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COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE
DAVIS, CALIFORNIA

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JUDGING
FARM ANIMALS

CHARLES S. PLUMB

Professor of Animal Husbandry in the College of Agriculture

of the Ohio State University
Author of "Types and Breeds of Farm Animals," Etc.

ILLUSTRATED

NEW YORK
ORANGE JUDD COMPANY

LONDON

KEGAN PAUL, TRENCH TRUBNER & Co., LIMITED
1920

ULC.

.':/// Rights Reserved
[KKTKKI:D AT STATIONERS' IT ALT., LONDON", ENOT.AKD]

A6R1C. DEPT,

[Printed in U. S. A.]

FOREWORD

T i FE study of animal form becomes an instinctive process
on the part cf most persons who take a natural interest
in farm live stock. The form and its suitability for specific
purposes is sure to cause discussion and argument, if but
two parties are interested. Thus do men think themselves
critics and judges of animals, even though their knowl-
edge is based on very limited experience. There are men,
however, who have grown up among flocks and herds, who,
during the years, have absorbed wisdom through experi-
ence, and have naturally become qualified to judge the
merits or demerits of certain kinds of animals with which
they are familiar.

Another class of men, lacking in experience, yet with
the stockman's instincts, seek information that will enable
them to judge animals intelligently, thereby better serv-
ing themselves and mankind. In the agricultural school
or college, this latter class may secure systematic instruc-
tion relative to the principles and practices of judging,
whereby they may become better qualified to pass on
the comparative merits of farm animals. This volume is
intended to serve the needs of the stockman, be he amateur
or professional, but more especially the student, who ap-
preciates his own limitations, and seeks for a more intelli-
gent conception of the relationship of form to function.

The subject of judging farm animals is, at the present
time, receiving much attention among animal husbandry
students in our agricultural schools and colleges. The

vi FOREWORD

use of animals in the class room or laboratory, and the
practice of judging by students, is such a comparatively
new phase of education, that it seems appropriate here
to refer to its introduction. In 1891, the late John A.
Craig assumed the professorship in animal husbandry, at
Wisconsin University, and that year began giving class-
room instruction in live stock judging, which was, so far
as the writer is advised, the first attempt in this field.
In 1894 Professor Craig wrote1 that this line of teaching,
though new, had been tried by him for three years, and
the surprising feature of it was the ease and pleasure
in imparting knowledge of this kind, with the animals
before the students, to analyze their points, as compared
with, the old method, which deadened the mind and in-
terest of the student. In 1892 a live stock judging con-
test was held in Wisconsin, when the students in the
College of Agriculture competed for a gold medal, offered
by Mr. R. B. Ogilvie, for the greatest proficiency in judg-
ing draft horses and mutton sheep. It was not long
before the importance of this class of instruction became
evident to agricultural educators, and courses in live
stock judging were introduced in various colleges, and
grew rapidly in popularity. In 1898 was held the first
intercollegiate live stock judging contest, which took place
at the Trans-Mississippi Exposition, at Omaha, Nebraska,
where seventeen students from the agricultural colleges of
Wisconsin, Michigan, Nebraska, Missouri, and Iowa par-
ticipated. In January, 1901, appeared the first text on
the subject of judging live stock, a most important contri-
bution to live stock literature, the work of Professor Craig.

i "Breeders' Gazette," April 18, 1894.

FOREWORD vii

At. the present time departments of animal husbandry are
failures of all American agricultural colleges, and system-
atic courses in judging farm animals are given, in which
laboratory practice is an important feature. Not only
this, but thousands of young men have already received
instruction in this subject in our colleges, many of whom
are now actively engaged in farming, where animal hus-
bandry is a factor, requiring a knowledge of form and
function.

In the preparation of this volume, the author has had in
view a purpose, rather distinctive in itself, of discussing,
, systematically and with reasonable completeness, each great
class of animals as a separate part of an important whole.
In each class, the study of the individual, as based on the
scale of points, is followed by the comparative and group
method of judging, so that the man who lacks the college
opportunity, may find a text that will furnish under sepa-
rate heads, a systematic and comprehensive discussion of
the entire subject. If one is interested in but one class of
stock, as for example swine, the subject will be found so
arranged and discussed as to meet his special needs. Inas-
much as the arrangement of the text is consistent with the
method of presentation now most in use in educational in-
stitutions, this book should serve the purpose of the student
as well as the stockman afield.

The author has had occasion to quote from many au-
thorities, for which credit is given in the appropriate place.
It is hoped that the illustrations, largely from photographs
by the author, may add to the usefulness and efficiency of
the text.

CHARLES S. PLUMB.

Columbus, Ohio.

TABLE OF CONTENTS.

CHAPTER PAGE

Foreword v

PART I. FORM AND FUNCTION.

I. The Study of Form and Function 1

II. The Score Card and Its Use 15

PART II. THE HORSE.

III. Man and the Horse 26

IV. The Anatomy of the Horse . . . . 28

V. The Horse in Motion . * . . . . 48

VI. The Types and Classes of Horses . . 61

JUDGING THE DRAFT OR POWER TYPE OF HORSE
BY SCALE OF POINTS.

VII. The Comparative Study of Draft Horses . . 110

VIII. Judging Breeding Draft Horses 118

IX. Breeds of Draft Horses 123

\ \X. Judging Horses of Light Harness Type . . . . 130

\XI. Judging Horses of Heavy Harness Type . . . . 148

XII. Judging the Saddle J'ype of Horse 160

XIII. Pony Types . . . ' .&*&* ..*$ ^ 170

XIV. Judging Jacks and Jennets 175

XV. Judging the Mule 187

XVI. Unsoundness, Diseases and Defects in the Horse 196

PART III. JUDGING CATTLE.

XVTI. The Anatomy of the Ox . . 209

XArI II. The Classification of Domestic Cattle 216

XIX. The Beef Carcass and Its Cuts 218

XX. Judging Beef Tyre of Cattle by Scale of Points 227

X XT. The Comparative Study of Beef Cattle . . . . 253

XXII. Judging Stocker or Feoder Cattle 257

CONTENTS

XXIII. Judging Beef Cattle Used for Breeding Pur-

poses .................. 2.")!)

XXIV. Descriptive Notes of the More Important Beef

Breeds ................ 265

XXV. Judging the Dairy Type of Cattle by Scale of

Points ................ 272

XXVI. The Comparative Study of Dairy Cattle . . 313
XXVII. Judging Dairy Type Bulls and Young Cattle . . 317
XXVIII. Descriptive Notes on the More Important Dairy

Breeds ................ 323

XXIX. Judging Dual-purpose Cattle ........ 350

XXX. Descriptive Notes on Dual-purpose Breeds of

Cattle ................ 355

PART IV. JUDGING SHEEP

XXXI. The Anatomy of the Sheep . . . . ...... 361

XXXII. How to Handle and Examine Sheep ...... 369

XXXIII. The Classification of Domestic Sheep . . . . 374

XXXIV. The Mutton Carcass and Its Cuts ...... 375

XXXV. Judging the Mutton Type of Sheep by the Scale

of Points .............. 380

XXXVI. The Comparative Study of Mutton Sheep . . . . 404

XXXVII. Judging Feeder Sheep ............ 410

XXXVIII. Judging the Merino of the American or Class

A Type ................ 412

XXXIX. Judging the Mutton Merino or Class C Type . . 420

XL. The Fleece and Its Examination . . .-. . . 426

XLI. Judging Breeding Sheep ....... -. . . 433

XLIL Descriptive Notes of the More Important Breeds

of Sheep ................ 439

XLIII. The Angora Goat .............. 463

XLIV. The Milch Goat .............. 466

PART V. JUDGING SWINE.

XLV. The Anatomy of the Hog .......... 473

XLVI. The Pork Carcass and Its Cuts ........ 479

XL VII. The Common Types of Swine ........ 484

CONTENTS xi

CHAPTER PA«E

XLVI11. Judging- the Lard Type of Swine by the Scale

of Points isii

XL1X. The Comparative Study of Swine "><)7

L. Descriptive Notes on the Lard Type Breeds

of Swine 511

LI. Judging the Bacon Type of Swine 531

LI I. Judging Breeding Swine 542

L1II. Descriptive Notes on the Bacon Type Breeds of

Swine 548

APPENDIX.

Rules Governing Live Stock Judging Contests . . •">•">.'!

Rules for Boys' Stock Judging Contests . . . . 558
Rules of Students' Contest in Judging Dairy

Cattle at National Dairy Show, 1916. . . . 560

Age Classification in the Show Ring 567

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS.

PART I— FORM AND FUNCTION.

CHAPTER I.

THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION.

The relationship of form to use in the animal is quite
apparent to the person of observant mind. Scientists uni-
versally recognize that wild animals are so constructed as
to be best adapted to the special environment in which
they are usually found. Our domestic animals are all
descended from the wild forms, by a process of evolution
that has taken place during many centuries. Each great
class or group, such as horses or cattle, for example,
subjected to domestication and the influences of man, has
gradually passed through important changes in form,
thereby better fitting the individual to the special uses of
man. The animal body is to a degree plastic and subject
to variation, and thus it is that largely through a process
of artificial selection and environment, we have such highly
developed examples of different types of farm animals.
This tendency of domestic animals to vary somewhat from
the parent type, has long been a subject of special study
by men interested in evolution and improvement. In fact
the constructive breeder has ever recognized that domestic
animals are subject to variation and improvement, and so
1ms nought, through successive generations, to produce re-
sults that should show the greatest perfection. Not only
may the animal form as a whole be classified in type, but

2^ JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the various parts of the body, have their special conforma-
tions 1 and values. The outline of an animal of the cattle
group, for example, clearly indicates whether or not he
belongs to the beef producing type. The separate mem-
bers and parts of the body also have distinctive and special
values of their own, as compared with similar parts in
cattle of another type. If the hindquarter is thick and
fleshy, producing meat to a marked degree ; if the back is
covered with a deep layer of flesh, these parts, viewed
separately, are as an open book to the experienced judge,
who knows the type of animal from whence they came.
His knowledge of animal form and function is such as to
impress clearly upon his mind that, in nature, there is
always a rational co-relationship between the parts, where-
by is produced a whole that is adapted to certain condi-
tions and uses. Cuvier, the great comparative anatomist,
claimed that2 "all organized beings, in their structure,
form a complete system, of which the parts mutually cor-
respond and .conduce to the same definite action by a recip-
rocal reaction. Each of these parts cannot be changed
without the others changing also; and, by consequence,
each of these taken separately indicates and gives all the
rest." In the complete, naturally formed whole, we find
harmony of relationship in all the parts to each other. The
forms of our domestic animals, however, vary more or less,
both in perfection and efficiency of purpose. Remarkable
changes have taken place during the course of domesti-
cation, so that we find wide extremes between the wild,
ancestral parent, and the most highly developed product
of present day breeding. The contrast between the wild
hog and modern Berkshire, or shaggy Highland cattle
and the Holstein-Friesian of to-day, are striking illustra-
tions of wide differences in type. Undoubtedly we have
cases where the harmony of parts in the animal form seems
lacking, yet often this is more apparent than real. Stu-

1 Conformation is a word used to express the relationship of the various parts
to the whole.

2 On the Anatomy of Vertebrates. Richard Owen, 1866. Vol. I., p. 27.

• — "Striking illustrations of wide differences in type."

4 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

dents of heredity accept this view. This tendency of do-
mestic animals to vary somewhat from the parent type,
has long been a subject of special study by. the men in-
terested in evolution and improvement. Occasionally some
one comes forward with a criticism of accepted standards,
with the argument that a certain animal not representative
of the approved type, was a producer of large capacity,
therefore the type should not be a guide. The importance
of such criticism should not be overestimated. An odd
case here and there should not weigh heavily against the
cumulative experience and observation of the great mass
of breeders. Each breed has reached its present status of
importance and perfection, through the efforts of certain
breeders who have persistently sought to develop a con-
formation that in their judgment indicated within reason-
able bounds superior producing capacity. No man at all
familiar with the Thoroughbred, a very distinctive race
horse, would expect to find vital differences in the forms of
many individuals of this breed. The variations that did
exist would only affect in a minor degree the purpose for
which this breed is produced, namely speed. As to
whether a Thoroughbred, however, can run a mile in two
minutes or three, is dependent on the proportion and ad-
justment of minor parts, which may combine to make the
most perfect and rapid moving horsepower. Therefore the
work of the student, is to study the adjustment of the parts
to each other, and ascertain their relationship to the whole,
and their combined powers of production.

Beauty and balance of form may be very generally
regarded as associated with the most desirable sex character
and capacity to produce. In the opinion of the qualified
judge, a breeding male could not be beautiful, with a head
showing lack of character and masculinity. While men
differ somewhat in their measurements of beauty, whether
applied to the fine arts or to living animals, there is no
serious disagreement among them as to the main facts.
In the public show ring, where competition of a worthy

THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION 5

character prevails, and where qualified judges preside, the
most beautiful and perfectly balanced animals find their
places in relative order of merit. In recent years the
criticism has been made, that dairy cattle judges have often
given preference to beauty rather than utility. This has
been applied especially to judges of Ayrshire and Jersey
i-iiillo and in a limited degree to judges of Clydesdale
horses. Refinement of form, beauty of head, and highly
developed fore udder, have been sought for in the Island
.Jersey and the Scotch bred Ayrshire. The criticism has
been made that the cows showing these characteristics in
the greatest perfection, are less profitable than some of
the plainer sort. This is perhaps true in a degree. How-
ever, there is no good reason why it should be so. The
great improvement that has resulted from years of careful
breeding, since the formative periods of the breeds, has
undoubtedly given important recognition to the relation-
ship of beauty to utility. This has been aptly brought out
by Mr. James M. Codman, a well-known Guernsey breeder,
who says:3 "The most perfect utility is distinct from
beauty and is not synonymous with it. You may have the
two at the same time, but no process can make them the
same thing. Look at the early pictures of the scrawny,
misshapen cows of the Channel Islands, and contrast them
with the beauty developed to-day, and they have not lost
productive capacity — probably gained in it. I think we
are indebted to the Jersey breeders on that island for show-
ing what could be done by the hand of man by selection in
adding beauty to utility. Guernsey breeders have accom-
plished Hie same result, though with a different idea in
view. Of course there are inferior animals still left; it is
to be hoped that it is only a question of time for them to
disappear."

Commenting editorially on a statement credited to Mr.
C. L. Hill, a noted Wisconsin Guernsey breeder and judge,
that he could see no reason why cows cannot be high-class

3 Guernsey Breeders' Sale List Bulletin, May, 1909.

fi JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

producers and at the same time conform to the present day
show standards, Hoard's Dairyman says:4 "One of the
reasons why the cow cannot be a good producer and still
conform to the show ring standard, is that there is no show
ring standard. No two judges will judge alike. Animals
that at one show ring receive first place, at another will
receive second or third place. We hear much talk about

Fig. 2. — Dale, the Hereford. "It will not be a difficult task to bring for-
ward the names of many great sires and dams that judges have repeatedly
agreed upon as the best of their kind."

the ' beauty of form.' If judging were confined to that,
there would be much greater uniformity of judgment, yet
no two judges will agree upon what is really and truly
handsome. ' '

Among the noted show animals of the different breeds
may be found, not only the world 's greatest prize winners,
but also the most beautiful specimens. It will not be a

* December 13, 1912.

THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION 7

difficult task to bring forward the names of many great
sires and dams that judges have repeatedly agreed upon
as the best of their kind when exposed to the competition
of the show ring. Brilliant the Percheron, Darnley the
Clydesdale, Royal Danegelt the Hackney, Avondale the
Shorthorn, Dale the Hereford, Lucy 's Prince the Aberdeen-
Angus, Pedro the Jersey, Sarcastic Lad the Holstein-Frie-
sian, Island Champion the Guernsey, and Howie's Fizz-
away the Ayrshire, each won the highest honors in the
greatest shows, and were universally regarded as beautiful
specimens of the breed. Not only that, but each is a fam-
ous sire. To be sure there are many examples of animals
that have been shown, on which judges have disagreed in
their estimates. These as a rule, however, have not been
above justifiable criticism. However, most thinking men
will agree that beauty of form and utility are closely as-
sociated, and the lower the measure of beauty the less as
a rule may be anticipated in the producing capacity.

The efficient judge is a student of animal form and
function. Efficiency increases with careful observation and
study. However, no person can be really qualified for the
responsibilities of the official judge unless gifted with the
instinctive knowledge of the true stockman. That is to
say, one must naturally and quickly grasp the real merits
to be seen in the animal, irrespective of show ring prepara-
tion, or an attractive condition of flesh. Other things being
equal, the man who has a love for dumb animals, is very
much more likely to see the value in them, than the man
who lacks sympathetic sense. The desire to keep in contact
with the animal, to study its form and measure its use-
fulness,— these are characteristics of the judge, be he a
college freshman, or a man crowned with years of experi-
ence as a breeder or judge. Among the boys who come as
students to the college of agriculture, and who are found
most frequently in and about the stables, taking every
chance to study the stock and absorb ideas from contact
with the herdsmen, will be found the most efficient judges

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 3. — "One must naturally and quickly
grasp the real merits to be seen in the animal."
(Courtesy Ohio Agr. Exp. Station.)

of the future. Not
only this, but a
knowledge of the
bony and muscular
structures, and
their relationship,
of the limbs and
the effect of posi-
tion on production,
these and other
features of the ani-
mal body are rea-
sonably well under-
stood by the man
who is qualified to
pass in judg-
ment on domestic
animals.

The well-informed judge will be familiar with changes in
breed types or fashions. While all breeds have undergone
distinct changes and improvements, during the course of
time, in certain respects some of these changes have been

matters of fashion

rather than of eco-
nomic importance.
The decree of fash-
ion was largely re-
sponsible for the
short, dished head
so much desired
among Berkshire
breeders ; for the
cap of wool over
the head and face
of the Shropshire

,. , Fig. 4. — The same horse as Fig. 3, after being

high, Snort Knee fattened. (Courtesy Ohio Agr. Exp. Station.)

THE STUDY OF FORM AND Fl'NCTIOX 9

action of the Hackney, and for the preponderance <»!'
large white markings in the coat of hair of the Ayrshire.
Referring to this matter of style, Mr. W. J. Clarke, a
prominent sheep authority, well says : 5 ' * In these days
of rapid progress, fashion asserts her sway, even on
subjects pertaining to shepherding. The type of some
of our leading mutton breeds of sheep has undergone

Fig. 5. — Holehouse White Bess, the Ayrshire. "The preponderance of large,
white markings in the coat of hair." (Courtesy Branford Farms.)

a decidedly marked change and great improvement
during the past ten years; therefore, it can easily be
understood why, to become a really expert judge of a
breed, it requires thought, observation, and the con-
stant handling and studying of a breed to thoroughly
understand the true type that fashion dictates as being the
correct one of to-day. Whilst in fat stock contests the mut-

5 Fitting Sheep for Show Ring and Market, 1900, p. 9.

10 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

ton conformation of the animal is the leading consideration,
in breed contests the embellishments that must accompany
true mutton form in the make-up of a typical show animal,
must be given due consideration. ' '

Some animals have serious defects that should be seen.
These may be natural or unnatural. One might regard a
short, steep pastern on a saddle horse, or a very poor front
udder on a cow, or a very long snout on a Berkshire boar,
as defects, yet of a natural sort that could not be classed
as a blemish. However, the horse afflicted with a bone
spavin, or the cow with an udder having a milkless quarter,
would certainly be charged with defects. These, in the
opinion of the critics, would amount to positive blemishes,
and seriously affect selling values. One of the problems
which confront the judge, is that of weighing up and giv-
ing proper estimate of defective characteristics. "While
animals with blemishes may be quickly set aside as un-
worthy of consideration, the judge may find it necessary
to give ratings to individuals with ill form or natural de-
fects. Exhibitors who are not over scrupulous, often try
to take advantage of an easygoing or superficial judge.
The fact is, all animals with known defects of importance
should be barred from the show ring. The methods in op-
eration in certain horse shows, of compelling exhibitors
to submit their horses to qualified veterinary inspection
to pass on their soundness before allowing them to compete
in the show ring, is a step in the right direction. The
work of the English Hackney Horse Society in this re-
spect, has been productive of great good.

Men become efficient judges by specializing rather than
otherwise. As a rule one finds much to do in becoming
proficient within a single type or breed. Those men who
are recognized as the best qualified judges, and who are
most in demand at the more important shows, either re-
strict themselves to one general type or to one breed. A man
may be an expert judge of dairy cattle, but he is not likely
to be equally good as a judge of beef type. Some exhibit-

THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION H

ors believe that the breeds shown by them should be
judged only by practical breeders of these respective
breeds. Occasionally a breed association will urge fair or
live stock show officials to appoint a certain man for judge,
on account of his reputation as a breeder and judge of that
breed. Some stockmen are very reluctant to show, where
their exhibit is to be judged by one associated with another
breed. For example : a Poland China breeder does not
care to have his stock judged by a Berkshire man, neither
does an exhibitor of Percherons wish his stock to be rated
by a specialist in Clydesdales, and very few men showing
Merino sheep would care to have a Cotswold breeder
serve as judge on their fine wools. This represents a very
common opinion among professional stockmen. During
recent years, or since the animal husbandry departments
of our colleges have been established, instructors in this
field have in many cases been acceptable judges at live stock
shows. These instructors are, as a rule, free from preju-
dice, and are often regarded as capable of passing fairly
and intelligently on several different types and breeds.
However, such a specialist as a rule has a reputation for
proficiency in judging some one type or class, and does not
willingly officiate otherwise, unless under unusual cir-
cumstances. If then the demand is for the judge in the
special rather than the general field, it behooves the amateur
judge to concentrate his efforts to become a proficient
specialist. Contact with a breed on all possible occasions,
and cultivating the acquaintance and friendship of breed-
ers and herdsmen, will add greatly to a student's store of
knowledge and render him more and more efficient. If
one who is also gifted with a reasonably good judicial tem-
perament, will persistently adhere to this plan, he should
become in time a judge of signal ability and more than
local reputation.

The decision of the judge should be reached after care-
ful consideration, and should be final. He should be well
fortified in his reasons, and being so, should not feel doubt-

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

ful about himself. Very naturally judges of live stock often
differ in their point of view ; but why should they not, as
long as judges are but human and not infallible ? It is no
uncommon occurrence for one judge of points of law to
reverse the decision of another judge. "We maintain vari-
ous grades of courts up to the United States Supreme Court,
in order that a previous judgment may be reconsidered.
Furthermore, it must be remembered that the decision of
the judge at a live stock show is simply his own, and is so
rendered. It would be a strange judge who thought his
each and every decision was to be approved by all the
critics. True, his work as a whole will meet with com-
mendation, if his judgment is good, but with the general
opportunity for difference of opinion in the show ring, a
judge should not be mentally disturbed if others see some
things from a different view-point. It may be desirable for
the judge to give public expression of his reasons for his
placings. In doing so, he has the opportunity to make it

Fig. 6. — "His work, as a whole, will meet with commendation if his judg-
ment is good."

THE STUDY OF FORM AND FUNCTION 13

clear to both exhibitor and spectator that he knows wlwl
he is about, and that his decisions are not based on guess-
work. This method is educational in value, and is to be
commended, and should be a feature of all shows where-
ever possible. The reasons for the judge's decisions are
usually listened to with much interest by the exhibitors
and visitors at the ring side. The only persons liable to
take exception to this method, are exhibitors who do not
feel satisfied with the decisions of the judge, and who do
not enjoy having attention directed to the defects which
may have been the cause of the subordinate position given
their animals.

Competent live stock critics or judges in a community
are an evidence of the presence of superior live stock there-
abouts. Qualified critics usually seek for superior rather
than inferior animals. One may be reasonably sure that
in a locality where many good herds and flocks are to be
found, will also be found a class of stockmen who dis-
criminate wisely in their selections. This being so, then
from an economic point of view, it is distinctly desirable
to have educated men in the community who will under-
stand the relationship of form to function, and who will
know how to apply their knowledge in a practical way.
This knowledge applied, will result in attractive herds, in
a community reputation of an enviable sort, and in fre-
quent visits of stockmen who will come to purchase and
who will pay superior rather than inferior prices. Such a
condition will surely cause prosperity, but it cannot be
accomplished excepting on the principle that superior
herds can only be produced by superior judges of animal
form and production. Hence, the worth of the educated
judge and his help to a community.

The demand for expert judges of live stock is very
widespread. There are thousands of local fairs in America
where animals are exhibited to be judged. There are
also large state fairs and live stock expositions, where se-
vere competitions commonly take place. The live stock in

14 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

each of these shows should be passed upon by judges who
are well qualified to render intelligent and fair decisions.
Each year fair and live stock officials seek the services of
judges to do this work, and among the men employed will
be many who have received inspiration and instruction
while in the agricultural college. In recent years, breed
associations have seen fit to nominate certain men for pub-
lic service as judges, usually selecting those best known and
most familiar with the breeds in question. Two of the most
important associations holding live stock shows in Ameri-
ca, the International Live Stock Exposition, and the Na-
tional Dairy Show Association, appoint their judges on
the basis of breed association recommendations. It is no
doubt true, that each year sees increased care in the selec-
tion of judges, and a more efficient service rendered to our
live stock interest in the work they do. To meet the re-
quirements of this demand for qualified judges, should be
the ambition of every man who desires to serve in the
capacity of an expert judge.

CHAPTER II.

THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE.

The scale of points is a systematic, logical, brief descrip-
tion of an ideal animal of a breed or type, in which the
several parts described are given numerical values, A
standard of excellence is another expression sometimes used
to designate scale of points; although there are standards
in which no points are made use of ; they are in fact simply
very brief official descriptions of certain breeds, in which
no measurements of values are given. Some of the British
breed associations use the standard of excellence, rather
than a scale of points.

The score card is a card on which values are registered
to the credit of an animal measured by the standard of a
scale of points. This scale is the one vital factor of the
score card. Therefore, when we speak of score card, we
always associate with it a definite scale of excellence rep-
resenting perfection, which is used for comparison with the
animal judged.

The earliest use of the scale of points was probably ap-
plied to Jersey cattle. In 1833 an agricultural and horti-
cultural society was organized on the Island of Jersey, one
of the Channel Islands off the coast of France. One of the
purposes of this organization was to improve the native
breed of cattle on Jersey. In discussions regarding methods
of improvement, the suggestion was made that it would
be highly desirable if some standard of excellence or
scale of points could be devised, that would serve as a
guide for the breeders on the island. Accordingly a com-
mittee was appointed to draw up a standard. The method
used was original and unique. It is said that 'the best two
bulls and the best two cows on the island were selected
to be used as models. One of each sex was regarded as

16 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

perfect in the barrel and front parts, and the other in the
hindquarters. The best breeders and dealers on the island
were freely consulted, and on January 18, 1834, a scale
of points for bulls and another for cows, was adopted by
the Society. In view of its historical importance, this scale
of points as applied to one sex, is herewith reproduced. A
comparison with the more recent scale of points is of
interest.

ORIGINAL SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY COWS AND
HEIFERS

1. Breed on male and female sides reputed for producing rich

and yellow butter 4

2. Head small, fine and tapering; eye full and lively; muzzle

fine and encircled with white; horns polished and a little
crumpled, tipped with black; ears small and of an orange
color within 8

3. Back straight from the withers to the setting-on of the tail;

chest deep, and nearly of line with the belly 4

4. Hide thin, movable, but not too loose, well covered with fine

and soft hair of good color 2

5. Barrel hooped and deep, well ribbed home, having but little

space between the ribs and hips; tail fine, hanging two
inches below the hock 3

6. Forelegs straight and fine; thighs full and long, close to-

gether when viewed from behind; hind legs short and
bones rather fine, hoofs small, hind legs not to cross in
walking 2

7. Udder full, well up behind; teats large and squarely placed,

being wide apart; milk veins large and swelling . . . . 4

Perfection for cows 27

Two points shall be deducted from the number required for per-
fection in heifers, as their udder and milk veins cannot be fully
developed. A heifer therefore will be considered perfect at 25
points.

The early scales of points, were found to be of much
service to the people. When cattle were judged they were
compared with the official scale of points. It is interest-
ing to note -that this standard contains in general the es-
sential features of the Jersey scale of points of the present
day. Naturally with use it was found that the standard
of excellence first adopted might be improved. According-

THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE 17

ly we find that the scales of points were revised a num-
ber of different times. In 1875 the total number of points
in the perfect animal was increased to 100, a standard for
perfection in common use to-day with all breeds.

The systematic arrangement of the scale of points for
the different types and breeds of animals, is considerably
improved over the score card of 1834. Now it is custom-
ary, first to consider the general appearance of an animal,
then follow with detailed study of the several important
parts, each of which is in turn separately studied and
measured. One hundred very generally represents the
total number of points used in the scale measuring up the
ideal or model animal. Thus a certain score card is di-
vided into the following five great parts:

Points

A. General appearance 30

B. Head and neck 8

C. Forequarters 12

D. Body 33

E. Hindquarters 17

Total 100

Each of these parts is sub-divided for more detailed
analysis. In the above, D, the body, is credited with 33
points, sub-divided as follows :

Points

Chest, deep, wide, large girth 4

Sides, deep, full, smooth, medium length 8

Back, broad, strongly arched, thickly and evenly cov-
ered * 9

Loin, wide, thick, strong 9

Belly, straight, smooth, firm 3

Total 33

The above is merely given as illustrative of how the
present day score card is constructed, irrespective of type
or breed. This is a logical method, whereby the student
or person using the scale of points, considers the animals
by the most simple and comprehensive system. This ar-

18 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

rangement of the scale of points is the result of careful
study and use, and meets with the general approval of
present day students of animal form. If one will but com-
pare the first scale of points, on page 16, with that of the
dairy cow on page 275, the superior arrangement of the
one over the other will be clearly seen.

Breed standards are usually expressed through the
scale of points. Many breeds have standard official de-
scriptions, although most of the breeds of horses and beef
cattle have thus far adopted nothing of the kind. Such
great breeds as the Percheron, Clydesdale and Shorthorn,
have none. The breed score cards vary considerably in
make-up and style of expression. Many of them begin with
the head, and then in sequence, in more or less detail,
specify the conformation and character of each part from
front to rear. Especial emphasis is usually placed on that
feature regarded as of much importance in the breed, as
the udder and^ veins in Holstein-Friesian cattle, or wool
with Merino sheep, or the back and loin of the Poland-
China hog.

Conditions of disqualification of representatives of
certain breeds, are specified in connection with the scale of
points. These disqualifying clauses are especially intro-
duced as features of the scales of points of most breeds of
swine. For example, one of the Poland-China Associations
has published disqualification definitions as applied to
form, size, condition, score and pedigree. That for condi-
tion is as follows: "Excessive fatness; barrenness; de-
formed; seriously diseased; total blindness, caused by de-
fective eyes, or by reason of fat or loose and wrinkled skin
over the eyes." Disqualification should be applied to the
representative of any breed, that does not conform to the
established standard, or is defective in any particular.

The method of using the score card, whereby an animal
is compared with the ideal set forth in the scale of points,
should be the first lesson in a systematic study of judging.
Perhaps one of the simplest, shortest examples of a scale

THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE

Fig. 7. — "Disqualification should be applied to the representative of any
breed that does not conform to the established standard, or i.s deject iff in

a/*.'/ particular.''

of points, is that of the Shetland Pony, as adopted by the
American Shetland Pony Club, which is as follows:

SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHETLAND PONY.

POINTS SCORED

Perfect

Score

1. Constitution — Constitution indicated by general

healthy appearance, perfect respiration, bright-
ness of eyes 10

2. Size — Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under

in height, two points to be deducted for every
inch over 42 inches up to 46 inches, fractional
portions to count as full inches . . 25

3. Head — Head symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide

between eyes, ears short and erect 10

4. Body — Barrel well rounded, back short and level,

deep chested, good breast, compact, "pony
build" 10

5. Legs — Legs muscular, flat boned, hind legs not cow-

hocked or too crooked 25

G. Mane and tail — Foretop, mane and tail heavy . . . . 10
7. Feet — Good 10

Score of
Animal
Studied

Total. . .... 100

20 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Under " Points Scored" it will be seen that there are
seven features of the animal to be considered, viz.: con-
stitution, size, head, body, legs, mane and tail, and feet.
Each of these features as found in the perfect animal is
given numerical value which the stockman refers to as
"points." The number 10 under the column "Perfect
Score" is the number of points credit given a pony of
perfect constitution. If the pony does not seem as
healthy or as vigorous as might be expected, or if the eyes
are lacking in brightness, then the animal cannot be given
full credit in this particular. Hence one should give such
a score as in his judgment would measure the constitution
of the pony being judged. Perhaps seven points would
fairly represent this, and so this figure should be placed in
the column headed "Score of Animal," opposite the ten
points for perfection. Thus one goes through the scale of
points, carefully comparing the animal under consideration
with the standard, giving a numerical measure of value to
each part, in systematic order, and placing each figure in
the column headed "Score of Animal." If in scoring a
pony, one came to the conclusion that each part was per-
fect, and could not be improved, then he should give the
full score in each case. This animal would then be credi-
ted with one hundred points, and be rated as perfect. But
we have no perfect ponies. The live stock critic can always
find some points for improvement. The ears may be a
trifle long, the back not quite level enough, or the feet too
flat. Thus the judge finds his reasons for less points than
100. After scoring, the column of figures which the judge
has made is added and placed in the line marked "total,"
for comparison with the perfect total. A total of 90 would
be a high score, for very few animals measure up to such a
standard of excellence if given a careful, seasoned judg-
ment.

The value of the score card lesson largely lies in teach-
ing the beginner the location of the various parts and how
to study them by a logical, well established system. Those

THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE 21

score cards which describe and measure the parts and
characteristics of the types of animals, are as a rule more
systematic and better balanced than those applied to most
of the breeds. The scales of points of some breeds, as
established by breed associations, are open to severe criti-
cism. They lack in orderly arrangement, in clearness of
description, and in logical measure of value. Therefore it
will be a wise policy for young judges to begin score card
work with the scales of points applied to the types, such
as are in common use in agricultural schools and colleges,
an example of which is to be found on page 62. System-
atic judging is promoted by first considering the general
appearance, which involves the animal as a whole, includ-
ing height, weight, general form, quality, character and
temperament. After this the different parts, in proper
order, are carefully examined and rated. The detailed
study of head, next the neck, then the breast, and so on,
with their relations to each other, requires the measure-
incuts of the smaller details. This relationship of one part
to another, must be considered, that one may get a fair
idea of the strong and weak points in the conformation.
The relative values of the parts of the scale of points
are somewhat variable. The standard of excellence for a
breed has, in most cases, been drawn up by a committee of
men appointed for that purpose, by a breeders' associa-
tion, whose work has been endorsed and adopted by the
members of the same. As a rule the scale of points rep-
resents the work of well-known breeders, who are quite
familiar with the breed. Thus, through the scale, one
should obtain the most intelligent and comprehensive
analysis of the breed, in which the relative values of the
parts are set forth. The score card in this case will show
what parts are most highly valued, and which of least
importance. If we are using a score card for mutton
sheep, as applied to type rather than breed, su-ch as
is in common use in the classroom, it will be seen that
experts have endeavored to give essentially correct

22 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

values to the different parts of the body. No mat-
ter what kind of score card we are using, in general,
appropriate recognition will be given to the different
parts, crediting each with a fair number of points. The
various breeds of live stock of similar type and charac-
ter place quite comparable values on similar more im-
portant parts. This may be illustrated in the case of
the dairy breeds of cattle, in which the udder, milk veins
and wells of the females are given many points, thus
indicating their great importance. If, however, meat pro-
duction is the primary consideration, then with either
types or breeds of the more distinctive meat animals,
greatest emphasis is placed on the development of back
and hindquarters, where the largest amount of valuable
meat is obtained. Further, in the composition of the
score card, the minor parts from the commercial point
of view, such as ear, nostril, tail or ankle, no matter how
important these may be in comprising the whole, are
measured up in small figures.

The use of figures in scoring animals is necessary to
furnish a basis for comparison with the ideal or standard.
Care should be used to grade on as simple and clear a basis
as possible. Figures as small as 1 or 2 are used as measures
of values in the standard but it is undesirable in scoring
an animal to introduce numbers that show too fine a measur-
ment. If 1 indicates a perfection then grades of .25 .50
or .75 might be used as measuring the value of the part
being judged. Surely .25 of one per cent is a small enough
estimate to express reasonably well a valuation of a part
that cannot possibly score over 1 point. Some persons
score as low as .1 of one per cent, but that is a very fine
measurement to apply and one difficult to justify. In scor-
ing, decimals are preferable, as common fractions do not
stand out in clear contrast for study, and the person scor-
ing should have his column of figures mathematically ar-
ranged, with the decimal points in line. Unless care is
used in this respect, the judge may mix his columns 'in

THE SCORE CARD AND ITS USE 23

adding, which will result in an error in the total score.
After having scored an animal, the judge should always
add his column of figures, and to check his work for ac-
curacy, should add the column both up and down to see
that his figures agree.

The expression " Points Cut," in scoring, is sometimes
used. The official instruction to judges, working under the
rules of the American Poultry Association, provides for
marking down cuts when scoring. Some of the associa-
tions of expert judges of swine also use the cut system.
The method of applying the cut system is simple. If a
part in the standard or scale of points is credited with
10, and one thinks the animal worth only 7 in this respect,
then 3 is recorded as so many points taken off, or cut. This
is not right. The points cut should not be written down.
The philosophy of recording 7 instead of 3, is that 7 is a
basis of comparison with the standard, while 3 is a com-
parison with nothing. It may be easier to say "I'll cut
three points," but the real purpose of the score card is
one of comparison, and no comparison is implied when this
form is used. Therefore it is highly important to place
one's actual valuation for each part in proper place in the
column, that comparison of both the part and the whole
may be possible. In fact, unless we place figures represent-
ing value to the credit of an animal we do not give a proper
score. If we give a cut, this in turn must be taken from
the perfect score in order to give correct value.

The value of the score of an animal is relative and
should not be regarded too highly. Men of experience in
the use of the score card, very generally value it for its
importance in the elementary stages of judging live stock.
Through its use, the young judge is taught the location
and the relative values of the different parts of the animal.
The great criticism of the score card, is that a judge may
be unable to grade a living animal exactly the same at
different times. His figures cannot stand as final. To-day
we may score an animal 80 and to-morrow 75. The horse

24 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

we scored yesterday may to-morrow come before us in better
form, with more action and expression, and therefore
measure up to a higher degree of excellence. We do not
know how to express in satisfactory figures certain things
we term character, expression, quality, etc. For many
years past efforts have been made to introduce the score
card as a medium for judging live stock at the shows, but
without success. In no case, perhaps, has the scale of points
been used in practical judging for an extended period of
time. Even poultry judges, who have adhered to the score
card more than any one else, are now quite generally dis-
carding its use. It may not be out of place to state here,
that some men who have been judges of acknowledged
ability, when required to officiate by score card methods,
have not done themselves or the animals they have passed
on, justice. One good illustration of this occurred in 1893
at the World's Columbian Exposition. A great show of
one breed was judged by the score card. Commenting on
the work of the judge, who in his time was regarded as well
qualified to pass on this breed, the following came from the
pen of a noted live stock critic, and is well worth considera-
tion in its relation to this much discussed subject.1 "In
this connection the temptation to discuss the score card as
a show yard implement is strong. If it had been known
that the judge intended to use the card, it is questionable
if he would have been asked to do the work, for Chief Bu-
chanan has little use for this well-nigh obsolete fad. We
say well-nigh obsolete. So far as Western show yards are
concerned, it has not made its appearance in the cattle ring
for the past ten years. It is occasionally used in the East,
and so far as our observation extends, it is the most potent
cause of good men going wrong in awarding premiums.
Swine breeders caught the score card fever some few years
ago. They have recovered thoroughly from the attack. It
is a non-recurrent disease. Readers of the Gazette need
not have repeated to them the arguments which have driven

1 Breeders' Gazette, Sept. 6, 1893, p. 163.

THE SCORE CARD AXD ITS USE 25

this system out of Western show yards. They need not
again be assured of the folly of attempting In apply mathe-
matics to the judging of life. They know that the tape and
square can measure inert matter; they equally understand
that animal form cannot be reckoned in figures as cord
wood or pig iron."

In spite of the above criticism, we must not lose
sight of the value of the scale of points as a standard, and
what it may teach. A limited number of score card lessons,
will usually suffice to introduce the subject of judging. It
is also important that the judge should be familiar with
the scale of points of any breed which he may be called to
pass upon in the show ring. A judge would hardly be
qualified to pass on a breed exhibit if he lacked knowledge
of the standard of excellence of that breed.

PART II— THE HORSE.

CHAPTER III.

MAN AND THE HORSE.

The relationship of man to the horse has long been very
intimate. The horse, since time immemorial, has occupied
a favorite place in the esteem of man. For centuries he
was the main source of transportation, both in peace and
war. "With the development of agriculture and the tilling
of the soil, the horse entered into a new field of usefulness.
In recent days the advent of the automobile and motor
truck seem to indicate a retirement of this animal to a
certain extent from the streets of our towns and cities.
Yet in spite of changed conditions, there is not likely to
be any material diminution in the necessity for the horse
as a vital factor in the conduct of farm operations. His
service in many ways is indispensable. Even in town it
will be impossible for many to make use of other form of
power in transporting loads. In a variety of ways man
will continue to rely upon, the horse, both for pleasure and
profit. If this animal is to be criticised as lacking in
efficiency, is it not highly important that those engaged
in the production and selection of the horse understand
his structure, purpose and adaptability? Such a com-
prehension must be based on a knowledge of the relation-
ship of internal to external structure, and of form to func-
tion. A knowledge of this relationship of form to func-
tion, coupled with reasonably good judgment, will materi-
ally assist one in measuring the personality and compara-
tive value of the horse under most conditions of examina-
tion. If " knowledge of the horse is an art/' to quote

MAN AND THE HORSE 27

noted French authority,1 "it is especially one which consists
in observing, comparing and judging according to positive
information. Besides, it is necessary, in order to reach
per lection, to have observed much, to have put to practice
11 mi faculty which makes the clinician, the connoisseur, and
the artist. It is when such an education is carried to a
considerable extent that we succeed in seizing at once what
good or defective qualifications the horse possesses, and
that it is possible to form a just conclusion by appreciat-
ing to what degree the good qualities exceed the bad."

1 The Exterior of the Horse. Goubaux & Barriere, 1904, p. 3.

CHAPTER IV.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE.

The anatomy of the horse has been a fertile subject of
study by man, and a large amount of literature has been
published dealing with the structural characteristics of
this animal. In as much as it has been clearly demonstrated
that a close relationship exists between the internal struc-
ture and external conformation, it will be appropriate in
a study of form of the horse, first to direct attention to some
of those features of anatomy that have a special bearing
on his use and efficiency. The bony framework, the skele-
ton, supports and protects the softer body tissues, including
the muscles, which give beauty of form and furnish power.
Not only these, but intimately associated with them is a
nervous system that is of vital importance, which indicates
in no small degree the power to comprehend and perform.

The skeleton of the horse consists of 205 bones, which
may be grouped in three classes. These are long, as the
thigh; flat, as the shoulder blade; and short or irregular,
as in the foot or vertebrae Bone consists of cellular tis-
sue, -the cells of which have become more or less filled with
calcareous substance. In its early stage of development
the bone lacks mineral matter, consisting of fibrous tissue,
which is a kind of cartilage. With growth and age, this
cartilage becomes filled with lime and changes from a soft
to a hard condition. The quality of the bone is largely
influenced by the presence of mineral matter in it, obtained
from food and water. Bony tissue is referred to as hard
and compact or soft and spongy. Horses raised on dry
uplands are said to have harder, better feet and bone than
those from the lowlands. With the living animal, the bones

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

are of importance for the following purposes: (a) to sup-
port weight; (&) to act as levers; (c) to reduce concussion.
The skull of the horse consists of eleven bones, and is
connected with the spinal column at the atlas joint. The
breadth of the forehead is occupied by a pair of frontal
bones, while just below, and extending to the nose are
nasal bones. "Few things," writes Youatt,1 "more clearly

Fig. 8. — The skeleton of the horse. "It has been clearly demonstrated
that a close relationship exists between the internal structure and ex-
ternal conformation." (Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. From Anatomy of the
Domestic Animals.)

indicate the breed or blood of the horse than the form of
the frontal bones. Who has not remarked on the broad
angular forehead of the blood horse, giving him a beautiful
expression of intelligence and fire, the face gradually
tapering from the forehead to muzzle, contrasting it with

* The Horse, 1843, p. 71.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the large face of the cart or dray horse, with the forehead
scarcely wider than the face. ' ' Above the eye on each side
are small so-called pits or depressions between the frontal
bones. With old age and emaciation, these pits sometimes
appear more depressed. The frontal bones consist of two
layers, giving considerable thickness to the skull. Between
these are cavities known as frontal sinuses, connecting with
the nasal passages. The skull is characterized by great
length beyond the eye, as compared with the portion back
of it. Prof. H. F. Osborn calls attention 2 to this long-

Fig. 9. — The skull of tJie Horse. "The skull is charac^jjzed by great
length beyond the eye." Figs 1-6, molar teeth ; Figs. 11, 12, 13, incisors ;
G, canines. The jaws are slightly separated for sake of clearness. The
bone covering of the teeth is removed to show root extension. (Courtesy
Dr. S. Sisson. From Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.)

headedness as a very ancient character, and which he states
is for two purposes, first, to facilitate reaching the ground
with the row of incisor or cropping teeth, and second, and
no less important, to allow space in front of the eye sockets
for the great row of elongate grinding teeth, the marvellous
dental battery of the horse. The brain cavity is very small,
considering the size of this animal, and the brain has an

•The Age of Mammals, 1910, p. 18.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOUSE

average weight of only

twenty-three ounces. This

is an interesting contrast

with the average weight of

the brain of a white man

which is about forty-nine

ounces.
The age of the horse is

usually estimated by an ex-
amination of the teeth. To

inspect these most easily,

grasp the upper jaw with

one hand, the lower with

the other, the thumbs being

inserted just back of the

fnont or incisor teeth.

^Pressure from the lower

limid causes the horse to

drop the under jaw, so that

the teeth may be quite

easily examined. It re-
quires some experience in recognizing the age, which -may

be determined with reasonable accuracy in most cases, up

to eight years. After that there is some uncertainty. The

appearance of the teeth, and their age classification, is as

follows :

The colt teeth.—
Seven or eight days
after birth two incisor
teeth appear at tho
front and middle of
both upper and lower
jaws. In the course
of five or six weeks,
two more teeth ap-
pear in each jaw, one
tooth coming on either

Pig. 10. — Grasp the uppper jaw
with one hand and the lower with
the other.

Fig. 11.— The colt teeth. "They are the
milk teeth." Figs. 11-18 reproduced from
"Beurtheilungslehre des Pferdes," 1859.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 12. — Two and one-half years of age.

.side of the two al-
ready present. Some
time between the
sixth and ninth
month, two more ap-
pear, one by the side
of 'each onter tooth,
These six pairs are
called nippers. They
are the milk teeth.

and are only temporary. They are not all equally level with
one another at first, but in the course of twelve months or so
they become uniform on the surface. The outside of the
tooth is very hard, white enamel. This covers a hard,
ivory-like bone, at the center of which is a softer sub-
stance which more easily wears away, but is constantly
renewed. The ends of the teeth have a ridged cutting
surface, forming at the centers small depressions, or
' l cups, ' ' by which the age is determined. The cups in the
central pair of nippers at first are wide and somewhat dark ;
in the second year, with use, they appear lighter in color,
and become smaller than those of the other four. Similar
changes follow in order in the other pairs.

At two and one-half to three years of age permanent
incisors or nippers appear. These teeth are larger than the

first ones, which

were small but
suited to the
mouth of the
colt. The first
or central pair
of temporary
teeth is pushed
out by the pair
of larger per-
manent ones.

At three and
one-half to four

Fig. 13. — Three and one-half years of age.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

years of age, the second pair of nippers in each jaw of the
colt gives way to two larger, permanent teeth, so that the
four-year-old shows four pairs of permanent front teeth.

At four and one-half to five years of age the last pair
of the front teeth of the colt, in each jaw, is supplanted by

a pair of permanent
ones. At this age
what are called tusks
appear in the mouth
of the male ; they also
occur occasionally in
the mare. These tusks
have roundish points,
and there are two in
each jaw, one on a

%|?^ side, a short distance

back of the front teeth.
After the fifth year
jr the age of the horse is

determined by the ap-
pearance of the wear-
ing surface of the

teeth, each tooth when normal having its age surface.
At six years the cups of the two central teeth are worn off.
At seven years the second pair shows the worn surface.
At eight years all of the teeth have been worn about
level, and the mouth-mark loses its value. The six perma-
nent teeth in each jaw at first meet each other in vertical
position, the ends butting squarely against each other. As
age increases, however, the teeth gradually take a more in-
clined or slanting-out position in each jaw, so that they
come together at a sharper angle. The older teeth are also
more worn on the ends, and are longer than the younger
teeth. In a horse from 12 to 16 years of age the ends of
the teeth have become somewhat three-sided.

The spinal column of the horse consists of fifty-four
bones, or vertebrae. Seven of these, the cervical, are in
the neck; eighteen, the thoracic, are in the back; six, the

Fig. 14. — Four years of age.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 15. — Five years of age.

Fig. 16. — Six years of age.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

Fig. 17. — Seven years of age.

lumbar, are in the
loins ; five are fused
into a single bone,
the sacrum, located
at the croup, and
about eighteen
comprise the coc-
cyx or tail bones.
The spinal cord
passes through all
these bones, except-
ing beyond the
fourth or fifth ver-
tebraB of the tail.
The thoracic verte-
brae have long projections or spines, which reach the highest
point at the top of the fourth and fifth vertebrae, forming
the withers. The line of the tops of the spines, gives a
curved outline to the backbone, which makes it impossible
for a horse to have a flat back, there being a necessary de-
pression from the withers to the back of the loin.

The ribs of the horse usually number eighteen on a
side, though there are sometimes nineteen. Eight of these
are true and ten
are false. By
means of carti-
lage at the lower
end, each true rib
is connected with
the breast bone.
The first false rib
connects by carti-
lage with the end
of the last true
one, and each
other false one is
attached to the Fig. is.— Eight years of age.

36 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

cartilage of the one before it, thus forming an indirect
connection of false with true ribs. The ribs not only pro-
tect the vital organs from injury, but are agents in ex-
panding and contracting the chest.

The sternum or breast bone of the horse suggests a
canoe in shape, and is located between the ends of the carti-
lages of the true ribs. The sternum furnishes important
attachment for muscles.

The shoulder blade of the horse is a long, broad, thin
bone, flat on the inner side, but with a ridge on the outside
that divides the muscles that act at the shoulder. The
point of the shoulder is opposite the lower ends of the first
and second ribs, and the blade extends back obliquely
upward to the seventh rib.

The humerus is a large, heavy bone, that at its upper
part fits into a socket at the point of the shoulder, extend-
ing obliquely backward about on a line with the depth of
the belly. One long bone, the radius, joins the lower end
of the humerus to form the "front" knee joint. A smaller
bone, the ulna, lies just back of the radius, projecting
decidedly above it to form the point of the elbow. At the
lower end of the radius, at the knee, are two rows of small
hard bones, back of which is another small bone, over which
passes the tendons of the fore leg. Below the knee is the
large metacarpal or cannon bone, about nine or ten inches
long, one of the strongest bones in the skeleton. Back of
this on each side are two small bones, known as splint bones ;
between is a groove, through which passes a ligament. At
its lower end the cannon bone joins with the two sessa-
moids and the fetlock bone (long pastern), forming the
fetlock joint. The pastern extends obliquely forward and
downward, forming an angle of about 45 degrees. Below
the fetlock bone is the pastern bone, and below this the
coffin bone. Behind the latter is a small, rather thin bone,
the navicular. The sessamoid and navicular bones act as
pulleys for a tendon which passes over this part.

The Hoof, which encloses the foot bones, is an appendage

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE

of the skin, comparable with the finger-nail. This consists
of three parts, (1) the wall, or all of the exterior of the
hoof to be seen when resting on the floor surface; (2) the
sole, which arches over much of the under side of the hoof,
excepting the space occupied by (3) the frog, which is a
wedge-shaped form of soft horn, extending from the cleft
at the back side of the
hoof, to a point well
beyond the center of
the sole. This back
side of the hoof is
known as the heel, to
which the frog is con-
nected at its basal ex-
tremities. On each
side of the frog, be-
tween this and the
sole, is a slight ridge,
the bar, which is a
continuation of the
hoof wall. The coro-
net is the top of the
hoof where this part
joins the pastern.

The pelvis of the
horse occupies a slop-
ing backward position
in the upper part of
the hindquarters, ar-
ticulating with the

sacrum. It appears as one bone, although really con-
sisting of two similar halves. The. outer projecting part
of the pelvis on each side is known as the point of the
hip, while the extreme rear end, the ischium, is commonly
termed the point of the 'buttock. A very large, heavy thigh
bone, the femur, has its upper end in a socket in the lower
part of the pelvis. This thigh bone extends forward, end-

Fig. 19. — The digit of the horse, show-
ing surface relationship of bones and
joints : a, long pastern bone ; 6, short pas-
tern ; c, coffin bone ; d, cartilage ; e, na-
vicular bone ; h, cut-edge wall of hoof.
(Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. From Anatomy
of the Domestic Animals.)

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

ing in the prominent knee or stifle joint. On the front of
this" joint is the knee cap or patella, on which are fastened
muscles that operate the joint. At its lower end the thigh
proper joins the lower thigh or tibia, back of which is a
small bone, the fibula. The tibia extends obliquely back

and downward, connecting
by a groove-like arrange-
ment with a small, odd
shaped bone, the astragalus.
Back of this is a bone, the
os calcis, which projects up-
ward and backward, the
upper part of which forms
the point of the hock. Be-
low the hock are three
small, flattish, irregular
shaped bones, two in front
and one behind. The bones
of the hind leg, below the
hock, are much like those
below the knee in the front
leg.

Resemblances between
the bones of man and the
horse are set forth in an interesting manner by Captain M.
H. Hayes.3 "The horse possesses no collar bone, conse-
quently there is no bony connection between his fore extrem-
ity and trunk. The humerus, elbow, and forearm are the
same in both, except that the ulna is complete in the horse
only in very rare instances. The knee of the horse corre-
sponds to the wrist of man. The five bones between our wrist
and the first row of knuckles are represented in the horse by
the cannon and splint bones. His fetlock is analogous to
the first row of knuckles of our hand. The long pastern
bone corresponds to the first bone of our middle finger;
the short one, to the second bone ; the pedal one to their

3 The Points of the Horse, London, 3d ed., 1904, p. 38.

Fig. 20. — Right forehoof, ground
surface. 1, 2, the wall ; 3, angle' of
wall ; 4, bar ; 5, sole ; G, junction wall
and sole ; 7, apex frog ; 8, central
sulcus of frog ; 9, 9, sulci between
frog and bars ; 10, 10, bulbs of hoofs.
(Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. From Anat-
omy of the Domestic Animals.)

Fig. 21. — Resemblances between the bones of man and the horse. From
photograph of skeletons prepared by Mr. S. H. Chubb. (Courtesy
American Museum of Natural History.)

40 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

third bone, and the hoof to its nail. The navicular bone
has no counterpart in our frame. In the hind limb, the
stifle represents our knee; the tibia, the shin; the hock,
the ankle; the point of the hock, the heel; and so on. In
man, the fibula is a fully developed bone. We may thus
see that the horse is an animal that moves on the tips of
his fingers and toes ; and that he has only one complete and
functional toe to each leg."

The relationship of speed in the horse to the structure
of the skeleton is an important one. The prehistoric horse
possessed five toes instead of one on each foot. During
the process of evolution, the excess side toes disappeared,
leaving only the central one and two more or less developed
splints; the cannon bone also increased in length. Ac-
cording to Lydekker 4 this development to a one-toe basis,
with the accompanying splints, the elongation of the bones
of the lower part of the limb, the simplification and the
consolidation of the middle part, and the raising of the
knee and hock far above the level of the ground, so as to
cause the animal to walk on the tips of its single toes, are
the important features wherein the horse, as compared
with other animals, is adapted to high speed. At the
present day the horse is the only animal having a single
toed or monodactyle foot. A many toed, short boned limb,
would be unequal to the strain of carrying the body of such
a heavy animal at a high rate of speed over hard ground.

The muscles of the body consist of groups of fleshy fiber,
that under the influence of the nerves, have the power to
contract. Most of the muscles are attached to bone by
means of tough, hard, whitish cords, known as tendons.
Through direction from the brain, the nervous system
stimulates the muscle which at once contracts and thus
produces power. Muscles differ in length and strength,
short, thick ones being capable of producing greater strength
than long, slender ones. The tendons also differ in length
and degree of attachment to the bone. A muscle can con-

4 The Horse and its Relatives, London, 1912. p. 17.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 41

Fig. 22. — Superficial muscles of the horse. "Muscles differ in length and
strength." (Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. Reproduced from Anatomy of the
Domestic Animals.)

tract to about two thirds its ordinary length, if conditions
favor the same. The power of a muscle is in accordance
with its thickness, while its action is dependent on its
length. Comparatively the draft horse with a thick, short
muscle, moves slowly and in short powerful strides, while
the race horse, with long muscles possesses a longer stride
and covers ground more rapidly. Muscles of the same size
on different animals vary in strength, this being due to
heredity, food, condition, nervous power, etc. " Massive
muscles, ' ' says Hayes, 5 ' * compared to slight ones, have two
disadvantages, namely, — they increase the weight which
is carried, both in muscle and bone ; and they necessitate
the possession of large joints, which from increased friction,
are not so easily bent and extended as smaller ones ; besides,
it has been proved that they do not respond as quickly to
nervous stimulus." Hayes makes the further interesting
observation that we may often note that race horses which
were very smart as two-year olds, lose their "form" after
that age without any assignable reason, excepting that as

6 Points of the Horse. M. H. Hayes, London, 3d ed., 1904, p. 29.

42 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

they thickened they got slow. Muscles vary greatly in their
activity in the body, and naturally each plays its special
part. To illustrate, the muscle attached to the back of a
leg joint, being constantly used to flex or close the joint,
is active and tough, while the short, thick muscles in the
loins, are relatively but little used, and consequently lack
in toughness. Among the many muscles of the horse the
following are of special interest. The head is bent by the
muscles that extend from the lower jaw to the breast bone.
Another muscle from the poll to the withers regulates the
extension of the head. One heavy muscle, the complexus,
in the upper part of the neck, gives much of the shape to
this part. The most powerful muscle in the body extends
from the neck along the back to the sacrum and beyond,
and is closely attached to the backbone, pelvis and upper
part of the ribs, forming in fact most of the fleshy outline
of the back and loins. The shoulder blade is connected
with the body by a strong, fan-shaped muscle on its under
side, attached in front at the neck and behind at the ribs.
The blade moves forward or backward, according to con-
traction of the muscle. Another muscle on the outside of
the blade extends to the withers, head and neck, and assists
in moving the shoulder. One long muscle, extending from
the poll and neck to the humerus, moves the foreleg for-
ward. The freest action of shoulder and forelimb is as-
sociated with a long neck and prominent withers. A num-
ber of important muscles- and tendons assisting in regulat-
ing movements of the fore limb, are attached at the lower
part of shoulder and the leg below. In the quarters we
find powerful muscles for producing either force or speed.
One of the most important, the large croup muscle, extends
from the front of the pelvis around over the croup to the
upper part of the thigh bone. The large muscles on the
back of the thigh, lead from the under side of the pelvis
to the upper part of the tibia. The gaskin, the smaller
part of the thigh above the hock, has two important muscles
on its rear side. These start from the lower end of the

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 43

upper thigh, one ending in a tendon at the. point of the
hock, the other extending from the hock as a tendon along
down the back of the leg to the fetlock bone. There are
many different muscles over the body that are intimately
related to the locomotion of the horse, the material injury
of any one of which would seriously affect the efficiency
of various others.

The digestive system of the horse consists of the mouth,
tongue, teeth, pharynx, oesophagus or gullet, stomach, large
and small intestines, pancreas, liver and spleen. The food
is taken into the mouth and with the aid of the tongue and
teeth, is broken and mixed with saliva, a digestive fluid.
The food is swallowed, and passes across the pharynx, a
small sac, about six inches long, and enters the oesophagus,
a tube 50 to 60 inches long, through which it moves into
the stomach. In this latter organ the food is churned and
mixed with water and digestive agents, especially gastric
juice and hydrochloric acid, this latter being especially
found in the stomach. From the stomach the food moves
into the small intestine, to be further acted on by digestive
agents, notably pancreatic juice secreted by the pancreas,
and bile from the liver. The stomach of the horse is com-
paratively small, its capacity ranging from two to four
gallons. According to Sisson 6 the size, form and position
of the stomach are subject to considerable variation. The
small size of the stomach explains the necessity of giving
light rations during working hours, with the heavier feed-
ing just before the greatest period of rest, such as at night.
The small intestine is about 70 feet long, and has a capacity
of about twelve gallons. Here the most active and efficient
work of digestion and assimilation takes place. The large
intestine is about 25 feet long, and extends from the small
intestine to the anus, from which point the solid excrement
is passed from the body. The intestines occupy the rear
part of the abdominal cavity, underneath and back of the
ribs. The liver of the horse covers much of the right side

6 Anatomy of the Domestic Animals. S. Sisson, Philadelphia, 1914, p. 417.

44 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

of the abdominal cavity. It is the largest gland of the
body, weighing ten to twelve pounds, and extending from
within three or four inches of the floor of the abdominal
cavity, just above the elbow, to a level with the right kidney,
just below the loin.

The heart of the horse, located down in the left side
of the chest, is a hollow muscle that under average condi-
tions weighs about nine pounds, but may vary greatly in
size. Dr. Sisson states 7 that, ' ' as might be expected, race
horses have hearts which are larger than the average, both

Fig. 23. — Viscera of mare : L, liver ; Ma, stomach, the posterior contour
being indicated by dotted line x ; Mi spleen ; IN, left kidney ; D, small in-
testine, partly removed ; IdC and IvC, large intestine ; H, bladder ; aa, bb',
heart ; M', rectum ; V, vagina. (Courtesy Dr. S. Sisson. From Anatomy
of the Domestic Animals.)

absolutely and relatively." Small horses show more ac-
tivity of heart action than large ones, with more rapid
pulsation.

The lungs of the horse occupy much of the upper chest
cavity, and average about seven and one-half pounds in
weight. The right lung weighs about half as much as the
left one. The size and capacity of the lungs are important.
Of two horses of equal size, the one having the larger lungs

7 Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 620.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 45

will absorb the most oxygen into the body and cast off the
most impurities into the atmosphere. Thus the combina-
tion of strong heart and capacious lungs is most important.

The nervous system of the horse is centered in the brain
and spinal cord, from which it radiates throughout the
entire body. The spinal cord is from 76 to 78 inches long
and weighs eight and one-half to nine ounces, and is nearly
cylindrical. The brain weighs about 23 ounces, and is
divided into three parts, the medula oblongata, the cere-
brum and cerebellum. The cerebrum is located just below
the forehead and is the organ of thought or intelligence.
The cerebellum is a very small part of the brain, directly
back of the cerebrum, and as expressed by Hayes, "is the
organ of muscular sense. ' ' The medulla oblongata is simply
the connecting link between the brain proper and the spinal
cord. The entire nervous system is made up of certain
tissues that have the property of extreme irritability or
sensitiveness, especially as applied to external conditions.
It is the property of this system to act between these ex-
ternal influences and the inner ones of the body tissues.
Thus the nerves convey to the muscles and other organs
motor influences whereby movement of the animal body
takes place through contraction of the muscular tissues.
The amount of contraction which may take place will be
in proportion to the amount of stimulation of the nerves.
"With some animals the nervous system is more sensitive
than with others, even though apparently much alike
otherwise. Light horses, such as Thoroughbreds, are very
generally regarded as more nervous than the heavy draft,
and respond more actively to muscular stimulation.

The temperament of the horse relates to his nervous
and mental character, and may be regarded as of much
importance, bearing on his usefulness to man. When natu-
rally active and quick to move and think, the horse is said
to have a nervous temperament. The light weight horse
of the racing class possesses this temperament. "When
characteristically slow to move or act, the horse is said to

46 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

have a phlegmatic or lymphatic temperament. The large
horses of draft class are usually regarded of this tempera-
ment. Horses vary much in temperament, but in their
relationship to man, naturally incline to service. If willing
to adjust himself to the work at hand, injecting sufficient
animation to produce the best of results, his temperament

Fig. 24. — "The temperament is mainly indicated by the expression of the
eye, the carriage of the head and neck, and the disposition to act."

will be of the right kind. A nervous temperament, quick
to act, yet well balanced, and associated with reasonable
intelligence, best meets the requirements of the horseman.
A phlegmatic temperament, slow to move, uncertain as to
action, coupled with a dull mind, would find no advocate
among horse lovers. The temperament is mainly indicated
by the expression of the eye, the carriage of the head and
neck, and the disposition to act, as seen under the direc-
tion of either voice or hand. A lively yet pleasant eye, a
tendency to carry the ear erect or pointing forward, and

THE ANATOMY OF THE HORSE 47

a willingness to move steadily, and without fear or nervous
ness when spoken to, are all features of good tempera-
ment.

The disposition of the horse more specifically refers to
his spirit of mind, whether good or bad, etc. A kicker or
biter, or a balky horse, would be considered as having a
bad disposition, a quality as likely to occur with one tem-
perament as another. The disposition, as expressed in
obedience, is of great importance, for the usefulness of the
horse may quite depend on this quality of character.
" Among the good mental qualities of the horse/7 says
Count Cesaresco, 8 ' ' the most important is a good disposi-
tion, as by means of this the horse gives in to us immediate-
ly, resigns himself to obedience forthwith, ,and is controlled
by the aid of this feeling of obedience. The body or
mechanism of the horse renders us service if the horse's
mind directs it to do so. It is impossible to obtain service
from the body if the mind is unwilling to command it. A
good will or a good disposition is the first quality required
to obtain useful service from the horse, as in order to
render this service, he must be allowed freedom ; he cannot
do it like a galley slave, with the hands, whilst his feet are
fettered/'

8 The Psychology and Training of the Horse, 1906, p. 64.

CHAPTER V.
THE HORSE IN MOTION.

The horse is used by man for various purposes that
require movement as the prime factor. This ranges from
the slow and powerful walk of the draft horse to the swift
gallop of the light runner. In a horse standing at perfect
rest, we observe a large, heavy body or trunk, suspended
by the spine between four upright supports, the legs. When
the body of the horse is at rest, it is in balance or equi-
librium from a certain imaginary point within the body
where is located the center of gravity. The position of
center of gravity, according to Colin, a French authority, l
is at a point in the body which corresponds to the intersec-
tion of two lines, one vertical and one horizontal, that meet
slightly below the center of the chest cavity, on a line with
the back edge of the eighth rib. "It is clear," says Colin,
"that the position of the center of gravity and the distri-
bution of the body upon the members (legs), must vary
according to the conformation of animals, whose head, neck,
abdomen, and croup, present such diverse proportion.'7
When the horse is in motion, and extends his head and
neck, he shifts his center of gravity forward. The im-
portant point in this connection is, that equilibrium be
maintained while in motion. This will be secured in the
greatest degree by a gravitation that does not reach the
ground, yet which, through shortness of leg, provides a
strong support and easy recovery of equilibrium. Locomo-
tion is only secured by the moving forward of the leg, thus
shifting what is known as the base of support below the
center of gravity.

1 The Exterior of the Horse. Goubaux & Barriere, 2d Am. ed., 1904, p. 5.

THE HORSE IN MOTION 49

The joints of the horse naturally are main factors in
locomotion. These may be grouped in two classes, mov-
able and immovable. The two ends of the bone are held to-
gether by strong, hard, fibrous tissues, known as ligaments.
There are several kinds of ligaments, some being white and
inelastic and others yellow and elastic. The normal pur-
pose of the inelastic ligament is to keep the end of the bone
within its socket. Some joints have considerable play, while
others are quite immovable. The ordinary ball and socket
joint, as seen in the shoulder or hip, is a striking example
of the movable joint. The more shallow the socket, the
more extensive the possible movement of the limb. Hinge
joints which possess motion in but two directions, forward
and backward, occur at various points, especially in
the elbow and hock. The knee has three hinge joints, one
of which, between the arm and cannon, allows much motion.
When the knee is bent, or the leg folds on itself, we say it is
flexed, and when straightened out, it is extended.

The movements of the limbs and joints are made possi-
ble through the actions of levers, which are formed by the
bones and acted upon by the muscles, when stimulated by
the nerves. A lever is a rigid bar, either straight or curved,
which turns upon a fixed point, the fulcrum. At some point
on the lever is a weight, which may be moved by the appli-
cation of power at some other point. There are three
classes of levers.

The lever of the first class is seen in using a long bar
as a pry. One end is placed under the object to be moved,
which is the weight, while the bar rests a short distance
from the weight on a point, the fulcrum. If power is ap-
plied at the long end of the lever, by bearing down, the
point beyond the fulcrum comes up with its weight. In
the case of the horse, a lever of the first class is seen in the
extension of the limbs, as for example when kicking back
with the hind foot. In this case the muscle pulls back
over the point of the hock, furnishing the power; the ful-

50 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

crum is the joint, and the weight is the foot which is being
lifted.

The lever of the second class is commonly illustrated
by the wheelbarrow. The fulcrum is where the wheel rests
on the ground, the barrow is the weight, and the arms of
the person lifting the handles provide the power. An
example of the lever of the second class in the horse, is to
be found in the hind leg, in moving the body forward.
Here the power is conveyed through the short leg bone,
the tibia ; the fulcrum is the point of the foot at the ground,
and the weight is at the hock joint.

The lever of the third class is seen in the man fishing
with a rod. The fulcrum is the end of the handle next the
body, the power is where the hand holds the rod and the
weight is in the fish at the end of the line. The lower jaw
of the horse illustrates this leverage. The fulcrum is at
the point where the lower jaw is attached to the upper, the
power is at the center of the jaw bone, and the weight at
the front teeth. Referring to the relations between the
power and weight in levers, Hayes says : 2 " The farther
the power is from the fulcrum, the greater will be the
mechanical advantage at which it will act ; and vice versa.
Thus, if one arm of a see-saw is longer than the other, a
comparatively light weight at the end of the former will
counterbalance a heavy one at the extremity of the latter.
Also, the longer an oar is inboard, as in an outrigger, the
greater will be the power which a rower will have. If we
apply this principle to the horse, we shall see that the longer
is the os calcis, the greater will be the mechanical ad-
vantage at which the muscles of the gaskin will act in kick-
ing or propelling the body forward. " Hayes further calls
attention to the fact that the nearer a force is at right
angles with its lever, the greater will be the mechanical
advantage. Making a concrete application of this he says :
"Acting on the principle just enunciated, the cart horse,
with the view of obtaining the utmost mechanical ad-

3 The Points of the Horso. M. H. Hayes, London, 3d Am. ed., 1904, p. 57.

THE HORSE TN MOTION

vantage, when trying to draw a heavy load, will naturally
endeavor to move the levers of his limbs (when straighten-
ing them out) with the power as nearly as possible at right
angles to each respective lever. Hence he will obtain his
results by only slight bending of the joints, and conse-
quently his steps will be short. "We may see this action of
levers of the hind limbs well shown by the manner in which
he will crouch down behind when he makes a strong effort
with his hind legs, while exerting the forelegs but little,
as may occur when the roadway is slippery. The galloper,
on the contrary, will require the power of straightening
out his limbs to their utmost extent, and will thus obtain
speed at a lavish expenditure of muscular effort. This is
especially well shown in the action of the fetlock joint;
for if the pastern be long and sloping, the mechanical dis-
advantage will be great, but the gain in speed will be
equally large. If the pastern be upright, the fetlock will
work advantageously as far as the weight to be moved is
concerned, but it will contribute little to the attainment of
speed." The locomotion of the horse passes through vari-
ous degrees of speed from a walk to a gallop. Every
healthy horse must possess at least two classes of speed,
as for example, a walk and trot. The horse, however, has
the power of locomotion in a variety of forms that inti-
mately relate to service and value. The following defini-
tions and discussions relate to the horse in motion, and
should be understood by one who expects to qualify as a
judge of this animal.

The stride is the distance traversed from where the foot
leaves the ground until it again rests upon it. It is the
action of the individual leg, and therefore we may also
refer to the stride as the distance passed over by the limb
from the beginning of flexing when the foot is raised from
the ground, to the greatest extension following this move-
ment. In the stride, when the foot hits the ground, noise
will result on a hard surface, which is known as the beat,
a familiar sound in the concussion of horses' hoofs on hard

52 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

pavements. Each of the legs has its own stride, and loco-
motion results when the four limbs engage in their natural
movement. The sequence or order of stride differs accord-
ing to the gait, which may be denned as the style of going
of the horse. Two strides may be taken at the same time,
two feet hitting the ground and giving beats at the same
moment, as in the case of the front and opposite hind foot
in the trot. The familiar rack (single-foot) illustrates the
strides occurring separately and rhythmically, one beat at
a time. The kind of gait is indicated by the time shown in
the beats, expressed in the separate strides taken to complete
the movement. Thus the experienced saddle horse critic,
hearing the beats of the hoofs of the horse under saddle on
a dark night, may recognize the gait without seeing the
horse. The length of stride differs greatly, being shortest
in a walk, yet even then naturally varying according to
conditions, such as size of horse, gait, length of leg, de-
gree of speed, etc. Abnormal conditions, such as lameness,
or character of shoe, also affect the length of stride.
Different weights or forms of shoes may materially change
the length of stride. The elevation of the stride is also quite
variable, and is affected by the gait, weight of the hoof or
shoe, the surface travelled over, etc. The height of stride
will be affected by the natural growth of hoof, if super-
fluous weight is not removed within due season. The true-
ness of stride or gait is of great importance and is impos-
sible if the legs and feet are not carried straight and true.
Referring to a true, or what may be termed a "square
gait,'7 Jordan says,3 "A square gait means nothing more
or less than an even and equal extension backward and
forward for all the four moving legs of the horse, with two
pairs of feet striking the ground at equal intervals of time
and distance during a given trial." Interference at the
ankle, crookedness of limb, as for example at the hock, will
affect the squareness or trueness of gait. The rapidity of

3 The Gait of the American Trotter and Pacer. Rudolph Jordan, Jr., New
York, 1910, p. 2.

THE HORSE IN MOTION

stride relates to the time used in passing through the entire
movement of the limb. Speed or rapidity of stride is due
to various conditions, among which emphasis might be
placed on type and weight of horse, inheritance, energy,
gait, size and weight of foot, character of shoe, etc. ' * There
is an exact proportion between speed, length of toe and
energy/' says Jor-
dan,4 * ' which might
well be expressed
by saying that the
longer the toe the
greater the amount
of energy neces-
sary to acquire the
same speed, and the
easier the leverage
at the toe, the less
will be the energy
required to main-
tain that speed.
Rapidity of action
or motion, it may
be argued, requires
as much and more
of that energy than the long, sweeping stride. ' '

The gaits of the horse under natural conditions are, the
walk, trot, pace and gallop. However, methods of training
have produced variations from these that are recognized
gaits. A full comprehension of the modified gaits, whereby
one may recognize them readily, is not easily obtained, and
can only be secured through careful study and observation.

The walk is a slow four-beat gait, in which the limbs
move in sequence, one after the other. Usually a front foot
is raised first. The walk varies in style and character, and
Hayes has sub-divided it into five classes, as follows : 5 The

Fig. 25. — "The walk is a slow, four-beat gait."
(Courtesy American Breeder.)

4 The Gait of the American Trotter and Pacer, 1910, p. 89.

BThe Points of the Horse. M. H. Hayes, 3d ed., London, 1904.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

short stepping walk, in which the points of the hind feet
do not come as far forward as those of the forefeet of their
respective sides ; the ordinary walk, in which they more or
less cover them; the long striding walk, in which they go
clear in front of them; the high stepping walk, in which
the feet are raised off the ground higher than usual; and
the walk in heavy draft, in which the step is short as in heavy
pulling, a fore and hind limb working better together as
diagonals. The walk is not only a restful gait, but in
general draft operation is the one of first importance.
Therefore it should be active and strong, accomplishing a
maximum of progress for this class of speed.

The trot is a fast, two-beat gait, in which the diagonally
opposite limbs move together. The trotter is often referred
to as a diagonally gaited horse. The trot may be divided
into several sub-classes, dependent on the length and rapid-
ity of strides. Hayes gives three kinds of trot : slow, ordi-

Fig. 26. — "The trot is a fast, two-beat gait, in which the diagonally
opposite limbs move together." (Courtesy Mr. S. L. Howe, British
Columbia.)

THE HORSE IN MOTION 55

nary and fast, according to the stride and speed. Gay
also gives three kinds,6 the fast stepping, high stepping and
saddle trot. These he defines as follows : * ' The fast stepping
trot, characterized by the length of stride and rapidity with
which the individual strides are taken and constituting the
gait of the harness race horse; the high stepping trot,
characterized by the height and elasticity of the stride, the
horse placing himself, going collectedly and marking each
step with extreme flexion, as represented in the harness
show horse; and the saddle trot, characterized by a square,
springy, collected and balanced stride, executed in perfect
rhythm, and with the utmost precision in order to secure
the comfort and security of the rider. The saddle trot is
distinct from the long, swinging stride of the trotter, also
the high, sometimes pounding, step of the actor, and should
reveal none of the roll or side motion of the lateral gait
into which saddle horses degenerate. " This gait is less
tiresome to the horse than are others involving speed beyond
the walk, for the reason that the body is best kept in equi-
librium in diagonal movement of the limbs. Of the rapid
gaits, the trot is the most universal and useful.

The pace, also known as the amble, is a fast, two-beat
gait, in which the legs on the same side move together in
unison. The pacer is also often termed the ' ' side wheeler. ' '
This gait, which may be either natural or acquired, shows
wide variation in style of locomotion. Some horses pace
so wide as to make their gait very conspicuous and un-
attractive, while others possess a comparatively smooth and
level movement. The late Prof. John A. Craig, a great
lover of the light harness horse, has referred to this gait
in these interesting words : 7 " Horses pace in many ways,
some lurching, others shuffling and many more wobbling
in an unsightly manner; but, however they may go, they
are nearly all characterized by possessing speed. A level

«The Principles and Practice of Live Stock Judging. Carl W. Gay, 1914,
p. 99.

7 Judging Live Stock, 6th ed., 1904, p. 20.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 27. — ''The pace is a fast, two-beat gait, in which the legs on the
same side move together in unison."

and true pacer displays a sightly gait. In pacing level and
true the body remains steadier than in any other movement.
The legs move in harmony with the directness of a machine.
The nervy, machine-like pace peculiar to many of the fast
pacing animals is a study in the degree to which the mini-
mum of effort results in the maximum of speed. . . . As a
rule, the pace from the standpoint of the spectator is an
unsightly gait, but one that is usually thoroughly enjoyable
from the point of view of the driver." The pace and trot
are interchangeable gaits, and we find light harness horses
of note, that have racing records with each gait. Goubaux
and Barriere state8 that certain colts, at first amblers
(pacers) will at a later period learn to trot, and reversely,
some horses primarily good trotters, amble towards the
decline of life, through fatigue and usage. The camel,
dromedary, and giraffe are natural amblers. Steepness of
croup, and a bent condition of the hocks, has often seemed
associated with the pacing gait, for in fact many of our

8 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., Phil., 1904, p. 506.

THE HORSE IN MOTION 57

most noted pacers have possessed this conformation. Great
speed attends this gait, it being regarded as about one
second faster on the race course than that of the trot.

The gallop is a fast, leaping three-beat gait. In this
case, the combined beat of diagonal feet occurs between two
successive beats of the other two feet. For a brief period
between strides the body is in the air, the feet all being
free from the ground. In this gait there is considerable

Fig. 28.— "The gallop is a fast, leaping, three-beat gait." Skeleton of
famous Thoroughbred Sysonby at full speed. Prepared and mounted by
Mr. S. II. Chubb. (Courtesy American Museum of Natural History.)

wear on the fore foot which naturally leads, and the diago-
nal hind, which follows, consequently it is desirable to
change the lead of the members so as to afford them relief.
The gallop ranges from slow to fast, and in the latter case
may develop into a four-beat movement. This is the natural
gait of the horse when free from the restraints of man,
and it is also the gait of the Thoroughbred, or running
horse, the holder of the fastest records made by the horse.
The canter is a form of gallop, slow, deliberate, graceful

58 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

and easy, in which, the weight is largely borne by the hind-
quarters, with the front limbs carried somewhat high.
" There is a vast difference, however," says GL G. Burton,
in an address to Kansas horse breeders, 9 t i between the
canter of a gaited saddler and the gallop of an unrestrained
horse, or the lope of a broncho. Any horse will lope or gal-
lop when pushed beyond his trotting or pacing speed,
but the gaited saddler goes from a walk, or even from a
standstill, into a graceful, enjoyable, hammock-like motion
which we call a canter. The term is inadequate to the
luxurious movement, but we must consider the thing and
not the name. His legs are never so well under him as
when in the canter and his neck is never so beautifully
arched. ' '

The rack is a four-beat gait, each foot striking the
ground separately. This gait has been in times past popu-
larly known in America as the "single-foot" gait, a term
not now in favor and going out of use. This is not a natural
gait, being an evolution from the pace or amble, for it is
the result of special education, and is notably a feature of
the five-gaited saddle horse. It is a hard gait but it is
fascinating to the expert. Again quoting Mr. Burton, "he
must go at a tension and rack against the bit, and he must
get action from his hocks and shoulders as well as from his
knees. If he goes in form, he will carry a high head and a
high tail, arch his neck and hold a vertical face. He must
be pulled together and remain collected from start to finish.
If he goes in a pure, clear, bold rack, his feet make a four-
beat music the rhythm of which cannot be mistaken for
that of any other gait."

The running walk is, as the name implies, a gait which
represents the horse just passing from a walk into a faster
gait, closely resembling the rack. It is a slow, four-beat
gait, that is faster and easier than a flat-footed walk. It
is an easy locomotion, and when the horse is in full sympa-
thy with his work, he keeps time with his step by nodding

8 Farmers' Review, Aug. 29, 1900.

THE HORSE IN MOTION

liis head and perhaps flopping his ears. This is a business
gait, in wliieh six or seven miles an hour is easily covered.
The, horse will journey from sixty to seventy-five miles a
day at the running walk without severe fatigue to him-
self or his rider.

The fox trot is a slow, short trot, similar to the run-
ning walk, but characterized by the hind legs assuming
a pacing movement. It is said to be a "loose-jointed"
motion not found in other gaits. Some horses adjust
themselves to this gait more easily than to the running
walk, which it resembles in being an easy, all day busi-
ness gait.

The jump, while a process of locomotion, is not a gait.
This movement consists in the raising of the fore feet,
and bringing the hind feet well under the body towards
the center of gravity. This is followed by a powerful

Fig. 29.—'

'As the horse comes down, the front feet hit the ground first.'
(Courtesy Rider and Driver.)

60 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

straightening out of the hind legs, in which the horse
propels himself over the obstacle he seeks to hurdle. In
this process the knees must be well bent, and the hind
legs carried up close to the body in passing over the
obstacle that the toes may not strike. As the horse comes
down, the front feet hit the ground first, after which he
rises to move on, the hind feet striking slightly in ad-
vance of the points of contact of the front feet. The jump-
er is a popular horse in Europe, especially in the military
service, and among the gentry who indulge in steeple chas-
ing, fox hunting, etc.

CHAPTER VI.

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OP HORSES.

SINCE the day of the primeval horse, this animal during
the centuries has passed through a remarkable evolution.
The influence of climate, soil and other features of environ-
ment, and the breeding operations of man, has resulted in
the development of horses strikingly different in type,
character and purpose. At the present time it is assumed
that all horses may be classified into four distinct types or
groups. Within each of these types will be found sub-
types which combine the essential features of the type as
a whole, yet differing in certain details of size, conforma-
tion and character. The four types in question, which
will be considered in detail, are the following: (a) The
draft or power type ; ( & ) The light harness or speed type ;
(c) The heavy harness type; (d) . The saddle type.

JUDGING THE DRAFT OR POWER TYPE OF HORSE BY
SCALE OF POINTS.

The draft or power type of horse is more especially
needed on the farm and in trade, and in spite of the de-
velopment of the motor vehicle, this type of horse bids fair
to increase in importance. For this reason it is assigned
first consideration as a subject of study. Genuine draft
horses of merit are quite likely in future to gain in favor
on the farm and to be in active demand at remunerative
prices. The motor will no doubt grow in importance, but
on most farms and in short haul drayage work in the city,
the draft horse will continue to be the main reliance.

The following score card gives a standard scale of points
for a draft horse, and its character and application will
be considered in detail:

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 30. — The Points of the Draft Horse: 1, chin; 2, nostril; 4, nose;
5, face ; 6, forehead ; 7, eye ; 8, ear ; 9, lower jaw ; 10, throat-latch ; 11,
windpipe ; 12, crest ; 13, withers ; 14, shoulder ; 15, joint shoulder ; 16,
arm ; 17, elbow ; 18, forearm ; 19, knee ; 20, cannon ; 21, fetlock joint ; 22,
pastern ; 23, hoof ; 24, foreflank ; 25, heart girth ; 26, back ; 27, loin ; 28,
coupling ; 29, belly ; 30, hindflank ; 31, hip ; 32, croup ; 33, tail ; 34, but-
tocks ; 35, quarters ; 38, gaskin ; 39, hock.

SCORE CARD FOR DRAFT HORSES.

Standard of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect

Score
Age — Indicate the age after examining the teeth

A— GENERAL APPEARANCE, 18 Points:

1. Height — Estimated hands .... Actual hands

2. Weight — 2,000 Ibs. a standard. Estimated weight

Actual weight 4

3. Form, broad, deep, massive, low set, well propor-

tioned 4

4. Substance, abundance of bone, broad joints, right

proportions 3

5. Quality, bone clean and hard, tendons and joints

well defined, skin and hair fine, features of
head clearly defined 4

6. Temperament, energetic; disposition good .. .. 3

Score of
Horse
Studied

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSKS ft

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse

Score Studied
B — HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points:

7. Head, lean, in proportion to size, lower ,ja\v wide

angled 1

8. Muzzle, fine; lips thin, even and trim; nostrils large 1

9. Eyes, prominent, large, bright, clear I

10. Forehead, broad, full 1

11. Ears, medium size, pointed, set close 1

12. Neck, medium long, muscular, not thick, arched,

throat-latch clean; windpipe large 2

C— FOREHAND, 25 Points:

13. Shoulders, sloping, smooth, extending well into back 'J ....

14. Arras, short, muscular, extending forward, elbow in 1 ....

15. Forearms, strongly muscled, wide, long 2 ....

1G. Knees, broad, deep, straight, strongly supported . . 2 ....

17. Cannons, short, wide, lean, tendons large, defined, set

well back 2 ....

18. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, well supported . . 1 ....

19. Pasterns oblique, about 45°, of moderate length,

strongly carried 3 ....

20. Feet, large, round, uniform, straight; bars strong;

sole concave, frog large and elastic; slope of
wall parallel to pastern ; heel wide, one-third
length of toe; horn dense, smooth 8 ....

21. Leg position, viewed from in front, a perpendicular

line dropped from the point of the shoulder
should divide the leg and foot into two lat-
eral halves ; a perpendicular line dropped from
the bony prominence on the shoulder blade
should pass through the center of the elbow
joint and meet the ground at the center of the
foot 4 ....

D— BODY, 10 Points:

22. Withers, well defined and muscular 1 ....

23. Chest, deep, wide, low, large girth 2 ....

24. Back, short, broad, strongly supported 2 ....

25. Loin, short, wide, strongly coupled 2 ....

26. Bibs, long, well sprung, close 2

27. Flanks, low and full, showing low underline . . . . 1 ....

E— HINDQUARTERS, 30 Points:

28. Hips, wide, smooth, muscular 2

29. Croup, long, wide, not markedly drooping, muscular 4

30. Tail, attached high, well carried 1

31. Thighs, muscular and deep, thick in the quarters;

stifles prominent, well set

32. Gaskins, wide, muscular

33. Hocks, straight, wide, deep, clean cut, point promi-

nent, well supported 6

34. Cannons, short, wide, flat, tendons large, set well

back . . . '. 2

35. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong 1 ....

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

SCALE OF POINTS

36.

Standard of Score of

Perfect Horse

Score Studied
Pasterns, oblique, medium length, smooth, strongly

carried,

37. Feet, large, round, uniform, straight; bars strong;

sole concave; frog large and elastic; slope of
wall parallel to pastern; heel wide and one-
third length toe ; horn dense, smooth

38. Leg position, viewed from the rear, a perpendicular

line dropped from the point of the buttock
should divide the leg and foot into lateral
halves; viewed from the side, this same line
should touch the point of the hock and meet
the foot surface a slight distance back of the
heel. A perpendicular line dropped from the
hip joint should meet the foot surface midway
between heel and toe

F— ACTION, 10 Points:

39. Walk, straight, strong, elastic

40. Trot, strong, regular, free, easy

Total

100

Fig. 31. — "The attendant will pose the horse at rest.'
(Courtesy American Agriculturist.)

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES

The general appearance of the horse may best be
measured up by inspecting him as he stands at rest, on a
slight incline, with the front feet a trifle higher than the
rear ones, or when he is in motion, either at walk or trot.
Therefore the judge should stand a convenient distance
away, and survey the
animal as a whole from
front, rear and side.
The attendant will pose
the horse at rest, or
move him at walk or
trot as desired. The
judge should see that the
horse is kept in a proper
position, supporting him-
self equally well on each
leg when at rest, other-
wise some incorrect ob-
servations are likely to
be made. In this exam-
ination for general ap-
pearance, the height,
weight, form, substance

and quality are to be considered simply as relating to the
animal as a whole.

The height of the draft horse.— The height of the horse
is expressed in hands, four inches representing a hand, the
width across the widest part of the palm. Special sticks
with sliding projecting arms, and canes marked off in
inches are often used for measuring the height. The hand
itself is divided into four equal parts, and the height is
usually given in hands and inches, as for example 17%
or 17.5, the % representing a half a hand, or two inches.
To measure the height, the stick is placed in a vertical
position just back of the front feet, so that the projecting
right arm of the measuring stick will just touch the top
of the withers. An experienced horseman, knowing the

Fig. 32. — "The stick is placed in a ver-
tical position just back of the front feet."

66 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

height of his chin, stands against the shoulder, and esti-
mates the difference in inches between the elevation of the
withers and his chin, and so secures the desired informa-
tion. The height of the draft horse may be said to range
from 16 to 18 hands. The most desirable height will be
within 16 or 17 hands. This height should be the result
of depth of body, rather than length of leg. The height at
the withers should be at least equal to that at the croup,
though some authorities contend that from a draft point
of view the latter should not be so high as the former.

The weight of the draft horse ranges upward from 1,600
pounds, with 2,000 the weight desirable with the ideal
animal of this type in good condition. Yet a horse that
weighs 1,700 or 1,800 pounds is of large size, and may rep-
resent a very beautiful draft horse. Draft horses are also
divided into sub-classes, dependent on weight, a light draft
weighing 1,600 to 1JOQ pounds, medium draft 1,700 to 1,850,
and heavy draft from 1,850 pounds up. The condition of
the horse largely affects the weight, and by feeding one
may easily increase the weight two or three hundred pounds.
Consequently, we may consider that weight is usually re-
lated to height, the lighter weighing horses showing lower
scale of elevation. One would hardly expect to find a ton
horse standing as low as 16 hands. We should rather look
for such a horse to carry his great weight at an elevation
consistent with good form. Weight is a most important
feature of the draft type. When a heavy draft horse
moves his center of gravity forward, beyond his base of
support or footing, he brings his great weight up against
the collar with such power that the load is moved forward.
In hauling a heavy load, he would be unable to keep his
foothold and move forward, were it not for his body weight
which gives him the necessary purchase to overcome the
weight of his load. On a smooth roadway the horse of
heaviest weight furnishes the maximum of power, for here
conditions favor the least friction and effort. On a rough,
uneven surface, a lighter, more active horse may accom-

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES C7

plish the work with comparatively less effort than a heavy
one, for the animal must raise his body at each step, re-
sulting in much more labor than would be the case on a
smooth surface. This logically explains why heavy draft
horses are not so well suited to rough, hilly farming coun-
tries, as to those of more level character. In judging a
horse of draft type, it is important that he should possess
the necessary weight, and if not he should be scored ac-
cordingly. Other things being equal, the heavy draft horse
brings a price on the market rather comparable with his
weight. Craig has given an interesting example of this,1
in which he shows that in 1893, from figures of sales of a
Chicago firm, there is a constant increase in prices from
the lighter to the heavier weights. In increasing from 1,400
to 1,800 pounds, the price increased about $100, an average
gain in value of 25 cents per pound. If the motor is to be
used extensively on the farm, and land plowed and culti-
vated by its use, its greatest service will be on the more
level, easily tilled areas. This will result in the draft
horse being most in demand on small farms and in loca-
tions where the land is uneven or hilly, and not suited to
motor cultivation. In such case it is quite probable that
a lighter weight draft horse, weighing 1,500 to 1,600
pounds, active, and well suited to rolling or rough land,
will be most in demand.

The form of the draft horse should be inspected from
various points of view, both at rest and in motion. From
the front or rear the body should appear broad or thick ;
viewed from one side it should show great depth. The
depth of body through the chest, and the length of the leg,
should be much the same, these proportions giving the ani-
mal what is termed a low set appearance, bringing his
weight comparatively close to the ground, thereby enabling
him to use it to the best advantage. A squareness of body-
form from all points, with massive size, indicates the nec-
essary weight through which power is secured. From a

1 Judging Live Stock. John A. Craig, 6th ed., 1904, p. 34.

68 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

distance the form should appear in good proportions, no
one part being over or under developed. As the draft
horse is bred for power, he should possess a marked de-
velopment of short rather than long muscle, especially in
the neck, over the back, loins and croup, and on the legs
above knee and hock. If his frame is large enough, is well
balanced, and strongly muscled, he will furnish the require-
ments necessary for a true draft horse. The term "blocky,"
as often applied to the draft horse, means that his form is
compact, that is broad, deep and short, rather than too
long, showing a comparatively square and heavy form from
which great power might be expected.

Substance in the horse refers to the amount and charac-
ter of the material of which the animal form is composed.
This especially applies in this case to size or scale. If we
compare two horses of the same type and general character
in which one exhibits a more desirable weight and heavi-
ness of outline than the other, with larger joints and bones
in the legs, we say this stronger bodied animal shows the
more substance of the two. It is quite common to refer to
the substance as shown in the size of bone. A horse with
too small a bone, as shown in the cannon, would be lacking
in substance. Therefore it is highly important to possess
substance without attaining any excess of development or
coarseness. If it could be measured in units of the same
class, that substance would be most desirable which indi-
cated the greatest degree of strength. Substance should
always be associated with quality, for substance without
quality would indicate weakness rather than strength
whether applied to muscle or bone. Therefore, in judging
the draft horse we emphasize substance as of great im-
portance.

Quality in the horse is manifested especially in the bone,
tendons, skin and hair, as well as in the general confor-
mation. Quality relates to the cellular structure of the
bone, flesh and hair, as well as to the finish or perfection
of the animal in part or whole. Quality is intended to

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES

indicate a degree of superiority, though of course we have
animals of poor as well as good quality. Quality is usually
an evidence of superior breeding, animals of inferior
quality as a rule inheriting the same from inferior ancestry.
With the horse, the bone is regarded as of great import-
ance. The composition and cellular structure of the bone
varies much. What is desirable is a hard, dense bone with
a strong, compact cellular structure, rather than a coarse,
porous and weak one. Unduly large joints and bone show
lack of quality and strength. The cannon bone is commonly
used as a measure of quality of bone and this should be flat,
deep and smooth. Horses with such bone and clean, well-
defined joints manifest superior quality and are capable of

Fig. 33. — "The long hair or feather down the back of the cannon is
highly valued as an evidence of quality."

70 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

far more work than where these features are lacking. The
tendons which lie back of the cannon bone, if clearly defined,
indicate quality and strength of limb. The character of skin
and hair is also an important indicator of quality. Minute
glands in the skin give off oil which keeps the skin soft
and elastic and furnishes the gloss to the hair. In case of
sickness these glands may not work and then the skin is
dry and harsh and the hair is lacking in lustre. On the
draft horse the skin is thicker than on a race horse, but even
then it is not nearly so thick as on beef cattle. It should
be mellow and elastic to the touch and should be covered
thickly with fine, lustrous hair. The horse that possesses
such a coat of hair is sure to possess all the essentials of
quality. The foretop, man,e and tail should be well sup-
plied with hair of both length and quality. On hairy
legged horses, notably the Clydesdale and Shire, the long
hair or ''feather" down the back of the cannon is highly
valued as an evidence of quality, and especially in its re-
lationship to the bone.. A feather long and fine in quality
is much admired. Quality is also manifested in the clearly
defined appearance of the head in particular. "When the
head shows a cleanly chiseled form, prominent, expressive
eyes, neat and well set ears, thin lips and good sized nos-
trils, quality is very apparent. Quality plays a most im-
portant part in the market place and show ring. For this
reason experienced horsemen give special attention to the
skin and coat of hair, feeding and grooming to secure the
best effect. The draft horse with quality will always com-
mand a much higher price than one otherwise equally good.
No horse of inferior quality should be given high rating by
a judge.

The temperament of the draft horse, as usually ap-
plied to domestic animals, refers to the relationship of the
nerves to the body and functional activity, and is discussed
elsewhere, on page 45. The temperament should be suited
to the draft type, with a reasonable degree of activity and
animation. Dullness, slowness and indifference are quite

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 71

undesirable temperamental features. The disposition
should be good. Draft horses, as a rule, are of gentle dis-
position and not so prone to develop vicious habits as the
light harness horse.

