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JOURNAL OF

THE ROYAL SOCIETY

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

VOLUME 53
PART 2

1970

REGISTERED AT THE G.P.O., PERTH FOR TRANSMISSION BY POST AS A PERIODICAL

THE

ROYAL SOCIETY

WESTERN AUSTRALIA

PATRON

Her Majesty the Queen
VICE-PATRON

His Excellency Major-General Sir Douglas Kendrew, K.C.M.G., C.B., C.B.E., D.S.O.,

Governor of Western Australia

COUNCIL 1970-1971

President
Vice-President
Past President
Joint Hon. Secretaries

Hon. Treasurer
Hon. Librarian
Hon. Editor

B. J. Grieve, M.Sc., Ph.D., D.I.C., F.L.S.
G. M. Storr, B.Sc., Ph.D.

P. E. Playford, B.Sc., Ph.D.

B. Ingram, B.Sc. (Hons.)

P, G. Wilson, M.Sc.

R. N. Hilton, M.A.

Ariadna Neumann, B.A.

A. S. George, B.A.

S. D. Bradshaw, B.Sc. (Hons.), Ph.D.

S. J. Curry, B.Sc.

A. B. Hatch, M.Sc., Dip.For.

J. H. Lord, B.Sc.

D. C. Lowry, M.Sc.

A. J. McComb, M.Sc., Ph.D.

D. Merrilees, B.Sc., Ph.D.

R. T. Prider, B.Sc., Ph.D., M.Aust.I.M.M., F.G.S.

4. — A new pedunculate barnacle, Paralepas georgei sp. nov. (Crustacea:
Cirripedia-Thoracica) epizoic on Australian spiny lobsters and crabs

By A. Daniel*

Communicated by R. W. George

Manuscript received 22 July 1969; accepted 16 Septem'ber 1969

Abstract

Paralepas georgei, a new species collected in 40-
80 fathoms off the southern and lower west
coast of Australia, is described and discussed.
Distinctive features inciude scuta and a carinal
keel, and a distinct pectination of the mandible.

Introduction

During a visit to the Western Australian
Museum, Perth, in 1962, opportunity availed for
examining a small collection of Cirripedes, epi-
zoic on crustaceans, which was taken for detail-
ed study. This material included a new species
of the genus Paralepas epizoic on lobsters and
crabs.

SUBORDER LEPADOMORPHA. Pilsbry 1916.

Family Heteralepadidae Nilsson-Cantell, 1921.

Genus Paralepas, Pilsbry. 1907.

Paralepas georgei sp. nov. ‘Figs. 1-10)

Material examined: Holotype: WAM 190-62
taken from PanuUrus cygnus George off Rott-
nest I.. Western Australia i32"00'S, 115°30'E)
fishing boat Gloria, 3.II.62.

Paratypes: Three specimens WAM 226-68

taken from P. cygnus oif Rottnest I. (32°00'S,
115'’30'E) fishing boat Gloria, 3.II.62.

Ten specimens WAM 191-62 (5 specimens*
and ZSI Cl '5 specimens* taken from Jasus
novaehollandiae Holthuis, Swan I., Tasmania
(40°44'S, 148‘’06'E> M. Olsen. 10.VIII.62.

Two specimens WAM 193-62 taken from
Pseudocarcinus gigas (Lamarck) off Doubtful I.
Bay, Western Australia <34°22'S, 119°36'E)

1.XI.59. 40-60 metres.

Twenty-one specimens WAM 196-62 taken
from Hvpothalassia armata (de Haan> 16 km.
west of Rottnest I. (32^00'S, 115°30^E* K. Sheard,
22.IV.54, approx. 80 m.

Distribution: The above records indicate that
this species of pedunculate barnacle lives in
moderately deep shelf waters on the southern
and lower western coasts of Australia. It is
also possible that the “Lepas” mentioned by
Rathbun (1923 ; 104) on Pseudocarcinus gigas
from Bass Strait and in the Great Australian
Bight, 80-450 fathoms, also belong to Paralepas
georgei.

Diagnosis: Capitulum swollen, cuticle strongly
thickened, orifice crenulated, with distinct elon-
gated scuta and carinal keel. Labrum bullate,
crest hairless supporting sharp teeth, mandible
with four teeth, lower and upper margins of all

* Zoological Survey of India. Calcutta.

four teeth (excepting upper margin of first)
supporting several strong spines; first maxilla
with cutting edge deeply notched, the smaller
portion above notch armed with one strong
spine followed by two smaller pectinated spines
and the lower free margin with two large pec-
tinated spines interspersed with paired thin
spines; second maxilla elongated, superior mar-
gin with group of long setae and inferior margin
with short setae. Cirri short, slightly curved
with long pedicels. Each segment of cirri ii-vi
with lesser curvature bearing semicircle of long
and slender spines below' the articulation and
greater curvature bearing a semicircle of stout
claw-like spines at articulation. Lesser curva-
ture of each segment of cirri iv-vi with a pair
of spinuies in addition to semicircular whorl of
spines. Single large filamentary appendage
present at base of first cirrus. Penis distinctly
annulated with minute rivet-like structures.

Size: The largest specimen in the collection
has a capitular length of 18 mm. and a bi’eadth
of 10 mm. with the peduncle measuring 8 mm.
in length and 3 mm. in breadth. The measure-
ments of the capitulum and the peduncle in the
material examined are given in the following
table: —

TABLE 1

(.■aj)itulum Poduncle

Scries

l.eiifjth

Breadth

Lenjjth

Breadtli

in nun.

in inni.

in inin.

in nini.

....

S-IO

X, 9

()

5..5--0

2-6

1 . r,-3

()

4-5

2-3

1 .5-2

3 . 5-ry

1 .r>-3.5

1.5-3

2-4

2-3

2-4

2-3

Description: The capitulum is extremely vari-
able in shape. In some individuals it is latei'-
ally ovoid wdth smooth surface, and has a
strongly arched carinal margin, and a moder-
ately arched occludent margin which is inter-
rupted by highly pi’otuberant crenulated lips of
slit-like orifice. The orifice extends to one-
fourth the capitular length and the crenulations
nm inwards as distinct furrows (Fig. 1). In

Figures 1-10. Paralepas georgei sp. nov. 1, 2. — Entire animal, side view. 3. — Labrum with palp. 4. — Mandible.
5. — First maxilla. 6. — Second maxilla. 7. — Two segments of third cirrus. 8. — Two segments of fifth cirrus.
9. — Base of first cirrus with filamentary appendages. 10. — A few segments of penis with rivet-like structures.

some others (probably young forms) both the
occludent and carinal margins are moderately
arched, the former interrupted by a less pro-
tuberant orifice which extends to one-third
capitular length. The lips of orifice are faintly
crenulated and the crenulations slant towards
base. In another series of specimens there are
irregular folds on the surface with faint crenu-
lations near the orifice. The occludent and
carinal margins of the capitulum are arched
equally with the occludent margin sloping into
margin of orifice without interruption. The
orifice is wider reaching more than one-third
capitular length and capitular apex is acutely
pointed (Fig. 2) .

In all specimens the capitulum is greatly
swollen, cuticle is strongly thickened with an
inner layer of transverse muscle fibres and the
orifice is slit-like, with the lips crenulated.
There is a distinct carinal keel and distinct
though reduced scutal plate just below the
orifice.

Mouth Parts: The lahrum (Fig. 3i is bullate
with 30 to 40 sharp teeth borne on the hairless
crest. The number of teeth varies according to
the size of individuals, large specimens having
more teeth. The palp is provided 'Pig. 3> with
several long and soft setae on inner margin.
The mandible (Pig. 4i bears four teeth includ-
ing the inferior angle. The lower margins of
all four teeth and upper margins of 2nd, 3rd
and 4th teeth are armed with several strong
spines. The superior and inferior margins of
the mandible bear numerous long and thin
hair-like setae. Several rows of short and stout
or long and thin spines occur near superior and
inferior angles of the mandible. Spines also
occur in groups or singly at the mid-region of
the mandible. The first maxilla (Fig. 5) is
divided by a prominent notch; the superior
portion which is slightly less than one-third the
total length of the free cutting edge bears an
upper central strong smooth spine and two pec-
tinated spines. The notch supports a few thin
spines. Below the notch the cutting edge bears
two major pectinated spines (equal in size to
the smaller spines of the tridentate group
above), interspersed with paired thin spines.
The surface is clothed with numerous slender
spinules and few teeth arranged in groups and
rows. The superior and inferior margins bear
numerous long spinules. The second maxilla
(Fig. 6) is elongated, its superior margin sup-
porting a gi'oup of long setae and inferior mar-
gin supporting slightly shorter setae; the space
between these two groups bear 7-9 sharp teeth.

Cirri: The cirri are all short, and only slightly
curled. The pedicels of all cirri are rather long.
The number of segments in the rami of the
cirri in the specimens examined is as follows: —

Cirrus i-9-10. 7-8; Cirrus ii-13-14. 15-16;

Cirrus iii-15-16. 15-16; Cirrus iv-15-16.

16-17; Cirrus v-14-15, 17-18; Cirrus

vi-14-16, 17-18.

The first cirrus is inserted very near the
mouth and is separate from the second cirrus.
The inner rami of the first cirrus is nearly half
as broad again and slightly longer than the
outer rami. Both rami are densely armed with
whorls of slender plumose spines. The spines

of the basal segments are straight and are
plumose on both sides. The spines of the distal
segments are slightly curved with the greater
curvature being plumose.

The cirri ii to vi are nearly equal in length.
The inner rami of cirri ii and iii are slightly
broader than the outer rami, while in the cirri
iv to vi the rami are nearly equal in width.

Each segment of the cirri ii to vi exhibits the
armature typical of the sugenus Paralepas. The
lesser curvature of the segments support a semi-
circle of long and slender spines (the longest
pair of spines being plumose on one side) below
articulation (Fig. 7>. In cirri iv to vi. in addi-
tion to these spines, each segment bears a pair of
spinules below the semicircular whorl of spines
(Fig. 8). The greater curvature of the seg-
ments of cirri ii to vi supports at each articula-
tion a semi-circle of stout. cla>v-like spines.

At the base of the first cirrus there is a single
large filamentary appendage (Fig. 9). At the
base of the sixth cirrus there is a caudal appen-
dage: it has seven to twelve segments and is a
little longer than the protopodite of the sixth
cirrus. The penis is long, tapering, distinctly
annulated, has minute, rivet-like structures
placed along its length (Pig. 10 1 , and also bears
long setae and short spines scattered over sur-
face and at tip.

Remarks: Newsman (I960) following the sug-
gestions of Pil&bry ( 1907 ) , Annandale (1909) and
Broch (1922) raised the subgenera Heteralepas
Pilsbry and Paralepas Pilsbry to the generic
level. The genus Paralepas Pilsbry is consid-
ered to include the following valid species and
forms: P. dannevigi (Broch. 1922), P. distincta
(Utincmi. 1949), P. globosa (Hiro, 1936), P. in-
termedia (Hoek, 1907), P. lithotryae (Hoek,
1907 ). P. mviuta (.Phillipi, 1836) and subspecies
americana (Pilsbry, 1953 >, P. morula (Hoek.
1907), P. nodulosa (Broch, 1922), P. palinuri
(Barnard, 1924* and subspecies urae (Newman,
I960), P. pedunculata (Hoek, 1883), P. peri-
carinata iPilbsry. 1907'. P. reticulata (Annan-
dale, 1914), P. rosea (Hiro. 1938), P. tuberosa
(Nilsson-Cantell, 1932), P. xe7iophorae (Annan-
dale, 1906), and P. scyllarusi Utinomi, 1967.

The present species can be separated from all
these species excepting P. daiinevigi (Broch) by
the presence of both scuta and a carinal keel.
P. damievigi (Broch) which also possesses a
pronounced carinal keel and chitinous scuta
occurs in deep water on gastropods and differs
conspicuously in the mandible being armed with
small denticles on the lower side of the third
tooth only, the maxilla having a relatively lesser
pronounced notch with strong spine at upper
edge and the penis with a tuft of hairs at the
distal end and a few rather short hairs on
sides.

The present species resembles P. palinuri urae
Newman (1960. fig. 6 G.), P. distincta Utinomi
(1949, fig. 2 D). P. lithotryae Hoek (1907, pi. ix.
figs. 8-8') and P. scyllarusi Utinomi (1967, fig.
2 d) by the possession of a broad tapering and
coarsely annulated penis which is furnished with
many rivet-like structures.

The present forms differ conspicuously from
all the known species of Paralepas in the dis-
tinct pectination of the mandible i.e., the lower

margins of all four teeth and upper margin of
2nd, 3rd and 4th teeth supporting several strong
spines, several rows of short and stout or long
and thin spines occurring near superior and
inferior angles and also the occurrence of
spines in groups or singly at the midregion of
the mandible. The first maxilla also is distinct
by the possession of an upper central smooth
strong spine and two smaller pectinated spines
below, with the deep notch supporting a few
thin species and cutting edge below notch bear-
ing two large spines which are pectinated and
surface of maxilla clothed wdth numerous slen-
der spines and few^ teeth arranged in groups
and rows. The lesser curvature of each seg-
ment of cirri iv-vi. in addition to supporting a
semicircle of long and slender spines <of which
the longest pair are plumose on one side ) , bears
a pair of spinules. This is also a peculiar
feature. Hence it is treated as a new species,
Paralepas georgei.

Acknowledgements

The author is grateful to: the UNESCO, the
Government of India, and Dr. M. L. Roonwal,
former Director, Zoological Survey of India, for
the aw^ard of a fellow^ship which enabled this
visit; to Dr. R. W. George, Curator of Crus-
tacea, Western Australian Museum, after whom
the animal is named, for drawing his attention
to these epizoic Cirripedes and for arranging
the loan of the material; to Dr. K. K. Tiw'ari,
Superintendent Zoologist. Z.S.I.. for reading the
manuscript; and to the Director, Zoological
Survey of India, for facilities to complete the
work.

References

Annanciale, N. (1906). — Natural history notes from the
R.I.M.S. ship "Investigator”, Capt. T. H.
Heming R.N. Commanding. Series III No. 12.
Preliminary report on the Indian stalked
barnacles. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. Ser. 7,
Vol 17, 100.

