis, written schematically H,O +hv—-OH -+-H, takes
place with water thus bound. Chlorophylls form hydrates, as has been demon-
strated by the change of absorption and fluorescence which they undergo if
water is added to their solutions in water-free hydrocarbons (Livingston and
Well, 1952).
The importance of the resonance structure is, however, still larger. If a
monovalent electron change is to be connected with the usual divalent hydrogen
changes of organic substrates, or with the monovalent changes between oxygen
and water, or hydrogen peroxide and water, without the formation of indis-
criminately reactive monovalent radicals, such radicals must be resonance-
stabilised. Radicals such as OH, O,H and H have been freely postulated by
physicochemists but I doubt whether such almost indiscriminately reactive and
freely diffusible radicals could be subjected to the fine control (homeostasis)
characteristic of every living cell and could find a place in normal biological
reactions. In fact such radicals cause the destruction by y radiation. Nature
uses the device of letting such reactions take place on large resonance stabilised
molecules, whose monovalent radicals are less reactive and less or non-diffusible,
and which, moreover, are held in position by their linkage to proteins in a well
organised chain in special cell organs, such as the mitochondria or chloroplasts.
It is thus not accidental that so many of the catalytically important molecules of
the cell are coloured, even where colour per se is no requisite. Evidence for
such resonance-stabilised radicals in the tetrapyrrole field is still largely circum-
stantial. There is no reliable evidence for the role of a mono-dehydrochlorophyll
in photosynthesis or for reversible alteration of the porphyrin ring in hematin
enzymes. We must go one step further and consider the whole porphyrin-iron-
protein complex. Hemin is a 1000 times better catalatic catalyst than iron,
but catalase is 1000 million times more effective. No simple ham compound
134 R. LEMBERG.
has the ability of reversibly combining with oxygen, which is the functional
characteristic of hemoglobin. This requires a specific type of protein, globin.
The iron of protohem behaves quite differently when it is combined with the
respective proteins in hemoglobin, cytochrome 0b, catalase or horse radish
peroxidase. We have no less than five different ways of behaviour of hzem iron
which depend mainly on the protein and, with the possible exception of
cytochrome oxidase, not on the side chains of the porphin ring. In hemoglobins
and myoglobins: ([fe?+] + O, = [fe?*O,]; in cytochrome oxidase:
[fe2+]+0,—[Fe3+],; in non-autoxidisable cytochromes: [Fe?+]=[Fe*+]-+e.
About the reactions of catalases and peroxidases, see Text-figure 17.
It will require a far greater knowledge than we possess today of protein
structure, of the type of linkage between prosthetic group and protein, and of
quantum mechanics, to understand the complex interactions between z-electrons
of the porphyrin, electrons of the iron and the influence of the protein bound
to the metal. It is the protein which determines the finest adaptations and
variations, e.g. those between hemoglobins and myoglobins, and still finer ones
between the different hemoglobin of various species, and even in one and the
same species, between several hemoglobins, such as foetal and adult, or normal
adult and a variety of pathological hemoglobins. This, however, leads us out
of the field which I have proposed to discuss into the different one of protein
specificity, and I must restrict myself to having pointed out the connection.
We still know far too little, both of biological function and of chemical
structure, and particularly about the relations between these two, to see more
than a faint glimmer. But this glimmer is enough to let us stand in awe of
the incredible complexity and the degree of fitness in this complexity. Perhaps
Voltaire’s sneer about this ‘‘ best of all possible worlds ’”’ was hardly less one-sided
than the all too complacent idea of an order of absolute infallibility in Nature.
Surely the truth lies somewhere in between ‘‘ what a scene of gratification and
pleasure ’? and ‘‘ Nature red in tooth and claw ’’, between Henderson’s ‘‘ co-
ordinated fitness of animate and inanimate world ”’ and ‘‘ struggle for life in a
hostile environment ”’.
I cannot close without remembering in gratitude some of my teachers :
Heinrich Biltz, to whom I owe most of the little skill I possess as an experi-
mentalist, and an education to patience and perseverance ; Karl Freudenberg,
who showed me the wide possibilities for the organic chemist in the exploration
of natural products ; Sir Frederic Gowland Hopkins, David Keilin and other
Cambridge friends, who turned my attention from structural to metabolic and
functional problems and thus began the conversion of an organic chemist to a
biochemist.
