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JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY 


OF NEW SOUTH WALES 


FOR 


1952 
(INCORPORATED 1881) 


VOLUME LXXXVI 


Parts I-IV 


EDITED BY 


IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. 


Honorary Editorial Secretary 


THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE 
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN 


SYDNEY 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE 


GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 


Issued as a complete volume, April, 14 1953 


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CONTENTS 
VOLUME LXXXxXVI 


Part I* 
TITLE PAGE 
OFFICERS FOR 1952-1953 
NOTICES 
List OF MEMBERS 
AWARDS 
ANNUAL REPORT OF COUNCIL 
BALANCE SHEET 
REPORT OF SECTION OF GEOLOGY 
OBITUARY 


Art. I.—Presidential Address. By R. C. L. Bosworth— 


General 


Transport Problems in Applied Chemistry .. 
Art. II.—A Geological Account of Heard Island. By A. J. Lambeth .. 


Art. III.—Occultations Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1951. By W. H. 
Robertson and K. P. Sims 


Part Il+ 


Art. IV.—Climate and Maize Yields on the Atherton Tableland. By D. 8S. Simonett 
and N. T. Drane 


ArT. V.—Palladium Complexes. Part V. Reactions of Palladium Compounds with 
2:2’ Dipyridyl. By S. E. Livingstone . 


Art. VI.—Liversidge Lecture. Electron Diffraction in the Chemistry of the Solid 
State. By A. L. G. Rees .. 


Art. VII.—Permian Spirifers from Tasmania. By Ida A. Brown 


* Published October 10, 1952. 
+ Published January 21, 1953. 


iil 


1V 


vi 


vil 


XV 


22 


38 


55 


i SNe Nai Dw |) Dac 


CONTENTS 


Part II 


Art. VIII.—Induced Optical Activity of the Tris-1 : 10-Phenanthroline and Tris-2 : 2’- 
Dipyridyl Copper II Ion. By N. R. Davies and F. P. Dwyer 


Art. I[X.—Soil Horizons and Marine Bands in the Coastal Limestones of Western 
Australia. By R. W. Fairbridge and C. Teichert 


Part IVy 


Art. X.—A Contribution to the Geology and Glaciology of the Snowy Mountains. By 
A. 8. Ritchie . 


Art. XI.—Graptolite Zones and Associated Stratigraphy at Four-Mile Creek, South-west 
of Orange, N.S.W. By N. C. Stevens and G. H. Packham 


Art. XII.—Martiniopsis Waagen from the Salt Range, India. By Ida A. Brown 


Art. XIII.—Contributions to a Study of the Marulan Batholith. Part II. The Grano- 
diorite-Quartz Porphyrite Hybrids. By G. D. Osborne and J. 8. Lovering 


Art. XIV.—The Replacement of Crinoid Stems and Gastropods by Cassiterite at Emma- 
ville, New South Wales. By L. J. Lawrence 


* Published March 9, 1953. 
+ Published April 14, 1953. 


64 


68 


88 


94 


100 


108 


119 


v 


PART I 


Ki 


~ JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 


wy 
Misc 


ae | ane OF THE bon 


ROYAL SOCIETY | 
ate NEW SOUTH WALES | | 


FOR 
1952 


eae ; _ (INCORPORATED 1881) 


PART [I 

| OF 
| VOL. LXXXVI | oe | 
Ek sining Report of Council, Balance Sheet, Presidential” Address ae 
and Papers read in April and May, 1952. ee 


~ 


EDITED BY 


IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. 


| ; : Honorary Editorial Secretary 


a THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE 
||  —__—s STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN 


* 3 SYDNEY oy ; 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE 
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 3 5 0 4 2 a 


——— 


1952 


TrrLE Pace 


; oct ror 1952-1953 RAS: a fopcatneee at 4 re ae. 
“Nonna : ee en ta o's +s .s as Bh pie yee Fee Ae 3 | 
“List oF Mamas,’ 1, eee ae ot eee “Pagans - 

Aguva ais ite Beira hivenchis 1h ae oe Pg Meet A ee ee 


_AnnuAL REpPorT oF CouNcIL .. e: ba Be Oe f, he ae tae 


BALANCE SHEET at eal ee oe ee ee ee ee ave mae _ oe 
_ Report or SecTION or GEOLOGY 9 Hs ae we , raat 


. 


_ Oprruary ee ee ae ee ee mais aes ete Snes ee ; 


ak 


an oS 4) Presidential Address. By R. ome Pe Bosworth— 


thes Mott ie: General ee ‘ Bas Te pe ee Seer ee oe ee Tae Rs 


De # . _ Transport Problems in Applied Chemistry Se, ees eee oa se 


Ant. IL—A Geological Account of Heard Island. By A. J. Lambeth 


Prt Be . * z NR 


Arr. 11. PiGeewlenmon Observed at Sydney Observatory during 1951. 
ee and K. P. Sims bles Geers aoe 


JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


BROYAL SOCIEIY 


OF NEW SOUTH WALES 


FOR 


1952 


‘INCORPORATED 1881) 


——<——— ee 


VOLUME LXXXVI 
Part I 


—_—_————— 


EDITED BY 


IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. 


Honorary Editorial Secretary 


— 


THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE 
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN 


SYDNEY 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE 
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 


Vi pili v9 ade 
Nah , 


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{fants 


Royal Sorivty of Nem South Wales 


OFFICERS FOR 1952-1953 


Patrons: 
His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR-GENERAL OF THE COMMONWEALTH OF AUSTRALIA 
THe Rr. Hon. Srr Witwtiam J. McKELL, G.c.M.G., P.C., Q.C., LL.D. 


His EXCELLENCY THE GOVERNOR OF NEw SoutTH WALES, 
LIEUTENANT-GENERAL Str JOHN NORTHCOTT, k.c.M.G., ©.B., M.V.0., D.Litt. 


President : 
C. J. MAGEE, D.sc.agr. (Syd.), M.sc. (W2s.). 


Vice-Presidents : 
R. C. L. BOSWORTH, M.sc., D.Sc. (Adel.), | PHYLLIS M. ROUNTREE, pD.sc. (Méib.), 


Ph.D. (Camb.), F.A.C.1., F.Inst.P. Dip.Bact. (Lond.). | 
D. J. K. OPCONNELL, s.J., D.se., Ph.D., | W. B. SMITH-WHITE, m.a. (Cantab.), 
F.R.A.S. | B.Sc. (Syd.). 


Honorary Secretaries : 
IDA A. BROWNE, D.sc. | K. E. BULLEN, M.a., se.D., F.R.S. 


Honorary Treasurer : 
H. A. J. DONEGAN, 4.8.7.c., A.A.C.I. 


Members of Council: 


J. P. BAXTER, B.Sc., Ph.D., A.M.I.Chem.E. | F. D. McCARTHY, pip.anthr. 

G. BOSSON, m.sc. (Lond.). | P. R. McMAHON, m.agr.sc. (N.Z.), Ph.D. 
H. B. CARTER, B.v.sc. | (Leeds), A.R.1.C., A.N.Z.I.C. 

N. A. GIBSON, M.sc., A.R.1.C. | C. E. MARSHALL, Ph.p., D.sc. 

T. IREDALE, D.sc., F.R.1.c. | G. D. OSBORNE, p.sc. (Syd.), Ph.p. (Camb.)., 
A. V. JOPLING, B.sc., B.E. | F.G.S. 


iV NOTICES. 


NOTICE. 
Tue Royau Socrety of New South Wales originated in 1821 as the “ Philosophical Society 
of Australasia ’’; after an interval of inactivity, it was resuscitated in 1850, under the name 


of the ‘‘ Australian Philosophical Society *’, by which title it was known until 1856, when the 
name was changed to the “‘ Philosophical Society of New South Wales ”’ ; in 1866, by the sanction 
of Her Most Gracious Majesty Queen Victoria, it assumed its present title, and was incorporated 
by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881. 


TO AUTHORS. 


Particulars regarding the preparation of manuscripts of papers for publication in the 
Society’s Journal are to be found in the “ Guide to Authors’, which is obtainable on appli- 
cation to the Honorary Secretaries of the Society. 


FORM OF BEQUEST. 


f) bequeath the sum of £ to the Royaut Society or New SoutH WaALEs, 
Incorporated by Act of the Parliament of New South Wales in 1881, and I declare that the receipt 
of the Treasurer for the time being of the said Corporation shall be an effectual discharge for the 
said Bequest, which I direct to be paid within calendar months after my decease, 
without any reduction whatsoever, whether on account of Legacy Duty thereon or otherwise, 
out of such part of my estate as may be lawfully applied for that purpose. 


[Those persons who feel disposed to benefit the Royal Society of New South Wales by Legactes 
are recommended to instruct their Solicitors to adopt the above Form of Bequest.] 


The volumes of the Journal and Proceedings may be obtained at the Society’s Rooms, Science 
House, Gloucester Street, Sydney. 


Volumes XI to LIII (that is to 1919) 
> LIV ,, LXVI (1920 to 1932) 
- LXVIII (1936) 
5 LXX ,, LXXXITI (1938 to 1948) 


»  UXXXIIT and LXXXIV 
Volumes I to X (to 1876) and LX VII and LXIX (1935 and 1937) are out of print. 
Reprints of papers are available. 


LIST OF MEMBERS. 


A list of members of the Royal Society of New South Wales up to Ist April, 1951, is included 

in Volume LXXXV. 
During the year ended 3lst March, 1952, the following have been elected to membership 

of the Society : ; 

Banks, Maxwell Robert, B.sc.(Hons.), Lecturer in Geology, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tas. 

Basden, Kenneth Spencer, 4.s.T.c., Technical Officer, Department of Mining and Applied Geology, 
N.S.W. University of Technology, Broadway, Sydney. 

Booker, Frederick William, M.sc., c/o Geological Survey of New South Wales, Mines Department 
Sydney. 

Bosson, Geoffrey, m.se. (Lond.), Professor of Mathematics, N.S.W. University of Technology, 
Broadway, Sydney. 

Charlwood, Joan Marie, B.Sc., Biochemist, 184 Queen-street, Concord West. 

Crane, Roslyn Ann, B.Sc., Librarian, Australian Leather Research; p.r. 6 Chesterfield-road, 
Epping. 

Darvall, Anthony Roger, M.B., B.s., D.o., Medical Practitioner, Royal Prince Alfred Hospital, 
Missenden-road, Camperdown. 

Dunn, Thomas Melanby, B.sSc.(Hons.), Chemistry Department, University of Sydney, Sydney. 

French, Oswald Raymond, Research Assistant, University of Sydney ; p.r. 66 Nottinghill-road, 
Lidcombe. 

Goldstone, Charles Lillington, B.agr.sc. (N.Z.), Lecturer in Sheep Husbandry, N.S.W. University 
of Technology, c/o East Sydney Technical College, Darlinghurst. 

Heard, George Douglas, B.se., Maitland Boys’ High School, East Maitland, N.S.W. 

Holmes, Robert Francis, 15 Baden-street, Coogee. 

Jamieson, Helen Campbell, a.s.t.c.; p.r. 3 Hamilton-street, Coogee. 

Johnson, William, Geologist, c/o The Supervising Engineer, Warragamba Dam, N.S.W. 

Jones, Roger M., Laboratory Assistant, Sydney Technical College; p.r. 69 Moore Park-road, 
Centennial Park. 

Lawrence, Laurence James, B.Sc.(Hons.), Lecturer in Geology, N.S.W. University of Technology ; 
p-r. 28 Church-street, Ashfield. 

Livingstone, Stanley Edward, 4.s.T.c.(Hons.), A.A.C.1., Lecturer in Inorganic Chemistry, N.S.W. 
University of Technology ; p.r. 5 Parker-street, Rockdale. 

Lovering, John Francis, B.sc., Assistant Curator, Department of Mineralogy and Petrology, 
Australian Museum, College-street, Sydney. 

Mallaby, Hedley Arnold, B.Sc.(For.), Dip.For. (Canberra), 114 Kurrajong-avenue, Leeton. 

Males, Pamela Ann, 81 Frederick-street, St. Peters. 

Minty, Edward James, B.Sc., 2 Drayton Court, Mosman-street, Mosman Bay. 

Murray, James Kenneth, B.sc., 237 South-road, Broken Hill, N.S.W. 

O’Dea, Daryl Robert, a.s.t.c.; p.r. 123 Perouse-road, Randwick. 

Packham, Gordon Howard, 61 Earlwood-avenue, Earlwood. 

Rector, John, B.sc., 46 Sir Thomas Mitchell-road, Bondi Beach. 

Robinson, David Hugh, 4.s.T.c., Chemist, 21 Dudley-avenue, Roseville. 

Sellgren, Elise Evelyn, B.sc., Teaching Fellow, Department of Geology, The University of Sydney ; 
p-r. 76 Bream-street, Coogee. 

Stevens, Robert Denzil, 32 Menangle-road, Camden. 

Stuntz, John, B.sc., 511 Burwood-road, Belmore. 

Weatherhead, Albert Victor, F.R.M.S., F.R.P.S., Technical Officer, Geology Department, N.S.W. 
University of Technology; p.r. 3 Kennedy-avenue, Belmore. 

Whitley, Alice, B.sc., Teacher, 39 Belmore-street, Burwood. 

Whitworth, Horace Francis, m.sc., Mining Museum, Sydney. 


Honorary Member. 
Fairley, Sir Neil Hamilton, C.B.E., M.D., D.Sc., F.R.S., 73 Harley-street, London, W.1. 


Obituary. 


1916 Septimus Birrell. 

1913 Edwin Cheel. 

1916 Henry James Hoggan. 

1909 Thomas Harvey Johnston (Corresponding member since 1912). 
1930 William Perey Judd. 

1915 Andrew Gibb Maitland (an Honorary member). 


1951 


NOTICES. 
AWARDS. 


The Clarke Medal. 
Stillwell, Frank L.. p.sc., C.S.I.R.O., Melbourne. 


The James Cook Medal. 
Gregg, Norman McAlister, m.B., B.s., Macquarie Street, Sydney. 


The Edgeworth David Medal. 
Bolton, John Gatenby, s.a., Division of Radiophysics, C.S.I.R.O., Sydney. 


The Society's Medal. 


Penfold, Arthur Ramon, F.R.A.C.1I., F.c.s., Director, Museum of Applied Arts and 
Sciences, Sydney. 


Royal Society of Nem South Wales 


REPORT OF THE COUNCIL FOR THE YEAR ENDING 3lst MARCH, 1952. 
PRESENTED AT THE ANNUAL AND GENERAL MONTHLY MEETING OF THE SOCIETY, 
2npD APRIL, 1952, IN ACCORDANCE wItTH RULE XXVI. 


The membership of the Society at the end of the period under review stood at 385, an increase 
of 16. Thirty-five new members were elected during the year and 13 members were lost by 
resignation. Six members have been lost to the Society by death during the year 1951 : 


Septimus Birrell (elected 1916), 
Edwin Cheel (elected 1913), 
Henry James Hoggan (elected 1916), 
Thomas Harvey Johnston (elected 1909) (Corresponding member since 1912), 
William Percy Judd (elected 1930), and 
Andrew Gibb Maitland (elected 1915), an Honorary member, died in January, 1951. 
During the year nine General Monthly Meetings were held, at which the average attendance 
was thirty-six. Nineteen papers were accepted for reading and publication by the Society, 
twelve less than the previous year. 
An Exhibit, ‘‘ Bananas containing Seeds ”’, was discussed by Dr. C. J. Magee at the meeting 
on 6th June, 1951. 
Lecturettes given during the year were as follow: 
2nd May, 1951: ‘‘ Colloids”’, by Prof. A. E. Alexander. 
4th July, 1951: ‘* Polyploiedy and Evolution ’”’, by Mr. 8S. Smith-White. 
Addresses of general interest were given at several meetings. 


6th June, 1951: The evening was devoted to a discussion on “* Fluorine ’’, and the following 
speakers gave addresses : 


Prof. J. P. Baxter: ‘‘ New Derivatives of Fluorine.”’ 
Mr. H. R. Sulliven: ‘‘ Some Biological Aspects of Fluorine.” 
Dr. D. L. Ingles: ‘‘ Defluorination of Artesian Waters.” 


5th December, 1951: Mr. G. G. Blake spoke on “‘ Xerographic Processes ’’ and Dr. G. D. 
Osborne and Mr. J. S. Proud showed “ Coloured Slides of Central Australia, mostly of a Geological 
Interest ”’. 


Question.—At the meeting held on the 4th July, 1951, Mr. H. W. Wood answered the question 
‘““ How many Star Systems are known ?”’ 


The meeting held on the Ist August, 1951, was devoted to a Symposium on ‘“‘ Temperature ”’, 
at which the following addresses were given: 


*“* The International Temperature Scale in Science and Industry ’’, by Mr. W. R. G. Kemp. 
‘“* Some Physiological Aspects of Temperature ”’, by Prof. F. 8. Cotton. 

* Vulcanological Aspects’, by Dr. G. D. Osborne. 

‘The Temperature of the Earth’s Interior’, by Prof. K. E. Bullen. 


A Film Evening was held on 3rd October, 1951, and, through the courtesy of the Australian 
Museum, Prof. A. P. Elkin and the Motion Picture Division of the U.S. Information Service, 
three films were shown : 


(a) “‘ Two Hundred and Fifty Million Years Ago.” 
(6) ‘‘ Arnhem Land Dances.’’ 
(c) ‘““ The Story of Palomar.” 


The meeting devoted to the commemoration of great scientists was held on 7th November, 
1951. The following addresses were given : 


“William Harvey and the Circulation of the Blood ”’, by Prof. E. Ford. 
“Linneus ”’, by Prof. L. G. M. Baas Becking. 
“What Science Owes to the 1851 Exhibition’, by Dr. T. Iredale. 


vill REPORT OF COUNCIL. 


Five Popular Science Lectures were delivered during the year, and were appreciated by 
members of the Society and the public : 


17th May: ‘‘ Wool’’, by Dr. P. R. McMahon. 


19th July: ‘‘ Science, Medicine and Health in the Twentieth Century ’’, by Prof. Harvey 
Sutton. 


16th August: ‘‘ Shore Fluctuations: Their Causes and Effects ’’, by Dr. W. R. Browne. 


20th September: ‘‘ Chemical Discovery and Invention through the Last Half Century ”’, 
by Prof. R. J. W. Le Fevre. 


18th October: ‘Seismology’, by Rev. D. J. K. O’Connell. 


Jubilee Conversazione.—To commemorate the Jubilee of the Commonwealth of Australia, 
our Society, collaborating with other scientific bodies, organized a conversazione, which was 
held in the Great Hall of the University of Sydney on 18th April, 1951. This successful and 
well attended function was arranged to illustrate the scientific achievements of Australia during 
the last fifty years. 

The Annual Dinner of the Society was held in the Withdrawing Room of the Union, University 
of Sydney, on the 27th March, 1952. There were present fifty-five members and friends. 

The Section of Geology, whose Chairman was Mr. R. O. Chalmers and Hon. Secretary Mr. 
N. C. Stevens, held eight meetings during the year, at which the average attendance was eighteen 
members and six visitors. The activities included the showing of films, exhibits, notes and 
lecturettes. 

The Council of the Society held eleven ordinary meetings during the year, at which the 
average attendance was twelve. 

. On Science House Management Committee the Society was represented by Mr. F. R. Morrison 
and Mr. H. O. Fletcher ; substitute representatives, Dr. R. L. Aston and Mr. H. H. Thorne. 

On Science House Extension Committee the Society was represented by Dr. R. C. L. Bosworth 
and Dr. C. J. Magee. 

Sir Neil Hamilton Fairley was elected an Honorary Member of the Society at the Annual 
and General Monthly Meeting held on the 4th April, 1951. 

The Clarke Memorial Lecture for 1951 was delivered by Dr. A. B. Edwards on the 21st June, 
1951, the title being ‘‘ The Ore Minerals and their Textures ”’. 

The Clarke Memorial Medal for 1952 was awarded to Professor J. G. Wood, of the University 
of Adelaide, for his distinguished work both on the vegetation of arid Australia and on mineral 
nutrition and metabolism in plants. 

The Medal of the Royal Society of New South Wales for 1951 was awarded to Mr. A. R. 
Penfold in recognition of his outstanding services to the Society and his valuable researches in 
the chemistry of essential oils. 

The Edgeworth David Medal for 1951 was awarded to Mr. J. G. Bolton for his outstanding 
researches in the field of radio-astronomy. 

The James Cook Medal for 1951 was awarded to Dr. N. McAlister Gregg for distinguished 
contributions to medical science, particularly the discovery of, and work on, the connection 
between congenital defects in children and the occurrence of Rubella in the mother during 
pregnancy. 

During the year overseas visiting scientists entertained by the Council were : 

Sir Edward and Lady Mellanby, on 21st September. 

The scientific members of the Danish ‘“‘ Galathea ’”’ Deep Sea Expedition, on 22nd November. 

Sir Neil Hamilton Fairley, F.R.S., on 22nd November. 

The financial position of the Society, as disclosed by the annual audit, is not a satisfactory 
one. The deficit for the year is £736, as compared with the previous year of £687. The largest 
increase in a single item of expenditure was £203 for salaries. 

Although the Council has been applying rigid standards and fewer papers are being accepted 
for publication, the cost per page of printing the Journal and Proceedings has increased still 
further, and meeting this charge must remain one of our most serious problems. 

At the General Monthly Meeting of 3rd October, 1951, Rule IX was altered to read: “ The 
Annual Subscription shall be three guineas payable in advance, but members who are under 
twenty-eight years of age shall be required to pay only one and a half guineas. 

‘“‘ The amount of thirty-five guineas may be paid at any one time by a financial member as a 
life composition for the ordinary annual payment.”’ 

The Society’s share of the profits from Science House for the year was £430, a decrease of 
£20 on the previous year. 

The grant from the Government of New South Wales of £400 has been received. The 
continued interest of the Government in the work of the Society is much appreciated. 


REPORT OF COUNCIL. 1x 


The Library.—The amount of £60 16s. 6d. has been spent on the purchase of periodicals, 
and £17 8s. 6d. on binding. 

Exchange of publications is maintained with 417 societies and institutions, an increase 
of 11. 

The number of accessions entered in the pple us during the year ended 29th February, 1952, 
was 3,392 parts of periodicals. 

The number of books, periodicals, etc., borrowed by members, institutions and accredited 
readers was 316. 

Among the institutions which made use of the library through the inter-lbrary borrowing 
scheme were : National Standards and Radiophysics Laboratories ; Waite Agricultural Research 
Institute ; Royal Society of Tasmania; Fisher Library ; Colonial Sugar Refinery ; McMaster 
Laboratory ; Sydney Technical College ; Public Library of Victoria ; Forestry Commission, 
N.S.W.; Sydney Hospital Library ; Department of Mines, Victoria; Department of Health, 
N.S.W. ; Department of Public Works, N.S.W.; University of Adelaide ; Department of Wood 
Technology ; Food Preservation Laboratory, Homebush; New England University College ; 
C.S.L.R.O. Irrigation Research Station; Standard Telephones and Cables; Department of 
Agriculture, N.S.W. ; Bureau of Mineral Resources ; M.W.S. and D. Board, N.S.W. ; Institution 
of Engineers, Australia; C.S.I.R.O. Division of Industrial Chemistry ; C.S.I.R.O. Division of 
Fisheries ; Geological Museum and Library, Melbourne; Snowy Mountains Hydro-Electric 
Authority ; Taubman’s Ltd. ; C.S.I.R.O. Division of Entomology ; State Fisheries Laboratory ; 
University of Melbourne ; Standards Association of Australia; Granville Technical College ; 
Australian Museum; Botanic Gardens, Sydney; Queensland Institute of Medical Research ; 
Glenfield Veterinary Research Station; Commonwealth Observatory ; Newcastle Technical 
College. 


R. C. L. BOSWORTH, 
President. 


7,007 
24,886 


£32,802 


10,160 


25 
6 


£32,802 


BALANCE SHEET. 


THE ROYAL SOCIETY OF NEW SOUTH WALES. 
BALANCE SHEET AS AT 29th FEBRUARY, 1952. 
LIABILITIES. 


1952. 
y S, 3a. NAY So 
Accrued Expenses " 269 ll 9 
Subscriptions Paid in Advance Reh 22 11 6 
Life Members’ Subscriptions — Amount carried 
forward 113 11 O 
Trust and Monograph Capital Funds (detailed below)— 
Clarke Memorial 1,941 16 9 
Walter Burfitt Prize 1,081 16 8 
Liversidge Bequest . 744 5 1 
Monograph Capital Fund 3,659 18 4 
a 7,427 16 10 
ACCUMULATED FUNDS 24,088 1 2 
£31,921 12 3 
ASSETS. 
1952. 
x s. d. £. ad. 
Cash at Bank and in Hand . 572 9 11 
Investments—Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock, 
etc.—at Face Value— 
Held for— 
Clarke Memorial Fund 1,800 0 0O 
Walter Burfitt Prize Fund 1,000 0 0O 
Liversidge Bequest .. 700 0 O 
Monograph Capital Fund 3,000 0 0 
General Purposes 2,860 0 0 
9,360 0 0 
Debtors for Subscriptions... 102 7 6 
Deduct Reserve for Bad Debts LOZ Wii 
Science House—One-third Capital Cost 14,835 4 4 
Library—At Valuation 6,800 0 0 
Furniture—At Cost—less Depreciation 324 18 0 
Pictures—At Cost—less Depreciation 24 0 0 
Lantern—At Cost—less Depreciation 5 0 0 
£31,921 12 3 


BALANCE SHEET. 


TRUST AND MONOGRAPH CAPITAL FUNDS. 


Walter 
Burfitt 
Prize. 


Clarke 

Memorial. 

5 gs. d. 

Capital at 28th February, 1951 1,800 0 O 
Revenue—— 

Balance at 28th February, 1951 126 2,10 

Interest for Twelve Months 57 ney fas KY) 

183 10 8 

Deduct Expenditure 41 13 11 

Balance at 29th February, 1952 £141 16 9 


£ 


s. 


d. 


1,000 0 0 


126 10 11 
oe WW A: 5 


158 8 3 
76 11 


7 


Sol Ojos 


ACCUMULATED FUNDS. 


Balance at 28th February, 1951 
Less— 

Increase in Reserve for Bad 
Debts .. Ps eed te 

Loss on Sale of Inscribed Stock 

Deficit for twelve months (as 
shown by Income and Ex- 
penditure Account) 

Bad Debts written off 


Liversidge 
Bequest. 


xl 


Monograph 
Capital 
Fund. 


a on £ s. d. 
700 0 O 3,000 0 0O 


21 18 9 Voor: Oke 6 
ZI a (Gr A! 95 12 10 
7G a sn | 828 13 4 
ates 168 15 0O 
$44.5 t £659 18 4 
£ si di 
24,886 2 9 
798) bo 7 


£24,088 1 2 


The above Balance Sheet has been prepared from the Books of Account, Accounts and 
Vouchers of the Royal Society of New South Wales, and is a correct statement of the position 


of the Society’s affairs on the 29th February, 1952, as disclosed thereby. 


We have satisfied 


ourselves that the Society’s Commonwealth Bonds and Inscribed Stock are properly held and 


registered, 


Prudential Building, 
39 Martin Place, 
Sydney, 18th March, 1952. 


HORLEY & HORLEY, 


Chartered Accountants. 


xi 


1950-1. 


141 


579 
21 
£2,365 


1950-1. 
£ 
624 


BALANCE SHEET. 


INCOME AND EXPENDITURE ACCOUNT, 


Ist March, 1951, to 25th February, 1952. 


To Annual Dinner— 


Expenditure 
Less Received 


Audit. . 

Cleaning 

Depreciation 

Electricity ; we 

Entertainment Expenses : 

Insurance... 

Library Purchases and Binding . 

Miscellaneous : : Ree 

Postage and Telegrams : ae 

Printing and Pe J ournal—Vol. 84 
Less Received . Ls te 2 


Printing—General .. 


Rent—Science House Management Committee 


Reprints— 
Expenditure 
Less Received 


Salaries 
Telephone 


By Membership Subscriptions 


Proportion of Life Members’ Subscriptions 
Government Subsidy ite 
Science House—Share of Surplus 

Interest on General Investments 

Other Receipts 


Deficit for Twelve Months os 


829 14 9 
75° 0 © 


380 12 O 
25219 4 


128 
782 
24 


WH AADWODWOS 


ow 
Doo 


8 
a 
£2 0 
6 


16 


£2,325 


£2,325 16 6 


1951-52. 


£ 
632 

10 
400 
430 
116 


6.) 
12 6 
10 O 
0 0 
0 0 
12 11 


1,589 
736 


15 
ia 


Ol 


ABSTRACT OF PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE SECTION OF 


GEOLOGY 


Chairman: R. O. Chalmers, A.S.T.C. 
Honorary Secretary: N. C. Stevens, B.Sc. 


Meetings.—Eight meetings were held during the year 1951, the average attendance being 
eighteen members and six visitors. 


April 20th.—Annual Meeting. Election of Office-bearers for 1951: Chairman, Mr. R. O. 
Chalmers ; Honorary Secretary, Mr. N. C. Stevens. 


Films: Colour slides were shown by Mr. A. V. Jopling (Broken Hill), Mr. G. EK. McInnes 
(Warrumbungle Mtns. and the A.C.T.), Mr. N. C. Stevens (Belubula River district), and 
Mr. T. G. Vallance (New England and North Coast). 


Exhibit: By Mrs. K. M. Sherrard, of Upper Ordovician graptolites from Carboona 
Gap, near Jingellic. 


May 11th.—Lecturettes : Wallabadah District, by Mr. J. Hallinan ; Bungonia District, by Mr. 
B. H. Flinter and Mr. N. O. Jones ; Wollongong District, by Mr. C. T. McElroy. 


June 15th.—Address : ‘‘ Some Aspects of a Trip to Great Britain and America ’’, by Dr. G. D. 
Osborne. 


July 20th.—Notes and Exhibits: By Mr. A. 8. Ritchie: Glacial features near Mt. Kosciusko. 
By Mr. G. E. McInnes: Magnetic Is. and Townsville. By Mr. N. C. Stevens: Geophysical 
survey of bathyliths in N.S.W. By Mr. T. G. Vallance: Pleistocene glacial banded clays 
from Trapyard Ck., Kosciusko. By Mr. J. M. Hallinan: Tertiary volcanic rocks from 
Lamington National Park, Q. By Mr. G. Packham: Silurian plant remains from west of 
Sofala, N.S.W. By Mr. W. H. Williamson: Very porous sandstone from Eumungerie, 
N.S.W. By Mr. Chalmers: Photographs of parabolic current bedding in sandstone at 
Glenorie and Eastwood ; and curved crystals of prehnite from Prospect, N.S.W. 


August 17th.—Discussion: ‘“ Contributions to the Geology of the Marulan-Wombeyan- Yerran- 
derie District.” By Mr. L. Lawrence (Yerranderie), Mr. J. Lovering (Tallong-Marulan) 
and Dr. G. D. Osborne (who presented the work of Mr. C. V. Phipps in the Wombeyan- 
Taralga area). 


September 2ist.—Lecturettes : ‘“‘ On the Work of the Geological Survey during the Past Year ’’, 
by Officers of the Survey, including a general account by Mr. C. St. J. Mulholland ; investiga- 
tions in the Western Coalfield, by Mr. E. O. Rayner, and Contour Trench formations in 
upland plains of N.S.W., by Mr. C. T. McElroy. 


Exhibit : By Mrs. Sherrard : Upper Ordovician graptolites (zone of Nemagraptus gracilis) 
from two localities north and north-east of Walli, N.S.W. 


October 19th.—Addresses, illustrated by colour slides: ‘‘On N.W. Queensland and Central 
Australia’”’, by Miss F. M. Quodling and Dr. H. Narain. 


November 16th.—Notes and Exhibits: By Dr. C. J. Magee: Mt. Lamington, N.G. By Dr. 
W. R. Browne: Deuteric alteration of South Coast lavas. By Dr. G. D. Osborne: Dunite 
with phlogopite xenoliths from Mt. Strangways, Central Australia; reaction rims with 
humite, chondrodite, cummingtonite and anthophyllite. By Miss F. M. Quodling: Kyanite 
from Harz Ra., Central Australia. By Mr. N.C. Stevens: Crinoidal limestone from Borenore, 
N.S.W. By Mr. Chalmers: Copper and coalfield material from Long Reef, Narrabeen, 
N.S.W. 


Obituary 


Septimus BrrRRELL, who died on 17th July, 1951, had been a member of this Society since 
1916. In his early days he vacated a position in the Physiology School in the University of 
Sydney to join the newly-established Bureau of Microbiology of the Department of Public Health, 
where he worked on matters related to pathology and dairy bacteriology. 


He became Dairy Bacteriologist under Dr. Darnell Smith in the Biological Branch of the 
Department of Agriculture, N.S.W., in 1913, and was directly associated with the establishment 
of the course in Dairy Bacteriology for Diploma Students at Hawkesbury Agricultural College. 
In 1915 he became a commercial biochemist, and was recognized as an authority on the 
bacteriology and chemistry of fats and oils. He took an active part in the Australian Society 
of Dairy Technology, of which he was a foundation member. 


EDWIN CHEEL, who was born in England on 14th January, 1872, and died in Sydney on 
19th September, 1951, had been a member of this Society since 1913. 


On his arrival in Australia as a young man he worked as a gardener in Queensland and in 
Sydney. In 1897 he was appointed to the staff of Centennial Park, Sydney, and later transferred 
to the gardening staff of the Sydney Botanic Gardens, where he was entrusted with the care and 
maintenance of the Cryptogam collections of the Herbartum. His keen interest in the knowledge 
of his work led to his appointment to the botanical staff in the National Herbarium in 1908, and 
to his appointment in 1933 to the position of Chief Botanist and Curator, which he held until 
his retirement in 1936. 


He had a wide knowledge of many groups of Australian plants, but his greatest interest 
was in the Myrtacez, many species of which he cultivated and observed at his home at Ashfield 
and on private ground at Hill Top, south of Picton. His plant collections added much to the 
resources of the National Herbarium. 


He contributed many botanical papers and articles to scientific journals in N.S.W., including 
21 to This Society. He took an active part in the work of the scientific societies in Sydney and 
was President of the Naturalists’ Society of N.S.W. in 1924, of the Linnean Society of N.S.W. 
in 1930, of This Society in 1931, and of the Botany Section of A.N.Z.A.A.S. in 1937. He was a 
delegate of the A.N.R.C. to the Fifth Pacific Science Congress in Canada in 1933. 


He was a warm supporter of the Friendly Society movement, and served in the highest 
position in the Manchester Unity Order of Oddfellows. 


In 1943 This Society awarded its Bronze Medal to Edwin Cheel “ in recognition of his contri- 
butions in the field of botanical research and to the advancement of science in general ”’. 


Henry JAMES Hocean, a member of This Society since 1916, died on 25th December, 1951, 
at the age of 74. Born in Scotland, he came to Australia at an early age, and received his schooling 
in Australia. 


For nearly thirty years he was a teacher of Engineering Trades Drawing at St. George 
Technical College (1910-1939) and from 1934 to 1939 also taught at the Sydney Technical College. 


As Consulting Engineer to St. George County Council Electricity Supply Undertaking, he 
was responsible for the planning and construction of the distribution system during the period 
from 1920 to 1923. 


He was a foundation member of The Institution of Engineers, Australia, and was formerly 
a member of the Engineering Association of Australia. 


WILLIAM PERCY JUDD, who died on 27th November, 1951, at the age of 77 years, had been a 
member of This Society since 1930. 


THOMAS HARVEY JOHNSTON was born and educated in Sydney and died at Adelaide on 30th 
August, 1951, aged 70. He became a member of the Society in 1909, and a Corresponding 
member in 1912. He graduated in Arts at the Sydney University in 1904 and in Science in 
1906. He obtained his M.A. in 1907 and D.Sc. in 1911. He was Lecturer in Zoology and 
Physiology at the Sydney Technical College (1907-1909) and Assistant Microbiologist in the 
Bureau of Microbiology, N.S.W. (1909-1911), in which State he was responsible for the revival 
of plant pathology after the departure, in 1905, of Dr. N. A. Cobb to take up a post in Hawaii. 
Among his early studies of note in this field were those associated with first outbreaks of Irish 
blight of potatoes in Australia. He was Lecturer, and later Professor, of Biology in the University 
of Queensland (1911-1922), and Professor of Zoology in the University of Adelaide (1922-1951). 


OBITUARY. XV 


Professor Johnston has been one of the leading Australian zoologists for many years and was 
Honorary Zoologist to the Australian, Queensland and South Australian Museums. 


In the course of his work he travelled widely : as a member of the Prickly Pear Travelling 
Commission, which visited many countries of the world in search of a means of controlling prickly 
pear (and it was on his recommendation that the Commission introduced the cochineal parasite 
to control the pest) ; on several anthropological expeditions from Adelaide into Central Australia ; 
‘ and twice to the Antarctic with the British, Australian and New Zealand Antarctic Research 
Expeditions. 

He published more than 200 scientific papers, chiefly on Australian parasitology. He was 
President of the Royal Society of Queensland, Queensland Field Naturalists’ Club, Royal Society 
of South Australia, Entomological Club of South Australia, Anthropological Society of South 
Australia, and Zoological Section of the Australian Association for the Advancement of Science. 
In recognition of the excellence of his work he was awarded the David Syme Memorial Medal 
(1913), the Polar Medal (1934), the Sir Joseph Verco Medal (1935), and the Mueller Memorial 
Medal (1939). 


ANDREW GisB MAITLAND, who was elected an Honorary Member of This Society in 1915 and 
died on 27th January, 1951, was the last of the pioneer geologists of Australia. Born in Hudders- 
field, Yorkshire, on 30th November, 1864, he studied geology at Yorkshire College, Leeds, under 
Professors A. H. Green, W. W. Watts and J. E. Marr. 


At the age of twenty-four, he was appointed Assistant Geologist to the Geological Survey 
of Queensland, where, under the direction of the late Dr. R. L. Jack, he spent eight years, some of 
his most important work being connected with the survey of the north-eastern intake beds of 
the Great Artesian Basin. During his period of service in Queensland, he was seconded in 1891 
to accompany Sir William Macgregor in his explorations in New Guinea, and produced the first 
systematic account of the geology of Papua as known at that time. 


In 1896 he went to Western Australia as Government Geologist and Director of the Geological 
Survey, a position in which he laboured for thirty years. Apart from administrative 
achievements, which included the organization and enlargement of the Geological Survey and 
the determination and implementation of its policy, he made important and far-reaching contri- 
butions to the general and economic geology of the State. Outstanding among these were the 
discovery of artesian water and the elucidation and mapping of the geology of the Pilbara area in © 
the ‘‘ north-west ”’. 


It was due to his careful field work that he was able to predict the occurrence of valuable 
supplies of artesian water in the country between Shark Bay and North-West Cape (an area of 
pastoral possibilities but poorly provided with surface water), and later in the West Kimberley 
region, around Perth and in the Nullarbor Plain. 


He initiated a geological survey of the Pilbara region (which became noted as a producer of 
gold, tin, tantalum and the rare-earth metals) and was responsible for the publication of several 
important Bulletins of the Geological Survey dealing with the geology of various mineral fields 
im the State. The extensive knowledge of the geology of the State gained by himself and his 
staff was epitomized in his ‘‘ Summary of the Geology of Western Australia ’’, published in 1919. 
accompanied by a coloured geological map. 


Maitland took an active interest in the advancement of Science. He played an important 
part in the foundation of the Royal Society of Western Australia, of which he was twice President. 
and was for twenty-five years Local Secretary of A.N.Z.A.A.S. and President of Section C (Geology) 
in 1907. 

He was awarded the M ueller Medal of A.N.Z.A.A.S. in 1924, the Clarke Memorial Medal of 
This Society in 1927, and the Kelvin Memorial Medal of the Royal Society of Western Australia 
in 1937. 


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PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS 


By R. C. L. BOSWORTH, Ph.D., D.Sc. 


Delivered before the Royal Society of New South Wales, April 2, 1952, 


Part I. 


THE SOCIETY’S ACTIVITIES DURING THE PAST YEAR. 


The year under review will long be remembered for two important events : 
the Jubilee of the Commonwealth of Australia, followed shortly afterwards by 
the tragic news of the death of His Well-Beloved Majesty King George VI. 
I was among one of the many millions who were shocked by the solemn news, 
which came through so unexpectedly just eight weeks ago. On behalf of the 
Members and Council I sent a letter to Her Majesty Queen Elizabeth expressing 
our respectful sympathy. 


In the Jubilee celebrations, your Society played its part as the leading 
organizer in the Jubilee Conversazione held in the Great Hall of the University 
of Sydney. Other scientific and professional bodies co-operating with the Royal 
Society in this event were: The Institution of Engineers, Australia; The 
Royal Australian Chemical Institute ; The Institute of Physics, N.S.W. Division ; 
The Institute of Mining and Metallurgy ; and the Linnean Society of N.S.W. 
The Conversazione provided a brilliant display on the evening of Wednesday, 
April 18th, and was much appreciated when the exhibition was thrown open to 
the general public on the following day. I think it is only fit at this stage that 
we should express our appreciation of the pioneer organizational work done for 
this function by your last year’s Council, and in particular by my immediate 
predecessor in office, Mr. F. R. Morrison. 

As another fitting mark of the Jubilee year, the Society arranged to cover, 
in its normal course of popular science lectures, representative scientific achieve- 
ments of the last half century, with special reference to Australia. Lectures 
were given on the following subjects : 


On May 7th Dr. P. R. McMahon spoke on ‘ Wool ”’. 


On July 18th Prof. Harvey Sutton spoke on “Science, Medicine and 
Health in the 20th Century ”’. 


On August 16th Dr. W. R. Browne spoke on ‘‘ Shore Fluctuations, Their 
Causes and Effects ”’. 


On September 20th Prof. R. J. W. Le Fevre spoke on “‘ Chemical Discovery 
and Invention Through the Last Half Century ”’. 


On Octcber 18th Rev. J. L. K. O’Connell spoke on ‘“ Seismology ”’. 


While in some instances a combination of inclement weather and electricity 
blackouts resulted in audiences of a disappointing size, their enthusiasm 
invariably paid tribute to the lecturer, and I would like again to express to our 
popular science lecturers the appreciation of the Society. 

The general meetings of the Society have, this year, been somewhat more 
varied than usual. Fewer papers have been read before the Society, and in 

B 


2 R. C. L. BOSWORTH. 


their place lecturettes and exhibitions have been given. Two symposia were 
arranged and one evening was devoted to the showing of scientific films. The 
subject matter at the meetings generally was well balanced and was appreciated 
by the audiences. 


On Monday, June 18th, your President and Secretary waited on His 
Excellency the Governor, Sir John Northcott. His Excellency expressed keen 
interest in the affairs of the Society and was looking forward to an occasion 
when he might be present at one of our functions. 


The Council, to whose report you have listened earlier this evening, has 
been untiring in applying itself to the business of the Society and in giving me, 
as your President, unstinted co-operation. In a year of financial stringency, 
there have been many controversial matters brought before the governing body 
of the Society, and while initial opinions held by Councillors were often very 
varied, yet when the matter in question had been thoroughly discussed and the 
time had come to take the vote it was frequently an unanimous one. I repeat, 
your Council has been one which it has been a pleasure to lead, and I am grateful 
to each and every one of them. Particularly, however, am I indebted to the 
members of your Executive Committee. I was fortunate in that this body 
contained two past Presidents of the Society, who were able to give me valued 
advice aS well as co-operation, namely Mr. Morrison as the immediate past 
President, and Mr. Wood who was President in 1949 and who, in spite of the 
fact that he has already served the Society for many years, yet accepted again 
the responsibilities of Business Secretary, responsibilities which he shouldered 
So willingly and so well that the task of your President was made so much the 
lighter. Dr. Ida Browne has again acted as Editorial Secretary, and in that 
position she has done, I assure you, more than any other single person in restoring 
our Journal to a position where it appears reasonably on time. In addition, 
Dr. Browne has been tireless in exploring all possibilities of saving costs by 
efficient editorship. 


And now to our Honorary Treasurer, Dr. C. J. Magee, there is due a special 
word of appreciation. Under present conditions the position of treasurer in 
any society such as ours is a most unenviable one, and while, as you have heard, 
we have recorded a large deficit, I can assure you that, had it not been for the 
efficient management of Dr. Magee, the deficit would have been a far larger one. 


Among the other functions performed for the Society by Dr. Magee has 
been that of placing our financial position before persons and bodies likely to 
be interested. Not long ago he visited officers of the Rural Development 
Branch of the Commonwealth Bank, and shortly afterwards we heard that the 
Society had been made a grant of £400 from the fund administered by this 
branch of the Bank. The grant arrived too late for inclusion in this year’s 
balance sheet but will provide a very favourable starting point for the new 
financial year under our new President, Dr. C. J. Magee. Let me here express 
our deep appreciation of the action of the Bank in making this grant. 


I must also at this stage refer to the valuable work done by our Honorary 
Librarian, Mr. F. N. Hanlon. The duties which he has performed have largely 
relieved the Secretary of responsibility for library matters, permitting that officer 
to devote himself more fully to the other business of the Society. I, as President, 
the Council and every member are indebted to Mr. Hanlon in this matter. 


Lastly, I must refer to the work of our Assistant Secretaries, Miss M. Ogle 
and Mrs. M. Golding, who have managed the office and library of the Society 
in a most efficient and courteous manner. Few members are aware that the 
smooth running of these general meetings of ours, and likewise our Council 
meetings, are due to the very complete and orderly agenda prepared in advance 
by our Assistant Secretaries. 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 3 


And now it is my regretful duty to refer to the balance sheet. We are 
passing through a period when the cost of every service we offer to members is 
erowing, and in many cases growing at an alarming rate. While our Society 
can still claim to be a comparatively wealthy one, we cannot continue to sustain 
such deficits and must either contract our services or seek additional sources of 
revenue. For some little time your Executive has been pressing the State 
Government for an increase in our grant—so far unsuccessfully. However, 
you have already heard of one successful venture in this field by our President- 
elect, and it will be one of the most urgent tasks of the new Council you have 
just elected to continue to explore all other possible lines of action in this matter 
of securing additional revenue from those bodies who, directly or indirectly, 
derive benefit from the activities of the Society. 


During the year we have had somewhat fewer papers accepted for publication 
than in the immediately previous years. Not only have there been fewer papers 
offered, but, in addition, your Council has adopted a more stringent editorial 
policy. The world standing of the Society is judged, primarily, on the contents 
of its Journal, and if the rising costs of publication are to enforce restriction of 
our output it is doubly imperative to ensure that those papers which are accepted 
are of the highest possible quality. 


I might, at this stage, be permitted a word to the authors of our papers. 
I have gained the impression, both from the chair, and, in earlier days, in the 
audience, that authors, and particularly young authors, when reading a paper 
are very much on the defensive and are attempting to justify their methods and 
conclusions before the audience in this hall. I would remind these authors 
that before their papers are even accepted by the Council for reading and/or 
publication that these papers have been submitted to the highest authorities 
in the appropriate subject which your Editor and Council could find, and found 
acceptable. When it comes to reading to the persons present in this hall, the 
author is usually by far the highest authority on the subject matter of his paper 
and the audience are interested primarily in comprehending sufficient of the 
subject matter to be able to judge what relation new facts brought forward by 
the author bear to the structure of science as a whole and each to their own 
little field in particular. As I said at the dinner six days ago, one of the most 
pressing problems facing scientists as a class is that of breaking down the growing 
barrier of incomprehensibility between experts in different fields, and I believe 
that the author who is reading an abstruse paper before the body of this Society 
and attempting to make the contents comprehensive to the audience is making 
a genuine effort in that regard. 


The translation of scientific achievement to improved standards of living 
usually demands the co-ordination of the experts in many different fields, not 
only scientific—a fact recently observed by Meier (1951)—and the Royal Society 
would serve an end valuable not only to scientists themselves but to the industrial 
world as well, if it could promote better understanding between scientists in 
different fields. 


