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ONCRARY SECRETARIES. 56

3 OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE STATEMENTS
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BLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET, SYDNEY.

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ISSUED AS A ©

OMPLETE VOLUME, MAY, 1929.

CONTENTS.

VOLUME LXII.

Art, I1.—PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By Professor J. Dougnas
Stewart, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V,S.. a aes

Art. II.—The Chemistry of Western Astoteatan Sandalwaad Oil.
= Part I. By A. R. Penrotp, F.A.C.1., F.C.S. “_ Anes
ust 22nd, 1928.) ....

Arr. IlI.—The Occurrence of a ones of capes ‘a Ecce

dives, as determined by Chemical Analysis of the Essential

Oils. Part II. (With remarks on the Ortho-cresol method
for estimation of Cineol). By A. R.-Penroup, F.A.C.L,
F.C.S., and F, R. Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S. (Issued July
4th. 1928.) -. .

_ Art. IV.—Some Ra hata: on es Woodiness or Bullet Dies:
of Passion Fruit. By R. J. Nopuz, Ph.D., M.Se. [With
Plates [- IV. | (Giewed October 29th, 1928.)... oes

Arr. V.— Brown Rot of Fruits, and Associated Diseases, in Aus-

tralia. Part I. History of the Diseases and Determination -

of the Causal Organisms. By T. H. Harrison, B.Sc.Agr,

[With Plates V - IX and one oe figure.) Tssued October -

29th, 1928.)... ive

PAGE

60 ~

712

Ary, VI.—Acacia Seedlings, Part XIII, By RB. HL ins aer

C.B.E.. F.LS., Bee Plates X - XIII. J Coates November
7th, 1928.) .. s

Art, VII.—The Geslony of Port Se ckuae Past L Phys
and General Geology. By C. A. Sussmitcu, F.G.S., and
Wm. Clark. PartIl. Petrography. ByC. A. SussMILoH,
F.G.S., and W. A. Grea. [With Plates XIV XVI and two
text figures.] (Issued November 29th, 1928.) 2

Art. VIII.—The Outbreak of Springs in Autumn. By R, H.
CamBaae, C.B.E., F.L.S. . (Issued December 5th, 1928.)

Art. [X.—Description of Three New Species of Eucalyptus aay:
One Acacia. By W. F. BLAKELY. oe Plates 1
(Issued Detobar 3rd, 1928.) x

Art. X.—The Chemistry of the Exudation coe Sin Wood of Pai
taspodon Motleyi. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.L, F.C.S., and
F. R. Morrison, A.A.C. L., F.C.S. Cane? January 30th,
1929.) Fy ae me ee

Art. XI.—The Essential Oil foes a Roisdin in the Pinwites
Section from Fraser Island. 7 %y A. R. Punronp. F.A.C.I.,
F.C.S. (Issued February 7th34.529.) .. oa

Art. XII.—An Examination of Defective Gecnon: (Bacudebaiee
Taxifolia). By M. B. Wxtcu, B.Se., A.I.C. a. Plates
XXI-XXIII.} (Issued February 7th, 1929) .

Art. XIII.—On the Probable Tertiary Age of Certain ee South
Wales Sedentary Soils. By W. R. Browne, D.Sc. (Issued
February 12th, 1929.) _... ire oe wae ee va

152

168

192

_ 201

218
225
235

251

POUR N AL

AND

PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

NEW SOUTH WALES

FOR

1925

(INCORPORATED 1881.)

ied: 1 xo:

EDITED BY

THE HONORARY SECRETARIES.

THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FORK THE STATEMENTS
MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN.

SYDNEY:
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, 5 ELIZABETH STREET, SYDNEY.

ISSUED AS A COMPLETE YOLUME, MAY, 1929,

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ART.

ART,

ART.

CONTENTS.

VOLUME LXIl.

I.— PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. By Professor J. Dovuaguas
STEWART, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S. Hg eae

II.—The Chemistry of Western Aeaee an eee Oil.
Part I. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.1., F.C.S. Moers Aug-
ust 22nd, 1928.) :

III.—The Occurrence of a ae of varieties ‘of acai yutas
dives, as determined by Chemical Analysis of the Essential
Oils. Part II. (With remarks on the Ortho-cresol method
for estimation of Cineol). By A. R. Penrouo, F.A.C.I.,
F.C.S., and F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.1., F.C.8. (Issued Tuly
4th, 1928.) . -

IV.—Some Bos « on ar Woodiness or Bullet ie
of Passion Fruit. By R. J. Nopun, Ph.D., M.Sc. [With
Plates [-IV.| (Issued October 29th, 1928.)... fea

V.— Brown Rot of Fruits, and Associated Diseases, in Aus-

traha. Part I. History of the Diseases and Determination
of the Causal Organisms. By T’. H. Harrison, B.Sc. Agr.
[With Plates V-IX and one teat figure. Issued October
29th, 1928.)...

VI.—Acacia Seedlings, Bart XIII. Be R. ce chee
C.B.E.. F.LS., De Plates X - pan Snes November
7th, 1928.) ..

VII.—The cece of Port sésnicne Part IU eee
and General Geology. By C. A. SussminicH, F.G.S., and
Wm. Clark. Part II. Petrography. ByC.A. SussMILcH,
F.G.S., and W. A. Greig. [With Plates XIV - XVI and two
text figures. ] (Issued November 29th, 1928.)

VIII.—The Outbreak of Springs in Autumn. By R. H.
CamBaa@e, C.B.E., F.L.8. (Issued December 5th, 1928.) ...

IX.—Description of Three New Species of Eucalyptus and
One Acacia. By W. F. BLAKELY. ee Plates see
(Issued October 8rd, 1928.)

X.—The Chemistry of the Exudation it tie Wood of Pen-
taspodon Motleyi. By A. R. Penroup, F.A.C.L, F.C.S., and
F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S. a January 30th,
1929.)

XI.—The Tecate Oil es a roe in fe Panne
Section from Fraser Island. By A. R. Penroup. F.A.C.I,
F.C.S. (Issued February 7th, i929.) .. : oe

XII.—An Examination of Defective Oresn (peaseinga
Taxifolia). By M. B. Weucn, B.Sc., A.C. [With Plates
XXI-XXIII.} (Issued February 7th, 1929) ... is eh

XIII.—On the Probable Tertiary Age of Certain New South
Wales Sedentary Soils. By W. R. Browns, D.Sc. (Issued
February 12th, 1929.) ae iS: oa as ee

PAGE

152

218

225

235

251

(iv.)

Pace
Art. XIV.—The Essential Oil of a new species of Anemone leaf
Boronia, Rich in Ocimene. By A. BR. Panroup, F.A.C.L,
F.C.S. (Issued February 12th, 1929.) w. 2638
Art. XV.—On some Aspects of Differential Erosion. By W.R.
Browne, D.Sc. ee ee teat Haute se lag aga
19th, 1929.)... ; 273
Art. XVI.—Further otee on the Gene Bomiae By B. Ben Os
(Issued February 19th, 19239.) is 290
Art. XVII.—Alkalization and other Deuteric prisdennderat in ai
Saddleback Trachybasalt at Port Kembla. By W. R.
Browne. D.Sc. and H. P. Warrs, F.C.S. [With Plates
XXIV, XXV and two ee ae an ei Nopeeee 19th,
1929.) : 303
Art. XVIII.—Notes on some Oxeanints of Tomats Pulp. By
G. L. WuInpDRED, (communicated He Gilbert oo
(Issued February 19th, 1929.) 341
ArT. X[X.—Notes on some Australian T oar of ane Monimiaceae.
By M B. We cu, B.Sce., A.L.C. [With Plates co.
(Issued February 19th, 1929. ) ie : 350
Arr. XX.—Note on a Fossil Shrimp from the Hadkoeuney ea
stones. By CHARLEL CuiILTON, M.A., D.Sc., M.B., (com-
municated by W. S. Dun). Bia Plate en (issued
February 19th, 1929.) 366
Art, XXI.—Cyanogenetic Glucosidle in eatin Pinte. By
H. Finnemonrg, B.Sc., and C. B. Cox, B.Sc. (Issued March
19th, 1929.).. uae 6c van sire a os | “OO0
ABSTRACT OF ee i,— XXV1,

PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION ...

XXV1. — XXXI1X.

PROCEEDINGS OF 'THE SECTION OF INDUSTRY xi. - xl.
PROCEEDINGS Of THE SECTION OF PHYSICAL SCLENCE xlv. —li.
Tirte Page, Contents, Novices, PUBLICATIONS, ... sa (i. - vi.)
OFFICERS FOR 1928-1929) . (vii.)
List or Members, Xe. (ix.)

InpDEx To VotumeE LXII.

lii.

NOTICE.

Tue Roya Society of New South Wales originated in 182] as
the ‘Philosophical Society of Australasia”; after an interval of
inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name of the
‘¢ Australian Philosophical Society,” by which title it was known
until 1856, when the name was changed to the ‘ Philosophical
Society of New South Wales”; in 1866, by the sanction of Her
Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present
title, and was incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New
South Wales in 1881.

TO AUTHORS.

Authors should submit their papers in typescript and in
a condition ready for printing. Al! physico-chemical symbols
and mathematical formule should be so clearly written that the
compositor should find no difficulty in reading the manuscript.
Sectional headings and tabular matter should not be underlined.
Pen-illustrations accompanying papers should be made with
black Indian ink upon smooth white Bristol board. Lettering
and numbers should be such that, when the illustration or graph
is reduced to 34 inches in width, the lettering will be quite
legible. On graphs and text figures any lettering may be lightly
inserted in pencil. Microphotographs should be rectangular
rather than circular, to obviate too great a reduction. The size
of a full page plate in the Journal is 4 x 6} inches, and the
general reduction of illustrations to this limit should be considered
by authors. When drawings, etc., are submitted in a state
unsuitable for reproduction, the cost of the preparation of such
drawings for the process-block maker must he borne by the
author. The cost of colouring plates or maps must also be borne
by the author.

FORM OF BEQUEST.

FE bequeath the sum of £ to the Royat Society oF
New SoutH WaAtzgs, Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of
New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt of the
Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an
effectual discharge for the said Bequest, which I direct to be paid
within calendar months after my decease, without
any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty
thereon or otherwise, out of such part of my estate as may be
lawfully applied for that purpose.

[Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of
New South Wales by Legacies, are recommended to instruct their
Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest. |

PUBLICATIONS.
)

The following publications of the Society, if in print, can be
obtained at the Society’s House in Elizabeth-street:—

Transactions of the Philosophical] Society, N.S. W., 1862-5, pp. 374, out of print.
Vols. I—x1 Transactions of the Royal Society, N.S. W., 1867—1877,

“ xu Journal and Proceedings 9 re 1878, ,, 324, price 10s.6d.
” XII ” 29 ” ” 99 1879, 99 255, or)
5 XIV os ae <3 ‘5 es 1880, ,, 391, Es
” XV ey ” ” ” ” 1881, 99 440, 9
Ss XVI =p 53 3 4 a 1882, ,, 327, 2
9 XVII ” ” ” +9 9 1883, 9 324, ”
” XVIII ” ” ” ” ” 1884, 9 224, 99
99 XIX ” 99 ” 29 99 1885, 99 240, 99
99 XX 39 9 99 ” 99 1886, 99 396, 99
- XXI _ 3 a5 99 » 1887, ,, 296, »
99 XXIT 29 9 19 9 2? 1888, 93 390. ””
9 XXIII 9 ” ” ” oe) 1889, 29 534, 9
on) XXIV 99 9 7) ” 9 1890, +) 290, ”
” XXV ” ” ” 29 +) 1391, 7) 348, 9
99 XXVI ” oo) ” 9 ”9 1892, 99 426, ”
” XXVII 99 ” 39 ” ” 1893, oe) 530, 99
” XXVIII o) 7) ” oF) ” 1894, 99 368, 9
9 XXIX 9 ” 9 ” ” 1895, ” 600, ”
” XXX 99 ” ” ” 99 1896, 9 568, 9
99 XXXI 99 29 9 ” ”9 1897, 29 626, ”
” XXXII ” oe) ” ” +) 1898, ” 476, ”9
” XXXII ” ” ” +) ” 1899, ”9 400, 99
9% XXXIV ” ye ” 99 9 1500, 9 484, 39
” XXXV ” 9 99 99 99 1901, 9 581, 39
” XXXVI ” ” ” ” ” 1902, ” 531, ”
2 XXXVIT 9 ” ” ” ” 1903, 9 663, 9°
», XXXVITT 29 9 ” ” 29 1904, ) 604, 2”
” XXXIX oe) ” ” mh) ee) 1905, 99 274, ye)
9 XL 29 : ” ” 29 39 1906, oe) 368, 99
29 XLI 99 ” ” 9 99 1907, 99 377, 99
ee) XLII 2? 99 9 oH) oe) 1908, 99 593, ”9
99 XLIII +) 99 ” 99 ” 1909, oD) 466, 9
” XLIV 9 oy) oo) ” Ly) 1910, 3” 719, 9
”9 XLV 79 9 ” 9 ” 1911, 29 611, 99
oe) XLVI ye) 99 oe) oe) oy) 1912, 99 275, 9
99 XLVI 99 ” 9 ” 99 1918, 99 318, om)
9 XLVITI 99 99 ” 99 99 1914, 99 584, 9
” XLIX 39 99 ” 7) 29 1915, 9 587, 9
” L ey) oF) ” ” 29 1916, 29 362, oy)
99 LI 39 39 99 99 99 1917, 39 786, 99
9 LII ” oo) 9 9 ) 1918, 99 624, ye)
99 LIII 99 oe) 99 oe) 9 1919, oe) 414, 99
” LIV 99 9 99 » or) 1920, ,, 312, price £1 ls.
9 LV 99 ” oI) ” 99 1921, 99 418, 99
9) LVI 99 99 99 99 99 1922, bP) 372, 99
” LVII 99 99 99 ” 99 1928, oy) 421, 99
” LVIII 29 9 ) ” oP) 1924, oy) 366, ”9
” LIX ” 99 oe) oo) ”” 1925, ” 46S, ”
99 LX 9 99 7 3 ” 1926, ” 470, 99
9° LXI 99 be] 9 9 99 1927, 99 492, 99
? LXII 29 bh 79 99 ae 1928, 99 458, 99

Aopal Society of Sew Sonth ales

Green Ee Es ys 2 @Oike “LO2S8-Lo2°-

Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY THE RIGHT HONOURABLE JOHN
LAWRENCE, BARON STONEHAVEN, P.c., G.c.M.a4., D.s.0.

Governor-General of the Commonwealth of Australia.

Vice-Patron:
HIS EXCELLENCY SIR DUDLEY RAWSON STRATFORD de
CHATR, k.c.B., M.V.O.

Governor of the State of New South Wales.

President:
W. POOLE, me, M.mst.c.£., M.1.’M.M., etc,

Vice-Presidents:
R. H. CAMBAGE, c.3.u., F.L.S.* Prof. R. D. WATT, m.a., B.sc.

C. ANDERSON, .a., D.Sc. Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART,

B.V.Se., M.R.C.V.S.

Hon. Treasurer:
Prof. H. G. CHAPMAN, m.p.

Hon. Secretaries:
Prof. O. U. VONWILLER, | C. A. SUSSMILCH,

BSc., F.Inst.P, ’ F.G.S., F.S.T.C., etc.

Members of Council:

EK. C. ANDREWS, B.a., F.G@.s. Prof. C. KE. FAWSITT, p.sc., ph.v.
G. H. BRIGGS, B.sc., php. G. A. JULIUS, B.sc., w.8.,.M-1.Mec.E.
R. W. CHALLINOR, F.1.¢., F.c.s. J. NANGLE, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S.

EK. CHEEL. R. J. NOBLE, m.se:, Bsc. Agr. Ph.D.
Prof. L. A. COTTON, m.a., D.Sc. Rev. E. F. PIGOT, sJ., B.a., M.B

*Deceased 28th Noyember, 1928

ihe
i

r
4

re ome

Png aU Ns hs Nae

fist OF THE MEMBERS

OF THE

AMopal Society of Act South Wales.

eee

P Members who have contributed papers which have been published in the Society’s

Journal.

The numerals indicate the number of such contributions.

£ Life Members.
Elected,

1908
1904
1898
1905

1909

1915

1919

1923
1878

1924
1919
1894
1894
1926

1919
1925

1908
1895

1909
1926
1923
1919

1923

Ps
Bo

P 27

| Abbott, George Henry, B.A., M.B.,Ch.M., 185 Macquarie-street;

p.v. ‘Cooringa,’ 252 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill.
Adams, William John, M.1.Mech.E., 175 Clarence-street.
Alexander, Frank Lee, William-street, Granville.
Anderson, Charles, u.A., D.Sc. Hdin., Director of the Australian
Museum, College-street. (President, 1924.) Vice-President.
Andrews, Ernest C., 3B.A., F.G.8.. Hon. Mem. Washington
Academy of Sciences, Government Geologist, Department
of Mines, Sydney. (President, 1921.)

| Armit, Henry William, m.r.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.P. Lond., The

Printing House, Seamer-street. Glebe.
Aurousseau, Marcel, B.sc., c/o Post Office, Manly.

Baccarini, Antonio, Doctor in Chemistry (Florence).

Backhouse, His Honour Judge A. P., m.a., ‘ Melita,’ Elizabeth
Bay.

Bailey, Victor Albert, M.A., D.Phil., F.Inst.P., Assoc.-Professor of
Physics in the University of Sydney.

Baker, Henry Herbert, 15 Castlereagh-street.

Baker, Richard Thomas, The Crescent. Cheltenham.

{Balsille, George, ‘ Lauderdale,’ N.E. Valley, Dunedin, N.Z.

Bannon, Joseph, Demonstrator in Physics in the University of
Sydney; p.r. ‘ Dunisla,’ The Crescent, Homebush.

Bardsley, John Ralph, ‘The Pines,’ Lea Avenue, Five Dock.

Barker-Woden, Lucien, F.R.G.s., Commonwealth Department
of Navigation, William Street, Meibourne.

Barling, John, u.s., ‘St. Adrians, Raglan-street, Mosman.

Barraclough, Sir Henry, K.B.&., B.E., M.M.E., M. Inst. C.E.,
M.1I. Mech. E., Memb. Soc. Promotion Eng. Education;
Memb. Internat. Assoc. Testing Materials; Dean of the
Faculty of Engineering and Professor of Mechanical
Engineering in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Marmion,’
Victoria-street, Lewisham.

Benson, William Noel, p.sc. Syd., B.A. Cantab., F.a.s., Professor
of Geology in the University of Otago, Dunedin, N.Z.
en Sydney Ernest, B.sc.agr. 70 Young-street, Annan-

ale.
Berry, Frederick John, F.c.s., ‘Roseneath,’ 51 Reynolds-street,
Neutral Bay.
Bettley-Cooke, Hubert Vernon, ‘The Hollies,’ Minter-street,
Canterbury.
Birks, George Frederick, c/o Potter & Birks, 15 Grosvenor-st.

lected.

1916
1920
1915
1913
1923
1905
1888
1893
1917
1926

1920

1922 |

1916
1926
1917

1891

1923
1919
1922

Pal

P15

P 10

(X.)

Birrell, Septimus, cjo Margarine Co., Edinburgh Road,
Marrickville.

Bishop, Eldred George, 8 Belmont-road, Mosman.

Bishop, John, 24 Bond-street.

Bishop, Joseph Eldred, Killarney-street. Mosman.

Blakely, William Faris, ‘ Myola,’ Florence-street, Hornsby.

Blakemore, George Henry, 683 Pitt Street, Sydney.

{Blaxland, Walter, F.R.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.p. Lond., ‘ Inglewood,’
Florida Road, Palm Beach, Sydney.

Blomfield, Charles E., B.c.e. Melb., ‘ Woombi,’ Kangaroo Camp,
Guyra.

Bond, Robert Henry, ‘Eastbourne,’ 27 Cremorne-road, Cre-
morne Point.

Booker, Frederick William, B.sc., ‘Dunkeld,’ Nicho!son-street,
Chatswood.

Booth, Edgar Harold, M.C., B.Sc., F.Inst.P., Lecturer and Demon-
stratorin Physics in the University of Sydney.

Bradfield, John Job Crew, D.Sc. Eng., M.E., M. Inst. C.E., M. Inst. E. Aust.
Chief Engineer, Metropolitan Railway Construction, Rail-
way Department, Sydney.

Bragg, James Wood, B.a., c/o Gibson, Battle &Co. Ltd.,Kent-st.

Branch, Kenneth James F., 99 North Steyne, Manly.

Breakwell, Ernest, B.A., B.Sc, Headmaster Agricultural
School, Yanco.

Brennand, Henry J. W., B.A., M.D., Chm. Syd., v.D., Surgeon
Commander R.A.N. Ret., 223 Macquarie-street; p.r. 73
Milsons Road, Cremorne.

Brereton, Ernest Le Gay, B sc., Lecturer and Demonstrator in
Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

Briggs, George Henry, B.8c., Ph.p., Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Physics in the University of Sydney.

Brough, Patrick, M.a., B.Se, B.Sc, (Agr.) (Glasgow), Lecturer
in Botany in the University of Sydney.

Brown, Herbert, ‘ Sikoti,’ Alexander-street, Collaroy Beach,
Sydney.

Brown, James B., St. Andrew’s, Mont Victor Road, East
Kew, H. 4, Victoria.

Browne, William Rowan, pD.sc., Assistant-Professor of Geology
in the University of Sydney.

{Burfitt, W. Fitzmaurice, B.A., M.B., Ch.M. B.Sc, Syd., ‘Wyom-
ing,’ 175 Macquarie-street, Sydney.

Buckitt, Arthur Neville St. George, u.B, B.sc., Professor of
Anatomy in the University of Sydney.

Burrows, George Joseph, B.sc, Lecturer and Demonstrator in
Chemistry in the University of Sydney; p.r. Watson-street,
Neutral Bay.

Calvert, Thomas Copley, Assoc.M.Inst.c.E, Department of Pub-
lic Works, Sydney.

Cameron, Lindsay Duncan, Hilly-street, Mortlake.

Campbell, Alfred W., M.pD., ch.m. Edin., 183 Macquarie-street.

Carment, David, r.1.a. Grt. Brit. @ Irel. ¥.F.A., Scot., 4 Whaling
Road, North Sydney.

Carruthers, Sir Joseph Hector. K.c.M.G., M.1..C., M.a., Syd., LL.D.,
St. Andrews, ‘Highbury,’ Waverley.

lected
1903

1913
1909
1913
1925

‘1909
1876
1896
1920
1913
1928

‘1882
1919

‘1909
1892
1886
1921
1927
‘1925

1912

‘1886

1928
1890

A919
1921
1921
1894

(xais)

P3) Carslaw, Horatio S., m.a., Se.b., Professor of Mathematics
in the University of Sydney.

P 3| Challinor, Richard Westman, F.1.c., F.c.s., Lecturer in Chem-
istry, Sydney ‘l'echnical College.

P 2| Chapman, Henry G., m.p., B.s., Director of Caxcer Research,
University of Sydney. Hon. Treasurer.

P 16) Cheel, Edwin, Curator National Herbarium, Botanic Gardens,
Sydney.

P 1| Clark, William E., ‘ Acacia,’ Cambridge-street, Epping.

P 20} Cleland, John Burton, m.p., ch.m., Professor of Pathology inthe
University of Adelaide. (President 1917.)

Codrington, John Frederick, m.r.c.s. Eng., L.R.c.e. Lond, and
Edin., ‘Roseneath,’ 8 Wallis-street, Woollahra.

P4| Cook, W. E., m.c.e. Melb., M.Inst.,C.E., Burroway-st., Neutral
Bay.

Cooke, Frederick, c/o Meggitt’s Limited, 26 King-street.

P 3] Coombs, F. A., F.c.s., Instructor of Leather Dressing and
Tanning, Sydney Technical College; p.r. Bannerman
Crescent, Rosebery.

Coppleson, Victor Marcus, u.s., Chu ,r.rc.s., 225 Macquarie-
street, Sydney.

Cornwell, Samuel, J.P., ‘Capanesk,’ Tyagarah, North Coast.

Cotton, Frank Stanley, B.sc., Chief Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Physiology in the University of Sydney.

P 6| Cotton, Leo Arthur, m.a., D.Sc, Professor of Geology in the
University of Sydney,

P1| Cowdery, George R., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., ‘Glencoe,’ Torrington
Road, Strathfield.

Crago, W. H., u.n.c.s. Eng., u.R.c.p. Lond., 185 Macquarie-st.
tCresswick, John Arthur, 101 Villiers-street, Rockdale.

P 1] Currey, Geoffrey Saunders, 13 Princess-avenue, Homebush.

Curry, Harris Eric Marshall, c/o M. Barker, Esq., Kincumber,
N.S. W.

Curtis, Louis Albert, L.s., F.t.s. (N.S.W.), v.p., Room 618,
New Government Savings Bank, Castlereagh-street; p.r.
No. 1 Mayfair Flats, Macleay-street,; Darlinghurst.

P 23) David, Sir Edgeworth, K.B.z., C.M.G., D.S.0, B.A., D.Sc, ¥.R.S.,
F.G.S., Wollaston Medallist, Emeritus Professor of Geo-
logy and Physical Geography in the University of Sydney;
p-r. ‘Coringah,’ Sherbroke-road, Hornsby. (President
1895, 1910.)

Davidson, Walter Charles, General Manager Clyde Engineer-
ing Company, Granville.

Dare, Henry Harvey, M.E., M.Inst.C.E, Commissioner, Water
Conservation and Irrigation Commission, Union House,
George-street.

P 2) de Beuzeville, Wilfrid Alex. Watt, Forestry Assessor, Forest
Office, Tumut.

Delprat, Guillaume Daniel, c.B.z., ‘Keynsham,’ Mandeville
Crescent, ‘loorak, Victoria.

Denison, Sir Hugh Robert, x.B.z., 701 Culwulla Chambers,
Castlereagh-street.

Dick, James Adam. o.m.c., B.A. Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.C.8. Edin.,
‘Catfoss,’ 59 Beluore Road, Randwick.

Elected
1906
1913
1928
1908

1924

1923
1919
1924

1918

1916
1908

1896
1887

1921
1910

1909

1922
1927

1923

1920
1888

1879
1920
1905
1904

1925
1918

P'6

P 2

Pay

Pil

(xii)

Dixson, William, ‘ Merridong,’ Gordon Road, Killara.

Doherty, William M., F.1c., F.c.s., Second Government:
Analyst, ‘ Jesmond,’ George-street, Marrickville.

Donegan, Henry Arthur James, A.s.7.c., Chemical Laboratory,
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Dun, William S., Paleeontologist, Department of Mines, Sydney.
(President 1918. )

Dupain, George Zephirin, a.a.c.1., F.c s., Dupain Institute of
Physical Education, Manning Building, Pitt and Hay
Streets, Sydney, p.r. ‘Symington,’ Parramatta Road,
Ashfield.

Durham, Joseph, 120 Belmore Road, Randwick.

Karl, John Campbell, p.se. Pn.p., Professor of Organic Chem-
istry in the University of Sydney.

Earp, T'he Hon. George Frederick, ¢.B.n., u.u.c., Australia
House, Carrington-street.

Eastaugh, Frederick Alldis, a.r.s.m., F.1.c., Assoc. Professor
in Chemistry, Assaying and Metallurgy in the University
of Sydney.

fElliott, Edward, c/o Reckitts’ (Oversea) Ltd., Bourke-street,
Redfern.

Enright, Walter J., B.a., High-street, West Maitland, N.S.W.

Esdaile, Edward William, 42 Hunter-street.

Fairfax, Geoffrey E., Hon. tu.p. (Toronto), B.a., S. M. Herald
Office, Hunter-street.

Faithfull, R. L., u.p., New York, u.R.0.P., u.s.A. Lond., c/o Iceton,,.
Faithfull and Maddocks, 25 O’Connell-street.

Farnsworth, Henry Gordon, ‘ Rothsay,’ 90 Alt-street, Ashfield.

Farrell, John, a.t.c., Syd., Riverina Flats, 265 Palmer-street,
Sydney.

Fawsitt, Charles Edward, p.sc., Ph,D., Professor of Chemistry
in the University of Sydney. (President 1919).

Ferguson, Andrew, 9 Martin Place, Sydney.

Finnemore, Horace, B.Sce., F.1.C., Lecturer in Pharmacy in the:
University of Sydney.

Fiaschi, Piero, 0.B.E., mu.p. (Columbia Univ.), p.p.s. (New York):
M.R.C.S. (Eng.), L.R.0.P. (Lond.), 178 Phillip-street.

Fisk, Ernest Thomas, Wireless House, 47 York-street.

Fitzhardinge, His Honour Judge G. H., m.a. ‘Red Hill,”
Pennant Hills.

{Foreman, Joseph, m.x.c.s. Eng. u.R.c.P. Edin., ‘The Astor,”
Macquarie-street.

Fortescue, Albert John, ‘Benambra,’ Loftus-street, Arncliffe.

Foy, Mark, c/o Hydro Office, 133a Pitt-street, Sydney.

Fraser, James, ©.M.G., M.Inst.C.E., Chief Commissioner for
Railways, Bridge-street.

Friend, Norman Bartlett, 48 Pile-street, Dulwich Hill.

Gallagher, James Laurence, m.a. Syd., ‘Akaroa,’ Hllesmere-
Avenue, Hunter’s Hill.

eer

Elected

1926 |

1921

1897
1922
1916
1922
1927
1923
1919

1880

1912
1892
1919

1916
1912
1887

1909
1916
1905

1913
1923
1918

1916
1914

1916
1919
1919
1884

1918

1921
11928

Pl
P8

P5
Pt
Pl

P2
Pi}

(xiii. )

Gibson, Alexander James, M.E., M.Inst.c.E., M.I g.Aust., 906
Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Godfrey, Gordon Hay, m.a.. B.Sc, Lecturer in Physics in the
Technical College, Sydney; p.r. 262 Johnston-street,
Annandale.

Gould, The Hon. Sir Albert John, K.B., v.p., ‘ Eynesbury,’
Edgecliff.

Grant, Robert, F.c.s., Department of Public Health, 98 Mac-
quarie-street.

Green, Victor Herbert, 19 Bligh-street.

Greig, William Arthur, Mines Department, Sydney.

Gunn, Reginald Montague Cairns, B.Sc., B.Sc.Agr., M.R.C.V.S.
Lecturer in Veterinary Auatomy and Surgery in the
University of Sydney.

Gurney, William Butler, Government Entomologist, Depart-
ment of Agriculture, Sydney.

Halligan, Gerald H., u.s., F.4.s., Uplands,”’ Station Street.
Pymble.

Hallmann, E. F., B.sc., 72 John-street, Petersham.

Halloran, Henry Ferdinand, t.s., 82 Pitt-street.

Hambridge, Frank, Adelaide Steamship Co. Chambers, Bridge-
street, Sydney.

Hamilton, Arthur Andrew, ‘The Ferns,’ 17 Thomas-st., Ashfield

Hamilton, Alexander G., ‘Tanandra,’ Hercules-st., Chatswood.

Hamlet, William M., F.1.c., F.c.s., Member of the Society of
Public Analysts ; ‘Glendowan,’ Glenbrook, Blue Mountains.
B.M.A. Building, 30 Elizabeth-st. (President 1899, 1908).

Hammond, Walter L., B.sc., High School, Bathurst.

Hardy, Victor Lawson, ‘Tiri Mona,’ 11a Gordon-av., Randwick

Harker, George, D.Sc., F.A.c.I., Chamber of Commerce Building,
35 William-street, Melbourne.

Harper, Leslie F., r.a.s., Geological Surveyor, Department of
Mines, Sydney.

Harrison, Travis Henry, Lecturer in Entomology and Botany
at the Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond.

Hassan. Alex. Richard Roby, c/o W. Angliss & Co. Ppty. Ltd.,
64 West Smithfield, London, E.C.

Hay Dalrymple-, Richard T., t.s.; 45 Bay-street. Double Bay

Hector, Alex. Burnet, ‘‘ Druminard,”’ Greenwich-road, Green-
wich.

Henderson, James, ‘ Dunsfold,’ Clanalpine-street, Mosman.

Henriques, Frederick Lester, 208 Clarence-street.

Henry, Max, D5S.0., B.V.Se, M.R.C.V.s., ‘Coram Cottage,’ Essex-
street, Epping.

Henson, Joshua B., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., 28 Barton-street, May-
field, Newcastle.

Hindmarsh, Percival, m.a., B.se. (Agr.), Teachers’ College, The
University, Sydney; p.r. ‘Lurnea,’ Canberra Avenue,
Greenwich.

Hindmarsh, William Lloyd, B.v.se, M.R.c.Vv.s., D.v.8., District
Veterinary Officer, Glenfield.

Hirst, George Walter Cansdell, B.Sc., Chief Mechanical Engi-
neer’s Office, Wilson Street, Redfern.

Elected,

1916

1924

1901
1905

1920
1919
VSM)
1919
1913

1920
1923

1927

1923

1922
1904

1925
1917
1918

1909
1924
1911

1924
1924

1887
1919

1896

IPs2

P15

(xiv.)

Hoggan, Henry James, A.M.1.M.@., A.M.1.E. (Aust.). Manchester
Unity Chambers, 160 Castlereagh-street; pr. ‘ Lincluden,”
Frederick-street, Rockdale.

Holme, Ernest Rudolph, 0.8.u., m.a., Professor of English:
Language in the University of Sydney.

Holt, Thomas 8., ‘Amalfi,’ Appian Way, Burwood.

Hooper, George, J.P., F.1.c. Syd., ‘Mycumbene,’ Nielsen Park,.
Vaucluse.

Hordern, Anthony, c.B.z., 12 Spring-street, Sydney.

Hoskins, Arthur Sidney, Eskroy Park, Bowenfels.

Hoskins, Cecil Harold, Windarra, Bowenfels.

Houston, Ralph Liddle, No. 1 Lincluden Gardens, Fairfax-rd.,.
Double Bay.

Hudson, G. Inglis, J.p., r.c.s., ‘Gudvangen,’ Arden-st., Coogee..

Hulle, Edward William, Commonwealth Bank of Australia.

Hynes, Harold John, B.sc., (Agr.), Walter and Bliza Hall Agri--
cultural Research Fellow, Biological Branch, Department:
of Agriculture, Sydney.

Inglis, William Keith, M.D., Ch.M., Lecturer in Pathology in:
the University of Sydney; p.r. 34 Wolseley-street,.
Drummoyne.

Ingram, William Wilson, u.c., M.D., cn.B., 185 Macquarie-st.,
Sydney.

Jacobs, Ernest Godfried, ‘Cambria,’ 106 Bland-street, Ashfield.

Jaquet, John Blockley, a.x.s.M., F.G.s., Chief Inspector of Mines,.
Department of Mines, Sydney.

Jenkins, Charles Adrian, B.£., B.Sc, 2 Ramsgate Avenue,
Bondi Beach.

Jenkins, Richard Ford, Engineer for Boring, Irrigation Com-:
mission, 6 Union-street, Mosman.

John, Morgan Jones, M.1I.Mech.&., A.M.1.E.E. Lond., M.1.E. Aust.,.
w.1.M. Aust., Atlas Building, 8 Spring-street; p.r. Olphert.
Avenue, Vaucluse.

Johnston, ''homas Harvey, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., C.M.Z.S., Professor
of Zoology in the University of Adelaide.

Jones, Leo Joseph, Geological Surveyor, Department of Mines,.
Sydney.

Julius, George A., Sir, Kt., B.8c., M.E., M.I.Mech.E., Culwulla:
Chambers, Castlereagh-street, Sydney.

Kenner, James, Ph. D., D.Sc, F.R.S., Professor of Technological,
Chemistry in the University of Manchester.

Kenny, Edward Joseph, Field Assistant, Department of Mines,
Sydney; p.r. 45 Robert-street, Marrickville.

Kent, Harry C., M.A., F.R.1.B.A., Dibbs’ Chambers, 58 Pitt-st..

Kesteven, Hereward Leighton, M.D., Ch.M., D.Sc., Bulladelah,,.
New South Wales.

King, Kelso, 14 Martin Place.

Elected

1923
1920

1919
1877

1924:

1920
1916
1909
1883
1906

1924

1927 |

1884

1923
1921

1903

1919

1906
1891

1880
1922

1927
1916

1909
1924,

1880

P2
P9

(xv.)

Kinghorn, James Roy, Australian Museum, Sydney.
Kirchner, William John, B.sc., “ Wanawong,” ‘I hornleigh-road,,
Beecroft.

| Kirk, Robert Newby, 25 O’Connell-street

Knox, Edward W., ‘Rona,’ Bellevue Hill, Double Bay.

Leech, ‘Thomas David James, B.sc., Syd., ‘Orontes,’ Clarke-st.,
Granville.

Le Souef, Albert Sherbourne, Taronga Park, Mosman.

L’Estrange, Walter William, 7 Church-street, Ashfield.

Leverrier, Frank, B.A., B.Sc, K.c., Wentworth Road, Vaucluse.

“ingen, J. T., m.a. Cantab., x.c., e/¢c Union Club, Bligh-st.

Loney, Charles Augustus Luxton, M.Am.Soc.Refr.E., Equitable
Building, George-street.

Love, David Horace, Beauchamp Avenue, Chatswood.

Love, William Henry, Bsc, ‘‘Lumeah,’ 9 Miller-street,
Haberfield.

MacCormick, Sir Alexander, K.c.M.G., M.D., C.M. Hdin., M.R.C.S.
Eng., 185 Macquarie-street.

Mackay, Iven Giffard. c.u.a., D.s.o., B.A., Student Adviser and
Secretary of Appointments Board, The University, Svdney.

McDonald, Alexander Hugh Earle, Superintendent of Agri-
culture, Department of Agriculture, Sydney.

McDonald, Robert, J.p., u.s., Pastoral Chambers, O’Connell-st;
p.r. ‘ Lowlands,’ William-street, Double Bay.

McGeachie, Duncan, M.1.M.E,, M.1.E, (Aust.), u.1.m.m. (Aust.),
‘Craig Royston,’ Toronto, Lake Macquarie.

McIntosh, Arthur Marshall, ‘Moy Lodge,’ Hill-st., Roseville.

McKay, R. T., L.S., M.Inst.C.E., Commissioner, Sydney Harbour
Trust, Circular Quay.

McKinney, Hugh Giffin, m.z., Roy. Univ. Irel., M.Inst.C.E.,
Sydney Safe Deposit, Paling’s Buildings, Ash-street.

McLuckie, John, M.a.; B.sc., (Glasgow), D.Sc.. (Syd.), Assistant-
Professor of Botany in the University of Sydney.

McMaster, Frederick Duncan, ‘“‘ Dalkeith,’’ Cassilis.

McQuiggin, Harold G., u.B., ch.m., B.Sc, Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney; p.r..
‘ Berolyn,’ Beaufort-street, Croydon.

Madsen, John Percival Vissing, D.Sc., B.E., Professor of Elec-
trical Engineering in the University of Sydney.

Mance, Frederick Stapleton. Under Secretary for Mines, Mines.
Department, Sydney; p.r. ‘ Binbah,’ Lucretia Avenue,
Longueville.

P 1| Manfred, Edmund C., Montague-street, Goulburn.

‘Elected.
1920
1920

1908
1914
1926
1912

1922

1928

1926
1879
1922

1924
1924,
1879

1915

1923

1893

1917
1924
1891
1920

P13

(xvi.)

Mann, Cecil William.

Mann, James Elliott Furneaux, Barrister at Law, c/o H.
Southerden, Esq.. Box 1646 J.J., G.P.O., Sydney.

Marshall, Frank, c.m.c., B.D.s., 151 Macquarie-street.

Martin, A. H., Technical College, Sydney.

Mathews, Hamilton Bartlett, B.a. Syd., Surveyor General of
N.S.W., Department of Lands, Sydney.

Meldrum, Henry John, B.a., 8.sc. ‘ Craig Roy,’ Sydney Road,
Manly.

Mills, Arthur Edward, m.B., cn.m., Dean of the Faculty of
Medicine, Professor,of Medicine in the University of
Sydney ; p.r. 143 Macquarie-street.

Mitchell, Louis Ivan, Ph.D., Colonial Sugar Refining Co.,
Pyrmont. :

Mitchell, Ernest Marklow, 106 Harrow Road, Rockdale

Moore, Frederick H., Union Club, Sydney.

Morrison, Frank Richard, 4.a.c.1., F.c.s., Assistant Chemist,
Technological Museum, Sydney; p.r. Brae-st., Waverley.

Morrison, Malcolm, Department of Mines, Sydney.

Mullens, Arthur Launcelot, 65 Woodside Avenue, Strathfield.

Mullins, John Lane, u.t.c., M.a. Syd., ‘ Killountan,’ Double
Bay.

Murphy, R. K., Dr. Ing., Chem. Eng., Lecturer in Chemistry
Technical College, Sydney.

Murray, Jack Keith, B.A., B.sc. (Agr.), Principal, Queensland
Agricultural College, Gatton, Queensland.

Nangle, James, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S., Superintendent of Technical
Education, The ‘Technical College, Sydney; Government
Astronomer, The Observatory, Sydney. (President 1920.,
Vice-President.

Nash, Norman C., ‘Ruanora,’ King’s Road, Vaucluse.

Nickoll, Harvey, L.8.c.P., L.R.C.s., Barham, via Mudgee, N.S.W.

tNoble, Edward George, L.s., 8 Louisa Road, Balmain.

Noble, Robert Jackson, M.Se., B.Sc.Agr., Ph.D., Agricultural
Museum, George-street, North; p.r. ‘ Lyndon,’ Carrington- |
street, Homebush.

f{Old, Richard, ‘ Waverton,’ Bay Road, North Sydney.

Olding, George Henry, *‘ Werriwee,” Wright's Road, Drum-
moyne.

Ollé, A. D., F.c.s., ‘Kareema,’ Charlotte-street, Ashfield.

Ormsby, Irwin, ‘Caleula,’ Allison Road, Randwick.

Osborn, A. F., Assoc.M.Inst.C.E., Water Supply Branch, Sydney;
p.r. ‘ Waugoola,’ Fern-street. Pymble.

Osborn, Theodore George Bentley, D.sc., F.LS., Professor of
Botany in the University of Sydney.

Osborne, George Davenport, D.sc. Lecturer and Demonstrator
in Geology in the University of Sydney; p.r. ‘Belle-Vue,’
Kembla-st., Arncliffe.

‘Elected
1880 |
1921
1928

1920
1909

1879
1881
1919
1917

1896
1921

1918
1927

1918
1893

1927
1922
1919

1909
1928

1920
1924
1928
11884
1895
1927
(1925

1907

(xvil.)

| Palmer, Joseph, 96 Pitt-st.; p.r. Kenneth-st., Willoughby.

Parkes, Varney, Conjola, South Coast.

Parsons, Stanley William Enos, Analyst and Inspector,
N.S.W. Explosive Department, p.r. Shepherd Road, Artar-
mon.

P 49| Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.c.s., Curator and Economic Chemist,
Technological Museum, Harris-street, Ultimo.

P 2| Pigot, Rev. Edward F., s.J., B.A., M.B. Dub., Director of the
Seismological Observatory, St. Ignatius’College, Riverview.

P 8| Pittman, Edward F., Assoc.R.S.M. L.S., ‘The Oaks,’ Park-street,
South Yarra, Melbourne.

Poate, Frederick, F.R.A.S., L.S., ‘ Clanfield,’ 50 Penkivil-street,
Bondi.

Poate, Hugh Raymond Guy, m.B., ch. M. Syd., F.R.C.8. Eng.,
L.R.c.P. Lond., 225 Macquarie-street.

Poole, William, m.z., (Civil, Min. and Met.) Syd., mM. Inst. C.E.,
M.I.M.M., M.I.E., Aust., M.Am.1.M.E., M. Aust. I. M.M., L.S.,
906 Culwulla Chambers, Castlereagh-street. President.
(Member from 1891 to 1904.)

Pope, Roland James, B.a., Syd., M.D., Ch.M., F.R.CS.. EHdin.,
185 Macquarie-street.

P2| Powell, Charles Wilfrid Roberts, a.1.c., c/o Colonial Sugar
Refining Co., O’Connell-street.

‘Powell, John, 17 Thurlow-street, Redfern.

Price, William Lindsay, B.E.,B.Sc.,“ Malola,” Smith-road,
Artarmon.

Priestley, Henry, mM.D., ch. M., B.Sc, Associate-Professor of
Physiology in the University of Sydney.

Purser, Cecil, B.A., M.B., Chm. Syd., 185 Macquarie-street.

Radcliffe-Brown, Alfred Reginald, m.a., Cantab., m.a., Adel.,
F.R.A.I., Cantab., Professor of Anthropology in the Uni-
versity of Sydney.

Raggatt, Harold George, B.sc., “‘ Meru,” Epping-av., Epping.

P 3| Ranclaud, Archibald Boscawen Boyd, B.sc., B.E., Lecturer in
Physics, Teachers’ College, The University, Sydney.

Reid, David, ‘ Holmsdale,’ Pymble.

Reidy, Eugene Nicholas, a.s.t.c., Analyst, Department of
Mines, Sydney.

Richardson, John James, A.M.1.E.E. Lond., ‘ Kurrawyba,’
Upper Spit Road, Mosman.

Robertson, James R. M., m.p., C.M., F.R.G.S., F.G.S., ‘Vanduara,’
Ellamang Avenue, Kirribilli.

Ross, Allan Clunies, B.Sc, 15 Castlereagh-street, Sydney.
(Member from 1915 to 1924.)

P 1| Ross, Chisholm, u.p. Syd., M.B., Ch.M., Hdin., 225 Macquarie-st.

Ross, Herbert E., Equitable Building, George-street.

Ross, Ian Clunies, D.V.Sce., ‘‘ Lorne,” The Grove, Woollahra.

Roughley, Theodore Cleveland, Technological Museum,
Sydney.

Ryder, Charles Dudley, D. Eng. (Vienna), Assoc.I.R.8.M,. (L.),
Ass.A.C.1., F.C.8., (L.j, Public Analyst (by appoint.), 59
Patterson-street; Concord.

Elected
1922 |
1926

1920
1920
TOUS
1923
1918
1924
1927

1917
1900

1922
1919

1921
1917
1916
1921
1914
1920
1913
1900
1909

1916
1927
1919
1920
1918
1901

1919
1920

Pil

(xviii. )

Sandy, Harold Arthur Montague, 326 George-street.

Saunderson, William, B.Sc. Dun,, F.C.S., Licentiate, College of-
Preceptors England, c/o Imperial Service Club, 12 O’Con-
nell-street, Sydnev.

Sawyer, Basil, B.s., ‘Birri Birra,’ The Crescent, Vaucluse.

Scammell, Rupert Boswood, B.sc., Syd., 18 Middle Head Road,
Mosman.

Sear, Walter George Lane, c/o J. Kitchen & Sons, Ingles-st.,.
Port Melbourne.

Seddon, Herbert Robert, p.v.sc,, Director, Veterinary Research-
Station, Glenfield.

Sevier, Harry Brown, c/o Lewis Berger and Sons (Aust.) Ltd.,
Cathcart House, Castlereagh-street.

Shelton, James Peel, msc, B.Sc, Agr., Department of Agri--
culture, Canberra. .

Shearsby, Alfred James, 152 Bland-street, Haberfield.

Sibley, Samuel Edward, Mount-street, Coogee.

tSimpson, R.C., Lecturer in Electrical Engineering, Technical
College, Sydney.

Smith, Thomas Hodge, Australian Museum, Sydney.
Southee, Ethelbert Ambrook, 0.B.8., M.A., B.Sc, Principal,
Hawkesbury Agricultural College, Richmond, N.S.W.
Spencer-Watts, Arthur, ‘Araboonoo,’ Glebe-street, Randwick.
Spruson, Wilfred Joseph, Daily Telegraph Building, King-st..
Stephen, Alfred Ernest, F.c.s., Box 1197 H.H.G.P.O., Sydney...
Stephen, Henry Montague, B.a., LL.B., c/o Messrs. Maxwell
and Boyd, 17 O’Connell-street.

Stephens, Frederick G. N., F.R.c.s., M.B., Ch.M., Captain Piper’s
Koad and New South Head Road, Vaucluse.

Stephens, John Gower, m.B., Royal Prince Alfred Hospital,
Camperdown.

Stewart, Alex. Hay, B.z., ‘ Yunah,’ 22 Murray-street, Croydon

Stewart, J. Douglas, B.v.sc., M.R.c.V.s., Professor of Veterinary
Science in the University of Sydney ; p.r. ‘ Berelle,’ Home-
bush Road, Strathfield. (President 1927.) Vice-President...

Stokes, Edward Sutherland, m.s. Syd., ¥.z.c.p. Irel., Medical
Officer, Metropolitan Board of Water Supply and Sewerage,
341 Pitt-street.

Stone, W.G., Assistant Analyst, Department of Mines, Sydney.

Stump, Claude Witherington, M.D., D.Sc., Assoc.-Professor of
Auatomy in the University of Sydney ; p.r. 40 Shirley-rd..
Wollstonecraft.

Stroud, Sydney Hartnett, F.1.C., Ph.c., c/o Elliott Bros., Ltd.,
Terry-street, Rozelle.

| Sulman, Sir John, Kt., Warrung-st., McMahon’s Point, North

Sydney.
Sundstrom, Carl Gustaf, c/o Federal Match Co., Park Road,
Alexandria.

P 12\tSussmilch, C. A., F.a.s., F.S.T.c., A.M.1I.E. (Aust.), Principal of

the East Sydney Technical College, and Assistant Super--
intendent of Technical Education. (President 1922.
Hon. Secretary. .
tSutherland, George Fife, a.R.c.sc., Lond., Assistant-Professor -
in Mechanical Engineering, in the University of Sydney.
Sutton, Harvey, 0.B.£.,M.D., D.P.H. Velb., B.Sc. Oxon., ‘ Lynton,”
Kent Road, Rose Bay.

Elected
1919

1916
1890

1921
1892

1903

1924.
1919
1910
1910
1879

~~
bo co

P 4,

(xa)

Swain, Herbert John, B.a. Cantab., B.sc, B.e. Syd., Lecturer in
Mechanical Engineering, ‘echnical College, Sydney.

Tannahill, Robert William, B.Sc. Syd., ‘‘ Eastwell,” 40 Camma--
ray Avenue, North Svdney.

Taylor, Harold B., p.sc., Kenneth-street, Longueville.

Taylor, John Kingsley, Hawkesbury Agricultural College,.
Richmond; p.r. 16 Ferrier-street, Rockdale.

tTaylor, John M., m.a., LL.B. Syd., ‘Woonona,’ 43 East Crescent-
street, McMahon’s Point, North Sydney.

Taylor, Thomas Griffith, B.a., D.s-., B.8.. Professor of Geography
in the University of Chicago.

Teece, R., F.1.A., F.F.A., Wolseley Road, Point Piper.

Thomas, David, B.E., Mim.mM, FG.S. 15 Clifton Avenue;
Burwood.

Thomas, John, u.s., ‘Remeura,’ Pine and Harrow Roads,
Auburn.

Thompson, Herbert William, ‘ Marathon,’ Francis-st.,Randwick

Thompson, Joseph, M.a., LL.B., Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st..

Thorne, Harold Henry, B.a. Cantab., B.sc. Syd., Lecturer in
Mathematics in the University of Sydney; p.r. Rutledge-st.,
Eastwood.

Tillyard, Robin John, M.A., D.Sc. F.8.S., F.L.S., F.E.S., Chief:
Commonwealth Entomologist, Canberra, F.c.T.

Timcke, Edward Waldemar, Meteorologist, Weather Bureau,
Sydney.

Tindale, Harold, Works Engineer, c/o Australian Gas-Light
Co., Mortlake.

Toppin, Richmond Douglas, a.1.c., Parke Davis & Co., Rose-
bery.

Trebeck, P. C., ‘‘ Boera,’” Queen-street, Bowral.

Tye, Cyrus Willmott Oberon. Under Secretary for Public
Works, Public Works Dept., Sydney; p.r. 19 Muston-st.,.
Mosman.

Valder, George, J.p., 43 Albert-street, Mosman.

Vicars, James, m.u.. Memb. Intern. Assoc. Testing Materials;,
Memb. B. 58. Guild; Challis House, Martin Place.

Vicars, Robert, Marrickville Woollen Mills, Marrickville.

Vickery, George B., 9th Floor, Barrack House, Barrack-street..
Sydney.

Vonwiller, Oscar U., B.sSc., F.tnst.P., Professor of Physics in the:
University of Sydney. Hon. Secretary.

Wade, Rev. Robert Thompson, u.a., Headfort School, Killara.
Waley, Robert George Kinloch, 63 Pitt-street.

Walker, Charles, ‘Lynwood,’ Terry Road, Ryde.

Walker, Harold Hutchison, Vickery’s Chambers, 82 Pitt-st..
Walker, H. O., ‘ Moora,’ Crown-street, Granville.

‘Elected
1919| Pl
11903

1901
1918
1913 | P 4

1922

11921

1924,
11919

1919|P3
“1919

1876

1910
1911 | Pl

11920 |P 22

1920; Pl
1921
1881
1922
11909 | P3
11918
1892 | P2
11923

1927

(1921

1920

(xx.)

Walkom, Arthur Bache, p.sc., Macleay House, 16 College-st.

Walsh, Fred.,, 3.P., Consul-General for Honduras in Australia
and New Zealand; For. Memb. Inst. Patent Agents, Lon-
don; Patent Attorney Regd. U.S.A.; Memb. Patent Law
Assoc., Washington; Regd. Patent Attorn. Comm. of Aust.;
Memb. Patent Attorney Exam. Board Aust.; 4th Floor,
Barrack House, Barrack-street, Sydney ; p.r. ‘Walsholme,’
Centennial Park, Sydney.

Walton, R. H., rc.s., ‘Flinders,’ Martin’s Avenue, Bondi.

Ward, Edward Naunton, Curator of the Botanic Gardens, Syd.

Wardlaw, Hy. Sloane Halcro, D.sv. Syd., Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Physiology in the University of Sydney.

Wark, Blair Anderson, v.c., D.S.0., M.1.Q.¢., ¢/o hompson and
Wark, T. & G. Building, Elizabeth-street; p.r. ‘ Braeside,’
Zeta-street, Lane Cove, Sydney.

{Waterhouse, G. Athol, p.sc, B.E., F.F.S., Curator of the
Division of Economic Entomology, Canberra.

Waterhouse, Leslie Vickery, B.r. Syd., 6th Floor, Wingello
House, Angel Place, Sydney.

Waterhouse, Lionel Lawry, B.r. Syd., Lecturer and Demon-
strator in Geology in the University of Sydney.

Waterhouse, Walter L., M.C., B.Sc.Agr., DI.C., ‘Hazelmere,’
Chelmsford Avenue, Roseville.

Watkin-Brown, Willie Thomas, r.r.u.s., Lucasville Road,
Glenbrook.

Watkins, John Leo, B.A. Cantab., m.a. Syd., University Club,
Castlereagh-street ; p.r. 169 Avoca-street, Randwick.

Watson, James Frederick, m.B., ch.m., ‘Midhurst,’ Woollahra.

Watt, Robert Dickie, m.a., B.sce., Professor of Agriculture in
the University of Sydney. (President, 1925). Vice-
President.

Welch, Marcus Baldwin, B.sc., A.1.c., Economic Botanist, T'ech-
nological Museum.

Wellish, Edward Montague, m.a., Associate-Professor in Math-
ematics in the University of Sydney.

Wenholz, Harold, Director of Plant Breeding, Department
of Agriculture, Sydney.

tWesley, W. H., London.
Whibley, Harry Clement, 39 Moore-street, Leichhardt.
{White, Charles Josiah, B.sc, Lecturer in Chemistry, Teacher’s
College.

White, Edmond Aunger, M.A.I.M.E., c/o Electrolytic Refining
and Smelting Co. of Australia Ltd., Port Kembla, N.S.W.

White, Harold Pogson, F.c.8., Assayer and Analyst, Depart-
ment of Mines; p.r. ‘Quantox,’ Park Road, Auburn.

Whitehouse, Frank, B.v.se, (Syd.) ‘ Dane Bank,’ Albyn Road,
Strathfield.

Wilkinson, Herbert oe B.A., M.B., Ch.M., Senior Lecturer
and Demonstrator in Anatomy in the University of Sydney,
p.v. 53 Liverpool Road, Summer Hill.

Willan, Thomas Lindsay, B.Sc, c/o Alluvial Tin Malaya Ltd.,
Ho Hong Bank Bld., Market and Beach Streets, Penang,

_ Straits Settlements.

Williams, Harry, a.1.c.,c/o Whiddon Bros.’ Rosebery Lanolines

Pty. Ltd., Arlington Mills, Botany.

(xx1.)

Elected

1924 Williams, William John, 18 Bridge-street, Sydney.

1923 Wilson, Stanley Hric, ‘Chatham,’ James-street, Manly.

1891 Wood, Percy Moore, u.R.c.p. Lond., M.R.c.s. Hng., ‘ Redcliffe,”
Liverpool Road, Ashfield.

1906 |P 11) Woolnough, Walter George, D.Sc, F.a.s., ‘Callabonua,’ Park
Avenue, Gordon. (President, 1926.) Vice-President.

1916 Wright, George, c/o Farmer & Company, Pitt-street.

1917 Wright, Gilbert, Lecturer and Demonstrator in Agricultural,
Chemistry in the University of Sydney.

1921 Yates, Guy Carrington, 184 Sussex-street.

Honorary MEMBERS.
Limited to Twenty.
M.—Recipients of the Clarke Medal.

1918 Chilton, Charles, m.A., D.Sc, M.B.,¢.M., etc., Professor of Biology,
Canterbury College, Christchurch, N.Z.

1914 Hill, James P., D.sc., F.R.S., Professor of Zoology, University
College, London.

1908 Kennedy, Sir Alex. B. W., Kt., uu.D., D. Eng., F.R.S., Emeritus
Professor of Engineering in University College, London,
17 Victoria-street, Westminster, London S.W.

1915 Maitland, Andrew Gibb, F.a.s., Government Geologist of
Western Australia, ‘ Bon Accord,’ 2 Charles-street, South.
Perth, W.A.

1912 Martin, C. J., c.M.G., D.Sc., F.R.S., Director of the Lister Institute
of Preventive Medicine, Chelsea Gardens, Chelsea Bridge
Road, London, S.W. 1.

1894} M | Spencer, Sir W. Baldwin, k.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S., Emeritus
Professor of Biology in the University of Melbourne,
National Museum, Melbourne.

1928 Smith, Grafton Elliott, M.a., M.D., F.R.S., F.R.c.P., Professor of
Anatomy in the University College, London.

1900 | M | Thiselton-Dyer, Sir William Turner, K.c.M.G., C.I.E., M.A., LL.D.,
Se. D., F-R.S., The Ferns, Witcombe, Gloucester, England.

1915 Thomson, Sir J. J., 0.mM., D.Sc, F.R.S., Nobel Laureate, Master
of Trinity College, Cambridge, England.

1921 Threlfall, Sir Richard, c.B.u., M.a., F.R.S., lately Professor of
Physics in the University of Sydney, ‘Oakhurst, Church
Road, Edgbaston, Birmingham, England.

1922 Wilson, James T., .8., ch.m. Edin., F.R.S., Professor of Anatomy
in the University of Cambridge, England. 81 Grange
Road, Cambridge, England.

OBITUARY 1928-29.
Ordinary Members.

Elected, Elected.

1904 Cambage, Richard Hind 1887 MacCuiloch, Stanhope H.

1876 Cape, Alfred John 1897 Russell, Harry Ambrose

1876 Darley, Cecil West 19138 Scammell, William Joseph

1922 Fleming, Edward Patrick 1899 ‘Teece, Richard

1881 Knibbs, George Handley 1917 Willington, William Thomas.

(XXL. )

AWARDS OF 'THE CLARKE MEDAL.
Established in memory of

‘The Revd. WILLIAM BRANWHITE CLARKE, m.A., F.R.S., F.G.S., etc.
Vice-President from 1866 to 1878.

To be awarded from time to time for meritorious contributions to the
‘Geology, Mineralogy, or Natural History of Australia. The prefix *
indicates the decease of the recipient.

Awarded

1878 *Professor Sir Richard Owen. k.c.B., F.R.S.

1879 *George Bentham, c.M.G., F.R.S.

1880 *Professor Thos. Huxley, F.R.s.

1881 *Professor F. M’Coy, F.R.s., F.G.S.

1882 *Professor James Dwight Dana, LL.D.

1883 *Baron Ferdinand von Mueller, K.c.M.G., M.D., Ph.D., F.R.S., F.L.S.

1884 *Alfred R. C. Selwyn, LL.D., F.R.S., F.G.S.

1885 *Sir Joseph Dalton Hooker, 0.M., @.c.s8.1.,C.B., M.D.,D.C.L., LL.D.,F.R.S.

1886 *Professor L. G. De Koninck, m.p.

1887 *Sir James Hector, K.c.M.G., M.D, F.R.S.

‘1888 *Rev. Julian E. Tenison-Woods, F.G.S., F.L.S.

1889 *Robert Lewis John Ellery, F.R.s., F.R.A.S.

‘1890 *George Bennett, m.D., F.R.c.s. Hng., F.L.S., F.Z.S.

1891 *Captain Frederick Wollaston Hutton, F.R.s8., F.G.S.

1892. = Sir William Turner Thiselton Dyer, k.c.M.G.,C.I.E.,M.A., LL.D., Sc, D.,
F.R.S., F.L.S., late Director, Royal Gardens, Kew.

1893 *Professor Ralph Tate, F..L.s., F.a.s.

1895 *Robert Logan Jack, LL.D., F.G.S., F.R.G.S.

1895 *Robert Etheridge, Jnr.

1896 *The Hon. Augustus Charles Gregory, ¢.M.G., F.R.G.S.

1900 *Sir John Murray, K.C.B., LL.D., Se. D., F.R.S.

1901 *Edward John Eyre.

1902 *F. Manson Bailey, c.M.a.. F.L.S.

1908 *Alfred William Howitt, D.sc., F.G.S.

1907 Walter Howchin, r.a.s., University of Adelaide.

1909 Dr. Walter E. Roth, B.a., Pomeroon River, British Guiana, South
America.

1912 *W. H. Twelvetrees, F.a.s.

1914 A. Smith Woodward, tu.D., F.R.s., Keeper of Geology, British
Museum (Natural History) London.

1915 *Professor W. A. Haswell, M.A., D.Sc., F.R.S.

1917 += Professor Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E., ¢.M.G., D.S.0., B.A., D.Se.,
F.R.S., F.G s., The University, Sydney.

1918 Leonard Rodway, c.m.a., Honorary Government Botanist, Hobart,
Tasmania.

1920 *Joseph Edmund Carne, F.«.s.

1921 *Joseph James Fletcher, M.A., B.Sc.,

1922 Richard Thomas Baker, The Crescent, Cheltenham.

1923 Sir W. Baldwin -Spencer, K.c.M.G., M.A., D.Sc. F.B.S., National

* Museum, Melbourne.

1924 *Joseph Henry Maiden, 1.s.0., F.R.S., F.L.S., J.P.

1925 *Charles Hedley, F.u.s.

1927 Andrew Gibb Maitland, r.a.s., “Bon Accord,’ Melville Place,
South Perth.

1928 Ernest C. Andrews, B.A., F.a.S., Government Geologist, Depart-
of Mines, Sydney.

(xxi)

AWARDS OF THE SOCIETY’S MEDAL AND MONEY PRIZE.

Money Prize of £25.

Awarded,

1882

1884
1886

1887
1888
1889

1889
1891

1892

1894
1894.

1895

1896

John Fraser, B.a., West Maitland, for paper entitled ‘The Aborigines
of New South Wales.’

Andrew Ross, m.p., Molong, for paper entitled ‘Influence of the
Australian climate and pastures upon the growth of wool.’

The Society’s Bronze Medal and £25.

W. E. Abbott, Wingen, for paper entitled ‘ Water supply in the
Interior of New South Wales.’

S. H. Cox, F.a.s., F.c.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Tin deposits
of New South Wales.’

Jonathan Seaver, ¥F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘Origin and
mode of occurrence of gold-bearing veins and of the associated
Minerals.’

Rev. J. E. Tenison- Woods, F.G.s., F.L.s., Sydney, for paper entitled
‘The Anatomy and Life-history of Mollusca peculiar to
Australia.’

Thomas Whitelegge, F.R.M.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘ List of
the Marine and Fresh-water Invertebrate Fauna of Port
Jackson and Neighbourhood.’

Rev. John Mathew, m.a., Coburg, Victoria, for paper entitled
‘The Australian Aborigines.’

Rev. J. Milne Curran, F.a.s., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The Micro-
scopic Structure of Australian Rocks.’

Alexander G. Hamilton, Public School, Mount Kembla, for paper
entitled ‘The effect which settlement in Australia has pro-
duced upon Indigenous Vegetation.’ |

J. V. De Coque, Sydney, for paper entitled the ‘ Timbers of New
South Wales.’

R. H. Mathews, t.s., Parramatta, for paper entitled ‘The Abori-
ginal Rock Carvings and Paintings in New South Wales.’

C. J. Martin, p.sc., m.B., F.R.S., Sydney, for paper entitled ‘'Il'he
physiological action of the venom of the Australian black
snake (Pseudechis porphyriacus).’

Rev. J. Milne Curran, Sydney, for paper entitled ‘The occurrence
of Precious Stones in New South Wales, with a description of
the Deposits in which they are found.’

7, 4
=e
<a

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS

By Proressor J. DouGLAS STEWART, B.V.Sc., M.R.C.V.S.

Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, May 2, 1928.

During the past year the Council has held eleven
meetings, of which ten were ordinary meetings and one
a Special meeting to consider the terms of purchase of
the Royal Society’s House. The average attendance at
the Council Meetings was twelve.

At the eight monthly meetings of the Society twenty-
three papers were read. They covered a wide range and
added materially to scientific knowledge. In his Presiden-
tial address last year Dr. W. G. Woolnough drew attention
to the smallness of the attendance at the monthly meetings
and made several suggestions ‘‘to promote greater interest
and wider mutual understanding and appreciation’’.
These suggestions were considered by the incoming
Council, and after due deliberation it was decided that
authors should read papers in abstract and, if possible,
introduce into them a popular element to interest all
members attending monthly meetings, fuller consideration
of papers to be given at section meetings when desired;
that abstracts be supplied beforehand to members desir-
ing them so that they might be better able to discuss the
paper; that a lecturette or demonstration of somewhat
general character be arranged for each monthly meeting;
and that the Executive Officers be empowered to arrange
the business of the meeting. Consequently, in addition to
the papers read, the. following lecturettes were given at
the monthly meetings:—‘‘The Minute Sediment Test for

- A—May 2, 1928.

2 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

Milk’’ by Robert Grant, F.C.S., ‘‘ Agriculture and Research
in Java’’ by Professor R. D. Watt, M.A., B.Sc., ‘‘Newton’’
by Professor O. U. Vonwiller, B.Sc., F.Inst.P., last year
being the bi-centenary of the death of Sir Isaac Newton,
and ‘‘Development of Liver Fluke’’ by I. Clunies Ross,
B.V.Se., with cinema views by Visual Education Ltd.
Several interesting exhibits and demonstrations were given
also, including a photo-negative of the star cluster Omega
Centauri and some plates made in preparation of the
Great Photographic Star Catalogue by J. Nangle, O.B.E.,
F.R.A.S., cinematograph records of heart-beats by stetho-
scope and hot-wire microphone by HE. H. Booth, M.C., B.Sc.,
F.Inst.P., and cinema views of the preparation of the Bio-
logical Products, loaned by Messrs. Parke, Davis & Co.
It would appear that the innovation was appreciated by
members, as the attendance at the monthly meetings
progressively increased during the year, and greater
interest was manifested in the proceedings.

The sections of the Society held meetings as follows :—
Geology 7, Agriculture 2, and Physical Science 7. Instead
of holding meetings, the Section of Industry visited dif-
ferent manufacturing establishments on seven occasions.

Four Popular Science Lectures were delivered during
the year as follows :-—

June 16: “‘A Glance at Japan,’’ by R. H. Cambage,
C.B.E., F.L.S.

July 21: ‘‘Harth Waves and Earth Ripples,’’ by Edgar H.
Booth, M.C., B.Sce., F.Inst.P.

August 18: ‘‘Some Observations on Disease in Plants,’’
by R. J. Noble, B.Sc. (Agric.), Ph.D.

September 15: ‘‘What Makes a Good Food,’’ by Professor
H. G. Chapman, M.D.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3

Also an interesting lecture was given by Dr. Rudolf
Krahmann, Lecturer on KEngineering Science and
Geophysics in the Technical University of Berlin, on
Monday, 31st October, 1927, in which new applications of
physical science to survey the earth’s crust were demon-
strated and their limitations explained.

During recent years it has become abundantly evident
that the increasing noise of the street traffic of Hlzabeth
Street has made it desirable for the Society to acquire
premises in some quieter locality, and as the Government
made available a block of land situated at the corner of
Gloucester and Essex Streets in the Observatory Hill area
of the city, for the erection of a building to house scientific
bodies, the Council entered into negotiations for the sale
of the Royal Society’s House, which it has occupied since
12th May, 1875, and owned since 31st July, 1878. On
the 21st October, 1927, the sale was effected under advan-
tageous terms, chiefly through the good services of the
Honorary Treasurer, Professor H. G. Chapman, to the
Adult Deaf and Dumb Society for the sum of £28,000, and
arrangements were made for the Royal Society to retain
the use of the present building, excepting the first floor,
until 31st December, 1928, on satisfactory conditions. The
Council regarded the gift of the Government as a very fine
contribution to science and expressed its appreciation to
the then Premier, the Hon. J. T. Lang. Unfortunately, a
delay, which was not anticipated, has occurred in the
transfer of the new site, and a committee consisting of
representatives of the Royal Society, the Linnean Society
and the Institution of Engineers is giving the matter
attention. The change in ownership of the Royal Society
House has caused some unavoidable inconvenience to
tenants, and the forebearance they have shown is greatly

appreciated. The plans for the proposed Science House
are under consideration.

4 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

During the year twelve new members were elected;.

eight members have resigned and twelve have died. Among:

those that resigned were Professor J. Kenner, who accepted
appointment to the Chair of Technological Chemistry in

the University of Manchester, and Mr. J. K. Taylor, whe

joined the staff of the Waite Research Institute, South
Australia. Unfortunately, the list of deaths includes the
names of our oldest member (1872), three out of the group:
of six next oldest members (1876), two past Presidents,,
our late Honorary Secretary, and other members eminent
in science. The number of members of the Society is now
344.

Rogpert Houston Barr, elected 1918, died 18th Septem-
ber, 1927. Mr. Barr was born in Scotland, and served his
engineering apprenticeship with Vickers, Sons and Maxim,
of Burrow-in Furness. He was a Whitworth scholar, and,
coming to Australia in 1914, he built up an extensive
practice as consulting engineer. He was also a member of
the Institution of Engineers of Australia.

ANDREW JOHN Brapy, L.K. & Q.C.P. Irel., L.R.C.S. Irel.
Elected 1876, died 25th August, 1927. Dr. Brady was an
Ulster man by birth, and a graduate of the Royal College
of Surgeons, Dublin. He came to Australia over fifty
years ago and soon became identified with the Sydney
Hospital as Resident Medical Officer (1875), and subse-

quently as Hon. Surgeon and Specialist. At the time of ©

his death he was President of the Sydney Hospital. For
many years Dr. Brady had been recognised as one of the
leading members of the medical profession in Sydney. He
always manifested a keen interest in the affairs of the
Royal Society.

ALFRED JOHN CAPE, elected 1876, died 29th April, 1928.
Mr. Cape was one of the most notable members of the
legal profession in New South Wales. He graduated as

i a i

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5

Master of Arts at Sydney University in 1867. He was one
of the oldest trustees of the Sydney Grammar School,
having been first nominated in 1877, and has laboured
unceasingely to foster the traditions of the school.

Eustace WinuiAM FERGUSON, M.B., Ch.M., elected 1920,
died 18th July, 1927. A son of the late Rev. J. Ferguson,
formerly of St. Stephen’s Church, Phillip Street, Dr.
Ferguson was born at Invercargill, N.Z., in 1884. He
graduated with Honours, Sydney University, 1908, and
joined the Department of Public Health in 1913. From
1915 to 1918 he served with the Army Medical Corps in
France and Palestine. In 1920 he succeeded Professor
Cleland as Micro-biologist of the Department of Public
Health, and in 1926 was awarded the Diploma in Publie
Health. In 1922 he was elected President of the Royal
Zoological Society of N.S.W., and in 1926 President of the
Linnean Society, N.S.W., of which he had been a member
since 1909.

Dr. Ferguson was one of our most prominent naturalists
and was a recognised authority on medical entomology.
He contributed many papers to various scientific societies
in Australia. Of late years he worked on the classification
of the Australian Diptera—chiefly Tabanidae and Syr-
phidae—and considerably advanced knowledge. Of especial
value was his work in connection with the relationship of
flies to the spread of disease. When attacked by his fatal
illness he was actually engaged in writing an able presi-
‘dential address, ‘‘A Saul of Medical and Veterinary
Entomology in Australia.’

RoBert GREIG-SMITH, D.Sc., elected 1899, died 6th
August, 1927. Dr. R. Greig-Smith, Macleay Bacteriolo-
gist to the Linnean Society of New South Wales, was born
at Edinburgh in 1866, and educated at George Watson’s
College. At the University of Edinburgh he won the

6 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

medal in Chemistry, the special prize in senior Botany,
and first-class honours and prizes in other subjects. Im
1890 he took the degree of B.Sc., and was appointed
Lecturer in Agricultural Chemistry in the Durham College:
of Science. Later, he was Assistant Lecturer in Chemistry
at the Royal (Dick) Veterinary College, Edinburgh. He
studied Micro-biology in Edinburgh, Bonn, Neweastle-on-
Tyne and Copenhagen. By vote of convocation he was
awarded M.Se. (Durham), and in 1903 graduated as
Doctor of Science at Edinburgh University, presenting a
thesis on certain fermentations of saccharose. In 1906:
he was President of the Pathological Club of Sydney, im
1907 President of Sanitary Science and Hygiene section
of the Australasian Association for the Advancement of
Science, and in 1906-8 Chairman of the Sydney section of
the Society of Chemical Industry. He was President of
the Royal Society of New South Wales in 1917, and one
of its Honorary Secretaries from May, 1925, to August,.
1927. He published numerous papers in connection with
research in general, economic and pathological bacterio-
logy. The services Dr. R. Greig-Smith gave in the
advancement of science generally, and to the welfare of
this Society, were of signal value.

LAUNCELOT HARRISON, B.A. Cantab., B.Sc., Syd. elected:
1919, died 20th February, 1928. Professor Launcelot Har-
rison was the eldest son of the late Dr. Thomas Harrison,
of Sydney. He was born at Wellington, N.S.W., and
educated at the King’s School, Parramatta, where for two
years he was head of the school and Broughton Scholar.
In 1914 he graduated as B.Sce., Sydney University, with
high distinction, and was awarded the University Medal
and Professor Haswell’s prize in Zoology. In addition, he
took Honours in Botany and the Dun Prize in Paleontology
(1912). He acted as Demonstrator in Zoology and Botany,,.

SS ae

:
‘
7

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 7

1913, and he was awarded the John Coutts Scholarship for
Distinction in Science, 1914. In the same year he won
the Exhibition of 1851 Science Research Scholarship, and
proceeding to England, he gained the open Graduate Ex-
hibition for Research at Emmanuel College, Cambridge.
In 1916 he was awarded the degree of Bachelor of Arts
(Research), Cambridge, and proceeded to Mesopotamia
as Advisory Entomologist to the Expeditionary Forces
there, with the rank of Lieutenant. The work he accom-
plished in preventing the communication of insect-bearing
diseases was of far-reaching importance, and he was pro-
moted to the rank of Captain. While on active service in
1918 he was appointed Lecturer and Demonstrator in
Zoology at the Sydney University, the duties of which he
took up in July, 1919. In 1920 he acted as Professor in
Zoology and was appointed to the Chair in 1928. He was
President of the University Union, 1920-21, and took an
active part in the University Science Society. During
recent years he was elected President of the Royal Zoologi-
eal Society, N.S.W., and at the time of his death he was
President of the Linnean Society, N.S.W. Professor
Harrison was an untiring worker with a genuine love of
learning, and an enthusiastic teacher of striking per-
sonality. It was in Mesopotamia that he contracted his
fatal illness, and for several years he resolutely carried
on, notwithstanding the pain and inconvenience he at
times suffered.

THOMAS WILLIAM KEELE, L.S., M.Inst.C.E., elected 1876,
died June 18th, 1927. For fifty-four years Mr. T. W.
Keele was a member of the Public Service of New South
Wales, during which time he filled many important engineer-
ing positions in the Public Works Department. He was
appointed a member of the Royal Commission on the Water
Supply of Sydney in 1902, and originated the proposal
of the construction of the Cataract Dam. He earried out

8 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

very valuable work in connection with many schemes for
water conservation, water supply and sewerage, and was
associated with the majority of large harbour works along
the coast. On his retirement from the Public Service he
was elected a member of the Water and Sewerage Board,
and subsequently became President. He was also a mem-
ber of the Sydney Harbour Trust.

ARCHIBALD LivEeRSIDGE, M.A., LL.D., F.R.S., elected
member 1872, and Honorary Member 1908, died 26th Sep-
tember, 1927, in his 80th year. Professor Liversidge was
born at Turnham Green on November 17th, 1847, and
received his first instruction in science from private tutors.
In 1866 he entered the Royal College of Chemistry and
the Royal School of Mines, at which, in the following year,
he won a Royal Exhibition and medals in Chemistry,
Mineralogy, and Metallurgy. In his first year at the Royal
College of Chemistry he was placed in charge of the chemi-
eal laboratory at the Royal School of Naval Architecture
for one term, during the illness of the lecturer, and pub-
lished his first paper on ‘‘Supersaturated Saline Solu-
_ tions’’. Professor Frankland was his teacher at the Col-
~ lege of Chemistry and at the School of Mines, the associate-
ship of which he obtained in 1870, his teachers were
Professor Tyndall in Physics, Sir Andrew Ramsay in
Geology, Sir W. Warington Smyth in Mineralogy and
Mining, Professors Willis and Goodeve in Mechanies, and
Dr. Perey in Metallurgy. As a senior student he also did
research work in Dr. Frankland’s private laboratory. In
1870 Liversidge was elected to an open scholarship in
Science at Christ’s College, Cambridge. He was one of
the first two students in the physiological laboratory just
started by Professor Michael Foster, and during his first
year at Cambridge he held the post of Demonstrator in
Chemistry at the University Laboratory for two terms in
the absence of Dr. Hicks.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. )

Liversidge thus seemed destined to a career of high
distinction at Cambridge, but in 1872, before he was 25,
he accepted the Chair of Chemistry and Mineralogy in
the University of Sydney, N.S.W. He came out in Sep-
tember, 1872, and from that time till his retirement with
the title of Emeritus Professor, in December, 1907, his
‘services to science in Australia were of much value. Chief
among them was the founding of the Australasian Asso-
ciation for the Advancement of Science in 1885 as a cen-
tennial record of the progress of the colonies, and of which
he was Hon. Secretary for many years and President 1888-
‘90. In 1874 he was made a trustee of the Australian
Museum at Sydney, and during visits to Europe, America
-and the East brought together the greater part of its non-
Australian mineral and geological collections. Of the
Royal Society of New South Wales he was Hon. Secretary
for 13 years, 1874-1884, and 1886-1888, and served three
terms of office as President, 1885, 1889, 1900, being also
for many years the editor of the Society’s Journal. He
originated the Faculty of Science at the Sydney University,
1879, and was Dean till 1904, and also a member of the
‘Senate. He founded the School of Mines in that University
in 1890, also the Sydney section of the Society of Chemical
Industry in 1902, and was the first Chairman. He was a
member of the original board of three of the Sydney Tech-
nological Museum and of the first Board of Technical Edu-
cation in Sydney. Professor Liversidge made a chemical
investigation of the Sydney water supply for the Govern-
‘ment in 1876. In 1888 he published a survey of the
minerals of New South Wales, and he was the author of
over 100 papers and researches published by the Royal
Society, the Chemical Society, and the Royal Society of
New South Wales.

a
y

10 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

Professor Liversidge was elected a Fellow of the Royal
Society of London as far back as 1882, and he was also am
Honorary Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, Vice-

President of the Chemical Society, 1910-13, and of the
Society of Chemical Industry, 1900-12, a member of the
Cambridge Philosophical Society, the Physical Society of
London, the Mineralogical Societies of Great Britain and
France, and a member or corresponding member of various.

colonial and foreign scientific societies. He was Hon. LL.D.

of Glasgow University. Truly a wonderful record in the:

cause of Science. To the Royal Society of New South

Wales he was much attached, and his last service was to.
bequeath to it all his medals and diplomas, together with

a sum of £500 to found a Research Lectureship in.
Chemistry.

In his history of the Royal Society of New South Wales,.

Mr. J. H. Maiden wrote: ‘‘ We owe the acquisition of this

House to the Council of the day, and especially to the

then two honorary secretaries, Professor Liversidge and

Dr. Leibius, but the principal driving power was that of
Professor Liversidge, who workd whole-heartedly for the:
advancement of the Society from the very day he became:
a member of it.’’ Mr. Maiden quotes Dr. Leibius as.

saying: ‘‘We never got a move on till Liversidge came.’’
(This Journal, Vol, Wilk roi3))

EBENEZER MacDona tp, J.P., elected 1878, died 4th July,
1927. Mr. MacDonald was well-known in commercial and

banking circles during last century. On his retirement he:
lived in England, but kept in close touch with Australian.

affairs.

WinuiamM JOSEPH SCAMMELL, elected 1913, died 19th

April, 1928. Mr. Scammell was born in South Australia.
and as a youth went to London to study Pharmacy. Later:

he became a member of the British Pharmaceutical Society..

i
:
:
j
‘
f

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11

GrorcE AUGUSTINE Taytor, elected 1925, died 20th
January, 1928. The late Mr. George A. Taylor was noted
for his versatility. He was one of the early workers in
the development of wireless telegraphy, founding the Wire-
less Institute in 1911, and the Association for the Develop-
ment of Wireless 1922. The transmission of colour photo-
eraphy by wireless also received his attention. He was
among those who formed the New South Wales Aerial
League in 1909. He was associate member of the Institute
of Engineers, and Fellow of the Royal Geographical So-
ciety and of the Royal Astronomical Society. He was
owner-editor of ‘‘Building’’, and the success of this maga-
zine encouraged him to further journalistic ventures, cover-
ing a wide range.

JAMES TAYLOR, B.Sc., A.R.S.M., F.G.S., elected 1893, died
14th December, 1927, in his 78th year. Mr. Taylor was
born at Oldham, England, and trained as an engineer; he
was one of the earliest Whitworth Scholars in Engineering.
He entered Owen’s College, Manchester University, of
which he was Dalton Scholar in Mathematics. He then
became assistant to Sir Henry Roscoe, and worked out
some of the earliest formed compounds of the newly-dis-
covered element vanadium. In 1880 he became associate
of the Royal College of Mines in London, and in 1892 he
was appointed Government Metallurgist of this State. In
1900 he resigned, and for many years was engaged in
mining and metallurgical work in Australia. Mr. Taylor
was also a member of the Chemical Society and the In-
stitute of Mining and Metallurgy. He was for some time
Lecturer in Metallurgy at the University ot Sydney.

WiuuiaAM WELCH, F.R.G.S., elected 1907, died 5th April,
1928. Mr. Welch was born at Portsmouth in 1850, and

for some years was attached to the Admiralty. He migrated
to New Zealand, where he resided 22 years, during which

12 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

he founded the Museum at Palmerston North, and he was
also instrumental in founding the Philosophical Society at
Manawatu. Coming to Sydney, Mr. Welch took a keen
interest in the affairs of the Royal Australian Historical
Society. For fourteen years he acted as its Honorary
Treasurer, and for some years carried out the indexing and
tabulating of its historical results. He took an active
part in raising funds for the building of an _ historical
museum.

THE Maren MemoriAu.—It will be remembered that
Professor Watt in his presidential address, 1926, suggested
that an effort might be made to commemorate in a fitting
manner the life and work of the late Mr. J. H. Maiden,
who for many years was Director of the Botanical Gardens
and Government Botanist of this State. With this object
in view, a public meeting was called by the Royal Society,
at which a Committee was elected and a subscription list
opened to obtain funds. It was considered that a fitting way
of perpetuating the memory of Mr. Maiden would be to
erect a building to be known as the ‘‘Maiden Memorial
Pavilion’’ in the Sydney Botanical Gardens, where he had
spent so many useful and happy days. Subsequently a
design for a suitable building was prepared by the Gov-
ernment Architect, and the cost estimated at about £1,000.
While response to the appeal for requisite funds has been
fairly generous, the amount so far subscribed hardly
reaches £350. Consequently the Committee has been com-
pelled to ask the Government Architect for a further design,
which has been approved tentatively. The pavilion it is now
proposed to erect will cost something in the neighbourhood
of £750, and with a view to expediting erection a special
appeal to the friends and admirers of the late Government
Botanist for further funds is being made.

THE Burrirr Prize—With reference to the generous
donation of £500 by Dr. Walter F. Burfitt, a member of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13:

this Society, it has been decided to use the capital sum
for the foundation of a prize to be awarded annually by the
Council at its discretion to a person resident in Australia
or New Zealand who in its opinion has done meritorious.
work in the cause of science.

CuARKE Mremorrau Mepau.—During the year Mr. E. C..
Andrews, B.A., F.G.S., delivered by invitation the Silliman
Foundation Lectures at the Yale University, U.S.A. He also
attended the second Empire Mining Congress held during
August last in Canada, and represented this Society in
October at the celebration of the centenary of the granting
of a Royal Charter to King’s College, Toronto. Mr.
Andrews has been honoured further by having the Clarke
Memorial Medal awarded to him, in recognition of his past
services in the advancement of science, more particularly
in Geology.

The work of the Australian National Research Council,
which deals mainly with matters relating to pure science,
has proceeded throughout the year. As the result of
several grants made to the Council by the Rockefeller
Foundation, investigations are being carried out in regard
to the aborigines of Australia and some of the native races
of the Pacific. This Council also has in hand the making
of arrangements for a Scientific Expedition to Mandated
Territory and Papua, which it is thought will be made
im 1929.

The fourth Pacific Science Congress is to be held in Java
during May and June, 1929, and the Research Council has
been asked to arrange for a suitabie delegation of promi-
nent scientists from Australia.

The nineteenth meeting of the Australasian Association
for the Advancement of Science was held at Hobart in
January, 1928, and was well attended. Many important
papers were read, and much interest was taken in the

14 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

various discussions by the sections. The scientific insti-
tutions and departments of the different States were well
represented, and the President, Mr. Ko) By (\Cambace:
C.B.E., F.L.S., 1s to be congratulated on the suecess
attained.

Owing to the pressure of other duties, Mr. Cambage has
been compelled to decline nomination as Senior Honorary
Secretary of the Society this year, and the Council has
placed on record its high appreciation of his services in
this capacity. Mr. Cambage was first elected to the posi-
tion in 1914, and, with the exception of a break of two
years during the first of which he was President of this
Society, and during the second President of the Linnean
Society of New South Wales, he has continuously carried
out the duties with great devotion and marked assiduity.

We congratulate Sir Richard Threlfall, K.B.E., upon the
additional honour His Majesty the King has been pleased
to confer upon him.

THE APPLICATION OF SCIENCE TO THE
SHEEP INDUSTRY.

At the year of Federation, 1901, the National Debt of
the Australian States represented a per capita liability of
£53/13/9. On 30th June, 1926, the total Public Debt of
Australia (Federal and State) represented a per capita
burden of £167/9/8, a three-fold increase in a little over
twenty-five years! In his Joseph Fisher Lecture, delivered
at Adelaide last year, the Prime Minister, Mr. S. M. Bruce,
P.C., stressed the necessity for prudent and efficient control
of national revenue, a larger population, and increased
production.

In order to provide more population, particularly in

rural areas where it is most needed, and to stimulate pro-
duction, it is essential to encourage the development of

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 15

our primary industries. Of these, pastoral production con-
tributes most to our revenue, and the chief factor in our
pastoral wealth is the sheep industry. For the season
ending 30th June, 1926, the wool output was valued at
£61,404,000,! and the 15% of the mutton and lamb treated
that was exported during the same period came to
£2,4380,465. Much further revenue is derived from other
sources, but the figures given are sufficiently impressive to
show the importance of our sheep industry.

Australia has long occupied the leading position among
the sheep-raising countries of the world, not only in regard
to the number of sheep she possesses, but also with respect
to the quantity and quality of wool she produces. It is
essential for her prosperity that this pre-eminence be main-
tained by further development, and the directions in which
advancement is desirable are many. They cover a wide
range, from production to marketing, and the object of this
address is to indicate some of the ways in which science can
assist production by solving certain problems that are re-
tarding progress.

As many of the problems of our pastoral industries are
primarily due to the peculiar physiographical character-
istics of Australia, it is deemed necessary to refer briefly
to the more important in order that the exact nature of
some of the difficulties our pastoralists have to contend
with, may be better understood. An outstanding charac-
teristic in the topography of Australia is the Great Pene-
plain which forms most of Western Australa, the Northern
Territory, and western South Australia, or more than
half the Continent.2 It is essentially a rather low
plateau about 1,200 feet above sea level, and on the whole
poorly supplied with rainfall. In the eastern portion of
the Continent more localised uplifts have taken place,
leading to the formation of the belt of highlands which

16 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

extends from north to south along the coast. Between the
western peneplain and the eastern cordillera is a region
of lower land, that at Lake EKyre having sunk below sea
level. As the result of this peculiar conformation, the
majority of the permanently flowing rivers radiate from
the plateaux to the sea and are relatively of no great size
or leneth. The only big permanently flowing river of
the Continent is the Murray, which by means of its.
branches (the Murrumbidgee, Lachlan and Darling) drains
the western side of the eastern plateaux in Queensland,
New South Wales and Victoria, and flows through the
south-east of South Australia into the Southern Ocean.
Some other rivers such as the Georgina, Diamantina and
Cooper, which traverse the low-lying central portion of
the Continent, are normally dry, but in the wet seasons.
they pour a considerable volume of water into inland lakes.
and swamps.

About five-thirteenths of Australia lies within the
tropics, and the ‘‘temperate’’ region is half as large again.
In the latter, along the east coast the highlands reach alti-
tudes up to a little over 7,300 feet. The extreme range of
shade temperatures in summer and winter in a very large
part of Australia amounts to probably only 81°, which
relatively is not great. Along the northern shores the tem-
peratures are very equable, but coming southward the
extreme range increases gradually on the coast and in a
more pronounced manner inland. In the interior of Aus-
tralia during exceptionally dry summers the temperature
may reach and occasionally exceed 120° F’. in the shade.
It would appear that the hottest area is situated in the
northern portion of Western Australia, avout Marble Bar,
and that the coldest part of Australia is in the extreme
south-east of New South Wales and the extreme east of
Victoria. During a dry winter the major portion of the
country to the south of the tropics is subject to ground

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. li

frost. On the whole, much of the climate is suitable for
the breeding of sheep and the production of high-class wool.