My collaborators, many unnamed here, have borne more than their share of
troubles in our adventures but have, I hope, also participated in the joys of
exploration. Without the support of the hospital authorities, and in particular
of the National Health and Medical Research Council, my researches could not
have been carried out.
I thank the Royal Society of N.S.W. for the honour they have conferred
upon me by entrusting me with this lecture, and I hope that I have shown some
lines from my work which may lead into the future.
REFERENCES.
Appleby, C. A., and Morton, R. K., 1954. Nature, 174, 749. °
Barrett, J., and Lemberg, R., 1954. Nature, 173, 213.
Bogorad, L., and Granick, S., 1953. J. biol. Chem., 202, 793.
Chance, B., 1948. Nature, 161, 914.
Cookson, G. H., and Rimington, C., 1953. Nature, 171, 875.
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Della Rosa, R. J., Altman, K. I., and Salomon, K., 1953. J. biol. Chem., 202, 771.
Dresel, E. I. B., and Falk, J. E., 1953. Nature, 172, 1185.
Duysens, L. N., 1951. Nature, 168, 548.
Falk, J. E., Dresel, E. I. B., and Rimington, C., 1953. Nature, 172, 292.
Fischer, H., and Orth, H., 1937. Die Chemie des Pyrrols, 2, 1. Akad. Verlagsgesellschaft,
Leipzig.
Foulkes, E. C., and Lemberg, R., 1948. Austral. J. Hxp. Biol. Med. Sci., 26, 307.
Foulkes, E. C., and Lemberg, R., 1949a. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 136, 435.
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Foulkes, E. C., Lemberg, R., and Purdom, P., 1951. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 138, 386.
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Granick, S., 1948. J. biol. Chem., 175, 333.
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Hackman, R. H., 1952. Arch. Biochem. Biophys., 41, 166.
Haxo, F. T., and Blinks, L. R., 1950. J. Gen. Physiol., 33, 389.
Keilin, D., and Hartree, E. F., 1954. Nature, 173, 720.
Kench, J. E., 1954. Biochem. J., 56, 669.
Kitasato, Z., 1925. Acta Phytochimica (Japan), 2, 75.
Kuster, W., and Deihle, H., 1913. Z. physiol. Chem., 82, 463.
Lemberg, R., 1930. Lieb. Ann., 477, 195.
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1932. Lieb. Ann., 499, 25.
1935. Biochem. J., 29, 1322.
1943. Austral. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sc., 21, 239.
1953. Nature, 172, 619.
1955. In “ Biochemistry of Nitrogen”, Suomalainen Tiedeakatemia, Helsinki
p. 165.
Lemberg, R., and Bader, G., 1933. Lieb. Ann., 505, 151.
Lemberg, R., and Barcroft, J., 1932. Proc. Roy. Soc. B., 110, 362.
Lemberg, R., and Foulkes, E. C., 1948. Nature, 161, 131.
Lemberg, R., and Legge, J. W., 1949. ‘“‘ Hematin Compounds and Bile Pigments.” Inter-
science, New York.
Lemberg, R., Norrie M., and Legge, J. W., 1939. Nature, 144, 551.
Lemberg, R., and Wyndham, R. A. Biochem. J., 30, 1147.
Linstead, R. P., 1934. J. Chem. Soc., 1016.
—-——_____——— 1953. —J. Chem. Soc., 2837.
Livingston, R., and Well, S., 1952. Nature, 170, 750.
Lockwood, W. H., 1953. Austral. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sc., 31, 453.
Lockwood, W. H., and Bloomfield, B., 1954. Austral. J. Hxp. Biol. Med. Sc., 32, 733.
Morell, D., 1953. Austral. J. Exp. Biol. Med. Sc., 31, 567.
Ponticorvo, L., Rittenberg, D., and Bloch, K., 1949. J. biol. Chem., 179, 839.
Robertson, J. M., 1935. J. Chem. Soc., 615.
Shemin, D., and Rittenberg, D., 1946. J. biol. Chem. 166, 621.
Shemin, D., and Russell, C. 8., 1953. J. Amer. Chem. Soc., 75, 4873.
Theorell, H., Beznak, M., Bonnichsen, R., and Paul, K. G., 1951. Acta Chem. Scand., 5, 445.
Turner, W. J., 1940. J. Lab. Clin. Med., 26, 323.