The head of the draft horse is large, and in length is in
proportion to the length of body as I:2y2. Comparatively
speaking, the draft horse head is larger than that on the
smaller class animal. The head should be lean with little
superfluous flesh, and in proper proportion to the size of the
body. A fleshy head indicates a soft body. However,
there is not the bony prominence of head one sees on the
racing horse. Well developed muscles about the jaws, how-
ever, are regarded as a sign of strong constitution. The
lower jaw should be well angled, allowing ample room for
the larynx which lies between the separated bones of the
jaw. The front of the head or face varies considerably in
outline. Some horses have a straight profile, others a con-
cave or dished face, and still others a convex or Roman
face. Generally speaking the straight face is preferable,
the nasal passages thus being unobstructed, and the contour
generally most pleasing, though the Roman face is rather
common among draft horses, the Suffolk being noted for
this feature.

The muzzle of the draft horse should show a good
quality in thin rather than heavy lips, which should come
together evenly without one lip materially extending over
the other. The muzzle should be wide, square at the corners,
and deep enough to permit of easy feeding. A narrow,
small, pinched mouth is characteristic of a poor feeder. The
nostrils should be large, yet not dilated, unless following
marked exertion. The nostril is naturally somewhat oval
and apparently partially closed by a fold of skin on its
upper side. A large orifice naturally presupposes connec-
tion with well developed nasal tubes and strong breathing
capacity.

The eyes of the horse should be oval rather than round,
prominent, reasonably large, set wide apart and have thin,

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 34. — "The eye is generally regarded as an indicator of disposition."

smooth eyelids. In general the eye is located at a point
about one-third of the way between poll and muzzle. A
small eye is thought to indicate a sulky or mean disposi-
tion, and lack of courage. A large, mild eye, not set oblique-
ly, indicates a good temper. In fact the eye is generally
regarded as an indicator of disposition as well as evidence
of capacity to see. The color of the eye is due to the pig-
ment in the iris, the portion which immediately surrounds
the pupil. When the iris is colorless the eye appears to be
white with the peculiar "wall eye" or "watch eye" as a
result. The ordinary white of the eye is an outer coat,
which is covered more or less by the eyelids. When this
white is too conspicuous a bad disposition is indicated, in the
opinion of many horsemen. The white shows most when
the horse gives a rearward glance, and kickers especially
exhibit most white when just about to kick.

The forehead of the horse, if broad and very slightly
arched, indicates an intelligent and generous disposition.
As has already been shown (page 30), the brain of the

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 73

horse is comparatively small, yet the shape and size of the
forehead is universally regarded as an important indicator
of intelligence and disposition. Hayes states2 that "Col.
John Anderson, late Inspecting Veterinary Surgeon, Bom-
bay Army (than whom no better judge of a horse exists),
remarked to me many years ago, that a prominent forehead,
or rise between the eyes, is an indicator of a bad, or at least
of a wayward temper in a horse, which is a theory I have
seen verified in many instances/' In further discussing
the forehead, Hayes emphasizes a good width of forehead
between the eyes because it ' ' indicates, as a rule, free breath-
ing power and strong muscles of mastication ; for the bones
of that part (frontal bones) form a portion of the roof of
the chambers through which air passes on its way to the
lungs, and gives attachment to a powerful muscle which
aids in closing the jaws, and which is fixed in the large
depression that is just above the eyes." If a tendency to
fullness or prominence of forehead exists, it should be high
up, and just below the forehead band of the bridle. Nar-
rowness implies lack of intelligence, while a dished condi-
tion between the eyes suggests a similar mental quality.

The ears of the horse should be placed reasonably high
up yet with the attachments a trifle below the poll. The
ears should be pointed, of medium size, with much less
distance between their roots than between the outer edges
of the eye sockets. The ear is an important evidence of
quality. It should have a neat attachment to the head,
be thin of texture, and have a covering of fine hair on the
general surface, with long, silky hairs on the edge of the
outer orifice. There seems to be considerable difference
of opinion among prominent authorities on what is desir-
able in size, form and position of the ear. Goubaux and
Barriere state, 3 that horses having short ears are usually
energetic and courageous, and that "small ears diminish
the apparent size of the head, render the physiognomy

2 The Points of the Horse. M. H. Hayes, London, 3d ed., 1904, p. 194.

3 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1904.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

more pleasant and ex-
pressive, and brighten
the eye. ' ' Hayes quotes4
Carson, who states that
"there can be no
greater ornament than
long, fine, active look-
ing, upright, tolerably
close-set ears, with the
points a little inclined
toward each other. I
never saw a soft consti-
tutioned horse with
ears of this descrip-
tion. ' ' Fearnsley, writ-
ing of the ears, says,5
"they ought not to be
too large, indeed they
can hardly be too
small." The carriage
of the ears indicates

ability of hearing and something of the disposition.
Horses more or less deaf tend to keep the ears point-
ing forward or to one side, as though listening for sounds.
Considerable play of the ears, or change of position, in-
dicates an active disposition and interest in what is taking
place about him. Ears rather constantly inclined to the
rear are generally regarded as indicating a mean disposi-
tion. Lop ears denote a stolid or sluggish temperament, and
not infrequently are a feature of old age.

The neck of the draft horse should be of moderate
length, muscular, yet not too thick, slightly arched, and
neatly attached to the head and shoulders. A moderate
length, with a tendency to shortness, is desirable in the
draft horse, for the muscles of the neck are called into use

Fig. 35. — "The ear is an important evi-
dence of quality."

4 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 210.

6 Lessons in Horse Judging. William Fearnsley, London, 1879, p. 49.

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES

Fig. 3G. — "The nock of the draft horse should be of moderate length,
muscular, yet not too thick, slightly arched and neatly attached to head
and shoulders." (Courtesy Illinois University.)

in the hauling of loads, and therefore should be thicker and
shorter than in the light harness or pleasure horse. Ex-
treme length is a weak muscular conformation, while too
short a neck does not allow sufficient freedom in use, nor
ease in grazing. Thinness of neck is not consistent with
strong muscling, yet a very thick neck suggests fat rather
than muscle. A slight crest or arch of neck adds to the
symmetry of outline, but when heavy indicates a develop-
ment of undesirable fat. A ewe neck or slight downward
curve from a straight top line, is not popular, and suggests
a lack of muscular form. ''The region of the neck," ac-

76 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

cording to Goubaux and Barriere 6 ' ' should be examined
as to its form, direction or carriage, volume, length, mode
of attachment to the head, and its movements." The
heavy, muscular neck of the draft horse is important as an
aid in shifting the center of gravity forward and bringing
as much power into the collar as possible. The throat-latch,
that portion at the angle where the lower jaw and neck join,
should be neat and trim, showing no unnatural fullness
about the windpipe, suggestive of difficulty in respiration.
One should have no difficulty in feeling the windpipe,
which should be large and clearly defined. The neck should
fit into the shoulders with some curve on each side and with-
out any depression on top where joining the withers, thus
providing a snug and smooth resting place for the collar.
The carriage of the neck should be graceful and com-
paratively high, expressive of constitutional vigor and
spirit, and accompanied by a free movement of the fore-
limbs. A mane of good length is desirable since in summer
it provides important protection from flies.

The shoulders of the draft horse should slope fairly well
into the back, though not to so great a degree as in the race
horse. As a general principle, the more oblique the
shoulder, the easier it is for a horse to raise and move for-
ward his legs. In view of the fact, however, that the draft
horse is to walk rather than trot, a moderate degree of
obliqueness will afford sufficient ease of locomotion. Meas-
urements of Goubaux and Barriere have shown 7 an angle
of 65 to 70 degrees to be most desirable for draft purposes.
The stride accompanying the straight shoulder, however,
it must be remembered, is harder and brings more concus-
sion than in the case of the oblique shoulder. The heavy
draft horse with straight shoulders used on city pavements
has an inclination to foot trouble and especially side bones.
The shoulders should be wide, with ample space for strong,
muscular attachment, and the blade should be smoothly

• The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., Philadelphia, 1904, p. 99.
., p. 210.

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES

Fig. 37. — "The more oblique the shoulder the
easier it is for the horse to raise and move for-
ward his legs."

covered. The top of
the shoulder should
be carried close
into the back, there-
by securing the
strongest muscular
connection. The
position of the
shoulder as relates
to the use of the
collar is especially
important with the
draft horse. It
must not only have
desirable slant, but
also a sufficient
ledge or front edge

along the base of the neck, to furnish a smooth and well
inclined surface on which the collar may rest. Any rough-
ness of shoulder and lack of muscle covering will furnish
conditions favorable to sore shoulders when the collar is
worn.

The arm of the draft horse is the comparatively short,
wide, muscular portion of the forehand through which lies
in a backward, slanting position the short, strong humerus
bone. This part of the forelimb should be a strong support
for the shoulder, extending well back and close in to the
body at its rear part. This places the leg sufficiently under
the body to give desirable position and action. If the rear
end of the arm lies out from the body the leg and foot will
turn inward to some extent, while if placed too close to the
body the leg and foot turn somewhat outward. Therefore
the arm should be so placed as not to affect the true placing
of the lower part of the leg.

The forearm of the horse is that portion of the leg
between the arm and knee, the muscles being laid over the
radius and ulna, the latter extending high behind, the top

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

being the point of the elbow. It is important that the fore-
arm be long and strongly muscled. This portion of the
front leg varies, however, less in length than in width and
muscle covering. On the upper part the muscles should
be comparatively thick and wide, suggestive of power. The
forearm from a side view gradually narrows, the lower
portion taking on a flat, hard, muscular appearance. Viewed
from in front, the upper third of the forearm should ap-
pear thick and somewhat rounded out, tapering consider-
ably just above the knee. Any narrowness and lack of
muscling in the upper forearm is evidence of weak forma-
tion. The direction of the forearm should be straight, to
assure trueness of stride, as suggested in the preceding
paragraph.

The knee of the horse should be broad from a front

view and deep or wide as
viewed from one side, and
should show a straight direc-
tion. As viewed from in
front the knee is very slight-
ly drawn in in its lower
half. From a side view the
front of the knee is nearly
flat when most perfectly de-
veloped, but as a whole nar-
rows more or less in its lower
part, often considerably so.
The more the knee tapers in
below, the less support will
it have at this point, and the
weaker will be the conforma-
tion. The tendon at the
back part of the knee should
contribute to give depth and
strength. What is known
as "calf knee" is a posi-

Fig. 38. — "Knee-sprung or over at ,. . ' . , Jl

the knees." tion in which the knee from

THE TYPES AND CLASSKS OF HOHSKS 79

a side view inclines slightly inward, with the cannon
below rather inclining forward, in which case the
weight is supported by the back of the foot. Often
one sees horses in which the knees incline forward,
with the leg below inclining backward, giving a po-
sition known as "knee-sprung" or over at the knees, with
the weight carried more toward the toe. The calf knee is
due to a weakness of the tendons and ligaments of the knee,
while the knee-sprung condition is usually due to a con-
traction of the back tendons associated with work and age.
A knee-sprung horse tires and stumbles easily, therefore
any narrow or tied-in appearance of the knee is indicative
of weakness and inferior movement. Knees are sometimes
swelled or enlarged but are not often fleshy. The judge
should be exacting as to the clean, well-defined, healthy
condition of knee.

The cannon of the horse should be short, wide, flat and
lean, the tendons showing well behind. Emphasis is usually
placed on a short cannon, for here shortness of leg is se-
cured, and this is desirable, bringing the weight of the
horse as close to the ground as is consistent with maximum
power. The cannon should be wide so as to give a strong
support to the knee above. If it is not wide but shows a
narrow or tied-in appearance we have positive evidence
of weakness. A long cannon, much tied-in, indicates an
extremely weak, poor leg. Hayes states 8 that ' ' a thorough-
ly sound rule, which is borne out in practice as well as by
theory, is to judge the wear-resisting power of a foreleg by
the direction which the back tendons make with the cannon
bone, and not by its measurement below the knee, which is
worthless, unless the measurement round the fetlock is
taken into consideration. It is important to note the dif-
ference between a leg which is light below the knee, and
one which is tied-in below the knee. The latter is always
objectionable ; the former only when the body is too heavy
for the forelegs." Referring to this tied-in condition,

8 Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 286.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Youatt says 9 t ' every horseman recognizes it as a most
serious defect. It is scarcely compatible with speed, and
most assuredly not with continuance. Such a horse cannot
be ridden far and fast without serious sprain of the back
sinews. The reason is plain. The pressure of the ring (a

ligament ring by
which the tendons
are held in place)
will produce a de-
gree of friction in-
consistent with the
free action of the
tendons ; more force
must therefore be
exerted in every
act of progression ;
and although the
muscles are power-
ful, and sufficiently
so for every ordi-
nary purpose, the
repetition of this extra exertion will tire and strain

them A more serious evil however, remains to be

stated. "When the back sinews, or tendons, are thus tied
down, they are placed in an oblique direction, in which the
power of the muscles is exerted with greater disadvantage. ' '
The cannon should be flat and smooth, for any roughness
of the bone also indicates a defective condition. Hardness
of bone is especially sought here, for not only are the meta-
carpal bones of the cannon extremely hard and strong, but
the hardness, smoothness and size of the cannon serves as
an index of the general quality and condition of the entire
skeleton. The tendons which lie back of the bone should
be clearly denned and be strongly cord-like and should lie
quite parallel with the bone in front. The two back ten-
dons may be seen and felt without difficulty for they are
hard and cord-like in character, and should appear more

Fig. 39. — "The cannon should be flat
and smooth."

8 The Horse, 1843, New York edition, n.d., p. 2(

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 81

or less separated. However, they are less conspicuous on
the draft horse than on the more refined racer. The so-
called flatness of the cannon is due to these back tendons
rather than to the presence of a flat bone. In fact the bone
proper of the cannon is not flat at all, the main shaft being
semi-cylindrical with a broad, round edge in front. Rough-
ness of the cannon, especially on the inner side, is often to
be noted, due to small bony ridges or points known as
' * splints. ' ' "While a smooth bone is desirable, a small, hard
elevation or two below the skin on the lower part of the
cMiuion is not usually important, these being in fact re-
mains of splint bones inherited from the prehistoric horse
rather than evidences of diseased bone.

The fetlock of the horse is the joint connected with the
lower end of the cannon. It is also often termed the pastern
joint. The fetlock should be wide, thick, flne and well di-
rected. Width is to be noted from a side view, and a wide
fetlock gives evidence of a strong tendon and ligament at-
tachment on the back side of this joint. Thickness is im-
portant to allow for plenty of space for tendon and liga-
ment to pass over the joint. A thin skin over the fetlock
shows quality and indicates a good condition of the joint.
Any thick or puffy appearance is undesirable. Scratches
and sores often occur on the fetlock, more especially when
the skin is thick or fleshy. The fetlock of the draft horse,
however, is covered with thicker skin and longer, heavier
hair than that of the light horse. The hair in this case is an
important index of quality of bone. The direction of the
fetlock should be straight, with no twist or turn to either
side, if it is to be associated with correct position.

The pastern of the horse, the connecting link between
fetlock and foot, in the draft horse should be of moderate
length, and strongly carried at an angle of about 45 de-
grees. The slope of the pastern is of special significance,
for it relieves concussion in the course of action, and best
distributes the force of the blow. "When the foot hits the
ground, as a rule the frog or center of the hoof and the
back part is struck first, after which the front part of the

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

foot laps over to complete the contact. The long, springy
pastern permits a greater extension of limb, and a placing
of the foot with less concussion. The shorter and more
upright pastern, gives a harder and more stilted gait and
a greater tendency when in action, to contact the toe before
the frog or heel. There is some difference of opinion among
horsemen as to the length of pastern desirable in the draft
horse. Generally speaking, one of medium length is re-
garded as most desirable
for all conditions. The
Scotch, however, prefer a
long pastern. Dykes, in his
introduction in the Clydes-
dale Stud Book of Scot-
land, says : 10 "No doubt
the upright pastern suits
well the upright shoulder
and slow action of the
English draft horse, a con-
formation which can scarce-
ly be called the best for
any purpose ; but it will
not do in the Clydesdale,
which requires a pastern to
suit the formation of the
shoulder, and to confer the
necessary elasticity to coun-
teract the concussion caused
by his quick, firm step.

Short, upright pasterns always get worse with age
and feeding, and the action in due course of time
becomes impeded. A horse with an upright pastern
has little or no command of his foot, and literally walks
as on a crutch ; and if he has no power of his foot, he can-
not have much of his shoulder." Mr. Alex. Galbraith, long
intimately identified with the draft horse industry in

10 Vol. I., 2d ed., 1884, p. 51.

Fig. 40. — "The long, springy pastern
permits a greater extension of limb."

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 83

Scotland and America, and a recognized authority on the
Clydesdale, says n that the pasterns of the Clydesdale are
longer and much more oblique than in the other breeds, and
that the statement " pasterns like a Clydesdale/' is the
most complimentary allusion that can be made to the under-
pinning of any other kind of horse. Hayes says, 12 that
"we may accept as an axiom, the statement that the harder
the ground and the faster the work, the more sloping
should the pasterns be, in order to save the legs from inju-
rious effects of concussion. If the horse be required to
gallop over hard ground, the pasterns can hardly be too
oblique (supposing of course, that this condition has not
been brought about by injury) ; provided always that the
pastern bones are strong." Without question the farm
horse largely used on soft ground, does not require the
sloping pastern of the draft horse on the city pavement,
for reasons already given. The direction of the pastern is
generally given at from 40 to 45 degrees, but Goubaux and
Barriere state 13 that 60 degrees is preferable for the front
ones, 45 degrees constituting a marked "low jointedness."
Foot diseases are generally more common on horses with
upright pasterns than on those of greater slope. The
pasterns should be straight in direction because ill-placed
feet are, as a rule, due to the pasterns directing in or out.
The pastern should be smooth, and covered with fine skin
and hair as evidence of quality and good condition.

The feet of the horse are universally regarded as of
prime importance, hence, the oft quoted saying, "no feet,
no horse. " In general, the front feet should be large,
round, of uniform size and as viewed from in front should
point straight forward. Small feet do not have the neces-
sary base of support associated with draft weight. The
front feet are usually larger than those behind. Roundness
of outline of hoof is sought, although the curve is some-

" American Clydesdale Stud Book, Vol. X.

12 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 291.

13 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1904, p. 304.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

what more marked on the out-
side of the hoof, the inner side
toward the rear having a trifle
less curve. "This shape," says
Craig,14 "it will be easily seen,
not only gives a strong hold on
the ground, but it also decreases
the possibility of the inner edge
of the foot striking the opposite
leg or interfering. ' ' This round-
ness of form is to be seen by ex-
amining the feet from in front,
or picking them up and noting
the form from the under side.
To raise the front foot, slide the
thumb and forefinger of one
hand down alongside the can-
non, pressing tightly the ten-
dons, at the same time giving a
back and upward pull with the
other hand, grasping the front of
the fetlock. Usually the horse
will raise the foot without resistance and it then may be held
for inspection by supporting it in the hand. As viewed from
one side the hoofs should present an angle of about 50 de-
grees from coronet to toe, having a slope quite comparable
with the pastern and shoulder. Too upright a hoof gives a
hard gait and tends to foot difficulties. If the hoof is too
long the heel is thrown out of position, being closer to the
ground, and is thus subjected to a strain that causes weak-
ness or injury. From a side view, the length of heel should
measure about one-third the length of the front of hoof.
The exterior of the hoof should not flare out too widely,
for the coronet or hoof head should be round and of good
size in comparison with the bottom of the foot. Such a
foot suffers less from foot trouble than one with a small

Fig. 41.— "The front feet
should be large, round, of uni-
form size, and as viewed from
in front, should point straight
forward."

"Judging Live Stock, Gth ed., 1904, p. 40.

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES

or constricted hoof head. When the foot is raised the under
side should present a slight arch with a well developed
frog, wide at its base, which just rests on the ground when
the foot drops to the surface. A flat foot lacks the desired
arch and is not easily trimmed by the smith ; it also bears
too much concussion at the low set heel. The frog consists
of elastic, fibrous material and serves as an important
buffer and protection against injury to sensitive tissues
and nerves within the foot and especially just above the
frog. A great weight rests on the bones and membranes
within the hoof, and in a measure these are protected by
a slight arch of sole and well developed frog. For this
reason the blacksmith should never disturb the frog, ex-

Fig. 42. — "Usually the horse will raise the foot without resistance."

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 43. — "As viewed from one side the hoofs
should present an angle of about 50 degrees
from coronet to toe."

away, and had its proper con-
tact with the pavement. The
bars of the foot, which, brace-
like, serve to keep the heel
well spread, should extend
from the corners of the heel,
and lie parallel with the frog,
in well developed ridges.
The hoof that lacks bars often-
times shows a narrow or con-
tracted heel. The bars should
never be cut away by the
smith. The horn of which
the hoof is composed, should
be very hard and free from
all seams or cracks. The hoof
consists of a multitude of
horny cells, closely packed
together, and its character
largely depends on local con-
ditions of keep. Referring

cepting to trim
away loose fibers
and keep it in as
natural condition
as possible. In the
days when the
Paris Omnibus
Company kept from
12,000 to 15,000
horses in their
stables, the horses
as a rule wore flat
shoes and especial
care was taken by
the management to
see that the frog
was not pared

Fig. 44. — "A flat foot lacks the
desired arch."

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 87

to this, Hayes states15 that "the horn of the wall,
sole and frog should be thick, hard and tough, so as to
resist in an efficient manner the effect of wear. Moisture
has a well marked softening and weakening influence on
the horn, and consequently affects the form of the foot. "We
find that the drier the climate, the stronger is the horn of
horses there reared, the more upright the hoofs, and
the more concave are the soles. When the horn of the wall
and sole is weak, it cannot efficiently support the weight
thrown on the leg, and the foot will have a tendency to
become flat. The feet of horses bred in Australia, for in-
stance, are stronger than those produced in England, ow-
ing to the climate being drier. . . . The great trouble
with heavy cart horses in England is the weakness of their
hoofs, the horn of which, as a rule, is no.t nearly so strong
as that of well bred horses ; although the strain which falls
on it is much greater than that which tries the tenacity of
the horn of the feet of saddle horses Considering the
greater size of the muscles and bones of the draft animal,
we might expect the horn of his hoofs would be proportion-
ately stronger than that of the half bred. The fact that it
is not stronger, is a proof that English cart horses are de-
ficient in one of the most important points of usefulness.
Veterinary surgeons in practice in England and Scotland
tell us that the large majority (about nine-tenths) of cart
horses which come to them for treatment, are foot cases."
The horn of the hoof should be free from cracks and all
roughness. A dark color is quite generally preferred, many
believing a white hoof has less wearing resistance than a
dark one. There is really little evidence on that point.
Judges should examine the feet with great care, and dis-
criminate without hesitation where pronounced defects
occur.

The position of the front legs and feet should be such
as to result in the least effort when in motion, to secure
maximum results from a draft point of view. The subject

16 Points of the Horse, London, 3d ed., 1904, p. 299.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 45. — "A plumb line dropped from the
point of the shoulder."

of the attitudes of
the limbs has re-
ceived much study,
and authorities
seem quite agreed
on what these
should be. "When
standing at atten-
t i o n, in perfect
pose, the profile of
the face will be at
right angles with
the top of the neck,
and the weight will
be equally distrib-
uted on all four
limbs. To ascer-
tain if the limbs are in correct position from a front
point of view, a plumb line dropped from the point of the
shoulder should divide the leg through knee, cannon, pas-
tern and foot into two lateral halves. As a rule, the fore-
arms slope in very slightly while the cannons stand paral-
lel. From a side , .

view, a line
dropped from the
bony projection on
the shoulder blade
should pass
through the cen-
ter of the elbow
joint and meet the
ground at the cen-
ter of the foot.
When the horse is
viewed from in
front, and the

armpay fnn Fig> 46' — "A line dropped from the bony pro-
jection of the shoulder blade."

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES

8'J

dose, the horse is ''knocked kneed"; if too widely
separated he is "bow legged" or "bow kneed"; if the
toes turn out he is "toe wide" or "base narrow," or
"splay footed/', and if the toes
turn in he is "toe narrow," or
"base wide," or "pigeon-toed."
A crooked leg is evidence of weak-
ness or defective gait. A splay
footed horse interferes, and a pigeon-
toed one "paddles" or "wings."
The terms calf-kneed and knee-
sprung have already been explained
(page 78). These various deficien-
cies of leg position are easily noticed,
and should not be ignored by the
judge. It must be remembered,
however, that the walk is the com-
mon gait of the draft horse, so that
the same importance is not to be at-
tached to the position of leg as
in the case of the speed horse. There
is much less likelihood of interfer-
ence from a draft horse, with his

Fig. 47. — "If the toes
turn in he is toe narrow,
or base wide, or pigeon-
toed."

slow movement, than from a trotter,

even admitting the undesirability of

the position of leg in either case. This the judge must

take into consideration.

The body of the draft horse is a very important factor
for we must largely look to this portion of the whole for
the great weight desired. Therefore as he views the draft
horse the judge must be impressed in suitable degree with
his massive size as expressed in the body, otherwise the
animal lacks in draft character. This massiveness is es-
sential for the necessary weight to be thrown forward in
the collar when work is to be done.

The withers of the draft horse should be well defined
and muscular. As has already been explained, the withers

90 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

are for the attachment of the muscles and suspensory liga-
ments connecting the head and neck. Other muscles also
connect withers and shoulders and back. Withers of promi-
nence, extending well into the back, therefore have a more
powerful muscular connection than they would have other-
wise. In the case of the draft horse it is important that the
withers be thick and muscular rather than thin. If the
shoulders are powerful and fittingly muscled, then the
withers will be in keeping.

The chest of the draft horse is that portion of the body
that lies between and immediately back of the shoulders,
between the withers and lower line of body. The breast
is that portion of the body which lies directly in front of
the chest, and below the neck. The chest should be deep,
wide, low and of large girth. Such a conformation indi-
cates a strong constitution with ample space for the vital
organs; it also is naturally associated with heavy weight.
With the horse depth of chest is really more important than
thickness, although these two features are associated. The
depth through the chest should be somewhat greater than
the distance from the under side of this part to the level of
the feet. While thickness is desirable, horsemen do not
wish too wide a horse, at least not like a fat steer, as fat
horses usually have inferior action, going too wide, the legs
being too far apart for the most powerful draft. Hayes
believes16 there is no essential difference in the relative
thickness of chest in horses of the same depth. He at-
tributes the difference in thickness to the pectoral muscles
which lie between the humerus and the chest, and states
that "it is no rare occurrence to see horses that have been
once broad chested, become narrow in front when old and
worn out." He, however, agrees to the necessity of thick-
ness of chest with the draft horse, on account of his requir-
ing massive muscles. In discussing breast conformation,
Goubaux and Barriere comment as follows:17 "Draft

16 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 244.

17 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1P04, p. 146.

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 91

horses can, without being defective, be very open in front.
The lateral oscillations of the center of gravity, being only
prejudicial to velocity, do not diminish the energy of his
efforts. His power depends upon his mass, and he demands,
therefore, firm and voluminous muscles. From this point of
view we may regard a wide breast as a point of great merit,
because it gives to the trunk the volume which is necessary
in order to overcome easily, but slowly, heavy resistance."
The prevailing opinion among American horsemen, how-
ever, is that the chest may be too thick, especially if the legs
are attached wide on the corners of the body. Such con-
formation places the legs too wide apart and results in a
weaker placement of the limbs than is consistent with maxi-
mum draft and the most uniform action. The depth of
chest should be somewhat greater than the distance from its
floor to the foot surface, for this means shortness of leg and
the location of the center of gravity at the most desirable
point. The breast should extend forward in distinctive de-
gree, having some prominence and width between the
shoulder points.

The back of the draft horse should be short, broad and
strongly supported. A short back is associated with the
closeness of the ribs that is related to strong muscular de-
velopment. There can be no likelihood of the back being
too broad. The back should be strongly supported, that is
the muscles and ligaments along the spine should be thick,
firm and strong, and hold the back well in place. The back
of the horse naturally inclines upwards toward the croup,
not being level. With age the ligaments and muscles often
relax and the back sags materially, indicating weakness. A
distinctive arching of the back at the loins goes by the name
of "roach back," and is not a desirable development. In
the case of the draft horse, when the back is in good condi-
tion and wide, a ridge of muscle may often be seen along
each side of the backbone.

The loin of the draft horse should be short, wide and
strongly muscled. This portion of the back, for that is

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

really what it is, should be as short and wide as possible,
with a thick layer of firm muscle indicating great strength.
The length of loin is measured from the side, or the dis-

t a 11 c e from the
front of the hip to
the last rib, this
space being known
as the coupling.
The loin naturally
slopes off to some
extent from each
side of the back
bone, but for the
most powerful de-
velopment, this
part should be very
broad and with
slight slope. A
sharp crest at the
loins is a sign of

weakness. The kidneys lie beneath the loin, and horse-
men often pinch the loin along the center, to note the effect
on the horse. If the animal flinches slightly, it is assumed
the physical condition here is good, but if the animal resists
in a notable degree, it may indicate extreme nervousness,
or some unhealthy condition. A well muscled loin is usually
regarded as an evidence of soundness at this point. In the
case of the draft horse in good condition, the ridge of
muscle along each side of the spine is continued the length
of the loin.

The ribs of the horse should be long, well sprung, and
close together. Hayes discusses at some length the most de-
sirable features in the ribbing 18 and emphasizes three
things, viz.: convexity (roundness) behind the shoulders,
length, and inclination to the rear. In this discussion

"The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 228.

Fig. 48. — "This space being known as the
coupling."

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSKS 93

Hayes takes issue with Youatt, who published a fallacy J9
concerning the conformation of the ribs that has been re-
peated by many English writers, namely, that the circular
chest could not expand, but every change of form would be
a diminution of capacity. Hayes states that "this state-
ment seems to be based on the supposition that the chest
expands and contracts by the ribs opening and closing in a
direction at right angles to the length of the body. Instead
of this being the case, the difference in capacity of the chest
is due to the fact of the ribs, which are inclined to the rear,
turning round towards the front on their upper and lower
ends, as on pivots, when air is drawn into the lungs, and
then revolving back again when the air is expelled from
them. We may here note that the air is expelled from the
lungs by the elastic recoil of the ribs, which takes place the
moment the muscles which drew the ribs forward become
relaxed. Youatt 's statement is altogether incorrect; for
the rounder the ribs are, other things being equal, the
greater will be the difference between the chest capacity
when the lungs are full, and its capacity when they are
comparatively empty." The feature of good length applies
rather to rotundity of fore rib, than to the distance between
the respective ends, although the ribs far back should be as
long and directed as much outward as possible, so as to
afford a broad attachment to the diaphragm. "If the last
rib be short, flat and but little inclined to the rear, the
animal will be 'slack in the loins' and certainly will not
have as good breathing power as he would if that rib was
long, l springing' well out from the side, and inclined so
much to the rear that there would be space only for the
ends of two or three fingers between it and the point of the
hip." In the case of the draft horse, the greater the arch
and length of rib, the more the space available for the de-
velopment of muscles and weight so significant a feature
of this type of animal. We get neither draft form nor
weight in the horse with flat, short rib and wide coupling.

"The Horse. By William Youatt, London, 1843, New York edition, p. 169.

94 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The arch of rib is best noted from in front or behind, while
its length and the coupling must be studied from the side.

The flanks of the horse should be low and full, showing
a low underline. If the fore ribs are well sprung, and the
back ones are long and well carried out, as set forth above,
then the flanks will be full and the under line carried rela-
tively low. The more nearly the line between front and
hind flank parallels the foot surface, the greater will be the
digestive capacity of the horse. Further, low, full develop-
ment of flank with the draft horse usually accompanies
the heavier weight. Hayes refers to the "hollow of the
flank," which he includes between the loins, point of hip
and the end of last back rib. This space, he states, should
be as small as possible. If it is hollowed out it indicates
bad health, weak constitution or being out of condition.
"When the hind flank is cut up high, such a horse is some-
times called "wasp waisted," or "tucked up/' and is gen-
erally considered as lacking in endurance.

The hindquarters of the horse are the great source of
driving power, for propulsion by the hind legs occurs
through the hip joint and pelvis. Care should be taken in
examining the hindquarters of strange horses, on account
of the liability of kicking. It is desirable first to survey the
hindquarters at a safe distance, such as ten feet from the
side or rear. It will be necessary to inspect the limbs with
care and this usually involves some handling. In this case,
the horse should be approached from the head or front
quarter. The word "whoa !" may be sharply spoken, after
which the hand may be passed lightly along the back, and
then over the croup and down the thigh and gaskin to the
hock and below if desired.

The hips of the draft horse should be wide, but in har-
mony with general body proportions, and smooth and
heavily muscled. The most power may be expected, other
things being equal, from a horse that is heavily muscled
over the hips. Rough or bare hips are evidences of weak-
ness. Horses that show extreme width between the hips,
vr;th more or less roughness, "generally stand with their

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF IHWSKS ().-,

feet close together," says Gonne, 20 while those that are
wider through the barrel than between the hips, "generally
stand with their feet wide apart," and are usually good
goers. Inasmuch as great strength is the desired feature
of the draft horse, then the heavily muscled, well placed hip
is logically connected with powerful muscling below. Horses
in thin flesh may show considerable prominence of hips that
feeding might cover and change in a striking manner.
Therefore the condition may be considered as an important
factor in the smoothness and covering of hips.

Fig. 49. — "We find much difference in the slope of the croup in
draft horses."

The croup of the draft horse represents a great and
powerful combination of muscles, extending from the hips
back to the end of the pelvis. To secure the most complete
muscular development the croup must be long, as seen from
one side, wide as viewed from behind and with attractive,
strong, yet sloping arch from hips to setting on of tail. We

80 Hints on the Horse. Capt. C. M. Gonne, London, 1906, p. 44.

96 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

find much difference in the slope of the croup in draft
horses. A steep croup is very common, especially in those
coming- from continental Europe. This steepness, which
is seen best from a side view, is not looked on with favor by
the most discriminating horsemen. The horse with steep,
short croup lacks not only beauty of outline, but has less
length and thickness of muscle than does the horse with a
neatly arched, long conformation. This feature the judge
should emphasize, keeping in mind that the movement of
the load is directly connected with the extension of the hip
joint through the use of long, thick muscles at croup and
thigh. In the opinion of some, a steep croup is often re-
lated to a weak coupling and crooked hind legs. Hayes
notes 21 that the upper line of the croup, from the loins to
root of tail, should remain convex, a condition which is
more or less regular, "caused by the prominence of the
inner angle of the pelvis ; by the action of the muscles
which flex the back, and by the strength of the ligaments
which preserve the stability of this arch. We may note how
relaxation of these muscles will affect this state of convexity
if we pinch the loins of a horse, so as to make him crouch,
which he does by the contraction of the muscles that lie
on the top of the loins. When he crouches in this manner,
the upper line of the croup will tend to become straight.
Hence we may accept the conclusion, wrhich is freely borne
out in practice, that undue straightness of the upper line
of the croup indicates weakness of the part,"

As viewed from the rear the croup should appear not
only wide but with a level tendency, rather than falling
sharply away on each side, as characterizes the narrow
croup. When in high condition, draft horses show a well
denned groove above the spine, which divides the croup
into two equal parts. From a rear view the croup on each
side of this groove should arch with a wide yet not high
curve, showing a broad, strong conformation rather than
a sharpness, that resembles the peaked roof of a house.

21 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 254.

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 97

. HO. — '"The hair of the tail should be reasonably fine, and the brush
should be thick and long."

The tail of the horse has its greatest use as a medium
for brushing off flies. Consequently it should have good
length to serve its purpose. Docking, which is more es-
pecially practiced in Europe, is the cutting off of a portion
of the fleshy part or the dock. This is a cruel practice, and
is prohibited by law in the United States. "Without a well
developed dock and brush, the horse has no means of pro-
tection from the bites of countless flies. The dock should
be comparatively short and muscular, and attached fairly
high, such an attachment usually being related to a long,
well carried croup. A high setting of the tail indicates a
comparatively level sacrum, a position associated with the
freest locomotion. A high carriage of tail also shows the
muscles of the dock to be active and strong. The hair of the
tail should be reasonably fine, and the brush should be thick

^g JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

and long. In passing judgment on the tail the most im-
portant feature is that it be attached high, as related to
conformation of croup.

The thigh of the draft horse on its upper portion joins
the side of the croup, and at its lower end terminates in
front at the stifle joint. This portion of the hind leg is
comparatively short, but should be heavily muscled, es-
pecially on the inner side known as the quarter. A rear
view of the ideal draft horse thigh shows a very full, thick
muscle, while the side view gives a strongly rounded curve
from just below the tail setting to the lower thigh or gas-
kin. From the stifle joint in front which should be heavily
muscled, to the extreme point of the curve of thigh, there
should be good proportionate length. It is important that
the stifle joint should turn somewhat outward, so as to
allow free locomotion without rubbing the belly too close.

The gaskin of the draft horse, also known as the lower
thigh, extends from the stifle to the point of the hock. This
part for purposes of draft should be relatively shorter than

Fig. 51. — "Terminates in front at the stifle joint.'

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES QQ

for speed. From a side view the muscles should appear
wide and prominent, while from the rear the outer part of
the gaskin should show thick, well rounded curves. The
inner part of the lower thigh curves slightly outward from
the quarter above. If the upper thighs are thick in the
quarters, then the lower ones will tend to curve outward,
showing considerable arch between, a desirable condition if
the lower parts are not too widely separated, otherwise ease
of locomotion would be affected. Commenting on this part
of the thigh, Youatt says:22 "In proportion to the length
of the muscle is the degree of contraction of which it is
capable; and also in proportion to the contraction of the
muscle is the extent of motion in the limb; but it is still
more necessary that this part of the thigh should have con-
siderable muscle, in order that strength may be added to
such extent or compass of motion. Much endurance would
not be expected of a horse with a thin arm. A horse with
thin and lanky thighs will not possess the strength which
considerable exertion would sometimes require. ' ' Width of
gaskin is highly important for either speed or strength, and
this can only be secured by the os calcis or bone topping
the hock having ample length.

The hock of the draft horse is one of the largest and
most important joints in the body. As expressed by Gou-
baux and Barriere,23 "functionally, it is, more than any
other, a region of dispersion of concussion as well as of
propulsion. It is upon this region that the efforts of the
extensor muscles which propel the body are concentrated;
it is on this point that the reactions of locomotion bear at
the moment when the body, moving with great velocity,
and projected forward, strikes the ground; finally, this is
the region, on which, in the act of rearing, all the weight
of the body presses down with such great force." As a
general description we may say that the hock should be

22 The Horse. William Youatt, 1843, p. 283.

215 The Exterior of the Horse. Translated by S. J. J. Harger, 2d ed., 1904,
p. 253.

100

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

straight, wide, deep, clean-
cut, its point being promi-
nent, and the joint as a
whole well supported by a
wide cannon below. The
hock is not absolutely
straight, because in the leg
of correct form, the hock
faces out slightly; were this
not so, the leg when in mo-
tion would not clear the ab-
domen. The leg is frequent-
ly cow-hocked, facing widely
outward, with the point di-
rected inward, thus giving
an unattractive position, and
frequently is an evidence
with the draft horse of a
be thigh lacking in muscle. If
the front of the hock faces
inward th'e point directs out-
ward, giving a bow-legged, weak position, while the leg
in its forward movement presses the belly enough
to obstruct freedom of motion. Goubaux and Barriere,
commenting on the bow-legged hock,24 state that it is
due, ordinarily, to the width of the thigh and the croup,
as well as to the development of the muscles, and that there
is nothing very unfortunate in this, especially as applied
to heavy draft horses and colts. As a matter of action, the
cow-hocked horse is the easiest mover. The hock sometimes
extends too much forward in its lower part, the cannon also
slanting more than it should in the same direction. This
results in a slight curve to this part, to which the name
"sickle hock" has been given. To note the straightness of
hock and trueness of movement, the judge should stand di-
rectly behind and have the horse led off in as direct a line

Tig. 52. — "The hock should
straight, Avide, deep, clean-cut,
point being prominent."

its

24 The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1904, p. 461.

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF. HOBOES,

as possible toward a given point. The hock should be
wide, as viewed both from in front, and one side, and have
plenty of depth. Such a conformation provides room for
strong muscles and tendons to connect with this joint.
The hock of the draft horse should be sharply denned in its
various curves, free of all excess flesh or puffy condition.
It is a common sight with horses in high condition and lack-
ing exercise to have a fullness of hock, or what is often
termed "meaty" hocks. A side view should show this
joint hard and clean, notably hollow in its central face,
without evidence of swelling. The point of the hock should
be prominent, broad and firm, and neatly turned, indicat-
ing a strong connection of the back tendon in this most im-
portant joint. Occasionally the point of the hock will
appear puffed and fleshy. This is due to blows, and is
usually caused by the horse
kicking some hard obstacle
behind, after which the
points of the hock swell, re-
sulting in a "capped" con-
dition. This should never
appear upon an uninjured
horse. The lower part of
the hock, to be of maximum
strength, should be wide, so
that where merging with the
cannon below, there will be
no contraction in compari-
son with the cannon further
down. The hocks of the
draft horse are naturally
larger and more fleshy than
those of a smaller class, be-
ing a part of a massive ani-
mal. If the gaskin is wide,
and the hock is not tied in
below, the hock will be rela-

Fig. 53. — "A slight curve to this
part, to which the name sickle hock
has been given." A curb is also
to be seen just below the point of
the hock. (See page 202.)

;l$2t V;i } • ;,S^lX>GING FARM ANIMALS

tively large. The need of large size, perfect form
and soundness of hock, cannot be over emphasized,
for this joint, as already stated, is of vital importance
in moving the load. The horse settles himself snugly into
his collar, flexes the hind legs — that is, moves them forward
— and then begins an extension or unfolding of the hock
joint, that finally results in the extended, straightened hind
leg from toe to stifle, and proportionate forward motion of
horse and load. Therefore the necessity of great freedom
of movement and power in this joint. Judges should ex-
amine the hock with much care from rear, side and front.
A backward view between the forelegs will enable one to
observe the face of the hock better than from any other
position. But little handling of the hock is necessary, the
eye detecting most of the defects though the hands may
sometimes be used to advantage.

The hind cannons of the horse differ from those in
front, in being notably flatter. The metatarsal bone has
back of it the splint bones, which occupy the upper part of
the cannon on each side. Back of the splints are the ten-
dons, which stand out conspicuously on the hind leg, giv-
ing much depth. This part of the leg, aside from its flat-
ness, should possess qualities similar to those desired in the
front cannon. Hayes, in an interesting discussion 25 of the
comparative length of cannon bone in the hind leg, states
that the popular opinion that the length from hock to toe
is less than from hock to stifle is probably based on an
optical delusion. This he illustrates by showing pictures of
two sets of legs, one apparently with short and one with
long cannons. However, measurements by means of di-
viders, with the hock as the center, showed about the same
length. He ascribes this optical delusion as due to the fact
that the hock in one case is "straight/' giving the im-
pression it is better "let down," than in the other case,
where the hock is "bent" for "as the eye runs down the
limb, it will not be so abruptly arrested by the former, as

25 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 318.

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES 1Q3

by the latter kind of conformation." Horsemen generally
favor a short cannon on the hind leg as bearing evidence
of having greater relative strength than a long one, and
as a medium for bringing the weight of body closer to the
foot surface. Goubaux and Barriere26 regard the short
cannon as less heavy, swinging more freely, unfolding it-
self more, "and not necessitating the same elevation of the
member above the ground to reach the limit of its move-
ments." It is important to note that the hind cannon of
the draft horse is relatively shorter, usually, than that on
the light class of horse. The position of the cannons should
be straight, at least fairly so. French authorities empha-
size the desirability of the hind cannons being perpendicu-
lar, but Hayes states that he has never seen a horse with
vertical cannons. The horse as a rule carries his hind legs
so that at best the cannons slope slightly forward, rather
than have a perpendicular position. The judge will hardly
be justified in discriminating against a cannon that has a
slight slope forward, if of a uniform and desirable width
throughout and free of blemishes.

The hind fetlock, as in the case of the front one, should
be wide, straight and strong. Sometimes this joint projects
forward to an unnatural degree, due to the bones in pastern
and fetlock growing somewhat out of position thus produc-
ing knuckling or a "cocked" ankle. Horses with rather
upright pasterns are most subject to this trouble.

The hind pastern of the draft horse usually closely
resembles those of the front legs, the same characteristics
being desired in each case. However, the hind pastern as
a rule, is less oblique than the one in front. A slope of from
45 to 50 degrees is desirable, for reasons already given on
page 83.

The hind feet of the horse are somewhat smaller than
the front ones, and not so round. This is almost universally
so. The hind foot also shows more slope of the hoof, and
also arch of sole, than does the front hoof. A round hoof

2(1Tho Exterior of the Horsn, 2cl <>d., 1904, p. 285.

104

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

of ample size with slope in harmony with that of the front
foot and not too high in the sole or narrow at the heel is
to be desired. A length of heel equal to about one-third
the length of the front of hoof will usually be about right.
It is noteworthy, however, that the hind foot suffers com-
paratively little
from disease, and
gives the horseman
far less concern
than does the front
foot. This is due
to the fact that the
hind feet suffer
much less from
concussion and
hard work than the
front ones. The
scale of points, in
recognition of this,
credits the perfect
front feet with
more points than
the hind. In the
early days of the
use of the score
card in this coun-
try, the author
drew up a scale of
points for draft

horses, and submitted it for criticism to a friend whose
business was buying and selling horses on a large
scale, and who was a most capable judge. His
view of the relative importance of front and hind feet was
such that he insisted that 10 points should be credited ^ the
front and two to the hind feet. This was the point of vie\
of a practical horseman of large experience. He argued
that essentially all the trouble with the feet was located in

Fig. 54. — "The hind feet of the horse are
somewhat smaller than the front ones, and not
so round."

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES

105

Fig. 55. — "A plumb-line dropped from
the point of the buttock."

front, yet a 10 to 2 re-
lationship would, by
many, be considered
extreme. It is impor-
tant that the bone of the
hoof be smooth and
dense, indicating tough
material that will wear
well.

The correct attitude
of the hind leg of the
horse at rest is to be
seen when a plumb-line
dropped from the point
of the buttock divides
the leg and foot into two
lateral halves. Or, when
viewed from the side,
this same line touches

the point of the hock and meets the foot surface a short dis-
tance back of the heel. A perpendicular line dropped from
the hip joint should meet the foot surface midway between
heel and toe. Reference has already been made (page 100)

to the attitudes

i known as cow-

* ^ hocked and bow-

•r-y '5i«liV' legged. "When the

^* K^'dl horse carries his

hind feet forward
of the vertical line
to a marked de-
gree, he is said to
be "under him-
self/' When this
is the natural pose,
it shortens the base

Fig. 56. — "Meets the foot surface a short ,, A

distance back of the heel." <>f Support, and re-

106 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

suits in undesirable fatigue of the muscles, tendons
and ligaments. Slowness of gait and forging are also
often associated with this attitude. If his legs extend be-
hind as though stretching, he is said to have a "camped"
or "stretched" position. This attitude gives a long base
of support with which is associated a tendency to slip back-
ward, bringing too much strain on the front limbs. Horses
that naturally camp also tend to weakness of back and slow
action. Grooms often stand their horses when on exhibi-
tion so that the front feet are on a slightly higher level
than the hind ones, which are stretched back to such an
extent as to detract from graceful and natural pose. One
is not far wrong in stating that when the legs come directly
down at each corner of the body without undue placement
of the feet away from these points, the legs are not far out
of correct position. Judges note with some care the posi-
tion assumed by the hind legs, discriminating especially
against bow-leggedness and cocked ankles. .Any extreme
position when at rest suggests inferior action when in mo-
tion, and the judge is justified in thus reasoning.

The action of the draft horse has a practical application
related to hauling heavy loads and going through neces-
sarily slow evolutions. Large frame and great weight will
not admit of hasty action on the part of the draft horse.

The walk of the drafter is of prime importance because
it is at this gait that most of his work is done. Therefore,
the walk should include three essential features, straight-
ness, power, and elasticity. When led directly away from
the judge, the horse should continue in a straight line, his
body inclining neither to right nor left, and the carriage of
each pair of legs on the same side of the body in much the
same vertical plane. Draft horses tend to "paddle" more
or less, throwing the feet outward when in action. This is
usually due to the horse being pigeon-toed, but may be
caused by improper shoeing, or condition of hoof. ' ' Wing-
ing" is an extreme degree of paddling. Heavy horses also
tend to cross their feet when in action, a movement known

THE TYPES AND CLASSES OF HORSES

107

as' 'winding, ' 'and very undesirable. An unusual side motion
of the shoulders is known as "rolling" and is more especial-
ly found with draft horses with widely separated shoulders.
A horse that snaps his feet outside of the line he naturally
should/or knocks his ankles together, does so at the expense
of action. The walk of the draft horse should show evi-
dence of strength in the full sense. He should walk easily
and true, and by his carriage of limbs and muscling give
evidence of superior draft character. As the horse walks
by the judge presenting a side view the step should be

Fig. 57. — "lie sli<ui1d walk easily and true."

long and powerful of stride rather than short and uncertain
in character. An elastic or snappy gait is of prime im-
portance. The horse that steps off quickly and clears his
feet well from the ground will do much more work than the
one that moves slowly and drags his toes, frequently stum-
bling. This characteristic of activity of walk is not empha-
sized as much as it should be. The Scotch place a premium
on this feature of the Clydesdale, which has resulted in
unusual freedom of action with this breed. The horse
that flexes his pasterns well at the walk, shows the bottoms

108 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

of his feet with much clearness to the judge standing be-
hind. Further, as viewed from one side, the knee, hock and
fetlocks flex strongly, the foot swinging to carry the toe
well behind and slightly upward.

The draft horse at a trot should have a strong, regular,
easy gait. The trot is distinctly secondary to the walk, yet

Fig. 58. — "The draft horse that trots well is usually a good walker."

the draft horse that trots well is usually a good walker.
The heavy horse moves off slowly as a rule though
with power. He often drags his feet more than he should
and shows evidence of awkwardness. High action should
not be expected, but rather a strong, regular, easy stride,
with the feet carried well off the ground. At the trot the
joints flex more than at the walk, and the feet are carried
somewhat higher. The judge should examine the horse,
both at walk and trot, having him led toward him and
away from him, thus enabling him best to study the true-
ness of action. From a side view one may best judge the

THE TYPES AND CLASSES <)l 1IOKSKS 1Q9

flexing of the limbs and carriage of body while in motion.
If the action is true and snappy at the walk, then 110 un-
reasonable penalty should be placed against the horse that
lacked somewhat in speed, though of course, other things
being equal, the one that will trot most rapidly has the ad-
vantage. Age and training have much to do with the
character of draft horse action. Young, green colts do not
show to advantage.

Fig. 59. — "From a side view one may best judge the flexing of the
limbs and carriage of body while in motion."

CHAPTER VII.
THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DRAFT HORSES.

IT is assumed that the student, through the use of the
score card, has become acquainted with the points and
general conformation of the draft horse. With this in-
strument he has attempted to analyze and measure the
value of the points of the individual. As a matter of
progress in the study of animal form it is necessary that
comparisons be drawn between individuals. If two horses
of the same type stand side by side it is entirely natural
to make at once a comparison between them. Two horses
are never mated up for a team by a discerning horseman
without comparing their relative merits, their adaptability

Fig. 60. — "It is important that animals of approximately the same age
and class be grouped."

110

COMPARATIVE STl'DV OF DRAFT IIOHSKS m

to each other, which should be the near and which the off
horse. In the show ring the comparative method, of neces- .
sity prevails, unless but one animal is shown in a class. In
the classroom a group of four horses makes a convenient
number for study. It is important that animals of ap-
proximately the same age and class be grouped. This
admits of a fairer basis of comparison if the type or breed,
height and general size and conformation are not mate-
rially different. Comparative judging is most unsatisfactory
when horses of essentially different type meet in a ring
in which uniformity of type is desired. It is true that,
for comparative reasons, it may be desirable on occasion
to use an animal of quite another sort for the purpose of
contrasting types or breeds, but in general, groups become
the most efficient mediums for judging work when uniform
in character. Color is not a necessary factor unless breed
study is under consideration. Draft type must be the prime
feature, if this is the subject of comparison.

A first step in judging a group of draft horses would
be to give them a general survey. It may be assumed that
they are standing in a row, their heads in line, awaiting
examination. The judge should slowly pass about the
group at sufficient distance to comprehend the general
character of the animals as a whole, noting uniformity of
type and character. In this inspection he will be im-
pressed by some individuals more than by others and will
quickly take note of features of special merit or demerit.
This general survey is then followed by individual inspec-
tion in which studied comparison is made between animals.
The ideal animal of the type or breed is in the mind of tho
judge and as he inspects the different individuals he com-
pares them not only with the ideal, but with each other.
One of the group must measure up to a greater degree of
merit than any of the others and this animal in due" time
is accorded first position. The horse placed second must
be lacking in merit, compared with the first, although the
difference between them may not be important. It is a

H2 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

rare event for a judge to be unable to decide between two
animals for first place. For reasons satisfactory to himself
the judge places the horses in their relative order of merit.
In judging draft horses size and weight, in the opinion of
many, must be regarded as of first importance, after which
come various factors measured up in comparative values
as expressed by the score card. It is important in this
consideration not to emphasize too heavily in themselves
certain features, unless properly associated with other
factors of conformation whereby balance and merit are
secured. Notable defects, as, for example, a spavin, should
as a rule drop an animal out of serious consideration unless
perchance each animal in the ring was suffering from some
physical blemish. But if one is to emphasize strength of
loin, he should realize that it ought to be related to a strong
back and coupling and naturally powerful conformation.
Judges are usually critical of the feet of the horse and
some men at once place an animal low in the ring if the
feet do not measure up to a high standard. However, if
the feet are sound, yet of undesirable size or shape, there
may be enough good qualities in the horse to justify plac-
ing him comparatively high in the line. In comparative
work the judge should make his placings consistent and if
possible keep animals of the same type together. If there
is much variation in type, then one should seek to secure as
much balance and merit as possible high up in the line,
with a gradual lessening amount of merit as we approach
the foot of the line. It is pertinent here to quote from an
important editorial1 on the balanced horse: "Frequently
it happens that some one or more characteristics about a
horse are unduly magnified in importance while some serious
faults are overlooked. Men are ever likely to ride a hobby
to death. . . . There are many admirers of horses whose
judgment is seriously warped, few who have a well-balanced
conception of what constitutes merit. One notices this
when several men examine the same horse at once. One

1 "The Breeders' Gazette," Vol. 68, November 4, 1915.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DRAFT HORSES H3

may pay closest attention to the head, another to the feet,
and hocks, back, chest, flanks, bone and weight may receive
concern from others. It is true the horse of all-round
balanced merit of build and finish is rare, and so is the man
who can appreciate him when found. One can count on
the fingers of one hand the men in America who have
become famous for ability to pick out 'diamonds in the
rough ' among horses. Even those who can be counted on
consistently to rate* highly fitted horses in the show ring
are so scarce as to exasperate show officials. . . . Evidently
there is too little effort made to fix in mind an ideal,
balanced pattern of horse, and then adhere to it. ' '

The weak and strong1 features of horses under com-
parison, may be set forth in interesting and instructive
form, by means of a comparative card, of which the fol-
lowing is a sample:

DRAFT HORSE COMPARISON CARD.
Name of Judge Date Judged

1st 2d 3d 4th

POINTS TO JUDGE. Place Place Place Place

Weight A G B' D

Height B A C D

Quality A C B D

Substance .... C A D B

Head and neck A C B D

Forehand A B C D

Chest .. A G B D

Back A C D B

Eibs C A B D

Flanks AC B D

Croup A C D B

Thijrhs A C B D

Feet . . A C D B

Action A C B D

Placing A C B D

114

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

This is only suggestive, for the judge may make up a com-
parative card, and on it indicate such features as he thinks
desirable. Each horse is given a number or letter, and
then is given a grade in each feature. The placing of a
group will depend very much on the number of times A
was credited with first place, B with second, etc. It is
necessary, however, that the judge give the same relative
importance to the points considered that they are credited
with in the scale of points. He need not do this numeri-
cally but in his final decision he must adjust his placings
so as to be consistent. This comparative card is simply to
place on record the judge's opinion of the relative merits
of certain points he desires to study as separate groups.
In a comparative study of a ring of horses they should
be examined in various ways. At rest, standing side by
side, the heads and necks, the forehands, the thickness of
body and placing of legs and front feet may be seen to
advantage from a front view. A rear view of the hind-
quarters lined up for comparison, facilitates the study of
thickness of body, muscling, leg position, etc. The horses
placed in single file, directly back of each other, furnish
excellent opportunity for important comparison, as for

Fig. 61. — "The groups as a whole may first be paraded about the ring.'

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DRAFT HORSES n.->

example, length and depth, balance and carriage. The
action of the horse must also be carefully inspected. The
groups as a whole may first be paraded about the ring
following in single file, after which individuals may be
tal^eii one at a time and the action studied and compared.
Each horse should be examined by the judge from the same
points of view, that his comparisons may be uniform.

Reasons for positions assigned a ring of horses may be
demanded from a judge at any time, and should be always
willingly given. In fact, a more instructive service would
be rendered at our shows if judges were to make a state-
ment to the ringside why awards are made as they are.
Modern methods of education in our schools and colleges
require the student to give the instructor his reasons for
making his decisions. In the various student judging con-
tests, such as at the International Live Stock Exposition
at Chicago, the National Dairy Show, and in state and
county competitions, the student is usually graded for his
placings and reasons for making the same. The students
are given a limited amount of time for placing the ring,
after which they are taken aside and allowed time for giv-
ing oral or written reasons. In the International Live
Stock Show judging contests, eighteen minutes are al-
lowed a contestant, "to make his observations, record his
placings, and write such memoranda as he may desire. "
Each contestant is later called before the judges and al-
lowed two minutes to give reasons for his placing of a
ring. At the National Dairy Show, written reasons are
required, the student being allowed fifteen minutes for
writing his reasons for placing a group. An example of
student method in giving written reasons, is herewith
offered, as perhaps suggestive and helpful to some not
entirely familiar with this work. This is an exact copy
from classroom work, written by one who had no thought
of its publication here. It is not perfect, but presents a
method of expression in placing a ring of four Percheroii
mares :

116

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

"I placed D over A on type, conformation, quality
and action. D more nearly represents the ideal Percheron
mare type than A by virtue of her cleaner cut, breedier
head ; her stronger, better balanced top ; her greater roomi-
ness of middle ; her cleaner, denser bone, and larger, better
shaped feet. D shows more quality than A in her general

Fig. 02. — Note the character of fronts on these horses and the
positions of legs and feet.

and

make-up, and gets away with more snap and length
trueness of stride.

"I placed A over B on conformation and action. A
shows more symmetry of form, has a more neatly turned
shoulder, has more depth and width of chest, a stronger
back and loin, a neater turn of croup, stands on heavier,
flatter, cleaner bone, and larger, better shaped feet. She
goes with a truer, more elastic stride.

''I placed B over C on conformation, quality and action.

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DRAFT HORSES 117

B has a cleaner cut, breedier head ; more strength of back
and roominess of middle ; a longer, wider croup ; denser
bone, and stands on larger feet of better quality. B has
more length, strength and trueness of stride. C is plain
about the head, lacks strength of back, is too steep of
croup, has coarse bone, short, stubby pasterns, and lacks
ability to move."

The reasons given would have been stronger if more
comparative. Attention should have been directed to some
of the inferior characteristics of the one given place over
the other, emphasizing the point that even these were not
of enough importance to reduce the animal to subordinate
place. The student should show his ability to make com-
parative comment on weak as well as strong features.

CHAPTER VIII.

JUDGING BREEDING DRAFT HORSES.

THE judging of breeding horses requires consideration
of sex characteristics, and those features of conformation
essential in the animal used for reproduction. It requires
the highest degree of intelligence on the part of the judge
wisely to discriminate in selecting breeding animals. If
one is qualified to do this, there can be no doubt about his
ability to pass on geldings.

(A)— JUDGING THE STALLION.

The sex character of the stallion is one of his conspicu-
ous features. His head is somewhat stronger and larger
than that of the mare, and his neck much heavier and
thicker, with some strength of arch. When the stallion is
in superior physical vigor and spirits, he tends to carry
head and neck high, and shows the self-assertion and
dominant quality of the masculine sex. He should show
marked strength of character in his head, for it expresses
much, whether bold and toplofty, or meek and droopy.
Some stallions have heads of an effeminate appearance,
or resemble the gelding in sexless character. Such heads
should be discriminated against by both judge and breeder.
One could not expect the best breeding results from a
feminine appearing sire. The neck should show some
length, rather than be short and steer-like, and be well laid
with powerful, long muscles. A strong development of hair
at the foretop and top of the neck, is also a feature of the
stallion, the hair tending to be coarse rather than fine.
The stallion should manifest in his head and especially
eyes, something of his character, not easy to define, yet
expressing personality, temperament, disposition, and sex-

118

JUDGING BREEDING DRAFT HORSES H9

ual dominance. The sex character of the stallion is also
shown in his powerful development of bone and muscle,
and in his sexual organs. Even when of the same size as
the mare, his bone tends to be heavier, his muscles more
prominent and his frame more powerful. The sexual
organs should be perfectly developed, and the judge should
note that the scrotum consists of a double sac and promi-
nent enough to bear evidence of being on a breeding animal.
A stallion with a single testicle is known as a ridgling, and
is at least open to criticism in the show ring, though he
may not be a non-breeder.

The general body conformation of the stallion should
show closeness of coupling and strength of back, but plenty
of length of middle. Some persons favor much compact-
ness of body, but if properly coupled and the back strongly
sustained, then the body itself may have length to ad-
vantage. The shoulders of the stallion are also usually
somewhat heavier and more prominent than on a gelding
or mare, giving a thickness in front expressive of mascu-
linity and power.

The size of the stallion usually exceeds that of tbe.mare,
though not to a notable extent in many cases. However,
a draft stallion weighing 2,000 pounds, might be a satis-
factory size, while the female of the breed at 1,700 would
meet all requirements. It is not unreasonable to expect
the male to weigh three or four hundred pounds more than
the female. Most men desire comparatively large, rather
stretchy types of stallions, and,, these weigh distinctly
more than the low set, compact, chunky sort. This type of
stallion stands higher than the mares, and is larger and
coarser in every way.

The constitutional vigor of the stallion should also
receive consideration. This is shown in the strength and
character of the head, but is especially seen in the promi-
nence of breast and the depth and fullness of chest. The
degree of width of chest will depend upon the type, the
draft stallion showing more than the lighter sort, but this

120

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

should not be extreme. It is important that the forerib
be well arched, but even more desirable that it be long, and
so account for a strong heart girth and full flank. Not
only this, but a long forerib is sure to be associated with
general depth of body, feeding capacity, and vitality. A
horse with shallow body and long legs cannot stand up
under work, and does not show the constitution that the
deeper bodied, lower set one does. Constitutional vigor
in the male, is regarded as of prime importance, and judges
should give it due recognition.

The temperament of the stallion will be shown in a
degree, according to his type, the heavy draft horse being
somewhat quieter and more phlegmatic than the lighter
type. In general however, when not overworked, the stal-
lion shows an animated, aggressive character, with evi-
dence of much reserve nervous force. If overworked, he
loses much of his fire and ambition. In the city of Paris
there are thousands of draft stallions stolidly pulling away
at enormous loads, quiet and indifferent as to what is going
on about them, giving little evidence of the naturally bold
temperament of the sex. The stallion should be active

Fig. 63. — "In the city of Paris there are thousands of draft stallions
stolidly pulling away at enormous loads."

JUDGING BREEDING DRAFT HORSES

121

and alert, yet not nervous and irritable. His disposition
is usually good, but he will bear watching for he may be
unnecessarily playful with either teeth or feet.

(B)— JUDGING THE MARE.

The sex character of the mare is seen in a smaller and
more refined head than has the stallion, and a more slender,
less muscular neck. The beautiful, symmetrical propor-

Fiu. 64. — "The beautiful, symmetrical proportion of head ; the mild, quiet,
inquiring eyes, and the delicate, attentive ears, give strong evidence of
feminine and maternal qualities."

tions of head; the mild, quiet, inquiring eyes; and the
delicate attentive ears, give strong evidence of feminine
and maternal qualities. If the stallion is bold and inde-
pendent, the mare is both shy and friendly. The udder of
the mare is small, consisting of a double gland and two
teats. This is not conspicuous, excepting while nursing the
foal. It is desirable that the judge note the size of the
udder and teats. If nursing, the udders should be well
extended between the thighs, and carry two good sized teats.

122 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The conformation of the mare is narrower all through
than in the stallion. The shoulders are comparatively
light, the withers narrow, the breast and chest less thick
than with the male, and the body long and deep. At ma-
turity, the belly of the mare often shows considerable
roundness and downward curve, features associated with
reproduction. While her back should be well sustained,
she should show a long line and great capacity between the
front and hind flanks. The limbs of the mare often dis-
play delicacy of outline and refinement of bone.

The constitutional vigor of the mare as with the stal-
lion, is shown in the active, alert character of head and eye,
in the depth and prominence of breast, the width and
strength of back, and the length, depth and capacity of
body. There are really no essential differences, excepting
in degree, in the various features which guide one in deter-
mining constitutional vigor, in either mare or stallion.

The temperament of the mare is less active as a rule
than in case of the stallion. She is not self-assertive,
but not necessarily lacking in interest in things about her.
Her disposition may be quite variable, though she is not
likely to be as aggressive as the stallion. The temperament
in most cases is more notable from the standpoint of type
than sex.

CHAPTER IX.

BREEDS OF DRAFT HORSES.

PURE bred draft horses are rapidly growing in favor in
America. In fact, horses of true draft class very generally
show pronounced breed character. This is naturally due to
the use of pure bred sires of the draft breeds. Brief de-
scriptions are herewith given of the more important char-
acteristics of each important draft breed. No scales of
points have thus far been adopted by any of the official
associations registering pure bred draft horses.

The Percheron horse originated in northwestern France,
in La Perche district. The Percheron is a medium sized
draft breed, though many individuals attain great scale.
Mature stallions weigh from 1,700 to 2,000 pounds, and
mature mares from 1,500 to 1,800 pounds. The height
commonly ranges from 16 to 17 hands. The color is usually
gray of some shade, or black. In recent years black has
grown greatty in popularity, both in France and America.
Bay or brown colors occur but are quite uncommon, and
are not regarded as distinguishing characteristics of the
breed. Percherons possess certain distinctive and common
features. The head is breedy in character, of prominent
eye and open countenance, suggesting a dash of Oriental
blood. The neck is long and powerful, and though the back
is broad and well carried, the body quite often lacks depth
in comparison with the Shire or Belgian. The croup, while
wide and powerfully muscled, naturally tends to some
steepness. The legs are strong of bone and should be quite
free of long hair about the fetlocks. Percheron feet are
usually of superior dark texture and of excellent size and

123

124

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 65. — Percheron mare Hysope. Champion International Live Stock
Exposition, 1912. (From photograph by Hildebrand.)

form. This is one of the most active of draft breeds, yet
withal quiet and steady under the collar. The readiness
of the Percheron to respond to the driver, its capacity to
endure work, its freedom from long hairs on the legs, and
excellent feet, are factors that have largely contributed
to the great popularity of this breed in America, where it
far outnumbers all other draft breeds combined.

BREEDS OF DRAFT HORSES

125

The Belgian horse originated in Belgium, where it lias
been bred for several centuries. This is a very compact, wide,
deep, short-legged kind of draft horse. In Belgium one
sees three types of this breed • the larger type, common in
Flanders, shows more length and is more upstanding than
the medium type of Brabant or the smaller sort of Arden-
nais. American importers have brought the larger or

Fig. GO. — A Belgian mare. (Courtesy American Agriculturist.)

medium type to this country. "Weights of from 1,600 to
2,000 pounds, and even more for the larger stallions are
acceptable, with a height of about 16 hands. Chestnut is
the most popular color, though brown of various shades,
and roans, are quite common. Compactness and muscu-
larity are Belgian attributes, and so the neck appears short
and thick; the body wide, deep and closely coupled; the
croup often steep, and the legs commonly short. Bel-
gians are frequently somewhat refined in bone for weight

126

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

of body, and are free from long hair. The feet tend to be
small, and lacking in fulness at hoof-head and heel,
though these deficiencies are being gradually reduced.
The Belgian is notable among draft horses for its activity,
and the ability to move freely at a trot. Horses of this breed
have been raised in Belgium in close touch with the family
and so are very docile and easily handled.

The Clydesdale horse is named after the Clyde district
in southwestern Scotland, where this horse has been known
since about 1715. The Clydesdale is a medium sized draft
animal, the mature stallions weighing 1,800 to 2,000 pounds,
the mares 1,600 to 1,700. A height of about 16y2 hands
meets with approval. The color is usually a bay or brown,
with white on the face and on the legs below knee and hock.

Fig. 67. — Clydesdale stallion

photograph.)

(From a Scotch

BREEDS OF DRAFT HORSES

127

Fig. 68. — "The Shire is a larger and more massive breed than the
Clydesdale."

White, however, may occasionally extend beyond these
points. Chestnut, black, and gray are colors that occur
occasionally with this breed. There are certain features
quite distinctive of this breed. Clydesdale men emphasize
the long, sloping shoulder; the broad, long, comparatively
level croup ; the superior hair and bone, especially as seen
in the legs, and the strong, superior movement of knee and
hock. The Scotchman believes his horse has the best of
feet and legs, and when either walking or trotting, his
action is the best of any of the draft breeds. Large, round
feet, often white, are characteristic, though there is a ten-
dency to flat-footedness. Long, flowing hairs are set in
the back of the legs below knee and hock. The body
of the Clydesdale frequently lacks massiveness and depth,

128 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

and this horse therefore often appears light of middle
or short of rib, and consequently somewhat upstanding.
The criticism which this lack of massiveness has caused,
is resulting in substantial breed improvement in this regard.
The Shire horse is an English breed of much the same
general character as the Clydesdale. It has been bred for

Pig. 69. — "The round, full form of body gave this horse in its native
home the name of Suffolk Punch."

many years in England, and is as popular with the English
as the Clydesdale is with the Scotch. The Shire has hairy
legs like the Clyde. The color is usually bay or brown, with
white markings, as with the Clydesdale. However, black,
roan, chestnut or gray are not unusual colors. The Shire
is a larger and more massive breed than the Clydesdale,
with wider back and deeper, heavier body. In this breed
we find our heaviest draft horse, with stallions: weighing

BREEDS OF DRAFT HORSES 129

1,800 to 2,200 pounds or more, and the mares 1,700 to 1,900
pounds. A height of 17 hands is acceptable. A large head,
with a tendency to Roman nose, great scale and massive
body are features of a superior Shire. The shoulders and
pasterns tend to undesirable straightness ; the bone is fre-
quently heavy; and the feet large and inclined to be flat.
Formerly the Shire was regarded as coarse, heavy and
slow in movement, and lacking in good action. In recent
years English breeders have done much to improve them,
and the criticisms of slow movement and coarseness are
not as generally true to-day as they once were.

The Suffolk horse is a breed that originated long ago in
Suffolk county, on the east coast of England. Few horses
of this breed are found in America. The color is chestnut,
varying from light to dark. The size is medium, stallions
commonly weighing 1,800 to 1,900 pounds, and standing
16 to 17 hands high. It is characterized by a distinctly
Roman face ; crested neck ; a very wide, deep-ribbed, com-
pact body ; and short, clean legs. The round, full form of
body gave this horse in its native home the name of Suffolk
Punch, a term not so commonly used to-day. The hocks
have been somewhat criticized as lacking in depth, and the
feet have also been faulted for being too small and shelly.
In their native Suffolk, one sees fine specimens of this breed,
where they are regarded as very superior draft horses for
farm work.

CHAPTER X.

JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE.

IN the discussion of the draft horse in the preceding
pages, many things are considered in some detail, that have
a general application to all types of horses, and need not
be taken up again. Therefore, it is highly desirable that
the reader first familiarize himself with the subject of
judging draft horses. Emphasis will be placed in the
following pages on those features that have special applica-
tion to the type under consideration. In comparison the
light harness horse is much smaller than the draft horse,
and is narrower and less inclined to fleshiness. He is bred
for speed and rapid gait, consequently he should not be
encumbered with unnecessary weight. The light harness

Fi£. 70. — "The light harness horse is much smaller than the draft
horse, and is narrower and less inclined to fleshiness." (Reproduced from
photoffraph by Schreiber & Sons.)

130

JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 131

type, however, as seen in the American roadster, trotter or
pacer, varies greatly in size and conformation. This is due
to the lack of systematic breeding within this class, and the
mating of animals of widely different blood lines and con-
formation. The discussion following is meant to apply to
a type of the light harness horse, bred for driving and speed,
that is of medium size and meets the demands of American
horsemen. What is known as the "Standard Bred" is
another name for this same type.

JUDGING LIGHT HARNESS TYPE OF HORSE BY SCALE
OF POINTS.

The height of the light harness horse usually ranges
from 15!/4 to 16 hands, though it may vary even more than
this. A height from 15T/4 to 15% may be considered most
desirable.

The weight of the light harness horse varies even more
than the height. In general 1,100 pounds may be regarded
with favor. However, stallions outweigh mares as a rule
and 1,100 to 1,250 pounds for the former, and 900 to 1,100
for the latter, are satisfying ranges of weight. In judging
a class, most men would discriminate against undersize,
though excessive weight and grossness would be equally

bad/

SCORE CARD FOR LIGHT HARNESS HORSES.

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse

Score Studied
A— GENERAL APPEARANCE, 12 Points:

1. Height estimated hands Actual hands

2. Weight, 1,200 Ibs. for stallion, 1,000 Ibs. for mare. .

Estimated weight

Actual weight

?,. Form, long, deep, muscular, angular -1

4. Quality, general refinement and finish shown in

clearly defined features of head, bone, and
joints, prominent tendons and fine skin and
hair 4

5. Temperament, active, docile, disposition good . . . 4
B— HEAD AND NECK, 8 Points:

(!. Head in good proportions, clear cut, straight face,

line, angle lower jaw wide . . . . . .. 2

7. Forehead, broad, full . . 1

8. Eyes, prominent, large, clear, bright . . I

132 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse

tSeiore Studied

9. Muzzle, fine, lips thin and even, teeth sound, nos-
trils large 1 ....

10. Ears, medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried

alert 1

11. Neck, long, lean, slightly arched, throat-latch fine,

windpipe large

C — FOREHAND, 24 Points:

12. Shoulders, long, oblique, light, smooth 2

13. Arms, short, muscular, carried well forward . . . . 1

14. Forearms, long, wide, muscular 2

15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, clean, strongly sup-

ported

16. Cannons, short, wide, tendons prominent and well

set back 2

17. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons well back . . . . 2

18. Pasterns, long, oblique (angle about 45°), smooth,

strong 0

19. Feet, medium size, even, round, straight ; slope par-

allel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong;
%rog large, elastic; heel wide, full, 1-3 length
of toe ; horn dense, smooth 6

20. Legs, properly placed, according to description in

draft horse score card 4 ....

D— BODY, 10 Points:

21. Withers, high, narrow, extending well back . . . . 1 ....

22. Chest, medium width, deep 2 ....

23. Bibs, long, moderately sprung, close 2 ....

24. Back, straight, short, broad, strong 2 ....

25. Loin, short, broad, strong 2

26. Flanks, deep, full, long, low underline 1 ....

E — HINDQUARTERS, 27 Points:

27. Hips, wide-spaced, smooth, level 2 ....

28. Croup, long, wide, smooth, level tendency . . . . 2 ....

29. Tail, attached high, well carried 1 ....

30. Thighs, long, muscular; stifles prominent, well set . . 2 ....

31. Gaskins, long, broad, muscular 2 ....

32. Hocks, straight, wide, deep, clean cut, point promi-

nent, well supported 5 ....

33. Cannons, short, wide, flat, clean, tendons well de-

fined, set well back 2 ....

34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons well back . . . . 1 ....

35. Pasterns, long, not so oblique as in front (about

50°), strong . . 2 ....

36. Feet, medium size, even, round, straight; slope par-

allel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong;
frog large, elastic; heel wide, full, 1-3 length
toe; horn dense 4 ....

37. Legs, properly placed, according to definition in

draft horse score card 4 ....

F — ACTION, 19 Points:

38. Walk, long, free stride 5

39. Trot, long, straight, regular, rapid, easy stride . . 14

Total . . 100

JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 133

The general form of the light harness horse should be
comparatively long, narrow and deep, with a muscular
appearance, and a tendency to angularity. The muscles
and joints incline to prominence, and the ribs are more or

Fig. 71. — "A horse of this type, with thickness of form, could not be

exported to produce the greatest speed."

less noticeable. A horse of this type with thickness of form,
could not be expected to produce the greatest speed.

The quality of the light harness horse is shown in the
general refinement of parts, the head and limbs being small,
and free from coarseness. The lines of the head are well
defined, the ears small and thin, the skin is also thin, and
the hair fine and silky. The bone is comparatively small,
and the joints are quite lean. The leanness of leg enables
one often to see the tendons very easily. The appearance

134

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

of veins on the surface of face, shoulders, lower part of
body, and upper part of limbs, are expressive of quality
and superior breeding. So also the prominent, delicate
nostril is a sign of quality.

The temperament of the light harness horse is natu-
rally nervous, indicating the desire for action. Of an active
type, he is well fitted for speed and motion. If sleepy and
dull, a vital quality of the type is lacking. Too lively tem-
perament is undesirable, but the horse should manifest an
interest in his surroundings, and express animation to a
degree indicating both intelligence and potent muscular
activity. In disposition, we find wide extremes among light
harness horses, due to differences in inheritance. In gen-
eral horses of this class are of good disposition and not
given to biting, kicking or other meanness to any unusual

degree. The judge is justified
in attaching importance to
disposition as closely related
to temperament, and as dis-
tinctive of the type.

The head of the light har-
ness horse should be lean and
shapely, the profile showing
quite straight from ears to
nose. Craig makes the obser-
vation 1 that in scanning the
photographs of a great num-
ber of trotters, " nearly all
stallions have slight Roman
noses while most of the mares
have slightly dished faces, a
distinction which seems to be
characteristic of the sexes."
A very prominent Roman
nose he regards as indicative

Fig. 72. — "The profile showing
quite straight from ears to nose."

1 Judging Live Stock, 6th ed., 1904, p. 2L

JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 135

of a self-willed disposition. The more distinctive features
of the head of this type of horse, is marked leanness, with
veins often showing- prominently under the skin. A coarse,
meaty head is highly objectionable, and should be discrimi-
nated against by the judge. Sensitive, well-defined nostrils,
and thin, even lips are found among the best examples of
this type.

The neck of the light harness horse is essentially long,
lean and muscular. Often the stallions show but little crest!
The neck should be carried gracefully, and raised enough
to support the head as becomes a horse of vigor. The speed
horse naturally possesses a long neck, and as the type ap-
proaches draft rather than speed form, the 'neck shortens
and thickens. The proper length of neck is assumed to be
that which enables the horse to graze easily. Flexibility

Fig. 73. — "The long, flexible neck is a striking feature of conformation.'

136 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

of neck is essential in the speed horse, and to secure this,
there must be ample length and muscularity without any
undesirable thickness. Hayes states1* that "when 'clever-
ness' is essential to a horse, he should have a flexible neck,
and should be able to bend and extend it with utmost fa-
cility, so as to use his head and neck as balancing pole for
preserving the equilibrium of his body." Patrons of the
race track who are interested in the horse, are well aware
that the long, flexible neck is a striking feature of con-
formation. It is desirable, for good conformation, to have
a top line of neck with a very slight arch, but not enough
to be conspicuous, excepting among stallions. Ewe necks
are not uncommon among light harness horses, but this
conformation is neither beautiful nor muscular. Hayes, in
referring to this kind of neck 2 with light harness horses,
states that it seems to be no detriment to speed, but that it
might affect his handiness, by depriving his rider or driver,
to some extent, of command of him, and by causing his
head to be brought into a direction which might prevent
him seeing clearly where he is going. According to Gou-
baux and Barriere, 3 ' ' The neck is called straight or pyra-
midal, when its borders are rectilinear, and its lateral faces
nearly plane or but slightly rounded, according to the age,
the sex, the volume of the muscles, etc., of the animal. The
head is then well supported and well directed." Such a
type of neck applies especially to the light harness horse.
The shoulders of the light harness horse should be
long and especially oblique or sloping, for the reason that
the horse with a long, oblique, light shoulder is able to
raise his fore limb and advance it more easily than with
a more upright or straight shoulder. Obliqueness in itself,
however, is no guarantee of speed, for we know that deer
and antelope, the shoulders of which incline to be upright,
are very rapid travelers. However, in the artificial con-

l!XThe Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 221.
2 The Points of the Horse, 3d ed., 1904, p. 224.
s The Exterior of the Horse, 2d ed., 1904, p. 99.

JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 137

ditions of bearing burdens and the experience of training,
the horse with the light, oblique blade has less concussion
of fore limb and is able to stand long and severe effort
better than the horse with upright blade. Thickness or
fullness of shoulder in its upper part, especially about the
withers, is very undesirable. A combination of lightness
and obliqueness secures the most perfect action. Hayes
states that he has seen many sprinters with upright shoul-
ders, but he has never seen a genuine stayer, such as Or-
monde, St. Gatien, or Eobert the Devil, with that kind of
conformation. There is no controversy among light horse
critics as to the significance and value of the light, oblique
shoulder. Among draft horsemen, however, there is more
tolerance for the upright position. The light harness judge
should emphasize this matter of desirable shoulder con-
formation.

The arms and forearms of the light harness horse should
be reasonably muscular. The heavy muscularity of the
draft horse is not looked for, but a wide, firm covering here
is desirable. In producing great speed, it is necessary that
the muscles back of the forearm be strongly developed, as
they are brought into active play in raising the foreleg.

The knees of the light harness horse should possess the
same desirable qualities to be found in the draft horse,
though the conformation will be less gross and more
sharply defined.

The cannons of the light harness horse are rarely fleshy,
being simply the combination of bone, tendon, ligament
and skin, with flesh or muscle reduced to a minimum. A
short, clean, smooth cannon, with the tendons carried well
back, and parallel with the bone, are prime features of the
horse with rapid gait. Roughness of bone is easily noted
in this type, and is an evidence of weakness. Long cannon
bones are undesirable, for they lack the strength of the
shorter ones. Further, as a rule, the horse of greatest
speed-producing power has a short rather than long can-
non. Horse critics often emphasize the point that the

138

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 74. — "On the light type of horse the bone and tendons are usually
seen without difficulty." The noted trotter The Harvester.

cannon bones should be hard and of superior substance.
It is not easy to determine the quality of the bone except-
ing in a relative way, as for example, by smoothness and
proportions of the part. The application of the hands
should show the bone itself very clean and smooth, with the
back tendons prominent and a complete freedom from
puffiness, soft tissue or roughness. On the light type of
horse the bone and tendon are usually seen without diffi-
culty and handling is not necessary. Emphasis should be
placed on the tendons being parallel with the bone, and the
upper part of cannon presenting a strong depth from front
to rear, entirely free from a tied-in appearance just below
the knee.

The pasterns of the light harness horse should be long,
smooth and strong, being carried at an angle of about 45

JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 139

degrees. The shoulder and pastern have much work in
common, and if the speed is great, or the work severe, the
pastern will bear up under it best, if long, strong, and
springy. Severe concussion will not be so likely to occur
with such a pastern. If short and stubby, the gait will be
hard and slow, and foot trouble may very likely result.
It will be well to note here, however, that on soft ground
conditions are more favorable for the short, less oblique
pastern. On the hard American race track and ordinary
highway, the long, oblique pastern results in a minimum
concussion. The long pastern allows for greater movement
of the fetlock joint, an essential if speed is desired. It is
important that the pastern should not be too sloping, as
occasionally occurs, with the fetlock extending back of the
foot to a marked degree. This is a defect due to a weaken-
ing of the tendons and ligaments above.

The foot of the light harness horse does not differ from
that of the draft horse, excepting in degree. Besides being
smaller, it no doubt has a tougher hoof than that of the
heavier horse, and consequently is less inclined to wear
away and take on bad form. The feet should be of medium
size, good mates in both size and shape ; be wide at the heel
and not too low set at this point, and have well developed
frog, and strong bars. The length of heel should be about
one-third the length of the front of the hoof. Such a foot
withstands the severe concussion of heavy driving, and en-
ables the horse to do his work without discomfort as far as
the feet are concerned. The judge is not likely to over-
estimate the importance of the feet, and if he turns a horso
down for defective under-pinning, his work will be com-
mended by critics, rather than otherwise.

The position of the front legs of the light harness horse
when at rest, is correctly described under the discussion of
the draft horse, on page 88.

The body of the light harness horse differs from that
of the draft horse, in being smaller and having a greater
relative depth than breadth. As viewed from in front or

Fig. 75. — "As viewed from in front or behind, one is
impressed with a degree of narrowness of body. Width
is undesirable from a speed point of view."

JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 141

behind, one is impressed with a degree of narrowness of
body. Width is undesirable from a speed point of view,
and no great race horses have been notably wide. Hayes
states that he is convinced that no race horse can be too
narrow in front, for the width of frontage is essentially
that of the body. Persons familiar with the trotter or
pacer, recognize that while the body may show plenty of
capacity for the various organs, this capacity is seen in
depth rather than in width. The high elevation of the
withers, and their lean, long appearance, add to the gen-
eral effect of depth of body. So also a rib formation
showing ample length, yet only moderate spring or arch,
is in harmony with the desired conformation. The back
of the race horse should be short and strong, for the
longer it is, the weaker will be the muscular connection
essential in speed production. So also should the loin be
short, broad and thick, indicating strength.

The hindquarters of the light harness horse often stand
at a slightly higher elevation than the forequarters at the
withers, and have a lean and somewhat angular appear-
ance. The hips should be less fleshed over than in the draft
horse. The croup should be long and muscular, and tend
to be level from between the hips to setting on of tail.
Steepness of croup is quite common among light harness
horses, especially pacers, a side view showing a marked
slope. In the case of the trotter the croup is carried
higher and in better form. Hayes states4 that, "to have
the point of the buttock placed high and projecting well
to the rear is a great beauty, which may be seen in some
Thoroughbreds and in high-caste Arabs." The gaskin
should be long, broad and muscular. Differing from the
draft horse, length and strength of gaskin muscle are es-
sential if speed is to be secured, for by these only can
increase of motion be obtained up to the end of the stride.
The stifle joint should be fairly high, and face outward
enough to permit freedom of motion. The hock of the light

4 Points of the Horse, p. 311.

142

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

harness horse lacks the fleshy tendency of the draft horse,
is leaner and more sharply denned. This joint, if superior
speed is to be attained, must be right in conformation and
position. The hock should be straight and open enough to
allow the cannon bone to hold a vertical line. A leg of
such conformation has maximum power of extension in
producing high class speed. It is not an uncommon sight
however, to see race horses possessing great speed, with
curved hocks — especially pacers — that, when at rest, show
the cannons placed slightly forward and beneath the

Fig. 76. — "The croup should be long and muscular, and tend to be level
from between the hips to setting on of tail."

body. Jay-eye-See was a good example of this sort. Never-
theless, such a hock does not admit extreme extension.
This being so, the judge should emphasize the importance of
the straight hock and properly placed cannon. The leg
below the hock should be free of all fleshiness, and show
superior quality. The hind pasterns, it is to be noted, are
somewhat more upright than those in front, but not enough
so usually, to cause injurious concussion or affect speed.

JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT 1IAHXKSS TVPK 143

The hind feet, as explained elsewhere (page 103), arc not
so round as the front ones, while the sides are straighter,
the heel higher, and the frog narrower.

The action of the light harness horse is one of its most
important features, for without excellence in this regard
he becomes distinctly inferior in importance. The walk
should meet all the requirements of correct action al-
ready described. Further, the walk should be free and
easy, the feet being picked up with snap and placed

Fig. 77. — "The action of the light harness horse is one of its most im-
portant features." (Courtesy The Horse Review.)

back on the ground with decision, with no tendency to
stumble or drag the toes. When standing behind the horse,
the flexing of the joints should clearly show the glisten of
the shoes as the horse walks away. The trot or pace, how-
ever, rather than the walk, is the especial feature valued
in the light harness horse. High knee action is not sought,
but rather the long stride, in which the forward and back-
ward reaches are carried to maximum efficiency. In other
words, extreme extension is associated with great speed.
Therefore, as the judge stands at one side and watches the
light harness horse pass by, the relationship of flexing to

144 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

extension should be noted and emphasis placed on the lat-
ter. The knee will be carried high, the hock will not show
excess of motion, and the feet will move no higher above
the ground than is necessary to secure freedom of motion.
"While similar extension may be expected in the pace, the
peculiarities of gait make it unreasonable for the judge to
expect such harmony of motion as is usually found in the
trotter. One should not be too critical of swaying or lurch-
ing, if the necessary speed is attained. In commenting on

Fig. 78. — "The relationship of flexing to extension should be noted."

the light harness horse, at either trot or pace, Jordan says, 5
"the average or standard gait of either should result in
the greatest symmetry of action, together with the greatest
economy of energy and the greatest speed. It is true that
there will always be horses that have their own way of
going apparently, and this may be due to a peculiar de-
velopment and conformation. Their defects are often en-
tirely offset by muscular and structural compensations. In
all such cases, however, the locomotion must be along lines
of directness and symmetry, otherwise there would always

6 The Gait of the American Trotter and Pacer. Rudolph Jordan, Jr.,
1910, p. 86.

JUDGING HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 145

be a lack of balance and of speed. " If the gait is in a
measure rough, there must be sufficient balance to over-
come all irregularities, if maximum speed is to be
attained.

The Standard-bred horse is what is commonly known as
the American trotter or pacer. There is lack of uniformity
of breed character, such as is found in the Hackney, due
to mating animals of different types and blood lines. Many
people refuse to recognize the Standard bred as a breed,

Fig. 79.— The Harvester and Ed. Geers. ("The Standard Bred Horse.")

although under present conditions it is necessary to re-
gard it as such. There is a wide variation in size and type,
ranging from minimum horse height to 16 hands or more,
and weighing up to 1,400 pounds. A height of 15% hands,
and weight of 1,000 pounds for the mare, and 1,200 pounds
for the stallion, are quite approved. The color varies great-
ly, with bay most common. Referring to the gait, Gay

146 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

states6 that, "the way of going is most characteristic.
Whether at trot or pace, the gait is distinguished by the
length and rapidity of the individual strides, and the level,
true, frictionless manner in which they are executed. Fur-
thermore, the instinct to trot is well marked/' He further
says that, ''Undersized and ill-shaped individuals with ewe
necks, goose-rumps, bent or rounded hocks and tied-in can-
nons are too common." As this is the typical harness
horse it will be unnecessary to go into further descriptive
details than those outlined in the preceding pages.

Trotting and pacing standards are established by the
American Trotting Register Association. When an animal
meets the requirements set forth below, it shall be accepted
as a standard bred trotter or pacer as the case may be :

(A)— THE TROTTING STANDARD.

progeny of a registered standard trotting horse
and a registered standard trotting mare.

2 — A stallion sired by a registered standard trotting
horse, provided his dam and grandam were sired by regis-
tered standard trotting horses and he himself has a trot-
ting record of 2 :30 and is the sire of three trotters with
records of 2:30, from different mares.

3 — A mare whose sire is a registered standard trotting
horse, and whose dam and grandam were sired by registered
standard trotting horses, provided she herself has a trotting
record of 2 :30, or is the dam of one trotter with a record of
2 :30.

4 — A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
provided she is the dam of two trotters with records of 2 :30.

5 — A mare sired by a registered standard trotting horse,
provided her first, second, and third dams are each sired
by a registered standard trotting horse.

•Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock, 1914, p. 160.

.irnGTXG HORSES OF LIGHT HARNESS TYPE 147
(B)— THE PACING STANDARD.

1 — The progeny of a registered standard pacing horse
and ? registered standard paeing mare.

2— A stallion sired by a registered standard pacing horse
(provided his dam and grandam were sired by registered
standard pacing horses, and he himself has a pacing record
of 2:25), and is the sire of three pacers with records of
2 :25, from different mares.

3 — A mare whose sire is a registered standard pacing
horse and whose dam and grandam were sired by regis-
tered standard pacing horses, provided she herself has a
pacing record of 2 -.25, or is the dam of one pacer with a
record of 2:25.

4 — A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse,
provided she is the dam of two pacers with records of 2 :25.

5 — A mare sired by a registered standard pacing horse,
provided her first, second and third dams are each sired
by a registered standard pacing horse.

6 — The progeny of a registered standard trotting horse
out of a registered standard pacing mare, or of a registered
standard pacing horse out of a registered standard trottirig
mare.

CHAPTER XI.

JUDGING HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE.

THE heavy harness type of horse is also commonly re-
ferred to as the coach or carriage horse. This type is more
particularly classified on the basis of size, conformation
and action, rather than on breed lines. For example, we
have certain breeds, such as the Hackney, French Coach,
and German Coach, that are recognized as belonging to
the heavy harness class. Nevertheless we find within these
breeds types that may be classified otherwise. So also
among horses of light harness breeding, fine examples of
heavy harness type may be found. In fact some of the
most beautiful examples of heavy harness horses have been

Fig. 80. — "A horse with most of the essentials of light harness type, but
with more weight and smoothness of conformation, and more stately knee
and hock action." (Courtesy Mr. S. L. Howe, British Columbia.)

148

HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE 149

of trotting horse blood lines. Further, within what is re-
garded as the heavy harness group, may be found sub-
classes, based largely on size, action and purpose. Thus we
have the coach, park, cob and run-about sub-classes. The
general discussion, as relates to the scale of points, will
apply to the coach horse as best representing this type.
In view of the fact that the heavy harness type has be-
come of minor importance both in America and Europe,
owing to its being largely supplanted by the automobile,
but brief consideration will here be given this type. Fur-
ther, if one will picture a horse with most of the essentials
of light harness type, but with more weight and smoothness
of conformation, and more stately knee and hock action,
he will comprehend much of what is desired in the heavy
harness type.

RE CAED FOE HEAVY HAENESS HOESE.

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse

Score Studied
A— GENERAL APPEARANCE, 12 Points:

1. Height, estimated hands Actual hands . . . . ....

2. Weight, 1,350 Ibs. for stallions, 1,200 Ibs. for

mares. Estimated weight Actual weight

3. Form, close, full made, smooth, symmetrical, stylish 4

4. Quality, general refinement and finish shown in

clearly defined features of head, bone and
joints, prominent tendons, and fine skin and
hair 4

5. Temperament, proud, stylish, mannerly, disposition

good 4

B— HEAD AND NECK, 8 Points:

6. Head, in good proportions, clean-cut, straight face

line, angle lower jaw wide 2

7. Forehead, broad, full 1

8. Eyes, prominent, large, clear, bright 1

9. Muzzle, fine, lips thin and even, teeth sound, nostrils

large 1

10. Ears, medium size, fine, pointed, set close, carried

alert 1

11. Neck, long, lofty carriage, high crest, throat-latch

fine, windpipe large 2

150 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Standard of Score of
SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse

Score Studied
C— FOREHAND, 24 Points:

12. Shoulders, long, oblique, smooth

13. Arms, short, muscular, carried well forward . . . . 1

14. Forearms, long, wide, muscular

15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, clean, strongly sup-

ported

16. Cannons, short, wide, tendons prominent, set well

back 2

17. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons set well back . . '2

18. Pasterns, long, oblique (angle about 45°), smooth,

strong '•"•

19. Feet, medium size, even, round, straight, slope

parallel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong;
frog large, elastic; heel wide and full, !-:>
length toe; horn dense and smooth . . . . 6 ....

20. Legs, properly placed, according to description in

draft horse score card 4 ....

D — BODY, 10 Points:

21. Withers, high, narrow, extending well back . . . . 1 ....

22. Chest, deep, girth large . . . . 2 ....

23. Bibs, long, well sprung, close 2 ....

24. Back, straight, short, broad, strong 2 ....

25. Loin, short, broad, strong 2 ....

26. Flanks, deep, full, long low underline 1 ....

E — HINDQUARTERS, 20 Points:

27. Hips, wide spaced, smooth, round 2

28. Croup, long, wide, round, smooth, level tendency . . 2 ....

29. Tail, attached high, well carried 2 ....

30. Thighs, long, full, muscular; stifles prominent, well

set 2

31. Gaskins, long, broad, muscular 2 ....

32. Hocks, straight, wide, deep, clean-cut, point promi-

nent, well supported 5

33. Cannons, short, wide, flat, clean tendons, well de-

fined, set well back 2 ....

34. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons well back . . . . 2 ....

35. Pasterns, long, not so oblique as in front (about

50°), strong 3 ....

36. Feet, medium size, even, round, straight; slope

parallel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong;
frog large, elastic; heel wide, full, 1-3 length
toe; horn dense, smooth 4 ....

37. Legs, properly placed, according to description in

draft horse score card 4

F— ACTION, 16 Points:

38. Walk, straight, snappy, balanced 6

39. Trot, in line, bold, flashy, strong flexion of knees

and hocks, balanced, regular 10

Total . 100

HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE

151

The general appearance of a heavy harness horse, win -n
in good condition, shows smooth, graceful body lines, with
a general fullness in all the parts. The height should be
about 16 hands and the weight from 1,100 to 1,250 pounds
for geldings or mares. Stallions will usually range from
1,250 to 1,550, according to breed. In quality the coacher
should be superior, showing the best of feet, bone and hair.
Action of the very best, high and strong at both knees and
hock, is important, while graceful carriage is equally es-
sential. In general appearance the best type of coach

Fig. M. — "Showing much of symmotry and style."

horse shows a long, arching neck, round full body, long
level croup, high carriage of tail, and what- is known as a
1 ' coachy ' ' or " trappy ' ' action. The coach horse is expected
to travel about eight miles an hour at a trot. It is used
mainly about large towns or cities^ and attached to a
brougham or ordinary coach. Coach horses are more com-
monly driven as pairs or fours. In dealing with the indi-
vidual points, one will notice that the score cards of each
type resemble one another in various particulars, both in
description and values.

152 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The form of the heavy harness horse should be rather
compact, full and well smoothed over in all the parts, and
showing much of symmetry and style. There should be
just enough of condition to give a well turned effect.

Quality in the heavy harness horse is regarded as of
much importance. General refinement and finish must be
apparent, for coarseness is a serious defect in this kind of
horse, and affects values in a marked degree. Therefore the
features of the head should be clearly defined, and the
joints, bones and tendons show quality.

