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K
I
f,
I
I
THE JOTJENAL
THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.
THB
JOURNAL
ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY
GEEAT BEITAIN AND lEELAND.
3srs}'w s^Rxxjs.
t A.aMPCKJ«n'. I wsTn]
VOLUME THE TWE]?rTIBT^>
LONDON:
TRtfBNEE AND CO., 57 & 59, LUDGATE HILL.
MDCOCLXXXVni.
■TSPmM AV8T1H ANI> tOlVI,
PSUITBES, HBRTVO&lk.
S/.20
CONTENTS OF VOL. XX.
[nBW 8S&IM.]
A.BT. I. — ^The Cimeifonn Inscriptions of Yan. By the Bey.
Professor A. H. Satcs, M.A.9 M.R.A.S, 1
Abt. II. — Some Suggestions of Origin in Indian Ardhitectnre.
By William Simpson, M.II.A.S 49
AST. III.— The Chaij^tai Mni^als. By E. E. Olitbh,
M.I.C.E., M.R.A.S 72
Abt. IV. — Saclian's Albirdnf. By Major-General Sir E. J.
GfoLDSMiD, C.B., KC.SJ., M.B.A.S 129
CoBEBBPOirSZHOB.
1. The Bibliography of Africa, by Capt. T. O. de
Ghiiraudon ••.... 143
%s, Kotes on African Philology, by.Cfipt T. G. de
Quirandon 144
Z. The Migration of Buddhist Stories, by Serge
d'Oldenburg 147
4. Kalidisa is Ceylon, 622, by T; W. Rhys Barids. . 148
NOTBS OF THB QUABTKB.
1. Eeports of Meetings of the Boyal Asiatic Society,
Session 1887-8 160
2. Proceedings of Asiatic or Oriental Societies 163
9, Contents o»f Foreign Oriental /our^als • • 164
241643
vi CONTENTS.
PA0K
4. Contribntions to the Notes of the Quarter by the
Hon. Secretary 156
5. Excerpta Orientalia 157
Abt. V. — The D&gabas of Anuradhapura. By John Cappek 165
Abt. YI. — Andamanese ICusic, with Notes on Oriental Music
and Musical Instruments. By M. Y. Pobtman,
M.R.A.S 181
Abt. YII.— S S fit -p ^ Tsieh-Yao-Tchuen de Tchou-
hi (Extraits). Far C. ns Hablez, M.R. A.S 219
CoBBESPOmDENCE.
1. Architecture in India, by W. F. Sinclair, Bomb.C.S. 272
2. The Babylonian Orig^ of the Chinese Characters,
by Terrien de Lacouperie, M.R.A.S 313
3. The Origin of the Babylonian Characters from the
Fersian Gulf, by Terrien de Lacouperie, M.R.A.S. 316
Notes of the Quabteb.
1. Reports of Meetings of the Royal Asiatic Society,
Session 1887-8 277
2. Contents of Foreign Oriental Journals 289
3. Lectures on Oriental Subjects now being delivered
in Europe 290
4. Notes and News 301
5. Reviews 308
Abt. YIII. — ^Notes on the Early History of Northern India.
By J. F. Hewiit, late Commissioner of Chota
Nagpur 321
Abt. IX. — ^The Customs of the Ossetes, and the Light they
throw on the Evolution of Law. Compiled from
Frofessor Maxim Kovalefsky's Russian Work on
•' Contemporary Custom and Ancient Law," and
translated with Notes, by E. Delmab Moboaw,
M.RA.S 864
CONTENTS. vii
TABU
Abt. X. — ^The Languages spoken in the Zarafshan Valley
in Bassian Tnrkistan. Bj B. N. Cusr, LL.D.,
M.B.A.8 413
Art. XI.— Further Notes on Early Buddhist Symbolism.
By B. Sbwsll, Esq., Madras Civil Service,
M.B.A.8 419
Art. XII. — On the Metallic Cowries of Ancient China
(600 B.C.). By Prof. Terribn db LiLConPERiR,
Ph.&Litt.D 428
CoRRBflPOKDEZrCK.
Kali^lsa in Ceylon, by Cecil Bendall 440
NoTRS OP THE Quarter.
1. Beports of Meetings of the Boyal Asiatic Society. . 441
Anniversary Beport of the Council 443
2. Contents of Foreign Oriental Journals 449
3. Obituary Notices 450
4. Notes and News 453
5. Beview 459
6. Pali Text Society 460
7. Corrigenda 461
Art. XIII.— The Tantrakhyana, a Collection of Indian Folk-
lore, from a unique Sanskrit MS. discovered in
Nepal. By Cecil BEimAio:. 465
Art. XIY.— a Jataka-Tale from the Tibetan. By H.
Weitzel, Ph.D 503
Art. XY. — Moksha, or the Yeddntic Belease. By Dvijabas
Daita 513
CORRESPOITDEBCB.
1. The Cross and Solomon's Seal as Indian Emblems,
by W. F. Sinclair, Bomb.C.S 541
Viii CONTENTS.
2. By W. F. Sinclair, Bomb.C.S 642
3. Origin of Indian Architeotare, by William Simpson 645
4. By ProfesaorBeal . . • 647
Notes ot the Qitabtsk.
1. Notes on a Collection ot MSS. obtained by Dr.
Gimlette, of the Bengal Medical Service, at Kath-
mandu, and now deposited in the Cambridge
University Library, and in the British Musentn.
By Cecil Bendall, M.A., M.B.A.S 649
2. Notes and News' 666
3. Bible-translation 666
Ab8tba.cz of Ebceifts and Ezfbnditubs fob the Yeab 1887 667
Genebal Index to the Fibst and Second Se&ibs of the
JouBNAL OF the Rotal Asiatic Societt 1-218
List of Members , 1-22
Rules of the Royal Asiatic Society. , 1-8
JOIJRIfAL
THE ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.
Art. I, — The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Van. By the Eev.
Prof. A. H. Saycb, M.A., M.E.A.8.
Thb publication of my memoir on the Cuneiform Inscriptions
of Van in the pages of this Journal ( VoL XIV. pp. 377-732)
gave an impetus to the study of these interesting texts which
was not long in bearing fruit. M. Stanislas Guyard, who
had already contributed so much to their decipherment^ and
whose untimely death is still deplored by science, soon after-
wards published a detailed criticism of my work (in his
Melanges d*Assyriologie, Paris, 1883), and followed it by
papers in the Journal Asiatique (8th series, vol. i. pp. 261,
517; ToL ii. p. 306 ; vol. iii. p. 499). M. Stanislas Guyard
was succeeded by the eminent Semitic scholar of Vienna,
Prof. D. H. Muller, who had been independently studying
the Vannic inscriptions, and papers upon them from his pen
have appeared in the Oesterreiehisehe Monaissehrift fur den
Orient (Jan. 1885, and Aug. 1886), and in the 36th volume
of the Imperial Academy of Vienna (1886, ''Die Eeil-
Inschrift von Aschrut-Darga "). Prof. Patkanoff has, more-
over, been kind enough to send me copies of Vannic inscrip-
tions found in the Russian province of Georgia, which I
have published with translations and notes in the Mus^on,
vol. ii. pt. 1 (1883) ; voL ii. pt. 3 (1883) ; voL iii. pt. 2
(1884) ; vol. V. pt 3 (1884).
Apart, therefore, from the improved translations of words
and passages, due to the penetration of M. Stanislas Guyard
and Prof. D. H. Miiller, our stock of materials has been
VOL. XX. — [kvw bbxrs.] 1
2^; •. • ': : IHE- cto^eifoem inscriptions of van.
considerably increased since the publication of my memoir.
M. Guyard was fortunate enough to find in the Louyre
squeezes of the great inscription of Argistis on the rock of
Van, made some years ago by M. DeyroUe, as well as
squeezes of other inscriptions, and a copy of the text of
Meher Kapussi. The squeezes and copy include my inscrip-
tions v., VII., XIV., XIX., XX.. XXXVIII., XXXIX.,
XL., XLI., XLII., XLIX. The corrections of the text
furnished by them are of considerable importance. From
Prof. Patkanoff I have received copies of four new inscrip-
tions from Armavir, and of inscriptions found at Ordanlu,
Ihaulijan, and Salahaneh, as well as a photograph of the
inscription of Menuas engraved at Tsolakert (No. XXXIV.
of my Memoir). These fresh spoils not only add to our
knowledge of the Vannic vocabulary, but enable us to amend
our old readings. Lastly, Prof. Miiller has published one of
the four inscriptions from Armavir, mentioned above, from a
squeeze and photograph of Prof. Wiinsch, together with an
interesting text of Sarduris II. from Astwadzashen, and a
copy of the first seven lines of the inscription of Palu (No,
XXXIII.) from a squeeze of Prof. Wiinsch. It will be seen,
accordingly, that during the five years which have elapsed
since the publication of my Memoir, important advances have
been made in our knowledge of the Vannic texts.
I shall, first of all, pass in review those portions of my
Memoir in which, as I believe, my readings and translations
have been successfully corrected by Guyard and Miiller, or
in some instances by myself, noting the emendations the
texts themselves have received from the squeezes of M.
DeyroUe and the photograph of M. Patkanoff; and I will
then give the new inscriptions that have been brought to
light, with translations and a commentary. At the end a
vocabulary will be added, containing the new words from the
recently-found inscriptions, as well as the words the reading
or translation of which requires correction.
Certain corrections must be introduced into the list of
characters (pp. 419-422). The character >-^]<] is not a form
of ^y<y da, as I had supposed, but of »-^T<T It* This was
THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAN. 3
proved by Gayard, and explains the mode in which the name
of the city of Malatiyeh is written {Me-li'dha-a-ni). The
new form of K first appears in the inscriptions of Menuas,
after the death of his father Ispuinis. I believe^ howeyer,
that it was at times confounded with da^ though at present
we have no means of certifying the fact. The result of
Guyard's discovery is to change the reading of all the words
in which the syllable da occurs, except, of course, those in
which the syllable is represented by the proper character for
da. Consequently the '* local case ** of the noun will end
like the " perfective '* in /t.
The character um^ to which I have prefixed a query, must
be removed from the list. M. DeyroUe's squeezes show that
in the three cases where I have read um-nu-li the word is
really tanuli, the first character being ta.
The character bad should be be, since in the 7th line of the
inscription of Palu Prof. Wiinsch's squeeze gives it instead
of biy unless, indeed, the character had both values. As *<
was be, it is possible that ^ffj was ge rather than kid.
I have already stated in my Memoir (p. 681, note 1) that
the character kab should be read gar.
The ideograph which I have rendered by language' or
'tribe' has been shown by Quyard to represent the Assyrian
ideograph of pukhru ' totality,' which has the same form in
Assnr-natsir-pal's standard inscription (W.A.I, i. 20, 28).
M. DeyroUe's copy gives it in v. 24 in place of >-^]^.
The word for * camel ' should probably be didhuni^ since in
xl. 6 Dey rollers squeeze has ^^f^y which is more probably
intended for di than for ul.
»f- ' twice * must be struck out ; the squeezes prove that in
every case Ji^ ' in all * has to be read. We must also excise
yj'son.'
On the other hand, we must add to the list of ideographs
^y M^K ' a vine,' which an examination of Schulz's original
copy shows to exist in li. col. i. 3. As Guyard has pointed
out, the phonetic reading of the ideograph uduli{8) is furnished
by line 7.
We must further add ^f y>- {ardinis) ' day,' which I have
4 THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAN.
misread tume (1. 10, 12, 16), as well as the eight other addi-
tional ideographs giren at the end of this paper.
It may be added that the squeezes seem to make it clear
that the word signifying * to giro ' must be read tequ and not
faqu, and that consequently it is probable that Sandwith is
right in li. col. iii. 10, where he has khuteve *o( kings' instead
of khulave.
Some more examples can be added of cases in which the
line does not end with a word {e.g. No. Ixi.).
In the declension of the noun (p. 429) the suffix da must
be changed into /», as already noted. Guyard maintained
that the suffix was used in three senses: (1) as an expletive,
(2) in order to join a word to its suffix, and (3) in order to
form substantives, gerunds, and participles, when it denotes
'the thing oV something or some one. But the first two
senses roust be rejected, and in place of them my two senses
of 'locality' and 'perfection' should be substituted. In
XX. 3 (see p. 431) we must read tftf-/i pili armtmili at-khuA-K
sidiS'tud'li * after having restored this memorial-tablet which
had been destroyed.' Miiller has shown that pi-li — which I
believe him to be right in supposing to be the origin of the
Assyrian '/?f/ii-stone' — is the reading of the ideograph tCffy 'a
tablet,' so that armanilis must be the translation of the
ideograph ^f 'foundation,' which is substituted for it in
parallel passages. Consequently at in at-khud-li is a prefix
of some sort, like ap in ap-tini, and ini-li (which I read ini-da)
is not an adverb, but a case of ini ' this.' The suffix of the
pronoun could be omitted, e.g. we find alua ini pili armanili
tuii in XX. 10. The form nu'lili-di-ni (xxx. 24) still remains
unexplained.
The suffix tai has been shown by Ghiyard to signify ' be-
longing to.'
In the numerals >f- 'twice' should be struck out, and
Miiller has made it clear that atibi means 'myriads' and
never 'thousands,' that tarani (xlix. 13, as restored from
DeyroUe's squeeze) signifies ' second ' or ' for the second
time,' and that sistini (xlix. 22) is ' third ' or ' for the third
time.' Guyard had already observed that auiini must be
THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAN. 5
' first/ corresponding as it does to the numeral in f >^ ' one
year/ where >^ is the ideograph of year and not e^ word mu
* his/ as I had imagined.
The local case of the 3rd personal pronoun should he meiali
or melL As just remarked, a pronoun mu must he struck
out of the list So also should be a possessiye nieiem,
Guyard, by his brilliant discovery of the meaning of the
phrase in the ezecratory formula, aluB uiis tiu^lie tea zadubi
* whoever else pretends : I have done (this)/ revealed the
existence of the first personal pronoun ies * 1/ As the final a
is a suffix, the stem is te, which seems to be the same as the
stem of the demonstrative, i-ni. The relative, which I had
seen in tea, will therefore have to be removed from the list of
Tannic pronouns.
Ulia or uliea (instead of my old reading udaa) has been
shown by Guyard's discovery to signify * other,' * another.'
The stem would be t^, as in ui ' and ' or * with.'
Muller is probably right in holding that aukhe is not a
pronoun, as Guyard and myself have believed ; eha may be
'and' rather than 'this'; and ikukaa 'the same' must bo
added to the list of the pronouns. Iku-kaa is literally ' of
the same kind,' being formed from a stem iku by the help
of the suffix 'kaa.
For ada, alt or alie must be read. The word properly
means ' to add ' ; hence ' the sum,' ' moreover,' ' in part '
(ak'ki), and possibly ' along with.'
The adverb aada (for which read aali or aalie) must be
omitted. As Guyard has proved, it is the phonetic reading
of the ideograph >^ ' a year.'
To the form ap-iini (p. 442) we may add aUkhuali ' which
had been destroyed.' These prefixes remind us of the
prefixes of Georgian.
For -da or -doe the termination of the present tense -li and
'lie should be substituted. The forms literally mean ' is for '
the doing of a thing, aim tthliey for example, being ' whoever
is for taking away.' ^
^ The fonn is really tiie datiye of the gemnd in -At.
6 THE CUNEIFORM INSCEIPTIONS OF VAN.
Kharkhar-Ba-buiea (p. 444) is not an example of the present
participle, as it is simply the first person of the yerb followed
by the personal pronoun ieB,
We should probably add a precative in -me to the forms of
the verb, as in aakhu-me * may they occupy * (xxiv. 6).
A causative is formed by the addition of su 'to make * to
the verbal root, and the difference of meaning must be
noticed between ti ' to name,' and tiu ' to name falsely.'
The adverb sada (p. 446) should be omitted ; the word is
salt * a year.'
Corrections in the Eeading and Translation op the
Inscriptions.
I. 7. For an-ni'hu read annisam * here.'
II. 7, 8. * These ' for * there ' and annisam for annihu.
III. 2. Us-gi-ni is probably a compound of u% ' near,' like
us-ma-sis * gracious,' and ua-td-bi ' I approached,'
U8'tU'ni *he dedicated.' Bead gi-e-i si-da (not /t).
Sida is * restoration.'
Y. 2. The meaning of the words Muring each month' is
obviously * during the several months of the year,' the
sacrifices extending over the whole length of the
year.
3. Delete note 5 on this line. The ideograph means
* totality.'
4, 36. DeyroUe's copy gives ufyue for ippue. In any case
the epithet must apply to Ehaldis, and not, as I had
supposed, to Teisbas.
7, 40. A comparison with ardinis *the sun' or 'day,' shows
that ardis must mean * light' or ' enlightener ' ; hence
the compound sielardis will be 'the enlightener of
darkness,' and sieli will be 'darkness' and not ^dawn'
as I had imagined.
9. DeyroUe's copy reads uruli-li-ve. The translation of the
god's name should be ' who carries away all that
belongs to seed.' The god of death is meant.
THE CUNBIPORM INSCEIPTIONS OP VAN. 7
11. Deyrolle's copy verifies my conjecture that we should
read 'Zuzumarus.' It also reads Zi-kid (or geYqu-ni-e
instead of ZUhu-qu-ni-e,
12. Here it has % instead of ^^ and ri instead of ^yiff , like
Layard. But this cannot be correct. We must read
Khaldi-ni ini asie * to the Khaldises of this house/
14. ' The city of Ardinis ' was the city of the Sun-god.
15. DeyroUe gives Ar'tsu-ni-kid-i-ni-ni for Ar-tsu-hu-i-ni-ni.
We should evidently read Artsunivini-ni, as in xi. 1.
The reading Khaldini daai must be preserved, da being
expressed throughout this inscription by the character
which has that value. Dasie will be an adjective
agreeing with Khaldi-ni from a root da.
17. Suii-ni is shown by the inscription of Ashrut-Darga
to signify ' the niche ' or consecrated ground in which
the inscription was engraved. It is a derivative from
iuis * property.'
19. My reading Tau-i-ni-fia-hU'e is confirmed by DeyroUe.
Guyard has shown that atqanas signifies 'consecrated';
we must therefore translate ' to the gods of the holy
city.' Nirihi must be * bodies/ see 1. 20.
20. DeyroUe's copy has Ni'Si-m-bi-ru-ni for Ni'8i^(?)'du{?y
ru-ni. Perhaps we should read Nisiebiruni or Nisie^
duru-ni. Babaa, I believe, means 'distant'; hence
translate ' to the god of the distant land.'
22. DeyroUe has A-di-pa-a for A-di-i-a.
24. DeyroUe has the ideograph of ' totality,' ' nation/
instead of the ideograph of 'food.' But Layard's
copy is clearly the more correct.
25. Bead qabqari-li'tii. This is the only place in the in-
scription where the later form of li is found.
26. DeyroUe has khu-ru-na-i for khu-ru-la-i. Alukid ardini
is, I now think, ' at whatsoever time of the day,' and
since sells is ' darkness,' aili guli tisul-du'li-ni must be
rendered ' during the evening, the morning and the
noon.' Tisul'du'li-ni is a compound of dUy and the
root that we find in Teis-bas ' the Air-god,' and
the whole expression is regarded as a sort of com-
THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN.
pound, the suffix -m being attached only to its last
member.
27. UldU^ I believe, signifies *a conduit.* The word occurs
only at Meher-Eapussi and Artamit (xxiii.), besides
Ixiv. I, in both which places are the remains of an
ancient aqueduct. The determinative shows that it
was made of wood. Miiller may be right in seeing
in sukfie a derivative from su ' to make.'
28. Eead ^J za-a-ri, a derivative from za (as in za-duni).
The word means 'a door/ whence zainis 'a gate/
DeyroUe has ii instead of «-y, and Guyard conse-
quently seems right in reading gi-e-i w-^'-[«t A;a-]M-ri
in place of my text. Guyard suggests that gieis
means * brickwork.' I should prefer * wall/ and trans-
late ' Ispuinis and Menuas have constructed an arti-
ficial aqueduct for Ehaldis; they have constructed a
cistern (P) and an artificial door along with a wall
belonging to it.'
29. Deyrolle's copy reads mu-ru-ni for ie-ru^i. But
Layard's copy is preferable. Deyrolle has gu-du-hu-li
for sal-dU'hU'ii and ia-nu-ii in line 30, like Schulz and
Layard. A fresh examination of the squeeze of vii. 6
proves that here also the reading is ta^nu-li, Oudu-li
must be compared with gudi in vii. 3. The construc-
tion is, 'A house (not gods) of wood and stone having
been gud-uli, 3 sheep are sacrificed to Khaldis (and) 3
sheep to the gods of the nations ; the house of the
conduit having been tan-uiif 3 sheep are sacrificed to
Xhaldis and 3 sheep to the gods of the nations ; the
house of the conduit having been mes-uli, 3 sheep are
sacrificed to Khaldis and 3 sheep to the gods of the
nations.'
31. Instead of eftt-at-«-t-Aa-A-wi Deyrolle has t^< me-si-i
hu-ii-ni, where a derivative from the same root as
meaU'U is preceded by the ideograph of * wine.' Con-
sequently meicBi will have no connection with the
pronominal mesini, but will signify 'libations.' One
of the recently-discovered inscriptions of Armavir
THE CUNEIFORM INSCEIPTIONS OP VAN. 9
(No. lix.) giyes us the correct reading of the latter
part of the line, namely^ tne-tai el-mthus. The whole
phrase must mean, ' they have prescribed for the
season the other libations of wine (and) the libations
of mead (?).' It is hardly possible that me-tai can be
formed from the pronoun me, the sense being 'the
libations of wine for the other (gods) and the libations
that belong to him {i,e, Khaldis) for the season.'
YII. 3. The ideograph in this line is that which denotes
Hhe left hand.'
4. Guyard has pointed out that Kamna in xxx. 19 inter-
changes with the ideographs ^ y<« in xlii. 79> and
consequently must signify 'edifices.'
6. A re-examination of the squeeze proves the reading to
be ta-n'U'li (for um-nu-li). Perhaps the word means,
• purifying.*
X« 2, 5. Askhas can hardly be ' food.' It is a formation like
eidia or amas from aakha, which is probably a com-
pound of as * settle ' and kha ' take.' Askhu-me must
mean ' occupy ' in xxvi. 6. Moreover, ti is * to call,'
so that ask/fOS'tes will be declaring occupation' (a
participial form like eies).
4. Sui'ni'ni is probably a derivative from eu * to make.'
XII. 2, 3. Translate 'declaring occupation,' and read tanu-li-ni,
XIII. 2. Translate 'and their wall to restoration (he has
given).' Sida is genitive or dative of sidan ' restora-
tion/ connected with tidii-bi 'I restored' (xl. 72) and
sidu'li (vii. 5, 6), as well as with sidi-s.
XIY. KhU'iie is probably ' ruinous/ since aUkhda-li means
' which had been destroyed.'
XVI. 4. Zanani-ni is ' that which belongs to the gateway of
the gate.'
XYIL 3. ouH is ' the consecrated domain of a god.'
XIX. 6. By means of a squeeze Guyard has been enabled
to restore this line as follows : >^] Ehal^di-i ku-ru-^ni
"")Hh ]<« '^^ ku-ru-ni 'for Khaldis the giver (and)
for the gods the givers (for each among them are the
regulations of Menuas).' The restoration is important
10 THE CUNEIFORM INSCEIPTIONS OF VAN.
as it seems to show that the Vannic word for ' God '
terminated in -na,
12. AfikhU'li-ni will rather signify * who occupy.*
18. Guyard has shown that turi-ni-ni must mean 'as for
this person.*
XX. 3. As already noticed, Miiller has pointed out that
armant'li corresponds to the ideograph "i^f *a foun-
dation-stone.' We must read at-khua-li * which had
been destroyed.*
5. Aliui'Sini is * great * according to Ixv. 10. The root
alSu means * to increase * from al * increase * and iu
' to have/ and hence the derivative signifies at once
' multitudinous * and ' great.*
12. Rather to be rendered ' whoever sets it {inili) in the
dust.*
13. Translate 'Whoever else pretends : I have done (it).*
17. "Eie^A arkhi-urult-a-ni. Urulis is * Beed.'
XXI. 12 . Translate * whoever assigns it to another.*
XXIII. 1. The original copy of Schulz has J»- ii-la-a-i-e.
XXIV. 6 — 8. Ase means 'house/ not 'gods.' I can now
suggest a better translation of these lines : ' May
Saris the queen occupy the house daily and monthly
for Ehaldis.* The suffix -me will denote the precative,
the verb being literally ' take possession of * (aa-khu).
The inscription of Meher-Eapussi shows that the year
was reckoned by its months, which were probably lunar.
XXVIII. 9. If armuzi is connected with armani-li ' a foun-
dation-stone/ it would signify * utterly.'
XXX. 19. Kamnd means 'edifices/ not 'possessions*; see
xliii. 79.
26. Read ' the (king) of the city of Khaldi-ris.* He is
called Saski . . in xlv. 15.
28. Ebani-a-tsi-edini should be rendered ' the people of the
(two) countries.*
XXXI. 4. As arnuyali is replaced by asili in line 12, my
translation of the word by ' castles * is assured.
6, 7. The suffix -di here seems to have the meaning ' because
of.*
THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN. H
XXXII. 2. Perhaps fumkhani signifids * In the spring.'
'6, 4. Ikukdni should be rendered * the same/ and (8aH)e
supplied at the beginning of line 4, the sense being
'in the same year.' Guyard is right in rendering
kiddanuli ' gathering/ — ' after gathering (my) soldiers
together.'
5. Eead 'Surisilis.' With the name of Tarkhi-gamas
compare the Hittite names Tarkhu-Iara, Tarkhu-nazi,
Oamgam&^ and Gar-gamis (Carchemish).
6. Read &i^a-Aa^a6-A:At-m-/f-a-m. Gomp. the name of
Sady-attSs.
7. Asia in KAati-na-asta-ni probably stands for asda, like
Biainaste^ from as-du ' to make a settlement.' Compare
asdu, xxxix. 1, 25.
XXXIII. ^ 1, 6. Wiinsch's squeeze gives >-< for bi.
4. The squeeze seems to have a misformed tau rather than
gu.
15. The name of the king is probably Su-H'e-za'a-v-a-lif
corresponding to the Sulumal or Duluval of the As-
syrian inscriptions, which make him a king of
Malatiyeh in B.c. 738.
XXXIY. Thanks to a photograph which Prof. Patkanoff was
kind enough to send me, the text of the inscription
of Tsolagerd can now be corrected in many places,
though unfortunately the left side of the stone being
covered with moss is partly illegible. (See the Mus^on,
ii. 8, pp. 358-364.) I reproduce it in full.
1. "-^y Ehal-di-ni us-ta-bi ma-si-ni gis-su-ri-e
To the Khaldises I prayed, the powers mighty (or
multitudinous),
2. ka-ru-ni ] E-ri-du-a-khi V" -ni-e
who have given of the son of Eriduas the lands,
ka-(ru-ni)
who have given
^ A squeeze of the first seyen lines of this inscription has been taken bj Prof.
Wiinsch and published bj Prof. D. H. Miiller in his Memoir on **Die Keil-
inschrift von Aschrut-Darga*' in the 86th Tolume of the Monuments of the
ImperiAl Academy of Vienna (ISbS).
12 THE CUNEIFOKM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAN.
3. >-^yy Lu-(nu-)hu-ni-iii la^-qu-ni f Me-nu-a-ka-i
the city of Lununis as a present to the race of Menuas ;
4. («-y Khal)-di ku-(ru-)ni >^y Khal-di-ni gis-su-ri-i
to Khaldis the giver, to the Khaldises the mighty
6. ku-ra-ni *->-] Khal-di-ni-ni us-ma-si-ni
the givers, to the children of Khaldis the gracious
us-ta-bi
I prayed,
6. (f Me-nu-)a-ni f Is-pu-hu-i-ni-e-khi
belonging to Menuas the son of Ispuinis.
7. (hu-)lu-(u8-)ta-bi ^ Khal-di-ni ] Me-nu-a-s
I approached with gifts the Khaldises. Menuas
8. a-li-e (nu-na-)bi J E-ri-(du-)a-khi V -ni
says : I attacked of the son of Eriduas the land.
9. >-^yy Lu-(nu-)ni-ni >-^yy ^^ -si a-li-hu-i-e
The city of Lununis, the royal city, entirely,
10. a-i-seP ? al-khe qa-ab-qa-8u(P)-la-du(P)-ni
the country(P) . . the inhabitants, the neighbourhood,
11. a-ru-ni >->-y Khal-di-i-s ] Me-nu-hu-a
brought Khaldis to Menuas
12. y l8-pu-hu-(i-)ni-khi-ni-e kha-hu-bi
the son of Ispuinis. I conquered
13. »-^yy Lu-nu-hu-ni-(ni) ha-al-du-bi
the city of Lununis. I changed
14. >-^yy Lu-nu-hu-ni-ni me-e-si-ni pi-i
belonging to Lununis its name (into)
15. y Me-nu-(hu)-a-li-e-a-tsi-li-ni
the place of the people of Menuas.
16. a-lu-s tu-li-e a-lu-s pi-(tu-li-)e
Whoever carries away, whoever removes the name,
17. a-lu-s (pi-)i J^^^ i-ni-li du-(li-)e
Whoever the name of this stone destroys,
^ So in the photograph.
THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN. IJ
18. a-lu-8 u-li-8 ti-hu-li-i-e
whoever else pretends :
19. i-e-s >-^yy Lu-nu-hu-ni-ni kha-hu-bi
* I the city of Lununis have conquered,*
20. tu-ri.(ni-)ni {^]) Khal-di-s, ^\ ^fl-s ^] ^f-s
as for (that) person, may Ehaldis, Tei8bas(and) Ardinis,
21. >*-y y<«-e ma-(a-ni) ardini pi-i-ni
the gods> him publicly, the name
22. me-i ar-khi-(hu-)ru-li-a-ni me-i
of him, the family of him,
23. i-(na-)a-i-ni me-i na-a-ra-a
the city of him to fire
24. a-hu-i-e hu-lu-li-e
(and) water consign !
XXXV.A. Obv. 7. Guyard is certainly right in regarding
buras'tubi as a compound like amas-tubi, and in
rendering it by ' I appointed governor,'
Eev. 3. Read (tU'hu-)li'%-e.
XXXVII. 3-5. The analogy of the Assyrian inscriptions
seems to make it clear that khuti-a-di must mean * by
the command/ It will consequently be a compound
of khuti 'command,' as in khute-s 'commander' or
' prince,' and a ' to speak.' The construction is
probably the same as in xxxi. 6, being literally 'be-
cause of Ehaldis the lord, Teisbas and Ardinis, givers
of the command.' AlUa-ba-di is from al%{a) 'multi-
tude,' with the same suffix that we find in Teis-bcu,
Guyard has shown that veli-dubi must mean ' I
collected.' Consequently the whole sentence runs:
' By the command of Khaldis the lord, Teisbas and
Ardinis, in the assembly of the great (gods) of the
inhabitants, the same year I collected (my) baggage ^
(and) soldiers.'
^ HuUer woald render »i$ukhani hj * cliariotsi* but this word seems rather to
be represented by hakhau^ while in aescribing his preparations for a campaign
the km^ would more naturally refer to his baggage generally than to his chariots
in putiealar.
14 THE CUNETFORM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAN.
10. Babas cannot be the name of a country, as in that case
there would be half a dozen of the name. It obviously
corresponds to the Assyrian expression matu rtkqitti
* distant country.*
16. The interpretation of the formula Khaldi-a istinie
inani'li amiusini-H suiini salie zadubi must be corrected
on the lines indicated by Guyard and MuUer, though
I cannot agree with the precise explanation of the
phrase given by either. In xlix. 29 the phrase is
parallel to another in line 26, ali tukhi aistini ebana
suiini aalie zadubi ' the sum of the captives of three
countries for one year I made.' Hence I believe we
must translate ' for the people of Ehaldis this spoil of
the cities for one year I made.'
17. Read A-bi'li-i-a-ni-e-khi. Abiliyanis perhaps received
his name from dbilia * fire.'
22. Guyard erroneously supposes ^ JgfJ ^f to be a com-
pound ideograph representing the Assyrian word for
spoil. This, however, was sallat^ not sallut^ while in
the Yannic texts ^ is the determinative of women.
Moreover, the combination with hose *men' shows
that ' women ' are meant. Lutu enters into the com-
position of the proper name Lut-ipria,
24. We should probably read ' the same (year).'
XXXVIII. 5. DeyroUe's squeeze confirms Layard's reading,
Kha-a-te,
6. The reading is Khila-ruadaa or Khite-ruadas with da.
8-10. The phrase appears to signify * By the command of
Khaldis the lord, Teisbas and Ardinis, the gods of
Biainas, in the assembly of the great (gods) of the
inhabitants, may the gods prosper (me).' In khasi-
aimey the root al (as in al-iuis) means 'to increase,'
while khasi may be connected with kha-au ' cause to
take.' I may observe here that the verbs khu or khua
^ to destroy,* and kha or khau ' to take,' must not be
confounded together.
14. Retain a-da-ni,
17. Supply {haldubi mesi)ni pini 'on leaving the city of
THE CUNEIFORM INSCEIPTIONS OF VAN. 15
Pilas I changed its name/ Eead fne'li-a-i-ni. The
word occurs in Iv. 10, 12, where it is written meldini.
Perhaps it means ' the ford of the river/
18. Bender ' I deported the men and women of the lands
of Marmuas and Qa . . .'
21. Correct i^ ^^^ >^ '^^ &U/ Instead of 'its men'
read * men of the year/ the word for * men ' being
tarsuani which^ as Miiller has shown, interchanges
with the ideograph in xxxvii. 14. The word is derived
from the compound iar-su 'to make strong/ The
expression ' men of the year * denotes the men who
were slain or captured during ' the year's campaign.'
40. Before uatadi we must supply %ku{kAn% sak) ' the same
year.' The da of Uburdas is to be retained.
46. Read ' men of the year.'
57. Translate ' the citizens of Assyria.'
XXXIX. 1. Translate 'soldiers who occupied part of the
country I assembled ' {veli-dubt),
5. The squeeze seems to have ^ *-^Tl^ tab^zi or gi or ri,
which, however, cannot be correct. Retain the da
of Da-di-ka-i. Babani is ' distant.'
8. Read i{kukani sale) * the same year.'
11. The squeeze has khu followed by what is rather bi than
du.
12. The squeeze reads {Ba')rU'a»ta-%^di instead of . . hu-a-
tsi'Udi.
14. Read sa-a-lp-e * of the year.'
24, 25. Perhaps Guyard is right in translating " After
restoring (siduli) the palaces of the country of Surisilis
I settled (in them) the soldiers of Assyria who occu-
pied part of the land." In this case the name of
Ispuinis would signify 'the settler/ Surisilis was
a Hittite city according to xxxii. 5.
30. KidanU'bi ought to mean ' I gathered together.'
31. The squeeze reads za clearly. We should doubtless
supply Hii {dU'U')bi. Miiller connects ^i with
iuiis ' a chapel,' and would render the phrase
' I set in a (secret) place.' But this is unlikely. Sui
16 THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAIT.
is probably the second element in al-iuis * great ' or
* multitudinous/ where the first element is a/ ^ to
increase/ I believe it means 'possession/ so that
the compound iui-dubi will be ' I appropriated/
36. Instead of my restoration Sa-ti, the squeeze has *^^^
]f]f<, possibly Zi'kha.
48, 49. Translate *^ As a present to the race of Argistis
(and) the mighty children of Ehaldis. Argistis
says : after I had gathered together the war-material
(and) the horsemen/' Sur-kham is a synonyme of
sisu'khani, and like it is compounded with the verb
kha * to take/
54, 55. The construction seems to be ^ after approaching
Ehaldis, etc., (and) the country of the lyaians.'
58. Read E-ra-dha4%'e-hU'lL
60. Read {-(ku-ka-ni sale) ' the same year/
XL. 2. Read sale ; * the men of the year.'
6. The squeeze has ^^T^ , which may be intended for di,
rather than for uL
7. The squeeze has xxm.
13. Read suiini sdli 'one year.'
44. The squeeze has te-qu-hu-a-li.
54. The squeeze has Sa-ti-ra-ra-ga-ni.
57. The squeeze has A-la-dha-i-e. Babas is ' distant.'
72. Stdubt is 'I restored.' Compare liv. 1.
74. The squeeze has V Ma-na ^^^^ Jj ii^ra^a-ni, where
the second word (which occurs again in line 80) seems
a compound of iiras * a corn-pit,'
79. Render : ' belonging to the horsemen (and) belonging
to the whole army' {reli-iinie from velis * a gathering ').
XLI. 4. Read ait veli-dubi * the cavalry I collected.'
13, Here, as elsewhere in the inscription, the readings of
Layard are confirmed by the squeeze.
15. Mum(iiya-bi must signify * I laid tribute upon ' accord-
ing to xlv. 23.
18. I think that the meaning is 'the city of Bikhuras
which is dependent on the country of Bam,' aiuni-ni
being a compound of iu* to possess.'
THE OUNEIFOKM INSCRIPTIONS OF TAN. 17
19. Perhaps fnnnhmuri^'khi-ni is ' rebels/ The squeeze
has na-a-ni. I should translate: 'the rebels of the
city removing out the sunlight/
20. Bead khar-khar^sa-bi ies * I caused to dig up/ ies being
the first personal pronoun, and sa a modified form of
the causative 8u.
XLin. 2. Sui-dubi ' I appropriated/
3. The squeeze has Sa instead of ir,
4. Read abiii'dubi ' I gave to conflagration/
13. The squeeze has pa-rt. Translate 'who have given
portions out of the land of Gurqus, consisting of the
people of Dhuaras/
15. The squeeze has ts-me at the end of the line. Conse-
quently we must ready ' As the lot (isme) of Khaldis,
I selected a sixtieth of the spoil, both a portion of the
captives and of the plunder/
17. Probably pa^ri must be supplied at the beginning of
the line. The squeeze has J^ ' hostile' instead of >f-.
Retain da in the name of Dailatinis.
39. The squeeze reads Si'fne-ri-kha-dUri'nu
41. Kha-su'bi * I captured/ from kha ^ to take ' and su ' to
make/ Translate, 'I captured the war-magazines
and %irbiiani of the city of Ardinis iu the land of
Etius. The same year I gathered together the
baggage and the cavalry.'
78. Delete Hh -«•
79. The reading Sfl is correct.
XLIY. 8. Read tinlie ull turi * (whoever) pretends (it is the
work) of another person.'
XLV. 10. Read Qa-l%^i-{ni).
16. Correct * Ardarakis.' Saski ... is called * the Ehal-
dirian ' in xxx. 26.
17. 18. Translate * I appointed as governor the king, the
son of Diaves.'
33. Read a-U'e-U ' the whole.'
15, 39. Perhaps. Miiller is right in omitting V" at the be-
ginning of the last line, and regarding vedia-dubt as a
compound. But his translation, ' I captured ' must
TOL. ZX.— iNSW siBns.] 2
18 THE CUNEIFOBM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN.
be wroiif(. The phrase would rather mean * I received
as a subject/ Guyard is also wrong in supposing
that J»- tedia is a synonyme of J»- lutu. If my old view
in regard to it is incorrect, the word can only mean
* female slayes.' Translate, * I appointed (him) . . .
goverDor of the land of Igas/
XLYI. 16. Perhaps we should read peli-dubi *I collected^'
Ulis * the other ' follows.
XLVIII. So to be corrected for XLVII. p. 632.
16. Restore (^-if-i-)»«' inscription.'
26. Read : Khaldi isme xx tukhi aruni ' as the lot of Ehaldis
20 prisoners he has brought.'
27. Guyard has shown that we must read atqanieSt
instead of dhanieU and render ^ priests.' The trans-
lation of the line will accordingly be : ' On carrying
away the 20 prisoners to be priests.' The class of
priests meant would be that of consecrated temple-
slaves.
31. After ikukani sak * the same year ' agubi is impossible.
We should expect some phrase like * I assembled the
baggage and horsemen.'
XLIX. 7. Translate : * the plunder of each I have taken for
a spoil.'
8. ^] f"- is the Assyrian yume ' a day ' used ideographically.
Consequently we must render: 'Twenty-three cities
in 60 days I captured.'
11. The squeeze has f-na-ni-Au-0 'belonging to the city.'
12. The squeeze reads as^hu'la-chbi^ which must, however,
be an error for M-galdM.
13. The squeeze gives ta-ra^ni. Translate: 'The same
year for the second time on approaching the land of
Etius, the people of Liqis.'
16. Retain da in Hu'e-ni'da^i-ni,
17. Translate: 'the king of the inhabitants of Buis I
appointed governor.'
19. Translate : ' belonging to the people of the country.'
22. Translate : ' The same year, for the third time.'
26. The squeeze reads za-du-bi. Translate : ' The sum of
THE CUNEIFORM INSCEIPTIONS OF VAN. 19
the captives of the three countries for the one year
I made/
27. Read sale for mu ; ' slaves of the year's (campaign)/
L. 2. Betain da in Khila-ruadas or Ehite*ruadas.
10, 11, 12. Translate: * After battling for four days with
the cavalry of the tribe of Dhumeskis, after approach-
ing the country during the same days.'
14. Translate * a distant land * instead of * land of
Babas.'
16. Read suiini ardinie < in one day.'
36. Miiller sees in aeri a derivative from se 4ife' and
renders the phrase * whoever exposes to a wild beast.'
The root du certainly means in the first instance ' to
place,' but it also means 'to destroy' or 'over-
throw' (see xxxvii. 6) like the slang use of Mo' in
English.
LI. I. 3. As Guyard perceived, we have here the ideo-
graph of * a vine,' written phonetically udulia in
line 7.
4, 5. Read a^li-i-ii * every ' and nanuU. The original
copy of Schulz has tu-ur-ta-a-ni, which is probably
a compound of tur (as in turis 'a person') and ta
'to come' (as in us'td^bi). It is possible that we
should render this difficult passage, '' For every king
of the same people who belongs here the plant (P)
of himself (and his) house has (Sar-duris) created."
6, 7. In spite of the terminations of khaidiani and terikhinie,
which look as if persons were referred to, I am
tempted to render these lines : " the fruit of the tree
planted by Sarduris he has called Sarduris's (fruit)
of the vine."
8. Schulz's original copy shows that the reading is a-(/tf-)«
kha^hu-ii-e " whoever takes away what has been given
for the support of the shoot."
9. Schulz's copy begins the line with J^^ ^TTT^ (P a . . Aw).
10. Schulz's copy shows that here again the reading is
fl-(Ai-)« kha-hu-H-e.
III. 3—5. Read: Khaldi hme xx tukhi aruni: nakhddi D.P.
THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OF TAN.
atqanieii xx lukhini tkukani sale ieru{ni), ** As the lot
of Ehaldis (Sarduris) has brought 20 prisoners ; after
carrying away the 20 prisoners to be priests, he has
planted (the vine) the same year/'
LII. y. A fifth inscription on a bronze fragment from Yan,
which has now been cleaned, must be added to those
given in my Memoir. It is on part of the frieze
ornamented with rosettes and kneeling bulls in
respoussS work and runs : —
. . . al-du-ni su-i-ni-ni-e i-qi-qi (or lu) . . .
It is possible that the first word may represent haUu-ni
* he has changed ' or ' a change/ Suini-nie can hardl j
mean anything else than ^ belonging to the construc-
tion/
LIII. 6. The engraver of the inscription has probably omitted
a second tUj so that we should read " the king, the
men and the women I carried away " [tu-bi). At all
events the verb kudhubi in the next line must mean
* I departed/
LIV. 6. Read gudthU-a meli ulini, where ulini is * other/
and gudthli-a is probably connected with gudi in
vii. 3.
6. Read ali^bt-di and nula-li. The latter word may be
* kingdom/
12. Read Nu-nU'-K-e *of Nunulis.'
IjV, 14. 8dli mdni would mean * that year/
LYI. I. 2. Mumuni-ni would be * tributaries.'
14. Read ^fyfc: 'fii-ni ' the support ' or * food/
III. 2. We must render * (whoever) removes the gate of
the land of Khaldis.'
3, 4. A re-examination of the cast shows me that da in
each case must be corrected into li,
10. Read hi-hu't'du-li-i-e * whoever appropriates this tablet.'
I will now give the supplementary inscriptions that have
been discovered since the publication of my Memoir, con-
tinuing the numeration adopted in it.
THB CUNEIFORM INSCEIPTIONS OP TAN. 21
Inscrifhons of Ispuinis and Menuas.
Lvni.
The following inscription was discoyered by Prof. Wiinech
in 1883 on the slope of the hill of Ashrut-Darga, eastward
of the Tillage of Pagan and the town of Salakhana, above
the valley of the Kaper-su. Prof. Wiinsch took photographs
and squeezes of the inscription, which is engraved on the
upper part of a niche cut out of the rock in the form of
a door. In front of the niche is a level space approached
by a flight of steps, between thirty and forty feet in length.
Below are the remains of a tunnel cut through the rock
leading to a spring which flows into the Eaper-su. The
height of the inscription is 2577 metres above the sea-level.
The photographs and squeezes of the inscription have been
studied by Prof. D. H. Miiller, who has published it in a
paper entitled Die Keil-imchrift von Aachrut-Darga, com-
municated to the 36th Tolume of the Monuments of the
Imperial Academy of Sciences at Vienna (1886). Prof.
Patkanoff had already sent me a copy of the inscription
(not, however, quite exact) which he had received from M.
Oaregin, the Armenian Yicar of Trebizond. The latter
describes it as having been found in the Kurdish district
of Hennari, nine hours distant from Yan, and as consisting
of ten lines, of which the Ave last are a repetition of the
first. I have published the text with translation and notes
in the Mus^on, v. 3 (June, 1886).
1. "-^f- Khal-di-i-e e-hu-ri-i-e | Is-pu-hu-i-ni-s
For Ehaldis the lord Ispuinis
y »-*-y RI-du-ri-e-khi-ni-8 f Me-nu-a-s
the son of Sari-duris (and) Menuas
y Is-pu-hu-i-ni-khi-ni-s
the son of Ispuinis
22 THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN.
2. >-^y Khal-di-e-i su-si ai-di-ia-tu-ni
of Khaldis the chapel have restored.
»-*-y Khal-di-ni-ni us-ma-si-ni
For the children of Ehaldis, the gracious,
y Is-pu-hu-i-ni-ni f »-*-y Rl-du-ri-e-khe
who belong to Ispuinis the son of Sari-duris,
the powerful king, the king great the king
V' Bi-i-a-i-na-hu-e a-lu-si *^J\ Dhu-us-pa-a
of BiainaSy inhabiting the city of Tosp,
te-ru-hu-ni ar-di-se
they have established offerings
4. qu-du-la-a-ni su-khi-na-a-tsi-e
(and) sacrifices (P) belonging to the place of the workmen;
]EDf •^T'^ ^ "^T Khal-di-e ni-ip-si-du-li-ni
a Iamb to Ehaldis the maker of .... ,
^f^ .--y Khal-di-e
an ox to Ehaldis
6. nr-pu-hu-li-ni ^y^ ^^ »-^y Hu-a-ru-ba-ni-e
of the shrine (P), a wild ox to Yarubas,
Jgy >-^y Ehal-di-na-hu-e
a sheep belonging to the land of Ehaldis
tSfl} ]g[J >->-y Ehal-di-na-hu-e
to the gate, a sheep belonging to the land of Ehaldis
be-li y<«
to the dead (P).
2. As Miiller points out, iuii must be the niche, or rather
the chapel to which the niche belongs. I. regard it as formed
from iuts 'possession' by the adjectival suffix Si like nuii
'royal' from nus 'a king/ and consequently as literally
signifying ' the property ' or rifievo^ of the god.
3. Since in LXY. 10 the ideograph ^]^ corresponds to
aiiuini in LI. iii. 9, it is evident that we must translate the
latter word by ' great ' and not by ' of multitudes ' as I have
done in my Memoir. AUuis is a compound signifying
THE CUNEIPOEM INSCRIPTIONS OF TAN. 23
' much-poesessing/ Harge/ 'multitudinous/ whence alSuinis
* he who is large ' or ' great/
4. Miiller sees in qudulani an adjectiye, which he suggests
may mean 'weekly.' Analogy, however, would lead us to
infer that it is a second substantive of unknown signification,
though as sheep and oxen are named subsequently, it ought
to mean 'cattle' or 'sacrifices.' Sukhi-naUie is divided by
Miiller into two words, in the latter of which he sees the
word nas 'a city.' Certainly nani occurs in xli. 19, ap-
parently in the sense of a city or country, but in cases like
JThaldi-na-ve ^na can only be a sufBx. The meaning,
however, will be the same, whether na be regarded as a suffix
or as an independent word. Miiller is, I think, right in
deriving 9ukhi from su ' to make.' It will mean ' an artificial
product,' like arkhi 'produce,' from ar 'to bear,' or tukhi
* captives,' from tu ' to carry away.'
6. 'To the gate of the land (or city) of Khaldis,' not 'to
Khaldis of the city-gate ' as Miiller would render. That the
latter rendering is wrong is shown by expressions like ^^
Ardini-nave *^ 'to the god of the city Ardinis' (v. 14), or
thatinlix. 11. The 'gate' is probably the pass close to
which the inscription was engraved. Yarubas was doubtless
the local deity of the spot.
LIX.
This inscription was discovered by Bishop Sembatiantz on
the hill of Armavir above the Araxes, engraved on a red stone,
the rows of characters being divided by horizontal lines.
A copy of it was sent to me by Prof. Patkanoff and published
by me in the Musedn^ v. 3 (June, 1886). The stone is
unfortunately only a fragment of the primitive tablet ; the
commencement and end of the text as well as of the lines
themselves have been destroyed. What remains, however,
shows that it is a companion text to that of Meher-Eapussi,
and therefore presumably of the age of Ispuinis and Menuas.
It must, however, be of rather later date than the inscription
of Meher-Eapussi, since the character /t has the form which
(except in one instance) first makes its appearance when
Menuas had become sole king.
24 THE CUNEIFOBM IN8CKIPTION8 OP YAK.
1. (P a-U-)bi-di fitt-hu-i hu-li ta-au-(li)
for the property of another after . • • •
2. (me-i-e-)si me-tsi el-mu-us iiia-nu-ha-(8)
libations of mead (P) season each
3. (a-nu.hu-)ni tz]^ >*.y Khal-di-e
they have prescribed* An ox to Ehaldis
to be sacrificed ; a wild ox to the god . . . ;
4 U-ni lai ^] Khal-di-e ^jSsf
after a sheep to Ehaldis to be sacrificed ;«
isy ^T
a sheep to the god . . • •
6 e ]gU-T-4 S^ >^T Khal-di-e-ni
a lamb to the Khaldises
6 muk(?)i-ti-ni QI
(to the god) . . . muktis the messenger
Hu-ra-a qu-ul-di
of Uras the
7 JgU E-ra-a-si-ni-e hu hu-li
a sheep for those of Eras along with another.
8 za-di-ni ^S^ -tsi
..... for the builders belonging to the sacrifice
^yyyy si-ri-kha-ni
who occupy the house of the tomb.
9 (8i>du-li i-ni t:]ff^
.... after restoring this house
si-ri-kha-ni-ni
of the possessors of the tomb,
10. (>^T Ehal.)di.na.a ^J-ka-i
belonging to the land of Ehaldis for the race of the gate
a-lu-si me-ri-ip • .
inhabiting the left (?)
^ So in the copj sent to me.
THB CUNEIFORM INSCBIPTI0N8 OF VAN. 25
11. (»-*-f Khal-)di-i-ni-ni zi-el-di-e ^^ ti-is-nu
for the childrea of £haldis of the shrine on the right.
I, 2. For alibi'di of. liv. 6. The word may be derived
from alia * totality.* For the rest of the two lines cf. v.
30, 31.
6, 7. The ideograph of ^messenger' occurs here for the
first time. It will be noticed that the determinative of
divinity is omitted before the name of the god Uras who
is mentioned in v. 11. This explains Erasinie 'those be-
longing to the god Eras.* It is possible that Eras is the Er
of Plato, the Arios of Ktesias and the Ara of Armenian
legend, who was the Sun-god of Hades and the winter. In
this case ' those that belonged ' to him would be ^ the dead/
the Aralez of the legend of Ara. The conjunction iu 'and/
* with/ is here written w.
II. The ideograph shows that timu must mean 'on the
right hand.* This makes it probable that m€rib{di ?) is the
pronunciation of the ideograph of 'left hand* found in
vii. 3.
Inscriptions of Argistis.
LX.
The following inscription was copied by Bishop Mesrop
Sembatiantz, at Ordanlu, and sent by him to Prof. Patkanoff,
who was kind enough to forward a revised text of it to my-
self. I published it with translation and notes in the MusSon,
iii. 2 (April, 1884).
1. »-*-y Ehal-di-ni (al-)8u-si-ni
To the Ehaldises the great
2. y Ar-gi-is-ti-s a-li
Argistis says :
3. kha-hu-bi -::n Qi(P)-e.khu.ni \^ -ni.
I have conquered of the town Qiekhus the land.
4. khu-dhu-(bi) pa-ri ^-^yy Is-ti-ma-ni-(e)
I departed out of the city of Istimas
26 THE CUNEIPOEM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN.
6. V' sa-na ap-ti-ni
(and) the country thereto belonging which was called
Tsu-hu-ni-e.
Tsuis*
6. li-me-i-e-li qi-i-hu
7. f Ar-gi-is-ti-ni
belonging to Argistis,
8- « ^TT? ^ « V^ Bi-a-na-hu-e
the king powerful, king of Bianas,
9. a-lu-(8i) >^yy Dhu-u8-pa -^ify
inhabiting the city of Tosp.
5. For this line cf. xia. 3. MuUer points out that the
town of Tsuis is named in y. 19.
6. This line is quite unintelligible, and is probably mis-
copied. At all events the copyist must have overlooked a
line, since before Argisiini we require the words Khaldi-ni'tii
usta-bi, * to the children of Ehaldis I prayed.'
LXI.
This inscription was also published by me in the MtisSon,
iii. 2 (April, 1884). A copy of it had been sent to me by
Prof. Patkanoff. The original text was discovered at ' Ihau-
lidjan in Chirac ' by a certain Narzes, who communicated his
copy of it to Bishop Sembatiantz.
1. »-*-y Khal-di-ni us-ta-bi
To the £haldises I prayed,
2. ma-si-ni gis-su-ri-e ka-ru-
to the powers mighty who have
3. ni y Qu-u-li-a-i-ni
given of Quliais
4. ^4^ (-ni) te-qu-ni f Ar-
the land as a present to
THE CUNEIFOBM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN. 27
5. gi-is-ti-ka-i
the race of Argistis ;
6. hu-Iu-us-ta-bi
I have approached with offerings
7. --T Khal-di-ni f Ar-
the Khaldises. Ar«
8. gi-iB-ti-s a-li
-gistis says :
9. kha-hu-bi i-::yy Al(P).ru.
I conquered the city of Aim-
10. ba-ni f Qu-u-li-
-bas (and) of Quli-
11. a-i-ni V" -ni
-ais the country.
Inscriptions of Sarduris IL
LXII.
Prof. D. H. Miiller has published the following inscription,
with translation and notes, in his memoir on ''Die Keil-
inschrift yon Aschrut-Darga ' already referred to, as well
as in the Oeaterreichische MonatsBchrift fur den Orient, Jan.
1885, p. 24. He received a squeeze of it from Dr. Polak,
who had seen the original on a stone in the possession of an
Armenian dealer in antiquities at Yan named Dewganz.
The stone had been brought from a ruin at Astwadzashen
near Van.
1. («-y) Khal-di-ni-ni
To the children of Ehaldis
2. al-su-i-si-ni
the great
3. y -Hf Rl-du-ri-s
Sari-duris
4. y Ar-gis-ti-khi-ni-8
the son of Argistis
28 THE CUNEIPOBM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN.
5. i-ni ha-ri 8u«liu-iii
for this . . . has made
6. X M V M III 0
fifteen thousand three hundred
7. ka-pi-is-ti-ni.
It is unfortunate that we do not know to what object the
stone belonged, as this would have explained the unknown
word hari, Miiller suggests that kaptstini denotes small coins
or something equivalent.
LXIIL, LXIV.
The two following inscriptions were copied by Bishop
Sembatiantz on stones among the ruins of Armavir, and
communicated by him to Prof. Patkanoff, after having been
published in the Armenian journal Ararat for November,
1881, along with another which had been copied at the same
time. Prof. Patkanoff published an account of them in the
Muaion, i. 4 (1882), and had the kindness to forward his
corrected copies of two of the three texts to me. I published
them with translation and commentary in the following
number of the Musion, ii. 1 (1883). Prof. PatkanofiP observes
that the five inscriptions discovered at Armavir up to 1882
are all mutilated on the left side, from which he infers that
they have been removed from their original position and
recut, in order to serve for the building of some edifice in the
city which succeeded the ancient Armavir. The commence-
ment and end of the inscriptions have been lost, as well as
the commencement of the lines, but a comparison of the two
enables us to restore a certain portion of the text.
1. 1 ra-a-bi-di-i-ni
the
2. (y >--y Rl-du-ri y) Ar-gis-ti-khi-ni-e
of Sariduris the son of Argistis
THE CUNEIFOBH INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN. 29
3. (ul-gu-8i-ya)-i-m-e
(and) the shield-bearers
4. (»-*-y Khal-di-ni al-) sa-i-se-e
of the £haldiseB multitudinous (or great)
6. (»->-y Khal-di-ni) ar-ni us-raa-se
and the Khaldises of the citadel (P), the gracious,
6- (pi ^ ma-at-khi . . .)-hu-a-ni-se
the name of the girls (P)
7. ( ri-ii) y«< ^f y- f«< <|-^J T«<
the . . , days prosperous,
8. (pi-) li si-ip-ru-gi-ni
a memorial-stone enduring (P).
9. Of -rT RI-du-ri-8 XX) tu-khi-ni ^f ^f -ni-ka-i
Sariduris 20 prisoners fortheraceof theSun-god
10. (a-ru-ni tar-gi-)ni V" V y«< -di su-ya-i-di
has brought, the choicest (P) among countries hostile(P).
11- (*-*-y Khal-di-ni-ni al-) su-i-si-ni
For the children of Khaldis the multitudinous (or great)
12. (T --y Rl-du-ri-ni) y Ar-gis-ti-khi
belonging to Sariduris the son of Argistis.
II. 1 i -^yy ^yui-di
the city, the aqueduct (P)
^y za-ri-(i) . . .
(and) the door . • .
2 y«< ar-ni-hu-si-ni-li is-(ti-ni-ni) . . .
the booty belonging to them . . .
3 (ra)-bi-di-ni >-^y Ehal-di-na-ni
the .... belonging to the land of Khaldis,
(. . . . ra-bi-di-ni)
the
4. (y >-^y Rl-du-ri) y Ar-gis-ti-khi-ni-e ul-gu-(si«ya-i-ni-e)
of Sariduris the son of Argistis, the shield-bearers
30 THE CUNEIPOEM INSCRIPTIOXS OP VAN.
6. {>*■] Khal-di-ni) ar-ni us-ma-a-ae pi
of the Ebaldises of the citadel(P}, the gracious, the name
J»- ma-(at-khi) ....
of the girls
6 ri-u ^TM«< <T-^H«< pi-Oi
days prosperous, a memorial-stone
si-ip-ru-gi-ni
enduring(P).
7. (f --f RI).du-ri.s XX tu-khi-ni (--f ^f -ni-ka-i)
Sariduris 20 prisoners for the race of the Sun-god
8. (a-ru-)ni tar-gi-ni V' V y«< -di (su-ya-i-di)
has brought, the choicest (P) among countries hostile(P).
I. 6, IT. 5. It is possible that we should not read matkhi
here, since in the copy no division is made between the two
characters ^ and ^J. In this case we should have the new
ideograph J»-^y * prince.*
I. 10, II. 8. Tar^guni is compounded like us-gi-m and the
new word iipru-gi-ni with gi, which may be connected with
the difficult word giea. However this may be, its first element
tar shows that it must signify ' the strength ' or * best part '
of a thing. Suyaudi seems to me to be either ' hostile * or
' all.' If it has the latter meaning, light would be thrown
on aui-ni-ni in xix. 8, etc.
LXV.
This inscription has also been found at Armavir. A
photograph of it was sent to Prof. Patkanoff, who forwarded
it to me. I have published it with translation and notes in
the Mus^on, ii. 3 (1883).
It will be noticed that the inscriptions of Armavir, so far
as they are known, all belong to Sarduris II. Menuas indeed
engraved an inscription on the bank of the Araxes opposite
Armavir (No. xxxiv.), but we leam from it that the whole
district at the time formed the kingdom of a certain Eriduas,
and Menuas boasts of his capture of the city of Lununis,
THE CUNEIFOEM INSCEIPTI0N8 OF VAN. 31
which may have occupied the site of Armavir. When
Argistis appointed his son satrap of a portion of the terri-
tories of Hazas, the Mannian prince (xl. 73, liv. 1), Sarduris
Il.y appears to have made Armavir the seat of his govern-
ment, and to have retained his partiality for it after the
death of his father. It is very possible that it was founded
by him.
1. ^T Khal-di-e -n I i-ni 8=TTTT
For Khaldis the lord of multitudes this house
2. y «-f Rl-du-hu-ri-i-s
Sariduris
3. y Ar-gi-is-ti-khi-ni-8
the son of Argistis
4. si-di-is-tu-ni e-ha
has restored ; this
5. --y Khal-di-ni-li ^ip? -li
place of Ehaldis (viz.) the gate
6. ba-du-si-e ku-su-hu-ni
which was ruined he has caused to be erected
7. at-qa-na-du-ni >-^y Ehal-di-e >-JI J
(and) has consecrated to Khaldis the lord of multitudes
8. >^y Khal-di-ni-ni al-su-si-ni
fand) to the children of Khaldis, the great,
9. y .--y Ri-du-ri-ni « ^yyj y-
belonging to Sariduris the king powerful
10. « th -ni « V^ \^ y«< -hu-e
the great king, the king of the world,
11. ^^ V" Bi-a-i-na-a-hu-e
the king of Biainas,
12. « « y«< -hu-e a-lu-si
the king of kings, inhabiting
13. «-::yy Dhu-us-pa-e »-::yy
the city of Dhuspas.
32 TEffi CUNEIFOEM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN.
1. This inscription is especially valuable on account of the
large number of ideographs it contains. The ideograph of
'multitudes' goes to show, if lii. B. i. (p. 655) is compared,
that gmurie signifies * belonging to multitudes ' rather than
' great.'
4. Perhaps Guyard is right in regarding eha as denoting
' at the same time ' rather than the demonstrative pronoun.
6. KU'8U-ni is the causative of ku, a root which we probably
have in ku-gu-bi ' I cut ' or * engraved.'
10. In xlviii. 6, and li. iii. 9, the place of ET- is taken by
aliuini, and that of V a,"^ y«< by sura-ref showing that aliu-
inis must signify ' great,' and that auras is not the name of a
district in Van, but a word meaning 'provinces' or Hhe world.'
13. It is possible that Miiller may be right in considering
the phonetic reading of the second >-^fy to be na. The word
ndni in xli. 19 certainly seems to signify ' city,' and a
comparison of the two forms Dhmpa-ni-na-ve v. 14, and
JDhttspa-na-ve v. 53, makes it probable that na-ve is here used
as an independent word. Inanis will then be a derivative in
'fits, like eba-nis from ebas, and we may either regard ina as
the fuller form of which na is a contraction, or as a compound.
Alphabetical List op New Words and
Corrected Explanations.
Abili-dubi (for abida-dubi). *I burnt,' literally *I set on
fire,' from du * to place ' and abilis * fire.'
Abili&nie-khi. 'The son of Abilianis,' i.e. 'the fireman.'
xxxvii. 17.
Adubi to be read zadubi, xlix. 26.
Ali. *And.' Literally 'moreover,' from alis 'totality.'
(For a-da.)
Ali. ' The whole,' ' totality.' (For a-da.^
Ali-ki. ' part of the whole,' ' partly.' (For a-da-ki.)
^ It is possible that a/, ali and alu are all related to one another, alu standing
in the same relation to al as tiu to ti. At means *to increase/ hence ai-6-uu
increase' of
alu-s *who-
' inhabitant,'
but 'nourisher.*
m i^ne same reianon lo at m itu lo n, jii means "w increase, nen
* having increase/ or * large,' ai-iui-nis 'great,* and ai-khe *the in
a place or 'inhabitants.' The derivative aii-s is * totality,' while alt
soever ' wonld literally signify * every one/ and alu-ifi* would be, not * in
THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAN. 33
AIi-a-b&-di. * Among the assemblage.' (For add-badi.)
Ali-manu. ' All and each/ (For ada^manu,)
All-si. « Every/ li. 1. 4. (For adaiii.)
AHe-me. ' The sum total.' xli. 13.
A-li-hu-i-e (ali-vie). 'Entire.' xxxiv. 9.
(A.li.)bi.di. lix. 1.
A-i-se. * Countries ' (?) xxxiv. 10.
Al-khe. * Inhabitants.' xxxiv. 10.
Al(P)-ru-ba-ni. ' The city of Al(P)ruba8/ Ixi. 9, 10.
Alsui-nis. * Great/ ' large/ From al ' increase/ and in or
6ui ' to possess.'
A-nu-hu-ni. ' They prescribed.' v. 31, 83, Hx. 3.
Ap-ti-ni. ' Which was called.' Ix. 6.
Ardis. 'Light.' v.7. Hence arrfi-»« * the daylight/ 'the sun.'
Ardisd. * Offerings ' (not * regulations *). Iviii. 3.
Arkhie-uruli-a-ni. ' Family.' (For arkhie-uruddnL) Com-
pounded with uruli-a ' men of the seed.'
Armlnie-li. ' Foundation-stone/ xx. 3. (For armaniedad,)
Ar-ni, Ixiii. 6,
Amiusini-li. ' Spoil.' xli v. 2. (For amiusinuda 'citadel.')
Ar-tsu-ni-hu-i-ni-ni. v. 16. (For ArUt^-hu-uni-ni.)
A-ru-ni. xxxiv. 11, Ixiii. 10.
Ase does not signify ' gods.'
Askhu-me. * May she occupy.' (For ' let them eat.') From
OB ' habitation ' and khu ' to take.'
Askhu-li-ni. (For askhu-da-ni,)
Aakbas-tes, Askhas-ti. ' Declaring occupation.'
AH veli-'duli. 'After collecting the cavalry/ (For Aii-hu^e-
da-du'da.)
Aauni. Probably 'dependent on.' Correct xxxiii. 14 for
xxxiv. 14.
A-ti-bi. ' Myriads,' not ' thousands/
At-khu-a-li. * Which had been destroyed/ xx. 3.
At-qa-na-bu-e. ' holy/ ' consecrated.' v. 19.
At-qa-na-du-ni. ' He consecrated/ Ixv. 7.
At-qa-ni-e-si-i. ' Priests ' (consecrated slaves of a
temple). xlviiL 27, li. iii. 4. (Instead of
Bhaniii.)
▼OL. XX — [KBW 8SXIB8.] 3
34 THE CUNEIFOBM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAN.
B.
Babas. 'Distant ' (not a proper name).
Ba-du-si-e. Ixv. 6.
(Ba)-ru-a-ta-i-di. ' In the land of Baruatais.' xxxix. 12.
Be-li y«<. Iviii. 5. Instead of BAD-IL
Buras-tu-bi. ' I appointed as gOTemor/ From buraa
'government' (instead of 'oourt') and tu for du
* to place.' Possibly bura or pura signifies ' head.'
D.
Da-si-e. 'To the . . .' v. 15. (Instead of Khaldini-dasie.)
Di-dhu-ni. Probably to be read instead of uldhuni. xl. 6.
Du-u to be excised. The character is the ideograph of ' a
vine ' (udulia).
Du-hu-bi means properly ' to place/ ' set.' The idea of
'destroying' is secondary. In many of the passages
quoted the word should be translated ' set.'
Duris. Probably signifies ' appointed.'
Dusisi-hu-li-ni to be excised. The reading is mm u-li-ni
' other libations.'
Du-tu. ' Things appointed.' The compound iui-dutu (xxxi.
10) is ' property.'
DH.
Dhanisi to be excised. The word is At-qa-ni-e-ii-u
E.
E-ba-ni-a-tsi-e-di-ni signifies ' inhabitants of the country ' ;
literally ' those (di) belonging to (taie) the people (a) of
the country.'
Ebanie-lie-di-ni for ebanie-da^'di-ni.
E-ha. Perhaps ' at the same time/ rather than ' this.'
Elipris. Miiller compares the name of the city of Ispilipria
in Biari (W.A.I. i. 20. 16), where ispi is probably con-
nected with ispu ' to settle.'
El-mu-s. ' A season.' lix. 2.
Eradha-li-hu-ni. (For Eradha-da-hu^ni,)
E-ra-a-si-ni-e. ' For those of the god Eras ' (? Ara), per-
haps ' the dead.' lix. 7.
THE CUNEIFORM IN8CEIPTI0NS OF VAN. 35
E-ri-du-a-khi. ' The eon of Eriduas/ xxxiv. 2, 8. (For
Ert'Orkhi.) This king is therefore different from the
' son of Erias ' mentioned in the inscriptions of Argistis.
E-hu-ri-i-e. ' To the lord/ Iviii. 1.
G.
Gieis is perhaps 'wall' rather than 'image/ Cf. gi in
tar-gi-ni, perhaps meaning ' to stand.'
Giei-si-da to be excised. Bead gtei aida * the re-
storation of the wall.'
Gisl&ie to be excised. The word is iildie.
Gissuri rather 'belonging to multitudes' than 'mighty.'
Gu-di. ' Commencement ' (P). vii. 3.
Qu-du-hu-li. 'Having been begun (P).' (For
sal-dt^hu-lL) v. 29.
Qu-du-li-a. (For e-gu-du-dc^a) liv. 5.
Gu-IL ' In the morning.' v. 26.
H.
(P Ha-)al-du-nL lii. v.
Ha-ri. Ixii. 5. Perhaps ' altar ' ; cp. ha-lU ' sacrificial.'
I.
les ' I ' (for ' which '). So in xli. 20. The stem is fe, wbich
is probably the same as that of the demonstrative «-m.
Ikdk&ni. 'The same.' (For 'property.') The suffix -Ao* de-
notes 'of the kind.' The root iku may signify ' to be like.'
I-qi-qi . • . (or lu . . .). lii. v.
Inani-lie. (For inani-dae and tnanj-dd). ' Belonging to the
city.'
Inani-hu-e. ' Belonging to the city.' xlix. 11. -
Ippue to be excised in v. 4, 36. Read urpue.
Is-me. ' A lot.' xlviii 26, IL iiL 3. (Instead of ]^ ' one
hundred.')
Is-pu-hu-i-bi. 'I installed/ 'settled.' xxxix. 24. Con-
sequently Ispuinis means 'the settler' instead of 'the
lordly.'
Is-ti-ma-ni-e. 'The city of Istimas.' Ix. 4.
I-htt-li-i-e (for t-Ati-cfa-i-e), not to be identified with tiu-Ue.
36 THE CUNEIFOEM INSCBIPTI0N8 OP VAN.
K.
Kamn&. 'Edifices/
Ka^pi-is-ti-ni. Ixii. 7.
Kid-da-nu-hu-li. * After collecting/
Ki-da-Du-bi. 'I collected/
Ea-sn-hu-nL * he has caused to be erected/ Ixv. 6. The
causative of ku.
KH.
Khaidi-a-ni. Probably * fruit/ li. i. 6.
Ehaldi-ni dasie. ' to the Ehaldises . • / instead of £7uil»
Ehal-di-ri-ulP-khi. ' The Ehaldirian/ i.e. king Saski . . .
of xlv. 15.
Kharkhar-Ba-bi tea. * I dug up/ The causative of kharkhar
with the first personal pronoun, instead of kkarkharaabies,
Ehasi-alme. Probably * they encouraged/ or * prospered/
Eha-su-bL * I conquered / the causative of kha ' to possess/
which must be distinguished from khau * to destroy/
Ehau-bi. ' I destroyed ' (for * I possessed ').
Ehatqana-ni ' the holy city ' (like the Semitic Eadesh).
Ehuradi-ni-li ueli (dubi). 'Of the soldiers a collection
(I made)/ instead of Ehuradini-da-hu-e-da.
Ehu-sie. Perhaps ' ruinous/ from khu * to destroy ' rather
than * holy/
Ehuti-a-di. * By the command ' probably, from khuti
' royal ' and a * to speak/
a
Qa-ab-qa-su(P)-la-du(P)-ni. xxxiv. 10. Probably from the
same root as qab-qaru * to approach.'
Qa-li-i-ni. xlv. 10. For Qa-da-i-ni.
Qi(P)-e-khu-ni. ' The city of Qiekhus.' Ix. 3.
Qu-du-la-a-ni. Iviii. 4. Perhaps * sacrifices.'
Qu-ul-di. lix. 6.
Qu-hu-li-a-i-ni. * The city of Quliais.' Ixi. iii. 10.
L.
Lakuni, laquni. Probably to be read iequni. This will
explain the vowel e in the form te^e-qu-nu
THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN. 37
M.
Ma to be excised. The word seems to be a misreading.
Ma-si-nie. Miiller is possibly right in deriving the word
from ma'U}he' (as in the compound us-ma-sia, and per-
haps ar^ma-ni-Us),
Me-H-a-i-ni. Perhaps * a ford ' ; for me-da-a-i-ni.
Me-nu-(hu)-a-li-e-a-tsi-li-ni. *The place belonging to the
people of Menuas.' xxxiv. 15.
Me-ri-ip . . . Perhaps ' on the left hand.' xli. 10,
Me-i-e-si, me-si-i. * Libations.' lix. 2, v. 31. (Not * his.')
Me-sa-li. 'After pouring out libations.' (Not 'after the
summer.')
Me-tsi. 'Mead.' v. 31, lix. 2.
Mu to be excised. The word is the ideograph of ' year.'
Mu-mu-ni. 'Tribute.'
Mu-hu-mu-ni-ni. ' Belonging to tribute.' Ivi. i. 2.
Mu-mu-hu-i-ya-bi. ' I laid tribute upon.'
Muru-muri-a-khi-ni. ' Bebels.'
N.
Na-a-nL ' A city.' Hence, perhaps, na-kthri is ' city-gifts '
and na-kha-di ' city-destroying.'
Ni-ip-si-du-li-ni. lyiii. 4. A compound of nipHs and du
' to place.'
Nunu-li-e, for nu-nu-^-e.
R.
Ruqu. Possibly Miiller is right in seeing in ruqu the Assy-
rian ruqu ' distant/ used ideographically.
S
Salie. ' A year.' (For sadae ' there.')
8aldu-hu-li should be read gu-du-hu-li.
Sa-na. Ix. 5.
Satirara-ga^ni for Satirara-hu-nL
Se-ri. Miiller is probably right in translating ' wild beasts,'
from 96 ' to live,' the root of se-khi-ria.
Sida. ' Restoration.' iii. 2, xiii. 2. For sidahu. The root
occurs in iidua ' afresh.'
38 THE CUNEIFOEM IN8CEIPTI0NS OF VANw
Si-du-bi. * I restored/
Si-i-du4i. * After restoring/ vii. 5, 6, llx. 9.
Sili. 'After dark,' as in Siel-ardis ' the darkness-enlightener '
or * moon/
Simeri-khadiri. xliii. 39. For Sisiri-khadiris.
Sisti-ni. ' The third/ xlix. 22.
Su-ya-i-di. ' HostUe ' (P). Ixiii. 10.
Su-hu-ni. * He has made.' Ixii. 5.
Su-i-ni-ni-e. lii. v. Perhaps ' what belongs to the
construction/
Su-khe. Perhaps ' artificial * or ' workmen.'
Su-khi-na-a-tsi-e. Perhaps ' belonging to the land
of the workmen/ Iviii. 4.
Sura-8. ' The world.' See Ixt. 10. Probably from su.
Su-ri-si-li-ni, For Surm-da-ni.
Sur-kha-a-ni. * War-material.' From kha ' to have ' and 9ur,
a derivative of 9U,
Susini. * One ' (not ' walls ').
S.
6i-la-a-i-e. xxiii. 1. Yor gis-la-a-i-e. 'Mother.'
6i-ip-ru-gi-ni. Ixiii. 8.
Si-ri to be excised in xliii. 13.
6i-ri-kha-ni. ' Possessors of the tomb.' lix. 8, 9. A com-
pound of iim and kha ' to have.'
Sui. 'For a possession.' lix. 1. Hence iui-dubi 'I appro-
priated.' Ivi. iii. 10, etc.
Su-li-e-za-a-hu-a-li. xxxiii. 15. For &u-da (P)-ni (P)-za-a-
hu-a-da. Compare the Assyrian ^uluval. If we read
Sulie-khaualis, the name will still more closely resemble
the Assyrian form.
Su-si. ' A chapel/ or ' piece of consecrated ground.' Iviii. 2.
From iu * to possess.'
TS.
Tsu-hu-ni-e. 'The city of Tsuis' (as in v. 19). Ix. 6.
T.
Ta-nu-li. v. 30 ; xii. 2 ; lix. 1 ; for um-nu-U.
THE CUNEIFORM IN8CEIPTI0NS OP VAN. 39
Ta-ra-ni. 'Second/ xlix. 13; for ta-ii-hi.
Tar-gi-ni. 'The choicest '(P). Ixiii. 10. A compound of
tar ' strong ' and gi.
Tar-su-a-ni. 'Youths/ 'men/ From the causative iar-su
' to make strong/
Teri-khi-nie. ' The tree which has been planted/ IL L 6.
Ti-is-nu. ' On the right hand/ lix. 11.
Tisal-du-li-ni. ' A ftemoon/
Ti-u-lie. ' He pretends/ A derivative from ti; for tiu^daie
' he undoes/
Tu-khi-ni. 'Captives/ Ixiii. 9.
Tumeni to be excised; we must read the ideograph of
ardinis ' a day/
Turie. ' For a person ' (not ' stone *).
Tu-ur-ta-a-ni. U. i. 5. For jtw-wr-^o-a-m.
TusukhanL ' In the spring '(?). xxxii. 2.
U, HU.
Hu, ' Together with/ ' and/ lix, 7. Contracted from ui.
Hu-a-ru-ba-ni-e. ' Of the god Varubas/ Iviii. 5.
Hu-du-li-e-i. ' Of a vine/ li. i. 7 ; for hu'du-da-e't.
Hu-e-di-a. ' Slaves/ Vedi-a-du-bi ' I received as subject/
xlv. 15, 39. The root ti^ or t^ seems to signify 'to bind
together.' Hence ve^dua 'those who are in bondage/
te-K'8 ' a binding together/ or ' gathering/ ui ' together
with/ ' and/ and u-s ' near.'
Hu-e-lL 'A collection.' VeU-dubi, 'I gathered together.'
xxxvii. 5, xxxix. 1, xb*. 4, xlvi. 16.
Hu-e-li-8i-ni*e. xl. 79. For hu-e^da'ti-ni.
Hu-i-du-s to be excised.
XJldis. Probably 'a conduit'; ul-di. Ixiv. 1.
Ui(P)-dhu-ni. More probably Di-dhu-ni.
Ul-gu-si-ya«i-ni-e. Ixiii. 3.
Hu-li-e-s. ' Another/ for hu-da-e-s ' that/
Hu-IL ' Of another/ lix. 1, 7.
Um-nu-li to be excised. Bead ta-nu-li.
Hu-ra-a. ' Of the god Uras.' lix. 6.
XJr-pu-hu-li-nL Iviii. 6.
40 THE CUNEIFORM IN8CEIPTI0N8 OF VAN.
Hu-ru-li-e. * Seed/ For hu-ru-da-e.
Hu-ru-li-li-hu-e. ' Belonging to the geed/ v. 9.
XTsinasis. ' Gracious.' From tia ' near ' and ma * to be/
Z.
Za-di-ni. 'Builders/ lix. 8.
Za-a-ri. 'A door/ For t:]^ -a-ri. v. 28.
Za-ri-(i). Ixiv. 1.
Zi-el-di. * Of the shrine.' lix. 11.
Ideographs.
7. ff to be excised.
12. The ideograph represents totality.'
13. Add.\^\^y<«.hu.e(Swrfl.w). 'Of the world.' Ixv.lO.
\^\^y«<.di. Ixiii. 10.
18. Add. tSi:,\ -ka-i. ' To the race of the gate.' lix. 10.
20. To be read pilis. See No. 63 in/rd.
26. Add. Ivi. i. 14.
31. Add. Iviii. 5, lix. 3.
32. Add. Iviii. 4, lix. 6.
42. To be excised. Bead i5^.
49. Add. >-.-y y«< -na. * To the gods.' xix. 5.
50. Add. ^] ^y -ni-ka-i. ' To the race of the Sun-god.'
Ixiii. 7.
58. To be excised.
61. th (aliuinis). *(Jreat.' Ixv. 10.
62. I {?g%88ure). * Multitudes.' Ixv. 1, 7.
63. J|j^y (arwant7t»). 'Foundation-stone.' See No. 20 st(piti.
64. ^y y- -ni (ardini). ' Days.' 1. 10, 12, 16.
^yy-y«<. ixiii. 7.
65. JgJJ, 'A messenger.' lix. 6.
66. ^< (timu). ' On the right hand.' Hx. 11.
67. «-«y<y (P mertp . .). ' On the left hand.' vii. 3.
68. <y.- ^]f y«<. 'Fortunate.' Ixiii. 7.
69. ^<. 'Wine.' v. 31.
70. t:] t;S\< (udulis). ' A vine.' U. 1, 7.
P71. {.^y. 'Prince.' Ixiii. 6, Ixiv. 5.
THE CUNEIFORM INSCEIPTIONS OP VAN. 41
PoarscRiPTUM.
The progress that is being made by Yannio studies has re-
ceived an unexpected illustration since the MS. of the above
paper was placed in the hands of the printer. Prof. D. H.
Miiller has just published in the Wiener ZeiUchriftfur die Kunde
des Morgenlandes, vol. i., an article on "Three New Inscriptions
from Yan/' copies of which were communicated to him by
Prof. Patkanoff. These he has edited in translations and
notes. I reproduce them here with a few additional sugges-
tions of my own.
LXYI.
This inscription of King Menuas has been discovered at
Zolakert, on a hill named Dandlu, not far from the village of
Tash Burun. According to Prof. Patkanoff, it seems to have
been transported since its discovery to Eshmiazin. It is
probably a companion to the other inscription of Menuas
found at Zolakert (No. xxxiv.), though it is also possible, as
Miiller suggests, that it belongs to another Menuas, a son of
Irkuainis. With the latter name Miiller compares that of
Irkuainis (as the newly-discovered text shows that the name
should be read), King of Iruias in the time of Sarduris II.
(No. xlix. 15). The beginning of the inscription has been
lost, like the beginning and end of each line.
1. (»-*-y Khal-)di-ni-ni us-ma-si-(ni a-li-e)
To the children of Ehaldis the gracious he says
2. hu y Me-nu-a-s f Ir-ku-a-i-(ni . . . .)
thus: Menuas Irkuainis
3. ni(P)-i-hu >-t^ Lu-khi-hu-ni-ni V -ni . . . .
belonging to the city of Lukhiunis the land . . .
4. (Pzi-)ir ma-ni-i-ni e-si
belonging to each the law ....
5. (y Me-)nu-a-s e-si-ni-ni du-ni
Menuas has set.
6. (8i-)di-is-tu-a-li >*-] Ehal-di-ni-li iSfl} . . .
After restoring of the Ehaldises the gate . . .
42 THE CUNEIFOEM INSCEIPTIONS OF VAN.
7. (::TT)TT th ba.du-(fii).i.e ....
(and) the temple which was decayed • . • •
8. (y) Me-i-nu-ha-(a-)s a-li u
Menuas says
9. e khal al a-ni • . . •
10. klii isahu te-ru-bi
I established ....
11 i . . bi . . .
I
3. Miiller suggests that we should read the city of Lu-nu-
inis, as in No. xxxiv.
6, 7. With this Miiller compares No. xvii.
LXVII.
The following text runs round a circular stone discovered
in the village of Ghazandi, in the district of Surmali, on the
right bank of the Araxes opposite Armavir.
>^y Khal-di-ni-ni al-su-hu-si-ni y Ar-gi-is-ti-s
For the children of Khaldis the mighty Argistis
y Me-nu-a-khi-ni-B za-du-ni
the son of Menuas has completed.
LXVIII.
The text which follows was discovered by Bishop Mesrop
Sempadianz in Armavir. Prof. Miiller has perceived that it
forms a part of No. liv., which was also found at Armavir.
He has further perceived that it represents the commence-
ment of the lines of which No. liv. represents the conclusion,
the intermediate portion having been lost. It is therefore
evident that the original stone upon which the text was
inscribed has been cut into three pieces, probably in order to
form the. lintel and two door-posts of a gate. Like Miiller^
I add the text of No. liv.
THE CUNEIFOEM INSCRIPTIONS OF VAN.
43
1. »->f- Ebal-di-ni-ni
To the children of Ehaldis
LIV.
(y Ar)-gi8-ti-khi-na
as the satrapy of the
son of Argistis
al-sa-i-si-ni J Ha-za-ni V -ni
the mighty ofHazas the land
2. ki-ni V Lu-lu-e
who have cat off(P) from the land
ma-nu i-hu a-ru-hu-ni su-ga-
of Lulus, to each as follows has brought a thank-
y Ar-(gis-ti-s y Me-nu-a- ba-ra-ni
Argistis (the son of offering(P)
khi-ni-s)
Menuas)
3. i-na-ni hu-se hu-su- li-hu-a-ni bar-za-ni
Of the city the vicinity season the
ul-mu-us zi-el-di
by season (P) chapel
4. y Ar-gis-ti-e y Me-nu-a-khi-ni D.P. khu-su
of Argistis the son of Menuas (to offer) flesh be-
(ti-ni P) Kyyy -nl-ni
(he has called it) longingtothetablet
e-si-ni
according to the
prescription
6. XX ku-ur-ni S;5y»- Se-e-lu-i-ni (hu-)e gu-du-li-a
20 offerers of the Seluians (he with thebeginner8{P)
has appointed) . . . • me-li hu-li-ni
(and)of them others
6. a-lu-ki a-ma-ni su-ga-
In every case a part of the thank-
ali bi-di as-ta
all the sacrifice (P) for
ba-ri • • • nu-la-li
offering (P) the royal palace(P)
44 THE CUNEIFORM INSCEIPTIONS OF VAN.
7. a-li ta-a-80 a-ma-ni i-ni te-ir-du-li-ni
and the Ti8itor8(P) a part this setting up
bi-di e-si-e
of the sacrifice of the law
8. hu-ni S;jy»- XJr-bi-ka- hu-e ta-ra-i-hu-khi
the dependents of the clan of along with the nobles
ni-ka-i ma-nu-li-e
Urbikas each (of them)
9. Hyy -a-bi ip-dhu- u-e ta-ra-)khi-e
The burnt ofierings has con- along with of the
hu-ni nia-a-(sa-ni hu-ni t;^»- Ur-
8umed(P) (thatareon theleft(P) nobles) the depen-
bi-ka-a-s
dents the Urbikas
(priest) :
10. ma-sa-ni ti-is-ni a-ma-ni li a-li bi-di
those that are on the right apart . . the whole of the
h-(a-li) as-ta nu-la-
to be sacrificed sacrifice for the
a-li-e
royal palace (P)
11. hu-ni S^*- Pu-ru-nu- li a-li bi-di as-ta
thedependents among the Fur un- . • all the sacrifice for
ur-da-di nu-la-a-li-e
urda the royal palace(P)
12. t:]^ -ni-ni i-ra-di-ni-ni (C^»- Se-)lu-u-i-nie
belonging to an ox the Seluians the de-
III. a hu-ni J Nu-nu-li-e
3 pendents of I^unu-
lis
13. a-la-e J I-kha-i-du-s i si-ni ur-di-du ^»-
.... Ikhaidus of the
Se-lu-i-ni-e
Seluians
THE CUNEIPOEM INSCEIPTI0N8 OF VAN. 45
2. It 18 difficult to think of any other meaning which the
root ki could have here, except that of 'cutting off' or
' separating ' ; " who have cut off from the country of Lulu
the land of Hazas as the satrapy of the son of Argistis." The
context shows that sugabaras or sugabari (as it is written in
1. 6) must signify some kind of offering made to the gods.
In 1. 6, as compared with 1. 10, it is in parallelism with halts
* a sacrifice.' The new text makes it clear that the second
character of the word is ga and not hu.
3. Use is the substantive corresponding to us ' near.' It
seems to enter into the composition of the word usulmus^ the
second element being elmus 'a season/ so that the literal
meaning of the word would be ' next in season.' U-sis is a
deriyative from the root u {ue, ui) *to join' or 'attach/
whence ue ' along with.'
5. As Miiller has pointed out, kur-ni is related to kuruni
'he gave.' We find elsewhere (xlviii. 26, 27, li. iii. 3) that
the number of prisoners set apart as religious slaves of
Khaldis was twenty ; the 20 kurni accordingly must be the
20 ministers who were appointed by the king to offer sacri-
fices to the gods.
6. Aiu-ki is the adverb of alus 'every one' or 'any one/
like alu-kid or aluke in y. 56. Ama-ni is the accusative of
ama-s, which we find in the compound amoB'tubi, In the
next line we have amani bidi, corresponding to ali bidi in 1. 6,
and since ali means 'all/ ama-ni must signify 'part' or
perhaps ' half.' AmaS'tubi consequently will literally be ' I
partitioned.'
7. With this line Miiller has already compared xxx. 17,
aK D.P. taS'tnus bedi^mdnu bidu-ni. Taae may be derived
from the root ia ' to come ' (as in us-tabi), the second
element in tas-mus being the root which occurs in a re-
duplicated form in mu-mu-ni ' tribute.' Bidi is clearly akin
to bidu-ni.
8. U-ni is contracted from ue-ni, from u^ or ti 'to be
attached ' (whence ue ' with/ uelia ' captives/ uedi ' a
gathering'). The form Urbika-ni-kai, with inserted -ni, means
literally ' the clan that belongs to Urbikas/ itself a derivative
46 THE CUNEIFORM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAN.
in -kas from XJrbis. Taraiu-khi is literally * the ofibpring of
the mighty.*
9. Abi may be the full word signifying victims/ of which
we have the ideograph in xix. 14, but it may also represent
only the final part of it. Its likeness, however, to abiUa
* fire,' makes me believe that the three characters mean ' a
sacrifice for fire,' i,e, a bnrnt-ofiering.
10. Masa'fii is probably derived from ma 'to be.' For
tiani see tisnu in lix. 11. The restoration halt seems hardly
doubtful.
12. Miiller suggests that iradi-ni-ni corresponds to ^^
{rimu * a wild bull ') in the ideographic expression t:]^ ^^,
and signifies 'wild.' But the suffix rather seems to show
that it must be some part of an ox ; ' three . . . belonging
to the ... of an ox.'
Vocabulary.
A.
Abi. Ixviii. 9. Perhaps ' burnt-(ofiering).' Compare abilis
'fire.'
Alae. Ixviii. 13.
Ali. Ixviii. 7. ' And,' ' the totality/
Alu-ki. Ixviii. 6. * In every case.'
Ama-ni. Ixviii. 6, 7, 10. ' Part ' (or perhaps ' half ') ; ace.
of ama-s n amas-tubi.
B.
Bi-di. Ixviii. 6, 7. 'A sacrifice,' connected with bidu-ni.
E.
Esi-ni-ni. Ixvi. 5.
Esi. Ixvi. 4. 'The law.'
H.
Ha(li). Ixviii. 10. ' To be sacrificed,' ' a sacrifice.'
THE CUNEIFOKM INSCRIPTIONS OP VAN. 47
I.
Inani. Ixviii. 3. * Of the city.'
IpdhA-ni. Izyiii. 9. 'He has consumed' (P).
y Ikhaidus. Ixviii. 13.
Iradi-ni-ni. IxyiiL 12.
y Irkuai(m). Ixvi. 2.
lu. Ixviii. 5. ' Thus.'
K.
Ki-ni. Ixviii. 2. * Who have cut off ' or ' separated.'
£ur-ni. Ixviii. 6. * Offerers.'
Lukhiu-ni-ni. Ixvi. 3. ' The city of Lukhiunis.'
Lulue. IxviiL 2. ' The country of Lulus.'
M.
Mani-i-ni. Ixvi. 4. * Belonging to each.'
Manu. Ixviii. 2. * To each.'
Masa-ni. Ixviii. 10. * Those that are ' ; probably from ma
*tobe.'
Purunurda-di. Ixviii. 11. * Among the class of Purunurda.'
Cf. urdi'du, 1. 13.
S.
S£lui-ni. Ixviii. 5. ' The class of Seluians.' Possibly they
were priests appointed to look after the temple at night,
the name being derived from seiia * darkness.'
Sugabara-ni. Ixviii. 2. 'A thank-offering' (P).
Sugabari. Ixviii. 6.
T&se. Ixviii. 7. 'Visitors' (P). Perhaps a derivative from
ia * to come.'
48 THE CUNEIFOEM INSCEIPTI0X8 OF VAN.
Tieni. Ixviii. 10. * On the right.*
XJ.
Hu. Izvi. 3. ' Thus.' Contracted from iu.
Hu-ni. Ixviii. 8, 11. * Dependents.* For w^-n*.
Urbika-ni-kai. Ixviii. 8. ' Of the class of the Urbikas.'
Use. Ixviii. 3. * Vicinity.' Hence us * near,'
XJsulmus. Ixviii. 3. 'Season after season '(P). Perhaps a
compound of us and elmua.
Z.
Za-du-ni. Ixvii. * He has completed.'
49
Art. II. — Same Suggestions of Origin in Indian Architecture.
By William Simpson, M.B.A.S.
When Mr. Fergusson commenced the study of Indian Archi-
tecture, nothing was really known on the subject. He had
first to collect the materials, and after years of work he was
able at last to leave the Architecture of India in a classified
form. This was in itself a great achievement for one man to
do. But he did more than this. He traced back the develop-
ments of form and construction in many cases to their early
beginnings, and thus gave us their origin. It is only when
this has been accomplished that we can truly say ''we know''
any particular style of architecture. We have still some
very interesting problems of this kind to work out in regard
to India ; and suggestions regarding them, even although
they should ultimately be found to have pointed in the wrong
direction, may yet be useful in many ways; such speculations
may call the attention of men in India to the information that
is required, and by this means we have the chance of receiving
knowledge. I have often discussed some of these questions
of origin with Mr. Fergusson, and he used to refer to some of
the unexplored parts of India, where he thought some remains
of the older forms of Architecture might yet be found, which
would throw light on what we wanted. His mode of ex-
pressing himself was, ''If some man, with the necessary
knowledge, and with an eye in his head, could be sent,"
he felt certain that there are old temples in many parts
not yet discovered that would clear up most of the doubtful
points.
Besides what may be classed as Architectural remains,
Mr. Fergusson attached great importance to the primitive
forms of constructing dwellings such as are known to exist
TOL. xz.— [irxw 8BAIBB.7 4
50 ORIGIN OP INDIAN AECHITECTUEE.
in out-of-the-way parts^ and more particularly among the non-
Aryan races of India. Many of these forms have continued
from the earliest times to the present day. I can refer to an
instance in my own experience. In this case I found in the
Himalayas the main features of the style of construction,
and still with wood as the material, which we know was
commonly followed two thousand years ago on the plains of
India. ^ Things have remained very much unchanged in the
Himalayas, and if they were properly explored, that is, with
" the necessary knowledge," and with the equally necessary
"eye" in the head of the explorer, a good deal might be
expected that would help us in our search for some of the
starting-points of Indian Architecture.
The first suggestion I propose dealing with is that of a
peculiar form of construction which seems to have prevailed
over a large portion of India at the time of Asoka. We may
assume that it had a long existence before his date — ^250 B.C. —
and it may have been in use for some centuries afterwards.
By looking over the sculptures of the Sanchi Tope, given in
Fergusson's Tree and Serpent Worship, it will be seen that the
upper parts of the houses are formed of wood, and that the
roofs are not flat, as is the case with most of the houses in
India at present, but they are barrel-shaped, they are round
externally and internally, producing a gable which is circular
in shape. We have every reason to suppose that the Bud-
dhists erected large wooden halls of assembly with roofs of
this kind. In the Chaitya Caves it is assumed that we have
exact copies of these halls, and in them we can see the interior
details most faithfully preserved to us. The roof is formed
with ribs covered with planking, and the whole has very
much the appearance as if the hull of a ship were inverted.
The end externally where the entrance was, is also repre-
sented in the caves ; and here we have the circular form of
the gable which resulted from the shape of the roof. It is
this round arch which is referred to in my paper on the
Caves of the Jellalabad Valley y and led me to suppose that the
^ See Arehiiectwre of the ffimaiapat, by Wm. Simpson, Transactions of the
Boy. Inst, of Brit. Architects, 1882-83.
ORIGIN OP INDIAN AECHITECTTJRE. 61
Afghanistan caves were copied from those of India. In the
Indian caves we find that this form began to be used as a
decoration; the same as that which took place in Europe with
the Greek pediment, which was also a gable, and has
been largely applied for merely ornamental purposes. The
Hindus adopted the circular gable as an ornament : in
their hands it became decorative, and was made more orna-
mental, and you will scarcely find a temple in India where
this form cannot be traced somewhere in its ornamentation.
In the Dravidian, or Southern Indian, style it is to this day
the predominating characteristic of the decoration, and it
even yet affects some of the constructive details. I sketched
this easily-recognized shape on the old topes of the Jelalabad
Valley, where it had been carried and there applied as an
architectural ornamentation. This form can be traced from
Ceylon to the Hindu £ush— -a wide space — over which it has
spread, and to the inquiring mind, it calls for some explana-
tion of its first origin. The oft-recurring question was, why
did the early people of India construct this peculiar kind of
roof P We know that all architectural forms had at first a
reason for their existence, but in seeking for the source in
this case no answer has yet been found.
While in Persia and the Afghan Frontier lately, I took
mach interest in the facility with which roofs, where wood
is scarce, were there produced by means of sun-dried bricks.
The dome is the usual method, but it was very common to
find, oblong houses covered with barrel roofs. Some of these
had a semi-dome at one end, with the circular arch as the
gable at the other. Now we know that the Chaitya halls had
this semi-dome at the further end ; — this, I confess, struck
me very forcibly, for the one form is an exact repetition of
the other; and I speculated on the possibility that I had
found the origin of the Chaitya circular roof. There are
certainly probabilities in favour of the theory : we know that
there are forms common to both Indian and the Ancient
Persian Architecture ; mud-bricks were as common on the
one side of the Indus as on the other, and barrel-roofs may
have been the same. If such were the case, it might be possible
62 ORIGIN OP INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.
that this form had been copied in wood, where that material
may have chanced to be more easily procured than bricks.
The suggestion produced by this Persian roof, although it
is a very remarkable coincidence, I have entirely rejected,
my reason being that I have what I consider to be now a
better theory to offer.
Not long ago I chanced to pick up a book at a stall, called
A Phrenologist among the Todan} To me the Phrenology of
the Todas was the least important part of the book, but it is
all interesting as an account of personal experience among
these strange people, and parts are given with much humour.
The illustrations are in Photography — the frontispiece caught
my eye while buying the book — in it is a representation of a
house, and the more I have looked at this peculiar structure,
the more I am inclined to think that it gives the true origin
of the early round roof of India. In a case of this kind
there is no direct, or what might be called demonstrative,
evidence ; all that can be offered in favour of the idea is
coincidence in form, with the highly possible chance that the
peculiar manner of construction, belonging to what is sup-
posed to be one of the Aboriginal races, dates back to an
early period.
I turned up Fergusson,' to see if he had chanced to light
upon these houses, and I was delighted to find that he had,
and his notice appears in a note which I had at the moment
forgotten. He refers to the work of Mr. Breeks,^ and I find
that his conclusions coincide exactly with my own. Of these
structures he states that, — "Their roofs have precisely the
same elliptical forms as the Ghaitya with the ridge, giving
the ogee form externally, and altogether, whether by accident
or design, they are miniature Chaitya halls. Externally
they are covered with short thatch, neatly laid on. Such
forms may have existed in India two thousand years ago,
1 By William E. Marshall, Lieut -Colonel of H.M. Bengal Staff Corps, 1878.
^ Miatory of Indian and Etutei-n Architecture, p. 105.
' An Account of the Primitive Tribes and Monumenta of the NUagiris^ by the
late James Wilkinson Breeks, of the Madras Civil Service, 1873. A work full of
most valuable information ; but so far as the Todas are concerned, I prefer Col.
Marshall's book, as it deals with them alone, and its information regarding the
one tribe is much more complete.
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ORIGIN OP INDIAN ARCHITECTITEE. 63
and may have given rise to the Ghaitya liallsy but it ib, of
course, impossible to prove it."
I give a pen and ink sketch of one of these Toda huts —
which I trust Colonel Marshall will forgive me doing without
his permission. The sketch also contains a hut with a
straight-lined roof — which is not the common form with the
Todas : here it will show that the curved roof is the simpler
in construction, and consequently we may suppose for that
reason the most primitive. It is easy to understand how
simple it would be to bend the flexible bamboo, and thus
produce a covering from the sun and the weather ; it is still
further possible to suppose that in the very earliest condition
of man, when trees were utilized for shelter, he would
bend the growing bamboo, and spread over them branches or
loQg gi*a8S, and thus produce a pansala, or primitive habita-
tion ; and this would be the first germ of the Chaitya hall.
The additions which it would receive in its transition from
the bamboo to a more solid wooden mode of construction,
which we know the Chaitya hall reached, presents no difficulty.
The one difficulty previously was to explain why, at some
early time, the builders of India had produced a round roof,
like an arch, with wood as their material. The Toda hut is
sufficient to supply the explanation. That is all that can be
said ; we cannot affirm positively that this is the source, but
it is, so far as I know, the best suggestion that has yet
appeared, and when a better does turn up, I shall be most
willing, as in the case of the Persian barrel-roof, to give it up.
According to Colonel Marshall, the Todas are very con-
servative in everything. No tribe remains perfectly stationary,
however secluded it may be ; but the Todas seem to have pre-
served everything about them in a very archaic state, and their
huts are evidently not an exception to this condition of things.
I add, also from Colonel Marshall's book, a sketch of what
he terms " The Tirifiri : The Holy Place, or Toda Sanctum."
I cannot give all the details of the author ; it will be enough
to say that this is a temple. Constructively, it does not
seem to differ from the Toda house, or hut. I do not think
it helps the conclusion I have come to, but to some it may
54 ORIGIN OP INDIAN AECHITECTTJRE.
appear as an additional confirmation that temples were also
built in this peculiar manner in India. The Tiri^ri contHins
a sacred bell — the bell of a cow — and some other relics, but
it is in reality a dairy, and the only person who enters the
place is the Pdldl, a very sacred kind of priest, a sort of
god — it is believed that the Deity is in him — who is cow-
keeper and cow-milker for the community — evidently a most
primitive ecclesiastical arrangement.^
The well-known Hindu temple, with its Sikhara, or spire,
presents us with more than one problem for solution. India
is covered with these places of worship, and up to the present
day the origin of this temple is unknown ; some few attempts
at solving the difficulties have been made, but no certainty
has as yet been reached, and I am willing to confess that the
suggestions I am about to ofier are here given rather as
tentative, than as settled, convictions on my part.
The Hindu temple is formed of a cell, square in plan, with a
door on one side. The sikhara rises from the walls of the cell,
preserving the square form to the top : the line curves slightly
inwards. In the oldest examples the curve is very small
below, whilst the greatest amount of bend is at the summit,
the line produced being what would be seen if you were to
bend a tapered wand. The early sikharas are more like
towers than spires. The sikhara is surmounted by a member
called the amalaka, which is circular in plan, and might be
likened to a cushion, or a compressed melon : the outer surface
is ribbed. A kalasa, or jar, surmounts this as a pinnacle:
emblems belonging to the deity of the temple are common on
sikharas, but these do not belong to the problems before us.
The magnificent group of temples at Bhuvaneswar, in
Orissa, brings before us the earliest known examples of these
monuments. They date back, roughly speaking, to the sixth
and seventh centuries, and whoever is familiar with Mr.
Fergusson's works, will know that we have not in these
^ Since thiB was written, I haye learned throngh the Rev. John MacKenzie,
that the Gariepine people, or Yellow Race, of South Africa, have religions
ideas ahout cows, milk, and milking, yery like those of the Todas. A woman^s
presence would make the cattle pen impure; chiefs are huried in the pen,
and the ground is trodden down hy the cattle to ohliterate all trace of the interment.
OEIGIN OP INDIAN ARCHITECTUEE. 65
temples the first starting-point of the style ; instead of rude
beginnings, we have here the highest development of it. It
must be taken for granted that there were earlier efforts, and
a long course of them too, to account for the perfected art
which we see has been realized. As yet, these earlier efforts
have not been found ; if any should be discovered, we may
yet come upon some indications of the origin. In the case
of the temples of ancient Greece, the wooden origin had
only to be suggested, when the truth became apparent in
every detail. But the Orissan temples are very different in
this respect ; the parts offer no clue as to what they were
derived from. Some have explained the destruction of
previous temples as the work of the Muhamraadans ; others
have supposed that they were perhaps wooden, and ended in
decay, or were burnt. Whatever may have been the cause,
what I have here said will explain why we know so little
about the Hindu temple, and why there are problems relating
to it, which yet require to be solved.
I should like to say something, to begin with, regarding
the origin of the worship in the Saiva temple, more par-
ticularly as it has some slight bearing on other points to be
dealt with. It must be confessed that I do this with consider-
able diffidence, because I am but very slightly acquainted with
the sacred books of the Hindus, and I may have the Pundits
quoting the Sutras, the Brahmanas, and the Puranas, and
overwhelming me with texts — a fate that often befalls those
who venture beyond the limits of what they know.
In studying the symbolism of temples, I have been much
struck with what appears to have been a common origin with
many. I have found that temples have often been, in some
way or another, a development from a tomb, or from some
structure raised in connection with the rites of burial :
" Worship of Ancestors" would be the usual term to describe
this idea, but I do not like the phrase, for often there is no
ancestor. I would prefer ** Tomb Worship,*' as wider in its
meaning ; but I use the words ** Worship of Death," as
being wider still. I am aware that there are temples in
which this tomb connection cannot be traced, and among the
66 ORIGIN OP INDIAN ARCHITECTUEE.
number I have, up to a few years ago, always classed the
Saiva Temple of India.
It was when in Jelalabad with our troops in 1878-79, that
the first starting-point of a change in my ideas in this matter
should be placed. There is a Hindu temple in the south-west
corner of the town, and I made friends with the Hindu who
has charge of it. There is a rude temple with a sikhara, and I
was rather surprised when my friend told me that it was the
tomb of a Gooroo, whose ashes were in it. No theory could
be based on this, but I then remembered having seen the
tombs of Jogis on the ridge of Delhi — little round heaps of
plastered mud, about two or three feet in diameter, but I
could not recall whether they had a stone placed in the
centre or not. Since then, Dr. Bajendralala Mitra's work
on Buddha Gaya has appeared, and in his description of the
locality, he says, " Towards the south-west corner of the
outer wall of the monastery there is a cemetery, also attached
to the monastery. The dead bodies of the monks, unlike
those of other Hindus, are buried, and the cemetery contains
the graves of about two hundred persons. The body is
buried in a sitting posture ; and in the case of mere neo«
phytes a small circular mound of solid brickwork, from three
to four feet high, is all that is deemed necessary for a
covering for the grave. For men of greater consequence a
temple is held essential, and in it, immediately over the
corpse, a lingam is invariably consecrated. For Mahants
the temple is large and elaborately ornamented. It would
seem that even for neophytes a lingam was held essential."
... "In the way from Gaya to Buddha Gaya there are
several monasteries of Hindu Sannyasis, and everywhere the
graves are alike." ^
Here we have a temple identical with those of Siva, and
yet it is a tomb. To what extent such temples exist in
India, I have no exact information, but there is no reason to
suppose that they are limited to Buddha Gaya. From Mr.
Bivett-Gamac I learn, through a paper of his in which he
describes a temple in Kumaon with a burial-ground attached :
ip.4.
ORIGIN OF INDIAN ARCHITECTURE. 57
** In the centre of the yard is a monolith Mahadeo of 4^ feet
in height above ground. The priest in charge of the temple
held that most of the shrines were very old, and accounted
for their large number by saying that the yard was the
burial-place of men of great sanctity, some of whom had been
brought from great distanpes for interment there, and that
Mahadeos of an elaborate or poor class were placed over the
tomb according to the means of the deceased's friends. I
have at this moment no means of verifying whether any
particular class of Hindus are buried in the hills, or whether
my informant intended to convey that ashes only were
deposited beneath the shrines, but on this point there will be
no difficulty in obtaining information." ^ We have no temple
in this case, but there is a recognized Mahadeo, or Siva,
placed over the tomb. I am able to add another example
from Southern India ; it is from an account of the Jangams,
by the late C. P. Brown, the well-known Telugu scholar :
" Over the grave, the Jangams place an image of the lingam,
to which they offer worship for ten daya They then remove
it, or leave it established, at pleasure." ^ The author had
not seen any of the Jangam tombs, but he quotes a description
given him by Lieut. Newbold, which I insert here, as it
contains a point of importance : " The tombs of the Linga-
vants of rank are generally massive quadrangular structures,
raised on terraces built of stone, and simply but handsomely
carved. The interior consists generally of a square chamber,
beneath which is a vault containing the real tomb, which is
also usually square. Over the head of the corpse is some-
times placed a phallus, often ornamented daily with sweet
flowers" (p. 176). I may have to refer to the square form
of these tombs further on. Another important point is that
we have in this case burial of the body, and not the ashes
after burning. This particular sect are to be found *' among
the Canarese, the Telugus, and the Tamils," from which we
may conclude that they are Dravidian ; hence there may be
1 ** Rough Notes on some Ancient ScnlptoringB on Rocks in Eumaon," Jomn.
vftU A8. 8oc, of Bengal^ 1879.
s «( On the Creed, Cnstoms, and Literature of the Jangams," by G. P. Brown,
JLnatU Jnnrn, 1846, yol. It. 3rd series, p. 176.
68 ORIGIN OP INDIAN ARCHITECTURE.
a certain value belonging to this practice of a non-Aryan
race, because the worship of Siva is now generally accepted
as not Aryan in its origin.
The Salgram stone is, in the worship of Yishnn, the
counterpart of the Linga, and I have a quotation referring to
it which may be worth giving, as it shows still farther the
connection of this peculiar form of symbolism with death :
"The Salgram Stone. — One should always be placed near
the bed of a dying person, and the marks shown to him.
This is believed to secure his soul an introduction to the
heaven of Vishnu." ^
Here it may be worth noticing how common in almost all
parts of the world it is to find a stone placed as a mark to a
grave ; and I believe that most of the rites connected with
the old stone worship will be found to have had some relation
to death. When Jacob erected the stone at Bethel, and
poured oil on it, he declared that then the spot was the
" Gate of Heaven." Death only can lead us to the portals
of the next world.
The attributes of Siva, I submit, point also to the conclu-
sions I am supporting. He is the personification of Destruc-
tion and Death. In virtue of these attributes he wears a
necklace of skulls. In the Mahabharata, Dakska says of Siva,
" He roams about in dreadful cemeteries, attended by hosts
of ghosts and sprites, like a madman, naked, with dishevelled
hair, laughing, weeping, bathed in the ashes of funeral piles,
wearing a garland of dead men's skulls, and ornaments of
human bones." ^ The following, from General Cunningham,
is worth quoting, as it is very strongly expressive of this
connection with death : " The name E&lanj&radri, or the
Hill of Kftlanjara, is said to have been derived from Siva
himself, who, as E&la, 'Time,' causes all things to decay
(jar), and who is therefore the destroyer of all things, and
the God of Death." ^ The General also describes a temple
at Nand-Chand, between Saugor and Rewa, dedicated to
1 Stocqueler's Oriental Interpreter^ p. 200, Art. Salagrama.
* Quoted in Muir*8 Sanskrit Texts, toI. vt. p. 379.
• Bengal Archasological Eeports, toI. zii. p. 22,
ORIGIN OF INDIAN AECHITECTUEE. 69
Siva, as Martangesar or Mritangeswara " The Lord of
Death." 1
I think there is good evidence that the worship of Siva
was formerly, in some way or another, connected with funeral
rites, from the story in the Ramayana, which recounts the
origin of the Ganges. I have no doubt but that it is known to
you all, but it is necessary here to give the leading points of
the legend.
The sixty thousand sons of Sagara, while seeking for the
horse their father had consecrated, in order to perform the
Aswamedha or Horse-sacrifice, were all consumed to ashes
by a glance from Eapila. These ashes remained, because
there was no sacred water with which to perform the neces-
sary lustrations. Bhagiratha became an ascetic, and by a
long course of devotion accompanied by the severest mortifi-
cations, the boon he desired was granted, and the sacred
Ounga was sent from heaven. Had it fallen direct, the earth
would have been destroyed, but Siva placed his head under
it, and thus broke the fall. When the water reached the
ashes of the sons of Sagara, they became purified, and were
thus by its means translated to the heaven of Indra. We have
here undoubtedly a legend which we may suppose had some
connection with a funeral rite ; and so important is it in rela-
tion to Siva that he is generally represented with the Gunga
flowing from his head. It is still more to our purpose to find
that the Linga Pujah, at least as it is practised on the banks of
the Ganges, reflects this story of the Gunga. I think we can
see the legend in the rite. The Linga Pujah is the worship
of Siva, and the Linga is Mahadeo or Siva himself. At
times the head of Siva is represented on the symbol, with
the Gunga flowing from it; the principal part of the cere-
mony attached to this worship is the pouring of Ganges
water on the head of the linga, thus repeating the prominent
part of the legend told in the Kamayana ; and represents
Siva, I submit, as receiving from heaven the sacred water for
the purification of the dead.^
> Jhid, p. 161.
* Fur the benefit of thoee not familiar with the Linga-pujah, it may be added
60 OEIGIN OP INDIAN AECHITECTXTRE.
I may now put the question, is the Hindu temple a de-
velopment from a tomb, or is it not P My own impression is
that the evidence just given is highly in favour of an a£B.rma-
tive answer.
Wishing to know Mr. Fergusson's ideas on this, about two
years ago I wrote and gave him some of the statements which
have just been laid before you. I may mention that my in-
formation has been accumulating since then. I received a note
which first stated that '' the linga in its present form ... is
derived from the Buddhist emblem of a dagoba " ; and that
he was sending me a pamphlet where, he said, '' you will
find my last ideas of the origin of the Sikhara. They are
not very definite, but are the best I can form."
The pamphlet is entitled ArchcBology in India, and is
perhaps the last work of Fergusson's which has appeared.
I will give a quotation which bears on the subject now in
hand : " For the last fifty years the question of the Hindu
Sikhara has been constantly before my mind, and hundreds
of solutions have from time to time suggested themselves,
but all have been in turn rejected as insufficient to account
for the phenomena. Though the one I am now about to
propose looks more like a solution than any other that has
occurred to me, it is far from being free from difficulties, and
must at best be considered as a mere hypothesis till some
new facts are discovered which may either confirm or
demolish it. The conclusion I have now arrived at is, that
the Hindu Sikhara is derived from the Buddhist dagoba, or,
in other words, it is only a development of the style of archi-
tecture which was practised, both by Hindus and Buddhists,
during the early ages in which stone architecture was
practised, subsequent to the Mauryan epoch."
The Sikhara I shall deal with immediately, but here it
that the Linga is aimply a stone pillar ; the worshippers pour Gan^ water on
the top of it, and make offerings of rice and flowers. I have seen lingas with a
jar of water suspended ahove, and hy means of a small hole the water continued
to drop on the emhlem so as to keep it constantly moist. The celebrated temple
of Somnath, in Eathiawar, had jaghires attached, the rents of which were devoted
to pav men who continually travelled to and from the Ganges, bearing " Gunga
pani ^^ to keep the Mahadeo always in a wet state. This is the Gonga falling on
the head of Siva.
OEIGIN OP INDIAN AECHITECTTJEE. 61
may be pointed out that in identifying it with the Dagoba,
Fergosson does not reject the idea of a tomb development,
for that is the origin of the Dagoba ; in fact, the admission
implies this very tomb origin I am at the moment contending
for. Preyiously to this pamphlet, Mr. Fergusson had always
rejected the theory of the sikhara and the dagoba being the
same in origin. In this I felt he was right, and I cannot
yet, even with such a high anthority as a guide, accept the
idea. Fergusson certainly does not insist that it is the only
solution which may yet be possible ; and he speaks in rather
a diffident and doubtful manner in its favour. I do not
reject it as impossible, for I know that through the mutations
of development, architecture presents us with results as
strange and unexpected as we find in other walks of science,
where time produces changes. In this case — at present I
refer not to the sikhara, but to the body of the temple on
which it stands — we have to account for such a great change
as that of a solid mass, which the dagoba is, and often a very
large mass, to a small hollow cell, and from what seems to
have been an established round form, to a square. The
changes necessary to account for the sikhara are equally
difficult I will assume, for the moment, that the Hindu
temple is derived from a tomb. If such was the case, the
original, I think, was not a mound or a cairn, which implies
solidity, and it must, at some early period at least, have been
square in form. India, with its many races and forms of
religion, would no doubt have many forms of burial : various
customs and rites exist still. It would have been a very
remarkable phenomenon if all the places of sepulchre were
similar, over such an extent of country There is a curious
passage in the Satapatha Brahmana, which gives colour to
what I say ; at the same time, it has, I think, an important
bearing on the subject. It is as follows : " Four-cornered.
The Gods and Asuras, both the offspring of Prajapati, con-
tended in the regions " [conceived, apparently, as square, or
angular]. ''They, being regionless, were overcome. Hence,
the people who are divine construct their graves four-
cornered, whilst the Eastern people, who are akin to the
62 OEIGIN OP INDIAN AECHITECTURE.
Asuras, construct them round. For the Gods drove the
Asuras from the Regions/' ^ This passage leaves much that
one would desire to know as to the exact meaning of the
words ; it is in Muir's Sanskrit Texts, and with no explanation.
The round graves here alluded to were in all probability
the stupas, or dagobas. So far as can be judged at present,
the stupa is a very old form of structure. In the Book of
the Great Decease,^ Buddha himself, when directing how his
remains were to be treated, refers to stupas such as were
erected to contain the ashes of Ghakravarta Rajas : he men-
tions these monuments as if they were well known. The
ceremonies performed at Buddha's death seem also to have
been akin to those of the Asuras, which were probably
Turanian, rather than Aryan. A passage in the Khandogya-
TJpanishad will illustrate this point. The Asuras, — *' They
deck out the body of the dead with perfumes, flowers, and
fine raiment, by way of ornament, and think they will thus
conquer the world." * The account of the ceremonies at
Buddha's death were even more decorative and festal than is
indicated by the above passage. The funeral ceremonies of
the Todas and other tribes of the Nilgiris, who are Dravidian,
and consequently allied to the old Asuras, are also of a festal
character.
As to the divine people who made their graves four-
cornered, we may suppose in this case that the Aryans are
understood. This could scarcely have been the form of their
graves at an early period, for we know that they buried in
mounds. There is a hymn in the 8th book of the Rig Yeda
which is very distinct on this matter ; from it we learn
that the body was buried, and the earth heaped up over it.
Dr. Rajendralala Mitra has published a paper entitled
Funeral Ceremony in Ancient India, which deals principally
with this hynm. He thinks that burial of the body was the
rule till about the fourteenth or thirteenth century B.C. ; this
was followed by cremation, and burial of the ashes in an urn,
^ Saiap. Brahm, xiii. 8, 1, 6; quoted in Muit'i Samkrit Textt, toI. ii. p. 485.
* The Mahd'Farinibbdna'Sutta, tranB. by T. W. Rhys Dayids, Sacred JBooks
of the JEasty Yol zL p. 93.
' Khandogya-Upaniehad, Sacred Books of the Eact^ toI. i. p. 137.
OEIGIN OP INDIAN AECHITECTITEB. 63
which lasted till the beginniDg of the Christian era, when
the throwing of the ashes into a river began. This would
perhaps indicate the time when the worship of Siva had
assumed predominance, and the belief in the purifying power
of the Ganges water, as well as the legends connected with
it, were accepted. The modern Siva, or Rudra, is so very
different from the Yedic Budra, that he may be classed as a
non- Aryan deity, and the last change in the funeral ceremony
may indicate pretty nearly the date when the Yedic Rudra
had become the non- Aryan Siva ; and this would agree with the
conclusion which Fergusson came to, that the Hindu Temple
was originated and developed daring the first five centuries
of our era. Whether the four-cornered grave of the divine
people was the primitive germ which afterwards became the
Hindu temple, or whether some structure connected with the
worship of the non- Aryan Siva, was the source, I think we
have not as yet the necessary information on which to found
an opinion. I am still hopeful that something will turn up
to give us light on the subject. If I have shown that the
Hindu temple is a development from a tomb, or from some
structure connected with the rites of the dead, the point may
be of some value as indicating the direction in which to seek
for evidence, not only among architectural remains, but also
in the old ceremonies, whether given in books of the present
or of the past.
Fergusson's identification of the linga with the Buddhist
dagoba is rather startling ; it may be so, but I regret that
we have not his reasons for coming to that conclusion. I
know of dagobas which the Brahmins have adopted as
lingas ; but I should suppose he had more solid reasons than
a practice of this kind on which to base his statement.^
The theory which Fergusson gives of the origin of
the Sikhara in his pamphlet^ is, as already stated, that it
^ The Brahmins have utilized the Great Cave at Earli, at least I found them
in possession in 1862 when I yisited it, and the dagoba was represented by them
to De a lii^* Rajendralala Mitra mentions that some of the graves of th^
Mahants, t&eadj referred to in this paper, were surmounted by small Totiv^
chaityas or dagobas, which did duty as lingas.
* Archeology in India, p. 72.
64 ORIGIN OP INDIAN ARCHITECTITEE.
was derived from the dagoba, with its surmounting umbrellas.
He frankly enough acknowledges the difficulties of the case,
and how hard it is to believe that the horizontal lines of the
dagoba should have entirely vanished in the transmutation,
and left no trace behind them. He states clearly enough
that he only gives it as the best out of a multitude of sugges-
tions which had occurred to him during the long space of
fifty years back. That Fergusson, with all his vast know-
ledge of detail in Indian architecture, had spent such a
length of time considering the subject, and failed to find a
satisfactory explanation, is, I think, sufficient evidence that
under the peculiar circumstances of the case it must be a
very hard nut to crack. I am perfectly aware of the
obscurity and consequent difficulties of the question, to
venture upon being rash, where Fergusson has been so fear-
ful to venture. As I am dealing in suggestions, I will give
you one on this subject, but I confess at once that the
evidence in its favour is but small ; still it must be re-
membered that theories, even although not satisfactory, often
lead others to think; and in this way even blunders may
help towards the true explanation.
It is now three or four years ago, when looking over a
popular history of India, full of illustrations,^ that my eye
fell on a picture called the " Car of Juggernaut " — ^not the
one at Puri; — it was evidently from a photograph, and
hence I assume was not a fancy picture. No explanation
appears, but the car is elaborate, and seems not to have been
dismantled after the yearly ceremony, which is the usual
practice, but has been kept as a permanent temple ; and for
this purpose there is what looks like a permanent mantapa or
porch built, and the car has been placed alongside, so that
the whole produces a complete Hindu temple. No one could
look at this without a suggestion of origin coming to the
mind. If this combination has taken place in late years, it
might also have taken place during the first five centuries.
At that time, so far as I can judge, the use of cars at cere-
^ Gassell's Illustrated History of India, by James Grant, yol. i. p. 372.
OBIGIN OF INDIAN AECHITE0TT7RE. 6S
monies was far more common than they are now. They do
not seem to have been confined to Jagannatha. The Budd-
hists had car festivals, and Fah-Hian mentions them as taking
place at Ehoten and Patna ; that was in the fourth century.
If the cars of the gods were more common in the ceremonies
at that date, the chances of one, particularly if it were
elaborate and costly, becoming a permanent temple, would
be all the greater ; indeed, it appears to me that it would be
one of the most likely things to happen.^ I am perfectly
well aware, in making this suggestion, that my theory of the
sepulchral origin of the Hindu temple would be in great
jeopardy ; but then, it must be remembered, that I am not
laying down theories which have been established, but only
suggestions which may lead others to think and to use their
eyes. Should any of the suggestions chance to be confirmed
as correct, it will then be time for the mental scizzors to act
and do the necessary trimming.
It will be perceived that so far the peculiar form of the
Sikhara has not been accounted for. Whether we suppose a
car or a temple, how did it come into existence P I have
a small photograph of one of these raths or cars, in a dis-
mantled condition, and most people who have been in India
may have seen either the cars themselves or similar represen-
tations. In this one of mine, the framework of the tower
is left standing, and that part is made of bamboos, and the
bamboos give in the most simple way the form of the Sikhara.
I shall ask you here not to limit your thoughts to a cftr ; you
may suppose a fixed temple, and most probably a wooden one,
sepulchral or otherwise, for I am not dealing now with the
whole Hindu temple, but only trying to account for the
peculiar form of the sikhara which is a part of it. It would
not be asking you much to grant that a temple in India any
time about two thousand years ago may have had a roof in
which bamboo was employed. Nothing could be more likely.
^ At MahaTallipur, near Madras, there are nine rock-cnt temples; hage
bonlders of granite hare been shaped into temples, and they are called ** raths."
I cannot tell why temples should be called **car8." for that is the meaning of
« lath. ' ' If cars had the intimate connection with temples which is here suggested,
it might help to giro an explanation.
TOI.. XX.— [WEW BRBIS0.] 6
66 ORIGIN OP INDIAN AECHITECTUEE.
We have what is known as the "thatched roof of the
Bengal temple ; as an example of which I may mention the
well-known temple of Kali at Kali-ghat, near Calcutta. Now
it is accepted that this roof owes its form to the bamboo
framework on which the thatch was placed. This form, or
derivation from it, beginning in bamboo, went in the course
of time through the usual transmutations so common in
architecture, and can be now traced nearly all over India,
reproduced in brick, stone, and marble. I submit the sugges-
tion, that in the thatched roof of the Bengal temple we have
the nearest approximation to the sikhara that has yet been
found in India. The curved perpendicular lines in both
are suggestive. You have only to get rid of the curved
line of the drip, a mere trifle, and elongate the height, and
a perfect sikhara will be produced. There would be a
natural tendency to elevate the roof of a temple, to distinguish
it from other buildings, and in order that it might be seen
from a distance.^ A form like the sikhara could be thatched,
but the tendency would be, and particularly where there was
wealth, to use another means of covering. Cloth and tinsel
ornaments may have been used, as we see in the raths.
When the style became established, the bamboo would give
place to wood, which admits of more solidity and precision
of structure. Metal may have been used as a covering ; —
such changes as these might suggest an explanation of the
peculiar ornamentation of the sikhara, which was ultimately
reproduced in stone. The strong point of this theory is the
thatched roof of the Bengal temple, acknowledged to be
bamboo in its origin ; and if the curved Chaitya roof should
be found to have been derived from the Toda cottage, or
some similar construction, this, by showing that bamboo has
had its influence on architectural forms in India, will add to
the probability that the curved form in the Sikhara was in all
likelihood a result evolved from the use of the same material.
I wrote at the time a short note to Mr. Fergusson,* con-
^ It is Tery common in India to see a long bamboo with a bit of cloth at the
end, which can be seen at a distance, to mark the site of a temple or holy pUce.
> This was in 1882.
OEIGIN OP INDIAN ABCHITECTUEE. 67
taining the suggestion ; in reply he said that the idea was
" certainly very ingenious, and I was at first immensely taken
with it/' but on reflection he rejected it. His principal
objection was that Fa-Hian describes one of the Patna cars
as having been in five stories, this implies the horizontal
lines of Dravidian architecture. This I admit is strong
evidence against that particular car, and so far it tells against
the theory generally. I understand that Mr. Burgess made
a similar criticism. The reply to this, of course, would be
that the Dravidian style, which is derived from one story
standing on another, the one above being smaller than the
one below, was not the only style in India; the Bengal
thatch roof being one example, proving so far that there
were others. In this paper I have been careful to separate
the question of the curved line of the sikhara from that of
the car, which I had not done in my note to Fergusson, and
his remarks apply more particularly to the conjunction of
the two. At the end of his letter, however, he says : " But
putting Fa-Hian aside, the bent bamboo theory seems to me
to come as near to an explanation of the form as any theory
that has yet been suggested, but it must stand or fall on its
own intrinsic merits alone. There is not, so far as I know,
any authority to support it ; I wish there were any ! " This
is very much my own view of the case ; when I wrote to
Fergusson to tell him of the theory, I remarked that I
thought it myself a very good notion, and that all it wanted
was evidence. This is the thing which is so difficult to find ;
and until some old remains turn up to supply the necessary
links, the matter must remain a question of probabilities.
Colonel Marshal] gives a slight sketch of a very peculiar
temple form which he found among the Todas.^ This is
quite a different structure from the Tirieri temple already
mentioned. I have copied it for this paper, as it may
possibly have some connection with the sikhara. There is a
photograph of this spire in Mr. Breeks's work ; ^ there it is
called a ''boa," while Colonel Marshall gives ''boath'' as
^ p. 164. ' pL xiii.
68 OEIGIN OP INDIAN AHCHITKCTITaE.
the name. Neither describe the conBtruction of the spire ;
hence, very little can be said about it. The plan of the
temple is circular, formed of wood about six feet high ; this
is surmounted by a conical roof, like an extinguisher, about
twenty-two feet in height. It would bave been interesting
to know how the framework was constructed, whether of
bamboo or wood : both authors describe it as being covered
with thatch. The probability is that we bave here a very
primitive kind of temple, and what is, perhaps, of some
importance, we have what may be called a round sikhara.
The framework of the cone must have some strength, for
it is surmounted by a pretty large stone, and this is the
feature that I wish more particularly to call attention to, as
it may turn out to be an important link. The sikhara of the
Hindu temple is surmounted by a member not unlike a
cushion; although the sikhara is square to the top, this is
circular, and is raised slightly, to give it more prominence.
It is called the Amalaka, Bajendralala Mitra says it is also
called "the Amra, or Amrasila, so called from its resem-
blance to the emblic Myrobalan. In the Agni Purana, and
in the Manasara, it is named Udumbara, and likened to the
fruit of the Fk'eus Glomerata," ^ This may have been merely
an ornament, to give a sort of finish to the top of the spire,
but it is such a marked feature and stands out so distinct,
that the archsBologist naturally inquires if it is not a survival
of something that once served a purpose. We have a similar
example in the Tee of the dagoba. It, like the amalaka,
surmounts the monument, and might have been supposed to
be only an ornamental appendage, but Fergusson long ago
suspected that it " either was or simulated a relic casket." '
Now Mr. Burgess, in describing the Chaitya cave at Bhaja,
states that the tee, or box, had the upper stone hewn out,
and thus " indicates very distinctly that it was the receptacle
of some relic." * Assuming that Mr. Burgess is correct in
his conclusion, the Toda boath, with the stone on the top,
1 IndO'Aryans, by Rajendralala Mitra, LL.D., C.T.E., Tol. i. p. 67.
* HiBtory of Indian and Kastern Architecture, p. 64.
> The Cave Temples of India, p. 225.
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OEIGIN OF INDIAN AECHITECTUEE. 69
supplies a very striking counterpart to this, and justifies my
reference to it, even if it should turn out to have no relation
to the amalaka of the sikhara.^
Here is what Ool. Marshall discovered regarding this stone,
he first learned that there were relics in the boath. He and
his friend tried to get in to see them, but the Toda in authority
would on no account allow this ; the place was far too sacred.
So they determined on a midnight expedition to the temple,
with the intention of getting the desired knowledge in a bur-
glarious manner. A very humorous account of the adventure
is given. The two gentlemen got in all right, but, to their sad
disappointment, found nothing that they expected; only some
ordinary articles were in the place, — "no bell, no hatchet,
neither ring nor relic of any kind, no niche for lights, no altar,
no stone, no phallus or lingam. No snakes ! Every one has
been telling us lies, and the world is full of sawdust.'' ^ As the
old Toda on whose information they depended had always given
correct information before, he was cross- questioned a day or
two later. After some preliminary inquiries, he was asked
where the relics were placed, and, " with his hand to the side
of his mouth, he said in a low voice, ' Under the stone on the
top of the roof.' " ' In the case of the Todas, these, what-
ever they were, are not necessarily human relics. The point
is that they were relics — something sacred to be preserved—
and that is motive enough when we are seeking for origins
in architecture. Now it must be evident, if this, which we
may easily believe is a very primitive sort of temple, had a
relic on the summit of its spire, and the dagoba had a relic-
holder on its top, it adds considerably to the probability that
the amalaka is a form derived from something of the same
kind. Here, again, we have no direct proof : it may have
been so, or it may not. The suggestion may be useful as a
hint to others, but it must remain a suggestion only, till
further knowledge has been obtained.
The Todas cremate their dead, and they have two bum-
1 Note alio the upper half of roof of Bengal temple. Here this particular
feature is yerj strongly marked.
> p. 166.
• p. 167.
70 OEIGIN OF INDIAN AECHITECTUEE.
ings. Colonel Marshall and Mr. Breeks seem to tne to differ
slightly in their accounts, but I shall follow the latter.
After death the body is burnt, but the skull is preserved ;
also a portion of a finger-nail, cut off, I suppose, before the
burning. These are kept for about a twelvemonth, and then
they are burned with a number of articles. The burning is
done at a stone circle,^ and at the entrance a hole is made in
the earth, into which the ashes are placed ; a stone is laid
over them, and a man breaks a chatty over the stone. This
part of breaking the chatty is a custom followed more or less
by all the primitive tribes of the Nilgiris. I give this
account because if this stone with the ashes under it has any
connection with the origin of the stone, similarly with relics
under it, on the summit of the boath, we have here what
might be the explanation of the Kalaaa, or vase, which
surmounts the amalaka on the Hindu sikhara. This is, of
course, assuming the suggestion given above regarding the
amalaka is correct.^
I cannot help suspecting that the Toda customs represeni
at the present day a very primitive condition of the Hindu
rites, or perhaps I ought rather to repeat Mr. Fergusson's
expression of " Dasya rites." I am not sure whether the
bell figures in the old Yedio ceremonies, but we know that it
does so very largely in the worship of Siva now. All his
temples have a bell, which is sounded by the worshippers,
and Nandi has always one hanging from his neck. With
the Todas a bell is the most sacred relic in the temple. It is
supposed to be old, and has no tongue ; a bell is always
placed round the necks of the buffalos sacrificed at the crema-
tion ; the relics which are preserved from the first burning
^ Mr. Sreeks states that the Toda burning-place is called ^^ Methgudi^ lit.
Marriage Temple,** p. 20. This suggests an explanation of the Asura festal rites
in relation to the dead.
' In many Himalayan sikharas, instead of the amalaka there is a small roof
formed of wood ; it is square, and a p3rramid in shape, standing on four small
wooden posts. This very marked variation is, I think, a point in favour of the
theory that the amalaka is derived from an umbrella, which would be like the
wooden structure and canopy. I believe some of the Himalayan temples have
more than one of these roofs, one above the other, in this again still more
suggesting the umbreHas of the Buddhist dagoba, which Mr. Fergusson belieyes
to be the source of the sikhara.
ORIGIN OP INDIAN ARCHITECTUEE. 71
are placed in a hut, and a bell is hung over them, which the
relatives ring night and morning, generally for nearly a
year, when the second cremation takes place. When the
Yotary of Siva at the present day rings a bell at a shrine,
which he supposes is to waken or to call the attention of the
god, he may be only repeating part of an old rite connected
with the dead, of which we have a marked example in the
"dead bell'' of the Roman Catholic Church.^ The Hindu
of our own time will not kill a cow, in later times he has
adopted a more humane ritual ; but his Nandi may yet repre-
sent the old funereal sacrifice which accompanied the spirit
of his proprietor^ and was thus a sort of Yahan, to the regions
of Yama.*
^ I can refer to a noted bell of this kind which existed in Glasgow/ and was
said to have belonged to St. Mnngo. the patron saint of the town ; it was known
as the '* Deid BeU,'* and was used at funerals; it *^was also rung through the
streets for the repose of the souls of the departed.*' This bell even surTived the
destruction of many things at the Reformation, as the following record of a
Presbytery meetine in 1594 will show : *' The Presbyterie declains the office of
the ringing of the Dell to the buriaU of the deid to be ecclesiastically and that the
electioun of the persone to the ringing^ of the said bell belongis to the ancient
canonis and discipline of the reformit kirk." This bell still surviyes, but only in
the armorial bearings of the city.
' The Vahan of i ama is curiously enough a buffalo, the animal sacrificed at the
Toda cremations.
72
Aet. III.— The Chaghaidi Mughah. By E. E. Oliver,
M.LC.E., M.R.A.S.
Without attempting to go back to the obscure traditions
concerning the great nomad confederacy or confederacies
that ranged the country north of the desert of Gobi, or to
the genealogies of the tribes of Turks, Tartars, and Mughals,
descendants of Tails (Japhat) son of Nuh, who, after coming
out of the Ark with his father, is said to have fixed his yurat
or encampment in the Farther East, and who have furnished
subjects for the most copious traditions for native chroniclers,
and materials for the most intricate controversies ever since ;
it may perhaps safely be assumed that Mughal was prob-
ably in the first instance the name of one tribe among
many, a clan among clans, and extended to the whole as its
chief acquired an ascendency over the rest. The name is
most likely locally much older than the time of Chengiz,
but it was hardly known to more distant nations before the
tenth century, and became only widely famous in connection
with him.
It is also perhaps unnecessary to enter upon the vexed
question as to how the name is to be most properly spelt.
"Writers who have drawn considerably from Chinese sources,
and most of the standard authors, like d'Obsson, Yule,
Howorth, and others, have adopted and familiarized us with
" Mongols." On the other hand, to the Persian writers
who have much to tell concerning them, and in so far as
they are associated with India and the countries adjoining,
they are Mughah or Mughula. To Timur, B&ber, and Akbar,
their ancestors were Mughah, and the first ''Irruptions of
THE EMPIRE AND DESCENDANTS OF CHENGIZ. 73
the Infidels into Islam " were Mughal incursions. It might
be urged that the name, as well as the people, became
Muhammadanised, and both in their proper place may be
equally correct, but it is certainly more convenient to use
one throughout, and, from an Indian point of view, the
latter.
The Empire and Descendants of Chenoiz.
If he did not actually establish the supremacy of his tribe,
Yassukai, the father of Qhengiz, had done much towards it.
He had enforced obedience on many of the surrounding
clans, had asserted his entire independence of Chinese rule,
and though, when he died in 1175 (571 h.), the people over
whom he directly ruled are said to have only numbered some
40,000 tents, it is probable he had laid the foundations for a
rapid increase to the power of his state, disproportionate as
those foundations might be to the extraordinary development
that followed. When his father died, Tamurchin, as he was
then called, was but thirteen years old, and for the next
thirty years was occupied in establishing his authority, first
over his own, and then the neighbouring clans, facing power-
ful conspiracies, and consolidating his power. In 1205 (602 h.)
he summoned a Kuriitai, or general assembly of all chiefs
of the tribes in subjection to him, announced that Heaven
had decreed he should thenceforth be known as '' The
Qhengiz Khan," — ^a title something equal to the Great Chief
of the Khans, the Shah-in Shah, or the King of Kings — and
that the "Almighty had bestowed upon him and his posterity
the greater part of the Universe.*' Whatever effect the
announcement may have had on his hearers, he fully believed
in himself, and henceforth devoted the remainder of his life
to a wider and more comprehensive scheme of conquest, and
in twenty years succeeded in building up what, as regards
area, was probably the widest Empire the world has ever
seen — an Empire that the conquests of himself and his sons
finally extended from the Tellow Sea to the Crimea, and
from what is now called the Kirghiz Steppes to Khurasan,
74 CEA6HATAI MU6HALS.
and whicli included lands and peoples taken from the Ohinese,
Russians, Afghans, Persians, and Turks.
Not a little of this was accomplished during his own
lifetime. He had incorporated the neighbouring Keraits,
Naimans, ITlrats, and other scattered Turkish tribes round
about Lake Baikal and what is now Southern Siberia,
received the submission of the Uighurs, borrowing from
them a creed and an alphabet, and established a residence
at Karakorum. He had begun the invasion of China, and
subjugated the northern provinces, the ancient kingdom of
Liau Tung, and the Tangut kingdom of Hia, though it was
reserved for his grandson Kubilai to complete the subjugation
of the Celestial Empire. He had absorbed the great Turkish
kingdom of the Kara Khatai, formerly ruled over by a line
of Gurkhans, a territory which included Imil, Almalik,
Khotan, Kashghar, and Yarkand. He had marched with
three of his sons, Chaghatai, Oktai, and Juji, accompanied
by immense armies, estimated at 600,000 men, into the
territory of the Khwarazm Shah, whose rule then extended
from the Caspian Sea to near the Hi river ; and under a
discipline of Draconian severity, had harried the fairest plains
and spoiled the richest cities of Transoxania and Khurasan,
unfortunatecountries which suffered a combination of atrocities
hardly to be equalled in history. Lastly, he had driven Jalal-
ud-din, the last of the Khwarazm Shahs, a fugitive into
Persia. These vast Mughal hordes were subsequently divided
into separate armies under his descendants. One swept
over Khwarazm, Khurasan, and Afghanistan ; another over
Azarbaijan, Georgia, and Southern Russia ; while a third
devoted its attention to China,
In the midst of this career of conquest, Chengiz died in
1226 (624 H.) at the age of 64,^ leaving behind him traces
of fire and sword throughout Asia. He had previously, in
1221 (621 H.), according to the Mughal custom, divided his
gigantic empire, or, as the distribution was tribal rather than
territorial, it is more correct to say, had partitioned out as
^ Some writen make out his age to hare been 72.
THE EMPIRE AND DESCENDANTS OF CHEN6IZ. 75
appanages the tribes over whom he ruled. These tribes
were in many, if not most cases, nomads, occupying some-
what loosely defined camping grounds, which in the natural
order of things were occasionally unayoidably changed. A
due appreciation of the fact that a chief not unfrequently
ruled over a moveable inheritance will assist to a better
understanding of the difficulties of fixing the boundary of a
Khanate, and of the complications likely to occur, when, as
was frequently the case, it became subdivided.
Of consorts, '' Khatum** and wives of sorts, Chengiz had
many, and possibly a goodly number who came under the
denomination of " ladies " rather than wives. Among these
wives of the highest rank, the chief was Burtah Kuchin,^ of
whom was bom, first JujI, " the unexpected " — there was
a doubt about his paternity — and subsequently Chaghatai,
Oktai, Tulili, and some five daughters. Between these four
sons the inheritance was divided, the other children probably
being given tribal rank below them. To Oktai, a somewhat
hard-drinking warrior, was given the appanage of the tribes
of Zungaria, and in addition he was nominated successor to
the Supreme Ehanate, to which in due course he succeeded,
assuming the title of Khakan. The seat of the Khakan's
empire eventually became Khanballk or Pekin, and included
China, Corea, Mongolia, Manchuria, and Thibet, with claims
even towards Turaking and Ava. Before this, however, the
supreme throne had passed to the line of Tului, which it did
after one generation in 1248 (646 h.).
To Tului was assigned the home clans, the care of the
Imperial family and archives, and, as fell out, the flower of
the Mughal army proper; to which last circumstance it was in
a great measure due that his eldest son Mangu, a general
of renown, became afterwards chosen as supreme Kaan;
who was again succeeded by a still more famous brother,
Eubllai, the '' Great Ehan " of Marco Polo, and the '' Eubla
Ehan " of Coleridge. A third brother, Hulaku, founded the
Persian dynasty of the Ilkhans, and an Empire that besides
1 Beallj the Chinese tiile Fachin.— Ed.
76 CHAGHATAI UUOHALS.
all Persia came finally to include Georgia, Armenia, 'Ajuu*-
baljan, part of Asia Minor, the Arabian Irak, and Khurasan,
with a capital at Tabriz.
JujI, the eldest, died before his father Ohengiz, but to his
family was assigned the Empire of Eipchak, or the northern
Tartars, founded on the conquest of Batu, his eldest son.
Its chief seat was at Sarai, on the Volga, and it finally
covered a large part of Russia, the country north of the
Caucasus, Khwarazm, and part of modem Siberia ; the
whole being known under the generic name of the *' Golden
Horde,*' from the chief's "Sir Orda" or golden camp. Batu
ruled the Blue Horde or Western Eipchak, extending east
and west from the Ural to the Dnieper, and north and south
from the Black and Caspian Seas to Ukak ^ on the Volga,
and carried the Mughal armies over a great part of Russia,
Poland, and Hungary, scattering fear through Northern
Europe. IJrdah, his brother, ruled the White Horde or
Eastern Eipchak, from the Eizil Eum, or red sands, to the
Uzbak country, where Shaiban, another brother, ruled the
Eirghiz Eazak steppes, while a fourth ruled to the north
again in Great Bulgaria, and a fifth for a while was indepen-
dent in Southern Russia.
From these descended the various lines known as the
Ehans of Astrakhan, of Ehiva, of Eazan, of the Erim, and
of Bukhara. Excepting the Ilkhans of Persia, the whole of
these, with their intricate ramifications, have been dealt with
by Mr. Howorth, who, in his three volumes of "Mongol
History," has devoted an amount of patient research that
can perhaps only be fully appreciated by those who have
consulted his learned work.
He promises in subsequent volumes to write the history
of the Ehanate of Chaghatai and his successors, of the
Persian Ilkhans,^ and of the Empire founded by Timur,
with its still more famous ofishoot the Mughal Empire of
India, and last but not least, an index. Considering the
^ Near the modern SaratoT. _
* The volume dealing with the Ilkhans is printed and will be very shortly
issued.— £d.
THE APPANAGE OF CHAGHATAI. 77
history of this Khanate of Chaghatai is the most obscure
of all the branches of the family of Chengiz, and that in
most histories the dynasty is barely mentioned, or is
dismissed, as by d'Ohsson, with a bare list of rulers,
professing to be neither complete nor accurate; and that
the Persian chroniclers, who, though near neighjbours,
probably themselves not very trustworthy or consistent, are
for the most part untranslated, and, to most residents in
India, inaccessible ; it would have been decidedly more
judicious to wait for Mr. Howorth's promised volume before
attempting any sketch, however brief or unpretending.
However, while dismissing the " doubt that would make us
lose the good we oft might win by fearing to attempt," it is
as well to at once disarm criticism by confessing no one can
be more sensible than the writer of the imperfections of the
sketch.^
The Appanage op Chaghatai.
The dominions assigned to Chaghatai, or held by his
successors, included Mawara-un-Nahr and parts of Khwarazm
and Khurasan, the IJighur country, Eashghar, Badakhshan,
Balkh, and the province of Ghazni to the banks of the
Indus. A vast extent of territory, corresponding to the
modern kingdom of independent Tartary, the western
and northern portions of Chinese Turkistan, Transoxania,
with at least a part of Afghanistan. It included countries
differing from each other in every particular. North
of the mountains of Mughalistan, the Thian Shan of
the maps was a great pastoral country, interspersed with
lakes and rivers, varied with hill and dale, rich plains
and pleasant meadows ; in the spring and summer covered
with beautiful flowers and plants, and at those seasons
* The principal authorities used in the aboTe are : Histoire dee Mongols, par
d'Ohsson, Amsterdam, 1835. History of the Mongols, by Howorth, first three
Tols.. London, 1876-80. Coins of the Montis, vol. vi. of the British Museum
Catalogue, by R. S Poole, London, 1881. Tabakat-i-Na^iri, byMinhaj-ud-din,
and Major Kaverty's valuable notes, London, 1881.
78 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
possessing a climate particularly delightful, though the
extreme cold of the winter drove the inhabitants to seek the
more southern and sheltered districts. But it was also
interspersed with and abutted on extensive deserts, while to
the east a great townless waste separated the Khanate from
the Empire of the Great Eaan. Eashghar and Yarkand, or
what was called the Middle Empire, lay between these
mountains, and the wealth and population of the south,
and though they too abounded in wild country, possessed
many large and important towns, BuUiara and Samrkand,
the *' pearls of great price," and the country that went under
the name of Marwara-un-Nahr. Farghana, Balkh, and
Badakhshan on the other hand were rich and civilized
kingdoms, rejoicing in cultivated fields and flourishing cities,
less prosperous perhaps than before the devastating visits of
Chengiz, but gradually recovering themselves.
The inhabitants of a good deal of this western part of
the !^anate, more especially Bukhara and Samrkand,
had much more in common with their south-western
neighbours, to whom they were more nearly allied by
blood, culture, and religion, than with the more vigorous
but less civilized Chaghataides ; and though they re-
mained subject to the family till the appearance of
Timur, it was more generally as dependencies than as
integral parts of the Empire. The first head-quarters of
the Khans is said to have been Bishballk, but Chaghatai
himself soon moved his summer residence to Almalik (or
Almaligh), which place was certainly one of the capitals
from a very early date, 1234 (652 h.), and continued to be,
at least nominally so, until the end of the dynasty. The
sovereign is reputed as residing there in the time of Hulaku,
1254 (652 H.), and Ibn Batuta in 1334 (735 h.) speaks of
its being still recognized as the proper capital.
THE GBOGEAPHY OP THE KHANATE. 79
The Geography of the Khanate.
Information regarding the whilom famous towns and
places in the north-eastern part of the Khanate is very
scanty. Besides the wars, emigrations, and movements of a
people, themselyes mainly nomads, great physical changes
Lave taken place during the six centuries that have elapsed
since the death of Qhengiz. What were once flourishing
cities have in many cases been replaced by sandy deserts,
and the very sites of others been lost to human ken for the
latter half of that period. Scattered notices are to be found
left by the early mediaeval travellers, and to the Buddhists
and Chinese we are more especially indebted for fragmentary
notes regarding many.
Karakorum, which still stands among the mountains of
Mongolia, was the chief seat, first of the Khans of Kerait,
and next the probable residence of the Great Kaans until
Kubllai moved his capital to Khanballk, the modern Pekin.
Bishbalik (Pentapolis), the ancient chief seat of the Uighurs,
the Bie-sze-ma and Bie-shi-bdli of Chinese writers, is supposed
to be the modem IJrumtsi. Almalik is mentioned by many.
Ye-liu Tch'u-tsai, the Chinese statesman who accompanied in
1219 (616 H.) Qhengiz Khan during his conquest of the
West, after describing the Sairam Nor, the lake on the top
of the mountain of Yin-shan, and the dense forest of apple
trees to the south, " through which the sunbeams cannot
penetrate," goes on to A-li-ma, the " city of apples," named
after these apple orchards round it.^ Grapes and pears, he
says, also abounded, and the people cultivated five kinds
of grain, and eight or nine cities were subject to them.
Tch'ang Tch'un, a Taouist monk, on his way to and from
the court of Qhengiz in 1221 and 1224 (618 to 621 h.), de-
scribes the "lake of Heaven" or Sairam Nor, and after
passing through the Talki defile, comes to the " apple city,"
A-ii-ma, where he was entertained by the rulers of the
1 AHma is the Turkish for * apple.'
80 CHA6HATAI MITGHALS.
P^-U'SU-man or Musalmans. Tch'ang Te, an envoy sent from
Mangu Kaan tx) his brother Hulaku, who had just defeated
the Ehalif of Baghdad, describes the abundance of fruit at
A-li-ma-lu^ "Melons, grapes, pomegranates, of excellent
quality. The reservoirs in the market-places connected with
running water/' " The Muhammadans lived," he says,
" much with the Chinese, until gradually their customs had
assimilated. On the mountains round grew, but poorly, many
cjrpresses ; but the dwelling-houses and bazaars stood inter-
spersed amid gardens. In the winter the people used sledges
drawn by horses, which carried heavy burdens very quickly.
Gold, silver, and copper coins were in use, having inscriptions,
but no square holes.
Bilasaghun, Col. Yule considers may have been the capital
of the ancient empire of the Kara Khitai, and where, about
1125 (519 H.), the Gur Khan fixed his residence and estab-
lished the Buddhist faith, and where his successors were still
reigning in 1208 (605 h.), when the Khan of the Naimans
sought shelter at his court, married his daughter, and eventu-
ally ousted him from a large part of his dominions. One of
the Chinese travellers above mentioned calls it Su-sze-tco-
lu-do} the capital of the Kara Khitai, or Si-liao, and says
several "tens of cities" were subject to it. It was also
associated with the semi-mythical Pope-King Prester John.
After the kingdom had been overthrown by Chengiz, and
this city passed to Chaghatai, little more is traceable
regarding it. Its position can hardly be fixed. Colonel
Yule puts it east of the KlzTl Bashi Lake ;. Mr. Howorth,
more doubtfully, near the modern It-Kitchu, in the Chu
valley. Several other authorities incline to place it some-
where in the valley of the Chu River. Imll was another
rival capital of the Kara Khitais, and, as will be noticed here-
after, subsequently the capital of the Khans of Mughalistan,
when they made their yearly journeys from Kashghar and
Yarkand to the north of the Thian Shan Mountains. The
"Omyl" of Carpirai, it was probably the "Aimol Guja"
1 Wb-lu-do, probably meaning *• Ordu " or camp.
THE OEOGRAPHT OF THE KHANATE. 81
of Timur, as he called the capital of the ''Jettah'' or
Mughalistan monarohsy and their royal residence in 1389
(792 H ). The city stood on the banks of the river of the
same name, near where the latter flows into the Alakul, and
is represented by the present frontier town of Chuguchak, or
Tarbogotai. Kabalik, or Eayalik, would appear to correspond
to the CaiUic of Rubruquis, who halted there for ten days in
1254 (652 H.), the Khanlak of Edrisi,^ and the modem
S[ainak referred to by Yalikhanoff.^ It is placed by most
writers in the vicinity of Lake Balkash, though some '
incline to identify it with the greater Yelduz^ of Timur.
Telduz, however, according to the Rauzat-us-Safa, was among
the spurs of the Thian Shan, slightly to the left of the great
caravan route. It was celebrated for its beautiful springs,
luxuriant meadows, and fine breezes, and was the place
where, after his campaign against the '^Jettah nation,"
Timur camped for some time, devoted to feasting and recrea-
tion, in ia89 (792 h.).
Naturally the most important places lay along the principal
land-routes between China and Europe. The chief of these
differ but little from the post and caravan routes of the
present day. In fact, in a country so intersected by
lofty mountain ridges, with a limited number of passes,
this could hardly be otherwise. From those followed by
Zemarchus, who went on a mission for the Emperor
Justinian about 569, or the Buddhist Hiwen Thsang, who
travelled over a part of the groimd in 629 (8 h ), the
routes taken by mediaeval travellers, and that of the Russians
of to-day, varied but little. The main highway was the
northern road which left Ohina by its extreme north-western
comer and crossed the desert of Gobi to Eamil, the Hamil
or former Igu of the Chinese, from which town two routes
diverged, one on either side of the Thian Shan mountains.
1 Vide his Geography, written in 1163-54.
* FiVfe " The Huarians in Asia."
> Bitter, etc.
* Timor refers to two, Katchak Teldiiz and Olugh TeldOs, the latter ahont
46 leagues south of the former.
VOL. XX.— [kiw asBixa.] 6
82 OHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
Polo describes the people of. Eamil as all Buddhists in his
day, but in 1419 (822 h.) Shah Rukh's envoys found a
mosque and a temple side by side. An ancient city of the
Uighurs, it is now a Chinese commissariat depdt. The
southern route was through Turfan, a town bearing the same
name when visited by Benedict Goes about 1615 (1024 H.),
and when taken by Yakub Ehau, the Amir of Xashghar,
in 1870 ; Karashahr, or " Black town/' on the Eaidu
River, the " Yenki" of the Chinese writers and the " Cicalis "
of Benedict Goes; Kuohar, or ** Ctma^^ as Goes calls it,
a place still of some importance; Bai, the "Pein" of
Polo, which is noticed by Ibn Muhalhal as "a great
city where jade is found in the river, and a red stone good
for the spleen " ; but one now better known for its sheep
farming and felt manufacture ; and lastly Aksu ('' white
water *'), a town appearing in the Chinese annals as early as
the second century b.c, possibly the Auxacia of Ptolemy.
Once the residence of the kings of Kash^ar and Yarkand,
it is still a central point of Chinese trade. Here the main
routes diverge, one going on to Eashghar and Yarkand,
thence over the Muzart Pass along both sides of the Isik
Kul towards the valley of the Chu River. The Isik Kul, or
" warm lake," may have been so named on account of the
numerous warm springs on its southern shore, and irom the
fact that there is only the thinnest crust of ice along its edge
in winter. Hiwen Thsang calls it " Thaing tchi/^ and has
many stories of the dragons, fish, and extraordinary monsters
that rose out of it. The Chinese spoke of it as " Zhe hai," or
^^ Yan hai," which had much the same meaning. To the
Kalmuks it was " Temurtu Nor^" or the iron lake, on account
of the black iron sand on its shores ; and to the Khirghiz
" Tuzgul" or salt lake. The latter have many legends
regarding it. The water is of a deep dark blue, shut in by
mountains. At the eastern end the shore is thickly strewn
with skulls and bones, where they say in ancient times a
great battle was fought, and these are the remains of the
slain. Others say, that here stood a city, submerged for its
wickedness^ and in connection with which Schuyler tells a
THE GEOGRAPHT OF THE KHANATE. 83
flomewliat good story.^ That in former times cities existed
on its shores, that have since been submerged, both the
legends and the old Chinese maps agree to render probable.
Bains are still Tisible onder water, and the level may pos-
sibly haye risen. It is now 5300 feet above mean sea-level.
To the north of the Thian Shan the route lay, if not
throDgh, at least near to Bi^ballk; thence by the modem
town of Ku-kara-asu ; by the Sairam Nor, the Talki Pass,
and Almalik, very nearly approximating to what till lately
was one of the great Imperial Chinese post roads, joining
the one from Kayalik and the modem route to Sempolatinsk
at Altyn Imil, the '' golden saddle." This road met the
southern route at Almatu, a little town at the foot of the
mountains, on a small stream called Almatin — ^both probably
connected with abundance of apples — and corresponding to
the present flourishing Siberian town of Yieray. A little
further along, just over the Eastak Pass, CoL Tule suggests
the probable site of Asparah, a place frequently mentioned
in Timur's wars, and probably corresponding to the Equius
of Rubruquis. A little further still is Tokmak, the old town
now in almost nndistinguisbable ruin about fifteen miles
from the present Bussian station. It was formerly the
capital of a principality. The Mughal writers spoke of the
Sultan of Tokmak, meaning probably Ehw&razm Shah.
Hiwen Thsang refers to it as a city six to seven U in cir-
cumference, the meeting-place of merchants from difierent
kingdoms, and Tch'ang Te in 1259 (658 h.) as " having a
numerous population, the surrounding country irrigated in
all directions by canals.'' The route thence passed on to
Talas, a well-known and ancient city of considerable im-
portance. Zemarchus would seem to have met the Persian
Ambassador here in 569. Hiwen Thsang in 629 (8 h.) calls
it Ta-lo-see, and says it was eight or nine U in circumference,
many merchants from many countries living there. Tch'aog
T'chun in 1222 (619 h.), Tchang Te in 1259 (658 h.), and
Hethum, the King of Armenia, in 1254 (652 h.), refer to
* Scliiijler's Tarkkkaa, yol. iL p. 122.
84 CHAGHATAI MXJGHALS
passing through it, and many Muhammadan historians
speak in praise of its rich meadows. It was probably at
or near the modern Aulie-ata, an insignificant country
town. Some ruins ten miles away may possibly be
the site. Either a little east or west of Talas was the
" Valley of the thousand springs," the " Ming Bulak," or
"Thsian Thsiouen" where Hiwen Thsang makes the Gur
Khan of the Turks pass his summers. It was very likely
the identical place where Zemarchus met his predecessor
sixty years before. Sairam, a little further on, may be the
** Sai'lan " of the Chinese travellers, where was a " tower
in which Muhammadans worship." Near this, Isfidjab, to
give its Muhammadan name, the "Pt-«A«t " or white water of
Hiwen Thsang, who described it as six or seven li in circum-
ference, and says he preferred the climate of Ta-lo-see. The
modem Turkish name is Chimkent, possibly a corruption
of " Chaim" and ''Kent," Spring-town.
From here two great routes again diverge, the one passing
by Yassi, now the town called Turkistan, where Timur in
1S97 (800 H.), while waiting for his bride, Tuket Khanun,
built a mosque over the tomb of Hazrat Hodji Akhmad
Yasaki, a celebrated Central Asian Saint. By Yangigand,
also called Yannikent or new town, the " Kong yu " or
" Tangy " of Hiwen Thsang, " a town five or six li in cir-
cumference, the plain round particularly rich and fertile,
with magnificent gardens and forests," and which appears
on modem maps as Yangi Kurgan. And thence north-
westward, following the Sihun between the K*-zil Kum (red
sands) and the Kara-Tagh (black mountains ^), towards the
Aral Sea and the Khanate of Kipchak. The other by Shast^
or Tash Kant (stone city) to Transoxania.
Another much less frequented route was the one via
Kashghar over the Terek Pass into Farghanah. And a
third still less used, though taken by Benedict Goes, and
in former times by some of the Khans of Turkistan, was by
Yarkandy Yanghihissar, the Bam i Dunya (Roof of the
^ Yiz. not coTered with perpetaal snow.
THE GEOGRAPHY OP THE KHANATE. 85
world), into Badakhslian and the upper valley of the
Oxus.
In the little compact kingdom of Farghanah, rich in fruits
and grains, orchards and gardens, with a fertile soil and a
temperate climate, shut in on three sides by snowcapped
mountains, the flourishing cities are better known and would
seem to have changed but little. Akshi, or Aksikat, was a
mint town of the Samanis 919 (307 h.), of the Khalifs in
1004 (397 H.), and in 1494 (900 h.), the second town of
importance in the valley and the residence of Omar§heiUi,
B&ber's father. Andigan was B4ber's own capital. Uzgand,
TJsh, and Marghilan are noticed as places of importance by
many writers. Ehujand, the modem Hodjent, is thought
to correspond with Gyreschata or Cyropolis, the outmost city
built by Cyrus ; a strong place taken by Alexander. It was
a mint town of Ilik Nasr in 999 (390 h.), and was almost
destroyed by Chengiz 1220 (617 h.). The fame of its fruit
was described by B&ber ; the value of its trade was a constant
apple of discord between Bukhara and Khokand, and it cost
many Russian lives to take it in 1866. From Khujand, all
the way along the valley of the Sihun, or Jaxartes, the whole
country is studded with the remains of what were probably
once large and flourishing towns. There is an old legend to
the effect that the whole valley, from the source of the river to
the Sea of Aral, was once so thickly settled, that a nightingale
could fly from branch to branch of the fruit trees, and a cat
walk from wall to wall and house-top to house-top. Many
of the former cities are now represented by little beyond
mounds, and of others known to history, the positions cannot
be even approximated. To the Mughals, from Chengiz
downwards, must undoubtedly be credited not a little of the
ruin; and no part of Asia suffered so severely from the
desert hordes as the coimtries bordering the Jaxartes and
the Oxus. The accumulated wealth of a previous epoch of
comparative civilization offered rich fields for plunder, which
the inhabitants had become incapable of resisting. Of
BuUiara, Samrkand, and many others, the history is well
known. Shaab, the old name not only of the city, but at one
86 GHAGHATAI MIJGHALS.
time of a district and of part of the river Sihun itself, had
been a mint town of the Khalifs and of the Samanis. Yahya,
the son of Asad Samani, held the territory about 815 (200 h.),
when the inhabitants were said to be of the tribes Ghuzz and
Khalj. The " Tche-shi" of Hiwen Thsang, it was variously
spoken of by others as " Chq;'," " Tchatch," and " Jc^f," and
was as Tashkand captured by an army of Chengiz. So
also was Banaket, a town not far distant, subsequently
known as Shahrukhia. It is shown on Mr. Howorth's
map in the position assigned to it by Mr. Rayenstein,^ but
B&ber, who visited his uncle Sultan Mahmiid Khan there,
says it was on the river between Shash and Khujand, which
is more probable.^ TJtrar, the Farab of the Arabs, a city
and fortress of considerable note, which gave its name to a
district famous in connection with the Khwarazm Shahs.
It stood a five months' siege against an army under Chagh^tai
and Oktai in 1218-19 (615-6 h.). The story goes that its
gallant defender, Almal Juk, with 20,000 men, held out in
the citadel for two months longer, and finally, in company
with two survivors only, fought on from his own house-roof
with bricks handed to him by his wife; the siege costing
the lives of 100,000 men. The Mughals levelled the citadel
to the dust, but the city long survived as a place of im-
portance, and was one of the principal Chaghatai mint towns
as late as the time of Buyan Kuli.
The situation of towns like Sairan, Jand, and Sighnak,
are all more doubtful. Both the latter were said to have
been taken by Sanjar the Seljuk in 1152 (547 h.), and
Jand was one of the strong cities taken by the Mu^al army
under JujI. Its most probable position is suggested by
Schuyler as on the Sihun near what is now known as the
Russian Fort No. 2. The only others of the half-dozen
Transoxanian mint towns of the successors of Chaghatai
needing any notice, as far as the numismatic record is
concerned, are well-known places. Tarmaz, which woidd
^ See map in Howorth's MongoU.
* It may be that the '*01d Tasbkend'* of the maps is the rite. The two
places are sometimes spoken of as identical.
THE OBOGKAPHY OF THE KHANATE. 87
seem to have been one of importance, at any rate from
the time of Burak Khan to the dose of the dynasty,
was a place of note in the time of the Ehwarazm Shahs.
In 1220 (617 h.), Chengiz, after the capture of Samrkand,
and a summer spent at Eash, moved through the " Iron
gate '^ in the Karatagh range, and captured it after a siege
of nine days. While there he organized a hunt on a grand
scale that lasted for four months, after which he sent an
army into Badakhshan. On the coinage it is described as
" Madinat ul rijal " (the city of the people), Tarmaz ; and
on modern maps appears on the north bank of the Oxus as
Tirmid. Kash, the modern " Shehr-i-8abz," or green town,
on the river Koshka, is famous as the birthplace of Timur.
It, or a fortress near, between Eash and Naksheb, was also
associated with a character whom Moore has made almost
more famous, or infamous, in Lalla Rookh — ^Al Mukanna,
the veiled impostor of Ehurasan, who finally shut himself up
there in 780 (164 h.), and from whence, according to the
poet, alone came out again the ill-fated Zulika, who perished
by rushing on Azim's spear.^ It was taken by the Mughals
under Chengiz himself, and was a mint town of his suc-
cessors as late as Buyan Euli. Bald-i Badakhshan was
probably the capital of the province of the same name. CoL
Yule places it in the plain of Baharak, where the Yardoj
and other branches join the Eokchar river. It was also
termed JaUzgdnf and the site may probably not have been
far from the present capital of Faizabad, which, according to
Manphul, was founded by Yarbak Mir of the present dynasty.
Polo says the rulers in his time called themselves "Zulcarnian,"
the two-homed, and claimed descent from Alexander ; and
B&ber, whose brother, Nasir Mirza, was in 1506 (912 h.)
made king for a brief while, notices the same thing. The
city must have passed out of Chaghatfti hands not very many
years after a coin of Euzan in my possession was struck.
Timur in his early years assisted Amir Hussain ** to chastise
his rebellious vassals '' in the province, and in 1369 (771 h.)
^ Nanhaki's story ia lea romantie. He lap the BurTiYing wife gaye up the
dtadel for 10,000 ukithu
88 OHAGHATAI MU6HALS.
Shah Sheik Muhammad, its prince, joined the standard of
Timur himself against Hussain. In 1416 (819 h.) the
prince submitted to Shah Rukh, who sent his son Suyurghat-
mish with " Yengui Shah," a deposed Badakhshan prince, to
take possession.^
Chaghatai and His Successors.
His great expeditions over, Qhaghatai settled down and
lived chiefly at Almallk, though he maintained a regular
service of couriers between his court and Mawara-un-Nahr,
to keep him informed of the affairs of that portion of his
Khanate, and in spite of the drunken habits to which he, in
common with most of the descendants of Chengiz, was ad-
dicted, he is said to have attended personally to all the details
of administration, and, if strictly, to have ruled justly. He
appointed Mughal governors, Buka Bosha at Bukhara, and
Jongsan Taifu at Samrkand; but the government of the
Transoxanian appanages as a whole was entrusted to a Muham-
madan, Mas'Od Bak, who held the title of "Jutnilat-ttl'Muik,'*
Minister of State, and enjoyed the entire confidence of the
Khan. Under the minister, Bukhara rose, phoenix-like,
from its ruins ; the people who had remained in hiding ever
since the terrible times of the invasion by the hordes of
Chengiz were gradually coaxed back to their former employ-
ments ; new buildings began to replace those that had been
destroyed, and colleges founded by Mas'ud Bak and others
were filled with students.
For many years the rigour of Chengiz continued to inspire
the rule of his sons, and there appears every probability that
under Chaghatai the western part of the Khanate enjoyed
fairly good and decidedly strong government. The peace
was only once temporarily interrupted by the outbreak of a
^ The principal authorities for the ahoye, in addition to those previously men-
tioned, are : Cathay, and the Way Thither, hy Col. Yule, 2 vols. London, 1866.
Book of Ser Marco Polo, hy Col. Yule, 2 vols. London, 1874. Erskine's Bistory
of India, 2 vols. London, 1854. Turkistan, hy Eugene Schuyler, 2 vols. London,
1876. Mongolia, hy Prejevalsky (translated), London, 1876. The Russians in
Central Asia, hy Yalikhanof, etc. (translated), London, 1866.
CHAGATAI AND HIS SUCCESSORS. 89
religious enthusiast, a sieve-maker named Mahmud Tarani,
who in 1232 (630 h.) appeared at an obscure village near
Bukhara, proclaiming himself inspired by spirits and possess-
ing supernatural attributes. He succeeded in getting together
a considerable following, was received with honour by the
people of the city, caused the public prayers to be read in his
name, confiscated the property of the rich, and spent his time
and his unlawful gains in orgies with the captured ladies
with whom he filled his house. His supremacy in Bu^ara
was short-lived, though it came near to again bringing ruin
on the place, for he was killed in a fight between his
fanatical followers and a force under Chaghatai's officers,
who quickly disposed of the business, but were with difficulty
restrained by Idas'ud from giving over the city to vengeance.
Chaghatai died in 1241 (639 h.),^ but there are few
particulars regarding his death, save that it occurred among
his own people, and great mourning was made for him. He
was reputed a man of great dignity, pomp, and magnificence,
but open-hearted, brave, and hospitable, passionately fond of
the chase, " good was he deemed at trumpet sound, and
good "—especially so — " where wassail bowl passed freely
round," the two pursuits taking up much of his time, while
his chief counsellor and minister, Karachar, carried on the
government. But whether personally or by deputy, his State
was well administered. He instituted a code of laws, known
as Fa««d,^ directed especially against lying, lust, and embezzle-
ment. Communication to all parts of his Khanate became
fairly safe, and it was a boast that neither guards nor escort
were required on any route. He was not much inclined
towards the faith of Islam, nor so tolerant as his brother
Oktai. In fact, by some Muhammadan writers he is credited
with the most sanguinary laws against the Faith, but this
seems hardly borne out by history.
His immediate successors continued to reside mainly in
the eastern part of the Khanate, their wild and wandering
nature preferring the free life of the mountain and desert, to
' Some say in Zi Ea'dah, 638 h.
* Bather he adopted the Taea or Code of CbeDghis.^£D.
90 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
which they were enthusiaatically attached, and which they
considered as the only one worthy of free and generous men.
But the discord so characteristic of Asiatic dynasties was not
long in appearing. Wars succeeded to wars, and when not
engaged with other and more distant tribes, the rival claimants
to the throne fought among themselves. Altogether the
dynasty lasted about 140 years, and within that time some
thirty of the descendants or kinsmen of Chaghatai ruled over
the whole or part of the Khanate, their entire history for this
period being one of revolutions, depositions, murders, and
usurpations, more frequent than usual even in Oriental story.
Sometimes the seat of government was removed entirely to
Bukhara on the west, sometimes the "SJxsinBite was divided
for a while, to be reunited by more fighting, and ultimately
partitioned altogether into two, if not into three States.
Within a century after Ghaghatai's death the £hans had
entirely forsaken the desert tribes, to visit and linger in the
more luxuriant plains of Mawara-un-Nahr. It was, accord-
ing to Ibn Batuta, one of the charges brought against
Tamashirin, that he always remained there, and for four
years had not visited Almallk, or the eastern dominions of
his family. In the end the Khans became mere puppets in
the hands of powerful Amirs, who set them up and deposed
or murdered them at pleasure ; until finally came the famous
Timur, who permitted them no actual authority whatever,
save the use of their names at the head of state papers, or
coupled with his own on the coinage of the realm. Over
Khurasan and the territories beyond the Hazara range all
influence may be said to have ceased with Chaghatai.
Kara-Hulaku, Yassu, Organah, and Alghu, at
Almalik.
Six months after Chaghatai's death his brother, the mighty
Oktai, having caroused more deeply than usual, died at Kara-
korum, the 11th December, 1241 (639 h.), and his death set
almost the whole of the successors of Chengiz squabbling for
his throne, among the most violent as regards party spirit and
CHAGHATAI AND HIS SUCCESSOBS. 91
warlike temper being some of the representatives of Cha^atai.
Per the time being it ended in Turakmah, Oktai's widow,
being appointed regent ; but there were set up lasting dis-
putes among the rival claimants, and the seeds of much future
mischief were sown. For long after, the disputes regarding
the succession to the throne of the Great Kaan became in-
extricably mixed with the affairs, more especially of the
eastern part, of Chaghatai's Khanate, and it is impossible to
give an intelligible account of the latter without occasional
references to the former.
Ghaghatai left a numerous family, but as a successor he
nominated, or Karachar, the minister, set up, a grandson
and a minor — Kara Hulakii ; a widow of the late Khan, by
name Ebuskun, assuming the regency. Her first step was
to order the execution of Madjid-ud-din, the physician, and
Hadjir, the favourite wazir, of her late husband, accusing
them of having been concerned in his death ; the more
probable reason being to get rid of possible obstacles in the
way of her ambition.^ She, however, was only able to main-
tain her position as long as the interregnum which followed
Oktai's death lasted. Oktai's son, Kuyiik, was no sooner
elected supreme Kaan, than he removed all his adversaries,
including Ebiiskiin herself, nominated Yassu Mangah as
chief in 1247 (645 h.), and spread disunion and disorder,
not only in Almalik, but throughout the Khanate, even
Mas'ud Bak having to fly from Bukhara before him, and
take refuge with Batu, the Khan of the Western Kipchak.
Tassu was an exceptional drunkard and a debauchee, but,
fortunately for his Muhammadan subjects, tock for his Yazir
and adviser a pious and learned man, Khwajah Baha-ud-din
of Marghanian, who seems to have endeavoured, unfortu-
nately ineffectually, to disarm his enemies by showing them
every kindness.
At the end of a three years' reign, Kuyiik by dying gave
place to Mangu as supreme Kaan, and in 1252 (650 h.)
Kara Hidaku, with Ebuskun, were reinstated in their former
^ I haye here followed in places almost literally the exoellent nazratiTe of
Yambery, which appears both Bucdnot and accurate.
92 CHAGHATAI MU6HALS.
dignities. Habesh Amid, a creature of Ebuskun's, was ap-
pointed Wazir, whose first step was to imprison Baha-ud-din,
and, in spite of the eloquent verses addressed by the latter to
the princess, he caused him to be sewn up in a felt bag and
kicked and trampled to a shapeless mass, Yassu lost his
throne for refusing to acknowledge Mangu's authority, and
in restoring Kara Hulaku, one of the conditions was, that the
latter should put his rival out of the way, which Hulakii no
doubt would have done, but died himself before he could
carry out the order.
The government of the Khanate then fell into the hands
of his widow, Organah Khdtun, who, in 1252 (650 h), had
Yassu promptly executed, and reigned happily in Almalik
for ten years after. Organah was one of the three Mughal
graces, of whom Yassaf says : *' Three such forms of beauty,
loveliness, grace and dignity had never been produced by
all the painters" — at any rate the Mughal painters — "of
creation, aided by the brushes of the liveliest imagination."
They were the sisters, and at the same time the wives of the
Mu^al Princes of Kipchak, Persia, and the Chaghatai
Khanate. If not a convert to Islam, Organah had a decided
leaning in that direction, and showed much kindness to the
Muhammadans on many occasions. She must, moreover,
have had great tact as well as beauty, for not only as the
wife of Hulaku, and then for ten years of independent rule,
but subsequently as the wife of Alghu, she was one of the
most influential persons in the state.
So long as Mangu lived, this " wise and energetic " lady
was allowed to govern in peace ; but in 1259 (658 h.), he
died, and a war of succession broke out between Irtukbuka,^
the third son of Tului,^ and his brother Kubilai, for the
Imperial throne. The former nominated in supersession of
Organah, Alghu> the son of Baider, and grandson of Chengiz ;
and the latter, Apis-ga, the son of Burl, and great-grandson
of Chengiz. Al^u, anticipating his rival, drove out
^ Really Arikbuka.— Ed.
« Tului
Hangft Hulakii Irtu^buka ^ubilai, and six others less known
OHAGATAI AND HIS 8UCCESS0ES. 93
Organah and established himself at Almalik in 1261 (659 h.).
Apisga, with his brother Kadami, were meanwhile taken
prisoners by Irtukbuka, who shortly after had both executed.
Alghu repaid his patron with the blackest ingratitude, for no
sooner did the latter, driven into a corner by Kubllai, invite
his aid, than Alghu, who is said to have had at his disposal
150,000 men, flatly refused it, arrested the commissioners
sent by Irtukbuka to collect taxes, murdered them, and
openly espoused the cause of Kubllai. Irtukbuka, furious at
this treachery, at once faced about, and leaving his city of
Karakorum at the mercy of Kubllai, who as promptly seized
the opportunity to take it, advanced against Alghu, and after
a considerable struggle occupied a large part of his dominions,
Al^ii having to fly from Almalik to Kashghar, thence to
Ehoten, and finally to Samrkand. Irtukbuka spent the
winter of 1263 (662 h.) at Almalik, where he treated the
followers of Al^u with extreme severity, and devastated the
neighbourhood. To such an extent did he carry this, that a
famine ensued, and many thousand people perished.
His cruelties finally disgusted even his own soldiers, many
of whom went over to Kubllai, and his troops and resources
became so weakened, that he ofiered to submit to his brother,
and make peace with Alghu, stipulating to retain for himself
a portion of the eastern part of the Khanate. The Princess
Organah and Mas'ud Bak were appointed negotiators. Alghu
agreed, and to make matters smoother, married the dis-
possessed and whilom beautiful Organah, residing apparently
in Mawara-un-Nahr. Peace was now restored there, the
administrative abilities of Mas'ud Bak were called in to fill
the exhausted treasury, the industrious population of Bukhara
and Samrkand as usual having to contribute the lion's share.
Alghu had one more rival in Prince Kaldu,^ a grandson of
1 Oktai
\
I I i II
Eynk Kukan Kochii Eara^har Kush
Khojah Oghnl Sblramun Eaida
Chapar
94 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
Oktai, who was also a powerful rival of Kubllai's for the
supreme Kaanate. This prince, with the assistance of Batu
of the Western Kipchak, endeavoured to assert his claim to
the northern part of Mawara-un-Nahr, known as the province
of Turkist-an, but unsuccessfully it would seem during Al^ii's
reign. Alghii died in 1263 (662 H.), a short time after his
beloved wife, the ** protector of Muhammadans and the
cherisher of Islam." Irtukbuka had meanwhile prostrated
himself at the door of Kubllai's tent, done homage, and been
forgiven, but died himself shortly after.
Fraehn describes in the Recensio a dirhem of Kara
Hulaku, son of Mutukan, and another of Alghu, son of
Baider, but struck at Bukhara, the former 651 h. (1253),
and the latter in 660 h. (1261).
1266 TO 1270. Mubarak Shah and Borak's four years
OP War.
Kubllai in the first instance nominated Mubarak Shah,
the son of Kara Hulaku, whose name would seem to imply that
he had adopted the creed patronized by his mother, Organah,
and was a Musalman. He is represented as a gentle and just
prince ; but the selection does not seem to have inspired the
great Kaan with much confidence, for in the same year 1264
(662 H.)^ he named secretly as his viceregent Prince
Borak, another great-grandson of Chaghatai, whom he
seems to have thought more capable of resisting his rival,
Kaidu. If this was the reason, he mistook his man. Borak
drove Mubarak Shah from the throne, but so far from taking
active measures against Kaldu, proceeded soon afterwards to
make terms with him, and the two not only exercised joint
sovereignty, but divided the inhabitants of cities like Bukhara
^ The date giyen in mo6t tables is 664 h. (1266), but this seems to require
modificatioD, and may be read as 662 h., the year of AlghQ*s death. According
to Yule, the elder Polo reached Bukhara before 1264, and Borak was then
reining there. " After they had passed the desert ffrom the Caspian) they
amved at a great city called Soeara, the territory of whieh belonged to a king
whose name was Barae," They stayed three years, ultimately going forward
with the enyoys, returning from jilau (yiz. Hulakii), Lord of the Levant (yiz.
the Ilkhan of Persia), to the creat Kaan the Lord of all the Tartars (Eubilai) .
Tule thinks this was 1265, whicn would make Borak as reigning in 1262 (661 h.).
MUBABAE SHAH AND BORAK. 95
like sheep ; sharing the cleverest armourers between them,
80 many being portioned out to each master. A short time
after, however, war broke out between Ealdu and Mangu
Timur, the fourth Khan of the Blue Horde, when Borak,
reluctant to lose so good an opportunity, at once took up
arms and prepared to attack his friend in the rear. Kaidii,
alive to the danger, equally promptly patched up a peace
with the Blue Horde, and gave his faithless ally so thorough
a beating that the latter had to abandon the Turkistaa
province, and retire to Bu^ara and Samrkand.^ His troops,
disappointed of promised loot, Borak, with the most heartless
tyranny, proposed to deliberately sacrifice his own people,
and ordered the inhabitants of these unfortunate cities to
abandon their property and escape for their lives, as both
must be given up to his troops for plunder. The tears and
entreaties of the citizens saved them on this occasion, and
the brutal order was modified into a heaw contribution, and
an order for more armourers to work day and night
preparing fresh armaments. In a short time Borak was
again able to take the field, but at this stage Eaidu, who was
anxious for peace with him, sent proposals though his cousin,
Khojah Ogul, who was also a friend of Borak's. The two
princes met, and in the spring of 1269 (667 h.) held a grand
fSte in the open country north of the Sihiin. The festival
lasted seven days ; peace was established, and confirmed by
rinsing gold in the cup in which they pledged their mutual
vows. In the Kuriltai of the tribes, it was decided thut
Borak should hold two-thirds of Mawara-un-Nahr, the
remaining tbird^ to belong jointly to Eaidu and Mangu
Timur. Borak was not satisfied with the arrangement,
complaining that he had come worse off than any of the
house of Chengiz, and as he insisted more particularly on the
absence of pasture for his flocks, it was decided that he should
recoup himself by invading Khurasan, and that meanwhile
^ According to Howorth fyoL i. p. 174}, KSidii was firat surprued in an ambns-
eade and beaten, npon whicn Mangu Timur supplied him with a contingent of
60,000 troops, the oattle was renewed and fiorak beaten.
* Some authoritities add, '* with Khujand and its neiehbonrhood as far as
flnmrVand," bat this part of the treaty could not hare lastra long.
96 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
all three princes should refrain from ravaging the ruined
territories of Mawara-un-Nahr, impose no taxes on the
impoverished inhabitants, and pasture their flocks at a
distance from the cultivated ground, Mas'iid Bak being
commissioned to persuade the terrified peasantry to return
once more to their occupations. To Kaidu, however, the
most important feature of the treaty was the implied
recognition of him as the rightful Khakan of the Mughals,
which from this time was extended by the Chaghatai Ehans
both to him and his son Chapar.
In spite of the miserable state of things Borak was
impatient to begin his attack on Abaka, the son of
Hulaku, the second of the Ilkhans of Persia. A remon-
strance on the part of the faithful Mas'ud was punished by
seven lashes, an outburst of anger which the tyrannical
Borak repented of, but it did not prevent him carrying out
his intention. He began by sending Mas'ud to Abaka's
court,^ then at Mazendran, with an ostensible excuse about
money, the nature of which Abaka soon discovered, and
Mas'iid barely escaped with his life. A second mission to
gain over the Chaghatai prince Nighudar, then at the Persian
court, equally failed, Abaka being too vigilant. Meanwhile,
Borak's army, accompanied by several princes of the house
of Oktai, had crossed the Oxus at Amui, and encamped at
Merv. The first attack was directed against Abaka's brother
and general Tushin, who, associated with Abaka's son Arghun,
commanded in Eastern Khurasan at Hirat, but who retreated
on ascertaining the superiority of his opponents. Borak
pursued him, and subdued a large part of Khurasan, but
dissensions broke out in his army, he lost half his force by de-
sertion, was finally drawn into a trap by an ingenious trick of
Abaka's, and found himself marching in pursuit of an enemy he
believed to be retreating, straight into an ambush by which he
was surrounded, and his remaining army cut to pieces. Him-
self much hurt by a bad fall from his horse, he had great
difficulty in escaping across the Oxus, and re-entered Bukhara
^ Of this inYiuioii Mr. Howorth promues a full account in his forthcoming
Tolume.
KAIDU, DUA, ETC. 97
broken in mind and paralysed in body. Having turned Mu-
hammadan, and taken the title of Sultan Ghias-ud-din, he
spent the winter in useless efforts to revenge himself on an
ally to whom he attributed all his misfortunes, and finally died
in the spring of 1270 (669 h.), said by many to have been
poisoned.
His reign had extended only to some four years, but they
were years of misery and destruction to some of the fairest
lands and most prosperous cities on the Zarafshan. His
death delivered them from at least one cowardly tyrant
and persecutor, though they still continued to suffer from
the fratricidal wars that constantly raged between the rival
chiefs of the lines of Oktai and Cha^atai, and the unhappy
citizens had even more reason than Venice of old for in-
voking " a plague on both their houses."
KaTdu, Dua, and the Thirty Years' War vhth the
Great Kaan.
•
Borak's death left Eaidu sole master of the western por-
tion of the Khanate. The dispossessed Mubarak Shah and
other chiefs took the oath of allegiance to him, thus ren-
dering him a still more dangerous rival of Eubilai. In
1270 (668 H.), much to the indignation of the sons of Borak,
he nominated Nikpai, a grandson of Chaghatai, chief of the
tribe, but in less than two years Nikpai seems to have
revolted, been killed, and succeeded by Tuka Timur, another
scion of the house {circa 1271 or 670 h.)* who in less than
two years more was ousted by Dua, the son of Borak {circa
1273, or 672 h.). Dua had made up his quarrel with
Kaldu, his claims having been constantly urged by the
latter's son Chapar. His reign was the longest ever enjoyed
by a descendant of Chaghatai, and the Ehanate might have
hoped for some peace from an alliance between the rival
houses, but unfortunately a third firebrand appeared on the
VOL. XX — [nBW 8BBIBB.] 7
98 CHAGHATAI MUGEALS.
scene. Abaka, the Ilkhan of Persia, who had always ac-
knowledged Kubllai as the rightful Khakan in opposition
to Eaidii, and who had never forgiven Borak's invasion of
Khurasan, was only watching his opportunity, and his Yazir,
Shams-ud-dm Juwainl,^ had only to draw his attention to a
favourable omen, to start him for Bul^ara, which he entered
about 1274 (672 h.), plundering, burning, and murdering right
and left. He is credited with making 50,000 prisoners, and,
among other acts of barbarism, with having laid the cele-
brated college of Mas'udi in ashes. He was pursued by the
Chaghatai generals, and some of the prisoners recovered ; but
those generals themselves treated the unhappy country nearly
as hardly, leaving a fresh desert for Mas'ud Bak to try his
restoring hand upon once again.
Dua's long reign was a succession of constant wars, which
brought fresh calamities not only upon Mawara-un-Nahr,
but more or less over the entire Khanate. His ambition
carried him on at least one occasion to India, and for some
years he commanded expeditions in the Punjab in person.
Zia-ud-din Bami says he was defeated by the army of Ala-
ud-dln at Jalandhar in 1296 (696 h.), but he must have
continued to ravage the Punjab for years, and we read of his
returning from a raid on Lahore in 1301 (701 h.). His son,
Prince Katlagh Khwaja, at the head of a large army, ad-
vanced as far as Delhi in 1297-8 (697-8 h.), and was only
beaten off with great difficulty, by the famous general Zafar
Khan. The head-quarters of the horde were for many years
apparently at Ghazni, and their continued raids are referred
to by almost every native historian. The " infidel host " is
usually described as " utterly routed " by the Muhammadan
forces, but in Bind, Trans-Indus, and a good part of the
northern Punjab, they raided almost unchecked ; Peshawur,
Lahore, and Multan, were periodically sacked, and even
Delhi was the subject of constant attacks. At Ghazni,
and probably elsewhere, they issued money, of which two
^ Brother of 'Ala-nd-din *Ata Mulk Jawaini, the historian and author of
Tarikh-i- Jahan Kusha, etc.
KAIDU, DUA, ETC. 99
examples are giTen in Thomas's Chronicles of the Fathan
Kings.^
Hostilities between Kaidu and Kubllai from first to last
extended over a period of twenty years, Marco Polo devotes
many chapters to an account of them. " From year's end to
year's end the great Kaan had to keep an army watching
Caidu's frontier^ lest he should make forays/' His aggressions
are described as unceasing, and he as able to take the field
with 100,000 horse, *' all stout soldiers and inured to war."
While with him were many ** famous Barons of the imperial
lineage of Chengiz," who supported his claims against
Kubllai, and in spite of the desert of forty days extent that
divided the states, engagements between bodies of troops
posted at intervals on either side were constant. Polo de-
scribes some of the battles at length ; one as taking place
about 1276 (675 h.),* in which Kaldi! and his cousin
Yesudar assembled a force of 60,000 horse, and attacked
two of the '' barons," who held lands under the great Kaan,
and who brought into the field a similar force. In the end
the " barons " were beaten, but thanks to their good horses
escaped, and Eaidu returned home, " swelling the more with
pride," and for the next two years remained at peace. But
at the end of this time or less he renewed the attack with a
larger force, put at 100,000 horse, and more allies than ever.
Kubilai's army was under the command of his son Nurmu-
ghan, who had been appointed to command his north-west
frontier, and somewhat defiantly assumed the title of Com-
^ An acoount of Doa's inrasioii is giTen b^ d'Ohsson, who goes on to say :
"Qaelques ann6es apr^, en 1303, Tourghai, prince tchagatajen, s'avan^a jusqu'^
Delhi, et aprds avoir camp6 i)endant denx mois derant cette vflle, qne 6tait
d6fendue par Alai'-nd-din, il jngea k propos de faire sa retraite. L'ann^e
suivante, un autre prince tchingnizien, nommi^ AH fit arec Khodjatasch une iora-
■ion dans Tlnde, k la tSte de quarante mille cheraux. lis passerent an nord de
lAhore, franchirent les moots Sioualik, et p^n^trerent sans opposition jusqu'i
Amroba, on ils furent battus par Toufflouc g^n^ral d* Alai'-ud-din. All et Ehod-
jatasch faits prisonnien avec neuf rome hommes, furent enToy^s au Saltan, qui les
nt jetcr sans les pieds des 616phants. Pour Tenger leur morts, Guebek, general
de Bona, entra dans Tlnde en 706 h. (1306), rara^r le Moultan et s*avan(;a
in8qa'& Sioualik." D'Ohsson iv. 561. Guebek, nz, Eabak, is said to have
been also crnshed under the feet of elephants, but in 709 h. he succeeded to the
Khanate. D'Ohsson enes on to speak of the invasion of India by Tamarshirin,
son of Dua, at the heaid of a large army in 727 h. (1327).
' The text has 1266, bat is corrected by Paathier to 1276.
100 CHAGHATAI MUOHALS.
mander-in-Chief of Almalik, the Chaghatai capital. The
battle, which is graphically described at length by Polo, may
serve as a specimen of Mughal tactics. Kaldu's army is
called a vast force of horsemen, that had advanced very
rapidly. The Prince's force amounted to 60,000 well-
appointed cavalry, that ''all undismayed made themselves
ready for battle like valiant men. When they heard Caidu
was so near, they went forth valiantly to meet him. When
they got within some ten miles of him they pitched their
tents and got ready for battle, and the enemy, who were
about equal in numbers, did the same ; each side forming in
six columns of 10,000 men with good captains. Both sides
were well equipped with swords and maces and shields, with
bows and arrows and other arms after their fashion. The
practice of the Tartars going to battle is to take each a bow
and sixty arrows. Of these thirty are light with small sharp
points, for long shots and following up an enemy ; whilst the
other thirty are heavy, with large broad heads, which they
shoot at close quarters, and with which they inflict great
gashes on face and arms, and cut the enemy's bowstrings, and
commit great havoc. This every one is ordered to attend to,
and when they have shot away their arrows, they take to their
swords and maces and lances, which also they ply stoutly.
" So when both sides were ready for action the Naccaras ^
(kettle-drums) began to sound loudly, one on either side.
For it is their custom never to join battle till the Great
Naccara is beaten. And when the Naccaras sounded, then
the battle began in fierce and deadly style, and furiously the
one host dashed to meet the other. So many fell on either
side that in an evil hour for both the battle was begun! The
earth was thickly strewn with the wounded and the slain,
men and horses, whilst the uproar and din of battle was so
loud you would not have heard God's thunder ! Truly King
Caidu himself did many a deed of prowess that strengthened
the hearts of his people. Nor less on the other side did the
great Kaan's son and Prester John's grandson^ for well
^ A great kettle- dram formed like a brazen cauldron tapering to the bottom,
covered with buffalo hide ; often three or four feet in diameter.
KAIDU, DUA, ETC. lOl
ttey proved their valour in the medley, and did astonishing
feats of arms, leading their troops with right good judgment.
" The battle lasted so long that it was one of the hardest
the Tartars ever fought. Either side strove hard to bring
the matter to a point and rout the enemy, but to no avail.
And so the battle went on till vespertide, and without victory
on either side. Many a man fell there ; many a child was
made an orphan there ; many a lady widowed ; and many
another woman plunged in grief and tears for the rest of her
days. I mean the mothers and the amines (haruns) of those
who fell.
" So when they had fought till the sun was low they left
off, and retired each side to its tents. . . And when
morning approached. King Gaidu, who had news from his
scouts that the Great Eaan was sending a great army to
reinforce his son, judged it was time to be off: so he called
his host to saddle and mounted his horse at dawn, and away
they set out op their return to their own country. And the
Great Eaan's son let them go unpursued, for his forces were
themselves sorely fatigued and needed rest.'^ ^ This battle
by several authorities is described as taking place near
Almallk, the Great Kaan's army as being defeated, both
generals taken prisoner by Ealdu, who advanced on Eara-
koram ; the state of things ultimately becoming so threaten*
ing, that EubllSi had to withdraw his most trusted general,
Bayan, from China, by whom Ealdu was either defeated or
fell back on Mawara-un-Nahr.
Another ten years seem to have passed with no decisive
action between the two great rivals, but Ealdu continued to
grow in power, and became the head of a powerful league.
Subsequently he defeated and captured another son of
EubTlai, Eamala, who was only rescued by the exceptional
bravery of a Eipchak general, and so great was Ealdu's ad-
vantage, that the Great Eaan, in spite of his advanced age,
took the field in person, and Ealdu again had to fall back.
This could not have been very long before Eubilai's death,
^ Tale's Marco Polo, vol. ii. p. 468,
102 CHAOHATAI MUGHALS.
whicli occurred in 1294 (693 h.), his grandson IJljaitu
succeeding as Great Eaan.
Eaidu would seem to have found a staunch ally in Dua.
In 1301 (701 H.) the latter had just returned from one of
his Indian expeditions, and in conjunction with him, Eaidu
resolved on carrying the war into the heart of the country of
the Great Kaan. With forty princes belonging to the now
united houses of Oktai and Ghaghatai, the pair planned an
invasion of the North of China. They were met, however, by
the Imperial army under a nephew of Uljaitu, between
Karakorum and the river Timir, and, according to the
Chinese account, were defeated. The defeat, as far as Eaidu
is concerned, seems to have been final. He is credited with
having during his career gained forty-one battles and was
beaten in this the forty-second, shortly after which he
sickened and died. He is also said to have had forty sons
and at least one remarkable daughter, Aijaruk, " the Bright
Moon,'* of whom Marco Polo tells a quaint story. She was
very beautiful, and still more renowned for her powers of
wrestling. " She was so strong and brave that in all her
father's realm was no man who could outdo her in feats of
strength." Her father, whom she accompanied in the field,
had often spoken of marriage, but she would none of it, she
would marry no man unless he could vanquish her in every
trial. Somewhat of exceptional stature, tall and muscular,
but withal stout and shapely, she had distributed her
challenges over all the kingdoms, inviting the youth to try
a fall with her, the loser to pay forfeit of one hundred
horses, the vanquisher to win her for wife. Many a youth
had tried his strength and lost his horses, and she had won
in this way more than ten thousand horses, and must,, in
fact, have been more valuable to her father than some
modem remount agencies. As Colonel Yule suggests, she
recalls Brunhild in the Nibelungen Lied :
" A royal maiden who reigned beyond the sea :
From sunrise to the sundown no paragon had she.
All boundless as her beauty was, her strength was peerless too,
And evil plight hung o*er the knight who dared her love to woo."
KAIDU, DUA, ETC. 103
Polo goes on to describe how a prince in 1280 (679 h.) came
from a distant land, where he was renowned for strength and
skill, and brought with him 1000 horses to be forfeited if
she should vanquish him. Young, handsome and strong, the
son of a great king, both Saidii and his wife tried to
persuade their daughter to allow herself to be beaten, but
she refused, saying she would only be his wife according to
the terms of the wager, not otherwise. The match came off
before the King and Queen and a great gathering, she in a
jerkin of " sammet " and the bachelor in one of " sendal,"
*' a winsome sight to see." After a long struggle she threw
him on his back on the palace pavement, and great was his
shame and discomfiture to have thus been worsted by a girl.
He lost his horses, and his wife, for she would not have him,
much to the annoyance of Kaidu and his wife. After this
she is said to have taken an active part in her father's
campaigns, and according to some accounts to have been
even ambitious enough to aspire to the succession after his
death.i
It is not very clear what were the limits of Kaidu's
territory, and how much of the Chagbatai Ehanate, in
addition to his own appanage as originally constituted,
acknowledged his sway. The joint sovereignty he at one
time held with Borak in the cities of Bukhara and Samrkand
has been referred to. His authority appears to have ex-
tended over Eashghar, Yarkand, and all the cities bordering
the south of the Thian Shan as far east as Earakhoja or the
valley of the Talas Biver; and the country north of the
Thian Shan from Lake Balkash, eastwards to the Ohagan
Nor, or practically the whole of the middle and eastern
part of the Ehanate.^ Ehotan, Polo says, belonged to the
Oreat Eaan, though Borak got possession of it at the begin-
ning of his reign.
Upon Ealdu's death, Dua did not forget the obligations he
had once been imder to his son Chapar. He urged upon the
Princes the latter's claims to the succession, and it was
1 Tale Marco Polo, toI. i. p. 461.
* CoL Yule would add the tipper YeniMei and the Irtish in the farther north.
104 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
mainly by Dua's influence Chapar obtained it. As soon as
the installation was over, they together agreed to put an end
to the thirty years' struggle with the Great Eaan, and sent
envoys to Uljaitii ofiering submission, a submission possibly
feigned on the part of Chapar. Before a year elapsed how-
ever they fell out, Dua probably asserting his independence,
and in 1303 (703 h.) fought a battle between Samrkand and
£hujand, in which Chapar was defeated. In a second
struggle, with his brother Shah Ogul as general, the result
was reversed, while a third engagement resulted once more
in favour of Dua. Almost at the same time the army of the
Ehakan Uljaitu, 100,000 strong, encamped on the river
Irtish and the Arias mountains, came through the Altai to
attack Chapar, who found himself deserted by the greater
part of his army, and with nothing left to do but escape and
make his submission to Dua. Dua cordially received him,
seeing in his submission the possible fulfilment of his am-
bition, and the reuniting of the Chaghatai provinces, but
shortly after in 1306 (706 h.) he died.
Notwithstanding his long reign, no coin of Dua's would
appear to have been noticed, excepting one described by M.
Tiesenhausen in the Strogano£F collection, and this, struck at
Badakhs^ban 694 h., bears no name. Of Ealdu, there does
not so far seem to be any numismatic record.
1306 TO 1320, Kabak and Issenbuka.
The immediate successor of Dua was his son Sunjuk, who
did not live long, and in 1308 (708 h.) was succeeded by
Taliku, descended from Chaghatai's son Mutukan, said to
have been the second Mughal prince converted to Islam ;
but within a year, possibly on the ground of his perversion,
the officers of his court rose and murdered him at a banquet,
putting up Eabak, another son of Dua, in his place. Eabak
was hardly installed in 1309 (709 h.) when he was attacked
by Chapar, with whom were several princes of the house of
Oktai. Chapar was beaten in several fights, and eventually
fled beyond the Ili to the territory of the Great Kaan, now
EABAK AND ISSENBUEA. 105
Euluky at whose court the Oktai princes did homage and
finally abandoned their claims to the supreme Eaanship,
their domains being appropriated by the house of Chaghatai,
the clans partly becoming its subjects and partly joining the
Eipchaks. With Chapar the house of Oktai disappears,
though representatives came to the front for a brief period
again in the persons of 'Ali, and of Danishmandjeh, while
Timur, after displacing the family of Qhagbatai, selected his
puppet khans from the Oktai stock.
Kabak, for some reason which does not appear, and
apparently by his own consent, was displaced the same year
1309 (709 H.) in favour of an elder brother, who ascended the
throne under the name of Essen- or Issen-buka ; ^ a prince,
according to some histories,^ identical with Imil Ehwaja.
He is variously called by other authorities,^ and it may be
worth considering if he be not the same as the Katlag^
(lucky P) Ehwaja, who made the raid on Delhi in 1289
(698 H.). As Issenbuka he disappears from the scene in
1318 (721 H.), and it is in that year, Abul Ghazi says the
people of Eashghar and Yarkand, or what had then become
the eastern branch of the Ehanate, "called to be their
Ehan Imil Ehwaja, the son of Dua Ehan." Ehondamir,
on the other hand, says Issenbuka reigned over the western
branch till his death. Whichever may be correct, Issenbuka
for the most part of his reign was engaged in hostilities with
one or other. He began a quarrel with the Ylllth Supreme
Eaan, Buyantu, by whose general he was beaten in two
engagements. He next undertook a war against the Yllth
Ilkhan of Persia, Uljaitu, afterwards known as Khuddbandiy
the " servant of God," and to idemnify himself for losses in the
east, attempted to annex Ehurasan. Accompanied by several
princes, he crossed the Oxus in 1315 (715 h.), defeated Amir
Yasaul, the governor of Ehurasan, at Murgbab, and pursued
him to the river of Herat. For four months the country
1 Yambery says Essen (strong, healthy) is a Turkish word.
• Viz. Abul Ghazi.
s •' Ai»ubugKi " in the Taril^ Rashid! ; *^Ilor dil Khtoaja " in the Khulasat
nlAkhbar; ^* AimaV* by Sherfuddin; and ** Imil Khwnja^ who r$ign»d in
Maward'UM Nahr under the tiiU of luai^vgha Khan " by Abul Ghasi.
106 GHAGHATAI MU6HALS.
experienced all the horrors of a Mu^al occupation, which,
only terminated by the advance of the Great Eaan with a
large army on the Issik-kul, necessitating Issenbuka's moving
to the eastern part of the Khanate. As usual the penalty
had to be paid by the luckless Trans-Oxus country, for no
sooner had Issenbuka retired, than Uljaitu prepared for a
counter-invasion of Mawara-un-Nahr. Yassaur, another
brother of Issenbuka, who had turned Muhammadan and
quarrelled with him, had sought and obtained refuge with
the Persian court. He at once seized the opportunity, and
having obtained from IJljaitu a large force, the two crossed
the Oxus in 1316 (716 h.), and defeated Issenbuka, who took
to flight. The Mu^al ravages were returned with interest,
and the inhabitants of Bukhara, Samrkand and Tarmaz were
sent into exile in the depth of a very severe winter, thousands
perishing by the way.
This is the last that is known about Issenbuka so far as
Mawara-un-Nahr is concerned; about 1318 (718 h.) Eabak
resumed the throne from which he had retired, and is said
to have chastised the quarrelsome Issenbuka. Kabak is
shown on the lists of D'Ohsson, Howorth, and others, as
having died in 1321 (721 h.), but this is contrary to the
numismatic evidence. Among coins of his not hitherto
described are those of Bukhara struck in h. 7l2r, 722, 723,
and 724, of Tarmaz in 712?, and of Samrkand in 725, which
may probably have been his last year, as there is a coin of
Tarmashirin struck at Samrkand in 726 h.
The Division of the Khanate. The Eastern Branch.
About this time the star of the Ghagbatais began rapidly
to decline in power, and the Khanate broke up into at least
two divisions, with rival or separate Khans, one of whom
governed the eastern portion and Kashghar, the other ruling
in Mawara-un-Nahr. The former kingdom was the one
known to the Persian historians of Timur and his successors
as Mughalistan ; not to be confounded with Mongolia
to the eastward again. Their winter capital was perhaps
THE EASTEBN BBANCH. 107
originally at EaShghar or Yarkand, and afterwards at Aksu ;
their aummer quarters in Zungaria north of the Thian Shan.^
As already noticed, the royal residence was called Aymul Guja,
when Timur took it in 1389 (791 h.), and is represented by
the present Chinese frontier town of Chuguchak or Tarbogatai
on the Imll, a river flowing into the Aka KuL It is difficult,
88 Col. Yule points out, to understand any disposition of the
frontier between the two branches that could permit the
capital of the one ruling over Ea^hghar and Uiguria to be
88 above indicated, whilst that ruling over Mawara-un-Nahr
had its capital at Almalik. It is possible that Imil, or Aymul,
did not become the head-quarters of the eastern branch till
the western Chaghatais had lost their hold of the valley of
the Hi, but it must also be remembered that the limits to all
each divisions were tribal rather than territoriaL
To first briefly notice the eastern branch known as the
Khans of Mughalistan and the Amirs of Eaihghar. Ealdu
died in 1301 (701 h.), and probably it was some time sub-
sequent to 1310 (710 H.) that Chapar his son had been
driven to seek shelter with the great Eaan, and is heard of
no more. In 1321 (721 h.)> according to the authorities
quoted by Erskine,^ "The inhabitants of Eag^ghar, Yarkand,
Alatash, and the UlgibLurs, found no one of the posterity of
Chagbatai (P Oktai) who might fill the throne then vacant.