With a land block of nearly three milhon square miles.
surrounded by sea and possessing such peculiar topo-
graphical features, as is to be expected, the distribution of
rainfall throughout Australia is variable, both in degree
and in incidence, and the rate of evaporation has a
wide range. The wettest known part of Australia is on
the north-east coast of Queensland, with an average annual
rainfall of over 100 inches, while the driest part is in the
region of Lake Eyre, where the annual average is only 5
inches, and where the fall rarely exceeds 10 inches for
the twelve months. In general terms, approximately one-
third of the area of the Continent, principally the eastern
and northern parts, enjoys an average rainfall of from
20 to 50 or more inches, the remaining two-thirds averag-
ing from 5 to 20 inches. The area receiving less than 10
inches is about 36% of the whole, or about 82% of the
area of South Australia, 50% -.of Western Australia, 27%
of the Northern Territory, 15% of New South Wales, and
12% of Queensland.

The average amount of yearly rainfall, however, gives
no indication as to its reliability, since much variation may.
occur from year to year. As examples of the extent of
the variation that sometimes takes place, Barrow Creek
with 39 inches in 1904 and 4 inches in 1925, Onslow with
27 inches in 1900 and but 3 inches in 1901, have been
cited, and equally illuminating are the following records
of a Queensland station:—1921, 1222 points; 1922, 100
points; 1923, 325 points; 1924, 8038: points; 1925, 299
points; 1926, 353 points; and 1927, 136 points.4 From
the map shown by Professor Griffith Taylor,5 it will be
seen that in the southern part, portion of the eastern
part and in the extreme north of the Continent the yearly

B—May 2, 1928.

18 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

rainfall is reliable, while in the centre of Australia it is
very unreliable. Between these two an intermediate zone,
chiefly pastoral, exists, where the rainfall is again con-
sidered unreliable. The fact that the rainfall in the major
portion of Australia is unreliable must be recognised.

As the fluctuations in rainfall vary greatly, the dry spells
resulting from diminished rainfall are inconstant both in
extent and degree. Sometimes small areas are affected for
short periods during which even neighbouring districts
enjoy satisfactory rainfall; occasionally large areas, ex-
tending often into adjoining States, are affected for long
periods. When diminished rainfall becomes associated with
continued high temperatures and drying winds, the con-
dition known as ‘‘drought’’ becomes established, which,
unfortunately, is not of uncommon occurrence.

Tur SHEEP INDUSTRY.

Its Growth—It would appear that sheep were brought
to Australia either by the First Fleet or by some of the
vessels that closely followed, as the number of sheep given
in the live stock account of the new colony for year 1788
was 29.° During the first few years of settlement the
number did not increase much, as the returns of 1791
gave it as 57.7 Evidently this supply was not considered
sufficient for the food requirements of the growing settle-
ment, and several consignments were brought from India
and South Africa. As a result, the returns of 1795 show
an increase to 832.8 It was during the previous year that the
attention of Captain John McArthur had been attracted
to the possibility of fine wool production in Australia by
observing the improvement in the fleece of some lambs got
by crossing the hair-bearing sheep from Bengal with a
British breed brought by a transport ship from Ireland.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 19

This observation marked the initial stage of our wool-
producing industry, but the foundation of the industry is
‘generally regarded as having been laid when the Spanish
merino was introduced from South Africa in 1797, and
their progeny demonstrated the practicability of producing
in Australia fine wool of excellent quality. <A third signal
event in early history was the crossing of the Blue Moun-
tains by Wentworth, Lawson and Blaxland in 1813, and
the subsequent discovery by Evans of the fertile plains
beyond, which allowed expansion of settlement from the
confined area of the County of Cumberland (N.S.W.).
As a result, sheep increased rapidly in numbers—the 6,514
in 1813 became 119,777 in 1821—and, as the wool grown
equalled that produced in Spain, much encouragement was
given Officially to the new industry, especially by facilitat-
ing land occupation. Incessant demand for fresh pastures
led to extensive exploration. Occupation went on apace,
the sheep population multiphed rapidly, and the great
industry became well established, but not without receiving
many checks, the chief causes of which were the devasta-
tions wrought by drought, the slumping of values abroad
and the overseas transportation difficulties of last century.

Distribution of Sheep.—The official returns for the year
1925 show that Australia then possessed 103,563,218 sheep,
distributed, approximately, 52% in New South Wales,
20% in Queensland, 13% in Victoria, 7% in South Aus-
tralia, 7% in Western Australia, and 1% elsewhere. The
area of concentration in New South Wales commences
above the 65° F.. isotherm, and runs south-west on either
side of the 20 inch line of annual rainfall into Victoria.?
East of the belt of highlands, where the average annual
rainfall is 40 inches or over, very few flocks of any size
are found, and on the other side of the range the sheep
population diminishes gradually from the western slopes

20 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

through the inland plains towards the border of South
Australia, the most sparsely populated area being the far
north-west corner. Sheep runs in Victoria extend fairly
well over the whole State, with the exception of the north-
western corner of the mallee country in the north-west.
Some degree of concentration has occurred in Queensland.
about the Longreach district, and numerous sheep runs are
scattered about a large area of country north and south of
this centre, but they do not invade the wet coastal area in
the east, or the tropical region much above the 75° F.
isotherm in the north. During the year 1925 the Northern
Territory contained only slightly more than 8,000 sheep.
In South Australia the sheep concentration is greatest in
the extreme south-eastern corner, the York Peninsula, and
the southern drift of the River Murray, where the average
rainfall is about 20 to 30 inches. From these areas it
winds northward along the Lofty and Flinders Ranges,
and markedly diminishes within the 10 inch rainfall
boundary. Along the coast of the Great Australian Bight
there are scattered sheep runs south of the 10 inch rainfall
isohyet. In Western Australia the greatest concentration
exists in the south-western corner of the Continent, whence
occupation extends to a limited extent northward along the
coast and even within the 10 inch rainfall line. It is of
interest to note that while sheep are not numerous beyond
the 75° isotherm in Queensland, several sheep runs have
been established about Derby (W.A.), which is consider-
ably above the 80° F. isotherm. Rainfall seems to have
exercised a greater influence on distribution than heat.

Throughout Australia the Merino breed of sheep pre-
dominates. In areas receiving from 20 to 10 inches (or
even less) of rainfall per annum it is practically the only
breed existing, but in areas of 20 to 30 inches of rainfall
where mixed farming is practised, English breeds such as

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 21

the Leicesters, the Lincoln, Romney Marsh and several
Down varieties are commonly crossed with the Merino to
‘supply the fat lamb and mutton trades. Of the 2,655,334
bales of wool sold locally during season 1925-6, 82.05%
was classed as Merino, and 17.95% as coarse wool.
Extension of Sheep Occupation.—It may be accepted
that as the result of extensive exploration, both official and
private, practically the whole of that portion of Australia
suitable for immediate profitable occupation has been
taken up. What is regarded as the arid region of Aus-
tralia includes about one million square miles, or about
36% of the Continent, and offers but little prospect for
successful occupation at present; some, such as the Arunta
Land and the Western Desert, will always be unattractive
owing to its scanty and irregular rainfall and poor land.
Surrounding this arid region is the Pastoral Zone, where
the rainfall ranges from 10 to 20 inches, and a large
portion of this still remains unoccupied owing to the lack
of one or more, or maybe all, the essential factors for
profitable occupation, such as a not too erratic rainfall, a
serviceable supply of water, a soil capable of growing
edible vegetation, and reasonable facilities for transporta-
tion. Over so extensive an area the relative importance
of each of these factors varies considerably. In some parts
the prospects do not appear encouraging; but in others,
where the soil is sufficiently fertile to respond to the
sporadic rains and a reasonable supply of water can be
assured, extension of sheep occupation is regarded as
practicable provided sufficient inducement is given by the
State to wealthy individuals or companies by granting
large holdings on long lease at a low rental. Sheep not
“only require a better class of country than cattle, but
their care and management entails more supervision and
a bigger outlay of capital in effecting improvements.

22 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

Apart from increased facilities for watering, and addi-
tional buildings (wool-sheds, etce.), more fencing is
required, much of which may have to be netted. On many
inland holdings the fight against rabbit invasion costs large:
sums annually, and on some the dingo pest has to be com-
bated at considerable expense. The occupation of this:
class of country, which normally has a lght carrying
capacity (1 sheep to 10 to 20 acres), is not only costly but
it often proves decidedly risky during prolonged dry
spells. For successful occupation it must be made safer,
and much can be done in reducing liability to failure by
organised scientific team work, in which the meteorologist,
the engineer, the chemist, the botanist, the agriculturalist,
and the veterinary scientist can all give valuable aid in
overcoming the difficulties associated with providing ade-
quate water and food supply, breeding the most profitable
type of sheep for special areas, suppressing diseases and
pests, and facilitating transportation by extension of rail-
way systems or by opening up new roads and stock routes:
When systematic scientific effort under central direction
is properly organised the extension of the pastoral area of
Australia into the drier regions will no doubt be materially
advanced. The necessity for this extension, particularly
in the eastern portion of the Continent, 1s becoming more
apparent each year owing to the expansion of agriculture
absorbing many of the original large sheep holdings in
more favoured areas, and the profitable utilisation of its
lands is a matter no Government can afford to neglect:
indefinitely. Fresh country may be opened up by new
railways, but for its development profitable occupation.
must be reasonably assured.

Fortunately, in addition to the acquisition of further
pastoral areas, a material increase in sheep population is.
possible by the more intense occupation of the areas already
in use. As previously pointed out, the greatest concentra-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 23

tion of sheep population has taken place in areas receiving
18 to 30 inches of rainfall per annum, much of which is
suitable for agriculture. In the early settlement of many
countries the pastoral industry was all-important in
stimulating occupation; then, as settlement advanced,
erop-raising for a short time over-shadowed animal hus-
bandry; but, as further development proceeded, the live
stock industries again increased, and a sounder economic
position ultimately became established by encouraging both
the breeding of animals and the growing of farm crops.
Australia has had a similar experience, and extension of
the agricultural area, particularly by dry farming methods,
has resulted in the maximum concentration of sheep
population coinciding with the wheat belt where mixed-
farming is carried on. In Australia mixed-farming usually
means the growing of wheat and sheep. In areas distant
from railway service, wool production is aimed at and the
Merino predominates, but in districts where transportation
is easier, and especially where additional fodder crops can
be grown, the fat lamb and mutton trades are catered for
by crossing the Merino with one of the British breeds.
With the development of closer settlement this latter
practice will increase, not only on account of the additional
profit it yields, but also because the area of the farms.
usually limits the number of sheep that can be carried
throughout the year. With cross-bred sheep the natural
increase occurs when feed is usually abundant, and after
selling off the lambs, only the ewes and a few rams need
be carried over for next season. Still, with wool at the present
prices, the tendency is to breed as close to the Merino as
possible. Of recent years the dual purpose Corriedale
breed (Merino x Lincoln) has come into much favour in
agricultural areas, Some ten to twelve million sheep and.

24 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

lambs are slaughtered annually, of which only about 15%
1s exported.

While recent advance in the control of parasitic affec-
tions has made it possible to run more sheep than hitherto
in areas having over 30 inches of rainfall per annum, it

is not lkely that the increase here will be of any great
importance.

It is evident from what has been stated that, while
extension of sheep occupation is possible by further
invasion of the drier areas, greater increase in sheep popu-
lation is more likely to be brought about by better
utilisation of areas having an average rainfall of 12 to 25
inches.

Increase in sheep population alone, however, will not
advance the prosperity of the industry very far unless
certain conditions retarding progress are better controlled,
and improved methods of production are more actively
stimulated. The general advancement of the industry,
therefore, largely depends upon finding ways for prevent-
ing avoidable losses and for increasing production. From
the following consideration of some of the more important
problems and weaknesses of the industry, it will be seen
that science must play an important part in future
development.

THE CONTROL OF DROUGHT.

The term drought is a relative one. In Australia it is
usually applied when the rainfall has been considerably
below normal for fairly lengthy periods, and the pastures
have become bare. Dry spells in moderation are not
without benefit; they certainly enforce a rest period for
the soil; they bring about the destruction of much coarse
vegetation either by compelling stock to eat it or by induc-
ing bush fires to consume it; they sweeten the soil by
favouring aeration through the cracks produced on the

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 25

‘surface, and they have a controlling influence on the many
animal diseases and parasites. The visitation of severe
and extensive periods of drought, however, always consti-
tutes a grave menace to prosperity. The primary effect is
to cause a serious depletion of the live stock population.
The drought of 1902 reduced the number of sheep by
nearly nineteen million, and that of 1914 by three and a
half million. During last year Queensland was in the
grip of a drought said to be the worst experienced in that
State for over twenty years; it affected an area of about
‘200,000 square miles, and the losses in sheep alone
amounted to some five millions. Loss of stock 1s only part
of the burden drought throws upon the pastoralist. The
productivity of the animals which survive becomes lowered
and the natural increase of the flock is seriously checked.
A heavy outlay of money is incurred in the removal of the
flocks to more favoured districts, or in the purchase and
earriage of fodder where hand-feeding is resorted to.
Further expense is entailed in re-stocking the holding after
the drought breaks. Innumerable incidental expenses have
also to be met, and should the resources of the afflicted
pastoralist be unable to withstand the strain, his holding
must be forfeited. In addition to the losses that fall
‘directly upon the pastoralist, there are those of the State
to be taken into consideration, such as decreased revenue,
diminished income tax, reduced earnings of railways, ete.
Consequently each severe drought causes a condition of
financial stringency which interferes to a greater or less
extent with all commercial and industrial activities. It
has been estimated that the recent drought in Queensland
was responsible for a loss of about £12,000,000 to that
State. Each State suffers a similar experience from time
to time; sometimes two or more become affected concur-
rently. If the losses directly traceable to the droughts
that have occurred in Australia could be computed, the

26 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

aggregate sum would. be colossal. Control of the effects
of drought is therefore a national matter, and to the sheep.
industry it is regarded by many as being of paramount.
importance.

The control of the effects of drought is in fact @
complex problem owing to the varying conditions that
prevail, not only in different States but in the different
districts of each State; measures of primary importance
in one area often become quite subordinate in another.
A review of past experience with droughts indicates that
the losses decrease somewhat as settlement advances and
local knowledge accumulates. Progress, however, has been
slow and costly, and much time and money can be saved
by more enterprise in developing the following safeguards:

Fodder Production and Conservation.—Notwithstanding
the numerous droughts our pastoralists have experienced.

and the enormous losses they have suffered, each recurring

prolonged dry period still finds many unprepared to carry

their stock over the lean months. The uncertainty of the-

occurrence of drought, the fickleness of its intensity, and
the indefiniteness of its duration undoubtedly induce some-
pastoralists to take a risk and rely upon making up the-
losses during good years—a practice that is apt to end in
disaster. Bare pastures and dying animals invariably

lead to a revival of agitation for some national scheme for

fodder conservation to assure at a reasonable cost an
adequate supply for starving stock. Many schemes have:
been advanced, and the one which appears to have found
most favour in New South Wales is that proposed by a
Special Committee of representatives of the Government,
the Chamber of Commerce, pastoralists, bankers and the
meat industry, under which the necessary funds are to be.
provided by the State issuing interest-bearing bonds to
farmers and stock-owners, as well as to ordinary investors.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 27

To insure success, a Board representing all interests direct-
ly concerned is to fix, from time to time, the purchase and
sale prices of-the fodder and to control storage and distribu-
tion. Based upon the fact that adequate supplies of fodder
can be grown by farmers, provided at least some of the
cost of production is recoverable and a profitable market
ultimately assured, a less comprehensive scheme has also:
been suggested to make fodder conserved in an approved
manner on selected farms, a tangible asset upon which
banking institutions might advance portion of the cost of
production, or grant the ruling rate of interest on cost,
during the period it is held in good condition, subject to:
the right of calling it up for sale at a reasonable price
when required for distribution. A third scheme suggested
is the establishment of an insurance fund, to which all
stock-owners will contribute an annual sum based largely
upon the nature, character and location of their holdings,
to secure when required a supply of fodder at fixed prices
from reserves built up by judicious purchase. It is
obvious, however, that any complete scheme for national
conservation of fodder will require a big financial backing,
and while several Governments have given the matter much
consideration, none so far has taken definite action towards.
providing the requisite funds. The view has been
expressed that the large amount of public money that
would be required to finance any national scheme might.
be spent to better advantage in extending existing railway
systems and improving the main roads: in this way not
only will the transportation of stock and fodder during
drought periods be facilitated, but further development
of pastoral areas will be materially advanced. It is equally
evident that until some national scheme of fodder conser-
vation is put into operation stock-owners must fend for
themselves, and provide their own fodder reserves.

28 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

In areas suitable for mixed-farming, or where the soil
is fertile and a rainfall of at least 20 inches per annum is
usual, the cultivation of fodder crops at least: sufficient for
home consumption should be regarded by sheep-owners as
an essential part of their business. For years the Depart-
ment of Agriculture in each State has been encouraging
this class of sheep-farmer to grow fodder crops, not only
to supplement the natural food supply, but as an assurance
against drought. The efforts of the Department have been
supported by the activities of various organisations such
as the Agricultural Societies and Bureaux, and much
useful information has been disseminated as to which crops
to grow, when and how they should be sown, cultivated
and conserved. In addition to growing special crops for
fodder conservation, farmers can convert the rank growth
of their cultivation paddocks into silage with considerable
profit to themselves. The advantages of conserving fodder
in silo pits have been abundantly demonstrated, and the
great value of silage for sheep, and more particularly
lambing ewes, 1s becoming generally recognised. Improve-
ment of the pasture lands by the application of artificial
fertilisers and introduction of better grasses, clovers, etc.,
not only increases their carrying capacity but makes them
tolerant to dry seasons. The striking success that has
attended the creation of new varieties of drought-resisting
wheat and the elaboration of new methods of farming,
particularly in dry areas, clearly indicates the influence
the development of agriculture must have on the welfare
of the pastoral industry. In the past, effort has been
somewhat concentrated on the production of wheat, but
each year sees more attention being given to the improve-
ment of other crops. An extensive field in the introduction
and cultivation of new varieties of plants and cereals
suitable as fodder exists, and is gradually being exploited.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 29

For instance, the best has not yet been obtained from
lucerne cultivation, nor has most been made of the cotton
bush crops, the decorticated seeds of which are useful as.
concentrates. Consequently it would appear that, in areas
eapable of agricultural development, the present difficulties
of assuring fodder supply during drought periods will
progressively diminish.

The position, however, is different with the holders of
big sheep runs who are gradually being driven into the
drier areas, inasmuch as they have to provide for large
numbers of sheep, often running into many thousands,
grazing on land unsuitable on the whole for agriculture.
With them a prolonged drought is always a serious matter,
but the resultant losses are dependent on many factors,
such as the nature of the holding, amount of average rain-
fall, extent of improvements, efficiency of ~management,
accessibility to railway, etc. It may be accepted that
pastoralists on the whole are not opposed to the principle
of fodder conservation. A few who can afford to do so
endeavour to build up reserves by purchasing hay and
maize when the market price is low, and storing them at
convenient sites. On a few big pastoral holdings an effort
is made to grow some fodder crop on alluvial patches
that can be irrigated, but the amount conserved rarely
exceeds that required for preserving the stud sheep. On
others, not so favourably placed, an attempt at cultivation
is sometimes made on a small scale, and usually two out
of every three crops sown give a return that proves helpful.
Also the conservation during good seasons of natural
grasses and herbage as hay and silage, is occasionally
earried out. While considerable benefit has been derived
from the treatment of specially selected paddocks, the
extensive application of artificial fertilisers to the soil on
these big pastoral holdings is not considered practicable.

"30 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

The general feeling among the big pastoralists appears
to be that it is either impracticable or unprofitable to
‘conserve enough fodder to feed their large numbers of
stock during long periods of drought; impracticable
‘pecause of the difficulty in obtaining the necessary labour
in these remote parts just when it 1s required, and unpro-
fitable because of the large amount of capital that would
‘be locked up for an indefinite period in an asset that often
-depreciates in value.

The problem of acquiring fodder reserves for big
pastoral holdings is obviously one of an economic nature,
but it is equally obvious that the extent of the reserve
necessary for the majority has a direct relationship to the
manner in which the natural sources of fodder have been
conserved by efficient management, subdivision of the hold-
ing and distribution of water supply. In the semi-central
pastoral zone, where the holdings are extensive, the heat
great and the rainfall scanty, the carrying capacity is
usually low, running from a sheep to ten to twenty acres
or more, and the stock subsist largely on various low-
growing shrubs and trees that have acquired a marked
resistance to drought by morphological adaptation. Under
occupation much of this natural source of fodder supply
has become depleted, and as quite a lot of this class of
country is suitable for wool-production, special effort must
be directed towards the regeneration of the best of the
native vegetation, and the augmentation of the natural
supply by cultivation of drought-resisting grasses, fodder
shrubs and trees. Of considerable value, therefore, are the
‘investigations being made at Koonamore (north-east of
South Australia, 8-inch rainfall) upon an area of eaten-out
-salt-bush 1,000 acres in extent, which has been given to the
University of Adelaide as a vegetation reserve for research
-~work. These investigations are being carried out under

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 31

the supervision of Professor T. G. B. Osborn, with the
object of studying natural regeneration when all grazing
influences, including those of rabbits, are removed. They
are also designed to study the ecology of the area and
particularly the autecology of species most valuable econo-
mically. Later on, it is proposed to ascertain the effects
of grazing of known intensity on the process of regenera-
tion. This work has been in progress for over a year, and
arrangements have been made for the active co-operation
of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research. Its
extension into other arid districts is under consideration
by the Council, and pastoralists can well assist by making
areas available. A considerable amount of information has
already been collected by various botanists and agrostolo-
gists as to the nature and habits of most of the drought-
resisting vegetation which experience has shown to be
serviceable for feeding stock. Some ten years ago a scheme
was launched in New South Wales for the encouragement
of land-holders to plant and cultivate indigenous fodder
trees. A forestry nursery was established at Dubbo for the
supply of seedlings, and in 1923 nearly 25,000 were distri-
buted to farmers and graziers, together with instructions
as to their cultivation. It is therefore evident that with
development along these lines the problem of fodder
conservation for even the large holdings in the purely
pastoral zone must also gradually diminish in intensity.

Water Supply and Conservation.—The early occupation
of pastoral country was determined by the evident natural
supplies of water, and as settlement gradually extended
from these favoured areas, water supply and conservation
became one of the most important problems of the pastoral
industry. Individual settlers endeavoured to overcome
their own difficulties, but the toll of ever-recurring
drought, and the necessity of assuring a satisfactory
supply to encourage the occupation of vast areas of fertile

32 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

land devoid of permanent surface water, compelled the.
various Governments to establish special services to acquire
permanent supplies of water for stock, agricultural and
domestic purposes. The work carried out by these services
is important and extensive.

Of the big schemes for water conservation, the following
must be mentioned:—In New South Wales, the construc-
tion of the Burrinjuck Dam at a capital expenditure of
about twelve million pounds, to supply the Murrumbidgee
Irrigation Area for growing crops, and to assure water
supply to the lower river during drought periods; the
construction of the Hume Dam, that has cost some nine
millions, shared equally by the Commonwealth and States.
of New South Wales, Victoria and South Australia; and
the provision of a storage at Lake Victoria (N.S.W.) for
the use of the South Australian river settlements during
periods when the natural flow of the River Murray requires
to be supplemented. In Victoria, the artesian supply
having proved not as serviceable as that of the northern
States, extensive schemes have been carried out with great
skill to provide water for domestic and stock purposes, the
capital expenditure on which at 30th June, 1926, was
£7,276,000, the area of land artificially suppled with
water being 22,500 square miles. The principal one is the
Wimmera-Mallee system, which is said to compare favour-
ably with any similar undertaking in the world. Others,
also regarded as comprehensive, have been carried out, or
are being contemplated. Queensland also has under con-
sideration national work in irrigation, the most important
being the Dawson Valley Scheme. The Goldfields Water
Supply, of which Western Australia is justly proud, has
supplied permanent water for stock in districts adjacent
to the line of pipes leading from the Mundaring Reservoir
to the eastern goldfields.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 33

Having completed the scheme for supplying water for
domestic and stock purposes to an area of a million
acres in Western Riverina, the Water Conservation
and Irrigation Commission (N.S.W.) is now engaged
upon the Gunbar extension to serve half a million acres
north of the Murrumbidgee, from the vicinity of Griffith
out to Booligal. The Commission has also a number of
other projects under consideration, in connection with
the Lachlan, Macquarie, Namoi and Peel Rivers. Of
these, special mention might be made of the proposal to
construct the Wyangala Dam across the Lachlan River,
which has been recommended by the Parliamentary Stand-
ing Committee, on condition that the vast area of Crown
lands, over 800,000 acres in extent, between Euabolong
and Roto, is made available for closer settlement. This
scheme aims at settling some five hundred farmers by
supplying domestic and stock water by a network of
channels similar to the system so successfully adopted in
Victoria.

In addition to these national undertakings, much has
been accomplished by private enterprise, and on many
holdings large sums of money have been spent in impound-
ing water by the erection of dams across water-courses,
and the construction of tanks to catch the ‘‘run off’’ from
the plains. On highly improved holdings these reservoirs
are numerous and the water is well distributed over the
run by means of mechanical power and pipes, or by gravi-
tation and open drains, to reduce the distance stock have
to travel when they wish to drink. Travelling long
distances to water not only lowers production, but during
drought it leads to rapid:exhaustion. Where permanent
provision has not been made or the supply has dried up,
motor tractors for transportation of tanks filled with water
are used with much advantage. Fencing the reservoir off

C—May 2, 1928. :

34 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

and conveying the water by mechanical means to troughs
from which the stock drink has been found to be a much
safer and more economical method than allowing the stock
to have free access to the reservoir itself. It is also becom-
ing recognised that the loss from evaporation can be
materially lessened by increasing the depth of the tank
and growing trees near-by.

The discovery of the artesian water supply, and the
subsequent exploitation of the seven artesian basins, has
made possible the profitable occupation of large areas of
land for pastoral purposes. The return for year 1925-6
gives the number of existing artesian and sub-artesian
bores as follows:—New South Wales 518, Victoria 367,
Queensland 3,138, South Australia 144, Western Australia
230, and the Northern Territory 180, making a total of
4,577, yielding a daily flow of 459,594,000 gallons.!° While
the great majority of bores have been sunk and paid for by
the occupier, considerable assistance has been given by
the Crown.'' In New South Wales, at the end of 1926,
seventy-one trust districts had received assistance to serve
an area of 4,354,545 acres with 2,803 miles of drains for
stock watering purposes, and, in addition, twelve artesian
well districts embracing an area of 324,947 acres had been
helped. The total expenditure by the State on these
trust and artesian well districts had amounted to about
£239,000. The Water Conservation and Irrigation Com-
mission, besides having two deep well plants sinking bores
in trust areas, has thirty-five plants at work in shallow-
boring in three districts, for settlers of moderate means,
and up to 30th June, 1926, 1503 effective bores had been
sunk, and many more have been applied for. Pastoral
Queensland is largely served by the Great Australian Arte-
sian Basin, the estimated yield of water from 1,362 flowing
bores on 380th June, 1926, being 291,621,910 gallons per

FRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 39

diem. On that date fifty-two bore water supply areas were
completed, comprising a total of 4,696,924 acres, over
which water was distributed in 1,939 miles of drains. Five
additional areas are in hand, including a further 611,791 |
acres, and 361 miles of drains. A series of bores has been
sunk in dry areas of South Australia for watering stock,
and the yield from the flowing bores at 30th June, 1926,
was 12,973,000 gallons per diem. In Western Australia
the number of Government bores is almost equal to that
of private bores.

From the above it will be seen that considerable progress
has been made in solving the problem of water supply
and conservation, and that while much has been accom-
plished by private enterprise, comprehensive and costly
undertakings have been carried out by the Governments.
‘The extent of these undertakings in the eastern States at
‘Jeast, is probably much greater than is generally realised.

While much of the artesian and sub-artesian water is
‘quite serviceable for both domestic and stock purposes,
some of it, unfortunately, is so highly charged with
mineral salts that it is unsuitable even for the use of stock.
The chief salts are those of sodium, calcium, magnesium
and potassium, existing as chlorides, sulphates, or carbon-
ates. Silica is sometimes present, and occasionally traces
of iron and aluminium are found. The standards for safe
water adopted in the different States vary; apparently
in each case it has been adopted independently, as the
result of the experience of the official chemist. For
example, the extreme limit of total dissolved salts which
will not injuriously affect sheep, in grains per gallon, is
regarded in Queensland and Victoria as 600, in New South
‘Wales as 1,350, in South Australia as 875, and in Wester1
Australia as 900. It is possible that a number of factors

36 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

has operated in the determination of these different stan-
dards. At the Perth Meeting of the Australasian Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science (1926), the standard-.
isation of methods for water analysis was urged by both
Dr. E. S. Simpson (W.A.) and also Mr. R. Lockhart Jack.
(S.A.). As the different mineral salts of water vary
considerably in amount, and as it is recognised that inter-
action influences toxic effect, Mr. R. Lockhart Jack further
suggested, in the hope of getting a more comparable basis.
for analysis, consideration of assigning factors to the
various ‘‘assumed salts,’’ to reduce them to their equi-
valent toxicity expressed as common salt instead of for
the precisely determined ions and radicles. Of the various
mineral salts, sodium chloride is common, and is usually
regarded as the most harmful, partly on account of its.
known toxicity in excessive doses, and partly on account
of its association with ‘‘brackishness.’’ It is recorded,,.
however, that sheep have lived for several weeks during
the summer months on water containing as much as three
ounces of salt per gallon, when they were watered at sun-
down from freshly filled troughs. Management is there-
fore an important factor, but the nature of the food and
the distance the sheep travel to water, also have their
influence. More definite knowledge as to the tolerance
of sheep and other stock to the different mineral ingredients
of bore water, both separately and in association, is un-
doubtedly very desirable, and the investigations now being
carried out by a special Committee appointed by the
Australian National Research Council are bound to lead
to a better understanding in the usage of bore water, and
thus confer much benefit upon the sheep industry.

It will be seen from what has been stated that much
has been done by both State and private effort to over-
come the problem of Water Supply and Conservation.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. oT

With extensive areas made safer for stock occupation
and thousands of acres made available for mixed-farming,
considerable expansion of the sheep industry must take
‘place.

Weather Forecasting.—Not only are droughts irregular
in their occurrence and duration, but they are often
terminated by heavy rains resulting in extensive floods
that cause much loss of live-stock and property. The
‘disastrous results of droughts and floods could be con-
siderably reduced if it were possible to give sufficient
‘warning of their advent. While our meteorologists are
becoming increasingly accurate in forecasting weather
‘conditions up to 36 hours, their prophecies usually decrease
in reliability as this period is exceeded. In India, owing
to its peculiar geophysical characters, advance has been
‘made in long-range prediction, but it is unlikely that
much progress will be evident in Australia until many
additions are made to our scientific knowledge. No doubt,
the publication of accurate weather records by important
countries in different parts of the world will prove helpful,
but it would appear that any material progress must
‘depend upon long and intricate research. Of recent years
the work carried out by the Observatories of the Smith-
sonian Institution (U.S.A.) in connection with solar
radiation has attracted much attention, and it is interest-
ing to note that Clayton, of the Argentine Meteorological
Service (S.A.) by the correlation of weather changes with
‘changes in solar radiation, has been enabled to extend
the period of weather forecasting to seven days with, it
is reported, satisfactory results. Should this aid be success-
fully applied in other centres, a great impetus will be
‘given to the study of solar radiation in Australia, which
‘will be very gratifying to at least one member of our
‘Council (the Rev. E. F. Pigot) who for some years has

38 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

been carrying out, under great difficulties, research iw
this subject at the Riverview College Observatory, Sydney.
While many scientific fields may be exploited with advan-
tage in weather forecasting, solar radiation seems to be:
the one that offers the most fruitful results. The establish-
ment of meteorological stations in Antarctica no doubt
will be useful, and it is urged that even if the prospects.
of ‘‘long-range’’ forecasting in Australia are regarded as
remote, the development of a ‘‘longer range’’ than the
present methods provide will be of distinct service to
our pastoralists and farmers.

Facilities for Transportation—As droughts vary in
range and intensity, it often happens that while the
pastures in some districts are bare, those in others provide
abundantly for the stock. Consequently many pastoralists,.
whose holdings are not too far removed from a railway
service, find it more economic to send their stock from
the drought-stricken area to favoured districts, than to.
build up large fodder reserves. The usual practice is to:
relieve the holding by removing the flock sheep and to.
hand-feed those reserved for stud purposes. Our railways.
consequently play an important part during drought
periods in transporting starving stock and carrying:
supphes of fodder. In this way they also prevent the
excessive depletion of pastures which results from con-
tinued occupation during dry times. Practically all our
railways are state-owned, and it is usual for Governments.
to grant freight concessions to help stock-owners over their:
difficulties. While acknowledging the great value of the
present services, it must be recognised that still greater
relief can be afforded not only by extending into new
territory, but by looping up the radii and lnking up the
termini of the numerous branches already constructed.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 39

An outstanding need for pastoralists of eastern Aus-
tralia, and one that has been advocated for many years
not alone by graziers, but by Railway Chiefs and Officers
of the Defence Department, and also strongly supported
by Professor Griffith Taylor, is the hnking up of the
termini of the railway systems that radiate from the
centres on the east coast. It has been asserted that the
cost of construction of the lengthy portion that is to con-
nect Camooweal (Qld.) to Bourke (N.S.W.) would have
been largely repaid by the saving in live stock effected
during the recent drought. As this particular construction
interests more than one State, the assistance of the Federal
Government has been invited, and it is understood that
the matter is receiving favourable consideration.

Where railway service is at present remote, stock
routes and ordinary roads must continue to serve trans-
portation requirements. Over both of these some control is
now exercised, but much room exists for improvement.
Stock routes must be reasonably extensive, adequately
watered and kept in good condition, or they fail when
most needed; and roads serviceable at least under ordi-
nary conditions are essential for the development of the
far-off inland areas.

ImpROvED ANIMAL NUTRITION.

All observant stock-owners know that if animals do not
receive sufficient nourishment, their growth becomes
retarded, their productivity diminished and their fertility
lessened. Also that animals in low condition are more
liable to disease and parasitic infestation. Sufficient
nourishment, however, does not merely mean plenty to eat,
and it often happens that the food supply, while ample
in bulk, is sadly deficient in one or more ingredients
essential for the physiological requirements of the animal.

40 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

When Lavoisier in 1780 applied the balance and thermo-
meter to investigations of the phenomena of life, the
foundation was laid to the scientific study of the problems
of nutrition. For over a century and a half these problems
have engaged the attention of many bio-chemists and other
scientists to whom we fully acknowledge our great
indebtedness. The early researches were concerned mainly
with the welfare of man, but as animals are usually kept
for profit, their owners naturally desired to know in
addition to the physiological requirements, the relationship
between the cost and the feeding value of the various
food-stuffs. In this connection Germany gave a valuable
lead Mm 1864 when Dr. Emil von Wolff presented in
Mentzel and von Lengerke’s Agricultural Calendar for
that year, the first table of feeding standards based on
the digestible nutriments contained in food-stuffs. The
Wolff feeding standards were subsequently published
annually down to 1896. From 1897 to 1906 they were
presented by Dr. C. Lehmann, with some modifications,
but in 1907 Dr. D. Kellner took charge and made an
important advance by substituting tables and feeding
standards based on the Starch Equivalent values deter-
mined by careful experimental work, and by recognising
the requirements for production over and above those
necessary for maintenance. As the importance and eco-
nomic value of standardising food-stuffs became recognised,
other countries gave attention to the subject, more particu-
larly perhaps, the United Kingdom, the United States of
America and Canada. As a result many experimental
stations have been established and well-endowed to work out
the feeding value of available food-stuffs and to disseminate
by popular bulletins the knowledge gained, much to the
advantage of stock-owners.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4]

Notwithstanding its importance to our greatest primary
industry, Australia has certainly lagged behind in this
branch of research, not so much from want of apprecia-
tion, for in the curricula of our veterinary schools the
principles and practice of scientific dietetics have always
had a prominent place, and the urgent necessity for
provision to carry out investigations in Australia has
‘been stressed on many occasions. Our chemists, especially
Briinnich (Qld.) and Guthrie (N.S.W.) have made a
considerable number of analyses of Australian fodder
-erops, cereals, grasses and shrubs, and a certain amount
of work has been done by the few bio-chemists we possess,
but the progress made by this individual effort has been
slow, and the results obtained are small when compared
with those accomplished by the well-endowed and efficiently
staffed institutes of other countries.

In the tables giving the composition of various food-
stuffs, the percentages of digestible crude protein, carbo-
hydrates and fat for tissue and energy supply are given,
together with that of ash, and the nutritive ratios are
stated to indicate dietary values; but rations based on
this data alone often give a diet deficient in mineral matter
-and vitamines, the dietary of importance of which recent
‘research in bio-chemistry and pathology has amply demon-
‘strated. In both man and animals a condition of depraved
-or perverted appetite known as Pica has long been recog-
nised. Pica is always a sign of disturbed or deficient
nutrition, and is more common when great demands are
‘made on the animal’s system, as in the growing period
-and during pregnancy and lactation. One manifestation
-of this condition is earth-eating (geophagia); under
natural conditions animals are known instinctively to seek
localities where the surface soil is impregnated with
“mineral matter, and to establish ‘‘lick holes.’’ In advanced

42 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

cases affected animals eat faeces (coprophagia) and the
dried bones of dead animals (osteophagia); both these
materials contain calcium and phosphorus. Osteophagia
leads to other diseases which further lower production,
and some may cause death. The most serious complication
in cattle is a form of ‘‘Botulism.’’3*"™4 Theiler’s investi-.
oations in South Africa showed that during the periods.
osteophagia becomes prevalent—namely in the autumn and
winter and in dry seasons—the native grasses are deficient
in phosphorus, the ratio of starch equivalent to P.;O;
decreasing from 100 to 1.07 to 100 to 0.36, and further
that osteophagia could be controlled by supplementing the
deficient vegetation either directly through the mouth:
by feeding various phosphorus-containing compounds, or
indirectly by applying phosphatic manures to the pastures.

In Australia Pica is not uncommon in all classes of
stock. In some areas, particularly coastal districts, it is
enzootic, frequently associated with osteophagia and osteo-
malacia, the latter being well seen in cattle and horses.
It may become manifest in sheep during dry seasons,
when the nutritive value of the pastures diminishes.
Guided by the results obtained by Theiler in South Africa,
bone meal has been administered with good results, but
bone meal contains calcium and other mineral ingredients
as well as phosphorus, and apart from the benefits that
may be derived from an additional allowance of calcium.
when the pastures are deficient in its salts, it has been
found that a balance consumption of lime leads to a
better retention of the phosphorus.'5 Calcium and phos-
phorus are but two of the number of mineral ingredients.
vegetation derives from the soil, and a shortage of any
may lead to mineral deficiency. In the North Island of
New Zealand the cattle suffer what is known as “‘ Bush.
sickness’’!°, the cause of which is ascribed to a shortage-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 43

of iron, and the administration of citrate of ammonia and
iron has been attended by marked beneficial results.
Recent investigations in the mineral requirements of
erowing animals make it increasingly evident that the
adjustment of the proportions of the inorganic constitu-
ents of a ration requires as much consideration as the
absolute amounts of these elements in the diet. Hven
though a mineral is present in a ration in sufficient amount
for the animal’s requirement, the presence of other
minerals in unsuitable proportions may lead to insufficient
assimilation and retention. The inter-dependence of the
different mineral elements is of importance; some, in
proper proportions, will increase the assimilation of
associated mineral matter; others, given in excessive
amounts, will exert a depressing effect. As Orr points
out,’? if the ration already contains sufficient of any
mineral, the addition of that mineral can do no good,
and indeed, may do harm. The surplus supply not only
lowers the dietetic value of other ingredients, but the
additional strain thrown upon the excretory organs may
cause disease. This aspect of mineral nutrition is of
considerable importance to our sheep-owners, owing to
the tendency of recent years, especially during drought
periods, to supplement the natural food by an allowance
of mineral in the form of licks, without any exact know-
ledge of the nature of the deficiency, which must of neces-
sity differ in districts of varying geological formation.
and rainfall.

The big sheep of to-day not only require more nourish-
ment for maintenance than formerly, but the heavy fleeces.
they now carry demand still more for production. To
grow wool of uniform quality, sufficient nourishment must
be continuously provided. While our best pastures so
far have retained their high nutritive value, there is

44 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

evidence that others are decreasing in carrying capacity,
especially during dry spells. Many factors have operated
in lowering the nutritive value of pastures, and both
remedial and preventive methods must be devised, but
obviously much research will be necessary before the exact
deficiencies can be properly dealt with. To be complete,
it must include extensive soil and botanical surveys,
ecological study of our vegetation, chemical examination
of grasses, herbage, edible shrubs and trees, together with
experimental feeding to determine nutritive values for
both growth and production in different seasons. It is
in this way that animal nutrition problems have been
tackled successfully in other parts of the world.

In the past we have been guided largely by investigations
earried out in other countries, and the time is long over-
due for us to endeavour to work out our own problems
under our own conditions. This fact, together with the
extensive field that exists, led the Council for Scientific
and Industrial Research, soon after its establishment, to
take the matter up. As a first step, a special Committee
consisting of bio-chemists and veterinary scientists was
appointed to report on the position, and it is satisfactory
to know that arrangements have now been made for an
extensive and fundamental investigation into problems
associated with nutrition of stock in Australia.* Work is
being carried out by the Council in co-operation with the
University of Adelaide, and the Waite Agricultural
Research Institute (S.A.). To commence with, the applied
work will be limited mainly to sheep, considered as meat
and wool producers, the investigations having been
planned in two main divisions. Arrangements have been
made for a fundamental investigation of the nutrition
of animals, to be carried out under the control of Professor
T. Brailsford Robertson, with the primary object of ascer-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 45

taining the exact nature of certain deficiencies in leaf
protein of those fodder plants upon which Australian
sheep chiefly depend in times of drought. Afterwards,
the investigations will be extended to other plants, especi-
ally those which make their appearance after rain in arid
regions, and finally to the pasture plants in the districts.
that have more abundant rainfall. Investigations with
laboratory animals will also be carried out in order to
determine the effects of excess magnesium or potash upon
the mineral equipment of the animal in other directions.
The iodine content is also to be dealt with. Later on
the fundamental work will be linked up with field investi-
gations on sheep.

Further, with a view to extending investigations in the
problem of mineral deficiencies of pastures, the Empire
Marketing Board has made funds available on a contri-
butory basis for research to be carried out in Australia.
The offer was originally made to Professor A. C. V.
Richardson, Director of the Waite Institute (S.A.) and
has now been transferred to the Council. The general
object of the work is to determine the role of mineral
nutrients on growth, development and nutrition of stock.
Special attention will be devoted to the effect of deficiencies.
of phosphorus and calcium on pastures.

There can be no question as to the wisdom of the Council
in undertaking this work. The problems are very complex,
and as research is usually a slow process, spectacular
results are not anticipated. The field, however, is so ex-
tensive as to give rise to some misgivings as to whether
the central organisation will be able to yield the best
results within reasonable time, unless its work is supple-
mented by State effort. In each of the States some scien-
tific organisation already exists that is capable of render-
ing valuable aid in developing and applying the scheme

46 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

of work, and the special training at headquarters of
selected workers from the different States, in approved
methods of investigation, would undoubtedly expedite
results. Some such arrangement to assure extension of
the field of inquiry and. correlation of results, will most
probably be considered by the Council in due course, and
it is of particular interest to note that the Council has
invited Dr. J. B. Orr, Director of Research in Animal
Nutrition at the Rowett Research Institute of Aberdeen,
Scotland, Sir Arnold Theiler, Director-designate of the
Bureau of Animal Health, London, and late Director of
‘Veterinary Education and Research, South Africa, and
Sir John Russell, late Director-designate of Soil Science
Bureau, London, to visit Australia, and after studying
local conditions, to advise on the future development of
research here. <A further benefit from the visit of these
eminent scientists will be the active co-operation between
British and Australian investigators in the study of
animal nutrition and soil problems—a development that
is receiving encouragement from the Imperial Bureau
CU:

These projects will no doubt bring about a better under-
‘standing in the scientific feeding of animals in Australia,
and much beneficial guidance will be given our stock-
owners as to the nutritive value of both natural vegetation
and supplementary sources of food supply. As a result
our stock will grow better, produce more, and multiply
‘satisfactorily.

Woot PRODUCTION.

From historical records, it is gathered that the sheep
first brought to Australia were of either the coarse-wool
type or the hair-bearing variety. Of the early coarse-wool
‘sheep introduced, one lot brought from Ireland, and sub-

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 47

abgivently known as the ‘‘Irish Breed’? evidently played
an important part, as the improvement in the fleece of an
offspring of a hair-bearing Bengal ewe got by one of
the rams drew the attention of McArthur to the prospects
of growing. wool in Australia. From the evidence avail-
able, this so-called ‘‘Irish Breed’’ seems to have been
the ancient Northumberland or Teeswater breed now

known as the Wensleydale.

The introduction of the Spanish Merino in 1797 is
generally regarded as initiating the fine wool industry
of Australia. The term ‘‘Spanish Merino,’’ however, 1s
a general one, as in the course of several centuries many
types of Merino have been evolved in the different pro-
vinces of Spain. It has been surmised that the Merinos
imported from South Africa in 1797 were the Hscurial
type, while those that came from the flocks of King George
III in 1804 were the Negrette type. Other types have
been evolved also in several countries into which the
Spanish Merino has been introduced, such as the Ram-
bouillet (France), Saxon, Silesia, Gadegast and Steiger
(Germany), Vermont and Delaine (U.S.A.), ete. Of these,
our sheep breeders imported those regarded as most ser-
viceable, so that it may be claimed that in addition to
the original Spanish types that came from South Africa
and England, the best of the world’s fine wool producing
sheep have been used in building up our present flocks.
Consequently, although one refers in general terms to the
pure Merino of Australia, it must be recognised that
actually our flocks contain many strains of the different
types of Merino. Individual flocks, by selective breeding
for many years, have acquired definite characters, so that
a number of sub-types has been evolved in Australia in
which one or more of the imported strains at least pre-

48 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

dominate. For instance, the famous Wanganella sub-type
was founded by using Rambouillet rams, especially one-

called Emperor, of the Paular strain, noted for size and

plainness of body, brought from France in 1862. The
ereation of further sub-types must proceed to adapt our

sheep to the wide range of environmental influences that
obtain in Australia, and while not detracting in any
way from the merits of our leading breeders, the opinion
is advanced that very material assistance can be given to
their efforts by the application of more scientific methods.

It is true our breeders have increased the quantity of
wool grown per sheep in a striking manner. In 18277
the weight of fleece from cross-bred ewes and wethers
averaged 3 lbs., that of pure-bred Merino 2 to 24 lbs., and
that of the ewes seldom exceeded 14 lbs.; while in 1927
the clip in New South Wales averaged 8.8 lbs. per sheep
and the fleece of individual stud rams weighed over 40 lbs.
This has been done by individual effort, but it has taken
just one hundred years to accomplish it!

With this remarkable increase in the weight of fleece,
the size of the sheep has gradually become greater, but
the fineness of wool is not so marked as formerly. While
the present type of sheep is the most profitable under
existing market conditions, it is difficult to say how long
the demand for strong wool will remain at the current high
level. The market is always largely influenced by fashion,
and as the textile manufacturers have to cater for the
prevailing fashion, the tendency of the day is to establish
a closer co-operation between the wool grower and the
woollen textile manufacturer. It is of interest to note
that the textile industry has generously founded a depart-
ment at the University of Leeds to investigate its problems,

and much scientific research is now being carried out

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 4.9:

there that must have an important bearing on wool-
growing in Australia. Unless research is carried out on
similar lines in Australia to correlate results our position
will indeed be invidious. That a wide and extensive field.
exists here is patent to all who have given the matter
serious consideration. ‘‘Bawra’’ classified the Australian
wool production into 848 distinct types.?!

The benefits to be derived by the application of more
scientific methods are many. The most generally recog-
nised indications of wool value are fineness, length,
density, strength, crimp, lustre, stretch, shrinkage, and
uniformity, all of which are capable of definite measure-
ment, except lustre, which fortunately is fairly evident
to the sight. It is known that environmental influences
do affect many of these characteristics; a breed of sheep
producing fine wool under certain conditions may produce
strong or medium wool under other conditions, and vice
versa. Exactly which hereditary factors of our different
types favour or retard the change-over have not been
determined, but the solution offers a fruitful field for
investigation. Hitherto sheep classers and wool buyers.
have relied upon digital manipulation and the unaided
eye in judging the character of the wool, and the expert-
ness many have attained by long experience aided by
natural aptitude is truly remarkable. But with this
practice, the value of the judgment made always varies to
some degree with the proficiency of the judge, and disagree-
ment in estimation is not uncommon. Of recent years the
requirements of the textile trade have necessitated the
standardisation of essential properties of wool, and as a
result, scientific apparatus and methods have been elabo-
rated to give a more accurate estimation. Fineness of
wool is one of the chief factors in determining its value,
but as wool fibres vary in diameter from about 1/300th

D—May 2, 1928,

50 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

to 1/2000th of an inch, the necessity for accurate means
of measurement is apparent. Several methods are now
in use, of which the micro-metrical method combined with
“‘frequency distribution curve’’ appears to be most
favoured at the University of Leeds. The wool is examined
microscopically and the diameter of the individual fibres
read off by the aid of a micro-meter eye-piece with divisions
of 1/10,500th of an inch. From the measurements made
(over one hundred) the average diameter is obtained,
and by grouping the measurements according to units of
space and plotting the results the ‘‘frequency curve’’ is
obtained which gives very definite information. From
this and other data equally accurately determined, statis-
tical methods of investigation may be carried out, and the
true nature of the wool revealed, and its commercial value
determined. So much progress has been made in this
connection that it can be safely said that a student, by
the use of scientific apparatus and the application of
‘statistical methods, can in a few weeks determine and
value the characteristics of wool with at least the same
degree of accuracy as that possessed by ordinary wool-
lassers with years of experience behind them.

Further, to the breeder uniformity in fleece is of para-
mount importance, and it is usually judged by examination
made by sight and digital manipulation of the wool growing
on different parts of the sheep’s body. Many breeders
have acquired remarkable proficiency in judgment after
years of close application ; others who lack natural aptitude
find difficulty in becoming proficient, even after years of
experience. An apparatus now exists that can be used
with advantage by all, as it quickly reveals the degree of
fineness of the individual fibres in any sample, and clearly
shows up variations. Last year Dr. Henseler, Director of

| jean

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 51

the Institute for Animal Breeding and Biology of the
Technical High School, Munich (Germany), demonstrated
the value of his apparatus at the Veterinary School of the
University of Sydney. The apparatus is of the nature
of a projection lantern, the magnified wool fibres or hair
being thrown on to a screen, furnished with millimetre
division squares, from which critical examination is made.
It was stated that the apparatus has proved of great
assistance on the Continent of Europe in the purchase of
rams for flock improvement, and various agricultural
organisations are using it with much benefit to their sheep
breeders. There is scope for similar assistance to be given
‘to our small sheep breeders, to shorten the road to success.

Enough has been stated to indicate the value of the
appleation of scientific methods for the reliable analysis
of wool. Of greater importance still are the benefits to be
derived by the application of more scientific methods in
the breeding of sheep. Many countries are alive to this
fact and have not hesitated to seek the assistance of science
‘to increase production. The Peruvian Government, for
instance, has enlisted the services of scientists to improve
its native flocks and an experimental breeding farm has
‘been established at Chinquibambilla. Judging from reports
to hand, the appeal to science has not been in vain, the
fleece of experimental native sheep having been increased
and improved by better methods of breeding. During
1926 Professor Alfred F. Barker, of Leeds University,
was invited by the President to visit Peru and report
upon the prospects of developing some 30,000,000 acres of
wool-producing country.

It is very remarkable that in Australia organised study
of the Animal Genetics is yet to be provided for. In my
presidential address to the Veterinary Science section of
the Australasian Association for the Advancement of Science

52 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

(1926), the necessity for making requisite provision was.
stressed, and in the post-scriptum of his Peruvian report??
Professor Barker states ‘‘that it has been a disheart-
ening experience to find that, notwithstanding the direct
encouragement which the Universities of Edinburgh and.
Leeds have given to Australia, for example, so far no work
of this type has found an accredited place in the Austra-
lian Universities; neither has there been in evidence, so
far, that reciprocity and collaboration with the Home
Universities which might lead to results industrially
important and scientifically inspiring.’’ Also that ‘‘sheep-
breeding and wool-growing present fields for research in
Genetics and Heredity second to no other fields, and as.
such should come within the activities of every University,
and especially within the work of those Universities which
are situated in the great wool-growing countries of the
world.’’

These views need no endorsement, and it is hoped that.
before long proper provision will be made in seasbeane for
research in wool production.

CoNTROL oF PEsTs.

Numerous pests retard the development of the industry.
Reference has already been made to the rabbit and dingo
pests. In some areas noxious vegetation has taken posses-
sion of many acres of good pasture land, and occasionally
large tracts of country are laid bare by the visitation of
hosts of caterpillars. The greatest of all the insect pests
sheep-owners have to contend with is the ‘‘blow-fly’’ pest,
depredations of which have run into millions of pounds
sterling.

The State Departments of Agriculture have not been
inactive in combating these pests, and while progress has
been made, the success that has attended efforts to eradicate

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 53

the prickly-pear and the woolly aphis by parasitisation
has attracted attention to the possibility of dealing with
other pests in a similar manner, thus obviating the
labour and expense connected with present methods. The
discovery and propagation of parasites to attack and
destroy certain vegetable and animal pests entail much
exacting scientific investigation by specially-trained
workers. Economic entomologists of proved value are
much sought after, and it is pleasing to be able to record
that the Council of Science and Industry has succeeded in
engaging the services of one so eminent as Dr. Rh. J.
‘Tillyard, to co-ordinate the entomological efforts of the
States and to elaborate new methods of attack. The
parasitisation of the pupae of the blow-fly by the Chalcid
wasp introduced by Froggatt has proved useful as a
supplementary aid in controlling the propagation of this
pest, and indicates the value more effective methods of
biological attack may prove to the sheep industry.

THE CONTROL oF ANIMAL DISEASES.

The great majority of diseases affecting sheep in Aus-
tralia have been introduced. Among the early importations
disease other than Scab (Psoroptes communis var. ovis)
was practically unknown, and as the hardships of trans-
portation eliminated the weaklings, it may be taken that
the survivors possessed a good constitution. Unfortunately,
with subsequent importations, especially prior to the
introduction of official supervision and quarantine regula-
‘tions, many diseases and parasitic affections were brought
to Australia. Of the grave affections that were rife
during last century Malignant Catarrh and Scab have
been eradicated, while Anthrax has been controlled by
preventive inoculation discovered by Pasteur and
elaborated by McGarvie Smith an Gunn, so that its

54 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

occurrence is now but enzootic. Other introduced diseases:
have become widespread, and they, together with a number
peculiar to Australia, exact a very heavy annual toll from.
the sheep industry by decreasing production and restricting
markets abroad. To prevent this serious leakage of
revenue, the encouragement of Veterinary Science has.
become essential. Since the establishment of the first
Veterinary College at Lyons, 1762, veterinary knowledge:
has gradually accumulated, but marked progress has been
made in its development as a science during the past thirty
years. The curricula of the teaching institutions clearly
indicate the wide application Veterinary Science has at
the present day, and as each year records material
progress in our knowledge of animal diseases, the field:
is ever extending. Although Veterinary Science has.
not received in Australia the encouragement it enjoys in
many other countries, a useful organisation is being built
up gradually. At the present time two Veterinary Schools.
exist, the one in the University of Sydney and the other
in the University of Melbourne, where complete courses.
of instruction and training are given, extending over at
least four academic years. The graduates find many
avenues for employment, but so far the majority have been.
absorbed in the veterinary services of the Federal Govern--
ment or of the States. The Federal service supervises the-
importation of animals into Australia under the Quaran-
tine Act, and the exportation of beef, mutton and lamb.
under the Commerce Act. It thus carries out important.
duties in safeguarding our flocks and herds from the intro-
duction of further exotic disease, and in guaranteeing the
wholesomeness of the meat produced to consumers abroad..
The State veterinary services are usually attached to the
Departments of Agriculture, and they vary in their degree
of development. Considerable advancement has been made

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 55D

during recent years in some, but the progress in others
cannot be regarded as satisfactory. The best results only
become possible when efficient field and research staffs act
under capable administration. Advancement is most
marked in the State of New South Wales, where the policy
of appointing, as far as possible, qualified veterinarians as
stock inspectors is proving very satisfactory, not only to
the Department in providing highly-trained officers for
the application of modern methods in the control of
disease, but also to stock-owners, who derive much addi-
tional benefit from increased accessibility of advice and
assistance in connection with breeding, feeding, etc. The
value of the field officers, however, is largely dependent
upon the investigations carried out by the research staff
in the elucidation of the cause of disease, and in the
elaboration of effective measures of control. In each State
some provision exists for investigating animal diseases,
ranging from the rudimentary scheme of Tasmania to the
establishment of experimental stations and research insti-
tutes, of which that at Glenfield (N.S.W.) is the best.
example. Research in animal diseases is also carried out
at both our Veterinary Schools. Much valuable work has
been done, and the economic importance of some of it,
such as the control of fluke infestation of sheep, has been
greatly appreciated by stock-owners. Still, it cannot be
claimed that the best results possible have been achieved,.
partly because in no instance has any one of the efforts
had sufficient financial support for proper development,.
and partly because of the shortage in highly-trained
research workers, owing to the limited facilities that exist.
for promising veterinary graduates to specialise in particu-
lar subjects. The only assistance so far given for the
latter purpose is that of the Walter and Eliza Hall
Trust in providing for two Veterinary Fellowships, and.

56 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

the success attained by these Fellows clearly indicates the
benefits that would be derived from pastoralists supple-
menting the generous action of this Trust. The absence
of proper organisation of veterinary effort also has had
its effect. At the present time each State is endeavouring
to work out its own problems in its own way, a process that
is often both tedious and expensive. Some scheme to
assure effective co-operation between the different widely-
separated activities, as well as to provide for intensification
of effort in desirable directions, would go far towards
expediting results. Consideration has already been given
to this matter, and the Council for Scientifie and Industrial
Research is to be congratulated upon obtaining an
organiser of Sir Arnold Theiler’s ability to advise it as
to future plans for developing research in animal diseases.
The field is certainly extensive, and as many diseases of
grave economic importance, such as Caseous Lymphade-
nitis and Braxy-like affections, prevail in more than one
State, Federal guidance and assistance will no doubt be
welcome.

ENCOURAGEMENT OF RESEARCH.

During recent years there has been manifested in many
countries a keen desire to enhance animal production by
the application of more scientific methods, and many
schemes have been put into operation. The 17th Annual
Report of the British Development Commission’3 indi-
cates the wide range of action being taken in Great Britain.
The Commission is now working in close co-operation with
Empire Marketing Board, and augmented funds have been
made available to existing research institutes for investiga-
tions having an Imperial significance. During the last
academic year (1926-7) some £140,000 was recommended
by the Commission to encourage research in many direc-
tions, and among the institutes in the United Kingdom

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 54

‘that received assistance were the Animal Breeding Research
Department, Edinburgh University; the Animal Nutrition
Institute of Cambridge University; the Rowett Research
Institute, Aberdeen University; the Institute of Animal
Pathology, Cambridge University ; and the Research Insti-
tute—Animal Pathology, Royal Veterinary College, Lon-
don. Further, at the Imperial Agricultural Research
Conference held in London last year, the establishment of
.a Bureau of Animal Nutrition at the Rowett Institute, a
Bureau of Animal Health in London, and a correspondence
-centre for Animal Genetics at Edinburgh University, were
recommended to facilitate interchange of information
concerning recent investigations in these subjects. The
correlation and linking up of work earried out under
different conditions at the various centres throughout the
Empire must prove a powerful stimulus to future effort,
but in order to be fully effective it is essential that each
part of the Empire must add its quota. While it cannot
‘be said that Australia has pulled her full weight in the
‘past, the prospects for better fulfilment of her obligations
in the future appear encouraging.

From the frequent references to the activities of the
Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, it is evident
that the Federal Government is manifesting a keen desire
to assist the sheep industry in overcoming its problems
But they are only part of a great number of problems
-eonnected with primary industries as a whole which the
Council has to consider, and it is questionable whether the
funds placed at the disposal of the Council, originally
regarded as ample, will be sufficient to meet the many
-demands. Consequently the action being taken by the
-wool-growers and wool-brokers to assist scientific research
-is very welcome. It is proposed to found a fund by volun-
tary subscription, on the basis of two shillings per bale of

58 J. DOUGLAS STEWART.

wool during the present clip, and to use the interest aceru-.
ing from investment of the capital in encouragement. of
research for the eradication of pests, the control of diseases,

and the elucidation of nutrition and other problems. As

an initial effort the objective of £200,000 aimed at is most
praiseworthy, but as the interest on this sum will yield.
not much more than £10,000 per annum, it is clear that

the capital sum will require to be considerably augmentcd.
before the full weight of scientific help can be applied. A.
further encouraging development is the additional pro-
posal of the Pastures Protection Boards in New South.
Wales to devote £2,500 of their funds for five years in.
subsidising the Veterinary School at the University of
Sydney, and the Veterinary Research Station at Glenfield,

in order to. encourage the development of Veterinary
Science and to stimulate research in animal diseases. Hach.
of these proposals is to be commended as a splendid example-
of an industry manifesting its willingness to provide means.
for the investigation of causes that retard its development,

and as contributions to the funds will be largely influenced
by the results obtained, it becomes incumbent upon the
scientific institutions appealed to for aid to show a keen
and active interest in the welfare of the greatest cf our-
primary industries.

REFERENCES.
Official Year Book, Comm. of Aust., No. 20, p. 622.
. Official Year Book, Comm. of Aust., No. 20, p. 75.
Official Year Book, Comm. of Aust., No. 20, p. 52.
. Grazier’s Review, Vol. 7, No. 12, p. 1332.
. Agricultural Climatology of Australia—Taylor, p. 333..
. Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, Vol. 1, p. 52.
. Historical Records of Australia, Series 1, Vol. 1, p. 300..
. Historical Reeords of Australia, Series 1, Vol. 1, p. 508..
. Thomas, Proce. Roy. Soe. Vic., 1922.

10.
Var.
12.
13.

14.
15.
16.
1%.
13.
19.
20.
21.
22.

23.

PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 59

Official Year Book, No. 20, p. 829.

H. H. Dare, Water Conservation, N.S.W., 1926.

Henry and Morrison, “Beeds and Feeding,’’ p. 110.

Phosphorus in the Live Stock Industry, Jour. Dept
Agric., South Africa, May, 1924.

Seddon, Jour. Comp. Path. and Ther., Vol. XXXV.

Biochemical Journal, Vol. X XI., No. 4.

Annual Report, Dept. Agric., N.Z., 1927.

Orr, Trans. High’d Agric. Soc., 1927.

Jour. C.8.1.R., Vol. 1, No. 1.

Commission on Wool Industry, 1805.

Burfitt, ‘‘The Founding of the Wool Industry,’’ p. 32.

Report, Central Wool Com. for 1919/20, p. 7.

Barker, ‘‘Prospective Development of Peru as a
Sheep-breeding and Wool-growing Country.”’

Jour. C.9.ER:, Vol. 1, No. 3:

60 A. R. PENFOLD.

THE CHEMISTRY OF WESTERN AUSTRALIAN
SANDALWOOD OIL, PART TI.

By A. R. PENFoLD, F.A.C.1, Fie;s)

Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 6th June, 1928.)

Late in the year 1925 the author commenced an in-
vestigation into the chemistry of Western Australian
Sandalwood oil with a view to identifying the alcoholic
constituents of this well-known essential oil. Despite the
fact that several chemists have already shown the alcohols
to possess certain differences from the well-known East
Indian oil, quite a number of writers still persist in
definitely expressing the sesquiterpene alcohols present as
santalol. (See H. V. Marr, Chemical Abstracts, Vol. 22
(1928), page 138.) The need, however, for the present
investigation was made imperative by the divergent results
published from time to time by various chemists, institu-
tions, and manufacturers. Since Messrs. Schimmel & Co.
(Annual Report, 1921 Edition, pages 39/41) and the
Imperial Institute (Bulletin, Imp. Institute, 1920, 18, 163)
examined the oil, the Western Australian manufacturers
have made marked advances in the preparation for the
market of an article containing not less than 90% sesqui-
terpene alcohol; in fact, almost invariably in the neigh-
bourhood of 95-96%. The earlier results, therefore, are of
negligible value at the present time as they were obtained
upon samples containing only about 75-76% of sesqui-

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 61.

terpene alcohols, and these were very much inferior to:
the excellent quality of oil now marketed. The production,
however, of these high-grade oils does not necessarily mean
that, even allowing for the chemical and physical constants.
being in agreement with the Hast Indian oil, that this.
Australian oil is identical in chemical composition, and I
am able to show under ‘‘experimental’’ that such is not
the case.

I am fully conversant with the fact that the Australian.
oil has been found to be equally efficacious and in some.
instances superior to the East Indian in pharmacology, but
this investigation is concerned with its chemical
composition.

The commercial oils were first examined on account of
their economic importance, and also because the contro-
versial articles appearing in the current literature refer
only to this product. At the same time, convincing
evidence has been obtained which shows that the elucida-
tion of the composition of Western Australian Sandalwood
oil will be accomplished only when specimens of wood from
various parts of the trees occurring in the different locali-
ties of W.A. and carefully checked botanically are distilled,
and the oils obtained therefrom carefully examined.
Through the courtesy and assistance of Mr. S. L. Kessell,
Conservator of Forests, Western Australia, who has
evinced considerable interest in the problem and furnished
the necessary supplies of material for examination, this
work has been put in hand, but naturally some time must
elapse before the investigation is brought to completion.

The object of this paper is to summarise the present
state of knowledge regarding the chemistry of the com-
mercial oil and the reasons for the divergent analyses.
published to date. The paper by Mr. Horace Finnemore

62 A. R. PENFOLD.

eontributed to the Science Section of the British Pharma-
ceutical Conference, 27-31st July, 1925, (see ‘‘ Perfumery
and Essential Oil Record,’’ August, 1925, page 254-256),
Summarised very succinctly the knowledge of the chemistry
of Australian Sandalwood oil as at July, 1925. The further
paper by Professor Emile Perrot entitled, ‘‘The Sandal-
woods of Australia and their Essential Oils,’’ published in
the ‘Bulletin des Sciences Pharmacologiques,’’ Nov. 1927,
does not in my opinion show any distinct advance in
knowledge of its chemistry over and above that given in
Mr. Finnemore’s paper.

It was found in the present investigation that the
Western Australian oil reacted just as readily with
phthalic anhydride in benzene solution on the water bath
as the santalols of the East Indian oil, and appeared
to be of a primary character, contrary to the experience
of Messrs. Rao and Sudborough (Jour. Ind. Inst. of
Science, 5, 1923, 163-176). This divergence may be ex-
plained by reason of the fact that Messrs. Rao and Sud-
borough made no reference to the presence of santalol in
the oil examined by them (I have not had access to their
original paper, my information being gathered from the
abstracts), whereas the writer found these alcohols to be
present to the extent of 40-45% in the commercial samples
kindly furnished by the various West Austrahan manufac-
turers. Curiously, however, the santalols were not detected
in oils of our own distillation. This observation is being
followed up, and will be dealt with in a subsequent paper.
Messrs. Rao and Sudborough separated two alcohols which
they designated as a and 8 Fusanol, which, with the
exception of variation in boiling point possessed constants
not far removed from each other. As a matter of fact
they appear to approximate very closely to the santalols.

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 63

The author’s experience seems to show that it is not
altogether advisable to characterise alcohols of this nature
by optical activity alone, as the figures given for a and 8
Fusanol are +5.7° and +2.6° respectively. A laevo-
rotatory alcohol has been isolated with a specific rotation
of —70.4°, being the principal component of a sandal-
wood oil obtained from the species Santalum lanceolatum,
which is used by the West Australian manufacturers to
bring the optical rotation of their oils up to the require-
ments demanded by the B.P. for the East Indian oil.

I have been successful in characterising some of the
various alcohols present by the preparation of the respective
allophanates, that of the santalols melting at 162-1638°,
whilst the other alcohols, for which the term Fusanol might
be retained, yield similar derivatives melting at 148-152°.
‘On the other hand that from the laevo-rotatory alcohol
referred to above is a most beautiful crystalline derivative
of melting point 114°. With the exception of santalol
none of these other alcohols yielded santalenic acid. <A
dextro-rotatory alcohol of apparently a secondary character
‘was also isolated in small quantity from the Western
Australian oil, but it did not yield a crystalline allophanate.

In order that the preliminary results recorded herein
may be of practical value, commercial samples of East
Indian oil were examined at the same time and under
similar conditions. The chemical and physical characters of
the respective commercial oils of the W.A. manufacturers
are in close agreement, and my experimental work leaves
no doubt at all that these oils differ in chemical composition
from the East Indian oil, although the santalols are present
to the extent of about 45%.

64 A. R. PENFOLD.

Owing to the divergent views prevailing amongst

distinguished botanists in regard to the botanical deriva-

tion of this oil, I am omitting in this paper any reference
to their controversial views. The work of Sprague and.
Summerhayes published in Kew Bulletin of Miscelianeous.

Information, No. 5, 1927 (‘‘Perfumery and Essential Oil

Record’’, July, 1927, page 51) seems to have established the:

fact that the tree yielding the principal supplies of West
Australian Sandalwood oil of commerce is Kucarya spicata
(Sprague and Summerhayes) (Syn. Fusanus spicatus, R..
Br.; Santalum spicatum, A.DC.; S. cygnorum, Miq.).

No valid reason has been advanced as to why the
Australian oil cannot find a market on its own intrinsi¢
merits as the product of HKucarya spicata. The B.P.

authorities should undoubtedly make provision for it in

the B.P. under its own generic name, as it is futile to

include it under the same heading as the oil of Santalum
album, more especially as the chemical and physical
characters of the Australian oil can be made similar by the
addition of the distillate of Santalum lanceolatum.

Experimental.

All the specimens of Australian oil examined were
commercial samples drawn from bulk by the various West
Australian manufacturers, whilst the East Indian lots were
purchased in the open market. In every instance they were
very clear and bright, moderately viscous and of a bright
yellow colour. The chemical and physical constants of each
are given in the following table :—

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL.

MN{DIOIIUD] ULNjIDjUDS

pyorigs DisDINT

uUindg)]d Un] DIJUDS

Unqg]d UN] DIUDS

WNIDIOIIUD] WNjDJUDS
WNIDIOIIUD] ULNIDIUDS
piongds vtsvmngy
pypnigs vksvmngy

pyprigs viapmngy

py col
0641

8 702
$°80¢

bS0¢
9°V0C
9°26
3261
9°S0¢

£6
Oe

oe
c él

v8
nice
16
601
vel

‘uorzye[AJOIV | “des yoy |‘oumnjoa Ag |*yysIam Ag

‘UISIIO [eOIUL}IOg

Jayye
‘ON 1318]

smoy §1
“ON To1Say

—TIO [elsomuio*)

—IO [epseuu05)

GL st SSOE Ti “ofVS 9r60 | OP ‘0d
POM Ora a Oieg (OLOG Ts) are | SSVOOM came ee eo Winer
OSH “PYT OD 8 “a Aq poysruiny
SSO] WOI} Whosny [eolLsojou
ye, AoupAS Ur Poy]sstp IO
cv oT ZOOS Li!’ cZ2:8L = 822005 >= 9 ac ON eee ea Ee
0'V etl CUS TI oS Zh = |) O8Z0 0a) 2 = * SN eee
LY oT SOOT BS OV = | "6c60 0) SSO NSUUlE eS Veal ooN\
acy. aaa | S805 1] «£57— |~ 82900 | -V -ON PElUTEhY se
SLY Ja LOE cad b= 29960 | -¢ ON UUlETShY 1s97M
Sp rT CoUG T= 657 = 4) 2296107) 9 °C ONS EES area
0'¢ cl SEOs Lil oot Sue CO9GI0N)| «at ON Bellershye ea
“STOA "STOA
{oyooTy att sD gly ‘poururexd sajdures
YOL UL AyTIqnyos

E—6 June, 1928.

66 A. R. PENFOLD.

On fractional distillation, at 1-2 mm., of West Australian
samples nos. 1 and 2, and East Indian no. 1, the following
results were obtained :—

W.A. Owl, No. 1. 400 c.c. crude oil.

“a: : 15 20 20 M.Pt. of
Boiling Point. Volume. di4 i Ue allophanate

110-140° 46c.c. 0.9388 —84° 14970 157° 14%
140-145° 62. ec, 0.9595 —7.2° 1.5081 153° 17%
1454-1464° 40 cc. 0.9627 —7.6° 1.5051 153° 123%
1464-147° 142c.c. 0.9627 —8.0° 1.5058 142-145° 10%

Yield of
Sere

* 150-156° 40c.c. 0.9750 — 10°. 1.5089 — 3%
156-158° 20 ¢.c. 0.977 —J10:8~ arog — a
Viscous residue LDS,

W.A. Owl Sample No. 2. 100 c.c.

104-130° (3 mm.) 20 ¢.e. “093872 — 4.55° 1.4992
130-147° (3 mm.) 17 ce; = 9582 — 4.5° E5031
148-154° (3 mm.) D3 @.c. + 0.9691 — 3.8° 1.5068
Residue 1.5142

The East Indian oil distilled under similar conditions
gave the following results, viz. :—

No. 1 sample, 200 c.c.

135-141° (1-2mm.) 35¢.. 0.9690 — 15.9° 1.5040
141-145° (1-2mm.) 150¢.c. 0.9785 — 17.2° 1.5064
Residue 15;¢.¢; 50.999 — 24° 1.5150

The foregoing results clearly show that there exists a
considerable difference in the alcoholic components of the
West Australian and East Indian oils.

The three samples of oil referred to above were then
treated with equal weights of phthalic anhydride and
benzene on a boiling water-bath, using 100 gram lots in
each case. All the samples thus treated returned 70% of
alcoholic constituents when isolated from the phthalic acid
esters. Combination was effected after one hour’s treat-

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 67

ment, although two hours’ heating was given in each ease.
The following results were obtained when the regenerated
alcohols were subjected to fractional distillation under
reduced pressure.

W.A. Oil, No. 1.

Boiling Point. Volume. diz an n> a fa
130-146° (1-2mm.) 10 ¢.c. 0.9622 —5.5° 1.5041
146-149° s 10 ¢.c. 0.9608 —6.1° 1.5050

150-154° =, «3S 40 ee. 0.9602 —7.6° 1.5058

Duplicate result.
Below 151°(3 mm.) 6c.¢. 0.9615 —6.0° 1.5050
254-155°:(3 mm. )- 40 ¢.¢. 0.9622 —8.5° 1.5067 151°

W.A. Oil, No. 2.
135-154° (3mm.) 14¢.c. 0.9865 Inactive 1.5060 162°
154-156° (3mm.) 50c.c. 0.9660 —3° 1.5068 152°

East Indian Oil, No. 1.
140-150° (8mm.) 8c.c. 0.9793 — 14.4° 1.5055
150-155° (1mm.) 18¢.¢c. 0.9774 —19.6° 1.5064 162-163°

Oxidation of Crude Oils.

(a) The chemists of the Imperial Institute (Bulletin,
Imperial Inst. 1920, 18, 163) found that the
Australian oil yielded only 8% santalenic acid as
against 20% obtained from the East Indian oil
on oxidation with potassium permanganate, using
Chapman’s process. (The particular sample of
oil examined contained only 76-78% sesquiterpene
alcohols.) The author repeated this work and
obtained similar results, but the amount of tarry
products formed with the Australian oil made it
very difficult to estimate and purify the santalenic
acid. A modified process of oxidation with
potassium permanganate was adopted, which not

68 A. R. PENFOLD.

only gave considerable increased yields of san-
talenic acid, but the latter was obtained free of
tarry products upon treatment of the West
Australian oil. The process was as follows:—
00-grams of powdered potassium permanganate
(70-grams required for the Australian oil) are
placed in a winchester with 700 ¢.c. iced water,
300-grams ice and 20 «ec. of the Sandalwood oil
and the mixture transferred quickly to a shaking
machine when the oxidation is completed within
a few minutes. The following average results:
were thus obtained :—

20 c.c. of the East Indian oil yielded 6-7 grams
of crude santalenic acid,

20 c.c. of the West Australian oil gave 2.5 to.
3.9 grams do.
Computing from this basis, the Australian oil is considered
to contain about 40-45% of Santalols. The santalenic acid
obtained in every instance when purified from ethyl alcohol
or acetone and water, melted sharply at 76°-76.5°.

(b) The Australian oil when oxidised with chromic
acid in glacial acetic acid solution alongside of
the Hast Indian oil yielded small quantities of
aldehyde, the semicarbazone of which melted at
230°, thus affording confirmation of the presence:
of santalol.

Preparation of the Allophanates.

A study is being made of the action of cyanic acid upon
the various alcohols with a view to their definite identifi-
cation. The work is not yet completed, but sufficient data
is available to show that the W.A. alcohols are a mixture
of isomeric sesquiterpene alcohols with the santalols. The
Kast Indian alcohols yielded a fine crystalline derivative
melting at 162-163°. The Australian oil yielded a mixture

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 69

from which on repeated fractional crystallisation a definite
fraction of melting point 162° was obtained, identical with
santalol allophanate. A mixed melting point showed no
depression. The remaining fractions varied in melting
point from 148° to 152°, being probably mixtures with
gantalol allophanate of M.Pt. 162-163°. The laevo-rotatory
alcohol to be described under Santalum lanceolatum
yielded a very beautiful derivative of melting point 114°.
Combustion and molecular weight results confirmed their
identity as allophanates.
Determination of a Secondary Sesquiterpene Alcohol
possessing Dextro Rotation.

All commercial samples of the Australian oil were found
to contain a small quantity, not above 10%, of an alcohol
‘which combined with phthalic anhydride only when heated
in an oil bath at 140°. The uncombined oil remaining
after the separation of the phthalic acid ester of the
alcohols which combined with the anhydride in benzene
solution on the boiling water bath was again heated with
this reagent in an oil bath at 140° The regenerated alcohol
for which a high degree of purity is not yet claimed, was
found to possess the following chemical and_ physical

characters.
Nona No. 2.
Boiling point (1 mm.) 145-154° = 146-150°
Specific gravity 33° .. 0.9939 0.995
Opucal rotation -. .. + 184s aes
Refractive Index, 20°. 1.5106 1.5100

Neither sample yielded a crystalline allophanate when
treated with cyanie acid.
Oils from Wood of own Distillation.

The oil from wood of Hucarya spicata when. treated with
phthalic anhydride in benzene solution on the boiling
‘water bath, yielded 50% of alcohols possessing the
following characters :—

70 A. R. PENFOLD.

B. point (4-5 mm.), 160-161° ; specific gravity, 0.942;
optical rotation, +4.9°; and refractive index,
1.5039 at. 20°,

The oil from wood of Santaluwm lanceolatum gave 70%
of an alcohol on similar treatment possessing the following
constants :—

B. point, 163-165° (5 mm.); specific gravity, 0.9474;
optical rotation, —66.7°; and refractive index,
1.5074 at 20°.
The above laevo-rotatory alcohol gave combustion and
molecular results approximating to a formula C,;H.,0.
On treatment with cyanic acid an excellent yield of
erystalline allophanate melting at 114° was obtained.

As a result of the examination of the above oils distilled
from the woods in this laboratory, it is evident that the
West Australian oil contains a sesquiterpene alcohol of
similar formula to santalol having the following approxi-
mate constants :—

B. point, 160-161° (4-5 mm.) ; specific gravity, 0.942-
943 ; optical rotation, +5°; and refractive index,
1.50380 at 20°.
A mixture of this aleohol with the santalols would result
in a Similar mixture of alcohols as occurs in W.A. Sandal-
wood oil with a specific gravity of 0.962. This particular
alcohol has not yet yielded a crystalline allophanate nor
santalenic acid on oxidation.

Distinction between Australian and East Indian Oils by means of
Colour Reaction for Sesquiterpenes.

Small quantities of sesquiterpenes are present in the
Australian oils as is evident by the violet red colour re-
action obtained with bromine vapour when the crude oils:
are dissolved in acetic acid. This colour reaction for ses-
quiterpenes in Australian essential oils is a very commom
one, and has been much referred to in the author’s com-

WESTERN AUSTRALIAN SANDALWOOD OIL. 71

munications to this Society. The East Indian oils, however,
do not give this colour reaction when tested under the same
conditions.

Although the colour obtained is not a very intense one on
account of the small quantities of sesquiterpenes present,
yet at the present time it offers a ready method of rapidly
differentiating the two oils if a quick test be required. The
author is very diffident of colour reactions, but has found
the present one to be reliable. |

In conclusion, I wish to express my best thanks for
valuable assistance rendered by the various firms engaged
in the Sandalwood oil business, such as Messrs. Plaimar
Ltd., Perth, Braddock & Co. Ltd., Perth, and W. K.
Burnside Pty. Ltd., Melbourne.

I am also indebted to the Assistant Economie Chemist,
Mr. F. R. Morrison, F.C.S., A.A.C.I., for assistance in this
investigation.

72 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.

THE OCCURRENCE OF A NUMBER OF VARIETIES
OF EUCALYPTUS DIVES AS DETERMINED BY
CHEMICAL ANALYSIS OF THE ESSENTIAL OILS.
Parr EH,
(With remarks on the Ortho-cresol method for estimation of
Cineol)
By A. R. PENFoLD, F.A.C.1., F.C.S.
Curator and Economic Chemist,
and

I’, RK. Morrison, A.A:C.1,, here
Assistant Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 4th July, 1928)

Eucauyptus Dives. var. ‘‘C’’,

In our Part I. communication to the Society on the 1st
June, 1927 (this Journal, Vol. LXI., page 63), reference
was made to the commercial distillation of this form of
Eucalyptus dives, at Tumbarumba, N.S.W. We questioned
the advisability of its distillation on account of the varia-
tion in composition of the essential oil due to the periodic
occurrence of phellandrene, which rendered it unsaleable
as a pharmaceutical oil.

The position with regard to the exploitation of the
species, at the time of publication, was a serious one, as
the distillers had been forced to close down for the reasons
set forth. It was apparent that a field inspection was
urgently desired, and accordingly we visited the Tumbar-
umba district in October, 1927. Previous field experiences
enabled us to select belts of country which would be
reasonably safe to work as phellandrene and piperitone

EUCALYPTUS DIVES. 73

could not be detected upon erushing the leaves between the
fingers, the exquisite aroma of the blend of cineol-terpineol-
citral which emanated therefrom being a characteristic
feature of the majority of leaves from selected fields.

Representative samples of the leaves and terminal
branchlets were personally collected from a series of belts
of country which were examined in the Tumbarumba
district in order to check the field observations, and the
results set forth in the table afford such confirmation in
quite a remarkable manner. ‘This visit, which occupied
but a week-end, enabled the distillers to recommence
operations, and to provide an excellent source of oil of the
Eucalyptus Australiana type, for which there is a steadily
increasing demand. It is the Eucalyptus oil par excellence
for pharmaceutical purposes.

There is a considerable enquiry for high grade water
white oils from EH. Australiana and other species yielding
oils similar in physical properties and chemical composition,
and the economic aspect of the observations recorded in
this paper are of far-reaching importance. It is only a
matter of time when this type of oil must replace the
‘*Mallee’’ oils altogether for medicinal purposes.

Many samples of the oil of EH. dives and its varieties
have been examined since 1917, but not one from this
district had been found to be free of cineol and to contain
piperitone and phellandrene in abundance, thus approxi-
mating to the composition of the oil of the normal E. dives.
This fact was difficult of explanation up to the time of our
field inspection, but a cursory examination of the first belt
of country examined soon revealed trees of the type. We
view this detection of the Type E. dives in this district as
an observation of great importance, as otherwise it would
be difficult to be convinced of its relationship to variety

74 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.

‘‘C’’, particularly on account of the wide divergence in
composition of the respective essential oils.

Many of the observations made in the course of the
selection of suitable areas for commercial exploitation are
worthy of record. Mention was made in our Part I. paper
of a clump of 5 trees near Goulburn, 2 of which consisted.
of the normal E. dives, and 3 of Variety ‘‘B’’.

Similar instances were noted at Tumbarumba, an example:
at School Hill being most striking. A sample of oil had.
previously been distilled from the leaves and terminal
branchlets selected from a clump of seven trees, and on.
examination had been found to contain a small quantity
of phellandrene, thus rendering an otherwise excellent oil
valueless for medicinal purposes. The particular belt of
country known as the School Hill was found to be in
general a very excellent field, the leaves being longer and
broader and the trees heavier in leaf than those in other
areas. Moreover, from the leaves on crushing emanated.
the excellent aroma of cineol-terpineol-citral.

It was, therefore, very difficult to account for the
adverse report, and a special search was made for the patch
of trees from which the leaves had been selected. They
were subsequently located, and found to be botanically
identical. The first six examined were found to be true
to H. dives, var. ‘‘C’’; the seventh, however, was found to:
be rich in phellandrene (piperitone and piperitol could.
also be detected, but very little cineol), and to be approxi-
mately the variety ‘‘B’’. It is a remarkable fact that if
the leaves of the first six trees only had been distilled the
oil would have been very favourably reported upon, whereas,
the admixture of the leaves from the seventh tree resulted
in the oil being condemned on account of the presence of
phellandrene. (See result in Table.)

EUCALYPTUS DIVES. 71>

Again at Mannus Hill, on the left hand side of the road
a number of trees of the type were found growing distri-
buted amongst a preponderance of trees of variety ‘‘B’’
and variety ‘‘C’’, whilst on the right hand side trees of
variety ‘‘B’’ were found distributed throughout a belt of
variety ‘‘C’’, which predominated. It was a strange
experience to crush the leaves of a tree and to note the
pronounced piperitone-phellandrene odour, and to compare
it with that from a tree but three feet away, the leaves of
which, when similarly treated, exhaled the refreshing
aroma of cineol with a little citral.

Unfortunately, these most interesting areas of country
had, of course, to be rejected as being of no value for
commercial distillation at the present time. Other areas.
of country near Rosewood and Glenroy in the Tumbarumba
district consisting almost entirely of variety ‘‘C’’ were
selected and recommended for commercial distillation.
Summarising the Tumbarumba district as a whole, we can
state that the belts of H. dives are the diametrically oppo-
site of the better known belts of the type. The latter
contain but a small percentage of trees of variety ‘*A’’ and
variety ‘‘B’’ as compared with many of the former, which
consist almost entirely of variety ‘‘C’’, with a small
percentage of trees of variety ‘‘B’’ and the normal type.

Many analyses made since the reopening of the field in
October last on samples representing tons of oil procured
from the selected fields have shown phellandrene not to be
detected according to the B.P. test, and the cineol content
to vary from 60% to 70%. Abundant evidence has thus.
been provided for the justification of our recommendations
based upon field observations.

Determination of Cineol.

Opportunity was taken to determine the cineol contents.

of the oils by the new ortho-cresol method proposed by T.

‘poyjew JOsat9-0yJIQ = 4

*poyjJoUl UIDIOSOY =,

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"M’'S'N ‘“Bquanivquiny, Woy GSATIAINVA SLI GNV SHAIC SALdA TVONA— ATE,

EUCALYPTUS DIVES. 17

Tusting Cocking (Paper read before the British Pharma-
ceutical Conference, 1920; see ‘‘Perfumery and Essential
Oil Record’’, August, 1920, page 281). The method has:
since been reported upon by the Essential Oil Sub-Com-
mittee to the Standing Committee on Uniformity of
Analytical Methods and the findings published in the
‘“Analyst’’ for May, 1927.

As a result of our own work we must admit that the
method is an excellent one, and in our opinion should
certainly be adopted by the B.P. Authorities as a standard
method. In a series of experiments conducted with various.
commercial Eucalyptus oils very good agreement was.
observed when the method was tested against the older and
better known phosphoric acid process. It is necessary to.
point out, however, that abnormal percentages of cineol
were found with oils of the EH. Australiana type, which, of
course, includes H. dives, var. ‘‘C’’, due to the presence of
a-terpineol. Mr. T. Tusting Cocking in his original paper
mentioned that alcohols and esters gave high results, but
looked upon the variation as negligible for B.P. oils. In
our opinion, the variation is too great to be overlooked,
and we would suggest that the determination be made on
the portion distilling below 190° when applied to oils of
this type, in order to ensure accurate results.

A comparison of the results as set forth in the following
table exemplifies our contention in a striking manner, ©
V1Z. :—

E. dives, var. §*C’’. Crude Oil.

Cineol contents

Congealing Cineol contents. by Cresol
Point method, using”
Phos. portion of oil.
(UES=Bs acid Cresol distilling
Method). method. method. below 190°.
Sample No. 1 —17° 57-58% 67.5% 59%
(Nichol’s Country)
Sample No. 2 ailim 62-63% 71.4% 64%

(Commercial)

78 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.

Determination of a-Terpineol.

The presence of a-terpineol was confirmed by distilling
200 ec. of H. dives oil, var. ‘‘C’’ (see table), and examin-
ing the portion distilling above 190°. After further
distillation, 16 ¢.c. were obtained boiling between 95-110°
at 10 mm., and possessing the following constants, viz. :—

dks, 0.9383 ; a%° + 0.3°; n® 1.4780.

These figures indicate a high content of a-terpineol.
‘The alcohol reacted very readily with both phenylisocya-
nate and napthylisocyanate, giving good yields of the
respective phenylurethane and napthylurethane melting
respectively at 113° and 148°. The constituent accompany-
ing the cineol in the fraction distilling below 190° could
not be isolated for identification, as on treatment with 50%
‘aqueous resorcin solution the whole went into solution.
The additive compound of cineol and resorcin was
separated and purified and found to be a jae stable
combination. It melted at 83°.

The two samples of oil of var. ‘‘B’’ examined were
found to be low in piperitone. It is as well to make mention
of the fact that in such instances the corresponding alcohol |
is present. Puiperitol is very difficult of separation and
identification in the absence of large quantities of crude
oil, but is readily detected by its characteristic odour, and
consequently we are able to satisfy ourselves of its presence
‘when handling comparatively small quantities of oil and
leaves.

In conclusion, our thanks are due to the Forestry
‘Commission of New South Wales and its officer, Mr. Boyd,
for providing facilities for the field inspection at Tumbar-
umba, and to Messrs. F. Heinecke and M. Kinstler for
-assistance and interest during the visit.

WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 79

SOME OBSERVATIONS ON THE WOODINESS OR
BULLET DISEASE OF PASSION FRUIT.
By R. J. NOBLE, Ph.D., M.Sc., B.Sc. Agr.,
Biologist, Department of Agriculture, Sydney.
(With Plates I-IV)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 4th July, 1928)

Commercial production of passion fruit (Passiflora
edulis, Sims) in N.S.W. is limited practically to the coastal
areas. The vines are grown in plantation blocks or are
interplanted with citrus in the early years of the establish-
ment of citrus orchards. Many growers have relied upon
the crop as their main source of income until their citrus
areas have approached the stage of profitable production.
There is keen demand for passion fruit on the local market,
but in spite of favourable prices for good quality fruit,
and in spite of the fact that there are large areas in the
State which are suitable for passion fruit production, the
supply of fruit is still unequal to the demand. Several
attempts also have been made to establish a passion fruit
pulp industry and guaranteed prices have been offered to
growers for the regular supply of fruit, but these efforts
have proved abortive.

The records on production of the crop in N.S.W. have
been compiled annually by the Government Statistician
for the past 15 years, and this information is shown |
graphically in text Fig. 1. It will be noted that, although
there was a general increase in the number of vines in
bearing from 1921-1925, there was not a comparable
‘mcrease in production during this period. In 1924, 221,178

80 R. J. NOBLE.

vines and in 1925, 219,188 are recorded in bearing, and

the peak in production was reached in 1925, when 73,079

bushels of fruit were harvested. This figure, however, does.
not greatly exceed the 58,901 bushels which were harvested
in 1920 from 95,257 vines.

The average annual yields per vine have been calculated
from the data on production for the past fifteen years and
are shown in the following table :—

Passion Fruit Production in N.S.W.
Average Yield per Vine—1913-1927.

bushels. bushels. bushels.
P98" 2. “use TOTB oy. AE 1923 °°) ao
MODAL oy foil POM bly - 43 1924... 80
1915 obe 48 EO2Os 161 1925)... 488
L9G. L220 746 OA hy) 48 1926. |. A agate
VOUT. 5). Ad hO22 See aR 192%. 39'S

There are records of production in individual planta-
tions in which the yield has exceeded 2 bushels per vine,
but the average yield for the State for the past five years
is only .31 bushels per vine, thus indicating that there is
considerable room for improvement in the methods of
production.

It will be noted from the above table that relatively high
average yields were obtained during the five-year period
prior to 1920. This may have stimulated interest in the
erop and thus partly explain the increase in the number
of vines planted during the period 1921-25. Subsequent
yields, however, have been disappointing, and a decrease
in the number of vines planted is now recorded.

Although the passion fruit will thrive on a variety of

soil types in this State, the best returns under local
conditions only have been obtained when proper attention
has been paid to suitability of location, cultural details,

tte

WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 8]

addition of adequate and suitable fertilisers and pruning.
There are instances, however, in which the vines have
received apparently suitable treatment and yet have failed

to produce satisfactory returns. Under average conditions

it is considered that the vines are most productive during
the first 3 or 4 years of growth. After this period most
vines are obviously unproductive and are removed. There
are commercial plantations, on the other hand, in which
aig:
Thousands

90 220
80 200
70 180
60 160
50 140
40 #120
30 100

20 80

10 60

fe) 40 ,
Ma 4 15 16 17 "16 '19 "20 ‘ell ‘22 '23 "24 '25) "26 127

Passion Fruit Production in New South Wales from 1913=[927.
A.—Production in bushels.
P.—Total Vines in bearing.

the vines are 8-10 years old and are still in a state of
profitable production. There are isolated instances, also,
of individual vines 15 to 20 years of age which are still
producing fruit. In contrast to the above, vines may
become entirely unproductive in their first season of growth.

Although lack of attention to cultural details is partly
responsible for the relatively poor yields which are now

being obtained, it is considered that the present unsatis-
F—July 4, 1928.

82 R. J. NOBLE.

factory position is mainly due to the incidence of disease.
Two diseases of passion fruit are of special importance in
this connection: (a) Brown Spot caused by the fungus
Gloeosporium fructigenum Berk, and (b) Woodiness.

It is difficult to suggest which disease has been respon-
sible for the most serious losses, but it is considered that
satisfactory control of these diseases would result in a
considerable improvement in production in this State.
There is no doubt that the Woodiness disease is mainly
responsible for the relatively short period of productive-
ness of vines under local conditions.

History of the Disease.

The Woodiness disease has lone been known as a disease
of passion fruit in N.S.W. Allen! in 1901 described several
features of a deterioration disease in passion fruit, and a
few months later Cobb*® published a more complete descrip-
tion of the trouble and also stated that the disease was
known to have occurred in the State prior to 1893, and was
even then a matter of serious concern to growers. The
disease is now known to occur throughout the eastern
States of Australia, but apparently causes most serious
damage only in N.S.W.

Symptoms of the Disease.

The Woodiness disease of passion fruit was thus named
by Cobb (loc. cit.) in allusion to the condition of the fruits
which are produced on diseased vines. The condition is
most commonly observed during the cooler months of the
year, although severely diseased plants may be observed
at any time of the year. Individual vines only may be
affected, or the disease may affect all the vines in a plan-
tation. The Winter crop of fruit is more severely affected
with Woodiness than is the case with the Summer crop.
It has also been observed that slightly affected vines which

WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 83

‘previously had produced woody fruits may subsequently
produce normal fruits during the warmer months. Such
vines, however, are not as productive as those which
have not been affected with the disease.

(a) The Fruit.

Fruits which are ripened on normal vines are dark
purple in colour, somewhat ovoid in shape, and are
generally symmetrical in appearance. On drying slightly
these fruits become shrivelled in a characteristic manner
(Plate 1, Figs. 1 and 2).

Woody fruits, on the other hand, are generally mis-
sshapen and deformed. Such fruits are often undersized
and when not obviously malformed may be somewhat
spherical in appearance. This symptom has given rise to
a second common name by which the disease is known, viz.,
““Bullet’’. The surface of the fruit may be smooth as in
the case of normal fruits, but more generally it is charac-
terised by the development of cracks and occasionally by
the development of irregularly shaped areas of tissue which
appear to have burst through the skin of the fruit (Plate
1, Figs. 3 and 4). The colour of the woody fruits may be
almost normal, although generally such fruits develop an_
abnormal purplish colouration in contrast to the natural
colour of healthy fruits. Woody fruits are characteristic-
ally hardened, offer considerable resistance to pressure,
and, in contrast to normal fruits, are not readily cut
through. Such fruits on drying do not shrivel uniformly
ain the manner described for healthy fruits. When abnor-
mal fruits of this type are cut through, the tissues of the
pericarp or rind are noticed to be abnormally thickened
(Plate 2, Fig. 5).

Each seed in a normal fruit 1s surrounded by a bright
yellow-coloured arillus which in the mass constitutes the

84 R. J. NOBLE.

edible pulp of the fruit and which possesses a characteris-
tically piquant flavour.

Woody fruits, on the other hand, contain a much anit
quantity of pulp, which is somewhat orange in colour and
through which the black-coated seeds are more readily
observed. The flavour of the pulp of such fruits is insipid
and undesirable. In some cases the woody fruits may be
practically devoid of contents, although superficially there
may be little to distinguish them at times from the fruits.
of a normal plant. Many of the seeds of a diseased fruit
are undeveloped. Although the abovementioned features.
refer particularly to the mature fruits, symptoms of
woodiness also may be observed in fruits which are in the
early stages of development. Such fruits are deformed,
the pericarp shows signs of abnormal thickening, and many
may fall from the vine before reaching maturity

Histological studies of the pericarp of abnormal fruits
indicate that it differs materially from that of a normal
fruit. In transverse section the pericarp of a normal fruit
is seen to be composed of (a) an outer epidermal layer
one cell wide, and then a subepidermal layer three cells
wide, immediately underlying which is (b) a hypodermal
band of small, rounded, thick-walled sclerenchymatous
cells approximately three cells wide, and then (c) a much
wider section of parenchymatous tissue which also includes
the vascular elements (Plate 2, Fig. 6). In abnormal
fruits extensive changes are observed to have occurred in
the tissues which constitute the innermost section of the
pericarp. The cell walls of this altered tissue are thickened
and pitted, and the cells are either devoid of or almost
devoid of normal contents.

Tests with an alcoholic solution of phloroglucin followed
by hydrochloric acid, and tests with usual staining
reagents, indicate that these cells are strongly lignified.

WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 85

The lignification may be restricted to cells adjacent to the
hypodermal layer of sclerenchymatous tissue or it may
extend throughout the whole of the inner portion of the
pericarp (Plate 2, Fig. 7).

(b) The Foliage.

The foliage of diseased vines is also abnormal. Such
vines have a general appearance of unthriftiness and
appear also as if suddenly checked in growth. The leaves
of the terminal shoots may be stunted and are frequently
eurled, twisted and deformed. Changes may occur in the
chlorophyll-bearing tissues which result in the development ~
of a yellowish green chlorosis, or there may be formed a
definite mosaic of abnormally light green and dark green
areas on the leaf. The tissues of the leaf between the
veins may be raised or sunken, thus giving the leaf a
puckered or crinkled appearance (Plate 3, Figs. 8 and 9;
Plate 4, Fig. 10). Light yellowish green spots may develop
on older leaves which previously were full-grown and
otherwise quite healthy in appearance. The stems of
affected plants, particularly in the region of terminal
shoots, may develop mottled dark green areas which are in
marked contrast to the normal green colouration of healthy
plants. These foliar symptoms have been observed under
‘field conditions both in seedlings and in aged vines.

Nature of the Disease.
_ Many different theories have been advanced as to the
‘causal nature of the disease. Allen’ suggested that the
disease was most serious in vines which were planted in
exposed positions in which they were subjected to high
winds. Frosts and cool nights at the time of setting of the
fruit were considered as a possible cause of the disease,
particularly on vines impoverished through age or lack of
adequate fertilisers. Insufficient moisture and the influence
‘of hot and dry summers were also considered of impor-

86 R. J. NOBLE.

tance. The same writer? has also stated that ‘‘plants:
raised from seed from selected vines and planted out with
every care have been known, owing to hail followed by
drought, to have developed ‘‘bullet’’ at a very early stage:
and never to have made a payable return’’. Cobb® has
reiterated and discussed these possibilities, and has also
figured an undetermined fungus which he had found in:
association with diseased fruits.

In the present study, although the characteristic features.
of the disease did not indicate that the condition was due
to the action of a parasitic bacterial or fungus organism,,
tissue platings and other observations were made to provide:
further information in this respect. In no instance was.
any organism isolated which suggested a causal relationship:
in this connection.

Infection Experiments.

The foliar symptoms of diseased plants indicated that:
the ‘‘ Woodiness’’ disease might be due to the action of a
virus. In November, 1926, a series of inoculation experi-
ments were initiated with a view to determining whether
this was the case. Water infusions were prepared from.
diseased leaves, and from fully-developed and partially-.
developed woody fruits, and small quantities of this.
material were inoculated into the stems of healthy plants,
but in no case did disease develop. In view of subsequent
tests it is possible that the temperatures experienced during
the incubation period of the tests were unfavourable for
the development of symptoms.

The results of the first series of successful experiments.
in this connection are indicated below. As in previous
instances, seed was obtained from normal fruits and the
test seedlings were raised in an insect-proof glass-house.
Plant tissue infusions were prepared from leaves and fruits:

WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 87

of diseased vines. The tissues were cut up finely, covered
with tap water, and the extract was then decanted and
used as inoculum.

The method of inoculation was similar to that described
by McKinney.’? A few strands of sterile cotton wool were
soaked in the tissue extract and were then placed in the
axil of a leaf of the plant, and then inserted in the vascular
region of the stem by means of a needle. Special precau-
tions were taken to avoid contamination in the separate test
series. Check plants comprised uninjured seedlings,
seedlings in which the stems were punctured with a
sterile needle, or in which were inserted strands of
sterile cotton wool soaked in water.

Nine seedlings were inoculated on the 13th April, 1928,
in the manner described above, using leaf tissue extract as
inoculum. Ten days later the first signs of disease were
noted in the developing leaves of three plants. On the
following day all of the nine plants were showing definite
signs of infection. The leaf blades in all cases were very
much curled downwards, the tips of the young leaves being
pressed up against the base of petioles. Further changes
developed in these plants within the following two weeks.
Elongation of the stems was checked; some of the newer
leaves became chlorotic, while others developed marked
mosaic mottling and others showed puekering of the tissues
between the veins and other distortions of the laminae.

Five weeks after commencement of the test it was
noticed that small yellowish spots were developing on the
mature leaves of the inoculated plants. Six check plants
in this test and thirty-six untreated plants growing under
the same conditions remained healthy. The check plants
were still healthy two months later (Plate 4, Fig. 11).
Similar results were obtained in a further test with diseased
leaf tissue collected from vines in another locality. Four

88 R. J. NOBLE.

plants were inoculated on the 7th May, 1928, and pro-
nounced symptoms of disease were noted fifteen days to
twenty-four days after inoculation. Four check plants
remained healthy. |

Tests with water extracts of the tissues of woody passion
fruits also produced similar results. Six plants were
inoculated with the water extract from woody fruit tissues
on the 4th May, 1928, and definite symptoms of disease
similar to those already described were noted in all six
plants twenty to twenty-seven days after inoculation.

Four check plants remained healthy. Further tests are

in progress with filtered extracts derived from the tissues
of diseased plants.

During the course of field studies on the disease it was
observed that certain plants of another species, viz.,
Passiflora coerulea Linn, showed a diseased condition of
the foliage which resembled somewhat a mosaic condition
occasionally seen on the commercially cultivated vines of
Passiflora edulis. A plant tissue extract was prepared
from the foliage of these abnormal plants and was used in
an infection experiment with seedlings of Passiflora edulis.
Six plants were inoculated on the 13th April, 1928, and
marked symptoms of disease similar to those described in
previous tests were observed on four plants thirteen to
twenty days after inoculation. Six check plants remained
healthy. All check plants throughout each of these series
of tests have remained in a healthy condition and are still
normal.

Masking of Symptoms.

It will be noted that the incubation period varied con-
siderably in respect of the several infection experiments
reported above. In some plants definite signs of infection
appeared 10 days after inoculation, and in other cases
infection was not recorded until 27 days after inoculation.

WOODINBESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 89

In the first series also it was observed that, although marked
foliar symptoms of disease had appeared in all inoculated
plants eleven days after inoculation, the new growth which
thad developed 30 to 40 days after inoculation was appar-
ently normal. Subsequent growth in these plants has since
developed diseased symptoms similar to those which had
first appeared in the plants.

No facilities were available for maintaining uniform
temperature conditions during the progress of these tests,
but thermographic records were maintained throughout
this period. No definite correlations can be made between
the development of symptoms and the prevalence of definite
temperatures, but it is significant that temperatures in
-excess of 80° F. were experienced prior to and during the ~
period in which normal leaves were developed on plants
‘which were known to be infected with the disease. The
‘variation in the incubation period reported in the later
infection tests is considered to be mainly due to the influ-
‘ence of the air temperatures to which the plants were
‘exposed. |

Similar phenomena have been observed under field
conditions. New, apparently healthy shoots have been
produced on diseased vines at various periods throughout
the year. As previously indicated also, the disease is
typically one which is most serious during the Winter
months, and plants which have produced abnormal fruits
-during this period may produce normal fruit during the
‘Summer months.

DISCUSSION.

It is considered from the evidence reported above that
‘the Woodiness disease of passion fruit can be attributed
to the action of a virus. The virus has been proved to be
‘present in the leaves and shoots of vines which have pro-
-duced woody fruits, and these fruits have also been proved

90 R. J. NOBLE.

to contain the virus which, on inoculation into healthy
plants, has resulted in the development of the characteristice
foliar symptoms of disease. A number of the inoculated
test plants are being retained to determine whether the-
disease will be developed in the fruits which they may
develop at a later period. It is considered, however, that
the disease is of sufficient importance to justify an.
announcement of the results which already have been.
obtained.

A Mosaic disease of Passionflower in England is listed
by Bewley,5 but no further information as to its character:
has been available to the writer.

The general foliar symptoms of plants in the present
study are characteristic of those which have been discribed
in a large number of cultivated plants known to be affected.
with a virus disease.

In the infection experiments it was noted also that the
symptoms of the disease in the inoculated plants varied
from time to time in different plants, and at the conclusion
of the tests some plants were observed to be very much.
more severely affected with the disease than was the case
with others. Although this may be explained in part on
the basis of partial masking, it is possible that the virus.
used on the tests was a mixed one, but further data is
required before this aspect of the problem can be:
elucidated.

Lignified cells or stone-cells are known to occur normally
in a wide variety of plants. Artschwager3 mentions that
the presence of such cells in potato tubers may be regarded
as a normal varietal characteristic. Their occurrence in
certain varieties of pears is also a well-known phenomenon,
although their excessive development in these fruits may
result in the production of a diseased condition known as
Lithiasis, which generally is attributed to the incidence of
unfavourable environmental conditions.

WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 9]

The occurrence of lignified cells in tissues which do not
normally contain them, however, may be due to the influence:
of diseases of the virus type. Artschwager,‘ in studies on
the changes which develop in potatoes affected with phloem
necrosis, has described an abnormal tissue development
which consisted of a progressive legnification of cells im
the phloem region, and he records also a conclusion reached
by Quanjer (loc. cit.), that the hgnification of the cells
of the phloem is a dependable diagnostic symptom for the
identification of leaf-roll, a serious virus disease affecting
this crop.

The extensive lignification of the tissues of the pericarp
of woody passion fruits would appear also to be another
definite manifestation of the effects of a virus disease.

The masking of symptoms such as has been noted in the
case of the Woodiness disease is also a characteristic
feature of many virus diseases affecting cultivated plants,
and this phenomenon has been recorded by a number of
observers.

Johnson® has shown that manifestation of symptoms in
several different types of plants affected with virus diseases.
depended on the air temperatures to which they were
exposed. Critical temperatures varied according to the
type of plant under investigation. Tompkins,'3 in a series.
of temperature control experiments, demonstrated that
relatively short exposure to air temperatures in excess of
24° C. was sufficient to mask development of symptoms of
mosaic in potatoes. Subsequent exposures to low tempera-
tures enabled mosaic symptoms to appear again. Wilcox™
also records a masking effect of high temperatures in rela-
tion to development of mosaic symptoms in raspberries,
and quite recently Plakidas’ has recorded that strawberry
Xanthosis (Yellows) is due to the action of a virus, the
effects of which are masked by exposure to temperatures

92 R. J. NOBLE.

above 80° F. (24° C.). Elmer’ has reviewed the results
of previous workers in this connection, and, in a discussion
of the results of his own experiments with tomatoes affected
with mosaic, suggests ‘‘that plants growing in optimum
environmental conditions for vegetative growth will exhibit
symptoms after a shorter incubation period following
mosaic infection than will plants that are not making a
vigorous growth’’.

The maskine of symptoms of the Woodiness disease
under commercial conditions is of special practical signifi-
cance. Passion fruit plants may be affected with the virus
and may show but little signs of infection during the
Summer months. These vines may be pruned severely in
October or November with a view to the production of a
heavy winter crop. Such action, however, might be quite
disastrous owing to the high proportion of woody fruits
which may develop in this crop, whereas a more profitable
return might have been obtained from the vines had they
been allowed to mature the summer crop in a normal
manner.

Two other destructive plant diseases recently investi-
gated in Australia have been proved to be due to the
action of parasitic viruses, e.g., Bunchy Top in bananas
and Spotted Wilt of tomatoes. Both of these diseases,
however, could only be reproduced consistently in infection
experiments by means of an appropriate insect vector.

Magee? demonstrated that Bunchy Top was transmitted
by means of the banana aphis (Pentalonia nigrovenosa
Cql.), and Pittman,” in trials with a number of potential
carriers of the virus of Spotted Wilt, showed that this
disease was transmitted by means of the rose thrips (Thrips
tabaci Lindeman).

WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 93

In the case of the Woodiness disease it has been shown
that, under suitable conditions, the virus which causes the
diseasé may be transmitted mechanically.

Under field conditions it is possible that the disease is:
transmitted in a number of different ways. The rubbing
of the shoots of diseased vines against the adjacent shoots
of healthy vines may be a prolific source of infection.
Growers may unwittingly transfer the disease during
pruning operations, and particularly when rubbing off the
laterals in the early stages of growth of vines when the
latter are being trained on to the supporting wires. Insects
which feed on the diseased vines and then migrate to
healthy vines may occasionally also result in transmission
of the disease, although further information in this respect
is not yet available.

SUGGESTIONS FOR CONTROL OF THE DISEASE.

The present status of this investigation makes it possible
for several suggestions to be made in reference to control
measures :—

1. Seedlings should not be raised in proximity to diseased
vines. Severely diseased seedlings frequently have
been observed in such locations.

2. Only healthy seedlings should be planted out. Symp-
toms of the Woodiness disease can be readily detected
in seedlings in the Spring, and any diseased plants
should be immediately removed and destroyed.

3. Careful systematic inspections should be made of the
vines in young plantations, and any vines which are
stunted in growth or which show signs of foliage
abnormality of the types already described should be
removed and destroyed.

4. Very careful observations should be made of vines at
the time of pruning, particularly in the first season of

R. J. NOBLE.

erowth. It is most likely that infection may be carried
on the hands of those working among the vines, and
care should be taken to wash the hands well in soapy
water after dealing with a diseased vine and before
working with healthy vines. Field evidence supports
the view that replacements can be safely made shortly
after removal of diseased vines.

When the plantation is more than one year old, the
vines generally have become entangled with one another
on the wires. The removal of a diseased vine then
becomes a matter of extreme difficulty, and it is ques-
tionable whether this is desirable. Removal can hardly
be effected without injuring the shoots of adjacent vines
in the row and thus increasing risks of infection. If
there are but few of such vines present it would pro-
bably be preferable to cut them off at the roots and
then to remove the vines several weeks after they had
dried out. Removal of the diseased vines in this con-
dition then would be less likely to result in infection
of the adjacent vines. However, when infection is
widespread throughout a plantation, all vines should
be destroyed as soon as practicable; but if the crop
indications are such that an immediate return appears
possible, efforts should be made to concentrate on the
Summer crop from such an area. A plantation in this
condition should not be pruned with a view to forcing a
Winter crop, as such a crop would be practically value-
less. Neglected plantations and even isolated vines
showing evident signs of deterioration constitute a
very real menace in the perpetuation of the Woodiness
disease, and every effort should be made to destroy
vines in this condition.

It has been demonstrated that the Woodiness disease
may be transmitted mechanically; thus it is possible

WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 95

that a number of agencies may be concerned in the
transmission of the disease under field conditions.
Although the passion vine is not normally subject
to serious visitations by insect pests, insects may at
times be concerned in the transmission of the disease.
It is generally impracticable to apply sprays effectively
to vines growing under commercial conditions, owing
to the impossibility of obtaining satisfactory distribu-
tion on the dense mass of foliage. As a measure of good
cultural procedure, however, all weeds which might act
as harbours for insect pests should be kept down as
much as possible.

SUMMARY.

. Passion fruit production in N.S.W. is an industry of
special local importance, but although satisfactory
returns occasionally have been obtained by individual
growers, the returns in most instances are disappoint-
ing. The position is well illustrated by the data on
production for the State.

The average annual yield per vine for the 5 years’
period 1923-1927 was .31 bushels. Records from
individual plantations have exceeded 2 bushels per vine.

There is an increasing demand for the fruit, but the
returns obtained by growers have resulted in discour-
agement, and the industry as a whole is in a somewhat
languishing condition.

This condition is considered to be due mainly to the
incidence of two diseases which affect the crop, viz.,
Brown Spot caused by the fungus Gloeosporium fruc-
tigenum, and a disease known as Woodiness or Bullet.
The latter disease has been the subject of the present
study.

R. J. NOBLE.

Woodiness was known to occur in N.S.W. prior to 1893,
and it is still a serious limiting factor in production.

Symptoms of the disease may be recognised in the
general deteriorated appearance of affected vines, in
abnormalities of the shoots and foliage, and in the
woody character of the fruits.

Many theories have been advanced as to the nature of
the disease, but infection experiments have demon-
strated that it is due to the action of a parasitic virus
which, under appropriate conditions, can be transferred
mechanically.

Symptoms of the disease may be masked during the
incidence of air temperatures above 80° F., thus indi-
cating a possible reason for the prevalence of the disease
under field conditions during the cooler months of the
year.

A number of suggestions are made with a view to mini-
mising losses experienced as a result of the occurrence
of the disease.

LITERATURE CITED.

Allen, W. J.
1901. The deterioration of passion vines and fruit.
Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., 12:248-250.
192%. The passion fruit.

N.S.W. Dept. of Agriculture Leaflet 7 pp.
Artschwager, Ernst.
1924, Studies on the potato tuber.
Jour. Agric. Research, 27:828.

1923. Occurrence and significance of phloem necrosis
in the Irish potato.
Jour. Agric. Research, 24:237-245.

Bewley, W. F.
1923. Mycological Report.
Eighth Ann. Report Cheshunt Exper. and
Res. Stat. Herfordshire (1922): 24-45.
(Abstracted in Rev. Appl. Mycology, 2:489).

10.

ALS

13.

14.

WOODINESS OF PASSION FRUIT. 97

Cobb, N. A.
1901. Woodiness of passion fruit.
Agric. Gaz. N.S.W., 12:407-418.
Elmer, O. H.
1925. Transmissibility and pathological effects of the

Mosaic disease.
Iowa Agr. Exp. Stn. Research Bul. 82, pp.

39-91.
Johnson, James.
1922. The relation of air temperature to the mosaic

disease of potatoes and other plants.
Phytopathology, 12:438-440.

Magee, C. J. P.
1927, Investigation on the Bunchy Top disease of
the banana.
Commonwealth of Australia, Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research, Bul. 30,

64 pp.
McKinney, H. H.
O27. Quantitative and purification methods in virus
studies.

Jour. Agric. Research, 35:13-38.
Pittman, H.. A.
1927. Spotted wilt of tomatoes.
Commonwealth of Australia, Council for
Scientific and Industrial Research Jour.,
1:74-77.
Plakidas, A. G.
SP Strawberry Xanthosis (Yellows) an insect-

borne disease.
Jour. Agric. Research, 35:1057-1090.
Tompkins, C. M.
1925. Effect of intermittent temperatures on potato
mosaic. (Abstract.)
Phytopathology, 15:46.
Wilcox, R. B.
1926. Observations on masking of raspberry mosaic

by high temperature. (Abstract.)
Phytopathology, 16:80.

G—July 4, 1928.

Plate 1.

Fig.

Plate 2.

Fig.

Plate 3.

Fig.

Plate A.

Fig.

Po NM a

10:

It.

R. J. NOBLE.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Normal mature passion fruit.

Normal mature passion fruit after slight drying.

Woody passion fruit.

Woody passion fruit showing cracking of the rind.
(All natural size.)

Upper: Woody passion fruit cut across.
Lower: Normal passion fruit cut across.

xs
Transverse section of outer portion of pericarp of
normal passion fruit. x55.

Transverse section of outer portion of pericarp of
Woody passion fruit. x60.

Terminal shoot of passion vine severely affected
with the Woodiness disease. 3.

Terminal leaves of passion vine, (left) healthy,
(right) affected with the Woodiness disease. x %.

Mature leaf of passion vine affected with Woodi-
ness, showing puckering of tissues between the
veins. 2.

Passion vine seedlings 2 months after commence-
ment of an infection test. (Left) Check healthy.
(Right) Three plants affected with the Woodiness
disease. Xd

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate I,

Fig. 1. Fig. 2.

Plate IT.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXI1., 1928.

%
e - OIL LTS.

Journal Royal Society of N.S. W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate IIT.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIL., 1928. Plate IV.

Fig. 10.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 99,

BROWN: ROT OF FRUITS, AND ASSOCIATED
DISEASES, IN AUSTRALIA.

Part 1. Hisrory oF THE DISEASE AND DETERMINATION OF
THE CAUSAL ORGANISM.

By T. H. Harrison, B.Sc.Agr.
(With Plates V-IX and one Text-figure.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, August 1, 1928)

INTRODUCTION.

Brown Rot is a limiting factor in production of drupe
and pome fruits in many parts of the fruit growing world,
including the temperate eastern and south-eastern fringe
of Australia.

This is due to the following facts :—

(1) It has enormous potentialities for wholesale
destruction of fruit approaching maturity in
the orchard, in transit, in the markets and in
the retail shops.

(2) It is associated with serious twig blighting of
susceptible varieties of several fruits.

(3) It is associated with ‘‘blossom blighting’’ and
resultant crop shrinkage or failure.

(4) Under certain conditions, it is extremely diffi-
cult to control.

Brown Rot is a disease which cannot escape detection,
and hence we find that, as early as 1796, Persoon (34)
wrote of this disease causing rotting of English plums,
peaches and French pears in Europe. Throughout the 19th
century, other pathologists drew attention to the disease.
‘Contributions were made by Ehrenberg, 1818 (18),

100 T. H. HARRISON.

Bonorden, 1851 (7), Hallier, 1876 (22), Schroter, 1893:
(42), Frank and Kruger, 1899 (20), Sorauer, 1899 (44),
and Woronin, 1900 (53) in Europe: and by Peck, 1880:
(33), Smith, 1889 (43), and Pollock, 1900 (36) in America.

Early in the 20th century came a new era of Brown Rot:
study. In 1902, Norton (29, 30) in America, rediscovered
the apothecial stage of the responsible organism. Since:
then many authors have assisted in accumulating the
present considerable store of knowledge concerning the
organism and the disease it causes. A few of the more:
important were Aderhold and Ruhland, Eriksson, and
Wormald in Europe; and Norton, Reade, Pollock, Matheny,
Jehle, Bartram, Conel, Valleau, Cooke, Brooks and Cooley,
Willaman, Ezekiel, Barss, Roberts and Dunegan, and
Rudolph in America.

The object of this paper is to present certain fundamental
considerations in connection with Brown Rot in Australia.

HIstTorRIcAL—THE DISEASE IN ANSTRALIA.

From the earliest days of settlement in this 140 year old
colony, fruit growing has occupied a prominent position.
With the first fleet, Governor Phillip brought to these
shores fruit trees which he obtained from England, Rio
de Janiero, and The Cape. Surprising was the facility
with which the introduced fruits grew in the new country,
where practically no indigenous edible fruits existed. Stone
fruits apparently thrived, for in 1803 Caley (8) reported
‘‘the fruit that had succeeded beyond expectation was the
peach’’. In 1807 Luttrell (28) wrote that the principal
fruits growing included peaches, apricots, nectarines and
plums. In the early twenties of last century Alan
Cunningham was so impressed with the excellence of the
peaches and the ease with which they could be grown, that
he seattered seeds in suitable positions on his exploratory
trips inland. At this time commercial fruit growing was

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 101

mainly restricted to the Ryde and neighbouring districts
along the Parramatta River, within easy reach of the only
market—Sydney. As settlement spread, and transport
facilities increased, the area devoted to fruit growing
extended. By the ’eighties, fruit growing was well dis-
tributed over the County of, Cumberland and in its neigh-
bourhood, as far as Kurrajong and Penrith on the west
and Gosford on the north—approximately within a 45 miles
radius of Sydney.

During this developmental period many orchards, of
stone fruits particularly, were planted by hard-working
men. Not only was good land cheap, abundant and easy
to obtain, but labour costs were low. In many eases, how-
ever, the orchardist had little or no knowledge of fruit
growing, and paid no regard to the limitations of a purely
local market. As a natural consequence production out-
distanced demand to such an extent that many of the
orchards, particularly the older ones, became unprofitable.
In many cases these orchard lands were bought by specu-
Jators, companies, ete., for subdivision purposes. The result
‘was the same. Not only was no attention given to the trees,
but the fruit, in many cases, was not harvested.

Into this chaotic state of affairs the Department of
Agriculture was born in 1890. One of its earliest actions
‘was the appointment of Dr. Cobb as consulting pathologist
for fruitgrowers and other farmers. In 1897 Dr.:Cobb (9)
drew a vivid picture of the menace that over 10,000 acres
‘of abandoned orchards situated within 25 miles of Sydney
‘were to the healthy trees of the genuine fruitgrower in
New South Wales. Dr. Cobb recognised that the climate
of Sydney, with its rainfall of 48 inches well distributed
through the year, was ideal for the development of fungi
causing fruit diseases. His appeal for the destruction of
‘the trees was without avail, for no legislation existed to

102 T. H. HARRISON.

enforce the destruction of the trees in these areas. In fact
not until the enlightened days of 1924 (4) was adequate:
provision made for registration of all orchards and the:
destruction of neglected trees.

The Introduction of “Brown Rot.”

The neglected and abandoned orchards contained a large:
quantity of stone fruit trees. To the ideal propagating
eround thus provided the Brown Rot organism was in-.
troduced in the nineties of last century. McAlpine (28)
was the first in Australia to recognise the disease. He
collected infected apricots from near Melbourne, Victoria,
in 1896. In 1898 Allen et al. (8) published a brief
description of the disease. This is the first one published
in Australia, but it is not clear from the context, that the-
disease had been seen in this country. In 1902 McAlpine:
(28) published a popular account of the disease and a
technical description of the fungus responsible. He stated.
that the organism was found on peaches, plums, apricots.
and cherries, and that it caused not only rotting of the
fruit but also blighting of the twigs and withering of the
blossoms. He recognised that warm, moist weather favoured
the development of the fungus.

The next mention of the disease is by Cobb (10), who.
in January, 1904, wrote, ‘‘The Brown Rot has come under
notice in this State (N.S.W.) from time to time for a
number of years, but it seems that it is only during our:
moist seasons or in moist districts that it is to be feared.’”’
It appears to have been common on all stone fruits, for he-
stated, ‘‘The disease appears with us to be quite as common
on the cherry as on any other fruit, and the damage done:
is quite considerable. ”’

For the next few years nothing was written of the
disease, but with characteristic virulence it made its.
presence felt in 1908. Froggatt (21) in 1909 wrote, ‘‘ This.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 103

disease appeared very suddenly in many different districts
just before Christmas (1908) . . . and there was a wide-
spread infestation all through the orchards along the
Hawkesbury River. Early in January the trees were
covered with dead branches and dried-up fruits, but the
disease had stopped spreading due to excessively hot
weather just after the New Year. The nectarines suffered
particularly . . . a number of trees had died. Peaches
were affected in the same manner though less severely,
while in the Japanese plums the fruits only were rotted.’’

In the late summer of 1910 Johnston (25) wrote, ‘‘The
commonest fruit disease in our markets just now is the
3rown Rot, produced by . . . Monilia fructigena. This
parasite occurs on the following fruits in New South Wales,
viz., peach, nectarine, ordinary plum, Japanese plum,
cherry, apple and pear, especially on the first four named.”’
Photographs of progressive stages of the rot in peaches
and nectarines are shown. The epidemic is ascribed to
‘“warm, moist weather which prevailed.’’

The next mention of the disease is by Allen (2), who in
January, 1912, wrote, ‘‘This fungus disease has shown up
earlier this season and in a more virulent form than for

many years.’’ A strong warning is issued to growers about
the necessity for thorough treatment to check the disease.

Season 1913-14 was exceptionally dry and thus we find
that Brown Rot was innocuous, but in season 1914-15 a
serious epidemic was experienced. Darnell Smith (15)
wrote in 1915, ‘‘There is no doubt that Brown Rot is the
most serious disease of stone fruits in this State as it is
in the rest of Australia and elsewhere. . . . While every
season there is more or less rot present, the season just
closing, owing to exceptional weather conditions, has been
a very disastrous one for many orchardists. Peaches,
plums, nectarines and cherries have all been severely

104 T. H. HARRISON.

attacked. In one orchard it is estimated that 1,200 cases
of cherries were lost. . . . During the months of Decem-
ber, 1914, and January, 1915, there was a succession of hot,
humid days with occasional showers and cloudy days.’’
Meteorological data are presented from which it is seen
that the spring months, September and October, had 7

inches rain above normal and that in December 43 inches

rain above normal fell. In the same season in Victoria
specimens were received from many different fruit growing
centres, but it was not until 1918 that a serious epidemic
swept through the orchards south of the Divide in Victoria.
In that year in two orchards alone in one district near
Melbourne £7,000 worth of peaches were destroyed and
the local peach cannery was not able to operate. Other
serious epidemics in the southern State occurred in 1922
and 1923, when losses experienced were exceptionally heavy
in cherries and plums. In 1924 the first epidemic occurred
in districts north of the Divide, but the disease had first
made its appearance there in 1921.*

The history of the disease in N.S.W. continues as follows:
Spinks (45) in 1917 wrote, ‘‘The season 1916-17 will long
be remembered by fruit growers as one of the worst
experienced—due to heavy crops, low prices and ‘Brown
Rot’. . . . Fully 30% of the season’s crop was lost in
consequence of the ravages of ‘Brown Rot’.’’ Season 1917-
18 was also favourable to Brown Rot, for Darnell-Smith
(16) in 1918, in giving notes on some experiments for the
control of Brown Rot in transit, remarked, ‘‘ Fortunately,
as far as the experiment was concerned, Brown Rot was
very prevalent.’’ The next season 1918-19 was very dry.
During the six months, August to January, only 5 to 7
inches of rain fell, of which less than 24 inches fell during

* From a report by Mr. S. Fish, Asst. Pathologist, Dept. of
Agric., Victoria.

aoal ecaiil

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 105

-the eritical months of December and January. Brown Rot,
although present, did practically no damage. In 1919-20,
however, favourable conditions for the fungus returned
‘once more. During the critical months 8 to 10 inches of
rain fell and extensive damage resulted. It is estimated
that in some districts that year the losses amounted to
50% of the stone fruit crop, while apples, pears and quinces
were also attacked. The next season (1920-21) was one of
phenomenal rainfall. During December and January 16
to 19 inches of rain fell. Fruit, which was cracked by
the rain, was readily attacked by the Brown Rot organism,
-and losses in apricots, plums, nectarines and peaches were
-again very heavy.

In the spring of 1921 the apothecial stage of the causal
-organism was, for the first time in Australia, found near
Sydney (28). The season which followed was at times
‘very favourable to Brown Rot. Abnormally moist weather
‘was experienced during the latter part of December and
-early January. At this time much of the early stone fruit
crop was approaching maturity. In many eases orchardists
in the neighbourhood of Sydney lost heavily. These three
“seasons of heavy Brown Rot losses were followed by several
years with very little damage resulting from Brown Rot.

With season 1927-28 a return to conditions favourable
‘to Brown Rot was experienced. Heavy losses of fruit
in the orchard, in transit and in the markets have
‘occurred. In many orchards the twig-blighting has
been particularly severe fin nectarines and peaches and
to a lesser extent in apricots and plums. It is obvious
that the severity of Brown Rot infestation in fruit growing
-areas of N.S.W. depends on prevailing climatic conditions.
‘The results of an attempt to correlate climatic conditions
-and Brown Rot infestation will be published later. The
rainfall registrations quoted above apply only to the fruit
growing areas within approximately 45 miles of Sydney,
New South Wales.

106 T. H. HARRISON.

Present Geographical Range in Australia.

From information gathered from many sources the:
present approximate distribution of Brown Rot in Austraha
has been determined. In Queensland Brown Rot occurs.
‘‘in the Stanthorpe district, the only locality where tem-
perate fruits are grown to any extent’’.* In New South
Wales it appears to be present wherever stone fruits are:
erown throughout the coast and tableland areas. <A de-
tailed survey is at present being attempted. Brown Rot
is apparently absent from the Murrumbidgee Irrigation
Area. In Victoria it is found in fruit growing areas both
north and south of ‘‘The Divide’’, the extension in Victoria
of the Main Dividing Range of Eastern Australia. In
Tasmania Brown Rot, although present, appears to do but
little damage

possibly because most of the stone fruits
are grown only to a limited extent. In South Australia it
does not now appear to exist, although McAlpine (28)
recorded having specimens from there. On 30/11/’27,

Mr. Geo. Quinn, Chief Horticultural Instructor, Depart-.
ment of Agriculture, South Australia, wrote, ‘‘As far as.

J am aware the Brown Rot of stone fruits . . . is not
found in this State’’. This has been verified by the Plant
Pathologist to the Waite Research Institute and to the
Department of Agriculture in South Austraha. In Western
Australia the disease does not occur. Mr. W. M. Carne,

Govt. Botanist and Plant Pathologist to Department of

Agriculture, wrote on 15/11/’27, ‘“‘I am glad to report
that this disease is not known here’’. The manner in

which Brown Rot is restricted to the eastern and south-.

eastern portion of this continent is illustrated in the text

figure.

* From information supplied by Mr. J. H. Simmonds, Plant
Pathologist, Queensland Department of Agriculture and Stock..

107

FRUITS.

BROWN ROT OF

AFPagy OHNE LS

ONYISNASNO

WITYYLSNY

WIIWYULSNY

HLNOS
WINWULsSny

NYSLSaM

AvOLIvYSl

NYBHLYON

Map showing the approximate geographical range of Brown

Rot in Australia, as determined in 1928.

108 T. H. HARRISON.

Host Range.

From the fruit growing districts of New South Wales
the Brown Rot organism has been isolated by the author
from the frwts of apple, apricot, blackberry, cherry,
nectarine, peach (commercial), peach (ornamental), pear,
plum (English and Japanese and prune), and quince.
Artificial infection of the fruits of grape, loquat, per-
‘simmon and tomato has been produced. The organism has
been isolated from twigs of apricot, nectarine, peach, plum
‘and quince, and from the blossoms of apricot, nectarine,
peach and plum. Cankers have been noted on limbs of

‘apricot, nectarine and peach. A brief statement of the

relative severity of Brown Rot and associated troubles on
‘various hosts in New South Wales follows :—

Apples—In the main pome fruit areas of the Table-
‘lands, Brown Rot is not a serious disease. On the coast,
chowever, in some varieties of apples such as Carrington,
and Trivett’s Seedling, the losses may be very heavy. As
much as 50% loss has been noticed. These varieties are
grown to a limited extent for the early market and are
very popular in householders’ gardens around Sydney.
The excessive shade and moisture, so often present there,
favour the disease. Blighting of spurs on which fruits
have been rotted is not uncommon. |

Apricots.—This crop is very susceptible on the coast of
New South Wales. Should favourable weather conditions
occur early enough, Brown Rot will totally destroy the
erops. In 1919-20 the author saw approximately 500 bushel
eases destroyed in one orchard alone, and again in 1927-28
approximately 800 cases in another orchard in a separate
district. Twig-blighting does occur, but is usually not so
serious in apricots as in certain varieties of peaches and

nectarines.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 109

Blackberry.—This berry is not grown commercially im
N.S.W., but the plant is prevalent as a weed of neglected
areas of coast and tablelands, in many cases occurring
along creek banks, in depressions, etc., in rough country.
The fruit ripens in early autumn at a time when the air
is thick with spores of the Brown Rot organism. On two
separate occasions in 1922, the author found numerous
specimens of infected fruits which were covered with
pustules. Cultures of the common Brown Rot organism
were easily obtained.

Cherry.—The author has had little personal experience
of the effects of the disease on cherries. Darnell-Smith
(15) reeords that heavy losses occur, while Johnston (25)
makes a similar inference. Officers of the Fruit Branch
of the New South Wales Department of Agriculture regard
Brown Rot of cherries as the most serious fungus disease
of that crop. As cherries are grown in colder and
relatively drier climates (e.g., Orange, Young, N.S.W.)
favourable conditions for development of the disease are
of rare occurrence, but the very nature of the fruit and
its method of production make for rapid spread of the
disease. Specimens received for cultural purposes showed
the typical pustules.

Nectarine—The experience in the coastal districts of
N.S.W. is that this crop is very susceptible to Brown Rot
damage. Several writers have mentioned this fact (15,
25, 28). In season 1920-21, the author inspected a block
of 50 eight year old nectarine trees from which the whole
crop was destroyed by Brown Rot. During seasons 1923-
24, 1924-25, 1925-26, while little damage was done, Brown
Rot eould always be found in nectarines. In 1927-28 the
author inspected an orchard in which Cardinal nectarines
were attacked by Brown Rot just as the fruit was matur-
ing. Not only was the whole crop destroyed, but the trees

110 T. H. HARRISON.

were so badly twig-blighted as to give the impression of
having been ‘‘fired’’. All the trees in the orchard were
cut back to main trunk limbs. Blossom-blighting has been
noticed in this crop and cankering of the limbs invariably
follows severe twig-blighting.

Peach.—This is one of the most popular of stone fruits
in New South Wales, where conditions are almost ideal
for its growth. In the coastal districts of New South
Wales, fruit-rotting, twig-blighting, blossom-blighting and
eankering are at times severe. Numerous instances of
‘severe losses have been recorded in both N.S.W. and
Victoria. In 1927-28 heavy losses occurred. In two
orchards the author saw 12 year old trees of Brigg’s May
and Hale’s Early lose 80% of their heavy crop to Brown
Rot. These trees were so badly blighted as to necessitate
eutting back to foundation leaders.

Peach (Ornamental)—In many gardens of coastal
N.S.W. the beautiful double flowering peach (Prunus
chinensis var. and P. persica var.) grows to perfection and
often a fair crop of poor quality fruits is formed. These,
left to mature, drop from the tree and are commonly
affected by Brown Rot—the organism developing in typical
manner thereon. Twig-blighting, ascribed to other causes,
is at times severe in these trees.

Pears.—Brown Rot is not serious on pears in Australia.
Instances of infection are not uncommon in householders’
‘gardens, but of rare occurrence in commercial orchards.
The author has on many different occasions isolated the
typical Monilia from pears that have been damaged by
mechanical agencies. Twig-blighting, cankering, or blossom-
blighting has not been observed in N.S.W.

Plums.—Both English and Japanese varieties are grown
fairly extensively in areas affected by Brown Rot in N.S.W.
‘The losses sustained from Brown Rot are at times severe.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. L1t

In seasons 1919-20 and 1920-21 the author saw many in-
stances in which the whole crop of several varieties
(Lutherborough, Burbank, Angelina, Black Japanese)
growing in stone fruit orchards was destroyed. In other
eases, while losses in the orchard were moderate, fruit was
destroyed before reaching the markets or before being
eonsumed. In 1928 the author inspected an orchard where
there were growing 60 aged plum trees (Shiro variety).
The trees each bore 10 to 12 cases of fruit and were
breaking down with the crop. Owing to a glut in the
market the fruit could not be profitably marketed at its
correct stage. Before the fruit was harvested, conditions
favourable to Brown Rot developed, and the whole crop
was destroyed. Many other instances of extensive damage
were noted. Twig-blighting occurs, the spurs being killed
back, but the effect is neither so noticeable nor so disastrous
as it is in peaches or nectarines. Blossom-blighting has
been observed in nature on several occasions and induced
by inoculation.

Quince.—While this fruit is not grown extensively on a
commercial scale in N.S.W. it is very popular with coastal
orchardists and householders. The fruit is susceptible to
Brown Rot infection, particularly when damaged by
Codlin Moth or mechanical agencies. A loss of 20° of
fruit is not uncommon, particularly in householders’ allot-
ments. Twig-blighting occurs, but does not appear seriously
to aifect the tree.

THE Funeus Causing Brown Ror or FRuits.
(a) In Other Countries.

Wormald (52) states that ‘‘it is now recognised that
there are at least four different Brown Rot fungi (either
species or biologic forms) each of which is responsible for
considerable damage to the world’s fruit crop”’.

112 T. H. HARRISON.

These are :—
Sclerotinia fructigena.
S. cinerea forma pruna.
S. cinerea forma malt.
S. fructicola (S. americana).

Persoon (34) in 1796 gave to the organism causing

Brown Rot the name Torula fructigena, but in 1801 (35)
changed this to Monta fructigena. This held until
Schroter (42) in 1893, on the basis of work done by
Woronin (54), but without having seen the perfect stage,
named the fungus Sclerotinia fructigena. Aderhold and
Ruhland (1), in 1905, validated the name.

Bonorden (7) discovered in 1851 a second fungus caus-
ing Brown Rot of fruits to which he gave the name Monilia:
cmmerea. Schroter (42) assumed that this also was a
Sclerotinia, but it was not until 1921 when Wormald (50)
described the apothecial stage of Montlia cinerea (f. prunt)
that the assumption was proved correct, and the name
S. cinerea validated. The classic studies of Woronin (53)
in 1900 clearly differentiated between the two foregoing
species.

Despite this, apparently most pathologists throughout
the world used the name S. fructigena for the organism
causing Brown Rot of fruit. Hence we find Norton (29,
30) in 1902 in America using that name for the fungus
we now know to be WS. fructicola = S. americana.

The name S. fructigena was used generally in America
until Matheny (27), Valleau (46), Conel (11), Bartram
(5), and others, working with fresh material, confirmed
the claim made in 1905 by Aderhold and Ruhland (1) that
the common American Brown Rot fungus was more closely
akin to S. inerea than to 8. fructigena. In fact, Sclerotima
fructigena has not yet been found in America (52). Thus
from about 1914 onwards, we find that throughout

“a

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 113

American literature the name given to the common Brown
Rot fungus of America was S. cinerea.

Wormald (49, 50) in 1919 and subsequently, proved con-
clusively that there occurred in England both Sclerotinia
‘fructigena and S. cinerea. He divided the latter into two
distinct biologie forms which he designated S. cinerea
forma pruni and S. cinerea f. mali. He also showed in
1917 (47) that the common American fungus, while closely
related morphologically to 8S. cinerea, was culturally dis-
tinct. For this fungus, common throughout the American
fruit growing regions he later (49, 50) proposed the name
S. conerea f. americana.

Norton and Ezekiel (32) and Ezekiel (19) in 1924 con-
firmed Wormald’s observations, but considered that the
American fungus was sufficiently distinct morphologically
to justify specific rank. They proposed the name 8.
americana (Wormald) Norton and Ezekiel (82).

The separation of S. cinerea and the common American
fungus has been simplified by the recent discovery of the
true S. cinerea of England and Europe on the Pacific coast
of North America. There it has been possible to study the
two fungi under identical environmental conditions. (6,
40, 19). It is now accepted that the common American
fungus is a species distinct from S. cinerea,

While confirming the cultural and morphological differ-
ences existing between the common American fungus and
S. cinerea, (39) Roberts and Dunegan (40) consider that
the correct name for the American fungus is S. fructtcola
(Wint.) Rehm.

In the opinion of the author, the evidence adduced by
them is sufficient to prove their contention. The first valid
name applied to the apothecial stage of the American
Brown Rot fungus should be universally adopted when
describing that fungus. Throughout this paper, therefore,

H—August 1, 1928.

114 T. H. HARRISON.

the name S. fructicola (Wint.) Rehm will be used in
preference to S. americana (Worm.) Norton and Ezekiel.

Thus apparently within a quarter of a century the same
fungus was successively called Sclerotinia fructigena, S.
cimerea, 8. americana and BS. fructicola. That real con-
fusion existed in the minds of American pathologists is
demonstrated by the fact that in 1920 Mr. W. L. Water-
house, of Sydney University, received from an American
University a culture of the American fungus under the
name of Sclerotinia fructigena. In 1922 Dr. R. J. Noble
obtained from the same source the fungus under the name
S. cinerea.

(b) In Australia.

It is to be expected that a similar state of confusion
would exist in Australia. The name Monlia fructigena
Pers. is used by McAlpine (28) who remarked that the
most striking symptom was the rotting of the fruit “with
the ash coloured spores produced on the surface’’ and
““Tufts compact, pulvinate often confluent and forming
vonecentric rings’’. Cobb, 1904 (10), Froggatt, 1908 (21),
Johnston, 1910 (25), and Allen, 1912 (2) all used, without
discussion, the name Monilia fructigena, although Johnston
(25) stated, ‘‘On the surface there appear more or less
concentric areas covered by a greyish substance which. . .
is seen to be made up of spores . . . of the fungus’’.
Darnell-Smith (15) in 1915 called attention to the con-
fusion then existing in the literature of the world in the
words ‘‘There has been some confusion in Europe and
America as to the exact species of Monilia causing Brown
Rot’’. After tabulating the differences between Monilia
cinerea and Monilia fructigena he decided to retain the
name Monilia fructigena ‘‘for the present’’ until such time
as ‘‘pure culture work’’ following the discovery of the
apothecial stage in Australia ‘‘had cleared the matter up’’.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 115

In publications of the Victorian and Queensland Depart-
ments of Agriculture the name Monilia fructigena has also

‘been used until quite recently, for the Brown Rot fungus.

In 1921 (23) the author discovered the perfect stage of
the Brown Rot fungus common in Australia. He compared
briefly the strain of Sclerotinia obtained from a single
‘ascospore with a type culture of the American Brown Rot
fungus, then in the possession of Mr. W. L. Waterhouse,
University of Sydney. This type culture, obtained from
U.S.A. in 1920, was labelled Sclerotinia fructigena. The
two fungi were very similar and hence the author reported
(23), ‘‘Already there are definite indications, however,
that the organism producing the apothecium is Sclerotinia
fructigena’’. He also stated, ‘*. . . Further studies are
in progress’’.

It soon became evident that neither of the two organisms
‘was Sclerotima fructigena. In 1922 Mr. W. L. Waterhouse
wrote to Wormald (52): ‘‘Mr. Harrison is now satisfied
that the ascigerous strain he has is S. cinerea. The culture
obtained from America and labelled 8. fructigena is quite
certainly wrongly named’’. In 1923 the author read a
paper before the Pan-Pacific Congress in Sydney. In this
paper*™ he stated: ‘‘From a comparison of several New
South Wales forms of Monilia with one American and three
English forms it is possible to say that the organism re-
sponsible for Brown Rot and associated troubles in New
South Wales is Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schroter’’. No
distinction was made at that time between S. cinerea and
S. fructicola (8S. americana). From that time the name
S. cinerea has been used in Departmental publications of
Australia for the common Brown Rot organism. The
author has been prevented by teaching duties from pre-

*Title only “Brown Rot of Fruits in Australia” in Proc.
-Pan-Pac. Sci. Congress, 1923, p. 154.

116 T. H. HARRISON.

viously publishing the results of further studies mentioned
above. Recently an opportunity has occurred of continuing
the Brown Rot studies and it is with the object of clearing
the stage for further results that this paper is now
published.

The Identity of the Australian Brown Rot Fungus.

It can be seen that the first problem to be investigated,.
in 1921 and subsequently, was that of the correct deter-
mination of the species of Sclerotinia responsible for Brown
Rot in Australia. Two strains, one ascosporous from apricot.
and the other conidial from apple, were grown on each.
of the following media:—Maize meal agar, prune juice:
agar, malt extract agar, potato dextrose agar, on prunes,.
on pear, apple, potato and quince plugs—five tubes of each
being observed at short intervals for four weeks. No:
difference was noted between the two strains used. A
summary, made in April, 1922, of the results is as:
follows :—

‘“The characteristic features of the local Brown Rot. -
fungus are (1) mycelial growth is sparse, (2) conidial’
production is abundant. The tufts are at first grey, but as:
the conidia mature the colour changes to light fawn and
later to a bright fawn. (The colour is between Ridgway’s
Tilleul-buff and vinaceous buff. Plate 40.) The pustules:
are small—of the pinhead type—and often so abundant as:
to be confluent and commonly arranged concentrically.
(3) Nigrescence of the medium varies in intensity, but
always develops quickly after inoculation.’’

At that time it was further recorded, ‘‘the conidial
crowth is that of a typical Sclerotinia so closely resembling
Matheny’s description of the American S. cinerea as to
justify grouping our form with the American form.’’

These observations and a study of the literature available:
indicated that our Brown Rot fungus was not S. fructigena,,

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. T17

«lespite the fact that it agreed closely with a culture so
labelled. The following steps were taken to prove this:—

Cultures of Sclerotinia fructigena and S. cinerea were
obtained through the courtesy of Mr. W. L. Waterhouse
from Dr. Wormald, of Wye, Kent, England. In a series of
experiments, both ascosporous and conidial strains of the
fungus were compared with these.

A selection of the experiments follows :—
Experiment No. 1.
Prune Inoculation.

Boiling water was poured over prunes which were
-allowed to soak for 20 hours. The prunes were placed on
cotton wool, moistened with distilled water, in the bottom
of each of several Erlenmeyer flasks. The flasks were
plugged with cotton wool and autoclaved at 15lb. pressure
for 20 minutes. This resulted in the cotton wool being
‘saturated with prune extract.

Inoculations were made as under and controls established
‘on 15/4/’22—the inoculum in all cases being derived from
fresh cultures on potato plugs. _

Flask No. 1—Inoculated with Monilia fructigena (Eng-
land). )

tp , 2—Inoculated with S. cinerea. (England).

5 , o—Inoculated with the local Brown Rot fungus

(Conidial strain).

aA , 4—Inoculated with Monta fructigena and
Sclerotinia cinerea on opposite sides of each
prune. ?

be , 9%—Inoculated with Monilia fructigena and the

local Brown Rot fungus as in 4.

Beh » 6—Inoculated with Sclerotinia cinerea and the
local Brown Rot fungus as in 4.

118 T. H. HARRISON.

Detailed observations were made at frequent intervals:
and final conclusions recorded when the experiment had
been in progress 20 days.

A summary of the behaviour of the various organisms.
is as follows :—

Sclerotinia cinerea.—A slowly formed white cobweb-like
mycelial mat and ashy grey small conidial tufts were
produced in abundance on the older preparations. Nigres-
cence absent.

Momlia fructigena.—Much more vigorous in growth than
S. cinerea. A great mass of aerial hyphae, at first loose,
then later dense, was produced over the surface of the
prunes and cotton wool. OConidial tufts, large, buff-
coloured and dome-shaped, were abundantly developed om
all the prunes. Nigrescence absent.

Local fungus.—This spread very rapidly and was very
distinct from the former two in the following particulars:
(1) it showed extreme reduction of mycelial growth, (2)
it produced abundance of conidial tufts—the whole surface
of affected areas being covered with small tufts, which
were almost confluent and arranged concentrically, (3) it
induced the production of excessive nigrescence in the
medium, the prunes and surrounding cotton wool being
turned jet black.

Experiment No. 2.
Sub-cultures.
The three fungi—Monilia fructigena, Sclerotuma cinerea

and the local Brown Rot organism (ascosporous strain )—
were grown on each of the following media :—Prune juice
agar, prune, pear, apple.

The inoculum in each case was obtained from fresh
cultures on sterile potato plugs. Duplicate inoculations:
were made in April, 1922. A summary of the notes recorded.
is given on page 119.

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119

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS.

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120 T. H. HARRISON.

Experwment No. 3.
Inoculation of Fresh Apples.
Unblemished Cleopatra apples were surface sterilised by

wiping over with cotton wool saturated with 95% alcohol,
then rinsed in freshly distilled water.

With a sterile scalpel, cuts were made in the sides of the
apples and into these was placed the inoculum which was
obtained from pure cultures of each organism growing on
prunes in flasks.

The apples were inoculated as follows on 29/4/’22 :—
Apple 1—Local Brown Rot fungus (Conidial strain): (M)

on both sides,

» 2—Monilia fructigena (F) (England) on both sides.

» o—NSclerotinia cinerea (Y) (England) on both sides.

» 4-8. cinerea (Y) and Monilia fructigena (F) on
opposite sides.

> oO—NS. cinerea (Y) and local fungus (M) on opposite
sides.

5, 6—Local fungus (M) and Monilia fructigena (F)
on opposite sides.

Controls were established.

Detailed observations of the rots were made at close

intervals until 12/5/’22 when the experiment was dis-
continued. |

The controls at this time were still healthy.
A summary of the observations follows :—
(1) The local Brown Rot fungus produced a black
rot with small greyish to fawn pustules pro-
duced along the cut surface of the fruit and to

a small extent over the rotted areas (Figs. b.
and 3, Plate 4).

ERRATA.

On Page 120, last line, for Figs. b and 3, Plate 4, read Figs. b
and c, Plate VIII.

On Page 12], 5th line, for Plate 4 read Plate VIII.

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BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 121

(2) Monilia fructigena produced a more rapid
brown rot with abundant large buff-coloured
dome-shaped pustules arranged in zones all over
the surface. Some nigrescence later (Fig. b.,
Plate 4).

(3) Sclerotinia cinerea produced the slowest brown
rot, with ash-grey conidial tufts along the cut
surface, but no nigrescence.

Experiment No. 4.
Fresh Apples.
This experiment varied only from No. 3 in that each of
the three fungi :—
Sclerotinia cinerea (England) (Y)
Monilia fructigena (England) (F)
Local Brown Rot organism (M)
‘was inoculated into each of three apples at approximately
equal distances around the girth.
Controls were established and frequent observations
made.

It was hoped by this means to reduce to a minimum the
influence of varying environmental conditions.

The three fungi behaved as in the previous experiment.
‘They are vividly distinct when grown alongside one
another on the same apple.

Experiment No. 5d.
Tomato Inoculation.
The tomatoes selected were firm, red and unblemished.
They were surface sterilised by bathing in alcohol and
‘washing in distilled water.

They were inoculated by inserting loops of conidia into
cuts made in the surface. The inoculum was obtained from
fresh potato plugs. Two tomatoes were inoculated with
the local Brown Rot organism (M), two with Monilia

122

T. H. HARRISON.

fructigena (F) and two with Sclerotinia cinerea (Y)..
Controls were established.

Detailed observations of each tomato were made at close:

intervals and the following final conclusions drawn :—

(1) All three strains of organisms will produce a

nS"

firm rot in tomatoes. In all eases this rot is:

brown at first. The rot caused by the local
organism finally turns black, but that caused
by the other two remains brown.

All three strains produce, on the tomato, the

fruiting bodies typical of the strain. The local
organism (M) produced abundance of fawn-

gsrey pustules over a dark surface. There was:
no surface mycelial growth. Monilia fructigena
(F') produces abundance of large buff pustules

accompanied by a mass of aerial hyphae.
Sclerotinia cinerea (Y) produces the distinct

ash-grey conidial tufts accompanied by a fine

mycelial mat over the infected area.

Experiment No. 6.

Persimmon Inoculation.

Persimmons (Diospyros kaki var.), just ready to eat,
were sterilised by bathing in 95% alcohol and washing in
distilled water. With sterile scalpels the letters M, F and
Y were made in the sides of the sterilised persimmons and
into the cuts were inserted loops of conidia taken from:
fresh cultures on prunes.

The persimmons were inoculated as follows :—
(1) both sides with the local organism (M);
(2) both sides with Mona fructigena (F) ;
(3) both sides with Sclerotinia cinerea (Y);
(4) opposite sides with the local organism (M) andi

Momla fructigena (F) ;

_ ——

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 123:

(5) opposite sides with the local organism (M) and
Sclerotinia cinerea (Y) ;.

(6) opposite sides with Monilia fructigena (F) and.
Sclerotinia cinerea (Y).

The inoculations were performed and controls established
on 18th May, 1922. Detailed observations were made
periodically.

The following briefly summarises the results :—

All three strains used will infect and grow on ripe
persimmon. The rate of growth is extremely slow. Hach
strain fruits abundantly on this medium.

(1) The local organism (M) fruited typically. The
conidial tufts were small, fawn coloured and very abundant..
Extreme nigrescence was produced.

(2) Monilia fructigena (F) produced an abundance of
large, loosely packed, dome-shaped, light buff pustules. A
much slower nigrescence was produced. The firm nature:
of the rot produced is striking, for, in many cases, the
uninfected part of the fruit and the controls were shrink-
ing while the infected part retained its shape.

(3) Sclerotinia cinerea (Y) produced no nigrescence and
was much slower in rotting the fruit. Ash-grey tufts were:
produced in abundance along the cut surface and over the
infected area.

It can be seen that the foregoing experiments established
definitely that the common Brown Rot organism found in
Australia was neither Sclerotinia fructigena (Pers.)
Schrot. nor 8. cinerea (Bon.) Schrot. (English form).

Its behaviour in the inoculation experiments and its:
growth in culture indicated that it was identical with the
American organism (8S. fructicola).

A series of experiments was conducted to determine this:
point. A selection of those experiments follows :-—

124 T. H. HARRISON. |

Expervment No. 7.
Quince Inoculation.
Quinces, of approximately the same stage of maturity
-and as free from blemishes as possible, were selected.
They were surface sterilised by bathing in 95% alcohol
-and washed in freshly distilled water. Twenty-four were
then inoculated with the local Brown Rot organism
(Ascospore strain).

Twenty-four with the American organism, S. fructicola.

Twenty-four with Monilia fructigena from Wye, Eng-
land.

Twenty-four with Sclerotinia cinerea from the same
source.

The inoculum was obtained from 10 days old cultures on
potato plugs and consisted of a loop of conidia in each ease.

A wedge of quince was cut out with a sterilised scalpel
and the inoculum placed beneath this wedge—the wedge
being lfted momentarily with a sterilised needle. Two
inoculations were made on each quince. When inoculated,
the quinces were placed in a saturated atmosphere in the
glasshouse.

The inoculations were performed and controls established
‘on 22nd May, 1922.

Detailed records of the progress of the rots were kept.
‘The following summarises the information thus obtained:

All the inoculations were effective, resulting in typical
brown rot lesions.

Local Sclerotinia.

The rot developed quickly, and nigrescenece was very
marked, developing rapidly. Grey to fawn conidial tufts
were very abundant. These were mostly small, and at
times confluent, in some cases arranged in well defined

ERRATA,

On Page 125, 2nd line, for Plate 4 read Plate VIII.
Same Page, 17th line, for Plate 4 Fig. a, read Plate VIII. Fig. a.

be)

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 125-

zones. They appeared very soon after rotting commenced..
(Plate 4, Figs. d.e.)

American Sclerotima.
This was inseparable under the conditions of the experi-
ment from the local Sclerotinia.

Sclerotuna cinerea (England).

The rot was not so rapid as above. Nigrescence was
absent, the rotted fruits remained entirely brown. Tufts.
of aerial hyphae developed some time after the rot com-
menced, but no conidia were produced until the rot was.
well advanced. The sparse conidial tufts were ash-grey.

Momlva fructigena (England).

The rot developed very rapidly, but nigrescence was not
so intense as that produced by the Australian Sclerotinia.
Very large aerial hyphal masses were produced. These soon
were covered with the buff coloured conidial tufts. (Plate
4, Fig. a.) The nature of the mummified fruit produced
is interesting. Those of the Australian and American
strains were hard, dense black and much shrivelled—deeply
furrowed and ridged. Those of both Sclerotima cinerea
(England), and Monilia fructigena were not nearly so
Sshrunken—the outline of the quince being maintained.
The brown colour of the S. cinerea mummy readily
separated it from that of M. fructigena, which was black.

Experiment No. 8.
Blossom Blight.

In September of 1922, an experiment was conducted to
determine the relative virulence of the Australian strains
of the Brown Rot organism and the American Sclerotima,
in attacking plum blossoms.

Conidia for the inoculations were obtained from young
cultures on potato plugs. Two strains of the local organism

126 T. H. HARRISON.

(one ascosporous and the other conidial), and one Ameri-
can strain were used. Three methods of inoculation were
employed.

(1) Loop.—tn this method a sterile platinum loop, after
being dipped in sterile water, was brought into contact
with tufts of conidia, and the resultant loop of spores
transferred to the stigma of the flower.

(2) Prick.—In this method the ovary was pricked with
‘a sterile needle, which was placed in sterile water, touched
on conidial tufts and inserted into the opening previously
made at base of ovary.

(8) Spray.—l10 ees. of sterile water were added to a
tube containing a heavily sporulating plug of potato, and
the resultant spore suspension transferred to a small bottle
containing 40 ecs. sterile distilled water. A scent spray
previously sterilised by immersion in 90 per cent. alcohol
was used to convey the spores to blossoms.

The clumps of flowers were selected as far apart as pos-
sible to offset the danger of contamination. Immediately
after inoculation, each clump was enclosed in waxed trans-
lucent paper bags, and a label attached to the base of the
clump.

All possible care was taken to perform the inoculations in
as aseptic a condition as possible. Controls were established.

Detailed observations were made periodically.

Briefly, the results were as follows :—

(1) Loop inoculation.

All three strains caused blossom blighting. No difference
could be noted between the strains in their ultimate effect,
although the Australian strains were more rapid in their
action. Conidia were produced on rotted blossoms which
were browned. From 80 to 100 per cent. of the flowers in
various groups became infected.

hel

bo |

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 12

(2) Prick inoculation.

The same effect was produced in this case as in that of
‘the Loop inoculation, except that the percentage of infec-
tion was higher. Conidial production was variable.

(3) Spray inoculation.

Infection in this instance was from 60 to 80 per cent., but
possessed the same features as those of Loop inoculation.

Controls in all cases were healthy, setting fruit in a

normal manner.

Experiment No. 9.
Apple Inoculation.

Trivett Seedling apples carefully selected as being of
approximately the same state of maturity were picked and
very carefully handled to avoid bruising. These were sur-
face sterilised with 95 per cent. alcohol and rinsed in
distilled water.

The apples were inoculated by inserting conidia beneath
a wedge of apple cut out with a sterile scalpel and lifted
momentarily with a sterile needle. The inoculum in each
ease was obtained from fresh cultures on sterile potato

plugs.

Two strains of the Brown Rot organism were used, e.g. :

(1) The American Sclerotinia.

(2) The Australian Sclerotinia—An ascospore strain
obtained in September, 1922, from an apothecium arising
from apple mummies.

With each strain twenty-four apples were inoculated and
placed in a saturated atmosphere in the glasshouse. Con-
trols were established. Observations were made at close

intervals until the infected apples were completely rotted
and mummified.

128 T. H. HARRISON.

A summary of the result is as follows :—

(1) American Sclerotina—tIn every instance inocula-

tion was successful, and the apples were completely rotted

in 8 days. The rot was firm and at first brown. Nigres-

cence did not develop to any extent until the fruit was com-
pletely rotted. Small, rounded, grey to fawn, well defined

pustules were fairly abundant over the rotted areas. At |
times these were confluent, especially around the margins:
of the wedges removed for the purposes of inoculation. As.
the apples mummified they became black and the conidial.

tufts assumed a bright fawn colour.

(2) Australian Sclerotunia—The local strain differed
only from the above in the greater abundance of conidial

tufts. These were arranged in concentric rings over the

whole surface of the rotted fruits.

DISCUSSION.

Concurrently with the experiments described above, the
Australian and American strains of Sclerotima and many
local Monilia strains were sub-cultured some hundreds of

times on different media.

Apothecia of the Australian organism were also available

in large quantities, and the author was enabled to obtain
measurements of asci and ascospores.

As a result of the correlation of all available data, the

author was convineed that the Brown Rot organisms

common in America and Australia were identical.

At that time (1922 and 1923), the author considered
that while American pathologists recognised certain
differences between the American form and Sclerotinia
cimerea, the feeling was against the use of the term, SV.
cinerea forma americana, as throughout the American
literature the name S. cinerea was retained. Even in 1924
Roberts and Dunegan (39), after careful consideration of

Petes 4

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 129

all available information, preferred to adhere to the name
Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schrot, for the American Brown
Rot fungus.

Consequently, in 1923, the author felt justified in stating
‘<The organism responsible for ‘Brown Rot’ and associated
troubles in New South Wales (Australia), is Sclerotinia
cinerea (Bon.) Schrot.’’

At a meeting of the Pan-Pacifie Science Congress in
Sydney that year, he demonstrated the close connection
existing between the Australian and American Sclerotima,
and the dissimilarity of both these strains to Sclerotina
cinerea and Sclerotinia fructigena of England,

Confirmation of the identity of the Brown Rot fungi
common in America and in Australia has recently been
given by Wormald (52). He stated ‘‘The Brown Rot
fungus generally distributed in the fruit-growing regions
of Australia would appear, therefore, to be S. americana.’’
Further, through the courtesy of Mr. W. L. Waterhouse,
the author has been enabled this year (1928), to study
Ezekiel’s type cultures of the American fungus.

A series of comparative inoculations has been made. The
observations made leave no question of the co-specifie
nature of the American and Australian Brown Rot fungi.

The position in regard to the nomenclature of the Aus-
tralian fungus has changed since 1923. Pathologists are
now agreed that the common American Brown Rot fungus
is a species distinct from Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schrot.
As indicated elsewhere, the author considers that the
correct name to apply to the former species is S. fructicola
(Wint.) Rehm.

To this species, therefore, must now be referred the
Brown Rot fungus common in Australia.
I- August 1, 1928.

130 T. H. HARRISON.

In fact, it would appear that at present S. fructicola is
the only species of Brown Rot fungi to have gained en-
trance to Australia.

The author has obtained large numbers of specimens of
‘‘Brown Rot’’ from Queensland, Victoria, Tasmania and
New South Wales. Thousands of instances of natural in-
fection (both fruit and twig), have been studied in the
field. A large number of cultures have been obtained from
the full range of hosts and from fruit districts having
widely dissimilar climatic conditions.

In no instance up to July, 1928, has the author found 8S.
fructigena or S. cinerea in Australia.

THE APOTHECIAL STAGE OF BRown Ror Fune!

Apparently the first apothecia of the Brown Rot fungi
were found by Rau ‘‘On peach mummies at Bethelehem,
Pennsylvania, U.S.A., in 1883,’’ but ‘‘the identity of this
material with the ascogenous stage of the American Brown
Rot fungus’’ (20) common at present, was not established
until 1924 (89), although Pollock (36) in 1909 had
indicated that this was so.

Roberts and Dunegan (39) conclude: ‘‘It therefore
seems certain that in 1883 Rau collected and Winter
described the species of Sclerotima which Norton in 1902
showed to be the ascogenous stage of our common Brown
Rot fungus.’’

Norton (29, 30) in 1902 found numbers of apothecia in
a Maryland orchard, U.S.A. Since that time in U.S.A.
the material has been recorded at intervals arising from
mummies of apricots, cherries, nectarines, peaches and
plums. Apothecia are apparently common in America, and
at times produced in large quantities.

In Europe, in 1905, Aderhold and Ruhland (1) found
apothecia which they showed to be the perfect stage of

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. ey!

Monilia fructigena. The material has been found since at
intervals, but apparently is not nearly so common nor £0
‘abundant as that of Sclerotina fructicola. Apothecia of
S. fructigena have not yet been reported from England.

In England, however, in 1921, Wormald (50) found
apothecia arising from mummified plums. ‘These he
proved to be the perfect stage of Monilia cinerea (Bon.).
Apparently these are neither common nor abundant, for
Wormald (52) stated, ‘‘ Although the ascigerous stage of
S. americana has been found on many occasions and in
great quantity, this stage of Sclerotima cinerea has been
found very rarely.’’

In New Zealand apothecia of the Brown Rot organism
there present were discovered in 1922 by Cunningham.
‘They are apparently abundant.

Apothecia, at times in large quantities, have been found
in New South Wales, Australia, in 1921, 1922, 1923, and
1924.

THE APOTHECIAL STAGE IN AUSTRALIA.
Occurrence
OA.
In November, 1921 (28) the author recorded the
‘discovery, on September 22, of two apothecia arising from
mummified apricots in an orchard near Sydney, N.S.W.

He showed that this was the perfect stage of our common
Brown Rot fungus. On that occasion, time did not allow
of searches for further specimens being made.

The summers of 1919-20 and 1920-21 were exceptionally
favourable to Brown Rot incidence on the Coast. Conse-—
quently Brown Rot mummies of most stone fruits were
abundant in orchards during springs of 1921, 1922 and
subsequently.

132 T. H. HARRISON.

1922.

Between llth and 16th September, 1922, showery
weather conditions prevailed, approximately 2 inches of
rain being recorded in the period. The following days.
were warm with a heavy fog in the early mornings over
the valley mentioned below.

On 17th September, 1922, a search was made for
apothecia in a neglected stone-fruit orchard at Beecroft,
near Sydney, N.S.W. The orchard was approximately 3
miles distant from where apothecia were found in 1921.

The orchard nestled in a valley with heavy timber on
northern and western sides. It was thus protected from the
effect of drying westerly winds.

Large numbers of apothecia, developing from plum mum-
mies, were found. A particularly favoured spot was on the
southern side of a large packing shed. Apparently in this
spot the mummies were protected from the drying effects
of the afternoon sun.

It was noticed that the apothecia arose from mummies in
all positions. An apparent necessity was that the mummies
be at least partly buried in the soil, and in such a situation
as to assure a slow drying after rain.

Apothecia arise from the underside of the Sclerotium.
This may be a mere fragment or a complete mummified
fruit, with seed capable of germination. The stipe curves
to reach the surface when the cups slowly expand. On one
Sclerotium there were counted 57 stipes, each tipped with
an immature apothecium.

The method of expansion and conditions governing pro-
duction of the apothecia are treated at length by Norton
et alia (31) and by Cunningham (13, 14).

On 20th September, 1922, many apothecia were found in
the same orchard arising from mummies of peach and plum.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 133

‘On this occasion photographs of the apothecia in situ were
ttaken by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse (Fig. f, Plate V; Figs. a
and b, Plate VI).

The neglected conditions of the orchard, typical, at that
time, of many within a short distance of Sydney, is shown
in Fig. d, Plate VI.

At the University on 19th September, 1922, apothecia
were found arising from mummies of apricots, peaches,
plums and apples. These mummified fruits had been col-
lected from orchards near Sydney during the summer of
1921-22.

These fruits had been partly covered with soil in shallow
earthenware dishes (seed pans), and exposed to normal
‘climatic conditions since that time.

Apothecia of S. aestivalis (Pollock) on the date men-
tioned were also present on many of the mummified fruits.
A paper dealing with S. aestwalis (Pollock), will be
published later.

Time was not available in which to make a search for
the apothecia in other localities or districts.

1928:
With the beginning of the month of September rain
‘began and continued showery until the morning of 7th,
-approximately 2 inches rain being reported.

On 9th September an attempt was made to find apothecia
in the same orchard in which they had been so abundant
in 1922. At this time, however, only a few mature
‘apothecia were available, the majority being in the ‘‘stipe’’
‘stage.

The next four days were warm ‘‘spring’’ days, with
‘some winds and rapid drying conditions unfavourable to
-apothecial development.

134 T. H. HARRISON.

In pockets of soil, and where mummies were protected by
weeds or by the large packing shed previously mentioned,.
mature apothecia were abundant on 13th September.

These apothecia arose from mummies which had not been
disturbed for at least 2 years. In positions other than those:
mentioned the apothecia did not mature—no progress had
been made since 9th September.

1924.

This year September rains were late. The beginning:
of the month was dry, but on 22nd and 23rd approximately
an inch of rain fell. An opportunity of searching for:
apothecia did not occur until 28th September, when on the:
southern side of the packing shed, in the same position as
in 1922 and 1923, many mature and shrivelled specimens.
were obtained.

It is interesting to note that in this year the fruit had set.
in the orchard where the search was made, before the
rains necessary for apothecial production were received...
In the previous years, however, blossoming and apothecial
production were coincident. Norton et al. (31) diseussed
the production range of apothecia, and suggested that
apothecial production may also be correlated with seed
vermination. The evidence submitted by them certainly
supports this suggestion. The author has found apothecia.
arising from Sclerotia, which enclosed germinating seed.
(Fig. a, Plate V), but this state of affairs was exceptional.
In December, 1921, apothecia of Sclerotinia aestivalis Pol-.
lock were very abundant. In many eases these arose from.
mummies from which seedlings were appearing. At that
time, apothecia of S. fructicola could not be found. It™
would appear, therefore, that, in New South Wales, there
is not a very definite correlation between the time of
apothecial production and of germination of seeds.

ir
BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 135

1925, 2926, and 1927.

Apothecia were not observed during these three years.
Other work prevented a search being made for them. A
study .of the rainfall records shows, however, that 1925
and 1927 were too dry at the crucial period for apothecia
to be developed. In 1926 sufficient rain fell towards the
end of September to make apothecial production possible,
and apothecia were probably produced in that year.

Under the conditions prevailing in the vicinity of Syd-
ney, New South Wales, it would seem that apothecia are
fairly common in the spring, providing that mummified
fruits are left undisturbed for several months prior to
heavy rain and provided that rapid drying out of soil
and/or mummy is prevented by natural or artificial means.

The author’s experience is that apothecia are absent
from well cultivated orchards. During the period 1922-
24, a careful, but fruitless, search was made for apothecia
in orchards in which mummified fruits were abundant, but.
which had been tilled during the winter.

In each of the years 1922, 1923, and 1924, at the time
apothecia were collected, natural cases of ‘‘blossom
blight’’ in plum trees were noticed. Apothecia (Figs. g
and h, Pl. V) were found arising from mummies produced
from newly-formed fruits. Bunches of immature fruits
infected with Brown Rot have been collected (Fig. e¢,
Pl. VI). This illustrates that the fungus may infect
immature fruit and there multiply.

The Apothecia.

The general shape and manner of production of the
apothecia is illustrated by photographs in Pl. V. These
agree closely with published photographs of the apothecia
found in America and with descriptions by Norton (30,
3o1), and others.

136 T. H. HARRISON.

In view of this, a full description of the apothecia found
in Australia is unnecessary. The shape was usually erateri-
form at maturity, but sometimes flattened or slightly
recurved; the margin was sometimes broken.

The length of the stipe measured from base of the cup
to the sclerotium ranged up to 37 mm. The width of cup
varied tremendously—the largest measured 23 mm. in
diameter.

Rhizords were common and especially noticeable in young
specimens.

Ascei.
These agreed closely in shape with descriptions pub-
lished by Norton et al. (31), Matheny (27), Reade (88),
Wormald (50), and others.

Camera lucida drawings were made (Fig.a, Pl. VII) and
measurements obtained. The following table will show
variation in size determined by various authors, all of
whom used fresh material.

Table 1.—Size of Asci and Ascospores of S. Fructicola
and S. Cinerea.

caer

: wie , Ascospores in
Author. Organism, Asci in Microns. Wicrene!
1. Bartram (5)..|S. fructicola. 150.4 x 8.8. 10.1 x 7.1.
2. Valleau (46) |S. fructicola. 102-166 x 3.5-5.7. 5.6-8.9 x 2.9-3.8.
8. Matheny (27) |S. fructicola. 135-190 x 6.9-10.5,|10.5-14.5 x 5.2-7.5,
(Peach) mostly 163 x 8.9. mostly 12.5 x 6.2.
4, Matheny (27) |S. fructicola. 135-173 x 6.8-10.8,|9.8-14.2 x 5-7.4,
(Plum) mostly 151 x 9.4. mostly 11.8 x 6.3.
5. Pollock (86)..|S. fructicola. 130-179 x 9.2-11.5. |11.4-14.4 x 5.7.
6. Jehle (24) ..|S. fructicola. 136-188 x 7.8-10. 10.6 x 5.8.
‘7. Wormald (52)|S. cinerea. 172 x 9.975. 12.5 x 6.2.
‘8. Harrison ....} Australian Sclero-| 116-190. 10.5-16.3 x 5.75-8.2
(present tinia from plum,/]Av. 155 x 10. Av. 12.8 x 6.9.
author) Beecroft, Sept. 1922,

100 measured.

The table shows also how well the Australian Sclerotinia
agrees with the American Sclerotinia fructicola.
Ascospores. |
The plates and descriptions given by Reade (38), Ma-
theny (27), Norton (30), and Wormald (50), amply cover

—

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928.

Plate

Plate V1,

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXI1., 1928.

4 2

©.

&
s

Journ! Ro yal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928.

Plate VII.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. [37

‘the details of shape and arrangement within the ascus of
‘these spores.

The size of spores is given in above table (No. 1).
Didymous spores rarely occurred. All spores were sur-
rounded by a gelatinous sheath. Camera lucida drawings
-of spores are given (Figs. a, ec, Plate VII).

Germination of the Ascospores may take place within
‘the ascus (Fig. e, Pl. VIT) or upon the moist surface of the
apothecium.

It may occur in distilled water within 2 hours. The
germ tube is usually pushed out from the side and nearer
‘one end than the other. The germ tubes are usually
straight for a considerable distance (Fig. d, Pl. VII).

Paraphyses were found to be identical with descriptions
published by Reade (38), Matheny (27), and Wormald
(50).

The size was found to be 118-200 pw x 2.32-4.65 » with an
~average size of 159 x 2.5 » (Fig. b, Pl. VII).

The Momlia Stage.
Comdia.

As stated previously in this paper, the conidia agree
‘closely in manner of production, size and colour of tufts,
-ete., with those of Sclerotinia fructicola (Figs. ec, Plate
“VII; Figs. e, d, Plate VIII).

Measurements made in 1922 are as follows :—

Lot 1.—From mature tufts on infected peach.
hange: 10:9’ to 21.7 » x 6.7 to-14.9 ‘ps.
mverages 15.9 x x 10.2 wp.
Lot 2.—From potato plug culture of single spore
strain isolated from Trivett Seedling apple.
Range: 10 » to 20» x 6.6 » to 14.9 p.
Average: 14.3 w x 9.7 yp.

138 T. H. HARRISON.

Lot 3—From Quince. Strain obtained from single:
ascospore from Apricot, 1921.
Range: 11.5 to 19.2 » x 9.6 to 13.4 p.
Average: 15.9 » x 9.7 p.

In all cases 100 spores were measured in distilled water..
The range given apphes only to the spores measured.

The following table gives a selection of conidial measure-.
ments of S. fructicola and 8S. cinerea published by various.
authors.

Table 2.—Size of Conidia.

Author. Source of Material] and Fungus. Size in Microns.

{

| ES
Matheny. S. fructicola. Average of large number of | 14.7 x 9.9.

measurements from various hosts.

Ezekiel. S. fructicola. (S. americana s 22.) 14.5 x 10.8.

S. fructicola. (S. americana s 465.) 14.9 x 10.6.
Reade. S. fructicola. mostly 17 x 11..
Wormald. S. fructicola on Peach from Ontario. UGt5, x, Wz.
Wormald. S. cinerea. Winter conidia General 115) x8

S. cinerea. Summer conidia Average. LS x se
Saccardo. S. cinerea. 15-17 x 10-12.

It would appear that while it is recognised that the:
conidia of S. fructigena are uniformly larger than those:
of both S. fructicola and 8. cinerea, conidial size in itself
is of little taxonomic value in separating S. cinerea from
S. fructicola or in separating the various physiologic forms.
of S. fructicola. The range of size quoted by various.
authors for conidia of 8. fructico’a is so great as to include
both summer and winter conidia of S. cinerea.

The figures given for the size of conidia of the Austra-.
lian organism, however, agree well with the general aver-.
age size of the conidia of S. fructicola.

Disjunctors are absent. Under certain conditions it is.
possible for some conidia in a chain to be separated from
the next ones by a small platform of tissue. This may
be due to the formation of two abstricting walls instead
of one. This state of affairs is quite exceptional.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 139°

Germination of Conidia.

Conidia germinate very quickly in presence of moisture.
In most weather sporelings are often abundant over the
surface of infested fruits. They may even germinate
before being abstricted from the chains.

Wormald (47) and Ezekiel (19) have noted that the
conidia of 8. fructicola germinate in a manner quite distinct
from those of S. cinerea. The former fungus produces lone
straight sparsely branched large celled germ tubes. The
latter germinates to give a much branched crooked germ
tube with small cells.

Conidia from a large number of cultures of the Aus-
tralian organism were germinated in the manner used by
Ezekiel (19). At the same time conidia of S. cinerea from
England, and of the typical American fungus, were germi-
nated under identical conditions. Cultures of the latter
fungus were obtained from Mr. W. L. Waterhouse, who
had received them from Dr. W. N. Ezekiel, under the
label S. americana, form 1 (S. 22), and so on.

The main features noted by Wormald and by Ezekiel
were confirmed. Germination from both ends of the
conidium are not uncommon. One germ tube usually
precedes the other by a few hours. Representative
germinations are depicted in Plate IX.

Microconidia were abundant in many cultures. They
were circular and highly refractive, 2.5-3.4 microns in
diameter.

Apothecia from Apple.
Although Brown Rot caused by Sclerotinia fructicola is
not uncommon on apples in America, it would appear that
the apothecia of that fungus has never been authentically

recorded arising from mummified apples.

240 T. H. HARRISON.

Norton et al. (31). state, ‘‘Demaree (17) in 1912 de-
scribed a Sclerotinia on Maryland apples, which may be
Sclerotinia aestivalis Pollock (37) ;’’ and later, in the same
bulletin, state, ‘‘ Although the Brown Rot is frequent on
certain summer varieties of apple, Sclerotima apothecia
are rare on apple mummies. In addition to Demaree’s
Sclerotinia noted early in this bulletin, apothecia doubt-
fully associated with apple, have been found a few times
in Maryland apple orchards.”’

Towards the end of the summer, season 1921-22, the
author collected from an orchard at Pennant Hills, near
Sydney, N.S.W., mummified fruits of apple—Trivett
Seedling variety. The author had witnessed in the seasons,
1919-20 and 1920-21, the progress of the rot in the fruits
of this variety and had obtained therefrom typical Monilia
cultures. In many cases the mummified fruits when col-
lected were bearing the small fawn-coloured spore masses
so typical of the local Monilia. Other mummies when col-
lected from the ground beneath the same tree were
producing apothecia of S. aestivalis.

These mummies were placed in large open earthenware
dishes (Seed pans), partly covered with soil and exposed
to normal climatic conditions at the University.

On 19th September, 1922, apothecia were found arising
from some of the mummified fruits. These consisted of
the small flattened apothecia of S. aestiwalis and of the
larger crateriform apothecia similar to but smaller than
those usual for S. fructicola. Photographs were obtained
(Biel a, Plate V).

Microscopic study of the Asci and ascospores showed
that the latter apothecia were undoubtedly those of S.

fructicola.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 14}

Single ascospore isolations resulted in a typical Moniha
growth. Under the accession number 200 it has been in
culture since that time.

An extensive series of observations made of its behaviour
on fruits and on artificial culture media did not enable
the author to separate this ascosporic strain from those
derived from apothecia of plum and apricot.

Moreover, cultures of two strains of Sclerotima derived
from apple and plum apothecia respectively were sent
to Dr. Wormald by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse. After an
investigation, Dr. Wormald decided that the two cultures
sent to him were identical and, therefore, discarded the
one which had been obtained from plum. It is, therefore,
the culture from apple which has been considered typical
of the Brown Rot fungus present in Australia.

The author, therefore, considers that here is a valid
case of the apothecia of Sclerotima fructicola arising from.
mummified fruits of the apple.

The specimens have been preserved and are still in good.
condition.

Brown Rot 1n NEw ZEALAND.

Australia and New Zealand are vitally concerned with:
each other’s fruit diseases. Their relative proximity and
their isolation from other fruit-growing centres make it
necessary for each to know exactly what diseases are pre-
sent and to define the causal organisms.

Brown Rot has been present in New Zealand for at least
23 years. Heavy losses to fruitgrowers have occurred
through the destruction of both stone and pome fruits. In
view of this, and of the fact that the climatic conditions of
New Zealand somewhat approximate those prevailing in
England, it is of extreme importance to Australia that
the species of fungus causing Brown Rot in New Zealand
should be correctly determined.