The temperament of the heavy harness horse should
appear active, yet well under control, as seen in an ani-
mated, proud carriage of head, associated with the best of
manners, both at rest and in action. Such a temperament
shows more restraint than in the case of the light harness
horse, yet does not lack in nervous force.

The neck of the heavy harness horse should be long,
of lofty carriage, with some arch, and merge smoothly with
head and shoulders. A certain degree of fullness of neck,
trim in outline, combined with length and arch, are quite
characteristic of this type. A heavy harness horse, with
such a neck, should need little assistance from the check,
to present a bold and lofty front. A short, thick neck
should meet with disfavor on the part of the judge.

The shoulders of the heavy harness type should be long,
oblique and smoothly laid in. Such conformation not only
plays its part in furnishing correct action, but also meets
the demand of the critic for attractive lines. A rough,
straight, prominent shoulder produces a hard gait and a
most undesirable appearance.

The body of the heavy harness horse exhibits a round-
ness and fullness of outline much more marked than in
the case of the light harness type. There is more thickness
of body, with depressions filled in and points smoothed over,
thus giving an appearance of condition and finish that is
very attractive. The withers are carried high, and extend
back well, but are somewhat thicker and more heavily

HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE

153

muscled than with the light trotter or pacer. The chest
girth must be full and the flanks low and well filled out.
The hindquarters of the heavy harness horse have
marked characteristics when of correct conformation. The
hips are smooth and neatly placed; the croup long, wide
and nearly level; the tail is attached high, and is often
carried with a stylish arch which gives a jaunty effect.

Fig. 82. — "The knees flexed strongly and the movement one of balance and
energy." (Courtesy Mr. S. L. Howe, British Columbia.)

While the depressed croup with the light harness type is
quite common, and is not always viewed with disfavor, a
steep croup with the heavy harness type is generally re-
garded as highly undesirable. The thighs of the coach
horse possess a certain degree of plumpness, in keeping with
the general smoothness of body, while the gaskins are also
relatively thick, in keeping with the character of thighs.
Judges should emphasize especially the importance of the

154

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 83. — "While this method of movement is most showy and stylish,
it is not serviceable action for a road horse." (Courtesy Mr. S. L. Howe,
British Columbia.)

above features, as essentials in conformation of this type:
The action of the heavy harness horse is of prime im-
portance. The walk should be perfectly straight, the feet
carried in a direct line, the knees flexed strongly, and the
movement one of balance and energy. At the trot the knees
and hocks should be carried very high, giving a gait expres-
sive of much motion. There is less extension of limbs than
with trotter or pacer, the reach being shorter. In this high
action of the front legs there is a gradual, well balanced
movement, and as the limbs unfold, the feet follow as it were
the arc of a circle. Such a horse is known as a high-stepper,
and his action, as already mentioned, is often termed
"trappy" or "coachy." In discussing the high-stepper in
action, the late Prof. John A. Craig well says,1 "The
peculiarity of this action consists in lifting the knees in-
ordinately high and flexing the hocks so that they come
close to the body and keep the legs well under it. From

1 Judging Live Stock, 6th ed., 1904, p. 16.

HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE l.V)

the standpoint of action alone, the higher the knees and the
hocks are lifted, the more valuable is the horse, provided the
lype and other features more common are equally satisfac-
tory. The feet must be thrown forward without any dish-
ing on either side, and the hocks must pass each other close
and in line with the forward movement. It is easy to under-
stand that while this method of movement is the most showy
and stylish, it is not serviceable action for a road horse.
The front legs soon succumb to the heavy concussion they
would be called upon to stand under heavy driving. But
tills action is sought only in the horse that is used for drives
about the city where style is paramount to speed and
stamina. While it is recognized that the high-stepper
should have as many as possible of the other qualities of
excellence in addition to high action, yet all others are con-
sidered of minor value among horses of this class. 'All-
around action only to be considered,' is the current phrase
in the prize lists that provide classes for competition
among the high-steppers, which means a combination of
shoulder, knee and hock action." Judges should carefully
study the action from the three points of vantage, front,
rear and side, and place a proper premium on all these

Fig. 84. — "Such horses are now infrequent, though they are still to be seen
at the horse shows." (Courtesy The Pictorial News.)

156 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS'

phases. Prior to the introduction of the automobile, coach
horses with action of the above type, arrayed in heavy har-
ness, attached to a showy and heavy coach or carriage, was
a common sight in and about every important city in
Europe and America. Such horses are now infrequent,
though they are still to be seen at the horse shows to some
extent, exhibited by a limited clientage of interested horse-
men.

The Park horse is a coach horse of the smaller class, in
which is found typical heavy harness conformation and a
very flashy style of action. This sub-class represents the
finest of the smaller coach horses, weighing 1,000 to 1,150
pounds, and standing from 15 to 15% hands high. The
action of the Park horse should be extremely high, with the
best of balance, and the limbs moving in perfect rhythm.
Such horses are uncommon, and in times past have been in
strong demand. Park horses are commonly driven singly,
or in pairs, and occasionally in fours. They are attached
to light pleasure vehicles, such as phaetons, gigs, park drags
and Victorias.

The Cob horse is a small, compact animal, a sub-class of
heavy harness type, just a degree too large to be classed as
a pony. His full, compact form has come to be known as
"cobby," which term expresses his general conformation.
He stands from 14^4 to 15^4 hands high, and weighs 900
to 1,100 pounds. The Cob has a very smart gait, with high
action and a fair amount of reach. In England and "Wales
one sees many of these horses, especially "Welch Cobs, that
show great speed and endurance on country roads. They
are commonly hitched singly to comparatively heavy carts,
which they draw with apparent ease. They are also used
on light broughams or phaetons.

The Runabout horse combines features of conformation
of a small, heavy harness horse, with more of the action of
the light harness horse. In fact he is classed by some
authorities as a light harness horse, and by others as a
heavy harness type. This horse stands from 14% to

HORSES OF HEAVY HARNESS TYPE 157

hands high, and weighs 900 to 1,050 pounds. He is not
quite so stocky as the Cob, and also lacks his trappy action.
This is a handy small driver, adapted to a variety of con-
ditions, easily handled, and valued on the market at a
modest price.

The Hackney horse had its early development in eastern

Fig. 85. — Hackney stallion, "Gentleman John," a famous champion. (Photo
by Schreiber & Sons.)

England, especially the counties of Suffolk and Norfolk.
Hackneys are to-day common in England, but hardly so
in America. It is a breed that varies much in size, ranging
from a pony to a good-sized carriage horse. "Whether pony
or full-sized horse, Hackney characteristics are very dis-
tinctive. The standard horse of the breed stands about
15!/2 hands high. The color is commonly some shade of
chestnut, with bays and browns not uncommon. A Hack-

158

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

ney of good type has a well proportioned, attractive head,
of breedy character ; a long, arching neck ; a strong, short
back and well turned rib ; long, wide, level croup, and full,
rounded thighs; short, clean-cut legs and good feet. The
Hackney is famous for his high-stepping gait, which is
often very pronounced, the flexing of knee and hock being
carried to an extreme. The popularity of this heavy har-
ness horse is due to its flash action. A high carriage of the
knee, and short extension of the leg results in an abrupt-
ness of concussion that is anything but the poetry of mo-
tion, and punishes the feet in an undesirable degree.

Fig. 86. — French Coach stallion, "Decorateur." (Photo by E. H. Mickle.)

The French Coach horse originated in France, where it
is known as the Demi-Sang (Half -Blood). French Coach
horses have gone much out of favor in America, and but
few are to be seen in this country. They are usually bay,
brown or chestnut, although there are other colors. They

HORSES OF II

HARNESS TYPE

159

stand about 16 hands high and weigh from 1,200 to 1,400
pounds. These horses are much like other typical carriage;
horses in style and appearance, though their action is not
so high and short as the Hackney.

Fig. 87. — German Coach Horse. (Courtesy American Agriculturist.)

The German Coach horse originated in northwestern
Germany, in the Oldenburg and Hanover provinces. This
is the largest of the heavy harness breeds, standing from
16 to 16i/o hands, and the stallions frequently weighing
about 1,500 pounds. Bay, brown, or black are the common
colors, especially the two former. This is a breed of some
grossness, being heavy of bone and joint, and lacking in
action, as compared with the Hackney. Horses of this
breed are not popular in America.

CHAPTER XII.

JUDGING THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE.

Type and character with the saddle horse varies con-
siderably according to breeding. The Thoroughbred is the
oldest pure bred saddle horse other than the Arab, and
while comparatively little used to-day in America, it is very
common in certain European countries, especially Great
Britain. A class of horses, known as Hunters, quite vari-
able in type and breeding, are also extensively used for the
saddle in Europe. In fact light horses are commonly used
for the saddle in various parts of the world, that vary
greatly in ancestry, and more or less in type. So it may
be assumed that there is not the uniformity of type with
the saddle horse that some might think. In the United
States a distinct breed, known as the American Saddle horse,
with a strong foundation of Thoroughbred blood, has been
developed and improved to a high standard of excellence.
The widespread distribution of this breed in America, its
pre-eminence for the saddle, and its well established type,
justifies using it as the standard for special study of saddle
horse conformation.

SCORE CARD FOR SADDLE HORSE OF AMERICAN TYPE.

Standard of Score of
SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Horse

Score Studied
A — GENERAL APPEARANCE, 12 Points:

1. Height, Estimated hands Actual hands . . . . ....

2. Weight, 1,050 to 1,150 pounds

3. Form, close but not full made, deep but not broad

symmetrical

4. Quality, bone clean, dense, fine, yet indicating sub

stance; tendons and joints sharply defined

hide and hair fine ; general refinement, finish .
5. Temperament, active, disposition good, intelligent.

160

THE SADDLE TYPE OF HOHSK 161

Standard of Score of

SCALE OP POINTS Perfect Horse-

Score Studied
B — HEAD AND NECK, 8 Points:

6. Head, size and dimensions in proportion, clear-cut

features, straight face line, wide angle in lower

jaw 1 ....

7. Forehead, broad, full 1 ....

8. Eyes, prominent orbit, large, full, bright, clear, lid

thin, even curvature 1 ....

9. Muzzle, fine, nostrils large, lips thin, trim, even . . 1 ....

10. Ears, medium si/c, pointed, set close, carried alert 1 ....

11. Neck long, simple, well crested, not carried too high,

throttle well cut out, head well set on . . . . 3 ....

C— FOREHAND, 22 Points:

12. Shoulders, very long, sloping yet muscular . . . . 3 ....

13. Arms, short, muscular, carried well forward . . . . 1 ....

14. Forearms, long, broad, muscular 1 ....

15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, strongly supported . . 2 ....

16. Cannons, short, broad, flat; tendons sharply defined,

set well back 2 ....

17. Fetlocks wide; tendons well back, straight, well

supported ....

18. Pasterns, long, oblique (45°), smooth, strong .. 2 ....

19. Feet, large, round, uniform, straight, slope of wall

parallel to slope of pastern; sole concave; bars
strong; frog large, elastic; heels wide, full, 1-3
height length of toe; horn dense, smooth, dark
color 5 ....

20. Legs, properly placed, according to description in

draft horse score card 4 ....

D — BODY, 12 Points:

21. Withers, high, muscular, well finished at top, ex-

tending well into back 3 ....

22. Chest, medium width, deep 2 ....

23. Bibs, well sprung, long, close 2 ....

24. Back, short, straight, strong, broad 2 ....

25. Loin, short, broad, muscular, strongly coupled . . 2 ....

26. Flanks, deep, full, long, low underline 1

E— HINDQUARTERS, 31 Points:

27. Hips, broad, round, smooth 2

28. Croup, long, level, round, smooth 2 ....

29. Tail, set high, well carried 2 ....

30. Thighs, full, muscular 2 ....

31. Stifles, broad, full, muscular 2 ....

32. Gaskins, broad, muscular. 2 ....

33. Hocks, straight, wide, point prominent, deep, clean-

cut, smooth, well supported . . 5 ....

34. Cannons, short, broad, flat, tendons sharply defined,

set well back ....

35. Fetlocks, wide, tendons well back, straight, well

supported 2 ....

36. Pasterns, long, oblique (50°), smooth, strong .. 2 ....

162

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

SCALE OP POINTS

37. Feet, not quite

Standard of
Perfect
Score
so large as in front, not quite so

Score of
Horse
Studied

round, otherwise comparable ........

,'?8. Legs, properly placed, according to description in

draft horse score card ..........

'—ACTION, 15 Points:
;!9. Walk, rapid, flat footed, in line ........

• 10. Trot, free, springy, square; going well off hocks; not

extreme knee fold ............

41. Canter, slow, collected, either lead, no cross canter

Total . . 100

Fig. 88. — "Stylish carriage is also highly characteristic of this type."
{From photograph by courtesy American Breeder.)

A study of the saddle horse scale of points,1 shows a. very
close relationship to that for the light harness horse. The
differences are slight, and are not entirely of conformation.
In size and height there is no essential difference. In form
the saddle horse is not so angular as the light harness horse,
being smoother turned and more symmetrical. Quality is
an important feature of the saddler, more emphasis being
assigned to it than with other light types of horses. Stylish

1 Adapted from Principles and Practices of Live Stock Judging Carl W
Gay, 1914, p. 72.

THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE 163

carriage is also highly characteristic of this type. Shows
of gaited saddlers in Kentucky and Missouri, where large
classes come together, are exhibitions of quality, style and
finish beyond compare.

The neck is a rather distinctive feature, being long,
supple and slightly arched, and carried neither high nor low,
yet with distinct grace. A sensitive relationship exists
between the mouth, neck and reins. A long, supple neck
between the rider's reins, furnishes in the process of guid-
ance a more flexible connecting link between mouth and
hand, than a short, stiff neck. Three points are given to
the neck of the saddle horse as compared with two for the
light harness horse.

The shoulders of the saddle horse should be long and
sloping, yet muscular. The long, oblique shoulder is a
necessity, to secure an easy gait, and saddle horse authori-
ties emphasize its importance, and three points instead of
two, as with the light harness type, are assigned this part
in the scale of points.

The body of the saddle horse should be moderately short,
deep and not too wide. It should be nicely turned,
strongly carried, and free of sag of back and weakness of
loins. There has been some tendency with the American
saddle horse to a lower carriage of back than is altogether
desirable. A neat yet not wide arch of rib is important in
a good saddle back, but sag of back is quite undesirable
inasmuch as this part of the horse must be able to sustain
a weight of at least 160 pounds.

The croup of the saddle horse is one of its noteworthy
features. As expressed in the scale of points, it should be
long, level, round and smooth. The long, strong muscling
of the hindquarters bespeaks a well supported back, and
is related to a leg development behind that indicates power-
ful action, and the capacity to get over the ground with
ease. A side view shows the croup carried out with slight
downward curve, or having what is often termed a level
carriage. From the rear the croup is neatly rounded over

164

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the sides, being free
of the squareness
seen on draft
horses. The judge
should place a
proper emphasis on
the conformation
of the croup.

The tail of the
saddle horse is at-
tached and carried
high in the case of
the American type,
it being one of the
attractive features
of the breed. While
the docked saddle
horse in Europe
is a common sight,
length of tail is

Fig. 89. — "In the American Saddle horse a
full length of tail is regarded as an attraction."
(From photo by courtesy American Breeder.)

Fig. 90.— "The gaited sa
sesses five different gaits."
Breeder.)

in the American saddle horse a full
regarded as an attraction rather than
otherwise. Carried
with a slight arch
at its setting, it
hangs behind in
what is known as
( i flowing ' ' form, an
evidence of breed-
ing, and an attrac-
tive part of a beau-
tiful horse.

The action of the
saddle horse is, in
truth, its most im-
p or tan t feature.
The American sad-
dle horse is also re-
ferred to sometimes

(Courtesy American

THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE

165

as the "gaited saddle horse/' for the reason that
it possesses five different gaits, namely: (a) walk;
(b) running walk or fox trot, or slow pace; (c) trot;
(d) canter; (e) rack. These several gaits have already
been described on pages 48-60. There are some special
features valued in this type of saddle horse. The action
should be frank and easy, with a minimum of friction con-
nected with it. A
superior horse of
this type that is
well trained, will
not mix his gaits,
but will keep them
properly separated.
On signal from his
rider he changes
from one gait to
another, otherwise
remaining con-
stant. A graceful,
easy, sure move-
ment of the limbs,
with not too much
knee or hock action
is desired, with a
certain springy character universally admired in this
horse. Nevertheless, one sees saddlers that possess con-
siderable action, that as combination horses under
saddle or in harness make an attractive show. How-
ever, the high-stepping character of the Hackney is
but of place here. The official definition2 of the five-
gaited horse, specifies that he ' * should go the running walk,
fox trot or slow pace, smoothly and equal to six miles an
hour; rack easily without being forced, with speed equal
to twelve miles an hour, must stand quietly, back readily,

2 Show Ring Classification. American Saddle Horse Breeders' Association,
Adopted April, 1910.

Fig. 91. — "Not too much knee or hock action is
desired." (Courtesy American Breeder.)

166

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 92. — "One sees saddlers that possess consid-
erable action." (Courtesy American Breeder.)

and canter. This
horse lacks the uni-
formity of breed-
ing of the five-
gaited horse, for
he may be of
Thoroughbred,
Hunter, or Ameri-
can saddle horse
ancestry. He may
closely resemble the
five-gaited in type,
or vary consider-
ably from it. Ae-
cording to the
American Saddle
Horse Breeders '
Association, the
three-gaited horse
should g o plain

and lead with either
foot in a canter
from a halt." Stu-
dents of the saddle
horse are also offi-
c i a 1 1 y informed
that "high rate of
speed and racing
is forbidden."

The three-gaited
saddle horse, also
known as the
" plain - gaited
horse," possesses
but three gaits,
namely, walk, trot

Fig. 93. — American Saddle horse "Edna Mae,"
a noted show mare. Mr. Matt S. Cohen up.
(Courtesy American Agriculturist.)

THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE 167

walk, briskly and with speed equal to four miles an
hour; canter reasonably high and gentle, trot steadily,
straight and true; action enough to be attractive; well
balanced and with speed equal to twelve miles an
hour."

The American Saddle Horse is a product resulting orig-
inally from the use of Thoroughbred stallions on the com-
mon mares of Virginia and Kentucky. From this early
ancestry, dating back to the importation in 1832 of the
Thoroughbred horse Hedgeford, has been evolved the
American saddle horse breed. Hedgeford sired a stallion
named Denmark, foaled in 1839, that is officially credited
with being the foundation sire of this breed. The American
saddle horse of standard character stands about 15iX> hands
high, and weighs from 950 to 1,050 pounds. His color is
commonly bay, brown or chestnut. This horse has been
bred to a degree that exhibits much style and finish. The
head is refined in feature and shows much character ; the
neck is long and supple and beautifully arched; the body
moderately long, round, and well turned; the croup long
and level; the tail set high and proudly carried. The legs
show superior bone and muscling, and the pasterns are
long and springy. One finds in this horse at his best, a
combination of symmetry and balance of form, and grace-
ful, easy action of a very high degree..

The Thoroughbred horse originated in England. It is
not only the oldest of British breeds, but the purest in
ancestry. For these reasons the Thoroughbred reproduces
with unusual uniformity. The more common colors are
bay, brown and chestnut, but black, gray and roan also
occur. The height is not remarkably variable, 151/2 hands
meeting with favor. While the weight is variable, between
900 and 1,050 pounds is a satisfactory range. In conforma-
tion we find the essential features of the light harness horse,
but with certain characteristics distinctive of this breed.
The head should be lean and fine, and very breedy in char-
acter ; the neck is usually long and thin ; the shoulders are

168

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

very long and slope well into the back; the croup is long
and wide and more level than with the trotter or pacer.
The foreleg should be muscular and strong in arm and
long and wide in the forearm. The hindquarter of the
Thoroughbred is long, level, strongly muscled and exhibits
great driving power. The pasterns are long and springy,
and the bone and feet of excellent texture. Compared with

Fig. 1)4. — A Thoroughbred horse, champion at Virginia State Fair.

the American trotter, the Thoroughbred is longer of neck,
body and limbs, has a straighter carriage of hind legs,
stands somewhat higher behind, and displays a greater
uniformity of breed character and quality. Aside from a
walk, his natural gait is a gallop, in which he excels all
other horses. He also has great capacity for high jumping.
In temperament the Thoroughbred is very nervous and

THE SADDLE TYPE OF HORSE 169

mettlesome, oftentimes being impetuous to a degree and
hard to control. Among the more common deficiencies of
the breed is too slack and rangy a form, and too great length
of leg, resulting in what is known as a "weed" in Great
Britain.

CHAPTER XIII.

PONY TYPES.

PONIES vary greatly in conformation, yet the fact that
they are diminutive horses, classifies them as ponies, any-
thing under 1414 hands (57 inches) being usually regarded
as such. There are many breeds of ponies, but of those
known in America the Shetland is the only one at all com-
mon among the so-called improved breeds. This, in its
best form, is a miniature heavy harness horse with a strong
tendency to draft character. The Welch and Hackney
ponies are of the heavy harness type, with very pronounced
high action. The Arabian is a pony of the American saddle
horse type, without its extreme characteristics.

The judging of the Shetland pony is usually based on
the standard or scale of points of the American Shetland
Pony Club, which is as follows:

SCALE OF POINTS FOB SHETLAND PONY.

\ Points
^ Constitution indicated by general healthy appearance, perfect respira-
tion, brightness of eyes 10

Size — Ponies over four years old, 42 inches and under in height; two
points to be deducted for every inch over 42 inches up to 46 inches,
fractional portions to count as full inches 25

Head, symmetrical, rather small and fine, wide between eyes, ears short

and erect 10

Body — Barrel well rounded, back short and level, deep chested, good

breast, compact, "pony build" 10

Legs, muscular, flat boned, hind legs not cow-hocked or too crooked . . 25

Mane and tail — Foretop, mane and tail heavy 10

Feet, good 10

Total 100

170

PONY TYPES 171

This score card is not ideal and needs revising, but thus
far it is the only official standard in use. It will be noted
that emphasis is placed on size and legs, each of these fea-
tures scoring twenty-five points. Size is certainly a very
important factor, and as a rule the smaller sized pony
meets with most approval. The legs of the pony should be
muscular and assume positions to conform to the standard
expressed in the scale of points of the draft horse. Judges
should discriminate especially against crooked hocks. A
neatly turned foot, of good size, wide and high at the heel
is desirable. Quality should be emphasized by the Shet-
land pony judge, and an abundance of fine hair should
cover the body. In cool weather this coat will be shaggy
and rough in appearance, a characteristic of the Shetland.
The thick, heavy coat of hair is a great protection to this
pony during the wintry months.

The modern type of Shetland pony differs somewhat
from that of years ago, when drafty conformation was
carried to an extreme. Now more real grace of- form,
quality and action is demanded. Referring to the subject
of type, a well-known British authority thus discusses the
Shetland:1 "At present, things are somewhat in a transi-
tion stage, which causes confusion in the minds of some
people as to what is the correct type. "When the show
career of the sheltie first commenced, the best paying de-
mand was undoubtedly for the pits, and the aim was to get
the biggest possible bulk as near the ground as possible,
while symmetry and true action had to take a secondary
place. Fortunately for the breed, however, the advent of
the foreign demand has created a higher standard. Beauty
of shape and smart, well carried head counts for more than
it used to, and true, close and springy action is deemed
essential. Occasionally, however, when a judge full of the
old traditions officiates, the prizes will go to ponies with
huge bodies on abnormally short legs, suggestive of moles,

1 Ponies and All About Them. Frank T. Barton, London, 1911, p. 218.

172

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 95. — "The modern type of Shetland Pony differs somewhat from that of
years ago, when drafty conformation was carried to an extreme."

and no doubt most valuable to drag a hutch in the low
galleries of a coal mine, but absolutely unsuited for a
child's saddle pony. At the very next show, perhaps^ the
opposite type gets the preference, which naturally creates
confusion in the minds of those who are not fully con-
versant with the show history of the breed." Judges of
Shetlands should take note of the fact that good form
requires that they be shown in full growth of hair on
body, mane and foretop, and with natural length of tail.
The Shetland is used both under saddle, and in harness
hitched to pony cart or appropriate four-wheeled vehicle.
The Welch pony type varies to a considerable degree.
So much so that the Welch Pony and Cob Society, in order

PONY TYPES

173

to set at rest more or less controversy on this subject, classi-
fied these ponies into four groups or sections, A, B, C, D.
In section A, part one, ponies must not exceed 12 hands
high, show Thoroughbred type and not be docked or have
mane or foretop close cut, while in part two, they may
range up to 121/2 hands, and be more " cobby" of conforma-
tion, and be docked or hog-maned. In section B the rules
allow heights from 12y± hands to 131/4 hands ; in section C
from 1314 to 141/0 hands, while in D there is no height
limit. The larger animals of this breed standing 141/2
hands or more, are known as cobs. Barton has attempted
to emphasize some of the more essential features of a
"typical Welch pony/' which are as follows: A small,
clean-cut head, wide between the eyes, and muzzle tapering
and free from bluntness. Small, well placed ears, thin in
their cartilage, and carried close and erect, together with
full eyes, constitute points of beauty in the region of the

Fig. 96.— A Welsh pony.

174

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

head. The set-on and carriage of the head is equally im-
portant. The Thoroughbred type of neck is better than
one too short or too thick. A short coupled, strong back
and loins, with long, fine, compact quarters, a deep girtli
and fine shoulders, are requisite features. Particular at-
tention should be paid to the limbs, and above all to the

action. The latter
should be quick,
free and straight
from the shoulder,
the knees and hocks
well flexed with
straight and pow-
erful leverage of
the hocks well un-
der the body. There
should be such
bending of the
knees and hocks
as will not sacri-
fice pace and
power.

The Hackney pony type is distinctly a small heavy
harness horse, of pure Hackney ancestry, but standing 141^
or less hands high. The most exacting standards of heavy
horse conformation are required of this pony, that has been
termed an "equine bantam." In the case of this type,
style and action are given great prominence, surpassing
that of all other ponies. The high, trappy gait is found
here in the extreme, and judges should strongly emphasize
its importance, both at walk and trot. The action should
be true and rhythmical, the knees and hocks carried high,
but the limbs extended in only moderate degree, without the
long reach associated with the greatest speed. Good man-
ners are an important qualification of the Hackney pony,
and should be considered by the judge. Hackney ponies
are universally shown docked.

Fig. 97. — "The Hackney pony type is distinctly a
small, heavy harness horse."

CHAPTER XIV.

JUDGING JACKS AND JENNETS.

THE jack is the male of the ass, and the jennet is the
female. It cannot be said that they are common in America,
excepting in certain sections, where the jack rather than
the jennet is especially valued. The jack is used for breed-
ing to mares, the resulting progeny of which is the mule.
There is no special object in mating jack to jennet in
America, except it be with the final purpose of producing
high class jacks to be used in producing mules. The use
of the jack in this connection is rather widespread, but is
more especially limited to the southern United States. Mis-
souri, Kentucky and Tennessee have special distinction for
the production of jacks, jennets and mules.

SCORE CARD FOR THE JACK, CATALONIAN OR
AMERICAN TYPE.

Standard of Score of
SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Jack

Score Studied
A— GENERAL APPEARANCE, 18 Points;

1. Height, at maturity, 15 to 16 hands 4

2. Weight, at maturity, 1,050 to 1,150 pounds . . . . 4

3. Form, broad, deep, symmetrical, smooth 4 ....

4. Quality, bone large, clean, strong; hair fine, abundant 4

5. Temperament, active ; disposition good 2 ....

B— HEAD AND NECK, 11 Points:

6. Head, well proportioned, strong of frame, nose

slightly Roman . . , 4

7. Forehead, broad, full 1 ....

8. Eyes, of good size, prominent, clear 1

9. Muzzle, broad, yet fine and lips thin and even ; nos-

trils large 1

10. Ears, long (33 inches or more between tips at ma-

turity), pointed, not too wide set apart, alert . . 2

11. Neck, long, muscled, throat-latch defined, head well

set on 2 ....

175

176 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Jack

Scored Studied
C— FOREHAND, 21 Points:

12. Shoulders, oblique, smooth 2 ....

13. Arms, short, wide, muscular, well set 2 ....

14. Forearm, long, wide, heavily muscled 2 ....

15. Knees, wide, deep, strong, well supported . . . . 2 ....

16. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons defined . . . . 2 ....

17. Fetlocks, wide, straight, clean 1 ....

18. Pasterns, sloping (about 45°), strong, clean . . . . 2 ....

19. Feet, large, round, uniform; slope of wall parallel

to slope pastern; sole concave; bars strong;
frog prominent, elastic ; heel wide, high ; horn
dense 8 ....

D — BODY, 13 Points:

20. Withers, well defined, smooth, muscular 2

21. Chest, wide, deep, girth large 3

22. Ribs, well sprung, long, close 3

23. Back, short, well carried, muscular 2

24. Loin, short, wide, thickly muscled 2

25. Flanks, low, well filled out; underline l^ng, low .. 1

E— HINDQUARTERS, 27 Points:

26. Hips, smooth, well covered

27. Croup, Iciig, wide, not steep, muscular 3

28. Thighs, thick, deep, muscular, .not too close . . . . '•>

29. Stifles, wide, well muscled, prominent, clean. ... 2

30. Gaskins, long, wide, muscular 3

31. Hocks, straight, wide, large, strong, not meaty,

clean cut, well set 3

32. Cannons, short, wide, clean; tendons well d;v1n,d . .

33. Fetlocks, wide, straight, strong, clean 1

34. Pasterns, sloping (about 50°), straight, clean, show-

ing no knuckling 2

35. Feet, medium size, uniform, straight, slope wall

parallel to slope pastern; sole concave; bars
strong ; frog prominent, elastic ; heel wide,
high ; horn dense, smooth 6

F— ACTION, 10 Points:

36. Walk, straight, stride long, elastic ,">

37. Trot, straight, long, free, regular, snappy .... 5

Total points 100 ....

The general appearance of the jack largely depends upon
the breed and ancestry. There are considerable variations
in size, color and other characteristics that breeders value.
There has been in the past much lack of uniformity in the
jacks used by American breeders, and many inferior indi-
viduals have been in service. In general, the jack should
have a conformation very closely related to that of the
horse, excepting in certain details. The striking differ-

JUDGING JACKS AND JENNETS 177

Fig. 98. — "In general the jack should have a conformation very closely
related to that of the horse." Show jack, Dr. Pettus, weighing 1,100 Ibs.
(Photo by courtesy Kentucky Agr. Exp. Station.)

ences are seen in the large head and prominent, long ears ;
in the mane and tail lacking in hair ; in the narrow, short
hindquarters, and in the long, coarse hair covering the
body. To be considered more in detail, from the judges
point of view, the following factors are to be kept in mind :

The height of the jack should range from 15 to 16 hands,
with 15VL> hands a popular height. At one time there was
greater demand for tall jacks than at present. The tall
jack is too likely to sire a leggy mule.

The weight of the jack should range at maturity from
900 to 1,200 pounds, with 1,050 to 1,150 as nearest ideal.
The above heights and weights combine to produce a size,

178

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

which if mated to draft mares will produce the most desir-
able type of draft mule. Referring to fashioning the Ameri-
can jack, Anderson of Kentucky calls attention 1 to the fact
that the small mule is not demanded excepting to work in
the mines. The trade demands mules of size, well formed,
with good flesh and coat. The -jacks capable of siring such
are from 15 to 16 hands in height and weigh from 1,000
to 1,150 pounds.

The form of the jack should
be broad, deep, symmetrical
and smooth. Commenting on
the form as compared with that
of the horse, Curtis of North
Carolina,2 states that "the
shoulders are not as sloping,
the ribs usually not as well
sprung, the hindquarters not
as well developed or muscled,
and there is not as much
definition, quality or refine-
ment in the bones and joints.
There is a general lack of
smoothness and co-ordination
of parts, although this is usu-
ally more apparent in the
head, neck and hindquar-
ters. ' ' The judge should seek
for as much balance of form

as possible, without wide variation from good conformation
in any part.

Quality in the jack is of prime importance, and more
and more stress is laid on the same. The bone should be
large, but clean and strong. The hair covering should be
abundant and fine. The French breeders of the Poitou
jack make much of a long, thick, fine coat of hair, regarding

Fig. 99. — "There is a general
lack of smoothness and co-ordina-
1 ion of the parts."

1 "Breeders' Gazette," April 2, 1914. W. S. Anderson.

2 Fundamentals of Live Stock Judging, 1915, p. 183.

JUDGING JACKS AND JENNETS

179

it as a most important evidence of quality. The jack natur-
ally carries a thick, long coat, and any lack in this respect
is undesirable.

The temperament of the jack is phlegmatic and he is
quiet to the extreme, in comparison with the horse. He
moves about se-
dately and exhib-
its a most stable
temperament. In
disposition the jack
is also mild and
quiet, with few bad
habits.

The head of the
jack is notable for
its comparatively,
large size, lack of
refinement and fine
proportions, and
long, large, rather
coarse, hairy ears.
The ears at matur-
ity should show at
least 33 inches be-
tween the extended
tips. They should
be pointed and car-
ried erect in alert
form. The head of
the jack is rather
deep from upper
to under side, and
the nose has a Roman curvature which adds to the heaviness
of appearance.

The forehand of the jack inclines to be somewhat erect
in the shoulder, the knee is large, the bone of the leg is
heavy and strong, and the feet are comparatively smaller

Fig. 100. — "The ears at maturity should show at
least 33 inches between the extended tips."

180 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

than with the horse. Hooper and Anderson state 3 that
the cannon bone should be 8 to 9% inches in circumference,
and specify that a jack 15% hands high, weighing 1,150
pounds, should measure not less than 9 inches below the
knee, and 9i/> inches are better. The feet incline to be
smaller and narrower than with the horse, the sole higher
and more arched. A large, shapely foot is greatly to be
desired. Probably the high arched sole contributes much
to the surefootedness of this animal when on steep mountain
pathways and roads.

The body of the jack is narrow, and lacks depth of rib.
Therefore the judge should place a premium on ample
width and depth of body, indicative of weight and draft
form. Hooper and Anderson recommend girth measure-
ment of from 68 to 72 inches about the chest and 66 to 70
inches about the loin and flank. Measurements given by
them of a two-year old jack, weighing 1,000 pounds, show
66 inches front girth and 72 inches hind girth. This was
an "extra high class " jack that sold for $1,500. The hind
flank naturally tends to be high, and it is important that
this part be so carried that the underline will be long and
low, indicative of feeding capacity and weight.

The hindquarters of the jack naturally tend to be short
and steep at the croup, and much more defective in con-
formation than in the horse. It is important that the croup
be long and wide, and carried as nearly level as possible,
but at the best, this will not compare with the well-turned
croup on a horse. The thighs also frequently lack in
thickness of muscle, and pare off into the gaskins, to pro-
duce what is sometimes termed a cat-hammed effect, which
is not at all ideal. The hocks are often crooked and there
is a tendency for them to stand somewhat close together,
with the feet so placed, that the toes point widely out.
There is also an inclinaion for the ass to stand with the
hind legs extending too far behind. The legs should come

3 Bulletin 176, Kentucky Agricultural Experiment Station, Nov. 30, 1913.
I. Jack Stock of Kentucky.

JUDGING JACKS AND JENNETS

181

down true and be well car-
ried. The hind legs appear
heavy for the size of the
animal and the joints
frequently seem, coarse.
Hooper and Anderson
state4 that "the hock
should be from 18 to 21
inches in circumference,
while the gaskin should
measure close to 16 inches,
and the measurement of
rear cannon should ap-
proximate 10 inches in cir-
cumference. ' ' The hind
feet are smaller than the
front ones, and somewhat
steeper and narrower. The
hind legs of the jack are
not marked with "chest-
nuts/' as in the case of the
horse.

The action of the jack is
slow and not impressive.
No very great emphasis is

placed on this feature by most jack breeders. The fact is
that action is relatively as important with a jack as with a
stallion, and he should be given reasonable consideration
as to his trueness of stride and freedom of action. There-
fore the judge should study the gait of the jack as he would
that of the horse, though not emphasizing its importance in
the same degree.

A description of a show jack is given5 by Mr. L. M.
Monsees, a noted Missouri breeder, in answer to a cor-
respondent desiring a description of such an animaL "A

4 Bulletin 176, Kentucky Ag. Ex. Station.
c Breeders' Gazette, March 2, 1910, p. 548.

Fig. 101. — "The hocks are often
crooked and tliere is a tendency for
them to stand somewhat close to-
gether."

182 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

show jack should be black with white marking, 15.2 to 16
hands tall, standard measure, and weigh from 950 to 1,200
pounds. He should have good length of body, good straight
back (or nearly so), well sprung rib, good underline and
good heart and flank measure, which should be about equal.
He should have a good set of legs and feet ; the foreleg
should be large in the arm and taper gradually to the foot,
and the hind legs should be wide and strong in the stifle,
also tapering to the foot, with wide flat hock and wide flat
bone from hock to ankle. The jack should have a good
long neck, well set in the shoulders and upward inclined
so he can get his head up like a high-styled horse. The
head should be long and bony with good eye bones and good
heavy jaw. The head should be straight or a little Roman.
The ears should be long, thin and keen, well set on the
head, and should be held up with style and vim. The jack
should have good action at the walk and trot, carrying his
feet well under the body and carrying the head high. He
should step along the same in the trot as in the walk."
Hooper and Anderson give the measurements of a "splendid
jack," which are in keeping with the above description.
This is a six-year old, weighing 1,155 pounds, standing 15
hands I1/? inches, that has won many championships in
Kentucky, and sold for $1,800. He is slightly calf -kneed
and crooked in the hocks.

Inches Inches

Tip to tip of ears . . . . 33 Girth at hind flank . . 72

Width between eyes . . 9 Girth of arm 1G1/,

Length of face (poll to Girth of knee 16

end of upper lip) . . 33 Girth of front cannon. . 9%

Girth of jaw and face . . 40 Girth of hind cannon . . 101/.,

Girth of neck. . .. .. 42 Girth of hock 19

Girth at fore flank .. 70 Total body length. . .. 84

The Catalonian jack is a breed from Catalonia, in north-
eastern Spain. It is a black or brown breed, the former
color predominating, with light points at muzzle, eyes and
belly. The average height is about 15 hands, although a

JUDGING JACKS AND JF.NNETS 183

range from 14 to 16 hands occurs. This is the principal
breed used in America for mule breeding, being popular
on account of its style, beauty and action. The head shows
considerable refinement, the lines being well defined. The
large ears are generally carried erect and with animation.
The quality of the Catalonian is one of its striking fea-

Fig. 102. — Catalonian jack, "Antar, Jr.," 217. First prize at World's
Columbian Exposition, 1893.

tures, the hair being thick and short, and the bone somewhat
refined but strong. It is a tough, wiry type, maturing early.
The Andalusian jack is a native of Andalusia, in southern
Spain. The prevailing color is gray, with rare examples
of black. Jacks stand from 14^ to IS1/^ hands, and some-
times higher. The head is of large size and yet not coarse.
The quality and size of bone and general substance are
excellent. In general, the Andalusian gives evidence of

184

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

style and quality. It has never been a popular breed in
America, largely on account of its color, although many
of these jacks have been imported to this country.

The Maltese jack comes from the island of Malta in the
Mediterranean Sea. His color is either brown or black.
In size it is one of the smaller breeds, rarely exceeding a

Fig. 103. — A prize-winning jennet at Virginia State Fair.

height of 14% hands. The head is well proportioned, with
sharp, upright ears of good quality. The Maltese jack has
a reputation for much life and vigor, but its small size and
refinement has made it unpopular in America.

The Majorca jack is a native of an island of this name in
the Mediterranean Sea off the coast of Spain. This is one
of the largest breeds of asses, having a drafty form, stand-

JUDGING JACKS AND JENNKTS

IS.")

ing about 15-V£ hands high with head and cars of conspicu-
ous size, and possessing heavy bone. There is lack of style
and a sluggishness of action that has made unpopular the
introduction of the breed to America. These jacks are par-
ticularly valued in Spain for siring artillery mules.
The Poitou jack has been bred for centuries in western

Fig. 104.— A Poitou jack exhibited at Paris Horse Show,
has a remarkable coat of hair."

'The Poitou

France, near the Bay of Biscay. This is the largest and
most powerful of the breeds of asses. The prevailing color
is black with light points, though grays occasionally occur,
but are not registered in France. While distinctly a draft
type, the Poitou does not stand especially high, probably
rarely exceeding 15 hands, but being rather low set, deep
bodied and very heavy of bone. The head is unusually
large, and the ears of great size. The neck is thick and

186 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

powerful, the chest broad, and the knee and hock joints
large like a draft horse. The Poitou has a remarkable coat
of hair, being fine, long, ragged and matted, the French
breeder emphasizing the coat as evidence of quality and
merit. But few jacks of this breed have been brought to
America, but those that have been have met with a reason-
able amount of favor.

CHAPTER XV.

JUDGING THE MULE.

THE mule varies greatly in size and type owing to the
wide difference in these features of the parents. There-
fore on market, mules are classified according to size, char-
acter and use. The most highly valued mule is of draft
mare parentage, and shows large size and fair quality. The
present consideration will relate to the larger, more drafty

Fit?. 105. — "The most highly valued mule is of draft mare parentage."
(Photo by courtesy Illinois Agr. Exp. Station.)

187

188 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

type of this animal. The mule in the northern United
States is regarded simply as a beast of burden, but many
farmers in the South drive them to buggies or light vehicles,
for pleasure or business, as occasion requires. The mule
trots at a fair speed and in a day will travel a long distance.

SCORE CAED FOR THE MULE.

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Mule

Score Studied
A — GENERAL APPEARANCE, 16 Points:

1. Height, Estimated hands Actual hands . . . . ....

2. Weight. Score according to age and type .... 4 ...

3. Form, broad, deep, compact, smooth, symmetrical. . 4 ....

4. Quality, refined head and ears, fine hair, clean bone,

tendons defined 4 ....

5. Temperament, active, disposition good 4 ....

B — HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points:

6. Head, in good proportion, clear cut features, ten-

dency to Roman nose 1 ....

7. Forehead, broad, full 1 ....

8. Eyes, full, bright, clear 1 ....

9. Muzzle, broad, yet fine, nostrils large, lips thin and

even 1 ....

10. Ears, large, long, pointed, fine, well set, carried alert 1 ....

11. Neck, long, muscular, throat-latch defined, head well

set on 2 ....

C— FOREHAND, 24 Points:

12. Shoulders, long, sloping, smooth, muscular . . . . 2 ....

13. Arm, short, muscular, elbow in 2 ....

14. Forearm, long, wide, muscular 2 ....

15. Knees, straight, wide, deep, well supported . . . . 2 ....

16. Cannons, short, broad, flat, tendons well back,

straight, well supported 2 ....

17. Fetlocks, wide, tendons well back, straight, well

supported ' 2 ....

18. Pasterns, moderate length, oblique, smooth, strong 2 ....

19. Beet, medium size, uniform, straight, slope of wall

parallel to slope of pastern ; sole concave ; bars
strong; frog prominent, elastic; heels wide,
high; horn dense, smooth 6 ....

20. Legs, properly placed, according to description in

draft horse score card 4 ....

D— BODY, 11 Points:

21. Withers, well defined,' smooth and muscular . . . . 2 ....

22. Chest, deep, wide 2

23. Ribs, long, well sprung, close 2 ....

24. Back, short, straight, broad, strong 2 ....

25. Loin, short, wide, heavily muscled 2

26. Flanks, deep, full ; long, low underline 1 ....

JUDGING THE MULE

189

.ilar

Standard of Score of
Perfect Mule
Score Studied

2 ....

lot too close . .

1 ....

SCALE OF POINTS

E— HINDQUARTERS, 32 Points:

27. Hips, wide, level, smooth, muscular..

28. Croup, long, level, muscular

29. Tail, attached high, well carried

30. Thighs, thick, deep, muscular, not too cl

31. Stifles, broad, thick, strong

32. Gaskins, long, wide, muscular

33. Hocks, straight, wide, point prominent, dec]), clean

cut, smooth, well supported

34. Cannons, short, broad, flat, tendons prominent an<!

set well back

35. Fetlocks, wide, straight, tendons well back

36. Pasterns, medium length, oblique (about 55°),

smooth, strong

37. Feet, medium size, uniform, straight, slope wall par-

allel to pastern; sole concave; bars strong; fi-crc
prominent, elastic; heel wide, high; horn den •

38. Legs, properly placed, according to description in

draft horse score card

Y — ACTION, 10 Points:

39. Walk, straight, stride long, active

40. Trot, straight, long, free, regular, snappy stride . .

Total 100 ....

The general conformation of the mule should closely
resemble that of the horse, and judges will be influenced
accordingly in their decisions. The peculiarities of the

Fig. 106. — "The general conformation of the mule should
closely resemble that of the horse."

190

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

mule are mainly shown in the disposition, voice, ears, tail
and feet, otherwise this animal may not materially differ
from the dam.

The height of the mule varies greatly, ranging from 12%
hands for those used in mines, up to 17 hands for big
draft mules. A desirable range of height for the larger
type is from 15% to 16% hands.

The weight of the mule of the larger sort ranges from
1,200 to 1,500 pounds, though much heavier weights than
the latter are recorded, but are quite the exception.

The form of the mule should be broad, deep, compact,

Fig. 107. — "The mule is less square at the corners of the body than
the horse, and is usually narrower all through."

with a comparatively large chest, short back, arid full
flanks. The mule is less square at the corners of the body
than the horse, and is usually narrower all through. Yet,
as has been stated before, what is desired is a conforma-
tion approaching as nearly as possible draft horse form.
Quality in the mule has an important bearing on its
value.. Fine, hard bones; neat, strong joints; a lean, well
made head ; and fine, abundant hair are much desired. Too

JUDGING THE MULE 1!)1

heavy and coarse bone, and coarseness about the head, are
features that frequently prevail with draft mules, and the
judge should discriminate against them.

The temperament of the mule should be active and en-
ergetic. The natural tendency is to be quiet and dull.
The patience for which this animal is famous is simply
an expression of its quiet temperament and docile habits.
The disposition of the mule has been much misrepresented,
for, in fact, it is not naturally vicious, though often
obstinate. Men used to handling both mules and horses
regard the former as having the more steady and reliable
disposition of the two.

The head of the mule should be of good size yet not
coarse, free of fleshiness, clean-cut and giving evidence
of quality. A Roman nose is a characteristic feature,
though it should not be too pronounced. Such a nose indi-
cates strength of character. The ears should be longer and
larger than on the horse, pointed, and more nearly resem-
bling those of the sire, the jack, than those of the mother,
the mare. The ears should show refinement and not be
set too wide apart at the corners of the head, thus giving a
neat, shapely top. ' ' The ears should be long, thin and tap-
ering to the points," says Mr. J. W. Jones,1 a well-known
judge, "presenting a rather folding appearance about the
middle, and should be set on the head erect."

The hindquarters of the mule frequently lack good con-
formation. The hips may be too low set, the croup steep, the
thighs thin and the hocks crooked. A steep croup and
crooked legs are familiar sights, and judges will find it
necessary to discriminate sharply against this sort. The
muscular thigh is a necessity if draft power is to be ob-
tained, while the same argument obtains for the mule as
for the horse, in a correct placing and carriage of the
limbs. As bone is highly valued in the mule, the hind legs
should show this in superior degree. The feet of the mule
are peculiar in being relatively small, the hoofs tending

1 American Jack Stock Stud Book, Vol. 5, 1906, p. 10.

192 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

to be long and high at the heel, with the frog set in a rather
high cup. Large size of hoof is emphasized, but even then
a draft mule will have a small foot compared with a draft
horse, being longer and narrower. The hoof should
be smooth and very dense. Oftentimes the hoofs are con-
tracted, resulting in defective feet. Large, roomy feet are
naturally free of this defect.

The action of the mule is not usually emphasized in the
market, so long as no lameness is present. However, it is
very important that not only the walk should be active
and of the sort that gets over the ground quickly, but the
trot also should be straight, free, regular and rapid. There
is just as much argument in behalf of such action with a
work mule as a work horse. Judges should give careful
attention to the action, and note that the legs are used to
give the very best results. In the North, where the mule is
driven almost exclusively at the walk, this gait would na-
turally receive special attention, but in the South, where
the mules are commonly used under the saddle or hitched
to a carriage, the trot is of equal importance with the
walk, and should be so considered. Knee action is not so
pronounced with the mule as the horse, and much emphasis
should not be attached to it.

The market classes of mules vary slightly, according to
local conditions. St. Louis is the greatest mule market,
though large numbers are handled in Chicago, Kansas City,
Louisville, and New Orleans. Mr. R. C. Obrecht has given
one classification,2 comprising the following groups: min-
ing, cotton, sugar, farm and draft. Mr. John Grant of
the Kansas City yards, states3 that "the principal classes
of mules known to the market are : cotton, lumber, railroad,
sugar, farm, levee, city and miners'." The author has
arranged the following classification, which will have a
fairly general application. The mules in each class are
graded with some elasticity from choice to inferior.

2 Market Classes and Grades of Horses and Mules. Bull. 122, 111. Ag. Exp.
Station, 1908.

3 National Stockman and Farmer, Oct. 12, 1905,

JUDGING THE MULE

193

Fig. 108. — "Plantation mules represent a certain class suited to farm work."

Plantation mules represent a certain class suited to farm
work, especially in the South. They may be divided into
two sub-classes, sugar and cotton mules. These are the
larger, better class mules on the market. Sugar mules
stand from 16 to 16]/2 hands high, and weigh from 1,100
to 1,400 pounds. These are breedy looking, show quality
and finish, and have strong bone. They especially show
refinement of head and neck. Cotton mules stand from
13V2 to 15y2 hands high and weigh 900 to 1,100 pounds.
They are not of such uniformly high quality as sugar
mules, ranging from light to medium in bone, though they
must show smooth finish. They have small, neat heads, and
attractive conformation. Cotton mules are very common
in the Southwest. Curtis says 4 ' ' this type of mule is of still

4 The Fundamentals of Live Stock Judging and Selection. R. S. Curtis,
Philadelphia, 1915, p. 210.

194

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 109. — "Draft mules are large, heavy-
boned mules that carry more weight than any
other class."

lighter build than
the surface mining
mule. The body is
inclined to be some-
what rangy, the
bone small, and the
body upstanding.
The quality should
be uniform and of
about the same
standard as that
possessed by the
mining mule, the
difference being in
favor of the lat-
ter."

Draft mules are
large, heavy-boned
mules, that carry
more weight than
any other class.
They are often di-
vided into two sub-
classes, viz., lum-
ber and railroad
mules. Mules of
draft class should
be large, their
bodies deep and
closely coupled, the
backs short and
strong, the croup
not too drooping,
thighs and gaskins
heavily muscled,
bone heavy, and

JUDGING THE MULE !<);>

the feet large. Mules for lumber camps should stand
as high and weigh as heavy as this class calls for, but they
do not show as much quality and style as do some others.
Railroad mules are slightly lighter than lumber mules, but
possess more quality and style.

Mine mules are of two kinds, known as pitters and
surface mules, and range from 11 to 15i^> hands high, and
weigh from 650 to 1,225 pounds. They should have deep,
compact bodies, heavy bone, short legs and large feet. The
smaller ones are used in the mines, and the larger ones
on the surface.

Farm mules represent a class lacking somewhat in uni-
formity that are used for agricultural purposes in the
central states. Mules of this class represent inferior plan-
tation or draft mules, that are plain looking and thin in
flesh, though with good constitution, bone and feet.

CHAPTER XVI.

UNSOUNDNESS, DISEASES AND DEFECTS IN THE

HORSE.

THE subject of unsoundness in the horse is regarded an
of great importance. Many unsound horses are purchased
by people who think them sound. Then when these pur-
chasers attempt to sell they find great depreciation in value.
Therefore, if one is to be a capable judge of a horse, he
should have a fair ability to identify well-defined cases of
some of the more common unsoundnesses. This identifi-
cation is not always easy. Some forms of unsoundness are
not clearly apparent until well established. If the respira-
tion is not good, some form of work, such as trotting or
hauling a load will bring out this fact. In the sale markets
horses are hitched to wagons with brakes, against which
they are caused to make a considerable exertion while mov-
ing along. Judges in the public show ring are not re-
quired to pass on the matter of unsoundness. That is the
duty of an official veterinarian. The English Hackney
Horse Society has for many years provided official veterin-
ary examination of all horses of that breed entered at their
annual London show. All horses showing well-defined un-
soundness are barred from exhibition. This method of
procedure, which might well be imitated at many of our
American shows, has resulted in weeding out from compe-
tition many horses that were unsound, that should not come
up for competition with sound individuals. In well de-
fined cases of unsoundness the judge can hardly avoid dis-
criminating against the animal affected. It is of vital im-
portance, however, that there be no doubt about the un-
soundness in question.

196

DEFECTS IN THE HORSE 197

Lameness is due to various causes and is seen under a
variety of conditions. No matter what the cause, lameness
will stand as a defect, if not an evidence of unsoundness,
and will seriously affect either selling value, or rating in a
show ring. In fact it would not be good judgment to place
a lame horse in the show ring, because the judge would
be obliged to regard him as out of serious competition. It
is important that a judge should be able to detect lameness
and recognize the specific region of trouble, and the cause
or causes. In an important discussion of lameness1 as
quoted in the following paragraphs, Dr. Frederick B. Had-
ley gives information that should be reasonably familiar
to all qualified judges of horses : ' ' Lameness has been de-
fined as any irregularity in gait. It is the most serious
impediment that may befall a horse because of its frequent
occurrence. From a diagnostic point of view, it is neces-
sary to distinguish between a 'swinging leg lameness ' in
which the pain emanates from the shoulder or the hip, and
a 'supporting leg lameness/ in which the lesion is in the
knee, hock or lower part of the leg.

"To detect lameness, the examiner ought to observe the
animal at rest. In severe cases he may recognize that pain
exists by the horse pointing, frequently raising the affected
limb or placing the affected part in an unnatural position
for relief. Next, the animal should be trotted past, away
from, and toward the observer. The attendant must not
take too short a hold on the halter shank, as it would inter-
fere with free movements. The head and hips are to be
closely watched at this time, as their movements are a re-
liable guide in locating the seat of lameness.

"If lame in the right foreleg, for example, the head will
'nod' or 'bob' when the left or sound foot is planted on
the ground, while the head jerks up at the moment the right
or lame foot touches the ground.

"When lameness exists in both forelegs the action is
stiff and stilty, the natural stride is shortened, and the feet

*The Horse in Health and Disease, 1915, p. 192.

198 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

are raised but little from the ground. Almost always the

hind legs are picked up higher than normally, the shoulders

seem to be stiff, and the head is carried higher than usual.

"Lameness behind may be noted by a dropping of the

Fig. 110. — "To detect lameness, the examiner ought to observe the animal
at rest. In severe cases he may recognize that pain exists by the horse
pointing." (Photo by courtesy College Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State
University.)

hip opposite to the one in which soreness exists when the
horse is trotted from the observer.

"Should there be lameness in both hind legs the stride
is shortened and the gait awkward, the forelegs are not
advanced in front of the body and are raised higher than
usual, and the head is lowered. It is difficult or impossible
to back a horse lame in both hind legs.

' ' Horses lame in both fore and hind legs show a waddling
gait behind that may be mistaken for loin or croup lame-

DEFECTS IN THE HORSE 199

ness. This peculiar motion is simply due to the fact that
the hind legs are unduly advanced under the body for
their own relief or that of the front legs.

"Shoulder lameness is shown at the time the leg is ad-
vanced, for then pain is felt. It is a typical swinging-leg
lameness and the toe is dragged. Many horse owners be-
lieve that this form of lameness is very common, but it
really is quite rare.

"In the majority of cases it is not very difficult to de-
tect the limb in which lameness exists, but experience and
keen insight are required to locate the exact seat of the
trouble. Remember that the largest percentage of lame-
nesses are located below the knee and hock, and that the
foot is involved much oftener than any other part. If the
existence of a spavin is suspected, give the horse the
'spavin test.' Palpation (feeling) for the exact location
of the soreness is a valuable aid in diagnosis, but care should
be taken to distinguish between flinching due to nervous-
ness and that due to inflammatory soreness. The presence
of one or more of the cardinal symptoms of inflammation
are reliable guides in the diagnosis of lameness. By placing
the lame leg in a normal position and carefully comparing
it with the sound leg for anatomic changes, a more accurate
diagnosis can be made. . . .

"Unscrupulous dealers practice certain tricks to cover
up lameness. Among the common ones are the use of a curb
bit and a close hold on the leading rein to keep the head
raised and to prevent 'nodding.' By paring down the
sound foot to the 'quick' and replacing the shoe so as to
make both feet tender, a horse slightly lame may be made
to appear normal."

Heaves is an unsoundness of the lungs, in which the thin
air sacs break down and lose their normal contracting
power. Heaves is often caused by dusty food, but any
bulky or indigestible food that presses on the diaphragm
may cause this trouble. At first a peculiar cough is de-
veloped. Later on, after the disease is well established, the

200

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

respiration becomes very difficult. The horse inhales na-
turally but has difficulty in exhaling. ' ' This, ' ? writes Had-
ley,2 "requires the patient to make a special effort to force
out the air. As a result, there occurs a 'double pumping
action' of the flanks with two expulsive efforts instead of
one. This produces the so-called ' heave-line ' seen along the
flanks of affected horses. Disguised cases can be detected,
or tests can be carried out by feeding all the dusty hay the
horse will eat, then giving plenty of water and driving him
briskly."

Roaring is a disease in which the horse breathes noisily.
The larynx is affected, but not the lungs. This is a paralysis
of the nerves and muscles of the parts, which results in a
whistle-like noise or roar when inhal-
ing. Roaring is manifested during ex-
ertion, yet a horse may be a roarer and
be driven some distance without becom-
ing especially noisy. The disease is he-
reditary, and animals suffering from it
should be disqualified for breeding pur-
poses. This malady may be cured in
a large per cent of cases by surgical
operation.

Bone spavin, often referred to as
spavin, is found on the inner side and
front of the hock joint. The spavin
usually occurs on the lower part of the
joint, and when especially low down it
is known as a "low or jack spavin."
The joint surfaces may also become
enlarged, forming a "blind spavin,"
showing no enlargement, but accom-
panied by severe lameness. Spavin is
caused by a strain or injury and con-
sists of accumulations of bony matter
at the joint. This is usually shown

8 The Horse in Health and Disease. F. B. Hadley, Philadelphia, 1915.

Fig. 111.—' 'Bone
spavin is found on the
inner side and front of
the hock joint." (Photo
by courtesy College
Veterinary Medicine,
Ohio State University. )

DEFECTS IX THE HORSE

201

in a thickening of the part,
as compared with the sound
hock. The occurrence of the
spavin is most easily seen by
standing directly back of the
horse ; it may also be seen
from the front by looking
back between the forelegs.
The gait of a badly spavined
horse shows a pronounced
lameness. The affected leg
shows some hitch in action,
and the weight is heavily
thrown on the sound leg, re-
sulting in some depression
of the hip on that side. The
occurrence of the bone
spavin may be determined
by the following method:
Grasp the lower end of the
cannon bone and flex the
joint as much as possible,
keeping the leg in this posi-
tion a minute or two. Then

release the leg, and have the animal driven away at a trot,
the examiner standing behind the line of movement. In
case of spavin, the characteristic lameness of this disease
will be apparent. Bone spavin is regarded as a serious un-
soundness, and greatly damages the sale value of a horse.
It is more prevalent with light rather than heavy horses.

Bog" spavin is a puffy swelling on the front and inside
of the hock joint. It is due to an inflammation of the
synovial sac of the joint from which results the production
of an abnormal amount of synovial fluid. When well de-
veloped this spavin is clearly seen, and feels soft to the
pressure of the fingers. It does not usually cause lame-
ness, though it may. The bog spavin is most common on

Fig. 112. — "Bog spavin is a puffy
swelling on the front and inside of
the hock joint." This right leg also
has a well-marked thoroughpin.
(Photo by courtesy College Veter-
inary Medicine, Ohio State Uni-
versity.)

202 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

draft horses and especially those having fleshy or meaty
hocks.

Thoroughpin is intimately associated with bog spavin,
and is found in the thinnest part of the hock at its rear
part. When the synovial sac is greatly enlarged, the fluid
extends into this thin part of the hock, where we usually
expect to find graceful outlines with marked depression. If
a thoroughpin occurs, a swelling will be noticeable on each
side of the hock at this point. Heavy draft horses often
show puffy hocks, and this condition the dealers are in-
clined to regard as unimportant. However, the hocks of
heavy horses should be carefully examined for this puffy
condition, as bogs and thoroughpins are unsoundnesses.
Lameness may not result, but the value of the horse is
depreciated.

Curb is also an unsoundness of the hock, and is seen in
a swelling or bulging out of the back side of the lower part
of the joint. "When sound, the back of the hock slightly
below the point has rather a perpendicular or straight edge.
If there is a curb, by standing on one side, one will notice
an outward curve, instead of a straight line. Hocks that
do not have pronounced curbs, yet that tend to round out
at this point, are said to have a curby conformation. The
curb is caused by strains or injury to the ligament, tendon
or skin of this part of the hock. If ligament or tendon
is seriously affected, lameness will result. The curb is
regarded with disfavor by horsemen, and is the cause of
much comment.

Sidebone is found on the rear part of the foot, especially
the front one, on the wing of the coffin bone, at the crown
or top of the hoof. It is due to hardening of the cartilages,
whereby they take on a bony character, which when seri-
ously developed causes lameness. In well-defined cases
the sidebones appear as hard projections just beneath the
skin, and can be plainly seen or felt. In the early stages
sidebones are not easily discovered, and one may buy a
horse appearing sound, that in a short time will show this

DEFECTS IN THE HORSE

203

trouble. Draft horses, especially those with long feet and
high heel are most predisposed to have this disease. Ac-
cording to Gay,3 "sidebones are most common on the outer
quarters of wide-fronted draft horses, because such horses
are inclined to be 'toe nar-
row, ' which brings the outer
quarter nearer to the center
of weight bearing, thereby
imposing weight and wear
which should be borne by
the other quarter." Horses
driven on pavement or hard
roads are much more given
to sidebones than those work-
ing most of their time on the
farm, or on soft ground.
Lameness may not be evi-
dent, even where very pro-
nounced cases of sidebones
occur, yet this disease is
classed as an unsoundness
and seriously affects selling
values. Horse dealers and
judges have given much
more emphasis to this sub-
ject since the beginning of
the twentieth century, than
prior to this period. It is
difficult to find heavy draft horses, used on pavements, that
are entirely free from this unsoundness.

Ringbone is a bony deposit which encircles the pastern
bones, especially those of the front legs. On old horses
this bony enlargement sometimes becomes quite prominent.
Ringbone may be due to hard work, strains or bruises, and
may cause serious lameness.

Splint is a bony projection or roughness usually found

3 Productive Horse Husbandry, Philadelphia, 1914, p. 149.

Fig. 113. — "Sidebone is found on
the rear part of the foot, especially
the front one, on the wing of the cof-
fin bone, at the crown or top of the
hoof." (Photo by courtesy College
Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State
University.)

204

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

on the inside of the foreleg
below the knee and associated
with the splint bone which lies
close to the cannon. Hadley
states4 that "the splint is
found in about 70 per cent of
all adult horses; in 93 per
cent of these it is said to occur
on the inner side." Hadley
also classifies splints as either
single or double, and states
that the so-called "pegged"
splint, is & form in which the
growth extends across the

Fig. 114. — "Ringbone is a bony
deposit which encircles the pastern
bones, especially those of the front
legs." (Photo by courtesy College
Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State
University.)

posterior surface of the meta-
carpus, and interferes with
the play of the suspensory
ligament. As a rule splints
are not regarded as unsound-
ness, but simply as blemishes,
and they are rarely the cause
of lameness. Splints may
often be easily seen by stand-
ing in front and looking at
the inside of the legs. Neither
the horse dealer or the judge

Fig. 115. — "Splint is a bony pro-
jection or roughness usually found
on the inside of the foreleg, below
the knee." (Photo by courtesy
College Veterinary Medicine, Ohio
State University.)

as a rule emphasizes the importance of the splint.

*The Horse in Health and Disease. Frederick B. Hadley, 1915, p. 207.

DEFECTS IN THE HORSE 205

Quarter-crack or sand-crack is a splitting or cracking
of the horny part of the hoof, usually of the front foot.
This crack may be due to one of several things, such as
dryness of hoof, brittle horn, improper shoeing, heavy
shoes, etc. The crack begins at the crown of the hoof, and
extends downward, and may occupy the length of the hoof.
Sometimes it is necessary to put metal clamps over the
cracks. This trouble may develop enough to break through
the lower part of the foot and cause serious trouble and
lameness. Toe-crack is similar to quarter-crack, and usu-
ally occurs on the hind foot, and in the front part.

Founder, or laminitis, is an unsoundness of the feet, due
to congestion of blood between the delicate laminae or layers
within the hoof. It is usually found in the front feet. It
is caused by a variety of conditions, such as overfeeding,
overwork, exposure, lack of exercise resulting in retarded
circulation in the feet, etc. Intense pain results. The
horse when standing, attempts to take as much weight
from the front feet as possible. He tends to place the
front feet somewhat forward, shoves the hind feet well
under the body, thus endeavoring to relieve the front pres-
sure. A horse thus affected moves with difficulty and will
refuse to back. If well established, founder is incurable
and causes the horse much lameness. The more perfect the
foot, the less is the liability to founder. A very flat foot,
or one with high hoof walls or a foot that is contracted, is
liable to be affected with this disease.

Navicular disease is an inflammation of a chronic char-
acter that occurs in the foot, affecting the navicular bone
and its related parts. It occurs most frequently with
harness horses, and especially those with great knee action.
Usually but one forefoot suffers from the disease, which is
caused by concussion or shock to the affected parts. The
early stages of the disease are not commonly noticed. At-
tention is first directed to the " pointing" of the foot, which
is extended forward, the weight resting on the toe. As the
disease progresses lameness is noticed, which increases with

206 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the use of the horse. In the early stages the lameness may
be intermittent, the horse having spells of going lame, then
appearing sound for a time, again lame, etc. But as the
disease develops, lameness finally becomes permanent. Few
cases of this disease recover.

Cocked ankle or knuckling, is a partial dislocation of the
pastern or fetlock joint, in which case the pastern becomes
more perpendicular than usual, throwing the joint forward
out of natural position. This is not always an unsoundness,
but is a defect, in that it causes stumbling and clumsy
action.

A Quittor is a running wound, comparable with the fis-
tula, and is located at the hoof head. It is due to injury
to the inner structure of the hoof, such as might come from
a bruise, nail prick, injury to the frog, etc. There is swell-
ing, heat and pain at the seat of the trouble, associated with
pronounced lameness. Openings will occur at the hoof
head, where pus may escape.

Thrush, is due to the horn in and about the frog becoming
soft and porous, permitting infection. If the horse stands
in a damp stable, or under moist and unsanitary conditions,
thrush may occur. Dark pus of an offensive character
exudes about the frog. This is not an unsoundness, but is
a diseased condition that is quite common, and easily cured
in a sanitary stable where the affected parts are pared away
and disinfectants applied.

Capped hock is a puffed-out condition at the point of
the hock, and is usually due to a blow against this part.
Horses that are shipped under close quarters often kick
and so cause capped hocks. The point of the hock accumu-
lates some fluid and, by treatment, this may in many cases
be absorbed and the hock take on a normal character.
Often, however, severe cases are incurable. A capped hock
is a blemish, rather than an unsoundness.

Fistula is an abscess of more or less depth at the withers.
Swelling of the part, accompanied by fever, and the exuda-
tion of pus occurs. Some cases of fistula are very deep-

DEFECTS IN THE HORSE

207

seated, burrowing into
the muscles of the
shoulder and affect-
ing the bone. It may
usually be cured by
long and patient
treatment, but the
disease is a decided
unsoundness while it
lasts.

Poll evil is a swell-
ing at the top of the
neck directly behind
the ears, and is usu-
ally caused by a
bruise. The swelling
affects the region over
the first vertebra?.
This is an unsound-
ness that may be cured
by expert veterinary
service.

Defective eyesight

is not an uncommon affection with the horse, and is not
always easily determined. However, if the lens or cornea
become darkened and opaque so that sight is affected, this
defect may be easily noticed.

Fig. 116. — "Capped hock is a puffed-out
condition at the joint of the hock." Note
near hock. This horse also has a contracted
tendon in same leg. (Photo by courtesy
College Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State Uni-
versity.)

PART III— JUDGING CATTLE.

CHAPTER XVII.
THE ANATOMY OF THE OX.

A study of the anatomy of the ox, even in quite an
elementary degree, will add much to one's efficiency as a
judge of cattle. The bony structure, the distribution of the
muscles, the character and uses of the vital and digestive
organs, have a most important bearing on the relationship
of form to function.

The skeleton of the ox is lower set and somewhat longer
than is that of the horse. The skull consists of eight bones,
with the frontal one the largest and most important. This
occupies the upper half of the skull, and the horns are
extensions of what might be termed its corners. It is
larger and stronger with the bull than the cow. The
spinal column consists of about fifty bones, of which five
are united in one piece, the sacrum, and 18 to 20 are in
the coccyx or tail. An interesting feature of the spine is
that its upper points rise to form a line along most of
the back that is very nearly straight, which accounts for
the level back to be seen on cattle. The deeper covering
of flesh over the spine occurs along that portion of the
back where the spinal processes are shortest. "The spinous
processes of the anterior bones of the back constituting
the withers/' says Youatt,1 "are stronger, but not so long
as in the horse. While a very slight curve should mark the
situation of the withers, the irregularity of the processes
of the bones should never be visible. The less the curve
the better, and no decided hollow behind should point out

1 Cattle, 1860, p. 372.

209

210 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the place where the withers terminate, and the more level
surface of the back commences. This is a departure from
good conformation for which nothing can compensate. It
not only takes away so much substance from the spot on
which good flesh and fat should be thickly laid, but it
generally shows an indisposition to accumulate flesh and fat
in the right places." The ribs on the ox number thirteen
pairs, and according to Sisson,2 they are in general longer,
wider, flatter, less curved and less regular in form than
in the horse. They have a more horizontal extension from
the spine than do those of the horse, thus providing large
chest capacity above as well as below. The sternum is
wider, flatter and relatively longer than in the horse. The
shoulder blade is in a degree triangular, with a prominent
projection on its outer face, which furnishes strong mus-
cular attachment. The long leg bones are shorter and
heavier than with the horse. The pelvis has a somewhat
level carriage, but with an upward curve of its rear
part or ischium points, more commonly known as pin
bones. The ox is a two-toed or cloven-hoofed animal.
Lydekker states 3 that two of the toes in each limb, cor-
responding in the forelimb to the third and fourth fingers
of the human hand, and in the hind limb to the third and
fourth toes of the human foot, form a symmetrical pair
on either side of a vertical line drawn between them. In
most cases these two toes or hoofs are flanked, as in the ox,
by a smaller pair representing the human second and fourth
fingers and toes. This division of the foot is extended
through the pastern joint, to the point where the shank
bone meets this joint. Such a division of the foot has its
disadvantages, for it is a weaker formation, making strained
feet much more possible than in the case of the single
hoof of the horse. In the space between the toes, filth also
accumulates, thus promoting lameness and disease, espe-
cially what is termed ' ' foul foot. ' '

2 The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 130.

3 The Ox and its Kindred, 1912, p. 12.

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX 211

The external muscular development of the ox is in

harmony with what might be expected in economic meat
production. The neck is made up of several long, strong
muscles. One powerful muscle extends from back of the
ears to the rib below the shoulder point, and as Youatt
says,4 "however thin and deer-like we may wish the neck
of a favorite ox to be at the setting on of the head, we look
for plenty of muscle at the bottom of it, or we shall have
neither strength nor substance in any part of the animal. ' '
The form of the upper part of the neck is due to the large
muscle covering this part and extending back over the
withers. The widest muscle of the back extends from the
shoulder along the side and over the back. This muscle
takes on considerable fat, especially behind the shoul-
ders. A thick muscle lies beneath the lower part of the
shoulder connecting the brisket and floor of the chest.
Another large and fairly thick muscle covers the lower
half of the rear part of the body, giving important sup-
port for the great weight of this region. On the hind-
quarter are several thick, meaty muscles. One of these
lies about the hip and pelvis. The thigh is covered by a
very thick muscle, which extends from the point of the
hip and stifle over much of the upper leg, being overlapped
at the rear of the hindquarter by a double muscle. On
the thickness of the thigh muscles depends largely the
type, whether beef or dairy, and whether the animal has
been fattened or not. From a beef point of view, these
thigh muscles cannot be either too thick or long.

The heart of the ox weighs about five and one-half
pounds, and is slightly longer and less broad at its base
than that of the horse. It is situated on the left side at
the bottom of the chest cavity.

The lungs of the ox weigh about seven and one-half
pounds, the right one weighing about half as much more
than the left one. The lungs lie between the front ribs
in the upper part of the chest.

4 Cattle, 1860, p. 339.

212

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The liver of the ox weighs from ten to twelve pounds,
and lies on the right side, being partly covered by the
lung. The liver extends diagonally from near the lower
end of the sixth rib, to and beyond the thirteenth rib just
below the spinal column.

The kidneys of the ox weigh twenty to twenty-five
ounces. These are located just below the vertebrae at the
loin. Sisson states5 that "in the young calf the kidneys
are symmetrically placed, but with the development of the
stomach, when the rumen is full, it pushes the left kidney
backward to a position on the right side, behind and at a.

Fig. 118. — The viscera .of the ox in position on the right side of the body.
(By courtesy of Dr. S. Sisson, from The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals.)

lower level than the right kidney. The kidneys have
about twenty lobes on the outer surface, and the space
between these ordinarily fills with fat.

The stomach of the ox is composed of four parts, the
rumen or paunch, the reticulum or honeycomb, the omasum
or manyplies, and the abomasum or true stomach. This
whole organ occupies nearly three-fourths of the abdominal
cavity. The capacity depends on the size of the animal,
but Sisson gives thirty to forty gallons as the capacity of

6 Anatomy of Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 565.

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX 213

medium-sized animals, with
a maximum of sixty for large
ones. The rumen is the largest
division of the stomach,
making about 80 per cent of
the whole, the recticulum 5
per cent, and the other divi-
sions about 7 or 8 per cent

po p Ti

. _ Fig. 119.— The stomach of the ox.

The intestines 01 the OX (Courtesy Orange Judd Company.)

are of two classes, large and

small. The small intestine connects with the true stomach,
and is about 130 feet long. The large intestine is about
thirty-five feet long, and is a continuation from the smaller
intestine to the anus or vent. These organs occupy the
rear part of the abdomen, the small intestine being situ-
ated below the large one.

An indication of the age of the ox is to be found in the
number of rings about the base of the horn, or in the
number and character of the front teeth. The horn, as
has been stated, is an outgrowth from the frontal bone.
When an ox reaches the age of three years, one ring is
usually to be seen about the base of the horn. The fourth
year a second ring appears, with one each year following,
until the animal is six or seven years old. Thus, by adding
two years to the number of rings visible, many have as-
sumed they could state the age of an ox. This method,
however, is hardly certain or satisfactory, for the rings
are not always well defined, and at best this estimate can
only be applied in case of the cow. The rings appear
later on the bull, at either four or five years, and in view
of the constant usage of the horns by the male, they are
largely rubbed off. Youatt states6 also that, "if a heifer
goes to a bull when she is a two-year old, or a little before
that time, there is an immediate change in the horn, and
the first ring appears, so that a real three-year old would

•Cattle, 1860, p. 280.

214 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

carry the mark of a four-year old. Sometimes the two
horns on the same animal show different numbers of rings.
Further, if the horn has been filed and rubbed down, as
with show animals, some of the oldest rings may become so
indistinct as to be difficult of observation. Therefore, it
may be concluded that the horn is not a very accurate
guide to determine the age of the ox.

The teeth as an indication of the age of the ox are a
fairly accurate g'uide for perhaps the first six years of the
animal's life. The mouth of the ox, with all the teeth in
place, has eight incisors on the front of the lower jaw, and
six molar or cheek teeth in the back of each upper and
lower jaw, a total of thirty-two. As in the case of the
sheep, the front upper jaw of the ox is supplied with a
tough pad, against which the lower front teeth touch in
slanting position. The front teeth serve for indicating the
age. The calf at birth or a few days later, shows two
teeth. Within two weeks two more teeth have appeared,
one on each side of the first pair. Two more follow these,
perhaps, the third week, and within a month or even less,
eight temporary or milk teeth occupy the front of the
lower jaw. These temporary teeth wear down gradually,
beginning with the central pair. At three months the six
central teeth will be worn off somewhat, and at four months
the entire eight will show a reduced surface. From this
time on, the teeth go through a process of reduction from
the central pair outward, becoming smaller and more and
more triangular with shorter crowns and increased space
between each pair of teeth. At about one year of age
there are four small triangular teeth in the center, with
two ordinary milk teeth on each side of these. At eighteen
months or thereabouts, all eight teeth are small, with tri-
angular tops, and distinctly separated from each other.
Finally, between eighteen months and two years, the first
pair of milk teeth disappear, and a pair of larger and
permanent ones take their place. During the period of
two to two and one-half years, the pair of milk teeth next

THE ANATOMY OF THE OX 215

the permanent pair disappear, and a permanent pair
come in their places. About three years of age the third
pair comes in, one on each side of the four, and finally at
three and one-half to four years of age, the corner milk
teeth are supplanted by permanent incisors. Thus it can
be assumed that two of these new teeth indicate about a
yearling, four a two-year old, six a three-year old and eight
a three- to four-year old. Some consider six teeth as a
sign of a four-year old and eight as a five-year old. There
is some variation in the appearance of these permanent in-
cisors, due to feeding and condition. Cattle mature earlier
to-day than they did fifty years ago, and no doubt this
characteristic also influences an earlier appearance of the
teeth. At six years the teeth are in most perfect form, but
a little flattened on top, and with the central pair show-
ing dark lines in the center. From now on the age can only
be guessed at. The teeth gradually wear down, and change
to a more slanting position. Various conditions affect the
teeth and their importance as indicating age. Those used
the most for grazing will show the greatest wear. At
seven years the dark lines in all the teeth are yet more
visible, and at eight especially so in the central ones. At
nine the middle two begin to show reduced size, and at
ten the four central ones are smaller than the others. Thus
the teeth wear off from central to outer pair, so that often
one will see cows fifteen years old or older that have no teeth
excepting small stumps, or no incisors at all.

CHAPTER XVIII.
THE CLASSIFICATION OF DOMESTIC CATTLE.

THE different kinds of domestic cattle, as a matter of
convenience, may be classified into three distinct types,
according- to their conformation. We may find examples
of each type within single breeds, or among a collection
of animals of no special breeding. The fact that type and
function are closely related, has naturally caused cattle
breeders to endeavor to produce animals of definite type and
character. Therefore, as a result of breeding, there has
been produced a well recognized beef type, in which meat
production is the important factor ; also a dairy type, with
milk production the essential ; and a third type, the dual
purpose, with both beef and milk regarded as perhaps
equally important. In each breed of cattle, as a rule, we
recognize but one type for its standard, although there are
striking exceptions. A good example is the case of the
Shorthorn breed, in which both beef and dual-purpose type
animals receive special recognition. The fact is that one
will find within any one breed examples of wide variation
in type, some dairy animals being meaty and some beef ani-
mals lean and of dairy form. So it may be said, that it is not
always easy to decide whether an animal should be classed
as of one type or another. It is simple enough for a quali-
fied judge to decide in which group to place good examples
of type ; the difficulty lies in classifying those animals that
are not good examples, and so belong perhaps as much in one
group as another. To illustrate, two judges were examin-
ing a cow which one regarded as a dual-purpose animal.
The other insisted that, from his point of view, she
was of the dairy type. The fact is, in a milking Short-
horn show, she would have passed as of dual-purpose type,

216

THE CLASSIFICATION OF IX ).M KSTFC CATTI.K -J17

but undoubtedly she would not have been seriously criti-
cized for type in a show of grade dairy animals. This is
not unreasonable. It would not be difficult to find good ex-
amples of dual-purpose heifers, somewhat thick and smooth
soon after calving, that after milking six months would
clearly seem of dairy type. The condition in this case
largely affected the classification of type. It is import a u1
to understand, however, that the three types above re-
ferred to are generally recognized, and that good examples
of each are clearly distinct and different from each other
in conformation.

Sub-types of cattle may be defined as minor variations
within a type. In recent years stockmen have come to talk
much about type, so that within a breed we hear comment
on this or that type. This reference is largely due to a cer-
tain line of breeding, wherein quite distinctive differences
have developed. Shorthorn breeders speak of the Scotch
type or Bates type, one being more compact and blockier
than the other, yet each within the one type. Jersey breed-
ers refer to the American and the Island types, the former
being plainer of head, rather larger framed, and with less
symmetry of udder than the latter, yet each is of the dairy
type. These are simple examples to demonstrate that the
word type is often used to refer to one class within another.
The more experienced the judge or breeder, the more at-
tention he is likely to give to these minor distinctions,
which he really classifies into sub-types. These character-
istics do not interest the feeder or the man engaged in
handling grade cattle, and are emphasized only by the
breeder of pure-bred stock.

CHAPTER XIX.

THE BEEF CARCASS AND ITS CUTS.

The final purpose of the beef animal is to furnish meat
for human consumption. This being so, it is important
that the animal have a conformation that with suitable
feeding will yield cuts of meat of a high degree of excel-
lence. No matter what age or stage of development, if
of the proper conformation, the live animal as a rule may
be so fed as to produce a prime carcass of meat at slaughter.

The physical and chemical character of meat has an im-
portant relationship to animal production. Meat consists
of a combination of muscular fibers, more or less asso-
ciated with fat. If a piece of lean meat is boiled, it may
easily be torn into stringy pieces of muscle fibers. These
vary in length, according to the muscle or class of animal,
and they also differ in strength or toughness, according to
age and use. Age and work tend to make the meat fiber
hard and dense. This explains why the meat of the back,
where little used, is more tender than that of the thick leg
muscle, which is much used. These fibers make up the
lean meat of the body. However, they have more or less
fine particles of fat distributed among them. When de-
veloped to a noticeable extent, these unite into little groups
of fat distributed through lean meat, giving it what is
called a "marbled" appearance, a condition found in well-
fattened animals. Meat that has fat particles well dis-
tributed among the fibers, when cooked, should be su-
perior in flavor and tenderness, due to the softening effect
of the fat. When beef animals are well fattened, they also
store layers of pure fat over much of the outer part of
the body, just below the skin, especially over the breast,

218

Fig. 120. — The two sides of a beef carcass. 1, shank ; 2, round ; ."..
rump ; 4a-45, loin end : 4c, pin bone loin ; 5, rib ; 6. chuck ; 7, flank :
S. plate: 9, brisket: 10. front shank. (Photo by courtesy Drs. Hobbs
and Brumley, Ohio State University.)

220 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

ribs, back and hindquarters. Fat also commonly accumu-
lates more or less between the groups of prominent muscles,
and on the intestines, kidneys, etc. It is important that
this layer-fat be smoothly and not too heavily laid over the
different parts, in order that the carcass may be cut up
with not too great a proportion of fat to lean, or in other
words too much waste. Hall and Bmmett give1 the fol-
lowing amounts of lean, visible fat and bone in the hind
and forequarters of beef:

PART or CARCASS Per cent. Per cent. Per cent,

lean visible fat bone

Hindquarter 54.42 34.55 10.71

Forequarter 59.12 26.69 13.73

Experiments by Lawes and Gilbert on the composition
of the body of the ox 2 show the half -fat animal to contain
the following, expressed in per cents : water 51.5 ; dry mat-
ter 40.3; protein (lean meat) 16.6; fat 19.1, and ash 4.66.

The dressed carcass of beef, and the relationship of this
to the live animal, should be understood by the judge. It
is important to estimate reasonably well how an animal
will dress out in killing, and what will be the nature and
value of the meat cuts. The market pays its highest price
for the carcass that will dress out at slaughter with the
least waste, and that will cut up into the greatest per-
centage of parts which command the best prices.

The per cent of carcass to live weight in fat cattle varies
from 55 to 70 per cent, though more extreme figures are
occasionally recorded. Ordinarily, the fatter an animal,
the less water the body will contain, and the greater the
per cent of dressed meat. Young cattle usually dress out
with more waste than do older ones. Numerous slaughter
tests of beef cattle reported by Henry,3 quoted from British
and American sources, show the per cent of dressed meat

1 Bulletin 158, Illinois Agr. Experiment Station, 1912, p. 145.

2 Journal Royal Agr. Society of England, 1898.

3 Feeds and Feeding, 1910, pp. 323, 329.

THE BEEF CARCASS AND ITS CUTS 221

to live weight to vary from 63.9 to 69.38 per cent. A
common grade of cattle would be very likely to show less
than 60 per cent dressed meat under ordinary conditions
of feeding, while a good grade, well fattened, should yield
at least 65 per cent.

The influence of the breed on the carcass is shown in
several ways. In a recognized beef breed, such as the
Aberdeen Angus, the carcass is thicker in its structure,
with the fat distributed among and over the muscles in the
most desirable way. Cattle of other than the beef type
yield a thinner kind of carcass, deficient in the distribution
of fat about the muscles, but with an excess of fat about
the intestines and kidneys. Such carcasses cut up into a
maximum of low-priced parts. For this reason the butcher
prefers to purchase examples of the beef breeds, because
from them he will secure the greatest percentage of what
the market demands, and will also suffer less loss in offal.

Carcass beef refers to that which is the direct product
from the slaughter houses before being divided into the
smaller wholesale parts. The entire carcass, split through
the length of the spine, furnishes two sides of beef. Each
side is divided, usually between the twelfth and thirteenth
ribs, thus forming a fore and hindquarter. The fore-
quarter weighs about 52 per cent and the hindquarter 48
per cent of the entire side. "When a side of beef is thick
enough fleshed to be cut up in the retail trade, and sold
over the butcher's block, it is known as " block beef" or
"side beef." If not thick enough in muscle and fat, the
carcass is used in a class of trade where only a part of it
is sold over the block, in which case it is termed a ' ' cutter, ' '
and is cut up for the low-priced customers. The side of
the carcass of beef is cut into important smaller parts. For
the purpose of mental calculations as to the cutting value
per pound of side-beef, says Hall,4 "a carcass is regarded
as consisting of four parts which are approximately equal

* Market Classes and Grades of Meat. Louis D. Hall, Bulletin 147, 111. Agr.
Exp. Station, 1910.

222

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

in weight, viz., (1) loins and ribs, (2) rounds, (3) chucks,
and (4) plates, flanks, shanks and suet. They are here
arranged in their relative order of market value. The
hindquarter is regarded as consisting of 50 per cent round,
35 loin, and 15 flank and suet; the forequarter 50 per
cent chuck, 20 rib, and 30 plate and shank. These propor-
tions and cuts especially apply to Chicago standards. Car-
casses are cut in some eastern markets, and in Europe,
so as to 37ield somewhat different results.

The loin includes from the end of the hindquarter, with

Fig. 121. — A piece from the loin — the porterhouse.
Haskett, Ohio State University.)

(Photo by F. H.

its one rib, to a line extending from the middle of the
sacrum to a point an inch or two above the stifle joint.
This piece includes what are recognized as the choicest cuts,
the porterhouse and sirloin, which accounts for its having
first rank as to price. The tenderloin muscle also lies on
the underside of this cut. There are several grades of
loins. The best, No. 1, Hall states, "must have a full,
well-rounded shape, a complete covering of white fat, the
thickness of which is in proper proportion to the lean and
bright, firm, fine-grained, well-marbled flesh." A No. 1
loin weighs from 50 to 85 pounds.

THE BEEF CARCASS AND ITS CUTS 'j-j;;

The rib piece is cut from the Ion-quarter so as to in-
clude ribs from six to twelve, or seven in all. This cut
contains the choicest roasting pieces. Ribs differ in thick-
ness and condition, and so are graded on much the same
basis as the loin. The size and character of the "eye" of
red meat, where the rib and backbone join, furnish evidence

Fig. 122. — "The rib piece is cut from the forequarter so as to include
ribs from six to twelve." (Photo by Mr. F. II. Haskett, Ohio State
University.)

of the value of this piece. No. 1 ribs should also have a
covering of about one-half inch fat. An average-sized, full
rib piece weighs from 30 to 50 pounds.

The round is the leg end of the hindquarter, after the
loin is removed. This is the largest muscle in the carcass,
and derives its name from its more or less round form in
certain stages of cutting. This part contains a large per
cent of lean meat, and is one of the tougher cuts, owing
to the great use of this muscle. The meat from this part
is of medium price, but owing to the small per cent of bone

224 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

and fat, it is one of the most economical pieces to pur-
chase. About 20 per cent, of the upper part of the round
is the rump, which is used for roasts of grade inferior to
ribs ; 60 per cent is buttock, the round part, which is com-
monly sliced for steak ; and 20 per cent at the lower or hock
end is shank, and is used for boiling, Hamburger steak, etc.
No. 1 rounds should be plump, well covered with smooth

Fig. 123. — The, round. "This is the largest muscle in the carcass, and
derives its name from its more or less round form in certain stages ot
cutting." (Photo by F. H. Haskett, Ohio State University.)

white fat, and cut into bright, firm, fine-grained meat. An
average first grade round will weigh 75 to 110 pounds.

The chuck piece includes the five front ribs, the shoulder
and neck. "When trimmed, the neck, the brisket and lower
ends of ribs (from which the plate is obtained) are re-
moved. The chuck, to be of first grade, must be thick, of
full outline, and show good color and grain of flesh. Only
a moderate amount of fat is looked for on this piece, and

THE BEEF CARCASS AND ITS CUTS 225

it should be thickest at the rib end. Roast, steaks and
boiling pieces come from this part. The thicker the chuck,
the more available it becomes for roast cuts. The best
grades of average size chucks weigh 75 to 110 pounds.

The plate piece is the lower part of the forequarter, in-
cluding the ends of the ribs and the brisket. Thickness and
a proper admixture of fat and lean, with not too heavy bone,
is necessary for the best grades of plates. This cut is used
for corned beef, stews, beef rolls, etc. No. 1 average weight
plates range from 40 to 80 pounds.

The flank piece is a small strip, free of bone, weighing
15 to 20 pounds, that is, trimmed from the lower edge of
the hindquarter, in narrow wedge-shaped form.

The shank piece is a short section of either front or hind
leg, including the hindquarter at and just above the hock
joint, and the leg part proper, of the forequarter. The
shanks weigh from 10 to 20 pounds, and are used mostly
for boiling pieces, and represent the cheapest cut in the
carcass.

Grading- the carcass of beef is an important feature of
the meat trade. All carcasses may be classified into four
groups, viz., steers, heifers, cows, bulls and stags. The
carcasses are graded within each class, based on the follow-
ing essentials, viz., form, thickness, finish, quality, sound-
ness and weight. The important points connected with this
grading, as relates to judging beef type are as follows :5

Form of beef carcass refers to the general outlines and
proportions. Ideal conformation consists of compactness,
i.e.,, good width in proportion to length ; short shanks and
neck ; and full rounds, loin and ribs. Form is associated
more or less closely with a proper degree of thickness, and
is also partially dependent upon the covering or finish of
carcass.

Thickness of beef carcass refers to the amount of lean
flesh it carries. Thick-meated loin and ribs, and full, com-
pact rounds and chucks are essential. "Built like a cart

5 Bulletin 147, Illinois Agr. Experiment Station, July, 1910.

226 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

horse" describes the fleshing demanded in high-grade car-
casses. There is a clear distinction between thickness due
to fatness and that due to muscular flesh.

Finish of beef carcass refers to the amount and distri-
bution of fat on the carcass, and to the quality of flesh
so far as it depends upon the degree of fatness. This
corresponds to condition in the live animal. Perfect finish
involves a smooth covering of firm white fat over the en-
tire carcass, with the greatest depth along the back, a
covering of white brittle fat on medium-sized kidneys, and
a lining of fat in flakes or rolls on the inner surface of ribs.
The depth of fat along the back should range from one-
fourth inch on 500-pound carcasses to three-fourths inch
on those of 900 pounds. The condition of the rounds and
shanks will show the last degree of finish. The fat must
not be excessive at any point, especially over loin and ribs,
as this indicates either an overdone condition or a tendency
toward a thick, crusty covering, without good marbling.

Quality of beef carcass especially relates to size, color
and softness of bone, smoothness and grain of flesh, color
and general appearance of carcass, and freedom from
coarseness. Quality depends chiefly on smoothness, grain
and color. Rough, uneven flesh detracts from the appear-
ance and usefulness of the beef. Coarse-grained, stringy,
fibrous flesh is usually an indication of poor breeding, ad-
vanced age or improper nourishment. Grain and firmness
are lacking in immature beef. That which is very young
seldom has "substance" or marbling, and is high in per
cent of water. The quality of bone is judged from the
chine, breastbone and ribs. The bones should be as
small as consistent with weight of carcass. They are also
an important indication of age. The fat should have a
clear white, color, and the flesh a bright, rich red. A fiery
red carcass indicates that the blood was poorly drained.
Very yellow fat is an indication of Jersey or Guernsey
blood.

CHAPTER XX.

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE BY SCALE OF

POINTS.

Method in judging the beef animal is of prime im-
portance, and the scale of points indicates the course of
observation. In British shows it is quite customary to
start the judging by walking the cattle about a ring, with
the judge in the center to make observations as the animals
pass by. In America we use this method but little, doing
most of the examination with the cattle in standing posture.
One can more fairly measure the merits of an animal if
given critical examination both at rest and walking. Under
the walk the harmony of proportions and adjustment of
parts are more clearly seen than they would be otherwise.
When at rest the animal should stand on all fours with
equal ease, each leg being in good position, so that the back
and top lines show to best advantage. The order of usual

Fig. 124. — "When at rest the animal should stand on all fours with equal
ease, each leg being in good position."

227

228 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

procedure is to make a general examination of the animals
from a distance, slowly passing around and surveying them
from various points of vantage. Next comes a careful
inspection, beginning at the head, gradually working back
to the hindquarters, considering each part in order, as
detailed in the following scale of points for a fat steer.

SCORE CARD FOR BEEF CATTLE OR STEER.

Standard of Score of
SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Cattle

Score Studied

A— GENERAL 'APPEARANCE, 38 Points: /'

Weight, score according to age. At 12 months 850 /•

!bs., at 24 months 1,250 Ibs., at 30 months 1,500 /

Ibs 8 . ./ .

Form, broad, deep, compact, low set, top and underline

straight 10 ....

Quality, fine bone, mellow, elastic hide, soft and silky

hair 10

Condition, deep, even covering of smooth, firm flesh,

the cod and flank indicating finish . . . . . . 10

B — HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points:

Muzzle, broad, mouth large, nostrils large 1

Eyes, large and bright, with placid expression . . . . 1
Face, short, wide, . slightly dished; cheeks fleshy; jaw

strong 1

Forehead, broad, full 1

Ears, medium size, not coarse, well set 1

Neck, thick, short, throat clean, blending well with

shoulders 2

C— FOREQUARTERS, 9 Points :

Shoulder vein, full and smooth 2

Shoulders, well set, compact on top, smoothly covered

with flesh 3

Breast, wide and full, brisket extending forward, with

little dewlap 2

Legs, straight, short; arm full; shank fine, smooth;

toes pointing directly forward 2

D— BODY, 31 Points:

Chest, deep, wide, girth large, crops full 5

Back, broad, level, thickly and smoothly fleshed. ... 8

Loin, broad, thick 8

Ribs, long, well arched, thickly and smoothly fleshed . . 8
Flanks, deep, full, underline straight from front to rear 2
E— HINDQUARTERS, 15 Points:

Hips, smoothly covered, not wide apart nor prominent 1
Bump, long, wide, level, free of patchiness, tail-head

smooth 4

Thighs, thick, broad, deep, full 4

Twist, deep, full 4

Legs, well placed, short; hocks straight; shank fine

and smooth, toes pointing straight ahead . . . . 2

Total . 100

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE

229

The general appearance of the beef animal includes its
size, weight, form, quality and condition. These several
features have a general application to the entire animal,
and are given first consideration. It is natural and logical
to thus take measurement of the animal as a whole, follow-
ing this by a study of the parts in detail.

Size and weight are two features that naturally are
closely associated. The demand, to-day, for meat-producing

Fig. 125. — The Points of a Beef Animal.

animals, is for both size and weight. The practical breeder
emphasizes size. He seeks a beef animal with enough scale
or frame to have a certain weight at a given age. There-
fore, it must be conceded that if an animal has enough
weight for its age, it must have sufficient size. It is an
interesting fact, however, that in Great Britain in times
past, beef animals have not as a rule been weighed when
sold on the market, as in America, but have been measured
instead. In this case size was the prime factor, measure-
ments of length and girth of body enabling one to figure

230 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

out weights on a fairly satisfactory basis. The weight of
'beef cattle fitted for the butcher will naturally depend on
age and duration of feeding. Breed also has an influence
here, for the larger beef breeds, like the Shorthorn, attain
a given weight somewhat earlier than do smaller breeds.
If well nourished from birth, weights of 850 pounds at 12
months, 1,250 pounds at 24 months, or 1,500 pounds at 30
months, might be regarded as standards. A large per cent-
age of the animals on the market, however, do not attain
these weights, being under, rather than over size. Judges
generally discriminate against under-weight animals, and
give special attention to this subject. All fat cattle exhib-
ited at the International Live Stock Exposition are weighed
the day prior to showing and these weights, and also the
ages, are clearly indicated on large cards on the men
holding the animals in the ring. Each experienced exhib-
itor desires to bring forward sufficient weight for age to
satisfy the judge. Other things being equal, a steer weigh-
ing 1,000 pounds that should weigh 1,250, might well be
scored off 50 per cent on this feature. The fact is, the 250
pounds shortage in weight expresses a more serious lack
here than the score card indicates, because it represents an
unnecessary cost in production.

The general form of the beef animal, as viewed from in
front, side or rear, should be blocky or square in outline.
Some of the old writers on beef cattle form, dating back
over a century, have compared the body with the rectangle,
as viewed from one side, or with the square, as seen from in
front or the rear. Such comparison naturally applies only
to the bodv proper, leaving head, neck and legs out of
consideration. The modern standard of form is essen-
tially the same, though more emphasis perhaps is placed
on compactness. As one surveys the animal from a dis-
tance, he is impressed with the thickness of form all through,
and a depth of body much in excess of length of leg, the
entire frame being covered with a thick, firm, smooth cov-
ering of flesh. Long neck and legs cannot be part of

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 231

good beef conformation. The low set body is an absolutely
necessary feature of correct beef form. In this study of
general form, the opposite lines of back and belly should
be fairly parallel, and a similar application may be made
of the side lines as viewed from the ends or above.