They therefore called from Mawara-un-Nahr Issenbuka
Khan," who seems to have reigned till about 1330
(730 H.), though the chronology is somewhat uncertain.
Issenbuka died as was supposed without issue, and none
of the family appear to have been at the time available to
succeed him in MugJ^alistan. The eastern tribes, however,
declined to be subject to the titular Ehans set up at the
caprice of the Western- Amirs, demanding a descendant of
Cbaghatai to themselves, and for a while anarchy prevailed,
1 Yule's Cathay, toI. ii. p. 524. See also The Russians in Central Asia, p.
69. ** The Tchete Moguls are not to be confounded with the Mongols, as they
were Muasalmans and spoke Turkish."
* A sketch of this branch is nven in Erakine, taken from the Tarikh-i-Rashidi
by Mirza Haider Doe^lat, a descendant of the Amirs of Kashghar, and by the
female line from the Khans of Mughalistun. A portion is the history of his own
lather and micle. This work more than desenres to be published.
log CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
The hereditary "TJlu8 Begi"— or "Lord of the Tribe ''—of
Kasighar was one Mir Yulaji Doghlat, who governed in his
own right extensive dominions. The great influence which
he enjoyed from the extent of his territory, extending
from the Desert of Gobi to the border of Farghanah, was
increased by considerable energy of character. He re-
solved that an heir to the vacant niasnad should be found,
and in due time produced a youth whom he announced as
the son of Issenbuka, and consequently a lineal descendant
of Chaghatai. The story of the discovery of the son is given
at length in Erskine, and is fairly illustrative of Mughal
manners.
Issenbuka's chief wife, S'atelmish Khdtun, had no children,
but among his female slaves was a favourite named Manselik,
who was discovered as about to be more happy. According
to Mughal custom, the entire management of the household,
and the disposal of the female slaves as part of it, rested
with the chief wife. Discovering Manselik's condition, and
envious of her good fortune, S'atelmish took the opportunity
of her husband's absence on an expedition to get rid of the
favourite, giving her in marriage to one Shirawal Dokhtui,
conditionally on his taking her out of the country, an arrange-
ment said to have greatly angered Issenbuka when he dis-
covered it. When Issenbuka died, and the tribes fell into
anarchy. Amir Yulaji remembered the incident, and de-
spatched one of his most trusty adherents to seek out Shirawal
and Manselik, and if the latter's child proved to be a boy, to
steal him away. To his envoy the Amir he gave 300 goats
that he might live on their milk, or kill for his support
during his wanderings. The quest carried him a dreary
pilgrimage all over Mughalistan, and he was reduced to his
last goat, when he found, in a sequestered district, Shirawal's
encampment. The Khan's child had proved a boy, and
Manselik had had another by her new husband. He contrived
to steal away the former, who had now reached his eighteenth
year, and after many adventures, much toil, and great danger,
carried him to Aksu, where he delivered him to Yulaji. The
** Ulus Begi " lost no time in proclaiming the youth Ehan,
THE EASTERN BRANCH. 109
who in 1347 (748 h.) was joyfully acknowledged throughout
Mughalistan as Tughlak Timur Khan.
Some years after, or about 1353 (754 h.), Tughlak Timur
became a convert to Islam, and succeeded in extending
considerably the Musalman faith in his dominions. Twice,
in 1360 (760 h.) and in 1362 (763 h.), he invaded and
overran Mawara-un-Nahr, on the second occasion leaving his
son Ilias £han as ruler there. On the death of Amir
Tulaji, who as Uliis Begi bad exercised much of the
authority of government, Tughlak Timur, from gratitude or
policy, bestowed the father's office on the son Amir Kho-
daidad, then only seven years old, a nomination strongly
protested against by Yulaji's younger brother, Kamr-ud-din,
who, under Mughal usage, claimed the office, and though com*
pelled for a while to conceal his indignation, bided his time
for revenge.
When Tughlak Timur died in 1364 (765 h.), his son Ilias
Ehwaja Ehan was in Mawara-un-Nahr, fighting against the
combined forces of Amir Hussain and the still more formid-
able Amir Timur. There, after varjdng successes,^ he was
finally defeated and driven to take refuge in the more desert
parts of his father's possessions,^ and after a short and nominal
reign in Mughalistan of less than two years, he was assas*
sinated by Kamr-ud-din in 1365 (766 h.), who in one day
put to death eighteen males of the family of the Ehan,
resolved if possible to exterminate the race, and, though not
himself a descendant of Ghaghatai, usurped the title of Ehan,
and with it the government of the country.
The Mughal Amirs, strong in their hereditary reverence
for the family of the conqueror, viewed this conduct with
horror. Many of the tribes refused to acknowledge the
usurper, others even joined the standard of Amir Timur,
who, having reduced Mawara-un-Nahr, made no less than six
expeditions against Eamr-ud-din, overran both Mughalistan
and Ea^ghar to their farthest limits, and in the last cam-
paign, Eamr-ud-dIn, his armies routed, and himself pursued
^ Noticed subsequently,
s ** Deeht Jettah."
110 CHAOHATAI MXJGHALS.
like a beast of the forest, seems to have perished in a corner
of the desert (1367 to 1393 or 768 to 794 h.).
When Eamr-ud-din put to death Ilias and the family of
the Ehans, one other son of Tughlak Timur was still at the
breast. Him the Amir Ehodaidad, aided by his mother,
concealed in Eashghar, and subsequently in the hill-country
of Badakhshan for some twelve years ; thence, to elude
Kamr-ud-din's persistent endeavours to ascertain his where-
abouts, the boy was conveyed to Ehutan, Sarigji Uighur, and
finally to Lob Eanik, in the far easfc, for some twelve years
more ; his story resembling in many ways the adventurous
wanderings of his father. As soon as Eamr-ud-dln's power
began to wane, the boy, now grown to man's estate, was in
1389 (791 H.) brought back and raised to the Ehanate by
Amir Ehodaidad, under the title of Ehizr Ehwaja Ehan.
The Eashgbar Amir Ehodaidad, like the other king-maker
Timur, while affecting to restore the ancient line of Ehans,
retained the real powers of government himself. He claimed
under various grants to himself and ancestors privileges which
transferred to him the entire direction of affairs. As here-
ditary XJliis Begi he could nominate and dismiss Amirs, or
commanders of 1000, without reference to the Ehan. He
was not to be liable to punishment till convicted of nine
capital offences; and no order was to be valid without his
seal under that of the !^an. The latter became therefore
merely a cypher in the hands of a powerful minister, and
Ehodaidad boasted that in his long reign of ninety years he
had made six Grand Ehans.
The history of the remainder of these Mughalistan Ehans,
and of the Amirs of Eashghar, with their dynastic changes,
belongs to the period of Timur and his successors ; but in the
annexed table the list is carried down to the time of B&ber.
The Western Branch. TarmashirTn, etc.
To return to the Western division of the empire. The
Khans ruling in Mawara-un-Kahr, strangely enough, main-
tained, and for some time occasionally resided at, their
THE WESTERN BEANCH. HI
second capital, Almalik. As regards most of them, there
is little information ; their reigns were so short, and their
importance so rapidly declining, that but little history in con-
nection with any particular one can be expected. The power
was passing from the hands of the Ehans of the Imperial
line to that of the more powerful Amirs, and what history
has been preserved mainly concerns the latter. After Eabak's
death, Ilchikdai is shown in most lists as succeeding, and he
in the same year was followed by a second "Dua Timur,'*
who is occasionally omitted altogether ; he again by Ala-ud-
din Tarmashirin. All these were sons of Dua, but it may
perhaps be doubted if there was a Dua the Second, and if
Ilchikdai reigned even for one year ; Tarmashirin probably
succeeding in 1325 (726 h.). The chronicles of the latter's
reign are very meagre. D'Ohsson says he crossed the Oxus
and invaded Khurasan, advancing to Ghazni, where he was
beaten in the autumn of 1326 (727 h.) by the Amir Hussain,
son of Choban of Hirat, after which Hussain's army sacked
Ghazni. According to Badami, he advanced in 1328 ^ (729 h.)
with a large army to the province of Delhi, captured several
forts, and committed ravages and massacres from Lahore,
Samana, and Indri, to the confines of Badaun, when he
was attacked and defeated by the army of Muhammad
Tugblak, who pursued him as far as Ealanor. He is also
said to have attacked the fort of Mirat in the North-west
Provinces, with a vast force, but unsuccessfully. The
Arabian traveller, Ibn Batuta, describes a visit to his
court paid not many months before the former entered
India, about the end of 1333 (early in 735 h.). From the
court of the Ehan of the Eipchaks, Muhammad Usbak, Ibn
Batuta proceeded across the desert to Kh warazm and Bukhara,
and from the last-named city, passing through NaJihsheb to
the camp, " Ordu^^ of the Sultan, " King of Mawara-un-
Nahr," by whom he was well received and royally treated.
Here he seems to have spent some two months as a guest of
Tarmashirin, whom he describes as a powerful prince, having
> B'Ohason sajB 1327.
112 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
at his command a large army, and remarkable for the justice
of his laws. His territories occupying a middle station
between the four great Kings of China, India, Irak (Persia),
and the Eipchak £han, all of whom sent presents to him,
and greatly respected him. Tarraashirin succeeding his
brother Jagatai (? presumably Ilchikdai), an infidel, who
again succeeded the eldest brother £abak, also an infidel, but
nevertheless a just king, much attached to the Muhammadans,
to whom he paid great respect.
Tarmashirin was an extremely devout Muhammadan, and
his religious zeal was so great that he allowed a Mullah,
Baon-ud-din al Maidani, to rebuke him in the strongest
language in a public sermon, a sermon that moved the King
to " tears and humility and repentance." Ibn Batuta goes
on to relate the end of Tarmashirin as follows. He had
broken some of the statutes of Chengiz Khan, as laid down
in a book called " Al Yasik" or *' the prohibition," which
enacted that any one controverting them should be degraded.
" Now one of the statutes was this, that the descendants of
Chengiz, the governors of the several districts, the nobles,
and the general officers of the army, should assemble upon a
certain day in the year which they call * Al Tawa* or * the
Feast,' and should the Emperor have altered any of these
statutes, the nobles should stand up and say, 'Thou hast
made alteration in the Statutes of Al Yasik, and therefore art
deposed.' They should then take him by the hand, remove him
from the throne, and place on it another of the descendants
of Chengiz. Now Tarmashirin had entirely abolished the
observance of this day, which gave great offence. Some
time, therefore, after he had left the country, the Tartars,
together with the nobles, assembled and deposed him, and to
such an extent was the matter pressed that Tarmashirin took
to flight and was put to death." ^ At the conclusion of his
visit the King presented Ibn Batuta with 700 dinars, and
the traveller resumed his journey dd Nasaf, Tarmaz, and
Bal^, on his way to India.
1 Yamberj snys by order of his successor, Buzun, in the neighboarhood of
Samr^and.
ILCHIKDAI TO KAZAN. 113
The coins noticed as described by Tiesenhausen are
struck at Tarmaz without date, at Samrkand in 726 H.,
and at TJtrar in 733 and 734. Taking the date of Ibn
Batuta's writing as towards the close of 734 h. (1334),
this may very probably be the year of TamarS^irin's
death.
Of Sanjar, who is shown in Mr. Poole's list as possibly
reigning jointly for a while, there would seem to be little
beyond the evidence of the coin shown as No. 8, struck
probably at Samrkand in 731 h., while Tarmas^irln was in
India. Yambery says the latter sacrificed both his throne
and his life for his Muhammadan faith, and that Buzun, by
whose order he was murdered, succeeded him ; that the
latter was only nominally a Musalman, and his tyranny
weighed so heavily on the people of Mawara-un-Nahr that they
applied to the neighbouring Muhammadan princes foif help ;
the result being the campaigns which commenced by the
Tadjik Hussain Kert of Hirat attempting to wrest Khurasan
from Arpa £han, the tenth Ilkhan. Ibn Batuta subsequently
relates the defeat of this Buzun by Khalil, the son of
Yassaver, who put him to death. Khalil is even said to
have advanced as far as Almalik, and to have defeated
the Mughal army at Taraz. After ascending the throne
of Bukhara, he rebelled against Sultan ^ Hussain Kert,
who had assisted him in all his enterprises, but he was
beaten and carried as prisoner to Herat, where the
Arabian traveller met him at the end of the year 747 h.
(1346>«
The Mi:nor Khan^ Ilchikdai to Kazan.
The usual lists show Jinkshi as succeeding in 1333
(734 H.) and Buzun Ogli in 1334 (735 h.), both grand-
sons of Dua. I either possess or have examined coins
of the former, dated TJtrar 736, 737, and 739 h., and if
' Usually called Amir.
' Voyages d'lbn Batuntoh, vol. iii. Paria, 1855.
TOL. XX. — [nBW 8BB1B8.] 8
114 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
the latter reigned at all, it was probably later, eyen sub-
aequently to 'Ali Sultan. Three of my coins of Tasiin
Timiir are struck at Tarmaz, but unfortunately without
dates ; the one of Samrkand is dated 740 h. Of 'Ali
Sultan, none so far appear to be known. Nor, save a
very doubtful one in Frsehn, are there any of Mu-
hammad. And as most histories are entirely silent re-
garding these Khans, any list must at best be doubtful.
I know of three coins of £halil, Samrkand of 74x and
Bukhara 744 h. (1343), which would agree with Ibn
Batuta's account. On one of the latter he appears as
Ehalil Timiir. In connection with these Ehans from
Ilchikdai to £azan it may be interesting to note the
letters of certain missionary Dominican and Franciscan
Friars, from Cathay and India, written about 1292 to 1338
(692 to 739 H.), and extracts from the reminiscences of John
de MarignoUi between 1338 and 1353 (739 to 754 h.),
collected and translated in Col. Yule's Cathay. Of these
Friars, one Jordanus, a Dominican, speaks of Ilchikdai, or
£lchigadat/,BLB the reigning sovereign of theTartar or Chaghatai
Empire, but he gives no certain date for him. He also
refers to **Dwfl," ** Ca^da " (the Eaidu who so long disputed
with Kubilai), and ** Capai " (Kabak). Another Friar,
Pascal, a young Spanish Franciscan, writing 10th August,
1338 (739 H.), from Almalik, tells of the Emperor himself
having been recently slain by his natural brother, and
of being himself detained on the road from Urgbanj for fear
of war and plunder. This may refer to the dethronement of
Jinksbi by Yasun Timur in 739 h. (1338). Up to the time
of Pascal's letter the Friars seem to have been well, almost
generously, treated both by the Great Eaans and the
Chaghatais, and in a letter written in 1338 (739 h.)
from Pope Benedict XII. to the Elian of Chaghatai,
whom he addresses as ** Chausi*^ the Pope thanks him
for his kindness to the Christians in his territory, and
especially to Archbishop Nicholas, when on his way to
" Cambalec" (Ehanbalik or Pekin). Colonel Yule inclines
to identify " Chauai" with Jinkghi, and puts the date of
ILCHIKDAI TO KAZAN. 115
Nicholas' visit to Almalik as probably 1333 or 1336 (736
or 737 H.).
Within a year, however, after Pascal's letter, he, with
several of his brethren, had suffered martyrdom. There are
several accounts of this, but the narrative is given most
fully by one of the Franciscan hagiologists, Bartholomew of
Pisa, who wrote later in the same century. His account
runs as follows : " In the Vicariat of Cathay or Tartary, in
the city of Armalec, in the middle Empire of Tartary, in the
year 1340 (or 1339 (?), 740-41 h.), the following Minorites
suffered for the faith, viz. Friar Bichard the Bishop of
Armalec, Friar Francis of Alessandria, Friar Pascal of Spain,
Friar Raymond of Provence ; these four were priests : also
Friar Lawrence of Alessandria and Friar Peter of Provence,
both lay brethren, and Master John of India, a black man
belonging to the third order of St. Francis, who had been
converted by the Friars. All these had been very well
treated in that empire by the Emperor on the throne. In-
deed, he had been cured of a cancer by Friar Francis of
Alessandria, more by prayer than by physic, and on this
account the Emperor used to call Friar Francis his father and
physician. And so it came to pass that he bestowed upon
the brethren land and privileges, and full authority to
preach, and even made over to them his own son, then seven
years of age, to be baptised, and so he was accordingly by
name of John." It may be incidentally noticed that accord-
ing to the Friars nearly all the Emperors were, at one time
or other, converted to the Christian faith. The Chaghatai
princes were eminently liberal, or indifferent in religious
matters, and even after they became Muhammadans were
rarely persecutors. Of the non-Muhammadans stories are
told of most regarding their conversion to Christianity.
Chengiz in the West was often spoken of as a Christian
knight, as were Prester John, Chaghatai, Hulaku, Mangu and
Kubilai, all probably falsely so. The Friar proceeds, '* But
by the permission of God the Emperor himself, on his way
to a hunting match, was taken off by poison, and his four sons
put to death. Then the empire was seized by a certain villain
116 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
of a falconer, a Saracen of the blood royal, whose name was
Alisolda. And as the brethren by their preaching had made
many converts to the faith, this new emperor ordered that
all the Christians should be made Saracens, and that who-
soever should disobey the third order to this effect should be
put to death. And so when the brethren aforesaid would
not obey this order, they were bound and all tied to one rope,
which was dragged along by the infuriated mob, who smote
and spat upon them, cutting off their noses and ears, and
otherwise mutilating them, till at length they fell by the
sword, and made a blessed migration to the Lord. But the
aforesaid emperor before long was himself slain, and his
house destroyed by fire." ^ The aforesaid emperor, Ali
Solda, may not improbably have been 'Ali Sultan, whose
revolt and success may have taken place 1338 or 1339 (739-
740 H.), and who may have been slain soon afterwards as the
ecclesiastical story tells.^
The circumstances of the martyrdom are likewise briefly
told by John de Marignolli, who was at Almalik the year
after they occurred. He went by way of the Black and
Caspian Seas, and the court of TJzbak,^ the Ehan of the
Golden Horde, to whom and to Tinibak, his son, he took
presents from the Pope, and the winter being over, and
"having been well fed, clothed and lodged, with presents
from Uzbak, proceeded to Armalec, the capital of the Middle
Empire. There we built a church, bought a piece of ground,
dug wells, sung masses, and baptized several: preaching
freely and openly, notwithstanding the fact that only the
year before the Bishop and six other Minor Friars had there
undergone for Christ's sake a glorious martyrdom, illustrated
by brilliant miracles." MarignoUi's visit would seem to
have been about 1341 (742 h.), and the king who was in
power when he was so well treated may have been Buzun
or Khaia.*
1 Cathay and the Way Thither.
* Is suggested by Col. Yule.
« Uzbak, 712-741 h. ; Tinibak, 741 h.
*• Col. Yale suggests Kazan.
DANISHMANDJEH TO KABUL SHAH. 117
Kazan, the eon of Yassaver/ according to the lists, and
it may be added, to almost all the authorities, including
D'Ohsson, Vambery, Erskine, etc., following Mirkhwand,
Bucceeded in 1332 (733 h.), and reigned till 1347 (747 h.),
or fourteen years. But such a date of accession, at least in
Mawara-un-Nahr, appears impossible, inasmuch as Jinkshi's
coinage extends to 739 h. It would seem that Yassun Timur
Bucceeded him, and there is a probability the next Khan
was Buzun. Ibn Batuta says it was Buzun who persecuted
Islam, and allowed Jews and Christians to rebuild their
temples, all of which would agree with the fayourable treat-
ment reported by Marignolli about 1341 (742 h.). Ibn
Batuta also says Buzun was defeated and killed by Ehalll,
the son of Yassaver, who succeeded him, and coins of the
latter were struck at Bukhara and Samrkand in 744 h.
Kazan therefore could hardly have established his authority
in these cities before 745 h., while several authorities unite
to fix Danishmandjeh's accession in 747 h., which year is
also the date of his coin in the British Museum, struck at
Bu^bara. It is, however, quite possibl^ that Kazan may have
exercised authority for some time in Khurasan. Mirkhwand
says he was a bloodthirsty tyrant, so much so that his
principal officers all made their wills before attending his
"KuriUai."
The Puppet Khans. Danishmandjeh to Kabul Shah.
More famous than Kazan the King was Kazaghan the
Yazir, one of the most famous Amirs of the time, who
rapidly became all-powerful in Transoxania, and was after-
wards known as the " King-maker.'' Kazan, by his tyranny
and constant executions of the leading chiefs, had made
himself so odious that the survivors entered into a confederacy
and invited the Yazir to depose him. The confederate troops,
who were joined by a part of Kazan's own forces, assembled
at Sauliseram, a town on the Oxus, above Tarmaz, and
^ Said to hftTO been slain by Kabfik in 720 h.
118 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
declared open rebellion. The first battle is described by
Mirkhwand as taking place at Darrahzangni in 1345 (746 h.),
in which Kazan was yictorions, and Eazaghan lost an eye.
The former was, on the other hand, unable to follow up his
advantage, and had to retire on KarS^i, where he spent the
winter, which fell out a very severe one. The cold and ex-
posure told fearfully on his horses and transport of every
description. In the following spring Mir Eazaghan, at the
head of the insurgent chiefs, hastened to take advantage of
his distress, and in a second battle Kazan was completely
defeated and killed. Amir Kazaghan is said to have used
his victory with moderation, stayed his troops from plunder
or unnecessary bloodshed, and treated Kazan's family with
much consideration. He did not himself care to assume the
government, preferring the pleasures of the chase, and there-
fore set up Danishmandjeh, a descendant of the line of Oktai,
presumably in the same year, 1346 (747 h.), only to make
away with him some two years later, and put in his place
Buyan Kuli, the son of Surgu Oghul, and grandson of Dua,
of the Gha^atai line. After this the ''King-maker'' appears
to have steadily applied himself with all his energies to
secure for the country as good a goyernment as the troublous
times permitted, and to have shown to all classes bounty and
liberality. He was neyertheless assassinated during a hunting
party, by a brother-in-law named Kutlak Timur, who had
for some time entertained a spirit of revenge against him.
The assassin fled towards Kunduz in Tokbaristan, but was
immediately pursued, there oyertaken, and hacked to pieces
by Kazaghan's relatives.^ The Amir's son, Abdullah,
succeeded to his father's dignity, but not to his in-
fluence, for he proved able neither to protect the nominal
sovereign set up, nor to maintain his own position. He
fixed his seat of goyernment at Samrkand, and one of
his first acts was to put to death in 1358 (760 h.) the
unfortunate Buyan Kuli, for whose wife he had conceived
an adulterous passion.
^ See Khondamir's KhuIauUu'U' AOJkar.
DANISHMANDJEH TO KABUL SHAH. 119
As regards the nominal sovereign, Buyan Kuli, he seems
to have occupied much the same position to Kazaghan and
the Amirs as the puppet Khans Suyurghatmish and Mahmud
subsequently did to Timur. There is nothing to show how
far his rule extended eastward, probably not beyond Mawara-
un-Nahr. Between the Jaxartes and the Oxus his rule must
have been pretty general. The six mints of those of his coins in
my possession are so situated, viz. XJtrar, 752 H. ; Kash, 753 ;
Samrkand, 754 and 755 ; Soghd, without date ; Bukhara,
756. All are of a size and weight unusually large, and
having an exceptional variety of design and inscription.
Of some five-and-twenty compared hardly two are exactly
alike, and the high-sounding titles which he affects are
almost as various. *'Sulianu-r-Azdm,^* The greatest Sultan ;
''AV-Adti;' the just; "^/-JTAdAdw," Chief of Khans; ''Al-
Ohazi*^ the hero ; " Nasir-ud^diny^ the Defender of the
Faith; " Ab&-l-muzqfar/' Father of Victory ; '' Almuzaffar
AVada-ul-Rahmdn" Victor over the enemies of the Merciful;
"Sultan ul bahr-U'barr" Ruler of sea and land; "Malik
Ulrikdb'Ul-amdm" Master of the necks of the nations; are
among the superscriptions of this exceedingly local Caesar.
Two coins appear to be struck in the name of a son, who
does not seem to have been mentioned in any of the
chronicles.
After Buyan Kuli's murder, Abdullah set up in 1359
(760 H.) another puppet, Timur Shah, the son of Yasun Timur;
but the Amirs, headed by Hadji Saif-ud-din Barlas and
Bayan ^ Selduz, determined to subvert this double system of
government. Both Abdullah and the pageant of his selection
fell in battle with the confederate Amirs, the whole of
Mawara-un-Nahr being taken possession of by Bayan Selduz^
who undertook the government, and signally failed. He is
described as an Amir entirely devoted to pleasures of all
kinds, more especially was it his pleasure to get drunk. As
may be supposed, the country under him rapidly drifted into
anarchy. Amir Barlas asserted his independence at Eash ;
> P Bufij&n. See Note at end of paper.
120 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
Bayazid Jalair at Khujand ; Ouljai Bugha Seldiiz
at Balkh ; Muhammad Ehwajah Apardi at Shibirkhan ;
and for a while, 'Adil Khan, the son of Muhammad
Fulad, in Badakhshan ; while other Amirs, Ehizr Yassauri,
and Hussain, the grandson of Kazaghan, at the head of
large bodies of followers, harassed the country in different
directions.
It was about this time 1360 (761 h.) that Tughlak Timur
Khan, the son of Imll, and grandson of Dua, who, as before
mentioned, was reigning in the Eastern Division of the
Khanate, hurried from Almalik to Mawara-un-Nahr with
a considerable army, and compelled the turbulent amirs to
acknowledge his authority. This done, and outward tran-
quillity restored, he returned eastward in triumph, but had
barely recrossed the Sihiin, when the dissensions among the
Amirs recommenced as violently as ever, the whole country
becoming again a scene of anarchy. Two years afterwards,
Tughlak returned with his armies, put to death the dis-
sipated old Bayan Selduz, Bayazid Jalair, with several of
the leading Amirs, and finally invested his own son, Ilyas
Khwaja, with the sovereignty of the Province, giving
him a chief named Bakchak with a division of the Mu-
ghalistan army for his support. Among the most trusted
adherents attached to his son's person and court was no less
a man than the young Timur Bak, and Tughlak withdrew
himself again to Almalik.
Ilyas Ehwaja held a precarious government for a brief
two years. He was in the first instance, 1363 (765 h.),
attacked by Amir Hussain, the grandson of Kazaghan, with
whom was joined Timur Bak, who had soon tired of being
tutor to a Mughal prince, and was now fast rising to power.
After an obstinate and sanguinary battle on the left bank of
the Oxus near Kunduz, Ilyas was completely defeated, his
force driven over the river and scattered in all directions.
The following spring he attempted with a fresh army to
avenge this defeat, and obtained a victory over the combined
forces of Hussain and Timur on the river Badaun, a tributary
of the Sihun near Shash (Tashkend). But in spite of this
DANISHMANDJEH TO KABUL SHAH. 121
success, he found himself prevented from entering either
Samrkand or Bukj^ra, which were respectively held against
him by leaders named Maulana Zadah and Maulana Kardak.
To crown his misfortunes, a murrain broke out among his
horses, he lost his transport, and was compelled to retrace his
steps, the troops carrying their own baggage across the
Sihun, and to make his way back to his father's dominions
in Mugbalistan. How meanwhile his father had died, and
how he and his family were murdered there in 1365 (766 h.)
by Kamr-ud-dln, has already been related.
Adil Sultan, the son of Muhammad Pulad, noticed as being
for a while in Badakhshan, is then said to have been set up
by Amir Hussain, but was drowned shortly after in the river
Jaska, by order of the same chief, who replaced him by
Kabul Shah, the grandson of Ilchikdai. The great Timur,
however, was now becoming irresistible. Hussain, with
whom he had quarrelled, had established himself at Balkh,
Timur remaining at Kash, but the majority of the Chaghatai
Amirs and their troops, disgusted with what they considered
the sordid and intolerable disposition of the former, had
forsaken him and joined the latter, an alliance promising to
be so much more productive of present advantage and future
hope. In 1369 (771 h.) Timur, determined to endure no
second Bichmond in the field, but to finally dispose of his
rival Hussain, directed against that rival's capital his now
formidable and ever-victorious army, destined eventually to
crush out all resistance and all rivals. It was at this period
that he found it expedient to nominate his first puppet Khan.
The fate of Kabul Shah is uncertain. Mirkhwand says he
was put to death soon after Hussain was defeated at Balkh,
and with him the line of the Chaghatai Khans may be said
to have come to an end; Timur selecting as his nominee
Suyurghatmish of the line of Oktai, and who was permitted
to retain the title after the former had been elevated by
common consent to the reality of sovereign power.
Any account of the puppet Khans, Suyurghatmish, his son
Mahmud, and the latter's sonTuman Kutlak TJghlan,
belongs to the history of Timur, the world-famous conqueror
122 CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
who not only pulled down the degenerate successors of
Chaghatai in Mawara-un-Nahr, and carried a successful war
to Almallk and the heart of the eastern branch of the
Khanate in their mountain fastnesses of Mughalistan, but
destroyed the whole edifice of Mughal rule in Asia, to re-
construct out of it an empire almost as extensive as that of
Chengiz.^
^ In addition to the before-mentiooed authorities, the foUo'win^ have been used :
Voyages d*Ibn Batouta, 4 vols, (translation), Paris, 1866 ; Descnption des Hordes
des Kirghiz Kaizaks, par Levchine, Paris, 1840; Becensio Numorum Muham-
madanorum, Frsehn, Petropoli, 1826 ; Muhammadan History, Muhammad to
Akbar, 4 vols., Price, London, 1811; Muhammadan Histonans of India, by
Elliot, 8 Tols., London, 1867 ; and the History of Bokhara, by Yamberyi
London, 1873, in many places largely quoted.
CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
123
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124
CHAOHATAI UTTOHALS.
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CHAGHATAI MTJ6HALS.
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326
CHAGHATAI MUGHAL8*
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CHAOHATAI MUGHAL8.
127
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128
CHAGHATAI MUGHALS.
KHiJ^S OF MUGHALISTAN.
IsANBuoHA, called from Mawara-un-
Nahr cir. 721, reigned till 730 h.
An interregnnm.
TuGHLAK-TiHUB, SOU of Isanbuglia,
born 730, reigned circ. 748-764 h.
Ilias Ehwaja, son of Tughlak, mnr-
dered by KamrnddTn 766 h.
Kamruddin, usurped 768-794.
Expeditions of Amir Timur.
Khizas Khwaja, son of Tugblak,
791-821.
MvHAJCMAD, son of KhizaT.
Shir Muhammad, son of Mubammad.
Sultan Wais, son of Shir Kuli, the
brother of Shir Muhammad, killed
832.
On Sultan Wais' death there was a
division, some tribes adhering to Yiinis
the eldest, others to Isanbugha, the
younger son.
Tunis, inWestem
Mughalistan.
860 H. Hostili-
ties between
Eastern and
Western, till
Kapak's death.
Isanbugha, in
Eastern Mu-
ghalistan,%32-
866.
DostMuhammad,
his son, 866-
873 H.
Kapak-Uohlan,
his son, for a
time about Ter-
fan.
Tunis.
Tunis died 892 H. Ahmad, son of
Mahmud, eldest Tunis, known
son of Tunis. ^s Iladir, or the
** slaughtering
Khin."
Both defeated by Sheibani Khan 908 h.
Amirs of Kashohab.
Amir Tuluk. Ulfisbegi, contemporary
with Isanbugha.
TuLAji or BoLAJi, brother of Tuluk,
raised Tughlak to the throne.
Khodaidad, son of Tiilaji, cir. 748
to Szx. His reign was of great
length, but probably broken by
the usurpation of Kamruddin.
MiRSYUD 'Ali, son of ^mir Syud
Ahmad, son of Khodaidud, 838-
861.
His sons divided and fought
SanIz MIrza in Muhammad
Tarkand, and Haider in
subsequently in Kashghar, for
Kashghar, 861, a short lime.
868.
Muhammad Haider, in both 868,
885, when he was expelled by his
nephew.
Abubakr MIrza, son of Saniz, a
cruel and odious tyrant, 885 to 920.
After the death of Ahmad, the son
of Tunis, were many civil wars and
much anarchy, numerous sons contend-
ing with one another. The whole tribes
of Mughalistun were never again united
under one head, though many new Khun-
ships arose. The Kirghiz of the desert
establishing one of their own, which
in process of time formed a sort of
union with the Kaizak Uzbegs, a fede-
ration that has in some degree lasted
to the present time, under the title of
the «* Hordes of the Kirghiz."
129
Abt. lY.—Sac/iau's AlbiHini} By Major-Gen. Sir F. J.
QoLDSMiD, C.B., K.C.S.I., M.R.A.S.
In the Notes of the Quarter for October last it was stated
that, owing to the exceptional character of two recent pub-
L'cations, a critical notice of them would be deferred to the
January number of the Royal Asiatic Society's Journal.
These were Dr. Sachau's edition of Al Beruni's India in the
Arabic original, and the Introduction and second fasciculus.
Part I. of Howeirs Arabic Grammar. Neither issue could be
dismissed with a hasty line of approval, however unqualified,
nor were the names of the authors, however distinguished,
and abstract of title-pages, sufficient — in respect of the
particular volumes under reference— to convey, to the world
without, a clear notion of the long and continuous labour
the result of which had been placed at the disposal of
Orientalists in Europe. Further consideration led to the
conclusion that a separate article might with propriety be
devoted to the first of the two works named — ^both important
additions to the library of Arabic scholars.
As regards the first-named work, a word or two recalling
the personality of the writer of the original text may not be
inappropriate, even if it be superfluous for many readers.
Abu Raih&n Muhammad bin Ahmadu'l Birdni — commonly
named Al-Biruni — was a philosopher, astronomer, and writer
of great repute in Central Asia and India, who flourished at
the close of the tenth and in the first half of the eleventh
I A I Beranrs India: An account of the Beligion, PhiloflODhj, literatore,
Chronologj, Astronomy, Customs, Laws and Astrology of India aooat a d. 1030 ;
edited in the Arabic original bv Dr. Edward Sachau, Professor in the Royal
UniTersity of Berlin. Published under the patronage of H. M. Secretary of
State for India in Council (London, Triibner and Co., 1887).
VOL. xz. — [nxw asBixs.] 9
130 SACHAU'S ALBIRUNI.
century — about the period of the early French kings Hugh
Capet and Robert the Wise, and before the Norman in-
vasion of England. Born in a.d. 973 at Khw&rizm, the
modem Khiva, or (if we are to accept his name as the Perso-
Arabic " outsider ") ^ more strictly in the suburbs of that
town, he is supposed to have passed his early years in his
native land and on the southern shores of the Caspian, and
in A.D. 1017, on the conquest of Khwdrizm by Mahmud
of Ghazni, to have been carried off by the conqueror to
Afghanistdn. He accompanied the Sult&ns Mahmud and
Mas'ud on their Indian campaigns, and died at Ghazni in
A.D. 1048, at the age of seventy-five, some twelve years after
his contemporary, the famous Abu 'All Ibn Sina, better
known as Avicenna.
He was a most prolific writer, and the number of his works,
according to his own statement, exceeded a hundred. Few
are unfortunately now to be traced. In the British Museum
are the following only :
I. Aidthdr Albdkif/a 'an-il-Rurdn Alkhdlit/ay the English
version of which by Dr. Sachau was published for the
Oriental Translation Fiyid in 1879, under the title of " The
Chronology of Ancient Nations." It professes in the Pre-
face to describe the '* religious institutes of various nations
and sects, founded in more ancient times, and, more or less,
still practised or adhered to by the Oriental world about a.d.
1000." The dedication of the book to Kdbus bin Washm-
gir Shams-alma'&li, Prince of Hyrcania, seems to cor-
roborate the fact of its appearance at the latter date. Two
copies will be found registered in the catalogue of Arabic
MSS., both comparatively modem.
II. Kitdb Altafhim VAtcdil Altanjim, a Persian treatise
on Astronomy, of which a notice of two copies is given in
the Catalogue of Persian MSS. Dr. Rieu writes: "The
author, after remarking that, before entering upon the
^ Dr. Sachau writes of the Persian birim : ** The yowel of the first syllable is
a ydi-majh^l, which means that in more ancient times it was pronounced bh^dn
(or bayroon)** But in vol. ii. of Dr. Eieu's Catalogue of Persian MSS. at the
British Museum, p. 451, the quotation from Sam'^i is ^\ Lmi .... Uj^Jj ^J^\
m}j\^ ^U-, whicn rules the application of the Kaw^ converting hk into bi.
SACHAirS ALBIBUNI. 131
inyestigation of astronomical problems, it was neoossarj
to make one's self acquainted with the configuration of
the heaven and earth, and the technical terms used hj
astronomers, states that he had written the present elemen-
tary treatise at the request of Raib&nah, daughter of
al-Hasn of Khw&rizm, and had set forth in it, by questions
and answers, the principles of geometry and arithmetic, the
figure of the world, and judicial astrology, (^yi^^ /M^.'*
We learn from the same authority that the work contains many
diagrams, astronomical tables and drawings of the constella-
tions ; that its date of composition, 26th Bamazan, a«h.
420 (a.d. 1028-29), is fixed by a passage in the chrono-
logical section ; that there are two copies of an Arabic
edition of the ^'Tafhim^' in the Bodleian Library, the
contents of which quite agree with the Persian, though neither
edition purports to be a tranalation from the other ; and that
the title of the book above shown acoordi with that recorded
by the author in the list of his own oompositioiif , except that
the word ^L^ ia omitted in the former befiore 0n^''i\A
IIL AUKdnin Al Mtu^iM/ tk work on Astronomy in
Arabic, of which we are told that a fine eopy reached the
British Mnsenm too late for insertion in the Catalogue ot
Arabic MSS. — the collection noted in roL liL of the
Persian Gatalogne referring to extracts only. From ite
dedication to the Sollan llae'Ad ii most hare appeared
after the acoeasion id that monarch in A.D, 10^1. I>r
Saehan eoomdoB it aa tLe "" grwteat work '' of Al-Birfini'a
life.
IndepeDdently of theee three kgades <4 a di^tinguM^bed
If ntlim author, to be Umt^if m alresdy mmUsA, in our own
Natiooal eo4]actioii« Dts Saehan refers io a fruf^UMtui from tL<e
•me hand whieh has eone down to tts ^ aa the lait j/aK of
the great dbronick of the nnal Louiie ot UMi/wCd, tsowyomA
by AifaaihakL'' This is m Yj%ixmX from ** tW i:hrou)dft iA
Khwarian,'* in which the writer ^^ had yfr*AM>Ay r^iovrd^d all
1 Tint nadinr votuc iJu/aaAum U; ^'hy/og, iA lAtifint*^K^H- u u^i yrkUfy^t <H
132 SACHAXTS ALBIRUNI.
the traditions relating to the antiquity of his native country,
and more especially the history of those events of which he
had himself been a witness/' ^
But we have now more particularly to notice the Kitdb
AbU Mat/idn Muhammad bin Ahmadu'l BirHnifi tahkik ma
lit Mind min mafculah makbitlah fHVakl u>a marz&lah — briefly,
and literally, Al-Biruni's book certifying what, in Hindu
teaching, is admissible according to reason, and what is to
be rejected. The learned Editor has cleared all doubtful
expressions from the title by rendering it as '' an accurate
description of all categories of Hindu thought, as well those
which are admissible as those which must be rejected/' Of
the history of this work the instructive Preface supplies us
with much interesting information. Referring to Prince
Baldassare Boncompagni's treatise on the subject, published
in 1869, for fuller details, it sets forth that the Paris MS.
was received in the BibliothSque Rationale in 1816, but for
more than 20 years failed to attract the attention of scholars.
In 1839 it fell under the observation of M. Eainaud, who
made use of it a few years later in his contributions to the
Journal Asiaiique, and, notably in 1845-46, in papers read
before the Institute and subsequently published. The Kosmos
of Alexander Von Humboldt noticed it in 1847; and in 1863
M. Woepcke gave to the world a M&moire sur la propagation
des Chiffrea Indiem — ^being the first results of an examination
of the book, undertaken in accordance with an appeal on its
behalf by M. Jules Mohl to the SociHi Aaiaiique : but the
said Orientalist died in the following year. M. Munk, too,
who, so far back as 1843, had expressed his intention to edit
and translate the whole of this particular work of Al Biriini,
had become blind, and died in 1867. The task was then left
in the hands of M. MacOuckin de Slane, who, eventually,
recognising the special fitness of the present editor, and
believing himself " too old to complete " it, proposed its
transfer to Dr. Sachau. The proposal was formally put to
^ See Preface to the translation of the Chronology of Ancient Nations (Allen,
1879).
SAOHAirS ALBIRUNI. 133
the Soci^t^ Asiatique by Mohl, and carried on the 12th July^
1872. But the ipsissima verba of the Preface to the volume
before us should here be quoted :
** Mohl sent me the materials left by Woepcke, and at the
eame time M. Schefer entrusted to me his manuscript, a
treasure quite unique in its way. Thus it has come to pass
that the confidence and the kindness of M. G. de Slane,
Jules Mohl and Ch. Schefer have laid on my shoulders a
burden the whole weight of which I did not realize when
I charged myself with it. And certainly if the work has
been brought to a successful end, the learned world is before
all indebted to the exceptional liberality of M. Chretien
Schefer . . . My edition is little more than a reproduction
of his manuscript, and it would have been quite impossible
for me to prepare it, if he had not, by leaving it entirely in
my hands up to the present time, enabled me to refer to it
over and over again in the long course of my labours."
What, it may be asked, were the uses made of the manu*
script which had been in the Paris Biblioth^ue since 1816?
It appears that, in calling the attention of scholars to the
existence of the Indica, it had accomplished its objects : for
a choicer prize came into possession of M. Schefer in the
shape of a manuscript professing to be, and practically ac-
cepted as a copy '^from a copy in the handwriting of t^e
author." This it is to which allusion is made in the above
extract; a transcript also of certain portions having been
found among Woepcke s ^^ materials." On the other hand»
the Paris MS. (as well as one other in the Library of the
*' Mehemet Kopriilii Medrese in Stambul ") is shown to have
been copied from that of M. Schefer, " agreeing with it in
every the most minute detail, but in many cases corrupted
by the mistakes of the copyists who did not understand what
they wrote." Dr. Sachau adds that he had written to various
parts of India inquiring for other manuscripts, but had in-*
variably received the answer, that the book was not known
to exist there. He gives expression to the hope that it will
one day "turn up in the libraries of K4bul, Kandah&r or
Herat;" but these :m ' '^tions, if they merit the name
134 8ACHAT?S ALBIBTTNI.
accorded them, are insufficiently known to the outside world
to warrant an opinion on the nature of their literature, save
that it most probably includes a Kur&n and such poets as
H&fiz, Jalalu'd-din and S'adi.
Apart from analysis of the manuscript itself, the Preface
to the Indica treats of the date and place of composition ; the
author's knowledge of Sanskrit; his acquaintance with Indian
(and cognate) subjects ; his mode of transliterating native
words ; and of the general style and character of the book now
reproduced in print. The outcome of this interesting retro-
spect may be summarised as follows :
Albiruni must have composed his Indica immediately after
the death of Sult&n Mahmud, and during the brief, disturbed
reign of his son Muhammad— or between the 30th April and
30th September, 1030 ; a supposition which does not pre-
clude the use of parts and passages already written, and the
assistance of a skilful amanuensis. He was then 58 years of
age, and had lived for thirteen consecutive years under the
immediate protection of the son of Sabaktagin, a witness of
his remarkable career. His autograph copy appears to have
been completed in Ghazni, where possibly the whole task was
accomplished step by step.
His linguistic powers are carefully tested by his Editor,
who comes to the conclusion that he spent much time in the
study of the Indian language, knew the phonetic system
both of the classical and vernacular dialects, and was in
some degree acquainted with the general features of «the
structure of Sanskrit ; that he was, in short, ** able to trans-
late lists of proper names of the Puranis into Arabic by
himself alone, though not without blunders. As a rule,
however, he seems to have read Indian books with the aid
of Pandits and to have written his translation simply from
their dictation." But the inference is that, while unable to
read or translate, unaided, the ordinary Sanskrit text, he
became competent, by dint of intelligent and persevering
research, to check the sometimes erroneous interpretations of
his Hindu teachers, and to detect proofs of negligence on the
part of copyists. Well may Dr. Sachau comment upon the
BACHAirS ALBIEUNT. 135
facts adduced as exceptional. " Muhammadans, for instance
born Turks/' he justly remarks, " will learn, besides their
mother-tongue, also Arabic and Persian, but that a Muslim
should take up the study of a foreign language outside the
range of Islam, simply for scientific purposes, seems next
to incredible. I do not know of any Arab who learned
literary Greek for the purpose of studying Greek literature,
and it is perfectly certain that Averroes and Avicenna were
totally ignorant of the language of Aristotle and Galenus.
Although they made the most extensive use of Greek learn-
ing, they never thought of drawing from the fountain-head,
but contented themselves with mediocre Arabic translations
of Syriac translations of the Greek originals. In this respect
Alberuni is phenomenal in the history of Eastern civilisation.
In a spirit akin to that of modern times he tries to pull down
the barrier-wall which in the shape of the difference of
language has been erected between different nations, he
endeavours to learn Sanskrit, and the difficulty of bis enter-
prise will be appreciated by all those who undertake the
same task in our time." It is related that the learned
Abu'l Fadhl, minister of Akbar — who lived more than five
centuries later than our author — was called " a Hindu " by
his opponents; but this appellation was rather due to his
Sufiism and free-thinking than to the many pages of the
Aiyin-i-Akbari devoted by him to Hindustan and its in-
habitants, or to any knowledge he may have possessed of a
Non-Muhammadan tongue.
Albiruni not only sought to render Sanskrit lore intel-
ligible to Arabs, but also to promote Arabic learning among
Hindus. The Sftmkhya by Kapila ; the book of Patafljali ;
Paulisasiddh&nta; Brahmasiddhinta ; Laghuj&takam; — these
and many other works he translated, wholly or in part, into
Arabic for his own countrymen and co-religionists ; and at
the same time he wrote treatises in Arabic and translations
in the vernacular, for the instruction of natives of India.
His Kitdb-alia/Mm he edited both in Persian and Arabic :
he had, besides, ''an admirable knowledge of the Jewish
Kalendar ; " and he is mentioned as ** the first of all the
136 .SACHAXTS ALBIEITNL
echolars we know who has compiled a scientific system of
the Jewish Chronology."
His method of transliteration, in respect of (the so-ex-
pressed) ''Sanskrit and vernacular" forms of Indian words,
is reviewed in detail, and numerous illustrations are sup-
plied ; but it is remarked that he calls the language of India
'' Hindi," and nowhere uses the terms Sanskrit and Pr&krit.
We may fairly infer that his main object was that of the
more practical colloquial Orientalists of the present hour,
ue, to set forth the foreign tongue under his consideration,
as heard from the lips of native Pandits, in as nearly as
possible equivalent Arabic letters. Discrepancy in spelling
and confusion of classical and vernacular terms are ac-
counted for by discrepancy in pronunciation and in the mode
of imparting information, caused by employment of teachers
of different nationalities and capabilities : nor is it to be
doubted that in many cases the learned learner found indepen-
dent reference to books his safest guide. Much the same thing
is daily exemplified among ourselves. Each transliterates
according to his own tastes or fancies: the more skilled on
a principle they are quite prepared to defend: the more
ignorant from dislike to unintelligible reform. Thus it is
that Singapur is written Singaj^or^ or poor ; Mathura,
Muttra ; Lakhnau, Lucknow ; Kanhpur, Gawnpore ; Fazl,
Fuzzle — and so forth. Government lays down a rule; but
does not enforce it with universal strictness. As to the
bond fide vernacular words of the Indica, the Editor does
not know any Indian dialect which completely agrees with
them. " They probably belong," he writes, " to a dialect
current about 1000 a.d. in the Kabul valley and the con-
terminous parts of India, a dialect of which we have, as
I am aware, neither epigraphic nor literary remains." He
believes the vernacular of Albiruni to be more nearlj^ related
to the Sindhi than to any other of the Neo- Aryan languages
of Hindustan.
A few words remain to be said on the style and
character of the publication reviewed. Those who would
learn Dr. Sachau's opinion on his author's general mode of
SACHAITS ALBIBUNI. IW
writing, as wdl as the nmnber and nature of his worfa^ and
details of his personal history, should read the introdoetion
{Vorwort) to his edition of the ChroMolofpe Oriemialiteker
Volker, ZweUe Halfte (Leipzig, 1878), referred to in the
briefer preface to the English Tersion. This last, be it said*
en pa^aant^ is a monument of the Berlin Professor's indnstrr
and ability. like his hero, he himsdf writes his two
Lingaages with equal ease and freedom of expression : the
Arabic and Persian of Albiriini are the German and Fngtlsh
of Sachao. Unfortunately, it is only the Tery few for
whom the volume bears special interest, who hare studied
and appreciated the ''Chronology of Ancient Xations" in
its English dress. Yet if it does not belong to the pc^KiIar
literature of the day, it has a value to scholars and theo-
logical or historical writers and students which is quite apart
from the ordinary book of reference.
As to the Arabic used by Albiriini in his Indica, Dr.
8achau writes : '' All his sentences are very precise and most
of them very short, the connection of the sentences with
each other is very strict and bears a close relation to the
method of geometry, as each sentence is so constructed as to
fit closely on to the preceding one. The nature of his style
seems to betray the mathematician by profession .... His
language is so condensed and at the same time so artistically
constructed that you could scarcely anywhere take away
a single word without destrojring the whole sentence." He
goes on to explain the nature of the diflBculties arising to the
ready comprehension of the text, so that the student will
be prepared to meet and overcome them. Among these may
be noted the close dependence of one sentence on another ;
the frequent use of personal pronouns, intelligible only
where strict attention has been given to antecedents; various
grammatical liberties ; peculiarity in the construction of
numbers ; and certain deviations from classical nicety which
are characterised as "classical language en niglig^ used by
most mediseval authors who did not pique themselves upon
being very precise in matters of grammar.^' For these last
the Editor admits the responsibility of Al Biruoi himself as
138 SACHAirS ALBIRUNI.
well as of the manuscript lie has chosen for guidance. The
following two paragraphs must be quoted in extenso :
"When Al Birunf used the Arabic language to depict Indian
civilisation, he put it to such a test as no Arabian author has ever
done before or after. He had, like Colebrooke, Wilson and Lassen,
to grapple with the difficulty of rendering all the subtleties of
Hindu thought by corresponding terms of another language, and
I yenture to say that he has done so with complete success. Every
one who takes the trouble of following his train of thought, will
£nd that throughout the whole book there reigns a classical per-
spicuity which proves that he handled not only the subject, but
also the language with a perfect mastery. In order to express
new notions foreign to the Arabian mind, he either borrows Indian
words using them in their original or in an Arabized form, or
secondly he translates them into Arabic, or in the third place, if
he cannot find an appropriate Arabic translation, he uses Arabic
words, but in new significations which he assigns to them. In this
task he was greatly assisted by the enormous wealth of forms of
Arabic inflexion and their capability of expressing the very finest
and most intricate nuaneet of thought, by the inexhaustible treasures
of the Arabic dictionary and the wonderful elasticity of Arabic
syntax. Al Biruni directed the language into a new channel,
where it might have undergone a new and peculiar development of
its own, but this development has not taken place. The impulses
given by Al Biruni, who rises like a solitary rock in the ocean of
Arabic literature, have not been taken up by subsequent genera-
tions, and the result was that his work soon became unintelligible
to Muslim readers and was utterly neglected. He was too far in
advance of his countrymen, and they have never tried to follow in
his wake.
The perusal of the Indica requires a certain familiarity with
Arabic terminology as it occurs in books on theology, philosophy,
mathematics, astronomy, and astrology. On considering the ques-
tion whether a glossary of rare and unknown words was to be
added to this edition, I came to the conclusion that it would be
preferable to explain all the words which need an explanation, in
the notes to my translation, as they are not sufficiently numerous
to justify a special glossary being made of them."
The character of the book is in every respect satis-
factory, and its instructive tendency may be said to have
SACHAirS ALBIRTJNI. 139
a direct bearing upon the not insignificant question which
has lately occupied the attention of thinking men — ^that is,
the moral influence on barbaric and idolatrous people of
the religion of Islam. It is practically the vindication of
Muhammadanisra, in the person of the author, from the
charge of illiberality and hostility to intellectual progress :
it is a proof that the Muslim can rise above the prejudices of
training and tradition to make mankind at large the subject
of impartial study ; it is a demonstration of what benefits
might have been conferred on India by Islam so far back as
the eleventh century, had the conqueror of that vast territory
been guided by the counsels of one who lived under his
shadow — "not engaged," as the Editor observes, "in fighting
the Hindus, but in trying to learn from them, to study
Sanskrit and Sanskrit literature, and to translate Sanskrit
books into Arabic." That it happened otherwise, and that
Albiruni was but one of a million of his age and creed who
could attain such exceptional eminence, and of many millions
who ever did attain it — are facts which if they do not greatly
strengthen the position of Muhammadanism as a civilising
Power apart from the example of one individual, yet serve to
establish, in the instance of that individual, the proposition
that a high-minded and intellectual Muhammadan was not
a mere fallacy of expression.^ But were this an occasion of
seeking other exceptions, it might be shown that Albiruni's
age was not the only period in which they were to be found :
nay more, that he did not himself supply quite the sole
illustration to this effect in his own particular age.
Within two or three months from the issue of the present
number of the Royal Asiatic Society's Journal, the English
translation of Dr. Sachau's Arabic text of Albiruni may be
expected to appear. The work will then be subject to the
^ A distingniflhed Italian critic holds that such sentiments as those expressed
in Alhir^ni's '' Indica," coming from a Musalman of Khiva in the eleventh century
of our era, may, as a matter of wonder, he compared to the discovery of lions*
and elephants' oones in the Northern regions of tne earth. ** A vedere spuntar
cosi fatti pensieri, verso i principii dell* XI. secolo dell' era vol^are, nella mente
di nn Musalmano di quello che ogtrido chiamano il khanato di Khiva, si sente
mamviglia non minore che alio scoprir ossa di leoni e d'elefanti nelle regioni
settentrionali della Terra." [M. Amaii.]
140 SACHAU'S ALBIRUNL
criticism of a larger number of readers than at present; for,
unfortunately, the "serious" study of this grand Oriental
tongue does not command the attention which its importance
justifies. In the meanwhile, a word may be said on its
particular contents, the table of which will be found in
English as well as Arabic in the volume now before us.
Besides the Introduction the work is divided into eighty
chapters varying in length, but averaging nearly four pages
each. About half the number treat of Religion and Belief,
Customs, Literature, and Laws; and half of Astronomy,
Geography, and General Science. An example has already
been given of the Editor's analysis of Albirtini's style : but
this will scarcely be needed by those who have become
familiar with the "Chronology of Ancient Nations" — a book
which, whatever merit may be accorded to it in the original,
is in the translation a marvellous record of industry and
scholarship. Something of presumption might perhaps be
attributed to a reviewer of the original text, were he to
anticipate its Editor's promised translation and put forward
a specimen by quotation in an English dress; but the charge
could hardly be held to apply to the three or four opening
lines of a chapter selected at random, which will suffice to
show the train of the author's ideas and spirit in which he
writes, and further, the tone in which a Muslim who lived some
nine hundred years ago could adopt in reference to Christianity:
tJi J5il\ (^ ^ yi\\ JL^^ j^\ ^Jx. ii-w* \^U Jlj}/^^
3^\ ^ 3^1 Jci ^j^^^ ^ (^L^Llall L^^vtfU u,flifv. ^Li^^ ^j3
which may be thus interpreted : — '* Chapter 71, On Punish-
" ments and Expiations.
SACHAU'S ALBIRUNI. 141
"Their state (ue. doctrinal position of the Indians) resembles
" that of Christianity ; for it is based upon (the principle
"ot) doing good and abstaining from evil ; as (for instance)
** absolutely refraining from the infliction of death, throwing
" one's tunic to the snatcher of one's cloak,^ turning the one
*^ cheek to the smiter of the other, and praying for and bless-
*• ing one's enemies. Such, by my life, is a noble rule of
*' conduct I But worldly people are not all philosophers, and,
"indeed, the greater part are ignorant and transgressors.
" The sword and scourge can alone restrain them, and since
" the conversion of the Conqueror^ Constantino, these (two
" agencies) are in constant operation ; for without them the
" regulation of society (administration of justice) cannot be
" accomplished. Thus it is with India . . ."
It need hardly be pointed out that Albirunf, in writing
this, must have had in mind the verses in St. Matthew v.,
wherein are the words, " Whosoever shall smite thee on thy
right cheek, turn to him the other also," — and " If any man
will . . . take away thy coat, let him have thy cloak also."
How little the existence of an Oriental author of this stamp has
been taken into account by Western teachers until compara-
tively recent years, may be readily understood by reference to
pamphlets and periodicals embodying the conceptions of the
day, which have appeared at any time since the institution of
printing up to the dawn of the nineteenth century. But an age
has been reached, one of the main characteristics of which is
a search after truth; and it is not impossible that among
1 One meaning of many to be found in dictionaries. I had originally written
** scarf." The word used is (g;VJL^ tdilasdn^ evidently borrowed from the Persian
ii,U)\? or ,^U\7 taUhdn or ta'9dn **a kind of coif wrapped round the head, with
a lappet or sash hanging down'* (Johnson). Mr. H. C. Ka^, who has kindly
reTised the whole translation of the above extract, calls attention to the fact that
Be Sacy renders it by manttau, the same interpretation given by Baron de Slane;
and I find the following in Freytag: '' jfjUiii et ^Ullt pL 1^^
{plurimi ex Pertieo ^V7 et ig^UlU, alii ex ^gf\* 9^ or turn etae dieunt voeem). Amicu-
Inm, fere ex pilis caprinis vol camelinis contextum, quod hnmero iniectum dependet
de dorso, vel etiam capiti impositum deorsum promittitur: quale philosophi et
religiosi, imprimis apud Persas, usurpare velut pro insigni solent. Inde Arabes
oonvicii causa dieunt la^Ui^ ^\ \i i.e. rersa et Barbare ! "
' I have translated ^^ mvzaffar literally : it may simply imply an Arabic
equivalent for the common designation of '* the Great. '
142 SACHAXTS ALBIEUNI.
its salient features will be a re-action in favour of Mu-
hammadanism generally. In such case the danger, at the
outset, would seem to lie in the investment of the new cause
with a robe of honour to which it has no just claim. When
worthy Muslim thinkers do appear, we should be thankful
that there arise Sachaus in after centuries to recall their
appearances, lest indeed — to use the magnificent images
of the Apocrypha — they pass away "like a shadow, and
as a post that hasted by ; " or as a ship whereof " the path-
way of the keel in the waves" cannot be found; or "as
when an arrow is shot at a mark, it parteth the air which
immediately cometh together again, so that a man cannot
know where it went through." ^ But it must be remembered
that Albirunis are few and far between.
^ WiBdom, chap. ▼. 9. 10. 12.
143
CORRESPONDENCE.
1. Tub BiwjiwBAyiir or Ajrica.
Leeemker Sik, 1887.
Sn, — ^In the last uBoe of the Jonixud, I amioiiiioed the forth*
coming pablicati<Mi, hj the Boman Catholic Miseionaries of Sene-
gambia, of a Dictiooazy of the Siisa hmgaage. I was then unaware
of the fact that this book had alieadj been published two yean
ago, and I hare onlj just found it oat from a Gennan Catalc^pie of
second-hand books. The DiHiamufire firam^U'90$o €i •otthfirtm^U,
to which are prefixed a grammatical sketch and a collection of
common phrases, will prove a Tery Tslnable Handbook of this
language, which is spoken along the coast between the Kio-Nnnes
and Sierra-Leone. The anthor is the Kct. P. Baimbault, and the
work, though printed in Paris, has been issaed by the Muium du
RuhPimgo, Vieariai apostdique de Sierra-LBcm, 1885.
What the said Missionaries were going to publish was really
a practical Grammar of the Bambara language, which has now
been issued {JElemenU de la Orammaire Bamhara^ etc. 1 toL 16mo.
Tii. and 218 pp.^ Saint- Joseph de NgaeobU^ 1887). It contains
numerous exercises with lists of words, and it is followed by some
texts with a Bambara-French Dictionary: this is the most complete
and elaborate work ever published on that interesting language.
I must also quote here a little work, issued by the same Mission-
aries in 1880, which is not noticed in Gust's Modem Languages of
Africa, and which would prove yery useful to EogHshmen, because
it contains an English translation of all words and sentences ; its
title is (in French and in English) as follows : Guide of the Con-
144 CORRESPONDENCE.
versation in four lan^ua^es, English- Wolof-Fbench-Sarab, 1 voL
32mo. 329 pp., Saint- Joseph de Ngasohily 1880.
Capt. T. G. de Gni&AUDON.
Th9 Secretary of the Boyal Aaiaiie Society*
2. Notes oir Afbicak Phxlologt.
December 20th, 1887.
8iB, — ^Amongst the Notes contributed by the Hon. Sec. to the
last issue of the Journal, I read as follows :
** Vocabularies of the Hadendoa and Beni Amir. — .... The
Hadendoa is a Dialect of the Bishari language, of the Hamitic
group (see page 126 of Cust's Modem Languages of Africa, 1883).
The Bani Amir are wrongly entered as a Dialect of the same
language, but the Yocabulary shows that the language is Semitic,
and akin to the Tigr^ of Abyssinia."
So, if I understand rightly, we are told by Dr. Cust himself that
he has been wrong in entering the Beni Amir as a Dialect of the
Bishari language : we shall see hereafter that this statement should
really be understood in a way quite different from that suggested
by the phrase quoted above.
I must observe, in the first place, that Bani Amir^ or, more
correctly, Beni Amer, is a plural ethnic tribal name (Hebrew
Amrim)y meaning " Sons of Amer," and I fail to understand how
the " Sons of Amer " could be styled a Dialect. We could not say
that the Dutchmen are a Dialect. With regard to these Beni
Amer, as the Vocabulary alluded to has not yet been published, I
must postpone my opinion on the question whether the language is
Hamitic or Semitic. But both suppositions are possible : for some
of the Beni Amer, who are of Tigrean descent, have preserved
their original Semitic dialect, while the rest of them now speak a
Hamitic dialect (see W. Munzinger's Ostafrikanische Studien and
Yocabulaire de la langue Tigr6). Therefore, if Dr. Cust confesses
himself wrong in entering the Beni Amer as a dialect of the
Bishari language, he would have rightly corrected himself by
entering their name as that of a tribe speaking partly a dialect of
NOTES ON AFEICAN PHILOLOGY. 145
the Tigr6 language (Semitic) and partly a dialect of the Bedawje
language (Hamitic). In other words, his entry is right, though
incomplete, as to the name of the tribe, but it is quite wrong as to
the names of dialects and languages.
I come now to the so-called Hadendoa dialect of the so-called
Bishdri language.
The language, which these people who speak it call to^ Bedatvye^
i.e. the Bedawye (see Munziuger, Eeinisch and Alrnqvist), and to
which we have, therefore, no ground at all for applying any other
name, is spoken, according to the best authorities, by the Baden-
doas, the Bishdris, the Halengas, the Amarars, the Ababdehs and a
fraction of the Beni Amer. To call this language by the name of any of
these tribes, is exactly as if we were to call the French language the
Auvergnat, and we should only aggravate such a mistake by speak-
ing further of the Britton or Picard dialects of the Auvergnat
language. We can only speak of the dialect of the Bedawye
language, as spoken by the Hadendoas or the Bisharis.
Both Hadendoa and Bishari are but the names of tribes speaking,
together with the others mentioned above, one and the same lan-
guage, and none of these appellatives can be applied to the common
language, the right name of which we know perfectly well, as
already stated. That all these tribes speak a common language
with some dialectal differences (which, after all, are mostly mere
differences of pronunciation), this fact is beyond any doubt. But
that is the only difference we can trace. We cannot speak of
dialects in the true sense of the word among uncultured tribes.
Yery often the language becomes modified from place to place. It
is very difficult, not to say quite impossible, to state where a so-
called dialect begins and where it ends, and we can only say where
a language, in one or other of its dialectal forms, begins and where
it ends. Therefore, when an author tries to separate such dialects
one from the other, he runs the risk of becoming quite unintel-
ligible and of heaping mistakes on mistakes. A few more quota-
tions will more fully illustrate what I mean to say.
In his above mentioned work (p. 159-160), after having stated,
though without any ground, that there are five — I could as well say
fifteen or seventy — dialects of the Fulah language, Dr. Gust goes on
quoting : *' Faidherbe admits that his Grammar is of the dialect of
the Toucouleur, or Futa Toro, .... It presents several differ-
ences from pure Fulah, ..." and farther: ''Baikie observes
that the language was spoken in its purest form in Futa Toro . . . ."
VOL. XX.^[nSW 8BKIS8.] 10
146 CORRESPONDENCE.
It seems to me that all this is so illogical and self-contradictoiy,
that though it i*eads like statements of facts, it really conyeys no
meaning at all.
How can one speak of the purest form of a language which has
no literary standard, the only available one : I mean no true
indigenous literary standard, as I cannot consider the translations
of the Bible made by some missionaries otherwise than as an
artificial literary standard. But, if this language is spoken in its
purest form in Futa-Toro, how can this purest form present
several differences from pure Fulah ? And in what part of Futa-
Toro is this purest form to be found out ? During more than
three years I spoke myself exclusively the Pul language at
many different places of Senegalian-Futa (Futa-Toro, Central-
Futa and Futa-I)amga), and everywhere I found some dialectal
changes : but I have no term of comparison to say whether the
purest form was spoken at Gourik (Futa-Damga) or at Podor
(Futa-Toro) ; I can only say that the dialectal forms spoken by the
Bosseyabes and other tribes of Central Futa are perhaps less mixed
with foreign words than the others. In fact, there are two great
dialectal forms of the Pul language, which are spoken in two
separate countries, Senegalian-Futa and Futa-Dyallo : elsewhere,
the Fulbe being more or less scattered amongst foreign populations,
their language has become mixed and altered in various ways, and
it is quite impossible to speak of any dialectal classification.
B^tuming eastwards overland, I come to what Dr. Oust calls
*^ ^ile sub-group," and here I find in his Bibliography :
No, LanguageM, Dialects.
4. Bari. 1. Ban.
2. Moru.
13. Nyangbdra. „
which I would restore as follows :
4. Bari. ,,
13. Nyangbara. 1. Nyangbara.
2. Moru.
For the so-called Moru dialect of the Bari language, as illustrated
by Col. E. Long, is not at all a dialect of the Bari language, with
which it has not even two words in common. On the other hand,
the Moru dialect looks so very much the same as the Kyangbara
language, as' illustrated by Morlang, that it may be asserted with
THE MIGRATION OF BUDDHIST STORIES. 147
all certainty that both Nyangbara and Mora are but dialectal forms
of one and the same language.
I would not myself venture to give any new complete classifica-
tion of African dialects and languages, as I consider it to be
impossible for the present, and, in making the few preceding
remarks, I had only in view to point out the difftculty of the subject
in the present state of our knowledge.
Capt. T. G. j)b Guibauboit.
Thi Secretary of the Royal Atiatie Society.
Note to the above by the Son, Secretary. — All contributions to onr
knowledge of these imperfectly studied African languages, made by
specialists, who, like our correspondent, have actual personal
acquaintance with the subject, are of extreme value, and we thank
Capt. de Guiraudon for his interesting communications, and we
hope to hear from him again.
3. The Migeation op Buddhist Stohies.
MoKSiETTs, — ^Dans son important article sur la Siinha8anadvatrim8ik&
(Ind. Stud. XV.), Mr. Weber ne croyait pouvoir rattacher de pr^s les
fragments d'une recension Mongolo, connue sous le nom ** Histoire
d'Ardshi-Bordshi Khan," auz testes des recensions Samskftes.
Une traduction Persane, faite pour la premiere fois du temps
d'Akbar sur un texte Indien et remani6e plusieurs fois apr6s, nous
fournit des donn6es precieuses pour le rapprochement des textes en
question. II existe de cette version Persane une traduction fran-
9aise du baron Lescallier (Le trone enchants. New York, 1817, 2
vols. 8vo.), aussi infidele, que rare (ni Benfey, ni Weber n'ont vus
cette traduction). L' Introduction nous donne et Thistoire du p^re
de Yikramaditya-Gandharva-sena, transform6 en ane par une male-
diction d*Indra, et Thistoire du cadavre flottant. Le r^cit de la
7me statue presente certaines analogies avec Thistoire du chasseur
et des perroquets, pour laquelle nous trouvons une parall^le tr^s
rapproch6e dans la litterature orale Indienne. Le r6cit de la lOme
statue nous donne une version de I'histoire de Naran Da Kinl.
Cette petite notice a pour but de signaler Fetroite affinite entre
la recension Buddhiste Mongole et une des recensions Indiennes.
Je compte, sous peu, donner une analyse d6taillee de la version
Persane d'apr6s plusieurs MSS. de Londres et de Paris.
Seboe d'Oldenbuso.
148 COERESPONDENCE.
4. EIlidIsa. dt Cetlok, 522.
Sib, — Whether a bee was ever enclosed in the petals of the
lotus, into which it had entered in pursuit of honey, is very
doubtful. But Mr. Grierson has quoted in the Indian Antiquary
(xvi. 284) a very pretty couplet, in which the first line states
that a bee was so caught, and the second that his wife, the fenlale
bee, * adored the lord of day ' to save him. For, as is well known,
the lotus at dawn opens its petals.
It would be very interesting to know to whom this poetical idea
first occurred, and whether the verse has any history on the
continent of India. For in the island of Ceylon a similar one is
connected with a very interesting story.
It is this. In 522 a.i). there was reigning in Ceylon an
accomplished prince and poet, named Eumara Dasa, the author of
a Sanskrit poem still extant in its Sanna, called the Janakl-
harana. He invited Kalidasa to his court. Both king and guest
were enamoured of a certain lady, and one day on the wall of her
chamber the king wrote the following riddle, with a promise of
great reward to him who should solve it : —
Wana tambara mala no tala ronata wani
Mala dedera pana galawa giya sewanl.
That is : ' The forest bee got to the honey without hurting the
flower, but (being caught in the flower as it closed) he got away
with his life to the cool shades of the jungle only when (in the
morning) the lily unfolded its petals.'
The poet coming soon after, being on a like love's errand bent,
felt at once the allusion, and inscribed underneath the solution,
which ran : —
Siyat ambara siya tambara siya seweni
Siya sa pura nidi no laba un sewenX.
That is : ' The relation of the sun (the king, of the solar race)
seeking the society of the lotus-eyed (beauty) enjoyed indeed her
company, but sleepless was caught in her toils.*
When the king saw that his riddle had been solved, he enquired
for the anonymous author of the solution. But the covetous
beauty concealed his name, and on his next visit had him murdered
by her attendants, and claimed both solution and reward as her
own. Something, however, aroused the king's suspicion. He had
her premises searched, and the murdered body was discovered
KALIDA8A IN CEYLON. 149
beneath the floor. The king ordered a pyre to be made as for the
cremation of a king, and on the appointed day attended with all
his court, and scarcely had the flames reached the body, when the
king, overwhelmed with grief at the loss of his friend, to which
he felt he had himself contribnted, mshed into the burning mass,
and was himself also first suffocated and then consumed.
As the story is only found in two very rare books (Alwis's
Bidat Sangarawa, p. cli, and Knighton's History of Ceylon, p. 106),
I have given an abstract of the whole of it, Neither of these
authors gives the name or date of the book in which they found the
legend. But it is referred to in the Poerakum Ba Sirit (Parakrama
Bahu Caritra), a work of the fourteenth century, as being then
well known; and this at least is certain, that when it was first told,
the common belief among Ceylon scholars was that Ealidasa
belonged to the beginning of the sixth century of our era.
T. W. Rhys Davids.
150
NOTES OF THE QUARTER.
(September, October, November.)
I. Repobts or MBurnras of thb Rotal Asiatic Sogibtt, Session
1887-88.
First Jfeeting, 2l8t November, 1887. — Sir Thomas Wade, K.C.B.,
President, in the Chair.
There were elected as Resident Members : Macar David, Esq.,
Modan Gopal, Esq., Francis Hewitt, Esq., Sadder-nddin Khan,
Rang Lai, Esq. ; and as Non-Resident Members : the Very Rev.
Dean Butcher, D.D., Syed Ali Bilgrami, E. G. W. Senathi Raja,
Henry Cousins, Esq., Ernest A. Floyer, Esq., Spencer Pratt, Esq.,
Philip R. Valladares, Esq.
The Secretary, in the absence of the author, read an abstract of
a paper by Dr. Edkins on " Foreign Elements in Early Japanese
Mythology," in which it was argued that there were distinct traces
of fire-worship and other Persian ideas in ancient Chinese history,
and that the Japanese in borrowing from China had also adopted
Persian ideas. Quotations were given from the legend of Izanagi
and Izanami, and other myths, and the conclusion drawn that the
Persian elements in Japanese religion were: 1. That the dual
principle is made the basis of the universe ; 2. That many powerful
spirits were formed before the physical universe ; 3. That things
were created in the same order ; 4. That the Japanese goddess Ama-
terasu is a form of the Persian Mith-ras ; 5. That the great angels
ruling the wind, fire, earth, water, wood, etc., resemble the Persian ;
6. The purification ceremonies ; 7. The dedication of white horses
in their sun-temples.
Mr. Satow said : I do not think any one who has carefully
studied the early literature of Shintoism will deny that it contains
NOTES OF THE QUARTEE. 151
foreign elements, especially since the publication of Mr. Chamber-
lain's translation of the Eojiki in the tenth vol. of the Transactions
of the Asiatic Society of Japan. He has pointed out the influence
which Chinese ideas had in the composition of that book, and the
Kihon Shoki, to which Dr. Edkins refers more than once, contains
a much larger portion borrowed evidently from China. Since it is
nndoubted that the Japanese had no written language before the
introduction of Chinese learning, it seems very natural that in
committing to writing their legends, which to them were a part
of history, they should, either wilfully or unconsciously, have
copied their masters. Native Shintoists of the last two centuries
have looked on the Nihon Shoki as corrupt, and they base their
accounts of the primitive religion mainly upon the Kcjiki and the
rituals contained in the Engi%hiku The last are almost entirely
pure Japanese in style, and are probably among the oldest com-
positions in the language. They were used in religious services,
but there seems to me to be no evidence that the myths of the
Kojiki were ever chanted by priests as Dr. Edkins conjectures.
In saying that the rituals are among the oldest specimens of the
language, I must, however, add that the poems embedded in the
text of the Kojiki^ and some of those contained in the collection
entitled Manyo Shu, are of equally great antiquity. Later on
Shinto was greatly influenced by Buddhism and probably Tauism,
but this is beside the present question. What Dr. Edkins has
tried to do is to get at the earliest form of Shinto, and trace in it
Persian elements. It is unfortunate, therefore, that he should
have relied so much on the Nihon Shoki, which, as said before, is
not so much Japanese as Chinese in tone.
One personal explanation I think myself entitled to make. Dr.
Edkins asserts that I say the mirror is not found in Shinto temples
unless they have been nnder the influence of Buddhism. He has
slightly misunderstood me. What I did say was that the mirror
hanging in front of Shinto temples was Buddhist, and it is evident,
from my account of the emblem of the sun-goddess, that I never
meant to assert that the mirror was Buddhist. As far as one can
see, with the old Japanese the sword was the commonest emblem
of the male sex, as the mirror was that of the female.
The identification of seven elements in the Persian religion and
in that of the early Japanese is certainly ingenious ; but I think it
is erroneous to state that white horses are dedicated to the sun-
goddess. They are or were to be found at the temples of many
152 NOTES OF THE QUARTEE.
other deities, tf.y. at the temple of Hachiman at Kamakura. I
think it would not be difficult to point out as many fortuitous
resemblances between Shinto and Judaism.
I have elsewhere given reasons for thinking that the origin of
Shinto was ancestor-worship, and that the worship of fire, wind,
and other powers of nature dates from after the introduction of
Buddhism. I would not however be understood to mean that these
portions of the Shinto practice are borrowed from Buddhism.
Everything goes to show that the Japanese islands were peopled
long before the neighbouring state of Corea became civilized;
whether they be a homogeneous people descended from a section of
the race to which the Coreans belong, or whether they come from
an amalgamation of settlers from Corea with a later immigration of
Malays or Polynesians, is an open question. But whatever they
knew they brought with them from their home on the Continent,
and probably developed during a long period of isolation into the
civilization they possessed at the time of the introduction of Chinese
letters. No date earlier than about 300 or 400 a.d. can be regarded
as authentic, and to assume, as Dr. Edkins does, that the Japanese
chronology is to be implicitly accepted when they make Jimma
ascend the throne in 660 B.C. seems to me somewhat extraordinary,
seeing that a mere perusal of the tables of Japanese history from
Jimmu downwards for about 1000 years, shows that the whole is
incredible. That a person afterwards canonized as the Divine
Warrior (Jimmu) did lay the foundations of the Japanese monarchy
one can hardly doubt, since everything must have a beginning.
But if anything is to be assumed, on the basis of the early history
of the Japanese, it is that Jimjnu reigned about the 1st century a.d.
I will not say that it is much more trustworthy than the history of
Britain before the Eoman Conquest, but even if you accept the
orthodox succession of sovereigns, at any rate you cannot swallow
the chronology.
Mr. Dicldns thought with Mr. Satow that the early history of
Japan was quite unworthy of trust. The mythology, as we have
it, was so mixed up with Buddhism and Taouism, that it was
extremely difficult to eliminate the autochthonous elements from
the mass, for even these had almost always been preserved with a
foreign colouring. It struck him that the method lately applied
by Mr. Chamberlain to the investigation of place-names might
with profit be applied to that of the myth-names of primitive
Japan. As an instance, simply by way of illustration, the case of
NOTES OF THE QUARTER. 153
Nikko was cited, a Sinico-Japanese place-name, now written with
two characters, signifying the glory of the sun, but anciently with
characters of somewhat similar sound signifying in Japanese fuia
ara^ two storms, from a myth that two storms yearly issued from a
cave in Nantai. FiUa ara might be a Japanese pronunciation of an
Aino name, hence the last-mentioned myth, while the ceasing of
the storms, when Kobo changed ni kd (Juta twa) into nikko, sun's
glory, was involved in the latter name. In Dr. Edkins's hypothesis
Mr. Dickins could see no force whatever.
The discussion was continued by Mr. Bouvezie*Pusey and Mr.
Freeland, and was closed by the President.
II. Pbocxbdings of Asiatic or Obiestaj, Societies.
Asiatic Societt of Beitgal.
1st June, 1887. — ^Five copper find one forged silver coin for-
warded by the Deputy Commissioner of Bawal Pindi were sub-
mitted with a report by Mr. Eodgers.
In was announced that Mr. Smith's Index to General Cun-
ningham's Archaeological Eeport was nearly ready, and would be
issued as vol. xxiv. of the series.
Papers by Dr. Fiihrer on three grants of Govinda Chandra Deva
(twelfth century), and by C. J. Rodgers, Esq., on the coinage of
the kings of Ghazni, were read. They will be published in the
Journal.
6ih Jidf/, 1887. — Dr. Rajendralala Mitra exhibited a copper
plate received from Mr. Metcalfe, the Commissioner of Orissa.
Mr. Bodgers wrote concerning coins he had purchased and arohsBO-
logical discoveries he had made. Of the latter one was a group of
rock-cut temples near Kangra, hitherto unknown.
Dr. Bajendralala Mitra and the Babu Sarat Cbandra Das, CLE.,
read papers on JEkofibhdva, on which a discussion followed. The
Babu's paper is the same as appeared in the Academy of December
the 3zd, with remarks by Professor Max MiiUer and Professor Bhys
Davids.
Mr. Oliver read a paper on the Saf wl dynasty of Persia and their
coins.
154 NOTES OF THE QUARTER.
Mr. Smith read a paper on sixteen gold coins of Chandra Qupta
II. and Kumara Gupta Mahendra found in Gorakhpur.
Srd Auffusi, 1887. — ^Mr, Bruce Foote, of the Geological Survey,
read a paper on prehistoric remains in South India.
Mr. Beveridge, C.S., read a paper on the era of Lakshmana
Sena.
Babu Sarat Chandra Das, C.I.E., read a paper on the sacred and
ornamental characters of Tibet.
Pandit Mahesachandra Kyayaratna read a paper on the authorship
of the Mricchakatika.
2. SoOltx^ ASIATIQUE.
24th June, 1887. — ^M. J. Darmesteter read a paper in which he
argued that the legend as to the renunciation and ascension of
Yudishthira in the 16th Book of the Mahabharata was a re-
production of the Persian legend in the Shah Namah of the renun-
ciation and ascension of Kai Khosru ; and that it was brought to
India by the Magi at an uncertain date, probably in the second or
third centuries of our era.
III. CoiTTENTS OF FoEBION ORIENTAL JorBNALS.
1. Zeitsghkife deb Deutschen Mobqenlakdiscken Gesellschapt.
Vol. xli. pt. 2. 1. Georg Ebers. On Gustav Seyffarth, the
-Egyptologist.
2. Carl Lang. Mu*tadid as Prince and Regent (continuation).
3. F. Spiegel. On the Origin and Date of the Avesta (2nd
article).
4. J. H. Mordtmann. The Topography of Northern Syria, from
Greek inscriptions.
5. H. Hiibschmann. On the Formation of Nouns in Ossetian.
6. 7. Felix Liebrecht. On a Madagascar sentiment, and on the
Jus primeB noctes.
Reviews of Schwarzcose's * Waffen der Alton Araber * and Payne
Smith's ' Thesaurus Syriacus ' (Fasc. vii.).
Vol. xli. pt. 3. 1. Karl Vollers. On Arabic as now spoken in
^gypt.
2. M. Klamroth. On the Extracts from Greek Writers found in
al-Ja'qubi (continuation).
NOTES OP THE QUAETEB. 155
3. Heinricli v. Wlislocki. Four Folk-lore Tales from Transyl-
Tania derived from the Buddhist Siddhi Kiir.
4. K. Himly. Notes on Chess and allied Games. (Chiefly from
the Chinese.)
5. Th. Aufrecht. Notes on Sanskrit Poets (Hevaka, Namaka,
Bajanighantu, Eamagitagovinda, etc.
6. F. Bolleman. Contrihutions to the Criticism of the Yeda.
7. H. Oldenberg. On the Arrangement of the Eig Yeda (the
adhyayas).
8. O. Bohtlingk. On iti and ea in the sense of adi.
Review of Aschei-son and Schweinf urth's ' Illustration de la flore
d'Egypte.'
2. JOXTKSAL ASIATIQUE.
Huitidme S6rie, tome x. No. 1.
1. Proceedings, etc.
2. J. Darmesteter. On Points of Contact between the Maha-
bharata and the Shah Namah (see above, p. 154).
3. Viator Loret* On the Kyphi, a sacred perfume used in ancient
Egypt.
4. Clement Huart. Note on three books of the Babi sect.
5. de Bochemonteix. On the Situation of Busin and Phanizoit.
6. Nouvelles et Melanges.
3. ViEirNA OfilENTAL JoUBNAL.
(The first No. has also a German title, Wiener Zeitschrift fiir die
Sonde des Morgenlandes, herausgegeben und redigirt von G.
Biihler, J. Earabacek, D. H. Miiller, F. Miiller, L. Beinisch, leitem
des Orientalischen Instituts der Universitat.)
I. pp. 1-82. G. Biihler. Gleanings from Y4davapraka^a's
Yaijayant).
J. Kielhom. The Maurya Passage in the Mah&bh^hya.
G. Biihler. A Disputed Meaning of the particles iti and eha.
D. H. Miiller. Arabisch-aramaische Glossen.
J. Karabacek, F. Miiller. Beitrage zur Erklarung der altper-
sischen Keilinschriften.
Be views. (3 books reviewed.)
Miscellaneous Notes. (3 i>y J. Hanusz, 1 by F. Miiller.)
II. 83-164. D. H. Miiller. Geographisches und epigraphiflches.
156 NOTES OP THE QUARTEB.
W. Cartellieri. Subandbn and B&na.
F. M tiller. Beitrage zur Erklanmg der altpersischen Keilin-
schriften.
E. Hultszch. Notes on Indian Inscriptions (No. 1).
Eeyiews (4 books).
Miscellaneous Notes (3).
III. 165^260. a. Buhler. On tbe Authenticity of the Jaina
Tradition.
Dr. Johann Hanusz. Beitrage zur armenischen Dialectologie.
P. Jensen. Noch einmal der Kakkabmisri.
D. H. Muller. Eine alte hebraische Qrabinschrift aus Biva (mit
einer Lichtdrucktafel).
D. H. Muller. Drei neue Inschriften von Van.
F. Muller. Beitrage zur Erklarung der altpersischen Keil-
inschriften.
Dr. Ign. Goldziher. Das Frincip des istisl^ab in der Muhamme-
danischen Gesetzwissenschaft.
Reviews (2 books).
Miscellaneous Notes (4).
rV. CONTBIBTJTIONS TO THE NoTES OP THE QuABTES BT THE
HOKOBABY SeCBETABY.
General Philology, — Dr. Frederick Muller of Vienna has pub-
lished an appendix to his ^'Grundriss der SprachwiBsenschaft/' con-
taining materials which have come to hand betwixt the years 1877
and 1887 after his copy was made up for the Press. It comprises
Grammatical Notes on twelve African languages, ten American
languages, and five on Languages in Asia and Oceania.
India.^The Rev. Mr. Wade has published at the S.P.G.E. a
Grammar of the Kashmiri language, the result of his own studies
during a long residence in the Valley in daily contact with the
people. He has also published Texts : nothing of the kind has
previously existed.
Africa, — Antonio Geochi, an Italian traveller, has published at
Rome, at the expense of the Italian Geographical Society, Gramma-
tical Notes and Vocabularies of six languages spoken in the Region
South of Abyssinia, and collected by him in his Journey of ex-
ploration from Zeila on the Indian Ocean to KafPa in the nearly
unknown Regions of the Interior : their names are Chdla, KafP a,
KOTES OF THE QUARTER. 157
Shangalla, Janger, Adiya, Guragae, and Afar or Danakil. This
book is a valuable addition to existing knowledge.
"Review of African Philology." Dr. Biittner, the Director of
the newly-establiehed German Missions in East Africa, and well
known as a Scholar of South African Languages, has published the
first part of his new Review, which will appear quarterly in the
German language at Berlin : it promises exceedingly well, and
contains contributions on the Swahili, Suto and Ashanti languages
of importance, and a notice of all books published on the subject
within the period.
Niger Language, — Two Printing Presses are in full work in this
Region^ one at Bonny on the Lower Niger, a second at Lokoja on
the Upper Niger : they advertise to dispose of every kind of secular
work, advertisements, printed catalogues and visiting cards, but
their serious work is to turn ojff Educational works in the lan-
guages of the Region. We have before us four little works in the
Brass Dialect of the Idyo language ; and four in that of the Ibo, in
excellent style, written and printed by Negroes. Both languages
belong to the Negro Group.
Bantu Family of African Language, — The S.P.C.K. continues
to put forth volumes of an Educational character for use of African
Schools, and wo have on our table two volumes in the Xosa or
Kafir Language in South Africa, one volume in Swahili in
East Equatorial Africa, and one in the Ganda language of Victoria
Nyanza, printed in London ; but there is a press in full work at
Rabdga, the capital of King Mwanga.
Oceania, — Melanesia. — The S.P.C.K. has published a careful
translation of the Acts of the Apostles in the language of Elorida
Island in the Solomon Group, prepared on the spot.
Y. ExoERPTA Obientaija.
Ababic. — JSmcelVe Orammar^ to which allusion was made in the
October Notes, is really fasciculus 2, part i. of the work entitled A
Grammar of the Classical Arabic Language, translated and compiled
from the most approved Native or Naturalized Authorities, The fact
of its publication, at Allahabad in 1886, under sanction of the
Government of the North- West Provinces, calls forth from a writer
in the Saturday Review TMarch 26) a comment on the liberality of
the Indian Government m promoting the cause of Asiatic research,
contrasted with the little aid so afforded by grants from the Imperial
Treasury. An appreciative notice of this volume, with illustrative
158 NOTES OP THE QUARTER.
quotationSy is given by the same competent critic, who explains
that it ''is based upon the grammar of Az Zamakhshari, known by
the name of Al Mu/assal fin Nahwy an excellent edition of whicli
was published some years ago by Professor J. P. Brock, of Chris -
tiania." He goes on to show that the said grammarian "divided
his work into four books, of which the first three deal respectively
with the noun, the verb, and the particle, the fourth chiefly with
rules of pronunciation. £ach is subdivided into chapters, and each
chapter into distinct paragraphs or sections,. in all 759 in number.
These sections, fusUl, doubtless suggested the title of the work, Al
Mu/assal fin Nahw^ which may be interpreted either as the book
divided into sections, or the detailed exposition of the rules of
grammar." We are told, moreover, that the arrangement here
stated is strictly followed by Mr. Howell, whose work " might
almost, though not with perfect accuracy, be described as a transla-
tion of the Mu/assalf interwoven with large accretions and illus-
trations derived from the writings of numerous other authors."
The writer adds: " Mr. Howell has endeavoured, in the words of
his preface, to include every opinion of importance, and to exclude
useless or irrelevant controversy. How difficult he has found it,
even under these conditions, to confine his work to a moderate
bulk, and how great and varied are his additions to the Mu/assal,
may be judged of by the fact that the matter which in Zamakh-
shari's Grammar is comprised in 124 pages, has in Mr. HoweU's
hands expanded to upwards of 1600 pages."
The number and variety of Arabic Grammars published in Europe
may be readily accounted for by the exceptional importance of the
language, both in respect of mathematical construction and fecundity
of root. But the nature of the subject necessarily restricts the
area of such literature to the precincts of certain colleges, or the
studies and Societies of a few Orientalists; and it is perhaps as
much by the literary skill displayed in exposition, as by real depth
of scholarship, that world-wide reputations have been achieved by
workers in this particular field.
De Sacy, in the Preface to the First Edition of his celebrated
Crrammaire Arabe, published in 1810, after going back for three
and a half centuries to d'Alcala and Post el, divides the elementary
works which had been more or less in use for the study of Arabic
in subsequent years into two classes, viz. those prepared in con-
formity with the system of Arab Grammarians ; and those of a less
complex and more European character. In the former category
are the names of Gabriel Sionita, Martellotto, Pierre Metoscita,
Guadanogli, and Agapit; as also Baymond, Obicinus, and Erpenius,
in their capacity of translators, editors, or commentators ; while in
the latter Erpenius again appears in the light of a Western gram-
marian, and with him is bracketed the comparatively modern M.
J. Jahn, author of a German Arabic Grammar published in 1796.^
^ Writings of most if not all of the Orientalists here mentioned by De Sacy
are still available for reference. Some, it need scarcely be said, are of European
NOTES OF THE QUAKTEE. 159
De Sacy himself divided his grammar into four books, the first
relating to the elements of speech and writing; the second to
etymology ; the third and fourth to syntax, tanght both after his
own method and that of the Arab writers. In England we have,
among others, the grammars of Kichardson, Lnmsden, Stewart and,
more recently, Palmer, all useful in their way, but open to criticism
from those who, abandoning science, seek simplicity in rudiments,
and colloquial as well as general book knowledge in results.
Volumes, pretending to impart practical instruction, such as this,
take rather the form of a conventional vade mecum or vocabulary —
mostly local in its use of idiomatic and vulgar expressions — ^than of
a scientific publication.
Less brilliant and original than De Sacy's, yet more intelligible
than Lumsden's (on the lines of which it is to a great extent
written), and more complex — perhaps profounder — than that of
other English Arabists, is the Grammar of Mr. Mortimer HoweU.
It is a performance eminently creditable to his assiduity and
scholarship; and though it may fail to attract any but critical
scholars, it will remain a notable feather in the cap of the Bengal
Civilian of the present day. In the words of the just conclusion
pronounced by the Saturday Review ^ Mr. Howell has ** brought to
his task a mind thoroughly imbued with his subiect. The work is
obviously a labour of love. It combines, therefore, the conditions
that could best insure the high degree of merit that unquestionably
belongs to it." If instances were needed, the opening paragraph
(187) of the section on ''the Verbal Nouns and Ejaculations," and
the remarks on ^ (.h^^I aJid other adverbs of time in para. 206
(section "Uninflected Adverbs"), furnish a good example of the
care bestowed upon the subject in its details. But these are mere
drops in the sea of definitions contained in the remarkable contribu-
repute. During the first half of the sixteenth centary Pedro de Alcala published
his Voeabulitta Aravigo en letra GaHellana iu Granada, and Guillaume Poste) his
Grammatiea Arabiea in Paris. There are no less than 86 entries under the latter
name in the Catalogue of the British Museum. A wild visionary as well aa
notable scholar, his **tr^ menreilleuses victoires des Femmes du Nouveau Monde,
et comment elles doivent ii tout le monde par raison commander, etmdsme ^ ceulx,
qui hauront la monarchie dn monde Tiel, published in 1563, was held worthy of
reproduction in 1864, when one hundrea copies were printed. The learned
Maronite, Gabriel Sionita, is known for the assistance renaered to Le Jay in the
Polyglott Bible, and his **Geographia Nubiensis." [See Preface to BibUa
^otygloUa of Brianus Waltonus, a.d. 1657.) Martellotto in 1620, Metoscita in
1624, and Guadanogli in 1642, each published, at Rome, *' Institutiones Lineuo
Arabics " ; but the last is perhaps better known for his Arabic and Latin Bible,
and the '* Apolo/ia pro Chnstiana Relirione qua . . . respondetur ad objectiones
Ahmed filii Zin Alabedin, Perste Asphahensis, contentas in Libro inscripto Politer
Speculi " : one edition printed at Rome in 1637 bears the Arabic inscnption :
J^JX^ ^J^\ ^A,\ji\ ^ ^ uJb/J^ A^\ J\ ^y\A\f u-^ SSJ^ LTt-^^ *iW^
Agapitu^, Professor of Arabic in the University of Padua, published in 1687,
Flares Grammatieale* Arabiei \diomati»\ and the Orammatiea Arabiea (Agrumif^a) ,
and Thesaurus Arabieua {Syro-Laiinus), are both works of Obicinus.
160 NOTES OF THE QUARTEE.
tion to Oriental book-lore of which the earlier diviaons have now
been placed before the public.
Persian. — The Bahdristdn of Jimi, literally rendered into English
from the Persian, has been printed at Benares by the Kama Shastra
Society for private subscribers only; and were it not for the
appearance of a story, here and there, which would in ordinary
course have been expurgated by translators, might be recommended
as a fitting book for all classes of civilized readers. Its eight
divisions, or Gardens, are shown to be novelties in an English dress,
with the exception of the sixth, published by Mr. C. E. "Wilson,
about five years ago, under the title of "Persian Wit and Humour."
This gentleman had contemplated a translation of the whole work,
should the specimen then given "prove of sufficient interest" ; and
his version of Garden VII., " Biographical Notices of the Persian
Poets, with selections fi:t)m their works "—entitled in the present
literal rendering, "Account of the rhyming birds of rhetorical
nightingales and parrots of the sugar plantation of poetry" — has
long since been completed in MS.
Iimik, — The Imperial Indian Peerage and Almanaoh, 1887, Jubilee
Year, printed at the " Pioneer" Press, Allahabad, is a very notable
sign of the times. At foot of the outer cover are the words
tazkirah-i'Hisdi Mindiutdn wa jantri, which fairly represent the
English title, the Sanskrit jantri (almanack) being doubly appro-
priate from its similarity in sound to the Anglo-Norman gentry^ a
social class now first formally acknowledged in India. The Preface,
bearing the Political Agent's signature, sets forth the purport of
the work, which is to appear annually at the commencement of
the Sambat Bikramajit (March-April). It contains, besides an
Almanack, a Diary, and a Peerage, Tables of Wages, Exchange,
and Interest, Weights and Measures, Post Office and Telegraphic
Information, with Tables and Lists of the Royal Family, the
Ministry, the Indian Government, Foreign Sovereigns, the British
Colonies, and many other matters of interest, including an account
of the British Constitution. "The Indian Peerage and County
Family reference " includes, we learn, " all hereditary and personsd
title-holders recognized by the Government, and is prepared by the
Editor from materials furnished by the Government, though Govern-
ment is not responsible for its contents, and is brought down to the
latest date." It will, moreover, " enable the public in England to
ascertain the families to which the Indian aristocracy visiting
Europe belong." Salute Chiefs — ^that is, Chiefs entitled to a salute
of guns from 9 to 21 — of whom there are no less than 105, are
mentioned by name. Those receiving the honour of 1 1 guns and
upwards are called " Highness." Then follows a list of 27 chiefs
entitled to " Personal Salutes." An " Introduction to the Indian
Peerage " carries back the reader to the early ages when caste was
unknown to the Indo- Aryans north of Kabul, and afterwards along
the banks of the Indus ; but the subject admits of much expansion,
and would be invested with new interest if brought to bear upon
NOTES OF THE QUARTER. 161
particular families at the present time. In other respects the
following extract from a brief notice in the Athenaum may be
added in conclusion: "What would the old official of the first
quarter, nay, first half, of the present century have thought of a
' county family reference ' for the numerous noblemen and gentle-
men ... to be found in every town and Zil*a throughout India
(we quote the Preface to the book), when the allusion was to those
whose caste, habits, and prejudices rendered them bugbears to him !
But now such a work presents no astonishing features, and the in-
formation which it imparts on the hereditary and personal title-
holders in 210 British districts is really of value to Anglo-Indians
generally, and indispensable to the Indian political agent."
The AthefKBum states that the Society known as the Lokananda
Soma], recently formed at Triplicane, Madras, will publish a monthly
Sanskrit journal, under the title of Lokananda, with an English
translation. The journal will deal with such subjects as are set
forth in the ancient Sanskrit works of literary importance, " the
science of medicine, the science of heavenly bodies, architecture,
mathematics, music, dancing, morality, etc. Moreover, lectures
comparing the customs and manners of the ancients with those of
the modems in India and elsewhere will be within the scope of the
Journal. (Date 17th December.)
Professor Kielhom, of Gottingen, sends an important communi-
cation to the Academy of the 10th December, 1887, on the initial
point of the Chedi or Kulachuri Era. Greneral Cunningham, in
his Indian Eras^ bad fixed it at 250 ▲.!>. By a compnrison of the
days of the week in all the published inscriptions fully dated in
this era. Professor Kielhom shows that the initial date is 248 a.d.
We may here call attention to a paper by H. H. Ho worth, M.P.,
in the Manchester Qmrterly for July, 1887, in which the remark-
able coincidences between ideas ascribed to the Pythagoreans and
ideas previously current in India are pointed out.
M. Emile Senart, of the Institute of France, the well-known
authority on Buddhist Sanskrit, and one of the Conncil of the Pali
Text Society, is on a visit to India.
The Eoyal Geographical Society are about to publish a work on
Tibet, in which the results of the journeys lately made by native
scholars will be summarised in a form accessible to the public. And
Lieut. Younghusband, of the 1st Dragoon Guards, has successfully
accomplished an oveiland journey from China to Kashmir across
Mongolia.
The following extract from the Ceylon Examiner of the 12th
October will interest those who have heard of the late accident to
to the Maha Sri Jaya Bodin Wahanse, * His Excellency the great
auspicious and illustrious Bo Tree ' : —
** The Soared JBo-Treeat Anuradhapura. — In view of the accounts
that have been published already anent the prostration of the
biggest branch of the Sacred Bo, it will be enough to supply only
what has been omitted. On the morning of the 4th, the very day
TOL. XX.— [XEW 8BRIE8.] 11
162- NOTES OF THE QUARTER.
the tree waa broken by the strong thunderstorm, which prevailed
at the time, the townsfolk had heard the thumming of a tom-
tom, inviting all the Buddhists to assemble on the 7th to join in
the ceremony of Ktri Uturawanawd (pouring milk) at the shrine
of the Bo for invoking rain. This branch was considered by the
Buddhists to be the very stem which was brought to Ceylon from
India by Mahindo. It had been covered with gold paper in some
places, and the greatest reverence had been paid to it. During the
«' Wandanawa " days, hundreds of fancy handkerchiefs were hung
on its branches. With regard to the leaves of this Sacred Bo, you
might have heard it said in the low -country that they never fall to
the ground, but are wafted by the wind into Tissa Wsewa ! Two
days after the branch broke, it was cut into several logs, which were
removed to a place near Thuparama Dagaba, and were cremated
with all the funeral obsequies attendant on the death of a Buddhist
priest. It is said that the devotees of Buddhism intend to raise a
miniature dagaba over the ashes of the tree, and that the high
priest has kept one log with him, chips of which he means to sell
to the Buddhists as sacred relics. Two branches of the Sacred Bo
have already been broken, and there are only two other tiny
branches of it now surviving and awaiting their terms of adoration.
It will be welcome news to Mr. Fawcett, the English Buddhist,
who intends visiting Anuradhapura on a lecturing tour."
The Indian Government have published Mr. Burgess's important
report on Amaravati, but we received it too late to do more now
than notice the fact of its completion.
GRmk, — The principal literary event of the quarter as regards
China has been the appearance of the new edition of Sir T. Wade's
2\iil erh chi, a few copies of which have reached London. The
original work has long been out of print, and the experience of
twenty years had shown that a modification of certain points of
arrangement might be made with advantage to students. In the
new edition the colloquial dialogues are shorter than in the previous
issue, and the English portions are brought into closer connexion
with the Chinese text than formerly, while at the same time the
text has been thoroughly revised and corrected. The new work was
printed at the Printing Press of the Imperial Customs at Peking,
and does great credit to that institution. (Messrs. W. H. Allen
and Co.)
Prof. Dr. Terrien de Lacouperie has published in a separate form
his highly suggestive paper on the Languages of China before the
Chinese, which was lately read before the Philological Society. In
this work the Professor traces out the history of the pre-Chinese
races of China, and shows the influence which their tongues have
exercised on the Chinese language. Its pages display the results
of extensive research, which will be of inestimable value to future
workers in the same field. (David l^utt.)
" A Chapter of the Chinese Penal Code," by Dr. A. Lind, jun.,
of Amsterdam, forms an interesting little volume. The translation
NOTES OF THE QUAETER. 163
is in English, the notes are full and numerous, and in the appendix
IB given a useful list of Chinese law terms.
The current number of the Journal of the Peking Oriental Society
consists of a paper by Dr. Edkins on the '^Evolution of the Chinese
Language as exemplifying the Origin and Growth of Human
Speech.''
Two general works on China have appeared during the quarter,
one by General Wilson, an American, who visited the country for
the purpose of urging on the Government the necessity of at once
constructing railways, and of suggesting the propriety of employing
American engineers for the undertaking. The other work is a
translation of G. Eug. Simon's '* La cit6 Chinoise," in which that
author gives the results of his own experience among the celestials.
(Sampson Low, Marston, Searle, and Eivington.)
The July number of the Journal of the China Branch of the
Royal Asiatic Society contains a valuable paper on Chinese Family
Names by Mr. H. A. Giles. The materials for the paper are
gathered from the well-known Chinese work Po kia sing, and for
the convenience of European students, are arranged in alphabetical
order, while the translation of the notes attached to the library
edition of the original work adds much to the scientific value of
the contribution. This paper is followed by one by Mr. Parker on
the '* Manchu Eolations with Tibet." This also is a translation
of a Chinese work, the author of which has no hesitation in pro-
nouncing that the Yaru-tsangpu is an upper branch of the L-awaddy.
Obituary notices of Alexander Wylie and Dr. Hance, Eeviews of
Books, and the Proceedings of the Branch bring the number to a
close.
JOURNAL
THE EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.
Art. V. — The Ddgabas of Anur&dhapura, By John Capper.
In 1875 my son, the late George Capper, a Ceylon
official surveyor, was employed during nearly two years
in making measurements and drawings of the principal
ruins at Anur&dhapura. The results of his labours were
shown in upwards of thirty large sheets of tracings, which
have since been copied and forwarded to the Colonial Office
in London.
During the spare hours of his residence amongst the ruins,
my son made a considerable number of notes regarding the
architectural objects on the site of the ancient city. These
he did not live to complete, having met his death at the
hands of a Kandyan whilst on Survey work in a remote
district. From the rough memoranda found amongst his
papers, I have edited those relating to relic shrines, in the
hope that they may possess sufficient interest for perusal.
The oldest d&gaba at Anurftdhapura is the Thupftr&ma built
by King Dev&nam Piya Tissa, B.C. 307, supposed to have
enshrined the left collar-bone of the Buddha. As it was
invariably the practice to place all such relics in gold caskets
studded with jewels of value^ before they were deposited in
the edifices erected for their reception, it is more than prob-
able that no portion of this reputed relic now remains, as all
TOL. ZZ.— [hBW BBRIIg.] 12
166 THE DAGABAS OF ANUKADHAPURA.
d&gabas were pillaged by Malabar inyaders during the fourtb
and fifth centuries.
This d&gaba is said to have been partially restored during
the early portion of the British period, when the ** Tee '' and
spire surmounting the bell of the structure were renewed.
The ornamental moulded base, the diameter of which is 69
feet, is of fine white sandstone, and forms a portion of the
original structure, though much defaced by carelessly executed
repairs.
The diameter of the bell is 33 feet, and the richly orna-
mented spire is tipped with a large crystal of a delicate pink
hue, carved with a broad base terminating in a point. The
crystal is about a foot in length and eight inches in diameter
at its base. It was usually the practice in Ceylon in those
early days to surmount lofty buildings with a spire termi-
nating in a pointed crystal, which was believed to protect the
structure from injury by lightning.
The Thup&r&ma D&gaba, 62^ feet in height, stands on a
circular platform, the brick walls supporting which being of
great thickness, and on the outside embellished with fine
mouldings and pilasters of similar materials, though there
can be no doubt that the entire exterior, including the parapet
which once encircled it, was originally covered with plaster
and possibly decorated with paintings. This platform is
paved with slabs of granite, but these were evidently taken
from some other building, a number of them being morticed
to receive door-posts, and variously carved for other purposes.
On this platform are four concentric rows of graceful
octagonal columns. The first of these are situated close to
the base of the d&gaba, the second row about two feet from
the first, the third about five feet from the second, and the
fourth row, the columns and capitals of which were carved
from a single stone, were arranged round the margin of the
platform. The capitals of the first two rows of pillars are
ornamented along their upper edges with grotesque squatting
figures, with arms upraised as though supporting a weight
resting on their heads. The third row are ornamented with
the figures of eagles having outstretched wings, and the
1. THE TH^yPARAMA. 167
fourth and outer row bear carvings of fringes and tassels
of very graceful design. The height of the inner row of
columns is twenty-four feet, of the second twenty-two feet,
and of the outer rows fourteen feet. Between the third and
fourth rows of columns there was evidently a wall, no longer
in existence, but of which the stone foundations, slightly
raised above the pavement, may very easily be traced. These
columns were ranged round the d&gaba in quadrants, forming
a rather broad passage to each of the cardinal points of the
structure, where there was probably an altar-like slab (called
a Mal&sana, or flower-stand) close to the base, where those
who came to mark their faith in Buddhism laid their offer-
ings of flowers. No remains of these flower altars are now
to be seen, except a bold moulding of stone above the level
of the pavement, which no doubt received the frame of the
altar; that such did originally exist is the more probable
from the fact that the remains, more or less ruinous, of
similar altars exist at the Lank&rftma Digaba, which,
though smaller, was evidently built after the model of the
Thupftr&ma.
At the east and west ends of the building are flights of
stone stairs reaching to the platform, fourteen feet above the
surrounding ground, the steps having been ornamented with
richly-carved stone wing-walls, now prostrate on the ground,
but once surmounted by flat stone slabs elaborately carved
with human figures, bearing vessels containing the sacred
lotus-flower. Opposite the landing of these steps, and in a
line with the foundation of the wall which once surrounded
the digaba, may be seen a double step carved out of a single
block of granite, morticed above to receive the stone door
frame which once formed the entrance. The object of these
beautifully-carved pillars and wall was beyond a doubt to
sustain a magnificent conical roof, which would have covered
the whole of the d&gaba. Columns, wall both inside and
out, altars, and in short every portion of the building, were
no doubt originally painted in rich and glowing colours.
That it was so is proved by recent excavations very care-
fully made ; thin coatings of very fine plaster being found
168 THE dIgaBAS of ANURilDHAPURA.
oovering the stone and brickwork with traces of bright
colours.
On the platform to the south-west may be seen the remains
of a chapel, near which are three finely-ornamented stone
doorways, evidently removed from the wall which once sur-
rounded the d&gaba. At some distance to the east are the
ruined walls of a keep or guard-house, such as are attached
to all Buddhist edifices of any importance. Within the
enclosure of this building, and near the north wall, are the
remains of a tomb, originally constructed in the form of a
d&gaba, standing on a square platform reached by four stone
steps ornamented with carved stone wing-walls. All that is
now to be seen of this structure are the stone steps, the
wing- walls out of position, and a shapeless heap of bricks.
This tomb is said to be that of the Queen Anul&, but some
assert that it contained the remains of Sanghamitt&, a nun^
and sister of Mahinda, who introduced Buddhism into
Ceylon.
Next in point of antiquity is the Miris-wattiya Dftgaba^
built by King Dutu Gsemunu in the year 157 B.o., to com-
memorate the recovery of his kingdom from the Tamil
usurper £l&la. Yery little was known of this structure until
about ten years ago, when some extensive excavations on its
western side brought to light what may be considered the
roost beautiful specimen of ancient architecture in Anur&dha-
pura. This consisted of one of the 'wings' of the dfi^gaba,
that is of an elaborately-carved stone structure standing
slightly in advance of the main building, and having three
distinct faces, that in the centre projecting beyond those on
the two sides, but united to them by continuity of carved
ornamental work, as on the other faces. The wing is united
to the d&gaba by a backing of brickwork running into the
stonework of the lower rim of the structure or ' p&s&da,' a
raised processional path along which Buddhist devotees pro-
oeeded during the performance of religious ceremonies. This
d&gaba has two p&s&das or terraces, one above the other, of
which only the upper one could have been used for pro-
cessional purposes, as the backs of the wings extended into
2. MIRIS-WATTIYA DAGABA. 169
the lower p&s&da, blocking any passage through it at each of
the cardinal points where the four wings are placed. In the
other large ddgabas there are three pdsHdas in each, all of
which could be used for processional purposes, as the wings
ran only partially into the lower one. The ornamentation of
these wings having been cleared from the debris of the
superstructure, are found to be more perfect than in other
d&gabas, showing the stonework to its full height, and
sufficient of the brickwork to explain the method of its con-
struction and the object of the building.
The base of the wing is a moulding consisting of a plain
square surmounted by a quadrant of a circle, above which
there is a fine moulded string, from which rises the plinth or
plain face of the structure two feet in height, terminating
with a finely-carved capping. On this is a row of elephants,
remarkably well executed : the central elephant and those at
the outer and inner angle of the projecting front have their
trunks raised over their heads, the others have their trunks
coiled on one side away from the centre. Between each pair
of elephants on the recessed back-ground is a disc carved
so as to represent a front view of an opening lotus-flower.
Above the elephants and a few inches from the face of the
recess is a bold moulding, then a plain band receding slightly
from the front, about ten inches in width, surmounted by a
projecting moulded beading, another plain band of the same
width, a moulded beading above difiering in pattern from the
one below. Next comes a bracket line of heads of some
nondescript animal, from the jaws of which protrude an
upturned tongue reaching slightly above the level of the
head. The breadth of this row of heads is the same as that
of the elephants — eleven inches, and between each pair
similar lotus-bud discs are to be seen. Another beaded
string is found above this, then two more plain bands with
strings above them, then a carved frieze, more quaint than
beautiful, representing a procession of animals headed by
men marching from left to right. This frieze is rather more
than twelve inches broad, and the height of the animals
varies from eight to eleven inches : amongst them may be
170 THE DAGABA8 OF ANURADHAPURA.
recognised the elephant, lion, tiger, horse and bull. A
projected moulding caps the frieze, and on the face of the
upper portion of this, four inches and a half in breadth, is
carved a Buddha rail of horizontal bands crossed at intervals
\7ith vertical bars. Above this is a plain stone band, four
inches broad, and placed eight inches back from the rail,
which terminates the carved stonework of the wing. From
this rises a structure in brick, forming three recesses or
chambers open in front ; but the upper portion of this brick-
work being in ruins, it is impossible to determine the precise
form of the roof. The front ends of the stonework, rising
seventeen feet nine inches above the pavement, are finished
off with square stone pillars similarly carved, and grooved on
the inner sides, which fit with exactitude the bands and lines
of beading : their outer faces and backs are without carving.
These pillars are monoliths terminating in an oblong cap
with a Buddhist rail round the upper edge, whilst on the
caps are lions carved in the Greek style, having their faces
to the front and seated on their hind quarters. The devices
carved on the pillars represent on the upper portion the
sacred umbrella, the horse-tail fans and the sacred wheel —
all Buddhist emblems ; whilst below may be seen figures of
animals in pairs facing each other, having their front legs
raised and leaning on a central stem with a protruding
waving leaf, whilst between each pair of animals is an
ornamented vase, supported on a plain tray by a squatting
dwarf.
No portion of the upper part of the structure now remains,
and until it was freed from dense jungle-growth and ex-
cavated to some extent, it was regarded as a mere heap of
ruins ; but it promises, if these excavations are carried on, to
yield more important information than has been gathered
from the examination of other d&gabas. The dome of this
structure springs from a cylinder twenty-two feet higher
than the upper p&s&da, and the total height now remaining
is 82^ feet above the raised pavement. The diameter of this
d&gaba at the base is 164 feet, and of the cylinder above the
upper psLsMa about 128 feet. The platform on which it
3. EUWAN-WOELI DAGABA. 171
stands is reached by four flights of steps, one opposite each
of the wings, the wing* walls and janitors being without
ornament. The wall supporting the platform and the
parapet with its coping, are composed of large blocks of
stone tennoned and morticed together in a most workmanlike
manner.
The approach to this d&gaba was from the east, and an
avenue may still be traced for some distance, flanked on
either side by ruins of stone walls. At the further end of
this avenue may be seen in good condition a strangely
carved stone pillar, which was supposed to have had the
property of restoring the insane to reason.
The Ruanweli D&gaba was built by King Dutu Goemunu,
and was his greatest work, though he did not live to see
the structure entirely completed. It was begun B.C. 158,
and finished B.C. 137, a few years after the death of
Dutu GoBmunu, who had, however, so far completed the
building as to have deposited the golden casket contain-
ing the relics in the upper chamber of the bell, which
he placed there with his own hands amidst many imposing
ceremonies.
The spot on which the d&gaba was built was considered
by the Buddhists to be one of very great sanctity, and the
Chinese traveller Fah Hian, who visited the city in about
60 A.D., says in his description of the place : '' On Buddha's
third visit to Ceylon he planted one foot to the north of the
royal city and one on the top of a mountain, the distance
between the two being fifteen yojanas " (the mountain refers
to Adam's Peak, and the spot to the north of the city where
the foot rested, the site of the present d&gaba). We find in
the Mah&wansa that a stone pillar of very great magnitude
stood on this spot, with an inscription on it commemorating
this event, and that before commencing the building of the
d&gaba King Dutu Goemunu had it carefully removed and
put up a short distance to the north of the building, where
it may now be seen, though much mutilated and without the
slightest trace of an inscription.
The dftgaba is described in the Mah&wansa as having been
172 THE dAgabas of anurIdhapura.
120 cubits in height. The superstructure above the crown
of the bell has long disappeared, though a part of the original
tee may still be seen. Above the ruined dome a piece of
new masonry now supports a large copper ornament 18^ feet
high, and to the top of this, from the paved platform upon
which the d&gaba stands, is a little more than 198 feet.
The diameter of the base of this dftgaba is 294 feet, and that
of the bell 258 feet. This dftgaba, like the Miris-wattiya,
has four wings, but on a smaller scale in proportion to the size
of the d&gaba ; they have all been cleared from the debris of
the superstructure, as well as the chapels, altars, and a large
number of interesting objects which surround its base. The
base of the wings here have only the bold moulding at the
bottom, a square and quadrant of the circle from which the
plinth rises direct, and the capping to which is plainer than
in the former case. The elephants are larger and more in
number, but the discs are not so elaborately carved, the orna-
mental carvings of all the mouldings are much finer, the
designs on some of the upper ones being very beautiful. In
the wings of this d&gaba nothing above the first band and
its beaded string beyond the bracket course can be traced,
though a large quantity of mouldings and pieces of frieze lie
scattered about. The carvings on the pillars at the ends of
these wings have not been treated in the same way as those
of the Miris-wattiya, and, being much broken and worn, are
not of so much interest to the visitor. The carving of a
seven-headed cobra on a smaller and outer pillar to the west
wing is well treated, but the carvings on similar pillars of
the three other wings, which represent different subjects, are
not so interesting. The remains of paintings on these wings
in bright colours, are very quaint, where human beings,
monsters, and demons are treated, and the designs of floral
work, especially on the plinths, where the lotus-flower and
stems are conspicuous, are very pretty. Pictures of imaginary
birds are only remarkable for their gorgeous colours, and the
ornamental part of these wings were covered with brilliant
paintings, and it is not improbable that all carved work
about these religious buildings was more or less coloured^
4. ABHATA-GIEI DAGABA. 173
especially the statues, of which there are now a few interest-
ing examples.
The objects of interest on the platform of this d^gaba,
independent of the building itself, are very numerous,
abounding with carvings of various descriptions.
The building facing the steps to the east side of the
platform is comparatively new, but the carved stonework
round its base and the smaller steps to the doorways are
very old: three figures of Buddha within are of stone,
patched and painted. Passing onwards northerly, the remains
of an ancient structure may be seen, which is well worthy
of notice on account of its curious and elaborately carved
pillars, one of which has fallen down. Closely adjoining the
west wing is a very ancient altar having a projected front,
evidently intended as a base for three sedent figures of
Buddha. Some lion panels on the front of this altar are
boldly carved, but being formed of soft sandstone, the
entire work is much worn by time and defaced by bad
usage.
The next d&gaba to be described is the structure known as
the Abhayagiri, which was erected by King Walagam Bahu
about B.C. 89, in commemoration of his victories over the
Malabars, who had during a number of years overrun the
country. This d&gaba is described in the Mahawansa as
having been 180 cubits high. The present ruin measures
231 feet above the level of the platform : it is quite possible
that this d&gaba, when its spire was complete, was at the
very least 300 feet in height. To the king who constructed
this dagaba is ascribed the chief formation of those cele-
brated rock-temples at DambuUa, which are visited by every
traveller on his way to the chief of all the ancient cities
in Ceylon. Till within a very recent period the Jetawan
Ar&ma D&gaba was considered to be the largest, but recent
investigations have proved this not to be the case, as the
Abhayagiri is found to have a larger diameter at the lower
part of the hill of fifteen feet and at its base of twelve feet.
The height of the dome and tee of the Abhayagiri are also
greater than those of the Jetawan Ar&ma, but as a far
174 THE DAGABAS OF ANURADHAPURA.
greater portion of the spire of the latter remains standing, its
total height at present is fourteen feet more than the Abha-
yagiri. The tee of this d&gaba as well as the spire is very
carefully built with ornamental brickwork, the tee having
indented bands round it at intervals, and the spire moulded
at top and displaying the Buddhist rail on its four sides,
giving the appearance at a little distance of Yenetian blinds.
The wings of this d&gaba, four in number, are pretty nearly
the same as in the two d&gabas previously described ; the
bases of this, however, have the same extra moulding as in
Miris-wattiya, and though now out of position, it is known
that it had elephants at the angles above the plinth as in
that d&gaba, while they were wanting in the Ruwanweli and
Jetawan Ar&roa, the comers of which finish off with the half
disc. A great peculiarity in the construction of the stone-
work in the wings of this d&gaba is the arrangement of the
large slabs of stones forming the plinth and in the plain
bands above the elephants. Their faces, instead of being
built of large brick-shaped blocks, and laid one over the
other, are arranged alternately, presenting one end of a slab
to the front and the next its broad surface, and are fitted
closely together, and kept in position with mortices and
tenons. The arrangement of the different courses is much
the same as in the wings of the other d&gabas, the designs of
the strings and the frieze being somewhat different : the
carvings on the end pillars, which are divided into panels,
are very beautiful, representing full-length figures display-
ing rich drapery studded with jewelled ornaments. Facing
the west wing of the d&gaba, on the lowest panel on the
right-hand pillar will be found a well-executed carving in
high relief, representing a female figure holding a fruit not
unlike an apple in the right hand, whilst over her left
shoulder appears the head and part of the body of a large
serpent, as though conversing with her; the whole being
very suggestive of the temptation in Eden.
The platform of this d&gaba is supported by plain brick
walls, and it had a brick parapet on all sides, with an opening
in the centre of each opposite the wings, where a fine broad
6. THE LANKARImA dIgABA. 175
flight of stone steps leads down to the procession path below.
Opposite the stone steps on each side are the ruins of the
four guard houses, all of which were built alike, and display
a great amount of very fine carving in stone, the mouldings
of the sides of the pavilion and the pedestal-like finish at
the top of the steps being very perfect in design. All these
guard houses are more or lees in a very ruinous condition,
but the one on the east is perhaps in the best state of preser-
vation. The janitor stones on either side of the steps leading
up to the platform of the dftgaba are very large, but quite
plain.
In point of age the next d&gaba is the Lank&rftma, built
on the same plan as the Th(ip&r&ma, but on a considerably
smaller scale. The main point of difierence may be summed
up in a few words. The d&gaba having been built some
hundreds of years subsequent to its prototype, is in a far
greater state of preservation, and we have the half of the
original d&gaba facing the east in a very perfect state as far
as the top of the tee ; the stone foundation of the wall with
a finely chiselled base ; all the doorsteps fronting the altars,
with mortices for their landings, for the stone door frames, all
in their proper positions, only two rows of monolithic columns
(in this case caps included) within the wall, but the same
arrangement of octagonal columns outside, making three in
all, instead of four as in the ThfipAr&ma. A further depar-
ture from the plan of the older dftgaba may be seen in the
wall supporting the stone paved platform, which, as in the
ThCkp&r&ma, is circular. Here we have a very plain wall
unadorned with any attempt at moulded decoration, but the
presence of stone spouts proves that a parapet wall round it
was an original part of the construction, and this possibly
may have been more ornamental, though no trace of it at
present exists. One of the stone spouts, now lying on the
ground near the steps to the platform facing the east, is a
very faithful copy of one already described as being now in
position in the wall of the Th(ipftr&ma Ddgaba ; but as the
carving is of more recent date, it is as may be expected in
a far better state of preservation, and is altogether a very
176 THE DAGABA8 OP ANUfiADHAPUEA.
curious work of art. The cape of the two inner rows of
columns are alike, but the figures round their upper edge are,
in this case, lions squatting on their hind legs being distended,
and the fore legs firmly planted close together in front. The
caps of the columns outside the wall are very much like
those in a similar position in the ThAp&r&ma. The bell of
the d&gaba has no p&s&da, but the mouldings, now plastered
up in many places by way of repairs, must have been very
good, and the square altars at the cardinal points of the
d&gaba in place of the wings are well designed, and having
been carved from good granite, are in a very tolerable state
of preservation. Close round the d&gaba, and between the
altars, are some smaller ones as well as the bases of statues,
that once adorned the interior of the building which enshrined
it. The steps leading from the platform, of which there is
one opposite each of the altars in this digaba, as well as a
doorway, while the thCkp&rlma has only two, are of stone,
but the wing- walls were built of moulded brick. The
landings to these steps must have been originally beautified
with pedestals, but as no traces of them remain, they may
have been constructed like the parapet and wing-walls of
brick. That they did exist is proved from the fact of a pair
of round vases, from the top of which issues the opening
flower of the lotus and four buds depending from it, lying
at the bottom of each. Instead of janitor stones on either
side of the bottom of the steps, at three of them may be
seen octagonal columns of different heights, exactly like
those belonging to the outer row, but as many of these are
wanting, it is more than probable that they have been placed
there at a very recent period, and that they once belonged to
the outer row of columns. The wall surroundiog this dagoba
cannot be fully traced, though there are evident signs of its
having existed, as well as a guard house, though of not very
great pretensions, but the ruins of several buildings, of which
the stone pillars, steps, and janitor stones, within what was
evidently an enclosure, are still to be seen, point to the fact of
a large monastery having been planted there, and at one time
the place^ from a Buddhistical point of view, was one of very
6. THE JETAWAN AKAMA. 177
great importance. Amongst these ruins are to be found four
or five seated stone figures of Buddha, all headless, and the
projecting arm, as well as one standing figure with the head
broken off. The remains of statues and carved stones
scattered around point to this place having once been of
some importance, and to having been profusely adorned by
art. The diameter of this d&gaba is 44 feet, the height from
the platform is 33 feet, and the height of the platform above
the surrounding ground nearly 14 feet.
The next d&gaba to be described is the Jetawan Ar&ma,
commenced by King Mah& Sew about a.d. 394, and com-
pleted by his son Kirti Sri Meghawarnna about eight years
afterwards. The height of this d&gaba is 245 feet, its
diameter above the three p&s&das is 310 feet, and the
diameter of the base is about 355 feet. The spire, of which
a very large portion still remains, was evidently a striking
feature of the whole building, as also is the tee, though it is
not apparent to the casual observer. A pair of binoculars or a
small telescope will reveal a great deal which it is impossible
to discern with the naked eye, and much that will interest
the visitor. The upper part of the steeple is very much
worn by time, but it can clearly be seen by the aid of a glass
that there was an architectural design about it that would
have made it very imposing, and the lower part still clearly
shows three very bold projecting mouldings, under which are
arches and large ornamented pilasters alternately. This,
which was once a very grand steeple, rises from a tee with a
somewhat sloping top, having on its upper edge an over-
sloping cap, and a broad base below, the corners of the sides
representing large plain pillars, between which, and filling
up the whole of each side, is the Buddhist rail with the
emblem of the sun. The whole of this was plastered, as
traces are clearly visible everywhere, and it is not im-
probable that it was also painted, as all these ancient Budd-
histical structures appear to have been. Tradition says that the
large disc on each side of the tee was covered over with rich
sparkling gems, so that when the light of the sun struck it,
it was impossible to look upon the dazzling object Of the
178 THE DAGABAS OF ANURADHAPUEA.
bell of the d&gaba very little can be seen on account of the
thick foliage of the jungle which now covers it ; but it is
quite apparent that, like the Abhayagiri, it was in the form
of a semicircle springing from the base, and not as the
Ruwanwelle and Miris-wattiya, a dome rising from a slightly
bevelled cylinder.
This d&gaba has its three pis&das or procession terraces
rising one above the other, and its four wings at the cardinal
points. The wings are here larger in proportion to the
d&gaba than the others built on the same principle as this,
whilst the mouldings appear to have been copied from those
of the Ruwanweli D&gaba from the base to the bracket course,
above which nothing remains, though it may fairly be sup-
posed that the remaining portions were identical with the
others. In most instances the pillars at each termination of
the wings have not been cleared from rf^irw, or are in such
a ruinous state as to render it difficult to examine them
closely : those, however, which have been cleared and ex-
posed to view show some beautiful carvings in various de-
signs, some representing the human figure in rich drapery,
others depicting birds amidst rich foliage, the whole very
accurately treated. There are scattered about the platform
of this structure several altars noticeable rather for their
great size than from any peculiarity of construction. Lead-
ing up from this platform are a number of steps forty-two
feet in width, reaching a procession-path nearly a hundred
feet wide, and surrounded by a stone wall with a massive
coping. This wall is built up of huge blocks of stone of
almost every conceivable shape and size, yet all made to
unite in one compact mass with the utmost precision, show-
ing the existence of a considerable amount of skill in the
workmen employed. Some of these blocks of stone measure
ten to fourteen feet in length and from one and a half to
four feet in width.
This dftgaba has but two guard houses, one on the west
side, the other on the south, but both are splendid examples
of ancient architecture. That on the south side is the most
perfect, and presents a terraced pavilion with projecting
7. THE 8ELA CHAITITA DAGABA. 179
pedestals at its angles, and on either side of the fine flight of
steps, ascending to it from the road, and from thence across
the guard house, descending again to the procession-path,
enclosed by the curiously constructed walls alluded to above,
the pedestals were each surmounted by a fine vase, from the
mouth of which issued a full-blown lotus-flower and four
buds. The wing-walls to the steps, though carved, were
somewhat plain ; the janitor stones to the steps from the
platform d&gaba and those of the guard-houses faciug the
d&gaba were dwakas, with the three-headed cobra. The
janitor stones in front of the steps leading from the road of
the south guard house are very curious, and difierent from
any others to be seen in the place. They are not dwaka
stones, but represent a grotesque figure of a man, different iu
each case, in a very peculiar posture, holding the stem of the
lotus-plant in one hand while the other rests on his hip ;
these carvings, in very high relief, are quaint in their
conception, and should be examined to be appreciated, as
no description would convey a fair idea of them. That a
similar pair of janitor stones existed in front of the west
guard-house is quite possible, but nothing of them now
remains.
The next d&gaba, and the last to be described, is the Sela
Chaitiya, but it is so small, and is in so ruinous a condition,
that very little can be said about it. The base of the dagaba
was a square pavilion-like structure, of beautifully moulded
stone, most of which is now thrown down and covered with
the debris of the structure. The small portion of the
moulded stone now to be seen shows a plinth some three feet
in height, and a bold elegant base moulding, with a very fine
cap finishing off flat at the top, being slightly above the
pavement, which is reached by flights of stone steps on the
east and south sides. These steps, though not large, are
interesting, having the usual wing-walls of stone, the top of
which are surmounted by the curious nondescript animals
previously described, a plain moonstone being at the foot of
the steps, with two dw&raka stones or janitors very richly
carved. The platform was originally six feet square, and
180
THE dIgabas op anubIdhaptjra.
the base of the d&gaba thirty feet, but the latter is now so
much destroyed that only a heap of bricks and rubbish
remain. It is not known by whom or at what date this
d&gaba was built, but it is probably older than the Lankar&ma,
which Sir E. Tennant ascribed to the year 276 a.d. Accord-
ing to tradition in the neighbourhood, it was constructed to
enshrine some bones of two monks, disciples of Buddha, who
travelled as missionaries in Ceylon for a number of years
after his death.
TABTTLAR SUMMARY OF THE SEVEN DAGABAS.*
Height of Plat-
Height (from
Diameter of
Built
platform) of
existing ruin.
ground.
bell.
dagaba
1. Thilpanlma ...
307B.C.
18 feet
62 feet
33ft.
69ft.
2. MirisWattiya...
3. Ruwaa Wojli ...
167 B.C.
4 flights of steps
82
128
164
168 B.C.
198
268
294
4. Abhava Giri ...
6. Laiikardnia
89 B.C.
3 terraces
231 «
322
370
276 A.D.
14 feet
33
44
44
6. Jetawan Arama
394 A. D.
246
310
356
7. Sela Chaitya ...
80
^ D&-gaba is the Sinhalese contraction of the Vk\i Dhitu-gabbha 'Belie-
casket ; ' but it is used exclusively of these solid bell-shaped domes.
' Original height from the ground to the top of spire, 406 feet (Tennent,
Tol. ii. p. 621), that is to say, about ten feet higher than the topmost point of
8t. Paul's ; the latter being only 396 feet high.
181
Art. VI. — Andamanese Music, with Notes on Oriental Music
and Musical Instruments, By M. V. Portman, Esq.,
M.R.A.S.
The subject of Oriental Music is one which offers a large
field for research, in which very little work has, as yet, been
done.
The music of Arabia was very thoroughly investigated by
Yilloteau. Short papers have been written on the music of
Persia. Eichhorn has written on the music of Afghanistan.
Willard, and later Sir Sourindro Mohun Tagore, have
described the music of Hindostan at some length. Javanese
music has had some attention paid to it ; and F^re Amiot,
and later, Tradescant Lay, and Yan Aalst, have described
the musical system of China. Many small notes have been
made on the music of most Eastern countries ; but these,
even when they are really accurate, are generally mixed
with a mass of extraneous matter in some book of travel,
scientific paper, or report, so that they are not easily procurable.
In order to investigate Oriental Music, it is necessary that
the inquirer should be a musician, somewhat above the
ordinary amateur grade, and should also be acquainted with
the language and customs of the people amongst whom he is
inquiring. What is really wanted in England is a complete
and exhaustive collection of all the musical instruments used
throughout the world by Oriental and Extra- European
nations, and this collection should Ijp accompanied by such
a mass of information, that the facts regarding the music of
these nations may be laid before the student in a complete
and intelligible form. The Questions drawn up by the late
Mr. Carl Engel, for "The British Association for the
Advancement of Science," and published in " Anthropo-
VOL. XX. — [nBW 8BRIB8] 13
182 ANDAMANESE MUSIC.
logical Notes and Queries/' will greatly assist the investi-
gator. Full scores of Oriental orchestral music we are
entirely without, and these should be accompanied, where
possible, by the words of the songs, or plays, etc.
The Sacred music of Oriental nations would be a most
interesting field for research, and a collection should be made
of the treatises which the more civilised Asiatic nations
possess on music.
In making these researches the greatest care is of course
necessary. Engel's admirable work, "Study of National
Music," might be consulted with advantage, and I should
myself be glad to assist any inquirer.
The music of Asia may be divided into distinct branches,
which have little or no connection with each other.
1. The music of pure aboriginal, and savage tribes.
2. The music of the Chinese.
8. The music of Siam, Burma, the Malay Peninsula,
and Java.
4. The music of Hindostan, which differs greatly in different
parts, and of which the ancient classical music, about which
much has been written, and many fanciful theories have
been evolved, differs almost entirely from the music per-
formed in the present day.
5. The music of Persia and Arabia.
6. The music of Thibet and Nepaul.
Without going over ground which has been already
traversed by others, I will give what little information I
have been able to collect regarding these systems of music.
With regard to the first class, I have made considerable
researches into the music of the Andamanese, a race of
whom I have been for some years in official charge.
\ The Andamanese are decidedly fond of their own music,
but do not care much for that of other nations. Even
among themselves the songs of more distant tribes, which
differ in rhythm and intonation, are not much appreciated.
\ Foreign music merely attracts their attention as a novelty.
Their ear is not acute for discerning small musical intervals.
\
ANDAMANESE MCTSIC. 183
Experiments were made by me with seyeral European and
Oriental musical instruments of different "timbre." They
baye not good musical ears. The " Ong^s " appear to have
more highly developed musical capabilities than the other
tribes. Those who are considered, amongst themselves, to
be the best singers, can generally nearly hit any note given
to them on a European instrument, but the majority of the
Andamanese, on whom I experimented, were about a semitone
out. They are very slow at picking any European, or
Asiatic tune, which may be sung or played to them, though
quick enough at learning the choruses of each other's songs.
The reason of this probably is that the rhythm is different
from that to which they are accustomed, and the tunes are not
in their ordinary song-compass ; nor are the notes in their
accustomed sequence.
The voices of the men are of medium loudness, rather
rough, and steady, growing deeper and fuller in tone with
age, up to about 35 years. After this it becomes very
rough, husky, and tuneless. [The Andamanese age very
quickly.] The boys' voices are clear and not unpleasant.
The women's voices are clear but of bad intonation.
'^Falsetto" is common among both sexes, though their
general ** timbre " is not as nasal as that of more civilised
Oriental races. The notes'of the " 6ng6 " tribes are quite
smooth and round, and entirely free from nasal intonation.
The usual compass of the voice in both sexes is about an
octave. The man's is generally from C-c, though I have
met men who can sing from B7-e. Women generally sing
from G-g. The prevailing male voice is barytone. The
prevailing female voice is contralto. All the notes of the
women are distinctly head and not chest notes.
With the exception of the "Pukuta Yemnga," about to
be described, the Andamanese have no instrumental music ;
their music consisting only of songs in solo and chorus,
which chorus is invariably sung by both sexes if available
and is accompanied by a dance. They have no professional
singers. The following appears to be their system of song.
The men sing in unison ; some women, with the children in
184 ANDAMANESE MUSIC.
y falsetto, an octave above ; the' remainder of the women sing
in what I believe is intended for a perfect fifth, but what is
occasionally a minor sixth above the men. Difference of
pitch in the voices introduces other notes, which can only
be called " out of tune." Their singing is in regular duple
time. This is more particularly marked in the choruses,
when you have the rhythmical accompaniment. The con-
tinuance of one note, or of a sequence of notes, a little
distance apart, which is an attribute of Oriental music, often
leads persons who do not know the meaning of the word to
call Andamanese solos '* recitative," which term, as meaning
'' musical declamation," does not in the least apply. They
have only one species of song, which may treat of all
^ subjects. They have no religious, nursery, or love songs.
The principal subjects on which songs are composed are
^ pig-hunting, fish-shooting, turtle and dugong spearing,
fighting, making boats, bows, etc. The music, rhythm,
accent, and intonation is no clue to the sense of the song,
and a person not knowing the language would be ignorant
y as to whether a fight, hunt, or the making of a boat, was
^ being described. Every one composes songs. A man or
woman would be thought very little of, who could not do
so. Even the small children compose their own songs.
Each person composes his own, and it is a great breach of
etiquette to sing another person's song, particularly if the
composer be dead.
The only notes in use in their songs are the following,
and in this order :
The leading note, \%. The Tonic. The Tonic, j|.
The whole range of notes is therefore not equal to a
superfluous second.
The general sequence, or progression of notes, used by the
South Andaman tribes, is
Tonic. Tonic, J#. Leading note, jj.
I of course presume the Andamanese leading note to be a
semi-tone below the tonic.
Of the northern tribes we have more to learn, but I doubt
ANDAMANESE MUSIC. 185
if any great difference will appear. The " Ong^ '' tribes
appear to have our diatonic interyals, but we know little of
them. The songs conclude on what I assume to be the
tonic, but which is in reality the second note of the scale.
In their solos, "Ritardando" and "Accellerando " are
freely used, the chorus only being in strict time, which is
invariably duple.
They have no traditions regarding music, except that the
" Chaoga-t&banga " or " ancestors " (a great people, like the
Greek Heroes, or Demi-gods), by their account, used to sing,
and, as it is not etiquette to sing the song of a dead person,
these are soon forgotten. As to their manner of composition,
any person, wishing to compose a song for the evening's
entertainment, ue. dance, makes up the song to his satis-
faction by continually trying it over, while engaged in any-
thing which does not excite, or distract him.
I append some Andamanese songs, in score, which will
illustrate my meaning.
As the Andamanese alter and clip at will the ordinary
words of their language, to suit the rhythm of their songs,
they may almost be said to possess a poetic dialect. This
being the case, I have in the following instances translated
the song into the vulgar tongue, and from that into English.
(The numbers refer to the songs in score.)
Song Ko. I. — Composed by an Andamanese man named
"BulubuUa," of the "iika-Balawa'' tribe, resident in "Aik
Juru.'' It relates how, when he was on a cruise in the local
steamer, he sang a song, and another man learnt it.
Soh,
Ouma Nyunga-1& dia ch^l Idiot r&mit loto ^no dia ch^l
l&16t rfimit-l&. Nyunga d^ra to oro boi 1&, Nyunga
d^ra oro, boi 1&.
Charui.
Nyunga d^ra oro b6i 1&.
In the ordinary Aka-6ia-da language,
Wai Guma Nyunga-la dia 6t-^nir^, birma ch^Iewa-len
6t r&mit lot wai &dik eb &kan podir^, & idat oor^.
186 ANDAMAN£SE MUSIC.
In Englisli.
Master Nyanga-la sang with me on the steamer, and he
learnt my song.
ChoruB.
Nyunga-la learnt my song.
This will be repeated many times, and perhaps one or
more verses made up.
Song No. 2. — A song by the same composer, describing
!how, when out with me in a small steamer, we passed up the
coast of the North Andaman at night.
Solo,
Bir-a lot ^rema ogar 14 ebng^ra ch&l ^do k^ dok,
ebng^ra ch&l 1&. B^ choke w&p 16m, dakar
t&rai lot t&.
Chorus.
B^ choke w&p 16m, d&kar t&rai I6t t4.
In Aka-B(a-da.
W&i bira 16t ^rema ogar 1& ch&Iet k&gre, eb &raoh&l
dokr^. Ch6ke iji d&kar t&r lotire.
In English.
From the country of the Yerewas the moon rose, it came
near. It was very cold, I sat down.
Chorus,
It was very cold, I sat down.
Song No. 3. — Composed by an Andamanese man, named
"Riala," of the "Aka Jawa" tribe, resident at "T^retil."
It relates how, while on a cruise in the local steamer, he
sang to the North Andamanese, saying he was coming
to meet them.
. Solo,
Do ng61 &ka-teggi leb, d&kar j&d &1 ng&ka y&bngo,
d'ot 6gar lera loto ch&li beo.
Chorus,
D'ot Ogar l^ra loto chdli beo.
ANDAMAKESE MUSIC. 187
In Aka-Bia-da.
D6 iig61 &ka-teggi leb, d&ka j&dia k&gM> &ka y&bnga
lat. D'6t 6gar l&r 16tii^.
In English.
I am coming to see you^ the moon has gone down.
The moon has gone down.
Song No. 4. — By the same composer, saying that it was
his fate, although one born in the interior jungle, to be
always travelling about in the steamer.
Solo.
B&dinga y&ba ch&na ur ch&l y& leb d&b6tir^, &ra ch^lia
lat gono t^t lot gutoi d&b ch&ti tong lot t&r, lodo
ch&r beria oba ngikfi.
Chonu.
At lodo ch&r b^ria 6ba ngik&.
In Aka Bia-da.
B&dinga y4bada, ch&na d'&b^tir^ &ra oh^Iia l&t d&b
gono tet lot gutor^i d&b ch&ti tong l&i don ik &r
lodok^.
In English.
I did not see, but I know I was bom from my mother,
for the work of the steamer, I was born in the jungle,
where the Gdno ^ and Ch&ti ^ are, but I go often
in the steamer.
Song No. 6. — Composed by "' Woichela," an Andamanese
man of the " Aka Jawai " tribe. It relates how he was
cutting a bow, and did it all himself.
Solo.
fkngat k6pa loko tet&n, oit&n, uchob& d'6n kichal
uchub& d& kd did&, oh ! oh ! oh !
Ohonu.
Uchuba d&, k6 dida, oh ! oh ! oh I
> Edible roots.
188 ANDAMANESE MUSIC.
In Kka, Bia-da.
B& Dgoda pomgata, ikQg&t kopa loka t^t&n, uchuba
d'oa kichal d6, ddla uchuba, d6Ia d^dalir^, oh!
oh ! oh !
In English.
8clo.
You did not make this, I made it, I, I, I, made it.
I, 1, I, made it.
Song No. 6. — Composed by " Bulubulla," an Andamanese
man of the "Bojigi&b" tribe, resident at "Pich l&ka
chdkan," in " B&ratan." It relates how M4ia Poro saw a
big turtle in the water, from the composer's boat, and
laughed at it.
Solo.
M&iff Poro b^ringa Ik dia yadi oh&uma leb ngiji d&lJQ
P&&1 l&ka en ngiji d&la-da, Poro Tdt y^ngo bia li dd.
Chonu.
P6ro Tot y^ngo bia li dd.
In Aka Bia-da.
M&ia Poro b^ringa dia y&di ch&uma lik ngiji 6dal lot
p&reka 6bada. Poro 6t y^ngik^ b'^dal-da.
In English.
Solo.
M&ia Poro from my boat saw a big turtle in the water,
and hit him in the eye. Poro laughed when he
hit him in the eye.
Chm-tu.
P6ro laughed when he hit him in the eye.
Song No. 7. — Composed by " Bia Mulwa," an Andamanese
man of the " Xka, E61 " tribe, resident at Long Island. It
relates how at the close of the day they were returning
through the jungle slowly, when they heard the noise of a
canoe being cut. [Other verses describing the cutting of it.
ANDAMANESE MUSIC. 189
would probably be added to this song.] The masic of this
song is not given.
Solo.
Bddo dd l&ta d& teggi 16 tid l&ra d4ka ke &ba id&b ch&
16nir6.
Chorus.
K6 &h& idab oh& ldmr6.
In Aka Bia-da.
B6do d& 14t do oyo did l&radak^ 6 teggi k& y4bada
m6cho &t l&rdak^.
In English.
Solo.
At the end of the day we were going slowly, and heard
the noise of a canoe being cut.
Chorus.
' We were going slowly.
^ Song No. 8. — Composed by "Chfina Lucia," an Anda-
manese woman of the " Aka Balawa " tribe, married to a
man of the ''Aka E^d^" tribe. She relates how putting
', the steering oar straight, she took the canoe out to sea, and
' then brought it back.
I Solo.
D6 ngen &r geu d&ngali d&t kopa l^ra golob&ka, id4t
I kopa l^ra do ngen 6 d^ra &ojr6.
I Chorus.
y D6 ngen 6 d^ra, ^lojr6.
In Aka Bia-da.
Tan ikng&t kopa l^ra l&t gora wai doi ngen 6yo
d'&rlomk^ jurulen.
In English.
Solo.
I straightened the helm, and took the boat out into the
sea, and then brought it back.
Chorus.
I then brought it back.
190 ANDAMAN£SE HUSIO.
Song No. 9. — Composed by '*Bia Boi/' an Andamanese
man of the " Bojigiab " tribe, resident at " Darat&n." It
relates bow be was cutting a canoe.
Solo.
Pus-^ loringd 16 dud^ pol^^ pus-^ loring 6 1& ; mi&t^ ba
16ring& la.
Chorus.
Mi&t^ ba 16ring& 14.
In Aka Bia-da.
B&j^ loringa 16 dud^pol. B&j^ 16ringa-da M^tat
16ringa-da.
In Englisb.
Solo.
I am cutting tbe under part of a canoe's prow, I am
cutting a canoe.
Chorus.
I am cutting a canoe.
Song No. 10. — Composed by "K&la," an Andamanese
man of tbe " Aka Bia-da " tribe, resident at " G6p-l&ka-
bdng." It relates how, when standing at the bows of a
canoe, he saw some fish.
Solo.
K&pr6, kapr6 dekan, k&pro &, Bkr lek6, tia &-bada.
Chorus.
Bir leko, tia &-ba-da.
In Aka Bia-da.
D61 &ba k&pi, k'61 bedig, dol dekan k&pik^, dol k&pi.
W&lak-lek 6t yat, dia y&ba-da.
In Englisb.
Solo.
I was standing, yes I was standing up. I was standing.
In front of me are fish, but they are not mine.
Chorus.
In front of me are fish, but they are not mine.
ANDAMANESE MUSIC. 191
The two following songs composed by " T6k6," an An-
damanese of the " Aka Jawai " tribe, resident at " P^wiltaur,"
are given to show a two-line chorus of peculiar rhythm, used
chiefly in the northern part of the Middle Andaman.
Solo.
Juruwin 1& dik ^rat& pucha la beat
It6ko 16 dig, k6 ti& la
Bang abg&di, g& daii bi&.
Ohonu,
Bi&t.
B6kol6drg II k6ti&l&
Bang abg&di^ || g& daii bi&.
Also
Solo,
£bn w61 16ko pail-i diji, boi d^dat k6po lot yubro^
K&la don w61o b^.
Nura loij, r&t kopa 16t,
Yubr6 kala^ don wolo b^.
Chorus.
Nuraloij II rit k6pa 16t
Yubro k&la, || d6n w61o b^.
The following song composed by " I'll," an Andamanese
man of the ''Aka Ch&ri&r" tribe, resident at ''Pait-ter-
buliu/' North Andaman, will serve to show the rhythm and
style of song in use among the tribes in the North Andaman.
Solo.
Boruatd. o o o -
Oromu. - - -
6r4bir4. - u u -
K^tod
RdWu
K^ rebels - « u -
192 ANDAMANE8E MT78IC.
Rai ebet^
Eyo keto
ti ra bel&
D&la ro^
Eba b^&
T&1&
Obe ikri
Rai ebet^
TJwi
lyu u.
U 0 0 —
— u o —
Chorm.
— 0 u —
Rai ebet^
Uwa " ■
fyuu. " " -
The following song, composed by myself whilst on an
expedition against the '' J&rawa '' tribes, shows how a song
may have two choruses.
Solo,
J&raw& la tinga odo, p&li&t ^r& tinga 6m&, lebat^r&y
ting er&k i6m& leb.
Chorm.
Ting er&k i6m& leb.
or,
Solo.
J&raw& la tinga 6d6t, p&lifit 6t&, tinga 6m& leb-at-ise.
Chorut.
J&raw& b6im& leb-at-ise.
I have not thought it necessary to copy out more songs
because the above fully illustrate the music of the Anda-
manese and their poetry ; and, as explained, none of the
^ songs have the value of antiquity. The "Ong^" songs
^
ANDAMANESE MUSIC. 193
I have as yet been unable to procure. The next point for
notice in the singing of the Andamanese is a peculiar
" finale," as follows :
Solo.
6U d&t'^ iv 6k.
or,
Oba^ b67ub6 d&t^,
answered by
Chorui
T6 kr6 iri k.
all of which has absolutely no meaning.
This solo with the I^orth, and North of the Middle
Andaman tribes is
Solo.
E" iU kvk, i khe tkrk.
answered as before.
This finale closes the song, and a pause ensues, in which
the only sound heard is the rhythmical time beat, which has
a very weird effect, and which ends in the time being
suddenly broken, when a confused rapid rattle of beats is
heard, the time changing from J ^^ J^ || J ^ J^ continu-
ally repeated ^^ J^J^J^J^\\ J^J^J^J^ which after a few
bars ceases entirely.
I will now describe the "Pukuta Temnga," the only
musical, or rather rhythmical instrument of the Andamanese.
It is an instrument of percussion, and is a shield-shaped
piece of wood, which is placed with the narrow end in the
ground, and struck with the foot. Any man can make one.
It is almost invariably made of '* Ch&langa " wood [Ptero-
carpus dalbergioides, '^Padouk"], and is ornamented on the
concave side with patterns in coloured earth put on generally
by the women.
Holes, called " Aka-tob-l&nga-da," are cut in the broad end
for a rope to be fastened to, which rope the performer holds
in his hand. He has also, as a rule, an arrow in his hand,
the pointed end of which he sticks into the instniment near
194 ANDAMAKESE MUSIC.
the holes. It is used as a rest, and, with the rope, may be
shifted to either hand. Ornaments of tassels are also
occasionally tied on to these holes, and hang down under-
neath. No acoustic reason is given for the holes, and many
"Pukutas" are found without them. The "W61o" or
Adze, is the only tool used in making the '* Pukuta," which
is not smoothed or finished in any way. The convex side of
it follows the shape of the tree from which it has been cut ;
this side being generally the outer edge of the tree, with the
bark removed, and the knots cut off. A big ^^Pukuta" takes
a man (and it is usually made by one person) about a week
to make.
When in ULse, the convex side of the '* Pukuta " is upper-
most, the pointed end is stuck in the ground, and kept in
position with one foot. A stone is then placed under it, to
keep it steady, and give it support.
>^ Though the Andamanese sing when engaged in any
employment, yet the dance is their only real musical per-
formance. This may take place on the meeting of friends,
after a successful day's sport, during the various initiatory
ceremonies, in short, any event is made the pretext for a
N dance, which constitutes one of the greatest enjoyments in
Andamanese life. It is also performed with certain ob-
servances of etiquette at a ceremony about 70 days after
the funeral of a man, when his bones are distributed amongst
his relatives.
The dances of the Andamanese are "the ordinary dance, or
Koinga," "the T&di-Gumul dance,'' which is only used
at that ceremony, and " the Reg-jiri-gumul dance," which
is peculiar to that ceremony. There also occur minor
differences in these dances among the different tribes, which
merely consist, on the men's part, of a different mode of
swinging the hands, and on the women's part, of a greater or
less accentuation of the curtesy. The principal dance of the
Andamanese, which with a few variations prevails through-
out all the tribes in the Great Andaman, is as follows, and
though seen at its best when a large party meet together
who have not seen each other for some time, and therefore
ANDAMANESE MX7SIC. 195
vie with each other in the energy of their steps, or the
newness of their songs, yet may be observed in most encamp-
ments of any size every evening. Although men, or rather
boys, do take the women's part in the " Orchestra," yet a
dance is not considered to be correct in the absence of ^
women.
The " Pukuta Yemnga " having been placed at one end of
the dancing ground (called " bulum "), which has been swept
clean, the leader takes his stand at it, facing the ground. A
number of women sit in a row on his left, and a cluster
of men are behind him and on his right. The men who are
going to dance sit or stand about at the edge of the ground.
The leader then commences a Solo, and, arriving at the
Chorus, the women and men take it up and repeat it many \
times. The former sit upright with their legs straight
before them, crossed a little above the an\|Ie, and slap the
hollow between their thighs with one open hand which v
is held at the wrist by the other. The men who are not
dancing clap their hands, all in exact time. The leader ^
strikes the "Pukuta" with the inner part of one foot,
principally with the heel.
After about one bar of the chorus has been sung, the
dancers commence with great vehemence. They do not
form any figure, but go where they choose, and stop when
they are tired.
The step of the men's dance is. Strike the ground with
the right heel, the toes not being raised off the ground ; ""
then with the left heel, the whole foot being raised off the >
ground, and then again with the right heel, i J J^ J\ This
completes one step, and is repeated for some time till the
right foot is tired, when they commence with the left foot.
All this time the body is bent slightly forward from the
hips, the back curved well inwards ; and the arms being out-
stretched, the first fingers and thumbs of both hands are
interlaced. [There are many ways, however, of holding the
fingers, this being purely a matter for the dancer's taste.]
As the leader becomes tired, he is relieved at the " Pukuta "
by another, and joins in the dance. The leader continues to
196 ANDAMANESE MUSIC.
sing for some time, and when tired is succeeded by the man
who relieved him. This obtains always.
The step of the women's dance is, ^'Swinging their arms
\ backwards and forwards, and alternately raising their heels
from the ground. Then raising their hands they will cross
their wrists, then go back, after a little while, to the first
position." They also every minute or so advance a few steps.
The men when tired, but not wishing to cease dancing,
have a eftep called, " D^naok^," which is performed thus :
" they simply stand and raise their heels alternately, keeping
their toes on the ground." A great feature in this dance is
y that occasionally several men ceasing from their steps will
cross the floor with a trotting motion, shouting the while. The
time in all their motions is perfect, and very interesting to
watch. As the Andamanese are always stark naked, with
the exception of a leaf worn by the women, and their
ornaments, the sight is a curious one.
The dances take place in the evening and at night in the
dense jungle, often with no light but that of the flickering
fires, and the efilBct is very weird. Sometimes they light a
^ torch or throw a blazing mass of resin on the ground.
They quite lose themselves in the excitement of the dance.
Special ornaments are worn by some, viz. a circular band
of leaf round the head, with bunches of fibre stuck in it, and
bunches of the same fibre are stuck in their waistbelt behind.
The young men often dress and paint extensively for the
dance, and are proud of their dancing.
A peculiar eflect is produced when occasionally the music,
^ ue. the song, ceases, and nothing is heard but the rhythmical
beat. Women occasionally relieve men at the "Pukuta,"
but do not often sing. A few diSerences may be noticed
from the above, as, for instance, the Aka Y^ri and Aka
Ch&ri^r tribes, when dancing, swing their hands from the
hip to the chin in time with the dance. From what I have
seen of the J&rawa and Ong^ dance, it would seem to be in
imitation of the act of coition.
In the ceremonies of " Yddi-gumul-1^," or eating turtle,
and " Reg-jiri-gumul-1^," or eating the breast of the pig.
NOTES ON ORIENTAL MUSIC. 197
under certain circumstanceB and conditions, a dance peculiar
to each ceremony obtains. For a description of the
ceremonies I must refer you to Mr. E. H. Man's work
" On the Aboriginal Inhabitants of the Andaman Islands."
The '* Y&di-gumul-I^ " dance is as follows : '' Men, and
occasionally women, taking bunches of leaves in both
hands, jump in the air with both feet together, bending
down, and striking the ground with the branches as they
return to the earth, and then rising erect for a second
jump.
The " Reg-jiri-gumul-1^ " dance is similar, but one foot,
the left, is kept permanently on the ground, while the right
is alternately in the air, or beating the ground. The
bunches of leaves are used in the same way.
No song or " Pukuta " is used in these two dances, and
they are performed to merely the rhythmical clapping of
hands and slapping of thighs. Only those who have gone
through the ceremonies may assist the initiate at these
dances.
The Nicobarese possess two musical instruments, one a
seven-holed flageolet, which is evidently that of the Burmese,
and the other a stringed instrument, called " Danang." It
is made of the large bamboo, is about, three feet long, and
has three frets and one string of cane. Two holes are made
in the bamboo for sound-holes. This instrument is laid across
the knees when played, and produces a very good and power-
ful tone. It is in my opinion borrowed from the Indian
'' Sit&r." The Nicobarese have many dances and songs,
which have not yet been collected.
For information on the second class of music, I must refer
you to the works of " Amiot," " Tradescant Lay " and *' Van
Aalst."
With regard to the third class, the music of Burma, Siam,
and Java is more pleasing to European ears than that of any
other Asiatic country. The instruments are of excellent
quality of " timbre,'' and the scale is not so ofiensive to
European ears.
VOL. XX. — [NXW 8BRXB8.] 14
198 NOTES ON ORIENTAL MUSIC.
The following remarks on Burmese music may be of
interest ; but in giving them I wish it to be understood that
much more work remains to be done in this subject, and
hereafter errors may be detected in what I now write.
The Burmese appear to be fond of music, but chiefly when
in combination with dancing and acting. Their ear is good,
and they can be taught European music. They have pro-
fessional musicians, who attain considerable proficiency in
their own music, which is taught entirely by ear. The
quality of their voices is soft, but nasal in intonation, and
not particularly pleasing. The compass is about one octave.
The prevailing male voice is "barytone," Bl^- -a or B-f. The
prevailing female voice is " mesBzo-soprano," Bl^- -e. They
possess books and collections of songs, but have no musical
notation, nor have they any knowledge of Harmony, which
is a purely European musical science. The Burmese scale
requires to be determined by some experienced acoustician,
the " temperament '' differing from ours. I have heard
a *^ P&tala " tuned to almost our diatonic scale of A Major.
This '* P&tala " or Bamboo Harmonican, is the basis of all
Burmese music, and to it all orchestral instruments are
tuned. As it is tuned, diatonically, orchestral chromatics are
forbidden. The music contains frequently repeated phrases,
with different variations, and in different octaves. Duple
time is generally used.
The following is a list of the instruments in use in Lower
Burma. *' Boung," a Drum. " Saeng,'* a circle of Drums.
" Pam-ma," a Brass Drum. " Hn^," an Oboe. " Boung-
hs^," a long Drum, " Oo-hs^," an upright Drum. " Be-
oh," a Tam-tam. " Wun-let-hkouk," a bamboo Clapper.
" Hsaing-di," a circle of Gongs. " Maungi," a Gong. " Jeg-
wainh,*' Cymbals. " Hsaing-aung," a crescent Gong. " P&-
Iw^," a Flageolet. " Saung,'* a Harp. " P4tala," a
Harmonican. " Mee-gyoung,*' an alligator-shaped Guitar.
"Theyau," a Fiddle.
I will now describe these in detail.
''Boung" is a conical wooden drum, with heads and
braces of deer-hide. Only the larger end is played on, and
NOTES ON ORIENTAL MUSIC. 199
is Goyered with a cream-coloured paint, with a black centre.
It is not tuned by the braces, but by placing in the centre of
the black spot a lump of paste, consisting of boiled rice and
soda lye earth, and the reason of painting the head of the
drum is to prevent this composition, which is a strong alkali,
eating into the hide.
The " Saeng " consists of a number (generally 21) of these
drums, placed round the inside of a circular frame, being
suspended from its upper rim by hide cords. A large bass
drum is suspended to a bamboo pole attached to the outside
of the frame. The performer sits in the centre of the frame-
work, and plays on the drums with his hands, striking them
with a peculiar flick of the first and second fingers. The
tone is soft and dull. The '* Pam-ma," being simply a large
** Boung,'* requires no separate description.
" Hn^ " is an '' Oboe," with a large detached metal bell,
seven holes in front and two holes behind. It is an instru-
ment of the orchestra. Its compass is three octaves, of
which the middle one seems to be little used. The lower
octave has a coarse rough tone, but the highest octave has a
beautiful flute-like tone, which is very effective. Five oboes
are generally used in a full orchestra. The reed is of coarse
contrivance, being thick, and made of a number of folds
of palm leaf, at folding which the players are very dexterous.
A brass bodkin is usually attached to the ''Hn6" for
keeping the centre of the reed clear. "Boung^hs^" and
'*Be-oh'' are mere ordinary drums, of the shape of the
Indian " Tam-tam.'^ " Oo-hs^ " is a peculiar kind of upright
drum, in form being of the genus kettledrum, and somewhat
resembles the "Darabukkeh" of the Egyptians. "Wun-
let-hkouk" is an ingenious bamboo clapper. It consists
of a piece of bamboo two joints long, which is split down to
the second joint, and part of the second joint is cut away for
the hand. It is used to mark the time, and is often played
with the foot. Qongs the Burmese are famous for. They
are of two shapes, crescent and circular, and are either used
singly or in a circle. The edges of the single gongs are
thin, and incline inwards ; those which are used in circles
200 NOTES ON OEIENTAL MUSIC.
like the circle of drums, have their edges of the same thick-
ness as the rest of the instrament, and at right angles to the
face of the gong. They are tuned by adding solder, wax,
etc., to the inside of the centre knob. Their tone is often
exquisite, and the circle of gongs, which are played on by
being struck with pieces of wood, are an excellent addition
to the orchestra. The cymbals are equally fine, and are of
all sizes.
" P&-lw6," the flageolet, is made of bamboo, with seven
holes in front, and a thumb hole. It has often another hole
above the top finger hole, which is covered by paper or wax,
and is similar to the same class of hole in the Chinese flute
called "Ti-tzu." The instrument has no mouthpiece, the
end being simply put to the mouth.
" Saung,'' the harp, is a most beautiful instrument. The
body is canoe-shaped, and made of wood covered with deer-
skin, and sometimes painted. A long curved neck projects
upwards from the body, and the strings, made of silk and of
different thicknesses, are fastened to thick tasseled cords on the
neck, the other ends being tied to a bar on the centre of the
body. The strings are thirteen in number, and are tuned in
unison with the '' P&tala." The tuning is effected by the
cords being raised or lowered on the neck. The body acts
as a sounding board, and has round holes cut in the belly
covering. The tone of this instrument is very fine. Of its
origin I can say nothing, but it should be compared with the
harps of the ancient Assyrians and Egyptians, which it
greatly resembles, and will probably solve many problems
regarding them, as it appears to me to show decided traces
of Assyrian origin.
''P&tala," the bamboo harmonican, is the basis of all
Burmese music. On it beginners are taught before they
learn any other instrument, and to it the other instruments
are tuned* The number of its notes varies from 18 to 23.
The notes are merely strips of the " Bambusa Gigantea,"
strung together by holes bored on the nodal points, and
suspended over an ornamented trough which serves as a
sounding board. The tone is remarkably liquid and beautiful.
KOTES ON ORIENTAL MUSIC. 201
It is played by one performer, who sits before it, having
a hammer with a cloth or cork head in each hand^ with
which he strikes it. There is also a " P&tala/' composed of
metal bars instead of bamboo, which greatly resembles the
glass harmonican used as a toy by English children. It is
not a genuine Burmese instrument, but an adaptation from a
European harmonican.
'^ Mee-gyoung/' the alligator-shaped guitar, is considered
to be one of the most ancient instruments in Burma, and on
account of its inefiPectiyeness is going out of use. It is made
of wood in the likeness of an alligator, is strung with three
wire strings, and has frets. It is played with a plectrum.
" Theyau/' the fiddle, bears a striking resemblance to the
European viol family. It is strung with three silken or
horsehair strings, and is played like a violoncello. It is
difficult to say whether this is a genuine Burmese instru-
ment or no. I am of opinion that, though the Burmese may,
in common with other adjacent races, have had a stringed
instrument played with a bow, yet that the shape of the
present " Theyau '' has been influenced by some member of
the viol family, possibly introduced by the Portuguese.
It may also be affected by the Hindu ^'Sarinda.''
Burmese instruments may be divided into three classes.
1. The instruments of the lower classes.
2. The instruments for chamber music.
3. The instruments for orchestral music.
The instruments of the first class are : *' Boung-hs^."
" Be-oh." " Wun-let-hkouk." " Pd-lw^." « Pdtala."
'* Theyau/' These would generally be used singly or
combined, as "Patala'' and " Wun-let-hkouk,'* "Be-oh''
and *' Jeg-wainh,'* "Theyau*' and " Wun-let-hkouk.*'
The instruments of the second class are : " Saung/'
"Patala,'* and " Mee-gyoung."
The instruments of the third class are : " Hn^." ** Hsaing-
di." " Saing.'' " Pam-ma.'' " Wun-let-hkouk." " Jeg-
wainh.'* Of which a good orchestra would consist.
With regard to the conducting of an orchestra and matters
202 NOTES ON ORIENTAL MUSIC.
of combinations of instruments, information is mach to be
desired. Libretti, and scores of the Burmese Pooays, would
be most valuable.
Similar instruments, though more highly finished, and of
a better class of manufacture, are to be found in Siam and
Java.
With regard to the fourth class I can only give the
opinions of others. Lieut. Day, of the 43rd Begt., writes
that he hopes shortly to publish a work on the music of
Southern India, which differs from that of Bengal and
Northern India, and I will not therefore attempt to anticipate
this work by producing any of his remarks here.
Mr. C. B. Clarke writes with regard to Bengali music,
" Bengali music is founded on the Seeta, the octave is divided
into twelve semitones. In the middle octave the Seeta has
ten frets, which can be set before commencing the tune.
Thus seven frets can be set to the Major scale, while the two
extra frets may be set to Ff and B?. When once set no
occasional sharps or flats can be played, except the Ff and
Bl^. By permuting the nine out of eleven semitones a
large number of " modes " can be got. The Bengalis use
thirty-six. The common major mode is one of the modes
they use, but it is not a favourite one, as they consider
it thin. They never use exactly our minor mode. The
seventh is used both sharp and flat very freely, and in
immediate juxtaposition, and the superfluous second fre-
quently occurs. The intervals are nearly always small.
You may hear many long tunes without sixths or octaves,
and very few fifths. Another peculiarity is the persistent
way in which the melody will remain for bars on B, C,
and Bt^y or similar sequences of notes. A Bengal melody
usually consists of two strains, each imperfectly divisible into
two portions. It may fairly be compared to an English
psalm tune, to common long metre, but each of the four
''lines" is longer. A marked peculiarity of the Bengali
melodies is, that they generally commence in the lower part
of the octave and rise to the octave, and ninth in the third
line, then gradually fall to the close of the fourth line. The
NOTES ON ORIENTAL MUSIC. 203
time is very generally common time. Two Bengali boat
songs are appended.
Signer Remenyi, the eminent Hungarian violinist, remarks,
" Hindu music is wedded to theories which are not generally
known ; it is overburdened with a complicated system of
scales, and above all, it is held in the bondage of a traditional
caste. Far from an absence of system in Hindu music, there
is a morbid superabundance of it Hindu music is in the
same position as European music of the eleventh century."
It would appear that an ancient Sanskrit form of notation
similar to our Tonic Sol Fa in construction existed. The
only other Asiatic nation which, as far as I am aware, has
a similar notation, is the Chinese. I am in hopes that this
subject having been opened, others may be induced to
communicate more valuable information regarding it.
I may remark^ in conclusion, that all the instruments
mentioned in this paper have been brought to England by
me, and placed in the ** Pitt-Rivers " Museum at the
University of Oxford.
What few books and papers I have been able to collect, I
have placed in the Library of the Royal Asiatic Society.
[The following is a list of the works with which Mr. Port-
man's generosity has enriched our Library :
<< Chinese Music." Bj J. A. Aalst. Shanghai, 1884.
<*The National Music of the World." By the late H. F. Ghorlej, edited hj
Henry G. Hewlett. 2nd ed. London, 1882.
<* Notes on Siamese Musical Instruments." Lond. 1885.
" An Introduction to the Study of National Music.*' By Carl Engel. Lond. 1866.
« The Literature of National Music.*' By Carl En^el. Lond. 1879.
« Short Notices of Hindu Musical Instruments." Calcutta, 1877.
<' Hindu Music from Various Authors." By Sourindro Mohun Tagore, Mus Doc.,
Founder and President of the Bengal Music School. 2nd ed. Calcutta, 1882.
** Musical Scales of the Hindus." By S. M. Tagore. Calcutta, 1884.
"Victoria S&mr&jyan, or Sanskrit Stanzas." By S. M. Tagore. 2nd ed. Cal-
cutta, 1882.
« Fifty Tunes, composed and set to Music." By S. M. Tazore. Calcutta, 1878.
<'The Fire Principal Musicians of the Hindus." By S. M. Tagore. Calcutta,
1881.
'* The Twenty Principal Earyakaras of the Hindus ; or, Extracts from the Works
of Twenty of the most Renowned Literati of India." By S. M. Tagore.
Calcatto, 1883.
Rh.D.]
204
ANDAMANESE MUSIC.
Andamakese Mijsia
Children's
Voices.
Women 8 p
Voices, o
Mm*s
Voices,
B
Dance Step, -
til
Beating of ^
Clapping, etc.
Song No, I,
Met J»132.
1^
1^
^
Ouma Nyiiiiga-14 dfa ch^ U-16t rimit, 16to dno
1^
SE
11
dia ch^l 14 - 16t ramit • la. NyuDga d6ra t'6ro b6i 14.
ANDAHANESE HUSIC.
205
J "
iriL
^t=tt=h;=i.G3
I
Nyimga d^ra
f <Sro, b6i
r^ ±riL
11
^|3^^^^
s
Nyongs d^ra
i
^Bej^
t'6ro, Wi
7^ irit
^^^
U.
1^
Nytrnga d^ra
t'6ro, \)6i
7^ 1 rU.
^ffi-r-^-=^ip^i
u.
i
Nyunga d^
t*6ro, Wi
1
:ft=lt
=t:
USrrjt
U.
:»^1*
m
iM=*z
LKii*:
1
1
Song No. II.
Met. J=»138. (The Solo is not in strict time.)
m
m
m
^^i=itf=^a»f II' j-r-Kt:»^tiE|:-eE|
Bir
]6t
4re m& <^gsr - la ebng 6r&,
VOL. XX.— [new 8XRII&]
16
206
ANDAMANBSB HUSIC.
m
m
i i
i i
^»r^^f=»^zJ^^f=HH-i^^ff^
ch&l ^do • k^ d6k7ebng «ra chila, B^ ch6k4 wdp 16m
m^m
B
36 ch6ki
i ^
l^gsiS
i:
B^ cb6ke
i^^
B^ ch6k^
J ^
^^^m^m
I 'I
-r
dika tir - u 16t U
S^^
s
s
B4 chiSke
■i g^j
ui ifc:
ANDAHAITESE HUSIC.
207
P^fe^fe*?^^
i -^
i^
i
::F^^~
M
*^^
I
I^Efe
tf=»
iU:
g=F-
I i
<Uka Ur
Ut
i <-
J-i I l-F- ^ I ^=3 1 1-
2^ii
9
«&p 16m
dika tiUr
ai Ut
ti.
*:ts:
=ins:
t-
=!!rt5=
iSf=ts:
9
1
Simg No, III.
«:
m
^
^
3^^
1]
D6
ng61 4ka teggi leb dika j4d ila Dgdka
208
ANDAMANESB MUSIC.
m
^
1
msHE^3:;^l±j--fa=JtfEffi!si^^
ydbDg - 6. D'6t dgar . Un, 16to chali beo.
i
fe3l^*r^=*T
t^:
It
D'6t 6gar
^
Un 16to
13
chdli beo.
3^3
D'6t 6gar
^T-^^^-^l^
l^ra 16to
chili beo.
P^r
-+-
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D*6t 6gar
^m
chdli beo.
4r=i^^
It
^
D'6t <Sgar
Ura l<Sto
ch&li beo.
1
1
1
1
i*=:*z
ANDAMAKESE MUSIC. 209
Song No. IV.
m
«:
^
^=M 0 r 0 M . m m i,m=^
^"^ I 1 1 1 1 1 1 : =-l *^
I I > r
BAdin -ga yiba china xa chel ya leb d'ib • 6ti.
m
^
I I ' t:
• ti, in eh^Uft lat gono Ut Ut ga - toi d'&b cbiti
210
AITOAHANBSB HUSIC.
m
M
I
&
^ir^^^^^
^-.» »— ^g:
tong 16t dr L6do ch4r IMria dba xig{ - ki.
i
i
Mllr *r 1-if^J^^.fedt^
i
i
i
L6do chit
Uiia, 6ba
iig£ - k&.
||4l-^«=4=j^^MpJ-=^
JS
L6do chir
b^iia 6ba
y^=»
i i
iST
A=ii
«=^»=
-r
b^ria 6ba
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L6do ch4r
^
^^=#3::
L6do ch4r
ijS:
b^iia 6ba
ngi • k&.
:fe=ts=
i
i
Ain)AMAN£SB MUSia
211
Simg So. V.
i&
m
s
tEte
1=3:
^^^^^^M
Ik ngit k<Spa 161u U - tin oi ■ Un nch-oU d<Sn kichal d6,
S
^^
I
m
I
lV V V
Qch 6h% ' i. Uch-6ba - dd k<S d^di oh 1 ohl oh I
i
212
ANDAHANKSE MUSIC
m
I-
lV V
I i
a=l
Uch-<Sba . dk,
ko d^(U
oh ! oh I oh !
t* F 11^
'^.
*=t
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Uch-(iba
di,
kd d^
oh ! oh I oh I
1
fe
SE
1^
i==t
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Uch-6ba ■ di,
k<S dM& oh I oh! oh I
m
^t*'=»=
^
h^^-4-
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1
Z3t=MZ
Song No. VI.
B
wi=
i i
i I
^^it=f^t.m i* )\S-tfJh=^irMc=m^'^^p^
t=t
Mftia F6 - ro h^r • ingi - la dia yidi chi - nma leb ngiji d&l
ANDAMANESE MUSIC.
213
m
i
I
'^
i i i i
T i^
^^^^i'-fe^-gjB-tHr[i-'-*r-[Hr*?^
pdal lika, eb ng^i dil U - ka Poro 16t yengo, be& U dL
i
I
i
iri^— ir
Iv
1^
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i
1
i4z
P6ro 16t
yengo, b^
i
di.
P<Sro 16t
yengo, b^
^l^*q^
U d&
^^^1--*^
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i
U di.
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P6ro I6t
m
m
=ir=te
yengo, bei
U ik.
=ft=fs:
1
1
r«=wi
-m^wtj
zwcn
214
ANDAKANESE MUSIC.
Song No. VIII.
!E
%
^*5F
. i i
A \-
A U
^.gEETgEpi^^^-.— ^.
J m
ngen &r gea dan • gali dat, kopa 1^ golo •
Do
i
S
H
i
mi
lJ—j-J—, — I — L_i — \ — !— i— 1 — (— i— I — 1__
baka i • dAt kopa l^ra dd ngbu 6 d^ra ^loj - r6.
I
I
'p^
ANDAMANESE MUSIC.
i i
fe^
215
Do Dgen
dera
eloj - ro.
plll->-^-^^=^g
^
Do ngeii
d^ia
eloj - r6.
@4j-rr~~ti^^Ep^
^^1^^^
Do ngen
ddn
^li^^^g
tioj - r6.
4-
1
»^^
Do ngen
d^ra
^
:ft=t^
=ir=N=
r-|s
H
zmzTWz
*— g
1
^on^ iTo. /JT.
m
&^
l=r^i
ri^
g
Pus - ^ 16 • ringd
16
dnd6 p61^, pus - 616
216
ANDAMANESE MUSIC.
I
m
m
m^ihr—i-E-^f^
^Ei^^F-
nug6 ' Id, M14
t^
ba loriDg
U.
I
J ^
He
-J— t-^
?3E
1
1
1
1
1
1
m
^m
mi, • ik
ba loriDg
\L
^^
i^^
Hid - t&
^^P
ba loring
E^
11
5|^P^jE
Mii . U
i .
m^
Mid - a
ba iering
loring
Id.
^
m
u.
EE?^
ANDAMANESE MUSIC.
217
Scmg No, X,
m
m
W.
f i i
=g^$-r^$-r-ff-l^-jb^
i i
Ef2=^45^tf
Kdp • r6, Edp - rcS dekan, E& - pnS - d, Bdr • lok - 6, tia • d - bada.
^
^m
f^=r^
l:^^
Bdr - lek
6, tfa
a - bada.
i
i:
tia
f?=f
-i^ —
bada.
Bdr - lek
3^p3:
Bdr . lek
S
m
Bir - lek
-#*=#"^
«S.
<5.
tia
tia
1=^=^
l^^#"
d • bada.
3^f:i^"i
lazzati
-^=45:
tf g_>-i
bada.
_^_-^^
aii
1
il
1
218
East Benqal Boat Soitob.
No. I.
(The stroke of the oar on Ou firit heat ofeaA Imr.)
^m
=t:^=1=
=K=S:
I I I
m
Fine.
:T=I=
:f=^
lOZ
J — ^ — it:
1=^
^^ * * tj
i
0 ft m-
M, i^ 0-
0 m
"*~~J
=1=4=
1 — I — r
-H 1 1— *-
i=it
5^
IZZI
3C^
K
£E
=i=i^
Solo.
i
•^^ Solo
No. IL
-cr
?=|g^^
3t=f:
53^
1 ^-^— , 1
f * » i J-^
T— I — r
TlTTTI
a==St
TCTTI.,
-rr
219
Art. VIL— § S IBf "? 3c Tsieh-TaO'Tchuen de Tchou-hi
(Extraits). Par C. de Harlez, M.E.A.S.
Note. — Le TeJum-tu Uieh-yao-Uhum ou " livre des principes
essentiels de Tchoa-tze" est un sommaire des enseignements
philosopliiqaes, politiques, moraux, etc., da c^l^bre philosoplie
Tchou-hi ou plutot c'est une r6aiiion de sentences, th^es,
preceptes, etc., extraits en majeure partie des livres et lettres
da philosophe oa de ses entretiens, et r6sumant sa doctrine. La
preface donne des renseignements relativement k I'auteur de ce
livre, son temps, son but, sa methode ; il serait inutile de les
r6p6ter ici. Nous en avons extndt les chapitres que Ton va
lire.
Le livre de K'ao pan long est pen, trop pen conna. Ni Mayers,
ni Wylie, ni Bretschneider, pour n'en point citer d'autres, n*en
font mention, bien qu'il soit authentique. II en existe une
Edition avec traduction mandchoue, edit6e par Tohou-tclii,
lettr^ de Pe-King, en 1676. Elle se trouve a I'lndia Office et
ik la Bibl. Imp. de St.-Petersbourg (No. 425). Le texte est
un petit in-folio d'une execution typograpbique assez satis-
faisante. H compte, outre les prefaces, 290 folios repartis
entre 14 chapitres, comme on le Toit plus bas.
II n'a jamais 6te traduit ni en entier, ni en partie.
Nous aTons du r^duire les notes au minimum extreme, pour
ne point occuper trop de place dans le Journal. On recon-
naitra dans les noms cit6s, les disciples de Tcbou-hi.
Preface.
La sagesse des Saints est grande; les gens d'^tudes en s'y
appliquant approchent de sa nature. Mais le destin assign^
k chaciin differe, le perfectionnement de la vertu n'est pas ^gal
220 TSIEH-YAO-TCHCIEN DB TCHOU-HI.
en tous. Les Saints des premiers ftges s'accordent avec cenx
des temps ult^rieurs, comme les denx parties d'un sceau. On
ne doit done pas s'^carter d'eux ; car, si on le faisait tant soit
peu, on s'en irait errant d mille lis de la v^rit^. Les saints
qui ont scrut^ ce qui n'est pas comme ce qui est, ont ^lucide
oe point. Depuis Kong-tze, les philosophes Ten-tze, Tzeng-
tze, Tze-sze^ et Meng-tze ont re9u la doctrine par I'enseigne-
ment direct. Toutefois au temps de Meng-tze des enseigne-
ments mauvais se formerent en m^me temps ; ^ Thumanit^, la
justice furent entrav^es dans leur d^veloppement. Si Meng-
tze n'eftt point vu le jour, la doctrine de Kong-tze se serait
obscurcie.
Apr^s Meng-tze, Tcheou-tze,* Tcheng-tze, Tchang-tze * et
Tchou-tze ont re9u la science par tradition. Mais d T^poque
de Tcbou-tze les mauvaises doctrines se firent jour 6gale-
ment ; I'humanit^ et la justice furent arr^t^es et entrav^es.
Si Tcbou*tze ne fdt yenu au monde, la doctrine de Eong-tze
se serait perdue dans I'ombre.
C'est pourquoi Han-Sbi de Tcbang-li disait que le merits
de Meng-tze n'^tait pas inf^rieur d celui de Yu. De Id aussi
le dire de Siue de Ho-fen, que le m^rite de Tcbou-tze n'^tait
pas en dessous de celui de Meng-tze. Et Ton pent dire qu'ils
parlaient en connaissanoe de cause. Quoiqu'il en soit la
doctrine des Saints est ecrite dans les Kings. Si Ton en
comprend les paroles, si Ton en saisit les pens^es on com-
prendra les enseignements des Saints. Si Ton n'en saisit pas
les paroles, si Ton n'en p6netre pas les pens^es ces enseigne-
ments resteront obscurs. Depuis que Tcbou-tze parut, les
sentences des Kings, tout ce qu'il y a en eux de brillant, ou
de cacb6, a ^t^ ^lucid^ et notre doctrine traverse le ciel
comme le soleil et la lune et flotte sur la terre comme les
rivieres et les fleuves. Et non seulement les difficult^s
^puisees par I'^tude, les secrets ^lucid^s par la recbercbe, mais
le sue et la s^ve, le souffle et la force intimes m6me, prenant
^ Disciples de Kong-fu-tze.
2 Principalement par les doctrines de Yang-tchu et Mih-tih.
> Auteur du Tung-ehu,
* Disciple et ami de Tchoii-hi. Tcbeng-tze fut son skattre.
TSIEH.TAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 221
leurs points d'appui ^ au sein du ciel et de la terre ont projet^
des rayons qui brilleront ^ jusqu'aux ftges les plus recul^s.
Tchou-tze 6tait courageux et habile autant que saint et plein
de sagesse. Son systdme, ind^pendamment du Tchuen-
tchou' a paru dans le Yu-lui* et le "Wen-tsih.^ II est
immense, il n'a pas de limite. Pour moi E'ao Pan-long sans
tenir compte de mon insuffisance, apres Tavoir lu plusieurs
fois, j'ai pris et extrait I'essence de ses paroles et suivant la
methode de Tchou-tze je les ai partag^es en 14 sections. On
n'oserait certainement point egaler cette oeuvre au Ein-sze-
luh* de Tchou-tze, c'est pourquoi je lui ai donn^ pour titre
Tsieh-yao de Tchou-hi (principes essentiels). Certes si
Tchou-tze n'eut point existe non seulement la doctrine de
Eong-tze se fftt obscurcie, mais on eut ignor6 jusqu'il
Eong-tze lui-mime. Si la doctrine de Tchou-tze n'eut
point r^pandu de lumiere, en aurais-je eu, moi, quelque con-
naissance P
J'estime, pour moi, que ce livre ^tablit la distinction de la
justice du ciel et des d^sirs des hommes sur une ^tendue
comparable & mille lis ou peu s'en faut. Bien au monde n'est
plus clair.
Les lettres doivent savoir que les Saints les plus anciens et
les plus r^cents sont enti^rement d'accord. C'est pourquoi
j'ai fait graver, et public ces principes essentiels pour les
presenter & ceux qui partagent mes sentiments.
L'ann^e du tigre (^ in) noir {^jin) ' du temps Wan-li, le
jour du lidvre (J|)J mao) jaun&tre (G, *0 du 7* mois, k
I'automne, moi, E'ao-pan-long, lettr^ de Si-Shan, j'ai ^crit
cette preface (penetr^ de respect pour le maitre).
' Comme nn pOier. — Ch. Litt. deux pierres.
' D* apres le mandchoa.
' Grande collection dee CBwrrea de T^cole de Tchon-hi parne en 1713.
* Ezpos^ dee principes de Tchoo-hi, en 140 liyres, ecrit par Li-tsing-ti
en 1270.
* LWre de Wan-kong.
* Le Kinsu'luht expose des doctrines philosophiqnes, pnbli6 en 1176 et dont
le commentaire senl est de Tchou-hi.
^ La 39* ann^ dn cycle. Le temps Wan-li est celui dn r^gne de Shing-song
des Ming, 1573 k 1620 ; il commence avec Tan dn cycle Kmi-yen on la 10« ; c'est
done le 29* ann^ de oet emperenr, Fan 1602.
TOL. XX. — \jKT9r BBBIB8.] 16
222 TSIEH.YAO-TCHUEN DE TCflOU-HI.
Indbx DB8 Chapitrba du Tbibh-tao db Tohou-tzb.
I. De la doctrine elle-mdme 40 ffo.
II. Del'etude 24
III. De la connaissance 33
IV. De Tentretiea et de la conserTation 27
V. Du devoir de 86 r^primer et gouvemer 6
YI. Des rdgles domestiquea 16
VII. De la conduite an dehors et au dedans 15
VIII. Des principes dn goavemement 26
IX. De I'art de gouvemer 9
X. Des fonctions des roagistrato 82
XI. M^thode de renseignement des bommes 14
XII. De r avertissement et de la correction des d^f auts 9
XIII. Maniere de distinguer et connattre les fausses doctrines 20
XIV. Coop-d*<Bil sommaire sur les saints et les sages 9
Chapitrb I. — Dr la Doctrine.
Le docteur Hoei-Ong* disait : le premier prmcipe s'exprime
par un seal mot : //, la rectitude g| (ou : le principe ration-
nel).
Le Yin et le Yang ^ constituent un mSme principe vital.
I/affaiblissement du Yang forme le Yin ; ce n'est pas que
quand le Yang se retire il y ait s^par^ment un Yin. Le Yin
prend la place,^ du Yang, de trente parties, une par jour.
Aiusi cette operation ^tant completement achev^e, au bout
d'un mois, il nait le K'uan.
Au degr^ six du K'tiaUf^ le Yang germe et chaque jour il
pousse de trente, une partie. En sorte qu'au bout du mois
un yang se produit. Ainsi au solstice de Thiver survient le
Fdfi Quand on y est arriv^ il ne se produit plus de Yang.*
* L'un des noms litteraires pris par Tchou-hi.
' On connait suffisaniment le Yang et le Yin, les deux principes des choses
celestes et terrestres d'apres la philosophic chinoise post^rieure k Meng-tze.
^ L'un succedant k Taiitre.
* K*uan le 2<* Koua du Yili-king ; le premier marque Torigine des choses, le
second, leur d^veloppement.
* 24® hexagramme designant le renouvellement dans le nouveau sjst^me.
Comp. C. de Harlez, I^e texte originaire du Yih-KiHg (Journal Asiatique, 1887,
No. 3), Paris, E. Leroux.
* L'auteur cherche k expliquer comment les principes actif et passif se combinent
Sour former les dtres. I .a succession de la vie et de la mort, de la croissaiice et
6croissance dans la nature, donne I'idee du Yang s'affaiblissant en Yin, pour
reprendre vij^ueur pen apres. Mais ce sont des mots et non des choses. Le
Miroir de Kang-hi dit ae mfime (V". Yantf) : "Quand la substance du Yin se
dilate et disperse, c'est le Y'ang. Quand la substance du Yin se condense et
coagule, c'est le Yin."
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 223
Bien que la forme ext^rieure du ciel entoure de partout
Fext^rieur de la terre, son ^l^ment se r^pand cependant dans
Tint^rieur du globe terrestre. Biea que la terre soit au milieu
du ciel, ses parties solides et vides enserrent bien des Ai-
ments du ciel.
Le ciel et la terre n'ont rien qui soit, dans leurs fonotions,
Stranger de Tun i Tautre. Engendrer les Stres est leur seal
propension.
Dans le Kbua Fu on pent voir le cceur du ciel et de la
terre. En quel lieu ce coBur n'est*il point? Mais lorsque
les 6tre8 se sont multiplies et ont germ6 comme ils sont
alors mftl^s et confondus, il est difficile de les connaitre dis-
tinctement.
Avant que les ^tres divers ne fussent n^s, qnand tout ^tait
dans le silence et le repos, le Yang se remuant et agissant
enfin, le d^sir de produire les Stres se manifesta subitement.
Bien qu'il fftt au milieu du Yin entrem^l^ avec lui, il ne
pouvait, tenant tout cache, ne produire quoique ce soit.^
Le terme de "restaurer, renouveler,"* employ^ par Tcheou
Lian-ki et Tcheng Y-Tchuen n'a pas le m6me sens chez tous
deux. Pour Tcheou Lian-ki il se rapporte d ce qui revient et
se r^p^te. Tcheng Y-Tchuen Tapplique au principe du
mouvement. Prenons comme exemple les 4 principes des
actes, commencement, progr^s, affermissement, ach6vement ;
Tcheou Lian-ki veut parler des deux derniers et Tcheng Y-
Tchuen du principe initial.
La morale et le principe des 6tres sont une mSme chose. Ce
corps n'est qu'une enveloppe, une sorte d'^corce. Soit au-de-
dans soit au dehors il n'est rien oil le Yin et le Yang ne soi-
ent pas. C'est comme le poisson au sein de I'eau. L'eau lui
est ext^rieure et contenue dans son sein. L'eau qui est dans
le sein de la perche ne diffi^re pas de celle qui se trouve dans
la carpe.
Les esprits sont aussi formes du k*i.' Ce qui se r^tr^cit* ou
^ C*e8t k peu pr^ le indme systlme que celui du BrahmaniBme. (Cp. MdtMva'
dharmafdsttam^ i. 6 et ss.
' Le Koua/d Y. plus haut.
* Litteralement '* souffle/* principe vital.
* Ou : Be courbe et se dresse.
22 1 T8IEH-YA0-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HL
s'etend, ce qui va ou vient est le k'i. Entre le ciel et le terre
il n'est rien qu'il ne soit. L*^16ment vital (kU) de Thomme
et celui da ciel et de la terre se joignent et se succddent^ sans
interruption, mais Thomme ne peut les voir. Comme le coeur
de rhomme par ses mouvements, p^D^tre cet 6I^ment vital,
iU s'excitent et se p^netrent mutuellement avec tout ce qui
va, vient, se r^tr^cit, ou s'^tend.
Relativement aux esprits et aux fails surnaturels, il a ^t^
dit : *' Le coeur de rhomme quand il est calme et en paix, est
bon ; s'il est mis en mouvement comme un jouet, o'est qu'un
esprit ou un agent sumaturel se manifeste.
Le commencement et le progr^s ferment la penetration
veritable, c'est le mouvement; I'affermissement, Tachdvement
se rapportent au renouvellement, au repos.
Le commencement est le principe du mouvement. H a
pour point initial le repos. L'ach^vement est la substance
(matidre) du repos ; il se manifeste par la mise en mouve-
ment. Tant6t r^gne le mouvement et tant6t le repos ; et ces
etats s'echangent et se succ^dent sans cesse. La cohesion
(chftn) parfait I'achdvement de toutes choses, ainsi que leur
commencement. Consequemment, bien que I'homme ne puisse
etre absolument sans mouvement aucun, cependant le repos
est chose essentielle pour constituer Tetat dernier de I'homme
(sa plenitude de nature). Cela ^tant, ce qui se manifeste de
son activite doit r^pondre entidrement & la juste mesure et rSgle,
sans que le repos, qui est k la base de son existence, se perde
pour cela. Ou ne peut produire en I'imitant, la nature qui
vient d'un d^cret du ciel ; c'est en vain qu'on I'admire et la
vante. C'est le decret celeste qui en a ordonn^ et produit la
r^alit^, son essence et sa sdve ; ^ en traitant ainsi de cette
nature on le fera avantageusement. C'est pourquoi je ne
traiterai que ces quatre termes ; humanity, justice, rite et
II est dit que le d6cret du ciel est ce qu'on appelle nature.'
II en est ainsi en toutes choses. Mais en se mettant &
^ Dans les actes.
* Traitant de oes . . . .
' Commencement du Tchong-Tong.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHXIKN DK TCHOU-HI. 225
Tetnde il est mieux de commenoer sea recberches par sa
propre peraoiine. C'est pourquoi Ton dit qae la nataie est la
forme sensible et la modele de la justice. Gette parole est
tres-sage.
Quand on disserte de la nature, la premiere cbose k faire
c'est de se rendre compte de ce qu'est cette nature. Or la
nature c'est la justice, la r^gle des actes. Elle se compose
de rhumanit^, le droit, le rite et la sagesse. Mais dans ces
quatre principes que se trouve-t-il de forme ext^rieure P Rien.
Ce n'est que quand cette justice exists que I'on est en 6tat
de faire toutes choses; c'est ainsi qne Ton saura aimer, rongir,
bair, refuser, aocorder, affirmer et nier. II en sera, par
exemple, comme d'une discussion sur la nature chaude ou
froide d'un remede. On ne pent s'assurer de sa forme et
constitution physique qu'en en buvant ; c'est alors seulement
qu'on sait si elle est Aroide ou chaude, ce qui constitue sa
nature.
Les bommes de nos jours ont faussement designc
I'intelligence, la perspicacity comme ^tant la nature.
Mais cela ne peut Stre appel^ que volenti, intelligence
(et non point nature). La nature n'est point connue
par cette seule dMgnation de destin du ciel. Epuiser
la notion de la rectitude, p^n^trer les choses c'est en cela
qu'elle se trouve. II n'est pas besoin de beaucoup cher-
cher. C'est pourquoi les saints n'ont que rarement disserts
de la nature.
La nature est semblable a I'eau ; I'eau est originairem^it
daire, si on la met dans un vase propre elle est pure ; si on
la verse dans un vase s&le, elle est trouble.
Lorsque, venue claire de sa source et sans changer de
nature, eUe est s&Iie et troubl6e, il lui est bien difficile de
redevenir claire en nn instant. De la mdme mani^re ponr
devenir lucide quand on est peu intelligent, pour £tre fort
quand on est faible par aoi, il est besoin de beaucoup d'^nergie.
A cette question, '* Comment le haut et le bas (le celeste et le
terrestre) dans le monde naturel est-il traits comme forme
roat^rielleP" Tchou-tze r^pondit: "Cette reflexion est ex-
tr£mement juste. Si ce qui a une forme est traits comme
226 TSIEH-TAO-TCHUBN DB TCHOU-HI.
n'en ayant point, il en r^sultera que I'on s^parera les clioses
et leur r^gle (leur principe)." ^
Deli cette parole de Tcheng Ming-tao: ''c'est ce qui est
divis^ qui est olair et distinct." Mais ce n'est que par la
distinction nette des points de limites ezistant entre le haut
et le bas que Ton a la clart^ et I'^vidence.
Les substances et leurs principes de raison sent identiques et
bien qu'on les s^pare et les distingue, ils ne sont pas Strangers
I'nn i, I'autre (s^par^s I'un de Tautre). Gberchant & mon-
trer cela aux bommes on ne pent gudre r^ussir. Si tu
recberches, O maitre, cette y^rit^ qui est sans voix, et sans
senteur, elle ne se montre pas d. la vue, elle est sans accent
pour Touie.^ Cependant si I'on ouvre bien les yeux» on
pourra I'aperceyoir ; en ouvrant la boucbe, on pourra la
saisir. Bien que le principe originaire soit sans origine, ce-
pendant la verity et la rectitude sont sous les yeux.^ S'il y a
quelque cbose de grand, de merveilleux, les saints s'ils le
caobaient aux bommes, manqueraient a leur devoir et seraient
indignes de confiance. Ce qui est sous les yeux et bien
procbe ^ c'est se tenir debout ou assis, manger et boire (et la
regie de ces actes) ; ce sont les conditions de prince et
sujet, pdre et fils, f rdre ain6 et cadet, ^poux et Spouse, amis et
compagnons. On doit d'abord s'appliquer i ces regies et
devoirs qui nous sont procbes ; lorsqu'on y sera mCLri on
pourra atteindre les degr^s superieurs/ Quelques uns disent
que d'on doit seulement pratiquer ce qui est procbe et devant
soi. If^gligents et lagers ils restent petits et bas. D'autres
soutiennent que si Ton ne s'en tient pais U, il n'y a plus par
soi qu'une seule regie, un seul droit uniforrae. Mais cela
n'est point ; une telle opinion tient Tbomme finalement dans
Terreur. Les saints disent qu'en s'instruisant de ce qui est
en bas. on pendtre le baut^ et ce n'est qu'apres s'etre bien
1 Pour Tchon-hi le materiel des cboses et la principe de raison qui est en elles
ne sont pas des entit^s distinctes.
' Bien qne se montrant on ne la Toit pas, etc.
> II n'est pas pour cela invisible.
* Ordinaire, frequent, facile k pratiqner, etc.
^ Ce qui conoeme Tetat, 1' humanity, etc.
• Mdme idee qu*& No. 4, 5.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 227
exerc^ & cela qu'on peut connaltre par 8oi-m6me lea clioses
cach^es et secretes (fines). Les saints se distinguent des
autres homoies, mais c'est uniquement parcequ'ils sont miiris
& la pratique de la vertu et les autres, pas."
Entre le ciel et la terre il est una rectitude parfaitement
d^termin^e et que Ton ne peut changer. On ne doit point
chercber & la p^n^trer par ses reflexions, & la r^gler et T^tablir
a sa fa9on. Si les conceptions ne sont point faussement
confondues,^ les saints d'autrefois et ceux des temps ulterieurs
seront par eux-mSmes tout & fait semblables comme deux
moities d'un sceau.
Le ciel n'a que le printemps, V6t6j Tautomne et rbiver.
L'homme n'a que rhumanit^, la justice, le rite, et la sagesse.
Ce sont les quatre parties et espdces, d'un cdt^ comme de
Tautre. Le coeur doit s'exercer & les pratiquer r^ellement ;
mais chaque espece a ses regies et qualites, il n'y a point
autre chose en dehors d'elles. L'humanite, la justice, le
rite, la sagesse correspondent, si on examine bien, au com-
mencement, au progrds, k I'affermissement, et d Tach^vement,
ainsi qu au printemps, si I'^t^, k Fautomne et i Thiver.
Shang-tzai estime que rintelligence est 1' humanity, mais
'' savoir, comprendre " appartient & la sagesse. Les quatre
vertus sont de Taffermissement, la sagesse est proche de
Thumanite ; ainsi Ton doit suivre la cercle des quatre prin-
cipes des actes. Si Ton est ddpourvu de la sagesse, on ne
pourra pratiquer Thumanit^.
Interrog^ sur la nature de Thumanit^, il r^pondit : il est
difficile de faire appercevoir le principe rationnel ; ^ connattre
les elements ext^rieurs est chose facile ; il suffit de les
prendre devant soi et de les examiner pour les connaitre.
II en est de cela, par exemple, comme des quatre principes
d'action; d'apercevoir le commencement, le progr^s, Taffer-
missement et Tachdvement. Consid^rons les quatre saisons ;
le printemps n'a que r^l^ment d'une ch&leur douce et agre-
able. G'est 1^ aussi I'aspect et le module de Thumanite.
^ Si les id^ rectent justes et conformes k la nature, elles seront les m6mes en
tout temps.
' C*e8t encore le It, raison, r^gle, rectitude !
228 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
Quoique VM, I'automne et I'hiver soient trds-diffSrents, ce-
pendant T^l^ment qui engendre le printemps opere et se
montre ^galement en eux. Si Ton comprend bien ce prin-
cipe, apr^s s'etre vaincu soi-mfime par I'observation des rites,
on pourra se purifier compldtemeut de see passions et Ton
arrivera i n'avoir plus que I'^l^ment de la douceur, de la
paix, et la purete exempte de tout element Stranger. Tel
est le cceur du ciel et de la terre qui a engendre tons les
fttres.
Pour bien envisager la notion de Thumanit^, nous devons
consid^rer en meme temps la justice, les rites et la sagesse.
Ainsi cfaaque espdce ^tant clairement distingu^e on arrive k
la connaissance d'une manidre claire et ^vidente. II est dit
en outre : Thuinanit^ ne comprend que les notions de douceur et
de paix ; la justice, celle de la crainte, de la force, de la fermet^
et de la decision. Les rites ne comprennent que le concept de
la manifestation ext^rieure qui fait connaitre et ^claire, de la
production ext^rieure qui anime. La sagesse contient celui
de Tacte qui recherche, rassemble, construit et forme sans
laisser de trace, ni de forme ext^rieure.^ Ces quatre agents
opdrent au sein de la nature. A I'ecole des Saints on tient
la recherche de I'humanit^ comme seule necessaire, parce que
rhumanit^ doit pr^c^der les autres. Si Ton entretient avant
tout, en soi, des pens^es de douceur et de gen^rosit^, s'il arrive
un moment de devoir manifester, expliquer, exciter, produire
quelque chose, on saura le faire convenablement de soi-
m^me. Lorsqu'il faudra etre ferme et actif, on le sera ;
quand on devra rassembler et recueillir les Elements, on
sera capable de le faire.
Le maitre dit de plus : I'humanite n'est que le premier des
quatre principes d'action ; la sagesse soit mener d bon terme
le commencement et la fin. La combinaison de la sagesse et
de rhumanit^ est le pivot de mille changements et ameliora-
tions.^ Le mouvement circulaire et combinatoire de ces
^ L'humanit^ comprend la douceur et la bienTeillance ; la justice implioue
force, fermet^, action : les rites r^glent les actes eztcrieurs ; la sagesse engenore
des acies intellectuels purs.
' De tous les actes et ^venements bons.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 229
principes est sans limites; tous leurs actes se touchent de
trds prds et n'ont point d'lntervalle.
Ainsi sans raffermissement, le commencement ne pent
subsister. La qualite sp^ciale de Toreille est la clarte, celle
de I'oeil est la perspicacity, celle du coeur est la bont^. Sachez
done saisir cette pens^e ; m^ditez, examinez-la ; conformez-
Yous y, reproduisez-la en tous.
II est encore dit : Soyez agr^able oomme le soleil d'un
prin temps serein. Soyez g^n^reux comme un vin doux et
agr^able au goftt. Cost l& ce qu'on appelle se conformer aux
principes de 1' humanity. Gette sentence de Meng-tze :
** I'humanite est le coeur m^rae de rhomme " est juste et
frappante (frappe au but). Le codur est naturellement bon
et aimant. Si Ton pent seulement le maintenir tel, on n'aura
point k craindre qu'il soit sans humanity.
La comparaison avec le grain de bl^, de Tcbeng-tze est tris-
juste. Quand ce grain se trouve en quelqu'endroit on est
inquiety se demandant s'il poussera.^
Interrog^y le maitre dans la r^ponse envoyde aux ^tudiants
de Ho-Siang, k propos du mot ** aimer " (ngat), traite de la
nature de Thumanit^ et dit : "Sie Shang-tzai traitant du mot
concevoir (kioh). pr^sente la chose comme tr^-importante, car
c'est autant que parler de la m^thode de la meditation.
Eui-shan, discutant devant nous et confondant toutes choses,
parle d'une manidre tr^-d6fectueuse.^^
A cette question : " £st-ce Id. I'essence de rhumanit^ P " * il
repondit: ''non ce ne Test point." Yoici sa yraie notion.
*' Si mSme les gens bienveillants sont intelligents on ne pent
dire que Fintelligence eclair^e, soit Thumanit^. Bien que
les gens pleins d*humanit6 soit en Concorde avec tous les
6tres, on ne pent dire que la Concorde soit I'humanite.''
On lui demanda aussi : I'intelligence, la conception claire
est productrice de la pens^e, n'est ce pas P Oui, repondit il,
il en est ainsi ; cependant si Ton n'envisage que I'intelligence
et la conception claire, la notion sera d^fectueuse, car I'hu-
^ De meme dee actes du coeur aTant que celui ne les manifeste.
2 De mettre toutes choees d'accord.
230 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HL
manite reunissant en elle tons les principes d'actioni tout cela
se manifeste par la pens^e engendree par eux.
A cette question : Thumanite a-t-elle rintelligence claire
et precise des sentiments qui renferment les quatre principes
d'action ? II r^pondit : Sie Shang-tzai rencontrant le docteur
Tcheng Ming Tao, ils se roirent d lire enti^rement les livres des
annates. Tcheng Ming-Tao lui dit alors qu'il avait n^glig^
les oeuvres intellectuelles par amour des choses ext6rieures.
A ces mots Sie-Shang-tzai sentit la sueur ruisseler de tout
son corps, son visage se couvrit de rougeur et Tcheng Ming-
Tao lui dit : c'est 14 certainement les sentiments d'une affec-
tion compatissante. Maltre, parlons-en un instant. Shang-
tzai entendant I'allusion & ce defaut, se sentit pris de honte.
II n'y a la, ditil, que des sentiments de honte et de haine
(du mal), comment pouvez-vous j voir un coBur aimant et
compatissant P Le docteur attendit quelque temps, puis il
dit : quand on a en partage un coeur aimant profond^ment,
il sait se mouvoir ; quand il saic d'abord se mouvoir, la honte
et rhorreur du mal, le respect et la vigilance, la connaissance
de la v^rit^ et de I'erreur se produisent naturellement.
S'ils ne r^sultent pas d'un mouveraent du coeur alors la honte
et la haine du mal, le respect et la vigilance, la distinction du
bien et du mal, du vrai et du faux ne sent pas r^els. II en
est de cela comme des quatre saisons : s'il n'y avait point
d'^l^ment gen^rateur du printemps, lorsque T^t^ serait
arrivfe, que pourrait-il faire grandir? pourrait on recueillir
beaucoup au temps de I'automne; amasserait-on beaucoup
enfin en hiver P Non, n'est-ce point.^
Lin An king demanda : Thomme bienveillant considdre le
ciel, la terre et tons les Stres comme une unit^ et s'il considdre
le premier temps oii Thomme et les autres Stres sent n6s, il
saura en comprendre la nature. L'homme et les choses out
re9u, pour leur naissance, Tel^ment du ciel et de la terre.
Ainsi ils out un mSme corps commun. Des freres, par
exemple, ont des corps differents et proviennent cependant du
corps de leur p^re et mere, c'est pourquoi ils doivent tons
^ La conclusion de ceci est que Shang-tzai rougissant r^ellement, non par feinte
a conB^qaemment les qualit^s du cceur qui produisent cette honte, la bont^.