PART If, 


TRANSPORT PROCESSES IN APPLIED CHEMISTRY. 


(I) INTRODUCTION. 


While a presidential address has to be acceptable to an audience of mixed 
scientific interests, it is also traditionally expected to deal with some of the 
more recent developments in one particular branch of science. In an attempt 
to make some kind of a bridge between the requirements of generalization on 

BB 


4. R. C. L. BOSWORTH. 


one hand and close specialization on the other, I shall follow the course of first 
defining the relation between the subject matter of this address and the better 
known physical sciences. 

The translation of a chemical reaction or synthesis from a primary gain in 
chemical knowledge made in the laboratory to an industrial achievement involves 
the co-ordination of chemical developments with those gained in other fields. 
This has now been known for a considerable time and has frequently formed the 
bases of discussions, especially in the last decade. An important member of 
these allied studies is that of Physics, concerned as that subject is with the 
measurement, control and co-ordination of the properties of reactants, inter- 
mediates, resultants and equipment and with the balance of the forces acting 
between these bodies (Bosworth, 1950). 


While physicists in general would agree that their subject finds important 
application in the field of chemical industry, there appears to be a fertile field 
for discussion in considering just what branches of physics are of major 
importance in such an application. There is fairly general agreement, for 
example, that methods of measurement of the physical properties of materials 
of construction and process materials form an important section of such a 
study. It is more difficult to get agreement as to the value of the other less 
direct applications, and it is on one of these applications that I have elected to 
speak this evening. 

Many of the engineering operations of the chemical and other industries 
involve the transport of matter and/or physical properties from one point to 
another in a material assembly. The chemical engineering unit operation of 
drying, for example, involves the transfer of water molecules from one medium 
(the material to be dried) to another (the drying agent), and simultaneously 
and necessarily the transfer of heat in the opposite direction. The study of 
this and other allied unit operations is of subject matter proper to chemical 
engineering, but the study of the transport processes in themselves is, I claim, 
an aspect of physics as applied principally, but by no means exclusively, to the 
chemical industry. 


(II) THE Two WAYS OF STUDYING TRANSPORT PROCESSES. 


In the discussion of the transport of physical properties such as heat, 
momentum and the electric current, it is convenient to consider the property 
concerned as transported by the movement of certain mobile parts of the assembly 
which, in moving, carry the property concerned with them. Heat and electric 
current in metals, for example, are conducted by the movement of the so-called 
free electrons. In gases, both heat and momentum may be transported by the 
random movement of the molecules, whereas electric current may only be 
transported by ionized particles. In other systems, non-material entities— 
electromagnetic or acoustical waves—can act as carriers. It is convenient 
to extend the concept of carrier from physical properties to material particles. 
Oxygen diffusing through air, for example, can be transported by the movement 
of oxygen molecules, which thus constitute the carriers. Carbon dioxide 
diffusing through, for example, a limed sugar solution, can be carried as carbon 
dioxide molecules or in the form of carbonate or bicarbonate ions. 

One particular class of carrier, aS we have seen in the example above, may 
often transport two or more properties, and there necessarily arises a certain 
degree of parallelism between the different transport processes so that it is 
frequently possible and often desirable to argue from one process to another 
by analogy. 

There are two Ways in which transport processes. may be studied. We 
may take a mechanical picture and consider the different carriers operative 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 5 


and the mechanism of their movement. On the other hand the flow involved 
in a transport process may be considered as a physical property in its own right 
and related to other properties of the system. The best known example of this, 
the phenomenological approach, is of course the study of current electricity. 
The study of heat transfer is, of course, also well known, as in the possibility of 
arguing from electric current to heat flow by means of setting up the equivalent 
electric circuit. The use of such devices for studying complicated heat (and 
incidentally also mass) transfer by analogy with an electrical circuit has recently 
been considered in detail by Paschkis and his co-workers (1942, 1946). 


(III) RECENT DEVELOPMENTS. 


The mechanical study of transport phenomena on the molecular basis was 
first encountered in the Kinetic Theory of gas as developed by Joule, Clausius, 
Maxwell, Crookes, Jeans, Loeb, Knudsen (1934), Chapman and Cowling (1939) 
and others. Here the movement of individual molecules in a molecular assembly 
results in a scattering of local differences in composition or in the concentration 
of such physical properties as momentum and energy; and also, if the gas is 
ionized, of the electric charge. 


Fundamental study on the molecular basis in condensed phases has not 
proved as easy as in gaseous systems, but we have recently seen the development 
of an embryo Kinetic Theory of Liquid by Born and Green (1949) and also by 
Eisenschitz (1950). | 


The study of transport phenomena on the molar as distinct from the 
molecular bases has been developed in the theory of turbulence by Prandtl, 
von Karman, G. I. Taylor, E. G. Richardson and others. Similarly, transport 
produced by convective mechanism has been studied in connection with the 
flow of heat, evaporation processes and, more recently, in the corrosion of 
metals (Bosworth, 1950a, 1951). 


On the basis of the phenemological approach to transport processes a 
major development has occurred in the growth of the thermodynamics of 
irreversible phenomena developed by Onsager (1931), Prigogine (1949), Cox 
(1950), de Groot (1951) and others, and in the recent publication of a book on 
this subject by de Groot. 


Just what significance the ultimate development of theory in this field 
may have for the more humble practising chemist may be appreciated by 
reference to a very old physico-chemical principle. I refer to the principle of 
Le Chatelier, which says in effect that any chemical reaction gives rise to physical 
conditions which tend to stop and ultimately to reverse the reaction. Thus 
conditions for a reaction which is exothermic are rendered less favourable by a 
rise in temperature. Continuation of any reaction is thus ultimately contingent 
on the transport processes which dissipate the unfavourable conditions produced 
by the reaction. Further, the dissipation of any changed physical property is 
usually rendered more difficult by an increase in the size of the containing vessels. 
The large scale manufacturer of a chemical product is usually much more 
dependent on the transport processes than the laboratory worker. Where one 
or more transport processes become rate determining factors for any particular 
reaction, some knowledge of these processes is imperative if the chemical engineer 
is to face his design problem with intelligence. 


(IV) TYPE OF TRANSPORT PROCESS. 


A flow process is characterized by the occurrence of a flux or current of 
some particular substance or property. This current may always be expressed 
as the temporal derivative of a particular parameter of the system. The current 


6 R. C. L. BOSWORTH. 


further proceeds under the influence of a driving force or potential which takes 
different values in different parts of the assembly. 


As examples of such flow processes we may cite: 


Hydraulic or mechanical flow. 
The electric current. 

The flow of heat. 

Chemical diffusion. 

Momentum flow or fluid friction. 
Magnetic displacement. 

Elastic and plastic deformation. 
Relaxational phenomena. 
Chemical reaction. 


This list of processes may be divided into three classes, depending on the 
tensor rank of the flux. In the first four processes the flux is a directed vector 
quantity. In the next three the flux is a tensor of the second rank. In the 
last two processes the flux is that of a change between two co-existing and 
spatially superimposed distinct states of the assembly and as such is a scalar 
quantity. 

Again, magnetic displacement differs from the other processes listed above 
in that continual magnetic flux can only occur in a magnetic system in which 
the driving force is continually changing. The flow in such a system is referred 
to as a displacement current. Pure displacement currents also occur in ideally 
elastic bodies—+z.e. those not subject to plastic deformation, and in electric 
phenomena in dielectric bodies. 


— 
SESE 


SESS 


i) 
— 


(V) GENERAL PROPERTIES OF TRANSPORT SYSTEMS. 


While the properties of transport systems differ according to whether the 
flux is a scalar, vector or tensor quantity, and to whether it constitutes a real 
or a displacement current, there are certain general properties shown by all 
such systems. 

Every transport process, a8 we have seen, consists of a flux produced by 
the influence of a potential difference and carried by the movement of mobile 
carriers. The types of carrier operative differ both with the properties carried 
and with the systems concerned. A table of some of the important carriers 
with the properties for which they may be effective in maintaining flow is given 
below (Table I). 


TABER ,§. 
Carrier Operative for the Different Transport Systems. 


Carrier. | Effective in the Flow of. 

Steady electromagnetic field .. | Electric current, magnetic flux. 

Alternating electromagnetic field Electric current, magnetic flux, heat flux, momentum flow. 

Steady elastic field 3 .. | Elastic deformation. 

Alternating elastic field .. .. | Elastic deformation, heat flux, momentum flow. 

Electrons Ms Me he .. | Electric current, heat flux. 

Tons ae ii, hs .. | Electric current, heat flux, chemical diffusion, momentum 
flow. 

Molecules... Hs ro .. | Heat flux, chemical diffusion, momentum flow. 

Molar aggregates... we .. | Heat flux, hydraulic flow, chemical diffusion, momentum 
flow. i 

Convection currents als .. | Heat flux, hydraulic flow, chemical diffusion, momentum 
flow. 


Metastable molecules ae .. | Heat flux, chemical diffusion. 


Sard 
6 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 


In any transport system the flux may be regarded as proceeding from an 
initial point or source to a final point or sink. The possibility of endless flux 
lines (or toroidal fluxes), however, is not excluded. Given a distribution of 
carriers continuous along some path or paths from the source to the sink, flux 
will only occur if there exists a potential difference between the source and the 
sink and, usually, if there is a continuous potential fall along the “ conducting 
path ’’ joining these two points. Current or flux is the time rate of change of 
some physical parameter of the system which we may call the change (Q). In 
classical transport systems we may define the potential difference between any 
two points (say A and B) as the work done in taking unit charge from B to A. 
In considering the thermodynamics of irreversible processes, it has been found 
more convenient to take a definition of the potential difference as the entropy 
generated when unit charge is taken in the reverse direction, namely from 
Ato B. If AS is the entropy of the system measured with respect to a state 
of equilibrium, and if Q, is the charge, X, the potential and J; the flow, all 
measured with respect to the it property, then we have as a definition of X, 
and J, 


Ley OOS) 

X,= i eal cai ee (1) 
dQ; 

0 fee at. Siistinitishione: lal eb ieurejre ies) -el\/eue7pe) er ele \s: (6. “) 76, Fe (2) 


It is, as a matter of observation, frequently noted that, at least for a limited. 
range of X,; over a conducting path, the flux is directly proportional to the 
potential difference 


5 MSY Gi a (3) 


where the property(ies) L; may be known as the conductance or phenomenological 
constants. Applied to current electricity, equation (3) becomes a statement 
of Ohm’s law; to chemical diffusion, Fick’s law ; to heat flow, Fourier’s law ; 
to the transport of momentum, a definition of Newtonian behaviour ; and to 
hydraulic flow, a statement of the Poiseuille equation. 


In any transport process proceeding from a source A to a sink B under a 
potential difference which is maintained at some fixed value, the flux at all 
points along the conducting path eventually settles down to a condition in which 
just as much charge flows into any and every elementary volume of that path 
in unit time as flows out of that same volume. Such a transport process is 
said to have attained steady flow conditions and is associated with a steady 
potential fall along the conducting path. If now, however, the potential 
difference between source and sink were suddenly altered, the current would 
not immediately settle down to conditions of steady flow. Before such is 
attained, a certain time must elapse, during which the current flows into local 
sources and sinks all along the conducting path until such points are brought 
up to the new operating local potential. While charge is thus going into storage 
along the path, the flow is said to be in the unsteady state. The magnitude of 
the charge required to raise any volume of the conducting path by unity is 
referred to as the capacity of that volume. For a path having a capacity C 
and conductance L, the condition of unsteady flow persists for a time proportional 
to C/E. 

For some transport processes, particularly current electricity and hydraulic 
flow in pipes, it is often permissible to regard the conducting path as a linear one. 
With other processes, particularly heat flow and chemical diffusion, the con- 
ducting path is often very diffuse and we may prefer to have local measures of 
the intensity of the current and potential properties. The most convenient 


§ R. C. L. BOSWORTH. 


of such local measures are the field and the flux or current density.. By the 
field (#), we mean the local measure of the gradient of the potential, and by the 
flux density (7) we mean the quantity of charge crossing unit area normal to the 
direction of flow 


and feb land). tenes aa (5) 


If we choose the « direction to be locally the line of steepest descent of the 
potential, then 


ax 
Se 
uy 
sae 


Boj ....0.- +p 10a (6) 


where o, the specific conductance or conductivity, is related to the conductance 
LE by 

_ Lye 

= 
When dealing with local unsteady state flow the capacity of the path as a whole 


may be replaced by the concept of the specific capacity (y) or capacity per unit 
volume 


Both o and y are properties of the medium constituting the conducting 
path. The flow, while in the unsteady state, proceeds by a diffusive mechanism 


with a diffusivity De (Bosworth, 1949). This diffusivity has the physical 


p 
dimension of - for every type of transport process. On the other hand, the 


physical dimensions of conductivities (and specific capacities) in general differ 
with each different transport process. 


(VI) THE ENTROPY SOURCE. 


Whenever a flow process takes place work is dissipated or entropy generated. 
For any single transport process, the rate of generation of entropy is equal to 
the product of the flux by the potential, namely 


The local entropy generated per unit volume per unit time in a large con- 
ducting path is likewise given by the product 7x #H. Entropy is generated 
only by the flowing in conductances. Entropy is not generated by the flow of 
charge into capacities. Such a process is reversible while the flow in con- 
ductances is not. 


(VII) Cross POTENTIAL DIFFERENCES. THE ONSAGER RELATIONSHIPS. 


The single transport process discussed above is comparatively rare. 
Frequently a single potential difference gives rise to two or more fluxes. Thus 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 9 


a temperature difference in a circuit involving two different metals gives rise 
not only to a heat current but also to an electric current—the so-called thermo- 
electric effect. In a mixture of two different chemical substances, a temperature 
can give rise both to a heat flow and to the differential migration of one of the 
chemical constituents in the phenomena of thermal diffusion. When coupled 
transport processes of this nature occur we must modify equation (3) to the 
form 


SOS Cel Mek Oe (9) 
3 | 


where the current now depends on a whole number of different potentials and 
the potential conversely depends on a whole number of different currents. 
The phenemological coefficients L,, with 14k now represent the effect of cross 
potential differences such as the thermoelectric and Peltier coefficients, electro- 
osmosis and the streaming potential and so on. The fundamental equation to 
these phenemological constants for cross fluxes is given by the Onsager reciprocal 
relations (Onsager, 1931; de Groot, 1951) which state that, for all 7’s and k’s 


Tig Totnes cients ate ty, (10) 


provided the fluxes and potentials have been defined in a proper manner. A 
proper choice of these quantities demands that the fluxes should be the time 


derivative of the state parameters A,,....A,, and that the entropy change 
produced in the system by a departure of these state parameters by amounts 
Q;,-..-Q,, ete., from their equilibrium value should be a quadratic expression 
of these quantities, namely 
AS=34 = Ce ONO Ochs sei gs Pray Shaus 2 (11) 
Jj 
Since the @,’s commute, the quantities J;, also may be taken as symmetric 
Dh pad [ee COR OOo Le rcm ute ONC) Oath Datla co Con (12) 
Since the potentials X, are defined by 
o( AS) 
Sa setts ae Gian, SAIN MEE TT Shieh Geuze apa ¥en eli i 
saa) 
It follows that 
A — Xd .Q, ot Sis ne ke\es Is hetelerte eis) 6) 6 6 leeks. (14) 


and that the J;,’s are the capacity factors. 


The Onsager reciprocal relationship may be proved on the basis of the 
principle of detailed balancing, and provides a basis for the theoretical treatment 
of all examples of coupled transport processes. 

Particular examples occur in electric and thermal conduction in anisotropic 
media. In such media the resultant flux density is not necessarily co-directional 
with the applied potential field. Ina field with components LZ, H,, FE. the resultant 
flows are j,,j,,j- given by the equation 


B.+k,,B, +h, 


J "2, -h Hk, 2, 
jh, +k, EL, +k,E 


ZU 2 Zommiee 


The k,,’s are subject to the Onsager reciprocal relationship 
Kiyy=Kyxy ete. 


ay 


jah 


10 R. C. L. BOSWORTH. 


This particular symmetry with regard to the thermal and electric conductivity 
tensors, even when the crystal order did not demand such symmetry, has been 
known for a long time. 


A limitation on the possible degrees of coupling between different transport 
processes is provided by the principle referred to as Curie’s law (Curie, 1908), 
which states that coupling is only possible between transport processes of the 
same rank. In other words, coupling is not possible between scalar chemical 
reaction and vector mass diffusion or between vector heat conduction and tensor 
momentum flow. 


(Vill) INDUCTIVE PHENOMENA. 


In certain types of coupled transport processes it is possible to trace a 
cyclic relationship between the flow of the properties concerned. This condition 
arises when the second p.d. in the circuit is produced as a result of the first 
current and conversely the first p.d. is produced by the second current. Thus 
in an appropriate circuit a magneto-motive force may be set up by an electric 
current and an electromotive force as the result of a (displacement) magnetic 
current. Again, when a fluid flows in a pipe, the hydraulic current gives rise 
to velocity differences across any one sectional area. These velocity differences 
constitute potential differences for the transport of momentum and thus tend 
to drive a momentum current across these sectional areas. The momentum 
flow in turn constitutes a stress and as such provides the potential for an 
hydraulic flow. Other examples of this type of cyclic coupling could be given. 


Pairs of transport processes coupled in such a way that the X, depends on 
the J, and the X, on the J, have some interesting properties concerned with the 
transient state. Any sudden increase in X, gives rise to transient processes 
resulting in a storage of charge in the capacities associated with circuit 1. The 
effect of these capacities alone results in the change in flux J, lagging behind 
the change in potential X,. On the other hand, change in J, results in an 
instantaneous change in X, which leads to storage of charge 2 in the capacities 
associated with circuit 2. The action of these capacities alone results in the 
change of flux J, and thus the potential X, lagging behind the change in J. 
The capacities for circuit 2 thus act as the inductances for circuit 1 (and vice 
versa). Again, any increase in the resistance of circuit 2 acts as an increase in 
the conductance of circuit 1 (and again vice versa). If, however, one of the 
coupled transport processes is of a pure displacement type, this process will 
make no contribution to the steady state conductance of the other process, but, 
by adding inductances to the capacities may profoundly effect the transient 
phenomena. 


Inductive phenomena are, of course, best known in electrical and mechanical 
transport systems but other coupled transport processes also give rise to these 
phenomena. Examples connected with heat flow by natural convection have 
been given by the author (Bosworth, 1946, 1948). 


(IX) TREATMENT OF COUPLED TRANSPORT PROCESSES. 


Some of the most complicated examples of coupled transport phenomena 
occur in the field of chemical industry. Even comparatively simple chemical 
engineering operations involve consideration of several transport processes. 
In the process of fractional distillation, for example, there occurs, at each stage, 
an exchange of two or more chemical components as well as the associated latent 
heats between the two interacting streams. At the same time the two streams, 
one liquid and one vapour, are flowing in opposite directions under driving 
forces ultimately provided by the overall temperature difference across the 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 11 


still. An interesting discussion of the performance of a fractionating column, 
from the point of view of thermostatic equilibrium rather than in terms of the 
irreversible transport processes, has been given by Rossini (1950). 


A continuous chemical reaction provides a still more complicated example of 
coupled and interlocked transport processes. In any typical reactor in which 
reagents flow into the reaction zone under prescribed physical conditions, 
react there with resultant change in heat content and volume, and then flow out 
- again, there occurs simultaneously the following transport processes : 


(a) Flow of heat. 

(6) Flow of momentum. 

(c) Flow of each of the chemical reagents and resultants. 

(d) Chemical reaction or reactions. And possibly there may occur 
(e) Relaxational phenomena. 


Progress of each flow process depends not only on its own phenemological 
constants and storage capacities, but also on the degree of coupling with other 
transport processes. In each process too there may be several carriers operative. 


Attempts at a theoretical treatment of these coupled processes have been 
made in several different manners : 


(a) By using the thermodynamics of irreversible processes. 
(b) By dimensional analysis. 
(c) By using model methods. 


A comprehensive discussion of the application of the first method has 
been given by de Groot (1951). The second (the method of dimensions) has 
been discussed by a number of authors. An early paper by Greenewalt (1926) 
discussed application of dimensional methods to the problem of the absorption 
of water by sulphuric acid. The application of the same method to a continuous 
chemical reactor has been discussed by Damkohler (1936), by Edgeworth- 
Johnstone (1939) and by Bosworth (1946), all of whom were concerned with 
laying down conditions of similarity between reactors of different sizes. The 
conditions, however, are so stringent that the method is only applicable in 
certain special instances. 


The application of model methods to heat and mass flow problems has 
become a tool of power and importance in the hands of Paschkis and his co- 
workers. <A similar comprehensive attempt to apply such methods to all the 
transport processes occurring in a chemical reaction has not been reported, 
although Wilhelm, Johnson, Wynhoop and Collier (1948) have applied this 
method to the transport processes occurring in fixed-bed catalyst converters. 


(X) GRAND TRANSPORT PROCESSES. 


The concept of an irreversible transport process or flow occurring under the 
influence of a potential or driving force at a rate dependent upon conductance 
terms when in the steady state, and on combined conductance and capacity 
terms when in the transient state, is by no means restricted to phenomena on the 
molecular scale. On the contrary, many industrial and other operations 
involving the irreversible generation of entropy may be regarded as examples 
of transport processes. The distribution of steam from boiler house to the 
various thermal sinks of a factory is a typical example. Because, however, 
such a process, while involving an overall transport under a driving force, may 
also be resolved into a series of microscopic and molecular transport processes— 


12 R. C. L. BOSWORTH. 


heat flow, chemical diffusion, etc., it is perhaps appropriate to refer to the 
aggregate process as a Grand Transport Process. The operation of the fractiona- 
tion column considered in the section above constitutes another example of 
such a grand transport process. 


(XI) FEEDBACK. 


A type of flow circuit which is involved in many different forms of engineering 
equipment causes the main stream of the grand transport process to divide at 
some point or points in the conducting path. Part of the stream then goes on 
and another part is fed back to an earlier stage in the system. Circuits with 
feedback of this nature are particularly well known in radio physics, but the 
general effect of similar feedback in hydraulic and chemical systems is not at 
all well understood and would appear to offer a particularly apt subject for 
study by the method of models mentioned above. A heat exchanger is a 
particularly simple example of an engineering equipment based on a transport 
process with feedback. The performance of a factory as a whole, considered - 
as a flow from sources (raw materials) to sinks (scrap heaps, sewers, chimney 
stacks and sales departments), could also usually be represented as that of a 
grand transport process with multiple feedback. The influence of this feedback 
on the time of the transient period—or the time taken to settle down after a 
break—is frequently sensed by factory personnel but has never received the 
detailed study it undoubtedly merits. 


(XIT) EFFICIENCY. 


In the study of thermodynamics we are familiar with the concept of efficiency 
of operation as an inverse measure of the useful energy wasted in carrying out 
the operation; and also with the fact that certain classes of operation are 
inherently more efficient than others. Such a concept has yet to develop with 
respect to industrial chemical operations. The efficiency, just like the efficiency 
of a prime mover, could be judged on the balance of the entropy of the raw 
material coming in through the various sources—including fuel, power and 
services—and on the finished materials going out through all sinks. The 
difference is a measure of the entropy generated when the irreversible process 
constituted by the factory operation takes place and is minimized when that 
factory reaction is carried out in the most efficient manner. As far as I know, 
no attempt to carry out such a balance has yet been made. A very rough 
preliminary survey of a particularly simple industrial chemical operation has, 
however, indicated a very low overall efficiency. 

The present industrial index of efficiency is cost. A process is judged good 
if of low cost, and there is probably some truth in such a judgment, but the 
correlation between cost and thermodynamical efficiency is by no means perfect. 
Examples could be given of operations judged desirable on a cost basis which to 
future generations appeared disastrous. Witness, for example, the profligate 
waste of potential organic chemicals in coal, and, as a simpler example, the 
direct-acting steam-reciprocating pump, which while praised by old hands for 
its reliability, has a thermodynamical efficiency of 2° or under and is a source 
of profligate waste of power. 

Again, analysis on the cost basis gives little real indication as to what benefits, 
if any, may be expected from more concentrated industrial research, whereas 
analysis of the factory operations into steps with the efficiency shown for each 
would indicate at once where intensive research would not likely result in 
improved performance. 

I do not think I am being fanciful here. Analysis of prime movers thermo- 
dynamically has provided just such information and has resulted in a steady 


PRESIDENTIAL ADDRESS. 13 


improvement in efficiency. Further, while the science of thermodynamics was 
developed over 100 years ago from a fundamental study of the performance of 
heat engines it has, particularly in the last half century, increasingly been 
applied to chemical phenomena and now provides the theoretical basis of chemical 
energetics. The concerted use of thermodynamical principles to the 
improvement of the efficiency of thermally operated equipment is much more 
recent. A similar application to improve the efficiency of industrial chemical 
operations has yet to begin. Most of the fundamental information necessary 
for finding, for example, the relative rates of entropy generation in the different 
steps of the grand transport process constituting a factory operation, or for 
choosing the most efficient (7.e. the least wasteful) way of preparing a given 
product, are now available. Perhaps some day in the not too distant future 
we shall hear that sufficient data has accumulated to enable these applications 
to be made. 


REFERENCES. 


Avrami, M., and Paschkis, V., 1941. Bull. Amer. Phys. Soc., 16, 15. 

Born, M., and Green, H. 8., 1949. ‘‘ A General Kinetic Theory of Liquids.”’ C.U.P. 

Bosworth, R. C. L., 1946. Nature, 158, 309. 

—_—_—_———. 1947. Tris JourNAL, 81, 15-23. 

—_—_—_________—— 1948. Nature, 161, 166-7. 

——_—_—_—__—_—_——— 1949. Jour. and Proc. Aust. Chem. Inst., 460-82. 

—_—— 1950. ‘* Physics in Chemical Industry.’? Macmillan. 

——__-+—__—_—__——. 1950a. Tuts JourNaAt, 83, 8-30, 124-33. 

—__—_— 1951. Tris JOURNAL, 84, 53-8. ; 

Chapman, 8., and Cowling, T. G., 1939. ‘‘ The Mathematical Theory of Non-Uniform Gases.”’ 
@.ULP. 

Cox, R. T., 1950. Reviews of Mod. Phys., 32, 238-48. 

Curie, P., 1908. ‘‘ Ghuvres.’’ Gauthier-Villars, Paris, 127. 

Damkohler, G., 1936. Z. Electrochem. 42, 846-62. 

Edgeworth-Johnstone, R., 1939. Trans. Inst. Chem. Engrs., 17, 129-36. 

Hisenschitz, R., 1950. Nature, 167, 216-20. 

Groot, 8S. R. de, 1951. ‘* Thermodynamics of Irreversible Processes.” North Holland Pub- 
hshing Co., Amsterdam. 

Greenwalt, C. H., 1926. Ind. Eng. Chem., 18, 1291-95. 

Knudsen, M., 1934. ‘‘ The Kinetic Theory of Gases.” Methuen, London. 

Meier, R. L., 1951. Research, 4, 463-70. 

Onsager, L., 1931. Phys. Rev., 37, 405-26; 38, 2265-79. 

Paschkis, V., and Baker, H. D., 1942. Trans. Amer. Soc. Mech. Engrs., 64, 105-11. 

Paschkis, V., and Heisler, H. P., 1946. J. of Appl. Phys., 17, 246-54. 

Prigogine, I., 1949. Physica, 15, 272-84. 

Rossini, F. D., 1950. ‘‘ Chemical Thermodynamics ”’, 458. Wiley, New York. 

Wilhelm, R. H., Johnson, W. C., Wynkoop, R., and Collier, D. W., 1948. Chem. Eng. Progress, 
44, 105-16. 


A GEOLOGICAL ACCOUNT OF HEARD ISLAND. 


By A. JAMES LAMBETH, B.Sc. 
With Plate I and one Text-figure. 


Manuscript received, December 11, 1951. Read, April 2, 1952. 


CONTENTS. 

Page 

I. Introduction ae we bl oe ule ies oe 

Il. Stratigraphy— 

(a) Laurens Peninsula Limestones ay we 2S ify ae 

(b) Drygalski Agglomerates av ae rue dist he 

(c) Lavas— 16 

(i) The Mt. Olsen Lavas Ap bie oe a 

(ii) The Coast Lavas .. “0 Ae bho) cia 

(ii) The High Lavas .. ae 4h heehee 

KII. Tectonics and Structure iN a 
IV. Correlation with the Kerguelen Archipelago whe oh 24 
V. Summary.. ah Romie 
Acknowledgments e 5 aM ot me oink 
References as ae iy ey a ig 


I. INTRODUCTION. 


A general account of the geographical features of Heard Island together 
with notes on the glaciology has already been given (Lambeth, 1951). 

Prior to 1947 only four scientific expeditions had called at Heard Island, 
and little is recorded of the stratigraphical and tectonic features. The observa- 
tions contained herein were made by the first party of the Australian National 
Antarctic Research Expedition during 1947-49. 

Heard Island is glaciated throughout the year and because of the sey 
and discontinuity of outcrops much reliance has been placed on collections 
made from moraines. 


As far as is known, three formations exist, as follows : 
Uppermost : Lavas. 
Intermediate : Drygalski Agglomerates. 


Basal: Laurens Peninsula Limestones. 


II. STRATIGRAPHY. 
(a) Laurens Peninsula Limestones. 


The lowest formation, here called Laurens Peninsula Limestones, outcrops 
on both the south and north-east coasts of Laurens Peninsula, in latitude 
53° O01’ S., longitude 73° 20’ E. The existence of this underlying pelagic lime- 
stone was suspected in 1908, but it is believed that the outcrops reported above 
are the first observed in situ. 

The limestones are thinly bedded and intercalated with thin soft tuffaceous 
shales, and are folded about an E.-W. magnetic axis with north and south dips 
varying between 25° and 35°. The colour varies from white or grey to blue or 


A GEOLOGICAL ACCOUNT OF HEARD ISLAND. 15 


brown, the texture being even and fine-grained with conchoidal fracture. There 
are abundant foraminifera which indicate a Paleogene age.* 


The upper surface of the formation is plane and sub-horizontal, the greatest 
elevation being approximately 250 ft. above sea level on the south coast of 
Laurens Peninsula. From here it dips gently southwards to below sea level. 
The attitude indicates that the formation is not very far below sea level through- 
out the north-eastern part of the island. 


On the south coast of Laurens Peninsula the formation has been intruded, 
prior to folding, by concordant sills of fine-grained, non-porphyritic, holo- 
crystalline trachybasalt, varying in thickness from a few inches to five feet. 
These are the only igneous rocks observed. 


GENERALISED GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAD 

WHICH THE ICE COVER IS ASSUMED ABSENT 
Ps LEGEND 
O Red Island | 
fad Alluvium (7) laurens Peninsula Linestanes 


= / Olsen lavas (A) Zur 
pa pa ZZ) Cost Lavas Scoriae Cone 


Rernehapeethcgs orc _ | 
X cate Sips Corinth Head PS aba 53°0 
"Corinthian Bay BAA yt , ape Bidlingmaiar High lavas P3- Hoe-Hoe Structure 


(TIM) 22447 Agglomersies Aa-Aa Structure 


Rovad Hil 


Cape Lockyer 


Cape Lambeth 


HEARD ISLAND 


MAGNETIC DECLINATION 48°40’ W 1947 


(b) Drygalski Agglomerates. 


These were first reported by Phillipi from the flanks of Mt. Drygalski near 
Atlas Cove, and as the widespread nature was not realized the occurrence was 
described as a crater ruin. They occur over most of Laurens Peninsula and the 
east and south coasts of the island. Their threefold nature is apparent at Mt. 
Drygalski and the southern and north-eastern parts of Laurens Peninsula, which 
may be taken as the type area. (Mt. Drygalski, lat. 53° 02’S., long. 73° 23’ E.) 


The agglomerates are sub-horizontal in attitude, overlying the Laurens 
Peninsula Limestones with an angular unconformity of approximately 35°, the 
maximum thickness on the Laurens Peninsula being 1100-1200 ft. 


Their lower division consists largely of agglomerates, but near the top of the 
division local thinly-bedded tuffaceous shales are developed. Volcanic bombs 
are recognizable, while the variable-sized, angular to sub-angular, and rounded 
agglomerate pebbles are mainly porphyritic olivine-basalt, limburgite and 
limburgitic scoriez. The bond is tuffaceous, shaly, palagonite and occasionally 


* Glaessner, M. F., personal communication, 8th September, 1950, Globigerina sp. and 
Gumbelina sp. were determined. 


16 A. JAMES LAMBETH. 


calcareous. Much of the material was deposited under water. Locally there ~ 
is little sorting, but broadly there are significant differences in grainsize, the 
grainsize diminishing towards the top. The maximum thickness of this division 
on the Laurens Peninsula is about 350 ft. 


The igneous rocks are of three types: minor gabbroic stocks and bosses, 
contemporaneous trachytic necks, and the feeder dykes of the middle division. 


The middle division overlies the lowest on an approximately even erosional 
surface, some of the trachytic necks being truncated. It is entirely igneous and, 
unlike the other divisions, is not continuous but is a series of volcanic outpourings 
within the Drygalski Agglomerate. Thin flows emanating from small dykes 
have produced local thicknesses of up to 300 feet. Columnar structure is 
common, the rock types being olivine-basalts and feldspar-basalts. 


The upper division, thickness approximately 400 ft., shows a return to 
the agglomeratic facies of the lowest, with a finer grainsize in the agglomeratic 
particles, whilst tuffaceous shales and grits are more common than elsewhere. 
Their presence assists in the differentiation of the lower and upper divisions, 
where the middle is not developed. Contemporaneous brecciated plugs are 
the only igneous rocks. 


The upper surface of the Drygalski Agglomerates is roughly plane, con- 
forming to the general attitude of the formation. 


(c) Lavas. 


These are known mainly from moraines, although those near sea level can 
be examined in detail. Geographically, the lavas fall into three groups ; these, 
however, are not necessarily in sequence and may be contemporaneous. 


(i) The Mt. Olsen Lavas: Situated on the heights of Laurens Peninsula. 
(ii) The Coast Lavas: Parasitic cones adjacent to sea level. 
(iii) The High Lavas: Situated on the main mass of the island. 


(i) The Mt. Olsen Lavas. These are situated on the heights of Laurens 
Peninsula about Mt. Olsen and Mt. Anzac, and are mostly glaciated (Mt. Olsen, 
lat. 53° 01'S., long. 73° 20’ E.). They overlie the Drygalski Agglomerates with 
disconformity, and stratigraphically are in a situation similar to the High Lavas, 
although they may not be contemporaneous. 


The basal beds are trachyandesites, approximately 100 ft. maximum 
thickness, with traces of columnar structure, overlain by an accumulation of 
trachyte, up to 1300 ft. thick, which forms the various peaks. Moraine material 
does not suggest that any other rock type is present. 


(ii) The Coast Lavas. These are diverse. The limburgite of Rogers Head- 
land is noteworthy. This is a crater floor-relic, remnants of the sides occurring 
in the limburgitic tuff relics of Rogers Head, portion of Corinth Head and 
Church Rock. This cavernous lava issued from many centres in the floor and 
is similar to occurrences at Saddle Point, Cape Bidlingmaier, Scarlet Hill, Red 
Island and Mt. Macey. At these places, Mt. Macey and Cape Bidlingmaier 
excepted, the containing walls are absent. They all show pa-hoe-hoe structure, 
and columnar structure on a small scale, while tumuli are common. The 
conspicuous and almost linear scoria-cones developed at these places with their 
abundant lapilli ejecta, are of an earlier date than the surrounding limburgites. 

The lavas on the northern and western coasts of Laurens Peninsula centre 
about Mt. Dixon. This mound-like structure is completely glaciated and 
outcrops can be seen only at the base. They are trachyte, overlain by massive 
basalts, followed by vesicular aa-aa basalts. The accumulation of cinders 
probably represents the final outburst. 


A GEOLOGICAL ACCOUNT OF HEARD ISLAND. iM 


The Cave Bay trachytes with the overlying scoriaceous lavas appear to be 
allied to this Mt. Dixon suite, both forming part of a former widespread occurrence 
extending to the islands (e.g. Pulpit Rock) lying off Cape Gazert, where the 
aa-aa type overlies a massive basalt. 


(iii) The High Lavas. The high lavas appear to extend upwards from the 
top of the Drygalski Agglomerate to the culminating peak Mt. Mawson. Conse- 
quently they represent a piling up of nearly 8000 ft. of volcanic material. They 
are known almost entirely from moraines, as those few outcrops which do exist 
are either difficult of access or unapproachable. 


The lavas appear to have built up Big Ben Range by emanating from vents 
situated about the centre of the island. Seen from the air, the plateau-like 
upper surface of this mass resembles an infilled crater, in which case Mt. Mawson 
is a@ cone-in-cone structure, a feature commonly developed in the vents of the 
Laurens Peninsula coast lavas. The great height of this mountain mass 
developed in the narrow island area suggests lavas of high viscosity. In the 
samples collected limburgites, olivine-augite-basalts and trachybasalts pre- 
dominate, with some subordinate plagioclase-basalts and trachytes, whilst 
more coarsely grained olivine-augite-types probably represent local intrusions 
into the lavas. 


III. TECTONICS AND STRUCTURE. 


Three distinct formations are superimposed in a simple structure. The 
elevation and folding of the Laurens Peninsula Limestones indicates movements 
of great magnitude and, since these sediments are Paleogene in age, the 
movement may have been contemporaneous with the Alpine of the Northern 
Hemisphere. Only minor trachybasalt sills occur. 


After a period of erosion, widespread explosive volcanic activity occurred 
from many centres, the ejecta being mostly limburgite and basalt, but some 
trachyte necks were formed. ‘These formed the lowest division of the Drygalski 
Agglomerate. A hiatus followed during which thin fissure basalts formed 
discontinuous local accumulations. Explosive vulcanism followed, the average 
grainsize of the ejecta being finer than previously. 


So far there was no sign of glaciation, it being inferred that the glacial 
epochs of the Pleistocene had not yet intervened. Consequently the Drygalski 
Agglomerates are probably late Tertiary, when this formation was undoubtedly 
of much greater extent than at present. 


_ During the break in deposition which followed, the upper surface of the 
Drygalski Agglomerates was eroded to a roughly plane surface.. 


Igneous activity on a grand scale then commenced, localized about Big 
Ben. Other centres probably existed and may be represented by the various 
neighbouring islands. Lavas of high viscosity rapidly built up the mass of 
Big Ben. The main island fault may have had its beginnings here, providing 
a fissure through which the lavas were extruded. Most of the vulcanism appears 
to have finished before the Pleistocene glaciation, but its recurring and 
diminishing nature is clearly indicated in the numerous cone-in-cone structures. 
Some of the more recent flows overwhelmed the eroded edges of the Drygalski 
Agglomerates, indicating a general erosion of this formation. Fumaroles and 
hot springs do not occur on Heard Island. 


The main island fault appears to have been most active after glaciation. 
It has truncated and destroyed the old trunk glacier flowing down Atlas Cove, 
as well as the headlands of the Jacka Glacier. The downthrow side was on the 
south-west and the throw could not be determined. Evidence of its existence 
igs the non-occurrence of the Drygalski Agglomerates on the downthrow side 


18 A. JAMES LAMBETH. 


either in situ or in moraines, as well as the truncation of the glaciers. It is 
represented physiographically by the escarpments of South Barrier and North 
West Cornice, which appear to represent the eroded scarps, at the latter place 
slickensided pebbles being found. The movement of the fault was associated 
in the Laurens area with trachytic vulcanism followed by basalts of increasing 
viscosity, culminating in aa-aa lavas, ashes and cinders. 

The east coast may have been influenced by faulting. The almost linear 
arrangement of centres of eruption of limburgitic tuff, limburgite with pa-hoe-hoe 
structure, and scoriz, extending from Mt. Macey to Scarlet Hill is significant. 
The tuff of Rogers Head contains fragments which, judging from their in situ 
position in the Drygalski Agglomerate and the attitude of this formation, could 
not have been brought from below if this area were not downfaulted. No other 
evidence was apparent, but the existence of such a fault would account for the 
absence of the eastern wall of the old Atlas Cove Glacier, which would have 
been downfaulted. The island appears to have had its origin in a tectogene 
in the early Tertiary, and is now a horst with downthrows to the north-east and 
south-west. 


IV. CORRELATION WITH THE KERGUELEN ARCHIPELAGO. 

A threefold division of the strata on the Kerguelen Archipelago has been 
indicated by Mawson (1933). A basal series of early Tertiary age is overlain 
by fluviatile conglomerates, which are in turn overlain by a great thickness of 
voleanics, the ash beds of which contain molluscan fauna of Pliocene age. 

The centrally situated conglomerates are of basalts and trachytes, in which 
tuffceous beds are common. Contemporaneous trachyte plugs occur as well as 
scorie and agglomerate. Thin intercallated lignites contain Araucarian flora 
indicating a late Oligocene age (Mawson, 1933; Crié, 1869; de la Rue, 1929). 
The section displayed in the ravine of the Port Jeanne D’Arc rivulet through 
the heights dominating the old whaling station there is the best known, and 
must for the time being be considered the type. (Port Jeanne D’Are, lat. 
49° 54S, long. 69° 517 ,) 

The presence of globigerina limestone in the basement rocks has been 
indicated by Roth (1875) and Mawson, and detrital material was found in the 
central conglomerates. Consequently both islands stand on pelagic sediments. 
While the Port Jeanne D’Arec conglomerates are not directly comparable with 
the Drygalski Agglomerates, the two formations appear to be coeval. It is 
clear that explosive volcanic activity was happening in both places, but whilst 
it was dominant at Heard Island, it was of a lesser degree at Kerguelen Land 
and the products are mingled with erosion débris. As these places are approxi- 
mately two hundred miles apart topographical differences at the time are to be 
expected. 

Other points of correlation may be revealed by petrological methods. 


V. SUMMARY. 

Three formations were recognized on Heard Island. The basal pelagic 
limestones of early Tertiary age are unconformably overlain by agglomerates, 
which in turn are overlain by an immense thickness of lavas. The area has 
characteristics similar to those of a tectogene. Faulting has occurred and the 
island now appears to stand as a horst. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 

The writer wishes to thank Mr. George 8S. Compton, of Kalgoorlie, for 
unfailing help throughout the duration of the expedition, and to whom the 
observations in the vicinity of Round Hill are due; and E. O’Driscoll, B.E., of 
Sydney, for many helpful discussions. 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LDXXXVI, 1952, Plate I 


A GEOLOGICAL ACCOUNT OF HEARD ISLAND. 19 


REFERENCES. 


Crié, L., 1869. ‘“* Die fossile Flora des Kerguelen Archipels.”’ Beitrage der fossilen Flora einiger 
Inseln des sudpacifischen und indischen Oceans, Jena. 

Lambeth, A. J., 1951. ‘‘ Heard Island, Geography and Glaciology.”’ THis JouRNAL, 84, 92 
(with bibliography). 

Mawson, D., 1933. ‘“‘ The Geology and Glaciation of Some Islands of the Southern Ocean and 
the Newly Discovered Antarctic Mainland.” Quart. Jour. Geol. Soc. London, 89, cxili-cxv. 


Phillipi, E., 1908. ‘‘ Geologie der Herd Insel.” Deutsche Sudpolar Exped. 1901-3, Bd. 11, 
Heft. 3, Geogr. u Geol., 241-50. 


Roth, 1875. ‘‘ Uber die gesteine von Kerguelen’s Land.’ Monatsberichte der Konig. Preuss. 
Akademie der Wissenschaften zu Berlin. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE I. 


Fig. 1.—Laurens Peninsula seen from Mt. Drygalski. West Bay on the left, Atlas Cove on 
the right with the moraine-strewn plain of Atlas Cove. Top centre is Mt. Olsen (2080 ft.). The 
glaciated heights about Mt. Olsen are composed of Mt. Olsen Lavas, the cliffs below are of Drygalski 
Agglomerate. The Laurens Peninsula Limestones outcrop at sea level on West Bay below the 
cliffs. Left distance, the slopes of Mt. Dixon composed of Coast Lavas. 

Fig. 2.—The culminating point, Mt. Mawson (9005 ft.), surmounting the plateau-like top of 
Big Ben Range (approx. 8000 ft.) suggesting a cone-in-cone structure. The rib-like outcrops are 
of High Lavas. Air photo from the south. 


These photographs are reproduced by kind permission of the Department of External 
Affairs, Antarctic Division. 


OCCULTATIONS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY 
DURING 1951. 


By W. H. ROBERTSON, B.Sc. 
and K. P. SIMS, B.Sc. 


Manuseript received, February 8, 1952. Read, April 2, 1952. 


The following observations of occultations were made at Sydney Observatory 
with the 114-inch telescope. A tapping key was used to record the times on a 
chronograph. The reduction elements were computed by the method given 
inthe Occultation Supplement to the Nautical Almanac for 1938 and the reduction 
completed by the method given there. The necessary data were taken from 
the Nautical Almanac for 1951, the Moon’s right ascension and declination 
(hourly table) and parallax (semi-diurnal table) being interpolated therefrom. 
No correction was applied to the observed times for personal effect but a correc- 
tion of —0-00076 hour was applied before entering the ephemeris of the Moon. 
This corresponds to a correction of —1”-5 to the Moon’s mean longitude. 

Table I gives the observational material. The serial numbers follow on 
from those of the previous report (Robertson, 1951). The observers were 
H. W. Wood (W), W. H. Robertson (R) and K. P. Sims (S). In all cases the 
phase observed was disappearance at the dark limb. ‘Table II gives the results 


TABLE [. 

Serial N.Z.C. 