142 T. H. HARRISON.

The author therefore wishes to present the following
‘statement :—

Cunningham in 1922 (138) and in 1915 (14), from a
consideration of both the Monilia and Sclerotinia stages,
retained the name of Sclerotinia cinerea (Bon.) Schrot for
the organism responsible for Brown Rot in New Zealand.
In the latter publication (14) Sclerotinia americana (Nor-
ton and Ezekiel) is given as a synonym. As far as the
author is aware, there have been published no taxonomic
-or cultural details dealing with the New Zealand Brown
Rot organism. Wormald (52), however, obtained cultures
from apricot, peach and plum mummies, and from peach
twigs sent from New Zealand. Studies showed that ‘‘in
every case these were Sclerotinia americana.’’ He con-
eluded, ‘‘This species is probably, therefore, the fungus
responsible for the greater part, if not the whole, of the
Brown Rot damage in New Zealand.”’

The Sclerotinia Stage—In 1922 the author was enabled,
through the courtesy of Mr. W. L. Waterhouse, to examine
peach mummies bearing apothecia, received by the latter
from Dr. K. N. Curtis, of Cawthron Institute, New Zea-
land. These apothecia were collected at Stoke, near
Wellington, New Zealand, on September 29, 1922, and
preserved in 70 per cent. alcohol. They were, in shape,
colour, and size, identical with those collected in New
South Wales during 1921 and 1922. Measurements of Asci
were made in October, 1922. Portions of apothecia were
taken through a range of alcohols to distilled water, in
which the material was teased out and lightly tinted with
Gentian Violet.

All the measurements obtained were less than those
obtained from fresh apothecia, but a study of the following
table appears to indicate that preserved material is
-shrunken.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 143

All authors mentioned in the table used preserved mate-
rial. The difference in the treatment given that material
would possibly be sufficient to explain the variation in
measurements recorded.

Table 3.—Size of Asci of Sclerotinia Fructicola Obtained
by Using Preserved Material.

Author and Date. asamiee ene eeunee et (i) Size, of «Asoiin Microns,
Aderhold and Ruhland Sclerotinia fructicola from 89.3-107.6 x 5.9-6.8.
(GISIOS)) ee ee Norton, Kansas, U.S.A.
Winter (1883) .. .. ..| Sclerotinia fructicola (Ci-4 130-160 x 8-8.5.

boria fructicola) from
Rau, Pennsylvania, U.S.A.

Dunegan (1924) .. .. ..| Sclerotinia fructicola (Win- 117-161 x 5.7-9.5.
; ter’s type material).
Harrison (1922) .. .. ..| Sclerotinia fructicola from 13516) xX. 7.8,

Wellington, N.Z.

The photos and descriptions of the New Zealand apo-
thecia, published by Cunningham (138, 14), could well
apply to the apothecia so abundant in America and in
Austraha. The very abundance of the apothecia in New
Zealand is a further indication of the identity of the fun-
gus present there with that present in America and
Australia.

The Monilia Stage.

Cunningham (14), in support of his claim that apples
and pears are not natural hosts for the fungus, wrote,
““Brown Rot appears in the flesh . . . . and gradually
spreads until, in time, the whole fruit becomes infected,
when it turns quick black. Few or no tufts of conidia
are produced on the surface of such fruits.”’

Karlier in the present paper the author summarised
the results of an apple inoculation experiment as follows:
“The local Mona produced a black rot with small greyish
to fawn pustules produced along the cut surface of the
fruit and, to a small extent, over the rotted areas;’’ while
in the same experiment S. cinerea produced ‘‘a brown
rot.’’ In fact, nigrescence seems always to be absent from
media inoculated with Sclerotinia cinerea.

1 ae T. H. HARRISON.

It would seem, therefore, that from the last mentioned’
statement of Cunningham, it is possible to conclude three:
things, viz., (1) the New Zealand Brown Rot fungus is not
S. fructigena, (2) it is not S. cinerea, (3) it is apparently,.
therefore, S. fructicola.

Cunningham (14) describes the ‘‘small scattered grey
tufts’’ so typical of the last fungus, and a photograph of
conidial masses is published. |

The facts presented by him are entirely in agreement:
with the published descriptions of the Monilia stage of
S. fructicola, and with its appearance in Australha, with
the possible exception that he does not mention that the
conidial tufts assume a fawn tint on maturity. Climatic:
conditions may prevent this in New Zealand.

In January, 1928, the author received from Dr. Cun-
ningham cultures labelled ‘‘Brown Rot, Apricots, Welling--
ton.’’ The macroscopic appearance of this fungus, when
esrown on Potato Dextrose Agar slopes and plates, is cer--
tainly that of S. fructicola and not that of 8. cinerea.

Conidia from the New Zealand fungus have been ger-
minated under identical conditions with those of S. fructi-
cola obtained from American and Australian sources and
with those of S. cinerea. The New Zealand fungus is.
inseparable from S. fructicola by this means, but very
distinct from 8S. cinerea.

Cultures and mummified fruits have also recently been.
received from Dr. K. N. Curtis. The cultures thus ob-
tained made available five ‘‘strains’’* of the New Zealand.
Brown Rot organism. These have been grown side by side

with the local ‘‘strain’’ of Sclerotinia, with Ezekiel’s six

* Throughout this paper the word “strain” is used in the
same sense as that defined by Wormald (52)—i.e., a pure line,
which may or may not be identical with others.

Seecoanatl

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928,

Plate VIII.

4
-
“
7 *
=
i

—

rie

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT, 1928. Plate IX

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 145

biologic forms of S. fructicola and with S. cinerea from
England.

The observations made, as well as the facts presented
above, support the contention of Dr. Wormald that the
fungus commonly responsible for Brown Rot in New Zea-
land is ‘identical with that occurring in America and in
Australia, and therefore should be called Sclerotinia
fructicola (Wint.) Rehm.

Acknowledgments.

The author is indebted to all those from whom cultures,
specimens, information or assistance were received, and
to the Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sydney, in
whose laboratories the work was prosecuted in 1921, 1922,
and early 1928.

Finally, it is a special privilege gratefully to acknow-
ledge the inspiration, assistance and kindly eriticism so
generously given at all times by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse,
Faculty of Agriculture, University of Sydney.

SUMMARY.

1. Brown Rot of deciduous fruits was introduced to Aus-
tralia in the nineties of last century. It was. first
recognised in 1896 by McAlpine, in Victoria. Its
subsequent history is traced.

2. The disease is at present well established in most of the
temperate fruit-growing regions of the south-eastern
fringe of Australia. It is not known in South Australia
or in Western Australia.

3. The host range in Australia is given—the organism
causes fruit-rotting, twig-blighting, blossom-blighting,
and cankering of stone fruits particularly.

4. The history of the nomenclature of the organisms. re-
sponsible for Brown Rot of fruits in other parts of the
world and in Australia is traced.

J—Angusi 1, 1928,

146

T. H. HARRISON.

A series of comparative experiments was conducted.
Standard cultures of S. cinerea, M. fructigena, and SV.
fructicola were compared with the Australian Brown
Rot fungus. Full details are published.

. Apothecia are recorded from apple, apricot, peach, and

plum during the years 1922, 1923, and 1924. Complete
taxonomic details are presented.

. The conclusion is reached that the organism respon-

sible for Brown Rot in Australha is S. fructicola
(Wint.) Rehm.

. The production of apothecia of S. fructicola from apple

is discussed.

. The organism responsible for Brown Rot in New

Zealand is also considered to be 8S. fructicola.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

ADERHOLD, R., and RUHLAND, W.: Zur Kenntnis der Obst-
baum—Sklerotinien Arb. Biol. Abt. Land-j, Forstw. Kais.
Ges. 4; 427-442, 1905.
ALLEN, W. J.: Orchard Notes. Agr. Gaz. N.S.W. 23; 85,
1912.
ALLEN, W. J., et al.: “Brown Rot.” Agr. Gaz. N.S:W. 9;
665, 1898.
Anon.: The Plant Diseases Act, 1924, Govt. Gaz. N.S.W.
BartraM, H. E.: A study of the brown rot fungus in North-
ern Vermont. Phytopath., 6; 71-78, 1916.
Barss, H. P.: Brown rot and related diseases of stone fruits
in Oregon. Oregon Agr. Expt. Sta. Circ., 53; 18pp., 1923.
Bonorpen, H. F.: Handbuch der allgemeinen Mykologie., p.
76, stuttgart, 1s5i-
Catry, G.: In Australian Encyclopaedia part 1, p. 493.
Coss, N. A.: Agr. Gaz. N.S.W. 8; 281, 1897.

ibid 15; 1, 1904.
Conet, J. L.: A study of the brown rot fungus in the vicinity
of Champaign and Urbana, Illinois. Phytopath., 4; 93-101,
1914.
Cunnincuam, G. H.: Occurrence of apothecia of brown rot
in New Zealand. N.Z. Jour, Agr., 25; 177, 1922.

13.
14.
15.
16;
17.
‘18.

19.

.20.

Zl}
‘22.

23.

24,

25.
26.
at.

28.

29.
30.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 147

The significance of apothecia in the control of
brown rot of stone fruits. N.Z. Jour. Agr., 25; 225, 1922.
Fungus diseases of fruit trees in New Zealand and
their remedial treatment. Auckland, New Zealand, 1925.
DaRNELL-SMitTH, G. P.: Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 26; 591-598, 1915.
= pid. 29; 664, 1918.
Demarer, J. B.: A Sclerotinia on apple. Science, n.s. 35;
pp. fi-15, 1912.
EuRENBERG, C. G.: Sylvae mycologicae berolinensis. Berlin,
1818.
EzexieLt, Water N.: Fruit-rotting Sclerotinias II. The
American Brown Rot Fungi. Univ. of Maryland Agr. Exp.
Sta. Bull., 271, 1924.
Frank, B., and Krucer, F.: Ueber die gegenwartig herr-
schende Monilia—Epidemie der obstba4ume. lLandwirtsch.
Jahrb., Bd. '28; 185-216, 1899.
Froccattr, W. W.: Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 20; 202, 1909.
Ha.iier, E.: Eine Pilzkrankheit des Steinobstes. Wiener-
Obst und Gartenztg, p. 1272, 1876.
Harrison, T. H.: Note on the occurrence in New South
Wales, Australia, of the perfect stage of a Sclerotinia
causing brown rot of fruits. Journ. and Proc. Roy. Soc.
N.5:.W., vol. 55; pp. 215-219, 1922.
JEHLE, R. A.: The brown rot canker of the peach. Phyto-
path 3; 105-110, 1918.
JOHNSTON, T. Harvey: Agr. Gaz. N.S.W., 21; 194, 1910.

LuTRELL, —: in Australian Encyclopaedia, part 1, p. 493.

MatHeny, W. A.: A comparison of the American brown rot
fungus with Sclerotinia fructigena and Sclerotinia cinerea of -
Europe. Bot. Gaz. 56; 418-482, 1913. ©

McAtring, D.: Fungus Diseases of Stone Fruit Trees in
Australia, and Their Treatment. Dept. of Agr., Melbourne,

“evactoria;. p. 53, p. 85, 1902.

Norton, J. B. S.: Sclerotinia fructigena, Sci. 16; 34, 1902.
——: Sclerotinia fructigena, Trans. Acad. Sci., St. Louis,
12; 191-197, Pls. 18-21, 1902.

Norton, J. B. S., e¢ al.: Fruit-rotting Sclerotinias 1. Apo-
thecia of the brown rot fungus. The Univ. of Maryland
Agr. Exp. Sta. Bull. 256, 19283.

Norton, J. B. S., and EzexieL, WALTER N.: The name of the

American brown rot Sclerotinia (Abst.), Phytopath. 14; 31-
a2, 1924.

148
33.

34,
35.
36.
37.
38.

39.

40.

Al.
42.

43.

44,

45.
46.

AT.

48.

AQ.

50.

oil:

52.

T. H. HARRISON.

Peck, C. H.: Report of the Botanist, N.Y. State Museum.
Nat. Hist. Ann. Rpt. 43 (1889); p. 52, 1890.

Prrsoon, C. H.: Observationes mycologicae. Lipsiae, 1796..
: Synopsis methodica fungorum. Gottingae, 1801.

Potiock, J. B.: Sclerotinia fructigena in Europe and America;.
Mich. Acad. Sci. Rept., 11; 49-53, 1909.

— —: A new species of Sclerotinia. Mich. Acad. Sci..
Rpt. 11; 53, 1909.

Reape, J. M.: Preliminary notes on some species of Sclero-
tinia.e Ann. Mycol., 6; 109-115, 1908.

Roserts, J. W., and Dunecan, J. C.: The Fungus causing
the common brown rot of fruits in America. Jour. Agr.
Res., 28; 955-960, 1924.

————_ and —————_:: Critical remarks on certain species:
of Sclerotinia and Monilia associated with diseases of fruits.
Mycologia 29; 4, pp. 195-205, 1927.

Saccarpo, —: Syllagoe fungorum.

Scuroter, C.: Kryptogamen—Flora von Schlesien, 3 Pilze;.
67, 1893.

Situ, E. F.: Peach rot and peach blight. Journ. Myc. 5;-
123-134, 1899.

Sravuer, P.: Erkrankungsfalle durch Monilia. Zeitschr. f..
Pflanzenkr. Bd., 9, pp. 225-35, 1899.

Spinks, W. H.: Agr. Gaz., N.S.W., 28; 310, 1917.

VALLEAU, W. D.: Varietal resistance of plums to brown rot..
Jour. Agr. Res. 5; 365-395, 1915.

WorMALbD, H.: A blossom wilt and canker of apple trees.
Ann. Appl. Biol., 3; 159-204, 1917.

—: The “brown rot” diseases of fruit trees, with.
special referenee to two biologic forms of Monilia cinerea
Bon. 1. Ann. Bot., 333° 361-404, 1919.

: The brown rot diseases of fruit trees, with special.
reference to two biologic forms of Monilia cinerea, Bon. II..
Ann. Bot., 34; 148-71, 1920.

: On the occurrence in Britain of the ascigerous.
stage of a brown rot fungus. Ann. Bot. 35; 125-185, 1921.

: Further studies of the brown rot fungi I.—A.
shoot-wilt and canker of plum trees caused by Sclerotima
cinerea, Ann. Bot., 36; 305-3820, 1922.

: Further studies of the brown rot fungi. II.—A
contribution to our knowledge of the distribution of the
species of Sclerotinia causing brown rot. Ann. Bot., 41;
287-299, 1927.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 149

53. Woronin, M.: Uber Sclerotinia cinerea and Sclerotuma fructs-
gena. Mém. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, 8¢ sér., vol. x.,
No. 5, Phys.-Math., pp. 1-38, 1900.

54, —__———:: Uber die Sclerotienkrankeit de Vaccinium-Beeren.
Mem. Acad. Imp. Sci. St. Pétersbourg, Sér. 36; No. 6, 1888.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate V.

a. A peach mummy bearing exceptionally large apothecia.
The seed within the sclerotium has germinated. The
scale is in millimetres. Collected at Beecroft, Sept., 1922.

b. Typical apothecia from a plum mummy. Note the curved
stipes, due to the apothecia coming from beneath the
mummy, which was partly submerged by soil. Collected
at Beecroft, September, 1922.

e«. A very large apothecium from a plum mummy. _ The
scale is in millimetres. Collected at Beecroft, Sept., 1922.

d. A group of apothecia from a plum mummy. These apo-
thecia were collected when in the stipe stage and their
development studied. Collected at Beecroft, Sept., 1922.

e. Apothecia on an apple mummy. The crateriform apo-
thecium opposite the arrow on the left is that of S.
fructicola and the smaller flattened ones on the right are
those of S. aestivalis. Collected at the University, Sept.,
1922.

f. An apothecium, in situ, arising from a submerged plum
mummy. The cup always opens just above ground level.
Photographed at Beecroft, September, 1922.

g & h. Apothecia from plum mummies which were derived
from newly-formed fruits. Collected at Beecroft, Sep-
tember, 1922.

Photographs by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse or by Faculty of

Agriculture, Sydney University.
Plate VI.

a. A group of apothecia, in situ, attached to a partly exposed
plum mummy. The weed is Hypochaeris radicata L. Photo-
graphed at Beecroft, September, 1922.

b. Small apothecia arising from a submerged sclerotium.
Photographed, in situ, at Beecroft, 1922. The coin (3d.)
has a diameter of 25 mm.

. A cluster of Japanese plums infected by Brown Rot while
still less than half grown. The small pinhead-like tufts
are typical of S. fructicola in Australia. Collected at Pen-
nant Hills, January, 1922.

150 T. H. HARRISON.

d. A plum tree typical of those in the neglected orchard’
where the apothecia were abundant in Sept., 1923. The
tree was in flower at the time when the apothecia were
collected.

Photographs a, b and d by Mr. W. L. Waterhouse.

Photograph ¢c by Faculty of Agriculture.

Plate VII.
a. Typical asci from an apothecia of S. fructicola from plum:
mummy. Collected at Beecroft, Sept., 1922.
b. Paraphyses.
ec. Ascospores.
d. Germinating ascospores—in distilled water for various:
periods.
e. Ascospores germinating within the ascus. This phenome-
non was abundant in material kept under moist conditions.
f. A gelatinous sheath surrounds the germ tubes.
All the above were drawn, at magnification of approximately
900, with aid of camera lucida.

Plate VIII.

a. Monilia fructigena of England on quince 8 days after
inoculation. Photographed 29/5/’22.

b. A Trivett Seedling apple showing Monilia fructigena om
the right and the Australian Brown Rot organism (5S.
fructicola) on the left.

c. A Trivett Seedling apple with Monilia fructigena on the left
and the Australian organism (S. fructicola) on the right..
Note the large white fluffy masses of hyphae which pre-
cede conidial production in Monilia fructigena and the
entire absence of surface mycelium in S. fructicola.

d. Typical fructifications of S. fructicola, in Australia, om
quince, 11 days after inoculation.

e. The fructifications of S. fructicola at close range on the
same quince as in d, taken 8 days after inoculation.

Photographs taken by Faculty of Agriculture.

Plate IX.
Germinating conidia of S. fructicola, drawn with the aid of
“camera lucida”; in hanging drop of potato decoction for
24 hours at temperature which varied from 15-10°C.
a. From culture No. 200, obtained from single ascospore of
an apple apothecium, Sept., 1922. Length of germ tube
approx. 140 w xX 490.

BROWN ROT OF FRUITS. 151

. From culture No. 8 from New Zealand. The length of
germ tube is 200 » and from the conidium to the branch
is approx. 50 p. X 350.

From culture No. 200. Note the double germination and
the branching of the germ tube at 230 pm from the co-
nidium. x 300.

. From culture of S. fructicola received from Ezekiel under
name S. americana form I. (S22). Note the double ger-
mination and the branching at approx. 50 pw. x 500.

As d, with dichotomous branching at a distance of approx.
15 w from the conidium. x 500.

. As b. Dichotomous branching has taken place at 65 wp.
x 350.

As d. Note the development of several branches, the
nearest of which is approx. 70 » from the conidium.
approx. 600.

As d. Showing double germination of conidium.

As b. Showing double germination and branching. The
longest germ tube is approx. 240 pm long and the branch
is being sent out at approx. 35 mw from conidium. xX
approx. 400.

152 R. H. CAMBAGE.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS PART XIII.
By R.: H. CAMBAGE, C.B.E., F.L:S.
(With Plates X. to XIII.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Aug. 1st, 1928.)

bY NOP SIS:
VITALITY OF SEEDS IN SEA-WATER.
DESCRIPTION OF SEEDLINGS.
Vitality of Seeds in Sea-Water.

In Part VI of this series* it was mentioned that four
pods of Acacia Farnesiana, containing seeds, had floated
in sea-water for ten to twelve weeks before sinking. At
the end of seven and a half years these seeds were
examined, when more than half were found to be decaying.
From among those which looked to be well preserved, one
was placed in boiling water and planted, after which it
readily germinated.

Recently a seed of A. melanoxylon, collected at Jenolan
‘Caves, and left in sea-water for ten years, germinated after
having been placed in boiling water and planted.

In 1856, Charles Darwin tested many seeds of various
genera, but not including Acacia, in sea-water, but the
best result he obtained on that occasion was in the case of
Apium graveolens (Umbelliferae), six seeds of which
germinated after having been immersed for 137 days.t

James Salter records the germination of many seeds of
various genera taken from the mud of the Thames in 1843,

*This Journ. 1920, 54, 146.

~Journ. of the Proc. Linn. Soc. London, 1857, I, 130. See also “‘Observations
of a Naturalist in the Pacific between 1896 and 1899’ by H. B. Guppy.
Plant-Dispersal, 1906, 2, 22.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 153

‘but although some of these seeds were probably lying in
the mud under the salt water for some considerable periods,
there is no certainty as to the length of time they were
Immersed.t The genera referred to were Centaurer,
Epilobium and Lysimachia, and it is stated that no plants
-of these species were growing previously within from two
to ten miles of the spot where the mud was spread.

Description of Seedlings.
CALAMIFORMES— (Uninerves).
ACACIA ERICIFOLIA Benth. Seeds from Wongan Hills,
Western Australia (W. M. Carne). (Plate X,
Numbers 1 to 3.)

Seeds dark brown to black, oblong to obovate, 2 to 2.5
‘mm. long, about 1 mm. broad, 1 mm, thick.

Hypocotyl terete, brownish-red to reddish-brown, 1.3 to
‘2 em. long, about 0.6 mm. thick at base, 0.56 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, oblong, apex rounded, 3 mm. long,
-about 1.5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale
‘green to brownish-green, sometimes with raised line along
centre.

Stem terete, greenish-brown, pilose. First internode 0.5
-mm.; second and third 0.5 to 1 mm.; fourth to sixth 1 to
-38 mm.; seventh to tenth 2 to 5 mm.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 4 mm.,
glabrous; leaflets two pairs, obovate, 2.5 to 3 mm. long,
‘1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green;
rachis 1.5 to 2 mm., with termina! seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 4 to 9 mm., glabrous,
-with terminal seta; leaflets two pairs, obovate, 1.5 to 3 mm.
long, 1 to 1.5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside paler ;
rachis about 2 mm., with terminal seta.

-£“On the Vitality of Seeds after prolonged Submersion in the Sea,’ by James
Salter, M.D., F.L.S. Journ. of the Proc. Linn. Soc., 1857, I, 140.

154 R. H. CAMBAGE.

Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1.3
cm., sometimes slightly flattened in the case of No. 5,
elabrous; leafiets two to three pairs, oblong-acuminate to
obovate; rachis 4 to 5 mm.; stipules acuminate, 1 mm.

Nos. 6 and 7. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bi-
pinnate, petiole up to 1.1 em. long, up to 1.5 mm. broad).
olabrous; leaflets two to three pains; rachis 3 to 5 mm.

Nos. 8 to 15. Usually thick phyllodes, cuneate, obtuse:
or very shortly acuminate, tapering from near the apex
to the base, the midrib sometimes showing slightly under.
pocket lens, 1 to 2 em. long, up to 5 mm. broad near apex.
The terminals of later phyllodes are more tapering.

in this Journal (1926, 60, 85), reference is made to the
nocturnal movement of seedling leaves of this species.
species.

UNINERVES— (Racemosae ).

ACACIA CAESIELLA Maiden and Blakely.* Seeds from:
Burrinjuck (E. C. Andrews and J. W. Campbell).
(Plate X, Numbers 4 to 6.)

Seeds black, oblong-oval to obovate, about 4.5 nim. long,.
2 to 3 mm. broad, about 1.5 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl red, constricted above soil, expanding into
flange at root, 2 to 3 em. long, 2 to 2.6 mm. thick at base,
0.7 to 1 mm. at apex. |

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, about 5 to 6 mm.
long, 2.5 to 3 mm. broad, upperside at first red, becoming
green, underside red, becoming revolute in one day and
later cylindrical.

Stem terete, reddish-brown, hirsute to hoary, silky
towards the summit. First internode 0.5 mm.; second to:
fifth 0.5 to 0.8 mm.; sixth to tenth 0.8 to 1.5 mm.

*This Journ., 1926, 60, 180.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 155:

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 6 mm.,
slabrous; leaflets three to four pairs, oblong-acuminate,
the apical pair often obovate, 5 to 6 mm. long, 1.5 to 2 mm.
broad, upperside reddish-ereen, underside red; rachis 6
to 8 mm., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 1.1 em.,.
pilose, with terminal seta; leaflets three to five pairs,
oblong-acuminate, 3 to 6 mm. long, 1 to 3 mm. broad;
rachis 7 mm. to 1 em., with terminal seta.

Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 9 mm. to
1.7 em., pilose; leaflets three to eight pairs; rachis 7 mm.
to 2.1 em. |

Nos. 5 to 7. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.5 to 2.5 em...
No. 7 being sometimes 2 mm. broad, hirsute; leaflets six
to eleven pairs; rachis 1.5 to 2.5 em.

Nos. 8 to 10. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly bipin-
nate, petiole 1.7 to 2.1 em. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, with a
strong nerve just below the centre of the lamina, hirsute ;
leaflets eight to ten pairs, often mucronate; rachis 1.2 to
1.8 em.

Nos. 11 to 20. Lanceolate, slightly faleate phyllodes, 1.5
to 2.7 em. long, 4 to 5 mm. broad, the midrib prominent
on both sides, with a small gland towards the base on the
upper margin, minutely hoary.

PLURINERVES— (Microneurae ).
ACACIA HOMALOPHYLLA A. Cunn. ‘‘Yarran’’. Seeds from
Gunnedah (J. H. Maiden). (Plate X, Numbers 7
to. 9.)
Seeds dark brown, oblong-oval to almost orbicular, 3
to 5 mm. long, 2.5 to 3 mm. broad, 1 to 1.5 mm. thick.
Hypocotyl terete, green to reddish, 1.5 to 2 em. long,.
1.5 mm. thick at base, 0.8 to 1 mm. at apex.

156 R. H. CAMBAGE.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong-oval, 6 to 7 mm. long,
4 to 5 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green,
becoming slightly revolute, and doubling downwards
beyond the middle.

Stem terete, greenish-brown, pilose. First internode 0.5
mm.; second 0.5 to 1 mm.; third 1 to 2 mm.; fourth 3 mm.
to 1 em.; fifth to seventh 5 mm. to 1.4 em.; eighth to
tenth 8 mm. to 2 em.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, in one case an
opposite pair appeared, petiole 3 to 4 mm., glabrous;
leaflets three to four pairs, rarely one, oblong-acuminate,
the apical pair sometimes obovate, 4 to 7 mm. long, about
2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green; rachis
3 to 9 mm., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 7 mm. to 1.1 em.,
green, glabrous, with terminal seta; leaflets two to four
pairs, oblong-acuminate, the apical pair sometimes obovate,
3 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside green; rachis
4 to 7 mm., glabrous, with terminal seta.

Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 8 mm. to 3.5
em., faintly pilose; leaflets three to six pairs; rachis 6 mm.
to 1.6 em.

Nos. 6 to 9. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.2 to 6.6 em.
long, 1 to 5 mm. broad, usually with a very definite mid-
rib and several much finer parallel veins, faintly pilose;
leaflets three to six pairs, rarely seven; rachis 6 mm. to
1.5 em.

Nos. 10 to 17. These may be phyllodes, or abruptly
bipinnate, petiole 1.7 to 6.5 em. long, 3 to 7 mm. broad,
with a definite midrib and a vein on each side of it less
prominent but more definite than the numerous other
parallel veins, faintly pilose or hoary; leaflets four to six
pairs; rachis 6 mm. to 1.8 em.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 157

Nos. 18 to 25. Lanceolate-faleate or linear-lanceolate,
very brittle phyllodes, from about 4 to 7 em. long, obtuse
and often with a fine point, venation similar to Nos. 10
to 17.

PLURINERVES— (Nervosae ).
ACACIA HARPOPHYLLA F. v. M. ‘‘Brigalow.’’ Seeds from
Eidsvold, Queensland (Dr. T. L. Bancroft). (Plate
XI, Numbers 1 to 3.)

Seeds grey, irregularly oblong to oblong-oval, with raised
lines or corrugations on both sides, 1 to 1.5 em. long, 4 to
6 mm. broad, 1.5 to 2 mm. thick.

These seeds, with their irregular, often shrivelled-looking
shape and fairly soft testa, differ from all other Australian
Acacia seeds so far seen.

Hypocotyl terete, red above soil, 3 to 5 em. long, about
2 mm. thick at base, 1 to 1.5 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, deeply auricled, oblong-ovate, about
1.6 em. long, 7 mm. broad, upperside green, underside
vellowish-green to pale green.

Stem terete, greyish-green, glabrous to minutely hoary.
First internode 0.5 mm.; second 1 mm.; third 2 to 4 mm.;
fourth to eighth 5 mm. to 1.5 em.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite
pair, petiole 4 to 6 mm., glabrous; leaflets four to six
pairs, oblong-acuminate, 4 mm. to 1 em. long, 1 to 3 mm.
broad, upperside green, underside paler; rachis 1 to 1.7
em. with terminal seta.

No. 2. lLinear-lanceolate phyllode, 3 to 7 cm. long, 2
to 5 mm. broad, with a fairly definite central nerve, and
many finer parallel ones.

Nos. 3 to 8. Linear-lanceolate falcate phyllodes, sparsely
covered with a fine tomentum seen under a pocket lens, but

158 R. H. CAMBAGE.

not so dense as on later phyllodes, 4 to 12 em. long, 4 mm.
to 1.2 ecm. broad, with numerous fine longitudinal veins,
and one or two more prominent than the rest showing in
Nos. 3 to 9.

PLURINERVES— (Nervosae ).
Acacta conrusaA Merrill.* The species is a native of
Formosa. Seeds from Hongkong Botanic Gardens
(Cultivated, H. Green). (Plate XI, Numbers 4 to 6.)

Seeds brown, oval to oblong-oval, areola distinct, 5 to 6
mm. long, 3.5 to 4 mm. broad, about 1.5 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl brownish-green, spreading into flange at root,
2 to 3 em. long, about 2 mm. thick at base, 1 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong-oval to almost oval,
about 7 mm. long, 4 to 5 mm. broad, upperside green,
underside pale green.

Stem terete, greenish-brown, glabrous. First internode
0.5 to 1 mm.; second 1 to 3 mm.; third and fourth 3 mm,
to 1 em.; fifth and sixth 6 mm. to 1.5 em.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, in a few cases form-
ing an opposite pair, petiole 4 to 7 mm., brownish-green,
glabrous; leaflets one to two pairs, oblong-acuminate, 6
mm. to 1.3 em. long, 3.5 to 5 mm. broad, upperside green,
underside paler, venation distinct on underside.

No. 2. Obovate-lanceolate phyllode, obtuse, often
mucronate, 1.5 to 3 em. long, 3.5 to 9 mm. broad, with
a central nerve, and usually a finer one on each side of
it not confluent at the apex.

Nos. 3 to 10. Oval-lanceolate to lanceolate phyllodes,
obtuse, often mucronate, 2.5 to 7 cm. long, 8 mm. to 1.5
em. broad, with about five distinct nerves mostly confluent
at the apex and with sometimes one or two finer veins not

*Philipp. Journ. Sci., 1910, 5, 27.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 159

reaching the apex. Later phyllodes are lanceolate-falcate

and longer.

This is the fourth seedling described in this series where
the No. 2 leaf is usually reduced to a phyllode, the previous
eases being A. alata, A. Cambager* and A. harpophylla
(supra).

J ULIFLORAE— (Stenophyllae).

ACACIA MERINTHOPHORA Pritzel.t Seeds from Wongan
Hills, Western Australia (W. M. Carne). (Plate XI,
Numbers 7 to 9.)

Seeds light brown, oblong-obovate, 2.5 to 3.5 mm. long,
1.5 to 2 mm. broad, 1 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, brownish-red above soil, 1.5 to 2 em.
Jong, 1 mm. thick at base, about 0.5 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, about 4 mm. long,
2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside brownish-red to
greenish-brown.

Stem terete, greyish-green, glabrous. First internode
0.5 mm.; second and third 1 to 2 mm.; fourth to eighth
2 mm. to 1 em.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 4 mm.;
leaflets two pairs, 2 to 4 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad,
oblong to obovate, upperside green, underside brownish-
green; rachis 1.5 to 2 mm., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 2 to 5 mm., glabrous,
with terminal seta; leaflets two to three pairs, oblong to
obovate, 2 to 4 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, rachis 2 to 3
mm., with terminal seta.

No. 3. This may be a phyllode, or abruptly bipinnate,
petiole 1 to 1.8 em. long, up to 1 mm. broad; leaflets two
to three pairs, rachis 1 to 4 mm.

*This Journ., 1926, 60, 96.
+Engler’s Bot. Jahrb., 1905, 35, 307,

160 R. H. CAMBAGE.

Nos. 4 to 6. Linear phyllodes 2 to 7 em. long, up to:
2.5 mm. broad, with central nerve.

Nos. 7 to 9. Linear phyllodes, 5 to 11 em. long, up to
1.5 mm. broad, with definite central nerve, and one or two
finer ones on each side, often with hooked points.

J ULIFLORAE—(Stenophyllae).
ACACIA LINOPHYLLA W. V. Fitzgerald.* Seeds from
Gascoyne River, Canarvon, Western Australia (E. C.
Andrews). (Plate XII, Numbers 1 to 3.)

Seeds brown, irregularly oval to almost quadrangular,
areola depressed, 5 to 7 mm. long, 5 to 6 mm. broad, about.
3 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl green to brownish-green, 1.5 to 3 em. long,
3 mm. thick at base, 1.5 to 2 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons oblong to oblong-oval, auricled, about 1 to
1.2 em. long, 6 to 6.5 mm. broad, upperside green, under-
side pale green.

Stem terete, brownish-grey, glabrous. First internode
0.5 mm.; second 1 mm.; third to sixth 2 to 5 mm.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, forming an opposite
pair, petiole 4 to 8 mm., green, glabrous; leafiets three
pairs, oblong-acuminate to obliquely-ovate, 4 to 6 mm.
long, 1.5 to 3 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale
to yellowish-green; rachis 7 to 9 mm., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 1.5 to 2.2 em., with
terminal seta; leaflets three pairs, oblong-acuminate, 2 to
4 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad; rachis 4 to 8 mm., with
terminal seta.

Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, or No. 4 may be a
phyllode, sometimes with two pairs of pinnae, petiole 2 to

*Journ. W.A. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1904, 16.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 161

3 em., sometimes up to 1 mm. broad; leaflets two to three
pairs; rachis 1 to 2 mm.

Nos. 5 to 15. Linear phyllodes, about 3 to 13 em. long,
flattened, sometimes up to 1.5 mm. broad in the case of
Nos. 5 to 8, Nos. 9 to 15 narrower, with a few closely-
packed veins seen under pocket lens, stipules up to about
2 mm.

Phyllodes on mature trees are terete.

J ULIFLORAE— (Falcatae).
ACACIA ARGENTEA Maiden.* Seeds from Eidsvold, Queens-
land (Dr. T. L. Bancroft). (Plate XII, Numbers 4
to 6.)
Seeds brown, oblong, 3 to 4 mm. long, 1.5 mm. broad,
1 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, pink to reddish, spreading into flange
at root, 2 to 2.5 em. long, about 1.5 mm. thick at base,
0.5 to 0.7 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, sagittate, oblong, 5 mm. long, 1.5 to
2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside red.

Stem at first angular, becoming terete, greenish-red,
hirsute to pubescent. First internode 0.5 mm.; second and
third 1 to 2 mm.; fourth to sixth 2 to 5 mm.; seventh to
tenth 4 to 7 mm.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 2 to 3 mm.;
leaflets two pairs, oblong-acuminate, 4 to 6 mm. long, 1.5
to 2 mm. broad, upperside green, underside pale green;
rachis 2 to 3 mm., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 3 to 4 mm., glabrous,
with terminal seta; leaflets two to three pairs, oblong-
obovate to obliquely obovate, 3 to 4 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm.
broad, upperside green; rachis 3 to 5 mm., with terminal
Seta.

*Proc. Roy. Soc. Queensland, 1918, 30, 41.
K—Angust 1, 1928,

162 R. H. CAMBAGE.

Nos. 3 and 4. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 mm. to 1.2
em., hirsute; leaflets three to six pairs; rachis 4 mm. to
1.2 em.

Nos. 5 to 7. Abruptly bipinnate, sometimes with two
pairs of pinnae in the ease of No. 7, petiole hirsute, 8 mm.
to 4.8 em. long, up to 2 mm., 4 mm., and 7 mm. broad in
the cases of Nos. 5, 6 and 7 respectively, usually with a
strong nerve along or near the lower margin and several
very fine veins above in the cases of Nos. 6 and 7; leaflets
five to nine pairs, margins ciliate; rachis 7 mm. to 1.7 cm.

Nos. 8 and 9. These may be phyllodes or abruptly bi-
pinnate, petiole hirsute, 5 to 6 em. long, 7 to 8 mm. broad,
with two fairly distinct nerves, the main one below the
centre of the lamina, the other, and sometimes a fainter
one from the base to the middle, above, and numerous very
fine parallel veins; leaflets seven to eight pairs; rachis
about 1 em.

Nos. 10 to 14. lLanceolate-faleate phyllodes, venation
much as described in the cases of the petioles of Nos. 6
and 7, 5 to 7 em. long, and up to 1 em. broad, minutely
hoary, with a somewhat silvery sheen.

BIPINNATAE—(Botryocephalae).

ACACIA MOLLIssIMA Willd.* Sydney Black Wattle. Seeds
from Milton, New South Wales. (Plate XIII, Numbers
TSO 8.)

Seeds dull black, oval to oblong-oval, 4 to 5 mm. long,
2, to 3 mm. broad, 1.5 10,2) mma, ‘thick.

Hypocotyl terete, reddish to red, 1.5 to 5 cm. long, about
1 mm. thick at base, 0.7 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons sessile, auricled, oblong, soon becoming
revolute and eylindrical, about 5 mm. long, 2 to 3 mm.
broad, upperside green to reddish-green, underside pale
green to reddish.

— = = = =. — <= — ene

*Bnum. Hort. Berol. 1053.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 163

Stem terete, reddish-green, pilose to tomentose. First
internode 0.5 mm.; second 0.5 to 1 mm.; third 1 to 5 mm.;
fourth and fifth 3 to 9 mm.; sixth and seventh 5 mm. to
3.0 em.; eighth and ninth 1 to 4.5 em. The longest inter-
nodes were found on natural seedlings.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 3 to 5 mm.,
reddish-brown, glabrous; leaflets three to five pairs, oblong-
acuminate, 4 to 7 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm. broad, upperside
green, underside reddish-brown, margins reddish; rachis
3 to 9 mm., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 3 to 8 mm., with
small gland, reddish-brown, glabrous to pilose, with
terminal seta; leaflets five to six pairs, oblong-acuminate,
the apical pair often obovate, 4 to 5 mm. long, 1 to 2 mm.
broad, upperside green, underside reddish-green; rachis
‘6 mm. to 1 em., with terminal seta.

Nos. 3 to 5. Abruptly bipinnate, sometimes with two
pairs of pinnae, petiole 5 mm. to 2.3 cm., with gland on
upper margin, pilose; leaflets seven to ten pairs, similar
to those of No. 2; rachis 1 to 3 em.

Nos. 6 and 7. Abruptly bipinnate, usually with two or
three pairs of pinnae, petiole 1.5 to 2.8 em., with one or
sometimes two glands on upper margin, pilose; leaflets
about twelve to twenty-two pairs, up to 6 mm. long, about
I mm. broad; rachis 1.5 to 3.3 em.

Nos. 8 to 10. Abruptly bipinnate, with from three to
‘six pairs of pinnae, petiole 3.4 to 4.5 em.; leaflets up to
twenty-four pairs, flat, oblong-acuminate, apical pair
obovate, margins ciliate, 7 to 8 mm. long in central portion
of pinna, about 1.5 mm. broad; rachis 2.7 to 3.5 em.

This species flowers in about November, and takes
twelve months to ripen its pods, whereas A. decurrens, of

164 R. H. CAMBAGE.

which A. mollissima has been regarded as a variety, flowers:
in August, and ripens its pods by the end of the following
December.

GUM MIFERAE.

AcAcIA HorrRIDA Willd.* LExtratropical South Africa.
Seeds from the University Grounds, near Melba Hall,
Melbourne. (Cultivated.) (Plate XIII, Numbers 4
to 6.)

Seeds brown, oblong-oval, areola distinct, 5 to 6 mm.
long, 3.5 to 5 mm. broad, 1.5 to 2 mm. thick.

Hypocotyl terete, pale green, 1.5 to 3 em. long, about
1.7 mm. thick at base, 1.5 mm. at apex.

Cotyledons fleshy, deeply auricled, petiolule 2 to 3 mm.
long, oblong to ovate-oblong and oblong-oval, 8 mm. to
1 em. long, 5 to 7 mm. broad, upperside at first yellowish-
green, becoming green, underside pale green.

Stem terete, greyish-brown, glabrous. First internode
0.5 mm.; second 2 to 4 mm.; third to sixth 2 to 6 mm.;
seventh to tenth 4 to 7 mm.

Leaves—No. 1. Abruptly pinnate, petiole 4 to 6 mm.;
slabrous; leaflets four to five pairs, oblong-acuminate, 4 to:
8 mm. long, 2 to 3.5 mm. broad, upperside green, under-
side pale green; rachis about 1 cm., with terminal seta.

No. 2. Abruptly bipinnate, in one case an abnormal
leaf was simply pinnate, petiole 4 to 6 mm., with terminal
seta; leaflets two to five pairs, oblong-acuminate, 3 to 5 mm.
long, 1 to 2 mm. broad; rachis 5 mm. to 1 em., with
terminal seta.

Nos. 3 to 6. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 5 to 7 mm.,
glabrous; leaflets five to nine pairs; rachis 1 to 2 cm.;
stipules linear, up to 4 mm.

*Seae “Revision of the Suborder Mimoseae.’”’ By George Bentham, F.R.S..,.
Trans. Linn. Soc. London, 1875, 30, Part III, 507.

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 165

Nos. 7 to 10. Abruptly bipinnate, petiole 6 to 9 mm.;
leaflets six to nine pairs; rachis 1.4 to 2 cm.

Nos. 11 to 16. Abruptly bipinnate, sometimes twice
pinnate in the case of No. 13 and upwards, petiole 6 mm.
to 1 em., often with a gland at the base of each pair of
pinnae; leaflets eight to ten pairs; rachis 1.3 to 2.1 em.;
Stipules spinose, up to 8 mm.

A pot plant about 4 feet high produced leaves with from
one to four pairs of pinnae, and from eight to fourteen
pairs of leaflets, with usually a gland or nectary at the
base of each pair of pinnae, and sometimes with a pair of
glands (laterally) at the bases of the second and third
pairs of pinnae but not of the basal or apical pairs; the
‘common petiole being up to 4 em. long and almost square
in cross section; spines up to 2.5 em. A spine on the
parent tree measured 6.3 cm. long.

So far I have not seen glands or nectaries occurring in
pairs on a phyllodineous Acacia, but A. D. Hardy records
its occurrence on A. decurrens of the Bipinnatae section.*

During the winter months the leaflets of A. horrida
remain partly closed up even during a sunny day, and
show much more evidence of leaf sleep than do those of
most species of the Australian subgenus Botryocephalae.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Plate X.
Acacia ericifolia Benth.
1. Cotyledons, Wongan Hills, Western Australia (W. M.
Carne).
2. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes.
3. Pod and seeds.

*See “The distribution of leaf glands in some Victorian Acacias,” by A. D.
Hardy, F.L.S., Vict. Nat., 1912, 29, 26.

Also ‘ ‘Obscevation on the function of Acacia leaf glands,’’ by Reginald Kelly,
1b., 1918, 30, 121.

166 R. H. CAMBAGE.

er)

Acacia caesiella Maiden and Blakely.

. Cotyledons, Burrinjuck (HE. C. Andrews).
. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phylodes.
. Pod and seeds.

Acacia homalophylla A. Cunn.

. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf, Gunnedah (J. H. Maiden)..
. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes.
. Pod and seeds.

Plate XI.
Acacia harpophylla F. v. M.

. Cotyledons, Eidsvold, Queensland (Dr. T. L. Bancroft).
. Opposite pair of pinnate leaves and phyllodes.
. Pod and seeds.

Acacia confusa Merrill.

. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf, Botanic Gardens, Hong-

kong (H. Green).

. Pinnate leaf and phyllodes.
. Pod and seeds.

Acacia merinthophora Pritzel.
Cotyledons, Wongan Hills, Western Australia (W. M.
Carne).

. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes.
. Portion of pod and seeds.

Plate XII.
Acacia linophylla W. V. Fitzgerald.

. Cotyledons and pair of pinnate leaves, Gascoyne River,

Western Australia (E. C. Andrews).
Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes.

. Pod and seeds.

Acacia argentea Maiden.

. Cotyledons, Eidsvold, Queensland (Dr. T. L. Bancroft).
. Pinnate leaf, bipinnate leaves and phyllodes.
. Pod and seeds.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate X.

Acacia ericiafolia (1-8); Acacia caesiella (4 - 6); Acacia homalophylla (7-9).
Three-fifths Natural Size.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT,, 1928, Plate XT.

SEO

Acacia harpophylla (1-3); Acacia confusa (4- 6); Acacia merinthophora (7-9).
Nearly Three-fourths Natural Size.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928. Plate XII,

FE FESS EIS LEOE a eee a. ae seanatenaestaeseaaasaiaaaaencmees eee een

ae si

Acacia linophylla (1-3); Acacia argentea (4-6).
Three-fifths Natural Size.

“ Se ON Sai -

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXI1., 1928.

Acacia mollissuma (1-3); Acacia horrida (4-6).
About Half Natural Size.

Plate XLII.

~ -
-
‘ é y
“
¢
ae %
\
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:
r
“ -
°
ae
i
aces
Ate pi? 8

ACACIA SEEDLINGS. 167

Plate XIII.
Acacia mollissima Willd.
. Cylindrical cotyledons and pinnate leaf, Milton, New
South Wales. |
. Pinnate leaf and bipinnate leaves.
. Pod and seeds.

Acacia horrida Willd.

. Cotyledons and pinnate leaf, The University Grounds,
near Melba Hall, Melbourne (Cultivated).

. Pinnate leaf and bipinnate leaves.

. Pod and seeds.

168 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.

THE GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS.

Parr [.—PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GENERAL GEOLOGY.
By C. A. SuSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.

Part [I.—PETROGRAPHY.
By C. A. SussMILcu, witH ANALYSES By W, A. GREIG.
(With Plates XIV-XVI and two Text-figures.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sept. 5, 1928.)

The area described in this paper comprises the whole
of the parish of Tomaree (County of Gloucester), together
with part of the adjoining parish of Sutton. The north
head of Port Stephens, which is part of the parish of
Fens, is also included. Brief reference to some of the
geological features of this area is made by Sir T. W. E.
David in his memoir on the Hunter River coalfield,! and
part of the area is shown in his geological map.

Part I.—PHYSIOGRAPHY AND GENERAL GEOLOGY.
A. PHYSIOGRAPHY.

This region consists of a prominent group of isolated
hills on the southern side of Port Stephens, rising above
a Swampy sand flat, the latter being elevated but little
above sea level excepting where it is covered in part by
low sand dunes. The hills are the summits of partly-
buried ridges, consisting of lava flows of Carboniferous
age. 7

When the submergence took place in late Pleistocene
times which drowned the shore line and produced the inlet
of Port Stephens, these ridges were partly submerged, only

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 169

the higher points remaining as islands; silting followed the
subsidence, and the thickness of the silts, as shown by
the bores put down near Anna Bay, is not less than
190 feet, thus indicating a subsidence of at least that
amount. A more recent elevation of from 15 to 20
feet has lifted the area above sea level and produced the
swampy plain, above which the one-time islands now rise
‘as hills. Two of these hills, viz.. Yacaaba (north head)
and Point Stephens, are joined to the mainland by narrow
‘sand spits which are sometimes awash at high tide. The
islands which adjoin the entrance to Port Stephens, namely,
‘Cabbage Tree Island and Boondalbah Island, are similar
peaks which have not been rejoined to the mainland.

The majority of the hills above referred to rise to a
‘general elevation of about 400 feet above sea level, and this
level would appear to be an erosion level, corresponding in
altitude to one which occurs in the Hunter River Valley,
and which one of us (C.A.S.) has referred to elsewhere
cas the Charleston level.2 Three of the hills, however, rise
cabove this level, namely:

Yacaaba (North Head), altitude 717 ft.
Tomaree (South Head), altitude 540 ft.
Ghan Ghan (Trig. Station), altitude 527 ft.

Similar isolated hills occur to the north and west of
Port Stephens, such as Mt. Karuah (807 ft.), Mt. Gundain
(833 ft.), Mt. Carrington (875 ft.), and Mt. Nerong (1,000
ft.). The whole region, therefore, appears to have been
.a Tertiary peneplain which was uplifted to form a table-
land about 1,000 feet in altitude at the close of the Tertiary
period, the various hills of to-day being residuals of this
‘tableland.

Port Stephens is a typical drowned valley with its long
axis (13 miles) in an east and west direction. It is divided
into two unequal parts by the convergence of its north

170 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.

and south shores at Soldiers Point, where the normal width
of from 3 to 5 miles is reduced to less than a quarter of
a mile. The narrowing at this point is due to the presence
of massive acid lava flows forming a ridge striking
approximately N.N. West and S.S. East.

Before the subsidence took place, which produced Port
Stephens, this ridge formed the divide between the water-
Sheds of the Karuah and Myall Rivers. The drowning
submerged a col in this one-time divide and allowed the
waters of the Karuah River to flow into the eastern part
of Port Stephens, which is the drowned valley of the
Myall River. Previous to this, the Karuah River continued
its southern course and joined up with the Hunter River
system. To-day there are only low-lying alluvial flats
between the western part of Port Stephens and the Hunter
River estuary.

Throughout the whole district raised beaches occur, both
on the sea coast and on the coast of Port Stephens itself.
These latter, at many places, form distinet contour lines
around the water front. An interesting raised beach is
that which occurs at the north end of Morna Point. A
photo of this beach is givenin Plate XIV. Here well-rounded
boulders of Rhyolite occur up to an elevation of 20 feet
above present high water mark. There are also included
pebbles of chert, pumice and kerosene shale. Large trees
(eucalypts and banksias) are now growing on this raised

beach.

The Rhyolite boulders, particularly those at the back
of the old beach, are quite kaolinised, indicating the long
lapse of time since they were placed there. Associated
with the pebbles are numbers of large gasteropod and

pelecypod she:ls, also for the most part quite decayed.

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 171

B. GENERAL GEOLOGY.

The rocks of this region belong mainly to the Kuttung
Series of Carboniferous age; but, as already pointed out,
these are covered to a considerable extent with recent
superficial deposits. The general structure is that of a
large plunging anticline, the horizontal axis of which
pitches to the south. The rocks consist mainly of a series.
of massive lava flows, apparently separated from one
another by weaker sedimentary strata. A section of

these strata, in descending order, 1s as follows :—

Thickness.

Cherts and Tuffs (thickness unknown).
Rhyolite flow (Morna Point Fiow) .. .. .. 300 feet
Petree Tbe MMUCOPLCTIS )'.. oc ee a TOS,
Tuff ne eas): Gt BE een, MOP? as
Tutffaceous Conglomerate with small Rhyolite

Flow (No. 2 flow) hiss, tbsll AGeen eta eo OO ats
Tut Me te ell ete tt Viecety, (pare pt Rae een | On as
femme (ONO, 1 flow)-<...).... «6 .. 91% 44~-,165.,,,
Tuffaceous Sandstone with fossil plants .. ... 600 ,,
Soueiomerates and'tulfs* 2... \..) s.... 800. ,,
PMA KEHO, OUUCTODS) 2. a... <6 je. ge .se dl 3804,,
Mipeecmime sNTOWS: 6. ee es we ny a OOO,
PMemRNO OUUCTOPS) “oh. len << wer. we ity of) OOO 4
iemime Wlows: 6.2 ce ok. out a ay ce 400. 4;
SIME MEMEL TION OMGCEODS, ips | -2)s ew Seed. yah tone OU. fs,
Toseanite (Nelson’s Head Flow) Aisa: ar hoe cA 0 ee
Conglomerate (with large boulders) Bead OOO: © ie,
Pemeemies (NO.4 2 HOW jee ak, i) beet) els years 20) 5
Conglomerate i 5 hs a a
Sees me NOM OW). ) 3. sy ee tee one LOOSE),

Conglomerate (thickness unknown).

Rotal” >. . 6/315 feet

172 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.

The above figures must be taken as mere approximations
as the incompleteness of the section makes the determina-
tion of actual figures impossible.

1.—The Andesites.
Nelson’s Bay.

A well-defined flow of andesite (No. 1 flow) outcrops
at intervals along the south shore of Port Stephens from
Nelson’s Bay to Corlette Point. This flow strikes about
EK. 20° N. and dips 8. 20° E. at an angle of about 20°. The
section adjoining the steamer jetty at Nelson’s Bay, in
descending order, is as follows :—

Conglomerate (with very large boulders) .. 100 feet
Amdesite (No. 2 flow) ..°..4 \¢.')..0 42) a
Conglomerate SO eo Qo ea
Andesite (No. 1 flow) .. «.: .. 41... . oe

Here the No. 1 andesite flow occurs right at sea level.
The lower part is quite glassy, the glassy phase merging
upwards into a lithic variety. The rock is a hornblende-
pyroxene-andesite and is described in detail in a later
section. The full thickness of this flow is not exposed,

but it is at least 100 feet thick. The No. 2 flow is similar -

in character to the No. 1 flow. The lower andesite gives
a continuous outcrop westwards from the jetty to the
eastern end of Dutchman’s Beach, then follows a sand
flat, followed by a smaller outcrop at the western end
of Dutchman’s Beach. From this point westwards nothing
but sand can be seen until Corlette Point is reached.
Here the andesite flow may be seen resting upon a bed
of conglomerate, both dipping southwards. It is uncertain
as to whether this flow represents the No. 1 or the No. 2
flow at Nelson’s Bay. If it is the No. 2 flow, then the
No. 1 flow will be found here, not far below sea level,

underlying the conglomerates above referred to.

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 173

Tomaree or South Head.

A small outcrop of andesite occurs here at sea level on
the west side of the headland, striking north and south,
and dipping easterly. It is immediately overlaid by a
massive toscanite flow.

Yacaaba Headland (North Head).

Here also, just at sea level, is an andesite flow outcrop-
ping along the northern shore of the headland. This flow
strikes E. 25° N. and dips 8S. 25° E., with a massive
toscanite flow resting immediately above it. As the
andesite flow extends below sea level, it 1s impossible to
determine its true thickness. An interesting feature here
is the occurrence of a bar of toscanite cutting across the
andesite flow and containing fragments of andesite. The
andesite occurring at the three abovementioned localities
are probably all parts of one and the same flow, but it is
difficult to reconcile the strike at Tomaree with that at
Nelson’s Bay and at Yacaaba headland.

Point Stephens Headland.

Point Stephens headland is an island consisting entirely
of andesite, joined to the mainland by a narrow sandspit
which is awash at high tide. A small outcrop of Andesite
also oceurs on the opposite mainland at the northern end
of Fingal Head. This andesite is similar in character
to that occurring at Nelson’s Bay. If part of a flow, it is
higher in the series than the Nelson’s Bay flow. The shape
of the outcrop, however, and the relation to the adjoining
rocks is not suggestive of its being a typical sheet. We
suggest that it may be, probably, an andesite lava cone
extruded at the same time as the Nelson’s Bay flow, and
afterwards surrounded and covered by the later toscanite
and rhyolite flows and their associated sedimentary rocks,
but the available evidence does not admit of proof one way
or the other.

174 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.

A similar andesite voleaniec cone of Kuttung age, sur-
rounded and covered by younger strata, and since partly
re-exposed by the partial removal of the overlying strata,
has been recorded as occurring at Blair Duguid, in the
Hunter River Valley.s

2.—The Toscanites.

Numerous and massive flows of -toscanite occur
throughout the district, but as the outerops of these are
isolated from one another by sand flats or by water, and
as there has been, in places, considerable displacement of
outcrops by faulting, it is somewhat difficult properly to
eorrelate the various outcrops. There would appear to
have been at least two distinct toscanite flows or groups
of flows. These two groups are referred to respectively
as (a) the Nelson’s Head-Yacaaba flow and (b) the
Soldiers Point-Ghan Ghan group of flows.

(a) The Nelson’s Head-Yacaaba Flow.
Nelson’s Head.

The whole of Nelson’s Head consists of toscanite
extending from low water mark to the top of the hill on
which the lighthouse stands. The strike is about E. 20° N.
and the dip to the south. On the northern face of the
headland the rock at sea level is entirely glassy for a
thickness of from 10 to 15 feet. Upwards, this glassy
phase merges into a lithodal phase, the latter continuing
to the top of the hill. The base of the flow is below sea
level, but the thickness is not less than 100 feet.

Fly Pont.

This is a low headland occurring to the west of Nelson’s
Head. A similar occurrence of toscanite occurs here, with
a glassy selvedge at the base of the flow, but this glassy
phase is less well marked, and the flow, as a whole, is not
so thick, much having probably been removed by denuda-

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 1795

tion. The base of the flow here is, however, exposed, and
at low water a bed of conglomerate may be seen underlying
the toscanite. This is similar in character to the con-
glomerate which overlies the andesite at Nelson’s Bay.
A dip fault probably occurs between Fly Point and
Nelson’s Head, which has displaced the strata to the north
on the east side of the fault.

Yacaaba Headland (North Head).

The sequence of strata in this headland is given in fig.
1. It will be seen that the Toscanite flow here rests
directly upon the andesite flow and has a thickness of
about 1,000 feet. The toscanite flow here has a glassy
selvedge at its base similar to that at Nelson’s Head. The
most interesting feature here is a dyke or neck of toscanite

SEA LEVEL

Fig. 1.—Sketch section through Yacaaba Headland. A, Limestone with
associated Tuffs; B, Conglomerates; C, Andesite; D, Toscanite. H, Fault.
which cuts through the underlying andesite flow. In the
toscanite are numerous rounded fragments of a more basic
rock which is much altered but which appears to have
been derived from the Andesite. Whether neck or dyke,
this would undoubtedly appear to be an opening through
which the overlying toscanite found its way to the surface.

As has already been pointed out, this toscanite overlies
the andesite at Yacaaba and Tomaree. No andesite is
exposed at Nelson’s Head or Fly Point, but may well be
below sea level at these points.

No outerop of this toscanite flow can be found imme-
diately above the andesites which extend from Nelson’s

176 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.

Bay to Corlette Point. The flow may have pinched out
‘in this direction, or if it occurs, its outcrop is covered by
recent sand deposits. The fact that the flow is about 1,000
feet thick at Yacaaba Head and only about 40 feet thick
at Fly Point suggests that it thins rapidly in a westerly
direction. The great thickness of toscanite at Yacaaba
may, of course, be due to the coalescence of the Nelson’s.
Bay flow with some of the overlying toscanite flows of that
locality.

(b) The Soldiers Point-Ghan Ghan Toscamtes (No. 2 Belt).

Lying to the south of Nelson’s Bay and extending from
the sea coast westwards to Scamander Bay there is a belt
of isolated hills all consisting of toscanite. The strike
of this line of hills is approximately east and west. After
crossing Scamander Bay, this toscanite belt is picked up
again on the western side of the bay at Round Head, and
continues from there in a north-north-west direction to
Soldiers Point, as may be seen from the map. The various
islands adjacent to Soldiers Point, including Middle Island,
consist of the same rock. ‘Toscanite also occurs on the
north shore of Port Stephens opposite to Soldiers Point,
very massive outcrops occurring here on either side of
Fame Cove. This great belt of Toscanite undoubtedly
includes a number of separate lava flows. At its eastern
end the double line of hills suggests at least two massive
lava flows. Throughout the whole belt the rock from all
the outcrops is similar in character and looks lke a typical
Quartz-Porphyry. It also closely resembles the toscanites
occurring at Nelson’s Head and at North Head. The
numerous outcrops in this toscanite belt are separated
from one another by sand dunes and sand flats, and no
associated sedimentary strata are visible, so that no direct
observations of either dip or strike could be made.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928. Plate XIV.

Fig. a.
Raised Boulder Beach (Present day beach centre-left), Morna Point.

Fig. 6.
Raised Boulder Beach, Morna Point.

”

Meare

cellos scstep im 0

tee edn, Ee aes

Boat

Tyeient oma

Mae

Plate XV.

@)
°

192

Lodge

an fo)

‘nal Royal Society of N.

Jows

‘prop ddIvULO T, JO

YINOS 4Svod-vag ‘S|[IF] o@lUwVoso T,

pues acer AN Mayen Wi esau Sion mc serene ks

Ae SY

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. LE

3.—The Rhyolites.

These lava flows outcrop in the southern part of the
area mapped and form a belt whose outcrop curves sympa-
thetically with that of the No. 2 toscanite belt. Outcrops
occur on the sea coast (a) at Fingal Head and (b) at
Morna Point, and further outcrops occur at Bob’s Farm
on the east side of Tilligherry Creek, and at The Gibbers
on the west side of Tilligherry Creek. Snapper Island,
in the west part of Port Stephens, is probably a continua-
tion of this belt.

Fingal Head.

At the northern end of Fingal headland there occurs
an outcrop of andesite, previously referred to. Im-
mediately overlying this is a rhyolite lava flow, the
outcrop extending from here to the southern end of Fingal
Head, a distance of about 160 chains. The actual thickness
of this flow cannot be measured, but it is something more
than 200 feet.

Morna Point.

The outcrop here is exactly similar to that at Fingal
Head, and this outcrop appears to have been separated
from that at Fingal Head by a large dip-fault which has
heaved the strata on its east side to the north. The rock
both here and at Fingal Head is indistinguishable in hand
Specimens from the toscanites already referred to. At
Morna Point the rhyolite flow appears to be dipping a
little east of south.

Bob’s Farm (Fenningham’s Island).

Between here and Morna Point is an extensive swampy
sand fiat with no outcrops. The outcrop at Bob’s Farm
occurs at the western edge of this flat and at the eastern
side of Tuilligherry Creek, and the rock here has been
quarried for road-making purposes. At this locality the

L—Septemter 5, 1928,

178 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.

rhyolite is underlain by well-stratified tuffs and cherty
shales, the latter containing the fossil plant Rhacopterts.
Underlying this again is another rhyolite flow.
The Girbbers.

This locality occurs on the other side of Tilligherry
Creek, immediately west of Bob’s Farm, and gives one of
the best geological sections of the district. (See fig. 2.)

The details of this section in descending order are as
follow :—

Thickness.
Rhyolite (No, 3 flow) ..2. ox 12 90) 2sUeeas
Tufts SS aes am re Le
Cherty shales ah baer wan eee eee
Tuttis and Conglomerates... .. ..) 2 gels
BRhyolite (No. 2 flow) ..., ... .: ... 220 se
Tuffs and Conglomerates .., ... 1. sco je eee
Tuffs Je a a tae Sy es oral eee
Rhyolite (No. 1 Ane SE i: ele ec ee
Tuffaceous sandstones with fossil Ante so vat NOOO T
Conglomerates wes ty cele vubeng — U/dley Walelee. © | 2S aaanmees Cae

Total thickness .. 2,270 feet

It will be seen that there are three distinct rhyolite lava
flows here. The whole succession of strata at this locality
is very similar to that which occurs in the Paterson district.
The top rhyolite flow would be the equivalent of that

which occurs in the railway cutting at the Paterson railway
station.

4.—The Sedimentary Rocks.
The Burinds Series.

Strata of Burindi (Lower Carboniferous) age are
extensively developed in the Pindimar district on the
northern side of Port Stephens, but these will not be
described here; the occurrence of probable Burindi strata

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 179

occurring at Yacaaba headland might, however, be referred
to here. These are shown in the section in fig. 1. These
strata strike EH. 35° N., have a steep dip, and consist of a
massive bed of conglomerate overlying a thin bed of
tuffaceous limestone. The lmestone is very impure,
contains crinoid stems, and is lithologically similar to
limestones which occur in the Burindi series in other parts
of the district. The conglomerates which overle the lime-
stone are very massive and are crowded with pebbles from
6 to 8 inches in diameter. This conglomerate may possibly
be the equivalent of the Wollarobba conglomerate which.
in another part of the district, occurs at the base of the
Kuttung series. Strike faulting has brought these beds
against the toscanite, which is relatively higher in the
series,

: SEA LEVEG
eS or eae

PigeegSesH Conciomersien; D, Toftaccona Seniatones: H, Conglomerates:
H, Alluvium.
The Nelson’s Bay Conglomerates.

These are associated with the Andesites which occur at
Nelson’s Bay, already referred to. They show very little
stratification and contain well-rounded boulders of all sizes
up to 3 feet or even more in diameter. These boulders
consist mainly of granites of various kinds, Quartz-
Porphyry and Felspar-Porphyry. The material in which
the boulders are embedded is very largely tuffaceous. At
Corlette Point similar conglomerates occur, associated with
the andesite there, but the boulders are relatively fewer
in number. These Nelson’s Bay conglomerates are very
similar in their lithological characters to the conglomerates
which are associated with the andesites on the same horizon
in the Kuttung series at Martin’s Creek, near Paterson.

180 Cc. A. SUSSMILCH AND WM. CLARK.

The Gibbers.

Particulars of the sedimentary rocks occurring here have
already been given when referring to the rhyolite of the
same locality. The occurrence in these of the fossil plant
Rhacopteris (Aneimites) inequilatera proves that those
strata belong definitely to the Kuttung series. These
strata, with their associated rhyolite flows, correspond in
character and horizon with what one of us (C.A.S.)3 has
previously described as the Mt. Johnson series in the
Paterson district, and they are quite similar to them in
their lithological characters.

The Anna Bay Bores.

Some years ago several bores were put down in the
southern part of this region for the purpose of prospecting
for coal. Details of the strata penetrated by these bores
are given by Sir T. W. E. David in his monograph on the
Hunter River coalfield.t_ No. 1 bore, which is 24 miles
west of Morna Point, after passing through 192 feet of
recent alluvial deposits, penetrated 126 feet into a Quartz
Felspar-Porphyry. This is evidently the Morna Point
Rhyolite flow; the angle of its dip is given as 23°. The
No. 2 bore, after passing through 192 feet of recent deposits,
penetrated 257 feet of cherty shales alternating with tuffa-
ceous conglomerates and tuffaceous sandstones. These
strata dip 8.S.W. at an angle of 22° and apparently overlie
the top rhyolite flow. The cherts contain the fossil plant
Rhacopteris.

5.—Geological Structure.

Reference to the map will show that the outcrops of the
Kuttung Series form a great curve, convex to the south.
In the western part of the area the strike of the strata is
approximately N.N.W., and the dip westerly; from
Corlette Point to Nelson’s Bay the strike is nearly east
and west, and the dip southerly, while in the eastern part

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 181

of the area the strike is E. 20° N. to H. 30° N., and the dip
S. 20° EK. to 8. 30° E. It is evident, therefore, that the
general structure is that of a great plunging anticline, the
axis of which strikes approximately north and south, with
a pitch to the south. This conforms to the general geolo-
gical structure of the carboniferous formation right along
the southern margin of New England from the Pacific coast
to Scone.

The probable existence of faults has been referred to
(a) at Nelson’s Head between West Point and Fly Point,
(b) between Fly Point and Nelson’s Head, and (c)
between Morna Point and Fingal Head; on the accom-
panying geological map these faults have been joined up as
shown, but, of course, this joining up is, to a large extent,
conjectural. These faults are all dip faults. The existence of
a strike fault has been suggested as occurring at North
Head, as shown in fig. 1. This strikes about E. 30° N.

II.—PETROGRAPHY.

The Kuttung lava flows fall naturally into three distinct
groups: (a) the andesites, (0) the toseanites, (c) the
rhyolites, extruded (with perhaps one exception) in that
order.

1.—The Andesites.

These are all hornblende-pyroxene-andesites, and they
may be divided into two varieties: (a) the glassy variety,
(b) the lithoidal variety.

a. The Glassy Andesite.

This occurs at West Point, Nelson’s Bay, where it is
found at the base of the lowest andesite flow; there is a
similar occurrence at Corlette Point.

Megascopic Characters.——The fresh rock is black in
‘eolour with a resinous lustre, and shows abundant pheno-
erysts, of felspar, hornblende and pyroxene.

182 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.

Microscopical Characters.—The ground mass shows well-
marked flow structure, with some spherulitic structure
present in places, and in this groundmass is set an abun-
dance of phenocrysts of plagioclase, hornblende and
pyroxene, with a few crystals of quartz and biotite; the
two latter are very rare. Occasional small areas occur
which show hyalopilitic structure and smaller phenocrysts
than in the average rock. In such areas the felspars are
lath-shaped, with their long axes in the direction of flow.
The plagioclase in general is tabular in habit and almost
quite fresh with a composition close to Ab, An;. The
hornblende also is quite fresh and frequently twinned.
The pyroxene is less abundant than the hornblende. It.
oceurs both as occasional phenocrysts and as quite small
crystals included in the felspars. It is weakly pleochroic
and has parallel or low extinction angles. It appears to
be hypersthene. The iron ores are moderately abundant
and occur both as inclusions in the larger phenocrysts and
in the groundmass. An occasional small erystal of biotite
may be seen, but this mineral is rare. Apatite is present
as occasional small needles included in the felspar. In
spite of the fact that the norm shows 31.2 per cent. of
quartz, only very few phenocrysts of this mineral have
been seen in the slides.

A noticeable feature of the glassy andesites is the
remarkable freshness of all the phenocrystic minerals.
This is in marked contrast with the condition of the similar
minerals in the lithoidal variety of andesite.

b. The Lithoidal Andesites.
These Andesites are similar in their characters from all
the localities from which they have been found in the Port
Stephens district.

Megascopic Characters.——In hand specimens the rock is.
dark blue in colour, showing abundant phenocrysts of

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 183

felspar, with less abundant phenocrysts of black ferro-
magnesian minerals,

Microscopic Characters——The groundmass is eryptocry-
stalline and very fine-grained. Traces of what appears to
have been a flow structure occur in places, but there is no
evidence to suggest that the groundmass, as a whole, was
originally glassy.

The following minerals are present in order of abun-
dance :—(1) Plagioclase, (2) Hornblende, (3) Pyroxene,
(4) Magnetite.

The plagioclase phenocrysts are tabular in habit, and
abundant. Albitization is well marked, alteration having
taken place along irregular lines and cracks. Occasionally
some chloritization has taken place, but is not common.
The hornblende shows undoubted resorption, and the
margins of the crystals all have a very dark zone, probably
due to the development of minute erystals of iron oxide.
This is particularly noticeable in the microslides of the
andesite from North Head. The pyroxene crystals are
entirely replaced by chlorite, and it is now impossible to
determine their true nature. An occasional phenocryst of
quartz has been seen in some of the slides.

An analysis of each of the two varieties of andesite is
given in Table I; the specimens selected for analysis came
from West Point, Nelson’s Bay. An important difference
between the two rocks as shown by the analyses is in the
relative proportion of the alkalies and lime. This is shown
in the following table :—

Port Stephens. Martin’s Creek.
Glassy Lithoidal Glassy Lithoidal
Variety Variety. Variety: Variety.
CaO ee... 6.38 4,28 4.11 3.14
Nes Oar 2.20 3.39 3.99 4.41

OS See 0.66 3.02 M2 3.92

184 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.

The lower percentage of alkalies in the glassy rock is
very marked. This is particularly so in the case of the
potash, and, in order to make sure that no mistake had
been made, the potash and soda in the glassy rock were
re-determined. The percentage of lime, on the other hand,
is noticeably higher in the glassy rock. The corresponding
constituents of the glassy and lithoidal andesite from
Martin’s Creek+ are given for comparison. These show a
similar variation between the two rocks, but not to such
a marked extent.

The norms of the two Port Stephens rocks, as calculated

from the analysis, are as follows :—
Glassy Variety. lLithoidal Variety.

01 Ala ee ro 31.20 19.86
Orthoclase <..2 2) 08 Soe ees)
WAM IGG <5 o's SRR A tees 18.34 28.82
PAMOFGNICC: ~ 02.2 = oe ee 29.74 17.79
Femic Minerals .... 7.92 8.01
Tiron Ores. ac) s «ee 4.14 4.17

On account of its alkaline content the glassy rock gives
a much lower percentage of albite and orthoclase than does
the lithoidal variety, and a correspondingly higher
percentage of quartz.

2.—The Toscanites.
These, like the andesites, fall naturally into two

varieties: (a) a glassy variety, (b) a lithoidal variety.

a. The Glassy Toscanite.

This has been found only at the base of the oldest
toscanite flow, and in each of the three localities at which
it has been found, namely, Fly Point, Nelson’s Head and
Yacaaba Head, it occurs just at sea level. The occurrence
at Nelson’s Head ean be taken as typical of all three locali- |
ties, and it is this rock which has been analysed.

SiO,
Al;0O,
Fe;0,

reO

MgO

CaO
Na,O

K,0

H;0 (100°c)
-H,0 (100°c+)
CO,
TiO,

ZrO,
P.O,

SO;

Cl
F
S (FeS,)
Cr,05
N10+-CoO
MnO
BaO
SrO*
i, Ov
V30;
CrO

Less O=Cl1

Sp. Gr.

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS.

Table I.
Analyses of Port Stephens Rocks, by W. A. Greig.

III.

Glass

IV.

Tos-
canite

Tos-

canite

VI.

Toscanite

VII.

185

VIII.

Toscanite] Rbyolite | Rhyolite

—_—————$-——. | [| | Sitar a oF

71°72 | 73°90

_ SS | L______. f EE

a | SSF eS OO

I. II.
eeae Andesite
63°17 | 63:92
15.10 | 1537
2°20 2°90
2°16 2°34
2°35 2°60
6°38 4°28
2°20 3°39

066 3°02
0°47 0:41
4°73 1-65

Absent! Absent
0 50 0:05
Absent} Absent
0°14 0°16
Absent! Absent
0-11 0:07
Absent; —

s) Absent
0:10 0:07
0°03 0 04

Absent | Absent
Present] __,,
Tracet e
Absent Pe
100°30 | 100°27

02 01

100°28 | 100°26

27524) 2°694

11°50
2°30
0°63
0°41
2°56
3°40
2°53
0°35
4°51
Absent
0°15
Absent
0:03
0:06
0°10
Absent

0°11
0°05
Absent
Present
Absent

100°41
0-2

3°50
4°04

Localities.—I.

*Spectroscopic Reaction.

and IL.,

VIII., Morna Point.

West Point, Nelson’s
IV., Fly Point; V., Nelson’s Head; VI.,

73°64

3°42
4°59

Bay ;

73°90
11°95
1°70
0°99
0°55
1°50
3°10
4°74,
0°21
1°37
Absent
0°20
Absent
0°05
Absent
Tracet

Absent

0:06

0°06
Absent
Tracet
Absent

100°38

2°613

73969) 74°74
12°65 11°89
1°85 1°50
0°40 0°27
0°50 0°83
0°64 0°74
3°18 2°96
5°07 5°23
0°45 0°60
1°33 1°14
Absent | Absent
0:20 0°17
Absent} Absent
0:07 0-02
Absent 0:02
Tracet 0°10
= Absent
Absent ;
Tracet | Tracet
0°04 0:07
Present) Absent
Absent | Present
” Absent
100°34 | 100°28
*02
100°34 | 100°26
2611 2°600

III.,

fLless than 0°01%

Nelson’s Head;
Round Head; VII., Fingal Head;

186 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.

Megascopic Characters—The rock is black in colour
when fresh, with a vitreous lustre, and contains an abun-
dance of phenocrysts of quartz and felspar.

Microscopic Characters.—The groundmass is quite glassy
and displays a well-marked flow structure. In this ground-
mass there is set an abundance of large phenocrysts of
quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase and biotite. The quartz.
phenocrysts are relatively large, show marked corrosion,
and are frequently cracked and broken, but show no strain
structure. The plagioclase is tabular in habit, is perfectly
fresh and free from alteration, and displays well-marked
albite twinning. It is an acid oligoclase with a composition
of about Ab,» An;. Some of the plagioclase crystals are
fractured. The orthoclase is quite fresh, but is less abun-
dant than the plagioclase. Biotite is not nearly so abundant
as the other minerals, and is also quite fresh.

b. The Inthoidal Toscanite.

This is the dominant lava of the district, individual
flows ranging up to at least 1,000 feet in thickness. From
all the many occurrences the rock is quite similar both in
its megascopic and microscopical characters.

Megascopic Characters—The colour of the mass varies.
from pale pink to slate blue, according to the state of
preservation; except where the rock has been quarried, it
is difficult to obtain really fresh samples. This rock is.
crowded with phenocrysts of quartz and felspar, the latter’
usually being red or pink, or more rarely white. In hand
specimens the rock looks like a typical quartz-phorphyry.

Microscopical Characters.—The groundmass is variable,
usually eryptocrystalline to glassy, and some specimens,
notably some from Soldiers Point, have a micro-crystalline
geroundmass which consists of an aggregate of small erystals
of quartz and felspar, sometimes showing micrographic

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 187

structure. Flow structure similar to that which occurs in
the glassy variety is present in many specimens, and in
some of the slides the rock appears to have been originally
glassy and to have subsequently become more or less devi-
trified. At Nelson’s Head there is no sharp line of demar-
cation between the two varieties, the glassy variety merging
upwards into the lithoidal variety. The phenocrysts.
consist of quartz, plagioclase, orthoclase and biotite similar
to those occurring in the glassy variety, except that all the
minerals other than quartz show considerable alteration.
The orthoclase is much kaolinized. The plagioclase exhibits.
saussuritization and, much more rarely, ‘aolinization; in
some slides the centre zones of some few crystals have been
replaced by chlorite, but this is not common; the biotite
is commonly bleached. The question as to whether the
alteration of the felspars in the lthoidal lavas of the
Kuttung series is deuteritic or not has been fully discussed
by G. D. Osborne+ when describing these lavas from the
Paterson district, and this question, therefore, will not be
discussed here; but it is worthy of note that the alteration
of the felspars in the lithoidal toscanites is in marked
contrast to their freshness in the glassy toscanites. Com-
plete analyses of the two varieties of toscanite are given
in Table I, together with two partial analyses. It will be
seen that the glassy variety is lower in soda and potash,
but higher in lime than in the lithoidal variety, but it is.
only in the case of the potash that the difference is well
marked. The norms of the two varieties, as calculated from
the analyses are as follows :-—

Glassy Variety. lLithoidal Variety.

UT) a 36.96% 34.44%
WriMOClaSe sk... 15.00% 27.84%
BCS ls ws sieve eee 28.82% 26.20%
PeMOrtMIGe ok 8.62% 4.73%
Femic Minerals ..... 2.74% 2.96%

ton Ores i... 26.6... 2.96% 3.00%

188 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.

It will be seen that in both cases the plagioclase
(oligoclase) preponderates over the orthoclase. The
magmatic name of the glassy variety in the American
classification is Tehamose. It might be pointed out, how-
ever, that this rock falls almost on the border line which
separates the orders columbare and britannare in that
classification, and consequently it is very close to toscanose,
the magma to which the lithoidal variety belongs. Both
magmas are domalkalic and sodi-potassic. Some petrolo-
gists would prefer to call these rocks Dellenites on account
of the acid nature of the plagioclase. The lithoidal variety
is not far removed from the Rhyolites (Liparose).

3.—The Rhyolites.

The main rhyolite flow (No. 3 flow) occurring at Fingal
Head, Morna Point and Tilligherry Creek is indistinguish-
able in hand specimens from the toscanites. Under the
microscope also the two rocks are quite similar, the only
noticeable difference being a higher proportion of ortho-
clase in the rhyolites. Two analyses of the rhyolite have
been made, one taken from near the base of the flow at
Fingal Head, the other taken from near the top of the flow
at Morna Point. These analyses are shown in Table I.
‘The norms, as calculated from these two analyses, are as

follows :—
Fingal Head. Morna Point.

Mwart,. Age see ee 34.14% 34.86 %
Wrthoclase Weg een ee 29.46% 30.58%
BASIE i.e aiavcsets oe wearer eee 27.24% 25.15%
PNMON EGE! see oe ane Maes ee 3.05% 3.61%
Meme Mamerals .. 9.3205... 2.89% 2.10%
ron/Oxides: |. ¥ os: 4... eae LT a7 1.92%

In the American classification the magmatic name would
be Liparose, almost on the border line between Liparose
and Omeose. In comparing these norms with that of the

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. 189

lithoidal toscanite, the only difference is a small increase
in the proportion of orthoclase as compared with
plagioclase in the rhyolites. |

The other rhyolite flows occurring below the main flow
at Tilligherry Creek have not been analysed, no specimens
sufficiently fresh for that purpose being available. The
No. 1 flow, which is pink in colour, consists mainly of
a felsitic groundmass through which are scattered a few
felspar phenocrysts. In the microslides the groundmass
is seen to be eryptocrystalline, but part, if not all, of this
sroundmass appears to have been originally glassy, with
well-marked flow structure. The few felspar phenocrysts
are much altered and consist mainly of plagioclase,
although orthoclase is also present. The true nature of
this rock has not been determined, it has only been placed
with the rhyolites provisionally. The No. 2 flow from
Tilligherry Creek, although somewhat finer grained, is in
all respects similar to the main rhyolite flow (No. 3 flow),
and does not need separate description.

4.—Sequence of Eruption of the Flows.

This is left somewhat in doubt owing to the uncertainty
as to the true nature of the mode of occurrence of the
andesite which occurs at Stephens Head. As has already
been pointed out, this occurrence may be either:

(a) A lava cone of the same age of extrusion as the
andesites at the base of the series, and which was.
subsequently surrounded and finally submerged
by the later toscanite and rhyolite flows, or

(b) A lava flow poured out after the toscanites, but
before the rhyolites.

If the first interpretation is the correct one, then we
have in the Kuttung Series of the Port Stephens district
a series of lava flows beginning with andesites, followed

190 C. A. SUSSMILCH AND W. A. GREIG.

‘by toseanites and a final outpouring of rhyolites. The
rocks analysed are arranged in this order in Table I, and
an examination of the analyses will show the following
points of interest :— |

1. The silica percentage shows a progressive increase
ranging from 63.17 per cent. to 74.74 per cent.

2. The soda percentage remains fairly constant, but
decreases shghtly towards the end of the series.

3. The potash shows a progressive increase ranging
from 0.66 per cent. at the beginning of the series
to 5.23 per cent. at the end of the series.

4. The basic oxides (CaO, MgO, and FeO) all show
progressive decreases from the beginning to the
end of the series.

These facts would indicate that at the beginning of the
Kuttung vulecanicity in this district the feeding reservoir
contained a magma of andesitic composition, but that, as
a result possibly of gravitational sinking of the more basic
minerals, as cooling and crystallisation progressed, the
magma in the upper part of the reservoir became pro-
gressively more acid, and thus the eruption of andesites
was followed later by the eruption of toscanites, and these
later were followed by the eruption of the rhyolites. It
is worthy of note that, soon after the close of the Kuttung
period of vuleanicity, an extensive series of basic lavas
(natrolite basalt) was erupted in this same district and
forms part of the Lower Marine Series which overlie the
Kuttung Series. These basalts may be taken to represent
the basic portion which accumulated in the lower part of

the magma reservoir, whose final eruption completed the

cycle.

If, on the other hand, the andesites of Stephens Head
xepresent a lava flow poured out after the toscanites, then

S jie

byal Society of V.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate XVI,

Hawks Nest

SS
a)
Cabbage Tree
yes Island

= -
> NORTH HEAD

(Yacaaba) Bent

Boondelbah
N HO

Island
al Bay <=) SOUTH HEAD
i Y (Tomeree)

ab ion hS

@ Shark.
oN STEPHENS

~
3
S
aS

; Oe pt

Burind/ beds and Wallarabba conglomerates.
Andesites and associated strata
Toscani€es
a Rhyolites and associated strata
paren Recent alluvium and sand dunes.
———— faults

: SCALE OF MILES
0 ye) 1 2 4
Ken. Craigie.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928.

7, ae) North Arm ach eS TEA GARDENS O
Co ‘ i ,
OQ ue Ls SS UE 5O Duck Hole GreenPt.
Gardenl. ———>=/* %, XG y

Riv?

BAROMA PT

Fame Cove se ii
FAME ?——<———>

NORTH P®

oe
OneTreel.8 —. SOLDIER PT N. = NORTH HEAD
oaky | STEPHENS 3 (aeaaba)
a -
KANGAROO Pt kh, /
/_.NELSON HP
te SOUTH HEAD
2, CORLETTE te (Tomeree)
ROUND HP gb Ye
; aN jLSON BAY
= Uo
i Ganghan Hill @ Shark.
ASSL ane

! POINT STEPHENS
fesse ®
Pig Island +

[acne AnnaB
ch eos SSR a aaa, meen tt -AO}-=> Seca

4
Mi
ay ‘
3tFE ttt H
aad

Toscani€es

; - ———— Faults
Bight MORNA POINT d SCALE OF MILES
castle fo} 2 1 2
New

jes Cabbage Tree
POR push &® Middle |

Plate X VI,

Island

Little
Bl.

PACIFIC

Burindi beds and Wallarabba conglomerates.
Andesites and associated strata

A ~Ahyolites and associated strata
L_] Recent alluvium and sand dunes.

Ken. Craigie.

Geological Map, Port Stephens District,

Senekeeey

cert

eS orm ate teenagers copie a arenes co

TNR ic ee

epee an

Sere

r)
4
be
E

lc caeceenle a ae mel

st er

suas minabaeeaiberahee’

sie agscee ps eme pein nee ART

GEOLOGY OF PORT STEPHENS. roy

we get the following order of extrusion for the Kuttung
lavas: (1) andesites, (2) toscanites, (3) andesites, (4)
rhyolites. This is a similar order of extrusion to that
which occurs in the Kuttung Series at Eelah. So far as
the Port Stephens area, however, is concerned, we are of
opinion that interpretation (a) is the correct one and that
the lavas became progressively more acid as they were
erupted.

REFERENCES.

1.—Geology of The Hunter River Coal Measures of N.S.
Wales, by Prof. T. W. E. David, B.A., F.R.S., F.G.S. Memoir
No. 4, Dept. of Mines, Sydney, 1907.

2.—Outline of the Main Topographic Features of N.S. Wales,
by C. A. Sussmilch, F.G.S., F.T.C.(Syd.). Proc., Pan Pacific
Science Congress, Australia, 1923.

3.—Sequence, Glaciation and Correlation of the Carboniferous
Rocks of The Hunter River District, N.S. Wales, by C. A.
Sussmilch, F.G.S., F.T.C., and Prof. T. W. E. David, C.M.G.,
D.S.0., B.A., F.R.S. Proc., Royal Society of N.S. Wales, Vol.
LIII., 1919.

4.—Geology and Petrology of the Clarencetown-Paterson
District, Part IV., Petrography by G. Osborne, B.Sc. Proc.,
Linnean Society of N.S. Wales, Vol. L., p. 2, 1925.

5.—On the Hypersthene-Andesite of Blair Duguid, near Al-
landale, N.S. Wales, by W. R. Browne, D.Sc., and H. P. White,
F.C.S. Proc., Royal Society of N.S. Wales, Vol. LX., 1926.

192 R. H CAMBAGE.

THE OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN.
By R. H. Campacg, C.B.E., F.L.S.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Sept. 5, 1928.)

The outbreak of springs in New South Wales between
the months of February and June usually passes unnoticed
excepting during drought seasons, when various reports of
the occurrence are made to the press; but if an increased
flow of water is observed in any of the streams after even
a very slight fall of rain, this increase is generally
attributed to the rainfall and no remarks are made. The
theory advanced in this paper is that at least ninety per
cent. of these outbursts or stimulated flows which occur
when no rain falls are caused by a decrease in evaporation
or lowering of atmospheric temperature, and that the
phenomenon is in evidence after the heat of summer has
passed, or after a sudden drop in temperature for a few
days, but is more noticeable in the absence of rainfall.

A short note which I contributed on the subject was
published in “‘The Surveyor’’ in June, 1897,* and in
September, 1897, the late W. E. Abbott read a valuable
paper on the question before this Society.t In both of
these contributions the cause of the outbursts was attri-
buted to diminishing evaporation. The object of the
present paper is to record the result of further investiga-
tions into the matter.

*“The Surveyor,” 1897, 10, No. 6, 144.

+ This Journal, 1897, 31, 201. See also “Report on the Water
Resources of the Hunter Valley,” 1908, by J. B. Henson,
Assoc.M.Inst.C.E. (Hunter District Water Supply and Sewerage
Board). The report was received after this paper was read.

OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN. 193

My first observation on this subject was made in
December, 1890, where there was a small swamp in the
Walcha district, and every morning a little stream was
flowing freely from it, but by each evening all water had
disappeared from the tiny stream. I have noticed the
same feature many times since then, and similar observa-
tions have been made by bushmen on innumerable occasions.
During a dry period in 1897, my assistant, Mr. R. G.
Wilson, drew my attention to the fact that all the cases
of increased flow which we had noticed during our survey-
ing operations in the Bathurst to Harden district originated
in swamps. |

It does not appear that barometric changes of pressure
cause these outbursts of springs, for, as Mr. Abbott points
out, this would require a high pressure at the source of the
spring and a low pressure at its outlet. It would not be
possible to get this difference of pressure in such a short
distance as that comprised in the length or width of one
of these water-supplying swamps, which are often only a
few hundred yards or, at most, a few miles in extent.

The theory that the dry weather cracks the ground and
releases impounded water is by no means universally
accepted, because in an ordinary case the ground will not
erack while it remains moist. Mr. Abbott cites the case of
a surface dam, and states that while it contains any water
the outside of the dam will not crack, even in dry, hot
weather.

On the other hand, Mr. E. T. Webb, of Bathurst, wrote
to me in April, 1923, as follows:—‘‘In a dry time some
years ago a crack came in the ground on the side of a hill
about 8 miles from the town, and after a time moisture
came up through the crack, and when the moisture had
softened the ground the water commenced to run—this in

M—September 5, 1928.

“194 R. H. CAMBAGE.

hot weather, and in a place where there had been no spring
before.’”’

I do not know the local conditions surrounding this ease,
but it is conceivable that a slight earth movement or
partial landslide on the side of a hill might result in
releasing some water, or cause its course to be diverted.

Mr. Webb also wrote: ‘‘Now my theory is this, that in
different localities the nature of soil and subsoil is different
and therefore different causes operate. Here it is prin-
cipally granite country with clay subsoil; hence, as a
spring gets weak the small particles of granite which are
coming along the channel gradually stop the opening until
no water will percolate through; the water then commences
to accumulate at the back until the pressure is sufficient to
clear the opening.”’

No doubt something of this nature happens at times,
but only in a small way, and is of a local nature; whereas
an increase in the flow of various streams appears to be
more or less of a regular character during some portion
of the autumn. In reply to my question in March, 1928,
the manager of Springfield, in the Orange district, stated
that the water generally increases in Lewis Ponds Creek
in or about May, even if no rain falls.

I was informed that without any rain having fallen the
‘water commenced to flow in Molong Creek near the town
of Molong, on the 9th or 10th April, 1923. Prior to this
the creek had stopped running owing to dry weather.

Springs and their Variation.