TSEEH-TAO-TCHDEN DE TCHOU-HI. 231
s'entr'aimer. Le coear de rhomme bienveillant seul a cet
amour qui rend tout commun.
GonnaiasaDt & fond ce devoir il peut considdrery comme
un seul corps, le ciel, la terre et toutes choses.
II ne f aut pas chercher & savoir Torigine de la chose, sachez
seulement qu'ils forment maiatenant comme an seul corps.
II en est de cela comme de Teao. Les fleuves et rivieres, les
lacs et 6tang8, ne forment qu'une seule eau. Toute Teau que
Ton Toit, a une mdme substance. Qu'est il besoin d'examen
et de recherches P £t quand mSme on les ferait, la connais*
sance (de ces choses) se ferait bien attendre. Ces choses
etant ainsi, la nuit derniere, Tchouang-tcbong disait :
^' rhomme et tons les etree ont refu cet Element substantiel
d'une manidre egale, ils ont ce principe egalement. Tons
doivent 6tre pleins d'affection pour tout." Mais cela n'est
point ainsL Les 6tres doivent etre aimes c'est vrai, mais ce
n'est point seulement paroequ'ils n'ont qu'une seule sub-
stance materielle. La substance de lliumanite est forte et
ses manifestations faiblee; la substance de la justice est au
contraire faible et ses manifestations puissantes. L'aspect de
la justice inspire la crainte et le respect, elle est la gardienne
de I'bumanite. La justice est semblable & un couteau aigu
qui p^ndtre d'un coup profondement et fortement dans la
poitrine et la coupe et taille.
Le rite est la manifestation de Thumanite ; la sagesse est
le fond cach£ de la justice. C'est d'apres ces principes que
Ton doit d^finir la nature et le destin de Thomme. Les
horomes bons et bienveillants sont en general modestes
et condescendants. Les hommes intelligents et perspicaces
sont le plus souvent difficiles et durs, exigeants. Le rite
est la regie de raison. Mais de la raison on ne peut que parler,
elle n*a pas de forme qu'on puisne tracer. Le rite a diffirents
actes et parties que Ton peut voir et qui constituent le
dfcorum et T^l^ganee.
La nature est semblable au premier principe ; le coeur est
comme le Yin et le Yang. Le premier principe reside dans
le Yin et le Yang et ne peut s'en s^parer. De la sorte le
premier principe est premier principe en ce qu'ii a de par*
232 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-Hi:
ticulier; le Yin et le Yang sont Yin et Yang dans leurs
particularit^s.
Yoild ce que sont la nature et le coeur. lis sont un, tout
en forraant deux ; et deux, tout en formant un.
II est dtt dans le Tchin-sin-sou : '* la grandeur du ciel n'a
rien qui lui soit ext^rieur et la nature en entretient toute
I'entieret^. O'est pourquoi le fond du coeur de rhomme,
dont il est le vaste modele, est sans rives ni limites ; il est
seulement restreint par la nature particuliere et les sentiments
personnels de sa forme exterieure et de son moyen d'action.
Resserr^, comnie emprisonn^ par T^troitesse de ce qu'il
en tend et voit, il re9oit des limites et ne peut parvenir si sa
perfection. L'homme, p^n^trant jusqu'au fond, tons les
6tres, toutes choses et les principes rationnels qui les dirigent,
vient, k un jour donn^, sL les comprendre d'une manidre
claire et p^n^trante et d^s lors il n'est plus possible de les
laisser de cdt^.
Lorsque le coeur de I'faomme k atteint son type d*une
mani^re complete, ce qui constitue notre nature, et ce qui
fait que le ciel est ciel, ne s'en ^cartent plus ni I'un ni
Tautre, roais le p^netrent 6galement ; ils y restent ploughs.
Le coeur est la seve et la moelle de la nature anim^e (K*{)
et il n'a point de pareil.
L'intelligence dirige la comprehension et le discernement ;
la volenti dirige I'activit^ et le soin diligent. L'intelligence
est proche de la nature, elle est proche de Tessence ; la volenti
est proche des passions, elle est proche des actes.
La nature qui n'a point encore et^ mise en mouvement,
la pens^e qui agit par soi-m6me, arrivent par le coeur au
mouvement et au repos et n'ont plus de cause de cessation ; ^
c'est ce qu'on doit savoir.
II est dit au Tchi Yan Shou : " La nature constitue ce qui
est sous le ciel ; la pens^e imite, suit le mouvement de ce qui
est sous le ciel. Le coeur donne des qualites merveilleuses
aux vertus de la nature et de Tintelligence." Ges paroles
sont vraiment profondes et lumineuses.
^ Se tiennent k jamais dans cet etat double.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 233
Le mattre devisant du juste milieu et de Tesprit de Con-
corde dit d'abord d Tchang King fou : " L'homme depuia
qu'il existe a 6i6 un Stre intelligent et doue de connaissance.
Les affaires propres d chacun survenant, lea fitres se pr^sentant
i, lui, comme il ne pent toujours correspondre et ceder,^ la
penfi^e et le coBur Buivent et s'^cartent et changent jusqu'a la
mort et dans ces conditions il ne peut ni s'arrSter ni rester
sans mouvement, un certain temps m6me trSs-court. II en a
^t^ ainsi dans tons les &ges. Aussi les saints et les sages
I'ont dit : " Avant qu'on sorte du milieu, il y a silence et
immobility/' c'est pourquoi ils ont range I'exercice journalier,
Taction exercee 9^ et Id, parmi le temps ou Ton en est sorti et
d^sign^ le moment oil Ton se livre au repos et ne s'applique
point aux affaires comme le temps oii Ton n'en sort point.^
Si, dans le aein de Tobscurit^, I'absence de perception, on
acrute et examine avec aoin, tout est erreur, t^nebres, obstacle,
arr6t ; rien de vide,' clair, d'une substance conforme k la
r^alit^ des dtres. Si dans ce secret, ce r£duit obscur, une
perception se produit, le coeur sortant ainsi d'une maniere
convenable, le repos silencieux cesse par cela m6me. Plus
on cherche (dans Tobscurit^ silencieuse de I'esprit) moins on
aper9oit ; qu'on abandonne alors la recherche et qu*on s'ap-
plique aux actes journaliers. En tout ce qu'on est port^ a
p^n^trer, en tout ce qu'on examine sp6cialement il est une
substance immense, continue qui se communique aux dtrea sans
pouvoir 6tre ^puisee. Tout cela est fait, tout oela se propage
selon le decret du ciel ; la production, la multiplication des
dtres n'a point de temps d'arrdt. En un seul et m£me jour le
fldt s'^ldve mille fois et s'abaiase mille fois ; mais le fond de
la substance qui est toujours dans le repos silencieux, est
reconnu tel avant qu'elle s'ext^riorise dans les actes et est
tout entier dans cela. Mais lorsqu'il se trouve en un objet
special, en un temps d^fini, en un endroit d^termin^, on ne
peut plus I'appeler milieu." ^
^ Aqx soUicitation des cboses ext6rieures» des circonstances.
' Dans Taction le coeur sort de Ini-mSme, lea actes en sortent ; daiia le repoa
tout J reste inclus.
' Sans objet 6tranger qni B*y reflete.
* Detemun^ ad unum, il n*est plna le fond
commun, le milien muTenel.
234 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
II n'y a que le seul 6tre yivant (intelligent) qui soit
influence par le ciel et en reyoive son destin ; et dans I'ex-
ercice des actes qui proviennent de lui, il n'y a jamais d'inter-
ruption, de repos. Si Ton distingue ce qui sort de lui par les
actes et ce qui n'en est point encore sorti de la sorte, ce qui
en provient est le coeur, ce qui existe sans qu'il en sorte rien
est la nature.^ Dans faction joumaliere, la substance complete
et incessante se r^pand comine un fleuye, coulant sans cesse,
roule sans jamais de repos, comme le ciel. Ainsi la substance
et ses manifestations, dans ce qu'elles ont de subtil ou de
grossier ; le mouvement et le repos, dans leur commencement
et leur fin, ne comportent, dans leur profondeur, pas un
intervalle d'un atome. Ainsi depuis I'oiseau qui vole et le
poisson qui saute, dans toutes les particularit^s des 6tres,
brille un ^clat de v^rite.
Preserver, proteger c'est ce qu'on doit faire k leur ^gard ; si
I'on entretient quelque chose, c'est cela qui doit s'entretenir.
II dit en outre dans la r^ponse k Tchang Eing-fou: ''Dans
la reponse r^iter^e qui vous a ^t^ envoyee precedemment, il
^tait enonce ceci: ''en faisant connaitre, m^me d'une manidre
obscure, le grand principe fondamental, reflet et modele de la
loi de la raison profonde, on apprend ce qu'il est et a le tenir
pour evident. Lorsqu'on comprend ce principe — source,
^l^ment vital et substance semblable au fleuve qui coule avec
abondance, k la mer qui etend ses flots, — alors Tintelligence
est poussee k une grande transformation et comme si elle se
trouvait dans une terre inond^e, dans une vague ^tendue,
elle se r^pand aussitdt et ne s'arr^te plus. Mais si Ton se met
aux affaires, que Ton s'adonne aux choses ext^rieures on se
montrera rude, inintelligent, ardent, arrSte, mais non g^n^-
reux bienveillant, doux. Quoiqu'on s'en afflige en son coeur,
on ne pent comprendre comment cela est survenu. Apres
cela par cette grande transformation, chaque famille pent
avoir d'elle-mfeme une demeure de paix et de repos.
G'est \k le fon dement supreme qui, dans chaque homme
assure la s^curit^ k sa personne et fixe le destin. La connais-
^ La nature est le fond, le coeur est le principe agissant.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUBN DE TCHOU-HL 235
sance^ FiDtelligence (de ces cboses) affermit ce fondement
premier ; suivre la rdgle de raison qui p^n^tre tout, c'est le
pivot necessaire.
Gomme Ton dit, la substance et ses actes ont une m^me
source; ^vidents ou caches, ils n'ont point d'intervalle, de
lacunes. Ils existent de cette fafon.
La loi de raison est proche, la chercher au loin est chose
risible. La reponse k Tchang King-Fou portait encore :
*' Aussit6t que Ton s'applique & le reproduire dans ses actes,
on comprend et saisit le vrai principe. Si Ton en disserte,
en mettant au premier rang le co9ur et la volenti, alors les
Yertus de la nature et du coeur, les effets merveilleux du juste
milieu et de la bont^ se montrent clairement et exempts du
moindre d^rdre. La personnalit^ humaine, son intelligence,
ses connaissances, ses actes faits en divers sens, tout cela est
faculty du coeur. Le coeur est le roi de la personne ; (il y
commando) sans lacune, dans le mouvement et le repos, dans
les paroles et le silence. Dans le repos complet, quand aucun
objet d'acte ne se pr^sente encore, que la pens^e, la reflexion
ne germe point non plus, la nature forme un seal tout. Les
lois naturelles et de raison s'accomplissent compl^tement,
c'est alors le milieu. Alors la substance du coeur est dans
le silence et Timmobilite. Bis qu'il se remue c'est que les
objets viennent le troubler. La pens^e, la reflexion s'^ISve
et tous les genres de pens^es sent mis, tour d tour, en action.
Mais quand chacune a son chef qui la domine, alors r^gne la
Concorde et I'harmonie. C'est \k la fonction du coeur; excite,
^mu il p^netre tout. Le fond immobile de la nature ne pent
plus dtre sans mouvement. Le mouvement de rintelligence
est alors rdgle et mesure. Cons^quemment alors, le fond
immobile du coeur devient, par I'excitation, p^n^trant, se r^-
pandant par tout, ^clair^, perspicace et la substance et les
actes ne se s^parent pas.
Le coeur de I'homme etant venu & cet fetat, s'il est d^pourvu
d'humanit^, il n'aura point ces vertus merveilleuses. fiien
que I'homme veuille 6tre bon, s'il n'a point le respect et
Tattention, il ne viendra pas k bout d'acquerir la vertu de
bont^. Le coeur est le maitre du corps; il va sans interruption
236 TSIEH-TAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
du mouYement au repos, de la parole au silence et vice- versa,
sans rien d'intermediaire. G'est pourquoi les sages appli*
quent leur soUicitude et attention, k Taction et au repos, aux
paroles et au silence. Avant de sortir du repos, il s'appliquent
avant tout k entretenir et afiermir cette attention, prenant la
verity comme objet principal. Lorsque les actes se produisent
au dehors, ils agissent en cherchant tou jours avec soin &
observer ce respect, ces soins diligents.
Lorsque dans ce soin de maintenir leur coeur ferme, la
pens^e, la reflexion ne s'est point encore produite, Fintelli-
gence, la connaissance ne sent point oependant obscurcies;
le mouvement se fait au sein de cette immobility. On
pent le voir dans le Koua Fu, c'est le cceur du ciel et de la
terre. Quand on en est venu k Texamen des choses bien que
les affaires et objets ext^rieurs viennent se meler {k la re-
flexion) il n'y a point danger d erreur quant k la mesure, la
regie k observer ; la nature assure contre Terreur. C'est le
repos dans le mouvement.
Dans le Koua Ken on ne trouve point la substance,^ on ne
voit point Thomme tel. Gomroe il est une direction, un but &
ce mouvement qui est au sein du principe immobile, mSme en
repos il n'est pas sans excitation au mouvement. Si Ton
examine ce repos au sein du mouvement on verra que bien
qu'il Bubisse des excitations, il n'est pas sans repos. Si dans
ce repos il vient k £tre constamment excite ; si bien qu excit^
il reste encore en repos, bien que le cceur pouss^ ainsi d'une
direction k Tautre, en soit p^n^tre profond^ment, il n'est pas
un instant depouill6 de toute bont^."
Dans une autre lettre adress^e k ses amis du Ho-Nan (le
Maitre) disait: "Avant que le Tchong-Yong eut paru, les
regies qu'il public existaient et avant tout cela on connaissait
la substance du coeur qui agit et se repand dans les actes.
En outre Tcheng-Tze en parlant du coBur veut designer
tout coeur sortant de lui-mSme par les actes ; aussi, bien qu'on
considdre le coeur comme se produisant au dehors et la
nature comme ne le f aisant pas encore, les paroles de Tcheng-
1 61^ exprimant ^'fermet^ dans les principes."
TSrEH-TAO-TCHUEN DB TCHOU-HI. 237
tze, si on les oonaid^ bien, aont peu convenables^ Con»
8&iaemment si Ton y r^B^hit i nouveau on Terra que non
seolement les dissertations ant^rieures ne sont point du tout
convenables pour determiner les vraies appellations du coQur
et de la nature, mais que les efforts, la diligence, mise en
(Buvre tous les jours ne peuvent donner le point d'appui ni la
direction suffisants & cela. On y voit TinsuccAs de I'essai et
pas seulement les principes du livre.
Si Ton examine toutes les sentences du Wen-tsih et de
I'Y-shu ' on y voit que le temps od les pens^es et les re-
flexions ne se sont pas encore ^lev^es, oii les objets ext^rieurs
ne sont pas encore venus impressionner, est, selon leur appre-
ciation, celui oH la satisfaction, la colore, la joie, la peine ne
se sont pas encore manifestoes. En ce moment la substance
du coBur est encore en repos et sans mouvement ; la nature
donnOe par le ciel est entidre et parfaite; elle n*est point
encore pres de d^faillir ni incapable d'atteindre son but ;
car elle est sans faussetO, sans deviation. C'est ce qu'on
appelle le milieu. ExcitO il parvient k pOnetrer la cause
productrice du monde ; la nature de la satisfaction et de la
colore, de la joie et de la peine se manifesto et les operations,
I'emploi du cceur peuvent se voir ; elles ne sont pas en desac"
cord avec la rigle qui les gonverne et comme il n'y a pas de
resistance, de disposition mechantes, on appelle cet Otat la
paix, la Concorde. C'est 14 la rectitude ferme du ccenr
humain.
C'est la vertn de rintelligeooe et de la nature. Cela
etant, avant que (les sentiments et les pens^es) soient sortis
(de leur fond productif), qoand bien mftroe on scruterait avec
soin, on ne les saisirait pas. Qoand m^me on en a acquis
rintelligence on ne pent cbercber (et reassir) 4 lea rigler,
C'est seulement qnand la verta entretenne, developp^e par la
perse verante attention, a -pn^f^mmk et qoMle n'a point iti
egaree par la fimtaisie des passiona homaines, que le ta^r est,
avant la manifestatiofi des sentiments, on miroir por, seoi^
blable k una eao sCagnante et, qu'aprfo leuT production, il
* Lim de Teho^idMa; de U dynartie dM SoQg'LiQ >en 4eo\
TOL. XX.— [xw isanM.] 17
238 TSIEn-YAO-TCHUEX DE TCHOU-HI.
reste en harmonie arec lea rdglea qui doivent le diriger.
Telle doit etre rattention, lea soina de toua lea joura, fermea
et forta. Si Ton acrute et examine aoigneusement lea choaes,
qu'on lea diatingue et explique clairement, prenant cela pour
fondement de aea recherchea, on lea connaitra parfaitement,
au moment oii le cceur aort de lui-mSme et Ton pourra voir
int^rieurement avec certitude tout ce qui y a ^t^ fait avant
cette manifestation. Ausai ce que Tcheng-tze diacute et ex-
plique, par un examen approfondi^ dana aa reponse & Sou Ri-
ming est tr^s-clair et tres-profond et de plus ne ya pas en
dehors de la consideration du reapect.
II est dit en outre : " Quand on pratique le respect,^ sana
jamaia faillir, c'est que le milieu aubsiste certainement/' Et
ailleurs '' s'appliquer aux regies de la raison n'^gale paa la
pratique du respect ; il n'est paa possible d*arriver k la perfec-
tion de la science et de manquer aux rdglea du respect/' En
outre '*pour entretenir et d^velopper (ses facultes) il faut
pratiquer le respect." C'est en avangant pas & pas dana
I'enseignement quel'on acquiert la science. C'est en pensant,
r^fl^chissant, expliquant, dissertant d'une manidre prolong^e
que Ton fait sortir le coBur de lui-meme (de I'immobilite
primitive). L'exercice, lapplication, les efforta de chaque
jour peuvent, seuls, poser le fondement, en faisant^ commencer
r^tude et la connaissance des principes fondamentaux.
Quand on neglige habituellement le soin, le z^le k entre-
tenir et d^velopper une certaine partie, I'int^rieur de I'homme
est dans le trouble et le desordre, il n'est plus ni profond ni
penetrant, ni simple, ni de goftt uniforme, et s'il se repand
au dehors en paroles ou actions, il est pr^cipit^, leger,
negligent et il n'arrive point & la paix, au repos, A la gravity,
a la sinc^rite exempte d'artifice. Si apr^s avoir acquis la
connaissance il vient a 6tre entrain^ dans I'erreur, son malheur
en arrive k I'extrSme. Certea on ne doit point y Hre indiflFerent.
Tcheng-tze en parlant de '*tous coeurs" veut designer ceux qui
sent sortis d'eux-m6mes par les actes. II parle done des mani-
festitations ext^rieures, par les actea, de la aubstance memo
^ Ou : la vigilance.
^ Poser comme fondement de faire, etc.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 239
da ccBur mais nuUement de Tapplication de la pens^e et de la
reflexion aux affaires et objets ext^rieurs. Toute fois il
n'est pas d'accord avec les maximes fondamen tales du Tehong
Yong; aussi s'exprime t-il d'une manidre impropre et Ton
doit reformer cette mani^re de parler ; mais cela fait, on ne
doit point douter de tout ce qu*il dit et discute sous pr^texte
qu'il s'est tromp^ ; apres avoir caract^ris^ ces expressions de
" peu convenables " il ne faut pas n^gliger avec m^pris ce
qu'il dit d'autre. Teheou-tze dit : " Le premier principe n'a
pas de principe." Tcheng-tze dit en outre : " On ne pent
reproduire par la parole ce qui pr^cdde I'^tat de repos de la
nature de Thomme. Au moment precis de parler, ce n'etait
point encore la nature.^ Les saints et les sages, en
dissertant de la nature, entendent en mSme temps parler du
coeur. Si I'on yeut parler exactement on doit dire que le
premier principe sans principe est inexprimable ; il n'a ni
forme ni figure qui puisse serrir & lui donner un nom.
Yang Eui-Shan disait : '' on ne doit jamais s'^carter de la
Yoie de la droite raison. De tout ce qui contient ce qui est
entre ciel et terre, qu'est-il qui n'ait point sa loi P Le
cas oii Ton pent s'en ^carter doit £tre contenu dans la loi
m^me. II en est ainsi des quatre regions principales. Si
Ton ya vers I'est on s*6carte de I'ouest, si Ton va au midi ou
s'^loigne du nord. C'est ainsi que I'on pent et doit s'^carter
(de tel principe). Par consequent il n'est point de place oii
la loi morale ne soit pas n^essaire. On ne pent done jamais
s^en ^loigpier. Ainsi, en toutes choses, depuis s'habiller quand il
fait froid, se nourrir quand on a faim, se lever avec le soleil,
se reposer an soir, regarder, 6couter des yeux et des oreilles,
soulever, fouler, de la main ou du pied, rien n'est sans loi.
Le peuple la suit dans les actes journaliers, mais sans le
sayoir.
Le maitre disait: ^* s'habiller, manger, se leyer, se coucber,
regarder, ^oouter, souleyer, fouler, tout cela est acte ext^rieur.
Tout ce qui est de cette mani^re, a son droit, son devoir, sa
regie, sa mesure ; en un mot sa loi. Si Ton fait de la
* Avant I'acte il manque le mourement et lee actea.
2i0 TSIEH-TAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
designation des clioses ^ leur loi de raison, non seulement on
d^truit la distinction de ce qui est superieur et inferieur dans
la substance, mais on tombe dans Topinion des Bonzes qui
confondent la nature et I'op^ration ; ce qui fait dire par
erreur aux lettr^s : *' que la loi de raison ne {)eut pas ne pas
Stre suivie et que voulftt-on m^me s'en ^carter on n'y parvien-
drait pas. DSs que nous en avons eu connaissance, quand
mSme nous agirions contrairement k ces principes, m^cham-
ment, il ne peut se faire que ce ne soit pas selon la loi de
raison." On ne saurait dire tous les maux qui resultent de
pareil systdme.
Sou Tong-po^dit (en parlant de cette opinion que la loi est
Talternance du Yin et du Yang du Yi-King) : Qu'est ce
done que cet Yin et ce Yang P Bien que les explications de
Li-leou et Shi-Kouang soient brillantes, ils n'ont point su ce-
pendant les d^finir et trouver un point de comparaison. Voi-
ce qu'ils disent :
" Lorsque le Yin et le Yang s'unissent alors les fttres sent
produits ; quand les ^tres sont n^s, alors leur substance
visible se montre. Lorsque cette substance est constituee^ le
Yin et le Yang se d^robent et tout ce que Ton peut voir ce
sont les cboses produites, il n'y a plus de Yin et de Yang."
Peut-on ainsi r^duire ces deux principes au neant P Quel-
que peu intelligent que Ton soit, on voit la fausset^ de cette
doctrine. D'oii en eflfet, proviendraient les fetresP Ainsi
done, dire pour faire connaitre la nature des Stres, qu'ils sont
le Yin et le Yang; puis soutenir, parcequ'on ne peut montrer
le Yin et le Yang ni les figurer, qu'ils sont rentris dans le
n^ant, c'est (soutenir) deux sottises. Le mattre dit : '^ le
Yin et le Yang remplissent Tentre-ciel-et-terre. Lorsque
croissant ou d^croissant, ouvrant ou fermant, ils produisent
ou detruisent les Stres, ils se montrent aux yeux; la sub-
stance visible et la substance non visible ne peuvent £tre
niees. Aussi la maxime de Sou-shi qu' " apr^s que la sub-
stance a ^t^ constitute, le Yin et le Yang se d^robant^ tout
^ Pour les Bouddhistes le nom est ane pnrtie de TStre accidentel et nullement
une chose ext6rieure. Le nom contribue a determiner Tetre.
' G^l^bre poete du xie si^cle.
TSIEH-TAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 241
C6 que Ton peut yoir est uniquement chose exterieure et que
le Yin et le Yang n'existent plus/' cette maxime est contraire
k la raison.
Les gens qui ont p^n^tr^ la nature fondamentale du Yin
et du Yang ne disent pas, pour d^finir les dtres, que ce sent
le Yin et le Yang ; ils ne eherchent pas le Yin et le Yang,
autrement que dans les choses et les formes, en dehors de ce
qu'on voit et entend. Sou- tong-po dit : '* le commencement du
principe du ciel est yraiment grand, capital ; on ne peut
apercevoir les yertus de ce principe initial. Ce que Ton peut
voir n'est que le principe des choses diverses."
Le mattre disait : '* Le principe initial des quatre vertus ^
est pour celles-ci semblable au printemps relativement aux
quatre saisons. Parmi les cinq principes, la bont^ bienveil-
lante est le principe initial, qui engendre, perfectionne, fait
germer et d^veloppe le ciel et la terre. C'est elle qui
produit tons les etres, c'est d'elle, cons^uemment, que tout
procMe. C'est pourquoi il est dit que I'origine, le com-
mencement des toutes choses en provient. Si Ton s'en occupe
et J refl^hit on ne peut pas dire qu'il est impossible d'en
aperceyoir et connaitre les formes, la substance, I'^clat, dans
le coeur et les yeux. Les gens qui connaissent bien la loi
supreme le oomprennent parfaitement.
Liao-tze Hoei dit : *' Le milan yole, le poisson nage et
saute." Dans ces expressions il y a la m6me pens^e que dans
ceci : yous ayez des affaires, c'est bien, mais n'ayez pas
d'empressement excessif. Qu'on j r^fl^chisse ; tous les Stres
sent dans les parties de notre nature, comme une image dans
un miroir. Si I'on contemple d'en has le ciel ^ley^, on
yerra le milan, le trayersant au vol; si I'on regarde k ses pieds
une eau profonde, on y apperceyra le poisson qui nage en
sautant. Que I'on regarde en haut ou en has, il n'est point
de lieu oik la manifestation exterieure de la loi supreme ne se
trouye. Lorsqu'un acte doit se faire et qu'on n'a point de
hftte exag^r^i la chose est Ik devant soi sans qu'on ait &
t^moigner (^prouver) des preoccupations et corriger (elle se
fait facilement).
* Yoj. plus havt.
242 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
Le milan volant, le poisson nageant et sautant se trouyent
tous deux li-dedans (servent A exprimer cette pens^e).
Les sages connaissent iDtimement par eux-mSmes ce qui
donne la joie et le contentement.
Le maitre dit : ** En tout, depuis le milan qui vole et le
poisson qui nage, en tout est la substance de la loi suprfime,
L'action p^n^trante de la loi du ciel n'a besoin ni d'avertisse-
ment contre Toubli, ni de secours ; elle est ferme et constante
comme cela. Si nous comparons toutes les choses qui existent
en une partie de notre personne, au reflet d'un miroir et
cons^quemment distinguons les 6tres et la nature comme
choses di£f(£rentes, par celle-ci se refl^teront ceux-l&, par
ceux-l& ou p^n^trera dans celle-ci.
Le docteur Tchang Heng-kiu dit : '* Si Ton pretend que
toutes les substances visibles s'aper9oivent comme dans un
vide immense, cependant les 6tres et le vide sont sans aucun
rapport. Autre chose est la substance d^termin^e, autre
chose est la nature." ^ Aussi bl&me-t-on ces paroles.
II est dit au livre Tsih- Yen : '' La loi du ciel et les d^sirs
de Thomme n'ont qu'une m^me substance, mais leurs actes
difiB^rent; quand leur operation est la m6me, la volont^ diffdre*
Les gens ^lev^s qui veulent progresser et se perfectionner,
doivent distinguer et approfondir les choses convenablement."
Le Mattre disait: '^La substance primitive est la seule loi du
ciel; il n'y avait pas d'abord de d^sir humain qui en differait.
Le d^ir humain excite par les formes, attach^ k la substance
visible, reproduit par I'habitude, trouble par la passion
prit alors naissance. Hd-tze dit que I'homme doit, dans la
loi du ciel, distinguer les d^sirs de Thomme et, dans les d&ira
huroains, reconnaitre ce qui est la loi du ciel.
Bien que cette pens^e soit tr^s- juste cependant les Saints
ont enseign^ que si Ton s'ecarte des d^sirs humains, se vain-
quant Boi-m6me, faisant observer les rites, faisant tous ses
efforts pour rendre les horames justes, c'est 1& la loi du ciel.
Yang Eoui-Shan disait : '' On a dit que le decret du ciel
est ce qu'on appelle la nature ; mais les passions humaines ne
1 Sens douteax rendu d*apr^s la Tendon mandchoue ; tu=eneu.
TSIEH-TAO-TCHUEN DB TCHOU-HI. 243
8ont pas la nature." Cela est parfaitement vrai : H6-tze en
critiquant cette maxime a commis une erreur.
II est dit dans le Tsih-Ten : " Quand on veut pratiquer
rhumanit6 on doit connaitre la nature de Thuraanit^.'' Une
autre fois aux questions qu'on lui posait : " Quand Thomme
n'a point la yertu d'humanit^, e'est que le fond de son ccBur
est relache et dans Terreur. Est-ce avee un coeur plough
dans I'erreur que Ton pent scruter le coeur P " II r^pondit :
"Une prince du royaume de Tchi ayant vu un boeuf ne
Toulut absolument pas le laisser tuer.^ VoilsL nn exemple de la
florescence du coeur. II se montre dans ses actes au milieu
dee d^sirs du gain. Une fois qu'il s'est manifest^, si on
Tarrete et le contient ; si\ contenu, on I'entretient ; si entre-
tenu, on le remplit, il s'^l^ve au plus haut point. Si parvenu
& ce fait il ne le quitte point, il est alors semblable au ciel.
Tel est le coeur qui se trouve dans rhomme. L'origine de
ses manifestations ext^rieures n'est point semblable (& sa
perfection) ; en principe, il suffit de connaitre cela."
Le maitre disait : " Eong-tze interrog6 par ses disciples
8ur la nature de Thumanit^, fit une longue r^ponse ; s'ils
prennent, sans plus, le moyen d'obtenir Thumanite et qu'ils
fassent tous leur efforts, ils Tacquerront d'eux mSmes. Cela
suffit et il n'est pas n^cessaire de connaitre d'abord la nature
substantielle de I'humanite." En outre on lui demandait
"Comment on peut avec un ccBur d^r^gl^ scruter le coeur P"
Cette observation etant d'une haute importance son apprecia-
tion a ^t^ d'autant plus r^pandue et propag^e. (II dit) done:
si I'on maintient et contient son coeur il subsistera, si on
Tabandonne d lui-m6me il p^rira ; il n'y a pas d'interm^diaire
ni d'arr6t. Si connaissant son erreur on la scrute, le coeur
restera en une seule disposition'; si Ton attend qu'on le voie,
en un autre moment, se porter vers une autre direction et
qu'on Tarrfete avant qu'on ne Ty ait vu ^tabli, ce coeur sera
divis^, bris^.
II est dit au Tsih-Ten' : "le coeur n'a ni mort ni naissance.*'
1 Tir6 de Meng-tze I.
* La bonne.
> Encjclopedie de T^poqne dee Songs.
244 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
Le maltre dit k propos de ces paroles qu'elles e'approclient
de la doctrine bouddhique de la rotation (transmigration des
Ames). Lorsque le ciel et la terre ont produit les etres,
rhomme a obtenu ce qu'il y a de pins beau, 11 est aussi d'une
habilet^ sup^rieure. Le coeur est vide de maP et plein d'habi-
let^; savoir, comprendre, c'est sa nature. U en est ainsi
comme de Touie et de la vue dans Toreille et roeil. Dans le
ciel et la terre il n'y a jusqu'a la fin, ni pass^ ni present, ni
achevement, ni fin. Dans les hommes et les choses il y a
au-contraire quant k la substance et k la forme, et commence-
ment et fin. On doit seulement savoir que si leurs lois sent
les m6mes, leurs fonctions sont difi)£rentes. Puis quand on
dit que le coeur ne connait ni la mort ni la naissance, n'a-t-on
pas droit de s'^tonner de ce langage des lettr^s P II est dit
au Tsih-Yen : " Le coeur ne pent pas ne pas fttre. Posant
comme fondement, les revolutions, les changements de la loi
du ciel (les saisons) il agit en se conformant et satisfaisant k
son temps."
Le maltre disait: ''Les saints en apprenant les choses
inf^rieures p^n^trent les connaissances sup^rieures; dans les
actes de chaque jour, ils accomplissent le devoir de complais-
ance et de conformity. Les revolutions et transformations
du ciel se manifestent en cela.'
Si Ton se met en I'esprit de poser comme fondement la loi
du ciel et que Ton veut Tharmoniser avec les affaires humaines,
nne seule chose occupera la poitrine. Si quand on est k
remplir une fonction, on s'occupe de recueillir et de ramasser,
de ruser et jouer (et non de la justice), les lignes de
jonction du ciel et de la terre seront, jusqu'i la fio, sans
concorder. L'union ne r^gnera pas entre le ciel et la terre.
Ou-fang du Hd-nan ^ r^p^tait souvent qu'il ^tait bon pour
rhomme de connattre son coeur. A ce sujet la maitre dit :
'' Le coeur doit connaitre les choses mais comment connattra-
t-on le coeur P L'oeil de Thomme voit les objets, mais com-
ment parviendra-t-il k voir les yeux P **
^ Par sa nature.
* EUes Bont 1' image et le module des yicissitudes des ^tres.
' Auteur contemporain de Tohou-hi ; a 6crit un recueil historiqae et litt^raire.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 245
Aussi lorsque les lettr^s parviennent & d^voiler le secret
de6 choses et des d^sirs, alors le coeur est d deoouvert. La
r^ponse a Lian Song-Eing portait : " la nature du ciel et de
la terre est aussi la ndtre ; la loi est-elle done de disparattre
promptement par la mort ? On ne peut qualifier cette
reflexion d'erron^e. Mais celui qui Ta prof^r^e a-t-il bien
mis le ciel et la terre au-dessus et au fondement de toutes
choses P n'est ce pas plut6t nous autres hommes qu'il a
consid^r^s comme tels P Si c'est le ciel et la terre alors cette
nature est la loi, la rdgle commune pour le ciel et la terre ;
les hommes et les choses ne difil^rent point (sous ce rapport), il
n'y a point & distinguer ceci et cela, la mort et la vie, I'ancien
et le nouveau. On meurt mais on n'est pas completement
d^truit et il n'y a rien dont nous puissions nous attribuer la
propri^t^ sp^ciale. Si o'est nous qu'ils prennent comme fon-
dement et maitre, alors s'exaltant eux-mSmes ils prennent les
id^, les manidres de concevoir de leurs fluides vitaux et de
leurs esprits comme la nature de leur substance et ne cessant
jusqu'il la mort d'amasser et de retenir, ils croient par U ne
faire que mourir et non p^rir k jamais. C'est \k un exces de
liberty de la pens^e. S'il en ^tait ainsi on ne pourrait dire
que la mort et la naissance sont r^gl^es par la nature et la
destin celeste/'
ChAPITRB VI. — RAGLES DOMESTIQTJES.
Le Docteur Hoei-Ong dans sa r^ponse k Tchen Fou-tsong
dit : " Je regrette infiniment que le grand nombre et la lour-
deur du poids des afiaires domestiques entravent I'instruction.
Mais cela ne se pourrait autrement. En ces circonstances on
doit faire sinc^rement tons ses efforts et ne rien negliger. En
toute chose ne consid^rez que la loi morale et les principes ;
ne les transgressez pas comme peu importants. Oonnaissant
parfaitement vos d^fauts et manquements joumaliers, tri-
omphez-en et, vous repentant, corrigez-les. II n*y a rien au
dessus des principes de la doctrine. S'il s'^Ieve en vous le
d^ir de ne pas les suivre, s'il y nait la pens^e de s'en ^carter.
246 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI,
alors les actes et les principes seront disjoints et toutes vos
lectures pass^es perdroat leur fruit."
La r^ponse & Ho Pe-fong portait : '^ I'homme et la femme
ferment la maison, c'est ce qu'il y a de plus intime dans les
choses humaines. Ces affaires ont leur rdgle morale. Les
principes des Sages sont ^tendus et profonds. Si, soit qu'il
vive dans la retraite et la simplicity ou dans les jouissances,
et le luxe,^ I'homme traite ces affaires avec negligence et sans
fa9on, le d^cret du ciel ne pourra s'ex^cuter.
Les regies des sages prennent leur point de depart dans les
rapports les plus d^licats et les plus intimes de Thomme et de
la femme. Quant & leur point culminant il atteint ce qu'il y a
de plus ilev6 et de plus profond au ciel et sur la terre. Cela
^tant, si les Sages n'en connaissaient pas les secrets et ne
pr^taient pas la plus grande attention i. chacun d'eux, qui
pourrait les formuler et tracer des modMes ?
Le Yih-Eing, commen^ant par les Kouas Khien et ITuen,
on a mis au milieu les Eouas Hien et Heng.' Le Li-Ei
s'occupe du mariage comme chose principale. Au Shih-Eing
les deux N&ns' ferment pour cette cause le commencement
fix^ et permanent.^ Au Tsih-Ten il est dit: "les regies con-
cernent le manger et le boire, les fonctions de Thomme et de
la femme. L'homme qui plonge dans un courant n'en connait
pas tous les filets d'eau."* II est dit en outre: "Ceux qui
dans la fr^quentation des hommes savent qu'il y a des rites &
observer, qui dans les rapports entre amis savent qu'il y a des
regies k suivre, les gens r^fi^chis et respectueux seuls, savent
s'observer et ne point commettre de faute." Telle est la
pens^e de Tauteur.
Eong-ming avait choisi pour Spouse une fiUe d'une grande
laideur ; mais il Temployait et s'en faisait servir de fa9on que
personne ne pouvait Tatteindre. Son caract^re droit et ^lev^,
sa vertu fortement tremp^e avaient bien ^t^ regus du ciel,
mais par des reflexions internes, son esprit et son cceur
^ Litt snr un tapis, etc.
' Ce Bont les Eouas "^ I et 32.
' I^es deux premiers liTres du Shih-King.
* Sont la loi de ce qui forme la commencement.
' Tous les receptacles.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 247
devenaient cheque jour plus purs et plus ^clair^s. Sa dignity,
sa renomm^ devenait de jour en jour plus grande, plus
elev^e. Diminuant ses d^sirs, entretenaut son coeur conven-
ablement elle rend it de grands services.
Les anciens Sages, s'effor9ant d'^clairer leur esprit et leur
coeur n'avaient en vue que de s'affermir dans le bien et d'ac-
qn^rir une juste renommee. lis ne cherchaient point cela
pres des hommes mais en eux-m6mes ; ils ne se pr^occupaient
point du dehors mais de leur int^rieur.
On demandait au Maitre : '' Quand un homme disgr&ci^ du
sort, se trouve pr^s d'une belle-m^re, de freres n^s d'une
autre m^re, et que I'accord ne regne pas entre eux, comment
doit-il se conduire P *' II r^pondit : '* le modele d suivre exists
depuis les temps antiques. Oonsid^rez comment Shun s'est
conduit. L'homme qui est dans la situation d'un fils ne doit
penser qu'i rester ferme dans la pratique de la pi^t^ filiale.''
On lui demandait encore : '' des parents qui aiment leurs
enfants au delel de toute expression , voudraient les voir se d^-
yelopper, se former tr^ intelligents et habiles. Est-ce Ik un
d&ir convenable P " Le Maitre r^pondit : ** Qu'un pire, une
m^re aime ses enfants, c'est trds bien ; mais si les aimant au
delsL de toute limite ils veulent qu'ils soient tels que vous dites,
cela ne pent ^tre et n'est pas bien. Entre la loi du ciel et les
d^sirs des hommes il y a une grande diffiSrence. II faut les
distinguer soigneusement, comme cela doit etre. Lorsque
les amis ne sent pas bons et fideles, il faut s'en separer.
Gongediez-les, mais avec prudence. S'il n'y a pas de motif
grave ne brisez pas subitement. Quand un ami est d^vou^,
ne manquez pas aux lois de Tamiti^. Si c'est un ancien .ami
ne violez par les usages anciens.''
Les gens ^lair^s et sages lorsqu'ils construisent une
maison et ses appartements, comroencent par elever le lieu
des sacrifices & Test de Tapparteroent du midi. Puis
Tayant partag^ en quatre parties, ils offrent un sacrifice aux
m&nes des parents des ftges ant^rieurs. Les parents coUater-
aux qui n'ont plus de descendants y seront adjoints et places
selon le rang des generations. Aprds cela qu'on determine
le lieu du sacrifice, que Ton en prepare les vases et instru-
248 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
merits. Lorsque le jour parait, le maltre de maison vient se
montrer au milieu de la grande porte ; k qui entre ou sort il
annonce (ce qui va se faire). Quand on est au premier jour
de la lune ou k la pleine lune, il fait les c^r^monies prescrites.
Si le moment est propice, il offre les mets propres & la saison.
S'il y a quelque chose a faire il le notifie.
Le pien,^ le teou,* le fou ' et le kui * ^taient les ustensiles
employes autrefois. On s'en servait pour tons les sacrifices
et ofirandes. Maintenant on a transform^ les vases profanes
en vase de sacrifice et les mets communs, en viande des
ofirandes. Les monnaies en papier^ sont employes au lieu
des choses pr^cieuses^ parce qu'on les emploie dans la vie
ordinaire. On dit qu'on suit les convenances. Dans les
sacrifices on doit suivre le droit du fils ain^. Quand des
f re res partagent lea biens de famille ils ne pen vent par-
tager le temple des ancetres. Quand Tain^ sacrifie, les
cadets lui servent les difi!$rents objets et Fassistent dans des
fonctions. S'ils sont ^loign^s les uns des autres, le frere
ain^ seul peut poser les tablettes des ancfttres, le cadet ne le
pent pas. Ce n'est qu'au moment des ofirandes que I'on pose
le support (des tablettes) et Ton ^crit les noms sur des
ecussons de papier. Quand le sacrifice est achev^ on brCde
le trdne-support ; de cette mani^re on arrive a la fin des
c^r^monies.
II est encore dit : ** Les rites et usages et lee details du
sacrifice peuvent subir de lagers raccourcissements. Autre-
ment, une fois Tofeinde faite, on ne pourrait plus reciter de
pri^res. Quand on sacrifie aux ancetres, on doit y apporter
une affection et un respect sincdres ; c'est Tessentiel. Si Ton
est pauvre, on peut tenir compte de ce qui manque dans la
maison. Si Ton est malade on agit comme le permettent les
forces physiques. Quand la sant^ et la fortune sont suffisantes,
on suit exactement les regies.
^ Plat k bord portant les offrandes.
* Chargeoir.
' Plat carr6 ext^rieurement et h fond arrondi.
* Plat d^osier tress^.
* Papier-monnaie qu'on briile dans les c6r^monies en Thonneur des morts.
C'^tait gen^ralement du papier de m^tal, de dif ^rentes formes.
TSIEH.YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 249
Au premier jour de la lunaison^ on ofire du yin et des
fruits au temple domestique ; k la nouvelle lune on pr^sente
du th^. Le 5* jour du mois, le 15" du septi^me mois, le 9*
du 9* moiB, et autres encore sent d^clar^s jours fastes. Dans
le grand sacrifice tons les supports des tablettes recoivent les
quatre especes d'offrande de mets ; on expose les tablettes de
bois. Si le temps est propice on ne pr^sente au temple des
ancetres que deux espdces de mets.^ Si le premier jour du
mois est un jour faste on n'offre qu'une seule fois du vin ; on
ne pr^sente qu'un seul verre.
Toutes les c^r^monies du deuil avant Tense velissement
consistent en ce qu'on appelle " libations." Les rites en sent
parfaitement r^gl^s. Comme par suite de T^tat d'affliction
oil Ton se trouye, on ne pent user du moindre luxe on doit
t^moigner son amour et son empressement pour le mort et
ne point Thonorer comme on honore les esprits.'
Aprds que Ton a appais^ les m&nes du d^funt et & dater du
sacrifice, le reste s'appelle Ui.
II est dit d ce sujet dans le Kia-li : ^ "La libation est le
sacrifice du temps de deuil. Le sacrifice ofiert apr^s Tappaise-
ment des m&nes ^ est une c^r^monie de joie. Gar on revient
peu & peu alors aux sentiments de joie."
Chez les Anciens, pendant le temps de deuil> tout s'^cartait
des usages des temps ordinaires et devenait diffi^rent. Aussi
bien qu'on laiss&t de cdt^ le sacrifice au temple des ancetres,
on viyait dans un juste milieu entre la vie absolument
retir^ et la vie publique^ sans impatience ni de Tune ni de
Tautre. Los gens de nos jours, lorsqu'ils sont en deuil
n'abandonnent point les usages de la vie ordinaire ; ils ne
changent que ce qui a ^t^ dit. Ils ont peur de s'incommoder.
Dans la r^ponse & Tzeng Eouang-Tzou, il ^tait dit :
'' Pendant le temps que Ton reste enferm^ k la maison i
cause du deuil, on ne pent se permettre d'omettre les sacrifices
des quatre saisons. Si le jour du sacrifice est de boo augure,
' C*e8t-&-dire par une c6r6monie de joie.
' Jiitei domett iquei ; oeuvre de Tchou-hi.
^ Oa le Bepti^me jour da deuil.
260 TSIEH-TAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
on y precede v6tu d'habits de deuil noire. Dans lea sacrifices
fix^s on pr^sente et Hive trois fois la yiande rotie des
offrandes, mais cela ne doit pas se faire quand on reste
enferm^ & la inaison en temps de deuil. Si c'est nn jour
faste, on pr^sente une seule fois les offrandes m^l^es. On ne
lit pas les pri^res c^r^raonielles, on n'offre pas les viandes
rdties. On ne transporte pas les tablettes comme il est dit
au Li-Ki. II n'y a pas de r^gle ni d'^tiquette absolument
fixe.
Le jour avant le sacrifice Ta-Siang,* on offre un sacrifice
et Ton an nonce (ce que Ton va faire) & TancStre dont on doit
eroporter la tablette (hore du temple). Lorsque celle-ci est
transport^e, le jour suivant, on enldve les nattes et la table ;
puis tenant ^lev^e la nouveile tablette on Fintroduit dans le
temple.^
Comme ces prescriptions satisfaisaient peu les sentiments
humains, il ajouta : " Introduire et transporter sent deux
cboses bien diffi^rentes. On doit, en introduisant la tablette
dans le temple et pour cela interrompant les sanglots, suivre
les prescriptions indiqu^es par Sse-ma Wen Eong. On doit
annoncer au pere et au grand-p^re le transfert dans un autre
sacrarium. Quand il survient un nouveau d^eds on doit
introduire la tablette du dernier d^funt dans le temple des
ancetres et le leur annoncer." Tel est le sens. Quand le
sacrifice est achev^ on introduit la tablette dans le recessus
int^rieur du temple.^
Lorsque la 3® ann^e de deuil est pass^e, on fait la sacrifice
T^glL On emporte la tablette du premier ancStre et on la
depose dans un autre temple, puis ayant v^n^r^ la tablette du
dernier d^funt on I'introduit dans le temple des ancetres.
Quand Tenterreraent est achev^, en interrompant les sanglots,
on rev6t un habit noir et Ton reprend les sacrifice habituels
dans la salle des ancetres.
1 Magnum omen ^ )j^ ^ la fin de la 2e anii^e de deuil, alon qu'on change
de Teti>ment8 de deuil.
' Un temple ne contient que 9 tablettes. Quand une dizi^me doit y etre apportee,
la plus ancienne doit etre port^e ailleurs. Le Li-Ki prescrit la meme chose pour
la Bizi&me.
' On les 6te du tr6ne support {3[ et on les porte dans le receptacle cach6.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 251
On lui demandait une autre fois : ** Comment un fils doit
il se conduire quant aux sacrifices, quand il a offert le Ta*
8iang et le Tan pour sa mdre (d^f unte) et qu'il n'est en deuil
d'aucun homrae."
Le Maitre r^pondit : " D*aprds la coutume actuelle, aprds
la 3* ann^e on enldve la natte et la table.^ Au petit et au grand
Siang tous les hommes prennent part au sacrifice. Mais aprds
le petit Siang, ils dtent leurs v6tements de deuil. Au grand
Siang ils portent des v^tements simples et grossiers comme
au jour de la mort, du commencement du deuil et de la
douleur. Pendant le sacrifice, on fait face k I'ouest. II doit
en 6tre de mSme pendant Tenterrement.
En ce qui concerne le deuil, pour tout deuil quelconque, si
le p^re vit encore, c'est lui qui joue le r61e d'honneur. En
ce cas les fils n'ont aucune c^r^monie & faire. Si le pdre est
mort et que les frdres vivent ensemble ils se partagent les
fonctions d'honneur. Tel est le texte des rites. Ceci est
expliqu^ de la manidre suivante. Ghacun a le premier rdle
dans le deuil de ses enfants et de ses Spouses. S'il s'agit d'une
Spouse, c'est son mari qui preside au deuil, les fils n'ont point
& prendre part au premier r61e.
Tzeng Y'e-tchi demanda : '' Si pendant un deuil de 3 ans
il survient un autre deuil d'un an, on doit porter ce
nouYeau deuil et en prendre les habits. La chose faite on
doit reprendre le premier deuil. Mais beaucoup disent
que quand on porte les habits d'un grand deuil on ne
pent en changer et rey^tir ceux d'un deuil moindre ; nous
ne savons pas comment il faut faire.''
Le Maitre r^pondit: *' La decision de ces gens est erronn^."
Yoici les rites A observer quand on cesse les cris et les
sanglots. Dans les derniers temps le terme ^tait fix^ & 100
jours. Au temps dit K*ai-Yuen* cela a ^t^ chang^. Main-
tenant, suiyant les rites de la dynastic Tcheou, aussitdt aprds
Tenterrement les t^moignages de la douleur prennent fin.
^ Le Suto-Sianff, le Ta-tiany et le Tan sont respectiyement les mcrifices qui
Be font apr^g la 1«, la 2o et la 3e annee de deuil, alon que Ton change de Tete-
ments
> 7ia-742. Sous Hnen-tsoDg des Tang.
262 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
Li Hoei-Han demanda: ''II est dit dans lea regies da
sacrifice trac^es par Tcheng-Shi: ''Tout ce qu'on y associe ne
peut etre qu'une Spouse legitime et une seule. Si celui qui
pr^ide au sacrifice est le fils d'une femme secondaire, il doit
se faire aider de sa propre mire."
Le Maitre r^pondit : " Le docteur Tcheng s'est tromp^, je
pense." Cela est dit dans le livre Hoei-Yao de la dynastie
Tang. Tant que la mdre Spouse priucipale vit, on ne tient
pas compte de Tant^riorit^ et de la post^rit^. Toutes doivent
assister et aider au sacrifice en commun.
Teou Wen-King demanda : " Des fils, lorsque leur propre
mire est morte, comment doivent ils faire Tinscription de la
tablette P oil doiveut-ils la mettre P od doivent-ils sacrifier P
Le maitre r^pondit : " II s'agit de meres de rang ^gal. A
part I'epouse principale, on doit distinguer les autres en
inscrivant seulement le nom de la mire morte. Les paroles
de Tcheng-y-Tchouen se rapportent au sacrifice domestique
fait k volenti."
On lui demanda encore : " Quand (le pire) le mari yit
encore k qui doit-il ^crire de yenir au sacrifice offert a
Tesprit de son Spouse P " II r^pondit : " C'est A un homme
honorable de I'entourage du mari, et k personne qui lui soit
inferieur."
On I'interrogeait sur le transfert des tablettes. II r^pondit:
" Le fils du ciel et les vice-rois ont un second temple dans
leur Tai-Miao. C'est Ik qu'on transporte et conserve les
tablettes enlev^es. Les particuliers d'aujoud'hui n'en ont
plus ni de lieu special pour garder ces tablettes." II est dit
au Lii'Ki, ' on les enterre entre deux marches.' Maintenant
ce moyen n'est plus k employer; on ne peut plus que
les enterrer dans une tombe.''
Interrog^ sur les regies relatives au transport du cadayre,
il repondit : " On le porte ainsi : apres qu'on I'a annonc^
au temple en sacrifiant, on vient ensuite Tannoncer au lieu
de sepulture, on ouvre le tombeau et Ton enterre ; cela fait,
on se retire apris avoir fait une libation. On retourne au
temple annoncer Tenterrement et le sacrifice ; on y sanglote
apres quoi les c^r^monies sent termin^es."
T8IEH-TA0-TCHTTEN DB TCHOU-HI. 253
Oa demanda :
" La prescription de porter dds le transport da corps les
T^tenients du deuil de trois mois^ est expliqu^e par Tcheng-
siuen ^ en ce sens qa'on les depose aprds que Ton a laiss^ passer
ces 3 mois. Wang-Suh^ de son c6t^ dit qu'on les quitte aprds
Tenterrement. Qu'en est-il en r^alit^ P '' Le maitre r^pondit :
" Quant aux rites il convient de se montrer tou jours large et
de suivre les exemples du chef de la famille Tcheng.
On ajouta : '* D'apr^s les principes de ce lettr^, ce n'est
qu'au cas d'un deuil de 3 ans que, pour Tenterreraent d'un
morty on rev^t les habits de coton grossier du deuil de
3 mois. Four un autre deuil on ajoute T^toffe de chanvre
aux habillements du deuil. L'enterrement fini, doit-on dter
ces vetementsP" Le Maitre r^pondit qu*il devait en 6tre
ainsi. Au sacrifice du jour de la mort d'un parent on
n'expose A la v^n^ration qu'une seule tablette. Tcheng Y-
Tchouen^ dit que pendant le deuil d*un grand-pdre, d'un pdre
chef de famille, il ne conyient pas de se presenter aux
examens. Bien que cela ne soit pas dit clairement par les
lois et usages, si on considere bien la chose, on voit que les
lettr^s doivent agir de la sorte.
La coutume du pays est maintenant que pour la mort du
p^re ou de la mdre propre on porte le deuil de coeur pendant
3 ans;^ c'est la une pens^ excellente. Au jour de Tenterre-
ment on ne traite ses hdtes qu'au regime du je&ne avec des
T^g^taux. Les viandes et les legumes offerts au sacrifice
doivent 6tre distribu^s entre les gens de service.
Le Maitre lorsqu'il ^tait sans fonction, se levait avant le
jour, rey^tait un v^tement de couleur sombre, le bonnet pli£
carr^ (Fou-Ein), les souliers de cuir, puis allait accomplir les
c^r^monies au temple domestique en I'honneur des d^funts
v^n^r^s. Cela fait, il allait s'asseoir dans sa biblioth^ue,
posait et affermissait sa table, mettait en ordres ses liyres»
^ Coton grossier.
' Letted dn milrea dn XII^ si^le (?).
* Commentateur dn Kia-Tu de Kong-fu-tie.
* CoUaborateor de Tchou-hi (P).
* Le deuil ext^rieur de 8 ans a ^t^ diversement racconrci ; celni dn ccBur ne
peut ratre.
TOL. XX.— [new SSEIia.] 18
254 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
vases, instruments, etc. Ses aliments solides et liquides con-
sistaient en soupe & la viande; le service avait ane mesure fixe.
Quand il ^tait fatigii^ et se reposait, il se tenait assis, les yeuz
ferm^s et droit. Si tdt qu'il se levait, il marchait gravement
et d'un pas mesur^. II se couchait au milieu de la nuit ;
lorsqu'il se levait il repliait sa couche et s'asseyait jusqu'^ ce
que le jour fdt venu ; il avait Tair s^rieux, sa parole ^tait sage
et vertueuse. Sa marche ^tait grave et r^v^rencieuse, assis
il se tenait droit et fixe. Toujours r^gl^ et mesur^ dans
ses actes et son maintien; depuis son enfance jusqu'd sa
vieillesse, dans le froid le plus rigoureux, la chaleur la plus
violente, en aucune circonstance pressante, en aucun trouble,
il ne s'^cartait jamais (de ces principes).
ChAPITRE IX. — MOYENS DE GOUVERNER.
Hoei-Ong dit : Le livre Tcheou-li regie toute Tadministra-
tion des fonctionnaires du palais imperial depuis les eunuques
des princesses et les cuisiniers. II rdgle tout ce qui conceme
le prince en ses volont^s relativement au boire et au manger,
aux hommes et aux femmes et cherche ainsi k d^velopper ses
vertus ; c'est 14 son but supreme. Far la suite tons les vices
des Eunuques ont pris le dessus.
Les fonctions des Ministres ont ^t^ (ce qu'elles sont)
depuis I'antiquit^. Les ministres cboisissent les Mandarins
sup^rieurs et ceux-ci nomment leurs inf^rieurs.
Le magistrat civil d'aujourd'huinommeetdirige; mais les
magistrats inf^rieurs ^tant importuns et turbulents, il ne
parvient pas k choisir des gens sages. Toutes les regions
^tant confines aux magistrats, inspecteurs des prefectures, s'ils
sont etablis avec choix, convenablement, c'est bien. Au temps
oil j'^tais aux afiaires, je choisissais avec soin les presidents
du Li-pu^ et je chercbais k avoir partout des bommes propres
aux fonctions. Me fiant aux Mandarins sup^rieurs de toutes
les cours, je leur laissais ^tablir eux*m6mes les magistrats
dependant d'eux, puis je les faisais surveiller par le Tcbong-
^ Cour des offices, fonctions.
TSIEH-TAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HL 255
shou Yamen.^ Quand pieirmi les Mandarins il venait A en
inanquer Tun ou Tautre, pour chaque poste je me faisais
presenter Tun oik Tautre de ceux qui les suivaient et en
dessous et cela fait, j'avais soin de ne point faire avancer un
fonctionnaire dou^ de pen de yertus.
Le prince ne choisit que les Eien-sze £ '^ ^ et les Tai
Sheou (pr^fets). Quant aux autres fonctionnaires adminis-
trateurs de districts (hien) lorsqu'on doit les mettre en oeuvre^
selon les connaissances de chacun, on doit exiger qu'ils rem-
plissent bien leurs fonctions.
Quand on doit organiser et disposer convenableraent I'enipire,
si mdme on a un grand espace libre, cela se fait ais^ment. Pour
chaque district on ^tablit un Tsze-Shi ' et en lui donnant ce
titre on le fait An-tcha-shai * le chargeant de faire louer
ou bl&nier les magistrats de Tcheous et Hiens. Sous eux on
etablit, on leur donne comme auxiliaires les Pan-Eouan. Les
transports et les importations, Tinstruction des affaires crimi-
nelles, le soin des champs et des r^ltes sont confi^s aux
soins des Tsze-Shi. Comme ils ont un pouvoir un peu plus
^lev^ que celui des Pan-Eouan, lorsque ceux-ci ont d signaler
quelque chose, A faire un rapport c'est aux Tsze-Shi k le
presenter. Si les Tsze-Shi negligent de le faire, les Pan-
Eouan doivent en r^f^rer k la cour Shoue(8hin)-Yu-Shi. Si
Ton partage entre plusieurs les pouvoirs des Tsze-Shi les
affaires se font promptement, r^guli^rement, facilement et les
crimes d'oppression, de tyrannic ne se commettent plus.
L'administration des ^tablissements d'instruction ne s'afflige
pas de ce que les lois et les bonnes moeurs ne sont pas formes
et stables, mais elle deplore que les principes de justice et
les lois ne puissent pas donner la joie aux ccBurs. Quand ils
en sont U, s'il cherchent k effrayer en mena9ant en ce qu'il
y a de moins important dans les lois et principes, ils sont
semblables k ceux qui, voulant arreter un courant d'eau, le
font couler de mille canaux et amassent tout k Taise des
1 Patent-Office rMayen).
* Surintendant de ustnct ind^pendant da gonTerneor, ayant aiFaire directe-
ment avec le gouTernement central et surveillant plusieurs prefectures ou Fous.
' Ce titre a^partient an temps des Songs.
« Jnge criminel de district.
256 TSIEH-TAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
herbes et des roeeaux pour en arr^ter le cours imp^tueux.
lis ne r^uasiront pas mieux que ces demiers.
Le systeme actuel des examens est souverainement Ticieux.
La coutume de choisir pour une locality celui qui est recom-
mand^ par le canton est la plus legitime. C'est \k la rdgle
principale. Si cela ne se peut, il est bon de disposer le mode
d'examen d'une manidre moyenne et r^gl^e.
Pour moi j'ai essay^ d'^tablir un systdme fixe d'examen.
J'ai fait du Yih-Eing, du Shi-Eing et da Shu-King une
matiere sp^iale ; des trois Li une autre, du Tchun-Tsiou et
des trois commentaires, une troisidme. Aprds cela je le faisais
annoncer et cfaaque fois que je devais examiner, je faisais
savoir dans quel King, dans quel livre historique le th^me da
travail deyait 6tre pris. J*assignais ainsi une fin d^ter-
min^e aux yolont^s de chacun et sous mon impulsion, on
s'appliquait avec tons les efforts de son intelligence, a I'^tude
de tel King ou de telle histoira II ne fallut pas beaucoap
d'examens pour que tons les livres canoniques ou historiques
fussent ^tudi^ d'une manidre approfondie. Quant an sens
des Kings on en corrigeait tout ce qui ^tait d^fectueux et
d^pourvu de sens et Ton ne s'occupait que des pens^
fondamentales, expliqu^es clairement.
Main tenant les travaux litt^raires re9us dans les examens
contiennent beaucoup de choses vagues, obscures, sans signifi-
cation. Cela est vraiment deplorable. On ne pent pas dire
cependant que les travaux Merits par les ^tudiants soient tout
a fait mauvais. Tout cela est ^troitement li^ aux revolutions
des temps.
Vers la fin de la dynastie des Tsin orientaux, lea travaux
litt^raires ^taient g^n^ralement faits avec negligence et con«
f us^ment. Ou ne savait point y distinguer le vrai et le faux.^
Meng-tze parlant des regies k observer par les souverains,
mettait au dessus de tout le soin d'assurer la possession des
biens du peuple. Bien qu'il ne pCit expliquer, en un instant,
les usages relatifs aux champs communs, il disait qu*il n'y avait
rien de mieux que de noter et de publier combien le peuple
^ Les diACUfisions manquaient le sens.
TSIBH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-DI. 257
de chaque tcheou, de chaque hien, retirait d'un acre de
terrain ; combien on pr^levait d'imp6t, comme aussi combien
on exigeait de prestation en dehors de ce qui ^tait r^gl^ par
la coutume/ combien dans chaque tcheou ou hien on recevait
annuellement, en tout, d'argent ou d'aliments, combien on
employait et d^pensait en toutes espdces de choses et en
chaque espdce, ce que Ton faisait du surplus, comment on se
procurait ce qui yenait i manquer.
Quand tout cela est fait et r^sum^ on choisit un certain
nombre de lettr^s de juste milieu, bons, sinc^res, intelligents,
experiments. Ayant, apr^s recherches soigneuses, r^uni et
dispose le tout, on le distribue ^galement, prenant le surplus
et le donnant k ceux auxquels il manque quelque chose. Si
Ton distribue sans distinguer parfaitement les pauyres et
les riches des Tcheous et des Hiens, ce qui ^puise et
Teetaure les forces du peuple n'arriyera pas i. se s^parer
compietement. La loi et la rdgle du monde est qu'il n'y a
point d'ayantage absolu et sans melange de dommage ; il
n'y a k rechercher que la quantity, la part de biens et de
maux. Le peuple maintenant s'^puise parceque, par suite
des etablissements de soldats colons, les d^penses sont ^normes,
mais par la culture des champs publics ils diminuent' le
trayail des peuples. Sous la dynastie Han on ayait partag^
les proyinces entre les fils de TEmpereur seuls, en leur donnant
le titre de Wang. Aux fils de TEmpereur un seul fils d^sign^
comme h^ritier succMait k la principaut^. Tons les autres fils
recevaient le titre de Heou. Chaque Heou ayait pour suc-
cesseur un de see fils qui portait le m^me titre. Les autres fils
n'en ayaient aucun, ni fief, et aprds quelques g^Derations ils ne
Be distinguaient plus des gens du commun. N'ayant plus le
moyen d'entretenir d'eux-mSmes leur dignity, sans ressources
ils se mettaient eux-m6mes au trayail et cultiyaient les champs.
En ces ciroonstances TEmpereur Eouang-ou,' en sa jeunesse,
yendit du bl^. Lorsque le Mattre etait k la tSte de Tad-
'Si 5B = i2 'S-
* Mandchoa : ils donnent des repos aux eflforts.
* Le premier des Hans orientaux, 26-68 F.C.
258 TSIEH-YAO.TCHTJEN DE TCHOU-HI.
ministration, il ^leva une ^cole ; il s'y ocoupait avant tout
d'expliquer la doctrine et de corriger. Ayant prie le grade
de docteur, il devint assesseur de district, secretaire, archi-
viste de Tong-nan an Tchiouen-Tcheou.^ S'appliquant &
ses fonctions avec soin* et grand zdle il s'occupait lui-mdme
minutieusement des plus petites choses. R^unissant k ses
fonctions la direction de Tenseignement il choisit les gens
bien Heris de I'endroit et en fit ses disciples. II recherchait
et attirait k lui les sages renomm^s et les donnait comme
exemples et modules. Chaque jour il dissertait avec eux des
regies des saints et des sages, relatives au triomphe sur
soi-m^me et k la direction des hommes. Plus tard il fut
envoy^ k Nan-K*ang* pour y diriger Tadministration militaire.
Plein d'un zele constant, il aimait le peuple et avait compas-
sion de ses maux, comme s'il ^tait lui-m6me souffrant. S'effor-
9ant de fayoriser ses interSts et d'^carter ce qui lui causait du
domraage, il n'^tait en peine que par la crainte de ne pouvoir
y parvenir.
Lorsque des gens corrompus et violents opprimaient le
peuple, yiolaient les lois, entravaient le pouYoir, il les faisait
ch&tier sans indidgence. Aussi aprds que ces perturbateurs
violents et forts eurent ^t^ arr^t^s et leurs violences empSchdes,
une paix profonde r^gna dans le canton. Se rendant fr^uem*
ment k T^cole du chef-lieu, il n'omettait jamais, il ne se
fatiguait point d'enseigner aux lettr^s, de les diriger, leur
expliquant les passages douteux, discutant les points difficiles.
Au temps oA il gouvemait Tchang-tcheou ^ comme on y
ignorait g^n^ralement les rites, il reprit la rdgle relative au
deuil, aux enterrements, au mariage et publia k ce sujet un
^crit dans lesquels il en relevait Texcellence. II cfaargea les
pdres et les gens kgis d'enseigner, d'expliquer ces rites aux
jeunes gens, il r^priraa la propagande boudbique; aussi les
moeurs du peuple se transformSrent compl^tement.
Dans le district oil le Maitre avait sa residence, chaque
ann^e, au prin temps et en ^t^, les riches fermaient les greniers
^ An Fo-kien.
' Arrondissement du Nan-ngan-foa, aa Eian-ai.
* Aa Fo-kien.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 259
et yendaient le bl^ A gros profits, le petit peuple ouvrait de
foroe les greniers et les pillaient. A chacune de ces occasions,
des actes de violence et des meurtres se commettaient; les
T^voltes et les attaques yiolentes se multipliaient. Le Mattre
prit des gens du district et ^tablit un magasin public oil il
distribuait et donnait du grain moyennant gage ; et ainsi le
prix ne monta plus, et les gens furent ainsi assures dans
leurs fortunes. Far la suite il f ut fait un rapport au prince
8ur ces proc^d^ ; aussi les fit-on connaltre et suivre dans
toutes les provinces.
Le partie orientale du Tche-Kiang soufirait ^norm^ment de
la famine. Le Maitre fut charg^ de Tadministration et du
d^bit du th^ et du sel. Ayant obtenu un d^cret k cet effet, il
le fit publier dans les autres cantons ; il fit ensuite un
accord avec les marchands de bl^ et fit remise des redevances.
Lorsque plus tard les bftteaux de bl^ arrivdrent il alia
tons les jours avec les magistrats comp^tents, s'informer des
besoins du peuple. II ne se donnait pas le temps de dormir
et de manger. Lorsque tout fut r^gl^ et remis distinctement
en ordre, il parcourut tons les lieux soumis & son adminis-
tration pour les iospecter. Montagues escarp^es, vall^s
profondes, il n'y avait point de lieu oH il ne p^n^tr&t.
S'informant de tout avec bont^, calmant les inquietudes,
t^moignant partout de la bienveillance, il rendit la vie &
d'innombrables administr^s. Dans ses courses il n'avait
qu'un char pour tons et ne prenait pas de suite. Tout ce
dont il avait besoin il le faisait preparer lui-m6rae et Tera-
portait avec lui, en sorte qu'il ne pr^levait rien dans les villes
0& il passait. De la sorte bien qu'il pass&t en beaucoup
d'endroits, personne ne s'en apercevait. Les fonctionnaires
des comt^s et des cantons redoutant sa puissance, ^taient
constamment dans la crainte et comme pensant toujours que
les envoy^s imp^riaux allaient visiter leur territoire. Aussi
dans tons les lieux de son ressort r^gnait le respect du devoir.
Outre cela il 8'efibr9a de mettre fin aux entreprises des voleurs,
fit prendre les sauterelles et augmenter les produits des taxes
maritimes.
260 TSISH-TAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HL
ChA.P. XIII. — ^Db8 FAU8SE8 DOCrRINES.
Le Docteur Hoei-Ong dit : *' Les doctrines de Bouddha et
de Lao-tze n'out pas besoin d'un profond examen pour £tre
mises en lumidre. Tout oonsiste k rejeter les trois relations ^
et les cinq vertus fondamentales.* G'est certainement Ik une
faute des plus graves. II ne vaut presque pas la peine de
parler des autres erreurs. Telle est la doctrine de Bouddha :
*' quand un homme meurt, il devient un esprit et cet esprit
par la suite renatt homme/' S'il en £tait ainsi, si Ton
soutient que tout ce qui yient et va entre le ciel et la terre ne
nait point et ne se multiplie pas selon la force de production
et de changenient (les operations de la nature, mais d'une
mani^re sumaturelle), cela n'est certainement pas selon la
raison.
II est dit dans la r^ponse k Li Pe-Kian : *' G'est dans le
corps seul qu'est la naissance et la mort, la nature vraie reste
constamment intacte." A mon avis la nature n'a ni trom-
perie, ni erreur, cons^quemment on ne pent se servir du
terme '' nature vraie." Comme elle n'a jamais ^t^ inexistante
on ne doit point employer le root: ''reste, subsiste (tsai).'' La
nature c'est, en r^alit^, la loi du ciel et de la terre qui engendre
toutes choses. Les ordres du ciel sent constants, permanents
et sans fin. Que sa puissance est grande ! Tous les etres en
tirent leur origine. Oserait-on dire que cela n'existe point,
que nous serious livr^s a notre fantaisie ^goiste P Quant k ce
que Bouddha dit de la nature vraie, non alt^r^e, on ne sait pas
si c'est conforme k cette doctrine ou non. S'il en est ainsi,
alors, les anciens perfectionnant leur coeur savaient bien ce
qu'est la nature, ce qu'est le ciel. Leur doctrine en ^tait
cause (de leurs actes). L'on ne pent vouloir mourir et
subsister perp^tuellement.^ Si pensant autreroent on veut
mettreen 6tat de torpeur morale^ son cceur sMuit par Terreur
et connaitre cette nature vraie,^ si Ton craint seulement de
1 Du prince, du p^re et de I'^poux avec les sujeto, les enfants, I'^pouse.
* Humanity, droiture, eonvenance ext^eure (ritei), coimaiBsance et foi.
> Dans le nirvslna ?
* Par la contemplation inerte da boudhisme.
* Pendant la yie et la condition d' homme.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOTJ-HI. 261
mourir et ne point anriver i cela, on ne poorra point, en
agiflsant ainsi selon ses id^ et int^rdts perBonnelsy obtenir
le bonheur ; que leor arrivera-t-il done P " Dans la r^ponse
envoy^ i Ou Kong-ji, il ^tait dit : " Kong-tze k expliqu^ con-
Tenablement toutes les affaires humaines et les lois de la vie.
La doctrine de Bouddha traite de rhomme et des esprits, de
la naissance et de la mort, en les oonfondant." Selon moi il
n'est pas clair s'il faut faire de ces deux ordres de choses—
rhomme et Tesprit, la vie et la mort — une seule et memo chose
ou bien deux. Si Ton n'en fait qu'une, pour traitor avec exacti-
tude de rhomme et des lois de la vie, il faut r^unir la mort et
la condition d'esprit, mais point tarder de les r^unir' pour
le faire apr^.^ Si en les distinguant et faisant des categories
sp^ialeSy on veut les approfondir, on doit ^tablir une dis-
tinction entre le commencement' et la fin, ce qui est obscur
et ce qui est clair.
Les lettr^s disent g^n^ralement que la doctrine de Bouddha
est toute semblable k celles de nos livres. Si ce que je viens
de dire est vrai, comment peut*on les assimilerP On veut
que Ton y ait confiance, mais ce n'est point la m£me doctrine.
Zhoui Eoue-Ei disait habituellement : " Le monde n'a point
deux lois, le saint n'a point deux ccDurs " ; pourquoi done
chercher i accomoder la doctrine de Bouddha P c'est lA ce
qu'il yeut dire. En effet c'est parce que le monde n'a qu une
loi et le saint un seul ccDur, que Ton ne pent retenir la
doctrine de Bouddha.
Dans une autre lettre, A la question de savoir si la doctrine
des Kings et le systeme de Bouddha ^taient identiques ou
non, il r^pondit, " An pays oil yous etes n^ et oii vous yous
trouvez, la doctrine de Bouddha est-elle celle des lettr^s P"^
Le maltre dit, ''Dans la nature provenant du d^cret du ciel il
n'y avait & I'origine ni doctrine des Kings ni systeme de
Bouddha. Cons^quemment le principe distinctif du vrai et du
^ La Tie et la mort.
* Aprte la mort danB I'^tat d'esprit ; oa bien : apr^ la mort on derient d'abord
antre chose puis esprit.
' Les 4tati d*homme et d'esprit.
* II est certain que ce n'est point
262 TSIEH-TAO-TCHXJEN D£ TCHOU-HI.
faux de ces deux doctrines y ^tait oompris et ^tabli avant
leur existence.
Si Ton parle ici de ce qui ^tait alors inexistant, ce ne sera pas
seulement la doctrine des Kings et le systdme Bouddhique,
mais les rois Yao et Kie ^ qui n'existaient point.
Mais aussi Ton doit savoir discemer ce qu'a ^t^ Yao, ce qu'a
^t^ Kie." D'apresces paroles, si Ton ne consid^rait que ce qui
n'a point exists d'abord, on devrait dire que les deux doctrines
se melent et n'en forment qu'une.
On ne pent done ne point bl&mer le langage incertain,
libre des gens qui yont jusqu'au dernier terme du systdme de
la contemplation,^ ni les lettr^s de ce temps qui se tournent
du c6t^ du vent.' Toutefois si tel personnage, qui dit vouloir
suivre ce qui est la yraie doctrine, ^tablit ses pens^es dans
cette direction, il est incapable de bien comprendre.
On se demande comment beaucoup de- lettr^s se sent a-
donnas k des doctrines fausses et ^trangeres. C'est que tons
leurs efforts ext^rieurs faits sur eux-m£mes ^taient incapables
et insuiBsants, et ils ne sayaient plus dominer leur coBur et le
corriger.
Selon le dire des partisans de la doctrine de la contempla-
tion, il n'y a qu'une seule porte pour arriver k la comprendre.
Si on en acquiert I'intelligence en un moment, un beau matin,^
et qu'on y entre et que rompant ayec le present pour I'ayenir
on juge pressant de^ se perfectionner d ces principes, pourquoi
ne se met-on pas & les suiyreP lis ne sayent pas que la loi, le
droit unique est au*dedans de soi, qu'on les chercherait yaine-
ment k Text^rieur ^ et qu'en cbacun le coeur doit £tre £tabli
en sa place et disposition particuli^re. Comme d'autres
demandaient : " Comment s'est-il fait que tons les lettr^
et les mandarins de cette ^poque, ayanc^s en fi.ge, se sent
laiss^ entrainer k entrer dans le systeme de la contempla-
tion? " II r^pondit: '* Se confiant en leurs Etudes ordinaires
^ Le dernier des Hia (1818) tyran d6tron6 par le premier Shangi Too et Kie le
prince module et le tyran.
' Le bouddhisme.
* Le bouddhisme 6tait en faveur.
* Comme Qakyamouni subitement illamin^ sons Tarbre.
^ Ou : pouvoir promptement.
* La Traie loi est daus la conscience et non dans rillomination ezterienre.
TSIEH-TAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 263
et la composition de nombreux morceauz litt^raires, ils ont
oompt^ recueillir des avantages et du profit, du renom, de
la louaage. Mais comme tous, malgr^ leurs esperances, n'ont
pu y atteindre, ils se sont laiss^ d^evoir par ces doctrines.^
Les geas d'aujourd'hui se laissent facilemeiit entrainer par
des paroles adroites et artificieases, mais comme ils ne savent
pas bien comprendre, s'ils ne chercheat pas k p^n^trer le sens
profond des livres des Saints, ils seront incapables de les bien
coonaitre.
Pour moi pensant A loisir, pendant bien des jours, k ce qui
a ^t^ dit pour p^n^trer et bien comprendre tout ce qui
conceme les saints, j'y ai appliqu^ tous mes soins. Les gens
de nos jours d^pourvus de cette soUicitude sont lents et faibles
& comprendre et k connaitre ces choses. Derni^rement une
doctrine de ce genre s'^tant fait jour, on a abandonn^ les
Kings et Ton s'est mis A ^tudier I'histoire ; ^ on a abandonn^
les regies des rois et Ton a tenu en haute estime les artifices
des petits princes et chefs locaux.' Cherchant & scruter a
fond les bouleversements qui ont ^ler^ et abattu les puissances
jadis et de nos temps, on ne se pr^occupe point de ce qui
pent maintenir le coeur ou le pervertir. S'ils lisent seulement
des livres de ce genre il en sera ainsi ; s'ils n'en lisent pas du
tout oe sera beaucoup mieux.^
Depuis les derni^res ann^s en cherchant k les rapprocher
du systdme de Bouddha,^ on a trouble et alt^r^ les principes
mrais de Kong-tze et Meng-tze. Cette secte a mis en premier
lieu comme commandement principal d'^tudier les livres et
d'approfondir les principes. Ils disent que les lettr^s, s'ils
fixent leur ccDur dans le vague et I'obscur* ne peuvent en
connattre les dispositions ; mais que se trouvant un beau
matin, sans aucun effort, illumines int^rieurement et pleins de
science en eux seuls, ils atteignent ainsi (I'intelligence de la
^ Lenr ^hec dans la cani^re dee lettr^s. les a fait toumer yen le BouddhiBme.
' Les annales des dynasties depuis les Tcheons.
' Les livres d^histoire, les annales jpost^rieurs qui ne relatent que les faits et ne
pr^hent point les principes, comme fe Shnh-King.
* On bien : qu*ils lee lisa
quMis lee lisent ou ne lisent pas, ce sera d'antant pins graTe.
* En cherchuit de fansses ressemblances.
* Dans leurs inflexions propres. L'illumination lenr rient du dehors.
264 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI.
doctrine, et le but de leurs efforts). Bevenufl, ainsi, pensent-
ils, en possession ^ d'eux-m^mes et bien qu'avec ce maintien
ext^rieur et oes maximes ils s'efforcent d'arriver &, se corriger
eux-m^mes et am^liorer les autres hommes, ils aont bien loin
enoore de la doctrine des saints.
L'enseignement, en ces temps, n'a pas ^t^ suffisamment
clair et lucide, de fausses doctrines se sent ^lev^es avec
m^thode, oii tout en g^n^ral appartient k la fantaisie particu-
liere et aux passions humaines ; elles ne pouvaient manquer
de prendre le titre de loi morale, justice, enseignement.
Aussi les lettr^s en g^n^ral, j ont adh^r^. Le proverbe disait
que si elles ^taient vraies il serait difficile de les arrSter et que
si elles ^taient fausses on pourrait ais^ment les d^truire.
Mais si on pratique avec z^le notre doctrine et la rend par Ik
de plus en plus brillante et illustre, leurs maximes funestes
seront atteintes comme la neige par le soleil et il ne sera plus
n^cessaire de discuter avec eux par des Etudes profondes.
L'enseignement de cette fausse doctrine transforme la nature
k sa fantaisie. C'est en v^rit^ une grande calamity. Elle
est cause que I'on ne prend pas garde k la perversion des
manidres, du maintien, des pens^es et des d^sirs ; elle fait
que penser et agir sans regie, k son gr^, mal, n'est point
consid^r^ comrae une faute grave. G'est une chose bien
mauvaise. Les dissertations des lettr^s de ce temps s'appro-
chent de beaucoup de ces funestes enseignements. On ne
pent dtre indifferent k ceci.
A cette question : " Est-il vrai ou non ce que Ton dit que
la doctrine de Bouddha s'apprend et se comprend en un
instant?" II r^pondit : "D'apr^s ce que j'ai oui, on dit parmi
les Bonzes que cette intelligence s'acquiert en un instant.
Mais si Ton y regarde de plus pres (on voit que) ces gens
sent n^gligents et d'une vertu mediocre. II en est d'eux
comme des disciples de Lou-tzeTcbing; quand on les fr^quente
une premiere fois, on les dirait ^clair^s; mais ensuite leur
conduite se montre mauvaise, contraire aux bons principes,
fourbe, querelleuse ; quand on voit cela, leur pr^tendue il-
1 Se connaissant alon. Malgr^ tout cela ils tont bien loin des Saints de
r^cole dee Lettres.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 265
lumination int^rienrey acquise subitement, se montre comme
une science biea m^iocre. Aprds avoir ^t^ comme vraiment
pure, ^clair^s, heureux, aprts quelque temps, ils d^choient
pea i peu, iU finissent par dtre sans vertu. Fourrait-on
avoir con fiance en ces doctrines P "
La r^ponse i Eiang Te-Eong portait : ^'Les lettr^s de nos
joura pervertis par la doctrine de Bouddha, traitent les
maximes des saints et des sages comme pen profondes, parce-
qu'ils sont insatiables en leur esprit. Ne ponvant abattre ni
d^trnire la loi du ciel et les coutumes des peuples, ils ne
pen vent non plus se r^soudre, aprds avoir reni^ nos doctrines,
& y adherer de nouvean. Ces deux sentiments se disputent
dans leurs coeura et ne sacbant point comment obtenir la paix
(et k quoi se r^soudre) ils ont adopts des maximes rapproch^es,
semblables {k celles des saints). Y adh^rant alora et parlant
en cons^uence, ils reprirent les maximes contenues dans
notre doctrine, les firent leurs, les r^p^terent comme k eux
propres, les preqant pour regies de conduite, ils les firent
entrer dans leur coBur. En tout ce qui, par basard et sans
efforts, s'y trouvait conforme, ils firent des deux un syst^me
de morale arbitraire. Fr^tendant se conformer k la pens^e
des saints et sacbant bien qu'il n'en 6tait pas ainsi, ils ne
tinrent point compte de ce fait. Leurs intentions me sont
bien connues comme eux-mdmes.
S'^levant au-dessus des saints et des sages, ils se per-
mettent en tout et partout de les bl&mer, critiquer, et de leur
faire des remontrances. Puis de nouveau les exaltant, les
^tudiant pour les approfondir, ils ont d^velopp^ encore
davantage leurs id^s propres, leurs regies quant k la mani^re
d'agir, de se tenir. Je rends service au Saints et aux Sages, ^
disent-ils, ne dois je pas le faire P et ils ignorent que ce qu'ils
pr^tendent dtre ^lev^ et profond est bas et insens^. Aussi
il y a chez les lettr^s de nos jours une manque toted d'intelli-
gence de ce qu'il y a de profond et de subtil dans I'esprit et
le ccBur. Et ils ne savent pas seulement distinguer ce qui est
semblable et diSirent**
^ En faifant accorder leva doctrines arec oeUes de Bonddha.
266 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DB TCHOU-HL
La r^ponse envoy^e par le maitre d Liao-tze Hoei portait :
*' Selon ce qui m'a ^t^ ^rit, dans tous lea actes journaliers il
y a quelque chose qui a une nature diffi^rente.^ L'^lat, la
lumiSre, s'agite, brille, ya 9& et Ik et revient, est-il dit. G'est
Id la yraie nature de ce qui est sans principe, le systdme du
vide qui ne p^rit point. Aussitdt que les lettr^s I'ont compris
et le sayent et que se T^tant bien mis dans Tesprit^ ils se
ferment les id^s en consequence, les scrutent et les main-
tiennent et se repr^sentent ces choses comme si elles ^taient
sous leurs yeuz, alors ils ont le yrai souci de la connaissance
du premier principe. Si I'on enseigne et agit conform^ment
& ce principe, en le prenant dans ses details, on yerra que
tout ce qui est en dessous, tout ce qui est peu ^ley^ et
raisonnable lui est entidrement Stranger.''
II est dit au commencement de Yen-tze,^ " Quand on regarde
en I'air, on yoit haut ; quand on clone on attache solidement,
on affermit; quand on regarde on yoit ce qui est devant soi,
mais aussitdt (on peut yoir ce qui est) par derriere. Ce
qu'on n a point encore vu, on ne peut le savoir exactement."
Cette pens^e est tres- juste. Cela ^tant, les Saints en fondant
leur doctrine commen9aient ayant tout par mettre la logique
dans leurs paroles et insister fortement sur leurs principes ;
ils ont expos^ ces choses avec beaucoup de justesse, puis in-
struisant les hommes, les formant ayec soin, les amenant k
yoir la y^rit^, les conduisant par leur zele et leur Constance
aux principes essentiels et ^vidents, ils ont ainsi, d'une mani^re
claire et distincte form^ le plan, les bases de la doctrine.
Tous ne disent point cela mais seulement : en enseignant les
hommes, p^n^trez la nature des choses, perfectionnez yotre
science, yainquez yous yous-mfime, obseryez les rites. Mais
s'occuper des details infinis des branches et des feuilles,' c*est
tromper les hommes, d^penser inutilement ses jours et ainsi
^puiser ses ressources.
Les paroles du Lun-Yu et de Meng-tze sent simples, faciles
^ Un principe fondamental different de I'acte lui-m^me.
' Lettre du Yl. ei^de P.O. ^crivit sur les regies domestiques ayec tendance au
bouddhisme.
3 Des details, des consequences.
TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DE TCHOU-HI. 267
et claires, Yraies ; elles n*ont rlen de myst^rieux ni de cach^.
Tze-8ze et Tcheou-tze ont public pour le bien de rhumanit6
lea livres du Tchong Yong et da Tai-Eih ; et ont expliqu^ les
principes les plus ^ley^s de la substance de la vraie doctrine.
En parlant du zdle et de I'attention k les pratiquer ils disent
de ne choisir que le bien et de le garder avec perseverance.
Yous instruisant ou apprenant, reflechissant, ^tudiant, faites*
le avec une constante application. II est dit seulement:
"Disposez tout selon le juste milieu, Tint^grite ferme, la bien*
Teillance, la justice et mettez au-dessus de tout la yraie paiz ;
que les sages r^glent toutes choses et cela suffit"; et non:
qu'en employant les hommes dans les fonctions joumalidres et
sachant par I'^tude que la nature provenant du d^cret du ciel
est le produit r^el du principe sans principe, on ne doive
Teiller & la maintenir intacte. Si Ton examine bien la nature
primitive de cette justice, bien qu'elle soit extremement
merveilleuse et profond^ment cachee, on pent voir que sa
r^alite s'accomplit dans le droit et la justice qui doit diriger
constamment les actes au sein du cceur humain. Si Ton en
scrute les fondements, on saura qu'elle provient du coeur de
Thomme et comme elle ne pent exercer son action par la
seule force de I'homme, on dit qu'elle est decr^tee par le ciel.
Bien qu'il y ait dix mille actions, d'innombrables transforma-
tions, toutes en proviennent. Comme elle n'a ni forme ni
apparence exterieure qu'on puisse montrer et remarquer
reellement, on la dit sans principe. En ce qui concerne ce
que I'on doit pratiquer avec zele, c est de choisir le bien, d'y
tenir avec fermet^, c est le milieu, Thumanite, la justice, ce
sent les seules cboses dont on doive se pr^occuper.
II n'y a aucun motif de veiller & pratiquer des choses d'une
autre nature, hormis d'^tudier la vraie doctrine et de satisfaire
aux justes exigences de toutes choses. Cela ^tant, on doit
scruter son coBur trouble et, dans les actes journaliers, on doit
le recueillir, le corriger, le mettre en ordre et ne point laisser sa
pens^e et sa volenti se r^pandre au dehors. II y a en effet
dans tout cela des regies et un droit que Ton doit justement
suivre. Tout y ^tant en ordre, clair, Evident et pur, on doit
s'efforcer de se modeler la-dessus. Car on ne doit point
268 TSIEH-YAO-TCHUEN DB TOHOU-HI.
accueiUir ces princlpes, les cacher dans son coBur et puis
partager oe coBur qui doit rester un et le laisser sortir de
lui-meme, s'accomodant aux circonstances et tenant compte
des choses ext^iieures (de cette manidre reprehensible).
II est encore dit dans la lettre envoy^e : En toutes choses,
en toute affaire il 7 a y^rit^ et rdgle morale. La nature de
I'humanit^y la justice, la conyenance, la sagesse est la r^gle
du regard, de Touie, du parler et des actions. Tout cela est
issu du d^ret du ciel. Done quand des gens tels que Yen-
tze, Tcheng-tze ont connu la substance totale des choses, ils
n'y ont rien (vu) qui ne fftt bon. Bien que ces paroles ne
soient point d^fectueuses, si Ton en 6tudie le sens, si Ton
p^n^tre les manifestations de la^ens^e, on yoit qu'en ne
faisant de tout le contenu du d^cret celeste qu'une masse
confuse d'une seule et m^me chose, on fait ainsi de la
justice, des conyenances et de la sagesse, tout com me de la
r^gle de Touie, de la yue, du parler et des actes, une chose yile
et digne de petites gens. Cela ne differe nuUement de ce
qui a 6ti not^ pr^^demment. En outre dans ce qu'on dit
ainsi de I'enseignement il n'y a rien qui soit conforme & la
yraie nature, au principe r^gulateur des choses et des actions.
On a ainsi born^ tons ses soins i sayoir tout cela en globei
c'est I'ancien mal dans toute sa force. Si lorsqu'on a appris
de la sorte, on pretend, qu'il n'y a rien en cela qui ne soit
bien ; comme on ne sait pas encore bien ces choses et que
Ton attend pas qu'on les ait comprises et p^n^tr^es, en les
etudiant d fond, une si une et ^puisant les recherches, on se
repr^sente et determine tout d'apres ses propres pens^es et
son intelligence subjectiye. Les paroles de Tcheng-tze re-
primandant ceux qui se tiennent deyant les stoupas et
parlent du seryice de la roue de la loi,^ ne different nuUement
de ceci. Cons^quemment ce qui dans les efforts de T^tude
p^netre le haut et le bas est chose cach^e, profonde, n^es-
saire, urgente. Certain em ent bien que la loi du d^cret celeste,
de la nature, soit cach^e, si I'on yient d, consid^rer ses yrais
principes qui d^veloppent la science et r^ument les rites, on
> Les bonddhifltei *' Tourner la roue de la loi,*' est <*la pr^cher.'*
TSIEH-TAO-TCHITEN DE TCHOU-HI. 269
les trouvera olairs et ^vidents. Mais comme ils sont sans
forme ni figure on ne pent chercher k les saisir en tfttonnant
& Taventure et portant la main qi et 1& comme si on voulait
saisir le vent ou lier I'ombre. Les actes de Tintelligence
sont encore plus cach^, mais plus ^loign^ (obscur) est ce
qui s'^arte de la loi morale.
La r^ponse k Tchen Wei-tao portait : *' Si Ton compare ce
que Ton sait du systdme du Bouddha & la doctrine de nos
livres, on ne pent pas dire que ceux-ci ne sont pas aussi
connus ; mais ce n'est qu'une ombre qu'on voit du dehors et
Ton ne pent connaitre tout ce qu'il 7 a & I'int^rieur de vrai et
r^l, de r^gl^ et de juste. Aussi, bien que ce que Ton
connatty soit tout k fait ^ley^, clair, mesur^, profond, quand
on doit le mettre en pratique, se mettre & faire quelque
chose, il n'en est plus de m6me. Quand on est lettr^ on sait
que Ton ne doit pas s'^carter de ces dispositions du coeur, de
ces principes de justice. Si dans les petit^s choses^ dans les
minces details, il n'y a ni erreur, ni resistance auz principes,
alors c'est bien. Si dans la conduite, on commet des fautes
et des erreurs, c'est que la science (que Ton croit avoir
acquise) est elle-mdme erronn^. On ne doit pas faire deux
categories de la connaissance et des actes, en les s^parant
violemment, comme dans le syst^me de Bouddha.^
Jadis Yang Eui-Shen citait de Pang Kui-Shi les paroles
suivantes: "La conduite, Tintelligence perspicace, excel-
lente, fait aller chercher Teau et apporter le bois.*'* Tout en
manifestant, rendant ^vidents les principes de conduite grave
et sage de Meng-tze servant ses parents, cette doctrine con-
tenait, selon moi, une grave erreur. D*apr^ la doctrine du
Bouddha c'est seulement de savoir transporter du bois et
puiser de Teau qui constitue la conduite sage, intelligente,
admirable. Expliquant ces actes dont il a ^t^ fait mention,
et si dignes de recommandation, elle dit qu'elle n'y a point
en cette doctrine de sujet de discussion, ni rien & distinguer.'
Pour les lettr^s quand on reste en arriere de ses parents, la
^ Le Bouddhisme present la meditation et condamne Tacte, le Karma,
* AlluBion k la conduite de Meng-tze qui faisait cela ponr tea parents.
> II sniffit de faire cela teilement qnellement et c*est tout. Les lettr^ exigent
qnelqne chose de pins.
VOL. XZ.— [KWr IBUSS.] 19
270 T8IEH-TA0-TCHUEN DE-TCHOTJ-HI.
oonduite grave et modeste est ezcellente, maia si Ton agit
avec empressement et se met au-dessus de ses parents alors
cela n'est pas conforme & la vraie doctrine.^ G'est pourquoi si
Ton se met & ^tudier la nature des choaes, & perfectionner sa
science et k d'autres actes semblables et que dans les actes
joumaliers, scrutant, distinguant avec soin^ on sache par-
faitement agir de manidre & manifester dans ses actes la loi
du ciely par cette conduite ou verra certainement le vrai et le
faux, le noir et le blanc ; ils se distingueront chacun claire-
menty on verra profond^ment en son int^rieur que la v^rit^
suit cette loi et que Terreur la viole; il n'y aura plus le
moindre sujet de doute ou d'obscurit^. Alors sachant aussi.
tot toute chose et capable de rendre sa science parfaite on
pourra ^galement assurer la y^rit^ & son intelligence, la
rectitude & son coeur et Ton sera en ^tat de gouverner le
monde, I'empire et les families, Ce ne sont pas, en effet^
deux choses diff^rentes.
Tons les saints et sages du temps pass^ parlant de la
nature-ddcret du ciel, Font tous reconnue conform^ment a la
v^rit^ ; cons^quemment parler de perfectionner la nature c'est
(dire d') accomplir les lois des trois relations et des cinq vertus
des princes et sujets, des parents et enfants sans y manquer
en rien. S'il s'agit de soutenir et d^yelopper la nature, c'est
faire fleurir la loi morale et ne lui nuire en rien. Le droit
est chose inapparente, les choses sont au contraire trds-
yisibles ; si on les appr^ie ^galement bien, rien n'y man-
quera, et les paroles seront exemptes d'erreur. II est encore
dit : les erreurs du Bouddhisme, quand on se les rappelle sont
telles ; elles sont innombrables et bien grandes. Si on
les ^crit on ne pent en ^puiser le nombre, si on les ^numSre
on ne pent les citer toutes. Si Ton continue longtemps & se
les mettre bien dans I'esprit et qu'on s'y mArisse, alors, de
quelque cdt^ qu'on yeuille se tourner pour les fuir, on ne
parvient point & les ^viter.^
1 II ne Buffit pas de serrir ses parents il faut le faire avec grayit^ et respect, et
e'est ce qne Pang Eui-Shi ne distingnait pas.
' Les doctrines de Bouddha sont s^duisantes par leur profondeur et beaute
apparentes et trompsuses ; quand on s*y livre, elle se rendent mattresses de
I'intelligence.
T8IEH-TAO-TCHX7EN DE TCHOTJ-HI. 271
Yoici cependant ce que j'ai fait jadis. Ayant compris
que le ^rai essentiel n'^tait point en lui, je I'ai subitement et
compldtement abandonn^ ; seul, je me suis appliqu^ k I'^tude
des livres, des regies et de la morale et j'ai lu tout comme si
je commen9ai8 & aller & T^ole des enfants. J'appris ainsi
& connaitre petit-&-petit le sens et les principes d'une ou
deux sections et j'eu ai reconnu les erreurs. Ayant & la
longue approfondi cette doctrine je reconnus parfaitement que
la y^rit^ n'y ^tait ni peu ni point, je n'eus pas besoin
d'efiforts pour m'en Eloigner ; par soi-mSme cela ne pouvait
m'entrer dans Tesprit. Mais si prenant ce qu'elle a de
mieuz on cberche i le rapprocher de la v^rit^,^ on ne saura
plus I'abandonner, parcequ'on ne la connaitra qu'impar-
faitement.
* N^ligeant tout ce qa'elle a de faux et d'irratioimel, on l*6pare et ainsi la
oomprend mal. Alon elle sMoit.
272
CORRESPONDENCE.
1. Architecture in India.
Camp^ Bohe-Ashtami, Kolaba District^
Bombay PreMency, 18 Feb,, 1888,
Sir, — I have read with great interest Mr. Simpson's
suggestions as to the origin of certain forms in Indian
Architecture (Journal, Vol. XX. Part I. pp. 49 et aeq.),
and hope that the following rough notes may be of some use
in confirming his valuable conjectures.
The origin of the Chaitya form of roof may now be con-
sidered, I think, as proven by his deductions from the works
of Col. Marshall and Mr. Breeks; and reduce Mr. Fergus*
son's remarks about the probable result of exploration by ^' a
man with an eye in his head " to a prophecy.
It is worth noting that somewhat similar wooden forms
appear to have been similarly adapted to rock-cut architecture
in ancient Lycia ; but there we have not, as in the Nilgiris,
got the almost primitive hut still extant in striking resem-
blance to the rock-hewn monument.
As regards the connection of Hindu temples with tombs,
it still exists over a great part of Western India. Through-
out the Deccan and Eonkan, when an ascetic of unusual
sanctity is buried, instead of being burnt (as is common), a
small monument is apt to be raised over his grave, and this
will generally take the form of a model temple shrine, con-
taining, if he was a Saiva, a lingam in a " ahalunkha/* or in
ARCHITECTURE IN INDIA. 273
some cases the "padam" (two feet in low relief), more rarely
other sacred emblems or even images.
The erection of such monuments over the site of a crema-
tion is more rare, and is, I have been told, not strictly
orthodox ; but I have known several cases. One of the most
famous is the so-called ''tomb" of Raja Sivaji, on the hill-
fortress of Baigarh in this district, which was surveyed and
repaired under my own direction two years ago, by order
and at the expense of Government.
I know another said to commemorate the cremation of one
of the Angira sea-kings, and to have been erected by himself
before his death, just as a Musalm&n chief erects his own
tomb. As often happens, the work remained unfinished by
his successors, but he is said to haye been burnt close to the
spot, which is sacred ; forming part of the " curtilage " of a
group of temples. I should have said that Raja Sivaji's
cenotaph is close to a temple erected by himself. Another
similar cenotaph marks the place where a Brahmin lady
became "sati*' in 1818, near Brahman W&de in Ahmad-
nagar ; and at Chinchwad, in Poena, the founder of a still
existing line of Avatars of Ganpati is said to have been
interred alive inside the principal temple. This is a large
building ; and, indeed, wherever the survivors were wealthy
and pious, such buildings are usually not distinguishable at
a glance from ordinary temples of the smaller temples of any
important group, and they go in conversation by the same
name " dewal.*'
The above are modem instances, but throughout the same
region we find old monolithic sepulchral monuments of small
size, generally from 2ft. 6in. to 4ft. high. Their purpose is
often indicated by their position in unmistakeable cemeteries
still in use, or where abandoned, still crowded with unmis^
takeable grave mounds, and recorded to be ancient cemeteries.
In many cases these have only been abandoned under pressure
of authority, which in that country has of late years set
its face against intramural burial, and appointed new ceme-
teries and burying-grounds at some distance from the dwell-
ings of men, for sanitary reasons.
274 COEEESPONDSNCE.
Further, their sculptures commonlj represent the death
of the deceased^ his judgment before Yama, and his final
appearance in heaven, where he worships the lingam or
otherwise, according to his creed on earth.
Such sculptures are almost always enclosed in a sort of
frame, representing a section of a temple, just as in Europe.
A mural tablet or relief would perhaps be framed in a
'' pediment '^ borrowed from classic religious art. And very
commonly the whole stone is itself a model of a temple,
usually of Dravidian form. I have, I think, said enough to
show the close connection between temples and the tombs
and cenotaphs which often cluster around them in this region,
both ancient and modern, and have only to add that it seems
to be closest and commonest in Saiva remains. The whole
of the facts correspond with Mr. Simpson's observations and
quotations on pp. 66, 57 of his article. I am not prepared,
however, to draw any positive deduction as to whether the
tomb sprang from the temple or the temple from the tomb ;
though, looking at the almost universal ancestor-worship in
one form or another, the latter appears the more likely
hypothesis.
Again, taking Mr. Simpson's remarks about the cars or
raths of the gods, I am able to say that several exist (or
lately did) in Western India, which are by no means tem-
porary structures, nor dismantled after each procession,
though for it they may be " dressed " (like a ship in gala
trim) with additional ornaments. And these are usually
wooden representations of Sikra-spires. Mr. Fergusson
mentions and figures one at Yijayanagar (Ind. and East.
Architecture, p. 375), which is monolithic and fixed, but has
moveable wheels. Very likely the turning of these was part
of the performance on feast days.
In Ehandesh and parts of Central India, when I served
there a good many years ago, there were private bullock
carriages, covered, not indeed with bamboo, but with a high
roof of wooden lattice applied just as bamboo would be, and
very probably derived from a bamboo original. This was
supported on four corner posts, and if this structure had been
AROHITECTUBE IN INDIA. 275
used in a god's car, or in a fixed shrine, it could easily be
imagined to develope into a sort of sikra.
The "amalaka/' howeyer, appears to have a somewhat
different origin. As Mr. Fergusson justly observes, the
fruit of Phyllanthus emhlica is too insignificant a berry to be
looked to as the origin of an important architectural form.
Moreover, when fresh, it has not the least resemblance to
the ''amalaka" of a temple, and though it is a little more
like one in shape when dried, the comparison is still a
strained one.
But there seems to be a pretty clear indication in the
position of the amalaka, which supports the Kalas. Now the
kalaa is professedly a pot, and to this day common earthen
pots are used as finials of rude structures, such as scarecrows,
or even of more solid erections, very often, for instance, on
gate-posts. And the round-bottomed Indian pot, on a
human head, or in any other position, is generally supported
upon an annular cushion or wreath made of rags, grass, or
any coarse fibre, "stoppered," as a sailor would say, with
twine. The " stoppering " of course produces corrugations
in the softer fibre of the wreath, and the whole of this ' rest '
for the water-pot is, in the district where I write, called
"chumbal."*
Now if any one will build up a something to represent a
sikhara, and try to cap it with a *^ kalas ** or round-bottomed
pot, he will find that he must either invert the pot or set it
upon something that will act as a " chumbal,'' or it won't be
secure. But using a ' grummet ' or coil of rope, he will find
the kalas sit steady, and harmonize artistically with his
chumbal. And if, as Mr. Simpson shows good ground for
supposing, a part of the spire was devoted to the custody of
relics, they must be put in some suitable receptacle, and the
first receptacle that a Hindu thinks of for any small article,
fluid or solid, is a round-bottomed pot — the very kalas that
we have been talking of.
I admit the full possibility of the amalaka being an
> Pali cumbata.— £d.
276 GORRBSPONBSNOE.
umbrella; but, looking at the fact that people do not put water-
pots over umbrellas in any known country, while they do
put them over " chumbals " throughout India (and in other
countries wherever the pots are round-bottomed), I think
that the explanation suggested above has more chance of
being the right one.
In a matter so unsusceptible of proof, however, I cannot
put it forward as more than a likely suggestion.
W. R Sinclair, Bomb.C.S.
Th» Secretary of the Royal AnatU SoHety.
277
NOTES OF THE QUARTER.
(Deoember, Janaary, February.)
I. BiPOBTS OF MEETnrOS OP THE EOTAL AsiATIO SOCIBTT, SeSSIOIT
1887-88.
2Srd January, 1888. — Sir Thomas Wade, K.C.B., in the Chair.
There were elected as Resident Members : H. P. Boswell, P. de
Lacy Johnstone, and E. J. Kapson ; and as Non-Besident Members :
T. W. Arnold, S. C. Mukerjl, and Syed Ali Belgrami.
Professor Sir Monibb Monier -Williams, K.C.I.E., said: On
looking closely into the letters I have received from Jain Pandits
now in India, I find them so deficient in clearness, and so full of
inaccnracies, that I have decided, with your permission, to lay them
— as they are — before the Society, and to make a few remarks of
my own on the Jains, founded on the contents of the letters and on
my own inquiries in India, as well as on the researches of other
European scholars.
Most scholars in the present day are of opinion that the Jain
Teacher Yardhamana Mahavira Nataputta and Gautama Buddha
were contemporaries, and that Jainas were an independent sceptical
sect, probably a little antecedent to the Bauddhas. At any rate it
seems certain that Niganthas or Digambara Jains, that is, a sect
of naked ascetics, existed before the Buddha's time, and that the
Tripitaka (besides the inscriptions) alludes to them.
It is well known, too, to Oriental scholars that Gautama Buddha,
in the fifth century B.C., came to the conclusion that bodily austeri-
ties were useless as a means of obtaining liberation. His main idea
seems to have been that liberation from the painful cycle of con-
tinued rebirths, that is, from Samsara, was to be obtained by
means of (Bodhi) Knowledge, evolved out of the inner consciousness
278 KOTES OP THE QUARTER.
through meditation (dhyana) and intaition; whereas, in contra-
distinction to this Buddhist idea, the main idea of the Jaina teacher
Mahavira seems to have been that liberation was to be obtained
through subjugation of the passions and through mortification of
the body. The term Jina, ' conqueror,' is used in both systems,
but Gautama Buddha was a Jina or conqueror through meditation,
whereas Yardhamana Mahavlra was a Jina through Tapas or bodily
austerity.
In fact, the Jainas, like many other ascetics, were impressed with
the idea that it was necessary to maintain a defensive warfare
against the assault of evil passions, by keeping under the body and
subduing it. They had a notion that a sense of shame implied sin,
BO that if there were no sin in the world there would be no shame.
Hence they argued rather illogically that to get rid of clothes was
to get rid of sin ; and every ascetic who aimed at sinlessness was
enjoined to walk about with the air or sky (Dig) as his sole
covering.
In the Kalpa-sutra of the Jains we read that Mahavlra himself
began his career by wearing clothes for one year and one month,
and after that he walked about naked. Now Gautama Buddha was
an opponent of Jain asceticism, and it seems to me probable that
one of the chief points on which he laid stress was that of decent
clothing. In the Dhammapada (141) occurs the sentiment that
" Nakedness cannot purify a mortal who has not overcome desires.''
And again, in the Sekhiya Dhamma we have ' properly clad ' 'must
a monk itinerate.'
It is recorded in the Yinaya (Mahavagga) that XJpaka, a man of
the Ajlvaka sect of naked ascetics, founded by Gosala, said to have
been a pupil of Mahavlra, met the Buddha just after his enlighten-
ment, and noticing his bright countenance, asked him who had
been his teacher? He replied, "Having gained all knowledge, I
am myself the highest teacher." Thereupon the naked ascetic
shook his head and went another road. Clearly these naked
Nigaijithas, disciples of the Jaina Teacher Mahavlra, were no friends
of the Buddha. It seems to me even possible that Gautama's great
rival, Devadatta, may have belonged to a Digambara sect who
opposed the Buddha on questions of stricter asceticism, especially
in the matter of clothing, for in ancient sculptures Devadatta is
generally represented naked or nearly so, and is generally in close
proximity to his cousin Gautama Buddha, who is always clothed in
marked contrast to the other. Evidently the question of dress was
NOTES OF THE QUARTER. 279
a crucial one, and in process of time a party Beems to have arisen,
even among the Digambara Jains, opposed to strict asceticism in
this particular.
This party ultimately formed themselves into a separate sect,
calling themselves Svetambaras, that is, 'clothed in white garments.'
It is well known that in early Buddhism two similar parties arose,
the strict and the lax. But the two Buddhist parties were
ultimately reunited. The second council is supposed to have
settled the controversy. But this point I leave to our Secretary.
Dr. Jacobi has shown that the separation of the two Jain sects
must have taken place (according to the traditions of both parties)
some time or other before the first century of our era.
It appears probable that the strict Digambaras preceded the more
lax Svetambaras, though each sect claims to be the oldest. The
two Jain sects have remained separate to the present day, and do
not intermarry or I believe eat together, though in all essential
points of doctrine and discipline they agree.
When I was last in India, in 1884, I ascended the two hills,
Parasnath and Aboo (both of them most sacred places in the
estimation of the Jains, and covered with their temples). I also
visited Delhi, Jaypur, Ajmlr, and some other chief Jain stations in
India. Jaypur is the stronghold of the Digambara Jains, and when
I was staying there two intelligent Digambara Pandits, named
Phate Lai and Gyojl Lai, visited me. We conversed for a long
time in Sanskrit, and I asked them many questions about their
religion, and the points in which they differed from the Svetambara
sect.
Three chief differences were stated to be : First, the Svetambaras
object to entirely nude images of any of the twenty-four Jinas or
Tirthankaras accepted by both sects. Hence all Svetambara statues
ought to have some appearance of a line round the middle of the
body, representing a narrow strip of cloth.
Secondly, the Svetambaras admit women into their order of
ascetics just as Buddhists have their Bhikkhunis or nuns. The
Digambaras, for obvious reasons, do not admit women.
Thirdly, the Svetambaras have distinct sacred books of their
own, which they call Angas, * limbs of the Law,' eleven in number,
besides many others, making 45 Agamas, 11 Angas, 12 TJpangas,
10 Painnas, 4 Mulas, 6 Chedas, 1 Anuyogadvara, and 1 JS'andi.
Dr. Biihler places the composition of the Angas in the third
century B.C. Jacobi places them at the end of the fourth or be-
280 NOTES OF THE QTJAETEK.
ginning of the third century. They are written in Jain Prakrit,
a later form of Pali, with Sanskrit commentaries. The Digam-
haras, on the other hand, substitute for the Angas later works,
also written in more modem Prakrit (probably in the fifth or sixth
century after Christ), and maintain that the Svetambara Canon is
spurious. Both sects have many yaluable Sanskrit works in their
sacred literature.
I now add a few characteristics of both sects of Jains as dis-
tinguiRhing them from Buddhists.
I pass over the fact that the Jains of the present day keep up
Caste. The two Jain Pandits who came to me at Jaypur were
Brahmans, and wore the Brahminical thread. This is of little
importance, however, because I believe this to be a mere modem
innovation.
More important are the following points: The Jain saints, or
prophets, are called by a peculiar name Tirthankara, * fordmakers,'
i.e. making a ford across the troubled river of constant births or
transmigrations (Samsara) to the Elysium of Nirvana ; whereas the
name Tirthankara with the Buddhists means a * heretical teacher.'
Then there are twenty-four Jaina Tirthankaras, whereas there are
twenty-five Buddhas.
Next the Jains have no Stupas or Dagobas for preserving the
relics of iheir saints.
Still more important is the point that the Jains believe in
separate individual souls (Jiva), whereas the Buddhists deny the
existence of souls. Souls, accor<Ung to the Jains, may exist in
stocks, stones, lumps of earth, drops of water, particles of fire.
Hence metempsychosis with the Jains extends to inorganic matter,
whereas with the Buddhists it stops at animals.
With regard to the moral code two or three points may be
noticed. The Jaina three jeweU are Eight-belief, Right-knowledge,
and Kight-conduct, whereas the Buddhist Tri-ratna consists in the
well-known Triad, Buddha, the Law, and the Monkhood. Then
as to the five chief Moral Prohibitions, the fifth with Jains is.
Have no worldly attachments, whereas with Buddhists it is, Drink
no strong drink. The Jains, too, lay even more stress on the first
prohibition. Kill no living creature, than the Buddhists do.
Another interesting difference is that Jainism makes Dharma and
Adharma, good and evil, or rather merit and demerit, two out of
its six real substances — its fundamental and eternal principles —
(Astikaya), the other four being matter (pudgala), soul (jTva),
NOTES OF THE QUARTEE. 281
space and time. Lastly, the prayer formula of the Jains differs
from the well-known * three-refuge ' formula of the Buddhists (' I
go for refuge to the Buddha, the Law, and the order of Monks ')
tiius : BeTerence to the Arhats, to the Siddhas, to the Acaryas, to
the Upadhyayas, to all the Sadhus (name Arihantanam, name
Siddhanam name Ayariyanam name Uvajjhayanam, Namo we
sabba-sahunam). Minor differences, such as the Jain rule that the
hair should be painfully torn ofP, instead of cut ofP, scarcely deserve
mention on the present occasion. I will merely now lay tiie letters
before the Secretary.
Mr. Bang LIl said : Though I am a Jain by birth and training,
yet I have not had the advantage of much education in that ancient
religion, being too much occupied with my College studies. I do
not presume, therefore, to place before you more than an outline of
their social customs, and of the general forms of worship observed
by that sect.
The Jains are very conservative and very tenacious in all that
concerns their primitive practice and notions. Most of them are
opposed to their religious books being translated or even printed.
They keep what they consider a mine of precious stones to them-
selves, so that no one else may be able to share it. Often have I
seen, when I went to the temples, the scribes sitting in a comer,
copying from the same manuscript day after day, month after
month ; this is their settled occupation. I dare say you know how
tedious this work of copying is. You can see then that even Jains,
who do not know Sanskrit, have but a poor chance of getting muc
reliable information about their faith, except by second-hand
through other people. This will partly explain what makes this
ancient religion so mysterious and little known. It is supposed to
be a disgrace to a Jain to sell a religious book to any one but a
Jain, hence these books are so very dificult to get by any outside
the religious circle. So, the disputed and critical point of the
religion I will leave alone, and confine myself to general religious
customs and the forms of worship.
I commence by giving you some idea of the number who profess
this religion. By the latest computation they are 1,222,000, com-
prising 640,000 males and 582,000 females. I believe this number
is pretty accurate. My idea of the Jain population is based on a
large gathering we had at Dehli, I think in 1882. It was on the
occasion of a new temple being consecrated. Invitations were sent
far and wide, and hence we had a concourse of between seventy or
282 NOTES OF THE QUARTEB.
eighty thousand, besides two or three thousand belonging to Dehli
itself. An open space of ground outside the city walls was chosen
for that purpose. Many came in bullock carriages, with their tents
and every domestic article for use during the stay of some days.
Perhaps you know that natives of India have no hotels where they
can get food cooked strictly according to religion ; and even if we
had any hotels, it would have been impossible to put up such a
large number. It was like a great market day, but on a much
larger scale, and lasted about ten days. Eoads were made, and
places allotted to every town represented, and finger-posts put up
to that efPect, so that one could easily find the place wanted. It
seemed as though a new suburb had sprung up; there were
thousands and thousands of private tents, shops, and places of
amusement, such as always accompany any native gathering whether
religious or not. All these centered round a large tent used tem-
porarily as a kind of church or temple, with a huge pavilion in the
front where religious books were read and expounded for the
benefit of the assembled public. The first ceremony was that of
conveying round the town the image of the Tirthankara in a golden
chariot, preceded by a procession which comprised a large number
of banners inscribed with religious mottoes, the most important
being ** Ahinsd paramo dharmo"=^* To preserve a living creature is
the first principle of this faith.' All the male community of the
Jains followed barefooted. Our idea of doiug honour is by going
barefooted, as in Europe by going bareheaded. We cannot go into
the temples with shoes on, nor even with socks on ; and further,
we have to wash our feet before entering the most sacred part of the
temples. On that cold morning the procession having started at
7*30, we all had to walk barefooted on the stony pavements, but
religious faith gives such a zeal that one does not feel any suffering
or inconvenience.
It is a well-known fact that the Jains are friendly and always
render help to each other. I may confidently say that no poor Jain
will be found asking for help from any one outside the caste circle.
In fact many compare us with Freemasons, meaning that we have
such a close social union, and are in so much sympathy with each
other, that every one does his utmost with his money and influence
to help all in need and to maintain the honour and credit of the
whole community. I may add that in Dehli we are not called
Jains as a rule, but Sarattgis. I think this word is a corruption of
the Sanskrit word * Shrdvaka.^
KOTES OF THE QUAETER. 283
One of our great dogmas, which is taught to every child as soon
as he can speak — it is taught in Sanskrit without translation, — is
called ** Naukdr ManUr,^^ and I found it translated in Professor
Jacobi's 'Jain Sutras' (of the Sacred Books of the East series).
It is as follows : ** Obeisance to the Arhants. Obeisance to the
liberated ones. Obeisance to the Eeligious Teachers. Obeisance
to the Eeligious Guides. Obeisance to all the Saints of the world.
This five-fold obeisance^ destroying all sins, is of all benedictions
the principal benediction."
We have Pandits in the literal meaning, viz. learned men in
religion and masters of the sacred language, and they are our
priests. Ours are not like Brahmans, who are called Pandits
because they are bom of Brahman parents, though they may not
know a single word of Sanskrit. We do not employ Brahmans as
our priests in worship, they are simply a class of servants, who
prepare the offerings, dust the temples, and do things of tbat sort.
Every Jain is entitled to share in the religious worship. We
have two kinds of worship in the temples, one may be called a
regular and precise ritual, and the other an ordinary service. In
the former two persons are generally employed, one presents the
offerings,' while the other reads the necessary prayers. The former
must bathe in the temple, after which he wraps himself in a linen
sheet only, applies a mark with powdered saffron to bis forehead,
and remains standing during the worship. He must be barefooted
of course. This worship takes up about two hours on ordinary
days, and longer on special days, which are generally the 5th, the
8th, and the 14th of every fortnight. Perhaps you know that in
India every lunar month is divided into two fortnights, one called
the light and the other the dark, depending on the course and the
motion of the moon. Besides these days, Bhadon, the whole third
month of the rainy season, is supposed to be sacred, and the last
fortnight especially so.
The offerings generally consist of (1) uncooked rice, (2) cocoanut
cut in small pieces, (3) cloves, (4) almonds, (5) saffron, (6) sweet-
meats, and (7) flowers. All these things are well washed before
they are offered. All men have no time to perform this kind of
worship daily, so every one says his prayers at his house after
bathing — it is essential for every Jain to bathe every day ; then he
goes to the temples, and says his prayers, which does not occupy
more than ten minutes, but he must do this before breakfast. He
must come out of a temple with his face towards the image, thus
284 NOTES OP THE QUAKTBR.
necessitating bis walking backwards^ tbat be may sbow proper
respect to tbe gods.
In temples we bave religious teacbing every morning, wbiob
lasts about two bours. Tbe practice is tbat a Pandit reads from
a book aloud in Sanskrit to tbe people, tben be translates it
and explains it, drawing any suitable lessons from it. Every one
is allowed to ask any questions be wisbes, and be can get bis
doubts met ; but tbe questions must pertain to wbat bas been read
at tbat time. Yery often tbe selections read consist of a bistory
of some pious man, in wbicb tbe reader comes across good actions
as well as bad. Tbis is a main source of information for tbose
wbo cannot go to tbe fountain-bead owing to tbeir ignorance of
Sanskrit and Jain Prakrit.
Now as to fasting, of wbicb we bave several kinds. Tbe simplest
is wben one takes a single meal in tbirty-six bours. I must explain
wby it is tbirty-six, and not twenty-four. Remember tbat we are
not allowed to eat after sunset, nor to drink even. Tbis, by tbe
way, inflicts so mucb suffering upon some tbat not many can follow
it strictly, but it is religious obligation still, baving its origin in tbe
rule of self-mortiflcation, wbicb is greatly taugbt in our religion.
On a fast-day tben, we must bave one meal only during two nigbts
and one day, wbicb comprises tbirty-six bours. Tbe next kind of
fast is of tbirty-six bours in wbicb no food is allowed, nor even drink
during tbis long interval Not even tbe use of scent or smelling a
flower is allowed| because tbat would be a kind of refresbment, and
would break tbe fast. Tbe tbird kind is wben one keeps fasting
longer tban in tbe two cases previously mentioned according to bis
capacity, for wbicb tbere is no limit (as tbere is more tban one case
of some men keeping fast for three weeks); only tbe longer one
keeps it, tbe more meritorious it is. Tbe fast-days are tbe same
specific days as mentioned before, viz. tbe flftb, eigbtb, and four-
teentb of every fortnight.
Kow as to tbe places of pilgrimage wbicb are beld important for
tbe reason tbat some of tbe religious ascetics, called ^^ArhantSf*^
bave passed tbeir time at tbose places, in meditation and worship
of God, not caring for tbeir bodily comfort, baving given them-
selves up to tbis purpose. These places are amidst tbe most
beautiful natural scenery, generally on tbe top of bills, and tbere
temples bave been built in modem times to mark tbe spots where
renowned ascetics of past times passed tbeir time in meditation on
the Creator, and tbere passed into tbe happy bliss of ** I^irvana,"
NOTES OP THE QUABTEB. 285
f .#. annihilation. As we believe in the tran8inig[ration of the soul,
it is the desire of every one to attain that perfection when the
soul gets rid of the bond or necessity of getting bom again, and
passes into a peaceful state where there is no new birth. In some
of these places are kept the stones on which these religions teachers
stood for years without moving, and the impres^ons of their feet
are hence marked thereon. The places most popular and most
visited by pilgrims are Sikharji Mount near Calcutta, the Gim^r
in Junagarh, and Palitana in the Bombay Presidency. In my
opinion, when these pilgrimages were first incorporated with the
observance of religion, they were to some extent so instituted from
a sanatory point of view. As Indians are not fond of moving about
from one place to another, so this flzedness of locality is sure to be
prejudicial to health. To remedy this evil, a religious sanction
was thuB given which necessitated change of climate, from which
no one returns without being better in health and spirits, the latter
by having the satisfaction of doing something meritorious, and the
former owing to the fresh air and the roaming about amidst the
natural scenery which is generally the centre of these places.
Passing from these religious practices, I must mention a very
curious fact^ that though we do not employ a Brahman in our
worship, we must have one in our marriage ceremonies, which are
not perfect without such intervention. It is the same ceremony
as the Vaish^avas have, except that before the marriage rites are
performed, we have to take some offerings to a temple, and after the
rites are over, and the bridegroom brings his bride home, he must
go with his bride to a temple and say his prayers, and then come
home.
In our funerals, however, we do not employ a Brahman. We
have no '' shradh" either, which is the anniversary of the death of
a person, when Brahmans are feasted under the impression that all
which is given in this way reaches the soul of the dead man. We
have adopted funeral reform ages ago ; and the ceremony is very
simple, costing but little.
The one fact remaining which I should like to mention is, that
any one can become a Jain by religion, but he cannot by caste ; that
is to say, Jainism is a religion as well as a caste at the present
time. One not bora a Jain can therefore e^opt that religion, can
go to a temple, take part in the religious practices, but he cannot
eat, drink, or intermarry with born Jains. A Jain, however, can
marry with a Yaishnava, on the authority of which some people say
VOL. xx.~[irBir sumt.] 20
286 NOTES OF THE QUABTER.
that Jains were originally descended from tlie same ancestors as
YaiBbnavas, but they have adopted a reformed religion. This is a
point that I cannot discuss now ; but I have no doubt that there
are many instances of such intermarriage, though lately some ill-
feeling arose which stopped these marriages in some parts of India,
but it is still continued in other parts.
I must finish now with one more remark, and it is about a sect
of Jains called ''Dhundye/' but more commonly " Munh-bandhe,"
owing to their habit of keeping their mouth covered with a piece of
cloth — something very much like a respirator in this country —
because the first principle of Jainism is not to destroy lifs^ however
insignificant. As there are animalculsB in the air, they say that
when they breathe the hot breath kills them, so they use this cloth
to keep away these animalculse. They have no temples, but simply
a place of meeting, where they sit, meditate, say their prayers, and
study religious books. A great number of those who belong to this
sect are a sort of monks, who have given up the world, but there
are very few laity. This sect, as well as all the Jains, are pro-
hibited from drinking water without first filtering it, because they
say that in unfiltered water one is liable to swallow small insects,
which idea is intolerable considering their love of living creatures.
In a similar way some religious ascetics carry a small broom, so to
clear the place to sit down perchance they might happen to crush
any insect. The difference on which so much stress has been
laid between ^wetambara and Digambara Jains no doubt exists.
But it is of no practical importance in Dehli. I cannot recollect
hearing the point discussed among my people, and cannot say to
which they belong.
Colonel Sir William Davies, K.C.8.I., said: I have been invited
by the Council of this Society, through its Secretary, to say what
I know of the relations between the Jains and the Yaishnavas of
Dehli. This request was probably made because I was for some
years Commissioner of DehH, and while there was the means of doing
what was in my opinion an act of simple justice to the former com-
munity. This was to restore to them the exercise of one of their
most cherished annual ceremonial observances, the ''Rath-jatra" or
procession of the car of their god Parsunnath through the streets,
a ceremonial of which the observance had been suspended by the
orders of the Government for many years.
The cause of this suspension was the fierce feeling of religious
antagonism between these sects which had more or less always
NOTES OP THE QUARTER. 287
prevailed, and wKich bad on several occasions led to disturbances
daring tbe progress of tbe procession.
Not long after tbe transfer of tiie Debli territory to tbe Panjab,
wbicb many of yon doubtless remember took place in tbe year
following tbe mutinies, tbe leading men of tbe Yaisbnavas, a sect
far more numerous and powerful tban ihe Jains, or, as tbey are
tbere called, Saraogls, succeeded in convincing tbe tben Commis-
sioner, Col. Hamilton, tbat it would be dangerous to tbe publio
peace to allow tbe liaraogls to bave tbeir procession, and be refused
to allow it to take place, and on appeal bis action was supported by
tbe local government. Tbis was, I tbink, in 1863. Tbe Saraogls
naturally felt tbemselves greatly aggrieved at tbis decision, and left
no stone unturned to bave tbe order set aside. Tbey memorialized
tbe Government of India and tbe Secretary of State, but all in
vain. Tbis state of tbings continued till I went to Debli as Com-
missioner in 1876. Tbey of course appealed to me, as tbey bad
done to all my predecessors, to obtain a reconsideration of tbe order
probibiting tbe procession. On tbinking over tbe matter it seemed
to me to be only fair tbat if tbe Yaisbnavas were allowed to cele-
brate tbeir Earn Llla, tbe Saraogis sbould be permitted to bave
tbeir Batb-jatra. Her Majesty tbe Queen, in ber well-known
Proclamation of 1st November, 1858, issued on assuming tbe
Gk>vemment of India, bad distinctly assured to every sect and
religious community inbabiting tbat country, tbe unrestricted
exercise of its religious observances. It appeared to me to be
directly at variance witb tbat policy to forbid tbe Saraogls to bold
tbeir procession, simply because tbey were numerically weaker tban
tbe Yaisbnavas, and tbat we were bound to secure to tbem tbe exercise
of tbis, to tbem most cberisbed ceremonial observance. Moreover, it
seemed to me tbat it was tbe duty of a strong and civilized Govern-
ment like ours to insist upon toleration being displayed by tbe
Yaisbnavas towards tbe Saraogls. I accordingly addressed tbe
Local Government, adducing tbese arguments in favour of a recon-
sideration of tbe adverse decision referred to. My appeal on bebalf
of tbe Saraogls was strongly supported by tbe tben Secretary to
tbe Government, Mr. (now Sir Lepel) Grifftn, and be succeeded in
obtaining tbe consent of tbe Lieut. -Governor, Sir Eobert Egerton,
to tbe rescission of tbe order probibiting tbe procession. Soon
after, on tbe 20tb July, 1877, tbe procession, after an interval of
fourteen years, took place ; and as very complete precautions bad
been taken against tbe occurrence of disturbance on tbe part of tbe
288 NOTES OF THE QUARTEB.
Yaishnavas, eyerything passed off qaietly, and since then the
Saraogis have had their '* Rath-jatra" regularly every year.
The relations between the members of these two sects had never
been very cordial, but the stoppage of the SaraogI procession for so
long a period naturally intensified the ill-feeling, and all social
intercourse between them had gradually ceased. When, however,
this bone of contention was removed, their differences were gradu-
ally reconciled, and I succeeded in inducing the Saraogis once more
to forego their objections to giving their daughters in marriage to
the sons of Yaishnavas, and on ceremonial occasions even to partake
of food prepared by the latter sect. By degrees the old social
intercourse between them was completely resumed, and very few
of the traces of tiie former bitter feeling I hear now remain.
20th February f 1888. — Major-General Sir Fbedebio Goldsmii),
E.C.S.I., in the Chair.
There were elected as resident members Ralph Heap and T. H.
Master, Esqs. ; and as non-resident members B. D. Mukharji and
W. E. Coleman, Esqs., and MM. E. Drouin and Arthur Eoufi&gnac.
Prof. Behtdall exhibited some leaves of a MS. on palm leaf of
the Larikavatara, and explained the paleeographical importance of
the MS. He took the opportunity of again pointing out the im-
portance of searching for and rescuing such MSS., as, from the
decline of interest in tiiem among the general mass of natives of
India, they were in danger of being lost or destroyed.
Mr. Bboinali) Stuabt Poous delivered an address on two recently-
discovered coins of Sultan Muhammad Babar, and on the light
which they threw on his relations with Shah Ismail. (This paper
will be printed in ftill in our next issue.)
I9th March, 1888.— Col. Tule, R.E., C.B., in the Chair.
The Rev. C. C. Brown was elected a resident and the Rev. James
Boyle a non-resident member.
Mr. Delillb Moboak, M.R.A.S., read a paper on the Ossetes, a
tribe of about 120,000 persons occupying the eastern slopes of the
Caucasus range. They were a remnant of the ancient Iranian race,
and had preserved many of the old Iranian customs and beliefs
which had died out in Persia under the influence of Muhammad-
anism. The paper will be published in full in the next issue of the
Journal.
Mr. Douglas Fseshfield, who had pointed out on a large map.
NOTES OP THE QUAETER. 289
kindly lent by the Boyal Geographical Society, the places referred
to in the lecture, added some remarks drawn from his personal
experiences among the Ossetes.
Mr. HowoBTH; M.P., confirmed what had been said as to the
historic importance of this interesting people, and the Chairman
pointed out the references to them in the Travels of Marco Polo.
II. CoirrBNTS OF FoREioir Ordbntal Joubxtals.
1. Zeitschbifi dsb Dsutschsn Mo&GEin:Ju!n)iscH£]!r Gssellsohajt.
Vol. adi. Heft 4.
H. Hiibschmann. Sage nnd Glaube der Osseten. (A most in-
teresting summary, chiefly from Wsewelod Miiller's Ossetic Texts,
with Eussian translation (Moscow, 1881), of the hero legends and
religion of the Ossetes. See further above, p. 288.)
Schlechta-Wssehrd. Translation into German verse of episodes
from Firdusi's long-neglected poem on the legend of Joseph.
G. H. Schils. Notice of the French translation of the Japanese
poem Man yo sin, lately published in the * Memoires de la Societe
des £Studes Japonaises, etc.'
J. Barth. Studies in Semitic Comparative Philology.
M. Griinbaum. On the various stages of Drunkenness in Semitic
Legends.
0. Bohtlingk. On the Katantra Grammar. (Short Comparison
of Eggeling's edition with Panini.)
0. Bohtlingk. Miscellanies. (Chiefly restorations of corrupt
passages.)
B. Both. On Blood-money in the Yeda. (Proof of the existence,
both in the Yeda and in the later law-books, of the old custom of
payment for manslaughter.)
Beviews and Indices.
2. JOTTRSLL ASIATIQUB.
Huiti^me Serie, tome x. No. 2.
Monsignor David (Syrian Archbishop of Damas). £tude sur le
dialecte arabe de Damas.
H. Sauvaire. Materiaux pour servir el I'histoire de la numis-
matique et la m6trologie musulmanes.
A. Barthelemy. Histoire du Boi Naaman. (Arabic text in the
dialect of Syria and French translation of this legend.)
290 NOTES OF THE QUABTEB.
Urbain Bouriant. Fragmens d'an roman d' Alexandre. (Text
in Coptic from Thebes, and in part also in Greek, with translation
into French.)
Nonyelles et Melanges.
Huiti^me S6rie, tome x. No. 3.
Ben6 Basset. Berber Yocabularies.
A. Barthelemy. Notes, principally on Grammar, on the story as
edited in the previous number.
Abel Bergaigne. On the division of the Big Yeda into Adhyayas.
(Rejects the claims put forward by Mr. Pincott in the J.B.A.S.
Yols. XYI. and XIX., and replies to the criticism of Prof. Olden-
berg in the Z.D.M.G. vol. xli. pp. 508-516.)
Clermont-Gkuineau. Critique of M. Gildemeister's article on
the Banias Inscription (Zeitschrift des deutschen Palastina-vereins,
vol. X. pp. 168 and foil.), and note on the bridge constructed at
Lydda by Sultan Beibars.
Nouvelles et Melanges.
III. Lectuees on Obiental Sttbjects kow beikq dsuvered Uf
Europe.
1. Fbance.
By the kind assistance of Prof. S. Levi and of Mr. Serge d'Olden-
,burg, we are enabled to give the following complete list of the
lectures on Oriental subjects which are being delivered this term
in Paris.
At the Sorbonne M. Bergaigne lectures on Sanskrit Literature
and on Sanskrit, one lecture on each per week.
At the £cole des langues orientales vivantes (4, Eue des Saints
P^res) there is the following list.
Barbier de Meynard. On Turkish, 3 times a week.
A. Oarri^re. Armenian, 3 times a week.
H. Derenbourg. Literary Arabic, 4 times a week.
0. Hondas. Spoken Arabic, 3 times a week.
M. Jametel. Chinese, 3 times a week.
A. Marre. Malay and Japanese, 3 times a week.
A. des Michels. Annamite, 3 times a week.
L. djB Bosny. Japanese, 3 times a week.
Ch. Schefer. Persian, 3 times a week.
Jul. Yinson. Hindustani twice and Tamil twice a week.
NOTES OF THE aUABTEfi. 291
Henri Gordier. Hist, and Geog. of the Far East, twice a week.
Besides which there are conversation lectures three times a week
on each subject, for Arabic, Japanese, Turkish and Chinese, pre-
sided over by natives of the respective countries.
Then at the ' £!cole des Hautes Etudes ' there are the following
advanced lectures, each course being of one lecture a week :
Amiaud. Philol. et antiq. assyr. : Explic. des textes de TEpop^e
de Nimrod. Explio. de I'inscription d'Assourbanabil (cylindre A).
A. Garri^re. Langue hebraique : l^re annee, Elem. de la gramm.
h6braique ; 2^me et S^me ann^e, Ex^g^se du liv. de Daniel. Langue
syriaque : Explic. de textes difficiles et lect. de manus. Langue
chaldaique: Elem. de la gramm. Ghald. et explic. da Targoum
d'Onkelos.
Glermont-Ganneau. Arch^ol. orient. : Antiq. orient. : Palestine,
Ph6nicie, Syrie. Arch^ol. h6brai'qae.
J. Darmesteter. Lang. Zende : Explic. de textes zends ; Explic.
de textes pehlvis.
H. Derenbourg. Lang. Arabe : Explic. des Stances de Hartrt,
avec le Gomment. choisi par 8. de Sacy. Explic. du Livre de
Slbawaihi, et gramm. semit. compar^e.
T. Derenbourg. H^breu rabbinique: Explic. du Talmud de
Jerusalem (trait6 Horaioh).
Guieysse. Philol. et antiq. 6gypt. : Textes fun^raires : Etude
sur le Eituel Thebain (d^me ann^e). Traduct. de text, hi^roglyp.
et hi^ratiques (seconde ann6e).
Halevy. Lang, ethiop., himyar. et touranien : Gramm. 6thiop.
Explic. de morceaux choisis dans la Chrestomat. 6thiop. de
Dillmann. Explic. des inscript. himyarites. Gramm. comp. des
lang. touraniennes.
S. Levi. Lang, sanscr. : Explic. de la Ghrestom. de M. Ber-
gaigne (2e partie). Explic. du Hanuman-nataka.
Maspero. Philologie et antiq. 6gypt. : Paleogr. 6g3rpt. : papyrus
de Londres et de Leyde. Arch6ol. ^gypt. : planches des Denkmaler
(t. T.) qui se rapp. aux r^gn. d'Amenophis III. et des rois
her^tiques.
Besides which the following lectures are delivered in the ' Section
des sciences religieuses ' :
Am6lineaa. Relig. de I'Egypte.
Derenbourg. Islam, et relig. de I'Arabie (Locaux de la sect, des
Sc. histor. et philol.).
£. Havet. Hist, des orig. da chxistianisme.
292 KOTES OF THE QUARTER.
8. L^vi. Beligions de rinde (Locanx de la sect, des Scienoes
histor. et philolog.).
De Rosny. Belig. de I'Extrlme Orient.
M. Yemes. Belig. des peoples s^mitiqaes.
And finally at the College de France there is the following list :
Barbier de Meynard. Lang, et Litter, arabes. Anc. po6sie arabe
dans le Moallakats et Divan des six poetes. Explic. des Seances de
Hamadani.
J. Darmesteter. Lang, et Litter, de la Perse : Gramm. comp.
des lang. iraniennes. Explic. da Chah-Nameh. £pop6e persane.
Foucaux. Lang, et Litter, sanscr. : Explic. du chap. yii. da
Lalitavistara (Hist, da Boaddha Cakya Moani).
D'Hervey de Saint-Denys. Lang, et Litt6r. chin, et tart.-
mandch. Anc. monam. de la Litt. chin. Nouvelles en style
modeme.
Maspero. Philol. et arch^ol. ^gypt. : Textes des Pyram. relat.
el Fane, relig. d'Egypte.
Oppert. Philol. et archeol. assyr. : Inscrip. de Nabachodonosor
et de Nabonid. Docam. jarid. et textes biling. en somerien et
assyrien on accadien.
Pavet de Gourteille. Lang, et Litter, tarques. Expliq. Aboa-
Ali-Sina (tartare de Kazan), Tariki Katarina (tare ottoman), Hikem
d'Ahmed Yecevi et more, des chants siberiens (tare oriental).
E. Ren an. Lang, et Litter, chald. et syr. : Legendes patriarcales.
Fragm. des Proph^tes ant. el Isaie.
Eeville. Hist, des religions : Belig. de TEgypte et des peupl.
semit.
2. BussiA.
The following is an accoant of the lectares to be delivered in
St. Petersbarg this term, which we owe to the kindness of Mr.
Serge d'Oldenboarg.
Enseignement des langaes, litt^ratuies et histoire de TOrient
d, St. Petersboarg.
I. Uhiversiti. Facalt^ des Langues Orientales.
La Faculty compte 5 sections: 1. Aryenne. 2. S6mitiqae.
3. Arabo-Perso-Turque. 4. Chinoise-Mongole-Mandschoae. 5.
Armeno-Georgienne. La dar6e des etades est de 4 ans.
l^OTES OF THE QUARTEB. 293
1887-8.
1. Section Aryenns,
Sanscrit. Prof. I. Minayef . Four times a week.
Avesta. Priv. Doc. C. Salemann. Once a week.
Inscriptions Con^iformes de la Perse. Priv. Doc. G. Salemann.
Once a week.
Pahlay{. Priv. Doc. C. Salemann. Once a week.
Persan. Priv. Doc. S. Tchemjajef, Priv. Doc. V. Jonkofsky,
It3p6titeur Indigene Mirza Djafar. Eleyen times a week.
Histoire de la litt^rature Persane. Priv. Doc. Tchemjajef.
Once a week.
Arm^nien. Prof. K. Patkanof. Four times a week.
HiBtoire de la litterature Armenienne. Prof. K. Patkanof.
Once a week.
Histoire de la Perse. Prof. K. Patkanof. Once a week.
Histoire de TOrient. Prof. N. Wesselofsky. Three times a week.
2. Section Simitique.
Introduction k I'etude de I'H^breu. Prof. D. Chwolson. Once
a week.
Hebreu. Prof. D. Chwolson. Four times a week.
Syriaque. Prof. D. Chwolson. Once a week.
Arabe. Prof. Baron Kosen, Eep^titeur Indigene M. Sarrouf.
Fourteen times a week.
Histoire de TOrient. Prof. N. Wesselofsky. Three times a
week.
3. Section Araho-Ferto-Turque,
Arabe. Prof. Baron Eosen, Rep6titeur Indigene M, Sarrouf.
Fourteen times a week.
Persan. Priv. Docc. S. Tchemjajef, W. Jonkofsky, Bep6tit6ur
Indigene Mirza Djafar. Eleven times a week.
Hist, de la litt. Persane. Priv. Doc. S. Tchemjajef. Once
a week.
Djagatay et grammaire compar6e des dialectes Turcs. Prof.
T. BSr^sin. Five times a week.
Turc. Prof. W. Smimof, Bepetiteur Indigene M. Abdurrahman.
Twelve times a week.
Numismatique. Prof. T. Ber^sine. Once a week.
Musulmane histoire de la Perse. ProL K. Patkanof. Once
a week.
294 NOTES OF THE QUABTEB.
Histoire de rOrient. Prof. N. "Wesselofsky. Three times a week.
Histoire de TOrient (Cours special : Conquetes des Arabes en Asie
Centrale, histoire des Sassanides, Gazn^vides, Saldjoukes Ileques
et Khorezm-Shahs.) Prof. N. Wesselofsky. Once a week.
4. Section Chinoue-Mm^oU-Mandsehoue.
Chinois. Prof. W. Wassiljef, Priv. Docc. D. Pestchonrof, S.
Georgiefsky, Kep^titeur Indigene M. Soudjoun. Twenty-one times
a week.
Histoire de la Chine. Prof. "W. "Wassiljef. Twice a week.
Geographie et organisation politique actuelle de la Chine. Priv.
Doc. S. Georgiefsky. Once a week.
Mandschou. Priv. Doc. A. Iwanofsky. Seven times a week.
Mongol. Proff. C. Golstounsky, A. Pozdnejef . Eleven times a
week.
Histoire de la litterature Mongole. Prof. A. Pozdnejef. Once
a week.
Kalmouk. Prof. C. Golstounsky, Eepetiteur Indigene D. Eou-
touzof. Five times a week.
Histoire de TOrient. Prof. N. Wesselofsky. Three times a week.
Histoire de I'Empire Mongol (cours special). Prof. K. Wessel-
ofsky. Once a week.
5. Section Arm^-Oeorgienne,
Armenien. Prof. K. Patkanof. Five times a week.
Hist, de la litt. Arm6nienne. Prof. K. Patkanof. Once a week.
Georgien. Prof. A. Tsagareli. Four times a week.
Hist, de la litt. Georgienne. Prof. A. Tsagareli. Once a week.
Numismatique Georgienne. Prof. A. Tsagareli. Once a week.
Histoire de la Perse. Prof. K. Patkanof. Once a week.
Egyptologie. Priv. Doc. 0. de Lemm. Twice a week.
II. Imtitut dee Languee Orientalee,
An Department Asiatique du Minist^re des AfPaires Etrang^res.
Les cours de I'Institut sent suivis par des jeunes gens qui, ayant
fait leurs 6tudes k la faculte des Langues Orientales ou d Tlnstitut
Lazaref (Moscou), se destinent au service diplomatique.
Arabe. M. Salim Naufal. Eleven times.
Persan. Mirza Kasim Abedinof. Sixteen times.
Turc. Fardis Effendi. Twenty-one times.
Droit Musulman. M. Sallm Naufal. Three times.
Les 6tadiants suivent aussi des cours de Greo Moderne (2).
NOTES OF THE QUABTEB. 295
3. Englaiti).
London. — There are scarcely any regular lectures of a scientifio
kind in London on Oriental subjects. There are, indeed, Professors
of Sanskrit, Pali, and Persian at University College, but only one
student in Persian and two in Sanskrit.^ The papers read before
the Eoyal Asiatic Society, however valuable, are not intended to
take the place of regular instruction in Oriental subjects. This is
no credit to us, especially when we notice the great activity in
Paris, Berlin, Vienna, and even St. Petersburg. Some reparation
for this is afforded by the lectures at our old University towns,
which are as follows, according to lists which we owe to the kind-
ness of Professors Macdonell and Cowell :
OXPOED.
Oriental Lecture Lietfor Easter and IVinity Terms j 1888.
Assyrian, — The Assyrian Syllabary and Grammar. Deputy
Professor of Comparative Philology, A. H. Sayoe, M.A.
Chinese, — Elementary Instruction : San Tsze King. The Four
Books : the Sixteen Ehang-hsi Precepts ; the Hsl Yii Chi, and the
History of the Han Dynasty. Professor of Chinese, J. Legge, M.A.
The Nestorian Tablet of Hsi-ngan Eu. Professor of Chinese, J.
Legge, M.A.
Mehreic. — Psalms (continued). Regius Professor of Hebrew, S.
R. Driver, D.D. Three hours each week.
Talmud and Rabbinical Texts. Reader in Rabbinical Literature,
A. Neubauer, M.A. Two hours each week.
Genesis (Hebrew Text, continued). G. J. Spurrell, M.A. (for
Professor Driver). Three hours each week.
Elementary Hebrew: Pointing and Composition (Fee, £2 2s.).
G. J. Spurrell, M.A. (for Professor Driver). Three hours each
week.
Elementary Hebrew : for Beginners (Fee, £2 2s.). G. J. Spur-
rell, M.A. (for Professor Driver).
Hebrew (First Course, Fee, £2 2s.) F. H. Woods, B.D. Three
hours each week.
Hebrew (Second Course, Fee, £2 2s.). F. H. Woods, B.D
Three hours each week.
* There are also two students in Hebrew, two in Hindustani, and two in
Marathi.
296 KOTES OF THE QUARTER.
Indian. — BengaU. — Subjects of the Oriental Honour School. G.
F. NichoU, M.A.
PetitionB, Composition, Papers, and extra (prize) work (Seniors).
G. F. NichoU, UL,IL.
Naban&rt (S!t&) (Juniors). G. F. NichoU, M.A.
Hindi, — Subjects of the Oriental Honour School. G. F. Nicholl, M Ju
Petitions, Composition, Papers, and extra (prize) work (Seniors).
G. F. NichoU, M.A.
(Juniors) The Sakuntala, and the Hindi Reader (Fee, £3 10».)-
J. T. Platts, M.A. Three hours each week.
^mifi^^dnl.— Urdu Petitions: Urdu Selections: Taubatu-n-nafuh
(Fee, £3). Teacher of Hindustani, R. St. John, M.A. Three
hours each work.
Marathi and QujarcUhi. — H. S. K. BeUairs, M.A. Twelve hours
each week.
i8fa)t<ib*t^.-^HitopadeMi, Books I. and II. Deputy Professor of
Sanskrit, A. A. MacdoneU, M.A. Three hours each week.
Meghaduta with Mallinathu's Commentary (Bombay Edition,
1886). Deputy Professor of Sanskrit, A. A. MacdoneU, M.A.
Three hours each week.
Rigveda, with the Commentary of Sayana, Ma^ala X. (Prof.
Max MuUer's edition). Deputy Professor of Sanskrit, A. A.
MacdoneU, M.A. Three hours each week.
Yedantasara (with commentaries); Portion of Siddhintakau-
mudi (with Tar4n&tha*s critical notes) ; Portion of Manu I. (with
JoUy's Manutlka-sangraha) (continued). G. F. NichoU, M.A.
TamiL — Pope's Grammar. Pope's Header to p. 64. (Juniors :
Fee, £3.) Teacher of TamU and Telugu, G. U. Pope, M.A.
Three hours each week.
Pope's Reader to p. 122: Official Documents: Hitopade^am.
(Seniors : Fee, £3.) Teacher of TamU and Telugu, G. U. Pope,
M.A. Three hours each week.
Kurral : for the Oriental Honour School. (Fee, £3.) Teacher
of TamU and Telugu, G. U. Pope, M.A. Five hours each week.
Telugu. — Arden's Grammar to end of Part II. : Brown's Reader,
pp. 6-46. (Juniors : Fee, £3.) Teacher of Tamil and Telugu,
G. U. Pope, M.A. Six hours each week.
Arden's Grammar and Composition: Brown's Reader to p. 105:
Official Documents. (Seniors : Fee, £3.) Teacher of TamU and
Telugu, G. U. Pope, M.A. Six hours each week.
Yemana : for the Oriental Honour School. Six hours a week.
NOTES OF THE QUARTER. 297
Per$ian.— 'The Bustan of Sa'di. (Seniors : Fee, £3.) Teacher
of Persian, J. T. Platts, M.A. Three hours each week.
The Gulistan of Sa*di. (Juniors : Fee, £3.) Teacher of Persian,
J. T. Platts, M.A. Three hours each week.
Honour School — ^The Masnavl of Jalalu'd din Rumi, Bombay Ed.
pp. 12-37. Teacher of Persian, J. T. Platts, M.A. Three hours
each week.
Burmese, — Subjects prescribed by the Civil Commissioners.
(Seniors and Juniors: Fee, £3 3«.) R. F. St. A. St. John. Two
hours each week.
Subjects of the Oriental Honour School. R. F. St. A. St. John.
Two hours each week.
Cambridge.
List of Lectures proposed hy the Board of Oriental Studies^ 1887-8.
Michaelmas Term, 1887.--Prof. Kirkpatrick. L.S. Introduction
to Psalms, Book II. M. F. 12. Oct. 17. Psalms, Books III. IV.
Hebrew Composition. T. Th. 12. Oct. 18.
Prof. Wright. Q^. The Kor'an, sur. 4, with Commentary.
M. Th. 10. Oct. 17. The Chronicle of Joshua the Stylite.
T. F. 10. Oct. 18. Comparative Grammar. T. F. 11. Oct. 18.
Prof. Bensly. Cai. Elementary Hebrew. M. W. F. 1.
Dr. SchiUer-Szinessy. L,L.R. T. B. Chagigah. M. 3. Oct. 17.
Maimonides. Mishneh Torah, Book I. T. 3. Pireqe Aboth (ed.
Taylor). W. 3. Elementary Talmud, and the New Testament
illustrated by the Talmuds and Midrashim (alternately). Th. 3.
Targnm ShenI on Esther. F. 3.
Mr. Chapman. Emm,
Prof. Cowell. L.L.R. Rig-Veda (Delbruck). T. Th. 10.
Oct. 18. 10, Seroope Terr. Pali Jdtakas. F. 4.30. Oct. 14.
Zend-avesta. Rig- Veda, B. 3. Vikramorva9(. Hafiz.
Dr. Peile. L.L,R. Principles of Language. W. F. 11. Oct. 14.
Mr. Neil. Pemb. Sanskrit Grammar and Nala. T. S. 12.
Oct. 15.
Lent Term, 1888. — ^Prof. Kirkpatrick. Introduction to Jeremiah,
M. F. 12. Joel, Amos, Obadiah. Hebrew Composition. T. Th. 12.
Prof, Wright. Al-Harin, Makamah 9, with Commentary. M.
Th. 10. Aphraates, Homilies 11, 12. T. F. 10. Reading of
Phoenician and Hebrew Inscriptions. M. Th. 11. Comparative
Grammar {continued). T. E. 11.
Prof. Bensly. Elementary Syriac. W. F. 1.
298 NOTES OF THE QdABTER.
Dr. Schiller-Szinessy. T. B. Chagigah. M. 3. Targum on 2
Kings. T. 3. Siphere (ed. Friedmann). W. 3. Elementary
Talmud, and the New Testament illustrated by the Talmuds and
Midrashim (alternately). Th. 3. Qimchi on Psalms (ed. Schiller-
Szinessy). F. 3.
Mr. Chapman. Hebrew Syntax. T. Th. 11.
Prof. Cowell. Big- Veda (Delbruck). T. Th. 10. Pali JAtakas.
F. 4.30. Zend-avesta. Rig- Veda, B. 4. Vikramorvagf. Hafiz.
Mr. NeQ. Hitopade^a. W. F. 12.
i:ast0r Term, 1888. Prof. Wright. The Mo'allakah of 'Amr
ibn Xulthum, with Commentary. M. Th. 10. Zingerle, Monu-
menta Syriaca, pp. 4 — 32. T. F. 10. The Moabite Stone or
Inscription of King Mesha'. M. Th. 11. Comparative Grammar
{continued). T. F. 11.
Prof. Bensly. Arabic subject to be fixed later.
Dr. Schiller* Szinessy. T. B. Chagigah. M. 3. Maimonides.
Mishneh Torab, Book I. T. 3. History of Jewish Literature.
W. F. 3. Elementary Talmud, and the New Testament illustrated
by the Talmuds and Midrashim (alternately). Th. 3.
Prof. Cowell. Pdli Jatakas. F. 4.30. Zend-avesta. Rig-Veda,
B. 4. Hafiz. Comparative Syntax (End.-Eur.). T. Th. S. 12.
Hitopade9a. W. F. 12.
4. BEBLIlf.
We owe to tbe kindness of Professor Dr. Eduard Sachau the
following information as to Oriental Lectures to be delivered this
Session in connection with the University of Berlin :
2. Prof. J. Schmidt. Sanskrit Comparative Grammar. Four
hours a week.
3. Professor Oldenberg. Elementary Sanskrit. Four hours a
week.
4. Prof. Oldenberg. Pali and Buddhism. Two hours a week.
6. Prof. Weber, The Vedas. Three hours a week.
6. Prof. Weber. Taska's Nirukta. Three hours a week.
7. Prof. Weber. Kalidasa. One hour a week.
8. Prof. Weber. Zend. One hour a week.
1. Prof. Schrader. Babylonian and Assyrian History. One
hour a week.
9. Prof. Schrader. Assyrian Inscriptions. Two hours a week.
10. Prof. Sachau. History of Syriac Literature. Two hours a
week.
NOTES OF THE QUABTEB. 299
11. Prof. Barth. Syriao. Tw^o hours a week.
12. Prof. Sachau. Arabic Syntax according to the Mufaseal.
Two hours a week.
13. Prof. Dieterici. Arabic Syntax with interpretation of the
Koran. Two hours a week.
14. Prof. Sachau. Ibn Hischam's Life of Muhammad. Two
hours a week.
15. Prof. Sachau. Arabian Nights. Two hours a week.
16. Prof. Dieterici. Arabian Poetry. One hour a week.
17. Prof. Dieterici. Arabian Philosophy. One hour a week.
18. Prof. Barth. Mubarrad's Xamil. One hour a week.
19. Prof. Schrader. Ethiopian. Two hours a week.
20. Dr. Grube. Chinese Grammar. Three hours a week.
21. Dr. Grube. Mongolian. Two hours a week.
22. Prof. Brugsch. Egyptian Mythology. One hour a week.
23. Prof. Erman. Egyptian History. One hour a week.
24. Prof. Erman. Egyptian Grammar. Two hours a week.
25. Prof. Erman. Explanation of more difficult Hieratic
Papyrus. Two hours a week.
26. Prof. Brugsch. Demotic Inscriptions. Two hours a week.
And at the Seminar fiir Orientalische Sprachen :—
1. Mr. Arendt. Chinese Conversation and Business Style^ Two
hours a week.
2. Mr. Arendt. History of China. One hour a week.
3. Mr. Euei Lin. Chinese, Northern Dialect. Eight hours a
week.
4. Mr. Pantei Sching. Chinese, Southern Dialect. Eight hours
a week.
5. Dr. Lange. Japanese. Five hours a week.
6. Dr. Inouy6. History of Japan. Two hours a week.
7. Dr. Inouy6. Japanese Conversation, etc. Eight hours a week.
8. Mr. Rosen. Hindustani. Six hours a week.
9. Mr. Rosen. Modem History and Geography of India. Two
hours a week.
10. Dr. Hartmann. Modem Arabic. Six hours a week.
11. Mr. Hasan Taufik. Modem Conversation, etc. (Egyptian
Dialect). Five hours a week.
12. Mr. Maarbes. Modern Conversation, etc. (Syrian dialect).
Five hours a week.
13. Dr. Hartmann. Geography, etc., of the Countries where
Arabic is now spoken. Two hours a week.
300 NOTES OF THE QUABTEB.
14. Dr. Andreas. Persian. Eight hours a week.
15. Mr. Rosen. Persian Conversation, etc. Two hours a week.
16. Dr. Andreas. Turkish. Eight hours a week.
17. Dr. Moritz. Geography, etc., of Asiatic Turkey. Two
hours a week.
18. Mr. Buttner. Suhaili. Eight hours a week.
19. Mr. Buttner. Geography, etc., of South A&ica. Two hours
a week.
Besides the regular courses similar to the above, there have been
delivered, in connection with the Seminar, the following public
lectures on popular subjects in the three months January to March
on Saturday evenings : —
1. Wechselbeziehungen der Dichtkunst und des Kunstgewerbes
der Japaner, von Herm Dr. J. Brinckmann, Director des Museums
fiir Kunst und Gewerbe in Hamburg, den 21. Januar 1888.
2. TJeber die nationale Eeligion der Japaner, genannt Sinto, von
Herm Dr. Tetsusiro Inouye, Lector des Japanischen am Seminar,
den 28. Januar.
3. Zur Beurtheilung des Confucius und seiner Lehre, von Herm
Dr. G. von der Gabelentz, Professor an der Univendtat in Leipzig,
den 4. Februar.
4. Ueber Orientalische Teppichweberei, von Herm Professor Dr.
J. Leasing, Director des Gewerbe-Museums, den 1 1 . Eebruar.
5. Das hausliche und Eamilien-Leben der Chinesen, von Herm
Professor C. Arendt, Lehrer des Chinesischen am Seminar, den 18.
Febraar.
6. Zur wirthschaftlichen Lage Indiens, von Herm Consul W.
Annecke, General-Secretar des Deutschen Handelstages, den 25.
Februar.
7. TJeber den TJmgang und Yerkehr mit den Orientalen, von
Herm Legation srath Professor Dr. Brugsch, den 3. Marz.
8. Einige Thatsachen zur Charakteristik des AufPassungsver-
mogens der Afrikanischen Eingeborenen, von Herm Missions-
Inspector Buttner, Lehrer des Suabeli am Seminar, den 10. Marz.
The above lists will give an accurate idea of what is being done
in the centres referred to for the official encouragement of Oriental
study. But as the lists are made up in April and October, we have
not been able for this issue to obtain later iDtelligence from other
places than is contained in their October lists. We hope in a
future number to give a complete list of a similar kind for the
whole of Europe. It is intended also to add a statement as to the
NOTES OF THE QUABTER. 301
cost in each place of the lectures to the students frequenting them.
On the latter point we are only now in a position to state that the
lectures at the Berlin Seminary are not merely entirely free, hut
that grants are provided for necessitous students.
IV. Notes and News.
In the Times of the 9th March there appeared a report of the
death of Baron Ferdinand von Eichthofen, Professor of Geography
in the University of Berlin, and for the second time President of
the Geographical Society of that city. Up to the 23rd March no
correction of the report has appeared in the Times, or, so far as
we know, in any other English newspaper. But we are happy to
Icnow that it is not correct. The Baron F. von Bichthofen, one
of the most eminent of travellers and geographers, the author of
the great work Chinay and much else, and still in his prime, is
still in the land of the living, and will he so we trust doing good
work for many a year. The mistake arose from the death of a
kinsman, also a Professor at Berlin wo helieve, hut of Law.
Prof. Aufrecht of Bonn has nearly completed his long-expected
and urgently wanted list of Sanskrit hooks and authors. It will
prohahly appear in the course of next year.
Professor Bhandarkar, of the Dekkan College, Prof. Biihler,
Prof. Kielhom, Shankar Pandurang Pandit, Sir Henry Rawlinson,
Prof. Sachau, and Col. Tule have heen elected Honorary Members
of the American Oriental Society.
Shankar Pandurang Pandit has published vrith an elaborate
historical and critical introduction his edition of the Gaii^vano, a
Prakrit poem by Yakpati (circa 800 a.d.) on King Yasovarman,
of Kanauj. He is now engaged on an edition of the Atharva
Veda.
Prof. Adolf Holtzmann of Freiburg in Baden is at work on an
' Introduction to the study of the Mahabharata. Such a book from
so well known a master of the subject will be most welcome to all
students of the history of ideas in India.
Prof. Lindner of Leipzig proposes to write a new manual of the
history of religions.
The senate of Glasgow University have elected Professor Max
Miiller to be the first Gifford Lecturer on Natural Theology. The
tenure is for two years, which may be renewed once only. The
emoluments consist of the interest of the late Lord GifEbrd's
VOL. XX. — [nSW BBBIB8.] 21
802 NOTES OP THE QUARTEE,
bequest of £25,000. The lecturer is required to give at least twenty
public lectures annually.
Dr. A. A. Maodonell, at present Taylorian Teacher of German
at Oxford, has been appointed Deputy to the Boden Professor of
Sanskrit. Mr. Macdonell won the Taylorian Scholarship in German
in 1876, the Davis Scholarship in Chinese in 1877, and the Boden
Scholarship in Sanskrit in 1878. A few years ago he obtained the
degree of Ph.D. at Leipzig, with a thesis in philology. In 1886
he edited an unabridged edition of Prof. Max Muller's Sanskrit
Grammar; and still more recently he has, we believe, been lecturing
for Sir M. Monier-Williams, whose deputy he has now become.
Sir M. Monier-Williams has been appointed Duff Lecturer at Edin-
burgh, where he will deliver a course of lectures on *' Buddhism."
Mr. J. Capper, who was one of the founders and for a long time
Hon. Sec. of the Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, has
been elected an Honorary Member of that branch.
Portugal, — The distinguished Portuguese Scholar Don G. de
YasconceUos Abreu, Professor of Sanskrit at Lisbon, and the author
of other esteemed works, has published at Lisbon two works
in the Portuguese language. (1) Progress of the study of Sanskrit.
(2) An essay on the study of Languages generally. We hail the
wakening up of the study of Orientals in the only kingdom in
Europe which has never sent a representative to the International
Congresses of Oriental Scholars.
Complete Traiulation of the Mah&wansa into Englhh, — Late advices
from Ceylon state that the Mahawansa has now been fully translated
into English by Louis Wijesinha Modliar, who is now engaged in
seeing his translation of chapters 89 to 101 through the press. It
is understood that the same scholar may very shortly be entrusted
with the editing of a second edition of chapters 1 to 38, translated by
the late George Tumour about fifty years ago, and long since out of
print.
Ceylon Archaology. — ^The Government Agent of the northern
province of Ceylon has addressed the Governor of that island on the
subject of the ruins at Tiruke-siram (Mantotte), where excavations
have brought to light many highly interesting remains. Govern-
ment aid is sought to cany on the exploration on the site of the
ancient city in question.
Pregnant Women, — A Bangalore correspondent of the Homeward
Mail of Jan. 23, writes : — In the Chitaldroog district, a class of
natives, called Gollams, practise the barbarous custom of leaving
NOTES OF THE QUABTEB. 303
women near their confinement exposed to the rain and sun in an
open plain ; never approaching them while in labour. Sometimes
women are left thus for twenty-one days, often dying from neglect
and exposure. After confinement the women are made to proceed
on foot with their infants to the temple of their particular goddess,
where they perform certain ceremonies. The Wesleyan Mission-
aries have brought these facts to the attention of the Dewan of
Mysore, proving the existence of this custom by the testimony of
respectable Hindoos, and the matter is being inquired into.
Spellteans. — In the I>lffha Nikaya we find a list of games to
which certain Samaras and Brahmans are said to be addicted. The
phrase is put into the mouth of the Buddha : and the list occurring
in one of the very oldest fragments imbedded in the Buddhist
Scriptures (in the Silas) dates back very probably to the time when
Gotama was living. Of each word in this list we have the tra-
ditional interpretation preserved to us in the great commentary by
Buddhaghosa, who wrote about a.b. 430. One of the games is
called Santikam, and Buddhaghosa explains it: — "Little pieces
[or men of the kind used in games] or bits of crockery are put all
in a heap together. Then these they remove or replace with the nail,
and, if any object in the heap shakes, he [the player] is beaten."
See the Sumangala Vildsinfy just edited for the Pali Text Society
by Prof. Rhys Davids and Prof. Carpenter, p. 85.
Santikam may be rendered " Neighbourhoods," but the game is
clearly what is now called Spellicans. As now played, each piece
has a number on it, and each player continues to withdraw (with
a hook) one or other of the various pieces until in so doing he
shakes the rest. Then the other player has his turn ; and, when
all the pieces are removed, the numbers on those taken by each
player are added up, and the player with the highest number wins.
Is anything known of the history of this game in Europe ? The
name for it is evidently old, and connected (not with spielen
• to play '), but with our words spill (a bit of paper or wood) and
splinter. That it should have existed 500 B.C. in India need not
surprise us. A study of the migration of games might be expected
to yield results as interesting as that of the migration of stories.
Opening of an Oriental Imtitute at Ajmere. — A very crowded
meeting of the members and representatives of the Paropkareni
Sabha and all Arja Samajas throughout India was held at A j mere
under the presidency of Thakore Bahadursingh of Masuda, on Dec.
29, to lay the foundation-stone of the Dayanand Ashram, or Daya-
304 NOTES OF THE QUAETEE.
nand Institute, containing an Anglo-Yaridic College, a library, an
asylum, a museum, a book depot, and a lecture-room, in honour of
the great Indian reformer, the late Swami Dayanand Saraswati.
The well-known scholar and pnndit, Mohanlal YishunM Pandia,
one of the Swamy executors, laid the ashes and foundation-stone
on behalf of all the followers and executors at 12 p.m. in a garden
on the bank of the Anasagar Lake, bestowed by the Bajadhiraj of
Shahpura for the purpose. Sermons, speeches, and lectures were
given in the Sanskrit, Hindi and English languages to an attentive
congregation of the Arya Samajists and others with great earnest-
ness and fluency by such profound scholars as Professor Qurdutt,
M.A., Shyamji Krishna Varma, M.A., Hunsraj, B.A., Lajapatirai
and others. The ceremonies ended satisfactorily, and the institution
is expected to be a great boon to the country at large, inasmuch as
it will diffuse Eastern and Western culture side by side. — ( Homeward
Mail, Jan. 23.)
A literary event of national importance has taken place in
Japan. One of the Legation Officers, now with the Minister to
Germany, recently discovered in the Ashikaga College (Tsuh-li
Hioh) a copy of Hwang K'an's Confucian Analects (the Lun Yii),
over 1200 years old, with all the Ancient Commentators' notes.
This work has disappeared in China ever since the Southern Sung
dynasty, i.e. for some 700 or 800 years ; and as the whole history
of the present copy is known, the Chinese Government has directed
the Minister in Japan to borrow it, in order that a carefully
corrected copy may be taken. It may be added that, should there
be any Kana inscriptions upon this copy, valuable light will also
be thrown upon the Japanese Alphabet question. — {Homeward
Mail, 9th Jan. 1888.)
The Eesident in Tibet incidentally mentions that the old
Almanac of the Taugut kingdom, derived from the Ouigours,
is still in use there, which statement corresponds with the assertion
in the Ming History that, from the Tang dynasty up to the arrival
of Schaal and Verbiest, the Ouigour calculations were also used by
the Chinese,— {Ebmeward Mail, 9th Jan. 1888.)
There have been published at native presses in Ceylon during the
last three months the Saddharmaratnavali and Mula Sikkha, and
a new edition of the Eavyasekara, by the well-known scholar
Batuwan Tudawa.
The '* Babylonian and Oriental Kecord " now appears in a more
handy shape, and with improved type. Among the articles for
NOTES OF THE QUARTER. 306
Febraary If. de Harlez continues the introdnction to his intended
translation of the Pentaglott Buddhist Yocabulary.
We very deeply regret to hear, just as we are going to press,
of the death of Bhagvanlal Indrajl.
Mr. M. y. Portman, M.E.A.S., the author of the article on
Music in our present number, has published a very admirable
little ''Manual of the Andamanese Languages" (pp. 229, small
8ro. Allen's, London, 1887), consisting of a short grammar,
Tocabularies, and dialogues.
The Journal for 1887 of the Straits Branch of the Boyal Asiatic
Society contains articles by Mr. Satow on the Bibliography of
Siam (in continuation of the valuable paper commenced in the
previous number) ; English Suln and Malay Vocabulary, by Mr.
T. H. Haynes ; the Malay text and English translation of a fairy
tale entitled Baja Donan, by W. E. Maxwell ; and a very useful
Index to the Journal of the Indian AreUpelago, by Mr. N. B. Dennys.
New arrangements have been made under which Mr. Vincent
Trenckner*s edition of the Maj jhima Nikaya will be published by
the Pali Text Society. The first volume is printed and will be
issued to subscribers in a few weeks.
The second volumes of Dr. Morris's Anguttara and of M. L6on
Peer's Samyutta, in course of publication for the P&li Text Society,
are now in the printer's hands, and will be issued to the subscribers
for this year.
We would call the especial attention of those interested in the
history of Indian religions and literature to the * Report on the
Search for Sanskrit MSS. in the Bombay Presidency during the
year 1883-4,' just published at the Government Press by Prof.
Bhandarkar. It contains a most complete and valuable account of
the whole of the Jain literature.
Miiokte Sindbad, by Dr. Paulus Cassel (Berlin Sch»ffer).
— Under this title Dr. Cassel has published the Hebrew text of the
Mischte Sindbad and the corresponding Greek text of Syntipas, with
introduction, translation into German, and notes on each, and an
essay on the general history of the collection of stories known as
the Seven Sages. He considers the Hebrew version to be the
oldest extant, and to be itself derived from a Manichsean Syrian
original of perhaps the fourth century of our era. That, in its
turn he holds to be the reproduction of an Indian Buddhist work
of unknown title and date, and in support of these quotes many
analogous Buddhist stories. It is a pity that his authorities for
306 NOTES OF THE QUARTEB.
these are not the latest or hest. He Beems to know nothing of the
most complete and oldest collection of Buddhist folklore — wo mean
the Jataka book. But his volume (420 pp. small Svo.) is a valuable
contribution to the increasingly interesting question of the migration
of Buddhist stories to the West.
We have on the African languages many valuable works, —
Grammars, Dictionaiies, Grammatical Notes and Lists of Words,—
compiled chiefly by Missionaries, but also by travellers ; and it may
be added that the materials collected by travellers not trained in
philology are often of great value when carefully examined, as, f. i.,
Commander Cameron's unpretending Kirua Vocabulary, and others
which I cannot quote here. But, if we except the ancient
Egyptian and the Arabic languages, it must be confessed that the
other Airican languages have been till now very little investigated
on the spot by professional scholars. The name of Prof. Leo
Beinisch, of Yienna, who has so extensively studied the languages
of the Nile basin, is of course an exception, and another is that of
Prof. Een6 Basset, of Algiers. He is already well known by his
remarkable publications on the various dialects of the Berber lan-
guage, and has now been entrusted by the ** Acad6mie des inscrip-
tions et belles-lettres " with a scientific mission to Senegambia. He
started in the beginning of January, and, while waiting at Lisbon
for the monthly steamer, he discovered in the various libraries of
that capital many Arabic manuscripts and important documents of
the 16th and 17th centuries on the tribes and languages of Sene*
gambia; all these documents had been hitherto unknown to scholars,
but he hopes to have some of them copied and published. At St. Louis
(S^n6gal), he has collected an extensive Yocabulary of the purest
Zenaga (Berber) dialect, as spoken by the Ouled-Dahman, a Trarza
tribe, as well as many Arabic texts translated into Zenaga and even
an historical &agmen1> concerning the origin of the Ouled-Dahman.
He intends to go to Podor, in order to get, if possible, some ancient
manuscripts from the Braknas : all these documents will un-
doubtedly throw some light on the linguistics and history of that
fraction of the Berber race. He has also collected some linguistic
data on the Khassonkhe, a dialect of the Mandingo-Bambara group,
which has preserved many more complete and consequently older
forms : he intends to do the same with regard to the Soninkhe,
which has been till now provisionally classified in the above-named
group. But this is not all.
NOTES OF THE QUARTEB. 307
Prof. Een^ Basset informs me that, as soon as he comes hack
from Podor, he will go among the Serers, in order to ascer-
tain what is the so-called None dialect, which could well he
a language quite different from the Sine, helonging perhaps to
the great family of prefix-languages: there is there a highly
interesting linguistio problem, which, I hope, will be solved once
for all, and I will not anticipate on the results of that inquiry,
which should extend to the neighbouring Diobas. Then, the un<
tiring explorer intends to proceed to Boke, on the Eio-Nunez,
where he will complete Dr. Corre's rather rudimental study of
the Baga, Nalu, Landuman, and other important languages, and
where also he hopes to find some Mandingos, in order to make some
advance on Macbrair's work.
It will be seen that, on Prof. B«n§ Basset coming home, we may
expect to be supplied with large and valuable materials, very
interesting even for Englishmen, as some of the languages
referred to are spoken on or near the British Gambia and at
Sierra-Leone. — Capt. T. G. bs G.
P.S. — I think it will be useful to add here a short list of Prof.
K. Basset's works, which seem to be little known in England :
Relation d$ Sidi Brahim de MoMat, traduite da chelh'a en
fran9ais et annotee. Paris, 1883.
Ifoies de Lexieoffraphie berbire, Paris, 1st series, 1883 ; 2nd series,
1885; 3rd series, 1686; 4th series, just out. Four more series
of these important comparative Yocahularies of the Berber dialects
are ready for publication,
Cante dee Beni-Mmaeer^ Alger, 1885.
JReeueH de textee et doeumente relaiife d la philologie berb^e,
Alger, 1885-86.
Manuel de langue Kabyle {Orammaire^ Bibliographies Chreeio*
maihie et Zexique)^ Paris, 1887. This little work, a masterpiece
of concision and clearness, is rather an outline of comparative
Grammar of the Berber language.
Mistoire de Tombouktou d^apres lee auteure arabee, in course of
publication in the Museon^ Louvain.
In the Preface of Prof. Newman's recent Kabail Yocabulary, it
is stated that Father Olivier's Dictionnaire franeaie-kabyle had been
printed, but never published. This statement is quite incorrect :
that Dictionary was published in 1878 at Le Puy (18mo. pp. vi.
and 316), and it is to be had everywhere in France and Algeria
808 NOTES OP THE QUARTER.
for five francs, also at Tnibner'a for twelve sliilling^. In his
Catalogue Triibner quotes it as published in 1882 at Paris. I may
add that there is, in the *' Biblioth^ue nationale " of Paris (fonds
berbdre, No. 16 or 18), an unpublished Foeahulaire frangais-ssouaouap
bearing the name of the late Father Eivi^re.
Lieut. Q. Binger, of the French Marines, who was engaged in
travelling from Bakel down to the Guinea coast, has been murdered
on the other side of the Ouassoulonke ; he had been welcomed by
King Samory, and his death is a great loss to science. — Capt. T.
G. BE G.
V. Reviews.
Prof. Ch. de Harlez, Iranist and Sinologist, has published in
a separate form his important memoir on the Tartar religion,
which appeared last year in vol. xi. of the Memoir es couronnesy
eU., de VAeademi$ de Belgtque. The full title of the work ex-
plains its purpose : La Religion nationale des Tartares Orientauz,
Mandchous et Mongols, comparee cl la religion des Anciens Chinois,
d'apr^s les textes indigenes, avec le Rituel tartare de PEmpereur
K'ien-long, traduit pour la premiere fois (Bruxelles, 1887, 216 pp.
and plate, semi-8vo.). The distinguished author is one of the few
scholars acquainted with the Mandshu language and literature ; we
are indebted to him for a Manuel de la langue Mandehoue in 1884
(Paris, Maisonneuve) and for the Miatoire de V Empire de Kin
(Jutchih or Niutchih) ou Empire d^ Or, Aisin gurun-i induri bithe,
translated for the first time (Louvain, 1887, 8vo. xvi. 288 pp.).
The latter work, which refers to the domination of the ancestors
of the present Mandshu, in the eleventh and twelfth centuries
over the North of China, has furnished Br. de Harlez the evidence
j adduced in the first part, second section, of his new work, while
the first section is an expos^ of the Mandshu religion of the
sixteenth and seventeenth centuries as exhibited in the Ritual
i framed by order of the Mandshu Emperor of the Chinese Empire.
The translation of this Ritual, which forms the second part of the
work, pp. 61-174, is followed by a tableau of the Mongol re-
ligion, as described by the Tartar historians and European travellers
and writers. A description of the religion of the ancient Chinese,
and its comparison with that of the Tartars, composes the shortest
and last part of the work. The author has left aside altogether
all that has been imported by the Buddhists, and has in many cases
170TES OF THE QUARTER. 309
modified so deeply the former standard. We are afraid that not
a few of the views put forth by several writers of fame on com-
parative religions will prove inexact with reference to the hitherto
little known national religion of the Tartars when compared with
the faithful exposi we have just described. — T. de L.
Africa. — ^Don Antonio da Silva Leitao e Castro has published in
the Portuguese Language at the National Press of Loanda, 1866,
the Grammar of the Kongo Language and Yocabulary compiled by
Brusciottus, a Capuchin Monk, in the Latin language 200 years
ago. Our readers will recollect that this book is no longer rare, as
a new edition was published some years back in London, and it has
been translated and published in English by Mr. Grattan Guiness,
of Harley House, Bow. It is a Bantu language.
Joaquin Almeida Da Cunha has published at the National Press
of Loanda, 1886, a Grammar and Vocabulary of the Mai^a language
spoken in the district of Cape Delgado in the Province of Mozambik
in East Africa. It is a Bantu language.
The same author has published at the National Press of Mozambik,
1885, a Study on the Manners and Customs of the Banian, Bathia,
Parsi, Moor, Gentile and Native inhabitants of the Province. It
would be an interesting study to examine this volume, as so many
of the races alluded to are natives of India, Hindu and Mahometan
who have settled on the east coast of Airica, south of the equator,
in fact all the coast trade is in the hands of Indians.
SutUy Wifit Africa, — The E«v. P. H. Donglin, Missionary to the
Kio Pongo, has published through the S.P.C.K. a Reading Book in
the Susu language, a most important form of speech in West
Airica. This belongs to the Negro group.
Kahail^ North Africa. — Emeritus Professor F, "W. Newman has
published (Triibner) a new and enlarged edition of his Numidian,
or Kabail, Yocabulary. It includes all the words contained in a
Vocabulary prepared by Father Olivier, which Dr. Cust, the Hon.
Secretary, picked up during his tour in Algeria, as it was previously
unknown in England.
Oceania. — ^Mr. Sydney H. Bay has contributed to the Journal of
the Anthropological Institute a Grammatical Notice of the Nguna
language, spoken in one of the islands of the New Hebrides.
Oratnmatica Oromana. — A Grammar of the language spoken in
Abyssinia, and by the Galla tribe. By Lucie Scobart. Published
at Naples, 1885, in the Italian language. In the Preface we learn
that the Boman Catholic Bishop Massaia gave the first impetus to the
310 KOTES OF THE QUAETEB.
stndy of this language as far back as 1854, by opening a school in
which the native children were taught the language and the use of
the Roman character. The author followed this lead, and has
compiled a very creditable Grammar. The author appears to be
a young Italian Professor.
African Philology, — A G^mmar and Yocabulary of the Fan
Language was published at New York, 1881, by the Bey. E. H.
Nassau, M.D., of the American Presbyterian Board of Missions in
the Gabun, the west coast south of the equator. It was the work
of the Bey. H. M. Adams, of the same mission, who died as far
back as 1856. It is of great importance. The language is of the
Bantu family .—B. N. C.
Prof. Chamberlain, of Tokyo, who has already earned the
gratitude of many little people (and of some big folk too) by his
renderings of Japanese fairy-tales, has begun a series of little stories
gathered from Ainu lips, of which the two which have just
appeared, the Punter in Fairyland and the Birds' Party, will be
found no less interesting, and even more novel, than those of more
Southern origin. These little brochures are daintly printed and got
up, and very quaintly illustrated in colours by a Japanese artist,
the very covers being pictured all over with representations of
Ainu men and women, weapons, houses, and utensils, and with
scenes from the stories. The tales show how like are the workings of
the fancy in primitive peoples all over the world, and how universal
the yearning after some happier existence than that which we have
had from day to day.— F. Y. Dickiks {^Academy, 2nd Feb, 1888.)
Comparative Vocabularies of the Languagee spoken at Suakin :
Arabic, Hadendoa, JBeni-Amer, compiled by direction of Major C.
M. Watsow, C.M.G., B.E. (S.P.C K.).
The Arabic is the common Soudanese Arabic; the Hadendoa,
as I have shown in the last issue of the Jouknal, p. 144, is the
dialectal form of the Bedawye language spoken by the Hadendoas ;
as to the dialect used by the Beni-Amer, it is an Arabic-Tigre-
Bedawye 'gibberish,' something like the French-Spanish- Arabic-
Kabayl 'sabir' used by the French colony in Algeriai or the
* bich-la-mar ' used by the coasting sailors in Oceania.
Major Watson has done his best to supply us with what he was
asked for, and his little work will be welcomed by those who are
already acquainted with the Arabic and Bedawye languages ; but^
NOTES OF THE QUARTER. 311
I am sorry to say, this work will be quite useless for others, the
form of vocabulary imposed upon the compiler having prevented
him from exhibiting these languages in their true grammatical form.
That form of Vocabulary, prepared in India for the Aryan
languages, though doubtlessly appropriate to them, is quite
inadequate for African languages. The ZeiUchriftfUr Afrikanische
Sprachm has already, in its number of October, 1 887, called atten-
tion to the very grave inconvenience of this, and the present work
ought never to have gone to the press without being carefully
revised and annotated by some competent scholar. Thus, it does
not even notice the existence of the article, either in Arabic or
in Hadendoa ; in some instances, I find the masculine or feminine
article unconsciously incorporated with the Hadendoa nouns, as:
wanhuil means 'the ear,' not 'ear,' which is ankuil^ better angkwil;
wahtdy, tahtdy mean ' the horse, the mare,' not ' a horse, a mare ' ;
%hab 'a cow,' is an indefinite form meaning 'cow' (masc. in
Hadendoa). None of the grammatical forms is correctly noticed,
and the Arabic translator has been led into many mistakes, as
when he translates ' of a father ' by l,a li*ah, which means really
' (belonging) to father.' The formation of the feminine and of the
plural in Hadendoa, by means of the article or otherwise, is totally
omitted. It should have been easily illustrated by the following
scheme : —
Masc. {t-hesa (the he-cat), pi. d-hesa tak (man).
Fern, id-hesa (the she-cat), pi. td-hesa idkat (woman).
Masc. ii-mek ani-h-u (the he-ass [is] mine) ham era-h (white he-
camel).
Fem. ^^-m«itani-^-ti (the she-ass [is] mine) kam era-t (white she-
camel).
Instead of this I find the fem. anit with the meaning 'of me,'
which should be anl, and the masc. aniho with the meaning 'mine,'
without any distinction of gender. Many substantives are given
in the nominative with the characteristic -t of the genitive case,
and so on.
Moreover, the form of vocabulary adopted gives no evidence of
the respective position of the words in the affirmative sentence.
We are told how one can say " How old is this hor^e ? " or " From
whom did you buy that?" ; but we do not know how to say ** The
horse I bought from my neighbour is very old," or simply, " I love
my wife ; I am eating bananas."
312 NOTES OP THE QUAKTER,
Some more appropriate form of vocabulary and a thorough
revisioa would have enabled the compiler to avoid the mistakes
I have pointed out. — Capt, T. G. be G.
This is not the proper place to comment upon the geographical
and descriptive part of Antonio Geccri's work ; Da Zeila alU
frtmtiere del Caffa, already noticed in the last issue of the Joum.
lioj. Asiat. Soc. ; but the linguistic part, which forms nearly the
third volume (502 pages out of 636) of this publication, seems to
me to deserve some further consideration. It contains some very
valuable grammatical notes and more or less extensive vocabularies
of six East African languages— ( 1 ) Eaffa; (2) Shuro (?); (3)
Yanj^ro (Yangara or Yomma); (4) Adiya (Kambat?); (6) Shaha
(Gurague) ; (6) Afar (Dankali). The first five languages are not
well, or not at all, known, and, though the last one has been fully
illustrated by Reinisch and Colizza, this new volume is a very
welcome contribution to our linguistic knowledge on that part of
Africa.
But by far the most important part of Gecchi's work is the elaborate
Grammar and extensive Vocabulary of the Galla language, this part
covering not less than 398 pages. Among the ten or twelve exist-
ing publications on this language, there is no sufficiently reliable
work ; the most complete of them, Tutschek's Grammar and
Vocabulary, though a marvellous 'tour de force,' was compiled in
Munich only from the mouth of a released slave, and could not be,
therefore, quite satisfactory. Massaja's Grammar is very difficult to
use, being intermixed, paragraph by paragraph, with the Amharic
Grammar; but, nevertheless, it has proved of great assistance to
the compiler of the present Grammar, Prof. Ettore Viterbo, having
been written on the spot by one who had become fully acquainted with
the language during a stay of more than twenty years. The other
works were incomplete notices or vocabularies, so that the present is
intended to meet a real want, being complete in every part. The
Grammar has been carefully compiled from the notes, phrases, and
instances collected by three personal observers, and, at a first glance,
it looks quite satisfactory. The Galla-Italian and Italian-Galla
Vocabularies, compiled in the same way, are the most elaborate we
have, and they will certainly prove very useful, not only to those
who wish to acquire especially the Galla language, for whatever
purpose it may be, but also to all students of languages. The
Italian transliteration will cause, perhaps, some uneasiness to those
not well acquainted with this language ; but, after all, it is neither
NOTES OF THE QUARTER. 313
better nor worse than transliteration in accordance witli any ather
of onr living languages, and the same difficulty will be experienced
till we adopt some scientific and uniform mode of transliteration.
Thus, the words Seiankalld and Sciurdy given as ethnical names
equivalent to each other, though the first one really means '* negro"
in the Galla language, ought to be written Shangala and Shuro for
an English reader. Lepsius' system is, I think, very imperfect,
and the best of those hitherto employed is Bishop Steere's, at least
for African languages and English readers. I have myself adopted,
especially for the sake of comparison, a new scientific system, which
I hope I shall soon be able to present to the English reader. — Gapt.
T. G. j)B G,
r.S. — ^I may add that the third volume of Gecchi's work
(linguistic part) can be had from the publisher (Ermanno Loescher,
in Rome), and indeed at a very cheap rate, viz. ten shillings ; also
from Messrs. Sampson Low and Go., in London.
The following letters came too late for insertion among
the Gorrespoudence.
2. The Babylonian Origin of the Chinese Characters.
Sir, — My attention has been called to several inexact
statements concerning me, and conceived in anything but a
lenient spirit, by Mr. G. Bertin, in his article on the Origin
and Development of the Cuneiform Syllabary, published in
this Journal, October, 1887, Vol. XIX. pp. 625-654.
I shall only put to right a few of them.
In answer to the variously-repeated accusation that I have
taken up views of other scholars, such as our lamented
Fran9ois Lenormant and Dr. Hyde Clarke, I must say that
I have as yet never heard of, or seen, any paper or book
in which has been forestalled in any way my discovery, put
forth in 1880, that the Chinese writing was derived about
2500 B.C. from that in use at Babylon, through the inter-
mediate country of Elam. The views entertained were—
either as Fran9ois Lenormant thought at one time, without
any attempt at proving it, that the Akkadian and Chinese
314 COBRESPONDENCE.
writings had a common origin east of the Aral Sea— or, as I
have learned recently, Dr. Hyde Clarke's opinion in 1878,
amidst the flights of fancy which have made famous the
meetings of the British Association — that the Chinese, Egyp-
tian, and Akkadian writings were related in pre-historic
times. Both these views are altogether different from that
to which I was led by my studies. My discovery was made
public in T?ie Times, 20th April, in a lecture before the
Royal Asiatic Society, 10th May, and in a lecture published
in the Journal of the Society of Arts, 16th July, 1880, vol.
xxviii. pp. 726-734. Writing several months afterwards in
the same Journal, p. 791, Dr. Hyde Clarke, in an amiable
note which I have only seen lately, accepted my discovery
and mentioned his communication, not yet seen by me, at
Dublin two years before, on the pre-historic relations of the
three writings. On the 20th of June, the late Fran9ois Lenor-
mant had written to me from Bossieu some congratulations
on " mes d&ouvertes de premier ordre." My lecture from
the Journal of the Society of Arts was reprinted separately,
with the addition of a plate of Akkadian and early Chinese
characters ; the plate was bad, and Mr. G. Bertin was right
in criticising it (p. 654), though, if I judge from the opinion
of many scholars of eminence, his criticism goes beyond the
mark, when he infers from that imperfect plate that my
discovery had not as yet been scientifically established at the
time of his paper (October, 1887), To be able to say so, he
ought to have refuted the large amount of circumstantial
evidence, including the most conclusive proof given by the
shifted cardinal points, which I have piled up in several of
my works, and which have received a wide circulation. A
resum^, entitled Babylonia and China, had appeared in The
Babylonian and Oriental Record for June, 1887. Since then
I have published on the subject : §§ 197-208 of my book on
The Languages of China Before the Chinese (1887, D. Nutt),
The Shifted Cardinal Points, from Elam to Early China (1st
art.), and The Old Babylonian Characters ani their Chinese
Berivates, in The Babylonian and Oriental Record of January,
pp. 25-32, and of March, 1888, pp. 73-99.
CORRESPONDENCE. 315
Mr. G. Bertin finds fault with several of my statements
about the writing from which the Chinese characters were
derived, as seen through an examination of these characters,
which were published in this Journal in 1883, Vol. XV. pp.
278-280. I have had occasion lately to revise them care-
fully, and I must say that I shall be obliged to maintain
nearly every one of them. The cause of this difference arises
from the fact that the Babylonian writing had undergone
several changes before the oldest state that we know of it.
I shall discuss the matter in my paper "On the Kushite
Origin of the Babylonian Characters," which I shall give
out as soon as leisure and health permit.
With reference to the latter hypothesis, which I put forth
for the first time in my paper The Kiiahites, who were they ?
published pp. 25-31 of The Babylonian and Oriental Record
for December, 1886, which Mr. G. Bertin criticises unmerci-
fully without quoting it, and where I gave as my opinion
that the Egyptian, Babylonian, and Hittite writings may
have sprung from a former system still unknown, and
brought into Babylonia and Hittite lands by the Kushite.^),
I must say that I had never known the theory to have been
started by any one before, and that I am still in the same
state of ignorance. The above-quoted paper of Dr. Hyde
Clarke, of which I have only heard through Mr. G. Bertix^'s
article, would bear out a part only of the theory. I am
indebted to Mr. G. Bertin for having put right a wrongly-
applied quotation from Pritchard, which I had cited from
Professor G. Maspero without rectifying it ; but the matter
is of little importance, as I have advocated that the Kushites
had been a mixed population in very remote times. As to a
list of ten or twelve Egyptian and Babylonian characters,
which Mr. G. Bertin criticises from me, 1 have never published
such a thing.
Terrien de Lacouperie.
Tks 8€cr$lary of tht Royal Asiatic Socitty,
816 CORRESPOXDKXCB.
8, The Orioix of the Babtloxl^x cha»actbbs from
THE PeBSIAX GcLF.
Sir,— The Chddem BeitKos hm related the distinct and
well known timdirion which makes plainly the civilijation
of kis coontrr originarr from the Persian GnH. The
A»Triologists,'di«arding this local and time-honoared report,
hari enthroned in its stead a theoretical wigin fitmi the
mouniainotts countrr of Elam. They hare stated as an
hypothec* verging coi certainty, that a Tnranian or Mongo-
loid ix^puUtiv>n came down from the north-east to Babylon,
hnngiu^ with Ihem along with their religion, their legends
aud tWKiiuK^s, their laws, their art, their building know-
W.ir^ *ua the art of writing. Ttiis h»ty condosiom, which
wiV* cau55«? a$;«>£;i^aient to later scholaira. was brought abont,
howvYvr, <M* what s^^Hon to me and will jecsa to many others
%iui;e an iu$v£oient givxind. The most of the oldest sounds
attdK-V.^vi U> the chiraeter* are Frilv>- Altaic, the writing docs
not <\>£;uin axty $|i«<^idd sjrmx^l for the palm, which is the
vhicf twe \xt the So«:h^ and the si^n tor ** moimtain,*'
t^u-^^ri*!; i?^ a^xviAraace^ fe a^^ th^t tcr cocntry. Whence
the ^o«h-^xfc$t or^iria ^^ the wr-un^, etc-, contrariwise to
T,\< .iojcvu; ojf a T^Taao-csrythiia pcc^il^rioir in the regioo
ifcv-^<h x>; ;>><' IVr&j^ O jlI: aB;:ikh otcce ih^a 4*X«> years before
th^ C>r*:>:^^ <r:jk cfcrrxxrg wi;h h ihetr ^is^rBt^, religioas
KnX. t\ U'c>?:s,b Atsi trjii.;;;cciSv Arc«i«. w he a hi^scorical £act,
*>.i ?>.<- V^:u:'\'<vx;h.jai <hdtniic:^r .£ :hrf£r laJMrage » now
%\<1 *!<vn*.^Nr<, Kit i; Ck\f^ 3:^5 iiircx -ha:: tmsy brought
% >,i ;>c«i $^*i «i ar^ *s^ :::jl: ^c wr.n:!^. wajca nnpiies f<w
il^ ^vxssk^^^;:^ ^ivv^j^^ ;jifctv-*ft$ vvc:":^«ic;« cu.a .-c pcobubility
».,X uv o*$nrv V .\^ :,>cx cc^i: re iATre n^^jjired its before
tN^T ^^, ^'* vi^ ^n;l:>v ^w^v:*^ :wM: fr.-^at ^"vmanrir cpinioa this
»\*> > 'jC ^** ^>^5 ;^xv?:* v\i jx v^i^ lv:v^?*ic jlccoi^ cr shey had
n\\x>\>i x^ tV^^ sN N c^ Ti.^ f-jc vvc^!a^acy i» ;&$aizist
A>\\ . ^ -^ %v V-^,^>* :- .tt ^v;,x>.-v.ic^f -j: lij^ry ah^-iTt the
^ *Vv V ^ 'X.v*^ X % '. , J;
c:ri
CORRESPONDENCE. 317
have no creatiye genius whatever ; they preserve or destroy,
*^-^ but they do not invent ; the supposed instances of the reverse
are not genuine. The other would be the existence of an
older form of civilization, from which this writing might
have been borrowed ; but even admitting that, we would not
find as we do proofs in the writing itself that it was not
zxffi^ derived from Central Asia; we know enough of the
^ ;.. traditions and history of these countries to be sure that no
"^ centre of civilization of the kind has ever existed. The
oldest form of culture of Eastern Asia was that of the
Chinese; but it was in toto a borrowed one, as I have
repeatedly shown, and it did not begin tiU two thousand
years or more after the descent of the Sumero- Akkadians in
Babylonia.
This arrival of Northmen can very well be reconciled with
the tradition reported by Berosus, for which I shall adduce
some proofs below. There is nothing improbable in their
finding in their new country the writing already in use,
though still a recent importation, and which tradition and
practice had not yet given a sufficient phonetic development
and force of resistance to new-comers. They must have
adapted it entirely to their requirements of sounds and
words, preserving only very few of those previously in
existence, and which they could not dislodge. This might
be the explanation of the survivals of a former state, which
are visible in the oldest documents. Some characters appear
in the columns of inscriptions discovered at Telle, placed in
positions objectionable to their pictorial primitive value, and
this shows that the column arrangement was not their
original one. Several arguments might be added here from a
paper, TJie Pre- Akkadian Setnites, written eighteen months
ago by Mr. G. Bertin, in the Joum. Roy. Asiat Soc.,
vol. xviii. pp. 409-436 ; the ingenious Assyriologist wanted
to show that the writing was in the land, and made use of
by the Semites before the Akkadian invasion, and his paper
certainly deserved a better fate than it received from the
hands of Prof. A. H. Sayce, Sibbert Lectures for 1887,
p. 436. I do not think he has really shown that the Semites
TOL. XX.>-[MBW 8BBIB8.J 22
^*''
318 CORRESPONDENCE.
knew the art of writing previously to the Akkadians, but
he has given good reasons against the theory of a Sumero-
Akkadian origin of this writing. For my own part, I have
already expressed as my opinion {The Kushttea, who were
they? in The Babylonian and Oriental Itecord, December,
1886), that the writing in question was brought in by the
Kushites, speaking a language having an indirect ideology,
whatever they may have been as a race apparently much
mixed ; and as this importation would have been done from
the Persian Gulf, the tradition preserved by Berosus would
thus be explained. I am well aware of the pitfedls and
dangers of all sorts which the inquirer has to avoid in
researches concerning ideographic characters. A writing
so composed is never steady. With the increase of know-
ledge new meanings are engrafted by analogy either on the
sounds or on the characters; new pictographs are made
either anew altogether or by the adaptation of their shape
to some purpose and object foreign to their original value.
Such, for instance, when the Chinese scribes applied to the
representation of swan or counting-rods, two old characters
she " reveal," simply because of their suitable shape. Similar
instances cannot always be discriminated, and may cause
mistakes in a question so intricate and bristling with difficul-
ties as the beginnings of the Babylonian characters. The
language of the inventors of these characters can be ascer-
tained only when a sifting of the oldest sounds attached to
the characters has been made in order to find the residuum
of words and sounds older than the Sumerian introduction.
The matter is the more difficult if I am right in my in-
ferences concerning the language and dialects spoken by the
Kushite mixed race of seafarers and traders, which were not
very distant offshoots of the Turano-Scy thian stock. Further
researches will explain away the difficulty and throw light
on this obscure problem.
In the mean time we may be satisfied with the proof that
this writing was not originated in a highland country. The
great argument in favour of this view cuts both ways. It
rests on the fact that the symbol for * mountain ' means also
COEBESPONDENCE. 319
Mand' and 'country/ but for islanders or seafarers land
always looks mountainous ! and could not be represented
by them otherwise. And what is highly significant is that
the symbol for ' mountain ' imparts a contemptuous meaning
to the compounds in which it occurs; for instance gin
' servant/ lit ' woman of the mountains/ uru ' serirant/ lit.
'man of the mountains/ am 'wild bull/ lit. 'bull of the
mountains.' Should the writing have been invented in the
highlands, the reverse would be the case. There are no
primitive characters for 'river' nor for 'bear' (it is a
compound). On the other hand, the primitive character for
' fish ' is important in the writing ; the sign for ' water' means
also 'father/ and there are primitive symbols for 'boat,'
for ' wind ' (represented by an inflated sail), etc. I hope my
readers will agree with me that all this constitutes a pretty
strong argument in favour of the genuineness of the tradition
reported by Berosus, that letters were introduced into Ohaldea
from the Persian Gulf.
Terrien db Laooupbrib.
Th$ Seertiary Royal Atiatic Soei$ty,
JOURNAL
THE EOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.
Akt. VIII. — Notes on the Early History of Northern India.
By J. F. Hewitt, late Commissioner of Chota Nagpur.
The most noteworthy part of the history of India must
always be that whioh tells how the people known as Hindoos,
speaking languages derived from the Sanskrit, and living
in the country between the Himalayas and the Yindhyan
Mountains, and in the Valley of the Indus, were formed
from originally heterogeneous elements into a nation, and
which further describes the origin and development of their
system of government and their early religious history. The
written materials available for these purposes are unusually
abundant, but vary greatly in value. The earliest documents
at all deserving the name of authentic history are the Pali
writings of the early Buddhists. These give us a very good
idea of North-eastern India, the institutions, government,
and customs of the people in the fifth and sixth centuries
before Christ. But the people had then reached a com-
paratively late stage in their progress, and as to events
occurring before that time, we have to look for informa-
tion primarily to the very voluminous early Sanskrit
literature, and chiefly to the legends and traditions therein
contained ; and secondarily to facts ascertained from foreign
countries and languages, and to deductions from the earliest
subsequent historical documents, and from coins, monuments,
and remains of early buildings, all dating from a much later
period. The Sanskrit writings consist of religious and war-
TOL. XX. — [kew BBBIia.] 23
322 EARLY HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIA.
like odes, ritualistio manuals, metaphysical and ethical
treatises, books of sacred law, and epic poems; but the
historical value of the contents of these works is greatly
lessened by the circumstances under which most of them
were composed.
Of these books the most valuable for historical purposes are
the Hymns of the Rigveda, as the authors of these poems
write naturally, without any bias beyond that arising from
pride in Aryan prowess, the conviction of Aryan infallibility,
trust in Aryan gods, and depreciation and contempt of their
opponents who possessed the land they wished to call their
own. Though less legendary than the Homeric or later
Sanskrit epics, they are in no sense narrative poems, being
for the most part war-songs and religious odes addressed to
the gods and the god-like Soma, the inspirer alike of gods
and men, and they deal only incidentally with actual facts.
They nevertheless give us most valuable information as to
the social polity and beliefs of the Aryan tribes before they
had been much altered by contact with other races. And
though they tell us little directly about their predecessors in
the country who opposed their advance into it, they enable
us to judge of the change effected by the subsequent influ-
ence of other races, by comparing Aryan institutions, as set
forth in the Veda, with those current in the country in
later times.
Many of the later Sanskrit works would be much more
trustworthy guides than they are, when not carefully tested,
if it were not for the one-sidedness and inaccuracy of the
writers, who, whether as priests or bards, systematically
ignored and frequently falsified facts, to serve their special
ends. The priests, who wrote for the most part after the
caste system resulting from the amalgamation of the different
races had become an article of the Brahmin faith, made it
their object to secure its general recognition, and thereby
to make the Brahmins, as priests of the gods and guardians
of the national morality, supreme in Church and State. In
doing this it was their interest to ignore and suppress all
that tended to prove that those who were accepted as
EARLY HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIA, 823
belonging to the three higher castes were not pure Aryans,
and that their scheme of society and religious beliefs were
not part of the national creed of all people in the country.
In a similar way the royal bards, who were the earliest
authors of the great epic poems, the Mahabharata and the
Ramayana, used their imagination freely in distorting, in-
venting, and concealing facts so as to establish the fame
of their patron kings and the ancestors who had preceded
them on the throne.
This very summary and incomplete examination of possible
causes of error shows how necessary it is, before accepting
statements derived from these writings as correct, to test
them by comparison with the secondary sources of informa-
tion above described. But though much has been done in this
direction by Muir, Lassen, Zimmer, Max Miiller, and very
many other honoured authorities, who will be referred to
frequently in this paper, much still remains to be done to
show the great share taken by other races besides the Aryans
in the formation of the Hindoo religion, Hindoo govern-
ment, and Hindoo social customs. What I hope especially to
prove is, that the knowledge of early times gained from the
sources of information described above may be very greatly
increased by examining not only the methods by which
Hindooism is now extending its influences over tribes which it
has not yet absorbed, but also the present customs of the un-
Hindooised sections of those races ; as it is from them that the
present mixed population has been in a great measure formed,
and they have occupied a very important and permanent place
in its history, but have left no independent literature to record
their achievements. Large and comparatively self-governing
confederacies and states of these races still remain in
Central India imdisturbed by the changes caused by foreign
conquest, immigration, and eager competition with other
tribes. They are naturally and persistently conservative, like
all people who are so contented with their lot as to think
the trouble of trying to improve it unnecessary labour, or
who have either not excited the cupidity of their neighbours,
or have proved that they cannot be interfered with without
324 EAELT HISTORY OP NORTHERN INDIA-
risks to those who attack them greater than can be com*
pensated by the advantages of conquest. The unaltered
customs of these people, who still worship the gods, retain
the system of government, and speak the speech of their
remote forefathers, are no less valuable to the historian than
undisturbed strata to the geologist And as the latter is
greatly aided in describing accurately former phases of
existence by materials supplied by these untainted records,
80 may the historial inquirer receive trustworthy help in
his efforts to resuscitate the past from tribes like those
described above, who may in a scientific point of view be
called still living fossils.
What I would venture to submit to the judgment of
scholars is that the traditional history to be deduced from
Hindoo writings and popular legends is totally at variance
with the actual facts. According to this account the
priestly, ruling, and trading classes of North India belong
to the Aryan race, which entered India from the North-
west, led by their kings, who were assisted by their
family priests of the Brahmin caste. They succeeded
without much difficulty in overrunning the whole country
watered by the Indus, Ganges and their tributaries, to-
gether with a considerable area of the Eastern and Western
coasts south of these river-systems. In their progress they
made Aryan institutions and beliefs the accepted laws of
the land, and according to the Satapatha Br&hma^a,^ the land
they traversed was only cultivated and civilized when it was
burnt over by Agni Yaisv&nara, the sacred household fire
of the Aryans ; or in other words, when the people submitted
to Aryan influence and guidance. The aboriginal inhabi-
tants were either driven into the mountains or reduced to
semi-slavery as Sadras, while the Aryans, divided into the
three classes of (1) Brahmins, (2) Warriors, and (3) traders
and agriculturists, exercised supreme authority through the
first two classes. They based firstly their religious organization
on the rules said to have been laid down from the earliest times
^ Prof. Eggeling's venion, in the Sacred Books of the Bast, yoI. xli. p. 106.