Quality in the beef animal is indicated by fineness of
bone, a mellow elastic hide, soft silky hair, and refined de-
velopment of certain parts, such as head, ears and joints.
Any unnecessary heaviness or weight of bone, means too
much loss at slaughter as well as later loss in the retail
meat trade. It is rarely that the bone is subject to criti-
cism for being too fine, but rather the opposite. The soft,
mellow hide is one of the most important indications of the
profitable feeder. Through the hide are distributed the
fine capillaries that convey the nutritive material of the
food in the blood and deposit it where needed over the
body. If the hide is hard and unyielding, the capillaries
do not serve their purpose to best advantage. Grasped
between thumb and fingers, the skin of desirable char-
acter feels mellow, somewhat thick and unctuous or fatty
to the touch, and is elastic, pulling easily from the body,
especially back of the shoulders and along the sides. Such
a skin gives what the stockman terms a "sappy" look to
the animal, indicating a thriving condition. If the hide
holds tight to the body where it should be loose, if it is
thick and hard, or thin and "dry and papery" as it is
termed, then the qualities of the desirable feeder are lack-
ing. The physical condition of the animal naturally af-
fects the skin, and sickness may cause harshness and un-
yielding character. The hide is in greatest perfection under
conditions of absolute health and when the body has felt
the influence of good feeding. The beef animal should have
a skin of moderate thickness, but not too heavy. Beef
cattlemen prefer a hide that inclines to be thick, rather
than thin, for the latter is not associated with the thickest
laying on of flesh. Another important point in favor of
the thicker type of hide is the protection it gives the

232

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

animal in winter under conditions of exposure. The Here-
ford, famous as a beef breed, has a notable quality and
thickness of hide which, without doubt, has played an im-
portant part in the value of these cattle on the range.
The hair is also an important indicator of quality. It
should be fine and soft, and if the animal is in good condi-
tion, there will often be a lustre or sheen to the hair, indi-
cating quality of a
high degree. It is
not unusual to see
an animal in the
show ring, where
the coat of hair re-
flects light to such
a striking extent as
to make the indi-
vidual conspicuous
among his compan-
ions. In this case
there is always
a combination of
mellow skin and
fine, lustrous hair.
While this desirable
condition is af-
fected more or less by certain feeds, such as oil meal for
example, it could not be produced without quality of marked
degree, naturally occurring in both skin and hair. Fine-
ness of hair is associated with thickness of coat also. The
greater the number of hairs on a square inch of skin, the
thicker and finer will be the coat. The naturally thick,
fine covering of hair on the Hereford or Galloway breeds
furnish much warmth and protection in winter, as has al-
ready been indicated. The length and coarseness of the
hair differs according to location on the body. It is finest
and shortest about the f orequarters and over the sides, and
is coarsest and longest on the upper part of head, along the

Fig. 126. — "Grasped between thumb and fin-
gers, the skin of desirable character feels mel-
low."

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE

233

top of the neck and about the thighs. Among the beef
breeds, notably Hereford and Galloway, one often sees two
classes of hair on the body, a very thick, fine coat lying
beneath a much longer and more open one. This thick
"mossy undercoat," as it is often termed, being somewhat
oily, easily turns the heaviest rains, and serves an important
purpose in keeping the animal dry when exposed to winter

Fig. 127. — "One often sees two classes of hair on the body, a very thick,
fine coat lying beneath a much longer and more open one."

storms. The hair is also an indicator of health. If dry
and harsh, curling back at its tips, forming what is known
as a "staring coat," it is evident that the animal is not
doing well, or is not in healthy condition. Cattle suffering
from tuberculosis, in advanced stage, show this staring,
lustreless coat of hair. Therefore, the degree of thrift or
health is easily seen by the qualified judge, as he glances

234

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 128. — "With the fingers close together,
the judge passes the hand over the parts where
one should find a smooth, thick, firm covering of
flesh."

over the animal be-
fore him. The coat
may be too fine, in-
dicating lack of
constitution, but
this is not at all
frequent. Quality
is also manifested
in the size of head
and ear, and the
coarseness of
joints. The head
that is large and
heavy in compari-
s o n to size of
body, indicates

lack of quality. Big joints suggest heavy bone and
too great a per cent of offal to dressed meat at slaughter.
Large, heavy horns also indicate coarseness. Quality is
one of the most important features in the animal, and it
perhaps has more influence on the price paid for fat cattle,
than any other one thing considered by the buyer. There-
fore, the judge
should attach much
importance to qual-
ity, scoring down
severely if coarse-
ness predominates.
The term "con-
dition, ' ' as applied
to fat animals, re-
fers to the degree
and character of
fat or covering of
flesh over the body.
The judge deter-
mines the condi-

Fig. 129. — "Cattle in high condition frequently
have rolls of hard fat on the ribs."

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 235

tion by observation, partly by means of the eye, and partly
through the sense of touch, or by "handling," as it is
termed. In the latter method, with the fingers close together,
the judge passes the hand over the parts where one should
find a smooth, thick, firm covering of flesh. The center of
back along over the spine, the shoulders and rib-covering are
lightly pressed upon with the tips of the fingers, by which
means the depth of flesh, its firmness and uniformity of
covering are easily determined. Often bare spots occur,
with little flesh over the bone. An animal may be in good
condition, ready for slaughter, yet bare on the shoulder.
Or the back may be well covered its entire length, yet the
lower part of the ribs be more or less bare. Cattle in high
condition frequently have rolls of hard fat on the ribs,
back and rump, especially at the end of the latter, on
each side of the tail head, which in consequence takes on a
" patchy," or lumpy appearance. A dimple or tie in the
center of the back, due to a short ligament connecting skin
and backbone, is frequently associated with high condi-
tion. This dimple, rolls of fat, and bareness of covering,
all combine to produce a carcass that will not dress out to
the greatest advantage. In the modern show ring, the con-
dition demanded is a smooth, uniform distribution of deep,
firm flesh, with no roughness at any point, and that will
furnish cuts the exterior of which will be well laid with
flesh. If an animal is in high condition and over-fat, then
the flesh is soft and tallowy, and will show waste and too
great a percentage of fat in the carcass. The degree of con-
dition or finish is indicated by the thickness of the hind
flank when grasped in the hand, by the amount of fat
about the root of the tongue, as seen back of the jaw, and
by the fullness or fatness of th*e cod l of the steer. The
butcher often feels of the covering over the pin bones or
ends of rump, for a co-relationship seems to exist between
this covering and the general condition. In scoring con-
dition, one might discount 20 per cent for an animal

1 The scrotum or testicle of the male ox.

236

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 130. — "The degree of condition or finish is indicated by the thickness
of the hind flank when grasped in the hand."

that is in too high flesh, or the same amount if there is a
lack of condition. Inexperienced judges are quite liable
to favor the heavier covering of flesh and approve where ex-
perience would say fleshing had been carried too far.

The subject of handling1 referred to in the preceding
paragraphs en quality and condition, has long been con-
sidered an important feature of the work of the cattle
judge. As long ago as 1767 the following advice on this
subject, not out of place here, was given:2 "When you
see your beast, in the general shape and composure of his
body, shew most fair and beautiful, each member being
comely, and each bone covered so as a perfect shape re-
quires, you may then judge the beast to be well fed ; espe-
cially when you see his huckle bones round, and not sharp ;
his ribs smooth, and not rough; his flanks full, his nach

2 The Complete Grazier, 2d ed., London, 1767, p. 29.

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE

237

thick, and his cod round. When you perceive this, you may
handle him, and feeling him upon the nethermost ribs, if
you perceive the skin loose and soft under your hand, you
may be assured that the beast is well fed outwardly, that is,
upon the bones. You may then lay your hands upon his
round huckle bones, and if they feel soft, round and plump,
you may be assured that the beast is well fed both inwardly,
and outwardly, that is, both in flesh and tallow. Then you
may handle him at the setting-on of his tail, and if that
feels big, thick, full and soft, it is a true sign that the
beast is very well fed outwardly. Then handle his nach
bones, which are on both sides the setting-on of his tail,
and if they feel soft and loose, that is a sign also of his
being well fed. Lastly, you may handle his cod, if it be an
ox, and the navel, if it be a cow; and if they feel thick,
round, soft, large and plump, it is a certain sign that the
beast is well tallowed within. When any of these parts

Fig. 131. — "Then handle his nach bones, which are on
both sides the setting-on of the tail."

238

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

or members handle contrary to the rules above given, you
may then make a contrary judgment." The use of the
hands in examining animals being judged, is highly im-
portant, at least in determining the depth and condition
of the flesh. However, from a modern view-point, judges
often handle to an unnecessary degree, and the tendency
now is to use the hands as little as possible consistent with
arriving at sound judgment.

The head of the beef animal, in general, should appear
comparatively short and broad, as this represents the head
conformation of the good feeder. Such a head is correlated
to the short neck, wide back, deep body and short legs.
The muzzle should be broad and wide, with a mouth of good
feeding capacity. The narrow, pinched mouth will be found
among animals with narrow heads giving evidence of lack
in constitution. The animal with wide, capacious muzzle
and muscular lips, when on pasture grazes more easily,
manipulates the tongue more freely, and secures food more
readily than would be possible with a smaller, less expansive
mouth. If the muzzle is broad, then the nostrils are more

likely to be large,
an important point,
as these are the
gateways through
which free and full
admission of .air to
the lungs is .se-
cured. The eyes
should be fairly
prominent and
placid of expres-
sion, indicating the
quiet feeder. Many
people prefer to
see the whites of

Fig. 132. — "The head of the beef animal, in ^he 6V6S clear and
general, should appear comparatively short and ,,

broad." as free as possible

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 239

of brown or yellow tints. A clear, placid eye indicates
quiet temperament and a disposition to fatten easily.
The face of the beef animal should be reasonably broad
in proportion to its length. It is, this part, lying
between muzzle and eyes, where shortness of head is espe-
cially to be desired, for the length here largely influences
the strength of jaw. If the face is long and narrow, two
weaknesses will be apparent, first, the nasal tubes extend-
ing from the nostrils will be smaller, thus restricting free-
dom of respiration, and second, the jaw will be long and
weak, a feature of many inferior feeders. A face that
from a side view seems slightly depressed just below the
eyes, or "dished" as cattlemen express it, has long been
regarded with favor, especially if short and wide, for this
is considered a strong conformation. The cheeks on each
side of the face should be wide, smooth and fleshy, indicat-
ing a strong jaw. The underside of the lower jaw should
be widely spread at its base, an evidence of strength, as
well as supplying ample room for the tongue. The fore-
head should be broad and full, features associated with
intelligence and pleasant disposition. The narrow fore-
head is likely to be found on a narrow, long head, a char-
acteristic of the narrow, long-bodied animal. Width of
forehead should be especially strong just over the eyes,
with a very gradual narrowing from here to the horns,
though in case of a polled beast, the forehead narrows
quite rapidly to a well-defined point. The upper part of
forehead or poll should have a thick covering of long,
coarse hair. This is much more apparent on some breeds
than others, and more conspicuous on the male than the
female. Ears of medium size, well pointed and neatly
attached to the head, meet with greatest favor. Large,
heavy ears, coarse at the attachment to the head, indicate
a general coarseness. Too small, delicate ears, on the con-
trary, denote over refinement. A thick covering of fine hair
is desirable on the ear, with long, silky hairs adorning the
edges and bordering the outer ear cavity. In the well-

240 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

balanced head, the ears will be placed so that when erect,
their tips will hardly extend above the poll. It is not
unusual for ears to be attached so high on the head as to
injure the harmony of proportions. This is especially to
be noticed with polled cattle. Cattle naturally carry the
ears about half erect and pointing forward. If naturally
carried in a depressed position, there is evidence of bad dis-
position or ill health. Occasionally the horns interfere with
a natural carriage of ear. Horns are considered a disad-
vantage by many, and, in fact, under conditions of domesti-
cation, serve 110 special economic purpose. They, however,
are an important indicator of breed character, and furnish
some evidence as to age and quality. From a breed char-
acter standpoint, the horn is quite important. There is a
very pronounced difference in the shape, curvature and
color of the horns of the Hereford and Shorthorn. The
exhibitor who brings into the show ring a dehorned ani-
mal of recognized breed, places himself at a disadvantage
in thus presenting a head robbed of a part of its distinctive
breed character.

The neck of the beef animal should be short and thick.
The head should be neatly attached, with no excess of skin
or fullness about the jaw. In its lower part, the neck
should widen out and blend with much smoothness into
the shoulder. In its carriage, the neck should have
a top line that very slightly rises from withers to base
of poll. Males should have necks with some crest and
thickening of the top muscles, but even this need not in-
terfere with a level carriage of neck. Some animals na-
turally elevate the neck more than others, and this is often
referred to as a stylish carriage. Bulls have thick, strong
necks that are more or less arched. Youatt states 3 that
' ' a little of the arched form of neck is no detriment either
to his appearance or his actual value, although common con-
sent seems to have determined that the line from the horns
to the withers should scarcely deviate from the back. The

3 Cattle, I860, p. 344.

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 241

neck of the beef animal being for meat production, it should
be wide rather than narrow on top, for the thin neck is
quite sure to be a feature of the narrow type of animal."
In scoring the neck, excess of length is sufficiently objec-
tionable to justify scoring down fairly well. A neck that
is too thick and meaty is hardly a serious fault.

The forequarters of the beef animal should present a
smoothly laid, flesh-covered shoulder and wide, full bosom.
What is termed the shoulder vein by some people, and the
neck vein by others, is the place where the shoulder and
neck join, just in front of the point of the shoulder. In a
good example of a fat animal, it is difficult to decide where
the neck ends and the shoulder begins, so smooth and deep
is the covering of flesh here and so slight is the curve of
flesh from shoulder to neck. Usually, however, there is
some depression just in front of the shoulder, the neck
lacking naturally in thickness, so that even fattening may
not produce the desired smoothness. The shoulder of the
beef animal should incline well into the back. Along the
length of the shoulder blade is a ridge which furnishes at-
tachment for the muscles covering this great bone. The
more erect the blade, and the more prominent this ridge,
the less will be the covering of flesh possible over this part.
When the shoulder is "well laid" as it is termed, one can
feel little evidence of the bone below, when passing the
hand over the shoulder of an animal in good condition.
But if the shoulder is not well laid, then there will be prom-
inence of shoulder top at what is termed the withers, with
more or less roughness over the shoulder. It is also common
to find animals in condition with a slight bareness at some
place on the shoulder. It is not unusual for otherwise ex-
cellent show steers to lack in this particular respect. If the
tops of the blades along the back line are widely separated,
it may be taken for granted that the shoulders have too
much prominence, and, therefore, will lack in covering.
The character of the shoulder is a very important feature
of beef cattle, and has been given careful attention by many

242

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 133. — "When the shoulder is 'well-laid,' as
it is termed, one can feel little evidence of the
bone below."

breeders. The
Hereford breed of
cattle is noted for
its beautiful,
smooth and well-
laid shoulder, dis-
tinctly surpassing
other beef breeds
in this respect. In
judging the shoul-
der, it will be well
to keep in mind
the importance of
this part as a dis-
tinctive feature of
beef conformation,
and the great ne-
cessity of having it well laid and smoothly covered.
The breast of the beef animal should be wide and full,
with the brisket wide and of fair prominence. To see
the breast well, one must stand in front so as to note the
placing of neck between the shoulders, and the width of
chest. If the neck is thick and blends into the shoulders
right, then the breast will present both width and fullness.
The brisket extends forward between the legs, merging
with the lower juncture of the neck. This part should be
wide, with a distinct groove on its lower side. The brisket
occasionally, with mature animals in high condition, pro-
jects in front of the legs in a very prominent and undesir-
able style, and may be only 12 or 15 inches from the ground.
A neatly rounded upward carriage of this part is prefer-
able, giving evidence of flesh production, and to some ex-
tent, vigorous constitution. Youatt makes considerable and
interesting comment on the brisket. He states 4 that ' ' it
has been considered as a part of the anterior wall of the
chest, and as a proof of depth and capacity. This is alto-

4 Cattle, 1860, p. 370.

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 243

Fig. 134. — "The brisket extends forward between the legs."

gether erroneous. It is a mere appendix to the chest. It
is a projection of substance, partly muscular, but more
cellular and fatty, from the anterior and movable division
or head of the sternum, extending sometimes 12 to 20 inches
in front of it, and dipping downward nearly or quite as
much. It is no proof of depth of chest. It is found in
great size in all the improved cattle, varying in size in
different breeds, and in different cattle of the same breed ;
and it was always looked for and valued in the better speci-
mens of the old cattle. It is very probable that this may
be carried too far. An enormously projecting brisket may
evince a more than usual tendency to fatten; but not in-
frequently a tendency to accumulate that fat irregularly
— to have it too much in patches, and not spread equally
over the frame. The brisket should be prominent as well
as deep; perhaps on one account more prominent than

244 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

deep, for it will then be more likely, either before or by
the time it arrives at the posterior border of the elbow
or forearm, to have subsided to the thickness of the fatty
and other substance naturally covering the sternum. One
defect, but not of half the consequence which it is generally
supposed to be, would then be avoided — the apparent di-
minution of the chest at the girthing place, or immediately
behind the elbows." Along the lower side of the neck,
often extending to the brisket, is a line of skin known as
the dewlap. This varies greatly in prominence. It is
sometimes seen on Herefords in a marked degree, adding
greatly to the depth of neck, and most undesirably so.
This characteristic is highly developed on certain breeds
of cattle in southern Europe, that are coarse and far in-
ferior to the British breeds. The dewlap is simply super-
fluous skin, and its presence is a distinct disadvantage, and
when of excess development an indication of coarseness.

The front legs of the beef animal should be placed wide
apart, and should be short and straight. A wide placing
of the legs provides room for the full chest, indicative of
strong constitution. Shortness of leg is desirable, as this
part gives us the cheaper meat. A short leg is also asso-
ciated with depth of body as a rule, an important requisite
in a good feeder. The upper part of the leg above the knee,
is known as the arm. This should be notably wide at its
connection with the shoulder, and gradually taper to the
knee, which should be strong and wide as viewed from the
side. As this is the part of the leg furnishing the most
meat, it should show as much width and muscular char-
acter as possible. The leg of cattle from knee to ankle is
known as the shank. This is essentially bone and ligaments,
covered with skin, having but small food value, hence the
shank may well be much shorter than the arm above. In
fact, the shortness of leg is usually dependent upon the
shortness of the shank. Further, a fine, smooth bone, and
medium-sized joints in the leg, furnish important evidence
of quality, as already discussed on this subject. The feet

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE 245

should be well placed, the toes being of medium length and
pointing forward. The natural curves of the leg joints
tend to direct the toes outward, but the wider the spread
of the feet, the more the arm will be thrown in against the
chest, thus crowding that part. Therefore, it may be con-
sidered that there is a direct relationship between the
position of the feet and the width of chest. The hoofs
should be of medium length, so as to give the animal level,
true footing. If the hoofs grow too long the toe points
will turn up and the heels will come down, and give a
weak position to the legs. It seems strange that such should
be the case, but it is true that occasionally one will see ani-
mals in the show ring with such abnormally long hoofs as
to reflect on their care. Judges should discriminate against
such animals.

The body of the beef animal, giving evidence as it does
of constitution, digestive capacity and high-priced cuts, is
credited with a maximum number of points on the score
card. The chest should be deep and wide, thus providing
ample room for the vital organs — the heart and lungs.
The chest, as measured back of the shoulders, should show
a strong heart girth. In a cross section of this part, a
much greater curve is found on the lower side of the chest
than over the top, but the latter should have as much width
as possible. Just back of the shoulders, over the upper
part of chest, but below the back line, are the crops. Here
is usually to be found some depression, which is associated
with thickness of chest and the capacity to carry flesh. The
model beef animal will be full and strong of heart girth,
show almost no perceptible falling away at the crops, and
be covered here with a smooth, firm layer of flesh. This
kind of conformation is much sought by intelligent cattle-
men, who recognize that it is associated with the best
feeders, and most vigorous animals, which, when fattened,
are most in demand on the market. The judge will be
justified in placing a premium on chest character. The
back of the beef animal should be wide and level, and be

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 135. — "Just back of the shoulders, over the upper part of the chest, but
below the back line, are the crops."

smoothly, uniformly and deeply covered with flesh. Width,
of back adds to its strength and capacity for carrying flesh.
A level carriage of back is also regarded as evidence of
strength, although cattle buyers care little whether the back
is level or not, so long as it has plenty of width and a
smooth covering of flesh. The back of young, immature
animals should be well carried, and the judge should expect
more from them in this regard, than from older cattle
where sagging of the back may be due to age, pregnancy,
or heaviness of belly. The first essential in any event, is a
smooth, deep, uniform covering of flesh, indicated to the
touch as the fingers gently press along down the spine and
test for thickness and quality. The part most likely to be
bare is over the shoulders at the withers. The longer,
higher rising bones of the spine, located at this part of

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE

247

Fig. 136. — "The back of the beef animal should
be wide and level."

the back, are not
fleshed over so
deeply or readily
as over the remain-
der of the back.
The loin is the mus-
cular portion of
the back that lies
just in front of the
hips. It should be
broad and thick,
and give evidence
of ample strength.
Any depression
here is undesirable,
indicating physical
weakness, the kid-
neys being located

directly below the loin. A very slight arch across the loin,
so that not the slightest depression will be possible just in
front of a line between the hips, is highly desirable. The

loin being the part
of the back from
which the highest
priced meat is se-
cured, should log-
ically be as broad
and heavy-fleshed
as possible.

The ribs should
be long and widely
arched. A combi-
nation of length
and arch gives a
capacious middle,
with ample room

Tig. 137. — "The loin is the muscular portion of « , , , ,

the back that lies just in front of the hips." «>* heart and JungS.

248

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

If the rib is not well arched, or ' ' well sprung, ' ' as the stock-
man expresses it, then the back will be narrow, and lack the
width necessary to secure the best of cuts. The spring of rib
should come well out to the line of hips, which will insure a
wide loin and back. Flatness of rib and depression behind
the shoulders indicates, as a rule, lack of constitution. It is
not necessarily always so, however. Some animals having
long ribs as viewed from the side, show deep middles and
large digestive capacity, but when viewed from front or
rear, present a decided narrowness of back due to flatness
of rib. When the rib is both short and flat, then we have
a most undesirable conformation, the type that brings the
low price for its class. It is highly essential that the ribs
be smoothly and deeply covered with flesh. As previously
stated, the lower part of the ribs may be bare, though the
back be well covered. The judge should pass his hands
over the ribs and feel the covering, noting its depth, firm-
ness .and smoothness, and the way it is packed in between
the ribs. Beef cattle should be close-ribbed, that is, the
spaces between them should be as close as possible, thereby

Fig. 138.— Note the difference in depth of body and digestive capacity of
these two beef steers that are of exactly the same age.

JUDGING BFKF TYl'K OF (' ATTI.K 2|g

giving tin1 compact frame. In scoring the ribs, the judge
should emphasize the necessity of length, hut from a
butcher's point of view a wide, well covered back is more
important, for here he gets his valuable cuts, rather than
lower down on the ribs. So in the show ring, the wide,
well-covered back should receive more credit than the long
rib without the desired arch. The flanks also are indicators
of constitution, capacity and condition. The full front
flank, without depression back of the arm, is associated
with a wide, strong lower chest, and good constitution.
The rear flank that is well let down, or deep, as it is some-
times called, goes with depth of body and feeding capacity.
Shallow bodied, short ribbed animals are always high in the
rear flank. From a side view, the lower line of body from
front to rear flank should be quite low and straight. This,
of course, is not possible always with old animals, that
develop some paunchiness, even though well filled in the
flanks. The hind flank of beef cattle thickens and takes
on fat as feeding progresses and, as has already been observ-
ed, is an indicator of condition or finish. Fat cattle, when
walking, show a bulging fullness in the hind flank, indi-
cative of finish that is easily seen by the experienced stock-
man.

The hindquarters of the beef animal represent a very
important meat-producing part of the body, for here we
find the greatest percentage of meat to bone to be found
in the carcass. Therefore, beef cattlemen usually take
special interest in the conformation of this part. The hips
of the beef animal, sometimes called " hooks " or "huckle"
bones, should be of good size, though not too angular and
prominent. Youatt states5 that "without being ragged
(rough or angular), they should be large, round rather
than wide, and presenting, when handled, plenty of muscle
and fat. ' ' They should be well placed in the back, and on
the line of a strong arch of ribs. The ideal condition is to
have them smoothly covered with flesh. If they are too

6 Cattle, 1860, p. 12.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

wide apart, and angular, this will be quite unlikely, and
further, will give evidence of coarseness. The rump should
be long, wide and level. We view the length by standing
at one side, and from this view-point also note whether it
extends in level form from hips to end of body. One of
the common defects of the rump is to droop from the hips
back, thereby reducing the flesh-carrying capacity of the

hindquarter. Many
judges give scant
consideration t o
droopy rumped
animals, very cor-
rectly regarding
this as bad confor-
mation, and sadly
marring true ani-
mal beauty. As
one views the rump
from the rear, it
should taper but
gradually from

£J

Fig. 139. — "The rump should be Ions, wide
and level. We view the length by standing at
one side."

hips to point of
rump, being of
good width be-
tween the pin bones or points of the ischium. The na-
tural tendency is for the rump to slope away on each side
from the spine, but this should be only to a slight extent.
The more sloping the rump in any respect, the less its
meat-carrying capacity. In other words, the longer, wider
and more level the rump, the greater the yield of meat on
the pelvis. The covering of flesh over the rump should
be smooth, without any roughness or patches of fat, a fre-
quent defect of this part. Many fat cattle have heavy
lumps on the ends of the rump, on each side of the pin
bones. In fact, evidence of condition soon manifests itself
here. Feeders of show stock often find their cattle accumu-
lating such lumps of tallow on the rump as seriously to

JUDGING BEEF TYPE OF CATTLE

251

affect their value for competition in these days
smoothness of fleshing is so much emphasized. The wise
judge will discriminate against undue roughness of rump
covering. The tail head or attachment of tail to body,
should be on the general level line of back, and not too
prominent nor rough. If the rump itself is level, the tail
attachment will probably be satisfactory. Frequently a
nick or dent is seen
in the spine on the
rump, or where it
may unite with the
tail head. This
does not add to the
beauty of this part,
but in itself is no
serious defect, and
should have little
bearing on the de-
cision of a judge,
unless competition
is close. The thigh
of the beef animal
should be broad,
thick, deep and
full. From a side
view the breadth

is noted, while from the rear we note its thickness,
its depth from top to bottom, and its general plump
and meaty character. The outline of the thigh along its
rear side should show quite a straight drop from the end
of the rump downward, thus giving evidence of continuous
breadth to the top of the lower thigh, which should be short
but strongly muscular. The distance from the hip to the
point where the thigh curves in to form the lower thigh
should be comparatively long. A long, broad, thick upper
1high, in good condition, will yield a heavy weight of one
of the more valuable parts of the carcass. These several

Fig. 140. — Note the difference in thickness
and depth of thighs iu these two steers of equal
age.

252

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

factors should be carefully kept in mind by the judge, for,
from the butcher 's point of view, a well-covered back and
heavy-fleshed hindquarter are of first importance in beef
production. The twist is the part of the hindquarter where
the upper and lower thighs blend together, forming a curve
on the inside that should be very strongly defined. The

more pronounced the curve,
the thicker fleshed will be the
thigh just above this point.
It is desirable to have the
thighs as plump as possible
from top to bottom, but we
may find hindquarters nar-
rower at the top, and thick
and full below, yet with strong
twists. It is not unusual to
find Aberdeen Angus cattle of
such conformation. On the
contrary, the Hereford has a
natural tendency for a full
development high up on the
thigh, with a paring away of
the lower thigh, and lack of
fullness of twist. It is equal-
ly important that the thigh be
fully fleshed above and below.

The legs should be well placed and short, the same argument
as to position of legs and feet applying to the hind as to
front limbs. If the hocks are straight, and point directly back,
with four or five inches of space between, the toes will point
forward, in good form, and ample room for thickness of thigh
will exist. When the hocks crowd close together, the toes point
outward, and the thighs lack in thickness. Neither should
the legs be carried too far beneath the body, as viewed from
the side. The legs as a whole will assume a very true and
satisfactory position, if a plumb line dropped from the
point of the rump touches the point of hock and falls
nearly parallel with the back side of the shank bone.

Fig. 141.— "The twist is the
part of the hindquarter where the
upper and lower thighs bend to-
gether, forming a curve on the in-
side."

CHAPTER XXI.

THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF BEEF CATTLE.

THE judging of cattle by means of the score card is espe-
cially applied to the single individual. As a rule the card
is used in this way only, although occasionally two animals
are scored in a comparative way, the judge examining the
same features in order with each animal, and scoring the
same. This, however, is a slow process and is neither satis-
factory or practical in comparative judging. If not in the
regular show yard, a ring of four animals makes a con-
venient group for comparative study. These should be of
similar age and character, such as yearling steers, for ex-
ample, and preferably of much the same breed type. The
judge should examine them as they stand in line for in-
spection, but also as they pass before or about him at the
walk. Following the plan of the scale of points, the cattle
should first be examined as to their general appearance, in
which case the weight, form, quality and condition are con-
sidered, and each animal is compared with the others. The
judge receives certain impressions in this first general ex-
amination, that will influence him in his final placings. He
stands some distance away, and compares the animals in a
comprehensive way that is not possible at closer range.
He walks about the group, surveying and comparing at
different angles, for this is necessary if the work is to be
carefully done. The question the judge asks himself all
the time is, how near does each animal measure up to the
ideal of the scale of points? "Weight he recognizes as of
distinct importance, considering age, but beauty of form
is essential, for in it are included the most important fea-
tures sought after by the butcher. If, then, the animals
are compared as to general form, they can hardly be ranked
in order until they are compared as to quality and condi-

253

254 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

lion and their readiness for the block. One animal might
have a form of excellent balance, but be so thin in flesh, if
fat animals are up for comparison, as not to be entitled
to as high rank as others in better condition for killing.
A detailed examination and comparison is necessary, fol-
lowing the more general one. It is desirable, in the case
of cattle for slaughter, to go over each animal carefully,
comparing those parts the butcher most emphasizes and
values. Therefore, a study of the backs, as to width and
depth of covering, and a comparison of hindquarters, as to
flesh-carrying capacity and thickness and depth of con-
formation is essential. In the show ring where competi-
tion is severe, such as at the International Live Stock Ex-
position, it is impossible to win with a fat steer that is
open to serious criticism of back or hindquarter. Plain-
ness of head and shoulder might be overlooked to some
extent, but not of the more essential parts from the
butcher's standpoint. The covering of flesh as to smooth-
ness, depth and firmness, will also receive much careful
attention, and when the cattle are at last placed in their
relative order of merit, it will be found that condition has
had a very important part in the placing. No set rule can
be applied as to which animal should be placed first. It
may be comparatively easy to select out the one entitled
to first rank, and perhaps no trouble at all to locate the
most inferior individual, but second and third places are
frequently difficult to decide. The second animal must
be compared with the first, and for well-defined reasons
given its place, but so also this second placing over the
third must be satisfactorily made. Certainly, as one goes
down the line, after making the placings, each individual
in order of rank should show more actual merit and fewer
defects than the one next below in the line. Interesting
and profitable comparative study of certain parts may be
made. For example, the heads and necks may be compared
and ranked in order of merit. So, in the same way, other
parts may be specially compared, as the bodies, hind-

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF liUKK CATTLE 'J.V,

quarters, condition or quality. An analysis of this sorl,
px's farther than is usual in most comparative judging,
but results in a more thorough comparison than is possible
by usual methods, and is well worth doing when time and
conditions justify. In the regular show ring, when herds
are shown in competition, judges frequently re-group them.
Each exhibitor's herd is placed in a single file, so that ani-
mals of the same sex and age may be easily compared. For

Fig. 142. — "Interesting and profitable comparative study of certain parts
may be made. For example, the heads and necks may be compared and
ranked in order of merit."

example, if four herds of five cattle each, consisting of bull,
cow three years old or over, two-year heifer, yearling heifer,
and heifer calf were brought in the ring, each herd should,
as a rule, be arranged by itself, with the animals lined
up side by side. The opportunity for examination may be
greatly improved if the judge requires them to be arranged
so that each bull will be side by side, and the same for the
female of each class, thus permitting close comparison. In
a herd contest of this sort, the judge must first take into
consideration the general uniformity of the animals in a
herd, and their closeness to the approved type. Some ex-
hibitors have an impression that the winnings of an exhib-
itor in the classes should regulate the winnings of the

056 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

herds, but this is not necessarily so at all. A first pri/e
animal in class might have hackbut little competition in
one case, yet be distinctly inferior to a third prize animal
of another class, that had secured this position in strong
competition. Therefore, it really resolves itself into plac-
ing the herds so that they are arranged in order of merit
as a whole, including uniformity and type as vital factors.

The reasons for placing beef cattle in the ring may be
given orally or in writing. For some years, in the students '
judging contests at the International Live Stock Ex-
position, written reasons were ^iven, and later these were
discarded for oral reasons. In either case it is highly im-
portant that the reasons be given briefly and to the point.
The following may serve as an example of written reasons,
as applied to a ring of four steers used in the classroom.

"I placed D first, because in general beef conformation
he meets the requirements more fully than A, my second
choice. D is wider and thicker over the loins than A, and
also is longer, wider and more nearly square in the hind-
quarters. D is hardly so attractive as A in head and
shoulders, yet his firm, smooth, mellow fleshing and fine
handling quality indicate him to be the most profitable
killer in the ring. His entire make-up and covering of flesh
is the sort the butcher wants. I placed A over C, because
the former comes closer to correct type, being very com-
pact and low set, and much neater in head, neck and
shoulders than C. A is especially stronger and thicker
fleshed over the loin, at which place C is somewhat de-
ficient. While C surpasses A in the length, width and
carriage of rump, he is inferior to the latter in his cover-
ing of lower ribs and thickness of quarters and develop-
ment of twist. A is very neat in his middle piece, while C
inclines somewhat to paunchiness, which promises too much
waste in killing. I placed B last because he is not a good
type of butcher 's beast, being too long and upstanding, lack-
ing condition, and showing too much coarseness ail over.'*

CHAPTER XXII.

JUDGING STOCKER OR FEEDER CATTLE.

STOCKERS or feeders represent a class of cattle that are
thin in flesh, yet possess the essential factors which, with
time and feed, will produce the high-class beef animal. That
which has thus far been described of beef cattle, relates
to the finished condition, whether for butcher or show
ring. It is highly essential that the cattleman or judge
should be able to select thin animals that will feed out
satisfactorily. In fact it requires far more discrimination
to judge thin cattle than it does those that are finished.
However, the same essential features are found in stockers
and feeders that are found in the others, excepting for
differences in size and in lack of condition. Stockers are
young cattle, and are regarded as in the calf class, while
feeders are more mature, and are the sort used in the feed
lot for immediate feeding and fattening. Men rarely buy
feeders that weigh under 800 pounds, although some fancy

Fig. 143. — "Feeders are more mature and are the sort used in the feed
lot." (Photo by courtesy Ohio Agr. Exp. Station.)

257

258 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

stuff is occasionally put on feed that weighs around 500
pounds, being turned off to the packer at about twelve
months, weighing around 800 pounds. It is quite a com-
mon custom, however, to select feeders eighteen months
old or older, and weighing from 900 to 1,000 pounds. In
judging feeders, certain features should be emphasized, and
for reasons already given. Breed character and quality are
highly important. The best fat cattle of to-day on the
market appear the equals of pure breds in external char-
acteristics, arid they are the leading prize-winners in the
feeder contests at the shows. The general form should be
of the blocky type, low set, wide on top, deep in the flanks
and supported on short legs. The head should be short,
with all the requisites of the good feeder, a most important
point in this kind of cattle. Shortness of neck, thickness
of chest with ample space between the forelegs, a deep body
or long rib, a wide, long, level rump, and thick, deep thighs,
are features to be sought for in the thin animal. Rough-
ness of shoulder, depressed or saggy back, and prominent
hips and.tailhead are objectionable. Emphasize quality,
as shown in the mellow, elastic, fairly thick hide, the heavy,
fine coat of hair, and moderate size of bone. The general
quality of the animal is seen in his breed character, while his
handling quality is especially to be found in the hide and
coat of hair. From either side or end point of view, one
notes the desirable or undesirable characteristics, just as
in the animal in condition. But it must be remembered
in judging thin cattle, that a well-made frame is absolutely
necessary, if a high-class, finished product is ultimately to
come from it.

CHAPTER XXIII.

JUDGING BEEF CATTLE USED FOR BREEDING
PURPOSES.

THE beef animal, for breeding purposes, should possess
all the desirable features of conformation found in the non-
brrcding animal that is to yield a maximum of returns over
the block. Comparison of a prime steer and a superior
type of breeding bull, will show a close resemblance between
them in form and quality. The breeding animal, however,
must possess certain characteristics of importance. These
are the distinctive features of sex, constitutional vigor, size,
an inheritance of natural fleshing, and breed character.
Judges will differ somewhat in their relative estimate of
values of these characteristics. The following discussion,
however, gives first consideration to sex.

(A)— JUDGING BEEF BULLS.

Sex character in the beef bull is manifested in the size
and character of head, in the thickness of neck and frontal
development, the sexual organs, and temperament. The
head of the bull should meet all the requirements of the
good feeder, but what is most important, it should be strong
and dominant in expression, with full forehead, expressive
eyes, strong but not coarse horns, and a thick covering of
hair over the upper portion of head. Such a head, proudly
carried, speaks for the dominant sire and constitutional
vigor, most essential features of the male. The testimony of
generations of great stockmen emphasizes the fundamental
importance of the head as showing sex and indicating breed
ing capacity. We are told l that Thomas Bates was so ira-

] Shorthorn Cattle. Alvin H. Sanders, 1900, p. 86.

259

260

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Pig. 144. — "Such a head, proudly carried,
speaks for the dominant sire and constitutional
vigor." (Photo by courtesy Mr. J. C. Allen,
Purdue University.)

pressed by the
head of Belvedere
(1706), as seen by
him when exposed
through a stable
window, that he
determined to pur-
chase him, which
he did. Bates was
one of the great
breeders of history,
and Belvedere was
one of the great
sires used in the
herd a t Kirklev-
ington. "What the
intelligent breeder
desires in the bull 's
head, the equally

wise judge must require in the show ring. Heads lacking
masculinity, of steery character ; or long and narrow, show-
ing weak constitution ; or coarse and heavy, too big for the
body, should be discriminated against. The neck of the bull
should be strong and masculine, distinctive of the sex, with
a thickness and arch on top not possessed by the steer or
cow. Breeders differ in their views as to degree of arch of
neck, some preferring less than others. A thick, high arch
is unnecessary; one of moderate degree suffices to denote
masculinity, and yet furnishes no unnecessary amount of
cheap meat. The entire front development of the neck,
breast, shoulders and chest should show the massive and
masculine in superior degree. So also should the hind-
quarters appear strong and stocky. The scrotum or testi-
cles— male sexual organs — should be well developed, ajid
the presence of two glands of equal size should be apparent
in this sac. The absence of one of these glands, while not
necessarily indicating a non-breeder, is looked upon with

JUDGING BREEDING BEEF CATTLE 261

distinct disfavor, and should rule an animal from the show
ring as defective. The temperament df the bull is also
quite distinctive of sex character. Through it he shows the
power of self-assertion, as the natural leader of the herd,
and his carriage should be bold and masculine, rather than
mild and sexless like the steer. The constitutional vigor
of the bull, as has already been expressed, is shown in the
head and neck. However, the arch and depth of forerib,
and fullness of breast and chest, are regarded as of first
importance in indicating constitution, for reasons already
given. Stylish, erect carriage of head and neck, usually
expresses strength of constitution, while a low, indifferent
attitude of head and neck indicate lack of vigor or poor
health. Sex character and constitution are essentially of
equal importance, for a male lacking either of these would
be considered inferior. Size in the bull, or weight at ma-
turity, should be considerably in excess of that of the
female. Very large size is not essential, and often means
coarseness. Undersize is a serious objection, because the
small bull, though meeting all other requirements but size,
is liable to sire animals that will never reach standard
weights. While the present day demands considerable size
in breeding stock, most breeders prefer bulls of medium
size, possessing much quality. A beef bull weighing 2,200
pounds at maturity, not in high condition, might be con-
sidered of satisfactory weight. The inheritance of natural
flesh-carrying quality is of special importance. The bull
in good breeding condition, that has a frame smoothly
covered with a natural layer of mellow flesh, may be ex-
pected to transmit this quality to his offspring. Further,
such a covering, consisting largely of smoothly laid-on
muscle, readily takes on fat and reaches a high degree
of condition. The tendency in the beef show ring is to
bring in breeding cattle in high condition. This is unfor-
tunate, as it is often at the expense of procreative power
after the show season is over. The breeding bull should
not carry the high condition of the steer, yet should show

262 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

enough fleshing to satisfy reasonable show ring require-
ments. Breed characteristics are an essential feature of
the modern sire. There is no argument in behalf of the
use of grade or cross-bred sires, therefore, the bull should
possess all the important characteristics of the breed he
represents. Each of the beef breeds, in its more perfect
development, meets the requirements of superior meat pro-
duction, but the presence of certain color markings of hair,
and details of conformation, distinguishing features of
the breed, and evidences of the right kind of ancestry are
also demanded. The presence of these features in the bull
will furnish important evidence of his possible power of
transmitting these desirable qualities to his offspring.

(B)— JUDGING BEEF COWS.

The sex character of the beef cow is especially seen in
the head, neck, form of body and udder. The head should
be distinctly feminine, lacking the size and burly character
of the bull. The face is more refined, the forehead not so
broad, the eyes milder, and the horns smaller and more
refined. In fact, refinement of head, with neatness of con-
tour, are essential features. The neck should be short and
of moderate thickness, showing plenty of beef character,
yet lacking the heaviness of the bull and the thickness of
the steer. The neck is an important indicator of feminine
character, and judges look with disfavor upon a cow with
this part heavy and masculine. The neck should blend
nicely into well-laid shoulders, but the cow should not carry
so much squareness or fullness of breast and shoulders as
the bull. The space between the forelegs is less, the arms
are not so broad and powerful, and the shoulders are of
lighter build than with the bull. Great depth of chest and
strong spring of forerib is sought after. The udder of the
beef cow is not expected to produce as much milk as the
dairy cow, but it should show both size and capacity. It
should be nicely extended in front and behind, have a mel-

JUDGING BREEDING BEEF CATTLE

263

low, elastic consistency, and show four well-placed teats of
sufficient size to be easily grasped in the hands. Small
udders, showing a fleshy character, are distinctly undesir-
able. In passing on breeding cows of the beef type, judges
do not place enough importance on the udder and the part it
plays in the successful development of the herd. The best
British Shorthorn breeders of to-day give special attention

Fig. 145. — "The beef cow should produce an ample supply of milk for nurs-
ing her offspring." (Photo by courtesy Frank Adler.)

to the development of the udder, believing, like Thomas;
Bates, that the beef cow should produce an ample supply
of milk for nursing her offspring. For further information
on the udder and milk secretion see pages 298 to 300. The
sex character of the female is shown in considerable length
of body and depth of rib, this type of body having ca-
pacity for reproduction. The maternal is distinctly ap-
parent in the head, neck and body of the breeding females,
a feminine quality that is absolutely lacking in the male
or unsexed animal. The size of the cow should tend to be

264 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

large rather than small. Breeders prefer large cows of
quality, mated to medium-sized bulls. A weight of 1,600
pounds for a mature cow will satisfy most breeders and
judges. The small or undersized female should be dis-
criminated against, because scale and weight, with quality,
are associated with the most satisfactory and profitable
results of reproduction. The presence of breed type or
character is important in the cow, though not so much so
as in the case of the male. If the pure-bred female is
under consideration, then the judge must attach great im-
portance to breed characteristics. Prepotency, as funda-
mental in breed development, cannot be maintained unless
breed characteristics are emphasized and promoted by the
breeder, and the judge in the show ring. Therefore, as
in the case of the bull the judge should give proper recog-
nition to breed type and character when judging pure-
bred females.

CHAPTER XXIV.

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES OF THE MORE IMPORTANT
BEEF BREEDS.

The Shorthorn breed of cattle originated in northeastern
England, in the counties of Durham and York. In gen-
eral this is regarded as a beef breed, although certain
tribes especially given to milk production are regarded as
dual-purpose, and termed dairy or milking Shorthorns.
The color is variable, being either red, white, or red and
white in spots, or roan, the latter being a commingling of
red and white hair without forming solid color. In size
this is one of the large breeds, mature bulls weigh 1,800
to 2,200 pounds, and even more, with 2,000 a desirable
standard. Cows at maturity should weigh in ordinary flesh
1,400 to 1,500 pounds. Assuming the Shorthorn to be a
good representative of the beef type, it has certain long
recognized characteristics. The horns are waxy yellow in
color, comparatively small and short, curving in at the
tips. The muzzle should be flesh-colored, though smutty
or dark muzzles are not uncommon, but are objectionable.
The shoulders tend to be somewhat prominent and bare,
and frequently a deficiency back of the shoulders is to be
seen. Yet in most cases the rib is widely sprung, and the
body shows ample thickness and depth. The hindquarters
are conspicuous for their thickness and fullness of rump
and thigh. Shorthorns are easy keepers, fatten easily, and
tend to get patchy about the sides and tail head. The
females of this breed produce milk more abundantly than
those of other beef breeds. In fact, the females of the
so-called milking Shorthorn tribes often have large udders
which yield heavily. It is not remarkable for a milking

265

266

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 146. — Shorthorn bull, "Ringmaster," 307899. A great show bull and
sire. (Photo by courtesy The Farmer.)

Shorthorn to produce 8,000 to 10,000 pounds of milk in a
year. There is no .official score card for this breed. Tem-
peramentally, Shorthorns are very quiet and domestic.

The Polled Durham breed of cattle is a hornless Short-
horn. Originally coming from two sources of ancestry, yet
in each case essentially of Shorthorn blood, the lines of
Polled Durham breeding of to-day trace back to pure-bred,
hornless Shorthorns. Therefore, the distinctive character-
istics of the Polled Durham are those of a Shorthorn with
polled head.

The Hereford breed of cattle originated in Herefordshire,
England. It is a very old breed, and is essentially the only
one kept in that English county. It is distinctively a beef
breed. The main body color is red, ranging from light to
dark shade, with white face. Solid white markings usu-
ally occur on the legs about the ankles, the lower part of
belly, brisket and neck, top of neck, withers, and brush of

THE MORE IMPORTANT BEEF BREEDS

267

tail. Red hair often occurs about the eyes, especially with
some families. This is one of the large beef breeds, com-
p;i ruble in size with the Shorthorn. Mature bulls often
weigh 2,200 pounds, and females 1,500 pounds or more.
Some very large bulls of this breed have been recorded.
Typical Herefords are distinctly beefy in character and
short of head, with waxy yellow horns, which come from
the head at right angles, and curve forward and down-
ward. Horns also frequently curve upward at the tips,
especially with the females. The shoulder blade, as a rule, is
well laid in, thus forming a beautiful, smooth, nicely
fleshed shoulder, a distinctive characteristic of this breed.
The hindquarters naturally tend to be somewhat peaked
at the rump, and thin of thigh. During the past fifteen
or twenty years, however, these deficiencies have been
greatly improved, so that Herefords with wide rumps and
thick thighs are becoming common. This breed fattens
easily and rapidly, and tends to be more or less patchy,
especially along the ribs and about the rump. Dimples
not infrequently occur in the back. The coat of hair is usu-
ally very thick, with a distinct curly character in winter.

Fig. 147. — Hereford bull, "Diplomat" (Imp.).

268 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

In temperament the Hereford is naturally high-spirited
and very active and better adapted to large pastures and
the range than more restricted conditions. This breed has
no equal for grazing on extensive ranges. In general, the
Hereford is inferior in milk production and rarely shows
an udder of superior form.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HEREFORD CATTLE.

(Adopted by the American Hereford Cattle Breeders' Association.)

Points

Color — Medium, deep, rich red, with white head, breast, belly, crest,

switch and ankles 5

Objections: White back of crop, Jiiffh on flank, or too high on legs.

Head — Forehead broad and prominent ; face short, slightly tapering
toward nose; muzzle full; nostrils wide and open; eyes large and
expressive; ears of medium size, well set and well covered with hair;
horns of medium size, even color, coming from head at right angles,
set on level with crops, back and tail head, curving forward and
downward 8

Throat — Clean, without any excessive development of loose flesh or fat

underneath 2

Neck — Short, neat, spreading out to meet shoulders, with full neck vein,
free from loose skin. (Males: neck muscular, with full crest ac-
cording to age) 2

Shoulders — Straight, round, full, smooth and well covered; top of shoul-
der blades slightly below vertebra, good width on top 6

Chest — Wide, deep, round and full just back of shoulders 6

Brisket — Deep and wide, moderately projecting, free from flabbiness . . 2

Hibs — Well sprung from backbone, close together, long and arched, car-
rying the full width of shoulders and deeply and smoothly covered 8

Back and Loin — Broad, straight and heavily covered from crops to hooks;

hooks moderately wide and well covered 10

Bump — Long, wide, smooth and well covered, carrying width in propor-
tion to width of back and hooks, joining smoothly into quarters . . . . 5

Quarters — Long, straight, muscular, full, deep, and thick 4

Thigh and twist — Full and thick, carried well down to hocks 3

Tail — Tail head level with line of back, tail dropping at right angles to

back line 1

Underline — Straight, flanks deep and full 3

Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed, perpendicular both from side

and end view; forearm muscular, bones strong and clean .... . . 6

Flesh — Deep, firm, smooth, uniformly covering all parts and free from

patchiness 8

Skin — Of moderate thickness, mellow, pliable and loose, abundantly cov-
ered with long, thick, silky hair 6

General appearance — Vigorous, compact and symmetrical. Bulls mascu-
line and possessing an abundance of quality and predominant breed-
ing characteristics. Females matronly, roomy, smooth, showing qual-
ity and feminine appearance throughout 10

Weight — Age and condition to be considered 5

Total. . ..100

THE MORE IMPORTANT BEEF BREEDS

269

The Aberdeen-Angus breed of cattle originated in north-
eastern Scotland, especially in the counties of Aberdeen,
Kincardine, and Forfar. It is a pure black, hornless breed
of distinctly beef type. Occasionally a red specimen, of
Aberdeen- Angus occurs, but these are not used for breed-
ing purposes. A slight amount of white on the under side
back of the navel is allowable, especially with the females,
though distinctly objected to with the bulls. The Aberdeen-

Fig. 148. — Aberdeen-Angus bull, champion at Highland and Agricultural
Society of Scotland Show.

Angus, for size, is in the same class with Shorthorn and
Hereford, though averaging slightly less in weight. Mature
bulls in fair flesh, usually weigh around 2,000 pounds, and
cows about 1,400 pounds. Good examples of the breed
have short, wide heads, indicating good feeders, with polls
coming to a neat point. These cattle are inclined to be
prominent of shoulder and only moderately wide of back,
the loin being narrower and more rounding than on Short-
horn or Hereford. The depth of rib is excellent, and the

270 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

body which tends to cylindrical form, as a rule shows large
digestive capacity. The rump is frequently pared off on
each side, and the tail head prominent, but the thighs are
thick and heavily fleshed. The fleshing is very smooth and
unsurpassed in character. The coat of hair is not so long
and curly as with the Hereford, being ordinarily of a
straight, smooth character. There are some excellent
milkers in this breed, though there is much variation in

Fig. 149. — Galloway steer, breed champion at International Livestock

Exposition.

this respect. The temperament as a rule is rather nervous,
and not so domestic as the Shorthorn.

The Galloway breed of cattle originated in southwestern
Scotland in Galloway. This is a black, polled breed, and
quite comparable with the Aberdeen-Angus, but hardly so
compact nor does it fatten so easily. The head is some-
what longer than that of the Aberdeen- Angus, the poll is
not so sharp, and the ears are set a bit farther back than
with other breeds, and point upward and forward. Gallo-

THE MORE IMPORTANT BEEF BREEDS 271

ways are frequently lacking in spring of rib, and incline
to length and slackness of back and prominence of tail-
head. They are also more leggy than the Aberdeen-Angus.
This is a beef breed of medium size, bulls weighing usually
1,800 to 1,900 pounds, and mature cows 1,200 to 1,400
pounds. These cattle fatten slowly. In temperament the
Galloway is inclined to be somewhat nervous and restless.
The breed is especially adapted to range conditions. A
striking feature of this breed is the coat of hair, which has
two lengths, one thick and short, the other long and more
curly. In winter these cattle present a very curly, shaggy
appearance. Galloway hides are highly valued for rugs
and overcoats.

CHAPTER XXV.

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE
BY SCALE OF POINTS.

The evolution of the dairy cow undoubtedly dates back
many years. The breeding of cows for the dairy has been
conducted for some centuries in Holland. Cows noted for
milk production were taken to England from that country
long ago. Early English writings in referring to cattle,
have however made scant reference to the dairy cow, beef
production being the main consideration. In one notable
English agricultural book,1 published in 1767, rules are
given to be observed in buying cattle. "If cows for the
pail," says the author, "let them also be young, high of
stature, and long bodied, with large and round belly, large,
fair, and smooth horns, a broad, smooth forehead, udders
white, not fleshy, but large and lank, with four teats and no
more."

The importance of dairy cattle type as associated with
milk production, received special attention among Ayrshire
breeders as early as 1811, when Aiton referred to details
of conformation.2 Later on William Harley, in 1829, in a
work on a dairy system3 emphasized thin shoulders and
large, broad hindquarters on the dairy cow. In 1834 the
introduction on the Island of Jersey of the first scale of
points, attracted serious attention to dairy cow conforma-
tion and its improvement. In 1853 a prize essay in Scot-
land 4 dealing with the details of type, described the shoul-
ders as thin on top, and the forequarters as thin in front

1 The Complete Grazier, 2d edition.

2 A Survey of Ayrshire, Glasgow, 1811.

3 The Harleian Dairy System.

* Transactions Highland and Agricultural Society, 1866-7, p. 106.

272

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

273

Fig. 150. — The Point* of a Dairy Cow, as reproduced upon Ormsby Jane
Segis Aaggie 150948, champion Holstein-Friesian cow. As a senior four-
year old, she has a seven-day record of 44.4 Ibs. butter. (Photo by
courtesy American Agriculturist.)

and gradually increasing in depth and thickness backward.
Later, in 1875, Sturtevant Bros, of Massachusetts, in dis-
cussing Ayrshire cattle form,5 stated that "in the dairy
breeds, and in most animals particularly adapted to milk
giving, there is a tendency toward accumulation of a
larger part of the weight of the animal in the rearmost
half. ... As judged by a side view or from above, there is a
certain wedge form. . . . This form becomes more strongly
marked with age when the animal has been abundantly
supplied with food. The yearling and two-years' old may
have parallel rather than diverging lines on the side view."
In 1875 the American Jersey Cattle Club adopted the scale
of points, the first of its kind officially introduced to Amer-
ica. The introduction of the practice of livestock judging

B The Dairy Cow: A Monograph on the Ayrshire Breed of Cattle, Boston,
1875.

274 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

in the agricultural colleges early in the nineties, put into
systematic operation lessons in judging dairy cattle by the
score card, emphasizing dairy cow type.

The function of the dairy cow is primarily to produce
milk, which process is inseparably associated with repro-
duction. The cow that is a non-breeder soon dries off and
has no further value excepting for meat. The production
of milk as a first essential, is recognized as antagonistic
to the development of flesh, and vice versa. It is true that
examples may be found of cows that are beefy of type, that
yield large milk flows, but these are the exception and not
the rule. Long continued experience on the part of prac-
tical breeders and dairy cattle students, has conclusively
demonstrated that milk is produced at the expense of flesh.
Generations of breeding in certain lines of heredity have
resulted in a great development of this function of milk
secretion, so that to-day we find many thousands of cows
producing remarkable annual yields of milk, that twenty-
five years ago would have been considered impossible.

Method in judging the dairy cow follows the arrange-
ment of the scale of points, taking into consideration gen-
eral appearance first, following this by detailed examination
in order from head to hindquarters. The judge views the
dairy animal at rest and in motion, on the same general
plan as with the beef animal, but does not handle except-
ing in a limited degree. The skin and udder are the only
parts that require the attention of the hands, the rest of
the examination being conducted by the eye. Some judges
handle the spinal column and feel the width and spac-
ing of the ribs. Dairy cattle judges, however, do not
handle thin cattle as much as do those passing on beef
cattle. In European shows of dairy cattle attended by the
author, some of which were very large, the judges did not
handle the udder at all. One well-known judge, who has
passed on many important dairy cattle exhibits in America,
scarcely touches the udder, while most judges in this coun-

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

SCORE CARD FOR A DAIRY COW.

Standard of Score of
SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Cow

Score Judged
A— GENERAL APPEARANCE, 19 Points:

Weight, Estimated Actual

Form, suggesting wedge shape from side, front or top 8 ....

Quality, skin mellow and pliable, secretions abundant,

yellow; hair fine, abundant; bone fine 8 ....

Temperament, active, disposition gentle 3 ....

]',— HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points:

Muzzle, broad, nostrils large 1 ....

Eyes, large, mild, bright 1 ....

Face, lean, of medium length, jaw strong 1 ....

Forehead, broad, slightly dished 1 ....

Ears, medium size, well set, of fine texture 1

Neck, long, lean, neatly attached to head and shoul-
ders ; light dewlap 2 ....

(' — FOREQUARTERS, 9 Points:

Withers, thin and lean 3 ....

Shoulders, light, oblique, not fleshy 4 ....

Legs, short, straight, shank fine, fi><>t well placed . . 2 ....

D — BODY, 20 Points:

Chest, deep, girth large, wide below, crops not deeply

depressed f f 6 ....

Back, lean, strong, vertebraa well defined 4 ....

Loin, broad, level, strong 4 ....

Ribs, long, well sprung below, giving large belly ca-
pacity 5 ....

Flanks, thin and deep 1 ....

E— HINDQUARTERS, 13 Points:

Hips, wide apart, not lower than spine 1

Rump, long, wide, comparatively level, pin bones wide

apart 5 ....

Tail, long, fine, with good switch 1 ....

Thighs, long, thin, widely separated 4

Legs, short, straight, shank fine, carried well apart . . 2 ....

F — MAMMARY DEVELOPMENT, 32 Points:

Udder: form, large, long, the rear part attached high,
front part extended well forward, quarters uni-
form, not deeply grooved, level on bottom . . . . 10 ....

Udder: quality, smooth and mellow to pressure, f-kin

elastic and soft, hair silky 10 ....

Teats, of convenient size, widely separated and evenly

placed . . . . 4 ....

Milk veins, large, long, tortuous, branching . . . . 6 ....

Milk wells, large and easily located 2 ....

Total points 100 ....

276 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

try give it a critical inspection. The dairy cow. as a milk-
ing machine, requires a more detailed examination than does
the animal engaged in beef production. The udder, milk
veins and wells require careful investigation, as most im-
portant features of conformation.

The general appearance of the dairy cow includes her
weight or size, the form as a whole, her quality and tempera-
ment. These features the judge may study as he examines
the cattle at some distance, taking in the entire animal at
rest and walk. As a dairy animal, she should impress one
as lean of flesh, somewhat angular of frame, the front part
of the body narrow, widening toward the rear into large,
capacious hindquarters. This lean, angular form, heavier
behind than in front, represents the wedge shape, which is
in striding contrast to the blocky conformation of the beef-
producing animal.

The weight or size of the dairy cow is quite dependent
on her breeding. If she represents a pure line of ancestry,
then her weight will depend on the breed. A weight of
900 pounds would meet all requirements in case of a
Jersey, while in a Holstein-Friesian this would be entirely
too light. With acceptable weights ranging from 600
pounds with the Dexter to 1,800 pounds with the Holstein-
Friesian, it is not desirable to establish a fixed standard
for a general score card. It is desirable, however, for the
judge to estimate the weight of the animal scored, making
record of this, and weighing later, if convenient. One agri-
cultural college states on its score card that the dairy cow
should not weigh less than 800 pounds, but in the case of
the Dexter cow, some of the finest examples of the breed,
with remarkable mammary development, have weighed
much less than this. Other college score cards entirely ig-
nore weight. Standard weights of Jersey cows range from
800 to 1,000 pounds; the Holstein-Friesian must weigh at
least 1,000 pounds at full age, and score at least 75 points
to enter the advanced registry; the Ayrshire must weigh
not less than 1,000 pounds, while 1,050 has been used as a

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

277

Guernsey standard. These weights will be helpful guides
to judges under certain show ring conditions.

The form or type of the dairy cow is one of her most
distinguishing features, as has already been indicated.
This form, for the use of a better term, is called wedge-
shaped, and an ideal example of a dairy cow shows a triple
wedge, namely, from side, front and top. This wedge is

HI i

Fig. 151. — "It will be noted that in an assumed continuation of these
lines a sufficient distance beyond the head, they would meet at a common
point."

thus explained : first, if the upper and under lines of the
animal, including the udder, be viewed from one side, it
will be noted that in an assumed continuation of these lines
a sufficient distance beyond the head, they would meet at a
common point. In other words, the body narrows, wedge-
like, from rear to front. In fact, the dairy cow stands from
half an inch to an inch and a half lower in front than she
does at the hips. Second, when standing directly in front
of the cow, it will be noted that, were the space between

278

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the points of the shoulders and the withers above enclosed
in straight lines, the outline would be of wedge-like form.
Or, if one will stand close to the shoulder and look down, •
he will note this same wedge in the combination of withers
and front ribs. Third, another wedge may be obtained by

standing behind
the cow and view-
ing the top of the
back. In this case
the point of the
wedge is at the
withers, and its

r widest part the

space between the
points of the hips.
]M The fact is, the en-

^NMJH^r tire body suggests

F\| s \f*f*J & wedge in the

widening from
front to hindquar-
ters. Gay has sug-
gested 6 a fourth
wedge, with the
rump for the base,
and the light
thighs, " concave
from both side and
rear view/' forming lines inclining downward and in-
ward, wedge-like. These various suggested wedges, sim-
ply emphasize two features of the dairy cow, a
lean, muscular condition, and an angular conforma-
tion. This wedge form is merely relative, having the
beef form for comparison. The true dairy cow is lean and
angular, therefore, she is wedge-shaped, a conformation as-
sociated with milk production. The true beef cow is fleshy
and smooth of outline, therefore, her form approaches a

Fig. 152. — "It will be noted that, were the
space between the points of the shoulders and
the withers above enclosed in straight lines,
the outline would be of wedge-like form."

fl The Principles and Practice of Judging Liive Stock, 1914, p. 204.

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

279

parallelogram, a conformation associated with beef produc-
tion. Emphasis should be made here of the fact that,
under certain conditions, such as immaturity or being in
flesh while dry, dairy cattle do not always show the same
type that they will
later on. As stated
by Sturtevant in
1875 (p. 273), the
yearling and two-
year olds may have
parallel rather
than diverging
lines on the side
view. "While judges
of dairy cattle in
making their plac-
ings, usually give
preference to
young cattle of
wedge form, this is
not always so. Oc-
casionally one sees
a beautiful heifer,
with most attrac-
tive mammary de-
velopment, that is
somewhat thick in
front, and fleshy
all over, simply be-
cause her calf fat has not been milked off. In three
months such a heifer may possess a very typical wedge-
shaped conformation. There is more or less dis-
cussion in the agricultural press and among dairy
cattlemen, on the relationship of form to function, in
which there naturally is diversity of opinion. However,
the judge must keep in mind that without ideals and stan-
dards, it will be as utterly impossible to arrive anywhere in

Fig. 153. — "The point of the wedge is at the
withers, and its widest part the space between
the points of the hips."

280

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

placing a ring of animals, as it would be to reach a harbor
on a vessel without a steering gear. Type is merely an
indicator, based on average results secured from a large
number of individuals, but in itself is no guarantee of
production.

Quality in the dairy cow is indicated by the skin, oily
secretions, hair, bone, joints and ears. The skin should be
thinner than with the beef cow, but equally mellow and
perhaps more pliable. If grasped along the ribs, especially
in front, it will often ' l handle like a mole-skin, ' ' filling the
hand with a soft and pliable mass. The secretions of the
dairy animal are shown in the oil or grease to be found
within the ears, and in tne skin, especially on the udder,
the inner thighs and end of tail. This oil is usually yellow
in color, and is a product of the sebaceous glands in the
skin. Dairy cattlemen attach especial significance to this

Fig. 154. — "If grasped along the ribs, especially In front, it will often
'handle like a mole-skin,' filling the hand with a soft and pliahle mass."

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 281

oily secretion and 1o the color of the skin, horns and hoot's.
A notably yellow tint is assumed to indicate that the milk
and butter fat will be more yellow than where this color
is lacking. In the scale of points adopted in 1899 by the
American Guernsey Cattle Club,7 15 points are allowed to
indicate color of milk, as seen in "skin, deep yellow in ear,
on end of bone of tail, at base of horns and body gener-
ally, hoofs amber-colored." This yellow color is unques-
tionably important evidence as to the color of the butter
fat, especially with Channel Island cattle, though not so
much so with the Dutch breeds. Oily secretion is also an
indicator of condition of health, for when lacking, the skin
will usually be dry and hold tight to the ribs, and the hair
will be staring and lacking in lustre, evidences of ill health.
Usually an examination of the inside of ears, the sides of
the udder, the color of teats, and the skin about the vulva
just beneath the tail at the end of the rump, will suffice
to determine the matter of color. Handling the skin will give
evidence as to the activity of the secretions, though this is
not necessary with the experienced judge. The hair should
be fine and abundant. Long, fine hairs usually occur along
the edges of the ears, while the udder is covered with short,
silky hair. The entire hair covering, excepting along the
top of the neck and poll, and on the tail, should lie close
to the skin, rather than be erect and staring. The hair
should also have a sheen or glisten under favorable con-
ditions of light, showing attractive evidence of quality and
healthy condition. The ~bone of the dairy animal should be
fine, indicative of quality, just as with beef animals, and
for the added reason that coarseness of bone is generally
associated with inferior milk production. Large joints and
heaviness of shoulder are evidence of coarseness, as are also
large, heavy ears set high on the head. Quality is one of
the most important factors to be considered in judging
dairy cattle, and should be so regarded. -

7 A committee of the club was appointed in 1915 to draw up a new scale of
points, which had not appeared up to the going to press of these pages.

282 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The temperament of the dairy cow lias received much
attention in the United States since about 1890. Ex-Gov-
W. D. Hoard of Wisconsin, noted as a dairy authority,
probably was the first person to direct attention to this
subject.8 In 1886 he first discussed this subject in a lecture
on ' ' Nervous and dairy temperament in cattle. ' ' He termed
it a "predisposing tendency in the animal to convert its
food either into milk or flesh/' and that temperament
pertaining to dairy cattle was called "dairy temperament."
He classed lean cattle of the dairy type as nervous, and
cattle of the beef type as phlegmatic, and referring to the
former said: "Here you see the open expression of the
barrel, you have the lean, bony outline of the nervous tem-
perament. Dairy breeders breed for the enlargement of
the dairy temperament." This is defined as "a strong,
powerful, nervous machinery and not excitation." Van
Pelt states9 that "the term nervous temperament means
the inherent propensity to work, to eat food, digest it and
convert every available ounce of it not required for main-
tenance into milk products, and does not imply the cow is
nervous in the generally accepted meaning of the term,
nor does it mean that she is excitable." The dairy tem-
perament, as has already been indicated, is especially seen
in the lean conformation of body. It is also supposed to be
expressed in the broad, full forehead, in the large, prom-
inent backbone, and in the mild yet active eye. The brain
is the center of nervous force. A narrow, small forehead
is assumed to indicate a smaller brain than does a large one<
The nervous force radiates throughout the body by means
of the spinal cord passing from the brain through the back-
bone or spine. Prominence of spine would imply a good de-
velopment of spinal cord and consequently much nervous
force. The large, prominent, active eye gives evidence of an
active, nervous temperament. These are the various reasons
assigned for emphasizing temperament. From a scientific

8 The Dairy Temperament in Cows, Bull. No. 5, Wis. Farm. Inst., 1891, p. 83.
8 Cow Demonstration, Hugh G. Van Pelt, 1911, p. 35.

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 283

Fig. 155. — "Prominence of spine would imply a good development of
spinal cord, and consequently much nervous force."

point of view we have no evidence to demonstrate that
either temperament or disposition among cattle is affected
by much other than environment, and it may seriously be
questioned if there be any essential difference in actual
temperament, as based on type or conformation. Dairy
cattle judges, however, generally emphasize the so-called
temperament and will, no doubt, do so for some time to
come. Disposition, as an independent feature, is intended
to apply to certain mental qualities, such as quiet and
kindly, or irritable and cross, or whether an animal is a
kicker or hooker, etc. Therefore, in judging temperament,
the conformation must largely be the guide, while disposi-
tion will be manifested, partly in the eye, and partly in
the movements and attitudes of body.

The head and neck of the dairy cow show a much more
lean make-up than occurs with the beef animal. The head
should be lean as a whole, but while beef cattlemen gen-

284 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

erally prefer a short type of head, those breeding dairy
cattle prefer one of medium length — in fact some, as in
case of the Dutch, favor considerable length. The muzzle
should be broad, and the mouth and nostrils of good size,
for reasons already discussed under beef cattle type. The
eyes should be large, mild, yet alert, and give evidence of a
good disposition and an active temperament. The eye
among some dairy cattle, notably some Jerseys, is too prom-
inent and termed by many a "pop eye." In this case
the eye almost projects from its socket, and is far from
attractive. Prominence up to a certain extent is highly
desirable, but beyond that meets with distinct disfavor.
The face should be lean and of medium length. One sees
long faces among dairy cows, especially the Holstein-Frie-
sian, but this is objectionable, for this conformation indi-
cates a poorer feeder, and a weaker jaw, than does a more
moderate length. The bridge of the nose and the upper
part of the face should be straight. A Roman nose is not
regarded with favor. Light veins on the face are regarded
as desirable, and are features emphasized in both Ayrshire
and Holstein Friesian scales of points. They have no
special significance, unless indicating quality. The lower
jaw should be strong and have ample width at its base,
thereby indicating the good feeder. The forehead of the
dairy cow should be broad and slightly depressed or dished
between the eyes. This depression is considered to add to
the graceful contour of the head. It is much more marked
with some breeds than others, being especially noticeable in
the Jersey. The ears should be of medium size, and some-
what thinner than with beef cattle. They are character-
ized by a general coat of thin hair over the body of the
ear, with long, fine hairs along the edges of the openings.
Fine veins are often seen on the ears of the highly bred
dairy cow, while the skin on the inside of the ear shows more
or less of a yellow, oily secretion. The shade of yellow varies
from light to dark or orange, and offers evidence of the
degree of richness in yellow color of the butter fat. The

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

ears should be placed so that the tips, when elevated, wiJI
not project above the top of the head. Horns are not neces-
sarily a feature of the head of the dairy cow, excepting as
a breed character. They differ greatly among the breeds of
cattle as to length and size. The modern type of Ayrshire
cow carries a long, and very strong horn at its base, while
the Jersey cow usually has a short and comparatively small
one. In itself the
horn is assumed to
indicate quality as
shown in its size
and texture, and in
its color, as sug-
gest i n g relation-
ship to color of
butter fat. Horns
that are large and
coarse at the head
give evidence of
general coarseness,
and are looked
upon with disfavor
by most judges.
The neck of the

dairy cow should be lean and long as prime essentials
of dairy conformation. Further, it should be neatly at-
tached to both head and shoulders. The comparatively thin
edge of the top of the neck should smoothly merge into
the withers. The base of the neck should fit neatly at the
shoulders. Frequently the neck joins the shoulders with
a sharp corner on each side, giving not only a rough but a
weak attachment. Extreme depth of neck and dewlap is
undesirable, as indicating coarseness. Only a slight amount
of dewlap should be seen, although some Brown Swiss cows
carry this edge of skin to a marked degree.

The f orequarters of the dairy cow as the narrow point of
a wedge form, should be light of conformation. Here we

Fig. 156. — "The neck of the dairy cow
should be lean and long."

286 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

have one of the most striking features of dairy type, quite
the opposite o^Jiat found in the beef animal. The withers
should be sharp, though the degree will depend upon the
breed influence and conditions. Judges very generally seek
for thin, lean withers, though undoubtedly in times past
too great emphasis has been placed on their sharpness.
This part, however, should be quite free of flesh, as this is
antagonistic to dairy development. Shoulders that are well

Fig. 157. — "Only a slight amount of dewlap should be seen."

laid in, sloping smoothly into the back, and quite free of
surplus flesh, are necessary to secure the wedge form and
dairy type. Coarseness of the shoulder point is marked if
this part of the body is rough and heavy. Sometimes the
points of the shoulders are rather wide apart, appearing
almost as a deformity. This seems to occur with old cows,
usually those that are superior milkers, and is caused by a
relaxation of the muscles and ligaments connecting the
shoulders and front ribs. In passing on a condition of this
kind, the judge should be more influenced by the age and
general physical condition of the animal, than by the un-

JUDGING T1IK DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

2S7

usual spread between shoulder points and forelegs. In
itself it is evidenee of weakness and the Mdge would be
justified in so ruling, but it need not be regarded as serioiLs
enough to cause severe discrimination. The /r^/.s- should
be short and carried comparatively straight, and wide
enough apart to give evidence of good constitution. Too
many dairy cows stand with their legs quite close together,

Fig. 158. — "The chest of the dairy cow should be deep, yet not as wide
through, comparatively, as the beef cow."

evidencing too narrow a chest. The positions of legs and
feet of the dairy animal should be carried the same as the
beef type, as described on page 245.

The body of the dairy cow is often referred to by stock-
men as the barrel or middle piece. As a whole, it differs
from the beef animal, in lacking flesh and possessing more
length and perhaps wider spacing between the vertebrae and
ribs. The chest of the dairy cow should be deep, yet not as

288 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

wide through, comparatively, as the beef cow. The floor
of the chest should be well rounded out and somewhat
strong in its thickness, yet with a lean, refined brisket ex-
tending slightly beyond the legs. A cross section of the
chest, from the chine or backbone just back of the withers
and shoulders, will show an outline comparable with that
of an egg with the large end down. If the shoulders are
neatly placed and the chest is not too flat of rib, the crops
will be fairly filled. Ordinarily, weak crops and close
spacing between shoulder points give evidence of poor chest
capacity. Depth of chest is of great importance if vigorous
constitution and good feeding capacity is sought. The
back of the dairy cow should be lean, and strongly carried,
with well-defined spines or vertebrae, furnishing important
evidence relating to conformation. Guernsey breeders are
taught 10 to look for a ' ' backbone rising well between shoul-
der blades ; large, rugged spinal processes, indicating good
development of the spinal cord." The points of the spine
from between the shoulders almost to the beginning of the
loin, are long, and unless too much covered with flesh, are
easily felt. This prominence of backbone, and so-called
openness of spine, are regarded as important accompani-
ments of dairy type, as well as nervous temperament. There
is no evidence, however, to show that the spinal cord of the
dairy cow is any different from that of the beef cow. The
main factor is that lack of flesh is necessarily related to
heavy milk production. The back should be strong and
show little sag. Old dairy cows often have marked depres-
sion or weakness of back. Dairy cattle judges are not as
critical as beef cattlemen in judging the way the back is
supported, for the reason that it is impossible to get a per-
fectly level back on cattle, unless by the aid of flesh, which,
of course, is undesirable with the dairy type. Young ani-
mals, however, that have not been milked should show a
comparatively level and strongly supported back. The loin

10 Scale of points adopted by American Guernsey Cattle Club, December 13,
1899.

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 289

should be broad and not depressed in front of the hip. A
width that does not show any sharp contraction just in
front of the hips should be sought. Lack of flesh over the
loin is often responsible for a falling away here. A firm,
strong development of the muscle over the loin is not an-
tagonistic to dairy conformation. The judge is justified
in discriminating against a weak, depressed loin. The rib s
should be long and well sprung below, thereby giving large
capacity for feeding and reproduction. It will be noticed
that, largely due to lack of flesh covering, the ribs of the
dairy animal do not show so much level extension from
the spine, before curving downward, as do the ribs of beef
cattle. However, the ribs should have an increasing curve
outward and downward, expressing the wedge conformation
in front, yet associated with much depth and abdominal
capacity all through. Length of body is a feature of the
dairy cow, and this is associated with some openness of
space between the ribs, especially those nearest the hind-
quarter. The last two or three ribs are often separated so
that one may easily insert the fingers between with a free-
dom not possible with beef cattle. The flanks, both in front
and behind should be full and deep. There has been some
difference of opinion among judges on the character of flank
development, especially behind, and both high and low
flanks have been advocated. A deep, full front flank is
indicative of strong heart girth and outlines the curve of
the lower part of chest. A deep hind flank will be associ-
ated with a capacious body and deep rib, and if thin in
flesh, is most consistent with dairy type. On the contrary,
the high flank is a feature of the shallow body and
denotes a poor feeder. The navel, the point on the belly
where the umbilicus or cord of the calf connected with
the mother before birth, at one time was regarded as
evidence of constitutional vigor. Ex.-Gov. W. D.
Hoard of Wisconsin first advanced the argument that
a large navel indicated a strong attachment of the calf
to the dam before birth, resulting in vigorous offspring.

290

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 159. — "A deep hind flank will be associated with a capacious
body and deep rib."

This theory was for some time advocated, and has been em-
phasized on some score cards. The Guernsey scale of
points, in the formation of which Governor Hoard no doubt
had much influence, states that ' ' constitution is best indicated
by a full development at the navel, and strong abdominal
walls, showing that the animal when in a prenatal state was
abundantly nourished by the mother through a well-devel-
oped umbilical cord." This is an interesting theory, which
apparently is made little use of to-day, and concerning the
actual merits of which no exact information has been con-
tributed to the public. Wing states n that careful observa-
tion has shown that the size of the umbilicus is more of a
breed than an individual characteristic.

The hindquarters of the dairy cow have a special im-
portance in the estimation of the dairyman, because the
conformation of this part is a vital factor in milk produc-
tion. A superior mammary development is not likely to

31 The Dairy Herd.
54, 1913, p. 55.

Henry II. Wing, Cornell Reading Course, Vol. 3, No.

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 291

occur unless the hindquarters are of superior shape and
proportions. The hips of the cow should be wide apart and
at least as high as the spine. Width between the hips indi-
cates a wide pelvis, which is highly essential as relating to
parturition. The narrow pelvis suggests serious difficulty
in giving birth to the calf. Comparatively, the hips seem
more prominent with dairy than beef cows, due no doubt
to the lack of flesh covering. Width between the hips is
naturally associated with the wedge type of the dairy cow.
The rump, as in the case of the beef cow, should be long,
wide and comparatively level, but should lack the heavy
covering of flesh. A tendency to lay on flesh over the rump
is looked upon with distinct disfavor by dairy cattle critics.
One feature of the rump has been much discussed, and that
is what is known as the pelvic arch. This is especially no-
ticeable in the large size and prominence of the backbone
beginning just back of the hips. Viewed from either the
side or rear, a slight elevation of this part is noticeable.
This arching is assumed to indicate a spacious opening

Fig. 160. — "The rump, as in the case of the beef cow, should be long."

292

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

through the pelvis below, important when giving birth to
young, while the prominence of backbone presupposes a
"good development of the spinal cord," according to the
Guernsey scale of points. These are both theories, not sup-
ported by any actual evidence, and too much emphasis
should not be placed on their importance. Some years ago

Fig. 161. — "A wide rump, however, from hips to pin bones is
very essential."

the late Dr. Leonard Pearson, long Dean of University of
Pennsylvania Veterinary College, in conversation with the
writer relative to the pelvic arch, stated that as Pennsyl-
vania State Veterinarian he had conducted many post
mortem examinations on dairy cows. He was much inter-
ested in the pelvic arch theory, but found absolutely no
evidence to support it, cows with high arches oftentimes
having much smaller pelvic space below than did cows with

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

293

insignificant pelvic arches. A wide rump, however, from
hips to pin bones is very essential. A wide spacing be-
tween the pin bones is especially important, otherwise, as
cattlemen know, the calf may be delivered with great diffi-
culty. A peaked rump, pin bones close together, with sharp
sloping toward both the rear and sides, makes an extremely
bad conformation, justifying severe action on the part of
the judge. Such a rump is not only bad from a physiologi-

Fig. 162. — "The tail proper turning a square angle just above the
pin bones."

cal point of view, as affecting maternity, but is also associ-
ated with limited udder room below. The tail not only
gives balance and proportion to the cow, but serves as a
valuable aid in fighting flies. It also serves as an indi-
cator of quality. The tail head should be neatly attached
on a level with the end of the spine, the tail proper turn-
ing a square angle just above the pin bones, and reaching
to the point of hocks. The brush should contain plenty of
long hair and reach nearly to the level of the feet. Flies
bite and irritate the thin-skinned dairy cow far more than
the beef animal, hence the importance of a long tail as a

294

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

means of protection. The bone of the tail should also
be fine, an indication of quality. The thighs of the
dairy cow should be long, thin and widely separated,

quite - in contrast
with the thighs of
the beef ani-
mal. As one
views the thighs
from one side they
should make a pro-
nounced sweep in
toward the body
and then turn out
to end the curve at
the point of hock.
From a rear view
the thighs high up
are separated with
but little curve,
this being most
marked on the
lower thigh and
reaching the hock.
The thighs must
not only be thin,
but must be well
separated, if space

for a capacious udder is to be had. A thick, fleshy thigh is
inconsistent with dairy cow conformation, and the judge
should keep this point in mind. The hind legs should be
short, straight, and carried well apart. It is necessary for
the legs to be carried well apart, to allow ample room for
the udder. If the legs touch at the points of the hocks,
the feet and toes point outward, and the thighs are carried
closer together than they should be, thus crowding the
udder. This is a very common defect of dairy cows. In
this position the udder, if large, is naturally pushed for-

Fig. 163. — "From a rear view the thighs high
up are separated with but little curve."

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 29.J

ward. This close carriage of the hocks and legs has given
rise to the expression ' * cow-hocked, ' ' which is anything but
a compliment. One rarely sees the thighs and hocks too
widely separated. The correct position of the hind legs,
from either side or rear view, is the same as that of the beef
animal, excepting that space in one type is needed for beef,
and in the other for the udder. When the cow or bull
walks, the hind legs should be carried forward in direct
line, without crossing or swaying, an objection referred to
in the first Jersey scale of points.

The mammary development of the cow, when milk pro-
duction is the principal object sought, becomes a subject
of vital importance to the dairy cattleman. He realizes
that, in capacity and actual value, there is a wide range of
difference between the ordinary beef cow that simply nurses
a calf, and the highly bred cow of dairy type that may
produce twenty thousand or more pounds of milk in a year.
Each animal has the same physical structure. Why does
one produce so much more than the other f This is due to
various factors, among others, ancestry along milk-produc-
ing lines, the nervous, digestive and circulatory systems,
and the general conformation, or relationship of one part
to another. Inasmuch as the judge must be a student of
the relationship of form to function, a brief reference to
some of the factors bearing on milk production will be
appropriate at this point.

The process of digestion begins with the mouth, the
food passing from this into the stomach and then on into
the intestines. At various stages of the movement of the
food, digestive fluids are mixed with it, so that it gradually
becomes more and more reduced and ready for use in the
body.

The blood as a factor in milk production is very im-
portant, for milk is produced from blood during its move-
ment through the udder. Blood nourishes the body tissue,
furnishes material for the secretions, and supplies life-giv-
ing oxygen. Blood is 81 per cent water and 19 per cent

296 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

solids. It is mainly composed of a sticky fluid called plasma,
in which are distributed immense numbers of corpuscles,
two-thirds of which are red, the remainder being white.
The red color in blood is due to a substance known as
haemoglobin, which absorbs oxygen from the air in the

Fig. 164. — "The circulatory system of the animal consists of the heart
and the arteries, capillaries and veins, through which the blood moves." The
arteries (white) conduct the blood from the heart to the udder. The veins
(black) are channels by which the blood returns to the heart through the
udder. This cow is Imp. Castlemain's Nancy 2d, a noted Ayrshire owned
by Penshurst Farm.

lungs, using it in reducing the food so that it can be applied
to the building up of the body tissue.

The circulatory system of the animal consists of the
heart and the arteries, capillaries and veins through which
the blood moves. There is also a much smaller system, the
lymphatic, which contains a colorless fluid, the lymph. The
heart, a hollow, muscular organ, acts both as a suction and
force pump, keeping the blood circulating through the body.

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 297

The arteries conduct blood from the heart to the tissues.
They arise from a common trunk, the aorta, which divides
and subdivides like the branches of a tree. The arteries
are very elastic, and contract and expand. The capillaries
are extremely fine tubes in the body tissue, terminating in
the arteries, which absorb part of the nutrients of the food
into the blood. The veins are channels by which the blood
returns to the heart. They are arranged like the arteries,
but are usually of larger 'capacity. The nutrients of the
food are taken up in the process of digestion, mainly in the
intestines, the inner coatings of which .are lined with
minute . finger-like projections of microscopic size, called
villi. In the center of each of these villi is a vessel, the
lacteal, which connects with the lymphatic system. Sur-
rounding the lacteal is a network of capillaries which con-
nect with the blood system. Here, in the villi, nutrients of
the food are separated. The proteids, carbohydrates and
salts, are taken up by the capillaries, while the fat of the
food, emulsified, is taken up by the lacteals. The contents
of the capillaries move on through the portal vein to the
liver, and thence on to the right side of the heart, while
the contents of the lacteals find their way into a long lym-
phatic tube beneath the backbone, which leads to what is
known as the thoracic duct, a large lymphatic vessel, which
opens into a big vein close to the first rib, which in turn
leads into the heart. From here the blood is forced to the
lungs to come in contact with air, and be oxydized, after
which it passes into the left side of the heart, from which
place it is distributed by means of the arteries to the
tissues throughout the body. The large artery, the aorta,
leads from the top of the heart along beneath the spine,
subdividing just below the hips. From here the arteries
extend on and down into the udder, one passing along by
the thigh bone (femur) and another to the extreme rear,
where, with considerable division and running together,
they continue on into and through the udder tissue. The
veins of the mammary glands converge at the base of the

298

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

udder. After leaving the udder the veins pass along on
the surface of the belly until they disappear through open-
ings known as "milk wells" in the belly wall, and connect
with other veins leading to the heart.

The physical composition of the udder has an important
relationship to form and production. It consists of two
glands which lie horizontally side by side, separated by a
layer of tissue which assists in supporting them. These

glands are distinctly separate
from each other. This may be
noted by examining the under
side of the udder, where the
groove separating them is to be
seen. Each gland ordinarily has
two teats. Through the medium
of a teat milk is drawn from
what is usually termed a ' * quar-
ter " of the udder. As the glands
are independent of each other,
so also are the quarters. This
Dr. Bitting clearly proved at
Purdue University Experiment
Station, when he injected dif-
ferent colored liquid tallow in
adjoining quarters, showing that
blue never passed over into red,
or vice versa. A cross section of
the two quarters always showed
a clear mark of separation be-
tween them. This independence
of the quarters is often demon-
strated, in a practical way, by

the dairyman who, for some reasons, draws bloody milk
from one quarter, while from the adjoining one of the
same side apparently perfect milk is drawn. Cows also
suffer from garget in one quarter, while the other three
milk freely and appear perfectly healthy. This gland con-

Fig. 165. — "Dissecting an ud-
der we find that it is somewhat
spongy of texture, pinkish-
white in color, and full of many
holes or canals, much like a
sponge." (Courtesy Dr. S. Sis-
son. From The Anatomy of the
Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 608. )

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE •_>!)».)

sists of a fleshy framework, filled with secreting tissue.
Dissecting an udder we find that it is somewhat spongy of
texture, pinkish-white in color, and full of many holes or
canals, much like a sponge. When cut more or less, milk
escapes from the incision. Above each teat is a cavity
known as the milk cistern or milk reservoir, from which
the milk is drawn through the teats. At the lower end of
each teat, a small muscle (the sphincter) encircles the out-
let with enough force, ordinarily, to prevent the escape of
milk unless the milking operation is on.

The process of milk secretion may be briefly described
as follows : Each gland of the udder is composed of a
quantity of structures known as lobes, lobules and alveoli.
These may be compared to a bunch of grapes, the lobe rep-
resenting the bunch, the lobule one grape and the alveoli
smaller glands or ducts within the one fruit. The alveoli
are exceedingly small arid can be seen only under a micro-
scope of high magnifying power. Two processes, says
Smith,12 from whom the author freely quotes, contribute
to the formation of milk. In one, the cells lining the al-
veoli of the gland are shed bodily, and from the fat of the
milk, while in the other water, protein, salts, etc., are formed
from the lymph in the gland by the ordinary process of
secretion. The gland of an animal that has never been
pregnant contains much smaller and less numerous alveoli
than a secreting gland. The alveoli of the non-pregnant
animal are found to be packed with small, rounded cells of
very slow growth. When the animal becomes pregnant the
gland enlarges, the alveoli increase in number, but remain
packed with the cells until parturition approaches or occurs.
The solid masses of cells are now cast off, and leave behind
them alveoli lined with a single layer of secretory epithe-
lium, the function of which is to produce the milk. The
shedding of the mass of cells which originally occupied the
alveoli, supplies the colostrum or first milk. The cells in
the active gland are loaded with material, much of it being

12 A Manual of Veterinary Physiology, 4th «•<!.. London, 1912, p. 726.

300 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

fat, and these cells break off, leaving behind them the parent
cell, containing a nucleus from which another cell grows.
Thus the formation of fat in milk is really a process of
cell secretion. The proteins, sugar and salts in milk, are
secreted in the ordinary way from the blood, or rather the
lymph, circulating in the gland, the cells lining the alve-
oli being active in the matter. That these substances are
really produced by the cell is supported by the fact that
neither caseinogen nor milk sugar exist in any other tissue
of the body. The secretion of the alveoli finds its way
through outlets into the lobules, and from these into the
lobes, and thence into the smaller orifices seen in the udder
when cut open, from which it is conveyed into the milk
cistern. It has been supposed that the secretion of milk
is influenced by the nervous system, but there is no ex-
perimental evidence which places this beyond doubt. How-
ever, the action of the blood vessels is affected by the ac-
tivity of the nerves. The greater the capacity of the
arteries and veins of the udder, the larger the milk secre-
tion will be. According to R. Meade Smith:13 "as far as
we know, the mammary secretion is dependent upon the
amount of blood passing through the glands. Changes in the
general blood pressure, by modifying the blood supply of the
mammary gland, also influence the amount of milk secreted. ' '
The form of the udder requires consideration in de-
tail. In the arrangements of some scales of points,
the front and rear parts of the udder are separately de-
scribed and assigned separate values. The udder should
be large, according to the age and condition of the cow.
In the mature animal, in full flow of milk, size is naturally,
though not necessarily, associated with heavy milk yield.
If the mammary development as a whole is good, then large
size is a distinctly desirable feature. The udder should
be long, extending high up behind between the thighs, and
carried well forward along the belly, with the under side
or "floor" as it is often termed, flat or level. Present day

18 Physiology of Domestic Animals, 1890, p. 631.

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

301

Fig. 166. — "The udder should be long, extend-
ing high up behind between the thighs, and car-
ried well forward along the belly."

judges prefer this
long type of udder
to the deeper or
more pendant one.
The long udder is
strongly supported
by its muscular at-
tachment, while the
pendant one is
weaker of form,
and shows the ten-
dency to breaking
down that goes
with age. The hori-
zontally long udder also furnishes a more convenient form
for the milker to approach with his pail. While it does
not follow that the long udder may produce more milk,
or even as much, as the pendant form, evidence secured
by the author years ago 14 demonstrated that length of this
gland is only se-
cured through the
development of the
forequarter of the
udder. The nat-
ural tendency is
for the hindquar-
ter to extend well
up behind, and the
higher the better.
The forequarter is
often short, show-
ing little extension.
Frequently the ud-
der is What might Fi- l<Vr.— "Tho pendant one is w.-nkor of
, -iPi form and shows the tendency to breaking down

be termed funnel- that goes with ag<'

wThe Udder of the Cow, Bulletin C2, October, 1896, Purdue Univ. Agr. Exp.
Station.

302

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

shaped, the forequarter being short and tilting sharply up-
ward. Often the forequarter appears distinctly elevated
above the rear quarter. Experiments have shown that the
hindquarters usually yield considerably more milk than the
forequarters, and that the longer and more fully the latter
are developed the more closely they approach the former in
milk yield. In other words, the yielding capacity of the
udder is increased by extending the forequarter. This has
been, in a way, recognized by some scales of points. The

Fig. 168. — "The forequarter is often short."

American Jersey Cattle Club, in its official scale of points,
for example, credits ten points to the fore udder and six
to the rear udder, thereby putting a prejnium on improv-
ing the part that most needs development. The judge ob-
tains his idea of the length and form of udder by viewing
it from the side, but he should carefully compare the sides
and see that they are well balanced. It is not unusual to
find an udder that is attractive on one side, and apparently

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

303

Fig. 169. — An udder with
throe teats — a very unusual
condition.

tinctly thicker than
those behind. This is
also suggested by the
distance between the op-
posite hind teats and the
opposite front ones. The
more closely the thighs
are placed, the thinner
will be the hindquarters.
Not infrequently one
sees an udder, low in its
rear attachment, be-
tween thighs so close to-
gether that the udder
as a whole is crowded
forward with a consid-
erable tilt of the lower
side. The form of the

perfect, while the other side
shows a quarter not in equally
good form with its opposite,
making a shorter and more un-
shapely gland. Uniformity in
size and shape of quarters
should be emphasized by the
judge. The udder as a whole
should be fairly thick, assum-
ing that, other things being
equal, the thick udder has
more capacity than the 'thin
one. The natural form of the
udder is to be narrower behind
than in front — another wedge
— the forequarters being dis-

Fig. 170. — "The udder as a whole
should be fairly thick."

304

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

udder has involved more or less discussion, in which the
show udder has been compared disadvantageous!;^ with the
so-called commercial one. Many cows having ' large ad-
vanced registry records have possessed udders that
were not of show ring form, which, in the opinion of some,
demonstrates that show ring standards are impracticable.
The fact remains, however, that we must have standards
in conformation, and that as a rule, the cow of milk produc-
ing lines, with an ideal udder in form, will make the more
creditable showing at the pail.

The quality of the udder is manifested in several ways.
It should be smooth and mellow to the touch. Udders
differ in their internal character and texture. The proper
time to examine the quality is after the milk has been
drawn. Then, when taken between the hands one feels
something of the inner texture. The udder differs in
mellowness very materially. If made up largely of fleshy
framework, it is known as a fleshy or meaty udder, and

Fig. 171. — "When taken between the hands one feels something of the
inner texture."

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

305

lacks more than it should in secreting tissue. Such an
udder does not secrete as freely as it should, and when
milked out its form may be but slightly changed. When
secreting tissue is very abundant, the udder is more mellow
and elastic, and
when the milk is
drawn, the gland
shrinks greatly,
sometimes appear-
ing as a thin, skin-
enclosed sac.
Fleshy udders yield
a much smaller flow
than elastic ones,
but usually test
higher in butter
fat. They are not,
as a rule, regarded
with favor. The
udder that, after
milking, ' ' shrinks
away to nothing"
shows the best
quality and largest
production. R e -
moval of the milk
also leaves the
gland in condition

Fig. 172. — "The skin enclosing the udder should
be very elastic."

to inspect it for "knots" or small
tumors. It is not remarkable to feel lumps of this sort lo-
cated among the gland tissue, that will not be detected un-
less the empty udder is handled. The skin enclosing the
udder should be very elastic, and covered with, short, fine,
silky hair. The elasticity of the skin and udder are dis-
tinct evidences of quality. The more elastic the skin, the
greater the expanding capacity of the milk-filled udder.
A judge is always justified in requiring the milking out of
an udder that is full, that he may give it thorough exarnin-

son

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

ation. The character of the competition, however, will af-
fect the requirements of the judge in this regard. It is
customary to milk out in the older cow classes, when com-
petition is close.

The teats are simply the medium for drawing off the
milk. They should be perfect, having good openings,
through which no leakage will occur. They should be of
convenient size to grasp in the hands three to four inches

Fig. 173.— "They should be of convenient size to grasp in the hands.'

long, should hang perpendicularly, and be located far
enough apart to grasp, without the hands interfering with
each other. The front teats are naturally somewhat larger
than the back ones. The Ayrshire scale of points specifies
as follows, and more in detail regarding the teats than does
that for any other breed : 15 " Evenly placed, distance apart
from side to side equal to half the breadth of udder, from
back to front equal to one-third the length ; length 2i/> to

15 Uniform scale of points adopted by the United States and Canadian Ayrshire
Breeders' Associations, 1906.

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE 307

3% inches, thickness in keeping with length, hanging per-
pendicular and not tapering." The teats of the cow vary
greatly in form and position. They range from short,
small ones, very hard to grasp, rather often seen on Ayr-
shire and Jersey, to long, big ones, especially seen on
Holstein and Red Polled cattle, that more than fill the
largest hand. Such teats are undesirable enough for hand
milking, but the growing use of the milking machine adds
to the necessity of having cylindrical teats of medium size,
well suited either to hands or the cups of the machine.
Another undesirable feature of the teat is enlargement of
its upper part, caused by a weakening of the wall of the
udder above. Judges should give more attention to the
character and usefulness of the teats, discriminating espe-
cially against those that are short or defective. The pres-
ence of extra teats that are small and unproductive some-
times occurs. These have been assumed to indicate su-
perior mammary development, but we have no evidence to
that effect. Some breeders remove these extra teats, cut-
ting them off during calf age before they assume too great
a size. Cows with sore teats that cannot be handled by the
judge, should not be shown. On several occasions the author
has seen cows in the show ring, the teats and udders of
which were affected with cow pox. Such cases should be
barred from the show grounds.