On the western slopes of New South Wales, where many
of these springs occur, there are three different sets of
conditions. One is in the northern portion where the
steeply-dipping rocks convey the rain-water westerly to a

OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN. 195

great depth, where it is overlain by impervious strata, and
impounded. This artesian water is reached by boring,
‘when it comes to the surface as the result of pressure.

The second condition is found towards the foot of the
western slopes, where rain-water disappears by soakage in
fairly level country with a considerable amount of alluvium,
and this water may not find an outlet, but as sub-artesian
water may be brought to the surface by windmills or other
methods of pumping.

The third case, which is that now under consideration,
is where the rain or snow falls on elevated country and
then finds its way into the soil which acts as an under-
ground reservoir, which in ordinary years is kept practi-
eally full. The small outlets through which the water
escapes are called springs, and while there is a quantity
of water in the soil or reservoir these springs may continue
to flow, even if no rain falls. Near the outlet the ground
becomes spongy, and the water, to some extent by capillary
attraction, rises to the surface and forms swampy areas of
various dimensions. As the summer advances and evapo-
ration increases, there often comes a time when the evapo-
ration, which may continue day and night, claims all the
water on the surface, and leaves none to flow into the
stream below. The spring is then said to be dry.

There are two conditions which may operate to start
the spring flowing again. One is the falling of sufficient
rain to replenish the reservoir so that it will be able to
force out more water than can be at once evaporated, in
which case some will flow away, and the occurrence will
eall for no public remarks. The second ease is one that
may happen with or without rainfall, and is caused by
a lowering of atmospheric temperature with a consequent
diminution of evaporation. When the outburst happens

196 R. H. CAMBAGE.

in drought time, as the result of diminishing evaporation.
only, there is considerable comment, and the phenomenon
is regarded by some casual thinkers as an indication that
the drought will soon terminate, and by others that it will
continue. The little rills which issue from the various.
springs and other moist places all unite, and cause a defi-
nite flow in the streams into which they drain, and this.
flow sometimes continues for very many miles.

Should an intermittent spring, fed by rainfall and with-
out a storage reservoir, be situated a great distance from
its source of supply, the water might take some months
following an underground course to reach the outlet, in
which case it is possible that the outbreak would occur
during a dry period without being the result of diminished
evaporation.

Evaporation.

The late H. C. Russell, F.R.S. carried out a consider-
able amount of investigation on the question of evapora-
tion in New South Wales, and records an instance at Lake
George in March, 1885, where in three days, while a nor-
therly wind was blowing, the lake lost one and a half inches
by evaporation.* Lake George is given as roughly 20 miles.
long and 5 miles wide.

Mr. Russell carried out various evaporation tests at
Sydney during the year 1885. ‘‘Two dishes, each 8 inches
deep and 2 feet on each side, that is, exposing 4 squars
feet of surface, were used for the purpose of testing the
amount of water evaporated from soil, grass covered and
bare . . .The evaporation from these dishes was tested
by weighing once a day.’’** The daily mean in inches for
the year was, grass covered 0.083, bare earth 0.071, water
0.100.

* This Journ. 1885, 19, 24.
* “Rain and River Observations made in New South Wales,
1885,” by H. C. Russell, C.M.G. (Government Printer).

OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN. 197

Mr. Russell wrote:—‘‘The amount of evaporation de-
pends very much upon the state of the soil; if it is wet on
the surface the evaporation goes on from it much faster
than from water; but as the ground dries the condition
is reversed and the earth evaporates less than the water

. .The grass brings the subsoil water to the surface and
aids evaporation in very dry weather, so that the evapora-
tion from grassed soil is more regular than from bare soil,
and in the course of the year it loses more than the dry
earth by 20 per cent.; but in comparing it with water it
evaporates 14 per cent. less.”’

The total evaporation for Sydney in 1885 is given as
36.514 inches, the monthly mean being 3.043. The lowest
is given as 1.669 for July, and the highest as 4.683 inches
for January.

The mean monthly evaporation at Bourke was 5.174
inches for the months April to December (inclusive), 1885,
the lowest being 1.963 for July, and the highest 9.308
inches for December, the average evaporation per day
being given as 0.169.

Atmospheric Effect on Flow from Springs at Kosciusko.

On the 16th and 17th February, 1920, two small swamps
were noticed to be feeding tiny rills which were finding
their way along the gutter on the roadside a short dis-
tance above the hotel, at an elevation of a little more than
5000 feet above sea-level. From sunrise until about 2.30
p.m. the sun shone full upon the road, but after this the
springs and small streams came within the shadow of the
mountain. The effect of diminishing evaporation was very
clearly manifest on the flow of water as soon as it came
within the shadow.

In the case of No. 1 stream, which was the more feeble
of the two, it was found to extend 66 yards along the
roadside from its source at 2.45 p.m., while at 5.45 p.m.

198 R. H. CAMBAGE.

its length was 76 yards, but during the night, and at 7.30’
a.m. the following morning it reached 92 yards from its
source, and disappeared in the sand near a gully into
which it doubtless found its way. During the whole of
the following forenoon the length of the little rill was.
gradually shortened by evaporation, until again it reached
only about 66 yards from its source.

No. 2 stream was fed from a little swamp about 50 feet
by 20 feet, and extended 160 yards from its source at 2.30%
p.m., while at 7.20 a.m. the following morning it reached
252 yards, or an additional 92 yards, and disappeared.
under a culvert. The evaporation from the heat of the
sun operated on it so that by 10.5 a.m. it had receded 56:
yards, and 88 yards by 12.25 p.m. and the volume in the
little stream itself was much reduced.

Atmospheric Effect on Flow at Mittagong.

Water is impounded under large masses of basalt on the:
Mittagong Range, and finds its way out at various points.
where it forms swampy areas and springs. In May, 1923,
a farm on the side of the range was visited, and it was.
found that the water for the stock was brought about 300:
yards in a pipe one and a half inches in diameter from
one of these springs which was open to the full rays of
the sun. The farmer’s statement was that during the sum-.

mer months there was usually a full flow throughout the

night and in the morning, but this would decrease towards
the afternoon of a moderately hot day and perhaps cease
at about 5 p.m., while on a very hot day the flow would.
cease altogether at about 2 p.m., though it would probably

start again sometime during the evening. On one exceed--

ingly hot day the water ceased and did not flow again un--
til the following morning, when the weather was much
cooler. This variation in flow clearly seems to be in res--
ponse to variation in evaporation.

= Ita cealal

OUTBREAK OF SPRINGS IN AUTUMN. 199

In June, 1923, it was found that the water from this
spring had continued to run, day and night, since early
in April, but as evidence that a spring without being re-
plenished is not inexhaustible, the volume had become so
reduced owing to continued dry weather that a one inch
pipe was sufficient to carry off the water in June.

An Outburst at Bathurst in Dry Weather.

On the 25th February, 1923, a message was sent from
Bathurst to the Sydney press as follows:—‘‘ What are re-
garded as signs of a continuance of the drought is the fact
that in several portions of the Bathurst district springs
have broken out and are running strongly. Vale Creek,
which has been dry since last storm has now two inches of
water running, as the result of the springs.’’

As it was thought that this outbreak of springs was con-
sequent upon a fall of temperature having occurred some
little time earher, I recently obtained, through the kindness
of Mr. KH. W. Timcke, acting Meteorologist in charge of
the Sydney Weather Bureau, the Bathurst temperature
figures for the period in question, and they disclose a fall
of 16 degrees from the 15th to the 16th February, 1923.
When it is remembered that some days would elapse from
the time the spring began to flow until it reached and was
noticed some distance down the ereek, it seems fair to as-
sume that this particular outbreak was the result of a fall
of temperature and a diminution of evaporation. How
long this flow continued I am unable to say, but the re-
turning heat probably soon terminated it.

It may be noted that on the 16th February, when the
maximum temperature fell from 89 to 73 degrees, and the
minimum fell as low as 47 degrees, the wind was from the
east, and would contain more humidity and less evapora-
ting properties than a wind coming to the Bathurst district
from the west or north.

200 R. H. CAMBAGE.

The temperatures in question are given below.

Bathurst Minimum Maximum

February, 1928. Degrees. Degrees. Wind 9 a.m.
12 50 88 calm clear
13 56 83 east light clear
14 ays) 90 east light clear
15 59 89 calm cloudy
16 ayy) 73 east light overcast
17. AT 86 calm few clouds
18 54 94 calm cloudy
19 De 95 calm clear
20 56 90 calm clear
2il o4 98 east light clear
22 64 96 calm cloudy
23 Be 101 calm fine
24 64 102 ealm fine
20 67 98 calm fine

On the 17th April, 1923, a message was sent to the press
from Bathurst stating that ‘‘Springs have broken out at
the head of the Fish River, and a strong stream of clear
water is now running into the Macquarie’’. An examina-
tion of the temperature figures at the Sydney Weather
Bureau shows that the average maximum temperature at
Bathurst from the first to the 17th April, 1923, was 72
degrees, but that on the 8th and 9th April the maximum
was 64 and 65 degrees respectively. This fall in the tem-
perature was probably responsible for the stream which
a week later had reached the Macquarie.

There seems nothing remarkable in the fact that springs
may start to flow on or after about the middle of April
even in a drought period, for the rate of evaporation has
eonsiderably diminished by this time, and, even without
any rain having fallen, it is not unusual to see a creek,
which heads in a swamp, flowing more freely in May than
in March.

It does not appear that the outbreak of springs in dry
weather has any bearing on the duration of a drought.

NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 201

DESCRIPTION OF
THREE NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND
ONE ACACIA.
By W. F. BLAKELY.

Assistant Botanist, National Herbarium, Sydney.
(With Plates XVII.-XX.)

“(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Oct. 3, 1928.)

EUCALYPTUS JOYCEAE, N.Sp.

Arbor ad 20-60 pedes alta, nonnumquam duabus aut pluribus
-stirpibus a basi emergentibus; cortex asper, per pedes plures
‘persistens, levis et deciduus in superiori trunco et in ramis;
folia juvenilia pluribus parvibus opposita, orbicularia, elliptica
-vel late lanceolata, breviter petiolata, 4-5 x 2.5-4 cm.; folia
adultiora alternata, petiolata, lanceolata vel obliquo-falcata,
-eoriacea, frequentibus glandulis punctiformibus, 6-18 x 2-3 cm.;
-vernatio subconspicna, venae laterales ex angulo 30-40°
surgentes a costa media; inflorescentia umbellis axillaribus 7-15
florum; gemmae clavatae, acutae, pedicellatae; calyx calathi-
formis circiter 3 mm. altus; operculum conicum vel fere
rostratum; antherae reniformes; capsulae pyriformes vel fere
pilulares, truncatae 5-7 x 6-8 mm.; ligum durum, fulvum vel
‘badium.

A tree 20-60 feet high, sometimes Mallee-like, with two
or more stems branching from the base, 1-2 feet in
diameter. Barks persistent, light grey, coarsely flaky-
fibrous for 6-12 feet, then smooth, deciduous, white or
mottled on the remainder of the trunk and branches, and
with the characteristic marking of EH. haemastoma or E.
micrantha.

Juvenile leaves rather thin, the first three or four alter-
nate, sueceeded by three or more pairs in the opposite
‘Stage, obicular, elliptical to broadly lanceolate, very shortly
petiolate, 4-5 em. long, 2.5-4 em. broad; venation somewhat

202 W. F. BLAKELY.

fine, the numerous lateral veins much branched, especially
in the orbicular leaves; intramarginal nerve distant from.
the edge.

Intermediate leaves broadly lanceolate to obliquely-
lanceolate, acuminate, shortly petiolate, 7-13 em. long, 4-8:
cm. broad; venation moderately distinct on both surfaces,
the lateral veins 18 to 23 on each side of the prominent
midrib, somewhat irregular and diverging at an angle of
40-50° with the midrib; intramarginal vein distant from
the slightly thickened revolute margin.

Adult leaves alternate, moderately thick, glossy, with
numerous oil-dots, petiolate, lanceolate to obliquely-falcate-
lanceolate, acuminate, 6-18 em. long, 2-3 em. broad; vena-
tion somewhat distinct, the lateral veins rather fine, mak-.
ing an angle of 30-40° to the midrib; intramarginal vein
usually distant from the edge.

Inflorescence in axillary umbels or sub-paniculate owing
to the suppression of the upper leaves; peduncles slightly
compressed, somewhat slender, up to 2 em. long. Buds.
clavate, acute, 7-15 in the head, distinctly pedicellate, the
pedicels at first shghtly angular, but as the fruit develops:
becoming rather slender and terete, 5-7 mm. long. Calyx
somewhat goblet-shaped, about 3 mm. deep, 4 mm. across.
the top; operculum conical to almost rostrate, sometimes.
longer than the calyx-tube. Filaments white, all antheri-
ferous. Anthers small, reniform, usually with a terminal
oland.

Fruit pedicellate, pyriform to nearly pilular 5-7 x 6-8
mm. truncate, slightly contracted at the top. Dise usually
forming a thin downward sloping reddish ring over the
basal portion of the valves, but sometimes almost flush.
with the edge of the ecalycine ring; valves usually 4,.
invariably inclosed owing to the declivity of the capsular
dise, which is most marked in some specimens.

NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 203:

Timber brown to reddish brown, darker than that of
E. piperita and E. Considemana, moderately hard and
interlocked, with the characteristic gum veins of the above
species. On the whole, it is harder and probably more:
durable than the timber of its congeners. For fuel pur-
poses it is better than the timber of EF. piperita.

Type from about one mile south of Kariong Trig
Wondabyne, New South Wales (D. W. C. Shiress and
Wit /B.).

The tree in the field conveys the impression of being
intermediate between E. haemastoma and E. piperita, as:
it partakes of the cortical characters of both species, while
the buds and fruits resemble those of the former, and the
timber approaches more closely to that of the latter.

E. Joyceae is unique in that it connects the Pepper-
mints with two Renantherous White Gums with red
timber, namely, H. haemastoma and E. micrantha, which.
were tentatively placed in the Renantherae, apparently
without any very close affinities, especially as regards the
timber. But E. Joyceae appears to bridge the gap, not
only in the colour of the timber, but also in other morpho-
logical characters, which, when carefully studied in
conjunction with those of its allies seem to define more
clearly its natural genetical relationship with the above-
mentioned groups.

Named in memory of my adopted daughter Joyce, who,.
before her untimely death, assisted me in many little
ways with my botanical work.

Range.

It appears to be confined to the Hawkesbury sandstone,
between Parramatta and Gosford, singly or in small
clumps, but, so far, I have not succeeded in finding its.
optimum. It is, however, more plentiful on the northern.

"204 W. F. BLAKELY.

‘side of the Hawkesbury River than on the southern side,
and I predict that when it is better known its range will
probably extend as far as Brisbane, Queensland.

The localities south of the Hawkesbury are—Parramatta,
“**Half-barked variety of White Gum’’ (Rev. Dr. W. W.
Woolls). The fruits are broad and truncate, with a well-
defined disc. Near the Suspension Bridge, North Sydney
(D. W. C. Shiress). Stony Creek Road, about half-way
between Pymble and De Burgh’s Bridge (C. T. White
cand W.F.B.). When Mr. White’s attention was drawn
to the tree, he intimated that it resembled a tree growing
around Brisbane. About one mile east of Wahroonga
Railway Station, on the edge of the shale, where it grows
into shaft-like trees, in association with EH. micrantha, E.
Sieberiana, FE. corymbosa, and E. resinifera (W.F.B.) ;
‘near the old Wool-wash, Spring Gully Creek, 1 mile east
of Hornsby, and about + mile north of Junction Road;
also 4 mile west of the latter locality; between Collings
Street and Junction Road (W.F.B.). On the track to
‘Gibberygong Creek, Kuring-gai Chase, near the descent
‘to the Bogey Hole (W.F.B.). Hill 60, about 1 mile north
-of Cowan; also on the east side of Cowan Tunnel, and
on the top of the Tunnel (D. W. C. Shiress and W.F.B.) ;
near the 26-mile post Cowan, twin trees 30 feet high, one
foot in diameter. Bark rough at base for 6-10 feet, then
‘smooth and blotched like the bark of E. haemastoma, for
-which it could easily be mistaken were it not for the
‘rough, flaky bark at base, and the Peppermint-like odour
of the leaves when crushed. The fruits are larger than
‘the type, and about the same size as those of the co-type.

Localities North of the Hawkesbury.—Two trees found
by D.W.C.S. and W.F.B. at the head of the long swamp,
‘two miles north of Wondabyne; and two more on the
‘rocks overlooking Mooney Mooney, about 4 mile north of

NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 205-

the first locality. There is also a large tree in an open
gully, about 3 mile north of the second locality, and two:
more trees, one on each side of the Wallaby Rocks, + mile:
east of the latter locality. All are small trees except one,
with a little rough bark at base, and with the upper por-
tion of the stems and branches smooth and white. About
one mile south of Kariong Trig., on a rather exposed
plateau about 700 feet above sea level, are nine trees,
ranging from 40-60 feet high, and from 12 to 24 inches.
in diameter, all of which have rough bark at base and
smooth bark on the branches. These may be regarded as.
the Type (D.W.C.S. and W.F.B.). On the Woy Woy-
Gosford Road, about one mile from the junction of the
new Wiseman’s Ferry Road; also by the side of the new
Sydney-Neweastle Road, about one mile below the junction.
of the former road.

A little below the junction of the old Wiseman’s Ferry
Road and the old road leading to the Industrial Home
for Boys, Penang Range, near Gosford, are six trees
ranging from 25 to 60 feet in height, and from 9-24 inches.
in diameter. They have the characteristic persistent rough
bark at the base, smooth upper stems and branches as the
Kariong trees. The largest, and probably the oldest, tree
appears to be a very great age, and has indications of
having weathered many storms and bush fires. In fact,
nearly all the trees of H. Joyceae are severely charred and
burnt to almost a shell at the base, and in some cases
the original tree is burnt right out, and from the thin
shell fresh shoots have sprung up and developed into:
lofty trees.

About 8 miles from Gosford, on the top of Penang
Ranges. This specimen is recorded in error by J. H.
Maiden in Proce. Linn. Soc., N.S.W., Vol. XXV., p. 109:
(1900), as EH. stricta, and as EH. Consideniana, Maiden,.

206 - W. F, BLAKELY.

le, Vol. XXIX., p. 477 (1904), and is figured in error
under H. Considemana in the Critical Revision of the
Genus Eucalyptus, Part X., Plate 46, figs. 9a, 9b, and
referred to on page 314 as follows—Penang , Mountain,
Gosford (J.H.M. and J. L. Boorman), ‘“*Very like a
Peppermint in appearance, only the bark is not so stringy
—more flaky, white smooth limbs. A fair-sized tree and
scarce (Andrew Murphy).’’ Co-type. At the bottom of
page 315, Mr. Maiden, when discussing EH. Sieberrana and
E. Consideniana, again refers to it, 1e., ‘‘The Penang
fruits are not perfectly typical; they show more than
ordinary resemblance to H. Sieberiana.’’ The fruits are
not quite ripe, hence the very sharp rim which is due to
the undeveloped state of the capsular dise. 3
Affinities.

1. With E. haemastoma Sm.

Trees of EH. Joyceae could very easily be mistaken for
E. haemastoma, as the cortical characters of the upper
portion of the trunk and branches of both species are
almost identical, except that the markings of EH. Joyceae
are less blotchy and greener, and are usually in broad
irregular stripes, which is mainly due to the fact that
the smooth bark decorticates annually in broad ribbons
2-10 feet long. While the bark of E. haemastoma. sheds
in small, broad flakes, rarely exceeding 12 inches long;
it is also different in texture, being soft and brittle.

The juvenile leaves of both species are broad, but those
of EL. haemastoma are much broader and coarser than the
leaves of EH. Joyceae; while there is also an almost total
absence of aromatic oil in the leaves of the former, it is
always markedly present in leaves of the latter.

The adult leaves of both present the same general facies,

but the leaves of EH. Joyceae are, on the whole, smaller
and less coriaceous than those of HE. haemastoma, and, on

NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 207

the other hand, they are furnished with more oil dots than
the leaves of its ally.

The buds of EL. Joyceae differ from those of HF. haemas-
toma in being more acute or rostrate. As regards the
fruits, they are somewhat similar in size and shape in
both species, but the capsular dise of HE. Joyceae is invari-
ably more oblique, while the pedicels are frequently longer
and more slender than those of H. haemastoma.

The timber of EH. Joyceae is brown to reddish-brown,
hard, and close grained; that of H. haemastoma is red,
moderately soft and brittle.

2. With E. piperita Sm.

Some trees of EH. Joyceae, especially those with the
rough, persistent. bark extending almost to the large
branches would pass for this species. But an examination
of the buds, fruits, juvenile leaves, and a closer scrutiny
of the cortical characters of the latter will readily show
that, although at first sight they appear to be alike, there
is a marked difference between them when they are care-
fully investigated.

For instance, the persistent bark of H. Joyceae is more
coarsely fibrous and of a yellowish-grey colour, while the
smooth deciduous bark is whiter and sheds in longer and
broader strips. The juvenile leaves are at least a size
larger, more broadly lanceolate, and thicker than those of
L. pyperrta. The buds of #. Joyceae are relatively larger,
and the fruits also differ in shape, size and texture from
those of its ally.

3. With H. Bottw Blakely.

The large fruits of this species somewhat resemble those
of #. Joyceae; and there is also a general similarity in
the juvenile and intermediate leaves. On the other hand,

208 W. F. BLAKELY.

E. Bottu grows to a much larger tree, and its persistent
rough bark usually extends well out on the branches.

4. With E. Consideniana Maiden.

E. Joyceae is not unlike E. Considenana as regards size
and habit, but the persistent, rough bark of the former
does not extend to the tips of the branches like that of
the latter. The timber of H. Joyceae is darker and harder,
while the buds are more acute, and the fruit is thinner
and slightly different in shape. The juvenile leaves also
differ from those of EL. Considemana in being less glaucous.

Description of Seedlings.

Hypocotyl slender, terete, purple-brown. Cotyledons
reniform, somewhat unequally lobed, tapering into a long
petiole, 7 x 5 mm., dark green above, purple-brown
beneath.

Ist pair of leaves opposite, petiolate, oblong-lanceolate,
2 em. long, 9 mm. broad, dark green above, purple-brown
beneath; veins obscure. 2nd pair of leaves opposite,
shortly petiolate, oblong, or nearly so, 4.5 x 2 em., light
green above, pale beneath. 8rd pair of leaves opposite,
curved inward with shorter petioles than in the preceding
pair, oblong-lanceolate, 7.5 x 2.3 em.; venation obscure
above, prominent beneath. 4th pair of leaves similar to
the 3rd pair, but much longer with a broader base, 9.7 x
3.5 em.; upper surface dark green, veins obscure; lower
surface pale green; lateral veins conspicuous, diverging
at an angle of 35-40° to the midrib; oil dots copious.

Ist pair of alternate leaves lanceolate, petiolate, 12 x
3.8 em.; venation and colour the same as the 4th pair.
2nd pair of alternate leaves lanceolate, petiolate, 13 x 4.3
em.; upper surface dark green, veins distinct, midrib,
lateral veins and margins a warm reddish-brown; lower

NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 209

surface light green; veins prominent, green, diverging at
an angle of 30-40° to the midrib; intramarginal vein 3-4
mm. from the margin.

Internodes terete, except at their junction with the
leaves, purple-brown, ranging from 3-5 em. long.

At 4 inches high E. Joyceae is almost identical with
E. anomala, but after that, the leaves of the last-men-
tioned species become more sharply lanceolate and sessile,
and they also continue in the opposite stage for a greater
number of pairs than H. Joyceae, which does not appear
to exceed four or five pairs at most.

The seedlings of HE. Joyceae have fewer opposite leaves
than those of E. piperita; they are, however, larger, and
broader, also less glaucous and more lanceolate than those
of the latter species.

EUCALYPTUS ANOMALA n.sp.

Arbor 25-35 pedes alta; cortex pallide cinereus, rude diffissus
et fibrosus, persistens inferiore trunco, at supra laevis candi-
dusque; folia juvenilia opposita saltem decem paribus, late
lanceolata, sessilia vel amplexicaulia; folia adultiora, petiolata,
lanceolata vel obliquo-lanceolata, acuminata, crassa, coriacea,
5-19 x 2-3 cm.; venatio aliquantulum inconspicua, venae laterales
tennissimae, divergentes angulo 35-40° a costa media; umbellae
axillares vel pseudo-paniculatae; gemmae 10-20 in umbella,
pedicellatae, clavatae, fere omnino obtusae; tubus calycis sub-
calathiformis, 4-5 mm. diametro; operculum scutellariforme,
apiculatum; antherae omnes fertiles, parvae, reniformes;
capsulae subpyriformes, pedicellatae 7-8 v 6-8 mm.; lignum
pallidum, fissile.

Trees 25-30 feet high, 9-12 inches in diameter, with a
rough coarsely fibrous light-grey bark on the lower por-
tion of the trunk, the upper portion smooth and white,
which decorticates annually in long narrow ribbons.

Juvenile leaves opposite for six or more pairs, cordate-
lanceolate to lanceolate, sessile to somewhat amplexical,
eto x 3-7 em;

N—October 3, 1928.

210 W. F. BLAKELY.

Adult leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate to obliquely-
lanceolate, acuminate, thick, coriaceous, 5-19 x 2-3 em.
Venation somewhat obscure; lateral veins very fine, di-
verging at an angle of 35-40° to the midrib; intramarginal
vein usually distant from the margin.

Inflorescence 1n axillary umbels or forming moderately
large pseudo-panicles owing to the suppression of the
upper leaves, as is often seen in EF. haemastoma and E.
umbra. Peduneles compressed, dilated and thickened at
the top, 10-20 mm. long. Buds 10-20 in the umbel, pedi-
cellate, clavate, almost obtuse; pedicels slightly angular,
up to 7 mm. long. Calyx somewhat goblet-shaped, about
3 mm. deep, 4-5 mm. broad. Operculum shorter than the
ealyx-tube, apiculate, scutelliform, with a minute internal
appendage suspended from the top. Filaments numerous,
white, except at the extreme base, which are a pale purple,
all antheriferous. Anthers small, reniform, the broad
papery cells usually tipped with a minute globular gland.

Fruit pedicellate, shortly pyriform, 7-8 x 6-8 mm.,
truncate or more or less slightly domed; dise reddish,
moderately broad, forming a shghtly thickened ring
around the base of the valves, and extending almost over
the tips in a very thin layer; valves usually four, en-
closed; pedicels conspicuous, slightly compressed and
wrinkled, 5-9 mm. long.

Timber pale, close-grained, fairly hight, slightly darker
than that of H. umbra when fresh but apparently of the

same texture.

It is an interesting species from a taxonomic standpoint,
as it appears to form a natural connecting link between
the Stringybarks, and the Gums belonging to the Renan-
therae section.

NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 211

The field and botanical characters of H. anomala so
elosely resemble those of H. Joyceae that Mr. Shiress and
myself for some time failed to distinguish the difference
between them, except that the venation of the leaves of
E. anomala was somewhat finer, and the leaves possessed
a slightly different perfume to those of E. Joyceae. Seeds
of both species were sown to ascertain whether there wou'd
be any marked difference between the young plants. When
the seedlings had reached a height of five inches, the
leaves of those of E. anomala were found to be totally
different from those of EF. Joyceae, both as regards size
and shape, and in being opposite for a greater number of
pairs. They also showed a marked affinity with those of
FE. umbra and E. acmenioides, two members of the Stringy-
bark series, while the seedlings of FE. Joyceae displayed
a striking resemblance to EL. pipertta on the one hand,
and HE. haemastoma on the other, and may be described
as being intermediate in character between the two species.

Renge.

So far it is known from Bywater, near Brooklyn,
Hawkesbury River, where it grows in association with
EL. umbra, E. haemastoma and E. punctata; on the southern
side of Sugarloaf, about five miles north of Brooklyn; also
about one mile due east of Cowan Railway Station, New
South Wales (D.W.C. Shiress and W.F.B.).

Affinities.

A close examination of the botanical characters and its
appearance in the field seem to suggest that it is a natural
hybrid between FE. haemastoma and E. umbra, and it may
be described as a rough-barked haemastoma, or a partly
smooth-barked wmbra.

The persistent rough-bark is very different both in
general appearance and in texture from that of EZ. wnbra.
While the smooth bark, although deciduous at one period

212 W. F. BLAKELY.

of the year, is unlike the bark of EF. haemastoma in that
it exuviates in long, narrow ribbons, and not in short,
broad pieces like the last named species. The venation of
the leaves is intermediate between that of H. haemastoma
and E. umbra; while the buds and the fruits resemble
those of the former species. The juvenile leaves, how-.
ever, are of the HE. wmbra type, and, therefore, sharply
separate it from EL. haemastoma, placing it without doubt
in the Stringybark series, notwithstanding the difference:
in the texture of the bark, and other morphological.
distinctions.
Description of Seedlings.
Hypocotyl slender, terete, purple-brown.

Cotyledons oblong-reniform, almost uniform without any
depression in the centre as 1s the case with many cotyledons.
belonging to the Reniformae Section, 8 x 5 mm., trinerved,
dark green above, purple-brown beneath.

1st pair of leaves opposite, petiolate, narrow-lanceolate:
to acute, 2.5 x 1 em., dark green and obscurely veined
above, purple-brown beneath. 2nd to 6th pair of leaves.
opposite, lanceolate to cordate-lanceolate, sessile to amplex-
ical, 9-14 x 3-6 em., dark green above, pale green beneath;
veins moderately fine, the intramarginal vein slightly
remote from the edge. Internodes elongated, terete, except
the broadly dilated portion close to the leaves, reddish
to a deep purple-brown.

In all stages up to 4 inches they are almost inseparable
from those of EH. Joyceae; after that they resemble the
seedlings of HE. wmbra and E. acmeniordes.

EucALypTus WaARDII, n.sp.

Arbor erecta, Stringybark, 60-70 pedes alta, 1-2 pedes dia-
metro; cortex crassus, fibrosus, ad parvos ramos persistens;
folia juvenilia 2-3 paribus opposita, angusto-lanceolata, breviter
petiolata, 3-12 x 1-2 cm., pallide viridia, glabra, nitentia; folia.

NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 213

- adultiora alternata, petiolata, lanceolata vel falcato-lanceolata,
acuminata, 8-20 x 2-4 cm., obscuro-viridia; venae laterales a
costa mediana angulo 45° diver gentes; inflorescentia umbellis
exillaribus 7-14 mediocrium alborum florum; gemmae pedicel-
latae, fasciculis stellatim radiantibus, pedunculo subtereti 10-14
mm. longo; calyx cyathiformis, 4 x 3 mm.; operculum plerumque
rostratum, 4-5 mm. longum; anterae reniformes; capsulae ovales
vel pyriformes, pedicellatae, 8 x 8 — 9 x 10 mm. solidae, parvum
aditum praebentes; discus bene finitus, ex parte supra valvas
capsulae profunde inclusas extendens.

An erect Stringybark, 60-70 feet high, 1-2 feet in
diameter; bark thick, furrowed, fibrous, persistent to the
small branches, branchlets sub-terete.

Juvenile leaves (not seen from the base of the tree but
from the fruiting branches only) opposite for the first
two pairs, narrow-lanceolate, faleate-lanceolate to acumi-
nate, shortly petiolate, 3-12 x 1-2 em., light green, smooth
and shining without the slightest trace of stellate hairs.

Intermediate leaves (not seen from young saplings, but
from branch suckers only) alternate, narrow lanceolate or
obtuse-lanceolate, shortly petiolate, shghtly oblique, 9-10
x 3-4.5 em., ight green with a somewhat obscure venation.

Adult leaves alternate, petiolate, lanceolate to falcate-
lanceolate, acuminate, slightly oblique, 8-20 x 2-4 em., dark
green and glossy on both surfaces, moderately thick.
Venation somewhat obscure, the very fine lateral veins
diverging at an angle of 40-50° to the midrib; intra-
marginal nerve distant from the margin. Oil dots small,
Copious.

Inflorescence in axillary umbels of 7-14 white flowers.
Buds pedicellate, subfusiform, hight green, radiating in
stellate-like clusters on sub-terete peduncles 10-14 mm.
long. Calyx wine-glass shaped, 4 x 3 mm. Operculum
acuminate to rostrate 4-5 mm. long. Filaments white,
flexuose, nearly all fertile; anthers reniform, usually
erowned with a large globular gland.

214 W. F. BLAKELY.

Fruit oval to pyriform, distinctly pedicellate, 8 x 8 -—
9 x 10 mm. thick, contracted at the top into a small orifice ;
dise forming a well-defined ring inside the calycine border,
and which extends partly over the small, somewhat deeply
enclosed valves of the capsule. Timber pale, very fissile.

Range.

Confined to the Port Jackson district so far as we know
at present.

Gladesville (J. L. Boorman); Lane Cove River near
Killara (J. H. Maiden, Dec. 1898). The late Mr. Maiden
suggested that it might be a natural hybrid between EL.
pilularis and E. eugenioides. Near the old Wooi-wash,.
Spring Gully Creek, Hornsby (Ray Fogarty, E. Stanton
and W.F.B., June 1928). The type. On the Galston Road
14 miles from Hornsby (D. W. C. Shiress and W.F.B.,
July 1916). One mile 8.W. of Parramatta (R. H. Cambage,.
Mareh, 1901, 5:).

Named in honour of my esteemed friend and colleague,
Mr. E. N. Ward, Curator, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Affinities.

1. With E.entgra R. T. Baker. Both species are some-
what alike in carpological characters, but the fruits of
E. mgra are much thinner than those of HE. Wardu; the
buds of the former are also smaller and less rostrate, while
the juvenile leaves are narrower; and there is a marked
difference in the perfume of both species.

2. With E. eugeniordes Sieber. It is readily distinguished
from this species by the large subpyriform fruits, and
in the more rostrate buds. |

3. With L. Muelleriana Howitt. The fruits of HE. Wardit
resemble those of its ally both as regards shape and
sculpture, but on the whole they are smaller, while the
buds are totally different, being rostrate and not clavate
like the buds of HE. Muelleriana.

NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 215

UNINERVES (RACEMOSAE).

Acacta LUCASII, n.sp.

Frutex humilis ramis cinero-tomentosis, germinibus juvenili-
bus dense cinereo-ferrugineis; phyllodia uninervia, ovata vel
elliptico-lanceolata, undulata, breviter petiolata, subrigida,
hirsuta, scabra, marginibus nervum flavescentem simulantibus,
2.5-38 cm. longa, 9-18 mm. lata; inflorescentia praebens capita
pedunculata vel racemos supra phyllodia prominentes; capita
dense villosa 12-20 flores comprehendunt; calyx parvus, sinuose
lobatus, hirsutus, duplo brevior corollae attenuatae; petala 5
ex parte conjuncta, angusto-lanceolata, hirsuta, solida, incurva;
legumina breviter stipitata, dense ferrugineo-tomentosa, ob-
longa, obtusa, 2-4 cm. longa, 1 cm. lata; semina breviter ob-
ligua; funiculus filiformis, in arillum candidum navicularem
desineris.

A small shrub, branches hoary-tomentose, the young
shoots and pods densely hoary-ferrugineous, phyllodia
uninerved, ovate to elliptical-lanceolate, undulate, shortly
petiolate, somewhat rigid and more or less hirsute and
scabrous, the yellowish nerve-like margins conspicuous, and
furnished with a small basal gland, 2.5-8 em. long, 9-18
mm. broad. Stipules small, black-pointed, semi-rigid,
moderately persistent and partly hirsute.

Inflorescence in pedunculate heads or more frequently
in flexuose, pubescent racemes exceeding the phyllodia.
(Perfect flower-heads not seen.) Heads globular, densely
villose, of 12-20 moderately large flowers.

Calyx small, sinuately lobed, hirsute, scarcely half the
length of the attenuated corolla. Petals 5, united near the
centre, hirsute, narrow-lanceolate, thick, incurved. Ovary
densely tomentose. Bracts spathulate to diamond-shaped,
concave at the back, with glandular, hirsute hairs con-
cealing the calyx.

Pods shortly stipitate, densely ferrugineous-villose,
oblong, obtuse, with thickened nerve-like margins, 2-4 em.
x 1 em. or larger. Seeds slightly oblique, jet black, ovate.

216 W. F. BLAKELY.

Funicle filiform for about half its length, finally terminat-

ing in a white, navicular arillus nearly the length of the
seed.

Named in honour of my friend and colleague, Mr.
A. H. 8S. Lucas.

Range.
Bumbury Creek and Green Hill, 8 miles towards
Wadbiliga, Tuross River district, New South Wales
(Miss M. A. Harnett, 16th January, 1928).

Near A. podalyriaefolia in the phyllodia, but totally

distinct from it in the 5-merous flowers, densely ferru- -

gineous-tomentose or villose young shoots and pods. The
pods are remarkable for their rich vestiture, which is a
striking contrast against the light green phyllodia with
their yellowish margins, and thereby A. Lucasw is readily
distinguished from all the Eastern species.

Acacia KYBEANENSIS Maiden and Blakely ;
this Journal 1927, 60, 188.

Pods not previously deseribed.

Pods oblong, moderately straight, distinctly stipitate,
apiculate, glabrous, slightly glaucous, the valves thin,
scarcely coriaceous, 3.5-5.5 em. long, 1.5 em. broad. Seeds
oblique or nearly so, ovate, jet black; funicle white,
filiform for about half its length, then thickened into a
carnose navicular aril nearly the length of the seed.

The broad pods connect it with A. podalyriaefolia.
Tuross River (Miss M. A. Harnett, December, 1927).

I wish to express my thanks to Dr. G. P. Darnell-Smith,
Director, Botanic Gardens, Sydney, for his advice and
interest in this paper.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX1/., 1928. Plate XVIT,

“
:
4
:
‘
3

frm nen

E’. Joycee Blakely,

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928 Plate XVIII.

j
i

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4
j
i

;

:
|
|

EF. anomala Blakely,

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LX11., 1928. Plate XIX.

H. Wardii Blakely,

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928 Plate XX.

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F
:
i

;

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4

:
:

es:

Acacia Lucasii Blakely,

NEW SPECIES OF EUCALYPTUS AND ACACIA. 217

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.
Pian XevVE,
Eucalyptus Joyceae Blakely.
1. A large juvenile leaf.

. Buds and fruits, all from one mile 8. of Kariong Trig.
The type.

3. Fruiting branch, 8 miles from Gosford on the top of
Penang Ranges (Andrew Murphy). Co-type.

Puate XVIII.
Eucalyptus anomala Blakely.
1. Young buds; la, fully developed buds and flowers.
2. Fruiting branch.

3. Juvenile leaf. All from Bywater.

lean uwoyp.S B:G
Eucalyptus Wardu Blakely.
1. Portion of a fruiting branch producing a sucker with
| two pairs of opposite leaves.

2. Buds.
d. Fruits. All from the same tree, Spring Gully Creek,
Hornsby. |

PATH eX Xe
Acacia Lucasu Blakely.
Portion of a branch showing phyllodia and pods.

218 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.

“THE CHEMISTRY OF THE EXUDATION FROM
THE WOOD OF PENTASPODON MOTLEYI.”

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L, F.C.S.
Curator and Economic Chemist,
and
F’. R. Morrison, A.A.C.1., F.C.S.
Assistant Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 5th Dec., 1928.)

Mr. C. E. Lane-Poole, Inspector-General of Forests, Aus-
tralian Forestry School, Canberra, in a communication
dated 28th November, 1927, enquired if the Sydney
Technological Museum would undertake the examination,
with special reference to its economic utilisation, of a cer-
tain oil which exudes from a tree occurring in New Guinea,
and identified as close to Pentaspodon Motleyi. In com-
plianee with this request, the examination was readily
undertaken, and a quantity of the oil, which previously was
obtainable in very limited quantity and difficult to procure,
was made available. As a matter of fact, Mr. Lane-Poole
reports that the quantity supplied, about 2 pints, took him
four years to obtain.

The botanical description and general characters of the
tree yielding this remarkable exudation are given in Mr.
Lane-Poole’s Report, ‘‘The Forest Resources of the Terri-
tories of Papua and New Guinea,’’ 1925, page 109. (This:
publication is printed and published for sale by the Com-
monwealth Government of Australia).

The following interesting and necessary particulars
which furnish an account of the physical characters and
source of the exudation are extracted therefrom, viz. :—

CHEMISTRY OF PENTASPODON MOTLEYI. 219

“The wood of this large tree, 8 feet girth, bole 80 feet, 120
feet over all, contains an oil in such abundance that it may
be collected in conveniently placed receptacles, much as resin
is collected from the Maritime Pine, only the cut must reach
the heart. In many cases the flow is very heavy, and in one
instance a gallon of oil was collected in three hours. In such
cases it is probable that reservoirs of oil have been formed
in hollows caused by rot, and the axe has tapped a crack that
has piped off the supply. While a microscope may yield
some explanation of the formation of the oil in the wood, a
lens shows no special canals or vessels as one would expect
to see. The oil is heavy and misty brown in colour; it re-
sembles motor lubrication oil as used for cylinders. It has a
smell which is hard to describe, though somewhat familiar—-
somewhat fishy linseed oil is the nearest I can get to it.”

We can confirm the physical characters so aptly described
by Mr. Lane-Poole. To all intents and purposes, the oil, on
account of its dark brown colour, viscosity, odour, etc.,
might easily be mistaken for a commercial boiled linseed oil.

Referring again to the origin of the exudation, Mr. Lane-
Poole, in a private communication, states :—

“Microscopic examination shows that the medullary rays
have canals, and these, even from dried specimens of the:
wood, still store their quantity of oil. This is clearly visible
with the liberkuhn method of illumination. I am sending yow
a sample of the wood, so that you may examine it, also you.
will see that the oil exudations are visible to the naked eye.”

Mr. M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C., Economie Botanist at the-
Sydney Technological Museum, who examined the small
sample of wood referred to above, furnished the following:
report thereon, viz. :—

“The wood has been examined microscopically, and Sudan
III. and alkannin both show the presence of oily bodies in
the cavities of the sparsely distributed medullary secretary
passages, in the cells of the thick walled protective sheath
surrounding the canal, and to a slight extent in some of the
wood parenchyma adjoining the canal, but nowhere else. The
canals observed varied from 18-55 yy in diameter. The con--
contents were practically all soluble in 95% alcohol.”

The very small original sample of exudation secured by
Mr. Lane-Poole was submitted to Mr. T. G. H. Jones,
University of Queensland, Brisbane, and his report is pub-.

220 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.

ished in the ‘‘ Forest Resources of Papua and New Guinea,”’

1925, pages 168-169. Unfortunately, the quantity avail-
able did not enable this chemist to make more than a pre-
liminary examination, and beyond the statement that it
consisted of unsaturated acids possessing a molecular
weight of about 400, no other data has been published.

The present investigation of the larger samples submitted
has shown the exudation to consist approximately of about
‘90-95°% of acid bodies possessing unusual characters. The
‘erude oil is non-volatile in steam, and we were unable to
effect its distillation under reduced pressure (1 mm.) with-
out decomposition. Consequently, it is very difficult to pro-
duce evidence as to whether the principal component is a
‘chemical entity or a mixture. For the purpose of this °
-announcement it is regarded as a single acid. Evidence is
adduced under ‘‘ Experimental’’ which shows the principal
acid to be mono-carboxylic with two hydroxyl groups, and
to possess the molecular formula C,,H,,0,. It gives a
beautiful violet colouration with ferric chloride in alcoholic
‘solution. Unfortunately, no crystalline or solid derivatives
(except the silver salt) could be prepared.

The original objective of the investigation was to ascet-

tain if the oil possessed any economic value. Consisting
essentially of an acid or acids of high molecular weight, it
yielded soaps with alkalies, which technically possessed
‘special merits on account of their valuable emulsifying pro-
perties. At present, no other commercial use can be sug-
gested. Its economic utilisation depends entirely on the
possibility of supplhes being obtained in commercial quan-
‘tities. At present the prospects of its availability in large
quantities at a cost which would enable it to compete with
rosin or similar products is not promising, judging from
Mr. Lane-Poole’s report. However, very little is known of
the extent of the natural products of New Guinea in its pre-
-sent undeveloped condition. |

CHEMISTRY OF PENTASPODON MOTLEYI. 221

Experimental.
The two samples of oily exudation received gave the fol-
lowing chemical and physical constants on examination::
Sample No. 1. Sample No. 2.

Specific Gravity, res 1.011 1.01
Refractive Index, 20°C .. 1.5280 1.5295
mei Number ..,... ... 139.08 138.24
Saponification Number .. 142.09 146.64
Solubility in 70°% Alcohol

@oyaawmeieht) 2. ..' .. 2.6 vols. 2.5 vols.
Acid Number after acety-

leeomye ae Pe s LO207 102.53
Iodine Number (Wijs) ... —— 192

Chloride in ethyl aleohol jprecipitate forming on

Reaction with Ferric (Deep violet colour with
solution .. standing.

It was found early in the investigation that the crude
oil was soluble in 8% aqueous sodium hydroxide solution,
and, therefore, in order to determine if the constituents
were of a variable nature it was treated with 1% aqueous.
solution ammonium carbonate, 5°94 aqueous sodium ear-
bonate, and 8% aqueous sodium hydroxide solutions respec-
tively. The best procedure was to dissolve the erude oil
in approximately four times its volume of ether, and to
treat repeatedly with the reagents mentioned.

Ammonium Carbonate Extract—On acidification with
dilute sulphuric acid, extraction with ether and removal of
solvent, only 0.8% of a dark brown viscous residue was
obtained. It gave a faint violet colouration with ferric
chloride in alcoholic solution much resembling the crude

oil and main component, and was found to possess an acid
number of 114.2.

Sodium Carbonate Extract —Shaking at room tempera-
ture with this reagent failed to remove more than a trace
of acid bodies.

222 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.

Sodium Hydroxide EHxtract—On treatment with this
reagent the greater part of the oil went into solution. On
acidification with dilute sulphuric acid, extraction with
ether, and removal of solvent, 93°94 of a dark reddish brown
viscous oil, much resembling the crude exudation, was
recovered. |

Neutral Residue.—The main ethereal solution on removal
of solvent yielded 5% of a yellow viscous oil with an acid
number of 11 and refractive index of 1.5330. It did not
give a colour reaction with ferric chloride in alcoholic
solution.

Examination of Principal Acid Constituent.
Soluble in 8% sodium hydroxide solution.

This component, which constituted over 90% of the crude
‘exudation, was found to possess the following chemical and
physical characters, viz. :—

Specific Gravity, LO aaa: Veet 1.0132
Refractive Index. 20" 4G) i" hss 1.5270
Solubility in 70% alcohol (by weight) 3.3 vols.
Acid Number). 0) a Se

Do. after acetylation |... > .ovWdi@een
Saponitication No. 2.2. 08) Fe Te

Do. after acetylation .. .. 203.24
Iodine Number (Wijs) 30° .. 32° 28
Molecular weight for monobasic acid

ealeulated from Acid Number .. .. 3885.

Colour Reaction.—A very striking violet colour reaction
‘was obtained when a drop of ferric chloride solution was
added to a dilute alcoholic solution of this acid. A similar
‘eoloured precipitate separated on standing.

Molecular Formula.—the following results were obtained
on combustion, viz. :—
(1) 0.1068 gram gave 0.2902 gram CO, & 0.0919 gram H,O
C= 7417... B= oo2

CHEMISTRY OF PENTASPODON MOTLEYI. 233

(2) 0.1040 gram gave 0.2824 gram CO, & 0.0884 gram H,O
C0 Ee a

(3) 0.1154 gram gave 0.51386 gram CO, & 0.0970 gram H,O
C= (267. = oa.

C,,H,,0, requires C = 74.28%. H = 9.23%.

Molecular Weight Deternination—A molecular weight
determination by the Landsberger boiling point method,
using acetone as solvent, gave the following result, viz. :—
1.5416 grams in 21 ¢.c. acetone elevated the boiling point 0.42°

(average of 8 readings). M.Wt. = 384
C,,H,,0, required M.Wt. = 388

Silver Salt—The silver salt was prepared by neutralisa-
tion of the acid body with dilute ammonia solution and pre-
cipitation with silver nitrate solution. 0.7658 gram silver
salt gave on ignition 0.1650 gram silver = 21.55% silver.
The silver salt of C,,H,,0, requires 21.82°% silver.

Copper Salt——On trituration of the acid with excess of
copper carbonate no action appeared to take place at room
temperature, but upon heating at water bath temperature
a vigorous reaction resulted. The green copper salt was
extracted by means of acetone, and was found upon removal
of the solvent to be a very viscous and sticky green paste
which would not solidify.

0.5722 gram of copper salt gave 0.0544 gram CuO on
inition — 9 517 Cud.
The copper salt of a monobasic acid of molecular formula,
C,,H,,0, would yield by calculation 9.44% CuO.

Presence of ‘‘CO”’ and “‘OH”’ Groups.

The presence of ‘‘carbonyl’’ groups could not be detected
by the use of hydroxylamine or semi-carbazone salts. The
solubility, colour reaction, and general chemical deport-
ment, so far observed, point to the presence of one

224 A. R. PENFOLD AND F. R. MORRISON.

‘“carboxyl’’ group and two ‘‘hydroxyl’’ groups in the mole-
cule of this acid. The presence of the latter was demon-
strated by the reactions with phenylisocyanate and particu-
larly with napthylisocyanate, but no definite crystalline
derivatives could be isolated from the reaction mixtures.

Action of Bromine.—Treatment with bromine at —20°
in both dry ether and carbon disulphide solutions respec-
tively yielded sticky masses which could not be induced to
erystallise.

jiu

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 225

THE ESSENTIAL OIL FROM A BORONIA IN THE
PINNATA SECTION.

FROM FRAZER ISLAND, QUEENSLAND.

(Together with a resumé of the essential oils from other closely
allied pinnate leaf Boronias.)

By A. RK, PENPOLD, H/ACCN., FIC.S:
Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 5th Dec., 1928.)

Shortly after the publication of a joint paper with Mr.
M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C., Economie Botanist, Techno-
logical Museum, Sydney, on the Botany and Chemistry of
Boronia pinnata (Smith) and Boronia thujona (sp. nov.)
(This Journal, Vol. LV. (1921), pages 196-209), material
from a pinnate leaf Boronia from Frazer Island, Queens-
land, was kindly furnished by Mr. C. T. White, F.L.S.,
Government Botanist of that State. It has been known up
to the present as the ‘‘Thin-leafed’’ Boronia pinnata from
Frazer Island.

The examination of the essential oil from but a pound
weight of the leaves and terminal branchlets revealed a
striking difference between it and the oils from closely allied
Species. Supplies of the leaves and terminal branchlets in
quantity were accordingly procured through the good
offices of the Queensland Forest Service for the express
purpose of examining the essential oil. The leaves, on
crushing between the fingers, emitted the powerful and
eharacteristic odour of safrol. Mr. C. T. White, F.L:S.,
Government Botanist of Queensland, and Mr. E. Cheel,
Curator of the National Herbarium, Sydney, have given

much attention to the study of this thin-leafed form of
O—December 5, 1928.

226 A. R. PENFOLD.

Boronia pinnata, and both are of the opinion that it is pro-
bably a form of either Boronia thujona (Penfold and
Welch) or of Borona Muellert (Cheel). It is necessary
at this stage briefly to review the scattered data on the
characters and chemistry of these closely allied species of
Boronia in order that the points of difference between those
already described and this new form may be clearly
demonstrated.

In the first instance, a paper entitled ‘‘On the Essential
Oil of Boroma prnnata, Sm., and the presence of Hlemicin,’’
by H. G. Smith, F.C.S., was published in the ‘‘ Proceedings
of the Royal Society of Victoria,’’ Vol. XXXII. (new
series), part 1, 1919, pages 14-19. The species of Boronia
referred to therein as B. pinnata, Sm., was later shown by
Mr. E. Cheel to be identical with B. pinnata var. Muelleri,
Bentham. This worker considered it to be worthy of
specific rank and accordingly named it Boronia Muelleri,
sp. nov. (See this Journal, Vol. LVIII. (1924), page 147).
Leaves and terminal branchlets were kindly furnished in
1925 by Miss C. C. Currie, of Lardner, Victoria, through
the Forestry Commission of Victoria, and the results
obtained in the examination of the essential oil confirmed
those obtained by the late H. G. Smith in the paper referred
to above. (See under ‘‘ Experimental.’’)

Although Mr. HE. Cheel finds difficulty in separating this
species, B. Muelleri, from B. thujona by any well-defined
botanical characters (see paper, ‘‘Notes on Boronia in the
pinnate section, with a description of a new species,’’ by
E. Cheel, this Journal, Vol. LVIII. (1924), page 148), the
writer, who has handled the material in bulk for oil distilla-
tion, has been able to discern a marked difference in general
appearance, both in disposition of foliage and flowers. As
a matter of fact, it is the most abundant flowering pinnate
leaf Boronia I have as yet observed, the long terminals
being especially heavily laden with blossom.

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 227

Referring now to the thin-leafed Boronia from Frazer
Island, the Queensland Forest Service, in a letter under
date 25th August, 1927, furnished the following particulars
regarding its habitat which were supplied by the officer
responsible for the collection of the material forwarded for
oil distillation purposes.

“On Fraser Island Boronia pinnata occurs in moist gullies
and on the edges of fresh water swamps and creeks, where
plenty of moisture is obtainable, but where the sun has play
upon its foliage. The soil is composed of sand and rotting
humus. It there grows in association with Leptospermum
Liversidgei, Banksia latifolia and grasses and shrubs found
in this type of country. The associated trees are Broadleafed
Tea tree (Melaleuca leucadendron) and Swamp Mahogany
(Eucalyptus robusta). The Boronia varies in height from
two to six feet with a maximum stem diameter of one inch
at ground level.”

The habitat of Boronia thujona is very similar, but it
has been observed to attain a greater height, sometimes up
to 12 feet from the ground, with a stem diameter of 2ins. at
ground level. The writer suggests that the Frazer Island
Boronia be considered as a form of: B. thujona until such
time as botanical science is able to bring forward morpho-
logical or other evidence that will differentiate it from the

closely allied species or forms.

Although the essential oil is particularly high in content
of safrol it is a species quite distinct from Boronia
safrolifera, which is easily determinable by botanists (see
this Journal, Vol. LVIII, 1924, page 146 and pages 230-
‘233, papers by Cheel and Penfold, respectively).

The essential oils of the various species in the pinnate
section show a remarkable diversity in chemical composi-
tion, particulars of which are given in the summary at the

end of this paper.

1228 A. R. PENFOLD.

The Essential Oils.

Pinnate Leaf Boroma from Frazer Island, Q.
(B. thujona, var. ‘*A.’’)

Two hundred and twenty-two and a half pounds weight
of leaves and terminal branchlets were kindly furnished
through the courtesy of the Queensland Forest Service.
On distillation with steam, yellow oils, heavier than water,
highly refracting and fluorescent, and smelling strongly of
safrol, were obtained in a yield of 0.5 to 0.6% (second con-
signment ignored on account of loss of oil during drying
and transit). The chemical and physical characters are
shown in table I.

The principal constituents, so far identified, were found
to be safrol (75-80% ) and [-limonene, with small quantities
of phenolic bodies, sesquiterpene, and a paraffin of M.Pt.
65-66°.

Experimental.

The two principal distillates gave the following results

on distillation, viz. :—

17/9/1923. 80 ¢.c., after removal of 0.61 gram phenolic
constituents, commenced to distil at 70°
(20 mm.), 20% distilled below 107° (10
mm.), and 75° distilled between 108°-112°
(10 mm.).

24/7/1925. 100 ec. crude oil after removal of 0.1 gram
phenolic constituent yielded 11% between
70° (20 mm.) and 107° (0 "mmo yes.
between 70°-106° (10 mm.), 80% between
106°=11.2> 9110 mame),

Determination of Linonene.—The lower boiling fractions
of the above distillates were subjected to repeated fractional
distillation over metallic sodium with the following
results :—

229

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA.

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Both fractions, after being saturated with water, and dis-
solved in four times their volume of glacial acetic acid,
were treated with bromine at —20°. On standing overnight
in the ice chest, characteristic crystals of limonene tetra-
bromide separated, which, on isolation, drying and
recrystallisation from ethyl acetate, melted sharply at 104°.

Determination of Safrol.—The fractions distilling
between 106°-112° were placed in a bath of solid carbon
dioxide, and the frozen mass transferred to a Buchner filter
funnel surrounded with a mixture of ice and salt. The
crude safrol thus obtained was further purified by redistil-
lation. It gave the following constants on examination,
VIZ. :—

B.pt. 109°— 110° (10mm); Melting point +11°, d32°, 1.1045;:

20° kd 20°
aXe 4-0"; one, dubge2.

The filtrate from the solid safrol was found to be free
from methyl eugenol, and to consist mainly of safrol with a
little sesquiterpene.

The identity of this phenol ether was confirmed by boiling
- ona sand tray, for a prolonged period, 30 c.c. of the purified
safrol in 200 ¢.c. of ethyl alcohol containing 8 grams of
sodium in solution. The iso-safrol obtained gave the fol-
lowing results on examination, viz :—

B.pt. 1203° — 122° (10mm); d24°, 1.123; n°, 1.5740

On oxidation with chromic acid in glacial acetic acid.
solution solid heliotropine was obtained, which, on purifica-
tion through the bisulphite compound, melted sharply
at 37°.

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 231

Determination of Minor Constituents —The residues from
the distillation of the Safrol fractions were found to con-
tain small. quantities of sesquiterpenes, just detectable by
the well-known colour reactions with bromine in acetic acid
solution and sulphuric acid in acetic anhydride solution.

Phenolic Bodies—The first consignment examined
yielded 0.6 gram crude liquid phenol removed from 80 c.e.
oil by means of 8°4 sodium hydroxide solution. It pos-
sessed a refractive index of 1.51380 and gave a brillant
orange red colouration with ferric chloride in alcoholic
solution, and formed an ammonium salt melting at 132°-
133°. It bore a close resemblance to the remarkable con-
stituent isolated from the oil of Backhousia angustifolia by
means of 8°4 sodium hydroxide solution and tentatively
termed a ‘‘phenol’’ (see this Journal, Vol. LVII, 1923,
pages 300-312).

The last consignment, 24/7/’25, yielded only 0.1% crude
liquid phenol, giving an indifferent colour reaction with
ferric chloride in alcoholic solution, and apparently was in
no way related to that isolated from the first distillate.

Paraffin —The residues from the distillation of the frac-
tions rich in safrol were found to contain small quantities
of paraffin, which, on purification from alcohol, melted at
65-66°.

Boroma pinnata (Smith).

Previous attempts to determine the identity of the prin-
cipal terpene were unsuccessful (see this Journal, Vol. LV.
(1921), pages 199-200), but recently a small yield of
limonene tetrabromide of melting point 104° was obtained
from the terpene fraction. This offers confirmation of the
identity of the principal terpene with limonene, which body
was thought to be present, though no evidence in support
could be secured.

232 A. R. PENFOLD.

Boronia thujona (Penfold & Welch).

Further supplies of the leaves and terminal branchlets
from numerous localities have been examined since the
publication of this species (see this Journal, Vol. LY.

(1921), pages 200-208), and the results obtained have in ©

every instance confirmed those originally published. A
consignment of leaves from Pymble, N.S.W., gave the
highest yield obtained to date with fresh material, viz.,
0.8%. The author had the pleasure of examining the shrub
in the field, both at Woodburn and Wardell, Richmond
River district, New South Wales, in May, 1924, where the
plants were found to be in all respects similar to those
growing in the neighbourhood of Sydney. The late W.
Bauerlen collected a specimen of this Boronia at Wardell
as far back as the year 1893. It was of interest to observe
all three species, B. pinnata (Smith), B. safrolifera (Cheel)
and B. thujona, growing in close proximity to one another
at Broadwater, Richmond River, N.S.W.

Boroma Muelleri (Cheel).

Great difficulty was experienced in securing further sup-
plies of the leaves and terminal branchlets of this species,
but a small quantity was received on the 9th November,
1925, from Miss C. C. Currie, Lardner, Victoria, through
the good offices of the Victorian Forestry Commission. The
material received was in full bloom, being the most heavily
blossom laden pinnate leaf Boronia, especially at the ter-
minals, which I have handled to date. The flowers were
much paler in colour than those of B. thujona.

Experimental.

Sixteen lbs. weight of leaves and terminal branchlets on
steam distillation yielded 0.6% of highly refracting and
fluorescent oil, yellow in colour, and heavier than water. It
gave the following results on examination, viz. :—

dis°, 1.0265 ; ans +1.50° ; cee A. 5150.

Soluble in 0.8 vol. 80° alcohol, ste No. 20.5.

Ester No. after acetylation, 34.7.

233

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA.

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23 ¢.c. on distillation under reduced pressure gave the
following results, viz :—
Commenced to distil at 55° (8 mm.).
2 c.e. distilled below 130° (6 mm.).
20 c.c. distilled between 130°-149° (5 mm.) principally
at 140°-144° (5 mm.).

dis? ae 0°

D
The first fraction had 0.9236 + 7.6° LA ya2
andthe second G2. “Ra i05385 +0.6° 1.5212

Determination of Elemicin.—The presence of this phenol
ether in quantity (in the crude oil equal to about 90%)
was confirmed by oxidation of 16 ¢.c. with alkaline potas-
sium permanganate according to the procedure outlined in
the author’s paper on the ‘‘Essential oil of Backhousia
myrtifolia’’ published in this Journal, Vol. LVI. (1922),
page 128. The crystals of trimethylgallic acid, weighing
6 grams, were recrystallised from ethyl alcohol, when they
melted at 169-170°. Titration with semi-normal alkali
solution showed the acid to be monobasic, with a molecular
weight of 213. C,,H,,0; requires 212. The ether soluble
acid, weighing 2 grams, was recrystallised from ethyl
alcohol and melted at 119°-120°. It proved to be trime-
thylhomogallic acid, as titration with semi-normal alkali
solution showed it to have a molecular weight of 227.
C,,H,,0; requires 226.

The above results confirm those published by the late
H. G. Smith in the Proceedings of the Royal Society of
Victoria, Vol. XXXII. (1919). The quantity of Elemicin
in the later distillation, 90%, was much higher than that
referred to in the above publication, 70%. My thanks are
due to the Botanists and to the Forestry Departments men-
tioned in the paper for valuable advice and assistance in
the identification and procuring of the plant material
examined, and to Mr. F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.1., F.CS8.,
Assistant Economic Chemist, for much assistance in the
chemical examination of the essential oils.

DEFECTIVE OREGON. 235+

AN EXAMINATION OF DEFECTIVE OREGON
(PSEUDOTSUGA TAXIFOLIA).
M: B. WELCH: B:Sce., A.I.C.,

Economic Botanist, Technological Museum.
With Plates XXI-XXIII.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, 5th Dec., 1928.)

Oregon or Douglas Fir, Pseudotsuga taxifolia (Lam.)
Britton (P. Douglasti Carr), is usually regarded as a strong:
tough wood and is used extensively in building construc-
tion for scantlings, scaffoldings, ete. Recently an Oregon
back stay of an electric derrick crane, which was being used
in demolition work, broke suddenly and without warning,
whilst under load, resulting in a very serious accident.
The defective timber was submitted by the Seaffolding and
Lifts Branch of the Department of Labour and Industry
of New South Wales for examination. Since Oregon is:
used so largely for purposes in which it is subjected to:
heavy loads, it was thought advisable to examine the wood
fairly thoroughly in order to determine, if possible, the:
eause of failure. The wood appeared to be quite normal
and its external appearance gave no indication of its
brittleness.

The broken wood showed a typically brash failure which
was almost without splinters and unlike the ‘‘long-fibre:
break’’ usually obtained for Oregon. Brashness or brittle-
ness is a most serious defect in timber, since under load the
wood is liable to fail suddenly and the absence of warning
often results in serious consequences ; the wood is especially’
hable to rupture under sudden or impact loads.

236 M. B. WELCH.

The following mechanical tests were made :—
Static bending tests.

Static bending tests on 3” x 3” x 36” span, centre load.
‘The test pieces were cut to this size to include as much as
possible of the cross section of the beam, which measured
7.6” x 6.6.” Four test pieces were therefore obtained.

it EK D rpu.. LOW. ae
1 7000 1,700,000 32.4 6.3 24 14.9
2 9000 1,660,000 33.0 8.5 24 15.1
3 8600 1,730,000 33.1 8.0 20 14.6
4 8000 1,720,000 34.4 Ou 26 14.6

Mean 8150 1,703,000 33.2 8.0 25 14.8

f = Modulus of Rupture in lbs. per sq. in.

E = Modulus of Elasticity in lbs. per sq. in.

D Weight per cubic foot at time of testing; air
dry volume and weight.

Y.p.1. = Average number of growth rings per inch.
‘L.W. = Percentage of late or summer wood in the
erowth ring.
M = Moisture percentage on the dry weight.

‘The proportional limit was not clearly defined in tests.
‘The failures were carroty and the wood failed in tension
without warning.

Two static bending tests were made on the full-sized
‘timber with a span of six feet, centre loading.

f E rp. Lowe |

1 4890 1,570,000 Max.10 ) 14.5
26.2

2 7680, 570 COON Nin | 5a 15.0

Mean 6285 — 1,570,000 8.5 assay spel

The proportional limit was not defined. The failures
-~were sudden, partially in tension and horizontal shear, and
‘definitely indicated the brashness of the wood.

DEFECTIVE OREGON. 237

Additional static bending tests were made subsequently,
on 2” x 2” x 28” span*. It will be noted that the moisture
content has decreased.

W. W.to
f1 a E Vile Dey) eps ewe MM.
fa50 7930 1,870,000 1.58 2.08 32.0 80 243 138.0:
7980 8820 1,890,000 Sie, 2b Sw oes, » 90" | 28:4 F128
7350 7480 1,810,000 1:63 "1945 32-6 §8.0 28:0) 12.2
7140 «F715 ~=61,580,000 1.79 2.40 31.3. 65 24.8. 12.7

W450 7990. 1,790,000 1.72 2.25 -81.9 74 264 12.7

ng = Fibre stress at proportional limit in lbs. per
square inch.
W.toP.L. = Work to proportional limit in inch lbs. per
cubic inch.
W. to M.L. = Work to maximum load in inch lbs. per cubie
inch.

For comparison the results of the following static bending
tests are given, made on small clear specimens from the
Technological Museum.

3” x 38” x 86” span centre load.

a E D. TDs L.W. M.
1 11,620 2,260,000 34.7 16.0 39.6 1224.
2 12,660 2,330,000 Bia 20.5 36.9 12.6:
3 18,580 1,670,000 Base 1270 34.5 11.3
4 13,060 2,010,000 BVA 145) 28.6 10.9
5 10,520 1,800,000 36.5 6.5 38.4 12.4
6 8,400 1,770,000 Bore 4.0 35.8 11.9:
7 7,660 1,330,000 26.4 4.0 25.2 12.0:

Mean 11,070 1,800,000 30.0 11.0 31.4 11.9

es —— eee ————e

The following static bending tests were made on 2” x 2”
x 28” span clear specimens.

* Tests marked * have been made in conformity with the
specification adopted for testing small clear specimens of timber
and described in U.S.D.A. Forest Service Bull. 108, and subse-
quently in Projects I. of the Canadian Forest Product Labora-
tory and also of the Department of Scientific and Industrial
Research, Forest Products Research, of Great Britain, 1928..

“238 M. B. WELCH.

f E D Pupil. M
Maximum .. 14,730 2,350,000 35.6 35 14.2
Dinimum., 3,800 1,290,000 24.8 17 9.8

Mean 12 tests 11,520 1,790,000 31.9 22. 1 vane

Canadian’ and American®) mean tests for static bending
tests on 2” x 2” x 28” span air dry clear specimens are as

follows :—
W.to W. to

fel f E P.L. M.L. D+ r.p.i. L.W. M.
Mountain (1) 8,460 18,340 1,664,000 2.44 8.40 31.4 26.2 25.0 9.5
Mountain (1) 9,540 13,620 1,806,000 2.86 11.80 338.2 17.4 32.0 10.7
‘Coast (1) 8,990 14,050 2,142,000 2.20 9.90 33.4 1333 38.0 11.1
Wyoming (2) 6,900 10,300 1,460,000 1.83 6.5 338.6 22.0 27.0 9.4
‘Oregon (2)10,600 14,000 2,210,000 2.94 8.4 38.1 13.0 35.0 6.2

U.S.A. (3) 5,065 6,777 1,858,000 —— 31.0 12.2 41.0 14.9

(1) Some Commercial Softwoods of Canada. Forest Service
Bulletin No. 78, Dept. of Interior, Canada, 1927.

(2) Mechanical Properties of Woods grown in U.S.A. Newlin
and Wilson, U.S. Dept. of Agric. Forest Service, Bull. 556,
1917.

‘(3) Mean figures for 5” x 8” beams. Tests on Structural
timbers. Cline and Heim, U.S. Dept. of Agric. Forest Ser-
vice, Bull. 108, 1912.

+ Corrected to 12% moisture.

Impact Tests.

Izod impact tests were made in conformity with the
British Engineering Standard Association Specification for
Aircraft Material.

Energy absorbed

in foot Ibs. E Wale M
Maximum Se mice ane S 9 —
Minimum Sacer 2 7 —
Mean 6 tests .. .. 8.3 7.8 hoy
‘Tests made on Oregon in stock gave the following results:

Tp. M D

“Maximum 2s) 280 tty lbs. 935 9 (1nd ai Ae ine
Minimum PUR IME MRAM. Af 5) ame nnn IE 9 8. ey ee

“Mean (12 tests) .. 230.,,.,, 22, 10,624) eeu

9713300 Ibs. ,,

DEFECTIVE OREGON. 939

*Compression parallel to grain.

C1 C E cpa. M
Maximum ... 5,500 7430 1,250,000 9 —
Mommum .. 3,875 6230 833,000 6.5 —

Mean (6 tests) 4,685 6695 999,000 85 12.7

C1 = Fibre stress at limit of proportionality in lbs. per
square inch.

C = Maximum crushing strength in lbs. per square inch.

Canada (l.c.) .. 4220 7600 2,229,000 19 10.4

meses, (.c.) .. 7290 8885 — 17.5 ee:

*Compression perpendicular to grain.
Fibre stress at hmit of proportionality in lbs. per sq. in.:

Lost.
ommum .. 2... 1440 8.5 —
fom .. wl 1325 6.0 —

Mean (5 tests) .... 1370 ead) era A
M@amada (l.e.) .. .. 997 19 10.4
eee ic.) ous 860 17.5 diate
Tension parallel to gran.

Area Breaking Load in

in sq. in. lbs. per sq. in. Ppa. M

i 0.7651 3850 9:0 14.1
2 0.7548 6995 9.0 12.8
3 0.7466 7640 1.0 14.1
4 0.7698 8060 10.5 29

Mean 6636 9.0 13.5

Koehlert gives the following mean figures for tension
parallel to grain.

1. 16,200 lbs. sq. in. M2417, D = 33 Ibs.
ee M—25.07, D = 30 lbs.

+ Koehler Properties and Uses of Woods, 1924.

240 M. B. WELCH.

*Tension perpendicular to grain.
T(a) T(b) r.p.l (aye 2 pate

Maximums):.. 52%) 300 470 7.5 9 —~

Minimum. i 115 272 6.5 6.5 —

Nean- Gi tests). 24) A777 305 ee 7.8 12.7
T =Tensile strength in lbs. per sq. in.

(a) = Plane of failure radial.
(b) == Plane of failure tangential.

(a) & (b)
Canada (l.c.) i a OO 19 10.4
U:S.A. (Le.) JIL et eo) 1% 7.8
* Hardness.
H(a) H (b) H(e)
Maximum.) ss O00 610 660
Nomimnaume 9 tr. 08 DOU) 780

Mean (7 tests) .. 548 (5tests) 589 (7 tests) 716
H =Load required to imbed a 0.444 inch ball to half

diameter.
(a) — Radial surface; (b) = tangential surface; (c) = end.

surface.
Canada (le.) .. 683 691 799
U.S.A. (Le.) ae (a) & (b) 575 670.
*Shearing Strength parallel to grain.

rp
(a) (b) (a) (b) M

Maximum .. 1490 1420lbs.persq.in. 8 10 —
Minimum ... 812 1030>,. ,,..,..5. Gene

Mean (6 tests) 1190 1266 ,, ,, 5, 5 (ogee
(a) Plane of failure radial. |
(b) Plane of failure tangential.

Canada (l.c.) .. > (a) &(b) 1271 19 10.4
USA, Che.) Poo. 6a) Galas) 1140 W3 5 TS

DEFECTIVE OREGON. 241

*Cleavage.
pl.

S(a) S(b) (a) (b) M
Maximum pte cee Bo) 140 SA). 80.0) —
Minimum fer se 1720) 160 6.0 ~~ 6.5 —
Mean (6 tests) .. 141 52 ee © ne 12.7
S = Splitting Strength in lbs. per in. of width.
(a) = Plane of failure radial.
(b) = Plane of failure tangential.
Canada (l.c.) .. -(a) & (b) 265 19 10.4
U.S.A. (l.c.) .. Cleavage tests for air dry wood not

given.

One of the most important requirements in a timber
which is subject to loads is toughness}. The term is apphed
to a number of different properties of wood, but can be
regarded as the reverse of brittleness ; it is indicated by (a)
the ability of the wood to absorb energy in impact tests,
(b) the work to maximum load in static bending tests.

An examination of the results of the static bending tests
shows that the modulus of rupture is small in comparison
with the other tests on small clear specimens, but the
figure is not abnormally low. The most striking result is
the small interval between the proportional limit and the
ultimate load, which is a definite indication of brittleness.
Further, although the resilience of the wood is normal,
the ‘‘work to maximum load’’ is very low, indicating again
a brittle timber. Similarly, the impact tests, with an

+ Den Berger, Mechanical Properties of Dutch East Indian
Timbers, No. 12. Proefstation v/h. Boschwezen, 1926, refers to
a tough wood as “one that will not rupture until it has de-
formed considerably under loads at or near its maximum
strength or one which still hangs together after it has been
ruptured and may be bent back and forth without breaking
apart, and which gives way only gradually and gives warning
of rupture. It is able to store a considerable amount of energy
and has a remarkable shock resisting ability.”

P—December 5, 1928.

242 M. B. WELCH.

energy absorption of 8.3 foot lbs. in comparison with 23.0
foot lbs. for normal Oregon, clearly show the brashness of
the wood.

Except that the wood failed, almost without warning and
with no defined lmit of proportionality, the large beam
tests did not reveal any serious lack of strength, in compari-
son with large beam tests made in U.S.A.

The stiffness of the wood, indicated by the modulus of
elasticity, was not low in comparison with many other of
the test results.

Tests made in compression parallel to the grain showed

‘that the wood was not particularly weak in this regard,
and that there is a very appreciable difference between

‘the limit of proportionality and the ultimate load, although.

less than that given for the Canadian tests.

The strength in compression perpendicular to the grain
was higher than the means given by other authorities and
seems to indicate that the ability of the tracheids to with-
stand lateral crushing is not weakened, however brittle the
‘wood might be.

As Record* states, the tensile strength, parallel to the
grain, of a wood is about three times its strength in com-
pression, but the results of the tests show that there is
practically no difference in the figures for tension and
compression obtained for the defective Oregon, whilst the
results given by Koehler (l.¢.) clearly show the very great
superiority in tensile strength of normal Oregon. It is
easy to understand, therefore, that whilst with normal wood
it is possible to bend it considerably before failure takes
place on the tension side, in wood which has the tensile
strength approximately equal to the compressive strength,
very slight bending is sufficient for the wood to fail on the
tension side and the wood is therefore brittle.

* Record, Mechanical Properties of Wood, 1914.

huge

DEFECTIVE OREGON. 243

The results of the tension perpendicular to the grain,
with a radial plane of failure are low and indicate a small
degree of lateral cohesion between the tracheids or that the
eell walls are easily split when subjected to a transverse
pull. The greater strength in tension in a radial direction,
j.e., with a tangential plane of failure, is apparently due
to the action of the medullary rays.

The hardness tests, whilst lower than the Canadian tests,
care close to those for the U.S.A. wood, for the side, and
higher for the end, and show that the wood was not soft or
spongy. As pointed out by Record (l.c.) resistance to
indentation is largely dependent on density.

The results of the shearing tests parallel to grain are
quite normal and do not indicate any weakness in this
Tespect.

Strength to resist splitting, as indicated by the cleavage
tests, is comparable with tension perpendicular to the grain.
‘The results of this series of tests (1.e., cleavage) are also low
in comparison with the Canadian figures.

Weight.

One of the most important factors influencing the
‘strength of timber is weight. In practice, weakness in
timber is usually associated with a low density and relation-
ships have been established between the various mechanical
properties of wood and specific gravity® ft.

The density of the defective wood, about 33 lbs. per
cubic foot, is not low and compares closely with the average
figures given for the material tested in Canada and U.S.A.,
and it also approximates to the mean of the specimens

* The relation of the shrinkage and strength properties of
wood to its specific gravity. Newlin and Wilson, U.S. D.A.
- Forest Service Bull. No. 676, 1919.

+ Den Berger (l.c.) outlines the various theories in reference
‘to the mechanical properties—-density relationship.

244 M. B. WELCH.

tested for comparison. There was no evidence of compres-
sion wood, which is comparatively weak. Den Berger (l.¢.)
has pointed out that specific gravity does not give any clue
to the phability or toughness of the wood and this is borne
out by the result of the impact tests.

Rate of Growth.

From a large series of tests on structural sizes made in
U.S.A.¢ the optimum rate of growth for Oregon was found
to be 24 rings per inch, but considerable variation in
strength was found, and the conclusion was reached that
‘‘yines per inch are not a reliable index to the mechanical
properties of timber, especially structural timbers contain-

ing knots and other defects.’’ Further, in particular ref-
erence to Oregon, the following conclusion was made that,.
‘‘in general, rapidly grown wood (less than eight rings per
inch) is relatively weak. <A study of individual tests

upon which the average is based shows, however, that when
it is not associated with ight weight and a small proportion

of summer wood, rapid growth is not indicative of weak

wood’’.*

In the crane backstay the maximum number of rings.

per inch is 10, and the minimum 5, the mean being 8.5,
which, though showing comparatively rapid growth, is not

exceptionally fast. The American Society for Testing

Materials has adopted as a standard for the best grade,

known as Dense Douglas Fir, that it shall have an average:
of not less than 6 rings per inch and at least 4 summer or

late wood, or if the rings are wide the summer wood must
constitute at least 4 of the ringt. Tests (5), (6) and (7)

+ Tests on Spruce timbers. U.S. D.A. Forest: Service Bull..
No. 108.

* Properties and Uses of»Dougias Fir. U.S. Forest Service
Bull, No. 88.

+ Basic Grading Rules and Working Stresses for Structural

Timbers, Newlin and Johnson, U.S. Forest Service Circular No.
295: 1923:

—

DEFECTIVE OREGON. 245

made on 3” x 3” x 36” clear specimens were selected from
rapidly grown material; (6) and (7) with 4 r.p.i. are com-
parable in strength with the results for the small clear
specimens from the defective wood. Both (6) and (7)
were cut from near the heart, and showed brittle failures.
Although the position of the heart is not regarded as affect-
ing the strength in structural sizes, provided the weight
is normal, it is commonly found that wood near the heart,
either due to very rapid growth or incipient decay is hable
to be brittle. The inner side of the crane section was cut
approximately 3 inches from the heart.

Slow growth also frequently results in a weak timber,
one of the Museum test pieces with 35 r.p.i. had a density
of only 25.4 Ibs. and gave a modulus of rupture of 8,800
Tbs. per square inch.

Late Wood.

The percentage of late or summer wood in the growth
ring has an important bearing on strength since a low
percentage usually indicates brashness. The average figure
of 26°94 obtained is rather lower than the specification for
““dense’’ Oregon of 33%, but 1s not low enough to account
for the brittleness of the wood. Forsaith,* in his investiga-
tion of brashness, found that it was increased by a decrease
in the amount of late wood, by a decrease in the thickness of
the tracheid wall, and by an increase in the number and
size of the bordered pits. He found also that fibre or
tracheid length was unimportant in determining brashness.
Since obviously increased cell wall thickness must result in
increased weight, if the weight is normal one would not
expect to find thin tracheid walls. Observations made on

the radial thickness of the tracheid wall are as follows :—

* Forsaith, C. C., The morphology of wood in relation to
‘brashness. Jour. Forestry, xix, 237, 1921.

246 M. B. WELCH.

oe , \ Hark. Woode—
Portion of beam near heart ee Wood

a (Early Wood = 2 — 3y
Middle of beam .. bate Woostains
(Early Wood = 2

(Late Wood = 5 - 8 p
It is evident that the cell wall thickness is comparable with

the ordinary wood. The length of the tracheids is very

Museum 3” x 3” test No. 1

variable, but the majority were between 2.4 — 5.0 mm.,
which is also normal for Oregon.

Moisture.

Although wood dried to a very low moisture content is:
liable to become brittle, the moisture content of the crane
material is normal for air-seasoned material and cannot
have had any effect in bringing about the extreme brash-.
ness of the wood.

A microscopical examination showed no evidence of
fungal attack nor was the wood discoloured in any way.
Although wood may become brittle in areas adjacent to:
those in which the hyphae are actually present, the fact
that test pieces from all parts of the beam showed similar
brashness does not suggest the possibility of a fungal origin
of the trouble.

Robinsont, who has made a very careful microscopical
study of the initial causes of failure in timber, found
definite indications of minute slip planes, in the cell walls,.
especially in compression. These gave cellulose reactions.
with various reagents. He further concluded that the for-
mation of these slip planes preceded the buckling or
erinkling of the tracheids.

+ Robinson, W. The microscopical features of mechanical
strains in timber and the bearing of these on the structure of
the cell wall in plants. Trans. Roy. Soc., London. Vol. 210, 49,
1920.

DEFECTIVE OREGON. 247

From the photomicrographs of sections from the com-
pression side of the failure it is apparent that there is no
sion of buckling of the tracheids. Although aniline
chloride, followed by aniline blue, indicates minute lines on
the cell wall, apparently corresponding to the slip planes
described by Robinson, these appear just as numerous in
wood which, as far as is known, had not been subjected to
any severe strains. Chlor-zinc-iodine and iodine and sul-
phurie acid gave no appreciable darkening of the tissues
in the vicinity of the zone of failure.

Nothing unusual was observed in the number or distri-

bution of the bordered pits.

The failure appeared to be almost transverse in the late
wood, the tracheids being broken almost at right angles. In
places the fracture followed the rays; in others it occurred
along the grain in the middle of the late wood. Many of
the tracheids showed a break inclined at an angle of about
45°, the plane of maximum shear, whilst others were
inclined at greater or lesser angles to the longitudinal

direction.

The extreme weakness of the wood in tension, which
approximates that in compression, evidently accounts for
the lack of buckling of the fibres in compression, since the
failure apparently occurred first on the tension side.

In the position in which the wood was used it was sub-
jected to variable eccentric loading and the compressive
and tensile stresses alternated from side to side, with the
alteration of the position of the jib. The wood was appar-
ently subjected to loads approaching, if not exceeding, the
elastic limit and the continuous reversal of stresses suggests
the possibility of fatigue.

248 M. B. WELCH.

Although fatigue is not usually regarded as seriously
affecting timber, Siminski, according to an abstractt, has
proved that wood previously subjected to compression is
rendered weaker in tension and that reversal of stresses
materially lowers the resistance of the wood to rupture.
On the other hand, repeated impact tests were made on
wood at the Forest Product Laboratory, Madison**, in
which the specimens were stressed to a little above the
elastic limit; the wood was then subjected to a static bend-
ing test and the results in comparison with similar speci-
mens which had not been subjected to impact showed no
significant change in the properties of the wood.

There seems to be no reason why modification of the
tissues of the wood should not occur as the result of severe
stresses, ultimately resulting in weakness or brashness. The
subject appears to be worthy of further investigation.

I am indebted to Prof. H. P. Brown, of the New York
State College of Forestry, Syracuse University, for the
above references.

Summary.

Tests showed that the wood was extremely brittle and
failed without warning. Whilst the strength in compres-
sion is normal it is extremely weak in tension parallel to
the grain.

The ability of the wood to absorb energy is very small,
rendering it unfit for the purpose for which it was used.
Although the rate of growth is faster than the optimum
for Oregon and the percentage of late wood is rather less
than is permitted in first-grade timber for structural pur-
poses, the density of the wood is normal. It is suggested,

+ Siminski I Vestnik Ingenerov, No. 4, April, 1927. Abstract
seen in Mechanical Engineering, Vol. 49, 802, 1927. Original
not available.

** Moore and Kommers. The Fatigue of Metals, Chap. X.,
1927.

DEFECTIVE OREGON. 249

however, that wood of rather slower growth and cut further
from the heart should be used for purposes where it is
known that the member will be subjected to severe stresses.

Microscopically, there appears to be no reason to account
for the brashness, which is apparently due to some inherent
quality of the wood or possibly to a state of fatigue brought
about by continual reversal of stresses near the elastic limit.

In conclusion, I am indebted to the Mechanical Engineer-
ing Department of the Sydney Technical College for mak-
ing the large beam tests; to this Department and to Wing-
‘Commander Wackett, R.A.A.F., Experimental Station,
Randwick, for the use of the necessary machines; and to
Mr. F. B. Shambler, of the Museum Staff, for his assist-
ance in the making of the tests and for the two photographs

illustrating the fracture and cross section of the wood.

250

Fig.

M. B. WELCH.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Transverse section of timber, showing nature of
wood and distribution of growth rings.

Original failure of the crane backstay. The right
is the compression side of the member. The
brittleness of the wood is indicated by the
‘*short-fibred’’ break.

Radial longitudinal section, showing break on
compression side; the fracture is frequently
transverse in the late wood. x 114.

Tangential longitudinal section, showing break on
compression side. x 1134.

Radial longitudinal section of break on compres-
sion side, showing inclination of fracture of the
tracheid walls. The spiral bands are normal in
Oregon. Note absence of buckling of the
tracheids. x 125.

Similar section to above at junction of early and
late wood. The transverse fracture of many of
the late wood tracheids is apparent. In the
spring or early wood the failure frequently but
not always follows the line of the bordered pit.
Fine markings can be observed on the walls of
some of the late wood tracheids. X 125.

Tangential longitudinal section of break on com-
pression side in early wood, showing irregular
fracture of the tracheids; these commonly
occur at the same inclination as the spiral
tracheid thickenings. x 128.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate XX1.

Bigs:

Plate XXII.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928.

Fig. 3.

Fig. 4.

Plate XXIII.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXI1., 1928.

Fig. 5.

Pig (.

bo
Or

TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS.

ON THE PROBABLE TERTIARY AGE OF CERTAIN.
NEW SOUTH WALES SEDENTARY SOILS.

By W. R. Browne, D.Sc.,
Assistant-Professor of Geology, University of Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)

In his presidential address to this Society in May, 1927
—a noteworthy contribution to Australian geological litera-
ture—Dr. W. G. Woolnough advanced a bold, but interest-
ing and stimulating, generalization as to the origin of the:
various hard surface-cappings, comprised by him under the
name of duricrust, which are such a common feature in
certain parts of our continent. Some of the conclusions he
expressed in regard to the origin and date of formation
of the duricrust might well be extended to other surface
accumulations which are still unconsolidated, in other:
words, to some of our present-day soils.

The residual sedentary soil is the result of rock-weathering’
om situ. Asarule, but a small thickness of the surface-rock
is affected directly by the atmospheric agents of weathering,
but, indirectly, through percolating water-solutions and the:
gases they contain, rocks may be influenced chemically for
considerable depths below the surface, and it is to this
chemical weathering that the sedentary soil is mainly due,
the percolating solutions having removed. the readily
soluble rock constituents, leaving the oxidised and hydrated
insoluble residues as a discompacted or potentially
incoherent mass.

In general there is a tendency for the products of weath-.
ering to be removed by erosion, this tendency increasing, in
the case of normal! water-erosion, with the surface relief,.

Dia2 W. R. BROWNE.

and there is pretty general agreement that the accumula-
tion of a deep mantle of soil and subsoil is not favoured by
youthful topography. In regard to the conditions most
favourable for such accumulation, however, there does not
appear to be the same unanimity among geologists.

Barrell™, in his classic paper on ‘‘Rhythms and the
Measurement of Geological Time,’’ challenges what he
evidently regards as an accepted view, that peneplains
should be covered with a very deep residual oxidised soil.
On the contrary, he declares, a peneplain should possess a
relatively thin regolith, since beneath its surface there
should be practically no groundwater circulation, and for
effective rock-decay this circulation is imperative, otherwise
the solutions soon get saturated and chemical action ceases.
According to Barrell, in a region of considerable relief,
where the circulating ground-water has greater rapidity of
movement, a greater volume of rock is likely to be affected.

Van Hise), discussing the physiographic conditions fav-
ouring chemical weathering, points out that where the
elevation is slight the water-table, the downward limit of
effective weathering, may be very close to the surface, so
that the depth of decomposition is very restricted; at the
same time decomposition will be very thorough. Since in
regions of high relief disintegration and erosion may go on
too rapidly to permit much decomposition, Van Hise con-
cludes that the most favourable topographical conditions
for the accumulation of decomposed rock material are
those of moderate elevation and continuous moderate
slopes.

Woolnough in his presidential address emphasises very
strongly the connexion between peneplanation and deep
decomposition, 2nd even goes so far as to declare that *‘one
essential criterion of a high degree of perfection of pene-
planation is that the rocks of the area show evidence of

TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 253

very deep and very complete chemical alteration by
meteoric waters.’’ Woolnough’s argument is that only
when a region is in an advanced stage of peneplanation will
mechanical transport of weathered material cease, while at
the same time the sluggish lateral circulation of surface
waters will involve ‘‘deep saturation of the subsoil and long-
continued contact between rock-minerals and meteoric
waters.”’

There is thus evident quite a marked conflict of opinions
in regard to the question of the conditions favouring deep
decay.

It is clear that in a peneplain the water-table will be close
to the surface, and, if the contention of Van Hise be
accepted that the belt of weathering extends only down to
or a little below the water-table, then it is difficult to see
how any considerable thickness of decomposed rock-material
can accumulate. On the other hand it is certain that, where
there is appreciable relief, not only will the proportion of
meteoric water soaking into the ground be considerably
_ lessened, but the removal of the products of weathering will
proceed rapidly through erosion, and the net rate of
accumulation of weathered material will be slowed down:
at some critical degree of relief the products of weathering
will be removed by erosion as fast as they are formed.

The accumulation of residual sedentary soil, then, de-
pends on the ascendency of chemical weathering over
mechanical erosion, but whether the maximum resuit will
be attained when the relief is moderate or when it is
negligible it would be very difficult to say, especially as
other factors besides physiography come into play.