SAKLT HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIA. 325
for the worship of the Aryan gods, the imdntenance in each
household of the sacred fire and the prescribed sacrifices ;
secondly, their system of goyemment on that set forth in
the early treatises of the sacred law, which allowed a
great latitude as to " the laws of countries, castesi and families
which were not opposed to the sacred law/' ^ these in cases of
dispute being ascertained from the evidence of experts. Now
that the Aryans spread themselves over the country, that
they secured within its limits a very large share of power
as religious, military, and political leaders, that dialects
formed from their language became at a very early period the
spoken language of the great body of the people, is true
enough. But that they exterminated and drove out their
predecessors, and forcibly assumed the government of the
country, or that those now living there are people of pure
Aryan descent, who have received Aryan religious beliefs
from their forefathers, and have based their social polity
on Aryan precedents, seems to me to be entirely untrue. If
we look at the popular religion, we find the Aryan gods
of the Yeda, Mitra, Yaru^a, Indra, and Agni, with the other
heavenly givers of light and life, almost entirely thrown
aside, and Siva, Durga, Yish^n, and village and local deities,
with the totally non- Aryan N&ga or Snake gods installed in
their place. None of these can be legitimately evolved from
the Aryan conceptions of the heavenly powers, who were
alone the objects of their worship. It woald require a book
to trace the divergences in each separate case; bat two specif
instances, which might be maltiplied over and orer again,
will snfBce to sbofw the essential diflSBrence between the Yedie
and popular theology. These are the worship d Siva and
that of snakes, the latter still subsisting smong the Hindoo*
in the universally obsMved 5ig»-paj|ebaari festival^ The
worship of Siva may be traced back to the very earliest
times sncceeding the Yedie period, and in souse of his aspects
he resembles the Yedie Kodra, the StoruKgod, who is repre*'
sented in the Yijasaaeyi-Saiphita wider the iaeongniooe
^ Gantmis, (!hitp. li. 21.
' MooMr-WiUuMM, JMigiow Lifi is Ib&, p^ 333, 430.
326 EAELY HISTORY OF NORTHEKN INDIA.
aspects of a fierce terrible destroyer and as a saviour and
deliverer. These apparent incongruities are, however, legiti-
mate deductions from the varying influences of storms ; but
when Rudra disappears from the list of popular gods, and
Siva the auspicious one takes his place, he is no longer one
of the heavenly powers, but the god represented by the linga
or phallus, an earthly emblem ascribing the creative and
generative power, not to the gods of heaven, but to the earth,
and this proposition could never have been evolved from
Aryan premisses, or enounced as true by a pure Aryan
people. As to the worship of snakes, modem authors who
have written on the subject, I believe, either treat the snake
worship, which prevailed so extensively in Asia, Africa, and
Europe in the most ancient times^ as part of the zoolatry
originating in totemism, or ascribe its prevalence to the
fear inspired by snakes, whose attacks were so stealthy and
insidious, and whose bite was so immediately fatal. The
totemistic explanation, though no doubt sufficient to explain
animal worship in its other aspects, is, as I hope to show in
the sequel of this paper, quite incapable of explaining its
universality and persistent prevalence in India from the
earliest periods. The second explanation ascribing the reve-
rence paid to snakes is quite inconsistent with its extension
to countries such as Italy and Lithuania,^ where snakes were
at all events much rarer than in more tropical countries.
The present question, however, is whether snake worship
would be derived from Vedic theology or not, and this I
would submit must be unreservedly answered in the negative;
it is impossible that the Aryans would worship the snakes,
who are said in the Rigveda to be the special foes of Indra
and the heavenly powers.
The early prevalence of this worship in India, and the
importance ascribed to the N&ga gods, is shown by the pro-
tecting snake watching over the Buddha being continually
depicted in all early Buddhist bas-reliefs, and also by the
high place assigned to them in early Buddhist literature. If
^ Monier-'Willianui, Religious Life in India, p. 313.
EARLY HISTOEY OF NORTHERN INDIA. 327
the Nftga gods were merely objects of animal worship, and
adored chiefly from fear, they would not be placed before all
other gods and heavenly beings, as they are throughout all
early Buddhist writings. A special instance of this is the
great hymn of triumph celebrating the victory of the Buddha
over M4ra the tempter, where the Nftga gods are placed
first in the sacred hierarchy, above the Supa^nas or winged
creatures, the Devas or angels, and lastly the Brlihma gods.^
As to social institutions, the text quoted above from
Oautama as to the maintenance of the laws of countries^
castes, and families, which were not opposed to the sacred
law, shows conclusively that Aryans when supreme did not
try to subvert local customs and systems of government
unless they were objectionable on religious grounds. That
this maxim was regarded as possessing special authority, is
shown by its being reproduced in Manu,^ Apastamba,' and
Tftjnavalkya,* which are all later manuals of the sacred law.
This being the case, it is not surprising to find modes of
government and political and social customs totally difierent
from those described in the Yedas. To take one instance,
the strongly organised village communities found everywhere
throughout India, the origin of which will be explained later
on, could never have been derived from the democratic Aryan
8abha or Samiti, which chose their chiefs by popular election,
and did not pay them revenue, but only gave them free gifts.^
In unravelling the enigma arising from the radical
difference between the origin of the language spoken by
the people and that of their religious beliefs and socisil
institutions, the task set before the historian is to find out
first the several races which united to make the Hindoo
nation; secondly, the history of the process of amalgamation ;
and, thirdly, the several shares contributed by each race
towards the final result. In doing this I have only space
here to give a rough sketch, omitting very many of the
1 Faiuboll*8 Jfttaka, toI. i. p. 75. These were not the Brahmin gods, bnt the
godB of the Brahma heavens, a diviiion of the Buddhist world of devas or angels.
> liana, viii. 46. ' Apastamba, ii. 6. 15. 1.
* Y&jfia?alkya, i. 342. * Zunmer, Altindischee Leben, p. 166.
828 BAKLY HISTORY OP NORTHBEN INDIA.
proo& available, of what I think we have fair reason to
believe to be a true outline of the early history of Northern
India. But in so doing I shall incidentally be able to call
attention to and explain certain points of the evidence which
seem to me to acquire new meaning from the point of view
I have been led, by a long study of the problem, to adopt.
Of the races which have, since national life in the country
began, formed the most politically and socially active part
of the people, three can be traced back to the very earliest
times, and though others have since exercised great and
abiding influence, to these alone can the earliest forms of
the social institutions which formed the framework of the
government of the country be assigned. These are, first, the
Mongoloid tribes of Malayan affinities, speaking languages
belonging to the Kolarian family, who entered India from
the East;^ secondly, the Australioids, speaking Dra vidian
languages, and lastly, the Aryans. The Dravidians came
from the West, from whence they may be traced across
India, and probably like the Aryans from the North-
west. The order in which these races entered the country
can be seen most clearly in Central India in the tract
watered by the Tapti, Nerbudda, Godaveri, Mahanuddi,
Subonrikha, Damooda' and their tributaries. Within this
area we And Eolarian tribes, some of which retain their
primitive customs unmixed with foreign elements. In other
cases we find the Dravidians the ruling body, either mixed
with or apart from the Eolarians ; and in the more fertile
and accessible tracts we find the chief power in the hands
of Aryan immigrants, who, while leaving Dravidian and
Kolarian institutions unchanged as far as they afiected only
members of these tribes who did not amalgamate with the
invaders, have altered them so as to fit in with Aryan ideas
of the sanctity and continuity of the family, and the equal
rights of all who held land in the villages and submitted to
the Brahman supremacy.
^ Dalton, Ethnology of Bengal, p. 151.
' Properly Da-mnnda, i.0. ' water of the Mundas ' (the chief Eolarian tribe on
itsbanka).
EARLY HI8T0ET OF NORTHERN INDIA- 829
From the evidence given by inquiries as to the order in
which these races came into the country, it is clear that
wherever these three races have formed part of the now
' amalgamated population, the Kolarian tribes were the earliest
K settlers, as we always find them driven into the worst lands
in districts where they live together with the other races.
That they came from the East is shown by the following facts;
first they themselves always say that they did so, secondly
all the most powerful and purest Kolarian tribes are found in
the East, and thirdly their languages (as has been shown
by General Dalton) are allied to those used by the-Easia
on the Brahmaputra, the Palaung and the Mon or Peguans
on the Irawaddy, the Kambojans on the Mekong, and the
Assamese on the Tonquin. It was the Eolarians who cleared
the forests and tilled the lands, though in doing this they did
not use draught cattle, which were at first unknown to them
except as wild buffaloes and the wild cattle called Gaur
(Anglice Bison). They learnt the use of iron very early, and
with the weapons so acquired they formed the clearings,^
which were united into the first primitive unions of petty
hamlets, each inhabited by families having the same totem,
and all finding their centre of union in the tribal priest,
now called Byga, who was elected by the community to
propitiate the local deities supposed to reside in the very
extensive section of the forests over which the associated
hamlets were scattered. These hamlets, as the population
increased, became village communities, each with its de*
pendent hamlets as newer clearances by fresh groups of
settlers were made. Each parent village was governed
by its headman, now called Munda, chosen from among
the first settlers, and frequently, though by no means
always, the office was continued from father to son. Over
the villages united under the same priest a common chief (now
called Manki) was chosen. He presided at the assemblies of
the representatives of the union, formed generally of the
village headmen and the leading cultivators, though all had
^ Thej probably, as is shown by th6 stone celts fonnd in yarions localities, did
tome clearance with stone implements before they fonnd out the nse of iron.
830 EARLY HISTORY OP NORTHERN INDIA.
a right to attend. These unions of villages most have been
called by some name like Pirs or Parhas, the present name,
and it was in this way in the districts first organised under
Kolarian rule that the divisions now called Pergunnahs
were formed. The Aryan Sabha or village council, and
the Samiti or council of united villages, might produce
similar results in parts of the country where they were the
first settlers, and in that case it would be difficult to say who
were the originators of the divisions now found ; but T would
submit that a nearly certain test for the solution of the
question, should it arise, may be found in the prevalence of
the worship of local spirits and the sacredness ascribed to trees.
It is now and must have always been (with so conservative a
people) customary to leave a certain part of the primitive
forest untouched in a Kolarian village ; this is now called the
Sama,^ and was held sacred to the forest deities, who were
the principal objects of worship among the tribes, though
they regarded the sun as their chief deity. The Sama has
now over the greater part of India dwindled down to the
one tree under which offerings are made to the village god,
though perhaps it may have arisen again under another
form in the village grove to which no such sanctity is now
attached as to the tree of sacrifice, but which forms, as
the Sama once did, the common meeting-place for village
recreation, and the place where all travellers put up. Both
the Eolarians and the Dravidians worshipped their ancestors,
apparently from fear of their ghosts. The Eolarian people
may generally be described as gregarious, excitable, turbulent
when roused, but generally peaceable and good-humoured.
They are brave and adventurous, witty, and very fond of
amusement, not given to work more than is necessary, and as
a rule very careless of the future.'
^ Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, p. 186.
' The whole of the above account of the Eolarian, and the following de-
•cription of the Drayidian tribes, is given from my own personal knowleage of
the people, acqnired during a residence of about thirteen years in the Chota Nagpore
country, in Western Bengal, and that of Chuttisgurh in the Central Provinces
adjoining it, as District and Settlement Officer and Commissioner, in which
capacities I had every possible opportunity of gaining the most intimate know-
ledge of the characteiistics of the people and of their social customs and tribal
BAKLY HISTOEY OF NOKTHERN INDIA. 331
The Kolarians were followed by the Dravidian tribes.
The people who are so celebrated in Indian legend and
poetry as the Snake race and as the Takshaks ^ or builders
I would identify not with the Kolarian hill tribes, as has
been so often done, but with the Dravidians. They were
from their first entry into the country from the west and
north-west a much more strongly organized people than the
Kolarian tribes. They, like the latter, are totemistic, but
differ from them in being an eminently practical racoi
believing firmly in the necessity of a strong central govern*
ment to maintain law and order, and in the duty of every
member of the community to bear his and her share in
contributing to the efficiency of the government, either by
their labour or by paying a part of their produce to
provide for those who work directly for the state. They are
patient and laborious, indomitably obstinate in all they
undertake, and very careful to see they get all possible profit
out of what they do. They are keen traders, and are so
described in the Bigveda, though the word pa^i ' a trader/
is also used to mean ' avaricious,' and this reproach the worse
specimens of the race fully deserve. They are silent and
undemonstrative, except when strongly moved, and are
somewhat slow of apprehension ; but this arises not from want
of intellect, but from a determination to see all round a
subject and know it thoroughly in all its phases. While not
even in early times fond of war and adventure in itself, they
were ready to engage in it as a means to an end, and while
stubborn in defence of their rights and possessions, their
object in attacking others has not been booty and temporary
glory, but permanent enlargement of their boundaries and
lawi. I think I may m that ererTthinj; I hare eaid on these points will be
found to be corroborated oy Col. Dalton in his Ethnology of Bengal, and it was
under him that I first was led, now more than twenty years a^, to take an
interest in the questions discusseid in this paper. With reference to the proofs
giren in the text as to the adrent of the Kolarians from the East, I may here
add another which has been kindly furnished me by Prof. Terrien de Lacouperie,
who tells me that the same peculiar form of shouldered stone celts found in Chota
Nagpore is also found in Burmah.
' H. H. Wilson, Glossary of Indian Terms, giyes carpenters, masons, as a
meaning of Takshak. The term is frequently applied to tne snake-woithipping
people in Indian legend.
332 EAKLY HISTORY OP NORTHERN INDIA.
facilities for trade. They live, it may be said, in public, not
in their families, as the young men and women leave their
parents at an early age, and are brought up in separate
lodgings, the young men in the village bachelors' hall, and
the girls in a similar institution for young women under the
care of a village matron, or are distributed among widows,
and the women as efficient members of the community are
always an important factor in a Dravidian state. Unlike
the Kolarians, they possessed large herds of cattle, and did
not like them abstain from the use of milk. They were
good farmers and great builders, as is shown above by the
name Takshak.
'In their advance through India they did not, like the
Kolarians, proceed in small parties, scattering themselves
through the forests in extensive and widely separated clear-
ings, but they moved in large masses like an army, accom-
panied by their wives, children, and property. They sought
out comparatively cleared and settled districts, where large
numbers could subsist, and foi*med their government on the
model of their camps, generally placing Uie central provinces
under the king, and settling there his more immediate
followers. The outlying districts were assigned to the sub-
ordinate chiefs, who with their respective forces were
appointed to guard the frontiers. They took the best lands
for themselves, but in other respects treated the Kolarians as
equals, leaving them undisturbed in lands they did not them-
selves want, and in many parts of the country, especially in
those which were once border tracts, the two races have
completely blended together and formed new tribes. They
used the Kolarian " parhas " as their local divisions, massing
them together when they formed an area too small for the
provinces into which they divided their territory. They
strengthened the village organization by making the office
^ Nothing corresponding to this and the following paragraphs ahout Drayidian
onstoms can be found in Dalton's Ethnology of Bengal, nor as far as I know in
any other work. The whole has been worked out by me from a careful examina-
tion of the internal constitution of Dravidian states still existing in Chota
Nagpore, and of the great Haihaibunsi kingdom of Chattisghur, conquered by
the Mahrattas in the last century.
EABLY HI9T0BT OF NORTHERN INDIA. 893
of headman non-elective, and obliging the tenants, a« pnrt
of their duty to the state, to cultivate a portion of the villnge
aoil set apart for the king as the head of the government.
This produce was in the provinces directly under the king
oonveyed to the royal granaries, and in the border and out-
lying districts to those of the provincial chief* A soparaie
yiUage accouutant was appointed to look after these royal
lands, and to collect all government dues; and wherever
Patwaris^ or whatever be the local name of village account*
ants, and large estates belongiug to single owners, such as
Talookdari tenures, are found, we may be certain that
the goTemment was originally orgaoi^sed by Dravidian kings
and chiefs, or that it has been nnder Draridian rule^ In
shoft, as all revenue oflioers will recognize, it wss the
Dravidiaos who founded and eonsolidatad the present land
revenue system of India, which in its more repuhVumn
aapeeto has beee either altered by Aryan immifpmiitm or
left in nmch the asne state as that in which it canw Mt
of Kolarian hands.*
Another dis^inetiTe feUore of the Dimridian ipsrvermu^Mri
was the xAA yMss^Mk mA^mnA to the fieoMftui m*:^mnmMiA^^
]n-<hjc<, Urtr iical ef 1&1& frontier tumtL He always ig^A tM
largest mua mmm vmymUe,% *A xhe yn/riuom.
Bai hsades laie sptidckl <^anietmici«s ar/^e vA^!^sfiA^ U^
leligiflna Wii*/ uf 1^ l^nr'Aajm neta to^wnd a fr!:«(a<r«iffif;
an the v«nnup si jema^ <(«xi^ «s«i jgS'Mis ipitnenL aakVAf
the KiiiKriia IriiiM. 7uir nefrntJ^ ^ ^m ^oot^Cl^ ¥f^tJe\^x\M^
mmier Ute •«uiu«a U ^ui: mutiise md ^iuu^ut, mnmm *^ sm;
to fKost Ki a f»ueRiij«uj^ ysmtcg a as MtCMtr^ iur muysTMir
to tiiss ttifiepx iit KMnur^^ sauna*, 'rnvnu.^t. T^f jsnac.,
it sf9icnss lit# we. m%^ 90000^01^ ^0it^UL isym "^mvp vrx
deep aenai; of tut: vewMmvy vt Jun^^r ru^t, lAt^ ml uKmat^
centail au£ifori:.v. u, tut: jmij/iMitv..: ^r yf ^f^fWAy^ mr uvm lut
c«iL« and al tim: Iim^ nn^^ M«t iaiC :;iifuf veiiir f^ J^
ancImi<vidiM « j^hp* \nmmi»u'Mt:^ •» . 1^ />«> «. ^ ^.. ^ v *.•!»- •*»- t
834 EARLY HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIi-
could have begun or be maintained in orderly succession
without a preserving and maintaining cause. Howeyer
this may have been, they found in the earth itself an
object of worship, and adopted the snake, adored under
the name of Ses-nag, and the ^'phallus'' as the visible
sign of the great generative power they revered as the
father and mother of all things. They did not, however,
while venerating the earth, cease to fear the local spirits, the
chief dread of the Kolarian tribes, and probably of their
forefathers in early times. The tree, with its resident
deity, was to them a more constantly familiar object of daily
worship than the great earth spirit to whom they offered
periodical sacrifices, when the seed was sown, when the
young grain appeared, and when it was threshed out. But
at the seasonal festivals the earth god was generally adored
under a less holy name than that of the great Ses-nag,
whose worship now, at least among the Gonds of Central
India, only takes place once a year, and is celebrated in secret
only by initiated males.
The Aryans, who were the last of the three races to settle in
the country, were originally a pastoral people, whose wealth
consisted chiefly in cattle, and who were by no means such
good farmers as the Dravidians. They were no less brave
and adventurous than the Kolarians, and quite as witty and
vivacious, but were much more thoughtful and thorough-
going than that careless people. They built no cities like
the Dravidians, at least we hear of none in the Veda, and
while the Dravidians were superior to them in their practical
elaboration of details and their love of order and organisa-
tion, the Aryans much excelled the other two races in their
breadth of view and the other qualities required to build up
a great nation. Their leading characteristics were richness
of imagination, fertility of resource, earnestness in the pur-
suit of the objects they wished to obtain, coupled with a
strong tendency not to be too scrupulous as to the means
used to reach their ends; love of knowledge for its own
sake, shown in the extension of their inquiries far beyond the
limits of the visible world and the requirements of every-day
EAELY HI8T0EY OP NORTHERN INDIA. 836
life ; pride in their families and kindred, and a determination
to preserye them from contamination with inferior races;
and above all, a vivid sense of their own superiority and right
to rule. In the higher minds of the race, the force of their
imagination was tempered by a ripe judgment, their eager-
ness for success by a strong tenacity of purpose, and their
audacity of speculation by religious reverence and moral
earnestness. They looked to heaven, the sun, and the great
natural forces as the powers which gave life to and sustained
all that was on the earth, and regarded the doctrine of the
Dravidians that the earth was in itself and by its own
inherent force the father and mother of all things as a
deadly and debasing heresy. The duty of every Aryan was
to maintain the sacred household fire when the daily sacri-
fices were to be performed, but the god who was invoked
as the most powerful helper and protector was Indra, the
leader of the light- and life-giving powers, of the rain and
winds. His name became changed to Sakra in Prakrit and
Sakko in Pali, and he appears to be the special god of the
warrior-tribes as opposed to the Brahmins.
We cannot estimate with any approach to exactness the
progress made by the Kolarians and Dravidians in clearing
and peopling the country and forming settled governments
before the Aryans came into it ; bat there can be no doubt
a great deal had been done. The hymns of the Bigveda
show the stabbom resistance the Aryans encountered, and
dwell upon the power and wealth of their adversaries. That
these formidable enemies were snake-worshippers and con-
seqaently Dravidians or tribes who accepted their teaching
and guidance, is, it seems to me, clear not only from later
evidence, bat also from the Bigveda itself.^ The writers call
the people Dasyas, and apply varioos epithets to them, they
call them black (krsh^a), short-nosed (anftso), unintelligent
(akratu) intriguing, abusive (mrdhravac), avaricioaa (pai^i),
unbelieving (af raddha), and irreligioos (avrata). They say
they are a people who neither give ofierings nor spend their
t Zlmma, AltisdiKhc* Leben, pp. 109.US jNMfm.
EAELY HISTOET OF NORTHEEN INDIA,
substance in the service of the gods ; bat the most significant
epithet is that of '* 9i9nadeva/' used in two passages in the
Kigveda.^ There has been some controversy about its mean-
ing, but I would add to the arguments adduced by Zimmer
in the Altindisches Leben to prove that it means phallus-
worshippers, the great similarity between the syllable fif
and s€8y the name of the great snake-god. I have not been
able to find the latter word in Sanskrit, and my knowledge
of the language is too limited to enable me to speak at all
authoritatively on the matter, and I leave this philological
question to better Sanskrit scholars than myself. I would
also urge the significance of passages in the Rigveda ^ where
Indra is praised for having taken the waters from the care of
the snakes and Dasyas and made them " Aryapatni " instead
of *' Dasyapatni," belonging to the Aryans instead of to the
Dasyas. It seems to me that the reference in these and
similar passages is to the god of their enemies the Dasyas,
and not, as has hitherto usually been taken for granted, to
a mere abstract mythological being.
Neither the stages of the process of welding the three
races into one people, nor the date when it was begun, can
now be accurately ascertained. All that we can say for
certain is that the chief agent was the adoption of a common
language, and that the Aryans, whose language was made
the tongue of the people, were accepted as the popular
leaders. There seems to have been but little actual con*
quest, and that the Aryans secured their ascendency by
abating, in some degree, their pride of race and submitting
to intermarriages with the natives of the country, and tolerat-
ing, if not accepting, as their own their religion in the
North-West and the Punjab. The use of Sanskrit dialects
as the language of the country must have begun at a
very early period. Dr. Sayce,' in the Hibbert Lectures for
1887, on the origin and growth of religion among the
1 Eigveda, vii. 21. 5, x. 99. 3.
^ See especially Eigveda, i. 32. 11, andii. 12, 3, for the epiibet Dasyapatni
applied to the waters, also Eigveda, y. 30. 6 ; viii. 96. 18 ; iii. 12. 6. zimmer,
Altindisches Leben» pp. 117, 214.
> Sayce, flibbert liectares for 1887, pp. 18, 136-7.
EARLY HISTORY OP NORTHERN INDIA. 337
Babylonians, shows that commerce with India by sea must
have been carried on as early as about 3000 B.C., when T7r
Bagas, the first king of united Babylonia, ruled in IJr of the
Chaldees. This is proved by the finding of Indian teak in
the ruins of Ur. This must have been brought by sea from
some port on the Malabar coast, for it is only there that teak
grew near enough to the sea to be exported with profit in
those early times, and there is none north of the Yindhyas.
The clearest proof that there was trade between Babylonia
and people who spoke an Aryan dialect, and lived in the
country watered by the Indus, is the use of the word Sindhu
for muslin in an old Babylonian list of clothes. Dr. Sayce
does not state the age of this list, he merely says it is very
old. The name does not merely make it probable that the
Babylonian name for muslin was derived from the Sanskrit,
but proves a much more important and significant fact, that
the merchants who dealt in the muslin called it by the
vernacular name of the country whence they brought it,
and that if the country was called by a Sanskrit name, the
people living in it must have spoken Sanskrit dialects, as
Sindhu is and always has been the Sanskrit name of the
Indus and the country forming its delta. The muslin must
have been brought by sea ; for if 2^nd-8peaking traders had
brought it by land, they would have called the country by the
Zend name Hindhu, altering the 8 into an A. There is also
the well-known instance of the names used in the Book of
Kings for apes, peacocks, ivory, and algum, or sandal-wood,
brought by Solomon's ships from Ophir. These names, as
shown by Max Miiller,^ must have been Hebraised from a
dialectical form of Sanskrit in use on the Malabar coast,
where the sandal-wood grows.* The port whence the muslin
1 Max Miiller, Science of Language, toI. i. p. 204, ed. 1862.
' I find that Dr. Caldwell, in the Introduction to his Comparati?e Grammar
of the Draridian Lanjuaees, maintains that these names are really Draridian
words introduced into Sanskrit. If this is the case, it only strengthens my argu-
ment as to the advance in civilization of the Dravidians before they were brought
in contact with the Sanskrit-speaking people. That the Drayimans of Paulla
were congeners of the Accada of Ur and the earlier Eridu is probable, as Dr.
Sayce shows (Hibbert Lectures for 1887, pp. 134-6) that the distin^^uishing
symbol of the great Accad god £a was a snake, and that it was from Endu that
the culture and ciyilization of Babylonia made its way,
TOL. XX. — [NBW BIBIB8.] 24
838 EABLT HI8T0BT OF NOBTHERN INDU.
was brought, and that from which the Sanskrit-speaking
traders reached the Malabar coast, was probably Patftla, mean-
ing the port/ which has been identified by Gen. Cunningham^
with the modem Hyderabad, in Scinde. It is mentioned by
Arrian as the only place of note in the delta of the Indus,
and was the capital of the king of the Snake race, who ruled
the country.' It was thence that the sons of Ikshvftku, from
whom all the modem Rajputs of the Solar race claim to be
descended, spread their power over the greater part of
Northern India. But though there is strong proof that
Sanskrit was spoken at the mouths of the Indus long before
the Rigveda was put together, there is great difficulty in
showing that the tribes to which its authors belonged were
the people who first made their language that of the nations
living south of the northern Punjabi The authors of the
Sigveda do not seem to have travelled down the Indus as far
as the sea. They do not speak of the many mouths of the
river, of the phenomena of the ebb and flow of the tide,
which must have stmck an observant people as very strange.
Though they had ships or boats, neither masts, sails, cables,
rudders, and such-like appurtenances of a sea-going vessel
are named, nor do they talk of the sea as the authors of the
Homeric Poems, or maritine people do. Judging from their
poems it seems likely that they knew nothing practically of
the sea, except that derived from the wide-spreading waters
of the Indus, a little below where it is joined by the five
rivers of the Punjab.
But though the Aryans of the Bigveda did not directly
supply goods for a sea-going trade, they apparently dealt
with those who did, for, except on this supposition, it is hard
to explain how the Semitic word Manft, denoting a definite
quantity of gold (man& hiranyay&), found its way into the
Rigveda.*
1 H. H. Wilson, Antiquities of Afghanistan, p. 211.
> Ancient Geopaphy of India, pp. 279-287.
* Lassen, toI. i. n. 644.
* Zimmer, Altinoisches Leben, pp. 21-26, 256.
■ Rigveda, yiii 78. 2 ; Grassmann, viii. 67. 2 ; Zimmer, Altindisches Leben,
pp. 60-61.
EARLY HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIA. 389
The whole evidence seems to point to a gradual im-
migration resulting in an intermixture between the Aryan
and native races. While the earlier immigrants were
coalescing with the natives, substituting their language for
the numerous native dialects, a change readily accepted by
people with strong commercial instincts, who found these
differences of language great hindrances to trade and easy
intercourse between neighbours, those they left behind in
the North were completing their training as a nation, con-
solidating their power, and preparing that great literary and
religious organization which was to make the Brahmin caste
all-powerful in India.
That the Sanskrit-speaking people of Pat&la were not
Aryans is shown by the Mah&bhUrata,^ where Yasooki, king
of Pat&Ia, and Takshak, ancestor of the Adityas, are re-
presented as the only representatives of the Snake race
saved from the massacre made by King Janamejaya's orders,
and they were only saved by the intercession of Astik, a
holy Brahmin whose mother was Takshak's sister.
The evidence as to an early and 'continual intermixture
of races is overwhelming. The Aryans of the Rigveda,
except the authors of some of the very latest hymns, such
as the Purusha Sfikta,^ where alone in the Yeda the four
castes are mentioned, knew nothing of the doctrine of castes,
and those who left the parent tribes and went south probably
soon lost their prejudices, if indeed any existed in those
days, against advantageous marriages with high-placed and
wealthy foreigners. We can form a very good idea of their
progress from what we see going on now, and this knowledge,
tested by an examination of ancient history and traditions,
will enable us to understand the process by which the
country was transformed from one under a number of com-
paratively isolated Dravidian rulers to one divided into a
number of contiguocts states united by alliances and directed
chiefly by Aryan intelligence. By this means the origin-
ally alien races were formed into one people capable of
1 Mahibbanta, i. 1547-2197.
^ RigT0da, X. 90.
340 EAELY HISTOET OP NORTHERN INDIA.
acting together as a nation, a union which enabled the
different kingdoms to become parts of the great empires of
the best period of Indian history.
The chief agents in the union of races which preceded
this transformation were, as we may gather from a com-
parison of ancient traditionary history with modem practice,
the hermit pilgrims, the numerous young Aryan warriors
who were willing to give their services to foreign rulers,
and who proved so useful an addition to the forces of the
kings by whom they were employed, and above all the inter-
marriages between the two races and the requirements of
trade.
The ardent desire for self-culture, and the love of dreamy
meditation, followed when conclusions were formed by
energetic action, which were the ruling passions of so
many imaginative Aryan minds, and led numbers of persons
from a very early period to isolate themselves in the wilder-
ness, either alone or accompanied by bands of disciples;
but these pilgrimages, like similar movements among other
nations, led often to results very different from those aimed
at by the devotees, who were at first at all events inspired
merely by religious enthusiasm. Every one who has lived
long among aboriginal tribes in India knows the excitement
that is caused by the presence of a devotee, who is believed
to be both a holy man and a worker of miracles, a power
which all these men persuaded themselves and their followers
that they possessed. Such a man soon became a popular saint
and an important political personage. I remember especially
a case which occurred a few years ago, when a helpless cripple,
carried about on a wooden board, gained a large following,
and excited so great a commotion over the country of Ghota
Kagpore, that Government was obliged to take notice of it.
This man, Dubya Gosain, began to interfere in politics, and
to excite the Sonthals, who were then somewhat unsettled
in their minds, and it was therefore found necessary to
remove him to Oude.
But in the early times of which I am now speaking the
ruling authorities doubtless regarded a man who had great
EARLY HISTORY OP NORTHERN INDIA. 341
influence with the supernatural powers as one to be con-
ciliated, and as far as possible made use of to support the
Government, and in this way the devotees and their disciples
became an important power in the state. If they had not
brought disciples with them, they attracted them, as well as
their own relatives, who heard of their good fortune and
desired to partake of it. The success of the first devotees
proved an incentive to others, so that schools of religious
teaching and colonies of Brahmins were gradually spread
over the country. In many early legends we read of the
influence of men of this class, who, whether they were really
intent on the moral and religious education of themselves
and their hearers, or whether they looked chiefly to their own
social advancement, spread the fame of Aryan excellence and
Aryan ability, and the knowledge of the Aryan language,
far and wide through the land.
Again, the early Dravidian kings and their later successors
were alwayB looking out for promising recruits for their
armies, to act as frontier soldiers or to be useful additions to
their personal body-guard. I have often been struck in
Ghota Nagpore and in Chattisghur, in Central India, with
the diflerence of races in the frontier and central provinces
of several tributary states and of districts which were com-
paratively recently independent kingdoms. I have found on
inquiry in several instances that these foreigners had been
brought into the country from a distance on account of their
fighting reputation, and this was doubtless often done
formerly, even in very early times. The more ambitious a
king was, and the more careful he was to guard his own
kingdom from attack, the more anxious he would be to get
good fighting men, and he could not get better soldiers than
the Aryan warriors.
The social, no less than the military qualities of these men,
led to their being much sought after, and to their rapid ad-
vancement and permanent employment, when once they had
been attracted to the country. I have mentioned above the
important position occupied by the commander-in-chief in a
Dravidian state, and these posts and others of great authority
342 EARLY HISTOET OF NOKTHEEN INDIA.
were no doubt frequently filled by Aryan leaders. But the
influence thus acquired by pilgrim Brahmins and military
chiefs implied a number of strong governments over the
country, but though these were the rule, ahnost all states
suffered from periodical anarchy arising from misgoyernment;
and then the leaders of warrior bands, somewhat in the same
way as the PindAris of later times and the Free Companies
of medieeval Europe, took advantage of the disorder and
conquered either permanently or temporarily districts for
themselves. Instances of this kind can be brought forward
by any one who has studied the history of Rajput tribes.^
All these immigrations led to frequent marriages between
the two races, the leaders marrying into the royal and noble
families, and their subordinates into those of less note, and
these combined causes, together with the great commercial
and political advantages of a conmion dialect, led to the
substitution of Sanskrit for the various tongues of the native
tribes.
The frequent intermarriages recorded without any token of
disapproval in the Epic poems, and the long list of powerful
base-bom castes in the law-books, show that there was little
if any restraint on these unions. Dritarashtra, king of the
Kurus, married a Gandh&ri princess, and the Pandavas in
their marriages evidently united themselves with the Krishna
or black semi-Hindooised aboriginal tribes. Thus they married
Krishna, the daughter of Draupadi, king of the Panch&las, and
Arjuna carried off Subhadra, the sister of the black demi-
god Krishna. The list of base-born castes in Manu' and
Baudh&yana includes races who exercised such an important
influence on Indian history as the Magadhas living in a
country which gave India its first imperial rulers in the
Mauriya kings, the Avantiyas of Malwa, where the Andhra
dynasty arose ; the Yaidehas of Tirhoot, whose king Janaka
was the learned expounder of philosophy in the XJpanishads ;
and the Licchavis of Yais&li, also in Tirhoot.
* Thus the Dors in Aligarh in the N.W.P. were turned out by the Birgoojars
and also bv the Powars from their lands in Moradabad. Ste Elliot's Supple-
mentary Glossary N.W.P., s.v. Dor.
s Manu, chap. x. 17. 21. 22; Baudh&yana, 1. 2. 13.
EARLY HISTOET OP NOETHEEN INDIA. 343
This shows that, according to the confession of the Brahmin
expounders of the sacred law, the most influential people of
India were of mixed Aryan blood. But the political
influence of the Aryans as a separate race could not haye
been sustained unless the people had a well-defined national
existence, and this was supplied by the Aryan conquests and
permanent settlements in the north-west. Their wars of
conquest as a separate people seem to have been confined to
the country of the seven rivers, the modem Punjab and the
northern valley of the Indus, but even here their annexations
seem to have been small. The Gandh&ri to the west of the
Indus became Aryanised, for the great Sanskrit grammarian
Panini was, according to Hiouen Tsiang, a Gandh&ri ; but
they remained a separate tribe till a late period, while the
powerful tribe of the Takkis, the founders of the great city
of Takkasilft^ or Taxila, mentioned by Arrian as the most
important city of the northern Punjab, held their own
against Aryan attacks, and probably, like the Oandh&ri,
submitted to their influence, allied themselves with them,
and became to a certain extent imbued with Aryan ideas.
The Aryans seem to have passed through these districts, and
to have finally made only the small territory watered by the
Sarasvati and Drishadvatl rivers, called by Manu ' Brahmft-
varta, and by Buddhist writers' the Brahmin district of
Thftna, the modem Thaneswar, a distinctly Aryan country.
The wars which inspired the battle-songs of the Rigveda were
not only with the Dasyas or people of the country, but also
like the great battle of the ten kings recorded in the trium-
phant song of Yasishtha,^ with other Aryan tribes. As in
other countries in the world where pure Aryans have failed to
form permanent governments, they seemed to want a cohesive
force to enable them to act as a nation, and it was this they
found in their union with the strongly organised tribes of
' Canniiigham, Oeography of India, p. 110, gives the Saiukrit spelling of
Takshasild, and interprets it * The cut rock.' I have no doabt that the meaning
is ' rock of the Takkas,' which is confirmed bj the Fall spelling TakkasiU.
' Mann, ii. 17.
' Mahavagga, ▼. 18, 14 ; Sacred Books of the East, toI. xm
* Kigreda, Tii. 18.
344 EAELT HISTOET OP NOETHEEN INDIA.
the country, and also in the organisation of the Brahmin
caste.
It was the Brahmins who most conspicuously displayed
the great industry and unwearying tenacity of the race.
It was they who performed the greatest of recorded
miraculous achievements in committing to memory and
handing down from generation to generation the vast
mass of Sanskrit literature composed centuries before the
Phcenician alphabet and writing were known in the country,
and it was the Brahmins who, in spite of what appeared
to be total defeat, quietly waited for their chance during
the many centuries of Buddhist rule, who again led the
revival of eclectic Hindooism, and the final development
of the caste system, which culminated in the eighth and
ninth centuries in the absorption of Buddhism as Yishnuism
into the Hindoo religion, the final triumph of the Brahmin
hierarchy, and the destruction of Hindoo national life, the
interest of the caste being substituted for that of the
nation.
In the Rigveda we find the most influential Aryans to be
the heads of families who had first sprung into notice as
bards and poets. They then became the priests, without
whose aid the help of the gods could not be secured, and
thence they quickly advanced to be hereditary advisers of
both kings and people. This position was acquired and
maintained by the careful system of education by which they
taught their sons to think and act with the same combined
energy, activity, studied policy and perseverance that their
fathers did, to remember and preserve carefully and exactly
every word their fathers and those who had preceded them
as teachers had composed, and to emulate these literary
successes by their own. These astute thinkers soon dis-
covered the value of the Dravidian system of government, and
saw that the best way of acquiring influence in the country
was not by conquering the people, but by allying themselves
with the ruling powers. Once their intellectual supremacy
and their practical usefulness was accepted. Brahmin coun-
sellors became a necessary element in every native court,
EARLY HISTOET OP NORTHEEN INDIA. 345
and the first duty of kings, as stated by Manu,^ was to
follow the example of the Aryan chiefs and people by
attaching to themselves a Brahmin ''purohit'' or family
priest, who soon became practically prime minister and the
real ruler of the country.
But the question of the principles on which the goTern-
ment was to be conducted, the adjustment of religions
differences, and the distribution of power, soon led to serious
disputes, which are best set forth in the legendary contest
between Yasishtba and Yi9vamitra, and that between the
Brahmins and the Eshatriyas, or warrior caste. As is well
known, Yasishtba and Yi9vamitra are both Yedic bards, one
the author of the 7th and the other of the 3rd Mandala of the
Kigyeda. Yasishtba was the bard of the Trtsus, and Yi9Ta-
mitra of the Bharatas, the great enemies of the Trtsus.^
Y]9Yamitra had once been the bard of the Trtsus,' and, as
Zimmer^ shows, he probably joined the Bharatas to revenge
himself against his former friends, and he was the leading
spirit in the confederacy of the north-western tribes against
the Trtsus, which led to the battle of the ten kings. In the
legendary story* Yi9vamitra tried to steal from Yasishtba, the
purohit of the Ikshv&ku king of Ayodya, the sacred cow.
Yasishtba recovered it by force, and when Yi9vamitra went
to the Himalayas, and returned with the weapons of Siva,
Yasishtba burnt them up. Trisankhya, the Ikshv&ku king,
asked Yasishtba to procure his ascent to heaven, though he
was not of Aryan blood ; Yasishtba refused, and Trisankhya
applied to Yi9vamitra, who consented to offer the necessary
sacrifice, though he himself was not a Brahmin. The
Brahmins, including Yasishtba and his sons, refused to
attend, as they would lose their caste by eating in heaven
with a Kand&la,' or outcaste. Yi9varaitra drove them out
and forced the gods to receive Trisankhya as a true-bom
Aryan. The whole story shows the opposition between two
I Mann, vii. 78.
* Rigreda, Tii. 33. 6.
* KigTeda, iii. 68. 24.
* Zimmer, Altinduches Leben, p. 127.
* Lasaen, vol. i. pp. 721-726.
! 346 EABLT HISTORY OF NOBTHEKN INDIA.
i
parties, one strictly Brahminical, represented by Yasishthay
I who wished to bring the people completely under Brahminical
I rule, to enforce the caste distinctions between Aryans and
non-Aryans, to restrict the right of offering sacrifices and
acquiring learning, with the advantages thence resulting,
to those who were of pure Aryan birth, and received as
Brahmins into the sacred caste. The other was the party of
compromise, who wished to give Aryan privileges to the
ruling classes of the native races, and to take their gods into
I the Aryan pantheon. The party of compromise, who were,
I as Yi9vamitra describes the Bharata in the Bigveda,^ the
i far-seeing people, won the day. The advantages of securing
the alliance of the ruling classes of the native races were too
great to be neglected by those who looked at the question in
I its widest aspects, and they were formally received into the
I higher castes; while as for the common people, and those
I who preferred not to give up entirely their ancient creed,
the religious difficulty was settled by the acceptance of
I the worship of Siva as not dishonouring to Aryans. Siva-
worship meant that of the lingam or phallus, which was
his distinguishing emblem, and the adoption of the
earth gods of the Dravidians. In considering this ques-
tion it must be remembered that the part of the country
whence the Bharatas under Yi9vamitra came to fight the
Aryan Trtsus, was on the upper waters of the Indus and
Asekni, or Chinab, near the point where they issue from the
mountains. This is proved by the enumeration of two tribes
called the Yaikarna,^ or the people of two races, among the
confederation. These people are theKura-Krivi,^ subsequently
^ Rigreda, iii. 63, 24.
' Zimmeri Altindiscbes Leben, pp. 102-104.
> I must say that it appears to me likely that theVaikama people of two races
were Aryanised Drayidians, formed by union between Aryan and Dravidian tribes.
Orassmann thinks the Anu mentioned among their allies to be non-Aryans. It
would be consonant with Vi<;Tamitra*s policy to unite the Bharatas with natire
tribes desiring an alliance with the Aryans. The Turva^a and Yadus were
perhaps non- Aryan members of the confederacy. Grassmann calls them non-
Aryans, and in Kigreda, iv. 30. 17. 18, they are said to haye conquered the
Aryan Ama and Tschitaratra by the help of Indra, who also claims to be their
special protector in Bigreda, x. 49. 8. If they were non-Aryans, they had
certainly taken the Aryan gods for their own, and nad allied themselves with that
people, taking the Aryan warrior god as their patron deity. At any rate they
EARLY HISTOEY OP NOETHEEN INDIA. 347
80 celebrated as the Euru Panc&la, who once liyed in the
district called Yikarna, said by Hemachandra to mean
Kashmir, and as the Erivi are also mentioned in the Rig-
▼eda as living on the Indus and Asikni below the mountains^
this must be the country close to their settlements. This was
the country of the Takkas, and of their capital Takkasila ;
and the weapons of Siva which Yi9vamitra brought was
doubtless the worship of the Snake gods, the ancestral gods
of the Takkas and people of Kashmir. The Krivis, who
became later, as we are told in the Satapatha Br&hmana,^
the Panch&las,^ brought this worship south, and the reverence
for Siva was common both to them and to the Kusikas, the
tribe to which Vi9vamitra belonged, who were founders of
Kausambi.' And Benares, the sacred city of the Hindoos, is
now and always has been the principal seat of Siva worship.
In the Mah&bh&rata, before the Pandavas could enter on the
contest for the hand of the daughter of Draupadi, the Panch&la
king, they were obliged to worship Siva, and Jarasandha,^ the
powerful king of Magadha, who is apparently a real historical
character and the greatest conqueror of early times, introduced
the worship of Siva into his kingdom, as far south as the
Yaitumi on the borders of Orissa. Strict Brahmins held
aloof from it in its grosser forms, but to the mass of the
were at feud with other Aryan tribes, and when they joined the yi9T&mitra faction
probably became more estranged from the orthodox body under Yasish^ha and his
school. The present Jadon or Yadabunsis trace their aescent from Krishna, who
is claimed as ancestor by all Eajpnts of the Lunar race. Many of these tribes,
like ^e Haihaibunsi and N&gbunsiB, are undoubtedly desoendea from the snake
laoes.
^ l^atapaiha Brilhma^a, 13, 5, 4, 7.
' There seems to be a strong probability that the name Psnch&la marks a
special connection with ^ira ana Snake- worship. Bothlingk-Roth quote Mah&-
bn&rata xii. 10377, where Panch&la is used as an epithet of i^iva. They think
Panch means five, but cannot explain the end of the word (&la). I would
suggest that the name means the five-fing^ered claw or fiye-headed snake (ala
means a claw in PhU, and the spittle of a venomous serpent in Sanskrit^, ^iva
has five heads, and Sir M. Monier-WiHiams in his work, Religious life in India,
p. 321 , says: " The great majority of serpent images are five-headed. I have often
seen images of serpents coiled round the Linga, and five- headed snakes forming a
canopy over it." The extended five fingers of the claw (&la) would be very like
the canopy formed by the expanded hood of the snake. If this connection between
the word ranch&la and the nve-headed snake be accepted as correct, the national
name would mean the people of the five-headed snakes or the serpent people.
s Lassen, vol. i. p. 645. Monier- Williams, Beligious life in India, p. 434.
* Lassen, vol. L p. 610.
348 EARLY HISTORY OP NORTHERN INDIA.
people Siva was only another name for the great Sesn&g,
the chief of their gods.
In considering the question whether non-Aryans were
avowedly absorbed into the Aryan community in early times,
it must be recollected that this absorption is still going on in
the present day, and this among a people so conservative as
the Hindoos is strong evidence of the antiquity of the prac-
tice. The process by which non-Hindoos belonging to the
ruling classes of aboriginal tribes are now received into the
warrior caste is one with which all who have lived much
among the un-Hindooised people of India are familiar. The
change is not, as I believe it was in early ages, openly
avowed, but it is so little concealed as to be a perfectly open
secret. The chief or leading man, who wants to become a
good Hindoo, takes a Brahmin as family priest into his
service, to perform the prescribed sacrifices and teach him
to live in an orthodox way. The next step is to arrange
for marriages between the members of his family and the
daughters of families of good repute among the Rajput
clans, these marriages being paid for according to the
necessities of the bride's parents and the rank of their
family. There are of course difficulties as to the first
marriages, but with money, patience, and perseverance these
can be overcome, and each succeeding alliance becomes more
easy.
That a similar process has been going on for very many
centuries there can, I would submit, be no doubt, if the con-
clusions advocated in the previous pages of this essay be
accepted as correct. But in comparing the present with the
past, we must recollect the great change that has taken place
in the conditions of the problem. When the amalgamation
of races began, the legal fiction that the very great majority
of the people of the country were of Aryan birth had not
been invented. All the races stood separate and apart, nor
was the very great superiority of the Aryan race an univer-
sally recognised axiom. Brahmins were not like their
present successors, persons who could confer social distinc-
tion on those whom they made into Aryans, but rather
EARLY HISTORY OP NORTHERN INDIA. 349
missionaries who sought out conyerts from religious and
personal or from political motives. The first class were
represented by the teachers of the Brahmin schools, and the
second by the political Brahmins, of whom the legendary
Vi9vllmitra was the type. The object of the last class was
to help on the Brahmin conquest, and their own personal
advancement as family and ceremonial priests in the courts
of kings and the houses of great men, in much the same way
as the present representatives of the class continue to do.
In those days, when a pupil was accepted as an Aryan
student by a Brahmin teacher, or when a member of the
leading families was admitted to the rights and duties of an
adult Aryan, a ceremony of initiation was performed, and
without this the initiation was not complete. This was
distinctly called a second birth,^ which transformed the
recipient from one ** who was on a level with a Sudra before
his new birth in the Veda," ^ into a twice-born (dvi-ja)
Aryan. In the elaborate ceremony of the Dikshaniyft or
initiation sacrifice, prescribed by the political Brahmins in
the Br&hmai^as, we find the process of physical birth actually
imitated. The person initiated is said to be again made an
embryo, and in doing this he is first cleansed from the
impurities of his former birth by being sprinkled with water
and anointed with fresh butter ; he then goes into the hall of
sacrifice as into the womb ; there he sits like a foetus with
closed hands, covered with a cloth to represent the caul, over
this is the jarftyu of the skin of the black antelope, to repre-
sent his mother's body. After sitting for a short time, he
takes off the jar&yu, still retaining the caul-cloth, and
descends into the bath, and on his coming out of it the
sacrifice is complete as far as he is concerned, though there
are many ritualistic observances and much recitation to be
gone through both before and after by the officiating priests.
The sacrifice is said to be offered to all the gods, beginning
with Agni and ending with Vishnu, the first and last of the
^ Gautama, L 8. Max Miiller, History of Ancient Sanskrit Literature, pp.
896-8. Account from the Aitareya Br&hmai>a of the Diksha^tyfl sacrifice,
s Manu, iL 172. Vasishtha, ii. 6.
350 KAELT HISTOET OP NOETHERN INDIA.
gods. The principal part belongs to Agni, because the
GMLyatii or S&vitr! verse is Agni's metre. The significance
of this will be shown in the examination of the initiation
ceremony of a pupil by his teacher.
Though the Brfthmaijias are probably quite as old as if not
older than the treatise of Gautftma, the earliest of the extant
law books, the latter and the earliest sections of the laws of
Manu eyidently represent earlier stages of progress than the
sacrifices set forth in the Br&hmanas, which only represent
the latest process reached by ritualistic evolution before they
were written. The law books include both the past and the
present, and look back to a time when the Brahmin mission-
aries and teachers were not influential priests and trusted
advisers of powerful persons, holding distinguished positions
in royal courts, and desirous of accenting their superiority
and effectually securing the allegiance of their royal patrons
by an imposing ceremony, showing that they, the non- Aryan
kings, had finally broken with the past, and made the Aryan
people their people and the Aryan gods their gods. The
teacher in the law books is a sojourner in the wilderness, or
in strange lands, with a more or less numerous following of
pupils, hence the initiation ceremony they adopted was very
different from and much simpler than the complicated rite
above described. The Br&hmaQas and law books both agree
in calling the ceremony a second birth, but the philosophical
teachers had by the time their treatises were written learnt
to treat the birth not as a physical birth in the materialistic
sense of the Brahmai^as, but as a spiritual birth from the
darkness of ignorance into the light of Yedic knowledge.
It is declared to be the duty of all Aryan young men to
place themselves under a teacher and learn the Yedas. The
reception of the pupil by the teacher is called the S&vitri,^
and should ordinarily take place from the eighth to the
twelfth year, according to the caste of the student, but may
be delayed by a Brahmin to the sixteenth and by a Eshatriya
and Yaisya to the twentieth and twenty-second year accord-
^ Gautama, i. 11-14. Manu, ii. 38.
EARLY HISTOET OP NORTHERN INDIA. 351
ing to Gaatama, and to the twenty-second and twenty-fourth
according to Manu.
The teacher from whom the sacrament must be received
becomes to the accepted pupil a father, more yenerable than
his natural father,^ and the S&vitri verse his mother.' The
sacramental rite consists almost entirely in the petition of
the would-be student to the teacher to recite the S&vitrl
verse,' and its recitation by the pupil after hearing it from
the teacher.
When we turn to the Higveda, to see what is the SAvitrt
verse, which was evidently from the first the most important
part of the ritual, we find it to be a verse of the last hymn
of the third Mandala of the Higveda,^ supposed to be written
by Vi9vAmitra. It says : " We desire the longed-for light
of the god Savitar (an epithet of the sun), who answers our
prayers." All that the reciter of this verse undertakes to do
is to worship the Sun-god.
From the above analysis of the initiation ceremonies we
find that a solemn and public declaration of the determina-
tion to worship the Sun-god was held to be equivalent to the
new birth of the person making it. The explanation of this
conclusion must be found in the Aryan sense of the sanctity
of family life. It would in their eyes be impossible to give
an alien the unrestricted and avowed right of marrying the
daughters of Aryans and consorting with Aryans as one of
themselves imless he joined the Aryan family. Consequently
the recipient of the sacrament was adopted as an Aryan, and
the '^patria potestas" was metaphorically transferred from
his alien parents to his new father, the teacher, and his
mother, the Aryan gods. It was impossible that the rite
with its attendant consequences could ever have originated
among pure Aryan tribes. Every Aryan young man must
have been considered by his fellow-tribesmen from his birth
to be entitled to all Aryan rights, and to owe reverence to
^ Manu, ii. 146.
* Manu, ii. 170.
s Gautama, i. 46-65. Gobhila Gpbja Siitra, ii 10. 38.
« Rigreda, iii. 62. 10.
352 EARLY HI8T0KT OF NORTHEEN INDIA.
his natural father and mother^ and it was only necessary for
those who had not already got Aryan parents to acquire
them before they could rank as Aryans. When the leading
Aryans first grasped the idea that it would be easier to
conquer the powerful non-Aryan tribes by admitting them
to the Aryan community than by fighting them, there was
not the same objection to the change that there would have
been in the minds of people so saturated with the ideas
engendered by the caste system as the present Hindoos, and
even the most ancient expounders of the law. To people
who knew nothing of caste divisions, it appeared quite
natural to receive into the circles of Aryan tribes non-
Aryans who left their tribal gods and tribal relations, and
became Aryans in their religion and customs, especially
when, by allowing this, formidable enemies might be con-
verted into friends.
It has been shown above that this movement was probably
begun by Yi9v4mitra and the reformers of his school, and
the selection of a verse of his Mandala of the Rigveda for
the declaration of adherence to the Aryan gods, tends to
confirm the substantial truth of the legend connecting him
with the transfer of non-Aryan kings into the ranks of
twice-born Aryans.
The result of this resolution to accept non- Aryans as
Aryans was that the royal races among the Dravidians,
with the conquering race of Ikshv&ku at their head,
were accepted as Bajanya, or of royal blood, this
being the first name of the caste afterwards called
Kshatriya. They took their theology from the Brahmins,
acknowledged the Brahmin supremacy, though in many
cases they asserted their equal rights to all Brahmin
privileges, and claimed to be equally learned with them.
This is shown by the discussions of Pravahana Gaivali,
king of the Panch&las, with the Brahmin Aruna Gau-
tama ; ^ of Janaka,' king of Yideha, with Y&joavalkya ; and
^ Chandogya UpanisbacI, ▼. 3.
' Brihadaranyika Upanishad, iv. 1. 4.
EAELY HISTOET OP NORTHEEN INDIA. 353
of Ajfttasatru/ king of K&si or Benares, with G&rgya
B&l&kiy recorded in the Upanishads.
As for the Brahmin caste system as a rule of society, it
had in the countries of Kosala and Magadha, where Buddhist
history begins, obtained very faint influence, and was
probably little known outside the immediate neighbourhood
of the land of Brahmavarta, and perhaps those parts of the
country of the £uru-Panch&las, Matsyas and Surasenas,
between the Jumna and Ganges, called by Manu Aryavarta,
and there certainly Aryan blood has for many ages pre-
dominated among the upper and upper-middle classes.
After the alliance between the two races, there was little
alteration in the organisation, but much enlargement of the
kingdoms into which the country was divided, and a great
deal of authority was placed in the hands of Brahmins
as prime ministers. Thus we find that the chief ministers
of Bimbis&ro, king of Magadha, and Prasenajit, king of
Kosala, the two most powerful kings of India in Buddha's
lifetime, were Brahmins. As for the Brahmins as a class,
they, especially in the eastern part of the country, seem to
have given up ritualism, substituting metaphysical and
ethical speculation for the elaborate ceremonies and sacrificial
forms set forth in the Br&hmanas. The Upanishads, with
their great prototype, the Bhagavadgit&, were the outcome
of the movement. The chief Upanishads, as well as the
Satapatha Br&hma^a, were, to judge from internal evidence,
written in the land of Kosala Yideha, where the intellectual
activity of the nation seems to have been concentrated from
the eighth and seventh centuries before Christ, cidminating
in the two great religious systems of Buddhism and Jainism.
The country of Kosala- Yideha, including the territory
of K&si or Benares, lay east and north-east of the Kuru-
Panchftlas, and extended from the Himalayas to the Ganges
eastward from the western boundary of Benares. S&keta,
the ancient capital of Eama, the hero of the Eamayana, and
of the Ikshv&kus, was in this country on the river Ghogra,
^ Briludaraiiyika Upiiiwhad, IL
VOL. xz. — [hbw SBsua.] 26
354 EARLY HISTOET OP NOETHERN INDIA.
about forty miles from Kapilayasta, where Baddha was
born.
Prasenajit, who was its king, was nearly related to Bimbi-
s&ro, king of Magadha, and both were of the Snake race,
the latter being the fifth of the ten N&ga kings who, accord-
ing to the tradition and the hereditary list of kings of
Magadha preserved in the Yishnu Pur&^a,^ reigned in Baja-
griha after Sisun&ga, the first king, had left Benares to his
son. It was probably from this son that Frasenajit was
descended, as Benares was in the time of the Buddha under
his government. They both probably belonged to the power-
ful tribe of the Chirus, whom tradition and history alike
agree in showing to have been the ancient rulers of Magadha.
Buchanan, in his Eastern India, states their pretensions at
considerable length,^ but identifies them with the Eolarian
tribes, and thinks the Suars or Sauris succeeded them. Sir
H. Elliot, in his article on the Chirus, in his Supplementary
Glossary, shows Buchanan's error, as he points out that the
Chirus claim descent from the Oreat Serpent, which clearly
proves them to be Dravidians and snake worshippers. That
they ruled Behar to a late period is proved by Sir H. Elliot^'
who mentions the great joy expressed by the emperor Sher
Shah at the conquest, by his general £hawas Ehan, of
Muhurta the Chiru Zemindar of Behar. Their Baja still
lives, or did so when I was in charge of the district in 1862,
at Chainpur, in the Sasseram subdivision of the Shahabad
district, at the foot of the northern encampment of the
Eohtas hills, and the Rajas of the adjoining district of Pala-
mow, up to and afber the time of our conquest, were Chirus.
Sir H. Elliot states that they were the aborigines of Ghazi-
pur, part of Gorakpur, the southern portion of Benares and
Mirzapur and of Behar ; but if they are, as he, I think,
rightly says, the same tribe as the Sivira or Seorees (the
^ The general accuracy of tins list ib shown hy its agieement with anthentic
hutory, as giren in Budmiist authors.
* Mon%omery Martin's Eastern India, toI. i. pp. 406, 462, 494; vol. ii. pp.
345, 348, 372, 460.
* Elliot's Supplementary GloBsary, b.t. Cheroo.
EABLT HISTOET OF NOBTHEBN INDIA. 355
SabarsB of Ptolemy and the Sauvtr&s of Baudhftyana ^),
they were anciently a much more widely extended tribe,
as is shown by General Cunningham,^ who identifies them
with the Suari of Pliny, who places tbem next to the
Monedes. The latter are evidently the Kolarian Mundas,
while the Suars are not, as General Cunningham states, of the
same race, but a Dra vidian tribe who lived in close proximity
to the Eolarian tribes. General Cunningham shows that
this tribe extended through Central India to Ilajputana,
where there is a tribe of Surrias mentioned by Tod, who are
probably the same as the Central Indian Suars or Sauras and
the Behar Chirus, and Buchanan, or rather Montgomery
Martin, who used Buchanan's papers, shows in the quota-
tions above cited that the Sauri and Chirus once ruled the
whole of Behar, and that their dominion extended as far
north as Gorakpore.
Prasenajit and Bimbis&ro between them ruled, with the
exception of the territory of the Yaggians, the southern
districts of Oude, those in the south-east of the north-western
Provinces, with Behar and Western Bengal down to Orissa.
Their neighbours to the west were in the north the £uru
Panch&las, and in the south Haihaibunsis, who as their
name imports were also sons of the Snake. They ruled in
Mandia, and according to family tradition in Ujain,' Bimbi-
sftro of Magadha was in alliance with the kings of Eausambi
and TJjain.
The Sakyas, the tribe to which the Buddha belonged,
were an outlying tribe in the east of Eosala, on the Eoh&na
river. Prasenajit seems to have exercised a sort of control
over them and their allies and neighbours, the Eoliyas ; but
^ Bandhajftna, i. 2. 18. Biihler, in his note, calk them the inhabitaati of the
South -Western Panjah, hut they certainly were amonf the early inhabitants of
Chota Nagpnr and Orissa. The tribe of Saoras is still fonnd there, and the name
of the Ghota Nagpnr oonntry in Hionen Tsianr is Kama SuTama or that of the
BnTamaa of mixed race. This shows that tney were in his time and earlier
powerful in that oonntry.
* Ancient Geography of India, pp. 60, 109.
* According to an account of the Haihaibnnsi kings and their dominions, pre-
pared in 1679 A-D. by the Dewan of Baja Luchmon Sen, gLyen to Mr. Chisholm,
Settlement Officer of Belaspore by the Bewan*s descendants, the rule of the
Haihaibonsi kings formerly extended as far west as Quserat.
356 EARLY HISTORY OP NORTHERN INDIA.
the great Yajjian or Yrijjian confederacy, consisting of
nine tribes of liochayis and nine tribes of Mallis/ whose,
capitals were the celebrated city of Yais&li in the Licchavi
and Kusin&gara in the Mallian country, were apparently
independent of both the kings of Kosala and Magadha,
though it seems to have been a chief object with them both
to annex the territories lying nearest to their respective
states, Prasenajit that of the Sakhyas and Mallians, and
Bimbis&ro that of the Licchavis. In pursuance of this
policy, which was ultimately successful, Prasenajit married
Y&sabha,^ the daughter of Mah&n&mo, a Sakhyan chief,
and Mallik&,' a Mallian maiden, while Bimbis&ro married
Ohellan&,^ the daughter of Chetuka, chief of Yaisali, and the
first cousin of Yardham&na, the great Jain teacher.
Both kingdoms and the Yajjian republic were populous,
the people thriving and well-to-do, and the traders were
very prosperous and influential. Their importance is shown
by the powerful support given to the Buddha by the great
banker Anath&pi^da, of Sravasti, the capital of Kosala, and
the constant references made in the J&taka and other works
to the rich merchants of Benares who traded with Orissa on
the one side and the Western Sea on the other. We gain
from Buddhist writings a much more intimate insight into
the ethnology of the country than can be acquired from
Sanskrit works with reference to the rest of India.' There
are, as I shall proceed to show, very strong indications that
the Yajjians, who were certainly the earliest settlers in the
country, were of Kolarian race, who had lived there long
before the arrival of the Dravidians and Aryans. We find
in the advice given to the Yajjians^ at the Sarandada
^ Sacred Boolu of the East, rol. xxii. p. 266.
' Fansboll, Jataka, toI. It. pp. 143-163.
> Faasboll, Jataka, toI. iii. p. 106. In this last account MalliUl is deriTed
from Midakftro, and she is said to be the daughter of a gardener, but the true
derivation is given in the Bhaddasala Jfttaka, vol. iv. pp. 143-163, in speaking of
Hallika, the wife of Bhandulo, Prasenajit's commander-in-chief.
* Sacred Books of the East, vol. xxii. p. xt.
' Very probably a great deal more information than has been hitherto extracted
on this subject might be gained horn a critical and careful examination of the
epics.
• Sacred Books of the East, toI. zi. p. 4.
EABLT BISTORT OF NORTHERN INDIA. 357
temple by the Buddha when they were talking of the
designs of Prasenajit and Bimbisftro on their country, that
he told them among other things '^ to honour, esteem, and
revere the Yajjian shrines in town and country, and not to
allow the proper offerings and rites as formerly given and per-
formed to fall into desuetude/' What these dirines were is
clear from many places ; thus it was in the ** Makuta band-
hana," the shrine of the Malli, that the Buddha was buried.
It was in the sacred grove common to the Sakhyas and Kolyans
that he is said to have been bom, and the sacred grove of the
Malli at Kusinagara in which he died. That these groves
were the Kolarian Sumas or parts of the ancient forest left
untouched for the residence of the forest deities there can be,
I think, no doubt In the account of the birth of the Buddha
given in the J&taka,^ which is the simplest and seemingly the
oldest account, the grove is said to be '' the grove of sftl-
trees called Lumbini, between the two cities (of Eapila and
Koli or Devadaha) used by the people of both towns on
festive occasions,'' and in the story of his death,' when he
felt his end approaching, he left P&vft for Kusinagara, the
neighbouring capital of the MaUi, saying to Ananda his
beloved disciple, " Let us go to the SAla grove of the Mallis,
the Upavattana of Kusin&ra," and directed on^ his arrival
that the bench or slab which was apparently used by the
chief of the Malli on great occasions should be placed for
him between two s&l-trees so that his head might lie to the
north (Uttara-slsakam), as dead bodies among the Kolarian
tribes are laid out. Mr. Bhys Davids has kindly pointed out
to me that Upavattana is interpreted by Bothlingk, on the
authority of Hemachandra and Amarasinha, the first a Jain,
and the second a Buddhist author, to mean ** wrestling-
place." The sftl-trees were the indigenous trees of the
forest, and the fact of their being mentioned distinctively
as the trees of these groves, is additional proof that they
were the Samas of two towns to which they were at-
tached, left by the Kolyans and Mallians who had first
> FanfbdU, JUakM, roL L p. 62.
* 8MradBook«oftlM£Mt,ToLiLp.85.
358 EAELY HISTOBT OF NORTHERN INDIA.
oldared the forest, and Uke Sarnas they were close to the
Akra or open space where ceremonial and festive dances and
popular games were held. The Buddha's mother, who was
a native of Koliya, if she really visited the Sama at the
time of his birth, did so no doubt from a wish to place herself
and child under the special protection of the local deities,
and even if, as is most probable, she never went there at that
time, the story was circulated to show that he was specially
dedicated to the gods of his mother's race. As for the Sama
at Eusin&ra, it was evidently chosen by the Buddha and his
followers for the dramatic scene of his death, because of its
importance among the Mallians, and well illustrates his
advice to the Yajjians as to their native shrines.
Besides these two sacred groves, a third is mentioned, the
Mah&vana at Yaisali.^
Another proof of the hold that the worship of local deities
living in special trees had obtained among all classes of people
is shown by the sacred trees attached to the two great religious
teachers, the Buddha and the Mahavlra, the Jain. The
Buddha or his followers took the Bo ot Pipal tree, under
which he had attained absolute knowledge of the truth, as his
tree, and those of Mahavira the Asoka (Asoka Jonesii^) tree,
a tree indigenous to Eastern Bengal, where the earliest
Kolarian settlements were, as that under which he entered
on the ascetic life. Emphasis is laid on the fact that the
Buddha's pipal tree at Budh Gktya was an especially
sacred tree by the story in. the J&takas' of the offering
Sujata's maid Punn& was taking to present to the god
living in this especial tree when she found the Buddha
sitting under it.
The Yajjian constitution is also essentially Kolarian.
They chose their chiefs for life, and the Licchavis, at least,
apparently frequently chose foreigners,^ while foreign tribes
like the Yidehas were received as members of the com<^
^ MahaTagga, yi. 80. 0 ; Sacred Books of ihe East, toI. zi. p. 69.
' Sacred Books of the East, toI. zxii. p. 269.
> Buddhist Birth Stories, translated by Rhys Davids, pp. 91-94.
« Rockhill's life of Buddha.
EAKLY HISTOftY OF NORTHERN INDIA. 869
munity. They managed their affairs by a council of elders,^
and it was apparently as the chosen chief of the Licchavi
tribes that Janaka of the Upanishads came to be called king
of Videha.
A further very important question, to be considered with
reference to the population of the country is the position
of the two Aryan tribes of the S&khyas or Sakkos and the
Vaidehas or Videhas. The legendary story of the Sakkos *
states that they were descended from the King of Fat&la
on the Indus and belonged to the Ikshv&ku race. The four
elder sons of the king had to leave the kingdom because
he had promised the succession to the son of a younger
wifa They left accompanied by their five sisters and settled
in Eapila, which was made over to them by the celebrated
Bishi or sage of that name. As they could find no wives
of their own race in this remote country, they married their
sisters, and continued ever afterwards to marry in their
own clan, the only exception being as to marriages with the
Eoliyas. This was justified by the story that the eldest of
the five sisters became a leper, and was shut up in a hut
in the neighbouring forest. Here she was found by R&ma, a
prince of Benares, who had also been driven out as a leper,
but had cured himself with forest herbs. He cured her too,
married her and became the father of a numerous progeny.
This story clearly points to the intermarriage between the
first Sakkos and the chiefs of the tribes they found in posses-
sion of the country, and this seems to have been repeated so
often that the two tribes became practically one, though the;
both retained the memory of their native origin. There is
no further information as to the early history of the Sakkos,
but they probably were Aryan or send- Aryan remnants
of the great Ikshv&ku invasion, and their name, as well
as that of the neighbouring city of S&keta, seems to have
had some reference to the god Sakko, the name imder
which the Aryan god Indra was worshipped by the Pali-
1 Saored Books of the East, toI. zL p. 8.
s Swnaikgala-Vil&sint, Pali Text Sodety's edition, pp. 261-262.
360 EARLY HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIA.
speaking tribes. Perhaps the Sakkos may have been called
by that name, as they, as a distinctively warrior tribe,
worshipped Sakko, the warrior god, in contradistinction
to the aboriginal tribes who worshipped the local deities.
Certainly Sakko is continually named as the chief of the
deyas, in contradistinction to the Brfthma or incorporeal
angels, in the early Buddhist writings, and he is also placed
quite apart from the Nftga gods.
They probably belonged to a much earlier immigration
than that of the Yaidehas, as they kept themselyes as a race
quite apart from the Brahmins; though there were many
Brahmins living in their country,^ they do not seem to have
mixed with them as the Yidehas did with their Brahmin
neighbours, or in any way to have acknowledged their
authority. The Buddha, in the Brfthmanadhammika Sutta,^
criticised the Brahmins very freely, speaking as a complete
outsider, and giving an account of their history very similar
to that I have now attempted to prove ; there is no trace in
any of the stories of his life of his having been brought up
among ritualistic Brahmins, though he must have studied
their philosophy very deeply, as well as the solutions pro*
posed, on the moral and religious questions that were
agitating the thoughtful minds of the country, by the
numerous Brahmin teachers, who, with their disciples,
are mentioned as having been scattered through Kosala
and Magadha.
The Sakkos seem to have lived in a sort of proud isolation,
regarding themselves as something very much superior to all
about them, and did not join themselves with other tribes
except the Eoliyans, or enter the Yajjian confederacy.'
They were apparently looked upon by their neighbours
as decayed nobility, with whom alliances were to be sought
on account of the greatness of their ancestors. I do not
^ See long Uat of wealthy Brahmiiu liviiig in the Sakya conntry in the YdaetthA
Sutta, Sacred Books of the East, toI x. ; Sutta Nipata, p. 108.
* Sutta Nipata, pp. 47-62, sections 19-24.
' They are not mentioned among the Vajjians in the Kalpa Sntra, where the
Yajiian tribes are said to be nine Licchafis and nine Mallikis (Sacred Books of
the East, vol. xzii. p. 266).
EARLY HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIA. 361
Bee how^ the story of the marriage of Y&sabha, Mah&-
nftmo's daughter, with Prasenajit, can be otherwise ex-
plained. It was evidently exceedingly disliked by the
Sakkos, though they were afraid to refuse, and the sub-
sequent contempt shown by them to Yidadabha or
Yirudhaka, her son, led to their destruction by him when
he came to the throne. The Buddha himself was obliged
to admit that they deserved all they got. The other
Aryan colony in the Yajjian country was that of the
Jn&trikas or N&tikas,^ known as the Yidehas or Yaidehas,
the latter name probably meaning the foreigners,^ who
were received into the Yajjian confederacy as one of the
Licchavi tribes. They appear to have been the descendants
of Mathava, the Yideha, and his followers, who is said
in the Satapatha Br&hmana* to have civilized the country
east of the Sudanira or Gunduk with the help of his family
priest, Gotama R&hdgama, and the sacred fire (Agni Yaisvi-
nara) of the Aryans. They came into the country when the
ritualistic system was fully developed, and always, as is
shown by the relations between them and the Brahmins
in the Upanishads, and between the Brahmins and the Jains,
remained subject to Brahmin influence. This is further
shown by the strange story of the birth of Yardham&na, after-
wards the Mahavira, the Jain, who was the son of Siddharta,
a Yidehan chief, but is represented as the son of a Brahmin.^
They joined cordially with their neighbours, and became
very powerful in the union. They apparently did not object
^ FaiUboU, jataka, vol. iy. Introdactioii to Bhaddasela Jataka, patnm,
I mvust Bay I do not beliere that V&sabha was, as the story makes out, ille^timate.
If she had been, Yidadabha wonld not, when the discorenr was made, have
sncoeeded to the throne. The story of the ill^timacy is evidently introduced to
show the influence of the Buddha, who adyised the king to acknowledge his son.
* Sacred Books of the East, vol. uii Introduction.
> Or, like the name Vaikama, meaning of two races, it may mean the people of
two countries, and may imply an alliance between the immierant Aryans and the
aboriginal inhabitants. The account of Vaisdli, given in tne Bulva, ouoted in
Rockhiirs Life of Buddha, p. 62, seems to favour the latter view. Tne people
living in the three districts of the town could intermarry, but the people of the
first district could marry only in their own district, those of the second in the
first and second, and those oi the third in all three.
« Satapatha Br&hma^a, Sacred Books of the East, vol. lii p. 106.
• Sacred Books of the East^ vol. xzii. ; Kalpa Sutra, pp. 218-229.
362 £ARLT HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIA.
to marriagea with other tribes, as the Sakkos did, and it is
probably for this reason they are said by Manu ^ to have lost
their caste. The marriage of Bimbisftro with Ghellanft,
Yardhamftna's first cousin, seems to have been approved
by her parents. But early Buddhist history, besides giving
us information as to the land of the Eosalas and Yidehas,
throws great light on the early history of Magadha. The
rule of the N&ga race seems to have been thoroughly con-
solidated in that kingdom, for Sesun&ga, the first king who
retired from Benares, and came to Rajagriha in Magadha,
was the great-great-grandfather of Bimbis&ro, and judging
from the great prominence given to the Snake gods in all
early Buddhist writing and sculptures, Brahmin influence
I seems to have been far less strong than in the neighbouring
country of Kosala Yideha, where the Brahmins seem to
have found a more congenial home among the easy-going
Kolarian tribes than among the sterner Dravidians. The
j protection of so powerful a monarch as Bimbis&ro seems
to have been one of the chief causes of the success of the
religious revolution caused by the Buddha's teaching.
Bimbis&ro seems after a little while to have somewhat
relaxed his zeal for these doctrines, and to have inclined
to his relation, Mahavira, who lived for some years in Baja-
griha, apparently while the Buddha was absent at Sravasti,
Prasenajit's capital, and Bimbis&ro's son, Aj&tasattu, first
favoured the Jains and Buddhist heretics under Devadatta,
but afterwards extended his protection to the Buddha and
his disciples, who from henceforth seem to have been pro-
tected by the successive kings of Magadha, and from their
monastery of Nalanda, near the capital, to have gone forth
to convert India.
Everything was favourable to their progress, the public
mind was everywhere stirred by anxiety on religious
questions. The one question every one was anxious to solve
was, where are we going in the future, and what will be our
future fate after death P Every one accepted the immortality
1 Mann, x 17.
IBAHLT HISTORY OF NORTHERN INDIA. 363
of the soul as an axiom, and also believed that men must be
reborn after death. How to escape from rebirth in a lower
state, or to reach a higher stage of existence in the next
worlds was the problem. The Brahmins prescribed sacrifices
to save the souls of ancestors, and both Brahmin, Jain, and
other ascetics said that by penances and austerities men
could raise themselves to a level with the gods, and be
freed from the danger of rebirth in a lower state. The
Buddha, on the other hand, in a spirit of stern common
sense, which must have been very attractive to the practical
minds of his Dravidian hearers, said : The only way for a
man to release himself from the chain of existence with its
fatal consequences is by his own efforts. He, and he alone,
can subdue the desires which are the causes of changes of
existence, and transform himself from a sinful to a sinless
being, and when once that end is attained and his nature is
absolutely purified and denuded of all desire for changes, the
law of rebirth and compensation in a future life for evil
deeds and mistakes in the past ceases to affect him. This
manly creed evidently gained largely increasing numbers of
followers, and its progress was watched no doubt carefully
by the politicians. They finally in the time of Asoka, found
Buddhism so popular as to make it a wise political step to
proclaim it as the state religion of the vast Mauriyan empire.
That empire, as I have endeavoured to show, had been built
up by the gradual assimilation of the different people in-
habiting the country, by using the best of the national laws
and customs of the component races to perfect the methods
of government, and by adapting such laws and customs to
gradually increasing areas.
364
Art. IX. — The Customs of the Ossetes, and the Light they
throw on the Evolution of Law. Compiled from Professor
Maxim Kovalefskt/*s Eussian Work on ''Contemporary^
Custom and Ancient Law/* and translated with Notes,
by E. Delhar Morgan^ M.R.A.S.
The following paper, of which a part only was read before
the Asiatic Society on March 19th, is founded on a book
published in Russian by Prof. Maxim Eovalefsky. In it
the author gives the results of his investigations into the
manners and customs of the Ossetes, with special reference
to the light thrown by them on the evolution of law. The
late Sir Henry Maine, who may be justly regarded as our
authority on ancient law and early customs, has well said in
a passage quoted by Prof. Kovalefsky on his title-page, " In
order to understand the most ancient condition of society all
distances must be reduced, and we must look on mankind, so
to speak, at the wrong end of the historical telescope/' ^
But this would be impossible in most parts where the waves
of invading hosts and migrating nationalities have effaced
almost every trace of early customs, and the historian may
look in vain for materials to assist him in his inquiry.
Fortunately there are tracts of the earth's surface removed
beyond the influence of the destructive power of mankind^
where primitive customs and beliefs have been handed down
from father to son in almost unbroken continuity. Among
these tracts are the higher valleys of mountain chains where
the inhabitants of the plains have found safety in their
struggles for self-preservation. In the highlands of the
Caucasus, as in other mountainous regions, remnants of
Aryan tribes have found it possible to subsist, though not
in large numbers, preserving their independence and per-
1 DisaeriatioM on Early Law and CfusUm, but I hare not foimd the passage in
this work.
TC Wellcr JjlAr Bid Lvfi Squarr
CUSTOMS OF THE 0S8ETES. 365
petuating customs and traditions in the highest degree in-
teresting to the historian and philosopher. To these reference
must be made if we would supply the missing link in the
history of civilization^ to these we should turn in order to
trace the earliest dawn of juridical notions — the embryology
of law. Such a people, living under circumstances precisely
analogous to those we have sketched^ are the Ossetes^ in-
habiting the central Caucasus on both sides of the main
chain. Towards the end of the last century and the begin-
ning of the present, when Eussia had seriously taken in
hand the conquest of the mountaineers, scientific travellers
made their way into their midst and published the first
reliable accounts of these people. In this way the world
was indebted to the works of Giildenstedt, Eeineggs, Dubois
de Montp^reux and Klaproth. The last of these devotes
several chapters of his " Voyage au Caucase " to the Ossetes
and their country, and many of his observations are con-
firmed by more recent writers. But at the period we are
speaking of the Caucasus was not readily accessible to men
of science, and but few ventured to stray far from the
high roads by which the Russian armies entered that region.
Neither was the demand for scientific facts anything like
what it has now become, and even for many years after the
subjugation of the Caucasus had been accomplished little
attention was bestowed even by ethnologists on the various
tribes and nationalities comprised in that remote borderland
of the Eussian empire. It is only within the last decade or
two, since the complete subjugation of the tribes^ and the
establishment of settled authority in their midst, that travel-
lers have been able to penetrate into all parts^ armed with
the requisite stock of knowledge and gifted with that thirst
for learning more that is so marked a characteristic of the
age in which we Uve. Among the most recent of these
travellers we must mention M. Vsevolod Miller, to whom
Prof. Eovalefsky dedicates his work, and to whose *' Ossete
Studies " reference will be made in the following pages.
^ Schamyl, tilie last independont chieftain, only surrendered in 1869.
866 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
Before entering on a description of their eoBtoms it may
be well to state who these Ossetes were, and how they came
to occupy their present country. There are at least two
opinions concerning their origin. Some maintain, arguing
from the Semitic character of certain of their customs, that
they are of Jewish descent, much in the same way as the
Afghans are said to be for similar reasons descended from
the lost ten tribes of Israel. But analogies in customs and
juridical types, as Prof. Eovalefsky remarks, may have been
caused by an identity of economical conditions, necessitating
certain habits of life common to nationalities, however widely
these may be separated. For instance, the patriarchal family
and the custom by which the brother-in-law marries the
widow of his deceased brother are not only common to the
Jews, but to all nations at an early stage of development.
We find the semi-nomadic inhabitants of Central Asia at
the present day leading a patriarchal existence with their
flocks and herds. The brother-in-law's marriage marks the
period in the life of nations when they are emerging from
a state of polyandry into individual marriage. It was
known to the Hindus and Greeks, and may be observed
among the Kirghiz and other Turko-Tartar tribes to this
day. Concubinage, again, said to be peculiar to the Ossetes,
was an institution of the Hindus and Greeks, as well as of
the Romans and Celts, and the position of children bom
of such ties answered very nearly to that of the Ossete
"Kavdasards."
The Ossetes have also been classed with people of Germanic
origin, chiefly because certain words in their language had
a German ring about them. For instance, their word
** Khokh,'' a high mountain, has a close resemblance to the
German *' hoch,'* high. But here again we may be easily
led to form erroneous conclusions on imperfect data.^ M.
^ The Ossete irotd. for iiTer is 'don,' occuiring in Aidon, Sandon, Fiaedon,
Ghizeldon, etc. But we find the same word for river in England, Scotland, and
Rnasia. It is sopposed that the Russian Don owes its name to the Ossetes,
whose territory ran up to tiiis riyer formerly dividing Europe and Asia. Possihly,
too, the name of the latter continent itself originated with this people— As or Asi
as tiiey were called.
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 367
Sjogren, who made a careful study of the Ossete language,
has taught us that such ansdogies are misleading ; he came
to no positive conclusions about it. The more recent con-
tributions to the philology of the Ossetes by M. Miller,
supported by his archseologioal and historical discoveries,
have apparently established the Iranian origin of this people,
and this opinion now generally prevails.^
M. Eovalefsky adduces additional evidence bearing on
the Iranianism of the Ossetes in their curious funeral rites,
observing that some of their graves are above the ground,
the bodies not being allowed to touch the earth, a form of
burial in close sympathy with the religious sentiments of the
Iranians as expressed in the Yendidad;^ and otherwise
inexplicable as opposed to sanitary considerations. But
among the most important facts brought to light are those
resulting from M. Miller's examination of the Greek
inscriptions found in Southern Eussia, and comprised in
M. Latyshers collections, proving that Iranian colonies were
distributed throughout the plains at the northern foot of the
Caucasus at a very early period, probably at the time of the
great migrations of nations.'
The Ossetes speak of themselves as "Iron,'' and their
country as "Ironistan." By their neighbours, the Georgians,
they are called Ossi, and their territory Ossetia. As far
back as 300 B.C. they are mentioned in the Georgian
Chronicle as powerful allies, and from their mythical
ancestor Wovos, son of the King of the Ehazars,^ the
Ossetes of the present day claim descent. The classical
^ ProfeMor Max Miiller in his Leeture* on th$ SoUhm of LanffiMg$ daasee the
Owete as an independent member of the Arjan family of languagee ; of. Telfer*s
Crimea and Tranflcaucada, toL ii. p. 2, note.
' The Vendidad, fonning part of the Zend Ayesta, the religiooB writings of the
Parsees, oontains the most explicit roles for the disposal of dead bodies. They
were to be laid on the highest places where they could be best seen by birds of
prey and dogs. The braies were to be fastened in soch a way that the bones
eould not be taken by birds and beasts of prey to trees or water, and they were to
be laid on stone or some metal, so that the rain should not diisolye any part of
them into the earth. See Bleeck's Avmta^ horn Ttot. Spiegel's Uennan
Translation, Fargards y. and yi
> Among the inscriptions in Greek characters referred to in the text were some
in an nnknown language. These H. Killer disooyered to be Ossete.
* £laproth. Voyage au Caucase, ii. 438.
368 CUSTOMS OP THE 0S8ETES, AND THE LIGHT
authors Gelonius Apollinarius, Josephus Flavius and Pliny
all agree in placing the Alani, with whom the Ossetes have
been identified,^ in the plains north of the Caucasus, whence
they were driven by Turko-Tartar and Cherkess tribes into
the mountains. In earlier times the Ossetes were so numerous
that they could bring into the field armies of tens of
thousands of men in their wars with Armenians, Georgians,
Persians, Arabs, and later with the Bussian Slavs under
Sviatoslaf.^ Their tzars or princes are mentioned by
Byzantine writers probably with reference to such of their
leaders as had raised themselves to eminence among them,
and the excavations that have been made prove that an
active trade was once carried on between the Ossetes and the
Byzantines.
Admitting then, as I think must be admitted, that the
Ossetes are an Aryan race of high antiquity, their customs
and institutions will afford excellent data for the student of
archaic jurisprudence, supplying important evidence to solve
problems connected with the beginnings of human society,
and serving as an additional link between the East and the
West, between India and Ireland. By contrasting Ossete
customs with types of ancient law prevailing among Hindus,
Germans, Celts and Slavs, to say nothing of Greeks and
Romans, we shall obtain the necessary materials for assigning
1 CJ, TrareU of Joeafa Barbaro (Hakl. Soo.), p. 6. Dr. Smith, the learned
editor of Gibbon's Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, expresses donbt upon
this point, chiefly upon the testimony of Lncian and Ammianus, who describe
the Alani as resembling the Huns, and inhabiting a country too far to the north,
namely, that occupied in modem times by the Nogai Tartars. But these facts are
by no means inconsistent with the identity of the Alans and Ossetes from all we know
of the latter people now, and their accepted Iraniamsm agrees with the remark of
Firdusi, who says that the Alans originally came from the Paropamisus, and
were the people mentioned in Chinese annals as Ten-thsai {ef. Gibbon, 1872, ed.
by Smith, Toi. iii. p. 316; Tule's Marco Polo,^ii. 164). With regard to the
doubt expressed by Col. Tule as to whether the Ossethi or Ossetes are the same
as the Aas or Assi, we may mention that this people are invariably called Assi
or Assethi by the Russians, through whom we haTe in recent years become
acquainted with them, though in writing the name it is spelt Ossi, Ossethi, the
0 oeing pronounced A, Some interesting particulars of these Alans or Aas, and
of their serrice in China under the Tartar Khans, will be found in Tule's Cathay,
pp. 316-318. Prof, de Lacouperie obligingly informs me that there are sereral
mterestine statements in Chinese documents about A-lan, A-lan-na, formerly
Ten-thsai, Sukteh, Uen-na-sha, etc
* About 966 A.D. Cf. Karamzine, Histoire de la Ruaiie, Paris, 1816, tome i.
p. 216.
THEY THBOW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 369
the period of their origin, and convince ourselves of the
probability of recognizing any of their customs as the
general heritage of the Aryan race, or the product of specific
conditions such as locality, vicinity of Eabardinians, Tartars,
and Oeorgians, for it must be remembered that many of the
Ossete customs are not primitive, but have been grafted
on the original stock by successive influences from without,
while the main body owing to the isolated position of this
people have remained intact.
The Ossetes of the present day inhabit part of the plain
on which the town of Vladikavkaz^ is built, but their settle-
ment here is of recent date, their older habitations are in the
higher valleys of the Terek and its tributaries, and on the
southern slope of the range along the defiles of the Great
and Lesser Liakhva and Esan. Their territory borders on
the north with Lesser Eabarda, on the east with Ohechenia,
on the south with Georgia and Imeritia, and on the west
with the lands of the Tartar mountaineers and Great Eabarda.
In numbers the Ossetes are roughly 100,000 of both sexes.^
They are divided into several communities occupying the
several defiles of the tributaries of the Terek. Thus proceed-
ing from west to east : along the Urukh and its affluents are
the Digorians ; along the Ardon and its tributary streams are
the Alaghirs {ue. Eastern Ossetes) ; the defiles of the Sandon
and Fiagdon give shelter to the Eurtatians, those of the
Ghizeldon and its feeders are inhabited by the Taghaurians,
who are also met with on the left bank of the Terek itself.
The Ossetes of the southern slopes of the main chain of the
Caucasus, having come under the influences of Georgia,
belong to the district of Dushet in the government of Tiflis,
and that of Rachinsk in the government of Eutais. These
Southern Ossetes are known locally as Tualtsi or Tualta.
Their language is divided into two principal dialects —
^ I shall follow Mr. EoTslefsky^s work doeel^. The immediate eiiTirons of
VladikaTkaz are inhabited by Ingaah, a thievish tnbe, and other people ; the first
Ossete settlements are two or three stations from the town.
* Accoiding to an article on the Ethnology of the Caucasos, in Petermann's
Mittheilangen, vol. zxri. 18S0, the Ossetes north and sonti^ of the range number
110,914 altogether.
TOL. XX. — [NXW 8BBIS8.] 26
370 CUSTOMS OP THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
Digorian and Ironian, while that spoken by the Tualtsi is
a subdialect of the Ironian ; and according as they speak
one or other of these dialects, they are called Digorians,
Ironians, and Tualtsi. They have no general name.
The main fact of their history that has come down to us
is their conversion to Christianity by St. Nina,^ assisted by
Bishop John at the beginning of the fourth century. But
this only affected a few of the Southern Ossetes. The spread
of Christianity north of the range is of much later date, and
is usually associated with the name of the Georgian Queen
Tamar,^ to whom is also attributed the erection of numerous
churches and chapels, all more or less in a ruined state, in
the valleys of the Terek and its tributaries. Historians,
however, consider it more probable that Christianity was not
established in Ossetia before the end of the twelfth century
under Georgian auspices. The first germs of feudalism also
came from Georgia, though there are no materials for assign-
ing the precise date when the Tualtsi fell under feudal
' The story of the blessed St. Nina and her conversion of the Georgians to
Christianity in the reign of King Mirian (a.d. '265-342^ is given at some length
by the late M. firosset, a distinguished scholar and Onentalist, in his history of
Georgia, founded chiefly on the chronicle of Wakhusht and unpublished MSS.
This is very briefly what he says : ** St. Nina, who was on her father's side of
Cappadocian origin, was brought up at Jerusalem under the care of a religious
Armenian woman, Niafor, by whom she was instructed in all the mysteries of the
Christian faith. Having learned that the seamless robe of our Saviour had been
taken to Mtzkhetha, then the capital of Georgia, she determined on setting out
in search of it. But before doing so she visited some part of Greece, where she
mnde a convert of the beautiful princess Riphsine of tne Imperial Court, after-
wards martyrized together with her thirty-three companions in Armenia, whither
she had flea for refuge from the lust of the Emperor. St. Nina, having escaped
from her persecuton, had a vision, inspiring her to undertake the conversion of
the Georgians. After long wanderings and many sufferings she reached Mztkhetha,
where the people were revelling in Marian superstitions and sacrificing to their
ffods Armaz and Zaden. Her prayers for this misguided people were answered
by a sudden tornado of frightiul violence. Great hailstones fell and destroyed
the idols, shattering them into thousands of pieces. In the midst of this destruc-
tion St. Nina alone remained unhurt. Assisted by a converted Jew, Abiathar,
who like a second St. Paul had become an ardent disciple of the faith, she began
preachinff Christianity openly, and when King Minan returned from an un-
successfiu expedition into Greece, where his army had been defeated by the
Christian emperor Constantino, she was summoned to his presence and explained
the doctrines of her religion. But it was not till some time aft«r his Queen
Nana had embraced Christianity that the king abandoned his gods and became a
convert, when he and all his people were baptized." — Brosset, Histoire de la
Georgie, pp. 90-132.
* According to Brosset, Tamar reigned twenty-eeren yean from 1134 to 1211
or 1212 A.D.
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OF LAW. 371
influences. One thing only is certain, viz. that at the time
of the subjugation of Ossetia by Russia, the Tualtsi were
under two princely Georgian families— the Eristavs^ and
Machabele. Their power appears to have been derived in
the first instance from their appointment as satraps over
certain districts. In course of time their office became
hereditary or the privilege of the same family or tribe, they
were gradually transformed from government officials into
feudal seigneurs ipossessed of extensive rights, just as the
hereditary earls of the Garlovingian empire became feudal
owners. Assuming plenary rights of jurisdiction, police,
and taxation, the Eristavs took advantage of their extensive
functions to make the peasants personally dependent upon
their families, while the large grants of land they received
for their services gave them further power. Their vast
landed possessions partook of the character of feudal fiefs,
the inhabitants submitting to rank as vassals holding their
land on condition of discharging military and other services,
and paying taxes to their lords. In course of time the
Eristavs extended this system to all their lands, and became
lords of the greater part of Southern Ossetia. Only the
inhabitants of the more inaccessible defiles were able to
resist these encroachments, and even their liberties were
trenched upon by the Eristavs, who blocked the entrances
to their glens, and compelled them to pay toll for the right of
egress. Occasionally there were attempts at risings against
this despotic power, but these only gave the Georgian tzars
the pretext of interfering and depriving the Eristavs of their
power, and even confiscating their estates, which they would
then re-grant to others.
In the same degree as Georgia and its culture exercised
a preponderating influence over Southern Ossetia, Eabarda
with its comparatively recent Muhammadanism and feudalism
affected Northern Ossetia and the Tartar mountaineers.^
^ From eri * people ' and iava * head ' or * chief.'
^ The Tartar mountaineers occapied country preyiondy inhabited by Ossetee,
80 that their language and customs retained much that is peculiar to this people.
This fact may be obeerred in their numeration and topographical names.
372 CUSTOMS OP THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
The Earbardinians, who had professed Christianity as late
as the campaign of Peter the Great against Azof, adopted
Muhammadanism towards the middle of the eighteenth
century, and became in a few years zealous proselytes under
the influence of the princes of the Eumyks,^ particularly
the Shamkhals of Tarkhu,^ who intermarried with the
Eabardinian princes. By preventing the Ossetes, and
particularly the Digorians, from having access to the plain
country to the north of the Caucasus, the Eabardinians
gained a great ascendency over them, for it had been the
practice of the Ossetes to pasture their herds on these plains
at certain seasons of the year, and in times of scarcity of
provisions they obtained supplies here of such necessaries as
millet and salt. The Eabardinians, too, on their side, were
in the habit of driving their cattle to the Ossete highlands
in summer when everything was parched and consumed in
the plains. A mutual interdependence of the two people
was the natural result of these relations, so that when the
Eabardinians, who were the stronger and more warlike,
became Muhammadans, they lost no time in bringing pressure
to bear on their neighbours the Ossetes in order to extend
the teaching of the Eoran.
Of all the inhabitants of Northern Caucasia, the Eabar-
dinians are probably the most remarkable for their individual
prowess and gallant bearing, which have earned for them the
title of * the gentlemen * of the Caucasus. Their aristocratic
institutions have some points of resemblance with the
mediaeval knight brotherhoods of Western Europe. To their
influence is attributable the introduction of feudalism into
Ossetia. Feudalism, remarks our author, was never a
legalized expropriation of the soil by a handful of nobles ;
^ On the Caapiaii littoral.
' Tarkbu or Tarki, a small place on the Caspian, 4 days' march north of Derbend,
is still the residence of the Shamkhals. Not many years ago the writer saw the
last of this royal race on board the Caspian steamer — an imposing-looking
individual in a long white coat and high white sheepskin hat (papakha). He is
now a pensioner of Russia. Tarkhn is said to occupy the site of the ancient
Bemenaer, a town of the Bulgars, destroyed by the Russians under Sriatoslaf in
A.D. 968. Of. Dom, Ueber die Einfalle der Alton Russen in Tabaristan, pp. yi.
122, 309.
THEY THKOW ON THE EVOLUTION OF LAW. 373
during its continuance the peasantry were the legal owners
of the soil by the tenure of perpetual hereditary leaseholders,
not, however, as individuals, but in communities. It is only
by bearing this fact in mind that we can conceive how it
was that feudalism was not a phenomenon peculiar to the
Germanic-Roman world, but an indispensable stage in the
development of society, coincident with the transformation
of separate nationalities from a military-aggressive to a
military-defensive system, and common alike to the East as
well as to the West. In Muhammadan India feudalism was
as well known as in Christian Europe, but nowhere did
it break up or obliterate the village conmiunes and the
beginnings of conmiunal land tenure.^
The foundation of the Eabardinian organization was laid
by the conquest in the thirteenth century of the north-
western Caucasian plain by invaders from the Crimea, who
derived their descent from an idmost mythical personage of
the Arab race, named Inal, who, according to tradition, once
ruled over Egypt, and who, after having been defeated by
the Sultan Mahomet II., removed to the Khanat of the
Crimea. From four of the immediate descendants of Inal
sprang the four princely families of Eabarda — the so-called
'psheh' — the Atajukhins, Kaitukhins, Misostofs and Bek-
murzins. The Eabardinians found the plain country on
the banks of the Euba occupied by the Cherkesses, a
people of Adighei descent, who had only recently freed
themselves from the yoke of the Tartars and were ruled
by their own princes. These princes, according to their
estate, were included by the Eabardinians in one of the
two following classes, ' tlatokoltlesh ' (i.e. men of good
birth) and 'dejnugo.' The former in the person of their
elected representative * kodza * alone shared with the
Eabardinian ' psheh ' in the government of the country.
All the land in Earbada came under one or other of the
above-mentioned three classes, without, however, interfering
1 For a full Btatement of M. EoTalefskr's vieirs on this interestine subject, lie
refen the reader to hii work on Conununal Land Tenure and his' a^reea to the
ArchiBological Congren at Odeaea.
374 CUSTOMS OF THE 0SSETE8, AND THE LIGHT
with communal rights. The rest of the population fell more
or less into subjection, and were split up into eight sub-
classes, the lowest of whom were the slaves and ' kholops '
or villeins, and the highest the men of good estate, * worki '
or ' uzdens,' these last named being in a position of vassalage
to the princes. In return for their land the uzdens did
military or court service, accompanying their lords on their
journeys and attending upon them at home. The above
slight sketch of the Eabardinian social organization will
assist us in understanding that of the Ossetes, modelled upon
it. From the information collected by the Russian govern-
ment in 1844 on Ossete * adati * or customs, it appears that
there were four classes of Ossetes : the highest or nobility,
called by them * wozdanlag * ; the middle, * farsaglag * ; the
lowest, * kavdasard ' ; lastly, the slaves, * gurziak.' The
origin of these two last-named classes is easily explained, in
the one case by the early wars with Georgia, which supplied
the Ossetes with slaves, 'gurziak' (lit. Georgians), and in
the other by the custom prevailing till now of keeping
concubines, * numuluss,' the children begotten of these
* kavdasards * ^ becoming, together with the rest of the
chattels, the property of the house, or were divided among
its inhabitants. It is far more difficult to explain the causes
which led to the formation of the class known to the Ossetes
as farsaglags (farsag, collateral, and lag, a man), who had
special privileges, and it is only by studying the traditions
both family and popular of this people that M. Eovalefsky
has been able to throw light on this subject.
The oldest of the Ossete communities, the Alaghirs,' had
no social distinctions. All equally claimed descent from
> The Kaydasards, aa Prof. Eovalefsky informs me, were not only the sons of
the owner of the concuhine, but also children begotten of her by other persons to
whom she had been lent, a custom closely analogous to the Niyoga marriage of
India. Similar relations also existed in Ireland at the time of tne Brehon law.
• On the wall of a very ancient church in the Alaghir defile are frescoes
representing five armed men, with an inscription in Greek letters. According to
tradition these figures represent Osa Bagatar and his four brnthers; Karfios,
chief of the Georgian people, from whom they take their name Earthli ; Lesgos,
from whom the Lesghians are descended.; Imeritos, the ancestor of the
Imeritians ; and Mingrelos, chief of the Mingrelians. Seee Yestnik Imp. Rubs.
Geogr. Soc. 1856, ii. s.v. pp. 4-5.
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OF LAW. 375
Osa Bagatar,^ their mythical tribal chieftain, who, upon the
invasion of the Persians and Georgians, retired to the
Alagbir defile, where his sons built a stone wall as a defence
against their neighbours, the remains of which may be seen
at the present day. For a long while the Alaghirs lived at
peace among themselves, till the Eabardinians settled on the
neighbouring table-land. Then individual families in the
hope of plunder formed alliances with the £abardinians,
helped them in their cattle raids, and were in consequence
proscribed by the Alaghir community. The outlaws, so-
called ^'Abreks," settled in the Eurtat defile, where they
at first lived peaceably, preserving their democratic organiza-
tion. But tribal feuds soon sprang up, resulting in the
migration of part of the population from the Eurtat to the
Taghaur defile, which had hitherto been unoccupied. The
Taghaur^ colonists became the pioneers of Eabardinian
civilization, and were the first to adopt that class organiza-
tion peculiar to Eabarda. From the ranks of the free men
or farsaglags are dissociated not only the domestics or
' kavdasards,' born of concubines, and the ' gurziaks '
captured in war, but a privileged class whose members bear
a title similar to that borne by the Eabardinian uzdens —
* wozdanlags,' the * aldars ' of the present day. New comers
from Alaghir, Eurtatia and Southern Ossetia swell the ranks
of this ready-made organization, whether as kavdasards,
farsaglags, or as members of the privileged class. In this
way, while the Eurtatian community continues its demo-
cratic organization, Taghauria adopts feudalism. In Eur-
tatia, as well as in Alaghir, the communal system is
> According to the Georgian Chronicle already quoted, Osa Baeatar was slain
by Wakhtang, king of Georgia (466-499), in single combat. Upon his death
the hostile armies engaged, and the Ossetes were completely routed. The engage-
ment is said to have taken place in the Dariel Pass. Cf. Brosset, l.e, p. 158.
* The Taghaurians are settled on the left bank of the Terek, and in the
defiles of the Saniban and Ghizel, parallel with it, included in the Vladikavkaz
territory. Their traditions presenred in songs and tales make frequent allusion
to their bloody feuds with the Kabardinians. According to Tolstoi, for whose
accuracy however I cannot vouch, the Taghaurians derive their name from a chief
whose ruined fortress stood at the source of the Ghizel. They are mostly Muham-
madans, and continued to hold to this faith after the other Ossetes had adopted
Christianity. C^, an article by Tolstoi in the Testnik of the Imp. Russ. Geogr.
8oc. 1864, part ii. s.t. pp. 3-6.
crsroMS OF the
AXD
UGHT
smed at fint br tribes
' s£ie vi:ii ibe indiTidasi
bj ciifiab:iiLiAe
V Ik) «K?a becoBX
L^;^ to ib^ £or
by Tilkgei-,
this joiiit tenure exieta
I lii ■ ih'p of the Qaka
their knds with aer
mw»A Southern Ome^
on the oomniiuial
it upon the mdeo^
by Tirtae of this faci
rent aai
y«£a:S:w cf ibe cImhb in Ta^lianria to oiie another
^^ l>f7. v&M t«Hi»»a w»» abolidied, stood thus:—
is ibe Hciftl aoa^ are the wofnianlags or aldan;
a » dertvvd. not br psrcfaaae or aerrice, bii
^.ftr iiiliefvci xi^t of eleven fawiilirnj dating inn
xvT iLnei. TzfSLT pri^iW^ea are Tevy exteotm^
J bAVY dceii^kn over the boodsmoi and
c< t beaa at ibeir will and pleasure, aad
s^^^oft w:t^-.x2i i^ i=:ter{erenee of any oooit of lav.
iT« frcsK 1^ £ftzsat£ia^ tribate and aervicee, into
^.«,:lL$ cc" v^>r^ it » ai mimmij to ento-, bat whiek
■^-.^•.*C'>'<» w t^ iacSu&ecta of i aiwalafi.! in medtenl
T"z<« 6«inMfi :uxsa£^us* bad cffttainly the right
j.^«-.7ir as v^ll frc«e coe wadem or aUar to another,
yi:£;3t$;jA peiKwri i:.ad befo«e BoriB Godam^ attached
^ ^1<^ tccl bj ri» c«%!«bntcd enactnent of Yarief
.,£^-£^'$^ c^^r. B^z ii>n raa^Tal the frrsaglag ooold
^_-cIi--^ vi:^ ^i::&: ^^ ho«ie and ^^imttaJ* reflnaining
^.rr^rc^J ci lir^e y^ri. Oa ihe other hand, die aldar m
^^ ?^ c*^r« iis^ T^ft^il rrv»i injury, and obtain redress
^ *i.cci:^ rsj c;k::::^ V^ «ci«il One of the modes bj
^- ^"^^^f^ Fij-.« lie aa^dile daaa emancipakd
_^-i-* i:^* rv-w« c4 ibe a;;^oicnKx vaa br the acqiu-
^- 3^vSs frci hfcrir»; acl-etnenl The ^ame pnwjss
: =^ r^-^> «^ ^h^ iarsi^Usr proprietary rights,
^r i.-t froct ^:* vcMjp,^ji^.c» ajid duties to the aldsL
^^T ifv^x^ cc »e^ieTs» w.Mdanlajis or aldars lorf
^-r.:* c^^r ^<ir ii«a^jkjs^ and samadered their
^SZ^-
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THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OF LAW. 377
lands to them. The farsaglags now became landlords, and
might own slaves, but the children of these latter were
regarded as freemen. The kavdasards might not be owned
by the farsaglag, as this privilege was restricted to the
highest class. The gurziaks or slaves had no rights, and
were merely regarded as chattels, with whom their owners
might do whatever they pleased. They might sell or give
them away in whole families, and even kill them if they
pleased.
What the ' wozdanlags ' or * aldars ' were in Taghauria the
* badiliats ' were in Digoria. Here the Eabardinian influence
is even more marked than in Taghauria. The upper class
is said by the Digorians to be derived from the compara-
tively recent settlement in their midst of a stranger from
Madjar,^ a town the ruins of which may still be seen on the
Kuma near the stanitsa of Praskovia. His name was Badil,
and he became the founder of the mighty tribe of Badiliat.
From a humble emigrant earning a living as a shepherd,
Badil raised himself to an honourable position among the
Digorians, owing to the important part he took in their wars
against a neighbouring village, Donifars. Tradition says
that the Digorians were at that time ignorant of firearms,
and Badil was the first to instruct them in their use. As
a Mussulman he was supported by his co-religionists the
Kabardinians, and helped them to proselytize the Christians
^ The mins of Madiar or Madjari are situate in the district of VladikaTkaz, at
the confluence of the Buival and Kuma, on the left hank of this last-named river
near the stanitsa or Cossack viUa^ of Praskojia. Klaproth, who visited these ruins
in 1810, says, that the foundation of Madjar has heen erroneously attributed to
the Hungarians, fle derives the name from a Tartar word meaning 'stone
building,' and says that the first to inhabit this place were the Kipcluiks. In
support of this view he adduces the similarity in the style of building and monu-
ments, the inscriptions and coins of Sarai their chief city found here, and lastly
the information concerning it given by Eastern writers. Thus in the Derbend
Nameh, it is stated that in the second century of the Hejrah (t.^. eighth of the
Christian era), Great and Lesser Madjar were two important towns. They are
mentioned by Abulghazi in a.d. 1282, and by Abulfeda in his geography
(a.d. 1321). Finally Madjar was known to the Russians as late as the year
A.D. 1319, when it was a large trading town, and it was to this place that the
body of Mikhail, prince of Tver, was brought after he had been tortured to death
by the horde. Madjar probably ceased to exist in the fourteenth century daring
the civil wars of the Eipchaks. The ruins have been well desoribed by Giilden-
atadt, cf. Klaproth, Voyage an Caucase, vol. ii. np. 165, 180 ; Reineggs, vol. i.
p. 66 ; K'^T""*'"'*, ffistoire de Eussie, ed. cit. vol. iv. pp. 284-6.
378 CUSTOMS OP THE 08SETES, AND THE LIGHT
of Digoria. By degrees the Digorians grew accustomed to
look upon the Badiliats as Kabardinian agents, and to submit
to them however unwillingly. Under Kabardinian influence
the Badiliats established the same social organization as we
have already spoken of in Taghauria. The kavdasards were
represented by ' tuma/ the freemen by * adamikhat,' while
the slaves were divided into two classes : those who had the
right to marry and found families, and those who were
denied this right, precisely as in Kabarda ; and the archives
of Naltchik ^ are full of the petitions of slaves against their
masters for degrading them from one category to the other,
the effect of such degradation being to place them at the
mercy of the lord, who might separate man and wife either
by selling one or both, or by giving away the female slave.
The only distinction between the laws of Eabarda and those
of Digoria was, that the latter were rather more humane in
prohibiting the separation of man and wife if the parents of
the latter paid the lord the indemnity or price he claimed.
Historians of feudalism usually characterize it by saying
that during its prevalence the owner of the land was the
representative of the governmental power, and the peasantry
formed groups subject to a hierarchy. The same traits are
met with in the class-organization we have described. The
aldar and the badiliat are not merely landlords receiving
customary rent from the perpetual-hereditary leaseholders,
they are also the political chiefs both in peace and war. At
their summons the farsaglag and kavdasard must arm and
follow them to battle, at their bidding they must in time of
peace receive and entertain their guests. The Osseti adati
are explicit as to the obedience required of these vassals.
Moreover, without personally exercising judicial functions,
the aldars and badiliats made their authority felt in juridi-
cal affairs by levying a tax for their own benefit on all who
might choose to settle their disputes in their courts of appeal
payable by the party in the wrong. With all its similarity,
^ Fort Naltchik in the district of Eabarda, territory of Terek, on a river of the
same name, was founded inl8l7-20in order to strengthen the Russian advance
into Trans-Caucasia.
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 379
however, to feudal institutions, the Ossete social organization
differed from that prevalent in Europe at the epoch when
feudalization was accomplished in the greater liberty enjoyed
by the Ossete vassal as compared with his mediaeval proto-
type. The farsaglag may rather be likened to the hospea
mentioned in charters of the eleventh century in France,
i.e. before feudalism was an established institution. They
were both freemen settling on the lands of others by
agreement with the owner, and undertaking to discharge
certain duties personal as well as proprietary. The posi-
tion too of the slaves assimilates closely with the earliest
mediaeval period, when according to Bracton a distinction
was drawn in England between Vilknagium purum and
VUlenagium privilegiatum, with this difference, however, that
Christianity prohibited the dissolution of the marriage-tie
of slaves. The peculiarity of the Ossete organization is the
existence in their midst of a special hereditary class derived
from the extra-matrimonial ties of the privileged class. The
analogy drawn by some writers between the Ossete kavda-
sards and the boiarskiye ditii (children of boyards) in Oreat
Russia in Prof. Eovalefsky's opinion fails.
The subjection of the Ossetes to the Russian empire was
accompanied by great changes in their social state. Their
former dependence on Georgia in the South and on Kabarda
in the North came to an end. Hostile encounters between
neighbouring tribes were stopped, and peace began to reign.
The country was divided into magistracies, and was included
in course of time in the government of Tiflis and territory of
Terek. At the same time blood reprisals, so frequently the
cause of these internecine feuds, were replaced by indemnities
payable in kind and money. Disorders were suppressed by
armed force, the princely families were deposed, and the
land was re-distributed.
Like other kindred races the Ossetes settled not in great
masses, but in families or households, the members of which
related to one another through the males numbered as many
as 40 and upwards. More recent family divisions led to
the establishment of new households derived from the same
380 CUSTOMS OP THE 0S8BTES, AND THE LIGHT
stock. Settlements formed in this way took the name of
the locality in which they were situate, or the trihe which
founded them, while a few took patronymic names, a sure
indication of their tribal origin.
£laproth says that the Ossete settlements ('kau' or 'gau')
are usually small and placed so close together as to be easily
mistaken for a continuous village.^ Every family, says
Reineggs, forms a separate settlement of a few households,
living contentedly together tUl increase of numbers and
scarcity of food oblige some to migrate, who then take a new
name.^ But these observations relate to a bygone time, for
the modern traveller meets with continuous settlements
comprising a few dozen households not related to one
another, though frequently bearing the name of one of the
families composing them. With the exception of those
communities ' which were started not yery long ago by the
Russian Govemmefit, when they transferred the inhabitants
of the highlands to the plains, the large majority of Ossete
settlements may be included in one or other of the following
categories : (1) auls {i.e. villages) occupied by families related
to one another, bearing the same family name, owning land
on the communal system, and not unfrequently having a
community of goods, these however are the exception; (2)
auls in which the lands are apportioned among the several
families composing them ; and (3) auls inhabited by a few
families who, aooording as there are many or few living
together, have either lost or retained their system of conmion
holdings. These last are the most numerous in Ossetia.
The Ossete * dvor ' or enclosure, an indispensable part of
every ^aul, has been fully described by M. Kokief, himself
an Ossete by origin. He says there are two types of these
buildings; the first are the so-called 'galuans,' probably
many centuries old, mentioned in the oldest heroic legends,^
a proof of their antiquity. Their very appearance carries
^ Voyage au CaucaUy Tol. u. p. 262, note.
' Gf . Description of Mount Caucasus^ traoslated by Wilkiiuson, i. 248.
' New Christian, New Muhammadan or Ardon communities.
* e,ff.'m the Nart legends.
THEY THEOW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 381
you back to tbe mediseval age. Eyeiything in them is
adapted to defensive warfare; the wide court enclosed by
high stone walls, the tower standing in the centre or at one
of the comers like a stunted pyramid several stories high,
built of enormous blocks of stone cemented together (the
mode of making this cement is now forgotten). Connected
with the tower are the other buildings ; the ' khadzar ' or
general dining-room and kitchen, the apartments occupied by
the several families, and apart from the rest, but also within
the enclosure, the ' kunatskaia ' standing open all day long
for strangers. These ' galuans ' were common enough in
the time of Reineggs,^ who says that on the upper part of
the wall are fixed long projecting pointed poles, on which
hang horses' heads and other bones, and there are nooks in
the stone one above the other to serve as a retreat in case of
sudden attack, while access from without was impeded by heaps
of stones and bones, leaving room only for a narrow footway.
Recent travellers only occasionally light upon these singular
edifices on the northern and southern side of the range.
By far the most general type of Ossete building, however, is
that made of small unhewn stones, not cemented together,
and having the interstices filled with dry earth to keep out
the external air. These houses have no towers attached to
them, and are sometimes built of wood in parts where the
country has not been disafforested. The galuans were
situated in the mountains, where, like the feudal baron, the
Ossete built his castle on some inaccessible crag of great
natural strength for defensive purposes. The second type
of building lie close together, frequently at the foot of the
mountains, in valleys on the banks of rivers. Hence the
early travellers were led to suppose that the Ossetes formerly
inhabited the mountains, and only afterwards began inhabiting
the valleys and defiles.
The internal arrangements of the Ossete settlement are as
follows : The principal position in the house is taken by the
so-called 'khadzar' so frequently mentioned in the Nart
1 Cf. U. Tol. i. p. 248.
882 CUSTOMS OF THE 0SSETE8, AND THE LIGHT
traditions ; it is here that the persons composing the house-
hold pass the greater part of the day, its size, therefore,
must be adapted to the number it has to contain. The
khadzar serves both as kitchen and dining-room. Nearly
the whole of the day the cook presides in it, except during
the hours devoted to meals, breakfast, dinner, and supper,
when the older men first, next the younger, the older women,
and lastly the girls, take it in turns to occupy the khadzar.
In the centre of this room is the hearth, i.e, a square bole in
the roof for the smoke to escape ; beneath it, attached to a
cross-beam, is suspended an iron chain, the so-called 'rakhis,'
to which is fastened a cppper caldron for cooking the food.
To the right of the hearth stands a long wooden bench, only
occupied by the men, never by the women, for whom there
is another bench to the left of the hearth. The food is
served on a low three-legged round table known to Ossetes
as * fing.' These details are necessary in order to under-
stand the part played by the ' khadzar ' in the family cult of
this people. Adjoining the khadzar is a range of buildings
for the separate families, called 'uat,^ i.e. sleeping-rooms.
Before marrying the bachelor must see about a habitation,
or he will not find a bride. In a few days, with the help of
his friends, this is ready. It is usually placed in a corner of
the enclosure, for custom obliges the man to enter his wife's
apartments secretly, unobserved by the members of the
household.^ There are as many of these separate apartments
as there are married couples, including the parents if they
continue living together. The bachelors have no sleeping-
rooms, but usually pass the night at their work or on the
road in the courtyard or the * kunatskaia.' This last-named
usually stands near the entrance to the yard, apart from the
^ This IB stiU the case in Ossetia, and also amon? the Pshayefl and Eheysnis, as
Prof. K. informs me. In a Kheysur house the hall where the fire is burning is
occupied by women and the upper storey by the men, and there is a small secret
stnircase by which the men descend to the women's apartments in the n^ht hy
the aid of an old woman, the mother of the bridegroom. The idea preyauing is
that the woman is an impure being, and this appears from their exclusion m>m
any place consecrated by religion. There is eyidently a connexion between the
yiews taken by Christianity on the one hand, and specially by the Greek church,
and the Ayesta. The whole history of Georgia points to a close connexion
between the Shahs of Persia 'and the rulers of Georgia.
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OF LAW. 383
other buildings. If the stranger should not happen to be a
relative, there is no place for him in the khadzar or the
specially-reserved apartments ; he may only be received in
the kunatskaia, the doors of which are never dosed, but
stand open day and night for the admission of any one
claiming hospitality and whatever his relations with the
family may be.
Having gained some acquaintance with the Ossete house,
let us now see what its importance may be, first as a
religious and secondly as a proprietary bond. It is well
known how important a part was played by the hearth in the
domestic cult of the Hindus, Greeks, and Romans, what its
significance was in the marriage rite, in sacrifices performed
by the head of the family in honour of departed ancestors,
and generally on all ceremonial occasions, e.g. on the adop«
tion of a son into the family, at the administration of oaths,
or in sheltering from justice the runaway felon. The same
cult of the family hearth is met with in Ossetia, and to this
day it is their sacred place. Fire is always burning on it,
this duty devolving on the women, and a common saying
among Ossetes if they wish ill to a person is, '' May your fire
be extinguished I '' this being tantamount to saying, '' May
your family be removed ! " Not only is the hearth an object
of veneration, but the chain suspended over it to support the
caldron is intimately associated with the most important acts
of their lives. The sacred character of this chain is shown
by the prohibition strictly enforced by custom not to touch
it without special cause, and also by the fact that touching
the chain is a usual mode of enforcing an oath or validifying
the marriage rite. If an Ossete desire to place his evidence
beyond doubt, he takes hold of the chain, saying at the same
time, " I swear by this pure gold of Safa,'' Safa apparently
holding in their religious observances the place of Vulcan, a
kind of celestial smith who forges the family chains.^ In
precisely similar way on marriage the bride loosens the tie
1 Perhaps answering to Tishnn, the gt)d of the hearth in the Big-Veda, cf,
Jonrn. Roy. Aiiat. 8oc. Vol. XIX. Ft 4, p. 609.
384 CUSTOMS OP THE OSSETES, AND THE UGHT
wluch binds her to her own family and unites herself to that
of her husband by certain formalities, in which the grooms-
man strikes the chain with his dagger, having first wound it
three times round the bride. The same triple ceremony is
observed in the husband's house on the third or fourth day
after the wedding, usually called the ''bridal night." In
his turn the fugitive criminal seeking shelter from the law
finds security if he succeeds in winding round his neck the
family chain, for by doing this he identifies himself with the
family cult and, as it were, places himself under the pro-
tection of those ancestors, reverence to whom is connected
with the worship of the hearth chain. Under these circum-
stances it is not surprising that the stealing of the chain or
the mere throwing it aside by a stranger should be regarded
in the light of a sacrilege requiring blood idemnity. The
veneration of the chain does not, however, entirely replace
that of the hearth itself, and to this day the Ossete when
sacrificing throws on the fire the first morsel or the first
drops of blood, every sacrifice requiring according to his
notions fire to be made acceptable to God.
We know that the cult of the family hearth wherever
it is met with is closely connected with ancestral worship,
a fact doubtless attributable to the views held by primitive
man on the supernatural life. He believed that the dead
had the same wants as the living, that they needed food and
drink, and he saw in offerings of this food a means of
constant intercourse between past and present generations,
while an apparent acceptance of the food offered to them
is supplied by its destruction by fire.^ This is why the
burning of the sacrificial animal, or a part of it, and the
libation on the fire of wine, is so frequently met with in the
Hindu, Greek and Eoman ritual. All those more or less
fragmentary facts on which we found our conclusions of the
close connection between the hearth and ancestral worship
are fully represented by analogies in the contemporary life
^ The laws of Mann, however, prescribe the eating of the sacrificial food as the
duty of the higher caste of officiating priests who might alone do this. Cf, Sir
W. Muir.
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THEY THKOW ON THE EVOLUTION OF LAW. 385
of the Ossetes. The funeral oration by a relative of the
deceased, in which the All- merciful Barastyr (a kind of Pluto)
is invoked to take him under his care, that he may for ever
partake of the bliss of Paradise, where his horse may pasture
near him, and he may taste of joys such as no earthly lord
had, and become the object of envy of those who had no such
pleasures, either because of their sins or the poverty of their
relatives preventing them from celebrating the sacrifices, and
therefore leaving their departed to charity or stolen crusts.
All this evidently indicates their belief that the future well-
being of the dead depends on the quantity of food and drink
supplied them by their descendants; this is why the relatives
provide the departed with a bottle of arrack and some cakes,
lest he should hunger and thirst on his way to the other
world ; breaking the bottle, and pouring the contents over
his grave, and throwing the cakes on one side of it, pro-
nouncing the words, " May this food and this drink last thee
till thou reachest paradise (dzeneta) I '^ Fear lest the deceased
should have nothing to eat in the next world haunts the
Ossete for a whole year after the death of a near relative.
Weekly on Fridays at sunset the widow visits her husband's
grave, taking with her meat and drink. The first week
of the new year a special service is held in his honour, and
a gigantic loaf, large enough to last a man a whole month,
is baked. Two sticks are crossed, and upon these are set the
clothes of the departed, his weapons being also attached.
This dummy figure is set upon a bench specially constructed
for the purpose, and around it are scattered the favourite
objects of the dead person ; in front of the bench are placed
a bowl of porridge and a bottle of arrack, specially designed
for the departed. For a few minutes the assembled family
retire from the spot to give him time to taste the food, in
accordance with the custom according to which the elders
partake of food apart from the younger members of the
family. Among Muhammadans these ceremonies are ob-
served on the first week of the New Year, while Christians
celebrate them on Good Friday (sixth week in Lent). The
only difference is that in the latter case the food offered to
VOL. xx.~[ifBw Bsaixs.] 27
386 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
the dummy figure is of a Lenten kind. One of the old men
or one of the old women proclaiming a toast, either in arrack
or beer, says as follows : ** Haj he (the deceased) be serene,
and may his tomb be serene ; may he be famous among the
dead, that none may have command over his food, and that
it may reach him intact, and be his for ever ; that increasing
it may multiply as long as the rocks roll down our hills, and
the wheels roll over the plains, neither growing mouldy
in summer, nor freezing in winter ; and that he may divide
it according to his good will among such of the dead as have
nofoodl"
The same idea of the necessity of feeding the dead explains
those frequent memorial ceremonies which have been esti-
mated to cost each family at least 2000 rubles a year, and
lead sometimes to their complete ruin. Christians celebrate
no less than ten of them« Muhammadans seven, some lasting
several days. On these occasions, says Y. Miller, the food
eaten is said not to benefit him who eats, but the dead in
whose honour the feast is held, so that a person after a
substantial meal at one of these feasts, on returning home
has the right to demand that his usual dinner be served to
him. There is no greater insult for an Ossete than to tell
him that his dead are hungry. The dead too require firing
besides food and drink, and it is for this reason that at the
New Year, or strictly speaking on the last Friday in
December, the house-owner stacks bundles of straw in his
yard and sets them alight, with the words, ** May our dead
be serene, may their fire not be extinguished ! '' and he
believes that in this way he supplies the dead with new fire
for the coming year. From all that precedes we cannot but
come to the conclusion that, like the ancient Hindus, Greeks
and Romans, the Ossetes liken the life beyond the grave to
that on earth. This appears not only from the practice
of feeding the dead by the living, but from the care taken
by Ossetes to supply the dead on burial with all the requisites
for the future life. They bury him in his best clothes, in
order that he may present a respectable appearance in the
next world, however poorly he has been obliged to live ia
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OF LAW, 387
this. And though at present under Muhammadan and
Christian influences they only place with the corpse the
food already mentioned, there was a time when, judging
from the excavations made by Miller and Eoyalefsky, it was
customary to bury with the deceased his arms and ornaments,
his horse-trappings, his domestic utensils, his three-legged
table, or ' fing,' and a variety of other articles. We know
that the fear of leaving the deceased without a wife in the
future life gave rise to the Indian custom of burning widows
(Suttee), fire which, as we have seen, is the means of trans-
mitting food to the departed, being made in this case to
render him a further service. In Ossetia, though there is no
trace of widow-burning, it is to this day customary for the
widow to cut off her tress of hair and lay it upon the
deceased, signifying by this act her sincere wish to belong
to her husband in the life to come. The slaughter of the
horse over the grave of the deceased is, we know, not unusual
in the funeral rites of Aryan nations. Of this custom all
that survives in Ossetia is the participation of the horse in
the funeral ceremony ; the eldest relative of the dead person
leading it, being called ' bakh-faldisag,' literally * horse
dedicator ' ; and the allusion in the funeral oration to the
belief that the departed will gallop his horse safely across
the bridge separating Paradise from HelL These, how-*
ever, are sure indications of an earlier transmission of
the horse to the deceased, probably by slaughtering it over
his grave. The custom now is to strike the horse three
times with the tress of hair which the widow takes from her
husband's breast, where she had previously laid it, and
handing it to the ' bakh-faldisag,' or horse dedicator, says,
*' Here is a whip for the deceased." In striking the horse
the relative says, ^^May you both, horse and whip, be dedi-
cated to the deceased I " ^
This identification of the future life with the present
induces the conviction that the dead in the life beyond the
> Some interosting particulars of tbe sacrificial horse in the Hindu funeral
rites will be found in the article already referred to. Of. T^e Jlrtt Mandala of
the Miff Veda, Joom. Boy. Asiat. Soc. YoL XIJL Ft. 4, pp. 621 tegg.
388 CUSTOMS OP THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
grave continue to exert themselves for the welfare of their
families. The popular tales frequently speak of this or that
dead person asking and obtaining leave of Barastyr, the
king of the dead, to visit his relations on earth. Having
met them, he assists in their raids, and before taking his
departure gives up his share of the spoil, at the same time
disclosing his identity. From these tales it appears that the
souls of the departed may only remain on earth till sunrise,
when they must return to their abode beyond the grave.
The Ossetes hold communion with them in the evening with
lighted candles. For a whole year the widow continues to
expect the nightly visits of her husband ; every evening she
prepares the couch, placing beneath it a copper basin and
ewer of water, lights a whole candle and sits patiently
waiting his arrival till cock-crow. In the morning she rises
from her bed and taking the ewer and basin with soap and
other appurtenances of toilet, proceeds to the spot where he
usually performed his ablutions, and stands several minutes in
an expectant attitude as though waiting on him. Departed
ancestors are supposed to participate in all the family
ceremonies and festivals, whether at births, marriages, or
attestation of oaths, the Lares and Penates being always
invoked on these occasions, and the force of the oath depends
in a great measure on the fulfilment by the witnessing parties
of those funeral obsequies in honour of their departed whose
names are invoked at such ceremonies. While the souls of
the dead are supposed to leave their bodies by night and
visit their friends, the living are in like manner believed to
be capable during sleep of riding off on horseback or on
benches to a field dedicated to the departed, and known by
the name of 'Kuris.'^ Here it is said grow all kinds of seeds,
including those of happiness and misfortune. This field is
jealously guarded by the dead, and may only be visited
with impunity by the souls of the worthy, who may take the
seeds they require, a sure. pledge of a good harvest and
^ There is a stran^ similarity between tliis name and that given by the natives
in some districts of India to the prehistoric graves. Of. Mr. Bidie's account of
his visit to the mves near Pall&varam in Notes of the Quarter^ Joum. Eoy.
^siat. Soc. Vol. XIX. Pt. 4, p. 693.
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OF LAW. 389
happiness daring the ensuing year. Others retnm coyered
with wounds like plague spots caused by the arrows shot at
them by the dead. These wounds are incurable, and though
they sometimes heal of themselves, it occasionally happens
that the sufferer is waked from sleep by grievous bodily
pains, and after long torments dies. These popular super-
stitions relating to the ' Euris ' are in later times mixed up
with the struggles of the Ossetes and their Kabardinian
neighbours; the victor in these fights joyfully seizing a
sheaf of com and beating out a handful of the grain scatters
it in the direction of his country, signifying that he has won
from his enemy a good harvest for the ensuing year. But
this latter form of tradition loses the close connexion with
the family cult which characterizes the earlier form, and
a comparison of the two shows how popular legends of a
purely religious character receive in course of time an
historical oolouriog, their original source becoming obscure
in the popular imagination.^
Like other peoples worshipping the family cult the Ossetes
venerate family and tribal burial-places, 'zapatsy,' and regard
them as holy. Every Ossete desires to be buried near his
family in order that he may watch over his posterity ; and,
therefore* the expression, '' May you not be buried in your
own grave ! *' is regarded in the light of a deep affront. On
the other hand, descendants attach great importance to their
dead lying near them in family burial-places, and this
explains the fact that the Tualtsi or Southern Ossetes,
when removing from Georgia, brought their dead with them.
It is no vain wish that causes the Ossetes to desire hourly
intercommunion with the departed, for they believe that all
that is good in life comes from the dead, and accordingly
offer up prayers to them, complaining of their misfortunes,
and inviting them to participate in their merry-making. In
some parts of Ossetia the dead are said to select one of their
number more famous than the rest for his brave deeds
during life as the special object of veneration. Of these
^ Cf. Bhanalef in Sbornik STedenii KavkAxkikh gortMf, toL iii. p. 27, and
Tol. It. p. 26,
390 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
defunct heroes may be mentioned Nogdzuar (i.e. new saint)
in Kani, the so-called Ehetadjidzuar in the Alaghir defile,
and in all the Nart traditions. In the mountains near
£akodura the most esteemed of these divinities is Tbauatsillay
the god of plenty and contentment. There can be no doubt
that some of these gods were historical personages^ such as
Khetag, the chief of the Khetagurof family in Nar, and the
author of the belief in Ehetadjidzuar. According to tradition
he came from the Kuban, having abandoned his ancient
house owing to disputes with his brothers. Many miracles
are attributed to him, and he is usually impersonated not as
a warrior-hero, but as a righteous God-fearing man. Thus
on one occasion he is represented to have been miraculously
protected from falling into the hands of his brethren by the
intervention of a god through the instrumentality of a forest
which surrounded him on every side, and the legend affirms
that this forest has remained ever since exactly as it was
when it covered him, an impenetrable thicket. It is still
said to belong to Khetag, and every bird or animal killed in
it as well as all fruits gathered there must be eaten on the
spot and never carried home, for, like the funeral feasts
already spoken of, good is in this way done to his soul.
Khetag is the patron of the inhabitants of the Nar and
Alaghir defiles, and intercedes for them before the good and
evil spirits, etc. In the same way Nogdzuar is the patron
and protector of the inhabitants of Kani, Tbauatsilla of those
of Kakodur,^ Dziri, and Dzivshei in the Kurtatian defile,
and Famidjidanet in Gualdon. And while every family
and village has its own god and ancestral tutelary spirits,
they have also collectively good genii who under the name
of ^ Bunatikhidsai ' may be compared with the 'domovoi'*
or house-spirit of the Russians, and the Banshee of the
Irish. The Ossete domovoi usually haunts the store-closet,
taking the form of a sprite or a hag with tusks, or a white
sheep, and so on. But it can only be seen by the sorceress
on New Year's eve. The bride before leaving the parental
^ Cf. Shanaief 8 collection of the legends and tales of the Ossetes.
' Cf. Ralston, Songs of the Russian People, London, 1872, pp. 129 seq.
THEY THKOW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 391
roof asks the domovoi to intercede with the patron of the
hoase and appease his wrath at her removing to the care
of the domovoi of her husband. These * brownies ' are the
familiar spirits of the weaker sex, who may pronounce their
name, which they are forbidden to do in the case of other
spirits. In the week after Christmas the Ossetes keep a
festival in honour of the domovoi, when they take a cake
and prepare their best meat and wine, beer and brandy,
placing these in an empty room and esteeming it a singular
piece of good fortune if any of the food and wine is eaten
and drunk, of course secretly, by one of the household. In
the same way Safa, the god of the hearth-chain, is honoured
as a familiar spirit, and his assistance invoked for the
family.
The domestic cult, common as we have said to all people
of Indo-Germanic race, is closely analogous with that of
Iranian people, and particularly with the Persian * fravashi.'
The second part of the Zend Avesta is the best commentary
on the Odsete worship of the dead. The intercommunion
between the dead and the living kept up by sacrificial
offerings on the one hand, and protection and assistance on
the other, is a remarkable characteristic of the Avesta writ*
ings. These represent the souls of the dead continually
intent upon the thought — Who will honour us and per-
petuate our fame? Who will sacrifice in our memory?
Who will provide the food we stand in need of P The
fravashi bestows his blessing on the person sacrificing in the
following words : ** May there ever be in his dwelling-place
herds of cattle and men, may he have a good horse and a
strong chariot, may there always be in his family a God-
fearing man respected by the people and worthy to sacrifice,
etc. I " Pleased with his descendants, who have not left him
without food, the fravashi hastens to their assistance, fights
on their side in the battle, brings them a plentiful harvest,
abundant water, strength and riches. Their malevolence,
says the Zend Avesta, against those who offend them is
terrible. They are likened to winged birds gifted with
every imaginable attribute of excellence. They are generous
392 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
manly, merciful, mighty, strong, and yet light as air. Such
also are the conceptions of the Ossetes with regard to their
dead souls, which are frequently likened to shooting-stars.
In Little Russia they say of a falling star, ' a man is dead,
his soul has flown away,' and in Ossetia, referring to the
same phenomenon, * the dzuar,' their guardian spirit, * has
flown past.'
The Ossete household, or, what is the same thing, the
family community, is not merely a religious bond of union,
it is also a proprietary tie, a community of ownership,
differing in this important distinction from every other kind
of community in that its members are related to one another,
working together with joint means for a common object,
and jointly sharing the property so acquired. The Ossete
* dvor,' or household, is a group comprising in various parts
of Ossetia 20, 40, 60, and even as many as 100 members or
thereabouts. These persons have a head or chief,^ usually
the oldest in age, who, when incapacitated through illness
or infirmity, appoints his successor or is succeeded by the
next in age. They rarely elect a chief, as is the custom
among the Southern Slavs. The name given to this head
man is ' khitsau,' i.e. chief, or ' unafaganag,' governor. He
represents the household in all its relations with neigh*
bouring villages or the authorities, and he manages all the
family affairs, both economical as well as reUgious and moral.
To his keeping are entrusted the family honour in the sense
of avenging insults and offences committed against any of its
members, he must provide all that is necessary for its sup*
port, increase its property either by purchase or exchange,
and add to its capital ; he, too, may, if necessary, alienate its
possessions. But the 'khitsau' is controlled by individual
members of the family, and his acts are closely watched by
these latter. His acts of alienation or borrowing only be-
come binding when the assent of all the full-grown men has
been tacitly given. For if there be a protest on the part of
^ Of. Sir H. lCaine*B Early Law and Ouitonif chap. Tiii., on East European
House Communities, p. 246.
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 393
any one of the relatives^ the act of the headman becomes
null and void and the contract of no effect.
As in the Servian and generally in the Southern Slav
' family/ as well as in that of Great Russia, together with
the headman or chief, the so-called 'domachin'or 'glovar/
there is also a ' domachikha ' or ' stareshikha/ so also in
Ossetia, besides the ' khitsau/ we find the so-called ' avsin '
literally ' aunt.' This woman is the head of the female half
of the household ; in her hands is centred the management
of the store-closet or kitchen, the laying in of provisions for
the family and the care of the keys. She is usually the
oldest of the women,. wife or mother of the ' khitsau/ some-
times his widow. The leading position occupied by these
two, the 'khitsau' and 'aysin/ frees them from field and
domestic work. Washing the linen, mending the clothes,
and the preparation of the food fall to the lot of the younger
women, who divide this work among themselves.
The family property includes both immovables as well as
movables. Unlike the customs of the Great Russians and
Southern Slavs, Ossete law obliges every member of the
family to divide his earnings with the rest, and makes no
distinction between property acquired unth and that acquired
without the assistance of the family capitaL While in India
this is the first question put by the judge who recognizes
individual rights over booty obtained in war or the produce
of the chase, but in such earnings as those of a dancer takes
into account the fact of her having been educated at the
family expense, the Ossete customs transfer all private
earnings to the common fund. If a priest, for instance, or
an officer in the Russian service, does not divide his wages
with his relatives, that is because he does not live under one
roof with them. Were they all living together, they would
be bound to contribute, and this is proved in the case of
Ossetes serving in local garrisons who have not severed the
family tie. This trait in Ossete customs shows their archaic
character and the strength of the consanguinity which till
lately prevailed among them. Before, however, there had
been any serious interference with their institutions on the
394 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
part of the Bussians, a tendency towards individualization
had begun to be developed among them, and their language,
that true indicator of the current of popular ideas, had
formulated the inception of an era of individualization in
Ossetia by the following proverbs : " Those who do not suit
one another had better divide/' and ^'Sisters-in-law (f.«.
husband's sisters) are apt to be quarrelsome.''
In considering the proprietary relations of the Ossetes,
we are reminded that ownership by communities of persons
related by consanguinity preceded individual ownership, but
simultaneously with this joint ownership, we meet with the
beginnings of ownership by the individual, corresponding
with the peculium of Roman law. The objects of this
separate property in the earliest times may have been a suit
of armour, an article of dress, extending afterwards to
immovables, acquired by the expenditure of personal labour
whether in the form of occupation or first tillage of land.
These various classes of ownership are to this day to be
observed in Ossete life, since the period of Russian dominion
in a more or less expiring form, previous to it, according to
the accounts of travellers, in full force.
Movables as well as immovables are alike the objects
of family ownership in Ossetia; arable lands, enclosed
meadows, forest but rarely, and lastly pasturage, might
be owned by the family, the individual, or by the tribe.
Pasture, however, invariably bore the impress of communal-
village property. Among movables were: the products of
industry, cattle and horses used in ploughing, domestic and
cooking utensils, the hearth chain, the copper caldron for
cooking the food, etc., also articles of luxury such as valuable
presents made to the family, silver and gilt vases, and
amassed capital usually lying idle in the form of silver coin
stowed away in chests. Flour mills, cheese presses, stores,
stables, cattle sheds, and other buildings used for economical
purposes are by custom regarded as the general property
of the family, and in this category must be placed irrigating
dykes and beehives. But land and its usufruct generally
retain their primitive tribal character, for though separate
THEY TOROW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LATT. 396
families may have the temporary use of it, upon the
extinction of the family and the lapse of ownership, land
always reverts to the tribe. This is a characteristic of the
lex Oentilia in ancient Roman law, and the Allemannio
Vrund, or the right of all the cousins to share the possessions
of an extinct family. In the Irish * orba/ or the reversion
of property upon the failure of heirs to the source whence
it was originally derived, i.e. to the tribe, we have the same
thing. Another characteristic of contemporary Ossete life
may best be expressed by the German term Flurzwang}
This is not merely an obligatory and perpetual rotation
of crops, but a rigid observance of stated seasons for the
various works of husbandry, rendering it possible to pasture
private allotments at the same time as the communal land
after the annual crops have been harvested. This custom
offers points of analogy to the * lammas lands ' in England,
and recalls to mind the Suevi of GsDsar's Commentaries, half
of whom tilled the land, while the other half fought, taking
it in turns to be warriors and agriculturists. '* No Ossete,'^
remarks a writer on Ossete customs, '* ventures to begin
mowing his grass before the month of July, when a general
assembly of all the inhabitants of a village takes place for
the holiday called * atenek,' at which the elders after long
consultations decide whether the time has come to begin
mowing.'' The ploughing is regulated in the same way,
four distinct periods being assigned for this kind of field-
work.
Not only are there traces of a simultaneous carrying on
of agricultural work in Ossetia, but actual evidence of such
a state of things at the present day in the practice of
neighbouring farms to unite to form mutual loan associations
to supply one another with farming implements or labour,
e.g. in Southern Ossetia, where large teams are yoked to
heavy ploughs. But let it suffice to mention one result of
this Ossetian flurzwang in the facilities it affords for making
> This system prevails in all parts of the Caucasus, both in the east as well as in
the west, and gives rise to some curious rules in the grape country, where a day is
fixed ior beginning cutting the grapes.
396 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
a simultaneous use of corn-fields and meadows after harvest-
ing operations are concluded. We find this custom developed
in Europe in mediaeval times still maintained in France,
where it is known as vaine-pdture. We notice a survival of
it in English common law> which prosecutes private persons
for enclosing lands over which there had existed rights of
pasture for the benefit of the community. We also see it in
Hussia, where the village community is in full force, occur-
ring on lands held in severalty, and clearly proving that these
lands were formerly subject to tenure in common. In
Ossetia the only exceptions to the right of free pasture are
met with in mountainous districts, where strips of cultivated
land are jealously fenced in or surrounded by stones by their
first occupiers, and even these are not always reserved for
private use unless pastured by the owner's cattle, whose farm
must necessarily be in close proximity. All other lands, after
the corn and hay have been harvested, are subject to free
pasture, and remain so till the time of spring ploughing
comes round. This system of joint property extends even
to the use of the produce, for we find it stated no further
back than 1850 that every Ossete requiring hay for his cattle
might take it from any stack. But this right had to be care*
fully watched to prevent its abuse by wealthy proprietors,
i,€. owners of large herds. It was, in fact, supplementary
to free pasture, and was designed for the benefit of the cattle
in spring, when the allotments again passed under cultivation
and the meadows were bare of grass. As soon as the first
note of the cuckoo was heard, the Ossete might supply his
needs with his neighbour's hay, but if he took it before that
time he had to pay thrice its value.
Agrarian communism, which formerly characterized the
tribal conmiunities of the Ossetes, is to this day a dis-
tinguishing feature of their family relations. In some farms
where everything is held in common harvesting operations
are performed by the commune and supplies of food are dealt
out to all the members of the house, each one receiving a
share of the weft and yarn. In other households, again,
individual ownership has taken the place of corporate pro-
THEY THKOW ON THE EVOLUTION OF hkW. 397
perty, the land being annually distributed among the families^
each one cultivating its own distinct allotment and taking
entire possession of the crops. Whereas land, as we have seen,
still bears the character of tribal property, the plantation or
garden belong to the household considered as a whole and to
the separate families composing it. From the earliest historical
period the manor-house was not reckoned among immov-
ables, but had the character of movable property, and the
process of individualization beginning with the latter affected
the manor long before land could be appropriated by in-
dividuals. This was the view taken by German law of the
seventeenth century, which defined movable property as
everything that could be destroyed by fire,^ and ancient
Irish law gave the plaintiff the right of seizing everything
removable belonging to his debtor which might provide him
"a proper house." While the 'khadzar,' or dining-hall,
and the ' kunatskaia,' or strangers' room, form part of the
corporate property, separate buildings added afterwards for
newly-married couples are regarded as the subjects of in-
dividual ownership and may even be alienated. In the same
way, separate stories of one house occupied by different
owners were divisible according to ancient Oerman law,
differing from the Roman law, which required a partition-
wall between the different parts of the house.
The buildings connected with husbandry are as a rule the
property of the whole house, but there is nothing to forbid
one of its inmates from erecting a shed or warehouse on his
own land or on that belonging to the household, in the latter
case, of course, with its consent.
With reference to movables certain distinctions must be
drawn. In a former work Prof. Kovalefsky * has pointed out
that there are exceptions to the general theory that all kinds
of movables ceased simultaneously to be the objects of pro-
prietary right by the community, whether of the tribe or its
offshoot the joint household. Even such things as food and
dress might be the objects of joint ownership by small
> Cf. Maine, JBarfy Law and Cu$tomt p. 886.
> See his Obschinoye Zemliya, ch. 1.
398 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
families living together. The principle appears to have
been that anything obtained by combined effort, e.g. the
wild animal killed in the chase, became the property of all
the families taking part in it. War or the chase of men
evidently demanded more than any other pursuit combined
efforts on the part of those engaged in it, and the spoils
obtained, whether cattle or slaves, became the objects of
joint ownership. In the same way cattle stolen from a
neighbouring tribe were the property of the household, and
in earlier times of the tribe. Of this we have convincing
proof in the popular traditions of the Ossetes, preserved in
their heroic or Nart builinas.^ Their heroes Ehamits,
Sosryko, Urysmag, and others over and over again divide
the captured herds with their tribe. Thus Urysmag return-
ing from a foray on a neighbouring clan orders all the cattle
to be apportioned among the households, and when this has
been done, he distributes his own share among the Narts,
reserving for himself only an equal portion with the rest
and the best bull. A similar division takes place when the
spoils are women. In the legend of Eauerbek, while this hero
is absent on a foray, interminable quarrels and dissension
reign in his father's house as to who will have the girls. At
length Eauerbek returns miraculously cured of the wounds
dealt him by his brothers, and his first act is to distribute
the maidens among his uncles and brethren according to the
desire of every one. There being none left for his father,
^ The Nart tales are the sagas of Ossete national life corresponding to the
Icelandic sagas. Klaproth was the first to mention them in nis Voyage on
Caueate. It was not tul fifty years later in 1862, that Schiefner acquainted us
more full^ with these myths (see his Ossetische Spriichworter, etc.^. According
to this writer the Narts are half men and half angels or heroes, whose deeds are
celehrated in the songs of the Ossetes, sung hy them to the accompaniment of a
musical instrument like a violin. These lays prevail among other inhabitants of
the Caucasus, viz. the Ingush, Kumyks, Avars, and Kabarainians, by whom the
Karts are represented as giants frequently contending with beings of a higher
Older, the Dzuar or gods, and sometimes vanquiihing these. The names of these
Nart heroes, of whom there are not many, are : Ehamits, Urysmag, and his son
Batyradz, Sosryko, B6t6ko, Soslen, etc., and the same names occur with varia-
tions in tiie Kabaidinian legends and songs. The Narts are said to dwell in one
village in tiie mountains on the river Sequoia, crossed by a bridge leading to the
village. The best collection of these sagas ii by Y. Miller, who committ^ them
to writing in 1880 from the lips of the Ossetes in Vladikavkaz, Alaghir, and
Sadon. Cf . an artide by HUlMchmanny Saffe und Glaube der Osseten, in Zeit-
Bdbiift der Deutschen Morgenlandischen QesellBchaft, Band 2 1, Heft iv.
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OF LAW. 399
the hero again departs on a new foray, and returns this
time bringing a most beautiful damsel whom he presents to
his father to wed.
We regret that time will not allow us to follow Prof,
Eovalefsky in his remarks on the growth of individualization
and partition of family property, illustrated as these are by
references to the customs of Hindus and Celts, as well as the
Southern Slavs and inhabitants of Great Russia. Ossete law
knew no exceptions to the rule that all the earnings of a
family went into the common purse till the period of the
alienation of land. The captive of war became the slave of
the whole household, the acquisitions whether of men or
women were treated as common property, and even the spoils of
war followed the same rule, though these last together with the
produce of the chase were among the earliest forms of self-
acquisition. The sword, the dagger, the gun of an enemy,
the horns and skin of deer and mountain goat came to be
recognized as the first objects of individual ownership. With
regard to land, personal labour had less to do with proprietary
rights than consent. It was the consent of the tribe or family
that gave a title to outlying lands occupied by one of its
members. An illustration of this is afforded by contemporary
Bussian law when the mir or commune consents to the settle-
ment of separate families and the erection of huts in remote
parts of their possessions.^ And this throws light on the
origin of ancient * seizin.' It took place not on waste but
on tribal lands, not by the choice of the individual, but with
the consent of the tribe. That this is no mere theory is
evident from the fact that where there is no consent of the
tribe or commune, even though tacitly expressed, there is
no real ownership. Under this form private ownership in
^ Prof. Eovalefsk^ tells me, there are landB in the Ukraine (S.W. Anssia),
known as Staraia Zaimotchnaia, i.e. anciently occupied by colonists, corresponding
with the German * bifang.' These are at present claimed by the Crown and taxed
accordingly. Some six or seven years ago, however, lawsuits were brought
before the courts of Eharkof and Sumy to test the validity of these claims, and
resulted in the acknowledgment of the proprietary rights of the peasants. The
government upon this prohibited any further suits of this nature upon the pretence
that the historical and judicial character of these lands have not oeen sufficiently
investigated. The question is one of great importance.
400 CUSTOMS OP THE 0S8ETES, AND THE LIGHT
land is first met with among the Ossetes. If there be no
consent and huts have been erected on land belonging to
the aul or village, the community proceed to level the
buildings and seize upon the property of the occupier,
treating him precisely as one who had possessed himself
illegally of the property of others.
Contract law, fettered as it has been in Ossetia by the
joint family and the almost entire absence of personally
acquired property, is in the growing stage. But the fact
of its being so backward makes it all the more interesting to
the student, for it supplies precisely that material which
is wanting in Boman and German jurisprudence, having
regard to the comparatively more modem epoch of these
systems of law and the Aryan source of Ossete customs.
Who were the persons capable of contracting is the question
which lies at the root of this branch of archaic law, and the
answer we receive in Ossetia is very remarkable. Now it is
the head of the family, now his grown-up sons, who may
exercise control over the family property ; though the head
of the family has full powers to dispose of its possessions, his
contracts are voidable if the full-grown males of the house-
hold are opposed to them. He may sell the property only in
the event of the interests of the family requiring such sale ;
but none may gainsay him if his object be to provide funeral
feasts and sacrifices. When there are two buyers of a
property, and one be a relative, it is the latter who must have
the preference. One lot of land may be sold while another
may not. For instance, the enclosure may not be alienated,
but the recently constructed hut may. A cow, an ox, a
horse, every kind of movable may be sold, but the caldron
in which the food is cooked and the chain by which it is
suspended may not. These contradictions are difficult of
explanation, but a key to their solution is afforded by a
comparison of Ossete customs with the laws of the Hindus
and the Celts, whose institutions were likewise based on con-
sanguinity and the indivisibility of the family property.*
^ Of. Mayne, op. m'^, chap. yiii.
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THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 401
The principle both in India and in Ireland was that the
joint family alone could bind itself by contracts, but that
these were only valid if every one of its members assented
to the transaction. The head of the family was, in fact^ the
trusted representative of the others, and was bound by the
assent of all and every one of its members ; as a father and
husband he had uncontrolled authority over their fortunes.
This union in one person of dual functions led in practice to
this, that his rights of disposing of the whole property were
only disputed in the event of his acts being prejudicial to the
family interests. According to the commentators of Hindu
law, alienation by the head of the family was valid, provided
that it was occasioned by necessity. This necessity might
be construed in various ways. It was advantageous in a
year of famine to sell the joint property in order to
provide for the wants of the family ; but it was also profit-
able to arrange ancestral feasts and sacrifices and give
presents to the clergy who attended them. Hence endow-
ments for the benefit of the clergy were recognized as a valid
ground for alienating the family property by Hindu and
\ncient Celtic laws. Another cause of free gift arose when
"^ father of a family transferred his rights to one of his
near relatives, with the stipulation that he should have
maintenance during life, and be sacrificed to after death.
In Hindu law it was always understood that the aged
were to be supported by the family, but in Irish law this
is one of the four express modes of alienating the family
property.
Commentators have explained that the origin of this kind
of transaction lay in personal insecurity and the impossibility
of finding room for the amassed supplies. If a man did not
prefer transferring his property to the church on the same
conditions, he had no other course open to him except to
renounce in favour of one of his near relatives. If he had
sons, one of them would undertake the management of the
family; but if childless, he might have recourse to more
distant relatives. As soon as the transferee accepted, the
VOL. XX. — [WBW SIBIB8] 2S
402 CUSTOMS OF THB 0S8ETES, AND THE LIGHT
property passed into his hands as manager and the transferor
was entitled to maintenance. This gift was conditional, and
the non-performance by the son or relative of the obligation
he had taken upon himself voided the contract. The father
would then return to the former position of master and
manager^ or would enter into a similar agreement with
another relative.
All the above is applicable to one of the more usual kinds
of gifts in Ossetia. It is done in favour of a son or a
brother, or, when both are wanting, a more distant relative
takes it. The causes which give rise to it are not merely old
age, but incapacity on the part of the elder to manage the
household. Instead of a formal resignation, the co-parceners
usually inform him of their wish, and indicate the person
who should replace him. This latter in accepting the duties
is bound to maintain the donor till his death, supplying him
with clothing and everything he may require. If this
condition be not complied with, the father has the right to
displace the manager and resume his functions as master of
the household. The same thing would occur when the donee
or transferee has a house of his own and the donor tem-
porarily lives with him. On returning to his own dwelling-
place he takes back from his relative all the property which
he had previously delivered. When this transaction took
place between father and son-in-law, the latter removed to
the house of the donor and was called ^'midgama" {ue.
inner, domestic man). But this only happened if the father
had no sons and did not wish to give the property to a more
distant relative. The assent of all the family was frequently
asked before concluding this kind of agreement. The custom
we have described is common not only in Russia, but in
Styria and other countries. Wherever it is met with there
is never a formal election by a family assembly of the elder,
as frequently happens in Servia and generally among the
Southern Slavs. It may therefore be regarded as one of
those measures taken with the object of retaining the patri-
archal character which at first distinguished the joint family,
and to prevent its transformation into the 'artel' or the
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLITTION OF LAW. 403
association founded on common labour with an elective
head.^
The starting-point in the history of the joint family
is when all the property^ both movables as well as im«
movableSy forms a common stock, and all the personal
earnings, however acquired, belong to its members
collectively. In this position of affairs the chief alone
could make contracts, or, to be more accurate, no transaction
affecting either the personal or real property could take
place without his authority and consent. ** What belongs
to many," says the author of the Vivada Chintamani, " may
be given with their assent." ^ The beginnings of a joint
property with reference to private acquisitions become in
course of time considerably modified; the dowry of the
wife passes under the absolute control of her husband ;
everything acquired at odd times ceases to go into the
general fund. At a later period the principle is adopted
that only what is acquired with the assistance of the family
capital belongs rightly to the family, the remainder be-
coming the property of the individual. The indiyidualiza-
tion of rights over property leads to the formation of a
distinct class of possessions. Yam over and above what is
required for the family remains in the hands of the spinner
and her husband, spoils of war in the hands of the captor,
wages belong to him who serves, rent to the lessor, etc.
The wage earner, who has returned from foreign parts, does
not consider himself bound to divide his earnings with the
family, but expends them in the purchase of what he
requires, sometimes settling on occupied land, which he is
the first to cultivate, and thus becomes its owner.' In this
way immovables as well as movables become the objects of
self-acquisition, and we see the earliest form of individual
^ The ^ artel * is a well-known institation in St. Petersburg, Moscow, and other
large cities of Rnssia. All the work of the foreign houses of business except merely
clerical work is performed by artels. The members of these bodies are respon-
sible one for the other, and all losses arising from the dishonesty or negligence of
one of the members is payable out of the common funds. See an able pamphlet
by M. Luffinin, ** Les Artels,*' written for the Cercle St. Simon in Paris.
' Cf. Hindu Law and Usage, etc., p. 290.
* Cf. Early Law and Custom, p. 838.
404 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
landed property. For the alienation of this * allodial ' land,
as we may call it, there would be none of the difficulties
incident to the transfer of family land, because the owner
having full dominion oyer it may sell or give it to whom-
soever he pleases, may pledge it on loan or borrow upon
it without mortgaging, the mere fact of his recognized
ownership being sufficient security to the creditor. The
ancient codes are all in favour of the free disposition of self-
acquired property by the owner, and mediaeval charters and
customs take the same view. Ossete law, like that of other
Aryan races, draws a distinction between ancestral and self-
acquired property as regards its alienation ; the first is called
'afidiban' (paternal estate), the second particularly articles
valued by the famUy, such as old swords, guns, copper
kettles, are known as 'khazna,' and excluded from the
number of things which may be freely alienated. Separate
property is derived from personal earnings and oecupatio
as well as from family partition. The owner of a divided
share has an imlimited power over it, and may make any
kind of obligation and agreement concerning it. Proofs
of this are numerous in any of the sources of ancient and
mediaeval law, as well as in those customs which regulate
transactions of this nature among the Eussian peasantry and
the Balkhan and Austrian Slavs. Among the Ossetes we
of course meet with the same phenomenon. The more fre-
quent partitions which have taken place in recent years are
the cause of a growing tendency to barter property in
Ossetia, whether movables or immovables ; at the same time,
contracts multiply and become more diversified. Certain
kinds of property, however, remain outside the influence of
civil law, and these are not land, but movables, the caldron
and hearth chain. This seems strange at first sight, but if
we remember that these articles had the same relationship to
the family cult as the graves had in ancient Greece and
Bome, and that these latter might not be alienated, it will at
once be evident why the stamp of infamy was fixed on the
man in Ossetia who infringed this prohibition.
Summarizing then the peculiarities of Ossete contract law,
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 406
we may say that, like other cognate systems of jurisprudence,
it starts from the assumption that the father is chief of the
family, and that its property is inalienable. From this the
following conclusions may be made : (1) the father as repre-
sentative of the family may alone contract; (2) his contracts
are only valid provided the other members assent; (3) no
alienation without consideration may take place except in
case of necessity; (4) such necessity arises when funeral
ceremonies have to be arranged, and all gifts by way. of
charitable endowments ; (5) as well as when the donee is a
relative of the same or another household ; (6) with reference
to self-acquired property, contracts may be made by indi-
vidual members of the joint family; and (7) upon the
partition of the family property all the members are at
liberty to make any contracts they like.
The questions discussed in the foregoing pages are the
keystones in the history of the law of contracts. If the
assent of all the full-grown members of a family be necessary
to make the contract binding, their presence at its conclusion
is easily explained. We can now understand whom the
Swedish law had in view when it spoke of the 'fastars,^
usually twelve in nimiber, whose presence was necessary in
every transaction relating to property, whether in the sale or
exchange, in the payment of the dowry of a bride, etc. ; and
we can also understand who were the twelve witnesses referred
to by the Russian ' pravda * or law in the presence of whom
the creditor declared his claims, as persons immediately
interested in the proceedings. In course of time the memory
of the causes which called forth this interesting institution
passes away; the meaning of the 'fastars' and the twelve
witnesses as representatives of the joint &mily is forgotten.
If the institution continues, it is to satisfy another want,
public consent; but how different are these witnesses to their
early prototypes, how tar from taking that immediate part
in the deed which was expressed when the fastars held the
lance, that symbol of dominion over the thing ceded ! The
Ossetes only knew the later form of the representation of
the family at the completian of the contracts ; their customs
406 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE LIGHT
require the presence of witnesaes, and recognize their right
to prove the act before arbitrators . . • .
Formalities^ such as were required in ancient German
and Roman law, find no place in the Ossete transfer of
property. Except striking together the palms of the hands
and the publicity given by the presence of witnesses, no
ceremony was required. This mode of concluding the
contract is mentioned in the Zend-Avesta, and is therefore
interesting with reference to the Iranianism of the Ossetes.
With regard to real contracts, some of these were accom-
panied by the delivery of a kind of vadium, or pledge. Like
the Russian peasant, the Ossete, in selling his horse, delivered
the bridle to the buyer. In the betrothal the kinsman who
had arranged the match places in the hand of the eldest
relative of the bride a pistol, a gun, and sometimes gives him
an ox, such payments being completely analogous with the
ancient German handmoney, or arrha, which passed at the
betrothal. But in transactions relating to immovables we
find none of that ceremony known in the old German law
under the name of ^ gleba,' and in that of ancient Russia as
'diem' (i>. turf). The custom observed in beating the
bounds in cases of disputed boundaries, in Digoria with a
stone in the hand, and in Taghauria with a lump of earth,
finds nothing analogous in the sale of immovable property.
The only ceremony in the ease of the latter was the funeral
feast in ccnnmemoration of the ancestors of the seller. These
commemorative banquets remind us of ancient Greece, where
neither house nor land could be bought without sacrificial
offerings, and prove an identity of origin for Greek and
Ossete customs. Like the ancient Greeks the Ossetes buried
their dead in their fields ; every family had its own burial
place, consisting of a great square building with a narrow
entrance. Their desire is to have their dead near them in
order that they may intercede for them. When he sells his
land the Ossete parts with the family graves, which become
the property of the purchaser. The latter, therefore, might
be regarded as a wicked person forcibly taking the dead
away {rom their descendants, and might be haunted by evil
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 407
spirits, did he not propitiate them by feasts and sacrifices.
In the same way on marriage the household gods might
resent the carrying away of the bride, and become evil genii
to the husband ; accordingly a naked sword is carried above
the bride's head and brandished on all sides to protect her
from the inyisible spirits.
The want of a written character has prevented the Ossetes
from independently having recourse to the most ancient and
most simple of all forms of concluding a contract, viz. by a
deed in writing. The modern documents occasionally found
among them are partly in the Arabic and partly in Russian
character, and merely prove the direct influence of Muhamma-
dan law on the one side and Russian jurisdiction on the other.
The very term they employ for a book,yi-ttt^, is a corrupted
form of the Russian word kniga, and is used by them to
designate written documents. But their endeavour to change
every kind of symbolism for a written document long before
the Russians entered their country is evident from the
mention made of their use of wooden tablets like the birki or
scoring sticks of the Russian peasant, and the various marks
they employed for denoting every article in the agreement.
Before concluding this article, we must allude to that part
of M. Eovalef sky's work dealing with the criminal law of
the Ossetes, and as time will not allow of a full and critical
examination of this branch of the subject, I avail myself of
a paper in the Journal des Savants (1887) by M. Dareste,
Judge of the Cour de Cassation at Paris, who is, I believe,
an authority of good standing on primitive law.
Ossete criminal law still recognizes blood indemnity. In
the last century its application was unrestricted. Every
murder committed involved, as a necessary consequence, the
two families — that of the murdered man and his murderer's
— in an indefinitely prolonged war of extermination.
Vengeance was a religious duty. The body of the victim
was brought into the house with every ceremony, and all
the relations rubbed some of the blood on their foreheads,
eyes, cheeks, and chin, and took a solemn oath to do
their duty. Having accomplished this act of vengeance.
408 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES, AND THE UGHT
the avenger repaired to the grave of his relative, and
there made a solemn declaration of the act he had committed
in obedience to custom and religion. No compensation
was admissible except for light wounds, slight injuries and
thefts. At the present day manners have undergone a
change. The right of vengeance is limited as regards
persons. It can only be exercised by the children and
nearest relatives of the dead person. It is forbidden during
the first two weeks of the fast and whenever it conflicts with
the laws of hospitality. Lastly, and this is the greatest step
in advance, it may always be stopped by compensation, the
amount of which is fixed by arbitration, taking into account
certain customary rights arising out of the rank and status of
the parties. The highest compensation awarded is eighteen
times eighteen cows for murder; thrice eighteen cows for
mutilation and wounding. The Ossetes only counted as far
as eighteen. In the case of a woman the compensation was
half that payable for a man, but double if the woman were
pregnant. In the case of a slave there was no blood in-
demnity, the murder was only regarded as a simple tort, and
the indemnity calculated according to the loss sustained. In
the same way, if a freeman were killed by accident, and if
the act were done in self-defence, it was justifiable homicide.
The primitive union of members of one family has not,
however, entirely disappeared, and some traces of it yet
remain. Thus, independently of the compensation payable
by the murderer personally, his paternal relatives owe a
feast of reconciliation to the victim's relatives, and they may
have to entertain in this way a hundred persons. If the
murderer takes refuge in flight, the avenger seizes his goods,
and then it is customary for the brothers of the fugitive to
pay the indemnity. The criminal suit is always between
two families. He who has no family has no avenger, and, if
killed, the murderer goes unpunished.
We have now to deal with the first reform which takes
place in the criminal law of barbarous people by the substi-
tution of restricted for unlimited vengeance. The penalty is
proportioned only to the measure of the crime^ and may
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 409
be satisfied by a monetary payment, by which peace is
restored. The monuments which have survived for us of the
primitive law of ancient people show us everywhere this
second system in analogous if not identical circumstances.
Prof. Kovalefsky approaches these monuments, gives reasons
for resemblances and differences, and finds at every step
in the customs of the Ossetes explanations which have the
undeniable advantage of being founded on facts. This is
one of the most interesting and newest parts of his book.
The results of his researches are formulated by him in the
following propositions : 1. Under the family system, crime
consists not in the attempt against moral and social order,
but in material damage caused to the person ; whence ven-
geance and compensation ; 2. The violation of what we call
a civil right constitutes a crime, admitting the same right
of vengeance which is exercised by the seizure of the goods
or of the person; 3. No distinction is therefore drawn
between civil and criminal wrongs ; 4. And consequently
there is no difference between civil and criminal procedure ;
5. Lastly, an intentional wrong is not distinguished from
mere negligence, the accidental and the premeditated act are
regarded in the same light.
. We have seen that every criminal cause is a quarrel
between two families. It follows, therefore, that crimes
committed in the bosom of the family do not admit the
right of vengeance, but it does not therefore follow that
they should remain unpunished. The elder or head of the
family exercises a right of internal police. He may expel
the person who has disturbed the peace of the house, and
oblige him to exile himself by the destruction of his house ;
in some cases his goods only may be seized, and he may be
placed under an interdict or kind of excommunication which
puts a stop to all relations with other members of the family.
The guilty person may avoid confiscation by paying a
ransom ; this is not merely an indemnity for the damage
caused, as it may amount to twenty-seven times its value ;
it is rather the equivalent of the punishment incurred.
All this side of primitive law has hitherto remained obscure.
410 CUSTOMS OF THE 0SSETE8, AND THE LIGHT
The practice of the Ossetes reveals its importance, and ex-
plains certain characteristics of ancient legislation. For
instance, Solon or rather Draco, the editor of Athenian
criminal law, did not speak of the parricide, and seems
hardly to have thought a crime of such enormity possible.
This reason may have satisfied moralists like Plutarch, but
edifying histories cannot explain ancient laws. The true
reason is that parricide was committed in the bosom of the
family, and therefore did not admit of vengeance. Excom-
munication and exile were the only penalties in such cases.
Most of the laws of the barbarians preserve the same silence
on this head as Athenian law, and evidently for the same
reason. The parricide could not be brought under the
criminal law till the system of blood vengeance had given
place to another, that of a penalty inflicted in the name of
society. Primitive criminal law only knew a small number
of crimes. Crimes against the state or against religion con-
sidered as a political institution, and most of the torts or
wrongs against private property, are creations of a later
date. To speak accurately theft is no crime; among the
Ossetes at all events it gave rise only to a civil process, and
the restitution of the thing stolen; their customs did not
distinguish between manifest theft and that which is not
manifest, or, to illustrate our meaning by contemporary
English law, between robbery and burglary; it was in-
different as to whether the robbery were committed by day
or night. The robber caught in the act may be beaten, but
may in no case be killed, as his family would exact the
price of blood. The only distinction made by custom was
that a robbery committed in an inhabited house is con-
sidered more serious than one in the fields, the former
being an attempt not only against property, but also against
domicile. But robbery committed within the family or
rather the gens was a different thing. The restitution im-
posed in this case by the head of the family might be triple
or even seven times the value of the thing stolen. In this
way the repression of robbery began to assume a penal
character.
THEY THROW ON THE EVOLUTION OP LAW. 411
Among wrongs against the person three are suggestive of
interesting remark. First, blows and wounds are regulated
by a tariff less complicated than those of the Germanic codes.
The size of the wound is measured by grains of barley placed
end to end, a singular arrangement, probably borrowed from
the code of Vakhtang.* Next are the injuries or attempts
against the honour of the individual. The greatest outrage
which a man can do to another is to kill a dog on the tomb
of his ancestors. In former times this outrage could only
have been washed out with blood. An attempt upon the
chain suspended above the domestic hearth was also con-
sidered as an unpardonable injury (cf. ante, p. 384). At the
present day these matters are more easily settled. It is the
same with the adulterer. His was also in former times an
inexpiable crime. The outraged husband might kill the
seducer found in flagrante delicto, and was not liable to pay the
price of blood. Modem manners have modified these affairs.
But the position of the adulterous wife is very different. Her
crime is committed within the family, and is therefore
subject to domestic jurisdiction. Mounted on an ass she is
promenaded in shame through the streets, exposed to the
insults of all, and at length is put to death by her husband
and his relatives. This is the common law of all Indo-
European nations. For instance, the Brahmanical codes
describe the same practice with the only difference that
a monkey is substituted for the donkey.
This part of the Ossete criminal law throws a great light
on the history of criminal law in general. It shows whence
were derived the first penalties inflicted in the name of
society, and how the State came to take the place of the
gens. Domestic jurisdiction served criminal legislation with
its earliest types, while the law of vengeance has gradually
been abolished in international relations.
The customs of the Ossetes have been officially proved
^ The code of Yakhiang, Prince of Georgia, was reviied in 1723, according to
M. Dareste, who, in an earlier number of the same Tolume of the Journal dee
BaTants, reviews both the Armenian and Georgian systems of jurispiudenoe and
their cloee connexion with Ossete customs. c£ I.e. p. 169.
412 CUSTOMS OF THE OSSETES.
and classified at various epochs, notably in 1836, 1844 and
1866. They vary in the several cantons, presenting matter
well worthy of study in detail. M. Dareste has only lightly
touched on the subject. We will conclude, he remarks, in
emphasizing Prof. Kovalef sky's remark that the criminal law
of the Ossetes offers a perfect analogy with ancient Indo-
European codes, and particularly with the ancient laws of
Ireland recently published. All these monuments of the
past illustrate and explain each other, and the points of
comparison met with among the people of the Caucasus are
all the more precious because they show us living institutions.
I need only say a few more words in conclusion. I am
indebted to the present article for an acquaintance vrith its
author. Prof. Kovalefsky, who has kindly read over my MS.,
and suggested two or three notes by way of elucidation.
His knowledge of jurisprudence, of which he was for many
years Professor at the University of Moscow, enables him to
speak with great authority on all the customs of the semi-
civilized inhabitants of the Caucasus, among whom he has
made several journeys. The results of his last year's travels
are published in some pamphlets on the Pshaves and
Khevsurs, and he has also communicated some results of his
earlier observation in two articles published in the Yestnik
Evropii.
413
Abt. X. — 77ie Languages spoken in the Zarafshan Valley in
Russian Turkistan. By R. N. Oust, LL.D., M.R.A.S.
In the course of my reading preparatory to my proposed
trip in September next to Orenberg and the Steppes of
Central Asia, I came upon the valuable book by Dr. Radloff,
"Aus Siberien," Leipzig, 1884. His account of the lan-
guages spoken in the Zarafshan Valley, of which the famous
city of Samarkand is the capital, seems so important, that I
have had it translated from the German for publication in
the Journal. In Vol. XVIII. of the Journal, 1886, pp.
177-195, I communicated a paper on the Geographical Dis-
tribution of the Tdrki Languages, but some points required
elucidation, which are cleared up by Dr. Radloff's remarks.
His statements with regard to the T&jik or Persian portion
of the population of the Valley is very important, as being
fresh, and no doubt accurate.
Egbert N. Cusp, Hon. Secretary.
May 10th, 1888.
The population of the Zarafshan Valley may be divided
into two groups, according to its languages: Istly, races
speaking Turki languages, and 2ndly, races speaking Persian.
The former constitute the largest portion of the population,
while the latter are scattered about in various parts. The
Persian-speaking inhabitants as a rule go by the name of
T&jik ; even the uncultured country people and nomad tribes
call the Persian language T&jik-til (T&jik language).
The T&jik generally only inhabit the towns, and only
busy themsdves with commerce and handicraft. They have
414 LAN0UAGB8 OP THE ZARAP8HAN VALLEY.
their origin partly from very old Persian emigrants or freed
Persian slaves, who were sold in great numbers every year,
by the Turkomans in the Khanates. The newer Persian in-
habitants are generally called Iran, and are partly, although
perhaps secretly, Shiah.
The chief seats of the T&jik (by which general name I
here comprise all the Persians) are the cities of Khojend on
the Syr Daria (which separates the T£jik town from the
Uzbek town, inhabited nearly wholly by Tajik) and Samar-
kand. The inner town of Samarkand is almost solely
inhabited by Tajik, and Persian is the prevailing language
there. The Tajik fill the western gardens and the neigh*-
bourhood of Samarkand almost exclusively as well ; however
there are a few Iran villages, which make the silk-worm
their chief industry. I have in vain endeavoured to find
from the T&jik their tribal names, neither do they know
anything about their early history.
As a remnant of the former population, I may mention
the so-called Mountain-T&jik or Galcha, who inhabit districts
more or less extensive. It seems as if these ancient inhabit-
ants had saved themselves from the stream of new-comers by
keeping to these high-lying districts. As far as I could tell,
these great T&jik settlements are situated as follows : 1) one
day's journey from Kokand on the way to Dauan, the follow-
ing villages were pointed out to me, Schaidan, Babadurchan,
and Yangas ; 2) in the south-west mountains of Tashkend ;
3) on the north border of the Kara-Tag; 4) along the upper
course of the Zarafshan, east of Pentshikend, where the popu-
lation was called Galcha and Kara Tegin. Unfortunately I
could not visit any of these Persian settlements, so I cannot
give any further details about them. However, as far as I
can know, these people differ very little from the other in-
habitants in their customs and ways of living.
The Turki inhabitants of the Zarafshan Yalley consist for
the most part of Uzbek, with the exception of a few places
on the Nurpai, where there are several important Arab
settlements, but which have long succumbed to Turki in-
fluence, and even speak their language.
LANGUAGES OP THE ZAEAFSHAN VALLEY. 415
The chief Uzbek tribes are by no means strictly separate
from one another, but are considerably intermixed, always
keeping together as a race. A fact of this is, that a great
number of the Kiptchak names, which often, as one clearly
sees, have been given after the names of small tribal frac-
tions. However, I consider it superfluous to discuss this
fictitious genealogy further ; one thing I will yet mention.
The Khan of Bokhara, who came from the Mangyt tribe, is
said to sit on a felt cloth every time he ascends his throne,
the four corners of which are held by delegates from the four
branch tribes.
From what I have said, two languages, the Persian and
Turki, are spoken in the Zarafshan Yalley, and in Trans-
oxiana generally. I do not venture to give any decided
opinion about the Persian; however it seems that the Persian
spoken here differs very little from the written Persian. As
to the Turki languages, there are four here : the Kirghiz,
the Kara-Kalpak, the Turkoman, and the Jagatai or Uzbek.
The three former are closely related, j^hile the Uzbek differs
considerably from them ; the latter alone is a literary lan-
guage. Of course, throughout the large area which the
Uzbek inhabit, there must be some variety in the dialects ;
however, generally speaking, this language may be taken as
a whole ; at any rate, the inhabitants of Bokhara and the
Sarts of Turkistan understand each other well enough, which
is not to be surprised at, when one considers the long and
constant intercourse between the towns of Central Asia.
As to the purity of the Tiirki language, it is in the steppes
that it is the most purely spoken, where it has not yet been
permeated by the civilization of Islam, the destroyer of
language and of national spirit. The language of the
Kirghiz is the least poisoned with Arabic and Persian words,
and whatever foreign elements they may have taken up, they
have completely assimilated. However, they have been
invaded in many parts by foreigners, which fact is proved
by the fact of the Kirghiz living in close proximity to the
Sart.
As regards purity of language, next to the language of
416 LANGUAGES OF THE ZAEAFSHAN VALLEY.
the Kirghiz stands that of the Kara-Kalpak, and the Turko-
man in the Nurata mountains, although the tribes haye
succumbed considerably to the Uzbek in all their social
intercourse, and have therefore incorporated many loan-
words.
The language of the Uzbek residents of the Zarafshan
Yalley is not nearly as pure as those which I have just
mentioned. Arabic and Persian expressions are used a great
deal, even by the non-educated. In the towns this language
is the most disfigured, as it is considered good style to borrow
foreign expressions. The higher the society, the more does
the language get debased, so that to an outsider it sounds
like a different language. Not only are an innumerable
amount of foreign expressions used here, but the grammatical
structure is changed. The harmony of names has been
quite destroyed, and changed to please the foreigners. It
seems as if learning itself had required this unnatural course,
for the Mulla forces upon the reading scholars pronunciation
contrary to that of Turki, and seyerely denounces the correct
intonation. Thus it comes about that the less learned people
read according to the MuUa's instruction.
It seems as if learning had the object of eradicating the
language of the people. The ordinary man, who reads and
writes without being learned, does so in T6rki. However,
as soon as he knows more, he turns his back in disgust on
these reputed signs of ignorance, and gives himself up to
the study of Persian. This half-educated man still writes
in Tdrki,|as he is not yet sufficient master of the Persian.
He only reads the Kor&n in Arabic, learns prayers, and
works through a few Arabic books, provided with a transla-
tion. However, if he gets as far as the Arabic Grammar,
and gets to know a little of Arabic, he then neglects the
Persian, and gives all his time to Arabic, the aim of every
learned man. The greater scholars generally only write in
Persian, troubling themselves very little if the receiver of
the epistle understands Persian or not. Very often this
unfortunate man is obliged to find a Mulla first to translate
the writing of his correspondent. All the official business
LANGUAGES OP THE ZAEAFSHAN VALLEY. 417
in documents, decrees, etc., of the goyernment are transacted
in Persian, even in Kokand. The reason of this is that
every official always has a Mulla, who of course writes
Persian. I have often had occasion to see these official
documents written. The official just gives the MuUa the
substance of the writing, and only seals it, while the other
does all the rest.
Under these circumstances, the continual inroad of
foreigners is not to be surprised at. But what helps to
break up the language more is, that the foreign words con-
tinue their independent existence, as was the case with the
interlarding of French phrases among the German aristocrats
of the last century. Only here the confusion increases,
because there is no reaction by which the language should
be purified.
Although, generally speaking, people are not slow to see
that such occupations as investigating and learning are good
for the mind and strengthen the judgment, it is unfortu-
nately just the opposite here. Only the uneducated seem to
have a sound judgment and a certain acuteness.
The language of the Kirghiz is pleasing and eloquent ;
they are witty and sarcastic in questioning and answering,
and often even very sharp, and even the least educated
Kirghiz is complete master of his language. A Kirghiz
story-teller has a fresh and fascinating way of relating.
The Kara-Kalpak, the Turkoman, and the Uzbek resident
of the Zarafshan Valley is even more helpless than the un-
educated nomad, but the educated classes among the towns-
people are very heavy in their conversation, devoid of
expression, and exceptionally wearisome in their talk. How
could it be different P They occupy themselves mostly with
what they cannot understand from a linguistic point of view.
The Kirghiz hears his fairy tales, myths, and songs in his
own language, and so he gets impressions which remain, and
incite to imitate. The Uzbek, on the contrary, listens to
the simplest stories in a language the greater part of which
he only half understands, and the more he studies, the thicker
becomes the mist around him. They get used to guessing
YOL. XX.— [nBW BBBIB8.] 29
418 LANGUAGES OF THE ZARAFSHAN VALLEY.
the sense of what thej have read or heard, and leam the
jingle of words by heart, like a parrot. Through this only
one function of the mind, the memory, is practised, while
the other functions are not called upon at alL The scholar
requires from fifteen to twenty years to master the difficulties
of the language, a victory which is the aim of every student.
There are very few who have been fortunate enough to carry
off the victory.
grrrrmso
<©^X , A^
A
BUOOHIST SYMBOLS.
J. R. A. S. 1888
419
Art. XI.— Fartt^r Notes on Early Buddhist Si/mboliam. By
B. Sewell, Esq., Madras Civil Service, M.B.A.S.
In an article on Sarli/ Buddhist Symholismy in Vol. XVIII.
Part 3, of the Boyal Asiatic Society's Journal (1886), I
expressed my belief that the three objects of worship and
ornament so commonly seen on Buddhist sculptures in India,
the smstika, the chakra, and the triiula^ were not indigenous
Indian emblems, but symbols of Western Asian origin—
whether Semitic or Aryan matters little — adopted of old by
the Hindus, and accepted, originally by Buddhists, not as
being in themselves Buddhist symbols, but as being symbols
of religious signification in general use among the people.
I stated my conviction that they were in their inception sun-
symbols, the svastika representing probably sun-motion ; the
chakra a fiery circle or orb emblematic of sun-power, the sut),
for instance, in an Asiatic noon-day, as well as the giver of
light, the vivifier ; and the doubtful trOnla (and this was the
point of my story) in all probability derived from the
Egyptian scarab. The paper was enriched with several
illustrations, showing the transition of the scarab into various
forms in Assyria, Phoenicia, Persia, and, thence, in Buddhist
India. To prove that this novel theory was not lacking in
common sense, I gave a concise resum^ of the historical
aspects of the case, pointing out that Northern India had
been, for perhaps a thousand years prior to the teaching of
the Buddha, and for quite a thousand years prior to the con-
struction of such Buddhist buildings as now remain to us, in
much closer communication with the countries of Western
Asia than has been commonly supposed. I am not alone in
my belief that several Indian forms have been derived from
forms in religious use further west. Mr. Fergusson, for
420 EAELY BUDDHIST SYMBOLISM.
instance, thought that the well-known Vaishnava garuda was
nothing more than the hawk-headed divinity of the Assy-
rians. So far no apology is needed. When, however, my
scarab theory for the origin of the triiula is considered, the
standpoint is different ; for there I am alone, and on ground
that is exceedingly slippery. It is because subsequent dis-
cussion appears to me to strengthen rather than to weaken
the force of my arguments, that I venture again into the
arena. At present I desire to put on record a few remarks
on Mr. F. Pincott's paper, " The Tri-Ratna^^^ in Joam. Roy.
Asiat. Soc. Vol. XTX. Part 2, p. 238, and, with their kind
permission, to publish some criticisms by Dr. E. W. West of
Munich, and Prof. J. Darmesteter of Paris.
It is perfectly true, as noted by Mr. Pincott, that Buddha
set his face against metaphysical speculation, that his object
was to draw his countrymen away from idle dreaming and to
teach them to concentrate their efforts on the practical duties
of life,^ and also that he discouraged the use of all images
and representations ; but we are concerned, not with Buddha
himself, but with Buddha's followers some centuries after
his death, when they had begun to sculpture the buildings,
the ruins of which now exist. And all Buddha's teaching
did not cause them to refrain from a lavish use of symbols.
The question at issue is, what was the origin of those
symbols P They may have been deliberately invented by the
Buddhists from simple ideas,^ or they may, equally I think,
have been adopted from symbols then in common use among
the people. Mr. Pincott seems to think that I have accused
Buddha himself of dabbling in solar myths, but I must
protest against such an interpretation of my arguments.
Buddha himself had nothing to do with the symbols sculp-
tured by his devotees.
Mr. Pincott states that the triiula is merely the three-
pronged object on the top of the illustrations in my paper,
and that that term is never applied to the circular object
found imderneath it, and he continues: ''The two objects
^ Op, eii. p. 238.
» Id, p. 289.
EARLY BUDDHIST SYMBOLISM. 421
are totally distinct, and are often represented separately in
different places and for different purposes. This could never
be the case if they formed part of one object ; for there is
no sense in depicting the front claws of a scarab on one
building, and his headless trunk on another.'' He also adds
that sometimes the circle is seen over the tni&la. I am
afraid that I must have expressed myself very badly. I
never had it in contemplation to assert that the term
iriiula was ever applied to the circle minus the head. My
belief was, and is, that the original tri&ula was the whole
object depicted on the Amaravati sculptures, but that con-
stantly that object came to be mutilated, so that often the
symbol was represented merely as the three-pronged top plus
the circle, with or without the side-members, and in later
times the three-pronged top alone. In modem India, of
course, the triiula is understood to be simply the trident
portion. Personally I have never seen the lower portion of
the emblem— circle, wings, and (may I say P) hind-legs—-
without the trident top, nor have I ever seen the circle
depicted above the trident.
Mr. Pincott believes that the trident standing alone repre-
sents the old Indian letter J^, the first letter of the celebrated
formula Te Dharmd, while the whole symbol represented
in my illustrations represents this letter J^, the chakra
(Buddha), and a supporting stem or stand, symbob'zing the
Sangha. This may be so, but it is dangerous to argue from
mere similarity, and it would be easy to show that there are
other prominent portions of the symbol — ^for instance, the
lower members — unaccounted for by this theory. At any
rate I do not think that the scarab theory is yet quite " anni-
hilated," as will be seen below. Meanwhile, I am personally
indebted to Mr. Pincott, not only for his article, but for his
courteousnesa in handling my, to him probably absurd,
theory.
On March 7th, 1887, Dr. E. W. West wrote to me the
following letter from Munich :
"Will you allow me to suggest that Fig. 14 on p. 399 of
J.E.A.S. H.s. Vol. XVIII. (in your article on Early Buddhist
422 KAELT BUDDHIST SYMBOLISM.
Symbolism, see Plate, Fig. I) may be merely a rade skeleton out-
line of a sitting figure of Buddha, with the arms upraised in an
unusual attitude. At any rate it must be symbolical of Buddha,
because the Pahlavi legend can hardly be intended for anything
else than ))«() ^)\ BM dSvd, * the demon Bu^,' a term applied
to Buddha by the Zoroastrians, as seems evident from Bundahuh
zxviii. 34 {Sacred Books of the East, vol. v. p. Ill), which can
be otherwise translated thus : ' The demon Bu4 is he whom they
worship among the Hindus, and his spirit-breath is lodging in
idols such as Bii^^p worships.' "
I pause to note references. The translation of the Bun-
dahii referred to is Dr. West's own. There the passage is
rendered : " 34. The demon Bftt is he whom they worship
amongst the Hindfis, and his growth is lodged in idols, as
one worships the horse as an idol.'* A footnote says : " Av.
BMti of Vend. xix. 4. 6. 140, who must be identified with
Pers. hut ' an idol,' Sans. bMta * a gobUn,' and not with
Buddha." The letter continues :
'* I was doubtful about this identification of Bud with Buddha,
because there is a demon B{iiti (Pahl. BM) mentioned in the
Avesta {Fimdiddd, xix. 1, 2, 43) [Spiegel 4, 6, 140] as a special
enemy of Zarathushtra, but without any other details. Whether
the demon Buidhi of Vend. xi. 9 [Spiegel 28] is the same is quite
uncertain, as no information about him is given. The passages
mentioning these demons may very possibly be interpolations made
in early Sassanian times, when Buddhism had become a rival of
Zoroastrianism in the east of Irin; but this is only a guess.
However, Prof. J. Darmesteter was clearly of opinion that the
demon Bu4 of Bund, xxviii. 34 was intended for Buddha, and
he pointed out that Budasp is mentioned as the creator of Sabeism
by Hamzah. Supposing that the legend )py}| correctly repre-
sents the original, the most obvious reading is BMind, which
might be mistaken as an adjective 'of or pertaining to Buddha,'
similar to ^jij^*^, {^^jj^ ^j!^^^?^'> 'wooden, golden, silvery;' but
I am not aware that the adjective suffix -in can be appended to
a name ; at any rate, in Pahlavi the proper suffix for forming an
adjective from a proper name is -dn, as in pusMA Vishtdspdn,
* the ridge of Vishtasp* (a mountain name). If therefore the word
EABLT BUDDHIST SYMBOLISM. 433
he an adjective, meaning 'belonging to Buddha,' it ought to be
written ))iiyt| BMdnd (the last stroke being optional). My
reading BM div6 requires )t«0^^, which can also be read Bad
d4n6 * religion of Buddha,' but the application of the word dSnd
to any religion, except Zoroastrianism and its sects and heresies,
is rare, unless it be intended for their religious books or Scriptures.
The characters in this Pahlavi legend seem to be of the sixth or
seventh century a.d."
In reply I informed Dr. West that my illustration had
been taken from Layard's work, and suggested the advisa-
bility of consulting the original seal, which was believed to
be in Paris, that alone being a safe guide, when the question
of a rendering of the legend was at issue. And I remarked
further on the unlikelihood of an unusual attitude being
adopted for a figure of Buddha intended to be identified as
Buddha by the people of the day at first sight. For such a
purpose, probably, one of the most common attitudes would
have been chosen — either that depicting the sage as standing
and preaching, or the seated contemplative position, legs
crossed and hands in lap. I shall reserve other arguments
for the present. Dr. West replied in the following very
interesting letter, written on June 15th :
** Tour letter of April Srd arrived when I was away from home,
and, since my return, I have waited till I could ask Prof. J.
Darmesteter ... to inspect the seal with the Pahlavi inscription,
which was formerly in the Imperial Cabinet in Paris, and now
in the Biblioth^que Nationale. I have had to await his con-
venience, but he has now sent me sealing-wax impressions of this
seal and two others of analogous devices, but without inscriptions.
As these impressions would be spoiled by the slightest pressure
in a hot climate, I retain them here at your disposal, merely send-
ing you three paper impressions from each in the enclosed en-
velope, which, though not quite so clear as those in sealing-wax,
will be more permanent in hot weather. As M. Darmesteter's
remarks are interesting, I quote them verbatim, as follows :
" ' Je vous envoie, ci-inclus, I'empreinte de la pierre en question.
n est difficile, comme vous voyez, de lire autre chose que ^^y^
424 EARLY BUDDHIST SYMBOLISM.
BUtinf et impossible de lire Bitt-dSv. D'ailleurs je ne vois pas
comment nn Mazd^n pourrait se faire f aire une gemme arec le nom
d'un d^. Quaad au passage da Baadehesh zxviii. 34, je lirais
Yolontiers BUtdsp an lieu de BUt asp, et j'y verrais une allusion
k rintroduction du culte des idoles par BUdatp. Le culte
des idoles invents, selon Hamza et Mirkhond, sous Tahmuras,
dont le premier ministre et directeur de oonscience est nomm^
i^,^Jj>' dans Hamza, y^jLJiS^J^ dans Pirdausi, uJ^a^Jo dans
Masoudi. BUddsp a 6te reconnu, depuis longtemps, par M.
Beinaud comme une corruption de Bodhiaatva. Je crois done
que le passage du Bundehesh a identifi6 le Biliti de TAyesta,
& tort ou H raison, avec le hut '^^^ derive de Buddha. L'emploi
systematique de ^^-^ avec ^J^ (« gramana) dans les textes
anciens ne permet guSre de douter qu'en effet ^'^^ est, comme
on le croyait, la corruption de Buddha. Les empreintes de deux
autres gemmes que je yous enyoie en mime temps sent peu
favorables H Thypoth^ du Buddha assis, et parleraient plutot en
faveor du Scarabee.^ . . . BUdin, pour en reyenir & notre point
de depart, ne pent gu^re etre que le nom du propri^taire ; on pent
prononcer aussi Bddin, ce qui en ferait un d6riy6 de haodhd; cf.
le nom de la dynastic des Boyides ^.y. Le suffixe -in ne semble
pas inconnu dans les noma propres : cf. Banin, etc.'
"This last sentence does not meet my remark that the suffix
'in does not appear to be added to proper names (already existing)
to form poBsessiye adjectiyes; so that it was doubtful if BiLdin
could mean ' belonging to Buddha,' ' Buddhistical,' which might
be applied to the symbol. Of course any adjectiyal epithet,
formed from an ordinary noun, can be taken as a proper name.
This is a yery probable explanation of the inscription, but it does
not explain the symbol. The Ayesta haodhd becomes A)\ hdd in
Pahlayi, and seems to mean 'consciousness,' as it is said to be
absent in sleep. In certain compounds, howeyer, haodhd becomes
^)^)\ hdddh in Pahlayi, so that \y^)\ is a possible form for
hddtnd with the meaning 'conscious,' 'sensible,' an epithet that
might easily be adopted as a proper name. On a seal the name
^ The three seals alluded to aie engrayed jremfl, and are to be fonnd in the
Biblioth^ne Nationale in Paris. They are figured in the Plate as Noa. 1819,
1320, and 1821. The lines are out into the seals. That they must be intended
to be used as seals is shown by the Pahlavi legend in No. 1821, whioh is reyeised
on the stone, so as to be right for reading on wax.
EARLY BUDDHIST SYMBOLISM. 425
t>f the proprietor is appropriate, but bo is any word that expresses
assent to, or correctness of, any document to which the seal is
attached. The remarks of Hamza, etc., refer probably to some
modem Tahmuras, whom the Arab and Persian writers have con-
founded with the ancient PSshdadian predecessor of Yim (Jamshid).
*' There is no doubt that the two seals without inscriptions
Tory much strengthen the scarab hypothesis; the addition of the
rattlesnake tails (or whatever they are) is curious. Your Fig. 14
very correctly represents the sealing-wax impression from the seal
No. 1321. You will see the extreme difficulty of deciding be-
tween the various explanations that may be advanced as regards
these seals. The Fahlavi characters do not differ sensibly from
the modem Pahlavi of the MSS., and can hardly be older than
A.D. 600, but may be a good deal later. Some time about a.d. 600,
Khusro Farviz had possession of part of Egypt for a few years,
when there must have been much intercourse between Persia and
Egypt. But it is quite as probable that the symbol on the seals
may have come from the Buddhists of Afghanistan, which you
would regard as a reflection of an Egyptian form from an Indian
mirror.
** I have never seen a sitting figure of Buddha with the arms
raised above the head. . . .
''The old idea about the trtSula in its skeleton form being a
monogram (which Cunningham mentions in J.R.A.S. Vol. XIII.
o.s. p. 114, but which I think I have met with at an earUer date)
has just enough plausibility about it to make it a guess worth con-
sideration, but I do not see how it can be really proved, although
Cunningham's details may be slightly extended. Thus, if ^W- be a
monogram, it not only contains the letters J^ ya, | ra, ^ ^0, -J /a,
and y ma, which Cunningham identifies with the Sans, ya * air,'
ra * fire,' va * water,' la for ild * earth,' and ma for matuua ' mind,'
but it also contains \j, ha * sky,' * heaven,' which may stand for the
fifth element * infinite space,' and also the whole of manasa * mind.'
But the whole idea is a mere guess, showing that there are more
ways than one of imagining the origin of a thing, when we begin
to exercise our imaginations."
The letters of the supposed monogpram are formed thus :
If r 9 I h n m 9 ot •
426 EABLT BUDDHIST STMBOLISH.
Dr. West, in a subBequent letter, writes :
" There are also other so-called monograms which have a strong
resemblance to these, that require to be kept in view, such as the
^ or i^ on the Indo-Scythic coins, many of which have figures
of Zoroastrian divinities whose names have been lately deciphered
in their Greek inscriptions by Dr. A. Stein (see Babylonian and
Oriental Record for August, pp. 155-166). On many of the early
Sasaanian coins we have the erux anMta on one side of the sacred
fire, and the ^ ^'^ Y <^^ ^^® other. The latter figure makes one
think of the mdh-rHi ' moon-faced/ the technical term for each of
the two stands upon which the Parsi priests lay the harsom^ or
bundle of sacred twigs or wires, during their ceremonies. The
twigs lie in the crescent tops of two somewhat similar stands placed
a little way apart, but the stands are usually tripods. In the later
coins this ^ degenerates into U and u, the plain crescent like
that of the Turks ; and the crux amata is replaced by a star. The
Parsi Eivayats, or books of traditional religious memoranda, also
give a figure like a star for a khurshid-rHi ('sun-faced')
It is very possible that the star (sun?) and crescent of the Sassanian
coins have some connection with the star and crescent of the Paris
seal. . . ."
Several arguments may be used against the theory that
the Buddhist triiula is a monogram formed of a number of
the letters used in old Pali, one of the strongest of which
is that the symbol, or something exceedingly like it, was in
general use, as I have shown in my former article, in Western
Asia and Eastern Europe, and that, so far as is yet known,
the ancient Indian alphabet of Asoka was confined to India,
It can hardly be imagined that a symbol in use in PhcBuicia
would have been derived from a combination of letters in an
obscure Indian alphabet. It might, indeed, be argued, vice
rerad, that the Indian alphabet was an ingenious combination
of strokes and curves derived from the form of the sacred
symbol in common use ; for if the form ^ be examined,
and pulled to pieces, hardly a letter of that alphabet can be
pointed to that is not contained therein.
It will be noticed that Professor Darmesteter and Dr.
West have set aside, at least for the present, the theory that
either the figure on the gem or the legend to the side of it
EAELY BUDDHIST SYMBOLISM. 427
have anything to do with Buddha, while the discovery of the
two new gems with similar figures, hitherto unpublished,
does much to strengthen the scarab hypothesis. It does so
for the reason that the members opposite to those enclosing
the circle or ball have additions to them, wanting in the seal
with the legend. I venture to submit for consideration the
following explanation of the ** rattlesnake tails,'' as they are
called by Dr. West. The usual figure of the scarab, as de-
picted in Egyptian hieroglyphs (J.R.A.S. Vol. XVIII. p.
898, Fig. 11), shows on the upper pair of legs certain side
marks, intended doubtless to represent the claws on the legs.
The ball of dung rolled up by the animal should be between
the hind legs if anywhere, ue, the lower Umbs in the sculp-
tures. In engraved examples from Phoenicia and Cyprus,
for some reason, the ball is depicted as between the upper
pair of legs {id. Figs. 12, 13), and it is so in the seal at present
under discussion {id. p. 399, Fig. 14). Hence the lower
limbs here take the place of the upper limbs in the hiero-
glyphic scarab, t.^. the limbs that bear at the sides the
imitation of claws. It appears to me, therefore, that the
** rattlesnakes' tails " on the ends of the lower members in
the two new Paris seals may be nothing more nor less than
survivals of the claw-marks on the upper limbs of the scarab
of Egyptian monuments, though these limbs in the seals are
grotesquely twisted upwards in a manner quite inconsistent
with the original design. This inconsistency is not, I
venture to think, fatal to the theory, since symbols are con-
stantly found altered and conventionalized in unforeseen and
curious ways.
If an analogy to these claw-marks is wanted, the fingers
of the hands of the seated and standing sovereigns on Ceylon
and Cbola coins, as depicted in debased coinage, may be
cited in comparison. I annex examples taken from illustra-
tions appended to Mr. Bhys Davids's *' Ancient Coins and
Measures of Ceylon."
The representation of fingers in these coins is not much
less grotesque than those of the claw-marks on the Paris seals.
428
Art. XII. — The Metallic Cowries of Ancient China (600 B.C.).
By Prof. Teerien db Laoouferie, Ph. & litt.D.
SXJMMABT.
I. 1. Curioiu coins rariously named in ChineM nnmiftmata'o colleotions.
2. Great taste for numismatics in China.
3. Lack of criticism and knowledge.
4. Effects of this ignorance even in Europe.
II. 6. The Ants' nose money !
6. It is their oldest name in numismatics.
7. Native exphination that they were huried with their dead.
8. Sham implements used to he huried.
9. The Ghosts' head money !
10. They were really oowries made of metaL
11. Places where they were found.
III. 12. Fig;ure8, description and legends.
13. Wrong hypothesis of their having heen iasued hy the great Ttl.
14. Issued really in b.c. 613-690 in Ts'u.
15. Circumstances of their issue.
16. Reason why there are so few data ahout them.
17. Geographical and historical proofs.
rV. 18. They were a comhination of cowries and metallic money.
19. Great extension and age of this currency.
20. Reason why these pieces were issued in Ts'u, a non- Chinese land.
I.
1. Several of the collections of coins made in their own
country by intelligent and enthusiastic Chinese Numis-
matists contain specimens of a curiously-shaped scarab-like
copper currency. They are variously called Y-pi taien or
* Ant's nose metallic currency ; ' Kuei-tou or * Ohosts' heads/
and finally Ho^pei tsxen or * Cowries Metallic currency/ The
first two of these names, quaint and queer as they are, do
not in the least suggest what the things so designated were
intended to be. But when we consider that such denomi-
nations were applied by numismatists, who were unaware of
THE METALLIC COWRIES OP ANCIENT CHINA. 429
the circumstances which had led to the issue of this pecidiar
currency, we cannot be astonished that the uncritical Chinese
scholars of former ages, being at their wit's end, should have
adopted a sensational appellative to arouse the mind of their
readers to the peculiarity of the case.
2. The taste for numismatics is old in China, though for
want of opportunity, not so old as the love of antiquities.
Collections of ancient objects and souvenirs among the rich
families (not to mention those in the royal museum and
library) were already in fashion at the time of Confucius.
But metallic currency was then hardly in existence, and
could not at that time therefore afford a field for the
antiquarian taste for collecting ancient specimens.
It was a common habit among Chinese collectors to com-
pile and publish catalogues of their collections; and this
habit having been continued down to the present day, we
are enabled to understand how the Chinese are in possession
of nearly five score of numismatical works.^ Many more
were not preserved to modern times, and have left no traces
of their existence. The oldest of those mentioned in the
later books, but which have perished in the meantime, would
be nearly fourteen centuries old.*
3. The knowledge of historical minor events, and of
palaeography, combined with a spirit of criticism, which is
required for numismatics, has almost always been defective
among the Chinese collectors of ancient specimens of cur-
rency. Two or three recent works excepted, their numis-
matical books are indeed of a low standard. The natural
tendency to imitation which has caused so large a part of
their literature to be mere patchwork and mosaic, was ne-
cessarily fatal to the progress of that part of knowledge.
^ A list of them is giyen in the introduction to my Eistorieal Catalogue of
Chinee Monfy, from the collections of the British Museum and other sources (4to.
numerously illustrated), vol. i.
* The g| U Taien Fu, by ^ jg Ku yuen, who lived during the Liang
dynasty (ad. 602-567), often quotes in the description of curious and rare speci-
mens an older work, the ^ jg Ttwi tehe, by ^J J^ liu-she, a work now
lost and of unknown date. Vid. ^ ^ J Li Tso-hwn, "^ SkM^^ '•'•^
hwi, K. ill. f. 1.
430 THE METALLIC C0WEIE8 OF ANCIENT CHINA.
Any statement acquires in that conservative country au-
thority and respect in proportion to its age, however false
or fanciful the basis on which it rests. And this character-
istic was coupled with the tendency to attribute to the great
men of antiquity any valuable deed or improvement of later
times. The result was a falsification of the sound notions
which otherwise could have been obtained from an unbiassed
inquiry made by the collectors themselves, had they taken
that trouble.
4. And as they did not do so, they give us figures of
genuine specimens of money once current as that of the
primitive times. The much-respected names of Fuh-hi and
Huang-ti of the fabulous period, as well as those of Eao-
yang and Tao belonging to the dawn of Chinese history, are
indicated by them as having issudd specimens of currency,
which a better knowledge now proves to date only from the
fifth, fourth, and third centuries B.C. These erroneous
statements have both crept into Western literature and
scientific books, of course with misleading results. For
instance, a well-known German naturalist and traveller gives
as a proof of an antiquity of twenty-two centuries B.C. for
strata of the loess,^ the finding of the copper knife-money
of Tao at Ping-yang fu.^ Now it turns out on investigation
that there is no knife-money from that place, and that the
pU'TRoney found there, and formerly attributed to Tao's
time, was issued, as a matter of fact, as late as the middle
of the third century before the Christian era. It is obvious
from this, that, so far as numismatic chronology, and the
inferences derived from it, go, the loess theory of the German
scholar must be amended.
II.
5. The Y'pi tsien are mentioned by several works on
numismatics without any other indication than their name.
' F. V. Eichthofen, in his CAiwa, toI. i. p. 150.
' Their attribntion to Yao rests on this simple-minded Chinese reasoning, that
as Ping-yang was the capital of Tao, all the antiquities found there are remnants
of his time.
THE METALLIC COWEIES OP ANCIENT CHINA. 431
So, for instance, in the great catalogue of the Antiquarian
MuBeum of the Emperor Kien-lung, published in 1751
(forty-two vols, in folio ^). The complete ignorance as to
their authenticity is shown by the fact that the author of
a small treatise on the current money of foreign countries^
Wat Kwoh Tsien Wen, has reproduced a figure of the T-pi
tsien, without any indication or reference as to their origin.
The mere fact of his including them in his work shows
that he thought himself justified in considering them
non-Chinese.
It is needless to dwell fiirther on the ignorance of those
of the native numismatists, who know nothing about the
real nature of these coins, and indulge in the wildest specu-
lations about them. It will be sufficient to indicate only
their most important suggestions, and then to give the
probable solution of this little problem.
6. As to the various names these monies bear, we may
remark that 'Ant's nose current money,' or Y-pi tsien
ti ift SK > ^ ^^6 oldest known. We find it quoted as the
common appellation by Hung Tsun in the twelfth century
A.D., the most important of the ancient numismatists. Besides
the name, he does not give any other information, except a
short description of the specimens.
7* An explanation of this quaint name has been put
forward by the learned author of the Ku kin so kien luh^
another numismatical work of some importance. He says
that in ancient times people used to bury with the dead, and
in the coffin, some tchin-y H jg, i.e. valuable ants,^ meaning
by that, metallic figures of ants, and hence these little
scarab-shaped objects dug out of the ground received their
queer appellation. The suggestion of the learned author
receives some sort of confirmation, so far as the custom of
burying objects is concerned.
* Vid. the reprint of the nnmiamatical part, Kin tmg ttien luh, K. xv. f, 14r.
* This statement has perhaps some relation to the following } 23, bk. ii. sec. i.
pt. ii. of the Li'ki, Saertd Books of the Eatt, toI. xxvii. p. 140 : •* At the mourn-
ing of Tze-chanff Knnff-ming, I made the ornaments of commemoration. There
was a tent-like pall, made of plain silk of a carnation colour, with eiuttirs ofanU
at the four comen, (as if he had been) an officer of Tin."
432 THE METALUC COWEIES OF ANCIENT CHINA.
8. Tet we hear more about ehata implements or objects than
of anything of intrinsic yalae. For instance, an interesting
statement is attributed to Confucius, in the Book of Bites, that
" in the time of the Hia, the earliest dynasty, they did not sacri-
fice to the dead, but simply made for them incomplete imple-
ments of bamboo, earthenware without polish, harps unstrung,
organs untuned, and bells unhung, which they called ' Bright
implements,' implying that the dead are spirits (ahen) and
bright."^ So much for the supposed Confucian statement. On
the other hand, the use of images as charms is still current in
modern times. To images or drawings of tigers, lizards,
snakes, centipedes, etc. — ^the list is almost inexhaustible — ^is
ascribed the Tirtue of attracting to themselves the diseases
which would otherwise attack the inmates of the house.^
We cannot say that this justification of the popular appel-
lative of the Ant's nose currency is satisfactory, and we
should not be surprised if our readers pronounced the whole
business unseemly. However, in Chinese matters of popular
feelings and notions, hypercritics would never have any rest.'
9. Another name — ^and a more popular one — of the same
scarab-shaped specimens of ancient currency was Kwei-tou,^
i.e. 'Ghost's head' or Kweulien, i.e. 'Ghost's face.'* No
reason is given by the native scholars for such a soubriquet,
and therefore we are at liberty to suggest that it may have
arisen from the fact that some of them were found in graves.