No. No. Mag Date. Ut: Observer. 

h m) “4s 

216 855 6:8 Feb. 16 11 23 26-8 W 
217 -—— 7:4 Feb. 16 11 24 38-6 W 
218 864 6-7 Feb. 16 12 42 28-6 W 
219 1018 5:5 Feb. 17 12 47 08:0 WwW 
220 = 7:9 May 16 14 17 59-9 W 
221 1676 6:7 May 16 14 22 40-0 W 
222 1888 6:2 May 18 13 03 36:7 W 
223 1907 6°7 July 12 9 45 01-6 W 
224 1913 7:1 July 12 11 32 52-2 W 
225 2039 5:6 July 13 13 49 51-4 W 
226 2157 6-1 July 14 9 49 03-1 W 
227 2470 6-1 July 16 7 55 09-7 R 
228 2505 5:4 July 16 13 30 37-5 W 
229 2108 6:4 Aug. 10 9 08 37-1 R 
230 2268 4°8 Aug. Ill 13 04 04-9 W 
231 2273 5:9 Aug. ll 13) 30 lee W 
232 2536 7:4 Sept. 9 10 30 20:4 WwW 
233 2545 6:4 Sept. 9 12 55 31-1 W 
234 2554 5:4 Sept. 9 14 23 35:8 W 
235 2723 6°7 Sept. 10 11 19 24-6 S 
236 2735 7-2 Sept. 10 14 03 51-4 W 
237 2740 6:3 Sept. 10 14 46 27-8 W 
238 2907 6°3 Sept. 11 14 06 04-9 W 
239 2852 7:4 Oct. 8 10 24 08-2 R 
240 2864 4-7 Oct. 8 13 05 26-4 W 
241 3416 5:6 Oct. 12 13 36 04-1 W 
242 2804 5:9 Nov. 4 9 23 08-7 W 
243 68 5°7 Nov. 10 9 53 12-8 W 


OCCULTATIONS OBSERVED AT SYDNEY OBSERVATORY DURING 1951. 21 


TABLE II. 
Coefficient of 

Serial | Luna- 

No. tion. p q Pp? Pq q? Ao | pAo | qAo 

Aa AS 

216 348 + 88 | +48 77 +42 23 |—1-1 |—1-0 |—0-°5 | +11-3 | +0-50 
217 348 + 86 | +51 74 +44 26 |—1-8 |—1-5 |—0:9 | +11-1 | +0-53 
218 348 + 89 | —46 79 —4] 21 |j|—1-0 |—0-9 |+0°5 | +11-7 | —0-44 
219 348 + 83 | +56 69 +46 31 |—1-4 |—1-2 |—0-8 | +11-5 | +0-48 
220 351 +100 | — 3 | 100 — 3 0 |—0-2 |—0-2 0-0 | +13-0 | —0:50 
221 351 + 98 | +20 96 +20 4 |—0-3 |—0:3 |—0-1]! +14:4 | —0-29 
222 351 + 79 | —62 62 —49 38 |—0O-2 |—0-2 |+0-1 | + 6-3 | —0-90 
223 353 + 96 | +29 92 +28 8 |—0-5 |—0-5 |—0-1 | +14-5 | —0-16 
224. 353 + 98 | —22 95 —22 5 |—0-7 |—0-7 |+0°-2 | +11-4 | —0-63 
225 353 + 49 | —87 24 —43 76 |+2-2 |/4+1-1 |—1:9 | + 1-8 | —0-99 
226 353 + 53; +85 28 +45 2, 0-0 0-0 0-0 | +10-7 | +0:64 
224 353 +100 | + 3 100 + 3 0 |—1-2 |—1-2 0-0 |; +13-3 | —0-05 
228 353 + 99 | —13 98 —13 2 |—0-8 |—0-8 |+0:-1 | +13-0 | —0-18 
229 354 ee 2a —-96 7 —26 93 |+2:-5 |+0-7 |—2-4 | — 0-8 | —1-00 
230 354 + 98 | +19 96 +19 4 |—0:-5 |—0-5 |—0-1 | +13-6 | —0-03 
231 354 + 83 | +56 69 +46 31 |—1-6 |—1:-3 |—0-9 | +12:7 | +0-36 
232 355 + 94 | —34 88 —32 12 |—2-0 |—1-9 |+0-7 | +12-3 | —0:35 
2a0 355 + 31 | +95 10 +29 90 |—0-6 |—0-2 |—0-6 | + 4-1 | +0-95 
234 355 + 79 | +61 63 +48 37 |—1-0 |—0-8 |—0-6 | +10°5 | +0-61 
235 355 + 96 | —28 92 —27 8 |—l-1 |—1-1 |+0-3 | +13-1 | —0-16 
236 355 + 24) +97 6 +23 94 |—0-8 |—0-2 j—0-°8 | + 1:5 | +0-99 
237 355 + 36 | +93 13 +34 87 |—1-0 |—0-4 |—0-9 | + 2-9 | +0-97 
238 355 + 64 | +77 4] +49 59 |—1-6 |—1-0 |—1-2 | + 5-7 | +0-91 
239 356 + 61 | —79 od —48 63 |+1-2 |+0-7 |—0-9 | +10°3 | —0-65 
240 356 + 95 | +31 90 +29 10 |—0:7 |—0-7 |—0-2 | +11-7 | +0:51 
241 356 + 73 | —69 53 —50 47 |+0-°5 |+0-4 |—0°3 | +14-5 | —0:-27 
242 357 + 87 | +50 75 +43 25 |—1-1 |—1-0 |—0-6 | +10-3 | +0:65 
243 357 + 96 | +29 92 +28 8 |—2-0 |—1:-9 |—0-6/} +10°6 | +0-70 


of the reductions which were carried out in duplicate. The N.Z.C. numbers 
given are those of the Catalog of 3539 Zodiacal Stars for the Equinox 1950-0 
(Robertson, 1940), as recorded in the Nautical Almanac. 

The stars involved in occultations 217 and 220 were not included in the 
Nautical Almanac list. Their apparent places were as follows : 


No. Star. R.A. Dec. Catalogue. 

217 G.C. 7088 5h 38m 158-34 +29° 28’ 25’°8 G.C. 

220 B.D. +3°2518 11 30 53-57 + 2 43 52-1 Yale Vol. 20 
REFERENCES. 


Robertson, A. J., 1940. Astronomical Papers of the American Ephemeris, 10, Part II. 
Robertson, W. H., 1951. TuHis JourRNAL, 85, 13; Sydney Observatory Papers, No. 17 


AUSTRALASIAN MEDICAL PUBLISHING Company Liarep 
Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe, N. Ss. Ww. 
1952 


OF NEW SOUTH WALES 


1952 


(INCORPORATED 1881) 


~ 


Po 


PART II 
ae OF ? 
VOL. LXXXVI | 
"Containing Liversidge Lecture and Papers read in 
July and August, 1952 


EDITED BY 


IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. 


Honorary Editorial Secretary 


Vile 2 


H so WE 
iia ae meaty 


a —— Cmaves 1953 


| LIBRARY. 
: iS SYDNEY _ ; 
PmLISHIED BY THE SOCIETY, 8 


ne CONTENTS 


cc ee VOLUME LXXxXxXVI_ 
. Aa Sale: | Part II | 3 F é. 


“Arr. IV.—Climate and Maize Yields on the Atherton Tableland. By D. 38. ) 


ka and N. T. Drane .... ee oe oa ae t. oe > 


“Arr. V.—Palladium Complexes. Part V. Reactions of Palladium Compounds with an 
_ 2:2’ Dipyridyl. By S. E. Livingstone .. oe hice Sie oid 10 a ee 


~ : pies PP as 


_ Arr. VI.—Liversidge Lecture. Electron Diffraction. in the Chemistry of the Solid 
; State. By A. L. G. Rees .. i Pi coe a: Sa are PS ae 


Arr. VII.—Permian Spirifers from Tasmania. By Ida A. Brown 


JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


me yYAL SOCIETY 


OF NEW SOUTH WALES 


FOR 


1952 


(INCORPORATED 1881) 


VOLUME LXXXVI 


Part II 


EDITED BY 


IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. 


Honorary Editorial Secretary 


THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE 
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN 


SYDNEY 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE 
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 


CLIMATE AND MAIZE YIELDS ON THE ATHERTON TABLELAND. 


By D. 8S. SIMONETT, M-Sc., 
and N. T. DRANE, B.Ec. 
Department of Geography and Faculty of Economics, University of Sydney. 
With one Text-figure. 


Manuscript recewed, May 13, 1952. Read, July 2, 1952. 


The Atherton Tableland, situated in the coastal ranges of north Queensland 
near Cairns, virtually lies in the cloud zone of the north-west monsoon 
and the south-east trade winds for the greater part of the year. Due to this, 
as much as to its height, it experiences an equable temperature and humidity 
regime, very like that of the northern rivers of N.S.W., and its rainfall pattern 
shows less of the rigid wet-dry division so characteristic of tropical Australia. 
The wet season opens earlier with storms in November, rainfall intensities are 
lower, the proportion of cloudy days significantly higher, and the end of the wet 
Season is blurred by the ‘‘ drizzle ”’ season of April, May, and occasionally June, 
the dry season being limited to July to October in the maize area centred on 
Atherton. Add to the above a major wet season cyclone every four or five years, 
and the combination is peculiar to the Atherton Tableland. 


In land use the Tableland falls into three distinct divisions (see Skerman, 
1947). In the hilly, high rainfall area south of Malanda (65”) there is no cultiva- 
tion and dairying is based entirely on introduced pastures. Between Malanda 
and the Barron River (c. 55”) is a rolling fragmented maize belt, the small 
cultivated plots forming an integral part of a dairy-maize economy. North 
and west of the Barron River is the major maize producing area, almost 85 per 
cent. being grown on undulating land within a three-mile radius of Atherton 
and the two small silo townships of Tolga, three miles north, and Kairi, six 
miles north-east of Atherton. MRainfalls here are the lowest on the Tableland, 
Atherton obtaining 54 inches per annum, Tolga and Kairi 48 inches. 


RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CLIMATE AND MAIZE YIELDS. 


With relatively few exceptions, and these mainly in the intermediate 
maize-dairy belt between Malanda and the Barron River, maize production on 
the Tableland is a monoculture, neither animals nor subsidiary crops entering 
the economy. No moisture conserving practices are employed, indeed they are 
unnecessary, fertilizers are used only to an insignificant degree, the soils are 
extremely uniform kraznosems on basalt, cultivation practices are sensibly 
uniform throughout, and the varietal composition of the crop has not undergone 
Serious changes during the last three decades.? 


Night temperatures are never a limiting factor in growth, and both moisture 
and temperature conditions are usually very favourable, and it is doubtful if 
adverse effects from high temperatures and low moisture during tasseling have 
been experienced in more than two seasons since 1900. 


1W. R. Straughan, Manager, Atherton Tableland Maize Marketing Board, personal communi- 
cation on the varietal composition of the maize crop. 


CLIMATE AND MAIZE YIELDS ON THE ATHERTON TABLELAND. 23 


With so many factors constant or inapplicable, since they are not limiting 
in this area, two appear to outweigh all others in influencing ultimate yields, 
namely the growing season rainfalls from December to February, including the 
tasseling period, and the rainfalls of the cob-development stage during March 
and April, when the maize is severely affected by ear-rots. These relationships, 
together with the influence of time (hypothetical declining soil-fertility) form 
the basis of the following study. 


DATA. 


Rainfalls. Monthly rainfalls at Atherton were used for they provided 
the only reliable, unbroken figures covering the last 35 years. Rainfalls within 
the maize area vary from 65 inches at Malanda on the southern boundary to 
c. 45 inches at Rocky Creek on the northern limits of cultivation. Atherton 
is centrally placed, and moreover, since this pattern persists in most years, 
rainfall at Atherton is a good guide to totals elsewhere in the maize area. 


Maize Yields. The Petty Sessions District of Atherton covers all the 
Tableland, and up to 1940 formed the unit of collection for production data. 
Since that date collection has been by shires, the two shires Atherton and Kacham 
covering the area of the former P.S.D. Post 1940 figures are for the two shires ; 
this introduces no change in the area involved. 


The Period. Maize production on the Tableland commenced over 70 years 
ago. The shorter period 1913-14 to 1948-49 was used to keep as many factors 
constant as possible. Prior to 1914 acreages were below 15,000 acres. After 
1914 acreages fell below 15,000 in only four years. From the little that is 
known of the composition of the crop prior to 1913-14 it appears that numerous 
varieties were introduced and the varietal picture probably fluctuated consider- 
ably from year to year. Since then, however, it has not appreciably changed. 
Until November, 1907, when a large area was thrown open for selection, and to 
a lesser extent after the First World War, when the area under cultivation was 
expanded for soldier settlement, maize growing was widely spread over the 
Tableland and hand cultivation was generally practised following ‘‘ scrub ”’ 
burns. The present methods of cultivation did not become really widely used 
until about 1915-1920. 


In Table 1 for the period 1913-14 to 1948-49 are given the growing season 
rainfalls (December-February) for Atherton, the totals of the ear-development 
stage (March-April), and the yield of maize in bushels per acre for Atherton 
Petty Sessions District. Those years in which gales accompanying cyclones 
in the Coral Sea caused destruction of a considerable portion of the crop are 
marked by an asterisk. 


For the analysis of the influence of time and the two rainfall periods on 
maize yields certain seasons have been rejected : 


(1) Those in which excessive damage to maize resulted from cyclones. 
In addition to bringing heavy rains, cyclones frequently flatten portion 
of the maize crop. 


(2) Seasons in which the December-February rainfall was below 22 inches. 
The choice of a 22-inch rainfall in December-February as a rejection 
level was based on the fact that preliminary inspection of the data 
(see Table 3) indicated that below this level of rainfall maize yields 
ranged widely and showed little relation to the actual rainfalls received. 
In other words factors such as the incidence of rainfalls within the 
growing season, a8 well as the amount, are apparently important. 
Since the present analysis 1s concerned with the influence of heavy 
rainfalls on maize yields, it was considered advisable to exclude these 

DD 


24 


Rainfalls at Atherton During the Different Stages of Crop Growth for Maize, and Seasonal Yrelds of 
_ Maize for the Atherton Tableland during 1914-1919. 


SIMONETT AND DRANE. 


seasons a8 they would only weaken the relation being studied. While 
this rejection level was thus arbitrarily chosen, inspection of the data 
of Table 3 in the light of the following analysis appears to confirm 


such rejection. 


TABLE l. 


1944-45 
1948-49 
1933-34 
1938-39 
1920-21 
1928-29 
1926-27 
1939-40 
1945-46 
1932-33 
1924-25 
1929-30 
1921-22 
1942-43 
1916-17 
1927-28 
1917-18 
1935-36 
1913-14 
1931-32 
1936-37 
1922-23 
1937-38 
1947-48 
1934-35 
1946-47 
1943-44 
1925-26 
1915-16 
1941-42 
1930-31 
1923-24 
1919-20 
1918-19 
1914-15 


Rainfall. 
Dec.-Apr. 


ase 
. ° e e = 
WIOWAANOONANAOREUAONTINRAOWFRNKROWNOCORWR WY 


Yield Maize. 
Bushels/Acre. 


Ze 
32° 
13- 
25: 
29: 
29> 
29: 
22° 
23° 
43° 
37° 
38° 
35° 
34: 
37: 
42- 
30° 
34: 
47: 
42- 
42: 
43° 
40- 
29: 
23° 
37° 
36: 
49- 
50: 
24: 
35° 
27° 
43- 
42: 
PHU 


98 
75 
22 
79 
64 
dl 
24 
44 
34 
33 
79 
34 
46 
40 
28 
11 
23 
16 
46 
45 
87 
35 
80 
68 
26 
34 


Eighteen seasons were then available for study, covering the 36-year period 
The results of the simple correlations are given below. 


x,=Yield of maize in bushels per acre. 
x,=March-April rainfall. 
x,—=December-February rainfalls. 


1913-14 to 1948-49. 


Tyg —0-5044 
Yy3= —0°5581 
Tus —0-4314 
Tog = —0°0837 x,== Time. 
T34= +0-5060 
Tog = —0-0328 


We then applied a confluence analysis to these simple correlations, following 
Frisch (1934), in order to test the usefulness of including all three independent 
variables in the explanation of yields. In the circumstances, we think this is a 


ol: 
47: 
48- 
4l- 
22° 
44: 
44: 
29° 
40> 
37° 
28: 
44- 
38° 
4l- 
31: 
33° 
26- 
24- 
23° 
31: 
29: 
23° 
33° 
19- 
13- 
18- 
22- 
23° 
23° 
20: 
19- 
18- 
21+ 
10- 

9: 


Rainfall. 
Dec.-Feb. 


= 


PON ROT OH KH ORORDORWRKHOOWnwPrPACWOKFUGSANWNSOS 


Rainfall. 
Mar.-Apr. 


_ 
ht et Or 00 G2 Sd =]1 


* Years in which considerable damage to maize resulted from cyclonic storms. 


CW DWE WONODNWOONDWEH WHE ONORHOOKOG 


* 


CLIMATE AND MAIZE YIELDS ON THE ATHERTON TABLELAND. 25 


more useful technique to use than the standard method of applying significance 
tests to the partial correlation coefficients. These tests of significance are, we 
feel, suspect in this case, for it is difficult to justify the assumption that our data 
constitute a ‘‘ sample’’—and a random sample at that. Our methods of 
Selection are not designed to preserve randomness, and in any case our data 
cover all (suitable) available observations, and hence seem nearer to the concept 
of ‘“‘ population ’’. Even if this is no objection, however, it would seem that the 
inter-correlation between x, and x, must make the significance tests for these 
variables of doubtful validity. 


THE CONFLUENCE ANALYSIS, AND INTERPRETATION OF THE 
BUNCH MAPS. 


The confluence analysis is designed to help overcome some of the difficulties 
which arise in interpretation of the results of multiple regression analysis when 
more than one relation might be present among the explanatory variables. 
This problem is particularly present in economic data since most economic 
quantities are the results of simultaneous activities in different sectors of the 
market, e.g., prices are determined by simultaneous behaviour of both buyers 
and sellers. Thus if we were to construct a relation between price and quantity 
sold (or quantity bought), we would have difficulty, after confronting this with 
the data, in saying whether this was a demand or a supply equation, since the 
same factors enter largely into both. (SeeJ. R. N. Stone, 1945, for a more detailed 
explanation of these problems, and for practical applications of the confluence 
technique.) But the problem is a more general one, and arises whenever we 
have more than one relation between the determining variables, so that the 
influence of the second (or other) relation(s) tends to distort the ‘‘ true ’’ influence 
of the first relation, which we assume to be the significant one for the purpose 
in hand. 

The method developed by Frisch for determining where such multicol- 
linearity exists consists in plotting the complete sets of regression coefficients 
in the form 

gi _ _ Byig- ++ +n, 
ij(a** +n) Riigy- - + +n) 


where Rij, Ri; are co-factors of the matrix of zero-order correlation coefficients, 


e 
e ° 
e e 
e e 
e e 
e e 


and the 6’s are in terms of “ normalized ”’ variates which can be transformed 
to the regression coefficients in terms of the original variables by the formule 


p) se) pee 

ij(a** °°) Seda ** oN) Lx? 
Thus, he starts from the theorem that if perfect correlation is present 
without multicollinearity, all regression equations lead to the same result. This 
is the familiar result from simple regression analysis that if r,,=I=r,, then the 


two regression coefficients 1/r,,, r.,;/1 will be identical. This holds too in the 
general case. 


The first step, then, is to plot the bunch map for the two-sets. . . 12, 13, 
14, 23, 24, 34 from which a general idea of the relations can be obtained, Then 


26 SIMONETT AND DRANE. 


by systematic inclusion of additional variables it is possible to deduce from the 
bunch map whether or not the relation is ‘‘ improved ” by this new explanatory 
factor. In the present example, since there is no difficulty in determining the 
dependent variable, we are only concerned with the various combinations of the 
explanatory variables with this dependent variable. 

In interpreting the bunch maps, we must consider the possibility of the 
new variable being useful, superfluous, or detrimental to the analysis. Frisch 
provides several criteria, given below, for interpreting these cases, but they 
must be used with care, since they are highly subjective. Outside, or a priori 
theoretical considerations may have to be relied upon to make the final decision, 
particularly where the criteria appear to be contradictory. 

Indeed, if theoretical considerations indicate that the variable is very 
important, whilst our statistical analysis shows it to be detrimental, then it is 
the statistical analysis, at least in this linear form, which must be discarded. 
All we can deduce, then, is that we cannot measure the influence of that variable 
by this method. There will remain, of course, the possibility that the data 
might fit some non-linear function. 

Frisch states that a variate is useful if the bunch is tightened by its inclusion ; 
if the beam representing this variate falls inside the sector of the other beams ; 
and if the general direction of the bunch is changed (p. 100). <A variate is 
superfluous if “ (1) the bunch does not tighten by the inclusion of the new 
variate ; (2) the general slope of the bunch does not change (or more specifically, 
each of the beams in the bunch remains unchanged) ; (3) the beam of the new 
variate falls outside the sector of the other beams; (4) the beam of the new 
variate is much shorter than the other beams in the new bunch; (5) the beams 
of the other variates are not appreciably shortened by the inclusion of the new 
variate ”’. 

‘* If all these criteria are simultaneously fulfilled, the variate in question is 
decidedly superfluous. The variate must, however, be considered superfluous 
even if only some of the above criteria are fulfilled, particular importance must 
then be attached to the criteria (1)-(3)”’ (p. 102). 

Finally, ‘‘ if the bunch explodes by the inclusion of the new variate, that 
is to say, if it becomes much less tight than before, the new variate must be 
considered as detrimental’ (p. 103). 


In the present application (Figure 1), we see from the two-sets that time (4), 
December-February rainfalls (3), and March-April rainfalls (2), all show a 
moderate correlation with yields (1), whilst (23), (24) are non-correlated. (34) 
however, does reveal some positive correlation. This appears to be an accidental 
bias introduced because of the several criteria of selection. It does serve, 
however, to impair the reliability of our regression coefficients for both (3) 
and (4) when we include time as a separate explanatory variable in the four-set, 
even though some decline in yields due to fertility deterioration over time is to 
be expected from general considerations. This is already evident in the three-sets, 
which reveal considerable improvement in the relations, following the inclusion 
of the third variable, in the bunches (12:3), (13-2), (12-4), (14-2), whilst (13-4) 
and (14-3) are ‘‘ exploded’. This is because (3) and (4) are intercorrelated, 
and are therefore to some extent incompatible variables. In the fowr-sets, 
the (12-34) bunch shows a slight further improvement, whilst the (13-24) and 
(14-23) plots are exploded. This seems to indicate that in our four variable 
multiple regression analysis, if we hold (3) and (4) constant together we can get 
a somewhat better relation than by using simply (12-3) or (12-4) alone. Whilst 
(3) and (4) are intercorrelated, when taken together the result is as if we were to 
use a third variable z compounded of x; and x, by some such relation as 


z=Ax,+BU 


CLIMATE AND MAIZE YIELDS ON THE ATHERTON TABLELAND. 27 


where (U) represents the residual time element which is required to give full 
effect to the influence of time, part of which is contained in x,. Since, however, 
we cannot separate this residual in practice, we use another variable, time (x,), 
which is already partly contained in x, and this then explodes the relation for 
any but the (12-34) case. We feel, however, that since the (12-34) bunch 
map is a slight improvement over the (12-3) bunch as a result of including (4) 
(the bunch is tightened slightly ; all beams are slightly shortened ; and beam (4) 
lies very nearly along the (1) and (3) beams), we are justified in regarding time 


4 


(13-4) (14:3) (12-34) (13:24) (14:23) 


Fig. 1.—Confluence analysis bunch maps. 
1=Yield of maize in bushels per acre. 
2= March-April rainfalls. 
3=December-February rainfalls. 

4— Time. 


aS a useful variable—a conclusion we could not arrive at from the ordinary 
partial correlation coefficients, without confluence analysis. 


Yi9-34— —0°6791 Significant at 1% level. 
43-04 —0-°5902 Significant at 1% level. 
Ty4-03 = —0-2693 Not significant at 5% level. 


This is reinforced to some extent by consideration of the multiple correlation 
coefficients, and standard errors of estimate. 


Weve — 0° 8031 S 1-034 = 4 °0269 
Naas =(0-7856 Sie. =—4-1816 


28 SIMONETT AND DRANE. 


The fact that R,.., is considerably better than R,.,, indicates that (4) has 
only a fairly small influence on the regression, but nevertheless R,..5, is still 
better than R,..3, reducing the 8.H.E. by the amount of some 3%. This is small 
but does indicate that the residual amount of time does have some effect, lending 
some support to our argument that if the time-element in x, could be removed in 
Some way, then the additional variable time (x,) (not now intercorrelated with 
x3) would be significant. We conclude, then, that the influence of time is a 
‘‘ useful ’’ one. 


By including (4) then we are able to get a better estimate of the influence of 

March-April rainfalls on yields. This regression coefficient is 
D45-34== —0 4380. 

When we come to the other regression coefficients, however, between 
yields and December-February rainfalls, and between yields and time, the results 
obtained from the four-set are biassed due to intercorrelation between December- 
February rainfalls and time, hence we cannot measure the ‘‘ true ”’ influence of 
each of these variables. The nature of this interrelation is difficult to unravel, 
but for our purposes—prediction—we may tentatively use the estimates from 
the four-set, provided that the interrelation persists in its present form, and with 
the reservation that they are probably somewhat lower than the “true ”’ 
regression coefficients, because of this intercorrelation. The estimates are 


Di3-04= —0°4021 
Dya-03 = —0°1335. 
The full regression equation is 
X,= —0-4380x, —0-4021x, —0-1335x,-+59-7493. 


RESULTS AND DISCUSSION. 


From a study of Table 1, the regression analysis, and a close inspection of 
the monthly rainfall distribution for the 35 years studied, the following points 
emerge : 


1. The maximum mean yield of maize on the Atherton Tableland was 
50-28 bushels per acre in the 1915-16 season, when rainfalls at Atherton were 
29-6 inches from December to April, distributed as follows : 


Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. 
Sj ba SME Oa Satta pc) Uleateee 3) Seiler san 372 Total, 29-6 inches. 


Inspection of the distribution of rainfall for years with yields close to the 
maximum suggests that the highest yields would be obtained with the following 
rainfall distribution at Atherton : 


Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. 
ff 8 7 3 2 Total, 27 inches. 


This is not strictly the ‘‘ optimum ”’ rainfall for the crop since portions of the 
maize lands would receive some inches more or less depending on their position. 
Effectively, however, it represents the optimum rainfall for the area as a whole. 


2. In slightly less than 80 per cent. of the years under review, rainfalls 
during the December-February period were in excess of the optimum of 22 
inches. 


3. In slightly less than 90 per cent. of seasons, rainfalls during the March- 
April period were in excess of the optimum of five inches. The analysis of the 
rainfall-yields relationship for these two critical periods thus devolves largely 
into an assessment of the influence of excessive rainfalls on maize yields. 


CLIMATE AND MAIZE YIELDS ON THE ATHERTON TABLELAND. 29 


4, Cyclones caused major damage to the maize crop in 8 of the 35 years 
studied, depressing yields by an average of the order of 10 bushels per acre 
below the expected yield for the various rainfall levels. 


5. In years either not affected, or only slightly affected, by cyclonic storms, 
and with a December-February rainfall exceeding 22 inches : 


(i) Rainfalls greater than 22 inches during the growing period December- 
February significantly depress yields, each additional inch reducing the crop by 
approximately 0-402 bushel per acre. This may be due to weed competition 
for nitrogen in excessively wet seasons when inter-row cultivation is abandoned 
earlier than in more favourable seasons, or it may be due to excessive leaching 
of nitrates, or it may be partly a function of the decreased light intensity during 
cloudy, rainy weather. Whatever the reason, or reasons, the net effect of the 
factors associated with very heavy rainfalls during this period is to reduce the 
growth rate of the maize plant and hence both the number and size of the cobs. 


(ii) Rainfalls above five inches during cob-development in March-April 
Significantly depress yields, each additional inch by 0-438 bushel per acre below 
the level produced by the December-February rainfall. The high humidities 
and the moist state of the cobs which are a natural corollary of high rainfalls 
during this season, together with almost perfect incubation temperatures— 
average day temperatures of 80° F., night temperatures of 60° F.—favour cob 
diseases, particularly Diplodia ear rot. At present no economic control of cob 
rots is available, and in almost every season some loss is experienced from these 
diseases. 


In addition to causing large-scale rejection of Diplodia—infested, dead 
grain at the harvest—inclusion would reduce the sale-value of the crop, as well 
as increasing the silo-storage difficulties—high rainfalls in March and April 
result in a high moisture content in the grain, particularly in that pulled in late 
May or June. Consequently, before storage in the nests of silos at Atherton, 
Tolga and Kairi, most of the early harvest must be artificially dried to a moisture 
content of 14 per cent. (Straughan, 1949). | 


6. During the period under review, yields declined to a slight but significant 
degree—probably of the order of 0-1335 bushel per acre per annum—and 
present-day yields would appear to be at least five bushels per acre below those 
obtaining in the beginning of the period. 

No precise data are available as to the exact causes of this decline, but on 
general grounds we may reasonably expect that there would be a time-nitrogen 
regression (in the absence of fertilizers and nitrogen-building rotations), a soil- 
structure deterioration, and erosion loss similar to those noted by Cornish (1949) 
in his study of yield trends in the wheat belt of South Australia. 


A suggestion of such a nitrogen decline in the maize lands is found in the 
following figures (Table 2), taken from Teakle (1950). 


If the nitrogen-loss of the maize area north of Tolga, which was originally 
under Hucalyptus woodland, parallels that of the rain forest soils to the south 
(Atherton, Table 2), there is every reason to suspect a nitrogen-deficiency in 
them at least, for even under the virgin woodlands (Mapee et seqg., Table 2) 
they were only of moderate to low nitrogen content. 


Teakle further notes that ‘“‘ under paspalum (pasture) or cultivation the 
crumb structure is greatly reduced and there is some sub-surface compaction ”’. 

Sheet erosion, though masked by the uniform red colour of the soils, is 
evident on long gentle slopes where drifting against fences is characteristic. 

It appears likely, then, that all three factors are contributory to the 
diminishing maize yields. 


30 SIMONETT AND DRANE. 


7. The suggested March-April optimum rainfall of five inches at the 22-inch 
level almost certainly does not apply through the whole range of December- 
February rainfalls. Logically, we would expect that stored soil moisture from 
heavy rains in the first period, and the residual effect of the higher humidities 
attending these heavy rains would reduce the requirements during ear-develop- 
ment. Unfortunately, no data are available on this point. The converse is 
probably not true, except when the distribution in the preceding months is 
irregular. 


TABLE 2. 


Nitrogen Content of Selected Red Loams on Basalt, Atherton Tableland. 
(After Teakle.) 


Approx. Depth, 

District. Rainfall. Ins. Condition. N%. 
Atherton ae a 50 0-6 Rain forest. 0-613 
Yungaburra .. a 55 0-6 Cleared and under Wild 0-559 

Tobacco and regrowth. 
Atherton ae Ae 52 0-7 Maize. 0-235 
Sth. Mapee .. ge <50 0-6 Eucalyptus woodland. 0-257 
Mapee : am <50 0-6 0-202 
Sth. Carbeen ne 40 0-6 0-155 
Carbeen Be iy 40 0-2 0-194 
Nth. Carbeen af 40 0-6 0-113 
Nth. Carbeen as 40 0-6 0-114 


8. Seasons little affected by cyclones, and in which the December-February 
rainfalls were below 22 inches, ranged widely in yields from 21-50 to 43-12 
bushels per acre (Table 3). 


TABLE 3. 
Maize Yields and Rainfalls in Low-rainfall Years, Atherton Tableland. 


| 
| Growing Yield, 
Season. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr. Season Bushels/ 
Total. Acre. 

1914-15 .. 386 256 294 69 59 10-64 21-50 
1918-19 .. 412 410 181 599 591 21-93 42-56 
1919-20 .. 113 1,299 711 102 408 26°33 43-12 
1923-24 .. 651 576 610 671 156 26°64 27-52 
1930-31 .. 450 1,042 487 287 403 26-69 35°31 
1941-42 .. 333 164 1,498 187 734 29-16 24°73 
1946-47 .. 202 442 1,239 1,089 200 31-72 37°34 
1947-48 .. 380 200-4 365 1,107 319 33°71 29-68 


From the information in Table 3 it is clear that growing season rainfalls 
alone are not a good indicator of crop success when rainfalls are below the 
optimum. Nor are the pre-seeding rainfalls of September to November which 
in the above cases bear no relation to yields. The important factors are probably 
rainfall incidence and (possibly) heat wave spells in relation to critical stages in 
growth. 


CLIMATE AND MAIZE YIELDS ON THE ATHERTON TABLELAND. oe 


SUMMARY. 


Maize yields on the Atherton Tableland in north Queensland are significantly 
depressed by rainfalls exceeding 22 inches in the growing season of December- 
February (including the tasseling period), each additional inch reducing yields 
by approximately 0-402 bushel per acre. Rainfalls above five inches during 
cob-development in March-April also reduce yields, each inch by 0-438 bushel 
per acre. During the period 1913-14 to 1948-49 maize yields declined to a 
slight but significant degree and present day totals are at least five bushels per 
acre below those of the early years. The factors responsible for the time-yields 
decline, and the factors associated with rainfall which appear to be responsible 
for the rainfall-yield suppression were discussed. The statistical technique 
used was that of confluence analysis. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 


Grateful acknowledgement is made to Mr. R. 8S. G. Rutherford for advice 
and criticism of the statistical treatment, to Mr. E. J. Breakwell and Dr. L. G. 
Miles for helpful criticism, to Miss Margaret Oates for help in computations, to 
the Central Weather Bureau, Melbourne, for supplying rainfall data, and the 
Queensland Government Statistician for supplying maize production data. 
One of us (D.S.8.) is indebted to Professor J. Macdonald Holmes for his continued 
interest, and to the Commonwealth Research Grant, University of Sydney, for 
financial assistance. 


REFERENCES. 


Cornish, H. A., 1949. Aust. J. Scr: Res., Ser. B, 2, 83. 

Frisch, Ragnar, 1934. Statistical Confluence Analysis by Means of Complete Regression 
Systems, Oslo. 

Skerman, P. J., 1947. Bureau of Investigation, Queensland, 4th Annual Report. 

Stone, J. R. N., 1945. J. Roy. Stat. Soc., Parts III-IV, 108, 286. 

Straughan, W. R., 1949. Queensland Ag. J., 68, No. 6, 311. 

Teakle, L. J. H., 1950. Univ. Queensland Papers, Faculty of Agriculture, 1, No. 1, xx. 


PALLADIUM COMPLEXES. 


PART V. REACTIONS OF PALLADIUM COMPOUNDS WITH 2: 2’ DIPYRIDYL. 


By 8S. E. LIVINGSTONE, A.S.T.C., B.Sc. 


Manuscript received, June 18, 1952. Read, July 2, 1952. 


An investigation of the types of compounds formed by palladium with 
2:2’ dipyridyl has been carried out similar to that describing the reactions of 
palladium compounds with 1:10 phenanthroline (Livingstone, 1951). 


Some complexes of palladium containing 2: 2’ dipyridyl (dipy) have been 
previously reported: viz. Pd dipy Cl, (Morgan and Burstall, 1933); Pd dipy 
(NO,). and Pd dipy C,O, (Mann and Purdie, 1936). Compounds of the type 
Pd dipy X,, similar to these, are described here (X=Br, I, CNS, NO,). These 
compounds are all insoluble in water and organic solvents—except Pd dipy 
(NO3),, which is moderately soluble in water—and are precipitated when a 
solution of PdX, or K,PdX, is treated with an aqueous solution of 2 : 2’ dipyridyl. 
These compounds probably have the structure 


Baa 
Pd 
[\7 _e 


the dipyridyl acting as a bidentate ligand and thus giving the palladium atom 
a coordination number of four, which is usual for divalent palladium. Pre- 
cipitates are not formed when dipyridyl is added to solutions of (i) PdSQ,, 
(ii) PASO, + NaF, (ii) K,Pd(CN),. All the above compounds of geneval formula 
Pd dipy X, dissolve in cold aqueous solutions of KCN to give colourless solutions 
liberating 2:2’ dipyridyl, in analogy wita Pd[phen|X, (where phen=1: 10 
phenanthroline) (Livingstone, 1951). 

A tetravalent palladium complex tetrachloro-?: 2’ dipyridyl palladium 


(IV) chloride is formed as reddish-orange crystals by the oxidation of Pd dipy Cl, 
with chlorine. 


CHCl, 
— [Pd dipy Cl,] 
VII. 


[Pd dipy Cl,]+Cl, 
II. 


This compound VII, unlike its phenanthroline analogue (Livingstone, 1951), 
does not liberate chlorine in moist air, nor on boiling with water, and is stable 


PALLADIUM COMPLEXES. ao 


on heating to 160°C. It appears to have much greater stability than other 
tetrachlorodiammine palladium (IV) type compounds previously reported 
(Rosenheim and Maass, 1898; Drew et alii, 1932). 


The reactions of [Pd dipy Cl,] (II) with different amines were investigated. 
II dissolves in excess aqueous 2: 2’ dipyridyl to give a yellow solution. Con- 
centration and precipitation with acetone yields the original [Pd dipy Cl,]. 
However, salts of the ion [Pd dipy,|*+*+ can be obtained with the anions per- 
chlorate and 2-naphthol-6-sulphonate. 


[Pd dipy Cl,] 38 dipy ea 4 yellow Solution 
I] 


evaperation 
-- 
acetone 


(Pd dipy,) (C10,), (Pa dipy,| (CioHOH SO), 3H,O (Pa dipy C\,) 
VITI [X Il 


Existence of the equilibrium 
[Pd dipy Cl,] + dipy = [Pd dipy.|+t*+ + 2Cl- 


is demonstrated by the fact that addition of a large excess of NaCl to an aqueous 
solution of [Pd dipy,] (ClO,), immediately precipitates [Pd dipy Cl,]. 


Solutions of mixed tetrammines of the type [Pd dipy Am,|*+ (where 
Am=ammonia, pyridine, 2Am-=ethylenediamine, propylenediamine) are 
obtained by treating IT with an excess of amine in dilute aqueous solution. 
Addition of NH,C1O, to the pale green solution precipitates [Pd dipy Am, ]|(C1O,4).. 
These perchlorates, surprisingly, are fairly soluble in cold water, but all excepting 
[Pd dipy en](ClO,), could be recrystallized from water. A considerable excess 
of 1 : 10 phenenthroline must be added to [Pd dipy Cl,] and the mixture boiled to 
effect solution; addition of NH,ClO, precipitates [Pd phen,]|(ClO,),. This 
is probably due to the fact that 2:2’ dipyridyl is appreciably volatile under 
these conditions. 


Comparison of the results obtained with palladium and 2: 2’ dipyridyl with 
those for palladium and 1:10 phenanthroline (Livingstone, 1951) and for 
platinum and 2: 2’ dipyridyl (Morgan and Burstall, 1934) shows that there is a 
considerable similarity between them. Failure was experienced in all cases to 
isolate [M(chel),|Cl, (where M=Pt, Pd and chel=dipy or phen), [M chel Cl, | 
being obtained in each case. However, the perchlorates and 2-naphthol-6 
sulphonates of [Pd phen,]++ and [Pd dipy,]**+ could be prepared. Morgan 
and Burstall (1934) claimed to have isolated (i) [Pd dipy,|PtCl, and 
(ii) [Pt dipy py,]PtCl,, but this seems unlikely since their products were yellow 
and one would expect these compounds to be pink or possibly green (Drew 
et alii, 1932) and hence the substances obtained were probably (i) [Pt dipy Cl,] 
and (ii) a mixture of [Pt dipy Cl,| and [Pt py,Cl,]. Using similar procedures 
with the palladium phenanthroline complex, the author obtained yellow 
[Pd phen Cl,]. However, by altering the conditions, viz. addition of a solution 
of [Pd phen,](ClO,), to excess of concentrated ice-cold solution of K,PdCl,, 
salmon pink products resulted, which were undoubtedly impure [Pd phen, |PdCl,. 
However, this latter compound could not be prepared in the pure condition. 


E 


34 S. E. LIVINGSTONE. 


It is possible that it may have been contaminated with a bridged compound 
having the structure 


sae 


N 
Ni e 
Pd Pd 
Aan A ie ‘ 


| Cl 
N 


Support for this is given by the fact that if the solutions are mixed at the boiling 
point, which usually favours formation of bridged compounds, the palladium 
content of the resulting product is increased. A similar result was obtained 
using K,PdBr,, but no pure compounds could be isolated. Chatt and Mann 
(1939) attempted to prepare bridged palladium complexes of this particular 
type (t.e. having four halogen atoms attached to one palladium atom) but 
reported negative results. The matter is being further investigated as part of a 
study of the formation of bridged compounds of palladium. 


EXPERIMENTAL. 
(III) Dibromo-2 : 2’ dipyridyl palladium (I). 


A hot aqueous solution (50 ml.) of K,PdBr, (0-5 g.) was mixed with a warm solution of 
0:16 g. of 2: 2’ dipyridyl—I— in water (30 ml.) containing 3 ml. of alcohol. Orange prisms of 
III separated immediately ; the product was insoluble in water and organic solvents, but readily 
soluble in aqueous KCN to a colourless solution. Yield 0-385 g. 


Found: Pd, 25-69%; Br, 38°4%. 
PdC,,H,N,Br, requires: Pd, 25-24%; Br, 37-82%. 


(IV) Diido-2 :2’ dipyridyl palladium (II). 

(i) A solution of K,PdI, was treated with a hot aqueous solution of I. A pinkish brown 
precipitate resulted. 

Found: Pd, 20°7%. 

(ii) Dichloro-2 : 2’ dipyridyl palladium (II)—compound II—(0-45 g.) and 0:35 g. of I were 
dissolved in hot water containing a few drops of alcohol. The yellow-brown solution was poured 
into 20 ml. of water containing KI (5 g.). 0-63 g. of pinkish brown crystals of IV were pre- 
cipitated. 

Found: Pd, 20:6%; I, 48:1%. 

PdC,,H.N.I, requires :/ Pd, 20-65%; Ic) 40- 1200, 


(V) Dithiocyanato-2 : 2’ dipyridyl palladium (II). 

K,PdCl, (0:3 g.) was dissolved in water (30 ml.) and KCNS (2-5 g.) added. On addition of 
an aqueous solution containing I (0:14 g.), pale yellow crystals were thrown down. Yield, 
0-33 g. . 

Wound':) Pd, 28-19): (Ci-37*89) >| Eo 2507. 

PdC,,H,N.(CNS). requires: Pd, 28:15%; C, 37-92%; H, 2-13%. 


PALLADIUM COMPLEXES. 35 


(VI) Denitrato-2 : 2’ dipyridyl palladium (LJ). 

I (0:15 g.) dissolved in hot water (30 ml.) was added to a solution of Pd(NQs3), (excess) in 
dilute HNO, and the mixture heated to boiling. On cooling, pale yellow crystals, appreciably 
soluble in water, were deposited. Yield, 0-20 g. 

Found: Pd, 27-3%. 

PdCO,,H,N.(NO3). requires: Pd, 27-58%. 


(VII) Tetrachloro-2 : 2’ dipyridyl palladium (IV). 

II (0:4 g.) was suspended in chloroform and chlorine passed into the suspension for 40 
minutes. On filtering, the product was washed with chloroform, then dry ether, and dried 
an vacuo over P,O;. Yield, 0:43 g. The reddish orange crystals had no smell of chlorine and 
were not decomposed by heating to 160° C., nor by boiling with water. 

Found: Pd, 26:5%; Cl, 35-1%. 

PdC,,H,N.Cl, requires: Pd, 26-36% ; Cl, 35-05%. 


Reactions of II with Amines. 
(A) 2: 2’ Dipyridyl. 
II (0:2 g.) and I (0:2 g.) were heated to boiling in water (15 ml.) to give a deep yellow solution. 
On concentration to 5 ml., acetone was added. Pale cream needles were precipitated. 
Found: Pd, 32:0%. 
Calculated for PdC,,H,N,Cl,: Pd, 31-96%. 


(VIII) Bis (2: 2’ dipyridyl) palladium (IL) perchlorate. 


IT (0-2 g.) and I (0-2 g.) were warmed with water (25 ml.) and alcohol (3 ml.).. On addition 
of an aqueous solution of NH,ClO, 0°35 g. of deep yellow dentritic crystals of VIII separated. 
On recrystallization from water (150 ml.) 0-3 g. of deep yellow prisms were obtained. 


Found: Pd, 17:3%. 

Pd(C),H.N.).(ClO,), requires.: Pd, 17-29%. 

0-15 g. of VIII were dissolved in boiling water (100 ml.) and NaCl (3 g.) added ;_ pale yellow 
needles were deposited while the solution smelt strongly of 2 : 2’ dipyridy]l. 

Hound): Pd, 32°0%. 

Calculated for PdC,,H,N,Cl,: Pd, 31-96%. 


(IX) Bis (2: 2’ dipyridyl) palladium (IL) 2-naphthol-6-sulphonate trihydrate. 

II (0-1 g.) and I (0:1 g.) were warmed with water to give a yellow solution and excess of a 
solution of sodium 2-naphthol-6-sulphonate was added. Deep yellow crystals (0:25 g.) separated ; 
these were washed with hot water, then acetone and dried in vacuo over P,O;. On heating in a 
closed tube, water was evolved at a temperature just below decomposition. 


Raumnd:) Pd5 11:99 3) Cy 5:99 sc HH, 3° 8%. 
Pd(C,>H,N2).(C;>H ,OHSO;),.3H,O requires: Pd, 11-60%; C, 52-24%; H, 3°95%. 


(B) Ammonia. 
(X) Diammino-2 : 2’ dipyridyl palladium (LI) perchlorate. 

II (0-35 g.) was treated with water (30 ml.) and IN NH,OH (4 ml.) and the mixture warmed 
to 40°C. After 15 minutes a pale greenish yellow solution resulted. On addition of NH,C10, 


thin needles of X were slowly precipitated. Recrystallization from water (8 ml.) yielded 0-14 g. 
of colourless prisms. 


Found: Pd, 21:4%. 
PdC,,HsN,(NH;),.(ClO,). requires: Pd, 21-52%. 


36 S. E. LIVINGSTONE. 


(C) Pyridine. 
(XI) Dipyridine-2 : 2’ dipyridyl palladium (IL) perchlorate. 
II (0:35 g.) was placed in water (40 ml.) and treated with drops of pyridine in the cold to 


give a pale greenish yellow solution. Addition of NH,Cl1O, caused acicular prisms of XI (0:51 g.) 
to slowly separate. Recrystallization from water gave very pale green elongated prisms (0°43 g.). 


Found: Pd, 17-1%. 
PdC,,H,N.(C;H;N).(ClO,), requires: Pd, 17-21%. 


(D) Hthylenediamine. 
(XII) Hthylenediamine-2 : 2’ dipyridyl palladium (II) perchlorate. 


II (0:3 g.) was treated with water (10 ml.) and 3% aqueous ethylenediamine (3 ml.). After 
10 minutes at room temperature a clear pale green solution was obtained. Addition of NH,C1O, 
caused slow crystallization of thin needles (0-10 g.) of XII, very soluble in water. 


Found: Pd, 20-1%. 
Pd(C,,H,No(C»H,N.)(C1O,). requires: Pd, 20-44%. 


(E) Propylenediamine. 
(XIII) Propylenediamine-2 : 2’ dipyridyl palladium (£1) perchlorate. 

II (0-3 g.) was treated with water (7 ml.) and 3% aqueous propylenediamine (3 ml.). To 
the resulting pale yellow green solution, NH,ClO, was added, precipitating colourless needles 
(0:23 g.). These were recrystallized from water (8 ml.). 

Hound?) (ed; 19-19%. 

Pd(C,,>HsNe2)(C3HipN2)(C1O4), requires: Pd, 19-91%. 


(F) 1:10 Phenanthroline. 

II (0:3 g.) and 1: 10 phenanthroline (0-2 g.) were heated in water (30 ml.) ; an extra 0-2 g. 
of 1: 10 phenanthroline was required to achieve a clear solution. NH,ClO, precipitated yellow 
prisms of (Pd phen,)(C1O,)., which were recrystallized from water (300 ml.). Yield, 0-37 g. 

Pound = "Pd, 15289, 25-8%,. 

Calculated for Pd(C,,H,N.).(ClO,),: Pd, 16-02%. 


Attempted preparation of bis (1 : 10 phenanthroline) palladium (L1) chloropalladate (II). 

(i) Bis (1:10 phenanthroline) palladium (II) perchlorate—compound XIV—(0:14 g.) 
dissolved in boiling water (80 ml.) was added slowly to a solution of K,PdCl, (0-45 g.) in ice cold 
water (100 ml.). The salmon pink product was filtered, washed with cold water, then acetone. 

Found: Pd, 33-8%. 

(ii) XIV (0-25 g.) in boiling water (100 ml.) was slowly added to a solution of K,PdCl, (1 g.) 
in ice cold water (80 ml.). Yield of salmon pink crystals, 0-30 g. 

Found: Pd,'33°6%; <Cl, 22°2%, 2.e. Pd 1Ci= F007. 1-99: 

Pd(C,,H,N,),PdCl, requires: Pd, 29-82%; Cl, 19-83%. 

Pd,C,,.H,N,Cl, requires: Pd, 39:86%; Cl, 26°49%. 


Attempted Preparation of bridged chloro compound. 


A solution of XIV (0-25 g.) in boiling water (100 ml.) was slowly poured into a boiling 
aqueous solution (100 ml.) of K,PdCl, (0-7 g.). The solution was kept boiling for a further 30 
minutes. The orange brown product (0:33 g.) was filtered, washed well with hot water, then 


acetone, and dried over P,Os. 
Found: Pd, 35-6%. 


PALLADIUM COMPLEXES. at 


Attempted preparation of bridged bromo compound. 