(1909). — An account of the Indian Cirri-

pedia Pedunculata. Pt. 1. Family Lepadidae
(s. str.) Mem. Indian Mus. 2(2): 51-137.

(1914). — ^New and interesting Pedunculate

Cirripedes from Indian seas. Rec. Indian
Mus. Calcutta. 10: 273-280.

Barnard, K. H. (1924). — Contributions to the Crustacean
fauna of South Africa, No. 7. Cirripedia.
Ann. S. Afr. Mus. 20(1): 1-103.

Broch, H. J. (1922).— Studies on Pacific Cirripedes.

Papers from Dr. Th. Mortensens Pacific Ex-
pedition 1914-16. No. 10. Vide7isk. Medd.
Dansk. naturh. Foren. Kjohenhavn, 73: 215-
358.

Hiro, F. (1936).— Descriptions of three new species of
Cirripedia from Japan. Bull. Biogeogr. Soc.
Japan. 6(23).

Hoek, P. P. C. (1883). — Report on the Cirripedia collect-
ed bv the H.M.S. "Challenger” (Zool.) 8(25):
1-169.

(1907). — The Cirripedia of the Siboga-

Expedition Pedunculata. Siboga-Expedite,
31a: 1-127.

Newman, W. A. (I960).— Five Pedinculate Cirripedes from
the Western Pacific, including two new
forms. Crustaceana 1(2). 100-116.

Nilsson-Canteil, C. A. (1921).— Cirripedien-Studien. Zool.
Bidr. Uppsala, 7; 75-395.

(1927). — Some barnacles in the British

Museum. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, (3): 743-
790.

(1932).— Cirripeclien aus Japan. Ark. Zool.,

Bd. 24 A (4).

Pilsbry, H. A. (1907). — ^The Barnacles (Cirripedia) con-
tained in the collections of the U.S. Nation-
al Museum, U.S. Nat. Mus. Bull. 60, I-X,
1 - 122 .

( 1953 ) .—Notes on the Floriden Barnacles

(Cirripedia). Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philad.
105: 13-28.

Rathbun, M. J. ( 1923 ).— Report on the crabs obtained
by F.I.S. “Endeavour”. Biol. Res. Endeavour
1909-1914, 5; 95-156.

Stubbings, H. G. (1965).— West African Cirripedia in the
collections of the Institut Francais d’Afrique
Noire, Dakar, Sengal Bull, de e*. I. F.A.N. 22,
Ser. A. (3): 896-907.

Utinomi, H. (1949).— Studies on the Cirripedien fauna
of Japan VI. Cirripeds from Kyusyu and
Ryukyu Islands. Publ. Seto. Mar. Biol. Lah.
1(2) : 19-37.

Utinomi, H. (1958).— Studies on the Cirripedien fauna
of Japan VII. Cirripeds from Sagami Bay.
Publ. Seto Mar. Biol. Lab. 6(3): 282-311.

Utinomi, H. (1967).— Occurrence of a new Pedunculate
Ciniped on a small Spanish lobster Scyllarus
bicuspidatus (De Man) from Kamae Bay.
North eastern KYUSYU. Publ. Seto. Mar.
Biol. Lab., 15(2): 117-120.

Zullo, V. A. and Newman, W.A. (1964).— Thoracic Cirri-
pedes from a southeast Pacific Guyot. Pacific
Science. 28(4 1 : 355-372.

5. — Alpha-activity of Western Australian soils and wheats

J. H. Chute, R. A. Clapp and J. P. Quirk*

Manuscript received 18 March, 1969; accepted 17 March. 1970.

Abstract

Lateritic soils formed on the Precambrian
shield of south-western Australia have measured
a-activities in the range 40-100 pCi/g from
naturally occurring isotopes; whereas in soils
formed on Mesozoic and Cainozoic coastal sedi-
ments the a-activlty seldom exceeds 20 pCi/g.

The ash activity of wheat growing on the
more active soils can be as high as 90 pCi/g.
However, there is at least a three-fold variation
in uptake of active isotopes depending on wheat
variety.

For the lateritic soils there is a correlation
between total a-activity and both ironstone
gravel content and the total Pe -i- A1 in the
soil. There is also some evidence for an activity
dependence on present climate and rainfall.

Although applied superphosphate fertilizer is
high in natural radio-activity it is not believed
to have made a significant contribution to the
measured a-activity of the soil.

Introduction

The first measurements by Marsden (1961*
of natural a-activity in Western Australian
wheats and soils, from samples taken at Wongan
Hills and Merredin. indicated unusually high
levels of a-emitting isotopes when compared
with samples taken elsewhere ^ Marsden, I960;
Mayneord, Turner and Radley, 1960; Zymlowska
and Wilgain, 1961; Zymlowska and Ostrowdka,
1965).

From independent samples we have confirmed
the high values reported by Marsden and have
extended the range of observations to an addi-
tional thirty-five sites in the southern half of
Westei’n Australia.-

Our interest in a-activity in Western Aus-
tralian soils stems from two sources:

1 1 ) the use of natural radio-activity as a
tool for studying the absorption by
plants of trace amounts of elements
from soils. In particular it is expected
that root exploration and the physical
nature of the root/soil interface may be
studied by following the absorption of
certain nuclides.

(2) The measurements of isotopic ratios
which may be used as indices of weath-
ering (Talibudeen, 1964). The use of
isotopic ratios is of particular interest,
because large areas of Western Aus-
tralia are characterised by well devel-
oped laterite profiles in which the
dominant minerals are sesquioxides of
iron and aluminium. It is known that
thorium tends to accumulate with the
sesquioxides (Talibudeen, 1964) and
therefore, comparison of the Th/U ratio

* Dept, of Soil Science and Plant Nutrition, Institute
of Agriculture, University of Western Australia,
Nedlands, Western Australia 6009.

in the laterites and their parent mater-
ials should provide a sensitive index of
the weathering processes involved.

As a preliminary to these investigations how-
ever, it is necessary to measure total levels of
a-activity and where possible correlate these
levels with various plant and soil factors such
as geological parent material, soil type, rainfall
and leaching, clay mineral type and content,
sesquioxide abundance, wheat variety and cal-
cium content of soil and plant. The first results
of this broad survey are presented in this paper.

Experimental Technique

Samples of topsoil and subsoil were collected
from 35 sites in the south-west of Western Aus-
tralia during July, 1966.

Included in these samples were soils from
Wongan Hills and Merredin, two of the sites
sampled by Marsden. The remaining localities
were selected primarily for major differences in
geological parent material and are shown in
figure 1. Where fresh rock outcrops occurred
near the sice, they were also sampled.

If available, data was also recorded concern-
ing superphosphate history and wheat variety.

Phosphate rock and superphosphate samples
were collected from the two major distributors
in Western Australia. Marsden (1959) has
reported that phosphate rock is high in a-activity
and because of the high rates of application
of superphosphate on wheat growing soils in
Western Australia it was necessary that the
contribution from this source to the natural
radio-activity should be determined.

Before measuring the a-activity levels, the
soil and rock samples were dried in a 110° C
oven and crushed to pass a 120 mesh sieve,
and the separated wheat grain was ashed over-
night at 600-650' C and again crushed to pass
a 120 mesh sieve.

Particle size analyses were carried out on
ail the soil samples by screening through 10
mesh and 120 mesh sieves and the < 2^ clay
fraction was separated by sedimentation. For
a limited number of soil samples the a-activities
of the gravel fraction, and the clay fraction
were measured individually.

The detection and measurement of a-particles
emitted from these powdered samples followed
very closely the technique described in detail
by Turner. Radley and Mayneord (1958). Basic-
ally, the sample was co.ntained in a shallow
translucent tray, one sm-face of which was
coated with a finely divided scintillating phos-
phor. The powdered sample was in intimate
contact with the phosphor and sealed into the
tray to prevent loss of radon. A period of 3-4

MESOZOIC AND CA1N020IC

ARCHAEAN SEDIMENTS

SEDIMENTS

CONTAINING BASIC

IGNEOUS ROCKS

ARCHAEAN granite
AND GNEISS

TOWNS DESIGNATED BY q BORDEN

SITES DESIGNATED BY ^ 2

Figure 1. — Location of cc-activity samp ing sites in south-western Australia.

weeks was allowed to elapse before counting to
allow radon and thoron daughters to reach
equilibrium.

The scintillations from the phosphor were de-
tected by a 5 in. photomultiplier and the result-
ing pulses, after amplification and discrimina-
tion were fed to a fast electronic scaler. Be-
cause the counting rates were comparatively low,
dead-time losses were negligible.

In the thorium series disintegration chain,
emits an a-particle and decays to Po=^^''
which again decays by a -emission to Pb^'^. Since
the half life of Po^"^ is 0.158 seconds, these
successive emissions will be detected as pairs

of a-particles with an average separation of
approximately 0.2 seconds. For unweathered
geological materials, where it can be assumed
that the thorium series is in equilibrium, then
the ‘pairs’ rate will give an accurate measure
of the thorium concentration in the sample
(Cherry, 1963). Further, for the thorium series

in equilibrium the ratio of counts to pairs ( —

ratio) as determined by Cherry (1963) is 16.4
and he has shown that an increase in the value
of this ratio may be used to determine the
concentration of uranium in the sample.

For soils or plant materials where weather-
ing or preferential uptake of certain nuclides
has disrupted the equilibrium of the thorium
and uranium series it is not possible to measure
thorium or uranium concentrations in this

way. However, the thorium ‘pairs’ rate and —

ratio can still yield important information.

If for example, the — ratio is significantly

greater than 16 4 then either uranium is pre-
sent in the sample, or there is a depletion of
some of the daughter elements in the thorium
series. Ihe two possibilities may be distinguish-
ed by measuring those coincidence counts
occurring in the lime intervals 3.6 milli -seconds
which are characteristic of the double a-decay
of the isotopes Rn^^”, and Po^^^ (half life 1.83
milli-seconds ) of the uranium decay series.

If tne — ratio is significantly less than 16.4
P

this would indicate that the samples contain
few. if any, of the head members of the thorium
series.

In order to measure the uranium and thorium
‘pairs* two fast mechanical registers and two
co-incidence gates were interposed between the
amplified pulse output and the electronic scaler.
The mode of operation was as follows: — A pulse
leaving the amplifier would be counted by the
electronic scaler and would also activate the
first coincidence gate for a period of 3.6 milli-
seconds (two half-lives of Po^''^). A second
pulse arriving within this time interval would
be recorded on both the electronic scaler and
on the ‘uranium pairs’ register. After 3.6 milli-
seconds the first coincidence gate would close
and the second gate would open, remaining
active for a period of 316 milli-seconds (two
half lives of Po^'‘‘>. A second pulse arriving
within this time interval would be recorded by
the electronic scaler (total counts) and on the
‘thorium pairs’ I’egister.

Before the total a-activity and the thorium
and uranium concentrations could be calculated,
where applicable, it was necessary to know the
mean atomic number Z (Turner, Radley and
Mayneord, 1958 > and mean atomic weight W
(Cherry, 1963) of the sample material.

In the case of wheat ashes a combination
of wet chemical and X-ray fluorescence analysis
was used to obtain Z and W, and for the parent
rocks these values were calculated from pub-
lished analyses of similar rock types (Mason,
1958).

For many Western Australian soils, major
element analysis has shown that there is an
excellent correlation between Z or W and the
iron and calcium content of the soil. For these
soils therefore, calcium and iron were measured
by flame emission and absorption techniques
respectively and the corresponding values of
Z and W were determined.

Exchangeable calcium was measured using
molar NHiCl to displace the calcium which
was then determined on the S.P. 900 flame
photometer.

The major clay and accessory minerals in the
< 2/a fraction were analysed qualitatively using
a Phillips X-ray powder diffractometer.

Full details of these analyses will be presented
in a later publication.

Calculation of o-activity

The total a-activity in curies per gram
(Ci/g) of each sample was calculated from the
equation developed by Turner et. al. (1958),
and is given by

A = . (t -4 X 10 11 Ci/g (1)

T R„.A.7/

where C ^ counts/hour above background

Rq - a -particle range iii cm. of standard
air.

A -1 area of sample in cm“.

For unweatbered rocks, in order to calculate
the concentrations of uranium and thorium
from the pairs counts it was necessary to allow
for the chance occurrence of ‘spurious pairs'.

This correction was carried out from the
equation proposed by Cherry (1963) where the
spurious pairs rate S is given by

8 = . r exp (^- X,.r) (2)

where again C total count rate

and r “ dead time of the register circuit

The half life correction, as discussed by Cherry
was applied to the corrected pairs rate to
obtain a final value, P. for the pairs rate, in
this case disintegrations occurring in two half
lives were measured, yielding | of the total
■pair’ disintegrations, therefore the half life
correction factor was 1.333.

Having determined the pairs rate P and the
total a-count rate C (both in counts/hr) the
thorium and uranium concentrations in p.p.m.
for the rock samples were calculated from the
equations

C = \\A . A ((Mo5 U + 0-U434 Tli) (3)

where A area of sample

W means atomic weight of sample

The derivation and limitations of equations
(3) and (4> have been fully discussed by Cherry
(1963).

For the soils and ashed wheats, as previously
discussed, equations (3) and (4) do not apply

and for these samples — ratios have been cal-

culated instead.

Tables 1, 2 and 3 list these results for soil,
ashed wheat and rocks respectively.

so r

20 ^

10 ^

LEGEND :

O - WHEAT ASH : VARIETY GAMENYA
• - WHEAT ASH : OTHER VARCTIES.
▲ - BARLEY ASH

WHEAT ASH TOTAL ^-ACTIVITY

50 80 70

PICOCURIES PER GRAM.

100

Figure 2. — Correlation of wheat-ash and soil cc-activity.

PE RCENT

F9 + Al.

Figure 3. — Correlation of soil cc-activity with per cent. Fe + Al. 3a. — Total cc-activity of soils formed on the
Pre-Cambrian Shield of Western Australia: • = soils of lateritic origin: o = other soils. 3b. — Total cc-activity

of soils formed on Mesozoic and Cainozoic sediments.

Experimental results and discussion

From the data presented in Tables 1, 2 and
3 the following points were noted.

(i) Soils and wheats from the western part
of the Precambrian shield w^ere in general much
more active than those from other localities
measured in this survey, and elsewhere.