10. It is only with the third name, So-pei Uien,^ or cowries
metallic-currency, which we find in a recent work, the So pu
^ Li'ki, Than Kung, sect. i. pt. iii. } 3, Saered Book* of the Eatt, vol. xxvii. p.
148. This passage is not to be found in the liki as published and translated by
J. M, Gallery, Zi-ki ou Memorial de$ rites traduit. . . . Turin. 18.93, 4to. The
text is the abridgment made by Fan, a renowned Chinese scholar. Sham objects,
like carriaffes of clay and human figures of straw (substitute of living people),
were not aTways that which was put in tombs. For instance, the foUowing case
(Li-ki, Than kung, sect. i. pt. iii. $19): "At the burial of his wife, Duke Siang
of Sung (d. B.C. 637)placea in the mve a hundredjars of vinegar and pickles."
» N. B. Dennys, The Folk-lore of China (nonp-Kong, 1876, 8vo.), pp. 72, 61.
> Sham objects have been buried with the dead also in the West at me time of
the stone period. Gf. below, §§ 11, 17.
* j^ ^, name given to them in the Topography ofKu^ehe hien @ ^ j$ ^,
where many were found.
THE METALLIC COWRIES OP ANCIENT CHINA. 433
fffeti'tze kao} published in 1833, that we reach the real ex-
planation of their peculiar shape and of the purpose of their
issue as substitutes for the ancient currency of cowries.
11. A numismatist of the twelfth century ^ reports ' that
many specimens were found in the sand and pebbles of
Hu-^My*^ a village of the Eu-sh^ district, in the prefecture of
£uang-tchouy in the S.E. of the province of Honan. In the
last century enormous quantities were discovered/ during
excavations on the banks of the Wah ^ river, in the prefec-
ture of £iang-ning (commonly Nanking), in the province of
£iang-su.
w
w
III.
12. The pieces of this curious money are of copper;
their sizes are about 75 mm. to one centimetre in width
and two in length, and their shape that of an oval, convex
at the obverse and flat at the reverse.' They were generally
'« * 3SC ^ ^,bk.iT.fol. 16-18.
• 3C « ia »Tcbu.fuiigkm.ymhi« lSf^^Pg8[»J«Wi
tei MMi MiA luh. They were deflcribed by ^ ^ Bung (f im in his j^ ^
IUmm teh$ pabliihed in 1149.
» Quoting tbe g ^ J^ ^ Ku-thi him tche, or * Topography of the
Kn.sh^ district.'
• Hg jg ^ in Kn-sh^ hien. The latter is ntoated by lat. zr 18' and long,
lis*' 87', according to G. Playfair, The Oitiit and Totpnt of China, No. 3632.
• According to the Kih kin to kiin luh "i^ ^ gf ^ jgi io. 18 books ;
So pu tMfi tti kao, bk. iy. f. 17i^.
' Besides the Ku Uium huei, tcheng iii. f. 16, the Eo pu um-tu kao, bk. iy.
if. 16-18, already quoted, cf. also the g| ^ ■ Tiim th$h fu, bk. xxiv. f .
2, in the Tehun ttao tang Uih ooUection, 1842 ; the jg £ Tnuan the, 1834,
bk. i. f. 19.
VOL. XX.— [kew 8BBIXS.] ^®
434 THB METALLIC COWEIES OF ANCIENT CHINA.
pierced with a small round hole at the one end rather
narrower than the other, as if to be strung in sets, in the
usual fashion of Chinese money.^ On the obverse they bear
stamped on the surface an inscription showing their value.
There are two kinds of inscription, according to size :
1) # A\ Ifc Koh luh tchu ' each six tchus/ written in an
abridged form of the ancient characters of the time. This
for the smaller ones. The larger ones bear :
2) ^ H Pan Hang ' half ounce/ therefore worth twelve
tchus, or the double of the smaller ones. The two symbols
are written as in the other case, in an abridged and peculiar
form ; but their reading, as well as that of the other legend,
is not open to doubt.
13. The shape and size of these pieces justify plainly the
appellative of * Metallic Cowries-money * given to them.
But where, when, and on what occasion were they issued P
An ingenious Chinese writer, Wu Tchang-king, has said
that they were issued by the Great Yii, while he was
engaged in his engineering works to quell the great inunda-
tions caused by the overflowing of several rivers. The
suggestion has been eagerly adopted by the author of the
Tsien sheh fu (1842), who ought to have known better than
to accept such a preposterous hypothesis. The fact that
some of the finds of metallic cowries took place in the Wah
river is the sole possible excuse for this wild theory, which
has not a particle of evidence in its favour. The Great Yii's
(2000 B.C.) dominion did not embrace that part of China
1 The ^ ^ IK fjl Kin ting Uisn luh (1787), bk. xt. f. Uv, nmply
refers to the desciiption in the Tsiusn tehe by Hung ttun. This work, which is
not good, is a reprint of the nnmismatical part of the great Catalogue of the
Musenm of the Emperor Eien lung, Kin ting tu tsing hu kian^ in 42 vols. gr. fol.
published in 1761. The illustrations of the Kin ting tstM luh are imaginary and
very bad, as they were not made from rubbings of the coins, but simply horn the
descriptions. In the 0{ ]=^ ^ |g Tsim tehe sin piett, by Tchang Ts'ung-y,
published in 1 826, bk. xx. f . 7, the description of the T-pi ttien only is given,
accompanied with four illustrations An ahrideed translation of this work, which
is rather uncritical and inexact, has been pubHshed under the title of Chinese
Coinage, by Mr. C. B. Hillier, in the TrantaetiMs of the China Branch of the Royal
Asiatic Society, part ii. 1848-60 (Hong Kong, 1862), pp. 1-162, with 329 wood-
cuts similar to those of the original. See p. 166. Dr. 8. W. Bushell says that
it is one of the smaller and less trustworthy works, cf. his article Chinese
Authors on Numismaties, pp. 62-64 of The Chinese Recorder and Missionary
Journal, yoL iy. Foochow, August, 1871.
THE METALLIC COWIIIES OP ANCIENT CHINA. 435
where these curious pieces of money have been found. He
did start an expedition across the modern Anhui province,
towards the mouths of the Tang-tze Eiang, against some
aboriginal and independent populations, but he never was
able to come back, and his host was annihilated there.^
So that there is no possibility of his having established there
a regular metallic currency — and that at a time, too, when
none existed in his own dominion, and was not to exist,
even as far as regulation goes, for nearly a thousand years.
It was only about 1032 B.C. that rules were enacted, fixing
that copper for currency should be weighed by tchus ; and
therefore the metallic cowries, which bear their weight
inscribed in tchus, cannot have been issued till after, and, as
we shall see, long after, the latter date.
The opinion of Wu Tchang-king, shared by the author
of the Taien aheh fu, was not in accordance with popular
tradition, but it is a good instance of the complete lack of
criticism which, with two or three exceptions, is so con-
spicuous in the works of native numismatists.
14. It is in the Siao Erh ya that we find expressed what
the common opinion was.' This work has the merit of being
a very ancient one ; it is a dictionary similar to the Erh ya,
and compiled by E'ung fu,' a descendant of Confucius,
known also under the name of E'ung ts'ung tze, who died
about 210 B.C. The author alludes to a practice of putting
some such pieces of money into tombs, and records that they
were issued by Sun shuh-ngao.* The latter was prime
minister to Tchwang, King of Tsu, between the years 613
and 590 B.C., and his name is connected with the monetary
^ The unsnccessfol issne of his expedition (reported in a few words only in the
Tehuh shu ki nien or Annals of the Bamboo Books, part iii. 1, and Sze-ma Tsien
She ki^ bk. ii. f. 14), was so complete that the body of Tii conld not be broa^ht
back, and a century and a half elapsed before the possibility for a descendant of
Tii to penetrate in disguite into the country, in oraer to pay the required honour
to the tomb of the great engineer (Sh4 ki, bk. 41. f. 1).
' >h 19 ft' 4^^^ ^^ ^^ ^''^ '^^ ^'"^ ^^' ^^^' ^' ^
^ li^ also ^ m ^ . His work was commented upon by Li kuy, of
the Han dynasty. It is noticed in Dr. £. Bretschneider's biblio^aphy, Botameum
Sinicum, Mo. 784. And a short biography of him is found in W. F. Mayers'
ChinfMs Stadert' Manual, vol. i. p. 322.
* iS & iSC* 2" biography was written by Szema Tsien, She ki, bk. cxix.
436 THE METALLIC COWEIES OF ANCIENT CHINA.
history of the country by his objection to a whim of his
ruler, who wanted to assimilate to one and the same value all
pieces of money small and large.^
15. We have no regular records of the ancient history of
Chinese money, and we are therefore compelled to build it
up from scraps of information scattered in the literature and
from the evidence derived from the monetary specimens
themselves. In the present case there are no geographical
names on the pieces, and the indications of weight are our
sole information. These, of course, show that their issue
was subsequent to the regulations as to the weights of
metallic currency, enacted for the first time in 1032 B.C., and
in a more precise and definite manner during the years
681-643 B.C. This was the time when Hwan kung, Prince
of Ts'i, became leader of the princes,^ under the nominal
suzerainty of the King of Tchou, whose former authority
had come to be a mere shadow. The time of Sun shuh-ngao
and his ruler Prince of Ts'u, is sufficiently posterior to the
rule of Hwan kung for the historical probabilities to be in
accord with the above reported tradition, which attributes
the issue to their government. The tradition, as we have
seen, is very old, as we noticed it in existence in the third
century B.C., three hundred years therefore after the event.
^ The story is told at length in his hiography, O.C. ff. 1-2; it has been
reproduced in a shortened form hy Ma Twanlin, in his W«n hien t*ung Vao^
and inexactly reported by him. The king wanted to make the money light
ti^ 2 j^ ^ ^ 1^ ! ^^t Ma Twanlin has erroneously substituted J|
Uhv/ng 'heavy' for the character ^ king * light,* therefore implying the reyerse
of the King's intention. Besides, the passage appears in Dr. W. Yissering^s
Chinese Currency^ p. 23, who has blindly followed Ma Twanlin, as relating to a
King of the Ts'in princii)alitY in the third century B.C., while it referred to a King
of Tb'u 350 years nreviously. As a rule the monetary and the geographicfd
sections in Ma Twanlin are very defective.
' In 771 the King of the Tchou dynasty, then ruling over the whole of the
Chinese dominion, had been killed by the non- Chinese and independent Jung
tribes (cf. The Languages of China before the Chinese, ^ 206). His successor
removed the capital from Tchang-ngan ^mod. Singanfu m Shensi) to Loh (near
Honanfu, Honan), but the power of the aynasty never recovered its former great-
ness and prestige. The various rulers of the principalities over which the
suzerainty of the Tchou had hitherto been effective, made themselves more and
more independent; but it happened that by le droit du plus fort, the most power-
ful of these principalities assumed the leadership |^ pa for the time being. The
princes of Ts'i, Suug, Tsin, Ts'in, and Ts*u were successively leaders of the princes
between the years b.c. 681 and 691 ; and these years are sometimes called the
period of the'five pa.
THE METALLIC COWRIES OF AKCIBXT CHIXA, 4aT
16. And if we are not aUe to put forth nj oth«r atnt«^
ment, we most not forget that the border at^itea and separate
principalities of the Chinese agglomeration before the Han
period have left no minute records, and acaroely any at all*
Besides this, some old works in which information might
have been found have most probably disappeared, as no Ions
than five great bibliothecal catastrophes between the years
213 B.C. and 501 a.d. have reduced the earlier literature of
China to a mere wreck.
17. Another argument of considerable value is that the
great finds of the ho-pei taien took place within the territorial
limits of the state of Ts'u, and not elsewhere. The district
of Ku'shi, above quoted, was formerly the independent small
principality of Idao,^ which was conquered and abMorbod by
the state of Tsu in B.C. 622.' The region of the Wah riv»ri
where the other finds were made, did not belong to the state
of Ts'u at the time of Sun shuh*ngao, but it became ho hxUir
on, and the currency of the conqueror most have foUowi^d
the extension of his dominion. There is nothing to show
that the issue of the ho-pei tsien was limited to the time of
the ruler who had first issued them, and their great c^ni*
venience must hsve maintained the existence of so (^fjnvmmui
a medium of exchange until they were ousted by the ttoif//rr/i
metallic currency established by the Ilao dynasty.' Tu^f
aforesaid region was included in the state of Wa, wbi/;h was
frequently at war with that of Ts'o; the UtUsr bad er^m
directed in MH hx. a naval attack ^by the Yangtze KUmf(',
on the Wu stater, which kowever so^eorob^ mx4^ iijf
attacks of its sK/utL^ni n^^i^far, th« ynwr^pnilAr *A S^*.^
in 472 %/: ;• Vat <>(*r^i'j<**rf and i5?c/r^jWfr9r w*t* !:-*;>
absorbtid br Vijt ip*aA «tot^ ^A T^u, ia ^aI hx^
« ^ '. 1 Im. Vjr»i»«* ;^u«.» W«n yam ** { K^
JL 4><T 4..1 './* 7*v >^M«« ^^Uf.«^ ^Miu^ yaa 2i*. in*. -^^^*- ,^»«m«
C-awiOe. s\%, ^ \ \ '
* taM..fift *^ 9*ri <//^ /^» //» ***<* f*^ »v «V> 'J 7*sriSl (ft Ij«Mu;«ut r<»
438 THE METALUG COWBISS OF ANCIENT CHINA.
TV.
18. The caases which broaght the metallic cowries into
use need no great penetration to be understood. Their
curious shape was an attempt at combining the time-honoured
appearance of the currency with the metallic, the material
advantage of which had been made obvious by the metal
coinage in use in the neighbouring Chinese states towards
the north.
19. Cowrie-shells as a medium of exchange in the Far
East were known before historical times. They were em-
ployed in that way by some of the Pre-Chinese populations
of the Flowery Land, as early as the time of the entrance
of the Chinese into the country by the N.W., ue. in the
twenty-third century before the Christian era. And it is in
Chinese literature that we find the most ancient allusions to
them,^ but we do not know how such a curious custom began.
It is only by inferring their having been used as ornaments
on headdresses and on embroidered cloth, that we may
suppose that this is the reason why they came to be valued,
and asked for. Their use extended later on from Australasia
and Southern China to India,^ to Tibet and to Africa. The
Chinese, which means for many centuries a small portion
only of the present China proper, regulated their circulation
as well as that of the tortoise, and other shells. The intro-
duction of metallic currency caused the circulation of cowries
to disappear gradually in the Chinese states. And history
has preserved us the date of 338 B.C. as that of the final
interdiction of the cowrie-currency (under the rule of the
Prince of Ts'in in N.W. China) because of the irregular
' Some more infonnation has been given in my notice on Chinese and Japanese
money, pp. 190-197-236 of Coins and Medals^ their Place in Hittary and Art^
by the authors of the British Museum Official Catalog^ne (London, EUiot Stock.
1886).
> They were not known in N. India in ancient times, at least they are not
mentioned in the Code of Mann, nor in that of T&jnavalkya (about the Christian
era). Cf. Edward Thomas, Aneient Indian Weights [Marsden^s NumiMfnata
Orienialia, new edit, part i.), p. 20. When the Muhammadans conquered
Bengal early in the thirteenth century, they found the ordinary currency
composed ezclusiTely of cowries. Cf. the references in Colonel H. Tule*8
Glossary^ p. 209.
THE METALLIC COWRIES OF ANCIENT CHINA. 439
and insufficient supply of these and other shells.^ For cen-
turies their circulation had been contemporaneous with that
of the metallic money in the various Chinese States, and it
lasted not a few centuries afterwards in some out-of-the-way
comers, as, for instance, it is still doing in B&star (N. India),'
and some parts of Indo-Ghina.
20. The State of Ts'u, where the issue of the metallic
cowries took place^ was a non-Chinese one; while in the
north it was conterminous, north of the Yang-tze Kiang,
with the Chinese dominion, and was gradually falling more
and more under the influence of Chinese civilization. In
the east and south it was in relationship with independent
populations belonging to the Indo- Pacific races. Among
them the cowries formed the chief currency, with so much
more facility that the supply was at hand, as it was derived
chiefly from the Pescadores Islands,' between Formosa Sea
and the mainland.
1 Sin Wang Mang, nsnrper (a.d. 9-22), at the end of the First Han dynasty,
endeavoured, without succese, to reyiye the circulation of cowries and shells. Gf.
hia enactments in my Mittorieal Catalogue of Chinese Money f Tol. i* pp> 381-388.
» Dr. W. W. Hunter, Imperial Gazetteer of India, Col. H. Yule. A. C.
Bumell, Oloeeary of Anglo-Indian Worde, pp. 208-209.
> Some also were found formerly on the shores of the Shantung peninsula. Cf.
A. Fauvel, Trip of a Naturalist to the Chinese Far East, in China Review, 1876,
Tol. iy. p. 353. At the International Fisheries Exhihition, London, 1883, the
Pescadores and Lamhay Island sent 44 species of cowries. Cf. Chinese Catalogue^
pp. 29, 63-65. They are found in abundance on the shores of the Laooadiyes and
Maldiye Islands, African coast of Zanzibar, etc., the Sulu lalanda, etc. Cf. £d.
Balfour, The Eneyolopedia of India, 8.y.
UlOTBIUITT COLLBOB, LONDOM, Moy^ 1888.
440
CORRESPONDENCE.
Ealidasa in Cbtlon.
British Museum, London,
23rd May, 1888.
Sir, — ^Referring to your note in our January issue on
Ealidasa, I wish to call attention to two recent publications^
copies of which I have before me, both clearly founded on
the same curious legend.
(1) The Historical Tragedy entitled E^idas by Simon
De Silva Seneyiratna, Muhandrum, [Sinhalese title:] Ealidas
nritya pota (pp. 22, F. Cooray, Colombo, 1887, 8vo.).
(2) Kalidas Charitaya, Hevat Ealidasa kavinduge ha
Kumaradasa nirinduge da jivita-kSyya (pp. 17, '' Lakmini-
pahana^' Press, Colombo, 1887, 8vo.).
This last is a poem in 255 stanzas by an author bearing a
name worth giving in full, if only to draw attention to the
curious mixture of Western and Eastern elements prevailing
in Ceylon, Hettiyakandage Joseph Andrew Fernando [Jo9ap
Endri Pranandu].
It will be of some service if readers of this Journal resident
in Ceylon can institute inquiries from the authors of these
works as to the exact historical or legendary material (MS.
or printed) used by these authors in preparing their respec-
tive works.
Yours truly,
Cecil Bendall.
Th4 Secrttary of thi Royal Atiatic Soeiity.
441
NOTES OF THE QUARTER.
(March, April, May.)
I. Reports op Meetings op the Royal Asiatic Society.
16th April, 1888.— Sir Thomas Wade, K.O.B., in the
Chair.
There were elected as Resident Members the Rev. Richard
Morris, M.A., LL.D., and Col. Sir WiUiam Davies, K.C.S.I.
Mr. J. F. Hewitt, late Commissioner of Chota Nagpur,
read the paper which appears in full in this Number, on the
Early History of Northern India.
4Ch June, 1888. — ^Anniversary Meeting.
Sir Thomas Wade, K.C.B., President, in the Chair.
The President had first to express his regret at the loss
of two valuable Orientalists, Professor Fleischer, the dis-
tinguished Professor of Arabic at Leipzig ; and Bhagvan Lai
Indraji, the famous native Indian scholar and archsaologist.
He had, on the other part, to congratulate the Society
upon the great addition it had received to its strength in
the past twelve months. The Secretary would read to the
Meeting a short memorandum showing the changes in its
condition during several years, from which it would appear
that the number of its members had never been so large
as at the present moment. This increase of course was the
more gratifying as advantaging the finances of the Society,
whose position in this respect had been further benefited
by revision of the arrangements affecting the printing and
publication of the Society's JoumaL The thanks of the
Society were specially due to the Secretary, whose conver-
442 NOTES OF THE QUARTEB.
sance with details of the kind had enabled him to effect a
large saving in the expenditure under the head of printing,
and a considerable gain under the head of advertisements.
As regarded the progress of the Society towards attainment
of the great object of its institution, the investigation and
encouragement of Oriental Art, Science, and Literature, the
President had no option but to repeat the observation which,
within his hearing, had fallen from both of his distinguished
predecessors. Sir William Muir and Colonel Yule, namely,
that the achievements of the Society fall far short of what
should be expected of it, regard being had to what is done
by the Orientalists of other nationalities, and to the fact
that, politically and commercially, England is more interested
in the East than any of her competitors in Orientalism. A
step towards improvement had been made in a proposition
which the Council had had under consideration, the pro-
position to appoint two or more Conmiittees which should
respectively interest themselves in history, literature, etc., as
Aryan or non- Aryan. The Council had further been con-
sidering the possibility of reviving the Translation Fund, a
branch or affiliated department, by which in earlier dajs
there were published, under the general superintendence of
the Society, both Oriental texts and translations. The
formulation of this scheme was also due to the Secretary, to
whose activity and industry the Council could not exaggerate
its obligations.
Lastly, the Council had been engaged in preparing a
revised edition of the Rules and Regulations of the Society,
which was now laid upon the table. The principal changes
were four. In the first place it was considered advisable to
place the election of new members in the hands of the
Council, as is the case with most other SocietieSf and secondly
it is proposed to create a new class of members to be called
Extraordinary Members, and to be chosen from such of the
Oriental diplomatists accredited to the English Government as
would be likely to take an enlightened interest in the work
of the Society. In the third place it was desirable, for the
reason set out in the report, to raise the subscriptions of
J?0T£3 OF THE QUABTER. 443
non-resident members (who receive the Journal post free) to
a sum sufBcient to pay for the production and postage of the
Journal. And lastly to modify the rule under which at
present those members living in England, but too far from
London to take advantage of the library and of the meetings
of the Society, were required to pay a higher subscription on
the ground that these advantages were open to them. The
proposed new draft embodying these improvements had been
very carefully considered by a Special Committee appointed
for the purpose, and he trusted it would meet with the
. approval of the Society.
The report of the Council, which was taken as read, was
as follows :
Report of the Council.
The Council of the Royal Asiatic Society have to report
that since the last Anniversary Meeting the Society has lost
by death or retirement eight Resident and twelve non-*
Resident Members, and has admitted as new Members four-
teen Resident and twenty non-Resident, showing a total
increase in the membership of the Society of fourteen.
Including the thirty Honorary Members, the number on the
list is now 411.
In connection with this, it should be pointed out that the
Society is now in a better condition, both as to membership
and as to income from subscriptions, than it has been at any
other time during the last half century. This will be
apparent from the following table, extending over the years
1834-87. It was not possible to include in the return any
earlier years, as the balance-sheets and accounts of the
Society previous to 1834 can no longer be found. It will be
noticed that for the thirty years 1834-64, the membership
and income were almost constant (not to say stagnant), and
that there then ensued a period of decline, till, in 1876, the
Society bad reached its lowest ebb. In that year Mr. Yaux
became the Society's Secretary, and an improvement at once
set in, and has gone on almost uninterruptedly till the last
year, 1887, which shows better figures than any of those
444
KOTES OF THE QUABTER.
whicli precede it in the table. The Council feel themselyes
fully justified in expressing their belief that this improve-
ment will be at least fully maintained in the future.
ROYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.^
Statistics of Mbmbbsship and Subscriftionb, 1834 — 1887.
Subs, in £ sterling.
No. of
paying Members.
Arerage of the 10 yeaw.
Eee.
N.Bes.
Total.
Bee.
Non-Bee.
Total.
1834-1843
£865
£160
£506
113
72
185
1844—1853
400
93
493
126
89
214
1864-1863
430
63
493
137
60
197
1864—1873
400
69
469
127
66
193
1874, 1876, and 1876
321
47
368
102
45
147
1877-1886
441
96
637
140
92
232
The year 1887
[16th July, 1888]
409
143
662
130
137
267
...
...
...
126
161
286
There follows the abstract of the receipts and expenditure
for the year. There is a slight increase from subscriptions,
and in that from the sale of the Journal to non-members ;
and an increase also in the expenditure for printing and for
repairs. The latter item represents the repainting, etc., of
the Society's rooms, and the former represents the great
increase of work done by committees, with the hope of
improving the position of the Society. As the payment for
the printing of Part IV. of the Journal does not appear in
the account, about £80 must be added to the total expendi-
ture to give a complete view of the Society's financial
position. When that is done, it will be seen that the receipts
exceeded the expenditure by about £150, of which £100 was
added to the reserve fund invested in Consols.
The Council are glad to report that it has been found
possible to continue the issue of the Journal in four quarterly
parts, and they hope that this most important new departure
may be now looked upon as having become an established
and permanent custom. The stock of printed copies of our
Rules having become exhausted, the Council, before reprint-
^ This table is based on the fuUer table (giving the results for each year) now
exhibited in the Library of the Society.
NOTES OF THE QUABTEB. 445
ing, have revised the existing rules, and beg to recommend
the revised set of rules for adoption by the Society. The
principal change is in the amount of the non-resident sub-
ficriptions ; and the reasons which have led the Council to
propose this change are set out in the enclosed circular letter
to non-Besident Members. As only one of the 231 non->
Besident Members has disapproved of the change, the Society
will be able to judge whe&er it meets or not with their
wishes.
Royal Asiatic Society.
22, Albemarle Street, London, W.
Sib, — ^The Council of the Royal Asiatic Society beg to
invite your attention to the following facts.
For many years the Journal of the Society was issued at
irregular intervals, and in parts of varying size. Thus for
ten years (1824 to 1833) there were published three volumes
of "Transactions/* For the following four years yearly
volumes of the " Journal *' were issued, but only three
volumes appeared in the subsequent six years, and at last
the issue declined to only one volume for the three years,
1844*46. The next six years are represented by six volumes
of about 400 pages each, and then there was only one
volume again for the three years, 1851-55, and one for the
four years, 1857-60. After that the members received one
volume each year. But this only continued for three years ;
the twelve years, 1864 to 1875, being represented by seven
volumes only. From that date each year has had its own
volume, in increasing size and divided into a gradually in-
creasing number of issues in the year, until there has now
been firmly established the custom of issuing punctually to
date a quarterly illustrated journal containing, not only
original articles, but very fall news of all that is being done
throughout the world in the subjects in which the members
of our Society are interested.
The Council have every reason to believe that their action
in this respect has met with the approval of the Society.
They have been glad to notice a steady increase in the number
446 KOTES OP THE QUABTER.
of non-resident members, and they desire still further to
improve the Journal, and to add, in other ways, to the
advantages the Society is able to offer to their members in
the East. But the experience they have now gained has
proved to them that this cannot be done at the present rate
of subscription. Last year's *' Journal," for instance, cost a
good deal more to produce — and that without reckoning
postage, which, in the case of members residing in the East
is especially heavy — ^than the guinea which the non-resident
members paid.
The non-resident members used to pay two guineas a year.
This was the rule till 1851. In that year (which, you will
notice, was the date when the Journal was most reduced) the
subscription of new non-resident members was, very properly,
also reduced to one guinea, but members already admitted
continued to pay two guineas down to the year 1874.
Resident members have paid three guineas throughout the
existence of the Society.
Under these circumstances, the Council invite the co-
operation of the non-resident members in the improvements
they are endeavouring to carry out. The Journal in its
present shape cannot be produced for one guinea. It would
be a very great pity to reduce either its size, or the number,
or the regularity of its issues. But one or other of these
courses must be adopted unless the non-resident members are
willing to increase their annual subscription. Now, on the
contrary, it is very desirable to increase the number of the
illustrations, and to improve both news and articles by paying
special correspondents in the East, and writers of special
articles both at home and abroad. The Council are there-
fore considering the question of raising the non-resident
subscription to 30«. (It is deserving of notice, that, since
the quarterly issue, the price of the Journal to non-members
has been fixed at £2 a year, and that at this price the
number of purchasers has steadily increased.)
The proposed change would enable the Council to relieve
non-resident members from one effect of the existing rules.
Under those rules, when they return home they become
NOTES OF THE QUARTER. 447
resident members and have to pay three guineas a year, so
that just when their income has declined their subscription
has been increased. The Council propose that non-resident
members should, in future, continue to pay only the non-
resident subscription, unless they come to live actually in or
near London.
If you approve the proposed changes, and desire no decrease
in the expenditure on the Journal, no reply to this circular
will be necessary. If you should be of the Contrary opinion,
will you kindly let me know before the 4th June, when the
matter will have to be finally decided upon.
I am Sir, Yours obediently,
T. W. Rhts Davids, Secretary.
The following list of Council and Officers for the ensuing
year is submitted for approval :
President'-^ir Thomas F. Wade, M.A., K.C.B., Professor
of Chinese in the University of Cambridge.
Director. — Major-G-eneral Sir Henry C. Bawlinson, K.C.B.,
D.C.L., LL.D., F.R.S.
Vice-Presidents. — Sir Thomas Edward Colebrooke, Bart. ;
Major-Oeneral A. Cunningham, B.E., C.S.L, E.C.I.E. ; the
Bev. Professor A. H. Sayce, M,A. ; Colonel Henry Yule,
E.E., C,B., LL.D.
Council. — ^F. F. Arbuthnot, Esq. ; Professor R. K. Douglas ;
Theodore Duka, Esq., M.D.; J. F. Fleet, Esq., C.I.E.;
Major-General Sir F. J. Goldsmid, C.B., KC.S.I.; J. F.
Hewitt, Esq.; H. H. Howorth, Esq., M.P., F.S.A. ; Sir
William Hunter, K.C.S.I., CLE., LL.D. ; Henry C. Kay,
Esq. ; Professor Terrien de Lacouperie, Ph.D., Litt.D. ;
General Robert Maclagan, R.E., F.R.S.E. ; Professor Sir
Monier Monier- Williams, K.C.I.E., M.A., D.C.L. ; E. Delmar
Morgan, Esq. ; The Rev. Richard Morris, M.A., LL.D. ;
Professor W. Robertson Smith, M.A.
Treasurer. — ^E. L. Brandreth, Esq.
Secretary.— VvoieMOT T. W. Rhys Davids, Ph.D., LL.D.
Honorary Secretary. — Robert N. Cust, Esq., LL.D.
Trustees.— Sir T. Edward Colebrooke, Bart; Robert N«
448 NOTES OF THE QCJARTEB.
Oust, Esq., LL.D. ; Sir Richard Temple, G.O.S.L, O.I.E.,
D.C.L., M.P.
Honorary Solicitor. — Alexander H. Wilson, Esq.
It was moved by Mr. Morris, and seconded by Dr. Duka,
that the new rules, as recommended by the Council, be
adopted as the Rules of the Society.
Mr. Sinclair moved as an amendment that to the new
rule No. 46 there should be added the words : ^' Provided
that nothing in this rule be held to prohibit the association
with the honorary auditors of a professional auditor.''
Mr. Strachst seconded this amendment.
Mr. Eat pointed out that there was nothing in the pro-
posed addition inconsistent with the rule as drafted.
Mr. Sinclair consented to his amendment being put as a
rider, and on a division it was decided by 18 to 3 to adopt
his suggestion.
Mr. Morris's motion was then carried unanimously.
The Chairman, again referring to the two vacancies which
had occurred in the list of Honorary Members, informed
the meetiug that the Council recommended the election of
Professor Wright, of Cambridge, and Professor Sachau, of
Berlin. This was unanimously agreed to.
Sir Charles Bernard, K.C.S.I., and Pandit Yisvanatha
Narayana Inderjl were elected Resident Members ; and
Dvijadas Datta, R. S. Ayangar, C. F. Oldham, A. M. T.
Jackson, and R. A. Weil, Esquires, were elected Non-
resident Members of the Society.
Mr. H. H. HowoRTH, M.P., proposed a vote of thanks to
the President for the distingushed services he had rendered
to the Society during the past year, and on his putting this
to the vote it was carried by acclamation.
18th June, 1888.— Sir Thomas Wade, K.C.B., President,
in the Chair.
Prof. Bendall exhibited a unique palm-leaf MS. of the
Tantrakhyana, which he had discovered in Nepal, and gave
an account of the MS. and its contents. A full report of
his paper will appear in the October number of the JournaL
NOTES OF THE QUARTER. 419
II. CoKTBirrS OF FoBEIGK OEnSNTAL JOUSKALS.
1. Zeitschbife deb DBUTSCHEir MoBGENLA2n>iscHEir Gesellsohaft.
Vol. xlii. Part I. (Received 22Ed May, 1888).
1. M. EUamrotli. On extracts from Greek writers found in
ad-Yaqubi.
2. M. Griinbaum. Semitic 19'otes.
3. Franz Preetorius. The Perfect Tense in SabsBan.
4. Franz Praetorins. Tigrina Proverbs.
6. Th. Noldeke. -Egyptian Folklore.
6. Hontnm-Scliindler. Eurdisli Lexicography.
7. August Miiller. On Koran ii. 261.
8. Eugen Wilhelm. Avesta Lexicography.
9. Rudolf Dvorak. Should Turkish Poetry be Vocalised.
10. Wlislocki. Contributions to the History of the Migration of
Fables.
2. JOXTBITAL AsiATIQVE.
8th Series. Vol. xi. Part II. (Received 23rd May).
1. L6on Peer. Pali and Buddhist Studies.
2. L'Abb^ Martin. On the Hexameron of James of Edessa.
3. M. de Harlez. On the relations between the Niu-chis and
the Manchus.
4. Maspero. On a Manual of Egyptian Hierarchy.
3. JOUBITAL 07 THE AsUTIC SOCZBTT OF BeKOAL.
Vol. Ivi. (Received 9th April, 1888).
1. E. E. Oliver. The Safwa Dynasty in Persia.
2. Shyamal Das. Antiquities at Nagarl.
3. C. E. Yate. Notes on the City of Hirat.
4. A. Fiihrer. Three New Copper Plate Grants of Gbvinda
Chandra Deva of Kanauj.
6. J. H. Knowles. Kashmiri Riddles.
6. R. Mitra. On an Inscription of Vidyadhara Bhanja.
7. J. F. Garwood. Ancient Mounds in the Quetta District.
8. H. Beveridge. The Mother of Jahangir.
9. C. J. Rodgers. Notes on the Coins of the Tabaqat-i-Nafirl.
VOL. XX.— [kbw sbrim.] 8X
450 l^OTES OF THE QUARTER.
4. Madius Joubnal of Litbeature and ScrsircE.
Vol. for 1887-1888 (Received 18th June).
1. E. Stradiot. Hindu Music.
2. G. Oppert. The Original Inhabitants of India.
3. J. E. Tracy. Pan^yan Coins.
4. J. E. Hutchinson. Chikakol Antiquities.
i. B. H. C. Tn&ell. Hints to Coin Collectors.
III. OBmrAKT Notices.
Badger. — ^The death is announced of Dr. Percy Badger, author
of the English- Arabic Lexicon, 1881. Dr. Badger was well ac-
quainted with the Syrian Arabic of the present day, haying laboured
for many years as a missionary in the East, in connection with
which he wrote a Taluable book on the history of '' The Nestorians
and their Literature."
Fandit Bhagvanlal Indrajl. — ^The following interesting letter
appears in the * Academy.' — Bombay, March 23, 1888, — Many
readers of the Academy will be grieved to hear of the death of
Pandit Bhagvanlal Indrajl. He died on Friday last^ March 16, at
his house in Wallteshwar.
I have seen him, from time to time during his last illness ; and
two days before his death I had the sad pleasure of paying him a
visit along with M. Senart, to whom he was well known, and who,
like every one else who knew Bhagvanlal, held him in great regard
and affection. We had previously taken steps to learn if our visit
would be agreeable, and were met on the way by a note, dictated
by the Pandit, pressing us to come. His bodily state, he said, was
getting worse and worse, and we must come quickly. I was told
afterwards that he hoped each step on the stair might be that of
the distinguished scholar who was coming to him with news about
the recent discovery of an Asoka inscription. M. Senart will, I
know, be glad that we did not yield to the fear we had that a visit
at such a time might be out of place.
Bhagvanlal rallied to greet his friend in a way none of those who
were present will forget. It was too painfully obvious to all that
the end was a matter of hours. But his eye kindled as he listened
to all M. Senart had to tell him, the only murmur of impatience
which escaped him was when he heard that his friend had been to
Junaghar — ''my native place" — ^and he not able to accompany him
NOTES OP THE QUARTER. 451
there. " I am bo sorry, so sorry." He pressed my hand warmly
when he took leave of me, and I was glad to feel sure that we had
given him a moment's pleasure. His death was to liimself a relief.
''I am quite happy to go to God," were his words some days
before. But more than one of your readers will feel with his
friends here that the world is poorer to them now that so simple, so
true, and so pure a soul has gone from it. A man greatly beloved,
in whom was no guile. His body was burned the same evening in
the Walkeshwar burning ground close to his house. In a will
written shortly before his death he had left directions which were
for the most part faithfully carried out. All the ceremonies for the
dying had been performed by himself in anticipation of death.
They were not to be repeated now. When the end came near,
earth, brought by himself from a holy place, was to be spread on
the ground, and he was to be lifted from his bed and laid on it.
His body was to be covered up to the mouth with the sacred sheet
he had provided. The name of God was to be repeated in his ear
as he lay dying. When the breath was seen to be departing, the
holy water he had brought from the Ganges was to be sprinkled
upon him, and a few drops put into his mouth. At the moment
of death the sheet was to be drawn over his face and not again
to be removed. Four friends were to carry him to the funeral
pyre, and no weeping was to be made for him. Only the name
of God was to be ever repeated. The women were not to
come. When all was over, his friends were to return to his house
and disperse, first sitting together for a little time, if they so chose.
He had no son or heir to take objection to the absence of the usual
rites. Let his friends bethink them of the great sin they would
commit if in any of these things they disregarded '^ the wishes of
the previous owner of what would be then a worthless corpse."
His caste people must not be allowed to interfere. The friends
who should do his will were his true caste people.
Bhagvanlal left the history of Gnjerat he was writing for Mr.
Campbell's Gazetteer unfinished, but he worked hard up to the last
day or two to perfect the fragment he had commenced. He finished
his account of the Eshatrap coins in his possession in the draft of a
paper dictated by him in Gujerathi, in which he has also given
a full account of the Hon pillar capital, with its inscriptions in
Bactrian Pali, which he brought from Muttra. This paper will,
in accordance with his wish, after it has been put in the form he
would himself have given to it, be offered to the Eoyal Asiatic
452 NOTES OP THE QUARTER.
Society. His coins and inscriptions, including the Mattia one, are
to be offered to the British Museam, on terms which I do not doubt
the authorities there will gladly agree to. His MSS. he has left
to the Bombay Branch of the Eoyal Asiatic Society, asking only
that they may be placed near the MSS. of the late Dr. Bhao Daji.
I cannot yet say in what state his papers, other than that to which
I have referred, have been left, but his friend and executor,
Mr. Earsundas Yalubhdas, has asked me to look over them ; and
I undertake that nothing which can be published shall be lost.
I hope at all events that we shall be able to bring together in a
volume all the published papers of the Pandit, alongside of those
of his revered master and friend Bhao Daji. Bhagvanlal, I know,
would have wished for just such a memorial. I hope I have not
written at too great length for your columns. I have myself lost
a dear friend in Bhagvaulal, and I know that the details I have
given will have a melancholy interest for a wide circle of scholars.
They will join me in bidding him a last farewell — ^nay, rather,
in the words with which we parted, Funar darsanaya (*' Auf
wiedersehn ! ") — Peter Pbtebsoit.
Flex9cher, — Professor Doctor Heinrich L. Fleischer, who died on
the 16th of February last, was bom in Schandau in Saxony on the
21st of February, 1801. He commenced his University studies as
a theologian at Leipzig in 1819, but soon devoted himself to Oriental
languages, which he afterwards studied under De Sacy and Caussin
de Perceval in Paris. On his return home to Dresden, he was
appointed to the staff of the Kreuzschule, and whilst here he was in-
vited in 1835 to take a Professorship of Persian in St. Petersburg;
but Professor Eosenmiiller dying at this juncture, his own Univer-
sity at Leipzig was able to offer him the Professorship of Arabic,
Persian, and Turkish, which he retained up to the year 1887, when
he retired from University work. He either edited or assisted in
editing the following : '^ Abulfeda's Historia Ante-Islamitica,"
Arabic and Latin, 1831 ; " AH's One Hundred Proverbs," Arabic
and Persian, 1837; <' Baidhawi's Sayana of the Koran," 1844-48 ;
" Samakhshari's Golden Necklaces," German translation; *' Mirza
Mohammed Ibrahim's Persian Grammar," German translation ;
'* Habicht's Arabian Nights," Arabic text, left unfinished by the
editor. He also contributed matter to Levy's Talmudic Dictionary
and Muhlau and Yolck's Gesenius's Hebrew Lexicon.
Oopalakrishnama Chetty. — The death is announced, in Madras,
of Mr. N. Oopalakrishnama Chetty. The greatest portion of
NOTES OF THE QUABTEB. 453
his public service — ^more than fifteen years as Deputy Collector
— was spent in the Kimool District, where his name is cherished
to this day with fond affection by the rural population as their good
old friend, he was entrusted with the compilation of a Manual
of that district — ^a task which he accomplished with credit so far
as the meagre District Eecords permitted him. He was also a
a good Telugu scholar, and was the author of a popular tale entitled,
'' Sriranga Baja Charitra," illastratiye of native manners and
customs.
IV. Notes and News.
Among the honours conferred on the occasion of the Queen's
birthday, two have been bestowed on Members of our Society. Mr.
Redhouse, C.M.G., who was Secretary of the Society from 1861 to
1863, and is now an Honorary Member, has become a K.C.M.O.,
and Mr. Cookson, C.B., of the Consular Service in Egypt, has been
made a K.C.B.
There has been published in Colombo a new edition of Guru]u-
gomi's Ama-watura (The water of Arahatship), probably the oldest
work written in Ceylon in the native Prakrit, with a complete
glossary.
The Chineie Frofissorship at Cambridge, — Sir Thomas Wade, who
has been recently elected to the newly-established Professorship of
Chinese at Cambridge, delivered his inaugural lecture on the 13th
inst. in the Senate House before a large and appreciative audience.
The Vice-Chancellor presided. The Professor commenced by stating
that, as he had not originally approached the study of the Chinese
language as a trained philosopher or philologist, he deprecated too
high an estimate of his qualifications as a lecturer. He assumed
that his pupils, should he have any, would be intending missionaries
or interpreters, to both of whom the oral language would be indis-
pensable. His advice to applicants in either category would be
that they should make their way to China with all speed. As a
consulting practitioner, however, he could no doubt give them hints
which they would find useful. With the aid of a map, the Pro-
fessor defined the vast area over which — ^the languages of the
aborigines and other races being excluded — Chinese of one sort or
another is spoken, and, referring to the history of the central State,
the cradle of Chinese civilization, and its gradual development
during thirty centuries into a mighty Empire, he urged that the
454 NOTES OF THE QUARTER.
multiplicity of its dialects, whicli he put at some 1400, had in it
nothing extraordinary, the magnitude of the Empire and the process
of its consolidation considered. He dwelt at some length upon the
embarrassment occasioned to the foreigner by the paucity of sounds,
those too monosyllabic, allotted to the thousands of words contained
in the language, and upon the addition to this consequent upon the
law of intonation. But he pointed out that, both as regards the
syllabic sound and the tone, by the collocation of words so as to
produce a quasi-polysyllabic effect, both difficulties are greatly
diminished. Lastly, he explained the origin of the written character
in its simpler form as ideographic, and having demonstrated the
process of combination by which the more complicated characters
have been produced, he brought his lecture to a dose. In the next
lecture the Professor promised that he would attempt a notice of
the literature of China ; and meanwhile, without the formal insti-
tution of classes, he announced himself ready to give counsel to any
student of the written or spoken language who might be disposed
to seek it.
Pending a reconstitution of the Laudian chair of Arabic at
Oxford, Mr. D. S. Margoliouth has been appointed to give instruc-
tion in Arabic during next term. Mr. Margoliouth has been
spending some time lately at Cairo.
The honorary degree of M.A. has been confeired at Oxford upon
Dr. Hermann Eth^, Professor of Oriental Languages at Aberyst-
wyth, who has long been engaged in cataloguing some of the
Oriental collections in the Bodleian, and who is now examining in
the Oriental schools.
A report recently issued in India on the progress of education in
the North-Westem Provinces and Oudh affords evidence of the
growing demand for University education, there having been a con-
siderable increase in the number of students attending the Arts
course in the College, and an improvement in the percentage of
candidates successful at the various examinations of the course.
The report states that considerable progress has been made during
the year on the lines laid down by the Education Commission,
especially in the establishment of revised standards of instruction
and a code of rules for village schools.
At a recent meeting of the Bombay Branch of the Eoyal Asiatic
Society, M. £mile Senart, the French archeologist, who has recently
been travelling in India, delivered a lecture on the various inscrip-
tions which bear the name of Piyadasi, the Asoka of Southern
NOTES OF THE QUAHTEB. 455
Buddhists, grandson of Ghandragupta. The chief object of M.
Senart's visit to India was to supplement by direct inspection the
patient study of years which he has deyoted to these inscriptions,
in his opinion the most ancient dated monuments of India, the most
ancient dated witnesses of its religious life and the progress of
Buddhism. The result is that he has been able to settle the text
of many passages hitherto doubtful. He read an interesting trans-
lation of the famous Edict of Toleration, and gave an account of
the discovery by Capt. Deane, Assistant Commissioner at Hoti
Murdan, of the new inscription at Shahbaz Garhi, which furnishes
material for a perfect text of the Edict. — Athenaum, 5th May,
1888, p. 569.
The first volume of the Catalogue of Sanskrit MSS. in the India
Office, by Professor Eggeling, of Edinburgh, has just been published.
It contains the description of all the Yedic works in the collection
comprised in 566 MSS. These are derived from various sources,
but by far the larger number came from the library of H. T.
Colebrooke.
Mr. M. Bhammaratna, the editor of the native paper called
** Lak Mini Pahana," has commenced the publication of an edition,
in Sinhalese characters, of the Pali Text of Buddhaghosa's celebrated
work the Wisuddhi Magga. It is to appear in weekly parts of two
sheets each, and is to contain also the full commentary in Sinhalese
of the learned King Parakrama Bahu the Third (called Pan^ita
Parakrama Bahu, to distinguish him from the more famous King,
the first of that name). To these two works are added a new
commentary by the Editor, also in Sinhalese. The first part has
already appeared, and the undertaking reflects the greatest credit
on the public spirit and scholarship of the Sinhalese journalist.
Anuradhapura, Ceylon. — ^There seems to be very great want of
tact in the way in which the excavations at the ancient and sacred
seven Dagabas at this place are being carried out.
The following correspondence is taken from the Sinhalese news-
paper SarasavUanderMa of the 1st instant :
" Colonial Secretary's Office, 23rd May. — ^Bev. Sir, — I am directed
to send you the accompanying Memorial addressed to the Officer
Administering the Government by certain Buddhists, and I am to
invite you to offer any observations that you may desire to make
thereon. 2. I am to remind you that, at your interview with His
Honour the Officer Administering the Government, you asked only
for the suspension during the pilgrimage of the excavation work,
466 NOTES OF THE QUARTER.
and that no reference was made by you to any discovery or removal
of 'hidden treasures,' of which His Honour has not himself heard. —
I am, &c., H. W. Geben, for Colonial Secretary.— H. Sumangala
Terunanse."
'* Widyodaya College, Colombo, May Slst. — Sir,— I am in receipt
of your letter of the 23rd instant, enclosing a petition from a so-
called Abhayagiri Defence Committee, and asking me to offer any
observations upon it that I may wish. In reply I have to say:
1. That although I have no connection with the above-mentioned
Committee, and cannot accept any responsibility for its actions or
statements, I am distinctly of opinion that the excavation of the
Sacred Dagabas, on any pretence whatever, is an act of desecration,
and cannot but be extremely painful to the feelings of all true
Buddhists. 2. That as to the statement made in the petition that
the Government Agent has despoiled the Dagaba of its hidden
treasures, I have no reliable evidence before me of the discovery
of any valuables whatever, and for that reason I made no reference
to the general rumour of such discovery during my interview with
His Honour the Officer Administering the Government ; but I am
decidedly of opinion that, if any such treasures hive hem removed^
they should at once be replaced. 3. That at my recent interview
with His Honour the Officer Administering the Government, what
I asked for was not^ as represented, the mere suspension of the
work of excavation during the time of the pilgrimage, but the
stoppage of such work altogether and the filling up of all excavations
before the pilgrimage. — I am, sir, &c., H. Sumaitoala, High Priest
of Adam's Peak, and Principal of Widyodaya College. — The Hon.
the Colonial Secretary, Colombo.*'
A general meeting of the Asiatic Society of Japan was held on
March 14 ; Prof. J. Milne in the chair. Mr. C. S. Meik read an
interesting paper, " Around the Hokkaido." The tour round Yesso
was made in company of Mr. Fukushi, of the Survey Department
of the Hokkaido Government. — London and China Telegraphy May
7, 1888, p. 418.
Count Auret-Elmpt, a Bussian, is at present on a voyage up the
Meikong, in company with M. Dupuis. His object is to study the
Muongs, Mois, and other tribes in an earnest manner, and trace their
origin. He is likewise particularly interested in the Laotians,
whom he believes to be descendants of the ancient Khmers. — Ibid,^
p. 427.
A French mission, composed of several members, and at the head
NOTES OP THE QUARTER. 457
of which is M. Fonnereau, is now exploring Cambodia and visiting
Angkor. An artist accompanies the expedition. — Ihid., p. 427.
Mr. A. Dalgleish, the well-known Central Asian traveller, has
been shot by a Pathan near the Karakoram Pass, while on his way
to Yarkand. His body was to be taken to Let for burial. — Some-
ivard Maily May 7, 1888, p. 578.
African Philology, — " A Langaage-study based on Bantu," by
the Rev. F. W. Kolbe, formerly of the Rhenish Mission in Herero-
land, South Africa (Triibner, 1888). The author, following Dr.
Rleek, considers that a study of the Bantu Languages of South
Africa is most important to every Comparative Philologist. For
instance, the origin of the grammatical form of gender and number,
the etymology of pronoun, and many other deep grammatical
questions will find their solution in the study of the languages of
this family. To this subject he has dedicated a treatise of 98
pages.
The ''Book of Common Prayer" in the Chudna Language of
South Africa, belonging to the Bantu Family, has been published
by the S.P.C.K.
An educational book in the form of exercises to facilitate the
study of TJmbundu, the language of Benguella in West Africa, has
been published by the Mission Press at Benguella. This also is a
Bantu language, the very existence of which is only known to us
fix>m the works of the American Missionaries.
Kote on the RifE Language of the Berber Branch of the Hamitic
Family spoken in the Northern portion of Morocco by a large
population, who are quite distinct from the Arabic invaders, and
only Mahometans on the surface. A Oospel has been translated
into this language, with the help of Natives, and I witnessed the
process during my visit to Morocco last October. It is an entire
addition to our existing knowledge. — R.N.C.
The Berber language of North AMca embraces several branches,
the chief of which are the Sts, or 8hluh^ spoken in the country of
Sldi Hashim, south of Morocco proper, the Riff, in the mountains
of North Morocco, and the Kabail, of Algeria. Between these
widely separated countries there are all along the intervening
Atlas mountains, and also in some parts of the Sah&ra, more or less
varying shades of the same tongue. In short, these sub-dialects,
with a few exceptions, may be said to cover the whole Atlas range
from Tunis to AgadSr, and are more or less intelligible to the people
speaking one or other of the three above-mentioned languages.
458 KOTBS OF THE QUARTER.
The brandies mentioned of the Berber langfQ&ge, although analogous,
are yet quite distinct ; somewhat resembling, in their relation to
each other, a group of Keltic languages, such as Ghielic, Irish and
"Welsh, or perhaps more nearly, Keo-Latin group, say Italian,
French, and Spanish. The term SHLtTH is given in Morocco by
people of Arab extraction to the Berber people, and their language
is also called Shilha. And doubtless Shilha was the prevailing
language of the whole of Mauretania before the indigenous in-
habitants of the plains and the coast were driven into the mountains
at the time of the Arab invasion. Riff, the north-western branch
of Berber, has hitherto been an unwitten language.
Linguistie JExphratum of the Semgamhia, — ^Prof. Ren6 Basset,
of Algiers, has now completed his linguistic exploration of the
Senegambia, the results of which will appear in three volumes, as
soon as possible.
I do not wish to anticipate more than necessary the work of the
French explorer, and shall only give, from a few explanatory notes
supplied by him, the probable contents of his work, as follows : —
1. Zenaga. — History of the Moors and of the country, from the
times of Hanno's Periplon. — ^Morphology and Phonetics. — ^Zenaga
Texts. — ^French-Zenaga Vocabulary. — Comparative Zenaga-French
Dictionary, in order of roots. — ^Vocabulary of the Berberized Arabic
words, in order of roots.
2. JSassanga Arabic^ spoken on the river Senegal. — ^Poetry and
Letters. — ^Hassanya Vocabulary, in order of Arabic roots. — Influence
of the Arabic over the Senegalian languages, viz. : Wolof, Pul,
Mandingo, Susu, Serer, etc. — ^Arabic Letters written by these
populations.
3. Sangara, of the Mandingo group. — ^Vocabulary.
4. KhaB8<mk$, of the Mandingo group. — Grammar. — French-
Khassonke and Khassonke-French Vocabularies ; comparisons with
the Susu, Soninke, Mandingo, Bambara, etc.
6. Comparison of the Wolof and Serer-Sin roots.
6. i8^*r-JVon, isolated language (at least provisionally); not to be
ranged with Dr. Fr. Miiller's so-called Felup languages ; at any
rate, quite distinct from the Serer-Sin, or Eegem, as illustrated by
Gen. L. Faidherbe. Therefore the name '' Serer " can no more be
used as that of a language having two dialects. Sin and Non, as
these two so-called dialects are, in fact, two different languages ;
the few particulars given by Faidherbe about the so-caUed Kon
dialect refer to the dialect of the Parors, or Falors, spoken at Nput
NOTBS OF THE QUARTER. 459
and distinct from the N6n proper, as understood by the Dyobas. —
Vocabulary.
7. Landumay neither isolated, nor to be classed with Dr. Fr.
Miiller's so-called Felup languages ; but very closely related to the
BuUom, Baga, and Timne. — Morphology. — Prench-Landuma
Vocabulary.
8. Baga. — ^Morphology. — ^French-Baga Vocabulary.
9. Comparative Vocabulary of the Baga, Landuma, Bollom, and
Timne.
10. Dyola {Byafad$\ of the Bio-Grande, isolated. — Morphology
and Vocabulary.
11. Bram and Maniyago as spoken at Bulam, Bissagos islands;
these two dialects are closely related. — ^Morphology and Vocabulary.
12. Nalu, isolated. — ^Morphology and Vocabulary.
13. BiAyogOy as spoken at Bulam, Bissagos islands. — ^Morphology
and Vocabulary.
14. Additions and Corrections.
15. Appendices; chiefly unpublished documents of Portuguese
origin.
So considerable an amount of linguistio information, collected by
so careful a scholar, will certainly prove very welcome; but, as
remarked by Prof. E. Basset himself, much work will yet remain
to be done in the same region. Perhaps some other scholar will
soon have the opportunity of studying the languages of the high
Kiger, of the Bissagos archipelago, of the Cazamansa (Felup, Papel,
Balanta), not to speak of the Pul, which I intend to illustrate
myself, as I would have done already, had I not lost many precious
documents collected by me some years ago. — Capt. T. 6. de
OuuiAunoir.
V. Bevisw.
Die Kafa-Spraehe in Nordost Afriha, von Iao Beiniseh. —
I. Grammar of the Eafa language. Vienna, 1888.
Prof. Leo Reinisch's recent work brings to light a language of
Korth-£astem Africa which was till now almost unknown to us.
It forms a new link in the chain of the linguistic series begun
some years ago by this distinguished scholar. Unfortunately the
materials collected by him on the spot are now very nearly
exhausted, and it is highly probable that he will have no further
opportunity of returning to the Egyptian Soudan, which seems to
be dosed to Europeans for a long while to come. The time has
460 NOTES OF THE QUAETER.
therefore come to review at some length the whole linguistic work
of that scholar, and I hope soon to do so.
But just now I must content myself with pointing out that, in
the classification of African languages, progress must as yet be made
with great caution. The plan of running more or less hastily
through the grammars and dictionaries of many African languages
is not likely to enable even the most clever scholar, however well
trained in other branches of linguistics, to build up a permanent
scientific theory. I venture to say that without a complete study of
all these languages nothing can be done in the way of classification.
And I insist especially on these considerations, because every
scholar who, leaving Asia for a moment, deigns to come over into
Africa in order to provide us with some new classification, does it
too often from a peculiar and exclusive point of view. Ideology,
for instance, may be very helpful in comparing languages. But
ideology alone can lead only to inaccurate and delusive conclusions,
as languages endowed with similar ideologies do not belong
necessarily to the same linguistic or ethnological families. It is
too bold to put on the same line the Mandingo, Bomu, Bedawye,
Kuba, Brahui, Kalinga and other African or Asiatic (why no
American?) languages, on the mere ground that their ideologies
are very similar, and to conclude triumphantly from such an
inference that the people who speak these languages belong to a
race, of which we know scarcely more than its name.
Prof. Leo B«inisch's linguistic series will be concluded with the
following works:
1. Kafa Vocabulary (in the press).
2. Saho Vocabulary and Texts (ready).
3. Kunama Vocabulary and Texts (ready).
4. Saho Grammar (in preparation).
6. Afar Grammar (in preparation).
6. General suggestions on the Kumerals, the Pronouns, and the
verbal flexion. — Cam. T. G. de Gxjikaudoit.
VI. Pali Text Society.
The issues of the Pali Text Society for 1887 have just ap-
peared. They include the first volume of Mr. Trenckner's
long-expected edition of the Majjhima Kikaya. This work is a
collection of the shorter ones among those Socratic dialogues in
which Gotama's views of life and of religion have been preserved
NOTES OF THE QXJAETEE. 461
to us. The completion of this work, and of the corresponding
collection of longer dialogaes — the Digha — will give us the most
complete and important statement of what Buddhism was, as origin-
ally held by the early converts. The Society has now published
twenty-six texts in nineteen volumes, which are already quoted in
the market at higher prices than the subscribers paid.
VII. COBBIOBNDA.
The corrected proof-sheets of Sir M. Monier- Williams's address
on the Jains (printed under the Not$a of the QuarUr in the last
Number of the Journal) were unfortunately lost in transmission by
post. It was intended to give an errata-list in the present number,
but, on examination, most of the misprints appeared too obvious to
need pointing out. The only serious errata occur in the Jain prayer-
formula at p. 281. They should be corrected as follows :
Namo Arihanta^am namo Siddhanam namo Ayariyanani name
TJvajjhayaQani namo loe Sabba-sahunam. The name of one of the
Digambara Pandits mentioned at p. 279 should be Syojl Lai (not
Gyoji Lai).
So also in Mr. Sinclair's letter, which he had not the opportunity
of correcting, < Angira * was printed on p. 273 for ' Angria,' and at
the end of the same paragraph 'of for 'or' ('or the smaller
temples'). The full stop at the end of line 6 on the following page
should also be struck out.
The following publications have been presented to the Society :
From th$ Secretary of State for India in Oouneil. — Archieological Surrey of
Southern India: Amrayati and Jaggayyapeta. By Burgess and Biibler.
4th. London, 1887.— Archseological Survey of India Beports, Index yoIs.
i.-xxiii. Edited by Y. A. Smith. 1887.— Yol. xxiii. Pan jab and Rajpil-
tftna. 1887. Edited by H. B. Garrick. — Manual of the Andamanese
Languages. By M. Y. Portman. 8yo. London, 1887. — Alberuni's India.
Edited by Dr. Edward Sachau. 4to. London, 1887.— Hunter's Gazetteer.
14 Yols. 2nd edit. — Records of the Geological Survey of India.
From the Government of Bengal — Admimstration of 1885-86. Fol. Calcutta,
1887. — Selections from the Records of the GoYemment of India : Foreign
Department, Nos. cczzziv. Folio. 1888. Sanskrit MSS., by Rajendralfrla
Mitra, LL.D., CLE. Yol. ix. part 1. Calcutta, 1887.
From the Government of Bombay, — Administration for the year 1886-87. —
Sanskrit MSS. in Bombay. By R. G. Bhandarkar.— Selections from the
Records of the Bombay Goyemment : Belgaum CoUectorate, No. cxc.-cxci.
462 N0TE8 OF THE QUAETEB.
1886. Bkikn Gollectorats, No. ociy. 1888.— Beport of the Director of
Public Iiutniction. 1887.'SelectioiiB from State Papers: Home Series.
YoLb. I.-II. 4to. Bombay, 1887.
From the Government of Madras. — Pnblio Instruction, 1887, Administration
Beport. Bangalore, 1886-7. Fol. 1888.— List of Monnments selected for
Gonsenration in the Presidency of Madras in 1884.— Beport of ArchaK>logical
Surrey of India, by Messra. Bea, Burgess, and SewelL July, 1S86, to
March, 1888.
JFVvm Am Highnees the Maharaja Oaekwar. — Beport on the Administration of the
Baroda State, 1883-4, 1884-86, 1886, 1887.
From the Trueteee of the Indian Muteum. — A Catalogue of the Moths of India,
compiled by £. 0. Coles and Colonel C. Swinhoe. Calcutta, 1 887.
From the Minuter of Fublie Inetruetion, France. — Diotionnaire Ture*Fraiieais,
Yol. ii. part 2. Paris, 1887.— Histoire des Dpasties DiTines public en
Japonais, traduite par L^on de Bosny. Paris, 1887. — Annales dn Mus^e
Guimet. Vol. x. 4te. Paris, 1887.— Catelogue des Monnaies Musubnanes
de la Biblioth^ue Nationale. Boy. 8to. Paris, 1887. — Berue de THiatoire
dee Beligions. Vol. xri. Nos. 1, 2, 3. 1887.
From the Minieter of Fublie Inetruetiony Germany. —•'Dx^ Handachriften-Veneich*
nisse der KonigUchen Bibliothek zu Berlin. Yenseichniss der Arabiachen
Handschriften, yon W. Ahlwardt. Erster Band. Berlin, 1887.
From the Oovemment of the Netherlands, — Nederlandsch-Chineesch Woorden-
boek. Deel ii. Afleyering ii. iii Leiden, 1887.— De Irlandische Bangen
en Titelsop Jaya en Madoera. Batoyia, 1887.
From the Delegatet of the Clarendon iV«f«.— Catalogue of the Mohammedan Coins
preseryed in the Bodleian Library at Oxford. By Stanley Lane- Poole. 4to.
Oxford, 1888.
From the Trustees of the British Museum.— Coim of the Greek and Scyihic Kings
of Bactria and India. By Percy Gardner. 8yo. London, 1886. —Coins of
the Sultans of Dehli. By Stanley Lane Poole. 8yo. London, 1884.— The
Coins of the Shahs of Persia. By B. S. Poole. 8yo. London, 1887.
From the Fresident.—W Side (Sir T. F.}, and W. C. Hillier, Progreesiye Course
of Colloquial Chinese. 8 yols. 4to. Shanghai, 1886.
BenUeyy Rev. W, S, — Dictionary and Grammar of the Congo Language. 8to.
London, 1887.
Cassely Patf/tM.— Commentary on Esther, with four Appendices. Translated by
Bey. Aaron Bernstein. 8yo. Edinburgh, 1888.— MischleSindbad, Secundus.
Syntipaa Edirt, emendirt und erklart. 8yo. Berlin, 1888.
Oust, R. N., XL.i).— Les Baces et les Langues de I'Oceanie traduit de
L' Anglais. Par A. L. Pinart— Linguistic and Oriental Essays. Second
Series. 1887.
Oulin Slewart.—The Beligious Ceremonies of the Chinese in the Eastern Cities of
the United Stetes. 4to. Philadelphia, 1887.
Dwight, The Rev. Dr.— A Turkish and English Lexicon. By Sir J. W.
Bedhouse. 4 parts. Constantinople, 1884-86. Printed for the American
Press by A. H. Boyajian.
Fdwards, JftM.— Fourtii Memoir of the Egypt Exploration Fund. * Goshen.*
London, 1887.
NOTES OP THE QXJAETEE. 463
Jinn, iTr^.— Stirring Times. 2 vols. 8to. 1878.'Orphan Colony of Jews in
China. 8yo. London, 1872.
Ooldtmid, Sir F. — The Imperial Indian Peerage and Almanack, 1887. — Com-
parative Yocabnlaries of the Languages Spoken at Soakin : Arabic, Hadendoa,
Beni-Amer. Compiled by direction of Major C. M. Watson, R.E., C.M.6.
Orierton^ Q, ^i.— Mediseyal Yemacnlar literature of Hindustan. Vienna,
1888.
Orow90f F. 8., C.I.B,—A Supplement to the Fatehpur Gazetteer. Allahabad,
1887.
Hetidley, T. Holbein, SurgeoH' Major, —•Third Beport of the Jeypore Economic
and Industrial Museum. Thin folio. 1887.
Th0 Authors. — Proposed Scheme for a new Turkish Grammar, with a method for
transcribing that Language into the Latin Character. By H. T. Lyon and
£. Tigrane.
Zaeouperie, Prof, T. de, — Languages of China before the Chinese. 8yo. London,
1887.— The Babylonian and Oriental Record.— The Old Babylonian Charac-
ters and their Chinese Deriyates. Pamph. London and Paris, 1888.
MttrgoliotUh, J>. — Analeota Orientalia ad Poeticam Aristotelean. 8yo. London,
1887.
Matthit, B. r.— Maccassar New Testament. Roy. 8yo. 1876-88.
Marrii, Dr. Biehard.^On Tche yun Fou. Dictionnaire Tonique. 5 yols.
Forinum, M. T.— Chinese Music. By J. A. Aalst. Shanghai, 1884.— The
National Music of the World. By the late H. F. Chorley, edited by Henry
G. Hewlett. 2nd ed. London, 1882.— Notes on Siamese Musical Instru-
ments. London, 1886. — An Introduction to the Study of National Music.
By Carl Engel. London, 1866. — The Literature of National Music. By
Carl Engel. London, 1879.— Short Notices of Hindu Musical Instruments.
Calcutta, 1877. — Hindu Music from Various Authors. By Sourindro Mohun
Tagore, Mus. Doc, Founder and President of the Bengal Music SchooL 2nd
ed. Calcutta, 1882.— Musical Scales of the Hindus. By S. M. Tagore.
Calcutta, 1884. — Victoria S&mr&jyan, or Sanskrit Stanzas. By S. M.
Tagore. 2nd ed. Calcutta, 1882. — Fifty Tunes, composed and set to Music.
By S. M. Tagore. Calcutta, 1878.— The Five Principal Musicians of the
Hindus. By S. M. Tagore. Calcutta, 1881.— The Twenty Principal Kavya-
karas of the Hindus ; or, Extracts from the Works of Twenty of the most
Renowned Literati of India. By S. M. Tagore. Calcutta, 1883.
Th$ Jtft^or.— India and the West in Old Days. By Prof. Albrecht Weber.
Translated from the German by Emily Hawtrey. Edited by Robert Sewell.
JOURlfAL
OF
THE EOYAL ASIATIC SOOIETT.
Art. XIIL— 7^ Tantrdkhydna, a Collection of Indian Folk-
lore^ from a unique Sanskrit MS. discovered in Nepal. By
Prof. Cecil Bendall.
CONTENTS.
FAOB
I. Introductory Essay • •• , 465
II. (a) Index of Tales, with ComparatiTe Notes 470
{b) Special Index to Tales corresponding to the Pafica-tantra 473
III. Notes on Variations from the Panca-tantra in Tales generally corre-
sponding to portions of that work 474
IT. Abstract of Tales not in the PaSca-tantra 478
V. Extracts from the Sanskrit Text 485
\I. Translations of Selected Tales 497
I. Introductokt Essay.
The first notice of the work that forms the subject of the
present paper was given in Dr. Daniel Wright's " History of
Nepal/' where, at p. 322, the title of the book occurs in the
list of Sanskrit MSS. procured for the University of Cam-
bridge. In examining this collection in the years 1880-3, I
noted the work as related to the Pafica-tantra. As, however,
this MS. was (with the exception of some verses as to which
I shall speak presently) entirely in Newari, and as I decided
to issue at first only the catalogue of the Buddhist Sanskrit
MSS., I have hitherto never published any further details,
but only gave a passing mention of my discovery in my
paper read at the Berlin Congress of Orientalists in 1881
TOL. xz.— [nbw sb&xbs.] 32
466 THE TANTRAKHTANA.
(Verhandlungen, TheU II. Halfte li. p. 204). When, how-
ever, I yisited Nepal in 1884, I obtained the small palm-leaf
MS., which I now exhibit, containing the work entirely in
Sanskrit. The MS.^ is dated Nepal Samvat 604, or a.d.
1484, and was copied by one ' Jasavarman' svdrthahetund^ by
which, I suppose, is meant that his real name was Ya90var-
man, and that he copied it for his own use. Perhaps this
last intimation may account for the bad spelling, poor sandM^
and general corruptness of text that prevail throughout.
There are also several perplexing lacuna. For this reason
I do not propose at present to publish the text in full, buty
pending at all events the possible acquisition of another
MS., I now offer such an account of the tales as may prove
serviceable to the student of Indian, and of general, folklore,
and subjoin (Pt. Y. YI.) selections from the text.
Like most other Indian story-books, from the oldest
known collection, the Pali Jatakas, downwards, each tale
begins with a moral or text in verse. These texts are
preserved in Sanskrit even in the Newari version ; and
this being so, I have collated for the present essay the
MS. at Cambridge already cited (which I call ^A' below),
as well as another ('B') in the same collection (Add. 1594
and 1613). Through the kind negotiations of my friend
Professor Minaev, I have also been favoured with the loan
of a third Newari MS. (which I call ' G '), belonging to the
Imperial Academy of S. Petersburg, a body which I have
found on a previous occasion most liberal in lending, and
to which I desire to record my hearty thanks.
The general literary character of the stories is somewhat
bald, mostly lacking the racy sense of humour that makes
the Jatakas so delightful and exceptional in Oriental litera-
ture. Indeed many of the stories here seem to me to be
mere notes for the viva voce telling of a story already more or
less familiar to the speaker at least, if not also to the hearers.
This theory seems confirmed by the very abrupt way in
which many of the stories terminate ; not by a leisurely ato
1 Called S in the critical notes to { IV. below.
THE TANTEAKHTANA. 467
^Mm brat^mQ as in the Hitopadefa, followed by a repetition
of part of the verse text, but a curt phrase like evam huddhi'
hinasya-doBhah^ 'so the fault lay with the witless wight/
where the story has been told in illustration of the advantage
of buddhi or vov^. Conversely in one or two cases the positive
moral is pointed out by a compound ending in gum. The
separate stories, moreover, are styled not dkht/dna, but dkhyd-
naka, a diminutive form.
Having thus explained the general character of the work,
I may now approach what is in fact the most important
question of the present paper: namely, what is the exact
position of this collection in the general chain of Indian
folklore, to which the poetry and fiction of our own middle
ages are so largely indebted P
I am pleased to be able to exemplify this indebtedness
by a small contribution to Chaucer-literature.'
The book is, as I have already stated, closely allied to the
Panca-tantra. Of its 47 stories, about 25 may be regarded as
founded on tales in that collection. And what is important
to note is, that several of them were put into their present
shape from a recension of that work differing from any of
those now extant. Thus, for example. Tale 38 in the present
collection, that of the mouse and the cat, corresponds to
chapter 5 of the Old Syriac version, which was made about
570 A.D.,' but does not occur in the Sanskrit Panca-tantra.
Another tale. No. 16, the well-known story of the elephant
freed by the mice, occurs only in the ' schmuckreichere
Kecension,' represented by the Berlin MS. used by Kose-
garten in his unfinished text of the 'editio omatior,' and
likewise in the Tamil Panca-tantra accessible to European
readers in the translation by the Abb^ Dubois. It is, however,
quite an old story, familiar to all in the ^sopic fable of the
lion and the mouse. On the other hand, Tale 24, the bird
and the ape, belongs to the latest stage of stories in the
Paiica-tantra, as it is not included in the Arabic nor even
1 The expresnon Tendham in the introdactoiy Terse to Tale 21 cited below
pointo to a veiy similar usage. Tale 28 ends "eram 'anyatha cintitam' iti."
Bee the foil Terse below.
* See Tale 42.
* Keith Falconer, Bidpai, Intr. pp. zir, xlri.
468 THE TANTEAKHYANA.
in the Tamil. Again, Tale 22, the story of the sage who
changes a dog into a beast of prey, and then changes it back
when attacked himself, is far closer to the Indian tale pre-
served in the Mahabharata and even the Hitopad69a (lY. vi.)
than to the Panca-tantra version.
So much for the general relation of our book to the Panca-^
tantra-cycle of story, which to the historian of European
literature at all events constitutes the most important branch
of Eastern folk-lore.
There are also a few ancient stories of Indian origin, but
not included in the Panca-tantra.
An example of these is Tale 25, where even the ' text ' or
introductory verse was evidently the same as that of an
Indian story included in the Bkah-hgyur, the Tibetan
Buddhist canon, translated in the ninth century a.d, if the
reference in the note to Mr. Balston's version denotes the
fourth great section of the canon.
In subject, the tales present quite as much variety as the
contents of most Indian story-books. Some are beast-fables,
others turn on the relations of the sexes, others again look like
mere incidents taken from historical legends or from romances.
The style is on the whole decidedly poor. Passive Past
participles in -^a, for example, are used in an active sense.
Cf. Tale 30, note 2, Tale 32, note 1. There are, however,
some curious lexical forms, which seem to show that the
book is of independent origin. Examples are : ^kut
* strike' (Tale 31), hitherto only found in the Dhatupatha,
and consequently ignored by Professor Whitney in his
"Sanskrit Roots." In Tale 43 (the Cat and the Mouse,
lost in the Indian Panca-tantra), in the introductory 9loka,
occurs the noun anupravegaka side by side with the verb
anupravig ; also the form 'vyayagat^ for which I would read
avyayayaty a causal form which is given in the Dhatupatha
in the sense of * motion ' {gatau) : here clearly of the wkeel-
ing of the hawk. In Tale 15 (not printed) occurs the form
gakydmi {^gaknomi) parallel to the Pali sakkdmi}
* In Tale 10 (not printed) we find the forms agraharika for a brahman who
has received an agrahara or royal donative : and just below, the form kukiputrika
THE TANTEAKHYANA. 469
In spite of the odd forms that occur, I am not now inclined
to the idea, which at first struck me, that the book is a mere
local Nepalese production. This seems clear from several
points in the tales. It is hardly likely, for example, that
a Eathmandu pandit would take for the hero of an anecdote
a king of so distant a people as the Kalingas, who appear
to have lived between South Orissa and Madras. In the
very next tale, the story of the Brahman and his wooden
image (see abstract), we find that sums of money are
mentioned as paid in darmmdh (Bpaxfjuil) 'dirhams.' In
another tale dindrdh (denarii) are mentioned. Such coins
would suggest that the stories in their present form origi-
nated not in Nepal, but rather in some part of India,
such as the Panjab, in communication with Persia and other
Muhammadan countries. The word darmma or dramma is of
l*are occurrence in Sanskrit literature. To the passages given
in the lexicons may be added the X — ^Xlth century in-
scription, which I discovered in Rajputana, and published
in the account of my journey.
I conclude, then, on the whole, that the Tantrikhjana
is one of the numerous independent workings-up of the
tale-material current in India from an early date. It is
parallel both to the Hitopade9a and to the portion of
the Katha-sarit-sagara (chapters Ix. etc., Tawney's transla-
tion, vol. ii. pp. 27, sqq.), which corresponds to the Panca-
tantra, though it is not necessary to assume for it so late
a date (eleventh century) as the latter of these books. I
may here mention a compilation probably very similar to
the present collection, as to which I have been kindly
and most unexpectedly favoured with some private in-
formation by Dr. H. N. van der Tuuk, an eminent Dutch
Orientalist, residing in the remote island of Bali, in which
discoveries so important for Sanskrit literature have been
made. This is a collection of tales called the Tantri, of
which Dr. van der Tuuk gave some account in our Journal
for 1881 (New Series, Vol. XIII. pp. 44, 46).
Hronicall^ f) for ft /otr-caste woman, ftnalogoas to the leiue of kulapuira eited
rrom Vaijayanti by Eayindra SarasTati on Dacakumiira-c^ (p. 136, 1. 20, ed.
Bombay, 1883). See alw Pt III., notes on Tale 42 A.
470
THE TAJJTRAKHYANA.
II. (a) Gbme&al Index to the Tales.
Abbreviatioru, — Panca-t.»Panca-ta]itra. Bfy.csBenfey's Tnnalatioii of thie
Panca-tantra. Tales nambered as in tlua tranalation. Arabic f^gwceB refer
to pages of Yol. I. (Einleitong). Hit.sHitopade9a. JaLsJatakas, ecL
Faiuboll, some few translated by £h. D. (BRbys Dayids). Tawney^C. H.
Tawney*8 translation of the Katba-saiit-sagara. Arabic figures refer to ptiges,
Boman to Tolnme.
Tak.
1. The tortoise and the two
geese. [Text printed.]
2. The monkey and the
sleeping prince. [Text
printed.]
3. Louse and flea.
4. The bird Bhairunda with
two heads.
5. The greedy jackal.
6. Garland-maker and tiger.
7. Grow, snake, and gold
bracelet. [Text printed
at p. 486 below.]
8. The hare who made the
lion jump into a well.
Stories to be compared.^
Paftca-t I. xiii ; Bf y. 239-40 ;
Hit. lY. ii. ; Jataka, No.
216, « Rh. D. (p. viii).
Pafica-t. Bk. I. ^Nachtrag,*
Tale xii. ; Bfy. vol. i. p.
292 and vol. ii. p. 154; Jat
No. 44, Javanese ' Tantri.'
Paftca-t. 1. ix.; Tawney, ii.
34.
Pailca-t. V. xiv.
PaBca-t. II. iii.
Similar incidents in Tota-
Eahani, No. 11.
Paftca-t. I. vi. ; Hit. II. viii.
Paftca-t. I. viii. ; Hit. I. ix.
> For several of these comparisons I am indebted to the help of friends to
whom I have showed proofs of my paper, especially to Mr. Tawney, Br. Morris,
Mr. J. F. Blumhardt, Dr. FausboU, Mr. Ward, and Mr. H. T. Francis. Professor
Cowell and Professor Biihler gave me help in this and in other parts of the
paper.
* Cited by Fausboll's running numbers. It is much to be regretted, as Prof.
FausboU has at present published no index, that his running numbers differ some-
what from those of the only accessible index, that of Westergaard (Codd.
Havn. i. 37).
THE TANTEAKHYAlSrA.
471
9. The Brabman, his son,
and the snake-king.
[Text at p. 487 below.]
10. The Brahman and his two
wives of different castes.
11. Serpent, tree, and locusts.
12. Buffalo, rolling stone, and
tiger. [Text printed,
p. 488.]
13. Ape and wedge.
14. Geese and tiger*cub.
[Text printed p. 499.]
15. The tortoise and ape.
16. Elephant freed by mice.
[Text and translation,
pp. 489, 497 below.]
17. Brahman, cattle-stealer,
and Pi9aca.
18. Brahman and golden pea«
cock.
19. Serpent and two frogs.
20. Jackal imprisoned in
carcase and freed by
Narada.
21. Merchant's wife and thief
(fragment).
21a. Nun and laywoman
(fragment).
A Bishi metamorphoses
his son's dog.
Fragment of another
metamorphosis- tale.
Pippali-bird and monkey.
Monkeys jump into a well
after the moon.
Paflca-t. III. V.
22
23.
24,
25.
Pafica-t. III. iv.
Somewhat similar to the con-
cluding part of Pafica-t. I.
Introduction (Bfy. vol. ii.
p. 8) ; Tawney, ii. 27.
Pafica-t. I. i.
PaJIca-t. lY. Introd. ; comp.
Arab, and Syr. versions.
Pailca-t. II. ^Nachtrag' i. ;
Bfy. ii 208.
Somewhat enlarged from
Paftca-t. III. ix.
Jat. I. No. 136; somewhat
similar to Paiica-t. III.
xiii. ; but see abstract below.
Of. Panca-t. III. xv.
Jat. No. 148.
Of. Tota-Kahani, No. 10 P
Hit. IV. vi.
Pailca-t. I. xviii. ; Hit. II. iii.
See Ralston's Tibetan Tales,
No. 45.
472
THE TANTRAEHYANA.
26. Earunthaka is made to
leap into a chasm. [Text
below, p. 491, transla-
tion in § IV., p. 481.]
27. The Brahman, his image
of Gane9a and the
merchant.
28. Bupayati, her guru Pra-
bhakara and Prince
Eandarpalalita.
29. Merchant finds bis wife's
skulL
30. Nupta quaedam, a marito
potodeserta, prima nocte
simio se praebet. [Text
printed, p. 491.]
31. Prince and two parrots.
32. The hunter and his two
sons. [Text printed, p.
492.]
Brahman, crab, snake,
and crows. [Text and
translation below^ pp.
493, 498.]
Akingdetects his barber's
murderous designs by
the use of a magic verse.
Hare, partridge, and lion.
The singing ass.
Crane, fish, and crab.
[Translation below, p.
499.]
The old cat and the mice.
Boman taleof MettusCurtius;
Southern Pafica-t., Bk. I.
See Bfy. L, pp. 108, 109.
33.
34
35,
36
37,
38<
40.
The jackal mistakiugfruit
for meat.
The Brahman and his
goat. [Text printed.]
Tale in Katha-sarlt-sagara,
Tawney,vol. i p. 103 ; Kath-
arnaya, Tale 2; Bhara-
taka-katha. Tale 3 (see
Aufrecht, Cat. BodL).
Pafica-t. V. xv. ; Bfy. 1. 638 ;
Suva^^a - kakkata - jataka.
Vol. III. No. 389.
Cf. JStakas, Nos. 338, 373.
AUied to Tale 47 infra.
Paftca-t. V. vii ; Bfy. I. 494.
Pafica-t. I. vii. ; Jataka, No.
38 (Transl. Rh. D.).
Somewhat similar to part of
Hit. I. iv.
Pafica-t. III. iii.
THE TANTBAKHYAKA.
473
41. The wheelwright, bis wife,
and her lover.
41a. Fowler, birds, and mouse.
42. Husband, wife, lover, and
mango- tree. [Text and
translation, see pp. 494,
500.]
[43.*] The mouse pursued by
owls, and the cat. [Text
printed.]
[44.] Lion, jackal, and deer.
[Text partly printed.]
[45.] Owls and crows.
[46.] Birds choosing a king. !
[47.] The hare, the partridge,
and the cat 'Dadhi-
karna.'
[Verses, see p. 478 below.]
PaBca-t. III. XI. ; Hit. III.
xxiv., with variations.
Paftca-t. II., ' Frame '-story,
and Hit. I. (Introductory
Tale) ; Jat. 33.
* Forty Viziers * (tr. Gibb, p.
303) ; Chaucer, Mar-
chaundes Tale.
Pailca-t., Arab, and Syriac
versions; see Bfy. I. 543
sgq,; Keith-Falconer, Bicl-
pat, p. 172 sqq.
Paiica-t. III. (Introductory
Tale).
Paiica-t. III. ii. (Hare, spar-
row, and cat).
II. (b) Index to the Panca-tantra Tales
of which parallels appear in this collection.
ASM-*.
TanirSkhySi
Book I. Introdaction =
Tale 12.
Tale 1 =
13.
6 =
7.
7 =
37.
8 =
8.
9 =
3.
13 =
1.
18 =
24.
Appendix [i.e. tales \
2.
only extant in ' recen- ( ^
no onatior,' or in Ter-
■ione]
,26.
1 Thii and the rett of the tales are not numbered in the Sanskrit MS. (S).
474 THE TANTEAKHTANA,
Book II.
IntrodaotioD =
41a
3 =
6.
Appendix =
16.
f A t.
Book m.
Introduction =
45.
■ 46.
Tale 2 =
47.
3 =:
40.
4 =
11.
5 =
9.
9 =
17.
11 =
41.
13 =
18.
Book IV.
Introduction =
15.
BookV.
Tale 7 =
36.
14 =
4.
16 =
33.
III. Notes on the Tales found in the Panca-tantra.
Tale 1 (Panca-tantra I. xiii.) is a well-known story found
in the Hitopade9a (lY. ii ) and the Eatha-sarit-sagara. The
Jataka-yersion of the tale (FausboU, No. 215) has been trans-
lated with some excellent notes by Prof. Rhys Davids at p. viii
of the Introduction to his still unfinished translation of the
Jatakas. I give the text of the story in full below.
Tale 2 corresponds to a tale in Panca-t. Book I., but
given in some MSS. only. The Panca-tantra text is to be
found in Weber, Indische Studien, Bd. III. p. 370. See
also Jataka No. 44 and Bfy. I. 292, II. 164.
From the text, which I print in full below, it will be seen
that the story follows most nearly the Panca-tantra tale,
where, as here, an ape guards the sleeper, and not, as in
the Jataka, the hunter's son. But I think it will be felt
that, for once, the form of the tale in this collection gives
a better story, as it is far more natural and probable that
the monkey should aim a stone at the fly, than that, as
in all the other tales, he should use a sword for the
purpose.
THB TANTRAEHTANA. 475
Tale 3. Qloka:
A]oatakala9llanam na deyah syad apSfrayah |
Du^dikasya hi doshei^a hata Mandavisarpin! ||
With the first line of this compare Hitop. 9I. 42 (ed.
Peterson, of. eundem, Introd. p. xii). The tale follows the
Panca-tantra fairly closely.
Tale 4. This is a mere prSm of the Panca^t. tale. The
form Bhairai^da confirms Benfey's conjecture in his * Anmer-
kungen ' (vol. ii. p. 625).
Tale 5 calls for no remark.
Tale 7. The text, as given below, shows that this tale
is far more * ornate ' than the editio amatiar of the Panca-t.
Kosegarten, Pars. II., Partic. i. p. 39, or the Hitop. II. yiii.
Tale 8. Benfey in his 'Nachtrage' assigns a Buddhist origin
to this tale on the authority of Mr. Hodgson (see Hodgson's
Essays, p. 83, $ 5, new ed.). I have not however been able to
verify the story from the work (the Bhadrakalpavadana) cited.
Tale 9. It will be seen from the text that the form' of
the tale is here more characteristically Indian than even
that of the Pafica-tantra on which Benfey dwells at such
length (vol. L p. 359), for snake-worship assumes a far more
pronounced form. Instead of a mere snake conjectured to
be a geniw loci, we find a regular ndgarqja assuming the
form of an ordinary serpent, but still, with the 'wisdom of
the serpent' so prominent in Indian serpent-mythology,
delighting in the hearing of sacred lore, and not merely
propitiated by food as in the Pafica-tantra.
In Tale 11 the introduction of a tree forms a new feature,
and as in the tales just compared snake- worship appears
in a more developed form, so here we find traces of the
kindred tree-cult in the circumstance that the snake is made
to attack the ants in defence of the tree in which he lived,
on being appealed to by the tree. This gives some slight
point to a tale which in the Panca-tantra is rather flat
and spiritless.
Tale 13 calls for no remark, but in the second line of
its introductory (loka we find traces of both the readings
noticed by Peterson in his notes (p. 49) to Hitop. II. 9loka
476 THE TANTRAKHTANA.
26 in the readings tatraiva nidhanam ydti of my Sanskrit
MS. corresponding to Peterson's MS. C, while two Newari
MS. read sa tathd nihate svate and ^nirute aeie^ respectively,
corruptions pointing to the reading aa tathd nihaiah gete
of Peterson's MS. *'N" (=:my own Nepalese MS. of the
Hitopadefa lent to him).
Tale 15. Our collection follows the older recension of the
Pafica-tantra, as preserved in the Arabic and Syriac versions,
in representing the ape^s friend as a tortoise, not a makara.
Tale 16. I print the text, as well as a translation, because
the Panca-tantra text (Weber, Ind. Studien, vol. iii.) is not
very accessible, as it does not appear in the ordinary editions;
and I al^ give a translation on account of the importance of
the story in comparative folk-lore, as pointed out by Benfey
(vol. i. pp. 324 sqq.). The rather humorous council of mice
is peculiar to, and somewhat characteristic of, the present
work. Compare the council of fish in Tale 37.
Tale 17. This is an ^ editio ornatior ' of the corresponding
Panca-t. tale. The Brahman's wife, who counsels her husband
to part with his last pair of oxen, and the king who finally
idemnifies him for his losses, are new and rather unnecessary
personages.
Tale 24. The tale follows the Panca-t. closely, but with
a slight difference in the end of the story ; as here, the ape
kills the bird, not merely destroying her nest.
Tale 33. It will be seen from the text and translation
that this is a less ornate story than the corresponding episode
in the Panca-tantra. At the same time a comparison with
the Jataka cited will show that our tale is more truly
Buddhistic in tone than that professedly Buddhist story.
This I say not only because the real moral of the tale is
kindness to animals, but because the crab in his turn is
not murderously inclined, but lets the crow and snake both
' go to their own place.' The introductory verse is somewhat
corrupt, as may be seen from the various readings in the
text. It appears to refer to a lost commencement of the
story, similar to that in the Panca-t., where the Brahman
is charged by his mother not to journey alone.
THE TANTRiKHYANA. 477
Tale 36, the well-known story of the singing ass, agrees
with the Panca-tantra closely. The introductory verse, which
is somewhat corrupt, is from the same source :
Sadhu matula gitena varyamaQO 'pi nitya9ah |
ApGrvo 'yam anirbandhah praptagitasya yat phalam ||
Tale 37. The translation of the tale may be compared with
the Jataka. In style our story is little, if at all, inferior
to the older Pali version. The discussion of .the fishes is
peculiar, and may be compared to that of the mice in Tale 16,
of the monkeys in Tale 25. Davids* translation of this
Jataka has been reprinted in the introduction to Mr. J.
Jacobs's new edition of Doni's " Moral Philosophy."
Tale 40. This tale forms another example of the curt
style of the present collection, suggesting, as above con«
jectured, notes for recitation. The text is printed as a
sample of this style.
Tale 41. This tale differs from the versions of the Pailca-t.
and Hitop., in that the husband's pacification is effected by
a speech not of the wife (there is no ^* raffinirte Ausspinnung,"
as Benfey calls it, about avoiding the curse of a goddess), but
of the lover. " What would you do," says the wife, ** if my
husband came nowP" To which the lover answers: ^*Sddhu
pujat/dmt" This is probably the remains of a longer and
more conciliatory speech.
Tale 42a. This story, familiar through the Hitopade9a to
every tiro in Sanskrit, calls for little remark.
The introductory 9loka reads :
ekakaryarthinau bhutva yatav etau yugadrutam |
yada viditasampraptah sa tada va9am eshyati ||
In line 1 the unfamiliar form yugadrutam seems equivalent to
yugapad. With line 2 compare the phrase of the correspond-
ing Jataka- verse (FausboU, voL i. p. 209) tadd ehinti me
va$an. The story is omitted in MS. 0. (S. Petersburg ver-
nacular MS.) and wrongly numbered in my Sanskrit MS.
(S), so that I have called it 41 a, to preserve the general
numbering of that MS.
Tale 43. I print the text of this tale because I take it
that we have here a fairly good reproduction of the original
478 THE TANTRAKHYANA.
Indian tale, not so terribly 'ausgesponnen' (as Benfevpnts it)
as is the Mahabharata form of the tale, and likewise devoid of
the sermonizing excrescences (clearly the work of a misguided
Christian) that spoil the Syriac form of the tale (Eeith-
Falconer, JBidpat, pp. 172-177). The present collection seems
again somewhat fragmentaiy here, as the next story, 44, is
supposed to be told by the mouse, but yet, at its conclusion,
the thread of the story is not resumed. In the Syriac the
mouse does not tell a regular tale, but only enforces his desire
to dissolve his temporary alliance with the cat by two similes
{op. cit. p. 177).
Tales 45, 46, 47 (if indeed 46 can be reckoned a separate
tale), follow the Panca-tantra, except that the dull disquisi-
tions of the five crows which made the tale, even in the
opinion of the enthusiastic Eeith-Falconer, 'long and not
very interesting,' are mercifully omitted. In Tale 47 the
Berlin MS. of the Paiica-t. agrees with our story in sub-
stituting a partridge {tittiraka) for a sparrow (cataka).
The work concludes with a series of verses, mostly very
corrupt.
The first two couplets may be quoted here, as they refer to
tales included in the Panca-tantra.
Qatrilnam krandamananam 9rinuyan naiva yo vacah |
Sa parajayam apnoti samudrash tittibhad iva ||
(For the sandpiper tale see Pailca-t. I. xii.)
Qatror balavata9 eagre bhitenapi vipagcita |
nadena bhadram apnoti Sanjivaka-vrisho yatha II
See Panca-t. Bk. I. Introductory Tale.
IV. Abstract of thb Stories not found in the Panca-
tantra.
Tale 6, f. 4a- J. Garland-maker, tiger, jackal and crow.
\Jntrod%tetory fhka :]
Eaka yasya kumitrani Sphutakarna9ca jambukah |
tenaham vriksham arOdhah, parivaro na gobhate | ^
^ Cf. Raglia-T. YI. 10, yanam ptarivara'^obhi.
THE TANTEAKHYANA. 479
A garland-maker (malakara), searching for flowers, falls in
with a tiger, and in fright gets up a tree, and accidentally
lets fall his garland on to the neck of the tiger, who had
fallen asleep. The tiger is pleased, and invites the man to
descend, promising safety. . . • [apparent lacuna]. A crow
and a jackal, here abruptly introduced, persuade the tiger
to kill the man; but on the tiger's again inviting him to
approach, the man once more retires to the tree, observing
from a safe distance what manner of associates the tiger has.
[^Morai. — "A man is known by his friends."]
Similar incidents occur in Tota-Kahani, Tale XI.
10. The Brahman and his two wives.
lltUroduetory ^loka :]
Sangrahah khalu kartavyah kale caiva pratishthitah |
ghatasarpa-prayogena brahma^o *pi va9ikritah ||
A Brahman has two wives, one a Brahma^i, the other a
low-caste woman. The latter, being the favourite, has the
household property entrusted to her. The Brahma^! takes
counsel with a Bhikshunl, who advises her to make a collec-
tion of miscellaneous effects [as if rival household stuff].
Among these is an old pot, into which a serpent had got.
The wives compare and review one another's stock ; and the
low-caste woman is bitten by the serpent and dies.
12. [fol. 9fl-6.] Buffalo, rolling-atone, and tiger.
Pracchannam kila bhoktavyam daridrena vi9eshatah |
pa^ya caharadoshena vyaghre^a gavayo hatah ||
A buffalo, grazing, dislodges a rock on a mountain-side.
This runs down with a reverberation and frightens even a
tiger, who thinks it must be the roar of some mighty beast,
but discovering only the grass-eating buffalo, devours him.
14. [fol. 106.] Oeese and tiger-cub.
Aparik8hita-9ilanam yah karoti parigraham |
tatraiva nidhanam yati cakranka vyaghrato yatha II
Some geese save the life of a tiger-cub, who is being swept
away in a flood, and are eventually devoured by him.
480 THE TANTfiAKHYANA.
18. Brahman and golden peacock changed to a ctvw.
Ma tyara, sarvakaryeshu tvaramano vina^yati |
tvaramanena murkhena mayuro Yayasi kritah ||
A man sees a wooden image of Eumara (Skanda P) in the
forest, does pij(fd to it, and is rewarded by the miraculous
appearance of a golden peacock, which each day gives him
a golden feather. At last he fells it with a club, whereon it
changes to a crow.
See Jat. I. No. 136, p. 474 (Suvannahamsa Jat.), translated
by Dr. R. Morris in the Folklore Society's Journal.
Compare the story of the goose with the golden eggs and
Panca-t. III. xiii. See also Tale 27 below.
As to the golden feather, compare Tawney, £s8. II. 8 note.
19. Serpent and two frogs.
Yavad garjati manduko jalam a9ritya tishthati |
tavad a9Tr-yisho ghorah krish^asarpo na dri9yate II
The point is not clear. The story may be a fragment of a
version of Panca-t. III. xv.
20. Jackal and Ndrada.
Yasya buddhih, sukham tasya; nirbuddhes tu kutah
sukham P |
kunjarakukshimadhyastho nishkranto jambuko dhiya II
A jackal, trying in vain to bite through the hide of a dead
elephant, at last enters the carcase from behind. The muscles
however contract and he is imprisoned. The rishi Narada
happens to be passing; and the jackal, calling to him (ia
human voice, of course), persuades him that he is a reverend
personage. On this Narada gains rain from the gods, and
the body opens. Whereon the gods deride the sage for his
undignified prot^g^.
See Jatakas I. p. 501 (Sigala Jataka), translated by Dr.
Morris, in Folklore Society's Journal, vol. iv. p. 168. The
rishi and devas may be a later addition, though they form a
decided gain to the humour of the story.
THE TAKTRAKHTANA. 481
21. Merchant's wife and the thirf.
A9a9yat6na mitre^a mitram tyajati 9a9yatam |
tenaham '' bhayabhltena maya tyaktad sundari.'' ||
[Fragmentary tale.]
A thief robs a merchant's house, binds him, and violates
his wife. Carrying her off, he deserts her asleep. [Lacuna.]
On awaking she finds a nun, and consults her. • . •
28. Neither this tale nor even its first introductory 9loka can
be made out satisfactorily. It is apparently a fragment
of another metamorphosis tale.
25. Some monkeys jump into a well after the reflected moon.
(A ' neben-form * of tale 8.)
Murkhama^dalamadhyastho murkho bhavatu nayakah
tatraiva nidhanam yati candradrashteva vanarah |
This is a rather drily told version of a tale of Indian
origin, also existing in the Tibetan Bkah-gyur (iv. 249),
whence it appears in Schiefner and Halston's Tibetan Tales
(No. xlv.). See also Weber's notes there cited.
26. An Indian Curtim,
Fable translated in exteneo. Introductory verse corrupt.
''A king of the Ealingas named EuruQthaka went a
hunting. He was on horse-back. Near a certain village
a steep chasm had been formed. There, while it was being
fiUed up by them, the king arrived and spoke some words to
them. The subjects replied: 'This steep rift is not to be
filled by any means.' ' It is to be filled,' said the king, * by
the offering of some notable man.' Then said his subjects,
'He only is the truly notable man,' and acting on their
words then and there cast him into the chasm and flung him
down."
JKom/.— >Do not always give good advice gratis.
Compare the Southern Panca-t., and other parallels, in
Benfey, L pp. 108, 109.
TOL« Tiu^%wm snzBt.] M
482 THE TANTBAKHTANA.
27. I%$ Brahman^ the image qf Oanega, and the merchant.
Pi9iiiiaiii naiva grihnlyat karma cajnatam atmana |
yinayakaprasangena yanijo nishphalo 'bhayat |
The first part of this tale corresponds to Babrius, Fab.
czix.y where the wooden image of a god, Hermes in the one
case, Yinayaka or Gai^efa in the other, is assaulted by his
former worshipper, and bribes him off by a present of gold.
The Sanskrit tale has, howeyer, the curious and somewhat
inconsequent conclusion that a neighbouring merchant, trying
to imitate the Brahman, is caught by the image and is made
to pay a fine to him. This * Karma q/ndtam dtmand' is
moreoyer a necessary part of the tale from the point of yiew
of the Indian fabulist.
28. Prabhdkara, Bupavati, and Kandarpalalita.
Anyatha cintitam karyam daiyena kritam anyatha |
sa ca kanya na samprapta punar atma yidambitah II
A Brahman guru is enamoured of his pupil's daughter
Bupayati. To gain his end he persuades the king (her
father P) that, like ' La Mascotte/ if once married, she will
bring ill luck on the kingdom. She is put into a box and
thrown into the Ganges. Prabhakara and his pupils wait
for the box ; but it is intercepted by a prince Kandarpalalita,
hunting at the time, who opens the box and weds the maiden
in the summary fashion common in Indian romances. He
puts into the box a bear that he had caught in the chase.
Prabhakara's pupil brings the box to his house, where the
old man was awaiting his prey in a room alone. The bear
springs out, and the guru has to call for assistance, which at
last comes, and the bear makes off through the window.
This story occurs in the Eatha-sarit-sagara (Tawney, I.
103) ; also in the Katharntaya (Tale 2) and the Bharataka-
dyatrim9ika (3), as described by Aufrecht, Cat. BodL pp.
153 eqq.
29. A merchant ftnde his mfe^s skull on a desert shore.
Jatimatro daridrasya da^ayarsham ca bandhanam |
samudramadhye marai^am, punah kiip kirn bhayishyatiP II
THB TANTRAKHTANA. 483
This a mere fragment of a few lines. Dr. Sergias d'Olden-
burg has called my attention to the South Indian Tale
published by Pajgidit Natesa, in Lid. Antiquary for Sept.
1884, where the verse is nearly the same.
30. Qucita dhlrata lajja maitrl tS kulalakshai^ain |
dharma9llain oa caritram yoshitam naiva vidyate ||
Nupta, a marito ebrio deserta in silvis, simio se praebet.
Yir autem re non comperta sed earn invitam oaptam esse
ratuB, belluam sagitta transfigit, [ambosque (nt yidetur)
occidit]. Turn mulierem voce compellat; ilia autem nihil
respondety simium autem etiamnum amplexa de rupe cadit.
The text is printed, as the story appears to be new, and the
style is more polished than is the case with most of these tales.
31. Prince and two parrots.
Mats caika pita caika avayor api pakshii^oh |
aham nito muniyaraih sa ca nito gaYa9anaih II
Two parrots, bred of same parent-birds, are adopted, one
by low-caste people, the other by sages in a hermitage. A
prince visiting the dwellings successively, contrasts the lan-
guage used to him by each.
32. Hunter and hie two eone.
Lubdhako madhulobhena dvau ca putrau vilambitau |
8arvana9e samutpanna, ardham tyajati pa^ditah II ^
A hmiter, accompanied by his two sons, sees some honey
in a tree overhanging a precipice. He sends one of them up
to get the honey, the second follows; but the branch will
not bear both, and cracks loudly. Hearing this, the father
shoots one dead, and thus saves the other.
34. Brahman, king, and barber.
Ghasasi* ghasasi kshuram, sambhramasi nirikshase j
jnato 'si maya, dhurta I mam tu chalitum icchasi ||
This is a fragment of a tale, which appears to tell of a
» Cf. Ptfica-t. V. iliL
' Miftaken or Fnkritiied ior gh^HnMaii,
484 THE TANTRAKHYANA.
Brahman, who had taught a king certain yaloable veraee, the
use of one of which enabled him to disarm the attempt of
his barber, who had been commissioned by the ministers to
assassinate him.
Other forms of this tale occur both in the Jataka-book (III.
Nos. 338, 373) and, as I am informed by several friends, in
Western literature.
38. The old cat and the mice.
Yasya dharmadhvajo nityani 9akradhYaja ivocchritah |
pracchannani ca papani, vaidalam nama tadyratam II
A cat ensnares mice by professions of old age and harm-
lessness. The cat quotes various scriptures, like the vulture
in Hitop. I. iv. The tale is told in illustration of the pro-
verbial expression vaiddia-vrata (cf. Manu, iv. 195).
39. A jackal mistakes dry gdlmali fruit for meat,
Qalmali pushpitam drishtva 9rigalo mamsa^ankaya |
upasya suciram kalam nira9o 'nyatra gacchati II
42. The adultress who gains her lover in presence of her husband
by ascending a mango-tree.
Pratyaksham vancitavati bhartaram kacid angana |
alingya ca, taya jaro bharta ca paritoshitah ||
See below, pp. ^94, 500, for text, translation and notes on
this tale.
44. [fol. 32.] Liwiy jackal, and deer.
Eritva balavatam sandhim atmanam yo na rakshati |
sarvam ^ nidhanam apnoti sirohaddharanika yatha ||
Moral. — * Do not make an alliance with the powerful with-
out ensuring your personal safety.*
A herd of deer employ a jackal to make a compact between
themselves and a lion. The jackal, who gets the remains of
the lion's dinners, plays them false, and they are all slain.
The excuse of the jackal as to the fate of the first deer who
was eaten, was that he had visited the king at an unfitting
season (anavasare).
1 Sarre MS.
THE TAKTRAXHTANA. 485
V. Extracts from thb Sanskrit Text.
In the introdaeiory Tenes of the tales only the chief rar. lectt. of the three rer-
nacnlar MSS. are giren, mere harbariamii which oocor throaghoat* not
being noted.
8 -Sanskrit MS.
AsCamb. UniT. libr. Add. 1694.
B-i^iV;. Add. 1618.
Cs Imperial Acad. S. Petersbm:^, 130c.
tI^w* h^ wni wmi ^^fn Tm^ i
^ Probably an allusion to the snake-king's two thousand tongues (HariTai|icay
6826).
0, too, in the Jataka (No. 216, Fansboll) : Saoe tTam mokham rakkhitmn
s patanta, MS.
486 THE TANTBAKHYANA.
Tale 2.
^TTwi^ ftiwra% fr^wnfnn:* i rmi^ 'fpnc: f^: i wft
Tafe 7.
«^wi I infti'i ^|n^<i^ Trafff ^T ^rr^TTn i ^rt:^-
^iittl^i+i^rMfiiflijim I 1!^ "^^^^ ^ijsiiH<uiif<'4 wr-
•^i^^rf^nft ^^f^^in^i^i ^PTT tf ^T'nsTT w^BHRrf: nfH^-
1 *>pavibhatat, MS.
' yasya, MS. For pa^ya, of. (loka to Tale 16 infra. It also occurs in Tale
ll (not printed).
' saba Kasmin, MS.
< mfigayagamat . . . nidragamat, MS.
* Br. BiiMer suggests : tasvaiii dhvanksha-man^. < With respect to her the
erow thought.' Femaps we should read "akudkshamanasya i
THE TANTSAEHTANA. 487
iwnil f^rtirfif^n IN ^: It HW1 mrtr ^ Ten VNih^
<w9W*l <»lf*i3*T*)5 flrawrf: TiTf^^fif I f^ "w^ wr:-
Tah 9.
fHfiitK wwrt fmn ^TWT^ I HMiyCi ^mn^ ^
fi^>^inRTT 5^: Wm: i ^ wdfif'i 3^ -^ nwr wt 1
^ Something ap^earp to be wanting here.
' I haTO not venfied this citation &oni the Mbh. (P).
' caturUieDa sadhyena. Compare Mann, yiii. lOd-109.
« Sadhyeyam (P), MS.
^ pa^yasi pntrasya, 6. Dr. fiiihler proposes : M^itam pacyasi j>atraqi traqi.
* Dr. fiiihler has sa^ested to me that karoti may be a Prakntic oonnption
for korr iti or karotv iti.
488 THE TAirrRAKHTAKA.
tirfil ifWT 3^ fN^ I %f U'^SMfR^ ^^^Tl^'l ^Ijf^l ^^€V
•fiwwwt irrrat irrvuft •"THni: i ^^vrer ^ ^iijft tii^s-
THrw TWT ^ TR vww: I ^Y tr ^hpi Tuynrct -^
^iSifir I wit TRTwr fini%ST ^ ^ iftfii^ ft ^i^ ^^
Tah 12.
vm ^TfTT^t^ ^nrnr ^^^* lit: i
I Diyasaip prati gantu kenopiirjyate, Dr. Buhler.
' fTACohftta, MS.
' Qu. read ^ocbahare^
* AharabhaTadoshe^a Tjaghre^ garayo jaiha, C.
TBE TANTKAKHTANA. 489
Tale 14.
Tab 16.
^ w writ ^ ivt ^f^t^ ftifrt^: I
I
^rer ^i^ 5Wftrt I tItbtt^ thstr ^wr i ^Y ft^im^m;
1 Cakrfi&ka^ seenu not to occur elsewliere ; caW&ftkY is qaoted by Bohtliiigk-
Both asscakr&ftga; MSS. B ud C omit the rene.
' There would aeem to be a small lacuna here, although the taih {cakravSJMji)
to be supplied with eintitam mar, of course, be carried on to poihitii'
* Durryarena {tic) 0. Dr. Biihler emends dmrbdanL
490 THE TAimiAKHYANA.
^wt^7!TTfH?NfWT*rwff5'^ fl*if*ifii ftniHi* ^jHiOro
iftflniT: I ?l5 »i^ ?l ft**^ ^iMpfl^jg: i 'Sf^ 'ft »ifw5*R
l<iqAi|<ii^ii|iii«<)«i ^ fii^»wnr nT^inN ^ i iwrti'
^t* I wnj Ht ^f*wF in M^ wlfw ^%< ^xiifii* I
wi% 5^m4*iI ii^^ifn ?i^TfTO ^T^Pttn i'il^Y^mi(fl«»4inn i
Wf 1 n^ilTi ^^ t^ T ?nNftr nHRit -ffiifn I Ihr
«w^:^ I¥f»i5|f^'pitft:fiiwni7ref#: 4Ii44||ji«i ^unrnj
i^^l^: t^'^fii ^^ft%^jprt7T^fPn!:*i Ht ^^M<) f«i4^ '^^T^
1 asmun, MS.
* bhaTatam iti . . . oaratSm HS.
s Tttthapatir, MS.
« ko mi trata, MS.
' MS. tim . . • mocitam cf. tain drUh^am above.
THB TAKTBAEHTAKA. 491
Tale 26.
9^«nit iw '•ftnr-TTWT ^^ 'Pi: I ^ MT%^ w: i
^5}?T 1^ I <iflHfl<n<v I ^iwift'sr^^wfw'iT ^;]^ \^ tm:
Tak 30.
I manyate, C.
492 THE TAKTEAKHTANA.
^^jn^nr^ ^^Jli<i4i4 f^: ^rz^ utmn: i m ^ ftwr-
^ yw yn; grfttft^ ^^ ^ ^wi^^i ir<«M^ wmrHfK ^
^^^w inn vfi ^-^pit: i ^5f^« Ht> ft^rtfnj^-ffii-
Tale 32.
"^R^l ¥ M4|*iq^fl^ I ^l^«inl irfHrfW I Wft: li^Y^WK\% [fir] I
1 TadhQm amaya, MS.
' parayasa tta (P) ntraiTopa^.
s 1 Tentnre on ibis form, as tlie text which reads ^huja is daarly eomfii.
The Tery use of sa for Maij^ipingala seems to point to a lacuna. In the followuig
clause aarishfa is improperly used, on the analogy of apa^yantah, for na dfish^-
Tanta^.
« drishiha MS.
• °tfin, MS.
THE TAITTEAKHYANA. 493
Tale 33.
iw^fli ^PiwR fniTf^ ^M<i<J f^nrwit ^^ ^^ wwp^
wiiRhr ?c#r ^fw I ^pnn^ 17911: ^ ^i<i^1m^w ^i^fti-
^M I wtt ^ fimm ^ isniV f c: 1 ^rfipro* ^m ^err^
^rmnfr «nf^: 1 nil int *i>4,fimnni I ?m: ^rt%ii ir^«^
•firfli!: I ^frw <imtan<ra 1 ict^^ ^Nitif i wfr ftni
^W MTIR: 3*iJTf^n: I IT^W ^ ^: I ^ ^ ^W^n'f 'HIT
Tfit I ^R[T 'f !F Tfi» M? ■
Tak 40.
I hAta^ for hataT&n, like adrishli, in Tale 30 aboTe. There is poaibly boi
thing to be lapplied, ^m the extreme abniptneas of tiie oonelndin; aonteDoes,
* ekfiki naiya gaDtavyo, S.
" ekakarkatamatre^ B.C.
* UndBKitaad actively (aa p. jwrtioc. above) or oorreot to gaditaqi.
* Saiiikhyo, 8. Qakto Tacayitak&ryab brft'' C.
494 THB TANT&AXHTANA.
•"^•B'i*JflHi5 «nfl^i«u«^i ^TT'P f'inn: ^wre iwww-
wnr: ^if^ t*j^?B »rf3f ?niRft>^nn'r^iftft» i ?t ^r^^rw <Rj i
Tale 42.
^iftifM '^ ^rar ^rnct >rfT ^ Mr<fl1f*ifl; i
V^I%NI<l4 I
«Wr«l?!i^'**« ^^ wn^ Pp^i^ ^fimim i Jt^tfm-
wit ^vniEir ifT «rfTT»nrtH • ^^^ VnMiH^m* nm^
1 QiiM7md ^ft^Vrflt "Wfflhaastitr"
* Bharta tim, MS.
> 8fi, MS.
* Anye H8. ; bnt the doal spoib flie wmtti One riTil w enoogli.
THE TAirrSAXHTANA. 495
Tak 43, kading on to Tale 44.
I
^wt-f*i ^!i?tTiRr H^irf^ f mt: I wfr irrirct ^jft^RW^-
OTiN in?^i ^BrrPmt •< t ^nftj^iifH* wt ftnwftr vjrfti
Tiff ^Trff ^HiMflffflij^f^fif M^^ft^firait^jjtirwt
if^ynw ijftn: ^rf^Rt irf^: i infr •'nf^ M<i|M<K^i<i
* AnnpraTe^akaip, 8. The fobrtintiTe ia new, not being found in the dietSon-
ariee.
* AnnsiDAnty MS. In the nni lentenoe, giibltum as in early Ski. ; e£.
grihTsbjati in Tale 80.
' 'Vjajagat or (?) 'rrapagat. See { I. p. 468 abore.
« Bbakaba iabjami MS.
494 THE TANTRAKBYANA.
**^'J'^^n?n: ^ft^f^p^rns^ wfjc fiinrr: wwn tim^in-
ffR: ^ir% f^^ TfSf ^rrinift -^iRrrf^Tftfi! i ^ h^^wr ^fn i
Tale42.
^fffwfsi ^ ^m ^fr H*r ^ ^rfr^frPni : i
^Hiirfn^a^ii^ w^ ^5wift f^ip^n ^wiTTiT I Twftn-
s fihartii tarn, MS.
* Sa, MS.
4 Anye MS. ; but the dual BpoiU the eenae. One rival is enongb.
THB lAirr&AKHTANA. 496
Tak 43, leading on to Tale 44.
^ ^ H«t«^tnaii^1^ <ar<fl<m«i«t in^iTft'ft ^nmi^'^i
w^'Vi ifmmr9 v;^^ 'f mr. I Tnit »n^Nt ijftwi^-
»nR^«nn'n?c I f«nrTwt -^^ « in^ 4ii<i<ii«i4 i ^^•
fgiN ip»^»r ^gfrt^ 't ^ M^Tn*9[Ui* ^ finwft ^»i|^
Tf^^'m^ ^Rw: ^ift^ nft^: i nnt«^f^ n^M<iKliti
AnupnTSfakaip, 8. The lolMkaiitiT* ii new, not being fonnd in the diotion*
Anamunt, MS. In the n«t sentence, gpliitnm m in early Skt.; efi
KPkTihyeti in Tale SO.
* 'Yyeyngmt or (f) 'Trapagat. See § I. p. 468 abore.
* Bhokiha itbyimi MS.
490 THX TAHXEAKHTAIIA.
^pm I wit ^fiwwr ftiRi nfrtr^ i it< rinw>in<»iRfli i
I
rM .... [88 I]
[The remainder of the tale preeents nothing remarkable.]
The MS. (S.) concludes :
MS. A contains 50 stories, and ends :
Iti Hitopadesa [tantrakhyana-pancatantra] ' katha
akhyana caturtha samapta earn. 949.
B samv. 968, partly rubbed out.
G ends :
-iti niti (sic) -sara fantraksbana (sic) -katha samapta |
^ The •tring of nearly- synonymoiu Terbs le^alLi the style of the DiTyaTaduna.
s A.D. 1484.
. ' Secanda manu.
TBE TANTBAKHTANA. 497
YL Translations of Sblbcted Tales.
Tah 16.
The Elephant and the Mice.
At a certain spot in a wood there lived thousands and
thousands of mice. One day an elephant, the lord of the
herd, came along the path, with his mighty herd. The
mice saw and recognized him from afar, and took counsel.
The chief of them said : ''The time of our destruction has
arriYed* as yonder herd of elephants will be coming along
by this path. What must we do P " One said, '' Let us
go into another hole." Another cried, ''How can we go
into another hole, for thousands of our does are with
young, and their pace is but slow," The first said, "We
will all go into our holes and stay there." They all
laughed at him. "That's a pretty notion of yours. Sir!
They wiU tread down the ground with their feet as they
rush along, and we shall all go at once to destruction."
But another mouse, Buddhimandana by name, their leader,
looked round upon them all, and putting into polished
Sanskrit ^ his speech — ^I mean his squeak— spake as follows :
"Listen, ye mice! When great persons aniye, you had
best bow down before them. Let us send ready-tongued
flattering speakers, uttering only words of benediction,
who know what is fit and can speak it right well.
'Ambassadors,' 'tis said, 'should be of firm character,
of good family, and pleasant speakers.' So let us make our
approach and sue for life." ' So they were instructed and
were satisfied with his recommendations. Through them
the mice spoke to the lord of the herd: "Hail, mighty
leader of elephants, tail as Airdvata, we are afraid through
fear of you and the swiftness of your feet. Do not direct
your march by way of our holes. Gbaat us this favour."
The elephant said, "Gh)od, 0 mice. Be not afraid. It
^ Spotmh tatfttkrit^a cf. San^ikfiUm mbhifritpa in the dnmas. PoMibfy
boirerer the plmae may refer to some iliatorical intonttioii.
* lit. '< 106 agtinst death."
Toi. xz.— [mnr sikiif.] S4
'498 THE TANTBAKHTANA.
shall be as you wish." The mice replied, '^Well said,
elephant I'' and went back to their holes. The elephants
ate the whole of the grass and leaves in their park, and
there was no food left. So they proceeded to go out of
the park. In one part of it a carpenter had laid a snare ;
when he left the elephant was caught in it. Then he
lamented, '^Fnlucky that I am! what friend shall I have
to help meP'' So he passed many days in fasting and
became thin. A mouse in search of food saw him and
addressed the starving elephant, '^Oh elephant, how is it
that you are left alone in that place P " He replied with
a groan, "Don't you see P I am trapped.'' So the mice
came aU together in their thousands, gnawed the mighty
snares, and set the elephant free. " Oh elephant, go forth,''
said they. And he rejoined his herd.
Moral — make a friend wherever you can.
[Tale 26 ('An Indian Curtius') translated at p. 481
above].
Tak 33.
The Brahman and the Obab.
In a certain village lived a poor Brahman. He started on
some business to another village. When he had started and
was gone on his way, he saw a crab in the road. On seeing
it, he said to himself, '' The heat of the ground will kill it,
I will throw it into a pond with plenty of water, and so
revive it." So he went and took it up in the fold of his
dress. Now when the Sun, the revered Oiver of life, had
ascended to the expanse of the heavens, the Brahman was
wearied, and fell asleep at the tree's root. At that time
came up a crow and a black snake who were friends. The
crow saw the Brahman, and said to the snake, ''Ho, my
friend I give me the pupils of his eyes." So the snake/.bit
and killed him. " Enjoy your food," said he. So that crow
hopped up and set about feeding. The crab was aU the time
rolled up in the dress-fold. The crow saw the bundle tha(
he made and dragged it along, when out came the crab, and
THB TANTRAKHYANA. 499
saw the snake, and cried, '^ My lord, the Brahman, has been
put to death : 111 do the same to you " (and clutched him).
Then the crow called on the snake, "Bring the Brahman
back to life : that is the only chance of life for me.^* So
he sucked back his venom and brought the Brahman back
to life : and accordingly the crab let the crow go : and they
all departed each to his own place.
[The ^ moral,' %ada ya gund [sic],^ refers to a lost verse
differing from that in the text.]
Tale 37.
The Cranb, the Fish, and the Grab.
In a certain woodland was a lake with much water, fathom-
less. There the fish disported themselves pleasantly: and
because of the abundance of water, they could not be caught
even by birds; and the place was untenanted by man. There
came a crane, who beheld and thought : " How this lake abounds
in fish ! What am I to do by way of catching them P " So
there he stood, first on one leg, and then on the other, subdu-
ing all his senses, and every moment giving forth a short and
tender cry.^ He did this every day. So then the fish held a
meeting and took mutual counsel. Said one, " See, brother
fishes, this our foe has subdued his senses, and stands there
wailing in short but tender tones ! What is the reason, and
what mean his standing and his gentle wailingP " On this the
crane grew joyous in his inmost heart, and spoke tenderly,
saying : '' Ha, my children, you have questioned me with
discernment. Listen. I heard on my travels what a company
of fishermen said, that they meant to drain off the water,
and join their nets, and so catch the fish. At this I was
confounded, and you too, I see, have lost courage. But, I
heard also what a certain Brahman read, that 'Haradessness
is the chief fulfilling of the law,' and from that time forth
I have been void of offence, and mean to give help to my
fellow-oreatures as far as in me lies.'' Then the fish took
^ Dr. BOhler soggetto : lah&jiga*.
^ Kani^M^kaharam akmidayitTfi.
500 THE TANTRAKHTANA.
counsel. One who was leader said to them : ** Ye fish, from
what the worthy crane has reported to us, we see that an
untimely fate is impending. Let ns make a scheme/' ** What
manner of scheme P'' said one. '*We must ask this same
merciful crane.'' Then thej asked him: *' Merciful pro-
tector, what scheme is to be set forth P Thou alone hast
power for our deliverance." Then the evil-hearted crane
gazing tearfully, and looking at them all, said, with speech
broken by emotion : " Alas, by an evil fate has such a disaster
been prepared. Though wandering at pleasure in the water,
and doing harm to none, you are beset by evil men. Yet, while
I am herOf let them not a£fright you. Listen. Not far firom
here is a great lake, from which the water cannot be drawn
off. Owing to its size, and to the rocks that have been there as
long as the pond itself, there are no marauders to slay the
fish. There I will take you one by one : such is my scheme."
" So be it ! " cried the fishes. So he took them away one by
one, and devoured one every day. One day a crab stepped
out, and said to the crane : ** Ho, my good sir ! Take me too."
The crane said to himself, ** I will have a taste of you as
well." So he replied, " Yes, I will get you over." Then he
caught one fish with his bill, and lodged the crab on his
neck, and went along. At another spot he stood on the
surface of the rock, and swallowed down a fish. The crab saw
this, and thought he: ''Halloa! an evil-minded ruffian he
is ! " So he clutched him on the neck with his pair of
nippers, and killed him. Then he returned to the same place,
and narrated the matter to the surviving fish. ''This is the
case of the cat in the adage who vowed [to eat no mice],"
said he.
Tale 42.
Husband, Wife, Lover, and Mamoo Tree.
In a certain village lived an honest man who had a wife
both beautiful and clever, but devoted to another man. One
day she went by assignation to a grove of mango-trees,
and there dallied with her lover. But the husband also
THE TANTRAKHTANA. 501
oame. So the lover, seeing him approaching, jumped up
hastily, and stepping aside, stood modestly concealed. Then
the woman, seeing her lord, said to him, ^' Can I have a
mango to eat P '' He replied, " I will fetch you one." Quoth
she : ** My longing is to climb up myself and eat a mango."
" Do so for yourself then," said he. So when she had
climbed up the tree, she looked at her husband and said :
** My dear, what do you mean by making love to another
woman before my yery eyesP" "What are you talking
about P " said he. " There is no other woman." " Can this
be the nature of the tree [so that one sees double] P " said
she. " You come up and look at me standing on the ground."
When so it was done, she called her paramour, and took her
fill of loTe, Then said the husband : *' Yes, indeed, it m
the nature of the tree." Whereon the lover made off.
In "Originals and Analogues of the Canterbury Tales"
(pt. ii. pp. 77, fol.), published by the Chaucer Society, several
interesting parallels from Boccaccio and other western story-
tellers are given. Reference is also given to the Bahari
Danish, not however to the Turkish "Forty Viziers,"
(cited in my index above), an illustration for which I am
indebted to my friend Dr. Rieu, of the BritiBh Museum.
603
Art. XIV.— ^ JMaka-Tale from the Tibetan. By H.
Wenzel, Ph.D.
In the History of Tibet called Rgyal-rabs-gsaUvai'tne'hh
(*The mirror illustrating the lineage of the kings') we
find, as sixth chapter, the tale translated here, which
corresponds to the Yalahassa Jataka (FausboU, ii. 127 ff.,
also in E. MiiUer's Pali Grammar, p. 128 ff.). As will be
seen, the tale appears here in a richer, and quasi-dra-
matic, garb, with the addition of some characteristic traits,
as e.g. the marvellous food that makes men forget their
bygone troubles (cp. Odyssey, ix. 94 f.), etc., etc.
The Rgyal-rabs itself is a work of the 17th century a.d.
It begins with the eyolution of the universe (in chapter 1,
cp. Rockhill, Life of the Buddha, p. 1 ff.), gives, in ch. 2,
a short survey of the Lord's life, and, in ch. 3 and 4, of the
beginnings of Buddhism, relates, in ch. 5, the merits of
Avalokitefvara in spreading the Law in Tibet, and goes
then, ch. 6, on to our tale. Follows the origin of the
Tibetan race from an ape and a rakshasi (ch. 7), the begin-
ning of the royal line (ch. 8), finally, the chief contents
and purpose of the book, life and doings of King Sroh-
btsan egam-po (ch. 9-17), whereon the book closes with a
sort of appendix containing the further history of the
country to die time of the writer.
The work has been partially known for a long time by
the extracts from the Mongolian translation thereof, called
Bodhimor, given in the notes to I. J. Schmidt's edition of
the Mongolian historian Ssanang Ssetzen. For my copy
of the work I had the use of two blockprints, one belong-
ing formerly to Mr. Jaschke, now in the British Museum ;
the other of the University Library of St. Petersburg,
504 A JATAKA-TALE FROM THE TIBETAN.
25181 (569), for wbicli latter I am indebted to the kindness
of Mr. Salenum. The first is pretty correct, the other gives
a few diflferent readings, and has a peculiar, not to say
faulty, spelling.
Sixth chapter, (relating) how (Avalokitefvara), by tranrforming
himself into the hone king, worked the good of living beings.
When the noble Avalokite9vara had (thus) in many ways
profited living beings, he assumed, in order to give an
example of how to choose virtue and to reject sin (according
to the Sutra Za-ma-tog), the form of the horse king BhaJaha^
to work (further) for the good of the living beings. At
this time many merchants from the South of India, whose
merits were but small, had departed to the outer ocean to
search for jewels. With the many implements each one
wanted they had gone on board a large vessel, (but) after
the expiration of seven days they were brought into danger
by an unwelcome wind, thus:^ **At midday a dark cloud
like a dense fog obscures the light of the sun and spreads
darkness (everywhere) ; a fearful red wind seems to shake
the foundations of the earth, (so thai) the mighty trees of
the forest fall. The waves of the sea spring like lions, and
the breakers lash sky and earth. The merchants take hold
of each other, and calling (loud) on the names of their
relatives, they cry; howling in terrified lamentation, they
weep, helpless and exhausted, bloody tears, nevertheless
the vessel goes to wreck.'' Then the merchants take firm
hold of some beam ' of the wrecked ship, and, driven in one
direction by an unwelcome wind, they were carried to the
island of Singhala (sio\), which was (a dwelling-place) of
Bakshasls. There the merchants, calling each other by
name, came on shore (lit. the dry, viz. land). When the
Bakshasls became aware of this, they changed them-
selves into young and exceedingly pretty women, and,
^ M0 ! in DiTyftyadana his name is spelt SatSha^ p. 120, 4 ff. ; there it is a
metamorphosis of Maitreya (122, 29).
' Verses; cp. Rom. Lejr. p. 333 (see appendix).
' Perhaps* of the hall.'
A JATAKA-TALB F&011 THE TIBXTAN. 505
laden with maok food and drink, they came before the
meiohanta and greeted them, 'Are you tired P Have
you suffered painP' Having beguiled them by these
greetingSi they filled them with food and drink. The
merobantsy not knowing that they were BakshasiiBy but
only seeing in them exceedingly pretty women, were
very glad, and eonyersed with them. Then the Rakshaaifl
said with one voioe : " You merchants must not go into the
upper part of the yalley/'^ Each of the women led a
merchant away into her house, where they became man
and wife, and sported together.
Then a voice was heard (from the sky) : ** The merchants
su£kring from (the consequences of) evil deeds of (former)
kalpasy have, carried by a contrary wind, run into the hand
of those who have power to kill them, like a snared animal
into a game-net, and have no means of salvation. In-
fatuated by the thought of marrying them they mistake
the Bakshasis for goddesses, and, filled with the delusive
food| they forget former pains like a dream, and their soul
18 contented.'' From this the great captain understood that
this was the island of the Bakshasis, and, lamenting
despondingly, he thought : '* Now they are happy, but what
will the end be like P " and was very unhappy. Then re-
flecting: "What may signify their prohibition to go into
the upper valley P " the captain started in the night when
his own wife had fallen asleep, and reaching the upper end
of the valley he heard, within an iron house ^ without doors,
laments and complaining. Beflecting what it might be, he
listened and knew by the language that they were merchants
from India. So he climbed up the trunk of a tree ' stand-
ing near and asked, " Who is in there P " The men within
answered : " Within here are we merchants who have lost
our way." On the question: '^How long have you been
shut up hereP" they answered: "Like you, our ship being
driven by a contrary wind, we arrived here, and led on
I Rom. Leg. 3S4, '* wiiih of the ci^."
* Eom. Leg. p. 885 has <an iron my.*
* Eom. Leg. &e tree JM^hom (united joy).
506 A MTAEA-TALE FBOM THE TIBETAN*
by these women, not reoognizing that they were Rakaharfs,
we became man and wife. While we thna played together/
you came to this island and we were put into this iron
house williout doors; now we are to be eaten up one by
one. < You^ taking to heart our misery and the fear of
death, fly now at once, for now there is a possibility of
flying; when (once) you are confined in this iron house,
there is neither flight nor means of salvation." The captain
saying again : " In truth there is no means of escape/' they
said, ''There is a means of escape. We also thought we
must fly, but, clinging to lust, we were taken (again) ; you
(now) cling to nothing and nobody and fly. And the means
to fly is this : if you cross from here a small pass there is
on the north side in an expanse of golden sand a turkois
(gju) well, whose rim is surrounded by a vaidiirya^
meadow. On the evening of the fifteenth^ (day of the
month) the horse-kiug Bhchia-ha, on whose croup a hundred
men have room, very beautiful, accompanying (or perhaps
merely : like) a moon-beam, will come there. After having
drunk from the turkois well, having eaten from the vaidurya
meadow,' having rolled three times in the golden sand, and
having shaken himself once, he says, sending forth his
horse- voice like a human voice: 'O Indian merchants,
whoever has come to (this) rakshasi-island, all get on my
back, I will bring you to your country.'* When this
marvellous horse speaks thus, mount him, and, not clinging
to whatever enjoyments or sons (you have here), but close your
eyes, and flee." The captain thought, * Thus (we) must act,'
and went back. When he came to the bed of his wife, the
rakshasi, she knew it, and spoke these words :^ ''Perverted
merchant, you will destroy your own life; if you direct
your thoughts to aught else (than me), you will perish;
where have you been to, lord of merchants P" The merchant
liedy "I went mutram utsrashtum." Thereon the captain
^ In Tibetan transliteration moetiiy spelt n^ligently vai^du'rya,
s Bom. Leg. p. 336; Divray. 120, 8.
* Bom. Leg. : haying partaken of the pure food.
* Cp. Diyyay. 120, 6. Rom. Lee. p. 887.
* In Bom. Leg. 338 he finds all tne Bakshai^ asleep.
A JATAKA-TALE PROM THE TIBETAN. 507
aasembled the young merchants, told them exactly what had
happened, and all unanimously agreed to fly. Then, on the
evening of the fifteenth day, they gave a narcotic to the
rakshasis, and when they had fallen asleep, the captain
led forth the young merchants, and, having crossed the
small pass, they reached on (its) north side, the golden sand,
before the turkois well, near the vaidurya meadow (the place
where) the horse-king Borla^ha would appear. And after
a short while came the horse-king from the sky on a moon-
beam, with the light of the rainbow. When now this
excellent horse had drunk from the turkois well, had eaten
from the vaidurya meadow, had rolled three times on the
golden sand, and had given himself a shake, he said in a
human voice : *^ Merchants ! let all whosoever is shut up
in the rakshasi-island, mount on my back ; not clinging to
the love of the rakshasis, of (your) little children, or of
any enjoyment whatever. Close (your) eyes,^ I will bring
you to your own country." Thereon the captain said :
^'Thou leader, excellent magic horse, we merchants had
started together to the islands of the ocean to fetch jewels,
but, because our merits failed, our great ship was wrecked
on the ocean, by a contrary wind we were driven to the
rakshasi-island. There we entered the houses of the evil-
doing rakshasis, who wanted to kill us. Now there is for
us no other means of escape, we implore the help of the
merciful horse-lord.^' Having spoken thus, the captain
moimted on the horse's neck and took hold of his ear,' the
young merchants mounted on his back. Saying : ^' (Now)
do not desire the rakshasi houses, their sons, and whatever
enjoyment (you have had there), do not even think of it,
but, till we have reached the end of the sea, close your eyes,''
the horse-lord carried (them) along the sky. When the
rakshasis perceived this, they came forth (from their houses)
leading their children, and spoke thus: "Can you (indeed)
1 See DiTjaT. 120, 21 ; also Don Quixote, Part II. ch. 41.
> Jaachke would translate, 'leapt into the ear,' but I do not know how to
justify thi«. Ii it meant as a precaution against hearing the rakshasis* allnre-
ments ? Compare Odyssey, ziL 1 78 f .
608 A JATAKA.TALB F£OM TUS TIBETAN.
forsake the high castles, forsake the harmonicas community
of husband and wife, forsake the sons begotten firom yonr
body, forsake (our) savoury food and drink, O ye bad,
shameless men I *' Speaking thus, some (of them) lifted up
their children to the sky, some waved their garments.
When the young merchants heard this, they were as if hit
in their inmost hearts by an arrow, and thinking, ' (This) is
indeed very true,' they turned their eyes back, and, except
the captain, all, seized by desire, looked and fell. The
fallen (men) were seized by the rakshasis, who, throwing
off their former beautiful body, appeared in (true) rakshasi-
shape, with shaggy heads, carrying their breasts on the
shoulders, and showing their teeth (fangs) ; and began to
eat them up, without waiting a moment When now the horae-
lord had come to the end of the sea, he said to the merchant,
*' Look with your eyes and alight." When he now opened
his eyes and saw that none of the young merchants was on
the horse's back, he was deeply grieved* and saying: "0
noble horse-king, where are my young merchants?" he wept
The noble horse, beating the earth with his fore-foot and
shedding tears, said : '' (Those) young merchants, being void
of your (high) merits, not remembering their own country
Jambudvipa, but clinging to the island of the evil rakshasis,
perished ; not remembering their parents and dear friends,
but clinging to the faces of the young rakshasis, they
perished ; not remembering their legitimate {Ut, useful ^)
children, but clinging to the deceitful rakshasl-children,
they perished. Alas, you miserable beings! when these
slain pupils of the diamond-teacher have entered the abode
of the hell Avici, what could even a highly merciful priest
(blama) do (for them)P If they, looking after their
children, are perverted (in mind) and carried away by a
contrary wind, what can their parents do, even with great
affection P ^ If, not listening to the word of useful doctrine,
the young merchants cast their eyes back and fall, what
can even the flying horse-king doP O merchant, do not
1 This may poonblj mean * natnnl ' as opposed to * magieal*'
' This sentenoe seems confused.
A JATAKA-TALE FROM THE TIBETAN. 509
weepy but hear me: 'The joy and sorrow of this life is
like the illusion of a dream, like a cataract, like a lightning-
oloud in the sky, therefore do not desire the joy of the orb
(samsara)/ '' Thus the horse- lord explained the doctrine
of the four truths, and carried the chief merchant, when
he had dried his tears, to a place whence he (could) see his
own house. There this horse-lord went off in the sky like
a dissoMng rainbow. When now the chief merchant came
to his house, his parents and relatives all assembled, and
embracing him they wept; then they saluted him. After-
wards the parents and relatives of the young merchants
came forth, and shouting, " Where is my father P Where
is my elder brother P Where is my uncle P Where is my
grandson P" they wept Then the chief merchant assembled
the parents and relatives of the young merchants, and told
them explicitly how they first had entered the sea, how
the pernicious red wind had wrecked their ship ; how they
had been carried by a contrary wind to the rakshasi island,
had married them, and begotten children ; how they had
then found out that they were rakshasis, and had sought
means of escape ; how the men of the iron house had taught
them this means ; how the young merchants had not listened
to the admonitions of the horse-king and fell and so forth.
Then he instructed them in the true faith, that, as (all)
things within the orb were changeable, they must believe
in the fruits bom from deeds (karman) . Whosoever, clinging
to this life, commits sin, will, like the young merchants, who,
looking back, fell, err about within the orb, without finding
an opportunity of saving himself from the rebirth into evil
states (durgati). But those who, not clinging to this life,
have received the true law in their minds, will, like the
chief merchant, after having obtained the happiness of
heaven and salvation, become a buddha.
Our version of the story is nearly identical with that
forming ch. 49 of the ''Romantic Legend of the Life of
Buddha,'' translated by Beal, p. 332 ff., and some significant
points have been noted above. It is also mentioned by
510 A JATAKA-TALE FEOH THE TIBSTAN.
Hiuen Thsang in the Si-yu-ki, tranal. Seal, iL 240 ff. That
the Sakshaflis (the Yakkhinis of the Pali) are the same as
the Sirens of Homer, has been pointed out by Mr. Axon and
Mr. Morris (Ind. Ant. x. 291), the first giving also a parallel
from Malay mythology.
It is quite clear, I think, from our version, that by the
airy horse the moon is understood (candupama kira buddha,
Dh. 244). He comes on, or with, a moonbeam on the 15th
day of the month. It becomes more evident still by the
version in the Bom. Leg., where, besides, he bears the signifi-
cant name of Ee9in 'hairy,' which as early as in the Rig
Yeda is an epithet of flames and heavenly bodies (S. Pet.
Diet.). But, again, it is an epithet of Yishi^Lu, who rides on
the Garuda, as is known from the Pancatantra, Book I. tale
5. For all these divine magic animals are of the same race.
Besides those noticed in Benfey's remarks on the tale, Pane,
vol. i. 159 fiP., the wooden bird is found in a tale of the
Transilvanian Gipsies, see ZDMG. xlii. 117 ff., and again in
the second tale of the Siddhi Eiir (ed. Jiilg), p. 63 of the
translation, where the son of gods Quklaketu descends on it
to the princess ; fukla ' bright,' is, with or without paksAa,
the light half of the month, and also an epithet of Yish^u.
He afterwards appears himseli' in the shape of a bird, a lark
{ibid. p. 64), and, having been hurt maliciously, agrees with
the princess to visit her on the 15th of every month (p. 65).
YishiLu, of course, is the sun, but the difference of origin
of those magic animals, from sun and moon respectively, is
obliterated in these later tales.
In the Buddhist tale, naturally, the divine horse is a birth
of the Lord (as in the Jataka and in the Bom. Leg.), or of
Maitreya (as in the Divyavadana) ; while to the Tibetan
he is an incarnation of the country's patron saint, Avar
lokitefvara.
But I cannot go farther here into this absorbing queetion
of the divine bird or horse, which lies at the very root of
comparative mythology, as already shadowed forth in A.
Euhn's '' Herabkunf t des Feuers." I would only call atten-
tion, in conclusion, to the latest shape the divine horse has
A JATAKA-TALE FBOM THE TIBETAN. 511
taken in the West, in Andersen's ^'Flying Trunk"; for I
think we can discern something of the same moral tendency
in both this and the Tibetan tale — the flight from Samsara !
Note. — To valdhuy of which Balaha is only a wrong Sans-
kritisation, cp. Divyav. 127, 17. 19, vatavaldhakd devaputrd^
and varshavaL dev. ' the angels of the wind-clouds and of
the rain-clouds/ and Jat. I. 330, yassavalahakadeyaraja.
Mufi/a-kega (Jat. II. 129, 9, cf. also the wonderful horse
Munjakesi of kiug Udena, Dh. 160) < having hair like reed,'
%.e. * haying beams,' is also an epithet of Yishi^LU. The * black-
headed ' of the Jataka points most likely to a cloud — so we
would haye the moon emerging from the black clouds.
513
Aet. XV. — Moksha, or the Veddntic Release. By Dvua-
DAS Datta.
1. Bandha, or the Bondage.
Nothing oould be more important for a student of Indian
thought than to have a correct notion of the Moksha of the
Yed&nta, which is so curiously allied to the Buddhistic
Nirv&na. And as there are some methods of translation
which seem to me to give an inaccurate tone to some of
the most scholarly treatises in Europe on the subjecti I
venture to submit a few remarks on one or two points of .
importance. Is it quite correct to treat Moksha as more
a matter of metaphysical knowledge than the reward of
moral improvement, as Br. Deussen does in the following
passage? ''Hierauf beruht es, dass die Erlosung duroh
keine Art von Werk, auch nicht durch moralische Besser-
ungy sondem allein durch die Erkenntniss (wie die christliche
Erlosung allein durch den Glauben, eolA fide, welcher die
hier in Rede stehende, metaphysische Erkenntniss sehr nahe
kommt) vollbracht wird.^'^ The name Moksha, or release,
suggests its counterpart, 'Bandha,* or bondage, which is
said to arise from Avidyd. It is usual to translate Avidyd
by ignorance, thus apparently giving a metaphysical colour
to both the bondage and the release. But Avidyd really
means very much more than mere metaphysical ignorance.
Arjuna, in the Gita, does not deplore mere metaphysical
bondage when he so pathetically describes it in the words,
''I know the (moral) law, but am not inclined thereto; I
know what is immoral, but am not disinclined therefrom;'*'
1 Dr. Deiinen*8 '<DaB System des Yed&nta," p. 433.
s *< J&n&mi dhAnnan na ca me praTrittir
J&n&my adharmap ui 6i me nifiittih ||
TOL. XX.— [innr anoss.] 86
514 HOKSHA, OR THE VEDANTIC RELEASE.
and, agaiiiy ''Under what influence does a man commit sin, as
if against his own liking, as if under compulsion P " ((rita,
chap. III. verse 36). Yama in the Eatha instructing Nachi-
ket&, whom he considers a seeker after Vidya (Vidy&-bhip-
sinan), on the difference between the ' good ' (Sreyah) and
the 'pleasurable' (Prey ah), does not show much reference to
metaphysical knowledge : " The good is one and the plea-
surable another, — each leads to a contrary result according
as the one or the other predominates in a man. Of these,
one who follows the good, finds good ; he misses the highest
good of life who pursues the pleasurable. The good and
the pleasurable are placed before man. The wise (man)
thoroughly examines both, and separates the one irom the
other. The wise prefer the good to the pleasurable, but
the foolish, from worldly desire, prefer the pleasurable."*
Prayers for a deep feeling of love of Brahma, rather than
a clear metaphysical understanding, are not wanting in
Yeddntic writings. Take this, for example: ''May such
unchanging love as foolish people feel for earthly pleasures,
never cease, in my heart, when I call upon Thee."* Or
this other prayer in the Brihad&ranyaka (chap. I. sec. ii.
verse 28) : " Lead me from the illusory to the real, from
darkness to light, from death to immortality," on which
Sankara remarks, '"from the illusory,' that is, from vain
pursuits and from ignorance, 'lead me to the real,' that is,
the knowledge of sacred duties, i.e., bring out the (true
nature of the) Self for which (the exercise of) divine qualities
is the only preparation."' Such passages do not support
the idea that the summum bonum aimed at by the Yeddnta,
Moksha, has no reference to moral improvement. The
^ AnTa6 6hreyo(a)iiyad at aiva preya ste ubhe n&n&rthe ponuban dnftab |
Tajob S'reya 6dad&iia8ya sadba bbayati, biyate «rth&t ya a ^eyo brinite || etc.
(Eafha, Aaby&ya I. Yalli II. lenes 1 and 2, p. 93, of Jivimanda Vidy&eagara's
Mition).
' Ya piiti rayiyek&n&n ▼isbayesbTanap&Yini |
Ty& manusmaratab sfi me briday&n ma pasarpatQ |1
(Pandadasi, cbap. YII. p. 202).
* *'Asatom& sad gamaya, tamaao m& Jyotir gamaya, mrityor m& mritan
gamaya " ; on this S'aokara remarks : A8ato(a)sat karma^o (a)jn&n&6 6a m& m&n
aa6 6n&strfya-kaniia-Tijniine gamaya, d^aMi^va-«(f<fAafi-iitma-bb&yam&p&daya'*
(p. 119, Jiy&nanda Yidy&sagara's editioii).
MOKSHA, OB THE VEDANTIO BELBASE. 616
bondage deplored in sucli terms cannot be other than moral
— the bondage to ' Preya ' (pleasure) in preference to Sreyas
(the good) ; nor can the release be otherwise.
2. Works.
"All Werke, die guten sowohl wie die bosen, erfordem
ihre Yergeltung in einem nachst folgenden Dasein. Daher
alle Werkthatigkeit, welcher Art sie auch sei, nie zur
Erlosung, sondem immer nur zam Sans&ra Zuriickfiihrt '^
(Deussen's Yed&nta, p. 434). Here, again, is felt the
inadequacy of a foreign language to express the technical
Yedantic idea of 'Earma' and 'Dharma' in the sense in
which they are discarded as means to Moksha. Passages
such as the following: "The wise seer, when he sees the
Bright, the Creator, the Person, the source of the visible
universe, washes off his good and evil tcarks, and freed from
sin, attain? one-ness with the Supreme " ^ (Muudaka, chap.
III. sec. 1, verses 2 and 3), and such passages are numerous,
would at first sight seem to indicate that good and evil
works stand alike under condemnation as regards Moksha,
both being declared 'sins' that one has to be 'free' from.
Yet the very next verse declares : " He who loves the soul,
delights in the soul, and is full of tporks, is the best of those
who know Brahma" (Mundaka, chap. III. sec. 1, verse 4).^
Again, in Isd, it is said, " Yerily, doing icorka in this world,
wish to live a hundred years '* (Is&, verse 2).' That
Moksha is really a state of freedom from sin, could not be
better expressed than in the following: ''Like a horse the
dust on his hair, I shake off my sin ; like the moon from the
maw of B&hu {i.e. from eclipse), I am released; I shake
off the body, and with all duties finished, I am bom in the
uncreated world of Brahma, I am bom indeed" (Oh&ndogya,
ch. YIII. sec. 1, verse 13).* Wherever *good works' is
^ Tad& pasjah patfyate rokma-yarnan karttftra mlsfc^ pimishaii, brahma-yonii) 1 1
Tad& yidy&n pu^ja-p&pe yidhiija niranjanah paraman siimyam upaiti ||
' Atma-kii^ &tmaratih kriy&T&n esha Brabmayidan vaiuhtlian.
* Enrran ner eba karm&i^i JijiTi8he6 6hatan sam&h |
* Aifya iya romfe^i yidh&ya p&pas 6aiidra iya R&hor miiUi&t j^ramadya, dhfityfii
sariram akritan krit&tmk, Branmalokam abhiaaqibhay&inS tyabbiaanibbay&ini t|
516 M0K8HA, OB THE YEDAin?IG RELEASE.
oondemned in the Yed&nta, it is only as a technical term
for certain rites and sacrifices (Anushth&na) supposed to
bring large returns of outward good in the other world ;
it condemns other-worldline98. It is in the later writings,
such as those of Sankara, the feud between Karma^ and
Jii&na takes a prominent place, and there Earma and
Dharma invariably mean ritualism. Let the reader compare
the distinction drawn by Ankara between Dharma-jijQ&sd
and Brahma-jijii&8& at the commencement of the Brahma
Sdtra Commentary (ch. I. sec. 1, sutra 1), "The Vedah
itself shows the perishable nature of rewards won by ' fire-
sacrifice * and other good tvorks — ' as in this world property
acquired by works comes to an end, so also in the other,
worlds acquired by good works come to an end/ " Here
are also given as essential conditions of fitness for inquiry
after Brahma (1) a discrimination of the Everlasting
from the fleeting (nity-dnitya-yastu-yivekah), (2) a free-
dom from desire of rewards in this or the next world
(iha mutra phala-bhoga-vir&gah), (3) calmness of mind
(6amah), and (4) self-control (damah)— all of which involve
the highest moral self-exertion. The kind of 'good works'
so called, that are no help in the way of attaining release,
oankara states thus in his Viveka-dud&ma^i : "By reflec-
tion, and by the instruction of teachers, the truth is known,
but not by ablutions, making donations, or by performing
hundreds of Prdndydma (controlling the breath)" (yerse
13).«
There is nothing in the TJpanishads to justify the as-
sertion that metaphysical keenness is a better qualification
for Moksha than moral purity; it is rather the reverse —
moral purity is the first condition for attaining it. "He
who has not ceased from icickedness, nor has calmness of
mind, nor is given to meditation, and is without control
over his mind, cannot find him by keenness of understand-
1 Eyen in the Bengali, * kriyii ' and « kriyiOcarma ' are technical names for rites
and ceremonies, like the S'rdddha, etc.
' Arthasya nis'6ayo dfisto ?i6&re9a hito ktitah |
Na sn&nena, na dfinena pr&n&yfitma-fotena t& | |
MOKSHA, OE THE VEDANTIC BELEASE. 617
ing "^ (Katha, 11. valli, Terse 24). Again, "This knowledge
is not to be attained by reasoning"' (II. valli, verse 9).
Even in the later writings, such as the Paficadasi, works
really good and disinterested are held in high estimation,
and enjoined as the greatest duty of the 'awakened' sage:
"A father conducts himself after the wishes of his infant
child, so should the ' awakened ' adapt his course of life to
the happiness of the ignorant. Insulted or beaten by the
infant, the father does not feel hurt, nor is angry, rather
nurses his child. The 'awakened,' whether praised or re-
viled by the ignorant, does not praise or revile in return,
but so conducts himself as would lead them to wisdom. If
by acting any part in this (drama of life), they may be
awakened, it should certainly be done. The 'wise' man
has no duty in this life, other than 'awakening' the
ignorant"* (Paftcadaii, chap. VII. v. 286 to 289). The
whole doctrine of 'works' and the true meaning of 're-
nunciation of works ' is best explained in the Gita : " Work
is your province, over results you have no control. Let
not the desire of rewards for works be your motive ; do not
desire the absence of work"* (chapter II. verse 47). "Not
by non-performance of works does one attain 'renuncia-
tion of works'"* (in. 4). "Do thou work always; work
is better than absence of work"* (8). "All work not
performed for the sake of worship is a bondage to people ;
but, O son of £unti, with that object perform works, and
without desire of reward"' (verse 9). Indeed the whole
^ <* Nil Tirato diu6&ritan nk ikato nk Bamfihitah |
N& rfftnta-mftnaso \k pi prajfiftnen ainam iipnnyCii" ||
' ** Nai shk tarkena matir frpaneyfr " ||
* Avidrad anus&refa yrittir budahasya ynj jate |
StaDandlia7-6iii]B6rena rartate tat-pit& jktah ||
Adhikshipta st&^ito t& b&lena BTa-pit& tadfc
Na kliflhyati na kap7e6 6a bftlan pratjata Iftlajet i|
Ninditah sMjamftno t& vidT&n ajnair na nindati |
Na Btauti kintn tesh&fi sy&d yathii bodha Btath& 6arei ||
Ven&yan natanenfii tra badhjate kftiyam eya tat |
Ajna-prabodh&n juavk nyat kfrryam aaty atra tadTidah ||
^ Klanna^y ev& dhik&ra ste mil phaleahu kad&6ana || etc.
Mil kanna-phala-hetar bh^ m& te aaggo «aty akarmapi ||
' Na karma^ii man&raqibh&n naithkarmyav punuho 'tfnate ||
* Niyata^ korn kanna tra^ kanna Jy&yo by akarma^ab | i
^ yain&-rth&t karma^o nyatra loko *yan karma-baiidbanab )
Tadartban kanna kaimteya miikta-sangab mnft^ara ||
518 KOKSHA, OB THE VEDANTIC RELEASE.
of the third and fourth chapters throw considerable Ught
on this subject — showing that by the renunciation of works
is not meant the renunciation of good works at all, but the
renunciation of the desire of rewards for good works —
the investment of moral capital, as it were, to bring a large
profit of sensual happiness in the other world.
3. Karma versus Jnana.
I cannot, however, dismiss the subject of toorks without
noticing one of those typical passages in the Brahma Sutra
which would at first sight seem to show that Moksha does
not depend upon works, good or bad, in any sense what-
ever :
** S&stra has for its object to induce men to do, or not to
do, certain things : the rest (in o&stra) is merely added as
required for this end (vidhi-s^sha). This being common
(to all S&stra), the Yed&nta too fulfils its object in the
same way. If laying down rules for practice be the object,
then it follows that as the performance of fire-sacrifice is
laid down for one who desires heaven, in the same way the
knowledge of Brahma is laid down for one who desires
immortality.
''But the objects of inquiry in the two cases are stated
to be different. In the £arma k&nda (ceremonial parts)
the object of inquiry is Dharma, which deals with the
future (rewards and punishments), while here the object of
inquiry is what exists already — Brahma, always perfect;
the fruits of the knowledge of Brahma should, likewisoi
be different from the fruits of the knowledge of Dharma
dependent upon ceremonies.
"It cannot be so, for Brahma — ^their object — ^is taught
as connected with rules for action, e.g. 'The Soul is indeed
to be seen,* etc. . . , and from His worship is said to come
the unseen fruit — Moksha-^seen only through the 6&stra.
If unconnected with any rules of duty, and only as a
statement of a certain fact, since it has no use as regards
anything to be sought-for, or to be avoided, the teachings
MOKSHA, OE THE VEDANTIC RELEASE. 619
of the Yed&nta, like saying 'the earth has seven islands/
would have no purpose.
''But even in merely describing a thing, as 'this is a
rope and no snake/ etc.> there is seen to be a purpose, for
it dispels the fear which arose from a mistake ; so also in
this case, by describing the soul as above the world, it
fulfils the purpose of correcting the mistake of thinking
the soul as subject to the world
" ' The revered Sanatkum&ra, seeing that his {i.e. IT^da's)
mind was purified from lusts (mridita-kash&ya), showed him
the limit of darkness/. These and other teachings indicate
that the fruits of the knowledge of Self follow as soon as
the obstacles to Moksha are removed (Moksha-pratibandha-
nivritti-mdtra mev&tma-Jil&nasya phalan-darshayanti). • . .
" The knowledge of one-ness of soul with Brahma is not
like a happy accident (na sampad&di-rupw), and therefore
Brahma-vidy& does not depend (for its fruits) upon the
performance of works by the individual, but rather, like
the knowledge of things by direct perception, etc., depends
upon the object itself. Brahma, and the knowledge of
Brahma, being such, by no arguments can they be supposed
to be reached by works. Nor because Brahma stands as
the object of the act of ' knowing ' does He become attain-
able by works : ' He is difierent from the known, yea
different from the unknown,' denies His being the olifect
of knowing, and also ' That by which all this is known,
by what to know Him P ' So also His being the object
of worship is denied, ' Know That to be Brahma, not this
that is worshipped.' ' But if Brahma cannot be an ol^'ect,
He cannot be taught by the ^tras.'
"Not so. The use of &4stra is to do away with (the
notion of) different beings, due to ignorance. The 6&stra
does not mean to speak of Brahma as a distinct object, but
by showing Him as All-pervading, and not an object, does
away with the differences of knower, knoivn, and knowing,
derived from ignorance
"Therefore leaving aside 'knowing,' works, in no sense
whatever, can here be considered admissible. ' But knowing
520 MOKSHA, OR THE VED ANTIC RELEASE.
is a mental act/ No, there is a difference. A toork is that
which is prescribed (by 6&stra) irrespective of the nature of
the object itself (to which it refers), and depefids upon the
mental act of the person * (working) : e.g. * For whichever
cult the butter is taken, meditate upon him, saying vashat/
etc. Though (like knowing) meditating and thinking are
mental (acts), yet a man may do or not do them, or do
them differently, since it depends upon the man himself.
But knowledge depends upon evidence, and evidence deals
with the object as it is, so that a knowing cannot be made,
unmade, or made differently, being dependent on the object
alone. It is independent of teaching and of the person
(taught) ; so that though a mental act, there is great
difference in the case of knowledge. For example, 'The
man, 0 Gautama, is the fire, the woman, 0 Gtiutama, is the
fire : ' Here to imagine fire in man or woman is mental, and
inasmuch as it is due to the teaching alone, it is a tcorky
and subject to the person. But to think the ordinary fire
to be fire, does not depend upon teaching, nor is subject
to the person. What thenP It is dependent upon the
thing itself, which is the object of perception ; it is
knowledge and not work (Jii&na meva tan na kriy&). This
is to be understood for all objects of evidence whatsoever.
This being so, the knowledge of Brahma as the Soul, having
for its object the thing as it always is, does not depend upon
the teaching. . . . 'Why then are these teachings "the Soul
is to be seen and heard," etc., which look like laying down
rules P * Their object is, we say, to draw (the mind) away
from the objects of natural inclination. They attract a man
— who is outwardly inclined, wishing ' may it be as I desire,
may no harm come upon me,' nor yet finding in it the
highest good of life (Na 6a tatr& tyantikao purush&rthan
labhate), though still he longs for the highest good, — from the
objects of desire of this bundle of outward acts and organs,
and lead him with the current of his thoughts into the all>
1 KriT& hi n&ma yatra vaatu^tvanipa-nirt^ekshpai va iodyale^ punuha-
6itta-T7&p&r-&dliin& 6a | yathi ^'yasmai deyatfryai hayir grihitan sy&t t6n dhyftyed
▼ashatkariBhyan" I
MOKSHA. 0& THE YEBANTIG BSLKA8B. 531
pervading Spirit, saying, ^The Soul is to be seen.' " — (Brahma
Sutra, chap. I. i. 4.
Here we notice what Sankara means by Karma, It is
something prescribed in the sacred books ; it is " due to the
teaching alone'* (Eevala-<Sodan&-janyatT&t tu kriyaiva si),
and beyond the range of human experience. ^ The ' highest
good of life' is not to be found in it. Earma, which
Sankara thus distinguishes from Jii&na, has nothing to do
with good and evil works as we understand, — ^it does not
include moral improTement at all, which, according to
i^atikara's definition, falls under Jfi&na, — ^being the perception
of moral facta by a moral seme. Virtue in the sense in
which it is its own reward, and vice its own punishment,
are not matters of the 'future' but present facts, whose
fruits do not depend upon the S&stra, nor their nature upon
the caprices of the individual. Karma in the sense of seeing
'fire in place of a man,' and such other puerilities ''pre-
scribed irrespective of the nature of the object," we cannot
in any way include among good works, which we find
reserved by oankara under the name of Jfi&na so as to
include 'purification from lust/ and 'the highest good of
life.' What we call 'good' and 'moral' is not calling
a thing what we know it is not, — ^like thinking ' a man to
be fire,' but calling it what it is, like calling "fire to be
fire"; it is not Karma, but Jffdna; and Moksba, in dis-
pensing with Karma, puerile as that ii, lays all the more
stress upon Jfi&na^ which includes all true moral improve*
ment.
"Daher alle Werktiiatigkeit, welcher Art tie aoch set,
nie zor Erloiong/' — ^iar from this being so with respeet
to works really good and moral, 6ankara does not considar
it to be altogether the ease even with respeet to purely
ritualistic worksi
**Afmhidra and other (works) however have fiie snse
objeeft as this (ijt., wisdom), for this is tan^'^'— BialiMa
86tra, diap. lY. l 16.
On this aphorism 6a6kani reauLtkM: ''Good worik% like
evil works, are taog^ aa fidling 0S, and dying
522 HOESHA, 0£ THE VEDANTIO RELEASE.
this teaching might be supposed to refer to all good works,
— to answer this it is added, 'Agnihotra and others how-
ever/ etc. Work that is essential, for example Agnihotra
and others taught in the Yedas, has the same object as
this {Le.f wisdom) ; in other words, that which is the object
of wisdom is also its object, for we meet with ' The
Br&hmanas seek to know Him by the teachings of the Yedas,
by ritualistic worship (Tajfta), and by charity/ 'But the
effect of wisdom and of works, being different, they cannot
have the same object.' This objection does not exist.
Though curd (eating) causes fever, and poison causes death,
yet the one mixed with treacle, and the other by power of
charms, are found to be refreshing and nutritious; so also
works in connection with wisdom may have Moksha for
their object . . , works being indirectly beneficial." — Sankara
Bh­a to above, chap. IV. i. 16.
The attainment of Moksha depends upon certain prepara-
tions (s&dhan&) — ^among the most important of which is
the performance of really good works without the desire
of any outward rewards. It comes by a process of natural
growth. In this respect Moksha differs from other schemes
of Salvation ; it does not come from without, as an extraneous
reward for certain acts of merit, but grows endogenous,
as it were, from- the principle of our common humanity, —
acts of merit only favouring this growth. It is a case of
becoming^ not of getting something.
'* A man is made up of self-exertions (kratu) ; as a man
exerts himself in this life, so becomes he in the next." —
(yh&ndogya, chap. UI. xiv. 1.
<' According as he acts, according as he behaves, so he-
eamea he ; doing good he becomes good, doing evil he
becomes evil; becomes pure by pure works, evU by evil
works. Therefore is it said, ' a man is made up of desires ; '
as are his desires so does he exert himself, as he exerts
himself so are his works, as are his works so does he
become" — Brihaddranyaka, IV. x. 6 (p. 862, J. Vidy4-
sdgara's edition).
A good work done without a selfish end is never lost, but
MOKSHA, OB THE YEDANTIC RELEASE. 523
brings the doer a step Dearer to Moksha. It may not come
in one life, but the cumulative results of a succession of
lives of good works, will put the individual in the way to
Moksha. The good works of each life improves the prospects
of attainment in the next :
*' By saying that B&madeva attained the state of Brahma
in his mother's womb, it is shown that preparations
(sfidhan&) made in one life may cause wisdom in a succeed-
ing life, for, as being in the mother's womb, no preparations
could be possible in that life. In the Smriti also : 'Having
attained the fulness of yoga, what fate attends him, O
Krishna?' Being thus questioned by Arjuna, the revered
Y&sudeva replies : ' My child, no evil can befall any one that
does good* (Na hi kalydnakrit kascit durgatin t&ta gadchati),
and adds, that he attains glorious worlds, is born again in
the family of the good, and is there united with the under-
standing he had in the previous life, and so on, ending with
* having attained perfection by many lives, he then reaches
the Highest Goal,' which shows the same." — Brahma Sutra,
III. IV. 61.
4. Onb-nb88 wfth the World.
Moksha is not the reward of so-called acts of merit, not
a sort of ticket of admission — secured by rites and penances,
the so-called 'good works' and the Massacre of Innocents
of the human reason — to a seat in a heavenly theatre, nor
is the individual who has attained it sent back to this
world as soon as the term of that season-ticket has expired
(kshfne pu^ye martya-lokan visanti).^ To show what
Moksha is, I cannot do better than take a few extracts
from the Upanishads and the Brahma Sutra, where the
state of Moksha is more directly treated of, and from their
general tenor try to draw as correct an idea as it is possible
to get.
^ Tasm&t lokCit pnnar aitj asmai lok&ya karmai^ah : i.e. " Betnnu from that
world to this world of works'* (BrihadAia^Taka, chap. Yl. Br&hmana IV.
16).
524 MOESHA, OB THE VEDANTIC RELEASE.
" O friend, whoever knows that Indestructible^ on whom
depend the human soul, all the gods, the senses, and the
elements, knows all, and is entered into all" — Prasna, IV. 11.
The next is the concluding part of Y&jnavalkya's instruc-
tions to Janaka in the Brihaddnugiyaka : " Now for him
that has no desires : Se that has no desires, from whom all
desires are gone out^ whose desires are all fulfilled, whose only
desire is the Soul,^ — his vital spirits do not pass away (in
death) ; being Brahma (in lifetime) he goes into Brahma.'
To this end is the verse : ' When all the desires of the heart
are loosened/^ the mortal becomes immortal, then he obtains
Brabma. Even as the slough of a snake lies on an ant-
hill, so lies this body ; but he, the bodiless, the immortal spirit,
is indeed Brahma,* is light. . . . The man who knows the Soul,
as (I) am This, with what wish or desire should he pine after
the body P He who has known (the truth), whose soul is
awakened, though entered into this troublous dark place
(this body), he is the Creator of the universe, the creator of
all, his is the world, he indeed is the world,^ Being here
we may know this, or, if we do not, being ignorant, there
is great destruction. Whoever know this become immortal,
the rest enter into misery. When one sees clearly this Soul
as God, the Lord of all that is and to be, one does not wish
to hide himself (in fear) any longer. Let the wise Br&h-
mana, having heard Him (from books and teachers), acquire
the knowledge (in himself). Let him not study too many
words (ue. books), that is mere weariness of the tongue. . . •
In the space of the heart lies the Controller, the Lord of
all; He is not greater by good works,^ nor smaller by evU
works. He is the God over aU, the £ing of creatures, their
preserver, the bridge upholding these worlds that they may
^ ** yijfi&n-&tm& saha deyaicT 6a sarvaih pr&]^& bhdt&oi sampratiBhthanti yatza |
Tad aksnaran redayate yas tu saumya sa sarrajnah sarra ipev &yiye^a" || Cf.
alBO <* Te sarvagan sarratah pr&pya dhir& yakt&-tm&iiah sanra mey& vii^aiiti *'
(Mu^i<31aka,III.Il76).
' Yo «k&mo nishk&ma &ptak&ma &tmak&mah J|
> Yad& sanre pramucyante kkmk ye 'sya hridi sthit&h |i
^ Ath& yam aikarfro 'mfitali pr&i^o Brahm aira ||
* Sa tu lokEi eya ||
* Sa na B&dhim& karma^Ci bhiiy&n no ey 6B&dl»m& kaniyto.
MOKSHA, 0£ THE YEDANTIO EELEA8B. 026
not be wrecked/' — Brihad&ra^yaka, ohap. YI. verses 6 to
21 (pp. 855 to 896, J. Yidy&s&gara's edition).
The next is also a passage from the Brihad&raii^yakay
which was evidently meant as a reply to objections brought
forward by some opposite school :
''But some say: 'If by knowing Brahma as (these) men
think they tcould become all things^ what did that Brahma
know whereby He became all this P ' This was Brahma at
first. He indeed knew Himself, as ' I am Brahma.' Thereby
He became all this. Likewise those of the gods who found
the true knowledge became That. So of the sages, so of
men. The sage B&madeva seeing this, knew *I became Manu
and the eun * : even now he who knows this, ' I am Brahma/
becomes all this. Even the gods cannot hurt him, for he
becomes the soul of these (gods)/'^ — Brihad&ra^yaka, chap.
I. Br&hmana v. verse 10 (pp. 192 to 216, J. Yidy&s&gara's
edition).
In the passages quoted above, is to be noticed something,
uniqne about the Yedantic conception of Moksha: the
individual by attaining it, whether in this life or another,
is said to ' enter into all things,' to ' be indeed the world,'
to ' become all this,' and this is said to be the case without
any reference to death. Surely it cannot mean that such
an individual, living or dying, becomes materialised and
dissipated in the immensity of the physical universe. He
retains his own being, for it is said, 'Even the gods cannot
hurt him ' (" tasya ha na devi i6a n& bhiityi fsata iti"). Nor
IB the meaning far to seek. "He who sees all things in
himself, and in all things sees himself, has nothing to fear "
(Lsk, 6).' It is the very perfection of moral self-sacrifice,
for the individual to enter into and become all things in
spirit. Without entering into its merits, I must say, the
idea ia grand, if true, to imagine that the individuals of
the knman family may, in course of time, find th^mselvc-s
> *^8«vB9 IhMriMhjmt^ mumAtyk mutyuO^f/' ^*hUA ymyu hfit^it
* '*Taita MrrV^j u\<i^mn yiiimmt y^rtft mttpmktyuui
626 M0E8HA, OR THE VEDANTIO RELEASE.
identified in the common good of the whole human family.
It is also said to be possible in this life ; we cannot bat add,
though it may seem Utopian, should such a state of things
come to pass, and every individual of the human race attain
this state, the earth would be heaven, and the miseries of life,
due in the greatest part to individual and national selfish-
ness, would be at an end.
" This is to be perceived by the mind, that there is nothing
whatever different (n&n&). They enter from death to death,
who see (things) as if different." ^ — Brihad&ranyaka.
Unlike other schemes of salvation, Moksha is a state
attainable in this life, and is thus brought within the test
of present human experience. Death or life makes no
difference, — the body, like the cast-off slough of a snake
Ijring on an ant-hill, is " shuffled off," but the soul * being
Brahma, goes into Brahma.' Nor does the soul by Moksha
become anything that it was not before, or is not already,
but only knows and feels what it always is : " The non-
difference being the nature, and the difference imputed by
ignorance, shaking off the ignorance by true knowledge,
the human soul attains oneness with the infinite and
supreme Wise Spirit." — ^Brahma Sfitra, III. ii. 26. By
Moksha the individual becomes, or rather finds, his true
Self (svena rupend bhinishpadyate) :
"His {i.e. the human soul's) own true form is that of
Brahma — * free from sin,' up to ' whose desires are true,' etc.,
and also 'All-knowing and Lord of all.' To this his own
true form, he is perfected, so thinks the teacher Jaimini."'
— ^Brahma Sutra, IV. iv. 5.
Lastly, though Moksha is spoken of as a state of having
'no desires,' it is also in the same sentence spoken of as
a state in which 'all desires are fulfilled,' and 'the only
desire is for the Soul.' It is then a state without desire,
only in reference to carnal desires, as against higher aspira-
1 «Ke ha 11&11& Bti kindana mntjoh Ba mrityum 6.pnoti ya ilia nana va
parfyati" (p. 887, J. Vidyfes&Mra's edition).
'* ** Syam asya rfipan Br&hmam apahata-p&pmaty&-di-flatya-8aDkalpatTfc-Ta-
sfuian, tathii sarYajnatraii sarye-tfTaratra n6a, tena eyena rdpe^fii bhinishpadyate."
HOKSHA, OR THE VEDANTIC RELEASE. 527
tions, tlie only desire being for the Soul. In this lies the
real difference between Avidyd and Yidyd :
*' To regard the body and others, which are not the self,
as the self, is Avidyi : thence arise desire for its glorifica-
tion, then anger when it is subjected to insult, then fear
and delusion at sight of its destruction, — in this way arise
those endless contentions and miseries which we see around
us. Those who, by reversing it, have freed themselves from
Avidy&, desire, anger, and other evils, approach ffim." —
Brahma Sutra, I. in. 2.
When Moksha is called a ' loosening of the desires of the
heart,' the very expression ' loosening ' (pramucSyante) would
suggest that it is a loosening of desires that bind and enslave
the soul, — the carnal desires as against the higher desires
for the Soul, which set the individual free from that bondage :
''Indra, this body is mortal, it is grasped by death; it
is the abode of the Immortal, the bodiless SouL The em-
bodied (one who thinks the body to be the self) is grasped
by pleasure and pain« There is no release from pleasure
and pain for one who lives as bodied. But he who lives
as bodiless is untouched by pleasure and pain.'' — CTh&ndogya,
YIII. XII. 1. If all this is not ''moralische Besserung," it
is difficult to tell what is.
The Pailcadasi gives the following description of a soul
after Moksha (which is variously called in various places as
'awakening,' 'knowledge,' 'enlightenment,' or 'oneness'):
** Bharata and other sages never lived without using their
senses, like a block of stone or wood, but only retired from
society for fear of losing themselves in worldliness" (VI.
273). "In the exercise or in the controlling of the body,
the organs, the mind, or the intellect, there is no difference
whatever between the ignorant and the awakened" (YI.
267). In another place in the same book : " Even as one
and the same eye of the crow, comes and goes into both
sockets, the right and the left, even so is the mind of the
true knower, with respect to both these enjoyments; par-
taking of the pleasures of sense, as well as the bliss in
Brahma, the true knower is like one that knows two
628 MOKSHA, OB THE YEDANTIO EELBA8E.
languages, — ^that of the world as well as that of sacred
books."i
5. AlSVABTA.
There are a class of passages in the XTpanishads and the
Brahma Sutra, which attribute certain transcendental psychic
phenomena to the individual upon attaining Moksha. The
universal tradition among all sects of Hindus, learned or un-
learned, woidd seem to show that there never was a time in
which the people did not believe in them. These phenomena
could hardly be called miracles in the sense of departures
from the laws of Nature, inasmuch as they are said to take
place as a matter of course, whenever that stage of psychic
development has been reached :
"His heart thus purified, whatever worlds he wishes
('whether for himself or for others,' adds Sankara), or
whatever objects he desires, he obtains those worlds and
those desires." — Mu^daka, III. i. 10.
"Some Yogi, who has attained perfection, might, by
entering into all things, be the controller (over all)." —
Brahma Sutra, I. it. 18.
"Functions, such as the creation of worlds, excepted,
god-like powers (Aisvarya), as that of rendering one's self
invisible, are possible for those who have attained Moksha.
But functions in respect of the management of worlds belong
to God alone, who is ever-perfect." — Brahma Sutra, IV.
IV. 17.
This reservation as to functions in respect of the creation
and preservation of worlds (Jagad-Vy4p&ravarjan) is very
peculiar ; and as the term ' world ' merely expresses a
summing up in thought of particular items of phenomena,
the reservation leaves no god-like power for the individual
^ Plrayrittaa t& niyrittaa t& dehe-ndriya^mano-dhiy&n |
Na kindid api vaiBhamyam asty ajn&m-yibuddhayoh 1 1
Na hy&h&r&di santajya bharat& dyah sthit&h kradit | 267
K6Bhtba-p&6h&9avat kintu sanga-bbitfr ud&aate || 2731.
And again : £k aiva driflbtib k&kasya b&ma-dakaluna-netrayoli | T&ty &ylity
eyam faianda-dTaye tattyavido matib || Bbunj&no ▼ishayfc nandan Brabmfc-
nandan d4 tattvavit | DTi-bb&Bh& bhijnayat Yidy&d nbhan laukika-Taidikan |1
HOESHA, OR THE YEDANTIC RELEASE. 629
to exercise independently. Besides, it is a strong assertion
of duality.
Most of these passages are so entangled in mysterious and
figurative language, that it is next to impossible to unravel
their real meaning. As a type of this class of passages,
I take the following from the CTh&ndogya:
''In this city of the Supreme (ue. in the human being)
is the house (of the Supreme), the lotus of the heart. In
it is the sky of the heart; what is contained within that
is indeed to be inquired and sought after. ... As vast as
is this sky, so is the sky in the heart, in it are placed both
heaven and earth, fire and air, sun and moon, lightning
and stars; — all whatever here exists for them, or does not
(here) exist, is placed within this. • . . This is the true
city of the Supreme, in this are placed all desires. . • Those
who depart knowing the Soul and these true desires, for
them all the worlds are open at pleasure. . . "Whatever
place he desires, whatever thing he desires, comes (to him)
at will; he rejoices in possessing it. These are the true
desires, hidden under cover of the untrue. The true desires
exist, but the untrue hides them; (so that) whatever
(beloved object) of his is departed hence (though it exists
in the sky of the heart), he cannot know. Whatever
(beloved object) of his, whether living or dead, or what
else he longs for, but does not find, all this he finds, on
going there {i.e. into the heart), for all these true desires
of his exist there, hidden under cover of the untrue. Even
as a treasure-trove hidden underground in a field is trodden
over and over by those ignorant of the field, yet never
known, even so all these creatures going every day into
this world of Brahma do not know it, it is veiled by the
untrue/'— Ch&ndogya, VIII. i. to iii. 2.
Sankan, however, insist* upon a technical distinction
between Moktha, as a/^qoired by the knowledge of Sagm^a
Bnhroa, and that by tk« knowledge of Brahma yirgu^A,
looking upon the latu^ an a higher form of MokiKba.
Miraculous powers Ins e^mnlfbgrn as confined to the l/>wer
form, which is highly irigni&^arit as to tlie moral valon
530 MOESHA, OR THE VEDANTIO BELEASE.
that was attached to the gift of miracles: "Wherever
these god-like powers are spoken of, they are however the
fruit of Saguna- Vidyd — a mere change of state, like heaven,"
etc.— Brahma Sutra, IV. iv. 16.
6. Individuality in Moksha.
Nothing, however, puzzles the reader so much as those
passages in the Upanishads which seem to speak of Moksha
as a state of disintegration of individual consciousness,
almost verging upon annihilation. The difficulty is not
only that a class of poet-philosophers of such high order
as the authors of the XJpanishads must have been, could
ever look upon it as the highest good of life, but also that
these passages apparently contradict the sense of others,
and even parts of the same passage are seemingly con-
tradictory. Yet by placing ourselves in the point of view
of the writers themselves, we might be able to reconcile
these discrepancies :
"Even as these rivers flowing towards the sea disappear
upon reaching the sea, their names and forms being broken
down, it is called the sea ; even so these sixteen parts in
the knower approach the Person, and reaching the Person
disappear y their names and forms are broken down; it is
called the Person ; he becomes without parts and immortal."
— Prasna, VI. 5.
"Like running streams disappearing in the sea, losing
name and form, even so the wise, freed from name and
form, attains the Divine Person, the greater than the great.
He that knows the Supreme Brahma, verily becomes
Brahma."— Mu^daka, III. ii. 8 and 9.
"It is like pure water dropping into pure water. The
soul of the sage who knows (the truth) is like this." —
Katha, II. iv. 15 (p. 132, J. Vidy&sagara's edition).
Ydjiiavalkya instructs his wife Maitreyi, saying: "*As
a lump of salt thrown into water disappears, becoming
water, and one cannot take it up in a lump,^ but the water
^ << Sa yath& saindhaTa-khilya adake pr&sta udakam erk naviliyate n& \ik
syo dagrahankya eya sy&t."
irOESHA, OB THE YEDANTIC RELEASE. 531
from whatever part taken is salt, even so, my dear, is this
Great Being, Infinite, Unbounded, all consciousness and
nothing but consciousness (vijfi&na-ghana). Rising (into
individual life) from these things, (the individual) disappears,
becoming these {i.e.j like the salt in water). When passed
away (i.e., by oneness with the Soul), the consciousness (of
individuality) ceases. This I say, my dear.* This said
Ydjnavalkya.
" Maitreyi said : * Even here, my lord, you bewilder me,
saying, when passed away the consciousness ceases.' -
" Yajfiavalkya said : ' My dear, I say nothing bewildering.
This Oreat Being has perfect consciousness. Where it is
as if two, there one sees or smells another, hears or bows
to another, thinks or knows another. But when all is
become his very soul, by what and whom to see or smell,
by what and whom to hear or bow to, by what and whom
to think or know P (The Soul) by whom all this is known,
by what is He to be known P By what, my dear, is the
Knower to be known P ' " — Brihad&ranyaka, IV. iv. 12-14
(p. 460, J. Vidy&sagara's edition).
Maitreyi seems to have been puzzled by the apparent
contradiction in her husband's words, calling the Great
Being, '' all consciousness," and then adding *' the conscious-
ness ceases." No wonder, poor girl ! One might well
doubt if her husband's explanation did not bewilder her
the more — though in logical acuteness that explanation is
unsurpassed. Indeed, that one sentence, ''By what, my
dear, is the Knower to be known P " holds, as in a nutshell,
the whole agnostic philosophy with the reply to it.
" Their names and forms are broken down," " freed from
name and form, attain the Divine Person," ''when passed
away the consciousness ceases : " all this, if understood in
the light of the analogy of the salt in water, the river
in the sea, or pure water dropping into pure water, fall in
very well with the idea of a perfect moral self-sacrifice.
Following the analogy, neither the salt in water, the river
in the sea, nor the water in water, is lost in any true sense.
Not an atom of the salt, the river, or the water, ceases to
532 HOESHA, 0£ THE YEDANTIC EELEASE.
exist, or to perform some function peculiar to itself. If the
state of Moksha is anytliing like it, the individual released
neither ceases to exist nor to act. The change in the salt
and the river is, that they cease to act separately from the
water and the sea, — ^that * one can no longer take up the
salt in a lump' (saindhavakhilya) as before. But " the water,
from whatever part taken, is salt," in other words, all things
become as part and parcel of his self, which is thus said to
" disappear, becoming these/' The salt has its own peculiar
action of saltness, but under a different form, and in one-
ness with the water ; it imparts its character to the water.
This, if transferred to the ' Eeleased ' individual, could only
mean that he loses his feeling of separateness from all things
and from Brahma, but retains his being and his peculiar
acts and attributes, — ^he is lost in Brahma " like the arrow
in the target " (" saravat tan-mayo bhuvet "). In this way
by Moksha, the individual would become, or rather feel
himself to be always but as a factor in the Divine economy
of the universe. The individual who, before Moksha, lived
and acted as an isolated agent, for a private end, after
Moksha lives and acts in oneness with God, for ends de-
termined by God, and feeling the interest of all as being
his own, and in this sense he may be said ''to enter into
all things " — " the wise, who have control over their passions,
find the All-pervading (Spirit) everywhere, and enter into
all things," — or even ** to disappear becoming these."
In all Yed&ntic writings, especially those of oaiikara, a
very important distinction is drawn between " self " (Ahan-
k&ra) and Soul (Atm&), which we are used to identify.
' Self,' or Ahank&ra, is the imaginary bundling together of
mental states and acts in separate groups called * individuals.'
It presupposes the Soul for a basis of its existence This
'self' is ever-shifting, even in the so-called 'same' indi-
vidual ; like the cloud appearing to be, but never really
is, permanent. It is also among the objects of thought.
But the 'Soul' of the Veddnta is the subject, the un-
changing and unchangeable essence, the underlying basis
of consciousness for the world, in which acts and states
MOKSHA, OB THE YEDANTIC BELEASE. 533
appear and Tanish like the images in a magic lantern.
From its nature of being the subject, the Soul cannot at
the same time be an object of thought, and therefore cannot
be characterized or differenced by objective characters and
differences. The 'self/ or Ahank&ra, is popularly spoken
of as '1/ and it is this that is 'broken down/ this that
"rising from these things, disappears becoming these/'
When this idea of separateness of ' selves ' is gone, nothing
but the sense of isolation is gone. The ideas and impres-
sions may appear and disappear as they do now, without
any hindrance to practical life ; only, after Moksha, the
* me ' or * mine ' of the individual could not oppose itself
to the ' his ' and ' yours ' of the world around him. This
interpretation of Moksha might have been enough, were it
not that the light supplied by Y&jilavalkya, on his own
meaning, in the words, ''When all is become his very soul,
by what and whom to think and know F " seems rather to
throw darkness on the interpretation.
Y&j Aavalkya seems to indicate that not only does Ahaiik&ra
cease, but also that the whole course of ideas and impres-
sions— ^for the Yed&nta is purely idealistic — that make up
practical life, may cease. Here I have to anticipate what
I hope to discuss more fully in a separate article — the
Yed&ntic conception of M&y&. M&ya, or Illusion, in
the Yed&nta, if rightly understood, is but another name
for what has been termed Uhe Relativity of knowledge.'
The distinction of the absolute from the relative is the very
hinge on which the whole scheme of the Yed&ntic theology
turns. Once admit that things as we know them exist only
in relation to our powers of cognition, it necessarily follows
that God, who has not cognitive powers, eyes and ears, like
ourselves, does not know things as we know them. We
should have no reason to assert that they have any existence
at all in relation to Brahma. Brahma being above wants,
is a reason to the Yedintist in favour of the absolute non-
existence of things. At any rate it follows from Relativity,
the fundamental principle of the Yedinta, that our know-
ledge of things is an illusion as compared with the absolute
534 MOESHA, OB THE VEDANTIO BELEASE.
truth known to Brahma. If Moksha should make the
individual one with God, perfect as He is perfect, knowing
things even as we are known by God, it necessarily foUows
that the relative should cease in presence of the absolute,
and the illusions which make up practical life so called
should be no more.
7. Kaivalta.
At first sight this separation from phenomena would seem
to be painful, but it is painful for those who have a strong
desire for them, who cannot resign their phenomenal being
without ^'a longing lingering look behind.'' When the
desire for the coarse of ideas and impressions that con-
stitutes our individuality is gone, it may cease, and the
individual pass away into oneness with Brahma Nirguna
—the Soul-substratum of all being, and live above the
illusions of phenomenal life. For the Yed&ntist, with his
distinction of the absolute Being of Brahma Nirguna, and
the phenomenal life of relativity, what can there be painful
or shocking in passing into the Absolute, to know the
Reality as it is P How could he consider it otherwise than
as the highest imaginable bliss, the very state of Brahma
as He is in His perfection! The rapturous joy of this union
of the human soul with Brahma, in Moksha, is compared
with nothing less than the ecstatic union of a newly-wedded
couple locked in each other's embraces :
" Even as one embraced by his beloved wife knows nothing
outside, nor within, even so this person embraced by the
Wise Spirit, knows nothing outside, nothing within. This,
indeed, is his form in which all desires are found, wherein
all desires are for the Soul, wherein one has no desires and
no sorrow. Here the father and mother are no longer
father or mother, the worlds and gods no longer worlds or
gods, the sacred books no longer sacred books; . • neither
followed by good works, nor by bad works, then are passed
away all the sorrows of the heart. But that he does not
see, he sees indeed though he does not see {ue.^ he is still
the seer, though the ol^'ects of sight are gone). Sight cannot
H0K8HA, OB THE YEDANTIO BELEASS. 635
cease in the seer, being imperishable ; but that second is no
more^ which he should see as distinct from himself. . .
That he does not know — ^he knows indeed thdugh he does
not know ; knowing cannot cease in the knotcer, being im-
perishable; but that second is no more which he should
know as distinct from himself. Where there is a second,
there one sees, smells, tastes, speaks to, hears, thinks, feels,
and knows another. (Pure) as water, the one Seer is with-
out a second. He is housed in Brahma. "^Brihad&ra^yaka,
VI. III. 21-32 (pp. 887 to 913, J. Vidy&sagara's edition).
It will be apparent from the above, that far from there
being the slightest approach in Moksha towards annihila-
tion, there is no change whatever in the individual himself,
the change being entirely in the phenomena around him.
The subject remains the same, while the object which is
looked upon as illusory is altered, may be, even to the
extent of annihilation relatively to the individuaL The
world-bubble (Jagad-vimba) may burst, as they express it,
and '' leave not a rack behind.'^ That this is the conception
of the Yed&ntic Moksha is so apparent, that we meet with
discussions in the Brahma Sutra as to whether the individual
retains his body after attaining Moksha :
"'At his desire his ancestors appear to him'; from this
teaching it is apparent that the wise man, after attaining
Godhood, retains his mind, which is made up of desires, but
it might be asked whether or not he retains the body and
the senses. As regards this, the teacher Yfidari thinks that
the wise (man) in his glory does not retain the body nor
the sensea For this is taught in the Yedas : ' Seeing these
delights by the mind, he enjoys bliss in the world of
Brahma.' Were it that he went about with the mind as
well as the body and the senses, the epithet 'with the
mind' would not have been used (Brahma Sutra, lY.
IV. 10). The teacher Y&dar&yana, however, finding that
the Yedas ascribe both kinds of characters, considers it
reasonable that it should be both. When he desires to
be embodied, he has a body, and when he desires to be
bodiless^ he is without it."— Brahma Sutra, lY. iv. 12.
536 HOKSHA, OR THE YEDANTIC BELEASK
Even with respect to phenomenal life in this world, the
Yed&nta does not push its logical conclusion to its full
length. Moksha, even in its highest form, that of attain-
ing the Absolute Being of Brahma Nirguna, does not
altogether cut off the thread of their individual phenomenal
life. Yed&ntic sages who are supposed to have attained
the highest form of Moksha — Kaivalya as it is called —
appear and reappear in this world to live as man amongst
men, in order to fulfil some high purpose of Brahma.
Yy&sa and N&rada, Agastya and Bhrigu, are said to make
their appearance in this world whenever any especial
occasion calls for their presence. In this way the idea of
even the Kaivalya form of Moksha does not amount to
anything more or less than an absolute surrender of private
will to that of Brahma, to live amidst phenomena or above
them, in Him alone, according as He should appoint. To
this effect I quote the following from the Brahma Sutra,
where we read: ''Those that are appointed (for especial
work) live (in phenomenal life) as long as the appointment
lasts."— III. III. 32.
Commenting on this aphorism, l^nkara takes the case
of some of the greatest Yed&ntic sages — Ap&ntaratamas,
Yasishtha, Bhrigu, Sanatkum&ra, Daksha, and N&rad£^ who
are said to have appeared and lived in this world at different
occasions, after they had attained the highest form of
Moksha, and remarks :
'' Some of them (those above-named), after the first body
has fallen away, take a new body; and others, by the
miraculous power of yoga for occupying many bodies at
once, do so during the lifetime of it. And all of them are
said to have acquired the highest wisdom of the Yedas.
. . . These, Ap&ntaratamas and others, being appointed for
transmitting the Yedas, or other work on which depends
the preservation of the world, have an individual life subject
to the work (to which they are appointed). These great
ones, Ap&ntaratamas and others, appointed by the Supreme
Lord to their particular work, although they have the true
knowledge, the cause of Moksha, remain there with undi-
M0K8HA, OR THE VEDANTIO EELEA8E. 537
minished activity, so long as their appointment lasts; but
pass into God as soon as it is over. ... In order to fulfil
the objects of their appointment, they have the desire of
work for a time, but held in check; — ^freely passing from
body to body as from house to house, with memory (of
previous life) undiminished, — since they are lords of their
body and organs, — to fulfil the appointed work ; and making
(new) bodies, they occupy many bodies at once or in suc-
cession; . . . just as Sulabhd,^ who knew Brahma, having
the desire to hold a discussion with Janaka, left her own
body, entered that of Janaka, and, having held the dis-
cussion, afterwards re-entered her own." — Brahma Sutra
Bhishya, III. ui. 32.
8. "Na karma LIPTATB NABE.'*
Moksha being thus an absolute surrender of private will,
it follows as a necessary consequence that after one has
attained this state, there is no longer any merit or blame
attached to what one does. He is above doing wrong, and
claims no reward for doing right. This leads to a great
change in the individual's relation to works, good or evil.
"Work is the means (to be adopted) for the Muni who
wishes to attain Yoga; for the same man, when he has
attained yoga, calmness of mind is the means" (Gita,
VI. 3). For ignorant (Ajftani) people, works are either
good or evil, according as they bring a return, whether in
this life or another, of happiness or misery. For the wise,
this arithmetical distinction of punt/a and pdpa has no
weight, and in that sense he is said to be unafiected by
good or evil works :
"Whom (i.^., Brahma) speech and the mind recede from,
without finding, — when one knows the bliss in Brahma, one
fears nothing whatever. 'What good thing I have not
done, what evil I have done,' one is not troubled with." —
Taittiriya, H. 9.
' Siilabh& is a lady-sage in the B'&nti-Parra of the Mahftbh&rata, who dif •
comfited, in a yery interesting controversy, the self-righteous king, Janaka
Kosha-Dh?aja.
538 MOESHA, OB THE YEDANTIC BELEASE.
"Therefore, *I hare done eyil/ or that *I have done
good/ he passes beyond both these. He is not troubled
with what he has or has not done. This is taught in the
verse : * Imperishable is the glory for him who knows
Brahma, which works do not add to, nor take from. Let
him know its nature ; having known this, he is unaffected
by (good or) evil works.' Therefore one who knows thus,
being calm, self-controlled, free from desire, patient, and
meditative, sees the Soul in himself, and all things in the
Soul. Sin cannot overcome him, he overcomes all sin ; sin
cannot trouble him, he destroys all sin." — Brihaddra^yaka,
VI. IV. 22-23 (pp. 909 to 912, J. Vidyisagara's edition).
The same thought is often expressed in more exaggerated
forms :
" Indra, the god-spirit, by seeing with the eye of wisdom
(drshena dars&nena) his own soul as the Supreme Spirit
according to ^dstra, as ' I am indeed the Supreme Brahma,'
taught, saying, 'Know Me.' .... He alludes to his
cruelties of slaying Tv&shtra, and then concludes with
glorifying wisdom: 'Of such an one as I am, not a hair
is destroyed. He who knows Me^ by no work whatever can
his world perish.' This means that even though I have
done such cruelties, yet, by becoming Brahma, not a hair
of mine is destroyed; nor, likewise, for any one else who
knows -Jf(?, can his world perish by any work whatever." —
Brahma Sutra, I. i. 30.
Moksha takes the sting out of all past sins ; and for the
future, sin is as impossible as for Brahma himself. ''Pun-
y&yante kriy&h sarv^h sushuptih sukrit&yate " (Mah&-
Nirvana-Tantra). "All that he does is good work, if he
sleeps soundly, it is a sound good work,' is another, and a
paradoxical form of stating the same idea.
9. Moksha by Divine Grace.
Faith, or &raddh&, is as essential to Moksha as it is to
the Christian salvation. " Ajilas c& sraddadhfina^ oa sansa-
y&tmd vin&syatiP" — 'Uhe foolish, the unbelieving^ and the
MOKSHA, OB THE VEDAimO RELEASE. 539
doubting gpirits go to ruin." — Git4. " When one has faith
(Sraddha)^ then one inquires, one does not inquire without
faith ; haying faith, indeed, one inquires." — Chdndogya,
YII. XVIII. 1. 'oraddhd' here Sankara explains as
* Astikya-buddhi ' (or the spirit of theism). Any good
work, if it should bear good fruit, it is taught, should be
done with faith: "Show bounty with faith" (SraddhayA
deyan).— Taittiriya, XII. 3.
Nor is there any ground whatever to maintain that
Moksha is less dependent, in any sense, upon Divine Grace,
than the Christian salvation. " Through God's mercy, by
true knowledge (i.e., of God as the Self), the attainment of
Kelease can be possible."^ "Grant that the human soul is
part of the Supreme Spirit, like sparks of fire : in that case
as both sparks and fire have a similar power of heat and
light, so should both the human soul and God possess a
similar power of wisdom and divinity. • • Though the
human soul and God were as part and whole, their opposite-
ness of qualities is quite clear : is it then that there exists
no similarity of attribute of the human soul with GodP
Not that it does not exist, but that though it exists, it is
veiled by ignorance. Although it is veiled, however, it
is revealed again by the clearing up of ignorance, by Divine
Chrace (fsvara-pras&d&t) — even as by power of medicine,
sight is restored in the blind though overpowered before
by blindness; but it is not by nature manifest to all. . .
The Bandha (bondage) proceeds from ignorance of Divine
nature, and Moksha from knowledge of His nature." —
Brahma Sutra, III. ii. 5.
^ Ttfyar&t tad-aniijziayft . . . iansfrrasya siddhih ; i^A'anugraha^hetukm aiva
vifimma Moluha-Biddhir bharita marhati || — Brahma S&tra, II. iii. 41.
541
CORRESPONDENCE.
1. Thb Cross and Solomon's Seal as Indian Emblems.
Sir, — In Captain Conder's very yaluable work on " Heth
and Moab " (London, 1883), I find it nrged,^ as an argument
against Mr. Fergusson's identification of certain rude stone
crosses as Christian monuments, ** that the cross in India is
found as a sacred emblem amongst Buddhists and Brahmins
alike from a very early period. Nothing," adds Captain
Conder, '^ could be prim& facie more improbable than the
erection of rude stone monuments by Christians in India "
(p. 225). Is this argument founded on fact? In some
years' study of Indian archaeology I have not seen any
instance of the use of a genuine cross as a sacred emblem
by either Buddhists or Brahmins.
We have, indeed, the ''Swastika" and its reverse form
the '' Yarddhamana." But these might as well be called
wheels or whirligigs as crosses ; though they are certainly
sacred emblems. Again we have several characters (especi-
ally one ancient numeral) in both ancient and modem Indian
languages which might be called crosses. But these are by
no means sacred; not even as the X which we use in 'Xmas'
is with us.
Similar forms occur occasionally in decoration, not only
with Hindus and (perhaps) Buddhists, but among the non-
Brahmanical forest tribes. But I cannot find that they are
a bit more sacred or symbolical than any other conventional
ornament ; say the Ionic Volute or the " Acanthus."
The crosses from which Mr. Fergusson argued (Rude
Stone Monuments, p. 486 et seq.) are themselves monuments
542 CORRESPONDENCB.
as much as any in Ireland or Scotland, and as complete. To
me they seem to be as clearly Christian crosses as these ; and
I think that there is one thing prim& facie more improbable
than their erection by Christians, tddelicet, their erection by
any one else.
Again, in the same work (p. 56), I find Captain Conder
stating that "Solomon's seal'* and "David's shield" (the
5 and 6-pointed stars formed by combinations of triangles) are
" Indian caste-marks." What evidence is there of this P
Setting aside the common error of calling those devices
"caste-marks," which are used by Hindus to indicate sect,
and not caste, I think that there is a mistake in fact. I have
never seen, nor heard of, the use of either of these patterns
as a brow-mark or tattoo by any Hindus. And although
they do occur as mason's marks in India, I think that they
are confined to Musalman buildings, and are, in short, a
comparatively modem imported luxury.
I should be glad if any member could give me any further
light on either subject. Captain Conder, rather provokingly,
quotes no authority, nor am I aware of his having any
Indian experience such as would enable me to accept his own
as conclusive.
In another passage he mentions the swastika as " a caste-
mark amongst Yaishnavas." Setting apart, again, the
incorrect term "caste-mark," and the more readily as the
following term " Yaishnavas " implies some idea of the real
use of the brow-marks, the thing seems likely enough. But
where and who are those Yaishnavas who so use it P
W. F. Sinclair.
Th9 Secretary of the Moyal Atiatie Society,
2.
London, 1888.
Dear Mr. Rhys Davids, — ^Looking over your two little
Buddhist books, the following notes occur ; and, if new, may
perhaps be worth putting on paper. In the animal-stories
there are clearly two or three animals classed as " deer."
CORBESPONDENCE. 643
In the Banyan-Deer Jataka they are probably black
antelopes, still called Mriga, though the word is not in
common use. The only other deer likely to occur near
Benares is the hog-deer {Axis porcinus).
The story of the impounding of the deer would be quite
within the range of modern practice in several places, and
especially in Sind, where I have myself shot hog-deer and
gazelles in such enclosures as the ** Deer Park." They are
called "Muh&ris."
The deer that went to and from the mountains are marked
by that habit as belonging to some other species. It is most
characteristic of the Sambar (Rusa Aristotelia)^ but also, to
some extent, of the Chital (spotted deer. Axis major) and
Nilghai (Portaxpictw).
There is no creature at all like a roe in India that has it ;
the small barking deer (Cervulus aureus), the four-homed
antelope, and musk-deer, do not visit the open country.
I thought at first that the ^'roe*' whom the stag loved
must have been a doe misprinted, until I found the word
repeated.
I do not think that the difference of kind affects the story ;
as in another Jataka the Hansa loves a Peacock, and in a
very good modern child's story the king of the Cranes
marries a Pelican.
In the folk-lore of the Oonds the Nilghai is the beast of
legend, and gets into trouble in spite of counsel, by stealing
standing crops. The Nilghai and Sambar would be quite in
place near Rajagriha, though not at Benares.
The Hansa is, I suppose, the still sacred (and very hand-
some) "Brahminy Duck" {Casarca rutila), which does breed
in the Himalaya, or rather in the uplands of Thibet. The
Flamingo is called Raj -Hansa, but I cannot find that it is
sacred. Good Rajputs will not eat any duck, because they are
all akin to Hansas. I should have said above that the
incident of the stag being caught while following the female
is true to nature, and the same is the case even with thefieh.
The more wary hind's escaping is also true. I have often
witnessed it.
544 GORSESPONDENCE.
The term Aswattha for a pipal-tree {Ficus religiom)
survives in the language of survivals, Maratha, in the form
"Ashte." It is a species or variety of pipal peculiar to
forest countries, and distinguishable by extremely bright red
leaf buds.
I do not of course want to dethrone the common pipal from
its "bo "-ship; although I doubt if any botanist will ever
allow its claim to any more than a descent from the original
plant.
I am glad that you identify " Gotami " with Yasodhara,
she taking her husband's clan-name. I knew a Yasodhara
(a princess too) who did so. The exception is when a man
wants, in somewhat ambitious phrase, to refer to a lady of
high birth, as a bard talking of the several queens of a Baja,
then he will sometimes name her by her father's kingdom or
clan ; as " the Jodhpuri " or " the Solankin," pretty much as
a man might to-day refer to the Empress Dowager Victoria
as " a daughter of England," or " a Guelph princess " ;
though her proper style is taken from her husband's house.
As for the other wives, I do not believe that Gautama, or
any other Rajput, ever married a lady of his own tribal
name. The Gautamas are good Hajput stock to this
day. The surname Sakya is, I believe, extinct; I suppose
it was that of a family amongst the Gautama clan, such
as you might find a dozen of to-day with little looking
for them.
The solar myth, as applied to Gautama, reminds one of
that Irish parodist (in ''Kottabos," P) who proved Jfaa? Jfu/fer
to be a solar myth, partly by the traditions that he had been
known to get up in the morning, wash and brush himself,
dress for dinner, and go to bed at night, after struggles with
demons in the form of critics, and lighter and more transitory
annoyances in the shape of undergraduates.
I remain, yours truly,
"W. F. SiKCLAIIU
Th$ Secretary of the Royal AHatie Society,
CORRESPONDENCE. 545
3. Origin op Indian Architecture.
Sir, — I must express my thanks to Mr. Sinclair for his
Taluable contribution, which adds to our knowledge of the
localities in India where tombs have been erected in the form
of Saiva temples. I mentioned one I had seen myself in
Jellalabad, this is in Afghanistan; and I found references
to them in Kumaon, in the Himalayas ; they are also found
among the Canarese, the Telugus, and the Tamils ; and Mr.
Sinclair now informs us that they are common in the Deccan
and the Eonkan. This is a wide extent of ground, and
shows that they are not peculiar to any one locality. It is
to be hoped that others will follow Mr. Sinclair's example,
and give us details of such temples ; this can be done best
by men living in a place where they are familiar with
the people, and their ideas regarding them. Since
writing my paper I have come upon some references to
temples which are sepulchral monuments in the Bds Mdld^
by Alex. E. Forbes; these are in Guzerat. One is the
temple of Devee Boucherft,^ which ^' grew up out of a rude
stone placed to commemorate the death of a Gh&run
woman. "^ Another is in the Run of Eutch, on the road
from Hulwud to Areesur, and marks the place where "Wur-
n&jee Purmftr, a Rajpoot, was slain ; and the temple of
" Devee Sudoobft.'* Forbes does not indicate whether these
are Saiva temples or not; in that of Devee Sudoobft the
details would point to its being Yaishnava. Forbes gives in
his account of funeral ceremonies a description which agrees
exactly with Mr. Sinclair's : " He who fires the pile collects
seven pieces of bone, and enclosing them in a mould commits
them to the earth in the place on which the head of the
corpse rested. Over the spot the poor raise a simple mound,
and place thereon a water vessel and a cake of bread, but
wealthy persons erect upon the site of the funeral pile a
temple, which is consecrated to Muh4 Dev.''* Here we
» Vol. ii. p. 90.
» Vol. ii. p. 438.
» Vol. ii. p. 866.
TOL. XX.— [HBW BB&IS8.] 37
546 CORRESPONDENCE.
have the Saiva temple as a tomb, and not exclusiyely for
ascetics. The poorer people raise the simple grave mound
over the relics, and ''place thereon a water vessel." This
'' water vessel " evidently belongs to the primitive forms of
burial, and the proper understanding of it would in aU
probability give us the solution of the Kalasa which sur-
mounts the Sikhara. The funereal customs point to the
oonolusion that it is a water vessel ; Mr. Sinclair suggests
that it may have coDtained the relics, and he has undoubtedly
native habits, which he refers to, in support of the idea.
The question, so far as I know, is a new one, and as yet so
entirely speculative that we must wait till further light turns
up to guide us to the solution. Mr. Sinclair's suggestion
that the Amalaka is a cushion or base for the Kaiasa, seems
at first blush to be a very happy one — so far it matters not
whether the Kaiasa may be a water jar or a relic holder — if
it was looked upon as sacred, it would no doubt be entitled
to something honourable to rest upon. As a cushion the
Amalaka would realize this, as it would be a Ouddee. We
require more knowledge of the rites and ceremonies, of the
details of old shrines, etc., which still exist in out-of-the-way
places in India, and men like Mr. Sinclair, who have to visit
their districts, are in a position to become acquainted with
them. The most important point dealt with in my paper is
that of the tomb-origin of the Saiva temple, because it is
not merely architectural. If my view of the case should be
ultimately made good, it will place Siva and his worship in
a new light. It was with some hesitancy that I ventured
on a suggestion that had this far-reaching result as a possi-
bility, but I felt that I had grounds which were sufficient to
justify me in so doing, and Mr. Sinclair's letter widens these
grounds in more ways than one. As an instance he mentions
that the sculptures on the sepulchral monuments often repre-
sent the deceased making his *^ appearance in heaven, where
he worships the lingam or otherwise, according to his creed
on earth." The idea under which this is done is not very
definitive ; still, to find the llnga and its worship on a tomb-
stone is at least suggestive. Among the sculptures on the
C0REE8P0NDENCB. 547
rock at Owalior I found a Suttee monument, in whioh the
man and the woman are shown performing the Linga-pujah.
At the time the idea of the Saiva temple haying been de-
rived from a tomb had not occurred to me ; but seeing the
deceased persons represented as worshipping Siva in this
form, struck me then as peculiar, and suggested that it had
reference to a re*birth through death, a principle not out of
keeping with Brahmanical teaching.
"William Simpson.
Ths secretary of the Royal AtiatU Sodety,
4.
Oreem Norton, Towcester, Sept. 27, 1888.
Dear Sir, — I should like to address a few words to you,
for the consideration of the Members of your Society, as to
the meaning of the emblems, found (in pL xxxiv. Tree and
Serpent Worship, 1st ed.) in the hand of the Prince there
represented. Mr. Fergusson was quite at a loss to explain
the meaning of these emblems (p. 133, o.c).
I think the two figures on the plate named refer to the
young Prince Sidd&rtha going out to the joust, of which we
have such ample record in the Buddhist legends.
This appears to be proved by the figure of the elephant
in the first group. "We read that " when the young Prince
was hardly grown up, the Licchavis of Yais&li offered him
an elephant of exceptional beauty . . . which they led to
Kapilavastu, and covered it with jewels," etc. {RockhiU,
"Life of the Buddha," p. 19).
This is the elephant that Devadatta killed, and Nanda
pulled on one side, and the young Prince raised and hurled
over the walls, into the elephant-ditch.