XIV (0:15 g.) dissolved in boiling water (80 ml.) was added to a solution of K,PdBr, (0-7 g.) 
in boiling water (50 ml.) over a period of 20 minutes and the mixture kept at the boil for a further 
20 minutes. The precipitate of reddish-brown crystals was filtered, washed with hot water, 
then acetone, and dried over P,O;. 

Found: Pd, 28:2%. 

Pd,C,,H,N.Br, requires: Pd, 29-91%. 

Pd(C,,H,N.),.PdBr, requires: 23-88%. 


SUMMARY. 

An investigation of compounds formed by palladium with 2: 2’ dipyridyl 
(compound I) acting as a chelating group, has been described. I reacts with 
PdX, and K,PdX, to form [Pd dipy X,] (where dipy=2: 2’ dipyridyl and 
X=Br, I, CNS, NO;). Similar compounds (where X =Cl, NO, and 2X =C,0,) 
have been previously reported. [Pd dipy Cl,] (compound II) is oxidized to the 
orange-red compound [Pd dipy Cl,] by passing chlorine through a suspension 
of II in chloroform. II dissolves in excess of aqueous solution of I to form a 
solution of the tetramine chloride [Pd dipy,|Cl,, which could not be isolated from 
solution, but addition of ammonium perchlorate and sodium 2-naphthol-6-sul- 
phonate yields VIII, [Pd dipy,](ClO,)., and IX, [Pd dipy,|(C,,H ,OHSO;),..3H,O 
respectively. II also dissolves in aqueous ammonia, pyridine (py), ethylene- 
diamine (en) and propylenediamine (pn) to give pale yellow green solutions 
which upon addition of NH,ClO, yields X, [Pd dipy (NH3).|(ClO,),, XI, 
[Pd dipy py.|(ClO,),, XII, [Pd dipy en](ClO,),. XIII, [Pd dipy pn](ClQ,),. 
Attempts to prepare [Pd phen,|PdCl, (phen=1 : 10 phenanthroline) gave salmon 
pink products with high Pd and Cl content, possibly due to contamination 
with a bridged compound, which could be isolated in the pure state. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENT. 


The author is indebted to Dr. F. P. J. Dwyer for his generous gift of 2 : 2’ 
dipyridyl used in this investigation and also to Dr. E. Challen for the carbon 
and hydrogen analyses. 


REFERENCES. 
Chatt, J.. and Mann, J. G., 1939. J.C.S., 1622. 
Drew, H. D. K., Pinkard, F. W., Preston, G. H., and Wardlaw, W., 1932. J.C.S., 1895. 
Livingstone, 8. E., 1951. Tuis Journat, 85, 151. 
Mann, F. G., and Purdie, D., 1936. J.C.S., 873. 
Morgan, G. T., and Burstall, F. H., 1933. J. Indian Chem. Soc., P. C. Ray Commemoration, 
Vol., 1-16. 
Morgan, G. T., and Burstall, F. H., 1934. J.C.S., 965. 
Rosenheim, A., and Maass, T. A., 1898. Z. anorg. Chem., 18, 331. 


Inorganic Chemistry Department, 
School of Applied Chemistry, 
N.S.W. University of Technology. 


LIVERSIDGE RESEARCH LECTURE* 


ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE 
SOLID STATE. 


By A. L. G. REES, D.Sc., Ph.D., D.I.C. 
Chemical Physics Section, Division of Industrial Chemistry, C.S.I.R.O., 
Melbourne. 


With 17 Text-figures and Plates IT-IV. 


Technical rather than scientific progress over the last 20 years has been 
largely responsible for the useful application of physics to the problems of 
chemistry. Naturally enough physical methods find immediate application 
in the identification and analysis of chemical species ; later, as a proper under- 
Standing of the physical phenomenon is acquired, application to the more 
fundamental problems of structure, energetics and dynamics becomes possible. 
Electron diffraction has been understood fairly completely, in a formal way at 
least, from a time shortly after the establishment of wave mechanics, but recent 
experimental advances have only now permitted some realization of its full 
potential in chemistry. 


The terms of the Liversidge Bequest require that the subject of this lecture 
should be such as to encourage research and stimulate interest in some aspect of 
chemistry. The importance of the chemistry of the solid state, both in academic 
and technological spheres, the relevance and uniqueness of the information on 
the solid state provided by electron diffraction and the prospect of exciting 
experimental and theoretical development constitute a topic which, I venture 
to submit, satisfies these terms. 


THE ELECTRON DIFFRACTION METHOD. 


Electrons, of mass m and charge e, accelerated by a potential V of the order 
of 50 kV., have, from the relation A=h/(2meV)?, an equivalent wave-length ’ 
of ~0-06 A, somewhat smaller than the normal X-ray wave-lengths used in 
diffraction studies, but still of the right order of magnitude for diffraction by 
regular arrangements of atoms or molecules. One would expect an electron 
diffraction pattern to have a formal resemblance to an X-ray diffraction pattern ; 
this is so, but there are important differences. Indeed, it is these differences 
which represent the value of electron diffraction in chemistry. By reason of its 
charge a 50 kV. electron can penetrate only some hundred or so atomic planes 
without suffering considerable inelastic scattering (7.e., scattering in which 
kinetic energy of translation is not conserved). Moreover, electrons are scattered 
elastically by atoms some 10’ times more efficiently than are X-rays. Electron 
diffraction is restricted then to the study of solid surfaces and of extremely small 
crystals, for both of which X-ray diffraction is of indifferent value. 


Those refinements to the technique of electron diffraction responsible for 
widening its scope have been largely electron-optical in character. An electron 
diffraction camera is simply an instrument for producing a narrow beam of 


* Delivered to the Royal Society of New South Wales, July 17, 1952. 


ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOLID STATE. 39 


high-velocity electrons by means of a system of electromagnetic lenses and small 
apertures, and recording on a photographic plate held normal to the beam direc- 
tion the beams diffracted by the specimen. Figure 1 is a diagrammatic repre- 
sentation of the principle of a high-resolution electron diffraction camera. 


For high resolution in single-crystal reflections, with which we shall be 
particularly concerned here, the electrons in the narrow pencil impinging on the 
specimen must be of uniform velocity, as this determines their wave length, and 
must have small angular spread. To fulfil these conditions stability in 


APERTURE 2 


[2] LENS 2. 


—- SPECIMEN 


PLATE 


Fig. 1.—Principle of high-resolution electron diffraction camera. 


accelerating voltage (determining the electron velocity) and in lens current 
(determining the focal length of the lens) and freedom from external perturba- 
tions, either electrical, magnetic or mechanical, are required. For a given 
resolution, the tolerable fluctuations in any of these may be calculated. This 
problem was analysed before construction of the diffraction camera in Melbourne 
(Cowley and Rees, 1952), which is shown in Plate II, Fig. 2. 

Many of the applications of electron diffraction to solid state studies require 
high resolution, since it is the fine structural detail of these patterns which 
provides the relevant information. Recent work indicates that experimental 
conditions must be controlled even more rigorously if all useful information is 
to be extracted from the method. 

Diffraction patterns obtained from specimens in which the crystallites are 
in random orientation, either by transmission through a powder specimen or by 
reflection from the surface of a polycrystalline solid, consist of circles centred 
on the undeflected beam. The radii of the rings give the diffraction angle 26,,.,, 
related to the lattice spacings d,,, by the Bragg law 


(2/A) sin 0,,,=1/dpg)- 


Patterns from a single crystal or from a number of crystals in identical orientation 
consist of single reflection spots or, in special cases, an array of spots, which has 
become known as a cross-grating pattern owing to its resemblance to the diffrac- 
tion pattern from a two-dimensional grating. 


40 A. L. G. REES. 


It is convenient to discuss diffraction from single crystals in terms of a 
concept introduced by Ewald, that of the reciprocal lattice. This concept is one 


Reciprocal 
Lattice. 


Fig. 3.—Ewald’s reciprocal-lattice construction for diffraction conditions. 


of the most useful in diffraction studies; as it is necessary for subsequent 
discussion it will be outlined briefly here. The vector equivalent of Bragg’s law 
is given by a construction wherein the incident beam is represented by a vector 


Fig. 4.—Reciprocal-lattice construction for diffraction by a thin 
crystal plate. Electron beam parallel to short dimension of 
erystal. 


S, of magnitude 1/4 and the diffracted beam by a vector S,, of identical magnitude 
but making an angle 20 with the incident beam. The difference between the 
vectors S, and S, is a vector of magnitude 1/d,,, if the diffraction condition is 
satisfied. All diffracted beam vectors must terminate on the surface of a sphere 


ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOLID STATE. AL 


centred on the origin of the beam vectors and of radius 1/A. If d,,, is a proper 
lattice spacing then it is obvious from Figure 3 that Bragg’s law is implicit in 


this construction. The vector OB, having the direction of a normal to the 
diffracting planes and of magnitude 1/d,,, is termed a reciprocal lattice vector. 
For any given crystal lattice, a reciprocal lattice of terminal points of vectors 
1/d,,,; maay be constructed. The directions of the permitted diffracted beams 


for a specific orientation of the crystal to the incident beam vector AO will then 


Fig. 5.—Cross-grating pattern from crystal of boric acid. 


be given by the vectors AB terminated at the intersections of the Ewald sphere 
and the integer points of the reciprocal lattice. A change in orientation of the 
real crystal leads to a rotation of the reciprocal lattice about its origin O through 
the same angle. In this way different integer points of the reciprocal lattice 
intersect the surface of the Ewald sphere and diffracted beams are permitted. 
Reflections for which 1/d,,, is greater than 2/A will not be permitted as the corres- 
ponding reciprocal lattice points lie outside the volume swept out by the Ewald 
Sphere pivoted on O. 


In the same way that the resolving power of an optical diffraction grating 
is determined by the total number of lines, the angular breadth of a reflection 
from a three-dimensional crystal grating is greater the smaller the number of 
Scattering points in the crystal. For an infinite crystal the reciprocal lattice 
is a lattice of points and the angular range of any reflection is infinitesimal ; 
for a finite crystal the deterioration in resolution appears in the reciprocal lattice 


42 A. L. G. REES. 


as a Spreading of each reciprocal lattice point. This spread will be greatest in 
the direction of the smallest dimension of the crystal. The Ewald sphere will 
now pass through the region around a reciprocal lattice point for a range of 
directions of the incident beam vector. This is the origin of the dependence of 
breadth of reflections on crystal size. 

The construction for the diffraction of fast electrons is simplified as 1// 
is much greater than the unit reciprocal lattice spacings and the Ewald sphere 
may be approximated by a plane or near-plane sectioning the reciprocal lattice. 
Moreover, since the small penetration of electrons limits the effective dimensions 
of the three-dimensional grating, it is to be expected that reciprocal lattice 
points will be invariably extended into the space between the integer points. 
For a thin crystal plate the diffraction conditions are as shown in Figure 4. 
The reciprocal lattice points are drawn out into spikes parallel to the short 
dimension of the crystal and the Ewald sphere of large radius can section many 
of these spikes simultaneously. The pattern resulting from such a diffraction 
experiment is a cross-grating pattern, a symmetry-true projection of a section 
of the reciprocal lattice. An example of such a pattern is given in Figure 5. 


THE STRUCTURAL PROBLEM. 


Application of electron diffraction to chemical problems followed its 
discovery very promptly ; particularly successful application came from the 
laboratories of G. I. Finch, G. P. Thomson, 8. Kikuchi, J. J. Trillat and L. H. 
Germer (Thompson and Cochrane, 1939; Finch and Wilman, 1937). Studies 
of the growth and structure of thin films, of the structure of metal oxides, 
particularly surface oxides, of surface films and lubrication were among the 
important fields of application to chemistry. The useful fundamental informa- 
tion extracted from these investigations was confined to cell dimensions, crystal 
symmetry, orientation and habit, and to some extent structure. No structural 
problems were attempted from single-crystal data and Fourier methods were 
not applied. The reason for this lay in the anomalies in observed electron 
diffraction intensities and in the presence of reflections forbidden on space-group 
grounds. These anomalies were ascribed to various causes, among them 
dynamic interaction, limitation of crystal dimensions and secondary scattering. 

Over the last five years Pinsker and his colleagues (Vanchstein and Pinsker, 
1949, 1950) have used intensity data from powder patterns to analyse crystal 
structures by Fourier methods. The disadvantage of using patterns of this 
type, from which only one parameter, the Bragg angle, is available for determining 
the geometry of the lattice and in which different reflections often appear in 
coincidence, is familiar to all crystallographers. The possible use of single- 
crystal data for structure analysis was examined in Melbourne several years 
ago as the result of the study of secondary scattering of electrons (Cowley ef al., 
19d51a). 

The high efficiency of elastic scattering of electrons results in the appearance 
of a considerable proportion of the incident energy in the diffracted beams ; 
strong primary reflections may therefore be rediffracted by underlying crystallites 
or mosaic elements of the same crystal as shown in Figure 6. This secondary 
scattering may lead to many unusual and anomalous features in patterns ; 
in polycrystalline specimens extra spots, extra rings, groups of spots, diffuse 
bands with sharp edges and rings centred on primary spots may occur; in 
single-crystal patterns a redistribution of the intensity among the reflections in 
the pattern and the appearance of the forbidden reflections may result. These 
features are illustrated in the patterns as shown in Plate ITI, Figs. 7, 8, 9 and 10. 

In the cross-grating pattern of Plate III, Fig.10, there are superimposed 
secondary patterns identical with the primary pattern and of the same orienta- 
tion, but centred on each of the primary reflections. The secondary reflections 


ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOLID STATE. 43 


consequently coincide with primary reflections of different indices. This is 
illustrated in Figure 11. Each reflection in the pattern has lost intensity by 
contributing to all other reflections and has gained by secondary contributions 
from every other spot. This modification of the intensities is the obstacle to 
their use for structure analysis. 


Incident 
Beam 


TLL. } oa 
TELLER. > - ili begs 


1 


Undeflected Primary Secondory 

Beam Reflectian Reflection 
(4,k,1l) (hake, about hy kyl 

fram 1.) 


Fig. 6.—Diagrammatic representation of secondary elastic 
scattering of primary diffracted beams by underlying crystallites. 
See Plate III, Figs. 7-10. 


The theoretical problem is relatively simple. The contribution by secondary 
scattering from a reflection h,k,0 to another reflection h.k,0 is proportional to 
the product of the theoretical intensities 


Thizo ° La.thpike tho 


and the total contribution from all primary reflections to this reflection is 
proportional to the sum of such products over all indices h, and k, 

XBT wo * La. rhe +o 
A mathematical analysis on this basis leads to an expression for the correction of 
observed intensities for secondary scattering. The magnitude of the corrections 
and the way in which they account for the intensity anomaly is shown in Figure 


44 A. L. G. REES. 


a be 
‘ ° ® Or SS 
Seconcdcory 


Origin. 


Primory 
Oriqin. 


Strong Primar 
e Rencchon 


f7, Corresponding 
‘4 Secondary 


. f F : Contribution. 


Fig. 11.—Diagram showing coincidence of secondary reflections with primary reflections 
of different indices in a cross-grating pattern. 


5000 |- 


@— lobs. against corrected Icale 


germ Ce against uncorrected Vente: 


4000 


] obs 


1500 


1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 
I calc 


Fig. 12.—Comparison of observed and calculated intensities of reflections from dicetyl 
single-crystal. Satisfactory correspondence of observed and calculated intensities is 
obtained only when a correction for secondary scattering is introduced. 


ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOLID STATE. 


Fig. 13.—Basal-plane Fourier projection of potential distribution in dicetyl using intensity 
data uncorrected for secondary scattering. 


Fig. 14.—Basal-plane Fourier projection of potential distribution in dicetyl using intensity 

data corrected for secondary scattering. Full circles denote carbon atom positions and 

open circles hydrogen atom positions deduced from data on bond lengths and angles. Note 
that the hydrogen atom positions are clearly indicated in the contour map. 


45 


46 A. L. G. REES. 


12. The importance of this correction in structure analysis was tested by 
obtaining basal-plane Fourier projections of the hydrocarbon dicetyl (C3.H,¢e.). 
The Fourier projections obtained from diffraction of electrons are projections 
of the distribution of potential in the lattice and not of the electron density, to 
which, however, they are closely related. In Figure 13 the contour map obtained 
from uncorrected intensities shows spurious and misleading detail; in Figure 14 
the contour map obtained from corrected intensities not only shows the carbon 
atom positions but also gives an indication of the hydrogen atom positions. 


This particular test structure analysis made it clear that the application 
of electron diffraction to structural problems in chemistry had specific merit. 
Crystals of very small dimensions only are necessary and light atoms, notably 
hydrogen, can be located more readily than by X-ray methods owing to their 


Fig. 15.—(111)-Fourier projection of y-Al,OQ,; obtained from intensities in an electron 
diffraction cross-grating pattern. This projection must be interpreted in terms of a 
stacking disorder in the lattice. 


higher relative scattering power for electrons than for X-rays. New problems. 
are, however, introduced, a major one being the measurement of intensities. 
Intensities must be measured with greater accuracy than in the X-ray method, 
but this is not difficult to achieve. 


The results of subsequent structural studies by Dr. J. M. Cowley and Mr. 
A. F. Moodie have justified development of this method and illustrate its value 
in chemistry. 


It has been known for some time that the electron diffraction pattern of 
polycrystalline gold foil developed several extra reflections if the specimen was 
heated at ~500° C. in air or oxygen. Nothing of this sort occurred if larger 
Specimens treated in the same way were studied by X-ray methods. Moodie 
(unpublished work) succeeded in obtaining cross-grating patterns after protracted 
heating of gold films in oxygen and was able to identify several Au-0 phases of 
different symmetry from these patterns. The intensity data were complete 
enough to obtain Fourier projections of two of these phases. The significant 
feature of this result is that gold dissolves oxygen to form well-characterized 
phases of low oxygen content, even though on a bulk specimen this may be 
confined to a surface layer less than 100 A thick. This is, moreover, a problem 


BOS etl oe 


fond 


ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOLID STATE. 44 


which could not be investigated by X-ray methods as the low heat of formation 
of these phases and the high heat of activation of the diffusion of oxygen into 


Fig. 16.—Basal-plane Fourier projection of boric acid crystal showing distribution of potential 
in single two-dimensional layer of the lattice. The trigonal groups are BOs each forming 


three pairs of hydrogen bonds with the three neighbouring BO” groups. Note the distribu- 
tion of potential in the region of the hydrogen-bond pairs. 


gold preclude the preparation of any but a small amount of the material in a 
reasonable time. 


48 AL. Go BEES. 


Cowley (unpublished work) has studied the structure of y-alumina and 
related compounds. A (111) Fourier projection of a disordered y-Al,O, (cubic, 
spinel-type) is shown in Figure 15. The X-ray work on y-Al,O; has been 
confined to powder patterns largely because of the small crystal size and the 
extensive disorder. 


The structure of boric acid has been determined by Zachariasen (1934) by 
X-ray methods in so far as the boron and oxygen locations are concerned, but 
no information on the location of the hydrogen atoms was obtained. It was 
inferred from the intermolecular O-—O distances, however, that hydrogen-bonds 
occur extensively in the structure. Cowley (1952) has developed new methods 
of dealing with stacking disorder in layer-lattice structures and has been able 
to obtain a clear projection of a single two-dimensional atom layer showing 


©) BORON @ OXYGEN e 4 HYDROGEN 


Fig. 17.—Diagram showing the eight possible canonical structures for a pair of hydrogen bonds 
in the boric acid structure and the resulting “‘ resonance ”’ structure. 


trigonal BO3- groups and also the hydrogen bonds interlinking these groups. 


The projection is shown in Figure 16. It is to be noted that (i) the hydrogen 
atom in the bond tends to be near either one oxygen or the other and not 
symmetrically disposed between them, and (ii) hydrogen positions do not lie 
on the internuclear line between the hydrogen-bonded oxygens. Evidently 
the explanation is to be found in thé interaction of the two parallel orthodox 
hydrogen bonds. There are, in fact, eight different canonical structures that 
may be written down showing different possible positions of the protons. These 
structures are given in Figure 17 together with the resultant distribution. This 
type of hydrogen-bond ‘‘ resonance ”’ must be common among oxyacids of the 
non-metals and probably occurs in protein structures also. This type of 
structural study would certainly be impossible by X-ray methods at present. 


Of further chemical interest is the fact that structural disorder is common 
in small crystals. For layer-lattice structures it is invariably present. It is 
possible that the 3-dimensional structure of larger crystals is not the thermo- 
dynamically stable configuration when crystal dimensions are small. Moreover, 
there is evidence (Rees and Spink, 1950a) that the lattice parameters change 
significantly when crystal dimensions are reduced. Further study along these 
lines is desirable. 


ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOLID STATE. 49 


FINE STRUCTURE IN ELECTRON DIFFRACTION PATTERNS AND THE 
SIZE AND HABIT OF CRYSTALS. 


High-resolution diffraction patterns show fine structure of the individual 
single-crystal reflections which is closely related to the size and habit of the 
crystal. The origin of this fine structure is to be found in two effects, namely 
_ (i) the deviation of an electron beam on crossing a crystal boundary (refraction) 
(Sturkey and Frevel, 1945; Hillier and Baker, 1945, 1946 ; Cowley and Kees, 
1946, 1947; Honjo, 1947), and (ii) the extension of reciprocal lattice points 
arising from small crystal dimensions (Rees and Spink, 1950b). These effects 
may be discussed independently by means of a kinematic approximation, 
adequate for most purposes, or more rigorously by a dynamic treatment. 


Since the potential inside a crystal is different from that of free space, the 
electron velocity is also different and a refraction phenomenon is to be expected. 
Actually the square root of the inner potential is the electron analogue of the 
refractive index for light. Angular deviation of an electron beam will occur at 


Fig. 18.—Diagram of deviation of an electron beam at entrant and exit faces of a 
crystal at diffraction plane. 8,, S,, S, and 8, are beam vectors ; M, and M, are crystal 


— 


normals; N is the diffracting plane normal; 6 is the Bragg angle. 


the entrant and exit faces of a crystal and also, if the diffraction conditions are 
satisfied, at the diffracting planes inside the crystal, as shown in Figure 18. 
Since the deviations due to refraction are normally very small, electrons entering 
non-parallel faces of the crystal may still satisfy the somewhat relaxed diffraction 
conditions associated with small crystals. Each single reflection will conse- 
quently be broken up into a number of components corresponding to the number 
of possible entry and exit faces presented to the beam by the crystal in its given 
orientation. Typical spot groups attributable to refraction are shown in Plate IV, 
Fig. 19. The spot configuration is characteristic of the orientation and habit 
of the crystal. 


The effect of crystal shape can be discussed only in terms of the reciprocal 
lattice. As we have seen earlier, the shape of the relevant reciprocal lattice 
region about an integer point depends on the external form of the crystal and in 
fact the distribution of scattering amplitude around each integer point of the 
reciprocal lattice is accurately described by the square of a function of the 
reciprocal lattice co-ordinates known as the shape transform. This amplitude 
is greatest along directions perpendicular to crystal faces and the transform is in 
fact a 3-dimensional periodic function. For a plain parallel slab the scattering 
amplitude is extended along the c*-direction and is of the form sin? Nxu/(Nzxu)?, 

¥F 


50 A.D. G. BEES. 


where wu is the reciprocal lattice co-ordinate measured from the integer point 
and N is the number of scattering points in that direction. Referring now to 
Figure 20, in which the situation for refraction and diffraction at (110) planes 
of a small crystal of cubic habit is represented in real and reciprocal space, we 
see the way in which the more complicated spot groups originate. A contour 
map of the distribution of scattering amplitude around a reciprocal lattice point 
in a small crystal of cubic habit is shown in Figure 21.. There is now a different 
Ewald sphere for each face of entry and each sphere makes a different section 
of the amplitude function. Each refraction spot is broken up into a configuration 
determined by the shape transform. In some instances the sphere sections the 


Fig. 20.—Diagram illustrating splitting of the 110 diffraction spot into group of reflections 
by a very small crystal of regular habit (cubic) in real and reciprocal space. The vectors S, 


denote beams prior to diffraction, the vectors Si denote beams after diffraction. The 
distribution of scattering amplitude (square of the shape transform) around the (110)* 
reciprocal-lattice point is shown on a considerably enlarged scale. 


transform in such a way as to show the subsidiary maxima, from the positions 
of which the dimensions of the crystallite may be determined uniquely (Rees 
and Spink, unpublished). Examples of this are shown in Plate II, Fig. 22. 
Further development of this could provide one with a powerful method of 
Studying crystal growth. 


An interesting example is provided by zinc oxide prepared by burning zine 
in air or oxygen. The particles grow as ‘“‘ fourlings ’’, four elongated hexagonal 
prisms roughly in tetrahedral configuration. Often one finds thin sheets forming 
webs between one spine and each of the other three. Further spines may grow 
from these sheets. It has been possible to use electron diffraction methods to 
provide a complete morphological description of these crystals (Cowley et al., 
1951b). A drawing of an idealized crystal is shown in Figure 23 and an electron 
micrograph in Plate IV, Fig. 24. The reason for this fantastic habit is not known, 
but it does represent an interesting problem in the mechanism of crystal growth. 


The possibility of deducing the shape of the molecules of crystalline proteins 
is within reach. These molecules are well ordered units of dimensions of the 


ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOLID STATE. 51 


order of 50-100 A and should give reflections from individual molecules in a 
dried molecular dispersion. The water necessary to preserve long-distance 
order in protein crystals is intermolecular and drying should not therefore 
interfere with the order in each individual molecule. Shape transform. detail 
should allow a complete and unique description of the polyhedral shape of the 
molecule to be given, an important step in the structure analysis of large complex 
molecules. 


The rigorous (dynamic) treatment of diffraction (Bethe, 1928 ; Heidenreich, 
1950; and Kato, 1951) predicts a different effective inner potential for different 


Fig. 21.—Contour map of scattermg amplitude around a reciprocal lattice point 
for a crystal of cubic habit. 


reflections, a prediction which is confirmed by experiment. Experimental data 
on the dimensions and configurations of spot groups such as those of Figure 19 
may be used to deduce the Fourier coefficients V,,, of the three-dimensional 
potential distribution in the unit cell. Goodman (unpublished work) has been 
able to compute the V,,, values for several reflections in MgO from his experi- 
mental data and has shown that they are in good agreement with values obtained 
from the known structure of MgO. This provides us with a new approach to 
structure analysis. The Fourier coefficients may be determined for all observable 
reflections by measurements of spot group dimensions and the structure analysis 
performed in the usual way. This could be of considerable value for crystals for 
which intensity measurements are difficult to make. It is my opinion that this 
represents the most promising approach to the problem of structure analysis by 
electron diffraction. 


52 A. L. G. BEES. 


REACTIONS IN THE SOLID STATE. 


At some stage in a reaction involving the solid state a new solid phase must 
be formed from a solid reactant phase. The mechanism by which this is accom- 
plished is a problem of some importance in chemistry. For simplicity we may 
examine two types of solid state reactions, namely 


(i) tarnish reactions, in which an oxide, sulphide, halide, etc., film is formed 
on the surface of a metal by reaction with the corresponding non-metallic 
element ; and 


(ii) simple dissociation processes, in which an ionic compound is decomposed 
by thermal or photo-chemical means into a gas and a solid product. 


Fig. 23.--Diagram of ideal crystal form of “‘fourling”’ in ZnO smoke. Three 

needles of hexagonal section are twinned on (1122) with the fourth needle (vertical 

in the diagram) making an angle of 116° with it. The webs grow as continuations 

of the lattice of the vertical needle and have a twin relationship with the three 
lower needles. 


The nucleation and growth steps are always the result of aggregation of defects 
in the crystal, e.g. in simple dissociation reactions the step may be either the 
ageregation of interstitial cations or of vacant anion lattice sites trapping 
electrons. A schematic representation of the aggregation of vacancy defects 
is given in Figure 25. The aggregate of defects is in fact simply a lattice of 
cations and electrons, that is, a small crystal of the metal with somewhat enlarged 
lattice dimensions and perhaps different symmetry. It is clear that the defect 
aggregate will at some point become thermodynamically unstable and break 
away from the parent lattice to form a small crystal of the metal of correct 
lattice dimensions. The metal lattice will have an orientational relationship 
to the parent lattice which will reflect the mechanism of nucleation and this 
can be established by electron diffraction studies. Moreover, the size and shape 
of the precipitated particles can be deduced from the fine structure. 


ELECTRON DIFFRACTION IN THE CHEMISTRY OF THE SOLID STATE. 53. 


An illustration of this type of study is Pashley’s (1950, 1951) recent work on 
the photolytic and electron-induced decomposition of silver halides. Pashley 
was able to show that the lattice of silver produced from silver chloride is in 
parallel orientation to the silver chloride lattice, even though the cell dimensions 
of the two are such that no good atomic fit is to be expected. AgCl is a cubic 
crystal of the NaCl- type; the Agt ions form a face-centred cubic lattice of 
side 5:55 A. Removal of Cl- ions by aggregation of F-centre defects will leave 
a face-centred lattice of Ag of side 5-55 A, which at some stage collapses to 
give the face-centred cubic lattice of silver metal of side 4-08 A without change 
of orientation. This particular study is of importance in the mechanism of the 


ax * 
ae sy ot) Che i 8 a eM AU ew gos Noe iy eA ly 2 A 
Ch ot Ate i+ Sala ci res toe ila cs 
Sa en See ye Na NOES ON 
+—- +- the — + - + -!+teltle iltie]+ —- 
> apa X of -~ a-~ NN uL— \ 14> Pd 
/ \ _— 4 N ba acta Sach “ye 
eed ik i) A Slt Serine tect cee 
fans - x / BEE ON eZ ESS ved 
4 YY. / woe _—_——— oO NN ee eS, 
t ) aa ty th ; 2 / N 7 i 
+i e I+ Bs ley ict + =p ye J te Mere Po — 
naa / \ — A ale fT Neat Oe ne s 
Wes a 1 Md yale Ne Sad Nn 
aay Ree a ge - at outa EW eunte ce + 
ils ore aN u> 2 Sire A eng a 
+{ east Sayed! yi Brains, Teer) Pa osb se eet anny ees ee es es 
~— ~ cf 
iat a a Ne te peg 
+ + +[ © un ar -— + —- + -—- + =— + = + 
~~’ 
Dispersed Defects Agqqreqate 


Fig. 25.—Illustration of the aggregation of F-centre defects in an ionic lattice to give a 
metallic nucleus. 


photographic process. Reactions in the solid state are intimately associated 
with the existence of crystal defects, the structural consequences of which are 
almost unknown. In my opinion electron diffraction is capable of providing 
this information with little improvement on present experimental methods. 


CONCLUSION. 


Our understanding of the chemistry of the solid state, particularly those 
aspects which concern small crystals and defect solids, is still elementary and 
any prospect of increasing this understanding is of no small consequence. 
Recent developments in electron diffraction show promise of improving this 
knowledge and point the way to undoubtedly fertile fields of scientific work. 

The work we have done in Melbourne in an effort to pioneer some of these 
fields has been carried out by a small group, namely Dr. J. M. Cowley, Messrs. 
A. F. Moodie, P. Goodman and J. A. Spink. They are responsible for the 
diffraction patterns used for illustration here, and I gratefully acknowledge my 
indebtedness to them. 


REFERENCES. 


Bethe, H. A., 1928. Ann. Physik, 87, 55. 
Cowley, J. M., 1952. Nature. (In press.) 
Cowley, J. M., and Rees, A. L. G., 1946. Nature, 158, 550. 
—_-— -—_________——._ 1947. Proc. Phys. Soc., 59, 287. 
—__- 1952. J. Ser. Instr. (In press.) 
Cowley, J. M., Rees, A. L. G., and Spink, J. A., 195la. Proc. Phys. Soc., A 64, 609. 
1951b. Proc. Phys. Soc., B 64, 638. 
Finch, G. I., and Wilman, H., 1937. Hrgebn. exakt. Naturw., 16, 353. 
Heidenreich, R. D., 1949. J. Appl. Phys., 20, 993. 
——_—_—____—_—_—————. 1950. Phys. Rev., 77, 271. 
Hillier, J., and Baker, R. F., 1945. Phys. Rev., 68, 98. 
—_——_—— 1946. J. Appl. Phys., 17, 12. 


54 


A. L. G. REES. 


Honjo, G., 1947. J. Phys. Soc. Japan, 2, 133. 
Kato, N., and Uyeda, R., 1951. Acta Crystallographica, 4, 227, 229. 


Pashley, D. W., 1950. Acta Crystallographica, 3, 163. 


1951. ‘‘ Fundamental Mechanisms of Photographic Sensitivity ’’, Butter- 
worth, London, p. 39. 


Rees, A. L. G., and Spink, J. A., 1950a. Nature, 165, 645. 


--—— 19506. Acta Crystallographica, 3, 316. 


Sturkey, L., and Frevel, L. K., 1945. Phys. Rev., 68, 56. 
Thomson, G. P., and Cochrane, W., 1939. ‘‘ Theory and Practice of Electron Diffraction ”’, 


Macmillan, London. 


Vanshstein, B. K., and Pinsker, Z. G., 1949. J. Phys. Chem., U.S.S.R., 23, 1058. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


Fig. 


1950. Dokl. Akad. Nauk., S.S.S.R., 72, 53. 


Zachariasen, W., 1934. Z. Krist., 88, 150. 


e EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


PLaTE II. 


2,.—Electron difiraction camera in Chemical Physics Section, Division of Industrial Chemistry, 
C.S.1.R.O., Melbourne. 


22.—Fine structure of single reflections in patterns from small crystals of ZnO of elongated 
hexagonal prismatic habit. 


Pruate III. 


‘, 7.—Hlectron diffraction pattern from crystals of a long-chain paraffin hydrocarbon. Secondary 


scattering is responsible for diamond-shaped groups of reflections and extra spots inside 
first strong ring. 


. 8.—Electron diffraction pattern from dicetyl showing secondary rings centred on strong 


primary reflections. Secondary rings originate from diffraction by numerous small crystals 
in random orientation underlying a large crystal giving the strong primary spots. 


g. 9.—Electron diffraction pattern from dicety] illustrating the origin of “‘ extra’”’ rmgs. The 


envelope (distinguished by an arrow) of the numerous secondary rings, which originate from 
either (i) 200 secondaries around 110 primaries, or (ii) 110 secondaries around 200 primaries, 
forms a non-legitimate ‘“ extra’’ ring centred on the undeflected beam. 


10.—Cross-grating pattern from single-crystal of dicetyl showing effects attributable to 
secondary scattering. The odd orders on both axes are forbidden on space-group grounds, 
but appear in the pattern as a result of secondary scattering. 


PuaTE IV. 
19.—Typical spot groups in patterns from MgO crystals of cubic habit. These spot groups, 
which comprise the fine structure of ring patterns from specimens consisting of randomly 
oriented crystals of regular habit, are attributable in part to refraction effects. 
24.—An electron micrograph of an imperfect ZnO ‘“‘ fourling ’’ showing webs. The dotted 
outline is a dark-field image of this crystal. 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVI, 1952, Plate II 


gz 
he 


ck, aa 


Fig. 22. 


iii 
AU Tice ‘i 


ay ie 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DXXXVI, 1952, Plate III 


Any 
TAF as 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVI, 1952, Plate IV 


ae SSBC LASS Scat ELIE AAMOMESI DS pie sere seeeltie egaennecipransnascennsies/suiapronenmaoanscpangronansaneonartitrmoonmernonrances 


Atle Se Se Ny ee ee oe me ee 
, AN cee eee ore sae ore aa 


Fig. 24, 


mar, 
tis 
wk 
te, 


Mee 


he 
ate 


5 
te beled: 
ped rier, 


PERMIAN SPIRIFERS FROM TASMANTA. 


By IbA A. BROWN, D.Sc. 
[Mrs. W. R. BROWNE. | 


With Plates V and VI. 


Manuscript received, July 14, 1952. Read, August 6, 1952. 


Abstract.—Descriptions are given of two species of Permian Spirifers 
(Brachiopoda) from the Berriedale (or Granton) Limestone near Hobart, 
Tasmania; one, Trigonotreta stokesii Koenig, 1825, based on the holotype and 
on topotype material collected by the writer, the other, Trigonotreta stokesi 
auctt. (non Koenig, 1825), for which the name Grantonia hobartensis gen. et 
spec. nov. is proposed. It is shown that Spirifer tasmaniensis Morris, 1845, 
is a Synonym for Trigonotreta stokesti Koenig, 1825. 


INTRODUCTION. 


The early collections of Australian Permian Spirifers made by Robert 
Brown, Darwin, Strzelecki, Dana, W. B. Clarke and others were sent to Europe 
or America for identification and description and most of them were retained 
in museums abroad. Thus the holotypes of many of the most common and 
important species of south-eastern Australian fossils have not been re-examined 
Since their original descriptions, in some cases more than one hundred years 
ago. 

In 1938 the writer examined all the known holotypes of eastern Australian 
Permian spirifers in museums in England, and during 1946 and 1947 studied the 
extensive brachiopod collections from all parts of the world in museums in 
U.S.A., particularly at the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C.; the 
American Museum of Natural History, New York; the Peabody Museum, 
Yale ; and the Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard. Museum collections 
in Australia have supplemented the writer’s own collections made in Tasmania 
in January, 1940, and in New South Wales over many sears. 


This work has revealed some rather unexpected misconceptions, two of 
which are discussed below. These concern specimens collected by R. Brown 
and P. E. de Strzelecki. 


Robert Brown, naturalist to the Joseph Banks Expedition to New Holland 
(Australia) under Capt. Matthew Flinders (1798 to 1802), made a collection of 
fossils, which was described briefly by Buckland (1821, p. 481). Apparently 
the collection was acquired by Charles Stokes, a member of Council of the 
Geological Society of London, who donated it to the Society’s Museum in 1821 
(Stokes, 1821 : 1854, xxvi). It was transferred to the British Museum in 1911. 
The specimen of Spirifer in this collection was described by C. Koenig (1825) 
and named by him Trigonotreta Stokesii, ‘‘ a supra laudato Carola Stokes nobiscum 
communicata’”’. A wax cast of the specimen was presented by Chas. Stokes 
to the British Museum (Nat. Hist.), specimen B4798, and a plaster cast of this 
is in the University of Sydney, by courtesy of the British Museum. 


P. E. de Strzelecki collected a number of fossils during his visit to this 
country in 1839 to 1843 and the Permian spirifers in his collection were described 


56 IDA A. BROWN. 


by J. Morris (in Strzelecki, 1845). The specimens are in the British Museum, 
and plaster casts of them were presented to the University of Sydney and the 
Australian Museum in 1939. 

Although frequent reference has been made to the genus Trigonotreta, 
no description of the genotype based on the type specimen has been published 
since Koenig’s original identification. The misinterpretation of this species by 
Morris (1845) has been the cause of much confusion in the literature dealing with 
the affinities of the genus and also the recognition of the species. 


The following description is based on an examination of the holotype, on a 
topotype collection made by the writer, and a study of comparative material 
in the U.S. National Museum, Washington, D.C. The two species concerned 
both occur in the Berriedale or Granton Limestone of the Granton Stage (Voisey. 
1938) of the Permian, in the vicinity of Hobart, Tasmania. 


No classification (other than generic) of the spirifers is offered at this stage, 
since the writer is of the opinion that such is futile in the present state of know- 
ledge of the group. The ‘‘ Classification of the Spiriferide ’’ by Fredericks 
(1926) is admitted by him to be purely artificial and unnatural. 

The terminology used in this paper is that defined by Cloud, 1942, except 
where otherwise stated, 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 


The writer wishes to thank all those who have assisted in this work, particu- 
larly Dr. W. D. Lang and Dr. H. M. Muir-Wood of the British Museum; Dr. 
G. A. Cooper of U.S. Nat. Museum; Prof. C. O. Dunbar, Yale; and Mr. H. O. 
Fletcher of the Australian Museum. The late Dr. A. N. Lewis gave valuable 
assistance in the field-work in Tasmania and Prof. L. A. Cotton arranged for the 
writer’s leave of absence from teaching duties on two occasions for study abroad, 
for which she is deeply appreciative. 


A grant from the Commonwealth Research Fund administered by the 


University of Sydney to cover portion of the field expenses in Tasmania is 
gratefully acknowledged. 


Genus Trigonotreta Koenig, 1825. 


Plate V, figs. 1-5. 


KOENIG, C., 1825. IJcones Fossilium Sectiles, p. 3, pl. 6, fig. 70. 

Bronn, H. G., 1837. Lethwa Geognostica, Vol. I, p. 77, Tab. II. 

KinG, W., 1850. The Permian Fossils of England, Pal. Soc. of London, Vol. 3, 
Pt. 1, pp. 81, 122, 126-134. 

DAVIDSON, T., 1854. British Fossil Brachiopoda, Pal. Soc. of London, Vol. VII 
(for 1853), p. 79. 

MEEK, F. B., and HAYDEN, F. V., 1865. Pal. of Upper Missouri, Smiths. Cont. 
No. 172, Wash., p. 19. 

SCHUCHERT, C., 1893. American Geologist, Vol. XI, p. 141. 

HALL, J., and CLARKE, J. M., 1894. Natural History of New York, Palwontology, 
Vol. VIII, Brachiopoda, Part II, p. 8. 

HALL, J., and CLARKE, J. M., 1894. 13th Annual Report of the State Geologist 
of New York (for 1893), Vol. Il, p. 751. 

ScHUCHERT, C., 1897. Synopsis of American Fossil Brachiopoda, Bull. U.S. 
Geol. Surv., No. 87, p. 127. 

BUCKMAN, S., 1908. Brachiopod Homeomorphy: Spirifer glaber, Quart. 
Jour. Geol. Soc. London, Vol. 64, p. 30. 

SCHUCHERT, C., 1913. In Zittel: Text-book of Paleontology, p. 410. 


PERMIAN SPIRIFERS FROM TASMANIA. 57 


SCHUCHERT, C., and LE VENE, C. M., 1929. Fossilium Catalogus, Animalia, 
Pars. 42, Brachiopoda, p. 125. W. Junk, Berlin. 

PAECKELMANN, W., 1932. Neues Jahrb. fur Min., Geol. u. Pal., Ablandl. 67. 
BB. Abt. B, Erstes Heft, z. 9,36. 


Genotype (by subsequent designation). (?) King, 1850, or Buckman, 1908. 


Trigonotreta stokesit Koenig, 1825. Locality, Isle of Van Diemen, New Holland 
(=Tasmania). 


Diagnosis. Impunctate, spiriferoid brachiopods ; biconvex, width greater 
than the length ; high ventral interarea, open delthyrium, strong medial fold in 
dorsal valve and corresponding sulcus in ventral valve. Anterior commissure 
parasuleate. 


Surface ornamentation characteristic: coarsely costate, not fasciculate : 
four angular cost on the dorsal fold interlock anteriorly with three strong cost 
in the sulcus of the ventral valve ; six or seven primary cost on both sides of 
fold and sulcus, the outer of which may bifurcate once only. Concentric growth 
lines. 


In ventral valve receding dental plates do not reach the floor of the valve, 
but support pyramidal articulating processes or teeth, which fit into corres- 
ponding sockets in dorsal valve. Cardinal process of dorsal valve sessile, with 
myophore vertically striated for reception of diductor muscles. 


Heavy deposit of callus in ventral posterior region. 


Discussion. Koenig (1825) gave a generic description intended to dis- 
tinguish Trigonotreta from Spirifer Sowerby, Pentamerus and other Brachiopoda, 
and illustrated his remarks by two figures, ‘“ Fig. 70. TRIGONOTRETA 
Stokesw. n.’? from the Permian of Tasmania, and ‘ Fig. 71. TRIGONOTRETA 
speciosa. (Terebratulites speciosus Schloth.) ”’ from the Eiffel, without designating 
a type species. The latter species has since been assigned to the genus Hystero- 
lites Schlotheim. 


Bronn (1837) accepted Trigonotreta as a genus distinct from Spirifer and 
described additional species. 


King (1850) cited Trigonotreta stokestt Koenig as a Permian form in his 
tabular ‘‘ Classification of the Various Groups constituting the Class Palio- 
branchiata ”’, and this was regarded by Hall and Clarke (1894, p. 8) and by 
Schuchert and Le Vene (1929, p. 125) as selection of the genotype, although it is 
not always accepted. King (1850, pp. 125-126) considered Anomites cuspidatus 
Martin to be the type of Spirifer Sowerby, and thus retained ‘‘ for another group 
of Spiriferide, a name which many conchologists have considered a cancelled 
synonym. Genus Trigonotreta Koenig.’ He discussed the genus based on 
Koenig’s diagnosis and described five other species as belonging to Trigonotreta. 


Davidson (1854, p. 79) in England and Meek and Hayden (1865, pp. 17-19) 
and others in America have regarded Trigonotreta as a synonym for Spirifer ; 
however, Meek and Hayden indicated ‘‘ Spirifer cuspidatus Sowerby ’’ as the 
type of Spirifer Sowerby and recognized as a sub-genus ‘“ Trigonotreta Koenig — 
Spirifer of most authors . . . Example.—Spirifer striatus, Sowerby.’ Subse- 
quent suspension of the Rules (Opinion 100) by the International Commission on 
Zoological Nomenclature has fixed the genotype of Spirifer Sowerby as Anomia 
striata Martin. (Smithsonian Mise. Coll., Vol. 73, no. 5.) 


Buckman (1908, p. 30) recognized Trigonotreta as a valid genus, indicating 
T. stokesit Koenig as the type. 


Schuchert’s choice (1913, p. 410) of Spirifer aperturatus (Schloth.) as the 
genotype of Trigonotreta is invalid under International Rules of Zoological 


58 IDA A. BROWN. 


Nomenclature, Article 30, e, a, a8 this species was not included under the generic 
name at the time of its original publication. 


Schuchert and Le Vene (1929, p. 125) cite as ‘‘ Genolectotype (King) 
T. stokesti Koenig, 1825 ”’, but place Trigonotreta as a synonym for Spirifer (s.8.) 
Sowerby, 1818. 


In his discussion of the classification of the Spiriferide King, Paeckelmann 
(1932, pp. 36-37) recognizes Trigonotreta as a sub-genus of Spirifer (s.1.) in the 
sub-family Elythine Fredericks. 


Comparison. Trigonotreta differs from Spirifer Sowerby [genotype S. striatus 
(Martin), Lower Carboniferous| in gross form, surface ornamentation of few 
coarse coste, and probably in internal characters. It also differs in geological 
age. No recent study of S. striatus has been published to the writer’s knowledge. 
Martin’s specimen is supposedly lost, although the writer, in December, 1938, 
saw in the Department of Geology, Manchester University, England, a collection 
labelled ‘‘ Types of (?) Martin ...” containing a specimen which exactly 
matched in appearance and dimensions that illustrated by Martin (1809, T.23, 
figs. 1-2) from Castleton, Derbyshire. A small specimen collected by the writer 
from this locality is shown in Plate VI, fig. 6. As Martin states, the valves are 
‘* convex, semicircular, and longitudinally striated on every side. The strize 
close, nearly equal, and prominent. In the smaller valve, a convex wave, which 
is answered by a concave one (scarcely distinguishable) in the larger valve ; 
both terminating in a small wave at the margin.” 


The specimen illustrated by Davidson (1857, Pl. II, figs. 19, 20) as Spirifer 
striatus var. attenuatus Sowerby is a much more alate form, often mistakenly 
called S. striatus in text-books ; it is in the Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge. 


Trigonotreta Koenig differs from Neospirifer Fredericks, 1924 (genotype 
Spirifer fasciger Keyserling, 1846) by the coarseness of the costz and the lack of 
fasciculation. Photographs of specimens of Neospirifer fasciger from the 
Upper Productus Limestone, Salt Range, India, and of Neospirifer condor from 
the Wolfcamp (Permian) of Texas, U.S.A., are reproduced on Plate V, figs. 7 
and 8, for comparison with the Tasmanian spirifers. 


Trigonotetra stokesii Koenig, 1825. 
Plate V, figs. 1-5. 