(ii) Although the ashed wheat activities were
obviously dependent on the activity of the soil
on which they were growing, Pig. 2. the cor-
relation was much poorer than expected. This
can be partially explained by the wide variation
in uptake of a-emitting isotopes by wheats of
different varieties as showm in Table 2 for site
10 at Wongan Hills. For these seven w^heats,
growing on the same soil there was a three-fold
increase in the ash activity from the lowest to
the highest respectively.

(hi) It has been stated that thorium tends to
accumulate with sesquioxides of iron and alum-
inium (Talibudeen, 1964). Considerable difficulty
was experienced in quantitatively extracting
these sesquioxides from the soil samples and
therefore a correlation w'as attempted between
total a-activity and the sum of total iron and
aluminium as measured on the atomic absorp-
tion spectrophotometer. The results are showm
in Pig. 3. For those soils which are mainly of
lateritic origin (closed circles Pig. 3a) there is
a linear correlation, how'ever in the second group
(open circles Fig. 3a) the association between
a-activity and percent Fe -j- A1 is not as obvious.
All the soils in this group are fine textured,
therefore much of the aluminium will be pre-
sent in the clay fraction rather than as
sesquioxide. In addition, most of these soils
contain finely divided fresh rock fragments and
several w^ere formed on or near basic dolerite

intrusions which would contribute to the high
A1 and Fe contents without a proportionate
increase in total a-activity.

For the soils formed on Cainozoic and Meso-
zoic sediments the total a-activity is approxi-
mately proportional to the logarithm of the
percent Fe i- Al. This departure from linearity
may be explained in a similar way, in that the
more active soils contain a higher proportion
of clay which in turn contains appreciable
amounts of aluminium.

(iv) For soils formed on the Precambrian
shield the a-activity levels of the sand and
gravel components were often higher than the
finer fractions as shown in Fig. 4a, where there
is a definite negative correlation between total
soil activity and percent soil passing a 120 mesh
sieve. The soils formed on Cainozoic and Meso-
zoic sediments are by contrast low' in a-activity
and tend to exhibit a positive correlation with
percent soil passing a 120 mesh sieve (Pig. 4b).
Two soils from sites 18 and 19 (open circles
Fig. 4a) do not fit this general scheme. Although
formed on Precambrian granite rock and of
coarse texture they are extremely low in
a-activity. The soils at both of these sites have
undergone severe leaching and consist mainly
of coarse grains w^hich apparently cannot i*e-
tain active isotopes. For the five samples listed
in Table 4 the gravel activity A^ was measured
separately and the activity of the remainder
of the sample Ak was calculated from the
equation:

^ ~ (5)

where At ■ total activity of the sample
^ weight fraction of gravel.

Figure 4— Correlation of soil cc-activity with particle size. 4a.— Total cc-activity of soils formed on the Pre

Cambrian Shield of Western Australia: o = samples from sites 18 and 19. 4b.— Total cc-activitv of soil*?

on Mesozoic Cainozoic sediments. ^

TABLE 1

Table 1. — Total ct"^ctivity of surface and sub-soil samplss.t

Site No. and Location I

Sam[)le

No.

Depth

Sampled

Gravel

Geolugieal

Substrate

Total

a - activity

Miinseil

Colour

pCi/g

Irwin

J .1

0-12"

M.S.* **

7.5 vr 4/2

Irwin

2.1

0-7"

M.S.

10 vr 4/1

2.2

7-20"

M.S.

10 vr 0/3

(Jreenough

3.1

0-12"

M.S.

10 yr 3/3

3.2

12-20"

M.S.

5 yr 0/3

Kradu

4.1

0-5"

M.S.

2.5 vr 4/4

4.2

5- 15"

M.S.

2.5 yr 5/0

4.3

15-20"

M.S.

2 . 5 vr 5/0

i).

Kradii

5.1

0-4"

M.S.

10 yr 0/2

5.2

4-20"

M.S.

7.5 yr 0/0

Tenimiewa ....

0.1

0-0"

M.S.

2.5 yr 3/0

0.2

0-24"

M.S.

2.5 yr :i/s

Pindar

7.1

0-0"

AM.

10 yr 0/4

7.2

0-20"

AM.

10 vr 7/0

7.2.5+^

0 20"

A. a.

Caima

8.1

0-4"

A.S.

5 yr 4/0

8.2

4-10"

A.S.

2.5 vr 3/0

8.2.5

4-10"

A.S.

Wongan Hills

9.1

0-4"

()

A.G.

2.5 yr 0/2

Sani])led Ang. ’00

9.2

4-12"

A.a.

2.5 yr 7/4

9.3

12-17"

A.G.

9.4.3

12-17"

A.G.

Sampled Nov. ‘00

9.0

0-4"

A.G.

9.7

4-12"

A.G.

9.8

12-17"

A.G.

9.9

0 4"

A.(t.

Sam))led Nov. ’05

9 . 1 0

4 -8"

A.a.

10 yr 7/2

10.

M'ongan Hills

10.1

0-5"

AM.

10.2

4-10"

A.G.

10.2.2

4-10"

A.G.

10.2.5

4-1 0"

A.G.

10.3

10-20"

A.G.

2.5 vr 5/6

10.4

0 4"

A.G.

10.5

4-S"

A.G.

10.6.5

Surface

Gravel

A.G.

172

11.

Calingiri

11 .1

0-4"

Dolerite

2 . 5 yr 5/ 4

11.1.5

0-4"

I <yke
Dolerite

Dyke

11.2

4-15"

Dolerite

2.5 vr 5/0

Dvke

11.

Calingiri

11 .3

15-22"

Dolerite

2.5 yr 3/0

Dyke

12.

Kellerberrin

12.1

0-4"

A.G.

10 vr 5/1

12.2

0-14"

A.G.

2.5 yr 7/2

12.2.5

0-14"

A.G.

12.3

14-2S"

3 . 5

A.G.

10 vr 7/0

13.

Merredin

13.1

0-3"

A.a.

7.5 yr 5/4

13.2

3 -1 4"

A.G.

5 vr 5/4

14.

Southern Cross

14.1

0-8"

A.G.

2.5 yr 4/4

14.2

8-27"

A.G.

5 vr 5/8

15.

Biilong

15.1

0-10"

A.S.

5 yr 0/3

15.2

10-20"

A.S.

5 yr 0/4

10.

Norseman

10. 1

0-2"

A.S.

7.5 yr 5/4

10.2

2-10"

A.S.

7.5 yr 0/4

10.3

10-22"

A.S.

5 yr 5/3

17.

Dowak

17.1

0 3"

M.S.

7.5 yr 5/4

17.2

3-20"

M.S.

IS.

Esperance

18.1

0-24"

A.G.

5 yr 8/4

18.2

24-48"

A.G.

2.5 vr 8/0

18.3

48-00"

A.G.

10 yr 5/6

10.

Dalyu))

19.1

0-8"

A.S.

2.5 vr 0/2

19.2

8-30"

A.S.

2.5 yr 8/2

20.

Kavensthorpe

20.1

0-5"

A.S.

5 yr 5/3

20.2

5-1 2"

A.S.

5 yr a/0

21.

Ongeru])

21.1

0-4"

A.G.

10 yr 5/1

‘>*>

Borden

22.1

0-0"

A.S.

5 yr 5/3

^ >9. 9.

0-14"

A.S.

10 vr 7/3

22 3

14-24"

A.S.

2.5 yr 4/0

23.

Borden

23.1

0-3"

A.S.

5 vr 3/4

23.2

3 - 1 2"

A.S.

2.5 vr 3/4

23 . 3

12-10"

A.S.

7.5 yr 7/0

24.

Albany

! 24.1

0 4"

M.S.

10 yr 5/1

! 24.2

4-10"

.M.S.

10 yr 7/3

24.2.5

4-10"

MS.

* M.S. =s Mesozoic and fainozoic^ marine sediments.

A.S. = Archaean Sediments with l)asic igneous intrnsives.

A.t». - Archaean granite.

** Sample number witli two digits only, were jtrepared by grinding to pass a 120 mesh sieve.

Third digit ^ 2<^ ‘lf> fraction.

'.i mottles separated and ground.

5 gravel separated and ground.

t The exact locations of the above samples sites are available from the authors.

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Table 1. — Total ^-activity of surface and sub-soil samples.!

Site No. and i,ocation

Sample

No.

Depth

Sani])led

Oravel

Geologieal

Substrate

Total

a - activity

Mim.sell

Colour

p('i/K

24.3

16-26"

M.S.

10 \T 6/6

25.

Jarrahwood . .

25.1

0-6"

M.S.

10 yr 7/1

6-15"

M.S.

2.5 yr 7/2

25.3

15-30"

M.S.

26.

Capel

26.1

0-24"

M.S.

34.

Wongan Hills

34.1

0-4"

()

A.O.

34.2

4 S"

AM.

34.3

8- 1 6"

AM.

35.

Wongan Hills

35.1

0- 4"

\.(i.

35.2

4-8"

AAi.

60.

(’orrigin .... .. .

60.1

0-3"

A.O.

101

61.

('orrigin

61.1

25-24"

A.<;.

2S2

62.

York

62 1

0-2"

A. (4.

62.2

2-8"

A. (4.

+ The exact locations of the above saini)les sites are available from the authors.

The last column of Table 4 lists the ratio
Ac.

— , from which it can be seen that the gravel

fraction was generally higher in activity than
the remainder. Sample 24.2 was an exception;
however in this sample the coarse material
mainly consisted of rounded pieces of magnetic
haematite, in contrast to the concretionary
ironstone gravels in the other samples.

For these ironstone gravels the uranium pairs

count rate was negligible and the — ratios were

in the range 15-17 which is characteristic of
the Th’^-^^ decay series in equilibrium. Some
caution must be exercised in interpreting these
C

— ratios however, because recent experiments,
P

using a new counting technique to determine
true pairs directly, indicate that the Poisson
distribution used by Cherry (1963) over estimates
the spurious pairs at high count rates. Further
work is required before a better correction can
be established with any degree of precision.

(v) The contribution from superphosphate
application to the total a-activity of a soil was
estimated from measurements of the activity
of eight batches of superphosphate produced by
CS-BP and CRESCO, the two leading distribu-
tors in Western Australia (Table 3). A mean
for the superphosphate activity was 63 pCi/g
and for a typical application rate (180 Ibs/acre)
the increase in soil activity at the surface would
be 30 pCi/sampling area (250 cm-). If, for
example, as the result of ploughing or leaching,
this activity was distributed through only the
top 10 cm of soil, then the increase in soil
activity w^ould be of the order 0.01 pCi/g. The
general conclusion may be reached then, that
even prolonged applications of superphosphate
fertiliser at high rates will not cause a measur-
able increase in soil a-activity.

At Wongan Hills, sites 9 and 10, a comparison
of soils which had received heavy applications
of superphosphate (samples 9.1, 9.2, 9.3, 10.1.
10.2, 10.3) and of the same soils which had
received no superphosphate (samples 9.6, 9.7,
9.8. 10.4, 10.5) showed the activity levels to be
comparable or even higher in the unsupered
soils, thus supporting this general conclusion.
A possible exception was encountered at site 11,
Calingiri, where a shallow clay-loam soil has
developed directly on a dolerite dyke. In this
soil, activity levels of approximately 30 pCi/g
were encountered whereas the activity of the

TABLE 2

Table 2. — Total ^.-activity of ashed wheat and barley.

Site No. and Location

Wheat Variety

Total

a-activitv

pCVfJ

Irwin

Crccnougli

Kradii

Bungulla

*(lamenva

Kradii

Insignia .. .

’I'rnindcwa

<4ameiiva

Idndar ..

Camenya

('anna

10.

Wongan Hilis ..

Falcon

Wongan Hills

<4amenva

Wongan Hills

<4ab()

Wongan Hilis ....

Heneubbin

Wongan Hills .

Nooiigar

Wongan Hills . ,

insignia ...

Wongan Hills .

Wagin

11 .

Calingiri

(ianieiiva

12.

Ki-llcrbcrrin

20.

Kavctislhorpc

21.

( ingcnip

♦

22.

Hfirdcn

23.

Hordcn

Camenva

24.

.\ii)any

27.

Wvalkatchciu . .

(4abo

•>•>

2s.

xVungarin

Insignia

27.

Hcncublihi

30.

Morawa . .

Falcon

31.

Nortliamrtton . ..

Mengarvie

32.

Northampton . .

(4amema

33.

Lake King

60.

Corrigin

* hurley Ash.

TABLE 3

Table 3. — Total ^-activity of rocks and superphosphate.

Site,

location or
Source

Sami»le

Total
«-activit y
]'<'i/K ‘

ppm

9. Woiii'an Hills

Arcliaean

(>;')

1 1 . ( 'a!in}j:iri

(iranite

Dolerite

I(>. Xor^cmaii ...

Archaean

IS. Ks|i(*rancp

(tiadss

Proterozoic

;')9

()0

'2i. Alliaiiv

(iranite

Piniest<ine

Scucjial

Piu)s|)hate

21S

J'lorida

Rock

I'tiosjdmte

34S

Nauru Island

Ruck

Plios])hatc

191

Tn^nlaud .
Ocean Island
-\nias Island

Rock

I’hohjihate

Rock

Idutsjdiate

Rock

J*hos]diate

27)2

1S4

(’resco, i‘crtli

Rock

SU|)crj)lios-

I'rcscn.

plmfe ’(io-’Bd
Nov, '()()

()()

Crcsco, I’ertli

Feb. '(VI

cs V.W Hs-

]icrancp
( s UP. Al-

(><>

banv

CS HP. JVrtli
CS ]}p. Perth

TO •(>■)

2()

CS It P, Perth

■()0 ’•)(>

parent dolerite was only 4 pCi/g. Here it would
seem that one or more components in the soil
has the ability to ‘fix’ a-active isotopes from
the applied superphosphate.

The increasing use of highly active Florida
rock phosphate in Western Australian super-
phosphates from 1966-67 onwards may clarify
this situation for subsequent samplings.