The inference, however, may safely be made that low
physiographie relief is favourable to the accumulation of
much residual sedentary soil and decomposed rock, and,
modifying Woolnough’s thesis slightly, we may say that

254 W. R. BROWNE.

where thick layers of soil, subsoil and decomposed rock are
found, that fact is in itself evidence of very mature physio-
‘graphic conditions having prevailed during their formation.
If therefore we find such accumulations in areas of present-
‘day marked relief or of youthful or early-mature dissec-
tion, it is a fair inference that we are dealing with fossil
weathering, as it were, and with fossil soils, not now in a
state of active formation, but produced in, and surviving
from, the closing stages of the last preceding cycle of
erosion.

For many years past the writer has at times encountered
‘what have seemed to be evidences of such sedentary soils in
various parts of the uplifted and dissected peneplain of
central-eastern New South Wales. Mr. E. C. Andrews(‘3)
has pointed out that this region, in common with the rest of
Eastern Australia, was a peneplain, or at all events an area
of low relief, in late Tertiary times, and that by a series of
‘differential uplifts in the late Pliocene period, during what
he has called the Kosciusko epoch, it was raised to varying
heights above sea-level, since which time the plateaux
formed have been suffering dissection. In some places, as
round about Sydney and in the Blue Mountains, the present
drainage-system is fairly complete, through the evolution
of new streams or the rejuvenation of old ones. Elsewhere
rejuvenation has not proceeded so rapidly, and above the
rejuvenation-limit of the streams areas are to be found,
which, though high above sea-level, stil! preserve almost
intact the mature topography and gently undulating
physiographic features of their late Tertiary days.

On the flat tops of the residual surface of the plateaux,
and on the very gentle slopes of the former mature valleys,
there are to be found the soils, sometimes of quite notable
depth, whose formation the writer considers took place
‘before the Kosciusko uplift; instances of these will now be
given.

TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 255

Around Sydney the dominant geological formations are
the Triassic Hawkesbury Sandstone and Wianamatta Shale.
Where the former occurs as ridges forming water-partings
between adjacent streams the soil-covering is usually but
scanty, the sand having been displaced down the valley-
slopes by gravity and sheet-wash erosion, or altogether
removed by the streams. But where there are flat tops,
however narrow, to these ridges, a laver of sandy soil and
subsoil may be apparent, sometimes three feet and more in
depth, grading down through decomposed sandstone into
the solid rock. The depth of the soils would appear in
some degree to vary according to the extent of flat country,
and in places, as about St. Ives and French’s Forest, where
considerable flat and relatively still undissected areas
occur, the soils are of extensive distribution and substantial
depth. An interesting feature is sometimes to be noticed
near the boundaries of Hawkesbury sandstone and over-
lying Wianamatta shale. The shale may have completely
disappeared as such, and the soil rests on sandstone, but this
soil is of a clayey or loamy character quite unlike that
derived from the sandstone, and is characterised by the
presence of little flat fragments of rather ferruginous
sandy shale. This soil is regarded as an inherited type,
representing the weathering-product of a former thin layer
of shale which has now completely disappeared.

The Wianamatta Shale itself around Sydney occupies
perhaps mainly the lower-lying areas, where uplift has been
small and relief is still but slight. Here there has been
weathering to considerable depths, as may occasionally be
seen in railway-cuttings and in other excavations in the
more southerly suburbs, where the deep iron-stained clayey
soils and subsoils are usually very characteristic. On the
higher lands the shale soils are perhaps shallower, but in flat
or gently sloping situations the thickness is greater, and the
soil, particularly, it would appear, near the base of the

256 W. R. BROWNE.

formation, is of a dark red colour and very ferruginous. A
common characteristic of these dark shale soils is the
presence of irregular nodules of ironstone, sometimes up to:
a couple of inches in diameter, but generally smaller.
These may be quite thickly embedded in the soil, or where
the finer-grained soil has been washed away they may form
a thin capping of the so-called ‘‘ironstone gravel.’’ There
is little doubt that these nodules have been formed in the
soil itself, and their significance will be referred to pre-
sently. A good place in which to study an occurrence of
this kind is on the road from Pymble to St. Ives, near the
Pymble golf-links; the ‘‘ironstone gravel’’ has been ob-
served at Roseville and elsewhere.

Recently, under the guidance of Mr. G. D. Osborne,
B.Se., the writer has had the opportunity of examining
some of the dissected plateau surface about the suburbs of
Arnecliffe and Earlwood, to the north-west of Botany Bay.
The peneplain has been uplifted here to a height of about
150 feet above sea-level, and has been dissected by Cook’s
River, Wolli Creek and their tributaries. The area in
question is composed of Hawkesbury Sandstone, and in
numerous places on the level upland surface—in fact
everywhere except on the gentle slopes near the tops of the
valley-walls whence erosion has removed it—may be seen a
variable thickness of rather sandy soil, containing, or under-
lain by, abundant irregular nodules of brown ironstone,
sometimes aggregated into a solid layer on top of the sand-
stone. In certain places the soil resting on the sandstone
is very dark red in colour and contains the little flat flakes
of rock described above as characteristic of the shale soils.
Where only nodules or flat flakes are found on the solid rock
the evidence is very clear that a layer of soil has disap-
peared. According to Mr. Osborne the ironstone nodules
are universally distributed over the plateau surface
around these suburbs.

TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 257

On the Blue Mountains, about Leura particularly, some-
what similar phenomena have been observed. On the flat
tops of the sandstone plateau depths of soil of a couple of
feet and more may be encountered. It is essentially sandy,
somewhat mealy in texture and feel, and brownish in colour
through iron-staining, and it merges imperceptibly into
decomposed sandstone. Sometimes the decomposed rock is
to be distinguished from soil only by the existence in it
of bands of little quartz pebbles representing pebble-layers
in the original rock which are still in place. The mealiness
and the greater depth of decomposition as compared with
the Sydney sandstone, are in all probability the result of a
higher felspathic content of the sandstone, due to Leura
being much nearer than Sydney to the original granitic
source of supply for the clastic material.

The sandstone is intersected with highly irregular layers
rich in iron oxide, averaging about an inch in thickness.
The ferruginous material has been deposited in the pores
of the sandstone and forms a resistant cement. On the
weathering of the sandstone into sedentary soil these layers
are broken up into fragments and remain embedded in the
soil, and where the soil is dug up, or where it has been
eroded along street gutters, smooth rounded or kidney-
shaped nodules of a yellow-brown colour may be seen,
which, on being broken open, are found to consist of frag-
ments of the ferruginous sandstone layers which have been
completely invested with a coat of iron hydrate. There
seems no reason to doubt that these nodules, like those at
Pymble, Arncliffe and elsewhere, have been produced in
the soil, in this case by deposition round a nucleus of
ferruginous sandstone.

The country about Penrose, Wingello and Tallong, in the
southern part of the Central Tablelands, is in part dissected
by the tributaries of the Shoalhaven River, but there are

Q—December 5, 1928.

258 W. R. BROWNE.

considerable areas, above the rejuvenation-limit of the
streams, which are almost in their pre-uplift condition of
late maturity, and these are covered with an extensive
mantle of sandy and gravelly soils, overlying sandstones of
Triassic, and conglomerates and sandstones of Upper
Permo-Carboniferous age. Though in the depressions this
soil may be in great measure alluvial, by far the greater
part is sedentary. Some of the country is covered with
flows of Tertiary basalt, and there is evidence that some of
this was poured out over sandy soil resting directly on the
older sandstones, just as in the case of the silicified
Tertiary sands at Ulladulla described by Miss Ida A. Brown,
B.Se. In railway-cuttings the gradation from soil into
rotten, and from that into fresh sandstone, is well dis-
played. At Tallong, and particularly at Wingello, the
writer was much struck by the resemblance of the soil con-
ditions to those prevailing in the Blue Mountains, thick
deposits of white sand often constituting a surface-layer,
the bleaching being probably due to the action of organic
acids produced from decomposing vegetation. At Wingello,
though definite proofs were not found, it appeared to be
the case that the deposits of Tertiary pisolitic laterite or
bauxite were in part resting on this sandy soil, and in the
neighbourhood of Penrose Mr. G. F. K. Naylor, B.Sce.,
pointed out a thin bed of dark red ferruginous shale con-
taining Tertiary fossil leaves, which was underlain by
compact sandy soil.

At Ulan, about 25 miles north of Mudgee, there are
coal-measures resting directly on granite, and overlain by
Triassic sandstones and conglomerates. The country is
less than 2000 feet above sea-level, and is drained by the
River Goulburn, which here flows in a mature valley per-
haps 300 feet below the plateau-level. The country is of
moderate relief, and the surface of the plateau is nearly

TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 259

flat over large areas. A noteworthy feature of the Triassic
country in places is the thick covering of sandy soil, very
similar to that found in some of the localities described
-above.

That the soils to which allusion has been made are of
‘Tertiary age is the conclusion to which the writer has been
impelled, partly from the theoretical considerations put
forward in the early part of this paper. The areas
deseribed were all affected by the Tertiary peneplanation,
cand before the Kosciusko uplift were in a state of advanced
‘maturity or senility; the probability must therefore be
recognised that a thick mantle of decomposed rock and
sedentary soil covered them before the uplift. Since that
time in a number of the places described there has been no
considerable change in the local base-level of erosion, and
removal of the products of decay by ‘surface-erosion is
proceeding but slowly, hence it is reasonable to expect to
find considerable quantities of Tertiary regolith still re-
maining. At the same time in the instances cited the
present-day relief is sufficient to ensure good underground
circulation, and good surface drainage, so that the stream-
erosion could easily keep pace with current weathering.
The existing accumulations of soil, representing the excess
of material produced by weathering over that removed by
erosion, are therefore not to be attributed to present-day
weathering activity, but are more reasonably interpreted as
relics of the Tertiary regolith.

But it may be objected that while such soils may have
persisted till the present day in inland areas as yet not
reached by rejuvenation, such a thing would be impossible
‘about Sydney and the Blue Mountains, in view of the state
of dissection attained by the uplifted peneplain, and the
likelihood of all unconsolidated deposits having been swept
away long ere this. It must, however, be remembered in

260 ‘ WwW. R. BROWNE.

this connexion that since Pleistocene times, when most of
the existing dissection was accomplished, there has been a
considerable diminution in the rainfall and a corresponding
shrinkage of the streams. Any parts of the plateau area,
therefore, which were untouched by erosion during the more
pluvial period, may easily have survived till the present,
and where the actual soil has been swept away the original
subsoil and decomposed rock may exist to-day as soil.

Of course, too, the soils dealt with are in the main sandy,
and as such would be less liable to surface erosion than
more compact types: in other words their porosity has been
a chief factor in their survival. As a matter of fact the
fine-grained clayey soils have in many eases almost com-
pletely disappeared through sheet-wash erosion from the
flat or nearly flat plateau surfaces.

Again, the frequent occurrence of ferruginous nodules
and of hardpan in the soils of the plateau areas is of sig-
nificance. The deposition of material of this kind is to be
regarded as a manifestation of bad underground drainage,
combined with an alternation of wet and dry climatic
periods. The lack of drainage ensures that the stagnant
soil-water will be saturated with mineral matter, which is
deposited in the soil or subsoil as nodules or hardpan during
periods of drought. Woolnough has shown the probability
that conditions favouring such deposition existed during
our last great peneplanation, possibly during the Miocene
period, and although the Miocene climate in Eastern
Australia may not have been tropical, with alternations of
dry and wet seasons (as he postulates for Western
Australia), still it must be remembered that our coast-line
was then much further to the east than at present, and that
therefore the region of Sydney and the Blue Mountains
may have been subject to occasional droughts such as
afflict our present inland areas; these irregularly recurring

TERTIARY AGE OF SEDENTARY SOILS. 261

ary spells would act in the same way, though not to the
same degree, as the regular dry seasons of the tropics, in
promoting hardpan formation.

Since both the climatic and the physiographic conditions
obtaining at present must be regarded as utterly unfavour-
able to the deposition of hardpan, its widespread distribu-
tion in the soils, both sandy and clayey, must be taken as
indicative that these soils are Tertiary, and where the iron-
‘stone nodules are resting as a ‘‘gravel’’ directly on the
rock-surface of the plateau they are to be interpreted as
survivals, through superior grainsize and weight, from
sandy or clayey soils which are now no more.

Much of the nodular material is loose and unconsolidated,
‘being in that respect unlike the more compacted and often
very solid laterite of Western Australia, and although in
places, as about Waterfall and National Park, it may occur
as a somewhat compact, rather sandy, aluminous ironstone,
it is doubtful whether this was ever formed right at the sur-
‘face; rather is it to be regarded as a kind of nodular hard-
ypan formed like the ironstone ‘‘gravel’’ below the surface
ain the subsoil or the deeper parts of the soil, the upper
parts of which have now largely disappeared through sheet-
“wash erosion.

The Wingello bauxites, or laterites rather, are possibly
to be placed in a different category.

It is difficult, if not impossible, to explain these plateau
ironstone ‘‘gravels’’ and hardpans on any other hypothesis
than that they are remnants of the regolithic mantle of a
‘Tertiary landscape.

In the foregoing observations only those areas have been
dealt with which have come under the writer’s personal
notice, and it is of course not suggested that all our sedent-
ary soils are Tertiary. In fact, physiographic and other

262 WwW. R. BROWNE.

conditions eminently suitable for the accumulation of soil-
material in place exist at the present day, as for example:

(1) in some of the less elevated, physiographically
mature parts of the State west of the Main Divide,
where the rainfall is not too low;

(2) in those parts of our coastal regions which have:
been worn down to a low level since the Kosciusko
uplift, or have never been raised much above sea-
level; and

(3) on the floors of the broad valleys of rivers such
as the Wollondilly, Cox, Hunter, and others,
scooped out and widened since the Kosciusko:
uplift.

Nevertheless it seems not improbable that the suggestions.
made as to the date of formation of certain soils may have a
very much wider application in this State; for, since the
prolonged period of Tertiary peneplanation and low
physiographic relief must have left its legacy of deep:
decomposition over a very large area, it is to be expected
that the residual deposits will still appear as sedentary soils:
and areas of deeply decomposed rock, not merely in those
portions of the State which have suffered little from eleva-
tion, but also on the less dissected portions of the highlands.

REFERENCES:
1. Barrell, J.: Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer., 28, 1917, pp. 759-60.
2. Van Hise: A Treatise on Metamorphism, Mon. U.S. Geol.
Surv., 47, 1904, pp. 532-4.
3. Andrews, E. C.: Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia..
This Journal, 44, 1910, p. 420.
4. Brown, Ida A.: This Journal, 59, 1925, p. 387.

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 263

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW SPECIES OF
ANEMONE LEAF BORONIA RICH IN OCIMENE,

By A. R. PENFOLD, F.A.C.L, F.C.S.
Curator and Economic Chemist, Technological Museum, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)

The botany of this new species, Boronia dentigeroides,
is fully described by its author, Mr. E. Cheel, in the current
issue of the Society’s Journal.

It is a tall Rutaceous shrub, varying from 2 to 3 feet in
height, with anemone-like leaves and pink flowers, growing
abundantly in the Braidwood district of New South Wales.

This plant bears a strong superficial resemblance to the
closely allied species Boronia dentigera (Muelleri) and B.
anemonifolia (Cunningham), both of which are described
botanically in Bentham’s ‘‘ Flora Australensis,’’ Volume 1,
page 321. These two species are widely distributed, grow
in elevated sandstone country at not less than 2,000
feet above sea level, are difficult of collection, being upright
sparse shrubs, with little foliage. B. dentigeroides, on the
other hand, whilst possessing similar foliage, has a more
spreading habit, and is in fact a larger plant.

Leaves and terminal branchlets of the new species for

investigation of the essential oi! were obtained from the

Little River, Monga, near Braidwood, growing out of

264 A. R. PENFOLD.

pockets in basaltic rock. The greatest quantity, however,
was secured from the summit of Sugar Loaf Mountain, also
at Monga, where it was found growing in fairly luxuriant
condition in association with Eriostemon Coxii amidst a
rugged quartzite outcrop. (This Journal, Vol. LX. 1926,
pages 331-344.) The leaves of the plant are very small
and sticky, and on crushing in the hands yield a pleasant
characteristic ester odour, which is not readily described.

For purposes of comparison leaves and terminal branch-
lets of Boronia anemonifolia were collected from a number
of mountainous localities in New South Wales, such as
Blackheath, Bundanoon and Hill Top.

The oil of Boronia dentigeroides differed from that of
B. anemonifolia in the following particulars :—
B. anemontfolia B. dentigeroides

Yield of oil eb eae, ORO bomye 13: tos2ve
Hister/Nog, iP Behe 54-128 15-84
Pinene Sermuts eh Ut) 157% under 30%
Owimene.’ Yar i. nie: Hracevonlay 75-80%

The oil of B. anemonifolia is of special interest on ac-
count of the high content of ester, but the publication of
its chemistry, together with that of B. dentigera, is reserved
for a future publication.

The essential oil of B. dentigeroides is of a very remark-

able character, as although the leaves are comparatively.

small, the yield of oil is especially high for such a plant.
The occurrence of the olefinic terpene, ocimene in quantity,
is particularly noteworthy, although it has been recorded
before by the author in papers dealing with the essential
oils of Homoranthus. (This Journal, Vol; Livi 1922
pages 193-201, and Eriostemon myoporoides, Vol. LIX,
1925, pages 206-211.)

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 265

BORONIA DENTIGEROIDES (Cheel).

The essential oils varied in colour from almost water
white to a pale yellow, were extremely mobile, and pos-
sessed a pleasant odour, not easy to describe, but quite
characteristic.

Altogether, 453 Ibs. weight of leaves and. terminal
branchlets, cut as for commercial purposes, were subjected
to steam distillation, the average yield of oil being 1.5%.

The principal constituents which have so far been iden-
tified were found to be ocimene, d-a-pinene, d-limonene
(total terpenes, 90%), darwinol, and the corresponding
caprate, isovalerianate, and acetate, ethyl formate (?), and
isovalerianate, together with small quantities of sesquiter-
penes, phenolic bodies, and paraffin, of m.pt. 64-66°.

I wish to direct attention to a distillation of oil made in
this Museum on the 26th September, 1898, which is in-
eluded in the table, under ‘‘Experimental.’’ The oil was
stored away in a cupboard in the dark, and the chemical
and physical constants were not determined until the 30th
September, 1920, 22 years later. These results are recorded
in the table, as they show no variation from the constants
of later distillaticns which were determined immediately
the oil was obtained from the leaves. This is very re-
markable, because ocimene is a terpene which readily
resinifies, and, moreover, much more stable oils undergo a
change in much less time.

Experimental.

Four hundred and fifty-five lbs. weight of leaves and
terminal branchlets collected from Monga, New South
Wales, yielded, on distillation with steam, crude oils pos-
sessing the chemical and physical characters as shown in
table, viz. :—

A. R. PENFOLD.

266

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*(J4HHO) SHCIOUADILNAGC VINOYO

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 267

The erude oils of every consignment were subjected to
fractional distillation, but for the purpose of this paper it
will be sufficient to publish those necessary to follow the
identification of the various constituents, viz. :—

28th August, 1925. 800 cc. distilled at 20 mm.

Boiling Point. Volume. @t$ = = af Tuas
Below 70° .. .. T5e.c. 0.8448 +21.75° 1.4707 . 20.76:
W-1s° ». .. 192ce. 0.8392 +16.4° 1.4749
ite. 272.c.e- 0.8886 Verso" \) 91-4798
T30° 4. .. S80cc. 0.8330 449° 1.4822
S0-82° .. .. 86cc. 0.8401 + 425° 1.4826
82-85° See. 018411 Ys Big?) 14836

up to 95° (5mm) 2b ce. 0.8748 j= 3:38° 1.4820 172.74.
96-115° (5mm) 86c.c. 0.9868 -+10.1° 1.4760 174.43:
Residue th ae BHORCHC hes “tes Burs:

17th August, 1927.
400 e.c. of first fraction distilled at 20 mm.

o29 20

Boiling Point. Volume. One 5 ny

Below 66° .. 16 c.c. 0.8498 +27.55° 1.4698.
66-70° .. roid LAC OM E 0.8415 +20.4° 1.4744.
(sae 166 c.c. 0.8518 = OLS, 1.4804
77-80° ... 59C.c. 0.8301 + 4.6° 1.4840:

Determination of Terpenes.

Fractions Nos. 2, 3 and 4, ex 800 ec. lot (28/8/’25),
were mixed together and redistilled many times over
metallic sodium at 774 mm., using a 12 pear column, with.
the following result, viz. :—

Boiling Point. Volume. dts an ns
il 120-140° ICSC. (odour of volatile sulphur 1.43802'
compounds)
2 140-156° ANCLC: 1.4521
3 156-160° SHIGE oe 0.8524 +31.7° 1.4677
4 160-166° 38 C.C. 0.8536 +82.05° 1.4702
5 166-175° 48 ¢.¢c. 0.8532 +25.5° 1.4770
6 175-180° 5S C.C. 0.8514 +15.2° 1.4939
i 180-185° 25 CC. 0.8514 +12.4° 1.4990
8 185-187° 30 Cic, 0.8479 + 8.5° 1.5020:
9 187-189° 33 C.C. 0.8388 + 3.85° 1.5155.

“268 A. R. PENFOLD.

d-a-pinene. 32 ¢.c. of above fraction No. 3 was oxidised
with potassium pe-manganate (see this Journal, 1922, 56,
195), and the crude pinonie acid separated as described
in that paper. The acid distilled at 165 at 2 mm., and
solidified immediately when placed in the ice chest. The
crystals were separated, and on purification from petroleum
‘ether (b.p. 50-60°) melted at 70°; 1.0714 grams in 10 e.c.
chloroform gave a reading of +9.625°, [a] +90°. The
semicarbazone melted at 207°.

d-limonene. 4 cc. of each of fractions Nos. 7, 8 and 9
‘were separately dissolved in dry ether and amyl alcohol,
and treated with bromine at —20°. Small quantities of
erystals which separated overnight from fractions Nos. 7
and 9 were pumped off on a Buchner filter funnel, dried
and erystallised from ethyl acetate. Typical erystals of
limonene tetrabromide were obtained, melting at 104°.

Ocimene. The marked change in boiling point and re-
fractive index of the various fractions distilled at atmo-
‘spheric pressure confirmed the presence of the olefenic
terpene, ocimene, as such behaviour is typical of its con-
version into allo-ocimene under the conditions described.
It was necessary, however, to utilise fraction No. 4 ex 400
e.c. lot of first fraction (17/8/’27) for experiments to con-
firm the identity of this interesting and fairly widely dis-
tributed terpene, ocimene.

The usual method of reduction by means of sodium and
ethyl alcohol proved unsatisfactory. As a matter of fact,
the large number of collections of leaves of this species
made during the years 1922-1927 was occasioned through
my inability to prepare the typical derivative of ocimene,
dihydromyreene tetrabromide. From a study of its
chemical and physical constants and general deportment
I was quite satisfied that the principal terpene was identical
with ocimene, but every year from 1922 to date attempts

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 269-

were made to obtain the necessary confirmatory evidence, .
but without success. It was not until early in 1928 that
suecess attended these persistent efforts. The presence.
of pinene and limonene in association with ocimene un-
doubtedly mitigated against it.

The best and most successful method for the reduction
of ocimene to dihydromyrcene was found to be the electro-
lytic method, using nickel as a cathode, referred to in
paper, by the writer and F. R. Morrison, entitled ‘‘Pre-
liminary Note on the Electrolytic Reductions of Piperitone’’
(this Journal, Vol. LVII. 1923, page 215-217).

The yield of dihydromyrcene was poor, due to lack of
precautions for preventing loss of terpene with the gaseous
spray from the cathode compartment. The product, how-
ever, was of a high degree of purity, as is evident from the.
following chemical and physical constants, viz. :—

Equal volumes.
Boiling Point. di2° ae
68-70° (20 mm.) 0.7883 1.4462 (24°)
70-71° (20 mm.) 0.7957 1.4507 (24°)

Both fractions gave excellent yields of dihydromyrcene:
tetrabromide, of melting point 88-89°, when examined ac--
cording to the method described in this Journal (Vol. LVL.,.
1922, pages 199-200).

Determination of Esters.

Low Bowling Ester. The first fraction ex 800 «ee..
(28/8/’25) was treated with aqueous potassium hydroxide:
solution in order to decompose the small quantity of ester
present. It was not possible to isolate and identify the
small quantity of water soluble alcohol, but it appeared to:
be ethylic alcohol on account of the very definite iodoform
reaction. It is well known, of course, that the preparation
of this derivative is not conclusive evidence of the presence
of this aleohol. The volatile acids were liberated from the-

270 A. R. PENFOLD.

alkaline liquor by means of dilute sulphuric acid and sub-
sequent steam distillation. The qualitative reactions
showed the presence of formic and isovaleric acids.

High Boiling Ester. Fraction No. 7, 28/8/’25, Ester
No. 174.48, was heated with alcoholic potassium hydroxide
solution in order to decompose the ester. The oily layer
was separated, washed, dried and heated with phthalic
anhydride in benzene solution on the water bath for a
prolonged pericd. The phthalate was separated, and on
decomposition with alkali in a current of steam yielded 4
ee. of a viscous water white alcohol. This liquid possessed
the following chemical and physical characters, viz. :—
B.pt., 108-110 (10mm); a}3° 0.9459 ; af’, +30.2° ; m2", 1.4890.

It yielded a napthylurethane of melting point 86-87°.
‘The preparation of this derivative is confirmatory of its
identity with Darwinol, containing a small quantity of
geraniol (see this Journal, Vol. LVII., 1923, pages 238,
244-245).

The shghtly lower physical constants were found to be
due to a small quantity, under 10%, of geraniol, whose
presence could only be established by the detection of citral
on oxidation with chromic acid solution.

Acids in combination with Darwinol, etc. The alkaline
liquor resulting from the decomposition of the esters was,
after evaporation to a small bulk, acidulated with dilute
sulphurie acid and subjected to steam distillation. The
volatile acids were obtained both as an oi! and in aqueous
solution, and examined separately. The silver salts were
‘prepared and gave the following results on ignition, viz. :—

Oily acid.
0.3436 gram silver salt gave 0.1604 gram silver—
46.67%.

THE ESSENTIAL OIL OF A NEW BORONIA. 271

Aqueous acid.
0.5644 gram silver salt gave 0.3257 gram silver—
57.92%.

The second portion of original distillate, 17/8/’27, Ester
No. 64.27, was similarly treated, and the silver salts ob-
tained therefrom gave the following results on ignition,
V1Z. :-—

Oily acid.
0.0382 gram silver salt gave 0.0142 gram silver—
37.2%.
The silver salt of capric acid requires 38% silver.

Aqueous acid.
0.5586 gave 0.3234 gram silver—57.89%.

From the above results and the qualitative reactions for
the water soluble acids of both isovaleric and acetic acids,
the deduction is made that the acids present in com-
bination are identical with capric, isovaleric and acetic

acids.

Determination of Sesquiterpenes.

The high boiling fractions, after removal of the alcohols
reacting with phthalic anhydride, were found to consist
largely of sesquiterpenes, boiling approximately between
120-130° at 10 mm., and possessing the following chemical
and physical characters, viz. :—

t#° 0.9433 to 0.950, af + 13° to 15°, m5,” 1.4880.

The quantities were obviously too small for purification,
but evidence of the presence of sesquiterpenes was obtained
by the well-known colour reactions, with bromine in acetic
acid solution and sulphuric acid in acetie anhydride

solution.

Oie2 A. R. PENFOLD.

Determination of Minor Constituents.

The presence of small quantities of phenolic constituents
occurring to the extent of about 0.3%, and a paraffin of
melting point 64-66°, was determined. .

My thanks are due to Mr. H. Cheel, Curator of the
National Herbarium, Sydney, for information on the botany
of the anemone leaf Boronias, especially B. dentigeroides,
and to Mr. F. R. Morrison, F.C.8., AVA.CUL) Aserctant
Eeonomie Chemist, for much assistance in the chemical
investigation of the essential oils.

ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 273

ON SOME ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION.

By W. R. Browne, D.Sc.,
Assistant-Professor of Geology, University of Sydney.
(With five text-figures.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)

Introduction.

Physiographic form is a function of many variables,
some mutually related, others entirely independent of each
other. Among the more important of these in the case of
normal river-erosion are geological structure and the petro-
eraphical character of rock-masses, the former including
folding, faulting and jointing, the latter comprising mainly
chemical composition, mineral constitution and texture. To
some extent the factors belonging to either of these groups
may act independently of each other, or of those in the
other group; folding, faulting and jointing, for example,
may affect rocks of widely different petrological characters.
On the other hand, there may be physiographic forms due
to the co-operation of one or more factors from each group.

The more the writer sees of the physiography of this
State the more he is impressed with the very close de-
pendence of physiographic form on the structures, and
particularly on the varying composition, of the rock-units;
and he is inclined to regard differential erosion as a prime
cause of most of the small-scale, as well as of a good many
of the larger-scale physiographic features. This view ap-
pears to harmonize with the experience of other workers,
and helps to emphasize the importance of geological as a
sound basis for physiographic study.

R—December 5, 1928.

274 W. R. BROWNE.

It is proposed in this paper to consider differential
erosion from two aspects, first as a factor in the evolution
of topographic forms resembling those produced by fault-
ing, and secondly in its relation to what may be ealled
antecedent deep weathering.

Fault-Scarps and Erosion-Scarps.

There is a tendency—a very natural one—for the
physiographer to assume, as a first hypothesis anyway,
that notable and abrupt differences in surface-elevation,
especially if the bounding scarp is approximately linear or
regular, are due to faulting of such recent date that the
country on the upthrow side has not yet been completely
dissected. But experience has shown that such physio-
graphic criteria of recent faulting, while admittedly of the
greatest value in many eases, require to be used with the
greatest caution, and may at times actually be misleading,
since physiographic effects very similar to those produced
directly by faulting may result from fluvial erosion acting
on rock-units of unequal resistance, which are in contact
as the result either of normal processes of rock-formation
or of faulting during some previous cycle of erosion.

We have in this State examples of fault-scarps, whose
existence has been proved. Of such are the Kurrajong
fault-scarp, recorded by Professor David, and the Mundi-
Mundi scarp, in the Barrier Ranges, described by Mr.
E. C. Andrews) ; and Professor Griffith Taylor has given
good reasons for regarding the ridge forming the western
boundary of Lake George as due to a geologically-recent
fault). But there are also examples of physiography
which might be, and in some instances have been, inter-
preted as the direct result of faulting, on the physiographic
evidence alone, but which either are definitely known to

be due wholly or mainly to differential erosion, or are best
explained on that hypothesis.

ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 275

Examples of Fault-Line Scarps.

‘The operation of differential erosion following on fault-
ing to produce what W. M. Davis has called a fault-line
scarp) is well illustrated along the valley of the Hunter
River. For much of its course this valley is bounded on
the north and east by hard Carboniferous rocks, while the
valley floor is cut mainly out of soft Permo-Carboniferous
sediments, and in many places the eastern valley wall is
quite steep and scarp-like. As a matter of fact the junction
of Carboniferous and Permo-Carboniferous rocks is along a
fault-plane (Figs. 1 & 5). A powerful overthrust from the
north-east brought the hard rocks up into apposition with

N.E.
S.W. Mr.
Tanqorth
Carboniferous

Triassic lavas , tufts
Sandstones Hunter & conglles.

!Permo-Carbs. sediments

"* Horizontal scale: t= 6 miles . Vertical scale : 1'= about 4og0' ~.* -

Fig. 1.

Sketch-section across Hunter Valley, with fault-line scarp
on one side and erosion-scarp on the other.

the softer ones, this was followed by peneplanation, then
by uplift of the peneplain and differential erosion of the
softer beds on the downthrust side of the fault. Though
the eastward limit of erosion has been set roughly by the
fault-plane, the present erosion-slope is thus not a proper
fault-scarp at.all, but is in the nature of a resequent fault-
line searp. -About halfway between Muswellbrook and
Scone the fault-plane is crossed by the Hunter River, and
the work of G. D. Osborne has shown that about Scone
the overthrust ts succeeded by a normal fault, which con-
tinues northward for a considerable distance, certainiy as
far as Murrurundi, and possibly much further. The

276 W. R. BROWNE.

present writer considered that the scarp existing along the
line of this fault might be a revealed fault-scarp ®, one
which after its formation had been buried beneath a basalt-
flow and had later been revealed by the erosion of the
basalt; but while this may be true to a certain extent,
erosion has undoubtedly cut down well below the level of
the fault-plane as originally exposed, and it is perhaps
better to regard the scarp, as it exists to-day, as a resequent.
fault-line scarp, in part at all events.

The Hunter Valley furnishes at least one other example
of a scarp which is in some degree a resequent fault-line
scarp. To the west of Cessnock the broad low-lying plain
which has been carved by the Hunter and its tributaries is.
bounded for a space by the inlier of Carboniferous and
pre-Carboniferous rocks forming the ridge extending from
Mt. Bright to Mt. View, and rising to a height of nearly
1700 feet above sea-level. This ridge is bounded to the
east by two normal step-faults, probably of late Permo-
Carboniferous age, which have brought Permo-Carbon-
iferous rocks against granodiorite overlain by siliceous.
Kuttung lavas™. On the eastern side river-erosion has.
removed the later sediments to a very considerable extent,
so that the valley is now to all intents bounded, in places
with a very abrupt scarp, by the more westerly of the old
fault-planes.

Examples of Erosion-Scarps.

But differential erosion may give rise to the appearance
of youthful faulting, even when it has not worked along
an old fault-plane, and examples of this are numerous in
our own State. The broad flat Hunter Valley, already
referred to, is bounded on its right or southern bank from
Denman for nearly 50 miles by a scarp running about
south-east, breached at intervals by tributaries of the
Hunter, and their tributaries. A similar scarp runs in a

ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 277

general N.N.E. direction from the Hunter-Goulburn
junction as far as Wingen and beyond, forming the right
bank first of the Hunter and then of its meridional
tributaries, Dart Brook and Kingdon Ponds. The steep
eliffs forming these escarpments rise abruptly from the
plain, and give one very strongly, even from a short
distanee, the impression of -being structural in origin, but
they are in fact due to sapping of the sub-horizontal hard
‘Triassic sandstones which form them, consequent on the
erosion of the softer underlying coal-measure rocks (see
Migs. 1&5).

The same thing is true of the scarps bounding our coastal
plateaux to the north and south of Sydney. Here the steep
¢eliffs are in places quite a considerable distance from the
sea-coast, and are fronted by coastal tracts which are very
maturely eroded, and even senile in places. Typical
country of this kind may be seen to the west from Morrisset,
Wyong and other places between Gosford and Neweastle,
as well as in the Illawarra district. At first glance the
eliffs might easily be taken for fault-scarps—indeed the
Illawarra cliffs were so interpreted originally—especially
as highland and fronting lowland show much the same
degree of dissection, but geological mapping has shown the
plateau surfaces to consist of hard, level-bedded and
vertically jointed Triassic sandstone, which toward the
east has been eroded by sapping of the softer underlying
rocks now forming the coastal lowlands.

In all these cases there is a close correlation between
rock-resistance, structure and physiography, such as is con-
sidered to be a useful criterion in the distinction between
fault-line scarps and fault-scarps‘®); here, however, it is
due entirely to differential erosion, without any co-opera-

tion whatever from major differential earth-movements.

278 W. R. BROWNE.

So far we have been considering the behaviour of super-
posed rock-masses of different resistances; but steep slopes,,
simulating very closely the appearance of fault-scarps,
especially in regard to linearity, may occur where the more-
and less resistant rock-masses are in apposition, with
vertical or sub-vertical planes of junction.

According to Mr. E. C. Andrews) the New England
Tableland is composed of a number of separate plateaw
areas at different levels, varying from about 2600 to 4800:
feet above the sea. These were formerly ascribed to
differential elevation of an original peneplain surface, but
Mr. Andrews has shown that the lower plateau-levels occur:
in areas of slates and relatively basic plutonic rocks, while:
the higher levels consist almost entirely of siliceous rocks,
and he considers the present physiographic arrangement to
be probably due to differential erosion during a series of
cycles.

The sub-meridional valley of the River Murrumbidgee
from a little way north of Cooma to its junction with the
Cotter in the Federal Capital Territory is bounded on the:
west by highlands, rising to a maximum elevation of 5000
feet some miles back from the river, whereas the country
to the east may be 2500 feet lower. The marked difference-
in level on the two sides of the river has been attributed to
faulting of recent geological age along the course of the
river 1), but detailed geological mapping has failed to-
reveal any such fault, and on the other hand has shown
that the high land is composed of a gneissic granite with.
a contact which is vertical or dips steeply westwards, the
invaded rocks being Ordovician (?) schists and slates, and.
Silurian shales and quartzites (Fig. 2). The boundary
between intrusive and invaded rocks runs parallel to and
almost along the river bank, and there is at least a strong
probability that the physiographic phenomena are due:

7
Yi
¥
d

Greissic ,
Granite

ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 279

entirely to differential erosion. The writer hopes to be
able to treat this matter of the Upper Murrumbidgee
physiography in more detail at a later date.

The sure methods of stratigraphy, as Andrews has called
them, and of detailed geological mapping, are probably the
best means of detecting the presence of faults, whether
indicated physiographically or not, and there is no doubt
that the same methods may likewise serve at times to
demonstrate the absence of faulting, even where physio-
eraphy would seem to suggest its presence.

Murrumbidgee
Quartz-

Granite

eh Silurian :
Horizontal Scale:1”22miles Vertical Scale: 1"=about 2000'

Big. 2.
Sketch -section across Upper Murrumbidgee Valley at Michelago.

Variability in Physiographic Behaviour of Rock-Masses.

Apart from the effect of recent dislocations, unevenness
in topography may be considered as due ultimately mainly
to differences in the resistance of rock-masses to mechanical
and chemical weathering, as well as to actual river-erosion.
In the general case chemical weathering plays a subordinate
part in comparison with mechanical, but its importance
increases with the decrease of physiographic relief, and in
the case of rocks like tuffs, which are often porous, and
composed of minerals very susceptible to decomposition,
its influence may transcend that of mechanical weathering.
Nevertheless it may be assumed that in general the relative
rates of erosion of rock-masses are determined not so much

280 W. R. BROWNE.

by their decomposability as by their susceptibility to
mechanical weathering and erosion.

There are, however, puzzling variations in the behaviour
of a given rock from place to place, even in situations
where the present-day erosional environments appear to be
identical. The changeable behaviour may be quite correctly
in each ease ascribed to differential erosion, but obviously
this process has not operated in the same way in every
instance, and some more specific explanation must be
sought.

Granite is a rock which, though chemically somewhat
weak, has normally a high resistance to mechanical
weathering, and hence it might be expected to wear much
better than ordinary sedimentary rocks, which are liable
to disintegration or decomposition, and which,'in any ease,
owing to the association of weak and strong strata, are
generally of very inferior resistance. Even hard siliceous
rocks like quartzites and rhyolites, intrinsically strong in
virtue of their composition, are often closely jointed and
readily fractured by weathering, and might for this reason,
and through the weakness of associated rocks, be expected
to suffer erosion at a greater rate than granite, which is
usually homogeneous to great depths and intersected only
by widely-spaced joints.

But while, as is to be expected, we often see granite
making the uplands, with rocks of inferior resistance form-
ing the valleys and lowlands, occasionally the reverse is
found, granite being at the lower level. And these con-
trasted effects are displayed whether the associated rocks
are older or newer than the granite; in other words the
granite may tower over, or may lie at a lower level than,
either older or younger rocks, and that, too, quite in-
dependently of the relative inherent resistances of the

ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 281

rocks concerned to mechanical erosion. The topography in
which granite forms the uplands may, in the light of what
has been said, be regarded as normal, and for that in which
granite forms the lowlands many explanations may suggest
themselves, as for example the prevalence in the granite
of joints or cleavage, the extent of the granite outcrop, and
perhaps also the original relative positions, in a vertical
sense, of the rock-masses before the commencement of the
present cycle of erosion. But there is another factor which,
so far as the writer 1s aware, has not hitherto been stressed
in geological writing, and which may, it seems, be of con-
s'derable importance in certain cases.
Antecedent Deep Weathering.

It has been stated above that in the erosion of a region
chemical weathering plays only a subordinate part, that is,
ehemical weathering during the currency of the erosion.
But the foundations of decay may have been deeply laid
in a rock-mass long before the date of its attack by river-
erosion. It has been shown by various writers that under
conditions of low physiographic relief deep and thorough
decomposition of the surface-rocks may be effected. The
feeble surface-drainage is unable to cope with the task of
removing the products of weathering, while at the same
time the propoztion of meteoric water that sinks below the
surface is high, and this percolating water exeris a solvent
action on the rocks, causing their decomposition as far
down as the leve! of the water-table.

The greatest depth to which thorough decomposition may
extend is uncertain. Merrill?) records depths of decom-
posed rock of the order of 300 and even 400 feet in favour-
able situations, but this is not necessarily the maximum
possible. The decomposing effect of the percolating waters
is necessarily selective, inasmuch as some rocks in virtue of
inherent characters are more liable to attack than others.

282 W. R. BROWNE.

Granite, for example, and basalt, and other igneous rocks:
except the very siliceous ones, are decomposed much more,
and to a much greater depth, than the majority of the
sedimentary rocks, which, as Merrill points out, are them-
selves largely the insoluble residues from decomposition,
and therefore no longer subject to chemical weathering.

If now we imagine a region, which has for long been in
the last stages of a cycle of erosion, to undergo uplift, so
that the peneplain or low-level region of very mature
topography and of heterogeneous rock-composition becomes.
a plateau, the new and the rejuvenated streams will attack
the more deeply and thoroughly decomposed rock-masses,

and cut down through them with relative rapidity, leaving

the less decomposed masses in relief. The differential rate
of erosion is thus at first dependent not on the relative
resistance of the various rock-units to mechanical weather-
ing and erosion so much as on their differential yielding
to antecedent deep weathering, that is, deep chemical
weathering during the concluding stages of the immediately
preceding cycle of erosion. And it may even be that in
the early stages of the new cycle the drainage-pattern may
show some of the characteristics of maturity, since the
courses of the new streams will have been determined not
altogether by slope but in part by the directions of easiest
erosion.

If uplift has been considerable, so that the old water-
table is a long way above the new base-level of erosion,
then it may happen that the rivers will have cut their way
through the entire thickness of the decomposed rock before
reaching a state of grade. Vertical corrasion will then
continue through the fresh rock, but its rate will be very
considerably diminished, and, if it happens that the more
deeply decomposed rock-mass is really of superior resist-

ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 283°

‘ance to mechanical weathering and erosion, the tables may
gradually be turned, the highlands will be brought low,.
and the lowlands, through their slower rate of erosion, will
in process of time become relatively elevated.

A corollary to the proposition here enunciated is that
the water-table level of the readily decomposable rocks
during the old cycle of erosion will tend to become the
level of temporary formation of broad fiat-floored valleys
during a comparatively early stage in the new cyele. The
water-table is usually taken to be about the downward limit
of weathering, below which, in the groundwater region, or
belt of cementation, constructive rather than destructive
chemical work is carried on. If now we take the case of
a chemically weak but mechanically resistant rock like
granite, during the uplift following peneplanation it would
be rapidly eroded to the lowest level of decay, that is, to
its former water-table level. Thereafter erosion of the
granite, though not entirely stopped, would proceed with
extreme slowness, and a kind of temporary base-level of
erosion would be established. The valley would therefore
widen and the lowlands extend, until a considerable area
had been reduced to approximately the same level, the
while the main stream was cutting a notch into the hard
granite floor. The process would thus in a way be
analogous to that of benching, where the erosion of softer
horizontal beds resting on harder produces an approxi-
mately uniform surface at the level of the harder strata,
and it is conceivable that the appearance of valley-in-valley
structure might be produced without any actual inter-
ruption in the process of erosion.

The foregoing discussion has centred largely around the
behaviour of granite under certain given conditions. This
is natural, first because differential erosion in its relation
to physiographic relief is studied better in rock-masses.

284 W. R. BROWNE.

with approximately vertical contacts, as in the case of a
bathylith and the invaded rocks, than in those whose
boundaries are more nearly horizontal; and secondly be-
cause granite is a rock of wide distribution, and possesses
the two qualities of chemical weakness and physical re-
sistance. But of course the same principles apply in the
ease of any rock-masses of contrasted characters.
Illustrative Examples.

Examples of the varying behaviour of granite and other
similar rocks are readily found. Perhaps the most common
ease of all is that in which the granite forms the uplands,
while sedimentary rocks form the valleys, and of this many
instances might be quoted. A very fine one is illustrated
in a section across the country to the east of Michelago, in
the Upper Murrumbidgee Valley (Fig. 2). The Tindery
Range, up to 5000 feet in height, owes its superior elevation
to the granite of which it is made, the lower ground to the
west, drained by tributaries of the Murrumbidgee, being
composed mainly of Silurian shales, quartzites and tuffs.
A smaller intrusion of granite forms a parallel ridge, but
cat a lower level, a few miles to the west, while nearer the
Murrumbidgee the Silurian sedimentary rocks are injected
‘by elongated masses of granite-porphyry, and these form
‘conspicuous ridges where they are widest; in this last case
the erosion has been differential as between rock-masses
‘which are both fairly immune from chemical weathering,
but of very different degrees of resistance to mechanical
weathering and erosion. Further to the west, on the left
bank of the Murrumbidgee, gneissic granite, instrusive into
Ordovician rocks, causes a further abrupt change in the
topography, as explained above.

The inlier of Blair Duguid near Allandale, in the Lower
Hunter Valley, illustrates the operation of another factor
which makes for differential erosion. Here a mass of

ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 285,

Carboniferous andesite, once an island in the Permo-
Carboniferous sea, forms a series of low hills flanked by
tuffs and tuffaceous conglomerates of Permo-Carboniferous
age, under which, without a doubt, the andesite was
formerly completely buried. The area is at present in a
state of advanced physiographic maturity.

The andesite, though a fairly easily decomposable rock,
is but slowly eroded, while the younger sedimentary rocks
are both more easily decomposed and more easily dis-
integrated. On the whole it appears in this instance that
the relatively rapid removal of the tuffs and conglomerates
has been due to their greater susceptibility to chemical
weathering.

Permo-Carbs
conglte

Upper
Devonian
quart zites , fuffs
de.

Granite

A ah nd uy o af \ / ih / y, \ y ite) jae
Fig. 3.

Diagrammatic-section at Sodwalls, showing relations between
granite and sedimentary rocks.

For examples of the effect of antecedent deep weathering
we turn to the western granite areas. The country about
Rydal and Sodwalls, about 30 miles on the Sydney side
of Bathurst, is composed of granite intrusive into Upper
Devonian quartzites, slates, tuffs, &c., locally contact-altered
to hornfels; these are overlain by remnants of Permo-
Carboniferous conglomerates. The granite in general
forms gently undulating, low-lying country, contrasting
with the high ground made by the other rocks (Fig. 3).
Railway-cuttings and other excavations show decomposed
sranite to depths of 30 feet and more, this material form-

‘286 W. R. BROWNE.

ing knolls which are clearly remnants of masses once much
greater in extent and thickness. This region formed part
of the Great Australian Tertiary peneplain, and one can
imagine it at that time with a flattish or gently undulating
surface cut out of Upper Devonian sediments, granite
and Permo-Carboniferous sediments—a set of conditions
favourable to differential deep decay of the granite.
During one of the minor uplifts which, according to
Andrews‘!?), characterized late Tertiary times, the streams
on rejuvenation would rapidly scoop out most of the de-
composed granite, forming wide-flung lowlands, leaving
the less decomposed sedimentary rocks standing in relief.
Later, of course, there was the great Kosciusko uplift
which raised the country to its present level of about 3000
feet, but rejuvenation has not yet modified very materially
the late Tertiary topography.

The same principle with modifications is illustrated on
a smaller scale in the neighbourhood of Hartley, just west
of the Blue Mountains. Here the valleys of the Cox and
of its tributary, the Lett, have broad fiat floors, cut in-
differently out of granite, Upper Devonian quartzites,
hhornfelses and felsite, and Permo-Carboniferous shales,
conglomerates and grits; within this mature valley, which
is 800 feet below the plateau level, the Cox has entrenched
itself to a depth of more than 500 feet (Fig. 4). Acecord-
ing to F. A. Craft™*4) the present state of affairs was
brought about by an uplift, followed by a pause of sufficient
duration to enable the river to attain maturity and cut
out a wide flat valley, through which it was meandering
when further uplift caused it to become entrenched. Now
where the entrenched stream is flowing through the hard
Devonian rocks it is in a steep-sided youthful gorge, but
further up-stream the valley, where it is cut through
granite, is markedly less youthful, and in places approaches

ASPECTS OF DIFFERENTIAL EROSION. 287

maturity. The Devonian rocks, though hard and siliceous
and fresh, are much jointed, and break readily into smallish
fragments which form talus-slopes, unlike the granite,
which is very massive, and jointed only on a large scale;
but an examination of the country forming the broad
upper valley, where all the rocks are at the same level,
reveals in road-cuttings and quarries an appreciable depth
of decomposed granite, with occasional masses of fresh
rock embedded. An obvious explanation of the physio-
graphy of the entrenched valley is that this granite was
decomposed to a much greater degree than the associated
rocks during the period of stillstand preceding the second

Mr.
York E.N.E
W.S.W. Triassic [==
Sandstones BRE
Cox R. ; Permo-Carboniferous an
Granite: : Sua MIL DOTA SPORE ES NS ATOR SE eR ST ak tig
aN LALOR a / er Se
S.L. ' N\ 7, a \ ! ae W7 . y : PP’ evorfian
Horizontal scale: s*s abt 1§ mls, Vertical scale: 1's abt 2000" Poe i ;
Fig. 4.

Sketch-section across Cox Valley at Hartley.

uplift, when the broad flat valley was an area of low relief
and gentle slope, and that since this second uplift the
entrenched valley has proceeded with comparative rapidity
towards maturity where cut in the soft, decomposed granite.

The writer has not sufficient detailed knowledge of the
granite-areas of New South Wales to make possible an
extensive examination of the hypothesis (suggested in the
first instance by a perusal of Dr. Woolnough’s presidential!
address to this Society®) of antecedent deep weathering
as set forth above. The hypothesis is, however, put for-
ward in the hope that it may in some instances be found
to provide a more precise and satisfying explanation of

288

W. R. BROWNE.

anomalous physiographic behaviour in rock-masses, which
is now reasonably and correctly, but somewhat vaguely,
attributed to differential erosion.

14.

15,

+ Davin; Sir T. Wi. BE:

A ANDREWS. 2) Ouree

. TAYLOR, GRIFFITH

PDAVIS) We iMiety. ssc

, @OsSBornNe, G. Dr...

. Browne, W. R. ..

. BRowneE, W. R.,

AND WaLkoM, A. B.

. BLACKWELDER, E.
J ANDREWS) ts Ge 0

* SUSSMILCH,, GC. “A:

. TAYLOR, GRIFFITH

PO MERRILE. (G, ee eae

ANDREWS, 0 1G. a2

GRAFTS PuvA.) i.e

WooLnoucH, W. G.

REFERENCES.

An Important Geological Fault at Kur-
rajong, N.S.W. This Journal, 36, 1902,
pp.359-370.

The Geology of the Broken Hill District.
Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geology No. 8,
1922, p.24.

The Lake George Senkungsfeld. Proc.
Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 32, 1907, pp.825-345.

Nomenclature of Surface Forms on
Faulted Structures. Bull. Geol. Soc.
Amer., 24, 1913, p.206.

The Carboniferous Rocks in the Muswell-
brook-Scone District. Proc. Linn. Soc.
N.S. W., 53, 1928, pp. 588-597.

Notes on the Physiography and Geology
of the Upper Hunter River. This Jour-
nal, 58, 1924, p.140.

The Geology of the Eruptive and Asso-
ciated Rocks of Pokolbin, N.S.W. This
Journal, 45, 1911, pp.379-408.

The Recognition of Fault-Scarps. Journ.
Geol., 36, 1928, p.306.

New England Tableland. N.S.W. Hand-
book, B.A.A.S., 1914, pp.508-511.

Notes on the Physiography of the South-
ern Tableland of N.S.W. This Journal,
43, 1909, pp.331-354.

The Physiography of the Proposed Fede-
ral Territory at Canberra. ' Common,
wealth Bureau of Meteorology, Bull. No.
6, 1910.

Rocks, Rock-Weathering and Soils, pp.
271-2.

Geographical Unity of Eastern Australia.
This Journal, 44, 1910, pp.420-480.

The Physiography of the Cox River
Basin. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 53, 1928,
pp.207-254.

Presidential Address, This Journal, 61,
1927, pp. 17-53.

Scale

? 8 {6 Miles.

i LECEND

pencrer = -

———awerris Creek—— Carbonifergus Permo-Carbs
: " Hawkesbury Tertiary

Sandstone Basalt

AXA
eK oc ontass
VA AN ArH
‘ os icles
SAS RS Sy, np
a am EN ee
oes A Fw a phy,
R A
oe Maccurunds L$ BX» SSnEeER ESS Cg
88 |) nae EY 6060 6° «ce SO WN, 5%"7
; ERIN. | EES RN
SX Sia es ge AAV On. KX
eeleraencs ee eateraeh BO TR
OREN ERR : KON WOK
sl RR Me BRO Oo MSG ‘ casa ice ar AN eee SRA
MG OOS A oe HE
PR OA THU UR ROC IR RRL aS? 2 Ss O69
Daehn e CR LEE TT LL ST ER,
SSK RRR N ER on ize) KLRD
BKK KK te, WW Bea Soa SSSI ae BBY
BE Noereneens : i 4 - ‘f = a
sossctoneeseennne M AMacdueen =~ Sa Oe
ENE Tate Sati aa ae ONY OES )
HV arkville— A &

litrees

We Singlétén’
: Ne .
< \

Dec ae ace “Belford Beauxtgn
a 6: ewe certo: Mel ie, Ns ED
SY

OL Ores Lem On 1On ger WO Ly Oy ESF er) es
ec 868 Oy So Be ed ee oe st Re De
ee

eee 0:1) Wy en” 016 eS

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Fig. 5.
Map showing the geology of part of the Hunter Valley.
(Reproduced from this Journal, 58, 1924, Pl. VI )

S—December 5, 1928.

290 EDWIN CHEEL.

FURTHER NOTES ON THE GENUS BORONIA.

By EpwIN CHEEL,
Curator of the National Herbarium, Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)

The following notes are a continuation of those already
published in the Journal and Proceedings of this Society
(42), and are based mainly on specimens contained in the
National Herbarium, Sydney, together with a few received
from the National Herbarium of Melbourne and the
Government Botanist of Queensland.

A brief summary of the species dealt with is as fol-
lows :—
Boronia anemonifolia A. Cunn. Discussed in conjunction with the
following :—
i dentigera F. v. M. Regarded as a variety of B. anemonifolia
by Bentham, and now rehabilitated to specific rank.
5 dentigeroides, sp. nov.
os variibilis Hook. {f. Regarded as a variety of B. anemom-
folia by Bentham, and now rehabilitated to specific rank.
o anethifolia A. Cunn. Regarded as a variety of B. anemom-
folia by Bentham, and now raised to specific rank.
i bipinnata Lindl. Regarded as a synonym of B. anemonifolia,
var. anethifolia, by Bentham, but raised to specific rank.
. rigens, sp. nov. Previously included under B. polygalifolia
as a variety, but regarded as distinct and raised to specific
rank.

a nana Hook. Included as a synonym under B. polygalifolia,
var. trifoliata, by Bentham, but considered distincé.

< falcifolia A. Cunn. Showing a wider geographivel range.

. Gunn Hook. Regarded as a variety of &. j;innata by
‘Bentham, but considered to be distinct.

’

. citriodora Gran. Regarded as a variety of :3, pimnata by

Benthair, but considered to be distinct.

FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 291

Boronia anemonifolia A. Cunn.@?)
Cunningham’s original description is in Latin, and may
-be translated as follows :—

“Leaves petiolate, trifoliate, and leaflets narrow-cuneate, with
2 or 8 teeth on the margins or entire; petioles somewhat chan-
“nelled. Peduncles one-fiowered, solitary in the axils of the leaves.
Filaments somewhat glandular, obtuse at the apex, anthers of
_a chalk-white colour.”

The habitat given is ‘‘ Verge of the Regent’s Glen, Blue
Mountains.’’ Bentham, gives a compound description
and records it for all States except South Austraha. It is
‘very doubtful, however, if the Canning River, W.A., plants
belong to this species, or to any of its supposed varieties or
races as enumerated. Mueller,{4) under B. polygalifolia,
includes this as a synonym, but, as pointed out by Bentham,
(8) it has been subdivided into three, which may be con-
sidered as tolerably distinct races, viz.,

(a) B. dentigera.
(b) variabilis.
(c) anethifolius.

My own view is that B. anemonifolia A. Cunn., B. anethi-
fola A. Cunn., and B. variabilis Hook., are distinct species,
and I accordingly suggest the rehabilitation of these three
together with B. bipinnata of Lindley to specific rank
again, as originally proposed by their respective authors.
Specimens of typical B. anemonifolia are represented in
the National Herbarium from the following localities :—
Hill Top, Mittagong, Berrima, Yerranderie, Tallong,
Barber’s Creek, Badgeries Crossing and Mount Wilson.

Boronia dentigera F.v.M.(33)

Mueller’s original description of this species is as follows:
“Branches nearly terete, spreading, hirtellous; leaves
thick, glabrous or pubescent, divaricate, trifoliate; leaflets
‘cuneate-linear, trilobulate at the summit; peduncles

292 EDWIN CHEEL.

axillary, solitary, one to three-flowered, shorter than the
leaves, bearing in the middle a pair of leafy bracteas as:
well as the subulate-lanceolate sepals slightly hirtellous or
pubescent; stamens all fertile with ciliated filaments. Seed
asperous.”’

The habitat given by Mueller is: ‘‘On sandhills near
the La Trobe River and in McCrae’s Island. Also near
the Pendland Hills, according to Mr. Dallachi.’’

Bentham ®) includes this under B. anemontfolia as a
variety, and cites Cynanothamnus tridactylites Bartl. in
Pl. Preiss. II, 227, as a synonym. I have not seen the
Western Australian plants quoted by Bentham, so cannot
say definitely if it really belongs to the present species,,.
but I doubt very much if it is the same species. The:
Tasmanian specimens collected by C. Stuart and quoted
by Bentham) and Rodway?) are B. variabilis Hook..
Baker ®) and Maiden and Betche‘?!*) followed Bentham in
regarding this as a variety of B. anemonifolia, but the
structural character of the leaves and hispid sepals, as well
as the distinct geographical range, seems to warrant it
being regarded as specifically distinct. The whole plant is.
decidedly more hispid than B. anemontfolia and the flowers.
are different.

Specimens in the National Herbarium, Sydney, are from:
the following locality: Conjola (W. Heron). In addition
to the specimens collected by the late Baron F’. von Mueller:
on the La Trobe River, there are also specimens collected.
in 1895 by Miss M. Wise from the same locality.

Boronia variabtlis Hook. f.4)
(B. anemonifolius var. variabilis Benth. ),
Maid. et Betche. (242) )
The original description of Hooker“) is in Latin, which.
may be translated as follows—‘‘ Plants erect, glabrous or:

FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 293

pubescent, branches and branchlets more or less studded
with warty oil-glands; petioles terete or plain, thick,
leaflets oblong or obovate-lanceolate, the tips rather broadly
obovate-spathulate, retuse, distinctly merved and covered
with prominent-raised oil-glands; flowers on short or

occasionally long pedicels.”’

There appears to have been a certain amount of con-
fusion concerning this species, as will be seen from the
following remarks of Hooker’?)—‘‘The last collection
received from Mr. Gunn, so rich in good specimens, enables
me to correct my ideas respecting B. variabilis, and to refer
the varieties a and y to B. tetrandra Lab., notwithstanding
the flowers are octandrous. The name variabilis will be
confined to the var. 8, which has the leaves very generally
bi-pinnate, the leaflets oblanceolate or cuneate, entire or
trifid, marked with evident glandular dots. The branches
have two opposite lines of hairs.’’

Hooker !8) repeats his original description, giving the
habitat as ‘‘Northern parts of the Island, near the coast;
Woolnorth, Hunter’s and Flinders’ Island in Bass’ Straits,
Gunn (FI. Oct.).’’

Hooker 8) further states that its distribution is in New
South Wales and south-eastern Australia, and gives the
following additional description—‘‘A tall, handsome
species, 2-4 feet high, exuding copiously a balsamic gum
that smells of turpentine and somewhat of Mangos (Gunn).
Branches and branchlets usually pubescent and covered
with tubercles, each containing an oil-gland, but sometimes
smooth. Leaves pinnate; petioles stout, 4-2 inch long,
often flat and dilated, leaflets two or three pairs, more or
less obovate-lanceolate to obovate-spathulate, membranous
or coriaceous, their apices acute, blunt, rounded, retuse,
or in broader leaflets bi-trifid, studded with large glands,

294 EDWIN CHEEL.

very variable in length and breadth, 4-3 inch long,
generally with an evident prominent midrib. Flowers very
numerous, pink, variable in size, similar to thosc of B.
pilosa. Narrow-leaved states closely resemble B. anethi-
foka A. Cunn. of New South Wales. The membranous:
state of this, with spathulate, broad, retuse, or lobed
leaflets, looks quite distinct from any of its congeners, but
Gunn’s suites of specimens show that it passes directly into
the following (B. Gunnu and B. citriodora) ; it is the B.
dentigera of Dr. Mueller, and is also found in south-eastern:
Australia.’’ These latter remarks apply to B. dentigeroides,.
described in this paper, rather than to B. dentigera of
Mueller.

Hooker, l.c., also gives two varieties, as follows :—
Var. a; foliolis obovatis submembranaceis obtusis
retusis 2-3 fidisve (Gunn, 666).
Var. y; foliolis lanceolatis apices versus latioribus:
acutis mucronatis acuminatisve (Gunn, 214).

From an examination of the specimens in the National
Herbaria, Sydney and Melbourne, I find the following may
safely be regarded as distinct and referred to this species—
River Mersey (Stuart), labelled B. polygalifolia var.
pinnatifolia, with a footnote in Mueller’s handwriting:
‘‘This is Hooker’s B. variabilis.’’ King Island, ex. Herb..
Melbourne, labelled B. polygalifolia var. anemonfolia;
also collected by P. R. H. St. John, in November, 1887,.
labelled B. pinnata, and by Strong ex Herb. Royal Society
of Tasmania, labelled B. polygalifolia, and by the late Mr.
E. Betche as B. polygalifolia var. anemonfolia; Tasmania,
without specific locality (W. H. Archer) ; Lindisfarne, near
Hobart (Rev. H. M. R. Rupp, who remarks: ‘*Grows to:
6 feet. Mr. Rodway says it is a form of B. anemontfolia,.

but it is unlike any varieties I have seen in N.S.W.’’).

FURIHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 295

Labelled B. anemonifolia var. variabilis (B. variabilis 2) by
the late Mr. E. Betche.
Boronia anethifolia A. Cunn.“?

The original specimens were collected by A. Cunningiiam
in 1825 on the western branches of the Hunter River and
Wellington Valley. A description is given in Latin,‘
which may be translated as follows:—‘Branches quad-
rangular; leaves bi-pinnate, glabrous, leaflets linear-
lanceolate, entire, the margins more or less revolute and
verrucose or rugulose with the raised oil-glands; cymes
in the axils of the leaves shorter than the leaves.’’

Then we have a further description by Lindley in
Latin, which may be translated as follows :—‘‘ Branches
angular, glabrous, resinose-scabrous; leaves bi-pinnate,
petiole articulate and winged, leaflets linear, acute, covered
with prominent oil-glands; panicles arranged in small
eorymbs shorter than the leaves; sepals subrotundate.
Interior of New Holland, lat. 284° S., 1827. The flowers
are small and closely collected on the short panicles, which
are not half the length of even the uppermost leaves.’’

Bentham) unites this with B. anemonifolia A. Cunn.,
as a variety, quoting both the above references, and states
that it is ‘‘the common form in the interior of Queensland
and New South Wales.’’

From an examination of a fine series of specimens in
the National Herbarium, Sydney, I have failed to see the
resemblance to anemonifolius, as the leaves are more com-
pound, and leaflets narrower and more acute, and thus
more closely resemble B. variabilis, as stated by Bentham,
but in B. anethifolius there is no semblance of pubescences
or hairs, the whole plant being perfectly glabrous, whereas,
in B. anementfolius, B. variabilis, B. dentigera and B. bi-
pinnata, they are all more or less pilose or hispid.

296 EDWIN CHEEL.

Distribution: N.S.W.—Yerranderie, Warragamba River,
Burragorang, Wolgan Valley, Denman, near Merriwa,
Mount Danger, near Gungal, Goulburn River, Murrumbo,
Quirindi, Howell and Stanthorpe. The latter station is
just over the border of N.S.W. in Queensland. EHidsvold,
Fraser Island. ,

Boronia bi-pinnata Lindl. @*)

The original specimens were collected in sub-tropical
New Holland by Lieut. Col. Sir T. L. Mitchell in 1846
(No. 387), and described by Lindley‘?4) as follows—‘‘ We
here met with a new species of Boroma, resembling B.
anethifolia, of which many varieties afterwards occurred.
It grows about 2 feet high, and had solitary pale purple
flowers.’’ In a footnote a Latin description is given, which
may be translated as follows :—‘‘Glabrous or pilose, leaves
bi-pinnate, leaflets linear to sub-terete, flowers sub-solitary,
axillary and shorter than the leaves.’’ Bentham ®) included
it as a synonym under B. anemontfolius var. anethtfoltus.
Maiden and Betche®) recorded it from Stanthorpe,
Queensland, as B. falcifolia, with the following remarks :—

“These inland specimens are very different-looking from the
specimens of the Northern Coast district from the Hastings
River to Byron Bay, but cannot be separated even as a variety.
In the coast specimens from the Hastings River to Byron Bay
the flowers are mostly crowded in the axils of the upper leaves,
so as to appear almost terminal, and the leaves are strictly
8-foliate; while the Stanthorpe specimens are more sparsely
flowered, the flowers extending down sometimes nearly to the
base of the branches, and the leaflets are frequently again tri-
foliate, all 3 or the upper ones only. It is an erect shrub, about
2 feet high.”

It is quite distinct from both B. anethifolia and B.
falcifolia in that the whole plant is more or less distinctly
pilose, whereas both of the above species are quite glabrous.

Specimens are represented in the National Herbarium from
the following localities :—Bismuth, A. McNutt, July, 1913;

FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 297

Torrington, J. L. Boorman, October, 1911, and January,
1916; Hidsvold, Dr. T. L. Bancroft; Fraser Island, F. M.
Bailey. There are also specimens collected by Dr. Leich-
hardt without specific locality being mentioned, labelled
B. tetrathecoides, which really belong to this species.

Boronia rigens Cheel sp. nov.

(B. polygalifolia var. robusta Bentham and Cheel.‘!) )

This is described as a variety of B. polygalifolia by
-Bentham,‘®) but as the plant has a wide distribution and
is so distinct from polygalifolia, and rarely found in
association with that species. I prefer to regard it as an
independent species, and have accordingly proposed the
specific name ‘‘rigens’’ as Bentham’s varietal name
robusta is inappropriate and somewhat misleading, as the
plant is rather stunted in habit, and rarely ever exceeds
1 foot in height.

The original specimens were collected in the Port Jack-
son district by Sieber (No. 283). It is also recorded by
Bentham‘®) from the Blue Mountains and Moreton Island.

The following is Bentham’s description :—‘‘Leaves 3-
foliolate as in the last var. (trifoliolata, now nana), but
stems stout and more shrubby, attaining 2 feet or more.’’

Distribution: — Sydney district from Randwick to
Berowra in the north, to Cataract and Barber’s Creek in
the south, and Mort’s Gully, Lithgow, in the west. There
are also specimens from Moreton Bay, Queensland, labelled
B. polygalifolia var. ternatifolia and Medway Rivulet, also
as var. ternatifolia, collected by Mr. Calvert, from the
National Herbarium, Melbourne, which really belong to
this species. Specimens have also been sent to me from
the National Herbarium, Melbourne, from Mount Abrupt,
collected by H. B. Williamson, labelled B. polygalifolia
var. trifoliolata, by the late Baron F. von Mueller, and

298 EDWIN CHEEL.

from Mount Compass on the Mount Lofty Range, collected
by H. Griffith ex Herb. of M. Black. The latter is listed
under the name of B. polygalifolia in South Australian
works and is referred to in my previous paper (this
Journal, p. 409) under B. oppositifolia from Mount Lofty
and Onkaparinga in Scuth Australia. It seems very
doubtful if either B. polygalifolia or B. oppositifolia are
to be found in South Australia. It is closely related to
B. hispida, but may be distinguished by the leaflets being
more sub-eylindrical and the sepals being glabrous, whereas
those of B. hispida are flat and obovate and the whole
plant is more hispid.

Boronia nana Hook.)

(B. polygalifolia var. trifoliolata Benth.:
Maiden and Betche. 4) )
The original specimens of this species were collected by
R. C. Gunn (No. 894) ‘‘on the top of Rocky Cape, Van
Dieman’s Land.’’ The deseription of Hooker ™) is in

Latin, which may be translated as follows :—

“Stem short, from which arise numerous glabrous branches.
Leaves opposite, shortly petiolate, 3-foliate, the leaflets rather
thick, linear-lanceolate, acuminate. Penduncles solitary in the
axils of the leaves with a solitary reddish flower, pedicels angu-
lar, slightly exceeding the leaves. Sepals 4, same colour as the
petals, ovate-acute; petals 4, ovate, obtuse, twice as large as
the sepals. Stamens 8; filaments erect or slightly incurved, 4
long alternating with 4 shorter, ciliate. Anthers cordate,
ovarium distinctly 4-lobed; style short, pilose.”

Hooker adds: ‘‘I quite agree with the discoverer of this,
Mr. Gunn, in considering it an entirely new species. The
tallest of the numerous stems never exceed those now
figured, and all the specimens possess ihe characters here
given. It is among the smallest, if net the very smallest,

of its kind.’’

FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 299

Boronia falcifolia A. Cunn.“*) Mueller. @42

The original specimens were collected by A. Cunningham
at Moreton Bay. It has since been collected at Wide Bay
and Port Macquarie, vide Bentham.'8) Specimens in the
National Herbarium are also represented from the follow-
ing localities:—Richmond River, Port Stephens, Evans
Head, Byron Bay, Wallis Island and Bulladelah. Accord-
ing to Bentham, ®) it was recorded by Endlicher“*) under
the name B. paletfolia, through a misreading of Cunning-

ham’s label.

Boronia Gunnii Hook. f.]8)

This species was originally regarded by Hooker“) as
B. tetrandra var. grandiflora, and afterwards as a variety
of that species. In 1860 Hooker described it as a distinet
species. Mueller*4) included it as a synonym under B.
pinnata, but Bentham'®) regarded it as a variety of
B. pinnata.

Although there is a superficial resemblance between this
and B. citriodora, it is clearly distinct from B. pinnata,
and cannot be regarded as a variety of that species, which
is not found in Tasmania or in Victoria.

From B. citriodora it may be distinguished by the leaflets
being more crowded and the lowest pair being more distant
from the stem, and the distinctive odour being somewhat
like that cf tansy or rue, as observed by Hooker.

The original specimens were collected at South Esk in
Tasmania by R. C. Gunn (No. 8), 17th December, 1844.
We have also specimens represented in the National
Herbarium collected at Launceston by S. G. Hannaford in
1865, and by W. H. Archer from Tasmania without specific
locality being mentioned. A specimen from Launceston,
near George’s Bay, Tasmania, was collected by A. Simpson
(ex Herb. Brisbane) and from Cataract Gorge on basaltic

300 EDWIN CHEEL.

formation by Rev. H. M. R. Rupp. In Victoria it has
been collected at Portland by J. Staer and H. B. William-
son and at Glenelg River by C. Walter, also by C. D.
D’Alton without specific locality being mentioned.
Bentham also records it from Port Dalrymple, from
specimens collected by R. Brown. The latter specimens
I have not seen.

Boronia citriodora (Gunn MS.) Hook. f.@®) p. 68.
Lemon Plant.

B. pinnata var. citriodora Benth. )

The original specimens were collected at Fatigue Hill,
llth February, 1845, by R. C. Gunn (No. 667) "and
described as a distinct species by Hooker.“8) Mueller (#4)
regarded it as a variety of B. pimnata, and this was
followed by Bentham.)

Specimens in the National Herbarium, Sydney, are
represented from the following localities :—Tasmania, with-
out specific locality, W. H. Archer, labelled B. pilosa;
Mount East Field, J. H. Maiden, March, 1906, also common
around Lake Fenton at alt. 4000 ft.; Mount Roland, near
Sheffield, R. H. Cambage (2578), alt. 3800 ft., February,
1911; also-T. Carter, A. H. S. Lucas and A. BR. Pentold;
Pellior, E. D. Briggs, Herb. Morris 1337; Cradle Valley,
G. Weindorfer, December, 1914; Plateau and summit of
Mount Barrow, County of Dorset, Rev. H. M. R. Rupp
(No. 37) with the following note: ‘‘Since my last list was
made out I have been looking at No. 37 more closely, and
it does not seem to correspond with my specimen of B.
Gunnw from Cataract Gorge. It is more like the form
citriodora, of which I have a specimen from Cradle Moun-
tain. In the Barrow plant the citron-scent is noticeable,
but with it there is also distinctly the sage scent which is
so strong in the Gorge B. Gunnw.’’ Plentiful in the neigh-

FURTHER NOTES ON BORONIA. 30T

bourhood of Cradle Mountain, Tasmania, Mr. Thomas.
Newman, of Monia, vide Penfold, Journ. and Proc. Roy.
Soc., N.S.W., LIX (1925), 35.

The essential oil, according to Penfold (1.e¢.) 1s of a fine
rose-like odour, resembling citronellol.

Boroma dentigeroides Cheel sp. nov.

(B. anemonifolius var. dentigera Maiden and Betche Census.
(1916) 114; Baker, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., XXIV
(1899) 487, but not of Bentham.)

Fruticulus ad 1-5 ped. alta, similis B. dentigera F.v.M.,
foliis bi-ternatis, foliolis applanatis apice dentatis.

Plants forming slender shrubs from 1 to 5 feet high,
similar in general appearance to B. dentigera F.v.M., but
the leaves are more compound, being twice ternate, and
the leaflets more or less flattened and dentate at the apex.
Flowers normally in pairs in the axils of the leaves or
rarely reduced to a solitary flower as in B. anemonifolia
and B. dentigera; sepals glabrous; petals twice the length
of the sepals, creamy-white in the early stage of develop-
ment, tending to a rich pink colour when fully developed.

Specimens in the National Herbarium, Sydney, are from
the following localities :—Braidwood, W. Bauerlen; Clyde
Mountain, near Nelligen, J. L. Boorman; Belmore Falls,
W. Forsythe; Menangle, Mr. Harper; Timburra (Stuart)
ex Herb. Melbourne, labelled B. polygalifolia var. anemoni-
folia; Flinders’ Island (Gulliver), labelled B. anemonifolia.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

1.—Andrews, Bot. Reposit., t.58 (1799-1811).
2.—Bailey, F. M., Q’ld. Agric. Journ. XXVII (1911) 250.
3.—Bailey, F. M., Queensland Flora 1 (1899) 186.
4.—Baillon, H., Nat. Hist. Pl. IV (1875) 398, 4&8.
5.—Baker, R. T., Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W. XXIV (1899), 4387.
6.—Baker, R. T., Proc. Linn. Soc., N.S.W. XXI (1896), 485.
7.—Bartling, F. G., Pl. Preiss, I 165 (1844-45) and II 226

(1846-47).
8.—Bentham, G., Flora Australiensis, I 807 (1868).

302 EDWIN CHEEL.

9.—Cheel, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (1900) 542.

10.—Cheel, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., (1920) 473.

11.—Cheel, E., Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc., N.S.W. (1924) 145:
12.—Cheel, E., Aust. Nat. (1913) 205.

18.—Cunningham, A., Field’s New South Wales, p. 3380 (1825).

Pamiibaveyeat | A., Huegel’s Enumer. Plant Nov. Holl. p. 16

1837).

15.—De Candole, A. P., Prodr. I, p. 722 (1824).

15a.—Don, G., General History of the Dichlamydeous Plants,
i, plage (1831),

16.—Gay, J., Mem. Mus. Par., VII (1821) 450. '

17.—Gay, J., Monog. des. Lasiopetalees (1821) 20.

18.—Hooker, J., Flor. Tasm. I, p. 66 (1860).

19.—Hooker, J., Icones Plant t. 270 (1840).

.20.—Hooker, J., Icones Plant t. 722 (1848).

21.—Hooker, J., Comp. Bot. Mag., I, 277 (1835).

22.—Hooker, J. Bot. Mag. t. 17638 (1815).

23.—Hooker, J., Bot. Mag. t. 4052 (1814).

24,—Lindley, J., Mitchell’s Trop. Aust., p. 225 (1848).

25.—Lindley, J.. Paxton’s Mag. Bot. XVI, 227.

26.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1896).

27.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1898).

28.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1908).

29.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1904).

30.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1905).

31.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W. (1906).

.81a.—Maiden, J., and Betche, E., Census of N.S.W. Plants (1916).

32.—Moore, C., and Betche, E., Handb. Fl. N.S.W. (1893).

33.—Mueller, F. von, Trans. Vict. Inst. I (1855) 32.

34.—Mueller, F. von, Pl. Indig. to the Colony of Vict. (1860-62).

34a.—Mueller, F. von, Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., Vol. V (2nd ser.)
p.- 16 (1890).

.85.—Persoon, C. H., Syn. I (1805), 419.

36.—Sieber, Franz Wilhelm, Sprengel’s Syst. Cur. Post. (1827)
148.

37.—Smith, J., Ree’s Encyclop. No. 6 (1819).

38.—Smith, J., Tracts rel. to Nat. Sci., 1798.

39.—Sprengel, C., Systema Vegetabilium, IV, Cure Posteriores
(1827), 148.

40.—Venienat, Malmaiscn (1808).

41.—White, C. T., and W. D. Francis, Bot. Bull. XXTI (1919) 3.

4la.—White, C. T., and W. D. Francis, Proc. Roy. Soc. Qld.
XXXV (1928) 66.

-42.—Cheel, E., Journ. & Proc. Roy. Soc. N.S.W. (1927), 413.

43.—Rodway, L., Tasm:z nian Flora (19038) 22.

-44,—Linaley, J., Bot. Reg. 1841, No. 47.

45.—Hooker, J., Journ. Bot. 11, 255 and 419.

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 303

ALKALIZATION AND OTHER DEUTERIC
PHENOMENA IN THE SADDLEBACK
TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA.

By W. R. Browne, D.Sce.,
Assistant-Professor of Geology, University of Sydney,
and
He Ps Wire, eis)

Chief Chemist, N.S.W. Geological Survey Laboratory.
(With Plates XXIV, XXV, and two text-figures.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)

Introduction.

In the Geological Survey Memoir dealing with the
Southern Coalfield@ there is an account of the very in-
teresting series of lava-flows and associated tuffs which
form such an important part of the Upper Marine Series
of the Permo-Carboniferous System along the coast, and
appear also in the overlying Bulli Coal-Measures. Mr. G.
W. Card, A.R.S.M., has given careful petrographical de-
seriptions of specimens collected from the various flows,
and, relying chiefly on pecularities of chemical composition
revealed by analyses, has grouped the wl ole series broadly
with the latites, ranging from normal latites or trachy-
andesites to olivine-latites or orthoclase-basalts.

The member of the series to which attention is specially
devoted in the present paper is that commonly known as
the Saddleback dolerite, which outcrops at intervals over
a distance of more than twenty miles, from the neighbour-
hood of Port Kembla south to Broughton Head. Messrs.
Jaquet and Harper, who are responsible for the field-work
on these rocks, discuss, in the Memoir referred to, the

304 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

question as to the exact mode of occurrence of this Saddle-
back rock, and appear to find difficulty in determining
whether it is a flow or a sill, but eventually decide in
favour of the former alternative, the point of eruption
being placed some distance east of the present coast-line
off Port Kembla. The average grainsize of the rock is
certainly somewhat coarse for a flow, and there is evidence,
to be detailed presently, that parts of the mass are intrusive
towards the rest, but the field-occurrences have not been
studied in sufficient detail by the present authors to permit
of a definite expression of opinion as te the mode of
occurrence of the rock-mass as a whole.

Description of the Field-Occurrence in Port Kembla Quarry.

Extensive outcrops of this rock occur at Port Kembla,
where it has been quarried for the breakwater and for
road-metal. The examination, some years ago, of a thin
section of the rock from the Port Kembla Government
Quarry prompted one of us (W.R.B.) to visit the place,
and the evidences of magmatic alteration of the original
rock appeared so convincing that it was decided to investi-
gate and place them on record.

An interesting section is afforded by the north-western
wall of the quarry near the end furthest from the entrance,
and to the right of one walking towards this distal end;
the stone is now being quarried along part of this face,
and when the quarry was visited last, in June, 1928, the
section, though still available for study, had lost_some of
the features discernible on the occasion of the original
inspection.

The main portion of the face is composed of the normal
Saddleback type of rock, with its characteristic black
colour, resinous lustre, and abundance of glassy-clear
tabular phenocrysts of plagioclase. Towards the south-

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 305

west end this passes gradually into a type in which the
felspars are greyish-white and somewhat opaque and less
lustrous, the groundmass being dull and of a greyish colour,
with dark augite phenocrysts showing out on it quite con-
spicuously. The third type, next encountered, has a dense
stony-looking groundmass of blue-black colour, against
which semi-opaque greyish-white or pinkish opaque plagio-
clase phenocrysts stand out strongly, but no augite pheno-
erysts are visible. In places the groundmass becomes of a
chocolate-brown colour, and finally this passes, generally
fairly abruptly, into the fourth type, in which the pheno-
erysts are embedded in a groundmass which is pinkish-
ereen to pink or greyish-pink according to the intensity of
alteration; for this pale rock is quite evidently due to the
local and irregularly arranged alteration of the third type.
The junctions between the two types are not quite sharp,
and here and there phenocrysts of felspar may be seen
projecting from one type into the other; in places cracks
appear to have served as channels for the altering solutions,
and the pink rock appears as tongues penetrating into the
other. A noteworthy feature of the third and fourth types
is the presence of many rounded or irregular vesicles and
larger cavities wholly or partially filled with calcite and
quartz. All these features are shown in Plate XXV.

The absence of gradation between the second and third
types is marked, the rocks being generally distinguishable
by differenees in texture and colour. Until recently there
was a section visible in the quarry-wall which showed a
recognizable boundary between the two types, marked in
places by an ill-defined band, about an inch wide, along
which the rock was largely devoid of phenocrysts, and
close to which there was a local tendency to fluxional
arrangement of the phenocrysts of the intrusive rock. The
impression given in the field, as well as by a study of slides,

T— Dec mber 5, 1928.

306 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

is that this third type was injected into the normal rock
at a time when the former was still at such a temperature
that a certain amount.of commingling along the junction
was possible.

The relations of the different phases are shown very
roughly in the sketch-section (Fig. 1), which is not drawn
to scale. From this it will appear that the intrusive type
and its alteration-products are confined to the lower part
of the quarry-face. From the place where they are first
seen, where the intrusion has an upward bulge, they may
be traced in a south-westerly direction for about 100 yards
to the southern corner of the quarry, and on the southern
wall they bulge up again, though they never reach right
to the top of the quarry-face.

In a few places the grainsize of the groundmass of the
altered normal rock is notably finer than usual at its
junetion with the intrusion. This is noticeable even in the
field, and was rather puzzling at first, seeming to indicate
a gradual passage into the intrusive rock, but thin sections
showing the actual contact prove it definitely to be an
intrusive one; in any case the finer grain is only local, and
elsewhere the normal grainsize is maintained right to the
contact.

It is of cvuurse impossible to tell how far the quarry-
floor is above the base of the rock-mass, and what is the
downward and lateral extent of the intrusive mass, but we
understand that a trial bore put down on the quarry-floor
encountered quite a considerable thickness of pink rock.

The entirely irregular incidence of alteration on the
normal rock may be noticed in abandoned quarries and
other excavations about Port Kembla, but owing to surface-
weathering of the outcrops it is hard to determine whether

the intrusive type appears as well as the normal rock.

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 0207

Petrography.
(a) General.

It is advisable at this point to give some petrographical
details of the various rocks concerned. For purposes of
convenience they have been divided into two main groups,
the normal and the intrusive, and these again have been
subdivided according to the varying degrees of alteration
into the fresh normal and the altered normal types, and
into the dark and light intrusive types, but it must be
understood that these subdivisions are made purely for

Fig. 1.
Diagrammatic sketch-section along the wall of the Port Kembla Quarry.
Length of section about 100 yards, height about 20 feet.
A—Fresh normal rock. C—Dark intrusive.

B—Altered normal rock. D—Pink intrusive.

convenience of reference. The first or fresh normal type
is the ordinary Saddleback rock, with very constant petro-
logical characters, while the second represents its local
alteration in situ; the alteration, however, is by no means
constant, but varies in degree from place to place though
it is essentially the same in kind. The intrusive rock,
though evidently. co-magmatic with the normal type, is a
separate entity; it is everywhere altered to some extent,
and the degree of alteration is expressed by reference to
the varying shades of colour, the third type being the dark

308 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

or less altered, and the fourth the light or more altered,
phase of the intrusive.

(b) The normal rock.

The first or fresh normal type, as collected in the Port
Kembla quarry, conforms well to the general description
given by Mr. Card, consisting as it does of porphyritic
plagioclase, augite and magnetite, with olivine pseudo-
morphs, in a somewhat orthophyrie groundmass composed
essentially of little stout plagioclase prisms, with abundant
oranules of augite and magnetite, innumerable tiny needles:
of apatite, and a quantity of interstitial green chlorite
sporadically distributed: orthoclase also occurs throughout
the rock. The tabular plagioclase phenocrysts, up to about
half-an-inch in length and often containing inclusions of
eroundmass, have a composition about Abs,Aneo, and since
the average composition of the felspar, as calculated from
the norm, is close to Ab;,An4, it follows that the plagioclase
of the second generation, which like the phenocrysts shows.
some zoning, must be as acid as andesine.

Orthoclase forms, as Mr. Card has pointed out, un-
twinned narrow borders or outgrowths to the plagioclase
phenocrysts, the outer margin being irregular and dented.
by the erystals of the groundmass (Plate XXIV., fig. 1),
and orthoclase may also be represented by some of the un-
twinned prisms of the groundmass, besides serving as an
investment and interstitial filing round some of the little
plagioclase prisms.

The place of olivine is taken largely by green to
brownish-green iddingsite, generally associated with a
dense green chloritic or serpentinous substance, and with
some granular quartz and a little carbonate ; no unaltered
olivine is visible. Augite is in general so fresh throughout
the rock that little green pseudomorphs in the groundmass:

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 309

are taken to represent olivine of a second generation,
though they may represent an original rhombic pyroxene.
Of the interstitial materials chlorite is the most abundant,
often enclosing apatite needles; orthoclase and a little
quartz have also been detected.

The presence of iddingsite in this rock is worthy of
remark. As far back as 1923 this mineral was regarded
by one of us (W.R.B.) as a product of deuteric alteration
of a Permo-Carboniferous basalt from the Maitland dis-
trict’), and the same mineral has since been recorded as
replacing olivine in the Prospect teschenite), and
hypersthene in the Allandale andesite), in circumstances
pointing to deuteric formation, the associated minerals
being chlorite, calcite, albite and zeolites. This view as to
the deuteric origin of iddingsite is confirmed by the work
of Ross and Shannon‘), and it may be taken for granted
that the presence of this mineral in a rock is a sign of
late-magmatic alteration.

Taken by itself, then, this Port Kembla rock would be
regarded as one which towards the end of its period of
erystallization had suffered deuteric alteration to a certain
extent. The formation of orthoclase was probably the
penultimate event and the alteration of olivine with inter-
stitial deposition of chlorite and quartz the ultimate event
in the consolidation of the rock.

In regard to its classificatory position the rock stands
on the border-line between the trachyandesites and the
trachybasalts. Muineralogically and texturally it has much
in common with the shoshonites, a fact which has been
pointed out by Miss Ida A. Brown ®?) for the co-magmatic
intrusive rocks at Milton.

A number of slides examined for the purpose of studying
the alteration of the normal rock show some differences in

310 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

texture put have much in common. Progressive alteration
is noticed as the intrusion is approached, but the most
marked effects are not apparent except in specimens taken
within distances of a few feet from the contact. Beyond
this contact-zone of most intense alteration there is a good
deal of similarity in the phenomena observed, the differences
being in degree rather than in kind. In the rocks showing
the intermediate stage of alteration augite is fresh and
olivine is represented by clear brownish-green iddingsite.
The chief interest centres round the alterations of the
plagioclase phenocrysts. These, as a result of partial
alteration, present a mottled or irregularly chequered
appearance, albitization having proceeded along cracks,
and being quite irregular in its incidence.

As a matter of fact the determination of the replacing
felspar is very difficult: it has an index of refraction dis-
tinctly less than that of Canada Balsam, and in places
where it cuts across the twin-lamellae of the replaced fel-
spar it is untwinned, so that orthoclase is suspected,
especially as it has straight extinction in many cases where
the basic felspar is cut normal to (010). However, albite
twin-striations have been definitely observed in a number
of cases, and the mineral is undoubtedly the soda-felspar.
The proportion of albitized material varies in different
specimens; 1t shows a marked though not a steady increase
as the intrusion is approached. The surface of the pheno-
erysts is to a greater or less extent spangled with tiny
flakes of sericite, and in some cases with grains of calcite
and saussuritie material, but the sericite by far is the most
abundant, though the quantity of it varies a great deal
in different specimens. The sericite is confined for the
most part to the albite areas, and as a rule the albite is
to some extent kaolinized (Plate XXIV., figs. 2 and 3).

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 211

In the groundmass augite is not so plentiful as im the
unaltered rock, and it may disappear altogether, but there
is much more chlorite; these circumstances, together with
the presence of abundant tiny granules resembling sphene,
would indicate that much of the original augite has been
altered, though the phenocrysts are still quite fresh, except
for an occasional carbonate-filled crack. The felspar of
the groundmass is considerably altered; the nature of the
alteration cannot always be made out, but albitization and
sericitization have been observed, and an occasional feature
is the presence of a narrow zone of chlorite between the
core and peripheral zone of the felspar erystals. Idding-
site is still the main alteration-product of olivine, but
occasionally with some chlorite and a little carbonate and
quartz. The iron-ore of the phenocrysts may acquire a
rim of leucoxene, proving its titaniferous character.

In specimens taken from near the intrusive contact cer-
tain features of the alteration become intensified. There
is more albitization of the phenocrysts, and at the im-
mediate contact labradorite has been completely converted
into soda-felspar. Sericite is on the whole not abundant,
and it may be practically absent, but kaolin may be present.
Augite has suffered a marked change, being completely
converted into granular carbonates with a little quartz.
The iddingsite after olivine has given place largely to a
green, pleochroic, uniaxial chlorite with very low negative
birefringence; in some cases the two minerals appear
together, in others chlorite alone is visible (Plate XXIV.,
fig. 4).