Trigonotreta Stokesw Koenig, 1825. Icones Fosstlivum NSectiles, p. 3, Pl. 54, fig. 70. 
B.M. (N.H.) specimen B4798. 


Spirtfer Tasmaniensis Morris, 1845. In Strzelecki, 1845, p. 280, Pl. XV, fig. 3. 
B.M. (N.H.) BB6246. 

non Spirifer stokesit Morris, 1845. In Strzelecki, ‘‘ Physical Description of 
New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land ”’, p. 283, Pl. XV, figs. 1 and la. 
B.M. (N.H.) 96859. 

non Spirifer stokesii d’Orbigny, 1846. In Dumont d’Urville, ‘‘ Voy. au Pole 
Sud ’’, Géologie, Atlas, t. 9, ff. 12-14. 

non Spirifer stokesii Eth. fil., 1892. Geol. and Pal. Queensland and New Guinea, 
Dp. 232, Pl. LO nes... 2). 3. 


Holotype. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) specimen B4798. Plastotype: Univ. of 
Sydney, Spec. 8469. 


Locality. ‘Isle of Van Diemen, New Holland ”’ (Tasmania). 


According to Buckland (Trans. Geol. Soc., 1st Series, Vol. V, 1821, p. 481) 
this or a similar specimen came from “ the south side of the Table Mountain, 
near Hobart’s Town, Van Diemen’s Land.” 


PERMIAN SPIRIFERS FROM TASMANIA. 59 


Horizon. Berriedale (Granton) Limestone, Granton Stage (Voisey, 1938). 
Permian. 


Description of Holotype. The specimen is a somewhat crushed external 
cast of the dorsal valve and the cardinal area and beak of the ventral valve of a 
typical Spiriferoid shell (Plate V, fig. 1) embedded in rock. 


The dorsal valve is 3-4 cm. in length and 5-0 cm. in greatest width, slightly 
below the hinge-line, which is long (4:5 cm.) and straight. The cardinal 
extremities are slightly rounded. There is a marked median fold, which is 
almost carinate posteriorly, but wide at the anterior margin; radiating costz 
are superimposed on the median fold and six or seven folds occur on each side 
of it. At a distance of about 12 mm. from the beak smaller secondary ribs 
appear on one side of most of these lateral costz. The alar portions of the shell 
show less pronounced folding. Concentric growth lines occur close together 
over the anterior and lateral parts of the shell and they indicate the existence 
of a pronounced broad sinus in the anterior commissure, otherwise obscured by 
rock matrix. 


The ventral valve is shown by its sharply pointed and overhanging beak and 
the cardinal area, which reaches a height of 8 mm. in the centre. The features 
of the delthyrium are not clearly shown in this specimen: the sides and base 
of the triangular delthyrium are each about 9 mm. and its remarkable size 
evidently inspired the name Trigonotreta. 


The writer has numerous specimens from various localities along the outcrop 
of the Berriedale Limestone including an almost perfect specimen from the slopes 
of Mt. Dromedary, on the north side of the Derwent River, three miles N.W. of 
Bridgewater, near Hobart (Plate V, figs. 2a-2d). This specimen is not crushed 
(as indeed the majority of specimens are), and the cost of the dorsal valve can 
be matched exactly against those of the holotype (Plate V, fig. 1). The ventral 
valve of this specimen shows the presence of a deep sulcus containing three 
prominent cost, each lateral part of the shell being ornamented by about seven 
coste, the outer of which tend to bifurcate halfway to the margin ; anterior 
commissure parasulcate. This valve can be matched exactly with the specimen 
(Brit. Mus. (N.H.) BB6246) of a ventral valve figured by J. Morris (1845, Pl. XV, 
fig. 3) as the type of Spirifer Tasmaniensis (see Plate V, fig. 5). 


Thus S. Tasmaniensis Morris, 1845, becomes a synonym for Trigonotreta 
stokesvt Koenig, 1825. 


The identification of S. tasmaniensis auctt. is the subject of further investiga- 
tion. A common species in the Lower Marine of New South Wales often referred 
to this species is not the same as the Tasmanian form. 


Morris was in error therefore in the identification of a Spirifer showing 
fasciculate ornamentation, which occurred with Trigonotreta stokes, and which 
he mistook for it. This form is described below as a new species. 


The internal characters of 7. stokesit have been studied by means of various 
preparations. Plate V, fig. 3, shows the interior of a typical ventral valve : 
the wide, open delthyrium is bounded on its inner surface by the dental plates 
which converge towards the inside of the valve, but they do not reach the floor 
of the valve. At the cardinal margin they produce small, pyramidal projections, 
which fit into the sockets of the dorsal valve. The old positions of these teeth 
form narrow triangular structures or false areas on each side of the delthyrium, 
but these are not true deltidial plates. No supporting or apical plates are 
present. The adductor muscle-scars are long and narrow and are placed slightly 
posteriorly ; they are surrounded by the diductor sears, which are relatively 
large. The whole of the region below the palintrope is filled with a dense deposit 


60 IDA A. BROWN. 


of secondary shell, and the delthyrial cavity is almost half-filled with callus. 
This covers over the trace of the muscle-track, which appears as a dark line in 
sections of the shell (Plate V, fig. 4). 

The interior of the dorsal valve shows widely divergent crural plates bounding 
the inner sides of the sockets. The crura give rise to descending lamelle, thin 
ribbon-like structures supporting the spiralia, which are directed postero- 
laterally towards the ends of the hinge-line. There are about twenty turns in 
each spire. There is no jugum. 

The cardinal process is sessile and the myophore is vertically striated for 
the reception of the diductors. The adductor scars are long and narrow, 
situated high inside the fold. 


Genus Grantonia Brown, gen. nov. 
Plate VI, figs. 1-8. 


Genotype. Grantonia hobartensis Brown, sp.n. 


Diagnosis. Large spiriferoid shell; strongly biconvex, length about equal 
to the width, somewhat greater than the thickness ; hinge-line sub-megathyroid,. 
cardinal extremities obtuse; beak of the ventral valve prominent, incurved ; 
wide ventral inter-area, striated parallel to the hinge-line, but curved in section. 
at right angles to it; large open delthyrium, unmodified in adult. High, 
almost carinate, median fold in dorsal valve and deep broad sulcus in ventral 
valve. Multicostate over the entire shell, three prominent folds or plice each 
bearing three or five fasciculate coste on each side of the sulcus, with corres- 
ponding ornamentation on the dorsal valve, giving the shell a rough appearance. 
Three primary plications in the sulcus. Concentric lamella most pronounced 
near the margin of the shell. Fine surface ornamentation, seldom preserved, of 
radiating costelle and concentric file, producing a cancellated effect. Anterior 
commissure modified uniplicate, or parasulcate. Shell impunctate. 


Interior of the Ventral Valve. Cardinal teeth supported by receding dental 
plates or delthyrial ridges, which do not reach the floor of the valve ; no support- 
ing accessory plates or apical lamelle. Adductor muscle-scars centrally placed, 
long, narrow; diductor muscle-scars large, heart-shaped, situated slightly 
above the centre of the valve. Pallial markings, pittings in the posterior region. 


Interior of Dorsal Valve. Cardinal process sessile, myophore vertically 
striated for the reception of diductor muscles; adductor muscle-scars long, 
narrow. Socket plates divergent, convex to the median plane of the shell, 
supported only by adventitious tissue below the palintrope. The crura give 
rise to parallel descending lamella, with no jugum, which support spiralia 
directed postero-laterally towards the ends of the hinge-line. Twenty to twenty- 
three turns in each spire. 


Discussion. Grantonia is distinguished from Trigonotreta Koenig and 
Spirifer Sow. by major differences in gross form and surface ornamentation of 
fasciculate costae. From MNeospirifer Fredericks, 1924 (genotype Spirifer 
fasciger Keyserling, 1846) it is distinguished by the kind of fasciculation. The 
type of Neospirifer comes from Pechora Land, and the genus has a wide distribu- 
tion over Eurasia, North America, Timor, Western Australia and Tasmania. 
The generic characters are discussed in some detail by Dunbar and Condra 
(1932), who give the diagnosis: ‘‘ Shells differing from true Spirifer (Spirifer 
striatus stock) in having the ribs fasciculate.”” However, examination of 
specimens from Russia, and from the Salt Range, India, and the Permian of 
Texas, U.S.A., as illustrated on Plate VI, figs. 7, 8, shows that the fasciculation. 
in the shells of the two genera is quite distinct. Whereas in Neospirifer the 
numerous coste are finely and evenly distributed over the major folds of a thin 


PERMIAN SPIRIFERS FROM TASMANIA. 61 


shell, and may even be reflected on the inner surface of the shell, in Grantonia 
there are only one or two pairs of costze about a central one, superimposed on 
the surface layers of the principal folds of a thick shell. 


Grantonia hobartensis Brown, spec. nov. 
Plate VI, figs. 1-9. 


{?) Spirtfer trapezoidalis G. Sowerby, 1844. In Darwin, ‘‘ Geological Observa- 
tions in Volcanic Islands ...”’, p. 159. (Specimen lost). 

Spirifer Stokes Morris, 1845. In Strzelecki, ‘‘ Physical Description of New 
South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land ’’, p. 283, Pl. XV, figs. 1, la, B.M. 
(N.H.) 96859. 

Spirifer stokesti d’Orbigny, 1846. In Dumont d’Urville, ‘‘ Voy. au Péle Sud ”’, 
Géologie, Atlas, t. 9, ff. 12-14. 

Spirifer crassicostatus Jukes, 1847. (Nomen nudum) Quart. Journ. Geol. Soc. 
Lond., Vol. III, pp. 248, 249, B.M. (N.H.) 81606. 


Holotype. Aust. Mus. specimen F44666, Coll. I.A.B. (Plate VI, figs. la, 16). 


Locality. Rathbone’s Quarry, New Norfolk Road, near Granton, about 
12 miles N.N.W. of Hobart, Tasmania. On aerial photo No. 9744, Run 1, 
Hobart (Land and Surveys Dept., Tasmania) appears about 5 cm. north of 
centre point. 


Horizon. Berriedale or Granton Limestone, Granton Stage (Voisey, 1938), 
Permian. 


Description of Holotype. The specimen is well-preserved shell consisting 
of a complete dorsal valve and the posterior half of the ventral ee (Plate VI, 
fig. 1). 

The dorsal valve is 54 mm. wide and 34 mm. long. The hinge-line is the 
full width of the shell. There is a high median fold and there are three prominent 
folds on each side of it. There are four coste on each flank of the median fold, 
and the lateral folds bear one pair of coste on their flanks. Several minor cost 
occur on the alar part of the shell, and the whole surface is ornamented by 
concentric growth lines. 


The ventral valve, 45 mm. long, has a long, wide cardinal area, divided by 
a large open delthyrium. The beak is high and curved over that of the dorsal 
valve. A deep sulcus is flanked by three marked folds corresponding with those 
of the dorsal valve, and with similar ornamentation. The sulcus bears three 
primary cost in addition to the pair belonging to the lateral folds. 


Morris (1845) gave a brief description and illustrations (Pl. XV, figs. 1, 1a) 
of specimens of this species from Mt. Dromedary, Tas., under the title Spirifer 
Stokesit (p. 283). These specimens are both in one block of limestone (B.M. 
(N.H.) 96859), a plaster cast of which is in the Australian Museum, Sydney. 


Etheridge (1892) followed Morris in identifying specimens of Grantonia 
hobartensis as Spirifer stokesu, and gave a good description of specimens from 
the Gympie Beds, Queensland ; specimens in the Australian Museum from 
Mt. Britton, Q., appear to the present writer to show some variation from the 
Tasmanian material. 

Preparations have been made from topotypes to show all the internal 
characters of the shell. The internal structures of the ventral beak (Plate VI, 
figs. 3b, 3c, 6, 7 and 8) and the cardinalia (Plate VI, figs. 4a and 5) are essentially 
similar to those already described for Trigonotreta stokesii Koenig, and are 
undoubtedly of family value in the classification of these forms (see Ulrich and 
Cooper, 1938, p. 6; Cloud, 1942). The receding dental plates (Plate VI, 


62 IDA A. BROWN. 


figs. 3b, 6) do not reach the floor of the valve, but heavy callus fills the umbonal 
cavities and part of the delthyrial cavity (Figs. 3b and 7). This is best shown in 
the thin section of the beak of a ventral valve (Fig. 8); the covered track of the 
muscle-scars appears as a horizontal dark band within the secondary shelly 
material. The cardinalia are shown in Fig. 4a, and Fig. 5 shows the natural 
mould of the striated myophore of the cardinal process. 


Serial sections of an average uncrushed specimen revealed that the 
brachidium consists of two descending lamella about 5 mm. apart and 20 mm. 
in length from which arise two postero-laterally directed spiralia, each with 
twenty-three turns in the spire. 


Internal moulds of Grantonia hobartensis show distinctly the three lateral 
folds on each side of the medial fold and the sulcus, and thus may be distinguished 
from internal moulds of Trigonotreta stokes, which are relatively smooth. 


REFERENCES. 


Buckland, W., 1821. Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., 1st Ser., 5, 481. 

Cloud, P. E., 1942. Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap. No. 38. 

Davidson, T., 1857. Pal. Soc. Lond., 10 (for 1856), Pl. II, 19-20. 

Dunbar, C. O., and Condra, G. E., 1932. Bull. Geol. Surv. Nebraska, 5 (2nd Ser.), 326. 

Fredericks, G., 1924. Russie Comité Géologique, Bull. 38 (3) (for 1919), 311. 

Keyserling, A. G., 1846. Wussenschaftliche Beobachtungen auf eine Reise in das Petschora-Land, 
p. 231, Tab. VIII, figs. 3, 3a, 3b. 

Koenig, C., 1825. Icones Fossiliwm Sectiles, p. 3, Pl. 6, fig. 70. 

Martin, W., 1809. Petrificata Derbiensia, Pl. 23, figs. 1-2. 

Morris, J., 1845. In Strzelecki, 1845. 

Stokes, C., 1821. Trans. Geol. Soc. Lond., 1st Ser., 5, 560. 

—-—-—_— 1854. Obituary Notice, Q.J.G.S., Lond, 10, xxvi. 

Strzelecki, P. E. de, 1845. Physical Description of New South Wales and Van Diemen’s Land. 

Ulrich, E. O., and Cooper, G. A., 1938. Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap. No. 13, p. 6. 

Voisey, A. H., 1938. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 63, 309. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
All photographs were taken by the author, and are natural size, except Plate VI, figs. 5, 
6 and 8, which are mag. x3. 
Tasmanian figured specimens are in the Australian Museum, Sydney. 


PLATE V 

Fig. 1.—Trigonotreta stokes Koenig, 1825. Plaster cast of holotype, B.M. (N.H.) 4798. 
““TIsle of Van Diemen, New Holland.”’ 

Fig. 2a-d.—T rigonotreta stokesiz. Aust. Mus. (F44663). Coll. 1.A.B. Near Old Lime Kiln, 
Upper Dromedary Rd., 3 mls. N.W. of Bridgewater, Derwent River, Tasmania. (a) Dorsal view. 
(b) ventral, (c) side, and (d) anterior views, showing anterior commissure. 

Fig. 3.—Trigonotreta stokesii. Interior of the ventral valve, showing open delthyrium, 


dental plates and teeth, muscle scars and pallial markings. A.M. (F44664), Rathbone’s Quarry, 
Granton. 


Fig. 4.—Trigonotetra stokesii. Vertical median section of ventral valve to show callus in 
delthyrial cavity, also dental plate. A.M. (F44665), Rathbone’s Quarry, Granton. 

Fig. 5.—Trigonotetra stokesii. Plaster cast of ventral valve, B.M. (N.H.) 6246, figured by 
Morris as Spirifer Tasmaniensis on his Pl. XV, fig. 3. 

Fig. 6.—Spirifer striatus (Martin). A.M. (F44669). Coll. I.A.B. Loc. Treak Cliff, near 
Castleton, Derbyshire, England. (Lower Carb.) 

Fig. 7.—Neospirifer fasciger (Keyserling). Ventral valve. Syd. Univ. Coll. 9487. (Geol. 
Surv. Coll. K7/353). Loc. Warcha, Salt Range, India. (Upper Productus Limestone.) 


Fig. 8.—Neospirifer condor (Orbigny). Loc. N.W. of Marion School, Texas, U.S.A. (Early 
Wolfcamp, Permian.) 


Pirate VI. 


‘Grantonia hobartensis gen. et spec. nov. 


Figs. la, 1b.—Holotype. Aust. Mus. (F44666). Coll. I.A.B. Loc. Rathbone’s Quarry 
New Norfolk Road, near Granton, about 12 miles N.N.W. of Hobart, Tasmania. x 1. 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVI, 1952, Plate V 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVI, 1952, Plate VI 


PERMIAN SPIRIFERS FROM TASMANIA. 63 


Fig. 2.—Rubber mould of portion of ventral valve showing details of external ornamentation. 
A.M. (F44670). Loc. 1,000 feet above s.l. on Huon Road from Hobart. Coll. I.A.B. Mag. x1. 


Figs. 3a-d.—Ventral valve showing (3a) exterior, (3b) interior, and (3c, 3d) posterior views. 
A.M. (F44671). Rathbone’s Q. Mag. x1. 


Figs. 4a, 4b.—Dorsal valve showing (4a) interior, and (4b) exterior views. A.M. (F4466 ). 
Mag. x1. 


Fig. 5.—Natural mould of cardinal process, showing vertical striations. A.M. (44668). 
Rathbone’s Quarry. Mag. x3. 


Fig. 6.—Portion of beak of ventral valve (left) and dorsal valve (right) showing curved dental 
plate over callus fitting into socket behind crus of dorsal valve. Mag. x3. 


Fig. 7.—Vertical median section of ventral valve, showing callus in delthyrial cavity, A.M. 
(F44672). Mag. xl. 


Fig. 8.—Thin section through beak of ventral valve, showing folding and fasciculation of 
outer layers of shell, and microscopic structure of callus. Divergent receding dental plates and 
trace of muscle-track, sub-parallel to the sulcus. A.M. (F44673). Mag. x3. 


AUSTRALASIAN Mepicat PuBLisHine Company LIMITED 


Seamer and Arundel Streets, Glebe, N.S.W. 
1953. | 


PART I 


= 


JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIE 
OF NEW SOUTH WALES 


1952 


(INCORPORATED 1881) 


he 
ee 3 "1 


* 


PART III 
er | 
VOL. LXXXVI 


= Containing Papers read in October, 1952 C 


EDITED BY 


IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. 


Honorary Editorial Secretary 


| THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE 
_ STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN 


ae SYDNEY : 
_ PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE 
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 


1953 


CONTENTS — SS aaa ea 
ooo VOLUME LXXXVI ee 
i A ietid; its dys se alee . Y 
PAS oe oa ae 
Ree | ee Ea aa Part III io fe 
cs ee vere 
Aa Vit A Beiibehd ptical Activity of the Tris-1 : 10-Phenanthroline and Tris-2:2’-  § 
yl Copper II Ion. By N. R. Davies and F. P. Dwyer  .. a Rea oe, y 
i Art. IX.—Soil Horizons and Marine Bands in the Coastal Limestones of Western : ae 
i: Australia. By R. W. Fairbridge and C. Teichert a ae 4 we EGS: 
d ie 
t 


JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


mOYAL SOCIEIS 


OF NEW SOUTH WALES 


FOR 


1952 


(INCORPORATED 1881) 


ae 


VOLUME LXXXVI 
Part III 


ee ened 


EDITED BY 


IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. 


Honorary Editorial Secretary 


ere ES 


THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE 
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN 


SYDNEY 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE 
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 


INDUCED OPTICAL ACTIVITY OF THE TRIS-1 : 10-PHENANTHROLINE 
AND TRIS-2: 2'-DIPYRIDYL COPPER II ION. 


By N. R&R. DAVIES, B.Sc., F.B.L.C. 
and Ff. P. DWYER, D.Sc. 


With one Text-figure. 


Manuscript received, August 21, 1952. Read, October 1, 1952. 


Hexacovalency is relatively rare among copper II compounds and with 
the exception of anhydrous copper II chloride and bromide, which in the solid 
state show a weak octahedral arrangement of the halogen atoms about the metal 
(Wells, 1947 ; Helmholtz, 1947), appears to be confined to complexes containing 
nitrogen, such as hexammine copper II iodide (Peyronel, 1941), and hexakis 
pyridine copper II nitrate (Pfeiffer and Pimmer, 1905), both of which are 
relatively unstable. Chelate derivatives with ethylene diamine have been 
prepared, but in solution appear to eliminate one molecule of the ligand and 
pass to the familar 4-covalent planar bis-ethylene diamine ion (Dubsky and 
Tritilek, 1934). However, Rosenblatt (1932) concluded from absorption spectral 
curves that the ionic species [Cu(en),(H,O),|+*+ exists in aqueous solutions and 
Wahl (1927) claimed to have resolved this cation through the tartrate. This 
claim was not substantiated by later workers (Johnston and Bryant, 1934). 


When 2: 2’-dipyridyl or 1:10-phenanthroline are added to solutions of 
copper IT salts, the deep blue colour of the bis chelate complex ion results, but 
with excess of the bases the colour then lightens and stable pale blue salts, 
Cu(dipy);X>, Cu(phenan),X,, can be isolated (Jaeger and van Digk, 1934). 

The octahedral configuration of the metallic atom in these complexes could 
not be demonstrated by resolution through the tartrate, bromcamphor sulphonate 
or antimony tartrate. With the latter anion, which is particularly suitable 
for the resolution of phenanthroline- metallic complexes (Dwyer and Gyarfas, 
1950), antimony oxide rapidly precipitated, showing that extensive dissociation 
of the complex cation had occurred in solution. 


Pfeiffer and co-workers (1932) noted considerable rotational changes when 
various optically active anions were added to solutions containing the ion 
M.(A)3++, (M=Zn, Cd, Ni, Fel!, Coll, Mn!!; A=dipy. phenan.) and ascribed 
the rotation to excess of either the dextro or levo complex cation in the mixture. 
Recently, following the work of Turner and Harris (1948) on the phenomenon 
of asymmetric induction in organic compounds, the above changes in rotation 
have been, related to the movement of the equilibrium d*++tzl** consequent on 
differential activity changes on the enantiomeric ions with the added optically 
active anion (Dwyer, Gyarfas and O’Dwyer, 1951). 

Since the iron and nickel compounds can be resolved, but are optically 
labile, as demanded by this theory, rotational changes of the kind observed by 
Pfeiffer can be regarded as diagnostic of potentially active complex salts that 
are too labile to be separated into discrete enantiomeric forms. The time 
required to reach the maximum rotation change after addition of the optically 
active anion can be used to determine whether resolution is practicable. Thus 
the zine and cadmium compound, which showed the effect instantly, has 


INDUCED OPTICAL ACTIVITY. 65 


resisted all efforts at resolution, whilst the nickel phenanthroline compound, 
which reaches the maximum rotation only after several days, has a half-life for 
the active forms of 16 hours at 25° C. 


In the present work the equilibrium : 
CuA,*++A 2 d CuA,tt = 1 Cu(A,)tt 


(A=1:10-phenanthroline; 2: 2’-dipyridyl; ethylene diamine) has _ been 
studied in the presence of ammonium d@ bromcamphor sulphonate, ammonium d 
camphor sulphonate and d trisethylene diamine cobalt III nitrate. 


Addition of the phenanthroline and dipyridyl copper complexes to 
ammonium bromcamphor sulphonate solution led to marked increases in the 
rotation. The change was increased with increasing concentration of the free 
chelate bases or of the ammonium bromecamphor sulphonate. Since the effect 
was immediate, it can be concluded that the enantiometric forms of the copper 
compounds are too labile to be separated. No rotational change was observed 
in the presence of ammonium camphor sulphonate or tris-ethylene diamine 
cobalt III nitrate. Negative results were obtained in all experiments using the 
ethylenediamine copper complex. This could be due to the fact there was no 
appreciable concentration of the tris ethylenediamine copper II ion in solution 
or to the necessity of using very dilute solutions owing to the intense colour 
of the complex. 


An appreciable lightening in colour was also observed when ammonium 
bromcamphor sulphonate was added to the phenanthroline and dipyridyl 
complexes. This effect did not occur when ammonium camphor sulphonate 
or the optically inactive ammonium (8 naphthalene sulphonate were added. 


Absorption spectral curves of solutions containing various ratios of 1:10 
phenanthroline to cupric ion were found to show the development of a pro- 
nounced maximum at 520u and a weaker maximum of 475-480u due to the 
tris-1 : 10 phenanthroline copper II ion. Ammonium bromcamphor sulphonate 
added to solutions containing both the bis and the tris phenanthroline complexes 
led to an appreciable enhancement of the maxima due to the tris phenanthroline 
complex ion. 


EXPERIMENTAL. 


The observations were carried out at 17° C. in a 1 d.m. tube using either a 
sodium amp ora mercury lamp, with filter to isolate the green line 5461, as light 
‘ sources. The copper complex solution was placed in a polarimeter tube, and in 


TABLE I. 
Conc. Brom. Change in Rotation. 
Phenan. Added. Camphor 
Mols. Sulphate. 
% Nap. | Hi 5161: 
3 0-5 0-03° = 
6 0-5 0-05 — 
6 CD) 0-09 0-11° 
Dipyridyl added 
Mols. 
3 0-5 0-02 0-03 
3 2-0 0-04 0-09 


Initial rotations of ammonium d bromcamphor sulphonate solutions : 
0-5%; op —0-43° 3 1%, ap=0-85° 5 W5ag3— 1-04"; 2%, ap =1-70°; 
Ore OO. 


66 DAVIES AND DWYER. 


a second tube the optically active salt solution, diluted with an equal volume of 
water. The rotation of the optically active salt was determined with both tubes 
in the polarimeter. In this way corrections were made for errors due to lack of 
uniformity in the illumination of the field of the polarimeter. Equal volumes 
of the copper complex and the optically active salt were then mixed and the 
rotation again measured. The difference between the readings was ascribed 
to the optical activity of the complex. 

Copper sulphate solution, M/100 was used in all experiments and treated 
with solid 1:10 phenanthroline or 2: 2’ dipyridyl in order to obtain various 
molecular proportions of salt and chelate groups. The results are shown in 
Table 1. 

Transmission curves in the range 400-700u are shown in Fig. I. 


Absorption Curves of Copper Sulphate and 1:10 Phenanthroline. 


TRANSMITTANCE 


WAVE-LENGTH IN MILLIMICRONS 


Fig. I. 
(a) System CuSO,+2 phenan. 
(b) System CuSO,+3 phenan. 
(c) System CuSO,+6 phenan. 
(d) System CuSO,+3 phenan-+Ammonium-bromcamphorsulphonate. — 
All solutions were 0:01 molar with respect to copper. 


SUMMARY. 


Addition of solutions containing the tris-1:10-phenanthroline and tris- 
2: 2'-dipyridyl copper II ions to ammonium d bromcamphor sulphonate solutions 
lead to appreciable increases in the rotation. The increases are roughly pro- 
portional to the concentration of the bromcamphor sulphonate and to the excess 
of the chelate bases. The rotational changes have been ascribed to the movement 


INDUCED OPTICAL ACTIVITY. 67 


of the equilibrium d complex=l complex and to the existence of optically labile 
forms of an octahedral complex copper ion. This conclusion is supported by 
absorption spectral curves. 


REFERENCES. 


Dwyer, F. P., and Gyarfas, E. C., 1950. THis JourNAL, 83, 263. 

Dwyer, F. P., Gyarfas, E. C., and O’Dwyer, M. F., 1951. Nature, 167, 1036. 
Dubsky, J. V., and Tritilek, J., 1934. J. Prkt. Chem., 2, 140, 47. 
Helmholz, L.,.1947. J. Am. Chem. Soc., 69, 886. 

Jaeger, J. M., and van Dijk, J. A., 1934. Proc. K. Akad. Amst., 37, 395. 
Johnston, C. H., and Bryant, S. A., 1934. J. Chem. Soc., 1783. 

Peyronel, G., 1941. Gazze Ha, 71, 363. 

Pfeiffer, P., and Pimmer, V., 1905. Z. anorg. Chem., 48, 98. 

Pfeiffer, P., and Quehl, K., 1932. Ber., 65, 560; 66, 415. 

Rosenblatt, F., 1932. Z. anorg. Chem., 204, 351. 

Turner, E. E., and Harris, M. H., 1948. Chem. Soc. Quart, Reviews, 1, 299. 
Wahl, W., 1927. Soc. Sct. Fennica, 4 (14), 1. 

Wells, A. F., 1947. J. Chem. Soc., 1670. 


Departments of Chemistry, 
N.S.W. University of Technology and 
University of Sydney. 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS IN THE COASTAL 
LIMESTONES OF WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 


By RHODES W. FAIRBRIDGE 
and CURT TEICHERT. 


With Plates VII and VIII and five Text-figures. 


Manuscript received, July 29, 1952. Read, October 1, 1952. 


CONTENTS. 
Page 
I. Introduction ae oye mis ae _ sls ls Zt 68 
II. Soil Horizons... wa ws at ah we 71 
(a) Hamelin Bay and Island .. ap ss ai ae 71 
(b) Other Fossil Soil Localities .. - ee oe ae 74 
III. Marine Bands .. sis me es ays mba teen 
(a) Cowaramup Bay At bts oie!) EE 
(b) Other Occurrences of Marine “Members ie ais ee 77 
IV. Interpretation of the Aolianites and Their Soils a so ae 
V. Correlation with et and North Africa ae P le 80 
Conclusions a i per Ph 82 
Bibliography Ake ap ae Me as ee ws a OS 
ABSTRACT. 


Formed under eustatic and climatic controls, a cyclic sequence of marine 
bands, zolianites, and travertine crusts in Western Australia correspond to the 
Riss/Wirm interglacial, the three substages of the Wurm, and the post-Glacial 
(Flandrian) transgression. 

Dune building took place with periods of high eustatic sea level, each of 
which was relatively short and coincided with the beginning of each arid inter- 
stadial. During each: succeeding eustatic low (corresponding to a glacial 
maximum) the base-level was lowered and rapid consolidation took place with 
travertine crust and karst formation. Thus conglomerates of the latter 
mark the following marine invasion. In the south, as at Cowaramup Bay, 
only the youngest marine band and eolianite are represented, resting with 
a conglomerate of granite-gneiss boulders on the pre-Cambrian basement. 


Numerous horizons of immature soils intercalated in each eolianite, as at 
Hamelin Bay and elsewhere, do not represent interglacial pauses, as postulated 
for similar soils in Bermuda by Sayles, but merely minor oscillations in short 
periods of dune building. 


I. INTRODUCTION. 


The ‘‘ Coastal Limestone’ of Western Australia is a formation of more 
than local interest. It is of Pleistocene age and includes marine and continental 
sediments which reflect the extraordinary changes of climate and the eustatic 
oscillations of sea level characteristic of that epoch. Since Western Australia 
is largely a great pre-Cambrian shield and suffered no glaciation whatever during 
the Pleistocene, its coasts are not unnaturally regarded as amongst the most 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS. 69 


stable in the world. It is here then that we may expect to find traces of 
Pleistocene eustatic events most faithfully recorded. 


The Coastal Limestone is a rock essentially similar to that for which Sayles 
(1931) in Bermuda introduced the term ‘ calcareous eolianite ’’, that is to say, a 
lithified dune-rock. For general descriptions of the Western Australian 
eolianites see Teichert (1947a, 1947b) and Fairbridge (1950). It is, as a rule, a 
medium-grained clastic sediment, in which the grains consist mainly of frag- 
mental calcareous alge, mollusca, foraminifera, and bryozoa, with varying 
amounts of inorganic constituents and a cement of secondary calcium carbonate. 
The CaCO; may vary as much as 10 to 90 per cent. Nevertheless, the rock 
reacts to weathering as a ragged limestone, almost regardless of the amounts of 
insolubles, which normally increase considerably in the proximity of the pre- 
Cambrian basement. Intercalated in the dune rock are found prominent bands 
of red and brown fossil soils (terra rossa and rendzina), and in the lower parts 
of the formation there are generally wedges of shallow-water marine beds in 
reef, beach or estuarine facies. 


Identical formations are found on Bermuda (Sayles, 1931) on the Bahamas, 
Barbados, Madeira, Cape Verde Islands, at Alexandria, and on the coasts of 
Palestine, of Morocco, of Ecuador, of South Africa, on the south coast of Arabia 
and on the western shores of India, in Hawaii, and elsewhere. 


In Australia the Coastal Limestones are found intermittently along 4,000 
miles of coastline and are of great value to those interested particularly in the 
last 50,000 years of our history. In South Australia they are found on Eyre 
Peninsula, Yorke Peninsula, Kangaroo Island, and in south-eastern South 
Australia (Tindale, 1947 ; Hossfeld, 1950; Sprigg, 1952). Their characteristics 
are similar to those of Western Australia. Fossil soils developing on them are 
mostly of the terra rossa type, but rendzinas occur intermixed with them on 
Eyre Peninsula (Crocker, 1946). In Victoria both exolianites and fossil soils are 
known from Portland Bay to Barwon Heads (Hills, 1939; Coulson, 1940 ; 
Gill, 1943; Keble, 1946). Johnston’s (1888) ‘‘ Helicidz Sandstones ”’ of the 
Bass Strait Islands are the same. 


This paper will be devoted largely to a description of certain features of 
the Western Australian Coastal Limestones where they overlie a ridge of pre- 
Cambrian granitic gneiss, extending in a north-south direction for 60 miles 
between Cape Naturaliste (33° 32’8., 115° 00’ EH.) and Cape Leeuwin (34° 23’8., 
114° 38’ EK.) and rising to 750 feet in places (Fig. 1). 

The presence of Coastal Limestone here was reported as early as 1849 by 
J. W. Gregory, Senr., who described the lower part as a ‘‘ grey marble ’”’ with 
marine shells and with 2-3 foot blocks of gneiss cemented to the basement in a 
coarse conglomerate. He also mentioned ‘‘ the remains of an ancient sea-beach 
near Cape Naturaliste’’ and its water-worn boulders, a statement which was 
later misquoted as ‘‘ 15 miles south (sic) of Cape Leeuwin ”’ by F. T. Gregory 
(1861) and others. The general relationships were seen again by H. Y. L. Brown 
(1872), who observed the garnet-gneisses of the pre-Cambrian basement. E. T. 
Hardman (1884) expressed the opinion that the overlying limestones were 
Cretaceous or Eocene in age and noted the presence of caves therein, which 
would be likely spots for digging for extinct marsupial remains. As predicted, 
they were later found in great quantities (see Glauert, 1910). An Eocene age 
was also attributed to the ‘‘ coast limestone ’’ by H. P. Woodward (1894), and 
in another report he mentions sending the marine fossils from the lower part to 
England for description. 

The first general account of the geology of this area came from E. 8. Simpson 
(1902), who recognized the mainly eolian character of the Coastal Limestone 
and its interesting karst features. Further notes on the area appeared in survey 


70 FAIRBRIDGE AND TEICHERT. 


ICAPE NATURALISTE, 
| GEOGRAPHE 


arr DUNSBOROUGH 


Nose Me hee 
~ BUSSELTON _ 


GEOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP 


NATURALISTE - 


COWARAMUP oe LEEUWIN 
BAY ps! we REGION 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA 
Be 2 


25, 120 8 19 


MARGARET____ 
+ RIVER ; MILES 
of Aisa: 


Lose ay on surveys by Sarnt- 
Smith, (W/é and onrecopnaissante by 
RW Farbridge x C.Terchert, 1948. 

Legend: 
&..MID-RECENT !IOFOOT BENCH 
C...KARST LIMESTONE CAVES 
—| Alf COASTAL LIMESTONE 
—. ~MESOZOIC-TERTIARY 
bs 

CAPE FREYCINET y, at SEDIMENTS 

ae + PRE-CAMBRIAN 

+ GRANITE-GNEISS 


HAMELIN BAY 


Hamelin 15/377 ogf 


FLIINDERS 


“LEEUWIN) sities une) 


Text-fig. 1.—Geological Sketch-map of Naturaliste-Leeuwin Region, 
W.A. 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS. G1 


bulletins by Saint-Smith (1912) and Woodward (1915), but since then it appears 
to have been neglected, apart from a short paper on granitization of the Leeuwin 
eneiss by Carroll (1940). 


The Coastal Limestone tends to dominate the landscape with karst features, 
caves and underground streams. Instead of it being barren, however, there 
are rich soils derived from the old rocks, which, coupled with the heavy rainfall, 
support a very flourishing vegetation, except immediately on the coast. On the 
shoreline the Coastal Limestone is etched by spray into bizarre shapes and in 
the intertidal zone the evidence of marine solution of limestone is demonstrated 
by the deep, etched undercuts and broad horizontal reef platforms. As indicated 
elsewhere (Fairbridge, 1948a, 1950) the effect on limestones of this corrosive 
activity in sea-water and spray near the shore is to produce perfectly truncated 
horizontal reefs at low-tide level. 


On a visit to this area in January, 1948, we paid attention mainly to two 
aspects of the Coastal Limestone, both connected with climate and eustatic 
processes. These less usual features were soil horizons with a fauna of land 
snails and a thin marine member with shell beds and massive conglomerates. 
Both of these are better developed here than anywhere else we have seen on the 
Western Australian coast, but some other occurrences will be briefly described 
for comparison. 


II. Som HORIZONS. 
(a) Hamelin Bay and Island. 


Fossil soils in the Coastal Limestone may be seen at many points between 
Cape Naturaliste (Plate VII, fig. 3) and Cape Leeuwin, as well as elsewhere 
along the Western Australian coast, but the finest development is at Hamelin 
Bay (Plate VII, figs. 1, 2) and on Hamelin Island, about one mile offshore 
(Text-fig. 2). The calcareous xolianite between the soil bands here is normal, 
except that vertical pipes are rather rare. 


The average soil horizon is about 1-3 feet in thickness, but in hollows it 
was found up to 8 feet. Features of the soil are its lack of stratification, its soft, 
‘‘ earthy ”’ feel (where not travertinized) and fineness of grain, all in contrast 
to the exolianite. A typical section of one of these soils shows from top to 
bottom : 

(iv) Travertine ‘‘ cap-rock ’’, smooth and hard on top, soft below; inter- 

fingered by fossil root structures, also preserved in travertine 
4-1 foot 
2 

(ii) Soft, brown humic layer ; often full of land snails (Bothriembryon spp.) 

and ‘slightly calcified insect cocoons (probably of the weevil Leptops 


duponti, see Lea, 1925) at : 1-3 feet 
(ii) White, leached layer; also overated be tone are anode in places 
this contains knobby concretions of travertine. ve 1-4 feet 


(i) Basal travertine; in places merely a thin ees. on the irregular 
underlying surface, but sometimes cementing a layer of breccia or 
conglomerate (pebbles from an older travertine cap) .. +-1 foot 


These divisions are not constant. In places the travertinized cap-rock is 
missing ; in others the whole band is travertinized from top to bottom. Thus in 
places the soil horizon stands out ruggedly, while in others it is so weathered 
away as to look like a narrow cleft cut in the cliff wall. 


On, the mainland cliff, four soil zones (Text-fig. 3) are marked on the attached 
diagram (A, B, C and D), while on Hamelin Island no less than six were noted 
(A to F), rising to about 65 feet above sea level. There are local differences in 
each soil (varying travertinization, varying humic content), but they do not 


72 FAIRBRIDGE AND TEICHERT. 


seem to be constant. For that reason it would not seem desirable to apply 
stratigraphic names to each horizon (as, for example, in Bermuda). 

The soils are rich in carbonates (Table I). The calcium carbonate and 
magnesium carbonate content is generally only slightly lower than that of fresh 
seolianite (in one case even slightly higher) and the insolubles are more concen- 
trated in the two lower soils. There is a varying percentage of organic matter 


GEOMORPHOLOGICAL 
SKETCH MAP 


HAMELIN BAY 


AND VICINITY 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA 


"MNE 


“a y aS 
HAMELIN 443° ‘ 


Fresh- Water 


LEGEND: 


'.: Loose Sand& Beach 
Dune fatterns 
Coastal Limestone 

escarpment 
he Mid-Fecent 10 Benth 
+ Lre-Carmbrian 
granite-Greiss 
woe fPeets 


wm, 


Based on air photos 29629 & 29696. RWE 


Text-fig. 2.—Geomorphological Sketch-map of Hamelin Bay and vicinity. 


which is absent from the parent rock. The test for phosphate was negative in 
every case. On the whole these soils seem to be of the rendzina type. Their 
special interest lies in the fact that they represent fossil rendzinas in which the 
development of a mature soil profile has been arrested. An important point is 
the absence of thick travertine crusts, pipes and other karst features, indicating 
that the periods of soil formation were not of long duration and that the dune 
developments were in rapid sequence. 


pte eee | Yon wese hao nal 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS. 73 


All soil horizons contain abundant specimens of the land snail Bothriem- 
bryon. This genus is at present restricted to the south-west of Australia, where 
it occurs from Eucla to Shark Bay. It has developed into a large number of 
local races or subspecies, which were given specific rank by Iredale in his revision 
of the land molluscs of Western Australia (Iredale, 1939). 


65 Fr 
N ; F A Prevailing Wind 


VY 
6) 
Zug 
LL ll 


°o 
Soll with travertine Beach -rock coarse-grained 8/4 Soil Locket Aolanite Aipping IZ, 
concretions calcareous sandstone with with Bothriembryon 
Shells 


Text-fig. 3.—Pleistocene xolianites and fossil soil horizons at Hamelin 
Bay, W.A. Length of section about 300 yards. 


Recent shells collected on Hamelin Island and Hamelin Bay seem to belong 
to Bothriembryon trilineatus Kobelt, which Iredale regards as a synonym of 
Bothriembryon kingii Gray (Iredale, 1939, Plate 2, fig. 27). He records this 
species from the King George’s Sound area. The same form also occurs in 
Soil Horizon D, but not in the earlier horizons. The material at our disposal is 
insufficient for a thorough study of the affinities of the species from the various 
horizons. This is, moreover, made difficult by the fact that Iredale is silent on 
the subject of variation of the individual ‘‘ species ”’, for each of which he figures 


TABLE I. 


Analyses of Soils and Parent Rock in Coastal Limestone of Hamelin Bay. 


] 2, 3 4 5 
% | % % % % 
Calcium carbonate a: eect EI) 78-98 91-57 88-51 89-94 
Magnesium carbonate ifs sag 5°75 4-33 4-87 4-77 7:68 
Insoluble in acid .. — he 2°95 9-99 0-49 0-51 0-46 
Organic matter as humus pele led b 2-08 1-73 2-29 — 
1. Soil Horizon A, Hamelin Bay. 3. Soil Horizon C, Hamelin Bay. 
2. Soil Horizon B, Hamelin Bay. 4. Soil Horizon D, Hamelin Bay. 


5. Fresh eolianite, Hamelin Bay. 


one representative only. However, specimens from Soil Horizons A and B 
resemble in general the specimen figured as Bothriembryon perditus by Iredale 
(1939, Plate 2, fig. 32) and specimens from Soil Horizon C are most similar to 
Bothriembryon leeuwinensis Smith (Iredale, Plate 2, fig.17). Both these ‘‘ species”’ 
are now restricted to the extreme south-west of Western Australia. The 
occurrence of different forms in different soil horizons does not, therefore, seem 
to indicate climatic fluctuations. The meaning of these changes in the com- 
position of the snail fauna cannot be evaluated until systematic collecting of 
large series of both recent and fossil shells from many localities has been made. 


74 FAIRBRIDGE AND TEICHERT. 


(b) Other Fossil Soil Localities. 


Fossil soil horizons of the rendzina type are well exposed along the coast, 
especially near the Margaret River mouth. Farther north at Cowaramup Bay a 
soil horizon has formed on beach conglomerate and marine shell beds. It 
contains Bothriembryon trilineatus as in Soil D of Hamelin Bay. At Cape 
Naturaliste, owing to recent disturbance to the vegetation, the old dune covering 
is partly stripped off by wind erosion, exposing a large area of the fossil soil, in 
which the travertinized roots are standing up. The local people refer to it as 
‘* The Petrified Forest ’’. 


Some 100-150 miles to the north, at Penguin Island and Point Peron 
(Fairbridge, 1950) and at Rottnest Island (Teichert, 1950), there are further 
developments of fossil soil, but there are generally not more than two bands, 
and these are rather thin, though a pocket at Point Peron is 8 feet thick. These 
more northerly soils generally have the appearance of terra rossa, though locally 
they are dark brown and phosphatized. Deep solution pipes, descending beneath 
sea level, are more important in this area, and the walls of these pipes are 
characteristically banded with travertine and terra rossa. The egg-shaped 
fossil cocoons of Leptops are also common here. 


Still farther north, in the Wallaby Group of Houtman’s Abrolhos Island 
(Teichert, 1947b) there are only a few thin bands of travertinized ‘‘ root horizons ”’ 
in the Coastal Limestone. 


It appears therefore that the number and thickness of the soils decrease as 
we go north. At the same time there is a change from rendzinas to travertine 
and terra rossa, indicating, as might indeed be expected, climatic zoning and 
decreasing humidity from south to north. It should be remembered that 
rendzinas form at present in central and western Europe, whereas terra rossa 
is the product of weathering in Mediterranean climates. It is the rendzina 
which is forming to-day on the limestones of the south-west, while the terra 
rossa soils are restricted to the coast about 500 miles to the north. Evidence 
from the soils confirms our impression that at times during the Pleistocene almost 
the whole of south-west Australia suffered from hot and arid conditions, but that 
it was frequently relieved by wetter conditions in the south-west. This line of 
reasoning may also perhaps help explain the extraordinary concentration of 
marsupial life in this area at that time, for nowhere else in Western Australia 
has such a rich and varied fossil marsupial fauna been found (e.g. Margaret 
River Caves, see Glauert, 1910). 


ITT. MARINE BANDS. 


As indicated above, the Coastal Limestone is essentially an xolian, con- 
tinental deposit. It is accordingly difficult to date except on geomorphological 
evidence. The development in it of sporadic marine bands and littoral con- 
glomerates is thus of particular interest, and for this reason Cowaramup Bay 
is selected as a type locality. 


(a) Cowaramup Bay (33°51'S.,114°59’H.). This is a rocky horseshoe-shaped 
anchorage about 1,000 yards across (Text-fig. 4). The basement rocks outcrop 
in rugged cliffs on the north side and on the floor of the bay. The hills inland 
and at Cowaramup Point (on the south side) consist of Coastal Limestone, but 
close to sea level around the south side of the bay there is a basal conglomerate 
of granite-gneiss boulders cemented into a thin deposit of hard cream-coloured 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS. 75 


marine limestone with pockets of sheils, and overlain by thin layers of beach 
rock and less consolidated shell-beds, followed by a fossil soil and eventually 
seolianites. The section is indicated in Text-fig. 5. The boulders in the con- 
elomerate are mostly 2-4 feet across; they are well rounded and thus differ 
markedly from the angular blocks of the same gneissic rocks being thrown up on 
the shore to-day. In places on the present beach the two are mixed, the former 


CEOMORPHOLOGICAL SKETCH MAP (oe 
or COWARAMUP. BAY ee 
WESTERN AUSTRALIA. 7 
° V4 Ya ! Mile if + 4 

LEGEND: | foes 
we Toose Sand & Beach ay ; 
; y 
Ip Dune Patterns a3 
mrem Loastal Limestone 
Escarpment 


Aw Mid-Recent 1/0 bench 
+ fre-Camorian 

Grante-Gnelss 
a reets 


COWARAMUP POINT BAY 
oo aS 


N \: a 
{ yf 


% 


Based on air photo 26262: RWF 


Text-fig. 4.—Geomorphological Sketch-map of Cowaramup Bay. 


being reworked. In the overlying beach-rock there are also some boulders but 


they are more rounded and smaller (1-2 feet). Springs of fresh water occur at 
the base of this beach-rock. 