(vi> at site 9. Wongan Hills, a series of soil
measurements at yearly intervals since 1965 has
indicated that the rate of movement of a-active
isotopes through the soil profile may be much
faster than is generally supposed. Topsoil and
subsoil taken late in 1965 whilst the site was
in crop were quite active, 55 pCi/g and 34 pCi/g
for the 0-4 in. and 4-8 in. sample respectively
(samples 9.9 and 9.10) which are comparable
with values measured by Marsden (private com-
munication), After lying fallow for a year the

TABLE 4

Table 4.— Comparison of total ^-activity of the whole
soil with that of the gravel component.

Weit'lit

'Potal

( • ravel

Remainder

.Fraction

Activitv

Activity

Activitv

Sani])le

(i ravel

(pc'i/a)

(i>< ’i/K)

7.2

0.0»)

1 .1

8.2

0.29

1 .9

10.2

0 . 3.5

1 .4

12.2

0.50

.54

.33

1 .7

24.2

0.78

0.4

site was re-sampled in 1966 and again in 1967.
For these samples (9.1, 9.2, 9.3) there was a
significant decrease in surface activity. However,
at a depth which coincided with a zone of
soft iron concretions and clay mottlings the
activity was again quite high. The inference
then, is that ploughing throws active materials
into the surface soil and this subsequently
leaches back to the sesquioxide horizon. Ihirther
detailed sampling will be required to confirm
this point.

(vii) From the measurements of a-activity
made so far, it is difficult to make conclusive
statements regarding the effects of climate and
rainfall, however, the following observations
appear to be pertinent.

On an easterly transect through York, Keller-
berrin. Merredin and Southern Cross to Bulong
and Norseman there is a steady decrease in
mean rainfall from 18-20 in. to 9-10 in. East-
wards as far as Merredin, which lies close to
the 12 in. isohyet, the dominant soils are coarse
textured yellowish loamy sands with much iron-
stone gravel, and the soil a-activity is reason-
ably constant in the range 45-50 pCi/g.

Further eastwards the activity diminishes
sharply to 2-10 pCi/g (Bulong and Norseman)
and the soil becomes a finer textured gravel-
free reddish clay-loam with a much more
uniform distribution of iron through the profile.
Therefore it would appear from the present
results that when the mean annual rainfall is
sufficient to cause waterlogging in winter and
favour gravel formation then there is also a
concentration of a-active isotopes.

Further south, at Esperance and Dalyup in
the 25 in. rainfall belt, with a more uniform
distribution of rainfall throughout the year the
soils are more severely leached, contain negli-
gible amounts of Pe and A1 and are extremely
low in activity.

Conclusions

Lateritic soils formed on the Precambrian
shield of Western Australia are unusually high
in natural a-activity and there is a definite
association between activity levels and the
ironstone gravel content of the soils. For these
soils there is also a significant correlation be-
tween activity and Fe -{- A1 content.

Some of the active isotopes present in the
soil are readily taken up by wheat, however
the rate of uptake varies widely with variety.

Although supei-phosphate fertiliser is high in
natural a-activity it is unlikely at normal appli-
cation rates to have made a significant contri-
bution to the total soil activity.

There is some evidence that leaching of active
isotopes through the soil profile may be quite
rapid in regions of adequate rainfall and there
appears to be an association between soil activity
levels and rainfall and climate.

Acknowledgements

The authors wish to acknowledge the financial
support received for this project from the Soil
Fertility Fund of W.A. and the Australian In-
stitute of Nuclear Science and Engineering. They

also are grateful to Dr. R. Fry and Mr. N.
Conway of the Australian Atomic Energy Com-
mission for permission to use their low level
scintillation a-detector, and for much helpful
advice and discussion.

Mason, B. (1958). — ‘Principles of Geochemistry’ 2nd Ed.

(John Wiley and Sons Inc., New York).

Mayneord, W. V., Turner, R. C. and Radley, J. M. (1960).
— Nature, Lond. 187: 208.

Talibudeen, O. (1964). — Soils Fertil. Harpenden 27: 347.

References

Cherry, R. D. (1963). — Geochim. Cosmochim. Acta
183.

Marsden. E. (1959). — Nature, Lond. 183: 924.

(1960). — Nature, Lond. 187: 192.

(1961).— Nature, Lond. 189: 326.

Turner, R. C., Radley, J. M. and Mayneord, W. V.
(1958).— Rr. J. Radiol,, 31: 397.

Zymlowska, S. and Ostrowska, A (1965). — Roczniki
glchozn. 13: 203

Zymlowska, A. and Wilgain, S (1961). — Nukleonika. 6:
813.

6. — Notes on the Flora and Vegetation of the Nullarbor Plain at

Forrest, W.A.

By E. R. L. Johnson* and A. M. Bairdi'

Majiuscript- received J8 March, 1969: accepted 17 Fehrunry. 1970

Abstract

Brief collecting trips to Forrest in the centre
of the Nullarbor Plain were made in 1930 and
1955. years in which above average rainfall had
resulted in exceptionally rich development of
the herbaceous flora. One hundred and five
species of flowering plants were collected, of
which twenty-two were introduced.

The flora is composed mainly of taxa which
are common to the floras of the drier inland
regions to the west and east of the Nullarbor
Plain. A few only extend further to the south
west and south east into regions with higher
rainfall. Domiiiant families are Chenopodiaceae,
Asteraceae and Poaceae which. In addition to
having the largest number of species, more than
half the total, also produce an abundance of In-
dividual plants. Introduced plants were not
abundant and were foiind only near the railway
line and aerodrome.

The representation of families is typical of the
Eremaea and in contrast with that of the south
western corner with its abundance of Myrtaceae,
Proteaceae and Epacridaceae.

The vegetation is described under the head-
ings: plain, depressions and tree belt. The
greatest number of species was foxind in the
'dongas”, broad shallow depressions which had
a few large shi'ubs usually Acacia oswaldii.
Erevjophila longifoUa and Pitiosporum phylli-
raeoides', clumps of low perennials and a seas-
onal ground cover of grasses and herbaceous
dicotyledons. On the main level of the Plain the
open dwarf shnib community of Kochia sedi-
folia, the “bluebush” characteristic of the Nul-
larbor Plain, was seen in healthy condition in
1955, only In restricted areas. In many places
old dead stems were all that remained, with
the shorter lived Bassias forming the sparse
ground cover. A belt of Myall trees (Acacia
sowdenii), 14 miles north of Forrest, was in poor
condition in 1955 with most of the trees dead.

The general impression in the area Is of a
perennial vegetation near the limit of tolerance
of the arid climate, and unable to withstand the
additional pressure of rabbit grazing.

Introduction

The Nullarbor Plain, that vast featureless
stretch of country lying north of the Great
Australian Bight (fig. 1) has been known since
early days of exploration, and since 1917 has
become familiar to the thousands of travellers
on the trans-continental railway. Nevertheless
there is no detailed botanical description of
the central Nullarbor. It is an arid area with
average annual rainfall between 6 and 7 inches
(160 mms) and shade temperatures wdiich may
exceed llO^F in any of the summer months
(but there is no shade on the Plain!).
Geologically it forms part of the Eucla basin
of horizontally bedded tertiary (Miocene)
limestone and the soil is shallow, reddish
calcareous loam.

* C/o State Herbarium of South Australia. North Ter-
race, Adelaide. S.A. 5000.

i Botany Dept., University of Western Australia. Ned-
lands, W.A. 6009.

Early explorers described it as a “dreary
waste” and “stony waterless desert” and most
of them were content to journey around its
edges. How'ever, Tate (1879), while searching
for artesian water, went inland about 33 miles
from Eucla and reached its southern part. He
noted the sparseness of the vegetation and
that species were few'. Willis (1959), in an
account of explorers and collectors in the Eucla
region, mentions Delisser (1861 and 1865), Batt
(1886-1896) and Kemsley (1952) as having col-
lected plants from parts of the Plain, Willis
w'ith the Russell Grimw’ade expedition. 1954,
collected betw'een the head of the Bight and
Madura. Anketell in 1901. when a member of
Muirs Trans-Australian Railw^ay Survey Team,
collected 22 species (now' in the Western Austra-
lian Herbarium > . As localities w^ere not at-
tached to some of these, it is doubtful how many
were found on the Plain.

In South Australia a number of collections
have been made on the eastern edge of the Plain
near Ooldea by Capt. A. S. White < Black 1917),
Cannon (1921). Black (1921). Ising (1921),
Adamson and Osborn (1922) and on the Plain
at Hughes, 32 miles east of the Western Aus-
tralian border, by Ising (1920). Adamson and
Osborn described the vegetation of the Nullar-
bor Plain as shrub steppe whth Kocfiia sedifoUa
and Atriplex vesicaria as the principal shrubs.
They also described the vegetation of the
“dongas”, a term of South African origin which
has been accepted in the literature and in local
usage for depressions scattered throughout the
Plain.

Forrest, lat. 30.5 S. long. 128.06 E. lies in the
centre of the Plain and therefore, as far as
the flora is concerned, should show a minimum
of influence from surrounding regions. The
authors visited this locality for 3 days in Octo-
ber, 1955. in the expectation of seeing the her-
baceous vegetation in good condition after above
average rains. An equally brief trip had been
undertaken in 1930. so there w’as interest in
comparing the vegetation 25 years later. The
photographs and descriptions are of the vegeta-
tion as seen in 1955 except where the early
visit is specified. Collecting w'as done within
easy walking distance of the aerodrome and
railw^ay and on trips by truck north and south
of the line w'hich gave a cross section nearly
30 miles long (sketch map. fig. 2>.

The first impression of the vast flat Plain
stretching unbroken to the horizon is unforget-
table. The flatness is, how^ever. relative and
in detail the Plain is undulating and with widely
scattered depressions of varying extent and
depth. Several of these were visited and also
a belt of trees about 14 miles north.

128° OO' I 128° 15 ’

I I I

0 5 10

Rainfall

Annual rainfall for the 30 years between 1925
and 1955 (fig. 3) demonstrates the great varia-
bility; totals in this period ranging from 2 to
16^ inches. The published average for 50 years
to 1965 is 6.5 inches. The average monthly
rainfall is almost the same for each month
of the year (fig. 4) but this indicates only
that rain may fall in any month; the actual
falls in any one year are very unevenly dis-
tributed.

The seasonal distribution and the way in
which the rain falls is important to the vegeta-
tion not only for germination and maintenance
of growth but also in the location of available
moisture. Heavy downpours on dry ground
mean run off and accumulation at lower levels;
dongas may become lakes. After 6 inches of
rain in February, 1930, a lake 3 miles across
formed 13 miles west of Forrest and persisted
for several weeks. Repeated light falls with
little or no run off are of greater benefit to
the higher levels of the Plain with its bluebush
comimunity. In general, summer rains tend

Figure 2.— Sketch showing tracks running N and 3 and
approximate position of localities visited in relation to
the railway line and aerodrome

MILES

YEARS 1926-55

Figure 3. — Annual rainfall at Forrest for a 30 year period.

to come in heavy downpours, often causing
flooding, while winter rains are usually lighter,
more frequent falls.

For the years in which collections were made,
1955 can be seen as the second year of above
average rain after a period of drought and
1930 as a quite exceptional high after a long
and extreme drought.

Vegetation

Plain. The higher levels of the Plain carry the
characteristic shrub steppe with the bluebush
Kochia sedifolia as the dominant and almost
the only perennial. The condition of the blue-
bush varied in different areas and over much
of the Plain all that remained were long per-
sistent dead stems. One such area (fig. 6A>
was examined about 1-2 miles to the N.E. of
the airport beyond a big donga. The plain
here appeared to be the same in all directions
as far as the eye could see except tow-ards the
donga. The soil was shallow reddish loam over
travertine limestone W’hich outcropped and lay
in broken fragments on the ground. Lichens
encrusted the rock (fig. 5 & fig. 6A) and also
occurred on some of the bare ground. No living
bluebushes were found: the dead bushes, as by
notebook in figure 6A. showed the pattern of
the original bluebush steppe. There w'as a
marked tendency for concentration of annuals
against these old plants. The ground cover
was relatively sparse with bassias particularly
Bassia patenticuspis and B. uniflora predomin-
ating (fig. 6A). Several different periods of
origin were indicated by their differences in size

which ranged from relatively woody small
bushes to single stemmed seedlings. Two small
composites Angianthus brachypappus and
Gnephosis skirrophora also contributed to the
ground cover.

Other areas of high plain were seen on the
trips to the north and south. To the north
there were two areas where the bluebushes had
compact foliage and few projecting dead stems
(fig. 6B). Angianthus in full bloom formed a
conspicuous ground cover. The track going for
12 miles south of the line crossed areas in which
there were very open stands of bluebush inter-
mixed with sparse tufts of Stipa nitida. Again
Bassia spp and Angianthus were the main com-
ponents of the sparse ground cover. Similar
mixed stands of Kochia and Stipa were also
seen beyond the 12 mile donga.

The dongas. Shrubs or small trees show from
a distance the presence of a donga. In this
flatness anything more than 3 feet high is con-
spicuous on the skyline. Vegetation of the
dongas varies with size, depth and depth of soil
but species of Acacia, Ereiyiophila and Pittos-
porum phylliraeoides are the usual tall shrubs
with patches of perennial chenopods other than
Kochia sedifolia and, after rain, a lush herba-
ceous growth.

Three big dongas were examined. The first
(Di on species listi at the N.E. corner of the
aerodrome was more thoroughly examined than
other dongas. A line was taken from the high
plain on the N.E. towards the hangar and a
series of photographs taken and specimens col-

RAINFALL IN INCHES

J F M A M J Jy A S O N D

AV. MONTHLY RAINFALL

1929-30

1954 - 55

Figure 4.— Monthly rainfall for the years 1929-30 and
1954-55 and the average monthly rainfall.

lected along the transect with side detours
where variations were noticed. A long, very
gradual slope with sparse vegetation and much
bare ground led down from the plain of Figure
6 A already described. Bassia spp and Salsola
kali, patchily distributed, were the main plants.
Old rabbit burrows were numerous. Spreading
from the mouths of some of these were big
patches of Tetragonia erejuaea showing vivid
green in contrast to the prevailing grey of the
bassias. Further down the slope dried and
cracked mud showed where water had been
lying. An adjacent low level area had a re-
latively rich cover of bushes up to 2 feet high
of the perennial A triplex cryptocarpa with some
plants of Lavatera, Nicotiana and Lycium. Her-
baceous dicotyledons: the slender straggly

climber Convolvulus erubescens, the legunie
Psoralea cinerea and some composites and cruci-
fers were scattered but principally in the shelter
of the perennials throughout the lower levels
of the donga.