The milk veins, as has previously been stated, convey
the blood from the udder along the belly toward the heart.
Not much is actually known regarding the relationship of
these veins to milk production. Some years ago Dr. King,
of Maine, stated that the size of the vein was not a true indica-
tion of its blood-carrying capacity, some veins having thicker
walls than others, and the blood flow being more rapid in
some cows than others. More recently, Prof. R. R. Graves,
of the Oregon Experiment Station, has been conducting
experiments on the relation of the vein to milk flow. In
a letter to the author, of June 2, 1916, he states that he
tied the veins of a Holstein cow producing about 45 pounds

308

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 174. — "The milk veins convey the blood from the udder along the
belly toward the heart." (From photo Castlemain's Nancy 4th, an
Ayrshire owned by Penshurst Farms.)

of milk a day. "Excepting for a slight shock at the first,
this cow has apparently suffered no ill effects, and ,is in
good condition, and is producing well at the present time, ' '
after having the veins tied for three months. It has been
generally assumed by dairy cattle critics, that the larger,
the longer and more tortuous (twisted or crooked) the veins,
the greater the producing capacity of the cow. In other
words, the heaviest milkers may be expected to have the
greatest vein development. Van Pelt, well known as a
dairy cattle judge, writes:16 "I have never seen an ex-
tremely good cow whose system of mammary veins and
wells was not extremely well developed, and I have never
seen a really poor cow with a great mammary system. It
has been my pleasure to examine such cows as Colantha
4th 's Johanna, Jacoba Irene, Dairymaid of Pinehurst and
Financial Countess, and without exception their veining is

16 Cow Demonstration. Hugh G. Van Pelt, 1911, p. 51.

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

309

tremendous. ' ' The udder secreting a great amount of milk
has been assumed to have a strong passage of blood through
it, and the large veins have been supposed to be associated
with such a flow. This, perhaps, is not entirely true, and
the information secured by Professor Graves justifies us in
suspending judgment on this little-understood subject. The
veins of young animals, however, are smaller than those of
old ones, and are less conspicuous. Two veins are com-
monly seen along the belly, one on each side and one longer
than the other. Often a third and shorter vein occurs be-
tween these. In uncommon cases other veins branch off,
or a large number of small ones cover the intervening
space on the belly between the udder and navel, sometimes
causing a varicose effect. It is not unusual also to see
small veins on the outside of the udder, a condition seem-
ingly associated with heavy milking. The length and size
of the veins vary considerably. Ordinarily the longest vein
extends about half way the length of the belly, but in rare
cases may occupy the entire distance and disappear at the

Fig. 175. — "The length and size of the veins vary considerably."

310

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

front flank or under the shoulder blade. The diameter of
the main milk veins approximates a half inch, occasionally
reaching one inch and showing prominently along
the belly. To examine the milk veins well, it is necessary
for the judge to lower his head to a point where he can
easily see the entire belly. In the. opinion of most judges,
the producing capacity of the cow will usually be consid-

Fig. 176. — "Sometimes these wells are big enough to receive the end of a
good-sized finger."

erably influenced by the vein development, even though the
judge may lack the facts to support his theory.

The milk wells are the orifices or holes in the belly wall
through which the larger veins disappear. Sometimes these
wells are big enough to receive the end of a good-sized
finger. Large wells usually accompany large veins. We
know nothing of the true significance of the relationship of
size of well to production, though large wells are assumed
to be evidence of heavy milking capacity, being associated

JUDGING THE DAIRY TYPE OF CATTLE

311

with strong blood circulation. It is usually easy to locate
the wells at the ends of the two more important veins, but
the minor ones are not so easily found. Most of the present
day scales of points applied to dairy cows include reference

to the size of the
milk well.

The escutcheon
theory, according
to the official
French report,17
' ' is founded on the
arrangement or
disposition of the
hair, in a space
commencing at the
upper extremity of
the vulva, and de-
scendingto the
roots of the teats,
winding as it de-
scends, covering the
inner and hind
parts of the thigh.
It is from the ar-
rangement of the
hair in this space
that the deductions
are made as to the quantity, duration and quality
of the milk." This theory was originated by a
Frenchman named Guenon who, in 1828, requested
the Academy of Bordeaux to investigate his theory,
which was done, but not until 1837. Guenon divided all
cows into ten classes or families, and each of these into three
sizes, large, medium, small. The cows in each class, depend-
ing on size, were grouped into six orders, according to the

Fig. 177. — "The surface of the escutcheon Is
distinguished by its upward growing hair."

17 A Treatise on Milch Cows, by M. Francis Guenon, translated by N. P.
Trivt, New York, 1856, p. 5.

312 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

escutcheon. The author of this theory thus describes it : 18
."The surface of the escutcheon is distinguished by its up-
ward growing hair, which takes a direction opposite to
that which covers the other parts of the skin. The hair of
the escutcheon is also distinguished by its tint, which is
duller than that of the other hair. The escutcheon starts
from the middle of the four teats, a part of its hair extend-
ing forward under the belly, in the direction of the navel,
while the other part, beginning a little above the hocks,
spreads as far as the middle of the hinder surface of the
thighs, ascending on the udder and in some classes running
up as high as the top of the vulva. The form or pattern
of the escutcheon indicates the class to which the animal
belongs, while the extent of surface covered by it denotes
the milk-giving capacity. This extent, varying in decreas-
ing proportion, gives rise to several orders, in which I
range the members of each class. The fineness of the hair
of the escutcheon, and the color of the skin, indicate the
quantity and quality of the milk. ... In all the classes and
orders, the escutcheon is the sole indicator of the internal
capacity of the udder, so that if the escutcheon is large,
we can pronounce without hesitation that the internal reser-
voir is large, and the yield of milk will be abundant, while,
if the escutcheon be small, the reservoir is small, and the
yield of milk will be small." Guenon also describes a
special growth of the hair which he termed "feathers,"
of which there are two kinds, ascending and descending.
These he classifies into seven groups, five of which occur
on the escutcheon and two outside of it. This system in-
cludes an escutcheon classification for bulls. This theory,
which was so widely discussed and advocated many years
ago, is practically discarded to-day, notwithstanding the
fact that the Ayrshire, Guernsey and Holstein-Friesian
scales of points each recognize the escutcheon. It will
be difficult to assign value to this theory so long as high-
class producing cows show escutcheons of low order.

18 Guenon on Milch Cows, translated by T. J. Hand, New York, 1883, p. 28.

CHAPTER XXVI.

THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DAIRY CATTLE.

FOLLOWING the use of the score card, as applied to the
individual, comes a study of two or more animals in com-
parison. As has already been indicated, in reference to
horses and beef cattle, the score card may be used for this
purpose in a very limited way. The scoring method is then

Fig. 178. — "An interesting and instructive study may result.'
313

314 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

succeeded by the less tedious and more common plan of
comparing the animals in a group. In the case of dairy
cattle, emphasis is naturally placed on the features for
which this class of stock is bred and valued. Animals of
the same general age and period of lactation are compared.
A similar method of inspection is applied as with
beef cattle. An interesting and instructive study may re-
sult by comparing certain features or characteristics as
found in each animal of the group, in which the strong and
weak points of each will be graded into either first, second,
third or fourth place. The following comparison card is
suggested, each animal to be identified by a letter of the
alphabet.

DAIRY CATTLE COMPARISON CARD

Name of Judge Date Judged

Class of Cattle . .

First Second Third Fourth
Place Place Place Place

FEATUEES TO JUDGE

Form or type

Quality . . ....

Temperament

Head and neck

Forequarters

Constitution . . . .

Body

Bump

Thighs

Udder

Teats

Veins

Breed character

Placing

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF DAIRY CATTLE ;;ir,

The placing of a group of animals will largely depend
on the number of times A was credited with first place,
B with second, etc. However, the judge must attach the
same relative importance to the features in this comparison
card that they receive on the regular score card, excepting
that of breed character, for which special provision must
be made. If cow A were given first place under form, head
and neck, body, rump, thighs and udder, she would cer-
tainly have an advantage over any one of the others, for

Fig. 179. — "His work as judge should show consistency in his placings."

these are first essentials in a dairy cow, involving two-
thirds of the scale of points. Thus the placing of each,
cow will depend materially upon what she might score.
The final rank of each animal is placed at the bottom of the
card, after the credits assigned are decided upon. Under
usual conditions of the show ring, the animals are exam-
ined and placed in their order of merit. When the judge
makes his placings, he must have clearly in mind the merits
and demerits of each animal. His work as judge should
show consistency in his placings, in his adherence to type

316 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

and to the apparent efficiency of the animal as a producer.
Without desired type, however, and some other important
features, strong mammary development will often place
an animal high up in the competition, and with the en-
dorsement of the critics. That is a, recognition of the busi-
ness end of the cow that requires most careful judgment,
otherwise animals with serious weaknesses that should
never receive a high placing, may stand above others pos-
sessing qualities and characteristics of greater importance.

CHAPTER XXVII.

JUDGING DAIRY TYPE BULLS AND
YOUNG CATTLE.

(A)— DAIRY TYPE BULLS.

Sex character in the dairy bull, as in the beef type, is
especially noticeable in head, neck and shoulders, and in
the temperament. The lack of flesh, however, gives a leaner,
sharper definition of the head, and less thick, though perhaps
a longer neck ; and a more or less bare and prominent shoul-
der. The neck of the mature bull should show considerable
crest and muscular development, the dairy bull often carry-
ing his masculine character to an extreme. The shoulders
should not show the refinement of the cow, but should be
heavier, with wider withers and more smoothness over the
top. Roughness of shoulder is often seen in dairy bulls,
which is emphasized by the lack of flesh. The temperament
is also an evidence of sex character, as seen in the activity
of disposition, with a tendency to nervousness and self-
assertion far more marked than with beef bulls. The dis-
position is often ugly after reaching maturity, so that great
care needs to be taken in handling males. The rudimentary
teats are special sex characters of the bull. These are lo-
cated, two on a side, just in front of the scrotum. These
teats vary much in length and position, and when well de-
veloped a slight amount of milky fluid may be squeezed
from them. They may be an inch in length, or scarcely
more than fleshy scars. Years ago long rudimentaries were
regarded as indicating that a bull would sire daughters that
should have good-sized teats, associated with strong milk-
giving properties. That theory seems to have been gen-
erally exploded, and, for want of a better one, it has been

317

318

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 180. — "The sex character of the dairy bull is especially noticeable in
head, neck and shoulders." Jersey bull, Julia's Majesty.

assumed that the location of the rudimentaries will indi-
cate the transmission of the placing of teats on the daugh-
ters. Bulls vary greatly in the placing of these rudiment-
ary teats, some being attached on the same level and widely
separated, while with others they are close together, with
the fore teat high above the rear one. No information
other than popular opinion justifies drawing any conclu-
sions on the significance of the rudimentaries. However,
the American Guernsey Cattle Club gives the following
special distinction l to these features of male anatomy :
"We consider that a well-balanced and well-shaped udder
in the cow is largely due to the way the rudimentary teats
are placed on the sire. If they are crowded close together,
the result is likely to be narrow-pointed udders. If they
are placed well apart, of good size, and well forward of
the scrotum, the effect, we think, will be to influence

1 Scale of points adopted in 1899.

DAIHY TYPK IH'U.S AND VOINO CATT1.K ;;i<j

largely flu- production of well-shaped udders in Ihe result-
ing heifers, and counteract the tendency to ill-shaped udders
inherited from dams deficient in this respect." The veins
of the bull are also evidences of sex character. These are
small, are usually two in number, and extend along on 1he
belly, covering much the same relative location as on the
cow, and disappear through openings in the belly wall.
Judges usually examine the veins and wells on. the bull,
and regard them as giving evidence of dairy character.
Such veins are also to be seen on bulls of the beef type.
Constitutional vigor in the dairy bull should have special
emphasis. This will be indicated by the depth of chest,
rather than thickness, with the foreribs well arched below.
The squareness and fullness of front of the beef bull should
not occur with the dairy type. However, a close placing
of the front legs, with the knees nearly together, indicates
undesirable narrowness of the floor of the chest. If the
front flank is deep and full, the legs will stand wide enough
apart. An active, alert carriage of head and neck, promi-
nent eye, a strong muzzle, a widely developed forehead, a
capacious middle, and mellow, elastic skin, are other im-
portant evidences of constitutional vigor the judges should
emphasize.

Size with the dairy bull varies considerably with the
breed. Medium size meets with most favor. Size or weight
should not be secured by a fleshy condition, which is dis-
tinctly objectionable. In judging, large size, when free
from coarseness, should meet with favor as compared with
small size, even though characterized by good form and
quality.

The general form of the dairy bull is shown in length,
depth and angularity, rather than in a short, thick, smooth
form. As one views him from one side, he appears com-
paratively long of outline, especially in neck and body, with
appreciable depth of rib. From in front the withers and
chine or top of front ribs appear narrow. From the rear
the hips should not appear too wide apart, though with a

320

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

fair degree of prominence, while the hindquarter should
be lean and muscular, with very little twist, and the thighs
divided nearly if not quite to the vulva. A fleshy rump
and thigh is distinctively objectionable. Angularity of
form, or freedom from a tendency to lay on flesh is most
important. Classes of mature dairy bulls vary more in
type than occurs with any other farm animals, so that with
some breeds, notably the Guernsey and Holstein-Friesian,

V *

Fig. 181. — "The general form of the dairy bull is shown in length, depth
and angularity." (From photo Holstein Friesian bull, Sir Beets Cornu-
copia Netherland 38460, owned by W. S. Moscript.)

judges find individuals varying vridely from accepted stan-
dards. Such mixtures furnish difficult work for the judge,
and unless he has a well-defined standard of type in mind,
he will be likely to render unsatisfactory decisions, both to
himself and to all others. In view of the fact that the
world over, among intelligent breeders, there is a recognized
relationship of form to function, then both breeders and
judges, of necessity, must place a premium on this relation-
ship,-if breed improvement is to continue.

DAIRY TYPE BULLS AND YOUNG CATTLK

321

(B)— JUDGING YOUNG DAIRY CATTLE.

Undeveloped animals of the dairy type differ iu appear-
ance, previous to lactation, according to the way they have
been fed. Often they carry their calf fat and appear
smooth-fleshed and much thicker over the shoulders and
about the hindquarters than they will with maturity. For
that reason too much emphasis should not be placed on the
fineness of withers, or the carrying of more flesh than
might be thought desirable. Certain things, however,

flf

Fig. 182. — "Heifers should show udders with much pliability of skin."

should be as important in the young as in the mature animal,
especially the general form — indicating as it does consti-
tution, digestive capacity, and quality — the head, and the
hindquarters. Long, level, wide rumps and comparatively
thin thighs should be insisted on. Constitution, as shown
in heart girth and f orerib development ; digestive capacity,
as evidenced by a deep middle piece; and quality as em-
phasized in sappy, mellow hide, and fine hair, are essentials.
No calf lacking in any one of these three features should

322 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

be placed high in competition. Heifers should show udders
with much pliability of skin, having teats of good size,
placed well apart and on the same level. Udders that hang
tight to the belly, with teats close together, and the front
pair elevated materially above the rear two, promise a re-
stricted or unshapely development. In judging heifer
calves, the mammary development should receive critical
inspection. One of the most attractive features of a young
heifer, occasionally seen, is a maternal character in the
expression of face and the general bearing of head and neck,
suggestive of the mature cow. In a comparable way, young
bulls sometimes show a combination of sex character and
style suggestive of the mature male. Young bulls, however,
vary much in the development of sex character, as shown
in head and neck. The head should possess the desirable
qualities of conformation and expression. Crest and thick-
ness of neck come with maturity. The scrotum of the male
should be perfectly developed, showing two glands of uni-
form size. Until further definite information becomes
available, the character of the rudimentaries on the calf
should not seriously influence the judge in his placings,
though one might favor having them placed well apart and
in front of the scrotum.

CHAPTER XXVTII.

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE MORE IMPORTANT
DAIRY BREEDS.

The Jersey breed of cattle originated on the Island of
Jersey in the English Channel, near the coast of France.
These cattle are commonly referred to as fawn-colored, as
they resemble the grayish-brown color characteristic of the

Fig. 183. — "White markings on Jerseys are not rare." (From photo of
Successful Queen 278743. having record of 13.088 Ibs. milk and 803 Ihs.
butter in a year. Owned by Hood Farm. Photo by Hildebrand.)

323

324

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

common deer. Various shades of fawn, however, are recog-
nized, such as yellow, red, brown, mulberry, silver, etc.
White markings on Jerseys are not rare, although not
popular with many breeders. The hair about the muzzle,
along over the backbone, and inside the legs, is often a
creamy or grayish white color. The Jersey is distinctly a
dairy breed, and in its most approved form is of ideal

Fig. 184. — Jersey bull, Raleigh's Fairy Boy, a well-known champion of
Island breeding, owned by C. I. Hudson.

dairy type. Popular weights at maturity are 1,250 to 1,400
pounds for the bulls, and 850 to 900 for the cows. Ameri-
can families tend to be somewhat larger and coarser than
those of Island breeding. The head should be moderately
short and dished, the horns of a waxy or amber-yellow color,
and crumpled, turning by graceful curve until the points
are directed somewhat inward. The horns are dark at the
tips. The withers are often quite refined, the shoulders
somewhat prominent, the thighs thin, and the limbs neat
and showing much refinement of bone. The ideal udder

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 325

is carried well forward, as well as high up behind. The
teats are frequently somewhat small and short. Many
American bred cows have udders with more or less abbrevi-
ated fronts. The skin is commonly thin, mellow and elas-
tic, and shows a rich yellow secretion, especially in the
ears, and on vulva, udder and thigh. The most striking
features in the appearance of the Jersey are the color, the
wedge form, the short, dished face, the prominent, beauti-
ful eye, the fine bone, and the deer-like character of the

Fig. 185. — Sophie 19th of Hood Farm on the right, and Lass 38th of Hood

Farm on left.

young calves. Jerseys are not large milkers, though yield-
ing well for their size. Up to February 29, 1916, the 5,244
Jerseys in the register of merit averaged 7,792 pounds of
milk. Many cows of the breed have produced 10,000 pounds
each within a year. The largest milk record for this period,
up to January 1, 1916, was that of 19,695 pounds made by
the cow Passport 219742. Jersey milk usually contains
4J/2 to 5 per cent fat, and from it the choicest grade of
butter is made. Sophie 19th of Hood Farm 189748, has to
her credit the largest yield of milk fat in a year, viz.,
999.14 pounds. The males are naturally of a nervous dis-
position, while the females are quiet and domestic.

326 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

SCALE OF POINTS FOR JERSEY BULL.

(Adopted by the American Jersey Cattle Club, May 7, 1913.)
HEAD, 10 Points: Counts

A — Broad, medium length; face dished; narrow be-
tween horns; horns medium in size and in-
curving ................. 5

B — Muzzle, broad; nostrils open; eyes full and bold;
entire expression one of vigor, resolution and
masculinity ................ 5

I7ECK, 7 Points:

Medium length, with full crest at maturity; clean at

throat .................. 7

BODY, 57 Points:

A — Shoulders full and strong, good distance through

from point to point, with well-defined withers;

chest deep and full between and just back of

forelegs ................ 15

B — Barrel, long, of good depth and breadth, with

strong,, rounded, well-sprung ribs ...... 15

C — Back, straight and strong .......... 5

D — Bump, of good length and proportion to size of

body, and level from hip-bones to rump-bones . . 7
E — Loins, broad and strong; hips rounded, and of

medium width compared with female . . . . 7
F — Thighs, rather flat, well cut up behind, high arched

flank .................. 3

G — Legs, proportionate to size and of fine quality, well

apart, with good feet, and not to weave or cross

in walking ................ 5

RUDIMENTARY TEATS, 2 Points:

Well placed .................. 2

HIDE, 2 Points:

Loose and mellow ................ 2

T'AIL, 2 Points:

Thin, long, reaching the hock, with good switch, not

coarse or high at setting-on ........ 2

SIZE, 5 Points:

Mature bulls, 1,200 to 1,500 pounds ........ 5

GENERAL APPEARANCE, 15 Points:

Thoroughly masculine in character, with a harmonious
blending of the parts to each other; thoroughly
robust, and such an animal as in a herd of wild
cattle would likely become master of the herd by
the law of natural selection and survival of the
fittest .................. IS

Total . . . . 100

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 30?

FOE JERSEY COW.

(Adopted by Ihc American Jersey Cattle Club, May 7, 1913.)

DAIEY TEMPERAMENT AND CONSTITUTION.
HEAD, 7 Points: Counts

A — Medium size, lean; face dished; broad between eyes;

horns medium size, incurving 3

B — Eyes full and placid; ears medium size, fine, carried
alert ; muzzle broad, with wide-open nostrils

and muscular lips; jaw strong 4

NECK, 4 Points:

Thin, rather long, with clean throat, neatly joined to

head and shoulders 4

BODY, 37 Points:

A — Shoulders light, good distance through from point to
point, but thin at withers; chest deep and full

between and just back of forelegs 5

B — Ribs amply sprung and wide apart, giving wedge
shape, with deep, large abdomen, firmly held up,

with strong muscular development 10

C — Back straight and strong, with prominent spinal pro-
cesses; loins broad and strong . . . . . . . 5

D — Rump long to tail-setting, and level from hip-bones

to rump-bones 6

K — Hip-bones high and wide apart 3

I-1 — Thighs flat and wide apart, giving ample room

for udder '•'•

<i Legs proportionate to size and of fine quality, well
apart, with good feet, and not to weave or cross

in walking

H — Hide loose and mellow 2

T — Tail thin, long, with good switch, not coarse at

setting-on 1

MAMMARY DEVELOPMENT.
UDDER, 26 Points:

A — Large size, flexible and not fleshy . . 6

B — Broad, level or spherical, not deeply cut between

teats 4

C — Fore udder full and well rounded, running well for-
ward of front teats .10

D — Rear udder well rounded, and well out and up

behind 6

TEATS, 8 Points:

Of good and uniform length and size, regularly and

squarely placed s

MILK-VEINS, 4 Points:

Large, long, tortuous and elastic, entering large and

numerous orifices '

SIZE, 4 Points:

Mature cows, 800 to 1,000 pounds I

GENERAL APPEARANCE, 10 Points:

A symmetrical balancing of all the parts, and a propor-
tion of parts to each other, depending on size of
animal, with the general appearance of a high-
class animal, with capacity for food and produc-
tiveness at pail 10

Total . 100

328

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The Holstein-Friesian breed of cattle originated in Hol-
land, where it has been bred for centuries. The charac-
teristic color of this breed is black and white, in solid spots
of each color. A popular combination consists of slightly
more white than black. Occasionally one will see cattle
of this breed that are nearly all white. Red and white
calves are dropped in American herds at rare intervals,
but in Holland there are a few herds of this color combina-

Fig. 186. — Holstein-Friesian bull, Rag Apple Korndyke 8th, sold for
$25,000. Owned by Oliver Cabana, Jr. (Photo by courtesy American
Agriculturist.)

tion. This is a large breed, and mature bulls weigh usu-
ally 1,800 to 2,000 pounds, and cows 1,250 to 1,400 pounds.
There is considerable variation in type of this breed, rang-
ing from true dairy to that of real beef conformation. This
variation is pronounced among both bulls and cows. A
ring of aged Holstein-Friesian bulls shows marked differ-
ence in character. One may easily .find here three types,
dairy, beef and dual-purpose, though the beef type is not

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS ;rj!)

abundant. The more popular style is the dairy type, but with
somewhat more thickness of thighs and smoothness of flesh-
ing. The most striking features of this breed are the large
size, black-and-white spotted color and big udder. The
heads incline to be somewhat long and narrow, and the

Fi£. 187. — IIolstein-Friesian female. Lady Pontiac Johanna. Has a
three-year-old record of 41.81 Ibs. butter in seven days. (Photo by
courtesy American Agriculturist.)

horns seem small for so large a body, the rump is long and
frequently steep, and the thighs are large and in many
cases tend to be thick and beefy. The udder is a notable
feature, on some cows attaining great size and capacity. In
conformation it is pendant, instead of being long and close
to the belly. This breed is notable for its milk-producing
capacity. The records of 2,387 cows with official yearly

330 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

tests up to January 1, 1916, showed an average of 14,493.9
pounds of milk. The largest official yearly milk yield for
a cow of the breed is that of Tilly Alcartra, produc-
ing 30,451.4 pounds. Holstein-Friesian milk tests 3 to
3y2 per cent fat. The average number of pounds of fat
produced in one year by the 2,387 cows referred to above
was 495.91, the greatest official yield of fat by any one cow
of the breed in a year being 1,205 pounds, by Duchess
Skylark Ormsby 124514. The disposition of the males in-
clines to nervousness and irritability, but the cows are very
quiet and placid.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN BULL.

(Adopted by Holstein-Friesian Association of America.)

The ratings in parenthesis relate entirely to the method of application agreed
upon by the. Inspectors, in order to secure uniformity of work. The abbrevia-
tions are as follows: vs, very slight; s, slight; m, marked; vm, very marked;
o, extreme.

PARTS DESCRIPTION ^oSf*

Head — Showing full vigor; elegant in contour. (Discredit,

vs %, s 14, m %, vm %, e 1.) 2

Forehead — Broad between the eyes; dishing. (Discredit,

vs %, s %, m y2, vm %, e 1.) 2

Face — Of medium length; clean and trim, especially under
the eyes; the bridge of the nose straight. (Discredit,
s Vs, m 14, e %.) 2

Muzzle — Broad with strong lips. (Discredit, s %, m ^4,

e %.) 1

Ears — Of medium size ; of fine texture ; the hair plentiful and
soft; the secretions oily and abundant. (Discredit, m
%, e %.) 1

Eyes — Large, full, mild, bright. (Discredit, s %, m 14,

e Y2.) 2

Horns — Short; of medium size at base, gradually diminish-
ing toward tips ; oval ; inclining forward, moderately
curved inward; of fine texture, in appearance waxy.
(Discredit, m %, e %.) 1

Neck — Long; finely crested (if the animal is mature) ; fine
and clean at juncture with the head ; nearly free from
dewlap; strongly and smoothly joined to shoulders.
(Discredit, vs %, s %, m %, vm %, e 1.) 5

Shoulders — Of medium height; of medium thickness, and
smoothly rounded at tops; broad and full at sides;
smooth over front. (Discredit, vs %, s *4, m l/2, vm
%, e 1.) 4

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 331

PARTS DESCRIPTION Sco

Chest — Deep and low; well filled and smooth in the brisket;
broad between the forearms: full in the foreflanks | or
through at the heart.] (Discredit, vs 1A, s y2, m 1,
vm 1%, e 2.) .................. 7

Crops — -Comparatively full; nearly level with the shoulders.

(Discredit, vs ],4, s y2, in 1, vm ll/2, e 2.) ...... 4

Chine — Strong; straight, broadly developed, with open verte-

brae. (Discredit, vs %, s V4, m y2, vm %, e 1.) . . . . G

Barrel — Long; well rounded; with large abdomen; strongly
and trimly held up. (Discredit, vs *4 , s y2, m 1, vm
ll/2, e 2.) .................... 7

loin and Hips— Broad; level or nearly level between hook-
bones; level and strong laterally; spreading out from the
chine broadly and nearly level; the hook-bones fairly
prominent. (Discredit, vs %, s 1/4, m l/2, vm %, e 1.) 7

Hump — Long; broad; high; nearly level laterally; compara-
tively full above the thurl; carried out straight to drop-
ping of tail. (Discredit, vs Vs, s %, m l/2, vm %, e 1.) 7

Thurl — High; broad. (Discredit, vs %, s i/2, m 1, vm ll/2,

e 2.) .................... 4

Quarters — Deep; broad; straight behind; wide and full at
sides; open in the twist. (Discredit, vs %, s 1/4, na y2,
vm %, e 1.) .................. f>

Flanks — Deep ; full. (Discredit, vs ys , s % , m Vz, vm % , e 1. ) 2

Legs — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight; wide
apart; firmly and squarely set under the body; arms
wide, strong and tapering ; feet of medium size, round,
solid and deep. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m }£, vm %,
el.) .................... 5

Tail — Large at base, the setting well back; tapering finely
to switch; the end of bone reaching to hocks or below;
the switch full. (Discredit, s %, ni y^, e y2.) . . . . 2

Hair and Handling — Hair healthful in appearance; fine, soft
and furry; skin of medium thickness and loose; mellow
under the hand; the secretions oily, abundant and of a
rich brown or yellow color. (Discredit, vs l/±, s l/2, m
1, vm \y2, e 2.) ........ '. ....... 10

Mammary Veins — Large ; full ; entering large orifices ; double
extension; with special development, such as forks,
branches, connections, etc. (Discredit, vs ^4, s %,
m 1, vm 1V2, e 2.) ................ 10

Rudimentary Teats — Large; well placed. (Discredit, vs %,

s *4, m y2, vm %, e 1.) .............. 2

Escutcheon — Largest; finest. (Discredit, vs J4, s 1, m 2,

vm 3, e 4.) .................. 2

*General Vigor — For deficiency Inspectors shall discredit
from the total received not to exceed eight points.
(Discredit, vs 1, s 2, m 3, vm 5, e 8.) ..........

*Creneral Symmetry and Fineness — For deficiency Inspectors
shall discredit from the total received not to exceed
eight points. (Discredit, vs 1, s 2, m 3, vm 5, e 8.) . .
*General Style and Bearing — For deficiency Inspectors shall
discredit from the total received not to exceed eight
points. (Discredit, vs 1, s 2, m 3, vm 5, e 8.) ......

332 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

PARTS DESCRIPTION

*Credits for Offspring — A bull shall be credited one point in
excess of what he is otherwise entitled to, for each
and every animal of which he is sire actually entered in
the Advanced Register, not to exceed ten in number. .

* In scaling for the Advanced Register, defects caused
solely by age, or by accident, or by disease not heredi-
tary, shall not be considered. But in scaling for the
show ring, such defects shall be considered and duly
discredited

*A bull that in the judgment of the Inspector will
not reach, at full age and in good flesh, 1,800 Ibs., live
weight, shall be disqualified for entry in the Advanced
Register

* No bull shall be received to the Advanced Register,
that with all credits due him will not scale, in the judg-
ment of the Inspector, at east 80 points. (See amend-
ment to Rule IV., an exception to these requirements.)

Perfection .................. 100

Total discredit . .

Net score.

* Not now in use by Advanced Register, but of great value as an aid in
judging cattle.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HOLSTEIN-FRIESIAN COW.

(Adopted by Holstein-Friesian Association of America.)

The ratings in parenthesis relate entirely to the method of application
agreed upon by the Inspectors, in order to secure uniformity of work. The
abbreviations are as follows: vs, very slight; s, slight; m, marked; vm, very
marked; e, extreme.

PARTS DESCRIPTION

Head — Decidedly feminine in appearance; fine in contour.

(Discredit, vs %, s %, m %, vm %, e 1.) .. .. 2

Forehead — Broad between the eyes; dishing. (Discredit, vs

Vs, s %, m y2, vm &, e 1) 2

Face — Of medium length ; clean and trim especially under
the eyes, showing facial veins; the bridge of the nose
straight. (Discredit, s %, m %, e J4.) 2

Muzzle — Broad with strong lips (Discredit, s %, m 1/4,

e y2.) . . 1

Ears — Of medium size; of fine texture; the hair plentiful
and soft; the secretions oily and abundant. (Dis-
credit, m ya, e %.) 1

Eyes — Large; full; mild; bright. (Discredit, s Vs, m %,

e %.) 'J

Horns — Small; tapering finely toward the tips; set moder-
ately narrow at base; oval; inclining forward; well
bent inward; of fine texture; in appearance waxy.
(Discredit, m %, e %.) 1

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 333

PARTS DESCRIPTION

Neck — Long; fine and clean at juncture with the head;
free from dewlap; evenly and smoothly joined to
shoulders. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m l/2, vm fa, e 1.) 4

Shoulders — Slightly lower than the hips; fine and even
over tops; moderately broad and full at sides. (Dis-
credit, vs %, s %, m %, vm %, e 1.) ...... 3

Chest — Of moderate depth and lowness; smooth and mod-
erately full in the brisket; full in the foreflanks
(or through the heart). (Discredit, vs %, a l/2, m 1,
vm 1V2, e 2.) ................ 6

Crops — Moderately full. (Discredit, vs 1/4, s J4, m fa,

vm iy2, e 2.) ................ 2

Chine — Straight; strong; broadly developed, with open

vertebrce. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m %, vm %, e 1.) 6

Barrel — Long ; of wedge shape ; well rounded ; with a large
abdomen, trimly held up (in judging the last item
age must be considered). (Discredit, vs %, s %,
m J/2, vm %, e 1.) .............. 7

Loin and Hips — Broad; level or nearly level between the
hook-bones; level and strong laterally; spreading
from chine broadly and nearly level; hook-bones
fairly prominent. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m y2,
vm %, e 1.) ................ 6

Bump — Long; high; broad with roomy pelvis; nearly level
laterally; comparatively full above the thurl; carried
out straight to dropping of tail. (Discredit, vs %,
s i/4, m ^2, vm %, e 1.) .............. 6

Thurl — High; broad. (Discredit, vs %, s %, m 1, vm 1%,

e 2.) .................... 3

Quarters — Deep; straight behind; twist filled with devel-
opment of udder; wide and moderately full at the
sides. (Discredit, vs %, s 1A, m %, vm %, e 1.) 4

Flanks — Deep; comparatively full. (Discredit, vs %,

s %, m l/2, vm fa, e 1.) ............ 2

Legs — Comparatively short; clean and nearly straight;
wide apart; firmly and squarely set under the body;
feet of medium size, round, solid and deep. (Dis-
credit, vs %, s 14, m %, vm %, e 1.) ...... 4

Tail — Large at base, the setting well back ; tapering finely
to switch ; the end of the bone reaching to hocks or
below; the switch full. (Discredit, s %, m %, e %.) 2

Hair and Handling — Hair healthful in appearance; fine,
soft and furry ; the skin of medium thickness and
loose; mellow under the hand; the secretions oily,
abundant and of a rich brown or yellow color. (Dis-
credit, vs 1/4, s Vz, m 1, vm ll/2, e 2.) ...... 8

Mammary Veins — Very large; very crooked (age must be
taken into consideration in judging of size and crook-
edness) ; entering very large or numerous orifices;
double extension; with special developments, such as
branches, connections, etc. (Discredit, vs %, s %,
m 1, vm l*/2, e 2.) .............. 10

Udder — Very capacious; very flexible; quarters even;
nearly filling the space in the rear below the twist,
extending well forward in the front; broad and well
held up. (Discredit, vs K, s V2, m 1, vm 1^, e 2.) 12

334 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

PARTS DESCRIPTION

Teats — Well formed, wide apart, plumb and of convenient

size. (Discredit, vs %, s ^, m 1, vm IJ^, e 2.) . .
Escutcheon — Largest; finest. (Discredit, vs-y2, s 1, m 2,

vm 3, e 4.) ..................

*General Vigor — For deficiency Inspectors shall discredit

from the total received not to exceed eight points.

(Discredit, vs 1, s 2, m 3, vm 5, e 8.)
*General Symmetry and Fineness — For deficiency Inspec-

tors shall discredit from the total received not to

exceed eight points. (Discredit, vs 1, s %, m 3,

vm 5, e 8.) ...... . . ...

*General Style and Bearing — For deficiency, Inspectors
shall discredit from the total received not to exceed
eight points. (Discredit, vs 1, s H, m 3, vm 5, e 8.)

*Credits for Excess of Requirement in Production.
A cow shall be credited one point in excess of what
she is otherwise entitled to, for each and every 8
per cent that her milk or butter record exceeds the
minimum requirement.

*In scaling for the Advanced Register, defects
caused solely by age, or by accident, or by disease
not hereditary, shall not be considered. But in scal-
ing for the show ring, such defects shall be consid-
ered and duly discredited

*A cow that, in the judgment of the Inspector, will
not reach at full age, in milking condition and ordin-
ary flesh, 1,000 Ibs., live weight, shall be disqualified
for entry in the Advanced Register .........

*No cow shall be received to the Advanced Regis-
ter that, with all credits due her, will not scale, in
the judgment of the Inspector, at least 75 points.
(See in last paragraph of Rule VI an exception to
these requirements.)

Perfection 100

Total discredit . .

Net score .

* Not now in use by Advanced Register, but of great value as an aid in
judging cattle.

The Guernsey breed of cattle originated on the Island of
Guernsey off the coast of France, nearby Jersey. Like the
latter, it is an old breed. Guernsey cattle resemble Jerseys,
but are usually yellowish or reddish fawn in color. White
spots are very common. They are somewhat larger than
the Jerseys, mature bulls weighing about 1,500 pounds and

THK MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS

335

cows 1,050 pounds or ,so. Guernseys are often rather pl;iin
of head and rough of shoulder and appear coarser than
the Jersey. The aged males vary in type fully as much as
do the Holstein-Friesian males, and often incline to a thick,
fleshy conformation not admired by students of dairy form.
The skin is noted for its soft, mellow, elastic quality, and
yellow color, especially in the ear and about the vulva,
thighs and udder. The horns also show much yellow color-
ing. Of 4,719 cows in the advanced register up to April
30, 1916, the average yield was 8,806 pounds. The largest

Fig. 188.-

Juernsey hull. "Galaxy's Sequel, noted as a sire of
advanced registry cows."

official milk yield for a Guernsey cow in a year, was 24,008
pounds by Murne Cowan 19597. Guernsey milk tests rich
in fat, often exceeding 5 per cent, and the fat globules carry
so high a yellow tint as not to require butter coloring at any
time. The average yield of fat produced by the 4,719 cows
noted above was 437.45 pounds, the largest record of 1,098.18
pounds being by Murne Cowan 19597. Guernsey butter
ranks as of the best class. In temperament the Guernsey
male is perhaps somewhat quieter than its Jersey cousin,
though the cows do not materially differ.

336

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 189. — Guernsey cow, "May Rilma 22761, with record of 1,073 Ibs.
butter fat in one year." (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

SCALE OF POINTS FOR GUERNSEY BULL.

(Adopted by the American Guernsey Cattle Club, December 13, 1899.)
SCALE OF POINTS Points

DAIRY TEMPERAMENT, CONSTITUTION, 38 Points:

Clean cut, lean face; strong sinewy jaw; wide muzzle
with wide-open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet
and gentle expression; forehead long and broad. . 5

Long masculine neck with strong juncture to head ; clean
throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder
blades; large rugged spinal processes, indicating
good development of the spinal cord 5

Pelvis arching and wide; rump long; wide, strong
structure of spine at setting of tail. Long, thin
tail with good switch. Thin, incurving thighs . . 5

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving

an open relaxed conformation ; thin, arching flank . . 5

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and
navel development, indicative of capacity and
vitality 15

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture,

but not thick 3

DAIRY PREPOTENCY, 15 Points:

As shown by having a great deal of vigor, style, alert-
ness, and resolute appearance 15

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 337

SCALE OF POINTS Points

RUDIMENT ARIES AND MILK VEINS, 10 Points:

Rudimentaries of good size, squarely and broadly placed
in front of and free from scrotum. Milk vein*

prominent 10

INDICATING COLOR OF MILK IN OFFSPRING, 15 Points:
Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base

of horns and body generally; hoofs amber colored. . 15

SYMMETRY AND SIZE, 22 Points:

Color of hair, a shade of fawn with white markings.

Cream-colored nose. Horns amber-colored, curving

and not coarse 8

Size for the Breed: — Mature bulls four years old or

over, about 1,500 Ibs 4

General appearance as indicative of the power to beget

animals of strong dairy qualities 10

Total 100

FOR GUERNSEY COW.

DAIRY TEMPERAMENT, CONSTITUTION, 38 Points:

Clean cut, lean face, strong, sinewy jaw; wide muzzle
with wide-open nostrils; full, bright eye with quiet
and gentle expression; forehead long and broad.. 5

Long, thin neck with strong juncture to lu>ad ; clt an
throat. Backbone rising well between shoulder
blades; large rugged spinal processes, indicating
good development of the spinal cord 5

Pelvis, arching and wide; rump long, wide; strong struc-
ture of spine at setting-on of tail. Long thin tail
with good switch. Thin incurving thighs . . . . 5

Ribs amply and fully sprung and wide apart, giving an

open, relaxed conformation ; thin arching flanks . . 5

Abdomen large and deep, with strong muscular and
navel development, indicative of capacity and
vitality 1 .">

Hide firm yet loose, with an oily feeling and texture,

but not thick ^

MILKING MARKS DENOTING QUANTITY OF FLOW,
10 Points:

Escutcheon wide on thighs; high and broad, with thigh

ovals 2

Milk veins long, crooked, branching and prominent,

with large or deep wells 8

UDDER FORMATION, 26 Points:

Udder full in front 8

Udder full and well up behind 8

Udder of large size and capacity •*

Teats well apart, squarely placed, and of good and <-v< 11

size <>

INDICATING COLOR OF MILK, 15 Points:

Skin deep yellow in ear, on end of bone of tail, at base
of horns, on udder, teats and body generally. Hoof,
amber colored.. . 15 *

338

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

SCALE OF POINTS Points

DENOTING QUALITY OF FLOW,

but not too meaty 6

MILKING MARKS
6 Points:

Udder showing plenty of substan
SYMMETRY AND SIZE, 5 Points:

Color of hair a shade of fawn, with white markings.
Cream colored nose. Horns amber colored, small,

curved, and not coarse

Size for the Breed — Mature cows, four years old or
over, about 1.050 Ibs.

100

The Ayrshire breed of cattle has its native home in south-
western Scotland, with the county of Ayr as a center. The
color is a combination of red, brown and white markings,
with white predominating as a color fad. The size of the
Ayrshire is about medium and at maturity standard
weights will approximate 1,500 pounds for the bull and
1,100 for the cows. This is recognized as a distinct dairy
type breed, but the inclination is to be a trifle smooth-fleshed
rather than angular like the Jersey. The very striking

>Fig. 190.-=-Ayrshire bull, "Bargenoch Bonnie Scotland, a famous
bull of the breed."

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 339

Fig. 191. — Ayrshire cow, "Midland Nellie IV.," a prize-winner at the
Highland and Agricultural Society Show of Scotland.

features of the breed are the head, with its rather long,
large and erect horns, the color of hair, the capacious body
and beautiful, shapely udder. From a show point of view
the Ayrshire udder is more uniformly developed than that
of any other breed, but in Scotland there is considerable
criticism that beauty of form and small teats have sup-
planted a less shapely but more valuable udder, from the
standpoint of production. The skin of the Ayrshire in-
clines to be somewhat thick and lacking in mellowness in
comparison with some other breeds. Cows of this breed
produce very good yields of milk. For the year ending
December 31, 1915, there was produced an average of 9,406
pounds of milk by 1,938 cows in advanced registry tests;
tho largest official year's record being 25,329 pounds by
Oarclaugh May Mischief 27944. The milk is just average
in fat content, testing about 3^ to 3% per cent. Lily of
Willowmoor 22269, the most famous cow of the breed, pro-
duced 955.56 pounds of fat in a year. She also has a five-

340 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

years' record of 84,991 pounds of milk and 3,362.35 pounds
of fat. Ayrshires are fairly quiet of temperament, espe-
cially the cows, but the bulls incline to show considerable
nervous character.

SCALE OF POINTS FOE AYRSHIRE BULL.

(Adopted by United States and Canadian Ayrshire Breeders'
Associations, 1906.)

Standard of
SCALE OF POINTS Perfect

Score
HEAD, 16 Points:

Forehead, broad and clearly denned 2

Horns, strong at base, set wide apart, inclining

upward t > 1

Face, of medium length, clean cut, showing facial

veins 2

Muzzle, broad and strong, without coarseness . . . . 1

Nostrils, large and open 2

Jaws, wide at the base and strong 1

Eyes, moderately large, full and bright 3

Ears of medium size and fine, carried alert . . . . 1

Expression, full of vigor, resolution and masculinity 3

NECK, 10 Points:

Of medium length, somewhat arched, large and
strong in the muscles on top, inclined to flatness
on sides, enlarging symmetrically toward the
shoulders, throat clean and free from loose
skin 10

FOEEQUAETEES, 15 Points:

Shoulders, strong, smoothly blending into body with
good distance through from point to point and
fine on top 3

Chest, low, deep and full between back and forelegs 8

Brisket, deep, not too prominent and with very little

dewlap 2

Legs and feet: legs well apart, straight and short,
shanks fine and smooth, joints firm; feet of
medium size, round, solid and deep 2

BODY, 18 Points:

Back, short and straight, chine strongly developed

and open jointed 5

Loin, broad, strong and level 4

Eibs, long, broad, strong, well sprung and wide

apart 4

Abdomen, large and deep, trimly held up with mus-
cular development 4

Flank, thin and arching 1

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS 341

Standard of
SCALE OF POINTS Perfect

Score
HINDQUARTERS, 16 Points:

Rump, level, long from hooks to pin bones . . . . 5
Hooks, medium distance apart, proportionately nar-
rower than in female, not rising above the level

of the back 2

Pin bones, high, wide apart . . . ; 2

Thighs, thin, long and wide apart . . " 4

Tail, fine, long and set on level with back . . . . 1
Legs and feet: legs straight, set well apart, shanks
fine and smooth; feet medium size, round, solid

and deep, not to cross in walking 2

SCROTUM, 3 Points:

Well developed and strongly carried 3

RUDIMENT ARIES, VEINS, ETC., 4 Points:

Teats, of uniform size, squarely placed, wide apart
and free from scrotum ; veins long, large, tor-
tuous, with extensions entering large orifices;
escutcheon pronounced and covering a large

surface 4

Color, 3 Points:

Red of any shade, brown, or these with white;
mahogany and white; each color distinctly

defined 3

COVERING, 6 Points:

Skin, medium thickness, mellow and elastic . . . . 3

Hair, soft and fine . . . . 2

Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color . . 1
STYLE, 5 Points:

Active, vigorous, showing strong masculine charac-
ter, temperament inclined to nervousness, but

not irritable or vicious 5

WEIGHT: 4 Points:

At maturity not less than 1,500 pounds 4

Total 100

FOR AYRSHIRE COW.

Standard of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect

Score
HEAD, 10 Points:

Forehead, broad and clearly defined 1

Horns, wide set on and inclining upward 1

Face, of medium length, slightly dished, clean cut,

showing veins 2

Muzzle, broad and strong without coarseness, nos-
trils large 1

Jaws, wide at the base and strong 1

Eyes, full and bright with placid expression . . . . 3
Ears, of medium size and fine, carried alert . . . . 1
NECK, 3 Points:

Fine throughout, throat clean, neatly joined to head
and shoulders, of good length, moderately thin,
nearly free from loose skin, elegant in bearing. . 3

342 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Standard of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect

Score
TOREQUARTERS, 10 Points:

Shoulders, light, good distance through from point
to point, but sharp at withers, smoothly blend-
ing into body . . .... 2

Chest, low, deep and full between and back of fore-

' legs 6

Brisket, light 1

Legs and feet: legs straight and short, well apart,
shanks fine and smooth, joints firm; feet

medium size, round, solid and deep 1

BODY, 13 Points:

Back, strong and straight, chine lean, sharp and

open-jointed 4

Loin, broad, strong and level 2

Ribs, long, broad, wide apart and well sprung . . H
Abdomen, capacious, deep, firmly held up with

strong muscular development '?

Flank, thin and arching 1

HINDQUARTERS, 11 Points:

Rump, wide, level and long from hooks to pin

bones, a reasonable pelvic arch allowed . . . . 3
Hooks, wide apart and not projecting above back

nor unduly over-laid with fat 2

Pin bones, high and wide apart 1

Thighs, thin, long and wide apart 2

Tail, long, fine, set on a level with the back . . . . 1
Legs and feet: legs strong, short, straight when
viewed from behind and set well apart ; shanks
fine and smooth, joints firm; feet medium size,

round, solid and deep 2

UDDER, 22 Points:

Long, wide, deep, but not pendulous, nor fleshy;
firmly attached to the body, extending well up
behind and far forward: quarters even; sole
nearly level and not indented between teats,
udder veins well developed and plainly visible. . 22

TEATS, 8 Points:

Evenly placed, distance apart from side to side equal
to half the breadth of udder, from back to
front equal to one-third the length; length 2 54
to S1/^ inches, thickness in keeping with length,
h.anging perpendicular and not tapering . . . . 8

MAMMARY VEINS, 5 Points:

Large, long, tortuous, branching and entering large

orifices r>

ESCUTCHEON, 2 Points:

Distinctly defined, spreading over thighs and ex-
tending well upward

COLOR, 2 Points:

Red of any shade, brown, or these with white; ma-
hogany and white, or white ; each color dis-
tinctly defined. (Brindle markings allowed but
not desirable.) 2

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS

343

SCALK OF POINTS

COVERING, 6 Points:

Skin, of medium thickness, mellow and elastic

Hair, soft and fine

Secretions, oily, of rich brown or yellow color

Standard of
Perfect
Score

3
2
1

STYLE, 4 Points:

Alert, vigorous, showing strong character; tempera-
ment inclined to nervousness, but still docile . . 4

WEIGHT AT MATURITY, not l«-«s th.-in l.miO Ibs 4

Total points loo

The Dutch Belted breed of cattle originated in Holland,
and is of very old ancestry. It is a dairy type of cattle,
and especially noted for its black color, marked off by white
stripe or blanket of varying width which encircles the body
between the hips and shoulders. This color marking gives
the breed a very striking appearance when a number of

Fig. 192, — Dutch Belted cow, champion at New York State Fair.
by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

(Photo

344 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

animals are grouped on a pasture. In size, the Dutch
Belted is comparable with the Ayrshire rather than the Hol-
stein-Friesian, mature males weighing around 1,500 pounds,
and cows 1,100 to 1,200 pounds. The horns tend to be
small, the withers refined, and the thighs spare. The udder
is rarely impressive in size and form, and the cows of the
breed thus far have made few records of importance.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DUTCH BELTED CATTLE.

(Adopted by American Dutch Belted Cattle Association.)

Points

Body — Color black, with a clearly denned continuous white belt. The
belt to be of medium width beginning behind the shoulders and ex-
tending nearly to the hips 8

Head — Comparatively long and somewhat dishing; broad between the

eyes; poll prominent; muzzle fine; dark tongue 6

Eyes — Black, full, mild. Horns long compared with their diameter . . 4
Neck — Fine, and moderately thin, and should harmonize in symmetry

with the head and shoulders 6

Shoulders — Fine at the top, becoming deep and broad as they extend

backward and downward, with a low chest 4

Barrel — Large and deep with well-developed abdomen; ribs well-rounded

and free from fat 10

Hips — Broad, and chine level with full loin 10

Bump — High, long, broad 6

Hindquarters — Long and deep, rear line incurving. Tail long, slim, taper-
ing to a full switch 8

Legs — Short, clean, standing well apart 3

Udder — Large, well developed front and rear. Teats of convenient size
and wide apart; mammary veins large, long and crooked, entering

large orifices 20

Escutcheon 2

Hair — Fine and soft; skin of moderate thickness, of a rich dark or yel-
low color 3

Disposition — Quiet, free from excessive fat . . . . 4

General condition and apparent constitution 6

Perfection 1"0

Scale of Points for Bulls.

The scale of points for males shall be the same as those given for females,
except that the udder shall be omitted and the bull credited 10 points for size
and widespread placing of rudimentary teats, and 10 additional points for
perfection of belt.

The Kerry breed of cattle has its native home in south-
west Ireland, where it has been known for a long period of
time. It is a distinctly black dairy breed, and should have
no white markings, unless about the udder and underline,
and then only in a small way. Bulls should not have any

THK MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS

345

white hairs on the body. The size is comparable with a
small Jersey, as bulls should not exceed 1,000 pounds in
weight and the cows 900 pounds; the latter frequently
weighing 750 to 800 pounds. The distinctive character-
istics of these cattle are the color, size and head character,
the latter being plain of face, with somewhat long, upward-
turning horns, which often spread out and back at the tips.

Fig. 193. — A Kerry cow, prominent as a prize-winner in England,
by courtesy Lady Greenall of Walton Hall, England.)

(Photo

The udder is plain in front, but is usually mellow and has
medium-sized teats. These cattle have not been officially
tested, but in various herds show records around 5,000 to
6,000 pounds for the better cows. The milk tests about
4 per cent fat. In temperament these cattle are somewhat
nervous and active. They are also very hardy. Their skin
is thick and heavily coated with. hair.

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

SCALE OF POINTS FOR KERRY CATTLE.

(Adopted by the English Kerry and Dexter Cattle Society.)

Bull

(leneral formation and character

Head, horns and hair

Quality and touch

Color

Points

Total

100

Cow

Points
30

General formation and character, head, horns, hair
Udder: Size, shape, situation of teats, milk veins, es-
cutcheon, etc . . . . 40

Quality and touch i 10

Color 20

Total . . ., 100 .

The Dexter breed of cattle is of Irish origin, perhaps an
offshoot from the Kerry. This is the smallest breed of
British origin, the bulls at maturity often weighing 600
to 700 pounds, and the cows about 500 pounds. Extreme

Fig. 194. — Dexter cow, "Harley Coy," a noted prize-winner in Ireland
and England.

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREED-, 347

size is 900 pounds for the males and 800 for the fonales.
The color should be black or red, with no white u/aiess a
slight amount upon the udder, scrotum, or brush rf tail.
In conformation this is a dual-purpose breed as produced
in Europe, and a special class is provided at British shows
for fat steers of this small si/e, where very choice little
carcasses are exhibited. The tendency is to shortness, thick-
ness, and depth of body. The typ,e of head is short, and
crowned with a heavy horn of upstanding form. The cows
often have large udders and produce excellent yields of
about 4 per cent milk. A record of 5,000 pounds of milk
is not remarkable, and one English Dexter is reported as
producing about 12,000 pounds of milk in a year.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DEXTER CATTLE.

(Adopted Ly the English Kerry and Dt-xter Cattle Society.;

Bull

Points

General formation and character LM

Head, horns and hair ..... 25 •-*

Quality and touch 1^0

Color 30

Total v . 100

Cow

joints

Head, neck and horns '. 15

.liody, top line, underline, ribs, setting-on of tail, short-
ness of leg, etc 25

Udder 40

Quality and touch 10

Color 10

Total 100

The French Canadian breed of cattle has been produced
in Quebec, Canada, for perhaps 200 years. It is a dis-
tinctly dairy type breed. The color is black or black-fawn,
with light markings about the muzzle and along over the
spine. This is one of the small breeds, comparable with the
small type Jersey. The form is quite angular and notably

348

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 195. — A French-Canadian cow. First prize at Virginia State Fair.

spare of condition. The head is rather plain, with moder-
ate-sized, incurving horns. The milk-producing capacity
of the cows is rated at about 5,000 pounds as a standard.
The milk tests slightly above 4 per cent fat. The skin is
mellow and is notable for its rich yellow color.

The Brown Swiss breed of cattle originated in Switzer-
land. It has been officially declared a dairy type by the
American Brown Swiss Cattle Association, but the Swiss
breeders give it the recognition customarily accorded dual-
purpose cattle. The color is usually a dark brown, with
mealy or creamy coloring of hair about the muzzle, the
udder, inside the legs, and sometimes along over the back-
bone. The horns have very dark tips, and the hoofs are
black. The tongue and flesh at nose should be very dark,
approaching black. This is a large breed, and mature bulls
weigh 1,800 to 2,000 pounds, and cows 1,300 to 1,400 pounds.
The conformation is essentially that of the dual-purpose

THE MORE IMPORTANT DAIRY BREEDS

349

type, the body being thick all through, the withers and back
somewhat wide, and the thighs fleshy. Aside from color,
some of the more characteristic features of the breed are,
a somewhat heavy head, a deep neck with an unusual prom-
inence of dewlap, heavy shoulders, sloping rump, thick
thighs, and heavy joints and bone. As might be expected
with cattle of this type the udder, which often lacks front
extension, is of but moderate size. In milk production,
Brown Swiss cattle make a fair showing, and 5,000 to 6,000
pounds a year are regarded as standard yields. The aver-
age of 134 cows in official yearly tests in the United States
is 10,606Vo pounds, with the largest yield, 19,461 pounds
by College Bravura 2d. Brown Swiss milk is of standard
quality, testing about 3.5 per cent fat. The average annual
butter fat production of the 134 cows noted above was 425
pounds. Temperamentally, cattle of this breed are quiet
and easily handled. They are of secondary, rank in beef
production.

Fig. 196. — Brown Swiss cow, "Kronkdale." first in class at Lucerne,
Switzerland, 1911.

CHAPTER XXIX.

JUDGING DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE.

The term dual-purpose cattle is to-day understood to rep-
resent a type that will- yield well of both beef and milk.
It is a comparatively recent application as a substitute for
the common expression long in use of " general purpose."
There are to-day several breeds of cattle that represent the
dual-purpose type, of which the Red Polled and Devon are
best known in America. There are also what are known as
milking or dairy Shorthorns, that are commonly regarded
as dual-purpose cattle. The fact is, cattle of beef-producing
character, that are also valued for dairy purposes, are quite
common in Europe, - Tlje '&lgj£lft^ as

^ ^miTk" "producer in England, ' while on the continent of
Europe, the cattle are essentially dual-purpose, though not
always known as such. Dual-purpose classification and pro-
motion is a comparatively recent one in America, notwith-
standing the fact that a century ago Devon cattle were
highly regarded in New England for the several pur-
poses of beef, milk and labor.

The dual-purpose idea is not equally clear in the minds
of all its advocates. One of the most noted breeders of
milking Shorthorns in England informed the writer that
he desired as beefy a cow as possible, yet with highly de-
veloped udder and large milking capacity. In the eastern
United States the milking side of the animal is emphasized,
at the expense of flesh, while in the west the reverse is 1 lie-
case. At the Pan-American Exposition at Buffalo in 1901,
when eastern and western Devon herds met, this difference
in type was very marked. This variation has been seen
repeatedly in the case of Red Polled cattle in American
show rings, in which wide extremes have prevailed, ranging

350

JUDGING DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE

351

from animals of decidedly beefy type with inferior mam-
mary development, to those of essentially moderate beef
type, with strong mammary development. From a scientific
point of view, based on the law of correlation, it may be
argued with reason that flesh is produced at the expense
of milk, or vice versa. Therefore, to be a true dual-purpose

Fig. 197. — "Lou Waterloo," a choice example of a milking Shorthorn.

cow, there should be a production of both flesh and milk
up to at least a certain point, the beef development in keep-
ing with beef type, and the udder conformation and milk
secretion, comparable with that in a resonably good cow
of dairy type. Gay states l that "it is perfectly reason-
able to expect from one individual the production of milk
to the extent of one-half the normal in dairy cows, and the
production of a carcass of beef at least 50 per cent as
valuable and one-half as economically produced as in the

1 Principles and Practice of Judging Live Stock, 1914, p. 214.

352 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

case of a typical beef steer. This is all that should be at-
tempted and apparently all that can be accomplished in
the perfection of the dual-purpose cow. ' ' Special advocates
of this type of cattle, however, would no doubt take issue
with the proposition that only half as much milk should
be produced as is normal in dairy cows. In their 1907
sale catalog, Innis and May, breeders of milking Shorthorns,
state that * ' the whole herd of mature cows, six years old or
over, have made average yearly milk records of 9,170.5
pounds." One year at Tring Park, England, 54 milking
Shorthorns averaged 6,658 pounds of milk, and 44 Red
Polled cows averaged 6,174 pounds, yields considerably in
excess of 50 per cent normal production in dairy cows.
Dual-purpose advocates also emphasize the value of the
calf for veal as compared with progeny from dairy cows.
"Without question, superior examples of dual-purpose ani-
mals in type and ancestry, will return yields, either in
beef or milk, on better than a 50 per cent basis, -but just
how much better is not known. The natural tendency of
this type is for a comparatively short period of lactation,
this being. followed by a disposition to lay on flesh.

The dual-purpose type, as generally recognized, repre-
sents an animal of modified beef form. This modification
is especially seen in somewhat more length and thinness of
neck, narrowness of withers, extreme length of body from
shoulders to hips, and lack of thickness in the thighs.
Either males or females seem to be more upstanding and
have more length or stretch, than in case of the true beef type.
The cow should carry an udder fairly representative of that
of the dairy type. The judge must keep these features in mind,
in passing on dual-purpose cattle, but he will make no mis-
take in giving preference to cows of distinct beef conforma-
tion, provided they show commendable udder development.
In 1914, at the show of the Royal Agricultural Society of
England at Shrewsbury, in the milking Shorthorn class,
consisting of 40 cows, first and second places were awarded
to animals that were more of beef type than otherwise, but

JUDGING DUAL-PURPOSE CATTLE 353

having beautiful large udders. These same cows would not
have looked out of place in a standard Shorthorn cow
class, yet the two judges regarded them as the best dual-
purpose animals in the ring, and their judgment met very
general approval. At the International Live Stock Exposi-
tion at Chicago, in the milking Shorthorn classes, the most
successful winning cows have shown considerable size and
beefy character, and yet have had large udders. The judge
must not be misled to favor the so-called dual-purpose
type, where dairy conformation and lack of flesh prevail.
The frame should be smoothly covered with flesh, yet not
fat, exemplifying beef type and its possibilities. The ten-
dency of dual-purpose bulls is to be too short and compact.
Some of the finest examples of this type of bulls, that were
notable sires, showed great length, were only medium thick
of withers and thighs, and had somewhat too much length
of leg.

Scales of points for dual-purpose type cattle may be
found in those for bulls and cows adopted in 1907 by the
Eed Polled Cattle Club of America. From these the fol-
lowing quotations are made, in order to set forth certain
features of the official standards relative to this type:

Cow.

Points

Head, of medium length, etc 6

Neck, of medium length, clean cut and straight from head to top of

shoulder, with inclination to arch when fattened, and often showing

folds of loose skin underneath when in milking form 3

Shoulder, of medium thickness and smoothly laid 6

Chest, broad and deep, brisket prominent 10

Back and ribs: back medium long, moderately wide, spring of ribs

starting from backbone giving a rounding appearance, with ribs flat

and fairly wide apart 14

Hips, wide, well covered 3

Quarters, of good length, thighs wide, roomy, not too meaty 6

Legs, short, straight 3

Fore udder, full and flexible, reaching well forward, extending down

level with hind udder 10

Hind udder, full and well up behind 10

Teats, well placed, wide apart, and of reasonably good size 4

Milk veins, of medium size, full, flexible, extending well forward, milk

wells of medium size 6

General description — Medium wedge form, low set, top and bottom

lines straight except at flank, weight 1,300 to 1,500 Ibs. when

mature.

354 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Bull.

Points

Head, wide, strong and masculine, relatively short, etc 12

Neck, of medium length, full crest, of good thickness 5

Shoulder, of medium thickness and smoothly laid . . . . 8

Chest, broad and deep, brisket prominent 12

Back and ribs: back, medium long, with spring of ribs from backbone

giving rounding appearance, with ribs flat and fairly wide apart . . 14

Hips, wide, well covered 3

Quarters of good length, thighs wide and moderately full, deep . . . . C

Legs, short, straight . . . . 3

Rudimentaries, large, wide apart and placed well forward 12

Position of rudimentaries 6

General Description — Strong, impressive, low set and of good carriage,

weight 1,800 to 2,000 Ibs., when mature arid finished.

Special features of these scales of points that apply to
the dual-purpose type, are the emphasis on the word
" medium" as applied to length and thickness of various
parts, the character of back and ribs, and the large number
of points credited to mammary development. The judge
should note especially that the scale of points for the cow
contains nearly as many points credited to the udder, etc.,
as is recognized in some of the official dairy cattle score
cards — a rather striking evidence of recognition of milk
production in this type.

In judging cattle of the dual-purpose type, it is highly
important to keep the essentials of conformation well in
mind, and assign animals to their places according to the
way they measure up to the more or less elastic standards
of this class.

CHAPTER XXX.

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS
OF CATTLE.

The Red Polled breed of cattle comes from the counties
of Norfolk and Suffolk in eastern England. It is a true
dual-purpose type, and is advocated as such by its breeders.
However, we find great extremes within the breed, ranging
from those of dairy to a distinct beef type. This condition
applies equally in England and America. The color is a
pure red, varying from light to dark, a medium shade
being most common. The size of mature Red Polled cattle
is about medium, bulls ranging from 1,800 to 2,000 pounds,
and cows from 1,250 to 1,300 pounds.. The general con-
formation is dual-purpose, as described under that type.
Red Polled cattle are frequently somewhat upstanding.

Fig. 198. — Red Polled cow, "Jean DuLuth Pear," the first cow of the?
breed to produce over 600 Ibs. of fat in a year. (Photo by courtesy
Jean DuLuth Farm.) -

355

356 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The head inclines to some straightness of face, and is polled.
The shoulders tend to be prominent, the withers are only
moderately broad, and the udder is often very poor in
front development, with large teats. In milk production,
cows of this breed have made excellent records, 5,000 to
6,000 pounds being a fair standard. The best record made
by a cow of this breed is that of Jean DuLuth Beauty 31725,
that for the year ending January 11, 1916 produced 20,-
280.6 pounds of milk. The quality of Eed Polled milk is
about standard, testing about 3.75 per cent fat. Jean
DuLuth Beauty produced 891.58 pounds of fat in her 365-
day test. Cattle of this breed are somewhat more nervous
of temperament than are Shorthorns or our more common
breeds.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR RED POLLED CATTLE.

(Adopted by the Red Polled Cattle Club of America.)

Cow.

Points

Disqualifications — 'Scurs, or any evidence whatever of a horny growth on
the head. Any white spots on body above lower line or brush of tail.

Color — Any shade of red. The switch of tail and udder may be white
with some white running forward to the naval. Nose of a clear
flesh color. Interior of ears should be of a yellowish, waxy color 2
Objections: An extreme dark or an extreme light red is not desirable.
A cloudy nose or one with dark spots.

Head — Of medium length, wide between the eyes, sloping gradually from
above eyes to poll, The poll well denned and prominent, with a
sharp dip behind it in center of head. Ears of medium size and
well carried. Eyes prominent; face well dished between the eyes.

Muzzle wide, with large nostrils 6

Objections: A roundness or flat appearance of the pott. Head too long
and narrow.

Neck — Of medium length, clean cut, and straight from head to top of
shoulder, with inclination to arch when fattened, and may show folds
of loose skin underneath when in milking form 3

Shoulder — Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up level with

line of back 6

Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of weak-
ness in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line of back.

Chest — Broad and deep, insuring constitution. Brisket prominent and

coming well forward 10

Back and ribs — Back medium long, straight and level from withers to
setting-on of tail, moderately wide, with spring of ribs starting from
the backbone, giving a rounding appearance, with ribs flat and fairly

wide apart 14

Objections: Front ribs too straight, causing depression back of shoul-
ders. Drop in back or loin below the top line.

DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS OF CATTLE 357

Points

Hips — Wide, rounding over the hooks, and well covered 3

Quarters — Of good length, full, rounding and level; thighs wide, roomy

and not too meaty 6

Objections: Prominent hooks and sunken quarters.
Tail — Tail head strong and setting well forward, long and tapering to

a full switch 2

Legs — Short, straight, squarely placed, medium bone 3

Objections: Hocks crooked; legs placed too close together.
Fore udder — Full, flexible, reaching well forward, extending down level

with hind udder 10

Hind udder — Full and well up behind 10

Teats — Well placed, wide apart and of reasonably good size 4

Objections: Lack of development, especially in forward udder. Udder
too deep, "bottle -shaped," and teats too close together. Teats un-
evenly placed and either too large or too small.
Milk veins — Of medium size, full, flexible, extending well forward, well

retained within the body; milk wells of medium size 6

Hide — Loose, mellow, flexible, inclined to thickness, with a good full coat

of soft hair . . 5

Objections: Thin, papery skin or wiry hair.
Condition — Healthy, moderate to liberal flesh, evenly laid on; glossy

coat; animal presented in full bloom 10

Total 100

Bull.

Note — In the standard for the bull, the description applied to color, chest,
back and ribs, hips, tail, legs, hide and condition, and disqualifications, are
the same as those for the cow, and the same points are accorded in each
case, excepting the chest, where 12 are given the bull instead of 10. All
other descriptions differ from those applied to the cow, and so are herewith
specified.

Points

Head — Wide, strong and masculine, relatively short. Poll stronger and
less prominent than in a cow. Ears of medium size and well carried;

eyes prominent ; muzzle wide with large nostrils 12

Objections: Long, narrow or lacking in masculine character.
Neck — Of medium length, full crest, of good thickness, strong, of mas-
culine appearance 5

Shoulder— -Of medium thickness and smoothly laid, coming up level with

line of back • ,. , . . . 8

Objections: Shoulder too prominent, giving the appearance of weakness

in heart girth, shoulder protruding above line of back.

Quarters — Of good length, full rounding and level; thighs wide and mod-
erately full, deep 6

Objections: Prominent hocks and sunken quarters.

Kudimentaries — Large, wide apart and placed well forward 12

Position of rudimentaries 6

Objections: Rudimentaries placed back on scrotum, or placed too close

together, indicating tendency to transmit badly formed udders.
General Description — Strong, impressive, low set, and of good carriage.
Weight 1,800 pounds to 2,000 pounds when mature and finished.

The Devon breed of cattle originated in Devonshire, in
southwest England, and is a very ancient one. There are

358 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

two types, those of North Devon, favoring beef form, and
those of south Devon, with greater tendency to milk pro-
duction. This breed, at one time prominent in America,
has nearly disappeared, being rarely seen or heard from.
The color is red, ranging from light to dark. The size may
be regarded as medium, though in America the opinion
has prevailed that Devons lack in size. Standard weights

Tig. 199. — Devon cow, "Nettle Top," grand champion at Lewis and Clark

Exposition.

are 1,500 to 2,000 pounds for mature males, and 1,200 to
1,300 for cows. The very distinctive features of the Devon
are a lean, shapely head, crowned with a slender, rather
long, graceful, upturned horn of waxy color, and dark
tipped. The body is of blocky form, and the limbs are usu-
ally slender and show much quality. In milk production,
cows of dairy or dual-purpose type produce fair yields,

DUAL-PURPOSE BREEDS OF CATTLE 359

but those of beef type make poor records. The milk tests
about 4.y2 Per cent fat, and is rated of excellent quality.
This is a very active breed, and has been highly regarded
in times past in the eastern United States for oxen.

SCALE OF POINTS FOE DEVON CATTLE.

(Adopted by the American Devon Cattle Club.)
Bull.

Points

Head — Masculine, full and broad, tapering toward the nose, which
should be flesh colored; nostrils high and open, muzzle broad; eyes
full and placid and surrounded with flesh-colored ring; ears of medium
size and thickness; horns medium size, growing at right angles from
the head, or slightly elevated, waxy at the base, tipped with a darker

shade 10

Cheeks — Full and broad at root of tongue ; throat clean 2

Neck — Of medium length and muscular, widening from the head to the

shoulders and strongly set on 4

Shoulders — Fine, flat, sloping, and well fleshed ; arms strong, with firm

joints 6

Chest — Deep, broad, and somewhat circular 10

Ribs — Well sprung from the backbone, nicely arched, deep, with flanks

fully developed 10

Back — Straight and level from the withers to the setting on of the tail;
loin broad and full; hips and rump of medium width and on a level

with the back 20

Hindquarters — Deep, thick and square 12

Tail — Well set on at a right angle with the back, tapering, with a switch

of white or roan hair and reaching the hocks 2

Legs — Short, straight and squarely placed when viewed from behind, not

to cross or sweep in walking; hoof well formed 4

Skin — Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat of
rich hair of red color; no white spot admissible, unless around the

purse 8

Size — Minimum weight at three, years of age 1,400 pounds 4

General Appearance — As indicated by stylish and quick movement, form,
constitution, and vigor, and the underline as nearly as possible
parallel with the line of the back 8

Total 100

Cow.

Head — Moderately long, with a broad indented forehead, tapering con-
siderably toward the nostrils; the nose of a flesh color, nostrils
high and open; the jaws clean; the eyes bright, lively and prominent
and surrounded by a flesh-colored ring; throat clean; ears thin; the
expression gentle and intelligent; horns matching, spreading, and
gracefully turned up, of a waxy color, tipped with a darker shade 8

Neck — Upper line short, fine at head, widening and deep at withers and

strongly set to the shoulders 4

Shoulder — Fine, flat and sloping, with strong arms and firm joints . . . . 4

Ohest — Deep, broad, and somewhat circular in character g

360 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points
Bibs — Well sprung from the back bone, nicely arched, deep, with flanks

fully developed 8

Back — Straight and level from the withers to the setting on of the tail;

loin broad and full; hips and rump of medium width, and on a

level with the back 16

Hindquarters — Deep, thick and square 8

Udder — Not fleshy, coming well forward in line with the belly and well

up behind; teats moderately large, and squarely placed 20

Tail — Well set on at right angle with back, tapering, with a switch of

white or roan hair, and reaching the hocks . . 2

Legs — Straight, squarely placed when viewed from behind, not to cross

or sweep in walking; hoof well formed 4

Skin — Moderately thick and mellow, covered with an abundant coat of

rich hair of red color; no white spot admissible, except the udder 8

Size — Minimum weight at three years of age 1,000 pounds 2

General appearance — As indicated by stylish and quick movement, form,

constitution and vigor, and the underline as nearly as possible parallel

with the line of the back 8

Total.. . 100

PART IV— JUDGING SHEEP.

CHAPTER XXXI.

THE ANATOMY OP THE SHEEP.

A study of the anatomy of the sheep, and that of the ox,
shows a close resemblance between them. In the size and
skin covering are the most marked differences, otherwise
these two great classes of animals have much in common.
Lydekker states 1 that the features by which sheep are dis-
'tinguished from oxen or cattle are as follows: "In the first
place, sheep as a whole are smaller animals than oxen, al-
though the largest sheep, such as the Central Asian Argali,
is considerably bigger than the anoa or dwarf buffalo of
Celebes, the smallest member of the ox group. Then, again,
they usually carry their heads higher, and considerably
elevated above the line of the back. In place, too, of the
broad, naked, moist, undivided muzzle of the oxen, sheep
have a vertically cleft, narrow snout completely covered
with short hair, except on the margins of the nostrils and
lips. Very generally there is a small sub-orbital face gland,
situated in a shallow depression in the lachrymal bone of the
skull, and frequently known as the tear-gland or larmier.
Sheep also differ from living oxen in that when horns
are developed in the females, as is usually the case among
the wild species, they are very much smaller than those
of the males, from which they generally also differ consider-
ably in shape. "

The skeleton of the sheep, notwithstanding its resem-
blance to that of the ox, has certain interesting features.
Considerable variation exists in the number of bones in the

1 The Sheep and Its Cousins, 1912, p. 12.

361

362 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

spines of different races of sheep. According to Sissoii 2
there are commonly seven cervical vertebrae, thirteen tho-
racic and six lumbar vertebrae. The sacrum usually consists
of four parts, and the bones in the coccyx, at the end of
the spinal column, vary from three, in short-tailed sheep,
to twenty-four or more. There are usually thirteen pairs
of ribs, but fourteen are not uncommon. The ribs are nar-
rower, and the front ones are more strongly curved, than
is the case with the ox. The skulls of sheep and ox are
quite similar, but the former is more pointed at each end,
with the frontal bones at the eye rather prominent. It is
this small size of the end of the skull, at the muzzle, that
enables the sheep to graze so close to the ground. Lydekker
states3 that, "the skulls of tame sheep differ from those
of their wild relatives — when specimens with the same ap*
proximate basal length are compared — by the smaller di-
ameter of the socket of the eye, the abortion of the auditory
bulla 4 at the base of the skull, and the much smaller ca-
pacity of the brain chamber. It has been shown, for
instance, that whereas in the wild mouflon the brain capac-
ity ranges from 130 to 170 cubic centimeters, with a mean
of 140 cubic centimeters, in domesticated sheep, having
skulls of the same average size, the mean brain capacity is
only from 110 to 120 cubic centimeters. These differences are
due, of course, to the more or less protected conditions under
which domesticated sheep pass their existence, thereby re-
ducing the need of acuteness in the senses of hearing, sight
and smell." The humerus or large bone of the arm is
relatively longer and more slender than it is with the ox,
and the same applies to the bones of the forearm. The
ischium, or what is often called the pin bone, at the end of
the pelvis on each side of the tail, according to Sisson,5
slopes downward and backward, and forms a much larger
angle than in the case of the ox. This may account in part

2 The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 156.

3 Sheep and Its Cousins, p. 21.

* A prominence below the opening of the ear in the skull of many animal
6 Ibid., p. 160.

THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP 363

for the droopy rump so often seen in Merino sheep. The
floor of the pelvic cavity is wider and shallower in compari-
son with the ox. The long bones of the hind legs, as in the
case of the front legs, are relatively slender for their
length.

The teeth of the sheep are found in the back part of the
upper and lower jaws, and in the front part of the lower
jaw. The front part of the upper jaw consists of a tough
fibrous pad, against which the lower front teeth, the incisors,
press, when the sheep is grazing. When the lamb is born,
usually there is a pair of small teeth in the center of the front
of the lower jaw. Very shortly two more appear, in two
weeks after birth two more come in, and by the time the lamb
is three or four weeks old there are eight small milk or
deciduous teeth in position. Twelve small molar teeth also
appear. When a sheep has come into maturity, at two years,
it has thirty-two permanent teeth, consisting of twenty-four
molars, 12 in each jaw, and eight incisors.

The age of a sheep may be determined up to a certain
extent, by means of the number and character of the teeth.
It is an easy matter to examine the teeth of the sheep, re-
quiring skill and quiet patience, rather than force. The
method is as follows: One hand should be placed over the
back of the head, thereby holding and steadying it, while
the end of the jaw of the sheep should rest in the upturned
palm of the other hand. Then the lips may be gently parted
with the thumb and forefinger, showing the incisor teeth.
If this is done quietly the sheep will struggle but little, but
if much force is exercised by finger and thumb, the sheep
will be likely to resist stoutly. When the lamb is about
twelve months old, two teeth appear in the front jaw and
force out the central pair of milk teeth. These are large,
prominent incisors, with broad crowns, and are known as
yearling teeth. The appearance of the permanent teeth is in-
fluenced more or less by breed inheritance and by the condi-
tions under which the animals have been kept as lambs. When
lambs are fed for show, and are kept in high condition, the

364

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

permanent teeth are hastened in development. To the
contrary, neglect or starvation, retards development. One
well-known handler of sheep, Mr. Frank Kleinheinz, states 6
that he has seen rare cases where sheep did not change the
first pair of teeth until they were eighteen and in one case
nineteen months old. In this instance, shortly after the
first change oc-
curred, the second
took place, yet long
before the sheep
was two years old.
"When the .sheep is
about twenty-four
months old, two
more large incisors
appear, one on
each side of the
yearling teeth,
pushing out the
two milk teeth in
the way. The pres-
ence of four large
incisors and four
small ones, indi-
cates that the sheep
is a two-year old.
At about thirty-
six months of age,
two more large in-
cisors appear, one

on each side of the second permanent pair, indicating
the animal to be a three-year old. Finally, at about
forty-eight months of age, the last pair appears, all the
milk teeth have been shed, and eight strong incisors indicate
the sheep to be four years of age. The central teeth are
always somewhat the largest, and as they are the oldest,

6 Sheep Management, 1911, p. 29.

Fig. 200. — "Then the lips may be gently
parted with the thumb and forefinger, showing
the incisor teeth."

THE ANATOMY OF THE SHEEP 365

we find that it is at this point that the crowns wear down with
age and first break away. It is impossible to determine the
age of a sheep with certainty after it has obtained a full
mouth of teeth. Two things, however, serve as a guide, one
the wearing away of the incisors from the center toward the
outside pair, and the other the grinding down and wearing
off the crowns of the teeth, until with some old sheep one
finds only short stumps left in the lower jaw. With increase
of years, the front teeth also gradually incline, losing much
of their original erect position. Experienced buyers of
sheep, whenever necessary " mouth," that is examine the
teeth of animals purchased, to be sure that the teeth are
in good order, instead of broken or missing.

The digestive organs of the sheep, excepting for size
and capacity, are essentially like those of the ox. The
stomach is compound, consisting of four parts, the rumen
or paunch, the reticulum or honeycomb, the manyplies and
the abomasum. The four stomachs of the sheep will hold
about thirty-one quarts, of which the paunch holds about
twenty-five, while the manyplies holds the least, or only
about one quart. The small intestines are about eighty-six
feet long, and the large ones about twenty-one feet long,
and hold respectively nine and one-half quarts and six
quarts each. In connection with the digestive operations
of the sheep, it is important to note that this animal com-
pletely reduces all seeds and other food to a common mass
of solid excrement. No other domestic animal so thoroughly
disintegrates the food. Seed may pass through the diges-
tive tract of cattle, and germinate afterward, but not so
with seeds passing through sheep ; they are completely des-
troyed. This explains in part why sheep are so valuable in
ridding land of weeds.

The organs of reproduction of the sheep are similar to
those of cattle, but on a comparatively smaller scale. The
ram as he attains yearling form, should show a strong scro-
tum or sac containing two equal-sized, clearly defined
glands. The scrotum should not be either small and held

366 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

close to the body, or long and heavy, nearly touching the
ground, as sometimes occurs, but should be of medium size,
lean and well defined. The udder of the female lies closely
in front of the thighs, and consists of two glands, and two
teats. It is important that the udder be well supported
from above, the glands of equal size, and the teats not too
large and in perfect condition. The female sheep, the ewe,
usually bears one young, frequently she has twins, and
cases are on record of ewes having five lambs at one birth.
This feature of reproduction largely depends upon breed
and race, some breeds being much more fecund than others.

The skin of the domestic sheep is ordinarily covered with
wool, and is not to be seen excepting about the nose, ears,
armpits and udder. Below the surface of wool it is more
or less pink and delicate. The skin, however, differs some-
what in color, ranging from bright pink to a light bluish
shade, with various tints between. Small oil secreting
glands occur in the skin, assisting in keeping it in healthy
condition, and also supplying oil for the wool. This oil
differs from other animal fats, in containing a large per-
centage of potash, which makes it easily dissolvable in
water. Thus it was in early days that the shepherd washed
his sheep in the running water of the brook, the mixture
of oil and dirt being more or less washed off, according to
the thoroughness of the washing.

The fleece or wool of the sheep consists of fibers that are
closely related to hair in structure. Each of these grows in
the skin from a tubular cavity called a hair bulb. The wool
fiber consists of a hollow or cored center, surrounded by a
hard cellular wall, on the exterior of which are a great num-
ber of little scales, which overlap each other like shingles on
the roof of a house, forming the outside of the fiber. These
scales have enough prominence at their ends, to catch and
interlock with those on adjoining fibers, thus forming a
felting process, which gives the great value to wool in cloth
making. The scales 011 hair, however, are so small and so
closely attached to the surface of the fiber, that felting is

TIIK ANATOMY OF THE SIIKKP ;}(>7

difficult. Cotted wool, where the fibers of the fleece on the
sheep are closely fastened together so that they can be
separated only with great difficulty, is an example of
natural felting or interlocking of scales, usually due to
sickness and a lack of oil in the fleece. The fleece of sheep
on certain limestone lands, especially the Highlands of
England and Scotland, is frequently cotted. The scales
vary some in size and shape, the Merino having the smallest
and the long wooled breeds the largest. The scales are easily
seen under a microscope, and especially so if the fiber is
treated two or three minutes with a weak solution of caustic
potash. The scales in more or less degree reflect light when
exposed, giving a special lustre, that on the large breeds-,
such as the Cotswold, is highly valued. Scales that have a
high lustre, give very choice results from the most delicate
dyeing operations. In the tropics wool is least developed on
the sheep, while in temperate or cold regions, the body is
most completely covered by the wool. Naturally, under
conditions of domestication, wool production has reached a
high degree of development, sheep of the Merino family
producing it to the extreme. Cases are on record of Merino
fleeces weighing one-third of the total body weight, and
single fleeces weighing over 40 pounds for a year's growth
have been removed. There is much difference in the wool
fiber, ranging from that which is comparatively coarse and
straight, to that which is very fine and considerably crimped
or serrated. As a rule, the thicker the wool fibers over a
given skin surface, the finer it will be in quality. Sheep or-
dinarily are free of wool about the face, ears, armpits, udder
and legs. Exception to this, however, occurs in the case of
certain breeds, as for example the Merino and Shropshire,
where the face, ears and legs are more or less wooled.

The foot glands of the sheep are a feature peculiar to this
class of domestic animals. A small opening or hole, at the
point in front of the foot, where the toes begin to separate,
leads into a narrow duct, which expands into a gland. This
gland occupies space between the bones just above the heel,

368 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

and secretes a clear semi-fluid substance. R. I. Pocock
states 7 that secretion with Asiatic wild sheep is pleasant
of scent, like taffy, slightly infused with acetic acid.
Lydekker assumes 8 that the secretion of these foot glands,
by scenting the ground or herbage over which the sheep
have passed, aids, doubtless, in enabling the members of a
scattered flock to ascertain the whereabouts of their fellows.
The unpleasant smell of domesticated sheep, so different
from the sweet aroma of cattle and many kinds of antelopes,
may be in part due to the secretion of these glands.

7 Proc. Zool. Soc. London, 1910, p. 859.

8 The Sheep and Its Cousins, 1912, p. 19.

CHAPTER XXXII.

HOW TO HANDLE AND EXAMINE SHEEP.

IN view of the fact that the sheep has a covering of wool
over its body most of the time, it is necessary that this
animal be examined by a different method from that used
with other farm stock. Furthermore, because the sheep is
naturally rather timid, it must be held and handled in a
way that will cause as little fear and resistance on its part
as possible.

To catch and hold a sheep properly for examination,
approach it as quietly as possible, so as to cause no fright,
and grasp the right hind leg with the hand high up near
the flank. Then move quickly along the left side of the
sheep, holding the right hand so as to be able to press the
animal against you, at the same time slipping the left hand
beneath the jaw or neck, with the fingers extended to fur-
nish a close hold at one of these parts. With the sheep at
rest, in position for examination, one should hold the lower
jaw or neck with the left hand, and control the rear part
by the use of the right hand laid quietly at some point near
the right side, far back, near hip or rump. Thus one may
hold a sheep with least exertion and under best control.
Ordinarily, also, one may simply hold the sheep at the head,
placing the left hand under the jaw and the right hand on
the back of the head. The hand should never grasp the
wool, for nothing causes a sheep to struggle more than pull-
ing the wool. It is not an uncommon thing to see men seize
the wool at the back or neck and begin to struggle with the
sheep, a method that succeeds admirably in frightening the
animal and causing unnecessary trouble. Sheep that have
never been handled will resist much more than those that

309

370

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

are used to handling. Sheep of some breeds also, especially
of the mountain sorts, naturally resist handling more than
do the larger, more phlegmatic lowland breeds. It may
also be noted here that some men are naturally much better
adapted to hold and handle sheep than are others. With them
the sheep seem quiet and unfrightened. It is through

gentleness and
quiet manners that
such men succeed
so well. The writer
has been interested
to note that, in both
Europe and Amer-
ica, shepherds of
experience are most
quiet and gentle
in dealing with
their sheep, and
have little difficul-
ty in doing with
them as they wish.
Persons holding
sheep for examina-
tion, should make
themselves as in-
conspicuous as possible. For that reason, if the time occu-
pied is not too great, it is desirable for the person holding
the sheep to kneel on one knee, so as to come down more on
a level with the animal he is showing, and with the purpose
of letting the judge see as much of the sheep and as little
of the man as possible.

The use of the hands in judging a sheep is made neces-
sary in a very special way. The body of the animal is cov-
ered with wool, perhaps four inches thick in places. It is
important, not only that the wool be examined, but also
that the conformation below the layer of wool be deter-
mined. This latter can be ascertained only by the aid of

Fig. 201. — "One may simply hold the sheep at
the head, placing the left hand under the jaw
and the right hand on the back of the head."

HOW TO HANDLE AND EXAMINE SHEEP 371

i^re

the hands. The fingers are extended, but kept close to-

gether, and then the hand is pressed down upon the part

to be felt. The object in keeping the fingers close together,

is twofold. First, one does not make numerous holes in the

fleece, as he would in sticking separate fingers into the wool,

thereby making openings in which chaff and dirt may lodge.

Further, by pressing down on the wool, with the fingers

united to form one __

big finger as it

were, the judge

may easily feel the

outline of the form

below. By holding

the ends of the

f i n g e rs together,

one is able to feel

over a section of

the body, as with a

sensitive i n s t r u-

ment, thus deter-

mining, as would

not be possible

otherwise, the char-

acter of covering

of fleece and flesh,

and the curves and outlines of the body. Sometimes one

hand is used, sometimes two, but the man who knows his

business never musses the fleece, and when he is done, it is

in as good form as before.

The covering of fleece on the sheep varies greatly, even
on the same animal, in length, thickness, quality, etc. One
cannot judge with any certainty as to the character of
either fleece or body, without a systematic examination by
hand and eye. Under ordinary field conditions a sheep will
appear quite different from one under show ring con-
ditions, with the fleece trimmed by the shears, and blocked
out. As one passes among the fitted sheep on the show

Fig. 202. — "The fingers are extended, but
kept close together, and then the hand is
pressed down upon the part to be felt."

372 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

grounds, he is likely to see many animals, especially in the
large exhibits, that appear models of perfection. However,
the judge passing over them finds beneath the beautiful
surface of fleece, various conditions that the shepherd, by
the use of his shears, has carefully hidden from the super-
ficial observer. Where the back droops or there is slack-
ness behind the shoulder, he has left sufficient length of
wool to give fullness of outline, and if there is peakediiess

Fig. 203. — "Under show ring conditions, with the fleece trimmed by the
shears and blocked out." (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

behind, the shears square up the wool so as to make the
hindquarters appear thick and full. Thus defects, some-
times serious, are covered, and unfortunately, oftentimes at
the expense of the inexperienced. Hence the use of the
hands, as a necessity in finding out how things lie beneath
the surface. This special use of the shears is limited
to the mutton breeds. The exhibitors of the fine

HOW TO HANDLE AND EXAMINE SHEEP 373

wooled sheep give a first consideration to fleece, and pay
nominal attention to the mutton form, excepting those of the
dual purpose class. However, there are many very beauti-
ful and highly developed sheep, the result of the breeders
art, and without doubt a large per cent of the animals shown
are trimmed and fitted with the purpose of simply showing
them in their greatest perfection.

CHAPTER XXXIII.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF DOMESTIC SHEEP.

Sheep may be classified in two different ways, one accord-
ing to conformation, and the other based on the character
of the fleece borne by the animal. It is quite customary to
classify sheep in two types, the mutton and Merino, but
this in itself is not enough. It will be more correct to have
three types, comparable in conformation with the grouping
of cattle, viz.:

(a) Mutton type, comparable with the beef type.

(6) Merino, of class A type, comparable with dairy
type.

The classification, according to fleece, may be made as
follows :

(a) The fine wool, sometimes termed the short wool, in-
cluding all the Merino families, and such as produce a wool
fiber of the finest and best quality.

(b) The middle wool including all recognized mutton
breeds, producing a fleece usually three to four inches long,
of medium fineness and quality.

(c) The long" wool, produced by the larger breeds as a
rule, having coarse, open fleeces, often seven or eight inches
long.

In view of the great growth in interest in sheep as sources
of meat, rather than wool, the first classification given above
will be considered as the more important and common one.

374

CHAPTER XXXIV.

THE MUTTON CARCASS AND ITS CUTS.

THE mutton sheep, though a producer of wool, is prima-
rily bred and fed with meat as the main object in view. The
fleece, of course, is important, and its value is carefully con-
sidered by the flock master, but mutton is the first consider-
ation. This being so, then those characteristics necessary
in a good mutton sheep must be found in the young lambs
beside their dams ; in the feeder sheep in the market ready
for fattening; in these same feeder sheep fed and finished
for the block ; and in the breeding ram and ewe from which
our supply of mutton is to be obtained. The feeder when
purchasing his sheep, considers quality of fleece much less
than quantity. His purpose is to secure stock for feeding
that will come back to market either as prime lambs or fat
sheep. The price brought in the market is largely in-
fluenced by the carcass outcome.

If one is to be a qualified judge of a mutton sheep, it is
necessary that he understand the carcass conformation, and
the common method of cutting it up for consumption. It is
also of importance to know the relative values of the several
parts.

The method of cutting up the carcass of mutton applies
with little variation in different communities. The entire
dressed carcass lacks the head, and may or may not have
the feet up to the ankle joints. The first step in cutting is
to divide the carcass into two halves, either by splitting
through the length of backbone with a cleaver, or dividing
with the saw. In some markets, where roasting pieces from

375

Fig. 204. — "The first step in cutting is to divide the carcass into two

halves." 1, leg of mutton; 2, loin; 3, ribs; 4, plate; 5, shoulder and

breast. (Photo by courtesy College of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State
University.)

376

THE MUTTON CARCASS AND ITS CUTS

377

the width of the back are desired, the carcass is not cut
through lengthwise as described, instead, the carcass is
cut into two parts, by dividing between the twelfth and
thirteenth ribs. The part next to the hind leg is known as
the saddle, while the other part, the front portion, is termed
the rack. Many country butchers divide the carcass into

Fig. 205. — Mutton chops. A, ribs ; B, loin.

two parts, as first described, and then either cut the part
between hindquarter and shoulder into chops, or into roast
pieces, as the trade may demand.

The saddle of mutton, strictly speaking, consists of the
loin portion of the back, from the point of the hip, up to
and including the thirteenth, and sometimes the twelfth rib.
This section weighs about 48 per cent of the entire carcass,

378 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the forepart Or rack weighing about 52 per cent of the
whole. This is not a saddle, unless consisting of the entire
piece on both sides of the backbone, from which in a
measure it takes its name from its resemblance to a saddle.
This is one of the choicest parts of the carcass, and should
be broad, thick fleshed and smooth. In America, as a rule,
the saddle part is divided into halves, and used as a roasting
piece, or made into chops. The loin chops carry a great
deal of fat, but are very tender and palatable.

The leg of mutton usually consists of the entire leg up to
a point just above the tail. This is one of the highest-priced
parts, because of the fact that here one secures the largest
per cent of high class meat. Consequently, it is important
that the leg be thick and meaty, full in all its outlines, that
the cuts may be as thick as possible. A short, thick leg is
most to be desired. The lower part of the leg is chopped
off just above the hock.

The rack is comparable with the f orequarter of beef. The
butcher either cuts this part into rib chops up to the shoul-
der, or divides it into roasting pieces. Usually the shoulder
is cut off between the third and fourth ribs, and the neck is
then taken off where it joins the shoulder. The lower part
of the rack consists of breast and a thin strip at the ends of
the ribs, which is used for stewing. If the rack piece includes
ten ribs, it is called the short rack. This piece may com-
mand the highest price in the carcass, even exceeding the
leg, though the logic of the situation is not obvious. This
part should be broad and smooth over the top, and well
covered with flesh, and showing no coarseness or waste. The
shoulder does not rank high in value, but if thickly covered
with flesh, makes a good roasting piece, with the blade re-
moved.

The relative values of the mutton and lamb carcass cuts
are clearly set forth in the following table, as given by
Prof. H. E. Allen of Purdue University.1

1 Live Stock Judging for Beginners, Circular 29, Purdue University, Agri-
cultural Experiment Station, 1911, p. 98.

THE MUTTON CARCASS AND ITS CUTS ;

WHOLESALE MUTTON AND LAMB CUTS.

NAMKS OF WHOLESALE Per cent Wholesale Per cent

CITS CUTS weight price per value

carcass pound <-;iiv;iss

...Legs 30.36 131/4 cts. 43.10

Loin 21.43 8% " 18.97

Kark Hotel or short rack .. 14.28 12*4 " . 18.76

Stew (chuck and breast) 33.9.°, 5*4 " 19.11

These figures are based on Chicago standards, with prices
of 1911. While these percentages of parts of carcass will
not be exactly the same in all markets, and prices will vary
according to supply and demand, the figures bring out in
fair degree the relative importance and values of the cuts.

CHAPTER XXXV.

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP BY
THE SCALE OF POINTS.

The systematic examination of a sheep to be scored

requires following the plan of the score card. It is custom-
ary to determine first the age by examining the mouth, as
has already been described. The sheep is then, given a
general examination, both with eye and hand. Following
this comes the more detailed inspection, working from the
head to the hindquarters. One should use the hands with

Fig. 206. — The Points of the Sheep.

380

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP

381

Fig. 207. — "To comprehend properly the animal as a whole, first inspect
from a distance."

care and patience, so as to determine as accurately as pos-
sible the conformation of body and covering of flesh below
the layer of wool. This may be quite easy in spring after
shearing, but much more difficult with ten months of thick
fleece over the body. The score card on the next page is
suitable for scoring a fat sheep.

The general appearance of the fat wether will show
much the same conformation as that of the fat steer. The
characteristic features will be the blocky form, well covered
with flesh, with the neck, belly and legs developed no more
than necessary to maintain appropriate balance of parts,
and suggesting minimum waste in killing. To comprehend

382 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

SCORE CARD FOR FAT SHEEP OR WETHER.

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Sheep

Score Studied

Age How many permanent incisors

A— GENERAL APPEARANCE, 34 Points:

Weight, score according to age G

Form, low set, medium long, broad, deep, symmet-
rical 10

Quality, hair and wool fine, bone neat, skin healthy,

features refined 8

Condition, deep, even covering of firm flesh in valuable
parts. Note condition of dock, purse and flank,
as showing ripeness 10

B— HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points:

Muzzle, fine, lips thin, mouth and nostrils of good

size 1 ....

Eyes, large, bright, placid 1 ....

Face, short, features well defined 1 ....

Forehead, broad and full 1 ....

Ears, fine, carried alert 1 ....

Neck, thick, short, smooth, blending nicely at

shoulder 2 ....

0— FOREQUARTERS, 7 Points:

Shoulders, smooth, compact on top, nicely covered

with flesh 4 ....

Brisket, thick and prominent, extending in front of

legs 2 ....

Legs, straight, short, strong, wide apart, shank fine,

feet well placed 1 ....

D — BODY, 27 Points:

Chest, wide, deep, comparatively large girth . . . . 5 ....

Back, level, medium long, wide, smoothly fleshed . . 8 ....

Loin, broad, long, thick fleshed 9 ....

Ribs, well sprung, long, close together, smoothly

covered 3 ....

Flanks, low, thick, furnishing straight underlines . . 2 ....