The bed of soft, unconsolidated calcareous sand which follows is apparently 
an old storm beach and is full of Patella, Nerita, Turbo, Marginopora, sharks’ 
teeth, ete. Itis proposed to call the whole of this marine sequence, conglomerate, 
limestone, beach-rock and shell beds, after its dominant feature, the ‘‘ Cowaramup 
Conglomerate ”’ as part of the ‘‘ Coastal Limestone ”’ Group (Plate VIII, figs. 1-4). 


During its formation the sea level must have risen at least 10 to 12 feet 
above its present level. 


76 FAIRBRIDGE AND TEICHERT. 


The age of these various deposits is not apparent from the contained fossils, 
all of which seem to be of living species, although not necessarily from the local 
station.* 


NI Das 
Deen Soil 
Shell Bed 


6 @ uss Conglomeratic Beach - Rock 


| Massive marine limestone 
with conglornerate & shell pockets 


Approx. scale : 


Uneven basement of 


0 /0 20 f of 
Pre-Cambrian granite-gneiss a 


RWE 


Text-fig. 5.—Section of Coastal Limestone on south side of Cowaramup Bay, 
showing Cowaramup Conglomerate resting on basement of pre-Cambrian 
granite-gneiss, and containing rounded blocks of the latter up to 4 feet long. 
The lower part of the conglomerate has a matrix of massive marine limestone, 
with fossil shells in pockets, and the upper part passes into a conglomeratic 
beach-rock (calcareous sandstone). There is next a shell-bed (a Pleistocene 
‘“‘ raised beach ’’), followed by a fossil soil band and steeply bedded eolianite. 


* The fauna from the shell bed, overlying the Cowaramup Conglomerate, has been kindly 
identified by Miss E. Dixon, as follows: 


Phylum .. Protozoa. 
Marginipora vertebralis. 
Phylum .. Arthropoda. 


Family Xanthide, Actewa sp. (1 only claw). 
Family Grapside (1 only claw): Cirripedia: Tetracleta. 
Phylum .. Mollusca. 
Amphineura. 
Ischnochiton. . 
Pelecypoda. 
Brachyodontes erosus, Divalucina occidua. 
Gastropoda. 
Marinauris roei, Ianthina violacea, Huplica bidentata, Josepha 
tasmanica, Stomatella imbricata, Cocozeliana granosa, Campanila 
levee, Propesium sp., Melarhaphe unifasciata, Nerita lineata, 
Melanerita melanotragus, Cantharidus lehmanni, Mimeclanclulus 
ventricosa, Vicimitra rhodia, Tallopia callifera, Patelloida alticostata, 
Siphonaria baconi, Cellana limbata, Sabia conica, Antisabia erma. 
It is interesting to note that this assemblage is a typical reef group (dominated by the “ peri- 
winkle ’’ Melarhaphe unifasciata and numerous limpets) commonly found associated with con- 
temporary intertidal reef facies near Perth, some 150 miles to the north. The foraminifer 
Marginopora is also a standard warm-water reef form. 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS. fel 


Physiographic features around Cowaramup Bay shed some light on the age 
problem. The gneiss hills around the bay appear to show a rough terracing, at 
about 25, 40 and 100-120 feet (illustrated by Clarke et al., 1944, p. 174), but this 
does not extend to the Coastal Limestone hills, so if they are true coastal terraces, 
they must be older than the last period of dune-building. If they are taken to 
be Pleistocene eustatic terraces (see discussion in Section V), the age of the 
Cowaramup Conglomerate must be very late Pleistocene. 


The head of the bay is cut off by a bay-head bar, a “‘ raised’? beach now 
rising to 13 feet above datum, preserving a coastal flat within at about 9 feet 
above datum, the inner edge of which is marked by subdued ‘‘ fossil ”’ cliffs and 
truncated spurs. On the south side of the bay there are several indications of a 
10-foot bench eroded in the Coastal Limestone. This is clearly the mid-Recent 
(Flandrian) shore-platform. In places it is overlain by a plaster of Recent 
shelly beach-rock. 


It may be seen that the coincidence in heights between this mid-Recent 
10-foot sea level and the Pleistocene sea level of about the same elevation, when 
the shell beds and older beach-rock were formed, is a pregnant source of confusion, 
unless great care is taken. Below the 10-foot level the lithology is so varied with 
conglomerates, massive limestone and granite-gneiss in situ that it is impossible 
to trace out the 5- and 2-foot benches often found elsewhere, though small patches 
of lower beach-rock plasters were found. 


On the south side of Cowaramup Point there is a particularly fine con- 
temporary limestone bench about 200 feet wide, studded with gneissic boulders. 
The limestone is reduced by marine solution to low-tide level, while the resistant 
conglomerate boulders stand up from it like giant cannon-balls. There is a 
somewhat similar ‘‘ plum pudding ”’ bench like this in Hawaii (Wentworth and 
Hoffmeister, 1940, p. 57). 


(b) Other Occurrences of Marine Members. 


We also found traces of the Cowaramup Conglomerate at several other 
points in the Naturaliste-Leeuwin region. At Cape Naturaliste there is a 
conglomerate with lenticular shell beds 10—23 feet above datum, unconformable 
on the gneiss, and capped by fossil soil and wolianite. A mid-Recent 10-foot 
bench cuts into it and there is also a 5-6 foot beach-rock plaster. 


The granitic gneiss conglomeratic phase is seen at Yallingup and the shelly 
limestone is undercut in cliffs and forms the floor of the present shore platform. 
Ordinary «olianite overlies it at 10-12 feet above datum. At Canal Rocks, a 
25-foot erosion terrace (shore-platform) in the pre-Cambrian is overlapped by the 
conglomerate, again with shell beds and followed by eolianite. 


About 4 mile north of Cape Leeuwin the shelly conglomerate may be traced 
over an uneven gneiss from 3 to 25 feet above datum, but in places passes into an 
evenly bedded grey sandy limestone (marine “ calcarenite ’’), a rather unusual 
rock type. There is the usual 10-foot bench and a 5-foot beach-rock occurs. At 
Hamelin Bay a beach-rock facies, underlying soil A in the eolianites, extends 
from datum to 15 feet above, thus indicating a sea rising to 10 feet (assuming 
a tidal range of 5 feet) prior to the dune formation here. 


Outside our area, along the south coast the basal conglomerate has been 
noted at several points: at Malamup near Cape d’Entrecasteaux (by 
Montgomery, 1904), at Knapp Head (R.W.F.), with the shell beds underlying the 
eolianite at Point Hillier (R.W.F.), and so on. Along the west coast on the 
Swan River near Perth, the Peppermint Grove and Minim Cove shell beds 
(3-24 feet above datum), characterized by Anadara trapezia, and underlying 
the eolianite, have long been known (Somerville, 1920), and they have recently 
been found at intermediate points: Mandurah and Myalup (R.W.F.). 


78 FAIRBRIDGE AND TEICHERT. 


Somewhat farther inland the Anadara beds are reported in the Guildford 
Clay, which is clearly an estuarine facies. At Cottesloe and Fremantle there is 
a lower, beach-rock and sandstone reef facies with coral boulders, rising from 
5 to 15 feet above datum. On Rottnest Island at Salmon Bay an analogous 
position (up to 8-10 feet) is occupied by a coral reef (Teichert, 1950), and north 
of Perth, at Sorrento, a Lithothamnion reef was recently found at the same 
horizon. Similar coral reefs and lagoon limestones (up to 18 feet above datum) 
occur in the Abrolhos Islands (Teichert, 1947) ; Fairbridge, 1948a). From the 
evidence of bores in the western parts of the Coastal Plain and on Rottnest, these 
marine intercalations may be quite thin, and eolianites appear to extend down 
to at least 230 feet below sea level. 


While it is impossible to go into more detail here, it appears from a general 
correlation of the Western Australian Quaternary (Fairbridge, in press) that these 
Pleistocene marine shoreline deposits may be divided into two categories : those 
that rise up to about 25 feet, and a slightly younger set that do not rise more 
than 10-15 feet above datum. These separate different generations of eolianite. 
The Peppermint Grove beds and Cottesloe beach-rock carry conglomerates of 
earlier eolianites and travertines. 


IV. INTERPRETATION OF THE AXOLIANITES AND THEIR SOILS. 


Interpretation of the dune rocks of Australia can probably benefit from 
comparison with well known dune systems of Western Europe. The analogies 
are closest with those of two outstanding belts: 


(1) The great dune area of the Gascony district in France, about 150 miles 
long and 2—5 miles wide, and 


(2) the great dune systems along the south coasts of the North Sea and the 
Baltic Sea, which, with interruptions, are over 2,000 miles long and are 
similar in width. 


These dune belts are very similar to the dune limestone belt of Western Australia 
in dimensions, but differ in material, the Kuropean dunes being mainly of quartz 
sand. , 


In the Gascony district two generations of ancient dunes are present. Both 
are of Pleistocene age and are now fixed by vegetation. 


The origin of the North German dune belt on the other hand probably 
only dates back to about 3500 to 4000 B.c. The development of the latter dune 
system is best known and has been well described by Keilhack (1917 ; see also 
review in English by Johnson, 1919). The coastline then (part of the Littorina 
time) differed but little from that of to-day and the sandy beaches which are now 
generally less than 100 yards wide, were probably not much wider when the 
dune formation began. : 


The main body of the dunes was probably formed within a few hundred 
years. They then became vegetated and soil formation began. The old podsols 
show a thickness of up to 3 or 4 feet. In favourable areas dunes continued to be 
built up in successive belts right up to the present time. One such area is the 
gap between the islands of Usedom and Wollin, at the mouth of the Oder, where 
150 dune ridges have been formed. Keilhack (1912) concluded that 35 years 
are sufficient for the building up of one dune ridge about 20 feet high. As 
evidence of the speed of dune formation, there is the record of the rapid migration 
of sand on the Kurische Nehrung after the deforestation of the 18th century, 
when, within 50 years, enormous wandering dunes had been formed, piling up to 
heights of 200 feet, burying many villages. 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS. 79 


Pertinent to the Australian development are the following significant points 
in the formation of these North German dunes: 


(1) The restricted width of the beaches in Littorina times, which would 
have required a ready supply of sand by waves and longshore currents. 


(2) A climate which was temporarily unfavourable to fixation by plant 
growth. 


(3) The rapid accumulation of sand, the main dune belt being formed within 
a few centuries. 


The main development of the solianite belt in Western and southern 
Australia is in close proximity to the present shoreline and on islands that rise 
from the continental shelf. The dunes were probably built up in successive 
belts from a depth of about 200 feet below sea level to several hundred feet above, 
though a number of marine intercalations occur up to 25 feet above present 
sea level. 


Following Sayles and others, one of us (Teichert, 1947b) has previously 
held that the calcareous dunes of Western Australia were formed when ‘“‘ sea 
level stood lower than now and large parts of the Western Australian shelf were 
exposed to wind erosion’’. Although similar suggestions have been made for 
the South Australian eolianites by Tate (1879) and by Crocker (1946) we now 
believe that such statements need modification. 


First of all, it would seem that dunes may be built either during emergence or 
submergence ; in the former case they would tend to be left behind with every 
temporary pause in the sea’s retreat ; in the latter case they would tend to be 
driven forward to the maximum limit of the sea’s advance. 


It follows from this that the Western Australian eolianites may have been 
formed at any time when sea level stood anywhere between +25 feet and —230 
feet relative to its present height, and that the distribution of these rocks is 
satisfactorily explained by assuming that they were formed along a shoreline 
that was not very different in character from that of the present. It would 
not be necessary to imagine a wide desert of sand during the low Glacial sea 
levels, but merely a normal width of beach under conditions of advance or retreat. 
The climatic conditions need not have been particularly arid, since even to-day, 
if the normal vegetation on the very youthful soft dunes of Western Australia 
is disturbed or destroyed, a new dune is rapidly initiated. 


From observations in Hamelin Bay and elsewhere it is clear that the main 
eolianite ridges were built up in stages, quiescent periods being indicated by 
formation of soil horizons. The next question to be answered is how long are 
the time intervals which these soil horizons represent. 


Sayles (1931) was the first to consider the problem of soil horizons in dune 
limestones. In Bermuda he observed six generations of eolianites separated 
by five fossil soils, and he named them as stratigraphical units. His conclusions, 
which have since been widely quoted, were that each eolianite corresponded to 
a glacial stage of the Pleistocene, when the sea levels were low and a broad 
insular shelf was exposed to wind erosion. The fossil soils formed during inter- 
glacial stages when sea level rose and dune formation temporarily ceased. 


Sayles’ ideas were strongly influenced by Verrill (1902-05), who published 
analyses of the limestones which showed that ‘‘ impurities ’’ in them were often 
‘not more than 0-5 per cent.’’ From this he concluded that 100-200 feet of 
dune limestone were required to form 1-2 feet of soil. This figure may be 
seriously challenged because the soil horizons are obviously not merely residuals 
from solution. 


Furthermore, it is generally accepted that sea level rose well above its 
present stand several times during the Pleistocene, but of such multiple high 


80 FAIRBRIDGE AND TEICHERT. 


sea levels there is no sign in Bermuda. It is, therefore, almost certain that the 
eolianites of this island and their soils represent a very much shorter span of 
time than envisaged by Sayles—probably only a short period of the late 
Pleistocene. 

Few facts seem to be known which would allow one to form an accurate 
estimate of the rate of soil formation under various conditions. As is well 
known, depth of weathering has been used to calculate the length of Pleistocene 
interglacial periods, e.g. by Kay (1931), whose figures were, somewhat uncritically, 
used by Sayles for Bermuda. He proceeded on the assumption that post-glacial 
soils in the U.S.A. were as a rule 6 inches thick and from this concluded that 
1 foot of Bermuda soil might have accumulated in 50,000 years. There is little 
doubt that such figures are much too high. Thick mature brown-earth and 
podsol profiles of north-western Europe are not more than 10,000-15,000 years 
old, and maturity may be reached fairly quickly. 


Under entirely different conditions in Alaska, Judson (1946) found three 
generations of dunes, each with a soil (typical podsol) 2-5 feet thick, overlying 
weathered till; it would seem that the formation of the oldest dunes could 
hardly have begun before the latest Pleistocene, or even post-Pleistocene. 


From the analyses of the Western Australian fossil soils (see Table I), it is 
apparent that the profile has been arrested at an early stage by renewed dune- 
building. 

Any explanation of the origin of the eolianites of W.A. must take into 
account their repeated generations within narrow belts. Obviously the formation 
of any one dune ridge required a rather specialized combination of conditions 
which could not be expected to recur within a narrow zone several times during a 
period of several hundred thousand years. The superposition of half a dozen 
dune generations, as seen for example at Hamelin Island, suggests, on the 
contrary, that all of them were formed within a comparatively short time. Thus 
we are forced to the conclusion that, given the right combination of physio- 
graphical, geological and climatic conditions, the formation of the calcareous 
dunes, their fixation, accompanied by soil development, followed by the destruc- 
tion of their vegetation and renewed growth of sand, a cycle repeated again and 
again, and finally the gradual consolidation into dune limestone, were processes 
that followed each other in fairly rapid succession. 


V. CORRELATION WITH ENGLAND AND NORTH AFRICA. 


Since it has been generally conceded that there has been no appreciable 
warping of southern England since the close of the Pleistocene, and south- 
Western Australia also seems to be a pretty stable sector of an ancient pre- 
Cambrian shield, a tentative correlation may be attempted between, the two for 
the late Pleistocene-early Recent history, based on absolute eustatic levels and 
paleoclimatic oscillations. It is also fairly generally agreed that the ‘‘ 25 foot ”’ 
or ‘‘ pre-Glacial Raised Beach ”’ and fluvial Muscliff Terrace of southern England 
may be correlated, with Zeuner (1945), on absolute elevation and other evidence, 
with the Mediterranean Late Monastir eustatic sea level (7-5 m.). Precise 
correlation of the latter, however, is still conflicting. Zeuner puts it as most 
probably pre-Wiirm I (his Last Interglacial), but Cooke (1930) puts the 25 foot 
terrace as mid-Wisconsin (thus post-Witrm I—probably pre-Wurm II). The 
same course is now followed by Gigout (1951), as will appear in the comparison 
with North Africa. 

Precise data are scarce on the younger terraces and raised benches in 
southern Britain, the bulk of the evidence probably being destroyed owing to the 
large tidal ranges. Green (1946, p. 92) defined a fluvial Christchurch Terrace, 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS. 81 


which may have been formed when the sea level stood about 15-17 feet O.D. 
(personal communication). This, he says (1946, p. 94), ‘‘ must be very recent 
geologically ’’, seeming to correspond with Daly’s ‘‘ six-metre bench ”’, but 
this is not very helpful, since Daly confused both late Pleistocene and early 
Recent levels (Fairbridge, 1948b). In a later paper Green (1949) compared the 
Christchurch terrace with the Middle Sebilian of Egypt, which, according to Ball 
(1939), corresponds to a 10-foot sea level that antedated the last big eustatic 
drop at the end of the Pleistocene (and formed the ‘‘ Lower Buried Channel ”’ 
of Britain). 


A still younger and very recent terrace was reported at Southampton, 
Christchurch and Totnes (Green, 1949, p. 117), at 10-12 feet O.D., and this may 
correspond to the Tilbury Stage of King and Oakley (1936). In a personal 
communication (to R.W.F.) he correlated this ‘‘ beach’? with the Recent 


TABLE ITI. 


Late Quaternary Correlation in the South of England. 


Absolute 

Chronology Culture. Terrace. Beach. Kustatic Substage 

Sea Level. Correlation. 

115,000 Mousterian. —First Buried Channel — Low Wirm I. 
85,000 Early Muscliff 41 ft. “‘ Pre-Glacial 25 ft.”’ 25-30 ft. Ouljian = 

Aurignacian. ? Late Monastir 
70,000 Solutrian. ——Second Buried Channel—— Low Wirm II. 
45,000 Magdalenian. | Christchurch 22 ft. “ 10 foot”? in 10-15 ft. (2) 
part. 
25,000 Mesolithic. — —-Third Buried Channel— Low. Wurm III. 
4,000 Neolithic. Tilbury (3) 10 ft. ‘* Post-Glacial ’’, ? 5-10 ft. Recent 
- years B.P. “10 foot”? in part. (‘* Atlantic ’’). 
| 


(1) Zeuner (1945). These figures are given here as a general indication. No unconditional 
acceptance of the ‘‘ Absolute Chronology ”’ is implied. 


(2) Unnamed; Zeuner’s “ Interstadial slightly above O.D.”’ (p. 252). 


(3) Tilbury Stage of King and Oakley (1936); also described from Southampton by Green 
(1949). 


‘¢ Atlantic ”’ stage; he indicated, however, that the ‘‘ 10-foot ’’ beach is often 
only the seaward end of a buried 25-foot beach, which is also our experience 
sometimes in Australia. At Gower, T. N. George (1932) demonstrated that 
there is a distinct cemented beach-rock (Heatherslide Beach Conglomerate) at 
about 10 feet O.D., which is definitely post-Glacial and plastered on the late- 
Pleistocene terrace. 


On this basis there are in the south of England three sets of river terraces 
and raised beaches of late- and post-Glacial age, as indicated in Table II. In 
this connection Zeuner (1952, p. 47) writes: ‘‘ Altogether, exceptionally favour- 
able circumstances are required for the distinction of the three latest high sea 
level phases, namely the Late Monastirian, the Wtirm Interstadial and the 
post-Glacial (which may in itself be double). These shorelines are less than 8 m. 
apart from each other, so that detailed evidence for high water mark is required 
to sort them out on morphological grounds. Their independent existence, 
however, can no longer be doubted. . .” 


In North Africa, along the western shores of Morocco, the events of late 
Quaternary history correspond more closely to those of the Australian coastline 
than anywhere else in the world. Here the general picture may be obtained from 
two fine memoirs by Neuville and Ruhlmann (1941) and by Gigout (1951). 


I 


82 FAIRBRIDGE AND TEICHERT. 


Valuable additional material is contained in papers by Bourcart (1949, etc.) 
but his interpretations are made under the assumption of tectonic warping, his 
‘* continental flexure ’’, which though a most valuable concept, does not seem 
to be applicable for the very short duration of the late Quaternary of either 
Morocco or south-western Australia. Successive generations of eolianites during 
the Pleistocene are found to correspond to the interglacial arid periods. These 
dune rocks are separated by marine intercalations, corresponding to the high 
eustatic sea levels, which initiate the pluvial stages. The maxima of the pluvials 
correspond to the glacial maxima, when all the climatic belts migrated equator- 
wards, and the temperate-wet climates interrupted the desert conditions when 
the eolianites were formed. However, with the glacial culminations the sea 
levels dropped sharply, separating each major cycle of dunes and high shorelines 
from the next by the erosional phenomena of a short period when the base level 
was considerably lowered. 


This interpretation of Pleistocene events is quite different from that generally 
adopted in Australia, where we have been inclined to regard the glacial low 
sea levels as inducing the aridity which led to extensive dune formation ; and 
these would be interrupted by the high sea levels corresponding to the pluvial 
stages. 


The evidence derived from this study of the Naturaliste-Leeuwin area seems 
to correspond precisely with the conclusions reached in Morocco, where, in 
addition to geological and geomorphological evidence, there are extensive 
paleontological data and material of human industries, to support a general 
correlation with the classical Pleistocene divisions of Europe. Gigout (1951) 
appears to have solved the problem of the 25-foot sea level, placing it in the first 
Wurm Interstadial (Mousteriam), and proposes the name ‘ Ouljian ”’ for it ; 
this seems much better than Zeuner’s problematic ‘‘ late Monastir’’. He also 
emphasizes the great importance of the Flandrian (Neolithic) 10-foot shoreline 
on the Moroccan coast and in western Europe. 


Turning now to the Australian evidence, it may be assumed that if limestone 
terraces and ‘‘ raised beaches ”’ do not display any karst features which descend 
beneath the present sea level, then these terraces are younger than the last low 
sea level (Wurm III). Those Quaternary formations in Western Australia which 
do show far-reaching karst channels are taken to be Wurm III or older. In 
these pre-Wurm III formations we believe we can detect two high sea levels 
reaching to 5-15 and 25-30 feet, which would logically belong to warm inter- 
stadials prior to Wurm III and Wurm II. 


Our correlation may now seem almost complete, but further surveys and 
paleontological studies in Australia are badly needed. In the south-western 
province a general correlation has recently been prepared by one of us in connec- 
tion with a regional stratigraphy (see Fairbridge, in press), but it is still with 
diffidence that this picture of local stratigraphic history is presented, as appears 
in Table III. 


CONCLUSIONS. 


Observations along the Western Australian coasts have shown that the 
Coastal Limestone is older than the early Recent, or ‘‘ Flandrian ’’ period, when 
the sea level was 10 feet higher than it is to-day, because these rocks have been 
widely benched at that level. 


In many places along the coast the eolianites are intercalated with marine 
deposits of reef or shoreline facies which, on the Abrolhos Islands, reach 18 feet, 
and near Perth (Peppermint Grove) reach up to 25 feet above sea level. These 
deposits are correlated with the First Wurm Interstadial (Ouljian of Morocco or 
? Late Monastirian level in Europe and the Mediterranean). 


Absolute 
Chronology. 


130,000 
115,000 


85,000 


80,000 


70,000 


PLEISTOCENE. 


45,000 


4,000- 
2,300 B.c. 


600 B.c.— 
1200 a.p. 


Post-GLACIAL OR RECENT. 


SOIL HORIZONS 


AND MARINE BANDS. 


TABLE III. 


83 


Late Quaternary Correlation in Western Australia. 


South-west and 
South Coast. 


Cowaramup Con- 
glomerate (also 
Hamelin Bay beach- 
rock, etc.). 

Third AXolianite (with 
Hamelin Bay souls). 


Consolidation, karst, 
etc. (as in Margaret 
R. Caves). 


West Coast. 


First Holianite (mostly 
below sea level). 

Consolidation, 
travertine and karst. 

Peppermint Grove For- 
mation (beach-rock 
shell beds and cal- 


carenite). 
Guildford Clay 

(estuarine facies) with 

Anadara trapezia. 


Pelsart Reef Lime- 
stone. 
Second Avolianite 


(slightly lowered sea 
level). 
Consolidation, 
travertine, karst. 
Cottesloe beach-rock. 
Salmon Bay reef-rock. 


Third A#olianite (with 
soils and snails). 


Consolidation, 
travertine, karst. 


Bre-arc hy- rock “(at 
Cowaramup Bay). 
Ten-foot Shore Plat- 


form. 


Beach-rock 
Cowaramup Bay). 

Five-foot Shore Plat- 
form. 


(at 


——(2) 


od 


(1) The Cowaramup Conglomerate rests on Tertiary or pre-Cambrian on the south coast. 


‘* Raised Beach ’”’ and 
Beach-rock (as at Pt. 
Peron). 

Ten-foot Shore plat- 
form (3). 


Emerged reef - rock 
beach-rock (as in 
Abrolhos Islands). 
Five-foot shore plat- 
form. 


Beach-rock 
Rottnest I.). 
Two-foot shore plat- 
form. 


(as at 


European Correlation 
(R.W.F.). 


Riss-Wutrm Interglacial. 


Wurm I gilacial-pluvial 


maximum. 


25 foot shore (beginning 
of First Wurm Inter- 
stadial). 


First 
stadial. 


Wurm Inter- 


Wurm IT glacial-pluvial 


maximum. 


5-15 foot shore (be- 
ginning of Second 
Wurm Interstadial). 


Second Wtrm _Inter- 
stadial. 


Wirm iI! | giacial- 
pluvial maximum. 


Flandrian transgression 
‘* Atlantic ’? warm stage 
10-foot shore. 


Calais Beds. 
‘“‘Subboreal’”’ climate (2). 


Dunkerque Beds. 
‘““Subatlantic” climate 


(2). 


nl 


eolianites may lie buried inland or on continental shelf. 


(2) On the south coast greater exposure and greater tidal range may explain general lack of 
Same may be true in western Europe. 


lower terraces. 


(3) Recent platforms and shell beds have not yet received specific names, 


examples are cited. 


Older 


Well described 


84 FAIRBRIDGE AND TEICHERT. 


At Cottesloe and on Rottnest Island there are slightly lower (5-15 feet) 
marine intercalations, and these may belong to the Second Wirm Interstadial. 
In the Naturaliste-Leeuwin area, described in this paper, these marine beds form 
a basal member, the Cowaramup Conglomerate, which lies on the pre-Cambrian 
basement. Elsewhere, the marine beds rest on older eolianites which occur 
mostly below sea level. 


We conclude that most of the Coastal Limestones of Western Australia, 
both eolianites and marine members, have been formed during the latest 
glacial stage, the Wurm, because if they were older there would be signs on them 
of earlier, higher Pleistocene sea levels of which, in fact, there is no trace, except 
those cut into the pre-Cambrian rocks of the south coast. However, it is quite 
possible that truncated cores of still older eolianites exist beneath the present 
ridges. 

The general evidence in W.A. is of a cyclic succession of marine bands and 
dunes separated by erosive intervals, but the bulk of the eolianites now exposed 
above sea level along the coast were formed during the last (second) interstadial 
of the Wiirm and the sea level then cannot have been very much lower than its 
present stand. 


These dunes most probably started to build up as soon as the sea level 
reached its highest point (and consequently did not destroy them by further 
advance). The dune-building then continued as the sea level dropped, probably 
with a sequence of short oscillations, ceasing in the present belt as the shoreline 
finally receded (probably most rapidly) to its minimum level, which would 
coincide with the maximum glaciation. 


It is an important conclusion of this study that the significant periods of 
dune formation did not coincide with the glacial maxima, but were in fact 
initiated with the highest eustatic sea levels during the interstadial warm-arid 
periods. 


The glacial maxima (eustatic lows) are marked by a lowering of the water 
table, and solution by underground water caused deep sink holes and underground 
rivers to develop, reaching down to the lowest base-level. These karst features 
probably required a much longer period to form than the dunes themselves. 


The short duration of the last dune building prior to the Recent epoch 
hardly needs more emphasis. In places on the coast the younger (third) ceolianite 
is over 300 feet thick, and this itself most likely accumulated in short phases, 
interrupted by non-xolianite periods when soils developed. The fossil soil 
horizons which thus separate a number of dune generations in the eolianites may 
indicate minor and short-lived climatic cycles. They change from rendzinas 
in the south to terra rossa soils at the latitude of Fremantle and grade into mere 
travertine crusts farther north. We have therefore concluded that it is utterly 
wrong to correlate each soil with an interglacial stage, as was done by Sayles in 
Bermuda, and that any empirical formula deducing an absolute duration of 
time from a certain thickness of soil accumulation is equally fallacious. 


An interesting feature of the Cowaramup Conglomerate in the Naturaliste- 
Leeuwin area is the light it sheds on the rate of coast erosion here. This basal 
conglomerate was being formed under conditions of littoral erosion perhaps 
45,000 years ago. It was then cut off by the fall in sea level, covered over by a 
protective blanket of dune sands at least 60 feet thick, which was then cut 
through again by marine erosion in Flandrian times. On the south side of 
Cowaramup Point the width of the contemporary bench cut in these late Wurm 
eolianites is not less than 200 feet; this has taken 4,000 years to form (aided 
by a progressively lowered sea level), which gives an average rate of about 0-05 
foot per year. But the eustatic drops have been short and sharp, so that the 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS. 85 


actual rate must have been faster. The boulders of the Cowaramup Con- 
glomerate, however, are now being reworked by contemporary erosion, so that 
we are now back on the shoreline of the Wiirm II-III Interstadial, and so the net 
amount of coastal retreat over the last 45,000 years has been nil. 


We may close with the hope that these notes may stimulate further interest 
in the possibilities of coastal geology as a means of unravelling the history of 
eustatic and climatic events over the last 50,000 years or so. 


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J ohnston, R. M., 1888. Systematic Account of the Geology of Tasmania, Hobart. (Govt. 

Printer.) 
Judson, 8., 1946. Late Glacial and Postglacial Chronology on Adak. Journ. Geol., 54, 
376-385. 

Jutson, J. T., and Simpson, E. 8., 1917. Notes on the Geology and Physiography of Albany. 
Journ. Roy. Soc. West. Aust., 2 (1915-16), 45-48. 

Kay, G. F., 1931. The Relative Ages of the Iowan and Wisconsin Drift Sheets. Amer. Journ. 
Sci., 221, 158-172. 

Keble, R. A., 1946. The Sunklands of Port Phillip Bay and Bass Strait, Mem. Nat. Mus. Vic, 

(Melbourne), No. 14, Pt. 2, 69-122. 


86. FAIRBRIDGE AND TEICHERT. 


Keilhack, K., 1912. Die Verlandung der Schwinepforte. Jahrb. Preuss. Geol. landesanst. 
(1911), Berlin, 32, Pt. 2, 209-244. 
—_——__—_—— 1917. Die grossen Ditinengebiete Norddeutschlands. Zeitschr. Dtsch. Geol. 
Gesellsch., 69, B, Monatsber., 2-19. 
King, W. B. R., and Oakley, K. P., 1936. The Pleistocene Succession in the Lower Part of the 
Thames Valley. Proc. Prehist. Soc. (London), 2 (n.s.), 52-76. 
Lea, A. M., 1925. Notes on Some Calcareous Insect Puparia. Rec. South Aust. Mus., 3, 35-36. 


Montgomery, A., 1904. On the Prospects of Discovering Petroleum by Boring in the Warren 
River District. Dept. of Mines, Perth, Ann. Rept. (for 1903), 95—98. 
Neuville, R., and Ruhlmann, A., 1941. La place du Paleolithique ancien dans le Quaternaire 
marocain. Inst. Hautes-Etudes Marocaines (Casablanca), No. 8, 156. 
Saint-Smith, E. C., 1912. A Geological Reconnaissance of a Portion of the South-west Division 
of Western Australia. Geol. Surv. West. Aust., Bull. No. 44. 
Sayles, R. W., 1931. Bermuda during the Ice Age. Proc. Amer. Acad. Arts Sci., 66, 381-468. 
Simpson, E. 8., 1902. Geological Features of the South-western Caves District. West. Aust. 
Year Book (for 1900-01), 124-129. 
Sprigg, R. C., 1952. Stranded Pleistocene Sea-beaches of South Australia and Aspects of the 
Theories of Milankovitch and Zeuner. Int. Geol. Congr. (XVIII G.B., 1948), Pt. 13, 226-237. 
Somerville, J. L., 1920. Evidences of Uplift in the Neighbourhood of Perth. Journ. Roy. Soc. 
West. Aust. 6 (1919-20), Pt. 1, 5-20. 
Tate, R., 1879. Natural History of the Country Around the Head of the Great Australian Bight. 
Phil. Soc. Adelaide, 2, 114. 
Teichert, C., 1947a. Stratigraphy of Western Australia. Tuts JouRNAL, 80, 81-142; Bull. 
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1947b. Contributions to the Geology of Houtman’s Abrolhos, Western Australia. 
Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 71, 145-196. 
—_—_—_——— 1950. Late Quaternary Sea-level Changes at Rottnest Island, Western Australia. 
Proc. Roy. Soc. Vic., 59, 63-79. 
Tindale, N., 1947. Subdivisions of Pleistocene Time in South Australia. Rec. S. Aust. Mus., 
8, No. 4, 619-652. 
Verrill, A. E., 1902-5. The Bermuda Islands: Their Scenery, Climate, Productions, Physio- 
graphy, Natural History, and Geology ... Trans. Conn. Acad. Arts Sci., 11, 413-956 ; 
12, 45-348. 
Wentworth, C. K., and Hoffmeister, J. E., 1940. Hybrid Shore Bench at Ulupau Head, Oahu. 
Journ. Geomorphology, 3, No. 1, 57-58. 
Woodward, H. P., 1894. Notes on the Geology of Western Australia, Geol. Mag., dec. IV, 
1, 545-551. 
—_-—_______—__—_ 1915. The Geology and Mineral and Allied Resources of the Coastal Plains 
of the South-west Division. Geol. Surv. West. Aust., Ann. 
Progr. Rept. for 1914, 15-18. 
Zeuner, F. E., 1945. The Pleistocene Period, Its Climate, Chronology and Faunal Succession. 
London (Ray Society, No. 130), 322 pp. 
—_______-——— 1952. Pleistocene Shorelines. Geologische Rundschau, 40, 39-50. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 
PLATE VII. 


Fig. 1.—Coastal Limestone zolianites at Hamelin Bay, showing Fossil Soil Horizon B (dark — 


band), which just here is 6-18 inches thick. Immediately beneath it (marked by black notebook) 
is an irregular band of travertine pebbles. The jagged part of the underlying zolianite is due to 
travertinized root structures. The upper eolianite shows false-bedding at 25-30° N.E. (away 
from the prevailing wind). 

(Photo.—R.W.F. 4080.) 


Fig. 2.—Two Fossil Soil Horizons (A and B) intercalated in the Coastal Limestone eolianites 
ut Flamelin Bay. The lower band (A) is more heavily indurated with travertine than the upper 
one and varies from 2—5 feet in thickness here. Only a thin layer of eolianite separates it here 
from the upper soil (B), which is 3—6 feet thick ; note the transition from the dark upper part, 
rich in organic matter, passing down into a white, leached zone with travertinized roots. 


(Photo.—R.W.F. 4081.) 


Fig. 3.—Fossil Soil Horizon at Cape Naturaliste, 3 feet thick, showing fine travertinized root 


structures. 
(Photo.—R.W.F, 4045.) 


fi 
) 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. DXXXVI, 1952, Plate VII 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVI, 1952, Plate VIII 


als 


. 


SOIL HORIZONS AND MARINE BANDS. 87 


Pruate VIII. 


Fig. 1.—Cowaramup Conglomerate, in Cowaramup Bay ; granite-gneiss boulders (A), 4 feet 
long embedded in creamy white marine limestone (with few shelly fossils), passing upwards into 
(B) finely current-bedded beach-rock (calcareous sandstone) the top of which is here marked by 
the mid-Recent 10-foot eustatic bench (C). The beach-rock is overlain by hard and soft shell 
beds (D), and a 12-inch fossil soil (E), to be capped by the steeply bedded zolianites in the back- 
ground (F). 

(Photo.—R.W.F. 4060.) 


Fig. 2.—Cowaramup Conglomerate, seen near Cowaramup Point, partly broken up by 
contemporary erosion. Boulder-bands alternate with white marine limestone. Granite-gneiss 
basement in situ in background. 

(Photo.—R.W.F. 4064.) 


Fig. 3.—Contemporary coastal erosion platform cut in the Cowaramup Conglomerate and its 
limestone matrix, which dissolves rapidly under inter-tidal marine erosion, leaving the resistant 
boulders on the reef platform. Looking south from Cowaramup Point. 


(Photo.—R.W.F. 4065.) 


Fig. 4.—Cape Naturaliste. Detail of contact between deeply weathered pre-Cambrian 
gneiss and schist and the overlying Cowaramup Conglomerate and its matrix of calcareous shell 
beds. 

(Photo.—R.W.F. 4046.) 


a 


‘ - AUSTRALASIAN MepicaL PusLisHing Company Lim TED 
3 Arundel and Seamer Streets, Glebe 
bp. 1953)" es 
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so “ i 


ISSUED APRIL 14, 1953 


|| VoL. Lxxxvi ee | 2 = PART iV 


SS : _ JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


| ROYAL SOCIETY 


(OF NEW SOUTH WALES Ze 


FOR 


1952 


(INCORPORATED 1881) 


JAuSON, 


Uy 
CF F EB 1 1954 
Nel IBRARY XK” 


PART IV 
OF 
VOL. LXXXVI 


"Containing Papers read in mieondteL and December, 1952 


EDITED BY 


IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. - 


Honorary Editorial Secretary 


te THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONSIBLE FOR THE 
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN 


% SYDNEY 
PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE 
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 


1953 


CONTENTS 


VOLUME LXXxXVI 


Part IV 


fe st 


Ar S. Ritchie’ . 
¥ 1 J 


RS 
Art! XI. | Fg astdttte ones and Associated Stratigraphy at Four-Mile Creek, South-west 
of Orange, N.S.W. By N. C. Stevens and G, H. Packham 


Art’.X.—A Speen te the Geology and Glaciology of the Snowy Mountains. By 


Art. XII.—Martiniopsis Waagen from the Salt Range, India. By Ida A. Brown 


Art. XIII.—Contributions to a Study of the Marulan Batholith. Part II. The Grano- 
diorite-Quartz Porphyrite Hybrids. By G. D. Osborne and J. 8. Lovering 


Art. XIV.—The Replacement of Crinoid Stems and gate ote: Py Cassiterite at Emma- 
ville, New South Wales. By L. J. Lawrence .. 


100 
108 


119 


n= 


JOURNAL AND PROCEEDINGS 


OF THE 


ROYAL SOCIETY 


OF NEW SOUTH WALES 


FOR 


1952 


(INCORPORATED 1881) 


VOLUME LXXXVI 


Part IV 


EDITED BY 


IDA A. BROWNE, D.Sc. 


Honorary Editorial Secretary 


THE AUTHORS OF PAPERS ARE ALONE RESPONS18LE FOR THE 
STATEMENTS MADE AND THE OPINIONS EXPRESSED THEREIN 


SYDNEY 


PUBLISHED BY THE SOCIETY, SCIENCE HOUSE 
GLOUCESTER AND ESSEX STREETS 


A CONTRIBUTION TO THE GEOLOGY AND GLACIOLOGY 
OF THE SNOWY MOUNTAINS. 


By A. 8S. RITCHIE. 
With one Text-figure. 


Manuscript received, October 14, 1952. Read, November 5, 1952. 


INTRODUCTION. 


Considerable evidence of Pleistocene glaciation in the Kosciusko summit 
area was recorded by David (1908) and David and others (1901). Later, Browne 
and others (1944, 1946) recorded further evidence both in the summit area and 
in the country north of it. 


Some years ago the writer turned his attention to an area of about twenty 
square miles, between the two already investigated, in what might be called the 
Granite Peaks-Rolling Ground region. The eastern boundaries of the region 
are the Snowy and Munyang Rivers, while the northern and western boundaries 
are Dicky Cooper’s Creek and the precipitous gorge of the Geehi River 
respectively. In the south it is bounded by the Snowy River, the Guthega 
River and Three Rocks Creek. 


The present contribution is a progress report on investigations made during 
visits to the region in January, 1945; January, 1948; January, 1949; 
November, 1950; and March, 1952. The area is not easily accessible and all 
work was done on foot. The weight of food carried limited each visit to eight 
or ten days’ duration. Stormy weather with snow, even in summer, often 
restricted field work. 


Text-figure 1 is mainly a copy of the map of the Snow Leases and Permissive 
Occupancies of the Department of Lands. Minor variations have been made in 
the light of field observations. The field notes were related to the streams since 
anomalous variations in the magnetic declination have been suspected by the 
writer. The simple grid system of the map has been introduced to facilitate the 
location of points in a region where few physiographic features are named. The 
main streams and their tributaries are lettered for the same reason. 


PHYSIOGRAPHY. 


The Granite Peaks-Rolling Ground area is the northern continuation of the 
Main Range of the summit area, the Great Divide extending from Consett 
Stephen Pass (location F4) near Mt. Tate (F3) in the south to the saddle (B5 
and C5) between the sources of Munyang River and Dicky Cooper’s Creek in the 
north. The greatest elevation is at Dicky Cooper’s Bogong (B4), which stands 
at 6,570 feet above sea level. The whole area is mostly above 6,000 feet, although 
the lower valleys of the streams descend to about 4,200 feet on the east and to 
about 3,000 feet on the west of the divide. 

The drainage is effected chiefly by four streams which show remarkable 
parallelism in a sub-meridional direction. These streams are the Munyang and 
Guthega Rivers on the east of the divide and Dicky Cooper’s Creek and Windy 


THE GEOLOGY AND GLACIOLOGY OF THE SNOWY MOUNTAINS. 89 


Creek on the west. The collinearity of (a) Windy Creek and Guthega River, 
(b) Dicky Cooper’s Creek and Munyang River and the parallelism of all these 
with each other, with some of their tributaries and with Finn’s River is striking. 
The explanation probably lies in the step-faulting as suggested by Browne and 
others (1944). Some of the tributaries of these streams are large enough to 
deserve names. Similarly, numerous peaks in the area should be named. 


ATW) 


Wa ww) 


al 17d 
N 


» 
7 = 

° A i ‘Live qual anys 

PHULES SS es 


1, < % = 
ETA aon 3 
2 $04 PS 
‘ o = 14° %G 
ys 4 = Wy Is 
veal 2 a i == definite | 
Ma S mU --- indefinite 
Ss A i WY definite | 
~ = e a 
= ated Oufcrop) 


Text-fig. 1.—Granite Peaks—Rolling Ground Region, Snowy Mountains, N.S.W. 


D.C.—Dicky Cooper’s Creek. T.R.—Three Rocks Creek. 

M. —Munyang River. W. —Windy Creek. 

F.R.—Finn’s River. G.U.—Guthega River. 
EROSION. 


Most of the area is above the tree-line and is well grassed except for the 
rocky pinnacles. In sheltered places a thick stunted heather-like growth 
abounds. Soil erosion seems to be at a minimum and, in normal weather, the 
streams are very clear and flow through grassy banks. After heavy rain, 
however, the streams become very muddy and leave no doubt that very active 
erosion is in progress. | 

Snow-patch erosion and nivation (Browne and others 1944) were noted 
throughout the area. The role of snow daisies as a retardant should be recorded. 
Where the ice thins around the margin of the snow-drifts the snow daisies, as if 
anticipating their release, make considerable growth while still covered by up 
to half an inch of ice. During this growth the leaves are sheathed in a gelatinous 
film. Thus the soil surface is covered to a considerable extent before the snow 
melts. 

West of the divide the stream gradients are very steep and hence very 
active stream erosion is in progress. 

In the upland valleys and swamps the present streams are incised into the 
floors of the valleys to a depth of from two to twenty feet. 

K 


90 A. 8. RITCHIE. 


EVIDENCE OF GLACIATION. 


There is widespread evidence of glaciation throughout the area. This 
may best be described by considering each main stream system in turn. The 
observations are merely recorded. Conclusions mostly have been left to the 
future, when sufficient data are available for the whole Snowy Mountains area. 


1) Munyang River (also known as White’s River). 
(1) yang 


This stream has its source on the south-eastern slopes of Dicky Cooper’s 
Bogong (B4) and flows in a south-easterly direction into the Snowy River. The 
upper valley is glaciated. The most prominent evidence is a terminal moraine 
just downstream from White’s River Hut (C5) at an elevation of 5,500 feet (by 
aneroid). It is proposed to call this White’s Moraine. Large faceted boulders 
here form a pronounced barrier which is slightly breached to permit the stream 
to cascade down some thirty feet to a rocky valley floor. This was observed 
independently by Browne and others (1946). Upstream from the moraine the 
valley is wide and the main stream and its tributaries meander in front of the 
hut. A spur near the hut appears to have been truncated. Further upstream 
there is less distinct evidence of two smaller terminal moraines at elevations of 
5,670 and 5,760 feet. There is definite evidence of ground moraine right up to 
the saddle between this stream and Dicky Cooper’s Creek, the elevation of the 
saddle being 5,930 feet. Some of the drift appears to have come down from 
Disappointment Spur. Only minor tributaries feed the river above the 5,670 
feet level. Two large creeks (M4 and M5) join the river in the upper part, one 
on either side of White’s River hut. The stream M5 has faceted boulders near 
the hut but these may have been left as marginal moraines or kame-terraces by 
the glacier in the main valley through which this stream (M5) flows. Further 
upstream in M5, the sources of this stream are found in two indefinite large 
cirques on the south-eastern slopes of Dicky Cooper’s Bogong. The elevation 
of these cirques is about 6,400 feet and the westerly one has a terminal moraine 
across it. Thestream M4 has faceted boulders and is fed in summer by a number 
of snow-drifts which are cradled in as many cirques on the eastern slopes of the 
Granite Peaks (C4 and D4). Some of these cirques, at elevations of from 6,200 
to 6,420 feet, are very definite, possessing steep walls in a semi-circle with flat 
floors sometimes terminated by small moraines now breached by the small 
streams. The stream M4 rises at the head of a long, wide upland swamp. 
Remarkably constant changes of height on both the eastern and western sides 
of the swamp suggest step-faulting with strikes parallel to those already men- 
tioned. An indefinite terminal moraine is located at the lower end of this upland 
swamp (D5). During the ice age, much ice must have accumulated on the site 
of the present swamp. The main egress was probably down the valley of M4 
but some spillways over the eastern side of the valley into M6 seem possible. 
Downstream from the top of White’s Moraine, a great accumulation of large 
boulders extends for almost a mile and is probably the lower part of White’s 
Moraine. The elevation of the lowest of these boulders is 5,250 feet. Thus a 
considerable gradient exists and the stream appears somewhat youthful in 
character. The valley is much wider than the stream, however, and is clothed 
in an almost impenetrable scrub. This forms the most difficult country on the 
eastern side of the divide. Below the moraine the valley opens out and, just 
below the tributary M3, displays valley-in-valley structure and some degree of 
maturity due to a more gentle gradient. The altitude here is about 5,000 feet. 
About a quarter of a mile upstream from M1, the Munyang River becomes quite 
youthful and pot-holes and cascades are prominent. The sudden change of 
gradient here suggests more faulting. The lower mile of the Munyang River is 
entrenched about thirty feet into a broader valley. The stream M1 has not yet 
been examined. 


THE GEOLOGY AND GLACIOLOGY OF THE SNOWY MOUNTAINS. 91 
(2) The streams between Guthega and Munyang Rivers have not been examined. 


(3) Guthega River. 


This stream rises with several arms, some of which begin in small cirques. 
on the eastern side of Mt. Tate (F3). Nivation appears to have played some part 
in cirque formation here. The eastern arms of the Guthega rise in slightly 
cirquated land a little north-west of the 6,470 feet peak (F4). At first the upper 
valley is wide and glaciated but it soon assumes a youthful character and flows 
through a rugged valley until it meets the Snowy River. Dr. W. R. Browne, in 
a private communication, states that there appear to be truncated spurs on the 
right bank of the Guthega valley as viewed from Guthega Camp. 