The central area (fig. 7A) was grass-covered
with several big spreading clumps of Eremophila
longifolia and a few small Pittosporum. The grass
cover was of the tufted grasses Stipa nitida,
Stipa sp. and Danthonia caespitosa. Towards
the periphery of the grass and beyond were a
number of Acacia oswaldii bushes. Wherever
seen these had a broad squat compact silhouette
easily distinguishable at a distance. Many of
them were heavily infested with the mistletoe
Amyema preissii\ all showed rabbit pruning.
Several had old bushes of Atriplex rhagodioides
growing up in their shelter (fig. 7B). No isolated
plants of the Atriplex occurred, presumably be-
cause only within the protection of the Acacia
could they escape destruction by i-abbits.

At 12 miles south of the rail a big donga (Da)
had a rather richer vegetation. Grevillea
nematophylla, not found in Di, occurred both as
trees and shrubby re-growth. Acacia oswaldii
was in much more vigorous condition than in
the airport donga and seemed free of mistletoe.
There were a few small shrubs of Eremophila
maculata as well as the taller E. longifolia.
Enchylaena tojnentosa was growing in the
shelter of a Pittosporum and Grevillea and
there were extensive colonies of Atriplex cryp-
tocarpa. The herbaceous cover was of the
same species as in the first donga but more
luxuriant, the ground was moist to the touch
and moss occurred under some of the bushes.
A few plants of Clianthus formosus ( Sturt
Pea) were found here. A small donga 4 miles
south of the railway had many rabbit burrows.
Zygophyllum spp were relatively abundant on
the bare mud with dwarf composites and there
was a dense colony of Atriplex cryptocarpa.

About 15 miles to the north of Forrest and
adjacent to the 14 mile tree belt another big
donga (D^) was visited briefly and some koda-
chromes taken and specimens collected. Large
shrubs present were as in other dongas: Acacia
oswaldii, A. tetragonophylla, Eremophila longi-
folia, Pittosporu77i phylliraeoides, and a few old
trees of Grevillea nematophylla, one with an
eagle's nest. Near the centre of the donga a
big spreading clump of Grevillea (Fig. 7D) with
abundant new growth and silvery dissected
leaves contrasted with the heavy dark brownish
leaves of Acacia oswaldii and the yellowish
weeping foliage of the Pittosporum. In the
shelter of this and other big shrubs were dense
growths of trailing herbaceous species as listed
for other dongas. Most of the herbaceous species
were well past their maximum flowering and in
fruit but with enough flowers left on some
plants to enable identification. Bassias were
present more or less throughout the donga.
Large flat areas were grass-covered with the
previously found species of Stipa and Danthonia,
also Eragrostis dielsii var pritzelii in a big patch
covering a depression within the donga.

Apart from the dongas with trees and shrubs
there are extensive flat areas at slightly lower
level than the high plain and where the soil
is deeper without the exposed travertine. These
are more or less bare in dry years but carry a
luxuriant cover of gi’asses after heavy rains.
One such stretch, shown in colour plate (fig.
9A) was crossed about 7 miles north of the air-

Figure 5. — A piece of fiat lichen-encrusted limestone from the sui'face of the plain. The conspicuous species

is Buellia suhalbiila.

port, extending continuously for about H miles
with further broken patches. This grass com-
munity was made up of the same two species of
Stipa and one Danthonia as found in the
dongas. No detailed examination of the area
was made.

Although the three grasses were found to-
gether in most of the grassed ai’eas, there was
a difference in their distribution. Stipa nitida
appeared to be the most xerophytic as it was
the only species where grass occurred as sparse
tufts (fig. 6D) on the higher levels (fig. 7A).
The unindentified Stipa with golden brown fruits.
Stipa sp aff fusca was abundant in the deeper
part of the dongas. The best growth of Dan-
thonia was seen also at the lower levels and in
the more favourable habitats near airport and
line. An observation of interest was the seeds
of Stipa and Danthojiia lined up in the pattern
of cracked dried mud where water had lain.
The long hygroscopically twisting awns are par-
ticularly suited to driving the seeds, radicle end
down, firmly into the cracks.

Minor depressions. A variety of smaller irre-
gularities and depressions, into which water may
drain and soil is deeper, form locally favourable
habitats. Figure 7D, a photograph of broken
ground about 5 miles west of Forrest, shows
the greater size and abundance of plants in
small depressions. One depression seen just
south of the railway had a stand of Atriplex
hymenotheca in flower. Four species of Bassia
were also collected here. Slightly further east,
on this rather stony iregular south side, other

depressions with annual saltbushes were found
and two plants of Kochia georgei.

A stand of Heterodendrum oleaejolium had
been found in this area in 1930, the trees heavily
infested with mistletoe and mostly in poor con-
dition. In 1955 all except one were dead, two
fallen and a few standing. There had been
no regeneration.

Tree belt. About 14 miles north of the air-
port and covering 20-30 acres, is a belt of Myall
i Acacia sowdenii), spreading trees 10-15 feet
high. In 1955 the majority of these were dead
or almost so (fig. 8A), This tree belt had been
visited in 1930 when most trees were alive and
looking healthy (fig. 8B) even though they had
just recovei’ed from a particularly severe
drought. No young trees were seen in either
year. One old semi-fallen tree, which had been
photographed in 1930, was found again still
alive and not very different 25 years later.
Several eagles' nests were present both in 1930
and 1955. Exocarpos aphyllus found in 1930
was not seen in 1955. A few perennial salt-
bushes were growing close to trees. The ground
cover was low and fairly sparse but with a
variety of annual species (figs. 8A & C).
Helipterum fioribundum, in full bloom, was
conspicuous and extended well beyond the
limits of the trees but the plants were mostly
only a few inches tall. Cephalipterum drum-
viondii was present in smaller numbers. Other
small composites were Podolepis canescens,
Helipterum tietkensii and H. tenellum. Zygo-
phyllum iodocarpum and Z. ovatum were

Figure 6.— A. A part of the plain to the east of donga 1 showing outcropping and fragmented limestop at the
surface: absence of living bluebush and sparse cover of Bassias e^. B, Another part of the plain to the
north where bluebush (Kocfiia sedifolia) was in healthy condition. C. A sUigle plant sinewing partial recovery
after drought. D Stipa nitida, in a slightly depressed area. The tufted habit is well shown in the foreground

Plants.

Figure 7.— The dongas. A. The grass covered area of donga D, with ETemophila longifolia (2 clumps) and a
Pittosporum phylliraeoides in left distance. B. Acacia oswaldii with Atriplex rfiagodioides both pruned by
rabbits. C. More luxuriant growth in minor depressions — broken ground five miles west of Forrest. Atriplex
hymenotheca, centre, Atriplex cryptocarpa grasses and other plants. Typical stony plain in the background.
D. A clump of Grevillea nematophylla in the northern donga Do.

Figure 8. — Tree belt and soak. A. General view of part of the 14 mile tree belt in 1955 showing most of the
trees dead. B. View in 1930 shows the habit of the living Myall (Acacia sowdeiiii) and some dead trees. C. Detail
of undergrowth in 1955, Helipterum flori'bundum, Zygovhy^ium. spp, grass. D. View of part of the soak in 1930;
lush growth of Helipterum tietkensii in foreground, Lavatera etc. behind and the trees on right skyline.

abundant forming almost pure stands in places.
Salsola kali was also abundant, as were the
almost universal bassias. with scattered small
tufts of Stipa nitida. A few small plants of
Nicotiana goodspeedii were found. Concentra-
tion of plants against fallen logs and dead
plants, and in slight depressions was very
noticeable.

Tree belt soak. A particularly interesting area
locally known as “the 14 mile soak” led into
the tree belt, possibly marking an underground,
or sunken, drainage system. A distinct edge
was marked by a line of bushes — Kochia.
Lyciurn, Lavatera — with, to the lower side, a
lush growth, up to 24" tall (Colour plate fig.
9B) of the grass Eragrostis setifolia. and of
Helipterum tietkensii — a tall slender scented
composite with abundant small silky heads.
Further over was an area of bare and broken
ground with old rabbit burrows, part stony,
part rather "fluffy’' soil, all extensively dis-
turbed by rabbits and with a very patchy
cover of the above mentioned grass and com-
posite. sometimes mixed, more often in pure
stands. Colour plate (fig. 9B) shows part of
this soak.

Figure 8B of the area in 1930 shows the rich-
ness of the growth that year. Also in 1930
in a section of the depression further north
was a luxuriant growth of Trigonella suavis-
sima. which had not been seen anywhere else.
This species was not found in 1955 but it is
probable that that particular section of the
depression was not reached.

The plain outside the depression was the
most barren seen anywhere, no living bluebush
or salt bush and practically no herbaceous
plants — mostly bare eroded soil between old
dead stumps— no doubt denuded by the rabbits
which inhabited the "soak”.

Disturbed areas. In the neighbourhood of
the airport, near the station and along the
railway line inevitably the ground has been
considerably disturbed, and some of this dis-
turbance provides habitats more favourable
than on most of the Plain. Loosened soil, de-
pressions. drainage channels and, in places, ad-
ditional water and nitrogen benefit both intro-
duced and native species. For instance a drain
along the airport fence had a lush growth of
Danthonia. Atriplex hymenotheca, A. spongiosa,
Salsola. Senecio and other indigenous com-
posites, the introduced Sonchus and several
species of introduced crucifers. On disturbed
muddy areas where water had collected three
species of Bassia. Atriplex spongiosa, A. hyvie-
notheca. two species of Zygophyllum. Helip-
terum floribundrun and Senecio lautus were
common and in general more robust than in
undisturbed areas.

Introduced weeds were found only in the
neighbourhood of line and airport. Some of
these may have become naturalised but others
are probably only of sporadic occurrence from
seed dropped from trains, dependent on finding
temporarily favourable niches and not long
persistent. The difference in lists of introduced
species from the two visits is in keeping with
this suggestion. The native plants found on
the two visits were essentially the same.

Comparison between 1955 and 1930

Rainfall in each of these years was abnorm-
ally high but the amount and distribution was
very different as can be seen in Figure 3. 1955
was the second wet season after several dry
years and the rain had been fairly evenly dis-
tributed with the heaviest falls in October,
1954, and June, 1955. 1930 had the highest

total rainfall ever recorded at Forrest and over
six inches, eaual to the average annual total,
fell in four days at the end of February, This
occurred after the most severe drought recorded.
Some of the differences in plant growth were
undoubtedly related to these climatic differ-
ences. As seen in August. 1930, only six months
after flooding rains, the perennials. Eremopliila
spp, Acacia spp. Kochia sedijolia and peren-
nial species of Atriplex mostly had tufts of new
foliage on old defoliated stems, many plants
had not survived the drought. In October, 1955.
most surviving perennials had abundant healthy
foliage as the result of two successive favour-
able years.

On the other hand, the herbaceous vegetation
was not nearly as dense and luxuriant in 1955
as it had been in 1930. This was particulai'ly
noticeable with Helipterum fiorihunduvi which
had in 1930 formed complete cover in places
and where the individual plants had been much
taller. There is no doubt that the ground cover
as a whole had been denser and the plants
taller in 1930 but as the rainfall for the first
half of the year had been almost twice as much
this is no basis for suspecting any long term
change in the herbaceous vegetation. It is in-
teresting that the same herbaceous species were
collected at each visit and had flowered about
the same time in spite of the differences in total
amount and distribution of the rain.

For the perennial cover both authors were
satisfied that there had been a real deteriora-
tion. In the Myall belt most of the trees had
died. Figures 8 A and B show the difference
although not taken from the same spot. Other
1955 photographs, too poor for publication, do
include a tree recognisable as one photographed
in 1930. No young trees had been seen in either
year so it seems unlikely that the stand will
recover. Regeneration from seed could have
been expected in 1930 (16"' and 1942 (14").
It seems likely that it was prevented by rabbits
and that they are also responsible for at least
some of the deterioration of the Atriplex and
Kochia. Rabbits spread over the plain after
wet seasons and no doubt as drought develops
and the annuals disappear the grazing pressure
on the perennials must be intense, before the
unfortunate animals succumb. The absence of
living bluebush near the railway line and on
the plain near the "soak", both areas with
numerous rabbit burrow’s, would support this.

With a perennial vegetation in precarious
equilibrium with its environment where estab-
lishment of seedlings is alw^ays difficult, rab-
bits can destroy the seedlings before they are
old enough to tolerate any grazing and so
effectively prevent regeneration.

Figure 9.— Top. Grass community 7-8 miles north of Forrest. Bassia spp. in foreground.
Bottom. Soak— Heiip£er7i?n tietkensii in the depression, a large Kochia sedifolia plant on the rim.

Discussion

The plant communities seen at Forrest are
typical of the central and western side of the
Nullarbor Plain. The same bluebush association
of the higher levels in many parts in very de-
nuded condition, the flats with grass after rain,
and the dongas of varying size can be seen from
the train along the 165 miles between Forrest
and Rawlinna.

The transition from the open dwarf shrub-
land of the Plain to the woodlands with Mallee
Eucalypts, Acacia or Casuarina and an under-
growth of saltbush- bluebush or spinifex. occurs
very gradually on the western side. The bound-
ary of the Plain is usually put between Naretha
and Rawlinna (fig. 1), but there is no clearly
recognisable boundary for the vegetation: stands
of shrubs and small trees become gradually
more frequent from some miles east of Raw-
linna, westward.

Although the Nullarbor Plain is distinctive in
appearance and recognised as a geographical
entity the vegetation consists of impoverished
extensions of types found in slightly higher
rainfall regions to the north east. The Kochia-
Atriplex communities of northern South Aus-
tralia and western New South Wales are de-
scribed as having spaces between the bushes
more or less equal to the diameter of the plants;
on the Plain the spaces are vastly greater. The
occasional belts of Acacia sowdenii could be
considered outliers of the more extensive Myall
formations outside the limits of the Plain and
species of the dongas are mostly found in the
surrounding shrub or woodland communities.