Waldenstrom, J., 1935. Dtsch. Arch. klin. Med., 178, 38.
Warburg, O., 1932. Z. angew. Chem., 45, 1.
Warburg, O., and Negelein, E., 1930. Ber. Disch. Chem. Ges. 63, 1816.
Westall, R. G., 1952. Nature, 170, 614.
Wolken, J. J., and Schwertz, F. A., 1953. J. Gen. Physiol., 37, 11.
Wood-Jones, F., 1939. ‘‘ The Spirit of Adventure,” in “ Life and Living’. Routledge, London.
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xiii
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
April 7th, 1954.
The seven hundred and first Annual and General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of
New South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.
The President, Dr. Ida A. Browne, was in the chair. Seventy members and visitors were
present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were
read for the first time.
Edgeworth David Medal.—It was announced that no award was made during 1953 for the
Edgeworth David Medal.
Liversidge Research Lecture for 1954.—It was announced that the award of the Liversidge
Research Lectureship had been made to Dr. M. R. Lemberg.
Election of Auditors.—Messrs. Horley & Horley were re-elected as Auditors to the Society
for 1954-55.
The following papers were read by title only :
‘** Note on a Paper by J. L. Griffith’, by G. Bosson, M.Sc.
‘“The Essential Oil of Hucalyptus maculata Hooker. Part I’’, by H. H. G. McKern,
A.R.A.C.I., (Mrs.) M. C. Spies, A.R.A.C.I., and J. L. Willis, M.Sc.
‘* Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1953’, by K. P. Sims, B.Sc.
‘* Geology and Subsurface Waters ofthe Area North of the Darling River between Longitudes
145° and 149°, N.S.W.”’’, by J. Rade.
The retiring President, Dr. Ida A. Browne, delivered her Presidential Address, entitled
““ A Study of the Tasman Geosyncline in the Region of Yass, New South Wales ’’.
At the conclusion of the address, Dr. Browne welcomed Professor R. 8. Nyholm to the
Presidential Chair. The new President expressed his thanks to members for his election to the
Chair.
The meeting accepted a vote of thanks to Dr. Browne for her services as President and for
her Presidential Address.
May 5th, 1954.
The seven hundred and second General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.
The President, Professor R. 8. Nyholm, was in the chair. Thirty-three members and visitors
were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of three candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were
read for the first time.
The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were
read for the second time. David Hiley Stapledon and Clive Charles Wood were duly elected
ordinary members of the Society.
Commemoration Ceremony of the Landing of Captain Cook at Kurnell.—The Chairman
announced that he had attended this ceremony on May Ist, 1954, and reported that, for the first
time, the Society placed a wreath on the Banks Memorial in commemoration of the landing of
the first scientist on these shores.
Discussion.—It was announced that, in place of a popular science lecture, a discussion on
** Would Space Travel be Worthwhile ?”’ would be held on Thursday, May 20th, at 7.30 p.m.,
and the following speakers would lead the discussion: Prof. F. 8. Cotton, Dr. D. F. Martyn and
Prof. A. H. Willis.
Inbrary.—The following donations were received : 144 parts of periodicals and nine purchased
parts.
Address.—An address on ‘“‘ Education in India ’’ was given by Mr. Muni Lal, First Secretary
of Information to the High Commissioner of India.
KK
XIV ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
June 2nd, 1954.
The seven hundred and third General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.
The President, Prof. R. S. Nyholm, was in the chair. Twenty members and visitors were
present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Deaths.—The President announced the deaths of the following : George Wright, a member
since 1916, and James J. Hill, an honorary member since 1914.
The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member of the Society was
read for the first time.
Library.—The following donations were received: 332 parts of periodicals, 23 purchased
parts.
The following papers were read by title only :
‘“ Organ Transformation Induced by Cstrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial (Trichosurus
vulpecula)’’, by A. Bolliger.
‘‘Warialda Artesian Intake Beds’’, by J. Rade.
Address.—Dr. N. F. Stanley, Acting Director, Institute of Epidemiology and Preventive
Medicine at the Prince Henry Hospital, delivered an address on ‘‘ Virus Vaccines—with Special
Reference to Poliomyelitis ”
July Tth, 1954.
The seven hundred and fourth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.