E— HINDQUARTERS, 16 Points:

Hips, smooth, level, medium wide apart 2 ....

Rump, long, level, wide to tail-head, smoothly

fleshed 5

Thighs, thickly and fully fleshed 5

Twist, plump, deep, wide angled 3 ....

Legs, straight, short, strong, shank fine 1 ....

F— WOOL, 9 Points:

Quality, fine, soft, uniform over body 3 ....

Quantity, dense, even, of fair length for age . . . . 3 ....

Condition, bright, clean, sound, moderate amount

oil. ... 3

Total points 100

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHKKP 383

Fig. 208. — "The judge comes to the front of
the sheep, by the left shoulder, and grasps the
neck in his right hand and feels its thickness."

properly 1lic ntn-
mal as a whole,
first inspect from
a distance, as for
example ten or
twelve feet away.
Begin the examin-
ation from in
front, facing the
head, a n d then
slowly walk about
the animal, noting
the matter of pro-
portion, closeness
to ground, quality
and general char-
acter.
The weight of the fat sheep is a matter of importance.

The large, heavy mutton is not popular, and the American

market prefers the

more handy weights

approximating 8 0

pounds for a lamb

and 140 pounds for

yearling wethers.

Heavy sheep at one

time were popular

when large joints

were in favor, but

the present day

market seeks early

maturity, not too

much fat, and small

cuts. However, the

English still use the

laro'C "joints of mut- Fig. 200. — "The left hand may be lowered

to the brisket, where the width here may be
ton, but even in determined."

384

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Great Britain the lighter weight is getting to be more and
more favored. In scoring weight, one should not discriminate
severely against fat mutton of the larger mutton breeds,
unless over-fat and unnecessarily large. If in prime con-
dition, though weighing 175 pounds or more, a wether might

Fig. 210. — "In this position one may judge the depth of body through

the heart."

be scored off 20 per cent, while if over-fat and undesirable
as a killer, he might be scored off 50 per cent. "Weight of
130 to 140 pounds should score perfect.

The form of the mutton sheep has already been looked
over at a distance, before determining the matter of weight.
It now requires a closer inspection. The judge comes to

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHKKT

385

Fig. 211. — "Feel with the right hand along
the center of the back, from over the shoulders
to root of tail."

ered to the "brisket, where the width
mined. "While the left hand is here, the
over the shoulders,
so that in this posi-
tion one may judge
the depth of body
through the heart.
C h a n g in g one 's
position, with the
back toward the
hindquarters, the
h a n d s may be
pressed on each
side the body, be-
ginning just back
of the shoulders,
near the top, feel-
ing gradually on
each side down to

the front of the
sheep, by the left
shoulder, and
grasps the neck in
his right hand, and
feels its thickness
and attachment to
body and head.
Then with botli
hands he presses
down on each side
of the neck, using
his finger-tips to
feel the union of
the neck with the
shoulders. Having
done this, the left
hand may be low-
here may be deter-
right may be placed

Fig. 212. — "With the hands along each side at
the shoulders."

386

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 213. — "The space between the hands here
indicates the width of back."

the front flank,
thus estimating the
fullness behind the
shoulder and in
flank. Next feel
with the right hand
along the center of
the back, from over
the shoulders to
the root of tail,
thereby ascertain-
ing the carriage
and covering of
back. Then move
forward again,
commencing this
time with the

hands along each side, at the shoulders, gradually moving
backward, examining for the spring of rib, and thickness
and covering of body, until the end of the rump is reached.
The hands move along the back toward the rump until
the loin is reached. The space between the hands
here indicates the width of back. After feeling the
width of loin, the hands naturally drop back to the hips,
and beyond to the tail-head, to determine the width between
these and their covering. One may also stand back of the
sheep and press with the hands at different points on the
thighs, to get an idea of the width and general thickness
at this point. The length and level carriage of the rump
is seen b;y standing opposite this part, and measuring with
the hands the distance between the hip and end of rump.
The depth from the end of rump to the point below where
the quarters join may be determined by pressing these two
parts between the hands. The general width of the hind
end may be observed by pressing against the outsides of the
thighs with the flattened hands. Finally, the leg of mutton
receives consideration, including the hind flank. The leg

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP

387

in its thickest part is grasped by the two hands, and its
general outlines determined. By this method of examina-
tion with the hands, the judge is enabled to get a fair idea
of the general proportions and covering of flesh. No effort
at deception in trimming and fixing up the fleece can have
much value, where the form is carefully examined with the
hands. Such an examination shows whether or not sym-
metry prevails, an important feature of correct form. An
animal with long neck, narrow chest, short ribs and peaked
hind end, would show neither symmetry of form, nor a
body that would meet the butcher's requirements for a
high-class carcass.

Quality in the mutton sheep, is especially indicated by
fineness of bone, hair and wool. From the killing point of
view, perhaps the bone offers the most important evidence,
for if it is small and strong, it serves every purpose, yet

Fig. 214 — "The hands naturally drop back to the hips, and beyond to the
tail-head, to determine the width between these and their covering."

388

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 215. — "Measuring with the hands the dis-
tance between the hip and end of rump."

examples of moun-
tain breeds of
sheep have rough
hair on the thighs,
a feature breeders
are endeavoring to
eradicate. An im-
portant evidence of
quality, and easily
seen, when pres-
ent, is strong breed
character, as shown
in the head. No
choice example of a
breed is likely to
show coarseness.
Some score cards
emphasize the color
and character of

causes as little
waste as possible
in the carcass.
Large, coarse bone,
to the contrary,
furnishes too great
a waste in killing.
The hair on the
face and legs, when
fine, also indicates
superior quality.
Coarseness of
either hair or wool
should be discrimi-
nated against. A
heavy, wrinkly skin
is evidence of
coarseness. Some

Fig. 216. — "The depth from the end of the
rump to the point below where the quarters
join may be determined."

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 339

Fig. 217. — "The leg in its thickest part is grasped by the
two hands."

the skin, but as a rule, no satisfactory examination
of the skin can be made, excepting for color, when
a heavy fleece is carried. Further, it is doubtful
if the color of the skin, when healthy, is an indica-
tion of quality. Some breeds, such as the Cheviot and
Merino, are noted for their pink skins, while some other
breeds incline to a bluish or mottled blue-pink, which in-
vites criticism from the skin critic. Yet these bluish colored
skins are as common as pink ones on good feeders. Large,
heavy ears are indicators of coarseness, especially if carried
in a dull, sluggish style. Perhaps in the stockyards, among
buyers, quality is regarded as most important. Other
things being equal, the sheep with the most quality will
dress out with the least waste, which means the most profit
to the buyer.

390 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Condition in the mutton sheep, refers to the degree of
fatness of the animal. No other farm animal carries in its
carcass so great a percentage of fat as does the sheep in
high condition, even surpassing the hog in this respect.
Lawes and Gilbert, in their studies of the composition of
animal bodies,1 showed that 45.8 per cent of an extra-fat
sheep was fat, while even a half -fat old sheep carried 23.5
per cent fat. This for the entire animal. Their figures
showed 55.1 per cent fat in the carcass of an extra-fat sheep,
as compared with 49.5 per cent in a fat pig. The present
day demand is for a firm-fleshed carcass, with only a mod-
erate amount of condition. As one handles the sheep, and
feels for condition, the response to the touch should be
firm and smooth, with evidence to show that the flesh is
evenly distributed over the frame. Craig states 2 that
the fattening process seems to extend from the inside of the
sheep, and becomes first manifest at the tail, after which it
appears along the back, then over the shoulder to the neck,
from which it seems to extend down the sides and over the
breast in front. There are six especial points where the
judge carefully examines for condition, about the tail-head
or dock, along the middle of the back, the neck, flank, breast
and purse. In these places he feels with care, looking for
plumpness yet firmness of condition. When in too high a
condition, or as we say overdone, sometimes the fat slips
down from along the top of the front ribs, producing a
flattish bevel at the top, and giving a roundness at the lower
sides of the chest which is not natural. In well-defined cases
of this sort, one may place the hand below the layer of
slipped fat at the flanks and shake it like jelly. Yet all cases
of shaky sides do not represent "slipping," and the inex-
perienced judge, feeling about the front flanks, sometimes
thinks he has a case of slipped fat, when it is simply high
condition in its natural position. Smoothness and uniform-
ity of condition, are most important factors in the opinion

1 Journal Royal Agricultural Society of England, 1898.

2 Judging Live Stock. John A. Craig, Sixth Edition, 1904, p. 112.

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 391

of the discriminating judge. He passes his hands along over
the backbone, to note whether it is smoothly and evenly
covered, or whether there are bare spots. It is quite liable
to be bare over the shoulders and a dimple or tie is often
found in the middle of the back. The sheep in right con-
dition will often show a shallow groove over the spine, from
tail to withers, with no hard, bare spots along this line. It
is not at all uncommon for animals in high condition to
have rolls of fat on the sides or back, or patches of fat about
the end of the rump. Sheep thus affected are discriminated
against by buyers, and judges pass them by in the ring for
the smooth sort that show the least waste in killing. The
fact is, no animal shows so much waste as the over-condition-
ed sheep, with a very restricted demand for the excess fat.
The important thing in judging, is to note the fleshing and
the way it covers the frame. It is rarely that the animal is
equally well covered, some parts being bare and hard to the
touch, while others are nicely laid in under a cover of flesh.
As a first principle, the judge should place a premium on
the covering being firm, smooth and thick over the more
valuable cuts, such as the back and leg of mutton. There
may be some bareness about the shoulder without much
affecting values, but on the top and rear end, the condition
should bespeak desirable, high-priced cuts. In judging,
emphasize two things, first, uniform smoothness, of the cov-
ering of flesh, and second, its firmness to the touch. It is
better to have a sheep not fat enough, rather than too fat,
and the scoring by the judge should be guided accordingly.
Further, if there is some bareness in front, but with the
back and legs behind nicely covered, do not grade too low ;
a good carcass is probably in hand.

The head and neck of the mutton sheep should each be
short, as characteristic of meat-producing animals. These
two parts in harmonious relation to each other, always
favorably impress the intelligent feeder or butcher. The
head as a whole should not only be short, but also broad

392 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

through the eyes, and with graceful outlines with the parts
clearly denned.

The muzzle, which includes mouth and nostrils, should be
of good size, with capacity for feeding well. Thin, yet
strong lips are important, for the sheep uses them constantly
to assist in drawing in herbage while grazing or feeding on
the light roughage best suited to it. Comparatively large
nostrils, as associated with the organs of respiration, give
evidence of full breathing capacity.

The eyes of the sheep in some cases are bold and promi-
nent, while with others they are hidden by wool to such a
degree that sight is interfered with. A large, placid, yet
bright eye, placed attractively in reasonably prominent
sockets will give evidence of alert character. The whites of
the eye should be easily seen. Softie shepherds prefer eyes
with clear whites, with little dark coloring or veining, be-
lieving such eyes go with the best feeders. A bloodshot eye
may indicate a poor physical condition, and is objectionable
in any great degree.

The face of the sheep, as has already been indicated,
should be short. This gives a strong jaw, a feature of the
best feeder. Well denned features of the face give evidence
of quality and good breeding. The face below the eyes
should be broad, furnishing ample room for the respiratory
canals in the lower part of the skull.

The forehead of the sheep should be broad and well
rounded out. The broad forehead gives, evidence of intel-
ligence. It is also necessarily a feature of the short, wide
head of the best feeders. A narrow forehead, lacking
prominence, would rather indicate a lower degree of intel-
ligence, and perhaps undesirable disposition.

The ears of the sheep vary considerably in size and shape,
according to breed or blood lines. Some breeds have short
and rather small ears, as for example the Southdown, while
in other breeds they are long and prominent. A first neces-
sity in the ear is quality, the attachment to the head being
neat and well placed, and the texture of the ear relatively

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 393

Fig. 218. — "The f>ars of snoop vary considerably in size1 and shape."

thin and with no evidence of coarseness. Further, the ear
should be an index of disposition and interest in things, and
where not interfered with by wool or horn, should be car-
ried rather erect most of the time. A droopy, heavy ear
indicates something of a dull temperament, and perhaps
a poor feeder. One likes to see an animated carriage of the
ear on the sheep, just as much as on the horse, and for the
same reason.

The neck of the mutton sheep, as has been said, should
be short and thick, this conformation combining meat pro-
duction and strength. To examine the neck, grasp it with
one hand where it joins the head, and feel for thickness at
this point* Then standing against the side of the sheep,
facing the front, press with each hand against the neck in
its lower part, and note its character and the way it joins the
body at the shoulders. The neck should be full here, and
neatly blend into the shoulders at the point just in front,
which is called the shoulder vein or neck vein. Depression

394 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

in front of the shoulders, or thinness of the neck, indicates
an unevenly fleshed and thin-conditioned beast.

The forequarters of the sheep consist of the shoulders,
brisket and legs. In the mutton type a roundness and full-
ness in this part, above the legs proper, is highly essential
for good conformation. The character of the f orequarter to
some degree determines in what type or class a sheep may be
placed.

The shoulder of the mutton sheep, while not a high-
priced cut, is regarded with favor by many. When well
laid in and covered with a thick layer of flesh, it furnishes
a fairly good, cheap roasting piece, especially if the blade is
taken out. In examining the shoulders with each hand, feel
for a smooth compact covering on top, with the points of the
blades fairly close together. The shoulder itself should be
neatly covered in all its parts, and especially over the points,
which frequently are somewhat prominent. A heavy
shoulder point is inconsistent with the best mutton confor-
mation. Four points are credited to this part under ideal
condition, but a large per cent of the animals will probably
score three or less.

The brisket of the mutton sheep should project somewhat
in front of the legs, and have a width that will indicate a
large chest capacity. The brisket is an important indicator
of constitution. Note in judging, while standing facing the
front quarters, that the brisket is wide, with a well-rounded,
plump outline, slightly grooved on its underside. The best
examples of mutton sheep show much fullness of breast and
withers, excellent indicators of mutton character and vigor.
Some judges prefer to examine the brisket by placing the
sheep on its rump with the brisket facing upward, whereby
its rear part may be seen to advantage.

The front legs of the mutton sheep should be straight,
short, and carried strong and well apart. Many sheep
from a front view, show prominent curves inward at the
knee joints. This is a bad conformation, because it is as-
sociated with a narrow or wedge-shaped chest. The legs

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 395

should come down as straight as possible on each side, and
if this is the case, then they will stand wide apart, and allow
ample chest room between. Long legs are decidedly objec-
tionable because they indicate unnecessary waste in killing.
Further, they frequently accompany poor constitution.
Short legs furnish a minimum waste, and are characteristic
features associated with strong constitution. The bone of the
leg should be fine and lack all roughness, giving evidence of
little waste at slaughter. Attention should be directed to
the feet, to see that the toes are well carried, and point
directly forward. From the butcher's point of view this is
not so important, but if we consider the shipper or producer,
correct conformation with the ability to walk well, insuring
delivery to market in good shape, is of unquestionable im-
portance. While only one point is given to the legs in the
scale of points, if they are of distinctly defective carriage,
they should be scored off from 25 to 50 per cent according
to conditions.

Fig. 219. — "Long legs are decidedly objectionable because they indicate
unnecessary waste in killing. Further, they frequently accompany poor
constitution."

396 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The body of the mutton sheep, furnishing as it does the
highest-priced meat, is given a maximum credit of twenty-
seven points in the ideal animal. Expert judges usually
give very critical inspection to this section of the body,
for a sheep would not be a creditable example of mutton
type if lacking in the middle piece, where the high-priced
cuts are found. The body may be best examined by stand-
ing directly back of the animal, so that the hands may be
freely used on the back, sides and flank.

The chest of the sheep represents the entire section of
the body as measured just back of the shoulders. The girth
here should be comparatively large, with wide rather than
narrow curves at top and bottom of the chest. As the vital
organs, the heart and lungs are located within the chest,
it is at once apparent that a wide, deep chest capacity should
be associated with large, strong vital organs. A narrow,
shallow, flat-ribbed chest, is always regarded as evidence of
weak constitution. Emphasis should be placed on the front
ribs having sufficient arch to allow great fullness in heart
girth, rather than having a depression back of the shoulders,
for in this lies the difference between a good chest and a
poor one. A narrow-chested animal also rarely carries the
wealth of flesh to be found in the one with full chest. Score
the narrow chest severely.

The back of the mutton sheep should first of all be wide
and of medium length. A long back usually is loose jointed
and does not carry its weight well. The back should pre-
ferably be level, as characteristic of vigor and constitution,
though the butcher cares little about this, if there is wide,
thick covering of firm flesh. The backbone should be so
covered with flesh that no amount of handling will reveal
to the touch the ends of the spines or a hard, bare back. A
shallow groove along over the spine, once before referred to,
indicates the easy feeder and desirable butcher beast. If the
back is unevenly fleshed, score more severely than if lack-
ing in thickness of uniform covering. If over-fat and soft
of flesh, the score should be low. Here in the back is where

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP 397

one usually finds the most striking evidence of the too-fat
animal, and where excess fat is most objectionable on ac-
count of the high percentage of waste in the cuts of this
part. A rib roast or chop from here, at best, shows a large
per cent of bone and fat to lean tissue. Many people value
this part on account of the superior quality of the meat, but
others object to buying it, on account of the waste. Hence
the necessity of this part having no superfluous fleshing.

The loin of the mutton sheep should combine breadth,
length and thickness. With this conformation we secure a
strong constitution, the thick muscles protecting the kidneys
below, and at the same time we secure the desirable thick-
ness of loin chop or roast. "While not commanding quite
as high a price as the rib part, the fact is the loin furnishes
the very choicest of cut, with much less waste than in the
ribs. In judging this part, seek for some rounding up and
fullness here, and regard any depression as evidence of weak
conformation, with not enough thickness of loin covering.
Nine points are credited to the perfect loin, as reference to
the scale of points will show, thus emphasizing the impor-
tance of this part.

The ribs of the mutton sheep, in correct conformation,
show a wide arch on top, with an associated length such as
provides a body of depth and great digestive capacity. Arch
and length of rib are absolutely necessary in the sheep that
is to be a good feeder. The ribs should be smoothly and
thickly covered with flesh, and this desirable covering can
be best secured on the kind of ribs described. When the
body is not paunchy, that is, having no excess of belly, then
if of sufficient thickness and depth, we get the greatest pos-
sible weight, a very essential point. If arch of rib is lack-
ing, then the high-priced cuts are narrower and con-
sequently less valuable.

The flanks of the mutton sheep serve as a measure of the
digestive capacity and condition of the animal. If the flank
is low, furnishing a straight underline, then usually the
body is deep, which fact can easily be noted by standing

398 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

away a few feet, and taking a side view. Thus we have an
indication of digestive capacity. The flank, as has already
been stated, furnishes evidence of condition. By grasping
the flank in the hand, one may note whether it is thick and
full, indicating a degree of fatness, or whether it is thin,
evidencing the animal to be in lean flesh. When walking,
the sheep in high condition often shows something of a
bulge or roll at the hind flanks, though this is not always
so apparent with sheep, as they have considerable amount
of wool at this place. A thin, high flank in a fat sheep
may justly be scored off 25 to 50 per cent.

The hindquarters of the mutton sheep have always been
rated as of high value, and in the British trade probably
this part has been given a first consideration. Certain it is
that the British flockmaster has emphasized a thick, meaty
hindquarter to a far greater degree than has been the case
in America, in recognition of the fact that the thickest and
meatiest cuts come from this part. The fact is, about 45
per cent of the carcass, as is shown on page 377, is found
in the hindquarter.

The hips of the mutton sheep in good flesh should be
smoothly covered with flesh, and have a fair width between.
The hips of wethers are somewhat closer together than are
those of ewes, but the more important thing is that they
be well covered.

The rump of the mutton sheep, if we are to have a
maximum amount of flesh, must be long, level and wide. As
one stands at some distance on the side, and surveys the
rump, it should appear in much the same level from hips
to tail-head. A common defect is for the rump to be steep
or "droopy/' as it is often termed. The more droopy the
rump, the shorter will be the leg of mutton in its most
valuable part. When viewed from behind, the rump should
appear comparatively level and wide on each side of the
backbone, with its outer boundary quite in line with the
points of the hips. Sloping rumps are far too common.
When the rump is both steep and narrow, we have the

JUDGING THE MUTTOX TYPE OF S11KKP ;;<)<)

"peaked" rump, a very objectionable conformation, with
the minimum amount of flesh at the top of the leg. But
if the rump combines length, levelness and width, then there
will be a maximum amount of flesh at this part. The jiidnv
should carefully examine the rump, and see that its shape
is of the desirable sort, and not due to the shears of the shep-
herd. It is a simple matter to make the examination with
the hands, as one stands directly back of the animal. De-
mand not only a correct conformation, but also a smooth,
firm, thick fleshing over this part.

The thighs of the mutton sheep should be thickly fleshed
as may be shown by firmly grasping the leg between the
thumb and fingers in each hand, placing one hand in front
of the thick part of the thigh, high up, and the other on the
hind part. The general thickness and covering of muscle
may thus be easily determined. The fleshing sjiould come
down low toward the hock, so as to yield as much meat as
possible, both on inside and outside of the thigh. Mutton
conformation demands the fullest measure of flesh at this
place.

The twist is the point where the thick, fleshy part of the
upper thigh curves sharply to blend with the narrower part
of the thigh below on its inner side. One grasps the thigh
at the twist with either right or left hand, and feels up
into the muscle, when examining the leg of mutton. A
rear view of a good example of a newly shorn mutton sheep,
will show a wide curve on the inside of each thigh, with a
low down fleshing filling in the space at the top of the
curves. The thinner and more slender the leg, the less evi-
dent the twist, and the higher up the attachment between.
A very marked twist guarantees a wide, thick-fleshed sheep
in its rear end.

The hind legs of the mutton sheep should be straight,
short and strong, for the same reasons given regarding the
front legs. However, the hind legs have the hock joint, and
the sheep has quite a tendency to bring the points of the
hocks together. When this occurs, the space between the

400

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

legs of mutton is reduced, from which we may expect a
narrower hind end than it would be if the legs were widely
carried. If the sheep hocks in, then the toes will point out.
A space of three to five inches between the hocks, under
natural conditions, will give a satisfactory position for the
legs from a rear point of view. From a side view, the legs
from hock to ankle should stand quite vertical, with the

Fig. 220.— "One grasps the thigh at the twist with either right or left
hand, and feels up into the muscle, when examining the leg of mutton."

point of the hock just in line with the point of the rump.
The legs are frequently carried too much beneath the body,
while some sheep carry the legs too far back, with the hocks
noticeably beyond the rump. Either of these positions is
to be criticized as lacking in strength. The bone of the leg
should be free of all coarseness, giving evidence of dressing
out with little waste. The toes should point directly for-

JUDGING THE MUTTON TYPE OF SHEEP

401

ward, being level and true on the hoof, and supporting a
pastern that is neither too long nor too sloping.

Wool on the mutton sheep, as has already been stated, is
usually of secondary importance to flesh production. The
score card gives a total of nine points to the wool. If a
mutton sheep is being judged as a butcher's beast at a
great fat stock show, the judge gives comparatively little
attention to the amount and covering of wool, but if the
animal is to be judged as a breeding sheep, then more con-
sideration is given to this point. Very brief reference will,
therefore, be given to the wool at this time, this subject be-
ing discussed in detail under Merino type, to which the
reader is referred on page 426. Three factors of impor-
tance must be considered in this connection, namely,
quality, xquantity and condition.

The quality of the wool on the mutton sheep is an in-
dication of the quality of the sheep as a whole. A fine, soft
fleece, uniform in
character over
much of the body,
is desirable. Yet
this fineness is only
comparative. The
long-wooled sheep
of the mutton type,
naturally carry a
coarser fiber than
the smaller, me-
dium-wooled sheep.
In each case, re-
finement of wool
fiber is desired
rather than coarse-
ness, for generally
speaking, we may

assume that the Fi^ 221.— "To study the quality, part the

, . , wool at several points, especially on the neck,
liner WOOled animal shoulder, middle of side and thigh."

402

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 222. — "He easily sees the length when
parts the fleece."

will dress out with
less waste. Another
- evidence of quality
is a crimpy condi-
tion of the wool,
with fine, wavy or
serrated lines like
the teeth of a saw.
Crimp gives elas-
ticity to the wool,
which is a valuable
quality. In the
fleeces of the large,
long-wooled sheep,
the crimp is in
long waves rather

than serrations, while with the smaller sheep of the
middle wool type, there is a short, fine crimp. The fineness
of the fiber is more or less affected by the thickness of the
wool over the body, the thicker it is, the finer it will be.
To study the quality part the wool at several points,
especially on the neck, shoulder, middle of side and thigh,
and note comparative fineness, crimp and softness, the lat-
ter feature be'ing determined by pressure under the fingers.
The quantity of wool produced by the mutton sheep
impresses the sheep buyer, especially the butcher, more than
the quality. Then he seeks for two things especially, length
and density. He easily sees the length when he parts the
fleece, and the density he judges by grasping the wool, and
determining if it covers the body thickly, indicating a heavy
fleece. What the buyer wishes is a heavy weighing fleece,
and this cannot be secured unless it has length and is dense
or thickly placed over the body. These features should
obtain over the sheep in general, and so it is necessary to
critically inspect the length and density of covering on
different parts of the body. Bareness of belly and legs in-
dicates light weight fleece. Also a fleece that easily parts in

JUDGING THE MFTTOX TYPE OF SHEEP 403

its locks, opening gaps toward the skin in which chaff and
dirt readily catch, gives evidence of lack of density and
weighing lighter than would be the case otherwise. A dense
fierce is more easily kept clean than one that is open, a
matter of importance.

The condition of the wool of the mutton sheep relates
to its color, lustre, freedom from foreign matter, and amount
and character of oil, or what the shepherd terms grease or
yolk. When the wool is parted, and is examined from the ex-
terior of the fleece, down to the skin, it should show a bright,
clean, soft appearance. Some fleeces, especially the long
wools, show a glisten or lustre, that adds to its value in cer-
tain markets. In a good quality of fleece we also find more or
less oil, which gives brightness and life to the fiber, making
it stronger and more elastic than it would be if harsh and
dry. A heavy secretion of oil, however, is objectionable,
owing to the resulting shrinkage in scouring. Usually ex-
cessive oil is indicated by the presence of greasy dirt on the
exterior of the fleece, manifest to the eye in color, or by the
extent the hands become oily. A dirty fleece, with more or
less chaff and foreign matter, is undesirable. In scoring the
fleece of the mutton sheep, it is not necessary to cut down
the points severely. A 20 to 30 per cent pruning
from jthe standard, is a fair amount, though the lack of
weight or presence of dirt might justify even more severity.

CHAPTER XXXYI.

THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MUTTON SHEEP.

AFTER the score card has been used a number of times on
individual sheep, to familiarize one in this work, then the
next step should be to compare two or more sheep of the
same class. The use of the score card may be made in this
comparison, by placing two sheep side by side, going over
the same parts of each animal in regular order, filling out
the score in the process. Thus a numerical score may be
made, with each part up for comparison in its turn. The
method of judging involved in this Case, is simply that of
score card work, but where more than one animal is in-
volved, it is also comparative. The greater the number of
animals to be scored in comparative judging, the more
tedious the process, due to the amount of time necessary to
estimate and record values on the cards. Following this,
considerable time will be necessary to figure up the different
scores, and then perhaps make some readjustments in satis-
fying oneself for a final judgment.

Comparative judging of mutton sheep in pens of three
to five individuals, without the use of the score card, offers
the most satisfactory method of studying these animals. It
is customary for each animal to be held, so that the sheep
shall stand in line, side by side. There should be space
enough between the animals to permit free movement on
the part of the judge. He should first walk about and view
the group from a distance that will permit satisfactory
general comparison. One should walk in front of the sheep,
to compare heads, shoulders, breasts and legs, and thenjpass
to the rear to compare the backs, rumps, thighs and posi-
tions of legs. The sheep may at this time be placed in

404

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MUTTON SHEEP 405

single file, one behind another, so that a comparative side
•view will be available, showing the animals in profile. This
view gives one a nice comparison of length of neck, back
line, length and depth of body, length and carriage of rump,
and length and placing of legs. This is a preliminary study
of general appearance up to this point. The judge should
now begin a careful examination of each individual in the

Pig. 223. — "One should walk in front of the sheep, to compare heads,
shoulders, breasts and legs.''

group, beginning at the head, and systematically going over
it as directed in the process of scoring. In making this
examination, the hands should assist the eye, so that any
possible use of the shears will not affect one's accuracy of
judgment. The strong and weak points of each sheep
should be manifest to the judge, so that he may be en-
abled to come to a decision as to how they shall be placed
in regular order of merit. These sheep being of the mutton
type, emphasis must be placed on weight, condition, quality,

406

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

compactness of form, breadth of back, thickness of hind-
quarter, depth of body, shortness of neck and legs, and
character of fleece. If examined as fat sheep, then condition,
necessarily, is of prime importance. Each animal must be
studied and a mental comparison made with one that scores
100 per cent. As the butcher's block is the measure of

Fig. 224. — "One must be careful not to give high plaeings to animals that
seriously lack balance."

value in the case of the fat sheep, it is important that the
judge should not allow points of secondary value to affect
his judgment on essentials. The judge in the show ring, after
sufficient examination, in case of considerable competition,
often draws from the line those that he regards of merit,
not occupying his attention with the remainder. The few
drawn out are then lined up as a separate group, and the

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MUTTON SHEEP 407

judge begins to place them somewhat in order of merit.
Where competition is severe, various comparisons and shifts
of place may be made, before the judge completes his task.
One must be careful not to give high placing to animals
that seriously lack balance, because such decisions may
involve a serious criticism of judgment. It is a good plan
to compare in detail the more important points seriously
affecting a decision. Compare the backs and their cover-
ing, as a special study, then compare rumps and legs of
mutton, in like way, and thus critically weigh up those
parts of greatest value, that they may have their true
rating. Such comparative study of the parts is very
helpful in aiding one to a sound decision, if there is any
doubt in making the placings.

One may make up a comparative score card, after the
following manner, in order to give a rating to comparable
parts on different animals.

FAT SHEEP COMPARISON CARD.
Name of Judge Date Judged .

First Second Third Fourth
l>()INrs T<) -llTI)(iE Place Place Place Place

Size

Condition • • • • • • • •

Quality .... .... ....

Head and neck .... .... ....

Breast .... .... ....

Shoulder . . . . • .... .... ....

Chest

Back

Rib

Loin .... .... ....

Rump .... .... ....

Leg of mutton .... .... ....

Legs .... .... ....

Fleece

Placing .... .... ....

408 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Each animal is given a number or letter, and the judge
gives to the features of each kind compared, ratings in one,
two, three order. For example, in comparing condition, he
might give C first place, A second, D third and B fourth.
In this manner he would systematically make certain com-
parisons. He would not necessarily give first place to the
animal having the most first placings, unless the more vital
factors, such as condition, quality, back, and leg of mutton,
would justify such a placing. This method of comparison
is extremely interesting, and while not usually suited to the
work of the professional judge, whose time is limited, it is
especially instructive in the case of students.

Reasons for making comparative placings of mutton
sheep. Professional judges give reasons or not as they de-
sire, in connection with their placings. Students, however,
judging under instructors, are expected to give logical rea-
sons for their placings. If one is to give written reasons,
usually fifteen or twenty minutes is allowed for this pur-
pose, while only about three minutes are allowed for oral
reasons. In either case the student is to state briefly in a
systematic way the main reasons influencing his decision.
As illustrative of student judging, the following is given as
an example of written reasons by a well-known animal hus-
bandry teacher, who submitted them in class work to the
author when competing for a place on the students' Inter-
national Live Stock Judging Team. Four Southdown ewes
were judged, and this paper furnishes a good example of
reasons in written form.

"Reasons for placing No. 797 first are that she is the low-
est set, broadest, deepest and blockiest ewe in the ring. She
is especially commendable for her superior breadth through-
out and also for her depth of twist and plump leg of mutton.
Her loin is the widest in the lot. She nearest approaches
the meaty type desired in the Southdown, and with it all
she possesses as much quality as any in the ring. Her flesh
is the most uniformly carried of any of the four. She is
open to some criticism for a slight lack of strength of back

COMPARATIVE STUDY OF MUTTON SHEEP 409

and for a fleece that lacks density. She might show a little
more style also, but this is a small deficiency. In view of
her greater excellence of form, type, evenness of covering,
symmetry and smoothness' throughout — and in spite of the
minor defects noted above — she rightly deserves first posi-
tion.

* * Reasons for placing No. 803 second, are, that she is the
nearest approach to 797 of the remaining three. She is not
so low set, so deep bodied, nor so broad of body nor of loin,
as is No. 797. She possesses more style and a stronger back
than the ewe placed first, and also a darker colored face,
No. 797 being too light in the face. Her deficiencies in form
keep her in second place, also her flesh is less evenly carried.

"Reasons for placing No. 798 third are that although
easily superior to No. 810, she is too rough, lacks compact-
ness, is narrow of loin, has an uneven covering of flesh, and
lacks plumpness at shoulder vein to get above the third
position.

"Reasons for placing No. 810 last. She is upstanding,
lacks depth and breadth, has a pinched hind end, is cut up
badly in the twist, is deficient in leg of mutton, is slack in
the chest and does not show Southdown type, having a
coarse head, wooled like a Shropshire."

A criticism may be made of these reasons, in some lack of
system, and for directing too much attention to the deficien-
cies of the second, third and fourth placings, rather than
emphasizing the advantage the second placing has over the
third, and the third over the fourth. However, for a state-
ment to be prepared without notes in fifteen minutes, it
conveys substantial reasons for placings, and is a good
example of student work.

CHAPTER XXXVII.

JUDGING FEEDER SHEEP.

FEEDER sheep are those that are purchased in thin flesh,
to be fed and finished as fat mutton. When classed as
prime feeders, they furnish fine examples of mutton sheep.
However, nearly all of the feeder sheep in the large markets
are from the western ranges, and they contain considerable
blood that is not representative of what has been described
as mutton type. Therefore, when one is purchasing feeder
sheep, he should bear in mind that he is selecting what is
to be finished off, when fat, into a high class mutton type.
The feeder sheep should possess certain essentials if the
desired finish is to be secured.

The conformation of the feeder sheep should show a
wide, short head and neck; full chest; strong, wide back
and loin ; long, level rump ; wide leg of mutton, and com-
paratively short legs. At time of purchase this sheep will
have a strong frame, full in its points, but lean of flesh.
A deep middle, showing digestive capacity, is highly im-
portant. This frame is finally to be smoothed over and
rounded out with flesh, presenting quite a different appear-
ance from that seen in the same sheep four months before.
In selecting this feeder, one must not lose sight of the es-
sentials required in a fat animal. In judging this class,
place a premium on size with quality, consistent with
market demands. Look for a low-set type of lamb, broad
and deep, of medium length, and showing strong consti-
tution. The lamb of medium length promises more in the
way of early maturity than either the long or abnormally
short-bodied one. The former often feeds somewhat slowly,
while the latter has a conformation that lacks the stretch
that goes with the more responsive, profitable feeder. It

410

JUDGING FEEDER SHEEP 411

is desirable to keep condition in mind, but the important
thing is to secure feeders that are not too thin, and will
respond to feed readily. Uniformity in the character of
feeder sheep is important, for it should show the influence
of improved blood as expressed in quality and conforma-
tion. Sheep of uniform type and character fetch a higher
price when finished than does a mixed lot showing varia-
tion in character and breeding. The wool on feeder sheep
should meet the necessary requirements as to quality, but
the quantity and condition will naturally be affected by
feeding.

CHARTER XXXVIII.

JUDGING THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN OR
CLASS A TYPE.

CLASSIFICATION OF MERINO SHEEP.

A classification of Merino sheep according to type, was

first made public in 1893 at the World's Columbian Expo-
sition. This classification was based on the form of body,
the prevalence of folds in the skin, and the character of
fleece. Class A is a muscular type, tending to be narrow
of body, with heavy wrinkles or folds at neck, breast, hind
flank, hip and tail-head, and oftentimes minor folds on the
side and extending well up on the back. Class B is a
stronger, larger sheep, with more mutton form, and carry-
ing folds about the neck and breast, and to a slight extent
about the hindquarters. Class C, in its ideal form, is a
smooth-bodied mutton type, with no folds. However, one
frequently sees Class C sheep at the shows, with one or two
folds at the neck. The fleece is shortest in Class A and

Fig. 225. — The three classes of Merino sheep : A on right, B in center, and

C on left.

412

THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN TYPE

413

longest in Class C, while the densest, heaviest fleeces have
been ]) rod need by Class A sheep. Classes A and B so
closely approach each other in appearance, when we con-
sider variation within the class, that at the more important
shows, where these Merino classes are recognized, examples

Fig. 226. — A Type Merino ram, "Don's Champion," owned by the late J. P.
Ray of New York. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

of each may be in the same ring. In a similar manner,
sheep of B and C classes sometimes are found in the same
ring. If a judge knows his business, he sees that the sheep
out of their class are sent back to their pens.

The Merino of Class A type, very generally called the
American Merino, is not common to-day in America. For
fully three-fourths of a century wrinkly Merinos were the
rule and not the exception in this country. However, mut-

414 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

ton character has been steadily growing in favor, with a
constantly increasing prejudice against the lean, muscular
sheep, covered with folds, so difficult to shear. Conse-
quently at the present day, Merinos of the A type are
rarely seen, and are in very limited demand. For this
reason but brief consideration is given this type.

A scale of points for the American Merino, generally
satisfactory in character, does not seem to exist. A number
of Merino sheep associations have published scales of points
for sheep of this type, but they have not been logically ar-
ranged and made no satisfactory measure of values. There-
fore, the author has drawn up the scale of points on page 415
as applicable to the American or Class A Merino. This,
as here presented, has been submitted to some of the best-
known and most intelligent breeders of this type of sheep
in America.

The distinctive characteristics of the American Merino
include a number of features limited to this type. The body
is lean and muscular, sharp over the withers, narrow of
back from a mutton standpoint, ribs lacking in arch, and
hindquarters long, but tending to be narrow and droopy,
with long, lean thighs. The legs tend to come close together
at knee and hock, with the toes pointing out. The body is
densely covered with the finest grade of wool, excepting
on the lower part of the face and muzzle, and parts of legs,
where a fine, silky, white hair occurs. Folds or wrinkles in
the skin of nose, neck, brisket, shoulders, flanks, sides, rump
and thighs, give this type of Merino a very striking appear-
ance, either with or without the fleece. Expert judges of
American Merinoes rarely examine the form other than by
use of the eye. The hand is used only to feel of the fleece, to
part the locks and to note the various conditions associ-
ated with the wool. In judging, no attention is paid to
mutton condition, excepting as indicating vigorous condi-
tion of health, which the judge notes in the healthy, pink
condition of skin as he examines the fleece. The weight
of the ram rarely attains 150 pounds at maturity, but this

THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN TYPE 415

SCORE CARD FOR AMERICAN MERINO.

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Sheep

Score Studied

Age Number of permanent incisors ....

A — GENERAL APPEARANCE, 16 Points:

Weight, score according to age, mature males !."><)

Ibs., females 100 Ibs 2 ....

Form, low set, deep bodied, symmetrical, with folds

on neck, shoulders, flanks, rump, thighs . . 0 ....

Quality, bone and wool fine, skin pink 8 ....

II— HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points:

Muzzle, broad, wrinkled, lips thin, mouth and nos-
trils good size 1 ....

Eyes, large, bright, placid, not enclosed by folds . . 1 ....

Pace, short, features well denned 1 ....

Forehead, broad and full 1 ....

Ears, small, fine, covered with fine white hair . . . . 1 ....

Neck, short above, long below, strong, with promi-
nent folds '2 ....

C— FOREQUARTERS, 9 Points:

Shoulders, sloping well into.bac.k, not rough, broad,

with folds •_! ....

Breast, of medium width, deep, showing plenty con-
stitution :; ....

Brisket, carried well forward, with stiong fold or

apron 2 ....

Legs and feet: straight legs, well carried, toes short

and of good shape with level soles . . . . 2 ....

1) — BODY, 20 Points:

Chest, deep, medium wide, comparatively large girth ."> ....

Back, level, long, medium wide . . :; ....

Loin, broad, long and not sagged :; ....

Ribs, arched only moderately deep, close together . . 3

Flanks, low, giving low, level underline 1

I :— HINDQUARTERS, 10 Points:

Hips, smooth, not too widely separated 1 ....

Rump, long, level, wide, carrying light folds . . . . 4 ....

Thighs, long, muscular, with horizontal folds. . . . 3 ....

Legs and. feet: legs carried straight, hocks not close,
shanks vertical, toes short, and of good shape,

with level soles 2

F— FLEECE, 43 Points:

Folds or wrinkles, very manifest on neck, brisket,

shoulders, flanks, lower sides, rump, thighs.. 10 ....

Quality, fiber very fine and crimped, uniform in
diameter, free of hair or gare on folds, belly
or legs 10 ....

Density, close covering all over body, armpits, belly
and legs well wooled, the fleece compact to the
hand 10 ....

Length, xiniform over body, 2i/£ inches for twelve

months' growth . . 7 ....

Oil, grease or yolk, abundant, light colored, evenly

distributed, and not gathered in spots . . . . 4 ....

Condition, clean, soft, free of foreign matter. . . . 2 ....

Total points 100

416

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

standard is desirable. The larger type of rams, with qual-
ity and constitution meet with most favor. The form should
be low set, with a depth of body indicating ample feeding
capacity, and symmetrical in proportions. The head should

be quite covered

with a heavy cap
of wool, excepting
for a space half-
way up from nos-
trils to eye, which
is covered with
fine, silky hair. The
head covering
should be compact
and uniform in
character of wool.
Most Merino rams
have heavy horns,
which twist around

Fig. 227. — "The head should be quite covered

with a heavy cap of wool." about one ana one-

half times in cork-
screw form, with the tips pointing forward. The
ewes are free of horns, while polled rams are not rare.
The Merino head crowned with a fine pair of well-set, widely
turned horns, rooted in a heavy cap of wool, the muzzle
broad and slightly arched, and covered with silky hair
raised in slight wrinkles, presents a strong and dignified
appearance. The eyes are often quite hidden by the fleece,
and frequently small folds of skin so encroach on the eyes
that it is necessary to cut them away that the sight be not
obstructed. The ears should be small and covered with
' * furry hair, ' ' and should be rather widely separated. The
back of the American Merino often appears narrow and
lacking in level carriage. Narrow, peaked rumps are also
very common with this type, these seeming to be associated
with crooked hind legs that touch at the hocks and turn out
widely at the toes.

THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN TYPE 417

The folds on the American Merino are most highly devel-
oped on the lamb, and with age some of these are more or
less outgrown. A lamb that appears to be of the A type,
at maturity, may belong in the B class. According to an
expert breeder l the prevailing fashion is to have from
three to five heavy folds on the neck, not large on the
upper, but large on the under side; two or three short folds
on and immediately back of each elbow or arm ; fine, thick

Fig. 228. — "The folds on the American Merino are most highly developed."

wrinkles running down the sides, but not extending over
the back. "Wrinkles occur across the hips, sometimes from
the tail in the direction of the stifle, and sometimes at right
angles with them. Folds occur around the tail to give it a
wide appearance, and also across the thigh, adding to the
depth of flank. These large folds are indications of heavy
fleeces. The modern tendency is away from the heavy
folds of twenty years ago, yet in spite of that, the best

1 Special report on the History and Present Condition of the Sheep Industry
in the United States, 1892, p. 315.

418

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

examples of American Merinoes show the folds in striking
degree.

The Merino of the B type class, as has already been ex-
plained, carries folds at the neck and breast, and to some
extent at the hindquarters. B type sheep are larger than
those of the A type, are thicker and show more mutton
form, and have a longer and somewhat coarser wool staple.

Fig. 229.— "These large folds are indications of heavy fleeces."

In this type the value of mutton form is given some consid-
eration. Further, in order to secure a heavy-weighing fleece
of desirable length on a Merino with mutton tendency, it is
recognized that more or less folds are essential. The per-
fectly smooth C type sheep, that naturally has a somewhat
open fleece, will not meet this requirement. Rams of the
B type are the ones most commonly used in Merino flocks
of to-day, and mated with the ewes of smooth body and

THE MERINO OF THE AMERICAN TYPE 419

mutton form, they play an important part in improving
the wool-producing- value of the flock, without necessarily
reducing the mutton value. As the folds are evidence of
compactness of fleece, so we must recognize the necessity
of at least some folds in the stud flock if the average Me-
rino fleece is to be maintained on a high standard. There-
fore, in the B type sheep, we must possess a combination
of the most valuable fleece features of the A type with the
size and mutton qualities of the C type.

CHAPTER XXXIX.

JUDGING THE MUTTON MERINO OR CLASS 0 TYPE.

The modern trend in breeding Merino sheep, is to pro-
duce the smooth-bodied type, free of folds, excepting in
slight degree on the neck. Years ago Merino breeders,
especially in eastern Ohio and western Pennsylvania, rec-
ognized that they must produce a type of sheep that would
have mutton as well as wool values. In consequence of
this feeling, breeders began to select breeding stock that
was rather free of folds, with a tendency to carry consid-
erable flesh. This resulted in establishing what is generally
known as the Delaine Merino. It is the common type of
smooth-bodied Merino seen in America, and, while produc-
ing a fine or Merino wool, also makes a most excellent
carcass. While not technically a Delaine, the Rambouillet
is to all intents and purposes of this class. In fact, on one
occasion at the Ohio State Fair, several Rambouillet ewes
of German breeding were exhibited in a Delaine class by
one of the best-known American Rambouillet breeders.
This was not entirely satisfactory to all concerned, but that
such a thing were possible shows that the Rambouillet
breeder expected his sheep to be judged on a Delaine basis.
A world movement toward the smooth-bodied, Delaine type
of fine-wooled sheep is now taking place, for two very dis-
tinct reasons, one being the greatly increased demand for
mutton as well as fleece, the other the difficulty in shear-
ing sheep of the A type with heavy folds. Even in Aus-
tralia, long the home of the wrinkly Merino of extreme de-
velopment, the class C sheep is coming into great popu-
larity.

420

MERINO OF CLASS C TYPE 421

A scale of points for the Delaine Merino, or Class C
type, applies to what might be termed the dual-purpose
sheep. In conformation the Class C type lacks the extreme
thickness and heavy fleshing of the mutton type, but we find
a fleece much superior in quality to that of the mutton
breeds. In discussing the following scale of points, in view
of the detailed consideration of conformation given the mut-
ton type, only the essentials of dual-purpose form will be re-
ferred to here. The subject of fleece, however, justifies
discussion in some detail.

SCORE CARD FOR DELAINE OR C TYPE MERINO.

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Sheep

Score Studied

Age Number of permanent incisors ....

A— GENERAL APPEARANCE, 24 Points:

Weight, score according to age. Mature rams 150

Ibs., ewes 125 Ibs 3 ....

Porm, low, compact, symmetrical, uniformly covered

with flesh 7 ....

Quality, bone and wool fine, skin pink and healthy 7 ....

Condition, even covering of firm flesh, of moderate

thickness 7 ....

B— HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points:

Muzzle, broad; mouth and nostrils good size; lips

thin 1

Eyes, bright, of good size, placid 1

Face, short, broad between eyes 1

Forehead, broad 1

Ears, medium to small, set wide apart, covered with

silky hair 1

Neck, short on top, long below, smoothly attached 2

C — FOREQUARTERS, 12 Points:

Shoulders, well placed 2

Breast, deep and medium thick 5

Brisket, carried well forward, with some breadth

and fold or apron 2

Legs, straight, short, strong, well set, arm full,
shank smooth, feet of good horn, and pointing
straight forward 3

D— BODY, 15 Points:

Chest, broad, deep, full behind shoulders . . . . 5

Back, straight and medium wide 3

Loin, strong and muscular 3

Ribs, well sprung and deep 3

Flanks, low, making straight underline 1

422 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Standard of Score of

SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Sheep

Score Studied
E — HINDQUARTERS, 13 Points:

Hips, smooth, not too wide apart ....

Rump, long, level, moderately wide 5 ....

Thighs, muscular to plumpness 3 ....

Legs, straight, short, strong, stifle full; feet of good

horn, and pointing straight forward .. .. 3 ....

F — WOOL, 29 Points:

Quality, staple fine, with close and uniform crimp,

free of weak fiber, hair or gare 10 ....

Density, compact all over body 7 ....

Length of staple uniform, at least 2a/& inches for

twelve months 7 ....

Condition, rich and soft in handling, with moderate
amount of well distributed oil ; free of foreign
matter 5 ....

Total points 100 ....

The general appearance of the Class C Merino is that
of a sheep lacking the thickness of mutton type, slightly
longer of leg and neck, with a compact fleece free of folds,
excepting in slight degree about the neck. The tendency
is to endeavor to secure as thick and low set a form as pos-
sible, and some sheep of this class have been shown that
closely resembled Southdown or Shropshire in general
form. The judges as a rule look with much favor on such
conformation. The condition, when prime, should show a
moderate and uniform thickness of firm flesh, not carried
to an extreme. The popularity of the C type as a killer,
is due to the more moderate amount of external fat with
less waste of this material than prevails with mutton sheep.
The judge, however, should emphasize smoothness, firmness
and uniformity of fleshing.

The head and neck of the Class C Merino present less
thickness and shortness as a rule than are shown by the
mutton type. The head should show the same character-
istics, however, desired in the mutton sheep, but the neck
may not be so short and thick. Judges will naturally favor
the short and muscular neck that is smoothly blended at
the shoulders. The one or two folds often seen on the

MERINO OF CLASS C TYPE

423

Fig. 230. — "Some sheep of the Class (C) have been shown that closely
resemble Southdown or Shropshire in general form."

neck make this part appear longer than it really is. Two
folds are objectionable in the wether, but in the breeding
ram these furnish evidence of possible transmission of the
heavy fleece, and so should not be discriminated against.
The forequarters of the Class C Merino frequently show
prominence of shoulder, narrowness of breast and too much
length of leg. The shoulders should be well placed, sloping
nicely to the back and being smoothly covered with a mod-
erate thickness of flesh. A reasonable fullness or thickness
of breast and brisket, with some prominence to each, should
be sought. A large fold or apron covers the brisket and
gives it prominence. Excess of fold here is not associated
with strong mutton conformation. The legs should be fairly
wide apart and straight, the toes pointing directly forward.

424

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Often the knees come quite close together, with the feet
widely separated and pointing out, a very weak position.
The body of the Class C Merino presents more round-
ness or curve on the upper part of rib than the mutton
sheep, with corresponding lack of width of back. This con-
formation is essentially a dual-purpose feature. If the rib
carries sufficient spring and depth, the chest will show the

Fig. 231. — "A large fold or apron covers the brisket and gives it
prominence."

requisite fullness, and the body as a whole will exhibit
ample digestive capacity. A fullness at front and hind
flank should be sought and is highly desirable, as evidence
both of capacity and of constitution. The fleshing over the
frame will be less than on the true mutton form and, as
a rule, will not present the depth of covering that is found
in the thicker fleshed sort.

The hindquarters of the Class C Merino lack the square-
ness most characteristic of mutton form. The rump should
be long, moderately wide and level. The thighs usually

MERINO OF CLASS C TYPE

are muscular rather than thick and fleshy, and with a
medium depth or fullness of twist. While the leg of
mutton produced here is quite acceptable in the trade, it
does not furnish the depth of cut that is found in the ideal
mutton type, the bone being less heavily fleshed on every
side. This being characteristic of the type, it is not rea-

Fig. 232. — "The hindquarters of the Class C Merino (on the left) lack the
squareness most characteristic of the mutton form."

sonable for the judge to expect the thickest mutton con-
formation in this regard. The conformation of the hind
legs of the C type is not so frequently bad as with A
type, but Merino-like, they naturally tend to hock in and
toe out. The judge should emphasize a proper placing of
legs and feet, either from rear or side view, as essential
in mutton conformation. The closer the hocks come to-
gether, the thinner the thighs as a rule, and the less de-
veloped the twist.

CHAPTER XL.

THE FLEECE AND ITS EXAMINATION.

The quality of wool fiber is shown in its degree of fine-
ness, in its crimp, its uniformity through the fleece, and its
freedom from kemp or gare. Wool differs greatly in its
fineness, of which Hawkesworth gives twelve different de-
grees.1 The finest grades are produced by the Merino, and
measurements have been made by various persons showing
a diameter of fiber of over one two-thousandths (%ooo) °f
an inch. However, a diameter of one-thousandth of an
inch is fine. The fiber of the long wool such as Cotswold,
that measures a diameter of one four-hundredth of an inch,

represents the
coarsest grade. The
wool on the- same
sluvp varies in de-
gree of fineness.
The finest wool is
found over the
shoulder and side,
and the coarsest
over the hindquar-
ter, especially the
thigh, and on the
belly.

The fleece refers
to the entire cover-
ing of wool on the
sheep and this con-
sists of locks or

Fig. 233. — "The finest wool is found over the ,,

shoulder and side." groups Ol

1 Australian Sheep and Wool, 1906, p. 218.

426

THE FLEECE AND ITS EXAMINATION

427

that naturally separate by breaks in the fleece. To examine
the degree of fineness, one should begin at the side of the
neck, and inspect the fleece, separating to the skin the locks
at various points, so that the fiber can be easily compared
and studied. The judge should look for a fleece uniform in
quality with as lit-
tle variation as pos-
sible in fineness,
with no great dif-
ference between the
front and hind-
quarter wool. Soft-
ness is a valued
feature. A wool is
said to be soft when
it has a smooth and
yielding touch to
the hand. This is
a characteristic of
the fleece as a
whole, rather than
of a single fiber.

"When the climate is both moist and bracing, wools have a
better, softer touch, than where produced in a dry and
trying climate.

The crimp of wool is the name applied to the serration
of the fiber. Perhaps the common saw-tooth shape illus-
trates this. The crimp, however, varies from the close, sharp
wave in the Merino, to the long, wavy one seen in the long
wool breeds. Hawkesworth states2 that "in superior Me-
rino wool there are 24 to 30 crimps to the inch, and some-
times more. In the English breeds, the Southdown, which
is the finest, contains 14 to 18 crimps per inch; medium
wool from 11 to 14, while the long, coarse Lincoln staple
has but two or three serrations to the inch/' Crimp is an
especially striking feature of Merino wool, and is a true

3 Australian Sheep and Wool, 1906, p. 219.

Fig. 234. — "The coarsest over the hindquarter,
especially the thigh and belly."

428 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

indication of quality. Crimp is also associated with great
elasticity. Therefore, in judging the Merino, one should
give due recognition to the presence of crimp as an impor-
tant feature of quality. Oftentimes crimp is so pronounced
that it is manifest on the exterior of the fleece, although it
is always seen best by parting the locks.

Kemp or gare are animal fibers found in wool that are
distinctly objectionable to the woolen cloth trade. Kemp
is a hard, coarse hair that is found much more in some
sheep than others, and more on one part of the body than
another. Being a hard hair, kemp will not take dyes as
will wool, so that when in the cloth, it lacks the color and
character necessary for uniform coloring of fabric. Kemp
is most often found about the head or thighs, and may be
either white or black in color. A kempy fleece is very ob-
jectionable. The term gare has been used more or less by
American sheep men, but no doubt many have had kemp
in mind as the same thing. Hawkesworth defines3 kemp
as a hard, very brittle, opaque hair, resembling a piece of
common cotton thread, while gare possesses a glossy,
straight surface, and is devoid of softness, elasticity and
crimpiness.

The density of fleece relates to the abundance of the
wool over the body. There is much difference in density
of fleece in sheep of the different breeds, and also among
individuals. From a breed point of view the Merino has
much the densest fleece, with the long wools the least dense.
On a square inch of Merino skin may be found 60,000 wool
fibers, which indicates a very dense fleece. The density is
manifested by the closeness with which the locks are packed
together, and the compact feeling to the touch when the
hand grasps the fleece. A dense fleece does not allow for-
eign matter to gather easily between the locks, a distinct
argument in favor of density. The most important argu-
ment in behalf of this characteristic, however, is its rela-
tionship to heavy yield of wool, for the greater the density,

3 Australian Sheep and Wool, 1906, p. 237.

E FLEECE AND ITS TOAMINATION

429

other things being equal, the heavier the yield. If the
wool opens freely, it shows lack of density. One quickly
notices differences in density by the grasp of the hand of
the fleece of different sheep, and, even by the eye, one may

Fig. 235. — "One quickly notices the differences in density by tbe grasp of
the hand of the fleece of different sheep."

note the much greater prevalence of open locks in the tops
of some sheep than in others.

Length of fleece or staple varies according to type or
breed of sheep, and also as to the portion of the body on
which it is produced. The Merino has a short fleece, and
two and one-half inches is quite a standard length for a
year's growth. Sheep of the medium wool class, such as
the Shropshire, easily produce a length of three or four

430

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 236. — "The fleece of the long wool breeds
often exceeds six inches in twelve months'
growth."

inches, while the fleece of the long wool breeds often ex-

ceeds six inches in

twelve months'
growth. It is quite
important that the
staple be uniform
in length, although
in the vicinity of
the shoulder the
wool is quite the
longest of the en-
tire fleece.

The oil or yolk.
Associated with the
root of the wool
fiber are minute oil
glands. From these
the oil passes to

the base of the fiber, and then works up along over the
scales until it reaches the end, lubricating and softening
the wool. Some sheep, such as the American Merino, pro-
duce a great deal of oil, which accumulates on the outside of
the fleece, where, when mixed with dust and dirt, it appears
almost as a dirty, black, gummy blanket. There is consid-
erable difference in the amount and character of this oil.
It should be rather colorless, but is frequently of creamy
or greenish tint. However, the relationship of color to
value is at present unknown. It is more abundant on the
fine wool breeds, which may scour off 60 per cent ^r a ore
oil and dirt, than on those with more open and Coarse
fleece, which may shrink only 25 per cent in scour-
ing. It is also found more on the front than on the hind
part of the body. If the fibers are uniformly oiled, there
is no danger of their becoming entangled or cotted. Some-
times oil gathers in flakes within the fleece, which is unde-
sirable, as indicating uneven strength of fiber. The oil
in the fleece is important, as imparting durability, softness

THE FLEECE AND ITS EXAMINATION 431

and brilliancy. A considerable amount of oil is highly de-
sirable in fine-wooled fleeces, and the point has been made4
that profitable fleece cannot be raised without a hirgr
amount of oil, that it promotes the growth of the wool,
and that those who have tried to dispense with it or ma-
terially reduce it in their flocks, have met with serious loss
of wool and a deterioration of strength, fineness and even-
ness of fleece. A deficiency of oil causes the staple to be
dry, harsh and weak, and the tendency will be to thinness
and coarseness of fiber. In view of these facts, it is im-
portant to emphasize an abundance of oil, especially with
the fine wool classes. Even with the mutton type the judge
should seek for an abundant and uniform distribution of
oil through the fleece.

The condition of the wool refers to the amount, char-
acter and distribution of the oil in the fleece, and the way
the wool responds when taken in the hand. Condition
also relates to the presence of foreign matter, such as chaff,
seeds, etc., and also kemp or gare. Some have used the term
"purity" as expressing the general condition and character
of fleece.

An examination of the fleece should be made system-
atically. Commencing at the head, and gradually working
toward the hindquarters, the judge should part the fleece
on the neck, shoulder, side, thigh, and note its quality,
length, density, presence of oil and condition. This is
easily done by standing at one side of the animal and ex-
amining the fleece along the opposite side. In case of breed-
ing sheep having wool over the forehead, then this part
should be examined to note the character of head covering.
At this point very coarse wool, or even hair, is often found,
especially at the more central point. The back wool may
be examined, but this should be done with much care, as
it is quite desirable to keep this covering closed as much as
possible, to avoid establishing openings for chaff, etc. Care-

* Special Report on the History and Present Condition of the Sheep Industry
of the United States, 1892, p. 314.

432

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 237. — "Careful inspection should be made over the belly and about the
armpits, and along the inside of the legs."

ful inspection should be made over the belly and about
the armpits, and along the inside of the legs, especially to
note the extent and quality of covering. Merino breeders
attach more importance to this underside inspection than
do owners of mutton sheep. During the entire process of
examination, break the fleece apart to the skin only be-
tween natural locks, using little force. There is no good
excuse for breaking apart an individual lock. It is a
matter of importance to examine the fleece without crushing
or flattening it out any more than is necessary for thorough
inspection.

CHAPTER XLI.

JUDGING BREEDING SHEEP.

IN the consideration of the form and function of the
sheep, up to this point but little reference has been made
to breeding animals. Within a certain breed or class, there
are many things in common among non-breeding and breed-
ing stock. However, the latter possess certain sexual char-
acteristics and features that are peculiar to breeding ani-
mals, and which breeders universally recognize as of vital
importance. Therefore, while judging breeding stock, it
is necessary to have these things in mind. Judges may
differ somewhat in their estimates of relative values, but
all will agree on the necessity of recognition of certain
features as requiring special emphasis in selecting or judg-
ing breeding animals. Each sex must receive special con-
sideration, for males and females cannot be consistently
judged in the same class.

(A)— JUDGING THE RAM.

The sex character of the ram is of the first importance.
This is especially seen in the head, neck, withers, sexual
organs, fleece and general conformation. The head should
be comparatively large, short, strong and wide over the
nose, broad and full at the forehead, and in case of the
horned breeds, with large, strong horns of excellent quality.
One of the most distinctive features of the male is the thick-
ness of nose, with a slightly arched or Roman character.
Frequently slight wrinkles are found here ; in fact this is
a requisite character of the Merino male. This is not so
marked in the young males, becoming more and more ap-
parent with maturity. The ears of the males are also
larger and thicker than on females or non-breeding sheep.
The ram should carry his head in bold, upstanding fashion,

433

434

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

as becoming a herd leader, with his sex plainly manifested.
A ram lacking in this respect should be severely discrimi-
nated against by the judge. Too much coarseness of head is
to be avoided, as suggesting a coarse type of sire. The
neck should be strong and muscular, with some thickness
on top. A grasp of the neckr where joining head and
shoulders, will reveal to the hand the sexual character
there. A strong neck should join bold and somewhat prom-

Fig. 238. — "The head should be comparatively large, short, strong and
wide over the nose, broad and full at the forehead."

inent withers, these two indicating strength of constitution.
More prominence of withers is expected with rams of Me-
rino breeding than the mutton class, but even here this
character should be somewhat prominent, though when in
condition, smoothly covered. The testicles of the ram
should consist of a pair of glands uniformly developed and
strongly held within what is commonly known as the purse
or sac. It is important that the purse have some contrac-
tion of skin above the glands, and that it be well defined,

JUDGING BREEDING SHEEP 435

with a minimum of condition. A thick, fat neck of the tes-
ticles is uually associated with fatty degeneration. A fat
purse also suggests sterility, and is a common char-
acteristic of non-breeding rams. The fleece of the ram
should be somewhat coarse or "strong," as expressed
by the wool man. A relatively fine fleece on the ram
may indicate deficiency of constitution or femininity.
The general conformation of the ram shows fullness and
boldness in front as a whole, with masculinity the predom-
inating feature. The sex character is also very manifest
in the temperament, many rams being combative and given
to a free use of the head in the attempt to master other
males in the flock. Merino rams are especially given to
butting, and frequently require special treatment to keep
them under control, such as blindfolding or placing in sep-
arate pens.

The breeding capacity of the ram is of great importance.
He should possess the various necessary qualities of sex,
but, more, should have a strength of back and depth of
body that will be transmitted to all progeny intended for
breeding purposes. This quality is not easily determined
and, in fact, must be largely estimated.

The size of the ram should depend upon breed and class.
Quality is very essential. Considerable size is popular with
many, but is not a necessity. One of the most noted
breeders in England informed the writer that the greatest
success in breeding in his flock had come from the smaller
rather than the larger rams. Hawkesworth gives prefer-
ence to a "big good one" over a "little good one," but con-
siders a ram of intermediate size will generally prove the
most satisfactory sire.1 In judging, extremes in size may
be regarded with disfavor, other things being equal. A
large, coarse ram, however, is subject to more criticism
than is one somewhat under size, yet showing much quality.

The form of the ram has already been referred to under
the heading of special sex characters. In general, the ram

1 Australian Sheep and Wool, 1906, p. 135.

436 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

should show a frame of the best sort, supported on strong
limbs and feet. This is an evidence of vigor and should
be associated with a deep, full heart girth and a prominent
brisket, features indicating strong constitution. The ram
should be short-coupled and, if of the mutton type, tend
to compactness of form rather than too much length.
There is also a sense of the massive in the male that does
not prevail in the female, the various parts being developed
on a stronger and heavier scale. A ram with a conforma-
tion lacking this masculine character would not prove an
attractive sort for a sire.

Breed character in the ram is of paramount importance.
In this day of improved breeds there is no excuse for
using anything but a pure bred ram. The judge should
emphasize breed character as seen in the various features
to be found in good individuals of a breed. It is most im-
portant that one be familiar with these characteristics.
The striking differences in the heads of the Merino, Shrop-
shire, Cotswold or Cheviot show the need of familiarity
with each, if the judge is to be capable of passing in judg-
ment. In selecting a sire, or in passing on a ring of sires,
preference should be given to such as show the most true-
ness to breed type.

(B)— JUDGING THE EWE.

The sex character of the ewe is especially seen in the
head, neck and breast, and udder. The head is much
smaller and more refined than in case of the ram. The
muzzle and nose should be free of thickness and coarseness,
although a Roman type of nose prevails in some breeds
and is no evidence of coarseness. The eyes are smaller and
more placid than with the male, and the forehead shows
the refinement of the sex. The neck is more slender, lacks
in thickness on its upper side, and is not so strongly muscled
as a whole. The chest cavity of the female lacks the spread
of the male, with the associated width of brisket and
withers and heaviness of shoulder. The udder of the ewe

JUDGING BREEDING SHEEP

437

consists of two glands, side by side, each of which has one
teat. These glands should be of equal size and in normal
condition. The udder should be closely attached at the
belly, and should not be very pendant, even during lacta-
tion.

The breeding capacity of the ewe is manifested in the
depth and spring of rib, in the length and position of rump,
and development of udder. The breeding ewe should have
considerable depth of body, and the udder should be well
developed and in perfect condition. Length of body is also
an indication of breeding capacity, the short, close-coupled
ewe lacking in this respect.

The size of the ewe in most favor varies from medium
to large, associated with plenty of quality. The tendency
among present day breeders is to call for size, especially
in the female. Large, symmetrical, matronly looking ewes,
with quality, always command a premium, and the judge
should give them preference. The undersized ewe is
usually an unsatisfactory breeder and is far too common in
the flock.

Fig. 239. — "Large, symmetrical, matronly looking ewes, with quality,
always command a premium." Southdown ewe and her seven months' old
lamb.

438 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The form of the ewe has been likened to a dairy cow.
The withers are somewhat narrow, the chest is deep, yet
hardly thick, the back of moderate thickness, the loin strong,
the rump long, level, wide and the entire body deep and
relatively capacious, showing both digestive and breeding
capacity. A ewe with the wide, square, compact form of
a wether, is less likely to make a good suckling ewe than
the one described. The quality of milk production, essen-
tial in a breeding ewe, is indicated in this long, deep form,
and the well-developed udder.

The breed characteristics of the ewe should be consid-
ered when judging breeding stock, but if grade animals are
being passed upon then the subject is not so important as
in the case of the ram. The pure bred ewe should show
breed character quite in keeping with the standard, and
should be judged accordingly. Even with the grade ewe,
there is more evidence of profit in the one showing plenty
of improved blood than in the one of nondescript char-
acter. Other things being equal, grade ewes showing con-
siderable breed character will command a higher price than
will those lacking in this respect. Trueness to type of
breed, then, may be regarded as an important factor in
making awards in judging pure breds, while, in the grade,
a reasonable degree of consideration should be given to im-
proved blood.

CHAPTER XLII.

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES OF THE MORE IMPORTANT
BREEDS OF SHEEP.

THE various breeds of sheep, of which, there are many,
may be classified in general according to their character of
fleece and their relationship to mutton production. The
ordinary classification has already been explained on page
374. The following descriptions are intended to set forth
the more distinctive characteristics of the various breeds,
without going into unnecessary detail. The standard and
scale of points, being official information on the subject,
are, when possible, made a part of each breed description.

The Southdown breed of sheep was first developed in
southeast England, in Sussex county. It is one of the old-
est and best-known breeds. The face, ears and legs are
very dark reddish-brown in color, with a tendency to gray-
ish brown on the face. In size South downs rank as medium,
though many mutton breeders think them too small. Ma-
ture rams will no doubt average about 175 pounds, and
the ewes about 185 pounds. In conformation, specimens
of this breed represent the highest ideals in mutton form,
being short of head and neck, wide of breast and back,
thick and full in leg of mutton, deep of body, short of leg,
and generally compact of body. This is a hornless breed,
and the -head tends to be short and wide. The ears are
small and covered with short wool or silky hair. The flesh
covering is usually smooth and of superior quality. The
yield of fleece is somewhat light ; five pounds might be
regarded as a fair average, with a length of staple of about
two and one-half inches, and of medium quality. The two
important criticisms of the breed are lack of size, and the
light weight of fleece.

439

440

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Fig. 240. — Southdown ram, champion at Louisiana Purchase Exposition,
St. Louis, 11)04.

SCALE OF POINTS FOE SOUTHDOWN SHEEP.

(Adopted by American Southdown Sheep Association.)

Points

Head — Medium in size and hornless, fine, carried well up, the forehead
or face well covered with wool, especially between the ears and on
the cheeks, and in the ewe slightly dished

Lips and under jaw — Fine and thin

Ears — Rather small, tolerably wide apart, covered with fine hair, and
carried with a lively back-and-forth movement

Eyes — Full and bright

Face — A uniform tint of brown, or gray, or mouse color

Neck — Short, fine at the head, but nicely tapering, and broad and
straight on top at the shoulders

Shoulders — Broad and full, smoothly joining the neck with the back . .

Breast — Wide, deep and projecting well forward, the forelegs standing
wide apart

Back — Back and loin broad and straight from shoulders to rump . . . .

Ribs — Well arched, extending far backward, the last projecting more
than the others

Bump — Broad, square and full, with tail well set up

Hips — Wide, with little space between them and last ribs

Thighs — Full and wgll let down in twist, the legs standing well apart . .

Limbs — Short and fine in bone, and in color to agree with face . . . .

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 441

Points

Forelegs — Well wooled and carrying mutton to the knees, but free from

meat below 2

Hindlegs — Well filled with mutton, and wooled to the hocks; neat and

clean below 2

Belly — Straight and covered with wool, the flank extending so as to form

a line parallel with the back or top line 5

Fleece— Compact, the whole body well covered with moderately long and

close wool, white in color, carrying some yolk 12

Form — Throughout smooth and symmetrical, with no coarseness in any

part 9

General appearance — Spirited and attractive, with a determined look, a

proud and firm step, indicating constitutional vigor and breeding 8

Total . .

The Shropshire breed of sheep originated in the counties
of Shropshire and Stafford, in western England. This is
a hornless breed of the medium wool class. The color of
the hair of face, ears and legs is a dark brown, often ap-

Fig. 241. — Shropshire ram. "His Imperial Majesty," breed champion Ohio
State Fair, 1911. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

442 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

preaching black. In size, the Shropshire is somewhat
larger than the Southdown, mature rams weighing 200
pounds and ewes 150 to 160 pounds. The better specimens
of the breed are characterized by certain distinctive features.
The head is covered with a heavy cap of wool, extending
near to the nostrils as with a Merino. This feature is more
pronounced than with other mutton breeds. The ears tend
to be short and broad, and covered with fine hair, or short,
curly wool. The legs should be wooled to the ankle joints,
and in case of lambs, the wooling should be very, marked.
The form is distinctly mutton in type, though not so wide of
back and short of leg as the Southdown. The fleece com-
bines length, compactness, fineness of staple, and general
quality to a degree superior to that of any other mutton
breed. In good specimens the shoulder wool, at twelve
months is about three and one-half inches long, the fleece as
a whole weighing about eight pounds. The skin of the
Shropshire is not always uniformly pink in color, there
being a tendency to bluish spots on the natural pink. The
great popularity of the breed is due to its combining mut-
ton and wool qualities and unusual fecundity. It is the
most universally bred of any of the mutton breeds.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR SHROPSHIRE SHEEP.

(Adopted by the American Shropshire Sheep Breeders' Association.)

Points

General appearance — Attractive, indicating breeding and quality, with
stylish carriage, and a symmetrical form covered with a dense
fleece 25

Constitution — Robust, as indicated by width and depth of chest, strength

and formation of neck, and by bold, active movement 10

Size — In breeding condition when fully matured, rams should weigh not
less than 180 to 225 pounds, and ewes not less than 125 to 170
pounds 10

Fleece and skin — Fleece of good length, dense, elastic to touch, medium
fine, free from black fiber, slightly crimped, with evenness of texture
throughout; scrotum of rams well covered with wool. Skin light
cherry color, free from dark spots 15

Body — Well proportioned, with shoulders well placed, fitting smoothly
upon the chest, which should be deep and wide, broad and straight
back; thick loins well covered with firm flesh; hindquarters well
finished ; twist deep and full 20

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP

1 i:i

Points

Head and neck — Head short, broad between the ears and eyes, bold
and masculine in rams, without horns, well covered with wool, ears
short and erect, eyes bright, color of face and ears dark brown.
Neck of medium length, strong and muscular (especially in rams),
symmetrically joined to head and shoulders. Rams with horns or

stubs are disqualified as heads of flocks . . . . 15

Legs — Well set apart, broad, short, straight, color dark brown, and well

wooled; pasterns strong and upright 5

Total

100

The Oxford Down breed of sheep originated in Oxford-
shire, in southern England, dating back to 1833. This
breed, in its improved form, resembles the Shropshire. It
is hornless and of the medium wool class. The color, as

Pig. 242. — Oxford Down ram owned by G. W. Heskett of Ohio.

shown in the hair of head, ears, and legs, is a dark brown.
Years ago gray faces occurred, but at present the demand
is for dark color, though a touch of gray may occur on the
bridge of the nose. In size the Oxford Down is one of the
large breeds, and mature rams should weigh, when in good

444 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

flesh, 275 pounds or more, and ewes close to 200 pounds.
In form, the Oxford Down shows considerable width and
depth of body, with a fair leg of mutton. The wool does
not usually cover the head much below the forehead, though
the tendency is to breed to wool more heavily on the head.
The ears are comparatively large and generally free of
wool, and are much more conspicuous than in the South-
down or Shropshire. The legs, also, are not as a rule much
wooled below knees and hocks. The skin is frequently
bluish pink or mottled in color, rather than of uniform
pink. The fleece -combines length of staple and weight in a
superior degree, but inclines to be somewhat open, with ten-
dency to a coarse fiber. A year's growth of fleece should
weigh 10 pounds or more, and show a length at the shoulder
of about four inches.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR OXFORD DOWN SHEEP.

(Adopted by the American Oxford Down Sheep Breeders' Association.)

Points
BREED TYPE, 30 Points:

Form — Of a good general appearance, made by a well-balanced con-
formation, free from coarseness in any part, and showing good

style both at rest and in motion 15

Head — Of moderate length and width between the ears and between
the eyes, and well covered with wool over poll and down to the
eyes. Color of face an even dark gray or brown, either with or

without gray spot on tip of nose 6

Bams — When fully matured and in good condition rams should weigh
250 to 350 pounds. Ewes — When fully matured and in good

condition, ewes should weigh 180 to 275 pounds 5

Ears — Medium size, not too thick and of an even brown or dark

gray color . . 2

Legs — Short, strong in bone, flat, and of even dark gray or brown

color, placed squarely under the body and well apart 2

CONSTITUTION, 25 Points:

Heart Girth — Large and wide and full in the chest 10

Movement — Must be bold and vigorous 5

Eyes — Bold, prominent and bright 4

Skin — Bright pink in color 3

Neck — Strong and muscular in rams and well set on in both sexes . . 3
MUTTON FORM AND QUALITY, 30 Points:

Shoulders, back, loin and rump — Wide and straight on top from base

of neck to tail 35

Shoulders and thighs — Full and well meated both inside and outside 5
Flanks — Well filled and strong so as to make the lower lines of the

body as straight as possible, and side lines straight or rather full . . 4
Carcass — Evenly covered with good, well marbled meat 6

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP

445

WOOL, 15 Points:

Fleece — Of moderate length, close and of even quality, covering the

whole carcass well, and free from black patches upon the body,

neck or head . 15

Total

100

The Hampshire breed of sheep originated in Hampshire,
in southern England. This is a large, hornless breed. The
color of the hair on head, ears and legs is a very dark

Fig. 243. — Hampshire ram, champion at Ohio State Fair.

brown, almost black in shade. In size the Hampshire ranks
among the largest medium wool breeds, mature rams weigh-
ing about 250 pounds and ewes from 175 to 200 pounds.
Among the most distinctive characteristics of individuals of
the breed are the following: the head is somewhat large,
with a tendency to Roman nose ; the ears are large, bare of
wool, conspicuous, and often of droopy carriage ; the wool
extends but a slight distance over the forehead, so that the

446 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

very dark markings of head and ears give a striking per-
sonality. The frame of the animal is large and long, and
the limbs show heavy bone in comparison with Southdown
or Shropshire. The fleece is long, fairly compact, and of
the coarser medium wool character, ranging about four
inches in length and having a weight for twelve months'
growth of about eight pounds.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HAMPSHIRE DOWN SHEEP.

(Adopted by the American Hampshire Down Sheep Breeders' Association.)

Standard of Excellence.

HEAD AND LEGS:

Head — Moderately large, but not coarse, well covered with wool on fore-

head and cheeks.
Nostrils— Wide.

Color — (Head and legs) : Dark brown or black.
Eyes — Prominent and lustrous.

Ears — Moderately long and thin, and dark brown or black color.
Legs — Well under outside of body, straight, with good size of bone; black.

NECK, SHOULDERS AND CHEST:

Neck — A regular taper from shoulders to head, without any hollow in front

of shoulders, set high up on body.

Shoulders — Sloping, full, and not higher than the line of back and neck.
Chest — Deep and full in the heart place, with breast prominent and full.
BODY:

Back — Straight, with full spring of rib.

Loin — Wide and straight, without depression in front of hips.

Quarters — Long from hips to end of rump, without sloping, and deep

in thigh. Broad in hips and rump, with full harns. Inside of thighs

full.

Scale of Points.

Head — Size and shape
Ears and eyes
Color

Points
5
3
5

Legs and feet

Neck . .

Shoulders

Chest and breast
Body — Back and loin

15
15

Rib
Quarters — Length

Width
Twist

10
5

Wool — Forehead and cheeks

Belly well covered

Quality

Total ................ . 100

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHKK1' 447

The Dorset Horn breed of sheep has its native home in
Dorset and Somerset counties, in southern England. It is,
as indicated by its name, a horned breed of sheep, and is
of the medium wool class. The color of the hair of head,
ears and legs is white. The horns are the striking char-
acteristic of this breed, those on the mature rams curving

Fig. 244. — Dorset Horn ram, owned by Tranquility Farm, New Jersey
champion at Ohio State Fair.

backward and around spirally, being of large size, while
those of the female, which are comparatively small, curve
outward, down and slightly forward, with the tips rising
about level with or slightly above the eyes. This is a
medium-sized breed, mature males weighing about 225
pounds, and females about 165 pounds. The neck and
body of the Dorset Horn tend to be somewhat long, and

448 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the spring of rib is frequently not as strong as it should be.
The fleece is one of the weak features of this breed, lacking
under ordinary condition in length, compactness, weight
and quality. Mature rams shear about nine and the ewes
about six pounds of wool.

SCALE OF POINTS FOB DORSET HORNED SHEEP.

(Adopted by the American Dorset Horned Sheep Breeders' Association.)

Points
Head — Neat, face white, nostrils large, well covered on crown and under

jaw with wool 5

Horns — Small and gracefully curving forward, rather close to jaw . . 5

Eyes — Prominent and bright 2

Ears — Medium size, covered with short white hair 2

Neck — Short, symmetrical, strongly set on shoulders, gradually tapering

to junction of head 5

Shoulders — Broad and full, joining neck forward, and chine backward,

with no depression at either point (important) 15

Brisket — Wide and full, forward, chest full and deep 8

Foreflank — Quite full, showing little depression behind shoulder . . . . 8
Back and loin — Wide and straight, from which ribs should spring with a

fine, circular arch . . 10

Quarters — Wide and full, with mutton extending down to hocks . . . . 10

Belly — Straight on under line 3

Fleece — Medium grade, of even quality presenting a smooth surface and

extending over belly and well down on legs 12

General conformation — Of the mutton type, body moderately long; short,
stout legs, squarely placed under body ; skin pink ; appearance at-
tractive 15

Total . 100

The Cheviot breed of sheep originated among the Cheviot
hills of the border country between England and Scotland,
though known as a Scotch breed. It is a medium wooled
sheep, and quite generally hornless, although horns occa-
sionally occur on the males. The color is entirely white,
excepting the bare flesh at the nostrils, which should be
blue black, although this part is frequently mottled in
color. The more popular and common color of the hoofs
is black. In size the Cheviot is medium, mature rams

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 449

weighing in good condition about 200 pounds, and the
ewes from 140 to 160 pounds. This breed is characterized
by the following distinctive features. The head and ears
should be free of wool, and covered with a hard, white,
glossy hair. Red or sandy hair occasionally appears, but
is very objectionable. Small black spots also sometimes
occur on the long, thin, erect ears, and on the head, but are
growing in disfavor. A Roman nose is common on the
rams, and on some ewes. The eye is prominent and bold.

Fig. 24H. — Pon of Cheviot rams of J. R. C. Smith, Mowhaugh, Scotland.

The body frequently lacks in thickness, and tends to nar-
rowness of chest, withers and back, compared with the
Southdown. The skin is very generally of a bright pink
color. The fleece is of medium length, lacks in compactness,
and is often somewhat coarse about the thighs. A twelve
months' fleece on a mature ram weighs about nine pounds,
while seven pounds is a fair weight for an improved ewe.
The Cheviot is notable for its style and grace of carriage,
being one of the most beautiful of breeds. It is very
nervous and active of temperament.

450 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

SCALE OF POINTS FOR CHEVIOT SHEEP.

(Adopted by the American Cheviot Sheep Society.)

Points

General conformation and quality — Deep and full breast and large through
chest. Back wide and straight with well sprung, deep ribs. Legs
well placed and leg of mutton full and thick. Body well fleshed,
skin pink with no blue or dark coloring. Fleece compact and
medium fine. Bone strong and fine. General appearance graceful,
symmetrical, active 20

Size — In good flesh, when fully matured, a 24-months' old ram should

weigh not less than 225 pounds and a ewe not less than 150 pounds 10

Head — Should be medium short and broad with ample breadth between
the eyes. Ears should be of medium length and usually erect when at
repose. Head covered with clear white hairs, extending from nostrils
to back of poll. Ridge of head from between eyes to nostrils
straight or slightly arched with females and more strongly arched
or Roman with rams. Color of tip of nose black 15

Body — Well proportioned, having notable depth, with thickness on top
and at flanks. Loins should be very broad and thick, shoulders
should set well back and be smoothly covered, and crops be full and
well arched. The rump should be long, broad and level . . . . 20

Legs — Should be short, well set apart and be covered with clean white
hair, with no wool below hocks and knees. The hind legs should be
flat and deep below hocks. Pasterns should be strong and not show
weakness, supporting the body well 10

Feet — Symmetrical, squarely placed when in repose and hoofs black in
^ color 5

Fleece — Should cover the body completely to behind the poll and ears,
and down to knees and hocks. Under part of the body should be
well covered. In mature animals should be not less than three inches
long foi* annual growth, and be compact and of medium wool class.
Rams should shear at least 12 pounds and ewes eight pounds when
in mature form, to be desirable representatives of the breed . . . . 20

Total 100

Objections: Scurs on the head; black spots on the head; flesh colored or
spotted skin about the nostrils; hair about the thighs or kemp on the
body, reddish or sandy hair on head or legs; lack of wool on under
part of body. Disqualifications: All male lambs shall be ineligible to
registration if having scurs or horns exceeding one inch in length.

The Suffolk breed of sheep originated in southeastern
England, especially in Suffolk county. It is a hornless,
medium wool breed. It is a very striking sheep in appear-
ance, on account of its black head, ears and legs. In size,
the Suffolk ranks above medium, being somewhat larger
than the Shropshire. The ram usually has a Roman nose.
The ears are large and tend to horizontal carriage. This

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHKKP

451

is a distinctive mutton breed, and is broad-fronted, wide,
of back, thick in the hindquarter, and short of leg. The
fleece is medium in length and compactness, and the staple
of fair quality. Wool does not usually cover the head,
ears, or legs below knee and hock. There are very few of
these sheep in America, but in England they are regarded
with favor for their excellent mutton character.

Tig. 246. — Suffolk ram, first and champion at Royal Agricultural
Society Show of England, 1914.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR SUFFOLK SHEEP.

(Adopted by the American Suffolk Flock Registry Association.)

Points

General appearance— Pleasing outline, good carriage, and symmetry of

development 7

General form — Large in size; inclined to he long in hody; medium
strength of bone; somewhat cylindrical in shape, and straight above,
below and in the rear

Head — Medium in size, inclining to be long and covered with fine, short,
glossy black hair to the junction with the neck; a small quantity
of clean white wool on the forehead is not objected to; muzzle
moderately fine, especially in ewes; eyes bright and full; ears of
medium length and fineness

1".

452 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points

Neck — Moderately long and well set, and blending well with the body,

with some crest in the rams 5

Forequarters — Well developed; breast wide, deep and full; brisket broad;
chest capacious, with good heart girth; shoulders broad, oblique and
Avell filled in the neck vein and crops; withers broad; arm well de-
veloped , . 15

Earrel — Roomy; back straight, broad and well fleshed throughout its
entire length; ribs well sprung and moderately deep; fore and hind
flanks full and deep 10

Hindquarters — Long, deep and full; tail, broad and well set up; buttock

broad; twist full; thigh broad and full 15

Feet and legs — Straight, of medium length with flat bone ; bare of wool

below knee and hock, glossy black in color, and set well apart . . 8

Fleece — Moderately short, with close, fine, lustrous fiber, and without
tendency to mat or felt together, or to shade into dark or gray
wool or hair, especially about the neck or tail. The fleece should
cover the whole body except the head and the legs below the knee
and hock; and the skin underneath it should be fair, soft and of a
pink -color 10

Total 100

The Tunis breed of sheep comes from ancestry tracing
back to an importation from Tunis to America, in 1799.
Tunis sheep have not been bred extensively in America,
and lack uniformity of character. It is a hornless, medium
wool breed. The color marks are variable. Some sheep
have reddish-brown heads, ears and legs, while with others
the colors are mottled brown and white, especially of head
and ear. The ears are large, broad and pendulous, and
covered with fine hair. In size, the Tunis is of the smaller
class of mutton sheep, rams at maturity weighing 150
pounds or more, and ewes 120 pounds. A peculiarity of
this sheep is its broad tail. At maturity it may measure
five inches or more in width, and maintains this breadth
for a length of six or eight inches from the tail-head. The
lambs are usually docked, so that the naturally conspicuous
character of tail is not seen, though the rump on this ac-
count is more full and heavier than with our other breeds.
The neck inclines to be long, but the body as a whole is of
fair mutton form. There is also a tendency to be somewhat
leggy. The fleece is of excellent quality, being fine, soft
and fairly compact, and averages about three inches in

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 453

Fig. 247. — Tunis ram, "Oon. McPherson" 1619, a noted sire of the breed.
(Photo by courtesy The American Sheep Breeder.)

length. The fleece varies in color, and reddish fibers fre-
quently occur among the white staple. The lambs when
dropped are of various colors : white, red, tawny, mottled,
but with age the fleece loses much of its mottled appearance.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR TUNIS SHEEP.

(Adopted by American Tunis Sheep Breeders' Association.)

Points

Blood — Imported from Tunis, or having a perfect line of ancestors ex-
tending back to the flock owned and bred by Judge Richard Peters,
of Belmont, near Philadelphia, who received the first pair from Tunis
in 1799, and bred them pure for more than 20 years 20

Constitution — Healthful countenance, lively look, head erect, deep chest,
ribs well arched, round body with good length. Strong, straight back;
muscles fine and firm 15

Fleece — Medium length, medium quality, medium quantity, color tinc-
tured with gray, never pure white. Evenness throughout . . . . 10

454 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points

Covering — Body and neck well covered with wool. Legs bare or slightly

covered; face free from wool and covered with fine hair 10

Form and tail — Body straight, broad, well proportioned. Small bone ;
breast wide and prominent in front. Tail — the little end should be
docked, leaving the fleshy part fan-shaped, or tapering; five to ten
inches broad, six or eight inches long, and well covered with wool 12

Head and ears — Head small and hornless, tapering to end of nose ; face
and nose clean, in color brown and white. Ears broad, thin, pen-
dulous, covered with fine hair; in color brown to light fawn . . . . 10

Neck — Medium in length, well placed on shoulders ; small and tapering 5

Legs— Short. In color brown and white; slightly wooled not objec-
tionable . . 6

Size — In fair condition, when fully matured, rams should weigh 150

pounds and upward; ewes, 120 pounds and upward 6

General appearance — Good carriage ; head well up ; quick, elastic move-
ments, showing symmetry of form and uniformity of character
throughout . . . . 6

Total 100

The Leicester breed of sheep originated in Leicestershire,
central England, being one of the older British breeds. It
is a hornless, distinctly white-faced breed. The head is a
notable feature of this breed. The nose is more or less
arching, the eye prominent, frequently a light tuft of wool
extends over the poll. Hard white hairs cover the face.
There is a bluish tint to the skin on the head. Black spots
also occur in a slight way on both head and ears. The
flesh at lips and nostrils should be black. The thin, long
ears, which are covered with white hair, are directed back-
ward and show much activity. The appearance of head, and
its animated, stylish carriage, quite suggests the Cheviot.
The Leicester is one of the larger breeds, and mature rams
will weigh from 225 to 250 pounds, and ewes from 175 to
200 pounds. The neck is short and not, as a rule, much
elevated. The body is wide of bosom, broad of back, and
the hindquarters often tend to narrowness. Leicesters, as
viewed from above, seem unusually wide, but from one side,
give evidence of lack of depth of rib. The legs which are
free of wool from knee and hock to the toes, impress one
as being somewhat long and fine of bone. The fleece is of
the long wool class, being quite curly, somewhat open, and

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP

455

Fig. 248. — Leicester sheep on pasture in Ireland.

averaging about six inches in length, and weighing about
nine or ten pounds. In the border country of England and
Scotland has been developed a type known as the Border
Leicester. This has a bolder carriage and style of head, and
is quite free of wool on the poll. The face af the Border
Leicester is a clear white. In carcass the latter is larger
and longer, the belly is not quite so full in outline, being
carried rather more lightly. The border sheep is also some-
what more leggy than the older type.

SCALE OF POINTS FOE LEICESTER SHEEP.

(Adopted by American Leicester Sheep Breeders' Association.)

Points
Head — Long, moderately small, tapering toward the muzzle; white and

well covered with hair; lips and nostrils black 6

Nose — Somewhat narrow, almost straight in ewes, and slightly Roman

in rams 2

Face — Having a wedge-shaped appearance, well covered with fine white

hairs .-. 2

456 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points
Ears — Thin, rather long, mobile and directed backward; a black speck

on face and ears not uncommon . . . . 2

Eyes — Large and prominent 4

Neck — Strong and moderately short, level with the back and broad at

the base where it leaves the chest, gradually tapering toward the

head, being fine where head and neck join; neck straight from chest,

showing a straight line from rump to poll 6

Breast — Deep, broad and full '8

Shoulders — Upright, wide across the top, giving good thickness through

the heart 6

Chest — Well filled behind the shoulder, with large girth 6

Back — Broad and well fleshed, ribs well sprung, loins wide, hips level,

quarters straight and long 12

Barrel — Round, well ribbed home, straight lines above and below . . . . 10
Legs — of moderate length, fairly large and wide apart, with strong flat

bone, covered with white hair; brown hair or spots objectionable 6

Flesh — Firm, springy pelt ; pink skin . . .... 8

Fleece — Fine, uniform and round in staple, curly, with good bright

luster, and no dark hairs or kemp, belly well covered •. . . 10

Carcass — Rectangular, legs well set on, hocks straight, pasterns good,

with neat feet, good general appearance 12

Total 100

The Cotswold breed of sheep originated in central south-
western England, in Gloucestershire. It is one of the very
old long wool breeds. The head is one of the striking fea-
tures, being hornless, and usually white, although gray or
brown frequently occurs. The tendency to a distinct Eoman
nose exists, especially with rams, and the nostrils are dark
in color. Curls or locks drop over the forehead, these
sometimes covering much of the face, especially on show
sheep where they have been protected. The ears are some-
what large and coarse, are covered with fine hair, and
heavily carried, quite in contrast with the Leicester. In
size this is a large breed, mature rams weighing 250 to
275 pounds and ewes 200 to 225 pounds. This sheep has a
very wide body, especially in front, and strong spring of
rib. There is a tendency to narrowness behind. The legs
are long, but heavy in bone, in comparison with the Leices-
ter. In fact, this is a grosser type of sheep in general.
The fleece consists of large, lustrous, curly locks, while those
on the Leicester are of a finer type. The fleece averages
about eight inches long at twelve months, and weighs about
10 pounds.

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP

457

Fig. 249. — Cotswold ram. first in class at Louisiana Purchase Exposition,
St. Louis, 1904. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

SCALE OF POINTS FOB COTSWOLD SHEEP.

(Adopted by American Cotswold Registry Association.)

Bam.

Points

Head — Not too fine, moderately small and broad between the eyes and
nostrils, but without a short, thick, appearance, and in young ani-
mals well covered on the crown with long, lustrous wool . . . . 8
Face — Either white or slightly mixed with gray, or white dappled with

brown 4

Nostrils — Wide and expanded; nose dark 1

Eyes — Prominent, but mild looking 2

Ears — Broad, long, moderately thin and covered with short hair . . . . 4
Collar — Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually all the way
to where the neck and head join. The neck should be short, thick
and strong, indicating constitutional vigor, and free from coarse and

loose skin 0

Shoulders — Broad and full, and at the same time joined so gradually to the
collar forward and chine backward as not to leave the least hollow
in either place . . . . • 8

458 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points
Forelegs — The mutton on the arm or fore thigh .should come quite to the

knee. Leg upright with heavy bone, being clear from superfluous

skin, with wool to fetlock, and may be mixed with gray . . . . 1
Breast — Broad and well forward, keeping the legs wide apart, girth or

chest full and deep 10

Fore flank — Quite full, not showing hollow behind the shoulders 5

Back and loin — Broad, flat and straight, from which the ribs must spring

with a fine circular arch ]'.>

Belly — Straight on underline . . . , 3

Quarters — Long and full, with mutton quite down to the hock . . . . G

Hock — Should stand neither in or out 2

Twist — Or junction inside the thighs; deep, wide and full, which, with

a broad breast, will keep the legs open and upright 5

Fleece — The whole body should be covered with long lustrous wool . . 18

Total 100

Ewe.

The standard and scale for the ewe is identical with that of the ram,

excepting in the following particulars:

Points

Head — Moderately fine, broad between the eyes and nostrils, but without
a short, thick appearance, and well covered on crown with long,
lustrous wool . . 8

Collar — Full from breast and shoulders, tapering gradually all the way to
whore the neck and head join. The neck should be fine and graceful
and free from coarse or loose skin 5

Fore flank — Same standard as for ram, but points 5

Belly — Same standard as for ram, but points 3

The Lincoln breed of sheep originated in Lincolnshire,
in eastern England, and is a very old breed of the hornless,
long-wooled sort. The prevailing color of face, ears and
legs is white, but gray shading frequently occurs on the
nose. This is one of the largest of breeds, mature rams
averaging, in good flesh, 275 pounds, and ewes about 250
pounds. Characteristic features of the Lincoln are a large,
white-faced head, slightly capped with wool ; dotted or mot-
tled ears ; a wide breast, broad back and general thickness ;
strong limbs and heavy bone ; and a coarse, long, curly,
lustrous wool. The fleece may attain an average length
of about eight inches and weigh approximately 15 pounds.
The locks on the Lincoln have a larger, coarser curl than
on the Leicester.

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP

459

Fig. 250. — Lincoln ram "Dowsby 350 Guineas," first prize, Royal Agri-
cultural Society of England Show.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR LINCOLN SHEEP.

(Adopted by American Lincoln Sheep Breeders' Association.)

Points
Constitution — Body deep, back wide and straight; wide and full in thigh;

bright, large eyes; skin soft and of a pink color

Size — Mature rams not less than 250 poundsi, when in good condition.

Matured ewes not less than 200 pounds 10

Appearance — Good carriage and symmetry of form 10

Body — Well proportioned, good bone and length; broad hindquarters;

legs standing well apart ; breast wide and deep

Head — Should be covered with wool to the ears; tuft on forehead; eyes

expressive ; ears fair length ; dotted or mottled in color . . . . 10

Neck — Medium length ; good muscle ; well set on body 5

Less — Broad and well set apart; good shape; color white, but some

black spots do not disqualify ; wooled to the knees 10

Fleece — Of good even length and quality over body; not less than 8 inches

long for one year's growth 10

Quality of wool — Rather fine, long wool; strong, lustrous fiber; no ten-
dency to cot 5

Total.. 10°

460 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The Bomney Marsh breed of sheep originated on the
low-lying meadows of county Kent, in eastern England.
This is a pure white, hornless breed. On these lowlands
Eomneys are said to be comparatively free from foot-rot.
The head is covered with hard, white hair up to the forehead,
which is tufted over with short wool. The nose has a Roman
tendency and the nostrils are black in color. The muzzle

Fig. 251. — Romney Marsh ram, a winner at the Royal Agricultural Society
of England Show. (Photo by courtesy American Sheep Breeder.)

has a bluish tint. The ears are of a medium size, and more or
less covered with wool. In size, the mature rams weigh
about 200 pounds, and the ewes 140 to 160 pounds. This
breed has been improved considerably in recent years, and
to-day is a fairly thick, compact type of sheep, with con-
siderable width of back and depth of rib, and carrying a
heavy leg of mutton. The fleece is of the long wool class

MORE IMPORTANT BREEDS OF SHEEP 461

of the finer sort, somewhat open, and weighs about eight
pounds under average conditions. There are but a few
of these sheep in America, an effort having been made,
however, in recent years to introduce them on the western
range.