In the groundmass chlorite is still abundant, but side by
side with it there is an increasing proportion of calcite
in little patches, doubtless representing pyroxene.

In some places on the quarry-face the altered normal
rock is mottled with black rounded spots which are seem

312 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

in thin section to be composed of aggregates of green
verimicular fibrous chlorite, which ramify into the surround-
ing rock. The possible significance of these is discussed
in another section.

The altered normal rock may become, as noted above,
much finer-grained than usual in places; in these fine-
grained phases magnetite assumes rod-like forms in the
groundmass, and the orthoclase rims to the plagioclase
phenocrysts do not appear to be present. These pheno-
mena are doubtless due to local more rapid erystallization
than usual.

The intrusive rock, while exhibiting within itself eertain
slight variations, is clearly marked off texturally from the
normal types. No unaltered examples of this intrusive rock
have been found; in every slide examined every one of the
principal original minerals has been completely replaced.
The felspar phenocrysts, presumably basic in the first
instance, are now of pure albite, and these through shght
kaolinization show out grey, opaque white or creamy-white
against the blue-black stony groundmass. In thin section
these albite phenocrysts are seen to be sharply bounded,
showing no trace of an orthoclase border. Some kaolin
appears on them, also a little calcite, but sericite is never
conspicuous, and may be absent.

The former augite phenocrysts are represented by car-
bonates, with a little chlorite and quartz, or in some cases
by a pale green chlorite which is in process of alteration
to carbonate. Olivine erystals have been replaced by
iddingsite, and this is now completely pseudomorphed, but
with a retention of the original platy structure, by chlorite
which in its turn is being encroached on by carbonates.
The cracks and boundaries of the original crystals are
indicated by haematite (Plate XXIV., figs. 5 and 6).

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 313

The groundmass is microporphyritie in felspar, little
laths averaging about .15 mm. long being embedded in an
exceedingly fine-textured matrix mainly of microlitic fel-
spar and magnetite dust. Of the microphenocrysts some,
probably the majority, are certainly albite, but some with
Carlsbad twinning and straight extinetion may be ortho-
clase, while the microlites, which in places show a sheaf-
like or sub-variolitie arrangement, have a slightly weaker
double refraction and are probably in part at least of
potash felspar, a conclusion which is likewise reached on
chemical grounds, as shown below.

No pyroxene is visible in the groundmass, but scattered
little patches of calcite probably take its place. The mag-
netite dust, while uniformly distributed, is also segregated
in little irregular patches associated with carbonates, either
clustering about phenocrysts or else surrounding what look
like irregular vesicle-fillings of chlorite.

In certain slides of this third type and in some of those
eut from the normal rock right at the contact iron ore
surrounds, and fills cracks in, the original olivine, and
gradually spreads until there are phenocrysts of rather
spongy magnetite with the outward form of olivine. These
iron ore pseudomorphs, as well as the lttle segregated
masses in the groundmass, would appear to be due to an
introduction of iron by magmatic solutions connected with
the intrusion.

The dark, or least altered, phase of the intrusive rock
grades into a rather chocolate-brown-coloured type, with
pink felspar phenocrysts, the change in body-colour being
due to oxidation of the iron ore into haematite or a hydrous
oxide, which now appears as a pigment right through the
body of the rock, except for a few phenocrysts of
leucoxenised ilmenite. Chlorite has completely disappeared
from the rock, its place being taken by carbonates.

314 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

'The change from chocolate-brown to a brownish-pink or
greenish-pink colour comes for the most part fairly
abruptly, and is accompanied by the almost complete dis-
appearance of iron oxide, and by the sudden access of
carbonates of iron, magnesia and lime. The albite pheno-
erysts have survived intact, save for some kaolinization,
and some phenocrysts of iron ore still remain. Ferro-
magnesian minerals are replaced by aggregates of quartz,
carbonates, albite and a little almost colourless chlorite.
The groundmass has been encroached upon more and more
by the carbonates, till in the extreme case it consists of
a mass of carbonates and kaolin with the little micro-
phenoerysts of albite embedded in it, and a little limonite,
representing all that is left of the iron oxide; in some
places carbonate pseudomorphs of felspar microlites may
be seen. The extreme alteration of the intrusive has thus
been essentially a process of carbonation.

Filled vesicular cavities, either spherical or irregular in
Shape, are a common feature of the chocolate-brown and
pink phases of the intrusive, also irregular drusy cavities,
sometimes upwards of six inches in length, in which calcite
crystals and quartz prisms up to three-quarters of an inch
long have been observed, as well as massive calcite, some of
which gives a reaction for iron.

Under the microscope the small cavities in the chocolate-
brown rock are seen to contain quartz, albite, siderite,
calcite (and probably dolomite), and chlorite, the order of
deposition being siderite, albite and quartz, calcite,
chlorite. The chlorite is practically colourless, and of low
refraction and birefringence. In the pink phase chlorite
is neglgible, albite in tiny clear twinned prisms is the
cavity-lining, and siderite and calcite fill the central parts,
the carbonates appearing in places to be invading or re-
placing the albite. In one shde of the chocolate-brown

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 315

rock the cavities contain much of a mineral of moderate
refraction, with a pale yellow colour, straight extinction,
slight pleochroism, and bright polarisation colours. It is
in aggregates of very tiny rosettes, and gives a marked
flame-reaction for potassium, so is probably sericite or a
sericitic phlogopite. It is bedded on tiny quartz-erystals,
and has siderite and calcite as associates.

The mode of formation of these abundant cavities calls
for some consideration. It is sufficiently remarkable to
find them in an intrusive rock such as this, and an examina-
tion of them, both megascopie and microscopic, suggests
that they are not ordinary vesicles or steam-holes. They
are often highly irregular in shape, though generally
curved as to their boundary-walls, and there is a marked
absence of orientation of the felspar-microlites of the rock
parallel to these boundaries; indeed the microlites even give
the impression in places of being cut off abruptly at a cav-
ity. On the other hand the walls of the cavities are smooth,
differing in this respect from shrinkage-cavities, into which
the ends of crystals often protrude. The impression gained
is that these cavities may have been dissolved out of the
solidified rock, in much the same way, perhaps, as the
‘‘kluften’’ of the Alpine granites, described by Koenigs-
berger, which are believed to have been formed by
magmatic solutions, and afterwards filled with deuteric
deposits. There are some indications that in certain cases
the cavities may be enlargements of spaces once occupied
by olivine or augite, minerals which are susceptible to
attack by magmatic solutions.

It seems probable that the chlorite-filled cavities asso-
ciated with the magnetite segregations in the dark phase
of the intrusive may have been formed in this way, like-
wise the larger, chiorite-filled cavities of the altered normal
rock,

316 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

Mazmatic Relationships of Normal and Intrusive Rocks.

It has been assumed above that the porphyritic albite of
the intrusive rock replaces an original basic plagioclase.
In the absence of any traces of plagioclase apart
from albite in the rock this assumption is ineapable of
direct proof, but there are certain circumstances which
render it exceedingly probable. In the first place the albite
phenocrysts and the pseudomorphs after olivine and augite
occurring in the dark intrusive are absolutely identical in
all respects with those found in the altered normal rock
near the contact; it is reasonable to conclude therefore that
the original rocks suffered the same alterations, and that
the fresh intrusive was mineralagically identical with the
fresh normal rock. In the second place a study of the
analyses of the two rocks shows their close chemical
‘similarity, except in regard to the relative proportions of
soda, potash and lime, suggesting that there has been a
rearrangement of these in the intrusive rock, such as would
result from albitization. Again it is shown in a later
section that the assumption of a molecular replacement of
original basic plagioclase by albite would give to the in-
trusive rock a quantitative mineral composition very close
to that of the normal rock.

Although albite has been regarded as capable of primary
erystallization from a basic magma“® %), it seems justifiable,
in view of the circumstances just enumerated, to consider
that the normal and intrusive rocks were solidified from
the same magma, from which basic plagioelase, augite,
olivine and iron ore had erystallized before eruption; and
that the differences in texture are probably due to differ-
ences in the conditions of erystallization, which caused the
orthoclase in the one case to mantle the plagioclase and in
the other to form a felt of laths or needles in the ground-
mass.

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 917

Chemical Composition.

In Mr. Card’s original study of these South Coast lavas
the reliance on chemical analyses of the rocks was em-
phasised, and chemical data have proved very essential in
the present investigation, in the form of four analyses:
made by one of us (H.P.W.) of selected types, together
with three analyses originally made in connexion with.
Mr. Card’s investigation, and quoted from the Southern
Coalfield Memoir. These are contained in Table I. The
three analyses of the fresh normal Saddleback rock demon-
strate the striking uniformity of the chemical composition
of the rock over large areas, the slight differences being
evidently due in large measure to different degrees of
alteration, since in no case has an example of the rock
been found perfectly free from deuteric effects.

Mr. Card has pointed out that though the percentage of
alkahes, and more particularly of potash, is low for normal
latite, the rock has affinities with the latite series, and
undoubtedly it should be placed near the basic end of this
series, or among the orthoclase-basalts.

There are close chemical resemblances to the shoshonites.
of Iddings, especially in the unusually low value for
magnesia, but the potash is rather lower than in the

analysed examples of these types.

The norm of the Port Kembla rock (No. 2) is:

OUartT” se. Soe «ARGS
Orthoclase .. .. .. 14.46
UGC S st ee a ee A
ANOrunite, 2.) 3. alee Zoic
DiOPSIGe ws cc «ck eee SS
Hypersthene .. .. .. 6.52
Me ReLIEG 22%... scutes yl OeeO
1569 2) CUO A aeRO oe Fen A023
PENA ELLE sly os 1.34

and the C.I.P.W. classification II. "5. 8. "4. Andose.

318 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

TABLE I,
ibs 2. 3. 4, 5. 6. 7. 8.
S10, .. 52.86 52.72 52.48 51.06 51.96 5134) 507550.

Al;Os ..° 17.28 16.19 17.32 18.66 15.64 14.78 18ibo sl4eom
FeOs.. 410 480 4.380: 4.15 5.50 130°" "4s" wales

FeO .. 4.59 414 5.04 4.91 3.510) 26:39) (i4iseeeGi2G
MgO .. 3.84 - 412 .3.65 83.550 2.04 . 2.75.3 pommel
CaO .. 4.62 -8.10 7.66 5.64 5.30) (3:5250 fo Gleeoeae
Na:O ..° “3:29 3.381 3:48 °° 3:75° 5.00 649 ocgomemoron
KO...) 2:75 2.45 ©2523 3.84. 3/840 “SISbe Warszeeieos
HeO+,. 1.48 #156 .1.61. 2.88 1.51. (\de64, 2:s6qpever
HoO—. 0.91 0.92 0.59 0.18 0.57 0.30 -0.18 30
COz .. 0:04 0.07 O17 0.386 422 8:70 W0-sGen aero
T1053) 1.10°° 1.20 °O0:74 - 050% 1.200 rete Ores
ZrOe .. abs. abs. abs. abs. — — — —
P20; .. 0.48 048 042 0.41. 0.44 20.54) s)0 Ares eOs
VW20; 2. 0:03" 0:02" 0103) “trace: tracem = — —
i303. . abs. -abps. 0:09 saps. — — — —
Cl .. trace trace ‘trace trace — — — —.
Ss 22 Jabseye abs: yeabsemaeabs: — — — —
Gr:@:; .) “abs. “abs. tracey” aps: — — = —
NiO .: trace trace abs abs. “abs: — ae os
CuO .. — — trace — abs. — — oe
MnO .. trace 0.07. -0.81 - 0.09 0:13 —O020) “00S, 20m
‘Bad... OCL 0105 “0:06.; 01035) teace — 0.03 =
SrO” ¢. spec-tr. spec.tr: abs. abs. — — —
iO: acs. do. abs. abs. spec.tr. spec.tr. — — rsa

99.78 100.20 100.44 100.06 100.36 100.80 99.48 98.49

ipp.er.... 2.010 Z2.1(4 2.189" 22.708. 2. en -2.00m

. Saddleback Flow, Mullet Creek.

. Saddleback Flow, Port Kembla Quarry.

. Saddleback Flow, 3 miles N.W. of Jamberoo.

Altered normal rock, much sericitized, Port Kembla Quarry.
Dark intrusive rock, Port Kembla Quarry.

. Pink intrusive rock, Port Kembla Quarry.

. Analysis No. 4 recalculated for comparison with No. 2.

OAAA Rw DY

. Analysis No. 6 recalculated for comparison with No. 5.

Analyses by H. P. White. Nos. 1, 2 and 3 quoted from Mem.
‘Geol. Surv. N.S.W. Geol. No. 7, p.302.

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 319

The appearance of quartz in the norm of a rock con-
taining olivine has been commented on by Mr. Cara. It
might be accounted for in part by oxidation of some
ferrous to ferric oxide, a thing which has apparently taken
place; in this case iron which would, if in the ferrous form,
use up silica to make femie minerals, is made into
magnetite, thus setting free silica for normative quartz.
Also there is a little interstitial primary quartz actually
present in the rock. But even when all allowances are
made there is still an excess of silica, and this is most
reasonably explained as due to actual introduction by per-
eolating magmatic solutions.

The specimen of the altered normal type chosen for
analysis was one showing a fair degree of albitization and
much sericitization. An inspection of this analysis (No.
4) and that of the fresh rock indicates certain changes,
but for strict comparison some adjustment has to be made.

It is clear that Merrill’s well-known basis of comparison
for the analyses of fresh and weathered rocks is not suit-
able here, since in this method it is necessary to assume
that either alumina or iron remains constant, an assumption
for which there is no warrant in the present case. Since
the volume of the rock apparently remains unchanged, a
comparison may be made on the basis of specific gravities,
as suggested by Lindgren,“ and as was done in our paper
on the Allandale hypersthene-andesite. The recalculated
analysis of the altered normal rock is given in column 7 of
Table I, and it indicates, when compared with analysis 2,
losses for silica, lime and magnesia, and gains for soda,
potash and alumina; iron has remained practically constant.
Since the original chemical composition of this altered rock
was in all probability closely comparable with that of the
fresh normal rock, this increase in alumina must be due to
the fact that the loss of alumina involved in the replacement

320 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

of labradorite by albite was more than offset by the sub-
sequent formation of sericite, which is richer in alumina
than any felspar. Various conjectural equations have
been written to explain the formation of sericite from
felspar, and in most of these it is assumed that alumina
remains constant throughout the process and that the —
felspar is replaced by sericite and quartz. But considera-
tion will show that where, as here, sericite alone replaces.
an equal volume of albite, it is necessary to assume not
merely a possible substitution of potash for soda, but also
an actual addition of alumina, which must have been
supplied by the magmatic solutions. Indeed it is hard
to see how the sericite which often spangles the plagioclase
of igneous rocks could have been produced by weathering.
as is sometimes assumed, since ordinary groundwater
solutions are not likely to contain the necessary alumina.

The suggestion that the lower silica and higher alumina
in the altered normal rock are due to the introduction of
sericite into the altered rock receives a certain measure of
support from the consideration that the analysis of this
heavily sericitized rock is higher in alumina than any of
the analyses of the fresh Saddleback rock, and is the
highest in this constituent of all the new analyses here
presented. And it is, perhaps, more than a coincidence
that in the case of the two Allandale rocks the altered
rock shows, with increased soda and potash, higher alumina
and lower silica than the fresh one. In our Allandale
paper no attempt was made to explain these facts, but a
re-examination of the micro-slides shows that the import-
ance of the formation of sericite in the altered Allandale

rock was not properly appreciated.

The low percentage of CO, in the altered normal rock
shows the small part played by carbonates in the alteration.

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 221

The norm calculated from No. 4 analysis is:

Orthoclase.. ..... 0. - 22.24
IDICCW AS a A Sell. cate ol ee
Anorthites 45.852. 4.5 23.0%
Hypersthene Sip ite cab ARS 4,92
Oliva nenen rey see aise 6.37
Masnetite ....4.) ccs - 6.03
Thmenite 408 ote es 1.06
HPA patater . 266 alk 1.01

The classification is therefore II. 5. 8. 3(4). Shoshonose.

This is of interest, as showing the ease with which a
magmatically-altered igneous rock fits into the C.I.P.W.
classification, the sub-rang Shoshonose containing 82
analyses in Washington’s Tables. The average plagioclase
of the rock, according to the norm, has a composition about
Ab;zsANy., and, as some of the lime of the normative
anorthite is really contained in augite, the actual average
composition is more acid than this, as compared with
Ab;; An,; for the felspar of the fresh rock. Further, in
the fresh rock normative orthoclase forms a little over 22%
of the total felspar, as compared with 29% in the altered
rock. These figures serve to emphasise the two most
important processes which haye contributed to the altera-
tion, namely, albitization, and the addition of potash,
largely in the form of sericite, though some must be in
orthoclase in isomorphous mixture with the albite.

It is distinctly unfortunate that no specimens of the
intrusive rock are.to be found free from magmatic altera-
tion. An analysis (No. 5 in Table I) was made of the
freshest material available, that with the blue-black
sroundmass.

The calculation of a norm for this rock would serve no
useful purpose, but a calculated partial minera! constitution
shows the following weight-percentages:

U—December 5, 1928.

O22 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

Orthoclase .. .. .. 19.94%
Albite sce. 6.) hedge
oN 412 7H ol eee eT anette 1.00
Calcite 5 ens ee Sree
Magnesite .. .. .. 92

This leaves about 27% for chlorite, iron ores, kaolin, ete.
It may be that a small correction is needed for the lime
combined as sphene, but there is no warrant given by the
microscope for combining any lime as anorthite. The
albite phenocrysts are free from sericite, and as they give
a strong flame-reaction for potassium this element must be
a component of orthoclase in solid solution in the albite;
however, there is much more of it present than is capable
of existing in this way, so that there must be a good deal
of orthoclase present among the microlitic felspar of the
groundmass, as was suspected from the microscopical
examination.

Of the pink, or most altered, phase of the intrusive a
specimen was selected for analysis as free as possible from
cavities. Comparing the analysis (No. 6), recalculated
on the specific-gravity basis (No. 8), with that of the
dark phase of the intrusive, we note a gain of magnesia,
soda and carbon dioxide, and a loss of silica, alumina, iron,
lime and potash. Here, as before, the gains and losses are
to be attributed to the destructional and depositional
activities of the magmatic solutions. The carbonates form-
ing a large portion of the groundmass indicate the desilica-
tion and carbonation of bases, and some of the carbonates
so formed have been deposited, while others have been
removed in solution. Some of the silica and calcite have
been eventually deposited in the larger cavities, and this
probably helps to aecount for their diminution, and the
potash dissolved cut would likewise migrate. Iron has
changed largely into the ferrous condition as the result
of carbonation, and some of it may have migrated. The

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 323

loss of iron, however, may be more apparent than real,
since it was pointed out that the analysed sample of the
dark phase of the intrusive contained much segregated
magnetite which may have been introduced during
alteration. The gain of soda and carbon dioxide and the
loss of potash are probably the most striking effects of
the alteration, and these are emphasised in the following
mineral constitution, calculated from the analysis:

@OURELZ ca eh Re. Sessa 5.40
Orihoclases am... <.ees G8
WNW OVE Some arama rumen eer 51514 |.
Abels (ales shoe OL 1.34
MeN Ite eas wesc | al 6 oe 1.67
Siderite AG. Gs. so 5s 9.16
Me TIESIte. c/a Mao kk 5.80
Calcibeyes. i. baw. a yeodees 5.00
CORR ot 0 Bre. rrene 6.71
ACMAMLe es cr sm. seks 12S
RBM cee tet: ne 24
EVVIQLOLP ce. Aub? bie, 6 eae 1.01

This list should be reasonably correct, so far as the
major items are concerned, but possibly the combinations
of iron and of titania should be somewhat modified.

The predominating position of albite shows the stability
of this mineral under the conditions prevailing, for the
phenocrysts have remained unaltered, and new albite has
actually been deposited, not merely in cavities, but along
with carbonates in the groundmass and in the olivine and
augite pseudomorphs. Flame-reactions show that the albite
phenocrysts contain much potash, and the small proportion
of orthoclase in the altered rock must be contained almost
entirely in solid solution in the albite. The original ortho-
clase of the groundmass has disappeared, its place being
taken by carbonates and albite. The principal processes,
then, concerned in this alteration have been albitization,
carbonation (involving desilication), and kaolinization

324 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

(involving hydration), with solution and removal of potash
and other bases.

So far we have compared the normal rock and its altera-
tion products among themselves, and quite separately from
the intrusive rock and its variations, but, in view of the
probability that normal rock and intrusive were originally
of the same chemical composition, the comparison may be
extended. For this purpose the analyses of the dark and
pink intrusives have been recalculated on a specific-gravity
basis, the fresh normal rock being taken as standard, and
the results are given in Table IT.

To facilitate comprehension the variations are expressed
eraphically in fig. 2. Probably it would have been better
to take as abscissae measured distances along a line on the
quarry-face, but as the analysed specimens were not
arranged in linear fashion that was not possible, and so
specific gravities have been used instead, the diagram thus
incidentally emphasising the decrease in density with
increase of alteration.

TABLE II.
A. B. C. D.

STOW a tie. 8 BERT 50.75 51.1 49.65
ALO; ) ee lowle 18.55 15.41 14.29
HesOstz 2 4.80 4.13 5.42 1.26
HEO ha Sae%: 4.14 4.88 3.46 6.18
Total Fe 9.60 9.55 9.26 8.13
as FeO; ..

WeOo ke. a 4,12 3.08 PVA 2.66
@aOrt) kets 8.10 5.61 5.22 3.40
Nias Olen ee Sok 3.13 4,93 6.28
KE Oars 2.45 3.82 3.29 ioe
50. See 2.48 3.04 2.05 1.88
COm ee ke 07 .36 4.16 8.41
MOS ieee ee 1.20 15) 1.18 1.06
Sonos lees 2a 2.758 2.402 26813:

Analyses Nos. 2, 4, 5, and 6 of Table I re-calculated on the
basis of specific gravities, the fresh normal rock being taken as
the standard of reference.

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 220

326 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

Perhaps the most marked feature of the graph is the
rise of carbon dioxide, and to a less extent of soda, towards
the most altered end; then there is the general sympathy
between alumina and potash, with the sharp rise at first
more accentuated in alumina on account of the formation
of sericite, and the subsequent decline towards the right,
to be correlated with the rise of the carbon dioxide,
magnesia and soda curves. The second and last points on
the potash and alumina curves are perhaps in some degree
complementary, since the orthoclase dissolved out from
the light intrusive may in part have been deposited in the
altered normal rock as sericite. The very close sympathy
between silica and lime is probably not a simple effect, but
due to a number of interacting circumstances. The silica-
curve is, aS 1s natural, somewhat antipathetic to that for
earbon dioxide, but does not decline very sharply, possibly
because some of the silica displaced by carbon dioxide has.
been redeposited as quartz.

Other correlations will suggest themselves.

Further Deductions from the Analyses.
There are a few other interesting and important points
which emerge from a detailed consideration of the mineral
constitutions derived from the analyses.

The calculated percentages of felspars in the fresh
normal rock are:
By Weight By Volume

Orthoclase ss. 955.5 same 14.438 15.76
Je ori We peemee ara hoe wot 27.71 99.51
VA mort htte “2 a) e Sek eee 222.0 22 Oh

For the dark intrusive the corresponding figures are:
Orthoclaseray, (i eee HOLST 21.37
PANIOTEC ayes) (cinc geia laine 41.77 43.81

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 327

These figures of course can only be an approximation
to the truth. Now if the reasonable postulates be granted
that in the intrusive rock albite replaces, volume for
volume, a more basic felspar, and that in the fresh normal
rock the orthoclase exists entirely as a separate original
mineral, then the following facts are significant:

(1) The total volume-percentage of felspar in the fresh
normal rock is 67.54 while the corresponding figure for
the intrusive rock is 65.18.

(2) Since we know that the albite of the intrusive rock
contains potash, and since Vogt has shown that albite may
take up about 12% of orthoclase into solid solution, if to
the 41.77% by weight of pure albite in the intrusive rock
we add its saturation amount, 5.70%, of orthoclase, the
remaining amount of orthoclase, representing that of
primary crystallization occurring as microlites in the
groundmass, is 14.17, which compares very closely with
the 14.48 of original orthoclase in the fresh normal rock.

(3) Ii we convert the weight-percentages 41.77 and 5.70
into volume-percentages, the volume of plagioclase in the
intrusive rock is represented by 49.94, as against 51.78 for
the plagioclase of the fresh normal rock.

Further, in the pink intrusive the orthoclase of the
groundmass has been almost completely replaced by earbon-
ates, etc.; the orthoclase present in the rock must there-
fore be contained practically entirely in solid solution in
the albite. Now the calculated weight-percentage of albite
in the rock is 54.86, and to saturate this 7.48% of ortho-
clase is required. The actual calculated weight-percentage
of orthoclase for the rock is 7.76.

It would appear then that the intrusive rock before
magmatic alteration had substantially the same total
quantity of felspar and the same proportions of orthoclase

328 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

and plagioclase as the normal rock, and that its original
plagioclase was replaced by albite containing in solid
solution the greatest possible proportion of potash felspar.

Zonal Arrangement of the Alterations.

Series of specimens have been collected along lines more
or less normal to the line of contact on the quarry-face
between the normal rock and the intrusive, and it has
been found possible to establish in a general kind of way
zones of alteration. Naturally enough the lines of equal
change are by no means concentric with the intrusion, for
the quarry-wall gives merely an adventitious section, by
no means normal to the very irregular contact, and in any
case it is not to be expected that the altering solutions
would spread upwards and outwards uniformly; still the
degree of change in the normal rock is to some extent a
function of distance from the contact.

It has been mentioned above that, even in the freshest
typical normal rock as found in the quarry, the olivine is
replaced by iddingsite and interstitial chlorite is present;
this condition is apparently universal in the Saddleback
rock wherever found, and it may be regarded as a regular
feature. This qualification being understood then, it has
been established that fresh normal rock occurs horizontally
and vertically and in intermediate directions away from
the intrusion, and, as explained above, the gradual altera-
tion may be plainly traced as one gets closer to the contact
with the intrusive rock.

Under the microscope the fresh normal rock is seen to
be free from albite, sericite, and carbonates; the augite is
fresh, and the olivine is represented by iddingsite; closer
in augite remains fresh, but albite and sericite appear.
fairly rapidly, both showing in a specimen collected only a
foot away from the perfectly fresh rock. Still further in,

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 229

albite increases, carbonates develop along cracks in the
augite, and iddingsite begins to pass over into chlorite.

The following table epitomizes the alterations, the speci-
mens being taken from the zone of altered normal rock in a
straight line more or less at right angles to the contact
on the quarry-face:

Speci- Distance

men from State of State of State of
No. contact Olivine. Augite. Plagioclase.
in jit.
al 5s Iddingsite Fresh; a little Much albite
carbonate in and sericite.
cracks.

ZB 23 do. do. Much albite,
but less ser-
icite than in

(1).
3 13 Iddingsite and Entirely do. do.
chlorite. carbonated.
4 0 Chlorite and a do. All albite;
little carbon- very little
ate. sericite.

The distance from the contact at which alteration com-
mences in the normal rock varies; traces of alteration have
been observed 20 feet away, but on the other hand fresh
rock has been collected within 10 feet ‘of the intrusion.

In the intrusive rock the plagioclase is all albite, and
sericite is absent or practically so, except for that which
was found in the vesicles of one specimen; in the freshest
rocks chlorite and carbonates are present, but not much
Kaolin. In the most altered phases carbonates and kaolin
both increase, orthoclase and chlorite practically disappear,
and albite becomes more abundant. |

Origin of the Solutions.

Much has been written concerning the origin of the
albitizing solutions which have affected basic lavas. Some
writers have ascribed the alteration to percolating scround-
water solutions, while others have looked to sea-water as

330 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

the source of the soda introduced into submarine flows.
Neither of these sources is possible for the South Coast
lavas, inasmuch as:
(1) The alteration is quite irregular in its incidence,
and has even proceeded from below upwards;
(2) Much potash has been introduced as well as soda;
and
(3) The alterations have occurred in terrestrial as well
as in submarine flows.
It is more in accord with the facts to regard the solutions.
as having been an integral part of the original magma,
and the alterations as being deuteric, as has been assumed

above.

In the ease of the so-called fresh normal rock the
alterations that are apparent, such as the iddingsite change
and the chlorite deposition, were evidently effected
by residual solutions, ejected as part of the magma, and
remaining fluid after it had almost completely solidified ;
the intrusive rock, too, was probably in its turn affected
by its own residual’ solutions. But superimposed on these
effects are others of a much more radical character, and
these latter, it 1s believed, are to be attributed to the
independent injection of magmatic solutions following the
consolidation of normal and intrusive rocks. These solu-
tions were essentially, then, of the nature of post-volcanic
emanations, though at Port Kembla they were injected,
and may never have reached the surface.

History of the Alterations.
We are now in a position to attempt to sketch the course
of events leading to the formation of the Port Kembla

rocks as they exist to-day.

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 2b

The original basic magma must have been poorer in
magnesia than the normal basaltic type, but richer in both.
soda and potash, as well as in the mineralisers, water and
carbon dioxide. Physical conditions in the magma were
such that the mineralisers were able to segregate or distil
off to a very large extent from the rest of the magma, carry-
ing with them much soda and potash; this is virtually
equivalent to the separation of the original magma into:
two partial magmas, the lighter and more fluid one being
of course by far the smaller in volume. After partial
crystallization of olivine, augite, magnetite and plagioclase,
a large-scale eruption of the lower magma took place, form-.
ing the normal Saddleback rock; this suffered some altera-
tion from residual solutions before final consolidation.
Closely following this carhe further small eruptions from.
the same magma through the normal rock, and these cooled
with a different texture owing to different conditions, and
suffered somewhat from the effect of residual solutions.
Partly along the channels followed by the second eruption
the upper and very fluid magmatic fraction was now in-
jected. It was probably sco fluid that, instead of forcing
an intrusive entry, it was able, under pressure, to impreg--
nate the already consolidated rocks, and so its progress
was effected not by a process of displacement but rather by
metasomatic replacement of its co-magmatic predecessors.
It would seem as if there had actually been a further
partial segregation or separation in this fluid magma before
injection, for the first invading solutions appear to have
been relatively poor in carbon dioxide or rich in silica;
at all events carbonation was not one of their functions.
The most noteworthy change was the replacement of more
basic plagioclase by potash-bearing albite; this change was
complete in the intrusive, and in the invaded rock at the

immediate contact, but decreased in intensity as the solu-

332 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

tions spread outwards. The effect of this on the solutions
themselves was to diminish their soda and potash and
silica content and to enrich them in lime and alumina, and
they were enabled to convert the olivine and much of the
pyroxene of the groundmass into chlorite. The farthest
limit of penetration of these solutions is indicated by the
incipient albitization of the plagioclase phenocrysts of the
normal rock.

A body of carbonating solution was now forced upwards
and outwards, converting nearly everything in the intru-
sive rock into carbonates and kaolin, and possibly dissolv-
ing out irregular cavities wherein was deposited much of
their dissolved mineral content: during this period also
there was active deposition of albite. Carbonation affected
the intrusive rock only in part, its incidence being deter-
mined to some extent by the presence of cracks which acted
as channels; and the invaded normal rock was affected only
within a limited range.

The sequence of events may perhaps be interpreted
otherwise, in terms of temperature. The original solutions
contained both silica and carbon dioxide, but in the
pneumatolytiec stage, when temperature was high, the
former was the more powerful acid-forming radicle; later,
in the hydrothermal stage, when temperature was much
lower, carbon dioxide was the more powerful, and dis-
placed silica from combination.

With the exception of soda, potash was carried farthest
of all the dissolved material, and it was at the last deposited
in great abundance as sericite. This may have crystallized
from the first invading solutions after they had been en-
riched in alumina and depleted in silica, in which case it
may have formed simultaneously with the replacing albite
with which it is so closely associated. In this connexion

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 0920:

it may be significant that practically no deposition of
sericite took place while the solutions were passing through
the intrusive rock, and that the heaviest sericitization is
found in those altered portions of the normal rock farthest
away from the contact. Alternatively the sericite may have
been deposited from the later solutions, the potash being in
part derived from the orthoclase of the pink intrusive which.
was destroyed by the carbonating solutions.

The final depositions were those in the cavities and
vughs, and these consisted mostly of carbonates, and of
quartz, representing the silica displaced from combination
by the more powerful carbon dioxide.

Conditions of Eruption.

Mr. L. -F. Harper has inferred, principally from the
directions of thinning of the lava-sheets, that the main
centres of eruption of the South Coast lavas were three,
two of which were to the east of the present coast-line, off
Port Kembla and off Kiama respectively. With the excep-
tion of the topmost, the lava-fiows and tuff-beds are inter-
bedded with marine sediments, but there is nothing to tell
us definitely whether the principal vents from which they
were extruded were terrestrial or submarine. The sedi-
ments are of the nature of mudstones, with occasional
pebble-bands, and the contained fossils are of shore-living
types, so it is evident that shallow-water conditions
prevailed.

Attempts have been made to establish genetic relation-
ships between the character of the magma erupted in a
region and the nature of the contemporaneous crustal
movements, but this is hardly the place to examine in detail
these relations for the South Coast lavas. However, it may
be noted that the sea-floor was gradually sinking, though
not at a rate much exceeding that of the deposition of lava

“334 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

and ash and mechanical sediment, and that eventually the
marine gave place to freshwater conditions without any
change in the general character of the erupted rocks.

It is of interest to note that the absarokites and shoshonites
and banakites of Yellowstone Park, U.S.A.,“) with which
the South Coast series have very close affinities, were
‘poured out sub-aerially, apparently in connexion with the
building up of a Tertiary mountain-range. There is some
evidence that these American lavas suffered deuteric altera-
tion, '®) and it would be interesting to know whether this
‘phenomenon occurred on an extensive scale and whether
the results compare at all closely with those described
above. It is also perhaps worthy of mention that no
examples of pillow-structure have been recorded in any of
the South Coast lavas.

Deuteric Alterations in Other Lavas of the Series.

The examination of field-exposures and thin sections of
‘a number of other rocks of the South Coast series makes
it clear that magmatic alteration has been very common
in them. In the disused quarries as well as in the surface-
outcrops of the Saddleback rock about Port Kembla, many
evidences of albitization and carbonation may be seen,
though none so good as those in the Government Quarry.
Specimens of the same flow from Dapto show precisely
the features of the altered normal type, and these have
likewise been observed near the top of Curry’s Hill,
‘Gerringong, where the fresh normal type also appears. As
a matter of fact all the flows of the series which occur at
Gerringong and on the Curry’s Hill section show som
alteration. The Cambewarra flow is in places thorough!y
albitized and has amygdaloidal phases in which the eavity-
fillines are largely chalcedony; below the Saddleback flow,
and separated from it by the Jamberoo tuffs, is the Bumbe
flow, which here is mostly of a grey or brown instead of a

+ oe

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 339

black colour; it has chloritic pseudomorphs after augite,
and albitic replacements of the plagioclase phenocrysts.
Underlying this markedly porphyritic phase of the Bumbo
flow is a dense, fine-grained phase, not unlike the Cam-
bewarra rock in appearance, which is amyedaloidal, the
vesicles being filled with soft, green, chloritic material,
between which and the ecavity-walls are to be found

occasional tiny flakes of metallic copper”); this rock is

albitized, and like the chlorite the copper is probably
magmatic, either having been held in solution till the
deuteric stage was reached, or else dissolved out of the
ferro-magnesian minerals and re-deposited.

The Blowhole flow appears to be unaltered for the most
part, but at the top it passes into an amygdaloidal phase,
which is albitized and has its vesicles filled with radiating
natrolite.

Indeed, the perusal of Chapter IV of the Southern Coal-
field Memoir makes it clear that deuteric activity has been
very widespread through this series of Permo-Carboni-
ferous lavas, for there is scarcely a description of one of
the flows, terrestrial or submarine, but contains some
reference to the aiteration which the minerals have under-
gone and to the presence of chlorite, calcite, chalcedony
and other substances not of primary crystallization.

Zeolites and allied minerals have been reported from a
number of the flows; for instance, prehnite and zeolites
are mentioned as occurring in the Saddleback flow, and
stilbite in the Cambewarra flow. Nevertheless minerals
belonging to the group of the zeolites are notably absent
from the more massive types of rock, in contrast with other
deuterically-altered basic lava-flows which have been
examined, and which contain analcite, natrolite and other
hydrous silicates filling interstitial spaces between the

336 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

felspars, and even replacing the latter partially or
completely.

The erystallization-temperatures of the zeolites are pro-
bably lower than those of any of the substances found
in the Port Kembla rock with the exception of calcite, and
as this is present in plenty, the general absence of zeolites
in the non-vesicular rocks, either as replacements or as
interstitial fillings, would appear to indicate that no mate-
rial from which zeolites might be made was left in the
solutions at the lower temperature at which calcite formed ;
this may have been because of a lack of water sufficient to
permit of deposition of silicates within the temperature-
range of the zeolites.

Comparisons with Deuterically-altered Basic Rocks elsewhere.

The alterations described for the Port Kembla rock, and
for the South Coast lavas generally, have naturally much
in common with those suffered by basic rocks elsewhere.
The altered phases differ from typical spilites in many
respects,“*) as for example in containing pseudomorphs
after olivine and in being relatively rich in potash; never-
theless the presence in both of much albite and of chlorite
and carbonates replacing the ferro-magnesian minerals,
shows that while the composition of the original magmas
differed, and to some extent also the deuteric solutions,
yet these latter had sufficient in common, in the way both
of composition and in mode of operation, to produce some-
what comparable results.

H. C. Sargent has deseribed from Derbyshire a series
of Lower Carboniferous submarine lavas for which he
suggests the name potash-spilites.“3) It appears that the
relatively unaltered rocks of the series contain iddingsite
after olivine, and in some cases may contain original ortho-

clase, and the alteration of the series has given rise, along

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 207

with much that is typically spilitic, to deuteric orthoclase.
With Dr. Bemrose’s descriptions of the unaltered types)
no analyses were published, but it would seem that the
presence of primary orthoclase links these rocks with the
orthoclase-basalts, so that chemically they have something
in common with the South Coast lavas. The deuteric
solutions affecting the Derbyshire rocks were, however,
essentially potash-bearing and devoid of soda, for the
analyses quoted by Sargent show an antipathetic relation
between the alkalies.

The Permian lavas about Exeter in the same county,
described by Teall,“5) are of latitic character, and the
presence of iddingsite and carbonates in some of these
betokens a certain degree of deuteric alteration. The only
one of these basic types analysed contains 7.03% of K:O,
0% NazO and 3.76% COs It would appear, therefore,
that deuteric alteration by carbonating solutions rich in
potash has occurred.

Very closely comparable with the phenomena appearing
in the Port Kembla rocks are some of those described by
Bailey and Grabham as occurring in the albitized Carboni-
ferous basic lavas of Arthur’s Seat, Edinburgh.“® In
these rocks there are vesicle-fillings and little veins of pris-
matic albite in association with chlorite and calcite. The
albite replacing more basic felspar is invariably spangled
with tiny flakes of sericite, and in one instance is accom-
panied by small veins and patches of anorthoclase. No
analyses of these rocks appear to be available for com-
parative purposes.

Alkalization.
An important part of all deuteric alteration of basic
rocks, and acid ones too, is the introduction of alkalies.
The examples quoted make it clear that the altering solu-

V —December 5, 1928.

338 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

tions may be rich in soda or potash or both, depending
no doubt on the chemical peculiarities of the original
magma. Further, the nature of the minerals formed may
vary according to circumstances; the soda may appear in
albite or in zeolites, and the potash in felspar or in sericite.

Now there are in existence such terms as albitization,
analeitization and sericitization to express special results
of the introduction of one or other of the alkalies, but it
would appear that there is need for another term, of more
general significance, that would apply particularly to the
ease of rocks like those of Arthur’s Seat and those of
Port Kembla, where both alkalies have been introduced, or
where more than one new mineral has been produced. To
meet this need the term alkalization 1s proposed. Albiti-
zation, sericitization, ete., would then be regarded as special
manifestations of alkalization, which itself is one phase
or manifestation of deuteric alteration.

Summary.

(1) A microsecepical and chemical examination of the
Saddleback trachybasalt exposed in the Government
Quarry at Port Kembla, and of a co-magmatic rock intru-
sive into it, indicates that there has been considerable
deuterie alteration of both the intrusive and the invaded
rocks.

(2) The alterations may be divided into: (a) those pro-
duced by residual solutions, consisting mainly of iddingsiti-
zation and chlorite-deposition, and (b) those produced by
post-voleanie solutions, comprising the formation first of
albite and chlorite and later of albite, sericite, rhombo-
hedral carbonates, kaolin and quartz.

(3) The post-voleanie alterations are disposed in roughly
concentric zones, the greatest alteration being within the
intrusion.

ALKALIZATION IN TRACHYBASALT AT PORT KEMBLA. 399

(4) The introduced bases include soda and potash, the

former entering into albite and the latter into sericite and

into orthoclase isomorphously contained in albite.

(5) It is shown that deuteric alteration is a common

feature of the South Coast Permo-Carboniferous lavas, and

comparisons are made with other basic rocks elsewhere

which show similar alterations.

AlG,

) tarper, L. F., &

Card, G. W.

a Browne, W. R...

idem

. Browne, W. R., &

Waites. cE.’ P-

fioss, C..8., &

Shannon, HE. V...

. Brown, Ida A. ..

. Koenigsberger, iy

. Benson, W.N. ..
. Wells, A. K.
. Lindgren, W.
: Iddings, J. P.

. Dewey, H., &

Mlett, J. S.

s pargent, H.C. ..

» Bemrose, H. H..:.
y leateder Jo .cn.

Bailey, E. B., &
Grabham, G. W.

References.
Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., Geology No.
T1915, Chaps ly.
This Journal, 56, 1922, pp.278-284.
ibidem, 58, 1924, pp.240-254.
ibidem, 59, 1925, pp.3872-387.

The Origin, etc., of the Mineral Idding-
site. Proc. UsS7Nat. Musi; 67, art. 7,
ppal-19:

(a) Geology of the Milton District.
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 50, 1925, pp.
461-2. (b) ibidem, p. 457.

Neues Jahrb. fur. Mineral., etc., Beilage
Band, 14, 1901, pp.117-118 (ref. cited
by J. L. Gilson in Amer. Mineralogist,
12, 1927, p.3i0:)

Proc. luinn. Sce. N.S. W., 40, 1915, p60;

Geol. Mag., 60, 1923, p.70.

Mineral Deposits, p.848.

U.S. Geol. Surv. Monograph 32, Pt: 2,
Chap. IX.

British Pillow-Lavas. Geol. Mag., N.S.,
Dec: 5, 8, 1911, pp202-209.

Quart.-Journ. Geol. Soc: 7a, 1917, pp.
REZ).

ibidem, 50, 1894, pp.603-644.

The Geology of the Country around
Exeter. Mem. Geol. Suzv., Gt. Brit.,
1902.

Geol. Mag., N.S., Dec. 5, 6, 1909, pp:
250-256.

340 W. R. BROWNE AND H. P. WHITE.

Explanation of Plates.
Plate XXIV.
Microphotographs.

Fig. 1—Fresh normal Saddleback rock. Note plagioclase
phenocrysts with orthoclase rim intergrown with the ortho-
phyric groundmass, also small zoned plagioclase phenocryst.
Crossed nicols. x 203.

Fig. 2.—Basic plagioclase phenocrysts of the normal rock,
showing partial alteration. The dark, irregular patches across
the crystals are of albite at extinction, and the lighter mottlings
on it are of sericite. Crossed nicols. x 223.

Fig. 3.—Phenocryst of basic plagioclase in normal rock,
showing albitization but no sericitization. The lighter patches.
on it are of albite. Crossed nicols. x 20.

Fig. 4—Iddingsite pseudomorphs after olivine, in process of
alteration to chlorite. The lighter areas near the cracks repre-
sent the residual iddingsite, whose cleavage is well shown.
The lower dark patch in the photograph is iron ore, the upper
a hole in the slide. Crossed nicols. x 223.

Fig 5.—The dark phase of the intrusive rock. The albite
phenocrysts are clouded with kaolin, and an iddingsite pseudo-
morph, changed to chiorite sheathed with haematite, may be
seen near the middle of the picture. In the microporphyritic
groundmass the segregations of magnetite round chlorite-car-
bonate patches are well shown. Ordinary light. x 193.

Fig. 6—A phenocryst in the dark intrusive rock. It was
originally of pyroxene, with olivine inclusions. The latter have
been altered to iddingsite and then to chlorite, while the host
has changed to chlorite. Around and through the phenocryst
the chlorite may be seen in process of alteration to carbonates.
Ordinary light. x 20.

Plate XXV.

Photograph of a specimen showing junction between the
chocolate-brown phase and the pink phase of the intrusive rock.
Two tongues of the latter are seen penetrating the former, the
channel followed by the altering solutions possibly being repre-
sented by cracks which are shown in the photograph. Rounded
and irregularly elongated cavities filled with calcite and quartz
are to be seen, the biggest coinciding approximately with the
position of one of the tongues of pink rock. A number of
calcite-filed cavities are faintly discernible in the pink rock.
Greatest length of specimen: 62 inches.

Journal Royal Socrety of N.S.W., Vol. LXITI., 1928. Plate XXIV.

LH. Gordon Gooch

= . i)
: b ‘ “a
‘ r ~ \ .
wt < SG aa =
. by 3 =
i 5
t
a a 4
- ™ *
5 Coe a
= 2 tea 9 ‘
bs t
' “f "7 {
= \
7 =
U
t 7 4 *
a
; ed
ye Sa "i ~
ae ¥
Bye Ses
7 Che ey a -~
=.
rs ; 2 _*
eae = 3 am
" “
439 <a =)
iy x by ‘: +
‘ e am cgi tens
S ; ; b
TT: i)
? Cake
5 ;
5 aN
i}
oy : alge BS
. A es
a = (
,

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. EXIT, 1928. Plate XX V.

[H. Gordon Gooch

Caiala sy Stated eerie)

a ame

ah fA eeeat aa ewe ve

ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. 341

NOTES ON SOME ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP.

By G. L. WINDRED.
(Communicated by Gilbert Wright. )

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)

Introduction.

The manufacture of tomato products is now quite an
important business in this State. Whereas, formerly such
products were mostly imported from the United States and
England now the local production is gradually supplanting
such imported goods and with more inquiry into canning
and preserving methods there is no reason why we should
not be wholly self-supporting in this direction. Indeed,
there may be opportunities to export surpluses.

In the manufacture of tomato-pulp, the tomatoes are first
thoroughly washed as it has been found that this process
gives a better product due to a decrease in mould growth
compared with those that are untreated (1). Rotted por-
tions are also cut out and the tomatoes drained of surplus
water. The treated tomatoes are then put through a
machine which removes the skin, pulps the tomatoes and
passes the resulting pulp to a large wooden vat where it
is heated by steam pipes. This vat is exposed to the air and
is shallow, so that a large proportion of the pulp comes into
direct contact with the air. Now, when large quantities of
tomatoes are being put through the pulping machine, the
pulp only remains in the vat for a short time before it is
drawn out with buckets and poured into kerosene cans and
sealed. Consequently, the temperature of the pulp in the

342 G. L. WINDRED.

vat varies considerably in these rush periods and may not
rise high enough to kill off vegetative forms of microorgan-
isms which may be present.

After the pulp is sealed in the bulk cans these are stored
for further use. Usually, no provision is made for. cooling
these stacks of cans and often the temperature of the stor-
age rooms is considerably above normal, so that an oppor-
tunity is provided for the growth of microorganisms, either
from spores or from vegetative cells, which have escaped
being killed in the heating vat. It is during this period
of storage that losses due to spoilage occur and these losses
are by no means shght. A rough estimate shows from 5 to:
15 per cent. spoilage, or even more in warm weather.

For the most part spoilage is manifest by a ‘‘sliminess’”
of the pulp and by the bursting of the cans, the latter
being the more important. The object of this investigation
has been to find the origin of such spoilage.

Tomato-pulp has a very ‘rich flora of microdrganisms.
including moulds, yeasts and bacteria, all of which, especi-
ally the last group, bring about profound changes in the
pulp, rendering it, in many eases, unfit for homan consump-
tion. Although a good deal of work in this direction has:
been done in the United States, as yet little has been done:
here. It has been the aim of the investigator to make
counts of the microorganisms occurring in the pulp and
also to identify them if possible, especially that organism
causing ‘‘sliminess.”’

The material was collected in a sterile aluminium ladle
and placed in sterile flasks. Samples were taken of the
unheated pulp immediately after it left the pulping
machine. Other samples were taken from the heating vat
at various levels, from burst cans and from slimy cans. All

the samples were subsequently stored at room temperature.

ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. 343

Standard media were used throughout the investigation.
Unconcentrated tomato-pulp, heated to 100°C. for one half-
hour on three successive days, was used for inoculations.

Quantitative Determinations.

Counts were made both by the dilution method and by
a direct method formulated by B. J. Howard (1). In making
counts by the dilution method, standard agar medium was
used and the plates inoculated at 32°C. for 48 hours. Dilu-
tion of 1:10,000, 1:100,000 and 1:1,000,000 were plated,
there being six plates to each dilution. Only the plates
which showed not more than 200 colonies and not fewer
than 50 colonies were counted. The average was taken for
each set of dilutions. The following table shows the results

of the counts :—

Counts of Microorganisms in Tomato Pulp.

Sample. Description. Dilution Method. Direct Method.
Bact- Moulds Yeasts Bact- Moulds Yeasts
eriain in in eriain % of per1/60

Millns. Millns. Millns. Millns. Fields e¢.mm.
perce. perce. perce. per cc.

i Unheated Pulp .. 40 16> 10 92 65 20
Br wheated: Pulp .. .. 4.0 i 0 21 — —
3 Pulp from good can _ 6 3 1 rir — =
Ae eeslumy Pulp, .. .. 400— 130, 82 1600 81 154

5 Pulp from burst can 274 23 OF e100 — a

*From pulping machine.

== Brom vat.

These counts agree fairly well with those made in the
United States although the direct method shows slightly
greater numbers. Samples (4) and (5) would be quite
unfit for human consumption.

The higher counts by the direct method are probably to
be accounted for by the fact that in this method all cells
in the field are counted, regardless of whether they are dead
or alive, whereas in the dilution method, only the live cells

produee colonies.

344 G. L. WINDRED.

It will be noticed that there is a striking decrease in
“numbers in the heated pulp and the 4,500,000 per c.e. prob-
ably results, for the most part, from the subsequent germi-
nation of the spores. The rise to 6,000,000 in sample (3)
may be similarly accounted for or may be due to contact
with unsterile surfaces as would be presented by the buckets
and the containers. With such numbers of bacteria as
occurred in samples (4) and (5) it is only to be expected
that profound changes would occur in the pulp, spoiling it
for further use.

Qualitative Determinations.

From the plates used in the counting by the dilution
method, nine different colonies were selected for identifi-
cation. Standard agar slopes were made from the colonies
and after incubating at 32°C. for 24 hours were replated in
order to test purity of the cultures.

A pure culture of each organism having been obtained,
the cultural, morphological and biochemical characters of
each were studied according to the procedure advised by
the Society of American Bacteriologists. The organisms
were named according to the scheme set out in Bergey’s
Manual (2) further corroboration being obtained from the
more detailed descriptions in the Journal of Bacteriology
(3).

The following organisms were identified :—

1. Bacillus vulgatus Flugge.
megatheritum De Bary.
niger Migula.

. graveolens Gittheil.
ellenbachiensis Stutzer.

. atterimus Leh. and New.
subtilis (Ehrenberg) Cohn..
mycoides Fliugge.

. Aerobacter cloacae.

CMI wh wh
by bu by by ty ty by

ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. 345

It will be noted that none of these are known to be
pathogenic, and also, that all except Aerobacter cloacae are
spore formers and therefore quite capable of withstanding
the temperature of the heating vat and so of being able to
germinate when the temperature of the pulp falls, which is
after the cans have been sealed. It is also significant that
all of them produce acid from carbohydrates and as will be
seen later this has a bearing on the bursting of the cans.
Now since Aerobacter cloacae does not produce spores its
presence in a sample of heated pulp has to be accounted
for. Members of this group have been found in pasteurised
milk so that it is capable of withstanding fairly high tem-
peratures. Otherwise it may gain access to the cans by
leaks in faulty cans, or may enter before the can is sealed
and after it has cooled considerably.

Slime Production.

Pulp which has become slimy has a very characteristic
appearance somewhat resembling a thick starch paste but
more coherent. When the slimy condition is at its maxi-
mum and most viscous, it is not possible to lift it up with a
fork or glass rod as it slips off or breaks away. The
cohesion is sufficient, however, to allow slime-threads of
about 10 em. to be drawn out.

An organism was isolated from a sample of slimy pulp
and numbered 10. Small portions of the slimy pulp were
plated by the usual methods and with the exception of a
few colonies of a mucor species, which always seems to be
associated with the slimy condition, the bacterial colonies
were all of the same appearance. Thus the slimy pulp
was practically a pure culture of No. 10.

After the isolation of this organism and its transfer to
standard agar slopes a test tube full of sterile pulp was
inoculated with a heavy dose of organism. The slimy condi-

346 G. L. WINDRED.

tion appeared in 72 hours at room temperature (18°C.)
After a period of about 17 days the condition began to dis-
appear (of course the duration of the sliminess would
depend on many factors such as temperature, mass of pulp,
amount of inoculum, ete.). With the gradual disappear-
ance of the slime, a layer of clear amber coloured liquid
appeared on the surface of the pulp. At the end of 32
days the sliminess had quite disappeared and the layer of
clear liquid occupied about one quarter of the test-tube.
The sedimented pulp became much lighter in colour and
had a flocculent appearance. There was a very noticeable
sour odour following the disappearance of the slime, other-
wise the material remained differentiated into clear super-
natant fluid and flocculent ‘‘precipitate’’ till the end of
the experiment, i.e., for six weeks, without marked change.
On plating out some of this material the same colony for-
mation was noticed as at first and on re-inoculating some
sterile pulp with this inoculum the slimy condition was
again produeed. Thus it is highly probable that this
organism, No. 10, is the cause of the sliminess. However,
since no capsule or envelope could be demonstrated round
the organism it is assumed that it is not the organism itself
which brings about the slimy condition, but rather some
product of its metabolism.

The following is a brief deseription of No. 10:—

Morphology.—Long rods with rounded ends, measuring
4u by .754 on an average. Shadow forms common.
Arranged singly or in long chains.

Spore-formation. Forms spores early, central in position
and sometimes excentric. Cause slight bulge in organism.
Average measurement of 1.54 by .du.

Mobility.—Very active in young cultures. Flagella peri-
trichous and numerous.

ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. 347

Agur Slope.—Moderate growth with a well defined ridge.
Tends to spread giving in older cultures a rhizoid appear-
ance. Opaque, raised, smcoth, membranous, moist and
pure white.

Agar Colonies.—Rapid growth. Different forms, some
round and regular, others amoeboid. Surface smooth,
moist, glistening, raised, opaque and pure white. A ridge
appears near the periphery giving a shallow crater-like
appearance.

Gelatine Stab.—Growth best at the top. Line of puncture
filiform. Liquefaction infundibuliform. Medium liquefied
fairly rapidly.

Broth.—A fragile pellicle formed with shght turbidity
near surface. Clears by sedimentation. Long chains.

Potato.—Creamy-white profuse growth, spreading, raised,
glistening, very rugose, slimy, membranous consistency.
Decided odour.

Glucose Agar.—Rapid growth, filiform but spreading.
Flat, dull, rugose, opaque, cream, butyrous.

Gram Stain.—Positive.

Glucose Broth—Acid, no gas.

Lactose Broth.—Alkaline, no gas.

Sucrose Broth.—Aeid, no gas.

Milk.—Rapid casein digestion with clear, amber-coloured
fluid in upper part of tube.

Intmus Milk.—Slightly acid in 48 hours with slight
coagulation followed by digestion.

Pigment.—None.

This description resembles closely that of Bacillus rumi-

natus Gottheil except that it forms long chains in broth
and milk. Also, in agar colonies, no shell-like periphery

348 G. L. WINDRED.

was observed as has been attributed to B. ruminatus. In
all other characters, however, it resembles fairly closely this
Species and may be a variety of it.

Many cans, both the large kerosene cans and the smaller
sizes show a swelling due to increase of internal pressure.
At times this pressure increases to such an extent that the
can bursts, and in the case of the large bulk cans, with
such a force that the whole stack may be thrown down. A
large proportion of kerosene-cans of pulp burst, owing,
probably, to the fact that they are not so well made as the
smaller two-pound tins.

The gas may be produced in two ways: (1) by the action
of the Coli group of organisms on the carbohydrates of the
pulp thus liberating CO, and H,, and (2) by the action
of the acid juices on the metal of the container (4).

In the first case when tins of sterile pulp were inoculated |
with a vigorous culture of Aerobacter cloacae and incubated
at 37°C. the cans became swollen and burst in 17 days.
Since this organism produces both CO, and acid in the pulp,
the pressure caused by the CO, is augmented by the hbera-
tion of hydrogen by the action of the acid produced on the
metal of the container. This pressure is sufficient to burst
open the seams of a two-pound ean.

In the second ease all the organisms isolated produced
acid so that if any great number of organisms remain in the
ean after processing there is the possibility of them produc-
ing enough acid to attack untinned portions of the ean and
thus liberate hydrogen. The pulp itself shows an acidity of
0.45%, calculated as citrie acid, so that together with the
products of the bacteria present a considerable acidity may
develop, which, if not sufficient to produce enough gas to

burst the can, may bulge the ends of the ean considerably.

ORGANISMS OF TOMATO PULP. o49

Summary.

Great losses occur due to microbial spoilage of tomato-
pulp. Counts of organisms in five samples of tomato-pulp
were made including material from burst cans and slimy
pulp. Very large numbers of bacteria were present in the
last mentioned samples. Ten organisms were isolated from
pulp, nine of which are spore-formers, the remaining one
being Aerobacter cloacae.

An organism which causes sliminess in the pulp resembles
Bacillus rununatus Gottheil very closely. Characteristics
of the organism are described.

Gas production causing bursting of the cans is due to
two causes, (1) the action of acid on the metal of the con-
tainer, and (2) the production of CO, by bacteria.

(Communicated by Gilbert Wright.)

This investigation was carried out in the Faculty of Agri-
culture, University of Sydney, under the direction of Mr. G.
Wright. Acknowledgments are due to Professor R. D. Watt
for reviewing the manuscript.

LITERATURE CITATIONS.
(1) HOWARD, B. J.—Microscopical studies on tomato products.
ess Dept. Aor, Bul. 581, 1917.
(2) BERGEY, D. H.—Manual of determinative bacteriology,
1923. 1st ed. Baltimore. Williams and Wilkins Co.
(3) LAURENCE, J. S., and FORD, W. W.—Aerobic, spore-
bearing, non-pathogenic bacteria. Jnl. Bact. (Balt.),
Voll. INO. 3, pp. 213-519,. May, 1916:
LAUBACH, C. A., and RICH, J. L.—Aerobic, spore-form-
ing, non-pathogenic bacteria. Jnl. Bact. (Balt.), vol.
I, No. 5; pp. 493-5382, Sept., 1916.
(4) BIGELOW, W. D.—Springers and perforations in canned
foods. Nat. Canners’ Res. Lab. Cire. 1-L, 1922.
(5) CRUESS, W. V.—Commercial fruit and vegetable products,
1925, ist. ed. New York, McGraw Hill Book Co.

300 M. B. WELCH.

NOTES ON SOME AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS
OF THE MONIMIACEA.
M. B. WELCH, -B:Se,, AGN.

Economic Botanist, Technological Museum.
(With Plates XXVI.-XXIX.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)

Several Australian genera belonging to the Moninuacee,
a family principally occurring in tropical and subtropical
regions, yield useful timbers. Of the eight Australian
genera* recorded by Bentham, two are woody climbers,
whilst several are too rare to be of commercial importance.
The Australian representatives are chiefly confined to the
eastern rain forest areas of the mainland, with one genus,
Atherosperma, occurring in Tasmania.

The following anatomical descriptions apply to specimens
of the various woods in the Technological Museum
collection.

DORYPHORA SASSAFRAS, Endlicher.

Sassafras, Grey or Black Sassafras.

A medium-sized tree found in the brush forests and on
alluvial pockets in gullies, throughout eastern New South
Wales and extending into southern Queensland. The wood
is very close textured, almost ‘‘pine-like,’’ and pale
yellowish in colour, becoming darker on _ exposure.
‘Occasionally dark, irregular streaks are present, especially
near the heart, which is occasionally almost jet black.
The freshly sawn wood, or even a fresh surface on
seasoned wood, usually possesses a pleasant safro!-like

* Bentham, G. Flora Australiensis, Vol. 5, p. 283, 1870.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 301

odour, but this is soon lost on exposure. The wood is not
particularly durable, but is apparently immune from attacks
by borers, whilst it is said to resist white ants. It works
easily, is not fissile, but is inclined to be woolly. The wood is
usually without distinctive figure. The weight is moderate,

from 30-40 Ibs. per cubic foot. Average laterai hardness
= 975 lbs.t

Uses—Available in fairly large quantities and chiefly
used for broom handles, brush stocks, stained for cheap
furniture, toys, flooring, lining, case material. It is very
suitable for automatic turnery. It has also been used for
clothes-pegs and tallow cask staves.

Source of material examined: Museum collection; trade
supplies.

Macroscopical Characters.—Pores very small, indistin-
oulishable with the naked eye. Soft tissue not apparent.
Rays easily visible on end section or on a radial face, some-
what lehter in colour than ground tissue. Growth rings
not distinct.

Microscopical Characters. — Pores evenly distributed,
usually single or in small groups of 2 or 3, frequently
showing partitions due to sealariform bars, occasionally in
rows, but more usually separated by very much compressed
tracheidal cells; irregularly polygonal or rounded in out-
line; radial diameter 45-140u, mean 90; tangential
diameter 35-110u, mean 65y; length of vessel segments,
900-2500-; walls 234; end perforation strongly scalariform,
bars numerous, up to 100, with correspondingly very taper-
ing segment end; lateral pits few, small-bordered, circular,
irregularly arranged, or numerous large, simple, oval or
slit-like and scalariform in contact with rays, inter vessel

+ Hardness figure is the load required to imbed 0.444” ball to
half depth.

352 M. B. WELCH.

pits scalariform bordered; average number per sq. mm. 65;
tyloses not observed. Wood fibres very variable in shape
and size, thick-walled, often very long, measuring from
1000-2800; average diameter 30y, walls 7-llp; pit open-
ings slit-hke, more or less bordered; transition observed
to more copiously pitted tracheidal cells, especially in
contact with vessels; frequently septate. Wood parenchyma
scanty, diffuse, often appearing as heavily-pitted, septate,
prosenchymatous units; usually present in radial rows.
which correspond to the attenuated ends of the rays, but
are not continuous when seen in transverse section. Rays
strongly heterogeneous, uniseriate or usually biseriate or
triseriate, up to 554 in width and 2000, in height, ends
tapering to narrow cells corresponding in width to the
vertical elements of the wood; thus the normal width of
a horizontal ray cell is about 40u; at the ends of the ray
the cells usually become almost square and may become
drawn out to a vertical height of as much as 300» and
20-30» in width, or two multiseriate portions may be linked
with a single row of vertically elongated cells; 3-5 per mm.
of transverse section.

Aqueous extract very light brown, very little alteration
with ferric chloride, caustic potash, turbid with lead
acetate.

When burnt, smoulders to greyish-white ash with small

amount of unburnt carbon.

ATHEROSPERMA MOSCHATUM, Labillardiere.
Tasmanian Sassafras.

A large tree, up to 100 feet in height, found in moist
gullies principally throughout Tasmania and also in
southern and eastern Victoria and in the south-eastern part
of New South Wales.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 355

The wood is almost white to light brown in colour, but
often with dark streaks or zones near the heart, close-
textured, often resembling European Maple or Sycamore,
Acer sp. It is without odour, although the bark is very
aromatic; works easily and cleanly, and is altogether a
very useful timber. There is usually no pronounced figure,
although on a tangentially cut or ‘‘backed-off’’ surface the
variation in density in the growth ring causes a slight
‘‘ribbon grain.’’ The wood is tough, not fissile, not durable
in exposed positions, and is lable to attack by the Furni-
ture Beetle, Anobium domesticum.

Average lateral hardness = 10385 lbs. Weight = 87-41
Ibs. per cubic foot.

Uses.—An excellent timber for automatic turnery, e.g.,
small handles, ete., and is probably the best Australian
wood for eclothes-pegs. It has been used for interior
fittings, cabinet work, brush stocks, light handles, wooden
screws, cask staves, wooden buckets, finishing lasts, carving.

Source of material examined: Museum collection; trade
supphes. |

Macroscopical Characters.—Pores very small, not distin-
sulshable with naked eye. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays
fine, evenly distributed, easily visible on end or radial
surfaces, appearing somewhat darker than the ground
tissue. Growth rings not prominently defined. Sapwood
not defined.

Microscopical Characters. — Pores evenly distributed,
frequently single or in groups of 2-4 irregularly arranged,
not in radial rows, irregularly polygonal in outline; radial
diameter 35-854, mean, 554; tangential diameter 30-55n,
mean 45; length of vessel segments 900-1500; walls 2-3
in thickness; end perforation very oblique, strongly sealari-
form, not always at end of segment, and sometimes extend-

W-— December 5, 1928.

3D4 M. B. WELCH.

ing for half its length; bars up to 100 in number; lateral
pits elongated, elliptical or slit-hke, often scalariform,
small, circular-bordered and few in number in contact with
fibres; tyloses not observed; average number per sq. mm.,
155. Wood fibres rather thick-walled, véry irregular in
size and shape; average diameter 22; 900-2000n in length;
wall 5-8; pits small, slit-like, borders usually very distinct ;
very rarely septate. Wood parenchyma scanty, diffuse,
chiefly present as non-continucus radial lines corresponding
to attenuated ray ends. Rays usually heterogeneous, outer
cells often elongated but not so prominently as in D.
sassafras, at times almost homogeneous, uniseriate to multi-
seriate, as many as 5 cells in width, maximum width 70p;
up to 1200 in length but normally not more than 900,;
oceasionally ends of rays multiseriate and middle reduced
to one cell in width; ray cells frequently with dark
granular contents; 4-7 per mm. of transverse section.
Growth rings indistinct and due to radial compression of
a few rows of wood fibres.

Aqueous extract very pale yellow, often turbid due to
starch; usually greenish colouration with ferric chloride;
darkened with caustic potash; little alteration to marked
turbidity with lead acetate.

Shavings burn to greyish or white ash; smoulders slowly
with medium amount of unburnt carbon.

DAPHNANDRA MICRANTHA, Bentham.
Yellow-wood, Satin-wood, Yellow or Grey Sassafras,
Yellow Box, Socket-wood, Butter-wood.

A moderate-sized tree found in the coastal brushes of
northern New South Wales and extending into Queensland.
The wood is greyish-yellow to yellow in colour, becoming
brown on exposure ; close-textured, resembling D. sassafras,
but is usually less aromatic in odour, works more cleanly

alll

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 355

‘and is usually rather harder and heavier. It is tough and
non-fissile. Usually no pronouneed figure.

Average lateral hardness = 1045 lbs.; weight 28-45 lbs.
per eubie foot.

Uses——Turned articles, small tool handles, door knobs,
brush stocks, broom handles, flooring, lining, interior
fittings, case material.

Source of material examined: Museum collection;
‘Queensland Forest Service.

Macroscopical Characters.—Pores very small, not distin-
guishable with the naked eye, but easily seen with pocket
magnifier. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays fine, but distinct
and easily seen on end or radial surfaces, lighter in colour
than ground tissue. Growth rings not prominent, usually
seen as fine lines. Sapwood not defined.

Microscopical Characters.—Pores very evenly distributed,
frequently single, or in small groups of 2-5, irregularly
rounded or polygonal in outline; radial diameter 20-75z,
mean 5d; tangential diameter 20-654, mean 50; length of
vessel segments 750-1400; walls 2-34 in thickness; end
perforations very oblique, scalariform, bars numerous, up
to 50; lateral pits elongated, elliptical or slit-like, often
Sealariform ; vessel-fibre pits small, circular, sparsely dis-
tributed; tyloses not observed; average number per sq.
mm., 100. Wood fibres thick-walled, very irregular in size
and shape, average diameter, 30%; 1200-2100» in length;
walls 7-11ly; pits slit-like, borders small; fibres occasionally
septate. Wood parenchyma scanty, diffuse, in thick-walled,
heavily-pitted septate prosenchymatous units; principally
seen in transverse section as discontinuous radial rows due
to ray ends. Rays diffuse, heterogeneous; outer cells
elongated but much less than in D. sassafras or A.
moschatum; usually multiseriate, from triseriate up to six

356 M. B. WELCH.

cells in width; diameter up to 110y; length up to 2.0 mm. ;.
3-4 per mm. of cross section. Growth rings marked by
radial compression of a few rows of wood fibre cells.

Sections cut of the outer part of the wood showed a
considerable amount of starch to be present, not only in
the rays and longitudinal parenchyma, but also in the
thick-walled wood fibres. There seems no doubt but that
these cells are used for food storage.

Aqueous extract lemon yellow; very little darkening |
with ferric chloride or caustic potash; slight turbidity and
precipitate with lead acetate.

Shavings burn to greyish or white ash, the amount of
smouldering and unburnt carbon varying from large to:
medium with different samples.

DAPHNANDRA REPANDULA, F. v. Mueller.
Sassafras or Grey Sassafras.
A moderate-sized tree found in the brush forests of
northern Queensland.

The wood is yellowish to brownish-yellow in colour,
close-textured and resembles D. micrantha.

Average lateral hardness = 1075 lbs. Weight about 40)
Ibs. per cubic foot.

Uses.—Similar to D. micrantha.

Source of material examined: Queensland Forest Service.

Macroscopical Characters Similar to D. micrantha.

Microscopical Characters.— Pores evenly distributed,
usually irregularly rounded in shape or occasionally
angular; single or in irregular groups of 2-5, often in
short radial rows or separated by very compressed fibre

tracheids; radial diameter 50-110u, mean 65; tangential
diameter 35-90, mean 60,4; length of vessel segments 900-

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 357

2100; walls 2-234; end perforation often extremely
oblique, scalariform, bars up to 60; lateral pits scalariform,
sometimes oval in contact with ray cells, rounded, small
and seattered in contact with mechanical tissue; the vessels
are often fusiform and differ lttle in size and shape from
the larger wood fibres (fibre tracheids) ; tyloses not observed ;
average number per sq. mm., 90. Wood fibres thick-walled ;
irregular in size and shape; average diameter 30u; length
1500-2700; walls 5-74; pits slit-like, borders very small
and at times apparently simple; occasionally septate.
‘Tracheids occasionally present measuring up to 2000u in
length, with numerous small bordered pits. Wood
parenchyma scanty, diffuse, septate-prosenchymatous, often
‘seen in transverse sections as discontinuous radial rows
due to ray ends. Rays diffuse with tendency to become
aggregate; heterogeneous, with considerably elongated end
‘cells much more strongly developed than in D. micrantha,
the uniseriate portion sometimes extending a _ greater
length than the multiseriate part’; usually multiseriate
up to 5 cells in width or 75y; occasionally biseriate; up
to 3.0 mm. in length; average number per mm. of cross-
‘section, 4. Growth rings not pronounced, due to radial

compression of a few rows of cells.

Aqueous extract pale yellow, similar to D. micrantha
in behaviour with ferric chloride, caustic potash and lead
acetate. |

Shavings burn to small greyish ash, medium amount

unburnt carbon.

DAPHNANDRA AROMATICA, Bailey.
Sassafras or Grey Sassafras.

A moderate-sized tree found in the brush forests of

northern Queensland.

358 M. B. WELCH.

The wood is yellowish-brown in colour, close-textured, and
resembles D. micrantha, except that the Museum specimens:
are softer.

Average lateral hardness = 560 Ibs. Weight 30-35 lbs. per
eubie ft.

Uses.—Similar to D. micrantha.

Source of material examined: Queensland Forest Service..

Macroscopical Characters.—Practically similar to D.
micrantha, but pores rather larger and just visible with
naked eye in Museum specimens.

Microscopical Characters.—Pores very evenly distributed,,.
comparatively even in size, irregularly polygonal; usually
single, occasionally in small irregular groups, radial dia-
meter 65-1502, mean 90u; tangential diameter 55-1004 mean
Tou; length of vessel segments 1200-2000; walls 2-34; end
perforations very oblique, strongly scalariform, bars up to-
80; lateral pits, elongated, often scalariform, fibre-vessel
pits scattered, circular, bordered; vessels frequently re-
semble tracheids in size and shape; tyloses not observed ;,
number per sq. mm. 65. Wood fibres moderately thick-
walled, irregular in size and shape, average diameter 35p;
length 1000-2600u; walls 4-6; pits usually narrow elliptical
with distinct borders, but occasionally border not distinct.
Wood parenchyma not abundant, diffuse, appearing im
radial rows in transverse section due to elongated ray ends ;.
rays diffuse, heterogeneous, the uniseriate elongated end
cells considerably extended; variable in shape, often with
multiseriate ends and uniseriate in middle; up to 4 cells or
60» in width and 1500 in length; 3-5 per mm. of cross
section.

Aqueous extract pale yellow, similar in behaviour to:
D. mocraniha.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 359

Shavings smoulder to smail greyish ash and large amount
of unburnt carbon.

MOLLINEDIA HUEGELIANA, Tulasne.

A small tree, not common in the brushes of eastern New
South Wales and Queensiand.

fhe wood is yellow brown in colour, often with irregular
dark streaks, close textured, moderately hard, tough and non
fissile. It possesses a prominent ray figure when quarter
Cite

Average lateral hardness = 13880 lbs. Weight about 45
Ibs. per cubic foot.

Uses.—Rarely seen on the market except in mixed brush-
woods. Should be suitable for ornamental turnery, small
cabinet work and similar purposes.

Souree of material examined: Museum collection.

Macroscopical Characters.—Pores indistinguishable with
naked eye. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays very prominent
on end or radial surfaces. Growth rings scarcely defined.
Sapwood not defined.

Microscopical Characters.—Pores evenly distributed,
single or in groups of 2-5, sometimes in radial rows; usually
irregularly rounded in shape; radial diameter 22-754, mean
oom, tangential diameter 30-754, mean 55yu; vessel segments
660-1400 in length; walls 3-4.5u; end perforation not so
oblique as in D. sassafras, sealariform. bars up to 25; lateral
pits small rounded or oval, bordered, more crowded than in
other species, larger and often scalariform in contact with
rays or vessels; tyloses not observed; average number per
sq. mm. 59. Wood fibres very thick walled; average dia-
meter 30p; length 1000-2200y; walls 5-13y; pits indistinctly
bordered, openings slit-like ; septate fibres not seen, but occa-
sionally fibres divided into two distinct cells by a transverse

360 M. B. WELCH.

wall. Wood parenchyma diffuse, in heavily pitted thick
walled prosenchymatous units; or seen in transverse section
as radial rows corresponding to ray ends. Rays heterogene-
ous; diffuse with tendency to become aggregate; multiseri-
ate up to 300 in width and 15mm. in height. Rays per
mm. of cross section, 1-3. Growth rings not prominent,
indicated by somewhat greater thickening of cell walls.

Aqueous extract very pale yellow; very little darkening
with ferric chloride or caustic potash; slight turbidity and
precipitate with lead acetate.

Shavings smoulder to brownish or greyish white ash, with
medium amount of unburnt carbon.

HEDYCARYA ANGUSTIFOLIA, A, Cunningham.
Wild Mulberry.

A medium-sized to small tree found in creek beds and
guilies in Victoria and eastern New South Wales.

The wood is yellow to greyish-brown in colour, close-tex-
tured, soft and easily worked, and when of low density
inclined to be spongy. Distinct ray figure when quarter-
eut. Average lateral hardness = 495 lbs. Weight 22-30 lbs.
per cubie ft.

Uses.—Rarely seen on the market, suitable for small
cabinet work.

Source of material examined: Museum collection.

Macroscopical Characters.——Pores practically indistin-
guishable with naked eye. Soft tissue not apparent. Rays
prominent on end or radial surfaces, appearing darker than
ground tissue. Sapwood rather paler than heartwood but
not sharply defined. Growth rings not prominent.

Microscopical Characters——Pores fairly evenly distri-
buted, irregularly polygonal in outline, single, or in irregu-
lar groups from 2-7, or in short radial rows; radial diameter

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 361

35-105u, mean Tou; tangential diameter 35-854, mean 60y;
vessel segments 500-9002; walls 2-3», end perforation
oblique, scalariform, bars up to 20 in number; lateral pits
large oval or elongated, often becoming scalariform ; vessel-
fibre pits small rounded or oval; tyloses not observed ;
average number per sq. mm. 30. Wood fibres comparatively
thin walled, average diameter 304; 750-1700» in length;
walls 3-54 in thickness; occasionally septate; pits small,
usually with small borders, occasionally divided into two
distinet cells by transverse walls. Wood parenchyma dif-
fuse, or in thick walled septate parenchymatous units, cor-
responding in size and shape to the fibrous elements;
numerous transition stages observed between fibre and
parenchymatous cells. Rays heterogeneous, aggregate,
oblique sections of vessels or fibres frequently appear 1iso-
lated in a tangential section of a ray; multiseriate, up to
390 in width and 3.5 mm. in height; ray volume often very
high, especially in specimens of wood with low density ;
number per mm. of cross section 1-2.

Aqueous extract brownish in colour, brownish or greenish
eolouration and precipitate with ferric chloride; brown
with caustic potash; slight precipitate with lead acetate.

Shavings burn to black residue with little smouldering

and no light coloured ash.

The following key is given for the identification of the
woods :—
(a) Rays large and prominent on end or radial face.
(b) Rays often exceeding 10 mm. in height = Mol-
linedia Hwegeliana.
(b,) Rays never exceeding 10 mm. in height = Hedy-
cayra angustifolia.

(a,) Rays small not prominent on end or radial face.

362 M. B. WELCH.

(c,) Pores small, less than 125 per sq. mm. wood
yellow.

(d) Rays not exceeding 3 cells in width = Doryphora
sassafras.

(d,) Rays often exceeding 8 cells in width.
Daphnandra spp.

Points of difference between the various species of
Daphnandra are given under the descriptions for the indi-
vidual species. There are decided variations in ray widths,
pores per sq. mm., and pore size, but insufficient samples
were available for examination to state definitely whether
these characters are constant.

Summary.

The genera Doryphora, Atherosperma and Daphnandra
belonging to the Atherospermew* furnish close textured
‘“pine-hke’’ timbers usually without any characteristic
figure, whilst in the Momimiew, Hedycarya, Mollinedia and
Kibara possess woods with large prominent rays. Unfor-
tunately, no authentic timber specimens of the last genus.
were available; the wood is comparatively rare and is not
available commercially.

The woods are pale in colour, the whitest being Athero-
sperma moschatum. Mollinedia Huegeliana is the heaviest
and hardest of the group. The growth rings are not defined
nor is there usually any distinet sapwood. Dark, occasion-
ally almost black, streaks and zones have been observed in
Doryphora, Atherosperma, Daphnandra and Mollinedia.
The cell walls become dark yellow-brown in colour and the

*Bentham and Hooker, genera Plantarum, vol. 3, p. 139, 1883.

NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 363°

rays and parenchymatous cells filled with a dark substance.
The cause of the stain is apparently fungal.

The vessels are in all cases evenly distributed, with
decidedly scalariform end perforation, and show extreme
elongation, the segments reaching a length of 23 mm. in
D. sassafras. The inter-vessel pits are typically scalariform
and bordered. The smaller vessel-fibre pits are usually few
and scanty in the Atherospermew. The maximum average
pore number of 155 per unit area occurs in Atherosperma
moschata and the minimum of 30, in Hedycarya angusti-
folia. Tyloses were not observed.

Typical tracheids are rarely present, the mechanical tis-
sue consisting principally of wood fibres (fibre tracheids),
usually with very thick walls and more or less developed
bordered pits. Solereder* states that the prosenchymatous
eround-work of the wood bears simple pits in Hedycarya
and Daphnandra, indistinctly bordered pits in Mollinedia
and typical bordered pits in Atherosperma and Doryphora.
In the material examined bordered pits undoubtedly occur
in the fibre tracheids of Daphnandra, but the borders are
less distinct in Hedycarya. The degree of development of
the border varies considerably in the one species and this
feature does not seem to possess any very Important diag-
nostic value. Septate wood fibres were found in all genera
except Mollinedia. Septate wood fibres with simple pits,
recorded by Solereder (l.c.) as occurring in all species, were
not found, although prosenchymatous, septate, thick walled,
sumply pitted wood parenchymatous elements are present ;
these undoubtedly show close affinity between the wood
parenchyma and the fibre cells. Further in Daphnandra
micrantha, a considerable number of the thick walled fibre

* Solereder, Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. English
Translation, Vol. 2, p. 701, 1908.

“364 M. B. WELCH.

cells contained numerous starch granules; although food
storage is supposed to be the function of living cells, there
was nothing to distinguish these cells from the typical wood
fibres. The fibres reach a considerable length in some spe-
cies e.g. 2,800 in Doryphora sassafras and over 24 mm. in
Daphnandra repandula and D. aromatica.

The wood parenchyma is usually rather sparsely distri-
buted, but due to the considerable elongation and attenu-
ation of the ends of the: medullary rays, the outer cells
correspond in shape and size with the normal vertical
parenchyma, and thus bring the rays into very intimate
contact with the other elements of the wood.

The rays are heterogeneous, with the end attenuation
especially developed in Daphnandra aromatica and Dory-
phora sassafras and least in Mollinedia Huegeliana. In
Mollinedia and Hedycarya the rays reach their maximum
width of about 300u, whilst in the other genera examined
rarely exceed 100u. The maximum height of 15.0 mm. is
found in Mollinedia. The rays do not appear to be more
than triseriate in Doryphora and Atherosperma, but ocea-
sionally attain a width of six cells in Daphnandra.

In conclusion I wish to acknowledge the help given by
Messrs. D. Cannon and F. B. Shambler of the Museum Staff
in the preparation of the specimens.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig.1.—Doryphora sassafras. Transverse section of wood show-
ing even pore distribution; the transverse septa seen in many of
the vessels are due to the scalariform bars. The wood fibres are
very thick walled. The vessels are frequently only separated by
considerably compressed fibre cells. x 37.

Fig. 2—Atherosperma moschatum. Transverse section of wood
showing even distribution of very small pores. The discontinuous
nature of the radial rows of vertically elongated parenchyma
due to the attenuated ray ends is clearly indicated. KOSH

Plate XX VT.

Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928.

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Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate XXVIT.

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Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXII., 1928. Plate XXVIII.

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Journal Royal Society of N.S.W.. Vol. LXIT, 1928. Plate XXIX

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NOTES ON AUSTRALIAN TIMBERS. 365

Fig. 3—Daphnandra micrantha, Transverse section of wood
showing even pore distribution and manner of grouping. The
wood fibres are extremely thick walled. Near the bottom can
be seen the few rows of radially compressed cells indicating the
boundary of the growth ring. Aan

Fig. 4—Daphnandra repandula. Transverse section of wood
showing pore arrangement and their irregular size and shape.
The wood fibres are thick walled and also irregular in size and
shape. Near the bottom is an indication of a growth ring
boundary. Kook

Fig. 5.—Daphnandra aromatica. Transverse section of wood
showing comparatively large pore size and their even distribu-
tion; the scalariform bars are frequently visible in the vessels.
The wood fibres are comparatively thin walled. x 87.

Fig. 6—Mollinedia Huegeliana. Transverse section of wood
showing small scattered pores, and very thick walled fibres. The
large multiseriate rays are prominent, whilst the discontinuous
radial rows of parenchyma are visible. Xo

Fig. 7—Hedycarya angustifolia. Transverse section of wood
showing frequent radial arrangement of pores. The vessels and
fibres are thin walled. Wood parenchyma is fairly abundant.
The large multiseriate rays are also prominent. os

366 CHAS. CHILTON.

NOTE ON A FOSSIL SHRIMP FROM THE HAWKES-
BURY SANDSTONES. ,

By CuHas. CHILTON, M.A., D.Se., M.B., C.M.,
Professor of Biology, Canterbury College, N.Z.
(Communicated by W. 8S. Dun.)
(With Plate XXX.)

(Read before the Royal Society of New South Wales, Dec. 5, 1928.)

Towards the end of 1926 I received from Professor Leo
Cotton, of Sydney University, a specimen of a fossil shrimp
‘with a request for its examination and the information that
it came from a shale band about the middle of the Hawkes-
bury Sandstones. The specimen was obtained by Mr. Wil-
ham Hatcher from the Brookvale brick quarry and was
lent by him to Rev. R. T. Wade for the purpose of deserip-
‘tion.

A brief preliminary examination seemed to indicate the
absence of a carapace and to show that the animal probably
belonged to the Anaspidacea while in size and general ap-
pearance it reminded me of Anaspides, a freshwater shrimp
belonging to that group and still ving in the streams and
lakes of Tasmania. I had formed this tentative conclusion
before I was definitely aware that the Hawkesbury Sand-
stones are freshwater deposits containing remains of plants,
freshwater shells, fish, insects, ete. But the specimen had
‘to be laid aside at the time owing to other work. I have
now mace a further inspection of it and though owing to
its state of preservation I am unable to supply much infor-
mation as to its structure there seems nothing inconsistent
‘with the opinion first arrived at.

NOTE ON A FOSSIL SHRIMP. O67

The specimen (see plate XXX.) is about two inches in
length and has been flattened dorso-ventrally so that the
fossil consists only of a rather faint, flat impression showing
the outline of the body and some of the appendages, mostly
indistinctly. There are no hard parts of the actual animal
preserved and it seems possible that the integument was
thin and non-calecareous as it 1s in the existing Anaspides
tasmaniae (Thomson).

The six segments of the abdomen can be made out fairly
distinctly, the first five being subequal in length, the sixth
longer and slightly narrower and followed by very indis-
tinet indications of the tail fin. (The distinct rod-like strue-
ture to the right of the tail fin is, I think, no part of the
animal but some extraneous substance.) The animal appears
to have been slightly tilted over to the right and the lateral
portions, or epimera, of the three anterior segments of the
abdomen show distinctly on the left side and the impressions
seem to indicate that in the living animal they were pro-
duced downwards about as far as they are in Anaspides
tasmaniae. Anterior to the abdomen there are on the left
side indications of three well marked and distinct segments,
the posterior one shorter than the two in front of it and
considerably shorter than the first segment of the abdomen.
These three segments appear to be the posterior segments
of the thorax and the facts that they are free and that there
is no indication of a carapace form the chief reasons for
supposing the animal to be a member of the Anaspidacea.

This supposition seems to be supported by one or two
other points that can be made out. Along what appears to
be the posterior margin of the sixth abdominal segment are
remains of a transverse row of about six minute teeth-like
structures which seem to correspond to the row of setae

found in Anaspides tasmaniae as figured by Thomson

368 CHAS. CHILTON.

(Trans. Linn. Soe. Zool. vol. VI., plate 25, hey ojwand
Geoffrey Smith (Q.J. Micros. Sci.-vol. 58, p. 521, text
figure 30). Similar setae fringe the posterior margin of
the telson in Anaspides and other genera but the end of the
telson is not visible in the fossil under examination.

Only a few of the appendages are preserved with any
degree of distinctness. The two on the left at the anterior
end doubtless represent the antennae, the first showing the
joints of the peduncle, the inner, shorter, flagellum and part
of the outer flagellum. Similarly in the second there are
indications of peduncular joints and, much more distinct,
of the basal joints of the multiarticulate flagellum, but there
is no sign of the squame. On both sides there are impres-
sions of three pairs of thoracic appendages, one, probably
the first, being a little stouter than the others. The anten-
nae and the thoracic appendages show some resemblance to
those of Anaspides but it must be pointed out that no sign
of the exopods and branchial epipods associated with the
thoracic appendages of that genus can be made out.

From the foregoing account it will be seen that our
knowledge of the animal preserved in this fossil is very
imperfect and that it would be absurd to attempt to give
any diagnosis of its genus and species. If it must have a
name as a matter of convention I suggest that it may be
referred to as Anaspides (?) antiquus.

Journal Royal Society of N

.W., Vol. LXIT., 1928, Pilate XXX,

Photo by H. G. Goocu. Magnification x 2

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 369

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES IN AUSTRALIAN
PLANTS.
By
Horace FINNEMOoRE, B.Sc. (Lond.), F.I.C.
and
CHARLES Bertram Cox, B.Se. (Syd.), Research Officer,
C.S.LR.

Accepted for Publication December 5, 1928.

At the Hobart meeting of the Australian Associaticn for
the Advancement of Science an account was given by one
of the present writers (H.F.) with Walter Charles Gledhill,
of the examination of some sixty species of Acacia for
eyanogenetic glucosides, and the occurrence of these was
recorded in four species, viz., Acacia glaucescens, A. Cheelit,
A. doratoxylon and A. Cunningham.

The present account describes the isolation of the glucoside
from the two first-named species and its identification with
sambunigrin, C,, H,; NO., which was first isolated from
Sambucus nigra, the European elder, by Borquelot and
Danjou.?

Extraction of the Glucoside.

In our first experiments we followed the time-worn
method of extracting the leaves with aleohol, evaporating
the extract to a syrup, re-dissolving this in water, and
attempting to purify the product by precipitating the
tannoid and other impurities with lead acetate followed by
lead subacetate. A complex syrup was obtained from which

1 Aust. Journ. Pharm. 1928, N.S. 9, 174.
2 Compt. rend. 1905, 141, 598-600.

X ~December 4, 192.

370 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.

the pure glucoside could not be separated in quantity,
although it was present and showed evidence of
crystallisation. We, therefore, decided to try liquids of
more limited solvent power, and on extracting the erushed
leaves in a Soxhlet apparatus, firstly with petroleum ether
to remove fatty matter, then with ether, an abundance of
erystalline matter slowly separated during the extraction
in a practically pure condition. On washing with solvent
to temove mother liquor and recrystallisation from a mix-
ture of ethyl acetate and chloroform, the glucoside separated
in long, colourless, silky needles, having no odour, but a
taste at first sweet and then bitter. On further recrystal-
lisation it melted at 152°.

(a) 0.1964 gave 0.4090 CO, and 0.1027 H.O. C = 56.78 :
H = 5.81.

(b) 0.1625 gave 0.3380 CO, and 0.0848 HO. C = 56.72 :
H = 5.80.

Ci. Hi, NO, requires C = 56.96 : H = 5.76.

0.4768, dissolved in 50 @.e. absolute alcohol gave in a
2-dem. tube at 24°a, —1.41° whence [4]> = — 73.9.

The acetyl derivative was prepared by heating 1 gram of
the purified glucoside with 10 grams of acetic anhydride and
2 grams of sodium acetate for 45 minutes. After allowing
the mixture to cool, water was added and warmed on a water
bath for 30 minutes to decompose excess of acetic anhy-
dride; the acetyl derivative separated on cooling in small
colourless needles, which after twice ecrystallising from
dilute alcohol melted at 125°.