It seems probable that most of the perennial
species are near the limit of their tolerance of
low rainfall. The stress of the climate is shown
in the number of plants dead after a prolonged
drought and in the structure of the woody stems
of shrubs. When plants recover after drought
dead stems are left projecting, (fig. 60 and
the cambium has often been killed on one side
of surviving stems resulting in uneven and de-
formed growth.

With an average annual rainfall of only 6^
inches the Nullarbor Plain could be classed as
desert and as with most desert areas perennial
species are few and annuals form the greater
percentage of the flora. Nevertheless the con-
cept of tiny ephemerals appearing, flowering,
fruiting and dying in a few weeks as known for
some deserts does not seem to apply here, ex-
cept for very few species. The grasses, bassias
and annual saltbushes and at least some of the
herbaceous composites and legumes, which form
the bulk of the herbaceous vegetation, may last
for many months and even more than a year
under favourable conditions. The annual ever-
lastings Helipierum floribundum and Cephalip-
terum drummondii and also Goodenia pinnati-
fida showed evidence of extended growth and in
the 1955 specimens, of two distinct periods of
growth and flowering. Local comment in
October was that these and some legumes had
been flowering for many weeks and photographs
taken in early December showed evei*lastings
still in flower. Stipa nitida is known to behave
as a perennial under favourable conditions
though more often as an annual in the drier

parts of its range. Perhaps the ability to
shorten or lengthen the life span is one of the
effective adaptations to variable rainfall.

The Chenopodiaceae, particularly Atriplex
spp. have been shown to be particularly well
adapted to the absorption of moisture through
the leaves and it is probable that dew plays an
important part in extending the effectiveness
of light fails of rain. Heavy dews and occa-
sional fogs are known on the Plain and more
knowledge of their contribution to the survival
of grasses and other species would be valuable.
The place of dew in the survival of rabbits is
suggested by the observation by local residents
of rabbits lined up along the train line in early
morning licking the dew from the rails.

A three day visit to a region does not allow
study of the ecology beyond recognition of
species and types of communities, but it does
suggest possibilities for investigations by some-
one living in the area. Within the dongas there
is great variation in the shrubs and ground
cover associated with minor differences in
habitat. McCrumb (unpublished teachers thesis)
at Reid made some useful observations on depths
of soil associated with plant communities and
on growth habits of certain species.

Some detailed observation on the percentage
recovery of Kochia and Atriplex after drought
and conditions necessary for their replacement
by seedlings would be valuable. Is it true that
there is at the present time a real deterioration
of the bluebush and saltbush communities as
the authors suggest, and. if so, how far are
rabbits responsible? Some long term studies of
regeneration of species of Acacia. Atriplex and
Kochia. Heterodendruvi, Stipa which extend
across the Nullarbor have been made in South
Australia, particularly at Koonamore (Hall et al
1964; earlier papers are listed in this), but in
regions much further east and in rather differ-
ent habitats. There is need for ecological
studies on the western side of the Plain.

Flora

Systematic representation. The number of
Angiosperm taxa collected was 105 and their
totals and relative numbers are given in Table
I. Indigenous plants comprised the majority
of the 27 families present. Among these 4 were
prominent in both numbers of species and in-
dividuals. The Poaceae (7 sp. and 1 ssp.),
Asteraceae (14 sp.), Chenopodiaceae (19 sp.)
and Fabaceae (7 sp. and 1 ssp.) together con-
tained half the genera and over half the species.
The remaining 19 families were each repre-
sented by only 1 to 4 species. The vegetation
was composed principally of large numbers of
chenopods and grasses, with composites con-
spicuous in smaller az’eas. Legumes were

TABLE I.

Tainilies

Genera

Sl)ecies

Sub-

Varieties

species

Total

Indigenous ..

‘>

Zntrodueed ..

usually found in the moister parts of the don-
gas, where Lotus cruentus and Swainsona
campestris were locally massed. Trigonella
suavissivia formed an extensive and dense
colony in one part of the soak.

Introduced plants were mostly few in num-
ber and not prominent among the luxuriant
growth of saltbushes and grasses. Exceptions
\vei‘e tall robust plans of the Brassicaceae. a
single flowering colony of Asphodelus ^istulosus,
large plants of the two varieties of Medicago
polymorpha and the grasses Lophochloa puviila
and Schismus harhatus. Only 4 of the 9 families
were represented by more than one species.
These were Poaceae i6 sp.>, Brassicaceae (5
sp.), Boraginaceae (2 sp.) and Asteraceae
(3 sp.).

Of the lower plants, 12 lichens and 1 moss
(sterile and not identified) were found. No
ferns were seen.

Geographical distribution. The range of a
number of indigenous species cannot be deter-
mined until more field studies are made on the
Plain and its surrounding areas.

On present evidence the Plain is the centre
of distribution for only 3 species — Atriplex cryp~
tocarpa, Swainsona campestris and Calotis
breviradiata. Most of the others have a wide
distribution, 67 out of 76 occurring both on its
western and eastern sides throughout the more
arid parts of Western Australia and South
Australia. Some of them, such as Pittosporum
phylliraeoides^ Salsola kali. Enchylaena tomen-
tosa and Senecio lautus are found in both coas-
tal and Eremean areas.

To the east, 56 extend into western New
South Wales and 48 are recorded from Central
Australia. A few- species have a still wider
range and are found in the higher rainfall
areas of south-western and south-eastern Aus-
tralia. These are Danthonia caespitosa, Oxalis
corniculata. Euphorbia drumviondii, Lavatera
plebeia, Convolvulus erubesceiis, Plantago varia
and Vittadinia triloba.

The distribution of Bassia parallelicuspis and
Erodium cygnorum ssp. glandztlosurn is con-
sidered to be eastern, while that of Erodium
cygnoru7n ssp. cygnorum is mainly western,
though it has been recorded from northern
South Australia (Carolin 1958).

The present known range of Eragrostis
dielsii var. pritzelii, Grevillea nematophylla an
undescribed var. and Atriplex hymenotheca is
western. All three have been recorded from
widely separated localities, so their range may
be found to extend further east when more in-
formation is available.

All the introduced species had previously been
recorded for Western Australia and South Aus-
tralia. Twelve were collected in 1930 and fif-
teen in 1955. Ten of the latter were new re-
cords for Forrest (see in Annotated List).

Uordeum leporinum, Lophochloa pumila,
Schismus barbatus, Chenopodium murale,
Papaver hybridum, Brassica sp. and Medicago
polymorpha var. brevispina, collected in 1930,
were not found in 1955.

Annotated List of Species from Forrest

Specimens, after detailed examination, were
compared with those available in the Tate
Herbarium, Adelaide, the State Herbarium of
South Australia, the Western Australian Her-
barium, and a few in the National Herbarium of
Victoria. Several specimens were not deter-
mined. For some others, where resemblances to
particular species were found to be close, dif-
ferences have been noted and the species de-
terminations given are regarded as tentative.
Nomenclature followed is that in Black's Flora
of South Australia (2nd ed. 1943-1957) and
its Supplement (Eichler, 1965). Collections are
in the herbarium of the Botany Department,
University of Western Australia (U.W.A.), and
a duplicate set has been sent to the C.S.I.R.O.
Herbarium, Canberra.

Localities are shown as under. Distances are
approximate from the Forrest railway station.

P — plain

TB — tree belt, N 14 miles

S — soak. N 14 miles

R — disturbed soil near railway line and air-
port

D — dongas

D, — NE 1 mile

T> 2 — N 15 miles

Dr, — S 12 miles

D. 1 — S 5 miles

The months August and October refer to
plants collected in August 1930 and October
1955 respectively. A species was abundant and
in ftower and fruit unless otherwise stated.
An asterisk denotes an introduced species.

ANGIOSPERMAE
POACEAE ( GRAMINE AE )

*Aue7ia fatua L. (R) — in fruit (Oct.).

*Bromus unioloides H.B.K. (R> — near septic
tank overflow, rare (Oct.).

Danthonia caespitosa Gaudich. (P Di D 2 S R)
— often mixed wdth Stipa; variable in height =t
30 cm. in moist places, small scattered tufts ±
10 cm. on bare areas. (Aug. Oct.)

Eragrostis setifolia Nees (S) — mixed with
Helipterum tietkensii to form a dense mass; ±
30 cm. tall; smaller and less numerous in 1955
(Aug. Oct.).

Eragrostis dielsii Pilger (P S R) — small erect
tufts in damp depressions (Aug. Oct.).

Eragrostis dielsii var. pritzelii Pilger (P D 2 R)
— mat plant, on bare clay around aerodrome and
on surface of donga among erect plants of a
fairly dense ground flora. (Aug. Oct.)

This variety described by Pilger (1904) has
since been recorded from some widely separated
localities in Western Australia 'Gai'dner 1952).
The habit of the Forrest specimens W'as com-
pact with numerous horizontally spreading
culms without erect ones and they appeared
distinct from the erect tufted plants of

E. dielsii which occurred near them by the aero-
drome. Both erect and mat plants matched
those of E. dielsii and its var. pritzelii in the
W.A. Herbarium,

*Hordeu77i leporinum Link (R) — rare (Aug,).

*LcMum pereniie L. (R) — rare (Oct.).

*Lophochloa pumila (Desf.) Bor. (R) — (Aug.).

""Schisinus harhatus (L.) Thell.. <R) — fre-
quent; prostrate in the open, upright in shelter,
± 30 cm. tall (Aug.).

Stipa nitida Summerh. et Hubbard (P Di Dj
D:j T B R) — Colonies prominent and extensive;
plants 10-90 cm. tall, the larger in damp de-
pressions and dongas, the smaller mostly with
colonizers of bare areas (Aug. Oct.). There is
no published record of this species for Western
Australia. However eight specimens collected
from the following localities in the Eremean
Province since 1947 are in the W.A. Herbarium.'
Kalgoorlie. S. T. Blake; Berringarra, N. H.
Speck; on Barwidgee Road, N. H. Speck;
Agnew, T. E. H. ApUn; N. of Sandstone.
Cundeelee Mission, E. of Cosmo Newbery, A. S.
George: near Haig, D. W. Goodall.

Stipa eremophila Reader (P D.^ TB R» —
scattered or in small groups; most abundant
near aerodrome and railway (Aug. Oct.».

Stipa sp. (R) (No. 68. 1930)— rare, in shallow
soil; grey colour; sheaths and leaves very villous;
20-40 cm. tall (Aug.). The colour of this grass
gave it a distinctive appearance. It had long
glumes 18 mm) with acute hyaline tips,
long awns (6-7 cm.) and smooth dark brown
lemmas with dense golden to dark brown silky
hairs on their calli.

Stipa sp. (R) (No. 65a, 1955) — rather rare,
in depressions: panicle narrow: fruits small,
b?own with fine awns, lemmas with whitish hairs
(Oct.).

Stipa sp (Di D, R) Nos 17, 65b, 1955) —
abundant in centre of dongas and near railway:
60-90 cm tall; fruits large, dark brown, lemmas
hirsute (Oct.).

The last thiee specimens need further study.

Stipa. species were found in all dongas ex-
amined and were predominant over most of the
slightly lower areas of the plain.

LILIACEAE

"^Asphodelus fistulosus L. (R) — only a single
colony I Aug.); scattered over a wider area;
plants to 40 cm tall; most in fruit (Oct.).

PROTEACEAE

Grevillea neviatophylla F. Muell. var. (D 2 D:i)
— shrubs, isolated or in groups; 2.5-4 m;
foliage dense, silvery, leaves more or less erect,
6-18 cm long, divided into 3-7 terete, faintly
grooved segments. 3-10 cm long, about 1 mm
wide; racemes terminal, very young. 2 rudiment-
ary flowers in axil of each bract: mature fruit
similar to that of G. neviatophylla (Oct.).

Differs from G. neviatophylla in its divided
leaves and the more erect position of its flower-
ing axes which may be due to the immaturity of
the inflorescence. Specimens with similar
foliage are in the Tate Herbarium. Adelaide,

1 Information from Mr R. D. Royce.

and the National Herbarium of Victoria. The
Tate specimen, named neviatophylla, was col-
lected by Helms in December 1891 near Mt
Churchman in W.A. The Victorian one, un-
named, was collected by Isaac Tyson in 1893 near
the Middle Murchison River (W.A.) and sent
to von Mueller.

SANTALACEAE

Exocarpos aphyllus R. Br. (TB) — 3 small
trees growing close to Acacia sowdenii; ± 2 m;
in flower (Aug.).

LORANTHACEAE

Amyevia preissii (Mig.) Tiegh. (Di) — abun-
dant on Acacia oswaldii; foliage bright green;
in flower, fruits very young (Oct.).

Lysiana exocarpi (Behr) Tiegh. (P) — on Hete-
rodendrum oleaefolium; fruit red, 8 mm long,
ovoid (Aug.). Two foims were present on same
host,

(1) leaves mostly opposite, narrow linear,
thick, fiat, sub-acute or obtuse. 3. 5-4. 5
cm long. 3-4 mm broad, venation ob-
scure;

(2) leaves all opposite, thin, long; narrow,
2 mm broad. In leaf and fruit charac-
ters both forms are similar to those
of subspecies of exocarpi described by
Barlow (1963). These could not be de-
termined as no flowers were found.

POLYGONACEAE

’^Einex australis S'teinh. (R) — in fruit (Aug.
Oct.).

CHENOPODIACEAE

Atriplex acutihracta Anderson (P R) — in
damp depressions: erect, stiff, branched, ± 25
cm tall (Aug. Oct.).

Atriplex cryptocarpa Aellen (Di Da Di) — shrub
to 70-80 cm tall; in flower, heads small, axillary
(Oct.). Dominant shrub in D;,, a small colony
on one side of Di.

Atriplex eichleri Aellen (R) — perennial on
damp clay; branches lax, more or less prostrate,
15-40 cm long (Aug.). A new species described
by Aellen (Eichler 1965) who found the type
specimen of Atriplex cavipanulata var. adnata
belonged to it.

Atriplex hymenotheca Moq. (P D. R) — peren-
nial in damp depressions; profusely branched, ±
40 cm tall; leaves entire, a few toothed, to 2
cm long, obovate, scaly, subsessile; all plants
examined except one dioecious: bracteoles rhom-
boidal, entire, the bladder-like appendages vari-
able in size, sometimes absent *Aug. Oct.).