The American Merino (or Spanish Merino) is a sheep of
Spanish ancestry, the characteristics of which are set forth
in the discussion of the Class A Merino, which is the same
thing. There are various families of these sheep, but they
all possess the same general features, and their blood is
more or less intermingled.

The Delaine Merino is of American breeding, but de-
scended from sheep imported from Spain early in the nine-

FJg. 252. — Rambouillet ram "Altamont," champion at the International
Live Stock Exposition, 1905. (Photo by courtesy Mr. George Truesdell.)

402 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

teenth century. Delaine Merinoes may be either of Class B
or C type, the descriptions of which have already been given
in detail.

The Rambouillet breed of sheep is a Merino of the De-
laine type, but of French ancestry. The differences be-
tween the Rambouillet and Class C Merino in color mark-
ings, conformation, size and fleece are very slight. In
fact, the blood of the French Merino in times past has been
mingled more or less with the Delaine. During recent
years of breeding, the Rambouillet has been bred to some-
what greater size, but even then the difference is not always
marked. The Rambouillet rams will average about 185
pounds at maturity, and the ewes 150 pounds or slightly
more. The fleece at one year of age is usually three inches
long, of fine, soft quality, carrying a moderate amount of
oil, and weighing about fifteen pounds as taken from ma-
ture rams, and ten pounds from ewes. Rambouillet sheep
vary considerably in type, ranging from Class B to Class C
in form and fleece character. At the Ohio State Fair,
Rambouillet sheep have been exhibited in two general
classes, B and C, on the same general basis that Merino
sheep are given these two type classifications.

CHAPTER XLIII.

THE ANGORA GOAT.

The native home of the Angora goat is the province of
Angora, in Asia Minor, some 200 miles south by southeast
from Constantinople.. Many years ago some goats were
brought to America under the name of Cashmere, that are
now known to have been true Angoras.

The characteristics of the Angora goat, of the more im-
proved type, are as follows : The color is pure white. The
Angora is somewhat smaller than the common short-haired
goat, the bucks weighing from 60 to 100 pounds, and the
does about 50 pounds. The two most striking features of
this goat are the head and the fleece. The head is fine,
the forehead being comparatively broad, the eyes bright
and fairly prominent, and the muzzle broad. The grayish,
flat-like horns are somewhat heavy on the male, and turn
back and twist outward and backward for 18 to 20 inches,
the tips being widely separated. The horns on the doe
show little twist, rise upward and then turn back, being
comparatively small. The thin, pointed ears average six
to eight inches in length, and about two in width, and are
what might be termed semi-pendant. The head should be
carried erect and with vigor. The body tends to be round,
and deep of rib, with comparatively level back. Width of
chest is emphasized as evidence of constitution. Angoras
frequently show narrow, droopy rumps, a very undesirable
conformation which judges should severely discriminate
against. Shortness of leg, strong bone, and well carried
pasterns are much to be desired. The short stub of tail
is usually carried rather erect. The usual color of the skin
is a bright pink.

463

464

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

The fleece of the Angora, commonly known as Mohair
in the market, is a class of hair differing from wool in having
no exterior scales of importance. The fleece is pure white
under natural conditions, and covers the entire body ex-
cepting the face, which is usually covered with hard, white
hair between the lower part of the forehead and nostrils.

Fig. 253. — Angora goat, "Lazarus," a noted champion. (Photo by courtesy
American Sheep Breeder.)

In fact, there are two classes of hair on the Angora, one
that is short and kempy, lying close to the skin, and the
other the mohair which occurs in wavy curls over the body,
attaining a length of about ten inches after a year's
growth. The locks should have their corkscrew-like curls
carried up close to the body. A wavy staple without much

THE ANGORA GOAT 465

curl is an evidence of coarseness. The fleece has a beautiful
lustre which gives to mohair cloth its attractive silky
character. This quality of lustre is one of the important
features of the fleece. A pure-bred Angora of good breed-
ing in a year will produce a fleece that will usually weigh
five or six pounds, inferior individuals shearing about half
that weight. In judging the Angora, special attention
should be given to uniformity in fineness and length of
staple, and to the prevalence of kemp, which is regarded
as highly undesirable. Kemp, either white or gray, is quite
common among Angoras, and seriously injures the value
of the fleece.

The following very unique standard and scale of points
gives no descriptive matter, but enables the judge to classify
certain features within three grades of merit, viz.: "extra
good," credited with 20 points; "good," credited with 14;
and "medium" credited with 8.

SCALE OF POINTS FOE THE ANGORA GOAT.

(AilopUMl by the American Angora (Joat Association.)

Extra

Good Good Medium

Points Points Points

Fineness and lustre of fleece 20 14 8

Quantity of fleece 20 14 8

Freedom from kemp 20 14 8

Size of bone, breadth and depth of carcass 20 14 8

Constitution and form 20 14 8

Total . 100 70 40

CHAPTER XLIV.

THE MILCH GOAT.

THE goat is widely used over the world as a source of milk
supply among the poorer people. Over much of continental
Europe Milch goats are a common sight in the market and
about the homes of people of limited means. There are
numerous breeds or kinds of goats used for this purpose,
but some are much greater producers of milk than are
others.

The judging of Milch goats at the present day, accord-
ing to Pegler,1 is largely based on a consideration of the
following features, in the order given: (1) milking quali-
ties; (2) size and shape; (3) quality and condition; (4)
color and markings.

The milking quali-
ties of the goat are
manifested in the
appearance of the
udder, and the rela-
tionship of its size,
form and quality to
the period of lacta-
tion. The form of
the udder as viewed
from behind should
be wide and deep,
pressing close
against the thighs.
The goat udder is

Fig. 254.— "The milking qualities of the goat distinctly pendant,
are manifested in the appearance of the udder." , , ' J^

(Photo by courtesy Orange Judd Company.) and has but two

1 The Book of the Goat. H. S. Holmes Pegler. Fourth edition. London,
1910, p. 276.

THK MILCH GOAT 407

teats, so from a side view one should not empha-
size length as in the case of a cow. The udder
should be comparatively large, but of superior qual-
ity, and this cannot be determined oftentimes without
first milking the goat. The udder should not be fleshy, but
should be mellow and elastic, and free from hardness or
lumps of any kind. The teats should be considered in re-
gard to their size, form, position on the udder and conveni-

ng. 255. — "Much the same conformation is sought as is found in the

dairy cow.''

ence of handling. They should be of comparatively large
size, long, cylindrical, and not too wedge-shaped. The teats
should be neatly suspended at the bottom of the udder,
so that they may be conveniently grasped and the goat
milked from the rear. Superfluous teats are undesirable,
as they are in the way, and if they yield milk, this is an
injury rather than a benefit. The ease with which the goat

468

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

milks is an important matter and this cannot be determined
unless the judge performs the operation. With some ani-
mals the milk flows freely, while it is drawn from others
with difficulty.

The size and shape of the Milch goat naturally have an
important relationship to production. Pegler states that
size carries but little recommendation, and that no judge

worthy the name
would think of plac-
ing a tall, leggy
goat, shallow of
frame and with a
small udder over an-
other, little more
than half its height
perhaps, showing a
good shape and a
large bag. "Size is
a quality affecting
kids and goatlings
rather than full-
grown goats, but as
we encourage it in
these immature ani-
mals we cannot alto-
gether ignore it when the same animals become fully de-
veloped. ' ' Much the same conformation is sought as is found
in the dairy cow. The type and style of head depends some-
what on the breed, but it should show much quality, be wide
at the forehead, and gracefully taper to the muzzle, Avith
preferably no beard. The neck should be slender ; the chest
wide ; the withers sharp ; the back long and level ; the body
deep ; the hip bones wide apart ; the rump long, wide and
level ; the thighs thin and widely arched between ; the legs
short and well carried. The goat naturally tends to have
a droopy and peaked rump, and the judge should discrim-

Fig. 256. — "The goat naturally tends to hnvo a
droopy and peaked rump."

THE MILCH GOAT

469

inate severely against this defect. "If there is a point on
which judges are apt to give exercise to their fancy/' says
Pegler, "it is in regard to horns. There is no doubt that
most breeders, whether acting as judges or buyers, give
preference (other points being about equal) to a goat with-
out horns ; but if these ornaments, as some consider them,
are present, they should undoubtedly be small and slender
rather than coarse and heavy. Sharp-pointed horns rising

Fig. 257. — A Saanen goat on pasture in Switzerland.

perpendicularly from the head, are decidedly objectionable
from a practical point of view, as they are unquestionably
in some degree dangerous. The best shaped, in the writer's
opinion, are those which lie close to the head, curving back
like the horns in some sheep."

Quality and condition with the Milch goat are important
factors, especially quality. This is shown in neatness of
form, fineness of bone, in a close, glossy coat of soft, fine

470

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

hair, and in a thin, mellow hide. Quality has an important
influence in securing success where real merit is concerned.
Condition indicates the degree of flesh and bloom, and this
will, of necessity, influence the judge more or less. It does
not, however, affect the intrinsic merit of an animal. Other

Fig. 258. — Toggenburg buck "Crown Prince." (Photo by
courtesy Prof. F. K. Cooke of Illinois.)

things being equal, the animal showing the best condition
should receive preference.

The color and markings of Milch goats have very little
bearing upon the exhibits, unless in a special breed class.
Excepting with certain Swiss breeds, goats are not usually
judged from a breed point of view. Color is purely a mat-
ter of taste or fancy.

THi; MILCH GOAT

471

The Saanen breed of Milch goats comes from the valley
of that name in Switzerland, though widely distributed in
that country to-day. It is the largest Swiss breed, is pure
white or creamy white in color, and usually hornless. It is
very attractive, having breedy looking heads, slender
necks, full chest;-!, sharp withers, strong backs, deep
bodies, and fairly wide and level rumps, and large udders

Fiji. 259. — Toggenburg milch goat. (Photo by courtesy Mr. Will C. Clos.)

carried high. There are many excellent milkers of this
breed. Thompson gives a record of ten Saanen goats that
made annual records of from 423 to 951 quarts.

The Toggenburg breed of Milch goats is a native of
the Toggenburg valley, in Switzerland. This goat is a
medium brown in color, with a white band passing along
down each side of the face from eyes to mouth. The breed
is usually hornless. The head is broad of forehead, has

472 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

some dish of face, and the ears are of moderate size and
usually carried erect. The males have a coarse beard and
are rather more free of offensive odor than male goats of
other breeds. Toggenburgs differ in character of coat of hair,
some animals having rough, long coats, others short ones,
and still others, coats of a medium character. The udder
seems capable of great capacity. When full it is carried
high between the legs and has large, long teats. Many of
these goats produce from four to five quarts of milk a day,
while the best yield as high as seven quarts.

PART V.— JUDGING SWINE.

CHAPTER XLV.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOG.

The skeleton of the hog" is characterized by certain in-
teresting features. The skull varies considerably in length
and profile, that of the wild boar being long and slanting,
while some domestic breeds have very short skulls with a
deeply concave face. The frontal bone rises from the
center of the face into a high crest, while at the opposite
end, at the snout, between the nostrils, is a small prenasal
bone shaped like a three-sided prism. Perhaps the most
striking feature of the skeleton is the skull. Youatt makes
the following interesting reference to it and its special
purpose :J

* ' A very slight comparison of the face of this animal with
that of any other will prove that strength is the object in
view; strength toward the inferior part of the bone. In
point of fact, the snout of the hog is his spade, with which
in his natural state, he digs and grubs in the ground for
roots, earth nuts, worms, etc. And to render his implement
more perfect, an extra bone is added to the nasal bone.
This one is short and trificial and placed directly before
the nasal bones, with which, and with the edges of the an-
terior maxillary, it is connected by strong ligaments, car-
tilages and muscles. This bone has been termed the spade
bone, snout bone, and by some writers the vomer, from its
supposed resemblance to a plowshare. By it and its carti-
laginous attachments is the snout rendered strong as well

i The Pig, 1847, p. 78.

473

474 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

as flexible, and far more efficient than it could otherwise be ;
and the hog often contrives to give both farmers and gar-
deners very unpleasant proofs of its efficiency by plowing
up deep furrows in newly sown fields and grubbing up
the soil in all directions in search of his living and dead
food."

There are six short, wide and powerful cervical ver-
tebra?, 14 or 15 thoracic vertebrae, and six or seven lumbar
vertebrae The sacrum usually consists of four vertebra?
which, with age, become fused together, and there are from
20 to 26 vertebrae in the coccyx. There are 14 or 15 pairs
of ribs which have a strong curve in the improved breeds.
The thorax is longer and more barrel-shaped than in horse
or cattle. The shoulder blade (scapula) is quite wide and
has a considerable bony prominence on its face. The prin-
cipal leg bones are comparatively short and strong. The
bones of the feet, that is the metacarpal and metatarsal
bones, are in four sets. The hog stands on the two larger
central toes, while two smaller ones, known by stockmen
as the ' ' dew claws, ' ' are behind and slightly elevated above
the level of the middle toes.

The teeth of the hog number 44, there being in each jaw
14 molars, six incisors and two canines. The molars in-
crease in size from front to rear. The incisors are small
and have a very slanting position in the lower jaw. The
upper incisors are somewhat curved. The canine teeth
are curved and long, mature boars having tusks that are
very powerful and sharp. The lower canines in the boar
sometimes reach a length of eight inches or more.

Determining the age of swine by means of the teeth is
not easy, neither is it necessary under ordinary conditions.
In fact the mouth of the hog is less easily examined than is
that of other domestic animals. If one wishes to examine
the mouth, the best method is to place a slip-noose about the
upper jaw, drawing it fairly tight, and fastening the other
end of the rope to a post. The hog will pull back, squealing
hard, with the mouth open, under which conditions the teeth

476 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

can be examined. The following very clear statement of age
of teething in swine, is by Dr. D. Mclntosh.2

"At birth, the young pig has eight teeth — four tem-
porary incisors and four temporary tushes ; about the tenth
day appear the second and third temporary molars ; at one
month, four incisors are out, two in the upper and two in
the lower jaw ; about the sixth week, the temporary foremost
molars are visible ; at three months, two more are added to
each jaw; at this period all the milk teeth are in position.
Time is then allowed for the jaws and teeth to grow, and at
six months, in the majority of pigs, a small tooth comes up
on either side of the lower jaw, behind the temporary tushes,
between them and the molars; and in the upper jaw,
directly in front of the molars ; at six months, the fourth
molar appears through the gums ; at nine months the corner
incisors are displaced and permanent ones make their
appearance. The permanent tushes are also cut at this time,
and the fifth molar on each side of both jaws makes its
appearance. At one year the middle incisors are replaced
by permanent ones, and by this time the tushes are of a
considerable size ; at this period the temporary incisors are
shed and replaced by permanent ones ; at eighteen months,
in most pigs, dentition is complete, as the lateral incisors
and the sixth molar are up."

The stomach of the hog has a capacity of about one and
a half to two gallons. Sisson states3 that its left part is
large and rounded, while the right part is small, and bends
sharply upward to join the small intestine. There is a large,
blind pouch in the upper end of the stomach, the diverticu-
lum ventriculi. The stomach of the hog is much more
simple than that of the ox or sheep.

The intestine of the hog is about fifteen times the length
of the body, the small part being from 50 to 65 feet long
and the larger 12 to 15 feet long.

The liver is relatively large, weighing about four pounds

2 Diseases of Swine, 1897, p. 22.

8 The Anatomy of the Domestic Animals, 1914, p. 483.

THE ANATOMY OF THE HOG

477

in the mature animal. The h«irl is small, usually
less than a pound. 'Pile /.-/V///r//,si are smooth and
shaped, about twice as long as broad. The bladder is thin
and has considerable capacity.

The skin of the hog in the improved breeds varies in
character, and ranges in thickness from one to two milli-
meters (.04 — .08 inch). The sebaceous glands in the skin,
according to Sisson, are small, and not so abundant as with
most other animals, while the sweat glands, to the contrary,
are large, yellow or brownish in color, and may often be
seen with the naked eye. The exterior layer of the skin is
much tougher and denser than with other domestic animals,
and contains many large pores. Numerous fine blood ves-
sels, capillaries and nerves extend through the delicate
under layer of skin. Eeferring to the quality of the skin,
Youatt states 4 that in some of the large, old breeds it is
thick, coarse, tough and almost as impenetrable, in compari-
son, as the hide of a rhinoceros ; while in many of the smaller
breeds, and particularly in those which have a considerable
admixture of Asiatic blood, and in the Chinese pigs them-
selves, it is soft, fine and delicate, and bears no slight degree
of resemblance to the skin of a human being.

The hair of the hog is quite variable, according to the in-
dividual, or to the
part of the body on
which it grows. The
coarsest, heaviest
hairs are found
along the back over
the spine, and espe-
cially over the neck
and shoulders.
These hairs are
known as bristles,
and in the case of
male hogs, they

Fig. 261. — "Some individuals have coats of
curly hair." This is a Lincolnshire Curly Coated
pig, a British breed.

< The Pig, 1847, p. 107.

478 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

are sometimes raised more or less erect in time of anger
or excitement. The bristles are often very coarse and long
especially on boars of large size that show much masculinity.
The finer, softer hair is found along the sides of the body.
There is considerable range of difference in the character of
the hair, even in case of the same breed. Some individuals
have coats of curly hair, but this is not popular among
producers of pure-bred swine, the straight, smooth coat be-
ing preferred. Occasionally on a hog, the hair on the back,
at some spot not over two or three inches in diameter, will
be more or less awry or twisted, forming what is known as
a swirl among stockmen. While the swirl is of no special
significance, breeders of pure-bred stock discriminate
against it, and sell animals having this peculiarity for less
money than they otherwise would. The hair about the
head is also often coarse, short and wiry.

CHAPTER XL VI.

THE PORK CARCASS AND ITS CUTS.

To be able to judge swine intelligently, it is necessary lo
understand into what the carcass of the hog, as a product of
the feeder's art, may be transformed in its final analysis.
The average man knows that from the carcass of the hog
are taken hams, pork chops, spare ribs, etc., but he little
knows or cares for further information. The qualified
judge, however, understands that the carcass of the hog
cuts into parts of different values and for various domestic
uses. Further, he must learn, as a preliminary part. of the
study of animal form, that in order to have a carcass of
first quality and value, it is necessary to have a live animal
of first quality and high-class conformation. High-class
meat is a product of quality, and high-priced cuts come
from the parts that the intelligent breeder attempts to re-
produce in the highest degree of perfection.

The dressed carcass of the hog shows a smaller per cent
of waste than any other farm animal. Ordinarily, the hog
will dress out close to 80 per cent carcass and 20 per cent
offal for fattened stock. The older and more heavily fat-
tened, the greater the per cent of carcass to offal. In the
prize hog carcasses at one International Live Stock Ex-
position, the smallest per cent of carcass to offal was 83.2,
and the greatest 88.3 per cent. A record of 85 per cent
carcass and 15 per cent offal at an American hog carcass
show, is not at all remarkable. At the European shows,
such as the Smithfield of London, where the bacon type
prevails, the dressing out percentage is considerably Irs;
than the highest American records. The weights of carcass
vary greatly, but 160 to 250 pounds are popular, while ii1
the market desires lard, a still heavier weight up to 400

479

480 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

pounds gives a fat back and a high dressing out weight ii!
well fattened. Figures show that the hog has less waste in
killing than any other farm animal. The butcher in selling
the carcass, has much less waste than with either beef or
mutton, for as a rule he receives a good price for his extra
fat or leaf lard.

The wholesale cuts of the pork carcass especially in-
terest the student of animal conformation. He should be
familiar with these, where they come from and their relative
values. A knowledge of the retail cuts, while desirable, is
less necessary.

The pork carcass when ready for cutting up consists of
the body, legs, feet, head and ears, complete, less the internal
organs, excepting the kidneys. The body is split completely
through on the under line, from the tail to brisket. From
this point there is some slight difference in cutting, accord-
ing to the market classes and uses. However, in general
practice, the carcass is cut into two sides. Sometimes the
head is divided into two parts, and sometimes it is cut
off entirely at the neck.

The parts of the pork carcass are not many, and are
easily separated into their several groups. In the large
packing-houses, a common sight is to see a half of a dressed
hog drop from a floor above to a large chopping block, about
which stand three or four men with great cleavers attached
to axe-like handles. With one well-directed blow, each man
in turn strikes the carcass, so that in a trice the side before
them is neatly reduced to standard wholesale cuts, and
shoved on to be cared for by the sorters. The wholesale
parts of dressed hogs may be divided into the following
general classes : Hams, sides, bellies, backs, loins, shoulders,
tutts and plates, and miscellaneous.

The grading1 of pork cuts, says Prof. L. D. Hall,1 is more
complex than that of other meats since it involves not only
their quality, shape, proportions of fat and lean, and

1 Market Classes and Grades of Meats. Bull. 147, Illinois Agr. Exp. Station,
1910. This is a very valuable publication, beautifully and extensively illustrated.

Fig. 202. — "The sides of Hie hog carcass: 1, ham; 2, middle piece; 3,
belly piece; 4. shoulder; 5, Boston butt; 6, head. (Photo by courtesy
«',.lletf»» of Veterinary Medicine, Ohio State University.)

481

482 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

weight, but also the styles of cutting and methods of pack-
ing by which they are prepared for different classes of trade.
Many of the grade names refer merely to different methods
of cutting and curing; but since they are applied only to
cuts of specified quality, thickness or weight, the grades are
in reality based on the latter factors to a large extent. The
various cuts differ considerably as to methods of grading;
consequently an adequate explanation of the factors in-
volved, and their relative importance, can be presented only
by describing the grades of each class.

As a matter of simplicity and convenience, the following
parts will be briefly referred to as representing standard
cuts.

The hams are cut off just in front of the point of the hips,
and are neatly trimmed as may be necessary. However,
there are two distinct types of ham cuts, the one given being
the American cut. The English and Scotch have a longer
cut beyond the point of hip. The leg should then be cut
off, and in some cases it is severed just above the hock, and
in other cases just below it. Hams pack better with a
shorter leg.

The middle piece is the entire part between the end of
ham at hip, and back of shoulder. This is separated from
the shoulder between the fourth and fifth ribs. This middle
piece is of great importance, because it contains the side
from which bacon is produced, while its upper part fur-
nishes pork chops or roast pieces. Along the back in fat
hogs is a layer of white fat, sometimes over three inches
thick. This is what is known as a fat back. The packer
slices this off in long strips, from which lard is made. Be-
low the back is the loin piece, which furnishes some of the
most popular fresh meat of the carcass. In the lower third
is a part termed the belly strip. Bacon of various grades
and classes is made from the entire middle strip, and some
of the highest class bacon, such as the Wiltshire side, con-
sists of the side, ham and shoulder left in one piece, and
then specially treated for the purpose. However, such a

THE PORK CARCASS AND ITS CUTS

483

type of bacon is not com-
mon in America, the smaller
side, free of shoulder and
ham, being used.

The shoulder is separated
from the head, just back of
the ears, and the leg is cut
off above the knee joint.
The shoulder is prepared
into several styles of cuts,
and is often sold under
the trade name of picnic or
California ham. Pieces
called butts are cut from
the top of the shoulder and
from the jowl.

The head is not very
valuable, but is used as

Swifts StandardPadcCuts
Chicago Jftyle

Fly. 263. — "The various cuts differ con
stderably as to methods of grading."

fresh meat, for scrapple, sausage and head cheese,
also pickled.

The relative amounts and values of pork cuts, as secured
from a 250-pound hog, that dressed out about 80 per cent
;nv thus reported by Wallace's Farmer (Dec. 8, 1911) :

CUTS AND PRODUCTS
Hams

Weight
Ibs.
35

Price
per Ib.
$0 17

Shoulders

.10

Sides — -thick

.10

Sides — thin

. .. 21

.20

Lard -. . .

. .. 30

.15

Sp;m> ribs, head, feet, backbone

S:uisa"-e. .

. .. 40
18

.07
.20

Total

199 Av. $0.14.1

CHAPTER XLVII.

THE COMMON TYPES OF SWINE.

ACCORDING to present standards, all breeds and kinds of
hogs may be divided into two groups or types, as they are
commonly called. By far the most common, especially in
America, is known as the lard type. The essential features
in this case include shortness of head and neck. Consider-
able relative width of back and fullness of ham, depth of
body, shortness of leg, and when well fattened, a thick layer
of fat over back, sides and hams. The ~bacon type usually
exhibits length in various parts, as shown in the head, neck,
body and legs. In this type the back is narrower, the length
of side more pronounced, and the hams lack the thickness
seen in the other case. There are certain distinguishing

Fig. 264.— "All breeds and kinds of hogs may be
divided into two groups or types."

484

THE COMMON TYPES OF SWINE 485

features, irrespective of breed, in each type. The lard hog
is, as the name implies, a producer of excess fat or lard, is
phlegmatic of temperament and tends to produce few rather
than many young at birth. The bacon hog is valued for its
length of side, from which bacon is secured, is very active
in temperament;, and usually produces large litters. The
lard hog, in its more highly developed form, is a product of
the great corn-growing section of the Central United States,
and is well represented in the vast majority of the hogs that
find their way into the American slaughter house. The
bacon type is produced in only a small way in this country,
while it is quite universal in Europe, where a leaner type of
hog is in demand, and where bacon is an important item of
consumption. All breeding operations which result in re-
ducing the length of head, of body, and of legs, simply
emphasize lard conformation. The best examples of the
bacon type have long heads, great proportionate length of
body, and long legs. Very fattening foods, like corn, pro-
mote the lard type, while the small cereals, especially barley,
oats and the by-products of wheat, and skim milk, promote
the bacon type.

CHAPTER XLVIII.

JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE BY THE
SCALE OF POINTS.

The scale of points for the lard type or fat hog, which
follows, may be used for the first study of this animal.
The hog to be scored will be analyzed with the aid of this
standard :

SCALE OF POINTS FOR FAT HOGS OF LAED TYPE.

Standard of Score of
SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Hog

Score Studied
A— GENERAL APPEARANCE, 34 Points:

Weight: Score according to age, 175 Ibs. for 6 mos. ;

300 Ibs. at 1 year 4 ....

Form, broad, deep, low, symmetrical, compact,

standing well 10 ....

Quality, hair fine, skin smooth, no coarseness of bone 10 ....

Condition, deep, firm, even covering flesh, giving

smooth finish 10 ....

B— HEAD AND NECK, 7 Points:

Snout, neither coarse nor long 1 ....

Face, wide between eyes, cheeks full, without

wrinkles . . 1 ....

Eyes, mild, good size, to be easily seen 1 ....

Ears, not coarse, of medium size, neatly attached. . 1 ....

Jowl, smooth, broad, full to shoulders 1 ....

Neck, thick, short, broad on top 2 ....

C— FOREQUARTERS, 12 Points:

Shoulders, broad, deep, full, smooth, compact on top fi ....

Breast, wide, roomy 4 ....

Legs, straight, short, strong, wide apart, well set,

pastern upright, standing well upon toes . . 2 ....

D — BODY, 32 Points:

Chest, deep, wide, large girth, flanks well filled . . 3 ....
Back, slightly arched, very broad, thickly and evenly

fleshed 9 ....

Loin, wide as back, full and strong 8 ....

Sides, fairly deep, not too long, smooth and full ham

to shoulder 6 ....

Belly, straight, wide, trim, not paunchy 4 ....

Flanks, full and low 2 ....

486

JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE

SCALE OF POINTS

Standard of
Points
Scored
E— HINDQUARTERS, 15 Points:

Rump, same width as back, long, level, wide . . . . 3
Hams, deep, wide, thick, not wrinkled, fleshed well

to hock 10

Legs, straight, short, strong, wide apart, well set,

pasterns upright, strong, standing well on toes 2

Total points

100

487

Score of

Hog
Studied

The general appearance of the hog first requires atten-
tion. The animal should be kept more or less in motion, that

Fig. 265. — THE POINTS OF THE HOG.

it may be seen from various points of view. The judge may
quietly move it about in a small area, so as to comprehend
the size, proportion, quality and condition. One should
look down over the back to note the width of body from
above, while from one side, length and depth of body, and
carriage of head, back and legs are especially to be noted.
From front or rear one sees thickness of body at each end,
with placings of legs and feet. The weight is not impor-

488

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

tant, excepting as associated with age. A pig that has been
well fed and cared for after being weaned, should gain
in weight from three-fourths of a pound to one pound a
day. A satisfactory weight of a fat hog at six months of
age is about 175 pounds, and at twelve months is about
300 pounds. The market demands as to weight vary, some-
times heavy hogs being wanted, while again lightweights
are preferred. In general, 250 pounds is a satisfactory

Fig. 266. — "This thick, deep form suggests the very greatest meat-carrying

capacity."

weight. In the great Chicago hog market, where nearly
nine million hogs have been received in a year, the average
weight is not far from 225 pounds per head. "Winter
weights usually run lighter than those of summer by twenty-
five pounds or so. With a standard of four points for per-
fect weight, an animal weighing much under the standard
should be scored accordingly. Suppose a weight of
225 pounds at one year, then three points might show the
measurement for weight of the pig being scored. A greater

JUDGING THE LAUD TYPE OF S\VINK 489

weight than 300 pounds is not usually to be regarded as
a fault, and hence should be given perfect score.

The form of the lard hog- should be broad, deep, low set,
symmetrical, smooth and compact, supported on legs that
are strong and squarely placed. Thickness and smoothness
of outline are essential, with the parts most valuable to the
butcher highly developed, especially the back, sides and
hams. A general view shows the sides of the body widely

Fig. 267. — "The hair serves as a protection in summer and winter and
should be abundant rather than sparse." (Photo by courtesy Mr. L. E.
Troeger.)

separated yet parallel, no wider in front than behind, while
the depth is such as to allow but little space between the
belly and ground. This thick, deep form suggests the very
greatest meat-carrying capacity. In fact, Europeans and
city people have often regarded the form of the lard type
as a monstrosity. As expressed in its most perfect form,
in a 250-pound pig that has been well fed there may be an
excess of fat; but such a form most perfectly illustrates
early maturity, a strong development of the parts of car-

490

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

cass most in demand by consumers, and, as a rule, most
profitable feeding. The injury to form due to long-con-
tinued and unwise feeding should cast no reflections on the
ideal of the lard type of hog.

The quality of the lard hog is seen in the fineness of hair,
smoothness of skin and refinement of bone. The hair is one
of the best indicators of quality. There are, perhaps, greater

variations in qual-
ity of hair on the
hog than any other
class of farm ani-
mals. This has al-
ready been referred
to on page 477. The
hair on barrows or
sows should be
smooth, not coarse
nor wiry, and
should have a glos-
sy appearanc e
without special
hair serves as a
and should be

Fig. 268. — "Creases, seams or wrinkles become
more evident with maturity. They prevail along
the sides of the body and particularly about the
shoulder, throat and face."

treatment aside from feeding. The
protection in summer and winter,
abundant rather than sparse. Hogs that kill out best do
not have notably coarse hair. Too fine hair, however, is
undesirable, indicating an animal of over refinement, that
will not hold up to strong feeding. The skin is an impor-
tant indicator of quality. It should be smooth and free of
wrinkles. Creases, seams or wrinkles (different names for
the same thing) become more evident with maturity. They
prevail along the sides of the body, and particularly about
the shoulder, throat and face. Creases sometimes occur in
the thicker skin at the points mentioned, that may have a
depth of one-fourth inch or more. As hair usually grows
from these creases or seams, it is very difficult to scald
and remove satisfactorily from such a hog at killing
time. Inasmuch as a large per cent of the hogs slaughtered

JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWIXK J<)l

in America, after scalding are passed through an artificial
scraping machine to remove the hair, it can easily be under-
stood why buyers prefer hogs with smooth skins rather than
rough, creasy ones. The skin of the hog should also be mel-
low and uniform in quality over the entire body. The skin
about the shoulder, however, is tougher and thicker than it
is elsewhere. The pressure of the finger tips, or even of
a cane, on the skin at different points, will clearly
demonstrate this difference. On the males, the skin often
assumes great thickness and hardness at the shoulders,
forming what the swine breeder calls the ' * shields. ' ' These
are essentially an inheritance from the wild hog, and serve
as a protection from injury of the vital parts while fighting.
Boars fight by striking with their heads and tusks against
the heads and shoulders of their opponents. The strong
tusks of the boar cannot easily tear through this shield. In
the improved breeds of to-day, as reflected in the case of the
fat market hog, heavy, rough skin at the shoulder is objec-
tionable. The fat barrow, for example, should have a skin
exhibiting but little variation in quality at shoulder
or ham. A scurfy, scaly condition of skin may be
due to various causes, but is decidedly objection-
able. In hot climates white breeds are often troubled
with sun scald and scurfiness, for which reason hogs
of this color are not popular in the south. A black
or red skin absorbs heat from the air more quickly than
does the white, but these also radiate the heat more rapidly,
which process serves to cool the body. This explains why,
in the tropics, the dark-skinned hog is more popular than
the white, being associated with more comfort in keeping
cool.

The character of the bone in the hog is an important
indicator of quality. The bones about the head and legs
serve as the index of quality. If large and coarse, in pro-
portion to size of body, then quality is lacking, for beyond
a certain indefinable point, all excess bone is undesirable,
as representing waste from a food point of view. Bone in

492

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the hog, however, is regarded somewhat differently from
what it is with other farm animals. The demand is for a
large, smooth bone, of quality, free from coarseness at
joints. In fact, it is undoubtedly true that too much quality,
as shown in small and fine bone, is far too common with im-
proved breeds of swine to-day. The fat hog, weighing 250
to 300 pounds, requires a strong bone, to support so great
a weight in such small compass. In judging quality of
bone, insist on plenty of diameter in the shank bones half-

Fig. 269. — "In judging quality of bone, insist on plenty of diameter in the
shank bones half-way between ankle and knee or hock."

way between ankle and knee or hock. Yet one need not
place too much stress on this where hogs are fattened,
ready for the butcher. It is far more important with breed-
ing stock.

The condition of the lard hog refers to the extent to
which fattening has been carried. When the hog is in
prime condition, the flesh is laid on smoothly and uniformly
and is firm to the touch. Fat hogs are frequently too fat
and are perhaps soft and flabby. Also, occasionally when
hogs are fed too long and get in high condition, the fat
along the sides, especially at the upper part of rib near the

JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE 493

shoulders, slips down toward the end of the rib. This gives
a sharply sloping or bevelled appearance on each side of
the upper third of the body, the rounded outline that at
one time prevailed having disappeared. If the hog is in
ideal condition, there is a trim and attractive finish of
appearance that is unmistakable. The extremely fat hog
in the show ring is not the butcher's ideal as to condition,
unless he is seeking a heavyweight from which a special

Fig. 270. — "The extremely fat hog in the show ring is not the butcher's
ideal as to condition."

yield of lard is desired. In scoring, one is justified in dis-
criminating more against the extremely fat animal than
against the one that is not quite fat enough. Buyers and
judges, however, oftentimes give more credit to mere con-
dition than they should, especially in show-ring competi-
tion. This is illustrated by the fact that judges passing on
fat Berkshires at the International Live Stock Exposition,
sometimes give the highest awards to very fat animals,

494

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

whereas barrows of this breed, to be in prime condition,
should not carry as much flesh and thickness as most Ameri-
can breeds of the lard type.

The head of the lard hog varies considerably in charac-
ter, but breed differences in this discussion are unimportant.
There are certain features that are regarded with favor
by all buyers. The head should be fairly short. Its length
is largely dependent on the length of snout. Too long a
snout is open to criticism as indicating waste in killing,
consequently a short snout, that is not rough and coarse
is preferred. The face should be wide in front, with ample
space between the eyes. "Width of face is correlated with

JTig. 271. — "The face should be wide in front, with ample space between the
eyes. Width of face is correlated with width of body."

JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE 495

width of body. Creases on the side of the face sometimes
occur, but these are objectionable. Special treatment of the
head is frequently required after killing, in order to remove
the hairs from the creases of the face. The cheeks should
be full and smooth. In scoring the head, discriminate
especially against seams and roughness. The eyes of the
hog should be not only wide apart, but easily seen, having
clear whites. Such eyes indicate a quiet temperament.
Frequently the eyes are almost hidden, due to excessive fat
about this part of the head. Eyes in short, dish-faced heads
are less easily seen than in long heads. The eye of the hog
is naturally small, but his vision is far better than some
might suppose, if he has a fair chance at all for an outlook.
Partial or complete blindness is not rare among the im-
proved breeds, and this defect should result in disqualifica-
tion by the judge. The ears assume an erect position in some
cases, irrespective of breeds, while with others they may
droop over close to the face. This is not important unless
one is considering breed character. It is important, how-
ever, that the ear be of good texture, covered with fine
hair, and neatly attached to the head. The heavy, coarse
ear, large at the base, is indicative of general coarseness.
Some authorities, in describing the ideal ear, specify that
it should be small, but the large ear need not necessarily
be coarse. The ear may be large and thin, and quite lacking
in coarseness, as occurs with a number of European breeds.
If large and thick, and heavy at its attachment, the ear is
quite sure to be coarse and unshapely. The jowl is the
thick, fleshy part at the base of the lower jaw and neck.
This part usually carries considerable roundness and full-
ness, and indicates condition of fleshing. The fatter the
hog, the more highly developed the jowl, which in its best
form should be round, smooth and firm, and full to the
space between the shoulder points. One objectionable fea-
ture is often found at the jowl — the occurrence of creases.
In judging, emphasize smoothness more than fatness. Flab-

496

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

biness is also undesirable, a condition to be found in over-
fat hogs, when the jowl will shake like jelly, and show much
softness. As one feels of this part with the hand, it should
be reasonably firm and smooth to the touch. The neck of
the lard hog is naturally short, broad and deep. There is
little likelihood of its being too short, but occasionally there
is too much length. The neck naturally rises sharply from
back of the ears, for a short distance, after which it more

gradually rises to
the point where it
merges into the
body. The upper
part of the neck,
toward the head,
tends to be narrow
and somewhat bev-
elled on the sides,
rather than wide
and well rounded
off, as occurs gen-
erally farther back.
On the under side
of the neck consid-
erable fullness is
likely to occur with
the fat animal,
and often the

throat drops down a pendant, keel-shaped part, which ex-
tends back between the legs and quite near the ground. The
neck should blend smoothly with the body at the neck-vein
or shoulder point. In judging the neck, special emphasis
should be placed on a short conformation, as associated
with two things, viz., strength of constitution, and a smaller
percentage of low-priced meat.

The f orequarters, consisting of shoulders, breast and legs
are credited with 12 points. In the shoulder we find one
of the more important parts used as cured meat. If the

Fig. 272. — "The neck naturally rises sharply
from back of the ears a short distance."

JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE

497

Fig. 273. — "The shoulders themselves should
he well laid in, and besides the covering on the
sides, should he smooth and well filled out on
lop."

shoulder -vein is
well filled out, it
carries smoothly
and deeply over the
blade, resulting in
a wide, thick, meaty
shoulder, with no
hard prominence at
the point. Rough-
ness and coarse-
ness is not infre-
quent here. Creases
and hardness of
shoulder covering
are sometimes
found in fat stags
and sows, and some
barrows. The shoulders themselves should be well laid in, and
besides the covering on the sides, should be smooth and well
filled out on top. A wide, level, thick covering over the ends of
the blades is associated with the thick-fieshed type. The
breast occupies the space just at and in front of the fore-
legs, and blends
into the lower neck
and shoulder.
Width and fullness
should be features
of the breast, with
the breast-bone or
brisket carried well
forward, showing
evidence of consti-
tutional vigor. The
front legs should
be reasonablyshort,

c t T» n n o- ami as Fig. 274. — "Modern requirements demand a

pastern that is rather short and earned strongly

viewed from in upright."

498 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

front or one side, straight and well set. A nat-
ural tendency is for the legs to curve in at the
knees, and sometimes the knee joint is markedly curved.
As viewed from in front, a slight curve of joint may be
expected, but only as consistent with natural joint develop-
ment, not enough, however, to justify the term "buck
kneed. " A narrow placing of the legs naturally indicates
lack of heart capacity and vitality, and when the knee
joints approach too closely to each other, a narrow chest
formation is sure to occur. The pasterns occupy the space
between toes and ankle joints. Much has been said by
swine men regarding the pasterns. Modern requirements
demand a pastern that is rather short and carried strongly
upright, with the hog well supported on the toes. It is
assumed that modern methods of feeding produce hogs that
are often unable to support their weight on upright toes
and pasterns, especially if they have been fattened and
pushed for early maturity. The reason so many hogs have
badly sloping or broken down pasterns, with the dew claws
touching the ground, is said to be because of this excessive
weight. However, the author questions the soundness of this
argument. It has been his observation, both on wild boars in
captivity, and with the bacon type of hogs, that weak pas-
terns are as much in evidence with these as with hogs of the
lard type, which carry much heavier weight. The upright,
strong pastern is probably more a feature of the improved
swine than of the old, wild or native stock. In early days,
before the railways, when hogs were driven to market,
strong legs and pasterns were most essential if an animal
was to be a good traveller. The necessity of upright pas-
terns probably is not so great to-day, nevertheless, it may
be assumed that they add to the strength of footing, and
carry bodily weight more easily than does the sloping so-
called weak pastern. The toes should not spread too wide
apart and, as viewed from in front, they should point
squarely ahead. A common weakness of front toe position
is "toeing in" or pigeon toe. From a side view the toes

JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE

499

should liave quite an erect position. However, animals that
are old or heavy frequently break down at the pasterns and
slope considerably both at this point and the toes.

The body of the hog is given 32 points — more than to
any other one section in the scale of points. This is because
six parts are included here, two of which, the back and
loin, are most important from a meat-producing point of
view. The chest, which occupies the space just back of the
shoulders, gives
evidence of heart
and lung capacity,
hence a demand
here for width and
depth, and a dis-
tinctly large girth.
Special emphasis
should be given to
fullness at the front
flanks, and just
back of the shoul-
der. If the front
legs are short and
carried wide apart,
and the shoulders
are well laid in, as
a rule the chest

will show a wide girth, exhibiting plenty of con-
stitution. Certain features are associated with desira-
ble chest conformation, viz. : the low-set floor, and a
wide placement of the legs. The chest girth of
the hog is relatively large, and a measurement of 38
inches at 9 months of age is quite common. Matured fat
hogs may girth 70 inches or more. The back of the hog
naturally rises in a slight arch, as reference to the skeleton
clearly shows. Some breeds exhibit considerable natural
arch, and others but little. It is very desirable to secure
plenty of length, with slight arch, and considerable spring

Fig. 275. — "The hack of the hog naturally rises
in a slight arch."

500

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

of rib or width of back. Young hogs naturally carry the
back strong and with a reasonable amount of arch, but with
age the tendency is for the back to become more level and
even to sag. In. scoring, much emphasis should be placed on
the back being strongly supported in the case of young
animals. More allowance may be made for mature and

especially old ani-
mals. As one looks
down on the back
from above, the
ribs should show a
strong arch, with
the outer back lines
parallel to each
other. The fat hog,
in good condition,
will show a thick,
even, firm covering
of flesh over the
entire back. The
character of this
covering may be
determined, not
only by the eye,
but by the touch of
the finger tips at various points on the back. The loin
is essentially a part of the back, and so should have all of
its width and strength. In the loin, where the muscles are
least used, are to be found the tenderest and best cuts of
meat, so a smooth, thick fleshing is always desired here.
Further, as the kidneys lie below the loin, if this part of
the body is strongly developed, with no depression in front
of the hips, it may be assumed that the kidneys are well pro-
tected and will render the efficient service desired. Emphasis
should be placed on the loin being quite level with the back,
where it merges with the hips, for a falling away or slack-
ness here is a too common fault. "When hogs are over-

Fig. 276. — "Emphasis should be placed on the
loin being quite level with the back, where' it
merges with the hips."

JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE

501

forced or are too fat, the fat will show as much in the
back and loin as elsewhere.

The sides of the hog should be of good depth, dropping
down from a well arched rib. The form of the side de-
pends somewhat on the breed or breed influence, for in some
cases the sides are rather curved from the ribs down, while
with others they are flat and drop quite vertically toward
the belly line. In
general it is desira-
ble to have the
sides of fair length,
carried out in a
straight line from
shoulder to hip, so
that a straight edge
will touch all along
or nearly so.
Smoothness and
freedom from
creases applies here
as elsewhere, and
the smoother the
side the more uni-
form the quality of

the fleshing. Creases often extend in vertical lines
along the sides, especially toward the shoulder and give
a rough appearance as well as indicating poor fatten-
ing character. A side long and deep, perfectly smooth,
showing a clean, healthy skin, covered not too thickly with
straight hair of fine quality, should score very high. The
belly proper may be regarded as the part of the body lying
between two lines extending from the lower part of each
front flank to hind flank. As one stands off and looks at
the belly, the lower edge carries quite level, with clean-
cut lines, indicating little waste in killing. A paunchy,
rounded belly is much objected to by discriminating buyers,
as bearing evidence of too much intestines and consequent

Fig. 277. — "It is desirable to have the sides
of fair length, carried out in a straight line
from shoulder to hip, so that a straight edge.
will touch all along, or nearly so."

502

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

loss in dressed weight. Buyers note sharply this feature.
One must not confound this characteristic in the fat hog,
with the paunchy look of breeding females, or of young
pigs with full bellies. In the latter this condition will
change, while the paunchy belly on the fat hog, as a rule,
continues its undesirable development. Flanks that are full
and carried low down are associated not only with depth of
body, but thickness as well. Fullness of flank, especially in
front, accompanies strong heart girth and vigorous consti-
tution. A full hind flank, showing a tendency to roll some-
what when the animal is in motion, is evidence of easy
fattening quality. "When the flanks on the same side are
low and full, the body line below is quite level and likely
to be parallel with the upper line of body. The wise judge
will not give a superficial examination to the flanks.

The hindquarters of the lard type of hog, in the estima-
tion of most judges, represent the most valuable part from
a commercial point of view. This is because we have here
the heaviest weighing part, commanding the highest .price
per pound. The rump is a continuation of the back line,
from the outside of the hips to the end of the body. As
one looks down on the rump from behind, it should show

the same width
throughout, exhib-
iting thickness and
weight. As viewed
from one side, the
ideal rump will be
long and level, that
is, the top line will
be continued as
nearly level as pos-
sible, quite close to
the setting on of
the tail. However.
it is quite natural
for the rump of the

Fig. 278. — "It is quite natural for the rump of
the hog to slope considerably."

JUDGING THE LARD TYPE OF SWINE

503

Fij,'. i>70. — "The well-formed ham from this
side view will ;ilso present much fullness be-
hind."

hog to slope con-
siderably, so that
even in the highest
scoring individuals
one will not find
this part so truly
level as with high-
class cattle or
sheep. Great length
and thickness are
the two most im-
portant features,
for thus weight is
secured. The set-
ting on of the tail
is often low, and
when this is the
case it will be noted

that the rump is inclined to be steep, and the 1m m
below is short. All. of the arguments are in behalf
of a long, full, level rump, with tail attached reasonably
high, because this conformation goes with heavy, meaty
development below. The hams viewed from the side should
be wide across at the top, because the rump forms the 1op
of the ham. They should also be wide from stifle to end
of body, and of great comparative length, from either hip
or stifle to the point of the hocks. This brings out the im-
portance of the long rump. The well-formed ham, from
this side view will also present much fullness behind, the
outline dropping rather vertically for some distance, and
then curving in sharply to form the narrow part of the leg,
not far above the hock. From this standpoint the ideal ham
will be smooth, absolutely free of wrinkles and folds of skin,
but rounded out sufficiently to indicate thickness and
weight. The hock itself will be somewhat thick, yet trim
and neat. Viewed from behind, the hams should appear
thick and meaty, with the outer parts of the thighs widely

504

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

separated. Where the thighs contract to form the lower
thigh and hock, the curves between the legs at the twist
should approach a right angle as much as possible, with the
lower thighs widely separated at points of hocks. It is es-
sential that, from a rear view, the hams be both thick and
deep. The judge will note that some thick hams lack depth.

Others show more
thickness through
from side to side,
and yet possess con-
siderable depth
from tail setting to
the deepest point
between the two
thighs. The hind
legs should stand
straight and be
well supported on
the toes. Viewed
from one side, the
leg from hock to
ankle should come
down in a vertical
line. It is a com-
mon tendency for

the hog to shove the hind legs beneath the body in quite a
slanting position, with the dew claws almost, if not quite
touching the ground, the weight of body being supported on
the entire length of toes, rather than on their tips. This is a
very undesirable position, and is usually associated with
lack of bone and weak leg formation. From the hock down,
the bone should seem reasonably large and strong, in order
to bear the great weight of the fat hog. A rear view shows
the hocks widely separated, and the shank bones well apart
and parallel and strongly supported on the pasterns and
toes, which should point directly ahead. If the hocks are
too close together then the legs and toes point outward,

Fig. 280. — '"The curves between the legs at
the twist should approach a right angle as much
as possible."

K SWINE r><)5

a conformation associated with a .narr<>\\- thigh ;md ham.
If the hocks are widely separated, and the legs and toes
point in — a rather unusual position behind — then the legs
are usually bowed, and furnish a weak support to the body.
The butcher is not interested in this matter of position of
leg and bone, if the ham is sufficiently thick and deep, but
as a matter of inheritance, the strength of bone and proper
carriage of leg have a vital bearing on the character of the

Fig. 281. — "It is a common tendency for the hog to shove the hind legs
beneath the body in quite a slanting position, with the dew claws almost,
if not quite, touching the ground."

ham and its value. The pasterns and toes or the hind legs
should have an upright, straight carriage, for the same
reasons given in the discussion of these parts of the front
legs.

The anima*! being carefully examined, and comparison
with the ideal being made through the various steps of
scoring, the total score is to be placed at the bottom of the
card. In making this detailed examination, the various
features of importance are brought to the attention of the
judge. A number of other hogs may be scored to advantage

50fi JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

:n the same manner, or two may be scored for comparative
jtudy. In lids score card comparison the same parts of each
animal should be systematically compared, step by step.
Thus one may note how many points Hog A scores in
weight, and how Hog B measures up beside A, and so on,
comparing the several other points to be examined. One
person may quite conveniently score twro animals, and make
an interesting comparative study, but it is not desirable to
oxtend much beyond this.

CHAPTER XLIX.

THE COMPARATIVE STUDY OF SWINE.

IN making a comparative study of swine without the use
of a scale of points, two or more animals may be
brought forward. In general class work, a pen of four
makes a convenient number for study. It may be assumed
that these are suited to go in the same age class, and have
been prepared for the same purpose, so that their condi-
tions are comparable. This puts the comparison on a fair
basis as to age, and purpose or type. In view of the fact
that these animals are destined for the butcher, the judge
in his work must keep first in mind the general considera-
tions of the scale of points, that is, weight, form, quality
and condition. Therefore, he carefully looks over the hogs,
first moving them about to view each from all points
whereby comparison may be drawn. He, naturally, at once
compares size and, other things being equal, the larger
animal has the advantage. Beauty as shown in symmetry
of form, at once attracts the judge, but as the butcher is
looking for the greatest profit in the carcass, he is not losing
sight of quality and condition. So, keeping in mind the
need of good, firm flesh, thickly and evenly distributed
over the frame, the judge puts a premium on these features,
not losing sight of the necessity of dressing out to show
as little waste in head, legs and guts as possible. These
are all general considerations, and must be weighed up in
the comparison. Therefore, in order to bring the contrast
to a finer basis, it is necessary that the judge, even wilh
animals for immediate slaughter, should bring into com-
parison certain important details of conformation, These
we would naturally assume to be the back, loin, shoulders,
sides and hams, the parts most desired in the carcass. So

507

508 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the judge, with the aid of his stick, groups his animals side
by side in order that he may look down on the backs and
compare breadth and length, and note wherein one surpasses
another. Standing behind the animals a few feet, one also
gets a rump and ham view, as well as back, so that this
position gives a good point for observation. To see the
sides the hogs must be moved so that an unobstructed view
may be had, whereby the sides may be easily studied. An
experienced judge usually has the animals well scattered
in the judging space, thus enabling him to study and corn-

Fig. 282. — "The judge, with the aid of his stick, groups his animals

side by side, in order that he may look down on the backs and compare

breadth and length, and note wherein one surpasses another." (Photo
by courtesy Ohio Agr. Exp. Station.)

pare at his leisure. If one has four animals very closely
matched then some of the minor characteristics, such as
length or position of legs, size of ear, width of face, etc.,
will serve as a basis for arriving at a decision. One year
the Ohio State University had in competition at the Inter-
national Live Stock Exposition, a pen of three fat hogs that
had won first prize in class. They were very choice and
unusually well-matched individuals, but in the competi-
tion for championship honors, after mature deliberation,
the prize went elsewhere. The judge later explained, and
rightly, that one pig in the Ohio pen had somewhat crooked
Mnd legs, which he persisted in keeping well under his

THE COMPARATIVE! STfDY OF SNVINK f)0n

body. It was this defect, slight as it WHS, which resulted
in the defeat of an otherwise very choice pen. This de-
cision illustrates, that, in the final measurement, of tin-
judge, he must frequently emphasize1 the importance of
non-essentials, in arriving at a decision.

A comparative placing card for swine will be found
serviceable for students, and may be arranged after the
following plan. This card has been filled out for illus-
trative purposes. Each part may thus be discussed and
compared in detail, and differences brought out that might
otherwise be quite overlooked :

L':| 3d 1th

M: u-< -Place Place

D (! B

15 I > C

C 1 '. D

A l> C

I J I ) ( '

B :n c

B D C
A C D

B r> c

ADC
ADC

The reason for placing the hogs in a ring in their regu-
lar order of merit, student or judge should be able to give.
No uniform rule is to be applied in the matter of giving
reasons, for much more may be expected in some cases than
in others. Close competition requires more explanation
than where the decision of the judge has been easy. The
reasons, however, should deal with features that the well-
informed would at once recognize as of first importance.

The following discussion of placing a ring of market lard
hogs, was prepared by a man who gives especial attention
to the judging of swine:

Comparative Placing Card
for , Swine
Size

1st
PI: ic
. . A

Condition
Quality

. . A
. . A

Head

. . I'.

Neck and iovvl

Shoulders
Back

.. A
. . A

.. B

"Leers

. . B

Feet . ...

. . B

Placing

510 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

"I placed B first, C second, A third and D fourth.

"B is placed over C because of pronounced superiority
in form and quality. B is broader, deeper and longer than
C ; B furthermore has a more neatly laid in shoulder, which
joins to a smoother, longer side. In rear end development
B is superior to C, having a broader and longer rump,
which in turn gives more width and thickness of loin. B's
superior quality is shown by a more even distribution and
fineness of coat covering, by a harder, denser character of
bone, and by more evenness and smoothness of contour gen-
erally. In view of these points of excellence which B shows
over C, one would judge the former as dressing more meat
of superior quality when placed in the hands of the butcher.

1 ' C is placed over A chiefly because of superior condition,
there being little difference, in form and quality. C's better
condition is shown by greater thickness over the top, sides
and hams. Briefly stated, C shows more finish than A and
therefore would be more desirable from the standpoint of
the butcher.

' ' D in this ring is an outstanding, inferior hog, and there-
fore is placed last. He lacks the width, depth and thick-
ness possessed by the other animals, and is furthermore
inferior in his arch of back, strength of loin, and smooth-
ness of body generally.

"Briefly summarized, B is superior to C in form and
quality, C is superior to A chiefly in condition, and A is in
most every respect superior to D."

The above illustrates a common method of expression in
giving reasons for placings, whether oral or written. Na-
turally, persons will differ in the degree of emphasis they
will place on the different parts, either good or bad. Fur-
ther, the same person will necessarily discuss each pen as
a separate affair, emphasizing more in one case than an-
other, as impressed by the personality of the animals judged.
However, one thing the judge should always keep in mind,
and that is to discuss his placings in as systematic a man-
ner as possible.

CHAPTER L.

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE LARD TYPE BREEDS
OF SWINE.

THE lard type of swine being1 almost universal in the
United States, the breeds of that kind are common, while
those of the bacon type are comparatively rare.

The Berkshire breed of swine originated in the county of
Berks in south England. Its prevailing color of skin and
hair is black, with white hair on the face, lower parts of
legs, and tail. These six white points need not necessarily
all be in evidence, but the breed has been developed to a
degree that almost insures their presence. The body itself

Fig. 283. — BERKSHIRE BOAR. "The head is comparatively short and more
or less dished."

511

512

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

•should be black, but white marks may occur elsewhere, espe-
cially on ear, throat and armpit, without disqualifying for
registration. In size, the Berkshire ranks well. Young pigs
at six months of age should weigh 175 pounds, and 300 at
twelve months. In ordinary condition mature boars should
weigh 600 pounds and sows 500 pounds. The Berkshire pos-
sesses certain quite distinctive breed features. The head is
comparatively short and more or less dished, in some cases

the nose turning
up to an extreme
degree, not ap-
proved of by very
thoughtful breed-
ers. The ears should
be erect of car-
r i a g e, especially
with young ani-
mals; on old hogs
the ears tend to
lean forward more
or less, due to
weakening of the muscles connecting with the head. The back
of the Berkshire carries but little arch and is of fair length ;
from an end view it does not usually show as much width as
some other breeds. The rump may be of excellent length, but
the ham tends to lack somewhat in thickness. The bone is of
fair quality, and Berkshires stand as well on the feet as
do most breeds. The quality of the flesh is of the highest
grade, and in general fleshing, the Berkshire shows up
smooth and to advantage. This is a breed that does not
naturally carry the thickness of the Poland-China, Chester
"White or Duroc-Jersey, being the narrowest of the lard
type breeds. British breeders favor a leaner-fleshed pig
than do Americans. Our judges should not seek the same
width and roundness of form with the Berkshire as have
the other breeds mentioned.

Fig. 284. — A Berkshire barrow, champion at the
International Live Stock Exposition.

LARD TYPK HRKKDS OF SWTXR 513

SCALE OF POINTS FOR BERKSHIRE SWINE.

(Adopted by the American Berkshire Swine Association.)

Points

Color — Black, white feet, face and tip of tail, but skin and hair occasion-
ally showing tinge of bronze or copper color. An occasional splash of
white not objectionable; lack of either of white points admissible .. 3
Face and snout — Face well dished and broad between the eyes; snout short

and broad 7

Eyes — Prominent, clean, clear, large, dark hazel or gray 2

Ears — Medium size, setting well apart, carried fairly erect, inclining for-
ward, especially with age 3

Jowl — Full, firm, not flabby or hanging too low, running back well to neck 3
Neck — Full, short, slightly arched, broad on top, well connected with

shoulder 3

Hair — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering body well; free

from bristles 3

Skin — Smooth and mellow 3

Chest — Deep, full and wide, with good heart girth 6

Shoulder — Smooth and even on top and in line with side G

Side — Deep, smooth, well let down, straight side and bottom lines . . . . 6
Back — Broad, full, strong, level or slightly arched; ribs well sprung . . 10
Flank — Extending well back and low down on leg_ making nearly a

straight line with lower part of side "»

Loin — Full, wide and well covered with flesh 6

Ham — Deep, wide, thick and firm, extending well up on back and holding

thickness well down to hock 10

Tall— Well up on line with back, neither too fine, short or tapering . . . . 2
Legs and feet — Straight and strong, set wide apart, short in pastern, with

hoofs nearly erect, capable of carrying great weight K)

Size — Size all that is possible without loss of quality or symmetry, with
good length. Weight in good condition, boars at 12 months 350 to
450 pounds; at 24 months, 500 to 700 pounds; sows at 12 months

350 to 400 pounds; at 24 months 500 to 700 pounds 6

Appearance and character — Vigorous, attractive, of good disposition, firm

and easv of movement 6

100

The Poland-China breed of swine is of American origin,
having its early development in southwest Ohio. This is
a oreed that has gone through some changes in color mark-
ings. Formerly, the body was black, with white spots of
variable size on the black background. In recent years
the Poland-China has been bred to color markings quite
like the Berkshire, the face and legs especially being more
or less white. "White marks may occur elsewhere, however.
In fact there is now some attention being paid to what is
termed the Spotted Poland hog, which may be registered
in one of the recognized Poland-China record books as well
as in the National Spotted Poland Record Association. The

514

JUDGING. FARM ANIMALS

body color of the Poland-China is strictly a deep black, not
having any suggestion of bronze or reddish tint^ as in case
of the Berkshire. The size of the Poland-China ranges
from medium to large. Pigs at six months should weigh
about 175 pounds, and at 12 months the standard insists
that pigs of either sex must weigh at least 300 pounds. At
full maturity, in fair condition, boars should weigh 600
pounds or more, and sows not less than 450 pounds. In

Fig. 285. — Poland-China sow, "Lucille," grand champion Louisiana Purchase
Exposition, 1904. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

ordinary breeding condition they will be quite likely to
waigh less than this. The head of the Poland-China is
straight of face. The ears should be fine and break over at
the upper third into a neat droop. With age, the ears
frequently droop quite low over the face. The back should
show quite a pronounced arch, as viewed from one side,
while an end view exhibits a strong spring of ribs, with a
tendency for the body to be much narrower below than
above. The hindquarters of fair specimens of this breed

LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 515

have wide, long rumps ;m<l deep, thick thighs. The rumps,
however, are often somewhat droopy. Thickness of ham is
a characteristic of this breed. The bone is often light for
the weight carried, and the pasterns may be quite sloping.
Breeders of Poland- Chinas have almost divided themselves
into two groups, one favoring a medium-sized, quick ma-
turing pig ; the other, a larger, heavier boned, coarser hog.
Unquestionably, this breed has lost much ground among
farmers in the middle west, due to over-refinement and
small litters. These objections, advocates of the so-called
"big type" are endeavoring to overcome. If a combination
of scale and quality are present, other things being equal,
the large type will usually receive the approval of the
judge. Quality must be emphasized.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR POLAND-CHINA SWINE.

(Adopted by the National Poland-China Record Association.)

Points

Head and face — Should be broad, even and smooth between and above
the eyes; slightly dished, tapering evenly and gradually to near the
end of the nose. Broad lower jaw; head inclined to shortness, but
not enough to give appearance of stubby nose. In the males a nias-

culine appearance and expression '•'•

Objections: Head long, narrow between the eyes; nose -uncrcn and
coarse; too large at the muzzle or the, head tuo short: not full or
high above the, eyes; or too much wrinkled around or ahore the
eyes.

Eyes — Full, clear, prominent, expressive

Objections: Dutt expression, deep set or obscure. Sight impaired by

wrinkles, fat or other cause.

Ears — Ears attached to the head by a short, firm knuckle, giving free
and easy action. Standing up slightly at the base to within .two-
thirds of the tip, where a gentle break or drop should occur; in
.size neither too large nor too small, but even, fine, thin, leaf shape,

.slightly inclined outward

Objections: Large, floppy, straight, upright or coarse; knuckle long,
letting the ear drop too close to the head and face, hindering free.
use of the ears.

Neck — Short, wide, even, smooth, -wall arched, rounding and full fro::i
poll to shoulder, with due regard to the characteristics of the sex
Objections: Long, narrow, thin and drooping from the shoulder to tin-
poll, with uneven ness canned by wrinkles or creases.

Jowl — Full, broad, deep, smooth and firm, carrying fullness back near to
point of shoulders, and below line of lower jaw so that lower line

will be as low as breast bone when head is carried up level

Objections: Light, flabby, thin, and n<<-d!/e-*h<i]K-<l, dee/ili/ •irrinkl.d.
not drooping below line of lower jaw and not carrying
back to shoulder and brisket.

516 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points

Shoulder — Broad and oval at top, showing evenness with the back and
neck, with good width from the top to the bottom, and even smooth-
ness extending well forward 6

Objections: Narrow at top or bottom, not as deep as the bod)/, uneven
width, shields on pigs under eight months of age, or showing too
much shield at any age.

Chest — Large, wide, deep and full; even underline to the shoulder and
sides, with no creases, giving plenty of room for the heart and other
organs, making a large girth indicating much vitality. Brisket
smooth, even and broad; wide between the legs and extending well

forward, showing in front 12

Objections: Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or tucked in
back of the forelegs; showing too narrow between the legs; not
depth enough back of the shoulder. Brisket uneven, narrow, not
prominent.

Back and loin — Broad, straight or slightly arched, carrying same width
from shoulder to ham; surface even, smooth, free from lumps,
creases or projections; not too long, but broad on top, indicating
well sprung ribs ; should not be higher at hip than at shoulder, and
should fill out at junction with side, so that a straight edge placed
along at top of side will touch all the way from point of shoulder
to point of ham. Should be shorter than lower belly line . . . . 14
Objections: Narrow, creased back of shoulders, swayed or hollow, drop-
ping below a straight line; humped or ivrinkled; too long or sun-
fish shaped; loin high, narrow, depressed or humped up; surface
lumpy, creased, ridgy or uneven; width at side not as much as
shoulder and ham.

Sides and ribs — Sides full, firm and deep, free from wrinkles ; carrying
size down to belly; even from ham to shoulder; ribs of good length,

well sprung at top and bottom 8

Objections: Flat, thin, flabby, pinched, not as full at bottom as at top;
drawn in- at shoulder so as to produce a crease, or pinched and
tucked tip and in as it approaches the ham; uneven surface; ribs
flat or too short.

Belly and flank — Belly broad, straight and full, indicating capacity and
room, being about the same or on a level at the flank with the under-
line of the chest; underline straight, or nearly so, and free from

fleshy appearance 4

Objections: Belly uneven and flabby, or apparent looseness in the make-
up. Pinched up in the flank or flanked too high.

Hams and rump — Hams broad, full, deep and long from rump to hock.
Fully developed above and below, being wide at the point of the hip,
carrying width well down to the lower part of the hams. Fleshy,
plump, rounding fullness perceptible everywhere. Rump rounding
and gradually sloping from the loin to the root of the tail. Broad
and well developed all along from loin and gradually rounding to
buttock ; lower front part of ham should be full, and stifle well cov-
ered with flesh. Even width of ham and rump with the back, loin
and body. Even a greater width as to females not objectionable . . 10
Objections: Ham short, narrow, too round or slim, not filled out above
or below, or unshapely for deep meat; not as wide as the body;
back or loin too tapering, or small; rump narrow or pointed, not
plump or well filled or too steep from loin to tail.

Legs and feet — Legs medium length, straight, heavy bone, set well apart
and squarely under body, tapering, well muscled and wide above knee
and hock; below hock and knee round and tapering, capable of sus-
taining weight of animal in full flesh without breaking down; bone

LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 517

Points
firm and of fine texture; pasterns short and nearly upright. Feet

firm, short, tough and free from defects 10

Objections: Legs long, slim, coarse, crooked; muscles small above hock
and knee; as large at foot as above knee; pasterns long, slim,
crooked or weak; the hocks turned in or out of straight line; legs
too close together; hoofs long, slim and weak; toes spreading out
or crooked or unable to bear up weight of animal without breaking
down.

Tail — Tail of medium length and size, smooth and tapering well and car-
ried in a curve 1

Objections: Coarse and long without a curl; or short, crooked or

stubby; or too small, fine, uneven, not tapering.
Coat — Fine, straight, smooth, lying close to and covering the body well;

not clipped ; evenly distributed over the body . . . . 3

Objections: Bristles, hair coarse, harsh, thin, wavy or curly; swirls;
standing up; ends of hair split and brown, not evenly distributed
over att of the body, except the belly. Clipped coats should be cut
1.5 points.

Color — Black with six (6) white points; tip of tail, four white feet
and white in face, or on the nose or on the point of the lower jaw.
All to be perceptible without close examination. Splashes of white
on the jaw, legs or flank or a few white spots on the body not objec-
tionable 2

Objections: Solid black, white mixed or sandy spots. Speckled with
white hairs over the body; mottled face or white and black; hair
mixed, making a grizzly appearance.

Size — Large for age. Condition, vigor and vitality to be considered.
There should be a difference between breeding animals and those
kept or fitted for the show of at least 25 per cent in size. In
show condition or when fat, weights for the different ages should <
be about as follows: Boars over two years old, seven hundred (700)
pounds. Sows over two years old, six hundred (600) pounds. Boars
eighteen months old, six hundred (600) pounds. Sows eighteen
months old, five hundred (500) pounds. Boars one year old, four
hundred and fifty (450) pounds. Sows one year old, four hundred and
fifty (450) pounds. Boars and sows six mo-nths old, one hundred and
eighty (180) pounds. All hogs in just fair breeding condition, one-
fourth less for size. The keeping and chance that a young boar ,
has cuts quite a figure in his size and should be considered, other points
being equal. Fine quality and size, combined, are desirable . . . . 10
Objections: Overgrown, coarse, flabby, loose appearance, gangling, j
hard to fatten; too fine, undersize; short, stubby, inclined to
chubby fatness. Not a hardy, robust animal.

Action and style — Action vigorous, easy and graceful. Style attractive;
high carriage; and in males testicles should be prominent and of

about the same size, and yet not too large or pouchy 3

Objections: Clumsy, slow, awkward movement; low carriage, waddling
or twisted walk. A seeming tired or lazy appearance; not stand-
ing erect and firm.

Condition — Healthy, skin clear of scurf, scales and sores ; soft and mellow
to the touch; flesh fine; evenly laid on and free from lumps and
wrinkles. Hair soft and lying close to the body; good feeding

qualities 2

Objections: Unhealthy, skin scaly, wrinkled, scabby or harsh, flabbi-
ness or lumpy flesh; too much fat for breeding. Hair harsh, dry
and standing up from the body; poor feeders; deafness, partial or
total.

518 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points
Disposition, — Lively, easily handled and seemingly kind and responsive

to good treatment 2

Objections: Cross, sluffgish, restless, wild or of a vicious turn.
Symmetry of points — The adaptation of all the points, size and style

combined to make the desired type or model 2

Total.

The Chester White breed of swine is of American origin.
It is a pure white breed, except for the occurrence of an
occasional blue-black spot in the skin. Any black or red
hair indicates impurity of blood. In size, the Chester "White
ranks among the large breeds. . Mature boars in fair flesh
should weigh about 600 pounds, and mature sows about 500.
Boars and sows six months old weigh about 175 pounds in
fair condition. Rather distinctive features of this breed
are a nearly straight face, and ears that droop or break
over one-third to one-half their length. Much emphasis
is placed on the ears being fine of texture and carried so
as to break over neatly. Erect ears are not characteristic
of the breed. Good specimens show a fairly short head,
although long heads are rather common. The back on well-

Fig. 286. — Chester White sow, "Barget C," first prize in class at Ohio

State Fair.

LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 519

fattened animals has great width and arch of rib, as viewed
from one end, while the side view should show a strong
arch in the back line. Chester "Whites tend to be rather
fine of bone for the weight they carry. The pasterns are
often too sloping and appear weak and unable to give proper
support to the body. Coats of curly hair occasionally occur
with this breed and, while not popular, do not disqualify
for registration.

SCALE OF POINTS FOB CHESTER WHITE SWINE.

(Adopted by the Chester White Record Association, 1913.)

Points

Head and face — Head short and wide; cheeks neat; jaws broad and
smooth; forehead medium, high and wide; face short and smooth;

nose neat, tapering and slightly dished 4

Objections: Head long, narrow or coarse; cheeks too full; forehead
low and 'narrow; jaws contracted and weak; face long, narrow and
straight; nose coarse, clumsy or dished like the Berkshire.
Eyes — Bright, large, clear and free from wrinkles or overhanging f at . . 2

Objections: SmaM, deep set, surrounded by wrinkles or fat.
Ears — Drooping at tip to give graceful appearance; thin, soft, pointing

outward and forward ; well proportioned to size of body . . . . 2
Objections: Too large and coarse; thick, lopping; lying too near the

face; stiff, erect or too small. Not under control.
Neck — Wide, deep, short and nicely arched ; neatly tapering from the

shoulder . . 2

Objections: Narrow, thin, long, flat on top; tucked up; not extending

down to breast bone.
Jowl — Smooth, neat, firm, full, carrying fullness well back to shoulders

and brisket when head is carried up level 2

Objections: Light, rough, and deeply wrinkled, too large and flabby,

not carrying fullness back to shoulders and brisket.
Shoulders — Broad, deep and full, extending in line with the side and

carrying size down to line of belly C

Objections: Deficient in width or depth, extending above line of back;
thick beyond line of sides and hams; shields on boars too coarse
and prominent.

Chest — Heart girth large, wide, deep and full; even underline to the
shoulder and sides, with no creases; giving plenty of room for the
heart and other organs, making a large girth, indicating much vi-
tality. Brisket smooth, even and broad; wide between the legs and

extending well forward, showing in front 12

Objections: Pinched appearance at the top or bottom, or tucked in back
of forelegs; showing too -narrow between, the legs; not d^ijth
enough back of the shoulder. Brisket uneven, narrow, not prom-
inent.
Back and loin — Broad, straight or slightly arched, uniform width, free

from lumps or rolls, same height and width at shoulder as at ham 14
Objections: Narrow, swayed, humped, creasing back of shoulders, sun-
fi»h shaped, uneven width, lumps or rolls.

520 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points

Sides and ribs — Sides full, smooth, deep, carrying size down to line
of belly, even with line of hum and shoulder. Ribs long, well sprung

at top and bottom, giving animal a square form 9

Objections: Sides: Flat, thin, flabby, uneven surface, compressed at

bottom, shrunken at shoulder and hain. Ribs: Too short, /(at.
Belly and flank — Belly same width as back, full, straight, drooping as
low at flank as at bottom of chest; line of lower edge running
parallel with sides. Flank full and even with body, equalling heart

girth . . 4

Objections — Belly narrow, pinched, sagging or flabby. Flank thin,
tucked up or drawn in, less than heart girth or length of body
from top of head to root of tail.

Hams and rump — Broad, full, long, wide and deep, admitting of no swells;

buttocks full, neat and clean ; stifle well covered with flesh, nicely

tapering toward the hock; rump slightly rounding from loin to

root of tail, same width as back, making an even line with sides . . 10

Objections: Narrow, short, not filled out to stifle, too much cut up in

crotch or twist, not coming down to hock; buttocks flabby; rump

flat, narrow, too long, too sharp or peaked at root of tail.

Legs and feet — Legs medium length, strong and straight, set well apart

and well under body ; bone of good size, firm, well muscled, wide

above knee and hock, round and tapering below knee and hock,

enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease ; pasterns short

and nearly upright. Feet short, firm, tough, animal standing well xip

on toes 9

Objections: Legs too short or too long, weak, crooked, too clone to-
gether; muscle* weak; bone too large and coarse., without toper:
pasterns long, crooked or slim. Hoofs Jong, slim, weak; toes
spreading, crooked or turned uj>.
Tail — Small, smooth, nicely tapering, root slightly covered with flesh;

carried in a curl 1

Objections: Coarse, too long, clumsy, straight.
Coat — Fine, either straight or wavy, with preference for straight, evenly

distributed and covering the body well ,°>

Objections: Bristles, swirls, hair coarse, thin, standing up, not evenly

distributed over all the body except the belly.

Color — White. Red or black spots in hair disqualify, but blue spots
in hide (commonly known as freckled) while objectional and should

be discouraged, do not argue impurity of blood . . 2

Objections: Color any other than white.

Size — Large for age and condition. Boars two years and over, if in
good flesh, should weigh not less than 500 pounds; sows same age
and condition, not less than 450 pounds. Boars eighteen months
old, in good flesh, should weigh not less than 400 pounds; sows ?,~>o.
Boars twelve months old, not less than 350 pounds; sows I5UO.
Boars and sows six months old not less than 150 pounds each, and

other ages in proportion H

Objections: Overgrown, coarse, uncouth, hard to fatten.
Action and style — Easy and graceful ; high carriage ; active ; gentle and
easily handled. In males, testicles should be readily seen, and of

same size and carriage 3

Objections: Sluggish, awkward, low carriage, wild, vicious. In males,
testicles not distinctly visible, nor of same size and carriage.

Condition — Healthy and mellow touch, fat evenly laid on 2

Objections: Harsh to touch, flabbiness, fat in lumps on back or sides.

Disposition — Quiet and gentle 2

Objections: Cross, restless, quarrelsome.

LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE

521

Points
the points,

Symmetry or adaptation of points — The adaptation of all

site and style comlnncd to inaivc the desired type or model . . . . 3

Total 1UU

Disqualifications for registry:

1. Sows scoring less Hum do points.

2. Boars scoring less than 70 points.

3. lied or black hair in co;il.

4. Barren or stunted animals.

The Duroc-Jersey breed of swine is of American origin,
and has gone through its most important development in
the middle west, especially in Ohio. This is a red breed,
the color varying from a light sandy red to a dark cherry
red. The brighter color is more popular. Very dark red
or chestnut is objectionable. Black spots in the skin are
also unpopular. In size, the Duroc-Jersey ranks among the
large breeds. Boars two years old or over, in fair condi-
tion, should weigh about 600 pounds, and sows of the same
age and condition about 500 pounds. Boars twelve months
old, in fair condition, should weigh about 350 pounds, and
sows of the same age and condition about 300 pounds.

Fig. 287. — Duroc-Jersey sow, "Pearl M. C.'

522 ' JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Boars of this. breed are reported to liave weighed 1,000
pounds and more. The face of the Duroc- Jersey is either
nearly straight or slightly dished, the nose of medium
length, and the ears drooping forward, the top third break-
ing over. Young Duroc- Jersey males often show consider-
able length and coarseness of face, but this feature may be
more or less outgrown. Two types of Duroc-Jerseys are
more or less to be seen, a large-bodied, strong-framed,
stretchy sort, and a more refined and compact kind, that
matures early and does not attain the largest size. Size
with quality is what is attracting attention with present day
breeders. To secure this the body should be long, the back
strongly arched, the ribs well sprung, and with plenty of
depth. Large, strong bone is a much desired feature, with
the animal standing well on the toes. The Duroc-Jersey
has been much improved since the year 1900, and smooth-
ness of fleshing is especially emphasized by the best breeders.
Heaviness of shoulder and creases on the body are regarded
with special disfavor. The Duroc-Jersey should show a
long, wide, level rump and thick, well filled-out thighs, al-
though the ham lacks the roundness and fullness so often
seen in Poland-China. In temperament the Duroc-
Jersey ranks well, being active, yet usually quiet and easily
handled.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR DUROC-JERSEY SWINE.

(Adopted by the National Duroc-Jersey Record Association.)

Points

Head and Face — Head small in proportion to size of body, wide between
eyes; face nicely dished (about half way between Poland-China and
Berkshire), and tapering well down to nose; surface smooth and

even 4

Objections: Large and coarse, narrow between eyes, face straight,
crooked nose or too much dished.

Eyes — Lively, bright and prominent 2

Objections: Dull, weak and obscure.

Ears — Medium, moderately thin, pointing forward and downward r,nd

slightly outward, carrying a slight curve, attached to head neatly . . 2
Objections: Very large, round or nearly so; too swinging or flabby, not
of same size, or different positions, and not under control.

Neck — Short, thick and very deep ; slightly arching 2

Objections: Long, shallow, thin.

LA HI) TYI'K BHKKDS OF SWIXK 523

Jowl — Uroad, full and neat, carrying fullness back to point of shoulders,

and in line with breast bone '2

Objections: Too large, loose and flabby, or too small, thin and wedging.

Shoulders — Moderately broad, very deep and full, and not extending

above line of back; carrying thickness well down 6

Objections: Shin'l. thin. .v/m//«/r, e.rfcndim/ above line of back; boars
under one year old heavily shielded.

Chest — Large, very deep, filling full behind shoulders, and breast bone

extending well forward so as to be readily seen 12

Objections: Flat, shallow, or not extending well down between forelegs.

Back and loin — Medium in breadth, straight or slightly arching; carry-

ing even width from shoulder to ham: surface even and smooth .. 11
Objections: Narrow, creased behind shoulders; swayed or humped up.

Sides and ribs — Sides very deep, medium length ; level between shoulders
and hams, and carrying out full down to belly. Ribs, long, strong, and

sprung in proportion to width of shoulders and hams 9

Objections: Flnbh//, created . Nlxtllnti' and not curri/ing proper width
from tup to bill/din.

Belly and flank — Straight and full, and carrying out full to line of sides.

Flank well down to lower line of sides 4

Objections: Narroiv, tucked up, sagging or flabby. Flanks tucked up

or drawn in.

Hams and rump — Broad, full and well down to hock. Buttocks full and
come nearly down to and fill full between hocks. Rump should have
a rounding slope from loin to root of tail ; same width as back, and well

filled out around tail 10

Objections: Hams narroic. xliort, thin; not projecting well down to
hock*: cut u}> too liit/li in crotch. Jliimp narrow, flat or peaked
at root of tail, or ton xti-en.

Legs and feet — Medium in si/.e and length; straight, nicely tapering; wide
apart and well set iipon the body, pasterns short and strong. Feet

short, firm, tough . . .... . . '•'

Objections: I*C<JN e.rtrcnicl// Jon;/ or xhort, slim, coarse, crooked; //.v
lurye brio ic the knee- «nd hock o.v above; set too close together;
Jioekn turned: in or out of xtrtiiyJit line. Hoofs long, slim and
weak; toes Nj>rctn]ln</ and crooked.
Tail — Medium large at base and nicely tapering and rather bushy at point 1

Objections: Extremely heavy, too long and ropy.

Coat,: Moderately thick and fine, straight, smooth, and covering the body well 3
Objections: Manif brittle*-; hulr coarse, harsh and rough; wavy and
curled; swirls or not evenly laid over the body.

Color: Cherry red, without other admixtures -

Objections: Yeri/ dark red or shady brown; very light or pale red;
black xyio/x orer the body; black flecks on belly and legs not de-
sired, but admissible.

Size — Large for age and condition ; boars two years old or over should
weigh 600 pounds; sows, same age and condition, 500 pounds; boars
eighteen months 475 pounds; sows, 400 pounds; boars twelve months,
350 pounds, and sows 300 pounds; boars and sows six months of age,
!.")!» pounds. These figures are for animals in fair show condition . . i>
Objections: Rough, coarse and lacking in feeding qualities.

Action and style — Action, vigorous and animated; style, free and easy . . 3
Objections: Dull and stupid, awkward and wobbling. Testicles not
easily seen, nor of same size or carriage; too large or only one
showing.

524 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points
Condition — Healthy; skin free from any scurf, scales, sores and mange,

and flesh laid evenly over entire body and free from lumps 2

Objections: Unhealthy, scales, sores and mange; too fat for breeding
purposes; hair harsh and standing up; poor feeders, etc.

Disposition — Very quiet and gentle; easily handled or driven 2

Objections: Wild, vicious or stubborn.
Symmetry of points . . 3

Total 100

Disqualifications.

Form: Ears standing erect; small cramped chest and crease back of shoulders,
no as to cause a depression in the back easily noticed; seriously deformed legs
and badly broken down feet. Size: Very small or not over half size as given
in this standard. Condition: Excessive fatness; barrenness; seriously diseased;
blindness. Score: Less than 50 points. Pedigree: Not eligible to record.

Fig. 288. — Cheshire boar, twice grand champion of breed at New York
State Fair. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

The Cheshire breed of swine originated in Jefferson
County, New York. In color, the Cheshire should be pure
white, excepting for the occasional occurrence of small
blue-black spots on the skin. The size is of the medium
class, and the standard of excellence gives 400 to 600 pounds
for hogs of the breed when of mature size and well fattened.
Special characteristics of the Cheshire, other than those

LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 525

above noted, are a tendency to shortness of head, a moder-
ately dished face, erect or nearly erect small ear, wide and
slightly arched back, and hams of the thick-fleshed type.
These pigs are little known outside of New York and have
had a very limited distribution.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR CHESHIRE SWINE.

(Adopted by the Cheshire Swine Breeders' Association.)

Points

Head — Short to medium in length, short in proportion to length of body. . 8

Face — Somewhat dished, and wide between the eyes 8

Jowl — Medium in fullness 3

Ears — Small, fine, erect, and in old animals pointing slightly forward.. 5

Neck — Short and broad 3

Shoulders — Broad, full, deep 6

Girth around heart 8

Back — Long, broad, straight nearly to root of tail 10

Sides — Deep and full, nearly straight on bottom line 7

Flanks — Well back and low down, making flank girth nearly equal to heart

girth 3

Hams — Broad, and nearly straight with back, and running down well toward

hock ."' 10

Legs — Small and slim, set well apart, supporting body well on toes . . . 10

Tail — Small, slim and tapering

Hair — Fine, medium in thickness and quantity

Color — -White, and colored hairs to disqualify

Skin — Fine and pliable, small blue spots objectionable, but allowable

3
3

2
3
Symmetry — Animal well proportioned, handsome and stylish 8

Total 100

The Hampshire breed of swine is of American origin,
having long been known in Kentucky and southern Indiana
HIM lor the name of Thin Rind. The early career of this
breed in the middle west was as a bacon type of pig, but
in recent years it has been bred in the corn belt so as to
closely approach the lard type hog. However, it is more
comparable with the leaner type of Berkshire. The Hamp-
shire is a black breed with a white belt about the body.
This belt, which should encircle the body between shoulders
and hips, may be quite narrow, or rather wide, there being
no uniformity on this point. A- band four to 12 inches
wide just back of the shoulders, is most approved. It is
not at all unusual for Hampshire sows to farrow solid black
pigs, which illustrates the difficulty in uniformity of repro-
duction of the desired white belt. In size the Hampshire

526 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

is of medium class, although some large examples have
been produced. Boars sometimes attain 600 pounds weight,
although this is not often the case. Mature breeding males
will usually weigh from 400 to 500 pounds and females
from 350 to 400 pounds. A standard weight for boars or
sows at twelve months is 300 pounds. The head of the
Hampshire is moderately long and straight, of just fair
width, and with more or less erect ears that point slightly
forward. The shoulders tend to be smooth and well laid

Fig. 289. — "The Hampshire is a black breed with a white belt about

the body."

in, the back of only medium width, yet well supported. The
rump often lacks in width, but shows ample length, and
the hams are of medium thickness only, the twist often
showing a shallow development. Hampshire pigs may show
notable smoothness of body and be lacking in depth of rib,
compared with the more prominent lard type breeds. Form-
erly, the Hampshire inclined to be somewhat leggy, but
present day type pigs of the breed are not subject to special
criticism in this regard. In a general way, the Hampshire
is a very trim, active breed of hogs, that produces excellent
meat. In recent years it has grown greatly in popularity
in the middle western states.

LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 527

SCALE OF POINTS FOR HAMPSHIRE SWINE.

(Adopted by the Hampshire Record Association.)

Points

Head and face — Head medium length, rather narrow, cheeks not full.
Face, nearly straight and medium width between the eyes; surface even

and regular I

Objections: Head large, coarse and ridgy; nose crooked or mn<-i,

dished.

Eyes— Bright, and lively, free from wrinkles or fat surroundings . . . . 2
Objections: Small, deep or obscure, or vision impaired by fat or other

causa.

Ears — Medium length, thin, slightly inclined outward and forward . . . . '-!
Objections: Large, coarse, thick, large or long knuckle, drooping or not

under good control of the animal.

Neck — Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from shoulder to head . . 2
Objections — Long, thick or bulky.

Jowl — Light, and tapering from neck to point ; neat and firm 2

Objections: Large, broad, deep or flabby.

Shoulders — Deep, medium width and full, well in line with back . . . . (5
Objections: Narrow on top or bottom, thick beyond line with Hide* and

hams.
Chest — Large, deep and roomy; full girth, extending down even with line

of belly I'J

Objections: Narrow at top or bottom; small girth, cramped <>r

tucked up.

Back and loin — Back straight or slightly arched, medium breadth, w'th
nearly uniform thickness from shoulders to hams and full at loins;

sometimes higher at hips than shoulders 15

Objections: Narrow, creased or droopy behind shoulders; surface rid mi

or uneven.

Sides and ribs — Sides smooth, full, firm, carrying size evenly from shoul-
ders to hams; ribs strong, well sprung at top and bottom 8

Objections: Sides thin, fla>, flabby or creased, or ribs not well *i>nt.ng.
Belly and flank: Straight and full, devoid of grossness; flank full and run-
ning nearly on line with sides 6

Objections: Belly sagging or flabbi/ ; flank thin or tucked up.
Hams and rump: Hams of medium width, long and deep; rump slightly
rounded from loin to root of tail ; buttock full, neat and firm ; devoid

of flabbiness or excessive fat 10

Objections: Ham narrow, cut too high in crotch; buttock flabby ; rump

too fat, too narrow or too steep, or peaked at root of tail.
Legs and feet: Legs medium length, set well apart and squarely under
body, wide above knee and hock, and rounded and well muscled be-
low, tapering; bone medium, pasterns short and nearly upright; toes
short and firm, enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease. . . . 10
Objections: Legs too long, slim, crooked, coarse or short; weak HIUX-
cles above hock, and knee bone large and coarse, and legs without
taper; pasterns too long to correspond with length of lea, too
crooked or too slender; feet long, slim and weak; toes .v/*/v«</ /////.
too long, crooked or turned up.

Tail — Medium length, slightly curled 1

Objections: Coarse, long, clumsy, swinging like a pendulum.

Coat — Fine, straight, smooth 2

Objections: Bristles or swirls, coarse or curl//.
Color — Black, with exception of white belt encircling body, including fore

legs 2

Objections: White running high on hind legs, or extending more than
one-fourth length of body, or solid black.

528

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points
Size — Large for condition; boar, two years old and over, 450 Ibs.; sow,

same age, 400 Ibs. ; eighteen months boar, 350 Ibs. ; sow, 325 Ibs. ;

twelve months boar or sow, 300 Ibs. ; six months, both sexes, 140 Ibs. 5
Action and style — Active, vigorous, quick and graceful; style, attractive

and spirited 4

Objections: Dull, sluggish and clumsy,
Condition- — Healthy, skin free from all defects, flesh evenly laid on and

smooth and firm, not patchy, and devoid of all excess of grossness . . 4

Objections: Skin scurfy, scaly, mangy or otherwise unhealthy; hair

harsh, dwarfed or cramped, not growthy.
Disposition — Docile, quiet, and easily handled 3

Objections: Cross, restless, vicious, or with no ambition.

Total. .

. 100

Disqualifications.

Color — Spotted, more than two-thirds white, or solid black.

Form — Any radical deformity, ears very large or drooping over eyes, crooked

or weak legs, or broken-down feet.
Condition — Seriously impaired or diseased, excessive grossness, . barrenness

in animals over two years of age, chuffy or squabby fat.
Size — Not two-thirds standard weight.
Pedigree — Not eligible to record.

Fig. 290. — "The distinguishing feature of this
breed is a solid instead of cloven hoof." (Photo
by courtesy Mr. G. C. Kreglow.)

The Mulef oot

breed of swine is
of uncertain nativ-
ity. In its im-
proved form it is
an American prod-
uct, having re-
ceived its first im-
p o r t a n t develop-
ment in Ohio and
Illinois. It may be
regarded as of the
lard type. The dis-
tinguishing feature
of this breed is a
solid, instead o f
cloven foot, sugges-
tive of the hoof of a
mule in miniature.
The color is usually
a solid black,

LARD TYPE BREEDS OF SWINE 529

though white points are admissible. The size is medium ;
boars over two years of age should weigh about 500
pounds in fair condition, and sows of the same age
about 400 pounds. Boars or sows at twelve months
of age weigh about 300 pounds. In general conformation
the improved Mulefoot closely resembles the Poland-China,
the blood of which, it may be assumed, has been at some
time used on the Mulefoot. Aside from color and foot
character, no striking differences are manifest between
good examples of the two breeds. The Mulefoot, however,
shows a greater variation in character than usually occurs
with an improved breed. The claim has been made by its
promoters that this is a cholera-proof breed, but there is
no satisfactory evidence to support this claim.

SCALE OF POINTS FOR MULEFOOT SWINE.

(Adopted l»y the National Mulefoot Hog Record Association.)

Points
Head and face — Head medium length. Face broad between the eyes, nearly

straight, cheeks full, surface even and regular -1

Objections: Head large, coarse, crooked or much dished, long -nose.
Eyes — Bright and lively, free from wrinkles or fat surroundings . . . . 2
Objections: Entail, deep or obscure, or vision impaired b,n fat or other

cause.
Ears — Medium length, thin tipped, slightly inclined outward and forward.

knuc.k small and well set to the head 2

Objections: Large, coarse, thick; large or long knnck drooping or -not

under good control of the animal, or too erect.

Neck — Short, well set to the shoulders, tapering from shoulder to head . . 2
Objections: Jjong, thick or bulky.

Jowl — Full, neat and firm, tapering from neck to point 2

Objections — Thin or flabby.

Shoulders — Medium width, deep, full, not extending above line of back. . 0
Objections: Narrow, cramped, flat, e.rfen<l!ng above line of back ami

sloping too much from -point to tup.
Chest — Large, deep and roomy; full girth, extending down even with line

of belly 12

Objections: Narrow at top or bottom, small, girth, cramped or tucked

up.
Back and loin — Slightly arched, good breadth, with uniform thickness from

shoulders to hams; full at loin 15

Objections: Narroic, created or drooped beJrind ttlnmlderx, surface ridgy

or unei'i'ii.

Sides and ribs — Sides full, smooth form, carrying size evenly from shoul-
ders to hams; ribs strong, well sprung at top and bottom 8

Objections: Sides thin, flat, flabby, or creased; ribs not well sprung.
Belly and flank — Straight and full, devoid of coarseness; flank full and

running nearly on line with side 6

Objections: Belly sagging or flabby, coarse; flank thin or tucked up.

530 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

Points

Hams and rump J Hams full, long and deep ; rump slightly rounded from

loin to root of tail; buttock full, neat and firm 10

Objections: Ham narrow, cut too high in crotch; rump too steep or too
narrow, peaked at root of tail; buttock flabby.

Legs and feet — Legs medium length, set well apart and squarely under body,
wide above knee and hock, rounded and well muscled below; tapering;
medium bone; pastern short and nearly upright. Foot solid, short,

smooth, enabling the animal to carry its weight with ease* 10

Objections: Legs too long or too short, slim, crooked or coarse; mus-
cles weak or light; joints coarse, not tapering; pastern too long,
crooked or slender; foot long, slim, weak or turned up.

Tail — Medium length, straight or slightly curled 1

Objections: Coarse, long, clumsy, swinging.

Coat — Fine, straight, smooth, soft to touch 2

Objections: Bristles or swirls, coarse or curl)/ hair.

Color — Black; white points admissible 2

Objections: Too much white on feet, any white spots on body or head.

Size — Large for condition; boars two years and over should weigh 500
pounds, sow same age, 450; twelve months boar or sow, 300; six
months boar or sow, 175 pounds 5

Action and style — Active, vigorous, graceful, style attractive 4

Objections: Dull, sluggish, clumsy.

Condition — Healthy; skin free from defect; flesh smooth, firm and evenly

laid on 4

Objections: Unhealthy, skin scurfy, scaly or mangy; hair harsh, not
growthy.

Disposition — Docile, quiet and easily handled 3

Objections: Cross, restless, nervous, sluggish or without ambition.

Total. ... .100

CHAPTER LI.

JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE.

THE bacon hog is a well-recognized market type and is
increasing- in importance with the demand for leaner pork,
and especially breakfast bacon. The most valued charac-
teristic of the bacon type is a long side, that when properly
cured produces the choicest grade of bacon. Such bacon
as this has alternate layers of lean meat and fat, firm of
quality, without the heavy layer of external fat so much
a feature of the lard hog. In years past, in southern Eng-
land, in the county of Wilts (usually termed Wiltshire),
the people produced and fed a class of hogs from which
was made the choicest bacon. Gradually the fame of the
Wiltshire side and bacon became widespread, so that to-day
this name is supposed to be representative of the choicest
quality of bacon. This ideal bacon hog is commonly pro-
duced in England, Scotland, Ireland, Denmark and to a
considerable extent, in Canada, Large Yorkshire or Tarn-
worth hogs or their grades, represent the best bacon type.
Animals of their class, when properly fed such foods as
barley, peas, oats, skim milk, etc., produce the choicest
grades of bacon. Indian corn is not only too fattening,
but produces a softer grade of fat than is approved of by
the bacon judges. Bacon hogs, raised in the corn belt and
fed corn as the major part of their rations, after some gen-
cm lions lose much of the more important bacon -producing
characteristics, and tend more and more toward the lard
type. Hogs of the bacon type are comparatively uncommon
in Hie United States. Farmers of this country have looked
1o the hog as an important consumer of the great corn crop,
and the lard type seems in part to result from this feeding.

531

532 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

SCALE OF POINTS FOR THE BACON TYPE OF HOG.

Standard of Score of
SCALE OF POINTS Perfect Hog

Score Studied
A — GENERAL APPEARANCE: 34 Points:

Weight. Should be well developed for age. Market
hogs should weigh 160-200 Ibs. as most ap-
proved weights ••. 5

Form, long, smooth, deep, strong top line, underline
straight, belly trim and neat, entire form well
balanced 10 ...

Quality, hair fine, skin smooth and free of creases,
bone clean and strong, flesh firm and smooth
at all parts 10

Condition, well covered with firm flesh, especially on

back and loin; not too fat 6 ....

Style, active and sprightly, walking true, standing

up well on toes 3 ....

B— HEAD AND NECK, 8 Points:

Snout, medium length and not coarse 1 ....

Face, broad between eyes, poll broad and full . . 1 ....

Eyes, of good size, full and bright 1 ....

Jowl, fair width and muscular, very neat and not

flabby 2 ....

Ears, moderately thin, fringed with fine hair . . . . 1 ....

Neck, medium length, muscular, without arch at top. . 2 ....

C — FOREQUARTERS, 12 Points:

Shoulders, smooth, upright, well laid in, compact,

no wider than back 6 ....

Breast, good width and full 3 ....

Forelegs, set well apart, medium length and straight,
bone clean and not coarse, pasterns erect, toes

not spread, and erect 3 ....

B — BODY, 33 Points:

Back, medium width, rising slightly above a straight

line, making slight arch from neck to tail . . . . 6 ....

Loin, wide as rest of back, strong and full, not much

arched 5 ....

Ribs, well sprung, then sharply vertical, long . . 4 ....

Sides, long, fairly deep, flat, straight from shoulder

to ham, smooth 8 ....

Chest, full, even with shoulder, with no tucked-up

appearance above or back shoulders 5 ....

Flanks full and low, not flabby 2 ....