I think this and the whole entourage of the scene shows
that the design of the sculptor, or donor of the gateway, was
to represent the exit of the Prince from the Gate of Kapila-
vastu on his way to the games about to be held between the
S&kya youths.
What then is the emblem in the hands of the Prince P
548 COBBESPONDENCE.
Mr. Fergusson compares it to the form of a dumb-bell, '* two
balls joined together like a dumb-bell/'
But I think it has a curious meaning, yiz. that of the
mappa^ ''which was held in the right hand of a Consul,
which he threw into the arena as a signal for the games to
commence/'
For a representation of the shape of the mappa I will
refer you to plates xziii. and xxiy. of Harriot's ** Yestiarium
Cfaristianum."
The plates there shown are photographed from facsimiles
in fictile ivory, published by the " Arundel Society."
It is almost certain that the Indian custom of Public
games, or jousts, was an extension of the same custom
prevalent from earliest date in the Western portions of Asia,
as at Dindymus ; and as the image of Gybele worshipped
there was carried to Rome during the Punic wars, it is
likely that the customs observed at those games were
borrowed also by the Romans; and this is all the more
likely as the word mappa is said to be a Punic word : so that
the use of this folded towel as a signal to begin the games
(something like the modem sponge in prize-fights) was
probably borrowed by the Northern Tribes who passed into
India, and especially by the S&kyas, a chivalrous and
exotic race.
Comparing then the mappa, as seen in the plates of Mar-
riott's book, with the '' dumb-bell " instrument in the hand
of the Prince Siddftrtha in "Tree and Serpent "Worship"
in the plates (referred to above), I think we may find an
explanation of the emblems there represented.
I am, dear Sir, faithfully yours,
S. Seal.
The Seer$tary of the Moyal Attatie Society*
649
NOTES OF THE QUARTER.
(June, July, Anguit.)
Notes on a Collbction of MSS. obtained by Dr. Oimktie,
of the Bengal Medical Service, at Kathmandu, and note
deposited in the Cambridge University Library ^ and in
the British Museum. By Obcil Bbndall, M.A.,
M.R.A.S.
Since I first proposed to the Society some years ago a
scheme for publishing notes on uncatalogued MSS., little has
been done to forward the scheme. I am now glad to be able
to give a specimen of the notes that I should like to see
made on uncatalogued MSS., and hope that other members
will contribute information similar or more detailed.
The collection of MSS. now described was made in Nepal by my
friend Dr. G. H. D. (Hmlette, Residency Surgeon at Eathmandu.
He brought them to me when he came home on furlough last
autumn, in order that I might identify them and dispose of them
for him to such libraries as might desire them. I found the chiefs
of the two collections of MSS. that I am most interested in, those
of Cambridge UniTersity and the British Museum, very willing to
entertain Dr. Oimlette's offer, and I have therefore suggested an
apportionment between these two institutions (which has been
accepted), bearing in mind, when so suggesting, the needs and the
specialities of each collection, in the same way that I had done in
the case of the MSS. I had myself brought from Nepal some years
ago.
As however it may be some time before either library gives an
official printed account of these books, I send, for the information of
scholars, a list of the books, their location, and a few notes on some
550 NOTES OF THE QUAETEB.
of the chief palaeographical and other points of interest that I have
observed.
MS8. at Camhridgs.
I. Suvarna-prabh&ia, This is, as far as I can iind, the only
known copy of this book on palm-leaf. The MS. is dated in words
Nepal Samvat (elapsed * prai/dte*) 505 (a.d. 1386, Yaigakha, sita,
Umatithau Jiva dine (Thursday). The book is reckoned of im-
portance in Nepal, being one of the ** nine dharmas " of the
Nepalese Bnddhists. Bee ^jendralala Mitra, Nepalese JBuddhtsi
ZiUrature, pp. 241-249. The MS. was copied for a "^akya-
bhikshu" named ^ladhvaja, resident at Bhauta-mahanagar! (a
Tibetan settlement ?), by Ylrasimha of Tambu. This is the only
Buddhistic work in the present collection.
II. Jayadatta's Aqvavaidyaka. Becently edited in the Biblio-
theca Indica from four MSB., some of which were imperfect. This
MS. was written k.s. 484 (a.d. 1364), on Thursday, 13th of Magha,
dark half, (^tavsj^b, nakshatra.
III. Praya^citta-samuccaya, a ^aiva work on penance by Hrida-
ya9iva. This is a book apparently unknown, founded on several
Tantras, and possibly compiled for the use of the Tantrik ^aivism
of Nepal. Its author, Hyidayagiva, pupil of I9vara9iva, who was
descended ' (spiritually ?) from a sage called Ranipadra-lambakarna
of the Mattamayura yam9a, who resided in the Gokatika maths.
Owing to the early date of the MS. (see below) it may be of biblio-
graphical value to give the names of some of the works cited.
These are : Pushkara-parameqvara-tantra, fol. 5i, 8a, 9h ; Dhenu-
man^ala- mantra -ko^a, Bh; Svayambhuva-sutra-sangraha, 22a;
Eiri^a-tantra, 29^, Slh ; ^^vadharmottara, 283 ; Pratishtha-
parame9vara-tantra, 483; Yidyapurana, 63a-66a; Kaurava, 66a-h;
Mrigendra-tattva-samhita, 66J-683 ; Nih9vasa-karika, nih9va-
Bottara, 6Slh-70a; Sahasra-9ivabheda, 72a; Siddhi-yoge9vai1mata,
96 ; Sarvajnana-mahodadhi, 101a ; Parame9varatantra,' samanya
prakarana, 102-3; Yathula-tantra, 127 b.
Amongst the penances I note one for mUeehadi-iparqana (99a),
which curiously shows how times have changed in India, when at
present high-caste pan4its are so glad to extend to even ' mleccha ^
^ ant ta santatau.
s A aniqtie MS. of tbii book is interesting, as being the oldest dated Sanskrit
MS. (Cambridge Univ. library, Add. 1049 ; CaUUogui^ pp. 27» xzxiz. iqq.).
K0TS8 OF THK QrARTKH. tA\
SanskritiBts " the right hand of fDUov»)u|v** T\k^ \hh4 iHrntwiw*
2000 granthas (9loka8).
The MS. was written in Nepal Saiprat d78 (A.n« nAM\ In
Anandadeva's reign, for Pao^it Udajaaoma, by tho • KuUputii^i*
Bajyapalaqila, at Bhaktapur (Bhatgfton).
The systems of akshara-coonting and ordinary dooinm) nuint^m-
tion are cnriously mixed by the scribe, who uuiuborfi Uuivon ^H, 'J4
fw n ^"^ ^^^ ttti* -'^^^ akihara9 uaod oori*eiipond with thoio
given in the table in my Catalogue of Budilhini Haimkrlt MS8, at
Cambridge for M8S. of a.d. 1066 and llOfi.
IV. Varahamihira's Bfihaj-jiltttka. Tliiii mukcm tlia nmnuA
palm-leaf copy of the work now ot Curabridgo ; iho oth«r, limrki»d
Add. 1479, having been sent by Dr. 1). Wright (Wri«ht*« Nm|iu1,
p. 321). The present MS. wants fol. 1. It In liowovitr tl)» Mar,
being dated by the chronogram ^'Gralittinduc^ciu bhQi&lxIft, prMUmiim-
karttika-sucit," i.e. in Karttik, of 619 (ir.M,)» *'* luU'rmlury jitrir,
The colophon is written in Sanskrit, so barbiiMiis m Ui \m iiiiifi«
telligible. It was written by an astrologer (fbtivMjfMi) mmn^l
Oajanja (a name still not uncommon in Vis\ml) Utt his nwu mnh,
With self -depreciation (not however unjuMtifi'^'lj \m <;ttlls hUimlf
tvalpabudhi (sic), and adds further cm : jKirtthastitK«Ui/|i iiytvi^
rakshatavya ^sic) pustakaqi |, a cauti<m tor whi';b^ I irnd, iUtti Urn
excellent regulations for lending our MHH. at HarnhM^^ ^a nt^f^hl,
I consider, for other sir/jilar llhruiu^^ umy proYt', miHUi^ht Hh
alsQ gives the curioui ver«e as i4i U>e in\tUi te^^i/^^y ui MtH^i(^/Uf
foon^l in Camb. AdL Mh. UA^i, istUA A,u. li^P^f, mA Uf^M m Uj^
Intixjduction tc* mj Cats>.4^u^ ^at p. iXy, Th^ UH, ht f//,l'/Wk/t l/f
•evend frapuexitt £n/xb Fu/^i^as mA M*^ w^/t'kM, *HiH wriWm m
literaiT mk-rst. W;jL4r ^:\i>i^ yjfi^MM iA y^slei^Juit, *M *//v.y. xf .-a^ *4
flwarrMu toid ti«fc ULK,
^rl'-oiiini't 0'^u;ii. . W'".>n it l^^^i^, 4H*C <l*s*>.<i ij^u-i^i vu^tit, h^^uit,
552 NOTES OF THE QUAETEB.
MSS. in the JBrituh Museum.
The rest of the collection has been offered, at my suggeBtion, by
the original owner to the British Museum, which has accordingly
purchased it.
In Pauranik literature, we have (VII. VIII.) two more MSS. of
portions of the Bhagavata. One, containing ^ifdhara's commentary
on Bk. X., was written in Bengal, and dated in the 31 7th year of
Lakshmana era, eaitra tudi pratipad gurau dine.
IX. The Sarasyata Grammar. MS. probably of the fourteenth
century, and perhaps written in the North- West Provinces, where
the work appears to have been composed.
X. This is a collection of three grammatical works, written in a
Bengali hand by the same scribe, Kaqrl-vaglQvaray'for the Buddhist
monk and elder,' Vararatna, at a village apparently called Xapisia.
I have given the three colophons in full, because they contain some
curious incidental points, and because it is of itself a most important
historical fact to find Buddhism existing in Bengal in the fifteenth
century.' I am also interested in noting one of the laudatory
epithets given to the mahasthavira, viz. advayahodhicitta-cinta-
mani-pratirupaka. This illustrates a numismatic conjecture which
I offered some years ago to the consideration of the Society, and
which has been since adopted in Prof. P. (Gardner's Catalogue of
Bactrian Coins in the British Museum, that the legend OAYO BOY,
on a well-known Indo-Scythic coin, must be interpreted Advaya
Buddha. This was made on the authority of Hemacandra 234,
where we find Advaya as a name of the Buddha, Bohtlingk and
Both explaining the word as '' Seine Dualitat kennend," in the
light of the longer form advayavddin, which they cite from the
Amarako^a, and which actually occurs in the Divyavadana. But
the present passage tends to show that this explanation is not
^ CnrioiidT enough, the writer of another early Bengali MS., described in my
Cambrid^ Cfatalogne, and in the Oriental Series of the PalaBographical^Society,
begins with the same prefix Ka(^-. I know of no explanation of the form, unless
it oe some oormption of Ka9!, which the other name (K^rigayakara) rather
siurgests.
^ It is interesting to note that in modem Ceylon these irpco'/S^cpoc are called
iihavira, not thero, the Pali form which one would rather have expected.
> It is of course possible that the MS. may have been written in Nepal by a
Benffali scribe, a Buddhist refugee ; but the use of the Yikrama era makes this
decidedly improbable. I called attention to the existence of Buddhism at a later
date in Bengal than had often been supposed in my paper on the MSS. from
Nepal, in the Yerhandlungen of the Berlin Congress of Orientalists of 1881 (II.
ii. p. 198).
NOTES OF THE QUABTEB. 653
neoessary, and that probably o^Jvaya was applied both to the Buddha
himself and to the bodht^ in virtue of which he was ' huddha^^ just
in the same way as it was to Brahma, viz. in the sense of ''unique,
having no second."
MS. begins : Name Manjukumaraya ||
Tract 1. r/.69] Erit-panjik& ends : Iti shashfa^ pada^ sampOrna
iti samapta^ || ^'l-Mahasthayira-prl-Yararatna Mahatmabhavanam
pustiti I Yfittitraya-yivarava Trilocanadasa-vibhanjita likhita
Ea^rlvaglgTarena yathadpshtam iti paTihare9&tra sarvathi ^o«
dhanlya sadbhir iti.| Jyeshfhasudi 14 some dine likhitra sampur-
9ita(!)catia|ni
Tr. 2 begins : Namo Buddhaya bhagavate | Colophon : Iti ^it
Durgasiipha-yiracitayam XJnadiTpttau caturtha^ pada^ samaptaf^.
^rimad-Yikramasenasyatlta-samTatsara saip 1479 a^vina sudi 2
soma dine Eapisia-grame pnstakam alekhi Ka9rlTagl9vareneti |
Qriman-mahatmabhaya-mahodaracarita-^ilmatTathagatoktadlksha-
rakshana- vicakshanaqesha - dosha -kshayatini^kalanklbhuta-candra-
ma-prayo hi bhagavan Qrloiat-sthaTira-Qri Yararatna m8hA9ayanam
pustakam idaip nijapatha-hetau likhapitam iti | sy&rtha-parartha-
sampadTfiddhyarthaiiL | u^adi^Titti e-karapasyeti : yath&dfishtam
iti pariharaf^.
Tr. 3 begins : Om Namal^ ^itmad-Yadirajaya.^ Colophon : Iti
9ri Durgasiipha-yiracita LingakarikaTfitti^ sam&pta || ^rl-Yiknuna-
senasya tlta saqi 1479 marga9lrsha badi 14 ^ukre, Kapisia grfime
likhitam i [dam ?]. 9^ J& bhikshu-Maha8thayira-9 Qnyatasarvakara-
varopeta-mahakanipa^flanralambanaTiTarjjitabhijnadTayabodhicitta*
9intamanipratirupaka-^rl Yararatna-Mahatmabhavanam pustakam
idam ||.
From this it will be seen that the tracts are all connected with
the Katantra school of grammar. Tracts 2 and 3, the Un&di-vfitU
and the LUigakArikd-vfiUi^ are by Dnrgasiipha, the greatest exponent
of the school; tnust 1 being apparently the List portion of Trilocana-
dasa's saper-commentary, the Kitantra-vfitti-paajiki, though it
does not appear to correspond exactly with the K88« at Calcutta or
Oxford {Rajemdraldla Mitra, Descr. Cat. of Sansk. MSB. As. Soc.
Beng. pt. L pp. 6, 6, and Au/rscht, Cat. Bodl. p. 169).
XL This is chiefly a bundle of palm^leaves containing tnanirai^
charms, etc., entitled Bba^anga; but one Leaf contains the beginning
of a oommentary, apparently on the nva grammatical work the
> U. ICaftja-^
554 NOTES OF THE QUARTEE.
Dhatuparajana of Pur^acandra, of which I obtained a copy in
Nepal. This commentary begins: Nama^ Sarvajnaya | Dhata-
parayana samyag nirupya Tyayahari^am | Kosha ftkhyata-ratnanam
svabhogaya karishyate ||.
XII. Sumata-mahatantra, a work on Jyotisha, not, I beHeve,
known, ff. 123. It begins : Tvaip Brahma tvan ca Eadra tvam
Yishnus tvaip ca Prajapatih | After more invocations it continues:
Jnatnm icchamy aham deva-jyoti 9a8tram suni9cayam | and refers
to the Surya-siddhanta. Dated Nep. Samv. 476 or a.d. 1356, on
Sunday, 10th of dark half of Pausha.
XIII. is likewise astronomical, and of abont the same date and
size. The main work is a commentary on passages in the Brihaj-
jataka of Yaraha Mihira. There are also a few fragments of works
on similar subjects.
XIY. is a well-written MS., in the writing of Nepal or North
Bengal, of the Amaru-9ataka, perhaps of the fifteenth century. It
contains a short commentary, which appears to be new, beginning :
Parvatyah katakaho vaktravalokanatp tvam patu.
XY. Two ritual works referring to pilgrimages and the like.
(1) Ganga-kritya-viveka. Written in the Bengali character, and
ending with the colophon: iti maharajadhiraja-Harinarayanatmaja-
maharajadhirajar9i1mad-Ramabhadra-deva-padanaqi kfite ^rl Yardha-
rmana-kfitau Oangftk^tyaviveka^ samaptah || La. Sam. 376
Pausha-badi 13 Budhe Belaunl-grame . . . likhitaisha pustlti. La.
Sam stands for Lakshmana-Sena-SaqiTat, as I pointed out in my
description of pi. Ixzxii. of the Palfeographical Society's Oriental
Series. (2) is a similar but shorter work, referring to Ghtyu. We
may compare the Ghiyakritya in Dr. Mjendralala Mitra's "Notices,"
No. 1 599, though this seems to be a di£ferent book.
XYI. Toga-yajnavalkya, Probably the same work as that de-
scribed by Bumell (Tanjore Cat. p. 112) and Hall (Index, p. 14).
The MS. has lost its concluding leaves, but it may be important for
the chronology of the Dar^ana-literature to mention that I assign
the MS. to the eleventh century, a conclusion with which I may
say my friend Dr. Biihler, to whom I showed the MS., agrees.
C£CiL Behdall.
NOTES OF THE QTTAETEB. 655
KoTEs AiTD News.
The Field announces that the Goyemment of India is going to bring
out a complete History of the Yertebrata of India, Ceylon, and the
Transgangetic Provinces, under the general editorship of Mr. Blan-
ford; Dr. Day taking the Ichthyology as his special province.
NothiDg could be more timely, in the face of the present movement
amongst both Anglo-Indians and natives in favour of natural
science, and no better men could have been chosen for the work,
which will be welcome throughout India ; and (if in a moderately
cheap form) pay its own way. — ^W. F. Sdtglaib, Bombay C.8.
It is convenient to record the progress of Bible-translation from
a linguistic point of view, as indicating the expansion of our know-
ledge of languages. E.N.G., Au^. 19, 1888.
Asia.
Aryan Family.
1. A Gospel has been translated into the Mult&ni or Jatki language.
2. A GK)8pel has been translated into the Konkani, a dialect of the
Mardthi language.
8. A Gospel has been translated into the Mitghadi, a dialect of the
Hindi.
JDravidian Family.
4. A Gospel has been translated into Badiga.
5. Two Gospels have been translated into the Rajmahdli (or Malto,
or Maler, or Pahari) language, spoken by the hiUmen near
Bajmahal.
jSblarian Group.
6. A portion of the New Testament has been translated into the
Mandaii or K61 language.
Fxtreme Orimt.
7. The Bible has been entirely translated into the language of
Japan.
8. A Gospel has been translated into the Pangasine, spoken in the
Philippine Islands.
£u8iian I>ominioH».
9. A portion of the New Testament has been translated into the
Kalmuk dialect of the Mongol language.
RTXPBIV AUinir AITD 80X9, PUVTSBS. HUTPOED.
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INDEX.
As the second series of the JoumriLL of ihb BoTix Asiatic
SoGiBTT comes to an end with this number, it has been deemed
advisable to add a complete Index to both the series, old and
new, as well as to the Tbahsactioits which preceded them. To
prepare a new Index would have been impossible, so the plan
adopted has been to rearrange in one alphabetical list all the
separate indices which have been appended to each volume.
The result has been to give a practically complete view of the
subjects dealt with in the forty-three volumes hitherto published.
In the list of Authors, which has been added, those who wrote
in the 'Asiatic Reseabches' are also included. Proper names
are spelt in the Index, not according to the modem system, but
according to the usage of the authors themselves.
The abbreviations used are : —
IVans. for the Transactions.
0.8, for the Old Series, of the Journal,
fi.*. ,, rJew „ ,, ,,
and the numbers quoted are those of the pages.
A, the prefix, in Semitic, XI Y. 112, n.8.
A, the termination, often, in Assyrian, weakened into t, IX.
36, n.B.
Abacus, the use of, perhaps introduced into India from
Bactria, XIY. 353, n.B, ; suggested origin of this name,
354 ; the great importance of this instrument, and its remote
antiquity, XV. 8, «.«. ; etymology of, probably Phoenician, 9.
Abbas Mirza, Prince Koyal of Persia, biographical sketch of,
I. 322, 0.8. ; notice of his death, iv.
Abbaside coins, VII. 262, n.B,
Abdulmutalib, V. 303, n.«.
Abe no Miushi, one of the suitors of the Lady Eaguya, and
how he failed in the task imposed on him by her, XIX.
16, n.8.
Abhaya-giri, the dagaba erected b.c. 89, XX. 173, n,8.
Abhinava Manga Raja, the author of a valuable dictionary
in Eannada verse on the plan of the Amara-Koaha, X V.
^ 313, n.8.
Abhiras, V. 58, n.8.
VOL. XX. — [hSW 8BBII8.] A
ABH— AGO
cara, VIII. 41, n.s.
Abhishekanirukti, YIII. 27, n.s,
Abhisheka Pandyan, III. 207, o.s.
Abjad, the Arabic, arbitrary in its assignment of numerical
powers to letters, XIV. 352, w.<.
Abkhas or Abas language spoken in the Caucasus, XVII.
155, n.8.
Abkhazian, vocabulary of, XIX. 146, n.8,
Aboo Huneefa, conditions stated by, under which a country
once Dar-ool-Islam becomes Dar-ool-Hurb, XIII. 433, n.«.
Aboulghazi, distinction drawn by, between cultivated Turkish
and the rude Ohagatai, XII. 374. n.s.
Abramam, town of. III. 175, o.s. ; lake, 183.
Abrech, derivation of the word, XVIII. 530, » s.
Abii Hanifah, II. 81, o.8.
Abu Shahrein, Notes on, by J. E. Taylor, Esq., XV. 404, cs.
Abu-Simbel, inscription of, alphabetically, nearer to Phcenician
than to Phrygian, X. 363, n.s. ; general character of, ibid.
Abu Sinan Gharib, description of a dirhem struck by, XVIII.
515, n.s.
Abu Talib Khan, poetical biography of, IX. 153, o.s.
Abubekr assumes the title of ^' Ehalifah resul Allah,'' the
" Vicegerent of the sent of God," IX. 381, n.«. ; proper
meaning of this name, XIII. 239, n.s.
Abul-Fazl, the Minister of Akbar, largely indebted to the
Jaina priests and their carefully-preserved traditions, IX. 182,
n.s. ; account by, of the founding of Putten, XIII. 95, n,8.
Abulfeda, publication of the Arabic text of, I. 365, o.s. ;
the geographer, various and successive titles borne by,
IX. 358, n.s. ; receives the Sultanat of Hamath from the
Sultan of Egypt, 372 ; notices the grievous treatment of
Musalmans by Jengiz Khan, 386.
Abul Ghazi of Khiva, his ''Genealogical History of the
Tartars," XVIII. 190, n.s.
Abul-Kasim, VII. 144, n.s.
Abu'l Musayyib Rafi', an 'Okayli prince, text and transla-
tion of an ode by, XVIII. 518, n.8.
Acaciae, XX. 390, cs.
Acacius, IV. 231, n.s.
Academy, archaeological papers in. Report 1880, XII. lv, n.s.
Accadian, like other agglutinative languages, possessed only
two real tenses, IX. 41, n.s. ; was the true source of the
Assyrian mythology and Pantheon, and of civilization, art,
and science, 41 ; taught the Assyrians the difference
between past and present time, 42.
ACH— ADV 8
Achala, XX. 454, 0.8.
Achalavaram, XX. 453, 0.8.
Acharya, XX. 382, 0.8.
Acharya-sura, VIII. 21, n.«.
Achata bhata pravesya, I. 285, n.8,
A9oka, South Indian alphabet of, XYII. 441, n,8.
Adam, M. Lucien, excellent grammar by, of the Manchu
language, XI. 346, n.8.
Adam's Peak in Ceylon, the name of Potaraka given to it,
and why, XV. 341, n.«.
Adams, Prof., letter from, to Mr. Redhouse, XII. 329, n.«.
Adawlut, the, XVIII. 282, 0.8.
Adems, or Amazirgh dialect, vocabulary of. III. 118, o.«.
Aden, account of, VIII. 279, 0.8. ; XX. 309, 0.8.
coin of Imran ibn Muhammad, king of, IX. 136, n.«.
Adbeel, VI. 11, n,8.
Adhikanan, memoirs of, I. 141, 0,8,
Adhiraja. IV. 84, n.8.
Adhivasanavidhi, VIII. 45, n.8.
Adi Buddha, principal attributes of, II. 314, 0.8, ; a Theistic
school who worshipped him in the 10th century a.d., XV.
_ 419, n.8.
Adi Gfranth, religious book of the Sikhs, IX. 45, 0.8. ; V.
197, n.8. ; description of the, XVII. 387, n.8. ; quotations
from, 392, 401 ; the arrangement of the hymns of the,
XVIII. 437, n.8. ; XIX. 606, n.8.
Adikarma-pradipa, VIII. 46, n.8.
Adinapour of Baber interpreted by V. de St. Martin as
Oudyanapoura, the City of Gardens, possibly the Greek
Dionysopolis, XIII. 190, n.8.
Adisetu Tirtha, III. 169, 0.8.
Aditi, XX. 422, 0.8. ; I. 64, 344, n.8.
Aditya Dynasty, IV. 96, 101, n.8.
Adityas, the, iX. 412, 0.8. ; I. 75, n.8.
Adjective and demonstrative in the South Indian languages
invariably precede the substantive, X. 11, n.8.
Adjectives, in Gaurian and Komance, account of, XII. 344, n.8.
Adlan, J. Halevy's observations on the word, XIX. 704, n.8.
Adoption, force of the principle of, XIII. 224, n.8.
Adule, XX. 300, 302, ;305, 0.8.
Adultery, law of, in Nepal, I. 45, 0.8.
Advances to ryots, XX. 19, 0.8.
Adverba, in Gaurian and Romance, in some cases preserved,
in others formed from the oblique cases of substantives,
IIL 361, n.8.
4 ^D— AGA
^des, the Latin word, suggests the probability of further
Latin words, in Phrygian Inscriptions, X. 361, n.<.
^lius Gallus, Campaign of, YI. 121, n.«.
-^thiopic, the next to Assyrian in antiquity of forms, X.
246, n.8.; imperfect, ought, without Assyrian, to have
been regarded as no new formation from the subjunctive,
248 ; papers, etc., referring to, with notice of M.
D'Abbadie's admirable Diet, de la langue Amarinna,
XIV. Lxxxix, n.s.; notes on, XV. lxxx, n.«. ; XVI.
xc, n.8,
iEthra, XX. 285, o.s.
Afghan legend of descent from Saul, XX. 58, o,8.
Frontier, work of building roofs in, XX. 61, n.8.
Testament, XX. 52, o.8.
Afghanistan, extreme despotism checked by the rugged
nature of the country, XIII. 261, n.8.; Elphinstone's,
XVIII. 238, 0.8. ; Surgeon-General Bellew's paper on the
names borne by some of the tribes of, XIX. 503, n.8.
Afghans, on the language of, by Lord Strangford, XX. 52, 0.8.;
V . 73, n.8. ; call themselves Beni Israel, and are, especially
the hill-men, very Jewish in type, XVI. 27, ».«.
Africa, S. of the Equator, for linguistic purposes forms a
third and distinct region, XIV. 164, n.8. ; N. of Equator,
divisible linguistically into two chief regions, ibid. ; the
most northern region of, comprises the Semitic and Hamitic
groups, 164; second or central region of, has two dis-
tinct groups of languages, those of the Nuba-Fulah and the
Negro, l56; Southern linguistic group, three dominant
languages — the Eafir or Xosa, Zulu, and Chuana, 169 ; S.
of the Equator, two distinct groups of languages, the
Bantu and the Hottentot-Bushman, ibid. ; Southern, three
distinct sub-branches of the two chief languages of, ibid. ;
notice of works, etc., in connexion with the languages of,
cxxxii ; works relating to the languages of, XII. cxi, n.8.;
West Coast of, mode of communication on the, XVII. 420,
n.8. ; titles of recent books on the languages of, XVIII.
CLXIV, n,8.
African Bibliography, XX. 143, n.s.; XV. cxxiii, n.8.;
XVI. cxxxvi, n.8. ; XIX. 686, n.8. ; philology, XIX. 184,
342, 545, 706, n.8. ; XX. 144,166, n.8.
Africans, generally count with their fingers, and often with
their toes, XVI. 142, n.s.
Africanus, Chronology of, XVIII. 380, o.8. ; by Syncellus,
379.
Agap' Porul, a Tamil work on love, XIX. 575, n.8.
AGA— AGir 6
Agastya, memoir of, 1. 140, o.s, ; III. 213, o.a. ; the legendary
author of the Tamil language, XIX. 559, n.«.
Agatharchides, XX. 309, o,8.
Agathocles, coin of, XX. 124, o.s,
Agathocles and Diodotus, coin of, XX. 123, o.t.
Agathocles and Euthydemus, coin of, XX. 124, o.«.
Agau, Kushites identified with the, XIX. 646, n.8.
language, comparison of the, with Assyrian, XVII.
72, n.«.
Agencies, retail, XX. 20, o.s.
Agglutinate language, XX. 314, o.s,
Agni, XX. 408, 421, o.s. ; I. 122, n.«.
Agnindra, ''Lord of Fire,'' points to the ancient religion of
the Indians and Persians, IX. 65, n.s,
-^g^f journey to, after the surrender of Hughli, occupied
eleven months, XI. 96, n.«.
Agraios, XX. 284, o.s.
Agreements and differences in comparative translations of
inscription of Tiglath-Pileser, XVIII. 157, o.s.
Agriculture and Commerce, Committee of, lY. Lix, o.s. ;
report of, XIX. xx, o.s.
Agriculture in the Western Provinces of India, VIII. 93, o.s.
Aguta, the real founder of the Kin Dynasty, IX. 247, n,s. ;
the nephew of Pu la su, made commander of the army,
254 ; captures the chief town of Leou Kho, 255; gallant
conduct of, 257 ; refuses to dance before the Khitan
Emperor 259 ; prepares to increase his troops and, shortly
after, ascends the throne, 259; naturally, the centre of
much romantic legend, 259; his rise gradual, as the trusted
confidant of more than one king, 261 ; refuses a Ehitan
cuirass, that he might not seem dependent on them, 262 ;
declines to inform the Khitan Emperor of his accession,
263 ; discovers the weakness of the Khitans, and resolves
to make war on them, 264 ; the first complete victory of,
266 ; second victory of, 268 ; accepts at length the title of
Emperor, a.d. 1115, 269 ; names his dynasty the Kin or
Golden, 269 ; third victory, 270 ; fourth victory, 272 ;
Coreans send an embassy to, to congratulate him on his
victory, 273 ; establishes the laws of marriage, 274 ;
abolishes the Khitan laws, and divides his people into
centuries, 274 ; various embassies to and from the Khitan
and Sung d}masties, 275 ; causes a new alphabet to be
made for the Kin, based on the Chinese Kiai tsi characters,
277; takes the city of Shang-king and proposes to the
Sung Emperor an attack by him on the Khitans to the
6 AHA— AJA
south, 278 ; fifth campaign, 280 ; sixth campaign, 283 ;
receives homage in the imperial palace of Yen £ing, the
modem Peking, 285 ; cedes several towns to the Chinese,
286 ; dies at the Lake Pu tu aged 55 years, 289.
Ahasuerus, derivation of the name, XVIII. 536, n.s.
Ahlwardt, Prof., value of his work, Ueber die Aechtheit den
alter Arabischen Gedichte, XI. 80, n.«.
Ahmed Shah Nakshabandi's book Kashmir to Yarkand,
translated by Dowson, XII. 372, o.«.
Ahmednuggur, XX. 10, o.s.
Ahmet, titles of, in letters to Henry IV. of France, IX,
395, n.8.
Ahom, extinct as a race, and merged into the Assamese
Hindu, XII. 251, n.«.
Ahoratravidhanakatha, VIII. 19, n.8.
Ahoratravratakathavidhi, VIII. 18, 46, 47, n.s,
Ahuramazda, XIX. 204, n.s.
Ain-i-Akbari, notice in, shows that Asoka himself introduced
Jainism into Kashmir, IX. 183, n.s.
Aino language, grammar of the, XIX. 332, 702, n.s,
A'inos, forgotten alphabet among the, XVII. 439, n.s.
Ainslie, Dr. Whitelaw, on the Lepra Arabum, Trans. I. 282 ;
on Atmospheric Influence, Trans. III. 55 ; on Small-pox
and Inoculation in the East, Trans. II. 52 ; on Atmospherical
Influence, I. 368, o.s. ; II. 13, o.s. ; III. 55, o.s.
Aishin-Gioro, origin of the tale of the miraculous birth of,
IX. 237, n.s.; a name given to their nation by the Kin
Tartars, 238 ; held by M. Remusat, and, most recently, by
M. Gorski, to be a real personage, 239; appears in the
Saga, as a stranger and a boy, 243.
Aiswarika system, 11. 299, o.s.
Aitareya-Brahmana, XIII. 102, os. ; XX. 411, o.s.
Aiton-Shans, tribe of, found in the districts of Lakhimpur,
XII. 250, n.s.
Ajanta, visit to the cave temples of, Trans. II. 362 ; cave
temples, VIII. 44, o,s. ; chief figures in the paintings
at, aI. 156, n.s» ; character of the paintings copied
by Mr. Griffiths at, ibid. ; principal woman in pictures
at, no doubt the wife of the stout seated man, ibid.;
fresco on the walls of, certainly connected with the
paintings on the roof, ibid. ; character of the embassy
represented in fresco at, ibid. ; fresco at, represents an
Indian king on his throne receiving a deputation of
people, obviously foreigners, 157; caves, relative age
of, generally shown by their position, 158 ; portraits on
AZ— AKK 7
roof of Caye No. 1 at, most probably those of Ehosru II.
and Shirin, 169 ; cayes at, in all 26 in number, the oldest
a Yihara, of yery simple construction, 158; cayes at,
three not finished, and therefore late, 159 ; royal person-
age on fresco at, certainly a Persian, 162 ; inference from
the Persian costume of figures in the paintings at, ibid, ;
paintings at, no reason to suppose any Buddhist represented,
ibid. ; faces of the personages on paintings at, damaged
by the Muhammadans, 163; all the four paintings at,
represent the same personages, ibid. ; painting at, almost
certainly represents the embassy from Ehosru to Pula-
kesi, 167 ; cayes at, within the kingdom of Pulakesi, 168.
Ak Hisar, a mysterious inscription at, XYIII. 568, n.s.
Aka Eedes, a large and powerful tribe to the east, north-
west, and centre of the middle Andaman, kindly behaviour
of, XIII. 476, n.8.
Aka language, rather to be classed with those South of the
Brahmaputra, X. 16, n.8. ; certainly, an independent mem-
ber of the Tibeto-Burman group, ibid,
Akbar, names of the officers in the house of, XIII. 254, n.s. ;
Count Noer's great work on, XVIII, cxLViii, n.8. ; copper
coins of, XVIII. 568, n.s.
Akhlak e Naseri, extract from. Trans. I. 514.
Akhmim, discovery of large numbers of mummies at, XVII.
cxiv, n.8.
Akilla, the city of, probably the present El-Eilhat, X. 169, n.8.
Akinoyonaga-no-monogatari, a Japanese romance, XIX. 44, n.8.
Akkadi, XX. 447, o.s.
Akkadian, contains many Semitic words, XVIII. 412, n.s. ;
pronouns, notes on, XVII. 65, n.s. ; invasion of Mesopo-
tamia, its effect on the Babylonian language, XIX. 636,
n.8. ; origin of the Cuneiform syllabary discussed, and
dismissed, 644 ; and Egyptian languages, theory of a rela-
tionship between the, 650.
Akkadians, language of, ultimately developed into two
dialects, called respectively Sumerian and Akkadian, XVL
302, n.s. ; perhaps travelled south-east into Babylonia
(being the Cassites or Cassasans of later writers), ibid. ;
possible original home of, in Cappadocia, ibid. ; a multitude
of homophones were developed out of roots originally quite
distinct, 307 ; essentially monosyllabic, the concrete noun
being the simple root, 309 ; numerals in, 311 ; dialect? of,
modes of expressing the cases, etc., in, 312; the verbal
root in, with or without the lengthening, 313 ; examples
of the imperative in abj 322.
HTBPHnr ADvnir avd ion, pbxvtsbs. bsetfoed.
/
INDEX.
As the second series of the Joubnal of the Botal Asiatic
Society comes to an end with this number, it has been deemed
advisable to add a complete Index to both the series, old and
new, as well as to the Teaksactions which preceded them. To
prepare a new Index would have been impossible, so the plan
adopted has been to rearrange in one alphabetical list all the
separate indices which have been appended to each volume.
The result has been to give a practically complete view of the
subjects dealt with in the forty-three volumes hitherto published.
In the list of Authors, which has been added, those who wrote
in the ^ Asiatic Resbabches ' are also included. Proper names
are spelt in the Index, not according to the modem system, but
according to the usage of the authors themselves.
The abbreviations used are : —
TVans, for the Transactions.
0.8. for the Old Series, of the Journal.
fi.s, ,, JMew „ ,, ,,
and the numbers quoted are those of the pages.
A, the prefix, in Semitic, XI Y. 112, n.s.
A, the termination, ofteni in Assyrian, weakened into i, IX.
36, n.8.
Abacus, the use of, perhaps introduced into India from
Bactria, XIY. 353, n.8. ; suggested origin of this name,
354; the great importance of this instrument, and its remote
antiquity, XV. 8, n.s. ; etymology of, probably Phoenician, 9.
Abbas Mirza, Prince Boyal of Persia, biographical sketch of,
I. 322, 0.8. ; notice of his death, iv.
Abbaside coins, YII. 262, n.8.
Abdulmutalib, V. 303, n.8.
Abe no Miushi, one of the suitors of the Lady Eaguya, and
how he failed in the task imposed on him by her, XIX.
16, n.8.
Abhaya-giri, the dagaba erected B.C. 89, XX. 173, n.8.
Abhinava Manga Raja, the author of a valuable dictionary
in Eannada verse on the plan of the Amara-Kosha, X V.
^ 313, n.s.
Abhiras, V. 68, n.s.
VOL. XX. — [hew 8BRIB8.] A
10 ALM— AMA
Al-Muntazar, VII. 140, n.«.
Aloes, XX. 389, o.«.
Alor, Sindhian city of, I. 27, 232, o.8.
Al-'Otbi, III. 424, «.«.
Alphabet, the Greek, could not have travelled from Ionia
into Phrygia in the 7th century B.C., XV. 125, n.«. ;
probably introduced into Phrygia by the trade between
Sinope and Pteria, 126; Scythian, XV. 47, o.«.; Zend, Trans.
III. 530 ; derivation from a Phoenician source possible, XVI.
329, n.8. ; resemblance of, to the alphabets derived from the
Phoenician very great, 330 ; views of E. Thomas, Ra-
jendralala, Goldstiicker, Lassen, Cunningham, Dowson,
Shyamaji Krishnavarma, 331 ; no doubt that the Indians
developed it to an extent unparalleled elsewhere, 337;
views of Lepsius and Weber, 338 ; views of Drs. Biihler,
Goldschmidt, and E. S^nart upon, 342 ; theory of, pro-
pounded by Dr. Deecke, 356 ; Indian, no consistent view
of its origin, 325 ; evidently arranged by some skilled
grammarian or Brahmanical scholar, 326 ; in Tibet, XVII.
470, n.8. ; notes on the Bactrian, XX. 266, o.«.
Alphabetic literature, no real, according to Prof. F. Max
Miiller, before fifth century B.C., XVI. 327, n.s. ; system,
the outcome of the long use of ideographic and syllabic
symbols, 329.
Alphabetic stage, the Chinese language once reached the,
XVn. 453, n.8.
Alphabets, the struggle for life of, XVII. 439, n.8. ; com-
parative, Pehlvi, Hebrew, and Persian, XII. 262, o.s. ;
derivation of, V. 420, n.8. ; Assyrian, XVII. 197, o.«- ;
Assyrian and Babylonian, nature and structure of, XII.
404, 0,8. ; of Burmah and Siam, derived originally from
India, X. 27, n.8. ; Pehlvi, XIII. 375, 381, o.s.
Altaic language, XVIII. 185, n.8. ; races, the earliest prose
of the, XIX. 45, n.8. ; and IJgro-Finnish languages, IX.
XLIII, n.8.
Altamsh, coins of, VI. 348, n.8.
"Altar," ancient forms representing the word, XIX. 632, n.8.
Alwar, celebrated library at, XVII. xlix, n.8.
Amalgamate language, XX. 315, o 8.
Amarasiddhiyantraka, VIII. 28, n.8.
Amaravati Stupa, XIX. 172, n,8.
Amazirgh, remarks on the language of the. III. 106, 110, o.s. ;
report of the Rev. G. G. Renouard on the remarks, 131 ;
notes on, 151.
Amazons, who, and what, really, XI. 14-16, n.8.
AMB— AME 11
Ambashthas, X. 58, n.8.
Amb6him&nga (Blue Hill), the name of the original capital
of Madagascar, XV. 198, n.8.
Am^lineau, M. E., notice of his article ** Le Christianisme
chez les anciens Coptes," XIX. 543, 703, n.s. ; of " Le
Martyre de Jean de Phanidjoit," 544, 703 ; his " Etude
sur Saint Pachome," 703.
American cotton seed, XX. 1 6, o.s.
American Oriental Society, XIV. li, n.8. ; XVIII. cv, 547,
n.8. ; XIX. 316, n.8.
American Philological Association, Prof. Whitney's paper on
the Katha IJpanishad read before the, XIX. 700, n.s.
Amherst, Wm. Pitt, life of, XVII. iii. o.s.
Amila, VI. 17.
Amir-al-Omra, the title of the Khalif 's chief minister, IX.
384, n.s.
' Amir ibn Sa'sa'ah, pedigree of the Tribes of, XVIII. /<i{?i«^
page 526, n.s.
Amir (or commander), the earliest Arab title, IX. 384, n.8. ;
'' Commander of the Faithful'' added to, to denote the
diief's rank, ibid.; generally rendered, *' Imperatoi*," as
meaning the general of the armies, ibid. ; not necessarily
confined to officers of the highest rank, ibid. ; Joinville's
description of this title, 384.
Amir of the Faithful, a title, long restricted to individual
Khalifs, IX. 385, n.s.; but subsequently conferred on
notable persons, 385.
Amirkhanians, the Eev., engaged in translating the Bible
into the language of the Trans-Caucasus, XVIII. 187, n.8.
Amitabha, a paradise in the extreme west, a very common
belief among the Tibetans, Mongols, and Chinese, XII.
60, n.s. ; the guiding Buddha is represented as residing in,
70 ; Amitabha Sutra, II. 140, n.8.
Amithoscuta (the Cnrptus Portus of Ptolemy), certainly the
modem Muscat, A.. 169, n.8.
Ammianus Marcellinus, XX. 299, o.s.
Amnair, XX. 10, o.s.
Amol, identification of, V. 448, n.8. ; a mint-city of very rare
occurrence, XII. 545, n.s.
Amoy Yearly Feasts, XIX. 701, n.8.
Amra, an Arab poetess, XVII. 57, n.s.
Amravati Tope, description of. III. 132, n.s. ; question
whether the description of the Chinese Pilgrim can apply
to it, XII. 101, n.8. ; according to the Si-yu-ki, not describe(l
by Hiouen-Thsang, 104; the sculptures in the Sangharama
12 1MB~AND
1
at, identical with those recently found to the west of the
Indus, 109; excavations conducted at, by order of the
Duke of Buckingham, the Governor of Madras, Report
1880, L ; perhaps constructed with Bactrian art, and in-
debted to N. India for some of its sculptures, XYI. 251, «^.
Amritakanika, VIII. 26, 27, n.8.
Amritananda, VIII. 18, 24, n,8. ^
Amrukambotta, III. 168, o.a. J
AmuTfil, or year of the Elephant, XIII. 370, o.s. ^
Anabasis of Aenophon, passage of the Zab, XV. 309, o.«.
Analogies between Arabic forms and the so-called Permansiye
forms in Assyrian, X. 249, n,8.
Analogy, one of the strongest guides in the development of a
_ language, XV. 400, n.s, ^
Ananda-deva VIII. 4. n.8. W
Anantaguna, III. 208, o.8.
Anarajapura (see Anuradhapura).
Anatundirik, XX. 389, o,8.
Anberatur (t.e. Imperator), the title given by Bibars to the
Emperor Frederick II., IX. 418, n.«.
Ancessi, M., valuable paper by, in the ^^ Actes de la Soci^t^
Philologique," XV. 401, n.«.
Ancyra, the name of, marks it as an old Phrygian city, XV. ^
109, n.8. ; some remains of its early art still found there, . -
ibid.
" Ancient Arabian Poetry/' by C. J. Lyall, Sir R. Burton's
review of, XVIII. xcix, n.8.
Ancient China, metallic cowries of, XX. 428, n.8. o-
Andaman, the Great, tribes of, may be placed in two principal
classes, determinable by their laws, manners, and languages,
XIII. 488, n.8. i
Islands, language of, treated by Mr. Man and Lieut. ^
Temple, XI. 68, n.8.; general description of, XIII.
471, n.8. ; striking fact, that so many diiSerent tribes should
be found there, speaking different languages, and generally
at enmity the one with the other, 489.
Andamanese, the, ordinary or daily life and customs of»
XIII. 472, n.8. ; unable to count above two, 473 ; eat no **•
raw food, 474 ; North, little known of at present, but the
people are friendly, 479 ; the South, really one tribe, called
Bojinglji, and speaking a language of the same name, 476;
all divided into two classes, the " Eremtagas " or Jungle-
dwellers, and the "Aryawtos" or Coast-dwellers, 487;
dance (M. V. Portman), XX. 194, n.8. ; music, 181 ;
songs, 185.
AND— ANS 13
Andarab, VI. 104.
Anderson, J., M.D., valuable " Catalogue and Handbook of
the Archaeological Oolleotions in the Indian Museum at
Calcutta," XVI. lxviii, n.8.; "Expedition to Western
Yunnan," quoted, XVII. 430, n.«.
Andhra, V. 73, n.8.
Andhra country, insuflScient identification of the, XVII.
216, n.8.
dynasty, IV. 122, n.8.
Andhras, Satavahanas or Andhrabityas, as they are yariously
called, famous for the caves they excavated, XII. 285, n.8.
Andonides, XX. 285, o.8.
Andorce, XX. 10, o.8.
• Andrew, Sir W. P., life of, XIX. 524, n.8.
Anga, y. 56, 65, 73, n.8.
Angami, and, perhaps, Arung and Rengma, in class xiii., X.
21, n.8. ; the most important tribe of the Naga, XII. 229,
n.8.
Angiras, XX. 409, 412, 414, n.8.
Angirasas, the arrangement of the Big- Veda made by the,
XIX. 599, n.8.
Angola, the language in, called Bunda, XIV. 172, n.8.
Angora goat, on the white-haired, by Lieut. A. ConoUy, VI.
159, 0.8.
' Angrseca, XX. 388, 390, o.8.
Animals, hospital for, at Surat, I. 96, o.«.
I Anivartanacharya, VIII. 8, n.8.
f Anjengaom, XX. 9, 11, o.8.
Annales de VExtrhpie Orient, summary of the papers in the,
XVIII. cxxxiv, n.8.
Annamese employs Chinese characters adapted to a phonetic
^ syllabary, X. 30, n.8.
I ' Annamite and Kambojan languages, described by MM,
I Taberd, Aubaret, Aymonier, and Bastian, XI. 69, n.8.
Annamites in Cochin China, XVIII. 563, n.8.
i a lost phonetic writing of the, XVII. 44, n.8.
Y .. Annesley, Sir James, life of, IX. v. o.8.
\ Annexation, a policy of, not to be recommended, X. 115,
n,8.
Annual, Oriental, vol. i., IX. 163, o.8.
Anona, XX. 389, o.8.
Ansan, the Achaamenian capital of, probably in the plain of
Mai-Amir, XII. 84, n.8.
Ansumati, the river, noticed by Gen. Cunningham in his
ArchsDological Report for 1878-9, XV. 363, im.
14 ANT— APA
Antananariyo, general description of, XY. 197, n.«.
Antankari, III. 170| 0,8.
Antar, the sword of, II. 175, 0.8.
Anti-Brahmanical worship of the Hindus, by J. Stevenson,
VI. 239, 0.8.
Antimachus Theos, coin of, XX. 125, o.s.
Antimachus Theos and Diodotus, coin of, XX. 123, 0.8.
Antioch, XX. 299, 0.8.
Antiochus, the Inscription of, XIX. 632, n.8.
Antiquary, the Indian, papers in, IX. xxx, n,8. ; value of, as
bringing together many excellent scholars, XI. 62, n.«. ;
archaBoIogical papers in, Report 1880, XII. li, n.«. ;
general report of the papers in, XIII. xl, n.8.; XY.
L, n.8. ; XVI. Lxxi, n.8.
Ants which make gold, Oreek fables relating to, VTI. 143, 0.8.
Anula, Queen, supposed tomb of, XX. 168, n.8.
Anulomacharya, VIII. 8, n.8.
Anumanakhanda, YIII. 45, n.8.
Anumati, I. 373, n,8.
Anupamavajra, YIII. 46, n.8.
Anuradhapura, ruins at. Tram. III. 463; XIII. 164, 0.8.;
YII. 363; XYII. 214, w.«.
"The seven dagabas of," XX. 165, n.8.
Anurajapura, see Anuradhapura.
Anus, *XX. 425, 0.8.
Aorist, the construct or apocopated, in Assyrian, chiefly used
to denote vigour, IX. 88, n.8. ; mimmated form of, used in
Assyrian, without any special sense or meaning, and,
really, the more primitive one, 99.
Aorist-Past (Assyrian), nature of this tense in the Semitic
languages, XIV. 108, n.8.
Apabhramsa, a later and popular form of Prakrit, XI. 292, n.8.
Apamea, XX. 299, 0.8.
Apaoki, various successful actions of, XIII. 149-151, n.8. ;
appoints Lieou cheou Ewang chief of his Oouncil, 153 ;
speech of, on the evil practices of his brothers, 16 1 ; founds
the Palace called Ehai hoang tieng, 161 ; publishes a
general amnesty, and nominates his son Pei as his suc-
cessor, 162 ; effectually subdues the country North of
China, i.e. the Gobi desert and its borders, 163 ; builds the
Imperial city of Hoang tu, 166 ; erects a temple to Con-
fucius and, next year, goes in person to it, sending his
Empress to do honour to the temples of Buddha and the
Taouists, 167 ; orders an alphabet to be prepared for the
Ehitan language, 168 ; refuses the wise advice of his wife.
APA— AHA 15
and 18, according to the Chinese story, severely defeated,
1(59 ; speech of, to his Tartar chiefs, etc., 173 ; expedi-
tion of against the Western Tartars, 174; receiyes an
Embassy announcing the accession of a new Emperor of
China, 179 ; makes a speech to the Chinese Ambassador,
180 ; death of, at the age of 53 years, 181 ; general result
of his successful campaigns, 182.
Aparardha of the Guhyasamaja, YIII. 36, n.9.
Aphel, the formative of, whence derived, XV. 390, n.«.
Apirak, perhaps the Biblical Ophir, probably situated at
Eatif or Gerrha, XII. 214, n.s,
Apirian syllabary, the XIX. 653, n,8.
Apnavana, XX. 416, o.8,
Apobatana, the same as Ecbatana, XII. 97, 123, o»8.
Apocope, common in the final consonants of both Gaurian
and Romance languages, XI. 306, n 8.
Apocynaceous order, XX. 389, o.8.
ApoUodotus, coins of, exhibit two doubtful dates, IX. 3,
n.s,
ApoUonius, improvement by, on the earlier systems of nota-
tion, XV. 49, n.8.
ApoUonius of Philostratus, XX. 297, o.8,
ApoUonius of Tyana, Indian Travels of, XVII. 70, o.8. ;
quotation from, XVIII. 405, n.8.
Appointments for which a knowledge of Hebrew is necessary,
XIX. App. III. 348, n.8. ; for which a knowledge of
Oriental languages is necessary, XIX. App. I. 348, n.8.
in India for which a knowledge of Oriental languages
is necessary, XIX. App. II. 348, n.8.
Aqaba, VI. 15, n.8.
Arab colonists in the Indian Archipelago, XIX. 534, n.8.
culture before the time of Muhammad, one of the
subjects for King Oscar's prizes, XVIII. cl, n.8,
dow, I. 2, 11, 0.8.
Arab ships and merchants, XX. 299, o.8,
tribes, the tribal names are carefully preserved, XIII.
266, n.8.
writers assert their numerals to be of Indian origin,
XIV. 335, «.«.
Arabia, fullest description of, in Pliny's 32nd chapter, X.
159, n.8,
geography of, VI. 1, 20, 121, n.8.
inscriptions found on the southern coast of, V. 91, o.8.
Arabic coins (inedited), by Stanley Lane Poole, VIII.
291-6, n.8.
16 ABA
Arabic, first translation into, of the Gospels, lY. 172, o.«.
Gleanings from the, XVII. 57, n.s. ; XVIII. 89, n.s.
Grammar, review of Howell's, by Sir F. Gt>ldBmid,
XX. 167-60, »,«.
Hebrew, Syriac, etc., languages, IX. xli, n.«.
inscription from Ceylon, Trans. I. 545.; from Abys-
sinia, Trans, II. 573, III. 385; from Ohina, with a
translation by J. Shakespear, Y. 272, o.b, ; on a tombstone
at Malta, YI. 173, o.«.
language, many words of, in Marocco unintelligible
to uneducated Syrians, XI. 365, «.«. ; naturally divided
into many different dialects, 365 ; wide extent of country
over which it is spoken, ibid, ; observations on the variety
of its dialects and pronunciation, 366; conjugation of
verbs much modified when spoken, 368 ; comparison of
the forms of, as used in Egypt and Syria, 369.
language, remarks on, by T. M. Dickinson, Y. 316,
O.S.
language, on the dialects of. Trans. I. 580.
names, difficulty in tracing the ancient^ XIII. 237,
n.s.
new works, reviews, essays, etc., relating to, XIII.
xcvii, n.s. ; XIY. lxxxv ; XV. lxxv, ; XYI. lxxxiv ;
XYII. Lxxxix; XYIII. 556, xcvi; XIX. 176, 326, 532,
697,
has preserved the guttural and aspirate in their full
force longer than other Semitic tongues, XY. 403.
-^— a knowledge of, more appreciated by Arabic-speaking
people than that of French or Italian by Frenchmen and
Italians, XYI. 39, n.s. ; value of, in conciliating national
prejudices, after a successful campaign or contest, 39 ; may
be called the French of the East, much in the same sense,
that French has been called the language of Europe. 41.
poetry, the range of thought in, limited, XL 73, n.s.;
suffered much from the social detonation of the Courts of
Baghdad and Damascus, 79; danger to, from the too great
zeal of the Rawies or reciters, 83; rule of, that the opening
verse (consisting of two halves) should have the terminal
rhyme at the end of each ha/f, 87 ; much more fully studied
by Continental writers than by our own, 90.
Quadrant, description of an, XYII. 322, cs.
Sindi, character, I. 32, n,s.
table of prime tangents, lY. 271, o.s.
• types, the unfitness of, to convey, accurately, Libyan
sounds, XII. 431, n.s.
ARA— ARC 17
"Arabian Matriarcliate/' theory of the, discussed, XVII.
275, n.8. ; further correspondence relating to the, XYIII.
xcvi, n,8.
names of places on the Persian Gulf, easily detected
through their Greek disguise, XII. 221, n.8.
tribe and its successive subdivisions, names of an,
XVIL281,n,«.
Arabic transliteration. Sir James Redhouse's system of,
explained and illustrated, XYIII. 294, n,8.
Arabico-Pehlvi Series of Persian Coins, XIII. 373, o.8.
Arabistan, people of, distinguish between the Farsakh-
i-'Ajera and the Farsakh-i-'Arab, the former being twenty
per cent, longer, XII. 319, n.8.
Arabs in Spain, authorities for history of, XYI. 346, o.8.
Arachotes, XX. 285, o.8.
Arad, in the island of Maharrak, represents the ancient
Aradus, X. 162, n.s,
still the name of the village on the lesser Bahrein
Island called Maharak, XII. 222, n.8.
Aradhyas, V. 143, 145, n.8.
Arai Hakuseki, really rejects the idea of any "Divine
Characters," XV. 325, n.8.
Aral river, reports on, VIII. 381, o.8.
Aranuean literature, XVII. xcvi, n.8.
Aramaic forms, though modern, show how a Semitic tense
may grow up, IX. 29, n.8.
AranyanI, II. 22, 27, n.8.
Arbela, I. 195, n.8.
Arbians, XX. 285, o.«.
Arbousset, T., his contributions to the Bushman language,
XVIII. 58. n.8.
Arbuthnot, Sir A., his memoir of Sir W. Elliot^ XIX.
519, n.8.
F. F., notice of his " Persian Portraits," XIX. 329,
n.8. ; and E. 0. Wilson's account of the same, 538.
Arbutus, XX. 392, o.8.
Arch of heaven, a Chinese sculpture representing the (illus-
trated—see Plate v.), XVIII. 472, n.8.
Archaeology in India, Mr. Fergusson's last pamphlet on, XX.
60, n.8.
in India and the East, analyses of books and papers
published on, XVII. lviii, n.8. ; aVIIL lxix, 552 ; aIX.
323, 530, 693, n.8.
notices of, IX. xxv, n.8. ; XII. xlv, n.8. ; XIII.
xxxiii, n.8. ; XIV. li, n.8. ; XV. XLiv, n.8. ; XVI. lvii, n.8.
TOL. XZ. — [kIW tXEIU.] B
18 Alio— ARM
Archaeological Survey of India, summary of reports issued by
the, XVIII. LXix, n,8. ; XIX. 172, 701, n.«.
Arched vaults at Muqeyer, XV. 273, o.«.
Archelaus, XX. 269, 272, o.a.
Architecture of the Hiadiis^ notice of an essay on the, I. 145,
166, xiii, 0.8.
and sculpture in India in the earliest period, XVIII.
387, n.8.
in India, letter from Mr. Sinclair, XX. 272-6, n.8.
Ardeshir Babekan, said to have built the first dam across
the Shuster River, and out the Darian Canal, XIL
320, n.8.
Ardisiad, XX. 389, o.8.
Area of Nineveh, XV. 324, o.8.
Arenoi, XX. 285, o.8.
Aretas=Harith the Great, XIX. 591, n.8.
Argaom, XX. 10, o.8,
Argistis, the Vaunic King, claims to have overcome 'Uhe
soldiers of the country of Assyria," XIV. 406, n.8. ;
historical inscriptions of, on the cliff of the Castle of Van,
attributed by an Armenian legend to Semiramis, 670.
Argun, V. 35, n.8,
Arheng, VI. 106, n.8.
Ariabarzanes, the dynasty of, XIX. 704, n.8,
Arianoi, XX. 285, o.8.
Arian-Pali alphabet resembles the Phoenician, but must have
been worked out by an Indian, XIII. 109, n^. ; perhaps
alluded in Panini's words Yavandni lipi, 111.
Ariarathes, the dynasty of, XIX. 704, n.8.
Ariel, M., his remarks on the Kurral^ XVII. 167, n.8.
Arini, VI. 106, n.8.
Aristobulus, XIX. 283, o.8.
(quoted by Strabo), evidence of, as to the changes
of the course of the Indus, XV. 369, n.8.
Arithmetic, the Roman form of, avowedly taken from the
Greek, XV. 52, n.8.
Arizanteia, XX. 285, o.8.
Arjunayanas, V. 73, n.8.
Arjuni, XX. 420, o.«.
Arjunmal, compiler of the Adi Granth, IX. 45, o.a.
Arkand, XX. 371, 0.8.
Armenian language, XX. 65, 0.8.
a dissertation on the antiquity of, IV. 333, 0.8.
spoken in the Caucasus, XVII. 152, n.8.
literature, XIX. 180, n.8.
ARM— ART 19
Armenian works, etc., notice of, XII. cv, n.s. ; XIII. cxvii,
n,8. ; XIV. cxxv. n.a.
Armies, standing, effect of the growth of, IX. 340, n.a.
Arnold, Sir Edwin, "How the Mahabharata begins," XIV.
246, n.8.
Arnutamangalam, III. 172, o.«.
Aroce, XX 10, o.a.
Arpukotai, village of, III. 176, o.s.
Arracan Hill dialects closely connected with those of the
Burmese, Earen, and Naga tribes, IX. 424, n.s.
Hill Tribes, wrongly called by Logan " Yoma Tribes,"
X. 216, n.a. ; occupied present seats subsequent to
the Mon-Annam immigration, 217 ; include Ehyengs,
Eumis, Mons, Sak, Eyans, etc., 217 ; connected by lan-
guage, etc., with the Naga tribes and Abors of Assam,
218 ; remarkable identity in language with the Chepangs,
with examples, 218; comparison of their dialects with
those of the Garo, Eachari and other Naga races, 222 ;
connexion with the Burman, 224.
the Burmese admit that the oldest and purest form
of their language is preserved in, X. 213, n.a,
Arracanede use many words and forms now obsolete in
Burmese, X. 264, n.a. ; language more isolated than the
Burmese, hence has preserved a purer race, 215 ; and Bur-
mese differ in two essential points, 213.
Arrashid, third and last son of, who became Ehalif, the first
to introduce into his title the name of God, XI. 201, n.a, ;
eight sons of, all named Mohammed, and only, therefore,
to be distinguished by their Eunyats or Lacabs, 201.
Arrian, quotation from, account of castes, VI. 365, o.a.
Ar-Ruad, account of the island of, XVI. 33, o.a.
Arsanians, XX. 285, o.a.
"Art," a poem by H. W. Freeland, Chinese and Italian
versions of, XIX. 136, n.a.
as the servant of Religion, diffused itself westwards,
XV. 106, n.a.
Arteei, native name of the people of Persis, XV. 205, o.a.
Artaxerxes, derivation of the name, XVIII. 537, n.a.
Mnemon, account of his household in Plutarch,
XI. 25, n.a.
Artemisia I. fights at Salamis for Xerxes, XI. 13, n.a.
II. builds the first Mausoleum in honour of her
husband MausoUus, XI. 13, n.a.
Artha, doubtful meaning of, XIII. 209, n.a.
Arthakathas, origin of the Buddhist, V. 289-302, n.a.
20 ART— ART
Article, The, so important in the Romance languages, un-
known to Sanskrit and Latin, XII. 347, n.«.
Artshi language spoken in the Caucasus, XYII. 157, n.«.
Arum, XX. 390.
Arusha, III. 201, n.«.
Arya-Siddhanta, XX. 371, o,8.
Aiyabhatta, some fragments of, by Dr. Kern, XX. 371, o.«. ;
I. 392. n.8. ; XV. 21, n.8.
Aryabhattiyam, XX. 371, o,8,
Aryadharma, the Aryan system, the only name for the Hindu
religion, XIV. 289, n.«.
Aryan influence on Babylonian mythology, I. 230, n.s.
— — invasion, probability, that, in the first, the Aryans were
more powerful than when' they reached the Jumna, XV.
366, n.8.
family of languages, compared with the fiantu
languages of South Africa, XVII. 38, n,8.
languages have all undergone nearly the same changes,
XI. 287, n.8.
summary of recent additions to the literature of the,
XVI. xc, n.8. ; XVII. xcviii, n.8. ; XVIIL cm, 652, n.8. ;
XIX, 177, 328, 637, 699, n.s.
in, the noun presupposes the verb ; in the Semitic, on
the contrary, the verb presupposes the noun, IX. 63, n,8.
races, adopted existing, but did not originate any new
alphabets, XT. 362, n.8. ; the Chinese, traceable back by
their traditions to Central Asia, 289.
Sabha, or village council, XX. 330, n.8.
Aryans, or ancient Hindus of India proper, XVI. 172, o.8. i
XX. 406, 430, 0.8.
perhaps, brought with them some knowledge of the
Altai of North and "West Asia, IX. 64, n.8. ; and, though
few in number, introduced the worship of their own gods,
etc., 180 ; add two consonants of their own, quite foreign
to the local alphabet, 192.
the, on their advance north and south, left to the con-
quered tribes many of their own usages, XIII. 214, n.8,;
but few invaded the South of India, and, therefore, they
imposed no laws on the population, 219.
the chief tribes of, passed into India by the Kurrum
or Gomal route, XV. 376, n.8. ; ihe general course of, from
the Oxus by Herat and Arachosia, 359 ; difficulty of
understanding why they made so much of the river Saras-
wati, 364 ; transferred their traditions of the seven heads
of the Oxus to the Punjab, where there were really only
ART— ASO 21
five chief rivers, 372 ; earliest state of existence of, in a
corner of the Hindu Eush, 378.
Aryans, their duty to learn the Vedas, XX. 350, n.s.
Aryashtasata, I. 399, n.Jt.
Arya-tarabhattaraka, VIII. 23, n.«.
Arya-tarabhattarika, VIII. 23, 26, n.«.
Aryavarman, XX. 463, o.s.
'Asaf Ehan intercedes successfully with Shah Jehan for the
Prior and Clergy of Hughli, XI. 97, n.«.
Asamati, legend of King, II. 441, n.«.
Asamese grammar by Mr. Nathan Brown, and dictionary by
Mr. Bronson, XI. 66, n.8,
philological and hidtorical studies on, XVIII. cxviii, n.«.
Asankhata samyuttam, account of, XII. 662, n.8. ; text of,
567.
Asenath, derivation of the name, XVIII. 533, n.8,
Asene, XX. 285, o,8.
Ashara Mubashshira, ten distinguished followers of Muham*
mad, XIII. 368, o.s.
Ashburton, Lord, President 1853-5, Address, XV. o.s.
Ashes, mounds of, in Southern India, VII. 1*^9, 0.8.
Ashkandra, Sindhian town of, I. 31, o,8.
Ash-Shamiyeh, a mint-city, XII. 647, n.8.
Ashtami Vratamahatmya, VIII. 48, n.8.
Ashtasahasrika Prajnaparamita, VIII. 2, 3, n.8.
Ashtee, XX. 10, o.8 ; battle of, XVIII. 261, o.8.
Ashur, XX. 447, o.8.
Ashurakal, XX. 447, 450, o.8.
Ashurakbal, inscription of, XIX. 124, o.s.
Ashurbanipal, inscription of, XIX. 124, 0.8. See also
Assurbanipal.
Asia Minor, route into the interior from the ^gsean Sea by
one path only, along the Maeander to its junction with the
Lycus, XV. 101, n.8.
Russian commerce with, I. 289, o.8.
Asiatic Research, Kin? Oscar's prizes for two essays on
Oriental subjects, XVIII. cl, n.8.
Asikas, V. 73, n.8.
Asita-Devala, V. 66, n,8.
Asmakas, V. 58, 60, 73, n.8.
Asoka, VIII. 21, n.8.
raises a statue to Buddha, VI. 289, o.8. ; builds a tope
near Patna, 306 ; constructs a hell, 310, 331.
epoch of, XII. 247, o.s. ; doubts as to his identifica-
tion with Raja Piyadasa, XII. 177, 243, o.8.
22 ASO— ASS
Aeoka alphabet (North), died out in first century a.d., without
leaving any descendants, XVI. 331, n.«. ; (South), may
have come, like the art of printing, as a foreign inventipn
from the West, 352.
alphabet, origin of the, XVIII. 386, n.«.
'^ Inscriptions in the oldest Sanskrit writing, XI. 291, n.«.
a Jaina, IX. 176, n.8.
inscriptions of, in two alphabets, Arian-Pali and
Indian-Pali, XIII. 109, n.«. ; the setting up the edicts
of, implies a people who could read them, 111.
made Buddhism the state religion, XVIII. 373, n.«.
apparently in ignorance, caused a list of Buddhist
holy books, differing in toto from the Cingalese list, to be
inscribed on the Bairat rock, XV. 433, n.«. ; faith of, as
recorded on his inscriptions, 437.
Aspirates, none, in the early Phrygian, or in the Phrygian
inscriptions of Roman times, XV. 122, n.s.
Asplenium, XX. 389, o.s.
Assam, tea plant of, XII. 247, 0.8.
on the production of tea in, XIX. 315, o.n.
Assassination of Professor Schultz in Kurdistan, I. 134, o.a.
Assaye, battle of, XVIII. 230, o.s.
Asshur, the primeyal capital of Assjria, XV. 216, o.«.
Assurbanipcd, king of Assyria, XIX. 680, n,8. See Ashur-
banipal.
Assur-nadin-eum, kin^ of Babylon, XIX. 675, n.5.
Assyria, maps of, by Capt. Jones, XV. 297, o.8.
and Persia, on the ancient history of, as connected
with the destruction of the kingdom of Israel, IV. 217, o.s.
Assyrian alphabet and language, XIII. 197, o,8.
clearly the oldest Semitic language of which we know
aught, X. 244, n.8.; doubtless the Sanskrit of the Semitic
languages, ibid.
Canon, I. 146, 173, w.«.
dictionary, specimen of, II. 225, n.8.
grammar, specimen chapters of, II. 480, n.s.
Excavation Fund, transfer to Trustees of the British
Museum, Report, 1855, XXI. o.8.
glossary, IV. 1, n.8.
inscriptions, translations of, XVIII. 25, 36, 41, 51,
54, 61, 74, 77, 150, o.s. ; commentary on, 42, 62 ; notes
on, 33, 104, 362, 364, 366 ; remarks on, 52, 76 ; transcrip-
tion of, 36, 54, 83 ; observations on, 87 ; addenda to notes
on, 367.
kings named in the Bible, XII. 451, o.8.
ASS— ASV 23
Assyrian language, glossary of, III. 1, n.«.
northern dialects of, more changed than the southern,
IX. 23, n.8. ; of especial value to the philologist from its
early development as a literary dialect, 23 ; second person
singular masculine, discovered by Drs. Schrader and Prse*
torius, 30.
names of domestic animals, XIX. 319, n.«.
Oriental lecture list, XX. 295, n.«.
roots, XII. 416, 0.8.
- Permansive tense in, clearly identical with the perfect
of the allied Semitic dialects, IX. 34, n.8. ; belongs to the
northern branch of the Semitic family which includes
Hebrew and Aramaic, 22 ; contemporaneous monuments
of, older than those of any other Semitic speech, 22;
monuments of, inscribed while still a living tongue, 22 ;
at the earliest period we know of, already a literary
dialect, 22.
Permansive (so called), remarks on, XIV. 109, n.8.
texts translated by H. F. Talbot, XIX. 124, 136,
181, 187, 193, 261, 271, o.«.
four axioms for the determination of its antiquity,
X. 246, n.8. ; Permansive forms of, no decaying formations,
260.
tablets, constant allusion in, to an island called, in
Accadian, Niduk-ki, and, in Assyrian, Tilvun or Tilmun,
XII. 212, n.8.
remarkable modifications in, caused by the prefix
Niphal, XV. 392, n.8. ; doubling the consonant, generally
shows that the preceding vowel is long, 393.
pronouns, notes on, XVII. 65, n.8.
and Babylonian Inscriptions, XII. 401, o.8.
and Babylonian weights, XVI. 216, o.8.
Chronology, by J. W. Bosanquet, XV. 277, o.8.
and Hebrew Chronology, compared, I. 145, n.8.
and Phoenician Legends, I. 187, n.8.
Assyrians, analogies between their worship and that of the
Hindus, I. 87, o.8,
Assyriology, summary of recent, XIII. cvi, n.8. ; XIV. cix ;
XV. Lxxx ; XVI. Lxxvii ; XVII. lxxix ; XVIII. xci,
666, n.8. ; XIX. n.8. 176, 327, 636, 698.
Asura, XX. 33, 40, 43, 410, 419, 424, 430, o.8.
Asvaghosha, author of the Jatakamala, XIX. 202, n.8.
Asvaghoshavadana, VIII. 13, 14, n.8.
Asvamedha, the, or Horse-sacrifice, XIX. 622, n.«.
Asvapati, VI. 349, n.8.
12 AME— AND
at, identical witH tHose recently found to the west of the
Indus, 109; excavations conducted at, by order of the
Duke of Buckingham, the Governor of Madras, Report
1880, L ; perhaps constructed with Bactrian art, and in-
debted to N. India for some of its sculptures, XVI. 251, n.«.
Amritakanika, YIII. 26, 27, n.«.
Amritananda, YIII. 18, 24, n,8.
Amrukambotta, III. 168, o.a.
AmuTfil, or year of the Elephant, XIII. 370, o.8.
Anabasis of Aenophon, passage of the Zab, XY. 309, o.a.
Analogies between Arabic forms and the so-called Permansive
forms in Assyrian, X. 249, n.«.
Analogy, one of the strongest guides in the development of a
_ language, XY. 400, n.5. ^
Ananda-deva YIII. 4. n.«. w
Anantaguna, III. 208, o.s.
Anarajapura (see Anuradhapura).
Anatundirik, XX. 389, o.s.
Anberatur {i.e. Imperator), the title given by Bibars to the
Emperor Frederick II., IX. 418, n.«.
Ancessi, M., valuable paper by, in the ^' Actes de la Soci^t^
Philologique," XY. 401, n.s.
Ancyra, the name of, marks it as an old Phrygian city, XY.
109, n.8, ; some remains of its early art still found there,
ibid.
" Ancient Arabian Poetry/' by C. J. Lyall, Sir R. Burton's
review of, XYIII. xcix, n.s.
Ancient China, metallic cowries of, XX. 428, n.8. ^
Andaman, the Great, tribes of, may be placed in two principal
classes, determinable by their laws, manners, and languages,
XIII. 488, n.8. ; ,
Islands, language of, treated by Mr. Man and Lieut. ^
Temple, XI. 68, n.8.; general description of, XIII.
471, n.8. ; striking fact, that so many different tribes should
be found there, speaking different languages, and generally
at enmity the one with the other, 489.
Andamanese, the, ordinary or daily life and customs of, ^
XIII. 472, n.8. ; unable to count above two, 473 ; eat no "•
raw food, 474 ; North, little known of at present, but the
people are friendly, 479 ; the South, really one tribe, called
Bojingiji, and speaking a language of the same name, 476;
all divided into two classes, the *' Eremtagas " or Jungle-
dwellers, and the "Aryawtos" or Coast-dwellers, 487;
dance (M. Y. Portman), XX. 194, n.8. ; music, 181 ;
songs, 185.
AND— ANS 13
Andarab, VI. 104.
Anderson, J., M.D., valaable " Catalogue and Handbook of
the ArchaDoIogical Collections in the Indian Museum at
Calcutta," XVI. lxviii, n.«. ; "Expedition to Western
Yunnan," quoted, XVII. 430, n.«.
Andhra, V. 73, n.s.
Andhra country, insufficient identification of the, XVII.
216, n.8.
dynasty, IV. 122, «.«.
Andhras, Satavahanas or Andhrabityas, as they are yariously
called, famous for the cayes they excavated, XII. 285, n.s.
Andonides, XX. 285, 0.9.
Andorce, XX. 10, o.s.
Andrew, Sir W. P., life of, XIX. 524, n.8.
Anga, V. 56, 65, 73, n.9.
Angami, and, perhaps, Arung and Bengma, in class xiii., X.
21, n.8. ; the most important tribe of the Naga, XII. 22i^,
n.8.
Angiras, XX. 409, 412, 414, n.s.
Angirasas, the arrangement of the Big- Veda made by the,
XIX. 599, n.8.
Angola, the language in, called Bunda, XIV. 172, n.8.
Angora goat, on the white-haired, by Lieut. A. Conolly, VI.
159, 0.8.
Angraeca, XX. 388, 390, o.s.
Animals, hospital for, at Surat, I. 96, o.s.
Aniyartanacharya, VIII. 8, n^.
Anjengaom, XX. 9, 11, o.s.
Annales de VExtrhne Orient^ summary of the papers in the,
XVIII. cxxxiv, n.8.
Annamese employs Chinese characters adapted to a phonetic
syllabary, X. 30, n.8.
Annamite and Kambojan languages, described by MM.
Taberd, Aubaret, Aymonier, and Bastian, XI. 69, n.8.
Annamites in Cochin China, XVIII. 563, n.8.
a lost phonetic writing of the, XVII. 44, n.8.
" .* Annesley, Sir James, life of, IX. v. o.«.
i Annexation, a policy of, not to be recommended, X. 115,
n.s.
Annual, Oriental, yol. i., IX. 163, 0.8.
Anona, XX. 389, 0.8.
Ansan, the Achsemenian capital of, probably in the plain of
Mai- Amir, XII. 84, n.8.
Ansumati, the riyer, noticed by Gen. Cunningham in his
ArchsBological Beport for 1878-9, XV. 363, njs.
r,
26 ATN— BAB
Aynali-Kavak, convention of, XYIII. 411, o.«.
Ayodhya, XX. 454, o,s.
Ayodhyakanda, translation from the, XIX. 303, o.«.
Ayu, XX 408, 415, 419, o.8.
Azazel, a pagan divinity, XIX. 325, n.«.
Az^mar, H., his dictionary of the Stieng language, XIX.
707, n.8.
Azerbaijani-Turkish original of the Persian play ''The
Alchemist." XVIII. 103, n.s.
Azerbijani, or Trans-Caucasian language, XYIII. 181, n.8.
Azes, extravagant titles of, IX. 413, n.8.
Azhdaha, the, or dragon, at Bamlau, XVIII. 327, n,8. ; also
at Bisiit, 328.
Babar, the Emperor, description by, of the routes into India,
XV. 378, n.8. ; in his "Memoirs," speaks of "Sultans" of
the Deccan, IX. 378, n,8. ; two of the sisters of, bear the title
of "Sultan," 379 ; origin and meaning of this name, XIII.
275, n.8.
Bab en Nasr, the gate of, at Cairo, reproduction and transla-
tion of the inscription at, XVIII. 83, n.8.
the inscriptions on, the sole remains of Shia'i
heresy in Egypt, XIV. 240, n.8.
Baber, E. C, remarks on a Tibetan epic, XVII. 457, n.8. ;
his "Note on Nine Forraosan MSS.,'^ XIX. 418, n.8.
Babel, tower of, story in Genesis xi. 2 implies that the people
were journeying from east to west, XVI. 302, n.8.
Babington, Dr. B. G., on the sculptures and inscriptions of
Mahan)alarpur, Tram. II. 258.
Babu Ram Din Sinha, and Babii Sahib Prasad Sinha,
publishers of Hindi books, XIX. 140, n.8.
Siv Nandan Lai Ray, the Deputy Magistrate of Pat'na,
to whom Mr. Grierson was greatly indebted in collecting
the Bhoj purl folk-songs, XVIII. 214, n.8.
Shyama Charana, a writer in the Calcutta Review^ con-
tradicted, XVIII. 236, n.8.
Babylon, probably a double-worship at, of the " King of the
Gods of Heaven and of Earth," and of the " Lord of the
World," XII. 80. n.8.
Babylonia, early history of, XV. 215, o.«. ; northern part
called Akkad, the southern, Sumer, XVI. 304, n.8. ; the
early civilization of China traceable to the culture
fostered in, XVII. 449, n.8. ; the Wolfe Expedition to,
LXXXII.
BAB—BAG 27
Babylonian Chronicle, introductory remarks on the, XIX.
655, n,8.; Cuneiform text of the, 658; Bomanized tran-
scription of the, 665 ; English translation of the, 672.
and Assyrian inscriptions, XII. 401, o.8.
Kings, iVII. LXX1X, n.8.
and Oriental Record, notice of papers in the, XIX.
175, 327, 536, 698, n.«.
picture-writing, when and where was it invented P
XIX. 644, n.8.
measures, XVIL lxxxii, n.8,
signs, examples of, with their pictorial origin and
assumed Egyptian equivalents, XIX. 652, n.8.
Talmud, Dr. Kabbinowicz' French version of the,
XIX. 697, n.8.
Babvlonians admit they obtained their knowledge from the
islanders of the Persian Ghilf, XII. 202, n.8.
and Elamites in conflict with the Assyrians, XIX.
674, n.8.
Bactria, ancient kingdom of, by Major J. Tod, Tran8. I. 313.
Bactrian coins, account of, Tran8. I. 313 ; habit on, of
omitting the hundreds in their dates, IX. 1, n.8.; show
how the Greeks assimilated local customs, 5 ; difference of
the art, on their obverses and reverses, 20 ; those of two
kings have legends in Indian-Pali, XIII. 110, n.8.
Pali inscription, IV- 497, n.8. ; VII. 376, n.8.
numerals, probably from a gcMvi-Phoenician Palmy-
rene, XIV. 356, n.8.
Bactriana, Pali inscriptions of, usually give the months with
their Macedonian designations, IX. 11, n.8.
Badakhshan, VI. 92, n.8.
Badami, inscription at, giving the date of '' 500 years from
the coronation of the Saka Kings," i.e. a.d. 578-9, XII.
145, n.8.
and Ellora, some Brahmanical caves at, nearly synchro-
nous with the Buddhist caves at Ajanta, XI. 159, n.8.
Badara clearly the same as the present Gwadar, XI. 136, n.8.
Baddeley, St. Clair, " Antar and the Slave Daji ; a Bedoueen
Legend,'' XVI. 295, n.8.
Badger, Dr., quotation from, on the value of the study of
Arabic, XVI. 41, n.8.
Badis, at or near the present Koh Mobarak, XI. 146, n.8.
Badong, genealogical table of the princes of, X. 75, n.8.
Badr al Jamali, the memorial to, at Cairo, XVIII. 84, n.8.
Badshah-namah, III. 462, n.8.
Baggala, or native vessel of Cutch, I. 2, 12, o.8.
28 BAG— BAL
Bagia, incorrectly given by Dr. Vincent as a name on the
Makran coast, XL 138, n.s. ; probably a place now called
Bres, 139.
Bagram, probably means a place of sepulture, XIII. 186,
n.8.
Bagri language, XVII. 377, 388, n.a.
Bahing dialects of the Eiranti, X. 18, n.«.
Bahlika, V. 66, 64, n.«.
Bahmana, or Brahmanabad, ancient city of, I. 37, 232, o.«.
Bahmani, the name given by Baluchis to all ruined forts, IX.
122, n.8.
Bahra, VI. 92, n.s.
Bahram Gaur, visit of, to India, XII. 283.
Bahrein, islands of, XII. 191, n.«.
Baillie, N. B. E., ''The Mohammedan Law of Evidence in Con-
nection with the Administration of Justice to Foreigners/*
IV. 486, n.8, ; '' The Mohammedan Law of Evidence, and
its Influence on the Administration of Justice in India,"
IV. 480, n,8. ; " Of Jihad in Mohammedan Law, and its
Application to British India," V. 401, n.s. ; " Of the
Eharaj, or Mohammedan Land Tax," VII. 172, n.s.
Bais'wari, the border dialect between Braj Bhasha and Bihari,
XVlil. 208, n.8.
Baiee Rao, XVIII. 226, 248, 257, o.a.
Bak Families of China, borrowed Pre-Ouneiform writing, etc.,
from S.W. Asia, XV. 277, n.8.
— — tribes, peculiarities of the language of the, XVIL 451,
n.8.
Bala Murghab, caves at, explored by Mr. W. Simpson, XVII.
LXXII, n.8,
Murghab, description and plate of caves at, XVIII.
96, n.8.
Balabhi Dynasty, IV. 88, n.«.
era, XIII. 156, o.8.
pura. Notes on the ancient city of, XIII. 146, o.8.
VIII. 24, n.8.
Baladitya, IV. 98, 116, n.s.
Balbar, genealogy of, VI. 371, n.s.
Bali, Island of, account of its literature, etc., VIIL 154,
n.s. ; Babad, or Historical Essays of, 185 ; epic poetry of,
171 ; gods worshipped in, 202 ; law books of, 188 ;
religion of, 196; sacred writings of, newly discovered,
168; tuturs or doctrinal writings of, 187; account
of the island of, by B. Friederich, IX. 59, n.8.; X.
49, n.s.
BAL-BAM 29
Bali, the language of, not closely connected with Javanese,
the latter of which is a foreign tongue in that island, XIII.
42, n.8. ; the metre in, sometimes, determines the spelling,
42.
and Java, ancient connection between, shown in the
Usana Bali, X. 49, n.s. ; long-continued wars between,
50.
Balinese, the, the Wayan of, keeps up the Indian religion
— even little boys thus knowing the names of Siva, Indra,
etc., XIII. 49, «.«. ; the Wayan or puppet show of, re-
motely derived from the Mababharata, ibid. ; account of
the poetry of, 51.
Balipiijavidhi, VIII. 47, «.«.
Balkh, VI. 101, n.B.
Ball, Samuel, " On the Expediency of Opening a Second
Port in China," VI. 182, o.b. ; life of, VIII. xxiv, «.«.
Ballabhi, VI. 213, 216, 273, n.«.
Balochi literature, XVII. 390, n.«.; specimens and transla-
tions of, 409.
Balomus, identifiable with the modem Barambab, XI. 136,
n.«.
Balston, William, on the agricultural, manufacturing, and
commercial resources of India, XVIII. 416, o.«.
Baluchi folklore, XVIII. cxv, n,B.
grammar in Makrani Dialect by Major Mockler, XI.
63, n.«. ; in Suleimani, by Mr. Gladstone, 63 ; paper by
Mr. Longworth Dames, XIII. lxviii, n.«.
Baly, VI. 18, n.«.
Bambara language of Africa, XIX. 686, n.5.
Bamboo-hewer, story of the old, translated by F. V. Dickins,
XIX. 1, n,B,\ transliteration of the text of the, 46.
legend of the Raja of, almost certainly of Aryan
origin, XIII. 511, n.«.
Bambridge, the Rev. J., his memoir of the Rev. G. Shirt,
XIX. 687. n.B.
Bamian, VI. 103, «.n. ; admirable position of, as a great
centre of commerce, XV. 96, w.«. ; the idols at, XIX 164,
n.B.
the magnificent city of caverns, XVIII. 96, n.«. ;
the site of, 323 ; its obscure history, 324 ; the great idols
at, 325 ; enumeration of the various travellers who make
mention of the city, 325 ; quotations from traveUers re-
garding the figures at, 326 ; the Azhdaha at, 327 ; expla-
nation of the plate illustrating the caves and figures at,
332.
30 BAM— BAS
Bamian, the Eed and the White idola in the locality of,
XIX. 162, n.a.
Bandar Manch^, or canoe of burden, of Cochin, I. 7, o.8.
Bandha, or the Bondage, XX. 481, n.«.
Bang cave temples, VIII. 66, o,s.
Bangalore, meteorological observations at, XIX. 350, o.a.
Banjarmasin, south-east of Borneo, traditional stories like
those of Sumatra, etc., XIII. 510, n.s.
Bankers, native, in India, on the practice of, I. 159, o.«.
Banking system of Fuchowfoo, XIII. 179, 0.8.
Banou-Mosafer, dynasty of, note of coins struck by, XIII.
380, n.8.
Bantu, eastern district of, XIY. 170, n.8. ; languages, XYI.
61, n.8. ; XVII. 38, n.8.
Barake, XIX. 294, o.8.
Barasasaei, probably the people of Abu Basaa in the island of
Maseera, X. 172, n.8.
Barberry, on its colour, and uses in the arts, VII. 74, o.«.
Bardasanes, extract from, by Polyhistor, XIX. 280, 0.8,
Bards, Indian, memoirs of, I. 137, 0.8.
Bardshir, the old name of the Eerman, XIII. 491, n.8.
Bareilly, statistics of. Trans. I. 467.
Barker, W. B., vocabulary of Syrian gipsy words, XVI. 311, 0.8.
Barnewell, Col., life of, IX. vi, o.8.
Barongatcheva, VI. 264, n.8.
Barth, Dr., XII. 421, n.8.
Barthema states that, in his day, the Hindus left all naviga-
tion to the Muhammadans, XIII. 98, n.8.
Barwas, a caste of Bhills, Trans. I. 77.
Basalt in Southern India, IX. 12, 27, o.s.
Basaltic Greenstone, age of the, XII. 78, o.8.
Basava, V. 141, n.a.
Purana, V. 141, 144, n.8.
Bashkir language, XVII. 182, n.a.
Bashpah alphabet, V. 25, n.a.
Ba/riXevovTo^, question of the actual force and value of this
word, IX. 20, n.8.
Basileus, considered, in the tenth century, the especial title
of the rulers of Constantinople, IX. 327, n.«. ; and Imperator
used as titles by the later Saxon kings of England, 326.
Bassein, treaty of, XVIII. 227, o a.
Bassett, Rev. James, "Grammatical Note on the Sinmuni
Dialect of the Persian Language," XVI. 120, n.a.
Bast, resemblance of a Chinese sculpture to the goddess
(iUustrated— see Plate VII.), XVIII. 473, n.8.
BAS-BEA 81
Bas'tl Sii|gh^ a popular legend on. the death of, XYIII. 242,
n,8.
Bastian, Dr. A., remarks on the Indo-Chinese alphabets. III.
65, n.8. ; alphabet given by a Shan to, XYII. 444, n.a.
Bastie, Baron de la, IX. 323, n.s.
Batak (Batta), Country, report of a journey into, in 1824,
Trans. I. 486.
Bataks of Sumatra, XIII. 60, 406, n.8.
Batchelor, Rev. J., his Aino Grammar, XIX. 332, n.s. ; Dr.
Cust's review of the same, 702.
Bate, Rev. J. D., sketch of the plan of his proposed Hindu-
stani-English and English-Hindustani Dictionary, XIX.
336, n.8.
Bathymi, the, represented now by the people of Bathubec or
Abuthabec, the present headquarters of the Beni Ras
tribe, X. 165, n.s.
Batta race, Capt. J. Low's account of, II. 43, 0 8.
Battas, account of the (Burton and Ward), Tran8. 1. 485.
Batten, J. H., " Notes and Recollections on Tea Cultivation
in Eumaon and Garhwal," X. 131, n.8. ; views put forward
by, and published in the Eumaon Official Reports, 146 ;
final visit to his last Indian station, Agra, 1866, 148 ; list
of tea plantations in Eumaon and Garhwal in 1877, 162 ;
life of, XVIII. 649, n.8.
Batticaloa, in Ceylon, inscriptions found at, Trans. III. 379.
Bauddho-Vaishnavas of the Dekkan, VII. 64, 70, o.s.
reject partially the distinction of caste, VII. 68, o.s.
Bayazid accepts the patent of Sultan from the Ehalif of Egypt,
IX. 387, n,8. ; generally called the Eaisar of Riim, 417. -•
Bayer, Dr., premature, in the attempt to interpret a mint
monogram on a coin of Eukratides, IX. 2, n.8.
Bayley, Sir E. C, early interest of, in the theories of the
Indian alphabet, XVI. 347, n.s. ; " On the Genealogy of
Modem Numerals," Part 1, XIV. 336, n.s. ; Part 2, On
Simplification of the Ancient Indian Numeration, XV. 1,
n.s. ; life of, XVI. iii, n.8.
Beal, S., ** The Sutra of the 42 Sections, translated from the
Chinese, XIX. 337, o s. ; Translations from the Chinese of
the Pratimoksha, XIX. 407, o.s. ; of the " Vajrachhedika
Sutra," I. 1, n.8. ; of the " Paramitahrdaya Sutra," I. 25,
n.8. ; of the " Amitabha SOtra," II. 136, n.8. ; of the " Con-
fessional Service of the Great Compassionate Ewan Yin,"
II. 403, n.8.; ''Some Remarks on the Great Tope of
Sanchi," V. 164, n.s. ; " The Legend of Dipankara
Buddha," VI. 377; "On a Chinese Version of the
32 BEA— BEN
Sankhya Karika found among the Buddhist books, etc.,
comprising the Tripitaka, and two other works," X.
355, n,8. ; " Note on pi. xxviii. fig. 1 of Mr. Fergusson's
'Tree and Serpent Worship/ ed. 2," XIV. 39, n.«. ;
"Two Sites named by Hiouen-Thsang in the 10th Book
of the Si-yu-ki," XV. 333, n.«. ; " Some further Gleanings
from the Si-yu-ki," XVI. 247, ».«. ; ** Some Remarks on
the Narrative of Fa-hien," XIX. 191, n.«.
Beames, John, " Notes on the Bhojpuri Dialect of Hindi,"
III. 483, n.8. ; " On the Magar Language of Nepal,"
IV. 178, _».«.; "On the Treatment of the Nexus in
the neo- Aryan Languages of India," V. 149, n.s.; on
the Literature of the Panjab, quoted, XVII. 379; on
Hindi, quoted, 387, n.5.
Beche-de-Mer English, XIX. 380, n.s.
Beglar, Mr., excavations by, at Ali Musjid, XII. xlviii, n.«.
Behar, VI. 229, «.«.
Bel, I. 215, n.8.
edir, XIX. 681, n.s.
ibni (Belibus), king of Babylon, XTX. 675, n.«.
Bell, H. C. P., "The Maldive Islands, etc.," XVI. lxiii, n.8.
Bellew, Surgeon-General, Journal of a Political Mission to
Afghanistan in 1857, quotations from, XVI. 24, n.«. ; his
grammar and vocabulary of Brahiii, XIX. n.8. 60 ; his
article on "Names borne by some of the Tribes of
Afghanistan,'! 309, 503.
Bellino, inscription of, XVIII. 76, 365, 0.8.
Bellino's Cylinder, I. 148, n.8.
Belooch HUls, X. 319, n.8.
Belshazzar, Belteshazzar, derivation of the names, XVIII.
538, n.8.
Bendall, Cecil, "The Megha-Sutra," XIL 286, n.8.; "Tbe
Tantrakhyana," XX. 465, n.8.
Bender 'Abbas or Hormuzd, climate of, very unhealthy, XIII.
496, n.8.
Benfey, Prof., notice of, XIV. xvii, n.8.
Bengal, coinage of, VI. 339, n.8. ; initial coinage of, II.
145.
Bengali Grammar by Dr. Wenger, and dictionary by Sir G.
Haughton, XI. 65, n.8.
Beni-Aghlab, rare dinar of, procured by Mr. Le Strange,
XII. 544 n.8,
Saf, the mines of, XVIII. 34, n.8.
Benjamin, Mr., notice of his "Persia and the Persians."
XIX. 329, n.8.
BEN— BEZ 33
Bentinck, Lord W., Committee of, January 24, 1834, submit
a plan for tea culture in India, X. 135, n.8.
Benzoin-tree, manner of procuring gum from, II. 44, 0.8.
Berber manuscripts, translation of, lY. 115, o.s.
narrative of Sidi Ibrahim Ben Muhammad, by F. W.
Newman, IX. 215. (?.«.
Berebbers, on the language of the. III. 106, o.«.
Berenice, XIX. 294, o.s.
Bergaigne, M., his exposition of the First Mandala of the
Rig- Veda, XIX. 699, n.8.
Berge, M., the Keeper of the Archives of Georgia, XIII.
293, n.8. ; the original preparer of the MS. on the Avar
language now edited by Mr. Graham, ibid.
Bernard, Pierre, account of the Sechelle Islands, VII.
32, 0.8.
Berosus, traditions preserved by, of Oannes, or the *' Fish-
God," XII. 202, n.8.
best authority on early Babylonian history, XV.
216, 0.8.
Berthoud, P., ''Grammatical Note on the Gwamba Language
in South Africa," XVI. 45, n.s.
Bertin, G., "Suggestions on the Formation of the Semitic
Tenses, a Comparative and Critical Study," XIV. 105, n.8. ;
" Suggestions on the Voice-Formation of the Semitic
Verb," XV. 387, n.s. ; " Notes on the Assyrian and
Accadian Pronouns," XVII. 65, n.8. ; " The Bushmen and
their Language," XVIIL 61, n.8.; "The Pre-Akkadian
Semites," XVIII. 409, n.s. ; "Origin and Development of
the Cuneiform Syllabary," XIX. 625, n.8.
Beswan, Sajah of, notice of, XII. xiii, n.«.
Betham, Sir William, Translation of a Phoenician Inscrip-
tion, IV. 137, 0.8.
Betsileo, remarkable arrangement of many of the houses in
this district of Madagascar, XV. 211, n.s. ; place-names of,
in Madagascar, 208.
Betteda Raja, V. 141, n.s.
Bettington, A., on fossils found in the island of Perim, VIII.
340, 0.8.
Bezwada, one of the monasteries mentioned by Hiouen-
Thsang, XII. 99, n.s. ; itself the site of the capital city of
Dhanakacheka, ibid; appearance and characteristics of, ibid;
the monasteries at, are in the exact position described by
Hiouen-lhsang, 103 ; the Undavilli rock-cut temple, near,
ibid; the conditions of the carvings, being unlike those of
any other known Buddhist site, 108.
VOL. XX. — [NBW SIUB8.] O
84 BEZ-BHA
Bezwarra, VI. 261, n.«.
Bhabra Edict, verBions of, by Wilaon, Bamouf, and Kern,
IX. 204, n,8, ; first mentions the name of Buddha about
the twenty-seventh year of Asoka, 206.
Bhadra, VII, 84, 93, n.8.
Bhadracharlpranidhana, VIII. 25, n,s.
Bhadrakalpavadana, VIII. 54, n.«.
Bhadrasvas, V. 67, n.8.
Bhadravati, VI. 267, n.8.
Bhagavanlal Indraji, value of the services of, as an archaeo-
logist, XI. 63, n.8. ; life of, XX. 450, n.8.
BhaimgehadasI, a Hindu religious festival, IX. 87, o.8.
Bhairavapradurbhava-nataka, VIII. 28, n.8.
Bhaiyachara, I. 461, n.8.
Bhaja, near Karle, new, and very old, rock-cut Vihara dis-
covered at, XI. 41, n.8. ; XII. xlix, n.8.
Bhaiudeva (!), VIII. 17, n.8.
Bhakar, XVI. 290, n.8.
Bhakii, Sindhian, city of, I. 33, 236, 0.8.
Bhandak, VI. 260, n.8.
Bhandarkar, Prof., on the Pali Inscriptions on the walls of
the Nasik Caves, XI. 43, n.8. ; on the study of Sanskrit in
Europe, XIX. 637, n.8.
Bhar tribe, V. 376, n.8.
Bhara, VII. 91, n.8.
Bharat, V. 376, n.8.
Bharata-varsha, V. 81, n.8.
Bharhut, excavations at XIV. 223, n.8.
the Stupa of, authenticates the early Buddhist Litany,
XV. 436, n,8.
some of the masons' marks at, are Arian-Pali letters,
XIII. 110, n.8.
Bharoach, VII. 94, n.8.
Bharpatwa, V. 376, n.8.
Bhartrihari, extracts from, XVIII. 142, n.8.
Bhaskara Acharya, I. 138, o.s. ; I. 410, n.8.
Bhaskara Saptami, a Hindu religious festival, IX 82, o.8.
Bhat, the name in India for a bard or encomiast, XIII. 90,
n.8.
Bhatta Kalanka Deva, author of an exhaustive grammar
of Kannada, after the manner of Panini, XV. 314, n.8.
Bhatta TJtpala, I. 410, n.8.
Bhattaraka, IV. 93, 120.
Bhattu Murti, memoir of, extract from his Vasoo Charitra, I.
139, 0.8.
BHA— BIH 35
Bhau Daji, Dr., on the Age and Authenticity of the Works
of Aryabhata, Yarahamihira, Brahmagupta, Bhattotpala
and Bhaskaracharya, I. 392, n.8.
Bhil tribes^ general remarks on, YIII. 181, o.s.
Bhills, essay on the. Trans. I. 65.
Bhilsa Topes, XIII. 108, o.8.
Bhima, an especial favourite with the Koi, XIII. 413, n.s.
Bhima Kali, till recently worshipped with human sacrifices,
in part of the Sutledge Valley, XVI. 15, n.«.
Bhishmashtami, a Hindu religious festiyal, IX. 86, 0.$.
Bhogi Pongal, V. 97, n.«.
Bhoja of Dhar, one of the most prominent men in the
eleventh century, XII. 277, n,s.
Bhojpuri, chief differences between the western and eastern
dialects of, XVI. 197, n.«.
dialect, III. 483, n.s. ; folk-songs, XVIII. 214, n.s.
Bhoteas, on the Institutions of, Trans. II. 491.
Bhiimi, VIII. 4, 8, n.s.
Bhumichhidranyayena, I. 285, n*s.
Bhumli, account of, by Lieut. Jacob, V. 73, o.s.
Bhupatindramalladeva, VIII. 28. n.s.
Bhutadamara-(maha)tantra, VIII. 38, n.s.
Bhutan or Bootan, the country of the Deb Bajah, an
independent tribe, east of Sikhim, X. 120, n.s.
Bhutanese, hostile to us, as hunters, etc., and not caring for
commerce, X. 122, n.s.
Biaina, the native name of the Vannic kingdom preserved in
the modem Van, XIV. 394, n.s.
Bibars, reception by, of the supposed son of the last Abbasside
Khalif, IX. 382, n.s.
Bibliotheca Arabica-Hispana, edited by Signer Cordera,
XVIII. xcviii, n.s.
Samaritana, edited by Dr. Heidenheim, XVIII. ci, n.s.
Biddulph, Colonel, " Dialects of Tribes of the Hindu Khush
(corrected), the Boorishki Language," XVI. 74, n.s. ;
"Dialects of the Hindu Khush," XVII. 89, n.s.
Bidie, Surgeon-General, on prehistoric graves near Pallava-
ram, XiA. 693, n.s.
Bidyapati Thakur, the celebrated Maithill poet, XVIII. 208,
text and translation of one of his poems, 237.
Bighah, VIL 178, n.s.
Bihar, the vernacular presses at, XVIII. cxvii, n.s.
Bihari language, XVI. 197, n.s. ; songs, general character of,
200 ; grammars of the dialects and subdialects of, by G.
A. Grierson, XVIII. 207, 209, cxvi, n.s.
36 BIH-BOD
Bihistun inscription, V. 423, n.«.
Biijala, V. 142, n.s.
Bila Shart (taxes), VII. 177, n.8.
Bilhana, the story of, XIX. 329, n.s.
Bilingual Legends, I. 187, n.8.
Binger, Lieut. O., on the Bambara language, XIX. 686, n,8.
Birch, Dr., on the Roman imperial titles, as found in Egypt,
IX. 418, n.8. ; life of, XVIII. xvi, n.8.
Bird, J., statistical and geological memoir of the country
from Punah to Xittor, south of the Krishna, II. 65, o.8.
Birds' nests, edible, III. 44, 310, o.8,
Birdwood, Sir G., his remarks on Mr. Sewell's paper, XVIII.
407, 669, n.8. ; his memoir of Sir Barrow Ellis, XIX. 688, n.8.
Birha, the name of an Indian melody, XVIII. 211, n.8.
Bisbitum, the king of, XIX. 681, n.8.
Bishari language, the, compared with Assyrian, XVII. 76, n.8.
" Bishop," first European word known in the New Hebrides,
XIX. 381, n.8.
Bisitun, sculptures and inscriptions at, ZII. 106, o.8.
Bison of Tenasserim, III. 50, o.8.
Bitter Lakes of the Isthmus of Suez, VII. 355, o.s.
Biyadh, VI. 17, n.8.
Black Sea, port of Redout-kali on the, I. 289, o.8.
stone found by Capt. Durand, XII. 209, n.8.
Blaesus, IX. 317, n.8.
Blair, Lieut., on the Andaman Islands, XIII. 469.
Blakesley,T. H., on the ruins of Sigiri in Ceylon, VIII. 53, n.s.
Bland, I^., account of the Atesb Xedah, VII. 345, o.8. ; on
Oriental MSS. in Eton College Library, VIII. 104, o.8. ;
on the earliest Persian biography of Poets, by Muhammad
Aufi, and on some other works of the class called Tazkirat
al Shuara, IX. 11 1, 0.8. ; on the Persian Game of Chess,
XIII. 1, 0.8. ; on the Muhammedan Science of Intrepre-
tation of Dreams, XVI. 118, o.«.
Blane, Capt. G. R., Memoir on Sirmor, Tran8. I. 56.
Bleek, W. H. I., sketch of the life of, IX. xv. n.s. ; referred
to and quoted, XVII. 39, n.8. ; his unfinished MS. Dic-
tionary of the Bushman Language, XVIII. 57, n.8. ; his
contributions to the Bushman language, 58.
Blowpipe used in Borneo, III. 9, o.8.
Blyden, Dr., his " Christianity, Islam and the Negro Race/'
XIX. 705, n.8.
Boatila Manche, or native vessel of Ceylon, I. 3, 14, o,8.
Bodhicharyavatara, VIII. 13, n.8.
Bodhiman^avihara, VIII. 19, n.8.
BOD— BOT 37
Bodhivaflisa, VII. 169.
Bods, early occupiers of Tibet, XVII. 472, n.«.'
Boetbius, MS. of, at Altdorf, supposed, erroneously, to support
tbe claims of tbe Neo-Pytbagoreans, XV. 68, n.«.
Bogsba and Tbaru, two strange tribes of Upper India, XVII.
cxxv, n.«.
Bokbara, city of, II. 27, o.s.; VII. 331, o.s.
Bolaang-Mongondoun, between Macassar and Minabassa,
legend belonging to, XIII. 517. n.8.
Bolor, VI. 117. n.8.
Bolt's report on tbe Mabajans, I. 159, o.«.
Bo-Malloa, XIII. 166, o.a.
Boman, V. 416, n.«.
Bombay, native vessels of, I. 2, 10, o.a.
Brancb, Eoyal Asiatic Society, III. Lxxxviii, o.8, ;
IX. xxiT, n.«. ; XIII. xxxviii, n.8.; XIV. xlt, n.8.;
XVIII. LXi, n.8. ; XIX. 691, n.s.
Bonar, H. A. C, on Japanese maritime enterprise, XIX.
692, n.8.
Bontan, tbe inbabitants of, Tran8. II. 491.
Boodh Oaves, near Jooner, inscriptions from tbe, IV. 287, 0.8.
Boomerang, recent use of, as a weapon, in tbe Dekkan and
Egypt, as well as in Australia, XI. 51, n.s,
Boorishki language, called by Dr. Leitner Kbajana, XVI.
119, n.8.
Boriab, Oavelly Venkatab, memoir of, I. 141, o.8. ; bis con-
nection witb Oolonel Mackenzie, 335.
Borneo, III. 1, o.8. ; IV. 174, o.8. ; XIII. 498, 510, n.8. ;
relics of writing and traces of Obinese influence in, XVII.
441, n.8. ; ornamented vase from, 442.
Boro Bodor, IV. 411, n.8.
Borsippa, great temple of, XVIII. 1, o.8. ; revolt at> XIX.
572, n.8.
Bosanquet, J. W., on Assyrian cbronology, XV. 277, 0.8. ;
corrections of tbe Oanon of Ptolemy, 416 ; Chronology of
tbe Modes, from tbe reign of Deioces to tbe reign of
Darius, tbe son of Hystaspes, or Darius tbe Mede, XVII.
39, 0.8. ; Assyrian and Hebrew cbronology compared, I.
145, n.8.
Bose, Mr. Ananda, tbe President of a new Brabma Samaj,
XIII. 38, n.8.
Botany: "tbe oldest botanical work in tbe world/' XIX.
542, n.8.
Bo-trees of tbe Buddbists, Messrs. Ward and Fergusson
unable to detect more tban six or seven species, IX. 159, n.8.
38 BOT— BRA
Botta, presented by Talbot, XIX. iii, o.%.
Bouchet, Father, notes on Criminal Justice in Southem
India, XIII. 223, n.«.
Boulger, S. C, " China vi4 Tibet," X. 113, n.9. ; " History
of China," XVII. cxviii, n.«.
Bowring, Sir John, VII. xxiv, n.«.
Brahma, I. 366, n.«. ; X. 37, n.«.
Covenant, or seven solemn declarations, XIII. 16,
n.«. ; creed, originally founded on intuition and the book of
nature, 19.
Samaj of India, the new Theistic Church so entitled,
Xm. 25, n.8.
and Brahma, not to be confounded together, XV. 426, n.«.
Pura^a, V. 61, o.«.
Brahmacharin, the, I. 374, n.%.
Brahmagupta, I. 410, n.9.
Brahmajala Sutta, V. 289, n.9.
Brahmanabad, XVI. 282, n.«.
Brahmanaspati, I. 344, n.«.
Brahmanda-purana of Java, according to, the world created
from an egg, IX. 59, n.a, ; Buddhist doctrines in, 60 ;
many of the deities in, clearly Jaina, 65 ; meaning of
the words Sruti and Smriti in, 67.
Brahmanical gods, the three, found on coins of Hushka, etc.,
with their equivalent Greek names, IX. 209, n.«. ; list of, 230.
Brahmanism, as now practised, not so ancient as Buddhism,
VI. 325, 0,8. ; IX. 210, w.«. ; XL 36, n.8. ; XIV. 291, n.«. ;
XVIII. 128, n.8.
and Hinduism, the diflference between, XVIII. 128, n.8.
Brahmans found in Afghanistan by Fahian, VI. 278, 0.8. ;
on board ship as merchants, 320; might be constituted
from other castes, 372 ; those so called by Western writers
were Jains or Buddhists, 398 ; originally strange in India,
399 ; their acquisition of power comparatively recent, 402 ;
XIX. 280, 0.8. ; stages in the life of a, as given in the
Brahmanda-purana, IX. 66, n.8. ; permitted to officiate
in Jaina temples, 178 ; origin of, according to the
Usana Java, X. 85, n.8. ; in fourth century b.c. occupied
completely but a small part of India, XIII. 213, n.8.\
none to the east of Serahn, XVI. 16, n.8. ; as the priestly
caste, the lords of the land, and the appointors of the
kings, 434.
Brahmapootra, Upper Valley of, perhaps, once occupied by
the now broken tribes of Nipal, the Eyens, Eumis, etc.,
IX. 424, n.8.
BRA— BEO 39
Brahmara, rock or mountain, called by Fa-hian a convent of
a former Kasyapa, XV. 344, n.«.
Brahui Grammar, Dr. Duka on the, XIX. 69, n.8.
language, notes on, by Major Leech, Prof. Lassen,
and Dr. Bellew, XL 63, n.«.
tribes speak a language quite different from the Balu-
chi, IX. 121, n.s.
Braj Bhasha, the language to the west of Bais'warl, XVIII.
208, n.$.
Bramsen, W., notice of, XIV. xv, n.«.
Branch Societies, establishment of, I. xi, 0.8. ; at Canton, L
161. Rule 69 (in XX. ii.«.)
Brandreth, E. L., " On the Non- Aryan Languages of India,'*
X. 1, n,s, ; '' The Gaurian compared with the Romance
Languages," Part 1, XI. 287, n.8. ; Part 2, XIL 336,
n.8.
Branfill, Col., on the names of places in Tanjore, XIII. l,
n.«. ; paper by, on Megalithic monuments in North Aroot,
XLVIl.
Bread, bitter (noticed by Marco Polo), still found at Baft and
at Bardsir, XIII. 496, n.8.
Brhat-Sanhita, translation of, IV. 430, n.«. ; VI. 36, 279 ;
yiL 81.
Bricks, kiln-burnt, important evidence contributed by,
XVIIL 566, n.8.
Bridge of Sivasamudram, on the Caveri River, Tran8, III.
305.
Briggs, General John, Autobiography of Nana Famevi,
Tran8. 11. 95 ; Correspondence of the Court of Madhu
Rao, 1761 to 1772, Tram. II. 109; on the Life and
Writings of Ferishta, Trans. 11. 341 ; on the Land Tax
of India, I. 292, o,8. ; description of a Persian painting, V.
314, o.s. ; a short account of the Sherley Family, VI. 77,
0.8. ; two lectures on the Aboriginal Race of India as dis-
tinguished from the Sanskritic or Hindu Race, XIII. 275,
0.8. ; remarks on Land Tenure in India, XX. xxiii, o.s.
Brishaparva, the Raja, XVII. 29, n.8.
British India, total number of books published in each
Province of, during the year 1885, XIX. 538, n.8
Institute of Hebrew, proposal for a, XIX. 532, n.8.
Broadfoot, Major, life of, IX. ii, o.s.
Broch, Dr. J. R, life of, XVIII. lii, n.8.
Brosselard, great dictionary of Eabail, published 1844, XIL
420, n.8.
Brosset, M., life of, XVIII. li, n.8.
40 BRO— BUD
Brown, C. P., *' Essay on the Creed and Customs of the
Jangams/' V. 141, n.8. ; on Malabar, Coromaudei, Quilon,
&c., 147 ; on the Hindu method of reckoning time, XIII.
542, n.8. ; life of, XVII. xv, n.s.
Bruce, C, on the Yedic conception of the earth, XIX.
321, 0.8.
Bnmton's Vocabulary of the Susu language, XIX, 686, n.8.
Brusciottus, grammar by, translated and published by Mr.
Arthur Guinness, XIV. 172, n.8.
Bryant, Sir Jeremiah, life of, II. ix, 0.8.
Bryce, Prof., reasons given by, for the long predominance of
the House of Austria, IX. 346, n.8.
Bubastis, temple of, XIX. 703, n.8.
Buddha, date of his death, VI. 300, 318, o.8. ; VIII. 33,
0.8. ; IV. 143, n 8.; his skull preserved as a relic at Nakia
(Ghazni or Jellallabad), VI. 282, o.8. ; his tooth relic,
283, 306, 317, 318; interesting details of his death,
XIII. 66, n.s. ; colossal statues of, 193 ; cavern of the
shadow of, possibly on the sides of the Siah Koh range,
199 ; his Sacred Begging-bowl, XIX. 7 ; his sacrifice of
himself for the tiger, 202 ; his supernatural linguistic
attainments, 567.
and the Phrabat, Tran8. III. 57.
Buddha Gaya, in South Behar, ruins of, Tran8. II. 40 ; visit
of Burmese deputies — and the work of destruction there —
XIII. 552, n.8. ; the Chinese inscriptions at, discovered by
Major-Gen. Cunningham, in 1880, ibid. ; the great temple
at, founded by a king of Ceylon, and repaired from time to
time by the Southern Buddhists of Burmah, ibid. ; general
summary of the contents of the second inscription from,
555 ; the first and shorter Chinese inscription from, ex-
hibits characters probably as ancient as the Han Dynasty,
in the second century a.j>., 554 ; probably much mutilated
by the figures of Buddha carved about it, ibid. ; the great
Fa Han Country mentioned in inscriptions from, almost
certainly, China, ibid. ; second inscription from, of the date
A.D. 1 022, 555 ; restored inscriptions from, procured by Prof.
Douglas, of the British Museum, from the Chinese Embassy,
556; inscriptions from, not necessarily connected with
Fa-hian, or Hiouen-Thsang, ibid.
Buddhabhata, VIII. 11, n.8.
Buddhaghosa, V. 289. n.8. ; XV. 433, n.8.
Buddha Gupta, IV. 117, n.8.
Buddhi, the internal sense, successively assuming the forms of
external objects, X. 44, n.8*
BUD 41
Buddhism, from the Banddha Scriptures of Nipal, Trans, II4
222, 288, III. 891, 394, 0.8. ; introduced into China, VI.
251, O.S.] extension of, in fifth century, 256; practical
precepts of, 265 ; heretical sects of, 266 ; its intermixture
with Brahmanism in the religion of the Hindus of the
Dekkan, YII. 1, 0.8.; history of, illustrated from the
Ganesa Purai]La, VIII. 319, 0.8, ; present state of, in China,
XVI. 73, 0.8. ; Prof. Wilson's lecture on, 229 ; Northern,
YI. 275, n.8. ; in Bactria, IX. 169, n.8.; the established
religion of Japan about a.d. 600, XII. 162, n.8. ; intro-
duced into Japan from Corea about the third century a.d.,
ibid,; the present, a degraded type of Buddha's real teach-
ing, 175; stronger in Japan than in China, as the favourite
religion of the Sioguns, XIII. 61, n.8. ; in its relation to
Brahmanism, by Sir M. Monier- Williams, XYIII. 127,
n.8, ; now gaining ground in India, <573.
Buddhist architecture, details as to (with a plate), XYIII.
336, n.8.
ascetics of Ceylon, space of the cells of, XIY. 323, n,8.
chronology, lY. 133, n.8.
devices, coins bearing, etc., IX. 231, n.8.
disputation concerning caste. Trans. III. 160.
emblems, YI. 451, 0.8.
inscription, Y. 14, n.8.
monasteries, of the 1000 or more known not one
of them is a structural building on a rock-cut platform,
XII. 108, n.8. ; generally in secluded spots away from
towns, etc., 107.
monks assembled to consecrate the stOpa at Anu-
ruddhapura, XYII. 214, n.8.
monuments of Central India, XIII. 108, 0.8,
origin of the caves on the Murghab, XYIII. 97, n,8.
priests, Burmese ordination of, III. Trans. 271 ; in
China, doubtful if they really recognize any future life,
XIII. 77, n,8. ; curious views of, with regard to metempsy-
chosis, ibid,; men becoming so give up their. surnames and
secular names, XY. 226, n,8. ; largely composed of criminals,
as criminals can become so without being expelled from
their familv, ibid.; so long as they are so, are not allowed
to marry, 227.
relics discovered at Rangoon, XYII. 298, 0.8.
remains near Sambhur, XVII. 29, n.8. ; at Guntu-
palle, XIX. 508, n.s.
symbols, the question whence derived, XYIII. 389,
n.8. ; on, by Hodgson, 393.
42 BTJD— BTJR
Buddhist symboliam, XVIII. 364, n.«., XIX. 238, n.8.
works in Chinese, a catalogue of, IX. 207, o.«. ; in China,
translated from Sanskrit, XVI. 316, o.s. ; collected in Nepal
. by Brian Hodgson, Esq., VIII. 1, n.8. ; XII. 176, n.8.
■ worship, principal objects of, II. 319, o,8.
Buddhistic origin of the Miryek at TJn-jin, XIX. 555, n.8. ;
symbolism, 238.
Buddhists, philosophy of, Tran8. I. 558 ; anciently ate flesh,
VI. 236, 0.8. ; not atheists, 263, 310, 377 ; of Ceylon,
Birma, and Siam do not hold the views of a Western
Paradise, XIII. 63, n.«. ; the northern, care little for
abstract dogmas, XIII. 70, n,8. ; in their idealism things
are represented as '' forms,^' 76 ; their ancient and modern
custom of making very large figures of Buddha, 205;
floating through the air, at Ajanta, suggested explana-
tion of, XV. 339, n.8. ; took from Brahmans the notion
that a man's actions in one existence regulated his fate in
subsequent births, 427.
and Jains, branches of the same stock, TrctM. II. 620.
Budgeron, or native vessel of Cutch, I. 2, 12, o.«.
Budhanrityesvara, VIII. 7, 42, n.«.
Budh Gaya, VL 226, n.8.
Buffaloes of Tenasserim, III. 31, o,8.
Biihler, Dr., on the Kashmirian Era, IX. 2, n.8. ; on the
portrait of the Indian King at Ajanta, XI. 165, n.8. ;
discovery by, of old Kashmir-Sanskrit M8S. written on
birch bark, Xll. 159, n.8. ; on the Smritis, XUI. 235, n.8. ;
on the history of the Valabhis, 550 ; on the Indian
numerals as syllables, XIV. 342, n.8. ; on the Southern
Indian alphabet, 345 ; lectures by, in course of publication,
367 ; extract from a letter from, XV. 23, n.8.
Bu-hwan dialect of Formosa, vocabulary of the, XIX 487, n.8.
Bulaki Das, a poem by, XVIII. 252, n.8.
Bulala, expeditions against the tribes of, by the Sultan of
Bumu, XIX. 43, o.8.
Bulla Regia, Roman ruins at, XVIII. 39, n.8.
Bullets used by a Malay warrior inscribed with his name
and an account of his origin, XIII. 505, n.8.
Bullock, T. L., quotation from, on the tribes of Formosa,
XIX. 423, n.8.
Bundelkhund, Tran8. I. 259, 273.
Bunyiu Nanjio, sent on a scientific mission to India, XIX.
332, n.8.
Burgess, J., his paper impressions of Asoka's Edicts,
IX. 191, n.9. ; work by, on the Caves of Ajanta^ XII.
BUB 43
139, n.8 ; rock temples at, notice of, xlv ; Report by,
''On the Architectural and Archaeological Remains of
the Province of Kachh," notice of, xlvi; Tenth Report,
substance of, XIII. xxxix, n.s. ; on Indian temple door*
ways, XVn. lxiv, n,8. ; on Satrunjaya and the Jains,
Lxvi ; his appointment as ArohsBological Surveyor of
Southern as well as Western India, lxix.
Burhan nd Din All, author of the Hidayah, II. 83, o,8.
Buriats (Mongol tribe) chiefly to be found around Lake
Baikal, XI V. 49, n.8, ; use of knotted cords by the, XYII.
427, n.8.
Burju-z Zafar, the archseological puzzle of, XYIII. 86, n.8. ;
quotation from Al Makrizi regarding the, 87 ; the name,
" Tower of Filth," supposed to be a corruption of " Tower
of Victory," 88.
Burma, notes on, XIX. 331, n.8.
Burman marriage, II. 269, o.8.
province, government of a. III. 296, 0.8.
Burmans, music of, lY. 47, o.8. ; musical instruments of the,
48 ; airs, 55 ; military tactics of the, 74 ; materiel of the,
76 ; arrangements of armies of the, 80 ; faith in talismans
and auguries held by the, 81 ; religion and morals of the,
82.
Burmese Buddhist priest, ordination of, Tran8. III. 271.
' lacquered ware, Tran8. III. 437.
language constantly forms transitives from intransi-
tives by aspirating the initial consonant, X. 13, n.8, ; no
doubt the same group as Tibetan, 22; in class xvi. the
principal language of our Eastern frontier, ibid, ; (including
the Arracanese), the only tribe with a literature in that
part of Asia, 216; people ruled at various periods by
Shens and Mons, 216 ; claim to have come originally from
the valley of the Ganges, which, however. Sir A. f hayre
disputes, 216; alphabet of, contains eleven vowels and
thirty consonants, 230 ; rough analysis of, 231 ; great
difficulty in transliterating, as there can be no compromise
between the speech and the spelling, 292.
literature, XVIII. cxix, 662, n.«.
transliteration (see St. Barbe), X. 228, n.8.
Bumell, Dr., thinks the Smritis could never have been
actual codes of law, being written in a langua^ not
generally intelligible, XIII. 235, n.8, ; notice of, XV. iv,
n,8. ; letter of the Council of the R.A.S. to the Under-
Secretary of State for India, on the subject of his MS8.,
xxvii ; special views with reference to the Indian alphabet
44 BTJE-BTJS
in his Elements of South Indian Palaeography, XVI. 344,
n,8. ; on the derivation of the modem Tamil alphabet,
XIX. 667, n.8.
Bumes, Sir Alex., his expedition to Bokhara, I. xii, o,s. ;
on a hospital for animals at Surat, 96; on infanticide
in Cutch, 193, 285 ; on the route of Alexander the Great,
149, 209 ; on the ruins of a Hindu Temple, 150 ; meeting
for the presentation of a diploma to, his reply to Earl
Munster's address, II. iv, o.s, ; on the eastern branch of
the Indus, Trans. III. 650, o.8. ; account of the remains
of the celebrated Temple at Pattan Somnath, sacked by
Mahmiid of Ghizni, aj). 1024, V. 104, o.«. ; list of Kafir
words, XIX. 23, o.s,
Bumey, Lieut-Colonel H., on the lacquered ware of Ava,
Trans. III. 437 ; life of, IX. iii, o.s.
Bumouf, E., I. 365, ix, o.s. ; shows coincidence between the
form of the mystic symbol of Mahavira and a well-
known Bactro-Greek monogram, IX. 167, n.8. ; maintains
the identity of the derivation of the the Haraqaiti and
Saraswati, XV, 383, n.8.
Bumu, Idris, Sultan of, expeditions of, XIX. 43, 199, 207,
219, 226, 228, 233, o.«.
Burton, Lady, her edition of the Arabian Nights, XIX. 534, ti.s.
Burton, Sir K. F., " Proverbia Communia Syriaca," V. 338,
n.8. ; his version of '*The Song of Meysun,'' XVIII. 269,
n.8. ; on the discovery of the original of " Zayn al-Asnain
and Aladdin," XIX. 326. n.s.
Burton and Ward, journey into the Batak country in Sumatra,
in the year 1824, Tram. 1. 485.
Burty, P., XIX. 40, n.s.
Bushell, Dr., S. W., " Notes on the Old Mongolian Capital
of Shangtu," VII. 329, n.s. ; "The Early History of Tibet,
from Chinese Sources," XII. 435, n.«. ; paper by, a literal
translation of the official histories of the T'ang Dynasty,
436 ; table of the principal dates by, 438.
Bushman language, alphabet and grammatical sketch of the,
XVIII. 60, n.s. ; pronouns, 65 ; numerals, 68 ; nouns and
adjectives, 69 ; order of sentence, 74 ; formation of nouns,
75 ; the importance of the, ibid. ; literature, 77.
and Bantu compared, XVIII. 55, n.s.
Bushmen, the, and their language (Bertin), XVIII. 51, n.8. ;
their physiological characteristics, 54 ; moral characteris-
tics, 55 ; lack of a religion, 56 ; artistic capabilities, 57 ;
scanty materials for a study of the, 57 ; relationship, 78.
and Hottentots, the difference between, XVIII. 52, n.s.
BTJS— CAM 45
Bussora and Eufa, schools of theology and law early estab-
lished at, XI. 81, n.8.
Butcher, Rev. Dr., his remarks on the death of A. Wylie,
XIX. 602, ».«,
Cabul, Mr. Elphinstone's embassy to, XVIII. 233, o,8.
Caducous, explanation of the, XYIII. 401, n.«.
Csenobia, the founder of the, XIX. 703, n.«.
Caesar, remarkable variations in the application of this title
as that of a ruler, IX. 416, n.8. ; the name given in Abul-
Faraj to all the Roman Emperors from Augustus to
Heraclius, 417.
Cairo, procession of medical students in, I. 163, o.s. ; the
three monumental gates of, closely connected with the
origin and early history of the city itself, XIY. 229, n.8, ;
the walls round, commenced by Saladin a.d. 1170, 244;
inscriptions at (Kay), XVIII. 82, n.«.
Cairus, VII. 17, n.8.
C'aitanya, probable date of this Vaishnava teacher, XIV.
304, n.8. ; makes marriage a religious duty, 305.
Calah, or Nimrud, description of, XV. 335, o.«.
Cal-anna, or Calneh, the name of the central part of Babylon,
XII. 81, n.«.
Caldwell, Bishop, comparative grammar of the Dravidian
languages by, XI. 65, n.8,
Calicut =Eallee Kota, V. 148, n,8.; submergence of old
city of, VIII. 252^ o.«. ; port of, II. 846, o.8.
canoe, I. 2, 9, o.8.
Callery's Systema Phoneticum quoted, XIX. 216, n.8.
Cambay, observations on the town and bay of. III. lxxvii,
0.8. ; method of cutting and polishing cornelians, etc.,
purchased by natives of, lxxviii ; Jain temple at, lxxx.
Camel of Sindh, I. 230, o.8.
Camp, Scythic, the, did not require the presence of too many
women, XI. 37, n.8,
Campbell, Dr. A., note on the Valley of Choombi, VII. 135,
n.8.
Campbell, J., quotation from his (or Oswald Fry*s) " Lost
among the Afghans,^' concerning the idols at Bamian,
XIX. 164, n.8.
Campbell, Rev. W., his account of the Pepohwans from whom
he obtained the Formosan MSS. sent to Mr. Baber, XIX.
426, n.8.
Camphor-tree, manner of procuring oil from, X. 45, o.«.
46 CAN— CAS
Canal of irrigation and navigation, XYIII. 424, o.«. ; of
Nechos, VIII. 368, o,8.
Canara, forests in, II. 344, o.s.
Canarese poets, some of the best, pride themselves on being
able to write in Sanskrit as well as in their native tongue,
XV. 296, n.«.
vocabulary, XIX. 662, n.«.
Gandidius, George, XIX. 418, n.8. ; his description of For-
mosa, 453.
Qangam of Madura, a sort of Academic Francaise, XIX.
674, n.«.
Canoe of Malabar, I. 6, o.s.
Canton, Auxiliary Society at, I. xi, 161, 162, o.«.
Cantor, Dr. M., value of his '' Mathematische Beitrage,"
XV. 1869, 1, n.8.
Cantor, Dr. Theodore, notes respecting some Indian fishes,
V. 165, 0.8.
Caoutchouc, preparation of VII. 9, o.s.
Cape Boux, historical survey of, XVIII. 32, n.8.
Cape Town, Sir G. Grey's library at, where Bleek's great
dictionary is " buried," XVIII 67, n.8.
Capper, George, murder of, XX. 166, n.8.
Capper, John, on the Cinnamon trade of Ceylon, VIII. 36^,
0.8. ; Vegetable Productions of Ceylon, XVI. 266, o.8. ; on
the Dagabas in Ceylon, XX. 20, n.8.
Caranus, site of, XVI. 32, o.s.
Cardamum of Martaban, III. 33, o. s.
Cardinal points, differences between ours and those used in
Mesopotamia, XVI. 301, n.8.
Caria, famous, for three historical queens, XI. 13, ns.
Carians, the, did not make use of the Digamma, X. 364, n,8.
Carles, M., on the Miryeks of Corea, XIX. 663, n.8.
Carii Cave Temples, ornaments on some sculptured figures
there like those worn by the Brinjaris, Trans. III. 451.
Carlyle, Prof., on the dialects of the Arabic language.
Trans. I. 680; his poetic version of "The Song of Maisuna,"
XVIII. 269, n.8.
Camac, Sir James, life of, IX. iii, o.s.
Camac, J. H. Rivett, referred to, XVII. 364, n.8.
Carudevi, V. 58, n.8.
Cars in connection with deities often mentioned in the Vedas,
XVI. 27, n.8.
Casidas, reason why Arabic poems were so called, XI. 87, n.8.
Caspian Sea, Russian commerce by the, I. 289, o.s.
Cassels, A., life of, XVIII. 649, n.8.
CAS— CER 47
Caste, a disputation ooncerning, by a Buddhisti TranB. III. 160 ;
absence of, amongst the ancient Dra vidians, XIX. 676| n.H.
Castes, anciently secular and not religious, YI. 835, o.<. ;
Arrian's account of, 365 ; a ciyil institution among IBudd-
hists, 379 ; not of much importance anciently, 407 ; the
divisions into, derived from the natural subdivision of
labour, associated with heredity of occupation, 178 ;
Pliny's detail of, differs slightly from that of Mega-
sthenes, 179 ; at the present time, no less that 560 said
to exist in the N.W. rrovinces, 181.
Catalogue of Oriental Manuscripts in £ing*s Oollegei Cam«
bridge, III. 105, n.s.
Catamarans of Ceylon, I. 4, o.s.
Catharrei, of Pbny, certainly the people of the present
Eatar, X. 164, n.8.
Caucasus, strange Babel of languages in, XIII. 292, n^.; his-
torical survey of the, XYII. 145, i}.s.; statistical information
relating to the, 148 ; the languages of the, 161.
Cave Temples of India, YIII. 30, o.$. ; Ajanta, Tran$. II.
362 ; inscriptions and paintings, XITL 206, o^.
Caves of Afghanistan, westward towards the Uiah Eoh and
Darunta Gorge, remarkable for size and position, XIII.
203, n.s. ; near Nagarahara, perhaps used for elephants,
Und, ; those west of Siah Koh called by the natives '* the
Bazaar," from their great extent, 204; on the whole
generally resemble that at Buddha Oaya, ibid.; pictures
and plans of, XIY. 320, n^. ; general character, ibid.;
generally larger than the cells of the ordinary Yiharas,
322 ; oblong recesses with a cifcolar roof, Md.
on the Morghab, description and plates o^ XYIIL
92, na.
and Yiharaa existed together, the latter being gener*
aUy distinct from the Topea, XIY. 321, no.
Cedis, Y. 73, njf.
Cedrei, YI- 10, no.
Qentamil literatare, discussion as to the origin of, XIX. 560,
na. ; venification, names of the metres o^ 568 ; vocabo^
larr, 502.
Central Arabian Inscriptions, XYIII. cxxxn, m^.
Asia, books and papers on, XI L Lxxxix, n^, ; rmfffsdirf^
descripcicmsof by HfZ^nu^Vmea and byStrabo,XI V^ 76, n^.
Cerebral and I>enul /, d, a, and r, in Ganriaa, bat fi/H in
Bomaace, XL 301, ma.
ktt^rv, tik«, ^AhA to hf>%\i l\^ Xf^rth and tt^r ffootri
Ajcka Aijr&abct, XVL '^,1^ ua.
48 CEBr-CHA
Cerppan, an old title of the Pa^diyas, XIX. 580, n.«.
Ceylon, native Tessels of, I. 1, 4, 5, 14, o.8, ; lamentations of
the natives of, over the bodies of their deceased relatives,
II. 63, 0,8. ; plan for granting trial by jury to the natives
of. III. 244, 0.8. ; suggested botanical garden at Colombo,
XLViii; translation of a proclamation by the Governor,
V. 102, 0.8. ; Fahian arrives at, VI. 316, o.8. ; Branch
Society established at, IX. viii, o.8.; inscriptions in,
XIII. 177, 0.8. ; vegetable productions of, XVI. 266,
0.8. ; statistics of, I. 42, n.«. ; V. 73, n.8. ; the Crown in,
originally hereditary, VIII. 298, n.8. ; the Hindu Law-
Books have no place in, XIII. 236, n.8. ; heavens, view of,
as given by Mr. Upham, XV. 430, n.8. ; visit of Buddhist
monks to, from the Pallava country, an important
historical standing-place, XVII. 214, n,8. ; customs and
superstitions in, 366.
Ceylon Asiatic Society's Journal, r^sum^ of papers in,
XVII. L, n.8.
Chabas, M. F. J., notice of, XV. xxiv, n.8.
Chachar, the name of an Indian melody, XVIII. 211, n.s.
Chahilburj, Captain Maitland's description of, XVIII.
330, n.8.
Chaitanva, a Bengali poet, who wrote in a spurious Maithili,
XVlil. 209, n.8.
Chaitya Caves, VIII. 35, xviii, o.«. ; miniature from Sarnath,
XVI. 37, 0.8. ; the first, a rude sepulchral mound in the
jungle, XIV. 234, n.8.
Chaityabhattarakoddesa, VIII. 15, n.8.
Chaityapungara (P pungava), VIII. 18, 19, »«.
Chakra, the Buddhist emblem, XIX. 240, n.8.
Chakravartti, XIX. 203, n.8.
Chaldaean system of astrology, XVIII. 382, n.8.
Chaldasans, Professor Rawlinson's account of their religious
belief, XVIII. 379, n.8.
Chaldee and Hebrew Literature, XVIII. lxxxv, 554, n.8.
Chalias, or cinnamon-peelers, account of a flag representing
their introduction in Ceylon, Trans. III. 332.
Chalmers' Concise Eanghi quoted, XIX. 216, n.8.
Chalukya, dynasty and genealogy of, IV. 4, 5, 7, o.8. ;
statistics of, I. 42, n.8. ; dynasty, IV. 88, n.8. ; kings, in-
scriptions of, preserve the names of several Eannada
authors, XV. 298, n.8.
Chalybians, the adoption of the helmet of by Eucratides and
Plato, possibly implies some kindred with that tribe, IX. 4,
n.8. ; character of the shields, etc., used by, ibid.
CHA 49
Chamberlain, Basil Hall, "Educational Literature for
Japanese Women," X. 5326, n.8.; complete collection of
Japanese poetry given by, to the Library of the Royal
Asiatic Society, XIII. xiii, n.s, ; " On two Questions of
Japanese Archaeology," XV. 315, n.s. ; his translation of
the Eojiki, XIX. 37, n,8. ; his investigations into Japanese
place-names, 332 ; his contributions to Japanese literature,
692.
Chamberlayne, John, his Formosan version of the Lord's
Prayer, XIX. 439, n.8.
Champa, YI. 235, n,8. ; an ancient Malay kingdom, 508.
Ohampernagur, VL 237, n.«.
Champerpore, VL 237, n.8,
Chand i^ardai, the earliest Gaurian writer in twelfth century
A.D., XL 290, n.«.
Chandamaharoshanatantra, VIIL 37, n.8.
Chandi Dasa, the famous Bengali poet, XVIII. 208, n.8.
Chandra Gupta IL, IV. 124, n«.; inscriptions of, XIII.
534, n.8.
Chandragupta L, V. 196, n.8. ; epoch of, XII. 247, o «. ; the
rise of, XVIII. 372, n.8.
Chao yuen hao, speech of, pointing out the difference between
Tartar and Chinese, XV. 452, n.8,; treacherous conduct
of, ibid. ; great successes of, ibid. ; prepares to invade China,
453 ; letter of, to the Emperor of China, 454 ; formally
interdicted by the Chinese Emperor, 455 ; succeeds in de-
feating the main body of the Imperial army, 457 ; second
letter of, to the Emperor, ibid. ; assassinated in 1048 by
his son, 460.
Chaos, description of, as given in the Brahmanda-purana,
IX. 66, n.8.
Chapman, Captain I. J., on the city of Anurajapura and
temple of Mehintale, Tran8. III. 463 ; additional remarks
upon the ancient city of Anurajapura or Anuradhapura
and the hill temple of Mehentele in Ceylon, XIII. 164, o.8.
Charitrapura, VI. 245, n.H,
Charlemagne, IX. 336-337, n.8.
Charles V., form of the oath taken by, on his coronation at
Bologna, IX. 416, n.8.
Charter of Incorporation of the Royal Asiatic Society, Tran8.
I. XI.
Charvakas, tenete of the, XIX. 299, 0.8.
Chastana, coin of, XIII. 526, n.8.
Chattia familv, probably immigrante inte the Assam valley
from the N'E., notice of, XII. 236, n.8.
VOL. XX.— [nbw bb&ibs.] d
60 CHA— CHI
Ghatuhpura-yyaktadipa, VIII. 28, n.s,
ChaturaDga, Sanskrit term for ''chess/' XYII. 35 4, n.8.
Chaucer's Canterbury Tales, quotation from, referring to the
" Augrim " or Algorism, XV. 87, n.«.
Chemtou (anciently Semitu Colonia), Roman remains at,
XVIII. 41, n.8. ; the aqueduct at, 43 ; the colossal bridge
at, 45 ; note on the marbles of, 49.
Chenchwars of the Eastern Ghauts, VIII. 271, o.«.
Chenery, Thomas, life of, XVI. xxii, n.«.
Chenna-Basaya-Purana, V. 144, n.s.
Cbennouah, note on the marbles of, XVIII. 60, n,s.
Chepang and Arracan hill-dialects, close connection between,
IX. 422, n.8.
Chera Kingdom of Ancient India, VIII. 1, o,8.
Chess, the Chinese game of (Holt), XVII. 362, w.«.
on the Persian game of (Bland), XIII. 1, o.«.
Chester, Greyille, Hittite seal discovered by, XIX. 699,
n.8.
Chieh, is the wife by coemptio, and her children were legiti-
mate, XV. 227, n,8.
Ch'ienlung, Emperor, combined the two previous accounts of
Chinese annals, in 2b0 books, XII. 437, n.8.
"Child," pictorial signs representing the word, XIX. 643,
n8.
Childers, Robert CsBsar, " Khuddaka Patha, a Pali Text, with
a translation and notes," IV. 309, n.8. ; '' Notes on Dham-
mapada, with special reference to the question of Nirvana,"
V. 219, 289, n.8. ; Notes on the Sinhalese Language, VII.
36, n.8.; Mahaparinibbana Sutta, 49; Notes on the
Sinhalese Language, VIII. 131 ; shows that the Sinhalese
is Sanskritic, not Dra vidian, 132; Pali Text, by, of the
Mahaparinibbana Sutta, with Commentary, etc., 219 ;
" On Sandhi in Pali," XL 99, n.8. ; on Nirvana, XIIL
71, n.8.
Children, peculiar language used for, in Arabic-speaking
countries, XL 375, n.s.
Chimolo, restorations of this name by St.-Martin, Julien,
and Gen. Cunningham respectively, XV. 336, n.8. ; most
probably represents Travancore and Cape Comorin (the
£umar of the Periplus), 337.
China, notices of, by Padre Serra, Trans. III. 131, o.s.
advantage of inducing the learned men of, to visit
England, IX. lix, n.s.; policy of, as directed by the
Tartars, 403; the Sung dynasty of, act treacherously
towards Aguta and the Kins, 288.
CHI 51
China, climate of, not so deBtmctive to MSS. as that of India,
XII. 158, n,8. ; papers, essays, letters and books relating
I to, LXXV.
the introduction of writing into, may have come
I from Mesopotamia, XYIII. 7, n.«. ; ancient sculptures
I in, 469.
laws and customs of, mostly older than the Tsang
dynasty (7th to 10th century a.d.), XY. 221, n.8.; the
bearing of a family name does not imply a common
ancestor, 223 ; the position of agnates in, 233 ; the mem-
bers of a gens in, entitled to the funds collected in the Tsu
I Tang or '^ ancestral temple,'' 224; min ''household"
includes all who reside in the same inclosure, 225 ; fu cM,
means the *' single married couple," ibid, ; the progress
has been from the family to the tribe and from the tribe to
the gen8f ibid, ; the whole social and legal system of, rests
J on the idea of the subordination of children to their
parents, ibid. ; eyerj respectable person takes care that his
. name is inscribed in the chia-pu or &mily register, 226 ;
practically a man cannot dispose of his property by will,
230 ; the group and not the individual the legal unit, 231 ;
legal cases are decided not on their merits, but with a
. view to public opinion, ibid. ; social opinion is behind the
law, ibid. ; land held in, not as the property of the in-
' dividual, but as that of the household, 232 ; no distinction
drawn between criminal and civil law, or between realty
and personalty, fbid. ; individual ownership of land in,
' quite modern, 233 ; in purchasing land, separate payments
are made for any buildings on, ibid. ; present tendency to
change land tenure from commonalty to individualty, but
' this is checked by the government, 234 ; teachers dom-
' iciled in houses cannot marry their pupils, ibid. ; mandarins
decide cases without being fettered by the letter of the
law, there are no advocates in pleadings, 235 ; not always
the present wide gap between the colloquial and the
' literary language, 265 ; phonetic characters have gradually
yielded to the preponderance of the ideogram, ib^.
the Northern Frontagers of, XVII. 293, n.8. ; notched
sticks used by the aboriginal tribes of, 431 ; origin of the
early civilization in, 449.
pati (the place where Kaniskha kept the Chinese
hostages), discovered by Maj.-Gen. Cunningham, XII.
XLIV, n.8.
trade, effect of its opening, on the Society's operations,
I. 161, 162, 0.8.
52 CHI
China, war witb, at all times difficult to avoid, X. 116, n.s. ;
intercourse of, with Russia, dates from the time of Peter
the Great, 127 ; our opening up a new land trade with,
will not necessarily involve war with Russia, 128 ; people
of, must be taught to look on England as their most
powerful and immediate neighbour, 116
works and articles relating to, XIII. lxxxiii, n,s.;
XIV. xciii; Xyi. cxv; XVII. cxviii.
the formation of written characters in, commenced
about 6000 years ago, XI. <?38, n.s, ; three principles of
formation provided about 1500 characters, 239; street
literature of, verv abundant, 251.
North, branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, notice of
papers in, XIV. xlvi, n.«.
- reports of meetings of the, XIX. 160, 507-8, n.s.
Chinese Bak tribes, took with them the knowledge of writing,
XVII. 422, n.s,
Buddhistical works, IX. 199, o,s,
Buddhism much checked by Confucianism, XIII. 60, n.s,
and Burmese frontier, with a native map, Trans. II. 90.
characters, art of writing correctly, Trans. I. 304 ;
Third Class, die suggestive, made up from several different
pictures, XI. 246, n.8. ; 2nd indicative — with symbols
rather than full pictures of external objects, 246 ; the
judgment of Mr. Marshman and of Stanislas Julien, as to
the importance of their emplacement in a sentence, 257 ;
native division of into the 8hih and Hsu— 'the/u// or sub-
stantial and the empty, 259.
charms, talismans. Trans. III. 285.
civil servants sent to study in "Western countries,
XIX. 701, n.s.
connection of their theology with that of other nations,
XVI. 368, O.H.
edicts, from the Hoppo of Canton to the Hong
merchants. Trans. I. 541.
Empire, dismemberment of, on the fall of the Tang
Dynasty, XIII. 148, n.s.
extracts from Peking Gazettes, Trans. I. 254, 383;
Trans. II. 86.
execution at Canton, XVI. 54, o.s.
game of chess, XVII. 362, n.s.
guilds or trades unions, XIX. 507, n.s.
historical work of the. III. 272, o.s. ; philosophy,
fundamental principle of, 278 ; on the poetry of the, 281 ;
philosophers, 282.
CHI 63
Chinese imniigrants in the United States, religious ceremonies
of the, XIX. 702, n.s.
inventions attributable to the, I. 161, o.s.
language has no grammar, because there is no alpha-
bet, but only pictures or ideograms, XI. 189, n.s> ; not to
be learned through the spectacles of Aryan or Semitic
grammars, 243; no syntax, properly so called, in, 244;
composition in, necessarily different from composition in
an alphabetical language, 248; ancient style of, illus-
trated by a short ode from the Shih, 252; character of
the literary or polished style in, 261; in studying, it
is well to consider all adiuncts to be adverbiiu, 265;
mandarin or colloquial, notice of, 269 ; the monosyllable
vocables of, really very few, 270; difficulty in, from
homophonous names with different meanings, 271 ; lan-
guage, rules for the transliteration of, adopted by Mr.
Kingsmill, XIY. 76, n.s. ; adaptability of, for translations
from other languages, XYII. lii, n.«.
Library, RoyalAsiatic Society, notice of the catalogue
by Mr. Holt, XII. lxxx, n,s.
literary style, great varieties of, XI. 263, n.s.
literature, knowledge of Indian history obtainable from,
YI. 248, O.S. ; commences with the Han Dynasty, B.C.
' 202, XI. 249, n.8.; brief sketch of the chief features of
* ancient, classical and literary, 248.
I manifesto of the Triad Society, I. 93, o.«.
medical system of the, lY. 157, o.«. ; their nosology,
' 157; pharmacology, 164; pathology, 167; surgery, 169;
on the diseases of women and children, 171.
■ ■ ■ memoir concerning the, Trans, I. 1.
mythology and art, XYII. cxix, n.s.
phonetics, priority of labial letters illustrated in,
XIX. 207, n.8.
poetry, Trans. II. 393 ; proper way to translate into
English, XYI. 454, n.«.
porcelain, XIX. 179, n s.
proclamation issued by the Fooyuen of CaQton in
1822, Trans. I. 44.
Secret Triad Society, Trans. I. 240 ; by Lieut. Newbold
and Major-Gen. Wilson, YI. 120, o.s. ; rules and customs
of the brotherhood, 136 ; secret signs, 142 ; constitution
of the Malacca ramifications, 143 ; oaths and record, 145 ;
peach-garden association, 146; name and origin, 154;
resemblance to Freemasonry, 156.
signs of the cardinal points, XYII. 449, n.s.
54 CHI
Chinese sovereigns, illustrations of the history of, I. 57, 213,
0.8. ; names of, have a general resemblance to those given
in the books on Tibetan history, XII« 438, n.«.
tales, analysis of, I. 307, o,«.
- tones, XI. 261, n.8.
use by the, of knotted cords as a substitute for
writing, XVII. 426, n.s.
vases, description of ancient, I. 57, 213, o.s.; H.
166, 0.8. ; the inscriptions on, generally forgeries, XYII.
447, n.8.
version of H. W. Freeland's poem on " Art," XIX.
136, n.8.
vocabularies, framed on the principles of the old
syllabaries of S.W, Asia, XV. 284, n.8.
warlike poetry, fully described in the Marquis de St.
Denys' ['Po^mes de T^poque des Th'anff," XVI. 468, n.s.
writing, the masterpieces of, as pleasing as those of
Plato, Cicero, Milton, Macaulay or Johnson, XI. 263, n.s. ;
the earliest, not drawn by an oblique-eyed people, XV.
278, n.«. ; not bom in the Middle Kingdom, XVII. 445, n.8. ;
its earliest characteristics, 446 ; its antecessor found in South-
West Asia, 447 ; the ungenuineness of the rude pictorial
characters supposed to represent it, 447 ; traceable to the
wedge-writing of Babylonia, 448 ; the phoneticism of its
earliest characters, 449 ; its struggle against surround-
ing circumstances, 450 ; intermingled with that of the
aboriginal tribes, 451 ; it reached alphabetism and then
dropped it, 453 ; formally introduced into Annam, 445.
Chingis Khan makes his first attack on the Hia in a.d. 1205,
XV. 470, n.8. ; successive advances of, 471 ; last campaign
of, when he entered the kingdom of Hia in a.d. 1225, 475 ;
great uncertainty as to his death, whether by natural means
or otherwise, 482.
Ohingiz Khan, VI. 363, n.8.
Chini, beautiful scenery of, XVI. 13, n.ft. ; no Brahmins at,
perhaps because close to the "Lama" region, 16; only
two castes in, the Katiwallahs or occupiers, and the Cooli-
log, or labourers, 16.
**Chiri," the Malay, an address of praise to a Hindu God or
a Hindu King, XIII. 81, n.8. ; looked on by the Perak
Malays as a solemn form of oath, 83 ; reading of, at the
installation of different chiefs, though unintelligible to ex-
isting Malays, is still used at the Court of the Malay Raja
of Brunier (Borneo), ibid. ; version of as used in Borneo,
84; not recognized by the Muhammadans as a relic of
CHI— CHF 65
Hinda worship, and therefore not discarded, 100; in it
Qiva generally appears under bis name of Mahadeva, ibid.
Chitral Valley, language of the, XVII. 113, n,8.
Ghitty, Simon Casie, on the manners and customs of the
Moors of Ceylon, III. 337, o.s. ; on the origin and history
of the Parawas, lY. 130, o.s. ; on the site and ruins of
Tammana Nuwera, YI. 242, o.s.
Chohan race, relics of the, XYII. 30, n.«.
Cholera, contagion of. III. 89, o.s.
Cholians, YII. 163, n.8.
Choohur Shah Dowlah, Dr. Cust's remarks on the, XTX.
313, n.8.
Choombi, notes on, YIL 136, n.*.
Chortens of Tibet, connexion of, with the Topes of the
Peshawar valley, XI Y. 29, n.8.
Chota Nagpore, report on, YIII. 407, o.8.
Chota Rousthaveli, a Qeorgian poet, XIX. 692, n.8.
Chow dynasty, institutes of the, III. 279, o.8, ; sovereigns
grand masters of ceremony, 280.
Christian, John, a writer of hymns in the Hind! vernacular,
XIX. 141, n.8.
Church of India, ancient grant to the, YH. 343, o.«.
Egypt, M. Am^lineau's history of, XIX. 703, n.8.
Christianity in India, I. 171, O.8.; influence of, in South
India, XYII. 167, n.8.
Christians, Nestorian, in Kurdistan, 1. 136, o.8. ; of Malaysia,
171, 0.8. ; 11. 61, 234, O.8.; many in the service of the
Moghul Emperor, when Mandelslo travelled through India
in 1638, XL 98, n.«.
Christopher, Lieut. W., vocabulary of the Maldivian lan-
guage, compiled by, YI. 42, o.8. ; gives the only vocabulary
of the Maldive language besides Pyrard's, X. 176, n.8.
Chronological tables of the history of the Pallavas, XYII.
187, n.8.
Chronology, Assyrian, XII. 473, 0.8. ; of the Modes, XYIL
39, 0.8. ; Indian, lY. 81, n.8. ; of Mr. Baber's nine
Formosan MSS., XIX. 419, n.8.
Chu Hsi, the Chinese Cicero, XL 260, n.8.
Chumbi Yalley, cession of, after last war with Bhutan, im-
portant as giving direct access to Tibet, X. 122, n 8.
Chungtsung, Emperor, letter from, a.d. 710, XII. 467, n.8.
Church of Malaya la, memoir of the primitive, I. 171, o.8.
Churchill, S., *'A Modem Contributor to Persian Literature:
Biza Kuli Khan and his Works," XYIIL 196, n.8. ; letter
from, respecting Mirza Ja'far, the Persian translator of
66 CHU— COI
** The Alchemist/' 463 ; his note on Reza QuU Ehan and
his works, XIX. 163, 318, n.8.
Chusan Islands, one of them called by the Chinese sailois
from Ceylon, Poo-to or Potaraka, XV. 343, ».«•
Chuwash language, XYIII. 181, n.«.
Chwolson, Prof., his report on Nestorian epitaphs in two
recently-discovered Syrian cemeteries, XIX. 535, n.«.
Cid, historical notices of the, XVI. 352, o.«.
Cinnamon trade of Ceylon, VIII. 368, o.«.
Circassians, notice of the, I. 98, o.a.
Circle ode, Turkish, by Shahin-Ghiray, XVIII. 400, 0.9. ; text
of, ibid, ; translation of, 401.
Citium, inscription from, translated by the Due de Lujmes,
XIV. 362, n.«.
Clark, Eev. Mr., ''A specimen of the Zoungee (or Zumgee)
Dialect of a Tribe of Nagas, bordering on the Valley of
Assam, between the Dikho and Desoi rivers, embracing
over forty villages," XI. 278, «.«.
Clemens Alexandrinus, on the Gymnosophists, XIX. 276, o.s.
Cleopatra, special titles of, on some of her coins, IX. 320, n.s.
Clepsydra, the early appearance of the, in China, XVIII. 15, n.8.
Clerk, Mrs. Godfrey, her version of " The Song of Meysun,"
XVIII. 271, 0.8.
Clicks, those in the Avar language differ altogether from
those heard in S. Africa, XIII. 295, n.8. ; have some re-
semblance to the terminal sound of the Aztek language,
295 ; but are not found in other Caucasian tongues, 351.
Climates, Dr. Ainslie's remarks on, II. 13, 0,8,
Clive, Lord, native title of, XIII. 145, 0.8.
Cochin, native vessels of, I. 1, 0.8. ; forests of, II. 332, 0.8.
Cochin-China, notes on, XVIII. cxxi, 563, n.8. ; XIX. 331.
Cocoa-nut oil of Ceylon, I. 44, n.8.
Cocoa-nuts of Martaban, III. 38, 0.8.
Cockbum, S. J., his account of Sita's "Window or Buddha's
Shadow Cave, XIX. 691, n.8.
Codrington, Kev. Dr. R. H., his ^'Melanesian Languages"
reviewed by G. von der Gabelentz, XVIII. 485, n.8.
Coimbatore, megalithic monuments in, VII. 17, n.8.
Coinage of Bengal, VI. 339, n.8.
Coins, IV. 273, 397, 0.8.
Abbasside, VII. 262, n.8.
of Arab governors of Persia, XII. 284, 0.8.
bilingual Muhammadan, of considerable rarity, IX.
331, n,8, ; with Arabic characters, but with the Christian
symbols, 33^.
COI— COL 57
Coins in the cabinet of the Royal Asiatic Society, III. 381, 0.8.
of early Mohammedans with Pehlvi legends, XII. 253^
0.8.
inedited Arabic, VII. 243, n.«.
Arabico-Pehlvi, jieries of Sassanian, XIII. 373, 408, 0.8,
Greek, Parthian, and Hindu, IraM. 1. 313.
- of the Guptas, XII. 65, o.«.
of the Sah kings of Surashtra, XII. 24, 0.8.
of Hindu kings of Kabul, IX. 177, 0.8.
of Kings of Ghazni, IX. 177 ; XVII. 138, 0.8.
of the Manohu dynasty, Tram. 1. xvii.
observations on some ancient Indian, by Professor
Wilson, III. 381. 0.8.
from the Pietraszewski cabinet referred to by M, Soret,
XII. 288, 0.8.
Sassanian, XII. 274, 0,8.
selected W E. Thomas from the collection of H. H. the
late Rao of mitch, for the R.A.S., XIX. iv. 0.8.
Colas, V. 73, n.8.
Cole country, XVIII. 370, 0,8. ; villages, 371 ; agriculture,
372 ; dress, ibid. ; religion, 373 ; customs, 874 ; language,
375 ; features and geologv of, 376.
Cole, G., his Hittite seal, XIX. 699, n.«.
Cole, Major H. H., second report by, on Ancient Monuments
in India, for 1882, XVI. lxi, n «.
Colebrooke, H. T., discourse at first general meeting, Tran8,
I. 17 ; account of inscriptions in South Behar, 201 ; notes
on inscription at Madhu-cara-ghar, 227 ; translation of
three grants on copper found at IJjjayani, 230, 463;
remarks on Capt. A. Gerard's account of the valley of
the Setlej, 343 ; on the philosophy of the Hindus, 19, 92,
439, 649 ; Tram. II. 1 ; writers on the Vedanta, 3 ; on
Hindu courts of Justice, 166 ; bust of. Rep. IV. 0.8. ;
notice of the life of, by his son, I. v, 0.8. ; " On the
duties of a faithful Hindu widow," on the sources of. III.
183, n.8. ; prepared to admit fifty years ago, that Buddhism
is an emanation of Jainism, IX. l57, n,8.
Colebrooke, Sir T. E., Memoir of Mountstuart Elphinstone,
XVIII. 221, 0.8. ; note on Professor Whitney's article, I.
332, n.8. ; " On Imperial and other Titles," IX. 314, n.8. ;
''On the Proper Names of Mohammadans," XI. 171, n.8. ;
his new edition of Mountstuart Elphinstone's " Rise of the
British Power in the East," XIX. 337, 641, n.8.
Colebrooke, Lieut.- Col. W. M. G., on a translation of a Ceylon
proclamation^ V. 102, 0.8. ; on a ceremonial exhibition
68 COL— CON
of Buddha's tooth, by, 161 ; on process of making crystal-
lised sugar from toddy, communicated by, 243 ; on inscrip-
tions found near Batticaloa, in Ceylon, Trans, III. 379.
Coles, Lurka, account of, by Dunbar, XVIII. 370, o.s.
Colour, in early Aryan times, a test of . race, IX. 180, n.«.
Comana, the greatest Cappadocian sanctuary of later days,
XY. 104, n.8, ; the priesthood of, the original rulers of die
country, 107.
Comedae, VI. 98, n.«.
Commander of the Faithful, title of, IX. 384, n.«. ; more
enduring, as a title, than that of Ehalif, ibid. ; origin of
this title, as given by D'Herbelot, ibid.
Commerce, reasons why the chief emporia of, were in early
times in the Persian Gulf, XII. 203, n.<.
of Kussia with Asia, I. 289, o.«.
Commercial interest in British India, I. 158, o.9.
Committee of Agriculture and Commerce, XX. xi, o.%.
of Correspondence, III. xlvi, o.%. ; IV. xxviii, o.8.
Judicial, of the Privy Council, I. 163, o.a.
of Trade and Agriculture, minutes of a committee
appointed to report to the Council on the practicability and
expediency of forming a, III. Liv, o «.
Compton, Sir Herbert, IX. ii, o.a.
Condore Islands, the seat of a considerable trade in the time
of I-tsing, the language of the people being generally
used throughout the Southern Seas, XIII. 563, n.B.
Confucius, III. 283, o.a. ; on chess-playing, XVII. 354, n.«. ;
second in the triad of great Chinamen, XIX. 701, n.a.
ConoUy, Lieut. A., " On the white-haired Angora goat," VI.
159, o.a.
Consonants, initial, the combinations of, the same in Burmese
and Tibet, X. 22, n.a. ; resemblance of, in Sanskrit and
Latin preserved in their descendants, XI. 227, n.a. ; some
combinations of, not found to prevail in both groups, 310.
Constantine the Great, inscription of, IX. 324, n.a. ; the especial
object of the new foundation of Constantinople by, to sever
his Government from the old traditions of the Hepublic,
327.
Constantinople, temperatures of, XIX. 30, o.a, ; the Court of,
IX. 327, n.a. ; the Sultan of, assumes the title of '^ Padshah
MuBulmin," according to Selden, 386 ; his suzerainty
recently recognized by Atalik Ghazi, chief of Eashgar,
392; reigning family at, thirty-three out of thirty-four
names of, Arabic, XIII. 254, n.a.
Convention of Aynali-Kavak, XVIII. 411, o.a.
COO— CTTL 59
Coombs, Lieut. -Colonel, life of, I. v, o.«.
Cooper, T. T., on the habita and customs of the Mo-so, XVII.
458, n,8.
Copper plates presented by Mr. Boberts, XIX. iv, 0.8.
Coptic Church, the, XYIII. cxxxiii, n.8.
documents preserved in Arabic, XIX. 704, «.«.
Coptos, XIX. 294, 0.8.
Cordier, M. Henri, "The Life and Labours of Alexander
Wylie," XIX. 361, n.«.
Corea, papers and books referring to, XII. lxxxiii, n.8. ; XIII.
Lxxix, n.8. ; priests travelled to India by the inland route,
XIII. 565 ; the Miryeks or Stone-men of, XIX. 553, n.«.
Corealbunda, Mangalore, description of a, II. 341, o.«.
Corfu, auxiliarv society at, I. xi, 0.8.
Cork trees in the country of the Rhomair, XVIII. 37, «.«.
Coromandel, native vessels of, I. 3, 13, o.«. ; V. 148f n.s.
Corpus Inscriptionuro Semiticarum, edited by the Academic
des Inscriptions, XVIII. cxl, n.8.
Coti river in Borneo, IV. 182, o.«.
Cotton, the, of Ceylon, I. 45, n.8.
the cultivation of, in India, by J. M. Heath, V. 372, 0.8.
cultivation of, in Dharwar, ^IX. 351, o.«.
of Martaban, III. 34, 0.8.
soils of Georgia, note on, by Mr. Solly, V. 379, 0,8.
trade of India, XVII. 346, 0.8.
Court, M. A., description of his discoveries at Manikyala,
IX. 217, n.8.
Courts of Justice, Tran8. II. 166.
Couvreur, Pere S., obtains the Sfanislas-Julien Prize for his
Franco-Chinese Dictionary, XIX. 331, n.8.
Cow, anciently sacrificed by the Brahmins, VII. 3, 0.8.
Cowell, Prof. E. B., "The Tattvamuktavall of Gaud^urna-
nanda-chakravartin, edited and translated by," XV. 137,
n.8. ; "Two modern Sanskrit slokas communicated by," 174.
Crassus, the relics of his army settled down peacefully under
the Parthians, and married Oriental women, IX. 222, n.8.
Creation, account of the, in the Brahmanda-purai^a, IX.
59, n.8.
Crocodiles, the rivers in Madagascar swarm with them, XV.
192, n.8.
Croesus and Sardis, fall of, XVIII. 143, 0.8.
Cro Magnon, relic of the Stone age found at, XVII. 438, n.8.
Cufic inscription from Colombo, Tran8. I. 546 ; from Abys-
sinia, IL 573; IIL385.
Cullen^ Lieut.'Gen. W., life of, XX. x. o.««
60 CUL— CTL
Culver, Capt., on the writing of Hainan, XVII. 445, fi.«.
Cuneiform inscriptions, progress in the decipherment of,
XIII. 196, 0.8. ; publication of first volume of, XVIII. 10,
0.8. ; inscriptions of Yan (Hincks), IX. 387, o.8. ; studies, IX
xxxiv, n.8. ; writing, used in early days in Cappadocia,
XVI. 302, n.8.; syllabary, G. Bertin's article on the
origin and development of the, XIX. 625, n 8.
Cunningham, Qeneral Sir A., on the ruins of Samkassa, VII.
241, 0.8/; opening of the topes or Buddhist monu-
ments of Central India, XIII. 108, o.8. ; ** Note on the
Mathura inscriptions," V. 193, n.8. ; opinion on stones
from Takht-i-Bahi, VII. 176, n.8. ; thinks the optional
omission of the hundreds at least as early as Asoka, IX
2, n.8. ; Stupa of Bharhut, notice of, XII. xlv, n.8. ;
views of, with reference to the Qupta dates, XIII. 842,
540, n.8. ; description of two sculptured stones at Dras,
XIV. 28, n.8. ; considers the Bactrian alphabet the source
of some of the Indian numerals, 648.
Cunynghame, H., "The Present State of Education in
Egypt," XIX. 223, n.8.
Cup-marks in China and India, XVII. 436, n.8.
Cureton, Rev. W., extracts from an Arabic work respect-
ing Indian physicians, VI. 105, 0.8. ; on an autograph MS.
of Ibn Ehallikan's Dictionary, 223.
Curtin, S., his " Religious Ceremonies of the Chinese in the
United States," XIX. 701, n.8.
Curumbars, VII. 26, n.8.
Curzon, A., original extension of the Sanskrit in Asia and
Europe, XVI. 172, o.8.
Cushing, Rev. J. N., '* Grammatical Sketch of the Kakhyen
Language," XII. 395, n.8.
Cust, Kobert N., " Notice of the Scholars who have Contri-
buted to the Extension of our Knowledge of the Languages
of British India," XI. 61, n.8.; XIV. 160, n.8.; ''Gram-
matical Note and Vocabulary of the £or-ku, a Eolarian
Tribe in Central India," XVl 164, n.8. ; " On the Origin
of the Indian Alphabet," 325 ; note by, on the Rev. F.
W. Kolbe, XVII. 38, n.8.; "On the Languages of the
Caucasus," 145.
Cutch, infanticide in, I. 193, 285, o.8. ; mineralogy of, 151,
155 ; native vessels of, 2, 12 ; particulars relating to, 40 ;
coins from, IV. 273, o.8.
Cuthbert, S. T., on Chota Nagpore, VIII. 407. o.8.
Cylinder of Nabonidus, an important record of historical
events, XVII. lxxxi, n.8.
OTP— DAM 61
Cypher (Arabic si/r), a literal translation of the Sanskrit
mniya, XV. 39, «.«.
Cypriot system of writing, XIX. 653, w.«.
Cyrus, cylinder of, found by Mr. Rassam's men at Babylon,
originally contained forty-five lines of Cuneiform writing,
XII. 70, n.«. ; translation of the inscription of, 71 ; the
legend of, as found on his cylinder, probably drawn up
by the priests of Merodach, 82 ; text of the inscription
in Roman characters with interlineary translation, 84.
Cyrus, derivation of the name, XVIII. 636, «.«.
Czar or Tsar, doubtful if derived from the Roman " Ceesar,"
IX. 351, n,9. ; as a title, borne, in early times, by other
princes besides the ruler of Russia, 353 ; has been traced
back by some to the time of Nebuchadnezzar, ibid.
Da Fonseca, Dr. J. N., life of, XIX. 513, n^.
Dagasara, probably the modem Jakasar, XI. 146, n.«.
Daher Abu Nasr Muhammad, the supposed son of the last
Abbasside Ehalif, accepted as Ealif by Bibars, IX. 382, n.8.
Dai jin, name of a character in a Japanese legend, XVII. 6, n.«.
Dakhail, the political condition of the, in Fa Hian's time,
XVII. 186, n.8.
Dakhun, on the land tenures of, by Lieut.-Col. Sykes, III.
350, o.«.
Dakinijalasamvara, VIII. 32, n,8,
Dakinijasamvara, VIII. 31, 32, w.«.
Daksha, I. 344, n.9.
Daladavafisa, VII. 168, w.«.
Dalai Lama, IV. 299, n.«. ; XV. 348, «.«.
Dalmahoy, Mr., "On the Meteorology of the Neilgherry
Hills," II. 33, O.B.
Dalton, Maj.-Gen., notice of his services, XIII. vii, «.«.
Dalii Rai, probable origin of the stories about, XVI.
292, «.a.
D'Alwis, Mr., on the origin of the Sinhalese Language,
VIII. 132, n.a.
Dalzell, N. A., on Imphee, XIX. 39, o.s.
Damant, G. H., Notes on the locality and population of the
tribes dwelling between the Brahmaputra and Ningthi
rivers, XIV. 228, n.«. ; murder of, XIV. iii, n.«.
Damascus sword blades, on the cause of the external pattern
or watering of the, IV. 187, o.«,
the Library of, catalogue of the Arabic MSS. in, XIX.
698, n.8.
62 DAM— DAY
Damba Eoh or Dambani Koh, the bills of Dambs in Makran,
IX. 128, n,s. ; the remains of structures there, probably
those of human habitations, ibid.
Dambs, none of the bones found in, show any signs of
cremation, IX. 134, n,8.
Dames's " Balochi Grammar " quoted, XVII. 409, n.9.
Danakacheka, YI. 256, n,8.
Danan Malay u, Lake of, Borneo, lY. 176, o a.
Dance, peculiar kind of, at the Devi festival, XYI. 18, n.«.
Dandaka, Y. 73, n.«.
Daniel's seventy years, XYIII. 120, o.«.
Darah-Gaz, YI. 102, n.«.
Daraim, YI. 108, n.«.
Daranabila, in Baluchi, would mean the small hill of Dara,
XI. 133, n.«.
Darapati, YI. 254, n.s,
Dards, Y. 81, n.«.
Darius, Nakshi Rustam inscription of, XIX. 261, o.s, ; would
seem to have attempted to check the spread of Scythism,
XI. 23, n.8. ; marries Atossa, the daughter of Cyrus, 24.
Darius and the Scythians, XYII. 419, n.«. ; and the lonians,
428.
Darmani ban, a place to the S.E. of Damba Eoh, with a
group of large houses packed close together, IX. 131, n.s.
Darmesteter, Prof., his notice of the Gajastik Abalish, XIX.
700, n.8.
Dar-ool-Hurb and Dar-ool Islam, technical meanings of,
XIII. 429, n,8. ; question whether India is now so, one of
abstract law, 432 ; an appropriate title for France, Germany,
Austria, and Italy, as well as for Britain, 434 ; now means
simply a locality, such as France, Germany, Austria, and
Italy, as well as Britain, ibid.
Dasabhumika, YIII. 4, n.8,
Dasabhiimisvara, YIII. 4, n.8.
Dasahara, an Indian festival. Trans. I. 72.
Dasamas, Y. 65, n.8.
Daulat Sh&h, YI. 365, «.a.
Daumas, F., his contribution to the Bushman language,
XYIII. 58, n.s.
Dauncy, W., observations with a view to an inquiry into the
music of the East, YI. 1, o.8.
Davids, T. W. Rhys, inscription of Parakrama Bahu, YII. 152 ; i
note on Sinhalese Historical Books, 167 ; Sigiri, the Lion
Eock,near Pulistipura, Ceylon, and the thirty-ninth chapter
of the Mahavamsa, 191 ; two old Simhalese inscriptions, 353.
DAV— DEH 63
Davis, J. F., memoir concerning the Chinese, Trans, I. 1 ;
extracts from Peking's Gazettes, 254, 384, Trans. II.
86 ; art of writing Chinese characters, Trans. I. 304 ;
translation of two Chinese edicts from the Hoppo of Canton
to the Hong merchants, 641 ; on the frontiers of the
Burman and Chinese empires, with a Chinese map,
Trans. II. 90; notices of Western Tartary, 197; on
Chinese poetry, 393.
Davis, S., on the religious and social institutions of the Bho-
teas. Trans. II. 491.
Dawn, the False, various names for, in Arabic, Persian, and
Turkish, X. 344, n.s. ; called also the Wolf's Tail in the
same languages, 346 ; is it the Zodiacal Light ? ibid. ;
noticed under its two Eastern names by the Qamus, a.d.
1413, 362.
the True and False, distinction between, important in
Muhammadan countries, X. 347, n.s. ; notices of in Persian
poets, 349.
Dawson, Lieut., letter from, on remarkable appearance in the
Indian seas, Y. 198, o.s.
Dayak and Eayans know nothing of the legend of the
Princess who came out of the Foam, XIII. 620, n.s.
Dayaks, alphabetic writing of the, XYII. 441, n.s.
Dayananda Sarasvati Swami, commentary by, tends to show
that the Big Yeda was purely monotheistic, IX. liii,
n.s. ; opposed to idolatry. Pantheism and Polytheism, but
holds the four Yedas to be true, XIII. 40, n.s.
Days of the week, similarity of the European and Indian
division of the, XYIIL 385, n.s.
Debendra Nath Tagore, the first to give real organization to
Bammohun Boy's Theistic Church, XIII. 16, n.s. ; estab-
lishes, in 1839, the Tatim'bodhiHi-sabhd or '' Truth-knowing
Society," 16.
D'Eckstein, Baron, his dreams about the Eushites, XIX.
646, n.s.
De Courteille, Pavet, his paper on the Turki languages,
XYIIL 186, n.s.
Defenneh (Tahpanhes, Taphne, DaphnsB), important dis-
coveries at, XVIII. 665, n.s.
De Groot, M., his work on Amoy Yearly Feasts, XIX. 701,
n.s.
De Guiraudon, Capt. T. G., " The Persian for Bouble," and
''The Bibliography of Africa," XIX. 686, n.s. ; XX. 143,
n.s. ; " Notes on African Philology," 144.
DehU coins, 11. 168, n.s.
64 DEH— DEV
DeMi the last King of, his Lament, XYII. 403, ft.«.
pillar at, has four inscriptioDS enclosed in four square
tablets, and a fifth round the base, IX 203, n,s.
Dehna, VI. 13, «.«.
Deities, modem, worshipped in the Dekkan, VII. 105, o.a.
Deity, the worship of any, on abstract grounds, foreign to the
principles of Buddhism, XV. 333, n.a.
Dekhin, Mahommedan invasion of. III. 223, o.8.
Dekkan, the, valuable surrey of, I. 158, o.«. ; materials for
an account of, 347 ; cause of the frequency of famine iD,
11. 77, 0.8. ; on the land tenures of, 205, o.s.
Dekkhan, V. 62, n.8.
De Laessoe, Capt., and. Capt. the Hon. M. G. Talbot, " Dis-
covery of Caves on the Murghab," XVIII. 92, n.8.
Delamaine, Major James, on the Srawacs or Jains, Trans. I.
415.
Delaporte, M., the first to give definite notions about the
Silha tongue, called the Morocco Berber, XII. 425, n.8. ;
successful result of his journey to the ruins of Angkor,
XIV. CIV, n.8.
Delitsch, Dr., assertion that Kassite is a language uncon-
nected with Akkadian, etc., not provable, XVI. 302, n.s.
De Meynard, M. B., his " Dictionnaire Turc-Fran9ai8," XIX
330, n.8.
Demon worship in Northern India, XVII. lxi, n.8.
Denarius, of gold, the first said to have been coined B.C. 207,
IX. 223, n.8.
Dening, W., "Modem Translation into Sinico*Japanese,"
XVII. Lii, n.8. ; his account of the Gakasbikaiin, XIX.
692, n.8.
Dennis, Mr., in his work on Etruria, and others, speak of the
Lycian custom of reliance on maternity, XI. 18, n.8.
De Perceval, M. Caussin, his theory concerning Zenobia and
Zebba'u, XIX. 585, n.8.
Derenobosa, perhaps the west point of the Gwadar headland,
XI. 137, n.8.
Dervishes, the rites of, no legitimate parts of Islam, XII.
12, n.8.
Desgodins, Pere A., description of the Mo-so, XVII. 456, n s.;
discoverer of the Mo-so hieroglyphical language, 459 ;
letter from, 460.
Desmukh tenure, II. 219, 0.8.
Despandah tenure, II. 221, o.8.
Devagurvacharya, VIII. 11, n 8.
Devakotta, village of, III. 173, o.s.
JES—UBY 66
A€<nroT7y;, as a title, originally applied to the master of
slaves, IX. 328, n.a.
Deyanampiya, not admitted into the Scriptures of the
Northern Buddhists, though used in Ceylon, IX. 207, n.8, ;
''beloved of the gods," a conventional title among the
Jainas,206.
Devanapiya piyadasa, mentioned in an inscription of
Mehentele, XII I. 176, o.8.
Devaraja, VIII. 24, n,8.
Devatakalvanapanchavimsatika, YIII. 24, n.8.
Devi festival, worship or pujahs, general details of, XVI. 17,
n.8. ; words of the song at, 19 ; live kids brought to and
killed at, 21 ; mimic battle at, by pelting of walnuts and
cones, 22 ; remarkable resemblance in many respects to
the Mosaic ritual of Exodus zxix., 23.
Devika. V. 70, n.8.
Devil-dancing in Ceylon, XVII. 368, n.8.
Devipatnam, III. 171, o.8.
Devlet-Ghiray, XVIII. 405, o.8.
Devyani, the legend of, XVII. 29, n.8.
Dewal Bandar, Sindhian town of, I. 29, o.8.
Deyrah Dhoon, its past and present condition, VII. 250, o.8.
Dhakgond, an exudation of the Butea frondosa, VII, 145,
0.8.
Dhammapada, V. 219, n.s. ; XVIII. 148, n.s.
Dhaua Nanda, I. 476, u.8.
Dharani, I. 28, n.8. ; VIII. 41, 42, 43, 49, n.8.
Dharanikota, conflicting testimony as to the founders of,
XVIL 215, n.8.
Dhara^isangraha, VIII. 41, n.8.
Dharasena, IV. 90, n.8.
Dharmadhatusvayamutpattidharmamahatmya, VTII. 20, n.8.
Dharma-Sastras really mean duties performed by the indi-
vidual on his own behalf, XIII. 209, n.8.
Dharwar, cultivation of cotton in, XIX. 355, o.8.
Dhatusena, VII. 196, n.8.
Dhatuyamsa, VII. 168, n.8.
Dhauli, rock inscription of, XII. 153, o.8. ; Awastama in-
scription at, IX. 203, n.8.
Dher tenure, II. 221, o.s.
Dhimal language placed by itself, in class viii., X. 17, n.8. ;
in, demonstrative pronouns have different forms according
as they refer to animate or inanimate things, ibid.
Dhumnar cave temples, VIII. 69, o.8.
Dhvajagrakeyuradhara^I, VIII. 49, n.8.
TOXi. XX. — [ifBW BBBIia.] B
66 DIA-DIV
Diadem, open assumption of the, first attributed to Diocletian,
IX. 326, n.8.
Dial of Ahaz, on the, XV. 277, o.s.
Diamond mines in Borneo, III. 17, o.s.; sandstones and
limestones of Southern India, VIII. 166, 315, o.8, ; gravel
of Cuddapah, VIII. 245, o.«. ; XII. 89, o.8. ; trying of,
VII, 126, n.8.
Diaramocks, the, of Formosa, XIX. 456, n.8.
Dibon monument, V. 409, n.8.
Dickins, F. V., paper by, "On the Roll of Shiuten Dwi,"
XVI. XLVi, n.8. ; " The Story of Shiuten Doji," XVIL
1, n.8.; "The Story of the Old Bamboo-Hewer, a
Japanese Komance of the tenth century," XIX. 1, n.8.
Dickinson, T. M., An Inquiry into the Fate of the Ten Tribes
of Israel, IV. 217, o.8. ; antiquity of the Armenian language,
333, 0.8. ; remarks on the Arabic language, V. 316, o.s.
Dickson, J. F., The XJpasampada-Kammavaca, VII. 1, n.8. ;
the Patimokkha, VIII. 70, n.«.
Dickson, Sir J. R. L., life of, XIX. 690, n.8.
Diez, M., list given by, of the Latin words lost in the
Romance, XI. 294, n.8.
Differential calculus, on the supposed discovery of the prin-
ciple of, by an Indian astronomer, XVII. 221, o.8.
Dimbutaqala Medankara, VII. 171, n.8.
" Dimdim," the South Sea Islanders' synonym for English
sailors, XIX. 380, n.8.
Dinar (denarius), the use of this Roman word a partial test
of the age of a Sanskrit MS., IX. 223, n.8.
or gold coin, the standard of currency in early times,
X. 110, n.8.
Dio Gassius on the gymnosophists, XIX. 279, 0.8.
Diploma, Sir Alexander Burnes, to, II. 203, 0.8.
Dipankara Buddha, legend of, VI. 377, n.8.
Dipavamsa, VII. 169, 217, n.s.
Dirham, three recognized weights of, X 107, n.8. ; table of
the, relation of the Qirats to, 275.
Discs of glass, some of them, certainly, measures of capacity,
X. 99, n.8.
Distances, curious method of computing, XVII. lxxii, n.8.
Divine characters, so called, not accepted by any EngUah or
American scholar, who lives in Japan and has access to
the whole literature, XV. 329, n.8.; the theory of, rejected
by almost every native man of learning in the country,
329 : really only upheld by some exaggerated religious
patriots, 330.
DIV— DOT 67
Diyiners, character of those employed by the Tatar rulers,
IX. 409, n.8.
Divinities of the Khonds, VII. 177, o.s.
Divorce amongst the Arabs, XVII. 279, n,8.
Dizful, the bridge at, a structure of the Sassanians now much
damaged, XII. 318, n.s.
Djang-Kien, mission of, B.C. 138, X. 249, n.s.; with his
Turkish wife, after many years, returns to China and is
well received, 295.
Djows, the original founders of the Chinese polity, X. 285, n.s.
DiuDg, the Tibetan name for the Mo-so, XVII. 467, n.s.
Dog," wir ■ ~ - - -
III. 405.
wild, of the Western Ghats, description of, Trans.
Dog, archaic forms representing the word, XIX. 630, n.s. ;
Doganlu, Phrygian inscriptions at, X. 361, n.s.
Dogri language, XVII. 377, 389, ».«.
Dola Yatra, Hindu religious festival, IX. 97, o.s.
Dolonnor, VII. 334, n.s.
Domestic animals, As^rian names of, XIX. 319, n.s,
Donaldson, Rev. Dr. J. W., restoration of an ancient Persian
inscription, XVI. 1, o.s. ; life of, XIX. xii, o.s.
Doni, or native vessel of Coromandel, I, 313, 0.8.
Dorn, Dr. B., description of an Arabic celestial globe, Trans.
II. 371 ; life of, XV. xvi, n.s.
Doshanirnaya, VIII. 48, n.s.
Doshanirnaya Avadana, 14.
Doubling, peculiar form of, in the Semitic tongues, XV. 408,
n.8.
Douglas, Prof. R. K., "Ancient Sculptures in China," XVIII.
469, n.s. ; his note on Tsuh fu, XIX. 512, n.s.
Dow, the Arab, I. 2, 11, o.s.
Dowson, Professor J., on the Chera kingdom of Ancient India,
VIII. 1, o.s. ; translation of Ahmed Shah Nakshabandi's
route from Kashmir to Yarkand, XII. 372, o.s. ; readings
of Buddhist inscriptions, XVI. 1, os.; Bactrian Pali in-
scription, XX. 221, o.s. ; translation of three copper plate
inscriptions of the fourth century a.d., 1. 247, n.s.; transla-
tion of a Bactrian Pali inscription, IV. 497, n.s.; "Ancient
Inscriptions from Mathura," V. 182, n.s. ; notes on a Bactrian
Pali inscription and the Samvat Era, VII. 376, n.s. ;
" Further ]Note on a Bactrian Pali Inscription,'' IX. 144,
n.s. ; considers the word " Samvatsara ** must refer to that
of Vikramaditya, 146 ; life of, XIV. xiv, n.8.
Doyly, Sir John, constitution of the ELandyan kingdom. Trans.
III. 191.
68 DOZ-DXJN
Dozy, Prof., life of, XVI. xix, n.«.
Dragon's head, The Jewel in the, XIX. 19„n.«.
Dragut, the celebrated corsair, XYIII. 33 n.8.
Drama, Chinese, cultivated during the Yuan or Mongol
dynasty, thirteenth and fourteenth centuries a.d., XI. 250,
n.8. ; not admitted to be a legitimate portion of the national
literature, 250.
Dras, the position of, on the road from Cashmere to Leh,
XIY. 28, n,8.; sculptured tope at, relation of, to the
Tibetan topes, 33 ; possible connection of, with the pagodas
of China, 36 ; umbrellas in, correspond numerically, with
those in the Chinese pagodas, 36.
Dravidas, V. 58, n.8, ; said by Manu to have been outcast
Eshattriyas, XIII. 219, n.8. ; and Andhras, highly ciyilized
before they had any intercourse with the Brahmans, ibid. ;
earliest alphabet of, not older than the ninth century A.D.,
116.
Dravidian alphabet, V. 422, n.8. ; group, much remains yet
to be done for the complete study of, X. 2, n.8.;
twelve languages of, described by Bishop Caldwell, 3 ; a
rational and irrational gender of the noun in, ibid. ; pos-
sesses no true dual, 4 ; an oblique form, a remarkable
characteristic of, ibid. ; grammatical relations in, generally,
though not always, expressed by suffixes, ibid. ; root vowels
in, occasionally changeable, 5 ; some mutations of conson-
ants in, like those in Welsh, ibid. ; has a causal form, and
negative but no passive voice, ibid. ; literature, its soul
departed with the advent of Sanskrit, XIX. 573, n.8.
Dravyagunasangraha, VIII. 47, 48, n.8.
Dreams, Muhammadan science of interpretation of, XYI.
119, 0.8.
Dubois, Abb^, writes that custom is the only law in India,
XIII. 230, n.8.
Dufani, probably the same as Duhati, allowing for the errors
of copyists, XVI. 285, n.8.
Duhalde, on the Formosan aborigines, XIX. 418, n.8.
Duka, Surgeon-Major Theodore, "Some Remarks on the Life
and Labours of Alexander Cosma de Eoros," etc., XVI.
486, n.8.; "An Essay on the Brahul Grammar," etc., XIX.
69, n.8.
Dukes and Counts, the inheritors of the names and functions
of the late Roman provincial governors, IX. 341, n.8.
Dumah, VI. 11, 13, n.8.
Duman vocabulary, XVI. 303, o.8.
Dunbar, Dr. William, on the Lurka Coles, XVIIL 370, o.8.
DUN— EAR 69
Duncan, Jonathan, narrative of Gaikwar affitirs, from the
unpublished MSS. of the late, IV. 365, 0.8.
Dunes of sand on the Malabar coast, YIII. 268, 0.8,
Duperron, A., admits that Halhed's " Gentoo Code *' was a
boon to India, XIII. 212, n.8.
Duport, J. H., his grammar of the Susu language, XIX.
686, n.8.
Durand, Capt., "Extracts from Report on the Islands
and Antiquities of Bahrein, with notes by Major-General
Sir H. C. Rawlinson, K.C.B., P.R.S., with map and one
plate/' XII. 189, n.8.
Durgatiparisodhani (cf. Sarva-), VIII. 40, n,8.
Dutch in India, materials for an account of the, I. 345, 353,
0.8. ; settlements in Borneo, IV. 176, 179, 181, 183, 0.8.
Dutthagamini Abhaya, XIII. 176, 0.8.
Dutthagamini, the builder of a stupa at Anuradhapura,
XVII. 214, n.8.
Duval, M. R., his criticism of Dr. P. Smith's Thesaurus
SyriacuB, XIX. 692, n.8.
Duveyrier, H., tract by, in 1867, on the words of the Beni
Menasser, Mozab, Zouaves, etc., XII. 422, n.8. ; value of
the lists of words given by, as throwing light on the rela-
tion of the Beni Menasser to the other Libyans, ibid.
Dvatrimsatkalpa, VIII. 31, n.8.
Dvavimsatipunyotsaha, VIII. 23, n.8.
Dvavimsatyavadana, VIII. 22, n.8.
Dvijadas Datta, ''Moksha, or the Vedantic Release," XX.
513, n.8.
Dyak tribes of Borneo, III. 8, 0.8. ; singular custom of, 9 ;
IV. 176, 179, 181, 183, 0.8.
Dyaus, I. 54, n.8.
Dyeing, art of, among the Tenasserim people, and the
Malays, III. 292, 0.8.
Dynasties in the East, often named after their founders, as
the house of Othman, Seljuks, Ghuzni, etc., XIII. 264, n.8.
Dzobyan, VI. 17, n.8.
Eagle, double-headed, as represented on the coins of Imad-
ed-din Zanki of Sanjar, and on the inner wall of the citadel
at Cairo, XIV. 244, n.8.
Earl, George, narrative of a voyage from Sinffapore to the
West Ckmst of Borneo, III. 1, 0.8. ; island of Borneo, IV.
174, 0.8.
Earthquake in Cutch in 1819, Tran8. III. 552.
70 EAS— EGT
East, Sacred Books of the, published during 1882-3, XV.
LXVII, n,8.
Easter Island, the inscriptions in, traceable to a decayed form
of the South Indian alphabet, XVII. 442, n.«.
Eastern works, the translators of, often use Tory vague
language with regard to the titles they refer to, IX. 315, n-«.
Eastwick, E. B., life of, XVI. viii, ».«.
Ebn-el-Beytar, value of the botanical works by, XVT. 496, n.«.
Ecbatana, site of, XII. 97, 122, o.s.
Eclipse of Thales, XVIII. 137, o.s.
Ecole sp^ciale des Langues orientales vivantes, notice of its
new volume of *' Melanges Orientaux," and history of its
origin and progress, XIX. 338, n.s.
Eddas, story in, of the creation of man from the frost-covered
salt-blocks licked by the cow Audhumla, XIII. 100, n.8.
Eddjaitu, V. 34, n.s.
Eden, Sir Ashley, obituary notice of, XIX. 688, n.8.
Edible birds' nests, III. 44, 45, 310, 315, o.«.
Edkins, Rev. J., D.D., MS. procured by bim, containing a
Chinese vocabulary with Sanskrit equivalents and a trans-
literation in Japanese, with plate oi specimen page, XII.
160, w.«.; "The Nirvana of the Northern Buddhists,"
XIII. 59, n.8. ; notice by, in his " Chinese Buddhism,*' of
the dates of Chinese pagodas, XIV. 37, n.8. ; notices of
Chinese Buddhist works n-om the Sanskrit, XVI. 316, o.8. ;
" The Yh-King of the Chinese as a book of Divination,"
XVI. 360, n.8. ; " Chinese Mythology and Art," XVIL
cxix, n.8. ; " Ancient Navigation in the Indian Ocean,"
XVIII. 1, n.s. ; '* Priority of Labial Letters illustrated in
Chinese Phonetics" (a lithographed plate accompanies this
article), XIX. 207, n.s.
Edrisi, new translation of his geography, I. 365, o.s.
Education in Bengal, XIX. 540, n.s.
in British India, on the laws affecting, I. 159, o.s. ;
former state of in India, 159 ; of the Hindus, 15.
Edye, J., on the native vessels of India and China, I. 161,
0.8. ; sea ports on the coast of Malabar, II. 324, o.s.
Edwards, Miss A. B., contributions to Egyptology by, XVIL
CXI, n.8. ; academical honours bestowed upon, XVIII. 566, n.s.
Egypt, capitals of, VII. 147, n.s.
coinage of, VII. 140, n.s.
discoveries in, XIX. 180, n.s.
Exploration Fund, report of the fourth annual meeting
of the, XIX. 333, n.s. ; " Exhibition of Minor Antiquities"
in connection with the, 703.
EOT— ELP 71
Egypt, operations of the Society in, I. 162, xi, o.«.
tiie present state of education in, XIX. 223, «.«.
Prof. Rossolini's work on, VIII. 365, o,8.
Egyptian, the Hamitio and Semitic Tocabularies in, XIX.
649, n.s.
Inferno, Prof. Maspero's itinerary of the, XIX. 703, «.«.
obelisk, a Chinese sculpture resembling an (illustrated),
XVIII. 472, n.8.
origin of the Babylonian writing discussed, XIX. 646, n.«.
Eijruk, general description of the sculptures at, XV. 115, n.«*
EkallaTlratantra, VIII. 37, n.8.
Ekanayaka, A. de Silva, on the form of government under
the native sovereigns of Ceylon, VIII. 297, n.8.
Ekavimsatistotra, VIII. 25, n.8.
Ekorama-Aradhya, V. 146, n.8.
Ekotibhava, information requested as to analogues of, XIX.
507, n.8.
El Dubbi, VI. 21, 26, n.8.
Electricity and nervous influence, identity of, III. 88, o,8.
Elephant hunting in Ceylon, Tran8. III. 212.
the, special symbol of the second Jaina, IX. 187, n.8.
chess, XVII. 357, n.8.
El^hanta and EUora, busts of Siva in the cave temples of,
V. 81, o.«., VIII. 83, 0.8.
Elephantiasis of the Greeks, or Lepra Arabum, as it appears
in India, Tran8. I. 282, 381.
Elephantine, potsherds found at, often bear the simple title
oi Kcuaap, IX. 419, n.8.
Elephants of Tavoy, Mergui, and Martaban, III. 43, o.8.
— — white, Trans. Ill 186.
Eliot, G-eorge, an un traced poetical couplet extracted from
her " Middlemarch," XVIII. 149, n.8.
Eliya, Archbishop, the friend of the Buweihide sovereign
Moucharref ed daulat, IX. 291, n.8. ; an imperfect treatise
of, discovered by the Baron de Slane in the National
LibraiT at Paris, ibid.
Elliot, Sir W., Hindu inscriptions, IV. 1, O.8.; his ^' Coins
of Southern India," XVIII. 668, n.8. ; memoir of, XIX.
320, n.8. ; memoir of, bv Sir A. Arbuthnot, 619.
Ellis, Sir B. H., life of, XIX. 688, n.8.
EUora cave temples, sculptures in, Tram. II. 326, 487;
Vin. 73, 0.8.
Elphinstone, Lord Mountstuart, life of, XVIII. ti, o.8.;
estimate of the extent of the Durani possessions, XV. 83,
n.8. ; his "History of India," XIX.
72 ELY— EST
Elymsean inscriptions, XI F. 482, 0.8.
Embryo writings, various sorts of, XVII. 418, n.8.
Emperor, this name, popularly accepted, as applying to rulers
of great domains in the East, IX. 314, n.8. ; title of, in
early times, 316 ; value of, in modem Europe, 334 ; never
well known or much used in the East, 417.
Emperors of the West, power of, really that of the sword,
lA. 339, n,8, ; prevent the rise of any powerfril state ia
Italy, 339 ; bear on their coins and official documents the
titles of " Imperator " and " Augustus," 340.
mediseval, ecclesiastical character of, as shown by their
titles, IX. 337, n.8.
Emmanuel (EMMANOTHA) on a coin of John Zimisces,
IX. 330, n.8.
Emsika, expedition against, by Idris, Sultan of Burnu, XIX.
219, 0.8.
Encyclopaedia, Sanskrit, I. ix, 0.8. ; II. 188, 0,8.
Britannica, the principal Asiatic articles in the, with
their authors' names, XVIII. CL, n.8.
England, the titles of *' Imperator " and " Basileus " of early
use in, IX. 347, n.8. ; almost endless titles used in, at least,
in early times, 348; comparative simplicity of the titles
assumed by the Norman kings in, 349.
English Missions to the Emperor Jehangir, I. 327, 0.8
and Vernacular Literature of India, XVIII. clxii,
n.8.
language, its cultivation among the natives of India, I*
137, 0.8.
factories in Bengal, earliest, I. 329, 0.8.
Entity, I. 346, n.8.
Epigraphs on Nimrud obelisk, 447.
Epigraphy, Cufic inscription at Colombo, Trans. I. 537*.
inscription in Nubia, Tram. III. 261.
Epiphanius, statement by, of the universal early prevalence
of " Scythism," XI. 2, n.8.
Epitaphs of the Catholics still to be read in the mortuary
chapel called the Padre Santo at Dehli, XI. 97, n.8.
Era of Sri Harsha, XII. 43, 0.8.
Valabhi, XII. 4, 0.8.
Eras, difference between those of Vikramaditya and Harsha
respectively, XII. 277, n.8.
Erythras, tomb of, that discovered by Capt. Durand on the
island of Tyrine or Ogyris (larger one at Bahrein), XII.
217, n.8.
Esarhaddon, king of Assyria, XII. 455, 0.8. ; XIX. 678, n.s.
EST— FAK 78
Esther, story of, as given in the Bible, XI. 24, n.8.
Ethnology of the Formosans, XIX. 441, n,8.
Eton College Library, Oriental MSS. in, VIII. 104, o.s.
Etruscan language, no word for father yet detected in it, XI.
19, n.8.
Eugraphia Sinensis, Trans. I. 304.
Euphrates, Arab notion that an underground stream from,
feeds the springs in the islands of Bahrein, XII. 191, n.8,
Europe, the history of, naturally divisible into three periods,
IX. 334, n.8.
Eusebius, chronology of, XVIII. 382, <?.«.
Evil-Merodach, XVIII. 117, o.«.
Ewer, Walter, life of, XX. vii, <?.«.
Excerpta Orientalia, XVIII. 550, n.8.
Exodus, the route of the, XVII. ex, n.8.
Exports from Russia to Asia, I. 289, o.8.
Eyre, Sir V., his measurements of the figures at Bamian,
and his sketch of the large male figure there, XVIII.
335, n.8.
Ezra at Jerusalem, XVIII. 121, o.8.
Ez-Zahrawy, sketch of his life, XVI. 496, n.8. ; names and
values of weights given by, 498.
Factories, earliest English, in Bengal, I. 329.
Fa hian, birth of, VI. 253, o.8. ; sets out on his travels, 272 ;
at Ehotan, 274 ; at Ladakh (P), 276 ; in the Himalayas,
277; passes the Indus, 277; in Affghanistan, 278; at
Eandahar, 281 ; in Beluchistan, 281 ; returns to the Indus,
283 ; at Mathura, 284 ; at Ganouj, 293 ; at Sravasti, 294 ;
at Eapila, the birthplace of Buddha, 296 ; at Lanmo, 298 ;
at Eusinara, 300 ; at Vaisali, 302 ; at Patna, 304 ; at
Tomoliti, mouth of the Ganges, 315 ; at Ceylon, 316 ; at
Java, 320 ; returns to China, 321 ; travels by, translated
into French in 1836 by M. Bemusat, and into English by
Mr. Beal in 1869, XII. 155, n.8.; describes Car festivals at
Patna and Ehoten, XVI. 26, n.8.; his testimony to the
political and religious condition of the Dakhan, XVII.
186, n.8. ; remarks on the narrative of, by the Bev. S.
Beal, XIX. 191, n.8. ; route from Tun-hwaug to Shen-Shen
and Wu-i, 194, n.8. ; and the Ta-li-lo Valley, 198, n.8.
Faidherbe, General, recent work by, on the Zenaga or
Libyan of the Senegambian quarter, XII. 425, n.8.
Fakhr-an-Nisa ('' the glory of women ''), celebrated for her
scholarship, XIII. 274, n.8.
74 PAL-FER
Falconer, Dr. Hugh, on the fossils of the Sewalik Hills, VIII.
107, 0,8, ; at once recognizes the value of the growth of
tea in India, X. 135, n.s. ; the rtol founder of the Qarhwal
and Kumaon tea industry, 136 ; report by, in 1834, induces
the Tea Committee to adopt the sub-Himalayan regions for
its culture, 137 ; (and Mr. Jameson) at first inclined to tea-
sites fiat and easily irrigated, 139 ; report, in 1842, to the
Calcutta Horticultural Society, ibid. ; matured views of,
with reference to the valley systems of the Gtuiges and
Indus, XV. 369, n,8.
Fallon, Dr. S. W., new English-Hindustani Dictionary by,
XVI. xcviii, ».«.
Fallon, Mr., notice of his life and services, XIII. ix. n.«.
Family names persistently retained in China, Mongolia, and
Manchuria, IX. 244, n.«. ; in the European sense, un-
known to Muhammadans, 415.
Famine in the Dekkan, II. 77, oa.
Fan-tsieh, Chinese term indicating the pronunciation of a
word, XVII. 453, «.«.
Farashis, VI. 278, n.s.
Farhang Jahangiri, Dr. Redhouse's note on the, XIX. 161, n,s.
Farquhar Collection of Malay MSS., II. 127, n.s.
Farsakh, the, of south-west Persia, a little over three statute
miles, XII. 319, n,8.
Fatalism, an unfounded accusation cast upon Muslims, XII,
6, n.8.
Fatimite Khalifate, memorials of the, XVIII. 82, n.«.
Fausboll, Mr., translation of a Pali Buddhist inscription on
a gold band found at Rangoon, XVII. 803, o,8.\ "Two
Jatakas," etc., V. 1, n,8.
Favorlang dialect of Formosa, vocabulary of the, XIX. 487, n.«.
version of the Lord's Prayer, XIX. 473, n.«.
Feathers, the Celestial Robe of, XIX. 28, n.«.
Feer, M. L., '^ Le Dhammapada par F. Hu, suivi du Sutra
en 42 articles," XII. 155, «.«. ; his studies in Buddhism,
XIX. 692, n.8.
Fees in HindO schools, I. 17, o,8.
Female slavery in Islam, XVII. 287, n.8.
Fergusson, James, on the cave temples of India, VIII. 30,
0,8, ; description of the Amravati tope in G-untur, III.
132, n.8. ; on Indian chronology, IV. 81, n.8. ; notes on
Senbyu pagoda, 423 ; on Hiouen-Thsang's journey from
Patna to Ballabhi, VI. 213, ».«. ; "On the Identification
of the Portrait of Chosrbes II. among the Paintings in
the Caves at Ajanta," XI. 165, n.8. ; note on Mr. Sewell's
FEE— FLE 75
paper, entitled "Note on Hiouen-Thsang's Dhanakaoheka,"
Xn. 105, n.8. ; notes on Babu Eajendralala Mitra's paper
"On the Age of the Caves of Ajanta/^ 139 ; his leading
object always to apply to Indian architecture the principles,
accepted in Europe, of archsBological science, 141 ; " On
the oaka, Samvat, and Gnpta Eras, a Supplement to his
Paper on Indian Chronology,'* 259 ; considers the inscrip-
tions, quoted by General Cunniugham, as all dating from
the Saka era, a.d. 79, 261 ; quotation from, as to the
origin of the trisula, XVIII. 364, n.s. ; life of, xxiv.
Fergusson and Burgess, Messrs., notice of the cave temples
of India by, XIIl. xxxii, n.s.
Perishta, on the life and writings of. Trans. II. 341.
Ferrette, Rev. Jules, Neo-Syriac language, XX. 431, o.s.
Ferrier, Prof., remark of, that " the light of every truth is
its contrasting error," X. 38, n.8. ; account by, of the
country round the Helmand, XV. 381, n.8.
Festivals of Hindus, TJhguirs, IX. 60, o.8.
Feudal system in China, III. 282, o.s.
Feudalism, traces of, in India, VIII. 30, o.s.
Ficus Indica, or banyan tree, account of, as found in Greek
and Latin writers. Trans. I. 119.
Filfila, note on the marbles of, XVIII. 50, n.s.
Fils (or copper coins) of the Beni Umaya and 'Abbasi dynas-
ties vary from 37 to 100 grains, X. 103, n.s.
Financial position of Ceylon, I. 47, n.8.
Fingers of natives, measurements of, VII. 46, o.s.
Finbty, B., his jonmey to Senna from Mocha, I. 369, o.s.
Finn, A., his note on the Persian word for rouble, XIX.
317, n.8.
Finn branch of languages, XVIII. 177, n.8.; -XJgric and
Turko-Tatar controversy, note on the, XVIII. 466, n.8.
Finzi, F., his monograph on Brahiil, XIX. 60, n.s.
Firdausi, splendid copy of his Shah Nameh, I. vii, lxxv, o.s.;
a new text of, XVIII. 205, n.s.
Firuz Shah summons the learned to read the inscriptions on
his two Lats, but ineffectually, IX. 182, n.s.
Firuzpiir, VL 375, n.8.
Fish emblem of the Pandiyas, XIX. 580, n.s.
god of Babylonia, the, XVIII. 470, n.s.
Fishermen, Scottish, curious note about their names, from
the work of Mr. Cosmo Innes, XIII. 262, n.8.
Five Rishis, hymn of the, XIX. 618, n.8.
Fleet, Mr., veuuable services ofj for epigraphy and arohsd-
ology, XIII. XL, n.8.
76 FLE— FOU
Fleur-de-Iys, tlie emblem of the, possibly to be traced bade
to the old emblem the scarab, XYIII. 404, n.8.
Foam of the Sea, common birthplace of Aphrodite, Lakshmi,
and of the child in the Malay legend, XIII. 511, n^.
Foe kue ki, or travels of Fa-Hian in India, V. 108, o.8.
Folklore, a curious coincidence in, XVIII. lviii, n.«.
Forbes, A. K., notes on the ruins of Wallabhipura, XYLL
267, 0.8.
Forbes, Oapt. 0. J. F. S., " Affinities of the Dialects of the
Chepang and Eusundah Tribes of Nipal with those of the
Hill Tribes of Arracan," IX. 421, n.«. ; *' On Tibeto-
Burman Languages," X. 210, n.8. ; '' On the Connection
of the Mons of Pegu with the Eoles of Central India,"
234 ; notice of, XII. vi, w.«.
Forbes, Dr., " Histoiy of Chess," XVII. 352, n.8.
" Fore-arm," as indicating " power," pictorial signs for the,
XIX. 633, 643, n.s.
Foreign words in the Hebrew Text of the Old Testament,
Xyill. 627, n.«.
Foreigners, all deemed to be of one religion as opposed to
Muhammadans, XIII. 429, n,8.
Forests of Malabar, II. 324, o.s.
Formosa, descriptions of the tribes of the south of, XIX*
457, n.8.
method of reckoning time in, XVII. 424, n.8.
Mr. J. Dodd preparing a work on the dialect of, XlV.
cvi, n.8.
notes on the MSS., races, and languages of, XIX. 413,
n.8.
Formosan alphabet at the Royal Printing Office, Vienna,
XIX. 437, n.8. (a reproduction of this is given on p. 438).
MSS. in the British Museum, description of, XIX.
431, n.8.
versions of the Lord's Prayer, XIX. 470, n.8.
Forster, Right Hon. W. E., life of, XVIII. li, n.8.
Fort St. George, on the revenue system of, I. lxxv, o.8.
Fortune, Mr., judgment as to the land reaUy best fitted for
tea, X. 143, n.8.
Fossils found in the island of Perim, VIII. 340, 0.8.
notes on, by Professor Owen, VIII. 417, 0.8.
Foucaux, M., identifies the Litsabyis with the Vaggians of
Vesali, XIV. 40, n.8.
Foulk, Lieut. Q. C, his photograph of the statue at Un-jin
in Corea, XIX. 553, n.8.
Foulkes, Rev. T., "The PaUavas," XVII 183, nJt.
FOU— PUJ 77
Four castes, symbolization of the, XIX. 244, n.s.
Fowle, E., translation of a Burmese version of the Niti Cyan,
a code of ethics, in Pali, XVII- 252, o.a.
Francklin, Col. W., description of the Temple of Parswanatha,
at Samet Sikhar, Trans. I. 527.
Frankfurter, 0., "Buddhist Nirvana and the Noble Eightfold
Path," XII. 548, n.s.
Franklin, Gapt. J., memoir of, on Bundel-Ehund, Trans.
I. 259.
Franks, Mr., view of, that the imprints of feet on early
Buddhist temples typify the presence of Buddha, XIY.
225, n.s.
Fravartish, XIX. 204, n.s.
Frederick, Col., letter from, I. 20, o.s.
Freeland, H. W., "Gleanings from the Arabic,'' XIV. 227,
n.s. ; XV. 290, n.s. ; XVII. 57, n.s. ; XVIII. 89, n.s. ;
Chinese and Italian versions of his poem on " Art,'' XIX.
|36, n.8.