This species is regarded as a western one and
has been united with A. vesicaria (How^ard)
Benth. as A. hymenotheca Moq. by Aellen
(1938). However vesicaria is retained as a
separate species by workers in Eastern Australia.

Atriplex rhagodioides P. Muell. (Di) — shrubs
to 1-1.5 m, growing in shelter of Acacia oswaldii
(Oct) .

Atriplex spongiosa P. Muell (P R) — annual,
erect to 30 cm, luxuriant growth where water
had lodged, and small in shallow soil with less
moisture (Aug. Oct.).

Atriplex sp. aff. A. muelleri Benth. <P) — erect,
woody; old stems smooth; leaves 2-3.5 cm long,
flat, toothed, mealy, narrowed into a petiole;
only 2 very young flowers found, bracteoles
united to just below the middle, entire, ± rhom-
boidal; no fruits 'Aug.).

Atriplex sp. (No. 17, 1930) (P R) — seedlings
numerous, some old plants with regrowth from
the woody bases; mature plants erect, stiff, to
30 cm; leaves 2-4 cm. obovate, apex pointed but
some truncate, toothed, petiolate; monoecious;
bracteoles united to near the middle, 3 or 5-
toothed, the middle tooth deltoid, rather nar-
row. always longer than the lateral ones, the
lower part of the bracteoles narrowed and hard-
ened in the developing fruit into a small stipe-
like base (Aug.>.

The closest resemblance of these plants seems
to be the South African species. A. s^iberecta
Verdoorn.

Atriplex sp. (No. 83, 1930) (R) — prostrate,

woody, stems ± 15 cm; leaves small. 5-9 mm
long, obovate, green above mealy below; monoe-
cious; axillary clusters of very young male and
female flowers, bracteoles shortly stalked. 3-
toothed, the middle tooth longer and deltoid:
no fruits developed (Aug.). The flowers and
bracteoles of this specimen are similar to those
of the preceding ones but it differs in habit and
foliage.

Bassia obliquictLspis Anderson (P Di> — on
shallow limestone soil, also deeper soil in donga,
with Atriplex hymenotheca and other Bassia
spp.; plants small, compact, branching, 6-8 cm
tall (Aug. Oct.).

Bassia parallelicuspis Anderson (Pi — rare ex-
cept in one small area south of the line; plants
soft, erect, branching. 6-20 cm tall; tomentum
brownish: flowers and young fruits (Aug.).

Bassia patenticuspis Anderson (P Dt D.i TB
R( — colonizers; plants small, tomentum grey;
fruits with 2 spines up to 6 mm long, acicular,
glabrous except near base, some reddish distally
(Aug. Oct.). Equal spines were rare and in a
number of cases one spine was reduced to a
tubercle. Variations in length occurred on a
single plant. Ising (1964) says that more than
half the specimens showing this type of varia-
tion in spine length have come from the Nullar-
bor Plain.

Bassia sclerolaenoides (P. Muell.). <P TB
R) — rare in 1930. abundant and widespread in
1955; mainly on bare soil; ± 15 cm tall (Aug.
Oct.).

Bassia uniflora (R Br.) F. Muell. (Di TB) —
frequent (Oct.).

Chenopodium cristatum (F. Muell.) F. Muell.
(R) — in wet places; mat plants. 10-50 cm diam.:
some with regrowth from centre; fruits young
and mature (Aug.).

*Chenopodium murale L. (R) — rare (Aug.).

Enchylaena tomentosa R. Br. (D:i) — in shelter
of Pitiosporum phylliraeoides ; fruits orange
(Oct.i.

Kochia georgei Diels (P R) — occasional: in
fruit (Aug. Oct.).

Kochia sedifolia F. Muell. (P) — absent from
dongas: many plants appeared dead, a few
showed regrowth; ± 50 cm tall (Aug. Oct.).

SaJsola kali L. (Di TB R) — colonizer; numer-
ous seedlings, young and mature plants (Aug.
Oct.).

AIZOACEAE

Tetragonia ere7uaea Ostf. (P Dt TB R) —
prostrate, plants large on bare soil near rabbit
burrows, smaller in other places; stems to
25 cm long (Aug. Oct.).

PAPAVERACEAE

*Papaver hyhridum L. (R) — rare; flowers and
few fruits (Aug.).

BRASSICACEAE ( CRUCIFERAE i

Arahidella trisecta ‘F. Muell. i Schulz (P Ri —
scattered small shrubs; ± 40 cm tall; absent
from dongas (Aug. Oct.).

*Brassica sp. aff. B. tournefortii Gouan. (R)
— scattered, robust tall plants, to 60 cm; basal
leaves, rosulate, large, 15-18 cm long including
petioles, hispid, cauline leaves small, narrow-
lanceolate, toothed; flowers pale yellow; fruits
very young. 3-4 mm with beaks, cylindrical,
single-veined (Aug.).

*Carrichtera annua (L.) DC (R) — in drain-
age channels; up to 40 cm tall; flowers white,
in fruit (Oct.).

Lepidium rotu7idum (Desv. ) DC (P D, R) —
15-30 cm tall (Aug. Oct.).

Phleg7natospermu77i cochlearinum (F. Muell.)
O. E. Schulz (Di R) — plants to 25 cm tall at
lower levels of donga, smaller and less frequent
on slopes: clothing hairs 2-branched on short
stipes or centrifixed; flowers yellow; fruit
± elliptical, style short (1 mm), cotyledons ac-
cumbent, some oblique, few incumbent (Aug.
Oct.).

*Rapistrum rugosu7n (L.) All. (R) — plants to
40 cm; flowers yellow, fruiting (Oct.).

* Sisy77ibrium irio L. (R) — (Aug. Oct.).

^SisynibriUTU orientate L. (R) — fruits im-
mature (Aug.), few flowers, many fruits (Oct.).

PITTOSPORACEAE

Pitiosporum phylliraeoides DC (P Di D 2 D:j)
— scattered small trees, zt 2 m tall; a few
young plants: few flow'ers, fruits gi’een or

dehisced (Aug. Oct.)

MIMOSACEAE

Acacia oswaldii F. Muell. (Di D-j D;, TB S> —
shrubs, isolated or in groups in dongas or smaller
depressions on plain; 2-3 m tall; dehisced fruits
and few buds (Aug.), buds, flowers and mature
fruits (Oct.). In 1930 fruits (red) of one of
the Loranthaceae were germinating on some
of these shrubs and in 1955 those in a donga
(Di) were heavily parasitized by Amyema
preissix.

Acacia soxvdenii Maiden (TB) — trees scat-
tered over 20-30 acres; 5-6 m tall; flowers in
globular heads (Aug.) Flowers and young
fruits on some with sparse foliage, others ap-
peared dead in 1955 (Oct.).

Acacia tetragonophylla F. Muell. (P Di D 2 )
scattered shrubs: 1-2 m tall; flowers, no fruits
(Aug.), few flowers numerous fruits (Oct.).

FABACEAE (“ PAPILIONACEAE)

Clianthus jormosus iG. Don) Ford et Vick-
ery (Da S) — plants large, in flower (Aug.).
Rare and small, only in one donga (Oct.).

Lotus cruentus Court (Di Da) — in shelter of
other plants: stems long, trailing (Oct.).

*Medicago polyviorpha var. brevispina

(Benth.) Heyn (R) — occasional; plants large;
spines on pod short (1 mm) both straight and
hooked (AugJ.

*Medicago polyniorpJia var. vulgaris (Benth.)
Shinners <R) — occasional; spines on pod long
(Oct.).

Psoralea cinerea Lindl. (Di S) — growing
luxuriantly under other plants in centre of
donga: stems prostrate, long (Oct.); abundant
with Trigonella suavissima, flowers young, no
fruits (Aug.).

Swainso7ia cainpestris J. M. Black (P D^) — in
small damp depx'essions on plain, tends to be
a scrambler in deeper soil of donga; flowering
stems erect up to 40 cm, fruiting stems pros-
trate (Aug.. Oct.).

Swainso7ia oUveri F. Muell. (R) — rather rare;
colonizer; prostrate, stems to 15 cm; few buds,
in fruit (Aug. Oct.).

Swainsona orotoides F. Muell. ex Benth. ssp.
orohoides (P) — a single specimen in friut (Oct.).
The type of tomentum, leaf and fruit characters
are similar to those described for this sub-
species by Lee (1948).

Trigonella suavissima Lindl. (S) — native

clover: plants up to 30 cm tall; formed a large
dense mass in one part of the Soak (Aug.).

GERANIACEAE

Erodiuvi aureum Carolin (TB R) — scattered in
ground flora; plants small, ± 10 cm tall (Oct.).

Erodium cygnorum Nees ssp. cygnorum (P) —
(Aug.).

Erodium cygnorum ssp. glandulosuvi Carolin
(P R) — (Aug.).

Thes, subspecies, which occurred together in
shallow depressions, were readily separated on
leaf form and type of calyx tomentum. Sub-
sequent examination showed this was not so in
respect to two other characters, the shape of
the stamina! filament and the mericarp hairs.
In the specimen referred to ssp cygnorum the
staminal filament, instead of being lanceolate-
acuminate as figured by Carolin (1958), had
broad-oblong wings, slightly narrowed near the
top with a tooth at each lateral edge of the
upper margin. It was also different from Caro-
lin’s figure of the filament of spp. glandulosuvi.
In the specimen referred to ssp. glandulosum
the mericarp hairs were more like those of ssp.
cygnorum, but not quite as sparse or divergent.

Because of these variations the distinction
between the subspecies was not clear, a condi-
tion Carolin said tended to occur when their
ranges oveidapped. This is so in the Forrest
region as the range of ssp. glandulosum is
mainly eastern and that of ssp. cygnorum
mainly western.

OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis corniculata L. (R) — rather rare; small,
prostrate (Oct.).

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Zygophyllum iodocarpum F. Muell. (TB R) —
frequent; common in ground flora under Acacia
sowdenii, also on bare areas of disturbed ground
(Aug. Oct.).

Zygophyllum ovatum Ewart et White (P Du
TB R) — common; small, to 10 cm tall, often
prostrate ( Aug. Oct. ) .

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia drummondii Boiss. (D.-j R) — rare;
prostrate on bare clay (Oct.).

SAPINDACEAE

Heterodendrum oleaejolium Desf. (P) — scat-
tered small trees up to 2 rn tall; foliage sparse;
parasitized by a narrow leaved form of Lysiana
exocarpi. (Aug. 1930 >. In 1955 (Oct.) most trees
were dead.

MALVACEAE

Lavatera plebeia Sims (P Di TB S R) — fre-
quent; scattered shrubs up to 1 m tall (Aug.
Oct.) .

Sida cardiophylla F. Muell. (R) — rare, small
shrub, low spreading; in bud (Aug.).

CONVOLVULACEAE

Convolvulus erubescens Sims (,P Di R) — occa-
sional in depressions on plain, abundant at low-
er levels of donga; mat plants, large, stems
slender, trailing and twining up to 60 cm long
(Aug. Oct.).

Convclvuhis sp. (Dj) — a large bright green
prostrate plant (Oct.). Differed from C.
erubescens in its longer fruits and two sepals
enlarged and spreading.

BORAGINACEAE

*BuglGssoides arveiise (Patersons Curse) (L.)
Johnston (R) — rare (Aug. Oct.). Some plants
were erect, up to 30 cm tall, with flat sessile
leaves, obtuse, ± 4 cm long by 6 mm wide.
Others were moi’e spreading, branching mainly
near the base of the stem, with shorter, nar-
rower, lanceolate or oblong leaves, 1.5 cm long
by 2-3 mm wide.

^'Echiuvi lycopsis L. iR) — rare (Oct.).

Omphalolappula concava (F. Muell.) Brand
(R) — rare (Aug.).

SOLANACEAE

Lycium australe F. Muell. (P Di S) — occa-
sional: no flowers or fruits in 1930, both present
in 1955.

Nicotiana goodspeedii Wheeler (Di TB R) —
frequent; small in ground flora, 15-40 cm tall
in centre of donga, glabrous: flowers cream to
pale yellow lOct.).

Nicotiana suaveolens Lehm. (R) — among
weeds near a septic tank Overflow; a single
robust, glabrous plant (Oct.),

Nicotiana sp (possibly N. benthamiana
Domin) (TB) — this specimen was lost after the
following notes were made.

Plants numerous at the edge of a depression
near Acacia sowdenii; up to 1 m tall, most about
50 cm; glabrous, basal leaves very large, cordate
blades up to 20 cm long narrowing into long
petioles, cauline leaves ± 10 cm not decurrent ;
flowers yellow, calyx lobes acute, divided nearly
halfway to the base, hinsute, corolla tube ±
20 mm, 2-3 times as long as the calyx, lobes
short, obtuse, stamens 5, 4 attached higher on
the tube than the 5th; capsule smooth, as long
as the calyx, seeds pitted (Aug.).

MYOPORACEAE

Eremovhila latrobei P. Muell. <P) — scattered
shrubs, to 1.25 m tall; few or no leaves on
lower branches, new growth at upper ends
(Aug.).

Ereviophila longifolia (R. Br.) F. Muell.
(P D|) — small trees up to 3 m tall; new growth
at ends of branches (Aug. Oct.).

Ereviophila maculata (Ker-Gawl.) F. Muell.
(P D:j) — small shrub in soil pockets in stony
areas, occasional in a donga (Aug. Oct.).

PLANT AGINACEAE

Pla7itago varia R. Br. (R) — plants small,
10-14 cm tall (Aug.).

CUCURBITACEAE

Cucuinis sp. (D[) — on bare clay: fruits only
zt 2 cm in diameter; other parts of plants dead
(Oct.).

GOODENIACEAE

Goodenia piruiatifida Schldl. (P 0,0^ R) —
plants 15-40 cm tall, smaller ones on limestone
among bluebushes. larger in deeper soil of
dongas (Aug. Oct.).

aster ACE AE ( COMPOSITAE)

Angianthus hi'achypappus F. Muell. (P Di R)
— colonizers; mat plants to 30 cm in diameter
(Aug. Oct.).

Brachycome ciliaris (Labill.) Less. var.
ciliaris (TB) — scattered in ground flora under
Acacia sowdenii: up to 25 cm tall, glabrous:
leaves pinnatisect with 7 lobes: minute glandu-
lar pubescence on stems and leaves (Aug.).