Belly, firm, trim, thick, yet not flabby nor

shrunken 3 ....

E — HINDQUARTERS, 13 Points:

Rump, same width as back, long, level, tail set fairly

high 4

Hams, full, not flabby, thighs tapering toward hocks,

without folds or creases 0 ....

Hind legs, set well apart at hocks, medium long,
straight, bone clean and strong, pasterns Tip-
right, toes not spread and erect 3

Total points 100

JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE

533

In the following discussion, emphasis will be placed on
those features that are specifically characteristic of the
bacon hog". Other features that have a similar significance
in both lard and bacon type, and which have already been
discussed in the case of the lard pig, need not be so exten-
sively considered here. Persons interested in the details of
judging swine should first be familiar with the pages pre-
ceding, that discuss the methods and details involved in
judging lard hogs.

The general appearance of the bacon hog as compared
with the lard type, shows considerable length of body, dis-
tinctly less thickness and depth, a greater length of leg,
and much less fullness about the jowl, neck, shoulder and
ham. As an animal of this type walks about, the onlooking
judge is impressed with a conformation in which length
and narrowness are associated with a sort of litheness of

Fig. 291. — "The general appearance of the bacon hog, as compared with
the lard hog, shows considerable length of body, distinctly less thickness
and depth, a greater length of leg, and much less fullness about the Jowl,
neck, shoulder and ham."

534 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

form and activity of limb, freedom of motion, quite in con-
trast with the shorter, thicker, more phlegmatic lard hog.

The weight of the bacon hog naturally depends on the
age, condition and purpose. For market purposes, from
160 to 200 pounds is most acceptable, although individuals
may reach 225 pounds and meet with favor. When espe-
cially fed for bacon production, however, it is conceded
that the farther the animal passes beyond the 200 pounds
weight, the more the tendency to produce an undesirable
amount of fat. Therefore, in judging market weight, these
figures must b© given careful consideration. With five
points as a perfect score for weight, an animal weighing
250 pounds might be graded off 30 per cent, giv-
ing a score of 3.5 points, thus indicating undesirable
weight. In case one is scoring breeding hogs of this type
these figures would not apply. Persons scoring breeding
stock on weight might adopt 300 pounds for twelve months
of age, with 600 pounds for mature females and 700 pounds
for boars. Yet these weights are frequently exceeded, espe-
cially by Large Yorkshires and Tamworths.

The form of the bacon hog, as has already been expressed,
should show great proportionate length, with strongly sus-
tained back, though but little arched. From a side view,
the form appears very smooth, free of creases, and having
fair depth, though with plenty of daylight below, and with
back and belly lines rather parallel. As the form is sur-
veyed from either in front or behind, it seems narrow, with
opposite sides parallel from shoulder to ham. Roundness
and fullness are distinctly lacking in any great degree.

Quality in the bacon hog is not essentially different in
character from that of the lard type. However, much em-
phasis is placed on smoothness and freedom from creases
or wrinkles, for a side thus affected would be quite impos-
sible for making prime bacon. The judge should discrim-
inate sharply against any roughness and creases about the
shoulder and sides. A fine coat of hair, uniformly and
smoothly distributed over the body, is an indicator of su-

JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE

535

perior quality of fleshing, such as is much desired in bacon
production. Roughness of bone is most easily to be noted
with bacon hogs, and should be discriminated against se-
verely. The bone should be clean and neat. The head
being comparatively lean and long with this type also gives
expression to quality in a considerable degree. However,
lack of quality here is measured rather by roughness and
coarseness than by length.
One may see some bacon hogs
with very long heads which
in no sense lack quality.

Condition in the bacon hog
is a very special feature of
this type. The frame should
be covered with firm flesh,
without a thick layer of fat.
Nothing suggestive of rolls of
fat at any part of the body,
or unevenness of condition,
meets with favor in the eyes
of the bacon judge. The en-
tire covering should rather be
neatly laid on, showing a firm
consistency of flesh so highly
essential in bacon. The touch
of the fingers to back, side
shoulder or ham, should give
a firm, yet mellow response, •

without the deepness of fleshing felt in the lard type. The
buyer of bacon hogs places great emphasis on this condition.

Style and action in the bacon hog" are quite notable. In
action, in particular, this is manifested by a long stride
and much activity, due to a rather muscular conformation,
very good length of limb and perhaps nervous temperament.

The head and neck of the bacon hog, as combined fea-
tures, exhibit length to a marked degree. In fact, it is im-
possible to maintain bacon type with short head and

Fig. 292. — "As the form is sur-
veyed from either in front or be-
hind, it seems narrow."

536 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

neck, characteristic of the lard type. The snout is nat-
urally the part which shows length to the most striking
degree, and sometimes with the Tamworth, the length
of snout is extreme. Bacon producers do not discrimi-
nate against hogs with long snouts if they possess
plenty of quality. The face should be broad between the
eyes, and but very little dished if at all. The dish face
is rather a characteristic of the shorter bodied, fatter type
of hog. For a time, Large Yorkshire breeders favored the
dish face, and breeding with this point in view resulted in
reducing size and increasing the tendency toward the lard
type. In other words, thickness and shortness are incon-
sistent with bacon conformation. The eyes of the bacon
hog should never be surrounded by wrinkles of fat; they
should be prominent and easily seen. If the whites can
be clearly seen, which is usually the case, then the eyes are
not lacking in size. Occasionally the eyelids are red and
inflamed and the animal looks far from attractive. Tlic
jowl should be very trim and neat, firm and muscular,
rather than round and heavy with fat. A heavy jowl is
an indication of a tendency toward fat production on the
part of this type of hog. Look for a neatly rounded, smooth
jowl, as expressing ideal conformation and quality. Ears
inclining to be thin and long, rather than thick and short,
are characteristic with the bacon sort. The neck, as has
been already stated, with this type, inclines to be long and
lacking in flesh. It is important, however, not to have too
much length and leanness, for this implies waste and, in
breeding stock, lack of stamina and poor feeding qualities.
A medium between the short, thick, fat neck and the long,
lean one is what is desired. Day states * that ' ' a short,
thick neck with an arch, or crest of fat on top, such as is
commended in the fat hog, will cause the side of bacon to
be heavy at the shoulder and neck end, and this is the cheap
end of a side of bacon." Therefore, any tendency to an
arch is quite undesirable, and the judge should discriminate

1 Productive Swine Husbandry, 1913, p. 16.

JUDGING THE BACON TYI'K OF SWINE 537

against it. The top of the neck, however, should not be
too narrow and ridge-like near the head. It should rather
round up over the top in full form as one evidence of neces-
sary vigor.

The f orequarters of the bacon hog: include the shoulders,
breast and forelegs. The shoulders, as a first essential,
should be smooth, light, and neatly laid in, and bacon hog
judges emphasize these features. This being one of the
cheaper parts of the body, a heavy shoulder is not wanted.
Another feature of conformation, also, is rather an upright
carriage of shoulder, for the reason 2 that when in this
position the animal is * ' comparatively short from the back
of the shoulder to the snout, but long from the back of the
shoulder to the rump." "When viewed from above, the
shoulders should appear compact on the top, and well cov-
ered, rather than open and lacking in covering. The thick-
ness over the shoulder tops should not exceed the general
back width, in fact it should be slightly less. If it is
notably more, then the conformation is heavy and the out-
side of the blade is not well covered. The breast should
be wide and full, the sternum projecting even with the
front of legs or beyond, indicating constitution. Depth of
breast is also sought for, but with the bacon type this is not
emphasized as with the lard type. If the chest lacks ma-
terially in depth, then there will be a lack in depth of side,
which is highly undesirable. The forelegs, excepting for
length, should possess the same general characteristics found
in the lard hog. They incline to be long, however, and
should not be severely scored by the judge, unless their
length is associated with a shallow depth of body.

The body of the bacon hog furnishes the most important
and highest-priced cuts of pork, for in it we find the back,
loin and side. The back, as a first essential, must not be
too wide, but rather of medium width, for the wide back is
usually associated with fat production. It should be well
carried, arching very slightly, ^specially at the loin, and

2 Productive Swine Husbandry p 17

538

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

just enough to furnish strong support. A sagging back in
a breeding animal should be scored severely, excepting for
old age or in the case of a sow heavy in pig. In the case

of hogs ready for
the market, then
some sag of back is
not so important
from the butcher's
point of view, pro-
vided there is the
right width and
covering. The loin
furnishes the most
valuable cut in the
back, and should
have the same
width as the rest of
the back. This part,
however, in prime
condition, is very
strong, and is cov-
ered with a smooth
and firm layer of
flesh. Extending
over the back and
loin as a whole, for
it is all back, in
fact, there should
be a layer of fat
from an inch to an
inch and one-half in

thickness, extending smoothly and uniformly from neck to
loin. This fat covering is an important point with bacon pro-
ducers, and any excess in fat deposit is much discriminated
against by buyers, for the best grades of bacon carry no thick
layers of fat. One of the fine points in feeding bacon hogs, is
to determine when the condition of flesh is just right, and so

Fig. 293. — "There should be a layer of fat
from an inch to an inch and a half in thickness,
extending smoothly and uniformly from neck to
loin."

JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE

539

sell before the hogs are overdone. In scoring on this point,
grade the animal in high condition more severely than the
one somewhat lacking in this respect. The ribs in a bacon
hog of the best type have a strong arch and then come
clown sharply into rather a vertical position. This is a dis-
tinctive feature of the ribbing, and through this conforma-
tion is secured the
flat side so much
valued by the ba-
con curer. The
ribs should also be
long, so as to pro-
vide depth of body
and size. The side
of the bacon hog,
to meet a critical
standard, must fur-
nish as completely
as possible four
things, viz., length,
depth, smoothness
and condition.
"From a packer's
standpoint, " says
Day,3 "a bacon hog cannot have too long a side, but
the breeder must exercise care that he does not
secure this extreme length at the expense of constitu-
tion. . . . It is absolutely necessary, however, that the hog
should have a good length of side, much more than is found
in the fat type." In the scale of points, eight points are
credited to the sides, or really 12, if we include the ribs.
No other part is allowed so many points and, in judging,
this must be kept in mind. Emphasize the four essential
features in the bacon side, and score sharply if the animal
is much defective in these characteristics. Note, in particu-
lar, smoothness and condition of fleshing. The chest, as

* Productive Swine Husbandry, 1913, p. 18.

Fig. 294. — " A bacon hog cannot have too long
a side."

540

JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

the part enclosing the vital organs, should be relatively
thick and deep. No depressions back of the shoulders,
or hollow or tucked-up flanks should be seen. A full, firm-
fleshed flank is essentially associated with constitutional vigor
and a good side of bacon as well. The belly, though fur-
nishing some of the cheapest meat, should be neat and trim,

thicker in its flesh-
ing here than in
the lard type, and
quite lacking in
flabby condition or
shrinkage about the
flanks. Paunchiness
or flabby condition
of the belly should
meet with distinct
disfavor.

The hindquar-
ters of the bacon
hog1 involve hips,
rump, hams and
legs. The rump
should be long, of
the same width as
the back, be carried level rather than droopy, and be
slightly rounded over the top from one side to the other.
The flat-topped, broad rump is likely to carry too much fat.
The hips should not be wider apart than the width of the
back, and should be smoothly covered. The hams, also
called the gammons by some British authorities, have a
shape very distinctive to this type • of hog. They should
exhibit much less thickness and fullness than does the ham
of the lard type, being more split up between, showing com-
paratively little twist, yet having a long, smooth muscle of
firm appearance, fleshing neatly and completely about the
lower thigh quite to the hock. The pared-off lower thigh
is easily seen from either one side or behind. A comparison

Fig. 295. — "A comparison of the hind ends of
lard and bacon types of hogs brings out in sharp
contrast the difference in thickness of hams, as
well as spread and height between the legs."

JUDGING THE BACON TYPE OF SWINE 541

of the hind ends of lard arid bacon types of hogs, brings
out in sharp contrast the difference in thickness of hams,
as well as spread and height between the legs. Allowance
should be made in passing on the hind legs, for more close-
ness between them than usually prevails with the lard type,
a feature that has no special bearing on the correct posture
of legs and feet. Cleanness and strength of bone, straight-
ness of leg, uprightness of pasterns and proper placings of
toes should be emphasized just as much as with the lard
hog. One naturally expects the bacon hog to carry himself
in ideal form on toes and pasterns, but he is often disap-
pointed in that respect. The judge should not be too
severe in his criticism of these two features, unless they are
distinctly and markedly defective. Furthermore, the judge
should be more exacting in the case of a younjg breeding
animal than one going finished to the shambles.

CHAPTER LII.

JUDGING BREEDING SWINE.

THERE are certain very essential things that must be kept
in > mind and understood when judging breeding swine.
Where hogs are simply fed and finished for the butcher,
then they are passed upon solely for their value as meat,
having in mind the standards already discussed in detail
in the preceding pages. But if the hogs are to be considered
as breeding animals, to be used for purposes of reproduc-
tion, then still other qualities and characteristics must be
considered. One must have in mind the ideal lard or
bacon type, and then either add to or subtract from this
type, so as to secure the ideal breeding conformation and
character. This requires consideration of the following
features when applied to the boar or sow :

(a) Sex character.

(6) Temperament.

(d) Frame.

(<?) Breed characteristics.

(A)— THE BOAR.

Sex character in the boar is manifested in several ways.
The head is strong, is larger than that of the female, and
shows pronounced masculinity. After attaining a few
months of age the young males begin to show a slight in-
crease in size of head and, as maturity approaches, heavy
tusks appear on the sides of each jaw. Thus in the mature
boar one looks for a strong head, with what might be re-
garded as a tendency to coarseness, as shown in the larger
features, thickness of skin and coarse type of hair. The

542

JUDGING BREEDING SWINE

543

neck should be strong, somewhat thick and perhaps a trifle
arched, though much arch is undesirable. In the shoulders,
sex is strongly manifested, in the shields, heavy coverings
of tough hide, which are very undesirable, and expert
judges always give
the preference to
the boar with
smooth and well-
laid shoulder. The
entire front part
of the boar tends
to broaden and
spread with age.
Such undesirable
development is lia-
ble to be repro-
duced in the pro-
geny. The sex of
the boar is also
prominent in his
reproductive o r -
garis. The scrotum
or sac containing
two testicles, ap-
pears in an incon-
spicuous form on
the young male

pig, between the hams and just below the vent or anus,
and with maturity this part assumes considerable size, and
projects out with distinct prominence. The judge should
see that there are two of these glands, of equal size and
exposure. Sometimes but one "seed," as the stockman
terms it, comes down from the scrotum and, though such
an animal may be a breeder, he is regarded as defective,
and should be so judged.

The temperament of the boar should be active to a certain
extent, but not nervously so. He is naturally inclined to

Fig. 296. — "In the mature boar one looks for
a strong head." "Berryton Duke, Jr." 77341,
:i noted Kansas Berkshire boar. (By courtesy
Orange Judd Pub. Co.)

544 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

fight with strange boars and to insist on having his own
way. There is altogether more self-assertion than in the
case of either barrow or sow, and sometimes he is blessed
with too much of this quality. Frequently, in the show
ring, he champs his jaws and froths at the mouth, a tem-
peramental action peculiar to his sex.

The size of the boar should somewhat exceed that of the
sow or sexless animal. At maturity he should show a
marked increase in size over the female, though no definite
figures can be established for this difference. It will de-
pend on the breed more than anything else. Large size of
male is not so essential, however, as some think. In fact,
if associated with coarseness it is undesirable. Perhaps
100 pounds greater weight than the sow, in the same flesh,
will not be much out of the way. The young boar should
have plenty of size for his age. If the boar is undersized
while young, he will not be likely to attain the size he
should at maturity.

The frame of the boar is to be seen in the character of
the bone, and in the breeding animal of this sex it should
be medium to large in size, with plenty of quality. Many
breeders prefer a large bone, especially as seen in the legs.
Too much refinement is objectionable, because at maturity
the animal cannot sustain his weight well and be used to
the best advantage for breeding, unless in a crate. The
boar, in ideal condition, has a strong frame, well covered
with muscles, such as indicate plenty of vitality. The
boar one sees so often at the shows, heavily covered with
fat, overdone and lacking in the activity so much desired
in breeding animals, is hardly a fit example of what the
breeding boar should be. The judge should discriminate
against the frame unduly submerged in fat.

Breed characteristics are important factors to consider
when one is judging pure bred animals. Each breed is char-
acterized by certain features of conformation and color.
The judge should be familiar with these characteristics.
The breeds differ more or less in shape of head, carriage and

JUDGING BREEDING SWINE 545

type of ear, conformation of body as expressed in width of
back and depth and length of middle, and in color and coat
of hair. Some breeds closely resemble each other in certain
things, such as head or color, for example. Between yet
other breeds there are striking differences in various ways.
The boar should be a good model of the breed, and whether
he is or not will depend on how closely he compares with
the breed standard.

(B)— THE SOW.

Sex character in the sow is especially seen in the fem-
inine type of head and neck ; the smooth, well-laid shoulder ;
length and depth of body, and mammary glands. The head
of the sow should show distinct refinement, and lack of the
self-assertive character so manifest in the boar. The neck
should be free of any thick, heavy crested condition, but
should be trim and neat, and appear a trifle longer than
with the boar. The shoulders should be smooth and laid in
neatly, so that the body will be no wider at this part than
further back, excepting when in thin flesh, due to nursing,
etc. Any thickness and heaviness of shoulder tends to mas-
culinity. The most distinguishing sex features of the sow
are the mammary glands or udder, which occupy the entire
space of the lower part of the belly. One gland extends
along each side, with a series of teats at regular intervals.
Six sound teats on each side are to be desired, though there
is some variation in this regard. One frequently finds sows
with blind or defective teats, due to injury, lack of use, etc.
Emphasis should be placed by the judge on the necessity
for sound and well-placed teats.

The temperament of the brood sow is of great impor-
tance. A naturally nervous, restless temperament is the
cause of great loss in young pigs, injured or neglected by
the mother. The model brood sow will lie quietly after pig-
ging, and while nursing her young will move about among
them with much care and quietness. She is not startled
by every noise, and grunts in a soothing, contented manner

-;5 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

to her pigs. In the show ring one cannot always determine
this matter of temperament, but, as a rule, the brood sow
that is quiet and easily moved about may be regarded as
having the most desirable temperament. Occasionally one
finds a sow that is lazy and awkward, lacking in activity,
and not disposed to attend to her pigs. She is almost as
bad as the high strung, nervous sow, for she rarely raises
a litter.

The size of the brood sow should be large, without coarse-

Fig. 297. — "The most distinguishing sex feature of the sow is the
mammary glands or udder."

ness. The present day tendency is to demand brood sows
with plenty of size and a reasonable amount of quality.
In the show ring the larger animal, other things being equal,
is given the preference. One reason for the great popu-
larity of the Duroc-Jersey in the middle west is the
considerable size of the matured females. The compact,
tidy, quick-maturing sort, that at one time was in favor,
has given way to the larger, slower-maturing, more ca-
pacious animal. A brood sow weighing around 400 to 450
pounds in the best of breeding condition will meet with favor.
Some breeds, like the Large Yorkshire, at maturity, weigh

JUDGING BREEDING SWINE 547

600 pounds and more. The most desirable size will quite
depend on breed influence.

The frame of the brood sow is more expansive, with
greater stretch than in the case of the boar. The ribs show
the depth so important in maternity, while emphasis is
placed on length of body and width and strength of back.
This body, neat and smooth in its lines, should be easily
carried on strong feet and legs. The side view, in particu-
lar, should show a frame well covered, not in high condi-
tion, and bearing evidence of first-class reproducing ca-
pacity. With too much length of frame comes a tendency
of the back to sag. This is indicative of weakness, conse-
quently a strong carriage of back is desirable. The judge,
however, should not severely discriminate against a sow
heavy in pig, for the great weight within naturally pulls
down the back line. Also, old brood sows, that have raised
a number of litters, tend to sag in the back with age, but
young sows should show a frame especially strong.

The breed characteristics of the brood sow need no
special discussion here, for what has been stated regarding
these features in the boar, will have quite a general applica-
tion with the sow.

CHAPTER LIII.

DESCRIPTIVE NOTES ON THE BACON TYPE
BREEDS OF SWINE.

The Large Yorkshire breed of swine is of English an-
cestry, having long been bred in England, and being the
most common of the British breeds of swine, where it is
known as the Large White Breed. It is white, and should
show no other color, except occasional small blue-black
spots on the skin. This is one of the largest breeds of
swine, and cases are on record of individuals weighing in
excess of 1,200 pounds. Mature boars, in fair flesh, at two
years of age or over, should weigh about 700 pounds, and
sows of the same age and condition, about 600 pounds. At
one year of age, either boars or sows should weigh about
350 pounds. This is a bacon type of swine, when properly
bred, and presents the following special characteristics:
a rather long, narrow and slightly dished face ; a large erect
or semi-erect ear, pointing forward; a smoothly laid-in
shoulder; narrow, long, yet strong, back; comparatively
wide loins; long, smooth, moderately deep sides; long,
fairly level, but only medium wide rump ; long, wide, but
not thick hams, with light twist ; and a tendency to more
length of leg than is popular with many American pork
producers. In general, one is impressed with the large per-
centage of side meat and much less thickness of back, jowl,
shoulder and ham, than obtains with the lard type. This
is quite a prolific breed, and the udder on the breeding
females should be well developed, and show twelve or more
teats.

In Great Britain there is a type of Yorkshire that is
shorter of head, and thicker all through, known there as

548

NOTES ON THE BACON TYPE 549

the Middle White. In the United States there is a tendency
to show hogs of this type as Large Yorkshires, as they uu-H
with more favor from our swine raisers. In Great Britain,
a Large Yorkshire (Large White) may farrow a litter,
some of the pigs of which may be Middle Whites, and will
be so recorded on the records of the National Pig Breeders'
Association of Great Britain. There is a still smaller type
known as the Small Yorkshire (Small White) that, at one
time, was very common in England. This was a very short,

Fig. 298. — Large Yorkshire boar, bred and owned in England by Mr.
Sanders Spencer. (Photo by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

wide-bodied, extremely dished-faced pig, the breeding of
which has been about discontinued. Recently the Royal
Agricultural Society of England abolished a place in its
premium list for the Small White breed, which is equivalent
to condemning it for further breed consideration.

550 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

SCALE OF POINTS FOR LARGE YORKSHIRE SWINE.

(Adopted by the American Yorkshire Club.)

Points

General outline — Long and deep in proportion to width, but not massive;
slightly arched in the back, symmetrical and smooth, with body firmly

supported by well-placed legs of medium length 5

Outline of head — Moderate in length and size, with lower jaw well sprung,

and some dish toward snout, increasing with advancing maturity . . 4

Forehead and poll 1

Jowl — M>di\im, not carried too far back toward neck, and not flabby. ... 1

Eye — Medium size, clear and bright 1

Snout — Turning upward with a short curve, increasing with age . . . . 1
Ear — Medium in size, standing well out from head, nearly erect, but inclin-
ing slightly forward 1

Neck — Of medium length, fair width and depth, rising gradually from poll

to withers, muscular but not gross, evenly connecting head and body. . 3
Outline of "body — Long, deep and of medium breadth, equally wide at shoul-
der, side and ham ; top line slightly arched, underline straight . . . - 7
Back — Moderately broad, even in width from end to end; strong in loin;

short ribs of good length 10

Shoulder — Large, but not massive; not open above 6

Arm and thigh — Broad, and of medium length and development 2

Brisket — Wide, and on a level with underline 3

Side — Long, deep, straight and even from shoulder to hip . . 8

Bibs — Well arched and deep 5

Heart girth and flank girth — Good and about equal 8

Hindquarters — Long, to correspond with shoulder and side; deep, with

moderate and gradual droop to tail 5

Hams — Large, well let down on thigh and twist, and rear outline somewhat

rounded 10

Twist — Well down and meaty 1

Tail — Medium, not much inclined to curl 1

Legs — Medium in length, strong, not coarse, but standing straight and firm 5

Hair — Abundant, long, of medium fineness, without any bristles 4

Skin — Smooth and white, without scales, but dark spots in skin do not dis

qualify 2

1
5

Color — White on every part
Movement — Active, but not restless . .

Total 100

The Tamworth breed of swine is of English nativity,
having had its early development in central England. Its
color is red, the shade varying from light to very dark. A
golden-red hair in a flesh-colored skin, free from black
spots, is the most approved color marking. In size this is
a large breed of the most distinctive bacon type. The
average mature boar will probably weigh about 600 pounds,
and the sow 450 pounds. At six months pigs will weigh

NOTES OX THE BACON TYPE

,">."> 1

about 175 pounds. This breed presents certain well-defined
characteristics, besides the color and size. The head is very
long and straight of face, and inclines to be slender of
snout. The forehead is retreating, the eyes prominent, ami
the large ears lean forward but do not break over. The
neck inclines to be somewhat long and slender, the chest and
back narrow, the sides long and smooth, yet lacking depth,
and the hams large but deficient in thickness and showing

Fig. 299. — Tamworth sow, "Brookhill Fancy," a first prize- winner. (Photo

by courtesy American Agriculturist.)

very little twist. The males at maturity often have heavy,
rough shoulders, and as a rule, the Tamworth emphasizes
length of leg to a degree not common with other breeds
known in America. This is a very fecund breed, and breed-
ing females should exhibit considerable udder development
and 12 or more teats. The more improved Tamworth has
a fair depth of body, not excessive, length of leg, and su-
perior smoothness and quality. Shortness of head is not
associated with the reproduction of bacon type, although

552 JUDGING FARM ANIMALS

a heavy, long, coarse head is objectionable. The Tamworth
is temperamentally very active, and in a measure lacks in
quiet disposition.

OFFICIAL STANDARD OF EXCELLENCE FOR TAMWORTH

SWINE.

(Adopted by the National Pig Breeders' Association of Great Britain.)

Color — Golden red hair in a flesh-colored skin, free from black.

Head — Fairly long; snout moderately long and quite straight; face slightly
dished, wide between ears.

Ears — Rather large, with fine fringe; carriage rigid, and inclined slightly
forward.

Neck — Fairly long and muscular, especially in boar.

Chest — Wide and deep.

Shoulders — Fine, slanting, and well set.

Legs — Strong and shapely, with plenty of bone, and set well outside of body.

Pasterns — Strong and sloping.

Feet — Strong, and fair size.

Back — Long and straight.

Loin — Strong and broad.

Tail — Set on high and well tasseled.

Sides — Long and deep.

Bibs — Well sprung, and extending well up the flank.

Belly — Deep, with straight underline.

Flank — Full, and well let down.

Quarters — Long, wide, and straight from tip to tail.

Hams — Broad and full, well let down to hocks.

Coat — Abundant, long, straight, fine.

Action — Firm and free- spirited.

Objections — Black hair, vert/ light or ffinger hair, curly coat, coarse mane, black
spots on skin, slouch or drooping ears, short or turned-up snout, heavy
shoulders, blocky build, small heart (firth, elephantness, wrinkled .vAi/i, 'in-
bent knees, hollowness at back of shoulder.

APPENDIX.

RULES GOVERNING LIVESTOCK JUDGING
CONTESTS.

IN view of the great interest taking place these days in
livestock judging contests, it has seemed appropriate to
include, as appendix to this volume, examples of rules and
regulations governing such contests.

The following rules are> based on years of experience in
the management of judging contests, and may be regarded
as the most recent drafts on the subject.

RULES AND REGULATIONS GOVERNING THE INTER-
NATIONAL LIVESTOCK EXPOSITION LIVE-
STOCK JUDGING CONTEST.*

(1) Rules Governing Eligibility of Contestants.

1. Any farmer's son under twenty-five years of age who has
never attended an agricultural college or agricultural school, may
enter.

2. Any agricultural college undergraduate student represent-
ing his institution, who has never taken part in any meat-stock
or heavy-horse judging contest of interstate or international char-
acter previous to the year in which the contest is held, may enter,
provided he is in attendance as a regularly enrolled student in the
institution he represents, has taken two years' work in that in-
stitution, has not been away from the institution more than one
year at a time after first entering said institution, and who has
at no time served in the capacity of animal husbandry teacher
in any agricultural college.

3. No college shall be represented by more than five men,
which number shall constitute a team.

4. Each institution shall file with the Superintendent of the
Students' Judging Contest, at the time its students are entered,

* International Livestock Exposition. Preliminary Classification, 1916.

553

554 APPENT)IX

;in authoritative statement covering the eligibility oi? each of its
representatives.

(2) Superintendent.

1. It shall be the duty of the Superintendent to see that all
rules and regulations governing1 the contest are duly carried out.
He shall see that the contest is conducted with fairness and justice
to all concerned.

2. The Superintendent shall have a chief clerk and helpers to
assist him in superintending the students while working on the
different classes of stock, and to aid him in such other capacities
as he may require.

3. He shall direct the contestants which class to judge, time
to commence work, and time to stop.

4. He shall say nothing to a contestant concerning the method
to follow, either in judging' the class, forming the reasons, or
giving reasons before the committee.

5. The Superintendent shall have nothing to do with placing
the animals in the various classes, nor with the grading of the
placing, or the reasons.

6. He shall have charge of all the grades given for both plac-
ing and reasons, and it shall be his duty to have these tabulated
and totaled, and he shall deliver the result of the contest to the
Secretary of the International Livestock Exposition, who shall
publish the result.

(3) Clerks, Assistants and Attendants.

The clerks, assistants and attendants shall be at the command
of the Superintendent and shall carry out his orders, and none
of these assistants shall confer with the contestants, unless di-
rected to do so by the Superintendent.

The attendants showing the livestock shall hold the animals in
a careful manner, so that all contestants may have a fair chance
to make observations on the same.

(4) Judges.

1. There shall be three judges for each class of stock judged.
It is preferable that two of each set be stockmen (breeders or
feeders of the class to be passed upon), and the third an animal

APPENDIX 555

husbandry instructor. No one shall be allowed to act as judge in
a class in which his animals are shown.

2. it shall be the duty of each committee of judges to look
over the class of stock, and of each judge to decide as to the order
in which the class shall be placed, and to decide on the essential
reasons for placing' the first above the second, the second above
the third, and the third above the fourth. The judges shall keep
their rating's of the animals secret until after the contestants
have been before the committee.

3. When the contestant appears before the committee, the clerk
shall present the contestant's card bearing his rating of the ani-
mals and each judge shall make a note of the same and grade it
as his judgment dictates and record his grade for placing on a
card bearing the contestant's number. Fifty points shall consti-
tute a perfect mark for placing. The contestant shall have two
minutes in which to give his reasons for placing the animals.
It shall be the duty of the committee to hear those reasons, to
grade the same independently, and to record their grade for
reasons on the cards mentioned above. Fifty points shall consti-
tute a perfect mark for reasons.

4. As soon as the judges have recorded their grades, the clerk
shall collect the three cards. The three grades on placing shall
be averaged, and the average shall stand as the contestant's
'"••ule for placing that class.

5. The grade for reasons shall be arrived at in the same manner.

(5) Contestants.

1. All prospective contestants must send in their entries to the
Secretary of "International" Exposition by November 15, 1916.

2. Regular entry forms will be mailed all prospective con-
testants who request the same before November 15, !!)!(>.

3. An entry fee of $2.00 will be charged each contestant, which
sum must be forwarded with the application. The money re-
ceived from this source is to be used in defraying the expenses
of the examiners.

4. Each- college will be restricted to entering five (5) men,
which number shall constitute a team.

5. Each contestant shall report to the Superintendent in the
amphitheatre at 7 : 30 A.M., Saturday, December 2, 1916, when he
will be assigned a number and such instructions as the Super-
intendent desires to give.

556 APPENDIX

6. No contestant will be permitted to inspect the livestock at
the International Livestock Exposition prior to the contest. Any
transgression of this rule will be sufficient cause to bar a student
from the contest.

7. No contestant shall wear any uniform, college colors, college
hat, nor shall he in any way signify to the judges his identity or
the identity of the college which he represents.

8. While the contest is in progress there shall be no conferring
between contestants or between a contestant and anyone else,
except as directed by the Superintendent or his representative.
Any violation of this rule will be punished by the expulsion of
the offender.

9. The contestants shall be divided by the Superintendent into
four groups, A, B, C, D, and shall be so designated thereafter
throughout the contest. In no group shall there be more than two
contestants from one college.

10. When the four classes of stock are brought in, Group A
contestants shall be assigned to one class, B to a second class, C
to a third class and D to the fourth class of animals. All groups
shall be notified three minutes before time is up. When final
time is called, Group A shall move to the second class, B to the
third, C to the fourth and D to the first class, and shall continue
to rotate in this way until each group has passed on every class
of livestock.

11. The contestant shall hand his card, bearing his number, the
descriptive name given the class of animals, and his placing, to
the Supervising Clerk, immediately after he finishes with each
class.

12. Each student shall be required to give reasons on two of
the three rings of stock he has examined in each class.

The contestants will be informed which two of the three rings
of livestock of each class reasons will be required upon as soon
as that point is decided.

13. When the contestants have passed upon all of the rings of
stock they shall be taken to convenient quarters, where each con-
testant shall be called before each committee of judges to give
reasons for placing each ring. The contestants will be required
to give reasons on one ring only at each hearing before the re-
spective committees. The contestants shall be called before the
committees to give reasons in the same order that they followed
in placing the rings of stock in the arena.

APPENDIX 557

(6) Time.

1. In each of the classes eighteen minutes shall be allowed the
contestant to make his observations, record his placing, and write
such memoranda as he may desire. No contestant shall hold any
paper, card or device that will assist him while he is giving his
reasons before the judges, except that he will be handed the card
he turned in, which he will be allowed to retain while giving his
reasons.

Each contestant shall appear singly before the judges and will
be allowed two minutes to give reasons for his placing of each
ring of animals. The contestant shall write his placing on a card
and hand it to the clerk as soon as he has finished the work of
placing the class.

FOIIM OF CARD.

Contestant's number

Class-

Placing :

1st 2nd 3rd 4th

Card shall be four inches by two and one-half inches.

(7) The Rings of Livestock — How Selected.

The representatives of institutions having full teams of students
in the contest shall divide themselves into committees, at a meet-
ing to be held in the amphitheatre on the morning of the contest
at 7 : 30 A.M., and immediately report their committee lists to the
Superintendent. It shall be the duties of these committees to
select and get out the rings of stock to be used in said students*
judging contest. It shall be their further duty to specify the
description of the ring that shall be given to the students.

The representative of each institution having a team entered
shall inform these committees what stock on the exposition
grounds his team of students have worked upon.

558 APPENDIX

(8) Classes of Livestock and Methods of Numbering,

1. Four animals shall constitute a class.

2. The horses, cattle and sheep shall be identified by placing a
card on the animal. These cards shall be lettered A, B, C, 1).

The pigs shall be numbered by sticking large gummed labels
bearing the letter on the rump.

3. All newspaper men, officials and others, except the Superin-
tendent, his assistants, the judges, policemen and holders of stock,
shall be excluded from the ring while the contest is in progress.

The program to be followed will be given to the students by the
Superintendent in charge, on the morning of December 2nd.

Full instructions will be given the students in the arena on the
morning of the above date.

The following program shall be followed, beginning Saturday,
December 2, 1916 at 7 : 30 A.M. :

7 : 30 A.M. — Superintendent gives instructions to students.
9 : 20 A.M. — First ring : Horses, cattle, sheep and swine.
9 : 40 A.M. — Second ring : Horses, cattle, sheep and swine.
11 : 00 A.M. — Third ring : Horses, cattle, sheep and swine.
12:20 P.M.— Luncheon.

1 : 20 P.M. — Students give reasons before judging committees.
Each student will be allowed six minutes for giving his reasons
for the three rings of horses, cattle, sheep and swine, respectively,
making- a total of twenty-four minutes for reasons.

RULES FOR BOYS' STOCK JUDGING CONTESTS.

1. All contestants must reside within the county.

2. Contestants are limited to boys and girls under 19 years of
a,ge who have not attended a State Agricultural College.

3. All contestants must report to the person in charge not later
than 9 : 30 A.M. on the day of the contest.

4. Contestants shall fill out an application blank furnished by
the Secretary, before the day of the contest.

5. A "team" shall consist of three contestants whose names have
been furnished to the Secretary on one card before the day of the
contest. Membership in a team shall in no way hinder the con-
testant from competition for an individual prize or trip.

6. Each contestant shall be given a number by the Secretary
by which he shall be known during the contest.

APPENDIX 559

7. Eacn contestant shall be required to place ana give reasons
i'or placing two or three classes of stock selected from the fol-
lowing list: Draft Horses, Beef Cattle, Dairy Cattle, Mutton
Sheep, and Lard Hoys. The Association holding the contest shall
determine which classes of stock will be used.

S. Score cards may be used in training1 the contestants before-
hand, but no score cards shall be used in the contest.

9. Printed forms will be given each contestant on which to
make written reports of classes judged, and any contestant writ-
ing his name or placing any other identifying mark other than the
number assigned to him on his written report will be excluded
from the contest.

10. Each contestant shall devote his time strictly to the judging
of the stock and shall not refer to text-books or other data;
neither shall he converse with any other persons on any class of
stock being passed upon or to be passed upon.

11. The length of time allotted to each ring shall be at the dis-
cretion of the person in charge. In grading, 60 per cent shall
be allotted to placing, and 40 per cent to reasons.

The association holding the contest shall delegate one of its
numbers to assist the instructor in charge and to arrange for the
securing and getting out of animals for the different classes.

RULES OF STUDENTS' CONTEST IN JUDGING

DAIRY CATTLE AT NATIONAL DAIRY

SHOW, 1916.

ELIGIBILITY OF CONTESTANTS.

Any student of an agricultural college, or of a secondary school
under direct supervision of a land-grant State Agricultural Col-
lege, who is regularly matriculated in a course of at least two
years in agriculture or dairying and has taken not less than twelve
weeks' undergraduate work during the calendar year in which the
show is held, who has never taken part in any dairy cattle judging
contest of a national or international character, who has never
acted as an official judge of cattle at a fair or show, and who has
at no time served in the capacity of a teacher of animal husbandry
or dairy husbandry in an agricultural college or secondary school
as above mentioned, may enter as a member of a team.

SUPERINTENDENT.

1. It shall be the duty of the superintendent of the contest to
see that all rules and regulations governing the contest are duly
carried out, and that the contest is conducted with fairness and
justice to all concerned. He shall decide all questions which may
arise in connection with the interpretation of the rules governing
the contest.

2. He shall have a sufficient number of clerks and assistants to
help him in conducting the contest.

3. He shall direct the contestants as to which class to judge, time
to commence work, and time to stop.

4. After instructing the contestants in a body regarding the con-
test, the form in which to prepare their reasons, etc., he shall say
nothing to any contestant as to the method for the contestant to
follow, either in judging the class or in writing his reasons.

560

APPENDIX 561

5. The superintendent shall not take part in the rating of the
contestants.

6. He shall have charge of all records, shall have all ratings
tabulated and totaled, and shall deliver the results of the contest
to the general manager of the National Dairy Show Association.

7. The superintendent shall not designate the animals for the
first class until after the assistants have taken charge of the con-
testants; he shall do this not more than thirty minutes before the
first class is to be judged.

CLERKS, ASSISTANTS AND ATTENDANTS.

1. The clerks, assistants, and attendants shall be at the command
of the superintendent, shall carry out his orders, and none of them
shall confer with the contestants unless so directed by the super-
intendent.

2. The animals shall be held in a careful manner, so that all
contestants may have a fair chance to examine them.

3. One assistant shall have charge of each group of contestants,
and shall see to it that each contestant in his group remains in his
presence the entire time the contest is in progress, except in cases
of emergency, and then as directed by the superintendent.

4. Clerks shall also be provided for the judging committee.

JUDGES.

1. The judging committee shall consist of one man from each
institution having a team in the contest. This man shall be either
the head of the department which has charge of instruction in
dairy-cattle judging in the institution represented or the assis-
tant who coached the team, or another assistant who shall be desig-
nated by the head of the department; provided, however, that the
last-named assistant shall have the approval of the majority of
the members of the committee. If, for any reason, an institution
is not represented on the judging committee as above provided
for, the committte shall proceed with its work just as if each insti-
tution having a team in the contest were represented on the judg-
ing committee; however, a team from an institution which is not
represented on the judging committee is not eligible to compete
for team trophies unless good and sufficient reasons for the insti-

562 APPENDIX

tution not being represented have been given, and accepted by the
superintendent of the contest.

2. It shall be the duty of the judging committee to decide the
official placing of each ring (four bulls and four cows) after the
contestants have judged the ring. The judges will enter their
placing on cards handed them when they enter the ring. Each
judge will also receive with the placing card a memorandum card,
on which he may copy the official placing and make such notes
about the animals as he wishes. Fifteen minutes will be allowed
the judging, committee to place each class and make notes on the
cards.

Five minutes will be given the members of the judging com-
mittee to examine the animals, record which animal is to receive
first place, and sign their cards. These cards shall then be col-
lected, and the clerk shall make known to the judging committee
which animal has received the majority number of votes. This
r.nimal shall be accorded first place. Four minutes shall then be
allowed the committee to choose the animal for second place and
hand in their cards. When the votes are counted the clerk shall
make known to the committee the animal receiving the majority.
Three minutes shall be allowed the committee for placing the third
nnimal, which will be designated by the -clerk after the votes have
been counted. The remaining animal will be accorded, fourth
place.

In case no animal receives a majority on the first Dallot, a second
vote shall be taken on the two highest animals. If no majority
results, the superintendent shall by lot withdraw the name of one
member of the judging committee, who shall retire from the com-
mittee while another vote is taken. In cases of ties not provided
for in these rules, the superintendent shall designate the method
of breaking the tie. Three minutes shall be allowed the judges
for recording the final official placement on the memorandum
cards and making such notes on them as they desire, at the end
of which time the cards will be taken up by the clerks.

3. During the contest the judges may converse with one another,
with the clerks, and the superintendent of the contest, but with
no one else until their work is completed; but they shall not dis-
cuss with one another anything pertaining to the classes of animals
used in the contest except when requested by the superintendent,
until the papers containing the' reasons have been rated.

APPENDIX 563

4. After a class has been officially placed by the judging com-
mittee, it shall be decided by the vote, while the animals are still
in the ring, whether there is a pair or pairs of animals in that
particular class sufficiently close to warrant the penalizing of the
student less than fifteen points for the switching of the pair in
question. It shall further be decided whether there is a pair or
pairs of animals in the class sufficiently widely separated to war-
rant the penalizing of the student more than 15 points for each
animal incorrectly placed.

Two animals shall be considered as close if the animal second in
succession received more than one-half as many votes as the first
for the higher place. The two animals shall be considered as far
apart if the animal second in succession received less than one-
fifth as many votes as the first for the higher place.

The student shall be cut 10 points instead of 15 for switching a
close pair; however, if the contestant separates the close pair by
a third animal there shall be no reduction in the amount (15) of
the cut.

When a pair of animals within a class is far apart, the class
becomes divided into two groups. The student shall be cut 5 addi-
tional points for each lower-group animal that he places in the
higher group.

5. The clerk will compare the placing of the animals on each
contestant's card with the official placing by the judges as deter-
mined by the plan above. One hundred points will be allowed the
contestant on placing if his placing is the same as that of the
official placing; and for each place that each animal is out of the
way fifteen points shall be deducted, except as otherwise provided
for in paragraph 4. Until after a report of the contest is made
public the judges shall not know what any contestant gets on
placing.

The following scheme illustrates the variation in placing. The
correct order, A, B, C, D, gives 100 points, or perfect grade, for
placing:

A B C D 100
A B D C 85
A I) B C 70
A D C B 55
A C4 B D 85

B A C D 85
B A D C 70
B C A D 70
B C D A 55
B D A C 55

C A B D 70
C A D B 55
C B A D 55
C B D A 40
C D A B 40

D A B C 55
D A C B 40
D B A C 40
D B C A 25
D C A I1, 25

ACDB70 BDCA40 CDBA25 DCBA10

564 APPENDIX

The following examples illustrate the method of rating when
two animals are close. The official placing is A B C D and A and
B are a close pair. The reversing of this pair by a contestant is
to be cut only 10 points :

Normal Corrected

Eating Eating

B A C D 85 90

C B A D 55 60

C D B A 25 30

B C A D 70 70

(B and C are separated and there is no reduction in the amount
of the cut.)

The following examples illustrate the method of rating when
two animals are far apart :

Normal Corrected
Eating Eating

A B C D 100 100

A C B D 85 80

A D B C 70 65

C D A B 40 30

(The official placing is A B C D, and B and C are far apart.)

6. The judging committee shall, under the superintendent's di-
rection, be divided into four groups, each group to hear and grade
the reasons on one breed, consisting of one class of cows and one
class of bulls, for all contestants, basing their rating of the rea-
sons on the final official placing of the class as reached by the entire
committee.

7. The judges' memorandum cards for a class shall be returned
to them while the reasons on that class are being rated. The clerk
shall read to the judges the reasons of each contestant without
allowing them to know the contestant's number. Each judge in
each group, after hearing the reasons of the contestant, and with-
out conferring with the other judges, shall write down on a card
prepared for the purpose the rating assigned by him to the con-
testant and sign his name. These cards shall then be passed to
the clerk, who will put the number of the contestant on them and
ascertain the average grade, which shall be the grade of the con-
testant on reasons. One hundred points shall constitute a perfect
grade on reasons.

APPENDIX 565

When the papers of a class of animals have been rated, the
judges shall return their memorandum cards to the clerk and he
shall deliver them to the superintendent, who shall make them a
part of the permanent records of the contest.

At no time during the contest shall the judges have access to the
papers on which the contestants give their reasons.

All papers on one class of animals shall be rated and the judges'
memorandum cards returned to the clerk, before another class is
taken up.

8. Jn case of a tie between contestants, either individuals or
teams, the tie shall be broken by finding which has obtained the
highest rating on judging cows. The ratings of the contestants
otherwise shall remain the same.

9. The clerk shall deliver the contestants' cards, the judges'
cards, and the final cards to the superintendent as a part of his
report.

CONTESTANTS.

1. All entries of contestants must be received by the general
manager of the National Dairy Show Association.

2. In due time regular entry forms will be mailed to the pro-
fessor of dairying or animal husbandry of each State Agricultural
College.

3. An entry fee of $2 will be charged each contestant, which
must be forwarded with the application. The money received from
this source is to be used in helping to defray the expenses of the
contest.

4. Each institution eligible to participate in this contest will be
permitted to enter a team, which shall consist of three eligible
students of that institution.

5. Any contestant who visits the cattle barn before the contest
shall be debarred.

6. Each contestant shall report to the superintendent of the con-
test at the office of the general manager at 8 A.M. October 13,
1916, when he will receive a number and such instruction as the
superintendent may deem necessary.

7. No contestant shall wear any uniform, college colors, college
hat, college pin, or anything which may in any way reveal his
identity or the identity of the college which he represents.

566 APPENDIX

8. No student shall be allowed to take any book, notes, or writ-
ing paper into the contest except such cards, as are provided by
the superintendent of the contest.

9. While the contest is in progress there shall be no communi-
cation among the contestants, or between a contestant and any one
else, except as directed by the superintendent or his representative,
and then only in the presence of the superintendent or his repre-
sentative.

10. Reporters, officials, and others except the contestants, the
judges, the superintendent, his assistants, policemen, and holders
of stock, shall be excluded from the ring1 while the contest is in
progress.

11. Any contestant violating any rule will be debarred from the
contest. If a member of any team is debarred because of viola-
tion of rules, that team will be debarred from the team contests,
although the remaining members may compete for individual
prizes.

12. The contestants shall be divided by the superintendent into
groups, N. 0. P. Q., etc., and each contestant shall have a num-
ber by which he shall be designated throughout the contest In
no group shall there be more than one contestant from the same
college.

13. When the first two classes are brought into the ring, group
N contestants shall examine one class, and each contestant shall
designate on the placing card how, in his opinion, the animals
should rank. Group O contestants shall in like manner examine
the other class. Contestants shall be notified three minutes before
the time is up, and when final time is called, the placing cards shall
be collected by the assistant in charge of each group. Groups N
and O will then exchange places in the judging ring and place
the remaining class. Groups N and 0 shall then hand their placing
cards to the assistants and be conducted to the examining room,
where they shall write down their reasons for the placing of the
animals. Groups P and Q shall then examine the animals and pro-
ceed as groups N and 0 ; and any other groups in like manner.

14. Each contestant on entering the ring will receive two cards,
one a blank form for the placing of the animals, the other a blank
card for notes. The placing card will be handed to the attendant
before leaving the ring. In the examining room a blank form
will be provided on which to write the reasons for the placing of

APPENDIX 567

the animals. This, together with the student's card for notes, will
be collected before the student leaves the examining room.

TIME.

1. Fifteen minutes for each class shall be allowed the contestants
in the ring to make their observations, write down their placings,
and make such notes as they wish to assist them in remembering
the class when they go to the examining room.

2. When the contestants enter the ring, the animals shall be
moved around for two minutes so as to enable the contestants to
see them in motion.

3. Each contestant shall be allowed fifteen minutes to write
down his reasons for placing each class of animals.

CLASSES OF ANIMALS.

1. Four animals shall constitute a class. In each breed there
shall be one class of bulls and one of cows.

2. The cattle shall be known by cards (A. B, C, D) on the
animals' attendants.

AGE CLASSIFICATION IN THE SHOW RING.

The classification of animals in the show ring on the basis of
age, is a well established necessity. Animals subjected to compara-
tive placing should not vary too widely in age, especially when of
immature form. As a matter of common custom, an animal is
termed a yearling from the beginning of the thirteenth to the end
of the twenty-fourth month. Yet if we were to compare year-
lings born on January 2d and December 28th, of the same year,
we should quite likely find the older animal much the larger and
more mature. In the endeavor to establish uniformity in size and
age in cases of this sort, dates have been adopted for basing the
age classification of the younger classes of animals. A form of
classification is expressed in the following illustrations as applied
V) a fall show of cattle.

Senior calf, calved on or after September 1st, shown the follow-
ing year.

Junior calf, calved on or after January 1st, shown the same year.

Senior yearling, a year older than the senior calf.

Junior yearling, a year older than the junior calf.

Two-year olds and under three, dating from September 1st.

Three-year old and under four, dating from September 1st.

Four years old or older are assumed to be mature animals, and
comparable irrespective of age date.

568

APPENDI::

If a calf is dropped on September 10, 1916, and is to be shown
at the 1917 International Live Stock Exposition, he must be
entered as a senior. If dropped on February 10th, he must be
entered as a Junior. This arrangement provides for two groups
of animals of the calf class, where the conditions of size and age
will be fair for comparison in each class. At many fairs ages of
horses and foals date from January 1st.

A classification after the above form may apply to either horses,
cattle, sheep or swine. Variations occur in classifications, accord-
ing to local conditions, but the present day live stock show re-
quires exhibitors to enter all live stock exhibits on an age basis.
The following are examples taken from a prominent state fair
premium list, showing age classes provided for horses, cattle,
sheep and swine.

Stallion 4 years old or over.
Stallion 3 years old and under 4.
Stallion 2 years old and under 3.
Stallion 1 year old and under 2.
Horses J ^tallion c°lt under 1 year.

Mare 4 years old or over.
Mare 3 years old and under 4.
Mare 2 years old and under 3.
Mare 1 year old and under 2.
Filly colt under 1 year old.

Bull 3 years old or over.

Bull 2 years old and under 3.

Senior yearling bull.

Junior yearling bull.

Senior bull calf.

Junior bull calf.

Cow 3 years old or over.

Cow or heifer 2 years old and under 3.

Senior yearling heifer.

Junior yearling heifer.

Senior heifer calf.

Junior heifer calf.

Cattle

Sheep .

Earn 2 years old or over.
Earn 1 year old and under 2.
Earn under 1 year old.
Ewe 2 years old or over.
Ewe 1 year old and under 2.
Ewe under 1 year old.

APPENDIX 569

f Boar 2 years old or over.

Boar 18 months old and under 24 months.
I Hoar 12 months old and under 18 months.
• I'.oar 6 months old and under 12 months.

_ . Boar under 6 months old.

Swine s c

Sow 2 years old or over.

Sow 18 months old and under 24 months.
Sow 12 months old and under 18 months.
Sow 6 months old and under 12 months.
Sow under 6 months.

CLASSES AND GROUPS OF ANIMALS IN THE
SHOW RING.

Animals are ordinarily exhibited at live stock shows or fairs,
under the heading of the breed or breeds to which they belong.
At many local fairs of minor importance little emphasis is placed
on the breed, and grades are allowed places in the classes. In the
better shows, grades are exhibited only in non-breeding classes as
for example, geldings, steers, barrows, or wethers.

The classes in the show ring are the groups that are arranged
and exhibited on an age basis. In our shows it is the common
custom first to make the awards in the classes, usually beginning
with the aged males, and judging in order from the oldest to
youngest class of each sex. An arrangement of the classes has
already been given under age requirements.

The herds or groups of the show ring, consist of collections of
animals shown as such, rather than as single individuals. There
are various groups based on different requirements. The more
common are the following :

Exhibitors' herd. — One bull, 2 years old or over; one cow, 3 years
old or over; one heifer, 2 years old and under 3; one heifer, 1
year old and under 2; one heifer, under one year, all owned
by the exhibitor. This is often termed a "step-ladder" herd.

Breeder's young herd. — One bull, under 2 years old; two heifers, 1
year and under 2; two heifers, under 1 year old, and all ex-
cepting the bull to be bred by the exhibitor.

Calf herd. — One bull and two heifers, all under one year old and
bred by the exhibitor.

Get of sire. — Four animals of any age or sex, the get of one sire.

Produce of dam. — Two animals of any age or sex, the produce of
one cow.

INDEX

Page

Pago

Arrangement of the scale of

points, systematic

A type, judging Merino, Ameri-

Astragalus horse

can or Class

412

Attitudes hind leg horse, cor-

Merino of Class 374.

413

rect

105

Aberdeen-Angus cattle

269

Ayrshire bull, scale points. . . .

340

Action draft horse

106

cattle

338

heavy harness horse

154

cow, scale points

341

light harness horse

14.",

of jack

181

of mule.

192

of saddle horse

164

Age classification, animals in

Back bacon hog

r>37

show ring

567

beef animal

245

of ox, indication of

21:5

dairy cow

288

of ox, teeth as indication . .

214

draft horse

of sheep

363

lard hog

499

of swine, determining

474

mutton sheep

.",!»<•>

of the horse

Bacon hog, back

537

American Merino

461

belly

540

saddle horse

167

body

537

Anatomy of hog

473

breast

537

of the horse

chest

539

of ox

209

condition

535

of sheep

361

ears

536

Andalusian jack

182

ey&s

536

Angora goat

463

face

536

characteristics

463

forelegs

537

fleece of

464

forequarters

537

scale of points "

465

form

534

Angus cattle, Aberdeen

269

general appearance

533

Ankle, cocked

206

hams

540

Animal, circulatory system of

head and neck

535

the

296

hindquarters

540

final purpose of beef

218

hips

540

quality in beef

231

jowl

536

size and weight of beef. . .

229

loin

538

Animals have serious defects,

neck

536

some

quality

534

Appearance bacon hog, general

533

ribs

539

beef animal, general

229

rump

540

draft horse, general

shoulders

537

heavy harness horse, gen-

sides

539

eral

151

snout

536

jack, general

176

style and action

535

of fat wether, general. . . .

381

weight

534

Arch, pelvic

291

Bacon type breeds of swine,

Arm draft horse

notes on

548

Arms and forearms light har-

hog, scale points

532

ness horse

IC7

swine, judging

531

571

572

INDEX

Page
Balance of form, beauty and.. 4

Base narrow 89

wide 89

Beat, the 51

Beauty and balance of form. . . 4

Beef animal, back 245

breast 242

brisket 242

body 245

cheeks 239

chest 245

crops °45

ears 239

eyes 238

face of 239

final purpose of 218

flanks 249

forehead 239

forequarters 241

front legs 244

general appearance 229

general form 230

hair 232

head of 238

hide 231

hindquarters 249

hips 249

loin 247

method in judging the. . . . 227

muzzle 238

quality in 231

ribs 247

size and weight 229

shoulder 241

tail-head 251

thigh 251

withers 241

Beef breeds, descriptive notes

more important 265

Beef bull, breed characteristics 262

constitutional vigor 261

sex character in 259

Beef bulls, judging 259

Beef, carcass 221

and its cuts 218

finish 226

form of 225

quality 226

thickness 225

Beef cattle, comparative study 253

neck 240

for breeding, judging 259

handling 236

in ring, reasons for placing 256
or steer, score card for. . . 228

rump 250

scale of points for 228

chuck, piece of 224

Page
Beef cattle, cow, sex character. 262

size 263

udder 262

dressed carcass of 220

flank piece of 225

grading the carcass of. ... 225

loin of 222

plate piece of 225

rib piece 223

round of 223

shank piece of 225

tenderloin 222

type of cattle by scale of

points, judging 227

Belgian horse 125

Belly bacon hog 540

lard hog 501

Belted cattle, Dutch 343

Berkshire swine 511

scale of points 513

Blade of the horse, shoulder. . . 36

Blind spavin 200

Blood as factor in milk produc-
tion 295

Boar, breed characteristics. . . . 544

frame of 544

sex character 542

size of 544

temperament of 543

Body bacon hog 537

beef animal 245

Class C Merino 424

conformation of the stal-
lion 119

dairy cow 287

draft horse 89

heavy harness horse 152

lard hog 499

light harness horse 139

of jack 180

mutton sheep 396

saddle horse 163

Bog spavin 201

Bone dairy animal 281

of hog, character 491

spavin 200

Bones of man and horse, re-
semblances between 38, 39

Bow -kneed 89

Bow-legged 89

Boys' stock judging contests,

rules for 558

Breast bacon hog 537

beef animal 242

bone of the horse, sternum

or 36

lard hog 497

INDEX

573

Page

Breed character ram 436

characteristics beef bull . . 262

boar 544

of ewe 438

sow 547

on carcass, influence of . . . 221

standards 18

types or fashions, the well-
informed judge will be
familiar with changes in 8

"Breeders' young herd 569

Breeding capacity of ewe 437

ram 435

draft horses, judging 118

sheep, judging 433

swine, judging 542

judging beef cattle for 259

Merino sheep, modern trend 420
Breeds cattle, descriptive notes

on dual-purpose 355

conditions o f disqualifica-
tion of representatives of

certain 18

descriptive notes more im-
portant beef 265

of draft horses 123

of sheep, descriptive notes

of more important 439

of swine, notes on bacon

type 548

of swine, notes on lard

type 511

Brisket beef animal 242

mutton sheep 394

Brown Swiss cattle 348

B type Merino 418

Bull, Breed characteristics beef 262
constitutional vigor beef. . 261

form dairy 319

scale points Guernsey 336

scale points Jersey 326

scale points Holstein-Frie-

sian 330

sex character in beef 259

size beef 261

size dairy 319

temperament dairy type. . . 317

veins on 319

vigor in dairy 319

Bulls and young cattle, judging

dairy type 317

judging beef 259

Buttock horse 37

Page

Calf herd 569

knee 78

Calf-kneed 89

Canadian cattle, French 347

Cannon of horse 79

horse, hind 102

Cannons of light harness horse 137

Canter 57

Capacity of ewe, breeding 437

Capped hock 206

Carcass and its cuts, beef 218

mutton 375

pork 479

beef 221

beef, dressed 220

beef, grading the 225

cuts, relative values of

mutton and lamb 378

finish beef 226

form of beef 225

head hog 483

hog, dressed 479

influence of breed on 221

mutton, method of cutting

up 375

parts of pork 480

quality beef 226

shoulder of hog 483

thickness beef 225

to live weight in fat cattle,

per cent 220

wholesale cuts pork 480

Card American Merino, score. . 415

and its use, score 15

for beef cattle or steer,

score 228

dairy cattle comparison . . . 314

for dairy cow, score 275

draft horse comparison . . . 113

fat sheep comparison 407

fat sheep or wether, score 382
heavy harness horses, score 149
jack, Catalonian or Ameri-
can type, score 175

method of using the score. 18

mule, score 188

saddle horse, score 160

swine, comparative placing 509

Catalonian jack 182

or American type, score

card jack 175

Catch and hold sheep properly

for examination - 369

574

INDEX

Page

Cattle, Aberdeen- Angus 269

Ayrshire 338

Brown Swiss 348

by scale of points, judging

beef type of 227

by scale of points, judging

dairy type 272

classification of domestic. 216
comparative study beef. . 253
comparative study dairy. 313
descriptive notes on dual

purpose breeds of 355

Devon 357

dewlap on 244

Dexter 346

dual-purpose 350

Dutch Belted 343

for breeding, judging beef. 259

French Canadian 347

Galloway 270

Guernsey 334

hair, dairy 281

handling beef 236

Hereford 266

Holstein-Friesian 328

hooks of 249

horns 240

Jersey 323

judging 209

judging dairy type bulls

and young 317

judging dual-purpose 350

Kerry 344

per cent, carcass to live

weight in fat 220

Polled Durham 266

Red Polled 355

scale of points Devon 359

Hereford 268

Red Polled 356

dual-purpose 353

Shorthorn 265

sub-types of 217

type, Importance dairy. . . 272
center of gravity in horse . 48

character boar, sex 542

in sow, sex 545

ewe, sex 436

mare, sex 121

ram, sex 433

saddle horses, type and. . . 160
stallion, sex 118

Characteristics American M e -

rino, distinctive 414

Cheeks, beef animal 239

Chemical character of meat,

physical and 218

Page

Cheshire swine 524

scale points 525

Chest bacon hog 539

beef animal 245

dairy cow 287

draft horse 90

lard hog 499

mutton sheep 396

white swine 518

scale points 519

Cheviot sheep 448

scale points 450

Chine 288

Circulatory system of the ani-
mal 296

Chuck piece of beef 224

Classes and groups of animals

in show ring 569

horses, types and 61

mules market 192

livestock, numbering 558

Classification animals in show

ring, age 567

Merino sheep according to

type 412

of domestic cattle 216

sheep 374

Clerks, assistants and atten-
dants student contests. . 554

Clydesdale horse 126

Coach horse, French 158

German 159

Cob horse 15(J

Cocked ankle 206

Color and markings Milch goats 470

skin hog 491

Colt teeth 31

Column, spinal 33

Community, competent livestock

critics or judges in a. . 13
Comparison card, dairy cattle. . 314

draft horse 113

Comparative placings of mutton

sheep, reasons for 408

study beef cattle 253

dairy cattle 313

draft horses 110

mutton sheep 404

swine 507

Complexus muscle horse 42

Condition bacon hog 535

lard hog 492

Milch goat, quality and. . . 469

mutton sheep 390

wool 431

wool-mutton sheep 403

the term 234

INDEX

575

Page

Conformation feeder sheep. . . . 410

mare 122

mule 189

stallion, body 119

Contest, National Dairy Show

Students' Judging 5(50

Contests, rules for boys' stock

judging 558

rules governing livestock
judging 553

Contestants in students' c o n -

tests, rules governing. . 555
rules governing eligibility. 553

Constitutional vigor beef bull. 261

Cotswold sheep 456

scale points 457

Cow, back dairy 288

body dairy 287

chest dairy 287

ears dairy 284

evolution dairy 272

eyes dairy 284

face dairy 284

flanks dairy 289

forehead dairy 284

forequarters dairy 285

form or type dairy 277

function dairy 274

general appearance dairy. 276

head and neck dairy 283

head beef 262

hind legs dairy 294

hindquarters dairy 290

hips dairy 291

hocked 295

horns dairy cow 285

legs dairy 287

loin dairy 288

mammary development of. 295
method in judging dairy. . 274

muzzle dairy 284

neck beef 262

neck dairy 285

quality in dairy 280

ribs dairy 289

rump dairy 291

scale points Ayrshire cow. 341

dairy 275

Guernsey 337

Jersey 327

score card for dairy 275

sex character beef 262

shoulders dairy 286

size beef 263

tail dairy 293

temperament dairy 282

thighs, dairy 294

Page

Cow, udder beef LM;I>

weight or sixe dairy li7<»

withers dairy 2st;

C Merino, body class 424

forequarters class 423

general appearance class. . 422

head and neck class 422

hindquarters class 424

C type Merino, score card for

Delaine or 421

Creases in hog 490

Crimp of wool 427

Critics or judges in a commun-
ity, competent livestock. 13

Crops beef animal 245

Croup draft horse 95

saddle horse 163

Curb 202

Cuts, beef carcass and its 218

grading pork 480

mutton carcass and its. ... 375

pork carcass and its 479

wholesale 480

relative amounts and

values pork 483

Cutting up carcass of mutton,

method of . . . 375

Dairy animal, bone 281

Disposition 283

secretions 280

bull, form 319

size 319

cattle, comparative study. 313

comparison card 314

hair 281

judging young 319

type, importance 272

cow, back 288

body 287

chest 287

ears 284

evolution 272

eyes 284

face 284

flanks 289

forehead 284

forequarters 285

form or type 277

function 274

general appearance 276

head and neck 283

hind legs 294

hindquarters 290

576

INDEX

Page

Dairy animal, hips 291

horns 285

legs 287

loin 288

method in judging 274

neck 285

quality in 280

ribs 289

rump 291

scale points 275

score card for 275

shoulders 286

tail 293

temperament 282

thighs 294

weight or size 276

withers 286

Show Students' Judging

Contest, National 560

temperament 282

type bulls 317

type of cattle by scale of

points, judging 272

Dam, produce of 569

Defects in the horse, unsound-
ness, diseases and 196

some animals have serious . 10

Delaine Merino 374, 461

scale points 421

Density of fleece 428

Decision of the judge 11

Description of show jack 181

Devon cattle 357

scale points 359

Dewlap on cattle 244

Dexter cattle 346

scale points 347

Digestion, process of 295

Digestive organs sheep 365

system horse 43

Diseases and defects in the

horse, unsoundness 196

Disposition dairy animal 283

horse 47

Disqualification o f representa-
tives of certain breeds,

conditions of 18

Domestic sheep, classification of 374

Dorset Horn sheep 447

scale points 448

Drafter, walk of 106

Draft horse, action 106

arm 77

back 91

body 89

chest 90

comparison card 113

Page

Draft horse, croup 95

form of 67

gaskin 98

general appearance 65

head 71

height 65

hind pastern 103

hips 94

hock 99

loin 91

muzzle 71

neck 74

score card for 62

shoulders 76

temperament 70

thigh 98

trot 108

weight 66

withers 89

Draft horses, breeds of 123

comparative study of 110

first step in judging group

of Ill

Judging breeding 118

mules 194

or power type of horse by

scale of points, judging. 61
Dual-purpose breeds cattle,

descriptive notes on .... 355

cattle 350

judging 350

scale points 353

idea 350

type 352

Durham cattle, Polled 266

Duroc-Jersey swine 521

scale points 522

Dutch Belted cattle 343

scale of points 344

Ears bacon hog 536

beef animal 239

dairy cow 284

horse 73

lard hog 495

sheep 392

Escutcheon theory 311

Evolution dairy cow 272

Ewe, breed characteristics of. . 438

breeding capacity of 437

form of 438

judging 436

sex character of 436

size of... . 437

INDEX

577

Page

Examination of sheep to be

scored, systematic 380

Examine sheep, how to handle

and 369

Exhibitors' herd 569

Expert judges of livestock, de-

• mand for 13

Exposition, students' livestock
judging contest Interna-
tional 553

Eyes bacon hog 536

beef animal 238

dairy cow 284

lard hog 495

of horse 71

of sheep 392

Eyesight, defective 207

Pace bacon hog

beef animal

dairy cow

lard hog

sheep

Farm mules

Fashions, the well - informed
judge will be familiar
with changes in breed

types or

Fat sheep comparison card. . . .

or wether, score card for.

weight

wether, general appearance

Feeder cattle, judging stocker

sheep, conformation

judging

Feet of horse

hind

position front legs and. . .

Femur horse

Fetlock horse

hind

Fiber, quality wool

Fibula horse

Figures in scoring animals, use

Fine wool

Finish beef carcass

Fistula

Flank piece of beef

Flanks beef animal

dairy cow

horse

lard hog

mutton sheep

536
239
284
494
392
195

407
382
383
381

257

410

103

426

22
374
226
206
225
249
289

94
502
397

Page

Fleece, the 426

and its examination 426

Angora 464

'density of 428

examination of 431

on sheep 371

or staple, length of 429

or wool of sheep 366

Folds on American Merino. . . . 417

Forearm horse 77

Forearms light harness horse,

arms and 137

Forehand of jack 179

Forehead beef animal 239

dairy cow 284

horse 72

sheep 392

Forelegs bacon hog 537

Forequarters bacon hog 537

beef animal 241

Class C Merino 423

dairy cow 285

lard hog 496

mutton sheep 394

Form and function, study of . . 1
the efficient judge is a

student of animal 7

bacon hog 534

beauty and balance of. ... 4

beef animal, general 230

beef carcass 225

dairy bull 319

draft horse 67

ewe 438

heavy harness horse 152

jack 178

lard hog 489

light harness horse 133

mule 190

mutton sheep 384

or type dairy cow 277

ram 435

to use in the animal, rela-
tionship of 1

udder 300

Foot glands of sheep 367

light harness horse 139

Foul foot 210

Founder or laminitis 205

Fox trot 59

Frame of boar 544

brood sow 547

French Canadian cattle 347

coach horse 158

Front legs beef animal 244

578

INDEX

Page

Function, the efficient judge is
a student of animal form

and 7

study of form and 1

Gaited saddle horse, three 166

Gaits of the horse 53

Gallop 57

Galloway cattle. 270

Gammons 540

Gare, kemp or 428

Gaskin draft horse 98

German coach horse 159

Glands of sheep, foot 367

Goat, Angora 463

characteristics Angora .... 463

color and markings Milch. 470

Milch 466

milking qualities of 466

quality and condition Milch 469

Saanen 471

size and shape Milch 468

Toggenburg 471

judging Milch 466

Group of draft horses, first step

in judging Ill

Groups of animals in show ring,

classes and 569

Guenon 311

Guernsey bull, scale points 336

cattle 334

cow, scale points 337

Hackney horse 157

pony 172

Hair beef animal 232

dairy cattle 281

hog 477

lard hog 490

Hampshire sheep 445

scale points of 446

swine 525

scale points 527

Hams 482

bacon hog 540

lard hog 543

Handle and examine sheo;). Low

to 369

Handling, subject of 236

Hands in judging sheep, use of 370

Harness type, judging horses of

light ... 130

Pag«

Head and neck bacon hog 535

and neck Class C Merino. 422

dairy cow 283

mutton sheep 391

beef cow 262

draft horse 71

lard hog * 494

light harness horse 134

of beef animal 238

hog carcass 483

jack 179

mule 191

Heart horse 44

ox 211

Heaves 199

Heavy harness horse, action.. 154

body 152

form 152

general appearance 151

hindquarters 153

neck 152

quality 152

score card for 149

shoulders 152

temperament . . . 152

type, judging horses 14S

Height jack 177

draft horse 05

light harness horse 131

mule 190

Herd, breeders' young 569

calf 569

exhibitors' 569

Hereford cattle 266

scale points 268

Hide beef animal 231

Hind cannons horse 102

feet horse 103

fetlock horse 103

pastern draft horse 103

Hindquarters bacon hog 540

beef animal 249

Class C Merino 424

dairy cow 290

heavy harness horse 153

horse 94

jack 180

lard hog 502

light harness horse 141

mule 191

mutton sheep 398

Hips bacon hog 540

beef animal 249

dairy cow 291

draft horse 94

mutton sheep 398

INDEX

579

Page

Hock, capped 206

dra ft horse 99

point of 38

Hocked cow 295

Hog, anatomy of 473

back bacon 537

bark lard 499

belly bacon . 540

lard 501

body bacon 537

lard 499

breast bacon 537

lard 497

carcass, head 483

shoulder of 483

character bone of 491

chest bacon 539

lard 499

color skin 491

condition bacon 535

lard 492

creases in 490

dressed carcass of 479

ears bacon 536

lard 495

eyes bacon 536

lard 495

face bacon 536

lard 494

Hanks lard 502

forelegs bacon 537

lard 497

forequarters baron 537

lard 496

form bacon 534

lard 489

general appearance 487

bacon 533

hair of 477

lard 490

hams bacon 540

lard 503

head and neck bacon 535

lard 494

hindquarters bacon 540

lard 502

hind legs lard 504

hips bacon 540

intestines of 476

jowl bacon 536

lard 495

liver of 476

loin bacon 538

lard 500

neck lard 496

pasterns 498

points of 487

quality bacon 534

Page

Hog, lard 490

ribs bacon :,:;:»

rump bacon r>4(>

lard 502

shields 491

shoulders bacon 537

lard 496

sides bacon 539

lard 501

skeleton of ' 473

skin of 477

lard 490

snout bacon 536

stomach of 476

style and action baron. . . . 535

teeth of 474

toes 498

weight bacon 534

lard 487

in ring, reasons for placing 509
Hold sheep properly for exam-
ination, to catch and. . . 369
Holstein-Friesian bull, scale

points S30

cattle 328

cow, scale points 332

Hoof of horse 36

Hooks of cattle 249

Horns dairy cow 285

Merino 416

cattle 240

Horse, action draft 106

action heavy harness 154

light harness 143

saddle 164

age of the 31

American Saddle 167

Anatomy of the 28

Arm draft 77

Arms and forearms light

harness 137

Astragalus 38

back draft 91

Belgian 125

body draft 89

heavy harness 152

light harness 139

saddle 163

breeds of draft 123

buttock 37

cannon 79

cannons of light harness. . 137

center of gravity in 48

chest draft 90

Clydesdale 126

cob 156

complexus muscle 42

580

INDEX

Page
Horse, correct attitude hind leg 105

croup draft 95

saddle 163

digestive system 43

disposition 47

ears „ 73

eyes 71

feet of -^ 83

femur 37

fetlock 81

fibula 38

flanks 94

foot of light harness 139

forearm 77

forehead 72

form of draft 67

heavy harness 152

light harness 133

French coach 158

gaits of the 53

gaskin draft 98

general appearance draft. 65

heavy harness 151

German coach 159

hackney 157

head of draft 71

light harness 134

heart 44

heavy harness type, judging 148

height draft 65

light harness 131

hind cannons 102

feet 103

fetlock 103

pastern draft 103

hindquarters 94

heavy harness 153

light harness 141

hips draft 94

hock draft 99

hoof of 36

humerus of the 36

in motion 48

intestine 43

Ischium 37

joints of 49

judging breeding draft. . . 118

judging saddle type of. ... 160

kneecap 38

knee of 78

knees of light harness. . . . 137
light harness type, judging 130

liver 43

loin draft 91

lungs 44

man and the 26

muscles of... 40

Page

Horse, muzzle, draft 71

neck light harness 135

heavy harness 152

saddle 103

nervous system 45

os calcis 38

park 156

pastern of 81

pasterns of light harness. . 138

pelvis of 37

Percheron 123

point hip of 37

position, front legs and feet

of 87

light harness 139

quality heavy harness 152

in the 68

light harness 133

resemblances between bones

of man and 38, 39

ribs 92

of the 35

runabout 156

scale of points of light har-
ness 131

score card for draft 62

heavy harness 149

saddle 160

Shire 128

skeleton of the 28

skull of the 29

shoulder blade of the.... 36

draft 76

heavy harness 152

light harness 136

saddle 163

standard bred 145

sternum or breast bone of

the 36

stifle joint 38

stomach 43

substance in the 68

Suffolk 129

tail of 97

saddle 164

temperament 45

draft 70

heavy harness 152

light harness 134

thigh draft 98

three-gaited saddle 166

to structure skeleton, rela-
tionship of speed in. ... 40

Thoroughbred 167

tibia 38

trot, draft 108

type and character with

saddle 160

INDEX

581

Page

I Torso, types and classes of... . 61

walk of the 53

weight of draft 66

light harness 131

withers draft 89

unsoundness, diseases and

defects in the 196

under comparison, weak
and strong features of. . 113

Huckle bones 249

Humerus of 'the horse.. 36

International Livestock Judg-
ing Contest 553

Intestine horse 43

Intestines of hog 476

ox 213

Ischium horse 37

Jark, action of 181

Andalusian 182

body of 180

Catalonian 182

Catalonian o r American

type, score card 175

description of show 181

forehand of 179

form of 178

general appearance 176

head of 179

height 177

hindquarters of 180

Majorca 184

Maltese 184

Poitou 185

quality in the 178

scale points 175

spavin 200

temperament of 179

weight 177

Jacks and Jennets, judging. . . . 175

Jennets, judging jacks and. . . 175

Jersey bull, scale points 326

cattle 323

cow, scale points 327

cows and heifers, original

scale of points for 16

Joints, movements limbs and. . 49

horse 49

Jowl bacon hog 536

lard hog 495

Page

Judge, decision of the 11

is a student of animal form

and function, the efficient 7
Judges by specializing rather
than otherwise, men be-
come efficient 10

for student contests 554

of livestock, demand for

expert 1:;

Judging bacon type swine r.:;i

beef animal, method in. . . L'UT

bulls 259

cattle for breeding 259

type of cattle by scale of

points 227

breeding draft horses 118

sheep 4:::;

swine r»4L'

cattle 209

Contest, National Dairy

Show Students' 560

rules governing livestock . . 553

time in r.r.T

dairy cow, method in 274

type bulls and young cattle 317
cattle by scale of points. . 272
draft or power type of
horse by scale of points. 61

dual-purpose cattle 350

ewe 436

feeder sheep 410

group of draft horses, first

step in Ill

horses heavy harness type 148

light harness type 130

jacks and jennets 175

lard type swine by scale

points 486

mare . 121

Merino, American or Class

A type 412

Milch goats 4(5(>

mule 187

mutton Merino or Class C

type 420

type of sheep by scale of

points 380

ram 433

saddle type of horse 160

sheep 361

use of hands in 370

Shetland pony 170

stallion 118

stocker or feeder cattle. . . '-M7

swine 473

young dairy cattle 319

Jump 59

582

INDEX

Page

Legs and feet horse, position

front . . .

Kemp or gare

428

beef animal, front

944

Kerry cattle

344

dairy cow

?87

scale points

346

cow, hind

294

Kidneys of ox

212

lard hog, front

497

Knee, calf

hog, hind

504

cap horse

. 38

mutton sheep, front

394

horse

sheep, hind

399

sprung
Knees of light harness horse . . .

79
137

Lesson, value of the score card
Lever of first class

20
49

Knock-kneed

second class

third class

Light harness horse, action. , .

143

arms and forearms

137

body

13!)

Lacteal

297

cannons of

137

Lamb carcass cuts, relative

foot of

139

values of mutton and. . .

378

form

133

Lameness

197

head

134

Laminitis, founder or

205

height

131

Lard hog, back

499

hindquarters

141

belly

501

knees of

137

body

499

neck

135

breast

497

quality

133

chest

499

pasterns of

l.-.S

condition

492

position front

139

ears ,

495

scale of points

131

eyes

495

shoulders

136

face

494

temperament

134

flanks

502

weight

131

forequarters

496

type, judging horses of . . .

130

form

489

Limbs and joints, movements.

front legs

497

Lincoln sheep

458

hair

490

scale points

459

hams

503

Liver of hog

476

head

494

horse

hind legs

504

212

hindquarters

502

Livestock, selecting rings of. .

557

jowl

495

Live weight in fat cattle, per

loin

500

cent carcass to

220

neck

496

Loin of beef

222

quality ,

490

bacon hog

538

rump

502

beef animal

247

sides

501

dairy cow

288

skin

490

draft horse

shoulder

496

lard hog

500

weight

487

mutton sheep

397

type breeds of swine, notes

Long wool

374

511

Low spavin

200

type swine by scale points.

Lungs horse

judging

486

211

Large Yorkshire swine

548

Length of fleece or staple

429

Leicester sheep

454

scale points

455

Majorca jack

184

Leg horse, correct attitude hind

105

Maltese jack

184

mutton

378

Mammary development of cow.

295

INDEX

583

Page

Man and the horse 26

resemblances between bones

of 38, 39

relationship of LV»

use of horse by 4s

Mare, conformation of 122

constitutional vigor of. ... 122

judging 121

temperament of 122

sox characlor of 121

Market classes of mules 192

Markings Milch goats, color and 470
Meat, physical and chemical

character 218

Merino, American 461

or Class A type, judging. . 4.12

body Class C 424

Class B type 418

Delaine :{T4, 461

distinctive characteristics •

American 414

fold on American 417

forequarters Class C 42.1

general appearance Class C 422
head and neck Class C. . . . 422

hindquarters Class C 424

horns 416

of Class A type :574, 413

or Class C type, judging

mutton 420

scale points American. 414, 415

score card American 415

Delaine or C Type 421

sheep according t o type,

classification 412

modern trend breeding. . . 420
Method in judging the beef ani-
mal 227

of using the score card. . . 18

Middle piece of pork 482

wool 374

Mine mules 195

Milch goat 466

quality and conditions. . . . 469

Saanen 471

size and shape 468

Toggenburg 471

goats, color and markings 470

judging 466

Milk production, blood as factor

in 295

secretion, process of 299

veins 307

wells 310

Milking qualities of goat 466

Mule, action of 192

conformation of 189

form of . . . . 190

Page

Mule, head of 191

height 190

hindquarters of 191

judging the 187

quality in 190

scale of points for 188

score card for 188

temperament of 191

weight 190

Mules draft 194

farm 195

market classes of 192

mine ; 195

plantation 193

Mulefoot swine 528

scale points 529

Muscle horse, couiplexus 42

Muscles of horse 40

Muscular development o f o x ,

external 211

Mutton and lamb carcass cuts,

relative values of 378

carcass and its cuts :\~~t

leg of 378

Merino or Class C type,

judging 420

method of cutting up car-
cass 01 375

rack of 378

saddle of 377

sheep, back 396

body •;;>(•,

brisket 394

chest :;'.)<;

comparative study of 404

condition 390

flanks 397

forequarters 394

form of 384

front legs 394

head and neck :'>(.H

hind legs 399

hindquarters 398

hips 398

loin of 397

neck of 393

quality in 387

ribs 397

rump 398

shoulder 394

skin 388

thighs 399

twist 399

wool on 401

type 374

of sheep by scale of points,
judging 380

584

INDEX

Page

Muzzle beef animal 238

dairy cow 284

draft horse 71

sheep 392

National Dairy Show Students'

Judging Contest 560

Navicular disease 205

Navel ' . 289

Neck bacon hog 536

hog, head and 535

beef cattle 240

cow 262

Class C merino, head and 422

dairy cow 285

head and 283

draft horse 74

heavy harness horse 152

lard hog 496

light harness horse 135

mutton sheep, head and

391, 393

saddle horse 163

vein beef animal 241

Nervous system horse 45

Oesophagus horse 43

Oil or yolk 430

Organs of reproduction of sheep 365

sheep, digestive 365

Os calcis horse 38

Ox, anatomy of 209

external muscular develop-
ment of 211

heart of 211

indications of age of 213

intestines of 213

kidneys of 212

leg bones 210

liver of 212

lungs of 211

ribs of 210

shoulder blade • . 210

skeleton of 209

skull of 209

spinal column of 209

. sternum of 210

stomach of 211

teeth as indications of age

of - 214

Oxford Down sheep 443

Page

Pace 55

Pacing standard 147

Paddling 89

Park horse 156

Pastern of horse 81

draft horse, hind 103

Pasterns hog 498

light harness horse 138

Pelvic arch 291

Pelvis of horse 37

ox 210

Percheron horse 123

Physical and chemical charac-
ter of meat 218

composition of udder. .... 298

Pigeon-toed 89

Placing card for swine, com-
parative 509

hogs in ring, reasons for. . 509

Plantation mules 193

Plate piece of beef 225

Point of hip, horse 37

Points American Merino, scale

414, 415

Angora goat, scale 465

Ayrshire bull, scale 340

Ayrshire cow scale 341

bacon type hog, scale.... 532

beef cattle, scale of 228

Berkshire swine, scale. . . . 513

Cheshire swine, scale 525

scale 519

Cheviot sheep, scale 450

Cotswold sheep, scale 457

cut in scoring, the expres-
sion 23

dairy cow, scale 275

Delaine Merino, scale 421

Devon cattle, scale 359

Dexter cattle, scale 347

dorset Horn sheep, scale. . 448

Duroc-Jersey swine, scale. 522

Dutch Belted cattle, scale. 344

fat sheep or wether, scale. 382
for dual-purpose cattle,

scales of 353

mule, scale of 188

Guernsey bull, scale 336

cow, fecale 337

Hampshire sheep, scale. . . 446

Hampshire swine, scale. . . 527

Hereford cattle, scale 268

Holstein-Friesian bull, scale 330

cow, scale 332

jack, scale 175

Jersey bull, scale 326

INDKX

585

Points, row, scale 327

judging beef type of rattle

by scale of ^'27

lard type swine by scale.. 4X6
mutton type sheep by scale

of .".so

Kerry cattle, seal*1 346

Large Yorkshire swine,

scale ."..-» n

Leicester sheep, scale1 45.".

light harness horse, scale of 131

Lincoln sheep, scale 459

Mulefoot swine, scale 529

Oxford Down sheep, scale. 443
Poland-China swine, scale. 515
Red Polled cattle, scale. . . 356

saddle horse, scale 160

scale of 15

Shetland pony, scale of .19, 170
Shropshire sheep, scale of. 442
Southdown sheep, scale. . . 440

Suffolk sheep, scale 451

Tunis sheep, scale 453

Poitou jack 185

Poland-China swine 513

scale points 515

Polled Durham cattle 266

Poll evil 207

Polled cattle, red 355

Pony, Hackney 172

judging Shetland 170

modern type Shetland.... 171
scale of points of Shetland

19, 170

types 179

Welch 172

Pork carcass and its cuts 479

parts of 480

wholesale cuts 480

cuts, grading 480

relative amounts and values 483

middle piece of 482

Porterhouse 222

Position front legs and feet

horse 87

light harness horse 139

Positions assigned a r i n g o f

horses, reasons for 115

Purpose of beef animal, final. . 218

Quality bacon hog 534

beef carcass 226

heavy harness horse 152

in beef animal 231

Page

Quality dairy cow 2xn

horse r»s

jack 17H

mule I'.MI

mutton sheep ;;ST

light harness horse 133

udder 304

wool on mutton sheep.... 401

Quantity of wool produced by

mutton sheep 402

Quarter-crack 205

Quittor 206

Rack 58

of mutton 378

Ram, breed character 4:;t',

breeding capacity 4:',.">

form of 43r,

judging the 433

sex character of 433

size of 435

Rambouillet sheep 462

Reasons for comparative plac-

ings of mutton sheep. . . 408
placing beef cattle in ring 256

hogs in ring 509

positions assigned a ring of

horses 115

Red Polled cattle 355

scale points 356

Relationship of man to the

horse 26

speed in horse to structure

of skeleton 40

Reproduction of sheep, organs of 365
Resemblances between bones of

man and horse 38, 39

Rib-piece of beef 223

Ribs bacon hog 539

beef animal 247

dairy cow 2S«.i

horse 35, 92

mutton sheep 397

ox 210

Ring, classes and groups of ani-
mals in show •"><>'•>

horses, reasons for posi-
tions assigned a 115

reasons for placing beef

cattle in 256

hogs in 509

Rings of livestock, selecting. . . 557

Ringbone 203

Roaring 200

586

INDEX

Page

Romney Marsh sheep 460

Round of beef 223

Rudimentary teats 317

Rules for hoys' stock judging

contests 558

governing livestock judg-
ing contests 553

Rump hacon hog 540

beef cattle 250

dairy cow 291

lard hog 502

mutton sheep 398

Runabout horse 156

Saanen goat 471

Saddle horse, action 164

American 167

body 163

croup 163

neck 163

score card for 160

shoulders 163

tail 164

three-gaited 166

type and character with . . . 160

of mutton 377

type of horse, Judging. . . . 160
Sand-crack 205

Scale of points 15

American Merino 414, 415

Angora goat 465

Ayrshire bull 340

Ayrshire cow 341

bacon type hog 532

for beef cattle 228

Berkshire swine 513

Cheshire swine 525

Chester White swine 519

Cheviot sheep 450

Cotswold sheep 457

dairy cow 275

Delaine Merino 421

Devon cattle 359

Dexter cattle 347

Dorset Horn sheep 448

dual-purpose cattle 353

Duroc-Jersey swine 522

Dutch Belted cattle 344

earliest use of 15

fat sheep, or wether 382

Guernsey bull 336

Guernsey cow 337

Hampshire sheep 446

Hampshire swine 527

Hereford cattle 268

Holstein-Friesian bull .... 330

Scale of Points, cow

jack

Jersey bull

Jersey cow

Jersey cows and heifers,
original

judging beef type of cattle
by

judging dairy type cattle by

draft or power type of
horse by

lard type swine by

mutton type sheep by

Kerry cattle

Large Yorkshire swine. . . .

Leicester sheep

Lincoln sheep

light harness horse

mule

Mulefoot swine

Oxford Down sheep

Poland-China swine

relative values of parts of.

saddle horse

Shetland pony

Shropshire sheep

Southdown sheep

Suffolk sheep

systematic arrangement of
the

Tunis sheep

Score card American Merino . . .

and its use

beef cattle or steer

dairy cow

Delaine or C Type Merino.

draft horse

fat sheep or wether

heavy harness horses

jack, Catalonian or Ameri-
can type

lesson, value of the

light harness horse

method of using the

mule

saddle horse

of an animal, value of the
Scored, systematic examination

of sheep to be

Scoring animals, use of figures
in

the expression "points cut"

Secretion, process of milk

Secretions dairy animal

Sex character boar

ewe

beef bull

beef cow

Page
332
175
326

1(5

227
272

61
486
380
346
550
455
459
131
188
529
443
515

21
160
170
442
440
451

17
453
415

228
275
421
62
382
149

175

131

18
188
160

3 SO

23
299
280
542
436
259
262

INDKX

587

Sex character, mare,
rani .

sow

stallion

Shank piece of beef

Shape Milch goat, size and. . . .
Sheep, age of

anatomy of

back mutton

body mutton

brisket mutton

chest mutton

Cheviot

classification of domestic. .

comparison card, fat

comparative judging of
mutton

study of mutton

condition mutton

wool mutton

conformation feeder

Cotswold

descriptive notes of more
important breeds of. ...

digestive organs

Dorset Horn

ears of

eyes of

face of

flanks mutton

fleece on

or wool of

foot glands of

forehead of ....'.

forequarters mutton

form of mutton

front legs mutton

Hampshire

head and neck mutton. . . .

hind legs mutton

hindquarters mutton

hips mutton

how to handle and examine

judging

breeding

feeder

Leicester

Lincoln

loin of mutton

modern trend breeding
Merino

muzzle

neck of mutton

Oxford Down

organs of reproduction of.

quality wool on mutton. . .

Page
121

4:;:;
545
118
225
4<iS
363
361
396
396
394
396
44 8
374
407

404
404
390
403
410
456

439
365
447
392
392

392

397
371

366

;U;T

.">!>2

394
384

394
445
391
399
398
398
:;<;<>
361
43:5
410
454
45S
397

420
392
393
443
365
401

Page
Slice]), quantity wool produced

by mutton sheep 4O2

Hambouillet 4<J2

ribs mutton :;'.»7

rump mutton .'IDs

reasons for comparative

placings of mutton 40S

Romney Marsh 460

wether, scale of points fat. 382

scale points Oxford Down. 443

Southdown 440

shoulder mutton :;s>4

Shropshire 441

skeleton of .">iil

skin of domestic 3»;r»

mutton :;ss

Southdown 43!)

Suffolk 450

teeth of 363

thighs mutton 399

to be scored, systematic ex-
amination of 380

Tunis 452

twist mutton 399

use of hands in judging. . 370

weight fat 3s3

wool on mutton 401

Shetland pony, judging 170

modern type 171

scale of points 19, 170

Shields in hog 491

Shire horse 128

Shorthorn cattle 265

Shoulder bacon hog 5 .".7

beef animal 241

blade of the horse 36

ox 210

lard hog 496

hog carcass 4s:;

Shoulders dairy cow 2sr,

draft horse 76

heavy harness horse 152

light harness horse l.",<;

mutton sheep .'!'.' I

saddle horse 163

vein beef animal 241

Show jack, description 181

ring, age classification ani-
mals in 567

classes and groups of ani-
mals in

Shropshire sheep 441

scale of points 442

Sidcbone 2<rj

Sides bacon hog 5::n

lard hog 501

' 588

INDEX

Sire, Get of

Sirloin

Size and shape Milch goat. ,

aim weight beef animal

beef bull . .

cow

boar

brood sow

dairy bull

cow, weight or.

ewe

ram

stallion

Skeleton of hog. . . .
horse .

ox ,

sheep

Skin hog

color ,

lard hog

of domestic sheep,
mutton sheep

Skull of the horse. .

Snout bacon hog

Southdown sheep

scale of points

Sow, breed characteristics.

frame brood

sex character in

size brood

temperament brood. . .
Spavin, blind

bog

bone

jack

Specializing rather than other-
wise, men become effi-
cient judges by

Speed in horse to structure
skeleton, relationship of

Splint

Spinal column

of ox

Splay-footed

Stallion, body conformation of

the

constitutional vigor

judging the

sex character of the

size of

temperament of

Standard bred horse

of excellence of Tamworth

swine

pacing

trotting

Page Page

569 Standards, breed 18

222 Steer, score card for beef cattle

468 or 228

229 Sternum or breastbone of the

261 horse 36

263 ox 210

544 Stifle joint horse 38

546 Stocker or feeder cattle, judging 257

310 Stomach of hog 476

276 horse 43

437 ox 212

435 Stride 51

119 elevation of , 52

473 length of 52

2S rapidity of 52

200 sequence or order of 52

361 trueness of 52

477 Student contest judges 554

491 contests, duties superinten-

490 dent 554

366 contests, rules governing

388 contestants in 555

29 of animal form and func-

209 tion, the efficient judge

536 is a 7

439 Style and action bacon hog. . . 535

440 Substance in the horse 68

547 Sub-types of cattle 217

547 Suffolk horse 129

545 sheep 450

546 scale points 451

545 Superintendent students' con-

200 tests, duties 554

201 Swine, Berkshire 511

200 by scale points, judging

200 lard type 486

200 Cheshire 524

Chester White 518

common types 484

10 comparative placing card

for 509

40 study of 507

203 determining age of 474

33 Duroc-Jersey 521

2O9 Hampshire 525

89 judging 473

bacon type 531

119 breeding 542

119 Large Yorkshire 548

118 Mulefoot 528

118 notes on bacon type breeds

119 of 548

120 on lard type breeds of. ... 511

145 scale points Large York-

shire 550

552 Poland-China 513

147 Standard of excellence

146 Tamworth 552

INDEX

Page

Standard of excellence, Turn

worth ;V)0

Swiss cuttle. Brown .".•»>•

System of the animal, circula-
tory 296

Tail-head beef animal 251

dairy cow 293

horse 97

saddle horse 164

Tarn worth swine 550

standard of excellence. . . . 552

Teats 306

rudimentary 317

Teeth as indication of age of ox 214

colt 31

hog 474

sheep 363

Temperament of boar 543

brood sow 545

dairy bull 317

cow 282

draft horse 70

horse 45

heavy harness horse 152

light harness horse 134

jack 179

mare 122

mule 191

stallion 120

Tenderloin of beef 222

Tendons horse 40

Tnickness beef carcass 225

Thign beef animal 251

dairy cow 294

draft horse 98

Thighs mutton sheep 399

Thoroughbred horse 167

Thoroughpin 202

Three-gaited saddle horse 166

Thrush 206

Tibia horse 38

Time in judging contests 557

Toe narrow 89

wide 89

Toes hog 498

Tougenburg goat 471

Trot 54

draft horse at 108

fox 59

Trotting standard 146

Tunis sheep 452

scale points 453

Twist mutton sheep 399

Pago
Type, classification Merino

sheep according to 412

dairy cow, form or 277

dual-purpose i ,ii

Shetland pony, modern .... 171
and character with saddle

horse 160

Types and classes of horses. . . 61

cattle, sub- 217

pony 170

swine, common 484

Udder beef cow 262

form of 300

Physical composition of . . . 298

quality of 304

TJnsoundness, diseases and de-
fects in the horse 196

Use lu the animal, relationship

of form to 1

of scale of points, earliest. 15

Value score of an animal 23

Values parts of scale of points,

relative 21

pork ''uts, relative amounts

and 483

Vein beef animal, shoulder. . . . 241

beef animal neck 241

Veins, milk 307

on bull 319

Vigor beef bull, constitutional. 261

dairy bull 319

mare, constitutional 122

stallion, constitutional. . . . 119

Vilii 291

Walk, high-stepping 54

heavy draft 54

long, striding 54

of drafter 106

horse 5:>

ordinary 54

running 58

short-stepping 54

Wedge form dairy cow 277

Weight bacon hog 534

beef animal, size and 229

fat sheep .• 383

590
Weight, jack

INE

Page
177
487
131
191
60
270
172
310

381

382
382
89
241
280
89

(EX

Wool, condition of
crimp of .

Page
431
427
420
374
374
374
40:5
401

402
401
36G

430

548
550

lard hog •
light harness horse
mule

fiber, quality
fine

draft horse

long

mutton sheep, condition . .
mutton sheep
produced by mutton sheep,

Wells milk

Wether, general appearance of

fat

quality

scale points fat sheep or . .
score card for fat sheep or

Yolk oil or

Withers beef animal
dairy cow

Yorkshire swine large

draft horse. .

scale points, Large

THIS BOOK IS DUE ON THE LAST DATE
STAMPED BELOW

AN INITIAL FINE OF 25 CENTS

WILL BE ASSESSED FOR FAILURE TO RETURN THIS BOOK
ON THE DATE DUE. THE PENALTY WILL INCREASE TO
50 CENTS ON THE FOURTH DAY AND TO $1.00 ON THE
SEVENTH DAY OVERDUE.

NOV 1 1 I96C1

NQV 1 1 1968
8KTD OCT 2 9 1388

201368

REC'D NOV 1 8 1968

Book Slip-20m-5,'59 (A2537s4)458

JEJ

Jud^ins: farm animals

3F115

OCT

0 lfi.

*»t

DMY10

.^L^-

»0'V

Y, BEANCH OS1 THE COLLEGE OF AGRICULTURE, DAVIS
UNIVERSITY OF CALIFORNIA

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