Freeman, H. Stanhope, his work, in 1862, full of new material,
XII. 424, n.s.
French translation of Mes'iidiyy's "Meadows of Gold"
criticized, and quoted, XIX. 583, n.s.
Frere, Sir H. Bartle, life of, XVII. in, n.s.
Freret's " Canon Chronologique," importance of, X. 366, n.s.
Fresco paintings in the caves of Ajanta, Trans. II. 365.
Freytag, G. W. F., life of, XIX. o.s.
Friederich, R., "An Account of the Island of Bali," VIII.
164, n.8. ; IX. 59, n.8. ; X. 120, n.s.
Frye, Lieut. J. P., on the TTriya and Kondh population of
Orissa, XVII. 1, o.s.
Fryer, Capt. G. E., on the hill people inhabiting the forests
of the Cochin State, III. 478, n.s.
Fu, the, or check, of the Chinese, XVII. 433, n.s.
Fuchs, M. Edmond, sent by the French Government to
explore the mining districts of Cambogia, XIV. civ, n.s.
Fu-hi, the supposed author of the Yh-King, general story of,
XVI. 360, n.8. ; generally credited with the invention of
the Pa-kwa, 361 ; probably a real man who lived about B.C.
3000, 362.
Fu-hi Ts'ang-tsing, a Chinese legendary monstrosity (illus-
trated, see plate i.), XVIII. 470, n.s.
Fiihrer, Dr., his copy of an inscription in Gupta characters,
XIX. 695, n.s.
Fujisan, view of (a chromolithograph illustrating Mr. Bickins'
paper), XIX. 40, n.s.
78 . FUJ— GAR
Fujiwara, Mr., reprints the ^'Eojiki^' in 1871 in the so-called
" Divine Oharacters/' but with no eyidenoe for the genuine*
ness of them, XY. 331, n.$»
Fuller, Major A. B., account of Jerusalem by Nasr ibn
Khusru, VI. 142, n.s.
Funeral ceremonies of Bhills, Trans. I. 86.
the Hindus, XVI. 201, o.«.
Fur robe, the flaming fire-proof, XIX. 16, n.8.
Fusago, the lady sent by the Mikado to the Lady Eaguya,
XIX. 24, n.8.
Futawa Alumgeeree, yalue of the great code of Muhamma-
dan law by Aurungzebe, known as the, XIII. 430, n.8
Fumavese, Nana, XVIII. 226, o.8.
Gabelentz, Oeorg von der, "The Language of Melanesia,"
XVIII. 484, n.s.
Gabrs, letters from Professor N. Westergaard respecting,
VIII. 349, 0.8.
Gadi-razu, VII. 26, n.8.
Gaikwar affairs, narrative of the, IV. 366, o.8.
Gajapati, VI. 349, n.s.
Gajastik Abalish, a Pahlavi theological discussion, XIX.
700, n.8.
Galla language, comparison of the, with Assyrian, XVll.
76, n.8.
Galland's " Thousand and One Nights," XIX. 532, n.8.
Gallienus, probably, the first to display the purple robe
within the city, IX. 321, n.8.
Gallus, ^lius, VI. 121, n.8.
Gandhara, VII. 96, n.s.
Gandharvikavadana, VIII. 20, n.s.
Ga^davyOha, VIII. 3, n.8.
Gandharians, V. 58, 64, n.s.
Gandharvika, VIII. 21, n.8.
Ganesa Purana, analysis of, VIII. 319, 0.8.
Ganga, the principality of, the centre of the literary activity
of the Oanarese writers, XV. 297, n.s.
kings, the inscriptions of, the earliest local specimens of
Oanarese, XV. 297, n.s.
Gangakondar, town of, III. 174, o.s.
Ganges, the, called (while in Heaven), according to Hinda
mythology, Mandakini, XIII. 404, n.8.
Gardner, Christopher, "Ohinese Laws and Oustoms/' XV.
221, n.8.
GAR-GER 79
Garga, V. 66, ».«.
Garma, VI. 96, n.8.
Gamier, P., Mo-so words collected by, XVII. 466, n.8.
Garo language, grammar of, by Mr. Keith, XI. 67, n.s.
the, cafled in their own tongue Mande, and the most
primitiye of the Kacharis, notice of, XII. 234, n.8.
Gassan, chronology of the Syrian princes of, XIX. 592, n.8.
Gaupayanas, hymns of the, II. 440, n.8.
Gaurapada, the Earika, supposed by Mr. Golebrooke to be the
preceptor of Sankara Acharya, X. 357, n.8.
Gaurian languages, the names given by Dr. Hoemle to the
Aryan tongues of India, XI. 287, n.8. ; chief authorities
for, Beames, Trumpp, and Hoemle, 287 ; neuter gender
in, generally discarded, 289; and Romance, alike, haye
become analytical, 289 ; retain aspirated letters, especially
consonants, 302 ; table of the principal changes in, 305.
Gautama, VIII. 22, n.s. ; statues in honour of, XIX. 556, n.8,
Gayatri, mythological description of, II. 190, o.8.
Gaz, VI. 102, n.8.
Gebel Nakus, a visit to, VII. 78, o.«.
Geldart, Rev. G. C, " On Dr. Hincks's Permansive Tense of
the Assyrian Verb," at the Oriental Congress of 1874, IX.
26, n.8. ; important suggestions in, 28.
Geldner, Prof., on the age of the Avesta, XVII. 850, n.8.
Genghizkhan, the hordes of, the name of, new to Europe,
and neither Persian, Arabic, nor European, XIV. 142, n.8. ;
vast extent of the empire of himself and of his son, Batu,
142.
Genji-monogatari, an early Japanese romance, XIX. 37, n.8.
Gentoo code, character of, and mode of formation, XIII.
215, n.8.
Geology of Southern India, IX. 1, o.8.
summary of, by Capt. Newbold, XII. 78, o.8.
Geological appearances of portions of the Malayan peninsula,
III. 305, 0.8.
George, St., various interpretations of the legend of, XVI.
271, n.8.
Georgia, Russian commerce in, I. 289, o,8.
Georgian language, and its varieties, spoken in the Caucasus,
XVII. 154, n.8.
and Vannic languages, striking resemblances between,
XIV. 410, n.8.
vocabulary of, XIX. 146, n.8.
Gerard, Capt. A., survey of the valley of the Sutlej, I. 343, o.8.
German restoration of Berosus, XV. 217| 0.8.
80 GER— GIO
Gerrha, probably derived from the Arabic Jer'a^ meanings
generally, a sandy desert, XII. 226, n.«.
Geryon, Dog of, question whether the legend of, has any
connection with the Wolf's Tail of the Arabs, X. 363, «.«.
Gesenius, remarks on his Palaographische Stndien, iiber
phonizische und punische Schnft, by James Yates, IV.
138, 0.8.
Ghagars of Egjrpt, account of, XVI. 292, o,8.
Ghanta, VIII. 28, n.s.
Ghanta-karna Puja, Hindu religious festival, IX. 96, o.s.
Gharab, or true Salix Babplonica, the Commonest tree in
Susiana, XII. 324, n.8.
Ghassanites, VI. 19, n.s.
Ghatal Kacha, V. 196, n,8.
Ghato, the name of an Indian melody, XVIII. 210, n.8.
Ghats, the Western, called in Sanskrit Sahya, XVI. 433, n.8.
Ghauts, geological character of, VIII. 138, 0.8.
Ghaznevide kmgs, coins of, IX. 267, o.8.
Ghazni, supplementary contributions to the series of the coins
of the kings of, XVII. 138, o.<.
Gheyn, J. van den, " Note sur les Mots Sanscrits compost
avec j^;' XVI. 479, n.s.
Ghiaspur, VI. 376, n.s.
Ghias-ud-din Awz, VI. 345, n.8.
Ghiray, origin of name of, XVIII. 403, o.s.
Ghizim, expedition against tribes of, XIX. 235, o.8.
Gholaum Hosain, mathematical and astronomical work by,
IV. 264, 0.8.
Ghoorkas, the, in 1791, enter Lhasa in triumph, but are soon
driven back by the Chinese, X. 118, n.8.
Gianyar account of a cremation witnessed at, on December
20, 1847, IX. 102, n.8.
Giatcho, or Annamites, XVII. 444, n.8.
Gibb, E. J. W., his version of "The Song of Meysiin,*'
XVIII. 274, n.8.
Gibbs, J., life of, XIX. 166, n.8.
Gibson, A., on Indian agriculture, VIII. 93, 0.8.
Giles, H. A., value of essay by, on Chinese poetry, XVI.
459, n.8. ; " Historic China," XVII. 428, n.8. ; his
"Remains of Lao Tzu," XVIII. 563, n.8.
Gilgit district, language of the, XVII. 89, n.8.
Gill, Captain, memoir of, XV. xi, n.8. ; discovery of Mo-so
MSS. by» X^I- 460, n.8.
Gioro, the name of, not given at hap-hazard to the founders
of the dynasty, IX. 244, n.8.
GIEr-GOT 81
Gir'dhar Das, XIX. 143, ».«.
Girdi Kas, aqueduct of Buddhist masonry discoyered at,
XIII. 194, n.8.
Girivraja, V. 65, n.s.
Girnar, rock inscriptions of, XII. 21, 153, o.s»
Giryek, VI. 232, n.s.
Gitapustaka, VIII. 40, n.8.
Glass fils weights, account of, X. 102, n.8. ; dirham weights,
account of, 106 ; dinar weights, account of, 107.
Globe, Arabic, description of. Tram. II. 371.
Glyn, R. T. J., statistics of Bareilly in Rohilkhand, Tran8. 1. 46.
Goat, on the white-haired Angora, by Lieut. A. OonoUy,
VI. 159, 0.8.
" Goddam,^' the French synonym for the English soldier at
Agincourt, XIX. 380, n.8.
Gogerly, Rev. D. J., translation from the Pali of the Pati-
mokhan, XIX. 415, o.8.
Gohank, the falls of, II. 70, o.8.
Gohati, VI. 238, «.s.
Gold coins, comparatiye weight of those of Julius Caesar, of
the darics of the Persians, and of the Indo-Scythians, IX.
223, n.8.
made by ants, Greek fables concerning, VII. 143, o.8.
mines in Borneo, III. 1, o.8.
Goldschmidt, Dr., defines accurately the influence of Pali and
Sanskrit on Sinhalese, X. 173, n.8.
Goldsmid, Major-Gen. Sir F. J., ** On the preseryation of
national literatures in the East," I. 29, n.8.
Goldstiicker's Manaya-Kalpa-Sutra, XVIII. ix, o.8.
Golmadhitol inscription, its important bearing on the Gupta
Era, iVIII. 567, n.8.
Gomal or Gulairi pass, great importance of, as the chief one
between the Kyber and the Bolan, XV. 373, n.8.
Gommu Eoi, the name giyen to the tribe of Eoi who dwell
by the riyer-side, XIIl. 411, n.8.
Gonardas, V. 57, n.8.
Gx>nardya dynasty, IV. 96, n,8.
Gondophares, VII. 376, n.8. ; XII. 265, n.8.
Gopa Raja, VII. 157, n.8.
Gordium, the site of, not yet actually discoyered, XV. 109, n.».
Gorski, M., papers by, in the Arbeiten der Russischen Ge-
sandtschan zu Peking, IX. 235, n.8.
Gospels, first translation of the, into Arabic, IV. 172, 0.8.
Gosringa-paryata, VIII. 15, n.8.
Gotamiputra, IV. 127, n.8.
TOL. ZX. — [nSW •BSZU.] V
82 GOV— GRI
Goyer, C. E., the Pongol festival in Southern India, V. 91| n.«.
Goyemment, nature of a pastoral (China), III. 282, o,s.
Goyemors of Bengal, II. 176, n.8.
Goyinda Dwadasi, Hindu religious festival, IX. 96, o.8.
Goyindapala, VIII. 3. n.a.
Gowan, Capt., his observations at the anniversary meeting,
I. 166, 0.8.
Graberg de Hemso's account of the great historical work of
Ibn Khaldun, Tram, III. 387.
Graberg, Jacob, remarks on the language of the Amazirghs,
III. 106, 0.8.
Graffitti of Siberia, XVII. 422, 436, n.8.
Graham, Cyril C, on the inscriptions found in the region of
El-Harrah, in the Great Desert south-east and east of the
Hauran, XVII. 286, o.s. ; the Avar language, XIII. 291, n.«.
Grahamatrika(dharaijl), VIII. 43, 51, n.«.
Granite in Southern India, IX. 1, o.8.
2uarrying and polishing, among Hindus and Egyptians,
113, 0,8.
Grant, Capt. N. P., journal of a route through the western
parts of Makran, v. 328, o.8.
Grantha alphabet supposed by Dr. BumeU to be the basis
of the modern Tamil, XIX. 667, n.8.
Grants, copper-plate, I. 268, n.8.
Graphic development of the Cuneiform syllabary, XIX. 626,
n.8.
Gravius, Daniel, his translation of St. Matthew and St. John
into Formosan, XIX. 468, n.8.; Romanized text of his
version of the Lord's Prajrer, 470.
Gray, A., " The Maldive Islands : with a vocabulary taken
from Fran9oi8 Pyrard de Laval, 1602-1607," X. 173, n.s.
Gr^baut, M. Eugene, appointed to succeed Prof. Maspero,
XVIII. 666, n.8.
Greek legends on the Sah coins, XII. 28, o.8.
names in the Bock Inscriptions of Kapur di GKri,
Dhauli, and Gimar, XII. 167, 230, 244, o.8.
system of calculating, explanation of, XV. 47, n.8.
Greenough, G. B., XV. ii, o.s.
Grierson, G. A., " Some Biharl Folk-songs,'' XVI. 196,
n.8.; "Some Bhoj'puri Folk-songs," XVIII. 207, n.8.;
" Some Useful Hindi Books," XIX. 138, n.8.
Griffiths, Mr., appointed, with others, to copy the paintings in
the caves of Ajanta, in the winter of 1872, XI. 165, n.8. ;
drawings by, comprise in aU 186 pictures, ibid. ; exhibited
in 1874 in the Upper Galleries of the Albert Hall, ibid.
GRI— GTJP 83
Grigorief, Prof., notice of, XIV. xxi, n.8.
Gritsamada, legend of, VIII. 320, 0.8.
Grote and Milman's declaration on translations of Tiglath-
Pileser's inscription, XVIII. 162, 0,8.
Grote, A., life of, XIX. 168, n.8.
Growse, F. S., Mathura, a district memoir, notice of, XIII.
XXXV, n.8.; notice of his "Indian Architecture," XIX.
324, n.8.; and of bis "Supplement to the Fatehpur
Gazetteer,'' 696.
Gudhapada, VIII. 25, 26, 27, n.8.
Guerah-el-Hout (lake of fish), near La Calle, XVIII. 31, n.8.
Guerah-el-Melah, a lake near La Calle, XVIII. 30, n.8.
Guerah Obeira, a lake nbar La Calle, XVIII. 31, n.8.
Guhyasamaja, VIII. 36, n.8.
Guidi, Prof. J., Letter to Sir W. Muir, dated February 24,
1882, XIV. 317, n.8.
Guimet, M., on the Theatre in Japan, XIX. 331, n.8.
Gujarat, the proyince of, analysis of a political and statistical
history of, I. 117, 0.8.
Gujarati, Prof. F. Max Miiller's Hibbert Lectures translated
mto, XIII. Lxvii, n.8. ; valuable works in, published by
Mr. Behramji Malabari, XIV. Lxxiii, n.8.
Gumli, account of, by Lieut. Jacob, V. 73, 0.8.
Ghi^akara^dav^uha, VIII. 16, n.8,
Gunapharas, kmg, VII. 376, n.8.
Guncho ichiran, a Japanese Bibliography, short notices of
the legends therein, XIX 42, n.«.
Gungu, II. 23, n.8.
Gunib, the almost impregnable fortress held by Shamyl to
the last, XIII. 292, n.8.
Ghintupalle, Buddhist remains at, XIX. 608, n.8.
Gupta, Vin. 27, n.*.
characters, an inscription in, XIX. 696, n.8.
dynasty, probably destroyed by an invasion of the
White Huns, XII. 282, n.8.
era, the bearing of epigraphy on the, XVTII. 667, n.8.
which commenced a.d. 319, details of, XII. 281-286, n.8.
Guptas, coins of the, XII. 66, 0.8.
genealogy of, handed on, by the inscription on the
Bhitari L&t and its counterpart at Bihari, XIII. 632,
n.8. ; reoognized line of their kings, 633 ; discovery of
Muhammadan dates on coins of, 644; the earliest gold
coins of, follow those of the preceding Indo-Scythian
family of Vasudeva, 646 ; abstract of the recorded dates
of, 649.
84 GUP— GWA
Guptas of Magadha, IV. 116, n.«.
Gurgan, V. 440, n,8.
Ghirjjara, Dynasties, I. 262, n.8.
Gurmukhl, V. 197, n.8.
Guru Govind, last religious teacher of the Sikhs, IX. 47, o.«.
Guruhastagraha VIII. 28, n.«.
Guthrie, GoL, Mahommedan coins in the cabinet of, VIL
262, 384, n.8.
Guti, on the Cylinder of Cyrus the Great, the original name
of the Earduchi or Kurds, XII. 78, n.8.
Gutzlaff, Rev. C, " On the Siamese Language, Tram, III.
291, 0.8,; Remarks on the Yih-She, III. 272, o.s.; "On
the Medical Art among the Chinese," IV. 164, o.«. ; "On
the Secret Triad Society of China," VIII. 361, o.s.;
Catalogues of Chinese Buddhistical Works, IX. 207, o.«. ;
Replies to Sir G. T. Staunton's queries relating to China,
XII. 386, 0.8. ; "Present State of Buddhism in China,
XVI. 73, o.s.
GuwO'Upas, or Poisoned Valley, in Java, IV. 194, o.«. ; Mr.
Loudon's letter describing, 194 ; similitude of, to the
Grotto del Cano at Naples, 197.
Guyard, M., his success in deciphering the Vannic Inscriptions,
XIV. 387, n.8. ; discovers that the concluding sentence of
the Vannic Inscriptions is imprecatory, 520; obituary
notice of, XVIII. lxv, n.s.
Guzerat, dates referring to, XII. 48, o.«.
Gwadar, a seaport on the coast of Makran (ancient Gedrosia),
IX. 121, n.8. ; position of the town of, 136.
Gwamba chiefs, names of some of the principal, XVI.
48, n.s.
language, belongs to the South-Eastem branch of the
Bantii Family, XVI. 45, n.8.; the speakers of, known
under many and various names, ibid. ; general classification
of, 50 ; has a special consonant not met with elsewhere^
which must be called a " Labial Sibilant," 52 ; euphony
plays an important part in, as also in Bantu, 55 ; unlike
its sister languages, has two nasalized vowels, ibid. ; mode
whereby foreign words are adopted and altered in, 56;
various modes of combining consonants in, 57; morphology
of, 58 ; prefixes of, as given by Dr. Bleek, 62 ; has only
one conjugation, 63 ; any passive in, is but a derivative
verb, 65; conjugation is divisible into four voices, 67;
numeral expression in, 71.
Gwarabas, the greatest part of this tribe live to the north of
the Limpopo river, XVI. 48, n.8.
GYM— HAL 86
Gymnosopliista, Clemens Alexandrinus on the, XIX. 276,
280, 0.8.
Gypsies, on the Oriental origin of the. Tram. II. 618.
of Egypt, XVI. 285, o.s. ; of Syria, 299 ; of Persia, 309.
Gypsy Vocabulary (Harriott), Trans. II. 637.
Haas, Dr. Ernest, notice of, XV. xxii, n.s.
Hachiman, a Japanese War- God, XVII. 8, n.s.
Hada, the Hidda of the Buddhist period, XIII. 186, n.«. ;
numerous topes at, XIV. 328, n,8.
Haddad, VI. 11, n.s.
Hadendoa, vocabulary of, XIX. 706, ».«.
Hafiz, Jami, Firdusi, etc., names assumed by, XI. 231, n.8.
Hafs-ibn-al-Walid, appointed Prefect of Police in Egypt,
X. 108, n.8.
Haggard, A., his note on the idols at Bamian, XIX. 164, n.8.
Haggard, W. H. D., part translator of " The Vazir of Lan-
kuran," XVIII. 103, «.*.
Hague, F., natural and artificial production of pearls in
China, XVI. 280, o.8.
Hahn, Dr. T., his contributions to the Bushman language,
XVIII. 68, n.8.
Haiderabad, the capital of Sindh, I. 30, 234, 242, o.8. ; un-
questionably represents the site of Nerun, XVI. 282, n.8.
Haig, Major-Gen. M. B., " On the sites of Brahmanabad and
Mansunih in Sindh," XVI. 281, n.8.; ''Ibnu Batuta in
Sindh," XIX. 393, «.«.
Hainan, forgotten writing in, XVII. 445, n.8.
Hair, customs of wearing the, XIX. 676, n.8.
Hajiabad inscription, IV. 369, n.8, ; V. 414, n.8.
Hal^yy, M. J., special views of, at the Leyden Congress, on
the Indian alphabet, XVI. 364, n.8. ; his criticism of Prof.
Noldeke's ''Semitische Sprachen," XIX. 697, n.8.; his
remarks on the word adldn, 704.
Hall, Fitz-Edward, abstract of a Sanskrit inscription, XX.
462, 0.8. ; the source of Colebrooke's essay *' On the Duties
of a Faithful Hindu Widow," III. 183, n.8.
HaUusu, king of Babylon, XIX. 676, n.8. ; he captures Assur-
nadin-sum, 676 ; and is dethroned and killed, 677.
Halule, the battle of, XIX. 677, n.8.
Hdys, the river, the true boundary between the East and the
West, XV. 103, n.8. ; bridge at, according to Herodotus,
yery strongly guarded, 107; probable ancient site of,
suggested by Sir Charles Wilson, 108.
86 HAM— HAR
Hamakan, VI. 110, n,8.
Hambroek, Mr., the yictim of Eoxinga, XIX. 418, f».«.
Hamdani (Hassan bin Ahmed el), YI. 21, n,8.
Hamd-XJUah Mustauf I Eazymi, a recently discovered work of,
Xyill. 205, n.8.
Hamilton, Dr. F. Buchanan, on the Srawacs or Jains, Tran^.
I. 531 ; description of Jain temples in South Behar and
Bhagalpur, 523; on the ruins of Buddha Qaya, Trans.
II. 40; collection of inscriptions from Rocks in South
Bihar, 201.
Hamilton, Mr., his translation of the Hidayat, II. 84, 0.9, ;
translations by, of the terms Dar-ool-Isldm and Dar-ooU
Hurh, XIII. 679, w.«.
Hatnmad, a notorious forger of early Arabic poems — and
gifted with a wonderful memoir, XI. 84, n.8.
Hammer, Joseph von, life of, XVll. v, (?.«.
Hammer- Purgstall, Baron, "On diplomatic relations between
Delhi and Constantinople in the sixteenth and serenteenth
centuries, Trans. II. 462; Translation of Tusuf Agha's
account of his mission to the British Court in 1795, Trans,
III. 496; On the first translation of the Gospels into
Arabic, IV. 172, o,s.
Hammond, H. W., memorandum of manuscripts of the
Mahommedan histories of India, III. 475, n s.
Hammurabi, the Cuneiform documents of his time possess the
highest palsDographical interest, XIX. 633, n.8.
Hamza of Ispahan, quoted or referred to, XIX. 594, n.s.
Han Dynasty ruled in China from a.d. 25 to a.d. 190,
X. 5o5, n.8.
Hanazono, the daughter of, a character in a Japanese legend,
XVII. 13, n.8.
Hanifa, the origin of this name, XIII. 245, n.8.
Hanna, the Christian Maronite, who supplied GkiUand with
some of the material for his '' Thousand and One Nights,"
XIX. 533, n.s.
Hanniya Sutra, XIX. 43, n.s.
Hanoteau, Capt., Eabail or Zouave Grammar of, happily
planned and vigorously executed, XII. 421, n.s. ; Tuarit
Grammar published in 1860, clear and full of new instruc-
tion, 421.
Happart G., his vocabulary of Favorlang, XIX. 472, n.s.
Harapa, stone seal found at, XVII. 440, n.s.
Hardinge, Lord, life of, XVII. iii, 0.8.
Hardwicke, Major-General, account of the Sheep-Eater of
Hindoostan, Trans. III. 379.
HAEr-HEL 87
Harisarman, the story of; translated by the Bey. B. H.
Wortham, XVIII. 172, n.8.
Harischandra, XIX. 140, 143, 144, n.s.
Harkness, Capt. H., on the school system of the Hindus, I.
15, 0,8. ; letter on the Mackenzie Coll., II. xxxiy, o.s. ;
account of the Province of Bamnad, III. 165, o.«.
Harlez, Prof, de, "The Age of the Avesta," XVII. 339, n.».
Harm, VI. 131, n.8.
harmonization of vowels, XVII. 451, n.8.
Harriot, Col. J. 8., on the Oriental origin of the G^sies,
Tram. II. 618.
Harrison, J. P., collector of the inscriptions in Easter Island,
XVII. 443, n.8.
Harrison, the Ven. Archdeacon, obituary notice of, XIX.
525, n,8.
Harsha, IV. 88, n.8, ; XII. 276, n.8.
Hastina, modification in the translation of the joint inscrip-
tions at, XIII. 539, n.8.
Hastings, Warren, orders the compilation of the ** G^ntoo
Code," XIII. 215, n.8.
Haswell, Mr , grammar by, of the Mon-Anam or Pegu lan-
guage, XI. 69, n.8.
Haug, M., his theory of the age of the Avesta, XVII. 340, n.8.
Haughton, Sir Graves C, on an Arabic gravestone found on
the coast of Abyssinia, Tran8. II. 573 ; III. 385 ; Observa-
tions on Col. Vans Kennedy's remarks on the Vedanta
system, Tram. III. 412 ; extract of a letter to, III. 391, o.8.
Haulqa, or circle, the body-guard of the Ehalif, IX. 385, n.8.
Haupt, P., '^Studies on the Comparative Ghummar of the
S^nitic Languages, with special reference to Assyrian/' X.
244, n.8.
Hausa language, VII. 93, n.8. ; XIV. 178, n.8.
Havaldar tenure, II. 229, o.8.
Havilah, VI. 6, n.8.
Hawaii, island of, revenue book of, XVII. 428, n.8.
Hawkins, Capt., his mission to the Emperor Jehangir, I.
317, 0.8.
Hazarsam, description of the caves at, XVIII. 345, n.8.
Heath, J., on the cultivation of cotton in India, V. 372, o.8. ;
on the introduction of the American plough into India,
VII. 92, 0.8.
Heber, Bishop, speaks in December, 1824, of the growth of
the tea plant at Eumaon, X. 134, n.8.
Hebrew MSS., curious discovery of, XVII. lxxiii, n,8.
Helebis of Egypt, account of, XVT. 286, o.8.
88 HEL— HIM
Heliocles, coin of, bearing the full triliteral date, IX. 3, n.«.
Hemakuta (the Golden Peak), a mountain range to the
Himalayas, IX. 63, n.«.
Hemavan^a-vihara, VIII. 17, n.«.
Hemp of Martaban, III. 35, o.8.
Henderson, A., on the mineralogy of Cutch, I. 151, 155, oj^
Hendley, Surf^eon-Major T. H., '' Buddhist Remains near
Sambhur," XVII. 29, «.«.
Hennessy, J. B. N., "Explorations in Great Tibet," XVII.
Lxxi, n.«.
Henry VI., assumption of the imperial title by, IX. 349, ii.«.
Heptarchy, early kings of, content with the simple tiUe of
" Bex,'' IX. 326, n.«.
Heraclidffi, the Eastern, according to Herodotus, 22 genera-
tions or 502 years before Gyges, X. 365, n,8. ; NecropoUB
of, at Sardes, 368.
Heraus, the Saka king, IX. 15, n.8.
Herero language, comparison of the, XVII. 42, n,a.
Heri Rud, caves on the, XVIII. 95, n.8.
Herod's city of Tiberius, XIX. 531, n.8.
Herodotus, XVI. 28, n.8. ; XVII. 419, n.8.
Heruka, VIII. 31, n.8.
Herukotpatti, VIII. 36, n.8.
Hervas, Lorenzo, on the Formosan alphabet, XIX. 436, n.8.
Hetairism, XI. 35, n.8.
He-tsung, V. 37, n.8.
Hevajra, VIII. 31, 32, n.8.
Heyajrasahajasadyoga, VIII. 28, n.8.
Hexim, Historia de, V. 119, n.8.
Hezekiah, XVIII. 109, o.8. ; XIX. 146, o.8.
Hia, the Fourth Empire, XV. 439, n.8.
Hidayat, the, II. 83, o.8. ; Persian translation of, ibid. ;
Mr. Hamilton's translation of, 84 ; contents of, 163.
Hidda, said by the Chinese pilgrim to be four or five U or
one mile in circumference, XIII. 197, n.8. ; a place of
greater sanctity than Nagarahara, 189.
Hieratic, a sort of short-hand for hieroglyphics, XIV. 357, n.8.
Hieroglyphical writing, evolution of, XVII. 421, n.8.
Higgins, Gt>dfrey, life of, I. v, 0.8.
Hildebrand does not assume the title of Pope till confirmed
bv Henry IV., IX. 337, n8.
Hill-clearing, the primitive agriculture of Indo-Chinese races,
XIII. 404, n.8.
tribes of Cochin, III. 478, n.8.
Himalaya, list of the passes through, X. 123, n.8.
HIM— HIN 89
Himala ja, travels beyond the, by Mir Izzet TJllah, VII. 283, o,s.
Himalayas, culture of the China tea plant in, XII. 125, o.8.
Himatalo, VI. 108, ».«.
Himyar, VI. 20, ».«.
Himyaritic inscriptions, XVIII, ciii, ».«.
notice of, edit. F. W. Franks, XX. xiv, o.«.
Hincks, Rev. Dr. E., "The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Van,"
IX. 387, 0.8. ; on the successor of Sennacherib, XV. 402,
0.8. ; translation of inscription of Tiglath-Pileser, XVIII.
164, 0.8. ; specimen chapters of an Assyrian Grammar, II.
480, n.8.
Hindi books, notes on, by Q-. A. Grierson, XIX. 138, n.8.
language, grammar of, by Eellogg, and dictionary by
Bates, Al. 64, n.8.
paper on, by Mr. Grierson, XIV. lxxi, n.8.
Hindu Fasli year, months of, current in Bihar, XVL
201, n.8.
festivals, affinity of the Greek and. III. 372, 0.8. ;
IX. 60, 0.8.
inscriptions, by Sir W. Elliot, IV. 1, o.8.
Khush, Dialects of the Tribes of the, XVII. 89, n.8.
law, gradual mitigation of, I. 45, 0.8. ; notice of an
elementary work on, I. 119, 0.8.
literature. Prof. Max Miiller on, XVIII. 5, n.8.
music, XIX. 183, n.8.
notion of poets, I. 137, o.8.
Pantheon, the, XVIII. 149, n.8.
-Sindi character, I. 32, n.8.
temple, on the ruins of a, I. 119, o.8.
Theistio Church, the first, called Brahma Sabha or
Brahmiya Samai, opened in Calcutta on January 23, 1830,
XIII. 11, n.8.
titles, notice of, IX. 411, n.8.
widows, on the authority of the Vedas for the burning
of, XVII. 209, 0.8.
" Hindu Law at Madras,*' by J. H. Nelson, XIII. 208, n.8.
Hindus, analogy between their worship and that of the Assy-
rians, I. 87, 0.8.
architecture of the, XIII. 145, 160, o.8.
on the aute-Brahmanical worship of the, V. 189, 264, 0.9.
of Ceylon, tabernacle of the, I. 87, 0.8.
Hindustani or Urdu dictionaries by Fdlon and Bryoe, XI.
65, n.8.
grammars by Piatt, Dowson, Holroyd, and Eastwick,
XI. 63, n.8.
90 BIN— HOL
Hingtou, VII. 312. ».«.
Hiouen Thsang, IV. 83, n.«. ; VI. 213, n.«. ; XII. 106, n.«. ;
XIII. 220, n.«.; review of, XVII. 106, o.«.; his travels,
analysis of, VI. 213, ».«. ; notices by (a.d. 625-641), of
the Jainas and their practices, IX. 170, n.8. ; account by,
of the great tope at Peshawar, XIV. 31, n.«. ; his descrip-
tion of the figures at Bamian, XVIII. 327, n.a.
Hippuros, XVIII. 360, o,8.
Hiranyagarbha, I. 344, n.8.
Hiranyaparvata, VI. 228, n.8.
Hisam-ud-din, VI. 345, n.8.
Historiographical Office (Chinese), documents of, generally,
in three sections, 1. Imperial Records; 2. Memoirs on
chronology, etc. ; 3. Narratives, i.e. lives of persons of
eminence, XII. 436, n.8.
History of India, Elphinstone's, XVIII. 325, o.8.
Hittite hieroglyphical writing, XVII. 421, n.8.
inscriptions and monuments, XIX. 176, 324, 536, n.8.
literature, XVII. xcvii, n.8. ; XVIII. cii, n.8.
seal, XIX. 699, n.s.
Hodgson collection, catalogue of, by Cowell and Eggeling,
VIII. 50, n.8.
Hodgson, B. H., on the law. and legal practice of Nepal,
I. 45, 0.8. ; Sketch of Buddhism from the Bauddha
scriptures of Nepal, Tram. II. 222, 288 ; III. 394 ;
a disputation concerning caste by a Buddhist, Trans.
III. 160 ; on the system of law and police in Nepal, 258 ;
extract of a letter from. III. 391, o.8. ; donations to the
Society by, vii ; copy of a letter addressed to Sir A. John-
stone, by, Lxxxii ; note on Buddhism, 11. 288, o.8. ; VI.
275,fi.a.; XVIII, 393, O.8.; IX 157, 422, n.8.; referred
to, X. 218, n.8. ; XI. 66, n.s.
Hodgson, Col. J. A., On the length of the Illahee Guz, VII.
42, 0.8.
Hodgson, John, on the agriculture and revenue economy of
a Hindu village, Tran8. II. 74.
Hodgson, W. B., translation of a Berber manuscript, IV.
115, 0.8. ; translation of North African languages, XII.
418, n.8.
Hoevel, Van, Mr., vocabulary of peculiar words in the Malay
district of Amboyna, XIIl. 512, n.8.
Hog, wild, of Borneo, III. 21, o.8.
Hogg, Sir. J. W., sketch of the life of, IX. vi, n.8.
Hou, Hindu religious festival, IX. 97, o.8.
Holmboe, Prof. G. A., notice of, XVI. xxix, n.8.
HOL— HUT 91
Holty Mr., report on the completion of the catalogue of the
Chinese books, by, XIII. xix, n,s. ; " Notes on the Chinese
Game of Chess," XVII. 352, n.8.
Holums, VI. 96, o.s.
Hommel, Prof. F., ''The Samerian Language and its
Affinities," XVIII. 351, n.8.; his comparatiye list of
Egyptian and Babylonian signs, XIX. 647, n.s.
Horiuzi palm-leaves, XVIII. cvii. n.8.
Home, C., remarks on Senbyii Pagoda, IV. 426, n.8.;
** Notes on an ancient Indian Vase,' V. 367, n.8. ; on the
methods of din)osing of the dead at Llassa, VI. 28, n^.
Horse of Sindh, 1. 231, o.8.
Hoshea, XVIIL 124, o.8.
Hospital for animals at Surat, I. 96, o.8.
Houghton, the Rey. Mr., Babylonian tablet published by,
XIX. 632, n.8.; he was the first demonstrator of the
pictorial origin of the Cuneiform syllabary, XIX. 642.
Howorth, H. H., "The Northern Frontagers of China.
Part I. The Origines of the Mongols," VII. 221, n.8. ;
"Part II. Origines of the Manchus,'^ 305 ; Part III., VIIL
262, n.8. ; "Part II. The Manchus, Supplementary Notice,"
IX. 235, n.8.; "Part IV. The Kin or Golden Tatars,"
IX. 243; "Part V. The Hutai or Khitans," XIII. 121,
n.8.; "Two early Sources of Mongol History," XV," 346,
n.8.; "Part VI. HiaorTangut," 438; "The Shato Turks,"
XVII. 293, n.8.
Huber, C, his tragic death, XVIII. lxvi, n.8.
Hue and Ghibet, Messrs., succeed in staying some time at
Lhasa and in seeing the Dalai Lama, A. 125, n.8.
Hudsailite poems, X Yll. 57, n.8.
Hughli, Prior of, his speech to Shah Jehan, XI. 96, n.8.
Hulaku, title of, IX. 373, n.8.
Human sacrifices in ancient nations, XIII. 105, o.«. ; in
ancient India, 96 ; among the Ehonds, 231, 243.
Humbahaldasu I. and II., kings of Elam, XIX. 677, n.8.
Humboldt, Baron William, on the affinity of Oriental lan-
guages, Tran8. II. 213.
Hun coins of Bijapur, XIX. 506, n.8.
Huns, V. 73, n.«.
Hunter, Capt. W., "On the Hill Population of Mejrwar,
Vm. 176, 0.8.
Hurkan languMe spoken in Caucasus, XVII. 156, n.8.
Hurricanes, HL 79, o.8.
Hnshka, V. 195, n.8.
Huts, nature of those used by the Andamanese, XIII. 486, n.8.
92 HUV— IMP
Huvishka^ V. 183, n.8.
Huxley, Prof., quoted, XI. 2, 50, n,8.
Hwen T'sang's description of the figures at Bamiaxi, XVIII.
327, n.8.
Huzvarash, IV. 358, n.8. ; V. 427, n.8.
Hyrcania, geography of, V. 439, n.8.
Hyssop of Scripture, on the, VIII. 193, o.s.
lambulus, testimony of, to Cingalese customs, of little valoe,
XI. 47, n.8.
Ibbetson, Denzil, " Census of the Pan jab," XVII. 373, 386, n^.
Ibn Batuta, resides in the Maldives and marries about 1340
A.D. the daughter of a vizier, X. 177, n.8. ; story in, of the
way in which the Maldive Islanders became Muham-
madan, 180 ; account of the female sovereiras of the
Maldive Islands, XI. 49, n.8.; in Sindh, Major-General
M. R. Hair's article on, XIX. 393, n.8.
Ibn el Mojawir, VI. 21, 26, n.8.
Ibn Ehaldun's Histonr of the Arabs, Persians and Berbers
(Hemso), Trans. III. 387.
Ibn Ehallikan's Biographical Dictionary, on an autograph
MS. of, by Rev. W. Cureton, VI. 223, o.8.
I9ai, the poetical dialect of Tamil, XIX. 559, 570, n.8.
Iddesleigh, life of the Eari of, XIX. 320.
Ideology of the Formosan languages, XIX. 484, n.8.
Idris, son of Ali, Sultan of Burma, expeditions of, XIX. 44,
199, 0.8. ; character of, 251 ; date of reign of, 258.
Ikbal-namah-i-Jehangiri, III. 459, n.8.
Ilavretta, the highest range of mountains in the world, with
Mem as part of it, IX. 63, n.8.
Ilisaros, VI. 123, n.8.
Illahee Ghiz, length of, VII. 42, 0.8. ; Hahi gaz, VII. 178,
n.8.
Imagawa for women, a set of maxims by Daimiyo Imagawa,
A.D. 1429, X. 328, n.8. ; extracts from, 329.
Imam of Muscat, life of, XVII. vn, o.«.
Imam, title of, IX. 391, n.8.
Ima-monogatari, or biographies of poets, XIX. 43, n.8.
Imams, the twelve, dates of birth and demise, XIII. 367, 371,
0.8.
Ima-mukashi-monogatari, a Japanese enoyclopeddia of habits
and customs, XiA. 43, n,8.
Immolation of satis, on the, I. 169, o.«.
Imperator, the title, IX. 317, n.8.
IMP— IND 93
Imperial titles, IX. 316, n,s,
Imphee, on the cultivation of, in Bombay, XIX. 39, o,8,
Imrolkays, poems of, XI. 84, n.8.
India and Western Asia, the political connection between,
XVIII. 365, n.8.
aboriginal race of, XIII. 276, o.8.
British, on the laws aflfecting the monied interest in, I.
168, 0.8.
caves of, as far as their forms are concerned, derived
from the wooden architecture of the period, XIV. 323, n.8.
commissioners sent to, by Ming-ti, the second king of
the Eastern Han dynasty about a.d. 62, XII. 154, n.8,
education in, I. 159, o.8.
expeditions to, by Fa-Hian in a.d. 400-416, and by
Hiouen-Thsang in a.d. 629-645, XII. 156, n.8.
first really made known to European nations by the
expedition of Alexander, XVIII. 373, n.8.
Imperial Gazetteer and Statistical Survey of, progress
made in, XIII. liii, n.8.
in the Brahmanda-purana represented by the " Island
of the jambu-fruit,'' IX. 62, n.8,
native vessels of, I. 1, 0.8.
the introduction of writing into, XVIII. 3, n.8.
the material resources of ancient, XVII. lxv, n.8.
the tenure of land in, I. 168, o.8.
Indian alphabet, views, respectively, of Messrs. Weber and
Bumeir, Thomas, and Gen. Cunningham, XIII. 102, n.8.
archipelago, Arab colonists in the, XIX. 534, n.8.
bards, memoirs of the lives of several, I. 137, o.8.
ciphers, introduced to the Arabs by an Indian monarch
(of Kabul P) in a.d. 773, XV. 19, n.8.
coin, an unrecognized, bearing the Vaishnava emblem
(illustrated), XVIII. 403, n.8.
division of the day, and its bearing on the hymns of the
Adi Granth, XVIII. 440, n.8.
embassies to Rome, XVII. 309, o.s; XVIII. 346, o.8. ;
XIX. 274, 0.8. ; XVIII. 377, n.8.
fishes, V. 166, o.8.
history, materials for, I. 339, 344, o,8.
• Institute at Oxford, progress and success of, XIV.
Lxxvii, n.8. ; general progress of, and ceremony of laying
the foundation-stone. May 2, 1883, XV. lxvii; general
progress of, XVI. civ; formal opening of the, XVII.
CXXXIII.
iron and steel, V. 390, o.8.
94 IND— INT
Indian jury bill, I. 169, 0.8.
languages not adequately represented in the Eagliah
Universities, XI. 71, n.8.
materialists, by J. Muir, XIX. 299, 0^.
newspapers, list of, IV. xxxvi, o.a.
numerals, XIV. 336, n.«.
Ocean, ancient navigation in the, XVIII. 1, n.«.
pa&;oda-umbrella, XlX. 566, ».«.
i^ali, used in the inscriptions of Asoka at Kalai, Gimar,
Dhauli, Ganjam, and Mehentele, XIII. Ill, n.8.
physicians, extracts from an Arabic work respecting,
VI. 106, 0.8.
temple doorways, XVII. Lxrv, n.«.
- writings, testimony of the Greek writers to,XIIL 108, 1
Indigo of Martaban, III. 32, 0,8,
Indo-Chinese alphabets. III. 66, n.8,
States, comparative view of military strength o^ and
peculiar modes of warfare, IV. 69, 0,8. ; political situation
of the, with reference to British power, 84.
Indo-Pacific stock of languages, table of the Fonnoflaa
dialects belonging to the, XIX. 486, n.8.
Indo-Parthian coins, IV. 603, n.«.
Indo-Scythic coins IX. 209, n.8.
Scythians, dynasty of, XII. 15, 0.8.
Indra, his character in the ancient Brahmanical system, VIII,
325, 0.8. ; I. 88, n.8.
Indraprishtha, VIII. 18, n.8.
IndrasUaguha, VI. 234, n.8.
Indus, earliest Hindu name of the, I, 22, 0.8. ; X. 317, n.8.
on the eastern branch of, by Sir Alex. Bumes, I. 193,
286.
the Eastern Branch of, and the Runn of Cutch, Ihms»
ni. 650.
and NUe, comparison of the rivers, VII. 273, o.«.
Infanticide, the practice of, I. 159, 0.8. ; in Cutch, 193,
285 ; arguments of Cutch chieftans in support of it^
285, among the Arabs, XVII. 289, n.8.
Inglis, Sir Robert Harry, XXI. 11, 0.8.
Inoculation in the East (Ainslie), Tram. II. 62.
Inpokian in Turkestan, VI. 110, n.8.
Interpreters appointed by the Chinese rulers for the
Mongolian, Tibetan, Sanskrit, Bokharese, Uighur, Burmese,
and Siamese languages, IX. 246, n.8.
skilled, appointed by Russia to all important poets of
the Caucasus, XIII. 291, n.8.
INZ— JAO 96
Inzak, the God, occurs on a bilingual fragment as the
Accadian name for Nebo or Mercury, and as worshipped
at Bahrein, XII. 209, n.«. ; identification of, on Captain
Durand's stone, 215.
Iranian gods on Indo-Scythic coins, IX. 227, n.8.
Iranyar, the author of Arap'porul, XIX. 574, n.s.
Ireland, Oghams of, XYlI. 434, n,8.
Iron, V. 383, o.8.
of Kattywar, smelting of, VII. 98, 0.8.
Iroquois, wampum belts of the, XYII. 425, n.8.
Iruari, forest of, II. 332, o.«.
Isaac of Tiphre, the martyrdom of, XIX. 693, n.8.
Isbuinis, inscriptions of, IXIY. 454, n.«.
Ise-monogatari, the, XIX. 43, n.s.
Ishizukuri, one of the suitors of the Lady Eaguya, and how
he failed in the task imposed on him by her, aTX. 7, n.8.
Ishmaelites, YI, 1, n.a.
Isidore of Charax, illustrations of the route of, from Seleucia
to Apobatana (W G. Masson), XII. 97, 0.8.
Isis, the goddess, A^YIII. 471, n.8.
Islam, many passages in the annals of, illustrated in Arabic
verse, XL 78, n.8. ; the worship of, XII. 51, n.8.
Ism u Nisbat, XI. 219, n.8,
Ispehbeds, Y. 454, n.8.
Istar, the city of, either Nineveh or Arbela, XII. 79, n.8.
Istarhundu, King of Elam, XIX. 675, n.8.
Iswara, conscious, simultaneously, of the whole universe as
existing in past, present, and future time, X. 34, n.8.
Italian Asiatic Society, publications of the, XIX. 699, 707, n.8.
version of H. W. Freeland's poem on "Art," XIX. 137, n.8.
Italy, practice in, of using the name of the father as a proper
name, as Galileo Galilei, XIII. 263, n.8.
Itsai, the, is not the European *' Will," but the expression of
the last wishes of the deceased, XY. 230, n.8.
Itsine, personal history of, XIII. 556, n.8.
Iturbide proclaimed " Constitutional Emperor " of Mexico in
1822, IX. 365, n.8.
lyat, the colloquial dialect of Tamil, XIX. 559, 570, n.8.
Izumi Shikibu-monogatari, the love letters of the Princess
Murasaki Shikibu, aIX. 43, n.8.
Jacob, General G. L., an account of Gumli, or more correctly
Bhumli, the ancient capital of Jetwar, Y. 73, o.8. ; on the
iron of Kattywar, YII. 98, o.8. ; memoir of, XIII. iii, n.8.
96 JAC— JAP
Jacobi, Prof., points out the coincidence of the date of
Chandra Gupta and of the Seleucidan era, XV. 77, ».«.
Jaeschke, M., publication in English of his Tibetan dictionaiy,
XIV. Lxxiii, n.8.
Jafar ibn Sulaiman, X. Ill, n.a.
Jafna, VI. 17, n.«.
Jagadguru (copyist), VIII. 21, n.s.
Jagannatha and the Rath-Jatra, or Car Festival (Mansbach),
Tram. III. 253.
the idol of, at Purl, originally was a trisula (illustrated),
XVIII. 402, n.8.
Jagatai language, XVIII. 190, n.8.
Jaghanya, VII. 97, n.8.
Jagheerdars, XVIII. 267, o.8.
Jahanglr» drinking vessel of, VII. 384, n.8.
Jainas, IX. 155, n.8.
Jain Temples in South Bihar and Bhagalpur (Hamilton),
Tram. I. 523.
Jainism, probably the most ancient of the home religions of
India, XV. 376, n.8.
Jains, on the (Delamaine), Tram. 1. 413 ; on the (Hamilton),
531 ; philosophy of the (Colebrooke), 551.
of Guiarat and Marwar (Mills), Tram. III. 336.
Jaloka, Buddhism dominant in Kashmir during the reign of,
IX. 183, n.8.
Jambhalajalendra, VIII. 41, n.8.
Jambukhadakasamyuttam, account of, XIL 559, n.$. ; text of,
560.
Jami-al-Hikayat, III. 438, n.8.
Jami-al-Tawarikh of Eashld-al-Dln, on the discovery of part
of the second volume of, VI. 11, o.s.; on a MS. of the, Yll.
267, 0.8.
Janani, note on the situation of, XIX. 512, n.8,
Jangams, V. 141, n.8.
Jangar, or native vessel of Malabar, I. 2, o.8.
Janub, an Arab poetess, XVII. 57, n.8.
Japaneseantiquity, the sourcesof our knowledgeof, XV. 217, n.8.
civilization, the early, gives us the most original features
of Altaic thought and life, XV. 315, n.s.
history not considered by European investigators to be
earlier than 400 a.d., XV. 317, n.8.
language, phonetic changes in, more simple than in
Korean, XI. 342, n.8.
place-names, XIX. 3, n.8.
. story from the, XVII. 1, n.8.
JAP— JEH 97
Japanese text of the story of the Old Bamboo-Hewer, trans-
literation of the, XIX. 46, n.8.
theatrical representations, XIX. 331, n.s.
use of knotted cords by the, XVII. 427, n.«.
women, chiefly taught by " The Greater Learning for
Women," and "The Lesser Learning for Women," X.
326, n.8.
writing, XV. 328, n.s.
Jarawa tribes of the Andamanese, peculiar habits and
character of, XIII. 478, n.8.; specimen of a few words from '
the language, 479 ; early account of, 482 ; fruitless attempt
to make friends with, 483 ; said to have been originally
kidnapped for slaves, which may account for their Hostile
character, 486.
Jarib, VII. 178, n.8.
Jd8, accepted as the genitive of jd by Pictet, Bohtlingk, Both,
and Lanman, XVI. 481, n.8.
Jaschke, H. A., notice of, XVI. xxxiii, n.8.
Jata, peculiar head-dress worn at festivals in Bali, IX. 71, n.8.
Jatakas, V. 1, n.8. ; VIII. 9, n.8.
Jatki (or Multani) literature, XVII. 889, n.8.; specimens
and translations of, 405.
Jatra, or annual fair, at the Hot Wells, fifty miles from
Surat (White), Tram. III. 372.
Jat'sar, the melody so called, XVIII. 210, n.8.
Jaubert, M,, his translation of Edrisi, I. 365, 0.8.
Java, the eastern portion of, not Muhammadan at the end of
the seventeenth century, XIII. 55, n.8.
the existence of caste in, certain, X. 84, n.8.
materials for an account of, I. 346, 853, 0.8.
Javanese manuscript, account of (Nieman), XX. 49, o.8.
old, important contribution to the knowledge of, by
0. J. Winter, XIV. cvi, fi.*.
Jayabhupatindramalladeva, VIII. 28, n.8.
Jayagopa, VII. 155, n.8.
Jayakar, Surgeon-Major 0. S., his paper on the Arabic dialect
spoken at Oman, AlX. 535, n.8.
Jayananda, VEIL 17, n.8.
Jayapratapamalladeva, VIII. 24, n.8.
Jaya Sinha, IV. 95, n.8.
Jayasri, VIII. 19, n.8.
Jebela VI., of the Gkissan dynasty, note on, XIX. 596, n.8.
Jehanglr, biographical sketch of the Emperor, I. 325, 0.8. ;
f3rtrait of, ibid.; his reasons for adopting the title of
adshah, IX. 400, n.8.
TOL. XX.— [niw snuBS.] o
98 JEH— JOR
Jehoiakim and Evil-Merodach, XVIII. 117, o.«. ; and Nebu-
chadnezzar, 119.
Jelalabad, Hindu temple at, XIII. 185, n.8. ; topes at, paper
by W. Simpson, XIV. 30, n.«.
Jengiz Ehan uses the title Malik il Malik, IX. 368, n.«.
Jerusalem, account of, VI. 142, ».«.
description of the Noble Sanctuary at, XIX. 247, «.«.
Jesuits, their expulsion, I. 192, o,8.
Jetur, VI. 10, n.8,
Jewett, J. R., collection of Syrian proverbs, XIX. 698, n.8.
Jewish proper names, much greater diversity in, than in
those of the Arabs, XIII. 251, n.«.
Jifar, VI. 15, n.8.
Jihad, V. 401, n.8.
Jimutavahana, the story of, translated by the Rev. B. H.
Wortham, XIII. 157, n.8.
Jingis Ehan, rapid rise of, VIII. 287, n.8.
Jital, VI. 343, n.8.
Jito, the Emperor, XIX. 3, n,8.
Jivatma, according to the Vedanta, the animal or conscious
soul, X. 41, n,8.
Job, IV. 231, n.8.
Jodzam, VI. 15, n.8.
Jog, VI. 13, 139, n.8.
Johnson, Francis, sketch of the life of, IX. xiii, n.8.
Johnston, the Rt. Hon. Sir Alexander, inscription found near
Trincomalee, Tran8. 1. 537 ; account of a Flag representing
the introduction of the Cholias into Ceylon, Tran8. III. 332 ;
observations on the Pearl Banks of Ceylon, 332 ; observa-
tions at annual meeting, I. 158, 0.8. ; on the Mackenzie
Collection, II. xxx, o.8. ; report of the Committee of
Correspondence, III. xlvi,,o.«. ; anniversary, lvii ; letters
from to Secretary, 189 ; plan for granting trial by jury in
Ceylon, 244.
Johore, the southernmost state of the Malay Peninsula, XIII.
400, n.8.
Jones, Capt., on the Topography of Nineveh, XV. 297, o.8.
Jones, Sir William, letters relative to Indian literature,
Tran8. III. 1 ; translation of the Laws of Manu by, XIII.
216, n.8. ; Sanskrit sloka noticed by, in his translation of
Sakuntala, XV. 175, n.8.
Jooni, the dambs at, circular or oval, IX. 132, n.8.
Jordan, sources of the, XVI. 8, o.8.
inhabitants of twenty- five ancient towns on the banks
of the, XVI. 27, o.8.
JOXJ— JTO 99
Journal, quarterly, of the Society, I. xii, 163, o.«. ; II. xxv, o.«.
incomplete condition of the eleventh and fourteenth
volumes, XIX. xiv, o.a,
Jourya, VI. 264, n «.
Juba, VI. 121, n,s.
Juchi, VII. 308, w.«.
Judicial Committee of the Privy Council, I. 163, o»8.
Judges, all, in India, are appointed bv and act under the
sole authority of Her Majesty or oi her representatives,
XIII. 580, n.«.
Jugglers, account of (the Shudgarshids), I. 151, 283, o.«.
Ju-juan, signs for writing used by the, XVII. 424, n.«.
Jiilg, Prof. B., "On the Present State of Mongolian Re-
searches,'* XIV. 42, n.8. ; life of, XVIII. 550, w.«.
Julien, S , analysis of his translation of Chinese tales, I. 307,
0.8. ; extrait de Memoires de Hiouen-Thsang, XVI. 340, o.s. ;
review of his translation of Hiouen-Thsang's Travels,
XVII. 106, 0.8. ; work by, published in 1861, " M^thode
pour d^chiffrer et transcrire les noms Sanskrits,'' XII.
158, n.8.
Juliopolis, XIX. 294, o.8.
Jundi-Shapur, position and ruins of, XII. 318, n.8.
Jung Bebadur visits England at the Great Exhibition, and
supports the English in the Mutiny, X. 119, n.8.
Jung tribes of China, XVII. 467, n.8.
Junius, R., his Formosan version of the Lord's Prayer, XIX.
437, n.8. ; Romanized text of the same, 470.
Jurchis, famous for apeculiar kind of hunting, now confined
to the Manchus, lA. 246, n.8. ; during the Tang dynasty,
divided into those of the river Sungari and those of the
Amur, 247 ; the independent, occupied Eastern Manchuria
from Corea to the Amur, ibid. ; among the, a composition
for death the established law, 248 ; will not admit them-
selves to be dependents of the Liau empire, 249 ; rule
among, that the children, as they grow up, should separate
one from the other, 253 ; crafty dealings of their leaders
with the Ehitan Emperors, 255 ; various grievances of,
against the Ehitans, 263 ; pay no taxes and five by fishing
and hunting, 267 ; composition of their armies, 273.
Juijun, V. 450, n.8.
Jury Bill, Indian, I. 169, 0.8.
Justice's " Moneys and Exchanges " quoted, XIX. 496, n.8.
Jyotisha, observation on the, Pkce of the Colures, I. 316, n.8.
100 KAB— KAL
Kabul river, XIII. 184, n.s.
Ka9anna, YI. 94, n.s.
Kachari Bara language, Qrammar of the, XIX. 335, n.«.
Kachari-Eoch sub-family, account of, XII. 231, n.8.
Kachchar Naga tribes. Grammar, etc., of the, XIX. 336,
n.8.
Eadaladi, village of. III. 176, o.8.
Kadjoughira, VI. 236, n.s.
Xadphises form of Sairism easily traoed on the coins, IX.
210, n.8.
Kafirs, on the language of the, XIX. 1, 23, 27, o.8.
Kaguya, the UpbSiring of (a ohromo-iithograph illustratiDg
Mr. Dickins' paper), XIX. 40, n.8.
Lady, the more common name of the heroine of the
" Story of the Old Bamboo-Hewer," XIX. 1, n.8.
Kahibara Tokushin, the author of the "Greater Learning
for Women," X. 332, n.8.
Kahirah, Al, origin and purpose of its foundation, XIV.
233, n.8. ; three ancient gates of, erected by Badr-al-Jamali
in A.D. 1087, 236.
Kai Kaus, VI. 370, n.8.
Eaisar-i Hind, new title recommended for the adoption of
Her Majesty, IX. 415, n.8.
Kaisun-KiUik, Y, 34, n.8.
Kaivalya, XX. 502, n.8.
Kaivalyavatsadesaka, YIIL 11, n.8.
Kajar, the Turkish tribal name, carefully preserved by the
present dynasty of Persia, XIII. 267, n.8.
Kaj'rl, the name of an Indian melody, XYIII. 210, n.8.
Kakhyen and Burman, XII. 397, n.8.
or Singpho, the most numerous population from Upper
Assam across Northern Burma into Yunan, XII. 395, n.«.;
the name, of purely Burman origin, 395 ; tribal divisions
of, numerous, with some differences of dialect, 398;
grammatical sketch of, 400.
Kala, I. 380, n.8.
Kalabhurya, or Kalachurian djrnasty, lY. 5, 19, 32, o.8.
Kalabsbe, in Nubia, on the inscriptions found at, Tran8. III.
261.
Kalachakra(tantra), YIII. 39, n.8.
Kalah, founded about B.C. 1000, XIY. 216, o.8.
Kalama correctly identified by Dr. Yincent with Ealamat,
XI. 135, n.8.
Kalamina, probable origin of the word, XYI, 262, n.8.
Ealapanchipa, YII. 171, n.8.
KAL— KAN 101
Kalatantra, VIII. 37, n.«.
Kaleran, Den Passar, table of the family of, X. 76, n.8.
Kale^ala, Finnish poem of, XY. 50, o.s,
Kalgha, title of, XVIII. 403, o.s.
£ali, the worship of, the most common in the Himalayan
villages, XVI. 15, n.«. ; XIX. 580, n.«.
Krishna Bahadur, seal of, VII. 200, o.a.
Kalilah-wa-Dimnah, Syriac version of, and translation
(Wright), VII. Appendix, n.8.
Kalinga, V. 56, 60, 65, 73, n.8. ; VI. 242, n.8.
Kalis(3i, Dr., obituary notice of, XVIII. lit, n.8.
Kaliyuga, IV. 136, n.8. ; XVIII. 211, n.8.
Kallee-Kota=Calicut, V. 148, n.8.
Kalmuk (Khalimak), only now used by Wolga-Kalmuks,
XIV. 47, n.8. ; but the true key to the ordinary Mongolian,
52.
Kalpanidanatilaka, VIII. 29, n.8.
Kalpas^ or ages of the world, their immensity, XVIII. 151,
n.8.
Kaluna, VII. 197, n.8.
Kalyanamitra, VIII. 3, n.8.
Kalyanapanchaviipiatika, VIII. 24, n.8.
Kama, I. 376, n.8.
Kamal (or Shams) ad Din as SuyutT, his description of the
Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem, XIX. 247, n.8,
Kamalanka, VI. 254, n.8.
Kamarupa, VI. 235, n.8.
Kamasastram, VIII. 48, n.8.
Ejunbojan language has a syllabary with characters of its
own, X. 30, n.8.
Kamboias, V. 73, 81, n.8.
Kamenkotta, III. 173, o.8.
Kamissares, governor of Kappadocia, XIX. 704, n.8.
Kammavaca, VII. 1, n.8.
Kanara language, grammars by Mr. Hodgson and Mr. Kittel,
XI. 66, n.8.
Kanardii, treaty of, in 1774, insists on the independence of
the ]^hans of the Crimea, IX. 392, n.8.
Kanate, identified by Dr. Vincent and others with the
present Koh Kalat, but more probably Karatee, XI.
144, n.8.
Kanawari and Bunan dialects have a large percentage of
Tibetan words, but an entirely different structure of the
verb, X. 17, n.8.
Kanchipur, VI. 273, n.8.
102 KAN— KAR
Eanchi-pura (Conjeveram), Siva temples discovered at, dis-
tinctly of Dravidian architecture, XVI. 31, n.8. ; the capital
of the Pallava dynasty, ibid. ; three temples recently found
there, by Mr. Sewell, two dedicated to Siva, one to Vishnu,
33; inside of the temples at, exactly like the caves at
Mahavallipur, 34 ; Vishnu temple at, exactly like the
Dharmaraja Ratha at Mahavallipur, ibid.
Kandriakes river, the present Baho, XI. 164, n.8.
Kandy, constitution of the kingdom of (D'Oyly), Trans. II 1.
191.
Kaneatis, probably in the neighbourhood of the Gabreg river,
XI. 149, n.8.
Kanerke, V. 195, n.8,
K'ang-hsi Dictionary, method whereby most of the characters
in, were formed, Al. 239, n.8,
Kani, VI. 843, n.8.
Kanishka, IV. 96, n.8. ; V. 196, n.8. ; IX. 6, 233, n.8. ; XII.
241, n.8.
Kankali mound at Mathura, a complete testimony with regard
to the Jaina religion, IX. 232, n.8.
Kankirnatantra, VIII. 40, n.8.
Kannada or Canarese literature, the old, of Jaina origin,
XV. 296, n.8. ; notice of some of the earliest writers, 298.
Eannari cave temples, VIII. 63, o.8.
Kanobos, discoveries at the supposed site of, XIX. 702, n.8.
Kanphatis of Danodhar, an account of the, V. 268, o.8.
Kanru Pongol, V. 115. n.8.
Eanva dynasty, IV. 122, n.s.
Kapi9a, VI. 103, n.8.
Kapila Rishi, the compiler of the Sankhya Karika, con-
sidered heretical by the early Chinese Buddhists, X.
357, n.8.
Xapilar, memoir of, I. 140, 0.8.
Kapissa, city of, shown to be within the limits of the Satrapy
of Arachosia by the Cuneiform Inscriptions of Darius,
XV. 379, n.8.
Kaplan-Ghiray, XVIII. 406, n.8.
Kappadocian numismatics, XIX. 704, n.s.
Kappadokian syllabary, the, XIX. 653, n.8.
Kaprlas, the sect of, at Mhurr, I. 369, o.s. ; II. 172, o.s.
Kapur-di-Giri rock inscription, VIII. 303, o.«. ; note on,
308; XII. 143, o.«.
Kara Khitai, enipire of, included most of the Turkish tribes
north of the Jaxartes, XV. 439, n.s. ; conquers Ehuaresm
in A.D. 568, VIII. 281, n.8.
KAE— KAW 103
c: Kara Tapah, V. 448, n.s.
k: Karakapatala, YIII. 45, n.8.
Karandayyuha, VIII. 16, 17, 20, n.8.
Karen dialects, XVI. 69, o.8. ; X. 24, n.8.
J-. Karisha, VI. 341, n.8.
i KapKo, VI. 12, n.8.
Karli cave temples, VIII. 56, 0.8.
Karma ver8U8 JnaDa, XX. 486, n.8.
1^; Karmika system, II. 301, 0.8.
Kama Souvarna, VI. 248, n.8.
,- Karunapundarlka, VIII. 18, 41, n.8.
Kasan language, XVIII. 181, n.«.
Kashghar, city of, VII. 307, 3--^0, o.8.
^ Kashmir, an inscription from, illustrative of the provincial
nse of a cycle of one hundred years, IX. 1, n.8.
in the valley of. Buddhism came in, subsequently to
^ Asoka, IX. 184, n.8,
list of the kings of, IX. 183, n.8.
to Yarkand, route from, XII. 372, o.8.
Kashmiri literature, XVII. 389, n.8. ; specimens and transla-
tions of, 404.
Kashmirian book of Oommon Prayer completed by the Eev.
I T. K. Wade, XVI. xcviir, n.8.
Kashmirians, V. 58, 64, 73, n.8.
Kasi country, V. 68, n.8.
KasikOmnk language spoken in the Caucasus, XVII 157, n.8.
Kasin, important archaeological discoveries at, XVII. lxiii,
n.8.
Kasis, V. 64, 73, n.8.
KasmirapanjI, VIII. 27, n.8.
Kassite influence on the Cuneiform syllabary, XIX. 640,
n.8.
Kasyapa, V. 66, n.8. ; VII. 154, 192, 218, n.8. ; XIX.
616, n.8.
Katari, career of, XV. 98, n.8.
Katha Sarit Sagara, III. 167, n.8. ; translations of the stories
of Jimutavahana, and of Harisarman, from the, by the
Rev. B. H. Wortham, XVIII. 167, n.8.
Katodis, account of, VII. 25, o.8.
Kaul-istwa tenure, II. 217, o.8.
Kausalakas, V. 64, n.8.
KavIndra-jaya-pratapamaUa, VIII. 24, n.8.
Kavirondo, vocabidary of, XIX. 706, n.8.
Kawi Tantri, the, a land of Panchatantra, but derived from
other sources, XIII. 44, n.8.
104 KAW— KER
Kawi language, the Indian elements of, more easily made
oat than the Malayan, XIII. 43, n.8. ; study of, likely to
throw light on many modem Javanese words, 44; some
Sanskrit words in, have a meaning explainable only by
analogy, 46 ; of Bali, differs from that of Java, 56.
and Javanese compared, I. 444, n.«,
— common literature of, VIII. 179/n.s. ; explanation of,
by W, V. Humboldt, 161 ; preserves the works, whereby
the mythology of priests is communicated to the people,
195
Kay, k C, "Al-Kahirah and its Gates," XIV. 229, n.«.;
'^ Inscriptions at Cairo and the Burju-z Zafar,*' XVIII.
82 ; " iNotes on the History of the Banu * Okayl," 491._^
Kaye, Lieut.-Gen. E., his account of the Azdahar at BamiaD,
XVIII. 328, n.8.
KazI, duties and qualifications of, II. 112, o.».
Keary, 0. P., ''Dawn of History," quoted. XVII. 429, «.«.
Kedah, early history of, the work of a Muhammadan, with
supernatural details, some palpably Hindu, XIII. 499,
n.8. ; sixth Kafir Haja of, incidents in his life, and legend
of the bamboo, 500 ; Queen Consort of, legend of the, and
of the mass of sea foam, 601.
Kedar, VI. 1, n.8.
Kedareens, VI. 7, n.8.
Keddah, 96, o.8. ; tributary states of the Rajaship of, 99.
Kedemah, VI. 11, n.8.
Keene, H. O., ''Note on Manrique's Mission and the
Catholics in the time of Shah Jahan,'' XI. 93, n.8. ; paper
by, entitled "Can India be made more interesting ?'* XVI.
XLiv, n.8.; "On the Revenues of the Moghul Empire,"
XIX. 495.
Kef Om-et-Teboul, the lead and zinc mines of, XVIIL
31, n.8.
Kei, the original capital of Makran, IX. 123, n.8,
KeRaya, V. 73, n.8.
Kelb, VI. 16, 18, n.8.
Kennedy, Col. Vans, on the Vedanta system. Trans. UL
414 ; abstract of Mubammedan law, II. 81, 0.8.
Keralavarma, Sanskrit commentary of, selected and edited
by Pandit Shyamajl Krishnavarma, XVI. 439, n.8.
Kerman, various names of, both as a town and as a province,
XIII. 491, n.8. ; still rich in turquoises, ibid. ; curious diy
or dust fog at, 493 ; various routes between, and Bender
Abbas or Hormuzd, 494 ; southern mountains of, vary
from 8000 to 11,000 feet in height, 495.
KER-KHA 105
I £em, Dr. H., remarks on Prof. Brockbaus's edition of the
a Katha-sarit-sagara, III. 167, w.«. ; "The Brhat-Sanhita, or
1; Complete System of Natural Astrology of Varaha-mihira,"
I IV. 79, 430, n.«.; V. 46, 231, ».«. ; VI. 36. 279, «.«.;
VII. 81, n.8, ; '' On the separate Edicts of Dhauli and
Jaugada,'' XII. 379, n.«. ; Dhauli and Jaugada inscriptions,
if texts side by side, 379, 385 ; Dhauli inscription, translation
i by, 383,390; on some fragments of Aryabbatta, XX.371, o.8.
I Kesadbatuva&sa, VII. 168, n.9.
Kesb (Kacanna), VI. 94, n.8.
Keshab Chundar Sen, special action of, XIII. 20, n,s. ; brief
sketch of his life, 21 ; a root and branch reformer as com-
pared with Debendra-Nath, 24.
I Kesi Kaja Eesava (a.d. 1160-1200), the author of the
oldest Eannada grammar, written in.Kannada, XV. 310,
Keu-yung Ewan, V. 14, w.«.
^ Khaista Tope, more than 300 feet in circumference, the last
j preserved in the Jelalabad valley, XIII. 202, n.s,
, Khalaf ibn Ahmed, celebrated as a reciter of early Arabic
J poetry, XI. 85, n.8.
Elhaldis, Teisbas and Ardinis, the Urardhian or Armenian
Trinity, XIV. 412, n.«.
Khalif , title of, IX. 379, n.«. ; used, but occasionally, by the
Turkish Sultans, and, then scarcely, with a religious sense,
ibid. ; title of, assumed by Akbar, 380 ; great prestige
attached to this name long after the Khalifs ceased to lead
the armies of the faithful, 381 ; the ecclesiastical character
of their rule recognized by Western writers, ibid, ; called
by European writers " Papa," or " Papa Saracenorum,"
ibid. ; used in Syriac in the sense of Vice or avrly ibid. ; on
later Indian coins merely expressive of Sunnite orthodoxy,
390 ; the true, held by the lawyers to be necessarily one
of Eoreish blood, 391 ; superstitious regard for the authority
of, shown on many Indian coins, 389 ; originally spoken of
as ''Commanders of the Faithful,'^ or, religiously, as
Imams, 380.
Ehalifah, inscription on glass weights, invoking blessings on,
X. 109, n.8.
Khalifabs, early, sentences engraved on the seals of, XI.
126, n.8.
Khalifehs, strict seclusion of, secured by the construction of
Al Kahirah, XIV. 232, n.8.
Khalifs in E^pt, completely under the warrior caste of that
country, lA. 387, n.8.
106 KHA-^KHI
Khalijal Eadini, or canal of NechoB, YIII. 358, o.s.
Khallata Naga, VII. 197, ».«.
Khammurabi, inscription of (Talbot), XX. 446, o.s.
Khamti tribe, found between Dibnigarh and Sadiya in the
Lakhimpur district, XII. 250, n.8.
Khan, title of, IX. 402, n.«. ; takes the place of " Malik " on
the rise of the Moguls, 367 ; became first known in Europe
on the advance of the Arabs and of the Turks or Huns,
402 ; history of this title resembles that of Malik, ibid. ;
derived, perhaps, from Ko, as deciphered by Mr. Norris,
in the Scythic version of the Behistun inscription, 404;
applied to all chiefs of hordes in De Guignee's account
of the revolutions of Tatary, 405 ; often used, in Indian
history, as a title of honour, yet not, apparently, by
the Seljuks or Atabegs, and occasionally found on coins ot
Turkestan, in the place of Amir, 406 ; appears under the
threefold form of Khan, Ehacan, and Xaan, 407; the
great, his power and grandeur made known in Europe by
various embassies, 408 ; sometimes called '' Imperator
Canis,'M10.
Khanate of the Crimea, XVIII. 402, o.«.
Khansa, Al, who lived in the time of Mahomet, the most
famous of the Arab poetesses, XL 92, n.B,
Khanun and Begum, titles of Mogul and Turkish onffn
respectively, XIII. 277, n.«.
Kharaj, VII. 172, n.8.
Eharak or Earrah, the same as the Ehalka of the inscrip-
tions, XII. 205, n.8. ; account of, in Tacut, 206.
Khariba, VI. 139, n.8.
Eharizm, V. 426, n.s.
Eharubah or Eirat, equal to 3*03 grains, X. 104, n.8.
Eharubahs, weight of thirty, a recognized standard, X. 103,
n.8.
Ehasa, VII. 96, n.8.
Ehasi language, excellent grammar of, by Mr. Pryse, XI.
68, n.8.
Nougong, etc. (Naga languages), X. 21, n.8.
Ehate, the, of the Vannic texts, are the Hittites, XIV. 397, «•«•
Ehaulan, VI. 6, n.8.
Ehaziran, I. 223, n.8.
Ehedive, early use and meaning of this title, XV. 90, n.8.
Ehilafat, in Meninski's Lexicon, applied to the empire of the
Sultan, IX. 380, n.8. ; many of the later Indian coina
struck at the seat of, 390.
Ehirkee, battle of, XVUI. 260, o.8.
A
KHI— KIK 107
A Khitai Kara, History of, VIII. 262, n.8.
Ehitai, the origin of the medisBval name Cathay, Chinese,
I still called so by the Unssians, XIII. 121, n.8.; power of,
^ broken by the Ein or Golden Tartars, ibid, ; the con-
querors of Northern China, ibid. ; ruled over the Turkish
^ tribes, of Central Asia, who were called Khitai Ehatai, and
^: probably over the Mongols, ibid. ; notes on, by Messrs.
]■ Timkofski and Ross, 122.
g Xhitan Emperor completely overwhelmed by Aguta's general,
Walipu, IX. 283, n.s.
Ehitans, various raids by, into China, XIII. 132, n.s. ; deter-
Z mine to march against the Hia, and are thoroughly defeated,
I XV. 461, n.8.
\l wooden tallies used by the, XVII. 432, n.8.
".^ Khivan language, XVIII. 183, n.8.
^. Ehodamungalum, village, II. 335, o.8.
^ Ehomair, the country of, XVIII. 28, n.8.
. Ehonds of Goomsar and Boad, VII. 172, 0.8.
^ Ehordhaghar, VI. 250, n.8.
^ Ehorremabad, remarkable circular tower at, sixty feet high,
and bearing a Cufic inscription round the top, XII. 314,
n.8. ; north of the town, a stone pillar with an inscription,
partly in Cufic, partly in Nashki, not yet deciphered, 315 ;
this district formerly called Sanha, 315.
^ Ehorsabad, bas-relief of, representing the temple of Ehaldia,
XIV, 416, n.8.
Ehosru II. and Shirin, the only king and queen who could
^ be commemorated on paintings at Ajanta, XI. 161, n.8.
Ehotan, Buddhism in, XIX. 196, n.8.
Ehowar language, sketch of the grammar and vocabulary of
the, XVII. 118, n.8.
Ehuai or Bushman race, XVIII. 53, n.8.
Ehuda or Devi, the name of the object worshipped in the
Himalayan villages between Simla and Chini, XVI.
15, n.8.
Ehuddaka Patha, IV. 309, n.8.
Ehulasat ul Eelam, IX. 161, o.8.
Ehulm, VI. 101, n.8.
Ehyber Pass, numerous caves on the sides of, XIV. 319, n.8.
Eiaking, Emperor of China, character of, Tran8. III. 136.
Eie-cha, the Cassia Regie of Ptolemy, =Syr-darya, the
Yellow River, XIX. 197, n.8.
Eielhom, Dr., the oldest MS. found by, of the eleventh
century a.b., XV. 28, n.8.
E'i E'iuen, the, of the Chinese, XVII. 433, n.8.
108 KIL— KIP
Eilakarai, III. 169, o.b.
Kilo de Constantinople, origin of this weight-name, X. 101,
n.«.
Kin, the dynastic name, nsed, even since the acoession of the
present royal family of China, IX. 245, n.8.
dynasty, V. 17, 36, 39, n.«.
empire, ultimately much more extensive than the
Khitan, IX. 290, n.«. ; but of short duration and oyer-
thrown by Mongols in a.d. 1234, ibid.
or Oolden Tartars, occupied and ruled the six northern
provinces, XY. 439, n.<. ; commence breaking up the
empire of the Khitans or Liau, 440.
Tatars, IX 247, w.«. ; and Manchus, ibid.
Kon King, or Diamond Sutra, I, 1, «.«.
Kindites, VI. 129, n.s.
Kindy, Al, title of his work, as given by Albiruni, a.d. 1000,
XIY. 1, n.8. ; work attributed to, substantially the same as
that printed by the Turkish Mission Aid Society, 3 ; value
of the letter on Muhammadanism, attributed to, ibid, ; the
philosopher, note by De Sacy on, 5 ; wrote a treatise to
disprove the doctrine of the Trinity, 7 ; the most famous
of this name, certainly, a Muhammadan, 5 ; the Apology
of, certainly written during the reign of Al Mamun, 7;
character of Al Mamun's rule rightly described by, 8;
historical notices in, always correct, 8 ; aptness and pro-
priety of the political allusions in, 10 ; judgment by of the
Jews and Bedouins first converted to Muhammadanism, U ;
the disputants in his '' Apology '' evidently real person-
ages, 15.
King, Captain, his paper on Somali as a written language,
XIX. 696, n.«.
King of kings, the ancient royal title of the kings of Penia»
Bactriana, Parthia, etc., IX. 363, ft.«.
Kings, local list of, from Albiruni and Ibn Khordadbah, XV*
84, n.8.
Kingsmill, T. W., " The Migrations and Early History of
the White Huns, principaUy from 'Chinese sources," X.
285, ».». ; " The Intercourse of the Chinese with Eastern
Turkestan and the adjacent countries in the second century
B.C.," XIV. 74, n.8.
Kinnarl-jataka, VIII. 14, n.8.
Kintoki, name of a character in a Japanese legend, XVII- T,
n.8.
" Kipdd " of the Bible, various meanings of the word, XlX
325, n.8. ; Houtum-Schindler on the translation of, 697.
KIR— KOD 109
Kira, M., publication of the '• Jo-ki " or " Uye tan Fumi,"
Kai that of a manifestly modern forgery, XV. 321, w.».
Kiratas, V. 68, 61, 73, n.«.
s: Kiravan, meaning of, XIX. 577, o.n.
Kirghiz, one of the tribes in the desert, west of Sining, X.
314, n.«.
i language, XVIII. 183, n.«.
tt Kiriath Arba, is this the old Hebrew word for " Arabia *' P
XIX. 697, n.«.
iir Kirk, Dr., of Zanzibar, letter from, to Mr. Redhouse, XII.
i: 331, n.«.
Klrtti Nissanka, VII. 157, 353, «.«.
Kirtti-Sri-Meghavahana, VII. 165, n.«.
Kishm, VI. 107, n.«.
Kist, an obsolete Arabic weight-name, found on glass discs,
y X. 101, n.«. ; the name, now, of the cruise for dipping into
,( the oil jars, 112.
Kistvaens, dolmens, and prehistoric graves in India, XIX.
1 693, «.«.
Kit Serinewan, VII. 155, n.«.
Kitab el Jezireh, VI. 21, 24, n.«.
Kittor, country from Panah to, II. 65, o.s,
Klaproth, M., in his '^Annales des Empereurs du Japon,"
mentions a country called Ta Han, somewhere to the east
of China, XIII. 554, n.«.
and Mr. Wylie give vocabularies of the Kin, IX.
246, n.8.
Kleber, the marble quarries at, XVIII. 48, n.«.
Knight, R. C, ^' On the Manchur Lake, and Aral and Narra
Rivers," VIII. 384, o.«.
Knotted cords, used as a substitute for writing, XVII. 421,
425, n.«.
Knox, O., Ordination of a Burmese Buddhist Priest, Tram.
III. 271.
Kobo, one of the "Great Teachers*' of Japan, XVII. 7,
n.«.
Ko-bo-Dai-shi, rules by, for the interpretation of dreams,
X. 342, n,8. ; the priest and pioneer of Buddhism in the
ninth century, 342.
Koch family, detailed account of, XII. 235, n.«.
Kodama Tadashi, his edition of the Taketori, XIX. 44,
n.«.
Kodes coins, IV. 516, n.«.
Koduntamil dialects, XIX. 569, n.s.
110 KOE— KOS
Koelle, S. W., "On Tartar and Turk," XIV. 125, m.;
"Etymology of Turkish Numerals," XVI. 141, n.».
Koi, eight castes of, known to the Rev. Mr. Cain, XIH
41 0, n.«. ; collected villages of, ruled by a headman, whose
office iff ffenerally hereditary, 412.
Koir of Malabar, remarks on the, II. 347, o.«.
Koiyunjik, the Acropolis of Nineveh, XV. 325, o.8.
Kojiki, the earliest specimen of Japanese literature, XIL
^7, «.«.
Kokan, city of, VII. 325. o.s.
Kola Ye, the province of, II. 255, o.s.
Eolamba (KoUam or Quilon), gives the era to the whole of
the Malabar coast, XVI. 436, n.a.
Eolarian language, X. 3, n.s. ; XI. 66, n.8.
Kolbe, Rev. F. W., "The Bearing of the Study of the Bantu
Languages of South Africa on the Aryan Family of Lan-
guages," XVII. 38, n.8.
Kolhapur, leaden coins found at, XL 1, n.«.
Kolisurra silkworm of the Deccan (Sykes), Trans. III. 541-
Kollam= Quilon, V. 148, n.8.
Komatipur, VI. 239, n.8.
Komortena (from the Arabic Kamar), one of the earliest
names of Madagascar, XV. 180, n.8.
Eondbs, human sacrifices among the, XVII. 19, 31, 36,
0.8.
Kongadesa, VI. 396, n.8.
Konkani, grammar, etc., in, XV. lxvi, n.8.
Konyodha, VI. 249, n.«.
Kophas, port of, now probably to be recognized at Pistikan,
XL 134, n.8.
Koran, linguistic value of, XL 366, ».«.
the sacred copy of the, at Mecca, XIX. 225, n.8.
Korean alphabet, X V. 330, n.8.
language, XL 317, n.8.
Korodamon, X. 170, n.8.
Koros, Csoma de, biographical sketch of, I. 128, o.«. ; sketch
of his life and labours in Journal R.A.S., 2nd series, vol
i., XVL 486, n.8. ; real object of his travels, 488; course
taken by, in his travels, 489 ; death of, at Darjeeling,
April 11, 1842, and monument to, 490 ; Tibetan books and
MSS. collected by, presented by the Rev. S. C. Malan to
the Hungarian Academy of Sciences, Buda Pest, XVI
494, n.8.
Kosala, VI. 251, n.8.
Kofalas, V. 60, 64, n.8.
KOS— KXJH 111
Kosegarten, M., essay by, "TJeber die vor-namen oder die
Kunje der Araber," D.M.G. 1837, XI. 175, n.s.; notice of,
: XVllI. VII, 0.8. ; XVII. 67, n.a.
I Kossoyicb, C, notice of, XV. xxiii, n.s.
Kotivarsha, V. 57, n.s.
Kottaikairi-ar, III. 178, o.8.
Eottapnam, town of. III. 173, o.s.
, Kottayam, foundation of the college at, II. 56, o.s.
Koutei, inscriptions at, XVII. 442, n.s.
Kovrakpada, VIII. 28, n.s.
Koxinga the Pirate, XIX. 418, n.s. ; derivation of bis name,
I 453.
Kra, tbe peninsula of, XIV. cm, n.s.
Krananda, I. 449, n.8.
Erapf, Dr. L., notice of, XIV. xxiv, n.s.
I Kraunca-dvipa, V. 65, n.8.
Kredamanadi, III. 179, o.s.
Kreiner, Von, development of Arabic poetry ably traced by,
XI. 79, n.s.
Krim-Gbiray, XVIII. 405, o.s.
Erisbna Bihari Sen, letter by, to Prof. Monier- Williams,
XIII. 281, n.«.
Krishna, tbe worship of, XIX. 578, n.s.
Krishna-yamari(maha)tantra, VIII. 33, 35, n.s.
Kri8higLa-yamari(maha)tantratIka, VIII. 32, n.s.
Krishna river, country south of the, II. 65, o.s.
Krisna, the cow-herd god, XVIII. 211, n.s.
Kritpatala, VIII. 45, n.s.
Kriyapanjika, VIII. 35, n.s.
KtSsias declared truly that he had derived his statements
from Persian originals, XIV. 415, n.s.
Kubia, VII. 197, n.s.
Kubla, V. 26, 33, n.s.
Kublai Khan, VII. 329, n.s.
Kuch-Behar, the Maharaja of, question about his marriage
with the daughter of Itam Ghandar Sen, XIII. 34, n.s.
Kudatku Bilik, the, is the most pure specimen of real Turki,
XVIII. 190, n.8.
'kudi, the ancient origin of this termination in the names of
towns and villages, XIX. 578, n.s.
Kudurru, king of Elam, XIX. 677, n.s.
Kuhaon, inscription on monolith at, translation of, XIII.
534, n.s.
Kuhistani words, list of, XIX. 26, o.s.
Kuhshin, V. 37, 39, n.s.
112 KUI— KUR
Kuidza either at Manbar, or in the neighbourhood of Qanz,
as suggested by MuUer, XI. 153, n.«.
Euki (New), in Kachar, J^aga Hills, and Manipur, XII.
238, n 8.
Kula Bhiishana, III. 209, o.%.
Kula Sek'hara, III. 204, o,8.
Kuladartta, VIII. 36, n.«.
Eulasa, III. 215, o.«.
Kuli, varied meaning of this Turkish word, XI. 183, n.<.
Elulkami tenure, II. 223, o.s,
EluUaiti Neyai, the cultivated lano^uage of, looked upon as
foreign by the nomad Uzbegs, XII. 373, n.«.
KuUari lake, III. 182, o.%.
Kulottunga, III. 207, o.s.
Eulutas, V. 64, n.«.
Eumaon, pillar at, a Jaina monument, IX. 168, note, n.9.
the excellence of the climate at, not appreciated at firsty
X. 132, w.«.
Kumara-jiva, I. 1, n.s.
Elumi, Mru, Banjogi, etc., languages of the Aracan hills
placed in class xviii, X. 23, n.«.
Kumiik, or Euraik, or Eumian language, XYIII. 180, ».«•
Eumuri, III. 167, o.«.
Kuna Pandyan, III. 219, o.«.
Xunama language, compared with Assyrian, XYII. 76, n.«.
Eunanda, the coins of, XIX. 341, n.«.
Eundu and Sisu, the king of, XIX. 679, n.«.
Eunduz, VI. 99, w.«.
Eung-Ti, the Emperor, erects a statue of Buddha, XIX
556, n.«.
Eunimasa, name of a character in a Japanese legend, XV'II*
5, n.«.
Eunker formation, VIII. 258, o.«.
Eunnagudi, III. 173, o.8.
Euntala Desa, families of the, IV. 31, 0J8.
Euntibhojas, V. 65, n.«.
Eunu, or Eunuh, expedition against, XIX. 226, o.«.
Eunyat, the Arabic designation of a name, XL 173, n.<.
Euramochi, one of the suitors of the Lady Eaguya, &n^
how he failed in the task imposed on him by her, XI^*
10, n,8.
Eurd language spoken in the Caucasus, XVIL 152, n,8.
Eurdish, note on, XVL cxi, n.«.
Eurdistan, assassination of Prof. Schutz in, L 134, o.«.
Eurds, government of, I. 135, o.s.
KUR— LAC 113
Karin language spoken in the Caucasus, XYII. 157, n,8.
Kurral, quotations from the, XVII. 170, n.s.
Kurrat el Oyun, VI. 21, n.«.
Kurrayer* another name for the semi-agricultural communi-
ties, XIX. 578, w.«.
Eurrim Khan, register of temperature of the air kept at, III.
392, 0.8.
Kurrinchimakkal the ancient Dravidian semi-agricultural
tribes, XIX. 5*78, n.«.
Kurrum Pass runs nearly due west from Banu to Ghazni,
XV. 374, n.s. ; importance of, as the highway from Ghazni
to India, fbid.
Kuru field, V. 61, 73, n.8.
Kurukshetra, lake of, description of, by Q-en. Cunningham,
XV. 363, n.8.
Kurumanil=Coromandel, V. 148, n.8.
Kurunga-Jataka, V. 2, 8, n.8.
Elurus, V. 61, n.8.
Elushite origin of the Babylonian writing is doubtful, XIX.
646, n,8.
Eusumapura, VI. 227, n.8.
Euttab schools in Egypt, XIX. 227, n.8.
£utub-ud-din Mubaxek Shah, disgraceful character of, XIV.
27, n.8.
Kuvadian, VI. 97, n.8.
Euvayana, VI. 96, n.8.
Eu wan, the name for the ^' Ancient Style " in Chinese, XI.
260, n.8.
Ku-wen characters of the Chinese language, XVII. 449,
n.8.
Ewan-shai-yin, the name used by Fa-hian for Sumana or
Ayalokiteswara, XV. 341, n.8.
Ewan yin. Confessional service of, II. 403, n.8.
worshipped in south of India as Durga or Chanda (i.e.
Parvati), XV. 342, n.8.
Ewas of the Yh-King, XVII. 427, 432, n.8.
Ewoh-yu, or the Conyersations of the Eingdom, stories from,
X. 288, n.8.
Labial letters, priority of, illustrated in Chinese phonetics,
XIX. 207, n.8.
Labienus, without authority, assumes the title of Imperator,
IX. 320, n.8.
Lacab, the Arabic word for honorary titles, XI. 197, 210, n.8.
TOL. XX.— [nBW 8BBIS9.] H
114 LAC— LAM
La Calle, North Africa, prosperity of , XVlli. 28, n.«.; de-
scription of, 30.
Lacouperie, T. de, "On a Lolo MS. written on Satin"
XIV. 119, n.8.; "The Oldest Book of the Chinese (the
Yh-Eing) and its Authors," XY. 237, n.«. ; analysU
of his paper " On Three Embassies from In do- China to
the Middle Kingdom,'* XYII. xxxix, n.8, ; " Beginnings
of Writing in and around Tibet," 415 ; " Formosa Notes
on MSS., Races, and Languages, XIX. 413, n.«. (with three
plates — an " Analytical Summary of Contents " is prefixed
to this article on pp. 414—416, to which the searcher is
referred) ; " The Miryeks or Stone-men of Gorea " (with
a plate), 553.
Lacquered ware of Ava (Bumey), III. 437, n.s.
Ladakh, observations on the sheep and goats of (Moorcrofit),
Trans. I. 49 ; X. 316, n.8.
" Lagash," the Cuneiform mode of writing the word, XIX.
628, n.8.
Lagoons, great extent of, on the east coast of Madagascar,
XY. 195, n.8.
Laidley, J. W., Connection between the Indo-Chinese and
Indo-Germanic languages, XYI. 59, o.8. ; life of, XVII.
XXVII, n.8,
Lajjitissa, YII. 197, n.s.
Lake of Probation, XIX. 288, o.8.
Lakes in the province of Ramnad, III. 181, o,8.
Lakhm, tribe in Arabia, YI, 15, 92, 217, n.8.
Laksbama, I. 4, n.s,
LakshmT, II. 24, n.8.
Lalatawaffisa, YII. 171, n.8.
Lalitakuma, YIII. 11, n.8.
Lalita Yistara, YIII. 7, n.8.
Tibetan text of, exhibits the baby Buddha as wearing
symbols of the Jaina Tirthankaras, IX. 160, n.s.
probably expanded from the original translated by
Ta-Iih, X. 356, n.s.
account of Buddha in, XY. 420, n.s.
Lama system does not allow traders to come to Tibet, X.
312, n.s.
Lama Tsan-po Nomian Ehan of Amdo, XIX. 691, n.s.
Lamaist system in Tibet, lY. 284, n.s.
Lamech, tomb of, near Lughman, XIII. 208, n.s.
Lampblack, mode of preparing, XIII. 497, n s.
Larapung, south Sumatra, legendary beliefs of the people of,
XIIL 518, n.8.
J
LAN— LAW 116
1 Land tenures, Tram. I. 158, 292, o.«. ; IIL 248, o.«.
tenures of the Dekkan, XL 205, o.».
i Landberg, Dr. 0. Graf von, his "Oritica Arabica," XIX.
I 533, n,%,
£ Lands, low and flat, at first, erroneously, supposed necessary
\ for tea plants, X. 144, w.«.
r Landsha alphabet, square, V. 27, ns,
Lankapura, VIII. 6, w.«.
f Lankavatara, VIII. 6, w.«.
g Lankesvara, VII. 154, w.«.
J Lansdowne, Marquess, life of, XX. iv, o.«.
Lanuns, or sea-gypsies, of Borneo, III. 10, o.«.
Laou-Keun, founder of the Taou sect, HI. 285, o.«.
Larissa, XVIII. 141, o.«.
, of the Anabasis, the modem Nimrud, XV. 336, o,%.
Lassen, Prof. C, sketch of the life of, IX. vii, «.«. ; on
r Major Leech's contributions to our knowledge of BrShuI,
XIX. 59, n.t.
J Lat alphabet, V. 422, w.«.
meaning of, altogether lost in the fourteenth century
A.D., IX. 182, w.«.
inscription character, the, strictly belongs to Mathura,
IX. 7, n.«. ; the 20 inscriptions as yet found, generally,
records of votive offerings, etc., 7 ; dates on all of them
refer to numbers below one hundred, 8 ; meaning of, lost
in the fourt.eenth century, 182.
Lata, VII. 9, «.«.
Laterite of Southern India, VIII. 227, o.«.
Latham, Dr. K. G., on the date and personality of Priyadasi,
XVIL 273, o.«.
Law, abstract of Muhammedan, II. 81, o.».
Hindu, notice of an elementary work on, I. 119, o.».
of Nepal, on the, 1. 45, 258, o.«.
properly speaking, never administered by Hindus in
ancient times, XIII. 208, n.«.
written, of China, consists of codes and constitutions,
the latter comprising Reacripta, Decreta, and Hdicta, XV.
221, n «.
Lawes, the Rev. W. G., his grammar, etc., of the Motu tribe,
XIX. 706, n.8.
Lawrence, Lord, notice of, XII. xiir, w.«.
Laws affecting the monied interest, I. 158, o.$. ; the tenure
of land, ib^. ; education in British India, 159.
Burman code of. III. 332, o.s.
Lawsuit, singular, VII. 5, o.a.
116 LAY— LEP
Layard, Right Hon. Sir A. H., value of the copies of the
Van inscriptions made by him, XIV. 385, ».«.
Laz, vocabulary of, XIX. 146, n.8.
Le, city of, VII. 288, o.«.
Leathes, Rev. Dr. S., " Foreign Words in the Hebrew Text
of the Old Testament," XVIII. 527, n.«.
Lee, Rev. Samuel, translation of a Cufio inscription found at
Colombo, Trans. I. 546.
Leech, Major, his contributions to Brahul literature, XIX
59, n.s.
Lees, Major W. N., materials for the History of India, for
the 600 years of Muhammadan rule previous to the founda-
tion of the British Indian Empire, III. 414, n.«.
Legal practice of Nepal, on the, I. 45, o.«.
Legge, Rev. Prof., ** Principles of Composition in Chinese,
as deduced fuom the Written Characters," XI. 238, n.«.;
quoted, on chess-playing, XVII. 366, ».«. ; two books by,
on China, XVIIL 5^2, n.«. ; his notice of A. Wylie, XIX
353, n.».
Leitner, Dr., inscription sent by, VII. 376, «.«. ; quoted,
XVII. 404, n.8.
Le Mesurier, C. J. R., " Customs and Superstitions connected
with the Cultivation of Rice in the Southern Province of
Ceylon," XVII. 366, f».«.
Lenormant, M., his view of the Assyrian verb, IX. 24, n.«. ;
opinion by, of the character of the alphabet on the Moabite
Stone, X. 363, n.«. ; view by, of the origin of Chinese
writing, XI. 240, n.«. ; notice of, XVI. xxiv, n.«.; first
suggested that the Asoka alphabet was derived from the
Himyaritic, 349; his Assyrian studies, XIX. 625, 653,
Lenz, Dr. R., analysis of the Sabda Elalpa Druma, II*
188, 0,8.
Leo I., the first Emperor who accepted the crown from an
ecclesiastic, IX. 329, n.8.
Leonard of Pisa, quotations from his works relating to him-
self, XV. 33, n.8.
Leopold, Arch-Duke, enormous length of his titles, IX.
346, n.8.
Lepcha dialect, grammar of, by Major Main waring, XI. 67, n.s,
language placed alone, in class iv., X. 15, n.s. ; demon-
strative pronoun in, as weU as adjective, follows the sub-
stantive, as in Tibetan, 16.
Lepra Arabum or Elephantiasis, as it appears in India
(Ainslie), Trans. 1. 282, 381.
LEP— LIT 117
Lepsius, Prof. B., reply to letter from the Council congratu-
lating him on attaining the fiftieth year of his Doctorate,
XV. XXVI, n.«. ; notice of, XVII. xxix, n.». ; his last work,
*' Langenmasse der Alton,'' lxxxii.
Lesgian group of Caucasian languages, XVIL 158, n.«.
Leslie, Prof., review by, in the Edinburgh, of 1811, of M.
Delambre, " History of Numeration," XV. 46, n.«.
" Lesser Learning for Women," stories devised for its pro-
motion, X. 341, n.8.
Le Strange, G., ** Notes on some Inedited Coins from a Col-
lection made in Persia during 1877-9," XII. 542, n,8. ;
"The Alchemist, A Persian Play," XVIII. 103, «.«. ;
"Description of the Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem " (with
a Plan of the Haram-ash-Sharif), XIX. 247, n.«.
Letchmapuram, III. 167, o.$.
Levi, Dr. S., his " Hieroglyph ic-Coptio-Hebrew Vocabulary,"
XIX. 326, n.8.
Leyden, the sixth Oriental Congress held at, r^sum^ of the
papers read in the Semitic section, XVIL lxxxviii, n.8. ;
those in the Aryan section, cv ; those in the African
section, cxvi.
Libyan languages (Newman), XII. 417, n.8.
Lichtenstein, M., his contributions to the Bushman language,
XVIII. 58, n.8.
Li, the Chinese Statute Law, XVIII. 221, n.8.
Lie-tsi had probably seen the Babylonian mythical figures,
half man, half fish, XVI. 362, n.8.
Lilavati, of Baskar Achari, I. 139, o.8.
Lillie, A., Buddhist Saint worship, XIV. 218, n.8, ; Buddhism
of Ceylon, XV. 419, n.8.
Limestone, fossiliferous, of Pondicherry, VIIL 213, o.8. ;
of Trichinopoly, 218, 315.
Linga worship unknown to Fa-hian, VI. 292, 335, 0.8.
Lingajangams, V. 142, n.8.
Lingavants, V. 142, n.8.
Lingayats, V. 142, n.8.
Lingayet writers, succeeded the Jains about a.d. 1300, and
were themselves succeeded by the Brahmans about a.d.
1608, XV. 313, n.8.
Lion tribe of Ceylon, legend of the, XIX. 205, n.8.
Lisaw, the, spoken in parts of Yunan, much resembles the
Burmese, X. 25, n.8.
Li-so, connexion of the, with the Burmese, XVIL 468, n.8.
Li-su method of communication, XVIL 421, n.8.
Li-toh'eng, the inscription at, XVIL 423, n.8.
118 LIT— LUD
Little Andaman, the supposed centre whence the Jarawa
tribes emanate, XIII. 482, n,8.
Lizards of Tennasserim, III. 57, o.8.
Llassa, VI. 28, n.s.
Lockhart, W., his remarks on the death of A. Wylie, XIX
501, n.8, ; his memoir and list of A. Wylie's works, 613.
Lodoicea Sechellarum, VII. 32, o,«.
Logan, Dr., yiew by, of the origin of the Tibeto-Bunnan
dialects, X. 210, n.8. ; and of the primeval intercourse
between the Mons, etc., and the aboriginal Dravidians, or
Koles of India, 241; account by, of the legends of the
Orang Benua of the Malay Peninsula, XIII. 512, n.8.
Lokesatika, VIII. 27, n.s.
Lokesvarasataka, VIII. 23, n.8.
Loki, the punishment of, compared with the Battak legend
of Naga Padoha, XIII. 408, n.8.
Lokman, a fable of, in the Berebber language, III. 112, o.s.
Lolo writing identical with the oldest known Indian writing,
XVIL 440, n.8. ; Lolo MSS., 441.
Lomas Bishi caves in Behar, fa9ade of, XI. 27, n,8.
Lombok, more women burnt at, than at Bali, IX. 104, n.8. ;
Balinese in, richer than those of Bali itself, 104 ; Balinese
families in, sprung from the conquest of it by Karang-
Assem, X. 55, n.8. ; island of, the poetical compositions of,
are nearly all modem Javanese, XIII. 46, n.8.
Lonar lake, IX. 25, o.8.
Long, Rev. J., five hundred questions on the social condition
of the natives of Bengal, II. 44, n.8. ; Oriental proverbs
in their relation to folklore, history, sociology, VIL 339,
n.8. ; life of, XIX. 524, n.8.
Longp^rier, M. de, memoir of, XIV. xxii, n.8.
Looe, the, ** slave or dependent," three small tribes in the
valley of Manipur, account of, XII. 241, n.8.
Low, Captain James, on Buddha and the Phrabat, Trans.
III. 57, 317 ; account of the Batta race, II. 43, o.s. ; history
of Tennasserim, 248 ; III. 54, 287, o.8. ; IV. 42, 304, o.s ;
V. 141, 216, 0.8. ; opinion of, on the origin of the Phrabat,
or ornamental impress of the feet of Buddha, IX. 163, n.s.
Low, General Sir John, memoir of, XII. xv, n.s.
Lowe, Rev. W. H., notice of his " Hebrew Grammar," XIX.
696, n.8.
Lu, the codified forms of Chinese customs and common law,
XV. 221, n.8.
Ludolph, Job, his Formosan version of the Lord's Prayer,
XIX. 438, n.8.
LUD— MAD 119
Ludwig, A., chapter on the rivers in his edition of the Big-
Veda, XV. 362, n.8.
Luhupa, a large tribe to the KE. of Manipur, XII, 246, m.«.
Lunar worship, XIX. 602, n.«.
Lurka Coles, account of, XVIII. 370, o.«.
Lushai or Dzo, notice of, XII. 240, «.«.
Lushai literature, XVII. cviii, n.s.
Lushington bridge, model of the, I. ix, o,s.
Lu-tze, their mode of communication with the Chinese,
XVII. 419, n,8.
Luxor, excavation of the Great Temple at, XVIII. cxxxi, n.8.
Lyall, C. J., translations by, of Arabic poetry, XL 75, n.8.
Lycian inscriptions (Grotefend), Trans. III. 317.
Lyon, Mr., assistant commissioner at Sambhiir, excavations
carried on by, XVII. 31, n.8.
Lyon, Prof. D., his analysis of Delitzsch's "Assyxisches
Worterbuch," XIX. 698, n.8.
M final, preserved in Assyrian and Himyaritic, but changed
into n in Arabic, IX. 46, n.a.
Ma'addites, VI. 1, 126, n.«.
Macartnejr, Lord, see footnote, appendix, IV. xxxviii, o.s.
M'Clatchie, Rev. T., connection of the Chinese and other
nations in theology, XVI. 368, n.8.
McCrindle, Mr., "Ptolemy's Geography of India," XVII.
LXVI, n.8.
Macdonald, J. D., " On the past and present condition of the
Deyrah Dhom," VII. 250, o.s.
Mackenzie, Colonel C, marriage ceremonies of Hindus and
Mahommedans, Trans. III. 170 ; his collection, I. 169,
344, 0.8. ; III. LIU ; biographical sketch of, I. 333.
Mackenzie, Rt. Hon. Holt, life of, IX. v, n.8.
Macleod, Sir Donald, life of, VII. xxii, n.s.
M'Murdo, Capt. J., dissertation on the Indus, I. 20, o.s. ;
biographical sketch of, 123 ; account of Sinah, 223.
McNeill, Sir John, memoir of, XV. in, n.s,
MacphersoD, Capt. S. C, on the Khonds, VII. 172, o.8.
Madagascar, names of districts in, XV. 176, n.8,
Madhu, in the Indian legend carried to Lanka, X. 228, n.8.
Madhu Rao, secret correspondence of the Court of, 1761
to 1772. From the Mahratta (Briggs), Trans. II. 109.
Madhukasa, I. 363, n.s.
Madhuratta Vilasini, VII. 170, n.8.
Madhvama-Svayambhupurana, VIII. 19, n.8.
120 MAD— MAH
Madhvas, the second of the great Yaishnava sects, XIY.
304, n.8.
Madian, VI. 11, n.s.
Madrakas, V. 73, n.«.
Madras, V. 64, n.s.
an archaeological department to be erected at, XIII. Li,
n.8.
High Court of Judicature at, XIII. 208, n.s.
Literary Society among the natives of, I. 162, o «.
native vessels of, I. 2, 8, o.s.
Madrid, Oriental libraries of, I. Lxvii, o.s.
Madura, III. 204, o.s. ; Pura^a, 203 ; college of, 212 ; fort
of, 212.
southern, legend relating to an ancient academy in,
XVII. 168, n.s.
Maga, VII. 157, n.s.
Magadha, V. 65, 73, n.s. ; VII. 35, n.s. ; full list of the kings
of, IX. 177, n.s.
Magahl, a Bihari dialect, XVIII. 209, n.s.
Magar language, IV. 178, n.s. ; the adjective in, precedes
the substantive, contrary to the more usual rule, X. 15,
n,s. ; contains a great number of Hindi words, 15.
Magazine, the Saturday, I. 163, o.s.
Magyar language of IJgro-Finn origin, both of which are
Ural-Altaic, XIV. 55, n.s.
derivation of the word, XIX. 330, n.s.
Maha Miru, the Olympus of the Hindus, XIII. 405, n.s.
Mahabharata, IV. 136, n.s. ; antiquity of, VI. 439, o.s. ;
quotations from, in illustration of early marriage customs,
XI. 29, n.s. ; writing distinctly mentioned in, XIII. 107,
n.s. ; progress of Fratap Chandra Roy's translation of the,
XVII. CI, n.s.
Mahabodhi temple, the history of its foundation, etc., XIII.
571, n.s.
Mahabrahman, VIII. 24, n.s.
Mahachampa, VI. 254, n.s.
Mahajuns, commercial practice of the, I. 159, o.s.
Mahakalatantra, VIII. 37, n.s.
Mahamalaipur, sculptures and inscriptions at (Babiugton),
Trans. II. 258 ; temples and raths at, 263.
Mahamegha, VIII. 44, n.s.
Mahanama, VII. 196, n.s.
Mahaparinibbana Sutta, VII. 196, n.s.
Maha-Pongol, V. 97, n.s.
Maharaja, IV. 84, n.s.
MAH— MAK 121
Maharaja and Adhiraja, the equivalent of the Bao-tXev^ ^^€709
of the Greek kings, IX. 413, n.8.
Maharaksha, VIII. 42, ».«.
Maharrak, the pearl fishery at and near, the most extensive
in the world, X. 163, n.«.
MahasaratthadipanI, YII. 171, n.8.
Mahatmya Devi, an episode in the Markandeya Parana,
description and translation of the, XVII. 221, n.a.
Mahat Svayambhupurana, VIII. 15, n.8.
Mahavamsa, VII. 167, 196, 219, 354, n.8.
Mahavastu, VIII. 8, n.s.
Mahavastu-avadana, VIII. 8, «.«.
Mahavellipore, oave temples and Haths, VIII. 85, 0.8.
Mahawanso, account of, V I. 336, 0.8.
Mahayana, VIII. 5, «.«.
Mahayana-BUtra, VIII. 4, n.8.
Mahendra, VII. 154, «.«.
Mahindra, VII. 38, n.8.
Mahisha, V. 56, n.«.
Mahmud of Ghazni, titles of, from his minaret, near that
town, IX. 357, n.8.
and as given by Firdusi, IX. 418, n.8.
Mahomet, not partial to the early poets of his country, XI.
83, n.8. ; at least 500 honorary titles applied to, at difierent
times, 198; conferred new names on his relations and
supporters, 199.
Mahrattas, V. 64, n.8.
Maisun, wife of Muawiya, XVIII. 90, n.8. ; her " Lament,"
Arabic text and H. W. Freeland's translation of, 90. See
also Meysun.
Maithili, notice of language by G. A. Grierson, XIV. lxxi, n,8.
Maitland, Capt. P. G., his account of Chahilburj, XVIII.
330, n.8. ; explanation of his sketches (supplied on plates
iy.~viii.), 340 ; his additional note on Bamian, 347.
Maltreya, the statue of, XIX. 198, n.8.
Maitreya-natha, VIII. 41, n.8,
Maitri Upanishad, extract from the, XVIII. 141, n.8.
Maitripur-vihara, VIII. 17, n.8.
Maitripura-vihara, VIII. 47, n.8.
Makamat ul Hariri, review of the, V. 201, 0,8.
Makha, III. 235, n.8.
Makimono, Japanese term for MSS., XVII. 2, n.8.
]!k[akran, journal of a route through the western parts of, V.
328, 0.8. ; the southernmost point of Baluchistan, IX. 121,
n.8. ; uncertain whence the present inhabitants came, ibid.
122 MAK— MAL
Makrizi, AI, account by, of Jauhar'a works, clear and con-
sistent, XIY. 230, n.8, ; his cu^coant of the moeqne of Nasir
ibn Kalaoun at Cairo, XVIII. 478, «.«.
Maksud-Ghiray, XVIII. 407, o.a.
Makiia language, Arab tales in the, XIX. 706, ft.s.
Malabar, V. 147, n,8. ; native vessels of, I. 1, o.«.
Malabarana, VII. 154, n.B.
Malacca, Anglo-Chinese College at, I. 162, o.«.
political situation of the British in the Straits of, with
reference to Lower Siam and the Malayan States, IV.
84, 0.8.
said traditionally to have been founded by Raja Iskander
Shah, the last king of Singhapura, XIII. 96, fi.«.
Malagasy grammar, Outlines of, I. 419, n,8.
Malamein, III. 27, o 8.
Mai-Amir, the rocks in the vicinity of, deserve thorough
investigation, XII. 84, n.«.
Malan, Dr. S. 0., gift by, of his entire Oriental library of
2000 volumes to the Indian Institute at Oxford, XVT.
492, n,8. ; gift by, to the Royal Hungarian Academy of
Sciences at Peat, of Csoma de Eoros's MSS., 492 ; letters
from, about Csoma de Koros, 492.
Malat, the history of the celebrated hero Sanji, VIII. »
195, n.8. '
Malava, VII. 94, n.8.
Malavya, VIL 93, n.8.
y Malay historical works, of value, as containing many early «
legends still current orally from Sumatra to the Philippines,
XIII. 499, n.8. •
languages, works by Mr. E. Maxwell, and others, on,
XIV. cv, n.8.
language, dictionaries of, I. 181, n,8.
MSS. belonging to the Asiatic Society, short account
of (Raffles), II. 85, n.8.
Peninsula, traditions in, of Iskendar zu'l Eamain,
XIII. 400, n.8.
States, constant recurrence of three founders in the,
XIII. 329, n.8.
tribes, at present most have accepted Muhammadanism,
XIII. 498, n.8. ; original religion of, nature or demon-
worship, ibid.
Malaya Dhwaja, III. 205, o.8.
Malayala, memoir of the primitive church of, I. 171, o.«.
Malayalam language, grammar by Mr. Peet, and dictionary
by Mr. Gundert, XI. 66, n.8.
MAL 123
Malayalim literature, XYII. cviiii n.8.
Malayan music, IX. 50, 56, o.8,
peninsula, geological appearances of, III. 305, o.8,
Malayasikhara, VlII. 6, n»8.
Malays, proverbial treachery of. III. 23, o.8.
the language, literature, and folklore of, all show three
stages. Aboriginal, Hindu, Muharomadan, XIII. 409, n.8.
Malcolm, Sir John, essay on the Bhills, Tram. I. 65 ; letter
from, I. 1, 0,8. ; notice of, I. iv, o.«.
Malcolmson, J. G., notes on the saltness of the Red Sea, lY.
214, 0.8. ; account of Aden, YIII. 279, o.8.
Maldive Islands, probability of the early colonization of, X.
178, n.8. ; notices of, in the Arab geographers, ibid. ; many
customs, superstitions, etc., allied with those in Ceylon, but
little Buddhism, 179 ; comparison of the dialects in English,
Maldive, and Sinhalese, as given by Fyrard and Christo-
pher, 186 ; words or expressions used in the course of
JPvrard's narrative, 196 ; much to be hoped from the study
of the archaeology of, 209 ; the dialect of, and people
speaking it, of Sinhalese origin, 174 ; and Sinhalese
vocabularies, comparison of, may show when the races
separated, 177 ; alphabet of, compared with old Sinhalese,
182.
Maldives, the curious modem alphabet of the, XIX. 489, n.8.
Maldivian language, vocabulary of the, YI. 42, o.«. ; formerly
written from left to right, now, like Arabic, from right to
left, X. 183, n.8.
Malik, the title of, IX. 361, n.8. ; of the highest antiquity
and the usual one in the Bible, ibid. ; Moloch, Malcham,
Mamluk, Malikana, derived from, ibid. ; often found in
compounds, as Abimelech, Melchizedek, etc., 362 ; the
equivalent of '' Rex" on the bilingual coins of the Norman
kings of Sicily, and of Georgia, 366 ; in Ferishta, not
applied to the head of the state, 368 ; stated by Ibn Batuta
to be used by the Indians as equivalent to Amir, ibid. ; but
in the Futtawa Alemgiri, for " proprietor," 369 ; used by
the Turkomans of Diarbekr instead of Sultan, 373.
Malik-al Adil created Shahinshah a.h. 604, IX. 398, n.8.
Malik ben Nasr, anecdote of, IX. 365, n.8.
Malik Mukaddam or Malik-Zemindar, the head man of a
village in Benml and in the N.\Y. Provinces, IX. 369, n.8.
Malikana, in Turkey applied to crown grants of land, Mulk
to freehold property, IX. 369, n.8,
Maltby, Mr., grammar by, XIII. lxviii, n.8.
Malto language, XYIII. cxx, n,8.
124 MAL— MAN
Malva, VI. 271, fi.«.
Mamili or Leli, worshipped as goddess of the spring by the
Eoi, XIII. 414, n.8. ; human sacrifioes probably still offered
to, ibid,
Mamluk and Mogul, the attempt to interpret difficult, and
the results unsatisfactory, XIII. 258, n.«.
Mamluks, originally slaves, then a warrior caste, like the
Janissaries, IX. 385, ns, ; peculiar use of this name by the
rulers of that dynasty, 372.
Mamlutdars, XVIII. 273, o,8.
Ma'mun, the Khalif, XIX. 700, n.«.
Mamun, Al, famous edict of, denying the eternity of the
Moslem Scriptures, XIY. 10, n.a. ; remarkable speech of, 12.
Man, Mr. E. H., labours among the Andamanese and successful
study of their language, XIII. 469, n.s,
Man, E. J., "The Sonthals," extracts from, XVII. 428, n.s.
'* Man," archaic forms representing the word, XIX. 630, f}.«.
Man, contest of, with the Madhs, must have occurred in 12th
century B.C., X. 287, n,8.
Ma'n dynasty, description of a dirhem of the, XVIII. 515,
n.8. (see the illustration of it on p. 491).
Man, or Mon language, IV. 42, o *. ; couplets in the, 47.
Mana, the, of the Vannic inscriptions, the Mannai of the
Assyrians, the Minni of the O.T., and the Minyans of
Nicolaos of Damascus, XIV. 556, n.8,
Ma'na, IV. 230. n.8.
Manabarana, VII. 154, n.8,
Manah, I. 219, n.s.
Manava Dharma Sastra, much in, quite inconsistent with
the edicts of Asoka, XIII. 218, n,8. ; expressly states that
the Indians '' use unwritten laws,'' ibid,
Manava-Kalpa-Sutra, XVIII. ix, o.s.
Manchu branch of languages, XVIII. 178, n.8,
royal stock, much new light thrown on, by M.
Gorski's papers, IX. 235, n.8. ; various legends connected
with, and their gradual expansion, ibid,; legends about,
greatly increased by the Chinese, 237.
Manchur Lake, by Gapt. Postans and R. C. Knight, VIIL
381, 0.8.
Manchus, V. 38, n.8. ; engines of, VII. 305, n.8.
certainly descended from the Kin Tatars, IX. 243, n.s. ;
said to have been first recognized in China about 1616 a.d.,
244 ; most directly descended from the Jurchi, who lived
near the sources of the river Tala, 245; their language
the same as that of the Kin, ibid.
♦
MAN 125
Manchas, conquest of China by, the latest revolution at the
commencement of the 17th century, XV. 438, ».«.
Manda, VII. 84, n,s.
Mandala, XVIII. 398, o.8.
the First, a ceremonial liturgy on eclectic principles,
XVI. 388, n.8. ; shows that it contains hymns by seven
out of eight of the great families of Hishis, ibid, ; com-
mences with four hymns of ten verses each, 398.
Mandalaka, VII. 97, n.a.
Mandarin of high rank in charge of the Chinese soldiers in
Tibet, X. 126, n.s.
or Colloquial Chinese, the result of the cultivation of
the drama in the thirteenth and fourteenth centuries a.d.,
XI.270, «.«.
Mandingo family of African languages, XIX. 686, w.«.
Manes, worshipped in Syria as a deity, X. 368, n.«.
Manfred, relies more on the fidelity of the Saracens than
on that of the Christian barons, IX. 367, n.8.; termed
sarcastically ** Sultan of Nocera," 367.
Mangalagudi, III. 168, o.8.
Mangalore boats, I. 2, o.8.
Mania, the largest river in Madagascar, brings down a great
body of water, XV. 192, n.«.
Manichsean doctrines, XVII. 292, n.s.
Manifesto, Chinese, of the Triad Society, I. 93, o.8. ; trans-
lation, 95.
Manika Rai, the Chohan, XVII. 29, n.s.
Manikyala, Tope of, built by Eanishka, Roman Consular
coins found in, XII. 264, n.8.
contents of the tumulus at, afford the earliest archaeo-
logical traces of intercourse between India and Rome, IX.
217, fi.«.
Manipuri, Euki, and Ehyeng, the principal languages of
class xvii., X. 22, n.8. ; all have a negative voice formed
by inserting certain particles, 23.
langu^ has many words in common with Kuki and
Ehyeng, X. 23 n.8.
MSS., language of, approaches very nearly to the
modem Euki, in grammar and vocabulary, XII. 231, n.8.;
people, nominally Hindus, but without any trace of Aryan
blood, notice of, 240.
Manjabari, possible identification of, XVI. 293, n.8.
Manjarika, VI. 263, n.8
Mailjudeva (copyist), VIII. 48, n.8.
Manjusri-pratijfia, VIII. 44, n.8.
126 MAN— MAR
Mann, J. A., on the Cotton Trade of India, XVII. 346, o.«.
Manni, the, really lived along the south-west shore of Lake
Urumiyeh, XIV. 389, n.8.
Manning, Mr., account of his -visit to.Tibet, the Dalai Lama,
etc., X. 125, n.8.
Manrique, Fr. Seb., Itinerary of Missions in the East by,
published at Rome in 1653, XI. 93, n.8. ; character of, as
an observer and writer, 93; account by, of the cities of
Agra, Lahore, and of the Court of the Moghul, 93;
account by, of the Sikandra Tomb, and of the Taj, 94.
Mansashtaka, a Hindu religious festival, IX. 76, o.s.
Mansbach, F., on the temple of Jagannatha, and the Gar
Festival, Tram. III. 253.
Mansel, Dean, judgment of, that the conscious subject, the
personal self, remains one and unchanged, X. 43, n.8.
Mansurah, the Arab capital of Sind and the first Musulman
stronghold, XVI. 282, n.8. ; almost certainly on the site of
Brahmanabad, 284 ; described by the Arab geographers
as encircled by a canal, 289 ; present state of the old
fortification of, 289 ; final decay of, probably due to the
drying up of the Luhano channel, 290 ; probably sup-
planted by Bhakar, owing to the change of the river-
courses, ibid. ; in the height of its prosperityin the tenth
century, when visited by Masudi, Istakhri, and Ibn
Haukal, ibid.
Manu, acquainted with writing, as he denounces the forgers
of grants of land, XIII. 106, n.8
Manu, Code of, recognizes many old marriage customs, XL 32,
n.8. ; is not "law" in the English sense of the word, XIIL
209, n.8, ; scarcely in use in the fourth century B.C., 211 ;
probably a comparatively modern redaction of the Dharma
Sastra adopted by the Manavas, 212 ; erroneous view of
Sir W. Jones with reference to, 216 ; general character of,
217.
Manucci, the Italian physician of Aurangzeb, XIX. 496, n.s.
Manuscripts belonging to the B.A.S. (Hodgson), YIII. 1, n.8.;
(Raffles), II. 85, n.8.
Mapila, V. 147, n.8.
Mara the Tempter, alluded to in the Si yu ki, XVI. 275, n.8. ;
general idea of, ibid. ; fuller details of, in the Si yu ki, 275.
Marathi language, observations on the, YII. 84, o.8.
literature, XVII. cvii, n.8. ; works in, XIII. lxvii, n.s.
Marbles of North Africa, notes on the, XVIII. 48, n.8.
Marcianus, the Emperor, called at the council of Ghalcedon
8ecr7roTi79 7^9 xal OaXda-ai]^, IX. 328, n.8.
MAR 127
Marco Polo, IV. 348, n.8. ; VII. 332, «.«. ; quoted, XVII.
430, n,8. ; his account of the morals of the Tamils and
Telugus, XIII. 220, n.a.
Margary, Mr., country through which he travelled evidently
of little value, X. 114, n.8.
Marh, VI. 341, n.8.
Marib, VI. 139, n.8.
Marichi-dharanI, VIII. 43, 50, w.a.
Mariette, M., notice of, XIII. xi, n.a,
Markandeya Pura^a, translation of books 81-93 of the,
XVil. 221, n.8.
Markham, Mr. Clements, account by, of the expeditions of
Messrs. Bogle and Manning, X. 124, n.a.
Marmopadesa, VIII. 28, n.a.
Marotada, one of the suitors of the Lady Kaguya, and how
he failed in the task imposed on him by her, XIX. 38, n.a.
Marriage Acts, the native, started by Sir H. Maine, and im-
proved by Sir Fitzjames Stephen, became law March,
1872, XIII. 31, n.«.
ceremonies of Hindus and Mohammedans in the south
of India (Mackenzie), Tram. III. 170.
forms, many and various in India, XI. 28, n.a.
rules for determining the lucky and unlucky years for,
. X. 343, n.8.
the Kuch Behar, unquestionably legal, XIII. 286, n.8.
Marriages amongst the Arabs, XVII. 277, n.a.
Married women in China, peculiar condition of, and arrange-
ments for, XV. 227, n.8.
Marsden, W., on the natives of New Guinea, Tram. III. 125 ;
life of, IV. XVIII, 0.8. ; legend preserved by, " as the belief
of the people of Johore," XIII. 400, n.8. ; account by, of
the belief of the Tagalas of the Philippine Islands with
regard to their origin, 516.
Marshman, J. C, on the production of tea in Assam, XIX.
315,0.9. ; on the cultivation of cotton in Dharwar, 351; on
the cost and construction of railways in India, XX. 397, o.a.
Martaban, canoes and boats of the inhabitants of, III. 209,
0.8. ; trade of, 289 ; pagodas, 328.
and Tenasserim, politically viewed, IV. 69, o.a.
Martin, Father, account of the "Lex Talionis" in the
Manaya country, XIII. 228, n.8.
Marut-Aradhya, V. 145, n.a.
Marutamakkal, the ancient Dravidian agricultural tribes,
XIX. 576, n.a.
MarutSy the, I. 110, n.8.
128 MAR— MAT
Marutvan Malai, or Indra's Hill, peculiar formation and
character of, XVI. 434, n.s.
Marzaban, IV. 241, w.«.
Maeaudi (tenth century), testimony to the antiquity of the
Indian invention of numerals, X V . 18, n,9.
MashTz, often formerly as now called Bardshlr, XIII. 492, «.«.
Mashrut, VII. 177, n.s.
Mason, Dr., his list of Burmese tribes, X. 211, n,s.
Maspero, Prof., unfolding of mummies by, XVIII. 566, n «. ;
his itinerary of the Egyptian Inferno, XIX. 703, n.«.
Masr, VII. 148, n.8.
Massa, VI. 11, n,8.
Massacre of Tartars by Kussians, XVIII. 414, o.«.
Masson's account of the Azhdaha of Bisut, XVIII. 328, i?^.
Masson, C, excursion from Peshawar to Shah-baz Ghari,
VIII. 293, 0,8. ; illustration of the route from Seleucia to
Apobatana, as given by Isidore of Charax, XII. 97, o.«. ;
naap by, of the valley of Jelalabad, XIII. 186, n.8. ; gives
a drawing of the old Bala Hissar, which he calls ''Tumulus
or Mound of Ewazi Lahoree," 188 ; opened many topes in
the Jelalabad Valley, but distinguished between Topes and
Tumuli, which Mr. tSimpson thinks incorrect, 189 ; object of
the excavation of, was coins, not architectural remains, ibuL
Masson's collection of Brahui, words, XIX. 62, n.8.
Masula boats of Madras, I. 2, o,8.
Mat, connected with similar words in many Aryan languages,
X. 287, n.8.
Mateer, Rev. S., " The Pariah Caste in Travancore," XVI.
180, n.8.
Materia Medica of Hindustan, III. 70, 0.8.
Material objects, used singly, or strung together, by ancient
and modem nations, instead of writing, XVII. 418, n.8.
Materialists, Indian, XIX. 299, o.8.
Maternal uncle, the reasons for blessing or cursing the, ,
amongst the Arabs, XVII. 285, n.8. j|
Mathematics and Astronomy, analysis and specimens of a ^
Persian work on, by John Tyller, IV. 254, o 8. *
Mathew, F., life of, XVIII. li, n.8.
Mathura, inscriptions of, IX. 11, n «. ; on the Jumna, the
'' high place " of the Jainas, 155 ; archseological remains,
231 ; of Jaina origin, 232 ; remains of statues from, clearly
prove the existence of the Jaina religion there as early as
Kanerki, 234 ; inscription, the second record of the Gupto
succession, XIII. 532, n.8.
Matras of the Vengi-Chalukya inscriptions, XVII. 443, n.8.
MAT— MEG 129
" Matriarchate," theory of the Arabian discussed, XVII.
276, n,8.
Ma-twan-lin's account of India, VI. 467, o.s.
Mats, Madhs, and Madhu of the Indian legends, probably
Non- Aryan, X. 290, «.«.
Matsuho-monogatari, a Japanese romance, XIX. 44, n.8.
Matsyas, V. 68, n.s,
Matthews, H., his reply to the address presented to the
Queen by the Royal Asiatic Society, XI!X. 651, n.8.
Mattu-Pongol, V. 113, n.8.
Maurya and Andhra alphebets derived from a common source,
XV. 340, n.8.
dynasty, IV. 122, n.8.
Mauryas, authoritative succession of, as given in the Vishnu
Purana, IX. 176, n.8.
Mux Denso Hall Literary Society at Karachi, first report of
the, XIX. 700, n.8.
Maxwell, W. E., an account of the Malay " Chiri," a Sanskrit
Formula, XIII. 80, n.8. ; Aryan mythology in Malay
traditions, 399 ; two Malay myths, the Princess of the
Foam and the Raja of the Bamboo, 498.
Mayers, W. Fred., Illustrations of the Lamaist system in
Tibet, drawn from Ohioese sources, IV. 284, n.8.
Mayuravardhana-mahavihara, VIIL 11, n.8.
Mazanderan, V. 446, n.8.
Meadows, T. T., Chinese execution at Canton, XVI. 54, o.8.
'• Meadows of Gold," the French translation of Mes'iidiyy's,
quoted and referred to, XIX. 583, n.8.
Measure, of times and distances, from the Mualijat-i-Dara
Shekohi, Trans. III. 53.
Mech, calling themselves Boro, account of, XII. 233, n.8.
Modes, chronology of the, XVII. 39, o.8.
Medhurst, Sir W. H., memoir of, XVIII. xxtt, n.8.
Medical art, among the Chinese (Gutzlaff), IV. 164, o.8.
Medlicott, Henry B., note on the Reh Efflorescence of north-
western India, and on the waters of some of the rivers and
canals, XX. 326, o.8.
Mee-tway, or priest of the Kakhyens, XVII. 463, n.8.
Megalithic Monuments in Coimbatore, VII. 17, n.8.
Megasthenes, XIII. 210, n.8. ; passage in, bearing on the faith
of Chandragupta, IX. 176, n.8. ; on the Gymnosophists,
XIX. 277, 283, o.8. ; refers to the influence of Hetairai, as
police informers, XL 35, n.s.
Megha Sutras (Bendall), XII. 286, n.s.
Meghasutra, VI II. 44, n.8. ; text and translation, XII. 290, n.8.
TOL. XX.— [iniW 8BBU8.] I
J30 MEG— MET
Meghavahana, IV. 101, fi.8.
Melanesia, languages of, XYIII. 484, n.a, ; XIX. 374, ti.$,
Melek Taous, '' King Peacock," the name g^ven to the Devil
by the Yezidis, IX. 369, n.8,
Mellor, C, XX. 388, o,8.
Melviil, Mr. Philip, memoir of, XV. xii, n.«.
"Men with tails," the evidence proving that thie ** ethno-
logical fable " is a fact, XIX. 453, n.8.
Menahem, XIX. 144, o.«.
Menander dates his coins in regnal years from 1 to 8, IX.
3, n.8.
Menangkaba, the most ancient state of Sumatra, XIII. 399, n.$.
Menant, Dr., his grammar of Assyrian, XIX. 625, n.s.
Menanu, king of Elam, XIX. 677, n.«.
Mencius, XV. 264, n.8. ; on chess-playing, XVII. 354, n.8.
Mendera, expedition against, XIX. 234, o.8.
Meng Pao, IV. 284, n.«.
Meninski, article in his Lexicon, giving the long and verbose
titles of a Turkish Sultan, IX. 376, n.s. ; note on the
number of " names " given by Muhammadans to " God,"
XII. 2, n.8.
Menu, Code of, not so ancient as pretended, VI. 435, o.8.
Menuas, inscriptions of, XIV. 497, n.8. ; at Kelishin, 663.
Mercury, the wife of, called in Babylonian, Tasmit, and on
the inscriptions, Lakhamun, XII. 210, n.8.
Merghi, expedition against, XIX. 233, o.8.
Mergui, account of the province of. III. 25, o.8. ; trade of, 287.
Merodach-Baladan, XIX. 136, 150, o.a. ; the leading Rod in
the inscription of Cylinder of Cyrus the Great, XII. 82,
n 8. ; king of Babylon, XIX. 674, n.8.
Meru, Mount, IV. 408, n.8. ; sometimes regarded as the
North Pole, sometimes as the centre of the earth, IX. 63,
n.8. ; the Indian Islands supposed to lie around, like lotas
leaves, ibid.
Mesech, VI. 9, n.8.
Mesha, V. 409, n.8.
Meshach, derivation of the name, XVIII. 636, n.8.
Mesny, Mr., discovery of Mo-so MSS. by, XVII. 460, n.8.
Mesopotamia, the migrations of the people of, must have been
from N.E. to S.W., XVI. 302, n.8.
Mespila, XVIII. 141, o.8.
Messa, description of, IV. 116, o.«. ; villages belonging to, 128.
Mes'udiyy, his imperfect account of the Gassan and LakllD^
dynasties, XIX. 584, n.8.
Metals of Tennasserim, III. 47, o.8.
MET— MIN 131
Metqal, the weight of the, IX. 294, n.s.
Mewar, on the religious establishments of (Tod), Trans. II.
270.
Meynard, M. Barbier de, his biographical notes on Mirza
Fath-'Ali. XVIII. 104, n.8.
Meysun, different versions of the Song of, XVIII. 269, n.«. ;
the question of the authorship of, historically investigated,
279. See also Maisun.
Mhurr, the sect of Kaprias at, I. 369, o.s.
Mibsam, VI. 11, «.«.
Michaux inscription, XVIII. 52, 364, o,8.
Midas, inscriptions from the tomb of, XV. 127, n.8.
Midianites, VI. 5, n.8.
Mignan, Lieut. R., on the ruins of Ahwaz, Trans. 11. 203.
Mihindu, VII. 153, n.8.
Mihintale-Warnanawa, VII. 170, w.«.
Mihirakula, IV. 102, n.8. ; his atrocious cruelty, XIX. 199,
n.8. ; his interview with the mother of Baladitya, 201.
Mikir language, X. 21, n.8. ; XII. 231 ; sub-family, calling
themselves Arleng, sketch of, 236.
Mikronesia, characteristics of the languages of, XIX. 377, n.8.
Miles, Capt. S. B., account of four Arabic works on the
geography of Arabia, VI. 20, n.8.
Miles, Col. W., on the Jainas of Gujarat and Marwar, Trans.
III. 335.
Mills, Rev. L. H., his translation of the Zend Avesta, XIX.
700, n.s.
Milman, Grote and, declaration, XVIII. 152, o.«.
Milne, Dr., account of the Chinese Triad Society, Trans. I.
240.
Milukh and Magan, the original names of Ophir and Gerrha,
XII. 204, n.s. ; occur in eastern as well as in northern
geography, 212.
Mimmation, a word invented by M. Oppert to express the
final m, IX. 36, n.s.
Mimurodo Imube no Akita, the less common name of the
heroine of the " Story of the Old Bamboo-Hewer," XIX.
2, n.s.
MinaBi, VI, 127, n.s.
Minahs, a tribe of BhiUs, Trans. I. 69.
Minakshi, III. 206, o.s.
Minamoto Jun, the reputed author of the Taketori, XIX. 42,
n.s.
Mingrelian, vocabulary of, XIX. 146, n.s.
Mineralogy of Cutch, on the, I. 151, o.s.
132 MIN— MOA
Mineral resources of Southern India, VII. 150, o.«.
Minerals in the Trap, list of, IX. 37, o.8.
Ming, V. 37, w.«.
Mint cities of Ghaznevide coins, IX. 376, o.«.
Mint cities on coins of Arab Governors of Persia, XII. 322,
0.8.
Mirat-i-Ahmadi, analysis of the, I. 117, o.8. ; introduction to
the, 152.
Miri, Dophla and Abor languages placed in class v., X. 16,
n.8. ; the accusative and genitive of, marked by suffixing
a consonant without a vowel, ibid,
Miryeks or Stone-men of Corea, XIX. 653, n.«.
Mirza Fath-'Ali, author of the Azerbaijani-Turkish original
of " The Alchemist,'' XVIII. 103, n.8. ; M. Barbier de
Meynard's biographical notes on, 104 ; short sketch of two
other of his plays, " The Thief -Taker," and "The Attor-
neys," 105.
Mirza Ja'afar, translator of the Persian play "The Alche-
mist," XVIII. 103, n.8.
Misals, voluntary associations of the Sikhs, IX. 50, o.«.
Miscellaneous Indian or Oriental Literature, summary of
contributions to, XIII. lxxvi, n.8. ; XIV. cvii, n.8. ; XVIL
CLII, .n.8.
Miscellaneous Semitic, publications falling under the head,
XIII. cvi, n.8.
Mishma, VI. 11, n.8.
Mishmi language, etc., remarkable for the compound conso-
nants at the commencement of the words, X. 16, n.8.;
comprehends those of three principal tribes, the Chulikota,
Taying, and Mijhu, ibid.
Misr, VII. 148, n.8.
Missi Dominici, high functionaries so named, IX. 337, n.8.
Missions from England to the Emperor Jehangir, I, "327,
0.8.
Mitaxara, the, no reason for supposing any real authority in
matters of Law, XIIL 234, n.8.
Mithilas, V. 65, n.8.
Mitra, I. 77, n.8.
Mitra, Rajendralala, "On the Age of the Ajanta Caves,"
XII. 126, n.8. ; " Buddha Gaya," notice of, xlvii.
Mllechas, probably the Ephthalitae, XIX. 200.
Moabite Stone, alphabetical value of, X. 362, n.8. ; presents
the earliest alphabet of its class; but is, evidently, not
a new invention, X. 362, n.8. ; V. 409, n.8. ; XIX. 173,
n.8.
MOA— MOH 133
Moallacat, various meanings of, as applied to Arabic poems,
XI. 88, n.8.
Mocha, journey to Senna from, I. 369, o.«.
Mockler, Major, "On the Identification of Places on the
Makran Coast mentioned by Arrian, Ptolemy, and
Marcian," XL 129, «.«. ; "On Ruins in Makran," IX.
131, n.«.
Model of the Hindu Pagoda at Trivalore, I. x, o.a. ; Lushing-
ton bridge, ix.
Modern deities worshipped in the Dekkan, VII. 106, o.«.
India, notes on the literature of, XIX. 182, 334, 538,
701, n,8.
languages of Oceania, XIX. 369, ».«. ; bibliographical
list of the, 382.
Mogallana, VIL 171, 198, n,s.
Moghapasahridaya, YIII. 41, n,8.
Moghul Empire, revenues of the, XIX. 495, w.«.
Mogul dynasty of Akbar, etc., usual titles of, Padshah or
Padshah Qhazi, IX. 378, n,s.
Emperor, Court of the, I. 325, o.«.
Mohamed Rabadan's poetry, III. 81, 379, n.8.
Mohammad ibn Safwan, coin of, published by S. L. Poole,
IX. 143, n.8.
Mohammad, the forms of his name, as used on earth, in
heaven, or in hell, XIII. 238, n.8. ; names of relatives,
ancestors, followers, etc., 239; his ten companions held
in special honour, 242.
Mohammedan law, of evidence, IV. 480, n.8.; generally
binding on the consciences of Mohammedans ; XIII. 429,
n.8. ; injunctions of, to Mussulmans residing in Dar-ool-
Hurb, or foreign country, XIII. 577, n.8.
religion, made its way to the Malay Archipelago in the
thirteenth century, XIII. 498, n.8.
rule in India, materials for the history of, III. 414,
n.8.
ziarets, many of, almost certainly Buddhist, XIII.
205, n.«.
Mobammedans, even if under different governments, are still
considered as of one nationality, XIII. 429, n.a.
forbidden by their own law to molest those with whom
they are living, XIII. 430, n.8.
- in Ceylon, report on the state and trade of, Tran8. 1.
638.
of India, generally Soonnees of the Hanifite sect, XIII.
433, n.8.
134 MOH-MON
Mohammedanism, in the early ages of, all persons of a
different faith were treated as enemies, XIII. 429, n^;
singularly fitted, as the religion of the Nomadic or Tartar
warriors, XIV. 156, n,8.
Mohl, Jules, life of, IX. x, n.s.
Mojangi, the name (from the Swahili Arabs) of the
chief port of Madagascar to the nort-west, XY. 199,
Moksha, or the Yedantic Release, by Dvijadas Datta, XX.
481, n.8.
Mokta-el-Hadid, the mines of, XYIII. 34, n.8.
Mokuddum, a term applied to the office of Pated, III.
351, 0.8.
Molaya Mount, of Hiouen-Thsang, most likely the Malaya
mountain of Ceylon, XY. 337, n.8.
Mon-Anam languages, X. 242, n.8.
and Kol languages, X. 237, n.8.
■ people, in the Delta of the Irawaddy, X. 234, «.«.
Moncrien, Colonel S., appointed Chief of the Department of
Works at Cairo, XYII. cxi, n.8.
Money, B. C, remarks on Baron de Sacy's interpretation of
one of the Naksh-i-Rustam inscriptions, Tran8. III. 505 ;
on the sect of Eaprias at Mhurr, I. 369, o.8.
Monghir, YI. 228, n.8.
Mongol alphabet, Y. 17, n.8.
branch of languages, XYIII. 178, n.8.
history, chief authorities on, XIY. 43, n.8. ; languages,
50 ; list of grammars, dictionaries, and texts in, 56 ; change
of this name to "Mogul," 141.
history, chief Chinese sources of, XY. 353, n.«. ; conquest
of Chinghis Khan, 439.
Mongolia, the present extent of in N. and E. Asia, XIV-
46, n.8.
Mongols, at present, divisible into — 1. East Mongols; 2.
West Mongols (Kalmuks) ; and 3. Buriafc, XIY. 47, n.«.
begin to have an independent history on the down-
fall of the Khitans, XIII. 126, n.8.
literature of, chiefly translations from Tibetan and
Chinese, XIY. 64, n.s.
origines of, YII. 221, n.8.
west, approximate numbers of, XIY. 48, n.8.
when once united by Temudschin, a terror to the worlds
XIY. 42, n.8.
Monied interest, on the laws affecting the, in British India,
I. 158, 0.8,
J
MON— MOR 135
es Monier-WilliamSi Prof. Sir M., account of, and reasons for,
,i his visit to India in 1876, IX. xlvtii, n.a,; stated that
£1 500 natives advocated an Indian school at Oxford, xlix,
and, on the authority of a Dehli pandit, that there is no
objection to crossing the sea, 1 ; urged the advantage of
^ giving Indians a better knowledge of England, ibid. ;
]; desir^ to interest natives of India in the foundation of
an Indian Institute at Oxford, li ; had spent four months
g in travelling, and had learnt more in that time than in
forty years in his own study, lii ; wished particularly to
study the sect of the Yallabhacharyas, liii ; had studied
^ the sect of the Brahma Samaj ; believed that the study
of Sanskrit in India is greatly increasing, liv; Indian
f^ Theistic Reformers, XIII. 1, n.8. ; the full text of his
address at the opening of the Indian Institute at Oxford,
XYII. cxxxi, n.8, ; ** On Buddhism in its Relation to
Brahmanism," XVIII. 127, n.s.
Moniteur, Ottoman, circulation of the, I. 162, o.s.
Monkeys of Borneo, III. 2, 8, o.8.
Mons and Eoles may easily have had a pre-historic inter-
i course, X. 241, n.8.
Monsoons, III. 79, o.a.
Montefiore, Sir Moses, memoir of, XVIII. xlix, n.a.
Montradok, town of, III. 14, o.8. ; manners of its inhabitants,
15; government of, 15; gold mines near, 16; rice of, 16.
Montrouzids, P., on the phonetic writing of the Annamites,
XVII. 444, n.s.
I Moor, Major Edward, memoir of, IX. iv, o.s.
^ Moorcrof t, W., on the Purik sheep of Ladakh, Trans. I. 49.
Moors of Ceylon, an essay descriptive of the manners and
' customs of, by Simon Gasie Chitty, III. 337, o.s. ; on the
origin of, ibid. ; marriage ceremonies of the, 338 ; ominous
days observed among the, 341 ; ceremonies at the birth of
infants among the, 346 ; funeral observations of the, 348.
Moplas, V. 147, n.8.
Morbi copper-plate grant, importance of the inscription on,
XIII. 544, n.s.
Mordtmann, A. D., notice of, XII. vii, n.s.
Morgan, E. Delmar, description by, of the collection of papers
relating to the Caucasus, etc., published bv the Government of
Russia, under the editing of M. Adolphe Berg^, XIII. xvi,
n.s. ; ''The Customs of the Ossetes, and the Light they throw
on the Evolution of Law. Compiled from Prof. Maxim
Eovalefsky's Russian work on * Contemporary Custom and
Ancient Law/ and translated with Notes," XX. 364, n.s.
136 MOR— MUD
Morgan's '* Ancient Society " quoted, XVII. 425, n.8.
Monaco poetry. III. 81, 379, n.s.
Morley, W. H., on the discovery of part of the second volume
of the Jami-al-Tawarikh, VI. 11, o.s. ; on an Arabic quad-
rant, XVII, 322, 0,8, ; notice of. XVIII. v. o.s.
'Morrison, Dr., translations of a Chinese Proclamation, TroM.
I. 44; on Chinese charms, talisman's, etc., Trans. III. 285;
transcript and translation of a Chinese manifesto by, I.
93, 0.8.
Morrison, M. A., letter from, to R. N. Cust, Hon. Sec., XIII.
354, n.8.; schedule by, of Caucasian nationalities, 35^^;
''The Geographical Distribution of the Modem Turki
Languages," XVIII. 177, n.8.
Mosarna, at the N.E. angle of the bay at Gwadar, XI. 151,
n.8. ; Arrian's description of, applies only to Gwadar, 152.
Moses, derivation of the name, XVIII. 532, n.8.
Maslem female names, far more simple than those of the men,
XIII. 267, n,8. ; a notice of some of the most celebrated, 369.
Mo-so, history and description of the, XVII. 454, n.«.;
accounts of their habits and customs, 458 ; vocabulary of
their language, 465 ; ethnology of the, 467 ; traced to the
Kuen-lun, 470.
hieroglyphical writing, XVII. 423, 454, n.8. ; MSS. of
the, 459 ; characteristics of the, 461 ; compared with
Tibetan charms, 462
Mosque al Azhar, the University at the, XIX. 229, n.8.
Motu language of Hew Guinea, grammar, etc., of the, XIX.
706, n.8.
Mouatt, Dr., by order of Lord Canning goes to Andaman
Islands to establish a convict settlement there, XIII. 469,
n.8.
Mounds of ashes in Southern India, VII. 129, f?.«.
Mount Horai, the jewel-bearinj? branch of, XIX. 10, n.8.
Mountain of the Bell, visit to, VII. 78, o.s.
" Mouth," pictorial forms representing the word, XIX 643,
n.8.
Mrga, VII. 85, n.s.
Mu Tien Wang, family name of the royal race of the Mo-bo,
XVII. 456, n.8.
Muabbar, V. 147, n.8.
Mualyat Dara Shekoni, extracts from (Price), Trans. III. 32.
Muawiya, the sixth Khalif, and his wife Maisun, XVIU'
89, n.8.
"Mud Architecture," XVIII. 336, n.8.
Mudgala, I. 312, n.8.
MUE-MUL 137
Mu'edbdhin, constantly has to distinguish between True
Dawn and what is like it, X. 347, n,8.
Mufti of Damascus, letter from, to Mr. Kedhouse, XII. 330,
n.«.
" Mugs," a name given to the Arracanese by the Bengalese,
of unknown meaning, X. 212, n.8.
Muh wang, the legendary visit of, to Si wang mu, XYIII.
474, n.8.
Muh wang's steeds, enumeration of, XVIII. 475, n.8.
Muhammad, the real teaching of, declares that God's Provi-
dence preordains, as His Omniscience foreknows, all events,
XII. 6, n.8.
Muhammad Aufis, biography of poets, IX. 112, 0.8.
Muhammad, story of an uncle of, residing in Canton, XYIII.
3, n.8.
Muhammedan dynasties in India, materials for the history
of, I. 346, 0.8.
Muir, J., on Indian materialists, XIX. 299, o.8. ; does the
Yaiseshika philosophy acknowledge a deity or not P XX.
22, 0.8. ; legends chiefly from the S'atapatha Brahmana, 31 ;
on Manu, progenitor of the Aryyan Indians, 406 ; contribu-
tions to a knowledge of Yedic Theogony and Mythology,
I. 51, n.8. ; Yama and the doctrine of a future life, 287 ;
progress of the Yedic religion towards abstract concep-
tions of the Deity, 339 ; on the interpretation of the Yeda,
II. 303, n.8. ; on the relations of the priests to the other
classes of Indian society in the Yedic age, 257 ; memoir of,
XIY. IX, n.8.
Muir, Sir W., ** Ancient Arabic Poetry, its Genuineness and
Authenticity, XI. 72, n.8. ; " The Apology of Al Kindy,
an Essay on its Age and Authorship," XIY. 1, n.8. ;
" Further Note on the Apology of Al Kindy," 317 ; letter
from, pointing out a correction to be made in his " Life of
Mahomet," XYIII. 463, n.8.
Mukasumat, YII. 173, n.8.
Mukunti Pallava, uncertainty of his date, XYII. 215, n.8.
Mula Linga, temple of. III. 210, o.8.
Muley Moloch, the common and recent title of rulers of
Morocco, IX. 399, n.8.
Mulka, Mulkan Mulka, for King, or King of Kings, on the
Sassanian inscriptions, IX. 363, n.8.
Mullaimakkal, the ancient Dravidian pastoral tribes, XIX.
678, n.8.
Miiller, Dr., review of his "Grundriss der Sprachwissen-
schaft," XIX. 546, n.8.
138 MUL— MUS
Miiller, Prof. Max, translation of Sutras of Aswalayana, XVL
207, 0.8. ; the hymns of the Gaupayanas and the legend of
King Asamati, II. 426, n.s. ; the sixth hymn of the first
book of the Rig- Veda, III. 199, n.«. ; note by, in his chapter
on the Sinhalese language, VIII. 153, n.«. ; " On Sanskrit
Texts discovered in Japan, XII. 153, n.s. ; the MS., sent
to, from Japan, first published there in 1773, 167 ; trana-
lation by, of the Japanese Sanskrit text, 168 ; the text of
MS. sent to, from Japan, differs much from the original
teaching of Buddha, but represents the present Buddhism
of Japan, 175; notes to paper by, 176; Sanskrit text of
MS. translated by, 181 ; view of, that the Vedic hymns
were transmitted orally, XIII. 103, n.s. ; quoted, XVII.
40, n,8.; on the flexibility of the Chinese langrua^, liii;
his contributions to the Bushman language, XVIII. 58,
n,8. ; his notice of the abrupt change in Hindu literature,
381; his review of Prof. Peterson's edition of the Hito-
padesa, XIX. 699, n.8.
"Multiply," pictorial signs representing the verb, XIX
644, n.8.
Mumulai Tadataki, III. 205, 0.8.
Munkan, VI. 105, n.8.
Munnimuttuar, III. 178, o.s,
MunshI Badha Lai, a compiler of Hindi books, XIX. 138,
n.8.
Muntakhab ut-Tewarikh« III. 455, n.8.
Muqeyer, on the Ruins of, by J. E. Taylor, XV. 260,
0.8.
Murad III., titles of, borrowed largely from those of the
Greek Emperors, IX. 411, n.8.
Muradi tankas, XIX. 498, n.8.
Murasaki Shibiku, Princess, the author of the Genji-mono-
gatari, XIX. 43, n.8.
Mureya, memoirs of, I. 346, o.8.
Murghab, description of caves on the, XVIII. 92, n.«.
Muscat, difficult to find by vessels coming from the East^
X. 170, n.8.
Museum, the Society's, lends objects of Oriental interest to
the Manchester Exhibition, XVII. xi, o.8.
Musezib-Marduk, king of Babylon, XIX. 677, n.8.
Music of the East, VI. 1, o.8.
Burmese, Malayan, and Siamese (Low), IV. 47, o.s. ;
Andmanese (Portman), XX. 181, n.8.
Musicians (of Arrian), position of his territory, I. 35, o.8.
Mustard tree of Scripture, identification of, VIII. 113, o.b*
MUS— NAL 139
Masulman Rebellion, chief scene or site of the recent, X.
311, n«.; Bi^pressed by Chinese by massacres like those
of Jenghiz !Khan, ibid.
Mut, resemblance of a Chinese sculpture to the goddess
(illustrated— see Plate VII.), XVIII. 473, n.«.
Mut'a marriages amongst the Arabs, XVII. 278, n.s.
Mutes, combination of two, or of mute followed by a spirant,
rare, in both Oaurian and Romance languages, XI. 3l2, n.s,
Muzirie, XIX. 294, cs.
Mysore, North, some account of the Pariahs of, XVI. 194, n.s.
Mysore, survey of, I. 338, o.s.
Nabatseans, VI. 10, 121, n.s.
Nabathsean inscriptions, their bearing on Arabian history,
XVIII. cxxxvi, n.s.
Nabonassar, king of Babylon, XIX. 672, n.s.
Ummanigas, king of Elam, XIX. 673, n.s.
Nabonidus, inscription of, XIX. 193, o.s.
Nabunahid, king of Babylon, XII. 71, n.s.
Nadagam, the dramatical dialect of Tamil, XIX. 559, 570, n.s.
Nadinu, king of Babylon, XIX. 673, n.s.
Kaga race. III. 455, n.s. ; X. 220, n.s. ; XII. 229, n.s.
dialects, X. 20, n.s. ; XII. 229.
the oldest forms of, to be found in the Manipuri MSS.,
XII. 230, n.s.
Nagapatam, VI. 265, n.s.
Nagarahara, district of, VI. 93, n.s. ; XIII. 183.
Nagarajas of Manjerika, their historical importance, XVII.
220, n.s.
Nagarjuna, IV. 116, n.s.
Nagarakasastra, VIII. 48, n.s.
Naggash, trade dialect of the, XVII. XLV, n.s.
Nahapana, coin of, XIII. 526, n.s.
Naiman, V. 33, n.s.
Nain Singh, life of, XIV. xxvii, n.s.
Naipalicha, VIII. 24, n.s.
Naipalika-varsha, VIII. 11, 31, 35 n.s.
Najinad, notice of the Pariahs of, XVI. 192, n.s.
Nakhaur, in South Bihar, Jain inscription at. Trans. 1. 522.
Na-kie-lo-ho, the Chinese form of Nagarahara, XIII. 187, n.s.
Naksh-i-Hustam inscriptions, Trans. III. 505; XIX. 261, o.s.
Naladi, quotations from the, XVII. 178, n.s,
Nalanda, VI. 226, n.s.
Naft, VI. 230, n.s.
140 NAM-NAT
Namakkara, the text of, XY. 213, n.s. ; translation of, 216.
Namasangiti, VIII. 27, n.s.; -patha, 46; -tika, 25; -tippani,
26.
Nambi, the author of Agap'porul, XIX. 574, n.s.
Names, Mohammedan, diflBculty arising from the changes
in the designation of men of rank, XIII. 255, n.s.\
alphabetical list of the "Most Comely," of God, XIL
12, n.s.
Naming, system of, in the East and West, remarkable
difference between, XT. 171, n.s.
Namri, or Babylonian Scyths, ethnio relations of, XY.
230, O.S.
Namsang, the (a Naga language) in class xi., with person-
endings for the verb, X. 20, n.s.
Nana Farnevi, autobiography of. Trans. II. 95.
Nana Furnavese, XVIII. 226, o.s.
Nana Ghat, inscriptions from, among the earliest in India,
XIV. 336, n.s.
Nanak, Founder of the Sikhs, IX. 44, o.s. ; XIII. 2, n.s.
Nandadeya, VIII. 11, n.s.
Nandas, the Nine, I. 449. n.s. ; IV. 134, n.s.
Nandimukhavadana, VIII. 13, n.s.
Nanjio, Bunyiu, notices of the early Buddhist History of
Japan, XII. 162, n.s.
Naphish, VI. 10, n.s.
Narada, V. 66, n.s.
Narapati, VI. 349, n.s.
Narasimha-malla, VIII. 11, n.s.
Narmada, V. 76, n.s.
Narra River, reports on, VIII. 381, o.s.
Narrative of the Survey of Nineveh, XV. 352, o.s.
Nasals, two kinds of, in most Oaurian languages, the cerebral
and the dental, XI. 303, n.s. ; followed by mute, admissible
in both groups, 312. ; number of form for, suggests
Brahmanical origin, XIV. 341, n.s,
Na-shi, a name for the Mo-so, XVII. 467, n.s.
Nasir ebn Kalaoun, the mosque of, XVIII. 477, «.«. ; in-
scriptions in the text and translation, 479.
Nasir ibn Ali ibn El-Muzaffar, coin of, published by S. L.
Poole, IX. 139, n.s.
Nasir ibn Khursrii, VI. 142, n.s.
Nat, the professional singer in India so called, XVIIL
210, n.s.
National Anthem, Oriental translations of the, XVIII. cix,
n.s.
NAU— NEW 141
Nau-Bihar at Balkh, stated by Hiouen Thsang to be a build-
ing of the first king of that realm, IX. 169, n.«.
Naukratis, Mr. FKnders Petrie'^ discoveries at, XVIII.
cxxvii, n.8.
age of, XIX. 703, n.8.
Navagraha, VIII. 24, n.8.
Kaville, M., ''Store City of Pithom and the Route of the
Exodus," XVII. ex. n.8.
Nearchus, XIX. 283, o.«. ; X. 158, n.8. ; XIII. 211, n.8.
Nebaiot, VI. 8, n.8.
Webbi Yunus, tumulus of, XV. 326, o.«.
Nebk, VI. 16, n.8.
Nebo, in Assyrian mythology, always spoken of as the in-
ventor of Cuneiform writing, XII. 219, n.8.
Nebuchadnezzar, name of, on all the Babylonian bricks, XII.
477, 0.8 ; orthography of the name, 480.
Hezekiah and, AVIIL 116, o.8. ; Jehoiakim and,
119.
analysis of the name, XIX. 634, n.8.
Nebuchadnezzar's stamp on bricks, XVIII. 10, o.8.
Necanedon (Nelcyndon), XIX. 294, o.s.
Necho, Pharaoh, XVIII. 127, o.8.
Negoub Tunnel, XV. 311, o.«. ^
Negritos in Formosa, XIX. 444, n.8. J^ ^
Negro group of languages, rough division of, into three
leading sets, XIV. 166, n.8.
Nehavend, Cufic tombstone at, of the date a.h. 575, XII.
313, n.8.
Nejran, VI. 124, 135, n.8.
Neo-Pythagoreans, 54, 69, XV. n.8.
Nepal, I. 46, 258, o.8. ; X. 127, n.8. ; languages of, X. 15,
118, n.9.
Nepala-jagat, VIII. 15, n.8.
Nepala-mahimapdala, VIII. 28, n.8.
Nepala-mandala, VIII. 47, n.8.
Nergal-usezib, king of Babylon, XIX. 676, n.8.
Nesca, VI. 138, n.8.
Nestorian epitaphs, XIX. 535, n.8.
Neubauer, Dr., his Catalogue of the Bodleian Hebrew M8S.,
XIX. 326, 7i.«.
Neu-Chih language, inscription in the, XVII. 331, o.8.
New Guinea, natives of (Marsden), Tran8. III. 125 ;
languages of, XIX. 706, n.8.
New Hollanders, singular custom of. III. 9, o.8.
Newar Era, date of, a.d. 880, VIII. 1, n.8.
142 IfEW— NIL
Newbold, Captain, on the Chinese Secret Triad Society, VI.
120, 0.5. ; visit to Gebel Nakus, VII. 78, o.8. ; on ancient
mounds of ashes in Southern India, 129 ; on the mineral
resources of Southern India, 150 ; on quarrying and
polishing among the Hindus and Egyptians, 394 ; on the
Geology of Southern India, VIII. 138, 213, 215, o,b. ; on
the Chenchwars of the Eastern Ghauts, 271 ; visit to the
Bitter Lakes of the Isthmus of Suez, 355 ; Otology of
Southern India, IX. 1, o.«. ; on the country between Tyre
and Sidon and the Jordan, XII. 78, o.«. ; summary of the
Geology of Southern India, XII. 78, o.«. ; on the lake Phiala,
the Jordan and its sources, XVI. 8, o.«. ; site of Caranu8,
and the Island of Ar Ruad, &2 ; Gypsies of Egypt, Syria,
and Persia, 285.
Newman, Prof. F. W., Berber text of narrative of Ibrahim
ben Muhammed of Sus, IX. 215, o.«. ; "Notes on the
Libyan Languages in a letter addressed to R. N. Gust,''
XII. 417, 71.5. ; wrote, in 1835,an outline of Kabail grammar,
419 ; printed in the D.M.G. a more complete Kabail
grammar in 1845, ibid. ; engaged to edit the Shilha MSS.,
425.
Newnham, Thomas, XIX. vii, o.«.
Newspaper (Persian) and translation, V. 365, o,8,
Neytaroakkal, the ancient Dravidian fishing tribes, XIX.
579, w.«.
Nicobar language, notes on, XVI. c, n.«.
Nicholson, Dr. J., life of, XIX. 321, n.«.
Nicholson, Sir C, translation of the hieroglyphic writing on
an inscribed linen cloth brought from Egypt, XX. 323, o^
Nicknames among the Arabs, XIII. 273, n.s, ; XVII. 277, n.*.
not so common in the East as the West, most common
among the Turks, XL 217, n.s.
Nicolson, Capt., his Brahui reader, XIX. 61, n.B.
Niduk-ki, Milukh and Magan, so classified, that they must
represent ports near to one another, XII. 213, n,s.
Nieman, G. E., account of a Javanese manuscript in the
possession of the Society, and entitled ''Badad Mangka
Nagara," XX. 49, o.«.
Nigritoid race, a, supposed common ancestors of the Egypt-
ians and the Bushmen, XVIII. 80, n.s.
Nihongi, the, of Japan, has had forced interpretations put
on it, like the Th-King, XV. 275, n.s.
Nile, analysis of the mud of the, VIII. 257, o,8,
and Indus, memoranda on the rivers by Captain Postans,
VII. 273, 0.8.
NIM— NOE 143
Nirarud, or Calah, description of, XV. 335, 0.8.
the Larissa of Xenophon, XV. 336, 0,8.
Kinarkonil, village of, III. 174, 0.8.
Nine, the number, always omitted when counting grain in
Ceylon, XVII. 370, n.8.
Nineveh, description of, XV. 314, <?.«.
fall of, XVIII. 126, 0.8.
site of, XII. 418, 0.8.
symbolical figures from, XVI. 93, 0,8.
Ninevite copy of the Sumerian grammatical tablet, XVII.
86, n.s.
Ning-Yuen, a Doctor of the Law, attempts to steal the
"Tooth Relic" of Buddha, XIII. 568, ».«.
Niphal, the principal meaning of, passive, XV. 391, n.s.;
the primitive verb has disappeared, though the meaning
of the formative has been preserved, ibid.
Nirvana, meaning of, XII. 552, n.s. ; generally the expression
of immortal hope as held by the ten Buddhist nations,
XIII. 59, n.s ; a heaven devised by metaphysicians as
a logical necessity, 61 ; general views of, from Chinese
books, 63 ; usual Chinese translation of the Sanskrit word,
is " Destruction and Salvation," 65 ; really evOavaa-ia, the
triumph of ascetic life over the body, ibid. ; considered
by Prof. F. Max Miiller to mean spiritual freedom, 69 ;
really an ideal moral perfection attained gradually by
progressive advances in the Buddhist virtues, 71 ; the
practical use of, to assist in contemplative moral training,
ibid. ; the four virtues of, are tranquillity, joy, entire
freedom and purity, 73; nothing is omitted from it, as it
is conceived of as perfect, 74 ; statue of Buddha at Kasin,
XVII. LXiii, n.s. ; XIX. 239, n.8.
Nlshapur, Houtum-Schindler's note on, XIX. 164, n.8.
Nishpanna-yogambalT, VIII. 47, n.s.
Nissanka Malla, VII. 163, 353, n.8.
Niti-Eyan, translation of a Burmese version of the, from the
Pali, XVII. 252, 0.8.
Nlvasi-malla (?), VIII. 11, n.8. (cf. Sri-).
Nizir, Mount, the same as the " Guti " in the inscriptions,
now called " Juti," XII. 78, n.s.
Noble eightfold path, general meaning of, XII. 650,
n.8.
Noble Sanctuary at Jerusalem, description of the, XIX.
247, n.8.
Noehden, G., account of the Banyan Tree, as found in the
classic writers, Trans. I. 119.
144 NOE— NTJM
Noer, Count F. A. von, life of, XIV. in, n.8. ; hie "life of
Akbar," XVIII. cxlviii, n.8.
Nogai language, XVIII. 179, n.s.
Noldeke, Th., Treatise on Ancient Arabic Poetry by, XI.
9I,n.5. ; finds the name of Khosru in Tabari, 165; his
"Semitische Sprachen/' XIX. 697, n.s.
Nomayr. VI. 128, n.8.
Nomen' Han, IV. 306, n.8.
Non-Aryan languages of India, X. 2, 30, n.8. ; XIII. lxyiii,
n.8. ; Tamil, notes on, XVI. c, n.8.
Nonentity, I. 345, n.8.
Nermann, W. de, life of, XVIII. vi, o.a.
Norris, Edwin, on the Kapur-di-Giri rock inscriptioD, VIIL
393, 0.8. ; on the Scythic Cuneiform inscriptions, XV. 1,
431, O.8.; Assyrian and Babylonian weights, XYI. 215, o.«.;
list of Kafir words, XIX. 27, o.s. ; specimen of an Assyrian
dictionary, II. 225, n.8. ; life of, Vll. xix, n.8.
North- American Indians, ''totem" system of the, XVII.
276, n.8.
North-Celebes Isslands, a lost alphabet in the, XVII. 442,
n.8.
North Indian vernaculars, XIX. 361, o.s.
Northern India, the invasion of, by the Tueh-chi, XVIIL
376, n.8.
Notation, new system of, obtained by the Arabs from India
in A.D. 776, XV. 38, n.8.
Notched sticks, or tallies, used as a substitute for writing, in
the East, XVII. 421, 429, n «. ; also so used in Europe,
434.^
Nrityesvara, VIII. 7, n.8.
Nuba-Fulah African languages, two distinct groups of, the
Nubian and the Fulah, XIV. 166, n.8.
Nufood, VI. 14, n.8.
Number, distinction of, neglected in Japanese and KoreaD)
XL 338,«.«.
Numbers, Assyrian, phonetic reading of, XV. 219, o.8.
Numeral signs, originally shorthand modes of expressing
numeral words, X V . 7, n.8.
unit names, table of Pythagorean, Assyrian, etc., XV.
61, n.8.
Numerals, ancient forms of Indian, XII. 32, o.s.
in Gaurian and Romance, account of, XII. 346, n.s.
the earliest known, on tombs of the kings of the Fourth
Dynasty, B.a 2900-3000, XIV. 368, n.8. ; on the coins oi
the kings of Kabul, 370.
NUM— ODE 145
Numerals in the Tartar languages, not designations for the
abstract idea of numeric order, XVI. 142, n.a. ; Turkish,
easily reducible to their roots, 146; detailed account of
their origin, ibid.
of Formosa, XIX. 475, n.s.
Numeration, ancient form of, still used in the native schools
of India, XIV. 369, n.s. ; of the Fourth Dynasty of Egypt,
XV. 6, «.«. ; old Greek method of, 22 ; early system of, in
use among the native populations of the South of India,
27; the natural base of, is five and its multiples, XVI.
143, n.s. ; base of, in the Bola or Burama language, '' six ''
instead of " five,** 144 ; principle of, among the Vei
population, ibid.; the Chaldsean intricate system of,
Xyill. 384, n.8.
Numidian marbles, note on the, XVIII. 48, n.s,
Nundidroog, geological construction of, IX. 2, o.s.
NGr Jehan, her marriage with the Emperor Jehangir, I.
326, O.S.
Nurifl or Nawar of Egypt, account of, XVI. 294, o.s.
Nuru-*d din, title of, XVIII. 403, o.s.
Nut, the Goddess (illustrated— see Plate VIII.), XVIII.
473, n.s. ; XIX. 649, n.s. ; and Nu, the God, ibid.
Nuyts, P., the first Dutch Governor of Taiwan, XIX. 443,
n.s.
"Nuzhatu-1-Kulub," by Hamd-UUah Mustaufi Kazvini,
nine copies of it ii^^e British Museum, XVIII. 206, n.s,
Oannes, various descriptions of, from the inscriptions, XII.
202, n.s.
Oaracta, island of, doubtless the same as that of Kishm, XI.
141, n.s.
Oaths, judicial, in Indian courts of justice, I. 160, o.s.
Obelisk inscription, XII. 431, o.s.
O'Brien, Mr., ''Glossary of the Multani Language," XVIL
385, n.s.
Oceania, recent books relating to the languages of, XVIII.
CLXiv, n.s. ; the Modern Languages of. Dr. Cust's article
on, accompanied by a Language-Map and a Bibliography,
XIX. 369, n.s.
OceUs, XIX. 294, o.s.
Ochikubo-monogatari, popularly ascribed to Minamoto Jun,
XIX. 42, n.s.
Odenathu8=*XIdheyna, XIX. 588, n.s.
Odenatus, XIX. 295, o.s.
TOl. XX. — [hBW 8BRII8.] X
146 ODE— OPP
0d68» Book of, said to date between b.g. 1765 and 585, XVL
453, n.6. ; Conf udos's opinion of, ibid. ; still looked up to,
by the Chinese, 454; Value of Dr. Loggers great pioie
translation of, ibid. ; various translators of, ibicL
Odoli, site of, Y II. 308, «.«.
Oghams, of Wales and Ireland, XYIL 434, n.«.
Ogyris, island of, now called Maaeera, the Serapis of tlie
jPeriplus, X. 171, >i.s. ; correctly stated by Pliny to be of
the same size as Tylos, ibid. ; position of, opposite to
(3errha« fixed by the record of l^e Greek Ancbosthenes,
XII, 2:27, H.^
•Okayl, history of the Bann, XVIII. 491, n.s. ; pedigree of
the subtribes of, 526.
^Okavli IVinoes of Mesopotamia and 'Irak, genealogical taUe
^\he. XVIII. 526, »,«.
H>kbara, a mint-city of the Ma*n dynasty, XVUI. 515, fu.
Old T^tainent) foreign words in the Hebrew text of th^
XVUI. 527, «•«.
Oldham. T.« on true sLatas in India, XTX. 31, o.<.
Olini* VL IiH>, n,«.
OliA-^r, K, K, the Chaghatii Moghals, XX. 72, n.s.
01»hau^^n« rn>f. J., life of, XVI. xxvii, «.<.
OniaUt a pajH>r on the Arabic dialect spoked at, XTX. 535, lU
Oman^ the city of. now Sohar, and, most likely, of old, the
f *,;\ • •, • * iV'-s :'•:."*, X. 165, ».«. ; port of, probably Bapdi-
a^baudiu. XL 149, «.«.
Omina«mv:sV.i-monogatari, narratives of celebrated Japsnese
wv^iH>n. XIX. 44, «.«.
*^ Omito Fvs'' or Amitabha, recogniied as a Divinity witli
power to jjjiTe, XIII. Ti\ ■.«.
Ommi.^K Kh;%.;!V v^" the house of, XL 200, ma.
^>winia. VL 1->S. n,*.
Oiid**;;t\ M. P. T., tabular list of works published *t
l\^lxNiubo bv the la:e Pa:oh Gv^remmoit^ L 141, s.«.
Oumuu *I^ h^be^^ the. XVIL 440, sjl
Ottn\\r. \\ rt *:ul tV rv^^; of, IL 345, a.#.
Oixy, 31ji.fjrA>y fvvr riT>er, prvlubiy of Malay origin, XV. Wl,*-*-
** Oue ht>*^5/' exvlAr.4;ioa of the Chinese symbds rqpresent-
iti^. XlXs C, v. « *.
Orh:r.xvi:L;^:Av.«.
Omuui ^;;;<>s^:.> :i. :h^\ XVIL cxxtu «.«.
^I $st:. V;v c. * :-v;$ oi i: c:i :he Malays, IQ. 7, e^ ; t«ao?
the c-^.:--^l-^>5 B;A:!iir$ of ivrsesx, Itx
Oi^t^ri. v^ . tv^v^r ^> - " ^^ *-^ wvafv^^^ army or«aniisti<»/
asid jv :.:.vl*: r::i3.:=as o: :he A-cic:i: Hicdua,** XIIL 1, ^
OPP— OTO 147
Oppert, Prof. J., his translations of Assyrian inscriptions,
i XVIIL 61, 74, 164, o.s.; letter from, to Mr. Redhouse,
I XII. 328, n.s. ; revision of the Persian Ouneiform text by,
XV. 380, n.s.
Orang-ontang, III. 7, o.a.
Oraon language, grammar of, by Mr. Flex, XI. 66, n.«.
I Ordeal by boiling ghee, now abolished, XYI. 435, n.s.
I by boiling oil in Ceylon, Trans. III. 245.
f Ordeals in the law of Nepal, I. 53, o.s.
I Oread's Haunt, the (a chromoli^ograph illustrating Mr.
Dickins' paper), XIX. 40, n.s.
I Oriental literature, on the state and prospects of, II. 1, o.s.
Proverbs, VII. 339, n.s.
< Oriental Translation Oommittee, I. xxxni, o.s. ; IV. xxi, xliv,
LIX, O.S.
; Oriental Translation Fund, annual subscription to the, I.
J Lxvi, o.s. ; general meeting of the, lxvi ; proceed-
ings of the, XII, LXVI ; publications of the, 163 ;
operations of the. III. LXiv, o.s.\ list of subscriptions
to, CXI ; amalgamation of, with Royal Asiatic Society, IV.
XLIV, o.s. ; V. X, o.s. ; report of progress, IX. ix, o.s. ; list
of works published during 1845-6, x; see appendix,
Vol. XI. O.S. ; XII. 19, o.s. ; report of publications for the
year 1855, XV. viii, o.s. ; report of Oommittee 1857,
^- aVII. XI, o.s. ; XVIII. XII, o.s. ; report of Committee
1862, XIX. XV, O.S. ; XX. x, o.s.
Orissa, XIriyas and Eondhs of, XVII. 1, o.s.
Orme, Mr., statement by, in his "Historv of the Military
^ Transactions in India," ed. 1763, XIII. 229, n.s.
Oscar II., King of Sweden and Norway, oflFers two prizes for
essays on Oriental subjects, XVIII. cl, n.s.
Osiris, the god, XVIII. 471, n.s.
Osmanli language, XVIII. 180, n.s.
Ossete language spoken in the Caucasus, XVII. 152, n.s.
Ossetes, the, XX. 368, «.«.
Ostramof, P. P., enga&;ed in translating the Scriptures into
the language of Turkestan, etc., XVIII. 188, n.s.
Otakamund, observations on the temperature of, II. 32, o.s.
Othmanlis gradually absorbed the smaller post-Seljukian
dynasties of Asia Minor, XIV. 774, n.s.
Otho and his successors, content with the simple title of
|. "Emperor,"IX. 343, «.«.
Otomo no Miyuki, one of the suitors of the Lady Kaguya,
and how he failed in the task imposed on him by her,
XIX. 19, «.«.
148 OTT— PAH
Ottoman Porte, titles of, as set forth in a treaty with Venice
in A.D. 1596, IX. 375, n.8.
Ottomans, traceable to a military chief of the army of the
Sultan of Kharizm, IX. 410, n.a.
Ouar-k'umi, ancestors of the Avars, XVII. 472, n.8.
Ouchterlony, Sir D., successful reduction of Nepal to its
present dimensions, X. 119, n.8.
Ounce, table of the relation of the dirhama, to, X. 274, n.s.
Ouseley, Sir Gore, anniversary. III. LVii, o.8. ; biographical
notices of the Persian poets by, XI. 231, n.8.
Outcasts of the Hindu race, I, 45, 47, o,8.
Outram, Major-General Sir James, life of, XX. v, o.s.
Owen, Professor, on the fossil ruminant of Perim, VIII.
417, 0.8,
Ox, the, or kettle, L 374, «.«.
Oxen, white, of Beluchistan, kneel, to be loaded, like camels,
XIII. 493, n.«.
Oxford acts with great liberality in founding a chair for
Chinese scholarship, IX. lviu, n,8. ; agrees to give a
Fellowship of £100 per ann. towards its maintenance, lix.
examinations for B.A., etc., list of subjects for the
Honour Schools in Indian and Semitic studies, XIX.
705, n.8.
opening of the Indian Institute at, XVII. cxxxi, n.8.
Oxycanus (of Arrian), position of his territory, I. 35, o.s.
Pachome, St., M. Am^lineau's study on, XIX. 703, n.s.
Padandas, Brahmans who have received a complete education,
IX. 113, n.8.
-padi, the ancient origin of this termination in the names ot
villages and towns, XIX. 579, n.8.
Padshah, etymologically derived from pati, but connected
with the Sassanian Patahshatari, IX. 398, n.8.
Pagalur, village of. III. 174, o.8.
Pagoda, the Chinese, found its way to China from Tibet,
AlV. 37, n.8.; names of, etc., came to China with the
models from India, 38.
Pahal, or initiation of a Sikh convert, IX. 57, o.s.
Pahang, gold dust of, III. 24, o.s.
Pahari literature, XVII. 388, n.s. ; specimen and translation
of, 403 ; or Maler language, new publications in the, XIX.
335, n.8.
Pahlavi, IV. 229, n.8.
literature, XVIII. cxii, 558, n.s. ; XIX. 700.
PAI— PAL 149
Paindoni, village of, III. 175, o.s.
Painting, original water-colour, of the court of Jehangir, !•
325, 368, o,B.
Paintings in the cave temples of Ajanta, YIII. 49, o.«.
"pdkkam, the ancient origin of this termination in the names
of small towns, XIX. 580, w.«.
PalsBogonoi, XVIII. 354, o,8.
Palseographical Society, works published by, XIV. cxl, fi.«.
Palaimakkal, the ancient Dravidian Nomadic tribes, XIX.
680, n.8. '
Palembang, Sumatra, legend at, similar to those at Perak,
etc., XIII. 508, n.«. ; XIX. 205, n.8.
Palestine Exploration Fund, XIX. 172, 324, 531, 696, n.«.
Palestine Pilgrims* Text Society, XIX. 326, n.8.
Pali, VII. 26, 35, n.8.
every word in, ends with either a vowel or anusvara,
XI. 100, n.8. ; the sacred language of the Southern
Buddhists, 291.
Pali inscriptions, more ancient than those in Sanskrit, VI.
415, 0.8. ; language, refined at an early period, 423, 0.8, ;
language known throughout India, 424 ; and Bactria, 425 ;
inscription from Rangoon, translation of, XVII. 303, o.8. ;
inscriptions (Bactrian), XX. 261, o.8. ; IV. 497, n.8. ; VII.
373, n.8. ; IX. 144, n.s.
Sinhalese, and Burmese, various valuable contribu-
tions to the knowledge of, XIII. lxiit, n.8. ; XIV. lxxiv,
n.8. ; XV. Lxvi, n.8. ; XVI. xcix, n.8. ; XVIII. cxi,
557, n.8.
Pali Text Society, recent publications of the, XVIII. cxi,
n.8.
PalisaDmundus, XVIII. 353, o.8.
Palladius the Archimandrite, his account of the Brahmans
in the fourth and fifth centuries, VI. 381, 392, o.8. ; the
second great work edited by, from the Chinese, XV. 355,
n.8. ; original date of not known, but perhaps of the first
year of Khubilai Khan, ibid. ; so like the work of Eashid-
ud-din, that the two writers must have had the same
original — if the Chinese compiler did not copy from
Rashid-ud-din, ibid.
Pallava, meanings of, XVII. 217, n.8.
Pallavaram, prehistoric graves near, XIX. 693, n.8.
Pallavas, chronological tables of the history of the, XVII.
187, n.8.
Palm-leaves, the chief material for writing in the time of
Hiouen Thsang, XII. 159, n.«.
150 PAL— PAN
Palmer, Prof. E. H., Catalogue of the Oriental Mantiacripta
in the library of King's College, Cambridge, III. 105, n.s, ;
life of, XV. XIII.
Palmyra, XIX. 295, o.8. ; inscriptions of, XIX. 323, n.«.
Paloung language, apparently one of the Mon group, X
30, n.8.
Paludamentum, the special dress of the Imperator, not allowed
within the walls of Rome, IX. 321, n.s.
Pambar Mancho, or snake-boat of Cochin, I. 2, 9, o.s.
Pamir, VI. 115, n.s.
Pampa, the poet, XIV. 22, 49, n.s. ; XV. 290, n.8.
Paiichakramopadesa, VIII. 28, n.8.
Paiichaksharastotra, VIII. 24, n.8.
Pancha-Tantra, analytical account of (Wilson), Trans. L
155 ; IX. 175, n.8.
Panchopakhyana, analytical account of (Wilson), Trans. 1.
155.
Pandeea, nation of, XI. 42, n.s.
Pandava family, XIII. 413, n.8.
Pandit Bihari Lai Chaube, a compiler of Hindi books, XIX
139, n.«.
Pandit Chhotii Ram Tiwari, a compiler of Hindi books, XIX.
142, n.8.
Pandit Kali Prasad Tiwari, XIX. 143, n.8.
Pandit Ravidatta Sukla, XIX. 143, n.8.
Pandit Rishi Kesh Shastri, XIX. 700, n.8.
Pandit Tara Nath Tarkavachaspati, life of, XVIII. li, n.s.
Pandiyan, meaning of, XIX. 577, n.s.
Pandiyas, antiquity of the, supported by the evidence of
the ancient geographers and historians, XIX. 563, n.s.
Pandua, VI. 375, n.s.
Pandurang, an Avatar of Vishnu, VII. 65, 0.8.
Pandya, historical sketch of. III. 199, o.s. ; rise of the king-
dom of, 201 ; kings of, 203 ; lists of MS. translations
referred to in, 241 ; supplementary note to the historical
sketch of, 387.
Pandyan kings, lists of the. III. 236, o.s.
Panini, translation of, by Goldstucker, IX. 208, n.s.
Panjab, the, vernacular literature and folklore of, XVII. 373,
n.s.; geography and inhabitants, 374; historical survey of,
375.
Panjabi language, a weekly journal started in, by the Sikh
Association at Lahore, XlII. lxviii, n.s. ; present condition
of, XVn. 375, n.s. ; specimens and translations of, 392.
PanjI, VIII. 27, n.8.
\
PAN— PAT 161
Panjika, VIII. 35, n.8.
Panshen Erdeni, IV. 306, n.«.
PaD theism, Indian, XIII. 1, n.s.
Panyani boats, I. 2, 9, o.«.
Pao-Tun, the probable author of "Narrative of Fa-hien's
Travels," XIX. 191, w.«.
Papise Islands (of the Periplus), derived their names from
JSl Bab, the straits between Mussendom and the main
land, X. 168, n.s,
Parachis, VI. 278, n.s.
Parakrama Bahn, VII. 152, n.«.
Parallel translations of inscription of Tiglath-Pileser, XVIII*
1, 164, 0.8.
Paramita, VIII. 21, w.«.
Pararaita-hrdaya Sutra (Beal), I. 25,' n.s.
Paramatma, according to Vedanta, the Supreme or Transcen-
dental Soul, X. 41, n.8.
Parapolyehiina, or cocoa-nut fight, in Ceylon, description of,
XVII. 367, n.8.
Para was, remarks on the origin and history of, IV. 130, o.8. ;
classes of Jthe, 133 ; customs of, 134.
Pariahs, XVI. 180, n.8.
Parijong Pass, available at all times of the year, X. 122, n.8.
Parinirvana, I. 3, n.8.
Pariyatra, VII. 94, n.s.
Parker, E. H., his contributions to Japanese literature, XIX.
692, n.8.
Parmagudi, town of. III. 174, o.s.
Farsee literature, IV. 229, n.s.
Parsis, translation of the general Siroze of the, IV. 292, o.s.
Parswanatha, temple of, at Samet Sikhar (Francklin), Trans.
1. 527.
Parthia, XIV. 65, n.s.
Parthian coins, IV. 503, n.s.
Pasa-bandin harbour, the same as the Kuidza of Marcian,
which latter name is preserved in the present Chideezei,
XL 131, n.s.
Pasha, derivation of the word, XVIII. 639, n.s.
Pashto war ballad, XVII. 406, n.s.
literature, XVII. 389, n.s. ; specimens and translations
of, 406.
Pasis, town of, XI. 147, n.s.
Passier, town of, in Borneo, IV. 184, o.s.
Pasupati-sura (copyist), VIII. 4, n.s.
Patalene, XX. 285, o.s.
162 PAT— PEP
Patamars, or coastiiig vessels of Bombay, I. 2, o.s.
Pateel, office of, in Dakhun, III. 35 1, o.s.
Patesi, the, XIX. 640, n.«.
Pathan Sultaos of Hindostan, II. 179, n.8,
Patila, * chapter,' 'covwing,' etc., analogous to 'liber,*
*biblo8,' etc., XVI. 327, n.8.
Patimokhan, translation of, from the Pali, by Gogerly, XIX.
415, 0.8.
Patimokkha, Buddhist office for the confession of priests
(Dickson), VIII. 62, n.8.
Patna, VI. 213, 221, n.s.
Pattala, site of the ancient, I. 37, 206, o.s,
Pattan Somnath, account of the remains of, V. 104, o.«.
PauHsa-siddhanta, XX. 374, o.s.
Pawangs, medicine men of Perak, XIII. 520, n.s.
Pawindahs, description of, XVII. 384, fi.s.
Pazand, IV. 232, 358, n.8.
Peacock, Mr. " Original Vocabularies of Five "West Caucasian
Languages," XIX. 145, n.s.
Peacock coins, XII. 68, o.s.
Pearl fisheries of Ceylon (Steuart), Trans. III. 452. j
Pearls in the Mergui Archipelago, III. 49, o.s. '
natural and artificial production of, XVI. 280, o.s,
trying of, VII. 127, n.s.
Peepulgaom, XX. 11, o.s.
Pegu, the original habitation of the Mons, X. 28, n.s.
Peguan language, IV. 42, o.s.
Pehlvi cdphabets, III. 251, n.8.
coins of early Mohammedan Arabs, by E. Thomas, XII.
253, 0.8.
— — modern, with Persian and English equivalents, XV.
87, n.8.
inscriptions at Naksh-i-Rajah, III. 267, n.8.; at Pai
Kuli, 278; at Hajiabad, 310; at Shahpfir, 342; at Tak-i-
Bustan, 344 ; at Firozabad, 356. I
Peiser, Dr., on the classification of the Cuneiform characters,
XIX. 641, n.s. I
Peking Oazette, extracts from (Davis), Trans. I. 254 ; II. 86. ^
Pelam dialect of Formosa, vocabulary of the, XIX. 487, n.8. "
Pen for writing Arabic and Gothic characters, XIX. 237, n.8.
Penjdeh, description and plates of the caves at, XVIII. |
92, n.8.
Pepo-hwan dialect of Formosa, vocabulary of the, XIX. 487,
n.s.
Pepper of Martaban, III. 33, o.s.
PER— PHA 168
Perak, Eajahs of, XIII. 505, n.«.
Perekop, attacked by Russians in 1770, XVIII. 404, n.«. ;
taken in 1771, 406.
Perim, fossils found at, by A. Bettington, YIII. 340, o.$. ;
notes on, by Prof. Owen, 417.
Periplus, XX. 309. o.s.
Perrot and Chipiez, MM., " Chald^e et Assyrie," XVII. lxx,
n,8. ; quoted from, XVIII. 368, n.«.
Perry, Sir Erskine, notice of, XIV. viii, n.B,
Persia, biographical sketch of Abbas Mirza, Prince Royal of,
I. 322, 0.8. ; notice of his death, iv.
Persian Beluchistan (Schindler), IX. 147, n.«.
conquest of Babylonia, decay of Cuneiform writing
after the, XIX. 633, o,b.
costume, changes in, effected by Abbas Mirza, 1. 323, o.«.
dialects, XX. 62, o.«.
gods, IX. 229, «.«.
Gulf, XII. 203, n.8.
language, IX. xliii, n.8. ; spoken in the Caucasus, XVII.
151, n.8.
literature, a modem contributor to, Riza Kuli Khan
and his works (Churchill), XVIII. 196, w.«. ; XIX. 178,
329, 538, n.8. ; notes on, by S. J. A. Churchill, 318.
— manuscripts of the Society, I. vii, lxxv, o.8.
— mathematics (Tytler), IV. 254, o.8.
— painting, description of a, V. 365, o.s.
play, "The Alchemist,'' XVIII. 103, n.8.
^— race, possible origin of, at Assan or Anduan, in the
plain of Kam-Hormuz, XII. 77, n.8.
syllabary, the, XIX. 653, n,8.
topography, I. 323, o.8.
Peruvians, quippus used by the, XVII. 424, n.8.
Peshawar find oi coins, IX. 211, n.8.
vase, inscription on, XX. 241, 0.8.
Petata, the name of the Onghuts or White Tatars of the time
of Jingis Khan, VIII. 266, n.8.
Peterson, Prof., report on the search for Sanskrit MSS.,
XVII. XLix, n.8. ; XIX. 691, n.8. ; his edition of the Hito-
padesa, 699.
Petrea, XX. 390, o.8.
Peyn-Gunga River, XX. 1, o.8.
Phanidjoit, M. Amelineau's article on, XIX. 703, n.8.
P'hansigars, account of the, I. 150, 280, o 8.
Pharaoh, derivation of the name, XVIII. 529, n.8.
Pharaoh-Necho, XVIII. 127, o.8.
164 PHA— PIL
Phayre, Sir Arthur, affirms the connexion of the Mons and
the Kols from the similarity of the stone implements
found at Burma and Nagpur, A. 239, w.«. ; Kfe of, XV 111.
X, n.8.
Pheel Khana cave, the only one with a Vihara, discovered by
Mr. Simpson in Afghanistan, XIII. 204, n.<. ; peculiarities
of, XIV. 325, n.8.
Phiala lake, XVI. 8, o.a.
Philistores of Hierocles, XX. 276, o.s.
Philosophy of the Hindus (Colebrooke), Trans. I. 19, 92,
439, 549 ; Trans. II. 1.
— -- of the Chinese, XVI. 368, o.s.
Philostratus, his account of the Indian travels of Apollonins,
XVII. 70, OS. ; XIX. 279, o.s.
Phlegios, XX, 284, o.s.
Phoenician inscription found near Tunis (Temple), Trans. III-
548 ; from Carthage, notice of, XX. xiv, o.s. ; and Punic,
IV. 135, 0.8.
— ^ notice of works relating to, XIII. cvii, n.s.
legends, I. 190, 228, n.s.
letter th^t, remarks on the, XIX. 705, n.8.
trade with India, XIV. 361, n.s.
trading colonies in the Persian and Oman Gulfs, X.
162, n.s.
Phonetic development of the Cuneiform syllabary, XIX.
633, n.s.
Photius, life of Isidorus, by Damasius, XX. 273, o.s.
Phrabat of Buddha (Low), Trans. III. 57, 317.
Phrygia, XV. 125, 135, n.s.
Phrygian inscriptions, X. 361, n.s.
Phrygians, rock-cut temples of the, X. 368, n.s.
alphabet used by the, XV. 122, n.s.
Physicians, extracts from an Arabic work respecting Indian,
VI.105, o.«.
Pi-ahiroth, derivation of the word, XVIII. 533, n.s.
Piastre, names of the subdivisions of, as used in Egypt, and
table, XL 377, w.«.
Pictet, Origines Indo-Europ^ennes, XX. 407, o.s.
Pidgin-English, curious specimen of, XL 274, n.s.
Pietraszewski, M., essay by, entitled, '*Numi Mohammedani,^'
X. 100, n.s.
Pilgrims, Chinese, state (in the fifth century a.d.) that
in Madhya-dSsa the people "know neither registers of
the population, nor magistrates, nor laws/' XIII. 211/
n.s.
PIN— POL 165
Pinches, Theo. G., " Observations upon the Languages of the
Early Inhabitants of Mesopotamia," XVI. 301, n.«. ;
"Assyrian Names of Domestic Animals," XIX. 319, n.8. ;
discoveries by, in the Cuneiform syllabary, 627 ; " The
Babylonian Chronicle," 655.
Pincott, F., "On the Arrangement of the Hymns of the
Rig- Veda," XVI. 381, «.«. ; the object of his paper to
show that the hymns of the Rig- Veda are arranged on a
definite system, 399 ; " The Arrangement of the Hymns
of the Adi Granth," XVIII. 437, n.8. ; " The Tri-Ratna,-"
XIX. 238, n.8.; "The First Mandala of the Rig- Veda,"
598.
Piiidapatravadanakatha, VIII. 36, n.8.
Pingala, the metrical rules of, XVIII. 209, n.8.
Pischel, Dr., his edition of Rudrata and Ruyyaka, XIX.
699, n.8.
Pitavar^a-prajnaparamita, VIII. 41, n.8.
Pithom, the store city of, XVII. ex, n.8. ; derivation of the
name, XVIII. 534, n.8.
Pitris, XX. 424, o.8. ; Pitrs, I. 303, n.8.
Piyadasi Raja, identification of, with Asoka, doubtful, XII.
243, 0.8.
Pizzi, M., his article on Semitic words in Firdusi's Shah
Nameh, XIX. 696, n.8.
Planetary conjunctions, XX. 368, o.8.
Plantagenets, the titles of the, IX. 344, o.s.
Plato, unique coin of, with the triliteral date of B.C. 165, IX.
3, n.8.
Platycerium, XX. 390, o.8.
Playfair, Consul-General R. L., "La Calle and the Country
of the Khomair, with a Note on North African Marbles,"
XVIII. 28, n.8.
Pleroma, XX. 392, <?.«.
Pliny, in the time of, the coast of Arabia was tolerably well
known to the GFreeks and Romans, X. 157, n.s. ; list of
localities given by him, copious but confused, 159.
Plough, American, introduction of, into India, VII. 92, 0.8.
Plutonic rocks, age of the, XII. 78, o.8.
Poetry of the Chinese, III. 281, o.8.
progress of, in the Dekkan, I. 138, o.8.
Poets, Hindu notions of, I. 137, o.8.
Point-de-Galle canoe, I. 1, 5, o.8.
Poisoned valley of Java, IV. 194, 197, o.s.
Po-koo-too, translation from the Chinese, I. 57, 213, o.9.
Police of Nepal, account of the systems of, I. 258, o.8.
156 POL— POT
PoUho, VL 107, n.s.
Pollanarua, VII. 156, n.8.
Pollock, Sir R., life of, XIX. 60, n.8.
Polo, Marco, extravagant description by, of Kublai, by, EL
408, n.8.; description of Tebet (Tibet), XII. 436, n.8.
Polopody, XX. 389, o.8,
Po-lo-yu, the Chinese form of Parvati, XV. 344, n.8.
Polyandry in Malabar, graphic account of, XI. 39, n.s. ; in
Ceylon, noticed by Enox, 48. ; not found in China, but extant
among some of the non-Chinese tribes in Szechuan, XV.
229, n.8. ; amongst the Arabs, XVII. 277, n.8.
Polynesia, knotted cords used in, XVII. 428, n.8. ; papers
relating to the languages of, XIII. Lxxvi ; XIV. cvi ;
characteristics of the languages of, XIX. 372, n.8.
Ponar, XX. 10, o.8.
Pontianak river in Borneo, IV. 175, o.8.
Poole, Reginald Stuart, the linguistic affinities of the ancient
Egyptian language, XX. 313, o.8.
Poole, Stanley Lane, name of the Twelfth Imam on the
coinage of Egypt (and Sauvaire), VII. 140, n.8. ; "Inedit^
Arabic Coins," 243 ; letter to, from M. Sauvaire, VIII. 291,
n.8.; IX. 135, n.8. ; note to M. Sauvaire's paper on "Arab
Metrology, II. El-Djabarty," X. 253, n.s. ; "The Successors
of the Seljuks in Asia Minor," XIV. 773, n.8. ; table by, of
the ten Post-Seljukian dynasties, 775, n.8.
Pooma river, XX. 4, o.8.
Pope, Dr. a. XI., "On the Study of the South-Indian
Vernaculars,'* XVII. 163, n.8.
Portman, M.V.,on the Andaman Islands and the Andamanese,
XIII. 469, n.8. ; Andamanese music, with notes on Oriental
music and musical instruments, XX. 181, n.8.
Portuguese Settlements in Africa, expedition to, I. 161, 0.8.
Porul, a term for old Dravidian literature, XIX. 574, n.s.
Poseidon, priests of, XI. 17, n.8.
Poshavidhana, VIII. 46, n.8.
Postans, Lieut. T., an account of the Kanphatis of Damodhar,
in Cutch, V. 268, o.8. ; on the rivers Nile and Indus, VII.
273, 0.8. ; ' reports on the Manchur Lake, and Aral and
Narra rivers, VIII. 381, 0.8.
Potail, XVIII. 278, o.8.
Potakara, the mountain, XV. 333, n.s.
Potaraka, four different places bearing this name in the
Buddhist records, XV. 338, n.8.
Potiphar, Potipherah, derivation of the names, XVIII. 530,
n.8.
POT— PRI 157
Pottinger, Lieut. W., on the present state of the Indus, I,
148, 199, 0.8. ; referred to, XV. 333, n,8.
Power, E. R., on the agricultural, commercial, financial, and
military statistics of Ceylon, I. 42, n.8.
Pozdnjejew, work by, on Mongolian popular literature, XIV.
65, n.8.
Prabit, impression of Buddha's foot at, III. 317, o.8.
PrabhSkara, IV. 87, n.8.
Pradiptavarman, XX. 453, 0.8.
Prajapati, XX. 37, 40, 411, 413, 419, 428, o.8. ; 1. 368, n.8.
PrajMparamita, I. 27, n.8. ; VIII. 2, n.s. ; -upadesa, 41 ;
-dharani, ibid. ; -hridaya, 50.
Prajftasimha, VIII. 28, n.8.
Prakrit literature, XIII. lxii, n.8. ; XVIII. cxi, 557, n.8.
Prakriticharya, VIII. 8, n.8.
Pramada Dasa Mittra, "A Dialogue on the Vedantic Con-
ception of Brahma,^' X. 33, n.s.
Pramara dynasty, inscriptions relating to. Trans. I. 207.
Prana, I. 370, n.s.
Pranayamadharanopadesa, VIII. 28, n.8.
Pranidhanacharya, YlII. 8, n.8.
Prasians, XX. 284, cs.
Pratapaditya, IV. 101, n.s.
Pratapamalladeva, VIII. 24, n.8.
Pratap Chandra Boy's translation of the Mahabharata, XVII.
CI, n.s.
Pratigira, VIII. 43, n.s.
Pratisari stuti, VIII. 24, n.8.
Pratyagira, VIII. 43, n.8.
Pratyagitma, "the presented self of Dean Hansel, must
always continue to underlie consciousness, X. 44, n.8.
Pratyaiigira-dharani, VIII. 43, n.s.
Pravarasena, IV. 109, n.s.
Prayogamukha, VIII. 45, n.s.
Pre- Akkadian Semites, XVIII. 409, n.8.
writing, letter by Prof. T. de Lacouperie on, XVIII.
548, n.s.
Pre-Sanskrit element in ancient Tamil literature, XIX. 558,
n.8.
Prendergast, M. H., short vocabulary by, of the Savara lan-
guage, XIII. 426, n.s.
Priaulx, 0. de Beauvoir, on the Indian travels of Apollonius,
XVII. 70, 0.8. ; on the Indian embassy to Augustus, 309 ;
on the second Indian embassy to Rome, XVIlI. 345, o.s. ;
on Indian embassies to Rome, XX. 296, o.s.
158 PRI— PFN
Price, Major David, on the Mualijat-i-Dara Shekohi, TrtmL
III. 32 ; list of Oriental MSS. presented to the Society,
III. XII, 0.8, ; memoir of, ix.
Priesthood of the Khonds, VII. 193, 0.9.
Priests, especial rule of, in Asia Minor, XY. 118, n.«.
in the Vedic age, II. 257, n.«.
Primicerius, origin of this peculiar title, IX. 419, n.«.
Prinsep, A., traces of feudalism in India, VIII. 390, o.«.
Prinsep, James, translation of the Dhanli and Girnar inscrip-
tions, XII. 153, 0.8.
Prinsep's Indian Antiquities, XX. 452, 0.8.
Prithudakaswamin, XX. 375, 0.8.
Priyadasi, Buddhist inscription of, XVT. 857, o.Sm
Priyamedha, XX. 412, o.8.
Procopius, XX. 303, o.8. ; his account of the EphthalitaB, XIX.
201, n.8.
Prometheus, XX. 416, o.8.
Propanisos, XX. 284, 0.8.
Proto-Chaldean language, XX. 445, o,8.
Proverbs, Oriental (Long), VII. 339, n.s.
Prthivi, I. 64, n.8.
Pseudo-Gallisthenes, XX. 297, o.s.
Pteria, city of, XV. 103, n.8.
Pteris, Xl. 389, o.8.
Ptolemy's Canon, XV. 416, 0.8.; XVTII. 106, 0.8. ; sexagesimal
notation, account of, XV. 44, n.8. ; Geography of India and
Southern Asia, XVII. lxvi, n.«.
Pujahs of Himalayan valleys, probably only a variety of the
common Bath Yatra or Car Festival, XVI. 26, n.s. ; may
represent a pre-Buddhist worship, 28.
Pujawaliya, VII. 169, n.s.
Pu Khan, the Corean, settles with the tribe Wanian, which
became ultimately the royal horde, IX. 248, n.s. ; acts as
mediator in a war between the Wanian and another tribe,
ibid. ; his descendants, Sui kho, Shi lu, etc., to Aguta, 249.
Pul, inscription of, XIX. 181, o.8.
Pulakesi, IV. 86, n.s. ; XI. 167, n.s. ; XIL 148, n.s.
Pulastipura, VII. 152, 191, n.s.
Pulisa, XX. 374, o.s.
Pulo Batublat, island of. III. 21, o.s.
Pumankat hill, III. 6, o.s.
Punchayet, XVIII. 278, o.s.
Pundravarddhana, VI, 237, n.s.
Punjab, the leading streams of, well ascertained so far as their
names and the sites of their debouchures, XV. 369, n.s.
PUN— QUE 159
Pu^yakatha, VIII. 21, «.«.
Piu;^yaprot8ahana, VIII. 21, «.«.
Punyasala, VI. 118, n,8.
Pu^yotsaha, VIII. 22, ».«.
Puranas, antiquity of, VI. 440, o,8. ; XVI, 179, o.t. ; IV.
106, n.«.
brief analysis of, VI. 483, o.s.
essays, on the, V. 61, 280, o.«.
Purap' PoruJ, a Tamil work on war, XIX* 674, n.«.
Purgstall, von Hammer, memoir of, XVII. v, 0.8.
Purik sheep of Ladakh, Trans. I. 49.
Purity of race amongst the Arabs, XVII. 289, n.^.
Purohita, the name in Bali for a domestic priest, IX. 113,
n.8.
Pururavas, XX. 417, o,8.
Purus, XX. 425, o.8.
Purusha, I. 353, n.8.
Narayana, XX. 40, 0.8.
Sukta, XX. 41, 407, o.s, ; I. 353, n.8.
Purushamedha sacrifice, the, XIX. 607, 620, 623, n.8.
PurushapOra, VI. 93, n,8.
Pushan, XX. 411, o.8.
Pushtu language, XX. 52, o.s. ; works on, by Elphinstone,
and Leach, ibid. ; by Leyden, and Mohabbet Khan, 53 ;
by Burton, Dom, Eversman, Ewald, Xlaproth, Vaughan,
and Wilken, 54 ; by Raverty, 55.
New Testament, XX. 62, o.s.
by Raverty, Trumpp, Bellew, Dom, and Hughes, XI.
60, n.8.
Pyle, XX. 286, n.8.
Pyramid at Nimrud, XV. 348, o.s.
Pyrard de Laval, X. 174, n.s.
Qahtan, VI. 1, 15, n.s.
Qirat, relation of, to derham, X. 264, n.s.
Qoraqir, VI. 12, n.s.
Quadrant, description of an Arabic, XVII. 322, o.s.
Quatrem^re, M., Mogul titles, IX. 373, n.8.
Queen- Consort in Ceylon, importance of the dignity of, XI.
247, n.s.
Queipo Don Vasquez, Essai sur les syst^mes metriques et
mon^taires, X. 99, n.8.
Questions on the social condition of the natives of Bengal
(Long), II. 44, n^.
160 QUI— RAM
"Quinquennial Asaembly," of Aaoka, etc., XIX. 192, n.«.
Quippus, used by the Peruvians, XVII. 424, n.a. ; descriptions
of the, 429.
Rabadan, Mohamed, YI. 166, n,8.
Rabha, the, of Gt>alpara, etc., notice of, XIL 233, n.s,
Radhakanta Deya, on the Yedic authority for the burning
of Hindu widows, XVII. 209, o.s.
Radman, VI. 124, 134, n.s.
Raffles, Collection of Malay MSS., II. 85, n.s. ; History of
Jaya, notice of the traditions in the island of Celebes, XIIL
616, n.s.
Ragamargopadesa, VIII. 28, n.s.
Ragh, VI. 107, n.8.
Railways, cost and construction of, in India (Marshman), XX.
397, 0.8.
Rainier, Capt. P., account of an avenue of sphinxes dis-
covered at Beni Hassan, Trans. III. 268.
Raja, IV. 84, n.8.
Raja Gopala, the cave of, XIX. 695, n.s.
Rajendra, legend in the reign of. III. 210, o.8.
Sekhara, III. 207, o.s.
Taraneini, IV. 95, n.8. ; passages in, relating to Vikra-
maditya, All. 272, n.8.
Rajagriha, VI. 227, n.s.
Rajaratnakar, VII. 170, n.s.
Rajawali, VII. 170, n.s.
Rajendralala Mitra, paper by, on the paintings at Ajanta,
XI. 167, n.8.
Rajmahal, VI. 236, n.s.
Rajmahali, only a meagre vocabulary of, existing at present,
X. 2, n.s.
dialect, primer in, by Rev. Mr. Brock, XIII. lxvii/;
n.s.
Raka, II. 23, n.s.
Rak'a, the meaning of, XII. 8, n.s.
Raksbasutra, VIII. 42, n.s.
Ralston, W. S., Tibetan tales by, valuable as bearing on the
work of Csoma de Koros, XVI. 487, n.s.
Ram Chandar Sen, remarkable lecture by, in April, 1879, on
the subject, " India asks, who is Christ P" XIII. 29, n.s. ;
visit to England, and impressions formed by him of
Christian life here, 28.
RAM— BAS 161
[ Ram Mohuix Roy, his exertions for the abolition of sati
. burning, I. 160, 0.8. ; life of, I. iv, 0.8, ; IV. xxxviii, 0,8. ;
XIII. 44, «.«.
Ram Raz, I. vi, 0.8. ; notice of his essay on the architecture
of the Hindus, I. 145, 166, xiii, 0,8. ; on trial by jury,
III. 244, 0.8.
Rama, the warrior god, XVIII. 211, «.«.
Rama Dasa Sena, Sanskrit ode by, addressed to the Congress
of Orientalists at Berlin, XIII. 573, n.8.