(4) Dicky Cooper’s Creek. 

This stream rises in a low col which separates it from the Upper Munyang 
River. It receives tributaries from Dicky Cooper’s Bogong on the west and 
from the Kerries and Gungartan (B6) on the north and east. A number of small 
cirques on the north-eastern slopes of Dicky Cooper’s Bogong are perched high 
above the valley of the creek and any relationship between the glaciology of the 
two is obscure. The valley of Dicky Cooper’s Creek is wide and displays consider- 
able scattered ground moraine in its upper part. The present stream is. 
entrenched from about three to seven feet into the wide floor of the valley. The 
wide valley narrows at a large terminal moraine (B5), which, it is proposed to 
call Dicky Cooper’s Moraine. Its elevation is 5,850 feet and it is comparable in 
size to the upper part of White’s Moraine. Below the moraine the valley narrows 
considerably and turns sharply to the west. The writer did not follow the 
stream further than the track which leads northwards from Dicky Cooper’s Hut. 
Here another moraine has been reported by Browne and others (1946). This 
valley appears to have received ice from Gungartan and the Kerries but the bulk 
of the ice from Dicky Cooper’s Bogong appears to have gone down the Munyang 
Valley. 


(5) Windy Creek. 

Members of this stream system drain to the west all that country from 
Consett Stephen Pass (H4 and F4) to Dicky Cooper’s Bogong and its upper valley 
is wide and very deep. This valley shows the most pronounced glaciation of 
any the writer has seen in the Kosciusko area. The glaciation of this valley 
was recorded independently by Browne and others (1946). In the valley there 
are four terminal moraines, all breached by the stream which is entrenched from 
five feet (near the source) to fifteen feet (two miles downstream) into the wide 
valley floor. Most tributaries spill over into this valley from hanging valleys 
perched two or three hundred feet above the valley floor. A notable exception 
is stream W6, in which the glacial erosion seems to have kept pace with that of 
the main valley. Below the confluence with stream W2 the main valley becomes 
very youthful and the gradient very steep. Further downstream the Leaning 
Rock Falls (C2) make passage on foot impossible. 

Stream W6 rises on the west of the Granite Peaks (H4 and D4). The gradient 
at first is relatively slight but soon steepens and a wide glaciated valley enters the 
main valley. Morainic material in stream W6 is slight and indefinite. 

Stream W5 rises in a similar manner to W6 but in its course there are two 
terminal moraines. The upper one, the less distinct, is breached, but never- 
theless dams the stream to form a small tarn which persists throughout the 
summer. Downstream from this moraine the stream cuts into its own valley 
to a depth of about five feet and exposes a fine till, which extends downstream for 
about two hundred yards. About half a mile below the upper moraine is a 


92 A. 8S. RITCHIE. 


very large moraine, which appears to have been built up near the end of a 
hanging valley. A great mass of morainic matter has tumbled into the main 
valley. A small swamp lies upstream from the moraine. 


Streams W3 and W4 drain the south-western slopes of Dicky Cooper’s 
Bogong. Their upper valleys are wide and swampy. These streams have not 
been closely examined. Downstream they assume a youthful condition before 
entering Windy Creek. Browne and others (1946) observed the glaciated 
character of these streams. 


(6) Three Rocks Creek. 


This stream drains the western slopes of Mt. Tate, the southern slopes of 
Tate West Ridge and the northern slopes of Mann Bluff (G3). The lower parts 
of the stream plunge steeply into the Geehi River and display active erosion. 
The upper parts show glaciated valleys, two of which, from Tate West Ridge, 
are very striking. The west slopes of Mt. Tate and the northern slopes of Mann 
Bluff are strongly cirquated but no close examination was made. 


(7) Finn’s River. 

No thorough examination of this valley was made but strong evidence of 
glaciation was noted en route to and from Island Bend on the Snowy River. 
The amount of evidence of glaciation here is surprising and the area warrants 
closer attention. The following were noted : 


(a) The sources of Finn’s River are in large cirques near Tin Hut (A7). 
This was noted also by Browne and others (1946). 


(b) The upper four miles of the valley is U-shaped, with slight gradient and, 
in places, forms upland swamps. 


(c) One very large terminal moraine occurs at and above the confluence 
with Farm Creek (FR1). This moraine is larger than any in Coota- 
patamba Valley (David and others, 1901). Another probable terminal 
moraine occurs about one mile upstream from the Snowy River. Above 
this point the stream becomes swampy and is very wide and flat. No 
close examination of this was made. 
Tributaries draining Gungartan (C6) and Disappointment Spur (C6) 
and (D7) rise in cirques and some appear to have terminal moraines. 
(e) Farm Creek (stream FR1) has a terminal moraine just above its con- 
fluence with Finn’s River. This moraine is large but is made up of 
much finer material than any other the writer has seen in the Kosciusko 
area. Some special circumstances are indicated here. This evidence 
indicates a valley glacier from the south-west slopes of Toll Bar Ridge. 
It would not be unreasonable to suspect glacial evidence in upper Toll 
Bar Creek on the north-west slopes. This locality is well worthy of 
further investigation. 


— 


(8) Petrological Evidence. 

The only outcrops of metasediments known to the writer in the area lie to 
the west of the divide. Nevertheless, fragments of quartz-schist are common on 
the N.E. slopes of Dicky Cooper’s Bogong on the eastern side of the divide. 
Similar specimens were found in upper Munyang River and in White’s Moraine. 
This may be an important clue to the movement of the ice. 


GEOLOGY. 


A moderately gneissic granite makes up almost the whole area. Brief 
mention should be made, however, of what appears to be a remarkable roof 
pendant of metasediments in the gneissic granite. This was first noted about 


THE GEOLOGY AND GLACIOLOGY OF THE SNOWY MOUNTAINS. 93 


half a mile west of Dicky Cooper’s Bogong. The dip was vertical and the 
strike 181°. The width here was about three hundred yards. The rocks were 
determined in the field as quartz-schist, phyllite and milky quartz (in wide veins), 
quartzites and highly cleavable slates. In 1946 Browne and others independently 
observed this occurrence north of Dicky Cooper’s Bogong. Subsequently, the 
pendant was traced by the writer northwards along its continuous outcrop to the 
saddle near The Ghost on the track from Dicky Cooper’s hut to Mawson’s hut. 
The outcrop was lost on this saddle, the last width noted being twenty-five feet. 
No search was made further north. From the head of Barber’s Creek (W2), 
the outcrop of the metasediments can be seen stretching to the south from near 
Dicky Cooper’s Bogong. The outcrop was located again in Windy Creek valley 
just downstream from the confluence with W5. Here the width was about one 
hundred feet and the nature of the rocks about the same as those further north. 
No outcrop of the pendant was found on the south-western side of Windy Creek 
nor in the high country beyond. The abrupt cessation of this rock mass in the 
creek bed confirms the faulting which has been suggested along these streams. 
The writer believes this southernmost outcrop is continuous with those already 
noted. It would appear then that this pendant is at least four miles long. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 


The writer wishes to thank Drs. W. R. Browne and G. D. Osborne for advice 
and constructive criticism of this contribution ; the Kosciusko State Park Trust 
for access to the 1946 Report; Mr. T. Vallance for assistance ; Miss P. Grieves 
for the tracing of the map, and the officers of the Snowy Mountains Hydro- 
Electric Authority for much assistance and hospitality. Finally, the writer’s 
thanks go to Mr. 8S. G. Alley and other field companions without whom the 
journeys could not have been undertaken. 


SUMMARY. 


Observations and evidence of Pleistocene glaciation (in an area between the 
two previously described) are recorded. Numerous terminal moraines and 
cirques are recorded. A sketch-map is provided to indicate the locations of the 
evidence. Brief mention is made of a remarkable roof pendant of metasediments 
in gneissic granite. 


REFERENCES. 


Browne, W. R., Dulhunty, J. A., and Maze, W. H., 1944. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 69, 238. 

Browne, W. R., Maze, W. H., and Osborne, G. D., 1946. Report to Kosciusko State Park Trust 
(unpublished). 

David, T. W. E., 1908. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 33, 657. 

David, T. W. E., Helms, R., and Pittman, E. F., 1901. Jbid., 26, 26. 


GRAPTOLITE ZONES AND ASSOCIATED STRATIGRAPHY AT 
FOUR MILE CREEK, SOUTH-WEST OF ORANGE, N.S.W. 


By N. C. STEVENS 
and G. H. PACKHAM. 


With two Text-figures. 


Manuscript received, October 30, 1952. Read, December 3, 1952. 


INTRODUCTION. 


In the small area described in this paper, Ordovician, Silurian, Upper 
Devonian and Tertiary rocks outcrop, The age of the Lower Paleozoic rocks 
has been determined by the graptolites they contain, which show that strata of 
Upper Ordovician, and Lower, Middle and probably Upper Silurian age are 
present. Lower Silurian fossils have been recorded from only two other places 
in New South Wales (Naylor, 1935; Fletcher, 1950), and at no place have 
definite Lower, Middle and Upper Silurian strata been found in sequence. 

Four Mile Creek Post Office is 14 miles from Orange in a south-westerly 
direction and four miles west of the old iron and copper mines of Cadia, which 
were believed to be in Ordovician andesites and tuffs (Jaquet, 1901). 

Ordovician graptolites from a locality ‘“‘ four miles from Cadia’’ (Smith, 
1899) have probably been collected near Four Mile Creek, but apart from this 
reference there is no geological literature concerning the area. 


STRATIGRAPHY 
I. Ordovician. 

1. Malongulli Formation (2). Fossiliferous Ordovician rocks occur east of 
Four Mile Creek ; they are covered by Tertiary lavas to the north and their 
southern and eastern extensions have not been ascertained. 

For the most part they are calcareous siltstones ; dark grey and compact 
when fresh but light grey and slaty when weathered. They are usually laminated 
and show some variation in grain size. Some are impure limestones and resemble 
types occurring in the Malongulli Formation of the Cliefden Caves district to the 
south (Stevens, 1952); others have dominant intermediate plagioclase with 
calcite and chlorite, and appear to have been derived from andesitic rocks. 
Fragments of fine-grained andesites are recognizable in some of the coarser 
varieties. 

Good exposures of strongly folded Ordovician rocks occur between Digger’s 
Creek and the Orange-Angullong Road. Along this road north-east of the 
turnoff to the Post Office the strata dip gently to the north, but in the creek at 
their western margin they dip west at steep angles. 

Graptolites (mostly Glyptograptus teretiusculus) have been found at a number 
of places along the Orange-Angullong Road (g,, Text-fig. 1). Specimens from 
Digger’s Creek in the collection of the Geological and Mining Museum, Sydney, 
are probably those recorded by Smith (1899). According to Mrs. Sherrard 
(personal communication) these, and others in the collection of the Australian 
Museum, Sydney, from the same district, indicate the zone of Nemagraptus 
gracilis, the lowest zone of the Upper Ordovician. 


GRAPTOLITE ZONES AND ASSOCIATED STRATIGRAPHY. 95 


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Text-fig. 1.—Geological Map of the Four-Mile Creek Area, 
near Orange, N.S.W. 


96 STEVENS AND PACKHAM. 


2. Angullong Tuff (?). On the west of the Upper Ordovician graptolite- 
bearing strata is a belt of andesitic rocks about one mile in width. Andesitic 
lavas and tuffs make up the bulk of the formation, with no discernible order. 
Breccias and pebbly tuffs grade into conglomerates, and locally, fine and coarse 
tuffs are intermingled as a result of slumping, giving the impression that one has 
been invaded by the other. Conglomerates with pebbles of sediments similar 
to the underlying graptolite-bearing rocks are present near the base of the 
formation, suggesting a possible disconformity between the Upper Ordovician 
siltstones and these andesitic rocks. 


_ This formation, overlying the probable equivalent of the Malongulli Forma- 
tion, may well be correlated with the Angullong Tuff to the south. 


II. Silurian and Devonian. 


The Silurian and Devonian rocks of this area have been divided as follows 
in descending stratigraphical order : 


Approx. 

Thickness 
4. Black Rock Sandstone se ye ie 800 feet 
3. Bulls’ Camp Rhyolite ie Ree 2 uh 2 OOM 
2. Wallace Shale .. a a neh ae 300 ,, 
1. Panuara Formation .. é : .. 2,000 


de) 

The three lower formations have their fyi development on Bulls’ Camp 
Creek and the lower part of the Panuara Formation is best seen on Four Mile 
Creek, just upstream from the junction with Bulls’ Camp Creek. 


1. Panuara Formation. The lowest member of the Panuara Formation 
is a conglomerate with a red matrix and pebbles of weathered andesite. It 
rests on weathered andesite of the underlying formation and some time break 
between the two is indicated. 


Above it are fine grey to green felspar sandstones which consist essentially of 
material derived from the andesites, and which become more calcareous upwards, 
grading into limestone. 


This lower limestone bed (here called the Bridge Creek Limestone Member) 
has @ maximum thickness of about 50 feet and consists of rhythmically bedded 
limestone and marl, richly fossiliferous. The following forms have been identified 
(G. HEP): 


Halysites orthopteroides Eth. fil. Mycophyllum liluformis (Eth. fil.). 
HT. cratus Eth. fil. Cystiphyllum sp. 

Al. sp. aff. cratus Eth. fil. ? Lambeophyllum profundum (Conrad). 
Heliolites sp. Kloedenia aff. concinna (Jones and 
Desmidopora sp. Holl.). 


Leperditia sp. 
Shales and siltstones rest on the Bridge Creek Limestone, and less than 
50 feet above it the lowest Silurian graptolites Monograptus gregarius and 
Climacograptus sp. occur in black shales in Bridge Creek (g,). The zone is that 
of M. gregarius, equivalent to the top of the Lower Llandovery (Lower Silurian). 


About 70 feet above the Bridge Creek Limestone, a graptolite assemblage, 
which includes Monograptus exiguus, M. marri, M. (2) galaensis and Retiolites 
geinitzianus, is found in sandstones and interbedded shales 30 chains south of the 
junction of Bridge and Four Mile Creeks (g,). The zone is that of M. crispus, 
about the middle of the Upper Llandovery (Lower Silurian). 


Several hundred feet of shales follow, then 50 feet of green felspathic sand- 
stone, which may be tuffaceous. Directly on top of this bed is another graptolite 


GRAPTOLITE ZONES AND ASSOCIATED STRATIGRAPHY. 97 


horizon (g3), which contains Monograptus priodon, Cyrtograptus aff. imsectus 
and a Monograptus of the vomerinus group. These forms suggest a zone fairly 
low in the Wenlock (Middle Silurian). In the southern part of the area a 
lenticular outcrop of massive limestone containing a few corals (Halysites, 
Favosites) occurs about this horizon, and it is followed by shales, then fine- 
grained quartzose sandstone and interbedded shales. 


TABLE I. 
Summary of Stratigraphic Relations of Graptolite-bearing Strata. 


Lower Ludlow. 
Un-named 
—_— M. dubsus, M. cf. vulgaris. 
member 
(interbedded 
fine 
Wenlock. sandstone, 
e siltstone 
e) and 
S| shale) 
7, SI M. priodon, M. sp., Cyrtograptus aff. 
< —| & insectus. 
ea 
5 = 
EB < 
2) | M. exiguus, M. marri, M. (?) galensis, 
2 Retiolites geinitzianus. 
< 
A, 
Llandovery. 
M. gregarius, Climacograptus sp. 
Bridge Creek Halysites etc. (See list in text.) 
Limestone Member 
|__| - - ---------- Break in sedimentation 
Zz (boundary either near base of Silurian or 
< | Ashgillian. high in the Ordovician.) 
Ss) 
4 Andesitic rocks 
2 | Caradocian. (?=Angullong Tuff.) 
© 
2 Calcareous silt- 
& | Llandeilian. stone (?=Malongulli Glyptograptus teretiusculus. 
5 Formation.) 


To the north, the rocks overlying the g, horizon are shales and siltstones 
which show small-scale current bedding. Overlying strata are shales and 
sandstones, and a fourth graptolite horizon (g,) occurs in grey shales in Wallace 
Creek, a tributary of Four Mile Creek. The graptolites present are Monograptus 
dubius and WM. cf. vulgaris, which are either Upper Wenlock or Lower Ludlow 
types. The same zone is probably represented by very poorly preserved 
graptolites in an impure black limestone in Bulls’ Camp Creek. 

The Panuara Formation (which takes its name from Panuara Rivulet, an 
alternative name for Four Mile Creek) is thinly bedded, and all the strata dip 
to the west at angles which increase from 30° to 70° in this direction. 

The Bridge Creek Limestone is the first in eastern Australia for which a 
basal Silurian age has been proved. It may in part extend down into the top 
of the Ordovician. The fauna contains elements known elsewhere in the Silurian 


98 STEVENS AND PACKHAM. 


of New South Wales (except for Desmidopora sp. and ? Lambeophyllum pro- 
fondum), but none of the forms present in the Cliefden Caves Limestone (Stevens, 
1952). 


Age determinations of coral faunas in N.S.W. by graptolites are confined 
to high Wenlock and Lower Ludlow assemblages. At Yass (Brown and Sherrard, 
1952) and in the Nanima-Bedulluck area (Sherrard, 1952) graptolites of the 
abovementioned age have been found, but in both cases the Halysites-bearing 
fauna is stratigraphically beneath the graptolites. At Four Mile Creek Halysites 
occurs in rocks from Lower Llandovery to Lower Wenlock. Unfortunately, no 
limestone occurs higher in the sequence. 


. . . Amn ot ire 
SSS SSE SSS SSE tere ee ee ee eee 048, 
afl lenis . sete . . . ° ont ne a ta A ee =—O- 


Text-fig. 2.—Diagrammatic Columnar Section illustrating Silurian 
Stratigraphy at Four Mile Creek. 


A, conglomerate ; B, felspar sandstone ; L,, Bridge Creek Limestone ; 

C, shales and sandstones ; D, felspathic sandstone bed ; H, quartzose 

sandstone ; 91, 92, 93. Ja, graptolite zones ; L,, massive limestone lens. 
-H, Panuara Formation; F', Wallace Shale. 


2. Wallace Shale. This formation, which overlies brown shales of the 
Panuara Formation with apparent conformity, consists of green and red highly- 
jointed shales. The base of the formation is marked by the first thick bed of 
green Shale. The bedding is characteristically wider-spaced and less well-defined 
than in the Panuara Formation. A few minor sandstone beds a foot or so thick 
are present; no fossils have been found. 


In the southern part of the area dips are relatively gentle but to the north 
they steepen and some minor folds occur. 


3. Bulls’ Camp Rhyolite. The Bulls’ Camp Rhyolite, which overlies the 
Wallace Shale, consists mainly of rhyolites, which are interbedded with pebbly 
tuffs, especially near the top of the formation. The tuffs contain pebbles of 
rhyolite, intermediate to basic igneous rocks and rarely, limestones with poorly- 
preserved corals. 


Structural relations with the underlying rocks are not clear on Bulls’ Camp 
Creek, but both dip gently to the west in the southern part of the area. Angles 
of dip increase towards the north. 


4. Black Rock Sandstone. The rocks of this formation, which rest with 
probable unconformity on the rhyolites and tuffs noted above, are interbedded 
sandstones and quartzites, somewhat pebbly in places. The western boundary 
of this formation has been mapped previously (Stevens, 1950), and it has been 
shown that it underlies conglomerates and shales and forms the eastern limb of a 
syncline. Further north, Sussmilch (1906) found Camarotechia pleurodon and 


GRAPTOLITE ZONES AND ASSOCIATED STRATIGRAPHY. 99 


Cyrtospirifer disjunctus at the base of the sandstone, for which he deduced an 
Upper Devonian age. 


III. Tertiary. 


The Tertiary lavas of Mt. Canobolas occur chiefly in the higher country to 
the north, but remnants still exist south and south-west of Four Mile Creek Post 
Office at altitudes as low as 2,400 feet above sea level. The pre-lava land surface 
was irregular but sloped in a general south-westerly direction. 


The lavas are mainly alkaline trachytes except along the Orange Road 
N.E. of Four Mile Creek, where basalts cap the ridge. 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 


We wish to thank Mrs. K. Sherrard for her determination of the Ordovician 
graptolites and advice on the Silurian graptolites ; also officers of the Mines 
and Forestry Departments, N.S.W., for access to aerial photographs. 


REFERENCES. 


Brown, I. A., and Sherrard, K. M., 1952. Tuts Journat, 85 (1951), 127. 
Fletcher, H. O., 1950. Rec. Aust. Mus., 22, 220. 

Jaquet, J. B., 1901. Mem. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., No. 2. 

Naylor, G. F. K., 1935. Tuis Journat, 69, 75. 

Sherrard, K. M., 1952. TJbid., 85 (1951), 63. 

Smith, H. G., 1899. Exhibit. Jbid., 33, xli. 

Stevens, N. C., 1950. Jbid., 82 (1948), 319. 

—-——___—_———. 1952. Proc. Linn. Soc. N.S.W., 77, 114. 

Sussmileh, C. A., 1906. Tuis JourNaAL, 40, 130. 


MARTINIOPSIS WAAGEN FROM THE SALT RANGE, INDIA. 


By IpA A. BROWN, D.Sc. 
(Mrs. W. R. BROWNE.) 


With Plate IX and three Text-figures. 


Manuscript received, November 12, 1952. Read, December 3, 1952. 


Abstract: Description is given of the external and internal characters of the genotype of 
the Permian brachiopod Martiniopsis Waagen, 1883, based on complete and serially sectioned 
specimens from the Permian Productus Limestone, Salt Range, India. 


A new term, adminicula (sing. -wm), is introduced for supporting plates in the umbonal 
regions in the Spiriferide. 


INTRODUCTION. 


In 1883 Waagen described a collection of Permian fossils from the Salt 
Range, India, including a new genus of brachiopod, which he named Martiniopsis. 
He did not describe fully the internal characters, but suggested that some of the 
smooth spirifers occurring in the Permian of eastern Australia might be placed 
in his new genus. Etheridge, Junr. (1892) adopted Waagen’s suggestion, 
apparently without having examined any specimens from the Salt Range, and 
since then the name has been generally accepted for a number of species of 
Australian spirifers. 


In the course of my revision of the Permian spirifers of south-eastern 
Australia it therefore became necessary to investigate the characters of 
Martiniopsis Waagen. Waagen had only about 12 specimens from the Salt 
Range, which he placed in two species: the shells are still rare in more recent 
collections. By the kind permission of the Director of the Geological Survey 
of India I was able to examine six specimens of Martiniopsis in a collection being 
investigated in 1938 by the late Dr. F. R. Cowper Reed, Paleontologist to the 
Geological Survey of India, at Sedgwick Museum, Cambridge, England, and I 
am indebted to the Director and to Dr. Reed for permission to make serial 
sections of one of these specimens, which form the basis of the present paper. 


I have seen one specimen from Amb, Salt Range, in the British Museum 
(N.H.), B18596; one complete specimen and six fragments in the Schuchert 
Collection, Peabody Museum, Yale; and four recently acquired specimens in 
the Australian Museum, Sydney, all from the Productus Limestone of the Salt 
Range. : 

Since Waagen’s work was published some 15 additional species of 
Martiniopsis (other than Australian) have been named by Tschernyschew (1902), 
Grabau (1936), Diener (1911), Huang (1933), Fredericks (1929), Reed (1930) 
and others, chiefly from the Ural Mountains, Shan States, Tibet and China. 
They are all small, smooth spirifers, externally similar to those from the Salt 
Range. 

I am indebted to Dr. G. Marshall Kay of Columbia University, New York, 
for the gift of two specimens of M. uralica Tscher. collected by him in 1938 from 
the Pseudoschwagerina princeps zone of the Sakmarian at Tratauchikan, 
Bashkiria, Urals, U.S.S.R. (Plate IX, figs. 4a-4c). 


MARTINIOPSIS WAAGEN FROM THE SALT RANGE, INDIA. 101 


The specimen (K31.326) described below was identified in 1938 by Dr. 
F. R. C. Reed as ‘‘ Martiniopsis subpentagonalis Waagen, Horizon: Lower 
Productus Limestone (Wynne’s Bed No. II), Locality: Right bank of Baral 
Nala, S.W. of Amb, Salt Range. (Sheet 38P/15).” In his monumental work 
on the fossils of the Salt Range (1944) Reed gives no description of Martiniopsis, 
but quotes identifications of certain specimens as Martiniopsis spp. in the fossil- 
lists in the second part of the memoir, and a specimen bearing the same number 
as that he gave to me (K31.326) he identifies (Reed, 1944, p. 403) as Squamularia 
(Neophricodothyris) baralensis Reed. This is certainly not the correct identitfica- 
tion of the specimen given to me, which is undoubtedly a Martiniopsis. Waagen. 
named two species of his genus, Martiniopsis inflata and M. subpentagonalis, 
based on a dozen specimens, without clearly defining the distinction between 


0 5 MD 15 bo 25 m/m 


. 
-° 8:3 


; (ly ‘haa 


Sana ey 
. ly ! \ 
= Muay r Nyy! Mul gy” . 


Roe te Se cfeursic ee ere 


Text-fig. 1.—Camera lucida drawings of serial sections of Martiniopsis inflata 

Waagen. The numbers in the upper left corner of each section refer to 

numbered cellulose peels in the Australian Museum, Sydney. The figures on 

the lower right of each section are distances in mm. from the top of the ventral 
valve. 


them. A study of the measurements and proportions of the specimens available 
suggests that only one, variable, species is involved. It is my opinion that the 
specimen, K31.326, agrees with that identified by Waagen as M. inflata, which 
was chosen by Hall and Clarke (1894) as the genotype. 


The specimen (K31.326) was photographed (Plate IX, figs. la-1d) and 
plaster casts were made before mounting it for serial sectioning. It was ground 
by hand on glass from the umbonal region to the anterior margin. The sections 
are parallel to one another, separated by distances that were carefully measured 
by spherometer, so that the position of any point can be fixed by three- 
dimensional co-ordinates. Consequently the appearance of any desired section 
may be plotted graphically. Cellulose peels were made at intervals of 0-3mm. 
(average), but closer at critical points ; in all 76 sections in a depth of 24:20 mm. 
These have been mounted and photographed. 


Although the surface of the dorsal valve and the anterior commissure of the 
specimen were somewhat weathered, the internal structures were perfectly 
preserved ; camera lucida drawings of selected sections are reproduced in 
Text-fig. 1. The structures revealed by the sections have been plotted in scale 
drawings of two aspects : Text-fig. 24, the median vertical view, and Text-fig. 28, 
the dorsal view (with the dorsal shell removed). 


102 IDA A. BROWN. 


The terminology used is in general that of Schuchert and Cooper (1932) 
and Cloud (1942) with the following exceptions : 


Denial plates, subvertical plates in the ventral valve which bear the hinge 
teeth on their outer dorsal ends. They occur along the inner margin of the 
delthyrium, increasing in depth from the tip of the umbo, and converging towards 
the floor of the valve, although as in the case of all Permian spirifers I have 
examined, they do not reach the floor of the valve. Equivalent to the ‘‘ receding 
dental plates ’’ of Schuchert and Cooper (1932, p. 7) and Miloradovitch (1937) ; 
to the ‘* carine delthyriales (delthyrial ridges) ’’ of Fredericks (1927) ; and to the 
‘‘ dental lamelle ”’ (pars) of Muir Wood (1934) and others. 


Adminicula, new term (sing. adminiculum), a pair of subvertical plates 
that may occur in the apical region of the ventral and sometimes also the dorsal 
valves, especially in very rostrate shells, extending from the inner tip of the umbo 
to the floor of the valve, and appearing to buttress the arch of the valve. The 
ventral adminicula do not reach the hinge-teeth or the margin of the delythrium, 


m/m 


0 


Text-fig. 2.—Scale drawings based on serial sections of Martiniopsis inflata 
to show internal structures. (A) Median vertical view. (B) Dorsal view, 
with the dorsal valve removed. 


v.a.—ventral adminiculum. d.a.—dorsal adminiculum. 
d.p.—dental plate. c.p.—crural plate. 
d.l. —descending lamella of spiralium. 


but converge slightly and unite with the ventral margins of the dental plates 
along a suture-line from the tip of the umbo to the antero-ventral ends of the 
dental plates. They are not co-planar with the dental plates, but are equivalent 
to the ‘‘ septa ”’ of the spondylium duplex of the pentamerids. 


In the spirifers the muscle-scars occur on the floor of the ventral valve 
between the adminicula, when these are present. The dental plates and the 
adminicula form a structure resembling the spondylium discretum of Schuchert 
and Cooper (1932, p. 10, Pl. 14, fig. 20). With the deposition of callus in the 
posterior portion of the delthyrial cavity, the site of muscular attachment moves 
anteriorly and the muscle track is overlain by callus or secondary shelly material 
producing a ‘* pseudospondylium ”’ (Schuchert and Cooper, 1932, p. 10). 


The ventral adminicula are the ‘‘ dental plates ’’ of many authors, including 
Miloradovitsch (1937), the ‘‘lamell# apicales (dental lamella)” (pars) of 
Fredericks (1927) and the ‘‘ apical plates ”’ of other authors. 


The existing confusion in the nomenclature appears to have been due to the 
former lack of recognition of two distinct pairs of plates in the apical region of 
the ventral valves of certain spiriferide. 


MARTINIOPSIS WAAGEN FROM THE SALT RANGE, INDIA. 103 


SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION. 
Genus Martiniopsis Waagen, 1883. 
(Plate IX, figs. 1-4.) 


Waagen, W., 1883.—Salt-Range Fossils. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, 
Paleontologia Indica, Ser. XIII, Vol. 1, Pt. 4, fase. 2, p. 524, Plate 41, 
Hos. ‘7, 8. 

Etheridge, R., Junr., 1892.—In Jack and Etheridge: Geology and 
Paleontology of Queensland and New Guinea, p. 236. Govt. Printer, 
Brisbane, Qld. 

Hall, J., and Clarke, J. M., 1894.—Genera of Paleozoic Brachiopoda. 
Pal. of New York, Vol. 8, Pt. 2, pp. 34, 40. 

Genotype (by subsequent designation, Hall and Clarke, 1894): Martiniopsis 
inflata Waagen, 1883. 


Diagnosis.—Small (usually less than 40 mm. in width) biconvex spiriferids, 
sub-globular. Width approximately equal to length, but greater than the 
thickness. Hinge-line short, ventral beak rostrate, tip of umbo incurved, almost 
touching that of the dorsal valve ; cardinal extremities rounded. Shell smooth, 
no fold or sulcus : anterior commissure rectimarginate or faintly sinuate. Small 
interareas on both valves, not visible from outside. Shell impunctate. 


Relatively large open delthyrium in the ventral valve, bounded internally 
by divergent dental plates bearing small insignificant teeth on their antero-dorsal 
edges. The dental plates unite ventrally with well-developed adminicula (see 
Introduction) to form a ‘‘ spondylium discretum’’. Muscle-scars not known. 
Shell generally is thin; some secondary thickening may occur in umbonal 
cavities, but not in the delthyrial cavity. 


Notothyrium in dorsal valve is open. There is no cardinal ‘‘ process ”’ ; 
a small striated cavity inside the beak received the diductors. Divergent 
hinge-plates bear small inner socket-ridges. Small convergent dorsal adminicula 
support the hinge-plates, which give rise to the crura, from which the descending 
lamelle proceed anteriorly. Near the anterior commissure the lamella swing 
laterally and coil towards the ventral valve to commence the spiralia, which are 
directed postero-laterally. There are about twenty turns in each spire. No 
jugum or other jugal structure is developed. Pallial markings unknown. 


Discussion.—Waagen, states (1883, p. 524): ‘‘ It was not possible for me to 
expose also the internal characters of the genus, partly on account of the hardness 
of the sandy limestone in which these fossils are preserved, and partly on account 
of the scarceness of the specimens.’’ However, he was of the opinion that the 
shell was punctate; I have been unable to find true puncte in the available 
specimens, and suggest that ‘‘ the perforations arranged in quincunx ”’, noticed 
by Waagen in the Indian specimens and by Etheridge in some Queensland 
Spirifers, are in fact fine surface ornamentation, not uncommon in certain 
Spirifers. 

Martiniopsis differs from all other spirifers except Squamularia and Phrico- 
dothyris by its complete lack of sulcus in the ventral valve and lack of fold in the 
dorsal valve, with corresponding rectimarginate anterior commissure. H. and G. 
Termier (1948, 1949) have shown that these characters among the brachiopods 
are closely related to and dependent on the system of respiration and circulation, 
and should therefore be of prime importance in the classification of the group. 


Squamularia Gemmellaro, 1899, is based on an early Permian species from 
Italy (Spirifer rotundata Gemm.). The genus has been discussed in detail by 
Dunbar and Condra (1932) ; it is distignuished from Martiniopsis by its thicker 
Shell, fine surface ornamentation and its complete lack of internal plates, ‘‘ dental 
or septal lamelle ’’. 


104 IDA A. BROWN. 


Phricodothyris George, 1932 (genotype: P. lucerna George, 1932) is distin- 
guished by its surface ornamentation of biramous, barbed spines and the usual 
absence of internal plates. 

Waagen and Etheridge apparently placed greater emphasis on the smooth 
surface ornamentation of the shell, and made comparisons with Martinia McCoy, 
1844. The genotype of Martinia has been regarded as ‘* Conchyliolithus Anomites 
(glaber) Martin, 1809 ”’ (see Plate IX, figs. 5a and 5b), but following the ruling 
of the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature that Martin’s 
species are invalid, Dr. H. Muir Wood (1951) has applied to the Commission for 
the designation of Spirifer glaber J. Sowerby, 1820, as the type-species of the 
genus Martinia McCoy, 1844. This form has a smooth surface ornamentation, 
but towards the anterior margin develops a marked fold and sulcus, producing a 
strongly sinuate anterior commissure. Internally it has no dental lamelle 
or septa (adminicula). 


Reticularia McCoy, 1844, may be regarded as a homceomorph of Martinia 
in which the internal plates (dental plates and adminicula) are well developed. 
Thus both of these genera are quite distinct from Martinopsis. 

With regard to the designation of the genotype of Martiniopsis, Schuchert 
and Le Vene (1929) quote Hall and Clarke (1894) as having selected the type. 
It may be pointed out, however, that previously Etheridge (1892, p. 238) had 
Stated, after discussing the genus Martiniopsis, ‘‘ Types. Martiniopsis inflata 
Waagen (Indian) ; 


Martiniopsis inflata Waagen, 1883. 
(Plate IX, Figs. la-3c, Text-figs. 1-3.) 
Martiniopsis inflata Waagen, 1883. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Pal. Indica, 
Ser. XIII, Vol. 1, Pt. 4, fase. 2, p. 524, Pl. 41, figs. 7, 8. 
Martiniopsis subpentagonalis Waagen, 1883. Ibid., p. 527, Pl. 42, figs. 9-10. 
Holotype.—Specimen figured by Waagen, 1883, Pl. XLI, figs. 8a-8d, from 
the Upper Productus Limestone, Chidru, Salt Range, India. 


TABLE l. 


Measurements of Specimens of Martiniopsis inflata from Salt Range, India. 
All lengths are in millimetres. 


Specimen Number. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 
Length of ventral 

valve Me 22 25 29 29 30 32 33 38 43 47 
Width of valves... 23 25 30 33 35 32 36 36 47 47 
Length of dorsal valve 18 21 25 24 25 27 28 30 39 41 
Thickness of shell 14 13 19 19 17 18 20 27 29 30 
Length of hinge-line 8 10 11 12 15 10 16 20 22 28 
Apical angle of ventral 

valve . | 108° | 105° | 105°.) 110° | 100° || ¢.82°, |, 103° |) 120? ae 
Apical angle of dorsal 

valve se fe (i LBO? | 125°) F268 1808 1 187 e T2820 S N20 i aes ie ae 
1. Aust. Mus. specimen F39605 ; (G.S. India, K29/242), Loc. Amb. 

2. Peabody Museum, Yale, specimen $2948; Loc. Amb, 21. 

3. Aust. Mus. specimen F39604; (G.S. India, K31/126); Loc. Buri Khel. 

4, Aust. Mus. specimen F44674; (G.S. India, K31/326), Loc. Amb. 

5. Waagen’s measured specimen (p. 528, col. IT), Loc. Amb. 

6. Waagen’s measured specimen (p. 528, col. I), Loc. Amb. 

7. Aust. Mus. specimen F39602; (G.S. India, K30/805), Loc. Trimu Wahan). 

8. British Mus. (N.H.) specimen 18596 ; Loc. Amb. 

9. Waagen’s measured specimen (p. 526, col. II); Loc. Chidru. 
10. Waagen’s measured specimen (p. 526, col. I); Loc. Chidru. 


Numbers 1, 9 and 10 are those previously identified as M. inflata and the others as M. sub- 
pentagonalis. 


MARTINIOPSIS WAAGEN FROM THE SALT RANGE, INDIA. 105 


Characters of the shell as for the genus. Waagen’s separation of the few 
specimens available to him into two species appears to be unnecessary now that 
additional specimens show regular gradation amounting only to variation of a 
single species, and I therefore place his second species, M. subpentagonalis, in 
Synonymy. 

The table above shows the principal dimensions of ten specimens (including 
the four measured by Waagen) from the Salt Range, India. They are arranged 


00 


m/m 


40 


30 


20 


10 


Specimen No.- 
2 345 67 


20 30 40 50 m/m 
Length of ventral valve in mm. 


Text-fig. 3.—Graphical representation of the variation in the measurements 
of specimens | to 10 of Martiniopsis inflata listed in accompanying table. 
The horizontal axis represents the length (in mm.) of the ventral valves, 
against which are plotted vertically 
aa. Width of valves (x). 
bb. Length of dorsal valve (@). 
cc. Thickness of shell (()). 
dd. Length of hinge-line (0). 


in order of increasing size (length of the ventral valve) and the measurements are 
shown graphically in Text-fig. 3. In view of the smallness of the specimens 
and the difficulty of making accurate measurements of weathered specimens 
there is remarkable approximation to a linear arrangement of corresponding 
points for specimens of varying size, which surely indicates identity of species. 


The umbonal angles are fairly constant, averaging 108 degrees (with one 
abnormality) for the ventral valve, and 128 degrees for the dorsal valve. This is 
probably a specific character. 

L 


106 IDA A. BROWN. 


In this species the width of the shell is typically greater than the length. 
The convexity of the valves is illustrated in Plate IX, figs. 1-3, and is seen to be 
less marked than in M. uralica Tschern. shown in Plate IX, fig. 4. The hinge-line 
is about half the width of the shell, and the interareas are small. There is no 
trace of fold or sulcus and the anterior commissure is rectimarginate in the young 
and mature shells, but there is a tendency for it to become slightly sinuous in the 
larger, older shells. No covering plates have been observed either on the 
delthyrium or the notothyrium. 


The internal characters have been studied by means of serial sections of 
specimen 7 in the accompanying table, as described earlier in this paper. Some 
of the sections are illustrated in Text-fig. 1, and the internal structures are 
indicated in Text-fig. 2. In the ventral valve well-developed dental plates 
extend from the margins of the open delthyrium ventrally to meet the large 
adminicula, which extend half-way down the valve. The junctions of the latter 
with the ventral valve are visible through the translucent shell and have been 
called previously the ‘‘ dental plates ”’. 


In the dorsal valve there is a short low euseptum, probably not of taxonomic 
significance, and small adminicula support the hinge-plates and crura. The 
descending lamelle curve smoothly towards the anterior, without any jugal 
processes and support the spiralia. These are directed postero-laterally and 
have 19 turns in the spire. The ribbon is 1-2 mm. in width and 0-04 mm. in 
thickness ; the length of the spire is about 13 mm. and its diameter about 9 mm. 


REFERENCES. 


Cloud, P. E., 1942. Geol. Soc. Amer., Spec. Pap. No. 38. 


Diener, C., 1911. Anthacolitic Fossils of the Shan States. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Pal. Indica, 
N.S. 3, No. 4, p. 7. 


Dunbar, C. O., and Condra, G. E., 1932. Brachiopoda of the Pennsylvanian System in Nebraska. 
Nebraska Geol. Surv., Ser. 2, Bull. 5, p. 311. 


Etheridge, R., Jnr., 1892. In Jack and Etheridge, Geology and Paleontology of Queensland and 
New Guinea. Govt. Printer, Qld. 


Fredericks, G., 1927. Der Apikalapparat der Brachiopoda Testicardines. Neues Jahrb. f. Min. 
Geol. und Pal., Abhandl. LVII, B.-B. Abt. B, 1. 


Gemmellaro, 1899. Fauna Calcari con Fusulina. Palermo, Fasc. 4, Pt. 1, pp. 325-326, Pl. 33, 
figs. 38-45. 


George, T. N., 1932. British Carboniferous Reticulate Spirifers. Q.J.G.S., 88, 546. 

Grabau, A., 1936. Early Permian Fossils of China. Mem. Geol. Surv. China, Pal. Simca. B, 
VIII (4), 242. 

Hall, J., and Clarke, J. M., 1894. Genera of Paleozoic Brachiopoda. Pal. of New York, 8, 


Pt. 2, 34, 40. 
Huang, T. K., 1933. Late Permian Brachiopoda of South-western China. Pal. Sinica. B, 
IX (2), 53. 


Martin, W., 1809. Petrificata Derbiensia. Wigan. Pl. 48, figs. 9, 10. 
McCoy, F., 1844. Carboniferous Limestone Fossils of Ireland. Dublin, p. 128. 


Miloradovitsch, B. V., 1937. Morphogenesis of the Ventral Valve in Spiriferide. Problems of 
Paleontology, 2, 3, 526. Moscow University Pub., U.S.S.R. 
Muir Wood, H. M., 1934. Structure of Some Mesozoic Brachiopoda. Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. 
Lond., Ser. B, 223. 
—_—_—_____———_—— 1951. Brachiopoda of Martin’s “ Petrificata Derbiensia’’. Ann. Mag. 
Nat. Hist., Ser. 12, 4, 109. 
Reed, F. R. C., 1930. Anthacolithic Faunas of the Southern Shan States. Rec. Geol. Surv. 
India, 67 (1), 83-134. 
—___—____—_—_—_ 1944. Brachiopoda and Mollusca from the Productus Limestones of the Salt 
Range. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Pal. Indica, N.S., XXIII, No. 2. 
Schuchert, C., and Cooper, G. A., 1932. Brachiopod Genera. Mem. Peabody Museum of Nat. 
Hist, 4, Pt. 1. New Haven, Conn. 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVI, 1955, Plate LX 


MARTINIOPSIS WAAGEN FROM THE SALT RANGE, INDIA. 107 


Schuchert, C., and Le Vene, C. M., 1929. Fossilium Catalogus, I. Animalia, Pars 42, 
Brachiopoda. W. Junk, Berlin. 
Termier, H., and G., 1948. La respiration et la circulation chez les Brachiopodes: leurs 
répercussions sur la coquille. Bull. Soc. d’Hist. Nat. de 
VAfrique du Nord, 39, 57. 
—__—______—_—_—_—————. 1949. Sur la classification des Brachiopodes. Ibid., 40, 51. 
Tschernyschew, 1902. Die Obercarbonischen Brachiopoden des Ural und des Timan. Mém. 
du Comité Geolog., 16 (2), 557. 
Waagen, W., 1883. Salt Range Fossils. Mem. Geol. Surv. India, Pal. Indica, Ser. XIII, 1, Pt. 4, 
Fase. 2, p. 524. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE IX. 
(All figures are natural size.) 


Figs. la-ld.— Martiniopsis inflata Waagen. Specimen from which serial sections were made, 
presented to the author by the Geol. Surv. India, 1938. Horizon: Lower Productus Limestone 
(Permian). Locality: Right bank of Baral Nala, S8.W. of Amb, Salt Range. India. (Sheet 
38P/15.) Geol. Surv. India (K31.326). Plaster cast of this is in Australian Museum (F44674). 

la, dorsal view ; 1b, side view; lc, posterior view with ventral valve above; Id, anterior 
view with ventral valve below. 


Figs. 2a—2c.—Martiniopsis inflata Waagen. ? Young specimen. Horizon: Lower Pro- 
ductus Limestone. Locality: Just N.W. of Amb, Salt Range, Punjab. Geol. Surv. India, 
Reg. No. (K29/242). Presented to Australian Museum (F39605). 


2a, dorsal view ; 2b, side view ; 2c, anterior view showing rectimarginate anterior commissure. 


Figs. 3a—3c.—Martiniopsis inflata Waagen. Horizon: Lower Productus beds. Locality : 
About 34 miles W.N.W. of Buri Khel, Salt Range, Punjab. Geol. Surv. Ind. Reg. No. (K31/126). 
Presented to Australian Museum (F39604). 


3a, dorsal view; 306, side view; 3c, anterior view. 


Figs. 4a—4c.—Martiniopsis uralica Tschernyschew. Coll. Dr. G. Marshall Kay. Horizon: 
Pseudoschwagerina princeps Zone, Sakmarian. Locality: Trataushikan, Bashkiria, Urals, 
U.S.S.R. Australian Museum (F45581). 

4a, ventral view ; 4b, side view; 4c, anterior view of ventral valve showing rectimarginate 
anterior commissure. 


Figs. 5a—5b.—Reproduction of illustration of ‘‘ Conchyliolithus Anomites (glaber) Martin, 
1809 ”’, in “‘ Petrificata Derbiensis ’’, Plate 48, figs. 9 and 10, usually regarded as the type of 
Martinia McCoy, 1844. (See also H. M. Muir Wood, Annals and Mag. Nat. Hist., Ser. 12, Vol. iv, 
p. 109, Feb., 1951.) : 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO A STUDY OF THE MARULAN BATHOLITH. 
Part II. THE GRANODIORITE—QUARTZ PORPHYRITE HYBRIDS. 
By G. D. OSBORNE, D.Sc., Ph.D., F.G.S. 
Unwersity of Sydney, 


and JOHN F. LOVERING, B.Sc. 
Australian Museum, Sydney. 


With Plates X, XI and one Text-figure. 


Manuscript received, November 18, 1952. Read, December 8, 1952. 


INTRODUCTION. 


In Part I of this series of papers (Osborne 1949) it was explained that a 
number of specialized petrological investigations upon various components of 
the batholith (particularly regarding hybridism, igneous metasomatism and 
related phenomena) would be necessary before the magmatic and tectonic history 
of the complex could be elucidated and recorded. The present paper is the 
result of intermittent research by the first author over several years, and of 
recent study by the second, upon the hybrid-zone. 


General Geological Setting. 


The zone of hybrid-rocks (see Text-fig.) stretches from the township of 
Marulan in a general south-south-east direction to the neighbourhood of South 
Marulan, and outcrops over an area about four and a half miles long by one 
mile wide. 


The surface of the country in the Marulan-Glenrock district is part of the 
Southern Tableland of N.S.W., here of gently undulating character, approxi- 
mately 2,000-2,100 feet above sea-level, and topped by some residual ridges 
rising to a height of 2,300 feet. The latter are composed of Lower Paleozoic 
metasediments, mostly quartzites and cherty claystones. 


In the region under discussion there is a noticeable ridge surmounted by 
two low hills, on one of which stands Barber Trig. Station, 2,232 feet above 
sea-level. The hybrid-zone outcrops almost entirely around the periphery of 
this ridge, and the topographical details indicate the probability of the under- 
surface of the Barber Hills chert, slate and quartzite mass being approximately 
horizontal—an idea suggested long ago by W. G. Woolnough (1909). 


Contiguous to the hybrid-zone to the west is the Marulan quartz por- 
phyrite, outcropping in an elongated area running north and south. Further 
westward this is succeeded by the Marulan ‘ granite’? and the Longreach 
porphyry, which also trend in more or less meridional belts. The relationships 
of these members of the batholith are complex and not yet unravelled, but 
it is clear that the Marulan “‘ granite’ is not the product of direct magmatic 
crystallization. Contiguous to the hybrid-zone on the east is the Glenrock 
granodiorite, exposed on Glenrock Station and neighbouring pastoral properties. 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO A STUDY OF THE MARULAN BATHOLITH. 109 


FIELD OCCURRENCE OF THE HYBRIDS. 