Calotis breviradiata (Ising) G. L. Davis
(Di D» R» — occasional; plants small up to 8
cm tall on the slopes of dongas, larger, 14-30
cm. in lower parts of dongas and drainage
channels (Oct.). A species of the Nullarbor
Plain (Davis 1952).

Calotis hispidula (F. Muell.) F. Muell. (R) — ■
plants small 6-10 cm tall; leaves entire or
toothed, sometimes both types on same plant
(Aug.). Davis doc. cit.) says that only entire-
leaved forms have been seen from the Nullarbor
Plain and Eucla areas.

*Centaurea melitejisis L. (R) — occasional
(Oct.) .

Cephalwterum drummondii A. Gray (P D 2
D, TB R) — plants massed and prominent over
large areas or scattered, 14-25 cm tall (Aug.
Oct.).

Gnephosis skirrophora (Sond.) Benth.
)p TB R) — on shallow limestone soil among
bluebushes, frequent in other habitats; plants
low tufted, 10-15 cm tall (Aug. Oct.).

Helipterum fioribundum DC (P Di TB S R) —
scattered in small depressions among bluebushes,
large conspicuous colonies on slopes and lower
levels of dongas; plants 5-30 cm tall (Aug. Oct.i.

Helipterum strictum (Lindl.) Benth. (P) —
occasional: plants erect, profusely branched, to
25 cm tall (Aug.).

Helipterum tenellum Turcz. (Da TB) — occa-
sional, scattered in ground flora under Acacia
sotudejiii and on bare clay areas: plants small,
tufted (Oct.).

Helipterum tietkensii F. Muell. (D;i TB SR) —
in soak forming a large dense colony, plants up
to 35 cm tall (1930), in other habitats scattered
and smaller ± 11 cm tall; heavily scented 'Aug.
Oct.) .

Minuria leptophylla DC 'P) — rare; plants
small, freely branched, up to 15 cm tall (Aug.).

Podolepis canescens A. Cunn. ex DC (P TB
R) — frequent on shallow soil, abundant on deep-
er soils; plants 12-30 cm tall (Aug. Oct.).

Senccio aff. lautus Forst. f. ex Willd. 'P D,) —
occasional in shallow depressions on plain,
abundant in donga; plants 25-30 cm tall (Aug.
Oct.) .

sp (R) — (Oct.).

Vittadinia triloba (Gaudich.) DC (P Dt Di) —
rare among bluebushes, frequent in dongas,
plants to 15 cm tall (Aug. Oct.) most in fruit
in 1955.

*Xanthium spinosum L. (R) — burr fruits near
railway. ‘Oct.).

LICHENES

Aspicilia calcarea (L) Mudd.

Buellia subalbula Nyl Mlill. Arg.

Dermatocarpon compactum (Mess) Lettau.

Lecaiiora sphaerospora Mull. Arg.

These lichens were all found encrusting the
surface of limestone fragments. Buellia subal-
bula (fig. 5) was the most abundant species.

Lecidea decipiens Arch. — encrusting soil.

Lecidea crystallifera Tayl. — sterile on soil.

Lecidea aff. glauca Tayl. — sterile on soil.

Diploschistes aff. ocellatus DC Norm. — sterile.

Chondropsis semiviridis Nyl (Parmelia hypox-
antha Miill. Arg.) — loose on surface of ground
under Acacia sowdenii.

Teloschistes chrysophthalmus (L) Th. Fries —
orange lichen on twigs of Acacia sowdenii.

Caloplaca aurantiaca (Lightf.) Th. Fries — en-
crusting dead wood.

Parmelia sp. — undeterminable sterile frag-
ments.

Acknowledgments

Special thanks are given to Dr. Hj. Eichler
for his help and facilities he made available at
the State Herbarium ol South Australia. Thanks
are also extended to Mr. J. H. Willis, National
Herbarium. Melbourne, to Mr. R. D. Royce and
Mr. A. S. George of the Western Australian
Herbarium: and for the identification of lich-
ens. to Mr. R. W. Rogers of the University of
Adelaide. The late Mr. C. A. Garoner, former
Government Botanist in Western Australia, gave

valuable assistance with plant identifications.
For generous assistance with travelling expenses
we are indebted to the State and Common-
wealth Railways and to the University of West-
ern Australia. For permission to stay at the
Airways Hostel, for transport and other help at
Forrest, we thank the Department of Civil
Aviation and members of the airport and hostel
staff. Mr. J. E, Marsh took further photo-
graphs for us after \ye returned to Perth and
two of his are reproduced in this publication.
The map (Fig. 1) was drawn by Mr. Ward of
the Department of Geography, University of
Western Australia.

References

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351.

Barlow, B. A. (1963).— Studies in Australian Loranthaceae
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of Western Australia, J. Roy. See. W. Aust.
39: 28-29.

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No. 12. Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Aust. 41: 378-390.

(1921). — Additions to Flora of S. Australia,

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(1943-57). — Flora of South Australia. 2nd

ed.. Adelaide.

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Burbidge, N. T. (1960). — The Australian Species of
Nicotiana L. (Solanaceae). Aust. J. Bot. 8:
342-380.

Cannon, W. A. (I92lj. — Plant Habits and Habitats in
the arid portions of South Australia. Cam.
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Carolin, R. C. (1958). — The species of the genus Erodium
L’Her endemic in Australia. Proc. Linn. Soc.
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Chippendale, G. M. (1959). — Check list of Central Aus-
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Davis, G. L. (1948). — Revision of the genus Brachycome
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(1952), — Revision of the genus Calotis R. Br-

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— (1957). — Revision of the genus Pcdolepis

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Eichler. Hj. (1965). — Supplement to J. M. Black’s Flora
of South Australia (2nd ed.). Adelaide.

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(1952). — ^Flora of Western Australia, I,

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46: 583-606.

(1964). — The species of Bassia All. (Cheno-
podiaceae) In Australia. Trans Roy. Soc. S.
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Wales Nat. Herb. 1: 131-268.

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Plateau, South Ausiralla. Trans. Roy. Soc.
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Osborne, T. G. B., J. G. Wood and T. B. Paltridge
(1931). — On the autecology of Sftpa nitida,
a study of a fodder grass in arid Australia.
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Shaw, Elizabeth A, (1965).— A critical revision of some
endemic Australian genera of Cruciferae.
Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Ausf. 89: 145-253.

Symon, D. E. (1961).— The species of Oxalis established
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84: 71-77.

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Bight. Trans, axid Proc. Philos. Soc. of Adel.
S. Axist. Z: 94-128.

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1. Melbourne.

1^*

■a:

Obituary

C. A. Gardner, M.B.E.

Charles Austin Gardner, former Government
Botanist, and long-time member of the council
of this Society, its President in 1941-42. and
Gold Medalist in 1949. died at the Home of
Peace, Subiaco, on February 24. 1970. After
he retired in 1960, on reaching the statutory
retiring age in the State civil service, he was
made an Honorary Member of the Society. He
was awarded the W. B. Clarke Medal of the
Royal Society of New South Wales in 1961, and
the Australian Natural History Medallion in
1969. In the Queen’s Birthday Honours List
of June 1965 he was made an M.B.E.

Charles Gardner was born in Lancaster.
Lancashire, England on January 6, 1896 and
in 1909 came with his family to Western Aus-
tralia, where they engaged in farming at
Yorkrakine. He early developed interests in
botany and art, being encouraged in the former
by D. A. Herbert (Economic Botanist and
Pathologist at the Department of Agriculture)
and Mrs. E. H. Pelloe ( a leading amateur botan-
ist of the day and authoress of Wild Flowers
of Western Australia, 1921). In art he received
formal instruction from J. W. Linton, and won
a prize for a flower painting at the Perth Royal
Show in 1916.

On the recommendation of Herbert, Gard-
ner was appointed by C. E. Lane-Poole (Con-
servator of Forests,! as a botanical collector
with the Forests Department in 1920. An im-
portant event in his professional career soon
after w’as his inclusion as botanist in the Kim-
berley Exploration Expedition, under Surveyor
W. R. Easton, which operated in the northern
Kimberleys between April and October 1921.
The outcome was hig impressive first botanical
publication, entitled, with modest under-
statement, “Botanical Notes, Kimberley Divi-
sion of Western Australia.” published as
Forests Department Bulletin No. 32 in 1923.
This comprised slightly over 100 pages of de-
tailed description of habitats and of plants,
including the naming of 20 ne^v species and
several varieties. It was illustrated by photo-
graphs and the painstaking detailed drawings
which were to form such a characteristic
feature of most of Gardner’s future publica-
tions.

He transferred in 1924 to the botanical
branch of the Department of Agriculture, then
in charge of W. M. Came (Economic Botanist
and Plant Pathologist). On Game’s resignation
in 1928 to join the C.S.I.R the botanical sec-
tion was re-organized and Gardner became
Government Botanist and Curator of the State
Herbarium: the plant pathology work of the
Department becoming the responsibility of
H. A. Pittman.

In his new post Gardner travelled wddely
over the State, adding to the collections of the
State Herbarium and producing numerous

taxonomic papers, an important series, “Con-
tributions to the Flora of Western Australia,”
beginning in the Jourrial of this Society in
1923. Altogether he described 8 new genera and
some 200 new species. His experiences in the
Kimberley expedition of 1921 stimulated a life-
long interest in problems of plant distribution,
which formed the subject of his presidential ad-
dress to the Society in 1942.

In 1930 he published a systematic census of
Western Australian plants. Enumeratio Plan-
tarum Australiae Occidentalis, as a preliminary
to an intended Flora of the State. However
beyond a volume on the grasses (1952) and a
joint work with H. W. Bennetts on the poison
pIehIkS (1956) this did not proceed far in pub-
lication. Before his death he had been work-
ing on books on the genus Banksia and the
genus Eucalyptus. He published numerous
articles on the forest formations of Western
Australia in the Australian Forestry Journal
and on various botanical subjects in the Jour-
nal of the Department of Agriculture, culminat-
ing wdth a long series of over a hundred items
on the Eucalyptus trees of Western Australia.
Several popular books, illustrated in part by
the water-colours of Edgar Dell, we>re pub-
lished by West Australian Newspapers Ltd. The
final one. in handsome format, Wildflowers of
Western Australia, appeared in 1959.

In 1937 Gardner was stationed at the Royal
Botanic Gardens, Kew. as the first Australian
botanical liaison officer. Between 1924 and
1962 he delivered courses of lectures on plant
geography and systematic botany in the Faculty
of Agriculture of the University of Western
Australia. He served as a member of the State
Gardens Board (later National Parks Board),
and, in later years after retirement, as honor-
ary consulting botanist to the King’s Park
Board.

As a conservationist his achievements were
notable and he was instrumental in pursuad-
ing the Government to proclaim the following
five extensive flora reserves; (1) at the lower
Murchison River; (2) the Hill River Reserve
(Mt. Lesueur); (3) the reserve south of
Southern Cross (Lake Cronin); (4) the ai'ea be-
tween the Gairdner River and the Hamersley
River (including the Barren Ranges); and
(5) the area between Cape Arid and Israelite
Bay.

A list of his writings, covering some 320 items
between 1923 and 1962, is filed at the Depart-
ment of Agriculture, the Battye Library in the
State Library, the Botany Department of the
University, and at the Royal Botanic Gardens.
Melbourne.

INSTRUCTIONS TO AUTHORS

Contributions to this Journal should be sent to The Honorary Secretary,
Royal Society of Western Australia, Western Australian Museum, Perth.
Papers are received only from, or by communication through, Members of the
Society. The Council decides whether any contribution will be accepted for
publication. All papers accepted must be read either in full or in abstract
or be tabled at an ordinary meeting before publication.

Papers should be accompanied by a table of contents, on a separate
sheet, showing clearly the status of ail headings; this will not necessarily
be published. Authors should maintain a proper balance between length and
substance, and papers longer than 10,000 words would need to be of exceptional
importance to be considered for publication. The Abstract (which will
probably be read more than any other part of the paper) should not be an
expanded title, but should include the main substance of the paper in a con-
densed form.

Typescripts should be double-spaced on opaque white foolscap paper; the
original and one carbon copy should be sent. All Tables, and captions
for Figures, should be on separate sheets. Authors are advised to use recent
issues of the Journal as a guide to the general format of their papers, includ-
ing the preparation of references; journal titles in references may be given in
full or may follow any widely used conventional system of abbreviation.

Note that all illustrations are Figures, which are numbered in a single
sequence. In composite Figui'es, made up of several photographs or diagrams,
each of these should be designated by letter (e.g. Figure 13B). Illustrations
should include all necessary lettering, and must be suitable for direct photo-
graphic reproduction. To avoid unnecessary handling of the original illus-
trations, which are usually best prepared between and 2 times the required
size, authors are advised to supply extra prints already reduced. Additional
printing costs, such as those for folding maps or colour blocks, will normally be
charged to authors.

It is the responsibility of authors to adhere to the International Rules of
Botanical and Zoological Nomenclature. Palaeontological papers must follow
the appropriate rules for zoology or botany, and all new stratigraphic names
must have been previously approved by the Stratigraphic Nomenclature Com-
mittee of the Geological Society of Australia.

Thirty reprints are supplied to authors free of charge, up to a maximum of
60 for any one paper. Further reprints may be ordered at cost, provided that
orders are submitted with the returned galley proofs.

Authors are solely responsible for the accuracy of all information in their
papers, and for any opinion they express.

Journal

of the

Royal Society of Western Australia

Volume 53

1970

Part 2

Contents

4. — A new penc’-unculate barnacle, Paralepas georgai sp.nov. (Crustacea: Cirripedia — Thor-

acica) epizoic on Australian spiny lobsters and crabs. By A. Daniel.

5. — Alpha-activity of Western Australian Soils and wheats. By J. H. Chute, R. A. Clapp

and J. P. Quirk.

6. — Notes on the Flora and Vegetation of the Nullabor Plain at Forrest, W.A. By E. R. L.

Johnson and A. M. Baird.

Obituary. — C. A. Gardner; M.B.E.

Editor: A. S. George

Assistant Editor: W. A. Loneragan

The Royal Society of Western Australia, Western Australian Museum, Perth

68781-4/70-570-t

ALEX. B. DAVIES, Government Piinter, Perth, Western Australia

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