Ramabai, Lady Pandit, ode addressed to the Fifth Oriental
Congress, with translation by Prof. Monier- Williams, XIV.
66, n.8,
^ Ramanuja, special views of, XIV. 300, n.s.
' Ramaswami, Xavelly Venkata, biographical sketches of
Dekkan poets by, I. 137, 0,8.
Mudeliyar, on the island and bridges of Sivasamudram,
on the river Caveri, Tmhs, III. 305.
Naidu, on the reyenue system of Fort St. George, I.
292, 0.5.
Ramayana, IV. 136, n,8.
Bameses, title of, on his obelisk, as translated by Hermapion
SecTTTon;? SiaSii^roSf IX. 419, n.8,
derivation of the name, XVIII. 634, .n,«.
II. and III., unfolding of the mummies of, XVIII.
565, n.8,
Bamkrishna Qopal Bhandarkar, academical honours conferred
on, XVIII. cvi, n.«.
Bamnad, account of the province of. III. 165, o.s.
Bamsay, W. M., " On the Early Historical Belations between
Phrygia and Cappadocia," XV. 100, n.8.
Bamses, the statue of, given to Great Britain by Muhammad
Ali, XIX. 542, n8.
Banas, IV. 180, n.8.
Bangoon, Buddhist golden relics discovered at, XVII.
299, 0.8.
Bas-er-Bajel, iron and copper mines at, XVIII. 34, n.8.
Bashiduddin, IV. 340, n.8. ; VII. 344, n.8.
Basht, VI. 98, n.8.
Basif, the proper name of the city of fiamian, XVIII.
324, n.8.
Bask, Prof., remarks on the Zend language, Tran8. III. 624.
Bas Miila, Hindu annals of Guzerat, extract from, XIU.
91, n.8.
Bas Mussendoro, the Mcucira axpov of Ncarchus, the coast
near it, being well known to the ancients, X. 166, n.8.
VOL. XX.— [new series.] l
162 RAS— RAW
Rasselas, Prince of AbyBsinia, origin of this name, XUI.
247, n.«.
Rath Yatra, not, as often supposed, peculiar to Jagganath,
XYI. 26, n.8.
Raths of Mahavellipore, Trans. II. 263 ; VIII. 86, o.s.
Rati, VI. 341, n.s. ; varying weights of, IX. 296, ».«.
Rati, table for their conversion into Egyptian (mesrys)
weights, X. 270, n.«.
Ratnakarasanti, VIII. 28, n.«.
Ratnapariksha, VIII. 11, n.«.
Ratnasastra, VIII. 11, n.s.
Rattas, the, IV. 37, o.s.
Ravenshaw, E. C, on the winged birds, lions, and other
symbolical figures from Nineveh, XVI. 93, o.s.
Raverty, Major, and Col. Yule, VII. 189, n.s.
Raverty, Pushtu works, XX. 55, o.s. ; notes by, on Afghan-
istan and part of Baluchistan, XVI. lxx, n.s. ; proper
name of Bamian, XVIII. 324, n.s.
Ravisri, VIII. 27, n.s. ; -ifiana, 46.
Rawies, or reciters, special business of, XI. 82, n.Sy
Rawlinson, Canon, on the position of women in Chaldaea, XI.
4, n.s. ; quotation from, on the condition of Western Asia
in pre- Alexandrian times, XVIII. 363, n.s.
Rawlinson, Major-Gen. Sir H. C, extraordinary discoveries
of, announced by the Council, IX. v, o.«. ; Persian in-
scriptions at Behistun, XII. i, o.s. ; Cuneiform inscriptione^
1 ; on Assyrian and Babylonian inscriptions, 401 ; early
history of Babylonia, XV. 215, o.s. ; report of progress
of printing the Assyrian and Babylonian monuments, etc.,
XVII. viii, o.s. ; personal narrative as connected with the
Birs-Nimrud, XVIII. 1, o.s.; translation of Tiglath-Pileser,
164 ; nominated for Director, XIX. o.s. ; report of the council
of progress of investigations in Assyria and Babylon, XXI.
IT, o.s. ; bilingual readings — Cuneiform and Phoenician,
I. 187, n.s. ; note on Pai KOli, III. 296, n.s. ; points out
the value of Mr. Smith's recent researches, IX. XLViii, n.s. ;
identifies the Nau Bihar at Balkh, as Buddhist, 169 ; on
the prevalence of the Scythic element in Media, XI. 21,
n.s. ; " Notes on a newly-discovered Clay Cylinder of Cyrus
the Great," XII. 70, n,s. ; notes on Capt. Durand's report
upon the Islands of Bahrein, 201 ; statement by, with
reference to the recent researches of Mr. Hormuzd Rassam,
XIII. LI, n.s. ; identification by, of the term "Sapta Sindhu,"
as meaning the seven head-streams of the Oxus, XV-
371, n.s.
,^
REO— REN 163
Beckoning, a similar erystem oi, both in Etruria and India,
XL 20, n.8.
Red Eyebrows, a Chinese taribe so called, XVII. 433, n.8.
Red Sea, note on the saltness of the, IV. 214, o.s,
Redhouse, Sir J. W., text and translation of a Turkish circular
ode, by Shahin-Ohiray, with memoir of author, XVIII.
400, 0.8. ; translation from the original Arabic of expedi-
tions conducted by Sultan Bumu, XIX. 199, o.s.; "On
the Natural Phenomenon known in the East by the name
Sub-hi-Kazib,*' etc., X. 344, n.8.; "On * The Most Comely
Names,' bestowed on God in the Qur'an," etc., XII. 1, n.8.;
" Identification of the ' False Dawn ' of the Muslims with
the 'Zodiacal Light* of Europeans," 327; "Notes on
Prof. Tylors 'Arabian Matriarchate,' etc.," XVII. 275,
n.8. ; " Observations on the various Texts and Translations
of the so-called ' Song of Meysun ' ; an Inquiry into
Meysun's Claim to its Authorship ; and an Appendix on
Arabic Transliteration and Pronunciation," XVIII. 268,
n.8. ; his version of " The Song of Meysun," 274 ; Turkish
dictionaries, cxxrv ; " Persian Name for the Rouble," XIX.
161, n.8.; "The Farhang Jahangiri," ibid.; "Were Zenobia
and Zebba'u identical ?^' 683.
Redout- Kali, Russian port of, its rise, I. 289, o.8.
Reformation, as caused by Nanak and Xabir, mainly due to
Mubammcdan influences, XIII. 2, n.8.
Regnier, J. A. A., memoir of, XVIII. lxv, n.8.
Regur, or black cotton clay, VIII. 252, o.8.
Reh efflorescence of North- Western India (Medlicott), XX.
326, 0.8.
Rehatsek, Mr., on the Alexandrian library, XVII. lxv, n.8.
Reinach, T., his essay on Kappadocian coins, XIX. 704,
n.8»
Reinaud, M., opinion of, respecting Albiruni's account of
Indian dates, XIII. 527, n.8.
Reinisch, Dr. L., his works on African languages, XVII.
77, n.8.
Reizei, the Mikado, XIX. 43, n.8.
Religion of Asia Minor, and specially of Gappadocia, peculiar
features of, XV. 114, n.8.
Religious beliefs of Upper India, etc., lists illustrative of,
IX. 224, n.8.
Remusat, A., shows that in Fukian the people say " Tartar "
and not " Tata," XIV. 137, n.8.
Renouard, Rev. Q. C, report on the remarks of M. Graberg
on the language of the Amazirghs, by, III. 130, 0.8.
164 RES— RIG
Resemblance, points of, in the formation of Jewish and Arab
names, XIII. 250, n.8.
Resis, religious rites conducted by, in the island of Bali, H.
88, n.8.
Rest-seasons, or religious retreats of the Buddhists, XIX.
193, n.8,
Resuliyy dynasty, history of the, XIX. 691, n.«.
Revenue system of Fort St. George, I. 292, o.8.
Revillout, M., value of his work on hieroglyphical interpre-
tation, XI. 6, n.8.
Reynolds, Rev. J., his " History of the Temple at Jerusalem,"
XIX. 247, n.8.
Reynolds, Lieut., notes on the Thugs, IV. 200, o.s.
Reza Qull Khan, and his works, XIX. 163, 318, n.8.
Reziah, the daughter of Altamsh, reigns at Dehli in the
13th century as " Sultan," IX. 379, n.s.
Rhamanites,' VI. 123, n.8.
Rhampsinitus, Arab version of the story of, XV III. cxxxi,
n.8.
Rhazanah-i-Anurah, biography of poets, IX. 150, o.8.
Rhind Papyrus, numerals found on, as early as B.C. 1200,
XIV. 357,n.«.
Rhinoceros' horns, trade in, in Tenasserim, III. 43, o.8.
Rhogana, probably Galek, XI. 148, n.s.
Riazat ul Shuara, or Garden of Poets, IX. 144, o.s.
Rice, Lewis, "The Poet Pampa," XIV. 19, n.s.; "Early
Kannada Authors,*' XV. 295, n.s. ; " Ganga and Bans
Dynasties," XVII. lxiv, n.s.
Rice, customs and superstitions in connection with Ae
cultivation of, XVII. 366, n.s.
cultivation of, in Tennasserim, III. 29, o.8.
of Ceylon, I. 45, n.8.
Rich, Mr., Chronology of the Rajavali Eatha and interpre-
tation of the dreams of Chandragupta, IX. 176, n.8.
Richardson, J., persuades Ben Musa to put on paper a notice
of the Ghadami and Tuarik languages, which is, however,
of little value, XII. 421, n.8. \
Richtofen, Baron F. von, traces the Chinese back to Tarkand
and Khotan, XV. 281, n.s.; Chinese vase sketched by, J
shown to be a forgery, XVII. 447, n.s. \
Rickman, Mr., value of the work by, entitled " Attempt to
Discriminate Styles," XII. 141, n.s.
Rig- Veda i. 6 translated and commented on, III. 199, o.s. \
(Muir), XX. 406, o.s. ; 1. 51, 287, 339, n.s. ; 11. 26, 261, .
286, 448, n.s. j
EIG— ROD 165
Rig-Yeda x. 75 gives the fullest evidence of the course of the
Aryans, XV. 359, n.«.
arrangement of, by Mr. Pincott, thoroughly systematic,
XVI. 385, n,8. ; the hymns relating to each Deity arranged
according to the order of their diminishing length, 392 ;
the six sections into which Mr. Pincott proposes to divide
it, 384.
translations of the, XVIII. ex, n.8.
F. Pincott's article on the First Mandala of the, XIX.
698, n.8.
Rijz, a short iambic verse, the earliest Arabic metre, XI.
86, «.«.
Bimugas, a name clearly of Accadian etymology, XII. 209, n.8.
Bitter, the geographer, states that a village near Aleppo,
called "Ibn Taltal," means "Ibn Tatar," XIV. 136, «.s. ;
opinion of, that the Bedouins, if they had the power, would
convert the world into one vast wilderness, 155.
River-beds, slope of, laws laid down, thereto, by Manfredi
and Guglielmi, X. 321, n,8.
Bivett-Garnac, Mr., on clay disks called spindle whorls, XIII.
XLVII, n.8,
Biza Kuli Ehan (poetically sumamed " Hidaiyat," and
popularly known as the ** Lalah BashI "), sketch of his
life, and list of his works, XVIII. 196, n.«.
Biziah, VI. 368, n.8.
Boady the Boyal, dates from the time when Sardis and Pteria
were the chief cities of Asia Minor and closely connected,
XV. 104, n.8. ; the eastern part of it existed long before
the Persian conquest, 105 ; nearly all the important centres
of Phrygian commerce lay along it, 106 ; from Oordium
crossed the Sangarius to Pessinus, 109 ; still to be traced
for some miles near Doghanlu Kalessi, 110 ; two parallel
ruts, to enable carriages to run easily, are cut in the rook,
ibid.
Boberts, Bev. J., review on the tabernacle of the Hindus of
Ceylon, I. 87, o.8. ; brief notice of his illustrations of the
Scriptures, 145.
Bobinson, T., notice of, XVII. xxxv, n.s.
Bobinson, Sir William B., memoir of, XVIII. XLiii, n.8.
Bochana, III. 237, n.8.
Bochette, B., account by, of the Boman coins found at
Manikyala, IX. 268, n.8.
Bock-cut temples of India, VIII. 30, o.8.
Bodet, M., notice by, of the early use of the " tableau &
colonnes,*' XV. 30, n.8.
166 ROD— EOS
Rodgers, 0. J., " On a Coin of Shams ud Duniya wa Dm
Mahmud Shah," XIV. 24, w.s. ; his analysis of thirty
coins, XIX. 341, n.«.
Rodiger, Herr, his theory of the Schalensteine of Switzerland,
XVII. 436, n,8.
Roe, Sir Thomas, his embassy to the Emperor Jehanglr, I.
325, 0.8.
Roepstorff, F. A. de, a Nicobar tale by, XVII. xlv, n.s.
Rogers, Rev. A., account of the morals of the S. of India,
XIII. 221, n.8.
Rogers, E. T., " Notice on the Dinars of the Abbasside
Dynasty," VII. 262, n.8. ; " Unpublished Glass Weights
Measures," X. 98, n.8. ; described many glass discs with
Kufic inscriptions, 98 ; "Arabic Amulets and Mottoes^"
XI. 122, n.8.; "Dialects of Colloquial Arabic," 365 ; letter
from, to Mr. Redhouse, XII. 331, n.8. ; life of, XVI. xxvi,
n.8.
Rohinila, VI. 233, n.8.
Rohita, I. 371, n.8.
Rohu, VI. 106, n.8.
Romaji-kai, Society for the Romanization of Japanese, XIX.
45, n.8.
Roman aurei, must have been recoined in the far East, IX.
220, n.8.
citizen, the name of, repudiated by the barbarians of
the fifth century, IX. 325, n.8.
coins recently found in Afghanistan, in as good con-
dition as those of Kanishka found with them, XII. 265,
n.8.
empire, history of the first, ends at the close of the
fourth century a.d., IX. 324, n.8.
gods on Indo-Scythic coins, IX. 230, n.8.
influences on the N.W. of India, IX. 220, n.8.
inscriptions at Chemtou, XVIII. 42, n.8.
types with Latin-Greek legends on the reverses of the
Indo-Scythic coins, IX. 220, n.8.
Romance languages, chief authorities for, XI. 287, n.8.
Romanization of the Japanese language, scheme for the,
XVIII. cxxxiv, n.8.
Romer, John, illustrations of the languages called Zend and
Pahlavi, IV. 345, o.8. ; additional notes on the Zend lan-
guage, XVI. 313, 0.8.
Romnichal, name the gypsies give themselves, Tran8. II-
519.
Rosellini, Prof., his work on Egypt, I. viii, 365, o.«.
ROS— SAD 167
Eosen, Baron, his "Catalogue of Persian Manuscripts/*
XVIII. 668, n.s.
Rouble, Persian name for the, XIX. 161, 317, 686, n.«.
Royle, John Forbes, comments on the Materia Medica of
India, III. xxiii, o,8. ; on the mustard tree of Scripture,
YIII. 113, 0.8. ; report on the progress of the culture of
the China tea plant in the Himalayas, XII. 126, o,8.
Ruby, the (in Bali), supposed to possess supernatural power,
IX. 74, n.8.
Rucaka, VII. 93. n.8.
Ruins in Babylon, XII. 477, o.«.
Rui-Samangan, VI. 101, n.8.
Runes, XVII. 434, n.8.
Runjit Sing, his rise, IX. 61, o.8.
Rusden, G. W., his remarks on the languages of Oceania,
XIX. 307, n.8.
Russia, trade of, with China, through the town of Ourga,
X. 128, W.S.
Russian college at Pekin, I. 163, o.8.
commerce with Asia, I. 289, o.8.
domination, the Turki-speaking populations gravitating
towards, XVIII. 191, n.8.
Ruwanwseli Dagaba inscription, VII. 360, n.s.
Ryan, Sir Edward, life of, IX. ii, n.8.
Sabaras, Mongolian moimtain races, XVI. 33, n.8.
Sabatu, III. 6, o.8.
Sabbagh, Michael, his manuscript of the Arabian Nights
recently acquired by the Bibliotheque Nationale, XIX.
633, n.8.
Sabdasusana, VIII. 46, n.8.
Sabda Ealpa Druma, analysis of the, II. 188, 0.8.
Sabha Parva of the Mahabharata, on the, VII. 137, o.«.
Sachau, Dr. E., contributions to the knowledge of Parsee
literature, IV. 229, n.8. ; his edition of Albiruni reviewed,
^ by Sir F. J. Goldsmid, XX. 129, n.8.
Sachinara Raja, Brahmanism superseded Buddhism during
his reign, in Kashmir, IX. 183, n.8.
Sacy, Baron de, on the inscription at Naksh-i-Rustam, Tran8.
III. 507.
Sadamitsu, name of a character in a Japanese legend, XVII.
7, n.8.
Saddharma-lankavatara, VIII. 6, n.8.
Saddharma-pui^darika, VIIJ ^
168 SAF— SAL
Safarnamah, VI. 142, n.a.
Sagara, or Scythian battle-axe, on buildings, etc., in Syria,
Caria, etc., XI. 12, n.s.
Sab dynasty (E. Tbomas), XII. 1, o.8.
IV. 117, n.8.
early coins of, trilingual, XIII. 625, ».«.
Sahasa Malla, inscription of, VII. 356, w.«,
Sahasrapramardani-dbarani, VIII. 42, n.«.
Sahib, a title constantly used in the eariy centuries of the
Hejra, IX. 372, n.s.
Sahib-Ghiray, XVIII. 406, o.s.
St. Barbe, H. L., *' Burmese Transliteration," X. 228, «.«. ;
"The Namakkara, with Translation and Commentary,"
XV. 213, n.«.
St. Eulalie, legend of, XI. 290, n.«.
St. Martin, M. V. de, notice of his "Memoire Analytique"
of Hiouen-Thsang's travels, XVII. 106, o.8,
Saivism grew out of Brahmanism, XIV. 293, n,s. ; but was
too severe and cold as a system to have extensive influence,
295.
Sajarah Malayu (the Malay tree), an historical account of
the Mogul line of Malacca, XIII. 86, n.».; readings of,
in four different MSS. belonging to the Boyal Asiatic
Society, 88.
SakaUva, the tribe of, in Madagascar, chiefly nomadic and
pastoral, XV. 196, n.«.
Sakashtami, Hindu religious festival, IX. 90, o.s,
Sakkada (the name of Sanskrit in Canarese), XV. 295, ».«.
Sakra-deva's visit to Buddha, XIX. 206, n,8. (a plate in illus-
tration of this subject is appended).
Sakraditya, IV. 116, n.8.
Sakvaraja, VIII. 24, n,8.
6akyamuni, VIII; 8, 12, n.8.
Sjikyas, the tribe to which Buddha belonged, probably Tura-
nians, XIV. 41, n.a.
|akyasimha, VIII. 12, 24, 27, 40, n.8.
Sakyasimha-bhikshu, VIII. 28, n.8.
Sakyasimha-stotra, VIII. 24, n.«.
Saladin, though in history generally called Sultan, had many
other titles, IX. 366, n.s.
Salagramam, village of. III. 173, o.8.
Salakapaiichaka, VIII. 28, n.a,
Salar, hill canton of, X. 9, n.s.
Salarls, the most easterly of the Turk race, X. 305, n.a. ; with
a language like that of Eashghar, 306.
SAL-SAN 169
Salarus river, the modem Siloor or Tudee river, XI. 149,
n.«.
Salmone, H. A., ''On the Importance to Great Britain of the
study of Arabic," XVI. 38, n.8, ; his remarks on the study
of Oriental languages, XIX. 504, n.«.
Sal Sal, name of one of the idols at Bamian, XYIII. 347,
n.8.
Salt of Tennasserim, III. 45, o.s.
Salvadora Persica, the mustard-tree of Scripture, YIIL 193,
0.8.
Samadhi, VIII. 6, n.8.
Samadhiraja, VIII. 4, n.8.
Samanap, III. 11, 0.8. ; monopoly of salt at, ibid.
Samandakasamyuttam, account of, XII. 551, n.8. ; text of,
566.'
Samaritan hymns, etc.. Father BoUig engaged in editing,
XIII. cii, n.8.
literature, XVII. xcvii, n.s. ; XVIII. a, n.8.
Samarkand, city of, VII. 329, o.8. ; VI. 93, n.8.
Samasapatala, vIII. 45, n.8.
Saroatata, VI. 93, n.8.
Samawa, VI. 13, n.8.
Sambas river, in Borneo, IV. 176, o.8.
Sambhiir, Buddhist remains near, XVII. 29, n.8.
Sambus (of Arrian), position of his territory, I. 35, o.8.
Samedake, town of, in the neighbourhood of Wank, XI.
147, n.8.
Samin (Savin), VII. 97, ».«.
Samkassa, a Buddhist city, discovery of its ruius, VII. 241,
0.8.
Samoy^d branch of languages, XVIII. 171, n.s.
Samputodbhava, VIII. 29, 36, n.8.
Samshu, III. 15, 0.8.
Samudra Gupta, manifesto of, on Asoka's column at Allah-
abad, XIII. 532, n.«.
Samvarodaya-tantra, VIII. 29, n.8.
Samvat and Eala, XII. 262, n.8.
Samvat era (Dowson), VII. 376, n.8.
Sanabares, coin of, found by Mr. Le Strange, XII. 543, n.8.
Sanchi, near Bhilsa, on an inscription at, VI. 246, o.8.
scarab ornamentation in the gate at, XVIII. 401, n.8.
Sandhi, rules of, different in Pali from those in Sanskrit, XI.
99, n.8, ; may be divided into vowel Sandhi, consonant
Sandhi, and mixed Sandhi, 100 ; rule of, for consonants,
112 ; rules of, for compounds, 113.
170 SAN— SAP
Saneha, the story of, XVIII. 566, n.«.
Sangattar, or Madura College, abolition of, III. 217, o.«.
Sangguhu, in Bali, a subdi vision of the Sudras who are
acquainted with the Vedas, X. 82, n,8,
Sanhita of the Veda, divided by the Brahmans into four dis-
tinct parts, XVI. 382, n.8.
Sanjar (Seljuk Sultan), great defeat of, by the Kara Khitais»
VIII. 272, w.«.
Sankha or conch shell, use of, in ancient and modem times,
XVI. 431, n.8,
Sankhya Karika, Chinese transition of, called ''The Q-olden
Seventy Shaster,'' X. 357, n,8.
system, the, XVIII. 142, w.s.
Sanskrit, became Gaurian much as Latin has become Romance,
XI. 287, n,8,; ceased to be a spoken language about the
sixth century B.C., XI. 291, n.8. ; original extension of, in
Asia and Europe, XVI. 172, o.s.
Sanskrit Critical Journal, XIX. 700, n.8.
Sanskrit encyclopaedia, I. ix, o.s.
Sanskrit literature, XIV. Lxvi, n.s. ; XVI. xc ; XVII. xcviii ;
recent additions to, XVIII. 556, cm ; XIX 177, 328, 537,
699.
Sanskrit MSS. in Chinese monasteries, correspondence about
between Prof. H. H. Wilson, Sir J, Bowring, and Dr.
Edkins, XII. 154, n.s. ; exported probably to China as
early as the first century a.d., ibid. ; the earliest translators
of, worked under the orders of the Emperor Ming-ti, a.d.
62, 155 ; names of various Chinese translators of, ibid, ;
seen in China by Dr. Gutzlaff, 157 ; those taken to China,
most likely written on the bark of the birch, or on palm-
leaves, 159 ; in the Nepalese character, sent to Prof. F*
Max MUller from Japan, 161 ; clear evidence that, in 1727,
the texts of some Sutras of, were preserved in the temple of
Horiuji at Tatsuta, 188 ; recently acquired by the Bodleian
Library, XIX. 537, n.s.
Sanskrit slokas, two modern (Cowell), XV. 174, n.s.
Santiparva, translation from, XIX. 308, o.s,
Sanugi no Miyakko, the Old Bamboo-hewer, XIX. 1, n.s.
Sanumattajadoshanirnaya, VIII. 14, 48, n.s,
Saosduchinos, king of Babylon, XIX. 680, n.s,
Sapho (Sabaoan ?) merchants, in Ceylon, applied the name of
their God Al Makah to Sumana, XV. 341, n.s.
Saptabuddha-stava, VIII. 41, n.s. ; Saptabuddha-stavastotra,
23.
Saptasati-prajflaparamita, VIII. 42, n.s.
SAP— SAT 171
Saptasatika-prajilaparamita, VIII. 41, n,8.
Saptavara, YIIl. 43, n.8.
Sar, the most common word for king in the Assyrian in-
scriptions, IX. 362, «.«.
Saracen art in Egypt, XIX. 182, n.8.
Saranagamana, IV. 325, n.s.
Saraswati, the river, spoken of in the Mahabharata only as
a boundary stream, so, also, in Manu, II. 18, n.s. ; XY.
365, n.8.
Sarat Chandra Das, his account of Tibet, XIX. 691, fi,8,
Sar Desai, II 231, o.8.
Petal, II. 231, o.«.
Sardis, fall of, XVIII. 143, o.s.
Sarduris I., inscriptions of, XIV. 460, n.s.
Sargon, XVIIL 115, o.s.
of Agade, the fifth period of the Cuneiform syllabary
began with the age of, XIX. 640, n.s.
Sariduris II., inscriptions of XIV. 632, n.s.
Sariputra, VII. 171, n.s.
Sariputta, conversation with, on the meaning of Nirvana,
XII. 549, n.s.
Sarmanai, XIX. 276, o.s.
Sarvadanasangrahya, I. 284, n.8.
Sarvadhikari, Babu Prasanna Kumar, life of, XIX. 320>
n.s.
Sarvadilyavishhpratibhedikaparchfna, I. 284, n s.
Sarvadurgatiparisodhana, VIII. 39, n.s.
Sarvajfiamitra, VIII. 23, n.s.
SarvajnatakaradharanT, VIII. 41, n.s.
Sarvakalpanidanatilaka, VIII. 29, n.s.
Sarvakatadanavadana, VIII. 11, n.s.
Sarvarajochchhettra, probable meaning of this title on the
inscription of Xumara Gupta at Bhitari, XIII. 647, n.8.
Sarvatantranidanarahasya, VIII. 29, n.s.
Sarvathasiddha, the secular title of the future Buddha,
Chinese rendering of this name, XVI. 268, n.s. ; probable
meaning, '' possessing perfect endowments and gifts,'^
269.
Sasa, VII. 93, n.s.
Sasanawatara, VII. 171, n.s.
Sasanka, IV. 87, n.s.
Sassanian inscriptions. III. 241, n.s. ; IV. 367, n.s.
Saswi and Panhu, a Sindh! legendary poem, I. 29, 36, n.s.
^tarchin, the meaning of the term, XIX. 614, n.s.
^tasahasri (prajnaparamita), VIII. 44, n.s.
172 SAT— SCH
Satgaon, YI. 244, n.s.
Sati, notice of the practice of, among the JainB, XY. 303,
n.8.
Satis, on the immolation of, I. 159, o.s.
Satlaj, really the original Indus, X. 323, n.s.
Satow, E., on ancient sepulchral mounds at Kandzuhe, XHL
XLix, n.s. ; on early Japanese writings, XV. 331, «.*. ; his
account of the Otsubo-monogatari, XIX. 42, n.s.
Satrap, this word does not appear in the ancient literature of
India, IX. 418, n.s.
Sattara, exile of 1st Rajah of, IX. vii, o.s. ; XVIII. 316, <;.«.
Saturniaya and the Jains, XVII. lxvi, n.s.
Saturn s hand, theory of the wheel in, XVI. 259, «.«.
Saundarya Fada Sek'hara, III. 209, o.s.
Saurashtra, kings of, IV. 117, n.s.
Sauvaire, M. H., and S. L. Poole, the name of the twelfth
Imam on the coinage of Egypt, VII. 140, n.8,
Sauvaire, H., ** On a Treatise on Weights and Measures, by
Eliy& Archbishop of Nisibin," IX. 291, n.s. ; Supplement,
XII. 110, n.s. ; " Arab Metrology : II. El-Djabarty," X
253, n.s. ; Lettre a M. Stanley Lane Poole sur quelques
monnaies orientales rares ou in^dites de la collection de
M. Ch. de I'Ecluse, XIII. 380, n.8.; ''Arab Metrology:
IV. Ed-dahaby," XIV. 264, n.«.; "Arab Metrology: V,
Ez-Zatirawy," XVI. 495, n.s.
Savara language, short vocabulary of, by M. H. Prendergast,
XIII. 426, n.s.
Savitr, I. 113, n.s.
Sawandi, possible site of, XVI. 292, n.8,
Sayana, II. 325, 426, n.s.
Sayce, A. H., Tenses of the Assyrian verb, IX. 22, n.«. ;
" The Cuneiform Inscriptions of Van," XIV. 377, n.s. ;
XX. I, n.s. ; review of Capt. Condor's " Altaic Hieroglyphs
and Hittite Inscriptions," XIX. 536 n.8.
Sayyidah Nafisah, reproduction and translation of the in-
scription on the mausoleum of, at Cairo, XVIII. 84, n.8.
Scarab, the, an important Assyrian emblem, examples of,
XVIII. 398, n.s.
Schalensteine in Switzerland, XVII. 436, n.s.
** Sche'ibaniade," Professor Vamb^ry's edition of the, XVIII.
cxxvi, n.s.
Schiefner, Prof., life of, XII. ix, n.s,; paper by, firom
materials collected by M. Berg^, XIII. 294, n.s.
Schindler, A. H., "Notes on Persian Beluchistan, from the
Persian of Mirza Mehdy Khan," IX. 147, n.s,; "Noies
SOH— SEE 173
on some Antiquities found in a Mound near Damghan/'
425 ; '' Historical and ArchflBological Notes on a Journey
to South-West Persia," XII. 312, n.s. ; notes on
Marco Polo's itinerary in Southern Persia, XIII. 490,
w.«. ; on the translation of the word " Kip6d," XIX.
697, n,8.
Schlagintweit, H. A. and R. de, glossary of Tihetan geo-
graphical terms, XX. 67, o.a.
Scblagintweit, R. von, discovery of Tibetan charms by, XVII.
462, n.«.
Scholasticus in Ceylon, in the beginning of the fifth century,
VI. 393, 0.8.
Schon, Rev. J. F., " Grammatical Sketch of the Hausa Lan-
guage," XIV. 176, n.8.
School system of the Hindus, I. 75, o.s.
Schoolmaster of a Hindu village, his condition, I. 19, o.s. '
Schools in Egypt, description of the new European, XIX.
230, n.«.
Schultz, Prof., assassination of, in Kurdistan, I. 134, o.8.
Schuiz, M., copies by, of Cuneiform inscriptions at Van,
XIV.377, n.«.
Schumacher, Herr, his contributions to the Survey of Pales-
tine, XVIII. Lxxx, n.8. ; the publication of his " Jaulan "
and Ajliin Memoirs, XIX. 696, n.8.
Scott, J. G., on the Kakhyens, XVIL 464, n.8.
Scriptures, illustrations of, by the Rev. Joseph Roberts, notice
oi'y I. 145, 0.8.
Scythian influence in Western Asia, XII. 468, o.s. ; in
Mesopotamia, XV. 227, 0.8. ; domination in Asia, XVIII.
134, 0.8.
Scythians, symbolical message sent to the Persians by the,
XVIL 419, n.«.
Scythic version of the Behistun inscription, XV. 431, o.8.
Scythism or Turanism, XI. 3, n.8.
Sculptures in the caves at Mahamalaipur (Babingtou), Trans.
II. 258.
Seal of Maharaja Kali Krishna Bahadur, VII. 200, o.8.
Seang chi, the Chinese game of chess, XVII. 355, n.8. ; plan
of the board, 361 ; movements of the pieces, 362.
Secondary rocks, XII. 89, o.s.
Secret Triad Society of the Chinese, VI. 120, o.8.
Segiri, ruins of, in Ceylon (Blakesley), viii, 53, n.8.
Sehwan, I. 30, 206, 235, o.8.
Seimei, name of a character in a Japanese legend, XVII.
6, n.8.
174 SEK— SET
Sekandra, Sindhian town of, I. 145, o.s.
Sekenen-ra and Seti I., unfolding of the mammies of, XYIII.
n.8. 566.
Sek-hwan dialect of Formosa, Tocabulary of the, XEL
487, n.s.
Selamiyeh, near Nimrud, notice of, XV. 351, 0.8,
Selim-Ghiray, XVIII. 405, o.a,
Seljuky kingdom of Er-rum, XIV. 775, n.«.
Semang girl, story of, XIII. 602, n.«.
Semiramis, shown by M. Lenormant to be the Assyrian Istar
and the Greek Aphrodite, XIV. 415, n.s,
Semites of Babylonia, decadence of the, XIX. 640, n.s.
the Pre-Akkadian, XVIII. 409, n.8.
Semitic Empire of Babylonia, XV. 221, o.s.
languages, XIV. 105, n.s.; XV. 387, n.s. ; XVIL 77,
n.8. ; history of the, one of the subjects for Xing Oscar's
prizes, XVIII. cl, n.s.
literature, XII. lxxxiit, n.s. ; XII. xci ; XIV. lxxviii;
XV. LXix ; XVI. Lxxiii ; XVII. lxxiii ; XVIII. Mxxr,
554.
Semnoi, XIX. 277, o.s.
study of the, more systematically followed out in France
than in England, IX. lv. n.s.
Sena-Rama Dasa, Zemindar of Berampoor. Sanskrit Ode
addressed to the Congress of Orientalists at Berlin, XIII.
573, n.8.
Senathi Raja, E. S. W.. " The Pre-Sanskrit Element in ancient
Tamil Literature," XIX. 558, n.8.
Senbyii Pagoda, IV. 406, n.s.
Senkereh, inscription of, XIX. 187, o.s.
Senna, journey to, from Mocha, I. 369, o.s.
Sennacherib, XII. 453, o.s.
Sennacherib, annals of, XVIII. 77, o.s. ; inscription of, XJX
135, o.s. ; invades Babylonia, XIX. 675, n.8.
Serendib, XVIII. 352, o.s.
Seriyut (=Sariputta), VII. 171, n.s.
Serka the ** sharp-sighted," story of, XIII. 270, n.s.
Serpentine in Southern India, IX. 10, o.s.
Serpent- worship in India, adopted in the Brahmanical doctrine,
X. 85, n.s.
Serra, Padre, notices of China, Trans. III. 131.-
Sesame of Martaban, III. 35, o.s.
Setlej, the valley of, survey of (Gerard), Trans. I. 343.
Seturekha, the rocky formation known as Adam's Bridge^
XVI. 432, n.s.
SET— SHA 175
Seven, a sacred number in Persian, IX. 405, n.«.
•Seven Pagodas, general character of the architecture at, XYI.
32, n.8.
Seven Wells, VI. 244, n.s.
Seventh Day, observed by the Hindus, IX. 84, o.s.
Severini's translation of the Taketori, XIX. 39, n.s.
Sevemdroog, geological constitution of, IX. 6, o.a.
Sew-Gafata, an expedition against the tribe of, XIX. 207,
0.8.
Sewalik fossils, VIII. 107, o.s.
Sewell, R., "Note on Hiouen-Thsang's Dhanakacheka,'*
XII. 98, n.8. ; " Note on Amravati Tope and excavations
on its site in 1877," XIII. xxxviii, n.8.; "On some
New Discoveries in Southern India," XVI. 31, n.8.;
sketch of the dynasties of Southern India, lxiii ;
"Early Buddhist Symbolism," XVIII. 364, n.8.;
note on "Buddhist Kemains at Guntupalle," XIX.
508, n.8. ; further note on Buddhist symbolism, XX.
419, n,8.
Sewi, I. 34, 0.8.
Seyfiyyah (sword pieces), coins so called, XVIII. 615, n.8.
Sgha and Pgho dialects of the Karens, XVI. 59, o.8.
Shadangayoga, XIII. 46, n.8. ; -tippani, ibid.
Shadrach, derivation of the name, XVIII. 536, n.8.
Shadurvan, a paved dam in the Shushter river, still visible,
XII. 321, n.8.
Shah or Padshah, title of, IX. 393, n.8.
Shah-a-bad, the ruins at, said to have been those of the
Shehr-i-Diagonus, or Town of Diogenes, XII. 319, n.8. ; the
romantic nature of the legends current in the district of,
XVIII. 211, n.8.
Shah-baz Ghari, excursion to, VIII. 293, o.8.
Shahab ed Daulah, an ^Okayli prince, text and translation
of an ode by, XVIII. 517, n.8.
Shahan-Shah, a title given to the Sassanian Artaxerxes, IX.
395, n.8.
Shah Jehan, account by Manrique of his treatment of the
Christians, XI. 95, n.8.
Shah Mameh, the name of the female figure at Bamian,
XVIII. 347, n.8.
Shah Niimeh, splendid copy of the, I. vii, lxxv, o.8. ; new
edition of the, XVIII. 560, n.8.; instances of Semitic
words found in the, XIX. 696, n.8,
Shahi, Shahan-Shahi, occur on the inscription of Samudra
Gupta on Allahabad column, IX. 397, n.8.
176 SEA— SHE
Shahjn-Ghiray, XYHI. 400, o.s.
Shahjehan Nama, extract from, VII. 57, o.«.
Shaiyang Miri language, grammar of the, XIX. 336, n.s.
Shakespear, J., letter from, with translation of Arabic in-
scription from China, V. 272, o.8. ; translation of a Cufic
inscription on a tombstone at Malta, by, YL 173, o^;
librarian, IX. xvii, o,8.
Shakspere, in favour in Ceylon, XVIII. cxii, n.8.
Shalmaneser, XII. 451, o,8.
Shalmaneser II., the first Assyrian king to come in contact
with the Urardhu or people of Van, XIV. 390, n.8. ; sets
up an image of himself at 'Hhe sources of the Tigris," 391;
XIX. 673, n.8.
Shamans, XIX. 281, o.8.
Shams-ud-din Firuz, VI. 373, n.8.
Shams ud Duniya wa Din Mahmud Shah, coin of, XIV.
24, n.8.
Shan state seeks British alliance, XVII. 431, n.8,
Shanfarsl, poet of the tribe of Azd, XIII. 437, n.8. ; pedigree
of, as given by Hajji Khalifsl, 437; lived a short time
before Muhammad, 439 ; why the poem by, is called the-
'' L-Poem of the Arabs,'' 444 ; text and translation of the
poem of, 450.
Shang dynasty, its history illustrated, II. 166, 267, o.a.
Shangtu, VII. 329, n,8.
Shanmarmayantrani, VIII. 28, w.s.
Shans of Burma, grammar of, by Mr. Cushing, XI. 69,
n.8.
Shansi, the recent find of Boman coins in the province of,
XVIII. cxLi, n.8.
Sharti, VII. 177, n.8.
Shat tila danam, Hindu relip^ious festival, IX. 88, o.8.
Shato Turks, the, XVII. 293, n.s.
Shatparamitahridaya, VIII. 41, n.s.
Shatranj, Arabian term for " chess," XVII. 354, n.8.
Shaw, R. B., " On the Hill Canton of Salar, the most Easterly
Settlement of the Turk Race," X. 305, n.8. ; work done by,
for the Turki dialects, XI. 6i, n.s.
Sheep-eater of Hindustan, account of (Hardwicke), Trans.
III. 379.
Sheibani Khan, MS. of, edited by A. Vamb6ry, a regular
" Epos " in seventy-four cantos, XII. 366, n.8. ; campaign
of, against Herat, about a.d. 1505, 368.
Sheibani Nameh, edited by K. Berezin, nature of, XII.
365, n.s.
SHE— SIA 177
She King, book of, usually translated " Book of the Odes,"
XYI. 453, n.8. ; to be considered as a mass of silk, rough
and tangled, but with many beautiful threads, 457; the
first to notice Sati (Suttee), 477.
ShekuU, village of, III. 176, o.8.
Shelluhs, dialect of, III. 110, o,8. ; specimen of, 116.
Shelly's Helas, quotation from, XVIII. 150, n.s.
Shemida=Sumeyda', XIX. 588, n.«.
Shen-Shen, the clothing of the people in, XIX. 196, n.s.
Sherley family, a short account of the, by Major-Gen. Briggs,
VI. 77, 0.8.
Sherring, Rev. M. A., the Bhar tribes, V. 376, n.8.
Shetsanadi tenure, II. 229, o.8.
Shihiyin, tribe of, X. 167, n.8.
Shi-Ki, or Historical Kecord, of the Viddhals in Bactria, X.
294, n.8. ; translations from, by Mr. Ein^smill, XIV. 77, n.8.
Shi-King, or Book of Poetry, full of old traditions of the
Djows, X. 286, n.8.
Shi lu fixes the laws for the Jurchi, IX. 249, n.8.
Shina language, sketch of the grammar and vocabulary of
the, XVII. 89, n.8.
Shing-tchram, meaning of, XVII. 421, n.8.
Ships built at Cochin, expenses of, II. 329, o.8.
Shircoh (brother of Saladin), titles of letters patent, IX.
366, n.8.
Shirin, the only woman represented on any bas-reliefs in
Persia, XI. 163, n.8.
Shirt, Rev. G., life of, XIX. 687, n.8.
Shiuten Doji, the story of, XVII. 1, n.8.
Shi-wei, VII. 222, n.8.
Shotoku, a celebrated Japanese Buddhist, XVII. 4, n.8.
Shudgarshids, account of the I. 151, 283, o.8.
Shulam or Sulam, the founder of the Khitai Empire, XIII.
144, n.8.
Shur, VI. 6, n.8.
Shushter, in the perpendicular cliffs 'N.'E. of, many chambers
and niches and Guebre dakhmehs still visible, XII. 323,
n.8.
Shyamajl Krishnavarma Pandit, translation of a Sanskrit
ode, addressed to the Congress of Orientalists at Berlin,
XIII. 573, n.8.; notes from the Sanskrit commentary of
Keralavarma, XVI. 439, n.8.
Siahkoh, on the top of Buddhist remains, called by the natives
'« Kaffir ko," XIII. 187, n.8.
Siam, geological and mineralogical notices of. III. 316, o.8.
TOL. XX.— [3CKW 8BBIS8.] M
178 SIA— SIM
Siamese ardent spirits, IV. 328, o.«. ; traces of human
sacrifices, 328 ; standards, ibid. ; oath taken by officers,
330.
grammar and dictionary of, by Bishop PaUegoix, XI.
69, n,s.
influence of Buddhism on the, IV. 326, o.«.
language, (GutzlaflF), Trans. III. 291.
music of the, IV. 50, o.a.
Siaolisi, the Empress, wise counsels of, XIII. 154, n*s,
Siberia, hieroglyphical graffitti of, XVII. 422, n.s.
Sibree, Rev. James jun., " Malagasy Place-Namea," XV.
176, n.8.
Siddartha, meaning of, in the Si yu ki, XVI. 269, n.s. ; legend
of, 270.
Siddhi-narasimha-malla^ VIII. 11, n.s.
Sidi Hamet invents a new ^t/a«i- Arabic type, XII. 418, n.s.
Sidon, population of, XII. 345, o.8. ; recent discovery at,
XVIII. Lxxxiv, n.s. ; sarcophagi recently found near,
XIX. 696, n,8.
Sigiri, VII. 191, 213, 215, n.s. ; but few notices in the
chronicles of, VIII. 58, n.s. ; fortified rock of, its position,
63 ; lake, bunds, walls, etc. (see plate), 56 ; rock of, the most
perfect specimen of Eandyan defence now known, 64.
Sigismund, long pompous array of his titles, IX. 344, n.s.
Si-Gwaraba, the proper grammatical phrase for " language of
the Gwambas,'' XVI. 47, n.8.
Sikh, origin of the name of, IX. 44, o.s.
Sikhim, a narrow strip of country ruled by a Kajah, under
British protection, X. 120, n.8.
Sikhs, civil and religious institutions of (Wilson), IX. 43, o.s.
notice of the religion of the, by Dr. Trumpp, XIV.
Lxxii, n.s.
Siksha-Patri, Sanskrit text and translation of, XIV. 733, n.s.
Slladitya, IV. 94, 111, n.s. ; XII. 278, n.s.
Silaharas, or Maha Mandatewars, IV. 33, o,s.
Silicified wood deposit of Pondicherry, VIII. 240, o.s.
Silkworm of the Deccan (Sykes), Trans. III. 541.
Siloam, the Pool of, new discoveries at, XVIII. lxxxti, n.8.
Simha, the Buddhist Patriarch, slain by Mihirakula, XIX.
199, n.8.
Simhala, origin of the word, XIX. 205, n.8,
Simhanadalokesvara, VIII. 41, n.s.
Simhapura, VII. 156, n.s.
Simnun, people of, noted for their vernacular, usually called
SimnunI, XVI. 120, n.s.
SIM— SIN 179
Simpson, W., " Buddhist Remains in the Jelalabad Valley/'
All. Lii, n.8. ; character and date of the coins found by him
in the Ain Posh Tope, near Jelalabad, 266 ; identification
of Nagarahara, with reference to the travels of Hiouen-
Thsang, XIII. 183, n.a, ; visits some ancient ruins in the
Kunar valley, 206; "Sculptured Tope on old stone at Dras,
Ladak," XIY. 28, n.8.; suggestion by, that the Tibetan
Chorten is really derived from the Indus valley, 30 ; re-
semblance of the Trans-Indus topes shown by, 31 ; in his
restoration of the Ahin Posh tope at Jelalabad, had authoritv
for all its parts, 32 ; '' The Buddhist Caves of Afghanistan/'
319; "The Identification of the Sculptured Tope at
Sanchi,'' 332 ; met with only one cave resembling the
rock-cut Viharas of Western India, 324 ; notice by, of the
peculiar leggings of the Afghans and other trans-Indus
tribes, 333; "Pujahs in the Sutlej Valley, Himalayas,"
XVI. 13, n,s. ; letter from, at Baku, XViI. lxxii, n.«. ;
notes by, on the discovery of caves at Murffhab, XVIII.
95, n.8. ; " Notes by, on Capt. the Hon. M. G. Talbot's
Letter," 334; "Notes to Capt Maitland's Sketches of
Bamian," 340 ; farther note by, on the same subject, 350 ;
suggestions of origin in Indian architecture, Xa. 49, n.8.
Sinclair, W. F., "On the Fishes of Western India," XVI.
XLV, n.8. ; " Zerka, the Lynx-eyed Watchman of Nur,"
XVII. LXYi, n.8. ; Architecture in India, XX. 272, n.8. ;
the cross and Solomon's seal as Indian emblems, 541 ;
Buddhist animal stories, 542.
Sindh, I. 0.8. ; VII. 94, n.8. ; rainfall in, X. 324, n.8.
— — Ibnu Batata in (Haig), XIX. 393, n.8.
Sindl language, I. 31, n.8. ; grammar by Trumpp, XL 63, n.8.
Singhpo languages, X. 21, n.8. ; compared with Burmese, 226.
Sinhala, VIL 36, n.8.
and Kashmira languages, XL 289, n.8.
Sinhalese, handbook of, by Mr. Alwis, XIIL lxviii, n.8.
inscriptions, VIL 152, 191, 363, n.8.
language, notes on, VIL 35, n.8.; peculiarities of, as
compared with Sansknt, VIIL 136, n.8. ; proved by the
late Prof. Childers to be Aryan, X. 173, n.8.
MSS. in temple libraries in Ceylon, XVIII. cxi, n.8.
translation of a native grammar of (Alwis), XL 65, n.8.
Siuing, the entrepdt of trade between Mongolia and China
on the N.E. and Tibet to the S.W., X. 311, n.8. ; caravans
from Tibet come to, annually, 312 ; " dumb-trading," or
barter practised between the people of Sining and Nifan,
ibid.
180 SIN— SOA
Sinivall, II. 23, n,8.
Sinkawan, III. 1, 19, o.s,
Sinope, the nearest place on the coast to the great Oriental
centre of Pteria, XV. 104, n.8.
Sirmor, memoir on (Blane), Trans. I. 56.
Sitala Shashthi, Hindu religious festival, IX. 88, o,8,
Siva, on the three-faced busts of, V. 81, o.s.
not the Theban Hercules, VI. 386, o.s.
on coins of Eadphises, partly in the character of the
God of War, partly in that of Neptune, IX. 211, n.s.
to his worshippers, all in all — ^the one personal God,
and the one impersonal Spirit, XIV. 294, n.8.
Sivaratri, a Hindu religious festival, IX. 91, 0.8.
Sivatherium, new fossil ruminant allied to the, VT. 340, <?.«. r
notes on, by Professor Owen, VIII. 417, 0.8.
Si wang mu, the legendary visit of Muh wang to, XVIII.
474, n.8.
Si-yu-ki by Hiouen-Thsang, translations of, by M. Julieu and
Mr. Beal, XII. 101, n.8. ; story quoted from, XV. 335, n.s.
passage in, illustrative of the Amravati sculptures, XVI.
250, n.s.
Skambha, I. 361, n.s.
Skanda, the worship of, XIX. 576, n.s.
Skanda-Gupta, inscription of, near Anupshahar, XIII. 537,
n.s. ; on the Girnar rock, 537.
Sladen, Capt. E. H., some account of the Senbyu Pagoda at
Mengan near the Burmese capital, IV. 406, n.s.
Slane, Baron McGuckin de, memoir of, XI. x, n.8.
Slates in India, XIX. 31, o.s.
Slave kings or rulers, rise and names of, XIII, 257, n.8.
Smeaton's " Loyal Karens of Burma," XIX. 331, n.s.
Smith, Bosworth, testimony of, to the value to Europe, of
Arabic learning, XVI. 41, n.s.
Smith, G., on the succession of Turanian brothers, XI. 5, n.s.;
his attribution of graphic doublets to the Babylonian scribes,
XIX. 631, n.s.
Smith, Dr. Payne, Thesaurus Syriacus, XIX. 692, n.8.
Smith, Prof. R., theory of the identity of Zenobia and Zebba'u,
XIX. 584, n.8.
Smriti, law of, XIII. 233, n.s.
Smyth, Professor P., letter from, to Mr. Redhouse, XII.
329, n.8.
Smythe, Lieut.-CoL, introduction to Lieut. Reynolds's note*
on the Thugs, IV. 200, o.s.
Soadha, III. 222, n.s:
SOC— SPO 181
Socotra, the island of, derives its name from Sakhadhara, XY.
341, n.8.
Sodranga, I. 283, n.s.
Sogdi Bhakir, I. 33.
Soheil, the star Canopus, XIII. 247, n.s.
Sokpo, probably to be identified with the Kalmaks of Musul-
man writers, X. 316, n.8,
Sokte, Lunyang and Anal Namfau £uki, account of, XII.
239, n.8.
Solan dialect, vocabulary of, XIII. 127, n.8.
Solar kings, IV. 135, n.8. ; worship, XIX. 601, n.8.
Solly, E., on the cotton soils of Georgia, V. 379, o.8. ; on the
preparation of caoutchouc, VII. 9, o.s. ; on the Barberry,
VII. 74, 0.8. ; on the dhak gond, 145.
Soma, I. 135, n.s. ; XIX. 616, n.8.
Somali language, the Semitic element in the, XIX. 695,
n.8.
Somnath, temple of, I. 150, o.8. ; VIII. 172, o.8.
Song in the Thaumpe or Shaan language, V. 245, o.8.
Sonthals, use of knotted cords by the, XVII. 428, n.s.
Soor, the present, the nearest port of Arabia to India, X.
162, n.8.
Soparikara, I. 283, n.8.
Sorcery in Ceylon, Trans. III. 241.
Sossus, phonetic reading of, XV. 217, 0.8.
Soung goang tse visits Ontchang (Ondyana or Kashmir), in
510 A.D., VI. 279, 0.8.
South Asoka alphabet, XVL 331, n.8.; XVII. 441, n.8.
South of India, legal institutions in, far older than any in
the North, XIII. 233, n.s.
South-Indian Vernaculars, on the study of the, XVII.
163, n.8.
Southern India, temple architecture in, XVI. 32, n.8.
Southern Liang, a Tartar dynasty, XVII. 471, n.8.
Spearman, Major H. R., compiler of the " Burma Gazetteer,"
XIX. 556, n.s.
Specht, M., on the question of the Ye-tha, XVI. 279, n.8.
Speijer, Dr., on Sanskrit syntax, XIX. 328, n.8.
Sphinxes, avenue of (Rainier), Trans. III. 268.
Spindu or Poi, notice of, XII. 240, n.s.
Spottiswoode, W., on the supposed discovery of the principle
of the Differential Calculus by an Indian Astronomer,
XVII. 221, 0.8. ; on the Surya Siddhanta and the Hindu
method of calculating eclipses, XX. 345, o.s. ; life of,
XVI. XV, n.s.
182 SPR— STA
Sprenger, Dr. A., the Ishmaelites and the Arabic tribes who
conquered their country, VI. 1, n.8. ; the campaigii of
-^IiuB Gallus in Arabia, 121 ; recent work by, from Arab
geographers, X. 159, n.8.
Sraddha. IT. 23, n.s,
Sragdharastotra, VIII. 22, w.«.
Sragdharastotra-tlka, VIII. 23, w.«.
Sri, 11. 24, n.«.
Sri chakra, VI. 253, n.s,
6ri-ghai^a, VIII. 19, w.«.
6rl-ghanta, VIII. 28, n.s.
Sri Gopa Raja, VII. 157, n.8.
jSrI-gupta, VIII. 27, «.«.
Sri Harsha era, XII. 43, o.a,
6ri-jnana, VIII. 46, ».«.
Srikshetra, the country of, identified by Capt. St. John in
1872 with old Tung-oo and Sandoway, in Burma, XIII.
563, «.«.
Srinivasi-malla, VIII. 11, n.8.
Sri Fanchami, IX. 79, o.s,
Srirangam, magnificent pagoda at, XIV. 302, n.s.
Sri-vajracharya, VIII. 7, u.s,
Srong-btsan, a king of Tibet, XVII. 474, n,8.
Srotapatti, I. 7, n.8.
Ssanang Setzen, VII. 229, n.8.
Stacku, III. 5, 0.8.
Stadium, the Greek, XI. 150, n.s,
Stallybrass, E., and Swan, W. (missionaries in Siberia, etc.),
translate the Old and New Testament into Mongolian,
XIV. 64, n.8.
Stanley of Alderley, Lord, account of an embassy from
Morocco to Spain in 1690 to 1691, III. 359, n.s.; the
poetry of Mohamed Kabadan, of Arragon, III. 81, 379,
n.8.; ly. 138, n.8.; V. 119, 303, n.s.; VI. 165, ».«.;
Mr. Baillie's paper "On the duty of Mohammedans in
British India," XIII. 435, n.8.
Star-names of the Cuneiform inscriptions, XVIII. 410, n.8.
Star-worship, origin of various Chinese legends, XVIII. 8, n.s.
Stars, some of the ancient Arabic names for, still preserved,
XIII. 247, n.8.
Statins, said to have been the first writer to call the Emperor
King, IX. 322, n.s.
Stannton, Sir G. T., his observations at the anniversary
meeting, I. 157, 167, cs.; III. lv, o.s.; see footnote,
appendix, IV. xxxviii, o.s.
STE— SUB 183
Steam navigation between India and Europe, I. 161, 0,8.
Steel-yard, on the means of testing it, and of correcting it>
when erroneous, IX. 306, ».«.
Steele's "Hindu Castes," XIII. 231, n.«.
Steere, Mr., the ancient MSS. of Pepohwan, XIX. 417, n.«.
Steinscheider, Dr., letter to Dr. Hoth, on Al Kindy, XIV. 17,
n,8,
Stenzler, M., notice of, XIX. 527, n.«.
Steuart, Captain J., account of the pearl fisheries of Ceylon,
Trans. III. 452.
Stevenson, J. A. R., on the Phansigars, I. 150, 280, o,s, ; on
the ante-Brahmanical worship of the Hindus in the Dekkan,
V. 189, 0.5. ; VI. 239, o.«. ; on the intermixture of
Buddhism with Brahmanisro in the religion of the
Hindus of the Dekkan, VII. 1, 0.8, ; on the Bauddho-
Vaishnavas of the Dekkan, 64 ; on the Marathi language,
84 ; on the modem deities worshipped in the Dekkan, 105 ;
Analysis of the Ganesa Purana, VIII. 172, 0,8 ; ante-
Brahmanical religion of the Hindus, 330 ; edits the Ealpa
Sutra, IX. 164, n,s.
Stewart, Major C, biographical sketches of Jehangir and his
consort, I. 325, o.«.
Stewart, Sir Donald, Chief Commissioner of the Andamans in
1874, XIII. 469, n.8.
Stewart, John Roberts, two plates of coins presented to the
Royal Asiatic Society by, IV. 273, o.s.
Stieng language, dictionary of the, XIX. 331, 707, w.«.
Stockholm, arrangements for the Oriental Congress to be held
at, XIX. 542, n.8.
Stoical doctrine and Buddhism, comparison between, XVI.
267, n.8.
Stone age, relic of the, XVII. 438, n.8.
Stone men of Corea, the, XIX. 553, n.8.
Stone seal, containing the oldest known Indian writing, XVII.
440, n.8.
Stotrasangraha, VIII. 23, n.8.
Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, Journal of the,
papers in, XIII. xxix, n.8. ; XIV. xliv ; XVI. Liii ;
XVII. Li; XVIII. LXii; XIX. 159.
Strangford, Viscount, on the language of the Afghans, XX.
52, 0.8.
Strassmaier, Dr., Cuneiform contract tablets published by,
XIX. 633, 650, n.8.
Stupa, I. 483, n.8.
Subha, VII. 197, n.8.
184 SUB— SXJR
Subhi Pasha, His Excellency, life of, XVIII- lii, v.s.
Subhuti, I. 2, n.8.
Sudras in Bali, of mixed origin, Balinese and Javanese, L
81, n.8.
Sufi mysticism, XIX. 538, n,8.
Sugar-cane of Tennasserim, III, 34, o.«.
Sugatavadana, VIII. 12, tt.s,
Sugatavasishtha-samvada, VIII. 14, «.«.
Suhap i Ibrahim, biography of poets, IX. 158, o,s.
Siyaya-S'ri-Gupta, VIII. 27, n,8.
**S'uka-sande8ah" or Suka-duta, the "Parrot Messenger,"
a poem by Lakhsmi-dasa, with preface and notes in English,
by H.H. the Maharaja of Travancore, XVI. 401, «.«.
Sukhavatlvyuha, VIII. 17, n.8, ; list of the Sanskrit MSS. of,
XII. 164, n.fi.
Sultan, the title of, IX. 370, n.8.
Sultana, a word of Western origin, probably created by the
Greeks : so " Shahana " comes from " Shah," IX. 379, «.«.
Sumana (the white Jasmine), possibly the origin of the
name Sumanakuto, XV. 339, n.8.
Sumatra, Batta race in, Trans. I. 486 ; II. 43, o.s.
and the Malay Peninsula, XIII. 498, n.8.
Sumerian language, explanation of the tablet of grammatical
forms of the, XVII. 81, n.8,
" Sumerian Language and its Affinities," by Prof. Hommel,
XVIII. 351, n.5.
Sumerian influence on the Cuneiform syllabary, XIX. 639, M.
Sumir-emi, possibly the Semiramis of the Greeks, XII*
71, n.8.
Sumiyoshi-monogatari, a Japanese love-story, XIX. 43, n.8.
Sum-ukin, king of Babylon, XIX. 673, n.8.
Sundanese, chrestomathy of, by C. J. Grashuis, XIV. cvi, «•«•
Sundara, III. 206, o.s.
Pandiyan, the age of, XIX. 573, n.8.
Sung dynasty, the third, chiefly in Southern China snd
purely Chinese, XV. 439, n.8.
Emperor, becomes tributary to the £ins, IX. 289, n.s.
Sunga dynasta, IV. 122, n.8.
Sung-yun's account of the Ye-tha, XIX. 200, n.8.
Sim-god, characteristics of the, XVIII. 475, n.8.
Sun-worship amongst the Jews, XVIII. 390, n.8.
Supracretaceous rocks, XII. 86, o.8.
Sur Das, the Braj Bhasha poet, XVIII. 208, n.8.
Suranum, village of. III. 173, 0.8.
Surasena, VII. 96, n.8.
SUR— SVA 185
Surashtra, VII. 94, n.8. ; on the Sah kings of (Thomas), XII.
1, n.8.
Surat, hospital for animals at, I. 96, o.8.
Sarmah, the name given to any black substance used for the
eyes, XIII. 497, n.«.
Surnames, the commencement of the use of, clearly traceable
to feudal times, XIII. 260, n.8. ; according to Camden, not
settled among the common people till the reign of Henry
II., 261 ; not usual in Wales till a comparatively late
period, 261.
Surround, the game of, a Chinese variation of the game of
chess, XVII. 356, n.8.
Surya, I. 113, n.«.
Suryaprabha, VIII. 28, n.«.
Sus, in Morocco, notices of the province of, IV. 116, 0.8. ;
arms used by the people of, 126.
Susa, summary of M. Dieulafoy*s exploration of, XVIII.
Lxxxiii, 552, n.8.
Susiana, inscriptions of, XII. 482, o,8.
Susu language of Africa, XIX. 686, n.8.
Sutkagen Dor, ruins, etc., at, IX. 122, n.8.
Sutlej valley, XVI. 16, n.8.
Sutra of the Forty-two Sections, translated from the Chinese,
XIX. 32, 0.8.
literature, the, succeeded immediately that of the Vedas,
XIIL 105, n.8.
Suttas, quoted by M. Frankfurter, taken from the Samyutta
Nikaya, XII. 548, n.s.
Suvarnapanari-raahanagara, VIIL 17, n.s.
Suvarnapa^ari-nagara, 47, VIII. n.s.
Suvarnaprabhasa, VIII. 7, 17, n.8.
Suyematsu's translation of the Genjimonogatari, XIX. 37, 43,
n.8.
Suyetake, name of a character in a Japanese legend, XVII.
7, n.s.
Svami-Narayana, the reformer of the Vaishnava Faith, XIV.
309, n.s.
Svarvaidya, VIII. 24, n.8.
Svastika, the, apparently of Western Asian origin, XVIII.
391, n.8.
Svayambhuchaitya-bhattarakoddesa, VIII. 15, 19, n.8.
Svayambhuchaitya-samutpattikatha, VIII. 20, n.s.
Svayambhudharmadbatusamutpattinidanakatha, VIII. 19, n.s.
Svayambhuddesa, VIII. 19, n.s.
Svayambhiipurana, VIIL 14, 15, 19, n.s.
186 SVA— SZE
Svayambhusamuddesa, YIII. 19, n.«.
Svayambhiitpatti-katha, VIII. 19, n.s.
Svayambhutpatti-samuddesa, VIII. 20, n.«-
Swabbavika, quotations in proof of the, II. 295, o.«.
Swamy, Sir Mutu Coomara, life of, XI. vi, n.s.
Swanetian, vocabulary of, XIX. 146, n.«.
Swanston, Captain C, memoir of the Church of Malayala by,
I. 171, 0.8. ; II. 234, o.«.
Swastika, the Buddhist emblem (illustrated), XIX. 244, fl.«.
Sword- blades, Damascus, IV. 187, o.«. ; watering of Jowher
of the, ibid. ; attempts at imitating the, ibid. ; causes of, 189.
Syagrus, XIX. 294, o.8.
Syama-jataka, VIII. 14, n.s.
Sykes, Col. W. A., description of the wild dog of the Western
Ghats, Trans. III. 406 ; on the Kolisurra silkworm of the
Deccan, ibid. ; on the identity of the ornaments worn by
the Brinjaries, with those on figures in the Carli Cave
Temples, 451 ; Taluable survey of the Dekkan by, I.
158, 0.8 ; on the land tenures of the Dekkan, II. 205,
0.8. ; III. 350, 0.8. ; inscriptions from the Boodh caves
near Joonur, IV. 287, o.s, ; on the three-faced busts of
Siva in the Cave Temples of Elephanta near Bombay, and
EUora near Dowlatabad, V. 81, o.8. ; on the state of India
before the Mohammedan invasion, VI. 48, o.s. ; ancient
inscription at Sanchi, near Bhilsa, 246 ; on a catalogue of
Chinese Buddhist works, IX. 199, o.s. ; miniature Chaitp«
and inscriptions from Samath, XVI. 37, 227, o.s. ; traits
of Indian character, XVII. 223, 0.8. ; note on Buddhist
golden relics discovered at Rangoon, 299.
Syncellus's chronology of Africanus, XVIII. 379, o,s.
Synod of Udiampe, I. 186, o.s.
Syriac literature, XIII. ci, n.s. ; XIV. lxxxix ; XV. lxxix ;
XVI. lxxxix; XVII. xcv; XVIII. cii, 554; XIX. 177,
535, n.s.
Syriac MSS. recently discovered, XVIII. cm, n.s.
Syrian and Arabian inscriptions collected by Prof. Euting,
summary of their nationality, XVIII. cxxxviii, n.8.
Christians of Malayala, I. 171, o.s. ; 11. 51, 234, o.s.
proverbs, a collection of, XIX. 698, n.8.
Szema devotes the 123rd chapter of his book to a descriptioa
of Dawan and of the adjacent countries, X. 296, n.s.
Szetchuen, the Lolos of, have lost the knowledge of their oU
alphabet, XVII. 441, w.«.
T— TAL 187
T, the prefix, in the Semitic languages, XIV. 114, n.s.
Ta tung fu, the western capital, submits to the Kin troops,
IX 281, n.8.
Tabakah-i-Na9irI, III. 438, n.8.
Tabari, as edited by Zotenberg, XI. 25, n.«. ; Khosru and his
son Shirujieh, 165.
Tabaristan (Thomas), V. 408, n.s,
Tabasseran language spoken in the Caucasus, XVII. 157, n.a.
Tabnit, inscription of ting, XIX. 705, w.a.
Tabriz, establishment of a printing press at, I. 323, o.s.
Taddhitapatala, VIII. 45, n.s.
Tahir of Nasrabad, biography of poets, IX. 137, o.s.
Tai group, comprehends the Ahom, Khamti, Shan, Lao,
Siamese and Tai Mow, X. 27, n.s ; XII. 250, fi.8.
Taj Mahal, measurement of, VII. 54, o.s,
Tai-ul-Maasir, III. 433, n.s.
Taketori, a Japanese story, XIX. 37, n.8. ; various editions of
the, 44 ; Komanized translation of the, 46.
Takhallus or Maklas, fancy names assumed by poets, XI. 227,
n.s.
Takhara, VI. 94, n.s.
Takht-i-Baki, inscription of, VII. 376, n.s.
Takht-i-Rustam, architectural details at (illustrated), XVIII,
344, n.s.
Takpa, Gyarung, and three other Trans-Himalayan languages,
have words in common with the Tibetan, X. 25, n.s.
Takshasila, XIX. 202, n.s.
Talbot, H. Fox, translations of Assyrian inscriptions, XVIII.
35, o.s. ; reason for presenting them to the Society at once,
ibid. ; transcription and Latin translation of Birs-Nimrud
inscription, 36; English translation of, 41; commentary
on, 42 ; additional note on, 104 ; note on site of Borsippa,
50 ; Mr. Oppert's translation of, 51 ; remarks on inscription
of Michaux, 52 ; transcription and Latin translation of,
54; English translation of, 61; commentary on, 62; M.
Oppert's translation of, 74; remarks on inscription of
Bellino, 76; translation of: annals of Sennacherib, 77;
transcription of, 83 ; observations on, 87 ; letter proposing
comparative translations of Tiglath-Pileser's inscription,
150 ; deposits four sealed packets of translations of Cunei-
form inscriptions, xi ; additional notes, 362 ; on Michaux
inscription, 364; on Bellino, 365; addenda, 367; trans-
lations of Assyrian texts by, XIX. 124, 261, o.s.; contribu-
tions towards a glossary of the Assyrian language, III. 1,
n.s. ; IV. 1, n.s.
188 TAL— TAO
Talbot, Capt. the Hon. M. G., "Discovery of Caves on tk
Murghab," XVIII. 92, n.a.; "The Kock-cut Cayes and
Statues of Bamlan,'' 323; his first letter to Mr. W.
Simpson, 329 ; his second letter, 344.
Taleb Sidi Ibrahim ben Muhammed el Messi, the personal
narrative of the, including some statistical and political
notices of that extreme south-west country of Moroco^
IV. 116, 0,8.
Tales, Chinese, analysis of, I. 307, o.s.
Ta-lih, the translator of the Ufe of Buddha, probably lived
about A.D. 150, X. 355, n,8.
Talismans, inscriptions on the orthodox, always passaga
from the Koran, etc., XI. 122, n.«. ; remarkable one in
the possession of the late Colonel Guthrie, and description
of, 123.
TalUes, use of, XVII. 430, n.8.
Talmena, part of, is identifiable with Taluman or Chahbar,
XI. 140, n.8.
Talmud, French version of the, XVIII. lxxxvi, n.s.
Tamar, Queen of Georgia, IX. 367, n.8.
Tamba, a province in Japan, XVII. 1, n.8.
Tamil alphabet, independent of Sanskrit, XIX. 566, n.8.
language, X, 4, n.8. ; grammar of, by Dr. Popc^ and
dictionary by Mr. Rottler, XI. 63, n.s. ; two theories of
the origin of the, XIX. 559, n.8.
literature, XVII. cviii, n.8.
the pre-Sanskrit element in ancient, XIX. 558, n.8.
Milton's Paradise Lost translated into, XIII. xxviu,
n.8.
Tamils, the customs of, duly preserved by the successive
governments of Ceylon, XIII. 236, n.8.
Tamluk, VI. 243, n.8.
Tammana Nuwera, site and ruins of, VI. 242, o.s.
Tamralipti, VI. 243, n.s.
Tan Saban, legend of the death-wound of, XIII. 506, n.s.
Tanaka Daishu, his edition of the Taketori, XIX. ^i
n.8.
T'ang dynasty, two histories of, preserved, compiled by the
officers of the State Historiographical Office, XII. 436, n.8.;
the old, compiled in 110 books from a.d. 713-741, 437;
final close of, in a.d. 907, XIII. 148, n.8.
Tantranidanarahasya, VIII. 29, n.8.
Tantraslokasangraha, VIII. 40, n.s.
Tanukh, VI. 18, n.8.
Taoist doctrines, XVII. cxx, n.8.
TAO— TATT 189
Taou*kwang, Emperor of China, his nomination in 1821,
Trans. III. 131.
Taoii, the, in Baluchi " teeh," i.e. slaves, XI. 145, w.«.
Taouism of the Chinese, III. 285, o.s.
Taprobane, XVIII. 362, o.«.
Taqsim-jamas, XIX. 498, n,s.
Tarabhattaraka, VIII. 23, n,9.
Tarabhattarika, VIII. 23, «.«.
Taranchi language, XVIII. 185, n.a.
Targum Onkelos, the, XVII. lxxiv, n.«.
Tarastotra, VIII. 25, n.a.
Tarawih, the long night service of the Eamadhan, meaning
of, XII. 7, n.a.
Tarikh el Mostabsir, VI. 21, 25, w.«.
Tarikh-i-Afaghanah, III. 447, n s.
Tarikh-i-al-i-Sabuktagin, III. 422, n.a.
Tarikh-i-Baihaki, III. 422, n.s.
Tarikh-i-Chaghatai, III. 470, n,8.
Tarikh-i-Firoz-Sbahi, III. 441, n.s.
Tarikh-i-Khafi Khan, III. 464, n.s.
Tarikh-i-Rashidl, III. 426, n.8.
Tarikh-i-Yamini, III. 424 n.s.
Tarku, inscription of, XIV. 675, n.s.
Tarshish, XVIII. 350, o.s.
Tarsus, seal found near, XIX. 699, n.s.
Tartar and Turk, taken generally, mean "Nomad, Turcoman,
Bedouin/' etc., XIV. 153, n.s.
languages, intensity shown by the reduplication of the
original root in, XIV. 132, n.s.
on the name of, XIV. 126, n.s.
Tartary, western, notices of (Davis), Trans. II. 197.
Tassy, Garcin de, memoir of, XI. xi, n.s.
Tata, the universal form for ''Tartar" adopted in the Celestial
Empire, XIV. 143, n.s.
Tatar, not a genuine Tartar word, XIV. 129, n.s.
Tatars, massacre of, by Russians, XVIII. 414, o.s.
Tattooing, poculiar style among the Gwambas, XVI. 46, n.s.
Tattvajnanasiddhi, VIII. 35, n.s.
Tattvajnanasiddhi'fippai^i, VIII. 35, n.s.
Tattva-Muktavali, a vigorous attack on the Vedanta system,
XV. 137, n.s. ; the text of, 139 ; translation of, 155.
Tau, the Egyptian emblem, is apparently the half triSula,
XVIII. 396, n.«.
Taurus symbol explained, XVIII. 402, n.s.
Tausch, Charles, notice of the Circassians by, I. 98, o.s.
190 TAV— TEM
Tavemier^ his estimate of the value of '' The Great Taihk
Diamond," XIX. 496, n.s.
Tavoy, account of the province of, III. 26, o.s, ; trade of,
288 ; pagodas of, 328.
Tay lards (i.e. men with tails), evidence in favour o^ XH.
453, n.8.
Taylor, G., his work on the aborigines of Formosa, XII
457, n.s.
Taylor, Rev. Isaac, general views of, on the origin of the
Indian alphabet, XYI. 847, n.8.; advocates the Sabenn
origin of the South Asoka alphabet, 350.
Taylor, J. E., on the ruins of Muqeyer, XV. 260, o.s. ; notoi
on Abu Shahrein and Tel el Lahm, 404.
Taylor, Col. Meadows, sketch of the topography of East ani
West Berar, in reference to the production of cotton, XX.
1, 0.8. ; life of, IX. vi, n.8.
Taylor, Capt. R,, notes to account of ruins of Ahwaz, Tnan
tL208.
Taylor's cylinder, I. 169, n.«.
Tayma, VI. 13, n.8.
Tayy, VI. 17, n.s.
Tcharitapoura, VI. 245, n.8.
Tchen, meaning of the word, XVII. 469, n.8.
Tea, on the production of, in Assam, XIX. 315, o.«.
Tea-plant in China, XII. 125, o.s. ; specimens of, sent from
Nipal to Dr. Wallich in 1816, X. 133. n.8. ; approved by
London merchants, as sent from India in 1842?-3 by Dr.
Falconer and Mr. Jameson, X. 142, n.s.
Tea-plantations, list of private, in the Dehra Dun, with
memoir, in 1874, by G. R. C. Williams, X. 149, n.8.
Tedmur, the famous city, XIX. 589, n.s.
Teika, the collector of the "Hundred Odes," about a.d. 1213,
X. 327, n.8.
Tel el Lahm, notes on, by J. E. Tavlor, XV. 412, o.s.
Telfair, C, I. vi, o.s.
Tell Nebesheh, recent discoveries at, XVIII. cxxix, n.s.
Teloni, Dr. Bruto, his Assyrian Chrestomathy, XIX 699,
n.s.
Telugu, grammar (Arden), and grammar and dictionary
(Brown), XI. 65, n.s.
literature, XVII. cviii, n.s.
vocabulary, XIX. 562, n.s.
Temah, VI. 11, n.s.
Temperature of Constantinople, XIX. 30, o,8. ; of Bangalore,
350.
TEM— THI 191
g t Temple, Capt., *' On the Trade Dialect of the Naggash," XVII.
xIt, fi.«. ; " Wide-Awake Stories," cxxvi ; his remarks on
^ Pan jab folklore, 381 ; " Legends of the Panjab " quoted,
393.
g Temple, Sir Grenville, on a Phoenician Inscription found near
Tunis, Trans. III. 548 ; letter of, on Phoenician inscriptions,
, IV. 135,o.«.
Temple, a, found in nearly eyery Himalayan village, XVI.
c 14, n.«.
J the Buddhist, an apparatus of saint- worship, its
only ritual, XIV. 226, n.«.
Temples not mentioned in the Mahabharata, XIV. 219, n.«.
Temples, the orientation of, XVIII. 425, w.«.
; Ten tribes of Israel, an enquiry into the fate of the, IV.
c 217, 0.8.
Tenjiku=Northem India, XIX. 6, n.«.
Tennasserim, history of (Low), II. 248, o.s. ; HI. 25 ; IV.
* 42 ; V. 141, 262.
Tenure of land in British India, on the laws affecting the,
I. 158, 0.8.
Terantief, M., grammar of languages spoken in Central Asia,
XVIIL 187, n.8.
Teredon, XIX. 295, o.8.
Termedh, VI. 99, n.8.
Tertiary rocks, XII. 86, o.8.
Teruvalluvor, memoir of, I. 141, o.s.
^ Tesa, doubtless the present Tes, the chief town on the Makran
' coast when Marcian wrote, XL 146, n.8.
Teshu Lama, of Tibet, sends an embassy to Warren Hastings
to intercede for the Bhutanese, X. 121, n.8.
Tetala, expedition against tribe of, XIX. 246, o.a.
Tewarik Berbers, expedition against tribe of, XIX. 246, 0.8.
Tezerwelt, notipe of the district of, IV. 118, o.s.
Thai tsu, VII. 315, n.s.
Thales, eclipse of, XVIIL 137, o.s.
Thapas, IV. 180, n.«.
Thatta, Sindhian city of, L 206, o.8.
Thea, or Camellia plant, no true specimens of, found growing
wild west of Sikkim, X. 133, n.s.
Theebaw's Pali and Burmese MSS. now in the India Office
Library, XIX. 331, n.s.
Theobald, W., on the coins of Kunanda, XIX. 341, n.s.
Theodores T., memoir of, XVIIL lii, n.s.
Thesaurus Syriacus, XIX. 183, n,s.
Thibet, disposal of the dead in, VI. 28, n.8.
192 THO— THU
lliooM^ R,'' Coins of Hmda Kings of Eaml,'' IX. 177.«x:
''CoinsoftheEinf»s<^Ghanii,"267; «' On tlie Sak Ki&ss
of Snnshtn,'* XIL 1, o^ ; '^ On the PdilTi Coins of xht
EsriT Mohsmmedsns," 253; "SoppkiDentajy Paper s
the 'CoinM of the Kings of (Huumi," XTU. 13a qjl;
''Bsctrian Coins," XX. 99, o^; ''On the Identity of Xsft-
dnmes and Kansnds," L 447, uji. ; ** Initisl Coinage d
Bengal," XL 145, n^ ; << Saaaanian InscriptioQS," III. 24L
na.; '^ Indo-Partbian Coins," 17. 503, jia ; " Inital
Coinage of Bengal," TL 339, «^; ''Xoteon m Jaik
Drinking Vessel of the Empeior Jalu^igir," TXL 384, ma,:
** Bactrian Coins and Indian Dates," IX. 1, n^M^ ; ^ Eai^r
Faith of Afioka," 155 ; '' The Bock-cnt Phiygian InacrqH
tions at Doganio," X 361, n^.; <'0n the Positioo of
Women in the East in Olden Time," XL 1, «.#. ; the
Epoch of fhe Guptas, XIIL 524, a^.; «'0n the Indiaa
Balhara and the Arabian Interconise with India is
the ninth and following centuries," XIV. xxxir, a^;
** Parthian and Indo-Sassanian Coins," XV. 73, a^a. ; ''The
Bivers of the Vedas, and the Waj the Arjrans £ntered
India," 357 ; memoir of, XYIII. xcnx, 546, n^.
Thomas the Apostle, introdoction of Christianity into Indn
by, I. 173, 0.8. ; martyrdom of, 174.
Thomas, St., Saxon life of, XYI. 263, nji.\ stonr of, in
''The Golden Legend," ibid, ; probably laboured, if at all,
in North-West India, 264.
Thorns, P. P., description of ancient Chinese vases, I. 57, oji, ;
n. 166, O.B.
Thorbum, S. S., "Bannu," XVII. 406, «.«.
Thoresby, Colonel Charles, life of, XX. ix, o.t.
Thornton, T. H., ^ The Yemacnlar Literature and Folklore
of the Panjab," XVII. 373, «.».
Thorowgood, Mr., his excavations at Pallavaram, XEX 6M,
n.%.
Thousand and One Nights, most of the names in, of Arab
origin, XIII. 279, n.n, ; tales of, a faithful picture of Arab
manners during the decline of the Khalifate, and in Egvpt,
279.
Thowdaurs of the Nilagiri hills, II. 36, o.b.
Tbuffs, notes on the, by Lieut. Reynolds, communicated by
Lieut.-Col. Smyth, IV. 200, o.s. ; method of killing their
yictims, 201 ; object of their ^worship, 202 ; considerable
number of them Musulmans, 203 ; symbol of their worship,
204 ; murderous acts of, 208 ; lug^ais, or grave diggers of
the, 209 ; division of their spoils, 210 ; languages of, 211 ;
THU— TIM 193
system of oommonicationy 212; impunity of their pro*>
ceedings, 213.
Thuparama, the oldest dagaba at Anuradhapura (Capper),
XX. ly n.8.
ThOpawaflisa, VII. 168, n.8.
Tiberius, Campaign in Asia, VI. 121, n.«.
Tibet, trade with, and ultimately, through it, with China ;
not apparently dangerous, X. 115, n.a.; the roads to,
present no insuperable difficulties, 123; the people of,
quiet, inoffensive, but brave, 125; the key to Chinese
history and institutions, to be found in, 126 ; much trade
with China vi& Singanfoo, but roads impassable in winter,
ibid. ; independent tribes to the JS. of, 311 ; first heard of
by the Chinese at the end of the sixth century a. p., XII.
436, n.8. ; during Ming Dynasty, usually called Wussiitsang,
^id. ; European name of, derived from Muhammedan
sources, ibid. ; knotted cords used as a substitute for writing
in, XVII. 425, n.8.; the alphabet in, 470; various sub-
stitutes for writing used in, 425.
Tibet and Mongolia, explorations in, XVII. lxxi, n.8.
Tibetan glossary (Schlagentweit), XX. 67, 0.8.; language, for-
mation of tenses in, generally dependent on certain prefixed
letters, X. 12, n.8. ; language, grammar by M. Jaeskhe,
XI. 67, n.8. ; dictionary of, XIII. lxviii, n.8. ; chronology,
tables referring to, always derivable from Buddhist sources,
=* XII. 438, n.8. ; literature, XVI. xcix, n.8. ; XVII. cvii, 388,
n.8. ; charms, 462 ; epic poem, 457 ; origin of the Mo-so
s- writing, 463.
Tibetans, their ancient mode of communication, XVII. 420,
n.8.
Tibeto-Burman, dialects of, X. 13, n.8.
-' languages, by Major Fryer, Capt. Forbes, Mr. St. Barbe,
and others, XI. 68, n.8.
> Tiesenhausen, M., note from, on coin published by S. L,
Poole, IX. 137, n.8. ; letter from, to Mr. Edward Thomas,
* XV. 82, ii.a.
Tiglath-Pileser, inscription of, translations of, prepared by
- jDr. Hincks, Dr. Oppert, Mr. Fox Talbot, and Sir Henry
Rawlinson, to be sent sealed to the committee, XVII. ix, 0.8. ;
inscription of, XVIII. 122, 150, o.8.
^ ■ (III.)* ^^g oi Assyria, usurps the throne of Babylon,
XIX. 673, n.8.
* Timber of Martaban, III. 37, o.8.
' Timor Island, method of making records in, XVII. 424, n.8.
I Timpallam, III. 168, o.8.
VOL. XX. — [kbw ssaiBS.] N
c
194 TIM— TOP
Timur, his invasion of India, IX. 360, n.«.
Tiiipatala, VIII. 45, n,8.
Tin-jiit, or Tin-yue, explanation of the compoand, XIL
192, w.«.
Tiomberombi, a Nicobar tale, XVII. xlv, n.«.
Tipuns, the, of Formosa, peculiar marital custom of, XIX
457, «.«.
Tirtha, meaning of the word, XIV. 220, n.s.
Tiruchuli, town of. III. 176, o.s.
Timmalla Nayak, choltri of. III. 212, o.8.
Tirupalagadi, III. 172, o.s.
Tiruvalluvah Narayanah, his Sacred Kurral, XVIII. 561, «.«.
Tiruvalluvar, a great Tamil poet. III. 217, o,s. ; XVII. 166,
n.8.
Titles, Greek, use of the words Kvpuy;^ heairorrj^ and airo-
tepaTwp, IX. 419, n.8.; Muhammadan, 359 ; Sassanian, 363.
Tobacco cultivated in Tennasserim, III. 32, o.«.
Tod, Col. J., account of Greek, Parthian, and Hindu coins and
medals found in India, Trans. I. 313 ; account of aSansknt
inscription relative to the last Hindu king of Dehli, 133,
461 ; on the religious establishment of Mewar, Trans. IL
270 ; on sculptures in the cave temples of EUora, 328 ; on
a gold ring of Hindu fabrication found at Montrose, 559;
comparison of Hindu and Theban Hercules, Trans. lU-
139.
Toddy, process of making sugar from. III. 243, o,s.
Togen senseki, a Chinese legend quoted from, XIX. 40,
n.8.
Toghan Shah, Emir of Nisabur, coins of, published by S. L-
Poole, IX. 140, n.8.
Tokharistan, geography of, VI. 92, 278, n.8.
Tokke lizard, III. 52, o.s.
Tokugawa dynasty of Japan, XVII. 2, n.s.
Tolkapiyyam, a Tamil grammar, the oldest grammatical work
extant, XIX. 538, n.s. ^^
Tom-ba, or Tong-ba, the medicine-man of the Mo-so, XVII.
459, n.s.
Tomna, VI. 140, n.8.
Tomsk, inscriptions on the rocks of the, XVII. 422, n.8.
Tondaimandalam, province of, I. 293, o.s.
Tonde, town of, III. 172, o.s.
Tong-mi Samb'ota, legendary instructor of the Tibetans lo
Sanskrit, XVII. 474, n.s.
Toomsah, priest of the Kakhyens, XVII. 463, n.s.
Topawa-Topawaewa, VII. 156, n.s.
TOP— TBI 195
Topes of India, special characters of, that they have round
bases, XIV. 29, n.8, ; found west of India have square bases,
ibid. ; sculpture of, in Museum at Lahore, 30 ; oeyond the
Khyber had stairs leading to the top of the square base, 30 ;
value of the sculptured, as showing the form of the
Umbrellas in those of the Trans-Indus, 33.
Topographical charts, ancient, XVII. 43fi, n.«.
Topography of Nineveh, by Capt. Felix Jones, XV. 297, 0.8.
Toromana, IV. 110, n.«.
Tortoise shell of the Mergui Archipelago, III. 42, <7.«.
writing, XVII. 437, n.8.
Tou-lun, a Tatar, the first who adopted the title of Khan or
Ehacan, IX. 404, n.8.
Trade of Mergui, Tavoy, and Martaban, III. 287, 0.8.
Trade winds, III. 77, o.«.
Traill, G. W., sites for tea plants, X. 137, n.8.
Trans-Caspian language, XVIII. 182, n.8.
Translations, independent prepared versions of inscriptions of
Tiglath Pileser I., twelfth century B.C., XVII. ix, o.8.
■ from the Chinese of the Pratimoksha, XIX. 407, 0.8.
from the Pali of the Patimokhan, XIX. 415, o.8.
of an inscription of an ancient Hindu seal, III. 377, 0.8.
of inscriptions found at Kurda, III. 100, o.s.
of the Sutra of the Forty-two Sections, XIX. 337, 0.8.
of Chinese tales, I. 307, o.8.
of three copper-plate inscriptions, I. 447, n.8.
Translators, a college of, established on the accession of the
Ming dynasty in a.d. 1407, IX. 246, n.8.
Trant, W. H., account of the sands, Tran8. I. 261.
Trap in Southern India, IX. 20, o.8.
Travancore, H.H. the Maharaja of, LakhsmI Dasa's "Suka
Sandesah, with preface and notes in English/' edited by,
XVL40l,n.«.; life of, XVIII. XLviii, n.8.
Travancore, forests of, II. 332, o.8.
the Palace Library of, contains five Sandesahs, XVI.
403, n.8.
Trees, artificiallv-trained, XVIII. 471, n.8.
Triad Society of the Tien-ti-huih, of the Chinese, VI. 120,
0.8.
— — of China, VIII. 361, o.8.
Trial by lurjr, by Ram Raz, III. 244, o.8.
of skill, curious Hindi, XIX. 143, n.8.
Triangle, a Buddhist symbol, XVIII. 399, 0.8.
Tribal names, the multiplication of, well shown in a modem
history of the Sultans of Muscat, XI. 221, n.8.
196 TRI— TUL
Tribes, hill, of E. frontier of British India, lineage and list
of words, XII. 262, n.s.
N.E, of Thibet who feed their horses in winter on mat,
X. 315, n.8.
Tricariir, village of, II. 336, o.s.
Trimbukjee Manglia, XVIII. 243, o,8.
Trimurti or Trisakti, usually accepted meaning o^ in the
island of Bali, IX. 89, n.«.
Tripitaka, Buddhist, life of Buddha, in, translated by Talik,
X. 355, n.s. ; contains, also, a Chinese copy of the Dham-
mapada, 357.
Tri-Ratna, F. Pincott's article on the, XIX. 238, n.s.
Trisula, the Buddhist emblem, XVI. 16, n.s. ; XIX. 241, n.L
Trivalore, model of the Hindu Pagoda at, I. x, cs.
Triyanacharya, VIII. 28, n.s.
Triibner, N., Memoir of, XVI. xvii, n.s.
Trumpp, Rev. Dr., on the language of the Kafirs, XIX. 1,
O.S. ; on the declensional features of North Indian Ve^
naculars, 361 ; translation of the Adi Granth by, V. 197, nx;
memoir of, XVII. xxxit, w.«. ; extracts from the Intro-
duction to his translation of the Adi Granth, XVIIL 437,
n.s. ; his Brahiii Granmiar, XIX. 61, n.s.
T'sang history, itinerary from, XII, 538, n.s.
Tseng, Marquis, Chinese Minister at the Court of St. James,
works in Chinese presented by to R.A.S., XIII. xiii, «•«• J
his testimony as to the genuineness of the sculptures in the
Wu temple, XVIII. 470, n.s. ; ''Art, a Chinese version of
an English poem by H. W. Freeland," XIX. lS6,n.s.
Tsherkess language spoken in the Caucasus, XVII. 155, n.s.
Tshetshen or Tush language spoken in the Caucasus, S^VH*
157, n.s.
Ts'in 8hih Hwang Ti, third in the triad of great Chinamen,
XIX. 701, n.«.
Tsuh fu, * the instep,' Prof. Douglas' note on, XIX. 612, n.s.
Tsui-hwan dialect of Formosa, vocabulary of the, XIX. 487,
n.s.
Tsung-Ling Mountains, note on, XIX. 197, n.s.
Tsuna, name of a character in a Japanese legend, XVII. 7, n.s,
Tsunetaka, a Japanese artist, XVII. 3, «.«.
T'ubod, still the Mongolian name for Tibet, XII. 436, n.s.
Tufan (Tibetan), equivalent to T'ubod, XII. 435, n.s.
Tula language, grammar by Dr. Brigel, XI. 66, n.s.
Tul'sl Das, the famous Bais'waripoet, XVIII. 208, n.s. ; great
effect on the Hindu mind of his Ramayana, XI. 291, n.8' ;
XIX. 140, n.s.
TUN— UNJ 197
Tunis, note on the marbles of, XVIII. 48, n.B.
Turanian races, XL 3, n.«. ; XII. 218, n.«.
TvpavvovPTo^y this legend of value, as connected with the
Sah kings Nah^ana and Chastana, IX. 21, n,8.
Turkey, present of books by the Sultan of, XIX. 306, n.«.
Turkhan Eiiatun, account and ^old coin of, XI. 26, n,8.
Turki language, X. 308, n.s. ; XI. 94, n.a. ; XVII. 153, w.«. ;
XVIII. 178, n.s.
Turkish Inscriptions, XIX. 700, n.s.
literature, XII. civ, n.s. ; XIII. cxvi ; XIV. cxxv ;
XV. cxv; XVI. ex; XVIII. cxxiv, 564; XIX. 178, 330,
700.
^* Turkish Race," Vamb^ry's work on the, XIX. 330, n.s.
newspaper, circulation of the official, I. 162, o.s.
Turko-Tatar and Finn-Ugric, note on, XVIII. 465, n.s.
Tuuk, Van der, M., " On the Existing Dictionaries of the
Malay Language,'' I. 181, n.s. ; " Outlines of a Grammar
of the Malagasy Language," 469 ; " Malay M8S. belong-
ing to the Royal Asiatic Society,*' II. 85, n.s.; "Notes on
the Eawi Language and Literature, XIII. 42, 584, n.s.
Tvashtar, I. 131, n.s.
Tyre, population of, XIL 353, o.s.
Tytler, J., Persian mathematics and astronomy, IV. 254, o.s.
TJchimaro, a family of noted craftsmen who explain to Lady
Eaguya the falsehood of Prince Euramochi, XIX. 14, n.s.
TJchista, I. 372, n.s.
Ude language spoken in the Caucasus, XVII. 157, n.s.
XJdiampur, synod of Indian Christians at, L 186, o.s.
TJgrian nearly allied to Scythic, XV. 2, o.s.
Uigur MS., the "Kudatku Bilik,'' XVIII. 190, n.8.
Uighurs, in a.d. 1001, send an embassy seeking aid against
Ohao pao ki, XV. 449, n.s.
Ukln-zer (Chinzirus), king of Babylon, XIX. 673, n.s*
Ukiyah, an ounce of Egypt, weighs 571| to 576 grains, X.
110 n.s.
TJ ku nai (bom a.d. 1020), greatly extends the power of the
Kins or Jurchis, IX. 250, n.s.
Ulo, the Kin Emperor, letter from, XV. 469, n.s.
Ummanigas, king of Elam, XIX. 674, n.s.
TJnjuri, III. 423, n.8.
University at the Mosque al Azhar in Cairo, XIX. 229, n.s.
Un-jin in Oorea, description of a colossal statue at, XIX.
553, n.8*
198 TIPA— TJTE
Upanishad literature (Whitney), XIX. 700, n.«.
TJpas, or poison tree of Java, IV. 194, o.«.
TJpasampada-Eammavaca (Dickson), YII. 1, n.«.
TJpham, E., memoir of, I. v, o.«. ; his translation of the
Ratnacari, XV. 340, n s.
TJposhadhavadana, Till. 14, n,9,
Uppaya, a Deccan poetess, L 141, o.s.
Upper Asia, use of notched sticks by the nations of, XV IL
432, w.«.
-£r, the ancient origin of this termination in the names of
large towns and districts, XIX. 677, n.«.
Ural-Altaic or Finno-Tataric families of languages, fiv-e-fold
division of, XIV. 42, ».s.
Urardhian gods, alphabetical list of, XIV. 412, n.8.
Urardhu or Ararat, the name by which the kingdom of
Van is represented in the Assyrian inscriptions, XIV.
390, n.8.
Urdhu, name of the Armenian highlands 16th or 17th cent.
B.C., XIV. 392, n.8.
Urdu dictionary (Platts), XVIII. cxv, n.8.
Urdu-SindhI character, I. 40, w.s.
Uriya, grammar of, by Mr. Maltby, XI. 65, «.s.
Uriyas and Kondhs of Orissa, XVII. 1, o.s.
Urquhart, D., his investigations relative to ancient inter-
course between the Indian Ocean and Mediterranean Sea^
I. 161, 0.8.
Urtagu, king of Elam, XIX. 679, n.8.
Urzana, king of Mutsatsir, seal of, XIV. 673, n.8.
Usha, VI. 119, n.8.
Ushnlshavijaya-dharanI, VIII. 50, n.8.
Ussher's Hebrew Chronology, I. 167, n.8.
Usury, the taking of, strictly prohibited by the Koran, XIIL
430, n.8. ; according to Mohammedan Law means interest
at any rate and is not limited to loans of any special kind,
431 ; Mohammedan prohibition of, probably derived from
the Jews, who, however, were allowed to take it from
foreigners, ibid. ; only permitted to Mohammedans when
the country they are in is a Dar-ool-Hurb, 432.
Utsubo-monogatari, popularly ascribed to Minamoto Jun,
XIX. 42, n.8.
Uttara-kuru, the name of the most northern and coldest land,
whence the Aryans originally came, IX. 64, n.8.
Uttarayana, a Hindu religious festival, IX. 64, o.8.
Uye-tsu-fumi, the "history," only the usual Japanese myth-
ology with plenty of anachronisms, etc., XV. 321, n.8.
UZB— VAL 19»
XJzbeg Epos, translation from diflferent cantos of, XII. 370,
«.«. ; Turkish language of, very plain and unartificial, ibid. ;
MS. described by M. Vamb^ry of, belongs to the Imperial
Library at Vienna, and is dated a.d. 1510, 378 ; probably
the only one in Europe, ibid. ; the author of, known to
have been Prince Mehemmed Salih, of Kharezm, 375 ;
employed by Sheibani in various confidential missions,
377; Babers opinion of, naturally unfavourable as that
of an enemy, ibid.
Uzkend, the treasure city of the Kara Khitai, VIII. 276, n.8.
Vaccination, introduction of, into India, Trans. II. 64.
Vada-galai and Ten-galai, views of, XIV. 300, n.8.
Vadikavadana, VIII, 20, n.8.
? Vaggi or Sam-Vaggi, probably Scythians, XIV. 32, n.8.
■ Vagvajradasavajracharya, VIII. 17, n.8.
Vahni, III. 228, n.8.
Vaidalai, III, 170, o.8.
Vaihu, or Easter Island, inscriptions in, XVII. 442, n,8.
Vaishnava reformers advocate God's unity and personality in
the twelfth, thirteenth, fifteenth, and sixteenth centuries,
XIII. 2, n.8. ; system, great error of, the need of constant
avataras, ibid, ; religion, a characteristic of, the belief in
the plurality of incarnations, XIV. 297, n.s. ; sect, the
^ Bible of, the Bhagavata Purana, and the Bhagavad-Glta,
ibid. ; distinguished from the Saivas by the fact that their
frontal marks are perpendicular, 299 ; connection of with
Vedism, Brahmanism, and Saivism, 290; grew out of
Saivism, 294 ; the reason of its progress in India, 296 ;
the only Indian system which exhibits the elements of a
genuine religion, ibid. ; one special characteristic of, the
I tenderness to animal life, 299 ; emblem, the tortoise, XVIII.
r 403, n.8.
J Vaishnavas have their Vishnu-pad, but with different symbols
' from those of the Jainas, IX. 164, n.8,
^ Vajjians, speech attributed to Buddha, about them, XVI.
t 255, n.8.
Vajracbarya, VIII. 7, n.8.
I Vajrachhedika Sutra (Beal), I. 1, n.8.
Vajradatta, VIII. 23, n.8.
i Vajragurujivaharsha, VIII. 40, n.8.
Vajravidarani-dharani, VII I. 50, n.8.
Val, St;»^. = vana, Sansk.j VII. 41, n.8.
Vala (Bala), VIII, 24, n.8.
200 VAL— VAN
Valabhl era and dynasty, XII. 4, o.s,
Yalabhis, date of the assertion of supremacy by, XIII.
531, n.8.
Yalentinianus and Valens, inscriptions of, IX. 324, n.s.
Yallabha, the fourth great Yaishnava sect founded by, XIV.
306, n.9. ; Epicurean views of his disciples, 307.
Yally, a Deccan poetess, I. 141, o.a.
Yamanaka, YII. 97, n,8,
Yambery, A., "On the Uzbeg Epos," XII. 365, n.«. ; his
" Turkish Race," and reply to M. Hunfalvy on the Turko-
Tatar and Finn-Ugric question, XIX. 330, n.8.
Yan as late as b.c. 640 still in the hands of its native
monarchs, XIY. 409, w.«. ; citadel rock of, probability that
there were Hittite hieroglyphic inscriptions there, before
those of Sarduris I., 523; built by Argistis, the son of
Menuas, 570 ; the kingdom of, reached its highest power
under Argistis I., 570.
Yan, Cuneiform inscriptions of, by the Rev. E. Hincks, IX.
387, 0.8. ; XII. 475, o.s. ; XYIII. 567, n.8.
Yan den Berg, M. L. W. C, his " Hadhramout et les ColonieB
de I'Archipel Indien, XIX. 534, n.8.
Yan der Linde, " History of Chess," XYII. 353, n.«.
Yan der Tuuk, Dr. H. N., on the existing dictionaries of the
Malay language, I. 181, n.8. ; outlines of a grammar ol
the Malagasy language, 419 ; short account of the Malay
MSS. belonging to the Royal Asiatic Society, II. 85, n.s.
Yannic inscriptions, geography of, XIY. 388, n.8. ; kings
penetrated to the N. as far as Lake Erivan, 399 ; towns,
the most complete list of them in the inscription of Tiglath-
Pileser II., 401 ; kings reigned between Shalmaneser II.
and Tiglath-Pileser II., 402 ; inscriptions, history of, ibid. ;
inscriptions modelled after the Assyrian inscription of
Kurkh, 403 ; kingdom, the old, had ceased to be before
Alexander's conquests, 409 ; warriors, dress of, like the
Hittites, 411; inscriptions, theology of, 412; syllabary,
modified form of the ninth century Assyrian, 417; syllabary
and grammar, ibid. ; inscriptions, chief difficulties of, arise
from our faulty copies, 418; characters, history of, 420;
ideographs, list of, 421 ; determinatives, list of, 422 ; noun
has singular and plural ; at least, seven cases; but no gender,
427; declension of, 433; verb, notice of, 442; adverbs,
prepositions, etc., 444 ; syntax, 445 ; inscriptions, general
account of the mode of decipherment, 447 ; inscriptions of
uncertain date, 657; inscriptions, vocabulary from, 681;
syllabary, the, XIX. 653, n.8.
VAR— VED 201
Varada Chaturtbi, a Hindu religious festival, IX. 77, o.».
Varaguna, III. 210, o.s.
Varaha Mihira, 1. 408, n,8. ; VII. 81, w.«. ; his Brhat-Sanhita,
IV. 430, n.«. ; VI. 36, 279, n.8.
Vara Raja, III. 210, o,8.
Vararuchi, grammar of Prakrit by, in first century B.C., XT.
291, n.8.
Varuna, I. 77, n.8. ; the worship of, XIX. 576, n.8.
Vasconcellos-Abreu, paper by, on Indian myths, preserved in
the " Lusiadas," XIII. lxxviit, n.8.
Vases, ancient Chinese, I. 57, 213, o.s.
Vasishtha, the great rival of Vis warn itra, and, like him, the
author of many hymns, XV. 377, n.8.
Vasithi, names of the descendants of, preserved on many
coins of various devices, XI. 46, n 8.
Vasoo Charitra, an epic poem by Bhattu Murti, I. 139,
0.8.
Vastu, VIII. 9, n.8.
Vasubandha, VIII. 18, n.8.
Vasudeva, coins bearing the name of, XI. 163, n.8.
Vasudhara, VIII. 13, 43, n.s.
Vasudhara-devivrata, VIII. 13, n.s.
Vasudhara-dharanI, VIII. 41, 49, n.s.
Vasudhara- vrata, VIII. 13, n.s.
Vasugi, the wife of Tiravalluvar, the Tamil poet, anecdotes
of, XVII. 174, n.«.
Vasumitra, the President of the last Council held by Kanishka,
X. 359, n.8.
Vasundhara, VIII. 50, n.s.
Vasundhara-devivrata, VIII. 14, n.s.
Vatteluttu, a third Indian alphabet of foreign origin, XVI.
352, n.8.
Vatteruttu, the ancient Tamil alphabet, XIX. 567, n.s.
Vaux, W. S. W., late Secretary of the Royal Asiatic Society,
vote of thanks to, moved by Sir H. C. Rawlinson, XVII.
CLXV, n.s. ; tribute of Mr. R. N. Cust to, and minute of
the Council of the Royal Asiatic Society, clxix ; memoir,
XVIII. VI, n.s. ; Phoenician inscriptions from Carthage,
edited and translated by, XX. xiv, o.s.
Vayu, I. 108, n.8.
Veda, two tables giving the rivers mentioned in the, XV.
361, n.s.
Vedanta philosophy, the, XVIII. 143, n.s.
system (Kennedy), Trans. III. 412.
writers on the (Colebrooke), Trans. II. 3,
202 VED— VIJ
YedantiD, the, sees that the very oonception of absolute
being excludes duality, X. 36, n.8. ; acconling to, the beings
that is not God, is not being, ibid. ; attempts, in Brahma,
the conception of a deity freed from the slightest tincture
of material ideas, 39.
Yedas, beads used in reciting the, like the rosaries of the
Roman Catholics, IX. 73, «.«.
Max M tiller's suggestion of the division of the Rigveda
into Mandala and Anuvaka, etc., XYI. 381, n.H.
Veddah language, mentioned by Prof. Max Miiller to be a
corruption of Sanskrit, VIII. 131, n.n.
Vedic conception of the earth, XIX. 831, o,a.
gods (Muir, J.), I. 61, n.s. ; on Indo-Scythian coins, IX.
226, n.8.
hymns, first (apparently) collected by Krishna Dwaipa-
yana, the vyasa or arranger, XV. 368, n.8.
Vehicles used in Tennasserim, III. 31, o,8.
Velpu, the, or standard of the Eois, considered sacred, but
not actually worshipped, XIII. 418, n.8.
Vengi-Chalukya alphabet, XVII. 442, n.8.
Verbs, in Gaurian and Romance, notice of, XTI. 351, n.8.
Verbs and Verbals, in Eabail, Shilha and Tuarik, specimens
of, XII. 430, n.8.
Vernacular literature in India, XVIII. 662, n.8.
Vessels, native, of India and Ceylon, I. 1, o.8.
Vetal, on the worship of, V. 192, o.8.
Veterinary art, the, in ancient India, XVIII. lvii, n.8.
Victoria, address from the Royal Asiatic Society to Her
Majesty the Queen, XIX. 649, n.s.
Viddhal Dominion, at the time of its greatest prosperity^
extended from 96° to 109° E. long., X. 294, n.8.
Viddhals, the original Ephthalitae of the Greeks, X. 286, n.8.
Viduratha, VII. 117, w.«.
Vienna, the Oriental Congress at, in 1886, XIX. 186, n.8.
Vienna Oriental Journal, notice of the, XIX. 341, n.8.
Vigay river. III. 178, o.s.
Vigayanagar, provinces of. III. 226, o.8.
Vihara caves, VIII. 34, o.s.
Viharas, BuddhiBt, no longer visible in the Jelalabad vallev».
XIII. 196, n.8.
Vijaya, VII. 38, n.8.
Vijayaditya, IV. 94, 111, n.8.
Vijayanagar, account of the ruins of, XIX. 630, n.s.
Vijayaikadasi, a Hindu religious festival, IX. 77, o.s.
Vijayo, IV. 133, n.s.
VIK— VYA 203
Vikrama, III. 207, out.
Yikrama Raja Sinha, the last king of Eandy, YIII. 299, n,8.
Vikramaditya, IV. 87, «.«. ; XII. 268, n.s.
Tillage officers of Tondaimandalam, I. 298, o.«.
Vinayaditya, IV. 94, n.8.
Vinayarthasamuchchaya, VII. 171, n.a.
Vindhya mountains, Hindu law never administered south of,
XIII. 219, n,8,
Vindusara, creed of, said by the Ceylon authorities to be
Brahmanical, IX. 181, n.8.
Vinkhila, VI. 261, n.8.
Vinson, J., " Dictionnaire d'Anthropologie," XVII. 429, n.8.
Vira Pandyan, III. 207, o.8.
Viracholen, III. 175, o.«.
Viradattadeva, VIII. 46, n.8.
Viraj, I. 354, n.s.
Virashelai-ar, III. 177, o.s.
Virata Samvat of Mahavira 477 years anterior to Samvat of
Vikramaditya, Tran8. I. 211.
Viryasimha, VIII. 28, n.8.
Vishnu, natural sympathy with, as a God with human
feelings, XIV. 295, n.s, ; with the incarnations of, Krishna,
and Rama, the popular religion of India, 296 ; all sects
admit that devotion to, supersedes all distinctions of caste,
299.
Vishnu Purana recognizes the ezalted position of the Hetairai,.
XI. 36, n.8.
Visianagram, VI. 250, n.8.
Visvakarman, I. 343, n.8.
Viswamitra, a Kshattriya by birth, yet exercising the sacer-
dotal functions of a Brahman, X V . 375, n.8.
Vitthal Bhaktas of the Dekkan, VII. 64, 0.8.
Vocabularies of words in Formosan dialects, XIX. 473, n.8.
Vocabulary of the Qipsey language. Trans. II. 537.
Maldivian language, VI. 42, o.8.
Mo-so language, XVII. 465, n.8.
Volcanic rocks, age of the, XII. 78, o.s.
Vologesia, XIX. 295, o.8.
Vrijjis, the, evidently foreigners, of Sanchi sculpture, and
the term Lichchhavi, XVI. 256, n.8.
Vrishan, III. 208, n.8.
Vyadhiprasamanidharani, VIII. 41, n.8.
Vyakarana, VIII. 9, n.8.
Vyasa, analysis of the Sutras of. Trans. II. 10 ; the arranger
of the Vedas, a man of low caste, VI. 407, cs.
1204 VYA— WEL
Vyavastha-Ratnamalla, analysis of the, I. 119, o.s.
Vyse, G. W., "Geological Notes on the River Indus," X
317, «.«.
Wade, Sir T., convention lately made between him and Li-
hiing-Chang, X. 113, n.s. ; supplements that made at
Tientsin seventeen years ago, ibid. ; his collection of Chinese
books at Cambridge, XIX. 179, n.s. ; his note on Dr.
Edkins's paper on the priority of labial letters, 207.
Wales, Oghams of, XVlf. 434, n.s.
Walhouse, M. J., megalithic monuments in Coimbatore, VII.
17, n.«.
Wall of China, reason of the building, XIII. 132, n.s.
Nineveh, XV. 321, o.«.
Wallabhipura, notes on the ruins of, XVII. 267, o.s.
Wampum belts of the Iroquois, XVII. 426, n.8.
Wan Lu, the name of the " Literary or Polished Style " in
Chinese, XI. 260, n.8.
Warangal, VI. 261, n.s.
Waralis, account of, VII. 14, o.s.
Wasabha, VII. 197, n.8.
Wathen, W. H., on the ancient inscriptions found on the
western side of India, II. 378, o.8. ; translation by, of three
copper plates transmitted by Capt. Pottinger, III. 100, o.s.;
translation of inscriptions, IV. 109, 281, o.s. ; V. 173,
343, 0.8.
Watson, Major C. M., legends of Junagadh, XIII. 630, n.8. ;
" The Mosque of Sultan Nasir Mohammed ebn Ealaoun in
the Citadel of Cairo," XVIII. 477, n.8. ; his notes on the
School of Modem Oriental Languages at Paris, XIX
338, n.8.
Wawalin, VI. 100, n.8.
Wazifa, VII. 173, n.8.
Weber, Prof., letter from, to Mr. Cust, "On the Indian
Alphabet," XVI. 339, n.s.
** Wee-wee," the South Sea Islanders' synonym for French-
men, XIX. 380, n.8.
Wei chi, a Chinese variation of the game of chess, XVII.
366, n.8.
Wei dynasty of China, XVII. 471, n.8.
Weights, proportional, of derham and metqal, X. 266, n.s.
ancient Indian system of, II. 169, n.s.
Welikoi Knez, the usual title of the Russian rulers before
Vassm, IX. 352, n.s.
WEL— WIL 20&
Wellesley province in Lower Assam, IV. 102, o.«. ; popula-
tion of, 103; annual value of produce of, 104; fixed
property in, 105.
Wellesley, Sir Arthur, at Assaye, XVIII. 229, o.8.
Wenger, Rev. Dr., notice of, XIII. x, n.s.
Wen Wang, his labours for the explanation of the Th-King,
XV. 238, n,8.
Wentzel, Dr., on the introduction of writing into Tibet,.
XVII. 476, n.#. .
West, E. W., Sassanian inscriptions explained by the Pahlavl
of the Parsis, IV. 367, n.«. ; translation by, of the royal
title of Shahpur, IX. 364, n.s.
West Caucasian languages, vocabularies of five, XIX. 146, n,8.
Westergaard, Prof. N., letter respecting the Gabrs, VIII*
349, 0.8. ; memoir of, XIV. xi, n.8.
Wesyas, the caste of, now the most important in Bali,
originally that for commerce, agriculture, arts, and handi-
crafts, IX. 119, n.8.
Wharton, Capt. W. J. L., letter from, to Mr. J. W. Redhouse,
XII. 333, n.8.
Whinfield, E. H., his translation of Jalalu'd-din Rumi's
"Masnavi,'' XIX. 638, n.8.
Whish, J. C, donation of Sanskrit MSS., III. lxxiii, o.«.
Whish, C. M., on the Hindu quadrature of the circle. Trans.
III. 609.
White, Dr., account of a Jatra or fair 60 miles from Surat,
Trans. III. 372.
Whitney, Prof. W. D., on the Jyotisha observation of the
Place of the Golures, and the data derivable from it, I.
316, n.8. ; note by Sir Edward Colebrooke that the
Hindus derived the basis of their astronomy from the
Greeks, XIII. 643, n.8. ; his translation of the Katha
TJpanishad, XIX. 700, n.s.
Widows, no authority in the Vedas for the burning of, XVI.
201, 0 8.
Wiiaya-bahu, VII. 164, n.s.
Wilford, Col., value of the early researches of, XIII. 647, n.8.
Wilken, Prof. G. A., review of his '' Matriarchat bei den
Alton Arabem," XVII. 276, n.s.
Wilkinson, Henry, on the cause of the external pattern or
watering of the Damascus sword-blades, IV. 187, o.8. ; on-
iron, V. 383, o.s. ; declaration on comparative translations
of inscription of Tiglath-Pileser, XVIil. 164, o.s. ; " Man-
ners and Customs of the Ancient Egyptians,'' quotations
and reproductions of plates from, XVIII. 471, n.s.
206 WIL
Wilks, Col. M., extract from the Akhlak-e-Nasiri, TraM.
I. 514 ; notice by, of the Bart, Baut, or Batt (the Indian
bard), as variously pronounced, XIII. 93, n.«.
Wills, Dr. C. J., notice of his " Persia as it is," XIX- 329, w.«.
Wilson, Rev. D., sketch of the life of, IX. xiv, «.«.
Wilson, Prof. H. H., analysis of the Pancha Tantra, Trans.
I. 155 ; presentation of the second edition of Sanskrit and
English jDictionary, I. viii, o,8. ; his remarks on the ancient
inscriptions translated by W. H. Wathen, II. 393, o.s. ;
historical sketch of the kingdom of Pandya, III. 242, o.s. ;
on Hindu seals, 377 ; on the coins in the cabinet of the
Eoyal Asiatic Society, 381 ; Zend and Pahlavi lang^uages,
lY. 345, 0.8. ; note on Cutch coins, 397 ; essays on the
Puranas, V. 61, 280, o.«. ; remarks on the names which
occur in an Arabic work respecting Indian physicians, VI.
115, 0.8. ; on the Waralis and Eatodis, YII. 25, o.s. ; on
the Sabha Parva of the Mahabharata, 137 ; illustration of
the Kapur-di-Giri rock inscriptions, VIII. 308, o.s. ;
Director R.A.S. 1848, IX. o.s. ; a summary account of
the civil and religious institutions of the Sikhs, 43 ; the
religious festivals of the Hindus, 60 ; on the rock inscrip-
tions of Kapur-di-Giri, Dhauli, and Girnar, XII. 153, o.<s.;
on supposed Vaidik authority for burning of Hindu women,
XVI. 201, o.s. ; lecture on Buddha and Buddhism, 229 ;
notes of a correspondence with Sir J. Bowring on Buddhist
literature in China, 316; on a Buddhist inscription of
King Priyadarsi, 357 ; on the travels of Hiouen Thsang,
XVII. 106, 0.8. ; on the Vedaic authority for the burning
of Hindu widows, 209 ; translation of the Chronicle of the
Raja Tarangini, IX. 10, n.s. ; paper by, in 1832, on the
" Religious Sects of the Hindus," 158 ; views about the
Jainas in his translation of the Pancha Tantra, 175 ; con-
siders, so early as 1839, that there is nothing demonstrably
Buddhist on the rock inscriptions of Asoka, 187 ; idea of,
that some original Sanskrit texts might be preserved in
Chinese monasteries, XII. 154, n.8. ; letter from, to Sir J.
Bowring, dated Feb. 15, 1854, 1.54; one Sanskrit MS.,
perhaps the Killa-Eakra, sent to him from China, 157;
Sanskrit poem addressed to, on his leaving India in 1832,
XV. 174, n.s.
Wilson, Rev. John, President Bombay Branch Asiatic Society,
III. Lxxxviii, 0.8, ; translation of the general Siroz^ of the
Parsis, IV. 292, o.s.
Wilson, Major- Gen., on the Secret Triad Society of the
Chinese, VI. 120, o.s.
WIN— XER 207
"Winckler, Dr., Lis publication of the Babylonian Chronicle,
XIX. 655, n.8.
Winged Deity, sculptured at Nimrud, XV. 338, o.s.
Women, immolation of, I. 159, o.«. ; XVI. 201, o.«. ;
burning of, in Bali, IX. 104, n.s. ; in Japan, X. 325,
n.8. ; Rawlinson on, in Chaldaea, XI. 4, n.«. ; in Egypt,
5 ; in Etruria, 20 ; Hetairism, 35 ; as poets, scholars,
among the Arabs, XIII. 274, n.8. ; XVII. 57, n.«.
XVIII. 90, n.8. ; in Seinang, XIII. 502, n.8. ; in Anna,
XV. 227, n.8. ; the matriarchate in Arabia, XVII. 275,
n.8.; as slaves among the Muhammadans, 287; women
poets in the Dekhan, I. 141, o.8. ; XVII. 174, n.8.
Worsley, Sir Henry, donations by, IV. vii, xlix, o.«. ;
note by, on the assassination of Captain Grant, V. 341, o.8.
Worthara, Rev. B. Hale, " The Story of Devasmita, translated
from the Katha Sarit Sagara, Taranga 13, Sloka, 54,"
XVI. 1, n.8,; "Translation of Books 81-93 of the Mar-
kandeya Puraijia," XVII. 221, w.«. ; "The Stories of
Jimutavahana and Harisarman," XVIII. 157, n.a,
Wright, Prof. W., authorities for history of the Ai*abs iu
Spain, XVI. 346, o.8. ; specimens of a Syriac version of the
Ealilah wa Dimnah, VII. n.8. Appendix.
Writing, Indian, various independent evidences of, XIII.
108, «.«.; art of, 118.
use of, in India, no allusion in Vedic hymns to, XVI.
326, n.8.
ancient and modem substitutes for, XVII. 418, n.8.
Wu family in the province of Shantung, ancient sculptures
in the sacrificial temple of the, XVIII. 469, n.8.
Wugra Pandyan, the offspring of Siva and Devi, III. 206, 0.8.
Wylie, A., on an ancient inscription in the Neu-Chih
language, XVII. 331, o.8. ; inscription at Keu-yung kwan,
in North China, V. 14, n.8. ; translation by, of the records
of Hiungnu, X. 292, n.s. ; Sanskrit-Chinese books brought
by him from Japan, XII. 187, n.a. ; life and labours of,
XIX. 351, 513, n.8.
Wynn, the Right Hon. C. W. Williams, observations at
anniversary meeting, I. 165, o.s. ; address at anniversar}',
III. LIV, O.S.
Wyraghur, VI. 260, 0.8.
Xandrames, identity of (Thomas), I. 447, n.8.
Xatriyas, caste of, in the island of Bali, IX. 116, n.8.
Xerxes, derivation of the name, XVIII. 536, n.8.
208 XER— YEL
Xerxes, letter of, to the different provinces of his vast empire,
XVI. 321, «.«.
Yadava dynasty of Dwara Samudra, IV. 5, o,8. ; Devagiri,
6, 26.
Yajftabalipujavidhi, VIII. 47, n.«.
Tajnavalkya, work attributed to, traceable to the possession
of the followers of the schismatic " White Tajus," XIII.
212, w.fi.
Yaki Deshik Caves, plan of, XVIII. 93, n.s, ; further details
of, 99.
Yakut language, XVIII. 184, w,«.
Yali, the Khitan ruler, adopts the Imperial family name of
the Tang dynasty, XIIL 140, n,8. ; one of the descendants
of the founder of the Khitan Royal stock, 143.
Yama and the Doctrine of a Future Life, according to the
Rig-, Yajur-, and Atharva-Vedas, I. 287, n.«.
Yamabushi, wandering ascetic half-priests of Japan, XVII.
9, n,8.
Yamaritantra, VIII. 35, w.e.
Yamgan, VI. 110, «.«.
YamI, I. 288, w.«.
Yang-tungs, use of knotted cords by the, XVII. 427, n.s,
Yarkand, city of, VII. 302, o.s, ; government of by Chinese
officials, XII. 382, o,8.
Yarkandi language, XVIII. 185, n.«.
Yaska's Nirukta, II. 319, n.s.
Yasu-masa, name of a character in a Japanese legend, XVII.
9, n.s.
Yates, James, his remarks on Gesenius's work on Phoenician
and Punic inscriptions, IV. 138, o.s.
Yatnika System, II. 304, o.s.
YavananI lipi, I. 469, n.s.
Yayati, a legendary King of Northern India, XVII. 29, n.s.
Yazd, distance of, from Kerman, XIII. 490, n.8.
Ye, the province of, 11. 255, o.s.
Ye, trading at, III. 289, o.s.
Yebi, yebisu, yemisu, meanings of, XVII. 1, n.s.
Ye Dharma, the phrase commencing the Buddhist confession
of faith, XIX. 242, n.8.
Yelu Taishi, the founder of the Kara Khitai Empire, VIII.
n.s. 263 ; known also by the name Yelu Lin ya, or Yelu
the Academician, ibid. ; takes the title of Gur £han, a.d.
1124, 274 ; dies in a.d. 1136, 279.
r
TEM— YTJL 209
^ Yemen, VI. 6, 20, n.s.
Yen-no-Shokaku, founder of the Shingon sect in Japan,
XVII. 9, n.8.
Yen-king, the modem Peking, surrenders to the generals of
f Aguta, IX. 281, n.s. "
Yerukala (the dialect of Rajah Mundry), brief sketch of, by
Colonel Macdonald, XIII. lxix, n.s.
I Yetha, VI, 94, n.s.
Ye-tha of Sung-yim were probably the Ephthalitas, XIX. 201,
n.8.
Ye-thas, the Ephthalites of the Byzantine Empire, XVI.
257, n.8.
Yevur, or Ye-ur, abstract of an inscription at, IV. 38, o.8.
Yezidis, origin of their name, according to Layard, XIII.
243, n.$.
Yi-king, XVL 363, n.8.
Yih-She, III. 272, o.8.
Yodjana, VI. 318, n.8.
Yoga philosophy, the, XVIII. 143, n.8.
Yogambaratantra, VIII. 31, 47, n,8.
Yorimitsu, name of a character in a Japanese legend, XVII.
7. n.8.
Yu the Great, first in the triad of great Chinamen, XIX.
701, n.8.
Yuan chao pi shi, a dialect probably introduced by the Mongols
themselves into China, XV. 351, n.8.
Yuan*chiu, remarkable travels of, XIII. 563, n.8.
Yuan Dynasty, VII. 335, n.8.
Yuan-shi, or, the Imperial Annals, their character, XV. 353,
n.8.
Yuechi, VI. 95, n.8.
Yue-chi and Vrij jis, perhaps the same people, XVI. 254, n.8.
Yueh-chi, the invasion of India by the, A VIII. 376, n.8.
Yuehti, march of, to Bactria, from Eansuh, one of the largest
migrations, X. 285, n.8.
Yueti, probable connection with the Goto, known in India as
the Vrijjis, XVI. 257, n.8.
Yugadya, a Hindu religious festival, IX. 89, o.8.
Yule, Colonel H., an endeavour to elucidate Bashiduddin's
geographical notices of India, IV. 340, n.8. ; remarks on
the Senbyu pagoda at Mengun, 406; notes on Hwen
Thsang's account of Tokharistan, VI. 92, n.8. ; note on
Northern Buddhism, 275 ; " Marco Polo," extracts from,
XVII. 430, n.8. ; his remarks on Prof. Monier-Williams's
lecture, XVUI. 137, n.8. ; the Introductory Remarks by,
VOL. XX.— [kBW 8K&ZB8.] O
210 YUL— ZOB
on Oapt. Talbot's letter on the rock-cut caves and stataes
of Bamian, 323 ; his opinion about the dragon at Bamlan,
328 ; his opening address at the sixty-third anniversary
meeting, i ; his opening address at the sixty-fourth anni-
versary meeting, XIX. i, n.8.
Yule, Col. H., and Major Eaverty, VII. 189, «.«.
Yung-ching, emperor of China by a subterfuge. Trans. HI,
137.
Yasuf Agha's mission to the British Court in 1795, translated
from the Turkish by D. von Hammer, Trans. III. 496.
Yusuf ben Tashfin created Amir of the Faithful for defeating
Alphonso YI. at Badajoz, IX. 385, n.<.
Zab, XVIII. 6, O.S. ; river, passed by the Greeks, XV. 309, o.«.
" Zafr Namah," the name of a recently-discovered work by
Hamd-TJUah Mustaufi Kazvmi, its great value, XVIII.
205, «.».
Zaing-ga-naing, the statue of Gautama at, XIX. 556, n.8,
Zaphnath-Paaneah, derivation of the name, XVIII. 532, n.s.
Zardandan, use of notched sticks in the province of, XVII.
430, n.s.
Zebba'u, a woman's nickname, XIX. 589, n.8.
Zebeed, VI. 27, ».«.
Zedekiah, XIX. 145, o.s.
Zend Avesta, Bev. L. H. Mill's translation of the, XIX. 700,
n.8.
books, authenticity of, VIII. 350, o.8.
language, remarks on (Rask), Trans. III. 524.
Pahlavi, and Persian languages, notes on, IV. 345, o.8. ;
XVI. 313,0.5. ; XII. cm, n.«. ; XIII. cxiv, n.8. ; XV. cxii,
n.8. ; XVI. evil, n.8. ; XVIII. cxii, n.s.
Zenobia, XIX. 295, o.8. ; Oriental form of this celebrated name,
XIII. 269, n.8. ; was she identified with Zebba'uP XIX. 583,
n.8.
Zer-bet-iissur, of the land of Tantim, XIX. 678, n.8.
Zero, in Sanskrit considered to represent the *' empty space,"
XV. 26, n.8. ; the invention of, later in date than that of
the " value of position," 6.
Zibliyeh, XVIII. 13, cs.
Zigarat, ancient forms representing a, XIX. 632, n.8.
Zira, VII. 178, n.s.
Ziya Pasha, remarks on '^The Song of Meysun," that it is by
an unknown author, XVIII. 278, n.s.
Zobeide, origin of this name, XIII. 272, n.8.
ZOD— ZTR 211
Zodiac in Bali, originally^ as in ancient Greece, with only
eleven signs, X. 96, n.s. ; the Indian, of native origin, and
not borrowed from the West, ibid.
Zodiacal Light, first noticed by Kepler a.b. 1595-1635, and
described by Cassini a.d. 1683, X. 346, n.s. ; seen by the
Mu'edhdhin in the latter part of autumn or the beginning
of winter, 347 ; fanciful views about, in Eastern authors,
348 ; true cause of, only recently detected by European
astronomers, ibid, ; theory of its connexion with the
Caucasus, 348 ; noticed by Palgrave as lasting long in the
transparent skies of Arabia, 345 ; conclusions to be drawn
from the knowledge of this phenomenon by the people of
S.W. Asia, XII. 333, n.a.
Zorambus river, now called the Arkan or Ankarow, XI. 135,
n.8.
Zoroaster^ the epoch of, XVII. 349, w.#.
Zoroastrian faith, primitive condition of, XY. 245, o»8.
Zoroastrianism, the faith of the early Persians, XYIII. 381,
n.8.
Zotenberg, M. his note on the Thousand and One Nights^
XIX. 532, n.8.
Zunz, Dr., volume of essays presented to, on his ninetieth
birthday, XYII. lxxvii, n.8. ; obituary notice of, XYIU.
Lii, n.8.
Zyrianian inscription in Yologda, XY. 50» o.«.
212
ADDENDA.
Alwis, J., notice of, XI. viii, Report 1879, n.s,
Anderson, Rev. R., notice of, VII. iii, Report 1843, ii.«.
Anniversary meeting of the Royal Asiatic Society, report of
the proceedings at, IX. i, n.«.
Archimandrite Palladius, The, notice of, XI. xviii, Report
1879, n.8.
AsHBURTON, Lord, biographical notice of, I. ii, o.8.
Aston, W. Q., comparative study of the Japanese and
Korean languages, XI. 317, n.8.
Atkinson, James, XV. vi, Report 1853, o.s.
Babinqton, B. G., notice of. III. xiv. Report 1867, n.«.
Badger, Dr. Percy, notice of, XX. 450, n.s.
Baillib, N. B. £., on the duty Mohammedans in British
India owe, on the principles of their own law, to the
government of the country, XIII. 429, n.8, ; Supplement,
577.
Balbi, Adrien de, notice of, XII. vi, Report 1850, o.s.
Ballantyne, J. R., notice of, I. v, n.s.
Barth, Heinrich, notice of, II. vi. Report 1866, n.s.
Beal, Rev. S., two Chinese-Buddhist inscriptions found at
Buddha Gaya, XIII. 562, n.s.
Bendall, C, Kalidasa in Ceylon, XX. 440, n.s.
Biot, E. C, notice of, XII. vii, Report, 1850, 0.8.
Bland, N., notice of, II. iii, n.s.
Bleek, Dr. Wilhelm H. I., notice of, IX. xiv, n.s.
Blochmann, Prof. H., memoir of, XI. iii. Report 1879, n.8.
BoHLEN, Dr. von, notice of, VI. iv, Report 1840, o.s.
Bopp, Profesdor, notice of. III. ii. Report 1868, n.s.
Bosanqubt, J. W., notice of, X. viii. Report 1878, n.«.
Botfield, notice of, I. iii, n.s.
Brhat-Sanhita (Kern), V. 45, 231, n.8.
Bboadfoot, Major, notice of, IX. ii. Report 1846, o.s.
Brockhaxjs, Prof. H. notice of, IX. vi, Report 1877, n.s.
Broughton, Lord (Hobhouse), notice of, V. ii, n.s.
Bryant, Sir J., notice of, IX. ii. Report 1846, o.s.
BUR— FI8 213
BuRNBS, Sir Alexander, notice of, YII. vi, Report 1842, o.b.
Burnet, Lieut.-OoL, notice of, IX. in. Report 1846, o.8.
BuRNOUF, Eugene, memoir of, XY. xi, Report 1853, o.«.
Cain, Rev. John, the Eoi, a southern tribe of the Gtoni,
XIII. 410, n.8.
Capon, Sir Daniel, notice of, V. v, Report 1870, n.i.
Ceylon, list of original works and tnmslations published by
the Dutch Government at (Ondaatje), I. 141, n.s.
Chamberlain, Basil Hall, list of Japanese books presented
by him, XIII. xiii, n.8.
Childbrs, R. C, notice of, IX. viii. Report 1877, n.8.
Chitty, N. Q., notice of, XX. 452, n.8.
Choombi Valley (Campbell), VII. 185, n.8.
CoLEBROoKE, Sir T. E., on the proper names of Mohamme-
dans, XIII. 237, n.8.
CoMFTON, Sir Herbert, notice of, IX. n. Report 1846, o.8.
GoNOLLT, Capt., notice of, VII. ix. Report 1843, o.8.
Cooper, W. K;, notice of, XI. ix, Report 1879, n,8.
CowASJEB, F., notice of, XIII. v. Report 1851, o.8.
CowELL, E. B., and J. Egoelino, Buddhist Sanskrit MSS.
in the possession of the Royal Asiatic Society, VIII. i, n.8.
CsoMA, Alexander Eorosi, memoir of, VII. v, o.8.
CusT, R. N., modem languages of Oceania, XIX. 369, n.8. ;
languages spoken in the Zarafshan Valley in Russian
Turkistan, XX 413, n.8.
Daniel, W., notice of, V. vi. Report 1838, o.«.
Danibll, Thomas, VI. v, Report 1840, o.8.
Datta, D., Moksha, or the Vedantic release, XX. 513, n.8.
Davids, T. W. Rhys, Ealidasa in Ceylon, XX. 148, 522, n,8.
Dekkan Poets (Ramaswami), I. 137, o.8.
DowsoN, J., the invention of the Indian alphabet, XIIL
102, n.8.
East, Sir E. H., notice of, X. iv. Report 1847, o.«.
EoGELiNO and Gowell. See Cowell.
Ellesmere, Lord, XVII. ii, Report 1857, o.8.
Elliott, Charles, notice of, XVI. ii. Report 1856, o.8.
Elms, Sir Henry, XVI. iv, Report 1856, o.8.
Ellis, Thomas, notice of, XVIi. iv, Report 1857, o.8.
Ei-out, Major C. P. J., notice of, VIII. v, Report 1844, o.8.
Elphinstone, Lord Mountstuart, notice of (Colebrooke),
XVIII. 221, 0.8.
Erskine, W., memoir of, XV. ii, Report 1853, o.«.
Everest, Sir George, notice of. III. xvi. Report 1867, n.8.
Falconer, Forbes, memoir of, XV. v, Report 1854, 0.8.
Fishes of India (Cantor), V. 165, o.8.
214 FLE— IND
Flbischbr^ Dr. H. L., memoir of, XX. 452, n,s.
FoRBBSy A. E., notice of, II. ii, Report 1866, n.8.
Forbes, Sir C, notice of, XII. vi, Keport 1850, o.8.
Forbes, Duncan, IV. vii, n.«.
Franckltn, Col. W., notice of, V. ii. Report 1839, o.s.
Frank, Othmar, VII. viii, o.s.
Frbre, William Edward, memoir of, XIII. x, Report 1881,
n.8.
Frettag, G. W. F., notice of, XIX. xiii, Report 1862, o.s.
Galloway, Major-Gen. Sir Archibald, notice of, XII. v.
Report 1850, o.s.
Gesbnius, W., notice of, VII. xii. Report 1843, «.«.
GoGERLT, notice of, I. vii, n.s.
GoLDSMiD, Sir F. J., Sachau's Albiruni, XX. 129, n.«.
GoLDSTUCKER, Thoodor, VI. II, Report 1872, n.«.
GoNSALVES, Rev. J. A., notice of, VII. xiii. Report 1843, <?.«.
Graham, Cyril, Avar language, XIII. 291, n.8.
Greenough, G. B., XV. II, Report 1855, o.s.
Griffith, William, notice of, VIII. vi, Report 1845, o.«.
Grotefend, Dr., memoir of, XV. viii, Report 1854, o.«.
GuiLLEMARD, John, notice of, VIII. iii, Report 1845, o,8.
GuiRAUDON, Oapt. T. G., Persian for Rouble, African biblio-
graphy, XIX. 686, n.8. ; bibliography and philology, XX.
143, n.8.
Hall, Fitz-Edward, Sanskrit inscriptions, XX. 452, o.«- ;
Colebrooke's essay, ''On the Duties of a Faithful Hindu
Widow," III. 183, n.8.
Hamaker, Prof., notice of. III. Lxn, Report 1836, o.«.
Hamilton, Col. G. W., notice of. III. viii, Report 1868, n.8.
Hammer-Purgstall, Baron, XVII. v. Report 1857, o.8.
Hardinge, Henry, XVI. iii. Report 1857, o.8.
Hardy, R. Spence, notice of. III. v, Report 1868, n.8.
Harkness, Oapt., notice of, V. ii, Report 1839, o.«.
Harlez, C. de, Tsieh-Tao-Tchuen de Tchouhi, XX. 219, n.8.
Haug, Dr. Martin, memoir of, IX. x, Report 1877, n.8.
Haughton, Sir Graves G., memoir of, XII. ii. Report
1850, 0.8.
Hberen, Prof., notice of, VII. viii, Report 1842, o.8.
Hewitt, J. F., early history of Northern India, XX. 321, n.8.
HiNGKS, Rev. Dr. E., notice of, III. xix. Report 1867, n.8.
HoRNE, C, VI. V, Report 1872, n.8.
Horsfield, T., XVIII. XX, Report 1860, o.8.
HowoRTH, H. H., "Northern Frontagers of China. Part V.
The Khitai or Khitans," XIII. 121, n.8.
InorajT, Pandit Bhagvanlal, notice of, XX. 450, n.8.
JAC— MOR 215
Jacob, Sir G. Le Grand, memoir of, XIII. iii, n.s.
Jones, Benjamin S., notice of, XII. vii, Report 1850, o.s.
Kaye, Sir John, IX. ii. Report 1877, n.s,
Kennedy, Major-Gen. Vans, memoir of, X. iii, Report
1847, 0.8.
KiNGSBOROUGH, Lord, notice of, IV. xviii, Report 1837, o.a.
Elaproth, M., notice of, III. lxi. Report 1836, o.«.
KosEGARTEN, M., XVIII. VII, Report 1861, o.a.
Lacouperie, T. de, the Yh-Ting, XIV. 781, n.«. ; XV. 237,
n.s. ; errata in, XV. 483, n.s. ; Babylonian origin of the
Chinese characters, XX. 313, n.s, ; metallic cowries of
ancient China (600 B.C.), 428.
Lane, Edward W., memoir of, IX. iii, Report 1877, n.8.
Leake, Lieut.-Col. W. M., memoir of, Xvlll. xvi, Report
1860, o.s.
Lee, Rev. S., XV. ix. Report 1863, o.s.
Lees, Col. "W. N., India, history of. III. 414, n.s.
Leopold I., notice of, II. ii, n.s.
LiNWooD, Rev. W., notice of, XI. v, Report 1879, n.s.
LuTCHMiAH, C. v., notice of, VI. iv. Report 1840, o.s.
LuYNES, Due de, notice of. III. v, n.s.
MacFarlane, Charles, notice of, XVII. vii. Report 1859, o.s.
Maharaja Runjit Singh, notice of, VI. iii, Report 1840,
o.s.
Maitlano, Capt. P. J., sketches of Bamian, XVIII. 323, n.s.
Maloolmson, Dr. J. G., notice of, VIII. iv, o.8.
Manning, Mrs., notice of, V. ii, Report 1871, n.s.
Mariettb, M., notice of, XIII. xi. Report 1881, n.s.
Marshman, J. C, notice of, X. xi. Report 1878, n.8.
Mayers, W. S. F., memoir of, X. xiii. Report 1878, n.s.
Metcalfe, Lord, notice of, X. vii. Report 1847, o.s.
Miles, Capt. S. B., note on Pliny's geography of the east
coast of Arabia, X. 157, n.s.
Mill, James, notice of, IV. xix. Report 1837, o.s.
Mill, W. H., memoir of, XV. ii. Report 1854, o.s.
Monier- Williams, Prof. Sir M., Indian Theistio reformers
(Supplement), XIII. 281, n.s. ; translation of Sanskrit
ode, XIV. 66, n.s.; Vaishnava religion, with special re-
ference to the Sikshapatr! of the modern sect called Svami-
Narayana, 289; Sanskrit text of the Siksha-Patri, 733;
on the Jains, XX. 277, n.s.
Moor, Major E., IX. iv. Report 1859, o.s.
Morgan, E. Delmar, list and account of Russian books made
by, XIII. XVI, n.s,
Morrison, Hon. J. R., notice of, VIII. iii. Report 1844, o.s.
216 MUI— ROS
MuiRy J., Vedic theogony and mjrthology, II. i, «-«., con-
tinued from I. 51 ; hymns from the Rig and Atharvt
Vedas, II. 26, n.«.
MuNSTER, Lord, notice of, YII. i. Report 1842, o.s.
Muscat, Imam of, notice of, XVII. vii. Report 1857, oa.
Nelson, J. H., Hindu law at Madras, XIII. 208, n.«.
Neumann, Karl Friederich, V. vi, Report 1870, «.«•
Newbold, Capt., notice of, XIII. ii, Report 1851, o.«.
NoBTUUMBBRLAND, Duke of, memoir of, I. ii, ^Report 1865,
n,8,
Oldenburg, Serge d', the migration of Buddhist stories,
XX. 147, n.8.
Oliver, E. E., the Ohaghatai Mughals, XX. 72, n.8.
Oliver, W., notice of, X. iv. Report 1847, o.8.
Oriental studies, condition of, XIX. xix, o.8.
Ouselet, Sir Gore, notice of, VIII. xii. Report 1845, o.8.
Ouseley, Sir William, memoir of, VII. xi, Report 1843, oj.
Palmer, E. H., Oriental MSS. Camb., III. 105, n.s.
Parkes, Sir H. S., memoir of, XVII. xx. Report 1885, n.8.
Pearson, A., notice of, IV. xix. Report, 1837, o.«.
Petit, L. H., notice of, XII. vii. Report 1850, o.8.
PosTANS, Capt. T., memoir of, X. vi. Report 1847, o.8.
Pottinger, Sir Henry, notice of, XVI. iii, Report 1856, o.s.
Prinsep, Henry Thoby, memoir of, X. ii, Report 1878, n.8.
Prinsep, James, memoir of, VI. v. Report 1840, o.«.
Raja Pratab Sing, of Sattara, notice of, IX. vii. Report
1848, 0.8.
Raja Sri Radhakanta Deva Bahadur, III. vii, Report
1868, w.s.
Raja of Travancore, notice of, X. ii. Report 1847, o.8.
Rajah op Beswan, notice of, XII. xiii, n.8.
Ravbnshaw, E. C, note on the Sri Tantra and Ebat Kan
Ghakra (six-angled wheel) or double equilateral ^triangle,
Xni. 71, 0.8.
Redhouse, J. W., " The L-Poem of the Arabs, ^^ iS^ \
c^T by ShanfarA ^j£tfj/' XIII. 437, n.8.
Reuvens, III. Lxii, Report 1836, o.8.
Reynolds, Rev. James, notice of, II. v, Report 1866, n.8.
Ritter, Karl, notice of, XVIII. xxi, Report 1860, 0.8.
Roberts, A. A., notice of, IV. viii, n.8.
Robertson, T. C, I. ix, n.8.
Roots, monosyllabic, the exception in Japanese, XI. 321, n.«.;
much more common in Korean, ihid.
RosELLiNi, Prof., notice of, VIII. ii. Report 1844, 0.8.
ROS— WYN 217
Rosen, Dr., notice of, V. vii, Report 1838, o.«.
RoussELBT, M., account by, of the documents in the posses-
sion of the Jainas, IX. 173, n.8.
Bowandiz, perhaps the site of the Babylonian legend of the
descent of the ark, XIY. 393, n.s,
EoTLE, J. F., XYII. II, memoir of, Report 1858, o,8.
KussELL, notice of, I. in, Report 1864, n.8.
Sacy, Silvester de, notice of, V. viii. Report 1838, o.8.
Salmond, Major-Gen., notice of, Y. vi. Report 1838, o.8.
ScHLEGEL, W^ A., notice of, IX. y. Report 1846, o.8.
Shakbspear, John, memoir of, XYII. in. Report 1859, o.8.
Shea, Dayid, notice of, lY. xviii, Report 1837, o.«.
Shepherd, Capt. John, notice of, XYlI. yii. Report 1859, o.8.
Sheering, Rey. Dr., notice of, XIII. x, Report 1881, n.8.
Slane, McGUckin de, XI. x. Report 1879, n.8.
Staunton, Sir George, memoir of, XYIII. x. Report 1860,
0.8.
Stewart, Major Charles, Y. vii. Report 1838, o.«.
Strange, Sir Thomas, memoir of, YII. vii. Report 1842, o.8.
Sutherland, J. Colebrooke, notice of, YIII. y. Report
1844, 0.8.
SwAMY, Sir M, 0., notice of, XI. vi. Report 1879, n.8.
Talbot, Henry Fox, memoir of, X. yi. Report, 1878, n.8.
Tassy, Garcin de, memoir of^ XL xi. Report 1879, n.8.
Thom, R., notice of, X. y. Report 1847, o.8.
Thomas, V. 408, n.8.
Thompson, Gen. T. P., notice of, Y. ii. Report 1870, n.8.
ToD, Ool., notice of, III. lxi. Report 1836, o.8.
TuRNOUR, Hon. G., memoir of, YIII. ly. Report 1844, o.s.
Yesci, Lord Fitzgerald and, YII. i. Report 1843, o.8.
Wade, Sir Claude, memoir of, XYIII. yiii. Report 1862, o.«.
Wellesley, Marquess, notice of, YII. n. Report 1843, o.8.
TYenger, Iley. Dr., notice of, XIIL x. Report 1881, n.8.
TYestergaard, Prof. N. L., memoir of, XI. xiy. Report
1879, n.8.
Willock, Sir Henry, memoir of, XYII. y. Report 1859, o.8.
Wilson, H. H., memoir of, XYIII. ii. Report 1860, (?.«.
"VYoRSLEY, Sir Henry, memoir of, YI. ii. Report 1841, o.8.
Wynn, C. W. W.y notice of, XIIL ii. Report 1851, o.8.
218
EREATA.
Page 57, Colebrooke, life oi^for I. v, o.s. read V. i, o.«.
„ 61, Damant, notice of, /or XIV. read XII.
„ 63, /or Dauncey read Dauney.
„ 94, Inglis, Sir R. H., notice of, for XXI. ii, o.«. reorf
XV. II, Report 1855, o.s.
„ 166, Rogers, E. T., memoir of, /or XVI. read XVII.
STBPHKN AUSTIN AND SONS, PR1NTIR8, HBRTVORD.
LIST OP THE MEMBERS
OF THX
KOYAL ASIATIC SOCIETY
GREAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND:
FOUNDED, March, 1823.
OOBBECTED TO JITLT, 1888.
22, ALBEMARLE STBEET,
LONDON.
EOTAL ASIATIC SOCIETY.
PATRON :
HER MOST EXCELLENT MAJESTY THE QUEEN.
VICE-PATRONS :
HIS ROYAL HIGHNESS THE PRINCE OF WALES.
THE SECRETARY OF STATE FOR INDIA.
PRESIDENT :
SIR THOMAS F. WADE. M.A.. K.C.B., PROFESSOR OF CHINESE
IN THE UNIVERSITY OF CAMBRIDGE.
DIRECTOR :
MAJOR-GENERAL SIR HENRY C. RAWLINSON. K.C.B.. D.CL..
LL.D., F.R.S.
VICE-PRESIDENTS :
SIR THOMAS EDWARD COLEBROOKE, Bart.
MAJOR-GEN. A. CUNNINGHAM, R.E., C.S.L, CLE.
THE REV. PROFESSOR A. H. SAYCE, M.A.
COLONEL HENRY YULE, R.E., C.B.. LL.D.
COUNCIL :
ARBUTHNOT, F. F., Esq.
DOUGLAS, PROFESSOR R. K.
DUKA, THEODORE, Esq., M.D.
FLEET, J. F., Esq.. CLE.
GOLDSMID, MAJOR-GENERAL SIR F. J.. C.B., K.C.S.I.
HEWITT, FRANCIS J., EsQ.
HOWORTH, H. H., Esq., M.P., F.S.A.
HUNTER, SIR WILLIAM. K.C.S.L. CLE., LL.D.
KAY. HENRY C, Esq.
LACOUPERIE. PROFESSOR TERRIEN DE, PH. & LITT.D.
MACLAGAN. GENERAL ROBERT. R.E.. F.R.S.E.
MONIER-WILLIAMS. PROF. SIR MONIER. K.CLE., M.A.. D.CL.
MORGAN, E. DELMAR. Esq
MORRIS, THE REV. RICHARD, M.A., LL.D.
SMITH. PROFESSOR W. ROBERTSON, M.A.
TREASURER:
E. L. BRANDRETH, Esq.
SECRETARY :
PROFESSOR T. W. RHYS DAVIDS, PH.D., LL.D.
HONORARY SECRETARY:
ROBERT N. CUST. Esq., LL.D.
TRUSTEES :
SIR T. EDWARD COLEBROOKE, Bart.
ROBERT N. CUST, Esq.. LL.D.
SIR RICHARD TEMPLE, G.C.SJ.. CLE., D.CL.. M.P.
HONORARY SOLICITOR :
ALEX. H. WILSON, Esq.
L
RESIDENT AND NON-RESIDENT.
N.B.— The marlcs prefixed to the names dgnify—
• Non-resident Members.
f Members who have componnded for their Baboeriptions.
tt Members who, haying compounded, have again renewed their Subsoriptions given or
Donations.
I Members who have lerred on the OoundL
1863 His Boyal Hiohkess thb Pbince of Wales.
1882 *His EoTAL KiQHKESs THB DuKB OF CoNNAUOHT, India.
1876 Abbott, Major-General James, C.B., JEllaty, Swanmore,
Hyde,
1883 *fABD-T7i.-HAinj: Saitid Salas Jang NawXb-Bahadttb, j23y<i^-
ahad, JDekhan.
1879 *A3)AM80N, Harvey, Bengal C,8,, Aiiiitant Camtniisumer
British Burma,
1888 Adkivs, Thomas, Biahoptan House, Stratford-on-Avon,
1874 *f Akahatz, S., Honganji, Kioto, Japan,
1883 *Alford, R. Gervase, M.Inst.CK, 130, George Street,
JEdinhurgh,
How. Ahmed Khak, Syed, KC.8.L, Aligarh,
1888 AiTAiTGAE, M. Eangaswami, Madras; 24, Old Square^
Lincoln* s Inn, "W.C.
1884 ♦Allen, Clement F. A., R.B.M, Consul, Pahhoi, China.
1880 ♦Allen, H. J.
Hon. AmJlbi, Senator M., Borne.
1880 Amheest, W. Amhurst Tyssen, M.P., 88, Brooh Street,
Orosvenor Square; Didlington Park, Brandon, Suffolk.
1882 *Andeeson, John, M.D., LL.D., F.R.S., F.R.S.E., 71,
Sarrington Gardens, 8.W.
4 LIST OF MEMBBB8.
1882 Ajstdebbov, Hajor-Gen. E. P., Lueknaw lUMeney, EartU
Roadj Upper Norwood, 8.E.
1886 *t^<>A^> ^ai Singh Bao, Baroda.
1868 Ahbib, Dr. Enrico, 6, Cravm EiU, W.
1882 §ABBUTH3roT, Foster Fitzgerald, 18, Park Lane, W.
1879 §Ahwoij), Sir Edwin, K.C.LE., CSX, 21, West CromwA
Eoad.
1888 *AKyoiJ), T. W., An^h' Oriental CoUege, Aligarh.
1854 Aethuk, The Rev. W., M.A., Battenea Etu, CleplM
CowtnoHf 8. Tf .
1883 AsHBUBiTKB, L. B., G.S.I., EdH India United Servte*
CM, 8.W.
1879 *A8Toir, W. G., British Legation, Tohio, Japan.
Hoir. AuFBECHT, Professor T., Bonn.
1879 Austin, Stephen, Lgncfmere, QueenU Boad^ Sertfari,
JETerU.
1885 ♦t^vB»Y» ^ohB> Professor of Greek, Bowdoin CoUege, Bnmi-
wick, Maine, U.S.A.
1867 jBabbage, Maj.-Gen. H. P., Yorkleigh, St. George's Bed,
Cheltenham.
1882 *§Bab£&, E. Colbome, Chinese Secretary, Pekin; 35, Wol^^
Place, W.C.
Hon. Bist Deya Sastbi, Pa^^i^, Benares.
1886 Baillie, General John, 4, Queenshorough Terrace^ Eensingt^
Gardens, W.
1883 ♦f^ALL, James Dyer, H.M.C.S., 2, West Terrace, Son$
Kong.
1886 *Babb£b, J. H., Blackstone JSstate, Navalapatiya, Ceglon.
1878 fBABKLET, David Graham, Meghera, Ireland.
1888 *Babth, Angoste, 6, Bue du Vieux Cohmhier, Paris.
1881 *tBATE, The Rev. J. Drew, Allahabad, India.
1887 ^Baitkgabtneb, Professor A. J., St. Jean la Tour,
Genhs.
1873 t^ATNES, A. K, 19, Castle Street, Holhom.
1885 Batnss, Herbert, Laheim, Parliament Sill, Mampstead.
1862 Beal, The Rev. S., Professor of Chinese, University ColUg*i
London.
1883 ^Bechee, H. M., Singapore, Straits Settlements.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 0
1878 ^BxLLEw, Walter H., Surgeon-General, C.S.I., 83, Linden
Oardens, BayiwaUr, W.
1883 fBENDALL, Cecil, FeUow of Caius College; JBrittih Museum,
1888 BxRNABD, Sir Charles, K.C.S.I., India Office, S.W.
1881 Bestdt, G., 12, Oakford Eoady N.W.
1880 *Bx8T, J. W., Mangdhre, Madrae.
1882 t*BHABBA, Shapunje D., M.D.
Hoir. BHivDAEiLLR, Professor Ramkrifilma Gop&l, P^na, Bomhay.
1883 ^Bhowvagri, Mancherji M., 3, Church Street, Bombay.
1888 ^BiLeuAin, Syed AH, Bdidarahad, Dehkan.
1886 *BiBCH, J. £., Ifayistrate, Provinee WeUeeley, Straite Settle-
mente.
1876 BiBDwooD, Sir George, K.C.I.E., C.8.I., M.D., India
Office, 8.W.
1882 BLUinr, The Lady Anne IsabeUa, 10, James Street,
Buekinyham Oate, 8.W.
1861 *BLinrr, John E., C.B., H.B.M. Consul General, Salonica.
1882 Blukt, Wilfred 8., 10, James Street, BuehinyKam GaU,
S.W.
HoF. BoHTLDreE, Professor Ofcto Yon, Jena, Lange Strass, Leipzig,
Germany,
1880 *t^o^^» I* Swinburne, Singapore.
1888 BoswBLL, Henry Bruce, Iver Lodge, her, Uxhridge.
1877 BouLesB, D. C, 46, Edwardes Square, Kensington.
1870 BowBiNO, Lewin B., C.S.I., Lavrockhere, Ihrquay.
1857 t§BEA2n)BBTH, E. L., Treasurer, 32, Ehaston Place, Queen's
GaU.
1874 Beowit, The Bev. C. CampbeU, Bolyfame, Alton, Hamp-
shire.
1884 ^'^TS^SKhjRhx, J. Beaumont, C.E., JSyderahad, Dekkan.
1882 BucEiKGHAX AiTD Chakdos, His Grace the Puke of,
G.C.S.I., WbtUm, Aylesbury, Bucks.
Hov. BuHLEE, Professor, C.I.E., Vienna.
1 866 *f BuEGESs, James, LL.D., Archaological Surveyor and Beporter,
India; 22, Setm Place, Edinburgh.
1886 *Btjeeow8, S. M., Ceylon Civil Service.
1867 t^UET, Major T. S., F.R.S., Pippbrook House, Dorking.
1 859 JBuETON, Captain Sir Richard F., E.C.M.G., H.B.M. Consul,
Drieste.
1880 *Bu8HELL, S. W., M.D., Pekin.
1887 *BnTCHEE, The Very Bey. Dean, Chaplain at Cairo.
6 LIST OF MEMBERS.
1877 *BxJTTS, Henry H., Deputif Commtsnaner, Sitdpur, Ovdk,
1881 *Caik, The Rev. John, IhmmagudM^, Upper Godavari^ B.
India.
"Eov. Caldwell, Tlie Right Rev. Robert, D.D., LI..D., Buhop^f
Tinnevelly.
1886 Caxa, Jehangir E. R., 3 and 4, Great Winchester Buildingt,
Great Winchester Street^ E.G.
1867 t*CAi£A, K. R., CLE., 12, Malabar EtU, Bombay.
1874 Campbell, Sir George, K.C.S.L, M.P., S<nUhweU Earn,
Southwell Gardens, S.W.
1884 *Cahpbell, James M., Achnashie, Rosncath, N.B.
1888 *Campbell, The Rev. W., Twaiwanfoo, Formosa^ China.
1887 Cappee, William C, 14, Hevem Square, EarVs Ceurt,
S.W.
1876 *Caelbtti, Signer P. V., Professor of Arabic, 4, Bus is U
Couronne, Brussels,
1877 ^Chambeelaut, Basil Hall, Bnp. Na/oal College, Ihkie,
Japan,
1875 Chabitocic, R. S., M.D., F.S.A., Junior Garriek CM, li,
Adelphi Terrace.
1883 ^Chitbildas Ravdas, Chrisfs College, Cambridge.
1885 ♦fCnuECHiLL, Sidney, English Government Telegraph Depart-
ment, Persia.
1850 fCLABEE, Gordon, Miekleham BdU, Dorking.
1881 JClaekb, Hyde, 32, St, George's Square, S.W.
1881 ♦fCLAEKE, Major H. Wilberforce, R.E., Simon's Town, Cep*
of Good Hope,
1882 Claeke, G. Purdon, C.S.I., Keeper of the Indian Section,
South Kensington Museum ; 36, Bath Road, Chiswiek,
1879 Clendinning, Miss, 29, Dorset Square, 'N.W,
1885 *CoBHAX, Claude Delaval, Commissioner, Lamaea, Cyprus.
1877 §CoDEiNGToir, Oliver, M.D., 85, Upper Bichmond Bead,
Putney.
1836tt§CoLEBEooKE, Sir T. Edward, Bart., Vice-President, Hi
South Street, Park Lane; Abington House, Abington, N.B.
1888 *CoLEHAN, William Emmette, Chief Quartermaster's
San Francisco, California,
1885 *CoLauHOUK, Archibald, Burma.
LIST OF MBMBBRS. 7
1888 ♦CowKBiL, C. J., Joint MagUtrate^ N. W, Provinces, India.
1886 *Coo3LSON, Sir Charles, K.C.B., JI.B.M. Consul and Judge,
Alexandria^ Egypt.
1885 Copp, Alfred Evelyn,' Treamrer Numitmatio Society,
Sath&rley, Wimbledon.
1886 CoBiasH, W. R., Surgeon-General, C.I.E., 8, Cremoell
Gardens, The Boltone, B.W.
1888 *Cou8BN8, Henry, Assistant Archaologieal Surveyor for
Western India, 57, Neutral Lines, Poona.
1866 CowBLL, Edward B., M.A,, Professor of Sanskrit, 10, Serope
Terrace, Cambridge,
1879 *Craio, W., Brisbane, Queensland, Australia.
1878 C&AJTBBOOK, The Eight Hon. the Yisconnt, G.G.S.I., 17,
Grosvenor Crescent, S.W.
1882 Gbawford aitd Balcabses, The Right Hon. the Earl of,
F.R.S., JSdigh, Wigan.
1852 tCHAwroHD, R. W., 71, Old Broad Street.
1880 tC&AW8HAT, a., Haughton Castle, Humsha/ugh-on'Tyne :
6, Adelphi Terrace, Strand,
1883 ^CuMnrB, Alexander, Ratnagiri, Bombay.
1855 gCuNNiiroHAX, Major-General Sir Alexander, R.E., C.S.I.,
K.C.I.E., Vice-President, Cranley Mansions, 96, Gloucester
Boad, South Kensington, S.W.
1852 Gust, Robert N., LL.D., Eon. Secretary, travellers' CM,
Pall Mall, S.W. ; 63, Mm Park Gardens, S.W.
1886 ^Gtttlbitbubo, Hector Yan, Charsley Mouse, Colombo, Ceylon.
1888 Dadabhai, Rnstamjl, Maidarabad, Bekkan.
1884 ^Dames, M. Longworth, Bera Ghd%i Khan, Panjah.
1888 DvuADAS Datta, Cirencester Agricultural College.
1888 David, Marcar, 9, Prince's Square, Bayswater, W.
1859 §Davi£s, The Rev. John, M.A., 16, Belsine Square, South
MampsUad, N.W.
1886 *Davib8, William, 29, Via Babuino, Boms.
1834 t^Avis, Sir John Francia, Bart., K.G.B., F.R.S., Athsnaum
Club; Molly wood, Bristol.
1861 t^xBBT, The Right Hon. the Earl of, E.G., LL.D., F.R.S.,
33, St. James's Square.
1882 tgDiomrs, F. Y., Assistant Registrar, London University,
Burlington Gardens.
8 LIST OF MEHBEBS.
1863 *DiCKS0ir, W., Foreign Office.
HoK. DnxMAJor, Professor, Berlin.
1874 §Dot70LA8, E. K., Pro/esear of Chineee, KingU CoUep;
British Afueeum.
1888 •DoTLE, The Rev. James, Homan Catholie Caihednl,
Madras,
1879 ♦fl^oTLB, Patrick, C.E., F.G.8., BaUara, Madras Fresidenejf,
India.
1888 •DBOunr, Edouard, 15, Bis Rue Moneey, Paris.
1861 t^UFF, The Right Hon. Sir Mountstuart Elphinstone Grant-,
G.C.S.I., F.R.8., York Mouse, Twickenham.
1886 *DuFFBRiN, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.8X,
Oovemment House, Simla.
1884 §DxjKA, Theodore, M.D., F.R.C.S., 55, ITevem Squen,
EarPs Court, S.W.
1883 ♦Duke, Joshua, M.D., Surgeon Mqfor^ Malwa Bheel Cerp^
Sirdarpur {Messrs. Orindlay Sf Co.)
1885 *DuiiBEairE, J. Willoughby F., Esq., 3, Norland Spure,
Notting BUI, W.
1837 JJEastwick, Capt. Win. J., 12, Zeinster Gardens, Bjfdt
Park.
Hon. Edeins, The Rev. J., D.D., Peking.
1852 fEfiSEuns, Claude, 66, Oxford Terrace, Syde Park.
1881 *tFABeT7ES, J., Indian Telegraph Department, Teherdn.
1879 *tFAULK»EB, Alexander 8., Surgeon, I9th Bombay Infiadm
{on furlough).
1877 ♦f^EROusoN, A. M., jun., AhhoUford EstaU, ZindnU,
Ceylon.
1877 •fFEKousoir, Donald W., Colombo, Ceylon.
1883 *tFEBOX78S0N, The Right Hon. 8ir James, Bart., K.C.U.O.»
G.C.8.I., Under Secretary of State, Foreign Office.
1881 *FsBGU880N, Thomas T., Consul du Bayaume de BelgH^i
Chefoo, China.
1881 *Fi]!or, Alexander, HM. Consul, Malaga, Spain.
1887 Fink, Mrs., The JSlms, Brook Green.
1878 FmGERALD, 8ir W. G. 8. Yesey, KC.I.E., C.S.I., A**
Office.
LIST OP MEMBERS. »
1877 §*FiEKr, J. F., C.I.E!., Btmhay C.8,, eare of Purviis
Agmey^ 1, Imperial Buildings^ Ludgate Circus, E.C.
1888 *Floteb, Ernest A., Inspector- General of Telegraphs in
Egypt.
1879 FoBLONe, Major-Gen. J. G. Eoche, 11, Douglas Crescent^
Edinhurgh.
1867 *FoTJLKES, The Rev. T., Madras Presidency.
1883 ^Fhanxfubtsk, Oscar, PI1.D., Bangkok^ Siam.
1873 Fkanks, a. W., M.A., F.R.S., British Museum.
1886 Fbazeb, Robert W., London Institution^ Finshwry Circus^
E.C.
1862 fFBEELAND, H. W., Athsnoum Club; Chichester.
1860 §tFRYER, Col. George E., 16, Arundel Gardens, EensingUm
Park Road, W.
1880 f*FuBDOOKJi, Jamshedji, Aurungabad, Dehkan.
1881 *Ga2Dnxb, Christopher T., H.B.M. Consul, lohang.
Hoir. GatAitoos, Don Pascual de, Madrid.
1865 t^ATOTK, C, M.A., F.R.S.B.
1885 *Gei8Leb, Theodor, Orientalisches Seminar, Berlin, C.
1884 ^Ghetit, Yan den, M., S.J., 11, Ancienne Ahhaye,
Tronchiennes, Belgium.
1879 *Ghose, Ramohundra, 32, Jhamapukar Lane, Calcutta.
1880 fGoB, E. J. W., 13, Montgomerie Crescent, Eelvinside,
Glasgow.
1880 Gnx, T. R., 21, Harefield Bead, BrocUey.
Hon. Goeje, Professor De, Leiden.
1864 §tGoia)8MiD, Major-Gen. Sir F. J., C.B., K.C.S.I., 3, Ohser-
vatory Avenue, Campden Sill.
1887 *Goij)8MiD, Frederic L., Bombay Police, Bijdpur, India.
1861 *GoRDON, The Hon. Sir A., G.C.M.G., D.C.L., Governor of
Ceylon*
1882 *GoBDoir, Sir James D., K.C.S.I.
1876 *GoBi)ON, Major R., 32, Clarges Street.
1884 ^fGoBPAESHAD, Thakur, Talookdar of Baiswan, AUigurh.
Hon. Gorhesio, Commcndatore Gaspar, Turin.
1885 *Go8SETT, Col. M. W. Edward, 2nd Dorsetshire Regiment.
1884 *GouB, Adhar Singh, B.A., LL.B. (Cantab), Extra Auistant
Commissioner, Central Provinces, Nagpur.
1858 Graham, Cyril C, C.M.G., Colonial Office, S.W.
10 LIST OF MEMBERS.
1887 Gratstowe, 8. Wynn, B.A., 76, Jermyn Street^ 8L Jaamt.
1884 *GkRiERSON, George A., Bengal C,S,, India.
1866 *Gbiffin, Sir Lepel H., K.C.S.I., Bengal C.S.^ Inim,
Central India.
1852 t*GBiFFiTH, E. T. H., M.A., CLE.
1884 t*GB0W8E, F. S., M.A., C.I.E., MagigtraU and Colleetcr,
Fatehgarh, N, W,P.
1887 *GniRAUDQir, Captain Giimal de, 53, Bishop^ s Terraee,
Bishop's Boad, S.W.
1880 Haggard, A. H., Athenaum Club ; 20, Grove Bosd,
Wansteady Essex.
1883 *I[aggard, W. H. D., Charge-^ Affaires^ Rio Janeiro,
Brazil.
1 880 §Haig. Major-General Malcolm E., 5, Park Road, Bechenhm,
Kent.
1881 *HALivT, Professor Joseph, 26, Rue Aumaire, Paris.
1887 Hallett, Holt S., 85, Bryanston Street, W.
1884 *Harbba]iji, FRurcE of Moeyi, B.A., LL.M., Bajhuim^
Cdlege, Rajhote, Katthiawadh, India.
1884 f "^Harlez, Monseigneur G. de, Professor of Oriental Languaget,
Zouvain, Belgium.
1880 Harrison, J. Park, 22, Connaught Street, Hyde Park.
1882 Hartington, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, DevonMre
Mouse, Pieeadilly.
1883 t^i^Bi^y Captain C. T., late Dragoon Guards, Marts Down.
Margate.
1888 fHsAF, Ealph, 1, Brieh Court, Temple, E.C.
1834 ^fHEioNG, Lieut.-Col. Dempster, Deputy Commissioner, Police
Force, Madras.
1885 Henderson, George, 7, Mincing Lane, E.C.
1884 ^Hendlet, J. Holbein, Surgeon-Major, Jeypcre, Rqjputana,
1880 *HBRyBT, The Hon. D. F. A., 36 Duke Street, St, James's^
1888 EEewitt, J. Francis, Bevoke Lodge, fFdlton-on-Thames.
1846 f HEmrooD, James, F.ES., 26, Kensington Palace Gardens.
1883 *HiCKiE, J. E. D., care of Mickie, Borman ^ Co., Waterloo
Place.
1885 f'^HiPPisLET, Alfred E., Commissioner of Chinese Custom,
and Chinese Secretary to the Inspectorate General of
Customs, Peking.
LIST OF MEMBERS. 11
1828 tSHoDGSOir, Brian Houghton, F.E.S., AlderUy Orange,
WotUm-under-Edge,
1881 *HoET, William, M.A., Bengal C.S.y Orofiom JSbuse, Knock,
Co, Ikum, Ireland,
1882 *HoLMWoo]>, Frederic, B,B,M, ConetU, Zanzibar.
1852 fHoLBOTD, Thomas, The Falaee, JETampton Court,
1865 «tHoLBOTD, Colonel W. B. IC., Director of Public Instruction,
Lahore,
1880 f*HooPEB, Walter F., Negapatam, India.
1883 §HowoBiH, H. H., M.P., BerUcUffe, Eecles, Manchester,
1857 HTTemss, Captain Sir F., K.C.B., Bamtown Rouse, Wexford,
1882 *Ht76HES, George, Bengal C,8,, Rkpan, Punjab, India,
1877 ♦Htjohes, The Bev. T. P., Lebanon Springs, New York State,
U.S.A.
1867 ♦§HuNTEB, Sir W. W., K.C.S.L, C.I.E., LL.D., Chenvdl
Edge, Oxford,
Hon. IkbjLl ud dattlah, Nawab^ Bagdad,
1888 Inoebji, Pandit Yashnayd Niruttan Inderji.
1879 Ibyine, W., HoUiseroft, CastUnau, Barnes, S.W.
1888 *Jacuok, Arthnr Mason Tippetts, Brasenose College, Oxford,
1885 *f Jaikishak Dass Bahadoob, Eajah, Muradabad, Bohilkhand.
1871 *t Jakes, S. Harvey, Bengal Civil Service, Allahabad,
1878 *Jabdikb, John, Judge, High Court, Bombay,
1881 *fjATAKAR, Atmarain 8. G., Surgeon-Major, Muscat, Persian
Gulf
1888 *tJATAMOHinr, Thaknr Singh, Magistrate and Tahsildar of
Seari Naragan, BiUupur, Central Provinces, India.
1887 JoHNSTOir, C. J., Messrs. AUen, Waterloo Place,
1888 JoHNSTONB, Pierce Be Lacy, IC.A., Osbom Mouse, BolUms
Gardens South, S.W.; 2, Alfred Street, St. Giles's,
Oxford.
1879 *JoT37EB, B. Batson, Gokak Canal, Belgaum,
1881 §Eay, H. C, 11, Durham Villas, Mensingtan.
1884 *£snH, Major J. B., Junior United Service Club; Archao-
logical Survey, Lucknow, iV. W,P.
]2 LIST OF MEMBEBS.
1874 *Ejbl8axl, John, Madra$ 0.8,, Ganjam.
1864 *tKEiiBALL, Lieut.-Gen. Sir Arnold, K.C.B., K-C.S.L, 5,
Upper Bdgrwe Strest ; Uppat Mawe, SoUpie^ N3.
HoK. Kebk, Professor K., Leiden,
1856 fKEBB, Mrs., 19, Warwick Road, KetMinffton.
1872 *KiBLHOEiT, Dr. F., C.I.E., Professor of Sanskrit, Gdiiingm.
1884 KncBEBLET, The Eight Hon. the Earl of, 35, Zownitt
1884 *KiSQ, Lucas White, Secretary to the Chief Oommitswuer,
Mysore, India,
1884 t*KrrT8, Eustace John, Benyal Civil Service, Banda^ N, W,P.
1884 KiriGHTow, W., LL.D., Peak Bill Lodge, Sydenham, S.R
1880 *£tnn£rslet, 0. W. Sneyd, Chief MayistraU, Penang,
Singapore, Straits Settlements.
1884 *Lachman Sikh, Raja, Bulandshahr, N.W.P.
1879 §Lacouperib, Terrien de, Litt.D., Professor of Indo-
Chinese Philology, University College, London, 54,
Bishop's Terrace, Walham Green, S.W.
1880 *j-Lakma.w, Charles R., Professor of Sanskrit, Harvard CoUege,
Cambridge, Mass,, U.S.A., Corresponding Secretary te
the American Oriental Society.
1884 t*LAiir8DELL, The Rev. Dr., £yre Cottage, BlaekheatA, 8.E.
1874 Lawbbitcb, F. W., Oakleigh, Beekenham.
1882 *Layam), The Right Hon. Sir Austen H., G.C.B., D.CI^
Venice.
1872 §Lee8, Major-General W. Nassau, LL.D., 64, Gro^emwr
Street, W.
1877 Lbggb, The Rev. Dr., Professor of Chinese, Oxford.
1881 t*LErrH, TyrreU, Malabar EiU, Bombay.
1861 *fLEiTNER, Gottlieb W., Oriental College, Woking.
1883 *Ls Mestteieb, Cecil John Reginald, Kandy, Ceylon.
1863 *Lb Mesueeee, Henry P., C.S.I., President of the Adminii-
tration of Egyptian Railways, Alexandria.
1878 •fLEPPEE, C. H.
1880 fLE Steangb, Guy, 46, Charles Street, Berkeley Square.
1875 Lethbridge, Sir Roper, C.I.E., M.P., 19, Clanrioarde
Gardens.
1879 §Lewin, Lieut.-Col. T. H., Parkhurst, Abinger, Gourshall
Station, Surrey.
:i
^>
^
LIST OF MBMBEHS. 13
1885 Lewis, Mrs. S. S., 2, Harvey JRoad, Cambridge.
1883 *LiLLET, R., 33, Satt 17 th Street, New York,
1883 LnrDLET, William, C.E., 10, Kidhrooke Terrace, Blaehheath.
1870 *LocH, Sir Henry B., K.O.B., Governor of Victoria,
N.S.W.
1879 *LocKHABT, J. H. Stewart, Hong-Kong,
1840 LoEWB, Dr. L., Oecar FiUas, Broadetairs, Kent.
1873 LuMSDEW, Major-Gen. Sir Peter S., K.C.B., C.S.I., 29,
Ashhume Place, Cromwell Road, S.W.
1873 §LracH, T. K., 33, Font Street, Chelsea, S.W.
^ 1878 Macabtnet, Sir Halliday, M.D., C.M.G., Secretary to
the Chinese Embassy, Richmond House, 49, Portland
Place.
1882 *McOoBKELL, G., Bombay Civil Service.
1882 *McCBnn)LB, J. W., The Lindens, Abbotsford Park, Min-
burgh.
1882 Macdonell, Prof. Arthur Anthony, Ph.D., Corpus Christi,
' Oxford.
1887 *McDoTJALL, W., IndO'JEuropean Telegraph, Karachi, Sindh.
1882 fMACxiKNON, William, Ballinakill, near Claehan, West Loch,
Tarbert, Argyleshire.
1879 §Maclagan, Gen. Robert, R.E., F.RS.E., 4, West Cromwell
^' Road, S.W.
1888 *MADAjr, Gopal, M.A., Calcutta Uniyersity.
1877 Madden, F. W., Hilton Lodge, Sudeley Terrace, Brighton.
1862 Malcolm, General G. A., 87, Sloane Street, S.W.
^' 1881 Mallesok, Colonel George Bruce, C.S.I. , 27, West Crom-
well Road, South Kensington, S.W.
'^ 1871 *t^Ain)LiK, Bio Sahib Vishvandth Nariyan, C.S.I.,
The Hermitage, Bombay.
1879 t^^f-^^"^°^^> ^^» 3^> Blomfield Road, W.
^ 1888 Master, John Henry, Montrose House, Petersham.
1880 *Maxwell, The Hon. W. G., C.M.G., Penang Straits SeUle-
ments.
1864 Melvtll, Major-Gen. Sir Peter M., K.C.B., 27, Palmeira
Square, Brighton.
^ 1888 *Mermaoen, The Rev. C. F., 8, Quai des Tanneurs, Ghent,
Belgium.
^ Hon. Mbtnard, Professor Barbier de, Paris.
14 LIST OP MEMBERS.
1863 *UiLS8, Colonel S. B., Berkjfia Staff Carps, PaHtteai AgaU,
MuBcat.
1873 *MiNCHiir, Lieut.-Col., Bmgal Staff Corps, Politieal Agent 0/
JBahawalpur, Panjdh
1884 «MiB£A Mehdt Khak, F.B.G.S., ChMer Qhat, Hyaerahai,
Dseean.
Hoir. MiTEA, B&b{L B&jendralala, C.I.E., LL.D., 8, Manik ToOah,
Cakutta,
1878 tMocATTii, F. D., 9, Connauffht Place, Byde ParK W.
1874 *lCocKLES, Lieut.-Gol. E., Bombay Staff Corpe^ JPMtied
Ayent, Busreh, Arabia.
1884 ^MoLoimr, Capt. C. A., C.M.G., Government House, Baihursi,
Gambia, West Africa.
1882 t^MoHAKLlL YiBNTTLij;. 'Pajxdu^ Pundit, Member and Secre-
tary of the State Council of Mewar, Oodeypare.
1846 t§Mo»iEE-WiLLiAM8, Sir Monier, M.A., K.C.I.E., D.C.L.,
Professor of Sanskrit, Oxford, 88, Onslow Gardens, S.W.
1887 *MoirTET, Prof. Edooard, Professor of Oriental Languages,
Geneva University.
1886 §MoBGAN, E. Delmar, 15, Roland Gardens, Kensington^ S.TT.
1887 *MoBflAir, W. C. de, ChiUipett, Western Godaoery, Madras
Presidency.
1877 §MoBEis, Henry, Eastcote House, St. John's Pari, Black-
heath.
1888 gfMoEBis, The Bey. Br. Bichaid, M.A., LL.D., Head
Master of the Freemasons' Institute, Wood Green, iN.
1881 MoEEisoK, Walter, M.A., 77, Cromwell Road, S.W. ;
Malham Tarn, Bell Busk, Leeds.
1882 ♦tMo*^> B:. Ballou, B.A. Harvard University, Chinese
Imperial Customs, Shanghai; 8, Storey's Gate, St.
James, S.W.
1877 Mum, Sir W., K.C.S.L, D.C.L., LL.D., B:dinburgh.
1885 *MuxA]n> Lal, Udaipur.
1888 *MuEEBJi Satta CHAin)Bi, IC.A., Pleader of the High
Court, Mathura, If. W.P. India.
1882 *MnxEBJi, Phanibhusan, Professor at Hughli College, Bengal,
India.
*MirEHOPADHTAYA, B&bu Damodara, 6, BaUtrdm Bey's
Street, Calcutta.
1887 *Muxi.ALY, G. M., Madras Civil Service, Gfuntoor, JStstna
District, Madras.
k.'
1886
1881
i
1887
1877
i.
1888
n
1860
1879
■-
1861
•1
1876
r
T
1876
LIST OF MEMBEBS. 15
How. ICvLLEB, Professor F. Max, 7, Norham Oardefu, Oxford.
1850 ♦t^uBEAT, The Hon. Sir C. A., K.C.B., The Orange, Wtndear.
*Naidi7, Yukelremanah, Douming CoUegey Cambridge.
♦Nanjio, The Rev. Bunyiu, Sbngwanfi, Asakuaa, Tokio, Japan.
*!N'AEAYANy Lakshmi.
^Nayille, Edouard, Malagug, near Geneva.
♦Neil, R. A. Jl., Pembroke College, Cambridge.
1860 *f Nelson, James Henry, M.A., Cuddalore, Madrae.
Newman, Emeritus Professor F. W., 16, Arundel Creeeent,
Weeton-euper-Mare.
*NiBMANN, Prof. G. K., Delft, Holland.
*NoBMAK, Lieat-General Sir Henry, K.C.6., £.C.S.L,
Captain- General and Oovemor-in- Chief of Jamaiea.
NoETHBEOOK, The Right Hon. the Earl of, G.C.S.I., F.R.S.,
A, HamilUm Place, PioeadUlg.
1888 *Oldham, Charles Frederick, Brigade Surgeon, let Goorkha
Regiment, Dharmasdla, Panjah.
^ 1885 *Olitee, Edward E., Under Secretary to the Panjah
Government, P. W.I)., Lahore.
Hon. Oppeet, Professor Jules, Parte.
1879 Oexiston, The Rev. James, 2, Keneington Place, Clifton,
Bristol.
1865 *Palgeatb, W. G.
1887 *PANniT Shah Lall, Oujaranwala, Panfah, India.
1885 *Paee£e, Captain George C, Port Officer, Eurrachee.
1869 Peabse, (General George Godfrey, C.B., R.H.A.y Godfrey
Souse, Cheltenham.
1880 *Peal, S. E., Sapakati, Sibsagar, Assam.
1882 fPEEK, Cuthbert E., Bonsdon, Lyme Begie, Dorset.
1 882 f Peee, Sir H. W., Bart., M.P., Wimbledon House, Wimbledon,
Surrey.
1858 fPELLT, Lieut-Gen. Sir Lewis, K.C.B., K.C.S.T., M.P.,
Aihenaum Club; 1, Eaton Square, S.W.
1887 "^Peekins, Miss L. L. W., 103, Lexington Avenue, New
York City.
16 LI8T OF MEMBER&
1880 «t^HiLipp8, W. Bees, JBerhert Rm Fhil^s, jS^., Mk
Ofiee.
1874 *j;TB:xL'SiAJASATrAYAiruBARj Hjb Excellency, JPrwate SdoreUrf
to the King of Siam.
1861 PiLKiKeToir, James, Swinthwaits Sail, BedaU^ ToriMrt:
Reform Club.
1881 Pinches, Theophilns G., BritUh Mueeum.
1874 PiNCOTT, Frederic, 12, WiUim Road, Peekham.
1883 Pht-Bitbbs, Major-General, F.R.S., 4, Growencr Ov-
dens, S.W.
1874 Pope, The Rev. Dr. G. XJ., Professor of Tamil, Oxford.
1881 *PoBTMAN, M. y., Ashfield, Bridgewater, Somerset ; jindammL
Islands.
1861 Powis, The Right. Hon. the Earl of, LL.D., D.C.L., 46,
Berkeley Square.
1888 *P]tiTT, The Hon. Spencer E., United Slates MmisUr to ike
Court of Persia, Teheran.
1886 Prestley, Henry, JEast India United Service Club,
1852 §Priat;lx, Osmond de Beauvoir, 8, Cavendish Square.
1882 f^PBisBiLira, His Excellency The Prince, La Legation de Siam,
Rue de Siam (Passg), Paris.
1862 PusET, S. E. Bouverie, 21, Qrosvenor Street, W.
1887 ^Raghuvathji, K., Farraswady Lane, Bomhag.
1874 f^RlMASviui, Iyengar B., Bangalore, Madras.
1887 Rang Lal, Middle Temple; 5, Ilchester Gardens, Bagswater^
W.
1885 *RAirxiN, D. J., jun., Mozambique, JE. Afriea.
1885 Ravkut, James, Local Marine Board, Tower Hill, E.C.
1869 fRANsoH, Edwin, 24, Ashhumham Road, Bedford.
1888 Rapson, E. T., B.A., Fellow of St. John's College, Cam-
bridge, British Museum.
1847 tSB^wLiNsoir. Major-Gen. Sir H. C, K.C.B., D.C.L., F.R.S.,
Director, India Office; 21, Charles Street, Berkeley
Square.
1887 ♦Rea, a., Archaohgical Survey Department, Madras.
Hon. Redhouse, Sir J. W., K.C.M.G., 14, £ilbum Priory, N.W.
1886 *Rees, John David, Madras Civil Service, Private Secretary
to the Governor .
1883 Reid, Lestock, Charlecote, Lansdown, Bath.
LIST OF MBMBBB8* 17
Hov. Rbkan, Professor £., Paru,
1879 *EicB, Lewis, Director of Public Instruction^ Bangalore,
1880 ^BiCKBiTS, G. H. M., C.B., Mut India United Service Club.
1875 KiDDELL, H. B., C.8.L, WhiUfield Souse, Sepple, JRoth-
bury.
1860 Eepon, The Most Hon. the Marquess of, E.G., F.B.S., 1,
Carlton Oardcnt, S.W.
1872 t*BrYiBrr-CAMrAO, J. H., C.I.E., F.S.A., Ben4ifal C.S.,
Qhdxipur,
1880 EoBUfsoir, Yincent J., Hopedmc Feldcy, Dorking.
1882 ♦Rocranx, W. W., United States Legation, Peking.
1881 ^BoDOEBS, C: J., Uinritsar, Pur^'aub, India.
1869 *BooEB8, Col. H. T., B.E., 72, Ladbrokc Grove, Notting
BiU, W.
1861 BoLLO, The Bight Hon. the Lord, Dunerub CaeOc, Perth-
shire.
1883 *Boss, David, C.I.E., Lahore, India.
1 873 *Bo88, Lieat.-Col. E. C, C.S.I., Bombay Staff Corps, Bushire,
Persia.
Hov. Bosi, Dr. Beinhold, C.B., Ph.D., M.A. (Oxon), London.
HoK. Both, Professor B., Tubingen.
1888 *Bou7]nGirAC, M. Anguste, Avoeat, d Saint Gervais Ics-S^
Clochers, Department dc la Viennc {France).
1878 *Row, P. Krishna, Retired Deputy Commissioner, Mysore.
1885 *Bu8DEir, G. W., Athenaum Club.
1866 fRussELL, the Lord Arthur, M.P., 2, Audlcy Square.
1879 t*Bu8T0MJi, C, Jaunpur, N.W.P.
1880 fETLANDS, T. Glazehrooke, JEKghfieUs, ThelwaU, Warring f on.
1876 Btlatos, W. H., F.S.A., Sec. Bib. Areh. Soc, 11, Rart
Street, W.C.
HoF. Sachau, Professor Eduard, Berlin.
1887 Saddeb-uddtk Khak, Middle Temple; 39, Cokille Terrace,
W.
1883 8AL]coir£, Habib Anthony, Arabic Lecturer at University
College, London; New Athenaum Club.
1865 Sassoon, Sir Albert D., C.S.I., 1, JEastem Terrace,
Brighton.
1865 Sassoon, Beuben D., 1, Belgrade Square, S.W*
1880 *Saiow, Ernest M., Ph.D., jEr.B.M. Consul, Bangkok.
LIST OF MEMBERS.
iiBE, M ., Eohemier par MbtU/art ( Far), FV'anee,
K, The Rev. A. H., M.A., Viee-Prendent, D^f
^refiuor of Comparative Philology^ Queef$'s CoUege,
hford.
E!7i»L£b, General A. H., Teheran^ Persia,
TL^H, Eugene, Consul- Getm-al, BueharesL
r, James George, Burma.
^j Jolin, Judge, Sigh Court, Bombay.
p The Eey. E., Church Missionary Soeietyy Madras,
ndia.
Ktf Emile M., 16, Pue Bayard, Paris.
Tni Raja, E. G. W., Jajha, Ceylon.
at, R., Madras C.S.
njLnAKn, Kavi Raja, Udaipur.
TAE3, G. F., Kaira, Bombay Presidency.
[AS, Selim, Constantinople.
MAJi Keishka Yaema, Pandit.
MAX Das, Kavi Raja, Member of the Hoyal Cotmetl^
Jdaiptif, Mewar.
SB, The Rev. James, jnn., Madagascar.
Dx, Miss Edith, Woodleigh, May field, Sussex.
30ir, Lieutenant Walter Henry, 14, Cornwall GardenM^
louik Kensington, and Junior Travellers^ Club.
son, W., 19, Church Road, WilUsdm.
j^m, W. F., Bombay C.8., Alibag.
H, Vincent A., Bengal Civil Service, Bhasti, N'. W.P.^
kdia.
K, Professor W. Robertson, Librarian to the University,
lamhridge.
NQKR, Dr. A., Wiedephtz, Meidelberg.
K, George, Professor of Ancient and Modem Sistory,
\end€7icy College, Calcutta.
OHN, Colonel Sir Oliver B. C, R.E., KC.S.I., Political
leMmt, Baroda.
Lirr OF Alderlet, The Right Hon. the Lord, 15,
rronenor Gardens, S.W.
^, Br. Marcus Aurell, Ph.D., Registrar of Lahore
Iniversity.
Lf ^fajor-General James, 28, Stafford Terrace, South
remington.
QEK, Carr, Ludhidna, JN". W. Provinces.
LIST OF MBMBEKS. 19
1848 STRi.cH£T, William, Orimtal Club, JETanover 8quar$,
1881 Stubbs, S., F.R.G.8., 263, RampsUad Road, N.W.
1879 *Stulpnaoel, Dr. C. R, lff.A., Ph.D., Inspector of Sehooh,
Lahore,
1875 *fTAGOBB SouBXKDBO ICoHUiT, Bajah Bahadur, Mus.D.,
Calcutta.
1883 *TAwirET, C. H., Prciideney College, Calcutta.
1866 Teuple, Sir Bachaid, Bart., G.C.S.I., O.I.E., Athenigum
CM.
1879 *Tbmpls, Capt. E. C, Mandalay, Upper Burma.
1881 *tTHEOBAU), W., Budleigh Salterton, Devon.
1880 ♦fTHOEBUBH, S. S., Bengal Civil Serviee, Fat^'db.
1881 gTHosNToir, T. H., C.S.I., D.G.L., 23, Bramham Gardens,
South Kensington, S.W.
1859 *tTiEN, The Rev. Dr. Anton, 23, Park Place, ffravesend.
1886 *ToRBiarcB, Dr. William W., Teheran.
1884 *Tkotteb, Major Henry.
1879 Tbotteb, Goutts, Athmaum Club; 17, Charlotte Square,
.Edinburgh.
Hon. TsksQ, Marquis, China.
1884 fJunxvLL, H., Esq., 26, Lowndes Square, S.W.
1882 ^UhArp^n, His Highness The Mahariba Eateh Singhji
Bahadur of, G.G.S.L
1884 *YALENTnrB, The Bey. Dr. Colin S., LL.D., F.R.G.8.,
Medical Collie, Agra.
1888 ^Yaxladabes, Philip R., Bandora, Bombay.
1884 «tYA8Ai)EV, Madhar Samarth, R. R., B.A., BaOiol College,
Oxford.
HoF. YtsiK Pasha, Ahmed, Bam JEgli Hisdri, Constantinople.
1883 Yebnet, F. W., La Legation de Siam, 49, Bue de la
Pompe, Paris.
1827 t^EBWET, Major Sir Harry, Bart., M.P., 4, South Street,
Mag/air; Lower Clagdon, Bucks.
1887 *YiTT0, Ghevalier E., Consul JT.M. The King of Italy,
Aleppo, Sgria.
20 LIST OP MEMBERS.
1827 fYTYTAir, E. H. S., /raM^on, 8f. Colomh, Comwatt.
1884 Wacb, The Rev. Dr., Principal of King's College, London,
1868 §Wade, Sir Thomas F.. M.A., K.C.B., Professor of Cktmu
in the University of Cambridge, President, 5, Salisitinf
Villas, Camhridge; Athenatm Club, S.W.
1873 §Waihouse, M. J., 28, JBamilton Terrace, N.W-
1882 ♦Wallace, Sir Mackenzie, K.C.S.I., Private Seersiary'i
Office, Oovemment House, Simla.
1869 ♦Walbh, Lieut.-Colonel T. P. B., Conservative Club.
1885 f*WABBSir, H. C, 67, Mount Vernon Street, Boston, Mass.
1888 *Watteb8, T., China.
Hon. Webeb, Professor A., 56, Ritterstrasss, Berlin.
1882 fWENTWOBiH, The Bight Hon. the Lord, Wentworth Somss,
Chelsea Embankment.
1885 *We8T, £. W., Rottmannstrasse, 20, Munich.
1873 ♦Wbstmacott, E. Yesey, B.A., Noacolly, Bengal Presidency,
India.
1887 *Wheelee, Stephen, 26, Zeigham Court Road JVest, Street-
ham, S.W.
1882 Whintield, !E. H., The Mollies, Oypsey Road, West Nor-
wood, S.E.
1 883 White, William H., See. Royal Institute British Arehiiects,
9, Conduit Street, W.
How. Whiteet, Professor W. D., Yale College, New Maven, U.SJL,
1868 *! Williams, The Bev. Thomas, M.A., Rewari, Panjab.
1883 §WiLSOE, Charles Edward, B.A. (Lond.), University Teacher
of Persian, Cambridge ; Assistant Librarian, Royd
Academy of Arts, Burlington Mouse.
1869 *WisE, Thomas A., M.D., Thornton, Beulah Mitt, Upper
Norwood, Surrey.
1876 t^oLLASTOw, A. K, C.I.E., India Office; Glen MO,
JValmer.
1881 WoBTHAM, The Bev. Biscoe Hale, Mggesford Rectory, North
Devon,
HoK. Weight, Professor William, Cambridge.
1885 §Yt7LE, Colonel Henry, C.B., Vice-President, India Office;
3, Pen-y-wem Road, EarVs Court.
LUn OF MEMBERS. 21
SirMMART.
Members who haye Compounded ^~>
Besidents 42
Non-residents 53
Total 95
Members who haye not Componnded^-
Residents , • 127
Non-residents 173
Total 286
Honorary Members 80
Total nnmber of Members on the List 411
' The soms paid for these Compositions amount to a little oyer
£1800.
22 LIST OF MEMBBRB,
Sir Syed Ahmed Khan, E.C.S.I., Aligarh.
Senator M. Amiri, Rovm.
Prof. T. Aufrecht. Bonn.
Professor Bamkrishna Gopal Bh&ndarkar, Puna^ Bombay,
5 Paiji^it Babii Deva S&stri, B0nares.
Professor Otto von Bohtlingk, «/ma.
Professor Biihler, C.I.E., Vienna.
The Eight Bev. Bobert CaldweU, D.D., LL.D., Bishop of
TinnoveUy,
Professor DiUmann, Berlin.
10 The Bev. J. Edkins, D.D., F$hing.
Don Pascual de Gaydngos, Madrid.
Professor De Goeje, Leiden.
Gommendatore Gaspar Gorresio, Twrin.
Kawab Ikbdl nd diAvlslhy Bogdad.
15 Professor H. Eem, Leiden.
Professor Barbier de Meynard, Paris.
B^bu Bijendralala Mitra, C.I.E., LL.D., Calcutta.
Professor F. Max Miiller, Oxford.
Professor Jules Oppert, Paris.
20 Sir J. W. Bedhouse, K.C.M.G , London.
Professor E. Benan, Parie.
Dr. Beinhold Bost, C.B., Ph.D., M.A. (Oxon), London.
Professor B. Both, Tubingen.
Professor Edaard Sachau, Berlin.
25 Dr. A. Sprenger, Wiedeplatt, Heidelberg.
Marquis Ts^ng, China.
Ahmed Yefik Pasha, Bum ^li Hisdri, Constantinople.
Professor A. Weber, Berlin.
Professor W. D. Whitney, Yale College, New Haven, U.S.A.
30 Professor William Wright, Cambridge.
STBFHXlf AUSTXH AMD B0N8, PBIMTKSa, HSKTrOSO.
EULES
EOTAL ASIATIC SOCIETY
GEEAT BRITAIN AND IRELAND.
The Sooibty and its Meubebs.
1. The Royal Asiatic Society of Great Britain and Ireland is
instituted for the purpose of investigating the Arts, the History,
and the Literature of Asia; and of facilitating intercourse with
Eastern peoples by an accurate interpretation of their oustoms,
their feelings, and their beliefs.
2. The Society consists of Ordinary and Honorary Members,
each of whom may be either Resident or Non-resident.
3. Members elected in or after June, 1888, who have a residence
or place of business within fifty miles of Charing Cross shall be
considered Resident Members. Members elected before that date
who have a residence in Great Britain or Ireland shall be considered
Resident Members. All other Members shall be considered Non-
resident.
Election of Ordikabt Meicbsbs.
4. Any person desirous of becoming a Member of the Society
must be nominated by two or more subscribing Members, who
shall give the candidate's name, addrrss, and occupation, and
shall state whether he desires to be admitted as a Besident or
Non-resident Member. The nomination must be received by the
Secretary fourteen dear days before the Meeting of Council at
which the election is to be considered.
5. The nomination shall remain suspended in the Library until
the next Meeting of the Council of the Society, and any objection
to the election of the candidate named therein must reach the
Secretary one clear week before the next Council Meeting.
6. The Council shall decide on each application for Member-
ship. But at each General Meeting of the Society the names of
Members elected by the Council since the previous General Meet-
ing shall be announced by the Secretary.
7. Should any question arise as to the application in any
particular case of Bule 3, the decision of the Council shall be
final.
8. Bule 4 does not apply to the case of candidates for admission
under Bule 71.
HONOEABY AJn> EXTBIOILDINASY MeKBEBS.
9. Any person who has rendered distinguished service towards
the attainment of the objects of the Society shall be eligible for
election as an Honorary Member.
10. Honorary Members shall be elected only at the Annual
General Meeting of the Society on the nomination of the Council.
11. There shall not be more than thirty Honorary Members of
the Society.
12. To an Honorary Member there shall be sent on his election
a letter, bearing the Seal of the Society, and signed by the Presi-
dent, Director, and Secretary.
13. Honorary Members shall be entitled, without payment, to
all the privileges of Ordinary Members.
14. Any representative of an Oriental Government accredited to
the Court of St. James's is eligible as an Extraordinary Member.
The Oppicebs op the Societt.
15. The Officers of the Society shall be a President, a Director,
Vice-Presidents, an Honorary Treasurer, an Honorary Secretary,
and a Secretary and Librarian.
16. The President and Yice-PresidentB shall be elected at the
Anniversary Meeting, and shall hold office for three years from
the date of their election. The number of Vice-Presidents shall
be fixed by the Council.
17. The Director, the Honorary Treasurer, and the Honorary
Secretary shall be elected annually at the Annual General Meeting.
18. The Secretary and Librarian shall be elected by the Council.
19. The Council may also appoint an Honorary Solicitor.
Thb Council.
20. There shall be a Council consisting of fifteen Members
and of the Honorary Officers of the Society.
21. The Fifteen Members who are not Officers of the Society
shall be elected at the Anniversary Meeting.
22. Of these fifteen members of Council, five shall retire annually,
two by seniority, and three by reason of least attendance. Of the
five retiring members, two shall be eligible for immediate re-election,
and three for re-election after the lapse of one year.
23. Should any vacancy occur among the Officers or Members of
Council during the interval between two Anniversary Meetings,
such vacancy may be filled up by the Council.
24. The Ordinary Meetings of Council shall be held once a
month from November to June inclusive.
25. Special Meetings of Council may be summoned, under the
sanction of the President or Director, or (in their absence) of one
of the Yice-Presidents, by a circular letter from the Secretary.
26. Five Members of Council shall constitute a quorum.
27. At Meetings of the Council the Chair shall be taken by the
President, or in his absence by the Director, or in the absence of
both of them, by one of the Yice-Presidents.
28. Committees may be appointed by Council to report to it on
specific questions, and unless otherwise stated three shall form
a quorum. Such Committees may be authorised to consult persons
not Members of the Society.
OSNIERAL MeETDI^GS.
29. The Meetings of the Society, to which all the Members
have admission, and at which the general business of the Society is
transacted, are termed General Meetings.
30. At these Meetings the Chair shall be taken by the President,
or, in his absence, either by the Director or one of the Yice-
Presidents ; or, should these Officers also be absent, by some other
Member of the Council.
31. Ten Members shall form a quorum.
32. The Meetings of the Society shall be held in each month,
from I^ovember to June, both inclusive ; the Mondays of Easter,
Whitsimtide, and Christmas weeks being always excepted.
33. Every Member of the Society has the privilege of introduc-
ing at an Ordinary General Meeting, either personally or by a card,
visitors whose names shall be notified to the Chainnan or Secretary.
34. Nothing relative to the regulations, management, or pecu-
niary affairs of the Society shall be discussed at these Meetings,
unless the Meeting shall have been declared Special in the manner
hereinafter provided.
35. The Council may at any time call a Special Meeting of the
Society, on giving fourteen days* notice, to consider and determine
any matter of interest that may arise ; and to pass, abrogate, or
amend rules. No other business shall be brought forward besides
that which has been notified.
36. Such Special Meetings may also be convened by the
Council on the written requisition of Five Members of the
Society, setting forth the proposal to be made, or the subject to
be discussed.
37. Notice of Special Meetings shall be given to every Besident
Member apprising him of the time of the Meeting, and of the
business which is to be submitted to its consideration.
38. The course of business at General Meetings shall be as
follows :
1. The Minutes of the preceding Meeting shall be read by the
Secretary, and on being accepted as accurate, shall be
signed by the Chairman.
2. Donations presented to the Society shall be announced or
laid before the Meeting.
3. Any specific and particular business which the Council may
have appointed for the consideration of the Meeting, and
of which notice has been given according to Eule 34,
shall be discussed.
4. Papers and communications shall be read.
39. The Annivenaiy Meeting of the Society shall ordinarily
be held on the third Monday in May to receive and condder a
Eeport of the Council on the state of the Society ; to receive the
Beport of the Auditors on the Treasurer's Accounts ; to elect the
Council and Officers for the ensuing year; to elect Honorary
Members; and to deliberate on such other questions as may be
proposed relative to the affairs of the Society.
Pathents to be hade by Mehbebs.
40. Every Resident Member is required to pay at his election
the sum of Three Guineas as his first Annual Subscription ; unless
his election shall take place in November or December, in which
case the first annual payment shall not be due till the succeeding
January; and in every succeeding year he shall pay an Annual
Subscription of Three Guineas.
41. Every Non-resident Member of the Society shall pay an
Annual Subscription of Thirty Shillings.
42. The following compositions are allowed, in lieu of such
Annual Subscriptions : —
for Besident Members —
Upon election, for life Thirty Guineas.
After two Annual Payments Twenty-five Guineas.
After four or more Annual Payments Twenty Guineas.
and for Non-resident Members —
Upon election, for life Fifteen Guineas.
After two Annual Payments... Twelve and ahalf Guineas.
After four or more Annual Payments Ten Guineas.
For four years' Subscriptions in advance Five Guineas.
43. Any person elected as a Besident Member of the Society, who
shall under the provisions of Bule 3 become a Non-resident Member,
shall, so long as he continues to be non-resident, contribute an
Annual Subscription of Thirty Shillings.
44. A Non-resident Member becoming a Besident Member shall
pay the Annual Subscription of Three Guineas, or the regulated
composition in lieu thereof, as a Besident Member, unless he have
compounded for his Annual Subscription as a Non-resident Member ;
in which case, on his becoming a Besident Member within the
terms of Bule 3, he shall pay an Annual Subscription of Thirty-
6
three BbillingSy or an additional life composition of Fifteen
Guineas.
45. E^ery person elected a Eesident Member of the Society
shall make the payment due from him within two calendar months
after the date of his election ; or, if elected a Non-resident Member,
within eight calendar months after his election; otherwise his
election shall be void ; unless the Council, in any particular case,
shall decide on extending the period within which such payments
are to be made.
46. Annual Subscriptions shall be due on the first day of
January in each year; and in case the same should not be paid
by the end of that month, the Treasurer or Secretary is
authorized to demand the same. If any subscriptions remain
unpaid at the Anniversary Meeting of the Society, the Secretary
shall apply, by letter, to those Members who are in arrear.
If the arrears be not discharged by the first of January follow-
ing such application, the Subscriber's name, as a defaulter, shall
be suspended in the Meeting-room, and due notice be given him
of the same. The name shall remain suspended, unless in the
interval the arrears be discharged, until the Anniversary Meeting
next ensuing ; when, if the Subscription be not paid, it shall be
pubHoly announced that the defaulter is no longer a Member of the
Society, and the reason shall be assigned.
47. The Publications of the Society shall not be forwarded to any
Member whose Subscription for the current year remains unpaid.
48. A Member's resignation shall not be accepted by the Council
until he has paid up all his arrears of Subscription.
Aunn.
49. The Accounts shall be audited annually in April by three
Auditors, chosen by the Council, of whom one shaU be a Member
of Council, and two Members of the Society. Provided that
nothing in this Eule shall be held to prohibit the association of a
professional Auditor with the Auditors of the Society.
50. The report presented by the Auditors shall be read at the
next ensuing Anniversary Meeting.
51. Whereas the Royal Asiatic Society has been established
exclusively for the purposes of science and literature, and its funds
have been devoted entirely to such purposes, it is hereby declared
that it is wholly inconsistent with the objects, laws, constitution,
and practice of the Society, that any division or bonus in money
should be made unto or between any of its members ; and it is
hereby ordered that the Eoyal Asiatic Society shall not, and may
not, make any dividend, gift, or bonns^ in money, nnto or between
any of its Members.
Papebs awd Publicatiohs.
52. The Society shall publish a Quarterly Journal, containing
Papers, Illustrations, Notes, or Letters on Oriental research, and
a Summary of the principal news of the quarter relating to the
objects of the Society.
53. The Secretary shall be the Editor of the Journal.
54. There shall be a Standing Committee to decide on the
admission of Papers into the Journal, or on their being read at the
General Meetings of the Society.
55. The Journal shall be sent post-free to each Member of the
Society whose address is known. Members not receiving their
Journal can obtain it on application to the Secretary within six
months of the date of publication.
56. The Council may present copies of the Journal to learned
Societies and distinguished individuals.
57. Every Original Communication read before the Society or
published in its Journal becomes its property. The Author may
republish it twelve months after its publication by the Society.
58. Twelve Copies of each Paper published in the Journal may
be presented to the Author. If application be made when his MS.
is forwarded to the Secretary, the Author may be provided with
additional copies to a total number not exceeding fifty.
59. Non-Members can subscribe to the Journal at the rate of
thirty shillings a year, if paid in advance to the Secretary.
The Libbaby.
60. The Library shall be open daily throughout the Session
for the use of all Members of the Society, between the hours of
Eleven and Four, except on Saturdays, when it shall close at Two.
The Library is not opened on Sundays or Bank Holidays.
61. Every Besident Member shall be at liberty to borrow any
books from the Library, except such works as may have been
reserved for use in the Library itself.
8
62. For every book so borrowed a receipt shall be signed, by
the Member borrowing it, on one of the printed forms provided
for that purpose.
63. The Librarian may pay from the funds of the Society for
the carriage of books so borrowed by Resident Members.
64. No Member shall borrow at the same time more than five
volumes.
65. Volumes so borrowed may be retained for one month. If
not asked for during the month, the loan can be renewed by the
signature of a fresh receipt.
66. All books borrowed are to be returned to the Library before
the 31st of July in each year.
67. The Council may, by special vote, grant on such terms as
it thinks fit, the loan of M8S., or of the works reserved for use
in the Library; and may, under special circumstances, suspend
the operation of Eules 64 and 65.
Branch and Associate Societies.
68. Societies established in Asia for objects similar to those of
the Society may be admitted by the Coundl as Branch Societies
of the Eoyal Asiatic Society.
69. The following are declared to be such Branch Societies :
The Bombay Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
The Madras Literary Society and Auxiliary of the
Koyal Asiatic Society.
The Ceylon Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
The China Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society
(Shanghai).
The Pekin Oriental Society.
The Asiatic Society of Japan.
The Straits Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society.
70. Societies established elsewhere than in Asia for objects
similar to those of the Society may be admitted by the Council as
Associate Societies of the Royal Asiatic Society.
71. Members of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and of Branch
and Associate Societies, are entitled to the use of the Library
under Rule 60, and to attend meetings of the Society, and if
desirous of becoming Members, they are eligible without the
formalities prescribed by Rule 4.
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