With the data available from the abundant outcrops in the paddocks and the 
excellent exposures in portions of Marulan and Tangerang Creeks, it is possible 
to delineate three sub-zones of the hybrid-belt. These are respectively : 


(a) Sub-zone I, westernmost, passing into the quartz porphyrite, 
(b) Sub-zone II, occupying a median position, and 
(c) Sub-zone III, easternmost, passing very gradually into the grano- 


diorite. 
MAP SHOWING 
HYBRID ZONE 
BETWEEN MARULAN 
QS AND 
nye SOUTH MARULAN. 


is a Upper Ordovician. 
o 

Des iF 
ti Quartz porphyrite. 
co Be Granodiorite 


Field, petrographic and chemical data establish the hybrid character of all the 
rocks in the region intermediate between, the granodiorite and quartz porphyrite. 
As will be shown below, some rather unusual features are displayed by some of 
the hybrids, such as partial or selective recrystallization ; such conditions have 
tended to make difficult the determination of the sequence of intrusions: 
responsible for the mixed rocks, but it is our view that the quartz porphyrite 
was the earlier, and the granodiorite the later intrusion. 


The following criteria have been used to establish this relationship : 


(a) There is quite a number of xenoliths of fine-grained partially recrystal- 
lized porphyrite in the granodiorite in the north-western part of the 
zone. 


110 OSBORNE AND LOVERING. 


(b) Veins of tourmaline-bearing aplite, practically identical with syngenetic 
veins in the Glenrock granodiorite, have occasionally been seen cutting 
both the porphyrite and the westernmost Sub-zone I. 


(c) All the tourmalinization in the Lower Paleozoic metasediments of the 
region, especially near where the Southern Portland Cement Company’s 
railway crosses Marulan Creek, is due to the granodiorite, and none is 
associated genetically with the porphyrite, where the latter is seen to 
invade sediments. 


(d) Epidotization has been noted in some of the eastern marginal portions 
of the porphyrite and in some of the hybrids. The occurrence of epidote 
is a distinctive feature of the Glenrock granodiorite, being related to 
deuteric phenomena, but is not characteristic of the quartz porphyrite. 
It would be feasible to say that these facts support the view that the 
epidote was introduced from the granodiorite, which was thus later 
than the porphyrite. 


Hybrids of Sub-zone I. The rocks constituting this zone are dark and very 
fine-grained with few phenocrysts of quartz and pale-green plagioclase. Iron 
pyrites, in small amounts, is widely disseminated. The texture of the rocks 
varies and occasionally there are abrupt and patchy relationships between types 
of varying grainsize and phenocrystic abundance. Towards associated phases 
(either on the west or the east) there is a gradation. 


Hybrids of Sub-zoneII. This is the main sector of the hybrids, and embraces 
an area with abundant outcrops, where variety of texture and composition can 
be seen macroscopically. The rocks are all dark in colour, good examples being 
available for study near the Marulan Rectory, in the cuttings of the ©.P.0. 
Railway, and to the north and south of Tangerang Creek. 


It is clear that at South Marulan both normal hybridism and later silicifica- 
‘tion and veining with felspathic material have operated in the production of 
these rocks. 


The chief varieties to be observed throughout the Sub-zone comprise 
(a) almost lithoidal phases, which are seen under the microscope to be practically 
biotite-free, and (b) finely crystalline rocks, with ‘‘ schlieren-like’’ patches, 
containing much biotite in nests and clots. There are local patches of highly 
felspathic material (see petrography) and some ‘ drusy ”’ structure in the light- 
coloured veins. 


Hybrid Sub-zone III. These rocks are best studied near Marulan Railway 
Station and to the north-east thereof. They are also found fairly constantly 
as a belt about 400 yards wide adjacent to the granodiorite. They are phanero- 
crystalline, medium grained and fairly uniform in texture. 


These hybrids resemble the granodiorite when partially weathered. The 
freshest rocks are of a pinkish-grey colour and display macroscopically the 
following: plagioclase (slightly epidotized), hornblende, biotite both in flakes 
and small clots, orthoclase, quartz and occasional scattered pyrites. By increase 
in grainsize and decrease in the amount of biotite and quartz the rocks pass into 
the normal granodiorite. 


Gradations and Widths of the Hybrid Sub-zones. Fortunately there are 
sufficient exposures to establish the gradational relationships between all three 
hybrid groups, and respectively with the porphyrite and granodiorite, which 
were the compositional poles involved in the hybridization processes. From 
west to east the relations are such that one can confidently assume that Barber 
Trig. Ridge conceals hybrids mainly of the median zone and to some extent of 
sub-group III. 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO A STUDY OF THE MARULAN BATHOLITH. 111 


The maximum width of hybrid-rock development is about 2,000 yards, 
to be observed at the latitude of a point half a mile north of Marulan Creek. 
In general it may be stated that the average widths of the three zones (from 
which averages there are no great departures by extreme measurements) are: 
Sub-zone I, 150 yards ; Sub-zone II, 600 yards ; Sub-zone III, 550 yards. 


PETROGRAPHY. 


The Granodiorite (Plate X, fig. 2). This rock is the western phase of the 
Glenrock mass which has received some attention in earlier papers (Woolnough, 
1907 ; Osborne, 1931, 1949). The Glenrock type of granodiorite is of more than 
passing petrological interest and the authors are now preparing a paper (Part IV 
of the present series) in which the petrology of this unit in the batholith will be 
discussed. 


Along the easternmost margin of the hybrids it is difficult to collect grano- 
diorite which is free from some sign of infiltration of quartz, and of other processes 
related to the hybridism. However, by collecting from about 50 yards away 
from the last definite hybrid of sub-zone III, one obtains material typical of the 
granodioritic parent. 


The rock is speckled, slightly pinkish in colour and of medium, even grain. 
Minerals visible are plagioclase (generally palest green, occasionally white), 
amphibole, biotite, quartz and pyrites. Under the microscope it is seen that 
some orthoclase (occasionally shightly perthitic), augite and very rarely hypers- 
thene, sphene, apatite, zircon and iron oxide complete the list of primary mineral 
constituents. The secondary minerals are saussuritic masses, clinozoisite, 
epidote, prehnite, lawsonite (?), rarely scapolite, chlorite, leucoxene, hematite 
and limonite, and in some cases much kaolin. 


The fabric is frequently sub-monzonitic, achieved by the late crystallization 
of quartz, and sometimes orthoclase, about the idiomorphic plagioclase. 


The soda-lime felspar is zoned (An,,; to An,,), the most acid zone of this being 
Sheathed by very clear additions of oligoclase, with irregular periphery but 
Sharp interior boundaries against the main crystal. It would appear that the 
addition of oligoclase was distinctly much later than the progressive growth of the 
other zones. 


Alteration to an irresolvable saussuritic material, and also to chlorite, 
calcite, kaolin and to much epidote of deuteric origin is characteristic. The 
rare plates of scapolite occur in cracks through the plagioclase. The potash 
felspar is poorly cleaved and clouded by weathering. In places it is finely 
perthitic. Biotite (8=—1-639) is brown and possesses characteristic intra- 
cleavage masses of brightly birefringent material, which has caused slight 
bulging of the host-mica, due to volume increase. 


The nature of these intracleavage masses suggests that they are additions 
along the planes of easy access, and are related to deuteric reactions. The 
minerals occupying this role, and not to be confused with chloritic and muscovitic 
derivatives from biotite, are clinozoisite, prehnite and lawsonite (?). Another 
form of alteration is to confused masses of granular sphene plus leucoxene, 
indicating a not inconsiderable proportion of TiO, in the mica. 


The amphibole comprises light greyish-green hornblende with twinning, 
and extinction Z*c=15°. There is an approach to idiomorphism, and chloritic 
decomposition is typical. This mineral is seen sometimes to be developing from 
pyroxene in the manner of the Reaction Principle. The other amphibole is a 
very pale grey-green fibrous uralite, which may be the result of hydrothermal 
influence. ‘The pale variety is close to tremolite in some optical properties, such 
aS R.I.=1-616, and Z*c=18°, positive elongation. 


112 OSBORNE AND LOVERING. 


The pyroxene is the least constant of the constituents. There are frequent 
cores of the augitic variety with twinning and poor cleavage, surrounded by 
hornblende. Occasionally an idiomorphic crystal indicates the primary character 
of the augite, and its antecedence to the hornblende in the order of crystal- 
lization. The possible petrogenetic significance of the pyroxene in the Glenrock 
granodiorite will be dealt with in a later paper. Hypersthene, partly altered 
to bastitic material, is not common in the western margin of the granodiorite, 
and therefore will not be considered in the present study. An analysis of the 
typical western phase of the Glenrock Granodiorite (just slightly more basic 
than the rock from much of the pluton) is given below and will be considered 
in the chemical discussion. 


Quartz Porphyrite (Plate X, fig. 1)—From Marulan, both north and south, 
the distinctive Marulan quartz porphyrite may be seen. It is best exposed in 
Marulan Creek and in the neighbourhood of the old Limekilns west of South 
Marulan village. 

The age and magmatic affinities of this mass in the complicated evolution 
of the Marulan batholith are not yet known, but we can treat the present 
discussion objectively and consider the rock as one of the parent types in the 
hybridism. 

There is a fair variety of appearance in hand-specimen, but the average 
body-colour of the fresh rock is dark-greenish black to greenish grey, the ground- 
mass betraying some recrystallization, and showing phenocrysts of pale green 
plagioclase, pyroxene and quartz. Some of the rocks are relatively rich in 
pyrites and there are fine-grained, almost aphanitic varieties, especially at the 
eastern margin of the mass and against the Lower Paleozoic hornfelses, ¢.g., 
near Tangerang Creek. 


Microscopically we note phenocrysts of plagioclase (average diameter 
2mm.), An;, to Ans, measured from centre to penultimate zone. The outermost 
layer is pure albite and represents later sheathing. Alteration is to turbid 
masses in which chlorite and epidote can be determined. Quartz phenocrysts 
with maximum diameters of about 3 mm. show embayment of periphery. 
Orthoclase is sparingly present, but some K,O must be in the groundmass as 
indicated by the analysis. The femic minerals are unsatisfactory to deal with. 
Pale green hornblende with X=—greenish grey, Y=leek green, and Z=—green, 
Y>Z>X, and Z*c=20° may occur in aggregates of ill-defined units with a good 
deal of blotching and development of chlorite. The patchy and inhomogeneous 
character of the hornblende suggest that it may have suffered some thermal 
change, but it is not clear whether or not the aggregates have become stable in 
the magma of the porphyrite groundmass. In places, brownish biotite in flakes 
and prismatic units appear to be intimately associated with and perhaps to 
have been derived partly from the hornblende. 


The groundmass has corroded the phenocrysts indicating a former liquid 
condition. It consists of cryptocrystalline material comprising silica and other 
irresolvable matter. It has in some rocks been partially recrystallized, and this 
will be discussed below. 


An analysis of the quartz-porphyrite is given in Table I. 


Hybrids of Sub-zone I (Plate X, fig. 3; Plate XI, fig. 3). Many of the 
rocks are very similar to the porphyrite except that there are fewer phenocrysts 
and the groundmass shows a greater amount of recrystallization, so that hitherto 
ceryptocrystalline material is now converted to a finely textured quartzose mass 
with hornfels structure. The rest of the rock is not so altered, but the pheno- 
erystic minerals show some signs of changes having been wrought by fluids 
derived from the granodiorite after its first main stage of crystallization had 
finished, and hydrothermal or possibly pneumatolytic conditions obtained. 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO A STUDY OF THE MARULAN BATHOLITH. 113 


The soda-lime felspar has been strongly altered with considerable epidotiza- 
tion. Hornblende and pyroxene have been chloritized and thin borders of 
chlorite have been deposited around the peripheries of quartz and rarely of 
orthoclase grains. Biotite is scarce and always comes from interaction between 
hornblende and liquid from the second intrusion. 


TABLE I. 
(1) (2) (3) (4) 
Si0, 73:54 63°95 63°86 57:66 
Al,O; 10-95 15:24 15-84 17-36 
Fe,O; 1-08 1-03 0:49 0:94 
FeO 4°39 4°87 5-31 6:54 
MgO 0-08 R53 2-42 4:07 
CaO 1-68 D°o2 5-53 7-28 
Na,O 2219s 2-40 1:96 1:56 
K,O 4-80 PAN ah 2°13 1-38 
H,O+ 0:21 Ied3 1-37 2224 
H,O — 0:08 0-12 0:33 0:20 
TiO, 0:60 0:52 0:66 0:55 
MnO tr. 0:09 0:04 0-04 
P,O; — | 0-09 0:08 0:14 
CO, — tr. abs. abs. 
100: 20 99-86 100-02 99-96 
Spal. J. aes — PRATT | Dikulcs 2-82 
Norms 
(1) (2) (3) (4) 
Quartz .. oF 33°60 23:04 25-74 17-28 
Orthoclase a 28-36 12-79 12:23 8-34 
Albite eis a 23°58 20°44 16:24 13-10 
Anorthite. . a 3:34 24°19 26°97 35°31 
Corundum i, —— —— 0:51 0:41 
Diopside ts 4-43 1-17 —- | ~- 
Hypersthene ade 3°93 14-68 14-22 20:36 
Magnetite S 1-62 1-39 0-70 1-39 
Ilmenite .. mes 22, 0:91 pe22 1-06 
Apatite .. a — 0:34 0:34 0:40 


(1) Quartz porphyrite, South Marulan. Anal. L. A. Cotton. 
(2) Hybrid, Sub-zone I, South Marulan. Anal. W. H. Herdsman. 


(3) Hybrid, Sub-zone II, near Tangerang Creek. Anal. W. H. 
Herdsman. 
(4) Granodiorite, South Marulan. Anal. W. H. Herdsman. 


In one specimen near the head of Marulan Creek a thin vein of amphibole 
(more or less uralitic) one half-millimetre in width was found cutting the por- 
phyrite. This had resulted from the segregation of hornblendic molecules during 
the hybridization, and later deposition of the same in cracks, which developed 
on shrinkage of the porphyrite, following the increase of volume on the first 
impact of the granodiorite magma. 


114 OSBORNE AND LOVERING. 


Hybrids of Sub-zone II (Plate X, fig. 4; Plate XI, fig.1). This is the most 
important of the series. Microscopically one sees that there is considerable 
variation in grainsize and in the proportions of the various minerals, but no great 
differences in general mineralogical constitution. Average grainsize varies from 
0-1 mm. to 0:35 mm. In the commonest types the minerals are present in 
approximately the following proportions: quartz 28%, plagioclase 30%, 
orthoclase 20%, hornblende 10%, biotite 10°, augite and accessories 2%. In 
certain types, poor in biotite, there is an increase in hornblende, but the other 
constituents remain in about the same proportions. 


Quartz forms a kind of groundmass through which most of the other con- 
stituents are set, giving a sub-monzonitic fabric. In other cases there are 
sectors of crude-graphic, or coarse-aplitic crystallization of orthoclase and quartz. 
The plagioclase crystals have many features in common with the phenocrysts 
of the porphyrite, but there are distinct additional layers of oligoclase attached 
to the altered, zoned units. 


Orthoclase is non-perthitic, and the quartz is invariably recrystallized, so 
that some large grains show a division into various sectors with sutured or 
crenulated boundaries. The biotite is often ragged and wisp-like. Its 
pleochroism is X=brass-coloured, Y—=vandyke-brown, Z=dark brown, with 
Dy Ne AOS). 

A study of the several phases of biotite-development in these rocks indicates 
that the evolution has been 

hornblende—reddish-brown biotite—brass-coloured biotite, 
with evidence of TiO, being more prominent in the lighter-coloured and less 
ferriferous varieties. 

The hornblende occurs in clots which have aggregate-structure (Plate XI, 
fig. 2). This is dependent upon sectors or groups of crystals being orientated in 
preferred directions. Some of the hornblende is uralitic and some is ferriferous. 
Varying double refraction and lack of uniformity in maximum extinction-angles 
indicate the lack of equilibrium at the time of final congealing. As hybridism 
has proceeded the passage of hornblende to biotite has increased, and in some 
places complete change to mica has been achieved by interaction between 
hornblende and the liquids available. Harker (1939) has recorded and figured 
clots of biotite-crystals and flakes possessing the same structure as those shown, 
in Plate XI, fig. 1. He ascribes them to action of porphyry liquid on granite 
xenolith at Dundalk, Ireland. There has been removal of iron in the production 
of light-coloured biotite. Intracleavage deposition of epidote and prehnite in 
the mica indicates that deuteric conditions had developed. 


Some of the biotite clots have been penetrated by salic liquid which has 
crystallized as quartz and albite. 


Thus the general heterogeneity, the occurrence of clots in various stages of 
evolution, and the failure of the pyroxene to pass to lower members of the 
reaction-series all suggest that the onset of cooling prevented this group of 
hybrids from reaching finality of development. 


Recrystallization. Partial recrystallization is common in rocks of Sub- 
zones I and II. As a result, the siliceous mesostasis of the less altered por- 
phyrites and the dominant quartzose ground of many of the hybrids show a 
hornfelsic texture. A less common and somewhat puzzling type of recrystal- 
lization is seen in the case of certain dark inclusions scattered through some of the 
Sub-zone ITI hybrids, both near Marulan East and a little to the north of South 
Marulan. These patches appear to be remnants of primary granodioritic 
crystallization. Their petrographic features indicate that when recrystallization 
of the quartzose portions of the porphyrites and hybrids was effected, local 
greater elevation of temperature led to the formation of hypersthene. Thus we 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO A STUDY OF THE MARULAN BATHOLITH. 115 


find the following constituents—plagioclase (a little more acid than in the 
granodiorite), orthoclase, augite and hypersthene, with a little biotite. The 
fabric is sub-ophitic to hornfelsic, in which irregular sutured borders mark the 
hypersthene, and the biotite has sieve-structure. 


The biotite has resulted from reaction between pyroxene and the liquid in 
which these xenoliths were immersed, with or without the intermediate formation 
of amphibole. Deuteric action has produced clinozoisite, chlorite and calcite 
from the felspars. 


Hybrids of Sub-zone III. The rocks in this subzone present greater homo- 
geneity over large areas than anywhere else in the main zone. Texturally they 
resemble the granodiorite and the main minerals of that type are present, but 
in addition there has been a distinct accession of quartz, which has ramified 
through earlier-formed minerals. This late quartz has been recrystallized only 
in small degree, and not so strongly as in the hybrids of zone IT, but the effects of 
its renewal and penetration have led to cracking of the pyrogenetic quartz, due 
to volume change under the thermal increase involved. 


There is a notable increase in the amount of biotite at the expense of 
amphibole, and in some places near Marulan Station deposition of considerable 
sodic plagioclase has occurred, mantling the pyrogenetic individuals of the 
soda-lime felspar. 


No pyroxene is seen in this zone and it is possible that any which existed 
has been made over into hornblende and/or biotite. 


CHEMICAL DISCUSSION. 


In Table I, page 113, are listed analyses of the porphyrite, of two hybrids 
(Sub-zones II and III), and of the normal granodiorite from the south-west 
portion of Glenrock Estate. Analysis No. 1 is an old one (recorded by Wool- 
nough, 1909) and represents one of the phases of the quartz-porphyrites met with 
both to the south-west of South Marulan and on the Limekilns Road about 
four miles from Marulan. This type always shows some recrystallization and 
effects of infiltration of silica and alkalic liquid. This rock becomes a source 
of abundant biotite when hybridized. 

As to chemical comparison of the rocks in the table, it is very difficult to 
adopt any satisfactory basis for quantitative discussion. Number 3 is an 
advanced hybrid, but it is not clear from the microscopic evidence whether it 
has received much or little from the invaded rock by chemical reaction. Then 
again, the quartzo-felspathic mesostasis may reflect some hydrothermal activity 
which succeeded the main hybridism. 

Concerning the relations of No. 2 and No. 3, it must be remembered that 
the rocks as we see them now are the products of early crystallization of pyro- 
genetic minerals, which later were affected mechanically by salic infiltration, and 
to only a small extent by chemical action. Altogether it is felt that a direct 
comparison of the analyses, even conducted with due attention to the relative 
densities of the rocks, would not be valid or trustworthy in the present study, 
because the hybridism was not carried to completion of equilibrium. Never- 
theless we can note certain chemical relationships shown by the analytical data 
and gain some help in this discussion by study of the norms. 

The true hybrid is distinctly more acid than the unaltered granodiorite, 
due to the presence of the acid mesostasis. It is somewhat higher in alkalis, 
particularly potash, this being reflected in the abundance of biotite. The 
proportions of CaO and MgO are related to the amount of mechanical incor- 
poration of material crystallized from the granodiorite magma. The larger 
plagioclase crystals and hornblende-biotite aggregates have come from this 
source. 


116 OSBORNE AND LOVERING. 


Examining the hybrids we note further the intermediate position of rocks 
with biotite-clots, because No. 1 has practically no MgO and low CaO, while 
No. 4 has considerable quantities of both, and the hybrid shows amounts for 
each lying between these extremes. The comparative values for the alkalis 
again indicate the intermediate position of the hybrids. It is to be stressed that 
the variations stated in this discussion would not be eliminated if one made 
allowances for possible inequality of the volumes of rocks, based on relative 
densities. In other words, the microscopic, field and chemical evidence all 
indicate that the hybridism was attended by concentration of MgO and CaO in 
the mixed rocks. 


An interesting feature displayed by the chemical data is the close approach 
to chemical equivalence of rocks No. 2 and No. 3. This bears out the idea 
that some of the quartz porphyrite, which has been taken in the field to be un- 
hybridized, is on petrological grounds suspect, on account of the origin of the 
phenocrysts. It appears possible that some of the eastern marginal porphyritic 
rock may be a hybrid more advanced than much of the reaction-zone, having 
reached a state of equilibrium. The quartz, orthoclase, biotite and large derived 
phenocrysts of plagioclase would then be regarded as having reached stability 
in the magma, the last-mentioned having become armoured by the deposition of 
thin external zones of albite. 


THE COURSE OF THE HYBRIDIZATION. 


After the consolidation of the quartz porphyrite (probably as a sill-like 
pluton amongst the Lower Paleozoic metasediments) the rocks occupying the 
present Marulan-Glenrock-Ballanya region were invaded by a mass of grano- 
diorite magma. There is no suggestion of granitization around this mass and 
the prevalence of xenoliths at the margins and about the roof of the intrusion, 
as well as the petrographic character and textural uniformity, support the view 
taken here that the Glenrock granodiorite was emplaced in a liquid condition, 
thus being the result of magmatism and not metasomatism. 


This intrusion was chilled quickly against the sedimentary roof and wall- 
rocks on the north, east and south-east, but against the western wall of quartz 
porphyrite hybrid reactions took place. Possibly this was due to the fact that 
the porphyrite was not wholly cool at the time of the invasion of granodiorite, 
and also because more strongly endothermic reactions would be involved between 
granodiorite magma and the metasediments than between porphyrite and 
granodiorite. Further, it seems probable that the present western sector of the 
district was underlain by an igneous complex, partly solid, partly liquid, and 
possessed of sufficient heat to bring about a regional rise of the isogeotherms. 
Thus the western invasion-margin of the granodiorite was kept at an elevated 
temperature, whereas on the eastern side of the pluton the fall of temperature 
was relatively rapid. 


Hybrids were developed by the interaction of magma and solid porphyrite. 
Three distinct zones developed, as described above. There is evidence of little 
more than a limited chemical change, but of considerable mechanical change. 


We may trace the hybrid-evolution as follows : 


(1) After limited thermal alteration of the quartz porphyrite by the grano- 
diorite magma, its primary crystallization-period set in, during which 
hybrid relations began to develop. The magma crystallized in pyro- 
genetic plagioclase, amphibole, biotite, orthoclase, quartz and limited 
pyroxene. Contemporaneously, material of porphyrite groundmass 
and smaller phenocrysts was mobilized and resulting salic liquid set 
free. 


CONTRIBUTIONS TO A STUDY OF THE MARULAN BATHOLITH. ALF 


(2) Before the orthomagmatic period had ended, some of the salic (potassic) 
liquid which was available near the porphyrite reacted as follows— 
(a) chemically with the phenocrysts of the quartz porphyrite, 
(b) chemically and mechanically with the partially crystallized 
network of the granodiorite. 
As a result of (a) reddish-brown ferriferous biotite developed from 
hornblende and chlorite from pyroxene. As a result of (b) various 
phases of hybrid-margins to the granodiorite developed. These were 
produced by the salic liquid disintegrating the pyrogenetic components, 
and setting into operation the reaction, series, 
pyroxene—amphibole—biotite. 

(3) The migration of soda (or albite-oligoclase molecules) from the grano- 
diorite led to deposition of fringes or sheaths of sodic felspar in the 
hybrids. Sphene dissociated and the CaO and SiO, remained, while 
the TiO, moved towards the hybrid to be fixed in biotite. 

(4) Potash from the groundmass and from some phenocrystic material 

in the porphyrite was fixed in (i) abundant biotite (light coloured) and 

in (ii) considerable orthoclase of the hybrids. The light biotite was 

stable in the magmatic environment. The following reaction sequence 

seems to be a characteristic feature of the hybridism, viz.— 
hornblende-+reddish biotite—titaniferous biotite. 

Continual partial fluidity in the hybrids (with concentration of apatite 

molecules) was effected by strong deuteric or hydrothermal activity in 

the granodioritic magma. When the orthomagmatic stages were 
completed, vigorous solutions wrought notable changes producing 
saussuritic masses, epidote, sericite, etc., through the granodiorite, 
the hybrids and the easternmost porphyrite. The effect of these 
solutions was to intensify the final aqueous activity which permitted 
the evolution of the micas from the hornblende and the latter (in small 
measure) from the pyroxene. 

(6) Finally, thermal changes caused recrystallization of various components 
in the batholith (see above). 

The cause of the later thermal change is a matter for further investigation. 

The authors think that the intrusion of the granite and porphyry to the west 

of the quartz-porphyrite was responsible for a general engulfing of the pre- 

existing components of the batholith and its hybrids. This problem will be 
taken up in a later contribution. 

It remains to be stated that no comparative studies of other hybrid 
occurrences are considered here, as we feel that such would be appropriate when 
more is known of the history of the batholith. 


s 


ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS. 


The senior author wishes to record his indebtedness to the Commonwealth 
Research Grants Committee for financial help in this work, and the junior 
author his thanks to the Trustees of the Australian Museum for permission to 
collaborate in the present paper. 


REFERENCES 


Harker, A., 1939. Metamorphism, Plate 45a, p. 114. Pub. 
Osborne, G. D., 1931. Contact Metamorphism and Related Phenomena in the Neighbourhood 
of Marulan. Geol. Mag., 68, 289. 
———_-—————_ 1949. Contributions to the Study of the Marulan Batholith. Part I. Tuis 
JOURNAL, 82, 116. 
Woolnough, W. G., 1909. The General Geology of Marulan and Tallong. Proc. Linn. Soc. 
N.S.W., 34, 782. 


118 OSBORNE AND LOVERING. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATES. 


PLATE X. 


Fig. 1.—Quartz porphyrite from one mile §.E. of Marulan. This is adjacent to Hybrid 
Sub-zone I and is typical of the least modified parent rock. Corroded quartz, orthoclase (near 
centre), plagioclase (in N.E. corner), and chloritized hornblende (dark patches). The groundmass 
is cryptocrystalline. Ordinary light. x17. 


Fig. 2.—Granodiorite from a little to the north of Marulan Creek at private railway crossing. 
Large altered plagioclase (in 8.W.), orthoclase, cleaved hornblende (towards bottom of picture), 
dark biotite with intra-cleavage clinozoisite, late crystallizing quartz. Ordinary light. x17}. 


Fig. 3.—Hybrid from Sub-zone I. Rock is partially changed by development of large 
hornblende phenocrysts. Plagioclase is to be seen to the S.W. and the fine groundmass has been 
partly recrystallized. Ordinary light. x 233. 


Fig. 4.—Advanced Hybrid from Sub-zone II. Acid mesostasis has been recrystallized. 
Biotite on right and saussuritized plagioclase on the left side of picture. Groundmass completely 
recrystallized to give hornfels texture. Ordinary light. x 28. 


PLATE XI, 


Fig. 1.—Hybrid from Sub-zone II at South Marulan. Shows large clot of biotite in a 
decussate aggregate surrounded by recrystallized groundmass. Rock has been thermally 
metamorphosed after hybrid-reaction. Ordinary light. x40. 


Fig. 2.—Partially hybridized rock. Shows development of large patch of hornblende, which 
is changing over to aggregate of small biotite units. Above hornblende to N.W. is sericitized 
felspar and to right and along base of photograph recrystallized quartz is to be seen. Ordinary 
light. x28. 


Fig. 3.—Hybrid from Sub-zone I. Large saussuritized plagioclase to the right, quartz in 
S.W. quadrant and biotite in N.E. corner, with strongly recrystallized groundmass. The dark 
spots in groundmass are chlorite and the light material is quartz. Ordinary light. X57. 


eal a 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVI, 1953, Plate X 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVI, 1953, Plate XI 


THE REPLACEMENT OF CRINOID STEMS AND GASTROPODS BY 
CASSITERITE AT EMMAVILLE, NEW SOUTH WALES. 


By L. J. LAWRENCE, 
Department of Geology, New South Wales University of Technology. 


With Plate XII. 


Manuscript received, November 18, 1952. Read, December 3, 1952, 


INTRODUCTION. 


The country rocks of the Emmaville District or Vegetable Creek tin field 
consist of Permian claystones, conglomerates and breccias. These are very 
sparingly fossiliferous. Late Permian intrusives, notably granites and quartz- 
felspar porphyries, have given rise to veins, irregular stockworks and impregna- 
tions of cassiterite-bearing quartz. In a few instances stanniferous veins and 
stockworks have been developed within the intruded sediments. 


Post-Permian erosion has given rise to vast alluvial tin deposits. These 
have been covered by Tertiary basalts present now as scattered residuals rising 
up to fifty feet above the otherwise peneplaned surface. Tin recovery thus 
comprises reef-mining, deep-lead mining (driving into stanniferous alluvium 
through or beneath the Tertiary lavas) and sluicing the existing streams. 


In the various streams and creeks at Emmaville there occur numerous types 
of alluvial cassiterite: ruby, resin, wood and toad’s eye, etc. The most 
interesting variety, however, is the one termed by the local miners ‘‘ screw- 
tin’’.* These have been identified as crinoid stems replaced by cassiterite. 
They have never been found in situ. Associated with the ‘‘ screw-tin”’ are 
occasional gastropods, also replaced by cassiterite. Hodge-Smith (1943) 
originally drew attention to these remarkable fossils. 


The mode of replacement is somewhat obscure. The fossils were 
undoubtedly contained in the Permian sediments originally as calcareous 
remains. The sediments were intruded and silicified. Judging by the complete- 
ness of this silicification one might assume that even the fossil content would have 
been silicified. However, the only fossils so far collected from this area were 
found in Recent alluvium and have been entirely replaced by tin dioxide. 


It is significant that the so-called wood-tin is also found in the same alluvium. 
The name is an apt one. The wood-tin is of a pale brown colour ; the fragments 
are inclined to be somewhat tabular in shape and up to an inch and a half in 
length and are notably dissimilar to any other type of cassiterite found in the 
New England. It is not improbable that wood-tin represents fragments of the 
sedimentary country rock which have been replaced by stanniferous solutions. 
It may be that these solutions, passing through the bedding and jointing in the 
sediments, reached a position where metasomatic replacement of both sediment 
and fossil content ensued. Subsequent mechanical disintegration might have 


* So called because of their striking resemblance to worm-screws. 


120 L. J. LAWRENCE. 


produced fragments of wood-tin and the stanniferous fossils. It should be 
pointed out, however, that metasomatic replacement of the sediments is not a 
general feature of the Emmaville mineralization, as far as can be ascertained. 

It is interesting to note that throughout this extensive alluvial tin-field 
fossils so replaced have been found only in two small non-perennial creeks : 
Steele’s Gully and Charcoal Gully, tributaries of Doctor’s Gully. They have 
never been found in the main waterway, the lucrative Vegetable Creek, nor in 
any of its more prominent tributaries. 

The stanniferous crinoid stems were, at one time, fairly plentiful. Many of 
them undoubtedly found their way into the smelters together with the associated 
alluvial tinstone. The gastropods were very rare; no more than a dozen or so 
of these are extant. Further finds are likely, however, since the leases at Doctor’s 
Gully are to be reopened in the near future. 


DESCRIPTION OF THE FOSSILS. 


(1) The Crinoid Stems. These are generally quite circular in cross-section ; 
some are oval. The diameter ranges from 1cm.to2mm. In length they rarely 
exceed 2:5 cm. The average length, irrespective of diameter, is about 1 cm. 


The colour of the specimens ranges from dark steel-grey to reddish-brown, 
the latter being due to a thin encrustation of iron oxide. All specimens show 
textural homogeneity under megascopic examination. 

In each specimen the constituent ossicles are quite apparent. The ratio of 
length of ossicle to diameter varies slightly from specimen to specimen. Partial 
telescoping of adjacent ossicles was noted in a few cases. There were on the 
average, ten ossicles per centimetre of length. 

In those specimens that have not suffered excessive attrition, the central 
ligament canal is readily discernible. It consists of a small indentation centrally 
placed within a larger circular depression. This latter depressed area is rimmed 
concentrically by a circular platform which occupies about half the diameter of 
each specimen. Radially disposed around this platform are the alternate ridges 
and furrows which serve as an interlocking device (Plate XII, figs. la-1d). 

Longitudinal thin sections show (Plate XII, fig. 2a) that the crinoid stems 
have been completely replaced by cassiterite. The entire stem appears as a 
homogeneous aggregate of fine-grained cassiterite. In ordinary light the 
aggregate is of a pale brownish colour, with occasional opaque patches of reddish- 
brown iron oxide. Running through the centre is a zone of coarser-grained 
cassiterite. This zone was originally the central ligament canal. In this region 
of greater pore space the cassiterite has assumed a coarser texture. This also 
applies to a number of zones set at right angles to the ligament canal. These are 
undoubtedly due to replacement of zones where adjacent ossicles have been 
parted slightly. Under crossed nicols the replacing grains, especially the larger 
ones, show pearly interference colours indicating extremely high birefringence. 

In transverse sections (Plate XII, fig. 2b) one sees, again, an aggregate of 
cassiterite grains all closely interlocking and showing patches of iron oxide. 
In Plate XII, fig. 2b the central ligament canal is not apparent ; this is due to 
the fact that the section has been cut through a zone of parting between ossicles. 
The effect of this can be seen by studying Plate XII, fig. 2a. 

The identity of the crinoids which yielded these stem fragments has never 
been established positively. J. E. Carne (1911) reports Mr. W. 8. Dun, former 
Paleontologist to the New South Wales Geological Survey, as suggesting that 
ealeareous crinoid stems from an adjacent region may belong to the genus 
Phialocrinus. No reasons were given for the above suggestion but it is possible 
that calices of this genus occur in the area referred to by Dun. 


REPLACEMENT OF CRINOID STEMS AND GASTROPODS BY CASSITERITE. WAL 


(2) Gastropods. These are also of a reddish-brown colour due to a coating 
of iron oxide derived, no doubt, from the decomposition of the Tertiary basalt 
which formerly covered the alluvium. 

It is probable that two different species (or sub-species) are represented. 
Of the specimens examined some had apical angles of from 65° to 75° (Plate XII, 
figs. 3a and 3c). These had a ratio of height to diameter of last whorl of 1.: 1. 
Others had an apical angle of from 38° to 42° and gave a height-diameter ratio of 
3:2 (Plate XII, fig. 3b). Ptycomphalina morrisiana McCoy (Permian) is known 
from a number of localities adjacent to the Emmaville District. The specimens 
here described would appear to belong to this genus (Hodge-Smith, 1943). 
Although most of the cassiterite replacements have suffered abrasion, one or two 
Specimens show what is probably a selenizone (Plate XII, fig. 3b). In all cases 
the whorls, of which there are four, increase rapidly in size. The mouth is large 
and is situated slightly away from the axis of coiling. A small umbilicus was 
observed in a couple of specimens. Because of the rarity of the gastropods no 
thin sections were made. 


The following table of specific gravities is of interest : 


Crinoid Stems. Gastropods. 
(a) 6°688 (a) 5:°785 
(b) 6-378 (b) 5-281 
(c) 6-504 (c) 5-511 
(d) 6-560 


Dana gives the specific gravity of cassiterite as ranging from 6:1 to 6-99 
(Palache et al., 1944). 

It is interesting to note that in all cases the values for the gastropods are 
lower than those for the crinoid stems. This is probably due to the presence of 
small quantities of clay or of iron oxide in the body cavities and umbilicus. 

Chemical analysis of a crinoid stem gave the result in Column I. 


Column I. Column II. 
SnO, Sis Hs oe Oac0 Calcium phosphate 80-04 
Al,O, es apt me Vela) Calcium carbonate 2-24 
Si0, ee aes .. 12-4 Calcium fluoride .. 0-50 
Fe,0O, ae bi oye 6-0 Ferrous disulphide 1-66 
MgO a ae ae 0-2 Ferric oxide x Oe 0-62 
CaO ae the .. trace Stannic oxide 2-60 
Silica ve ae a 0-22 
Total .. ~=, 99-8 Organic matter and loss. . 12-12 
Total ne .. 100-00 


It is clear that the analysed specimen had a cassiterite tenor distinctly lower 
than would be expected from the specimens whose specific gravity measurements 
are given above. These specimens of greater density and higher cassiterite 
content were not available for chemical analysis as they constitute type specimens 
in the collection of the Australian Museum, Sydney. 


J. H. Collins (1888) reported on the replacement of deer horns by cassiterite 
in the stanniferous alluvium of Cornwall and gave an analysis quoted in Column IT 
above. He stated that ‘‘ The oxides of tin and the iron pyrites have found their 
way to the interior of the bone and are visible throughout the structure, although 
somewhat more abundant near the periphery ”’. 


Since the deer horns could not be replaced by direct emanations from the 
Late Paleozoic tin-bearing intrusives of Cornwall, their replacement must be 
either the result of penetration by secondary stanniferous solutions or be due to 
mechanical infilling by finely-divided mineral 


122 L. J. LAWRENCE. 


The degree of replacement of the deer horns from Cornwall is very small 
compared with that of the Emmaville specimens. 

The author wishes to thank Messrs. R. Millett and K. Nash of the C.S.1.R.0O., 
Sydney, for the photographs accompanying this paper. 


. 


REFERENCES. 


Carne, J. E., 1911. Tin Mining Industry of N.S.W. Min. Res. Geol. Surv. N.S.W., 14. 
Collins, J. H., 1888. Cornish Tin Stones. Min. Mag., 30, 4. / 
Hodge-Smith, T., 1943. Rec. Aust. Mus., 21, 4. 

Palache, et al., 1944. ‘‘ Dana’s System of Mineralogy ”’, 1, 575. 


EXPLANATION OF PLATE XII. 


Figs. la—ld.—Crinoid stem fragments replaced by cassiterite. Loc., Emmaville, N.S.W. 
( x8.) 


Figs. 2a—2b.—Thin sections of stanniferous crinoid stems. 2a, longitudinal section 
2b, transverse section. Ordinary light. (x 10.) 


Figs. 3a—3b.—Gastropods replaced by cassiterite. Loc., Emmaville, N.S.W. (x4.) 


Journal Royal Society of N.S.W., Vol. LXXXVI, 1953, Plate XII 


3a 3b. 


Specimens la, 6, c and d are in the Australian Museum; specimens 3a, 6 and c are in the 
possession of Mr. L. Collins, Emmaville. 


INDEX 


A 
Page 
A Contribution to the Geology and 
Glaciology of the Snowy LEN 
New South Wales va 
A Geological Account of Heard Tsland. 14 


Alteration of Rule IX .. ; Ma vorauil 
Annual Dinner of the Society Sea Sari 
Annual Report of the Council vu 
Atherton Tableland, Climate and Maize 
Yields on the .. ; 22 
Authors, Guide to nee ats Biielar hig 
Awards of the Society .. ag A GN 
B 
Balance Sheet .. tae ae Sa Vina 
Bequest, Form of Sh EEN 
Birrell, Septimus. — Obituary Notice .. xiv 
Bolton, J. G.—Award of Edgeworth 
David Medal for 1951 i iat aval 
Bosworth, R. CC. L.—Presidential 
Address— 
I. The Society’s Activities 1 
II. Transport Processes in Applied 
Chemistry 2 3 
Brown, I. A.— 
Martiniopsis Waagen from the Salt 
Range, India : 22 OO 
Permian Spirifers from Tasmania .. 55 
Cc 
Cheel, Edwin.—Obituary Notice Sp hi 
Clarke Memorial Medal— 
For 1951 ae ee sos enV 
For 1952 : EAL 
Climate and Maize Yields on the 
Atherton Tableland .. 22 


Coastal Limestones of Western patel) 
Soil Horizons and Marine Bands in 
the oe .. 68 
Commemoration a Great Scientists Bian 
Contributions to the Study of the 
Marulan Batholith. Part II, The 
Granodiorite- le Porphyrite 
Hybrids . : : 108 
Genvermavione—: ubilee Ae Bento bt! 
Crinoid Stems and Gastropods, The 
Replacement of, by Cassiterite at 
Emmaville, New South Wales mai td bli) 


D 


David Medal, 1951, Awards of the 
Edgeworth i ae a av 

Davies, N. R., and Dwyer, F. P.— 
Induced Optical Activity of the Tris- 
1:10-Phenanthroline and Tris-2 : 2’- 
Dipyridyl Copper II Ion 3 . 64 


Page 
Distinguished Visitors .. ool WE 
Drane, N. T.—See Simonett, D. Ss and 
Drane, N. T. 
Dwyer, F. P.—See Davies, N. R., and 
Dwyer, F. P. 


E 


Edgeworth David Medal for 1951 Sv anwall 

Emmaville, New South Wales, The 
Replacement of Crinoid Stems and 
Gastropods by Cassiterite at LG 

Exhibits .. : ie aE, vli, Xlll 


F 
Fairbridge, R. W., and Teichert, C.— 


Soil Horizons and Marine Bands in 
the Coastal Limestones of Western 


Australia As oe Zils it IOS 
G 

Geology and Glaciology of the Snowy 

Mountains, A Contribution to the .. 88 
Geology, Report of the Section of ord A 
Government Grant to the Society sat VALUE 
Grantonia hobartensis Brown, 1953, gen. 

et spec. nov. aN 61 


Graptolite Zones and Associated Strati- 
graphy at Four-Mile Creek, South- 


west of Orange, N.S.W. 94 
Gregg, N. McAlister—Award of the 
James Cook Medal, 1951 oN : vi 
Guide to Authors ; ss fat AN 
H 
Heard Island, A Geological Account of.. 14 
Hoggan, H. a —Obituary Notice 2 a SGLV 
Honorary Member a V, Vill 
I 


India, Martiniopsis Waagen from the 
Salt Range We 100 
Induced Optical Activity of the Tris- 
1: 10-Phenanthroline and Tris-2 : 2’- 


Dipyridyl Copper II Ion ie .. 64 
J 
James Cook Medal for 1951 .. Vi 


Johnson, T. Harvey.—Obituary Nonicet XIV 
Judd, W. P.—Obituary Notice RY p- SAY 


XVill 
L 
Page 
Lambeth, A. J.—A Geological Account 
of Heard Island ; 14 


Lawrence, L. J.—The Replacement of 
Crinoid Stems and Gastropods by 


Cassiterite at Emmaville, N.S.W. .. 119 
Library, Report on Society’s Ma Ula b-¢ 
List of Members .. Vv 


Liversidge Lecture—Electron Diffraction 
in the Chemistry of the Solid State.. 38 


Livingstone, S. E.—Palladium Com- 
plexes. Part V. Reactions of Pal- 
ladium Compounds’ with 2: 2’ 
Dipyridyl 32 


Lovering, J. F.—See Osborne, Gg. D., 
and Lovering, J. F. 


M 


Maitland, A. Gibb—Obituary Notice .. xv 
Maize Yields on the Atherton Tableland, 


Climate and _.. 22 
Martiniopsis Waagen from the Salt 
Range, India .. 100 


Marulan Batholith. Part II. The 
Hybrids, Contributions to the eee. 


ofthe s,. ; : 108 
Members, List oe af: Be ay Vv 
N 
Notices... an a x 5a UAL 
O 
Obituary .. XV 

Occultations @heerved oh Sydney Ob- 
servatory during 1951 ; 20 
‘Officers for 1952-1953... il 


Orange, N.S.W., Graptolite Zones ea 
Associated Stratigraphy at Four-Mile 
Creek, South-West of 94 

Osborne, G. D., and eo vorne. a. ipl 
Contributions to the Study of the 
Marulan Batholith. Part II. The 
Granodiorite- eee oe ieee) 
Hybrids . a 108 


P 


Packham, G. H.—See Stevens, N. C., 
and Packham, G. H. 


Palladium Complexes. Part V. Re- 
actions of Palladium Compounds with 
2:2’ Dipyridyl 32 

Penfold, A. R.—Award of the Society’s S 

Medal, 1951 ; ulna 

Permian Spirifers from Tasmania AE TOD 

Popular Science Lectures Re Shh gibt 


Presidential Address ee at att ] 


INDEX. 


R 


Page 


Rees, A. L. G.—Liversidge Lecture— 
Electron Diffraction in the ee 
of the Solid State 

Report of the Council 

Ritchie, A. S.—A Contribution to the 
Geology and eS of the Snowy 
Mountains 

Robertson, W. EL .»» and ‘Sime, ice pit 
Occultations Observed at pel aes 
Observatory during 1951 

Rule IX, Alteration of 


S 


Salt Range, India, Martiniopsis Waagen 
from the : 

Science House Management Committee, 
Society’s Representatives. 

Simonett, D. S., and Drane, N. ps 
Climate and Maize Yields on the 
Atherton Tableland 

Sims, K. P.—See Robertson; W. H., 
and Sims, K. P. 

Snowy Mountains, A Contribution to the 
Geology and Glaciology of the 

Society’s Medal for 1951 aa 

Soil Horizons and Marine Bands in the 
Coastal Limestones of Western 
Australia : : 

Spirifers from Tasmania 

Stevens, N. C., and Packham, Jes 
Graptolite Zones and Associated 
Stratigraphy at Four-Mile Creek, 
South-West of Orange, New South 
Wales °c. ae ne aN Ke 

Stillwell, F. L.—Award of the Clarke 
Medal for 1951 sits 

Stratigraphy at Four-Mile Creek, South- 
West of Orange, N.S.W., aoe a 

Zones and Associated 4 

Subscription, Alteration of Rule IX 

Sydney Observatory during 1951, Oc- 
cultations Observed at 


T 


Tasmania, Permian Spirifers from : 

Teichert, C.—See Fairbridge, R. W., sen 
Teichert, C. 

The Replacement of Crinoid Stems and 
Gastropods by Cassiterite at EKmma- 
ville, New South Wales : wif 

Transport Processes in Applied 
Chemistry—Presidential Address 

Trigonotreta stokesii Koenig, 1825 


Ww 


Western Australia, Soil Horizons and 
Marine Bands in the Coastal Lime- 
stones of 

Wood, J. G. arvana of the Clarke 
Memorial Medal for 1952 


38 


vii 


88 


20 


. Vill 


. 100 


owl 


22 


Vili 


55 


68 


. vill 


ee 


- 
Si 


—s 


ts. Gh 4b 


Fer i, ha 
a ge 


; 92 


Beta 


Kes. 
re 


ates 


4 


and Seamer Str 


\SIAN. MEDIC 
Arundel 


AI 


‘WINN 


4744