A Vice-President, Dr. Ida A. Browne, was in the chair. Thirteen members and visitors were
present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The Chairman announced the names of those members of the Society who had been elected
to the Australian Academy of Science: on the Council, Prof. R. J. W. Le Fevre ; Fellows, Prof.
J. P. Baxter, Prof. A. J. Birch, Dr. W. R. Browne, Prof. K. E. Bullen, F.R.S., Prof. J. C. Jaeger,
Dr. M. R. Lemberg, F.R.S., Prof. P. D. F. Murray, Dr. H. G. Raggatt, Dr. R. N. Robertson,
Prof. W. L. Waterhouse.
Liversidge Research Lecture.—It was announced that the Liversidge Research Lecture would
be delivered by Dr. M. R. Lemberg, F.R.S., on Thursday, July 15th, 1954, at 8 p.m., in the
No. 3 Lecture Theatre, Chemistry Department, University of Sydney, and would be entitled
‘“ Chemical Structure and Biological Function of the Pyrrole Pigments and Enzymes ”’
Library.—The following donations were received: 342 parts of periodicals, 14 purchased
parts.
Dr. A. Bolliger presented a paper (previously read by title only) on “‘ Organ Transformation
Induced by Cistrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial (T'richosurus vulpecula)’’, expanded under
the title “‘ Organ Transformation Induced by Cistrogen in an Adolescent Marsupial (Trichosurus
vulpecula) with Additional Remarks on ‘ Change of Sex’’’. Rev. T. N. Burke-Gaffney, S.J.,
presented a paper on “‘ The T-Phase from the New Zealand Region’’, expanded under title
‘“The T-Phase, a Seismological Problem ”’
August 4th, 1954.
The seven hundred and fifth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.
The President, Prof. R. S. Nyholm, was in the chair. Thirty-eight members and visitors
were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificates of three candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were
read for the first time.
The certificates of four candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were
read for the second time, and Keith Alan Waterhouse Crook, Syed Manzurul Hasan, Veeraghanta
Bhaskara Rao and Denis Keith Tompkins were duly elected ordinary members of the Society.
Presentation of the James Cook Medal for 1953.—The President had pleasure in presenting
the James Cook Medal for 1953 to Sir David Rivett, K.C.M.G., F.R.S.
It was announced that August 5th would be the centenary of the birth of William Aitcheson
Haswell, who was Professor of Zoology and Comparative Anatomy at the University of Sydney
from 1890 to 1918.
Naper Shaw Memorial Prize.i—Members were informed that the Royal Meteorological
Society had announced the first competition for the Napier Shaw Prize and that further particulars
could be obtained from the office of the Society.
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS XV
Library.—The following donations were received: 209 parts of periodicals, 16 purchased
parts. ;
The following paper was read by title only: ‘‘ The Paleozoic Stratigraphy of Spring and
Quarry Creeks, West of Orange, N.S.W.”, by G. H. Packham and N. C. Stevens.
Addresses.—Addresses were given on the subject of ‘“‘ Evolution’ as follows: ‘‘ Man’s
Place in Evolution ”’, by Dr. N. W. G. Macintosh ; ‘‘ The Implications of Genetics for Darwinism ”’,
by Dr. J. M. Rendel.
September lst, 1954.
The seven hundred and sixth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.
The President, Prof. R. 8. Nyholm, was in the chair. Twenty-one members and visitors
were present. The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member of the Society was
read for the first time.
The certificates of three candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were
read for the second time. Brian Douglas Booth, Edric Keith Chaffer and Griffith Taylor were
duly elected ordinary members of the Society.
It was announced that a symposium on “*‘ Oil, Australia and the Future’, to be held on
Wednesday, October 6th, would take the place of the General Monthly Meeting.
It was also announced that the second in the series of discussions arranged by the Society
would be held on Thursday, September 16th, and would be entitled *‘ Was Myxomatosis Wise ? ”’
The leaders in the discussion would be Dr. Phyllis M. Rountree and Mr. Grahame Edgar.
Members were informed that the Nuffield Foundation was offering a series of Travelling
Fellowships to Australian graduates. Further information could be obtained from the Society’s
office.
LInbrary.—The following donations were received: 198 parts of periodicals, nine purchased
parts, four back numbers.
The following papers were read by title only :
‘““A Theorem Concerning the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms’’, by J. L.
Griffith, B.A., M.Sc.
‘*“ Minor Planets Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1953’, by W. H. Robertson.