0.1255 gave 0.2578 CO. and 0.0617 H.O. C= 56.95 :
H = 5.55.

CusHi, (COCH,). NO: requires GO ='57,02 Eo

0.4146 dissolved in 50 e.e. absolute alcohol gave in a
2-dem. tube at 23° «, —0.89° whenee [vo]? = — 53.6.

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 371

These figures agree with those obtained for sambunigrin,
the glucoside of Sambucus nigra, and there can be no reason-
able doubt as to the identity of the two. For comparison
the constants of the two substances and their acetyl deri-
~vatives are set out below.

The figures for acetyl-sambunigrin are those found for
the synthetic product prepared by Emil Fischer and Berg-

‘mann.3

Sambunigrin Glucoside from A. glaucescens

MEAEDOM .., ss ss 56.88 (a) 56.78

(b) 56.72
Hydrogen ... .. 5.83 (a) 5.81

(b) 5.80
‘Optical Rotation .. [gq]15 — 76.3 [a]24 — 73.9
Melting Point .. Sinters at 149° Melts at 152°

Melts at. 151°-152°

Tetra-acetyl Sambunigrin Tetra-acetyl derivative of
Glucoside from A. glaucescens

‘Optical Rotation.. [q]22 — 52.5 li@l23: == bar6
Melting Point .. >= 26° 125°

Amount of HCN in Acacia glaucescens.

In the table A are collected some figures showing the
‘amount of hydrocyanic acid present in this plant. It
is too early to say what, if any, significance is attached to
the distinct fall in the amount observed in the Spring.

Acacia Cheelu, Blakeley.

We have also isolated sambunigrin from Acacia Cheelu
‘by the process described above.

Euphorbia drummondu, Boiss.

Probably few plants in Australia have been the subject
‘of so much controversy as to their toxicity to stock as
Euphorbia drummondi, the Milk Weed. Maiden‘ reviewing
the available evidence stated that thousands of people -con-

3 Ber. d. d. chem. Ges. 1917, 50, 1047.
4 Agric. Gaz. N.S.W. 1897, 8, 18.

372 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.

TABLE A.
Amount of HCN in Acacia glaucascens (phyllodes.)

o &D ae noe. m1 ,3°S ar
2a ll Siecle ee oo]!
Reference! gource, | Date | Date |SESRISSES (833 5|8S2'5|
Number. Collected | Received.i|, 2 adie, “Sila Bolazos
& 0.9, (98 ROAD BSS ob
a, ATS ar ane 1 eal bae=A 8
P.I. 1] Glenfield | Nov. ’27| Nov. ’27 0.22*
Paleoe ip cae 27/3/28 | 62.5°| 0.12 | 0.82 | Not
done
Pol. 121 a Ase 7/6/28 | 45.0 | 0.20 | 0.37 sis
PI. 199 és ay 18/7/28 | 49.8 | 0.21 | 0.42 | 9.41
P.1. 454 * 24/9/28 | 5/10/28 | 31.0 | 0.08 | 0.12 | 0.12 |

*Determination not carried out until Jan., 1928.

sidered it poisonous, and on the other hand quoted the
opinion of the late Mr. Edward Stanley5, Chief Government
Veterinarian of N.S.W., who, after a considerable number
of experiments on sheep, failed to produce any poisonous
symptoms whatever, and concluded that the reported deaths
were due to indigestion or to diseases such as anthrax. In
support of the view of the harmlessness of this plant is the:
common experience of pastoralists of its use as fodder,
constituting as it does in certain circumstances, the only
food available. In such eases, sheep feeding on it in quan-
tity are subject to the possibility of developing hoven:
through gorging, just as may happen through the ingestion:
of excessive amounts of any other harmless green crop.

Other writers in later years have referred to the uncer-
tainty regarding this plant and have stressed the real need
for more exact data.

In these circumstances the Poison Plants Committee of
the C.S.1.R. decided to undertake its systematic collection
and examination, particularly, in the first instance, for ©

5 Agric. Gaz. N.S.W. 1896, 7, 619.

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. ole

hhydrocyanic,acid. Dr. H. R. Seddon, Director of Veterin-
ary Research, arranged through his Stock Inspectors to
collect samples from as wide an area of this State as pos-
sible, and in order that there should be no possibility of
loss of this volatile acid during transit to the laboratory, it
was decided to have the fresh samples placed immediately
after collection in bottles securely fastened with india-
rubber stoppers.

Dr. Seddon has already reported’ that one of these samples
proved fatal when fed to a sheep, and the symptoms shown
were those of prussic acid poisoning. The contents of the
stomach were submitted to us by Dr. Seddon, and were
found to contain hydrocyanic acid, as did the original speci-
men of the plant after merely macerating with water, show-
ing that it also contained the enzyme necessary for hydroly-
sis of the cyanogenetie substance. In the original scheme
of collection Dr. Seddon arranged to cover 35 areas coin-
eiding with the same number of Pasture Protection Dis-
tricts of N.S.W., and although during the past season we
examined 113 specimens from these localities, from only one
of these, viz., Brewarrina, which includes Bokhara, have we
obtained samples containing hydrocyanic acid; in all, 11
positive specimens were collected. During the present
season, however, positive samples have been obtained from
Dubbo and Merriwa, so that as the area of collection is
extended it may be found that the poisonous samples are
not so limited in distribution as at first seemed to be the
Case.

The Brewarrina plants were collected between the 24th
April and 28th July, 1928. Previous to the 7th June the
eyanogenetic substance in the plant was associated with
sufficient enzyme to ensure its decomposition when moist-
ened with water, and differed in this respect from the four

6 Journ. C.S.I.R. 1928, 1, 268.

374 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.

species of Acacia mentioned above which contained little,
if any, enzyme. Samples collected on 10th July, however, °
were found to be deficient in enzyme and only developed
their total amount of hydrocyaniec acid after enzyme from.
almonds had been added.

The amount of hydrocyanic acid obtained from these 11
specimens varied between 0.041 and 0.103 per cent., or 2.8
to 7.2 grains per lb., of the air-dried material; particulars.
are given in the following table.

TABLE B.
Amount of HCN Euphorbia Drummondi (whole plant)

| digit oee, 48 oe
Reference | Date Date |SEOb OZ Gao aa) oA as
Nene Source. | Collected.| Received. LE aS ohh) 80.8 © op
O85 elo Sale, el ay aed
a8 a eee ote ea eeeee
P I. 60 | Brewarrina | 24/4/28 | 27/4/28 | 61.0 | 0.038 | 0.085 |)
{o)
S+- 3
P.I. 61 | Bokhara i. » | 65.5 | 0.036 | 0.108 | 853
rae p,
P.I. 96| Brewarrina | 8/5/28 | 24/5/28 | 23.5 | 0.066 | 0.086 REE
j<=} q
Heo
P.I. 97 | Bokhara _ i 23.5 | 0.058 | 0.077 | J

P.I. 138 | Brewarrina | 7/6/28 | 15/6/28 | 44.9 | 0.055 | 0.097 | 0.099*

P.1. 139| Bokhara ‘ be 39.4 | 0.053 | 0.088 | 0.091*
P.I.195| Bokhara _| 10/7/28 | 13/7/28 | 3.0 | 0.039 | 0.041

PT. 196| Brewarrina e 5% 21.8 | 0.046 | 0.059

*After drying for 386 days.

The problem whether there is any ascertainable botanical
difference between the samples containing hydrocyanie acid
and those which do not is being undertaken by Dr. G. P.
Darnell-Smith, who has kindly examined all the above

specimens as to their identity.

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 375

Goodia lotifolia, Salish. :
_ In a series of Botanical Notes published in 1895 the late
Mr. J. H. Maiden’ included a note entitled ‘‘Is Goodia
poisonous to Stock?’’, and although he did not attempt to
answer this question in the affirmative, he adduced evidence
to show that the plant was under strong suspicion, but that
Opinion was divided on the subject.

Goodia is a genus of the Leguminosae, only two species
of which, G. lotsfolia (Salisb.), syn. G. medicaginea and
G. pubescens have been recorded. Indeed, the latter is
thought by some botanists to be a pubescent form of the
first. They are confined to Australia and occur as tall
shrubs, the former growing to the size of a small tree and is
the only one occurring in this State. In Tasmania it is
known as the clover tree, from the similarity of its delicate
leaves to clover. In Queensland its aboriginal name is
Booroo-molie.

Some of the foregoing particulars are due to Mr. Maiden,
who gave an account of an enquiry from Bega respecting
this shrub, known locally as the Indigo, the foliage of
which was frequently fatal to stock traveling from
Monaro to the coast. Large quantities at that time grew on
the main road between Colombo and Nimitybelle. The
same enquirer stated that cattle ate this plant greedily, and
suffered from what was termed black scour—the tongue
became black, the hide acquired a bluish tint and appeared
rough and bound, the cattle became weak and emaciated,
and eventually died. The form G. medicaginea has also been
suspected in West Australia, twenty-five head of cattle
dying from stoppage of the bowels. Another case of pois-
oning occurred in South Australia, and a correspondent
from Yorketown submitted to the Agricultural Bureau of

7 Agric. Gaz. N.S.W. 1895, 6, 306.

376 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.

that State a specimen of a plant supposed to be poisonous,
which was identified by the General Secretary of the Bureau
as a species of Goodia and pronounced to be quite harmless.
Mr. Maiden quotes the evidence of several South Aus-
tralian observers who had fed this plant to animals without
ill effect.

Such were the conflicting views of the toxicity of the
Goodias when a specimen of G. lotifolia gathered near
Middle Harbour in August of this year, just before
flowering, proved to be _ strongly cyanogenetic. <A
quantitative estimation of the amount of hydrocyanic
acid showed that the fresh leaves gave 0.23 per
eent., which is equivalent to 0.57 per cent. calculated
on the air-dried leaves. This amount is larger than
that recorded in any Australian plant with the excep-
tion of Heterodendron olewfolia found by Petrie to contain
0.328 per cent.2 That this specimen is not unique in
being ecyanogenetic is shown from the fact that plants col-
lected from such widely separated localities as the Botanic
Gardens, Sydney and Melbourne, Mount Lindsay (Queens-
land), Kangaroo Island (South Australia), and Braid-
wood (N.S.W.) were all strongly cyanogenetic.

It is of interest to record that specimens obtained from
the Herbarium of the Botanic Gardens, Sydney, through the
courtesy of Dr. G. P. Darnell-Smith, and from the Her-
barium of the Technological Museum, Sydney, through
the kindness of Mr. M. B. Welch, all failed to develop
hydrocyanic acid when treated, as were the fresh plants,
with water alone, or even when emulsin derived from
sweet almonds was added. Whether a cyanogenetic gluco-
side had ever been present in these Herbarium specimens is

BR Pree Tinn. Soc. NS\W. 1920) 45) 447)
9 We are indebted to Mr. J. C. White, Queensland Government
Botanist, for kindly locating this specimen.

CYANOGENETIC GLUCOSIDES. 377

unknown, but it seems likely that our failure to detect it
‘was due to its loss during keeping. In confirmation of this
_ -view we may quote one experiment in which it was found
that after drying the leaves in the air for one month the
amount of hydrocyanic acid had fallen from 0.57 to 0.18
‘per cent. :

Poranthera microphylla.

In the course of investigating as many plants as possible
for hydrocyanic acid, this plant also was found to be
eyanogenetic. So far as is known it has not proved fatal to
stock, and being small and sparsely distributed it would not
seem to be dangerous. Indeed the collection of a few pounds
for analysis requires much patience. Many samples grow-
ing near Middle Harbour have been examined, always with
a positive result. One quantitative examination showed
that the whole plant yielded 0.018 per cent. of hydrocyanic
acid calculated on the fresh, or 0.051 on the air-dried
material. All Herbarium specimens have so far proved
negative.

Poranthera corymbosa alse yields a very faint positive
reaction.

Eucalyptus corynocalyc.

In times of drought this tree, known as the Sugar Gum,
which is practically free from volatile oil, is fed to stock, and
fatal results have been observed. A specimen from South
Australia, for which we are indebted to Professor T. G. B.
‘Osborn, was nearly dry when received. It yielded 0.179 per
-eent. of hydrocyanic acid. A specimen from an ornamental
grove growing in a street at Ashfield, for which we are
indebted to Mr. E. Cheel, was also positive, as were eight
Herbarium specimens from the Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

Further investigation of these plants is proceeding.

378 H. FINNEMORE AND C. B. COX.

The authors acknowledge with grateful thanks their
indebtedness to Professor. J. C. Earl for placing the faci-
lities of his laboratory for the analysis of sambunigrin at
their disposal, and to the Council for Scientific and Indus-
trial Research for a grant to the Poison Plants Committee
that has enabled one of them (C.B.C.) to collaborate in this
work.

Department of Materia Medica and Pharmacy,
The University, Sydney.

ABSTRACT of PROCEEDINGS

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

Ropal Society of Hew South Gales.

<+-

MAY 2, 1928.

The Annual Meeting, being the four hundred and
seventy-sixth General Monthly Meeting of the Society, was
held at the Royal Colonial Institute, 17 Bligh Street,
Sydney, at 8 p.m.

Professor J. Douglas Stewart, President, in the Chair.
Forty-three members were present.

The Minutes of the General Monthly Meeting of the
7th December, 1927, were read and confirmed.

It was announced that the following members had died
during the recess:—Robert Houston Barr, Alfred John
Cape, Launcelot Harrison, William Joseph Scammell,
George Augustine Taylor, James Taylor and William
Welch.

Letters were read from Mrs. Harrison, Mrs. Balfern,
Mrs. Scammell, Mrs. Florence Taylor, Mrs. James Taylor
and Mrs. W. Welch, expressing thanks for the Society’s
sympathy in their recent bereavements.

The certificates of two candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read for the first time.

The following gentleman was duly elected an honorary
member of the Society :—Grafton Elliot Smith, M.A., M.D.,
F.R.S., F.R.C.P., Professor of Anatomy in the University
College, London.

iv, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The Annual Financial Statement for the year ended
31st March, 1928, was submitted to members, and, on the
“motion of Professor Chapman, seconded by Mr. Andrews,

was unanimously adopted.

GENERAL ACCOUNT.

RECEIPTS.
Sy ase
To Revenue—
Subscriptions
Rents—
Offices eke Re tee IG in

Hall and Library ..266 5

Sundry Receipts

Advance on Government
Subsidy for 1927

Interest — Government
Bonds and Stock

_y, Donations—
Walter Burfitt Prize
Mund ea. yet hs O0 eno
Add—Interest sol Pete 20) alee

H. Minton Taylor and
JiJd. Mulligan <.

_, J. H. Maiden Memorial
Fund

», Clark Memorial Fund—
Loan to General Fund

_, Investment Fund

» Royal Society House—
Proceeds of Sale ..
Less—Commission

& Ua:

709 16

842 6
90 _0

200 0

ie)

510 11

250 0

28000 0
430 0

ad. 2

0
7
4
0
0

1885
9
0

760

189
0
0

27570

£30552

19 8

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

PAYMENTS.

By Balance—81st March, 1927

ase

,, Administrative Expenditure—

Salaries and Wages—
Office Salary and Ac-

countancy Fees

Assistant Librarian. .

Caretaker

Printing, Stationery,

Advertising & Stamps
Stamps & Telegrams
Office Sundries, Sta-

tionery, etc. ..
Advertising
Printing

Rent, Rates, Taxes and

Services—

Rent <.) |.’.
Electric Light ..
Gas

Insurance ..
Rates ..
Telephone ..

Printing & Publishing
Society’s Volume—

Printing, ete.
Bookbinding

Library—

Books and Periodicals

Bookbinding

Sundry Expenses—
Repairs ve
Lantern Operator
Bank Charges ..
Sundries

201 15

53 0

se Oe

40 0

9 15

10°..7

81 4

oO 6

66 13

saute ie

o Ona T

15: 1

348 6
48

4 5

95 3

2.12

21 13

0 5

665) 97

jo)

oOo S&S w

CO OD

sed:
o220 {9
Va 6.
Bb 7elG, 2
396 14 10
99 9 5
90707 da

Vv.
£ Si dk
980 15 11

1908 12 8

vi. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

», Lnterest—

Union Bank of Australia Ltd. ..

Clarke Memorial Fund ..
Building Loan Fund
Maiden Memorial Fund

» Building and Investment Loan Fund

» Building and Investment Fund
» Government Bonds and Stock ..
», Balance—
Union Bank of Australia Ltd.
Cash on hand ..

. 1049

als
12

1053
£30552

4 1
1958

Compiled from the Books and Accounts of the Royal Society
of New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith.
(Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, M.D., Honorary Treasurer.
(Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.C.P.A., Auditor.

Sydney, 19th April, 1928.

BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31st MARCH, 1928.

LIABILITIES.

Sundry Creditors—
Weldon & Wesle
RGN cet em eee

Investment Fund—
Clarke Memorial Fund
Walter Burfitt Prize Fund
Investment Fund

Building and Investment Loan Fund ..

J. H. Maiden Memorial Fund
Accumulated Funds ..

ASSETS.

Cash—
Union Bank of Australia, Lid.
Petty Cash See asics | IGS

Government Bonds and Stock
Sundry Debtors—
For Rents » Rete ke
For Subscriptions in arrears ..

11
12

4910
378
342

30455

£36195

527

Ns 8:

Dee
13 0
14 2
Ef age tl

12 11

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Library— Se
Insurance Valuation a: ; 8060 0
Office Furniture—Insurance Vialnatione 139) 20
Pictures—lInsurance Valuation aK: Ae 180 O
Microscopes—Insurance Valuation es 120 0
Lantern—Insurance Valuation Bie on goa 40 0
£36195 17
CLARKE MEMORIAL FUND.
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31st MARCH, 1928.
LIABILITIES.

Accumulation Fund— SS edn teas:
Balance as at 3ist March, 1927 :~ 1097 3 3
Additions during the year—

Interest and General Fund .. AS eT)
——_ 1169 10
£1169 10
ASSETS.
Transferred to Investment Fund 5 cate en ees rel OF iQ)
£1169 10

STATEMENT OF RECEIPTS AND PAYMENTS FOR
THE YEAR ENDED 31st MARCH, 1928.

RECEIPTS. = Ss
To Interest—Loan to General Fund .. .. .. .. 72 7
S72 407

PAYMENTS.
ibyplteane to General Bund .. .. wih] se we Sel Qind
S120 7

INVESTMENT FUND.
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 31st MARCH, 1928

ee Seen won Bese
Balance as at 8lst March, 1927 .. .. 1000 0
Additions during the year—
Mie. oubSeriptions .. «2 =~. -.. 189 0 0

Transfer from General Fund, as per
minute dated 28th March, 1928 2041 9 9

Transfer from Clarke Memorial

Bandy! ete), 5 ee GOT ORS
Transfer from Walter Burfitt Prize
Fund .. ois ae ue OO) mM oO
———— 3910 11
£4910 11

Y— December 5, 1928.

d.
0

9
9

Vill, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

So isvid.

Commonwealth and New South Wales Government
Bonds ee rr rim SIT
£4910 11 9

Compiled from tne Books and Accounts of the Royal Society
of New South Wales, and certified to be in accordance therewith.

(Sgd.) HENRY G. CHAPMAN, M.D., Honcrary Treasurer.
(Sgd.) W. PERCIVAL MINELL, F.C.P.A., Auditor.
Sydney, 19th April, 1928.
On the motion of Professor Chapman, seconded by Mr.
Challinor, Mr. W. P. Minell was duly elected Auditor for
the current year.

The Hon. Treasurer announced the receipt of a gift of
£250 from Messrs. J. J. Mulligan and H. Minton Taylor.

The President announced that an intimation had been
received that the late Professor Archibald Liversidge made
a bequest to this Society of £500 to found a Research
Lectureship in Chemistry. Conditions governing the
lectureship as provided by Professor Liversidge are set
out in the Annual Report of the Council for 1927-28.

The Annual Report of the Council was read, and on
the motion of Mr. Cambage, seconded by Mr. Sussmilch,
was adopted.

REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR 1928-29.
(1st May to 23rd April.)

The Council regrets to report the loss by death of
twelve ordinary members. Eight members have resigned,
and six members were removed from the roll owing to
non-payment of subscriptions. On the other hand, twelve
ordinary members have been elected during the year.
To-day (28rd April, 1928) the roll of members stands at
346.

During the Society’s year there have been eight general

monthly and eleven Council meetings. :

e
ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. 1X.

Sale of Royal Society’s House.—On 21st October, 1927,
‘the Council sold the Society’s House to the Adult Deaf
‘and Dumb Society, but have arranged to retain possession
of the building with the exception of the first floor until
‘81st December, 1928.

Science House.—Diseussion of the question of building
‘a Seience House to house the various scientific bodies of
Sydney has been continued with the Linnean Society of
New South Wales and the Institution of Engineers,
Australia, but final arrangements have not yet been made.
‘The Government of New South Wales has notified the
Society by letter dated 28th July, 1927, that it has decided
to make available free of charge a block of land for the
purpose of a Science House at the corner of Essex and
Gloucester Streets. Arrangements in regard to this matter
have not yet been finalised.

Four Popular Science Lectures were given, namely :—

June 16—‘‘A Glance at Japan,’’ by R. H. Cambage,
Cb aH., 1.1.8. ’

July 21—‘‘ Earth SENS and Earth Ripples,’’ by Edgar
feoasoorm MG. B.Sc.; Flnst:P.

August 18—‘‘Some Dine on| Disease in Plants,’’
by oh. J: Noble, B.Sc., Ph.D.

September 15—‘*‘ What Makes a Good Food,’’ by Professor
eG. Chapman, M.D.

OmyOctober Gist, 1927, a lecture was given by Dr.
Rudolf Krahmann, Lecturer on Engineering Science and
Geophysics in the Technical University, Berlin, entitled:
“«Subterranean Survey by Geophysical Methods.”’

Meetings were held throughout the Session by the
Sections of Geology, Agriculture and Physical Science.

The Section of Industry during the year devoted its
attention to visiting several industrial establishments.

X. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

Twenty-three papers were read at the monthly meetings:
and covered a wide range of subjects. In most cases
they were illustrated by exhibits of interest.

Lecturettes were given at the monthly meetings in
August, September, October and December, by Professor
O. U. Vonwiller, Mr. Robert Grant, Professor R. D. Watt
and Mr. I. Clunies Ross respectively. At the November
meeting a cinema demonstration was given on the prepara-
tion of biological products.

The Annual Dinner took place at the Union Refectory,
Sydney University, on 28th April, 1927, when we were
honoured by the presence of His Excellency Sir Dudley
Rawson Stratford de Chair, K.C.B., M.V.O., Governor of
New South Wales, Professor F. P. Sandes, M.D., Ch.M.,.
B.Se., Acting Director of Cancer Research, Sydney
University, and the Presidents of several societies.

The Council has awarded the Clarke Memorial Medal
to Ernest Clayton Andrews, B.A., F.G.S.

An intimation has been received that the late Professor
Archibald Liversidge made a bequest to this Society as
set out in the following extract from the Will dated 16th

August, 1925 :—

9. (A) I BEQUEATH five hundred pounds to each of the

four following Institutions, namely, The University of
Sydney aforesaid, The Royal Society of New South
Wales, Sydney, aforesaid, The Australasian Associa-
tion for the Advancement of Science, Sydney, afore-
said, and The Chemical Society of London, to found a
Research Lectureship in Chemistry in connection with
each of these Institutions.
(C) AND I DECLARE that the bequests made by this
Claim are not intended to supplement the emoluments.
or add to the duties of any member of the ordinary or
permanent teaching staff of any institution (including
the said College) mentioned in this Clause.

10. I make the above bequests for the encouragement of
research in Chemistry not in ignorance of the fact.
that there are already in existence other Lectureships

Adi

12.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. xs

in Chemistry but because there are none such as I
contemplate, namely, for the express encouragement
of research and for the purpose of drawing attention
to the research work which should be undertaken and
because having regard to the vastness of the subject
I wish the subject to be elucidated by as many workers
as possible and feel that the friendly emulation of the
lecturers holding the various lectureships above-men-
tioned may be of benefit.

I DIRECT that the lectures to be given by the persons
holding the said Lectureships respectively shall not
be such as are termed popular lectures dealing with
generalities and giving mere reviews on their subjects
nor such as are intended for the ordinary class or
lecture room instructions of undergraduates but shall
be such as will primarily encourage research and
stimulate the Lecturer and the public to think and
acquire new knowledge by research instead of merely
giving instruction in what is already known AND I
DIRECT that the Lecturers appointed shall be the
most suitable and eminent men procurable in their
respective branches of knowledge.

I HEREBY lay down the following rules in connection
with the said Lectureships, not with the intention of
imposing any legal and binding restrictions or obliga-
tion in regard thereto but merely as an indication of
my wishes—

(a) NO lecturer shall hold office for more than one
year but after intervals of two or more years
during which time he shall not have held any of
the Lectureships founded under this my Will in
any of the said Institutions he may be re-appointed
from time to time if then still considered by the
Institution the most suitable person obtainable.

(b) The remuneration paid to each Lecturer shall not
be less than Ten pounds nor more than Twenty-
five pounds for each lecture delivered by him and
if the annual income of the Lectureship is insuf-
ficient the lectures can be given in alternate years.

arily be one or more but not more than three.

(d) If possible the Lectures shall be delivered in the

evening at the Institution receiving the legacy to
found the lectureship and if that Institution does
not itself possess a sufficiently large room then in
some other suitable and conveniently situated
building. a

X11,

13.

(e)

(f)

(g)

(h)

(i)

(3)

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

The lecture hall (under suitable regulations) be
open to the public free or at a nominal fee to
cover incidental expenses such as the hire of the
hall.

If possible the lecture shall be published in a cheap:
form so as to disseminate the information for the:
benefit of such of the public as are unable to
attend and the Lecturer shall in every case be
required to present to the Institution concerned a
correct and complete copy of his lectures for the
above purpose.

The Lectures shall be upon recent researches and
discoveries and the most important part of the
Lecturer’s duty shall be to point out in which
directions further researches are necessary and
how he thinks they can best be carried out.

If for any reason the whole of the interest on any
of the above bequests cannot be utilised as above
prescribed in any year or years the unexpended
part thereof shall be invested and added to the
sum originally bequeathed.

Christ’s College, Cambridge, may in their discre-
tion arrange for their lectures to be delivered.
during the meetings of the Summer School for
Teachers in the long vacation.

The said Institutions may appoint delegates to
form committees or confer by correspondence to
carry out all or any of the above objects with a.
view to preventing overlapping and generally
carrying out my intentions in regardi to the said
lectures.

I DECLARE as follows:—

(i)

(1)

In the case of any infant legatee under this my Will.
or any Codicil hereto my Trustees in their absolute
discretion may pay his or her legacy to any
parent, guardian or guardians of his or hers and
the receipt of any such parent, guardian or guar-
dians shall be a completed discharge to my Trus--
tees for the legacy.

In the case of any Institution, College, Society or
body (whether or not incorporated) to which or
to whom any legacy or property is bequeathed or
given by this my Will or any Codicil hereto the
receipt of the Secretary, Treasurer, Bursar or any
other officer for the time being of such Institution,,.
College, Society or body shall be a complete dis--
charge to my Trustees for the said legacy or

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. Xitie

property and shall free them from all further con-
cern with the trusts or application thereof

(iii) THE foregoing legacies and annuities shall rank
and be satisfied in the following order of priority
that is to say FIRST the said specific legacies and
annuities bequeathed by Clauses 3, 4, and 6 hereof
with the death duties in respect thereof;
SECONDLY the pecuniary legacies bequeathed by
Clauses 5 hereof with the death duties in respect
thereof (all ranking pari passu inter se), and
THIRDLY the pecuniary legacies bequeathed by
Clauses 7, 8, and 9 hereof with the death duties
in respect thereof (all ranking pari passu inter se).

At the last Annual Meeting in May, 1927, it was
announced that Dr. Walter Burfitt would donate £500
to be devoted to the establishment of a ‘‘ Walter Burfitt
Prize’’ to be awarded from time to time by the Council
of the Royal Society of New South Wales at its discretion
to a person residing in the Commonwealth of Australia
or the Dominion of New Zealand for meritorious service
in the cause of science. The prize to be awarded for

either pure or applied science.
Since that date the amount, £500, has been received.

Sir Richard Threlfall, G.B.E., an honorary member of
this Society, has been created a Knight Grand Cross of
the Most Excellent Order of the British Empire.

The donations to the library have been as follows :—
1265 parts, 56 volumes, 46 reports, 7 maps and 4 catalogues.

It was announced that the Council had awarded the
Clarke Memorial Medal to Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S.,
and the President then made the presentation. Mr.
Andrews expressed his appreciation of the Council’s action
in making the award.

The President announced that the Maiden Memorial
Fund was about to close, and that the committee would be
glad to receive any further contributions in order that

X1v, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

action might proceed towards the erection of a Maiden
Memorial Pavilion in the Botanic Gardens, Sydney.

The following donations were laid upon the table :—
395 parts, 27 volumes, 9 reports, 1 calendar and 1 catalogue.

The President, Professor J. Douglas Stewart, then
delivered his Address.
There being no other nominations, the President declared
the following gentlemen to be officers and Council for
the coming year :—
President:
W. POOLE, M.£., M.Inst.C.E., M.I.M.M., ete.

Vice-Presidents:
R. H. CAMBAGE, c.3.£., F.L.s. ; Prof. R. D. WATT, M.A., B.Se.

C. ANDERSON, m.a., D.sSe. Prof. J. DOUGLAS STEWART,
B.V.Se., M.R.C.V.S.

Hon. Treasurer:
Prof. H. G: CHAPMAN, a1p.

Hon. Secretaries:

Prof. 0. U. VONWILLER, C. A. SUSSMILCH, F.a.s.
B.sc., F:Inst:P.

Members ef Council:
KE. C. ANDREWS, B.A., F.G.S. Prof. C. E. FAWSITT,

D.Se., Ph.D.

G. H. BRIGGS, B.se., Ph.D. iQ Al JULIUS:

_ W. CHALLIN R, B.Sce., M.E., M.I.Mech.E.
x cn Ne J. NANGLE, 0.B.E., F.R.A.S.

| R. J. NOBLE,

EK. CHEEL. M.Se., B.Se.Agr., Ph.D.
Prof. L. A. COTTON, Rev. E. F. PIGOT,
M.A., D.Sc. Side BeAr MAB.

Professor J. Douglas Stewart, the out-going President,
then installed Mr. W. Poole as President for the ensuing
year, and the latter briefly returned thanks.

On the motion of Sir Edgeworth David, a hearty vote
of thanks was accorded to the retiring President for his
valuable address.

Professor Stewart briefly acknowledged the compliment.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV

Professor Chapman moved that the meeting place on
record its appreciation of the debt which the Royal Society
of New South Wales owed to the retiring Honorary
Secretary, Mr. R. H. Cambage, for the work done during
his long term of office, pointing out that the excellent
position in which the Society found itself that day was
due in no small measure to the able administration, wise
counsel and untiring efforts of Mr. Cambage.

JUNE 6, 1928.
The four hundred and seventy-seventh General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Royal Colonial Institute, 17 Bligh
Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m.

Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.

Twenty-four members and eight visitors were present,
including Mr. A. Broughton Edge, of London, Director,
Imperial Geophysical Experimental Survey, who was
‘welcomed by the President.

The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
confirmed.

The certificates of five candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read: two for the second and three
for the first time.

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary
members of the Society :—George Walter Cansdell Hirst
and Theodore George Bently Osborn.

A letter was read from Mrs. Cape, expressing thanks
for the Society’s sympathy in her recent bereavement.

The President announced that the following Popular
Science Lectures would be delivered this Session :—
June 21—‘‘Science and Industry,’’ by Assoc.-Professor

eA Hastauch,, AR.S.M., EEC.

July 19—‘‘ Australian Butterflies,’’ by G. A. Waterhouse,
D.Se,,'B.E.

XVI. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

August 16—‘‘Elements of Geophysical Prospecting,’’ by
EK. C. Andrews, B.A., F.G.S.

September —‘‘Some Problems of the Grazing Industry
in Arid Australia,’’ by Professor T. G. B. Osborn,
Disc.) F.L:8.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ:
‘“The Chemistry of Western Australian Sandalwood Oil,’’
Part I by A. Rk. Pentold) i -C;s}

Remarks were made by Messrs. W. M. Doherty, H.
Finnemore and R. Grant.
EXHIBIT:
Sir Edgeworth David gave an account, illustrated with
shdes and exhibits, of the recently announced discovery
of Pre-Cambrian fossils in South Australia.

A lecturette entitled ‘‘Solar Radiation in relation to
Sun-spots and Weather,’’ was given by Mr. C. A. Sussmilch.
The President announced that the general monthly
meetings for the remainder of the year would be held in
the Hall of No. 5 Elizabeth Street, Sydney.
JULY 4, 1928.

The four hundred and seventy-eighth General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Society’s House, 5 Hlizabeth
Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m.

Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.

Twenty-eight members and four visitors were present.

The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
confirmed.

The President tendered a cordial welcome to Dr. C. M.
Yonge and Mr. F. 8S. Russell, of the British Great Barrier
Reef Expedition.

The certificates of three candidates for admission as:
ordinary members were read for the second time.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XV1l.-

The following gentlemen were duly elected ordinary
members of the Society :—Walter Charles Davidson, Allan
Clunies Ross and Frederick Abbey Wiesener.

The President announced that Dr. G. A. Waterhouse
would deliver a Popular Science Lecture entitled ‘‘Aus-.
tralian Butterflies,’? on Thursday, 19th July, 1928.

It was also announced that Sir John Russell, O.B.E.,
D.Se, F.R.S., Director of Rothamsted Experimental
Station, would deliver a lecture on ‘*‘ Recent Developments

9?)

in Soil Seience,’’ in the Veterinary School, University of

Sydney, on Tuesday, 10th July, at 8 p.m.
THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:

1. ‘*The occurrence of a number of varieties of Hucalyptus
dives as determined by chemical analysis of the
Kssential Oils,’’ Part II, by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.L,
HeCyowwana b. KR. Morrison, AvA.C.1., F.C.S.

Remarks were made by F’. R. Morrison, Professor Fawsitt,
Messrs. E. Cheel, R. W. Challinor and R. T. Baker.

2. ‘‘Some observations on the Woodiness or Bullet Disease
Orolassion Mruit,’’ by R. J. \Noble, Ph.D., M.Se,
B.Sc.Agr.

Remarks were made by the President.
LECTURETTES :

1. “‘Virus Diseases in Plants’’ (supplementary to the
above paper), by R.-J. Noble, Ph.D.

2. ‘‘Some Recent Discoveries concerning the Star Sirius,”’
by di. Nangle, O.B.E., F-R.AS.

EXHIBIT:
Mr. F. A. Coombs exhibited tanned skins of sharks of:
various kinds found in local waters.

‘XVill. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

AUGUST 1, 1928.
The four hundred and seventy-ninth General Monthly
‘Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s House, 5 Elizabeth
‘Street, at 8 p.m.

Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.

Twenty-five members and two visitors were present.

The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
‘confirmed.

The President tendered a cordial welcome to Mr. G. W.
English, Mineralogist in the University of Rochester, New
‘York, U.S.A.

The certificate of one candidate for admission as an
ordinary member was read for the first time.

On behalf of the Council, the President gave notice
of the following motion to be submitted at the next
‘general meeting :—

‘‘That the funds of the Society shall be lodged at a bank
named by the Council of Management. Claims against
the Society when approved by the Council shall be paid
by cheque signed by two of three members nominated
‘by the Council for that purpose.”’

The President announced that Mr. E. C. Andrews, B.A.,
F.G.S., would deliver a Popular Science Lecture entitled
‘“Hlements of Geophysical Prospecting,’’ on Thursday,
23rd August, 1928.

A letter was read from Professor Grafton Ellhot Smith
thanking the Society for electing him an Honorary Member.

It was announced that the Council of the Royal Society
had adopted the following conditions for the award of the
Walter Burfitt Prize :—

1. The Walter Burfitt Prize shall be awarded at inter-

vals of three years to the worker in pure or applied
science, resident in Australia or New Zealand, whose

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS X1X..

papers and other contributions published during the:
past three years are deemed of the highest scientific
merit, account being taken only of investigations.
described for the first time and carried out by the
author mainly in these Dominions.

2. The prize may be awarded to two authors working in
collaboration.

3. The prize shall consist of a medal and a sum of
£0);

and that the Council had decided that the Australian.
National Research Council, New Zealand Institute, the
Royal Societies of the various States and other scientific
bodies in Australia and New Zealand should be invited to
submit the names and publications of workers whom they
deem worthy of consideration and that scientific workers.
generally should be invited to submit their publications.
directly, while the Royal Society might award the prize
to a worker whose name has not been submitted to it; and
further that the first award should be made in May, 1929,
for work published during the three years ending on 31st
December, 1928, and that nominations and publications.
should be submitted to the Royal Society not later than
28th February, 1929.
THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:
1. ‘‘Brown Rot of Fruits and Associated Diseases in
Australia,’’ Part I, by T. H. Harrison, B.Se.Agr.

Remarks were made by Dr. Dixson.
2. ‘‘Acacia Seedlings,’’ Part XIII, by R. H. Cambage,
CsB bee WAS:
EXHIBIT:
Exhibit of Tables of Metrology and of Ancient Weights
and Measures, prepared by Mr. T. Ranken and presented
by him to the Royal Society of New South Wales.

“XX. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

An enlargement of the Society’s portrait of the late
Lawrence Hargrave, prepared by the Government Printer,
through the efforts of Mr. A. R. Penfold, was exhibited
to members. The President spoke briefly on the outstand-
ing importance of Mr. Hargrave’s contributions to the
-development of aviation. |

SEPTEMBER 5, 1928.

The four hundred and eightieth General Monthly Meet-
ing was held at the Society’s Rooms, 5 Elizabeth Street, at
8 p.m.

Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.

Thirty-three members and one visitor were present.

The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and
-eonfirmed.

The certificates of four candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read: one for the second and three
for the first time.

The following gentleman was duly elected an ordinary
member of the Society :—Stanley Wiliam Enos Parsons.

The President, on behalf of the Council, moved the
alteration of Rule 36, of which notice had been given at
the previous meeting, namely :—

That Rule 36 be altered to read as follows :—

‘“The funds of the Society shall be lodged at a bank
named by the Council of Management. Claims against
the Society when approved by the Council shall be
paid by cheque signed by two of three members
nominated by the Couneil for that purpose.’’

This was seconded by Mr. Olle and carried unanimously,
thirty-three members present voting. The President
announced that the resolution would be submitted for con-
firmation at the next annual meeting.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XX.

The President announced that Professor T. G. B. Osborn,
D.Se., F.L.S., would deliver a Popular Science Lecture
entitled ‘‘Some Problems of the Grazing Industry in Arid
Australia,’’ on Thursday, 20th September, 1928.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:
1. “‘The Geology of Port Stephens,’’ by C. A. Sussmilch,
HeGas. W. Clark’and W-"A. Greig.

Remarks were made by Professor Cotton and Mr. G. D.

Osborne.

2. “The Outbreak of Springs in Autumn,’’ by R. H.
Cambage, C.B.E., F.L:S.
Remarks were made by the President.

LECTURETTE AND EXHIBITS:
Professor O. U. Vonwiller gave lecturettes with exhibits

on (a) ‘‘The Knipp a Ray Track Apparatus,’’ and

(b) ‘‘Some Pin-hole Phenomena.’’ It was shown that,
with a pin-hole placed close to the eye, it was
possible to view objects at a very short distance
giving greatly increased magnification and, if the
pin-hole were small enough, resolving power
sreatly in excess of that of the unaided eye. Laike-
wise it was possible to obtain photographic enlarge-
ments with the plate of the camera placed at the
focal plane, the lens being stopped with a very
small pin-hole and the portion of the plate to be
enlarged being placed a very short distance beyond
this, a magnification of 40 or more being readily
obtained with satisfactory detail.

Mr. E. Cheel exhibited abnormal specimens of waratah
flowers.

The medals of the late Professor Archibaid Liversidge
bequeathed to this Society were exhibited to members,
and the President spoke of his work for the Royal Society
and his continued interest in it after leaving Australia.

XXII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

OCTOBER 3, 1928.

The four hundred and eighty-first General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 Elizabeth
Street, at 8 p.m. |
Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.

Twenty-three members and four visitors were present.

The Minutes of the preceding meeting were read and

confirmed.

The certificates of four candidates for admission as
ordinary members were read: three for the second, and
one for the first time.

The President announced that a ceremony to commem-
orate the 200th Anniversary of the birth of Captain James
Cook had been arranged by the Royal Australian Historical
Society with co-operation of other bodies to take place at
the Captain Cook Statue in Hyde Park on 27th October,
1928. He announced further that the next general monthly
meeting of the Society would be a Cook Memorial meeting,
details of which would be arranged and communicated
later.

THE FOLLOWING PAPER WAS READ:

‘*Description of three new species of Eucalyptus and one
new Acacia,’’ by W. F. Blakely.

Remarks were made by Mr. Cambage.

LECTURETTE:
Professor J. C. Earl gave a lecturette (illustrated with
lantern slides) on ‘‘Glucose and Substances related to it.’’

EXHIBITS:
1. Sir Edgeworth David exhibited some specimens of fossil
remains of highly organised animals recently discovered
by him in South Australian Pre-Cambrian rocks.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XX1ll.

2. Mr. R. H. Cambage exhibited several plants of Acacia
rubida which, although ultimately a phyllodineous
species, were flowering while wholly in the bipinnate
stage and before any phyllodes had appeared. The
plants were collected in a sheltered valley at Mittagong,
and he had previously recorded the occurrence of this
feature from Woodford in a_ similar. situation.
(‘‘Dimorphie foliage of Acacia rubida, and fructifica-
tion during bipinnate stage,’’ by R. H. Cambage, these
Proceedings, 1914, 48, p. 136.)

NOVEMBER 7, 1928.

The four hundred and eighty-second General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Royal Society’s Rooms, 5 Hliza-
beth Street, at 8 p.m.

Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.

Highty-three present, including many visitors.

The President announced that the formal business of the
ordinary general monthly meeting would be deferred until
the December meeting.

The reading of papers accepted for this meeting would
likewise be postponed until that meeting.

It was announced that apologies for absence were
received from the Governor-General, the Lieutenant Gov-
ernor, the Premier, the Chief Justice and many others.

The business of the evening was the celebration of the
bi-centenary of the birth of Captain James Cook.

Addresses were given as follows :—

Surveying and Charting.—The President (Mr. W. Poole,
M.K., M.Inst.C.E.).

Mr. Walter Gale, F.R.A.S.

Geographical Discoveries—Sir Edgeworth David, K.B.E.,
C.M.G., F.R.S.

Z—December 5, 1928.

Astronomy

XXIV, ABSTRACT OF PRCCEEDINGS.

Hygiene—Professor H. G. Chapman, M.D.
Tahiti to Botany Bay—Mr. R. H. Cambage, C.B.E., F.L.S.

Latter Days of Captain Cook and Recent Hawanan
Celebrations — Sir Joseph Carruthers, K.C.MG.,
WACO IR DEB.

On behalf of the Society the President thanked the
speakers for their contributions to the evening.

DECEMBER 5, 1928.
The four hundred and eighty-third General Monthly
Meeting was held at the Society’s Rooms, 5 Elizabeth
Street, Sydney, at 8 p.m.

Mr. W. Poole, President, in the Chair.

Twenty-six members and two visitors (Professor
Goddard of the University of Queensland and Mr. J. H.
Steers of the University of Cambridge) were present.

The Minutes of the general monthly meetings of 3rd
‘October and 7th November, 1928, were read and confirmed.

The President spoke of the loss sustained through the
death of Mr. R. H. Cambage. He gave a short outline of
the part Mr. Cambage had taken in the management of
the Royal Society and asked the meeting to endorse the
following motion earried at the Council meeting on 28th
November.

‘‘That the Council of the Royal Society of New South
Wales records its high appreciation of the valuable
services rendered to the Society for over twenty years
as President, Honorary Secretary and member of Council
by the late Richard Hind Cambage, Vice-President, who
died on November 28th, 1928. His untiring zeal for the
welfare of the Society, his continuous efforts to inerease
its utility and his splendid gifts of organisation have
been of inestimable worth to the Council in the direction

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXV

of affairs. His equable spirit, his generous mind and
his warm nature endeared him personally to all who

laboured with him as friend and colleague. His wide
understanding of the relations between plants and their
surroundings, his genius for observation, his rare
botanical skill, have enriched the science of botany in
Australia and added lustre to his fame.’’

This was done, those present standing in silence.

The certificate of the following candidate was read for

the first time:—Henry George Pyke, Chemical Testing
Assistant of the New South Wales Government Tramways.

The President nominated Mr. E. C. Andrews’ to preside
the ballot box, and members elected Messrs. R. W.

‘Tannahill and H. G.. Farnsworth to act as serutineers,
‘when the following gentleman, whose certificate had been

read a second time, was duly elected an ordinary member

“of

the Society :—Victor Marcus Coppleson.

THE FOLLOWING PAPERS WERE READ:
‘The Chemistry of the Exudation from the Wood of
Pentaspodon Motleyu,’’ by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.L.,
F.C.S., and F. R. Morrison, A.A.C.I., F.C.S.
‘‘The Essential Oil from a Boronia in the Pinnate
Section from Fraser Island, Queensland,’’ by A. R.
Pentold, F.A.C.L, F.C:8.
‘‘An Examination of Defective Oregon (Pseudotsuga
Haxijoua),’ by M. B. Weleh, B.Sc., A.1.C.
Remarks were made by the President.
. ‘On the Probable Tertiary Age of Certain New South
Wales Soils,’’ by Assist.-Prof. W. R. Browne, D.Sc.
‘‘The Essential Oil of a new species of Anemone leaf
Boronia, rich in Ocimene,’’ by A. R. Penfold, F.A.C.L,
JTOaSE

XXV1. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

6. ‘‘On some Aspects of Differential Erosion,’’ by Assist.-
Prof. W. R. Browne, D.Sc.

7. ‘‘Further notes on the Genus Boronia,’’ by E. Cheel.

8. ‘‘Alkalization and other Deuteric Phenomena in the
Saddleback Trachybasalt at Port Kembla,’’ by—Assist.-
Prof. W. R. Browne, D.Sc., and H: P. White heer:

9. ‘‘Notes on some Organisms of Tomato Pulp,’’ by
G. L. Windred (communicated by Gilbert Wright).

10. ‘‘Notes on some Australian Timbers of the Mont-
miaceae,’’ by M. B. Welch, B.Sc., A.I.C.

11. ‘‘Note on a Fossil Shrimp from the Hawkesbury Sand-
stones,’’ by Charles Chilton, M.A., D.Sc., M.B. (com-
municated by W. 8. Dun).

LECTURETTE: .

‘““Recent Researches on the effects of radiations used in the

treatment of cancers,’’ by Prof. H. G. Chapman, M.D.

Remarks were made by Mr. A. D. Olle and the President.

EXHIBIT:
The Prize Design of ‘‘Science House.’’

GEOLOGICAL SECTION.

Aa ivi ale, «Lh erase rmmlerie

ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

GEOLOGICAL SECTION.

Annual Meeting, April 20, 1928.
Professor Cotton was in the chair, and twelve members
and nine visitors were present.

The Chairman weleomed back Mr. E. C. Andrews from
his trip abroad.

Mr. C. A. Sussmileh was congratulated upon his appoint-
ment as Principal of the East Sydney Technical Covens:
and Assist.-Supt. of Technical Education.

Mr. E. C. Andrews and Mr. G. D. Osborne were elected
Chairman and Hon. Secretary respectively for the vear.

EXHIBITS:

1. By Dr. A. B. Walkom: Fossil plant from Brookvale
Quarry, which was probably Neocalamites, showing
strong nodal divisions.

2. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse: (a) Hawkesbury sandstone
from North Curl Curl Head containing shale fragments,
which were sometimes ferruginous, and possessed joint-
ing independent of the including sandstone.

(b) Specimens of cemented ilmenitic sand and associ-
ated fulgurites, from the same locality.

Mr. E. C. Andrews gave a brief account of his recent
visits to some of the American Universities, and also of
his experiences in Canada, while attending the Second
Empire Mining Congress at Montreal.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS,

May 18, 1928.

Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and ten members and

four visitors were present.

The following resolutions were carried unanimously, on

the motion of Dr. Browne and Mr. Poole:

That this Section desires to place on record its appre-
ciation of the long and valuable services rendered by Mr.
G. W. Card, A.R.S.M., as Curator of the Mining Museum
over many years, to geological science in N.S.W.

That the members desire to acknowledge gratefully
their indebtedness to Mr. Card for so constantly sending
exhibits to the meetings of the Section, thereby increasing
very materially the interest and value of these meetings.

That the Hon. Secretary be instructed to convey the
foregoing resolutions to Mr. Card, with the cordial
greetings and good wishes of the Section.

EXHIBITS:

. By Mr. Morrison: (a) Crystals of tantalite from Western

Australia; (b) Perthite from Broken Hill; (¢c) Photo-
graphs of prismatised sandstone occurring at the
Giant’s Castle, Lane Cove, and in a quarry 14 miles
south of Gordon.

. By Dr. W. R. Browne: Specimens of decomposed

Tertiary basalt from Wingello, N.S.W. These occur in
association with basalt, and possess a characteristic
violet colour, a feature recorded in connection with
basalt in similar association in other parts of the world.

By Mr. H. G. Raggatt: Specimen of analcite-dolerite

from a sill of probable Tertiary age which intrudes the
Upper Coal Measures at Broke, N.S.W.

By Mr. C. A. Sussmilch: (a) Suite of specimens from
the Albury district, comprising phyllites, schists, granite
with schist inclusions, and pegmatite; (b) Granite from
the Hume Reservoir Area.

By Mr. A. J. Shearsby: Photographs of cylindrical
econecretionary formation in the sandstone at Mosman.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXX1.

A discussion upon ‘‘The Occurrence of Bands in Coal
Seams, and their bearing on the origin of Coal, with special
reference to the Neweastle Coal Field,’’ was opened by
Mr. L. J. Jones.

Mr. Jones described clearly the occurrence of well-
defined bands in the Borehole Seam in the Newcastle-
Wallsend district, emphasising the uniformity of thickness
of the bands and the sharp boundaries existing between
band and coal. He pointed out that the coal was cften
laminated, and concluded that all the phenomena observed
could be explained only by assuming the coal to have
originated by deposition of plant-material transported from
some source, the bands then being due to special variations
in the conditions of deposition.

Professor Browne commented upon the features which
had been stressed by Mr. Jones, and thought the textural
variation to be seen in the bands might be the result of
the showering of tuff upon coal-measure swamps, but
considered that careful microscopic examination was
necessary before any conclusion could be reached. ;

Messrs. Andrews, Harper, Morrison, Raggatt, Sussmilch

and Osborne made brief contributions, and it was decided
to continue the discussion at the next meeting.
June 29, 1928.
Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and thirteen members

and three visitors were present.

It was unanimously resolved to send a letter of sympathy
to Mr. W. S. Dun on account of his severe illness.

EXHIBITS:
1. By Dr. W. R. Browne: (a) Specimens of tuff from the
Permo-Carboniferous marine beds at Twin Trig., near
Tallong, N.S.W., and from Bundanoon; (b) Siderite in
mamillary form with fibrous radial structure, from
basalt, Lismore, N.S.W.; (¢) Specimen of common opal
collected about 60 miles south of Dubbo.
2. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse: (a) Two specimens of opal-
bearing jasperoid quartzite from Tallong; (b) Speci-
mens of bismuth-ore from a contact zone between

XXXII. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

granite and limestone, at Riddell’s Mine, Duckmaloi,.
near Oberon, N.S.W.

3. By Mr. M. Morrison: Specimen of bright shale, not unlike:
bitumen, which by analysis appears to be a high-grade
eannel coal. Locality, Newnes, N.S.W.; (b) Coals with
bands from the Clarence River Series (Mesozoic).

4. By Mr. H. F. Whitworth: Celestine occurring in the-
gypsum beds cf Ivanhoe, N.S.W.

0. By Mr. Clark: Waterworn kerosene shale from Morna
Point, also photographs of raised beach at same place..

6. By Dr. A. B. Walkom: Two coal balls, of calcareous
concretionary character, containing well - preserved
plant-fossils, one ball from Belgium, and the other from.
the Lancashire Coal Field; (b) Coorongite from
Kangaroo I., S.A.; (c) Fossil plants from Yalwal.,.
N.S.W., viz.: Protolepidodendron yalwalen:e, Proto-
lepidodendron lineare, and Lepidodendron clarkei (?).
The study of these confirmed the assigning, by Mr.
Andrews, to the Yalwal beds of a Devonian age.

7. By Mr. G. D. Osborne: Specimens: of basalt and.
basaltic pumice from the Toowoomba district. Also,
in collaboration with Mr. Waterhouse, photographs of
the Toowoomba Quarry, which has been reserved in
the interests of science.

The discussion commenced at the previous meeting was.

continued.

Mr. Harper described some of the features in the seams.
of the Southern Coal Field, and concluded that these were:
evidence of the accumulation of coaly material in swamps
in which there were channels of drainage alternating with.
sand bars built up by the wind.

Dr. Browne reported having examined some of the mate-
rial of the bands microscopically, but found it very difficult
to make much out of the slides. He felt sure that if the
coal were transported, then there would be a certain amount.
of detrital material present in the coal. apart from the:
distinct bands.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXlll..

Mr. Morrison reported the occurrence of a band in the:
Western Coal Field, with a thickness of one inch, which
was persistent over an area 50 miles in extent.

Mr. Sussmilch said that the association of kerosene
shale, which had developed im situ, with the coal seams was
a point in favour of the “Growth-in situ” theory.

Dr. Walkom thought the band referred to by Mr. Mor-
rison could not have originated by any of the ordinary
methods of mechanical sedimentation. He explained that
the advanced decay of woody tissue of plants produced a.
series of ulmins, leaving unaltered spores, etc. Thus in a
deposit of coal produced by the accumulation of transported
material, one would expect to find a smaller percentage of
spores than in the case of the plants decomposing i situ,

Mr. Waterhouse mentioned the vossibility of the bands:
developing at times when conditions were special, caused
by the incursion of the sea into the coal swamp areas.

Professor Cotton, Messrs. Andrews, Poole, Whitworth,
and Dr. Brennand also spoke briefly, and Mr. Jones replied
to many points raised in the whole discussion.

July 27, 1928.

Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and eleven members and’

SI1x visitors were present.

The Chairman welcomed Mr. Letchworth English,

Mineralogist from the F. A. Ward Foundation of Natural
Science in the University of Rochester, U.S.A.

EXHIBITS:
By Mr. M. Morrison: (a) Spotted and banded sedi-.
mentary rock from Kimberley, W.A.; (b) Crystal of
rhodonite, in association with sulphide ore, from Broken:
Hill, N.S.W.

. By Mr. H. G. Raggatt: Schists, probably andalusite-

bearing, from Anembo, 15 miles south of Captain’s.
Flat, N.S.W.

. By Dr. A. B. Walkom: (a) Specimens of Lepidodendron

collected by Dr. Woolnough from 65 miles south of:
Bermagui. These have affinities with Protolepidodendron
and may be from an extension of the Yalwal beds ;,

XXXIV. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

(b) Small branch of Lepidodendron with leaves
attached, collected by Mr. Sussmilch, at Arden Hall,
Upper Hunter District, N.S.W.; (¢) Specimen of un-
usual Lepidodendron from the Karuah River District.

4. By Mr. G. D. Osborne: Conularia from the Upper
Marine Series at Branxton, N.S.W.

Assistant-Professor Browne opened a discussion on
““Tertiary Igneous Activity in N.S.W.’’

DISCUSSION :

Dr. Browne dealt with the rocks in a comprehensive
review, discussing their distribution, petrology and tectonic
relationships, and instituted comparisons and contrasts with
Tertiary rocks in other parts of Australia and elsewhere.
He pointed out that there was a wide area covered by the
rocks, which occurred as extrusions and intrusions, showing
a great variety of type. Thus there were rocks ranging
from ultrabasic to acid, with much variation in texture.
The basalts are all olivine-bearing, and nearly all contain
analcite, or nepheline or a zeolite. They are distinctly
alkaline, the intrusions being, in general, more alkaline
than the extrusions. The silica percentage ranges from 38
per cent. to 74 per cent., reaching the latter figure in the
rhyolites. A consideration of the norms of the analysed
rocks showed that only four of the basalts were ealcic.
Some of the intrusive masses are members of the quartz-
dolerite group. The basalts are not related closely to the
Plateau basalts, in the sense given to that term by
Washington. The relations of the N.S.W. rocks to the
Tertiary igneous rocks of Victoria and of Queensland are
not very well known.

The absence of major intrusions does not imply neces-
sarily that such do not exist at deeper levels of the crust.

Mr. C. A. Sussmilch pointed out that on physiographic
grounds the strongly alkaline lavas were to be considered
younger than the two main groups of basic lavas.

Professor Cotton spoke regarding the relationshiv be-
tween the distribution of the Tertiary lavas and the
tectonic structures of the eastern margin of the continent,
particularly between Central Eastern Queensland and
South-eastern New South Wales. He also referred to some
Tertiary necks in the New England district.

Mr. Osborne discussed the relations between the trends
of the dykes and the directions of jointing and faulting in
the Sydney-Blue Mountains region.

‘The discussion was then adjourned till the next meeting.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXV.

August 31, 1928.
Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and eight members and
one visitor were present.

EXHIBITS:

1. By Mr. T. Hodge Smith: (a) Lithiophilite, a phosphate
of lithium and manganese; also a new mineral, hydro-
thorite, a hydrous silicate of thorium, and in addition
the caesium-beryl, vorobyevite: locality, Wodgina, W.A.
(b) Galena with hedenbergite, from Broken Hill.

The discussion on ‘‘ Tertiary Igneous Activity in N.S.W.’’
was continued.

Dr. Walkom pointed out that the division of the basalts
into “Older” and ‘“‘Newer” received no support from a
consideration of the floras of the “deep leads.” He also
drew attention to the occurrence of the alkaline masses of
the Glass House Mountains, to the east of the main line
of uplift in Eastern Australia.

Mr. Smith referred to the Kyogle district where the
volcanic succession seemed to fit in with Prof. Richards’
classification of the Queensland flows. He also suggested
correlation of some of the Tertiary flows by means of the
deuteric minerals present.

Mr. Andrews drew attention to the relations between the
distribution. of the flows and the margins of the old stable
blocks of Palaeozoic rocks. It seemed as if the leucite
lavas were poured out on the old blocks while folding
around the margin of these went on, and while the areas
of crumpling were characterised by volcanic vents giving

forth ash and lava. The plateau basalts flooded the old
stable blocks.

Professor Browne replied to many points raised, and
short contributions were made by Prof. Cotton and Mr.
Poole.

September 28, 1928.
Mr. Andrews was in the chair, and ten members and

two visitors were present.

The Secretary announced a proposed excursion to
Norton’s Basin on Saturday, October 20th, 1928.

0,0, cil ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

EXHIBITS:

1. By Sir Edgeworth David: Casts of Eurypterid remains
from the Adelaide (Lipalian) Series of Pre-Cambrian
age, The remains were of the nature of claws and
spines, probably representatives of the Merostomata.

2. By Mr. L. L. Waterhouse: A series of specimens from
the Bald Hills, Cathurst, illustrating the occurrence of
flows of basalt overlying Tertiary drift, which in turn
lies on decomposed granite, the last-named no doubt
having been weathered in Tertiary times.

3. By Mr. G. D. Osborne:_(a). Specimens of yoleanie ime
from the Narrabeen Series at Long Reef, N.S.W.;
(b) Specimens of sandstone, altered sandstone with
much coaly material, and sandstone with pronounced
slickensides, from the neighbourhood of the Basin
voleanie rock, Nepean River.

Professor L. A. Cotton addressed the section on “‘ Causes
of Diastrophism and their Status in Current Geological
Thought.”’

This lecture was along the lines of the Presidential
Address delivered by Professor Cotton to Section) C of the
A.A.A.S. at the Hobart (1928) Meeting, which address
has been published in the report of that meeting, pp. 171-
218.

The address was discussed by Sir Edgeworth David
and Mr. Osborne, and a reply made by Dr. Cotton.

October 26, 1928,
Mr. Andrews was In the chair, and nine members were
present.
A letter from Mr. G. W. Card returning thamicemamadl
greetings for the letter conveying the resolutions of May
18, was read.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXVI,

The Secretary reported that a very successful excursion
had been held on Saturday, October 20, to the Basin, near
Mulgoa. About thirty-five members and friends attended,
and the trip was made in cars kindly made avaiable by
some of the members. The physiography. and general
geology of the very interesting region near the Basin
were studied.

NOTES AND EXHIBITS:

Mr. Andrews gave a brief report upon a recent trip
which he and the members of the Artesian Water Con-
ference had taken in the Broken Hill-Grey Range-Tibboo-
burra region. He exhibited many specimens to illustrate
his remarks, including a scratched boulder from (?) Lower
Cretaceous Glacial beds.

2. By Sir Edgeworth David: Casts of appendages of
EKurypterids from limestone in the Adelaide Series.
Also, on behalf of Miss D. R. Taylor: (a) Crustacean
remains from the Carboniferous Calciferous sandstone
of Gullane, Scotland; (b) Beautifully preserved
ammonite from the Oolite of Radstock, England.

3. By Mr. Poole: Panoramic photographs of the Basin
Area, Nepean River, showing features examined on the
excursion held on October 20.

4. By Mr. Osborne: (a) Crystal of quartz, showing
‘*shadow-erystal’’ nucleus; (b) Composite crystal of
quartz showing successive growth-zones; (¢) Coral sand-
rock from Norfolk Island sent by Mr. Card.

A committee consisting of Prof. Cotton, Dr. Walkom
and Messrs. Dun and Shearsby was appointed to enquire
into the matter of the delay in the reservation of the
Hatton’s Corner site.

PAPERS:
Two papers of mineralogical interest from current
literature were presented in abstract, as follows:

XXXVIIL. _ ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. '

1. “‘The Geology of the Platinum Metals,’’ by J. H. L.
Vogt. Presented in abstract by Mr. G. D. Osborne,
and discussed by Sir Edgeworth David and Mr.
Andrews.

2. “‘The Natural History of the Silica Minerals,’’ by
Austin F. Rogers. Presented by Mr. T. Hodge Smith
and discussed by Sir Edgeworth David and Mr.
Osborne.

November 30, 1928.
Mr. Andrews was in the chair and eight members and.
two visitors were present.
The Chairman referred to the sudden death of Mr. R. H.
Cambage, which had occurred three days previously, and

the following resolution was carried in silence:

“That the members of the Geological Section desire to
record their deep sense of the loss sustained by the death
of their beloved friend and colleague, Mr. R. H. Cambage,
and extend to the bereaved relatives their heartfelt

sympathy.”

A cordial welcome was extended to Mr. F. G. Forman,
of Western Australia, who exhibited two samples of natural
oil obtained by him from seepages in the Kerema District,
Gulf Division, Papua.

Mr. E. C. Andrews initiated a discussion upon ‘‘ The

Mechanics of Igneous Intrusion.’’

He gave a brief summary of the outstanding features
of the earth’s surface as a foundation for an enquiry into
the relation of intrusions and extrusions of magma through
the earth’s crust. He drew attention to the lines of
mountain ranges on the earth and their relation to vol-
canoes and bathylites. Mr. Andrews considered that the
mountain belts were essentially geanticlinal units in a
series of earth undulations or waves, and explained his
view of the migration of magma during the activity of
these undulations.

He believed that the intrusive igneous rocks came into
their places of crystallisation by a process akin to
“sweating” through the country rocks. He stressed the

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. XXXIX.

facts that most intrusions showed no feeders, and he
thought that the characteristics of form and origin of ore
bodies could be a guide to the study of intrusives.

Dr. Browne did not see eye to eye with the Chairman
in regard to the matter of the analogy between ore bodies
and igneous masses. He considered that the former were
very specialised units whose behaviour was probably quite >
different from that of bathylites. He found difficulty in
understanding the mechanism of the undulations or waves
which Mr. Andrews had! described.

Mr. Osborne gave a separate contribution to the discus-
sion by presenting a summary of the views of some of
the geologists of the British Survey regarding the
“cauldron-subsidence” phenomena to be observed at Glencoe
and in N.E. Ireland.

Mr. Andrews replied to some points raised, and the dis-
cussion was adjourned until the next meeting.

Aa—December 5, 1928.

SECTION OF INDUSTRY.

ABSTRACT OF THE PROCEEDINGS

OF THE

SECTION. OF INDUSTRY.

Officers—Chairman: A. D. Olle, F.C.8.; Honorary
Secretary: H. V. Bettley-Cooke.

As in 1927, the activities of the Section consisted of
visits to industrial establishments.

In all cases manufacturers gave a cordial welcome to
members and went to considerable trouble in explaining
their processes and in preparing exhibits.

The following visits were paid :—

May 15th, 1928—British-Australian Lead Manufacturer’s
Works, Cabarita.

June 19th, 1928—Goodyear Tyre and Rubber Co. (Aus-
tralia) Ltd.

July 17th, 1928—Nestle’s Chocolate Factory, Abbotsford.

August 21st, 1928—General Motors (Australia) Pty. Ltd.,
Marrickville.

September 18th, 1928—Australian Glass Manufacturers Co.
Ltd., Dowling Street, Waterloo.

October 9th, 1928—Messrs. Elliott Bros. Chemical Works,
Balmain.

November 27th, 1928—Messrs. Parke Davis & Company
Works, Rosebery.

December 11th, 1928—Sydney Harbour Trust Operations
on the Harbour.

Billy eka

SECTION OF PHYSICAL SCIENCE,

iA
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ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS

OF THE SECTION OF

PHYSICAL» SCIENCE.

Seven meetings were held during the year. The average
attendance was fifteen. At the May meeting the following
officers were elected:

Chairman—Assoe. Professor Wellish, M.A.

Honorary Secretary—G. H. Briggs, B.Se., Ph.D., F.Inst.P.

Committee—Associate Professor Bailey, M.A., Ph.D.,
Bainsie., Major KE. Ey Booth, MC Be.
F .Inst.P., Professor Madsen, D.Sec., Rev.
Mather Pivot. -S.J., Boal) MB. Mra Je I
Richardson, A.M.I.E.E., Professor Vonwiller,
Bec, Ho linstie:

April 18th, 1927.
Professor Bailey in the chair.

Mr. J. C. Jaeger read a paper on ‘‘The Motion of
Electrons in Pentane.’’

A sketch of the theory and experimental procedure
involved in Professor Bailey’s original 3-slit apparatus
was given. In the work on pentane, readings were taken
in this apparatus at values of z/p of 2.5, 5, 10, 20, 40 for
the determination of / and a. Experiments were then
made at the same values of z/p in a Townsend diffusion
apparatus for the determination of W. The values of a
are low and decrease with increasing z/p as in air, and the
probability h shows a similar rapid decrease at low values
of z/p. The k, z/p curve is nearly linear and of compara-

XI Vitt:. ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS.

tively small slope, while the values of W show a rapid
initial rise. These peculiarities cause a maximum of Xd at
a low value of z/p. The same effect is shown by the
other polyatomic gases yet investigated CO., NO. and
C.H,, to the last of which pentane is specially similar. It
was suggested that this effect is connected with the

formation of ions.

Mr. J. D. McGee, M.Sc., read a paper on ‘*The Attach-
ment of Electrons to Molecules of Ammonia.’’

An outline of the theory of a three slit apparatus
designed by Professor Bailey was given. In this apparatus
the distance between the plates can be varied from 2 to 4
ems. Experiments with ammonia were made in order to
check the previous work of Professor Bailey and Mr. Higgs
using the older apparatus. Hydrogen was found in the
gas which they had used. With a fresh supply of pure
ammonia observations were made from z/p = 7 to z/p = 82:
and the values of a and k determined. It was found that
k& increased very.rapidly from k = 3 at z/p = 7 tok — 60
at z/p == 14. Over the same range a/p also increased rapidly
from 0.006 to 0.125.

From these results it was deduced that unless the drift
velocity of the electrons decreased rapidly over this range,
the probability of the attachment of an electron to a
molecule of ammonia must increase over this range. Hence
it appears that the probability of attachment is not in-
dependent of the velocity of the electron as was assumed
by Loeb.

May 16th, 1927.
Professor Wellish in the chair.
An address was given by Professor Madsen, D.Se. He
discussed—

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. x]ix..

(1) the research in wireless being carried out in Great
Britain by the Radio Research Board;

(2) work on geophysical prospecting by Eve, Edge
and Bieler, and

(3) legal definitions of standards in various countries.

Professor V. A. Bailey, M.A., Ph.D., F.Inst.P., described
a rapid method for determining the pulsation © and
damping coefficient of free oscillations in any electric net-
work containing inductanees, resistances and capacities. At
any part of the network ‘an alternating sinoidal e.m.f. of
pulsation w and zero amplitude is introduced and the
equations for the currents in different parts of the network
are written down with the assistance of Kirchhoff’s rules,
but replacing the operator d/dt by wj as in the method of
complex operators.

The condition that these currents be different from zero,
as they must in the ease of free oscillations, is equivalent
to an equation A (wj) = 0 where J is the determinant
formed by the coefficients of the currents in the above
equations.

Each root w of this equation then gives the & and pu
of one of the free oscillations through the relation
w= 2 + pj.

In many special eases the above process is equivalent to
either of the following :—

(1) If the network can be regarded as a single eireuit
with impedence operator z; then the equation in
w will be 2 = 0.

(2) If the admittance operator y between any two
points in the network can be determined the
equation in w will be given by y = 0.

The use and value of the method was illustrated by
application to several standard cases.

4, ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS,

June 20th.
Professor Wellish in the chair.

Major E. H. Booth, B.Se., F.Inst.P., gave an address on
““Geophysical Methods of Prospecting.’’

July 18th.
Professor Wellish in the chair.

Mrs. G. H. Briggs gave an address on ‘‘ Recent Develop-
ments of Quantum Theory.’’

September 19th.
Professor Wellish in the chair.
Mr. W. G. Baker, B.Sc., B.E., read a paper on ‘‘ Radio
Broadcast Transmission in the Neighbourhood of Sydney.’’

Measurements of signal strength were made by L. 8. C.
Tippett, B.Sc., B.E., and W. G. Baker, BSc, Baby
receiving the signals on a loop interval tuned by a variable
condenser. The voltage in the loop was measured by a
Moulin type thermionic voltmeter. The observations were
restricted to a distance of about 20 miles from the station
2FC and were made along seven directions radiating from
the station, open spaces being chosen at each point.

The results, illustrated by a polar diagram, show in
general a much more rapid fall off to the north, over the
wooded country, than to the south. The absorption co-
efficient was measured in each direction and by making use
of Sommerfeld’s theory the conductivity of the ground was
deduced.

By integrating the power radiated over a hemisphere
and taking into account the absorption it was deduced that
82% of the 5000 watts input to the station is radiated.

October 17th.
The business of the meeting was a demonstvation of
experiments with diodes and triodes by Professor Bailey.

ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS. le

In an introductory address Professor Bailey outlined the
methods and theory of the maintenance of oscillations by
valves and also the rectification of alternating current.

The experiments shown were—

(1) A triode oscillating simultaneously at a high and
a low frequency. The former oscillation being
shown by a neon lamp while the audible frequency
of oscillation was altered by a variable mutual
inductance.

(2) A short wave oscillator producing waves of about
3 meters wave length.

(3) A tuning fork maintained in vibration by a 3
electrode valve, telephone electro-magnets in the
plate and grid circuit being placed on either side
of the prongs of the fork.

(4) High frequency induction furnace consisting of a

— eoil of thick copper wire of about 20 turns and
4 em. diameter through which high frequency
oscillations pass. A piece of iron rapidly became
red hot when held in the coil. The same oscillating
system was used to show electrodeless discharges.
in vacuum tubes.

(5) Short waves were set up on a Lecher system, the
wave length being about 5 to 10 metres, and an
application to ‘the calibration of a wavemeter by
counting beats between the harmonies was de-
seribed.

The experiments were illustrated by diagrams of the
electrical circuits and were greatly appreciated.
November 21st, 1927.
Professor Wellish in the chair.
Mr. R. W. J. Mackay, B.Sc., B.E., gave an address on
‘* Electrica! Relays.”’

INDEX.

A Page Page
Abstract of Proceedings i-xxvi | Andrews, E. C., Awarded the
Geology oe se) XR VIIR-XL Clarke Memorial Medal ... xiii
Industry... ... xli-xlvi | Animal Diseases, ‘I'he Control of 53
Physical Science ... xlvi.li} Annual Dinner ... es. x
Acacia alata sah aa. we 159 Financial Statement FU hg
argentea bec Lae 229 LOL Report of the Council .. viii
bipinnatae ... Dee ... 162 | Anobium domesticum ... .. 3853
caesiella itd dae ... 154} Apothecia .., 135
calamiformes st ... 153 | Application of Science ‘to the
Cambagei... us log Sheep Industry _... pra
centaurer ... oe ... 153 | Asct ar Ae ain ... 136
Cheelit ER ... 869,371 | Ascospores Abe 43 i wlSe
.confusa 5a ee ... 158 | Atherosperma . . 350
Cunninghanit pen i OOO moschatum, Labillardiere .. 352
decurrens x. .. 163,165 | Atmospheric Effecton Flow from
Description of one New Springs at Kosciusko hedeal (S76
Species of... i -« 201 at Mittagong ... 198
doratoxylon ... ... 009 |} Australasian Association for the
epilobium ... Sic ... 153 Advancement of Science ... 13
ericifolia ... oe ... 153 | Australian National Research
Farnesiana ... ee ... 152 Council 13
glaucescens ... .. 869,371 | Australian Timbers of the Mon-
graveolens ... va ue Loe imiacez, Notes on Some .,. 359
gummiferae ... Ree ... 164
harpophylla ... 7 ame Oy B
homalophylla Ae ... 155 | Bacillus atterimus ee we O44
horrida <7 wwe > 16-4, 165 ellenbachiensis a we. 844
juliflorae... ee o. 209 graveolens ... mia oe B44
linophylla ... ma sar 160 megatherium... be wee B44
Lucasii n. sp. a ... 215 mucor . A me . 845
lysimachia ... as ... 153 mycoides ne he .. B44
melanoxylon ... ae si. LOZ NAGE 0 dae ee ... B44
merinthophora ade 159 ruminatus ... .. 847, 348
Mollissima ... ar 162, 164 subtilis ine a we 344
plurinerves ... sup .. 155 vulgatus .. 844
podalyriaefolia ts ... 216 | Backhousia angustifolia. .. w. 231
racemosae ... wile ways LO myrtifolia ... % woe 2O4
rubida Xxill. | Banksia Latifolia Ws lad
Seedlings, Part XIII. ... 152 | Barr, Robert Houston ..., cae
uninerves... 5 . 154] Blakely. W. FE.

Address, Brecidentil by or. Description of Three New
Douglas Stewart ... nis aati Species of Ee and
Aerobacter cloacae 34.4 One Acacia ... . 201
Alkalization and other Deuteric Booroo-molie Se: .. 875
Phenomena in the Saddle- Boronia anemonifolia 362, 264,

back aaa at Port 290, 291, 292, 294
Kembla sis . 303 var. anethifolius ... 296
Anaspidacea aie oo woe COU var. dentigera ... ... 801
antiquus 686 cee jc. 108 var. variablis ... was 20a
Anaspides .. ... 866 anethifolia .. 290, 294, 295
tasmaniae (Thomson) 24 Od bipinnata 290, 294, 295, 296

Andesite ... ee bite ace tne, var, citriodora... we. 300

INDEX,

Page |
Boronia citriodora 290, 294, 299, #00
dentigera 268, 290, 291, 294, 301
dentigeroides 264, 265, 290,
294, 301
falcifolia 290, 296, 299
Further Notes on the Genus 290
Gunnit 290, 294
hispida 2» 298
Muelleri 226, 232
Nand ... 290, 298
apmositifolia .. Perer4o sc)
palerfolia . 299
pilosa... 294
pinnata "295, 226, 207, 294,
var. citriodora .. . 200
polygalifolia... a joe
var. anemonifolia . 294
var. pinnatifolia . 294
var. robusta pare 4576
var. ternatifolia 4 2OW
var. trifoliolata 1298"
Rich in Ocimene, The Es-
sential Oil of a New Species
of Anemone Leaf . 268
rigens... 290, 297
safrolifera .. 227
tetrandra .. 293
var. grandiflora tee OO
tetrathecoides ‘av 297
trifoliata : ... 290
thujona e220 226,221, 232
variabilis 290, 295
Brady, Andrew John ... 4
Brown Rot of Fruits, and Dssoc-
lated Diseases, in Australia 99
Browne, W. kK.
On Some Aspects of Different-
ial Erosion ... 2723
On the Probable Tertiary Ace
of Certain New South Wales
Sedentary Soils... 251
Browne, W.R.,and H. P. White
Alkalization and Other Deu-
teric Phenomena in the
Saddleback Trachybasalt
at Port Kembla ... 803
Burfitt Prize Walter 12, She efi
Burindi Series (179

Cc
Cambage, R, H.

14, xv, xxlv

Acacia Seedlings. Part XIII. 152
The Outbreak of sigere in
Autumn , dehy lice
Cape, Alfred John hohe eh
Centaurer .. . 158

‘Chemistry of the

lili.

Page
Cheel, Edwin as 290
Further Notes on the Genus
Boronia . 290
Chemical Analysis of the Essen-
tial Oils. The occurrence of
a number of varieties of
Eucalyptus dives as deter-
mined by was NS
Exudation
from the Wood of Pentas-
podon Motleyt, The... ere:
Chilton, Chas.
Note on a Fossil Shrimp from
the Hawkesbury Sandstones 366
Clark, Wm., W. A. Greig and
C. A. Sussmilch
The Geology of Port Stephens 168

Clarke Memorial Medal 13
Conglomerates 179
Conidia ; 137
Control of Animal Diseases 53
Control of Drought 24,
Control of Pests... 52
Conularia .. XXXIV:
Cook, Bi- -Centenary of Captain
James ar eRe Xa
Cox, C. B. and H. Uiinneuinee
Cyanogenetic Glucosides in
Australian Plants ... 369
Cyanogenetic Glucosides in Aus-
tralian Plants «a7 O09
Cynanothannus tridactylites ... 292
D
Daphnandra aromatica, Bailey... 357
micrantha, Bentham .. oo
repandula, F. v. Mueller ... 356
Defective Oregon (Pseudotsuga
taxifolia), An Examination
of siete 232
Description of Three New Spec-
ies of Eucalyptus and One
Acacia 201
Differential Erosion, Some Ase
pects of ev 2S
Diospyros kaki . 122
Disease of Passion Fruit, Some
observations on the Woodi-
ness or Bullet eS)

Diseases in Australia, eown
Rot of Fruits and associated 99

Doryphora sassafras, Enilicher 350
E

Edge A. Broughton xv

Encouragement of Research 56

liv. INDEX.

Page Page
English, G. W. xviii | Fodder Production and Conserv- _
Epilobium = . 153 ation . 26.
Erosion-Scarps ... . 274 | Fossil Shrimp from the Hawkes-

Erosion, On some aspects of

differential i Hee PATER:
Essential Oil from a Eorouia
in the Pinnate Section ... 225

of a New Species of Anem-
one Leat Boronia Rich in
Ocimene, The

Tbe occurrence of a number
of varieties uf Eucalyptus
dives as determined by
chemical analysis of the 72

263

Eucalyptus acmenioides... 211, 212
anomala n. sp. 209, 211
Australiana hci TALE
Bott .. ... 2075-208
Consideniana 208, 205, 206, 208
corymbosa : ... 204
corynocalyx .. 377
Description of three New
Species of =. 201
dives .. (ay 74, 15,11, 15
dives as determined by
chemical analysis of the
Essential Oils 72
eugeniordes ... i Jeo de
haemastoma 201, 203, 204,
206, 207, 210, 211, 212

Joyceae n. sp. 201, 203. 205,
206, 207, 208, 209, 211, 212
micrantha 201, 203, 204
Muelleriana ... vole
nigra ... hoo
pilularis w. 214
piperita 203, 207
punctata abril
resinifera ... 204
robusta ee ral
Sieberrana 204, 206
stricta . 205
umbra ae 210 212
Ward n. sp. 212, 214
Eucarya spicata ... 64, 69

Euphorbia drummondi, Boiss ... 371
Facilities for Transportation ... 38
Fault-Line Scarps . 275

Fault-Scarps and Erosion-Scarps 274
Fereuson, Eustace William ... 5
Finnemore, H. and C, B. Cox
Cyanogenetic Glucosides in
Australian Plants ... . 869

bury Sandstones. Note on a 366

Fusanus spicatus ... 64:
G
Geology of Port Stephens, The 168
Gloeosporium fructigenum . 85
Glucoside, Extraction of the ... 868
Goodia lotifolia, Salisb ... 375, 376
medicaginea ... . 875
pubescens . 375:

Greig, W..A,, C. A. Sussmilch
and Wm. "Clark
The Geology of Port Stephens 168
Greig-Smith, Robert... .. 0,6

Hargrave, Lawrence xx
Harrison, Launcelot te 7
Harrison, T’. H.

Brown Rot of Fruits and As-
sociated Diseases, in Aus-
tralia .. 99

Hedycarya gnoustifolia, ae Cun:
ningham ... 360
Heterodendron olecfolia... . 376
Hypochaeris radicata . 149
Improved Animal Nutrition 39
K
Keele, Thomas William eS
Kabora ( .. : . 362
Krahmann, Rudolf bas sot ipa
L
Lepidodendron clarke XXxiil.
Leptospermum Liversidget same
Liversidge, Archibald ... 8, 9, 10
Medals of the late... . xxl

Research Lectureship ;
Vili, X, xxi

Lysimachia wo. 153
MM
MacDonald, Ebenezer ... se LOWS
Maiden Memorial re 12, xiii
Medal, Clarke Memorial eaale
Melaleuca leucadendron .. 4
Members, List of (IX)
Merostomata XXXVI.
Microconidia , 189)

INDEX. lv,
Page Page
Mollinedia ae alta Tulasne 359 Penfold, A. R.
Monilia. ... spot a) The Chemistry of Western
cinerea ae mi eee? Australian Sandalwood Oil,
f. pruni ... sated UP Part I. = po kon)

fructigena 108, 112, 114, 115
118, 120, 121, 122, 128, 124, 125

Monimiacee ... 800
Monthly Meetings of the Royal
Society of N.S.W xvi

Morrison, F. R. and A. R. Penfold
The Chemistry of the Exud-
ation from the Wood of
Pentaspodon Motleyi .. 218
The occurrence of a number
of varieties of Eucalyptus
dives as determined by
Chemical Analysis of the
Essential Oils. Part II.... 72

N
Noble, R. J.
Some observations on the
W oodiness or Bullet Disease
of Passion Fruit an
Neocalamites nes Hb xxix.

Obituary—

Barr, Robert Houston 4
Brady, Andrew John 4
Cape, Alfred Cape.. : 4
Ferguson, Esutace Woltiawn 5
Greig-Smith, Robert 5,6
Harrison, Launcelot Oa
Keele, Thomas William Ths to
Liversidge, Archibald
MacDonald, Ebenezer 0)
Scammell, William Joseph 10
Taylor, George mis ee 11

Taylor, James fe 1]
Welch, William as Sh, 12
Outbreak of Springs in Autumn 179
Officers for 1928-29 aes 30 ce XL,
Oregon, An examination of de-
fective . 235
Oil, The Chemistry of Western
Australian Sandalwood ... 60
Oils, Oxidation of Crude meOt
P
Paraphyses hi ae eral ost

Passion Fruit, Some _ observ-
ations on the Woodiness or
Bullet Disease of ... Wi at

Passiflora coerulea deh se OS
edulis... me a 7Y, 88

The Essential “Oil ‘from a
Boronia in the Pinnate Sec-
tion. From Frazer Island,
Queensland .. 225

The Essential Oil of a New
Species of Anemone Leaf
Boronia Rich in Ocimene... 263

Penfold, A. R. and F.R. Morrison

The Chemistry of the Exud-
ation from the Wood of
Pentaspodon Motleyi #. 218

The occurrence of a number
of varieties of Eucalyptus
dives as determined by
Chemical Analysis of the

Essential Oils. PartII.... 72
Pentalonia nigrovenosa ... wee Oe
Pentaspodon Motleyi ... oo LS
Pests, the Control of ... aa lay?
Petrography ah : ..s 168

Physiography and Genera! Ge-
ology of Port Stephens 168
Popular Science Lectures ‘ix, XV

Poranthera corymbosa ie Oud
microphylla ... ay soe
Presidential Address by J.
Douglas Stewart... ae a
Protolepidodendron lineare XXXlll.
yalwalense ae XXXiil.
Prunus chinensis ... ie ... 103
persica es se ERO
Pseudotsuga Douglasii se ... 285
taxifolia Bas oe ... 285

R
Ranken, T., Tables of Metrology
and of Ancient Weights and

Measures _... x1x
Research, Encouragement of ... 56
Rhacopteris a oe aaa

(Anemites) inequilatera .. 180
Rhizoids ... wes ... 186
Rhyolite ... at Bag. es
Royal Society’s House ... Seah.
Rule 36 xviii, xx
Russell, Sir John a iV

s
Sale of Royal Society’s House... ix
Sambucus nigra .. . 871
Sandalwood Oil, The Chemistry
of Western Australian ...69)

lvi. INDEX.
Page : Page:
Santalum album ... . 64) Taylor, George Augustine 11
cygnorum... ... 64] Taylor, James... NOT fc
lanceolatum .. 63, 64, 69, 70 | Tertiary Age of Certain New
spicatum sy. .. 64 South Wales Sedentary Soils 251
Scammell, William J oseph 10 | The Chemistry of Western Aus-
Science House ... ix tralian Sandalwood Oil 60°
Science House, Exhibit ‘of the Thrips tabaci its ave 92
Prize Design ..xxv1 | Tomato Pulp, Notes on some
Sclerotinia 113, 115, 116, 130, 141 Organisms of . B41
aestivalis 133, 184, 140 | Toscanite ... . 174
Americana .. 112, 114, 125, Torula fructigena eid V2:
127, 128, 129, 142 | Trachybasalt at Port Kembla,
apothecia 140 Alkalisation and other Deu-
Australian ... 127, 128, 186 teric Phenomena in the
cinerea 112-118, 121-125, 128 Saddleback ... vo 803:
181, 138, 189, 142, 144, 145
forma Americania . 118
forma mali peel V
forma prunt .. 112} Variability in Physiographic
fructicola 112-114, 129- 131, Behaviour of Rock-Masses 279
134, 186, 137, 140, 141, 144, 145
fructigena 112-117
merea . 112 Ww
Sedimentary Rocks . 178 | Walter Burfitt Prize Xili, xviii

Sesquiterpenes, Distinction be-
tween Australian and Hast
Indian Oils by means of

Colour Reaction of . 70
Sheep Industry,The Application

of Science to the epg leh
Shoshonose : ne eal
Smith, Grafton, Elliot . = i
Soils, On the Probable Tertiary

Age of Certain New South

Wales Sedentary i251.

Springs in Autumn, Outbreak of 192
Stewart. J. Douglas

Presidential Address.. ti

Sussmilch, C. A., Wm. Clarkand
W.A. Greig
The Geology of Port Stephens 168

T
Tables of Metrology and of An-
cient Weightsand Measures xix

Water Supply and Conservation 31
Weather Forecasting 37
Welch, M. B.
An Examination of Defective
Oregon Pseudotsugataxifolia 235.
Notes on Some Australian
Timbers of the Monimiaceze
Welch, William .
White, H. P. and W. Re ‘Browne
Alkalization and other Deu-
teric Phenomena in the
Saddleback Rai ekiesil.
at Port Kembla ‘°... 2. 303:
Windred, G. L.
Notes on Some Organisms oe
Tomato Pulp aa
Woodiness or Bullet Disease of
Passion Fruit. Some ob-
servations on bie
Wool Production yen wale

300:
if:

34]

SYDNEY :
Frep. W. WuHitTe, PRINTER, 344 Kent STREET.

1929.

CONTENTS,

é Pace
. XIV.—The Essential Oil of a new species of Anemone leaf
_- Boronia, Rich in Ocimene. By A. BR. Punroup, F.A.C.L.,_
F.C.S. (Issued February 12th, 1929.) oe ww. 263

ArT. XV.—On some Aspects of Differential Erosion. By W. R.
. Browns, D.Sc. Wek = teat pee ——s gale

19th, 1929.)... ; 273
Art. XVI.—Further sakes on the Banna Bor onia. By B, Giant:
Be, (Issued February 19th, 1929.) ... Be i wes ae

Art. XVII.—Alkalization and other Deuteric oe in the

_ Saddleback Trachybasalt at Port Kembla. By W. R.
Browne. D.Sc. and H. P. Warts, F.C.S. [With Plates
XXIV, XXV and two text Paes J tiesved pees 19th,
1929.) ae 303

Art. XVIII.—Notes on some igshine of Tost Pulp. By
G. L. WInpRED, (communicated 2 Gilbert een):
Piro (Issued February 19th, 1929.) —... a 341

. XLX.—Notes on some Australian Timbers of the Monimiaceae.
By M. B. Wetcu, B.Sc., A.LC. [With Plates se Sie ne
feaned February 19th, 1929, Sauer wn in vet 350

Arr, XX.—Note on a Fossil Shrimp from the Hawkesbury Sand:
stones. By CHaruss Cuitton, M.A., D.Sc.,-M.B., (com-
municated by W. S. Dun). [With Plate XXX. | Cssued
February 19th, 1929.) ... — 366

Arr. XXI.—Cyanogenetic Glucosides in becieaien Pints By
H. Finnemwore, B.Sc.,.and C. B. se B.Sc. (Issued March

Me Lut + ONG ae ar Wa PDF is pie p Si eli Ss; Nk eee
; » f $ prez uy n ns x Sea oea, 2
‘ } ‘ “7 bid: eit a 7a, eset By te ag
“4 es ; t , ; r Port Mae a3, Pay
a ‘ i

j i
os
et

dies Bail bh ss CARL

| 19th, 1929.)... ee < re = ae we 0369

___ AssTRact or Procezpines = > os Re a ee
: PROCEEDINGS OF THE GEOLOGICAL SECTION .., a XXV1. — XXXIX.
PROCEEDINGS OF THE SeEcTION oF INDUSTRY ce aa xl. - xli,
- PROCEEDINGS OF THE SECTION OF PHyYsICAL SCIENCE oie xlv. —li.

_- Trrity Pace, Contents, Notices, PUBLICATIONS, ... wo ee vB)
OFFICERS FOR 1928-1929) 5 ae Pare ee oe wee (vii.)

List or Mempers, &c. ... tag cS chs ae ee Romes 95 |

InpEx To Voutume LXII. ee, ae ey ae ore gh bs

PEN Re ee amy Se

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Full text of "Journal and proceedings of the Royal Society of New South Wales"

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