Commemoration of Great Scientists—The meeting was devoted to the commemoration of
great scientists, the following addresses being given :
“Sir Lazarus Fletcher ’’ (Mineralogist), by Dr. G. D. Osborne.
“Georg Simon Ohm, 1787-1854’ (Physicist), by Dr. R. C. L. Bosworth.
** Paul Ehrlich ” (Organic Chemist and Immunologist), by Dr. Phyllis M. Rountree.
October 6th, 1954.
The seven hundred and seventh General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New
South Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 5 p.m.
The President, Prof. R. 8. Nyholm, was in the chair. One hundred and forty members and
visitors were present. His Excellency the Governor of New South Wales, Lieut.-General Sir
John Northcott, K.C.M.G., K.C.V.0O., C.B., had honoured the Society with his presence at the
first address of the evening.
Symposium.—In place of the usual General Monthly Meeting a symposium on “ Oil, Australia
and the Future ”’ was held, and the following addresses were given :
‘“The Search for Oil in Australia’, by Dr. H. G. Raggatt.
‘* Oil Products and Their Utilisation’, by Prof. T. G. Hunter.
‘** Petroleum Chemicals’’, by Dr. R. F. Cane.
** The Economic Effects of an Oil Industry on the Australian Economy ”’, by Prof. C. Renwick.
A buffet meal was available to members and visitors from 6.30 p.m. to 7.30 p.m.
The certificate of one candidate for admission as an ordinary member was read for the second
time, and Norman William West was duly elected an ordinary member of the Society.
November 3rd, 1954.
The seven hundred and eighth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.
The President, Prof. R. 8S. Nyholm, was in the chair. Seventy-two members and visitors
were present, The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
Xvi ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS
The death was announced of Richmond D. Toppin, a member since 19238.
It was announced that Professor K. E. Bullen had recently been elected to the presidency
of the International Seismological Union.
Library.—The following accessions were received: 265 parts of periodicals, 18 purchased
parts.
The meeting was devoted to the screening of the following: ‘“‘ Ninety Degrees South ”’.
This film, made by H. G. Ponting, F.R.P.S., and described by him as “‘ an account of experiences
with Captain Scott’s South Pole Expedition and of the nature life of the Antarctic ’’, had been.
made available to the Society through the courtesy of the New South Wales Film Council.
December 1st, 1954.
The seven hundred and ninth General Monthly Meeting of the Royal Society of New South
Wales was held in the Hall of Science House, Gloucester Street, Sydney, at 7.45 p.m.
Dr. Ida A. Browne, Vice-President, was in the chair. Seventy-six members were present.
The minutes of the previous meeting were read and confirmed.
The following deaths were announced: Horatio Scott Carslaw, a member since 1903 ;
Sir Frederick McMaster, a member since 1927; Frederic Wood-Jones, an honorary member
since 1946.
The certificates of two candidates for admission as ordinary members of the Society were
read for the first time.
Library.—The following accessions were received: 175 parts of periodicals, 11 purchased
parts.
The following papers were read by title only:
‘* On the Asymptotic Behaviour of Hankel Transforms ’’, by J. L. Griffith, B.A., M.Sc.
‘* Geology and Sub-surface Waters of the Coonamble Basin, N.S.W.”’, by J. Rade.
‘* Quartzite Xenoliths in the Tertiary Magmas of the Southern Highlands, N.S.W.”’, by
R. D. Stevens.
‘* Petrology of the Greywacke Suite Sediments from the Turon River-Coolamigal Creek
District, N.S.W.”’, by K. A. W. Crook.
‘* The Permian Coal Measures of the Stre-1d Gloucester Trough ”’, by F. C. Loughnan.
Discussion.—The meeting was devoted ‘» » discussion on ‘‘ Fuel and Power in New South
Wales’, and the following addresses were given:
‘“ The Potentialities for Utilization of Solar Energy ”’, by Mr. Charles M. Sapsford.
‘* Solar Energy and Photosynthesis’, by Dr. R. N. Robertson.
‘“The Future of Water Power in New South Wales’, by Mr. H. E. Dann.
‘¢ Power Resources in Coal—The Future Outlook for New South Wales Supplies’, by
Mr. H. R. Brown.
‘ _AUSTRALASTAN MeEpIcAL PUBLISHING Company Limirep
_ Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N.S.W. _
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